PROBLEMS IN MOTION OF COMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS AND REACTION PROPULSION Thesis by Msue-shen Tsleu In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy California Institute of Technology Faomlous, California 1938ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author wants first to express his deep gratitude to Dr. Theodore von Karman, Not only the subjects for PART (I), (II) and (111) were mggeated by Dr. von Karmen but his constant guiding end help were also essential for carrying out these studies, His inspiration and his warm personality have won the authorte highest respect and love. The euthor elso wants to thank Dr. Harry Bateman for his help in summing the series in PART (IV) and general Aicoussions. During the preparation of PART (IV) the author ‘mas very much benefited by frequent discussions with lr. Frenk J, Maline who wes also very kind in helping the author im mmorical eomputations ond figures in PART (IV).TABLE OF CONTENTS PART (I) Boundary Layer in Compressible Fluids ... Apponaax to FAKT (I). References on PART (I) «. PART (I1) Supersonic Flow over an Inclined Body of Revolution «. References on PART (II) « PART (III) Application of Tschapligin's Transforma- ‘tion to Two Dimensional Subsonic Flow «++. Appendix to PART (ITI) References on PART (III) .. PART (IV) Flight Analysis of a Sounding Rooket with Spaoial Raferenaa to Propulsion by Successive Impulses .. References on PART (IV) ... aid obPart (I) BOUNDARY LAYER IN COMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS The solution of flow problems in which the density is varieble is in general very difficult; hence, every case in which en exact or even on approximate solution of the equations of the motion of compressible fluids oan be obtained has considerable theoretical interest. Several authors noticed that the theory of the laminar boundary layer can be extended to the case of compressible fluids moving with arbitrarily high velocities without encountering insurmountable mathematical Giffioulties, Busemamn (Ref, 1) established the equations and calculated the velocity profile for one speed ratio. (By speed ratio is understood the ratio of the airspeed to the velocity of sound.) Frankl (Ref. 2) also made en analysis of the sane problem, however, it is complicated and depends on several arbitrary epproximations. Von Karman (Ref. 3) obtained a first approximation by @ simple but apparently not sufficiently exact calculation, Hence, in Seotion (I), a better method for the solution of the problem is developed. Tha honndary layar theory for vary high velocition is not without practical interest. First, the statement can be found often in technical end semi-technical literature on ood devices thet the skin frietion rockets and eimiler high: ‘decomes more and more significant at high speeds. Of course, “lLit is know that with increasing Reynolds Funber, the skin friction coefficient is deoressing, i.e., the skin friction Decomes relatively snall in conperison with the drag produced by weve formation or direct stock. Since hihespeed flight will be performed mostly et high eltitude where the air is of very low density, so thes the kinenatie viscosity is large, the resulting Revaolds Lunber will be relacively snoll in spite of the high speed. Another interesting point in the theory of the boundary leyor in compressible fluida ts the theraodynamic aspect of the problem, In the case of low speeds the in- fluence of the heat produced in the boundary layer can be noplevted bubh in the caloulabios of tho drag and of the heat transferred to the wall. In the case of high speeds, however, the heat produced ix the boundary leyer is not negligible, DUE deteminvs ule GirecLion UF MeL flume Tu Guctivu (Zz) 8 few sinple exenples of heat flow through the boundary layer ere discussed, 1b hee een round necessary an moss parts or tnis enelysis to make the assumption of leminar Slow. This assump- tion was found necessary because of tho lenentable state of Imowledge concerning the laws of turbulent flow of compressivle fluids et high speeds. 1! s assumption is somewhat justified by the fact that - as mentioned above - in many problems wherethe results of this paper can be applied, the Reynolds lumber is relatively sual, so that « considerable portion of the boundary leyer is probably, de facto, leniner. Ackerot (Ref.l)) called attention to the possibility thet the stability conditions in mparsonic flow micht be quite different from chose ocouring in flow with low velocities. Recently Eichonann (Ref.5) studied the stebility of @ Linoar profile near 9 wall under small sinuous dictushanse, ami showh' thet ea the velocity retio increases, the flow is unsteble at increas wave lencth of disturbance. lowever, he issued Ubay the gaze is nuasviscous and the sound velocity is constent. Both assumptions tend to limit the usefulness of the theory, especially the later one, Beceuse the constancy of velocity of gas implies the constancy of gas temperature, wnich anfortinately is far from the truth for a perfect gas as will be shown in later Joulations of this section. In spite of these uncertainties, somo celeulations of this section, es will be pointed out, are also applicable to turbulext flow. In other oases, as in the coloulotion of drer, the assumption of lominar flow surely gives et least the lower limit of ite values Section (1) If the X -axis is teken elong the plate in the dirsetion of lnw cree virvum, Ute yf uals yerpoudioular Lu Lieplate, and Mend Y indicate the 4 and Y componente of the velocity at eny point, thon the simplified equation of motion in the bouniary leyer is, &. lelice oe putt + py oe it - op (4 #) awn where both the density 9 and the viscosity “4 ere variables. the equation of continuity in this case 1s $l (pe) + ¥ G (Pu) = o (1.2) A third equetion detarmines the anercy balance heturen ‘the heat produced by viscous dissipation and the heattrensferred by conduction and convection. iiith the same simplification as used iu Byee(1e2 aad (142), une can write F492 (G 7) +915 (G 7) std at) Me (HE, uy a3) where Cp is the specific host at constat pressure, end 6 tho coefficient of heat conduction, If Pronatl's nurber, wr is assumed to be equal to 1, thon St can be easily shown thet both Bas. (1.1) and (1.3) can be satisfied by equating the tenpereture T to © certein parabolic function of the velocity 4 only, Indeed, introducing T= Hu)into equation (1.3) and replecing dy GM » one obteias (94 BE veoh) Sle Blea Piare fl Hence 2g. (1.3) is reduced to Bq. (Lol) if f/uJa -/ GT- C+ ba-# wnere C, Cy_— are constants. venoting the wall temperature («= 0) by Typ and renenbering thet gene tor ae (f where Uf = free strean velocity, ¢, (a cen be expressed in terms cee ana T.k_/%& ha /, Ee lI- FB (B ip BLUE (164) 5-Differentiating Bo. (1.4) on obtains LZ = ff Bit (B-) [ ile) = ot (BE -YGL 9 whora the subaerint ar refers ta conditions axiatine at the surface of the plate. vow (4/2), id positive; therefore, af /(7-/y/2JM? > (Tu/%) - I heat is trensferred from the fluid to the wall; if [y-We]M? = Toll -1 ar [O-We]Lt? < Tafa t heat is transferred fron the will to the fluid, If there 1s no heat trensfer, the enercy content per unit mass We jt aT a racion of the houndary layer. (Ref.4) ‘The pressure being constent the relation between fo ot T in pe 8 (2.6) -6-The exprescion for the viscosity based on the kinetic theory of gece is rift Bol &, (7) However, the following forme is in closer agreement with experimental data 076 = fe Plus (1.72) Busemann (Ref. 1) calculated the limiting case for which [y-ue] ie =(T./G)-1 using Ea. (2.7) and found that for a high Mach's number, the velocity profile is approximately linear. Von Karman (Ref. 3), using the Linoar velocity profile, the integral reletion between the friction and the momentum, and Eq. (1.7) found that C Frictional drag per unit width of plate ¢ (RU7/2) x Yength of plate ofF |r siayt SUK ‘The dimensions quantity () shown in Table (1.1) ise function of Mach's mmber only. However, if Eq. (1.7a) is used, then[Fe | rt -012 = of Fie [1+ Bat] (1.8e) Table 1.1 ° 1 2 10 = QO 1.16 1.20 1.25 1639 1450 1657 IL is evident that this linear appromiation ie not satisfactory for small velues of Mach's mmber. For /7=0 , ‘the case is the sane as the Blesius solution (Ref. 7) for in- compressible fluids for wnicn () 18 14320. To solve the problem more rigorously, one has to resort to Eqs. (1-1) and (1.2). By introducing the strean function Vv which is defined by _ Sy. Gee, nT the equation of contimity, Eq. (1.2), is satisfied automatically. Now 4f in Bq. (1-1) ye Le intrednaed as the indepandent, veriable as was done by von Mises (Ref. 8) in his simplification of the boundary leyer equation for incompressible fluids then 2 =euth ae £- fyX% ye, He” BY where )! is ® coordinate measured in normal direction to 8.YV coordinate. Using these new coordinates, the following relations exist pu. a. SUSt + 90 Lh = 2d. = S490 4 3G ~ ASL ip therefor Eq. (1.1) oan be written as Be welt axe] (2.98) Eq. (1498) can be put into non-dimensional form by introduoing the following eet of new quantities, *-u/u nt = nfl (.98) vr (eu Wolpe, = Sle We - WS, J = the where / 1s a convenient length, say length of the plete, As the corresponding Reynold's Number, then Eq. (1.9a) becomes 34 - i gal UtstH eg) ne ssBq. (1.9) con be further simplified by introducing a new dependent variable C= W*//n* — , then - 2 tet oA (yt sty HE) (1.10) This oan be solved by the method of successive epproximations. As f* and j* ore functions of tenperature only as shows in Eqs. (1.6 and (1.7) or (1«7a) and the temper- ature isa function of * then by starting with the know Blasius' solution (Ref. 7) the rightehand side of Bq. (1-10) can be expressed in terms of C . Therefore, one can write ta SA AMAY Cuusequoully, Uso sulubivu uf Bye (1610) te o A . ate C[F4% won feet? wt ytyt= IG) ona Bae (1020) vooomee (2.1) and ¢ is determined by the boundary condition thet at (= 00 ute /, ¢ LF al (1.218) Tn tha actual aompuhahian, twn mathada af ayaluating ‘the integrals in Eqs. (1.11) and (1,1la) are used. For small values of G , $<02, the function * and S(t) ere expended in a power series of J . Duc to the uniform convergence of the power series for sufficientlygmail values or ¢ , the integration 1s carriea out term by term, For valuesof ¢ >0.2 , mmerical integration is used. ‘A second approximation can be made based upon the * value of 4* obtained from Fq. (1.11). Tt has been found in the oases investigated that the third and fourth approxima- tion gives sufficient accuracy, if the velocity profile of next smaller Mach's mmber is used as the sterting point of culculat- ing the velocity profile of next larger Mach's mumber. Having computed the final 4 # » the Y corresponding to iZ* cen be ealouleted in the following wy It is known from Eq. (1,9b) that # eb oP MEUL So ant” ae ‘Then remembering the definition of p » one has 1 Ah o - stut However due to the small slope of stream lines, I ME yt dy® -h-= He (1.128) A yt fe nk [xhe = 4 tut (a2) US Hore the expansion of §*y* in e power series for mall values of Cis supecielly useful ane to the singularity of integrand et f=0 e The skin friction oan be computed by using momentum mee 0 [ futose Veing Eqs (14]0a), on hee De [og BEL faa ahpat *#a HX therefore Ll» {nf Xk =f Hence L5U? fat a. SSE [ou ude Thus the skin friction coefficient can be computed as DQ of tr-ubde f $y WR (2.3) The velocity profile, the tenperature distribution, and tha frictional drag aaaffMaiant are caleulated for different values of the Mach's number of the free stream, for the case [(-vb Jit? =(e[h)- 1 using the approximate viscosity relation of Eq. (1.7). The results are shown in Figs. 1.2 and 1.3. The velocity profil for high speeds are very nearly linear, but it cen be seen thet tho wall temperature for greater Mech's numbers is very high. If the free stream temperature is 0°F., then the wall tempera- ture will ve 1600°F., 3620°r., 6540°F., ana 10,170°r, ror -13-Mach's aunbore of 4, 6, 8, ond 10, reopoctively. Thorofore, there is no doubt that the lew of viscosity as expressed by Bq. (17a) will not hold, Also at such high temperatures, the hoat transfer due to radiation cannot be neglected. The offoot of redietion will be the equalization of gas temperature. In the extreme ca: of complete equalization, the temperature will be constant througloul Uke layer amd due to the assumed constant pressure throughout the field, the density and viscosity of gas will be also constant throuhgout the field, Then the volocity profiie wiii be again thet calculated by blasius ror Smoompressible fluid. By this reasoning, the actual velocity profile for large Mach's mmber when radiation cannot be neglected is something between the Blasius profile end that shown in Pig. 3. ‘The change in the constant 4 Ah ie appreciable, but not great, It decreases fron 1.328 for JL =0 00.975 tor 2 = 10 , or about 30 percent, However, for O< A/< 3 the change of the constant is very small. Fie. 1.2 also shows that Ea. (1.88) which wos obtained by using the linear approximation is fairly accurate for very high Mach's mmbers. Ae eramplan, noneidar Firat a prenjantile and second, a wingless sounding rocket. Taking the diameter of yethe projectile to be 6 in., the length 4 in., the velocity 1. and the altitude 32,600 rt. (10 im.), then the 6 Reynold's Number based on the total length is 7.86 x 10 and the speed retio is 1.52, From Fig 1.2 the skin friction coefficient is G = (1.286 « 107)/ ,/7.66=0,000159 Changing the skin friction coefficient (based on the skin area) to the drag coefficient (based on the maximm eros: section), omobteins Cy, = 940055 The drag coefficient due to wave formation taken from Kent's crperimente (Ref. 9) te Ly, = 04190 Therefore the ratio of skin friction to wave resistance is 0.0055/0.190 = 0.029. However, the ratio 1e greatly changed in the case of the rocket, Taking the diameter of the rocket to be 9 ins, the length 6 ft,, and the altitude of flight 50 im. (see Appendix) (164,000 ft.), the velocity 3400 ft./sec., then the Reynold's Number based on a density ratio at that altitude of 0.00067 end temperature 25°C, (deduced from data on meteors) is 6.1) x 10%, and the speed ratio is 3.00. From Fig. 1.2, the skin friction soefficient ie (a3 x 107 )/T.e 0.00360 Then 04123 -15-The drag coefficient due to wave formation from Kent's experiment (Ref. 9) is yp = «8100 Therefore, the ratio of skin friction end wave resistance is now 0.123/0.100 = 1.23. If the boundary leyer ia partly turbulent, the ratio will be even greater. This shows clearly the importance of skin friction in the oase of a slender body moving with high speed in extremely rerified air. It also disproves the belief that wave resistance would always ha the predominating part in tha tatal drag af a hody moving with a velocity higher than that of sound, The reason under- lying this fact cen be easily understood when one recalls that the wave resistence of a body is approximately directly pro- portional to the velocity, while the skin friction is proportional to the velocity raised to @ power between 1.5 ani 2, Therefore, the ratio of okin frictiun to wave resistance increacss with the specd. With very high velocities and high kinematio viscosity, the wave resistance may even be a negligible portion of the total arag of the body. Section (II) In order to point out the thermodynamic aspect of ‘the problem two cases will be considered: the flow of a hot fluid along surface which is kept at a constant temperature inferior to that of the fluid, and the cese of a hot wall -16-cooled by a fluid of lower temperature. The problems treated in this part have been discussed before in two very interesting pepers by L. Crocco (Ref. 6). He especially gives an elegant treatment of the cooling problem in the case of very high velocities ("Hyperaviation"), The euthor feels that his treat- ment is somewhst more general and extended than Croceo's previous enalysis. An interesting general reletion betwoon the heat transferred through the well and the frictional drag can be obtained using the assumption that Prandtl's mmber, i, , the ratio Gb / 2. | ta aquel to unity. The sane assumption was used also in the previous celeuletions. It is remarkable thet the relation holds also as well for laminar for turbulent flow. The hast flow J par unit time and unit rea of the wall surface is B= hay Tur and the frictional drag 7 per unit ares is lay) Pah, (2u/24), Veing Eq. (14) the ratio J ft can be calculated from the relation Lliy- 2), Eig? $- fe Fit #) Bie] (al) where 7, 18 the absolute temperature, end (/ the velocity of the fluid in the free stream, 7ys the absolute Tetemperature at the wall, /,, end Myr are the heat con- duction end viscosity coefficients of the fluid corresponding to the wall temperature end 7 denotes Mech's mmber. Substituting tt -0 one obtains from Eq. (1.14) Aw fue Gols, fit) CT hy U UO (2.15) This is the relation know as Prendtl's or G. I. Taylor's formula, first discovered by 0. Reynolds. Henee Eq. (1-14) gives the correction of this result for compr Inthe case = Jy > Tur i.e., when the wall sibility effects. ie colder then the froo etroam, the offect of compressibility is to increase the heat transferred through the wall. However, At would be erroneous to interpret this result as an “improve- mont" in eooling bocause at high spood tho heat produced in tho boundary layer is of the seme order as the heat transferred through the wall, In order to determine the efficiency of the wuvling & cumplole leat Usleioe must be made. For Ute purpose Eq. (1-14) does not give sufficient information and the velocity and the temperature distribution in the boundary layer must be computed. Such calculations were carried out for the particular penne eens in which the absolute temperature of the wall is kept constant » for the particular ca: -18-ate value equal to one-fourth of the tenporature of the hot fluid. With the same assumption for the variation of as in Seotion (I), the reoulte chown in Pig. 1,0 ond Pigs Lalh yore obtained, the variation of — C. / with /T is similar to that obtained in the o je without heat conduction through the wall. Aloo the highoot tomporature in the buunary layer is very high for extreme Mech numbers, However, the temperature maximum ocours somo distance from the wall. The heat transferred from the boundary layer to the wall can be calculated as follows: By means of Eq, (1.12a), one has Be Ut oy dub ds i 6 es @ Lao hy ae ~ LEE re For th tf WR MY Sar hy {yt te] | Sul “WL eae rae i -19-Therefore, combining the above two equations, (Hh.7 Eel fh (i We (2,26) Using Eq. (1e7a) and substituting Eq. (1.16) into Eq. (145), ‘then | 2 (1.17) wore 1, = (4° ylator FAUT Gy un germ unit width of the well of length / per unit timo is equal to ft a Hythe Q= y (9p), dt oF Kaa Gh w w Now the increase in heat content of the gas per unit time by flowing from %=9 to Y= L can be calculated as -20-~, [4986 (n- Taf 846%) f. A TAR [Te = A EIfEL 6-7g (1.19) = hal He) CAB [0-7 Uy KATA The viscous dissipation of gas in the boundary leyer of unit width plate per unit time is thus rn. = G+, (1.20) Teble 1,2 5 n Burro ye B 33498 21.The total heat balance at different Mach's mmbers is shown in Fig. 1.5. The “dissipation” curve represents in dimensionless form the hoat produced by friction per unit time ani unit width of the plate. The lower curve shows the increase Gr decrease) of the heat content per unit time end unit width, The difference of the ordinates corresponds to the heat tranc. ferred through the wall. It is seon thet cooling takes place tor 2 < 2,6, Beyond this linit more hest is produced vy friction tima Une emount which oan be trensferred to the wall ond, as a matter of fact, the fluid is heated. In the case Ty > wall is hotter than the fr. +, when the stroam, the ratio between the heat transfer end the drag decreases with increasing Mach's munber, This is shown in Fig. 1.6 where the ordinate represents the ratio between 9/T with compressibility effect (annarding to Bq. (11s) to G/T without comproceibility effect (according) to Eq. (1+15)). The oaloulation was carried out for a gas temperature of - 55° F. and a wall temperature of 100° F. aut 300°F, Tu 1s sven thet there 1s no cooling in the former case for 7 > 1,69 and in the latter case for L4 > 2.08. However, the decrease of cooling efficiency is appreciable even at mich lower speeds. This emphasizes the benefit of the reduction of the speed of cooling air and the relatively poor efficiency of cooling surfaces exposed directlyto a high-speed airstream, The curves in Fig. 1.6 being derived from Eq. (1.1)) apply to laninar as well as to turbulent motionsAPPENDIX TO PART (I) ON THE VALIDITY OF THEORY IN VERY RAKEFIED ATR ‘The hydrodynamic equation holds so long es the mean free path of the molecul is mall in comparison with the thickness of the boundery layer. For this case the thickness of the boundary leyer is zero at the nose, however, at a distance ¢ of the length of the rocket it already anounts to 3.2 ous, while the calculated mean free path of the air molecules at the altitude considered is sbout 1.1 xX 10° ony Hence it appoars that even for this case the theory can be safely applied. This conslusion is substantiated by the experimental results of H, Ebert in "Darstellung der Strommgsvorgange von Gasen bei néidrigen Drucken mittels Reynoldsscher Zahlen", Zeitschrift fur Physik, Das 05, 04 561-5, 1935+de 3e be Te oe REFERENCES ON PART (I) Busemann, A., Gas-strémng mit laminaren Grenzschicht entleng einer Plette, Z.A.M.M., Vol. 15, S. 23, 1935. Frankl, Laminar Boundary Layer of Compressible Fluids, Trans, of the Joukowsky Central Aero-Hydrodynamical Institute, Moscow, 193), (Ruseian) . Kernan, Th. von, The Problen of Resistance in Compressible Piuida, V. Congangn dalla Fommdariona Aeesandro Volte (Tema: Le Alte Velooita in Aviezione), Reale Accademia D'italia, Rome. Ackeret, J., Uber Luftkraft bei sehr grossen Geschwindig- keiten inshesondere bei ebenen Strémungen, Helvetica Physioe Acta, Vol. 1, S$. 301-322, (1928). Kuchemann, D., Storungsbewsgungen in einer Gasstrommg mit Greneachioht, Z-MM., Vel. 18, 8. 207-292, (1938), Crocco, L.,-Su di un valore massimo del coefficient ai tranenissione del calore da una lamina piana a un fluido scorrente, Rendiconti R. Accademia dei Lincei, Vol. Ul, fase. 490-196, 1931. Crosse, L., Sulla Tranontooione del oalors da una Lenina piana un fluido scorrente ad alta velocita, L'serotecnioa, Vol. 12, fasc. 161-197, 1932. Blasius, H,, Grenzschichten in Flissigkeiten mit kleiner Reibung, Zeit. F. Math, u. Phys., Bd. 56, S. 1, 1908. von Mises, Bemerlung zur Hydrodynamik, Z.A.M.M., Vol. 7, 8. 425, 1927. Kent, R. Ee, The Role of Model Experiment in Projectile Design, Mechanical Engineering, Vol. 54, pages d41-646, 1932.PaRT (II) SUPERSONIC FLOW OVER AN INCLINED BODY OF REVOLUTION The aerodynamic forces acting on a projectile can be divided into three parts: the resistence or drag in the @irection of the exis of the body, the lift in the direction perpendicular to the axis of the body, and the forces due to tha rotation af the hady (Magmis affant). Tha firsk aompanant,, the resistance, is, of course, the most important one, because it is the predominating factor in determining the range of the Projectile, Howover, in tho ease of an actual projectile, Anolination end rotation are always present, and therefore, accurate calculation of range is impossible without considering ‘he second ami third components of seroaynamic rorces, 1.0, the lift end the forces due to rotation of the body. It is found that the solution of von Karman and Moore (Ref. 1) for ‘the linearized hydrodynamical equation of axial flow over a slender body of revolution can easily be generalized to the casea in which the projectile is inclined to the flight path. Strictly speaking, the solution is applicable only to a very slender body inclined at a small angle to the flight path, ‘Decause second order quantities of the disturbance due to the presence of the body are neglected. However, for the case of -26—axial flow over s cons, von Karman-Noort 8 first approximation (Ref. 1) differs very little from the exact solution of Taylor and Macanll (Raf. 2) far wartar anglas up tn 10°. Tharafora, it is expected that the first epproximation of the lift force 8 obtained in this paper can be applied to a pointed prujeolile with Cair avouravys If f is the potential of the small disturbance v velocity due to the presence of a body of revolution whose axis coincides with the x-axis, then the linearized equation of motion of compressible fluids in cylindrical co-ordinat x, r, and @ is + 2b 1 #8 25 Les tr a a pat 7 2? dae (te) In this equation, V is the velocity of the undisturbed flow for wuich the velocity of sound 18 0. if tne airetaon or the undisturbed flow coincides with the axis of the body, then J is independent of 0, and Eq. (11) reduced to (i- ¥ Le) re ¢#+ ob _ an +h (1.2) The sululiou of Uils equation when the velocity of the undisturbed flow is gr er than the velocity ofsound, is the same as that for a two-dimensional wave diverging from a center, It was obtained by Levi-civite (Ref. 3) and by H, Lamb (Ref. 4), Von Karman and Moore (Ref. 1) applied it to ‘the present case and showed that it oan be expressed as a souree distribution given by the potential : $= / f (t- th chu) he (43) Agte ch wnere v= /(V/C)2/ —. analogy with a similer case of flow of on incompressible fluid leads ono to expect the solution of Eq. (%s1) to be « doublet distribution given by the potential 0 d= -acad { Li 1 -aheosh u)easht de (ary J oe coh we This can be shown to be true, because, if the solution of Eq. (4-1) is of the form $= cod Fla) then Eq. (1.1) reduces to ye 2, f 2) IF SOF, GF_ EL ~kefBttmt Gr PanayDifferentiation of Eq. (1.2) with respect to r gives v2 at pady 26 , Lys (S le pe Gd EEE) GOD ec.00 Comparing Eq. (‘1.la) with Eq. (1.2e), it is easily seen that Bye (Qe) too sulutiow uf Bys (201). The fuustion © tne to be determined by the boundary condition 0 whore vy, is the normal component of the valoity ¥ of the undisturbed flow, and R is the radius of the body. The complete solution of flow over an inolined body of revolution is then obteined by superimposing « cross-flow upon en axial flow, i.e. o= deg This solution was also suggested independently by C. Ferreri (Ref. 5). From the velocity potential g, one can calculate ‘the pressure distribution over the body and then the aero- dynnic forces, However, since the theory is based upon the Linearized equation, the cross product terns of derivatives of f, and J, in the pressure calculation can be neglected.Therefore the following simplification results: the resistance or drag can be calculated from the axial flow alone and the Lift can be separately computed from the cross flow. Sine the resistance was calculated before, (Ref.1), the following ‘treatment is concerned only with the lift force, The lift acting in a dircotion porpondicular to the axis of the body and the moment about the vortex are thus ae Lf: LAs adocabte 2p (241 cxb dade Fp nds esdedanopy [/peancaddtte “8 0 3° where) ip is the difference betwveu the pressure at the surface of the body and that of the undisturbed flow and ( is the density of the fluid in the undisturbed flow, Eqe (4.5) is a non-homogeneous linear integral eqiation in f which does mot have a general solution of simple form. However, it is interesting to see how Eq. (1.5) simplified in the limiting case when the radius of body approaches sorvy IL is convenient nere to use F = t-aLeahe the independent varieble, thmEq. (445) becomes ae Xe ioe 4 -& Cae AE ob / LODE Z i W = €)?- 78?Integrating by parts, one has adh ath he £ [ewe] *y (rods | ity iow, 4 the projectile 48 pointed nose, the doublet strength mst be zero at the nose 2=0 ,tms H/o) =0 . Let [yg , end writing Y instead of & in the integrand Ue atuve cyualion reduces to P a (tape) o> @ J Aa) dt Since the cross-sectional area of the body of revolution is S = 0h? » Eq. (1.52) can be written as a y= F [tou or fe [A qs ae 1) dt = r S Differentiating, ono arrives at fire # 4 (a7) “BleIn order to caloulete the 1ift, one has first to find the exiel component of disturbance velocity. Tme cont | Je AR cochic) cosh ut de Osh ae i ie DME cose vf zs RP ho” a / Ligdg = Hb tay» eae gs Substituting into Eq. (1,6), the lift force is obtained as ao 2 Le2py ff BEE YS dade = BVA Where A, = area of the base section of the body. Hence the lift coefficient can be evaluated as Z % y =a = et 2 (1.8; 7 7 P (148) in which P= angle of attack of the body. The moment arm a, 1,.8,, tne distance between the point of application of the resultant lift force end the vertex can be obtained by dividing the moment computed from 32Eq. (1.6) by the lift force, end thus - (AcAn LZ (us) d= (Aza) whore Ay = s08 of the mean aoction of the body, dees, the volume of the body divided by its length, ¢ . The results of Eq. (148) and Eq. (1.9) ere identical to those found in Munk's theory of airships (Ref. 6). At first sight. this might be surprising. However. if the redius of the body approaches zero ‘low seumed, the cross pattern is the same as that for en infinitely long cirouler cylinder moving with its axes perpendicular tu the flow. Therefore, in every plane perpendicular to the axis of the body, the flow can be considered as two dimensional, i.e., it is independent of the variable J — . Hence Eq. (41) radnoas simply to Hb, Lib 41, H 1, ane * hon 72 962 (Que1b) This is inmediately recognized as the equation of motion for ‘two dimensional flow of incompressible fluids, which is the basis of Munk's theory. Due to this two dimensionel character of the flow, the distribution of doublets is not affected by the change in Mach's number, which is only comected with the independent “tSvarisble % , and, therefore, the lift coefficient ani the moment arm are also independent of Mach's number as shown by Bg (448) end Ege (249)+ Phic can also be scon fron the fact thet when r approaches sero, the variable F=y- wf whic —> X and this the effect of of , which is a function of Mach’ s number, is removed. To study Uw effect of Muvk's sumber on the lift of the body, one has to go back to Eq. (2.5). To avoid the difficulty of solving this integral equation, the “indireot method” of solution can be employed, 1.6., taxe a runc= tion f and determine the necessary shape of the body to comply with this function f. Taking the simplest case flt- tn chu) = He (2- xn cash u) where K = a constant, Then $= -Kaewg yi (H- €2 Cob a) Cosh u Aa = wea d | $ Lye, #2 a7 Kae Py lal—' ~ ZF ash And the boundary condition reduces to Kea* fh 2 + Ge Se leh fi) 1 + cab Ley Therefore, the solution, Eq. (2.la), is evidently a solution ras ater £ By putting sob e =f ‘the boundary condition oon for a cone with half vertex angio € <3heve written in tne form 2 = #4 fee ee coh f (2.56) For any given value of vertex angle and Mach's number, the corresponding value of K can be obtained from Eq. (2.5b) In order to calculate the lift, one has first to find the axial component of disturbance velocity. Thus from Eq. (Lhe) (ee) ag keane z ey aig tlle” 1 eee lage! = Kk ob f(S7 Substituting into Eq. (1.6), the lift force is found to be z fo ze vu, [ [$f acess ab ae = Khe) eV co € 2 =35=where lateral surface area of the cone, Therefore z LAVET og ep ; But from Eq. (1.50), % is obteined as t= aa a of Hence G2 A&P (210) 26 Sl SSEL + coh S im the limting ease wen ¢ approacned zero, where A= 2 which agrees with Eq. (1.8). Similarly from Eq. (1.6) the ‘moment coefficient is = ——noment about vertex ‘y ZV AL which satisfies Eq. (1.9). Both Eq. (1.8) and Eq. (2.10) show that the lift at a given Mach's mmber is proportional to the angle of attack of the “36body. This is a general characteristic of flow around a body wiwul separations If tuo Fluid seperaton Crum Use Lody mud creates a “dead water" region on lee side of the body, then the lift will be proportional to the square of the angle of avtack as was shown by WN. Holley (Ker. 7). The problem whether the fluid separates or not can only be answered by experiments. From the experimental data now available, (Ref. 8), it seems that the flow is continuous without separation, and, therefore, the lift is proportional to the engle of atteck of the body. Fig. 142 is the result of computation using Eq. ot Az, because the value of A, = / correspondsto €=f , (4.10). Calculations were carried out for valu where 4 is the wave angle. For 4 <7 it is found that AS € — . thie monne that the ware angle ie maller than the vertex angle which is, of course, impossible. There- fore, A,= / marks the limit of validity of this solution. Im tect, even wien A, ie near lo 1, Uw solution must be considered as qualtitave only, since in this region the effect of the surface of the body on the shock wave cannot be neglected. To generalize the solution for a body of revolution with a sharp point at the origin and cylindrical shape at infinity, it is simplest to use a step-wise doublet distribu- tion, Consider the points 2 2 ---. 2 2, of the “37+meridian line of the body, and designate their co-ordinates by 4, Fy 3 Ba, Me Bn jp Ay, Ay ond the correspond- Ang values of = - & w EE Fe Ey Then the boundery condition of Eq. (2.5) can be written as poe sy 3 cah PO St gag l Bug E FZ 4, [lad PY aut HE) (2.50) 1 (Efe SEER) This condition actually gives a set of // equations to determine the /Y constents A; . This set of equations can be solved rather easily because cach following equation in the set only contains one more which does not appear in the preceding ono of the sot. When 4; § are determined, the lift oan be ealoulated by using Eq. (1.6). The pressure over each section of the conical surface is constant. The lift and moment co- efficients are thus obtained as pee - on — = Go EZ Ail ttod ON EEE LS! ¢ yo SEF Sat, Loy} Meo Sy 2 fag) bof | Sor fee . Peep PZAWGE (Ser 1p one iso -38-where /, is the last point on the meridian line, Zy is the base radius and / is length of the body. Fig. 2.3 46 the remit of the oalonlation using Bq. (1412) for a body of revolution with "6-oliber head” end totel length of 4.8 calibers, when it is travelling with a wolooity 2.6) timoe that of sound ( al — Qs5)e The 1if% coefficient is considerably higher than thet of a cone at the same angle of attack and at the sane Mech's mmber, evidently due Lo Ue cylindrical part of the boay. The position of tne resulting lift force is also shown in the figure, Since, a nentioned before, lift end drag ere independent in first order approximation, the calculated lift coefficient oan be combined with the drag cooffioient taken fron experiments and thus give some information on the magnitude and direction of the result- ing force. Fig. 2. shows the method epplied to this projectile with the drag coefficient taken from Kent's experiment (Ref. 9). If the projectile has a length of 1.34 diameters in- stead of 4.8 dismoters and has the sane nose shape, end, if its santar af gravity ie lonated at a point 2.68 dieneters back of the nose, then the calculated moment about the center of gravity oan be omressed an M7 = 51/70, HE) wore AL) = 9.35 te Y= 269 . This compares closely with the value ffl) = /0.7 extrepoleted fron R. H. Fowler's experiment (Ref. 8), for a 39+projectile of the sane proportions, This shows that the theory developed in this peper can be applied to a projectile with feir accuracy.REFERENCES ON PART (11 1. Th. von Kerman and N. B, Moore: “The Resistance of Slender Bodies Moving with Supersonic Velocities with Special Reference +0 Projectiles", Tons, AUB Vol. Shy pre 303-310, 1932. 2. G. Te Teylor and Js W. Maccoll: “Phe Air Pressure on & Cone Moving at High Speeds", Proc. Royal Society (A), Vol. 139, pp. 278-298, 1933. J. W. Maccoll: "The Conical Shock Wave formed by 8 Cone moving at a High Speed", Proc. Royal Society (A), Vol. 159, pp. 459-72, 1937. The comparison was mentioned in a poper by G. I. Taylor: "Well Established Problems in High Speed Flow", Atti dei V Convengo "Volta": "Le alte velooite in aviazione", pp. 198-21), 1936, Reale Accademia d'Italia, Rone, 3, Levi-Civita: "Nuovo Cimento" (1), Vol. 6, 1697+ 4, H. Lamb: “On Wave-Propagestion in Two Dimensions", Proo. London Wath. Society (1), Vol. 35, p- 1:1, 1002. See also H. Lomb: "Hydrodynamics", p. 298, 6th Bd., Combridge 1952. 5. C. Ferraris "Campi di corrente ipersonora attorno « solidi di rivoluzione", Ltderotecnica, Vol. 17, fai 518, 1937 6. M. M. Munk: "The Aerodynamic Forces on Airship Hulls", NACA Technical Report Wo. 16h, 193k. 7. W. Bolley: "A Theory for Reotenguler Wings of Small t Ratio", Jour. Aeronsutical Sciences, Vol. 4, pe eph-296, 1957 - 507= R. H. Fowler, B. G. Gallop, C. N. H. Lock and He We Richnond: "the Aerodynemics of a Spinning Shell", Philo- sophical Trans. of Royal Society of London (A), Vol. 221, pp. 295-389. 1921. 9. H.M, Kent: "The Role of Model Experiments in Projectile Design", Mechanical Engineering, Vol 5k, pp. 41-646, 1932.vaxr (111) APPLICATION OF TBCHAPLIGIN'S TRANSFORMATION TO ‘TWO DIMENSIONAL SUBSONIC FLOW ‘The equations of two dimensional irrotational motion of compr: sible fluids, assuming that the pressure is a single-valved function of density only, can be reduced to a single non-linear equation of the velocity potential. In the mmparsonie « , the problem fe aolved by Prondel, Meyer and Busemann by means of the powerful method of characteristics. The essential difficulty of thie problem Lice in the subsonic case eepouielly wou uw velocity is neer to the velocity of sound. The first logical step is to linearize the equation based on the argument that the disturb- ance super-imposed on the parallel rectilinser flow cue to the Presence of a solid body is sufficiently snall compared with parallel flow, This makes the second and higher order terns or aasturbence potential to be negligible. An example of this method is the well-known theory of thin airfoil due to Prandtl and Gleuert, But the presence of stagnation point at the nose of the sirfoil makes the application of the linearized theory questionable. at least noar this region; hananea there the disturbance due to the presence of the body is no longer small, On the seme ground, the theory breaks down in case of he.‘bodies whose dimension across the stroan is not small compared with the dimension parallel to the stresm, The next method is that derived originally by Janzen and Lord Rayleigh, They solved tho equation by successive approximalivuss Hunover, ‘the process is very tedious end the method convergent very slowly Af the velocity approaches that of sound, Molonbrocck (Nef. 1) and Tochepligin (Ref. C) suggested the use of the magnitude of velocity end inclination of velocity to the x-axis as independent variables end were able thus to roduco tho oquation of velocity potential to a linear equation, This equation was solved by Tschapligin (Ref. 2) and recently put in a more convenient form by F, Cleanser and My Clauser (Refs 3)+ Tho eolubion is cnventially a seri each term of which is a product of hypergeometric function and circular function. The chief difficulty in practical application of thie solution is to obtain a proper sev of boundary conditions in the transformed plane, or the hodograph plene, Tschapligin (Ref. 2) showed that a great simplifice- tion of the equation An hodograph plano reaulte if the ratio of specific heats of the gas is equal to ‘Then the equation becomes the equation of minimal surface whose solution is well- kmown, However, at firot, tho hypothetical valu of ratio of specific heats (all real gas has the value for this ratio ranging from 1,00 to 2,00) makes the practical application of “3Tschepligin's theory questionable. It was Dentschenko (Ref. 4) and Busemann (Ref. 5) who made the meaning of this special value of ratio clear. They found thet this special value of ratio of specific heats really corresponds to take the tengent of ~-1" curve of gas instead f- 1 curve itself. However, they limit themselves to use the tangent at the state of rest of the gas. Thus their theory can only apply to velocities up to 0.5 times sound velootiy. In this part , the theory is generalized to use the tangent at the state of gas corresponding to the undisturbed parallel flow. Therefore the range of usefulness of the theory is greatly extended, In the first section, the general theory will be developed. In the second section. the theory will be applied to the case of symmetrical Joukowsky airfoil at zero angle of attack. Section (T) ie fp 4s the pressure andi/y is the density of gas, the adiabatic process is expressed as a curve in the f-// plana aa shown in Fig. 3.1. Wow aonditions naar to the point b,% can be approximated by the tangent at this point, The equation of the tangent at this point oan be written as Gy) where © is the density of tho gas. Now the slope (/” olemust be equal to the slope of the curve at the point 4 U; c+ (fb) = (##) - Therefore G=- sn Hence the approximate p- S relation near 7, 5, oan be written as b-p= as?(f-#) (3-2) Prom the generalLaed Desuwillits Uieurey Use following relation is obtained 3 faite [ # 2 We - fu : eer BSS LE G3) where is the velocity of gas, the subscripts 2 7 indicate tw conditions, But from Bq. (3.2), % can be expressed as a function of , thus dp= AF ds (Bolt) Substituting into the integrand in Eq. (3.3) and integrate, the following relation is obteined ed 2 zge2fL_ iL zu - fu? = £4's, Be Now if Wye=0, aw, S,= 9, od Gag» then l=2g2 2 & 2 547 SP gF (3.5) muere the subscript Q denotes the rest st @ of the gas, If the sound velocity @ is defined as the derivative of Ap with respect to § , then Eq. (3.4) gives # gr = ag m 925% constant (3,6) Therefore Eq. (3.5) can be written as Gi # oe & 6.1) $70? = $0," 5 thus Eq. (3.7) can also be written as : (3.8) It 4e Th in intarashing at this ataga, to nohine thet from Eq. (3.8), the density decreases as volocity a as it is expected. Thus from Eq. (3.7), the velocity of sound of the gas mill increnas ae Une veluvily is loinereased. This is just opposite to real gas, because in the ease of an adiabatic flow, it is well-known thet the temperature of gas decreases as the volooity of gas is increased and thus ‘the sound velocity aleo decreases, However from Eq. (3.7), the ratio 4 or Mach's mmber increases as the velooity w Ancreuses. But this retio omly reaches tne value unity wnen uf sco, or from Eq. (3.8) when =O + Ibis thus seen that the entire region of flow is subsonic and thus ‘the equation of motion is always of elliptic type. This may be considered as the physical reason why the complex representation of velocity potential and strom function is possible in all However one should ons will be shown in following page beer in mind that the portion of tangent that could ba used as an approximation to the true adiabatic curve, mst lie within ‘the first quadrant. Thus the upper limit of velocity for Praction] application of the theory is when By using Eqs. (3.2), (3-7) end (3.8), this upper limit is found to be +) or by putting 22 et » the sbove equation reaices to “U7wy, Mi 1 /mat. — (. Z :) a The values of (Zi ay for different values of “+ ere showa in Teble 3sle Table 3.1 % hen (Hee ° ey 2.186 2 10.91 2.195 Ok 5.56 2.225 0.6 3.78 26265 0,8 2.92 2.335 1.0 e405 241405 It is thus seon thet for most applications of this theory, é will remain positive. However due to lerge deviation from the true adiabatic process at high values of & + one has probably to Limit the ratio ($2 about 2, ‘Yow if the flow is irrotational, there exists » velocity potential ¢ such that 7 6.9) where “, 7 are the 4, Y components of the velocity # . To satisfy the eqation of continuity, the D stream function ‘Y/ is introduced. It is defined by Sye th 8y_. ae % a= 7 % v ou (3.10) Wow 4f the angle of inclination of the velocity “7 to the xaris is, then from Eqs. (349) and (5.10), ono has Ad = wh cash dx + 0 sinh dy Ap = aE snp der & coop ly cam Solving for 7 and dy, - Biub- Bp dp (3.19) dy. Sob - a dp f= OE db + ag a So long as the correspondence between the physical plane and tthe Medapiane Ls ame te one; or mathenstiontiy Nee xo one can express 2% 4 45 functions of Ww, fi miso ais gent YP os functions 4 and povtm =dp = bf dort ts “p d= Ve dw + Us ap (5.15) where primes indicate the derivative, and subscript indicate the variables with respect to which the functions are differentiated, Now substitute Eq. (3.13) into Eq. (3.12), the following relations are obtained dan (Sahn A Bh Mer by (3.24) Ma (SE het SERV Nhe GEG t EM Since the left-hand sidesof Bq. (3-14) are exact differential, one can apply the reciprocity relation and obtains $A PEM) (Sy ey) Fo. 15) A / Sing g/ Sy) 2 / snp gy’ ayo" 3A( ine g +a Fe (GPA? Sh RY) Carrying out the differentiation, and cancelling identical terms in left-hand and right-hand side, — snp Ye Sanya » "1 TB Sf, 2b! TB tae PP Pe OG n df Oh Bap! = Lf 4 8 Bae yy “50Using Eq. (3.7), Rq- (2-14) hannman ~ bh) Of Sl 4's MBE Ww Ww a + (3.17) Sf 4) - tap Eo’ « - 64, gen? i Reesor 4 , ve. feo 4 a are connected with a proportional factor, one can solve for ‘them, and (3.18) hn fw lo Now Bq- (3-10) can be rurther reauced ir a new varisble (0 is introduced. W 4s defined as = & dw dow £ tea) Then 8g. (5418) becomes ¢ oe p ‘ (3.20) oleThis Se the fundamental set of equations for the present theory. It can be easily recognized as the Cauohy-Rieuamn differential equation, ante of + 1P must be an analytic function of A +¢W + However for the convenience of mumerical calculation, anew variable /// is used instead of W& , such thet Weed) Ly, € o (3-218) Or by integrating Eq. (3-19), 24, Ww Wf = 7 "Taree? a om Hence by inverting, we hag W (5.22) 4ag- W? Thus by substituting tube Bye (340), Sa Aafew" (3.25) . | ar anovner aot or new varnanien U/- "cae? aa Ve fs sre used as independent variables, one has 52.% ~ 30 aif er = Wp +p tf as BRU ap Ning apf Using Eq. (3.24), Eq. (3.20) oan be written as ondl + op = oe SE - apF 14 gid) (3.38) where fo) wil be small compared with 1, The function which established the conformal transformation of the outside of this boundary (/, into outeide of the circle C, my be denoted by 3,- 82. Lit He] oy where, ae have their origin at the center and the absolute value of (62) ie again small compared with 1, Then it is shown (Ref. 7) that felt he [ME)] =0 (hay In order to caloulste /6,) wo devolop the 6.function 9/P) 1m « Pourter aortes: b, hi p) = FF ty cos ne Gata) Here only consine terms appear because the airfoil is symmetrical about the chord, One the other hand, the complex function f(G,) nas the torm, ror /S2/7 / SS ye) ‘n Ho)= FZ Zz” (3-42) @ 2 Yor pt, we 6? » then (3.40) is satisfied by lye - dy vhas Mi)=- 2) (1B) ° It can be easily een that the velocity around the deformed Joukowsky eirfoil can be calculated as “5 lee] (oe where Wy = velooity around the Joukowsky airfoil. Now from Kqs- (5454 amd (5445), =62-de, = ttn vom /- ZG t Pz “5 a fie Zioda, crn - 1 Por-dagsinnd Hoglecting small quetities of second order, and noting Eq. (Bold) » 4] =/+t Zila) ty cos 28 = /+ Z Nay cos 18 Say 76 (3.5) 0 /4 $24 sn nd - $d) A trial calculation shows that the convergence of the coefficients Qy is not very good. Therefore, one mast avoid manipulation on the Fourier series as required by Bq. (3.45). This is possible because — 7 4y, Sin nb is known to nathenatioians as the allied or conjugate series of Ba cos 1d «6 he aloo mows (net. 0) that 12 pla= Z4 cos 78 Sn inng = Le [HOt - fo _ Zit sand = “ft —- Us B=‘Therefore ze J, £24 santa hf MO go9 plo Dy 0 = "Z Integrating by parts, auf 4 AE) et -4| [# sepa, 4 [aeoges ee af wine e ae (ners) Hof [pro 7 (/- as ) Hence Eq. (3.45) can be written as He|- /-x [acet fh ieo- 14, 7- art A HOG 10 The intogral ie evidently convergent for any continous reguler function gla) » bectuse then the integrand is always finite, Its evaluation can be done mmerically, Figs 3.5 18 the result of omlouletion for « Joukowsiy airfoil with the thickness parenter 5 "220, at two speeds, a = 0.450 and 0.550. The suction peaks are considerebly higher with higher speeds. Also the fepositions of pressure peaks tend to move backward with increas- ing speed. Both are in agreement with the experimental results obtained by J. Stack ( Ref. 9). The values of (b-pyleut for 4 = 0,550 ona 4 = 0.50 wt which real air will attain « velocity equal to the local sound velocity fare equal to -1.653 and -2.755 re pectively. It is thus seen that the effect of compressibility on pressure distribution is appreciable, even when nowhere the local sound velocity is roachod. One should, howovor, bear in mind that tho effect on the force coefficient of the airfoil will probably not be so marked as with the pressure distribution, because the resultent force on the airfoil is the algebraic difference of pressure force acting on two sides of the section,APPENDIX TO PART (111) COMPARISON WITH OTHER METHODS Tn ardar ta shank tha aeaurasy af the mathod developed in PART (III), the flow over a finite circuler cylinder with its axis perpendicular to the direction of undisturbed flow is studied. Tho method exposed in Section (II) of PART (III) for correction of shape of body is used. The following is the result of calculation for velocity at the top of tho eirouler soction, compared with results by other nethods [collected by E. Pistolesi (Ref. 10)]. & 0,100 4, ——_—_— uw Metnod ZL at top of seotion Part (II) 2.268 Rayleigh 2.206 Poget 2.19 Teylor's Electrie 2.188 analogy Fe teen cee saeseeeversecef tac’ Thus the present method gives @ higher value, However, the flow over cylinder is rather an extreme case. Beceuse the difference between the velocities to be calculated end the ~66-and the undisturbed velocity is large, end thus this eppronimate method involves larger than usual error. 61le 2 3e ke 6. 8. oe 10. REFERENCES ON PART (III) P, Molenbroek: Uber einige Dewegungen eines Gases bet Annalme eines Geschwindigkeitspotentials, Arch d, Mathen, u. Phys., Grunert Hoppe (1890), Reihe 2, Ba. 9, 8. 157. A, Tschapligin: Scientific Memoirs of the Univ. Moscow, (Im Russien) (1902). F. Cleanser, M. Clauser: New Methods of Solving the Equations for the Flow of a Compressible Fluid, Unpublished Ph.D, Thesis at C.I.T. (1937)+ B, Demtchenko: Sur les mouvements lents des fluides comproseibies, Comptes Kendus, Vol. IY, Pe 1216 (1¥32)+ Aleo, Variation de le résistence aux faibles vitesses sous de 1s compressibilité, Comptes Rendua, Vol. 9h, pe 1720 (1952) A. Busemann: Die Expensionsberichtigung der Kontraktions- ziffer von Blenden, Forschung, Bd. 4, S, 186-187 (1953) Also, Hodographemethode der Gasdynomik, Z.A.M.M. Bd. 12, S. 73-79 (1937) « W. F. Durand: Aerodynamic Theory Vol. 2, ps 71-7h, 1st Ed., Julius Springer, Berlin (1935). Th, von Kerman, E, Treffte: Potentialstrémung dem gegebens Tregflechenquersohnitte, Z. F. Me Bd. 9, Ss 111 (1916). Also, W. F. Durend: Aerodynamic Theory, Vol. 2, p-60-03 (1935) G. H. Hardy, J. EB. Littlewood: The Allied Series of a Fourier Series, Proc. of London Math. Soc. (2) Vol. 2, pp.211-2h6 (1925), J. Staok: The Compressibility Burble, NACA Technicel Note Wo. 543 (1935). E, Pistolesi: Le portanza alle alte velocita inferiori a alla dal suona, Atti dai V. Canvenen Malta", fare 300, (i936) Reate Accedenia d'rtelia, Rone. ~68-Part (IV) FLIGHT ANALYSIS OF A SOUNDING ROCKET WITH SPECIAL ESYERENCE To FROFULOION DY OUCCBOOIYE ImrULOBG. Introdution In 1919 R. E, Goddard (Ref. 1) published the historically important peper which suggested the use of nitro- cellulose powler es a propellant for raising a sounding rocket to altitudes beyond the range of sounding balloons. To olermne Une feusibility of Us propellant, & series of ox- periments had been carried out and it was found that thermal efficiency of 50% could be expected if the powder was exploded in @ properly designed chamber and the resulting gases were allowed to escape at high velocity through an expanding nozzle. In 1931 R. Tilling used a mixture of potassium chlorate and naphthalene as propellant and actually reached an altitude of 6,600 feet. More recently, L. Dambianc (Re. 2) made static tests with a slow burning black powder end from these estimated that a height of 10,000 feet could be reached using a two-step arrangement. The results so fer reported offer an Ansentive to further analysie. The effect of decreasing gravitational acceleration on the maximum hoight reached by a rocket has been considered by As Bartocei ( Ket. 5). However, he assumes that the B=rocket itself has a constant acceleration during powered flight. L, Breguet and R. Devillers ( Ref. ))) elso con sidered the effect of the variation of g. To simplify the enslysis, they assumed that the acceleration of the rocket was eqal to a constent multiple of ge Since the sounding rocket for practical reasons will be propelled by a nearly constant thrust or a uniform rate of successive impulses, in Section (11) the author has studied the problem anew according to this mode of propulsion, When the sounding rocket is ascending through the air the maximm height reached is less than that reached for flight in vacuo. Recently, studies have been made of the problem by W. Ley and H. Schaefer (Ref. 5) and by F. J. Malina end A. M. 0. Smith (Ref. 6). On the basis of the latter study a group of new performance parameters have beon Jeolated from the general performance equation, and those are discussed in Section (III). Wotetion Roforring to Pigs (Ite), the following notation hee been used throughout the paper: Wa weight of propellent and propellent container ejected per impulse, lbs. kee ratio of container weight to sum of conteiner and Propellent weight ejected per impulse, Ae (1 -k) Wo rmeisr weignt of rocket, Is. ‘° J0=24, = initial mass of the rocket, slugs. Wo oe Ge Gia ne Ne 4a at a, = ae instentencous woight of rocket, Ibe. ratio of initiel weight of propellants to initial total weight of a rocket propelled by coustant Ulrust. ratio of initial weight of propellents to initial total weight of a rocket propelled by successive impulses. ah umber of inpulane per ssaond- total number of impulses occuring during powered flight. coyce Autoryel Velmocn impulscs, soe initial acceleration imparted to rocket, ft/se scgelegetion of grevity et the starting point of flight, ft/s0c®. acceleration of gravity sbove the starting point of flight, ft/sec”. effective exhaust velocity of ejected propellant, ft/sec. instenteneous velocity, ft/sec. welooity imparted to récket by the 44 — impules, ft/sec. veluvily al Use cud of Uw 2th intorver, 2t/seoe velocity of sound corresponding to the atmospheric con- ditions at the starting point of the flight, ft/sec. velocity of sound corresponding to the atmospheric con- ditions at the height reached by the rocket at the time t, ft/sec. Mach's mmber = ¥/if welanity of roskat et stark nf nannting fight, Pt/nan. —n-velocity of rocket at start of coasting flight if ¢ is constant and equal to g, ft/sec. altitude above sea level, fect. height reached at the beginning of the 27h interval, feet. height reached at the end of the 74 interval, feet. height traveled during powered flight, rest. height travelled during powered flight, if g is constent and equal to go, feet. height travelled during coasting flight, foot. height travelled during coasting flight, if g is constant and egal to g,, fect. = height travelled during powered flight and coasting ‘may Plight, feet. H = height travelled during powered flight and coasting mat, flight, if g is constant and equal to @, fect. = redius of earth, 2.088 x 108, feet. = drag on rocket due to alr resistance, Ibs. = drag coefficient of rocket shell. R oO Cy C= arag covtticient of rocket shell at the velocity of sound. J\ = drag-weight factor (discussed in the section on the effect of air resistance). © = mass density of air at the starting point of the flight, ° slugs per cu. ft. = ratio of air densities at altitude and at the starting point of the flight. T = absolute temperature of the atmosphere at the height reached by the rocket at the time T, °F. “J, = absolute temperature of atmosphere at the sterting point a of flight, OF,A= largert oroaneanctional ar of rocket shell, s d = largest diameter of rocket shell, ft. £ = length of rocket shell, ft. Section (1) An approximate method of caleuleting the maximm height reached by a rocket propelled by powder was developed by Re H, Goddard (Ref, 1). To simplify the enslysis a contin- uous loss of mass was assumed and the problem was so stated thet a minimm mass of propellent necessary to 1ift one pound of mass at the end of the flight to any desired height was Antarminad. awavar, 1f highepawarad pawlar ix used, tha rate of burning is so repid that the propulsive action is insfenten- ous. The rocket is thus acted upon by an impulse rather than by @ constent thrust, In the following analysis, it has, therefore, been ‘assumed that the propulsive foros is en impulsive fords, i. ‘the force acts for such a brief interval of time that the rocket does not change its position during the application of the force, although its velocity and its momentum receive a finite change. If the combustion process of the propulsive unit takes place at eonstent volume thie ascumption ie justified. Further, a study of interior ballistics of snall arms reveals that the period between the ignition of the Powder charge and tne bullet's arrival at tne end or a two- “B-foot barrel is of the order of 1h ten-thousandths of a second. TP tha gaan ara not rartrained and their travel through the ‘burning chamber end the nozsle is of much shorter length, as is the case for the rocket motor, even shorter periods of duration of ection can be expected. Assuming that the propulsive force acts as an im- pulse, then the motion of the rocket can be calculated by Newton's third law, which states that impulses between two odice arc oqaal and opposite, Honce, oqating the momontum of the exhaust geses to the momentum imparted to the rocket, using the quantities defined in the list of notation end referring to Fig. b. ‘the following relation can be written for Plight in wana aw, Me c= AY, (ea) at, the velocity is reduced by the action of gravity so that at During the interval between impul: the end of the 214 interval, the velocity of the “Therocket will be yl % - gat - du, gat (held) Therefore s , Gi= Flay -agat (4.5) (he6) or yl = doa where = S ome 4 /- Ve ) The height gained during each interval will be represented by the erea under the velocity curve in the interval, or y ' af 7 My’ hy = Goat 42 at) (7) “1Therefore, at the end of the Nth interval which is ‘the end of the powered flight, the height will be fen My = Z nat + Ka late Substituting for 1; / Ate velue in Eqs (Is06) AN 1), SA = She FL I, Mg sty? 4, Zist] 47) rs &) agat f+ FG a=t Se/ W aN aN Nr/-2 - Ze Me Dite-#) nar (2/4) a= (8) mere = oad Nala-a ar | ey ‘The maximm height reached will be the sum of the height at the end of powered flight end the height travelled during coasting or Vv. 2 Par, th, tH, = Hp, + oe (9) fo To caleulate the meximm height one has first to evaluate the sums S; end S>, Woting that ahif fh Bly FS) a 81 cen be written in the form Sea Siig Ne f Ze Dae ? o oe 3! Ae NNT = -4 ec “We / eo ae ‘0 /- ew Putting = y= Ne the shove integral becomes S-- 8 [68 (Wy - Bf og) we-wf (4.10) wire Plo) = fe a) jf Se cont pate function (Ref. 7,8). Similarly, Sp can be sumed as Se Lh y-[f-weVL)-VE Mon -T1-Substituting Eqs. (4.10 and (4.1}) into Eqs. (4.6) and (8), ena then into Eq. (lj.9) finally Ae, de dc de {(fe-)b- wf (uae) — a wp WY) HE) : For convenience of calculation in Fig. 4.2 the quantity (/ is plotted against N for different values It cen easily be shown thet when N = 1 ap = OF 7S, so thet Eq. (1.12) reduces to Haar, = ds o/ -)" (lse122) Mn, an Wm co, V- - boglt-&/) tua Eq. (1.12) reduces to 7 = LEA lglg fp IE? 2h L o «J £ +f (h.12») 5! _ awe where = 4, = ee i We -¥ (4120)The quantity —@, 2, can be considered as the initial acoeleration of the rocket if N —> oo + das interesting to notice that Ba. (li412b) is the equation ob- teined by Malina end Smith (Ref. 6) for calculating the maxim height of a constent thrust rocket, as expected. Pigs he} shows the variation of Hare [ee mth nAc/y, for different valves of ©,“ and for four valves of N. These curves show thet when the total mumber of impulses, N, becomes larger then 100, the maximum heicht reached is imperceptibly changed by increasing the number. At this point it is necessary to disouss the similarity existing between a rocket propelled by successive impulses and a rocket propelled by constent thrust. The former loses not only the mass of the propellent, but also the containers for the individual charges. The difference in affant an the rocket betwen the propellant and its containers is that the propellent has en effective exhaust velocity, 0, while the ejected containers leave the rocket without apprec- Aeble velocity, The propulsive actiou, however, will remain the seme if the whole cartridge, that is, the propellant charge ond its container, is considered wholly as propellent but leaving the motor at a reduced effective exhaust velocity Ae = The rocket propelled by constant thenat Tamasonly the mass equal to the propellant carried, therefore, it can be said to be equivalent to the "successive impulses" auohet Lf ils effective calaust velocity end ite totel mase of propellant are eqial respectively to the reduced exhaust velocity and to the sum of the masses of all the containers of the “successive imulece” rockets In other words, o ie equal to AC end C Asequlto OG” . In Teble l,.1 the heights for four cases have been ealoulatod to illustrate the offoct of tho exhuast gas volocity and the total mmber of impulses given to @ rooket whose woight ratio, ©" 48 0.70, It will be noticed that for flight in vacuo o greater hoight will be reached 4f a mailer mumber of impulses is employed. The lower portion of the Teble shows the maximum height reached by an equivelent "constant thmet" rocket for tho samo four casos with tho initial acceleration given by Eq. (ls120). The close agreement between the maximm height reached by use of successive impulses, when ‘tho tobel mumbor of Ampulsco oxccode 100, and that reached by the use of constant thrust simplifies the solution of the problem of deer ing acceleration of gravity with height, and ensbleo prediction for flight with air rosistanos to be based on the results obtained for a rocket propelled by constant thrust (0.f. Ref. 6). These problems are considered in the following cootions. Section (II) It is well-known thet the acceleration of gravity ooreacee with the hoight above tho earth's ourface according -80-TABLE 4.1 Successive impulses Haw, = ES ab* ah [tbe 1) P-Njf ey 1 10,000 0.70 526 5 1,472,000 2 10,000 0.70 10 0,092 1,686,000 3 7,000 0.70 326 3 560,000 a 7,000 10 0,092 676,000 Constant Thrust 2 / Fay = E [Layee gala case Pt, /sec, 8% nce o S ae 1 10,000 0,70 32.2 1,468,000 2 10,000 0.70 32.2 1,468,000 Sy 7000 1g 555,000 4 7,000 0.70 12.9 855,000to the following relation ase 9-4 i r (1413) At an altitude of 1000 miles the acceleration is only Osé4 times that ab cea levels Fherefure, fur flights up to such altitudes the essumption that g is approximately constant is no longer valid, It was shown by Melina and Smith (net, 6) that a tree-step rocket could theoretically reaen suen an altitude. Thus it is interesting to see how the decrease of & Will inerease the maximun height reached by the rocket. First the effeot on powered flight in vacuo will be considered end then on coasting flight in vacuo, For powered flight the analysis is based on the assumption that the thrust is constent. However, the results can be applied to the case of propulsion by successive impulses if the total mmber of impulses, N, exceeds 100 as was justified in the previous section. The equivalent mass of eax flowing par sacond comm tinuously for the case of successive impulses is wn Mtamn J (eal) Assuming that the rocket starts from rest at sea level the equation of motion in vacuo is “81.(4.35) This is a non-linear differential eaation which can not be solved by usual means, However, for all practical pur- poses the ratio 4 during powered flight is mich snaller than 1, therefore, only first order terns in #4 occurring in the expansions need to be retained. This approximation ineerizes the equation ta the form Gee (#1) + as (h.16) The solution of this equation with the initiel condition that n=O and ff -0 when t = 0 is fu fu CS} ke = “dy 4-4] wh yf te che | eit 7 We We J ae (aan) where E= ces and un let At tho ond of tho powored flight, tho time io ~4- Ms be = (4.28) teTherefore, the hetghh at the and of the powared flight is £08) girs) Hy Bf- coh Me ad 4 Tee Efron ET Ee Yeu If the hyperbolic cosine term end the integrals ere sspanint end uty faret onder rns in Gf srw robetund te consistency with the linearization of Eq. (+15), the equation 5 =| SBE OGY cE frounton) eo Be 2 vacate Slog SJE CME esre)f (4.20) becomes a =A+ 7 (Li [$l el-s)ogiespeclactisseey] ~¢ Lh (Me Wet Differentiating Eq. (4.17), and substituting the relation of Eq. (4.18), the maximum velocity at the end of pomeed Hight 4 (os) Voc” [BE oh FE ME few Feta “8/ Again expanding and roveining only first order terms in po, Bq. (lj+21) becomes - [Berd Bef - fe Lag (1-5) 4 gebleidegione af (4-22) - Yn, - Lea, £ Pte flag rs) 426 if Vue It is seen thet the second terms of Eq. (4.20) and (4.22) are the correction to be applied to Hy and Your, to account for the variation of the acceleration of gravity. Since both corrections are first order approximations, they can be expected to apply approximately also to the case of successive impulses, even when the totel number of impulses is less than 100, ‘Tha anacting hat ght ranchad by the racknt dua ta tte velocity at the end of powered flight cen be obtained by equating the inorease of potential energy during coasting flight to the Kinetic energy at the end of powered flight. Thus th jy?e- dh Z Your g A (HE? 5 -Bheor a d= (on) a (423) af tee putting // LAGS Oo. *= which is coasting height obtained by assuming a constant gravitational acceleration of the value egal to that at the height // Lse., the height whore coasting starts, then Eq. (4.23) oan J Upon expending the second term this equation becomes, fs A, tH, fre (ghs)s Ope)? Gi" 1 fa This equation shows that 1f the coasting flight be written im 4ea)f / starts from ses level, end if the maximum height reached is about 1000 miles, the increase due to the decrease in g is over 25%, which is considerable, -05-Section (III) Waen the sounding rocket is ascending through the atmosphere instead of in vacuo, air resistance cones into pley, ceusing the acceleration of the rooket to be reduced, which decreases the maximum height reached. Since air resis- tence increases with the air density and with the squere of the flight velocity. it is desirable to keep the rocket from ascending too rapidly through the lower layers of the atnos- phere where the air density is high. For this reason the op- timm initial acceleration will no longer be infinite as shown by Eq. (l.12b). For the case of constant thrust Malina end Smith (Ref. 6) have found thet the optimm acceleration is around 30ft./sec.®. For a total mmber of impulses ereater than 100, the difference between propulsion by successive impulses and by constant thrust is very mall, so one may expect the above optimm value of initial acceleration to hold for both cases of propulsion. The actual enount of reduction in maximum height dua to air resistence can be calculated by the method of step-by-step integration, if feir accuracy is desired. This Antogration is carried out by using the fundamental equation for vartioal rocket flight which, as given in the previous paper (Ref.6) is dh ae 4th Srv" GA “ae ba ~ /- 12 efi Heed] We (4.25) “RoeGA The significance of the ratio [77 ve @isoussed in thet paper (Ref, 6). Greater significance oan, lunever, Ue allached lu bo varius terms in the equation if ib As transformed into the non-dimensional form 24 gil - (oi aA Wen) 8) (426) mere /\ = Tn Eq. (4-26) appear two types of significant quamaties, First, quantities, called “ractors”, which are constent for any given fenily of rockets, and second, two quantities called "parameters", one of which is characteristic Yor @ given remily of rockets but onanges in value along the flight path, and one which depends on the physical properties of the atmosphere, Thus there are the following factors: So a ratio of initial acceleration to 4 "initial acceleration factor", a motor characteristic C = exhaust velocity in ft./sec. ~ "exhaust velocity factor”, e motot characteristicA\ = “aregewoight factor" CG = ratio of woight of combustibles to total initial weight of the rocket ~ "losding The first two factors, i.e., the “initial eccelers- tion factor" and the “exhuast velocity factor", determine the characteristics or the propelling unit for a given femiiy of rockets while the "drag-weight factor" and the "loading factor” determine the physical dimensions of the rockets. The “dreg- weight factor” is a ratio of the drag of the rocket at sea level when traveling with the velocity of sound to the initial weight of the rocket, Since for any given family of rocket shapes the only terms in the factor which can be varied are the maximm cross-sectional area A, end the initial weight W,, it de clear thet if the initial weight is doubled then the cross- sectional area must also be doubled to Jeep the factor the sane, ThoMeading factor noode to be disousced in come doted] ac it does not appear explicitly in Eq. (26). The Eq.(1.26) is a differential equation of the flight path which is satisfied at every point alouy Uie Fight yalle The loading foes CZ comes in only when thi: quation is integrated and the linits of integretion ere put in. For exemple, consider two rockets with identical performance factors and parameters, with the exception that one has a © Z of (0.90 and the other hes a J of 0.50. The flight path of the two rockets will be 88-identical up to the time that 0.50 times the initial weight of the rockets is used up as combustibles, At this point the roekat having 2 Z, af 0.50 will hagin to danalarata while the one havinga of 0.90 will continue to accelerate until the remaining combustibles are used up, It is this en that the vaine of 3 controle the maxima belght sencleds The two performance pareneters ere: ao ~ physical properties of the atmosphere called To ‘the “atmosphere paremeter™ G __ serodynanic properties of the rocket shell G# ~ celled the "form parameter” ” for the earthk atmaspheria mosphere paranets layer will, of course, be the sane for all rockets if standard conditions are assumed end its value depends only on the height ‘the rooket hae reached sbove tho starting point of the flight. The "form parameter" is determined by the shape of the curve of Cp against B. This curve will be altered chiefly by the geometrical snape or the sneii aithougn 1t 18 algo artected vy the change in skin friction coefficient due to the change in Reynold's Number. As long as the rocket belongs to « fenily that has the sane geometrical shape, which implies the seme none shape and the nama f/f ratin, thak ta, tha ratio af the length of the shell to the maximum diemeter, the “form parameter" can be assumed to remain constent. 9It is thus seon that the performance curves calculated for a typical rocket will also hold for a whole femily of rockets dovormined by the values of the "factors" and of the "paranctors™ of the typical rocket end the design of a rocket to meet certein prescribed requirements is greatly simplified. Furthermore, for & good rocket form design the varietion of oe Be » the form peremeter. at the seme values of Bis mall. Also, the deviation from stendard atmospheric characteristics cannot be very large. Then, in view of the fairly accurate but not exact baste acoumption of concbant thrust, it Le jusbified to use the seme data for these two parameters for all cases. Thus, the performance problem is further simplified and depends only upon ‘the four performance factors Zz 1 Oo, A ms.CONCLUSION This study shows thet a sounding rocket propelled by eucceccive impulses oon theoretically reach heights of much use to thoseinterested in obtaining data on the structure of the atmosphere and extra-terrestial phenomena if a propelling unit gives en exhmst velocity of 7000 ft. per second or more. The possibility of obtaining such exhaust velooiti depends on two factors: first, the ability of the motor to trensform efficiently the heat energy of the fuel into kinetic energy of the exhsust gases, and secondly, the amount of heat energy that oan be Liberated from the fuel. Tn an aotuel motor which burns its fuel at constant volume by igniting « powder charge in the combustion chamber the ratio of the chanber pressure to the outlet pressure drops fron a maxim et the beginning of the expansion to zero at the end of the process. It is not possible to design a nozzle that will expand the products of combustion smoothly during the whole proce: Therefore, the attainable efficiency must be less than that of a corresponding “constant pressure" motor which hi mixture of combustibles, e.g. gasoline and liquid oxygen, fed contim- ously into the combustion chamber at a constant pressure equal to the maximum pressure of the “constant volume" motor. However, very high maximm chenber pressures (up to 60,000 lbs. =.per sq.in.) can be developed in e motor using constent volune burning, while the chamber pressure of a motor using constent pressure burning is Limited to mch lower pressures ty the difficulty of feeding the combustibles, Therefore, the efficiency that oan be obteined frommtors using either of these proces should not be very different. As to the heat that oan be liberated per unit mass of fuel, the present fuel, such as nitro-cellulose powder for a constant volume motor, As much lower than the liguid combustibles such as gasoline and oxygen for constant pressure motor. Thoce considerations indioate thet the attainable exhaust velocity of « "oonstent volume" motor for propulsion ‘vy mocessive impulses will probably be lower then that of a “constent pressure” motor for supplying & continuous Uuruste This is the reason why many experimenters abandoned the “constent volume" motor and turned to the “constant pressure” motor, the so-called liquid propellant motor. Theoretically, this defect of the “constent volume" motor can be compensated Af a snall total mber of impulses (o.f. Pigs 4.3) is used. However, the use of few impulses is of doubtful practical value beaaure the resulting extrema accelerations will be harmfal to instruments carried and will necessitate a heavier construction of the rocket.However, even with the lower exhaust velocities of the "constant volume" motor it is shown by the analysis in this paper Ull WLU Une extmust volucity vf 7000 ft./sccs obbained experimentally by R. H, Goddard (Ref. 1) it should be possible to build a poder rocket capable of rising ebove 100,000 feet. Thus it seems to the author that a rocket propeiied by sucet ive impulses has useful possibilities and further ex- perimental work is justified, Beae 2. 3e Se Te REFERENCES ON PART (IV) Goddard, 8. "A Method of Reaching Extreme Altitudes", Smithsonian Wiscellansous Collections, Vol.71, No. 2, 1919. Denblanc, L. : "Les fusées autopropulsives & explosifs", L'Asrophile, Vol. 4i3 pp.205-209 and pp. 2y1,-2h7, 1935. Bartocci, As: "Le ésoursioni in altezsa oot motora a reazione", L'Aeroteonica, Vol 13, pp. 166-1666, 1933. Broguet, L. and Devillers, R. : "LtAviation superatnos- phérique, les aérodynes propulsées par reaction directe", Ta Sefence Adrianne, Vol. 5. pp. 183-222, 1936. Ley, ¥. end Scheofer, He: "Les fuses volentes météoro- logiques", T1Aérophile, Vol. hh, pp.228-222. 1936. Melina, F. J. ond Smith, Adi.O, : "Analysis of the Sounding Ranke", Jour, of Aera. Sciences, Vol. 5, pp. 199-202, 1938. Whitteker and Watson: "Modern Analysis", pp. 246-247, lth Raition, 1997, Cambridge. Davis, H. 7. :"fables of the Higher Mathematical Functions", Yor. 1, pp. 277-34), lat Edition, 1923, Principia Press.worquuyxoudie y8azy s,usuvy uo aanqescduey wia146 cody Jo ¥/t oangwsodves ITU, TTom 09 perpysusig 4vey ol (8) “seuspopsseoo wergoTay art ‘Sta at 07 yt +}NS TPES EA Sian tapers, va =10Pig. 1.5 Heat balance when the wall temperature is V/4 of the free stream temperature"Radhiced Hest Transfer brag Ratio Pe Le ‘Pu effec: of bik apecl on oroling of005 004 30 re 28 1860 0oTgMeTPH Jo wor wupxosdde ouy a ve “Brgi ep \ Pigs Ss8 ute of somrennsby on the 1a. j i 10 fff ‘Heath x1) 0.20Fig. 41FSS STS BT IO neato