Chapter 2: Plate Tectonics

The goals and objectives of this chapter are to:

Understand the internal structure of the earth

Compare and contrast the science behind the theory of continental drift and
the theory of plate tectonics

Explain the various types of tectonic plate boundaries and their geologic
effects

Structure of the Earth

This is a file from the Wikimedia

Commons.
The most powerful forces on the planet are earthquakes and volcanoes. On
December 26, 2004, the second most powerful earthquake in the last 100 years
occurred off the coast of Indonesia creating a massive tsunami. Several volcanoes
also erupted shortly afterward in the local region. By the end of the day, over
240,000 people had died. It is possible that the earthquake occurred because
another one in Iran a year earlier, killing over 20,000 people, weakened the Asian
fault. In October 2005, a powerful earthquake in Kashmir, India killed over 80,000
people. And just before 5 p.m. January 12, 2010, a magnitude 7.0 earthquake
devastated the Caribbean nation of Haiti, leaving more than 250,000 dead, 300,000
wounded and more than one million people homeless. On March 11, 2011, Japan
was rocked by a magnitude 9.0 earthquake followed by a devastating tsunami that
killed over 30,000 people. So why do earthquakes and volcanoes occur? Is there a
direct relationship between the two? In order to understand earthquakes and
volcanoes, you have to understand the grander theory called Plate Tectonics.
The earth consists of three layers: an inner and outer core, the mantle, and two
types of crust. The earth's core consists of two parts: a liquid outer core and a solid
inner core, both made of iron and nickel from the early make-up of the planet where

the temperatures can range from 8,600 degrees to 9,600 degrees Fahrenheit. The
next and largest layer is called the mantle, which makes up two-thirds of Earth's
mass. The mantle is actually called a plastic solid, which means it has the ability
to flow very slowly. Heat from the earth's core causes the mantle to convect, like
water over a stove but much slower, and it is the mantle's convection that is the
driving force of plate tectonics.

The surface layer of the earth is called the crust and it makes up only 1 percent of
Earth's mass. The crust is subdivided into two components: oceanic and continental
crust. Again referring back to the image on the right, note that the oceanic crust is
only about 3 miles thick, but is slightly more dense than continental crust. Most of
this oceanic rock is called basalt and is a dark, dense rock.
Continental crust is much thicker than oceanic crust (averages between 20 to 25
miles thick), but is actually slightly less dense than oceanic crust. The main type of
rock on continents is called granite. So if these two types of crust were to collide
into each other, what do you think would happen to the oceanic crust? As a whole,
notice that the crust is lighter than the mantle. It is sometimes said that the crust
"floats" on the mantle like an iceberg in water and that is not too far from the truth
and is called isostacy. Finally, the crust is the coldest, most rigid, and brittle layer
with lots of folds and fractures.

Continental Drift

Image copyright: (USGS) under

Public Domain.
In the early 1900s, a climatologist named Alfred Wegener proposed
a hypothesis that at one time all of the continents were once together, creating a
super-continent called Pangea, which later broke apart
intoGondwanaland and Laurasia and finally the continents today. Over many
years Wegner accumulated a lot of evidence to support
his theory called continental drift. First, he noticed on world maps that the
continents looked like large pieces of a world puzzle that could be put together to
form a massive super-continent. Later he found similar plant and animal fossils on
different continents separated by thousands of miles of oceans. He questioned how
plants could and land species travel thousands of miles across the ocean to get to
other continents; unless at one time all the continents were once together.
Wegener also found climate evidence such as glaciation in the Sahara Desert and
tropical fossils in Antarctica. Ultimately, Alfred Wegener believed that the crust was
not as rigid as others believed, but actually flowed somehow. Yet he could not come
up with a reason why the continents would move.

Plate Tectonics

Because Alfred Wegener could not propose a reason why continents would move,
most of the scientific community never believed him before he died. It wasn't until
the 1960s, during the Cold War, did technology finally catch up with Wegener's
hypothesis. The United States military developed sonar as a way to look for Soviet
submarines and in the process they discovered the largest mountain range in the
world in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean, later called the mid-Atlantic ridge.

As more research was done to better understand the ocean floor, scientists
discovered that the polar direction of magnetized rocks would reverse or flip
symmetrical from the mid-Atlantic ridge, called paleomagnetism. At one point all
the rocks are pointing toward magnetic north, followed by pointing toward magnetic
south in the distant past, then magnetic north and so forth on equal sides of the
mid-Atlantic ridge like a mirror image of each other. This proved that the earth's
magnetic field has flipped several times throughout earth's history. Further research
found that the youngest oceanic rocks exist near ocean ridges like the mid-Atlantic
ridge and get older away from it.

All this evidence, including the data collected by Alfred Wegner's for this theory of
continental drift, was put together to form the theory of plate tectonics. The
theory states that the earth is made of several tectonic plates along with several
smaller plates. Each tectonic plate consists of oceanic and continental crust.
Scientists now realize that new oceanic rock is forming at these mid-oceanic ridges
creating large mountain ranges. When this molten rock along the ridges rises to the
Earths surface, the iron within them quickly points toward magnetic north (or
magnetic south if the polarity has reversed) much like a compass before cooling into
rock.

Image copyright: United States Geologic Survey licensed as Public Domain.

Image copyright: Creative

Commons licensed as Public Domain.
But if new oceanic rock is forming, and the earth is not growing, oceanic rock must
be destroyed somewhere else. We now realize this occurs along the boundaries
between lighter continental crust and denser oceanic crust. When the two collide,
the heavier oceanic rock subducts underneath the lighter continental crust in a
process called subduction. As the oceanic rock subducts downward, it can get
locked up building large amounts of energy. Once the energy is too strong, the rock
snaps free releasing that energy, called anearthquake. If the crust subducts deep
enough, it may begin to melt into molten rock called magma. Magma is less dense
than solid rock, so the magma rises to the surface to create volcanoes. So there is
a direct relationship between earthquakes and volcanoes. In fact, the Ring of Fire in
the Pacific Ocean consists of several subduction zones and is where 90 percent of all
earthquakes and volcanoes occur.

Tectonic Plate Boundaries

There are three major types of tectonic plate boundares: convergent, divergent,
and transform. Let's first look at convergent plate boundaries, which can be broken
down into three subcategories.
Recall that oceanic crust is denser than continental rock like granite. Thus when two
tectonic plates collide, the denser oceanic crust will subduct underneath the lighter
continental crust. If the subducting rock becomes stuck, vast amounts of energy

builds up. But once the pressure and energy is too great, the rock will rupture
creating powerful earthquakes. As the subducted material sinks further, it will begin
to melt under great heat and pressure, becoming less dense as it melts, and rise up
as magma to form dangerous composite volcanoes. Mountain ranges created
by oceanic-to-continental convergence are the Andes mountains in South
America, the Cascades in the western United States, and the Ring of Fire in the
Pacific Ocean.
Below is a Google Earth image showing a series of oceanic-to-oceanic subduction
zones within the Pacific Ring of Fire. You can visibily see the subduciton zones that
create the volcanic and powerful Aleutian Islands and the converging subduction
plates that make of volcanic islands of Japan.

With oceanic-to-oceanic convergence, the heavier of the two will subduct down
beneath the other. Just like continental-to-oceanic convergence, this plate boundary
can generate powerful earthquakes and volcanoes; but instead of volcanoes on
land, volcanic islands form such as Japan, the Aleutian Islands of Alaska, and
Indonesia. The great earthquake in Indonesia in 2004, which produced the
devastating tsunami, was created by this process along with the 2011 earthquake
and tsunami in Japan.
When two continental plates converge, instead of subduction, the two similar
tectonic plates will buckle up to create large mountain ranges like a massive car
pile-up. This is called continental-to-continental convergence, and geologically
creates intense folding and faulting rather than volcanic activity. Examples of
mountain ranges created by this process are the Himalayan mountains (taken from
the International Space Station) as India is colliding with Asia, the Alps in Europe,
and the Appalacian mountains in the United States as the North American plate
collided with the African plate when Pangea was forming. The Kashmir India
earthquake of 2005 that killed over 80,000 people occurred because of this process.
And most recently, the 2008 earthquake in China which killed nearly 85,000 people
before the Summer Olympics was because of this tectonic force.
When convection within the mantel causes two tectonic plates move away from
each other, or when a tectonic plate tears itself apart, divergent boundaries can
form. As divergence occurs, shallow earthquakes can occur along with volcanoes
along the rift areas. When the process begins, a valley will develop such as the
Great Rift Valley in Africa. Over time that valley can fill up with water
creating linear lakes. If divergence continues, a sea can form like the Red Sea and
finally an ocean like the Atlantic Ocean. Check out the eastern half of Africa and
notice the lakes that look linear. Eastern Africa is tearing apart from these linear
lakes, to the Great Rift Valley, and up to the Red Sea. Notice how the Red Sea looks
like it could be put back together again. The ultimate divergent boundary is the
Atlantic Ocean, which began when Pangea broke apart.
Below are two satellite images using Google Earth, both focusing on parts of Africa.

On the left yo can see rift valleys that have filled in with water to form linear lakes.
On the right in northern Africa, you can see the Red Sea with a rift valley in the
center, which use to be a linear lake that grew into a sea. If the Red Sea continues
to grow, it could form an ocean similar to the Atlantic Ocean with the mid-Atlantic
Ridge.

Transform boundaries occurs when two tectonic plates slide (or grind) past parallel
to each other. The most famous transform boundary is the San Andreas
Fault where the Pacific plate (that Los Angeles and Hawaii are on) is grinding past
the North American plate (that San Francisco and the rest of the United States is on)
at the rate of 3 inches a year. Recently, geologists have stated that San Francisco
should expect another disastrous earthquake in the next 30 years. Another
important transform boundary is the North Anatolian Fault in Turkey. This
powerful fault last ruptured in 1999 in Izmit, Turkey which killed 17,000 people in 48
seconds.

Comparison of the San Andreas Fault, CA and the North

Anatolian Fault in Turkey. Both are located along transform
boundaries. Image source: United States Geologic Survey
(USGS).

San Andreas Fault

Below is an interesting video from National Geographic called Colliding Continents.

It takes a hypothetical situation of humans coming back to Earth in the distant
future and uses the idea of Plate Tectonics to understand the past.

This was a very interesting chapter for me because I grew up right along the San
Andreas Fault in California. The epicenter of the quake in California was literally a
few miles from my house. It caused a great deal of damage in our community.
Though luckily our house was retrofitted for earthquakes, so we were ok. Though
our house was retrofitted, a huge redwood tree fell on the corner and we had to

repair the damage of course. I did a google maps tracker and from the front door of
my house where I grew up, it was exactly 3.8 miles to the epicenter of the quake.

Another big problem with having such a dense population on such a powerful and
active fault is building planning. After the huge quake in 1906 they really started to
build buildings that could withstand large quakes and sustain minimal damage.
They for some reason allowed multiple nuclear reactors to be built along the fault
line. Which as we know from the reactors in Japan, can be a very deadly mix. I mean
we really shouldnt have needed to learn from stuff like that. You just shouldnt be
building things as volatile as nuclear reactors on fault lines period, thats just
common sense. My dad lives like 10 miles from the San Onofre reactors which kind
of scares me if anything were too happen. I understand these reactors are supposed
to be able to withstand earthquakes, but with everything built by humans there is
human error, and thats what scares me.

The San Andreas Fault is a transform boundary fault, and has a very similar past as
the North Anatolian Fault in Turkey. The difference between the two is the income
bracket of the two areas. In California most of the people are doing at least alright,
and most buildings and houses are retrofitted to withstand earthquakes. On the
other side of the world the North Anatolian Fault is in a very poor area where
buildings are not able to withstand the immense power of the earthquakes. The
difference in loss of life and damage are astronomical. The importance of retrofitting
in areas of high earthquake activity should be at the top of the list. The problem is
the resources just arent there for most of the people in the Istanbul area. Some
government buildings and upper class houses might be retrofitted, but the majority
of the population will be left unprotected.

This brings us back to the recurring

topic of the expanding gap in
wealth all over the world. It is not
only in America where the
inequality is growing and getting
exponentially worse by the day. It is
happening all over the world.
People with money and power can
afford to protect their families from
things like this, and people that are
poor end up just getting the short
end of the stick. This is a constant trend in pretty much any natural disaster
situation. The rich always seem to be safe and taken care of and the poor are dying

and suffering in these tragic situations. Even as recently as hurricane Katrina I saw
images of people in their huge houses up in the hills that were safe and not flooded.
Whereas the rest of the city was flooded and people drowning and suffering. They
were able to buy houses at a higher elevation in a nice neighborhood because of
their wealth.

Ill probably use this line on my grandkids I the years to come. It never really made
any sense when I was a kid with my grandpa, but now it makes so much more
sense.

Chapter 3: Earthquakes
Earthquakes are serious natural hazards that affect people across the globe,
sometimes at long distances from where the quakes occur. They are especially
dangerous because seismologists, the scientists who study earthquakes, cannot
predict them in time for evacuations or other precautions. Your goals in this module
should be to:

understand how scientists measure and compare earthquakes.

be familiar with processes that take place in an earthquake such as faulting,

tectonic creep, and seismic waves.

know which global regions are most at risk for earthquakes and shy they are
at risk.

know and understand the effects of earthquakes, including shaking, ground

rupture, and liquefaction, as well as how earthquakes are linked to other
natural hazards such as landslides, fires, and tsunamis.

know the important natural service functions of earthquakes.

know how human beings interact with and affect the earthquake hazard.

understand how we can minimize seismic risk, and recognize adjustments we

can make to protect ourselves.

3.1 Earthquake Basics

Image copyright: United Nations Development Programme, licensed as Creative

Commons Public Domain.
An earthquake is a sudden motion or trembling in the earth caused by the abrupt
release of slowly accumulated energy. All earthquakes occur along a fault, which is a
fracture in the earth's crust where tectonic movement occurs. Where the actual
break occurred along the fault is called the focus (also called the hypocenter) and
the epicenter is the point on the Earth's surface that lies directly above the focus
and is where the strongest shockwave is normally felt. Click here to watch a brief
video on earthquakes.
Recall that all around the planet, tectonic plates are moving because of convection
in the mantle. Tectonic plates are also composed of two types of crust, oceanic and
continental. The oceanic crust, which is made mostly of basalt is more dense than
continental crust that is made of granite. When these tectonic plates come in
contact, the denser oceanic crust subducts below the continental crust. Now

sometimes when two tectonic plate come in contact they become stuck. As the
rocks begin to bend or strain under tectonic forces, large amounts of energy called strain - builds. When the stress becomes too great for the rocks to hold,
segments may suddenly snap, releasing large amounts of energy. This is called
theelastic rebound theory.
Movement along a fault can occur vertically or horizontally. The greatest horizontal
displacement was 21 feet along the San Andreas Fault in the Great San Francisco
Quake of 1906. Imagine in an instant being moved 21 feet horizontally! The
greatest maximum vertical displacement used to be the Alaskan earthquake in
1964. The vertical displacement was 33 feet! But on December 26, 2004 a 9.1
underwater earthquake occurred in Indonesia. It had a vertical displacement of 60
feet over 800 miles long! Imaging being thrown 60 feet instantly and that it
occurred for 800 miles. The compression caused by the oceanic-oceanic
convergence actually sped up the earth's rotation 2.676 millionths of a second and
shifted the axis 1 inch! It produced a massive tsunami traveling 500 mph. Over
240,000 died from the earthquake and tsunami; one in three were children. The
image below if of an earthquake in Pakistan that killed 80,000.

Editor's Note....

3.2 Types of Earthquakes

There are several types of faults that earthquakes occur on, which are dependent on
whether the fault is occurring because of convergent, divergent, or transform
tectonic plate forcing. Geologists use old mining terms to distinguish between
different types of faults. Think of a minor walking down into the earth along a fault
line. The ground the miner is walking on is called the footwall. If the minor needs to
hand their lantern, the ceiling is called the hanging-wall.

Strike-slip faults (A) occur along transform boundaries where

tectonic plates are moving horizontal or parallel to each other.
Deformation of rivers, roads, fences, etc. can occur if they cross
over these fault lines. Examples of strike-slip faults are the San
Andreas Fault in the United States and the North Anatolian Fault
in Turkey.
Normal faults (B) are common along divergent plate
boundaries. As extensional forces occur, the footwall is forced
upward, while the hanging wall slides downward. This can
create a series of valleys (called a graben) and mountains
(called a horst). Examples of mountain ranges and valleys
created by normal faulting are theGrand Tetons, the Basin and
Range in the western United States, and the Wasatch Front in
Utah.
Reverse faults (C) are caused by compressional forces as
tectonic plates collide together forcing one plate to rise above
another. Using the mining terminology, movement along a
reverse fault would cause the hanging-wall to rise up and the
footwall to drop lower. The angle of a reverse fault is about 45
degrees, but if the angle of the fault is steeper than 45 degrees
it is called a thrust fault. When two plates collide,
intense folding and faulting can occur. Examples of where
reverse and thrust faults occur are where convergent
boundaries are common such as: the Northern Rocky
Mountains, the Alps, Himalayas, and the Appalachian
mountains.

Image copyright: United Sta

licensed as Creative Commo

3.3 Measuring Seismic Activity

Seismologists record seismic waves using a seismograph. When a

rupture occurs within the earth, energy is released from the focus in all
directions and the seismograph will record the magnitude of the energy.
There are three types of seismic waves: P-waves, S-waves, and Surface
waves.
Primary waves, also called P-waves, are compressional waves and are
the first to be felt by seismographs and individuals because they travel
the fastest (about 3.7 miles per second). To visualize a P-wave, think of
stretching a slinky and letting it go. You would be able to actually see the
compression occurring within the slinky.
The second type of seismic wave is called a secondary wave or S-wave.
They reach the seismograph second because they travel slower than Pwaves and travel in a side-to-side manner. Imaging pulling a slinky and
shaking one end side to side. You would be able to see the side-to-side
movement travel up the slinky. P-waves and S-waves together are
called body waves because they travel through the earth rather than
on the surface.
Surface waves are the last seismic waves to reach an area, create the
greatest ground motion, and are the most destructive because they are
the slowest and move in a rolling manner.

Image copyright: U
Survey, licensed a
Public Domain.

3.4 Locating Seismic Activity

Image copyright: United States Geologic Survey, licensed as Creative Commons

Public Domain.
In order to determine the location of an earthquake, seismologists must measure
the interval distance of P-waves and S-waves released during the rupture. P-waves
travel faster than S-waves, thus scientists calculate the time difference between
both waves to determine a perimeter of the epicenter. But the epicenter could be
anywhere within that perimeter. Therefore, scientists must use a minimum of three
seismic readings from different seismograph stations in order to determine the
exact location of the epicenter.

3.5 Classifying Earthquakes

Image copyright: Licensed as Creative Commons Public Domain.

There are two basic ways to measure the strength and destructive power of an
earthquake. The first is called the Richter scale. Based on a range from 1
(weakest) to 10 (strongest), the Richter scale measures the magnitude (energy
released) by an earthquake. The scale is logarithmic meaning that every whole
number increase in magnitude is 10 times more ground shaking and 30 times more
energy released. Example: a magnitude 7.0 earthquake has ground shaking 10
times more than a 6.0 and 30 times more energy released. A magnitude 8.0
earthquake has ground shaking 100 times more than a 6.0 and 900 times more
energy released. The December 26, 2004 Indonesian earthquake had a magnitude
of 9.1. It should be noted that for the strongest earthquakes, the Richter Scale is no
longer used. Instead, the Moment Magnitude Scaleis used, though it is very
similar to the Richter Scale. The Richter Scale and Moment Magnitude Scale
provide quantitative information of the energy released from an earthquake.

The Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale (shown below) is

more qualitative and focuses on the actual damage
caused by the earthquake and its impact on human lives
and property. The scale has 12 categories ranging from I
(felt by very few people) to XII (total destruction). Each
category is based on a description of how people felt or
perceived the earthquake. The major problem with the
Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale is that ground damage is
relative to location. The scale can be influenced by the
types of rocks underneath, if the ground is mostly
bedrock, loose sediment, or even landfill, how well
buildings are built, and how far away the people and
buildings are from the epicenter. The farther away from
the epicenter, the weaker the earthquake will feel. So the
Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale is great to determine
ground damage and how the earthquake affected people,
but does not tell you how much energy was actually
released from the rupture. Because of the access to the
Internet, the United States Geologic Survey (USGS) allows
you to email them if you just felt and earthquake. They
take this information and create a map similar to the
Modified Mercalli maps, but call it a shake map. To view
real-time shake maps from the USGS, click here. For a list
of recent earthquakes in Utah along with shake maps,
check out the Seismology Departmentat the University of
Utah.

Image copyright: United States G

as Creative Commons Public Dom
One final note, with the recent popularity of smart phones and the iTouch, there are
several apps now available in relation to natural disasters. In terms of earthquakes,
a highly popular app in Apple's iTunes is called QuakeWatch. There are probably
similar apps for other smart phone devises.

3.6 Earthquake Hazards

Image copyright: United Nations Development Program, licensed as Creative

Commons Public Domain.
Earthquakes do not kill people; falling buildings and highways kill people. History
has taught us the importance of building codes to create safer buildings. Many of
the massive death tolls reported by earthquakes are caused by poorly built
buildings rather than the earthquake itself. In general, buildings or structures built
out of brick, stone, mud, or reinforced concrete fair poorly in large earthquakes
because there is very little flexibility in the structures as the ground shakes. The
best types of buildings to be in are those built of wood because of there flexibility;
the house may not be habitable after the earthquake, but they won't crumble or
collapse on people. Buildings with weak floors or basement garages are also
susceptible to collapsing.
There are several techniques engineers have developed to help buildings withstand
the destructive power of earthquakes. Many buildings are being built or retrofitted

with diagonal braces that can withstand the ground motions caused by an
earthquake. Tall buildings also tend to sway at different frequencies them to slam
into each other during an earthquake. If engineers know how much a building will
sway, they can determine how far apart buildings must be built. Finally, engineers
are placing rubber pads at the base of newly built and retrofitted buildings that act
as shock absorbers.
Liquefaction can occur when earthquakes rupture
in regions with loose sediment and high water
tables. As the ground shakes, the high water
table rises to the surface which softens and
destabilizes the surface causing structures to
break off their foundations or fall over.
Liquefaction has occurred in Mexico City in 1985,
San Francisco 1989, Anchorage, Alaska 1964,
Kobe Japan in 1995 and will occur in Salt Lake
City.

Image copyright: This work is in the public

published in the United States between 19
a copyright notice.
Click here to see a map of liquefaction potential and ground shaking within Salt
Lake County. (You can also look at maps for Tooele, Cache, Davis, Weber and Utah
Counties.) For those who live in the Salt Lake valley, notice how the liquefaction
potential is greatest along the Jordan River and near the Great Salt Lake. Any ideas
why? It has to do with the fact the water table is highest near those areas. So when
an earthquake occurs and the ground begins to shake, the water will rise and
destabilize the ground. In these maps, the reds and purples represent the areas of
greatest liquefaction potential from a magnitude 7.0 earthquake.
Earthquakes can also destabilize steep slopes causing them to slip and fail.
These landslides tend to occur where the ground is mostly loose sandy soil with a
high water table. Fires are also another serious hazard created by earthquakes as
our infrastructure collapses and electrical and gas lines break. The treat of fires will
also increase as emergency crews have a hard time maneuvering through the
debris. There are two simple things individuals can do to reduce their risk of a fire:
first is to have a wrench attached to their outside gas line. If you smell gas at your
house, quickly turn off the gas. But if you do not smell gas, do not turn it off; doing
so may prevent you from having heating in your house in the winter and it may be
months before it gets turned back on. Second, make sure your water heater is
attached to your house. A simple $20 bracket wrapped around your water heater

and bolted into your house may prevent it from falling over and breaking its gas
line.
Another interesting effect of powerful earthquakes is island creation. In September
2013, a moderately powerful earthquake off the coast of Pakistan created a 200 foot
wide, 60 foot tall island. It won't last long because ocean waves will erode it back
down, but it's an interesting and rare effect of earthquakes. Click here to learn
more.

3.7 Human-Induced Earthquakes

Can humans create earthquakes? Maybe not intentionally, but the answer is yes and
here is why. If a water reservoir is built on top of an active fault line, the water may
actually lubricate the fault and weaken the stress built up within it. This may either
create a series of small earthquakes or potentially create a large earthquake. Also
the shear weight of the reservoir's water can weaken the bedrock causing it to
fracture. Then the obvious concern is if the dam fails. Earthquakes can also be
generated if humans inject other fluids into a fault such as sewage or chemical
waste. Finally, nuclear explosions can trigger earthquakes. In fact, one way to
determine if a nation has tested a nuclear bomb is by monitoring the earthquakes
and energy released by the explosion.

3.8 Earthquake Prepardeness

Everywhere in the world has disasters, so nowhere is safe. But everyone should be
prepared for the type of disasters their region experiences. Everyone should have a
72 hour kit prepared in your car and house. Recently the Federal Emergency
Management Agency (FEMA) stated that citizens should prepare a 5-day kit in case
federal, state, and local agencies can not reach you. Learn more how you can
prepare at Ready.gov. Here are a few more items you should think about with
disaster preparedness.

Each member in your family should also know where to meet in case of a
disaster.

The number one reason why people end up in the hospital after an
earthquake is glass in their feet. Having a pair of old shoes under your bed
can greatly reduce that probability.

Know how to shut off your gas line if you smell gas in your house. If it
requires a wrench to shut off, always have one next to the line for quick
shutoff. You will know if you have a gas leak because the gas companies
place a chemical in the gas that will smell like rotten eggs.

Also make sure your water heater is attached to your house. If your water
heater falls over and the gas line breaks, your house can catch fire.

If you and your family are safe, take care of others in need.

Finally for those interested, look into getting CERT certified as a first
responder.

One thing that I have talked about constantly with natural disasters is the difference
in devastation between rich and poor in natural disasters. This image below is of the
presidential palace in Haiti before and after the earthquake. This goes to show you
that even if you are the top official in your country and have all the money and
resources to keep yourself safe. Sometimes the power of nature is more powerful
than any technology that man can produce.

Earthquakes might be the most scary type of disaster on this planet. Most other
types of disasters you have some kind of warning that you can prepare for. You can
predict hurricanes, tornados, tsunamis after earthquakes, even volcanoes give us
some type of warning. Earthquakes come with no warning and are among the most
costly and devastating disasters on the planet. They can bring an entire city to their
knees in a matter of 30 seconds. This earthquake in Haiti was extremely sad
because of the extreme poverty level of the area that it hit. The death toll was
frightening to say the least. The official number of dead from the Haitian
government is 316,000 people as of now.

The initial shaking from the quake is only the beginning of the devastation that can
occur from these quakes. As we have seen in the last decade there has been two
massive earthquakes that occur close to land, under the ocean. These quakes not
only created destruction on land during the initial quake, but also caused massive
Tsunamis that quickly swept away coastal towns along the shore.

As you can here not only can a tsunami from a large earthquake destroy the nearby
areas, but they energy can travel thousands of miles and hit countries as far away
as South Africa and Madagascar. These powerful forces travel through the water
almost unnoticed in deep water. The wave feels like a swell in the open water. It
only shows its true colors when it reaches a shallow waters and becomes and much
larger wave that can destroy anything in its path.
This is a link to a few clips of videos during the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake that
was so devastating to the bay area and caused millions in damage.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FW-TkpvKPl0

Here is a fantastic article about the aftermath of the earthquake in Haiti. I will not
post the entire article because it is long, but the link is below.
http://time.com/3662225/haiti-earthquake-five-year-after/
Tectonic Forces
LEARNING OUTCOMES

ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS

Understand where volcanoes are located around the

world and why.

How does the theory of pla

where and why volcanoes

Determine how the composition of magma

determines the explosiveness of the volcanic
eruption.

What role do volcanoes ha

benefits do they bring us?

Explain how volcanic activity is monitored and why.

Describe the various types of volcanoes and the

landforms they create.

Describe the hazards and benefits of volcanic

activity.

Where Volcanoes Are Located

Google Earth image of

Japan and the oceanic-to-oceanic subduction zones.
VOLCANOES ALONG CONVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARIES
Volcanoes are a vibrant manifestation of plate tectonics processes. Volcanoes are
common along convergent and divergent plate boundaries, but are also found
within lithospheric plates away from plate boundaries. Wherever mantle is able to
melt, volcanoes may be the result.

Volcanoes erupt because mantle rock melts. The first stage in creating a volcano is
when mantle rock begins to melt because of extremely high temperatures,
lithospheric pressure lowers, or water is added.
Along subducting plate boundaries, the crust heats up as it sinks into the mantle.
Also, ocean water is mixed in with the sediments lying on top of the subducting
plate. This water lowers the melting point of the mantle material, which increases
melting. Volcanoes at convergent plate boundaries are found all along the Pacific
Ocean basin, primarily at the edges of the Pacific, Cocos, and Nazca plates.

Large earthquakes are extremely common along convergent plate boundaries. Since
the Pacific Ocean is rimmed by convergent and transform boundaries, about 80% of
all earthquakes strike around the Pacific Ocean basin and is why the region is called
the Ring of Fire. A description of the Pacific Ring of Fire along western North America
is below:

Subduction at the Middle American Trench creates volcanoes in Central

America.

The San Andreas Fault is a transform boundary.

Subduction of the Juan de Fuca plate beneath the North American plate
creates the Cascade volcanoes like Mount St. Helens, Mount Rainer, Mount
Hood and more.

Subduction of the Pacific plate beneath the North American plate in the north
creates the long chain of the Aleutian Islands volcanoes near Alaska.

This incredible explosive eruption of Mount Vesuvius in Italy in A.D. 79 is an example

of a composite volcano that forms as the result of a convergent plate boundary.

VOLCANOES ALONG DIVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARIES

Why does melting occur at divergent plate boundaries? Hot mantle rock rises where
the plates are moving apart. This releases pressure on the mantle, which lowers its
melting temperature allowing lava to erupt through long cracks or fissures.
Scientists have captured incredible footage of "Deepest Ocean Eruption Ever
Filmed" and otherundersea volcanoes. Volcanoes erupt at mid-ocean ridges, such as
the Mid-Atlantic ridge, where seafloor spreading creates new seafloor in the rift
valleys. Where a hotspot is located along the ridge, such as at Iceland, volcanoes
grow high enough to create islands. Eruptions are found at divergent plate
boundaries as continents break apart such as the East African Rift between the
African and Arabian plates and the Great Basin and Range in the western United
States. But those volcanoes of the ladder are now extinct.
For some dramatic time-lapsed photography of a volcanic eruption on Iceland, click
here. Iceland (image on the right) is a hot spot volcano and the surface
manifestation of the mid-Atlantic ridge.

VOLCANIC HOTSPOTS
Although most volcanoes are found at convergent or divergent plate boundaries,
intraplate volcanoes are found in the middle of a tectonic plate. The Hawaiian
Islands are the exposed peaks of a great chain of volcanoes that lie on the Pacific
plate. These islands are in the middle of the Pacific plate. The youngest island sits
directly above a column of hot rock called a mantle plume. As the plume rises
through the mantle, pressure is released and mantle melts to create a hotspot.

Earth is home to about 50 known hot spots. Most of these are in the oceans because
they are better able to penetrate oceanic lithosphere to create volcanoes. The
hotspots that are known beneath continents are extremely large, such as
Yellowstone. The video on the right is of the hot spot beneath Hawaii, the origin of
the voluminous lava produced by the shield volcano Kilauea. There are several key
indicators to determine a hot spot from island arc volcanoes. At island arcs, the
volcanoes are all about the same age. By contrast, at hotspots the volcanoes are
youngest at one end of the chain and oldest at the other.

Magma Composition

In 1980, Mount St. Helens blew up in the costliest and deadliest volcanic eruption in
United States history. The eruption killed 57 people, destroyed 250 homes and
swept away 47 bridges. Mount St. Helens today still has minor earthquakes and
eruptions, and now has a horseshoe-shaped crater with a lava dome inside. The
dome is formed of viscous lava that oozes into place.
It should first be noted that magma is molten material inside the earth,
whereas lava is molten material on the surface of the earth. The reason for the
distinction is because lava can cool quickly from the air and solidify into rock
rapidly, whereas magma may never reach the earth's surface. Volcanoes do not
always erupt in the same way. Each volcaniceruption is unique, differing in size,
style, and composition of erupted material. One key to what makes the eruption
unique is the chemical composition of the magma that feeds a volcano, which
determines (1) the eruption style, (2) the type of volcanic cone that forms, and (3)
the composition of rocks that are found at the volcano.
Different minerals within a rocks melt at different temperatures and the amount of
partial melting and the composition of the original rock determine the composition
of the magma. Magma collects in magma chambers in the crust at 160 kilometers
(100 miles) beneath the surface of a volcano.
The words that describe composition of igneous rocks also describe magma
composition. Mafic magmas are low in silica and contain more dark, magnesium and
iron rich mafic minerals, such as olivine and pyroxene. Felsic magmas are higher in
silica and contain lighter colored minerals such as quartz and orthoclase feldspar.

The higher the amount of silica in the magma, the higher is its viscosity. Viscosity
is a liquids resistance to flow.
Viscosity determines what the magma will do. Mafic magma is not viscous and will
flow easily to the surface. Felsic magma is viscous and does not flow easily. Most
felsic magma will stay deeper in the crust and will cool to form igneous intrusive
rocks such as granite and granodiorite. If felsic magma rises into a magma
chamber, it may be too viscous to move and so it gets stuck. Dissolved gases
become trapped by thick magma and the magma chamber begins to build pressure.

EXPLOSIVE ERUPTIONS
The type of magma in the chamber determines the type of volcanic eruption.
A large explosive eruption creates even more devastation than the force of the
atom bomb dropped on Nagasaki at the end of World War II in which more than
40,000 people died. A large explosive volcanic eruption is 10,000 times as powerful.
Felsic magmas erupt explosively because of hot, gas-rich magma churning within its
chamber. The pressure becomes so great that the magma eventually breaks the
seal and explodes, just like when a cork is released from a bottle of champagne.
Magma, rock, and ash burst upward in an enormous explosion creating volcanic ash
called tephra. It should be noted that when looked under a microscope, the
volcanic ash is actual microscopic shards of glass. That is why it is so dangerous
to inhale the air following an eruption.
Scorching hot tephra, ash, and gas may speed down the volcanos slopes at 700
km/h (450 mph) as a pyroclastic flow. Pyroclastic flows knock down everything in
their path. The temperature inside a pyroclastic flow may be as high as 1,000oC
(1,800 degrees F).

Prior to the Mount St. Helens eruption in 1980, the Lassen

Peak eruption on May 22, 1915, was the most recent
Cascades eruption. A column of ash and gas shot 30,000

feet into the air. This triggered a high-speed pyroclastic

flow, which melted snow and created a volcanic mudflow
known as a lahar. Lassen Peak currently has geothermal
activity and could erupt explosively again. Mt. Shasta, the
other active volcano in California, erupts every 600 to 800
years. An eruption would most likely create a large
pyroclastic flow, and probably a lahar. Of course, Mt.
Shasta could explode and collapse like Mt. Mazama in
Oregon.
Volcanic gases can form poisonous and invisible clouds in the atmosphere that
could contribute to environmental problems such as acid rain and ozone
destruction. Particles of dust and ash may stay in the atmosphere for years,
disrupting weather patterns and blocking sunlight.
EFFUSIVE ERUPTIONS
Mafic magma creates gentler effusive eruptions.
Although the pressure builds enough for the magma to
erupt, it does not erupt with the same explosive force as
felsic magma. People can usually be evacuated before an
effusive eruption, so they are much less deadly. Magma
pushes toward the surface through fissures and reaches
the surface through volcanic vents. Click here to view a
lava stream within the vent of a Hawaiian volcano using a
thermal camera.
Low-viscosity lava flows down mountainsides. Differences in composition and where
the lavas erupt result in lava types like a ropy form pahoehoe and a chunky form
called aa. Although effusive eruptions rarely kill anyone, they can be destructive.
Even when people know that a lava flow is approaching, there is not much anyone
can do to stop it from destroying a building, road, or infrastructure.

Pahoehoe lava

Aa lava

Predicting Volcanic Eruptions

Volcanologists attempt to forecast volcanic eruptions, but this has proven to be
nearly as difficult as predicting an earthquake. Many pieces of evidence can mean
that a volcano is about to erupt, but the time and magnitude of the eruption are
difficult to pin down. This evidence includes the history of previous volcanic activity,
earthquakes, slope deformation, and gas emissions.

HISTORY OF VOLCANIC ACTIVITY

A volcanos history, how long since its last eruption and the time span between its
previous eruptions, is a good first step to predicting eruptions. If the volcano is
considered active, it is currently erupting or shows signs of erupting soon.
A dormant volcano means there is no current activity, but it has erupted recently.
Finally, an extinct volcano means their is no activity and will probably not erupt
again. Active and dormant volcanoes are heavily monitored, especially in populated
areas.
EARTHQUAKES
Moving magma shakes the ground, so the number and size of
earthquakes increases before an eruption. A volcano that is about to erupt may
produce a sequence of earthquakes. Scientists use seismographs that record the
length and strength of each earthquake to try to determine if an eruption is
imminent.
Magma and gas can push the volcanos slope upward. Most ground deformation is
subtle and can only be detected by tiltmeters, which are instruments that measure
the angle of the slope of a volcano. But ground swelling may sometimes create
huge changes in the shape of a volcano. Mount St. Helens grew a bulge on its north
side before its 1980 eruption. Ground swelling may also increase rockfalls and
landslides.
GAS EMISSIONS
Gases may be able to escape a volcano before magma reaches the surface.
Scientists measure gas emissions in vents on or around the volcano. Gases, such as
sulfur dioxide (SO2), carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrochloric acid (HCl), and even water
vapor can be measured at the site or, in some cases, from a distance using
satellites. The amounts of gases and their ratios are calculated to help predict
eruptions.
REMOTE MONITORING

Some gases can be monitored using satellite technology. Satellites also monitor
temperature readings and deformation. As technology improves, scientists are
better able to detect changes in a volcano accurately and safely.
Since volcanologists are usually uncertain about an eruption, officials may not know
whether to require an evacuation. If people are evacuated and the eruption doesnt
happen, the people will be displeased and less likely to evacuate the next time
there is a threat of an eruption. The costs of disrupting business are great. However,
scientists continue to work to improve the accuracy of their predictions.

Types of Volcanoes
A volcano is a vent through which molten rock and gas escape from a magma
chamber and they can differ in height, shape, and slope steepness. Some volcanoes
are tall cones and others are just cracks in the ground. As you might expect, the
shape of a volcano is related to the composition of its magma.

COMPOSITE VOLCANOES
Composite volcanoes are some of the most dangerous volcanoes on the planet.
They tend to occur along oceanic-to-oceanic or oceanic-to-continental boundaries
because of subduction zones. They tend to be made of felsic to intermediate rock
and the viscosity of the lava means that eruptions tend to be explosive. The viscous
lava cannot travel far down the sides of the volcano before it solidifies, which
creates the steep slopes of a composite volcano. Viscosity also causes some
eruptions to explode as ash and small rocks. The volcano is constructed layer by
layer, as ash and lava solidify, one upon the other and are sometimes called
stratovolcanoes or andesite volcanoes. The result is the classic cone shape of
composite volcanoes. Examples of composite volcanoes include Mount St. Helens,
Mount Rainer, Mount Shasta, Mount Hood, and Mount Pinatubo. Here's a great timelapse of Mount St. Helens from NASA's Earth Observatory from 1979 to 2013.

Sometimes composite volcanoes and other violent volcanoes can erupt so violently
that they sometimes collapse in on themselves or actually blow themselves up to
produce calderas. One of the most powerful volcanoes in the world - Yellowstone- is
a massive caldera that has collapsed several times. Sometimes these calderas can
fill up with water to produce beautiful lakes such as Mount Mazama (Crater Lake), in
Oregon.

SHIELD VOLCANOES
Shield volcanoes get their name from their shape. Although shield volcanoes are not
steep, they may be very large. In fact, Mauna Loa, Hawaii is the tallest mountain in
the world. From sea level, Mount Everest is the tallest, but when you consider from
the ocean floor to the top of the island, Mauna Loa wins. Shield volcanoes are
common at spreading centers or intraplate hot spots.
The lava that creates shield volcanoes is fluid and flows easily and creates the
shield shape. Shield volcanoes are built by many layers over time and the layers are
usually of very similar composition. The low viscosity also means that shield
eruptions are non-explosive. Eruptions tend to be mild in comparison to other
volcanoes, but lava flows can destroy property and vegetation. The low viscosity
magma can flow not only on the surface as lava, but also underground in lava
tubes. The most well known shield volcano is Hawaii. There are two types of lava
flows, pahoehoe which is a ropy type of lava that flows easily (low viscosity). The
other type is called aa and is a blocky type of lava and has a higher viscosity and
does not like to flow well. The following is a short video on Hawaii, an example of a
shield volcano.

CINDER CONES
Cinder cones are the most common type of volcano. A cinder cone has a cone
shape, but is much smaller than a composite volcano. Cinder cones rarely reach 300
meters in height but they have steep sides. Cinder cones grow rapidly, usually from
a single eruption cycle. Cinder cones are composed of small fragments of rock, such
as pumice, piled on top of one another. The rock shoots up in the air and doesnt fall
far from the vent. The exact composition of a cinder cone depends on the
composition of the lava ejected from the volcano. Cinder cones usually have a
crater at the summit. Cinder cones are often found near larger volcanoes.

SUPERVOLCANOES
Supervolcano eruptions are extremely rare in Earth history. Its a good thing
because they are unimaginably large. A supervolcano must erupt more than 1,000
cubic km (240 cubic miles) of material, compared with 1.2 km3 for Mount St. Helens
or 25 km3 for Mount Pinatubo, a large eruption in the Philippines in 1991. Not
surprisingly, supervolcanoes are the most dangerous type of volcano.

Supervolcanoes are a fairly new idea in volcanology. The exact cause of

supervolcano eruptions is still debated, however, scientists think that a very large
magma chamber erupts entirely in one catastrophic explosion. This creates a huge
hole or caldera into which the surface collapses.

The largest supervolcano in North America is beneath

Yellowstone National Park in Wyoming. Yellowstone sits
above a hotspot that has erupted catastrophically three
times: 2.1 million, 1.3 million, and 640,000 years ago.
Yellowstone has produced many smaller (but still
enormous) eruptions more recently. Fortunately, current
activity at Yellowstone is limited to the regions famous
geysers.
Long Valley Caldera, south of Mono Lake in California, is
the second largest supervolcano in North America. Long
Valley had an extremely hot and explosive rhyolite
explosion about 700,000 years ago. An earthquake swarm
in 1980 alerted geologists to the possibility of a future
eruption, but the quakes have since calmed down.
A supervolcano could change life on Earth as we know it. Ash could block sunlight
so much that photosynthesis would be reduced and global temperatures would
plummet. Volcanic eruptions could have contributed to some of the mass
extinctions in our planets history. No one knows when the next super eruption will
be.

Volcanic Landforms and Geothermal Activity

VOLCANIC LANDFORMS AND VENTS

Volcanoes are associated with many types of landforms. The landforms vary with

the composition of the magma that created them. Hot springs and geysers are also
examples of surface features related to volcanic activity.
The most obvious landforms created by lava are volcanoes, most commonly as
cinder cones, composite volcanoes, and shield volcanoes or eruptions that take
place through fissures. The eruptions that created the entire ocean floor are
essentially fissure eruptions. Magma intrusions ALSO can create landforms. The
image on the right is of Shiprock in New Mexico, which is the neck of an old volcano
that has eroded away

Lava dome inside Mount St. Helen's

crater.
LAVA DOMES
When lava is viscous, it flows slowly. If there is not enough magma or enough
pressure to create an explosive eruption, the magma may form a lava dome. But
because the viscosity of the magma is so thick, the lava does not flow far from the
vent. Lava flows often make mounds right in the middle of craters at the top of
volcanoes.
LAVA PLATEAUS AND LAND
A lava plateau forms when large amounts of fluid lava flows over an extensive
area. When the lava solidifies, it creates a large, flat surface of igneous rock. Lava
creates new land as it solidifies on the coast or emerges from beneath the water.
Over time the eruptions can create whole islands. The Hawaiian Islands are formed
from shield volcano eruptions that have grown over the last 5 million years.

HOT SPRINGS AND GEYSERS

Water sometimes comes into contact with hot rock. The water may emerge at the
surface as either a hot spring or a geyser. Water heated below ground that rises
through a crack to the surface creates a hot spring. The water in hot springs may
reach temperatures in the hundreds of degrees Celsius beneath the surface,
although most hot springs are much cooler.

Hazards and Benefits of Volcanic Activity

There are several hazards that volcanic activity can produce.

Eruption clouds occur when massive quantities of ash is ejected into the
atmosphere where it can reach heights of 50,000 feet. Eruption clouds have
proven to be very dangerous for aviation jets because the ash can shut down
the engines. The ash cloud can also be very hazardous in terms of air
pollution.

Lahars are volcanic mudflows. Lahars are very dangerous because they do
not require a volcanic eruption yet can travel hundreds of miles. All that is
required is loose pyroclastic material on the volcano that mixes with
precipitation or melting snow.

Lava flows are layers of molten rock that flow over the surface, later cooling
and solidifying.

Lava bombs are large chunks of pyroclastic material ejected from a volcano.
Larger pyroclastic material is called blocks.

Pyroclastic flows are some of the most dangerous hazards caused by

composite volcanoes. Pyroclastic flows are superheated clouds of pyroclastic
material (e.g. hot rock and tephra) ranging in size from small rocks to the size

of houses that are over 1,000 degrees F traveling down a mountain at speeds
up to 100 mph.

Tephra (or volcanic ash) is fine particles of pyroclastic material that can be
carried thousands of miles away by prevailing winds. Regions hundreds of
miles away could suffer collapsed buildings is the falling ash accumulates
enough. Tephra can also cool the entire planet if enough is ejected into the
atmosphere.

Poisonous gases such as carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and sulfur dioxide
can travel down a volcano and asphyxiate (suffocating) wildlife and humans.
In 1986, an invisible cloud of carbon dioxide traveled down a volcano in Africa
asphyxiating 1,742 people and 3,000 cattle.

There are actually many benefits to volcanic activity. One of the major benefits is
the fact that volcanic activity can create very fertile soil for agriculture. The problem
is that many civilizations developed near volcanoes for this reason - with sometimes
deadly effects. Volcanic activity can also create many mineral resources such as
gold, sliver, nickel, copper, and lead. Volcanic rock is often used for landscaping,
tile, and cement.
Some of the most amazing landscapes are near volcanoes. This is because volcanic
activity builds land creating breathtaking scenery. So volcanoes are economically
vital for many regions because of the recreational activity and tourism they bring.
Finally, a new but important trend is geothermal power. The heat generated by
volcanoes can create electricity to power civilization. Geothermal power is a
completely renewable resource free of pollution and energy dependency on fossil
fuels. Iceland - the surface manifestation of the mid-Atlantic ridge - has a goal of
powering the entire nation on geothermal energy. Geothermal energy is also being
used in California, Kilauea, Hawaii, and now Utah.

Volcanoes have always fascinated me a great deal. I grew up watching the movie
Volcano with Tommy Lee Jones, and Dantes Peak with Pierce Brosnan. These movies
intrigued me and I think a lot of other people too. I mean of coarse the thought of a
volcano in LA is absolutely ridiculous, but at the very least it was entertaining. It
gave us a look at what might happen if there was a major volcano in a high
populace city. Dantes Peak also addressed the idea of the boy who cried wolf as
mentioned earlier in the chapter. Volcanologists try and predict eruptions, but if
they get it wrong than people are less likely to believe you so they have to be very
careful. In the movie, no one listens until its too late and a bunch of people die as a
result.

Now of coarse this is absolutely ridiculous, but either way the idea behind it was
interesting and very entertaining. This is scene from Volcano where they had to stop
a lava flow by cooling the lava down so it would create a crust and dam itself from
going any further.
There was a very recent eruption in Iceland that didnt really cause any damage to
anything physical, but it did disrupt travel to and from Europe for a week or two.
Planes couldnt fly through this giant cloud of ash because it would cause engine
failure and the plane would crash. This cartoon is a good example of Mother Nature
taking over the controls regardless of important travel plans.

Iceland is a very volcanic country. As said in the text all of this volcanic energy isnt
always a bad thing. This extremely hot activity towards the top of the crust of the
earth can create a great opportunity for a new type of renewable power that is both
extremely clean and efficient. What they do is pump water down into the earth,
deep enough so its heats up and evaporates and becomes steam. The steam then
wants to escape upward and toward the surface creating a lot of pressure on its way
up. It then turns turbines that are powered by the steam, and creates clean and free
energy. The diagram below illustrates the process. I believe they use brine or salt
water because of its low boiling point. Therefore they do not need to get the water
as hot to produce steam, making geothermal energy more accessible at places
where it doesnt get as hot. They also use the same method in solar collection
towers where the salt water vaporizes at lower temperatures to create steam.

Below is a clip from Dantes Peak and their interpretation of a pyroclastic flow.
Obviously this is the opposite too the positive energy that can be created from
geothermal energy.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vfIUYDjo8WM

The following article is a fantastic explanation of the effects of the volcano in

Iceland on flight plans and the planes themselves.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/8634944.stm

Chapter 5: Mass Wasting

LEARNING OUTCOMES

Describe the basic processes, functions, and

influences of weathering.

Explain the main influences of weatherDetermine

the main influences of mass wasting.

Describe the various types of mass wasting

processes.

Compare the difference between fast and slow

subsidence.

Determine ways mass wasting processes may be

limited.

ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS

Recently Utah has experien

either avalanches or rock f
responsibility of individuals
use policies in regards to t

Weathering
Weathering is the process that changes solid rock into sediments. With
weathering, rock is disintegrated into smaller pieces. Once these sediments are
separated from the rocks, erosion is the process that moves the sediments away
from it's original position. The four forces of erosion are water, wind, glaciers, and
gravity. Water is responsible for most erosion. Water can move most sizes of
sediments, depending on the strength of the force. Wind moves sand-sized and
smaller pieces of rock through the air. Glaciers move all sizes of sediments, from
extremely large boulders to the tiniest fragments. Gravity moves broken pieces of
rock, large or small, downslope. These forces of erosion will be covered later.
While plate tectonics forces work to build huge mountains and other landscapes,
the forces of weathering and mass wasting gradually wear those rocks and
landscapes away, called denudation. Together with erosion, tall mountains turn
into hills and even plains. The Appalachian Mountains along the east coast of North
America were once as tall as the Himalayas.
No human being can watch for millions of years as mountains are built, nor can
anyone watch as those same mountains gradually are worn away. But imagine a
new sidewalk or road. The new road is smooth and even. Over hundreds of years, it
will completely disappear, but what happens over one year? What changes would
you see? What forces of weathering wear down that road, or rocks or mountains
over time?

MECHANICAL WEATHERING
Mechanical weathering, also called physical weathering, breaks rock into
smaller pieces. These smaller pieces are just like the bigger rock, just smaller. That
means the rock has changed physically without changing its composition. The
smaller pieces have the same minerals, in just the same proportions as the original
rock.
There are many ways that rocks can be broken apart into smaller pieces. Ice
wedging, also called freeze-thaw weathering, is the main form of mechanical
weathering in any climate that regularly cycles above and below the freezing point.
Ice wedging works quickly, breaking apart rocks in areas with temperatures that
cycle above and below freezing in the day and night, and also that cycle above and
below freezing with the seasons.
Ice wedging breaks apart so much rock that large piles of broken rock are seen at
the base of a hillside called talus. Ice wedging is common in Earths polar regions
and mid latitudes, and also at higher elevations, such as in the mountains.
Abrasion is another form of mechanical weathering. In abrasion, one rock bumps
against another rock.

Gravity causes abrasion as a rock tumbles down a mountainside or cliff.

Moving water causes abrasion as particles in the water collide and bump
against one another.

Strong winds carrying pieces of sand can sandblast surfaces.

Ice in glaciers carries many bits and pieces of rock. Rocks embedded at the
bottom of the glacier scrape against the rocks below.

Abrasion makes rocks with sharp or jagged edges smooth and round. If you have
ever collected beach glass or cobbles from a stream, you have witnessed the work
of abrasion.
Now that you know what mechanical weathering is, can you think of other ways it
could happen? Plants and animals can do the work of mechanical weathering. This
could happen slowly as a plants roots grow into a crack or fracture in rock and
gradually grow larger, wedging open the crack. Burrowing animals can also break
apart rock as they dig for food or to make living spaces for themselves.
Mechanical weathering increases the rate of chemical weathering. As rock breaks

into smaller pieces, the surface area of the pieces increases. With more surfaces
exposed, there are more surfaces on which chemical weathering can occur.

CHEMICAL WEATHERING
Chemical weathering is the other important type of weathering. Chemical
weathering is different from mechanical weathering because the rock changes, not
just in size of pieces, but in composition. That is, one type of mineral changes into a
different mineral. Chemical weathering works through chemical reactions that cause
changes in the minerals.
Most minerals form at high pressure or high temperatures deep in the crust, or
sometimes in the mantle. When these rocks reach the Earths surface, they are now
at very low temperatures and pressures. This is a very different environment from
the one in which they formed and the minerals are no longer stable. In chemical
weathering, minerals that were stable inside the crust must change to minerals that
are stable at Earths surface.
Remember that the most common minerals in Earths crust are the silicate minerals.
Many silicate minerals form in igneous or metamorphic rocks deep within the earth.
The minerals that form at the highest temperatures and pressures are the least
stable at the surface. Clay is stable at the surface and chemical weathering
converts many minerals to clay. There are many types of chemical weathering
because there are many agents of chemical weathering. Water is the most
important agent of chemical weathering. Two other important agents of chemical
weathering are carbon dioxide and oxygen.

CHEMICAL WEATHERING BY WATER

A water molecule has a very simple chemical formula, H2O, two hydrogen atoms
bonded to one oxygen atom. But water is pretty remarkable in terms of all the
things it can do. Water is a polar molecule; the positive side of the molecule attracts
negative ions and the negative side attracts positive ions. So water molecules

separate the ions from their compounds and surround them. Water can completely
dissolve some minerals, such as salt.
Hydrolysis is the name of the chemical reaction between a chemical compound
and water. When this reaction takes place, water dissolves ions from the mineral
and carries them away. These elements have undergone leaching. Through
hydrolysis, a mineral such as potassium feldspar is leached of potassium and
changed into a clay mineral. Clay minerals are more stable at the Earths surface.
CHEMICAL WEATHERING BY CARBON DIOXIDE
Carbon dioxide (CO2) combines with water as raindrops fall through the
atmosphere. This makes a weak acid, called carbonic acid. Carbonic acid is a very
common in nature where it works to dissolve rock. Pollutants, such as sulfur and
nitrogen, from fossil fuel burning, create sulfuric and nitric acid. Sulfuric and nitric
acids are the two main components of acid rain, which accelerate chemical
weathering.
CHEMICAL WEATHERING BY OXYGEN
Oxidation is a chemical reaction that takes place when oxygen reacts with another
element. Oxygen is very strongly chemically reactive. The most familiar type of
oxidation is when iron reacts with oxygen to create rust. Minerals that are rich in
iron break down as the iron oxidizes and forms new compounds. Iron oxide produces
the red color in soils.
Now that you know what chemical weathering is, can you think of some other ways
chemical weathering might occur? Chemical weathering can also be contributed to
by plants and animals. As plant roots take in soluble ions as nutrients, certain
elements are exchanged. Plant roots and bacterial decay use carbon dioxide in the
process of respiration.

Influences on Weathering

ROCK AND MINERAL TYPE

Weathering rates depend on several factors. These include the composition of the
rock and the minerals it contains as well as the climate of a region. Different rock
types weather at different rates. Certain types of rock are very resistant to
weathering. Igneous rocks, especially intrusive igneous rocks such as granite,
weather slowly because it is hard for water to penetrate them. Other types of rock,

such as limestone, are easily weathered because they dissolve in weak acids.
Rocks that resist weathering remain at the surface and form ridges or hills. Devils
Tower in Wyoming is an igneous rock from beneath a volcano. As the surrounding
less resistant rocks were worn away, the resistant center of the volcano remained
behind.
Different minerals also weather at different rates. Some minerals in a rock might
completely dissolve in water, but the more resistant minerals remain. In this case,
the rocks surface becomes pitted and rough. When a less resistant mineral
dissolves, more resistant mineral grains are released from the rock.

CLIMATE
A regions climate strongly influences weathering. Climate is determined by the
temperature of a region plus the amount of precipitation it receives. Climate is
weather averaged over a long period of time. Chemical weathering increases as:

Temperature increases: Chemical reactions proceed more rapidly at higher

temperatures. For each 10 degrees C increase in average temperature, the
rate of chemical reactions doubles.

Precipitation increases: More water allows more chemical reactions. Since

water participates in both mechanical and chemical weathering, more water
strongly increases weathering.

So how do different climates influence weathering? A cold, dry climate will produce
the lowest rate of weathering. A warm, wet climate will produce the highest rate of
weathering. The warmer a climate is, the more types of vegetation it will have and
the greater the rate of biological weathering. This happens because plants and
bacteria grow and multiply faster in warmer temperatures.

Factors that Influence Mass Wasting

Once rock material has been broken down into smaller, unstable pieces by
weathering, the material has the potential to move downslope called mass

wasting (also called a landslide). Before looking into the various types of
landslides, the factors that influence them must be examined.
STEEPNESS OF SLOPE
There are several factors that influence mass wasting, but ultimately it is a battle
between friction and gravity. If the friction on a rock is stronger than gravity for a
particular slope, the rock material will likely stay. But if gravity is stronger, the slope
will fail.
The steeper the slope, the stronger the friction or rock strength must be to resist
downslope motion. The steepest angle a slope can be before the ground will slide is
about 35 degrees, called the angle of repose. Many times we will cut through a
slope to make room for a road or other forms of development. So to help prevent
the slope from sliding along these cut areas, retaining walls must be build. More on
this later.
COMPOSITION OF SLOPE MATERIAL
Another factor that determines mass wasting is the slope's materia. Mass wasting is
more prone on slopes that contain clay and shale. Without going into great detail
here, the shape and composition of individual clay particles can absorb water and
prevent water from peculating through the ground. A layer of clay on a slope can
prevent water from filtering through the slope. Instead, the water stays near the
surface and saturates the ground. This can cause the surface layers to lose friction
and slide.
WEIGHT AND FRICTION OF SLOPE
A third factor that influences whether a slope will fail is the load or weight of that
slope. Adding weight to a weakened slope can obviously cause it to slide easier,
especially on steep slopes. This added weight tends to occur by building on top of
weak slopes, increasing the steepness of the slope, or over-saturating the slope.
Friction has been mentioned as a factor several times already, but there are a few
more things must be said here. As already noted, as long as the friction along the
slope is stronger than gravity, the ground is unlikely to slide. But if that friction is
weakened, slope fail becomes more likely. There are several other ways friction can
be reduced along a slope: wildfires, removal of vegetation, or adding too much
water.
Gravity is probably the ultimate driving force of mass wasting. The force of gravity
pulls all things on the planet toward the center of the Earth. Without gravity, mass
wasting would not occur. But unlike many of the other factors, humans have no
influence or control on gravity.
REGIONAL CLIMATE CONDITIONS
A region's climate can also determine the likelihood of a landslide. Climate is based
on temperature and precipitation. Mass wasting is prone in the spring-time when
snowmelt, water saturation, and runoff is greatest. Also the type of climate will help
determine the type of mass wasting. Humid climates tend to have slides, where

water-saturated slopes fail and fall. Drier climates tend to have rocks that fall;
especially early spring. Canyons and places prone to wildfires tend to have debris
flows.
WATER CONTENT WITHIN SLOPES
The amount of water in the soil is a major factor in the stability of a slope. When you
build a sand castle, water is needed to build the walls and towers. That is because
water has surface tension and is attracted to each other. This allows you to build
towers greater than the angle of repose. So a little water can actually prevent
slopes from sliding. But too much water lubricates the individual grains of sediment
decreasing friction between each grain, so the possibility of mass wasting increases.
The increase of water within the soils can come from over watering, pipe or
swimming pool leaks, or prolonged stormy weather. In Utah and many mountainous
regions, spring runoff of snow melt increases the water content within the soil. The
following is a video from the USGS of the La Conchita, California landslide in 2005.
Notice how well it flows down the mountainside. There are two reasons why this
landslide occurred. First, this slide occurred on the same slope as a previous
landslide in 1995. But the 2005 slide was also influenced by the fact that above is
an orchard that was over-watering the vineyards and over-saturated the soil.
Finally, gravity is the driving force of mass wasting. The force of gravity pulls all
things on the planet toward the center of the Earth. But unlike many of the other
factors, humans have no influence or control on gravity. For more information on
what causes landslides in Utah, click here.

Types of Mass Wasting

ROCK FALL
A rock fall are the fastest of all landslide types and occurs when a
rock falls through the air until it comes to rest on the ground - not too complicated.
In Utah, they are common in the spring and fall because of what is called freezethaw weathering. In the daytime, temperatures in the spring and fall tend to be
above freezing, which allows liquid water to enter cracks within rocks.
At night, the temperatures cool below freezing and the
water within the rocks freezes and expands which causes
the rock to break more. The following morning, the ice will
melt and go deeper within the crack to refreeze later that
night. This freeze-thaw action over time can cause rocks
to break off and fall to the ground. The debris the
accumulates at the base of these steep slopes is
called talus.
But rock falls can also occur when heavy precipitation is
falling on a steep slope, causing the rocks to lose friction
and fall. The YouTube video on the right is a rock fall
captured in Taiwan in late August 2013, following heavy

precipitation in the region.

ROTATIONAL SLIDES
Rotational slides occur when the a landslide occurs in a
curved manner concave to the sky. When this type of slide
occurs, the upper surface of the slide tilts backwards
toward the original slope and the lower surface moves
away from the slope. They are common when the soil
tends to be deep in clay or soft sediment deposits. The
video on the right is a large landslide again in Taiwan in
early September 2013 following every rainfall. Needless to
say, they were having a bad few days in the region.
TRANSLATIONAL SLIDES
Rather than rotating, a translational slide occurs when slope failure occurs
parallel to the slope. Often times the slope failure occurs on soil composed of clay or
shale, or along old fault lines, or previous slide areas. What makes translational
slides dangerous is that they tend to flow faster and travel farther than rotational
slides. The most expensive translational slide in U.S. history actually occurred
in Thistle, Utah in 1983. The Utah Geologic Survey also provides a Google Earth file
that looks at the Thistle landslide.
DEBRIS FLOWS
Debris flows are one of the most common, but most dangerous of the various
types of landslides because of their speed and consistency. Debris flows tend to be
a mixture of rock and water with two to three times the density of flooding streams.
That density allows debris flows strip away the land and pick up objects as large as
school buses. Debris flows are most common at the mouth of canyons along alluvial
fans. Lets first explain an alluvial fan. When floods occur within the mouth of a
canyon, either because of intense thunderstorms or snow melt, the erosive power of
the water can pick up sediment and boulders - a debris flow. Now once the debris
flow reaches the mouth of a canyon, the sediment gets deposited in a fan-shaped
delta called an alluvial fan. The problem is that people like to live along alluvial fans
because of their scenic view on the canyon. Another influence of debris flows is
wildfires. When a wildfire strips an area of its vegetation, the bare soil is easily
eroded away in either a thunderstorm or snow melt creating these debris flows.
Because of Utah's topography and tendency to wildfires, debris flows are quite
common.

Image source: This image is in the public domain because it contains materials that
originally came from the United States Geological Survey, an agency of the United
States Department of the Interior.
VOLCANIC MASS WASTING
Lahars were mentioned in the module on volcanoes, but in essence they are
volcanic landslides. Recall that volcanoes eject pyroclastic material ranging is size
from ash to boulders. Now there tends to be two ways lahars occur. One is if a
thunderstorm precipitates large amounts of moisture on the pyroclastic material
and the pyroclastics flow downslope. The other option is if a volcano is snow-capped
and the heat from the volcano causes some of the snow to melt and mix with the
pyroclastic material. What makes lahars so dangerous is that they have the
consistency of concrete and can travel hundreds of miles.

Limiting Mass Wasting Potential

DRAINAGE CONTROLS
Ultimately preventing mass wasting is impossible because gravity will always exist,
but smarter development can help minimize the risk and hazards. One component
in landslide mitigation is basic drainage control of water. Recall that water can
cause slopes to lose their friction as water lubricates individual grains of soil. And if

you cut a slope and put a retaining wall for support, you may be preventing the
water from filtering through. Thus you will often find drains at the base of retaining
walls that allow underground water to within the slopes to drain out.
SLOPE GRADE AND SUPPORT
If people dig into the base of a slope to create a road or a homesite, the slope may
become unstable and move downhill. This is particularly dangerous when the
underlying rock layers slope towards the area. Ultimately preventing landslides is
impossible because gravity will always exist. But smarter development can help
minimize the risk and hazards created by landslides. One component in landslide
mitigation is basic drainage control of water. Recall that water can cause slopes to
lose their friction as water lubricates individual grains of soil. And if you cut a slope
and put a retaining wall for support, you may be preventing the water from filtering
through. Thus you will often find drains at the base of retaining walls that allow
underground water to within the slopes to drain out.
Slope support is one of most common types of mitigation for potential mass
wasting. As mentioned above, a retaining wall can be built to support a steep slope.
Next, the retaining wall must be anchored to the bedrock within the slope to hold
the wall to the slope. Another type of slope support is simply planting vegetation.
The roots of vegetation tend to grab and hold soil in place, so by planting various
types of plants and trees can be a simple and cheap way to stabilize a slope. For
more on what homeowners can do to minimize your risk to landslides in Utah, click
here.

Subsidence
Subsidence occurs when loose, water saturated sediment begins to compact
causing the ground surface to collapse. Now there are two types of subsidence.
SLOW SUBSIDENCE
Slow subsidence occurs when the water within the sediment is slowly squeezed
out because of overlying weight. There are several examples of slow subsidence,
but the best one is Venice, Italy. Venice was built at sea level on the now submerged
delta of the Brenta River. The city is sinking because of the overlying weight of the
city and pumping of ground water. The problem now is that sea levels are rising as
glaciers melt and water expands due to global warming. An example of slow
subsidence in the U.S. includes New Orleans, Louisiana. As we all know from
Hurricane Katrina, the Mississippi River has a vast network of levees that prevent
the massive river from flooding - most of the time. But by preventing the springtime flooding, we are preventing the river from depositing sediment onto the land.
Instead, the sediment is being transported to the Gulf of Mexico creating the
massive Mississippi delta. Below is a Landsat satellite image from NASA of this
delta.
FAST SUBSIDENCE
Fast subsidence occurs when naturally acidic water begins to dissolve limestone
rock to forma a network of water-filled underground caverns. But if droughts or

pumping of ground water reduces the water table below the level of the caves, they
caverns collapse creating surface sinkholes.
A dramatic example of fast subsidence occurred in Guatemala City in 2007 when a
massive sinkhole formed 300 feet deep. As noted above, the underground region
surrounding Guatemala is composed of limestone that and a vast underground
network of caverns. It is believed that the water table has been dropping in the
region and thus draining the caves. Afterward the caves can not support the
overlying weight and collapse in.

Prevention and Awareness

DRAINAGE CONTROLS
Ultimately preventing landslides is impossible because gravity will always exist. But
smarter development can help minimize the risk and hazards created by landslides.
One component in landslide mitigation is basic drainage control of water. Recall that
water can cause slopes to lose their friction as water lubricates individual grains of
soil. And if you cut a slope and put a retaining wall for support, you may be
preventing the water from filtering through. Thus you will often find drains at the
base of retaining walls that allow underground water to within the slopes to drain
out.
SLOPE GRADE AND SUPPORT
If people dig into the base of a slope to create a road or a homesite, the slope may
become unstable and move downhill. This is particularly dangerous when the
underlying rock layers slope towards the area. Ultimately preventing landslides is
impossible because gravity will always exist. But smarter development can help
minimize the risk and hazards created by landslides. One component in landslide
mitigation is basic drainage control of water. Recall that water can cause slopes to
lose their friction as water lubricates individual grains of soil. And if you cut a slope
and put a retaining wall for support, you may be preventing the water from filtering
through. Thus you will often find drains at the base of retaining walls that allow
underground water to within the slopes to drain out.
Slope support is one of most common types of mitigation for potential landslides. As
mentioned above, a retaining wall can be built to support a steep slope. Next, the
retaining wall must be anchored to the bedrock within the slope to hold the wall to
the slope. Another type of slope support is simply planting vegetation. The roots of
vegetation tend to grab and hold soil in place, so by planting various types of plants
and trees can be a simple and cheap way to stabilize a slope.
Landslides cause $1 billion to $2 billion damage in the United States each year and
are responsible for traumatic and sudden loss of life and homes in many areas of
the world. To be safe from landslides:

Be aware of your surroundings and notice changes in the natural world.

Look for cracks or bulges in hillsides, tilting of decks or patios, or leaning

poles or fences when rainfall is heavy. Sticking windows and doors can
indicate ground movement as soil pushes slowly against a house and knocks
windows and doors out of alignment.

Look for landslide scars because landslides are most likely to happen where
they have occurred before.

Plant vegetation and trees on the hillside around your home to help hold soil
in place.

Help to keep a slope stable by building retaining walls. Installing good

drainage in a hillside may keep the soil from getting saturated.

Landslides happen all over the world for a variety of reasons. They can happen
because of heavy rainfall, loss of vegetation, and many other man made causes like
mining. One of the largest if not the largest landslide that was man made was right
here in Utah. At the Kennecott mine in 2003 they had the largest recorded slide
every recorded. This was as a result of the massive degradation caused by the
massive mine. This mine is also one of two man made things you can see from
space, the second is the Great Wall of China.

On a related note another similar man-made disaster is a sinkhole. We have large

underwater aquifers below our feet where a lot of people get their groundwater, and
your local water company also draws water from too. The problem is these aquifers
are not inexhaustible. When you deplete these aquifers they leave behind a large
cave. This large cave have immense amounts of weight above it, and may collapse

given the right circumstance. We have been depleting aquifers all over the country
at an alarming rate due to overuse of water, and overpopulation. This image below
is a huge sinkhole in Guatemala. These types of sinkholes have been happening
more and more frequently in the U.S. also, especially in places like Florida.

Landslides can also cause massive Tsunamis too. This was news to me as I thought
that Tsunamis were only created because of massive earthquakes under the ocean
floor. This happened in Alaska and it created a mega-tsunami that was 1700ft high.
The idea of a tsunami this large is absolutely mind boggling. I saw the videos of the
tsunami that hit Japan that was 40-50ft high and that was huge. A wave being
1700ft high just doesnt even compute. It is like the tsunami that hits New York in
the movie Day After Tomorrow.

There is also a large threat of this happening at some point off the east coast, which
would be much more devastating because of the massive population along the east
coast.
Some researchers believe that large-scale landslides in the Canary Islands are a
potential Atlantic Ocean tsunami threat. Surface and submarine investigations show
a long-term history of mega-landslides at multiple locations in the Canary Island
chain. Much of the research focuses on the Cumbre Vieja volcano on the Canary
Island of La Palma shown in the satellite image above. Failure along faults on the
southwestern side of the island could produce a landslide with basin-wide impact.

Image created from NASA Landsat Geocover 2000 data.

Chapter 6: Tsunamis
LEARNING OUTCOMES

Describe the process of tsunami formation and

ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS

The Japan earthquake and

development.

Explain the effects of tsunamis and the hazards

they pose to coastal regions.

Analyze what geographic regions are at risk for

tsunamis.

Analyze the linkages between tsunamis and other

natural hazards.

Describe what nations, communities, and

individuals can do to minimize the tsunami hazard.

most documented natural

In what way has technolog
understand and respond to

What is a Tsunami?
Most people never thought much about tsunamis until the
cataclysmic event that occurred on December 26, 2004
in Indonesia. Tsunami actually is a Japanese term that
means "harbor wave". There are four major ways tsunamis
form: underwater earthquakes, volcanic eruptions,
landslides, or extraterrestrial impacts such as asteroids.
These four seismic events will be looked at in greater
detail in a minute. The formation of a tsunami by these
catastrophic events is called tsunami initiation.
Now once a tsunami is generated, it will travel outward in a circular radius from the
tsunami epicenter at speeds of 500 mph! But the height of each wave crest in the
deep ocean is only 2-3 feet, thus large ships never feel tsunamis in the deep ocean.
It's important to stop here and briefly discuss the physics of energy traveling
through water. First, a wave of water is called a wave - that was easy! Next, the
distance between two wave peaks or heights is called a wavelength. The time it
takes one wavelength (distance between two wave peaks) to pass a given position
is called the frequency. Thus, waves with long wavelengths have low frequencies
because it takes a long time for the wave to cross a given point. Waves that have
short wavelengths have high frequencies.
Have you ever watched an object floating in water as a wave passes by it? Let's say
its a stick in the ocean. Now when that wave passes by, the stick does not travel
with the wave; rather the stick bops up and down but stays relatively in the same
place. That is because the water does not travel with the wave's energy; rather the
energy passes through the water causing the water to travel in a circle (which
appears as an up, slightly forward, down, and backward motion). The depth of the
circular size of motion generated by waves is half the distance from each wave
crest. Thus if the distance from one wave crest to the next wave crest is one mile,
the depth of the water's circular motion is half a mile. This is important because
tsunamis have very long wavelengths, thus their depths reach the ocean floor.

This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0
Unported license. Click on the image to view the source.
It was noted above that out in the deep ocean, the height of a tsunami is only a few
feet high with very long wavelengths. This is because in the deep water,
the amplitude of the waves is very small and the wavelengths quite large for
anyone on a boat to notice. But as the tsunami approaches the shoreline, it begins
to slow down and grow taller because the friction between the oscillating tsunami
waves comes into more contact with the rising elevation of the sea floor. This
friction causes the wave's amplitude to grow, the wavelength shorten (distance
between each successive tsunami wave), and the frequency becomes shorter
causing the energy of the tsunami to make the wave grow taller. The height of a
tsunami is called the run-up. Thus when a tsunami reaches shore, it may have
slowed to 30-40 mph, but dramatically higher. The size of the run-up is determined
by the distance between the tsunami epicenter and the shoreline, the energy
released by the tsunami initiation, and the steepness of the continental slope.
Tsunamis are also not a large, single wave coming ashore, rather they are a series
of powerful, rippling waves called atsunami train. As the waves approach shore,
the shoreline oftentimes disappears as the water is pulled back into the ocean to
build up the waves. Many people find this strange event enticing and go onto the
beach to see the fish flapping on the newly bare ground. But this is a false sense of
security and within minutes the series of waves comes crashing ashore. Often times
there can be up to ten individual tsunami waves and the most powerful ones may
be the second or third wave. So if you see the water along the coastline disappear,
you need to quickly gather your family and friends and head to higher ground.

Creating a Tsunami
EARTHQUAKES
Most tsunamis occur because of powerful, subduction
zone such as the Ring of Fire. Thus, most tsunamis are

generated by reverse fault or thrust fault earthquakes

along subduction zones because of the amount of water
displaced by these events. But not all reverse fault
earthquakes can initiate tsunamis. The minimum
magnitude of an earthquake needed to create a tsunami is
a 7.5; the Asian tsunami of 2004 was generated by a M
9.1 thrust fault along an oceanic-to-oceanic subduction
zone.
Strike-slip faults along transform boundaries do not
generate tsunamis because their parallel movement does
not displace enough water.
The potential for a tsunami striking the United States is very high for a variety of
reasons. One is because of the oceanic-to-continental subduction zone in the
northwestern states of Washington, Oregon, and northern California. Recall from
previous modules that this subduction zone not only generates earthquakes, but
has produced the major volcanoes of the region such as Mount St. Helens, Mt.
Rainer, and Mt. Shasta. Research show that ever few hundred years the region
experiences a M 9.0 earthquake generating a major tsunami that would reach
coastal cities within 20 minutes. Obviously there would be no time to evacuate the
people in time.

VOLCANOES
Less common, but still a force to consider are large, violent, composite volcanoes.
There are a couple of ways a volcano can generate a tsunami. Sometimes just the
energy released by the volcano along with the pyroclastic flow can initiate a
tsunami. Other times, a violent eruption can cause a portion of a volcano's slope to
slide off into the ocean. The most dangerous way would be if a volcano explodes or
collapses to generate a caldera in the ocean.
There are some real-world examples of these occurring. In 1883 on the volcanic
island of Krakatau (image on the right), a violent eruption occurred producing a

tsunami that killed 35,000 people and destroyed two-thirds of the island. It is
believed a massive pyroclastic flow slammed into the ocean producing a massive
tsunami. Ultimately the eruption was so violent that the island collapsed to produce
a massive caldera of the former island.

A concern today is the volcanic islands off western Africa called the Canary Islands.
Scientists are concerned with an unstable slope on the western side of one of the
volcanic islands. Their concern is that a major eruption could cause a portion of the
slope to slide off into the Atlantic Ocean, generating a massive tsunami. Within 9
hours - traveling at 500 mph - this tsunami would reach the eastern United States
with a run-up of nearly 150 feet!
Last, but not least, is the major island of Hawaii - Mauna Loa. Scientific studies of
the former volcanic islands that use to be over this hot spot show that shield
volcanoes tend to grow fastest just before they move off the hot spot. Mauna Loa is
the most active volcano in the world and is about to move off the hot spot. In fact, a
new volcanic island is beginning to form underwater just east of the main island.
Studies are showing that the increased activity and lava flows can destabilize
portions of the slopes as more weight is added. Field works has discovered that
Mauna Loa has had over 60 giant debris avalanches that slide into the Pacific
Ocean. These slides tend to be 10-20 miles long and could ultimately generate a
tsunami 900 feet high!
LANDSLIDES
Large scale landslides can also displace large amounts of water to generate massive
tsunamis. But often times, its a volcanic eruption or earthquake that generates the
landslide, which creates a tsunami. One concern for the United States is an
underwater landslide - called a submarine landslide - off the eastern coast of the
continental shelf can displace enough water to generate a 20 foot tsunami and
reach the nation within 20 minutes. The largest landslide ever recorded in human
history happened in Lituya Bay, Alaska. A magnitude 7.0 earthquake along the
Denali Fault generated a massive rock fall into the bay, which produced a 1,700 foot
tsunami! But the bay contained most of the energy and thus a major catastrophe
was averted. But the concern is another such event occurring in Glacier Bay, Alaska
which is a major tourist attraction for cruise lines.

Lituya Bay a few weeks after the 1958 tsunami. The areas
of destroyed forest along the shorelines are clearly
recognizable as the light areas rimming the bay. A fishing
boat anchored in the cove at lower left was carried over
the spit in the foreground; a boat under way near the
entrance was sunk; and a third boat, anchored near the
lower right, rode out the wave. Photo by D.J. Miller, United
States Geological Survey.

The cliff on the northeast wall of

scar of the 40 million cubic yard (
meters) rockslide that occurred o
photo. The head of the slide was
3,000 feet (914 meters), just belo
center. The elevation of water in
The front of Lituya Glacier is visib
Photo by D.J. Miller, United States

ASTEROID IMPACTS
The rarest, but most lethal tsunami would be generated by
an asteroid or comet impact. If an asteroid were to make it
through the earth's atmosphere, there is a 70 percent
chance it would land in the ocean. For example, an
asteroid striking the Atlantic Ocean could produce a
tsunami that would cover over half of the nation. All
coastal cities around the world would also be destroyed.
And with 90 percent of all humans living near a large body
of water, well you see the impact! As most of you are
aware, the last asteroid impact in the ocean occurred 65
million years ago and produced a tsunami half a mile high.

An illustration of a massive aster

The Earth may have experienced
its youth, but fortunately today th
this large to threaten our planet.
NASA

Coastal Impacts

There are a variety of coastal vulnerabilities caused by tsunamis. As noted in

previous modules, there are two types of effects of tsunamis (and all disasters).
The primary effects are pretty straight forward. Areas at most risk of tsunamis are
highly populated coastal regions such as major cities. And if the tsunami occurs
during high tide, the fingers of destruction will reach farther inland. Most of the

deaths from the Asian tsunami of 2004 were from flooding and the actual debris
within the water. Other primary effects include coastal erosion and the destruction
of ecosystems. The following are aerial photographs of tsunamis from National
Geographic. The secondary effects of tsunamis are less obvious. These include
contaminated water sources, disease outbreaks, chemical pollution, homelessness,
and economic loss. Sometimes the secondary effects are worse than the primary
effects because all the new attention occurs with the primary effects, but very little
attention is on the region after a few months.
The Great East Japan Earthquake of 2011 was the most documented natural
disaster in human history. Click here to view some amazing aerial imagery of this
catastrophic event.

6.4 Mitigation Against Tsunamis

People and ecosystems are quite resilient to natural disasters, but a lot must be
done to prevent massive death and destruction to begin with. After a deadly
tsunami in Hawaii in the 1950s, the United States developed the Pacific Tsunami
Warning Center. If a M 7.5 earthquake occurs somewhere in the Ring of Fire, a
tsunami watch is released by NOAA indicating that a seismic event just occurred
that could have generated a tsunami. Out in the Pacific Ocean, a system of
instruments on the ocean floor and buoys monitor the Pacific Ocean for tsunamis. If

the system detects a tsunami, a signal is sent to satellites, which is then sent to
coastal areas and a tsunami warning is announced.
Another mitigation measure is tsunami run-up maps. A tsunami run-up map
indicates how far a tsunami will travel inland based on the continental shelf and
strength of the tsunami. By understanding where and how far a tsunami will travel
inland, government agencies can determine proper zoning and building codes.
Before the Asian tsunami of 2004, the United States had tsunami run-up maps of
Indonesia but were considered classified. Indonesia, being a poorer nation, did not
have run-up maps for their own nation. After the catastrophic event, the U.S.
military saw how destabilizing this was to the nation and decided to release this
information from the run-up maps to the region.
Other ways the impacts of tsunamis can be minimized include:

Strong building codes and zoning policies that are enforced by local officials

Planting and protecting existing natural barriers such as vegetation and

coastal areas

Proper education of how to prepare and what to do during and after a

tsunami

Tsunamis can be one of the most destructive forces on the planet. They can cause
more damage than earthquakes, hurricanes, tornados, and volcanos. They immense
power that these massive waves have is unstoppable, and can cause massive
property damage and human loss. They are often accompanied by an earthquake
also. The initial earthquake hits and causes substantial damage by itself and after
can be followed by a Tsunami that causes far more destruction. The tsunami that hit
Japan is an example of this phenomenon. The earthquake hit the island nation
pretty hard, and then a massive tsunami hit with little warning. One thing that has
always bothered me about this event is the lack of a warning system in Japan.
Japan had eight Tsunamis in the past century on its shores before the latest and
most destructive one in 2011. I dont understand why a system was not put into
place before this event occurred. They have the technology and the finances to put
one in place, and they have had ample warning and experience to have the
foresight to put one in also. There was an earthquake in the Aleutian Islands in 1946
that caused a tsunami that hit the U.S. coast. Soon thereafter the U.S. started
developing the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center. We now have protection along the
U.S. coast and Hawaii to warn us of impending tsunamis. Japan surely could have
put one in place sometime in the last thirty years in which they had two other
tsunamis hit their coast. Looking at the history of tsunamis, I realized that Japan is
one of the places most actively hit on a regular basis. Almost one every decade or
so or even more. I think that in light of recent events this is something that cannot
even be optional, its something that must be done to protect the citizens of Japan.

This was one of the most shocking photos I have seen yet. This boat is a couple
hundred feet long and it was dragged on shore by the tsunami and somehow came
to rest on the top of what seems to be an apartment building.
Another failure that occurred during this whole fiasco was the lack of protection of
the nuclear reactors along the vulnerable coast. Even if you are not going to put a
tsunami system in place to warn you of impending danger, then at least protect the
most dangerous thing that you have along the coast. There definitely should have
been some type of massive wall that could protect the plant from tsunamis. The
radiation that ensued from the Fukushima reactor was very heavy and deadly. The
affects from this reactor meltdown probably wont be fully seen for years. I think
that placing these very volatile reactors along the coast should be a responsibility of
the company to protect their reactors. It should be the job of government to deem
what is safe and necessary to keep them safe. California has a similar problem as
seen in previous chapters with nuclear reactors. Along the San Andreas fault in
California where there are constantly major earthquakes, there are eight nuclear
reactors. I actually drive by one of these on the way to visit my dad. The one I drive
by is right by his house and it is also right on the coast. It thankfully is at least 100ft
above sea level, but it is still very vulnerable to earthquakes. Theres a very
interesting short documentary about a guy in Japan who refused to leave the
evacuation zone around the reactor site.
http://www.vice.com/video/alone-in-the-zone-171
I couldnt believe that in this documentary this guy lives there on a day to day basis
and will continue to live there until he dies of natural causes.

This cartoon to me is how a lot of Japanese felt after I watched the documentary
earlier in the chapter. The older citizens have lived through the situation before and
went immediately to high ground, but the younger or more nave people were left
basically saying, what happened. I think there is a lesson to be learned here. As
humans we constantly live our daily lives, and we see things happen in the world
and never connect events to similarities in the past. No one seems to learn from
history in this world whatsoever. There are some frightening examples of things like
this in war both with natural world and the man-made ones. People just dont seem
to learn from mistakes of the past. I just hope that the people of Japan can recover
from this awful disaster. I grew up hosting foreign exchange students every summer
in our house, and a lot of them turned out to be Japanese. I think they are some of
the most interesting and thoughtful people on this planet, and I truly hope they
have a speedy recovery.
I always think its good to end on a note of hope in disastrous situation. The
following article gives you kind of a dark look at how difficult it is to completely
rebuild a town. We cant always have a happy ending, but we will eventually have
one.

http://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/13/world/asia/japanese-coastal-town-stillstruggling-to-rebuild-from-2011-tsunami.html?_r=0