18 REINFORCED CONCRETE CHIMNEYS and r ft. thick at the top, is designed to resist a wind pressure of 30 Ib. per square foot of projected area. The maximum temperature of the gases was assumed to be 800 deg. F. when the external air temperature is minus 30 deg. F. The design is such that there is no tension in the vertical reinforcement. due to the effects of wind combined with dead weight. The entire inside of the shaft, and the outside for a distance of 120 ft. from the top, is coated with paint with a coaltar base and having acid-resistant qualities. The thickness of the shaft is 3 in. greater than required by the design calculations as an extra precaution against corrosion. A heavy cast stainless steel cap is provided at the top. Moving stec! shutters were used in the construction of the shaft. The'working platform used in the course of construction was formed of steel and aluminium tubes and weighed 16 tons, which is estimated to be 10 tons less than the weight of a wooden plat- form. The platform was raised 7 ft. at a time after each 7e{l. lift of concrete was placed. A chimney 550 ft. high was built at the works of the St. Lawrence Cement Company at Clarkson, Ontario, in 1938 and comprises two completely separate shafts, nameiy an inner bri al the bottom and 14 ft. 5 in. diameter at the top and varying in thickness from 26 in. to 83 in., and an outer reinforced conerete shaft 37 it. in diameter at the bottom and 23 ft. 6 in, diameter at the top and varying in thickness from 1 ft. rr in. to 7 in ‘The distance between the two shafts is 3 {t. 9 in., and in this space a helical staircase is provided to enable inspection of the brick lining and the navigation lights. ‘The concrete shaft is designed to resist the pressure of winds up to 170 miles an hour, and the purpose of the brick shaft is to prevent the gases from coming into contact with the concrete, The temperature of the gases entering the chimney is 600 deg. F. High-alummina cement was used in the mortar for setting the brick lining due to its immunity to the acids and sulphates in the gases and to its refractory properties.CHAPTER IL DESIGN DATA Tue design of the shaft of a reinforce -d concrete chimney includes consideration of three main factors, namely, weight, wind pressure, and temperature. The two former are considered in this and the next chapter. The stresses arising from the difference of temperature between the gas and the external air are considered in Chapters IV and V. ‘These stresses must be combined as described in Chapter V ‘nm order to determine the final stresses. In some parts of the world stresses, due to earthquakes have to be considered, Weight. Reinforced concrete should be assi Brickwork used for lining var and must be considered sumed to weigh 150 Ib. per cubic foot, in weight from tro tb. to 160 Ib. per cubic foot, ccording to the class of brick used. Wind Pressure. Wind pressures require examination in some detail and in the followi consideration is given to conditions in Great Britain; the figures given can, how ever, be varied to suit any other conditions which ate known with reasonable accuracy, The sources of information on the pressures actually imposed on tall chimneys by wind are few, but enough is available to justify the writers in drawing sufficiently definite conclusions for practical purposes. Three factors have to be considered, namely, the velocity and its variation with the height above the ground, the resulting pressure on a flat surface, and the reduction of pressure due to the shape of the chimney. Velocity.—Tables showing the highest velocity of gusts recorded at forty- four stations in the British Isles in each month during the twenty-eight years Preceding 1936 have been published by the Royal Meteorological Society.) The Positions of the stations and the highest velocity recorded at each are shown’ in Fig. 17. The following has been extracted from the tables, Velocities from 80 to 84 miles per hour are recorded 65 times, 85 to Sq m.p.h. 52 times, go to 99 m.p.h. go times, and xoo to 12 m.p.h. g times. As might be pected, most of the high velocities occurred at coastal stations in very exposed situations. “Regarding these as special cases, in Table T are given the highest gust velocities recorded at seven stations which m y fairly be regarded as normal. It will be noted that in some cases the wind-gauge is al considerable height above sealevel. The effective height is defined as an estimate of the height at which an anemometer would record an equal mean velocity in a situation free from obstructions.(# A review of this information appears to warrant the conclusion that in normal Situations it is sufficient to design for a velocity of 80 miles per hour at a height of 50 ft., and that any greater velocities in normal situations may fairly be taken 1920 REINFORCED CONCRETE CHTIMNEYS Fic. 17—Hicursr Recorpep Verocirms or Winn. ‘Taste I.—Verocrrtes or Gt elerwick (95) ‘usts oF WIND. light of wind gauge. Station os cd Mites pet hour, is ‘es Croydon. 313, r fo, 8 Cardington 285 135 81, 88 Galshot 8 2 81, 80 Richmond (Kew) ba 5 72, 9 Gorleston - 52 4 7, 68 Birmingham 643, 3 hs Manchester, 353 0 mM 75 APA PPP PPR RPP oeBBRGDRRBUERHRHRHERRGHkRBUeBewaeeeeeeeeeeaeeee, DESIGN DATA ay Vewociry my Muss “2 Hour wy LBS 20 $2 £7, = or Pee ssuee a a a ea. Hered we Keer Curve T:- Yesocrry mw Mes 262 Houk Feon = fo {12228 400 Che #25) Va = 80 [BeBe AED a mmnug| Wate? Sone, AASE0 ont Conve T+ Prcssvee ng Lb. he Sate on 4 sank Far Sunrace fton Px 0038 V2 Vx naw. Conve TI - Peessvee oe £8. 266 Sa fro 9 Roun Crmvky fron Px os (0034 Vi)’ Vr 21 Fic. 18.—Winp Verocrry aNp Pressurs at Vagious Hercuts,22 REINFORCED CONCRETE CHIMNEYS care of by the factor of safety. It is important to remember that special situa- tions must be dealt with on their merits, and no better guide appears to be available than that in the reference mentioned. The variation of velocity with height can be determined from the formula given by the Meteorological Office,® namely V =K {x00 + 281 log (b+475)} - ee AY in which V is the velocity in miles per hour, 4 is the height in metres, and K is a constant, Starting with a velocity of 80 miles per hour at a height of 50 ft., velocities at heights up to 4oo ft. Have been calculated from formula (A) and are recorded in Fig. 18. Pressure.—To convert velocity to pressure, the theoretical pressure in EE acer pounds per square foot is o-sp—t, in which V, is the velocity in feet per second and p the density of air, which may be assumed to be 0-076 Ib. per cubic foot, The theoretical pressure for a velocity of roo miles per hour is 25°6 Ib. per square. foot. Actual pressures have been dealt with by several writers.(®) ‘The informa- tion is usefully summarised by Mr. Alfred Bailey,” who states that the average intensity of pressure-difference on circular and square plates placed at right-angles to the wind is independent of the size of the plates and may be expressed as 0-0034V'? Ib. per square foot if V is in miles per hour. ‘This formula gives a pressure of 34 Ub, per square foot on a flat surface at a velocity of 100 miles per hour, and inchides the effects of the increase of pressure on the windward face of the plate and the reduction of pressure on the leeward face. ‘The pressure on circular chimneys has been investigated very fully by Mr. H, L. Dryden and Mr. G. C. Hill,® who give curves showing the distribution and pressure around a horizontal section of the surface of a circular chimney and state that in every case, except for the uppermost 5 per cent. of the height, the greatest increase of pressure on the front is within 2 per cent. of the velocity- pressure and therefore within the degree of experimental error. The point of greatest pressure is within 1 deg. of the point farthest upstream and the variations within this limit are at least partly due to a slight spiral motion in the air-stream. ‘The pressure decreases from the centre of the windward face to each side and equals the static pressure-at an angle of from 3x deg. to 35 deg. from the centre- Tine representing the direction of the wind. The pressure then becomes less than the static pressure by iXcreasing amounts up to an angle of about 65 deg. to 75 deg. “Fig. 19 shows a typical polar curve. It will be noticed that the area over which the pressure is positive is comparatively small and that the effective pressure on the entire section is due partly to suction on the leeward face. There are also areas of relatively high suction on each side of the chimney. These, of course, balance each other as regards their net effect and would not call for any special provision unless the shaft were exceptionally thin relatively to its diameter. For a critical study of the subject the reader is referred to the original paper.) The main conclusion is that an effective pressure of 17 Ib. per square foot of the projected area of a chimney is assumed to arise from a’ velocity of x00 miles per hour, It is stated that this pressure is considerably greater than the pressure obtained on a short cylinder, a fact attributed mainly to the greater ratio of length to diameter, but probably to some extent due to the greater FATA AAPADESIGN DATA 3 roughness of the surface of the chimney. A wind pressure corresponding to 20 Ib. per square foot of projected area at a velocity of x00 miles per hour is a safe value to use in the design of a chimney the exposed height of which is about ten times the diameter. A less pressure does not seem to be justified in view of the results of the writers’ experiments if allowance is made for the fact that the pressure in the tests was measured at one height only. It seems clear that a pressure of 17 Ib. per square foot for an actual velocity of 100 miles per hour is reliable and that the suggested increase to 20 Ib. is intended WINDWARD SIDE ae ect Ce titel \ a ie Seeee eee Lee ‘Sive Flo. 19.—Winp Prnssure on Circutar Camweys. ‘ to allow for greater velocities at higher altitudes. If, therefore, the velocities at various heights are calculated from the formula for curve I (Fig. 18), it is justifiable to conclude that the pressure on the projected area of a cylinder may be assumed to be half that suggested by Mr. Bailey for a flat surface, namely, o-oor7V%. A combination of these values with those relating to velocities at various heights, as indicated in Fig. 18, gives the pressures shown in that diagram for flat and cylindrical surfaces. Many chimneys have been designed on the basis described in the foregoing and have been satisfactory. However, since 1940 many more measurements of velocities and pressures have been recorded and much information from wind- tunnel tests ‘is now available. Indeed, it has been a period during which wind24 REINFORCED CONCRETE CHIMNEYS pressures have been reassessed in countries issuing regulations or recommend: tions. During this period the stresses permissible in constructional materials have also generally inereased. Except in still air, whiel ¢ condition, a chimney js in constant motion and vibrates in a complicated manner as a vertical canti- lever. Further research is required before the amount of vibration or sway: can be foretold more accurately, but an outline of an analysis is given in Chapter VI. Although, from the nature of the problem, some stresses may be small, they may fluctuate considerably and continually from compression to tension and vice versa, Fatigue cannot therefore be excluded, although, so far as is known to the writers, no case of failure on this account has been recorded. However, these considerations compel prudence in the consideration of wind pres ures. Recommended Wind Pressures. Recent measurements indicate higher velocities than those recorded up to, say, the middle 1930's. Gusts having a duration of one second can now be measured and show increases of 35 per cent. more than the average velocity ‘during one minute, which is the period on which most regulations are based. Since the response period of a chimney may be less than one second it seem: reasonable to consider velocities based on this shorter period, although the area or length of the shaft so affected would probably lie within an area of 50 ft. diameter and thus affect only a height of 50 ft. anywhere on the chimney/*”., Tanne TT. Winn, Parssuns (p') ow Crmnreys (BS. Com: No.3). Tapiosee | weimeenn ate tee ata snebctore feet Wee ey tenes por hour at 40H above the Beauly Mitoweeeend’| 50 | $5 sj wis | o no oe eee up to 10 7 9 12 pu as | a Pe a | Hla | is | at 0 sia uw | as | a | 2 & |b) k Hl me] & | SB fr) es pla | a | a » [ul xs vla2|ze|es % |BlB B|B | % | 3 mB |e |e a| a | a | 3 roo_' | 16 16 P24 os 2 3s Se ae 2\ || # F Rial ee] Ss a | a | as | x i S\ 3) 81% 2 e| || 3 0 an\lelsla Se 2/8\|s) 8 Xo B/S) |S 0 Jselselal¢ % Sl ele) s soo or more S| 3) Ss | 3 (@) Structures more than too ft. dosigned for velocities not less than those to the right of the stepped line. (2) The maximum value of the mean velocity (at an elfective height of go ft.) during a period of one minite should be used in design.DESIGN DATA 25, Anamendment made in 1958 to the British Standard Code of Practice No. 3 dealing with the loads ‘on buildings gives recommended wind pressures for the design of chimneys; this data is reproduced in Y'able HI for chimneys up to 500 ft or more in height. The basic intensity of wind pressure #' is determined by the height of the chimney and the greatest probable velocity of the wind at a height of 4o ft., and applies to flat surfaces and to wind of steady velocity. Warning is given that reinforced concrete chimneys may oscillate when subjected to the effects of the wind. The basic intensity of pressure is assumed to vary from a maximum at the top of the chimney to a minimum at the bottom, the intensity at any plane at any height depending on the height of the plane above the ground. The pressure recommended to be taken in the design of a chimney is /p’ multiplied by Curve A= Theoretical pressure on a flat surface P-0034 V Bx Design pressures for Round Chimneys recommended by the American Cade Ce pe ee +» Author for Britain Ds For round surfaces. minimum + Y of Curve A Ex B5.Cole N°S (Chapter) V-JOmph. (Round chimneys) Fe. 2 (5 4) Vesompr (sd so 40: 8 ib per agin. 8 WIND PRESSURE 50 oO 20 «ODS. HEIGHT IN FEET Fic. 20~Winp Prussurss For tue Dusicn of Cuinweys,26 : REINFORCED CONCRETE CHIMNEYS a factor which takes into account the shape of the shaft. When the ratio of height to width at the bottom of the shaft is not less than eight, the design pressure is 0-779" if the shaft is of cirenlar cross séction, 1-1" if octagonal, 5-436" ifssquarc and the direction of the wind is normal to one face, or 1p" if the direction of the wind is normal to a diagonal. The basic pressures for a velocity of 80 miles per hour combined with a shape-factor of 0-77 result in pressures on cylindrical shafts slightly greater than those shown by curve III in Fig. 18; see curve F in Fig. 20. ‘The requirements of the standard specification in the U.S.A.®) are based on gusts of velocities of x00 miles per hour at go ft. above the ground (or at the efiective height) and result in considerably greater pressures than given by curve HII in Fig. x8, but doubtless follow the U.S.A. practice of basing wind pressures on buildings on winds of 75 miles an hour at a height of 3o ft. with, an increase of 334 per cent. for chimneys. From the foregoing it is suggested that pressures greater than those given on curve III should be taken into account, but that the results of wind-tunnel tests and meteorological observations in Great Britain should also be considered when designing chimneys in this country, The pressures given on curve C in Fig. 20 are the writer’s recommendations for round chimneys in any but very sheltered positions in Great Britain, and it is seen that they conform fairly closely to the pressures recommended by the British Standard Code for a velocity of 70 miles per hour and a shape-factor of 0-77 (curve E). For the purpose of comparison this diagram also shows (a) the theoretical pressure on a flat surface (curve A); (¥) the pressures on round chimneys in accordance with U.S.A. Standards (curve B); (¢) the minimum pressures which should be taken into account (curve D) even in the most sheltered position, and which are 50 per cent. of the pressures given by curve A; and (2) # ‘on round chimneys recommended by the British Standard Code for a velocity of So miles per hour (curve F). Chimneys Abroad. Where wind velocities exceed those experienced in Great Britain it is advisable to adopt as minima the provisions of the U.S.A. Standard and the velocities given by curve B in Fig. 20, The British Standard Code recommends that for sites where records indicate maximum average velocities during a period of five minutes in excess of 67 m.p.h,, this average velocity should be corrected to give the velocity at 30 ft. above the ground, and the latter velocity should be increased by so per cent. to represent the velocity of gusts. If gusts exceeding 100 miles per hour are probable the pressure given by curve B, Fig. 20, should be multiplied by (ey. in which Gyar, is the maximum velocity of gusts in miles per hour x00 recorded or probable at 30 ft. above the ground. Effects of Earthquakes. Where earthquake shocks are liable to occur the maximum acceleration in feet per. second per second recorded for the district shoutd be used in theDESIGN DATA 27 calculations of the shearing force and moment on the shaft and also on the lining if the lining is self-supporting. The U.S.A. Standard states that it is well known that the upper part of a chimney and other tall structures with a base that is narrow in relation to the height is subjected to moments due to earthquake shocks greater than those represented by the product of WK¢l, in which W (Ib) is the weight of the chianey above the section under consideration (including any part of the lining supported by the shait), / {ft.) is the distance from the section under consideration to the centre of gravity of the chimney above the a section, and K, is ©, the seismic coefficient which should be determined for the locality in which the chimney is to be constructed (g is the acceleration due to gravity in feet per second per second). The moments on the upper part can be calculated theoretically, but the computations are cumbersome and it is recommended that the bending moment M, be calculated from M,—WKab(s+ 7) « soe B in which /, (ft.) is the distance from the section under consideration to the section that is one-fifth of the total height of the chimney above the base. If the section under consideration is above one-fifth of the height of the shaft above the base, the shearing force is we: + =). If the section is at or below one-fifth of the height above the base the moment due to earthquake shock is WK,h,, and the shearing force is WK,. Working Stresses. ‘The stresses in the concrete and reinforcement should not exceed those recommended in British Standard Code No. 114. When the effects of all factors such as weight, wind, and temperature on an annular ring such asa circular chimney have been considered and combined, the stresses should be less than the prescribed working stresses commonly accepted for buildings, and in particular the tensile stress in the retnforcement is likely to be, and should be, much less. Tt is of little use therefore to use high-tensile bars since advantage cannot be taken of their strength, but there is-an advantage in deformed bars since th use results in much finer cracks, at closer intervals, than is likely with plain bars. The nominal proportions of the concrete recommended for the shaft are 3}. The maximum size of aggregate should not exceed 4 in. This mixture ‘5.112 1b. of Portland cement, 24 cu. ft. of fine aggregate, and 4} cu. ft. z compr of coarse aggregate graded from } in. to $f in. First-class supervision and work- manship are necessary. The crushing strength of the concrete at seven days should be not less than 2700 Ib. per square inch and 4000 Ib, per square inch at twenty-eight days. This strength permits a working compressive stress of xo00 lb. per square inch in the concrete (see page 29).CHAPTER Lil DESIGN CALCULATIONS FOR WEIGHT AND WIND ‘As in the case of most structures, the design of reinforced concrete chimneys is a matter of trial and error. The calculations are complicated further because the effects of differences and changes of temperature have to be considered and combined with those due to the weighit of the chimney and the effect of wind. In the following a method using charts is described whereby the stresses due to weight and wind can be readily determined. The combination of these stresses with the stresses due to temperature are described in Chapter V. The height and internal dimensions of a chimney are determined from con- siderations of thermodynamics, experience, and probably the requirements of national and local authorities, and will be given to the designer by those responsible for the plant and process from which the chimney is required to conduct gases. ‘The maximum temperature and chemical analyses of the gases entering at the flue must therefore be known. From these data the material of construction, the thickness, the method of construction, and the protection of the inner face of the concrete must first be determined, In the past some concrete chimneys have not been lined, or lined for only part of their height. This may be satis- factory for cool and inert gases, such as warm clean air, but it is not recommended for exhausts from boilers of any kind and certainly not from industrial plants. In determining the thickness of the shaft it must be borne in mind that it must remain intact after periodical heating and cooling when it is out of use. A final consideration is whether the lining shall be free-standing, that is whetner its whole weight shall be carried on its lowest course or whether it shall be sup- ported at intervals throughout its height on corbels or brackets built mono- lithically with the shaft. In this case the thickness of the lining will be less at the bottom, but its weight will be carried by the concrete shaft. When the height of the chimney is known, the outside diameter at any horizontal plane depends on the internal diameter required, the air-space (if any) between the shaft and the lining, and the thickness of the lining. A slight taper is desirable for the sakq of the appearance of the chimney, but it may not be essential. = A tentative elevation should be drawn and divided into sections of height, usually about 20 ft. to 25 ft. in the case of tall chimneys, and the weight of the shaft, including any lining carried by that part of the shaft and the corbels on which it is supported, should be evaluated at each of these horizontal sections. Bending moments due to the wind at these sections must also be calculated, the average wind pressure on every trapezoidal area being multiplied by the distance from the horizontal section to:the centroids of the areas above the section. ‘Having determined the weight carried on each horizontal section and the bending moment due to the wind at each section, other requirements, such as the thickness of the shaft and the percentage of reinforcement, are assumed if they are not known. The stresses due to wind and weight are then calculated. If the 28 | PRP RRP Pp an; DESIGN CALCULATIONS FOR WEIGHT AND WIND 29 difference of temperature through the wall of the shaft is considerabie it may be necessary for the maximum stress due to wind and weight to be not more than about half the compressive stress permissible in the concrete. The corresponding tensile stress in the reinforcement should be about one-tenth or less of the per. missible stress in order that the final stresses, taking into account those due to temperature, do not exceed the permissible stresses. Tt is also inherent in the nature of the problem that the tensile stresses in the reinforcement cannot ap- proach the,ordinary working stresses, although some specifications quote such limiting stresses. Analysis of Annular Sections. The assumptions made in the analysis which follows are those for the ordinary elastic theory of reinforced concrete. Notation (Fig. 21), e, maximum compressive stress in concrete due to wind and weight only (Ib. per square inch). J, — thickness of shaft (in), Ju thickness of an imaginary steel shell of mean radius R having a cross-sectional area equal to the actual area of the vertical reinforcement bars (in.). M, moment of the wind about the section (in.-Ib.). m, modular ratio, ‘Ce, maximum compressive stress in the vertical reinforcement due to wind and weight only (Ib. per square inch). 100Js i oe P. percentage of vertical reinforcement = sak 1 = proportion of vertical rein- forcement = i: = B,: total area of reinforcement = 24R J, (sa. in.). R, mean radius of shaft (in.)-30, REINFORCED CONCRETE CHIMNEYS tp, maximum tensile stress in the vertical reinforcement due to’ wind and weight only (Ib. per square inch). W, ° weight carried on the horizontal section (Ib.). p, thickness of element of shaft. 8, angle defining position of element of shaft. , half angle subtended by compressive zone of shaft. : M 2, eccentricity (= 7) at any horizontal section. y (= Fp, xy Y= eee “” |_| & in VALUES of Ke, « : tbe ol 1 56 7 8 4 10M 1219 ha IS CWT M1 202) BEN 24 ES VALUES $k. Fi. 22. Basic Formura.—The analysis of an annular section proceeds as in the Appendix (page 78) in which the three essential formule in the following are derived. eo at @ a Sima. cos a ++ serm Eccentricity ratio: 5 = 7 Ro a(ina — a cos a — arm cosa) o @ Compressive stress in concrete: J r+ 4, — cosa Tar @ cos. we: 7 ® @) arm os © Tensile ‘stress in reinforcement: m(Z + 008 a)ty ty= “ete T rt gem cose ‘The charts in Figs. 22 to 2g are based on these formule with » = 5, which is FPP PPR PRP PRRVALves or kK, DESIGN CALCULATIONS FOR WEIGHT AND WIND: 3r te = O10 iN Se 7 eS TO ae as MAS te iy 18 1S BS BY BE BS AES VALUES er ef. Fo. 23. yo, 2 20:12 * 1 LY 7 4 y 7| 4 X) 6! + 4g s §- s a P< Js z q 7 OM HS PAOD 4e TT 18 19 BO BY BEES EAES VALUES. of Fic. 24.32 REINFORCED CONCRETE CHIMNEYS the value of the modular ratio commonly used. Separate charts are given for ratios of i equal ‘to 0:06, 0-10, o-r2, and 0-18. APPLICATION OF CHARTS.—The procedure for using the charts, assuming that J, R, ¢, and p (or 7) are known or can be determined, is to select the chart from Figs, 22 to-28 giving the nearest value of £ Calculate R and follow along the VALUES of Ku. 56 TOT OW 1S TS ISIS IO IT OO HP BOR) PEED EHS VALUES of Fis. 25. abscissee to the intersection with the appropriate curve of p (or 7); read on the chart the corresponding value of K, and substitute this value in Kay to give op. Also read on the chart the corresponding value of fe to give ty The values od for which the charts are drawn are practical ratios, and after a little inspection and use it is relatively simple to interpolate between them to suit the diameter and thickness of shaft assumed in the first design. If the calculated stresses are too high or too low, a simple adjustment is made to J, or J, Which are the only variables, and the process is repeated. (An example of the application of the charts is given on page 61.) Openings in Shafts for Flues and Cleaning Doors. Openings for the entrance of flues to a chimney, particularly large ones, present a difficulty in design. The general principle is to preserve the same annBGG Reeaee ae DESIGN CALCULATIONS FOR WEIGHT AND WIND. 33 moment of inertia of the cross section at the opening as if there were no opening (Fig. 26a). This requirement necessitates a thicker wall around the opening, especially at the sides of the opening (Fig. 26n), and more reinforcement is required - to compensate for the bars cut or distorted at the opening. The distortion of the vertical bars must extend sufficiently fas below and above the opening to. permit an easy angle of bending, say, not exceeding 30 deg., so that the horizontal tensile and compressive components of the forces resulting from the bending are not excessive. When the vertical bars are cut, which is the more usual case. OGG Flo. 26. the overlap above and below the opening must be sufficient, and resistance to the bending moments above and below the opening must be provided. Bars at 45 deg. should be provided across the corners of a rectangular opening. Instead of enlarging the shaft around a narrow but tall opening, a simpler alternative design, and one that may also be cheaper to construct if the special shuttering at the openings is considered, is to provide an eccentric shaft as shown in Fig. 26c. The cross section should have the same moment of inertia as the normal shaft. A little more concrete would be required, but the arrangement of the reinforcement is simpler and the direction of the main stresses would be more satisfactory. Some details of openings in the shafts of chimneys are given in Chapter VITL.CHAPTER IV DIFFERENCES OF TEMPERATURE INSIDE AND OUTSIDE THE SHAFT Recarpinc the important problem arising from the difference in temperature of the inside and outside of the shaft, it should be noted that the stresses have to be related to the actual temperatures at the surface of the concrete and not to the temperatures of the air outside and the gas insidle or the air in the air-space as the case may be. The actual difference for which allowance has to be made in the shaft has been investigated theoretically by the Institution of Danish Engineeis,® and by Rausch in Germany. Measurements of the actual tem- peratures in the shaft, the air-space, and the lining have also been made in the U.S.A. by Mr. Dockstader™ and Mr. McKay.) Most of these investigators appear to assume that there will be differences of temperature between the gas or air and the lining or shell at all contact surfaces. While this may at first sight appear to be in agreement with theoretical considerations, it does not appear to be confirmed by any experimental work. From the suggestion issued by the Institution of Danish engineers as applied to a chimney with a ventilated air-space between the brick lining and the shaft, the formula in the following can be deduced: Oh, fy hay ha violet ot} in which ¢, is the temperature (deg. C.) of the gas and At is the fall of temperature through the wall of the shaft, and hy, fy, and hg are the thicknesses in metres of the lining, the airspace, and the shaft respectively. In this formula it is assumed that there is no fall of temperature at the inner and outer surfaces but that there is one aéross the air-space; the writers doubt the validity of both these assumptions. In the paper by Rausch falls of temperature at the inner surfaces are assumed, but the case of a chimney with an air-space is not considered, Rausch considers. that when a fall of over 60 deg. F. occurs in the shaft the stresses in the shaft must be calculated on a reduced thickness because of cracking. Mr. Dockstader records some actual temperatures in the shaft of a chimney 188 it. high and 15 ft. in diameter lined for a height of 30 ft. and receiving gases from boilers. Two representative charts from his paper are given in Fig. 27 and show the results obtained in the lined and unlined parts. The lining is stated to be of “common brick”, but the temperature in the body of the lining is not given and the paper concludes: “Tests of such limited nature cannot be taken as at all conclusive, and there are many unexplained variations in the observed readings. However, until further experimental data on this subject are available, it is felt that, for the purpose of designing reinforced concrete chimneys subject to conditions similar to those existing for the chimney under discussion, the 34 Mat, = = = = = = = = = = = = = & = =DIFFERENCES OF TEMPERATURE 38 general trond of the test data warrants the conclusion that the maximum drop of temperature through the concrete of the chimney shell may be taken as (a) 20 deg. F. per inch of shell thickness where the chimney is unlined, and (b) 10 deg. F. per inch of shell thickness where the chirhnéy is lined so as to furnish insulation equivalent to that of the lining in the chimney tested. It is hoped that these tests will lead to further tests along the same line, and will result, eventually 00 @ © OOOG® L500 @ O80 w= 400 Es ar an cae 5 300 We s00) ‘ § tool X% ec! a 100} o 100) 9 a 3 o a ol a A 164 ‘A LEVEL (22'.6" Bove ROOF “D'LEVeL 109.0" ABove Foor READINGS JAN. 25 1924 ©. w 28 1924 Nh Yulee 18 1924 Fic. 27. in an accumulation of data from which still more positive conclusions can: be drawn.” ‘The subject was followed up by Mr. Wilk and Mr. McKay‘ in some tests on a chimney 3oo ft, high and lined for a height of x45 ft. at the Duluth, U.S.A, works of the Universal Portland Coment Co. Mr. Wilk’s paper describes the preparations made for an elaborate scries of tests relating to all the factors involved in the design of chimneys. Mr. McKay's paper, which is a preliminary report, records the results of the early tests. The results of measurements about 50 ft. below the top of the lining are given in Fig. 28. & 250, o wb B80 g ‘ta eo CE 12 Fie. 28. One of the writers had occasion to investigate this problem some years ago, and, in view of the difficulty of drawing definite conclusions from published data, further measurements have been made. Figs. 29 and 30 record the results of Some temperatures recorded in the shaft and lining of tvo chimneys. ‘The temperatures were recorded with a mercury thermometer the bulb of which was wrapped with tin wire to form a short cylinder capable of just entering }-in. holes drilled in the concrete or brick lining. ‘They were recorded as the holes were drilled, so that there was no leakage of air around the thermometer and the36 REINFORCED CONCRETE CHIMNEYS 600 4 |_z _|s|_s | coucneTe | [Fimeomex A ters 500. 9 4 w f 400_} —| | seeeeen 300_| y a 4 E 200. | 100. | eo" te 4 he 7 EE TIT TTT oO 10 20 | INCHES. Fic. 29. conditions of heat-flow were disturbed as little as possible. ‘The readings in the lining were taken through holes in the shaft. Sufficient readings were taken in both cases to define the gradients through the lining and the shaft. “ The surface temperatures were not measured, but are obtained by extrapolation, which is thought to give more accurate information from the point of view of the cause of stress, especially as surface measurements are liable to errors. Other data obtained in similar circumstances have similar features. Tt will be noted that there is a definite fall of temperature at both the inside of the lining and the outside of the shaft but none at the surfaces bounding the airspace. This is remarkable. It controverts the assumption made by previous investigators and calls for explanation. It is suggested that the two surfaces bounding the airspace are maintained at the same, or very nearly the same, temperature by radiation. At first sight this might seem to indicate that the air-space is useless, but further consideration of the data in Figs. 29 and. 30 doesDIFFERENCES OF ‘TEMPERATURE 37 600 4d me" 5” S" CONCRETE FinesRick a | UNIS 500 2+ Teme s OFGAS | 2 < 400 100 : Z te TTT tt ° 10 20 INCHES, Fic. 30 not support this view. ‘The gradients through the lining and shaft expressed in deg. E. per inch of thickness are 34-0 and 3-32 respectively for Fig. 29 and 27-2 and 3-56 respectively fot Fig. 30. The ratios are 8-9 to x for Fig. 29 and 7°6 to 1 for Fig. 30. The conductivity of ordinary firebrick is about 0-8 that of concrete, but the area available for the transfer of heat is of course greater in the shaft than in the lining, although the difference does not generally exceed 25 per cent. The explanation of the ratios in the foregoing is probably that the heat is carried away by the air flowing upwards through the air-space, which means that there is less heat to be conducted through the shaft than through the lining. ‘The two series cf measurements recorded in Figs. 29 and 30 were made a short distance above the gas inlet, and it will be noted that the temperatures ‘of the air-space boundaries are 110 deg. I¥. and 140 deg. F. Higher up the shaft these temperatures would probably be greater, and the ratio of the gradients therefore lower. ‘The results of tests made in 1937 with thermocouples built in two chimneys38 REINFORCED CONCRETE CHIMNEYS receiving exhaust from an oil refinery are given in Fig. 31. The temperature ‘of the gas rises to 1000 deg. F. The temperatures were measured only at five points, so that the gradient has to be interpolated, but they illustrate the varia- tions and degree obtainable. The air-space was ventilated. Further detailed investigation under a wide range: of conditions is clearly desirable, but from the results of the writers’ tests it seems justifiable to draw. the conclusions in the following. ‘The total fall of temperature through the lining and shaft together is 80 per cent. of the difference between the temperature of the gases and the outside air, the remaining 20 per cent. being accounted for by falls of temperature at all surfaces. When a properly ventilated airspace is provided the difference of Re ae. Temperature °F temperature per inch thréugh the lining may be assumed to be at least five times as great as through the shaft. ‘he difference of temperature in the concrete shaft may therefore be assumed to be o8T x re in which Tis the total difference between the temperatures of the gases in the chimney and the air, L is the thickness of the lining, and J is the thickness of the shaft. ‘The air-space should receive special consideration since, although at any level the temperature may be identical on the inner face of the shaft and the outer face of the lining, the temperature is reduced considerably by the heat absorbed and taken away by the air-stream flowing upwards. _It is often observed that the inlets at the base are insufficient to provide an adequate flow to carry away the heat, and this results in higher internal temperatures and therefore steeper gradients through the concrete shaft. More measured data are requiredDir ERENCES OF TEMPERATURE 39 to develop a satisfactory thermodynamic theory, but in the meantime the observa- tions in the following should be noted. For gas temperatures of about 600 deg. F. the air-space should be 4 in. to 6 in, wide. The total area of the air inlets at the base should be at least equal to the least area of the annular air-space at any level. The holes through the corbels should be as large as possible, and the internal faces of the corbels should be protected from contact with hot gases. It is, of course, impossible to provide the least annular area at the corbels; therefore they form a check to the air-stream, which results in a greater velocity of air through the corbels, thus rendering them self scouring. Inspection and cleaning holes should be formed immediately above the corbels, and should be closed on the outside by metal plates and insulation equivalent to that of the shaft. Free-standing linings, that is, linings not sup- ported on corbels, should have much wider air-spaces to permit inspection and cleaning at the bottom and to prevent impact and injury at the top when the shaft defiects under pressure of the wind; the lining is sheltered from the wind and is not connected to the shaft and therefore docs not move. The exhaust area of the air-space at the top should be larger than the area at the inlets whether the lining is free or carried on corbels. The top of the linings should be protected from the weather, and is sometimes covered by a metal cap, which may corrode or move; it is usually desirable to use the least amount of metal, or none at all, Certain exhausts necessitate some protection of the face of the concrete, depending on the nature of the gases and the formation of corrosive agencies when wetted by rain. Every case should be considered separately. ‘The temperatures of gases measured inside a chimney may reveal little fall between the inlet at the bottom and the outlet at the top, which suggests that comparatively little hest is lost laterally through the lining, the air-space, and the shaft, It also means that the temperature gradients at the top of the chimney are about the same as those at the bottom if the thickness of the shaft is the same. For the temperatures of gases from coal-fired boilers up to, say, 500 deg. F., linings of well-burnt bricks set in cement mortar have been successful, but blue bricks or acid-resistant bricks set in acid-resistant mortar are advisable for higher temperatures and more corrosive gases. Radial bricks are obtainable. The chimney cap, which is carried on the concrete shaft, may also be of acid-resistant brick with reinforcementof stainless steel bands. An example is shown in Fig §5. ‘The stresses arising from the difference of temperature act in horizontal-and vertical directions. The horizontal reinforcement must resist the horizoutal stresses and those arising from shearing. As regards the vertical stresses, con- sideration must be givon to three positions in each horizontal plane namely (2) At the neutral plane where the stresses due to weight and wind offset each other, and where the only stresses are those due to differences of temperature and . Shearing; (2) At the leeward side, that is where the compressive stress is greatest; (3) At the windward side, that is where the tensile stresses are greatest. These variations are seen in Fig. 21 (page 29). On the windward side the concrete is assumed to resist no tensile stress and the difference of temperature increases the tensile stress in the reinforcement, On the leeward side the difference in temperature increases the compression in the concrete and: decreases the compression in the reinforcement, that is in this Position the stress in the concrete is the limiting factor. |CHAPTER V STRESSES. DUE TO DIFFERENCE OF TEMPERATURE AND COMBINATION WITH OTHER STRESSES Havine determined the stresses due to wind and weight only (as described in Chapter IIT} on a shaft of the selected size, and having assessed the fall of tem- perature that may occur in the concrete shaft (as described in Chapter IV), the next step is to combine these many stresses. In the case of reinforced concrete the stresses cannot generally be added together arithmetically but must be com- bined according to the elastic properties of the materials and to the proportion of reinforcement to concrete. ‘The problem may be solved as in tht following. In addition to the notation given in Chapter III, other symbols are as follows. a, ratio of distance of vertical reinforcement from inside of shaft to thickness J. ©, compressive stress in concrete in general (Ib. per square inch). %, maximum compressive stress in concrete due to temperature-only. Cam Maximum compressive stress in concrete due to wind, weight, and tempe nm,” ratio of distance of nential pkine duc to wind, weight, and temy compressed edge to thickness J. m, ratio of distance of neutral phine (duc to temperature effect) from compressed edge to thickness J. 7, ratio of area of horizontal reinforcement to cross-sectional area of shaft. 1, fall of temperature (deg. F_) in the concrete shaft, that is the difference of tempera- ture in deg. F. between the inside and outside faces of the shaft. %, tensile stress in horizontal reinforcement due to shearing. %, © maximum tensile stress in reinforcement due to temperature only, tig, tensile stress in horizontal reinforcement due to shearing and temperature. fue, Maximum tensile stress in reinforcement due to wind, weight, and temperature, 2, coefficient of linear expansion of concrete and steel, assnmed to be 0-000006 per deg. FF. rabure, from, The stresses in the concrete and reinforcement can be computed for each case and set of conditions, but it is clear that design will be governed by the worst cases, namely (1) compression in the concrete on the leeward side of the shaft and (2) tension in the reipforcement on the windward side of the shaft. Also the circumferential temperature stresses must be combined with the horizontal shearing stresses to ohtain the resultant horizontal stresses. The horizontal or circumferential reinforcement should be placed outside the vertical bars. Case 1. General Case for Stresses due to Difference of Temperature onl: One Ring of Reinforcement. Consider Fig. 32 showing a vertical section through an element of the concrete shaft. Assume that the inner face is warmed to give and maintain a temperature gradient in the shaft due to a difference of ¢ deg. F. This gradient is assumed to be a straight line. In a body free to move this condition would result in an expansion of similar shape, that is varying from a maximum at the inside face to zero at the outer face. This expansion would cause the section to curl out- 4° = =STRESSES a hone } { 0 Mewiie/ Surlace: | Remparotire i d é ‘LOPL oe ey i Tenpertre oper cod = a | = | lett 4 Stress due 1 TEmpsroitre Elengotien due 1 Jamparcitvre, : Fic. 32. ward. Owing, however, to restraint by contiguous sections, this differential expansion cannot take place, particularly in a circular shaft. On the other hand, the only movement the shaft can undergo is a uniform increase in length, that is in a vertical or in a tangential direction. The amount of the vertical move- ment is governed. by the amount and position of the vertical reinforcement and the strength of the concrete. In short, the concrete in the hotter parts tends to expand, but, being restrained by the reinforcement, becomes compressed and results in a tension in the reinforcement or cooler regions in such a manner that the forces and moments are balanced and the section remains plane and horizontal. Referring to Fig. 32, let ¢ be the net increase in length per unit length due to a difference of temperature of ¢ deg. F. or the net strain, which is assumed42 REINFORCED CONCRETE CHIMNEYS to be constant over the section. The rise of temperature in the reinforcement due to a difference of temperature of d deg. F. is 5 1, that is (x — at. ‘The corresponding elongation due to this rise is (x — a). |The tensile stress in the Yeinforcement is the difference between that due to the elongation ¢ and that Gue {o its own temperature rise (tr — a). Therefore & is E,le — (x — aa). ‘The stress in the concrete is due to the rise of temperature and the elonga- tion. The maximum difference in rise of temperature in the concrete is #, and the corresponding elongation is #4. ‘Therefore ¢, is E(t — e). Js, that J is, ¢{t —m). The elongation e of the unstressed axis is 4¢(x — m). Therefore, G = Eat — e) — Elim, avd t, = Eda — 1). Since the total stress at the section is unchanged by the temperature, Yep x mJ = tyr]. Therefore BE nt] = E,ii(a — m)rJ, from which 4nd = mr(a— 1). The temperature of the axis unstressed by temperature is J ‘Therefore ny = — me Vnr(onr + 20). ‘Therefore c, and f, can be calculated by substituting in ¢ = A(x — »,) and E(t —e) and i= Efe (1 a). cr Case2. Combined Vertical Compression and Stresses due to Difference of Temperature: One Ring of Reinforcement. (a) RemvrorceMENT IV Tsnsioy.—Before the section is subjected to stresses due to a difference of temperature, the condition will be a practically uniform compression cy or tension throughout the whole elemental area due to the weight or the combination of moments due to weight and wind.’ The maximum combined compressive stress in the concrete will occur at the inside of the shaft on the jeeward side, and the resulting stress in the vertical reinforcement on the leeward side may be either tensile if m is less than @ (Fig. 33) or compressive if m is equal to or greater than ‘a (Figs, 34 and 35). The effect of a difference in temperature between the inner and outer surfaces of the shaft does not change any pre-existing total or resultant stress on any cross section of the shaft. Referring to Fig. 33, the total resultant compression on a section of unit width is cy(J ++ mJ), which is equal to the total compression minus the total tension, that is cox Thaw Therefore ay X (EE I) = oe XM — 2xJo ss Since and since ce oemqporodiues Peet SiON (PLU e Hl 2 Bene sons pra ‘ 1 # A ra & ca 4 J : Py = or 1 yf Bl eh: \ yk g ize WA 4 28 8Y 7 ; ji | | _te i Pa Pap é el 5% g x wah g ae ky a3 7 ‘ Pd . PaO 7 & ealteten, ve arinn fourth Ye Pees ere Ossie e SB RRP RRR RPP RRP RP RRP PP ee eee eee eee| 44 REINFORCED CONCRETE CHIMNEYS i 4 | ge toh $ # ge i id ; Hy 0 ay aE = L Stress oe 1 wind & weight. Swex clue ts * Tempenaitire: | ‘ Tox | oe i t Sttess he te i “ i 4c weighs < ‘| ~ wird. a a oc Hl be a | Be enero - # lap | Stress he 1% winot | We@ght one! Tamparomins Fie. 35. Fie. 36. FARA PRRP PARRA PRRBSS EeEHRBHREHREEEHREHER RRB RR BR RE Ree ee eee eee eel STRESSES 45 Substituting in (a), Bey I(t + 7m) = oy «ah x AJ — arJne, x from which rm aime 4 2) + ante + rm, : ‘The combined compressive stress cy may therefore be determined. (b) Remrorcemsnr 1 Compresston.—If J is equal to or greater than aJ and equal to o: less then J, as shown in Fig. 34, the combined compression can be calculated as follows. 7 The total resultant compression on a section’of unit width is oJ + rm), which is equal to the total compression due to wid, weight, and temperature, namely, dewmf + rm x cotI—, since cay = 0 x 22, , Substitution gives ay nd ® nape Cy J(t + rm) = dey x ay tre from which m= — rm + , frm(ym + 2a) + 20,(t rm, which is the same 1 expression for m as in Case 2(a). (©) Entire Szcrion mm Compresston.—If J is greater than J, as indicated in Fig. 35, the combined compression can be calculated as follows, + Mle mils ay Since Cry = 0c, X ™ and 2eg(t + rm) = eel Pb omit | my = = Coy I+} arma att ale rm)" From which the combines compressive stress may be evaluated. The area of conerete displaced by reinforcement is not taken into account in this case, but the error involved is negligible. Case 3, Combined Vertical Tension and Stresses due to Difference of Temperature: One Ring of Reinforcement, Consult Fig. 36 and apply the same procedure as in Case 2. In this case the whole section is originally in tension due to weight and wind only; these actions will have produced a tensile strain in the concrete or will have cracked it, The first effect of a rise of temperature on the inner face will therefore be to close the crack or neutralise the tension by compression. Until this happens the neutral phine will in effect be outside the section. For this condition the total tension, on a section of unit width, due to weight and wind is rJt,, which is equal to the46 REINFORCED CONCRETE CHIMNEYS difference between the tension and compression due to weight, wind, and tem- perature, that is rJtuy— Ruut J- ny a Since Cy = eG. ANG fry = Mee Aout gives from which ” mom fone + 20) ~ anit iseeeeeeuesereel 3 t Hence t,. can be calculated. Since the earlier part of the expansion due to temperature on the hotter face of the concrete will close or prevent cracks, no additional stress due to temperature will be caused until this critical phase is passed. The limiting condition for this phase is determined as follows. Since » as determined by formula (b) must be real and positive, angi must not exceed 2rma, that is ty : must not exceed a x oy; therefore t, does not exceed ma x Eel. jd Consider a fall of temperature ¢ of 100 deg. F., and assume that a= §, B,= 226 % 108 Ib, per square inch, E, — 30 x 08 Ib. per square inch, and 1 o-c00006 per deg. F. ; fp willnot exceed x80ta, that is 12,000 Ib. per square inch, ‘hich means that if the tensile stress due to wind and weight is greater than te o00 Ib, per square inch there will be no additional stress due to temperature. ‘kc mentioned elsewhere, however, such stresses are rarely attained in the shaft So that stresses due to differences of temperature usually occur. Case 4. General Case for Stresses due to Difference of Temperature: {Two Rings of Reinforcement. ‘This case (Fig. 37) is treated in a similar manner to that with one ring of reinforcement, adding the respective terms to include the compression in the Feinforeement near the hotter surface, It is assumed that the reinforcement rear the two faces have the same cover of concrete and the same area or ratio, that is the total ratio of reinforcement is 7 (Jr on each face). As in the analysis wwith one ring of reinforcement, the rise of temperature in the reinforcement in Vantin due to a difference of f deg. Fis ((2— a). ‘The corresponding elongation ie ji(l_~ a), and the tensile stress /, is E,{e — 240 — a)]._ Likewise for the contre, the ise of temperature is # and the corresponding elongation is 2, Therefore the compressive stress ¢, is Bit — e). Now the maximum tise of tempors's in the reinforcement in. compression is #@; therefore the compressive stress E,(Ma — ¢)- APPR PPP PP PRR AAASTRESSES a a | lou] fi - Li ‘| A > q pee : Te Th HH ape Te 4 SASK 0 : J i ¢ i pi-o} 7 ling =o ~+}—-— | Stress che! Tempersitina Ebongalton lve! ts 7 Zimperoitire . Fie. 37. ‘The temperature at the plane of no stress at mJ is #(1 — m,). ‘Therefore the elongation ¢ is 24 — n,), from which Edia—n) and Elim. 2 2. (o The comp: ressive stress in the reinforcement is E,lf(a-+ ,— 1). Hence Jes x omy Lega + m— noth,48 REINFORCED CONCRETE CHIMNEYS Substituting for ¢, and f, from formula (c) gives gangs + Dane+m—1) = Leu —n), from which m= — 1m 4 Vimi(ym +3). Hence ¢, and #, can be evaluated from formula (c). Taine, wemghP Buiroe Stress hue © wind & weight. Stes be © Jemparotire .* Stess be & wird, AT Seperate. Fis. 38. PPP PRP RPESTRESSES 49. Case.5, Combined Vertical Compression and Stresses due to Difference of Temperature: Two Rings of Reinforcement. (a) From Fig. 38 the total resultant compression on unit width is c,(J ++ mr}) which is the total compression minus the total tension, that i5 ST Dye AT ince 6 MS go A s+ 3m Since fo ay” Cw Con | oy, | ot | one! Tenet Lasielen Pash Weaetor suveas wee Wind, WaggPFand Tajoaratere- Neutal Surtade oe Tine’, We, << fama Sthese aS le. poresae ay few Also since 1 — a, 6y(t-$ mm) = el , from which Ika= nS—m+ alom + em + en). : ‘The combined compression ci, is obtained by substitution in com 5 (b) Tf ny is equal to oF greater than af and equal to or tess than J, in Fig. 39, the combined compression can be calculated as follows. ‘The total resultant compression on unit width is c,(J ++ mJ), which is the total compression due to weight, wind, and temperature and is equal to Shown, . mf (aJ — al fat ~ ay vans Hla 557 8, Since Gyy = cet, Gy(t + rm) = au(! 4X m=), from which ne 2° 2 % naar [om +a(em + an), ! which is the same equation as in the Case 5(a). (©) If nf is greater than J, as shown in Fig. go, the combined compression can be calculated as follows. eu(J + 1m]) oC + 7 ) + ma eo +o ) £m, 4 3, from which the combined compres- 1 sion can be evaluated. The area of concrete displaced by reinforcement is not taken into account in the foregoing but the error is negligible. from which, since a, =1— a, # Case 6. Combined Vertical ‘Tension and Stresses due to Difference of ‘Temperature: Two Rings of Reinforcement. (a) As with one ring of reinforcement, no additional stress is caused by a rise in temperature until this is sufficient to close any cracks caused by weight and wind, Therefore, referring to Fig. 41(a), ty = Jig —desan — Frege 2 BEES Sag eCee eeeeee CC acre Since ey = 64 x EY and f= mT, rhe = moh — 40, x ( + tae), from which a m n= Hence f,y can be evaluated.SE STRESSES Beno dq —————— ee ee eo eal fey endl Tamparatire. ™ } & a Fis. 41. wired ane weights wire, weight Stes he @)52 REINFORCED CONCRETE CHIMNEYS (b) If nJ is equal to or greater than aJ and equal to or less than J, as indicated if Fig. 4r(b), the combined tension can be calculated as in the following. Thy = dh, + Mey alow xD deem X HJ. — a) — #*, from which which is the same equation for 1 as in Case 6(a). As in the case with one ring of reinforcement, % must be real and positive before compression due to temperature takes place, ‘The stresses in the conerete and in the reinforcement in compression ‘may bbe checked by substituting in the appropriate formula in the foregoing, but these stresses are not usually critical in this case. Case 7. Horizontal Stresses. The horizontal or circumferential stresses are those resulting from the shearing due to the bending moment or wind, and the circumferential stresses due to the difference of temperature. These stresses can be determined separately and then combined, Let S be the total shearing force’ on a horizontal section at radius R, which is equal to the total wind pressure acting on the shaft above the section considered. As this force is required to be known when evaluating the bending moment, it is convenient to plot the shearing-force diagram when drawing the pressure and bending-moment diagrams. The lever arm a may for practical purposes be considered as a constant equal to 0178. Therefore the horizontal tension per inch of height is s s oe =>» that - of x 2X RS TER If 7, is the ratio of circumferential reinforcement, the tensile stress #, due to shearing force Sis Sook s 356k * 37° 8 ae : The sheariag stress c, on the area of concrete at the section is a and should be within reasonable limits, otherwise, when it is combined with the com- Pression due to the difference of temperature, the total stress'may exceed the allowable stress: If c, is less than the shearing stress permissible in the concrete, the combination of circumferential compression due to differonce of temperature and diagonal compressive stress due to shearing need not be computed, provitled that the latter stress considered by itself docs not exceed, say, 60 per cent. of the allowable stress. ‘The circumferential stresses due to difference of temperature are combinedSTRESSES. 53 in a similar manner to those for vertical tensile stress and stress due to difference of temperature for one or two rings of reinforcement as required. (a) For one ring of reinforcement placed outside the vertical bars, ay ar + gf ramon 2a) — ary and Therefore o t, (b) For two rings of reinforcerient n= ~ rym + al ryan +3) — amr, : ? 5, ESS t, from which m= — rym +f rymlrym + 1) — arym(a — mF, 1, [e Gey J ranlrym + 2) — 2rym(a — ns G t. ‘Vhe formule in the foregoing are used in the example in Chapter VIT. and