Reading Package Pakistan Studies SS 102 Nida Haseeb Khan Sameen Mohsin Ali Spring Semester 2011-2012 Lahore University of Management Sciences School of Humanities, Social Sciences & Laweeeeeenenoteaoeavn epee teoanoesveeeeve 886 LAHORE UNIVERSITY OF MANAGEMENT SCIENCES Pakistan Studies S$ 102 Spring 2011-2012 Nida Haseeb Khan; Sameen A. Mohsin Ali Class Timings: TBA Office Hours/Extension: TBA Credits: 2 Course Aims ‘This course aims to introduce students to the history of the region comprising Pakistan, provide an overview of contending perspectives on the origins'of the country, and examine its polities, society and culture. The course, furthermore, looks at some contemporary developmental issues facing the country. Grading Breakup Reading Presentation 15% Group Project Idea 5% Project Plan 10% Final Project 15% In-class Assignments/Quizzes 15% Final Exam, 35% Attendance 5% “The course has been divided roughly into 12 themes; 6 historical and 6 contemporary. The class will be divided into 11 groups of 7-9 (depending on enrollment) which will choose one historical and one contemporary theme for the reading presentation and gtoup project respectively. One group camnot present and do the group project both on historical/contemporary themes ¢.g. if a group signs up for a historical theme in the reading presentation, it must do the group project on a contemporary theme and vice versa. Instruments. 1, Group Reading Presentation Each group wilf present on one of the reading themes of the course in the corresponding session. The assigned group will present the gist of the readings, the main arguments and analysis, in the first half of class. At least 3-4 of the group members must speak. 2. Group Project‘This is an exploratory (NOT a research or writing) project on topics assigned by the instructor. “The project will be presented in class in the last 2 sessions of the course - with a 1000-1200 word report, if necessary. Groups will have 7-9 students each and at least 3-4 group ‘members should speak jn case ofa multimedia presentation, Other options are a portfolio or video, The grade for the project is broken up into three components - the idea or concept, the project plan, and the final project. ‘Yopics for the project will be assigned by the instructor, Groups are expected to work on the project throughout the semester, discussing their work with the instructor at scheduled times. 3. In-class Assignments “There will be 3 unannounced in-class quizzes or assignments; these may be based on readings, Jecture slides, class discussions and movies for the course. There will be no makeup quizzes, but only 2 of the assignments/quizzes will be considered in the final grade. 4, Final Exam ‘The final exam will be closed book/elosed notes. A major component of the exam will be @ subjective question. The pattem of the exam will be at the instructor's discretion. 5. Attendance Students are expected to attend all classes. If a student can not make it to a session, they must fet the instructor and the TA. know before hand. yer, J. 1998. Chapier 7 and Chapter 9 Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization, Mi Civilisation 2 Colonial Period | Aziz, KK, 1976. The Imperial Impact. In The British in. India ~ A Study in Imperialism. Islamabad: National ‘Commission on Historical and Cultural Research. 3 ‘Creation: Sayeed, Khalid, 1968. ‘Conflicting Views about the Origins! of Pakistan’. In Pakistan: The Formative Phase 1857-1948, Karachi: OUP, 3-12 Partition Narratives (no essigned reading) CROC HRT HO RECT ERE EHO EOHO RHEL EL®identity ‘Nation building and Nasr, SVR (1997). State, Society, and the Crisis of National] Identity. In Rasul Bakhsh Rais (ed.) State, Society and Democratic Change in Pakistan, Karachi: OUP, pp. 104-130) Military Rule Democratisation and| Kennedy, Charles, 2006, A User's Guide to Guided Democracy: Musharraf and the Pakistani Military Governance Paradigm. In Pakistan 2005, Charles Kennedy and Cynthia Botteron (eds.), New York: OUP, 120-158, ‘Waseem, M. (2002). ‘Causes of democratic downslide” Economic and Political Weekly, 37:44/48, 4532-4538. Sub-national Identities Raliman, T. (2003) “Language, Power and Ideology” in Zaidi (ed) Continuity and Change: Socio-Political and Institutional Dynamics in Pakistan. Karachi: City Press. Pp. 153-149 Ahmad, M. (1998). “Revivalism, Islamization, Seotarianism| and Violence in Pakistan” in Baxter and Kennedy (eds) Pakistan 1997. India: Harper Collins Publishers, Demography and Environment Environment, Economic Survey 2010-2011 Oxfam, 2009. Climate Change, Poverty and Environmental (Crisis in the Disaster Prone Areas of Pakistan, Chapters 3 &| 4, pg 21-39 Homan Rights FIRCP, 2010, Freedom of Thought, Conscience and Religion. State of Human Rights in Pakistan, ‘http://www. hrop-web.org/Publications/AR2010.pdf, 123- 138. Civil Society Whaites, A. (1995). The State and Civil Society in Pakistan. Contemporary South Asia, 4:3, pp.1-26 Recommended - Mustafa, D., 2005. (Anti)Sociai Capital in the Production of an (un)civil society in Pakistan, Geographical Review, 95:3, 328-347 e@eseeeoeoeoveteoonesvaevtoeoasneoeeneeaenesae seHealth | "Akbar, S. (1999). “The Health Sector in Pakistan: Issues, Constraints, Possibilities” in The New Development Paradigm Papers on Institutions, NGOs, Gender and Local Government. Karachi: OUP. Pp, 264-283 TI | Urbanisation and | Ali, Reza, 2003, Underestimating Urbanisation. in Poverty Continuity and Change: Socio-Political and Institutional [Dynamics in Pakistan, Zaidi (ed.). Karachi: City Press, 127- 132. Zaidi, A., 2005, Poverty, Trends, Causes and Soiutions. In Issues in Pakistan's Economy. Karachi: OUP, 434-452. 2 Terrorism and [A Great Deal of Ruin in a Nation, 2011, Pakistan, Asia, The tslamisation Economist, March 31, http://www. economist com/realarticleid.cfm redirect_id=18 488344, Reading to be assigned TS Presentations 14 Presentations eeeeeoea Cea eee SGseeevneecueseensdvee ee ene ©Kenoyer, People and Professions Living in the City x the busy marketplace of modern Harappa City. peopie {rom the surrounding countryside mix with tne city dweller, while merchants and traders hawk their wares, Leading & butfalo to market, a sunburned farm gis] wearing heavy ornaments brushes past an elegantly dressed city lady \wearlug delicate glass bangles. A camel herder bageles with merchant over the price of brass bells. x the background @ carpet maker calls out the designs to almble fingered apprentices as they te woolea knots, Dusty children playing Jn the streets Ol tie aie with [aughter, and a mother cradles ‘her auokling infant in the shadow of a doorvay. As a meeting lace for people of many different occupations aad ethnic ‘groups. modern Harappa City ls probably not-much diferent {rom the ancient wowns and villages of the Indus civilization (fig 7.2). However one important atference is mat many large villages, towns and large oltfes exist within 20 kiloracters of modem Harappa ((g. 7.2), while at 2600 8.0. the population enelty was much less, Some small Indus period sites have ben discovered in tie couatryside near the anctent mounds ‘of Harappa, but the nearest targe cites would have been at Ganweriwala (260 km) ané Rakhigarhl (350 kan) (fg, 7.3). S.A Chapter 7 3m contrast io the sparsely populated couateyside, te ‘ancient Indus cities must have been very colorful and tively places. The rusa of wate steaming in trough the elty gazes. (fig. 74) each morning would have brought together mor- chants and nomads from distant regions with local isher‘vlk, hhunters and farmers. In addition to the rulers aud waders, the city would have hosted administrators, shopkeepers and ‘workshop owners, efferent classes of arcane and other plo fessionals. Although the Indus writing has not bean deci phered, we can determine much about te people ving In the cities ftom their ardfaets. Most of the communitles eep- resented {a the atchacological record can be directy corre. lated to the types of communities found in tle Barly Histosko cities {thin century s..) and enumerated in the later texts,” Administrative and service classes of ie Indus cities would have included state officials and their attendants ‘under the control of the ruling ellies (see Chap. 5). Small sooms near the gateways at Harappa and Daolavira housed gatekeepers and probably tax-collaotors as well. Sweepers and garbage collectors worked along the streets and neighborhoods of the cy, filing baskets with refuse wo iknow over the city walls, or loading cartloads of waste to be ‘cumped at che edge of the roads leading from the city. 3.2 Tht aren, aera! oa a mae sng ee sata em ana Pouoc elas ates eno Me leaned xa aren die hice ssn by oki: Douro wieey hase abt save Sa fan nuance wae ry wt cave ila mk i unc tag, rsh nog fan cy eae ‘sevouge netoogute rm eseans cand au ib wi ae aren ate Proms Pronasiond 127 e@ermpeoveaveeeovoeaesvaeeosonaneeeneeneeeoeeeSome farmers may have dived wtthin the eile. walking to the fields each morning and heriing livestock t0 nearby geazing grounds Fro the numerous terracotta net weights and arrow poinia found in both che subcootient tod, bat some domestio and bign- aualty comercial weaving say ave taken piace the s city taef (ig. 7.8). Aithough EES ve do uot mow the olor of FRE sc ees Indus fabrics, we can oa i determing the high quality of Stowenjo~tero aad Hasappa, Fg. 24. gin mmncincion athe Se pol neansensouten gee otiwnd?, Weaving and the use of wool ‘ecan dedtce that Rsnerfolk Keds Onna neat ecu everase! aug he yey ex eceresh’ ant cotton from. fabric ang hunters also lived inside PS"=n se alowa toe wey le cay. ‘Texte from the later Barly Historical cities period inlently 2 host of independent professtouale wno lived or ‘worked in the cites, including merchants and shapkeepers, physiclans, oarbers, waserfolk and astrologers, Stockplles ‘af jewelry (fig, 7.9} and bronze weapons, as well es actual ‘workshops and public steuctures indicate the presence of ‘merchants and shopkeepers at most indus towns and cites; bathing platforms near & large well at Havappa may have bean a public washing ares, possibly fur washerfolk Bronze ‘razors, pins and pincers musthave been the tools ofa barber cra physician, two trequently overlapping professions. Ritual specialists must have worked with dealing herbs and Ineartations, but such materials are not preserved in the archaeological record Mueb of the teatite work may have been catried out in the villages surrounding the city 26 Is common wroughout ~ Impressions in faience or clay and from oat fragments preserved on sliver or copper objects. [8s not wni(eely that the technique for block printing on fabric Was practiced. but exesvaifons have pmcuced ne conorete evidence, Carpetmaking was probably developed by nomadic ‘communities ong before the rise of the Indus cites, but tt ay have been practiced in the anclent urban centers. alt major lodus settlements have examples of smail, ourved ‘copper blades that have been called razoxs, but aeteally may have been spectalized jeols for outting the Led thveads on pile carpets (0g. 7.7). Fig 25 owe stir Metae= Gocorsnastieautis msec mae p wae ohio hte te a ae slo fii sae, ie. no 2 Muar. an ‘ih cls Wii wo ed {atc hasten soci sg ‘machin Atrckcad or gigs aw ase Rowan sei or sde vos Mees 72a and cl see vid astipe cloacae tern tb Fa sown crs Grn wa od wet in aetinge 128 Ascwe Crs ov mi foes Vans Chron eeesvueaeevoaoeese eevee evs eeeeveenseseenen ©ee¢eeenteoeasee eoeaeeeaneeeeev ese _e Basketmaking and mat-wcavig, which may ave been domestic crafts, are wel zepresenied Uirough impressions on hant-packed olay Hooes and fired clay lumps. Coifed baskets and woven mats wore made thor reeds and grasses, possibly using polised tone ams and spatula. In ation to woven rosters, various types of twisted cord were cade from emp o® other vegetable Moers, for tying bundles of good and supporting greemware pottery as it dried Well diggers, archiects acd brick masons were needed to keep the water souroes cleared and nalaiain the massive city walls, gazweys, drains and domestic buildings. Large ‘wootlen Rotses and ookuaned verandahs were but on tp of baled brick foundations by specializes carpenters (sce hap. 8, fg. 3.9). Huge doors would have been needed for the oly gales, and smaller carved doors and latiee-work windows were msde for brick houses (see Rg. 3.13). nthe basis of tevacotia replicas and depictions on seals, wo know ‘hat furnsaee prosuced inthe cites inchuded thrones with Legs carved to imitate cattle hooves, beds with woven coring avd otker types of furitare inlaid with shelt and stone. Furniture makers may also have made mmusiea tastrumeuts sich as drsns. A liforexi group of compenters probably speciale” in making wooden boals and oxcarts that were needed to earry out trade between the cites Much debtis trom sine and eramte maafacturing a vests to Me presence of powers, fienee workers and swone- ‘ware banglemakers living in sicetil neighborhoods or at the cdg of te ci. Copper and bronze workers also had uhelr Workshops Inside the oi even iowa the smoke and ‘umes ftom metalworking myst have boon quite unbearable inthe hot summers. Evidence far god and aliver working has en found in various paris of Karappa and ou Mound B itis associated with numerous suck other eras as sicabite and ‘yave beadmaling, sbllworking and ivory varving? Stone carvers produced both large and smal objects ot wsltarian ane symboltefotion. Caincing-stones, nestles and loom weights were made for everyday use: massive Fingstones and conical objects were produced for public Sig 78. ane pate Bem butidings or rituat functions, Rxcustve sculptural schools may have flowvisbed In the big cities such 2s Monenjo-daro vwhere seated animal (See caf, no. 121) aad human sculptures were caved ia sandstone and steatie (eee cat ‘nas. 117-120), After the “priesi-king” the most famous stone sculpiare of tie Indus eiilzation is the stall male torso from Haraopa (fs, 7.932 This flaurine ts a masterpiece cacved trom a fine-grained red sandstone, a material toat ‘was never used by Later sculptors, Holes drilled in the torso -sttached separately carved arms and head, whll the nipples an some form of shoulder ornament would have Deon inlaid, “Toe peel of manuracture ana gonéral modeting conform tw Harappan sivles that are well represented on auotter ale seulpiure from Harappa itsei? (see fig. 78), and anurserous falence animal figorines fom hotk Harappa and Mohenjo-aro (see cat. nos. 172-175). Fg. 29 (Tg yea ic yaks, a gH Fo. 79 Pox Corks! shhetdreaton Hap, tnt 19151 Rrnnatsnn Pavone 129addition to ovate that are direct reflected in she archaeologioa! regord, otter speclalists living in the cities would have Inchided pecfumses, tiquer aid oll nsmfzctmers, esther workers, gatland makers and many ter siuallar seale crafts. Tiny falence bottles may have heen ased co hold precious perfumes and scented ois, while perforated pottery (see cat. no. 192) may indicate the preperation of brewed beverages. Bach specialized oratt ‘would have been practiced by a separate group of artisans, ang although related craft communities may have ‘ovesiagped, recent excavations at Harappa indicate that many spectalisis lived or worked together 1a distinct neighborhoods in partioular parts of the city (see Goap. 8). ‘A mejor facior in the well being of any ctiy is the presence of amusement classes: singers, dancers, actors, musieane and prostates, people who provide distraction from the humdrum existence of cleaning drains, chipping agate beats or building houses. While we can not identity lagers, the line of seven figures on a seal ftom Woteio- daro (see cat. no, 24) may represent 2 fine dance oF rieual procession; ve think some figarines represent. dancers. such fs a fagmentary stone sculpture from Hiarappa of a male Lorso tvisted in a classical dance pose, with one leg raised actass the body and the arms outstretched (fig, 79a and b).* Carved from gray stone, the torso bas tiny dowel holes io atieeh the head and armas, which may have been movable. ‘Actors and roustclons were probably quite common in the big cities, nut theiy costumes and musical itrumenss bave not oem preserved for posterity. A terracotta mask {rom Motenjo-daro (see fig, 5.5) was probably used im rituat amas, while various terracotta puppets {see fig. 6.27 and cel no. 182) may have bea used by street porformers 0 entertain the publig during special risual tolldays or festivals, We have recovered no evidence for stringed insiruments, and cur only represeutetion of asioian ts (99 2 tablet fom Harappa, where a drummer i shown playing hefore @ tiger deity The drum is a long cylinder wtih ‘membranes at elduer end, much Uke the diolak or pakawaj style drum stl played in the Punjab today. Other insteurnents Fa 7.10PM, 139 Asewze Chu fas Wout Chacon that may have been used for ritual as well as everyday enjoyment include tae conch-atteli trumpet, terracotia ‘whistles and pelnted satiles (Gig, 7.10, see oat, noe, 104- 108). While relatively simple, these instruments effectively tablish rhythm aud tonal background sonnd. Performances with humans may have been tmportant for ritual and aesthetic reasons, dui a8 1s common ‘throughout the Indus Valley today, anlmel races and bear balling become the focus of altenion after the harvest is doe, Tervacota toys found at most Indus settlements provige 2 glimpse of the pastimes that might have involved trained animals, Terencoita pxcaris with movable parts (see cat. 09, 45, 48) pulled by movable-headed oxen {see cat. rio. 162} an® perhaps the most common. Throughout the indus Valley people still ravs oxcarts, especially in the regions around Mohenjo-taro, where on-track betting ends with large sums of money or land changing hands. Dog lgurines (fg. 7.12) and bear igurines with eollars sguggest that anlma) fights may have been avother common form of antertainment. funerant performers who engage in| dog and bear lights today often use trained animals Wat do not actually Kill each otaer but simply pub on a go0d stow. ‘The fighting dogs were also probably used in tracking ancl hunting down elusive game along the river's ood plain. Our ‘formation about dogs used by the Indus people comes from ones and from the figurines, which depict short-haired, small-bodied dag that may heve been Dred from wld ced dogs and wolves thabused to inhabit parts ofthe Indus Valley. Some cogs were also trained to show off, such 2s the 171. #3 wag eed 18 eeaeeoeae*Goaoesee see evueeovsevoeonenseeenen &esae@oeooaoeeeovnaseesteeoneoeeneeneeesee tennacotia figueine of a begging dog from Harapeu that is wearing 4 beaded collar (ig. 7-12), Given tha range of nctivitias fom hunting and Ngbting to performing, perhaps several types of dogs were bred in the urban centers. Pet monkeys were also probably a common sight in ‘he bozaans oF neighborhood markets. Figurings of monkeys ‘were made of terraootia ov glazed falenes (Hie, 7.13). depicting one oT moxe monkeys ia various amorous oo sctabatie poses (gee cat. av. 175). li the monkey figusines fare of the shont-ailed rhesus or macaque spectes, but the long-igiled lenguis would lave been known to the Indus people itving tn Gujarat end the norihem Punjab, because this species Is quis common throught these regions today. ‘The factthat they did nobsmaks any figures ofthe jong-alleg ‘monkegs is quite lutrigeing, and Ib Js also odd that no monkeys are illustrated on the seals or nanrative tablets "The Harapan bias against depicting monkeys is giyptic art js one of the important differences with iater Hindu ark, where monkeys are a common mot and the fong-tailed angur is dipectly associated with the deity Hamiman. ‘The one performance wadition that is popuier in modgen South Asia buts not reresented on any ofthe iad esis or tablets 19 snake-oharming, Only a few inolvidual snakes are depleted on termacatia molded tableis, and the ig 71 ei op bet a gal eT Fig. 718. ales ety yi ar ena, 0.4 snake motif tg incmded with some of the multiple ankmat ‘lauces, but none of these representations shows @ snake- ‘cbarmer interacting with the snake. ‘Except for a few examples, such s2 snake-charmers, most ofthe necupatiocal specialists and peolessional classes that were present in the Barly Historic cittes lave paraliels in che frst cities of the Indus cegion, However, we have no: indication that ducing tke Harappan Phase oveupational specialists were organized into Hgid soo'al categories called Jail or caste, a feainre teal becaine corumon only much Later. ‘The sooial hierarehy end stratification of different classes in the indus cities may have been somewhat Nexible, especially for individuals who wanted to change professions, exploit new resoutess or develop new technologies. mages of the people who lived in ancient’ Mokejo- daze end Harappa can be seen in the ritual figuines and toys made from clay and bronze, Actual ornaments and satensils found in the excavallozs show the range of materials anid styles that were need to differentiate the social clasees. ‘Burtale from sites such 2s Havappa allow a detailed look at the physica) characteristics and healt ofthe city dwellers. ‘Together, these dillerent Kinds of information provide @ glimpse of the life of Indus peopie from childhood throught adulthood, wo old age and death.Childbirth and Childhood Numneroue feruilty symbols and ritual ebjests atiest 40 the desire for ‘enildeen, but our most direct evidence ig hom tiny terracotta figurines of infaass or young children. Thesé figures, eoaumon at most Indus sites may have been votive offerings tv pray for children ox to protect tae fom hhiness. Childbirth in the indus cities must have ean joyful, but also filled with apprenenston end fear for the safety and fealtn of the abd and for the mother. & sed reminder that many ‘ohildren and miotbers must have died ‘m eutdbirta ts found tn the busta of @ ‘mother and infant at Harappa® Most figurines of infants and children are male, possibly demonstrating 2 culvaral bias towards the desite for male childien and for thelr proteetiog, a patiors that coulnues in many parts of the world even today. Individual vative figurines of infants may have been placed on household shrines, Many female votive fyurives carry 9 suckling infant on she left hip, a characreristle pose amoag village women throughout Pakistan aud Iadle today (Ne. 7.14). When held with the right orm fee, a woman. can continue ber kousehold work Note. 13 132. Areoner Gro are Buns Vonay Cimarron while nursing her ohild. No femate figurines have been found showing aa Infant carcied tp a sling atthe back or side, ¢ poéltion that's common emeng ‘gomie communities In the subcontinent, Otter figurines depict obidren playing with toys that are similar to ob- Jeo%s found In tie excavations ofthe cit- ies. A tng clay fguréne of a child tokd- ing a stall tse (fg. 7.15) may provids fa clue to the mang pottery diss ound 1m. the Indus eities. We foand groups of ‘uee to seven discs tn tac recent exca velous at Harappa (fig 7.16) that we sink were used ina game similar one ‘tats stil played by caltdren in visges and twuns througkout northern india ‘and Pakistan, fn the modern verston of ‘this game, called pitiu, one player Fo, 134 Sree niabn ribet, rows a Dal to mock dow a stack of pottery discs (lig. 7.17), The delerder ofthe stack must quieklypie them Inthe graduaied sequence a the 2est ofthe childrea scatter in a raucous game of 13. Ries vary fro region to region, but the popular game op- penta to have Kept children amused for at ieast 4500 years Other loye used to amase the many obiléren Using in ‘the cities include hollow animal figurines with wheel, ach as the moveable toyram figarine from Chantudaro (see cal. Fi. 1 vet is trie satya mn, Mao {eh ou urn vg ae rage one Mahe. hg, 9 go yay eg a cain faoy Fig 4, Yong tea yn smog Ss seeseeoaetsoaveseeeceaevpeeoeoveeoeeaese ee seesnes @eeeatov,neveevnenreouaeteoneaees ee eee eee ‘0, 161). Terracotta tops (Nig. 7.18) ané clay mariles 22> found on the floors of courtyards and iitoben areas, where children could play uader the satchful eye of the mother Some to's are made. of shell (8ee cat. no, 109) or heve a copper tip to cause a muc' longer spin tnan the tenracobia tip, whereas others have a shallow depression, Tops with depressions on the ip may have been spun om top of a shin ‘od a8 Jugalers oud magicians commonly do des ‘Some tays may nave been simply forammuseanent, others to teach and socialize childcen tn their role as adults, Minkature cooking vessels made in the same design as large? ooking vessels (9ee cat, no. 195) would teach a child ts important symbotiam and prepare ets for runing households, Otter minietaze household objects, such ae toy beds (See cat no, 152}, prove a glimpse ofthe everyday ‘ems thet were important for culren, Musical insiewnents were also made for oben, ‘Tereoootta arties (aee fig 7.10) and whistles shaped lke @ small partridge or dove (7,19) have beon found at most lies in the core regions of the Indus cviization. in traditional communities in Pakisian today, ratles are often used bY eae Fy 7.18 Toucriqut pinky nce sts en ap Fi. 719. low gest ante wi entashao jugglers to make noise while pectorming, and bind whistles are often used to coax pet birds o call Tunerant performers provably entertained efildren aod also helped inthe socialization of children as they stil do in ‘traditional towns and villages tovay. Traveling from cli to the countryside, these performers would have served as ommmunication channels to the vDiages and dstant resource areas. Masks and puppets made of sey or wood would hase, ‘been used W teach children te religious mshs and the ‘powers of the gods and goddesses. Once children nae learned ese imporiast stories, they would be ready to move inlo adulLife as householders, farmers or otter occupations. Womanhood ‘The position of worten in the cities of tne Indus Valley may have been diferent trom the role worsen play in iedera, cles of the subcontiaent. Terracotta figurines af women predominate in most sttea (ig. 7.20), and powerful female ellfes are depicied on the seals along with male detties {see eat, no, 27), These incirect Indicators suggest that some ‘women ofthe ones mayhave had important social aad situa] positions and that femsie delstes played aa important cole i he logttimation of beliefs and politcal powwer. At arappa, scholars have used genetic trait analysis to ey 10 understand the zolationships bebweon tie peaple buried in the seme general cemetery. inftial studies ste gested that many of the women may have been related to teach ather by descent, while the mon were not strongly co- lated. in other words, a woman was buried near her cother ‘and grandmother. aad a man was buried near bis wife's an- festors rativer then wth his own, Furthor samples and more roliable statistical resulls are needed to contem ths tatial hypothesis; however, Ifthés pattern of mste-local burial sa fin. 220 emis wn ces sis yg Fer fg 195,13 3, SP re ques ke Powis saw Paumisnons 198PE be confirmed by further studies, it would indicate the pow. frlul position of certain women In the social orver at Harappaa society ven wlthour such stules, however, Wie tmportance of females as aynbols of religious power is supporied by she thet thet figarines of women or mother goddesses sre more ‘common than mals figurines, The wide variety ofheacidresses ‘and ortanent tyes depicted on te faunines may vefet the ‘ihn versity of te ly cs wel asthe contzuously akanging ‘les. Many ofthe omements depleted on the Newrines, bot rales female, canbe correlated to ect omaments, bel, ‘illes, necklaces, buneles and othe exkegetes THainteasing was an essenltel gent of erban Wife, and many of the elaborete 2nd oftentimes massive halt styles that we see on tis figurines would have required te hands af a sled haindrosser. We aoe some of these hat etsles trom all major indus les; otters ane peculiar to specie sites and probably select diferent ethnic communities. The rolled hair lifted tigh above the head and the fan-shaped hneadaness ar stsles common to both ifarappa end Motenlo~ dato {2g 7.20), out Harappa had a distinctive vasttion with four dowers atrange6 on the frontofthe headdress (see Ng. 1.1, cat. to. 183) Ab the side of the headdvess ae cup shaped omaments or lamps wih 8 braked edging. These figurines are heavily adorned with multiple chokers, recldgces and Delts. Such Ngorines with tke eup-saped projections atthe side of te head used as ol laraps may represent the mother goiess, The fan-shaped headdssss ‘on the igrines originally was painted black and probably represents hale deeped over a frame. The syiized Rowers artanged over the forehsad wnay represent eotual Gowers or ‘lowershaped omements similar so those of shell, WOry, faienee and semi-precious stoaes, The necklaces probably sepreseat beaded omaments of gold, booze, carnelian and ‘agate, The wide bel, probably mage oflong cametian beads ‘and bgoaze medalllons, was wom over a short skirt of inely ‘woven cotton or woolen cloth (see Chap. 8, cat no8, 47, 48), Such figurines were probebly ariginaliy painted wiih ved, yellow, wha and blaek pigments as we see at Nausharo (see eat 10. 2) lu We recent excavations on Mound BE st Harappe, we founda broken figurine ofa wontan wit the lage fan-shaped. Theadress lag on @ bed. with the end of the heacdess ddrapod over the end to avold massing itp. The care needed to meintamn such hairdressing would have beea beyond the means of many women, but we also see less complex, more practical sles, One female figurine hes braided or curled Jocks of hair hanging down the side aul beek (soe at. no. 137). She wears a oboker with pendant beads and two pro- Jeoting eat cmaments, similar to those found on uth Lig tines. single knobbed omnament hengtvg the middle of 194 Aocner Gres mts Yan Cv the forehead may representa type of conicel gotd omament found In the jewelry boands discussed later In this chapter: ‘Another style features haip rolled into a byn on the side of the head (sce cat, no. £38), butsome women did not show their hair, covering their heads with atirban decorated ‘with minuce punch marks, possibly representing beads (soe ‘cal. no. 199), Some turbaned figurines are quite fat and heavily ornamented with bangies on both wrists and upper arms. ankle bracelets and a choker (fig. 7.21), The rah and Is held to the mouth and the left hand clutches the heart, an expression of amazement still wpical In tue subcontinent Today. These turbaned figurines are common ‘at many ianger sides; ize fat Ngurines may represent portly -maloons or pregnan: women. ‘Many figurines show women standiag in a forma pose, but less highly modeted figures show women at work preparing food and grlading grain (fg, 7.22), sehich contiaus to be a Uine-cousuming aspect of a Woruaa’s daly routine In South Asia even today. The precise use of these Mgurines 1s Uncartain, but if they were made by diferent communities {or household rituals or children’ toys, its possible that they velectthe styles of ornaments and headdresses popular ‘with diffenecs ethnle cormmunities Sng in the cities. Bangles ‘and necklaces are the most common types of ornaments, but the speottc siyle and quantity of necklaces worn by a single figuring is variable. ig. 72. ato Siw aes aac 12 eeenesesneoseeeseeoee Ces eeovzeeoeteeoens &eaeearsreaovneaseseareeaeseoeaeoeeseee eee eee Figurines with elaborate: heediresses and numerous layers of necklaces are usually somewhat lncger ‘han the more simple verracotta gurines, ‘A figurine with three sets of chokers ant necklaces—one of the largest found at Harappa (ig 7.28)—has the ooamon fat shaped headdress with oups on both sides of tho head, Although much of tho headdress Is missing. waves of black pigment or soot inside the cups suggest thai they were flied wish of for wee as @ socred iamp. Iss also possible, however, Re. 7.22 Ses wom pita git, Nase, nat asooty black plement mayhave been ot 16 sed fa depict black hal. The forward projecting face ts made separately and attached £0 the body after ail the omaments had boon applted. Large, neavily omamented figurines also have boos found at Mobenjo-daco (see cat. 1nd, 135}, and both sites tiave produced hoards of jewelry containing omaments idextieal to those on these igatines, slo. 7.2. kg eal en naman, HL, eco Almough moss Rgevines were made of temracovia, excavators have vecovered a few bronze sculptures tat render ‘women wearing orramenis end holding ec (object slant to a Dov fo the lel hand. Ia one example trom Mohenjo-daro, the hnle #8 ted Jp & horizontal bun hanging low oa the back of the neok and traces of Jong-almond shaped eyes are visible (fg "7.adp, Many bangles adm the upper lt ‘ym and afew bangles are foticated above the right elbow Because these bronze figurines are not copies of terrecetta eprines, they may have dean made for a speaiftc ethalo community o* perhaps used in speotal rianais ‘that requined bronze votive statues. But, unlike tenracotia faurines that break amd are discarded, bronze car be melted and recygied for other objects. The few bronze sculptures recovered refleat a high Hevel of sil in modeling end lost ‘wan casting, aWellestablished in he isccltes that continues 1 the present Unroughout dae subcontinent, Fig 226 ae vine oman vexngs nd (igs nd nei mt Pema: saw Paresions 13,ga@eeoestoaosseseeovreeveevnesteeveveeee Alantiood Figurines of Indus men ave not 23 varied as those of the worsen bub do reflect several dierent styles of personal ornaments and hatestyies. Some terracosia flgurines have twbans or headtiands, but they are usually bere headed (Fg 7.25). ln contrast, te carved stom sculptures (see cat. ns. 117, 118, 120) show elaborate styles of braids and finely combed uabr that was ofven tod inte a double bun or pweeved ban al the back of the head, Some men may have worn additional ornaments in thei hai, and one burial of an adult male ot Harappa had a delicate halr ormament at the back ofthe head, where the Dun of hair might have Deen (see tig. 6,45). Composed of say steatite beads, sell rings and a Jasper bead, nis ormament may have been bralded with the thai and tied into a bun, We aigo see the bun haly siyle on @ minlauue bronze sculpture af a male spoarthrower or dancer (tig. 7.26) ‘Traces of eyes and nose are present. The hers arranged In ‘2 bun on the back of the head, with a turban or iong hair ‘wrapped around the head. The twisting posture and upraised ‘arm suggest a spear held In the right arm, ig 728 ne Su ral as a 28.4 aes Ha a Fin, 726 eet ae ed anaes tom ane rast 1 Spt ‘ite hice Sh ins arknin Sees Hunn 553987 Maal, ss, 00, 7279 ster girs ta se, serial ne 186 Aor Gras: fuses Vay Charm On some Of the terracotta tablets (see cab, nos. 24, 26,27) male Mgures havea long bald or malted bal banging from the back ofthe tead, similar ta that seen on te stone scufptire of a seated figure from Motenjc-daro {see cat. no. 119), flowever, this type of brald was also worm by ‘women and is seen on female figures in narvative scenes on, tablets and seals (see fig. 6.32) Most male figurines have beards, but dferecs styles ‘wore iusteatad (fig, 7.27). A narrow beard like a goats is seen on some figurines (see hg. 6.21); others have a closelyeeeveganeeesverse¢eae0 cease eeoeeeoenese en (See cat, uo, 122) and on the “priesi-king” soutpuure (see sat: no, 116). The most common form of beard Is combed cout and spzvad wie (see cot, no, 148), a style popular throughout the subcontineet until adout a hundred years ago. Modeled wit scented olls or beeswax these wide spreading beards ave teminiscent of the projecting Ner at Be edge of a tigers jowd. Many horned deities wear this kind of beard, wot is clearly associated with a tiger on a vracoua mask from Herappa (see eat. 10. 123) ‘Tue sijes reflected In We figurines oud seulpw.res ingioae that some halr styles of men and women ovealapped, but others were quite distinct The occasional overlap of| gentler oonementaiion is also tae, Figurizes of ie boys ane jen wear necklaces with cumerous pendant beads wort athe throat ike a choker, « sty also worn by most female figaeines. Most male figurines, however, do not wea humerous graduated necklaces as do females, but ‘exeeplons include one terracotta male Nauie weering four greduated neoktaces," and an adult mele was buried at Harappa wit along string of disc beads and tree graduated strands, each with stone bead or @ combination of stone ate gold beads (see Ng. 6.44). ‘Bout men and-women wear bangles. although Dangles axe ravely oun oa male terrecota Ngurines, Whey are shown on stated or standing male figutes on seais and narsative tablets (see cat, nos, 23, 24). Othet examples of men sith bangles include a mate buried at Harappa who hax a broken shell bangle a his lef wrist and the “priest king” soxptane ‘which woars an armband 09 the left upper erm. The overiapping use of emnaments may be confusing in carvings. but fm realtty, bangles worn by men and wocten wers, probably made of different maverals ox specific styles. Clothing wort by man i sifficuls to reconstruct trem ‘wrracouta Hgurines, Deceuse unltke the female figurines shown woeriag short skits, most mele Mgurines are nude ‘This probably does not indicate that men wore no clothes. since these figanines may have been wsed fr fendiy rhicals, Dut it does suggest ditforantstandands for male and female modesty, In contrast fo the terracotta figurines, stone seulphures show men wearinga variety of garments, Usually, a long cloak or shawl vas draped over the edge ofthe Jett shoulder, covering te folded lees an ower body, but leaving the sight sboudder and chest bare. Oa the stone sculptures lower gnvmeat is worm aroun! ie waist and drew Unough the Legs to be tucked in the back like the teadtional doa ‘These gannents were probably mate of cely woven cotton Cot Wool, bleached white or colored wita locally avatlabie dyes, such a8 those traditionally used in the subcontinent: indigo (bite), maduer (re), tusmerio (yellow) or onion akin (brows), Male and female hairssles, omamentation and dress re generally clstinct, thongh there are areas in whih the genderis not well defined. Qverlapping or androgyuous ses say reflect a Muidity of atyles ocrose-cvessing, a practice coaimion ia moet socieles, Today in Pakistan and India, men ‘often take the rote of women for speatie social and rizal PACPOBES. A figurine from Neusharo poriays a male flgurge ‘wearing 2 female type of headdress and holding an atau to his left side (se8 cat. no. 4) mimiokiog te stp of the more common female figurines (see fg. 7.14). Some Iustraions oa soais or in igurines nay reflect men dressed 2 women or ice versa, One terracotta male fisine from arappa has a beard and smal alles (common on mle Sigucnes) bur wears a Jong skirt decorated wlth voue-shaped, oraamanrs. Moat Wostern scholars have associated the long, lr sth females. and an example fom Katfbengan shows two spear throwers (men?) fighting over e smaller skirced ‘gure (Woman?) (see fig, 6.92). However, m many Aatan ‘radiulons, men wear long iruike garment. so we cannot define the long Skirt as an exclusively feminine style. A procession of seven fguses wearing long braids and long skis is sually desorbed as seven female igen, but lle ‘most depletions of femiales, no breasts aré indicated (ses cat, ao, 24) 20 we content of me Indus elles, long beet, bangles. and skirs appear to have bees wora by doth men a women, and where no specific gender is depited, such figures map repoesemt androgynous figures Figurines ant carvings retlect a wrant urban sooty of childtes, women and men whe wory affsxent sive of omaments ant dees to ditinguisi themsehes fom each other and also to signel their affiliation with tbe Ineus cate. The commoa tse of bangles and bests can be seen 8 @ Sign of oushural and religions integration, thowgh ike specific stsies and materials trom whol Mese ezmaments ‘were marie distiugushod people according to seanomic and Socio-rtual status Prone Prvsesions 187rahdino Jewelry Hoard W ie ae Wait Fasenvis dan xenvotiog ab the amall she of aha, pear mocern Karte ° Re 85 eng cmnliocads aul petaze spacer Mla ay ape mace CA gasine toodare that thie was probably te estate ‘ta pont ngosfeny. Dosing We Rol Suri of 17S hs extavaiions expions have bes dis th. a mae oe 8 Avon Cine ow ue awe Vaan Cesnncnoe ‘deods nad Host Coblic aght eH 6 inept tesa get 29), Gab Mb such belix”parural-ex alti we Pinca of re an eaten of gem discon let acarepresen. pant Haron pies, 6 WI Seah Gisagea avone lig. 728). Chenvatots 198 ah sft deal 2 xi : Tirdusoulelrauseiae Sceetcae yew eee vie seca wy sas a bo Ho et ite ngs lor te geo thee Jonge ordanent HruAreUl Suecortanege oy.cand tae ras a0 rnoriegn oe ine ga Sao io 6 tating nee bolt nechlate a: roa the coh elpnaet soe some bean escaeth slick baby sus: igh etal nei od areca ats OM Grea. é seed he On ETBEN a ant kay ergot ane kes WN He SAN i Pa 990 waiensnvs arate (6BE iy as lore slanlon Bows 0 Ine 2 Fults ane tual : gyno tse rary 8 3 mre sats aiene ater Eleaty oe eee Bie eet peta Sean ni ee os as Sab aoe woes malotelt Fy ates eee ere seee@sveaesesosseeaneeee ee seuss esctsoevn ¢@eearvzrecavneeeeerF Gaoeteoeaeeeoeseeeogeoeeee Ormament Siyies Jeweley of the Indus cltles rolleots artistic values of Gold Miles appear to have Deen @ common form of he the urban elize and the technical achievements of artisans omament worn hy both men and women, Al cayved sto: ‘working precious metals and precious staes such as agate, Sculptures from Mouenja-dare {see cat. 08.117, 118, 12 serpattine, turquoise and lapis tazult (fig. 7.81). In showa straight filles around the forehead that was probab Iwacitional communities, ornament are not just fashlog made of gold and tied With a cord ai she back of the hea statements, but are essential to the proper functioning of One gold filet found in & house at Nohenjo-daro hes bok the soetel group, Valuable metals and stones are generally al beth ends for holding e cord, and each énd is dagovat foshionent into omameats that depict important rial or wlth a punctated deslgn depicting the ntuetoffeving star symbolle mots. These ornaments serve to protect the that's commoniyseen on the wuicom seals (fg, 7.32}, Som ‘wearer, 10 dently the sootal and economic statas of tae of these Aes have tiny hates all along the edge in ettac ‘wearer and as a means of storing wealth, Ornaments mare beads or pendants, and others are mate wit 8 cuaved say from less valuable materials genevallyfunctionin thesame ‘dentical to hal ornaments worn shroughowe tb ‘ways except that they do nod necessarily represent actual subeontinent today figs, 7:31, 7.34} ‘wealth, Sinflaraiitutes towards orusments are documented fom excavations and tests of the early eivillzsifons in Mesopotamia”® and Sgypt." and we can assume that omamenis produced by ariisaas of Une Eudus eites were ‘sol in much tie same manner. Recaase of the finportant social ané sual meanings attached 9 omacents, standardized designs and stles have extremely eg We eyles, Nevertheless, te soope for axcaties varlation 1s revealed in design and tectiology as well as in the combinations of ornaments worn by ferent ndiAdaals i, 73. Glide haste Pranaann Proves — 139‘ione beada were made fom various valuable coloved stones, some of which are sill classified as sezniprecious fy predious gemstones, Beads were generally strung end 1 fend, making @ long necklace wit) special gems hung as ‘pendants abihe center of ue neckiace. This style of omament is depieted on many terracotta and brouze fomale Mgsrines ‘and on some of the male figurines. One jewelry hosed found im the ER area at Mohenjo~ avo contained necklaces end ctiokers that reveal the diversity ofornaments worn by Soma of the wealiniest Indus lite, Several novklaces that were reconstructed hy the early excavate based on how the beads were found indioate 8 range of necklace sigles. One atyie has pendant beads made from blue green falence, turmuoise, bleached agate and gold [fig 7.23). Another style uses a combination of paper-hin, flat gold aise beads, interspersed with beads of onyx amsionite (micmeline}, surquotse end banded agate fig "7234}, Some beads have gold finials wth additional smalt Fig. 7.20. Ab Nees wpa ee Be, Re, De a 3 oe Fig, 7.24, Pana Age nesta ae of ppt fol nad, spre wt Nas 0p ans [pissin tained se 026 Fg 7.6 pt Fda sas bos an died foo: raat Heap e388. 140 dace Css ne nes Vay Cras spherloal gold beads used as spacers. A gold-beaded choker necklace has six rows of beads witn divider bars and halt moon-shaped termlusl (gee fig, 7.91. cat. no. 87). Another amulisteand neokiace Nas fve strands of tiny gold, faiemee ‘and steatite beats (see lg, 7.41, cat. 20. 98). ‘A separate hoaré located tn another part of the cfiy ontained diferent styles, veflecting the desire for unique ‘lesigns and hightlehting the creative abtitits of the Indus artisans, One nedllace haa hallow biconical gold heats and barvel-shaped green stone (ligardite or grossular gerne) ‘eads Wwith large Jasper and agate pendans beads (see fig. 17.5}, Te pendant agate and Jasper Deads ace attached with thiols gotd wire, “4 vacloty of gold eae ornaments has been found some ‘ofthe hoards, usually in pairs. One example is dome-shaped vith a circular depression in the center for inlay (oat 10, 59). The ribbed edging is made of chiseled wire and ao!deneat tonto the body of the ornament. The bollow post is joined e@eesest@oevoseseeasevneeecoeoeooeae eects eoevnéCCHOPFKESRDOKLSCSHEPFL OSE HOEHTOSEHOC OSE SEE | } ‘with mastic and may have Dad « eotion plug to keep the orying them with silt? The mounds of ioheajo-daro survived because they vere on slightly higher land and were asvlested by massive raud-brtck walls ud platforms, but many smatlersiaes vere desiroyed, Extensive and epested Tooding,cambtued wita shifting rivers © 982 dr scan aa eset its Tai ‘eleian ee Chapter 9 nad 2 devastating effect on the agricultural foundation and ‘economte structure of the Indes cites. Altbough sites suai, 48 Harappa continued to be inhabited, she eoonomte infre= stouciure Zor ong-distance wade to the Soxik was irrepara- bly damaged as many less fortunate settiements along the ‘org bed of the ancient Saraswati river were ebandoned, The refugees were forced to develop new subsistence stategles ‘or move to more stable agoieultucal regioas, ‘The ealtivation of sumer craps, such as rice, miles tandsorghum, made tt possibte to expand foto the monso0n- ‘dominated regions of the Ganga-Yamune Doab and Gujarat ‘that were previously undendeveloped. During this period of change, animals that had been in use in the western bigilands wore adapted for sransport and communications ‘n the plains. Horse and donkey as well as the Bactrian ‘camel were gradually tmtegrated into the econoeite sphere andl ii she symbolic and decorative arts, Terracotta animal figurines and painted pottery styles rellecting these new developments were incorporated into te previously existent technologies, many of which continued to be practiced. Excavations at sites such as Mehrgarh, Nausharo and Pirak provide 2 complete sequence of the gradual ‘wansformation that was going on in the Kee! Plain. and Dawe awe Laser ar ie Boas Ciews—175excavations In Swat Valley ta the north provide a complementary perspective.‘ Addtdonal informstion on the ‘anne of cultural developments outed the indus Valley come thom recent work tn Central Asia at sites hotonline to the Bactria-Mavalana Archarologteal Complex.°To the 2ast, in the Gange-Yemona Dost and Gujarat numerous suPveys and excavations! have radloaily alered models foe the decline ofthe Indus ees end the emergence of new cities ‘i the Indo-Cangete Trealtion (see Chap. 1). Prior to tkese relatively recent discoveries, most Soholars thought the Inireducilon of new pottery sigles, plants aud ania, a wel as "“orlga" artitacts represented tbe intrusion of new peoples. The discovery of unburied akeletons among Ue latest levels of the Harappan oacupation as Mohen|o-daro corbin with weeritcal and inaccurate readings ofthe Vedic texts Ted some scholars ko lai thet the decine ofthe Inds eilization was the resus af ivgsions on "migrations" of Indo-Aryan spesking Vey Aryan tribes.! The invaston andar migraulon models assumed that the indo-Aryan-apeakine Vedio communities satiayed ihe Indus cities aud replaced the complex uxben cwilization with their new rituals, language and cultare. Many scholars tave ted to correct this aisutd eory, By potnting out mstaterpreted asic fects, Inappropriate models and en uncritical reading of Vedic tex.” Howeves, ntl eeeent these sclentificand well-reasoned argoments were unsuccessful in rooting out the misinterpretaions sourenehed inthe popular lterature,'* Current ateostes on the role of Indo-Aayen-speaking peoples are beyond the Soope of this Dook, bul Cher 18 0 avclgeotoglcal or bologieal evidence for lavaslons or mass inigrations into the Indus Valley between the end of the Hlacoppan Phase, about 1900 a., and ite begining of the Sanly Hlstovic period around 600 ac. In Centrl Asia and Afghanistan the Bactria-Mangiana Archaealogial Complex (MAC), dating from szound 1990 40 1700 2c. represents 4 complex mixture of nomadic and setiled communitiss some of these may have spaken Indo-Aryan dlelects and precited Indo-Aryan illgion,” These communes aad tele ‘itual objects were distributed from the degert oases in ‘Turkmenisiaa to southers Baluchistan aid tom the edges ofthe Indua Vlleyto loa, As nomedié herdore and traders moved! from the higblands to the jowlands in their annua migration, taey would have traded goods and arranged martigges as well as ote less fomelassoclaions reslling in the exchange of genes between the highland end nian corumanstes Recent dtological stidles of himan skeletst remains from the northern subcontinent and Centra} Asia have ‘monvere no esldence for aew popalatons inthe northern sbcentizent dung ths tine. Yes, these Ho regidns Were 274 Ayre Can op wie Tous Wie Cie notlsolate trom one another. liited degree intersction is clearly demonsizated by overlapping genet talts thes ‘would aosmally oocur between aijavent populatons.® This pattern is not surprising because the highlands oF ‘Afghanistan and Gentra! Asta had tntermitzent combact Lh the indus Valley for thousands of years peior wo and curing the Harapoan Phase. There ls no mafor change in this telationship during she deeline of the Indus ees, Jn me abseace of firect extemal ores, we ca. aietbake ‘he decline of the Inds cities to internal factors that over ‘me undermined the economic and poltical power of the ruling elites. Ovesextended networks of wads and political contro were easily disrupted by changes In river pater, flooding and.crop fatime, Refugees and overcrovwted cies ‘would have caused a kealitmacy crits for the nual leaders and political rulers thet ended wita the emergence of new elites and locatized polities around 1900 nc. The previousty integrated regions of the Indus Valley and Gujarat broke up ole three major locelized cultures that can be defined by new painted motts ant ceramic styles, seals with geomet designs and new burial customs (ig. 9.1). For 600 years, unt azound 1809. the Localization Fra {oommonly referved to as the Late Harappan pesiod) was an sntesiude during which a new soclal order was belng established as new technologies and agriexltaral practices spread ip and dow the Indus Vasey, east into the Ganga-Yamuna Valley ‘and into the peninsular subooatinent.* The three cultural phases ofthe Localization Ra were named after the important sites whens speoifc pottery ses ‘were ust discovered or the geogranicel eaten la whieh air cites ané towns are foun, The Punjab Phase refers to ike narthemn regional culture that Includes the large slte of Harappa and sties further to the east i northern Indi. in the southern Indus Vailey the Jhukar Phase 1 named afer a site neae Mehenjo-davo and incorporates all sles in Sindh, ag well as pacts of Baluchistan, The Rangpuz Puase refers to the entire region of Kute, Saurashira ant malnland Gujrat, Athe site of Horappa the Punjab Phase is represented by elaborately nalnied ceramics that ate referred 10 a8 the Cemetery H culture, because they were Kirst discovered in & lange ceatetary Olled wits painted urtal unis and some extendod inttmations. In contrast to the use of pasa potery tn borials during the tral Harepoen Puese, the reemengence ‘ofheavily decorated burial pottery reflects & major chang In ital practdces and ceoloey. New pasted motifs include ‘ual symbols that combine animal, plant and buman themes inamanner unkown on the eaclier Haragpen phase petoted ‘coreanios (9.2). In actition to fatty norm ttustzations | ofharnped bul, gazele, blackbuck, fying peacocks, ualoue ‘combination fgsres include double serpents with 2 horned eevee st has to plpal leafs sprouting from the cemerhumped puils wit three pipal leaves sprouting from the ‘middle of the forehead and flying peacnaks with antelope horns or a five-pronged tail made of pipal leaves. One spectacular form combines a bul's body. antelope hors ‘ang a humea head and worse, with hands resting on the hips ‘and arias covered with bangles (ig. 9.3)." Although ihe style of these motifs Is unique, Uke use of the tefoll and pipal teat hneaddresses along with horped figures stzonsly argues for the incorporation of some Indus beliets wits the new rituals Renent research at Karappa bas shiown that the ‘ausition from the Herappan to the Punjab Phase {Cemetery Heulvare) was gredual, thus coatirming what was found in the excavations of cemetery H in the 1930s. The earlier burials in this cemetery were fafd out mnch like Harappan coilia Durlals, with potery arvanged at the head and feet Painted jars with high Nazing rims are a new style that can be asgoclated with bighland cultures 10 the west, Dut. the large Jars with ledge rims ane the noavy dish-on-stands have ‘strong aks with eartier Harappan styles, Decorative plates r ids and votive oftarings in small pottery vessels (ig. 9.4} were placed in the burials. A new variation of the dis-on- ia, 99 t- ameny Hey mo om Hepa es Pe $84 overs seal pute gol ash et e818 tes Gera m2 ar pote ong tom been ow mete, eagp Saeed m2 Fi. 85, ha e-card ote feat Covey Hoa. fa, cen i stand has ridges on the base anda tole tx center that ns have been used In prepering some form of dsiled dri (Gg, 95), 20 the later burials, adults were creeted, b children were placed Inside large unas, then covered wi second pot. These large burial wns are heavily devora ‘with palnted motte described above (ig 9.3) Cometery H pottery and reieted ceramles of she Pun Phase have ben found throughout noothern Pakistan, ew a far north as Swat. where they mix with distinctive loo tracious. Inthe east, wmerons its in te Gange-Yarut Doab provide evidence for the gredual expansion soltloments into this heavily forested region" Atthough 2 Punjab Phase encompassed a relatively lrge area, the tra connections with the western highlands began to break dov as did the trade with the coast. Laps lazull and turauck beads are ravely found in the Punjad Phase settiement and marine shel for omaments and ritual objects gradual Aisappeared, On the other hand the tectnology offen: manufacture becomes more refined, possibly in onder feompensate for the lack of raw materials such 2s she falence and possibly even comnelian, Dueuine ao bese rae noes Crocs e@eeoeeeeeaeeevoeoaoeecaeeeseoeveaeneevseven @eeaeaetevaenvneeevoeeveesce@eoaeeeevnenenesde In 1996, excavattons at Harapga uncovercd a small pot (fg, 9.6) Io 2 room dating to approximately £730 a.c. during the Punjab Phase (Correspoadieg to Periods 4 and 6 in the Harappa ‘chronological sequence). is pok ‘vas Mlled with 138 beads and other small objects, many of ‘which had been collected from the eroding layers of earlier ‘occupations atthe site (8g, 2.7), However, @ large number of the 9-26. Suipiongp ms fs ong 3.208 beads that. camnot be associaved with tia cariter periods of the site must refiect the rechnologieal changes that were occurring at Harappe ducing ‘the Punjab Phase, ‘Some falence beads of this perlod reflect-a change in style that includes new opiors and shapes, gome of which fare dolicately csrved and glazed, for the first time a deen anne falence (fig. 9.8} is made that may represent an mation of lapis lazuli. Byen more sigalflcan is a red-browa, a Cs a a ie : Fy. 7, hw Comer bat ac. 208, lo. 96, wept Ope alae cob ewe be om br eter Raa Pas ae apn Pts In. wo ong iho ie a ast Fig. 9. iy ung ren i titres ts 76 Aoexker Crs ane ms Vga Obvsceow glass bead (fig, 9.8) that is the earllest glass bead trom the ‘dug Valley and represents the beginning of local glass production, This same colar of glass head becomes more fommon tn the Barly Historical period (800-808 s.c.) and is found at sites throughout ronthern India and Pakistan, Another sigpilleant discov- cry inthis pot Is beads that have een drilled with @ tubular cop- per drill using an abrasive (fi. 8.9}. Th drilling echnlque was known during the previous “Marappan Phage and was used f2 making perforations tn large vingstones, but it was never used on small beads be- ‘cause they were perforated using ite spectalized "Brnesito” cnills, During the Punjab Phase, it appeare that the access 1 “Brnestite” was out off and 2 new application was cre ated for an already existing technology Some of these beats are made of black-and-white banied agate (0g. 8.7) that we ‘TeaULAR DRL TECHNNOUEthink origlaates in the Vindlyau or Chola Nagpur plaveaus tar to the east, We Rave not discovered the actual éocnee of this stone, possibly because its Immense popularity during ‘the Barly Histovle period may have depleted the accessible geological deposits Copper objects continue to be manufactured. but we ‘cannot determine itis from the western highlands Was used to produce bronze. he general pattern seen during te Punjab Phase is one of eastern expansion into the Ganga~ Yamuna Doab accompanied by rural dispersal and the localization of ineraction networks to the exclusion of outlier resources and Western rescurces. {nthe southeon Indus Valley, the Jukar and subsequent Pirak phases represent 2 sinilar process of gradual change ‘curing which a new group of elites emerges with diferent ceramic styles once agala employing circular seals with ‘geametate designs, The Jnukar Phase overiags the Harappan Phase, but continues cuuch later at sites such as Jhukar. CChanhudaro, tdobenjo-daro and Amel and has siplistio likes to the elle of Pleak on the Kachi plain The continued DDecupation ofthese reletively large regione! centers argues for a strong localized culture. Weny of the technological i840 Trane ina aha oP, aig, Peo a 6008 features of the powery and other objects show a strong continuity with the preceding Harappan phase, The major difereaces we see ate inthe potier¥ destens, the absenes of script and Warappan-siyle animals on seals aug the ‘increased use of ciiular seals with geometrte designs, The vJtukar Phase begias withthe thoal phase of he inclu cities, azound 2000 0.6.10 1600 sc, and ends with the Pirak Phase, ‘whlet: dates from around 1800 4,¢. 2 800 9.22 The site of Fire located ov the Kechi plain to the sorciwest of dhukar, has stroag cularal amectians 19 ote sites on the Keoki plain end geithements i the bighiands fo the west * Tke continned interaction between the plains and the hills may expisin the appecrance of tervacotta, ‘igurites of horses and camels with rides [fg6. 9.10, 8.15}. “These figutines are conolasive evidedce forthe teiodnction ofthese Imporzant animels to the Indus regtoa, and inthe later ievels of Pirak (Period fi} tne nowse figurines are palnted with elaborate wappings ant have atached wheels tobe used 2s movable toys, Human figurtues are made with pinched features and appliqué halrstyles and omamenis| ‘similar fo figurines of third millennium Mebrgark (see cal, no, i) and Shabr--Sokhta, i. 917. ace grec efi Po. WED Drevacanw imior woo Ins Cres 177 e®eeoe ev evseavueeveesseeseoeoeeenene8 0eeaes @eeaepeeeneeegoaeeoneeseneaeeveeoeoeeeae een Lmporconk arufges are seals made of terracotta and ‘ote thet atonal diltrent fom those tne Inds oles ‘Fhose corspartmeniad seals-square and citomlar wt Jeomeric forms (fig 912}-ereetmilar othe ctcuier Duka fie dhl can be waced hack oven canter o seals made ‘Mehsgath some bwo-thowsand years camer duslng Peviod ¥ {300 ac) to Period VI (2800 vc.) [See Cha. 2 fg. 22M Dino ceramic siles at Pirak also have (inks to eacler pelvenzome geumele designs and seem wo Indfeate the reotengence.of focal deslgns afer a period of Harappan thepemony (Ng 9.18). Newe developments in potkery stapes include the ieege alobuiar water vessel, ended cups end eae fornsof cooking pots. We can tk such modiictions tn tapostans developments oud preparation and storage? ‘Unlike the Punjab Phase setements those ofthe Piva ‘hase sontinved 1o have contacts with the lapis lana and oppor sources i Baluchistan aswel. a the sell eollectors fiong tke nesrhy coasts, Extensive use of rice, a moasu0a sop, is well documented at Pia, 28 well as the west fnyreduced sorehum and milless, which, would bave Bee neaessary to pcotde fodder for animals not adapted to We frit Kacht pln (norse and possibly ome cate)” fn the southern zeglons ofthe Indus Valley, the perioe Tollowing the decline of the fndus ities (5 not ene of ibandonment and desolation, as portrayed in much of the tarller literauure, but rather @ coatinued éyaamic relaMionsiip between ageicoturelisis and pastoralists who txploited both the plelns and the highlands to the west 6,12. sa nee Fi fever, Pc 10082 ig 6.13 Fojeamgonay Pin Ben, Foe etl, iba 178 Goons rm ory ss Vey Coron Jamnigo argues that the intenstlcation of subsistence prnodees, mullcropping ond the adaption cf new forms of transportation {camel and horse} wore made by the fndlgenous intebitans ofthis fegion a6 notby new PeOpe teeming Into the region.* Further southeastn oe islonds ofKtch ard matuland Gulaat, a cltfereat but elated process of cane was going fn. Refugees from tbe axfed-up regions of the ancien’ Saraswat river mey have moved to the vas plains of 04 Gulatat where daring this time there is dramatie inerease sh the number of sestiemenis* The gradual sltatlon of the shallow Renu of Kutch caused tne reorganization of shipping toutea and breakdown of connector to fhe core regions othe (is Valley, Most lagnostc Hereppan Paese artes fon as inscribed seals and weight, perforated vessels, Terracotta cakes and the famous facus gobles dsappest Indicating the breakdown of eariler sitaal and social hierarchies, As the characteristic Fazapnan painted pottery teareases, lncal pawery onapes and decorative siges besin to dominate, Me vse of wring continues (a the form of raftd on potiery, even efes the disappearance of square Stamp seals, Other important wradltons begus during the Harappan Phase also caste, suoh a8 the manufacture 0 shell bangles ang the production of fatence beads sil fomaments owever, none of these objeoss was traded 10 the nonthem regions, indicating a major break tn wade etworks that contined yt around BO ns. AR He ree of Boly Historic ety. states.”ij Changing Soctal Order Atough the Localization Bra covers the dcline ofthe Indus cities, is also Ume of regional developmentleading up to the rise of new ites inthe larger gengrephicat area encompassed by the tndo-Gangetc tradiuon.* Ia each major region ofthe Indus Valley, eve a8 the Indus cties decline, small city-states ov chieldoms began to reorganize theavelel life end cansolicave reatonal power’ These Tesional poles destroyed the integration achteved! by the Harappan Phase ccties an established new pertaheral polities in Afghanistan fan Central Asie aod to the east in the GangaYemuae oab.* In pot regions she rise of new polites is cleat an Indigenous process aoé not the rest of outside invaders. ‘In the Gaugetic.region from 1200 to 800 s.c, the geadval spread of communities using a distinct fozm of Dottesy known 26 Painted Gray Ware can be related 89 the Indo-Aryan communities of the later Vedic texis 2 Matabharate Rpic.® The Northern Black-polisned Ware culture (600-300 s.r.) '8 the verm elven to te next mesor cultural development, bus bot the Painted Gray Ware and the carly ‘Northern Black-poltshed Ware culture can be grouped togetiner as the formative phases shat precede the development of urban states In the indo-Gangetio region. This was 2 time of soctal and religious change, as Indo-éryan Janguages, religion and culture gained dominance first in the Penjad and Gangetio regions ant then down the indus Valley and across the Nlalwa plaiesa into Gularat, Poe the fist time Ja South Asta, archaeological evidence for these transformations is supplemented by oral traditions that later came tobe codified in rvwal texts sg as the Rig Veda, the Ramana ond ‘the Mahabharata. During this period religious traditions such 28 Brabmaniea! Hinéwism, Buddhism and \afnism emerged ‘The change of focus from ite Indus to the Gangetic plains is a pattern that, can be best explained through core- Fs. 14. da esp ke gee Patan legion. periphery models of politica! deveforment.® & new soola Ieratchy based on diferensbelietssstens, rtxal practises and iangage could not have developed wHtain tbe incus Valley, where towns and cities of the Localization Bra stil existed. The peripheral éegions of the Gange-Yanuns anc ‘eventually the Md to Lower Ganga proved the navessary setting for tie establishment of a new religious elite and ¢ new urban process. The Barly Historic cistates reflect ‘the development of @ sociopolitical system that reached ¢ completely diferent levet of Integration during the indo Gangetic tradition than was posstDle tn the preceding oda valley tradition (fig. 9.14). By200 a0, toesmalier city-states established throughout the Indo-Gangetic region were Integrated though the newly created miltacy power of the Mauryan Empire, supported Dy cavalry, horse-drawa chariots, fron weapons and a highly developed political infrastroctare.** Daningane Lansin nee Gruss 179 eesneeeoatoeceoesenovoeueteovneneeeenen 8eeeaeeenvnevuseeoeveesvaeezoeaneeeovoeeeoee eve ‘the Legacy of the Indus Valley Ciellization Slace the discovery of the Indus cities, scholars have mace comparisons and cotrasts between the Indus cities ‘nd later Orban cultures of the subcontinent. Current steales| ff the trensttion between the to carly urban cleBizations Glaim that thers. as no significant break or hiatus. Ali of the major subsistence Ibems ant greias that Became iimgortant during the Barly Historie period tad already best cnisivated an some vegioa of the Indus Yoliey dusing the Harappan Phase o7 the subsequent Localization Bra Nevertheless, a more complet process of seasonal agicoltare and muftionopping using tne recently exploited summer crops of sorgeum, mille, rice altowed the production of considerable surplus that was aveded ta support the ae cltes and their armies, = Newly established wade networks linked the rapidly developing urban axeas to distant: mesouroe areas and raral producers. Taese neuvoeks al, and bull from, the esner interaction networks of the Indus Valley wadttion. As such, they undoubtedly incorporated many of che remnant poles, economic and technological features of the indus Loceltzation Bra ‘Copper metallurgy of the Barly Htstorte pesiod built oa te earlier technical expertise of Indus erisans and thelr lescendants wao may uave foncted specialized occupational sommmunities that opatinued ‘0 amelt-and proves copper ores. Cooper workers may have Invented iron procuction which ‘appeased in tke northern subcontinent around 1200 5.0. arllersonolans propose hat om tchnology wae brought the saboontinent by invacing gan es, bug carefuteading ofthe ealy Vets tarts inate et ners es oo invasion fend Infact, the canst (ro-Aryan speaking communities of tho narwestemn subonatinent ld not kao Ofer Use rn.” "Toe savlest sronivones (1200 v.c) were Socabed im the porthem aravallt tis, close to the important attes of Mattura, Noh, Balrat ane tarapat (Delhi), wie He Lathe ote exea of tbe Indo-Cangelie tradition (8.14). Later fiuring the eaniy Northern Blackcpoitsted Ware period, a Secon ron source anga eas expelted [ao the eas 13 the (Chota Nagpur plateau, adjegent tothe most importantaites of the middle and lower Ganga plain, 1c, Rajarha. Patalipuiva, and Champa." The couto! of ion production , and trade may have been 2 exitica fgctor in determing the location and evontuel dominance of the major ies and capitals ofthe Barly Histosi states, ‘Other resources that came to be exploited by the early citles inode agave and oiher semiprelous stones. agaue beadmaking was aot unique to the Indus cities, but the techoiaues tor driling lng beads wit constricted cpincrial tile was exclusively an (seus phenomenon, Beaders In fame regional settlements cnptinged to use both tapered feingrical and constrioted cylindrical stone dillong afer the decing ofthe Indes estes, but these were replaced wit itamont-tiped dnils by tke begining ofthe Bacy Htsntio pevioe, abut the anh centary s.c% New techniques for toloring and bleaching beads with white on black designs ‘vere developed, again bulldingon the technique far making ait 180 Aner rs ow s Vase Con Fi, 295. el he fame win caralanra eres ni fe, 918 (ton st upon aig sada seo 990 gis sa rare wei cameWhite designs on red carnelian Invented by the tadue artisans. Naw styles of beads and a diferent repertoire of designs were introduced, reflecting the changes in belles and social organization. The use of red on white versus black on white designs may indicate different dellefs or situat meaning, as does red-slipped and black-slipped povtery ia moudera South Asta, The haste technologies of heating stones ‘ make them Makable or to change their color mest be credited to the Indus arsisans, but the new techalque ot faceting of stone deads to reflect light and create 2 new sense of aesietics bepins wits the Barly Ristorle period. ‘Rook quatta and amethyst were the first stones t be lace, setting the stage for later developments in faceted gemstones, Hven with all of these developments however, ‘the tradition of wearing carnelian beads or using them in prayer beads continues today (fig, 9.15). Artisans comtinued Lo manufacture fatence, but alongside this technique a vigorous glass LechnOlogy {developed for te production of multicolorei angles, heads, ear dises, scals and containers.” Glass technology appears ‘tw have developed indigenously n the northera subcontinent around 1700 2.0,, and this technology may deriva fom the compact falence vechnology invented during the Indus period.” The knawiedge of glassmaking raplily spread, and slaes beads an¢ bangles were produced at many sites Taroughox the stbeontinent during the fr mullennium a." Se eS sie Glass omanents and vessels were not used La rivals, be ‘were primayily for domestic consumption and teade {fle 9.16). Poveign authors such as Pliny the Elder from iar away Rome, writing aiind 75-77 s.n., remarked on the fh ‘quality of Indian glase whict he supposed was mace fran ‘pounded rock oryetal. Altuozgh glass was not often used for glazing temacoti: tiles or architectural components, some fa, etazed tes Heoo ‘ated with azure, black, white and] yellow glazes were Founc In assoclation with tke later levels of the Dimrmarajika Stuae ‘im Tasila Valley, deting t the fourth to fith centeries a.m Glazed ues, rarely used in Buddbist and Kiadu architecture td not become important for architectaeal decoracton wt after the inticduetion of Islam im the sevent century a.n ‘With the neve religion came. oo architectural trations are saew styles of decoration which incorporated predominant blus-and-gzeen glazed tiles, with black. white and yellow fo: dotails or in mosaic tile work. Glazed ules were eorumonis ‘used in mosques and the lombs of saints ov important lead evs, and the manutactare of glazed tiles became focused in large aliies or near the tambe of famous sain (fg. 9.17) ‘The rapid adoption of glaze tle production In the subeon: ‘nent and tts gradual acceptance imta later Hindu aad dain archicectural traditions ean be aiteibuted, in pact, to Ue presence of a strong history of falence anc glaes produe ton, with roots reaching back to Ue fle Indus cities, i . s £317 aw pny Mane Sa a oir, Wenge om ane Nl, ale a sly al Or el 2 Inu nec iets ua. Deciaes am Linice ome wes Cimss 18 @eeuoeeesewmeaeseeoesesveoseeuseeovneeenteees @eeseeceoeaosneeeveesevpaeeeoevneeeeeveasoeoeaeve The use of marine shell in-the manufacture of emamenis and ritual objects provides one of tke most siviking examples of continulty between the Indus cites and Jater caluzes in South Asia. Along the coastal regions of| bfakran, Kaien and Gujarat, te conoh shell or Turbinella pyrum was collected for making bengles and other ‘omamens througout the period following the decline of the Indus cites, Later, withthe ise of cities inthe northern ssuboonttrens sis marine ste] became common a inland sites In the Gangetic region a9 far north as Tastia, AB: ‘Maunyan contacts expanded to the south, some shell may have been collected toin South Indian waters and waded to ‘workshops thioughout peninsular Inia ‘The process by which still came to be tnoocporated Into the ieology end rival of Hinduism is pacty eveated in the sacred literature whict desnrites the expltts ofthe gods Shiva and Visa and the heroes ofthe Mahabharata bette Rarbinelia pyrom, also known a8 the sacred conct skell was sed ca a trumpet by all of the keroes in the Mahabparata, Shiva, Vishnu and Xeishna hold it in their hus to symbolize their victories over powerful demons (fg. 9.18). The ladies in the royal court wore becwifliy Fi. 818 Stan sea Eon seh ‘omy, Sbaonim Som et isn Ogee Way aus Ae Nowe Uso Sana 182, Acase Gh rn tu Wasa Conan carved consh shel bangles, and Krishna anointed King ‘Yudhisthira with esered Ganga water poured from a conch ‘shell Hhation vessel, ven Parvati, tbe consoxt af Shiva, ware conch sheli bangles "oreated” specialy for er adornment | by the Sage Agastya Muni acd the heaveniy arctitect ‘Viswakarma." Each major category of ebjects—sheil bangles, trumpets and libation vessels—had Deen used in ‘he Inds cities anc. wita only slighty diferent decorative otis, was Important in the Barly Historie ofties, Shell bangles are sall worn ty merried women in modem Bengel, ‘and oonch shell trumpets and lbstioe vessels are used in temples and monasteries throughout asia. Althongl: most people associate tae vonol stl trumpet with Htedutsm, tt lugs been used by many different communities throughout tne subcontinent for over fve-theusand years and continues w be used woday (fg. 9.18}, Raw materials nad similaruses ip the Barly Eistorie cities as in Indus cities. Higi-status communities ané individuats owned precious metals, stone ornaments and rere materials, whereas common people made do with imitations i terracotta falerice ar glass. New categories of raw materials and the invention of new technologies like glassmaking, Fa, 288. ort weg ba ode i ca oo felled Tashan geal exes el gs ae tk Aa titan rrhhonworking, and Japidary arts can be favorably compared wit tue invention of new materials and techniques for status purposes daring the Indus Valle taditio, ‘oot important 16 the reagpearance auring the early Noxtheon Black-palisved Wave phase, of welling, coinage, ‘weigits ond measures, We sil have no convincing evidence to support coiiunity between toe Indus sexipt end she Ast Ear'y Historie ecrpi, Brahim pt, However, whore Is a stong contecifon bebieen the Indus weight eyetem and the Early Bistorte weight system. This weight system Is also uses i the punch-marked coins that become common in the (Wortuern Black-potished Ware phage.** ‘Tue estoblisiment of a monetary system and che increased use of seals and other Insignia demonstrate the capability to contra) access to and the redistribution of esgential resources, both subsistence items as wells tems of sooie-ritval tas. The use of wing does no! fst appese on coins, simple bars marked with pune designs, or on geometric seals wsed for tréde but on eels almed establishing 2 new soctal order in dofiance of the Brafumanical monopoly on vital and technica! knowledge. ‘The clsapoearanes of weitng atthe end af he Inds tradition {nthe north can posetbiy be correlated to an inerease i tae dominance of Vedic ritaal eles, Brahmans. ‘As was the case with the Indus ofties, the ability to reinforce the social and economic orders ensured by having rassive walls anc gateways. The majordiferences Between the Harappan Phase and the Hatly Histeric walled etes are he overall seate, he construction af defensible gateways and the use of multiple walls, Anotne> important aifference Is conorete evidence for intensive confict and aggreselon as reflected im the large aumbers of iron weapons and accounts of battles in the eple and shastrio literature. For example, the Mahabharata battle documents late Yedie imemecine weofate thar seriously waumatized the entire population.” ‘The use of sotilement-slanning to define sootal and ritual status Is another Important contribution fram the caxtior Indus cities. In tee Barly Historie cities, elaboret raing, wotle andi Water Kenks provided pure water to communities Ising in Wie ells, @ pattern that nad been established In the Indus eitles. Water management for ‘agriuiture an driakingis also conftmned with the discovery cof amessive water tank at Sringeverputa that was Dull for ‘capturing water at thé high food levels, muck lke the Harappa Phase tank at Lothal. Alttough the literacy texts refer to palaces end royel storerooms, few sites have beat ‘excavated horizontally, a0 We do not keow if they cen be soffictentiyditteentiated from outer domestic structures, Further evidence from Userary taxis indioates that the settlements were divided into sectors aecorting tn varus and occupational specialization. a paitera sinllar to thet already established inthe incus cts. Many continuities betxeen the Indus and the Barly fistono cites may result fam hing in shmar cnvironnents and toe availabiity of similar raw metertals, but other continulties cloary reflect strong soviat aad {dealogieal linkages. Changes demonstcate the dynamic prooesses of cura} evolution leading wo new foras of svetveconomic rganlzation and political complexity. Through the cri analysis of ooniiuity end change between the Liu cities, the Barly Hisoric cites, and modemn towns n Pakistan and Jnl, we oan identify mafor cultural patterns tat continue tw affeet commonties thoughout tbe noienn sdcontineet ‘The Indus Valley tradition May represent the Ost urban, siate-level sooty in southern Asia, Dub it is oniy the ‘ginning oalonger trajectory of socopottical development ‘hak affested the entne subcontinent Drea Gerier orvis fous Genes 183 eeeeaoeosewnaeseeoeaeeescovoeeesenvueeeseeoenden &eenweegceeaveesenseaseeeeeeeeeoeseeeeos Endnotes | naa Mit, “Todas Oban 3 be Rate Sora” oo in iehaciogy 1958 e, Abt Pera ard Peer eskalo tint: cmc Tedeakatema, 2994, 2 911-26 2 Lan, “Fal Ceomorpaotcgy fds Lowers Waa (adh, ast) en tae Ie Grease, Halas 0 de Se evi ‘Srmorsategy an ee Ouataner ef Joba T Sra. Land Redes, 1901, 23597, 4 Jets oeagats Soe, "Te iol eae of the doo Oecaason at tovataro a ts Canes i the Foi Cara Come Dengan Soa Astin slot 199, ed Asko Pacploan Peas Kuga som Stometaten TNeseakotens, 194), 290 ‘fe deon-Pumos Jag, “Golly ael Change ate Root Koo ste {Batches tama or ke Bog nnig oth Sever Ooeaem na." (ol Avon Sete #988 Jace Seelgcass ap Haut ode! [Nepiw stiasUnteraeario Orcs (885.2588. 4 Girl Sloe, “Sit, io ang Conner Pobiens(Mi-2a2 kloan Sox Aten rca, 188, Cader ates [ictgo, Me, Prekisory Pes, 1992), 28770, Chore Stace, “Cony end Change ie Sa Yay (16-135 Centres ws.) Flos fod ew Perec ioe Arhonengy af Seu Ae, e, 2. Kass Kena ‘ious, He: UW afeazon Boparannt of Anirooig, 0H8), 24832. 5. edie Heke, “Ponuaien Bierce oe be Ong of he Cas viteon” Ait 1988: $2287; ror Satan, Reset ahoeoigl Discovers ou he Aan roe." tn Ssh sta “roe (09, Malet Cal ood Gere. & Meise Student Sie, 1390) 258-63. 6 Ravisgor Sing its, "rer Sessating ot Bonne: 1982-840 suscatgy od sry 8. M. Pane ae 8D. Chawcyaftyaya (Deh ‘gam fina Pstshan, 198), 85-6, Dish, “Ths Lage ons (Ghose Nor il” Praeo3t (160): 7.20, Sagat Pt. oh, “nelockngo ae apf Gxt nd Pact Gre Wize Catat e ‘aco Recent ecu," ay ng Riepaeae 2 1878) 9810) Jt 6. Safer. “Reerbesiesupn Tho HaneraFunsband Sei ae avn ad Mesing n Sova AB he Shaping of es um Pens to ‘rots Ties ed ower Shek aed Dene Mah Sinan (vee ngae, 0.6: Nona) Galery af A, 189), 50-67 “7 Rolde9 Kha, Lae arppan Glare” Bester Aatonotase 12 (1682) 17-82 Gregpey Posse, "Ts arappae Conte Grae Te Soot ag Sige Haron” Hasera oepotgs 51-2 (UD02h 17-8 Gregor Peat, "Tbe Maranon Claal Meza: Slog Rete” m Salt Aen Arcata, 188, ed, Oakes erage (akon es Pisin Fase, 192), 23744 8.6 ave Keane “Tueastion Sete, Specie Cras ard Gute huey The ads YaieyDacdon ard he tet-Cange Talon ia Su naan Me Aes o ance Swen As: Language Soe Cas ancy ed Gear iesy (Sern: Gus. 198}, 243-57; J Stone an iene ween, "Me Catal Peak Paiecemiciyn South Asan Arson The MebvyausoPAactent South sae Langusg, tsi Cuore na lt Sarge Ene (Pow de Grae £505, 128358 14 Asser Crs oa fu Yara eve 9.8. E,Mowtge Wheelen he Mas Ceo, 3 Coie ‘try of te (Cabge: Casas Unies Press, t 8). ‘dng, “Conary bet Gage abe Hor Kae Pa: Shae earn The Basiezs Pawan Beye 1, Dole M Bows, od. Ansan ca: Lane of tay (ven as ‘ome Lie tks. 1006. 12, bbe, “Peducuon sede arte ogee eta Das cst Pre ise, “Sou dia om Central Aon Perspective e r-ignaa ct incon South Al Cangunge Mba) Clare and ‘Bits Gacene Erosy (Lent: te Grier 1885). 93-20. 1, ARAN gen, Jon & Laka and ei A.B. Heme, “iologialAcatatons axe Ais of Dota Aap Harepas,” Harare ves #8961090, 9a led H eacaw Moot, Hs: Fetiry rss, (401), 127-05 Bran Hen nd sobs Rha, "Teta tagcat ha ovepgen Crean: An Ivestgto of arapan logit ‘Afinies Lg of Recent ogi a6 er acetal Reser,” in ‘iat li onl 901, 8 aber J Gu ee Jes (Guar sinter, 198, Kemet bE Rossa, "Bre Ayans ean Teenie ne Pritt Sled Eeconl a Sou 0" 7 do dijans Ancor Sa Ae apige Matt Cara Ent #0 ‘Georae Sony Bsn: de Grey 1985), 3200. “4 Sarg, “he Pal Phe i leds Ocupaton es Kaban 8.IiG Sate, "Tae lds Vai, Baluchi anc Herand ‘radon: Notas Thugs Bros Aen rosie ot Nona Arciacooye 3 ace. Br (Ocgo: ivory a hage Press, ‘e468, ‘edhe Sara Vita, Rxcaatuns 3 Frappe (Deh: Gormnonens ot India Pre, 1040), a, 18. "7 Gao tac, “aren Bot rom Beg ae Swat 4" In ters of eH zeae, 8.3. Lal 2088, F Gaps cw Del ‘woke aed Backs. 1964. 271-76 vet, Phe Legey of Oran No 1M Ragan bygha. "Sakae ad he ate rappanCakatl Mosse lof Genter We Soe Abie acca 1929, Gotkvinn Jags Maison. Wis seit Pres, 7882), 29-22, 20, Grgary Pose a fH. Rva, Harpe teen and Boh (os Debs Outre a (GH ad AS, 199) 21, 4 Mat Konpe, “Bn Sates. Soh sl: Compartag Be reesea Paes 94 he Ban sore Pests Ta Arena ALR ‘Site: race alterlApprsoes, Debora. Meta sad Tones [hasta Gastnin 0.2 Stern Iainen Pre. 1987) De 22, onda Casal, "Race aceon 2 a Arioetegy (Gessner 10%) 940-4, JonPunpls Santa 294 Moree Sees, Pons ue Pst Pacts: Biss ce Bocee, (07 23. daroge,“Gonzaay aud CRang te Rev ach Pa 24, ange, “Conunay ao Rang oe Ror ach Po” 25, ferige, “Tr Fel Phase athe nds Occupation Nason” 26, San, tae Haopgen Gre’ Foes, Te Harapu aa Io Golan; he St aod Ss Haran" Fost nd Reval, Haraprsaiteaton ona Rae. 7 Keooye, "Hany CS Is Sou A6” 28, Keng, "btarection Syston, Speaalizeé Cras on uate nange She an ema, “Cia Tskfoe an Plzeoetiiity ‘a Sout sia Arana 20, Kegeqe,ereetion Stone, Spalted Cats and Care ange Hoo “ary Crp States Sth Aa” ‘sarge “Tee Fae Prone of 6 iss espn a Hassan, 91, Bra Basi al “The Ne cen Epes ves araeciogs." Arg 6 Hooik 2c 2, Shar, “Reuaniain: Te Btn Paro and Deyo," 5.67, {ke Ser ane Dla A ewan, Eta and Change a nos ‘ile Gebel Rac, i Oe Pte anew Perspect fae ‘drosesiceyof St Aa). ae Rouejr asses, Ws. OW Maon Deparunente nscoeaiogs, 108), 11726 Geos roy, “Te Prelta t “pales eos a lg late Vee Chielsons 9 ‘Aeon of Bary Histo Sot Aa, see Rame Al [Ranbrdge. Comrise liner Pes, 1895). 72-8. 8. Rene. "Bry Ge Ste in Soh A 24, Gee Goby,“y Statn ot oot nda ans Pakistan ote Tne a se bnesba tn Te Actacng of Barly Mone Soa Asa 6. rene ‘pron ihn Combi: Cumbre Unset Press, 1885) 29612 Frank Raymond lh, et Te ArMaesagy of Bay Wir Soot Ala [anbecps: Camricr Urey Pes, 1999. £5, toon A oer, Plant and Haragron Stsstanos: Aa Bron of vi on Change um Boa be" Det Ox 204 SH. 1391: Seven ‘Anos Sout hata Araenderatcel Fara e Sac stan ‘rotons 189, CaDNEes lamas (ads, Ws Preston Fes, 198), 283-90. 96, Dilip KCaekobery, Ditton of em O18 cM the aronaoli ienon af any en ina deur of he Sot and ooo History othe Orient 222 (107: 15634 7, Chkeebot, “leno fon Opes ante Acoust dese" Dip Chlesbar, oa ad Loan: a Besasanon ct hein Cte” Paria 15 (1984-85: 8-74 Dip K Chaka "he Bogining oon nl” agai (1875) 31424, 19. 8,4, Math Keats, Masso Vie ar Kesep Kha, "ars ‘eae Proaedann hb al Ar Esoacchengel asin vig Ids: Sai ia the Stoonectaac2gy of So Axe Bays ‘ti (Dek Oso 0 75, 18, 281-308, 3p, Ravin Wing, ancien Una Gas veoeutgr and Fencing al: Paial, 1808), 40.4. Mace Keno, “eae oh nde ely Gat” Oreaineat 17.3 (884) 9690, 85, “1, Soanendra Nth Gen on anata Chews, aaces ies and Ane Dean Neto See Ace. 185). 42, Sen an Chavon, nto tse and ea 82 45,5 sn Chawdhn,Azlea Glass ond inca. 92 4.3. Bans Katoye “Sal rk oss ofthe ns ison areneelegea! act Ktangragnie Perse” Ph. G8 Liners oF Cater at Bake, 1953, 35.9, B. Meat, “aooey amend Glan “in rere che (ndusChigaton eB. . Lal ge S.F Cupis (M4 Dei ones 2a Bock, $604), 141-9; Sarahe Semaan, Mensoreuon f Arwen Fe (Doi Asta, 1970) ‘0, Forustoam Sag, “he tan Hoa. Pun Aan Cols | Prlcamary Ror" The 10 international Congress of Mamas London, A atesles (London: Iimatonal ABsetton Fria Nunta, 1905) 35-88: arieswar Pras, Ce, Crate ‘ad Gounmoree nda the anos (Del Ago Kea Prakashan, 184 ‘naz Dep Prasad, yt clot na Sram te Sarest Tes 1p to fhe Gypine (Doe: ta 687), ‘Taldebacl Whe "Rgyeie Wstory Poets, Chefs ac Fie ae ind ipa Fanci Soe Ai: Lage atria Goes 0 roy Googe Bry Bevin ce Gower, 1296), 907-352 38,2] Bal Lal on@F. OMS “The Glas Take Shangveraouse.” (a tote tern sae £92): 59 Dosa ane bear ov vz bass Cimms 105. @eseseeenansetosvevueveeeoenseeosesvene ©e-. eo. 2 COOTCHOROSHHHOEE CHOCO S OSCE RHEE OD CHAPTER 9 The Imperial. Impact Imperialisin is a two-way process. ‘The rulers, partly through their regime but partly also by their sheer presence, make a deep imprint on the life of their subjects, In big things as in small, in ordinary everyday life as in the graceful frills of existence, in the sordid bargaining of the market place as ia the cogitation in the sequestered calm of the towers of learning, in the Keart of the simple, primitive villager at his plough ‘asin the mind of the subtle, disputations iawyer in the court, ia cuisine asin dress, in language as in literature, in the making of money as ini ts spending—in every thing and in every place the encounter leaves its mark which outlives the imperial presence. If the advent of the Britisk: was the first act of this memorable drama, and their changing attitude to India was the second, thelr impact on this imperial domain was undoubtedly the culminating point, the finat third act, the denouement, for it is by this that history will pronounce its judgment on the ruler and the ruled, Did the rulers make an honest and just effort to live up to their claim that the improvement of their subjects was the only justifica- on of thelr pre a? Dil the Ladians apart from protesting against exploitation, humiliation and loss of freedom, make ‘good use of this Western incursion by learning how to beat the West with its own weapons? How much did India gain from British rule? What contribu. tion did the Indians make to India’s progress under British supervision, inspiration and guidance? Yo consider these questions is to estimate the place of British imperial India in Indian bistory. A final verdict is neither possible nor practicable, There are no Ginalities in history, only hypotheses. There220 | The British in India is-no set pattern in the movement of human affairs, Man gropes and strives and fusnbles; sometimes he succeeds beyond hape, somtimes he fails beyond his own fears. He makes dazzling empires and for a bricl moment (for time is eternal) lives ia glofy and calls it greatness, When others take his place he suffers and, complains, and again for a short hour ‘he lives in misery and calls it ‘misfortune. And go life goes on, balanced at the ends of a see-saw, afd we call it history. Let those who find in history a syllogism of certainties play the pontiff. For us the moving finger writes and having writ moves on. Let us try to read what it has writ. i : + soe Te + Facts and assumptions never coincide. But sometimes they live’so close to each other for so long that» distinction is blurred aiid truth becomes a fugitive, The British halve always argued that thre was no real opposition in India to thelr tule, and that therefore they ruled with popular consent. This, they "say, was a fact, The Indian” politicians and writers have urged with equal vehamence that their people were never reconciled to British rule and that it was coercion and force which held the hateful yoke in place. This, they insist, was a fact, Each side has calied the other’s fact an assumption, and then proceeded to argue on the assumption of its own fact, ‘An assumption will not become a fact by repetition, nor will a fact ‘be transformed into an assumption by denial. Bared to the bone the argumelit-rédily tits on tli use of words. ‘Wheh the British Claimed that their rule was accepted by India, they used the ‘word ‘acceptance’ + to denote what was actually acquiescence and indifference. When the + Indians said that foreign rule was opposed by Indians, they were mistaic ing a part for the whole and reading in the limited, urban, political protest the signs ofa general, universal resentment, A little care in the use of language would have resolved the confusion, “There is no doubt that the gencral mass of Indians were completely indifferent to foreign rule. To feel the loss of freedom requires a level of sophisticated thought which was beyond the reach of the average’ Indian. In giving it the name of acceptance and consent the British were guilty of exaggeration, In extending the criticism of the political classes to the placid millions the Indiaas were guilty of dressing up their wishes in the garb of reason. ‘The guilt on both sides was so small, but it was blowa up to monstrous proportions by actimonius debate, emotional nationalism and the urge to be self-righteous. Its almostselfevident that Indiansas a whole didnot oppose British rrule ‘at any stage. “In the early years when the empire was slowly rising ' [ a a @esesescesosoeevaveseeeeeoeoeneeveeveaePETC OSHSPHCHSSPOHREKLECEHOHO SECO SEEASE a Tas Imperial Impact pa: from the stnoke and embers of chaos and internecine rivalries India was ‘eonguered by the British with Indian soldiers, Indian help and Indian allies. The diversity and disunity of India helped the British, but these were not their creation, The general support given to the British during the Mutiny should suffice to demélish the Indian ‘nationalist’ arguraeat ‘that India was full of discontent and resentment. The rising was limit- ed to 2 small part of the country and was put down with the help of Indian troops. Several provinces and races remained calm and loyal, others gave valuable aid to the British. With the whole of India. ranged on the side of the rebels it would not have taken long to expel the forcigners, Today nationalist historians in India and Pakistan are fond of calling the Mutiny a war of independance or the first national struggle against the British. ‘They forget that India was not, at that time of at any time at all, a nation, and oven if it was, a considerable part of this nation either kept aloof from the struggle or actively sided with the enemy. To re-write history is one thing: to invent it is another. Some Indians admit that there was no national sentiment in mid- nineteenth century, but say that such a feeling had definitely come into being Sfty years later, If this is true Indian opposition to foreign rule should have increased many-fold and the difficulties of the government become proportionately greater, But then how do we explain Indian willingness, almost keenness, to join the army and fight for the British ia the two world wars? In the first, India supplied a huge army in spite of Indian resentment, in spite of the Khilafat unrest and in spite of political agitation for reforms. A part of the Indian army, which consist« ed of Muslim troops, fought not only for the British but against the ‘Turks at a time when Indian political leaders were going to jail for their anti-war and pro-Turk opinions. In the second, the government was able to raise a still larger army and receive general support in war effort and princely monetary help at 2 time when the Congress. ministries had resigned in protest against Indian involvement in the war and when Gandhi had launched his individual satyagrata campaign and when (ater) the entire Congress leadership had been thrown into prison and the party declared unlawful. Surely Indian ‘nationalism’ had come of age by 1914 and surely India was clamouring for independence by 1940. For years the politi- cians hed been saying that Indians disliked and opposed foreign domina- tion, that India was onc vast seething cauldronof resentment, frustration and dark despair, and that if their wishes were thwarted the country would goup in an explosion. In fact, nothing happened at all except that a fow nilllion men were ready to risk their fives for the British for fifty| | d 222 ‘The British in India rupees 2 month and many millions more were runing the government efficiently, peacefully and loyally. ‘The degree of Indian acquiescence iy British rule varied from class to class, even from individual io fndivicdual, and was deteriined dy a bost of circumstances, Generally speaking, the ‘minorities were better disposed to forcign presence! than the Hindu majority— partly because they feared the pefmayent rule of an unchangeable majority based on rotigion, partly because the goverment proved mdrc generous than the Hindus in granting safgguatds to the minority grouns, and partly because minorities, by deffnition, Always Jean more gn the de facto holders of power, Acquiescence was also a child of Indign disunity and diversity. Mad all Indi been moved by one strong current of nationalisia much indifference would have been swept out .of Sight, History, too, was on the side’of the British, They had created a united India out of a welter of prigeipglities. The nationalists wefe hard put to discover a centre of loyalty which could attract men from all directions and pit them against foreign domination. ‘These physical and political factors were bound to militate against any concerted or deeply-felt opposition to British rule. A different set of considerations was simultancously working in the same direction. ‘The impact of the West oa the Indian mind gave birth to Hberal ideas and hastened the growth of modem nationalisin, but it also influenced many Indians in favour of the British. Impressed by Western intellectual achievements and awed by European technological advance, they did not find it difficult or perfidious to admire the rulers and sometimes even to respect them. ‘The ideas of Locke, Butke and Bentham proved a heady wine for the first generation of the educated youth, Inevitably they compared these liberal, high-minded principles ‘with the firm imperial rule and discovered that theory and practice rarely kept company in the world of politics, But some of thera were less affected by this contradiction than by the knowledge that the British were, at heart and even if only in their native land, a freedom-loving race, Some others explored the riches of English literature and were propared to forgive much to a nation whose poets and men of letters could give such pleasure to mankind. Yet others were conscious that Western civilization was in most ways supesior to that of India of their time and, if asked, would have answered that in accepting the white man’s rule they were merely acknowledging the’ superiority of his civilization, not bowing before an individual from beyond the seas. ey fin o we @esesee CPaRaeEROC Peo Vee eC eHPeeeeeseHeeESOe » e e o e e e « e e * « e $: « e e e « s e e 4 . & e The Imperial Impact 233, Though Indian politicians were chary of admitting this, the fact remains that the Indian failure to take an uncompromising stand ageinst alion rule was rooted in British achievements in India, Only a jaundiced eye could deny that the imperial record also contained a credit column. Initappeared such items as internal peace, checking the tyranny of native princes and their publicans, construction of a vast nctwork af vital means of communication and transport, improvement of irrigation and modemising the land settlement, foundation of modern industry and urbanization, introduction of new crops, the raising of the standard of justice, creation of an cfficient administrative machinery, establish- ment.of a system of public education, and the breaking down of several revolting: religious and social superstitions, An equally long list of misdeeds could be drawn up beginning, in alphabetical order, with Arrogance and ending with Zeal, uncalled for. It covld also be argued that much in these reforms was directly or indirectly borrowed from ‘Mughul practice, But then no Government works in a total vacutim, and the present is never rich (or mad !) enough to disown the past. ‘The point tums on the question whether the British left India in better shape than in which they had received it or not. National pride and all the rest notwithstanding, few Indians could, upon their conscience, claim that British rule was an unredeemable failure, As long at they were prepared to see both good and evil in imperialism, any attempt to present them asa host battling against the powers of darkness was a cerime, agains trvth. . eos 3 To make the Indians 7 in British rule was an imperial aghievement which should nfit be under-estimated in any study of miodern India, But to makj thi bald statement and pass on is not vary enlightening. We must gb behind the plain fact and try to explore the more important points at whicte ‘the imperial impact was meaningful, significant and, in retrospect, niomehtous, + Though, as we will see Idler, Victorian England herself was not completely free of social evill, yét nothing struck the freshly-arrived jlishman in [India more thar the bllensive character of some practices which society justified in the néme af religion or tradition or both. The new rulers, still insecure in their hold over the empire and reluctant to inkerfere in matters alleged, to liave the sanction of faith, waited a while béfore using authority in support of a campaign to cleanse society, Odce the work of political consolidation was nearly complete, officials turned thelr attention to this problem, Two other forces combined to2e4 Tha British in India stir up their reforming enthusiasm : the pyessure exerted by the Christian missionaries who saw in such a dpcial improvement not only a virtue which was its own reward but also a neogsary step towards the ultimate spread of the mestage of Christ among a near-heathen people, and the Unilitarian philosophy of applying the ratfonal test to social behaviour and eradicating superstition and silly ritual in the cause of improving the quality of human life. Driven forward by such powerful currents of thought and encouraged by their own predilections, the administrators and policy makers resolved all their misgivings about political repercus- sions, The double argument of necessity and virtue was irresistible, ‘None can deny that several of these social’ practices were contemp- tuous of human decency. Suttee was, in fact, the least offensive in the list, ‘There were others which were a shameless mockery of human values and puiled man down te the level of his primeval ancestors. In the south and the centre of India animistic religion had ordered a code of sacrifice in which human beings were preferred to animals. Among the lower castes and some other groups horrible decds were done in the name of sacrifice. The Todas of the Nilgris and the Banjaras of central India ‘drove herds of cattle over children half buried in the sand’, In another part of the country ‘a living child was taken round the village and a finger cut off at each house before the victim was at last Killed by repeated stabs, the blood from each stab being caught in a hollow bamboo’, Strictly speaking all this was done by people who were on the fringe of Hindufsm, But the believing Hindus were hardly any etter, In Tanjore ‘2 male child was sacrificed in the Saiva temple every Friday evening’, In Bastar in 1830 ‘the Raja sacrificed twenty- five men together at one time’. The Brahmans of the Deccan ‘sacrificed 1 young men at Poona cvery year andan old woman was slain every time the Raja of Satara went to Partabghar’, Other Hindus sacrificed children in the river, A childless woman dedicated her first child to a god or goddess in the hope that'this appeasement will make her fertile. At the age of seven or nine the first-born was fed to the crocodiles of the Ganges or the sharks at Sagar Point. The Brahmans encouraged this practice. Old men and women who refused to die were murdered by stuffing the mud of the Ganges down'their nose and mouth. Thuggee, the strangling of innocent wayfarers with a handkerchief, was not highway robbery and murder. It was a religious practice, or at least one in which religion played a central part. Ina corner of the hand- kerchief was silver coin knotted in the cloth and consecrated to Kali, the Hindu goddess of destruction, The aim wes not booty but the killing of a man, ‘The booty was the reward which came from the v e@etesesoeasneevvp eevee ee POHGEC Gee HR4C OES@.2 @. PESCORPHSMPHSPESEOCCEOHCHOOHSOEEEE he tapertat Impect 225 goddess, not from the killing? Thus was religion made profitable and virtue found in gory excitersent, Tris almost a reliaf to pass from these hair-raising details to the inhuman treatment meted out to the lower castes, particularly the untouchables, The Brahman ruled over the flock with the confidence of the faithful, the arrogance of the strong and the tyranay of the high born. But he had no monopoly of superiority, He set an example which other castes found it a pleasure to follow, and gave arguments which they found useful to their defence. ‘The weight of this one-sided orthodoxy fell with a clang on the man of the lower castes, He was an inferior being: almost below the human level, Even when he fought on the side of Hinduism and in the service of its glory he was treated as an unequal. The Maratha army, which sought to found a Hindu empire on the ashes of Mughul grandeur, was organized on the basis’ of caste regiments, So strong was caste feeling that high-caste soldiers successfully protested against what they called the indignity of serving along with low-caste men in the Bombay army of the British, and it had to be reorganized on the basis of one company to one caste? In the daily We of the community the untouchables were not only beyond the cizcle of social contact but at most places also beyond the line of physical touch. In the south matters went even beyond this and the shadow of aa untouchable was ehough to pollute the high-caste. Thus man’s inhumanity to man wes said to be blessed by religion. ‘The Hindus may retort that something of this kind was not only present in Victorian England but also enjoyed official support, The Non-conformists were not emancipated until 1828 and the Catholics not untila year later. The Jews had to wait many years more for equal treatment. Trollope’s novels reflcot his belief that anti-Semitism was a religious duty. Parliament was less liberal than its electors and so when Rothschild was elected to the Commons in 1847 the chamber in its wisdom disallowed him to takevhis seat. Until 1871 no one could be lected to an Oxford or Cambridge fellowship until he had signed the ‘Thirty-Nine Articles, In 1880 Bradlaugh was refused admittance to the House of Commons because he was an atheist and was unable to take his oath on the Bible. For six years a duly elected representative of the people of England was disowzied by Parlement on account of religious 4, The curious fender, provided he as a sound heart, will find more details ia Philp Woodralt, op, ‘site Vol. f, Chapter vi {from which my quotations arc taken) and in Michael Bdovardes, Bile india 1772-1947? cd Surcey ofthe Nature and Bfece of Ali Rue, London, 1967. 2, See Patrice Gadel, Hitay of tie Bembey Amy (London, r038)y P13:‘ | 286 ‘The British in India prejudice, More ganeratly speaking, the Vietortin Age revelled in prudery, reaction, hypocrisy and navedy-mindedness~an astonishing phenomenon in a country which was at this time founding an empire embracing such a variety of esligions, ‘races, moral codes end social traditions All this is true, but to employ these facts as an argument in defenge of Indian social evils or in criticism of, British intentions in India is Htrelevant in purpose and weak in logic. On the contrary, itisa measure of the enlightened attinide af the Angln-Tndians and their Ingpivers and supporters at hone Uist born in eats peviael of yeu conservativiem and bred and educated in Britain under these conditions they could yet claim a. conscience which was revolted by the sight of these inhuman practices and cried for redress. It is an excellent exemple of the liberal impact of British rule that the imperial .masters were not oaly ready but anxious to make India bétter than their own lend.t In removing these evils from Indian society the Bridsh were fighting against heavy odds, Everything that gives life toa society was against them: tradition, religion, ritual, superstition, prejudice, custom, habit, convention, It wasa brave thing to struggle against these forces, so tenacious in a traditional culture, It was a great thing to bring the ‘campaign toa successful end, not only by climinating the offensive Practices but by persuading the Indians, through education, that the elimination was a change for the better. Human sacrifices were outlawed by edict. Suttoe was abolished by law. ‘Thuggee and slavery were dealt with by force, But it proved more difficult to remave caste prejudices, partly because they were more deeply imbedded in religion and partly because law could not touch everyday human relations. Stull, something was achieved and at least the rigidity of the syitem was broken. The rest was done (and js still being done) by the Indians themselves. Even here the consciousness that caste discrimination, and particularly the treatment of the untouchables, was bad and should go was a product of the British impact, It came with the other liberal movements of reform which were a direct result of Western infiuence, External factors, like improved communications and an equal system of public education, ht Vioosan seer wna howed down, sons, bi juin . et Nal lure couplexlon, as" 1S equal when in his win eaualry he Jsctamin a Jen « Nonooutormise, an athebe aed even a Cbvaitag who was. a. Catholic aod ailthess people were white? In failing to relate the Angle-Indian racial attitude to tht entre of Victorian lie, Endian (ang British) critic of British bekaviouria Tasia are guy ether of crx Igneraace or of wil supprason effets, ay @esese Sonate eseataorete ere eueeoeae eee té&OO POC6CODOOOHROCHEHREO SHH OAESHEBO4EO The Impgrtal Impact 207 which helped there reformist tindericies to grow and spread were also of British creation. hoe + » * * | Education has always a negatiye and 2 positive aspect: it protects society from the cultivation of certain weaknesses and it creates enlight- enment and a spirit of curiosity. The system of education established by the British in India successfully performed the nogative function but its positive content and influence were unsatisfactory. It created schools where there were aone. It taught the Indians the virtue of setting themselves free from social evils, It broke the spirit of caste and the hold ‘of superstition. It cured some prejudices and opened 2 window con the riches of Western knowledge, But it completely failed to achieve the higher, the mote positive, aims of education, In fact, it was not devised to do so. Its organization and nature excluded the pursuit of such aims, It did not create intellectual curiosity. It did not mould character, It did not produce the whole man, From the primary school to the university the ultimate end was to manufacture petty clerks who could be good functionaries but were incapable of thinking for themselves. With poor schools feeding the university intake, higher education became an expensive farce. Universities were neither residential in character nor tutorial in organization, The courses of study were politically explosive (they created political aspirations which could not be fulfilled) without being intellectually rewarding (they imparted information unsullied by knowledge). Tae standards were not high. The teachers were recruited from that class of society which had been disappointed in getting any other job, and they posed on their, frustrations to ‘the students with some bitterness in the bargain, ‘Their salaries were meagre and other conditions of service lamentable, Only for a very short period was there an imperial educational service, and even that was neither carefully recruited nor properly organized, ‘The reasons for this neglect of education ave difficult to understand. Was it a detiberate effort to keep -the Indians dependent on foreign rule as long as this could be managed? Was there a fear that education ‘would encourage liberal ideas and ckeate a large class which demanded independence (in fact, this is what happened in spite of the low quality of education provided)? Were the Indians considered unfit to deserve good education? Was Britain herself backward in the development of education in the nineteenth century and therefore unable to give what she herself did not possess? ‘The’ last question gives part cf the answer—but only e part. Ibis228 ‘The British in India true that Victorian Hngland realized its educational plans slowly and swith painful dificuley.’ It was net until 1870 thet Forster's Act set up School Boards. Secondary education did not find its feet til 1g02. At the beginning of the nineteenth éentury Oxford and Cambridge were open only to the faithful of the Established Church. Academically foo they .were narrow-minded and based their curriculum almost solely'on. mathematios and classics. Discipline was lax among the under-graduares, and the dons constituted a closed, selfongratulatory, self perpetuating Community, Teas only in 1026 that the first university (London) freg of religious tests and narrow curricula yras founded. In the twookler institue tions religious tests lasted sill 1871 Female education met strenuous opposition throughout the reign of the Qneon, Intellect in woman was looked upon ag a freak of nature and treated accordingly. | A gitl was to be educated, if at all, toinaky her fit for marriage. So came the ‘accomplishments’ and the finishing schools. For the general mass fof men and women full education clme only three years before the British left the Indian shores. This picture of the Victorian efa has some relevance to the educational impact of Britain on India, At least on one point Indian ‘education was superior to the British right from the starts it was free of all Kinds of disabilities, religious, sectarian or territorial, In other fhings our indictment of ‘the Indian system stonds. Tt ignored the character-building quality of education which was central to English education and on which the English oo rightly prided themselves. Nor was intellectual curiosity encouraged, This bad two unfortunate results which are with us to this day. “The fisst conceens the mental outlook of the educated Indian, He wes a halébaked product. He was lke #man who is led quarter of tae way towards the goaland thea when his appetite is wheted and his eyes have begun to discern things he is left there with instructions not to goa step further, So his mental development was retarded and his capacity to think nover allowed to develop, This affected the kind of people who went to colleges and universities, ‘They did not go to tearn but to equip themselves for employment. This tainted origin coloured the whole concept ead imeaning of education. aucation came to be an artificial prize which was to be won in order to get a job. A matriculate was better than a Inbourer only because he could ‘command a few more rupees. ‘The graduate was superior to matriculate only because he could become a clerk and receive a larger salary. When people study for putting two letters after their name and for nothing ws e . e e 6 e e e e ° e s e e e . ° e ® ® ° e e * e e . ° ® e ® c €wD @e@e0e2000609.0 tal The Imperial Impect 209 else their ultimate ideal is reduced to the passing of an examination, ‘They learn by rote, they cram and mug, they look up previous years? question papers, they pour over guides and notes, they try to remember everything without understanding anything, most of them pasi, a few ‘even get firsts. When this so-called educated class entered the workaday world it carried upon it the mark f the education it had received. Such people had never been taught to think, not to speak of thinking objectively. So they blundered on along the track of life as best as they could, with the blind pertinacity of the ignorant but also with his Jack of confidence, In the college they had learnt that catehwords were usefid, In actual life the same pattern was faithfully reproduced. They lived by shouting slogans, and if they died others made epigrams out of death. ‘This was the husk of life, an empty, hollow existence, an artificial state of finctional activity, devoid of purpose, deprived of meaning, a lamp without light, a movement signifying nothing. Apart from fling low. grade government jobs this class crowded two professions: law and politics, which in many cases overlapped, ‘The lawyers, living on others? misfortunes and their own wits, trained to see only their own side of the case, encouraged to be garrulous in the service of law, ended up as petty politicians, This did not change their nature, only the direction of their artillery. While in the law courts they fired sections and clauses at the opposing counsel, in politics they threw arguments laced with abuse at other politicians and of course at the British, Dispwtation was the breath of their life, speech the source of their income.! In political terms the educational system produced a strange medley of forces. In spite of its defects the university directed a stream oF herald idea into younye cmiuds. But the trouble arose rons the immaturity of these rinds and she rawness of the ideas directed into them, A proper system should at least have tried to cowelate the article to the consumer, ‘The mind is like e child. Jt cannot digest strong food atone go. As it grows and enlarges its food has to be regulated and increased, ‘This was not done. Undeveloped minds (undeveloped because their school education had been worthless) were given Burke and Mill to goad. New ideas were avidly devoured and never digested, This first Shattered the peace of miad of the Indian and then in the next genera~ tion that of the British when they were accused of withholding something * 1 Dfenune there yerre eseeptiog whore well knaswe -Ancee Ali, Fiomal Jayaksr any mpyrcitee age derig spec ber be wh long {is period, ran_ taco huadzeds of taocsanes, Te zs ea be remembered that & reat majority ofthe exceptions were British educated.230 The British in Fadia which their owa text-books called the rights of man, The English predica ment was genuine, but of their own making. They could neither disown their own philosophers nor admit that an Jndian became &t to rule him- self simply because he hed read Macaulay and Bentham. Goldwin Smitl described this situation in words whose pleturesqueness does not conceal their truth: ‘we are wedged in the oak thal we have rent’, As in othey political ‘and constitutional developinenfy, here too imperialism was aisiduously manufacturing its owa cngmniey and giving them weapons i figat with, which iteuld notin all gonsgience all either dubious of blunt, at Ideas ate relentless things. When they arise in the Human mind i is like the rising of the sun. Ouce the dawn has come nothing will stog the morning. Ideas grow and mergeyand may lic dormant for a while, but they do not disappear and leave an emptiness behind. So with the Indian mind and the beral ideas. Phe jecd had been sown by the Belsh, Now she Indians watered it and a jaw, with only half an under; standing but unlimited pleasure, the tiny leaves emerge from the soil. Soon, sooner than anyone hoped, the tree had come to bud, and it was time to talk about the fruit and to imagine its taste, ‘Many in India criticised the British for forcing Western education down the throats of the Tadians against their will. Of course, this kind of education was so different from Indian experience that it split the mind of the educated class and madeit nelther of the East nor of the West. But to blame the British for this development is irrelevant because it was not unique to India: today the entire East from Turkey to the Philippines is groping for its mooriags alter it was exposed to Western influence. But the argument is clinched by the fact that Indians themselves hankered after Western education, The very people who charged the British with corrupting their culture and imposing an alien educational systema were glad to receive Western education and to seud their children ‘to colleges and schools, It is usefull to recall that all nationalist leader+ Hindu and Muslim, moderate and extremist—were, either ¢?..wated in Woes (juan, Gandhi, Nenu, munammad At) or had brought themselves up under Western influence (Ram Mohan Roy and Sayyid Ahmad Khan), In fact, leaders who had had no Western educa- tion were condemned by a majority of Indians themselves 2s undemo- cratic or reactionary—-the Hindu Mahasabha, the Jamiatul-Ulama and the Jamaat-ilslemi leaders, Ultimately one Indian judged another ‘by the liberal standards derived ftom the West, ‘The Western educated. leader also became a vehicle of spreading the. liberal idees he had @eeoeeeeeeeoesv,evsseeoseseeevaoenosvnee nee 80282 0eonerscereovnecon 0.2 @-¢.9 0060.99 8 G4 86 yond ED The Imperial Impoct 231 inpbibed fromthe West. The average man would take more things on trust fiom his leader than from the British: hence the paradox that those who fought against Western imperialism became the instruments of spreading and popularising the intellectual contents of Western civilization. * * . * Education is intimately connected with Ianguage. Any basic change in the system of education entails a linguistic revolution. Once it had been decided that a new educational system was inevitable it was evident that a new medium was required to fulfll the airas of the new dispensa~ vion, It was equally obvious that this new language had to be English, The adeption-of English was a logical consequence of British rule, The imperial race always brings ‘its own tongue with it and imposes it on the subject people, The Aryans had brought Sanskcit and the Mughuls Persian, Indian linguistic diversity also dictated the use of the imperial language as the language of law, business and administration, Had there been one Indian language known to all parts and embodied in traditional ‘culture the impact of the alien tongue would have been slight and fisful. But India was a thicket of words where grammars, scripts and vocabu- Tarles of various origins and shapes grew side by side, ‘There was some mingling, some borrowing, some alliances of convenience, Atleast one shew language, Urdu, had been born of such contacts, Yet India remain- eda land of linguistic chaos in which local languages and dialects prolife- rated with tropical fertility and large groups of people saw one. ancther from across the mutual incomprehension of a linguistic divide. In these circumstances ft was almost a logical necessity that the British would employ thelr own language to rule and educate the empire. To this argument from necessity should be added the imperial conviction about the superiority of English 2s a vehicle of civilization and progress. In 1829, before Macaulay had waxed’ eloquent on che intellecrual'poverty of the East and the limitless riches of the West, William Bentinck had called ‘the British language’ the ‘key to all improveraents'. Macaulay's mind was more brilliant, more one-sided and more far-reaching, To him. Hindu learning was a bundle of irrational outpourings and Hindu Literature afarrago of childish effusions, Oxisntal culture in genera! was overrated nonsense undeserving of any serious notice. Let Indians be educated in reason and some light enter thelr world of ignorance ard superstition. Let them learn a new langue age and through its treasures become enlightened enough to serve a interpreters of Western civilization to theirown masses. So sanguine were his hopes and so strong his enthusiasm that he aimed at creating ‘a class238 ‘The British in Inia of persons, Indian in blood and colour, but English in taste, in opinion, in morals and in intellect’, ‘India had been conquered by Clive and others through Indian soldiers. Now she had to be intellectually vanguished through Westernized Indians: The Indian soil was now British but this was an incomplete accomplishment. ‘The Indian soul ‘was now the prize to go after, and when this was won imperialism would have fulfilled itself, : : Some other considerations also pointed to the same direction. Bott the Utilitarians and the Evangelicals, the two spirits presiding over the Indian empire, lived by their faith in the superiority of Western civiliza tion and Christianity over anything that India had to show. The ‘Utilitariaas included the English language ia their list of ‘useful’ things, and the Christian missionaries welcomed it as an ally in spreading the Ghristian message. Add to this thegeneral English iriability to learn a forcign language and the case for making English the language of India was complete, So the English language entered India in 1835 with all the force of authority behind it, The force was pethaps necessary in the initial stages to break the crust of Jong tradition, There was opposition from the ‘Muslims for it was their language which had been supplanted and they Were more attached to their cultural tradition than were the Hindus to theirs. There were some protests from the Hindus, particularly those among them who taught old disciplines. Before long, however, such shouts and murmurs were silenced by the lure of the West and the prose pect of material prosperity. A minority among the Indians, relating the triumph of imperialism to the superiority of western civilization, began to Iearn English with the object of mastering the secret of this superiority and ultimately driving the British out of India. But this must have been a very small minority. The generality of Indians went to English either to know more about the West, its literature and philosophy and art, or “to improve their status in iife by qualifying themselves to hold official appointments for which a knowledge of English was now obligatory, Such motives impelling Indians towards English were strong enough without official coercion; but if somewhere reluctance showed its unwele ‘come face a judicious combination of persuasion, cajolery and threat of force was enough to override free will. ‘The Zaglish language has been called the greatest gift that the British bequeathed to India—greater than unity which did not survive imperial withdrawal and which was anyway no more than a foad hope *of the Anglo-Indians (and the Hindus); greater than canals and roads and railways for these were no more than. manifestations of efficiency, @eeeoeaoe2@seoeveesvneeeeeceeaseseoeoeneveenvnene @e@eoeeeeveaevsdeeo@eneeaseoveennaseteoeeeenene ee sore f The Imperial Impact 293 while to teach a language is to conquer the mind; greater than the eradication of social evils because English was in part’ the instrument by which this improvement was effected; greater than Christianity which made no sea! advance at all ia spite, or perhaps because, of its imperial trappings, and India did not become a part of the Christian world; greater than parliamentary government which was actually. a piece of artificial and clumsy grafting (of course done with Indian connivance) and has in the event proved a failure in one inheritor and a severely qualified success in the other. If permanence be a quslity of greatness, then the greatness of the gift isin doubt. Recent trends in India -and Paldstan clearly indicate & sharp decline in the popularity of English, official as well as public, ‘With greater reassection of traditional culture combined with » feeling that independence is incomplete without’ a severance of all imperial ties the future of English as a living language is without promise. As relations with other European countries gain strength English faces a growing competition from French and German. In Pakistan the ancient cultural links with Iran and the Arab world are being renewed and the emphasis on her Arab and particularly Persian cultural backe ground is bound to eclipse the importance of English. The general Gecline of British influence inthe East {s accelerating this tendency, If English continues in use for & few more decades that will be because of ‘American presence in Asta. rather than of British imperial legacy. And this Bnglish wili not be one that a cultured Englishman would recognize as his own. z But if intensity and forte of impact are tests of greatness, thea the gift of Boglish can claim a better tide, With it came a transformation bf the Indian mind, ‘Lo learn a new language is to go on a voyage of discovery which excites the spirit. But itis more than that. It opens % door into a'new world wlipse riches are more attractive because they are'strange. Thought imows po frontiers of language, and’ speculation fas been the privilege of fhan ‘since the world began, With o new language knowledge increases, theirealmas of understanding expand, the Narrow confines of isolation recede, a new world arises before our. vision, 4 world of unsuspected grandéur whose landmarks are sometimes like dur own and sometimes liké nothing that we have known, With Knowledge comes humility and perhaps some wisdom too. It does not thake us rich in the current coin of commerce. But it gives us a new: insight into man and new awareness of beausty—and the price of these things is beyond rubies.234 The British in India The Indians took to English with the innocent zeal of a child, Its general use increased as the Indian empire expanded. To begin with it was the imperial language, the tongue of the sahibs, and to Jearn it was to elevate oneselfa little nearer ta the ruling class. Thea cane the missionaries and the ardour of religion was added to the prestige of authority. To be a Christian was one step forward towards learning the language of the Christians. Even those who had zo intention of changing the faith of their forefathers but who went to missionary schools and colleges came under the influence of English culture through its language, When English was declared to be*the official language of the Indian empire, its triumph was assured in a country where the educated classes had but two aventies of making a living: government service and the legal profession. ‘The politicians discovered unsuspected yirtues’in the use of the English language. Most of them were lawyers who used it in the gourts in the course of their professional work. In the morning they practised it on the honourable judges, in the evening they carried their fluency to the public platform. Further, the political use of English created some order out of the Indian linguistic chaos, Any politician wha aspired to be known outside his province or linguistic region had to employ English which was the only medium of co:munication with other Indians, So all parties, except a few unimportant fringes on the extreme, adopted the language of the imperialists, and a battle ensued in which both sides used weapoas which were not only similar in calibre and range but came ftom the same menufacturer. “This did not make for peace, but it did modernize Indian politics, "To fight an enemy you must understand him, and to understand him you must learn his thought-process, and to do that you must know his language. And if you are going to antwer him in his own language, you must know it ‘well enough to wse it effectively—to argue, to persuade, to humour, to threaten, to fatter, even to abuse, The Brisish were opposed on liberal principles borrowed from British thinkers. Obviously this was impos sible without a good Jmowledge of English, Apart from the wealth of argument and the tum of phrase which this kaowledge brought 10 Yndian politicians, the liberal content of the whole argument made Indian politics less conservative than Indian tradition could have allowed, Continual use ofa certain terminology conditions the mind and the sub-conscious borrows much which it prefers to call its own. But in one respect English failed the Tadian politicians, or those among them who expected it to unite India for them. They shared eeoeeoevcvevneeveveoveeceevneeeeneveenv ene @e@¢eeoeveosdseee Ce e20@@@C€eeeeeeeooaeneaeeve The Imperial Impact 235 this disappointment with a large body of Anglo-Indians who mistook Tndiad diversity as a vacuum to be filled in by the English language. ‘To call this expectation naive is to pay ita compliment. There is no cxumple in history of = country, as ancient, as large and as diverse as India, borrowing a language from the alien ruler and making it her own, Language is not a matter of technical know-how which can be received from outside and made’a part of one’s tradition, Itis the most complicated mental structure that human brain kas evolved for is own use, Language and thought always go together? to think in one language and to express the thought in another is a disaster to ercativeness, The use of English could have united Tndia only if every single Indian had completely extinguished his own language, adopted English as the only medium of chought and speech, and thus brought to life a generation which knew no language other than English, ‘This was a task not only beyond the imperial power of the British, aot only beyond the inventive genius of the Indian, but also beyond the skill of mankind. ‘Two other questions have to be answered by those who hoped that English would create a united India. What relation, however remote and tequous, was there between the English language and the Indian medley of religions, languages, tradition’ and values? It is impossible to isolate the mentality of a people from the language they spesk.t The hope of the unity of India on the basis of English assumed that Indians would begin to think like an Englishman—a monstrous assumption, monstrous in absurdity, not in morality: Secondly, was there any warrant in thinking that e nodding acquaintance with a tongue es alien as English would give India what five thousand years of history had denied her? To éntertain such thoughts was to reduce history to the Jearning of an alphabet. For the Indian politicians the use of English was a convenience. For the Indian intellectuals i was an act efhomage. Fora majority of the educated Indians (educated in the Western way) the use of English was not merely an advantage but an acknowledgment of their intellectual debt to the West. In many cases they knew English better than their ‘own tongue—at least in terms of literary expression. By writing in English they could also reach a wider public, So a class of Indian writers in English grew up and gave a new aspect to the Indian intellex: 4 ‘hig pin ome out by what te, Americans te done ve the erghat, Bogs jaguage, ven cousins cannot spsak the same tongue withous mouldiog iin the image oftheir own mentality.236 . "The British in India : tual and literary scene, In creative writing fiction attracted them mest, though not all of them could surmount the inherent difficulty of depicting an Indian scene or drawing an Indian character in a vocabulary whoie nuances and expressions were sometimes unequal to describing the Indian background. “In poetry no outstanding work was done. Toru Dutt Gied too young, while Sarojini Naidu’s vorgés were at time too meretri- cious, too ‘Indian’, to read as English postry, . Ia general prose there have been Indians whose purity of style was a thing of beauty and who wrote English as in trath it should be weitien. ‘To read them is to know ‘how deep the impress of the British had ggne into the Indian mind—byt alas! there were so few of them. =” ' ‘Whether used as an expedient or'as a necessity, there is no doubt that English was in general use in India for many a year. But there is also no doubt that it did not enter the Indian blood. No foreign tongue could. Persian had becn the language{ of the court and the salon for much Ichger than English, and yet it left lle impact on the Indians (in this context the non-Muslim Indians), Language has intimate ties with tradition, religion, mores, folklore, even weather, ‘Therefore, even when ‘the intellect Js secn to accept a foreign tongue the soul rebels. The acceptance is not complete or whole-hearied. The borrowed language betrays signs of hybrid development, Itis distorted and mixed up with Jocal expressions. The result is as much amusing as exasperating. And 50 we get curiosities of Indian English like S2bu English and other Indian ways of using English. Generally the Indian English is contemptuous of the definite article, probably because this grammatical nicety does not exist in Indian langua- ges. In India the government became government without the article. ‘One went to office, not to the office. ‘Then certain words came to stand for things far removed from their original meaning and very different from their ordinary usage in England. A ‘station’ was a railway station, put it could as well be a hill station of any sort (not necessarily an administrative centre) or @ civil station (that part of 2 town where officials had their offices and homes), Similarly, every government employes above a certain level was an ‘officer’ (a term generally used in England to desoribe officers of the armed forees), and above another level 2 ‘gazetted officer’, a term unknown to British vocabulary or bureaucracy but stil in strict use in India and Pakistan, ‘The administrative machinery itself manufactured new words or gave new meanings to old words. The word ‘emergent’, the adjective ofemergency; was very popular in official circles, particularly during e e . e e e e e@ e e es e e e e e » e e ° 2 ° e e e e o e e e e@eee¢astoaoeeveeneo ea oeesce ea 0 @ @. o @ @.¢ & The Tapered bnpeet 237 political unrest and the ww wee wars. ‘Infructnous’ was used more often than its humbler equivdlent’, unfruitful and useless, pechaps because of its more imposing sound. "Thé half-educated Indian steno-typist must have been duly impressed. Babu English was a language by itself, though steiely speaking it was only a logical and teral (but utterly wrong) use of the English language, Its practitioners were those Indians whose grasp of English was less certain than their wish to use it, Clerks and petty officials scattered these gems in their notes on the files or in letters to superiors. Here are some examples. On the dismissal of a corrupt public servant: ‘For the reasons given, he was fired with enthusiasm’, On the distance toa certain towa: ‘Teis about sixty-five miles, as the cock crow:', To the Governor on having received a decoration; ‘I heartily congratulate Your Excellency for appreciating my public service’, Addressing a high oficial in humility: ‘Most becile Sir—for those uninitiated in the mysteries of Babu English ‘becile’ was the contrary of ‘imbecile’, On receiving a favour at the hands of a superior: ‘May God pickle you— a most expressive way of praying for the sahib’s long lifel Perhaps morc than the English fanguage (but of course through it) English literature influenced Indian literary work in many ways. We have already mentioned how the work of several English scholars, Ike Max Miller and William Jones, awakened the Indians (here the Hindus) to the maturity and value of their own literature. Western praise and appreciation of Indian writings impressed many Indians for whom such approval was of much pride, Igbal and Tagore were trenslated into English, and so were Hinds classics, Incidentally, this shows the Indian slavish mentality of appreciating s thing only after it has won praise in the West More specifically, modern Indian literature has taken its realisia from Buropesn writings. The influence of Wordsworth on Urdu. poetry of the middie and late nineteenth century is clearly marked in the ‘nechari? movement of the Aligarh school in general and in Hali’s work in particular, Sayyid Abmad Khan’s writings on social topics were inspired by English estayists, and he modelled his Taheib-ul-Akilag fon the Taller of Addison and Steel. New forms of poetic expression entered Hindi and Urdu poetry under European influence, Sonnets were written, odes were composed, ong poems were attempted, and even blank verse claimed some admirers. The previous monopoly of the ghazal was broken by these new experiments, and the moder age of ‘Urdu poetry had truly begun, ‘The English poets of the first world war did another service to Tadinn letters. It was inainly by their example298 The British in Iya if that some Indian pocts began to write political and’ patriotic verses, Zafer Ali Khan and Hasrat Mohan} are'the two best representatives f this genre, Their debt to English pocts ig obvious, though it remail ‘vue that some early poems of Iqbal nd Ghibli had ae the precedent. * » : § + ‘Tinus far we have tried to see tho Brith influence at work in social life, education, language and literature. ! The combined effect was the creation of what has been called ari Indinn renaissance, ‘Lhe whole society was shaken by the new forces let into India by imperial rule. It was compelled to reconsider the entird foundations of its life, thought, and morals. New ideas flooded she Indian “mind, New concepts opened new channels of thought. A whole new spirit entered the Indian outlook, possessed it, agitated it, shook il and left it quivering with, excitement. 7 . ' Much has been written on thij change in India by the coming of the West, anid much more will be writton in future, The wind of change blow through every part and people of India, and there was kardly an area or a soclety which remained immune to its double process of destruction and reconstruction, But the wind did not blow with equal freedom and force everywhere, At places it blew hard and long and swept the old and effete before it like autumn leaves, and after the storm wes over the sky was clearer than ever before and people were able to see things which had so far been hidden from their vision, At other places and on other people it blew but gently aud ditiully, felling a small tree here, carrying away a rotten roof there, clearing the atmosphere at onc moment, raising blinding dust at another. Not everything felt, the strength of the storm, nor was all the debris blown. away. Some saw the wind for what it was and turned their ails in command to it, ‘Others shit themselves in and let it pass, and when the whole thing was over emerged from their fastnesses with their faith in tradition evea stronger and their hatred of the agents of change even deeper. So the storm raged, as much in the land asin the breasts of men, Some were “grateful to it and blessed its cleansing quality, ‘They allied themselves with the new forces with will and zeal, sure that change was good, convinced that the obsolete deserved to die, and pleased at the prospect of a new world arising out of the death of the old. Others shrank into their shells of self-suficiency, cursing the loss of what tradi- tion held dear, confused at the swift turn of events, awed at the destruc- tion of values whith time had hallowed and their own efforts had made sacrosanct. Te some of these the wind was unwelcome because it as eeeoeoeoveaseceoveeeoreeoseeneee ee ese @@eeeteeoneaevasvrcesnneeveneneeoee 0 & 1 o> ° e ° _ Sw e The Dhperist Impact 239 bleiv from the West, and th Welt was the home of inatesialism, heresy and imperialism. They siWv the new order contaminated in its origin. ‘To accept it was to comprothise jvith godlessness, greed and oppression. Others among them saw Some good in Ue new message and tried to pick and choose so that a ndw whrld could be built on the foundations ofa happy mixture of East did West. On the whole the wind did its work well. It left its mark on everything~-polities, religion, philosophy, literature, art. Generally it Brought democracy, liberalism} progress, a desice for change, a thirst for knowledge. Tt also brouybt freaction, but even this reaction was different in tone and substance to what it had been before the tempest. ‘The two major components of Indian society reacted differently to the impact, ‘The Hindus were more vulnerable to intellectual assault because of their traditionalism, their lack of free status for hundreds of years, their want of previous contact with the West, and their eagerness to join hands with the new forces in order to confirm the overthrow of their former’ rulers, the Muslims. Their ignorance of their own past offered no obstacle toa rapprochement with the West. In the words of a modern Hindu writer, who lived through this renaissance, the impact of Western civilization on the Hindu personality was revolutionary. Under it the Hindus received from the West six new concepts which had bad no place in their faith or tradition: ‘first, the idea of God —that is, a personal God of the Clarisiian type. Secondly, the idea of Mon, asa being whore porsunalily was a thing of value in itself, Third, the iden of Country, which is of course patriotism as understood in the West. Fourth, the idea of Nature, as an canobling and purifying influence en the human personality, The fifth is the idea of Love as a relationship bettveen ran and woman which was not fie creation of the sexstal hrge! and dhe sixth was the iden of physical Beaty -taitis, the bodily fleauly of an or won as a thing of aesthetic and moral enjoytiienty not of sensual fecling’.? Even allowing for an clement of exaggeratioh in this catalogue, there is no doubt that the Hinds mind was profoundly fnducneed by the West. On the Muslims the Western influcnes was more selective, less comprehensive and not so deep. Islam, even Indian Islam, did not find the West a stranger at‘its door as Hinduism found it, Not being Jadians hy origin, loyalty auf emotion, Musdinis were les: iolated from world dhan die Landes. Since the commencement of the outsider f, tag @, Chath “The Empatt of England”, Te Lister, 23 November 198, pos Gase685. 7240 ‘The British in India Mastion rile (that is, ace the beginhing of their own history),they had hhad contacts of varying length ard injimacy with Afghanistan, Tran, central Asia, some Arab countzies, Turkey and even Europe. ‘Theje faith itself was far closer to that of the West than Hinduism, There- fore, theic reaction to the coming of the West was more confiden}. ‘They were not swept oftheir feet.’ They discovered that mach in the row message was but their own convictions ia a new drew Tt was vesler for them to borrow from the West without at the same tiie completely rejecting their traditional values. A comparison between Ram Mohan Roy and Sayyid Ahmad Kyan is inthis respect enlightep- ing. Both were deeply affected by the We . “But while Ram Mohan Roy end other reformers of Hinduism -began to examine the fou a tons of thelr faith and were in consefyuence faced with a spiritual * of the gravest order, Sayyid Ahmad Khan, Amocr Ali, Chiragh Ali, Jabal and theis Muslin colleagues niéreljised to reinterpret Islam} Western terms, more to reassure the West that Islam was a set pf vexsonable belief than to prove that its fundamentals were of doubthit Validity. Hindulm had to change iol? to mect the challenge of the West, Islam met the West half way without loss of belief or confidence. In both religions, of course; there were geoups too loyal to traditional piety to acknowledge the exsteace of the Weiter challenge or) when jhe existence was acknowledged, to see anything valuable in the new Gispensation. ‘They continued to cling to their old-fusbioned ways of thought and by 50 doing kept alive = fundamentalist approach to religion which, even ifit was out of touch with modern conditions and reeds, could claim the virtue of stability in a world ia perpetual fus. Whatever the influence and achievements of the imperial impact, there seems little doubt that its central force was the play of reason ‘The new atmosphere was something like that of Europe after “the Fronch Revolution and that of England in the first half of the nineteenth century. People began to sit up and ask questions. Doubt, which had so far hidden its face behind the convenicat veil of complacency, assumed respect and became a habit among the thinking elite, Ques- tions, which had been suppressed to please tradition, now raised their head, first with coy, nnceriais reluctance, then with gay abandon, Tt was es if many windows were opened at once into a room which had Deca shut wp for years. The old, musty air was let out and with it departed a hott of prejudices, taboos and inhibitions, Rationalism’ was one British gift to India which won ready acceptance, Reason became the touchstone of life and all its manifesta-COCHCHHROOR OSAP ACHE EE OH CHOSE SHHRESS The Imperial Impact 24r tions. Feith was shaken, Belief nearly dissolved into scepticism, Assumptions disintegrated in the face of argument. The obvious was no more so obvious when exposed to the test of reason, utility or practicability. ‘Thoughts and institutions were re-examined to see if human reason could defend them. Ram Mohan Roy and Sayyid Abmad Khan were the first Indians to dare apply intellect to traditional faith. In introducing the criterion of reason in their approach to such a senaltive field they provoked resentment, bitter opposition and abusive criticism, but thelr efforts succeeded in creating an intellectual revolusion which could not be rolled back because the prestige of the West, the sanction of reason and the sense of history were on its side, No transition is painless and throes of travail accompanied the birth of new India, ‘The new India was brought to life by an alien breath, “This was ground enough for a part of society to stand in opposition and measure fits strength against the forces of revolution, In the eyes of this class the West was completely and irrevocably identified with political domination, religions intolerance and racial prejudice, The West could not be Hberal and at the same time so zeslous in the cause of imperialism. It could not be sincere and constructive and at the same time so bent upon spreading Christianity among the Asiens, It had no right-to talk of reason and human values so long as it looked at the black skin with contempt. So argued a class of Indians who hated the West for many reasons, some strong, some vulnerable, A ceatre of reaction and hostility was thus built up, both among the Hindus and the Muslims. Religious revivalism: sprang up to strengthen the hands of anti-revolutionary forecs. ‘The Arya Samaj began as an anti-Western, anti-Christian botly, though ina few years its direction of attack was changed towards Islam, The Deoband school was founded to preserve the purity of Islam as a certain class of wlema saw Jf. It was un- compromisingly oppused to everything Western and, consistent with this Tring, 2 ever at which showed signs 6f Western influence, like the Aligarh movement, Igbal’s teachings and Jianah’s politics. Indion reaction to the coming of the West was thus twortided. The two streams of thought, tl. revolutionary and the traditional, flowed sige by side, Occasionally ong borrowed a point form the other, In one criss Urey actually cooperated, , Daring the Khilafat movement the ulama of Deoband and the Westernized nationalist leaders came together in defence of Furkey and the Khalifa, . But \this was an alliance, a242 The British in India coincidence of opinions, not an agroemuent on the fundamentals. ‘This divergonce was never resolved and to this day the traditionalist fojces siaad ranged in Pakistan against tHe modernizing tendencies, A similar golf in India separates the Hinds fundamentalist from che Westernlzed Hindu and no amount of talk about secularism and socialism shes narrowed the gap. et : ‘{t3s noticeable that the British impact left a deeper mark in Africa hari in India and other Asian postessiogs, Two factors seem to have caused this, African historical and sagial background was poorer than the Indian. Africa wad very nearly a igbula raseon which the imperial ‘power could impress the accents ofits cultures In India, on the contrary, there was aleeady in existence a corpparatively sophisticated and complex social system which admitted of change but not of total submergepce. Tn the socond place, Indian religions were older, more tenacious and ‘more deeply rooted in human consilousjess than those of Africa. ‘The Indian response to the Wegt wes, therefore, more eclectic than the African, ‘The Indian could not reject his faith ix tfo, turn his Back con the past and go over to the Western values in heart and soul He accepted something, he made compromises, he picked and chose. The ‘African's choice was clearer and simpler: he either embraced the ‘West wholeheartedly and without any apparent qualm or continued t0 live his traditional life without any evidence of alien influence, He did not have to experience the spiritual cris of the Indian, Who was the happier in the end is a question which the present always asks of the past and receiving no answer waits for the future, Indiant and others will undoubtedly continue to discuss the good. and bad of the imperial impact as long as history is read and men remember the past. Every generation will give its own verdict and call it the judgment of history. The British view will not be the same asthe Indian, The Hindu’s answer will be. different from the Muslim's. Ya the sub-continent itself the people of one province will view the past in one way, the people of another in another way. A Macrasi's attitude to and consciousness of the West are bound to be at variance with those ofa Pathan, The British influence w7+ not the same everywhere,’ Nor were the recipieute of the gospel of equal will, some saw dhe Wes: in the golden haze of their admiration and opened their breasts to the message with gratitude mingled with awe. Others saw it through the blisiding clouds of their fury and shut their hearts against it os if against a spectre of evil, Some others saw the wind rising but did not fecl its lasit, ‘The storm passed over their heads and left them as they were: a : s ee é seeeeevuevaeeetvoesereeesboeveeeeeeen ©22680 ea eoeeeaeaene Caen eseeeneeesed 8S Oo EG BRB A kB Co SP Ae SBMA "} The Imperial Impact 24g inpassive, indifferent, unchanged, unchangeable, ‘They and their fore- fathers in turn had seen so many such storms pass over this land which the foreigners never seemed to leave alone. How long can human spirit go on pirouetting in command to every eddy and buffet? Notwithstanding hese variations, for most Indians in one aspect the legacy of the West was full of personal anguish. ‘The West bad created a tension in thelr mind which neither time nor effort could heal. ‘They were transformed by the impact, but transformed in a peculiar, subtle way. They belonged neither to the Bast nor to the West. To make matters worse, they were not acceptable to-either world. To the Westerner they were still Indians with but a veneer of the occident upon them, To the Indian they were irreverent rebels against his ancient, indigenous culture. In their own mind they were confused, ‘Their emotions were Indian; their reason western. Their faith war thelr own; theie arguments borrowed from outside. Their culture was neither of this place nor of that. ‘They were mental fisgitives, refugees ‘on the move, who had lost their ancestral hearth and yet not found a new home. ‘This crisis of the soul is still with us, ‘The strain of living in two worlds at the same time, of being disowned by both, and of not finding a third which will accept us, is playing havoe with the integrity of cur mind, Some may call it exciting, but those who live in perpetual excitement are in danger of losing their sanity. Two different loyalties pull us in opposite directions. Two different, sometimes contrary, systems of life attract us. A complete synthesis of any two cultures is dn impossible dream. We speak ‘the language of one and read the Titerature of the other. Out customs and traditions are local, our Bllcsophy and pies are importad goods. Our feelings and prejudices re our own; our thoughts arg alien, Our values are all mixed up, and happy (but rare) is the man who can relate them into a recognizable whole and live by it. . . «This choking sensation, this feeling of severe stress, is a part of our Western inheritance, But it dots not follow from this that the West is res- ponsible for our predicament. The Indians themselves accepted Western culture so gladly, so willingly,'so passionately, that the excuse of external Imposition would not stand a tainute’s scrutiny, It is tue that they condemned the pervading influence of Western culture, but in the same breath they welcomed it for themselves and for their children and the pride in cultivating it, The fact is that ia their heart they considered Western euiture and civilization sugerior to their own, One reason for this wag the unavoidable association of the Western way of life with244 “The Lvitghe sn Ini Smaperiall power and expansion and yith material prosperity. ‘It was not unieasonable to think thet a civilization which bad made so great an advance and Had founded a world-wide empire possessed undeniable virtues. The way to progress lay through modernization, in other words through Westernization. A second reason was that Indians had no Aistinet culture of their own, ‘There was a Hindu culture and e Muslim culture, and in'come parts of India which were homogeneous regional cultures flourished, like Pathan culture for example, But thers was 20 ‘unified Indian culure loyalty fo which could be an obstacle to adopting the Wéstern way of life, Here and there the Western onrush met pockets of resistance and opposition; but by and large their own cultural poverty and diversity and the overpowering wish to be modem drove the Indians into the arms of the West. ‘They learnt English with enthusiasm, not only ‘because it was the language of the rulers but also because it was a Key to the treasure-howse of Western intellect. To be able to speak English became a mark of social superiority, Parents taught their children to speak the foreign vongue and then flaunted the accomplishment before relatives and visitors, ‘The Western style of living was adopted, Western dress came into vogue, Chairs and sofas took the pléce of traditional furniture, ‘Motor cars and bicycles displaced old modes of transport, Some Indians Joined English clubs if they were allowed to; others opened their own ‘clubs and imitated the sabi in ali bis colonial glory. Even English food entered the Indian cuisine and a taste for it became a part ofa ‘thaa’s cultural equipment. In imitation of the missionary schools the Indians established their own English-type institutions and their supe- siority to other local schools was taken for granted. We have been talking here in the past tense because this is an historical narrative. Actually the flowing tide of Western culture is still coming in with unabated strength. Itseemsas ifthe departure of the foreign ruler has removed the last vestige of reluctance in accepting the ‘Western way of life without being accused of aznti-national bias. Since 1947 the proceis of Westernization has been quickened. Economic planning, foreign aid, the coming of the Americans, greater contact with European countries, the increasing number of foreign-educated young. men—all these have contributed to the acceleration, but the base of the structure remains the ready acquiescence created under the imperial umbrella. Today in Pakistan newspapers continue to fulminate ageinst the un-Islamic training imparted in missionary schools and still the children of the elite swell the waiting lists of these misslonary institutions. Oe wo seeeeezoea ss ovseveneeeeesnsneeeeeeneECO CCCCHReESASCEHEHRHFCEHOGMERZOS se The Imperial Impact 245 ‘The air is ful of talk of re-discovering our cultural past, but the new generation is being brought up on American films, Western comict and a bastard English accent. ‘There is a deep irony in this situation. Tn the nincteenth century, Boglish faith in the superiority of its civilization was unquestioned and English confidence in its infallibility knew no bounds, But the Indians were sceptical and hesitated to call an alien god their own. In the qwentieth century, England began to question the assumptions of her faith and to doubt the certitude of the dogma of progress. But by then India had come to believe in what the Victorian imperialist had brought her many years ago. The shift in British convictions was not visible to theIndian eye. So in the twenticth century India pursued an ideal whose votaries themacives had forsaken it, This perversity of faith is still with us, ‘Today when Europe is beginning to feel the malaise of the industrial society, we in the East are henkering after an industrial revolution which is bound to reproduce all the evils let loose in the West by machinery in the nineteenth century, European intellectuals are now ‘iscovering the lisits of their spiritual tether and there is a growing tendency to look to'the experiences of the East in search af peace of mind, We in the East are stil dazaled by the latest Western theories of life and accept them as the quintessence of human wisdom. Serious- minded Europeans are now worried about the problem of reconciling the existence of a permissive society with the generally-accepted moral principles, But the East goes mertily along, proliferating its own brand of beatniks, beatles and the hippies and encouraging certaia trends which have no virtue except the white man's practice. 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