Running head: electric and hybrid vehicles 1

Electric and Hybrid Vehicle

Shao Chung Chen
College of DuPage

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Abstract
As times are progressing there has been an increase in the development need for
technology not only in the environmental world but also in the automotive world. In the
environment world, environmentalists have started to use technology to improve air pollutions to
better human health. However, the automotive world also has to keep up reducing carbon dioxide
and other harmful chemical emissions. In order to reduce these harmful emissions, cars have to
produce less emission while achieving same or better cruising range than before. In the currently
car market, electric and hybrid vehicles are the solution to the problem; electric and hybrid
vehicles produce zero emissions and can travel double the cruising range than all the
conventional internal combustion engines.

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Electric and Hybrid Vehicle
With rising costs of fossil fuel and impacts from air pollution, automakers are now
developing cleaner and more energy efficient vehicles, represented by electric and hybrid
vehicles. Electric and hybrid vehicles will reduce the carbon dioxide emissions and other harmful
emission thus having a lower impact on the environment. Electric vehicles and hybrid vehicles to
have longer cruising range than most gasoline-powered vehicles. In addition, an electric vehicle
has zero emission compared to gasoline-powered vehicles. I am studying the use of electric cars
because I want to find out the effectiveness of an electric car in both gas-saving and beneficial to
the environment.
Background- History
With the increasing number of populations and vehicles on the road, (Chan, 2002, p.247)
believed that the global population will increase from 6 billion to 10 billion and number of
vehicles will increase from 700 million to 2.5 billion. What if all these vehicles were all powered
by gasoline? Where would all the emission go and would the sky turn permanently grey? Electric
vehicles are the solution to the problem; electric vehicles can be powered by renewable energy
and emit zero emission. Electric vehicles are the future.
Electric vehicle is a general term of a road vehicle that uses electric propulsion.
According to Chan (2002), electric vehicle may include battery electric vehicles (BEVs), hybrid
electric vehicle (HEV), and fuel-cell electric vehicle (FCEVs). Though there are many other
types of electric vehicle, this paper will focus on battery electric hybrid car and hybrid electric
car due to its popularity.
It is not until recent years that electric vehicles have been brought back to live. In fact,
according to Chan (2002), electric vehicles were invented in 1834 and during the last decade of

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the 19th century, electric vehicles were used as taxis. However, electric vehicle did not last long
due to its weakness in batteries and the rapid advancement of internal combustion engine
vehicles, electric vehicles have almost vanished since 1930.
Hybrid vehicles are very similar to electric vehicles. Hybrid vehicle has all the
component of an electric vehicle with addition to another power source powered by an internal
combustion engine. Chan (2002) claimed that there are many types of hybrid vehicles including
gasoline hybrid vehicle, diesel hybrid vehicle and plug-in hybrid vehicle.
Hybrid vehicle functions differently than a conventional internal combustion engine.
According to Racz, Muntean, & Stan (2015) when a hybrid vehicle is running at low speed
below certain mileage, the car will only run on electric motor and this can reduce fuel
consumption and increase energy efficiency. As illustrated in Figure 1, Chan (2002) discussed
the difference between conventional and a plug in hybrid.
Figure 1:

The following diagram shows the basic layout of a conventional hybrid and a plug-in
hybrid. Illustration obtained from Frank (2007). Plug-in hybrid vehicles for a sustainable
future.
Unlike electric vehicles, hybrid vehicles do not require a cable from the power outlet to
charge its battery. Racz, Muntean, & Stan (2015) claimed that hybrid vehicles have the ability to

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recharge its battery on board using various types of method. For example, the battery can be
recharged while the car is braking or when idling. Another example would be using internal
combustion engine to power the generator then it would generate electricity to recharge its
battery.
Electric and hybrid vehicles are very similar in terms of design and the way it
functions. (Racz, Muntean, & Stan, 2015, p. 440) claimed that in hybrid cars, carbon dioxide and
harmful emission are reduced, whereas zero in electric cars. Further more, hybrid car is quieter
than a conventional combustion engine, and electric car is even more quieter.
Batteries
Batteries are the heart of electric and hybrid vehicles. It provides power to the on board
computers and energy to the wheels. Racz, Muntean, & Stan (2015) defined that battery is the
device for storing chemical energy and converting it into electricity. The durability is the most
important characteristic and it represents the life cycle of a battery. The life cycle of a battery is
the number given by the number of charging- discharging cycles. Temperature also plays an
important role in determining the durability of a batter, low or high temperature can affect the
life of a battery.
According to LeVin (2015) battery was invented in 1800 by Alessandro Volta, and in
1859, Gaston Planete invented the lead-acid battery. In 1991, Sony invented the first commercial
lithium-ion battery as we see on electric and hybrid cars today.
Most of the batteries we see today are constructed similarly, LeVine (2005) defined that
all lithium-ion batteries work the same way. They have three basics component to the battery:
two electrode (positive cathode and negative anode), and between them, a chemical compound
called electrolyte. The battery discharges power when lithium ions stored in the anode travel to

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cathode. When battery is recharging, the electricity forces the lithium ion to return back to the
anode, where it is store for the next use.
One of many reasons why electric and hybrid vehicle uses the same chassis as convention
internal combustion engine is because it can reduce manufacturing costs. The only difference is
that electric and hybrid vehicles are powered by electric motor. Racz, Muntean, & Stan (2015)
claimed that electric and hybrid cars are very difficult to distinguish between them. The only
indication is the low noise level it produces.
Everyone is familiar with Toyota Prius, the best selling hybrid vehicle that has sold more
than 4.8 million units worldwide. According to Frank (2007), Toyota Prius and Honda's hybrid
vehicles were introduced into the market in the 1990s to prove the maturity of hybrid technology
and that it costs at a reasonable price. As a result, many car buyers were interested in buying a
hybrid vehicle and this lowered the production costs including the battery, thus making the car
more popular and cheaper than before.
If electric vehicles were almost vanished in 1930, what made it comeback into the
automotive industry? Chan (2002) claimed that the energy or the oil crisis interested the electric
vehicles back into the market. Frank (2007) discussed about how the idea of a hybrid vehicle is
not new, in other words, the hybrid technology on cars we see today are already existing in early
20th century. In addition, hybrid cars and pure electric cars dominated in early 20th century
because the technology on internal combustion engine was immature at the time. For example,
Burke talked about the procedure to starting an internal combustion engine that includes
cranking the engine by hand and might result with broken arms. According to Burke, it wasn't
until in the 1970's when the oil prices skyrocket and the idea of hybrid vehicle was brought back
to life.

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Perceptions
Hybrid vehicle has all the components of a conventional vehicle and in addition of an
electric motor to generate power and a battery to store electricity. According to Frank (2007) this
technology is called the "power-split" propulsion system. Many car manufactures uses this
technology on their hybrid electric car and the Toyota's most popular Prius also uses this
technology. This is costs effective because buyers spends more money on a hybrid vehicle and in
the long run they can save money on fuel and produce less carbon dioxide into the air. As
illustrated in Figure 2, Frank (2007) discussed about what a power-split hybrid is.
Figure 2:

The following diagram shows the basic layout of a power-split hybrid used in a Toyota
Prius Frank (2007)

According to Chalk and Miller (2006), electric car prices will eventually be similar to
cars that use gasoline. In fact, the price might even be lower. This will probably happen within
the next ten years.
When the electric and hybrid vehicle was first introduced, the battery technology was not
mature enough to be able to travel in long distance. Frank (2007) discussed that in the early

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1970's, the batteries technology for hybrid cars weren't good enough for cars because they were
too heavy. These heavy batteries include lead-acid, nickel-cadmium and iron-nickel Edison cells.
Unlike today's advanced technology on batteries, scientists and engineers in the 1970s had a
difficult time finding the right device to store electricity energy for hybrid electric cars. Frank
(2007) discussed that when he was developing a hybrid electric car in the 1970's, he faced many
issues and difficulties finding the right parts. For example, in the 1970's, there were not many
efficient and lightweight battery devices that could be used on an electric car, and the
transmissions that need to be suitable for both the electric motor and the gasoline engine. In
addition, the computer programming for the hybrid electric car was not advanced enough to
manage multiple power sources (gasoline engine and electric motor) for the car).
If a hybrid vehicle can travel 40 miles purely on electric motor without the help of gasoline
engine, which zero carbon dioxide emissions were emitted into the air in those 40 miles of drive.
Frank, (2007) discussed that typical driver travels less than 40 miles a day. If the driver drives a
hybrid vehicle, the driver can benefit from saving money from gas daily and have no carbon
dioxide emitted into the air daily.
While there are an increasing number of vehicles on the road today, the amount of carbon
dioxide is also increasing. Yudovina & Michailidis (2014) stated that the purpose of electric
hybrid vehicle technology was to reduce the carbon emission emitted into the air and have less
dependence on fossil fuels.
With the advancement of battery technology for hybrid cars, advanced lithium-ion batteries
are now becoming available for automotive use. According to Frank (2007) the advanced
lithium-ion batteries are smaller and lighter than metal-hydride cells that were used before, and
this new battery technology will allow hybrid vehicles to travel further without the help of gas

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engine. For example, a typical hybrid car with advanced lithium-ion battery technology can
travel up to 60 miles in all electric mode without using any gas and producing zero carbon
dioxide in those 60 miles traveled.
With years of research and developments, Frank (2007) claimed that the technology for
hybrid vehicle is now advanced enough to be able to manufacture all different kinds hybrid
vehicles ranging from sport utility vehicle (SUV) to two doors coupe when compared with forty
years ago. The engine is now more compact than it was before, the computer systems can now
manage different power source, and the modern batteries weighs no more than a conventional
engine and transmission.
With the increasing advancement of battery technology, electric and hybrid vehicles now are
using lithium-ion batteries instead of nickel metal hydride batteries. According to Racz,
Muntean, & Stan (2015), because lithium-ion batteries offer better performance, lighter weight,
and higher cell potential, the nickel metal hydride batteries are expected to be replaced with
lithium-ion batteries completely.
Battery Charging and Fuel Source
With the advancing battery technology on pure electric car and plug in hybrids, there has
been more clean energy vehicle on the road today when compared to many decades
ago. Yudovina & Michailidis (2014) claimed that in order to keep clean energy vehicle on the
road, there must be a better and more efficient way to charge the battery without taking too much
flow of electricity from the power plant. For example, if everyone charges their electric car at
night at the same time, it would not be evenly distributed for the flow of electricity to every
household. However, based on the research from Wang & Tehrani (2015) it can be concluded

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that electric vehicle charges daily from 5 p.m. to 10 p.m. and electricity is consumed the most
during this time.
Some electric vehicle charges quickly in matter of minutes, some are rather a slow process
that takes up to six hours. But when they're all charging at the same time, there will be an uneven
distribution of electricity. However, there are many solutions to resolve the uneven distribution
of electricity when charging electric cars. According to (Yudovina & Michailidis (2014), one of
the solutions is to provide public charging stations at a shopping mall or at a commercial parking
lot. This will reduce the uneven distribution of electricity significantly because not everyone will
be charging their electric vehicle at the same time or at the same place. Some will be at the
shopping mall grocery shopping while some will be at working while their vehicle is charging at
the commercial parking lot.
Not every electric vehicle are design or manufacture the same way Yudovina &
Michailidis (2014) suggested that not all electric car can be accessible at all station, there will be
different stations for different types of electric vehicle and to charge at different set of
time. Yudovina & Michailidis (2014) also claimed that in order to have the maximum charging
slots, each charging stations would have multiple of charging slots. In addition, charging stations
will be located ranging from neighborhood to one dense urban area.
Not every electric vehicle are design or manufacture the same way Yudovina &
Michailidis (2014) suggested that not all electric car can be accessible at all station, there will be
different stations for different types of electric vehicle and to charge at different set of
time. Yudovina & Michailidis (2014) also claimed that in order to have the maximum charging
slots, each charging stations would have multiple of charging slots. In addition, charging stations
will be located ranging from neighborhood to one dense urban area.

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Future Technology
Electric vehicle and hybrid vehicle uses battery to store electricity, and electricity comes
from energy generated by wind turbines or solar panels. According to LeVin (2005), The U.S is
primed for a boom in battery-back renewable energy. For example, California has mandated that
its largest utilities install 1.3 gigawatts of battery capacity by 2022. Southern California Edison
also responded with a pilot project that will store 32 megawatt-hours of power from area's 5000
wind turbines.
As more electric and hybrid vehicles are driven on the road, conventional internal
combustion engine will soon become a thing in the past. Rupp, Cidney, Graham, & Carley
claimed that there will be less dependence on fossil fuel as electric and hybrid are becoming
more popular. In addition, the electricity that powers the electric motor can be generated using
various types of renewable resources whereas fossil fuel is not.
Modern Battery Technology
Today, there are many car manufactures that makes electric and hybrid vehicles. Among
all the companies, Tesla stands out the most. This is because Tesla uses lithium-ion battery
instead of lead-acid batteries. When compared, Tesla's battery technology is far more advanced
and refined than most of other brands on the market. Eberhard & Tarpenning (2006) claimed that
Tesla's lithium-ion-battery has better efficiency. For example, Tesla has the lowest carbon
dioxide emission and highest well-to-wheel efficiency when compared to other vehicles. Further
more, Tesla was compared with popular vehicles such as Honda Civic, Volkswagen Jetta, and
Toyota Prius. These cars are all powered by different fuel source and Teslas battery technology
defeats all of its competitors cruising range and performance.
Discussion

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From researching to mass production of batteries, the battery technology on electric and
hybrid vehicles have grew tremendously over the years. LeVine (2015) states that batteries are
on track to follow the same pattern of progress and how quickly things change. For example, in
the late 1990s Toyota Prius was the only hybrid and now there are various types of hybrids and
electric vehicles on the market. Using electricity to power electric and hybrid vehicles, electricity
can be generated using several of method such as wind turbines, solar panels, and nuclear power
plant. However, from internal combustion engine, fossil fuel can only be found from one source
and it is limited. Eberhard & Tarpenning (2006) claimed that this is the beauty of electric and
hybrid cars, because its source of fuel can come from different renewable sources. Over time, as
more hybrid cars are being driven on the road, society will gradually become less and less
dependent on fossil-fuel energy. Frank (2007) mentioned that over the time people would build
solar panels or wind turbines solely to charge their hybrid or electric car. In addition, the excess
electricity will be used to power household items or other uses. This means people will depends
less on fossil-fuel energy, thus, less carbon dioxide will emit and it will leads to a cleaner
environment for everyone.

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