GENERAL ARTICLE

The Logarithmic Mean

Rajendra Bhatia

T h e in e q u a lity b e tw e e n th e a r ith m e tic m e a n (A M )

a n d g e o m e tr ic m e a n (G M ) o f tw o p o sitiv e n u m b e r s is w e ll k n o w n . T h is a rtic le in tr o d u c e s th e
lo g a r ith m ic m e a n , sh o w s h o w it le a d s to re n e m e n ts o f th e A M { G M in e q u a lity . S o m e a p p lic a tio n s a n d p ro p e rtie s o f th is m e a n a r e sh o w n .
S o m e o th e r m e a n s a n d re la te d in e q u a litie s a re
d isc u sse d .
O n e o f th e b est k n ow n a n d m o st u sed in eq u a lities in
m a th em a tics is th e in eq u a lity b etw een th e h a rm o n ic,
g eo m etric, a n d a rith m etic m ea n s. If a a n d b a re p o sitiv e n u m b ers, th ese m ea n s a re d e n ed , resp ectiv ely, a s
1
1
a + b 1
H (a ;b) =
;
2
p
a+ b
G (a ;b) =
a b; A (a ;b) =
;
(1 )
2
a n d th e in eq u a lity say s th a t
H (a ;b) G (a ;b) A (a ;b):

(2 )

M ea n s o th er th a n th e th ree `cla ssica l' o n es d e n ed in

(1 ) a re u sed in d i eren t p ro b lem s. F o r ex a m p le, th e
root m ean squ are
2
1 = 2
a + b2
B 2 (a ;b) =
;
(3 )
2
is o ften u sed in va rio u s co n tex ts. F o llow in g th e m a th em a ticia n 's p en ch a n t fo r g en era lisa tio n , th e fo u r m ea n s
m en tio n ed a b ov e ca n b e su b su m ed in th e fa m ily
p

a + bp 1 = p
B p (a ;b) =
; 1 < p < 1 ;
(4 )
2
RESONANCE June 2008

Rajendra Bhatia is a
Professor at the Indian
Statistical Institute, New
Delhi. Some of his recent
work is on means of
matrices. But he is not a
mean theorist.

Keywords
Inequalities, logarithmic mean,
power mean, Holder mean, arithmetic-geometric mean (AGM),
arithmetic-mean geometricmean inequality (AM-GM inequality), Heinz mean.

583

GENERAL ARTICLE

A substantial part of
the mathematics
classic Inequalities
by Hardy, Littlewood

va rio u sly k n ow n a s bin om ial m ean s, pow er m ean s, o r

H o lder m ean s. W h en p = 1 ;1 ; a n d 2 ; resp ectiv ely,
B p (a ;b) is th e h a rm o n ic m ea n , th e a rith m etic m ea n , a n d
th e ro o t m ea n sq u a re. If w e u n d ersta n d B 0 (a ;b) to m ea n

and Plya is devoted

B 0 (a ;b) = lim B p (a ;b);

p! 0

to the study of these

means and their

th en

applications.

B 0 (a ;b) = G (a ;b):

(5 )

In a sim ila r v ein w e ca n see th a t

p

a + bp 1 = p
B 1 (a ;b) := lim
= m a x (a ;b);
p! 1
2
p

a + bp 1 = p
B 1 (a ;b) :=
lim
= m in (a ;b):
p ! 1
2
A little ca lcu la tio n sh ow s th a t
B p (a ;b) B q (a ;b)

if p q :

(6 )

T h is is a stro n g g en era liza tio n o f th e in eq u a lity (2 ). W e

m ay say th a t fo r 1 p 1 , th e fa m ily B p in terpolates
b etw een th e th ree m ea n s in (1) a s d o es th e in eq u a lity
(6 ) w ith resp ect to (2 ).
A su b sta n tia l p a rt o f th e m a th em a tics cla ssic In equ alities b y G H a rd y, J E L ittlew o o d a n d G P o ly a is d ev o ted
to th e stu d y o f th ese m ea n s a n d th eir a p p lica tio n s. T h e
b o o k h a s h a d q u ite a few su ccesso rs, a n d y et n ew p ro p erties o f th ese m ea n s co n tin u e to b e d iscov ered .
T h e p u rp o se o f th is a rticle is to in tro d u ce th e rea d er to
th e logarithm ic m ean , so m e o f its a p p lica tio n s, a n d so m e
v ery p retty m a th em a tics a ro u n d it.
T h e lo g a rith m ic m ea n o f tw o p o sitiv e n u m b ers a a n d b
is th e n u m b er L (a ;b) d e n ed as
L (a ;b) =

584

a b
lo g a lo g b

fo r a 6= b;

(7 )

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GENERAL ARTICLE

w ith th e u n d ersta n d in g th a t

The logarithmic
mean always falls

L (a ;a ) = lim L (a ;b) = a :
b! a

betwen the

T h ere a re o th er in terestin g rep resen ta tio n s fo r th is o b ject, a n d th e rea d er sh o u ld ch eck th e va lid ity o f th ese
fo rm u la s:
Z1
L (a ;b) =
a tb 1 t d t;
(8 )
0
Z1
1
dt
;
=
(9 )
L (a ;b)
ta + (1 t)b
0
Z1
1
dt
:
=
(1 0 )
L (a ;b)
(t + a )(t + b)
0

geometric mean
and the arithmetic
mean.

T h e lo g a rith m ic m ea n a lw ay s fa lls b etw een th e g eo m etric a n d th e a rith m etic m ea n s; i.e.,

G (a ;b) L (a ;b) A (a ;b):

(1 1 )

W e in d ica te th ree d i eren t p ro o fs o f th is a n d in v ite th e

rea d er to n d m o re.
W h en a = b; a ll th e th ree m ea n s in (1 1 ) a re eq u a l to a :
S u p p o se a > b; a n d p u t w = a = b: T h e rst in eq u a lity in
(1 1 ) is eq u iva len t to say in g
p

w 1
lo g w

fo r w > 1 :

R ep la cin g w b y u 2 ; th is is th e sa m e a s say in g
2 lo g u

u2 1
u

fo r u > 1 :

(1 2 )

T h e tw o fu n ctio n s f (u ) = 2 lo g u ; a n d g (u ) = (u 2 1 )= u
a re eq u a l to 0 a t u = 1 ; a n d a sm a ll ca lcu la tio n sh o w s
th a t f 0(u ) < g 0(u ) fo r u > 1 : T h is p rov es th e d esired
in eq u a lity (1 2 ), a n d w ith it th e rst in eq u a lity in (1 1 ).
In th e sa m e w ay, th e seco n d o f th e in eq u a lities (1 1 ) ca n
b e red u ced to
u 1
lo g u

fo r u 1 :
u + 1
2

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585

GENERAL ARTICLE

In this form we
recognize it as one
of the fundamental
inequalities of
analysis:
t sinh t for all
t 0.

a n d p rov ed b y ca lcu la tin g d eriva tiv es.

A seco n d p ro o f g o es a s fo llow s. T w o a p p lica tio n s o f th e
a rith m etic-g eo m etric m ea n in eq u a lity sh o w th a t
p
t2 + 2 t a b + a b t2 + t(a + b) + a b

a+ b 2
2
t + t(a + b) +
2
fo r a ll t 0 : U sin g th is o n e
Z1
Z1
dt

(t +
(t + a +2 b )2
0
0

n d s th a t

dt

a )(t + b)

Z1
0

(t +

dt
p

a b)2

E va lu a tio n o f th e in teg ra ls sh ow s th a t th is is th e sa m e
a s th e a ssertio n in (1 1 ).
S in ce a a n d b a re p o sitiv e, w e ca n n d rea l n u m b ers
x a n d y su ch th a t a = e x a n d b = e y : T h en th e rst
in eq u a lity in (1 1 ) is eq u iva len t to th e sta tem en t
e (x +
or
1

y )= 2

ex ey
;
x y

e (x y )= 2 e (y x )= 2
:
x y

T h is ca n b e ex p ressed a lso a s
1

sin h (x y )= 2
:
(x y )= 2

In th is fo rm w e reco g n ise it a s o n e o f th e fu n d a m en ta l
in eq u a lities o f a n a ly sis: t sin h t fo r a ll t 0 : V ery
sim ila r ca lcu la tio n s sh ow th a t th e seco n d in eq u a lity in
(1 1 ) ca n b e red u ced to th e fa m ilia r fa ct ta n h t t fo r
a ll t 0 :
E a ch o f o u r th ree p ro o fs sh ow s th a t if a 6= b; th en
G (a ;b) < L (a ;b) < A (a ;b): O n e o f th e rea so n s fo r th e

586

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GENERAL ARTICLE

in terest in (1 1 ) is th a t it p rov id es a re n em en t o f th e
fu n d a m en ta l in eq u a lity b etw een th e g eo m etric a n d th e
a rith m etic m ea n s.
T h e lo g a rith m ic m ea n p lay s a n im p o rta n t ro le in th e
stu d y o f co n d u ctio n o f h ea t in liq u id s ow in g in p ip es.
L et u s ex p la in th is b rie y. T h e ow o f h ea t b y stea d y
u n id irectio n a l co n d u ctio n is g ov ern ed b y N ew ton's law
of coolin g : if q is th e ra te o f h ea t ow a lo n g th e x -a x is
a cro ss a n a rea A n o rm a l to th is a x is, th en
q= kA

dT
;
dx

The logarithmic
mean plays an
important role in
the study of
conduction of heat
in liquids flowing in
pipes.

(1 3 )

w h ere d T = d x is th e tem p era tu re g ra d ien t a lo n g th e x

d irectio n a n d k is a co n sta n t ca lled th e th erm a l co n d u ctiv ity o f th e m a teria l. (S ee, fo r ex a m p le, R B h a tia ,
F ou rier S eries, M a th em a tica l A sso cia tio n o f A m erica ,
p .2 , 2 0 0 4 .) T h e cro ss-sectio n a l a rea A m ay b e co n sta n t,
a s fo r ex a m p le in a cu b e. M o re o ften (a s in th e ca se o f
a u id trav ellin g in a p ip e) th e a rea A is a va ria b le. In
en g in eerin g ca lcu la tio n s, it is th en m o re co n v en ien t to
rep la ce (1 3 ) b y
q = kA

4 T
;
4 x

(1 4 )

w h ere 4 T is th e d i eren ce o f tem p era tu res a t tw o p o in ts

a t d ista n ce 4 x a lo n g th e x -a x is, a n d A m is th e m ean
cross section o f th e b o d y b etw een th ese tw o p o in ts. F o r
ex a m p le, if th e b o d y h a s a u n ifo rm ly ta p erin g recta n g u la r cro ss sectio n , th en A m is th e a rith m etic m ea n o f th e
tw o b o u n d a ry a rea s A 1 a n d A 2 :
C o n sid er h ea t ow in a lo n g h o llow cy lin d er w h ere en d
e ects a re n eg lig ib le. T h en th e h ea t ow ca n b e ta k en
to b e essen tia lly ra d ia l. (S ee, fo r ex a m p le, J C ra n k : T he
M athem atics of D i u sion , C la ren d o n P ress, 1 9 7 5 ). T h e
cro ss-sectio n a l a rea in th is ca se is p ro p o rtio n a l to th e
d ista n ce fro m th e cen tre o f th e p ip e. If L is th e len g th
o f th e p ip e, th e a rea o f th e cy lin d rica l su rfa ce a t d ista n ce

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587

GENERAL ARTICLE

x fro m th e a x is is 2 x L : S o , th e to ta l h ea t ow q a cro ss
th e sectio n o f th e p ip e b o u n d ed b y tw o co a x ia l cy lin d ers
a t d ista n ce x 1 a n d x 2 fro m th e a x is, u sin g (1 3 ), is seen
to sa tisfy th e eq u a tio n
Z x2
dx
q
= k4 T;
(1 5 )
x 1 2 x L
o r,
q=

k 2 L 4 T
:
lo g x 2 lo g x 1

If w e w ish to w rite th is in th e fo rm (1 4 ) w ith x 2 x 1 =

4 x ; th en w e m u st h av e
A

= 2 L

x2 x1
2 L x 2 2 L x 1
:
=
lo g x 2 lo g x 1
lo g 2 L x 2 lo g 2 L x 1

In o th er w o rd s,
A

A2 A1
;
lo g A 2 lo g A 1

th e lo g a rith m ic m ea n o f th e tw o a rea s b o u n d in g th e
cy lin d rica l sectio n u n d er co n sid era tio n . In th e en g in eerin g litera tu re th is is ca lled th e logarithm ic m ean area.
If in stea d o f tw o co a x ia l cy lin d ers w e co n sid er tw o co n cen tric sp h eres, th en th e cro ss-sectio n a l a rea is p ro p o rtio n a l to th e sq u a re o f th e d ista n ce fro m th e cen tre. In
th is ca se w e h av e, in stea d o f (1 5 ),
Z x2
dx
q
= k4 T :
2
x1 4 x
A sm a ll ca lcu la tio n sh ow s th at in th is ca se
p
Am =
A 1A 2;

th e g eo m etric m ea n o f th e tw o a rea s b o u n d in g th e a n n u la r sectio n u n d er co n sid era tio n .

588

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GENERAL ARTICLE

T h u s th e g eo m etric a n d th e lo ga rith m ic m ea n s a re u sefu l

in ca lcu la tio n s rela ted to h ea t ow th ro u g h sp h erica l a n d
cy lin d rica l b o d ies, resp ectiv ely. T h e la tter rela tes to th e
m o re co m m o n p h en o m en o n o f ow th ro u g h p ip es.
L et u s retu rn to in eq u a lities rela ted to th e lo g a rith m ic
m ea n . L et t b e a n y n o n zero rea l n u m b er. In th e eq u a lity
(1 1 ) rep la ce a a n d b b y a t a n d b t ; resp ectiv ely. T h is g iv es
(a b)t= 2

a t bt
a t + bt

;
t(lo g a log b)
2

fro m w h ich w e g et
t(a b)t= 2

a b
a b
a t + bt a b

t
:
a t bt
a t bt
lo g a lo g b
2

T h e m id d le term in th is eq u a lity is th e lo g a rith m ic m ea n .

L et G t a n d A t b e d e n ed a s
G t (a ;b) =
A t (a ;b) =

a
at
a t + bt a
t
2 at
t(a b)t= 2

b
;
bt
b
:
bt

W e h av e a ssu m ed in th ese d e n itio n s th a t t 6= 0 : If w e

d e n e G 0 a n d A 0 a s th e lim its
G 0 (a ;b) =

lim G t (a ;b);

A 0 (a ;b) =

lim A t (a ;b);

t! 0
t! 0

th en
G 0 (a ;b) = A 0 (a ;b) = L (a ;b):
T h e rea d er ca n v erify th a t
G 1 (a ;b) =
G

t (a ;b)

a b;

G t (a ;b);

RESONANCE June 2008

a+ b
;
2
A t(a ;b) = A t (a ;b):

A 1 (a ;b) =

589

GENERAL ARTICLE

We have an infinite
family of inequalities
that includes the
AMGM inequality,
and other interesting

F o r x ed a a n d b; G t (a ;b) is a d ecrea sin g fu n ctio n o f

jtj; w h ile A t (a ;b) is a n in crea sin g fu n ctio n o f jtj: (O n e
p ro o f o f th is ca n b e o b ta in ed b y m a k in g th e su b stitu tio n
a = e x ; b = e y :) T h e la st in eq u a lity o b ta in ed a b ov e ca n
b e ex p ressed a s

inequalities.

G t (a ;b) L (a ;b) A t (a ;b);

(1 6 )

fo r a ll t: T h u s w e h av e a n in n ite fa m ily o f in eq u a lities

th a t in clu d es th e a rith m etic{ g eo m etric m ea n in eq u a lity,
a n d o th er in terestin g in eq u a lities. F o r ex a m p le, ch o o sin g t = 1 a n d 1 = 2 ; w e see fro m th e in fo rm a tio n o b ta in ed
a b ov e th a t
p

ab

a 3 = 4 b1 = 4 + a 1 =4 b3 = 4
L (a ;b)
2

a 1 = 2 + b1 = 2
2

a+ b
:
2

(1 7 )

T h is is a re n em en t o f th e fu n d a m en ta l in eq u a lity (1 1 ).
T h e seco n d term o n th e rig h t is th e b in o m ia l m ea n
B 1 = 2 (a ;b): T h e seco n d term o n th e left is o n e o f a n o th er
fa m ily o f m ea n s ca lled H ein z m ean s d e n ed a s
H (a ;b) =

a b 1 + a 1 b
;
2

0 1:

(1 8 )

C lea rly
H 0 (a ;b) =
H 1 = 2 (a ;b) =
H 1 (a ;b) =

H 1 (a ;b) =
p
a b;
H (a ;b):

a+ b
;
2

T h u s th e fa m ily H is y et a n o th er fa m ily th a t in terp o la tes b etw een th e a rith m etic an d th e g eo m etric m ea n s.

T h e rea d er ca n ch eck th a t
H

590

1 = 2 (a ;b)

H (a ;b) H 0 (a ;b);

(1 9 )

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GENERAL ARTICLE

fo r 0 1 : T h is is a n o th er re n em en t o f th e a rith m etic{
g eo m etric m ea n in eq u a lity.
If w e ch o o se t = 2 n ; fo r a n y n a tu ra l n u m b er n ; th en w e
g et fro m th e rst in eq u a lity in (1 6 )
2 n (a b)2

(n + 1 )

a 2

a b
L (a ;b):
n
b2 n

U sin g th e id en tity
n
n
n + 1

n
n
n+ 1
a b = a 2 b2
a 2 + b2
a2

+ b2
1

1
a 2 + b2
;

w e g et fro m th e in eq u a lity a b ov e
(a b)2

(n + 1 )

Yn a 2 m + b 2 m
L (a ;b):
2
m = 1

(2 0 )

S im ila rly, fro m th e seco n d in eq u a lity in (1 6 ) w e g et

L (a ;b)

a2

+ b2
2

Yn a 2 m + b 2 m
:
2
m = 1

(2 1 )

If w e let n ! 1 in th e tw o fo rm u la s a b ov e, w e o b ta in a
b ea u tifu l p ro d u ct fo rm u la :
m
m
1
Y
a 2 + b2
L (a ;b) =
:
2
m = 1

(2 2 )

T h is a d d s to o u r list o f fo rm u la s (7 ){ (1 0 ) fo r th e lo g a rith m ic m ea n .
C h o o sin g b = 1 in (2 2 ) w e g et a fter a little m a n ip u la tio n
th e rep resen ta tio n fo r th e lo g a rith m fu n ctio n
lo g x = (x 1 )

1
Y

m = 1

2
;
1 + x 2 m

(2 3 )

fo r a ll x > 0 :

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591

GENERAL ARTICLE

There are more

analytical delights in
store; the logarithmic
mean even has a
connection with the
fabled Gauss
arithmetic-geometric
mean.

W e ca n tu rn th is a rg u m en t a ro u n d . F o r a ll x > 0 w e
h av e

lo g x = lim n x 1 = n 1 :
(2 4 )
n!1

R ep la cin g n b y 2 n ; a sm a ll ca lcu la tio n lea d s to (2 3 ) fro m

(2 4 ). F ro m th is w e ca n o b ta in (2 2 ) b y a n o th er little
ca lcu la tio n .

T h ere a re m o re a n a ly tica l d elig h ts in sto re; th e lo g a rith m ic m ea n ev en h a s a co n n ectio n w ith th e fa b led G a u ss

a rith m etic{ g eo m etric m ea n th a t a rises in a to ta lly d i eren t co n tex t. G iv en p o sitiv e n u m b ers a a n d b; in d u ctiv ely
d e n e tw o seq u en ces a s
a0 =
an + 1 =

a;
a n + bn
;
2

b0 = b
bn + 1 =

a n bn :

T h en f a n g is a d ecrea sin g , a n d f b n g a n in crea sin g , seq u en ce. A ll a n a n d b n a re b etw een a a n d b: S o b o th

seq u en ces co n v erg e. W ith a little w o rk o n e ca n see
th a t a n + 1 b n + 1 12 (a n b n ) ; a n d h en ce th e seq u en ces
f a n g a n d f b n g co n v erg e to a co m m o n lim it. T h e lim it
A G (a ;b) is ca lled th e G a u ss a rith m etic{ g eo m etric m ea n .
G a u ss sh ow ed th a t
Z
1
2 1
dx
p
=
A G (a ;b)
0
(a 2 + x 2 )(b 2 + x 2 )
Z =2
d'
2
p
: (2 5 )
=
0
a 2 co s2 ' + b 2 sin 2 '
T h ese in teg ra ls ca lled `ellip tic in teg ra ls' a re d i cu lt o n es
to eva lu a te, a n d th e fo rm u la a b ov e rela tes th em to th e
m ea n va lu e A G (a ;b): C lea rly
G (a ;b) A G (a ;b) A (a ;b):

(2 6 )

S o m ew h a t u n ex p ected ly, th e m ea n L (a ;b) ca n a lso b e

rea lised a s th e o u tco m e o f a n itera tio n clo sely rela ted to

592

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GENERAL ARTICLE

th e G a u ss itera tio n . L et A t a n d G t b e th e tw o fa m ilies

d e n ed ea rlier. A sm a ll ca lcu la tio n , th a t w e leav e to th e
rea d er, sh ow s th a t
A t+ G
2

= A

t= 2 ;

t= 2 G t

= G

(2 7 )

t= 2 :

F o r n = 1 ;2 ;::: ; let t = 2 1 n ; a n d d e n e tw o seq u en ces

a 0n a n d b 0n a s a 0n = A t ; b 0n = G t; i.e.,
a 01

a 02 =
..
.
a 0n + 1

p
a+ b
A1 =
; b 01 = G 1 = a b;
2
p
a 01 + b 01 0
A 1=2 =
; b2 = G 1 = 2 =
A
2
q
a 0n + b 0n
0
; bn + 1 =
a 0n + 1 b 0n :
2

Somewhat
unexpectedly, the
logarithmic mean
can also be
realized as the
outcome of an
iteration closely
related to the
Gauss iteration.

1=2 G 1

a 02 b 01 ;

W e leav e it to th e rea d er to sh ow th a t th e tw o seq u en ces

f a 0n g a n d f b 0n g co n v erg e to a co m m o n lim it, a n d th a t
lim it is eq u a l to L (a ;b): T h is g iv es o n e m o re ch a ra cterisa tio n o f th e lo g a rith m ic m ea n . T h ese co n sid era tio n s
a lso b rin g h o m e a n o th er in terestin g in eq u a lity
L (a ;b) A G (a ;b):

(2 8 )

F in a lly, w e in d ica te y et a n o th er u se th a t h a s recen tly

b een fo u n d fo r th e in eq u a lity (1 1 ) in d i eren tia l g eo m etry. L et k T k 2 b e th e E u clid ea n n o rm o n th e sp a ce o f
n n co m p lex m a trices; i.e.,
kT

k 22

= tr T T =

Xn

i;j = 1

jtij j2 :

A m a trix v ersio n o f th e in eq u a lity (1 1 ) say s th a t fo r a ll

p o sitiv e d e n ite m a trices A a n d B a n d fo r a ll m a trices
X ; w e h av e
Z 1

1 = 2

A
X
X
B
+
A X B 1 = 2 A t X B 1 t d t
:

2
2
0
2
2
(2 9 )
RESONANCE June 2008

593

GENERAL ARTICLE

T h e sp a ce H n o f a ll n n H erm itia n m a trices is a rea l

v ecto r sp a ce, a n d th e ex p o n en tia l fu n ctio n m a p s th is
o n to th e sp a ce Pn co n sistin g o f a ll p o sitiv e d e n ite m a trices. T h e la tter is a R iem a n n ia n m a n ifo ld . L et 2 (A ;B )
b e th e n a tu ra l R iem a n n ia n m etric o n Pn : A v ery fu n d a m en ta l in eq u a lity ca lled th e expon en tial m etric in creasin g property say s th a t fo r a ll H erm itia n m a trices H a n d
K

2 e H ;e K jjH K jj2 :
(3 0 )
A sh o rt a n d sim p le p ro o f o f th is ca n b e b a sed o n th e rst
o f th e in eq u a lities in (2 9 ). T h e in eq u a lity (3 0 ) ca p tu res
th e im p o rta n t fa ct th a t th e m a n ifo ld Pn h a s n o n p o sitiv e
cu rva tu re. F o r m o re d eta ils see th e S u g g ested R ea d in g .
Suggested Reading
[1]

G Hardy, J E Littlewood and G Plya, Inequalities, Cambridge University Press, Second edition, 1952. (This is a well-known classic. Chapters
II and III are devoted to mean values.)

[2]

P S Bullen, D S Mitrinovic and P M Vasic, Means and their Inequalities,

D Reidel, 1998. (A specialised monograph devoted exclusively to various
means.)

[3]

W H McAdams, Heat Transmission, Third edition, McGraw Hill, 1954.

(An engineering text in which the logarithmic mean is introduced in the
context of fluid flow.)

[4]

B C Carlson, The logarithmic mean, American Mathematical Monthly,

Vol.79, pp.615618, 1972. (A very interesting article from which we have
taken some of the material presented here.)
R Bhatia, Positive Definite Matrices, Princeton Series in Applied Mathematics, 2007, and also TRIM 44, Hindustan Book Agency, 2007.
(Matrix versions of means, and inequalities for them, can be found here.
The role of the logarithmic mean in this context is especially emphasized
in Chapters 4-6.)

[5]

Address for Correspondence

Rajendra Bhatia
Theoretical Statistics and
Mathematics Unit
Indian Statistical Institute
Delhi Centre
7, SJS Sansanwal Marg
New Delhi 110 016, India.
Email: rbh@isid.ac.in

594

[6]

R Bhatia and J Holbrook, Noncommutative Geometric Means, Mathematical Intelligencer, Vol.28, pp.3239, 2006. (A quick introduction to
some problems related to matrix means, and to the differential geometric
context in which they can be placed. )

[7]

Tung-Po Lin, The Power Mean and the Logarithmic Mean, American
Mathematical Monthly, Vol.81, pp.879883, 1974.

[8]

S Chakraborty, A Short Note on the Versatile Power Mean, Resonance,

Vol. 12, No. 9, pp.7679, September 2007.

RESONANCE June 2008