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    APES Textbook

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    Environmental problems, Their Causes, and Sustainability reroased CASE STUDY mauecttee edn Living in an Exponential Age fag exponentially ataripldmte nie gowth E ‘Despite 2 22-fold increase ie worl -qwoancient kings enjoyed playing chess with the Wie since 190, amost on oft" SOFT ners Miner TEE meen iosuree cn ce ea winner as pay) a ee i Fr ton the frst equate ofthe chessboard, 008 ca sn eere nary ep Gaeeecond, four on the tind, and so on, with the stm Te ocal forests gra a Be Gocbling on each square until all & were flied, de its eomate that MOAN acts “The losing king, thinking he was getting of ensY, vente erin Be Tee agreed with delight. It was the biggest ‘mistake he ever ee Frontal cate of 1% voayear ae — serge He bankrupted his kingdom because the nt” tl pat iy FIO sade ona of wheat he had promised was Probsbly ee ea ol ew re oer han al the wheat that has ever been harvestes A : ponent ay * oroccome al Ce exponent which a a ay aioe ac ceeamerate per unit of ie such a8 2% a yeas. Expo- na owing concen bat OPT ge somal growth is deceptive. Testarts off slow, but intone ates es bung fs el titer only a few doublings, it grows to enormous ‘Searing mac chung ers cma rrumbers because coch doubling ore than the total pepper Tcl Tate ae qatsaenctomes trent half to double its thickness. If you could continue Sr eral sown pagsateyien doubling the thickness of the paper 42 times, the stack aa ont and interconected exwironmental SSeS ond reach from the earth tothe moon, 366400 Kilo- vation econ, Fey weters (240,000 miles) away. If you could double it tl era a gl tate cane Gra Bo dimes, the folded paper would almost reach the ii a ory in 149 mulion Kilometers (93 milion miles) away Siplement within afew cde as you wile i® ‘Between 1950 and 2004, the world’s population oe book. increased exponentially from 25 bilion to 6.4 billion land may increase to somewhere between 8 billion and 12 billion people by the end of this century igure L). ‘Global economic output—some ofit environmentally beneficial and. some of tenvironmentally harm- fal-is a rough measure of the hu _—-J Figure 1-1 The shaped curve of past exponential wore poptiation grown, wih Disostions to 2700, Notoe that exponen fal growin starts oft som, but as ie passes the curve becomes increas tee. The excron world population 6.Abilion poopie Is projected to reach mo 20 &-12billon people sometime this cant. {ils igure tnt to aoale) (Data tom Word Baricand Unted Nations; photo courtesy of NASA) Soil Sampling Procedure {There are a number of different sampling patterns that can be used to give reliable results for soil testing, including sampling a zig zag pattern sarass an area, walking a cirele around an area, or randomly sampling a Small area which is typical of the entire area, You will only be taking one sample, so make sure you avoid atypical areas including: changes in soil ‘ype, breaks in slope, fence lines, waterlogged patches and obvious anomalies, 2. Samples should be taken at a depth of 75 to 150 mm, Remember, it is difficult to compare results from samples that have been taken from different depths! 3. The soil samples should be taken using a tube sampler, or spade, 4. The cores should be collected into a clean bucket (with no trace of fertilizers in it), mixed well and put into a clean plastie bag. 5. Make sure all samples are labeled clearly with a permanent marker, 6. Keep samples cool. You may want to put them in your refrigerator over the summer. 7. Record the location of your soil sample on a map, "Make sure you put your name on all your samplesi*** | | | | | Alone in space, alane iis life-supporting systems, powered Dy inconceivable energies, mediating ther ta us through the most delicate adjustments, wayward, unlikely, unpredictable, but nourishing enlivening, and enriching inthe largest Aegree—is this not a precious home forall of us? Is it not ‘worth our fave? Bansara Wano ano RENE Dusos ‘This chapter presents an overview of environmental problems, their causes, controversy aver their serious- ‘ness, and ways we can live more sustainably. It dis- ‘cusses these questions: What keeps us alive? What isan environmentally sustainable society? 1" How fastis the human population increasing? What are economic growth, economic develop- ment, and globalization? ‘= What are the earth’s main types of zesources? How can they be depleted or degraded? ‘What are the principal types of pollution? What can we do about pollution? 1» What are the basic causes of today’s environmental problems? How are these causes connected? sour current course sustainable? What is environ- mentally sustainable development? 1-1 LIVING MORE SUSTAINABLY What Is the Difference between Environment, Ecology, and Environmental Science? Defining Some Basic Terms Environmental science isa study of how the earth. works, how we interact with the earth, and how to deal with environmental problems. Environment is everything that affects a living organ- ism (any unique form of life). Ecology is a biological science that studies the relationships between living organisms and their environment. This textbook is an introduction to environmental science, an interdisciplinary study that uses informa- tion from the physical sciences and social sciences to learn how the earth works, how we interact with the earth, and how to deal with environmental problems. Environmental science involves integrating ideas from the natural world (biosphere) and our cultural world (culturesphere), Environmentalism is a social movement dedi- cated to protecting the earth’ life support systems for ‘us and other species. Members of the environmental community include ecologists, environmental scientists, conservation biologists, conservationists, preseroationsts, restorationists, and environmentalist, ‘What Keeps Us Alive? The Sun and the Earth's Natural Capital Al life and economies depend on energy from the sun (Solar capital) and the earth’s resources and ecological services {nstural capital) (Our existence, lifestyles, and economies depend com- pletely on the sun and the earth, a blue and white {sland in the black void of space (Figure 1-1). To econo ‘ists, capital is wealth used to sustain a business and ‘0 generate more wealth. For example, suppose you in- ‘vest $100,000 of capital and get 2 10% retum on your money. n.a year you get $10,000 in income from inter- ‘stand increase your wealth to $110,000. By analogy, we can think of energy from the sun as solar capital. Solar energy includes direct sunlight and indirect forms of renewable solar energy such as ‘wind power, hydropower (energy from flowing water), and biomass (direct solar energy converted to chemical ‘energy and stored in biological sources of energy such as wood) Similarly, we can think of the planets air, water, soil, wildlife, forest, rangelénd, fishery, mineral, and energy resources and the processes of natural purifica- tion, recycling, and pest control as natural resources or natural capital (Figure 1-2). See the Guest Essay by Paul Hawken on the website for this chapter. Natural capital consists of resources (orange in Fig- ture 1-2) and ecological serices (green in Figure 1-2) that support and sustain the earth’s life and economies. This priceless natural capital that nature provides at 1 cost to us plus the natural biological income it sup- plies can sustain the planet and our economies indefi- nitely as long as we do not deplete thern. Examples of biological income are renewable supplies of wood, fish, gressland for grazing, and underground water for drinking and ierigation, What Is an Environmentally Sustainable Soclety? One That Preserves Natural Capital and Lives Off Its Income An environmentally sustainable saciety meets the basic resource needs ofits people indefinitely ‘without degrading or depleting the natural capital ‘that supplies these resources An environmentally sustainable society meets the current needs of its people for food, clean water, clean air, shelter, and other basic resources without com- promising the ability of future generations to meet their needs, Living sustainably means living off natural income replenished by soils, plants, al, and water and not depleting or degrading the earth’s natural capital that supplies this biological income. Imagine you win $1 million ina lottery. Invest this capital at 10% interest per year, and you will have a 6 CHAPTER 1 Envtronmental Problems, Thelr Causes, and Sustainability on coc cena ca ation ro sustainable annual income of $100,000 without deplet- ing your capital. If you spend $200,000 a yeas, your ‘$1 million will be gone early in the 7th year and even if you spend only $110,000 a year, you will be bankrupt early in the 18th year. "The lesson here is an old one: Protect your capital and tive off the income it provides. Deplete, waste, oF ‘squander your capital, and you move from a sustain- able to an unsustainable lifestyle “The same lesson applies to the earth’s natural cap- ital, According to many environmentalists and leading scientists, we are living unsustainably by wasting, de- pleting, and degrading the earth's natural capital at an accelerating rate. Some people disagree. They contend that envizon- rmentalists have exaggerated the seriousness of popula~ tion, resource, and environmental problems. They also believe we can overcome these problems by human in- genuity, economic growth, and technological advances. 1.2 POPULATION GROWTH, ECONOMIC GROWTH, ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT, AND GLOBALIZATION How Rapidly Is the Human Population Growing? Pretty Fast Therate at which the world’s population is growing has slowed butis stil growing pretty rapidly Currently the world’s population is growing exponen Sally at arate of about 1.25% a year. This doesnot seem Figure 1-2 The earth's natural capital. Eneegy fom the sun (oclar capital) andthe earth’ naturel captel provide resources (orange) and sociogical se- ‘lose (green) that support and sustain tha ean ie and economies. Wedges from mis diagram wil be used near the 1Bies of various chapters to indicate the ‘components of natural capita that are the primary focus of such chapters “Tis diagram also appears on the back ‘cover ofthis book, ced like a very fast rate. But it added about 80 million people (64 bil- lion X 0.0125 = 80 million) to the world’s population in 2004, an average increase of 219,000 people a day, or 9,100 an hour At this rate it takes only about 3 days to add the 651,000 Americans Killed in battle in all US. wars and only 1.6 years to add the 129 million people killed in all wars fought in the past 200 years! ‘How much is 80 million? Suppose you spend 1 second saying hello to each of the 60 million new peo- ple added this year for 24 hours a day—no sleeping, eating or anything else allowed. How long would shis handshaking marathon take? Answer: 25 years. By then there would be about 192 million more people to shake hands with. Exponential growth is astonishing! ‘What Is the Difference between Economic Growth and Economic Development? More Stuff and Better Living Standards Economic growth provides people with more goods and services and economic development tuses economic growth to improve living standards. Economic growth is an increase in the capacity of @ country to provide people with goods and services.Ac- complishing this increase requires population growth (more producers and consumers), more production and consumption per person, or both. Economic growth is usually measured by the per- centage change in « country’s gross domestic product (GDP): the annual market value of all goods and ser- vvices produced by all firms and organizations, foreign and domestic, operating within a country. Changes in a country’s standard of living is measured by per capita GDP: the GDP divided by the total population at midyear. Economic developments the improvement of liv- ing standards by economic growth. The United Nations Percent of Works. : epson at [Bbeocescourtice Sfoeveoping oanties Figure 1-3 Comparison of developed and developing countries. (ata rom United Natons and he Word Bank) (UN) classifies the world’s countries as economically eveloped or developing based primarily on their de- gree of industrialization and their per capita GDP. ‘The developed countries (with 1.2 billion people) include the United Siates, Canada, Japan, Australia, New Zealand, and the countries of Europe. Most are highly industrialized end have high average per capita GDP. All other nations (with 52 billion people) are classified a5 developing countries, most of them in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. Some are midéle- income, moderately developed countries and others are low-income countries. Figure 1-3 compares some key characteristics of de~ veloped and developing countries. About 97% of the projected increase in the world’s population is expected to take placein developing countries (Figure 1-4). Figure 1-5 summarizes some of the benefits (good news) and harm (bad news) caused mostiy by economic development. It shows effects of the wide and increas- ing gap between the world’s haves and have-nots. ‘What Is Globalization? Being Connected We live ina world that is inereasingly interconnected ‘hough economic, cultural, and environmental interdependence You have probably heard about globalization: the process of socal, economic, and environmental global 8 — CHAPTER1 Environmental Problems, Their Causes, and Sustainabitity ‘Developing counties Popuiaton (bilons Developed counties Figure 1-8 Pest and projected population sze for developed ‘counties, developing countries, and the word, 1950-2100. Developing counties ara expected to account for 97% ofthe 25 blllon people projected tobe acided tothe work's pocula ‘ton between 2004 aid 2050, (Daa from United Nasons) Global fe expectancy Soubies sco 4980 Infant mortality Infant mortality cctin half since Ia in developing 1955 countries over 8 times higher than in developed counties Food production ahead of Harmful Population grown ‘enutronmental since 1878) tects of agrcuture may fi ature food production Ac and water pollution down in ‘rest developed Nic and water courttes since paltion lovels {970 ost developing courbes too gh Number of people Half of wore Ining in poverty pects trying io cropped O% five on less than since 1860 $8(US) perday Figure 1-5 Trade-offs: goad and bat news about economic velopment Pick the single pieoes of good news and bad ‘ews that you believe are the moet important. (Data from United Nations and World Heath Organization) ‘changes that lead fo an increasingly interconnected ‘world. It involves increasing exchanges of people, products, services, capital, and ideas across interna- ‘ional borders. Factors accelerating globalization include infor- ‘mation and communication technologies, human mo- bility, and international trade and investment. Modern ‘communication via cell phones and the Internet also allows powerless people throughout the world to share ideas and to band together to bring about change from the bottom up. This decentralized netvrork, where everyone has access to everyone else, represents a democratization of learning and communication that is unprecedented in sruman history. A sustainable community or country recognizes that it is part of a larger global economic and ecological system and that it cannot be sustainable tunless these lerger systems are also sustainable. 13 RESOURCES ‘What Is a Resource? Things We Need or Want ‘We obtain resources from the environment to meet ourneeds and wants. From a human standpoint, a resource is anything ob- tained from the envizonment to meet our needs and wants, Examples include food, water, shelter, manu- factured goods, transportation, comumunication, and. recreation, On our short human time scale, we classify the material resources we get from the environment as perpetual, renewable, or nonrenewable, as shown in Figure 16. Some resources, such as solar energy, fresh ai, ‘wind, fresh surface water, fertile sol, and wild edible plants, are directly available for use. Other resources, such a5 petroleum (oil), iron, groundwater (water found underground), and modern crops, are not di- reclly available. They become useful to us only with some effort and technological ingenuity. For example, petroleum was a mysterious fluid until we learned how to find and extract it and refine it into gasoline, heating ol, and other products that we could sell at af fordable prices. What Are Perpetual and Renewable Resources? Resources That Can Last Resources renewed by natural processes are sus- fainable if we do not use them faster than they are 2eplenished, Solar energy is called a perpetual resource because on ‘a human time scale itis renewed continuously. It is ex- pected to last at Jeast 6 billion years as the sun com- pletes its life cycle as asta. Ona human time scale, a renewable resource can be replenished fairly rapidly (fom hours to several ee cer ies oa es coed solar po Figure 1-6 Natural capital: major types of material resources. This ‘scheme is ne kad; renewable resources can become nonreneweble fused for a prolonged period at a fester rts than nature processes renew them. decades) through natural processes. But this works only as long as the resource is not used up faster than it is replaced. Examples of renewable resources are forests, grasslands, wild animals, fresh water, fresh ait, and fertile sol. Renewable resources canbe depleted or degraded. ‘The highest rate at which a renewable resource can be used indefinitely without reducing its available supply iscalled its sustainable yield. ‘When we exceed a renewable resource's natural replacement rate, the available supply begins to shrink, a process known as environmental degradation. Ex: amples include uzbanization of productive land, exces- sive topsoil erosion, pollution, deforestation (tempo- xary or permanent removal of large expanses of forest for agriculture or other uses), groundwater depletion, overgrazing of grasslands by livestock, and reduction in the earth’s forms of wildlife (biodiversity) by elimi- ration of habitats and species. Case Study: The Tragedy of the Commons— Degrading Free Renewable Resources Renewable resources that are freely available to every- cone can be degraded, GPivisvassrectssicconranera 9 One cause of environmental degradation of retewable resources is the overuse of common-property ot free- access resources. No individual owns these resources, and they are available to users at little or no charge. Examples include clean air, the open ocean and its fish, migratory birds, wildlife species, publicly owned lands (such a8 national forests and national parks), {gases of the lower atmosphere, and space. 1n1968, biologist Garrett Hardin (1915-2008) called the degradation of renewable free-access resources the ‘tragedy of the commons. Ithappens becatise each user reasons, “fT donot use this resource, someone else will. ‘Thelitdle bit use or pollute isnot enough tomatter, and such resources are renewabie.” ‘With only a few users, this logic works. But the cu- mulative effect of many people trying to exploit a free- access resource eventually exhausts or ruins it. Then no one can benefit from it, and that is the tragedy. One solution is to use free-access resources at rates well below their estimated sustainable yields by reducing population, regulating access to the re- sources, or both, Some communities have established rules and traditions to regulate and share their access to common-property resources such as ocean fish- cries, grazing lands, and forests. Governments have also enacted laws and international treaties to regulate access to commonly owned resources such as forests, national parks, rangelands, and fisheries in coastal waters, Another solution is to convert feesaccess resources to private ownership. The reasoning is that if you own something, you are more likely to protect your investment. Country PEF Capita Ecological Footprint (Hectares por person) United States 36 The Netherlands (3 % India 2 ‘otal Ecological Footprint can (Hectares) Unted States ‘The Netherlands India £80 mition hectares. Figure 1-7 Natural capital use and degradation: tol! and per capita ecological footorints of the United ‘States, he Netneriands, and india (et). The ecological footprints a measure ofthe biologically productive ‘areas ofthe earth requited to produce the renewable resourees required per person and absorb or break ‘down the wasias prod.ced by such resource use, Curent, humaxitys average ecological footprint par per ‘son's 15% higher than the earth's biological capacity per person (righ). (Data fom Willa. Rees and Mathis Wackernagel, Redefining Progress, 2004) 10 CHAPTER1 Environmental Problems, Their Causes, and Sustainability S Bblion hectares ‘This sounds good, but private ownership is notal- ‘ways the answer, One problem is private owners do not abvways protect natural resources they own when this conflicts with protecting their financial capital or increasing their profits. For example, some private for- ‘est owners can make more money by clear-cutting the ‘ber, selling the degraded land, and investing their profits in other timberiands or businesses. AA second problem is that this approach is not practical for global common resources—such as the at- mosphere, the open ocean, most wildlife species, and migratory birds—that cannot be divided up and con- verted to private property. ‘What Is Our Ecological Footprint? Our Grow- ing Environmental Impact Supplying each person with renewable resources and absorbing the wastes from such resource use creates 2 large ecological footprint or environmental impact. ‘The per capita ecological footprint is the amount of biologically productive land and water needed to sup- ply each person or population with the renewable re- sources they use and to absorb or dispose of the wastes from such resource use, It measures the average envi- ronmental impact of individuals in different countries and areas. In other words, itis a measure of how much of the earth's natural capital and biological income ‘each of us uses, Bad news. Humanity’s ecological footprint per per- son exceeds the earth's biological capacity to replenish, renewable resources and absorb waste by about 15% (Figure 1-7, right) If these estimates are correct, i will ‘Number of Earths 9, 41961 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1960 1985 2000 2005 Yeu {ate the resources of 1.15 planet earths to indefinitely sup- port our current use of renewable resources! ‘The ecological footprint of each person in devel- ‘oped countries is large compared to that in developing countries (Figure 1-7, left). The per capita ecological footprint of the United States isnearly double the coun- ‘y's biological capacity per person—explaining why the country spreads its ecological footprint by impor!- ing lange quantities of renewable resources from other ‘countries. You can estimate your ecological footprint by going to the website www.tedefiningprogress.org/- ‘Also, see the Guest Essay by Michael Cain on the web- site for this chapter. ‘This eventually unsustainable situation is ex: pected to get worse as affluence increases in both de- veloped and developing countries, According to William Rees and Mathis Wachernagel, developers of the ecological footprint concept, it would take the land area of about four more planet ears for the rest of the world to reach US. levels of consumption with exist- ing technology. Clearly, such consumption patterns cannot be sustained. ‘Anew country with a lange and growing ecological footprint is emerging. China has the world’s largest population and hopes to increase its total and percapita ‘economic growth, which will increase the ecological footprints of its people. See the Guest Essay’ on this topicby Norman Myers on the website for this chapter. ‘What Are Nonrenewable Resources? Resources We Can Deplete Nonrenewable resources can be economically depleted to the point where itcosts too much to bain what is left. Nonrenewable resources exist in a fixed quantity or stock in the earth’s crust: Ona time scale of millions to billions of years, geological processes can renew such resources. But on the much shorter human time seale ‘of hundreds to thousands of years, these resources can be depleted much faster than they are formed. ‘These exhaustible resources include energy 1e- sources (such as coal, oil, and natural gas that cannot be recycled), metallic mineral resources (such a ion, copper, and aluminum that can be recycled), and nonmetallic iineral resources (such as salt, clay, sand, and phos- phates that usually are difficult or too costly to recycle). Figure 1-8 shows the production and depletion cycle of a nonzenewable energy or mineral resource. Wenever completely exhaust such a resource, but itbe- comes economically depleted when the costs of extracting and using what is left exceed its economic value. At ‘that point, we have six choices: try to find mare, recycle orreuse existing supplies (except for nonrenewable en- exgy resources, which cannot be recycled or reused), Waste less, useless, try to develop a substitute, or wait millions of years for more to be produced. Area under curve ‘equals the total ‘moun of he recoures Economic depletion (0% used up) Flosource production ‘Tme— Figure 1-8 Full production and exhaustion cycie of a nonrenew _able resource Such cop2er on, ol, or coal. Usual, ann renewable resource is considered economical depleted when 120% of i total supply has boon extracted and used. Norrally, itcosts too much 19 extrac: and process the reining 20% Some nonrenewable mineral resources, such as copper and aluminum, can be recycled or reused to ex- tend supplies. Recycling involves collecting waste materials, processing them into new materials, and selling these new products. For example, discarded aluminum cans can be crushed and melted to make new aluminum cans or other aluminum items that consumers can buy. Recycling means nothing if we do not close the loop by buying products that are made from or contain recycled materials. Reuse is using a re- source again in the same form. For example, glass bot- tes can be collected, washed, and refilled many times. Recycling nonrenewable metallic resources takes much Jess energy, water, and other resources and pro- duces much less pollution and environmental degra~ dation than exploiting virgin metallic resources. Reusing such resources takes even less energy and other resources and produces less pollution and envi- ronmental degradation than recycling, 14 POLLUTION ‘Where Do Pollutants Come From, and What Are Their Harmful Effects? Threats to Health and Survival Pollutants are chemicals found at high enough levels fn the environment fo cause harm to people or other organisms. Pollution is the presence of substances at high enough soil, or food to threaten the health, of humans or other organisms. Pollutants can enter the environment naturally (for ex- ample, from volcanic eruptions) or through human or anthropogenic activities (for example, from buming coal), Most pollution from human activities occurs in for near urban and industrial areas, where pollution sources such as cars and factories are concentrated, Industrialized agriculture is also @ major source of pollution. Most pollutanssze unintended by products OF useful activities such as burning coal t generate lewteicty,driving cars, and growing cops. ‘Some pollutants contarsinate the aeas where they are produced and some are cared by wind or Howing rater to other areas, Pollution doesnot respect the peat territorial political ines we draw on maps. "Tne polutents we produce come from v0 types of sources, Point sources of pollutants are single, den ‘Sfnble sources, Examples are the smokestack of coal- burning power plant, the drainpipe of a factory, and fhe exhaust pipe of an automobile, Nonpoint sources of pollutants are dispersed and often dificult to iden- ty, Fxamples are pesticides sprayed into the alr or blown by fhe wind ino the atmosphere and runoff of fertilizers and pestcdes fom farmlands, golf courses, tnd suburban lawns and gardens into streams and Jakes. It is much easier and cheaper ‘9 identify and control pollution from point sources than from widely dispersed nonpoint sources. Pollutants can have thee types of unwanted of fees, Fish, they ean disrupt of degrade life support systems forhumans and otter species. Sond zhaycan Gamage wildife, human health, and property. Tid, ean be nuisances such as noise and unpleasant | smells tastes, and sights. Solutions: What Can We Do about Pollution? Prevention Pays We can try to clean up pollutants in the environunent o prevent them from entering the environment We use two basic approaches to deal with potion. One is poltution prevention, or input pollution con- 1 trol, which reduces or eliminates the production of pollutan's. The ee ee tere | output pollution control, which anne | involves cemning up or diluting FAA pollutants after they have been Pea | produced, ren | Environmentalistshaveiden- [Ira | tified thee problems with relying BEERS | primarily on potiution deanup. ij First, it is only a temporary ban- | dage as long as population and consumption levels grow without corresponding improvements in pollution contr! technology. For example, adding catalytic con- -verters tocar exhaust systems has reduced some forms of air pallu tion. But increases in the number of cars and in the distance each travels have reduced the effec tiveness of this approach. 12 CHAPTER 1 Environmental Problems, Their Causes, and Sustainabilty Second, cleanup often removes a pollutant from. ‘one part ofthe environment only to cause pollution in ‘nother. For example, we can collect garbage, but the ‘garbage is then burned (perhaps causing ait pollution and leaving toxic ash that must be put somewhere), ‘dumped into streams, lakes, and oceans (perhaps caus- ing water pollution), or buried (perhaps causing soil and groundwater pollution). ‘Third, once pollutants have entered and become dispersed into the environment at harmful levels, it usualy cost fo mach reduce them to acceptable Both pollution prevention (front-ofthe-pipe) and pollution cleanup (end-of-the-pipe) solutions are needed. But environmentalists and some economists “unge us to put mare emphasis on prevention because it works better and is cheaper than cleanup. As Benjamin Franklin observed long ago, “An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure.” 1-5 ENVIRONMENTAL AND RESOURCE PROBLEMS: CAUSES AND CONNECTIONS ‘What Are Key Environmental Problems and Their Basic Causes? The Big Five ‘The major causes of environmental problems are population growth, wasteful resource use, poverty, poor environmental accounting, and ecological ignorance. ‘We face a number of interconnected environmental and resource problems, as listed in Figure 1-9. The first step in dealing with these problems is to identify their 1-9 Natural capital tation: mor erwiron- mental anc asource probs. pret tered na tad Figure 1-10. Envrormentalists have identified fve basic causes of the environmental problems we face. underiying causes, listed in Figure 1-10 and sometimes enown as the big fice. ‘Four of these causes are rapid population growth (7), poverty (discussed below), and excessive and ‘wasteful use of resources (discussed on p. 14) A fourth is failure to include the harmful environmental costs of items in their market prices, discussed in Chapter 26. This in tum is a policy and political failure to ad~ dress this issue. The fifth, inadequate understanding of how the earth works, is discussed throughout this book. ‘What Is the Relationship between Poverty and Environmental Problems? Being Poor Is Bad for People and the Earth Poverty is a major threat to human health and the environment. Many of the world’s poor do not have access to the ba sic necessities for a healthy, productive, and decent Iife, as listed in Figure 1-11. Their daily lives are fo- cused on getting enough food, water, and fuel (for cooking and heat) to survive. Desperate for land to ‘grow enough food, many of the world’s poor people deplete and degrade forests, soil, grasslands, and “wildlife for short-term survival. They do not have the hwury of worrying about long-term environmental quality or sustainability. Another problem for the poorislivingin areas with high levels of air and water pollution and with a great tisk of natural disasters such as floods, earthquakes, hhurricanes, and volcanic eruptions. And they usually ‘must take jobs—if they can find them—with unhealthy ‘and unsafe working conditions a very low pay. Poverty also affects population growth. Poor peo- le often have many children as a form of economic se- Curity. Their children help them grow food, gather fuel (eostly wood and dung), haul drinking water, tend livestock, work, and beg in the streets. The children also help their parents survive in their old age before they die typically in thei 50s in the poorest counties. ‘The poor donot have retirement pars, soil secu, or government sponsored health plans Many of the weild’s desperately poor die prema- turely ort four preventable health problems, One is craton from a lack of protein ane oer nutren's resded fr goed health Figure 1-12). The second is n- Ceased swseepsblty to nexmally nonfatal infectious diseases sucha diasthea and measles, because of thelr weakened condition from malnutrition, A third factor {black of acer to lean drinking water. A fourth actor is severe repiatory disease and premature death fom Lack of Number of people wit, Adnan, ee en oon ee IIIB onencr (22a GEE on or Figure 1-11 Notura capital degradation: some harmful et- ‘cis cf poverty, Whlon wo ofthese effects do you beliave isthe ‘most harmu? (Data ftom Untied Nations, World Bank, and ‘Wor Health Organization) Figure 1-12 One in every three chicren under age 6, such as this Brazlian chil, sufers fom malnutrition, According to the World Heath Organization, each cay at least 19,700 ch tien under age 5 die premetuety rom manuttion and infec ‘cus diseases trom drinking containatos water and ote causes. inhaling indoor air pollutants produced by buming ‘wood oF coal for heat and cooking in open fires or in poorly vented stoves. According to the World Health (Organization, these four factors cause premature death for at least 7 million ofthe poora year. This premature death of about 19,200 human beings per day is equioalent to 48 fully loaded 400-passenger jumbo jet planes crashing every day with no surcivers! Two- thirds of those dying are children underage 5. ‘What Is the Relationship between Resource Consumption and Environmental Problems? Affluenza, ‘Many consumers in developed countries have become addicted to buying more and more staff in their search for fulfillment and happiness. Afftuenza ("a-loo-EN-zuh") is a term used to de- scribe the unsustainable addiction to overconsump- tion end materialism exhibited in the lifestyles of affluent consumers in the United States and other de- veloped countries, It is based on the assumption that buying more and more things can, should, and does buy happiness Most people infected with this contagious shop- tHl-you-drop virus have some telltale symptoms. They feel overworked, have high levels of debt and bank- ruptcy, suffer from increasing stress and anxiety, have declining health, and feet unfulfilled in their quest to accumulate more and more stuff, As humorist Will Rogers said, “Too many people spend money they haven't earned to buy things they don’t want, to im- ppress people they don’t like.” For some, shopping un- til you drop means shopping until you go bankrupt. Beiween 1998 and 2001, more Americans declared bankruptcy than graduated from college. Globalization and global advertising are now spreading the virus throughout much of the world. Af- fluenza has an enormous environmental impact. It takes about 27 tractor-trailer loads of resources per year to support one American. This amounts to7.9 bil- tion truckloads of resources a year to support the US. population. Stretched enci-to-end, these trucks would ‘mote than reach the sun! ‘What can we do about affluenza? The first step for addicts isto admit they have a problem, Then they be- gin steps to kick their addiction by going on a stuff diet. For example, before buying anything a person with the affluenza addiction should ask: Do really need this or merely want it? Can Ibuy it secondhand (reuse)? Can T borrow it from a friend or relative? Another with- drawal strategy: Do not hang out with other addicts Shopaholics should avoid malls as much as they can. "After a lifetime of studying the growth and decline of the world’s human civilizations, historian Amold ‘Toynbee summarized the true measure of a civiliza- tion's growth in whathe called the lew of progressive sim- piification: “True growth occurs as civilizations transfer ‘an increasing proportion of energy and attention from the material side of life to the nonmaterial side and thereby develop their culture, cepacity for compassion, sense of community, and strength of democracy.” How Can Affiuence Help Increase Environ- mental Quality? Another Side of the Story Affluent countries have more money for improving environmental quality. Some analysts paint out that affluence need not lead to environmental degradation. Instead, itcar lead people 0 become more concemed about environmental qual- ity, and it provides money for developing technologies to reduce pollution, environmental degradation, and resource waste, This explains why most of the impor- tant environmental progress made since 1970 has taken place in developed countries. In the United States, the air is cleaner, drinking water is purer, most rivers and lakes are cleaner, and the food supply is more abundant and safer than in 1970, Also, the country’s total forested area is larger ‘than it was in 1900 and most energy and material re- sources are used more efficiently. Similar advances have been made in most other affluent countries. Af- fluence financed these improvements in environmen- tal quality How Are Environmental Problems and Their Causes Connected? Exploring Connections Environmental quality is affected by interactions ‘between population size, resource consumption, and technology. Once we have identified environmental problems and their root causes, the next step is to understand how they are connected to one another. The three-factor ‘model in Figure 1-13 isa starting point. ‘According to this simple model, the environmen tal impact () of population on a given area depends on three factors: the number of people (P), the aver- age resource use per person (affluence, A), and the beneficial and harmful environmental effects of the technologies (T) used to provide and consume each unit of resource and to control or prevent the result- ing pollution and environmental degradation. In developing countries, population size and the resulting degradation of renewable resources as the poor struggle to stay alive tend to be the key factors in fotal environmental impact igure 1-13, top). In such, countries per capita resource use is low. Indeveloped countries, high rates of per capita e- source use and the resulting high levels of pollution and environmental degradation per person usually are the key factors determining overall environmental im- pact (Figure 1-13, bottom) and a country’s ecological 14 CHAPTER 1 Environmental Problems, Their Causes, and Sustainability Developing Countries @ Consurption x er person {atfuence, A) 2 Developed Countries Population (P) x (totam) footprint per person (Figure 1-7). For example, the av- erage US. citizen consumes about 35 times as much as the average citizen of India and 300 times as much as the average person in the world’s poorest countries. ‘Thus poor parents in.a developing country would need 70 to 1200 children to have the same ifetime resource consumption 2 children in a typical US. family. Some forms of technology, such as polluting factor ries and motor vehicles and energy-wasting devices, ‘increase environmental impact by raising the T factor {in the equation. But other technologies, such as pollution control and prevention, solar cells, and energy-saving de- vices, lower environmental im- pact by decreasing the T fac- tor, In other words, some forms of technology are en- Air Figure 1-14 Connections: maior ‘components and teractions witin nd between the ear life-support syetem and the human sociocultural system (cuturesphere). The goal of ‘aviroamertal science isto learn 28 uch es possible about thase complex interactions, Figure 1-18 Connections: simpilise model ot how thee factors—number of people, aifivence, and tochno- ‘g)-_atfect the ervrormental impact ofthe poptdation in developing counties (top) and deveioned counties Earth's Lite Support System (atmosphe , , Enveonmental unitol eoneumpstion (7) 0 vironmentally harmful and some are environmentally beneficial. ‘The three-factor model in Figure 1-13 can help us understand how key environmental problems and some oftheir causes are connected Itcan also guide us in seeking solutions. However these problems involve a number of poorly understood interactions between sany more factors than those in tis simplified model, as outlined in Figure 1-14. Look at the interactions shown in tis igure. Human Culturesphere Wa Pond logy.brookscole.com/mitier4 15 1-6 IS OUR PRESENT COURSE SUSTAINABLE? Are Things Getting Better or Worse? ‘The Answer Is Both ‘There is good and bad environmental news Experts disagree about how serious our environmen- tal problems are and what we should do about them. Some analysts believe human ingenuity, technological advances, and economic growth and development will allow us toclean up pollution to acceptable levels, find substitutes for resources that become scarce, and keep expanding the earth’s ability to support more humans, as we have done in the past. They accuse many scien- tists and environmentalists of exaggerating the seri- ‘ousness ofthe problems we face and filing to appreci- ate the progress we have made in improving quality of life and protecting the environment. Environmentalistsand many leading scientists dis- agree with this view. They cite evidence that we are degrading and disrupting many of the world’s life- supportsystems forusand other species tan accelerat- ing rate. They are greaily encouraged by the progress wehave made in increasing average life expectancy, re- ducing infant mortality, increasing food supplies, and reducing many forms of pollution—especially in devel- ‘oped countries. But they point out that we need to use the earth in a way that is more sustainable for present and future human generations and other species that supportus and other forms of life. ‘The most useful answer to the question of whether things are getting better or worse is both. Some things are getting better, some worse. ‘Our challenge is not to get trapped into confusion and inaction by listening primarily to either of two groups of people. One group consists of technalogical “optinists. They tend to overstate the situation by telling ‘us to be happy and not worry, because technological innovations and conventional economic growth and development will lead to a wonderworld for everyone. Leave the driving to us because we know best. ‘The second group consists of environmental pes- simists who overstate the problems to the point where our environmental situation seems hopeless. Accord- ing to the noted conservationist Aldo Leopold, “Thave xno hope for a conservation based on fear.” “To cast your vote, goto the wobsite fr the book listed above see goto he sprog chapter (tsa Chapt) In ‘oft cases you will be able to compare how you voted with ol ‘ers using this book throughout the United Sines and the world, How Should We Live? A Clash of Environmental Worldviews ‘The way we view the seriousness of environmental problems and how to solve them depends on our environmental worldview, ‘The differing views about how serious our environ- mental problems are and what we should do about them arise mostly out of differing environmental worldviews. Your environmental worldview is how You think the world works, what you think your role in the world should be, and what you believe is ight and wrong environmental behavior (enviconmental ethics). People who have widely differing environmental ‘worldviews can take the same data, be logically consis- tent, and arrive at quite different conclusions because ‘hey start with different assumptions and values. ‘Some people in today’s industrial consumer soci- ties have a planetary management worldview. Here are the basic environmental beliefs ofthis worldview: * Asthe planet’s most important species, we are in charge of nature, We will not run out of resources because of our ability to develop and find new ones. The potential for global economic growth isessen- tially unlimited. Our success depends on how well we manage the carth’s life-support systems, mostly for our own benefit. Assecond environmental worldview, known as the stewardship worldview, consists of the following ma- jorbeliefs Weare the planet's most important species but we have an ethical responsibility to care forthe rest of nature. = We will probably not run out of resources but they should not be wasted. We should encourage environmentally beneficial forms of economic growth and discourage environ- mentally harmful forms of economic growth. = Our success depends on how well we ean manage the earth’s life-support systems for our benefit and for the rest of nature. Another environmental worldview, known as the environmental wisdom worldview, is based on the {following major beliefs, which are the opposite of those ‘making up the planetary management worldview: = Nature exists for all species, not just for us and we are not in charge of the earth. =) The earth’s resources are limited, should not be wasted, and are not all for us. 16 CHAPTER 1 Environmental Problems, Thelr Causes, and Sustainability + Weshould encourage earth-sustaining forms of eco- nomic growth and discourage earth-degrading forms. + Our success depends on leaming how the earth sustains itself and integrating suci lessons from na- ture (environmental wisdom) into the weys we think and act. ‘What Are the Greatest Environmental Problems We Face Now and in the Future? ‘The Big Picture Poverty and malnutrition, smoking, infectious diseases, water shortages, biodiversity loss, and climate changes are the most serious environmental problems we face. Figure 1-15 ranks major environmental problems on a ‘time scale in terms of the estimated number of people prematurely killed annually today and over the next hhundred years. rom this diagram you can see that we should fo- ccus our money, minds, and hearts on reducing the en- vironmental risks from poverty, malnutrition, sensafe drinking water, smoking, air pollution, infectious diseases (AIDS, TB, malaria, and hepatitis B), water shortages, cli- tate changes, and loss and degradation of biodiversity. The poor in developing countries bear the brunt of most of ‘these serious problems. AOS ana Ait BLAST 1 sialic Hepa. ° . ‘2000 2010 2020 2080 2040 2060 2060 2070 2060 2000 2500 dividual actions and individuals a Yoar Figure 1-15 Priotities: ranking of malor envronnsrtal sks terms ofthe estimated ‘umber of people premature killed anrwaly now (yelow) and over the next hundred years (rec). Some scientists consider biodiversity loss and clmato change the two most serious ecological risks to humars and otier species, Estates of deaths from Diodtversty iss and climate change 80 or more years into the aur are cificu to "make and could be higher or lower than those shown here. (Data om UN Food and Agrcuiture Crganzation, World Healin Organization, United Nations Environment Program, US. Centers fo: Disease Conta and Prevention, and the Word Berk) What Is Environmentally Sustainable Economic Development? Rewarding Environmentally Beneficial Activities Environmentally sustainable economic devel- ‘opment rewards environmentally beneficial and sustainable activities and discourages ‘environ-mentally harméal and unsustainable activities. During this century, many analysts call for us to put ‘much greater emphasis on environmentally sustain: able economic development. Figure 1-16 (p. 18) lists some ofthe shifts involved in implementing suchanen- vironmental, or sustainability, revolution during this cen- tury based on this concept, Study this igure carefully. ‘This type of development uses economic rewards (government subsidies and tax breaks) to encourage en- vironmentally beneficial and more sustainable forms of economic growth and economic penalties (govern rent taxes and regulations) to discourage environmen tally harmful and unsustainable forms of economic growth, ‘Throughout this book I try to give you a balanced view of good and bad environmental news. Try not to be over- ‘whelmed or immobilized by the bad en- vironmental news, because there is also some great environmental news. We have ‘made immense progress in improving the ‘human condition and dealing with many ‘environmental problems. We ate learning a great deal about how nature works and sustains itself. And we have numerous scientific, technological, and economic solutions available to deal with the envi- ronmental problems we face ‘The challenge isto make creative use of our economic and political systems to implement such solutions. One key is to recognize that most economic and politi- cal change comes about as a result of together to bring about change by grass roots action from the bottom up. Good news, Social scientists suggest takes only about 5-10% of the population of a coun- ‘ty oF of the world to bring about major social change. Anthropologist Margaret Mead summarized our potential for change: “Never doubt that a small group e. logy.brookscole.com/miller!4 17 ry eT Peery (cleaner production) peed ed rr Sees E Environments! end pared Population growth eer eh Pe) ory Py Peeters ered Figure 1-16 Solutions: come shits invalved inthe environ rmentalor sustainabity revolution, of thoughtful, committed citizens can change the ‘world. Indeed, itis the only thing that ever has.” We live in exciting times during what might be called a hinge of cultural history. Indeed, ifThad to picka time to live, it would be the next 50 years as we face the challenge of developing more environmentally sus- tainable societies What’ the nse of@ house if you don't have a decent planet to put eon? Heyry Davio THOREAY CRITICAL THINKING 1, Do you favor instituting policies designed to reduce population growth and stabilize (a) the sizeof the ‘world’s population as soon as possible and (b) the size of the US. population (or the population of the country where you live) as soon as possible? Explain. I you agree that population stabilization is desirable, what three major policies would you implement to accom- pilish this goal? 2, List (a) thzee forms of economic growth you believe are environmentally unsustainable and (b) three forms you believe are environmentally sustainable. 3, Give three examples of how you cause environmental degradation as a result ofthe tragedy of the commons. 18 CHAPTER1 Environmental Problems, Their Causes, and Sustainability 4, When you tead that about 19,200 human beings die turely each day (13 per minute) from preventable ‘malnutrition and infectious disease, do you (a) doubt whether itis true (b) not want to think about it, (9 feel ‘hopeless, (d) feel sad, () fee! guilty, or (f) want to do something about this problem? 5 How do you feel when you read that (1) the average ‘American consumes about 35 times more resources than the average indian citizen, (2) human activites lead to the premature extinction of atleast 10 species per day, and G) human activities are projected to make the earth’s Climate warmer (a) skeptical about theiz accuracy, (6) ine ifferent, (0 sad, (d) helpless, (€) guilty, (9 concemed, ot (@ outraged? Which ofthese feelings help perpetuate such problems, and which can help alleviate them? 6. See if you are infected by the afSuenza bug by indicat- ing whether you agree or disagree with the following. statements, ‘2. Tam willing to work at ajob I despise solican buy lots of stl 1b. When Iam feeling down, I like 1 go shopping to make myself feel better. ce. Twoild ratherbe shopping right now. 4. Lowe more than $1,000 on my credit cards, fe Tusually make only the minimum payment on my monthly credit card bills. , Tam running out of room to store my stu Lf you agree with thee ofthese statements, you arein- fected with affluence. If you agree with more than three, ‘you have a serious case of affluenza. Compare your an- swers with those of your classmates and discuss the ef fects ofthe result on the environment and your feelings cofhappiness. 7. Explain why you agree or disagree with each ofthe {following statements: (a) humans are superios to other forms of life, (b) humans are in charge ofthe earth, (6 all economic growth is good, () the value of other species depends only on whether they are useful tous, (@) be- ‘auseall species eventually become extinct we should not worry about whether our activities cause the prema- ture extinction ofa species, (fall species have an inher entright to exist, (g) nature has an almost unlimited storehouse of resources for human use, ( technology ‘an solve our environmental problens, (i) do not be lieve Fhave any obligation to future generations, and () Ido not believe have any obligation to other species. 8. What are the basi belief of your environmental ‘worldview? Are the beliefs of your environmental ‘worldview consistent with your answers to question 7? ‘Are your environmental actions consistent with your en virormental worldview? ‘ PROJECTS 1. What are the major resource and environmental prob- Jems where you live? Which ofthese problems affect you directly? Have these problems gotten better or worse during the last 10 years? 2, Write two-page scenarios describing what your life ‘and that of any children you may have might be like 50 years from now if (a) we continue on our present path; (b) we shift to more sustainable societies throughout most of the world, 43. Make lst of the resources you truly need. Then make another list of the resources you use each day only be- Cause you want them. Finally, make a thind list of re- sources you want and hope to use inthe future, Compare Your ists with those compiled by other members of your Gass, and relate the overall result to the tragedy of the commons (P.9). 4. Use the library or the Intemet to find out bibliographic information about Barkara Ward, René Dubos, and Henry David Thoreau, whose quotes appear at the beginning and end ofthis chapter. 5. Make aconcept map ofthis chapter's malor ideas using the section heads, subheads, and key tems (inbotaface ‘type).Look on the website fr this book for information about making concept maps. LEARNING ONLINE “The website for this book contains study ids and many ideas for further reading and research. They include a ‘chapter surunary review questions forthe entire chaptes, flashcards for key terms and concepts, a multiplechotoe practice quiz interesting Internet sites, references, and a guide for accessing thousands of infoTtac® College Edition erticles. Log on to httpu/biologybrookscole.com/milleri4 ‘Then click on the Chapter-by-Chapter area, choose Chap- ‘er 1, and select a learning resource. | | Environmental History: a Learning from the Past CASE STUDY Near Extinction of the American Bison 11500, before Europeans settled North America, 30-60 million North American bison—commonly Known as the buffalo— grazed the plains, prairies, and ‘woodlands over much of the continent. ‘These animals were once so numerous thatin 1852 a traveler wrote, “As far as my eye could reach ‘the country seemed absolutely blackened by innumer- able herds.” A single herd on the move might thunder past for hours. For centuries, several Native American tribes de- pended heavily on bison. Typically they Killed only enough animals to meet their needs for food, clothing, and shelter. They also burned dried feces of these ani- mals, known as “buffalo chips,” to cook food and pro- vide heat. By 1906, the once vast range ofthe bison had shrunk to a tiny area, and the species had been driven nearly to extinction (Figure 21). How did this happen? It began when settlers moving west after the Civil War upset the sustainable balance be- ‘oven Native Americans and bison. Several Pains tribes traded bison skins to settlers for stee! knives and firearms, which allowed them to kill more bison. But itwas the new settlers who caused the most relentless slaughter. As railroads spread westward in the late 1860s, railroad companies hired professional bison hunters—including Butfalo Bill Cody—to sup- ply construction crews with meat. Passengers also gunned down bison from train windows for sport, Jeaving the carcasses to rot. ‘Commercial hunters shot millions of bison for their hides and tongues (considered a delicacy), leaving most of the meat to rot. “Bone pickers” collected the bleached bones that whitened the prairies and shipped them east tobe ground up as fertilizer Farmers shot bison because they damaged crops, fences, telegraph poles, and sod houses. Ranchers killed them because they competed with cattle and sheep for pasture. The US. Army killed at least ‘million bison as part ofits campaign to subdue Figure 241 Theristorical range ofthe bison shrank saverely between 1500 and 1906, mostly because f unregulated and deliberate overhung, the Plains tribes by killing off their primary source of food. Between 1870 and 1875, at least 2.5 million bison were slaughtered each year. Only 85 bison were left by 1892, They were given refuge in Yellowstone National Park and protected by an 1893 law that for- bids the killing of wild animals in national parks. In 1905, 16 people formed the American Bison Society to protect and rebuild the captive population. ‘Soon thereafter the federal government established the National Bison Range near Missoula, Montana, Today an estimated 350,000 bison are alive, about 97% of them on privately owned ranches. Some wildlife conservationists have suggested restoring lacge herds of bison on publiclands in the ‘North American plains. This idea has been strongly opposed by ranchers with permits to graze cattle and sheep on federally managed lands. ‘The history of humanity's relationships to the en- vironment provides many important lessons that can help us deal with today’s environmental problems and avoid repeating past mistakes. A continent ages quickly once we come. Envest HeuancwaY This chapter addresses the following questions: 1 What major beneficial and harmful effects have hunter-gatherer societies, agricultural societies, and industrialized societies had on the environ- ‘ment? What might be the environmental impact of the current information and globalization revolution? + What are the major phases in the history of land and wildlife conservation, public health, and environmental protection in the United States? = Whatis Aldo Leopold's land ethic? 2-1_ CULTURAL CHANGES AND THE ENVIRONMENT ‘What Major Human Cultural Changes Have ‘Taken Place? Agriculture, Industrialization, and Globalization Since our hunter-gatherer days we have undergone three major cultural changes that have increased our {impact on the environment. Evidence from fossils, DNA analysis, and studies of ancient cultures suggests that the earliest form of the human (Homo sapiens) species was Homo sapiens ida, which existed about 160,000 years ago. The latest ver- sion of our species, Homo sapiens sapiens, has been around for only about 60,000 years, Thus the various versions of Homo sapiens have walked the earth for less ‘han an eye blink ofthe estimated 3.7-billion-year exis- fence of life on this marvelous planet. We are the planet's new infants. Until about 12,000 years ago, we were mostly snunter-gatherers who typically moved as needed to find enough food for survival. Since then, three major cultural changes have occurred: the agricultural revolu- tion (which began 10,000-12,000 years ago), the indus- ‘rial-medical revolution (which began about 275 years ago), and the information and globalization revolution (Which began about 50 years ago). ‘These changes have greatly increased our impact ‘on the environment in three ways. They have given us ‘much more energy and new technologies with which to alter and control more of the planet to meet our basic needs and increasing wants. They have also al- lowed expansion of the human population, mostly be- cause of increased food supplies and longer life spans. In addition, they have greatly increased our resource ‘use, pollution, and environmental degradation. SR A How Did Ancient Hunting-and-Gathering Societies Affect the Environment? Living Lightly on the Earth Heunter-gatherers hada fairly small impact on their environment During most of their 60,000-year existence, Homo sapi- as sapiens have been hunter~gatherers. They survived by collecting edible wild plant parts, hunting, fishing, and scavenging meat from animals killed by other predators. Our hunter-gatherer ancestors typically lived in small bands of fewer then 50 people who worked together to get enough food to survive. Many gxoups were nomadic, picking up their few posses- sions and moving seasonally from place to place to find enough food. ‘The earliest hunter-gatherers (and those still living this way today) survived through expert knowledge and understanding of their natural surroundings. ‘Because of high infant mortality and an estimated avez- age life span of 30-40 years, hunter-gatherer popula~ tons grew very slowly. ‘Advanced hunter-gatherers had greater environ- ‘mental impacts than those of early hunter-gatherers. They used more advanced tools and fire to convert forests into grasslands, There is also some evidence that they probably contributed to the extinction of some large animals. They also altered the distribution of plants (and animals feeding on such plants) as they carried seeds and plants to new areas. Early and advanced hunter-gatherers exploited their environment to survive. But their environmental ‘impact usually was limited and local because of their ‘small population, low resource use per person, migra tion that allowed natural processes to repair most of the damage they caused, and lack of technology that could have expanded their impact ‘What Was the Agricultural Revolution? “More Food, More People, Longer Lives, and an Increasing Ecological Footprint Agriculture provided more food for more people ‘who lived longer and in better health but also greatly increased environmental degradation Some 10,000-12,000 years ago, a cultural shift known as the agricultural revolution began in several regions of the world, It involved a gradual move from usually nomadic hunting-and-gathering groups to settled agri- cultural communities in which people domesticated wild animals and cultivated wild plants, Plant cultivation probably developed in many areas, some including tropical forests of Southeast ‘Asia, northeast Africa, and Mexico. People discovered “how to grow various wild food plants from roots or ta- bers (fleshy underground stems). To prepare the land @ Plante ‘Allowing plot torevogette” 1010 90 years Harvesting for 2inb years Figure 2-2 The fst crop-groning techrious may have boon a combination of slash-and-burn and shifting ut ‘ARuton i tropial frosts This method Is sustabiabie ony i smal plots ofthe forest are cleared, culated for more tan § yours, and then allowed te regenecate fr 10-20 years to renew soll ft. Indigenous cut.res have developed mary variations of his technique an have found ways thvey while they ae being regenerated. for planting, they cleared small patches of tropical forests by cutting down trees and other vegetation and ‘then burning the underbrush (Figure 2-2), The ashes {ectilized the often nutrient-poor tropical forest soils in this slash-and-bum cultivation. Barly growers also used various forms of shifting cultivation (Figure 2-2), primarily in tropical regions. ‘After a plot had been used for several years, the soil became depleted of nutrients or reinvaded by the for- est. Then the growers cleared a new plot. They leamed that each abandoned patch normally had to be left fal- low (unplanted) for 10-30 years before the soil became fertile enough to grow crops again. While patches were regenerating, growers used them for tree erops, medi- ines, fuelwood, and other purposes. In this manner, ‘most eatly growers practiced sustainable cultivation. “These early farmers had fairly litle impact om the environment. Their dependence mostly on human ‘muscle power and crude stone or stick tools meant ‘they could cultivate only small plots and their popula- tion size and density were low. In addition, normally 22 CHAPTER2 Eavizonmental History: Leaming from the Past 10 usa some former plots nondestrvc- enough land was available so they could move to ther areas and leave abandoned plots unplanted for the several decades needed to restore soil fertility. "As more advanced forms of agriculture grew and spread they led to various beneficial and harmful effects (Figure 23). ‘What Is the Industrial Medical Revola- tion? More People, Longer Lives, More Production, and an Even Larger Ecological Footprint Because ofthe incustrial-medical evolution ‘more people live longer and healthier lives ata higher standard of living, but pollution, resource waste, and environmental degradation have increased. “The next cultural shift, the industrial-medical revo~ ution, began in England in the mid-1700s and spread to the United States in the 1800s. It involved a shift from dependence oa renewable wood (with supplies i : | End Destucton of wilde habitats ‘rom clearing forests and suppoteda grassiancs, larger popuiaton Kling of wit animals ‘oeding fn grass or erops, Longer ite expectancy Feri lana wre Into desert by lvastock ‘overgrazing Highee standard of ving for many Soll eroded nto people ‘Svoams end iekes Towns and cos ‘concerted Formation of wastes and vilages, towns, potion and endcitios Inoroasad spread cfdiseases Inerease in armed confit anc slavery over ‘ownership ofan end water resources Towns and ches served as conters fortrade, Figure2-3 Trade-otfs: good and bed news about the shift from hunting and gathering t agriculture, Pick the single pisces of gded news and bad news that you tink ae he most, Important. dwindling in some areas because of unsustainable cutting) and flowing water to dependence on ma- chines running on nonrenewable fossil fuels (first coal and later oil and natural gas). This led to a switch from small-scale, localized production of handmade goods to large-scale production of machine-made goods in centralized factories in rapidly growing ine dustrial cities. Factory towns grew into cities as rural people came to the factories for work. There they worked long hours under noisy, dirty, and hazardous conditions. Other workers toiled in dangerous coal mines. In early industrial cities, coal smoke belching from chimneys was so heavy that many people died of lung ailments. Ash and soot covered everything, and some days the smoke was thick enough to blot out the sun. Fossil fuel-powered farm machinery, commer- be held hostage by politcal squabbling. They call for cooperation, not confrontation. They urge elected offi- Cals, regardless of party, to enter into a new pact to a have the United States become the world leader in making this the environmental century 2-8 CASE STUDY: ALDO LEOPOLD AND HIS LAND ETHIC Who Was Aldo Leopold? Teacher, Conservationist, and Proponent of Land Ethics Aldo Leopold played a major role in educating us about the need for conservation and providing ethical guidelines for our actions in nature.

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