Giallombardo - 1

Nick Giallombardo
AP Calculus
17 February 2015
Mrs. Tallman
Solids of Revolution
Calculus, like each and every other branch of mathematics, involves multiple
methods and ways in order to produce the same answer given the same information.
One of the many topics of calculus that is able to illustrate this statement is the integral.
Using the fundamental theorem of calculus, an integral is able to solve for the area
between a curve and the x-axis on a graph, or the volume of a solid revolved around a
given axis of rotation. There are multiple methods used to visualize and calculate the
volumes of these solids.
Solving for Area Under a Curve
Given a certain domain, an integral can find the area between the curve of a
graph and the x-axis. The proper notation used when calculating a definite integral is
seen in Figure 1.
b

f ( x ) dx
a

Figure 1. Proper Notation for Integral Equation

The bounds of the integral are set by b and a, the upper and lower bounds, respectively.
The function whose area is being calculated is represented by f(x). The cut or slice of
the graph is represented as dx. The cut is the length at each individual point between
the graph and the axis, so a dx cut would calculate the difference between the x-axis

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and a graph, and a dy cut would calculate the difference between the y-axis and a
graph. This slice is actually just an infinitely small rectangle. A rectangles area is
defined as the product of its width and its height. Within the boundaries or domain of a
and b, the area of an entire curve, or integral, is found by adding up the areas of all of
the slices, each with a width of dx and a height of f(x). Figure 2 illustrates the concept
visually.

Figure 2. Integral of f(x)= -x2 + 9

In Figure 2, a and b are represented by the green and orange lines, respectively. The
graph of f(x) is displayed as the thick blue line. Dx is shown as the thick black line.
Thus, the area under the curve is the light blue shaded area. This area would be

calculated by plugging in

(x 2+ 9)dx
3

. The integral of f(x) could also be found solved

by hand. The integral of f(x) is

x
+ 9 x . Once this equation is found, the upper limit,
3

3, is plugged in or substituted for x. Then, the lower limit, -3, is plugged in or substituted

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for x. The output from the lower limit is subtracted from the output of the upper limit. The
answer produced is 36 units squared.

Solving for the Area Between Two Distinct Curves

Integrals are also used to solve for the area between two distinct curves, much
like the area under one curve. Instead, the x-axis or y-axis is replaced by a second
graph. Once again, a and b set the boundaries of the integral. However, the dx or dy
cuts run along the length between the two curves. Thus, the bottom function is
subtracted from the top function for the integral. Take, for example, the functions of f(x)
= x2-2x+1 and g(x) = -x2+6x.

Figure 3. Integral of f(x) = x2-2x+1 and g(x) = -x2+6x

Figure 3 illustrates the area between f(x), the blue line, and g(x), the red line. The light
blue area is the area that the integral calculates if a=1 and b=3, while the black line is
the dx cut. The dx cut is used in this case as opposed to the dy cut because the cut is

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perpendicular to the x-axis. Once again, the lower curve is subtracted from the upper
curve, so Figure 4 displays the proper notation.
( (x 2+6 x ) ( x 22 x+1))dx
3

Figure 4. Proper Notation for Finding Area Between f(x) and g(x)
The area can be found once again by plugging this equation into a calculator, or
integrating and solving by hand. The upper limit, 3, is plugged in to the integrated
equation, and then 1 is plugged in to the integrated equation. The output of the lower
limit is subtracted from the output of the greater limit and the answer produced is equal
to 12.667 units squared.
Volumes of Solids
In addition to area, integrals can also find the volume of a solid, or a twodimensional area on a graph that is a revolved around a given axis of rotation to create
a three-dimensional solid. The concepts of solids work much like finding area, where
there are many small rectangles, except solids use many infinitely small disks, rings,
and shells. Instead of dx or dy cuts, they are now considered dx or dy slices since the
object is three-dimensional. Dx would be used if the function is revolved around the xaxis, and dy would be used when the function is revolved around the y-axis. The volume
of each slice that makes up the solid is added up using the integral and thus the total
volume is found.
Disks:
A disk can be thought of as an infinitely short cylinder. Thus, the area of one face
is equal to the area of a circle, the product of pi and its radius squared. The thickness of

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the disk within the integral is equal to dx or dy. The proper notation to calculate the
volume of a solid using the disk method is shown in Figure 5.
b

r2 dx
a

Figure 5. Proper Notation for Disk Method Integration

Much like finding area, volumes can also be bound by a range defined as b and a, the
upper and lower limits, respectively. The function f(x) is considered r, or the radius of the
solid since it is revolved around both sides of the axis of rotation, so the diameter would
technically be two times the function f(x). Also note that although pi is within the integral,
it can also be placed outside and still produce the same answer.
For example, lets revolve the function f(x)=3x around the x-axis and find its
volume using the disk method. A visual representation of this solid can be seen in
Figure 6.

Figure 6. Solid Formed by Revolving f(x) Around x-axis

The boundaries set within this integral are from 0 to 1. The yellow disk outlines one of
the infinitely small disks with a thickness of dx. The radius of the last disk can be seen

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as the thin gray line extending from the point (1,0). Once all of the givens are plugged
in, the integral would look like how it does in Figure 7.
1

(3 x)2 dx
0

Figure 7. Integral Used to Find Volume of Solid of f(x) Using Disk Method
Since the solid was revolved around the x-axis, a dx slice is used. Also, the boundaries
b and a are represented as 1 and 0, respectively. 3x is plugged in for r since it is the
function being revolved. This equation can be plugged into the calculator, or integrated
and solved by hand. Once integrated, the function would be 3x 3. After being evaluated
at 1 and 0 and finding the difference, the volume of the solid would be equal to 3 units
cubed.
Rings:
Rings are similar to disks, however rings have a circular gap within them. Thus,
there are two radii, or two functions, that must be accounted for within the integral.
Essentially, the volume of one smaller disk is found, and subtracted from the volume of
another larger disk. Again, dx or dy cuts are used, and boundaries are set by a and b.
The proper notation for finding the volume of such a solid using the ring method is seen
in Figure 8.
b

(R2r 2)dx
a

Figure 8. Proper Notation for Ring Method Integration

If this function was to be distributed, it would be seen that the area of two different disks
were being subtracted and then that difference would be multiplied by the thickness dx.

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The R in Figure 8 represents the upper function on the graph, or the function that is
farther from the axis of rotation. The r in Figure 8 would then represent the lower
function on the graph, or the function that is closer to the axis of rotation compared to R.
Of course, these functions may intersect and R may switch with r. In this case, multiple
integrals must be set up with different boundaries in order to account for this.

Figure 9. Ring Method Integration Using f(x) and g(x)

Figure 9 visually represents the ring that would be produced for one dx slice using the
functions f(x)=x and g(x)=x2. The boundaries for this integral would be from 0 to 1. It can
be seen that since the gap between f(x) and g(x) varies, the gap in the ring would vary
along the graph, thus why two radii must be accounted for.

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x

x
( 2)2
2

Figure 10. Equation to Find Volume of Solid of f(x) and g(x) Using Ring Method
Figure 10 illustrates the proper notation used when trying to find the volume of this solid
using a calculator once all givens are found. Although a calculator can again be used,
the equation can be integrated and solved by hand to check. The answer produced
would be equal to 0.133 units cubed.

Shells:
Shells are much like disks and rings. Now, the slices are many infinitely hollow
cylinders (shells) that vary in height and width. Thus, they take into account the area of
a cylinder that is rolled out to create a rectangle. The width would then be equal to the
circumference of the top/bottom of a cylinder, 2r. The height of this rectangle would
just be equal to the height of the shell. The integral would add up infinitely many
volumes of these shells. The proper notation for integration using the shell method is
seen in Figure 10.
b

2 rhdx
a

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Figure 10. Proper Notation for Shell Method Integration
The boundaries for shell method are again set by a and b. The 2 can be inside or
outside of the integral. The dx can be interchanged with dy based on the axis of
rotation. However, this method varies from rings and disks in that the radius is parallel to
the axis of rotation, so rotating a certain graph around the y-axis would require using a
dx cut. This dx or dy represents an infinitely small thickness of the shell. The function
f(x) would be interchangeable at r or h. If the slice is dx, then the radius would be equal
to x and the height would be equal to f(x). If the slice is dy, then the radius would be
would be equal to f(x) and the height would be equal to x. Take for example, the function
f(x) = -x3 + 2x2. One of the revolved shells of this function would appear as follows in
Figure 11.

Figure 11. Revolved Shell Formed by f(x)

Figure 11 displays the graph of f(x), the thick blue line. The lightly shaded blue
area represents the thickness dx. The black arrow represents the radius, x, since it is a
dx slice. The height of the shell is represented by f(x). The one shell that is revolved is
seen as the yellow object. This particular integral is bound from x-values of 0 to 2.
Figure 12 illustrates the equation once all of the givens are plugged in.

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2

2 ( x)(x 3+ 2 x 2) dx
0

Figure 12. Equation to Find Volume of Solid of f(x) Using Shell Method
As seen in Figure 12, x is substituted for radius, as per the graph in Figure 11.
The equation f(x) is plugged in for the height. Once again, the 2 can be inside or
outside of the integral. Shell method integration can be plugged in to the calculator to
solve for the volume or the equation can be integrated and solved by hand. Once this
equation is integrated and evaluated at 2 and 0, the difference between the two is found
and the volume produced is equal to 3.2 units cubed.
Cross Section-Method
There are other ways to find the volumes without revolving a graph around an
axis of rotation. Consider that a certain graph within a certain set of boundaries has a
certain length from the x-axis to the graph or from the y-axis to the graph. This length
represents the base to a certain shape and sets the relationship to the other side(s) of
the shape. The length varies from point to point along the graph. Each of these shapes
has a certain thickness dx or dy. The integral will be set up to add up all of these shapes
to produce a certain volume. For example, a square could be used as a cross section.
Each side would be equal to the length from a function f(x) to the x-axis, and the volume
of each cross section would be the product of the area of that square and the thickness
dx. The integral adds up the volume of each of these squares. The integral would look

like

(f ( x ))2 .
a

Also, an isosceles triangle could be used with the base being equal to

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the length of the hypotenuse. Since the height of such a triangle is equal to half the
length of the base if the base is considered the hypotenuse, the area would be equal to
one half of the base multiplied by one half of the height. The integral would look like

14 f (x) dx
a

Figure 13. Square Cross-Section Integration Graph

Figure 13 illustrates what the graph of f(x) would look like if you were to integrate
using the square cross section method. Dx would be represented by the thickness of
each piece of paper and the length of each side is equal to f(x).
Part 5
Let us now put this lesson into practice. Imagine that we have the two functions

f(x) =

x and g(x) = x/3. We are going to examine the region bounded by these two

functions, known as R. In order to find the area of R, we must use the function

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b

(f ( x )g(x ))dx
a

, with g(x) being subtracted from f(x) since f(x) is the top function and

g(x) is the bottom function. Once the equations are substituted in along with the bounds,

the integral would be

( x( 3x ))dx
0

. The bounds were found by analyzing their two

intersection points on the graph within the first quadrant. Once the equation is
integrated and evaluated, the area is equal to the difference between the outputs at 0
and 9 which is 4.5 units squared.
Now, let us solve for the volume of the solid created when region R is rotated
around the axis y = -2. We would have to use the ring method in this case because
there will be multiple radii that must be accounted for. The larger of the radii would be
f(x), while the smaller radii will be created by g(x). Also, since these functions are not
being revolved around y = -2 and not the x-axis, -2 must be subtracted from each
equation since it would be below each equation. Using the equation from Figure 8,

(R2r 2)d x
a

, this volume can be found. The same boundaries will be used, so the

integral placed into the calculator will be equal to

(( x +2) ( 3x +2) )d x
0

. Once this

equation is integrated, it is evaluated at 9 and 0. Their difference is equal to the volume,

which ends up being 31.5 units cubed.

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The region R is the base of a solid, and the solid is made up of cross sections of
isosceles right triangles with one of the legs acting as the base. The area of a triangle is
one half of the base multiplied by the height, and in this case, the height and base are
equal since it is an isosceles right triangle. The base and height, in turn, are both
equivalent to the region R. The integral would then look like

)(

( 12 ) x ( 3x ) x( 3x ) dx
0

. Once this equation is integrated and evaluated at inputs

of 0 and 9, the difference is found in order to find the volume of the solid generated. The
volume is equal to 1.35 units cubed.