16.

512, Rocket Propulsion

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez
Lecture 34: Performance to GEO

V Calculations for Launch to Geostationary Orbit (GEO)

Idealized Direct GTO Injection
(GTO = Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit)
Assumptions:
-

Ignore drag and "gravity" losses

Assume impulsive burns (instantaneous impulse delivery)
Assume all elevations >0 at launch are acceptable

Launch is from a latitude L, directed due East for maximum use of Earth's
rotation. The Eastward added velocity due to rotation is then

vR = E RE cosL = 463 cosL

(m/s)

(1)

If the launch elevation is , and the desired velocity after the first burn is V1,
the rocket must supply a velocity increment
(2)

V1 = V12 + vR2 2 V1 vR cos

vR
v1

V1

The trajectory will then lie in a plane LOI through the Earth's center which
contains the local E-W line. In order to be able to perform the plane change to the
equatorial plane at GEO, we select the elevation such as to place the apogee of the
1/3

transfer orbit (GTO) at the GEO radius R GEO = T 2

(T = 24 hr, = 3.986 1014 m3/s2)

16.512, Rocket Propulsion

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez

= 42, 200 km

Lecture 34
Page 1 of 13

North
E

L
V1

EQ

UA
TO R

GE
O

GTO
I

EQUATORIAL GEO ORBIT

Fig. 1

Since OL is perpendicular to OI, the view in the plane of the orbit is:

V1

RE

RGEO

Fig. 2

The polar equation of the trajectory is r =

In our case p = R E (corresponding to =

16.512, Rocket Propulsion

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez

p
,>0
1 + e cos

). The elevation is given by

2

Lecture 34
Page 2 of 13


dr
e sin
tan =
=

(1 + e cos )2
r d = / 2

= e

= / 2

and, in turn, the eccentricity follows from (at = )

R GEO =

and so tan = 1

RE
1e

e =1

RE
= 0.849
R GEO

RE
RGEO

= 40.3

(3)

The angular momentum (per unit mass) is h = p = R E .

Equating this to R E V1 cos
V1 cos =

RE

(4)

(i.e., the horizontal projection of the launch velocity is the local orbital speed, for any
apogee radius, RGEO in this case)

Combining (3) and (4),

V1 =

RE

1 + 1

RE
R GEO

(5)

and this can now be substituted in (2):

V1 =

1 + 1 E + vR 2 2vR
RE
R
R
GEO
E

V1 =

RE

vR +

RE
R GEO
RE

(6)

L
=
i

Upon arrival at I, there will have to be a second burn that will simultaneous

accelerate the rocket to vGEO =

, and rotate the plane to equatorial (
R GEO

16.512, Rocket Propulsion

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez

).

Lecture 34
Page 3 of 13

vGEO
i
Va

va,GTO
Fig. 3

The apogee velocity is va,GTO , given by

R GEO va,GTO = ( V1 cos) R E = R E

and so Va =

(7)

2
2
vGEO
+ va,GTO
2vGEO va,GTO cos i

Va =

R GEO

1+

RE
R
- 2 E cos L
R GEO
R GEO

(8)

This second burn is probably provided by the spacecraft itself, or else by the
launcher's upper stage.
IDEALIZED TWO - BURN GTO INJECTION
One difficulty with the direct injection scheme is the fact that GEO insertion at I
must occur on the first pass, because the GTO perigee is actually below the Earth's
surface (see Fig. 2). Most operators prefer a temporary parking of the spacecraft in a
GTO orbit which has a perigee above the ground, so as to make functional tests and
adjustments prior to the final apogee burn (over a period of 2-4 weeks). A
modification of the launch sequence to accommodate this is:
(1) Fire Eastwards with selected for a low apogee ( 200 km above ground) at the
equatorial crossing.
(2) Fire again at equatorial crossing to raise the apogee to RGEO (no plane change)
(3) At one of the apogee passes, perform the final (circularization + plane change
burn).

16.512, Rocket Propulsion

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez

Lecture 34
Page 4 of 13

The formulation is very similar to the previous case.

The elevation is now given by

tan = 1
( Rp = perigee radius

RE
Rp

(9)

RE + 200 km ).

This gives a very shallow trajectory, which is unrealistic; but it is a fair

approximation to a real high-elevation launch, followed by a rapid rotation during the
rocket firing. For RP - R = 200 km , = 1.740 .

z
ACTUAL

IDEALIZED

Fig. 4

Eqs. (5) and (6) still hold, with the quality R GEO replaced by Rp , and so

RE

- vR +
V1 =
1
R

RE
RP
E

(10)

which is now smaller, since we are going to a much lower apogee (at rp ).
At this apogee (at the equatorial crossing), we have, as in Eq. (7),
va =

R E
Rp

(11)

and we next need to effect a second rocket firing that will increase velocity to that
for the GTO perigee:

vPGTO =

2R GEO
R p R p + R GEO

16.512, Rocket Propulsion

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez

(12)

Lecture 34
Page 5 of 13

No plane change is involved yet, so

Rp

V2 =

2R GEO
RE

R P
R p + R GEO

(13)

This places the spacecraft on an elliptical GTO orbit, still in the original plane, with
apogee at R GEO . The speed at this apogee is:
va,GTO =

R GEO

2R P
RP + R GEO

(14)

and so,

Va =

Va =

Va =

R GEO

vGEO2 + v2a,GTO 2vGEO va,GTO cos L

R GEO

2R P

2
R P + R GEO
R GEO

2R P
cos L
R P + R GEO

2R P
2R P

1+
2
cos L
R GEO
R P + R GEO
R P + R GEO

(15)

vGEO
L

Va

va,GTO

Fig. 5

16.512, Rocket Propulsion

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez

Lecture 34
Page 6 of 13

Some numerical comparisons

We will illustrate these V 's by considering launches to GEO from two different
locations:
(1) Near the Equator, on at the French kouron complex, and
(2) From mid-latitude, as from Caf Canoveral ( L = 28.50 ).
(1) Equatorial Launch
Option (a): Ground to LEO (300 km), plus LEO-GEO Hohman transfer. No plane
changes. Launch to the East.
V = V1 + V2 VR

V3

V4
GEO circularization

GTOinjection

To LEO, = 0

V = (8084 463) + (10,151 7725) + (3071 1573)

= 7,621 + 2,426 + 1,498 = 11,545 m/s

Notice this is more than to Escape from mean Earth ( V
Option (b): Direct injection into GTO from ground
V

V1

= 0 launch to R = 42,200km
( 463 m / s for rotation)

11,200 m / s )

V2
GEO circularization

= (10,420 463) + (3071 1573) = 9,957 + 1,498 = 11,455 m/s

(2) Launch from L = 28.5o. Launch to East, R = 407 m / s
Option (a): Direct injection to GTO, circularization + plane change at GEO. 2 firings,
V

V1

Launch with = 40.30

V2
GEO circularization
andplane change

= 10,070 + 2,102 = 12,172 m/s

Note the two penalizations for latitude: the elevated launch increased V1 , and the
plane change at GEO increases V2 .
Option (b) Direct injection with 3 firings (LEO at 300km)
V =

V1
Launch to a300 km apogee

V2
Firing to raise apogee to GEO

V3
Circularization
+ Plane change

= 7,512 + 2,605 + 1,830 = 11,947 m/s

16.512, Rocket Propulsion

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez

Lecture 34
Page 7 of 13

Is it true that plane change should be all done at end of GTO?

Actually, a small turning combined with initial V1 (say, from LEO) costs very little
V loss, even though V is then large. Try splitting into a i1 and i2 = i i1

v2c1 + vp2GTO 2vc1 vpGTO cos i1

V1 =

V = V1 + V2
V2 =

v2c2 + vp2GTO 2vc2 vaGTO cos ( i i1 )

+2vc1 VP sin i1
+2 vc2 Va sin ( i i1 )
dV
=

=0
2
2
2
di1
2 vc1 + VP 2vc1 VP cos i1 2 vc2 + Va2 2vc2 Va cos ( i i1 )

vc1 =

Call =

,
R1

1+

1+

,
R2

2R 2

,
R1 R1 + R 2

vp =

va =

2R1

R 2 R1 + R 2

R2
R1

vc2 =

sin2 i

sin i1
1+

2
2
2
cos i1
1+
1+

1
=

1 2
sin ( i i1 )
1+

1 1 2
2
+

1+

1 2
cos ( i i1 )
1+

1
2
2
1 2
2
2
cos ( i i1 ) = 2
sin2 ( i i1 ) 1 +
cosi
2
2
1 +
1+
1+
1+
1+

1 +

42200
= 6.14265
6370 + 500

1.31148 Sin i1
1 + 1.71999 2 1.31148 Cos i1

16.512, Rocket Propulsion

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez

2
= 1.31148
1+

1
6.14265

0.52916
Sin (28.5 i1 )
6.14265
1 + 0.28001 2 0.52916 Cos (28.5 i1 )

Lecture 34
Page 8 of 13

Sin i1
2.71999 2.62296 Cos i1

i1 = 2.260 optimum

0.16280 Sin (28.5 i1 )

1.28001 1.05832 Cos ( 28.5 i1 )

i2 = 26.240

V
2
2
1 1 2
2
2
cosi1 +
+

= 1+
vc
1+
1+
1+

1 op

= 2.71199 2.62296 cos i1 +

vc
1 op

1
6.14265

2
cos i2
(1 + )

1.21001 1.05832 cos i2

= 0.30178 + 0.23227 = 0.53405 - small improvement

Compare to same with i1 = 0
V

= 0.29838 + 0.23868 = 0.53706 - small improvement

vc
1 ref

16.512, Rocket Propulsion

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez

Lecture 34
Page 9 of 13

Example: Effects of doing a small plane change i2 simultaneous with the second
(apogee-raising) firing in a 3-impulse direct GTO injection.

1.58

1.57

1.56
(R2-RE)/RE= 0.25

dVTot/vcE

1.55

0.2
0.15

1.54

0.1

1.53
1.52

(R2-RE)/RE=0.05

1.51
1.5

10

Di2(deg)
Total dV for three-impulse launch from L=28.5 deg to GEO. Here vcE =sqrt(mu/RE)

16.512, Rocket Propulsion

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez

Lecture 34
Page 10 of 13

0.975

(R2-RE)/RE= 0.25

0.97

dV1/vcE

0.965

0.96

0.955

0.95
(R2-RE)/RE= 0.05
0.945

5
6
Di2(deg)

10

dV1 for three-impulse launch from L=28.5 deg to GEO. Here vcE=sqrt(mu/RE)

16.512, Rocket Propulsion

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez

Lecture 34
Page 11 of 13

0.4

0.39

0.38
(R2-RE)/RE=0.25

dV2/vcE

0.37

0.36
(R2-RE)/RE=0.05

0.35

0.34

0.33
1

10

Di2(deg)
dV1 for three-impulse launch from L=28.5 deg to GEO. Here vcE=sqrt(mu/RE)

16.512, Rocket Propulsion

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez

Lecture 34
Page 12 of 13

0.23
0.225

0.22

dV3/vcE

(R2-RE)/RE=0.05
0.215

0.21

(R2-RE)/RE=0.25

0.205

0.2

0.195
0.19

10

Di2(deg)
dV3 for three-impulse launch from L=28.5 deg.to GEO. Here, vcE=sqrt(mu/RE)

16.512, Rocket Propulsion

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez

Lecture 34
Page 13 of 13