Professional Documents
Culture Documents
9780240808307 (1)
9780240808307 (1)
9780240808307 (1)
by Don Davis
6.1 Initial Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
6.2 Acoustic Tests of Sound Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Acoustic Test Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Where to Place the Microphone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Measurement Analyzers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
First, Look and Listen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
6.3 The ETC Plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Impulse Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
The Heyser Spiral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
The Magnitude and Phase Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Three Parameter Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
The Nyquist Plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
The Polar Envelope Time (PET) Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
History of Polar Time Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
6.4 Site Surveys and Noise Criteria Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Constant Percentage Bandwidth Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
6.5 An Improper Use of Real Time Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
6.6 Evaluation of Listener Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
6.7 Fractional Bandwidth Filter Analyzers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Other Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Useful Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Using the Decade Exponents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Decibels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Label Frequencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
6.8 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
131
133
Output levels and areas of coverage for individual transducers comprising the acoustic output
of the system.
The phase and polarity of the individual transducers.
The signal synchronization between different
transducers sharing identical areas of coverage,
i.e., overlap zones.
The absence of any undesired spurious energy
returns from any reflective surface.
The measurement of the relationship of LD LR
to confirm the %Al CONS at selected audience
locations.
The equalization of LD as required.
The loudspeaker impedances, see Fig. 6-1.
134
Chapter 6
90
45
25
Ohms
20
119 Hz
4165 Hz
1358 Hz
768 Hz
4165 Hz
148 Hz
Magnitude
180
15
cursor
400 Hz
10
Phase
0
100
187 Hz
1358 Hz
200
1k
2k
3k
4k 5k
7k
129 Hz
139 Hz
148 Hz
0
158 Hz
168 Hz
177 Hz
270
45
10k
Frequency 400 Hz
Z = |Z| ej
Reactance = |Z| sin
Phase angle 9.88
where,
Resistance = |Z| cos
Impedance 8.41
|Z| is the magnitude of the impedance
Reactance Resistance 8.29
)
Angle = arctan (
is the angle of the impedance
Resistance Reactance 1.44
Specification
Ear
Mic*
Size
12
0.17
Power Consumption
50
25
Vibration Sensitivity (1 g)
100
75
Shock Resistance
100
20,000
Noise Level (A-weighted)
20
20
Overload Level (10% THD) 100
140
Dynamic Range (Pure Tone) 100
140
Acoustic Input Z
1.4
0.03
(low frequency)
Frequency response 2516,000 1025,000
Units
cm3
W
dB SPL
g
dB SPL
dB SPL
dB
cm3
the Envelope Time Curve, ETC, reveals an unexpected focused reflection damaging the direct sound
level in that area.
Measurement Analyzers
The authors prefer Richard C. Heysers analysis
system as exemplified in a TEF instrument. This is
not to deprecate other devices but is the result of the
superior signal-to-noise parameters so vital to field
measurements. The Heyser Integral Transform is
unique, Fig. 6-4. While it has yet to realize its full
potential in real instruments, its embodiment in
whats currently available has radically changed
how we measure. Indeed the frequency modulation
function identified by Heyser has found an embodiment in HPs modulation domain analysis, Fig.
6-5A, 6-5B, and 6-5C.
Hz
*Small electret
135
g(y) = 1 ei (y,x)f(x)dx
x3
f(y,x)
x1
x2
x = x1,x2,xn
y = y1,y2,ym
m
n
(6-1)
2
2
IA
I +I
20 log -------------------- = 20 log -------------------.
5
5
2 10
2 10
(6-2)
136
Chapter 6
Modulation
transfer
function
Auto
correlation
Cepstrum
log
log
Impulse response coincident response
Envelope-time
curve
Magnitude
Real
Real
R2 + I2
Time
domain
H
Phase
arctan I
R
Amplitude
Magnitude
R2 + I2
Imaginary
Imaginary
Doublet
d
dt
Quadrature
response
Instant
frequency
Group
delay
Time
Frequency
domain
Phase
arctan I
R
d
dF
Frequency
A. TEF measurements.
Principle of
swept
measurements
t
time
Fourier
f
frequency
modulation
(frequency shift)
delay
(time shift)
Consequence
of swept
measurements
137
cursor
cursor
integration
Impulse Response
Today impulse responses are acquired in the
frequency domain both to address undue stress on
the loudspeaker system and to obtain an improved
signal-to-noise ratio, SNR. It is then inverse Fourier
transformed to the time domain where it can be
displayed in a number of forms, see Chapter 14
Signal Processing, for an explanation of Fourier
transform. The Fourier transform takes both the real
and the imaginary parts, from the amplitude and
phase measurements in the frequency domain, to
compute the impulse response in the time domain,
Fig. 6-7A. Additionally, the impulse response can be
Hilbert transformed to produce the doublet
response. The impulse response forms the real part
of the complex ETC while the doublet response
forms the imaginary part of the complex ETC, Fig.
6-7B. Fig. 6-7C shows the relationship between the
real and imaginary parts on the Heyser Spiral.
Modern analyzers provide differing viewpoints
of the same information. A good example is the
comparison of the log squared amplitude of the
138
Chapter 6
A. TEF impulse.
B. TEF doublet.
Imaginary
1.37 ms
Polar
l
1.35 ms
Real
139
D. Log2 implulse.
E. ETC.
140
Chapter 6
0.030 Pa
(0.029)2 + (0.007)2
20log
0.00002 Pa
20log
) = 63.5 dB
0.00002 Pa
) = 63.5 dB
0.007
atan 0.029
) = 13
magnitude = 20log
0.012 Pa
0.00002 Pa
magnitude in Pa =
(0.029)2 + (0.007)2
( 0.011 Pa ) = 65.6 dB
) = 55.6 dB
= 0.030 Pa
0.005 Pa
Figure 6-8. Using the Hilbert Transform of a function of time (convolution with 1/t) yields the imaginary (doublet) in
the time domain.
(6-3)
141
Unequalized magnitude
Equalized magnitude
Equalized phase
Unequalized phase
Magnitude (dB)
Frequency (Hz)
Imaginary
Imaginary
cursor
Real
Real
142
Chapter 6
143
B. Flutter
A. Flutter
D. Room acousticsfront.
C. Room acousticsfront.
E. Room acousticsfront.
F. Conventional ETC.
144
Chapter 6
Time
ST:60
A. NLA sample.
A Weighted
Residences
Private homes
25-35
(rural and suburban)
Private homes (urban)
30-40
Apartment houses, 2- and 3-family units 35-45
Hotels
Individual rooms or suites
35-45
Ball rooms, banquet rooms
35-45
Halls and corridors, lobbies
40-50
Garages
45-55
Kitchens and laundries
45-55
Hospitals and Clinics
Private rooms
30-40
Operating rooms, wards
35-45
Laboratories, halls and corridors,
40-50
lobbies and waiting rooms
Washrooms and toilets
45-55
Offices
Board room
25-35
Conference rooms
30-40
Executive office
35-45
Supervisor office, reception
35-40
General open offices, drafting rooms
40-55
Halls and corridors
40-55
Tabulation and computation
45-65
Auditoriums and Music Halls
Concert and opera halls, studios
25-35
for sound reproduction
Legitimate theaters, multipurpose halls 30-40
Movie theaters, TV audience studios,
35-45
semi-outdoor amphitheaters,
lecture halls, planetarium
Lobbies
40-50
NC
20-30
25-35
30-40
30-40
30-40
35-45
40-50
40-50
25-35
30-40
35-45
40-50
20-30
25-35
30-40
30-45
35-50
35-55
40-60
20-25
25-30
30-35
A Weighted
Churches and Schools
Sanctuaries
25-35
Schools and classrooms
35-45
Laboratories
40-50
Recreation halls
40-55
Corridors and halls
40-55
Kitchens
45-55
Public Buildings
Public libraries, museums, court rooms 35-45
Post offices, general banking areas,
40-50
lobbies
Washrooms and toilets
45-55
Restaurants, cafeterias, lounges
Restaurants
40-50
Cocktail lounges
40-55
Night clubs
40-50
Cafeterias
45-55
Stores retail
Clothing stores, department stores
40-50
(upper floors)
Department stores (main floor),
45-55
small retail stores
Supermarkets
45-55
Sports activitiesIndoor
Coliseums
35-45
Bowling alleys, gymnasiums
40-50
Swimming pools
45-60
Transportation (rail, bus, plane)
Ticket sales offices
35-45
Lounges and waiting rooms
40-55
35-45
NC
20-30
30-40
35-45
35-50
35-50
40-50
30-40
35-45
40-50
35-45
35-40
35-45
40-50
35-45
40-50
40-50
30-40
35-45
40-55
30-40
35-50
145
C. NC in residence.
146
Chapter 6
147
ve
ta
Bandwidth - Hz
RB
500
oc
lb
ica
it
Cr
d
an
(E
ta
ve
1/
3
oc
100
1/
oc
ta
ve
50
20
10
100
1000
200
200
500
1k
2k
Center frequency - Hz
5k
10k
1.
2.
21/3(1.259921050)
100.1(1.258925412)
difference = 0.000995638
100.1 was named the 10 Series because
1 - = 10
-----0.1
(6-4)
0.1
(6-5)
148
Chapter 6
where,
fC is the center frequency of the filter.
simplified to:
10
N
---------------series
(6-6)
Series
N = series log f C
Octave
Equiv.
1
2
3
1
2
1
3
1
6
1
12
1
Decade
Series
100.3
313
1.995262
3 0.3 = 100.2
2 0.3 = 100.15
1
3 0.3 = 100.1
1
6 0.3 = 100.05
1
12 0.3 = 100.025
0.2 = 5
0.15 = 623
1
0.1 = 10
1
0.05 = 20
1
0.025 = 40
1.584893
1.412538
N = 10 log 100 = 20
10
20 + 0.5
---------------------
10
20 0.5
-------------------10
10
= 23%
100
Q = ------------------------ = 4.33 .
23.076752
Useful Tools
To rapidly calculate for any series all fxU , fC , and fxL
you can repeatedly multiply:
1.258925
1.220180
1.059254
Other Uses
f xU, f C, f xL = 10
N
0.5---------------series
N + 0.5
----------------series
(6-7)
and
100.3
3 23.029 = 69.087
100.2
2 23.029 = 46.085
100.15
f xU f xL = Bandwidth in Hz
100.1
100.05
where,
fxU is the upper 3 dB point,
fxL is the lower 3 dB point.
100.025
N
0.5---------------series
(6-8)
(6-11)
f xL = 10
(6-10)
N = 1.0
f xU = 10
(6-9)
4.342/3.0 = 1.447
100.2
4.342/2.0 = 2.171
100.15
4.342/1.5 = 2.895
100.1
4.342/1.0 = 4.342
100.05
4.342/0.5 = 8.685
100.025
4.342/0.25 = 17.369
10
N 0.5
----------------10
10
N 0.5
----------------10
149
(6-12)
Decibels
Once again, using series 10 every step in the
repeated multiplication of
Label Frequencies
The equations discussed in this article are for the
exact frequencies you would use as center frequencies and crossover frequencies for equalizers and
analyzers. In actual practice the center frequencies
are labeled in a simplified manner. Table 6-1
outlines these labels for the 11, 12, 23, 13, 16, and 112
devices in use today.
12 Octave
40 Series
1.0
6 Octave
20 Series
1.0
3 Octave
10 Series
1.0
2 Octave
623 Series
1.0
3 Octave
5 Series
1 Octave
313 Series
1.0
1.0
1.06
1.12
1.122018454
1.188502227
1.25
1.25
1.258925411
1.32
1.4
1.333521431
1.4
1.4
1.412537543
1.5
1.6
1.496235654
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.584893190
1.7
1.8
1.678804015
1.8
1.778279406
1.9
2.0
1.883649085
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.12
2.24
2.238721132
2.371373698
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.511886423
2.65
2.8
2.660725050
2.8
2.8
2.818382920
3.0
3.15
2.985382606
3.15
3.15
3.162277646
3.35
3.55
3.349654376
3.55
3.548133875
3.75
4.0
3.758374024
4.0
4.25
4.5
4.75
1.995262310
2.113489034
2.24
2.36
2.5
1.000000000
1.059253725
1.12
1.18
1.25
Exact Value
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
3.981071685
4.216965012
4.5
4.466835897
4.731512563
150
Chapter 6
Table 6-1. (continued) Frequency Labels for Audio Components
1
12 Octave
40 Series
6 Octave
3 Octave
20 Series
10 Series
5.0
5.0
5.0
2 Octave
623 Series
3 Octave
5 Series
1 Octave
313 Series
Exact Value
5.011872307
5.3
5.308844410
5.6
5.6
5.6
5.623413217
6.0
5.956621397
6.3
6.3
6.3
6.3
6.309573403
6.7
6.683439130
7.1
7.1
7.079457794
7.5
7.498942039
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
7.943282288
8.5
8.413951352
9.0
9.0
8.912509312
9.5
9.440608688
10
0.5
-------
40
N = 120
10
0.5
-------
40
N = 2140
10
N = 4160
10
0.5
-------
40
N = 6180
1.0292005272
1.8302061063
3.2546178350
5.7876198835
1.0592537252
1.8836490895
3.3496543916
5.9566214353
1.0901844924
1.9386526360
3.4474660657
6.1305579215
1.1220184543
1.9952623150
3.5481338923
6.3095734448
1.1547819847
2.0535250265
3.6517412725
6.4938163158
1.1885022274
2.1134890398
3.7583740429
6.6834391757
1.2232071190
2.1752040340
3.8681205463
6.8785991231
1.2589254118
2.2387211386
3.9810717055
7.0794578438
1.2956866975
2.3040929761
4.0973210981
7.2861817451
1.3335214322
2.3713737057
4.2169650343
7.4989420933
1.3724609610
2.4406190680
4.3401026364
7.7179151559
1.4125375446
2.5118864315
4.4668359215
7.9432823472
1.4537843856
2.5852348396
4.5972698853
8.1752303794
1.4962356561
2.6607250598
4.7315125896
8.4139514165
1.5399265261
2.7384196343
4.8696752517
8.6596432336
1.5848931925
2.8183829313
5.0118723363
8.9125093813
1.6311729092
2.9006811987
5.1582216507
9.1727593539
1.6788040181
2.9853826189
5.3088444423
9.4406087629
1.7278259805
3.0725573653
5.4638654988
9.7162795158
1.7782794100
3.1622776602
5.6234132519
10.0000000000
2.
6.
1.
0.5
-------
40
3.
4.
5.
7.
151
6.8 Conclusion
Acoustic tests are a mental exercise assisted by
measured hints. Its when measurements dont agree
with the trained ear that a chance for serendipity is
at hand.
Bibliography
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_______. Real Time Audio Spectrometry, Record. Eng./Prod. (1971).
_______. The Twenty-TDS Workshop, Syn-Aud-Con Tech Topics, Vol. 6, No. 13 (1979).
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p. 370.
________. Breakthrough in Speaker Testing, Audio (Nov. 1973), pp. 20-30.
________. Determination of Loudspeaker Arrival Times: Part I, J. Audio Eng. Soc., Vol. 19 (Oct. 1971),
pp. 734-743.
________. Determination of Loudspeaker Arrival Times: Part II, J. Audio Eng. Soc., Vol. 19 (Nov. 1971),
pp. 829-834.
________. Determination of Loudspeaker Arrival Times: Part III, J. Audio Eng. Soc., Vol. 19 (Dec. 1971),
pp. 902-905.
________. Loudspeaker Phase Characteristics and Time Delay Distortion: Part 1, J. Audio Eng. Soc., Vol.
17 (1969), p. 30.
________. Loudspeaker Phase Characteristics and Time Delay Distortion: Part 2, J. Audio Eng. Soc., Vol.
17 (1969), p. 130.
W. R. Kundert and A. P. G. Peterson. Spectrum Analyses of Stationary Noise Signals, Sound and Vibration
(June 1969).
R. Morrison. Instrumentation Fundamentals and Applications. New York: Wiley-Interscience, 1984.
B. M. Oliver and J. M. Cage. Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1971.
A. P. G. Peterson and E. E. Gross, Jr. Handbook of Noise Measurement, 7th ed. General Radio Co., Concord,
MA, 1972.