Dutch phonology

Dutch phonology
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Dutch phonology

Dutch is a Germanic language and as such has a similar phonology to other Germanic languages, particularly Frisian,
English, and German. See West Germanic languages for more information.
Dutch as spoken in Haarlem is popularly said to be closest to northern Standard Dutch,[1] not the Amsterdam
dialect.

Vowels
Dutch has an extensive vowel inventory consisting of
13 plain vowels and four diphthongs. The vowels /e
o/ are included in the diphthong chart below because
many northern dialects realize them as diphthongs,
though they behave phonologically like the other
simple vowels. When they precede /r/, these vowels are
pronounced either as monophthongs [ ], or as
centering diphthongs [e o] (or [ ]),
depending on the dialect. Some, particularly
Netherlandic speakers have similar allophones before
dark l. Some speakers may not have such allophones at
all, and pronounce [e o] in every position. [] (a
near-open central vowel) is an allophone of unstressed
/a/ and //.

Monophthongs of Netherlandic Dutch, from Gussenhoven (1992:47)

Vowel length is not always considered a distinctive feature in Dutch phonology, because it is usually paired with
changes in vowel quality. However, there are some minimal pairs distinguished by length alone, such as zonne(n)
[zn] ("suns") versus zone [zn] ("zone") versus zonen [zon(n)] ("sons"), or kroes [krus] ("mug") versus
cruise [krus] ("cruise").

Dutch phonology

Monophthongs of Standard Belgian Dutch, from Verhoeven

(2005:245)

Diphthongs of Netherlandic Dutch, from Gussenhoven (1992:47)

Diphthongs of Standard Belgian Dutch, from Verhoeven (2005:245)

Dutch phonology

Dutch Vowels with Example Words

Symbol

Example

Vowel

IPA

orthography

Gloss

North South
1

kpWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-kip.ogg

kip

'chicken'

i2

bitWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-biet.ogg

biet

'beetroot'

i2

nlizWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-analyse.ogg

analyse

'analysis'

tWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-hut.ogg

hut

'cabin'

y12

fytWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-fuut.ogg

fuut

'grebe'

y12

dyrWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-duur.ogg

duur

'expensive'

btWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-bed.ogg

bed

'bed'

blrWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-blr.ogg

blr

'yell'

betWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-beet.ogg
betWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-beet (Belgium).ogg

beet

'bite'

dWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-de.ogg

de

'the'

nsWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-neus (Netherlands).ogg

nsWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-neus (Belgium).ogg

neus

'nose'

btWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-bad.ogg

bad

'bath'

batWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-baat.ogg

baad

'bathe'

btWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-bot.ogg

bot

'bone'

rzWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-roze.ogg

roze

'pink'

botWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-boot.ogg
botWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-boot (Belgium).ogg

boot

'boat'

u2

utWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-hoed.ogg

hoed

'hat'

u2

krusWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-cruise.ogg

cruise

'cruise'

3
e

e4

3
o

o4

i5

rntinWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-Argentijn.ogg
Argentijn
rntinWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-Argentijn (Belgium).ogg

'Argentine'

y6

ytWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-uit.ogg
yWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-ui.ogg

uit, ui

'out', 'onion'

u7

futWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-fout (Netherlands).ogg

futWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-fout (Belgium).ogg

fout

'mistake'

^1 / y/ are lowered and backed, and sound more like [ ] respectively.[][2]

^2 The difference between /i y u/ and /i y u/ is marginal and almost allophonic. The long vowels occur only
in loanwords, except before /r/ where they are allophones of the short vowels.
^3 Mostly in onomatopoeias and loanwords.
^4 Pronounced as long vowels in Belgium (but dialect of Antwerp realizes /e/ as [i~~e][3]), southern
Netherlands (Zeeland, southern North Brabant and most of Limburg) and some Dutch Low Saxon parts of the
Netherlands, but as narrow closing diphthongs in the rest of the Netherlands. The transcription /e o/ for
this diphthongal pronunciation is non-standard and used here for the sake of clarity. // is rather central than

Dutch phonology

front,[] so it would be more accurate to transcribe it as //.

^5 The first element of /i/ is pronounced more open than the vowel in bed - [i].[] For some Netherlandic
speakers it may be as open as [i], or even [ai].[] The transcription /i/ is non-standard and used here for the
sake of clarity. On the other hand, the dialect of Antwerp realizes /i/ as [a].[4] Many Belgians tend to
monophthongize it [].
^6 In most of the Netherlands /y/ is pronounced more in the back, like [y].[5] Such a transcription is
non-standard and used here (though without the diactric for simplicity) for the sake of clarity. This doesn't
apply to southern Netherlandic Dutch and Flemish Dutch, as dialects from these regions either preserve the
traditional pronunciation [y], or pronounce a monophthong [] instead.
^7 Pronounced /u/ in Northern Standard Dutch and /u/ in Standard Belgian Dutch according to Verhoeven.[]
A better approximation for at least the Northern Dutch pronunciation is /u/.[5] Some Dutchmen may
pronounce this diphthong more open - [au].[] The onset of Standard Belgian /u/ is more open than cardinal //
- [u], and many Belgians tend to monophthongize it to [].

Consonants
Labial

Alveolar

m ()1

n9

voiceless

t9

voiced

d9

() 2

s3

~ s 2

v5

z35

~ z 2

Nasal
Stop

Fricative voiceless
voiced
Tap

Trill

r7

Approximant

~ 8 l ~ 10, 7

Post- Palatal Velar Uvular Glottal

alveolar

() 1

() 1
() 1

~x~4
~4

~h56
7

7
j

w8

Dutch phonology

Notes:
^1 [], [], [], and [] are not separate
phonemes in Dutch. [] is an allophone
of /m/ and /n/ before /f/ and /v/. [] is an
allophone of /n/ and // before // and /x/
in dialects that realize them (or one of
them) as []. The glottal stop [] is
inserted before vowel-initial syllables
within words after /a/ and // and often
also at the beginning of a word, although
unlike standard German there is not a
requirement to use it. [] occurs as an
allophone of /nj/ in words like oranje.[7]
^2 //, // and // are not native
phonemes of Dutch. // only occurs in
borrowed
words
like
goal
or
allophonically when /k/ is voiced due to
assimilation, like in zakdoek [zduk].
// and // only occur in loanwords such
as show ('show') and bagage ('baggage').
However, they both occur in native
words as allophones of /sj/ and /zj/
respectively.

Distribution of guttural R (e.g. [ ]) in Northern Europe.Map based on not

usualonly in some educated speechusual in educated speechgeneral

^3 /s/ and /z/ may be somewhat

palatalized [s z], especially in the Netherlands, or in some northern dialects even retracted [s z], making them
sound close to English / /. Palatalization is more common than retraction, and is also found in some southern
dialects (but usually not in the south-west).
^4 The sound spelled <ch> is a voiceless velar fricative [x] in Northern Dutch and is claimed to be a voiceless
palatal fricative [] in Southern Dutch, including all of Dutch-speaking Belgium.[8] (However, in many or
perhaps most of these regions, the actual sound used gives the impression of being front-velar, not palatal.) In
the North // is usually realized as [x] or [] and thus has merged with /x/ (which may be realized as either []
or [x]), whereas in the South the distinction between // and // has been preserved (neither of which may
actually be palatal sounds; see above). This doesn't apply to many dialects of West Flanders, East Flanders and
Zeeland, which realize both // and // as [x].
^5 In some northern dialects, the voiced fricatives have almost completely merged with the voiceless ones; //
is usually realized as [h] (this is also found in Limburg) and /v/ is usually realized as [f]. /z/ can be realized as
[s], but this is not very common. All of these realizations are also found in dialect of Nijmegen, which also
merges // and /x/ to [x].
^6 [h] is not a separate phoneme in Dutch, but an allophone of // occurring after a voiceless consonant. Some
dialects, particularly those from the southwest, exhibit a phenomenon identical to Northern English
h-dropping, called in Dutch 'h-deletie'. A number of dialects realize all instances of // as [h] (see above for
details).
^7 The realization of /r/ varies considerably from dialect to dialect. It can be realized as the alveolar trill [r],
the alveolar tap [], the voiced uvular fricative [], the uvular trill [], or as the alveolar approximant [],
though the last realization is restricted to the Netherlands, and in most dialects it can be found exclusively in

Dutch phonology

the syllable coda. A notable exception here is the dialect of Leiden, which realizes every instance of /r/ as [].
Some dialects may simply delete the /r/ after schwa, or (although it is rather rare) vocalize it to [] like
German. See the map at right for more information. In dialects that have a uvular pronunciation for both //
and /r/, the two phonemes may merge under some circumstances. This is especially noticeable in the city
dialect of The Hague, where schijven and schrijven may be homophones [sv].
^8 The realization of // varies considerably from the Northern to the Southern and Belgium dialects of the
Dutch language. In the north of the Netherlands, it is a labiodental approximant: []. In the south of the
Netherlands and in Belgium it is pronounced as a bilabial approximant [].[][9][10] In Surinamese Dutch it is
pronounced [w]. In stem-initial position before /r/ it is always pronounced as a voiced labiodental fricative [v],
regardless of the dialect.
^9 The alveolar consonants (especially the stops) are generally pronounced as denti-alveolars in Belgian
Dutch.
^10 The lateral /l/ is velarized postvocalically ([]), and may even be vocalized by certain speakers.[][] In some
northern dialects, for example the West Frisian speaking area, it may always be dark, and in some southern
dialects it is never velarized.

Dutch Consonants with Example Words

Symbol
IPA

Example
IPA

orthography

Gloss

pnWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-pen.ogg

pen

'pen'

bitWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-biet.ogg

biet

'beetroot'

tkWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-tak.ogg

tak

'branch'

dkWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-dak.ogg

dak

'roof'

ktWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-kat.ogg

kat

'cat'

oWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-goal.ogg

goal

'goal' (sports)

mnsWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-mens.ogg

mens

'human being'

nkWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-nek.ogg

nek

'neck'

Wikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-eng.ogg

eng

'scary'

fitsWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-fiets.ogg

fiets

'bicycle'

vifWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-vijf (Belgium).ogg

vijf

'five'

skWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-sok.ogg

sok

'sock'

zepWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-zeep.ogg

zeep

'soap'

fWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-chef.ogg

chef

'boss, chief'

yriWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-jury.ogg

jury

'jury'

x,

xtWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-acht (North).ogg

tWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-acht (South).ogg

acht

'eight'

, ,

srtonbsWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-'s-Hertogenbosch.ogg
ewWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-geeuw.ogg
ewWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-geeuw (Belgium).ogg

's-Hertogenbosch ''s-Hertogenbosch'
geeuw
'yawn'
geeuw
'yawn'

r, , , ,

rtWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-rat.ogg
tWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-rad.ogg
peuWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-Peru.ogg
nedlndsWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-Nederlanders.ogg
t buwaWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-be geert bourgeois.ogg

rat
rad
Peru
Nederlanders
Geert Bourgeois

'rat'
'wheel'
'Peru'
'Dutchmen'
'Geert Bourgeois'

Dutch phonology

utWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-hoed.ogg

hoed

'hat'

. w,

Wikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-wang.ogg
wWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-wang (Belgium).ogg
brWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-bewering (Belgium).ogg

wang
wang
bewering

'cheek'
'cheek'
'assertion'

jsWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-jas.ogg

jas

'coat'

lntWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-land.ogg

land

'land / country'

oWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-goal.ogg

goal

'goal' (sports)

bamWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-beamen.ogg

beamen

'to confirm'

The final 'n' of the ending -en (originally [n], with a variety of meanings) is not pronounced in many areas, making
those words homophonous with forms without the -n. It is dropped both word-finally and word-internally in
compound words. This pronunciation can be morphologically sensitive and can distinguish words, as the -n is
dropped only when it is part of the distinct ending -en, but not when the word has a single stem that happens to end
in -en. Thus, the word teken "(I) draw" always retains its -n because it is part of an indivisible stem, whereas in teken
"ticks (plural)" it is dropped because it is a plural ending. These words are therefore not homophones in dialects
which drop -n, despite being spelled identically.
Final -n is retained in the North East (Low Saxon) and the South West (East and West Flemish) where the ending
becomes a syllabic [n] or (after velars) syllabic [] sound. Examples: laten [latn]; maken [mak]. Some Low
Saxon dialects that have uvular pronunciation of // and /x/ (or one of them) also have a syllabic uvular nasal, like in
lagen and/or lachen [la]

Final devoicing and assimilation

Dutch language devoices all obstruents at the ends of words (a final /d/ becomes /t/). This is partly reflected in the
spelling, the voiced "z" in plural huizen ( [yz]Wikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-huizen.ogg) becomes huis (
[ys]Wikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-huis.ogg) ('house') in singular. Also, duiven (
[dyv]Wikipedia:Media
helpFile:Nl-duiven.ogg) becomes duif ( [dyf]Wikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-duif.ogg) ('dove'). The other cases
are always written with the voiced consonant, but a devoiced one is actually pronounced: the voiced "d" in plural
baarden ( [bard]Wikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-baarden.ogg ) is retained in singular spelling baard ('beard') but
is pronounced as [bart]Wikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-baard.ogg, and plural ribben ( [rb]Wikipedia:Media
helpFile:Nl-ribben.ogg) has singular rib ('rib'), pronounced as [rp]Wikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-rib.ogg.
Because of assimilation, often the initial consonant of the next word is usually also devoiced: het vee ('the cattle') is
/()tfe/.
Some regions (Amsterdam, Friesland) have devoiced the voiced fricatives /v/, /z/, and //, merging them with the
voiceless ones and making certain words homophones. Compare logen and loochen /lo(n)/ vs. /lox(n)/, both
pronounced [lox(n)] in areas with the devoicing.

Stress
Most native Germanic words (the bulk of the core vocabulary) are stressed on the root syllable, which is usually the
first syllable of the word. Germanic words may also be stressed on the second or later syllable if certain unstressed
prefixes are added (particularly in verbs). Non-root stress is common in loanwords, as such words are generally
borrowed with the stress placement unchanged. In polysyllabic words, secondary stress may also be present. Certain
prefixes and suffixes will receive secondary stress: vr.k.mn, wr.ls. The stressed syllable of a word will
receive secondary stress within a compound word: bm.ml.ding, l.co.hol.per.cen.t.g.
While stress is phonemic, minimal pairs are rare, and marking the stress in written Dutch is optional, never
obligatory, but sometimes recommended to distinguish homographs that differ only in stress. The most common

Dutch phonology
practice is to distinguish een (indefinite article, which, as a clitic, bears no stress) from n (the cardinal number
one).[][11] It is also written to distinguish some verbs, as stress placement on prefixes also carries a grammatical
distinction, such as in vrkomen (to occur
listenWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-voorkomen1.ogg) and
voorkmen (to prevent listenWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-voorkomen2.ogg). In vrkomen and other verbs
with a stressed prefix, the prefix is separable and separates as kom voor in the first-person singular present, with the
past participle vrgekomen. On the other hand, verbs with an unstressed prefix are not separable: voorkmen
becomes voorkm in the first-person singular present, and voorkmen in the past participle, without the past
participle prefix ge-.
Dutch possesses a strong stress accent, like other Germanic languages, and uses stress timing due to its relatively
complex syllable structure. It has a preference for trochaic rhythm, with relatively stronger and weaker stress
alternating between syllables in such a way that syllables with stronger stress are produced at a more or less constant
pace. Generally, every alternate syllable before and after the primary stress will receive relative stress, as far
secondary stress placements allow: W.g.n.ngn. Relative stress will preferably not fall on //, so syllables
containing // may disrupt the trochaic rhythm. To restore the pattern, vowels are often syncopated in speech:
kn.d.rn > /kn.dr(n)/, h.ri.ngn > /ar.(n)/, vr.g.lj.king > /vr.li.k/. In words where secondary
stress is imposed lexically onto the syllable immediately following the stressed syllable, a short pause is often
inserted after the stressed syllable to maintain the rhythm, to ensure that the stressed syllable has more or less equal
length to the trochaic unit following it: bm..ml.ding, wr..l.z.
Historically, the stress accent has reduced most vowels in unstressed syllables to [], as in most other Germanic
languages. This process is still somewhat productive, and it is common to reduce vowels to [] in syllables carrying
neither primary nor secondary stress, particularly in syllables that are relatively weakly stressed due to the trochaic
rhythm. Weakly stressed long vowels may also be shortened without any significant reduction in vowel quality. For
example, politie (phonemically /politsi/) may be pronounced [poli(t)si], [pli(t)si] or even [pli(t)si].

Phonotactics
The syllable structure of Dutch is (C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)(C). Many words, like in English, begin with three
consonants - e.g.
straatWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-straat.ogg (street). There are words that end in four
consonants - e.g.
herfstWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-herfst.ogg (autumn),
ergstWikipedia:Media
helpFile:Nl-ergst.ogg (worst), interessantstWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-interessantst.ogg (most interesting),
sterkstWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-sterkst.ogg (strongest) - most of them being adjectives in the superlative form.

Historical sound changes

Dutch (with the exception of the Limburg dialects) did not participate in the second Germanic consonant shift except
for the last stage - compare
/-k-/ > /-x-/: German machen vs. Dutch makenWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-maken.ogg, English make
/-p-/ > /-f-/: German Schaf vs. Dutch schaapWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-schaap (Belgium).ogg, English
sheep
/-t-/ > /-s-/: German Wasser vs. Dutch waterWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-water.ogg, English water
/--/ > /-d-/: German das, Dutch datWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-dat.ogg vs. English that
Dutch generalised the fricative variety of Proto-Germanic *// as [] or [], in contrast with German which
generalised the stop [], and English which lost the fricative variety through regular sound changes.
Dutch underwent a few changes of its own. For example:
Words with -old or -olt lost the /l/ in favor of a diphthong as a result of l-vocalization. Compare English old,
German alt, Dutch oudWikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-oud.ogg.

Dutch phonology
/ft/ changed to /xt/ (North) or /t/ (South), spelled cht, but this was later reverted in many words by analogy
with other forms. Compare English loft, German Luft, Dutch lucht (pronounced [lxt]Wikipedia:Media
helpFile:Nl-lucht.ogg or [lt]Wikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-lucht (Belgium).ogg).
Proto-Germanic */u/ turned into /y/ through palatalization, which, in turn, became the diphthong
/y/Wikipedia:Media helpFile:Nl-ui.ogg, spelled ui. Long */i/ also diphthongized to /i/Wikipedia:Media
helpFile:Nl-ei.ogg, spelled ij.

References
[1] Article in Onze Taal (http:/ / www. onzetaal. nl/ OT60/ OT60H12. pdf)
[2] Rietveld & Van Heuven 2009, p.68
[5] Rietveld & Van Heuven 2009, p.70
[6] Map based on
[11] The current collection at nl.wiktionary

Bibliography
Booij, Geert (1999), The phonology of Dutch, Oxford University Press
Camerman, F. (2007), Antwerps schrijven, pp.1924
Gussenhoven, Carlos (1992), "Dutch", Journal of the International Phonetic Association 22 (2): 4547, doi:
10.1017/S002510030000459X (http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S002510030000459X)
Gussenhoven, Carlos; Aarts, Flor (1999), "The dialect of Maastricht", Journal of the International Phonetic
Association 29 (02): 155166, doi: 10.1017/S0025100300006526 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/
S0025100300006526)
Peters, Jrg (2006), "The dialect of Hasselt", Journal of the International Phonetic Association 36 (1): 117124,
doi: 10.1017/S0025100306002428 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0025100306002428)
Rietveld, A.C.M.; Van Heuven, V.J. (2009), Algemene Fonetiek, Uitgeverij Coutinho
Trudgill, Peter (1974), "Linguistic change and diffusion: Description and explanation in sociolinguistic dialect",
Language in Society 3 (2): 215246
Verhoeven, Jo (2005), "Belgian Standard Dutch", Journal of the International Phonetic Association 35 (2):
243247, doi: 10.1017/S0025100305002173 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0025100305002173)
Verhoeven, Jo (2007), "The Belgian Limburg dialect of Hamont", Journal of the International Phonetic
Association 37 (2): 219225, doi: 10.1017/S0025100307002940 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/
S0025100307002940)

Article Sources and Contributors

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