Magnetism and Magnetic Materials

1. Origin of magnetism
1.1 Magnetism of free atoms and ions
1.2 Magnetism for localized electrons
1.3 Itinerant electron magnetism

K. Inomata

2. Magnetic properties of ferromagnets

2.1 Magnetic anisotropy
2.2 Magnetoelastic effects
2.3 Magnetic domain walls and domains
2.4 Magnetization process
3. Ferromagnetic materials
3.1 Soft magnetic materials
3.2 Hard magnetic materials
3.3 Magnetic recording materials
4. Magnetic and tranport properties on advanced magnetic materials
4.1 Magnetism in small structures
4.2 Surface and thin-film magnetism
4.3 Electron transport in ferromagnets

1. 1. Magnetism of free atoms and ions

History of magnetism
Three forces in natural world: Universal gravitation, Nuclear force, Magnetic force

Magnetic force is one of the oldest physical phenomena that human knows.
The origin of the word Magnet
Magnetic ores (Magnetite, Fe3O4) were found in Magnesia, the name of a region of
the ancient Middle East, in what in now Turkey.
The Magnet was also found in China in BC 7. Magnet = , In Japanese, .
= loving stone, love, treat tenderly, Attraction or friendship, similar to magnet

History on magnetism
1. Discovery of functionality of the magnet
Loadstone compass : China (BC 3)
2. Discovery of electromagnetic field
Oersted (Denmark, 1820): Current gives a force on a loadstone compass
Establishment of Electromagnetism
Maxwells equations
3. Relation between the substance and magnetism
Ampere : Magnetism is based on the special molecular field (1821)
Langivin : Angular momentum by electron orbital motion (1905)
Dirac : Discovery of spin angular momentum (1928)
Heisenberg: The origin of ferromagnetism is in the exchange interaction (1933)

Origin of Atomic Moment

What is the microscopic origin of magnetism in materials ?
Magnetic moment of a free electron
Consider an electron which rounds an atomic nucleus with a radius r and an angular velocity :
Magnetic moment by orbital motion, l is defined as

-e
r

l = 0Ai
( 1.1 )
A=r2
0 = 410-7 H/m: Permeability in vacuum
i = -e= -e / 2 : Current
By inserting A r 2 and i = -/2 to (1.1), we obtain
l0 r 2-e 2
- e0r/2
While, angular momentum of an electron is given by
Plm r
Thus, magnetic moment by an electron orbital motion
- (0e /2 m) Pl

( 1.2 )

( 1.3 )

( 1.4 )
( 1.5 )

A=r2

According to the quantum mechanics electron orbital motion around an atomic nucleus is quantized.
So, orbital angular momentum is given by using the orbital angular momentum number l
Pl h l
( 1.6 )
h = h/2 1.055 10-34 Js
Thus, magnetic moment due to the orbital motion of an electron is
= 0(-e h / 2 ml
= - B

( 1.7 )

B0e h / 2 m = 0.927 10-23 [A m2]

1.165 10-29 [Wbm] : Bohr magneton
On the other hand, magnetic moment by electron spin is given using spin angular momentum
number s from the Dirack equation
s= - (0e/m) Ps - (0e/m) h s
= - 2 B s
where

Ps = h s,

( 1.8 )

s = 1/2.

Thus, the total magnetic moment by an electron is

= = - ( l 2 s) B = - gB
= l + s : total angular momentum
g: g factor

g = 2 for l = 0

( 1.9 )

Magnetic moment of an atom with multi-electrons

1) Pauli principle
Only two electrons can occupy one energy state including spin

Principal quantum number

Orbital angular momentum
quantum number
Magnetic quantum number
Spin quantum number

2) Hund rule : Rule for electron occupancy

Total S is maximum
Total L is maximum

l = 0, 1, 2 ..n-1
ml = -1, - l + 1, - l +2, , l
ms = +1/2, - 1/2

Ex) 3d6 : Fe2+ ion

L = ml = 0
n=3
ml = 2
l=2

Total L = 2, S = 2

1
0
-1
-2

n
l
ml
ms

3) Russel-Sanders coupling
How do the spin and orbital angular momenta combine to form
the total angular momentum of an atom ?
Spin-orbit interaction:

lsjj LS
S = sj

-e

+Ze

( 1.10 )

L = j

If spin-spin and orbit-orbit couplings are strongest and spin-orbit

interaction is not so strong,
J = L + S = jj : Russel-Sanders coupling
J = (L + S), (L + S 1), ( L + S 2) ,.. L S
> 0 : L is antiparallel to S
for less than half electrons
< 0 : L is parallel to S
for more than half electrons

s is antiparallel to l
L
J
S

Magnetic moment
= - BL2 S- g B J
g = [3J (J +1) +S (S+1) L (L+1)/ [2J (J+1)] Landes g factor

( 1.11 )

Effective magnetic moment eff = g B

( 1.12 )

J(J+1)

Practice problems
Nd4f5s5p

2 Tb3+4f95s25p6

ml
3

ml
3

-1

-1

-2

-2

-3

-3

L = 6, S = 3/2
J = L S = 9/2
g = 8/11
eff = 3.62

L = 5, S = 5/2
J = L + S = 15/2
g = 4/3
eff = 10.65

Effective magnetic moment:

eff = g B J(J+1)
5s, 5p

eff

theory and experiment

3+ ion
Metals

4f
Modified calculation

Rare earth metals

follow the RusselSanders coupling
J is a good quntum
number.

Hund rule

Ferromagnetic 3d metals
Fe
2.10

Co

Ni

2.21

2.21

Number of 4f electrons

Quenching of the orbital angular momentum

In 3d series of elements J = S has been found experimentally as shown in the table.

Electrons in such as 3d series cannot draw a definite orbit due to the interactions between electrons.
This leads to the negligible orbital contribution to the magnetic moment.

L=0
Isolated atom

L=0
Solid

Thus, the magnetic moment in 3d magnetic materials is mainly caused by electron spin.

j-j coupling
There is other way of coupling to form the total angular momentum of an atom.
j-j coupling
The orbital and spin angular momenta are dependent on each other. It assumes there is a
strong spin - orbit ( l - s ) coupling for each electron and that this coupling is stronger than the
l - l or s - s coupling between electrons.

J = ji = ( li + si )

( 1.13 )

This form of coupling is more applicable to very heavy atoms.

2. Magnetism in materials
The various different types of magnetic materials are traditionally classified according to their
bulk susceptibility .

2.1 Diamagnetism
Closed shell of electrons: S = 0
Weak magnetism
Negative magnetic susceptivility : = I/H ~ -10-5

H
r

Lenz law
Changing magnetic field H induces an
electric field whose current generates
a magnetic field that opposes the change
in the first H field.
This field induces the magnetization I

Cu
Ag
Al2O3

-9.710-6
-25
-18

C (graphite)

-14

A = r2

-e
Electric field is induced
E = - d/dt = AdB/dt
= - 0AH/dt
: magnetic flux
B: Flux density
Current
i=E/R
induces opposite magnetic field

= - 1 : Perfect diamagnetism
= Superconductor

2.2 Paramagnetim: Localized model

is small and positive, typically ~

10-3

10

-5

Atomic magnetic moment = - (L + 2S ) B

No interaction between atomic moments
Zeeman energy:
E = - H = - B (L + 2S ) H = - g B J H

Random orientation of moment

( 2.1 )

For H // z , E = g B Jz H = g B MJ H = EM
where MJ is the eigen value of Jz

( 2.2 )
MJ = -J
Jz

Probability for occupying energy EM is determined

H=0

by Boltzmann statictics
P(MJ)exp (-EM/kBT) exp(-EM/kBT)

MJ = +J
( 2.3 )

Magnetization ( Magnetic moment per unit cell )

I = N = NgB P(MJ)MJ
= NgBJBJ(x)

( 2.4 )

BJ(x) = [(2J + 1)/2J] coth [(2J + 1 ) /2J] x (1/2J ) coth (x/2J) : Brillouin function
x = gJBH/kBT

( 2.5 )

High temperature limit

BJ(x) = [(J + 1)/3J] x

1/

lim

Eq.( 2.7 )

x0

I = Ng2B2J(J + 1)/3 kBT = [ Neff2/3kBT ] H ( 2.6 )

= I/H = C/T : Curie law
C = Neff2/3kB

Slope = 1/C

( 2.7 )

High field limit

BJ(x) = 1

T
( H )

lim

Is = NgBJ ,

Is = N s
( 2.8 )

s = gBJ

Brillouin function
Slope = C

N: Number of atoms per unit volume

H/T

Saturation
Is = N s
s = gBJ

Experiments obey
The Brillouin function

2.3 Ferromagnetism: Localized model

Weiss theory
Molecular field Hw = w I

( 2.8 )

Hw

Total magnetic field

HT = H + w I
E = - gB MJ ( H + w I )
I = N = NgB P(MJ)MJ
= NgBJ BJ(x)
= I0 BJ(x)
I0 = NgBJ
x = gJB (H + w I ) / kBT
When H = 0
I / I0 = kTx/ N(gBJ)2w
I/I0 = BJ(x)

( 2.9 )

I/I0
( 2.10 )
( 2.10 )

BJ(x) = (J + 1 ) x / 3 J
kBT/ N(gBJ)2w = (J + 1 )/3 J,

T < in ( 2.10 )

( 2.9 )

High temperature limit; x << 1

: Paramagnetic Curie temperature

( 2.12 )
= Neff2w/3kB

T > in ( 2.10 )
( 2.9 )

x
T = N(gB)2 J ( J + 1 )w / 3kB = C w =
C = Neff2/3kB,

( 2.11 )

Temperature dependence of spontaneous magnetization

I/I0

T/

T > Curie temperature ( )

For x << 1, BJ (x) = ( J + 1 ) x /3 J
( 2.9 ) I = NgB J ( J + 1 ) x / 3 = ( C/T ) ( H + w I )
I = C H / ( T-Cw )
= I / H = C / ( T- ), = C w
Curie-Weiss law

I/I0
1 /

Molecular field approximation

Estimation of w
Ex) Fe
= 1063 K, = 2.2 B, N = 8.541028/m3
J = 1 w = 3kJ/(J + 1 ) N 2 = 3.9108 [A m / Wb]
Molecular field Hm = w I = wN = 0.85109 [ A/m ]
= 1.1107 Oe = 11 [MOe]

This is quite large.

The w is based on the quantum mechanical exchange interaction
- J S1 S2
J is exchange integral

Summary: Types of Magnetism

Diamagnetism

S = 0, Orbital magnetic moment only

Paramagnetism

S = 0 and no atomic interaction

Ferromagnetism

S = 0 and parallel coupling

-J S1 S2 , J > 0
J:Exchange Integral
Antiferromagnetism S = 0 and antiparallel coupling

- J S1 S2 , J < 0
Ferrimagnetism

S = 0 , antiparallel coupling
and different atomic moments

-J S1 S2 , J < 0
S1 = S2