Refrigeration

Systems

Objectives
Introduce the concepts of refrigerators and heat
pumps and the measure of their performance.
Analyze the ideal and actual vapor-compression
refrigeration cycles.
Discuss the operation of refrigeration and heat
pump systems.
Evaluate the performance of innovative vaporcompression refrigeration systems.
2

Refrigerators And Heat Pumps

The transfer of heat from a low-temperature
region to a high-temperature one requires
special devices called refrigerators.
The objective of a refrigerator is to remove heat
(QL) from the cold medium; the objective of a
heat pump is to supply heat (QH) to a warm
medium.
Refrigerators and heat pumps are essentially
the same devices; they differ in their objectives
only.
Performance:
for fixed values of QL and

QH

The Reversed Carnot Cycle

The most efficient refrigeration cycle operating between TL and TH. But not a suitable
model for refrigeration cycles because:
(i) process 2-3 involves compression of a liquidvapor mixture - requires a
compressor that will handle two phases,
(ii) (ii) process 4-1 involves expansion of high-moisture-content refrigerant in a
turbine.

Both COPs increase as the

difference between the two
temperatures decreases, i.e.
as TL rises or TH falls.
Schematic of a Carnot refrigerator
and T-s diagram of the reversed
4
Carnot cycle.

Problem Class Exercise

A steady-flow Carnot refrigeration cycle uses refrigerant-134a
as the working fluid. The refrigerant changes from saturated
vapor to saturated liquid at 30C in the condenser as it
rejects heat. The evaporator pressure is 160 kPa. Show the
cycle on a T-s diagram relative to saturation lines, and
determine:
(a)the coefficient of performance,
(b)the amount of heat absorbed from the refrigerated space,
and
(c)the net work input.
Answers: (a) 5.64, (b) 147 kJ/kg, (c) 26.1 kJ/kg

Ideal Vapor-compression Refrigeration Cycle

Is the ideal model for refrigeration systems. The refrigerant is vaporized
completely before it is compressed and the turbine is replaced with a
throttling device.

The most widely used cycle for

refrigerators, A-C systems, and
heat pumps.

Schematic and T-s diagram for the ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle.

Ideal Vapor-compression Refrigeration Cycle

Process
4-1
Constant Pressure Evaporation
Heat from a cold space is absorbed by the
refrigerant. As a result, the refrigerant
evaporates at a constant evaporator
pressure, from state 4 to become a drier
saturated vapor at state 1.

Ideal Vapor-compression Refrigeration Cycle

Process
1-2
Isentropic compression
The saturated vapor is compressed from
the evaporator pressure to the condenser
pressure, in a reversible adiabatic manner.
The refrigerant exits the compressor as a
superheated vapor at state 2.

Ideal Vapor-compression Refrigeration Cycle

Process
2-3
Constant Pressure Condensation
Heat is rejected from the refrigerant to a warm
space. As a result, the refrigerant condenses at a
constant condenser pressure until it becomes a
saturated liquid at state 3.

Ideal Vapor-compression Refrigeration Cycle

Process
3-4
Constant Enthalpy Expansion
The refrigerant expands through the
throttle valve adiabatically. As a result, its
pressure drops from the condenser to the
evaporator pressure. The enthalpy is
constant during the process, i.e. h3 = h4.

Note: The expansion process is highly irreversible, thus

10
making the vapor-compression cycle an irreversible cycle.

The ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle involves an

irreversible (throttling) process to make it a more realistic model for
the actual systems.
Steady-flow energy
balance

An ordinary
household
refrigerator.

The P-h diagram of an ideal

vapor-compression
refrigeration cycle. 11

Refrigeration Load
Refrigeration Capacity,

Q&L

defined as the amount of heat that has to be transferred from a cold

space per unit time
determines the mass flow rate of refrigerant
1 ton = 200Btu/min = 211kJ/min = 3.516kW
ton : the rate of heat transfer to produce 2000 lb of ice at 0oC (32o)F
from liquid water at 0oC (32oF) in 24 hours
Mass flow rate of refrigerant
& =
m

refrigerator capacity
refrigerating effect per unit mass

12

Solving Problem
2 methods can be used for cycle analysis.
Using property table for refrigerants
Using the P-h diagram
P
q2 = h2 h3

q2 = h1 h4

1
h
win = h2 h1

13

P h Diagram for Refrigerant 134a

14

Problem
Ideal and Actual Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycles

A refrigerator uses refrigerant-134a as the working fluid and

operates on an ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle
between 0.12 and 0.7 MPa. The mass flow rate of the refrigerant
is 0.05 kg/s. Show the cycle on a T-s diagram with respect to
saturation lines. Determine:
a) the rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space,
b) the power input to the compressor,
c) the rate of heat rejection to the environment, and
d) the coefficient of performance.
Answers: (a) 7.41 kW, 1.83 kW, (b) 9.23 kW, (c) 4.06

15

Actual Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle

An actual vapor-compression refrigeration cycle involves irreversibilities
in various components - mainly due to fluid friction (causes pressure
drops) and heat transfer to or from the surroundings. As a result, the
COP decreases.

Differences
Non-isentropic
compression;
Superheated vapor
at evaporator exit;
Sub-cooled liquid at
condenser exit;
Pressure drops in
condenser and
evaporator.

16
Schematic and T-s diagram for the actual vapor-compression refrigeration cycle.

Undercooling (Subcooling) And Its Effects

In the condenser, the vapor can be further cooled at constant
pressure to a temperature that is lower than temperature in
condenser
T
2
3
Cooling water
temperature

1
s

17

Undercooling (Subcooling) And Its Effects

Undercooling (subcooling) increases the refrigerating effect
(h1 h4) > (h1 h4) where h4 is enthalpy with undercooling (subcooling) and h4 is
initial enthalpy

Undercooling (subcooling) is limited by temperature of cooling water and

temperature difference of cycle
T
2
3
Cooling water
temperature

1
s
18

Problem Class Exercise

Ideal and Actual Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycles

Consider a 300 kJ/min refrigeration system that operates on

an ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle with
refrigerant-134a as the working fluid. The refrigerant enters
the compressor as saturated vapor at 140 kPa and is
compressed to 800 kPa. Show the cycle on a T-s diagram
with respect to saturation lines, and determine the:
a)quality of the refrigerant at evaporator inlet,
b)coefficient of performance, and
c)power input to the compressor.

19

Selecting the Right Refrigerant

Several refrigerants may be used in refrigeration systems such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs),
ammonia, hydrocarbons (propane, ethane, ethylene, etc.), carbon dioxide, air (in the airconditioning of aircraft), and even water (in applications above the freezing point).
R-11, R-12, R-22, R-134a, and R-502 account for over 90 percent of the market.
The industrial and heavy-commercial sectors use ammonia (it is toxic).
R-11 is used in large-capacity water chillers serving A-C systems in buildings.
R-134a is used in domestic refrigerators and freezers, as well as automotive air conditioners.
R-22 is used in window air conditioners, heat pumps, air conditioners of commercial
buildings, and large industrial refrigeration systems, and offers strong competition to
ammonia.
R-502 (a blend of R-115 and R-22) is the dominant refrigerant used in commercial
refrigeration systems such as those in supermarkets.
CFCs allow more ultraviolet radiation into the earths atmosphere by destroying the
protective ozone layer and thus contributing to the greenhouse effect that causes global
warming. Refrigerants that are friendly to the ozone layer have been developed.
Two important parameters to be considered - the temperatures of the refrigerated space
and the environment with which the refrigerant exchanges heat.
20

Innovative Vapor compression Refrigeration

Systems
The simple vapor compression refrigeration cycle is the most widely used
refrigeration cycle, and is adequate for most refrigeration applications.
The ordinary vapor compression refrigeration systems are simple,
inexpensive, reliable, and practically maintenance free.
However, for large industrial applications, efficiency (not simplicity) is the
major concern.
For some applications the simple vapor compression refrigeration cycle is
inadequate and needs to be modified.
For moderately and very low temperature applications, some innovative
refrigeration systems are used. The following cycles will be discussed:
Cascade refrigeration systems
Multistage compression refrigeration systems
Multipurpose refrigeration systems with a single compressor
Liquefaction of gases
21

Cascade Refrigeration Systems

Some industrial applications require moderately low
temperatures, and the temperature range they involve may
be too large for a single vapor compression refrigeration
cycle to be practical.
A large temperature range also means a large pressure
range in the cycle and a poor performance for a
reciprocating compressor.
One way of dealing with such situations is to perform the
refrigeration process in stages, that is, to have two or more
refrigeration cycles that operate in series.
Such refrigeration cycles are called cascade refrigeration
22
cycles.

Cascade Refrigeration Systems

A two-stage cascade refrigeration cycle is shown. The two cycles are connected through the
heat exchanger in the middle, which serves as the evaporator for the topping cycle and the
condenser for the bottoming cycle.

A two stage compression refrigeration

system
with a
flashrefrigeration
chamber.system with the same refrigerant
A two-stage
cascade
23
in both stages.

Cascade Refrigeration Systems

Assuming the heat exchanger is well insulated and the
kinetic and potential energies are negligible, the heat
transfer from the fluid in the bottoming cycle should be
equal to the heat transfer to the fluid in the topping cycle.
Thus, the ratio of mass flow rates through each cycle should
be

The coefficient of performance of the cascade system is

24

Problem
Cascade Refrigeration Systems

1142
Consider a two-stage cascade refrigeration system operating between
pressure limits of 0.8 and 0.14 MPa. Each stage operates on the ideal
vapor-compression refrigeration cycle with refrigerant-134a as the
working fluid. Heat rejection from the lower cycle to the upper cycle
takes place in an adiabatic counter-flow heat exchanger where both
streams enter at about 0.4 MPa. If the mass flow rate of the refrigerant
through the upper cycle is 0.24 kg/s, determine the:
a) mass flow rate of the refrigerant through the lower cycle,
b) rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space,
c) power input to the compressor, and
d) coefficient of performance of this cascade refrigerator.
Answers: (a) 0.195 kg/s, (b) 34.2 kW, 7.63 kW, (c) 4.49

25

Problem
Cascade Refrigeration Systems

1147
Consider a two-stage cascade refrigeration system operating between pressure limits
of 1.2 MPa and 200 kPa with refrigerant-134a as the working fluid. Heat rejection
from the lower cycle to the upper cycle takes place in an adiabatic counter-flow heat
exchanger where the pressure in the upper and lower cycles are 0.4 and 0.5 MPa,
respectively. In both cycles, the refrigerant is a saturated liquid at the condenser exit
and a saturated vapor at the compressor inlet, and the isentropic efficiency of the
compressor is 80 percent. If the mass flow rate of the refrigerant through the lower
cycle is 0.15 kg/s, determine the:
a) mass flow rate of the refrigerant through the upper cycle,
b) rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space, and
c) coefficient of performance of the system.
Answers: (a) 0.212 kg/s, (b) 25.7 kW, (c) 2.68

26

Multistage Compression Refrigeration Systems

When the fluid used throughout the cascade
refrigeration system is the same, the heat exchanger
between the stages can be replaced by a mixing
chamber (called a flash chamber) since it has better
heat transfer characteristics.

A two-stage compression refrigeration system with a flash

27
chamber.

Multistage Compression Refrigeration Systems

FLASH CHAMBER

Flash chamber is used in a multi-staging refrigeration system

It separates vapor and liquid refrigerant during the throttling
process
The purpose is to avoid vapor refrigerants from entering evaporator
The vapor developed during throttling (flash vapor) is bled out of
the throttling device and fed back to the compressor

28

Multistage Compression Refrigeration Systems

QH

A multistage compression
refrigeration system is
one example of a system
that uses a flash chamber

Condenser

4
Win

Expansio
n Valve

Flash Chamber

It can be carried out with

the use of one or more
compressors

3
2

Win

Expansio
n Valve

8
Evaporator

4
QL

Cycle Layout of a Two Stage Compression

Refrigeration System
29

Multistage Compression Refrigeration Systems

The T-s diagram representing the cycle of a two-stage vaporcompression cycle
T

2
9

7
6
8

3
1

30

Multistage Compression Refrigeration Systems

Two-stage refrigeration cycle represented by the p-h diagram
P

The P-h diagram is a

more
convenient
representation
of
the cycle because it
can
easily
be
compared to the
plant layout

Flash Chamber

Condenser

2
9

Evaporator

h 31

Multistage Compression Refrigeration Systems

1kg refrigerant moves through condenser

P
1kg liquid enters 1st throttle valve
1kg (mostly liquid) enters flash chamber and
starts to evaporate and becomes mixture of
gas (x)kg and liquid (1x)kg
(x) moves towards 2nd stage compressor at Pi
(1x)kg liquid make its way through the 2nd
throttle valve into the evaporator
(1x)kg vapor enters the 1st stage compressor
where it is compressed to Pi
At Pi (state 3) (1-x)kg vapor mixes with (x)kg
vapor adiabatically and becomes 1kg vapor
1kg vapor is compressed in 2nd stage
compressor
1kg vapor enters condenser to be condensed
and becomes 1kg liquid

Condenser

3
7

2
9

Evaporator

32

Multistage Compression Refrigeration Systems

ANALYSIS
Fraction of refrigerant which evaporates in the flash chamber can be given as
follows.
x =

h 6 h fi
h fg i

Refrigerating Effect, QL= (1 x)(h1 h8)

Total work input, Win = W12 + W94
= (1 x)(h2 h1) + (h4 h9)
Heat rejected in condenser
QH

= (h4 h5)
33

Multistage Compression Refrigeration Systems

Coefficient of Performance

COP R =
=

QL
W in

(1 x )(h1 h8 )
(1 x )(h 2 h1 ) + (h4 h9 )

34

Problem
Two-Stage Compression Refrigeration Systems

1144
A two-stage compression refrigeration system operates with
refrigerant-134a between the pressure limits of 1 and 0.14 MPa. The
refrigerant leaves the condenser as a saturated liquid and is throttled
to a flash chamber operating at 0.5 MPa. The refrigerant leaving the
low-pressure compressor at 0.5 MPa is also routed to the flash
chamber. The vapor in the flash chamber is then compressed to the
condenser pressure by the high-pressure compressor, and the liquid is
throttled to the evaporator pressure. Assuming the refrigerant leaves
the evaporator as saturated vapor at a rate of 0.25 kg/s and that both
compressors are isentropic, determine the:
a) fraction of the refrigerant that evaporates in the flash chamber,
b) rate of heat removed from the refrigerated space, and
35
c) coefficient of performance.

Problem
Two-Stage Compression Refrigeration System

1148
A two-stage cascade refrigeration system operates between pressure limits of 1.2
MPa and 200 kPa with refrigerant-134a as the working fluid. Saturated liquid
refrigerant leaving the condenser is throttled to a flash chamber operating at 0.45
MPa. The vapor from the flash chamber is mixed with the refrigerant leaving the
low-pressure compressor. The mixture is then compressed to the condenser
pressure by the high-pressure compressor. The liquid in the flash chamber is
throttled to the evaporator pressure. The mass flow rate of the refrigerant is 0.15
kg/s. Assuming saturated vapor refrigerant leaves the evaporator and the isentropic
efficiency is 80 percent for both compressors, determine the:
a) mass flow rate of refrigerant in the high-pressure compressor,
b) rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space, and
c) coefficient of performance of the system.
d) rate of heat removal and the COP if this refrigerator operated on a singlestage cycle between the same pressure limits with the same compressor
efficiency and flow rate as in part (a).
36

Absorption Refrigeration Systems

When there is a source of
inexpensive thermal
energy at a temperature of
100 to 200C is absorption
refrigeration.
Some examples include
geothermal energy, solar
energy, and waste heat
from cogeneration or
process steam plants, and
even natural gas when it is
at a relatively low price.

Ammonia absorption refrigeration cycle.

37

Absorption refrigeration systems (ARS) involve the absorption of a refrigerant by a

transport medium. The most widely used system is the ammoniawater system,
where ammonia (NH3) serves as the refrigerant and water (H2O) as the transport
medium.
Other systems include waterlithium bromide and waterlithium chloride
systems, where water serves as the refrigerant. These systems are limited to
applications such as A-C where the minimum temperature is above the freezing
point of water.
Compared with vapor-compression systems, ARS have one major advantage: A
liquid is compressed instead of a vapor and as a result the work input is very small
(on the order of one percent of the heat supplied to the generator) and often
neglected in the cycle analysis.
ARS are much more expensive than the vapor-compression refrigeration systems.
They are more complex and occupy more space, they are much less efficient thus
requiring much larger cooling towers to reject the waste heat, and they are more
difficult to service since they are less common.
Therefore, ARS should be considered only when the unit cost of thermal energy is
low and is projected to remain low relative to electricity.
ARS are primarily used in large commercial and industrial installations.
38

The COP of actual absorption

refri-geration systems is usually
less than unity.
Air-conditioning systems based
on absorption refrigeration,
called the absorption chillers,
perform best when the heat
source can supply heat at a high
temperature
with
little
temperature drop.

The maximum COP of an absorption

39
refrigeration system.