M321PASA

MIKE 21 & MIKE 3 PA/SA
Particle Analysis and Oil Spill Analysis Module

User Guide
DHI Software 2007
Software development by : xxxxx

Written by: xxxx
G:\f-share\MikeZero\new\source\M3\ParticleSpillAnalysis\Manual\Cover.fm 22 January 2007 5:40 am
Please Note
Copyright
This document refers to proprietary computer software which is protected
by copyright. All rights are reserved. Copying or other reproduction of
this manual or the related programs is prohibited without prior written
consent of DHI Water & Environment (DHI). For details please refer to
your 'DHI Software Licence Agreement'.
Limited Liability
The liability of DHI is limited as specified in Section III of your 'DHI
Software Licence Agreement':
'IN NO EVENT SHALL DHI OR ITS REPRESENTATIVES (AGENTS
AND SUPPLIERS) BE LIABLE FOR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER INCLUDING, WITHOUT LIMITATION, SPECIAL, INDIRECT,
INCIDENTAL OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR DAMAGES
FOR LOSS OF BUSINESS PROFITS OR SAVINGS, BUSINESS
INTERRUPTION, LOSS OF BUSINESS INFORMATION OR OTHER
PECUNIARY LOSS ARISING OUT OF THE USE OF OR THE INABILITY TO USE THIS DHI SOFTWARE PRODUCT, EVEN IF DHI
HAS BEEN ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES.
THIS LIMITATION SHALL APPLY TO CLAIMS OF PERSONAL
INJURY TO THE EXTENT PERMITTED BY LAW. SOME COUNTRIES OR STATES DO NOT ALLOW THE EXCLUSION OR LIMITATION OF LIABILITY FOR CONSEQUENTIAL, SPECIAL, INDIRECT,
INCIDENTAL DAMAGES AND, ACCORDINGLY, SOME PORTIONS
OF THESE LIMITATIONS MAY NOT APPLY TO YOU. BY YOUR
OPENING OF THIS SEALED PACKAGE OR INSTALLING OR
USING THE SOFTWARE, YOU HAVE ACCEPTED THAT THE
ABOVE LIMITATIONS OR THE MAXIMUM LEGALLY APPLICABLE SUBSET OF THESE LIMITATIONS APPLY TO YOUR PURCHASE OF THIS SOFTWARE.'
Printing History
June 2003
June 2004
August 2005
April 2006
MIKE 21 & MIKE 3 PA/SA
CONTENTS
ABOUT THIS GUIDE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Dialog Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2
BASIC PARAMETERS . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1 Starting Conditions . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 Hydrodynamic Data . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3 Simulation Period . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5 Dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6 Wind Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.7 Eddy and Logarithmic Velocity Profile
2.8 Exceeding concentration . . . . . . . .
2.9 Time Exposition . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.10 Water Properties . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.11 Line Discharge . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SEDIMENT PARAMETERS .
3.1 Type of Particles . . .
3.2 Light Attenuation . . .
3.3 Settling . . . . . . . . .
3.4 Decay . . . . . . . . . .
3.5 Output Areas (PA) . .
3.5.1 Output Areas .
3.5.2 Particle Tracks
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OIL SPILL PARAMETERS . . . .

4.1 Air Properties . . . . . . . .
4.2 Heat Transport . . . . . . .
4.3 Emulsification . . . . . . . .
4.4 Dissolution and Entrainment
4.5 Oil Properties . . . . . . . .
4.6 Output Areas (SA) . . . . .
Reference Manual
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BASIC PARAMETERS . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1 Bathymetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.1 General Description . . . .
5.1.2 Selecting the Model Area
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M3&M21 PA/SA
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
5.10
5.11
5.12
5.13
5.14
5.15
5.16
5.17
5.18
5.19
5.20
5.21
Bottom Roughness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CPU Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Disk Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4.1 Small Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4.2 Large Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4.3 Remarks and Hints (CPU) . . . . . . . . .
Dispersion Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5.1 General Description . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5.2 Dispersion in an SA Simulation . . . . . .
5.5.3 Dispersion Coefficients Within the Models
5.5.4 Recommended Dispersion Values . . . .
Eddy Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Exceeding Concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Flood/Dry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hydrodynamic Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.9.2 Example of a Database . . . . . . . . . . .
Line Discharge Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Logarithmic Velocity Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Maximum Particle Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Nested Grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Number of Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Output Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.15.2 Specifying the Output Area . . . . . . . . .
5.15.3 Remarks and Hints . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.16.2 Horizontal position . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.16.3 Vertical position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.16.4 Source flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Stratification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Time Exposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Time Step . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Water Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.21.2 Specifying the Wind Conditions . . . . . .
5.21.3 Specifying the Wind Friction . . . . . . . .
Remarks and Hints . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.21.4 Specifying the Wind Drift Angle . . . . . .
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5.21.5 Shore Current Zone and Depth of Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

6
SEDIMENT PARAMETERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1 Dissolved matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2 Light Attenuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.1 General Description . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.2 Recommended Values . . . . . . . . .
6.3 Linear Decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4 Resuspension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4.2 Resuspension Within This Model . . .
6.5 Sedimentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5.1 1st Order Sediment Process . . . . . .
6.5.2 Mud and Sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.6 Settling Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.6.2 Frequency function for settling velocity
6.6.3 Frequency function for particle size . .
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OIL-SPILL PARAMETERS
7.1 Air Properties . . . .
7.2 Emulsification . . . .
7.3 Evaporation . . . . .
7.4 Heat Transport . . .
7.5 Radiation . . . . . . .
7.6 Sedimentation . . . .
7.7 Vertical Dispersion .
7.8 Viscosity . . . . . . .
Scientific Background
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INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
ADVECTION AND DISPERSION . . . . . .

9.1 Lagrangian discrete parcel method . .
9.1.1 Advection-Diffusion equation
9.1.2 Langevin equation . . . . . . .
9.1.3 Fokker-Planck equation . . .
9.2 Advection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2.1 Current . . . . . . . . . . . . .
MIKE 3 HD . . . . . . . . . . .
MIKE 21 HD . . . . . . . . . .
9.2.2 Weighting of current and wind
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M3&M21 PA/SA
9.2.3
9.3
9.4
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Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wind drift vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wind drift angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Turbulent dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3.1 Horizontal dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Longitudinal and transversal dispersion . . . . . . . . . .
Neutral dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3.2 Vertical dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Numerics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.4.1 Bilinear interpolation of current field . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.4.2 Reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reflection at surface and bottom . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reflection at land points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.4.3 Calculation of concentration from distribution of particles
PA calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SA calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SEDIMENT PROCESSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.1 Settling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.1.1 Dissolved matter . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.1.2 1.order sedimentation process . . . . .
10.1.3 Sand and mud sedimentation process
Turbulent contribution . . . . . . . . . .
Settling contribution . . . . . . . . . . .
Wind contribution . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sedimentation and resuspension . . .
10.2 Light Attenuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3 Decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
OIL SPILL PROCESSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.1 Spreading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2 Evaporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3 Vertical dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.4 Dissolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.5 Emulsification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.6 Heat transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.6.1 Heat transfer between oil and air . .
11.6.2 Heat transfer between oil and water
11.6.3 Solar Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.6.4 Emitted and received radiation . . . .
11.6.5 Evaporative heat loss . . . . . . . . .
11.7 Chemical and physical properties of the oil .
11.7.1 Oil fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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11.7.2
11.7.3
11.7.4
11.7.5
Viscosity . . . .
Surface tension
Heat capacity .
Pour point . . .
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102
102
102
Appendix A A.1REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
10
M3&M21 PA/SA
Introduction
ABOUT THIS GUIDE
1.1
Introduction
This manual is a common manual for the Particle Analysis (PA) module
and the Oil Spill Analysis module (SA).
Each of the chapters are divided in three sections: The first contains information common to the two modules, the second contains information specific to the PA module, and the third contains information specific to the
SA module.
11
ABOUT This Guide
12
M3&M21 PA/SA
DIALOG OVERVIEW
13
14
M3&M21 PA/SA
Starting Conditions
BASIC PARAMETERS
2.1
Starting Conditions
Choose the type of simulation you want to run: Particle Analysis (PA) or
Oil Spill Analysis (SA).
Specify the number of nested areas.
2.2
Hydrodynamic Data
The PA/SA simulation needs information about the hydrodynamic conditions. These can be specified in two ways:
z
as a full hydrodynamic field from a MIKE 21 or MIKE 3 HD simulation (varying in time and space 2D/3D) or in the very simple case as a
timeseries of current speed and direction (constant in space). In the latter case also a bathymetry must be specified.
as a limited number of flow patterns, a socalled database. The database

is given as a MIKE 21 or MIKE 3 HD file, but only with a few
timesteps. Each timestep contains a characteristic flow situation, and
each time hydrodynamic information is required, a flow situation is
pointed out by the timeseries given in the reference file. Lower and
upper limit defines the minimum and maximum values that are allowed
in the reference file.
Note: The PA/SA module can be used for a non-hydrostatic model only.
2.3
Simulation Period
In this dialog you must give some time information.
Time step range is the number of time steps the simulation should cover.
Note the simulation always starts with time step number 0
The time step interval is the time that the historical time is incremented by
at each time step.
The simulation start date is the historical date and time corresponding to
time step 0.
Dialog Overview
15
Basic Parameters
2.4
Sources
Up to 64 point sources can be included in the model. For each source the
following information must be given:
z
Horizontal position
Vertical position
Source flux
Furthermore the Number of Particles pr. timestep should be given.

Optionally a Maximum Particle Age can be included.
The released particles can be treated as conservative (not decaying) or
decaying matters.
2.5
In a PA simulation the suspended mass can be reduced by Sedimentation and Linear Decay. Increase in suspended mass is caused by Resuspension.
In an SA simulation the decaying processes are due to Heat Transport

(evaporation), Dissolution and Entrainment. The volume of oil in the
oil slick can be increased by Emulsification.
Dispersion
The dispersion coefficients can either be given independently of the current or scaled in accordance with the fluxes in the hydrodynamic field.
The user specifies
z
Horizontal dispersion (longitudinal and transversal coefficients)
Vertical dispersion
If the dispersion is independent of the current, the dispersion coefficient

itself is specified for each area. For each direction one can choose the
coefficient to be a constant value (which is allowed to be different in different areas) or spatially dependent (given as a type 2 file for each area).
If the dispersion is proportional to the current the proportionality factor
should be specified in each area for each direction. Minimum and maximum values for the dispersion coefficients are required.
16
M3&M21 PA/SA
Wind Conditions
NOTE: Dispersion coefficients in a Lagrangian model are independent of

the grid size and time step.
2.6
Wind Conditions
The stress-generated drag on the surface due to wind can be included in
one of the following three ways:
z
as a constant value in time and space
as constant in space but varying in time. The values are given through a
type 0 data file
varying in both time and space. The values are given through a type 2
data file
NOTE: The directions are given in degrees and measured clockwise from
true North to where the wind is blowing from.
The wind friction factor can be specified either as a constant or linearly
interpolated between two values based upon the wind speed. In the latter
case, if the wind speed is below the lower limit, the friction is given the
value corresponding to that limit, and likewise, if the wind speed is above
the maximum.
2.7
Eddy and Logarithmic Velocity Profile

If you have included a Logarithmic Velocity Profile in your simulation,
you should specify a bottom roughness as a constant value applied to all
points in the model or as a type 2 data file. The roughness is specified in
metres.
NOTE: If cohesive or non-cohesive sediment is included, a logarithmic
velocity profile must be included.
The parabolic Eddy Profile causes an adjustment of the vertical dispersion
based on a gradient approach.
2.8
Exceeding concentration
In this dialog you specify the exceeding concentration. You have to specify a threshold value ("exceeding concentration limit") and the program
calculates how often this threshold value is exceeded.
Dialog Overview
17
Basic Parameters
The threshold value should be given in units

z
kg/m3 (concentration) for a PA simulation and
mm (oil slick thickness) for a SA simulation
The program calculates the exceedance frequency between 0 and 100%,

and the results can be saved in the output area file.
NOTE: Inclusion of exceeding concentration does not affect the particle
paths - it is a post-processing of the concentration field.
Remember to include "exceeding concentration" as an "Output Item" in
the "Output Areas" dialog.
2.9
Time Exposition
The time exposing facility is useful to record when released particles
reach the shore zones of the bathymetry.
2.10
Water Properties
The water temperature and salinity should be specified. Both temperature
and salinity can be specified as constants or varying fields (independently
of each other). The following restrictions apply:
PA on MIKE 21 HD: only constants
PA on MIKE 3 HD: constants and type 3 files
SA on MIKE 21 HD: constants and type 0 files
SA on MIKE 3 HD: constants and type 0 files
2.11
Line Discharge
The line transport facility is used to calculate the transport of the substance across a user-specified line in the model area.
The line coordinates are given in grid points with respect to the reference
area.
18
M3&M21 PA/SA
Line Discharge
The line orientation is defined positive clockwise with first line point as
the origin, see Figure 5.1. Lines are not allowed to cross other areas than
the reference area.
Both the instant and the accumulated transport are calculated.
You must specify the number of lines (max 3) and then specify the position of the lines.
NOTE: The generated output file contains all discharge lines
Dialog Overview
19
Basic Parameters
20
M3&M21 PA/SA
Type of Particles
SEDIMENT PARAMETERS
3.1
Type of Particles
The sediment module (PA) can be run in the following modes:
3.2
Dissolved matter
1st Order Sediment Process
Mud and Sand
Light Attenuation
In this dialog you specify the light attenuation. You have to specify both
the light extinction and the background dampening.
NOTE: Inclusion of light attenuation does not affect the particle paths - it
is a post-processing of the concentration field.
At least one of the items "instantaneous light attenuation" or "averaged
light attenuation" should be specified in the "Output Areas" dialog.
3.3
Settling
For each source the settling properties can be specified either as a constant
settling velocity or a varying distribution.
For a varying settling distribution two types of input can be used:
z
Frequency function for settling velocity
Frequency function for particle size
In both cases a type 0 file containing measured settling velocities/grain

sizes and corresponding frequencies must be given for each source. In the
latter case the relative density and the kinematic viscosity of water should
be specified.
Dialog Overview
21
Sediment Parameters
3.4
Decay
A 1.order decay of the particles can be included. The decay period T90
is the time in which the substance is reduced to 10% of its original mass.
The minimum mass is a threshold value that removes particles with a mass
below the given limit from the simulation.
3.5
Output Areas (PA)
3.5.1
Output Areas
The output consists of type 2 files with maps of concentrations, exceedance frequencies, etc.
Maximum 8 output areas can be specified. Remember to specify the
"Associated Area" (number of the nested grid from which the output
should be generated).
Under X-range and Y-range, specify first and last grid point to be saved
followed by the frequency. Default frequency is 1 (storing data at every
grid point). A better resolution of the particle cloud can be obtained by
specifying negative frequencies in the horizontal directions (-2 corresponds to 1/2 x, -3 to 1/3 x and so on, where x is the grid spacing in
the hydrodynamic file).
Under T-range, specify first and last time step to be saved, followed by the
frequency.
The concentration of suspended sediment is averaged over the thickness
of a specified layer. The layer might be as deep as the deepest point or just
a thin layer. The layer is specified under vertical selection as a vertical
range. From and to are measured in meters below the surface. The
concentration in a layer adjacent to the bottom is obtained by specifiying
bottom layer instead of vertical range. The thickness of the bottom
layer is given in meters in the variable above.
As the result files tend to become very large, it is usually not possible to
save the computed concentrations in all grid points to all time steps. For
information the size of the output is calculated
Sub-areas and sub-sets must usually be selected.
22
M3&M21 PA/SA
Output Areas (PA)
3.5.2
Particle Tracks
It is also possible to include output for particle tracks. A particle track output file contains Long./Lat. coordinates for positions of a specific particle
at each PA timestep of the simulation while the particle is in the domain,
see Figure 3.1. The particle track file is named automatically
particle_track_#.xyz and placed in the same folder as the *.npa file.
Figure 3.1
Dialog Overview
Particle tracks including vertical position in Oresund , Denmark
23
Sediment Parameters
24
M3&M21 PA/SA
Air Properties
OIL SPILL PARAMETERS
4.1
Air Properties
The air temperature can be specified as a constant or a type 0 file.
The cloudiness takes values between 0 and 1 and can be specified as either
a constant or a type 0 file.
4.2
Heat Transport
If heat balance is included, the heat exchange air-to-oil and oil-to-water is
taken into account. The initial temperature of the oil must be specified on
the Oil Properties dialog.
If evaporation is included, the volume of oil being evaporated from the
slick is calculated.
.
4.3
Emulsification
If emulsification is included, the volume of the oil can increase by an
enormous amount due to water uptake.
4.4
Dissolution and Entrainment

If dissolution is included, the oil volume leaving the slick due to dissolution in the water column is calculated. The default value of the mass transfer coefficient is 2.36E-6. This value should only be changed under very
special circumstances.
If entrainment (Vertical Dispersion) of oil into the water column is activated the oil-in-water interfacial tension must be specified [dyne/cm].
Dialog Overview
25
Oil Spill Parameters
4.5
Oil Properties
The oil properties consist of eight oil fractions, given as volume fractions
(percentage).
Additionally, a reference temperature should be specified due to the density and the kinematic viscosity of the oil.
If heat balance is included in the Heat Transport dialog, the program
prompts you for an oil temperature that can be specified as a constant
value or as a type 0 file.
4.6
Output Areas (SA)

The output consists of type 2 files with maps of oil slick thickness,
exceedance frequencies, etc., see SA output items
Maximum 8 output areas can be specified. Remember to specify "Associated Area" (number of the nested grid from which the output should be
generated).
Under X-range and Y-range, specify first and last grid point to be saved
followed by the frequency. Default frequency is 1 (storing data at every
grid point). A better resolution of the particle cloud can be obtained by
specifying negative frequencies in the horizontal directions (-2 corresponds to 1/2 x, -3 to 1/3 x and so on, where x is the grid spacing in
the hydrodynamic file) .
Under T-range, specify first and last time step to be saved, followed by the
frequency.
As the result files tend to become very large it is usually not possible to
save the computed concentrations in all grid points to all time steps. For
information the size of the output is calculated.
Sub-areas and sub-sets must usually be selected.
26
M3&M21 PA/SA
REFERENCE MANUAL
27
28
M3&M21 PA/SA
Bathymetry
BASIC PARAMETERS
5.1
Bathymetry
5.1.1
General Description
Providing MIKE 21 or MIKE 3 with a suitable model bathymetry is essential for obtaining reliable results from your model. Setting up the bathymetry requires more than just specifying an array of accurate water depths
covering the area of interest. It also includes the appropriate selection of the
area to be modelled and the grid spacing. This nested version of MIKE 21
& MIKE 3 PA/SA can work with up to nine bathymetries (model areas) of
different spatial resolutions. The bathymetries can be nested into each
other with more than one model area at each level (spatial resolution). A
number of rules must be obeyed when preparing the hydrodynamic model
set-up to obtain compatibility between a sub-area (fine grid) and its
enclosing area (coarse grid). The rules are described in the respective
addenda to the MIKE 21 & MIKE 3 HD User Guide and Reference
Manual (Nested Hydrodynamic Module Operation Guide).
5.1.2
Selecting the Model Area

In deciding on the area to be included in your model you must consider the
area of interest, and the position and types of the hydrodynamic model
boundaries to be used. The advantages of applying the nested grid facility
in the PA/SA modules compared to using only one grid is mainly that the
model will only loose mass when the particles pass the outer coarse grid
boundary. In many cases involving tides, the size of the model area has to be
increased because the particle cloud is advected by the tide and can return if
the model area is large enough. If the particle cloud passes the model boundary it will be lost. To obtain a satisfactory spatial resolution of the model
within the area of interest, a single computational grid will often result in a
very large number of water points (and often within areas of only limited
interest for the application), and it will accordingly require much CPU
time. Applying the nesting facility, the spatial resolution can be optimised
to save computer time and disk space. Furthermore, the number of particles leaving the outer coarse grid boundaries during tidal simulations can
be reduced.
5.2
Bottom Roughness
See Logarithmic Velocity Profile, p. 37.
Reference Manual
29
Basic Parameters
5.3
CPU Time
The CPU time required by a MIKE 21 or a MIKE 3 PA/SA simulation
depends on the number of particles in your model, on the number of time
steps in your simulation, on the number of sources included, on which features you have specified for the simulation, and on the general computational speed of your computer.
z
the CPU time varies linearly with the number of particles in the model
the CPU time varies quadratically with the number of time steps
assuming that the particles are released continuously and are not leaving the model area
adding one more component to be calculated, the CPU time increases

approximately linearly
If you wish to calculate the CPU time required by a simulation (in real
CPU seconds, not elapsed seconds), the following formula can be used:
(Number of steps)2 Number of particles/time step * (No. of components) * / BCS
Where BCS (basic computational speed) is the number of computational
particle displacements that your computer processes in one CPU second.
5.4
Disk Space
5.4.1
Small Files
The disk space required for your simulation mainly depends on the
amount of results you request to save. During a simulation only two other
files, in addition to the data files containing the results, are created:
30
the specification file containing the simulation specifications. This file

will be placed in your present working directory and have a file extension of npa. It will only take up approximately 25 Kbytes
the log file, which is placed in your working directory contains information about:
the model set-up
statistics of files used and generated
a message for each completed time step
M3&M21 PA/SA
Disk Space
5.4.2
Large Files
The amount of data generated by a simulation can be very large. Therefore,
you should only save as much data as is needed for your further work. Nevertheless, very large files will often be generated. The result files will be
placed according to the path you specify in the Output Areas dialog.
If you wish to calculate the disk space required for a single output data
file, the following formula can be used. The result is in bytes:
4 ( (number of items selected)
( (Nlast-Nfirst)/Nfrequency+1) + 1 )*
(Jlast-Jfirst+1)*(Klast-Kfirst+1)+1052
where N denotes time steps, J denotes points in the x-direction and K
points in the y-direction. The number 1052 is only exact for files written
in the old ctx/dtx format. For files written in the dfs format, the number
might vary slightly from 1052. The items selected can be some of the following output possibilities, depending on which simulation you wish to
run:
PA output items
Instantaneous concentration of suspended material in different layers [kg/m3]
Averaged concentration of suspended material in different layers
[kg/m3]
Instantaneous light attenuation at the seabed [ - ]
Averaged light attenuation at the seabed [ - ]
Instantaneous total cohesive erosion [kg/m2]
Instantaneous total cohesive deposition [kg/m2]
Instantaneous net cohesive sedimentation [kg/m2]
Accumulated total cohesive erosion [kg/m2]
Accumulated total cohesive deposition [kg/m2]
Accumulated net cohesive sedimentation [kg/m2]
Exceeding concentrations [ - ]
Time exposition [seconds]
U and V current velocity components [m/s]
SA output items
Instantaneous oil slick thickness [mm]
Averaged oil slick thickness [mm]
Reference Manual
31
Basic Parameters
Instantaneous oil components (up to eight) [mm]

Averaged oil components (up to eight) [mm]
Instantaneous Emulsification rate [percentage]
Averaged Emulsification rate [percentage]
Instant oil evaporation [mm]
Averaged oil evaporation [mm]
Instant oil dissolution [mm]
Averaged oil dissolution [mm]
Instant vertical dispersion [mm]
Averaged vertical dispersion [mm]
Exceeding concentrations [ - ]
Time exposition [seconds]
U and V current velocity components [m/s]
5.4.3
Remarks and Hints (CPU)

Averaged output is established by averaging the simulation results during
the time frequency specified for saving the output file(s).
Please note that MIKE 21 & MIKE 3 PA/SA do not check whether or not
you have enough free disk space for your requested output files.
5.5
Dispersion Coefficients
5.5.1
General Description
The flow fields calculated with MIKE 21 & MIKE 3 HD used for advection of the particles in MIKE 21 & MIKE 3 PA/SA are calculated in a grid
of a certain extent in time and space.
Physical flow processes, however, occur simultaneously at different spatial and temporal scales with a continuous spectrum ranging from molecular agitation to tidal, barotropic and baroclinic residual flows. The need to
express conservation laws by means of mathematical methods imposes the
treatment of fluid motions as part of continuum mechanics, and this
implies the use of spatial scales (grids) much larger than the intermolecular spacing associated with molecular agitation processes. To take these
effects into account, an artificial dispersion is applied.
32
M3&M21 PA/SA
Dispersion Coefficients
Thus, it should be kept in mind that the transport by dispersion is a mathematical artifact arising from the spatial averaging rather than a physical
process.
MIKE 21 & MIKE 3 PA/SA are Lagrangian models, which means that
they do not run in a specified grid; instead each particle is transported and
the exact position is updated at every time step. Thus, the dispersion
descriptions within the MIKE 21 & MIKE 3 PA/SA models must only
account for the simplifications made in the hydrodynamic models.
5.5.2
Dispersion in an SA Simulation
A prerequisite for spreading of a particular crude oil or refined product
after spillage into the marine environment is that its pour point must be
lower than the ambient seawater temperature. High wax content crude oils
or refined products are characterised by a high pour point and these materials will easily solidify either directly or shortly after spillage at sea. As a
first attempt to classify different crude oils with respect to their expected
behaviour at sea, a characterisation by wax content (and pour point) seems
feasible.
Many oils put on the surface of calm water spread in the form of a thin,
continuous layer in a circular pattern as a result of gravity and net surface
tension. The net surface tension, or spreading coefficient, is the difference
between the air/water surface tension and the sum of the air/oil surface
tension and the oil/water interfacial tension. Although viscosity does have
some effect on the rate of spreading, particularly shortly after the spillage,
many oils tend to spread on water surface at about the same rate even
though they may possess different viscosities. The dominant physicochemical parameters of the crude oil that determine spreading are thus
(besides the pour point) the density and the dispersion coefficients.
5.5.3
Dispersion Coefficients Within the Models

MIKE 21 & MIKE 3 PA/SA involve the use of 3 horizontal dispersion
coefficients and two vertical dispersion coefficients in case of a 3D calculation.
Horizontal dispersion
Dl, Dt Two dispersion coefficients to account for the non-resolved differences in current speed and direction, in the longitudinal and transversal directions in the horizontal plan
Do
Reference Manual
A dispersion coefficient to account for the dispersion caused by

temperature and density difference driven turbulence
33
Basic Parameters
Vertical dispersion
Dv
A dispersion coefficient to account for the non-resolved differences
in current speed and direction. In a PA simulation the vertical dispersion is controlling the amount of particles passing the bed shear zone
and is an important calibration parameter.
Dw
A dispersion coefficient for the description of the stirring due to

wind shear stress.
Except for Dw the dispersion coefficients are either described as constants

in time and space or constants in time and varying in space. Dw is in every
time step calculated as a function of the wind speed and the depth of wind
influence.
5.5.4
Recommended Dispersion Values

Selecting dispersion coefficients is very difficult. The optimum method is
to obtain the coefficients from a calibration process, where simulated and
measured concentration fields are compared. Measurements are very seldom available for calibration of transport processes. These processes have
very long response times (weeks or months), and therefore, empirical estimates are adopted. The dispersion coefficients can be preliminarily estimated by using
Dl = K l
x2
t
(5.1)
where Dl is the longitudinal dispersion coefficient, x is the grid size, t is

the time step, and Kl is a coefficient having the range of 0.003 to 0.075
based on previous modelling studies.
5.6
Eddy Profile
It is possible to adjust the vertical dispersion according to a prescribed
parabolic profile. The eddy viscosity varies parabolically over the vertical:
z
v t ( z ) = u f 1 z
D
(5.2)
where
Von Karmans constant (0.42)
34
M3&M21 PA/SA
Exceeding Concentration
uf Bottom friction velocity

D Water depth
z Vertical position in the water column
The settling velocity of the particles is adjusted by:
dvt
2z
= u f 1
dz
D
(5.3)
The formulation is based on the publication: Simulation of turbulent diffusion of suspended sediment by a random walk model, published by Rolf
Deigaard and Erik Asp Hansen, DTU, Dec. 1994.
5.7
Exceeding Concentration
If you want to include the exceeding concentration option, you enter the
Exceeding Concentration dialog and specify the concentration limit. This
threshold value should be given in units
z
kg/m3 (concentration) for a PA simulation
mm (oil slick thickness) for a SA simulation
The program calculates the exceedance frequency between 0 and 100%,

and the results can be saved in the output area file.
5.8
Flood/Dry
If you run the MIKE 21 or MIKE 3 PA/SA module using a hydrodynamic
file where Flood/Dry has been included, the Flood/Dry facility will automatically be set-up in the MIKE 21 or MIKE 3 PA/SA simulation. If a
particle reaches shallow waters, with a water depth below a certain threshold value specified in the hydrodynamic file, the particle position will be
unaffected until the water depth (tide) at this location reaches above this
threshold value.
For a PA simulation you should be aware of the fact that the concentration
field in dry points will be based on the threshold water depths.
Reference Manual
35
Basic Parameters
5.9
Hydrodynamic Data
5.9.1
General Description
The PA/SA simulation needs information about the hydrodynamic conditions. These can be specified in two ways:
5.9.2
as a full hydrodynamic field from a MIKE 21 or MIKE 3 HD simulation (varying in time and space 2D/3D) or in the very simple case as a
timeseries of current speed and direction (constant in space). In the latter case also a bathymetry must be specified.
as a limited number of flow patterns, a socalled database. The database

is given as a MIKE 21 or MIKE 3 HD file, but only with a few
timesteps. Each timestep contains a characteristic flow situation, and
each time hydrodynamic information is required, a flow situation is
pointed out by the timeseries given in the reference file. Lower and
upper limit defines the minimum and maximum values that are allowed
in the reference file.
Example of a Database
Establishment of a database is not an easy task as a one-to-one correspondeance between the surface current speed in a point and the flow pattern in
the entire domain should be defined.
From a measurement gauge surface current speed for a position in the
computational domain is available. The surface current speed typically
belongs to the interval -5m/s to 5m/s. If the characteristic situations are
northerly current, southerly current and almost no current 3 flow
fields are sufficient, corresponding to -5m/s, 0m/s and +5m/s. The fields in
the database must be sorted in ascending order. When the simulation runs
each value in the reference file is matched by a flow field which is interpolated linearly between the two surrounding flow fields.
Hints: Other timeseries than one of current speed can be used as reference
file. To an example a flow field that repeats itself can be constructed by
using a database file containing a flow field for every 6th hour (00:00,
06:00, 12:00, 18:00) and a reference file that points out the time of the day.
5.10
Line Discharge Calculations

The line transport facility is used to calculate the transport of the substance across a user-specified line in the model area. At each time step
both the instantaneous and the accumulated transport from time zero is
calculated.
36
M3&M21 PA/SA
Logarithmic Velocity Profile
The cross sections is specified in grid coordinates (floating values) and the
discharge will be taken as positive clockwise across the section, see
Figure 5.1.
Figure 5.1
Orientation of discharge line
You can make up to 3 discharge calculations, and it is allowed that the

cross section may cross land areas.
The output is saved in a type 0 file.
5.11
Logarithmic Velocity Profile

If you have included a logarithmic velocity profile in your simulation, you
should specify a bottom roughness. The bottom roughness can be constant
in all model points or vary in space (given as a type 2 file). The roughness
is specified in metres.
Reference Manual
37
Basic Parameters
5.12
Maximum Particle Age

A maximum particle age can be given (in seconds). Particles reaching the
specified age (counted from the time of release, not from the start of the
simulation) are simply taken out of the simulation. This option can be useful e.g. under long sedimentation calculations, where only the rate of sedimentation is to be considered, not the amount of sedimented material.
5.13
Nested Grid
The following rules should be observed when running a nested PA/SA
simulation
z
the advective current should be specified for each area
bed resistance should be specified for each area (constant or 2D map)
the type of Eddy viscosity formulation will be common for all areas,
whereas the actual value can be different in the respective areas
spatial varying wind is only specified for the main area. The wind is
internally interpolated to the sub-areas
sources can be specified in all model areas, but should be specified in

the model area of the finest resolution which covers the actual geographical position of the source
in the output specifications, each output area must be related to an

associated model area
See also Bathymetry.
5.14
Number of Particles
In the Sources dialog it is possible to specify the number of particles
released per time step.
If you specify a short simulation period or a large time step, it is sometimes a good idea to release a number of particles at each time step,
thereby making the concentration fields more "smooth".
If you specify that 5 particles are released at each time step and constant
source flux of 5 m3/s, then each released particle will have the mass 1
m3/s/timestep. You can specify either a constant or a time-varying source
mass. Note that the source flux in PA has units kg/s and in SA m3/s.
38
M3&M21 PA/SA
Output Areas
5.15
Output Areas
5.15.1
General Description
Computers are not yet so powerful that a simulation can be run each time a
plot of, for example, the concentration field is needed. Therefore it is necessary to store the basic results from the simulations. On the other hand,
the amount of output produced by a single simulation is often so large that
it is necessary to limit the amount of output saved. You therefore have the
option of saving up to 8 selected parts of the output.
5.15.2
Specifying the Output Area

In the Output Areas dialog you specify how many output data files you
wish to have produced from the simulation. You can specify the contents of
each data file under "Output Items".
Specify the name of the output file (including the path).
Give a short description of the content under "title"
Specify the area to be included in the data file. By default the whole area
is chosen, but if you are only interested in a part of the model area and you
have finished the calibration, you could specify the area of interest only.
You can specify a Nested Grid Output area by selecting a negative frequency in both horizontal directions and in that way get a better resolution
of your particles.
If, for example, you specify the grid frequency to -4, the grid spacing in
your output file will be a quarter of what is specified in the hydrodynamic
file.
Finally, you specify the range of time steps to be saved and whether every
time step should be included or only every second, third, etc. The averaged output results, which you can select in the Output Areas dialog
(under Output Items), are based on calculations from a period equal to the
time frequency for the output data files.
5.15.3
Remarks and Hints

If you run the model in foreground mode, the progress of your simulation
is shown on the screen. If the model is run in background mode (windows
icon), you can follow the progress of your simulation by following the
number of time steps written in your .log file.
Reference Manual
39
Basic Parameters
5.16
Sources
5.16.1
General Description
The effects of rivers and outlets from power stations, etc. can be included
in a simulation. These sources have to be included in both the hydrodynamic and the PA/SA modules. The source positions and discharges are
specified in the hydrodynamic input part, whereas the source fluxes
(amount of particles/amount of oil) are specified in the particle input part.
5.16.2
Horizontal position
The horizontal position must be specified for each source. The position
should be given in grid points (floating point values) and it can either be
given as
z
constant values
a type 0 file containing the x and y coordinates of the source. The x and
y coordinate must be given as two separate items.
Furthermore the reference area for the source should be specified.

5.16.3
Vertical position
For a PA simulation also the source depth must be specified, either as
z
a constant value
a type 0 file
The source depth is given in metres and is counted positive from the surface.
In an SA simulation the source is automatically placed at the surface.
5.16.4
Source flux
The mass flux from each source can be given as
z
a constant value
a type 0 file
In SA the mass flux should be given in [ m 3 /s ] and in PA in [ kg/s ] .

If the source flux is given as a type 0 file, the timestep in this timeseries
should be equal to or greater than the simulation timestep. In the latter
case MIKE21/3 SA/PA automatically interpolates linearly. A timestep in
the source flux file that is less than the simulation timestep is not allowed.
40
M3&M21 PA/SA
Stratification
An instantaneous release can be achieved by defining a source flux file

with timestep equal to the simulation timestep and zero value at all places
except for the start time of the simulation.
5.17
Stratification
See Water Properties.
5.18
Time Exposition
By including Time Exposition, the model will create a map with information about how fast the particle cloud is moving. This information can be
interpreted as how long time a particle uses for being advected and dispersed from the source point to a certain location. The results will be presented as isolines with the unit seconds.
5.19
Time Step
Selecting the Time Step
As a rule of thumb a particle should not move more than one grid cell in
each timestep, otherwise the numerical integration of the stochastic differential equation that controls the particle motion becomes unstable. If a
particle displacement in fact exceeds one grid cell MIKE 21&3 PA/SA
divides the displacement in halves until a displacement below one grid
cell is obtained.
The time step for your simulation is selected as follows:
1 First you determine the grid spacing, x , as described under Bathymetry, which is equal to the maximum allowable particle displacement
2 Secondly you determine the maximum current speed Umax in the computational domain. In most cases Umax is assessed after inspecting the
flow field.
3 From the definition of the Peclet number the maximum timestep can
now be calculated: t max x/U max . In nested simulations t max must
be calculated for all areas and the smallest one chosen for the PA/SA
simulation.
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41
Basic Parameters
5.20
Water Properties
The density of the water is calculated from salinity and temperature .
In an oil spill simulation (SA), the water temperature itself is a parameter
that influences the properties of the oil. In SA the temperature and salinity
can be specified as constants or timeseries.
In a sedimentation calculation (PA) the particles are affected by the density of the water. If 3D fields of salinity and/or temperature are available
these can be used in sedimentation simulations, otherwise constant values
for salinity and temperature must be given.
5.21
Wind
5.21.1
General Description
When wind is acting on the surface of water, energy is transferred to the
water through the shear stress. The energy is used for stirring/mixing the
water and accelerating the water in the direction of the wind.
The wind shear stress results in acceleration of the upper thin surface
layer, and gradually the zone, where the shear stress is active, progresses
in depth.
The depth of influence of the wind is defined as the depth where 90% of
the wind induced energy is used for the above mentioned processes. The
depth depends on the wind speed and direction history since the profile is
a result of the wind action over time, and furthermore, it depends on the
bathymetry and stratification of the water column.
The surface current velocity due to the wind is calculated as
Vs = CwW
(5.4)
where Cw is the wind friction coefficient and W is the wind velocity in m/s
10 m above the sea surface. The wind friction coefficient is different from
what is specified in MIKE 21 & MIKE 3 HD.
Notice that the direction of the wind is given in degrees blowing from relative to true North, see Figure 5.2.
42
M3&M21 PA/SA
Wind
Figure 5.2
5.21.2
Definition of wind direction
Specifying the Wind Conditions

The wind conditions can be specified in three ways:
1 As a wind which is blowing from the same direction and with the same
magnitude over the whole model area for the entire simulation period
2 As a wind where the magnitude and direction varies during the simulation period, but is the same over the entire model area
you have to prepare a data file (type 0) containing the wind speed
and direction before you set up the PA/SA simulation.the wind
speed and wind direction must be given as two separate items in the
data file. The time step of the wind input data file does not, however, have to be the same as the time step of the PA/SA simulation.
A cubic interpolation will be applied if the time steps differ. The
only requirement is that the wind data arespecified for the complete
simulation period
In both cases it is not necessary to specify a start up period during
which the wind speed is increased.
3 As a wind where the magnitude and direction varies during the simulation period and over the model area
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43
Basic Parameters
you have to prepare a data file (type 2) containing the wind speed
components and air pressure before you set up the oil spill simulation. This can be done by either using one of the two MIKE 21 wind
generating programs: cyclone generated wind and pressure, or wind
generated on the bases of digitised pressure fields. (These programs
are found in the MIKE 21 Toolbox). Or you can enter the data
directly into a type 2 file using the grid editor.
the wind speed and pressure must be given as three separate items
in the data file. The first item should be the pressure in HPa, the two
next ones should be the wind speed in the x-direction and y-direction, respectively. However, the time step of the wind input data file
does not have to be the same as the time step of PA/SA simulation
a linear interpolation will be applied if the time steps differ. The
only requirements are that the wind map matches the bathymetry
map and that the wind data covers the complete simulation period
5.21.3
Specifying the Wind Friction

The wind friction coefficient you specify in MIKE 21 & MIKE 3 PA/SA is
not comparable to what you can specify in MIKE 21 & MIKE 3 HD,
while in the HD the coefficient corresponds to the momentum of the fluid
and in the PA/SA the coefficient corresponds to the surface speed of the
fluid.
Normally a wind friction coefficient of 0.02 will give good results for
moderate and strong winds in the open sea. For weak winds, however,
smaller coefficients can be used.
If you specify a varying wind speed, you might also need to specify a varying friction coefficient. Consequently, the possibility of varying the friction coefficient linearly as a function of the wind speed is included.
Remarks and Hints
You can use the wind friction factor as a parameter in you model calibration.
5.21.4
44
Specifying the Wind Drift Angle

Due to the influence from the Coriolis force, the direction of the wind drift
vector is turned relative to the wind direction. The angle of deviation is
termed the wind drift angle. It turns to the right on the Northern Hemisphere and to the left on the Southern Hemisphere. The magnitude of the
wind drift angle varies in time if the wind friction is time varying, otherwise the wind drift angle is constant in time and is given in degrees.
M3&M21 PA/SA
Wind
5.21.5
Shore Current Zone and Depth of Wind

The Shore Current Zone is the depth at which the calculation of the
wind influence on the current changes from the on-shore formulation to
the off-shore formulation. Setting Shore Current Zone to zero gives offshore formulation all over. On-shore formulation at all depths can be
obtained by setting Shore Current Zone to a value that exceeds the largest depth.
The on-shore expression calculates a correction over the entire depth, the
off-shore expression corrects only the current down to Depth of Wind.
Thus Depth of Wind should always be greater than or equal to Shore
Current Zone.
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45
Basic Parameters
46
M3&M21 PA/SA
Dissolved matter
SEDIMENT PARAMETERS
6.1
Dissolved matter
If dissolved matter is chosen in the Type of Particles dialog the particles
are neutrally buoyant, which means that they follow the flow without
being settled. This option can be used for calculation of spreading of e.g.
bacteria, where it can be combined with a Linear Decay.
6.2
Light Attenuation
6.2.1
General Description
In clear water the light intensity is reduced exponentially from the water
surface down through the water column. Sediments in suspension result in
an additional dampening of the light caused by shading from the sediment
particles.
The background dampening from clear water depends on the water depth
and a dampening coefficient. The light attenuation caused by sediments in
suspension depends on the water depth, the concentration of suspended
sediments and a light attenuation coefficient describing the shading per
mass.
The light attenuation can be calculated both as an instantaneous value and
as an averaged value, where the averaging one is referring to the time frequency of saving output.
6.2.2
Recommended Values
The default light attenuation coefficient is based on analyses of measurements performed in the Great Belt, Denmark, 1991. Shading calculations
using this value have been verified against measurements of eelgrass
growth in the Great Belt.
The default light attenuation coefficient includes both the background
dampening of clear water and the light attenuation caused by sediments in
suspension.
It is, however, made possible that you can specify a separate background
dampening coefficient.
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47
Sediment Parameters
6.3
Linear Decay
Decay as a result of chemical or biological processes is described in the
following way:
Every particle has attached a certain mass of the total released substance.
This mass may change during the calculation if a decay process is defined.
A first order decay is considered so that
dM
=k M
dt
(6.1)
M being the particle mass and k [s-1] the decay factor. When the mass of a
certain particle becomes less than a user specified minimum mass, the particle is taken out of the simulation.
The decay law yields after integration
M (t ) = M o exp ( k t )
(6.2)
The decay period T90 is defined as

M
= 0.1
Mo
(6.3)
which brings
k=
ln (10 )
T90
(6.4)
The decay period must be specified by the user.
6.4
Resuspension
6.4.1
General Description
Deposited material resuspends when the shear stress at the sea bed
exceeds a critical limit. The amount of material resuspended depends on
the grain size of the material, the degree of consolidation and the physicochemical interactions between the particles (cohesive/non-cohesive).
48
M3&M21 PA/SA
Sedimentation
6.4.2
Resuspension Within This Model

Resuspension is presently not available for the 1st order depth averaged
sediment description. Both the cohesive/non-cohesive sediment calculations include resuspension.
The resuspension of sedimented material is determined by the relationship
between the critical shear stress and the actual shear stress at the seabed.
The critical shear stress is a function of the critical shields' parameter and
depends on the material in question.
6.5
Sedimentation
6.5.1
1st Order Sediment Process

The sediment is regarded as fully mixed over the depth, and the settling of
sediment takes place with a constant or randomly generated settling velocity, thereby reducing the remaining mass of each particle in suspension.
When the mass falls below a specified minimum value, the remaining
mass of the particle is deposited. The particles are advected with the local
velocity profile, which can be constant or logarithmic in the vertical. The
velocity profile can be superimposed with a wind-induced current profile
if wind is applied to the model.
6.5.2
Mud and Sand

The sediment is released at a specified depth, and the particles settle with a
constant or randomly generated settling velocity. The particles are deposited
when they reach the bottom. This simulation type gives you the possibility
of calculating the concentration of suspended material at different depths.
The particles can be advected by a three-dimensional velocity field or by
logarithmic velocity profiles established from the depth-integrated velocities specified in the Hydrodynamic Data dialog. The velocity profiles can
be superimposed with a wind induced current profile if wind is applied to
the model.
Typical values for the critical shields' parameter for motion is 0.045 for
sand and 0.2 for clay.
NOTE: The sediment output will be zero at the first time step for saving
output.
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49
Sediment Parameters
6.6
Settling Velocity
6.6.1
General Description
There are two ways of including settling velocities in a particle simulation.
The easiest way is to specify a constant settling velocity for each source
specified. A more advanced method is to include a particle size distribution or a particle settling velocity distribution based on laboratory measurements of the material released.
6.6.2
Frequency function for settling velocity

The model expects the following input:
z
A type 0 file with two items, where each timestep is a set of settling
velocity [m/s] and observed frequency.
A settling velocity chosen at random from this distribution is assigned to

each particle when it is released.
6.6.3
Frequency function for particle size

The model expects the following input:
z
A type 0 file with two items, where each timestep is a set of particle
size [mm] and observed frequency
relative density of sediment and a kinematic viscosity of water
The model calculates the frequency function for settling velocity by using
Stokes law. A settling velocity chosen at random from this distribution is
assigned to each particle when it is released.
50
M3&M21 PA/SA
Air Properties
OIL-SPILL PARAMETERS
7.1
Air Properties
The air properties consist of the air temperature and the cloudiness, which
also can be specified as constant in time or as time varying (type 0). These
environmental data influence the weathering of oil, and are important in
the calculation of the properties in the water-in-oil emulsion. The cloudiness is applied to correct the heat input from the sun on a clear day to the
actual conditions. The time series has to cover the specified simulation
period and the model will make the necessary interpolation to get specific
values at each time step during the simulation.
7.2
Emulsification
Emulsification of crude oils and/or refined products involves the dispersion of water droplets into the oil medium. As the percentage of water
increases (up to a maximum of 75-85%), the resulting emulsion undergoes
a dramatic increase in viscosity, its effective volume increasing by a factor
of up to 5, its density approaching that of the surrounding water, and colour changes occurring ranging through browns, oranges and reds. These
properties of the resulting emulsions make clean-up operations more difficult. Furthermore, evaporation of components from an emulsion will also
be diminished.
The mechanism by which water incorporates droplets into a slick is poorly
understood. Therefore, the process of emulsification can only be discussed
in a qualitative way. However, it can be stated that the mixing energy
through wave action is an important requirement and that emulsions are
less likely to be formed in calm conditions.
To estimate the significance of emulsification for a particular oil type
under given environmental conditions, it is necessary to know the following:
z
first, whether an oil has the potential to form an emulsion
secondly, how fast the emulsion is formed and how much water is
taken up, and
finally, how stable the emulsion is
Furthermore, information about the emulsified oil is required.
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51
Oil-Spill Parameters
The rate at which water is taken up in the slick is greatly influenced by the
type of oil (Lynch) and the environmental conditions. However, properties
and conditions that favour vertical dispersion are expected also to be
favourable for emulsification.
For clean-up purposes, information on the viscosity of an emulsion is necessary.
7.3
Evaporation
The evaporation processes are included in the MIKE 21 & MIKE 3 SA
models. The rate of evaporation of the lighter components is influenced by
the percentage of lighter components in the crude oil itself, the oil temperature, the oil thickness and area, and the physical forces of wind (and
wave) energy. The effect of evaporation is to increase the density of the
remaining oil and to increase its viscosity. Pour point may also be affected,
determining whether or not the oil remains a fluid or becomes a waxy
solid or semi-solid.
In practice, as crude oil spreads out on the sea surface a large surface area
is exposed and the initial rapid loss of the volatile components occurs. The
main loss occurs during the first 2 or 3 hours and the process then slows
down with the increasing proportion of the higher boiling components
remaining in the residue. In theory, the higher boiling components also
have a vapour pressure and should eventually evaporate, but increasing
viscosity and pour point of the remaining oil lead to a complex process of
emulsification and solidification, which reduces the surface area of the
slick and hence the rate of evaporation.
During the first 24 hours after spillage, most crude oils will have lost
approximately 25-30% of their lighter components and although the loss
continues, the rapid evaporation process can be assumed to have ended.
Subsequent "weathering", e.g. by wind action and thermal radiation from
the sun, then leads to a slow but progressive loss of the middle boiling
range components. The associated increase in the density and viscosity
takes up to about one week to simulate with the SA model.
The effect of evaporation on the physical properties of the resulting residual has a major influence on the type of response required for clean-up of
the oil. It has already been shown how the pour point influences the
fluid/solid properties of the oil and the method of recovery.
52
M3&M21 PA/SA
Heat Transport
7.4
Heat Transport
Five input parameters are used in the heat balance calculation for the oil.
The Albedo Value describes the fraction of the solar radiation, which is
reflected. This parameter is primarily depending on the colour of the oil.
The emissivity of the oil, water and air are constant values in time and space
and are applied for the calculation of the heat balance for the oil slick. The
evaporation constant is proportional to the amount of evaporated oil, and
is a calibration parameter.
7.5
Radiation
It is possible to take the solar radiation into account when calculating the
oil slick temperature. The emissivity constants related to the water, oil and
air have to be specified. The model calculates the variations in the solar
radiation with respect to the geographical position, the time of the day and
which season of the year.
7.6
Sedimentation
General Description
Only relatively few crude oils weather to produce residues that are denser
than seawater and sink. The majority of crude oils yield weathered oils
lighter than seawater, and even if they form stable water-in-oil emulsions,
the resultant material is positively buoyant. Nevertheless, floating oil can
come into contact with heavy mineral particles, e.g. sand, silt, etc., especially in coastal areas. In these instances solid particles may be incorporated into the bulk of the oil or may become coated with a layer of oil. In
both circumstances, the resultant mixture becomes negatively buoyant and
sinks. The oil is therefore carried to the seabed and incorporated in bottom
sediments where the degradation processes are very slow.
Remarks and Hints
The above mentioned processes are not described in the Spill Analysis
module of MIKE 21 and MIKE 3, which not at all take the buoyant effects
into account.
7.7
Vertical Dispersion
Transport into the water column can be accomplished by a number of
mechanisms: dissolution, dispersion, accommodation, and sedimentation.
Reference Manual
53
Dispersion and accommodation are by far the most important mechanism
during the first week of weathering.

Dispersion is a mechanical process. Water turbulence tears off globules of
oil and entrains them, forming an oil-in-water emulsion. These emulsions
can be stabilised by surface-active agents coating the oil-water interface
and thus preventing the oil from coalescing. This formation of colloids is
called accommodation. In harsh weather, the dominant dispersion mechanism is probably wave breaking, while in calm weather, the most significant mechanism is probably the stretching compression of the slick
leading to droplet separation.
Vertical dispersion of crude and/or refined products after spillage at sea is
the process of forming small droplets of oil, which will be incorporated
into the water column. Besides evaporation, the rate of vertical dispersion
largely determines the lifetime of an oil spill.
Vertical dispersion reduces the volume of the slick at the surface and
reduces evaporative loss, but it does not lead to changes in the physicochemical properties of the spilled material in the way that evaporation
does, for example.
In general, oil-in-water emulsions are not stable, and the oil droplets tend
to coalesce and return to the surface, again forming a slick. Vertical emulsifiers and/or suspended solids can stabilise them by reducing interfacial
tension, which leads to a reduction in droplet size.
Vertical dispersion is still a very poorly understood process, and the mathematical description of it is still in an early phase of development
(Mackay). The importance of dispersion for a particular spill of crude oil
under certain weather conditions, and differences in dispersion behaviour
of different crude oils, can only be evaluated in a qualitative way. There
are fairly reasonable "best estimates" derived from observations of historical spills (Blaikley et al.), which determine the rate of dispersion at sea to
be 0-5% oil lost per day depending on the sea state. More detailed information on vertical dispersion can be obtained from the comprehensive
review compiled by (Raj et al.).
The fraction of sea surface dispersed in the water column per unit time is
calculated as a lost fraction of sea surface, under non-wave breaking conditions. The input parameter is named oil-in-water interfacial tension. The
default value is 20 [dyne/cm]
54
M3&M21 PA/SA
Viscosity
7.8
Viscosity
If the viscosity of the original crude oil, determined at only one temperature, is all that is available, it is possible to estimate the viscosity of the
weathering oil at various temperatures as a function of the time after spillage. Although only a rough estimate of the viscosity of the remaining oil
is obtained it may be useful in deciding on the clean-up technique to be
applied, e.g. whether or not dispersants should be used. The oil viscosity
in the MIKE 21 & MIKE 3 SA is specified in Cs at a certain reference
temperature measured in degrees Celsius.
Reference Manual
55
56
M3&M21 PA/SA
SCIENTIFIC BACKGROUND
57
58
M3&M21 PA/SA
INTRODUCTION
The present Scientific Documentation aims at giving an in-depth description of the equations and numerical formulation used in the Particle Analysis module (PA) and the Spill Analysis module (SA) of MIKE 21 &
MIKE 3.
Both modules are based on the random walk technique where an ensemble
of particles is followed instead of solving the Eulerian advection-diffusion
equation.
The particles move due to the advective current and due to turbulent fluctuations. The advective velocities are (usually) obtained from a hydrodynamic simulation (MIKE 21 HD or MIKE 3 HD), whereas the turbulent
contributions are controlled by the dispersion coefficients.
The properties of the released particles are described by
z
PA: Settling velocity, either constant or specified as a distribution of

velocities or grain sizes. Also non-buoyant particles can be simulated.
SA: The ratio between eight oil fractions that are charachterized by
density, vapour pressure, pour point etc.
The mass (PA) or the volume (SA) of the particle cloud can change due to
z
PA: Sedimentation/resuspension. Futhermore a linear decay can be

employed.
SA: Weathering of the oil: emulsification (water uptake), evaporation,

entrainment into the water column and dissolution.
Both models calculate concentration fields of the pollutant by tallying the

number of particles in each grid cell.
59
Introduction
60
M3&M21 PA/SA
Lagrangian discrete parcel method
ADVECTION AND DISPERSION

The advection-diffusion model is designed to simulate the surface and
subsurface transport of pollutants. The pollutant is divided into discrete
parcels and sets of spatial coordinates are assigned to each parcel. It is
assumed that these parcels advect with the surrounding water body and
diffuse as a result of random processes.
9.1

Typically in models using Lagrangian Discrete Parcels Method the pollutant is represented by a large ensemble of small parcels. The movement of
each parcel is affected by the physico-chemical processes. Once the parcels are released in the water body, their discrete path and mass are followed and recorded as function of time relative to the reference grid
system fixed in space. Then the density distribution of the ensemble can
be interpreted as the concentration of the pollutant.
The Lagrangian discrete parcel scheme calculates the displacement of
each particle as the sum of an advective deterministic component and an
independent, random Markovian component, which statistically approximates the random and/or chaotic nature of time-averaged tidal mixing.
9.1.1
Advection-Diffusion equation
In a vertically mixed environment, two-dimensional depth-integrated
mass transport models are commonly employed. An analysis of the transport of a conservative substance with no sources can be based on the following time- and space-averaged equation:
(c h) (u c h) (v c h)
+
+
=
t
x
y
c
c
c
c
[h D xx + h D xy ] + [h D yx + h D yy ]
x
x
y
y
x
y
(9.1)
where c(x,y,t) is the depth-averaged concentration, u(x,y,t) and v(x,y,t) are

the x and y components of the depth-integrated velocities, h(x,y,t) is the
depth (mean sea level), and Dxx(x,y,t), Dyy(x,y,t), Dxy(x,y,t) and Dyx(x,y,t)
are dispersion coefficients which represent all of the mechanisms that
61
Advection and Dispersion
cause mixing at scales smaller than those over which the equation is averaged. The angle between the local flow direction and the x axis is given as
v ( x ( t ), t )
= atan ----------------------
u ( x ( t ), t )
(9.2)
and the appropriate coordinate transformation is:

2
2
D xx = D L cos ( ) + DT sin ( )
2
2
D yy = D L sin ( ) + DT cos ( )
D xy = ( D L - DT ) sin( ) cos( )
(9.3)
in which DL and DT are the estimated dispersion coefficients parallel and

perpendicular, respectively, to the local advective velocity vector. Their
role are very important in depth-integrated modelling, where DL incorporates not only the pure longitudinal turbulent diffusion but also the effect
due to the interaction between the vertical shear of horizontal velocities
and vertical turbulent diffusion.
9.1.2
Langevin equation
The following analysis shows briefly how to equate equation (2.1) to the
Fokker-Planck equation, which governs particle transport in a random
walk model.
The position x(t) of each particle in a random walk model is described by
the non-linear Langevin equation (Gardiner /9/):
dx
= A ( x, t ) + B ( x, t ) ( t )
dt
(9.4)
where A(x,t) is a known vector representing the deterministic forces that

act to change x(t), B(x,t) is a known tensor that characterises the random
forces, and ( t ) is a vector composed of random numbers that represent
the random/or chaotic nature of tidal mixing which, when averaged over
sufficiently long time and space scales, becomes effectively random.
62
M3&M21 PA/SA
Equation (2.4) becomes equivalent to the stochastic differential equation
dx = A ( x ( t ), t )dt + B ( x ( t ), t )dW ( t )
(9.5)
where dW(t) is the random Wiener process. According to Gardiner /9/ the
mean value of dW(t) is zero and the mean square is proportional to dt.
The simplest discretization of equation (9.5) is the explicit Euler scheme
for stochastic differential equations. This scheme is of order t
(Kloeden and Platen, /13/).
x n = x n x n 1 = A ( x n 1, t n 1 )t + B ( x n 1, t n 1 ) tZ n (9.6)
where Zn is a vector of one, two, or three independent random numbers
depending on the dimensionality of the problem from a distribution with
zero mean and unit variance.
9.1.3
Fokker-Planck equation
In the limit when the number of particles is infinite and the time step is
infinitely small, equation (9.6) is equivalent to the Fokker-Planck equation
2
f
1--- B B f
+
( Ai f ) =
t xi
x i x j 2 ik jk
(9.7)
where f(x,t|x0,t0) is the conditional probability density function for x(t) .
63
The partial differential equation (9.1) and the Fokker-Planck equation

(9.7) are equivalent if
Dxx h + Dxx + Dxy h + Dxy + u

h x
h y
x
y
A=
Dyy h + Dyy + Dyx h + Dyx + v

h y
h x
y
x
D xx
B BT =
D yx
D xy
D yy
(9.8)
(9.9)
and
f =ch
(9.10)
In the special case where Dxy = Dyx = 0, i.e., the coordinate system is
aligned the principal axes of dispersion, the random walk analogue to
equation (9.1) becomes
h
x = ( D xx + D xx + u) t + 2 D xx t Z n
h x
x
(9.11)
D yy h D yy
+
+ v) t + 2 D yy t Z n
y
h y
(9.12)
y = (
Looking at equations (9.11) and (9.12) we see that the deterministic or

'advective' velocity of a parcel in a given direction consists of three components: (1) the true advective velocity, u, (2) the gradient of the dispersion coefficient and (3) a term due to the gradient of the water depth. In
case of a constant dispersion coefficient the contribution from (2) is zero.
The choice of the random component is discussed in sec. 9.3.
64
M3&M21 PA/SA
Advection
The time step must be compatible with the grid size to make sure that the
simulation is accurate. This means that the timestep must be chosen such
that a particle at most moves at most one grid cell during one timestep.
9.2
Advection
The combined effects of current and wind drag cause the advection of the
particles.
9.2.1
Current
A significant factor in the transport of the pollutant is the current field,
which can be obtained from a two- or three-dimensional hydrodynamic
model for tidal and wind-driven currents in the region of interest, but a
time series of measurements can also be employed.
MIKE 3 HD
If the the current field is obtained from a MIKE 3 HD simulation it reads
U = [ u ( x, y, z, t ), v ( x, y, z, t ), w ( x, y, z, t ) ]
(9.13)
where u, v, and w are the velocities in the x, y and z directions respectively,

x, y, and z are the Cartesian co-ordinates, and t is time. In MIKE 3 HD the
wind shear layer is resolved, thus the wind contribution should not be
added from the PA/SA simulation.
MIKE 21 HD
A current field from MIKE 21 HD is depth integrated, which means that
the vertical velocities are inherently assumed to be zero and the values of
the horizontal velocities are averaged over the depth
U a = [ u a ( x, y, t ), v a ( x, y, t ) ]
(9.14)
Even if the MIKE 21 HD simulation includes wind, the wind shear layer is
not resolved in the depth integrated field. MIKE 21 PA/SA includes the
possibility of parameterizing the wind shear, which is explained is section
9.2.3.
From the depth integrated velocities a logarithmic velocity profile can be
established, but the simulation can also be run with the homogeneous profile (rarely used as there is no reason for not using the extra information
that the logarithmic profile gives).
65
Logarithmic profile
The logarithmic profile is defined as:
Uf
hz
V ( z ) = ----- ln -------------
k n /30
(9.15)
where
z
= vertical co-ordinate measured from sea surface [m]
V(z)= the logarithmic current profile
= von Krmn's constant (0.42)
= water depth [m]
kn
= Nikuradse roughness [m]
U f = friction velocity [m/s]
The friction velocity is given by
V mean
U f = ---------------------------------
h -
ln ----------- 1
k n /30
(9.16)
where
V mean = mean current velocity [m/s] =
ua + va
and the other variables are defined as above.
The expression in eq. (9.15) equals zero when
kn
z = h -----30
(9.17)
Below this depth the advective velocities are asumed to be zero.
66
M3&M21 PA/SA
Advection
Figure 9.1
9.2.2
Logarithmic current profile and wind induced current profile
Weighting of current and wind

The total drift velocity can be determined by a weighting formula:
U tot = c w ( z )U w + c a ( z )U a
(9.18)
in which
U w = wind velocity vector usually at 10 m above the water surface
U a = depth integrated current velocity vector
cw = wind drift factor

ca
9.2.3
= advective water current factor.
Wind
Wind drift vector
The magnitude of the wind drift vector is commonly assumed to be proportional to the magnitude of the wind speed 10 m above the sea surface,
Uw. This factor cw* is termed with the wind drift factor and the common
value varies from 3 to 4 percent by Al-Rabeh /1/.
The wind contribution is divided into an off-shore contribution and an onshore contribution. The on-shore formulation is employed in shallow
waters with a water depth less than a specified depth, hsep, which is a positive value measured from the free water surface (with unit [m]). The on-
67
shore expression acts over the entire depth. The off-shore formulation
takes over when the water depth exceeds hsep. The off-shore expression
acts only down to the (user) specified depth of wind influence, hw.
Figure 9.2 shows the principle.
Figure 9.2
The wind influence on the advective current. The on-shore expression acts on shallow depths, on deeper water the off-shore expression takes over.
If hsep = 0 the off-shore expression applies all over. If hsep is greater than
the maximum depth the on-shore expression applies at all depths.
The depth of wind influence (hw) should always be greater than
(or equal to) the depth that separates the on-shore and offshore formulations (hsep), otherwise a particle can move from a
wind influenced position to a position with no wind influence
by moving horizontally.
Off-shore formulation
The vertical distribution of the offshore wind drift vector is given by
c w ( z ) = c w exp ( k 0 z )
0 z hw
(9.19)
where
k0
68
= 3/hw [m-1]
M3&M21 PA/SA
Advection
h w = depth of wind influence [m] (input)
= vertical co-ordinate measured from sea surface
c w = wind drift factor [-] (input)
In order not to create an additional mass flux caused by wind shear stress,
the current profile is adjusted such as to have zero net flow. The contribution can be expressed as:
c w (z ) =
1
hw
hw
cw (z ) dz + c w (z )
(9.20)
On-shore formulation
The onshore distribution is based on a parabolic vertical profile and is able
to produce back flow at depth, where the offshore logarithmic profile does
not.
The vertical distribution of the parabolic onshore profile is given by
z
z
c w ( z ) = c w 1 3 --- 1 ---
h
h
0zh
(9.21)
where
h
= local water depth in meter
= vertical particle co-ordinate, measured from sea surface
c w = wind drift factor (input)
The parabolic profile causes the wind-generated flow in the upper third of
the water column to be in the same direction as the current and the flow in
the lower part to be in the opposite direction of the wind. There is no net
depth averaged mass transport due to the wind.
Wind drift angle
Due to the influence from the Coriolis force, the direction of the wind drift
vector is turned relatively to the wind direction. The angle w of deviation
is termed the wind drift angle. It turns to the right on the northern hemi-
69
sphere and to the left on the southern hemisphere. From Al-Rabeh (1994)
/1/, it is assumed that
| U w |3
=
exp
w
g
(9.22)
where
= -0.310-8
= 2838'
w = kinematic viscosity of sea water [kg m-1 s-1]

g
= acceleration due to gravity [m s-2]
The magnitude of the wind drift angle varies with the geographical location and wind speed and it is often estimated as 12-15 degrees in the North
Sea decreasing to 0 at the equator.
9.3
Turbulent dispersion
9.3.1
Horizontal dispersion
Longitudinal and transversal dispersion
The pollutant elements diffuse in the medium. Diffusion occurs in the horizontal and vertical directions. An average element travels in time tp:
S rms, L =
2 D L t p
S rms, T =
2 D T t p
(9.23)
where Srms,L and Srms,T is the root-mean-square distance for both the longitudinal and transversal direction respectively and DL and DT are the horizontal diffusion coefficients.
For any individual element, the diffusion step size S is generated randomly by
S = [R ] r
r
70
r S r
(9.24)
M3&M21 PA/SA
Numerics
where [ R ] r r is the random number in the interval r to r. The value of r is

chosen so that Srms must be equal to the mean square of all values of S.
Since the random number varies from r to r and
1 2
1
S dS =
3
1
(9.25)
then the distance that any element travels by diffusion is

1
S L = [ R ] 1 6 D L t p
S T = [ R ] 1 6 D T t p
(9.26)
Neutral dispersion
The neutral dispersion is given by
S ox
1
= [R ] 1
S oy
6 Do t p
(9.27)
where Do is the neutral dispersion coefficient.

9.3.2
Vertical dispersion
The vertical dispersion plays an important role in sediment calculations,
where it is a dominating factor for the vertical transport of the sediment.
This topic is dealt with in section 10.1.3.
Vertical dispersion is also an issue in oil spill calculations, but in MIKE
21&3 SA it is treated as en entrainment process, see section 11.3.
9.4
Numerics
9.4.1
Bilinear interpolation of current field

The current motion is in most cases obtained from a MIKE 21 or a MIKE
3 HD output. In these current files the velocities are stored a the gridpoints with a given time frequency. As the particles in a Lagrangian discrete parcels model most of the time will be situated at off-grid points a
good interpolation procedure is needed.
71
In order to interpolate the velocities in space the bilinear interpolation is

chosen. The two-dimensional version of the bilinear interpolation scheme
is shown in equation (9.28)
F = F1 + ( F2 F1 ) y + ( F4 F1 ) x
+ ( F 1 F2 + F3 F4 ) x y
(9.28)
where F1, F2, F3 and F4 are known grid point values and x ,y are dimensionless distances, see Figure 9.3.
A similar procedure is applied in 3D. In time a linear interpolation is
adopted.
Figure 9.3
9.4.2
Bilinear interpolation (2D case)
Reflection
Reflection at surface and bottom
This issue is only relevant in PA calculations, where particles are moving
in the vertical (as opposed to SA calculation, where the particles remain
on the surface)
72
M3&M21 PA/SA
Numerics
If a particle during a timestep moves across upper boundary (zi<0) it is

reflected by the following rule:
zi = zi
(9.29)
If a particle moves below the lower boundary (zi>h) the reflection

depends on which type of particle the simulation is run with (dissolved,
1.order sedimentation, sand or mud).
Particles in a dissolved or 1.order sedimentation simulation are perfectly reflected
z i = 2h z i
(9.30)
Particles in a sand simulation are sedimented. When they are eroded

they are given a vertical position corresponding to the depth where the
logarithmic profile equals zero.
z i = h ( k n 30 )
(9.31)
Particles in a mud simulation are sedimented too. When they re-enter

the calculation they are placed at the bottom
zi = h
(9.32)
This makes it easy for a sand particle to escape from the bottom, as it
more easily is caught by the advection, whereas a mud particle tends to
stay sedimented.
Reflection at land points
If a particle encounters land it is reflected by the perfect reflection algorithm. The main property of this algorithm is that the angle of incidence
equals the angle of reflection and that no (kinetic) energy is lost at the
impact. The principle is sketched in Figure 9.4.
73
(xold,yold)
(xnew,ref,ynew,ref)
ybound
0
Figure 9.4
(xnew,ynew)
Principle of perfect reflection. The sketch shows a coastline which

is parallel to the x-gridlines. In the model a land boundary will
always be parallel to either x-gridlines or y-gridlines.
At the end of a timestep the particle is found at the position (xnew,ynew),

which turns out to be on land. The particle is then reflected to the position
(xnew,ref,ynew,ref)
9.4.3
x new,ref = x new
(9.33a)
y new,ref = 2y bound y new
(9.33b)
Calculation of concentration from distribution of particles

PA calculations
The concentration of suspended sediment in a PA calculation is calculated
at the end of a timestep. The horizontal position of a particle defines which
grid cell it belongs to, thus the number of particles in each grid cell can
easily be found. The concentration is obtained by dividing the total mass
of the particles in a grid cell by the volume of the water in the grid cell.
This gives a depth averaged concentration. It is possible to consider only a
layer (as opposed to the entire water column) - in this case only particles
in the specified depth are counted and the averaging is over the layer
depth.
SA calculations
The SA module only tracks particles at the surface, and the concentration of oil , the oil slick thickness, is measured in [mm]. The thickness of
the slick is calculated at the end of a timestep by tallying particles in the
74
M3&M21 PA/SA
Numerics
grid cells and then for each grid cell dividing the total volume of the particles present in the cell by the area of the cell.
75
76
M3&M21 PA/SA
Settling
10
SEDIMENT PROCESSES
The vertical transport of a particle is a result of a sedimentation component and dispersion components.
10.1
Settling
10.1.1
Dissolved matter
In the simplest case the particles act as dissolved matter, i.e. the particles are non-buoyant and follow the flow without settling. If the particles
reach the bottom they are reflected instead of being settled.
10.1.2
1.order sedimentation process

The 1.order sedimentation process is designed for a PA simulation which
is run on a depth-integrated velocity field (e.g. from MIKE 21 HD), where
the logarithmic velocity profile is not activated. As the velocity is uniform
all over the depth the sedimentation criterion described in the next section
cannot be used.
The sedimentation is calculated on the basis of a settling velocity, assuming that the sediment is fully mixed over the vertical. The amount of sedimentation at a given time and place is calculated from a first order
process, using the settling velocity divided by the depth as decay parameter. The suspended amount of material at time step i is given as:
S i = S io exp ( k t p )
(10.1)
where
Si0
= suspended
amount of sediments at time, i [kg]
tp = time step [s]

k
V
h
set
= process constant, k = --------
where
Vset = settling velocity for the individual particle [m/s]
h
= water depth [m]
77
Sediment Processes
10.1.3
Sand and mud sedimentation process

In the vertical direction the substance changes position as a result of the
advective velocity, the settling velocity of the particle and vertical dispersion. The vertical displacement can be expressed as:
new position = old position + settling + dispersion

zi =
z i 1 + ( w + V set )t p + D z
(10.2)
where
zi
= vertical co-ordinate at time, i [m]
Vset = settling velocity of the individual particle [m/s]

w
= vertical current velocity produced by MIKE 3 HD [m/s]
tp = time step [s]

If a sand or mud simulation is run on a 2D current field (from a MIKE 21
HD simulation) the vertical current velocity is zero, i.e. w=0.
The dispersion Dz consists of 2 contributions:
Dz = Dv + Dw
(10.3)
where
Dv
= vertical dispersion caused by turbulence, see equation (10.4).
Dw
= dispersion caused by wind acting on the surface.
Dw is only active over a part of the depth due to the specified 'depth of
wind influence' from the wind.
Turbulent contribution
The vertical transport of the element, Sv, is
S v = [R ] 1
1
78
6 Dv t p
(10.4)
M3&M21 PA/SA
Settling
where Dv is the vertical dispersion coefficient. The form in equation (10.4)

covers the transport of the element upward and downward where the random number varies from 1 to 1.
Settling contribution
If only an average settling velocity is known this can be assigned to all
particles (constant settling velocity). If more detailed information is
available a distribution of the settling velocity can be specified as pairs of
velocity and frequency (varying settling distribution). Then for each
particle the program generates a random settling velocity based on the
specified distribution.
If the distribution of particle size is given the program calculates the corresponding settling velocities using Stokes' law /7/
Vset =
(S 1)g d p2
18 w
(10.5)
where
S
= specific gravity of sediment grain
= gravity [m/s2]
dp = particle size [m]

w = kinematic viscosity of water [m2/s]
Eddy profile
In sedimentation calculations the diffusion model is violated by introducing the setttling velocity Vset. The following approach is described by Deigaard and Hansen, /5/.
A parabolic eddy-viscosity distribution is applied in accordance with the
assumed logarithmic velocity profile, Figure 10.1. This replaces the constant dispersion coefficient Dv applied in non-sediment calculations. In the
following the turbulent dispersion coefficient Dv is taken to equal the eddy
viscosity t , i.e the vertical dispersion coefficient varies over the depth.
t (z ) = U f z (1 z / h )
(10.6)
where
79
Sediment Processes
= von Karman's constant = 0.42
Uf = friction velocity
h
= water depth
= vertical co-ordinate, (0 at the surface)
Figure 10.1
Theoretical eddy viscosity profile
This variation of the vertical dispersion coeffeicient gives rise to an artificial contribution to the settling velocity, Vset,a
V set, a =
t
z
(10.7)
This correction ensures zero net transport of suspended sediment.

Wind contribution
The velocity distribution due to wind shear stresses on the free surface is
considered to be given by
v (z ) = Vs exp ( K z )
(10.8)
where
80
M3&M21 PA/SA
Settling
= vertical co-ordinate, positive downwards (0 at the surface) [m]
= velocity profile coefficient [m-1]
Vs = surface current velocity due to the wind [m/s]
Figure 10.2
Velocity profile due to a wind field. Vertical dispersion
The wind shear stress distribution is approximated in the following way
(z ) = v dV / dz = w (1 z / hw )
(10.9)
hence, considering the velocity distribution presented above, it can be

shown that
v (z ) = w (1 z / hw ) exp (K z ) / (K Vs )
(10.10)
where
hw = depth of wind influence [m], user specified
= water density [kg/m3]
= eddy viscosity [m2/s]
81
Sediment Processes
w = shear stresses at the free surface [N/m2]

The current velocity at the surface due to the wind is by default considered
to be Cw = 2% of the wind speed Uw measured 10 m above datum.
The velocity distribution is then fixed by choosing
at the surface,
v ( 0 ) = Vs = Cw W
at z = hw,
v ( h w ) = 0,05 V s
which implies that K = 3/hw

Hence
z
( z ) = C w U w exp 3 ------
h w
(10.11)
and noting that

2
w = C w U w air water = C w U w 800
(10.12)
we get
z
z
1
( z ) = U w C w 1 ------ exp 3 ------ -----------hw
h w 2400
(10.13)
where
Cw = wind friction coefficient.
Finally, the depth-integration can be performed, yielding
1 hw
4
D w = ------ ( t ) dt = 7,447 10 h w U w
hw 0
(10.14)
Finally, Dw can be expressed:
D w = 6 D w t p
82
[m ]
(10.15)
M3&M21 PA/SA
Settling
Sedimentation and resuspension

The 3D module for sediment calculations includes descriptions of resuspension for both non-cohesive and cohesive materials. The following sections give a brief overview of the 3D sediment specific description.
Sedimentation
Particles falling below the level where the local current velocity falls to
zero (z0=kn/30 above the bed) are assumed to be in a bed shear layer.
For non-cohesive sediment, sedimented particles will remain on the bed,
provided the bottom shear stress is less than the critical shear stress for the
bed material in question, i.e.:
U f < c (S 1) gd
(10.16)
where
Uf = friction velocity [m/s]
c = critical Shield's parameter
S
= relative sediment density [kg/kg]
= acceleration due to gravity [m/s2]
= particle fall diameter [m]
For a bottom shear stress slightly above the critical shear stress at the erosion threshold, particles are seen to jump along the bed. Correspondingly,
high instantaneous concentrations can be found in the bottom layer.
PLEASE NOTE:
The vertical dispersion is affecting the vertical transport of particles and
thereby the amount of particles in the bed shear layer for consolidation of
particles.
Resuspension
At higher shear stresses the possible turbulent suspension becomes larger
than the downward settling of the sediment and sediment may thus be
brought entirely into suspension. The rate of re-suspension is proportional
83
Sediment Processes
to the square root of the friction velocity. The limit at which re-suspension
can occur is given by:
6 bed t p > Vset t p
(10.17)
where
bed =eddy viscosity at the apparent bed [m2/s]
Vset = particle settling velocity [m/s]
tp = model time step [s]
10.2
Light Attenuation
The light extinction at the seabed caused by sediments in suspension is
described by Lambert-Beers law.
I b = I s exp ( K b h ) exp ( a c h )
(10.18)
where
Ib
= light intensity at the bottom
Is
= light intensity at the surface
Kb = background dampening for clear water [m-1]
84
= water depth
= light extinction coefficient [m2/kg]
= concentration of suspended sediment
M3&M21 PA/SA
Decay
10.3
Decay
To every particle a mass of the substance in question is attached. The mass
may change during the calculation if a decay is defined. First order decay
is included:
dM
= kM
dt
(10.19)
where
M = mass [kg]
k
= decay factor [s-1]
After integration the decay law yields:
M (t ) = M o exp ( k t )
(10.20)
The decay time T90 is defined as the time where 90% of the mass is lost
M ( T 90 )
------------------ = 0,1
M0
(10.21)
from which the decay constant is calculated
ln ( 10 )
k = ---------------T 90
(10.22)
85
Sediment Processes
86
M3&M21 PA/SA
Spreading
11
OIL SPILL PROCESSES
11.1
Spreading
Oil discharged on a water surface will immediately start to increase its
surface area. Two different mechanisms cause this. The first is spreading
induced primarily by the oil properties (differences in the density of the oil
and seawater, surface tension). The sum of retardation and spreading
forces will determine the spreading rate. Fay /8/ has developed the well
known and commonly used three phase spreading theory. The three phases
are (1) the primary phase, in which only gravity (spreading) and inertia
(retardation) are important, (2) an intermediate phase, in which gravity
and viscous (retardation) forces dominate, and (3) a final phase, in which
surface tension (spreading) is in equilibrium with viscous forces.
The second mechanism is dispersion. Random motions induced by waves,
wind and tidal currents translocate the elements of the slick relative to
each other and to the centre of mass of the slick. When the slick is decomposed to slicklets with stable surface areas, only dispersion will move the
oil elements away from the centre of mass.
Mackay et al. /14/ developed a modified gravity-viscous formulation of
Fays theory for area growth based on the following assumptions:
z
The oil can be regarded as a homogeneous mass.
The slick is assumed to spread out as a thin, continuous layer in a circular pattern. However, real oil slicks often have irregular shapes and
often break up into streaks.
No loss of mass from the slick is assumed. This assumption is, of

course, not applicable to real oil slicks, where both evaporation and
dispersion are important.
With these assumptions the change of slick area, Aoil, with time can be
expressed by
V oil
dAoil
= K a A1/3
oil
dt
Aoil
4/3
(11.1)
where:
Ka = constant [s-1]
87
Oil Spill Processes
= time [s]
Aoil = Roil2 [m2]

The oil slick volume is:
2
Voil = Roil
hs
(11.2)
The initial oil slick thickness is estimated to be

hs
=10 cm at t=0
(11.3)
It is well known that after certain time oil spilled on the sea ceases to
spread until the Pour Point of the individual oil particles exceeds the local
sea water temperature.
11.2
Evaporation
Evaporation from an oil spill is influenced by the composition of the oil,
air and sea temperatures, spill area, wind speed, solar radiation, and slick
thickness. Various attempts have been made to quantify the evaporation
rates.
The following assumptions are made:
z
No diffusion limitation exists within the oil film. This is in general a

reasonable assumption of temperature above 0C and oil slick thickness below 5-10 cm.
The oil forms an ideal mixture.
The partial pressure of the components in the air, compared to the

vapour pressure, is negligible.
With these assumptions the rate of evaporation can be expressed as:
N i = k ei Pi
e
SAT
/ RT M i X i [ m3 / m2 s ]
(11.4)
where
Ne = the evaporation rate
88
M3&M21 PA/SA
Vertical dispersion
ke = the mass transport coefficient

PSAT= the vapour pressure
R = the gas constant
T
= the temperature
M = the molecular weight

X = the mole fraction
=the density of oil fraction

i
= refers to the properties of component i
The estimate of kei is based on Mackay et al. /14/ and is defined as

-2/3
0.78
0.045
k ei = k Aoil Sci U w
[m/s]
(11.5)
where
k
= a constant (to be estimated)
Aoil = the slick area [m2]

Sci = vapour Schmidts number for component i
Uw = wind speed [m/s]
11.3
Vertical dispersion
Transport into the water column can be accomplished by a number of
mechanisms: dissolution, dispersion, accommodation, and sedimentation.
Dispersion and accommodation are by far the most important mechanism
during the first week of weathering.
Dispersion is a mechanical process. Water turbulence tears off globules of
oil and entrains them, forming an oil-in-water emulsion. These emulsions
can be stabilised by surface active agents coating the oil-water interface
and thus preventing the oil from coalescing. This formation of colloids is
called accommodation. In hard weather the dominant dispersion mechanism is probably wave breaking, while in calm weather the most signifi-
89
Oil Spill Processes
cant mechanism is probably the stretching compression of the slick,

leading to droplet separation.
The fraction of sea surface dispersed in the water column per unit time is
calculated as a lost fraction of sea surface, under non-wave breaking conditions, and is calculated by
D = Da Db
(11.6)
where Da is the fraction of the sea surface dispersed per second and Db is
the fraction of the dispersed oil not returning to the oil slick, expressed by
Da =
0.11 (1 + U w )2
3600
(11.7)
where
Uw = wind speed
and
Db =
1
1 + 50 oil h s ow
(11.8)
where
oil = oil viscosity [cP]
hs
= oil slick thickness [cm]
ow = oil-water interfacial tension [dyne cm-1]

The rate of upwelling of dispersed oil droplets is calculated by
d V oil
= D a (1 - D b )
dt
90
(11.9)
M3&M21 PA/SA
Dissolution
11.4
Dissolution
Assuming that the actual concentration of hydrocarbons is negligible compared to the solubility, the rate of dissotution is expressed by
dV dsi
= Ks i C isat X mol i M i Aoil
dt
i
(11.10)
where
Cisat = solubility of fraction i [mg/kg water]
X mol = molar fraction of fraction i

M = molar weight of fraction i [kg/mol]
= density of fraction i [kg/m3]
2
Aoil = oil slick area [m ]
The mass transfer coefficient for dissolution is calculated by
K Si = 2.36 10 -6 ei
(11.11)
where
1,4 for alkanes
e i = 2,2 for aromatics
1,8 for oilfines
11.5
(11.12)
Emulsification
One of the most important processes leading to the persistence of the oil at
the sea surface is the formation of a water-in-oil emulsion (dispersed water
droplets in the oil), turning the oil into a very viscous mixture. Such an
emulsion can contain up to 80% water. The ease of formation and the stability are very dependent on the oil type and environmental conditions.
For instance, the stability of the emulsion is closely related to the amount
of surfactants present in the oil and the rate of water uptake is closely
91
Oil Spill Processes
related to sea state. A mathematical description of this process including

all relevant parameters is not yet available. Existing emulsification models
are rather empirical by nature.
A reasonable model describing emulsification can be obtained by regarding the reaction as an equilibrium reaction.
Oil + water
Water-in-oil emulsion
The change in water content with time
(11.13)
dy w
can then be expressed by:
dt
dy w
= R1 - R 2
dt
(11.14)
R1 is thus the rate of water-uptake. It increases with increasing temperature and wind speed. This is taken into consideration by expressing R1 as
R1 = K 1
(1+U w )2
oil
(y
max
w
- yw
)
(11.15)
where
Uw = the wind speed
oil = the oil viscosity
ywmax= the maximum water content (input)
yw = the actual water content
K1 = a coefficient to be estimated (input)
R2 is the rate of water release. It decreases with increasing content of
asphaltenes, wax and surfactants in the oil and with increasing oil viscosity. This is expressed by:
R2 = K 2
92
1
yw
AS Wax oil
(11.16)
M3&M21 PA/SA
Heat transport
where
As = content of asphaltenes in the oil (wt %)
Wax= content of wax in the oil (wt %)
K2 = a coefficient to be estimated
The emulsification constants K1 and K2 were estimated to:
7
K 1 = 5 10 [kg/m3]
5
K 2 = 1,2 10 [kg(wt%)/s]
(11.17)
(11.18)
The coefficients K1 and K2 will be estimated using experimental data from

a controlled oil spill in Haltenbanken /12/.
11.6
Heat transport
Vapour pressure and viscosity are strongly temperature dependent. It is
furthermore observed that an oil slick can become considerably warmer
than the surrounding air and sea. It is therefore relevant to establish a
model for calculation of the slick temperature. Figure 11.1 shows a heat
budget for an oil slick.
93
Oil Spill Processes
Figure 11.1
11.6.1
Heat budget for an oil slick: 1 = heat transfer between air and oil, 2 =
emitted and received radiation, 3 = solar radiation,4 = evaporative
heat loss, 5 = heat transfer between oil and water, 6 = emitted and
received radiation.
Heat transfer between oil and air

The heat transfer between the oil slick and the atmosphere is expressed by
oil - air
HT
- air
= Aoil k oil
( T air - T oil )
H
(11.19)
where
0.67
oil - air
H
S
= k m a C pa c
P r air
(11.20)
and
Sc = Schmidt's number
Toil = oil temperature [ Kelvin]
Tair = air temperature [Kelvin]
a = density of air [kg/m3]
Cpa = heat capacity of air [j/kg/C]
94
M3&M21 PA/SA
Heat transport
The Prandtl's number for air is calculated by
Pr =
C pa a
0.0241(0.18055 + 0.003 T air )
(11.21)
where the heat capacity of air is given by equation (11.42). If there is no

evaporation, kHoil-air is simply calculated by Duffie and Beckmann /6/.
oil air
kH
11.6.2
= 5,7 + 3,8U w
(11.22)
Heat transfer between oil and water

The heat transfer between the oil slick and the water is expressed by:
oil - water
HT
- water
(T water - T oil )
= Aoil k oil
H
(11.23)
where kHoil-water is the heat transfer coefficient calculated by Bird et al. /2/:
oil - water
kH
= 0.332 + w C p w Re-0.5 Pr -2/3

w
(11.24)
and the heat capacity of the water is given by equation (11.44).

The Prandtl's number of water is based on the following expression e.g.
Duffie and Beckmann /6/.
Pr w = C p w w w
0.330 + 0.000848 ( T w - 273.15)
(11.25)
The Re is a characteristic Reynolds number for calculating the heat transfer coefficient of oil-water and is defined by
Re =
rel
4 Aoil
(11.26)
where rel is the kinematic viscosity of the oil slick.
95
Oil Spill Processes
11.6.3
Solar Radiation
The solar radiation received by the oil slick is dependent on a number of
parameters, the most important being the location of the spill, the date and
time of day, cloudiness, and the content of water, dust, and ozone in the
air.
The variation of solar radiation over a day is assumed to be sinusoidal:
t - t sunrise sunrise
max
sin
< t < t sunset
, t
Kt Ho
sunset
sunrise
-t
t
H(t) =
0,
otherwise
(11.27)
The day starts at tsunrise and ends at tsunset

tsunrise = time of sunrise (seconds after midnight)
tsunset = time of sunset (seconds after midnight)
tsunset can be calculated by adding the day length, Td, to tsunrise.
sunset
= t sunrise + T d
[s]
(11.28)
The day length is calculated by the following expression
T d = acos ( tan tan )
(11.29)
where
= latitude (north positive)
= declination (the angular position of the sun at solar noon with

respect to the plane of the equator)
284 + n
23,45 sin 360 ------------------
365
96
(11.30)
M3&M21 PA/SA
Heat transport
H0max is the extraterrestrial radiation at noon, calculated by Duffie and

Beckmann /6/
12 K t
I sc
t
t sunrise
360 n
1 + 0.033 cos

365
(cos( ) cos( ) sin ( s ) + s sin ( ) sin ( ))
H 0max =
sunset
(11.31)
where
Isc = solar constant = 1.353 [W/m]
n
= day number of the year
s = sunrise hour angle, solar noon being zero, and each hour equalling
15 of longitude (mornings being positive)
and
H
solar radiation reaching the surface
K t = ------ = -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------H0
extra terrestrial radiation
If the sky is cloud-free, Kt 0.75; otherwise Kt will decrease with increasing cloudiness.
A high fraction, a (albedo), of this solar radiation reaching the ground is
reflected. The net heat input from solar radiation will thus be:
( 1 a ) H ( t ) [W/m2]
11.6.4
(11.32)
Emitted and received radiation

The oil slick will lose and receive heat due to long wavelength emitted
radiation. The amount of heat received and lost due to radiation is easily
quantified using Stefan-Boltzman's law. The net amount of heat received
by the oil slick is calculated from
2
rad
4
4
4
H total = (l air T air + l water T water - 2 l oil T oil ) [W/ m ]
(11.33)
where
8
= Boltzman constant = 5,72 10 [W/(m2K)]
lair, lwater, loil= emissivities of air, water and oil, respectively
97
Oil Spill Processes
Tair, Twater, Toil

11.6.5
= temperatures of air, water and oil, respectively
Evaporative heat loss

Evaporative cooling will cause a heat loss of:
number of components
vapor
N i H vi [W/m2]
(11.34)
where
Hvi= heat of vaporisation of component i [J/mol]
A dynamic heat balance for the slick thus gives the following:
d Toil
=
dt
1
4
(1 a ) H + l air Tair4 + l water Twater
2 l oil Toil4
Cp h
)]
+ how (Twater Toil ) + hoa (Tair Toil ) N i H vi

dV
dV
+ water w C pw + oil oil C poil (Twater Toil ) Aoil

dt
dt
(11.35)
where
dW water
dt
dV oil
dt
= rate of water uptake [m3/s]

= amount of upwelling dispersed oil drops [m3/s]
Cpo
= heat capacity of oil [J/kg C]
Cpw
= heat capacity of water [J/kg C]
11.7
Chemical and physical properties of the oil
11.7.1
Oil fractions
Oil is a mixture of hundreds of hydrocarbons, whose individual chemical
properties vary widely. The properties of the oil as a whole depend on the
98
M3&M21 PA/SA
properties of the individual constituents. Because these constituents

weather at different rates, the slicks properties will change with time.
The properties of the oil are described by dividing the oil into eight fractions, defined according to their distillation properties and their chemical
structur (alkane or aromatic). Table 11.1 summarises these fractions.
Table 11.1
Oil fractions
Fraction
Description
Boiling range
C6-C12 (Paraffin)
69-230C
C13-C25 (Paraffin)
230-405C
C6-C12 (Cycloparaffin)
70-230C
C13-C23 (Cycloparaffin)
230-405C
C6-C11 (Aromatic)
80-240C
C12-C18 (Aromatic)
240-400C
C9-C25 (Naphteno-aromatic)
180-400C
Residual (incl. heterocycles)
>400C
The most important physical and chemical properties (average) of each

fraction are listed in Table 11.2.
Table 11.2
Physical and chemical properties of oil fractions. The values for

vapor pressure are taken from Yong and Wang /15/, the value t is
the temperature in C.
Fractio Mole
n
weight
[g/mole]
1
128.0
Density Viscosit Vapor pressure

[mm/Hg]
[kg/m3] y at
100F
[cs]
715
0.536 10(6.94-
Surface
tension
[103N/m]
29.9
1417.61(t+202.17))
268.0
775
4.066 10(7.01-
35.2
1825.05(t+149.76))
99
Oil Spill Processes
Table 11.2
Physical and chemical properties of oil fractions. The values for

vapor pressure are taken from Yong and Wang /15/, the value t is
the temperature in C.
Fractio Mole
n
weight
[g/mole]
3
Density Viscosit Vapor pressure

[mm/Hg]
[kg/m3] y at
100F
[cs]
124.0
825
2.000 10(6.91-
Surface
tension
[103N/m]
29.9
1441.79(t+204.7))
237.0
950
4.000 10(6.99-
35.2
1893.78(t+151.82))
110.5
990
0.704 10(6.91-
32.4
1407.34(t+208.48))
181.0
1150
6.108 10(6.97-
29.9
1801.00(t+162.77))
208.0
1085
3.000 10(6.97-
29.9
1789.85(t+164.56))
8
11.7.2
600.0
1050
458.0 0
47.2
Viscosity
Viscosity will increase during weathering, primarily due to evaporation
and emulsification. Furthermore, viscosity is strongly dependent on the
slick's temperature. The viscosity is calculated in three steps.
First, calculate "water-free" oil slick viscosity at Tref = 100F, using the
Kendall-Monroe equation:
oil
T REF
= X i 1/3
i
i=1
(11.36)
where
Xi =the model fraction of fraction i.
100
M3&M21 PA/SA
Second, calculate the oil slick viscosity at the actual temperature e.g.
CONCAWE (1983).
[ (
)]
log[log ( Toil + 0.7 )]= log log Toilref + 0.7 - B log
T
T ref
(11.37)
where
T
= temperature (K)
= is kinematic viscosity at the temperature T (Cs)
= 3.98
Third, calculate the slick viscosity at the actual temperature and water
content, using an equation suggested by Hossain and Mackay /10/:
= oil exp
2.5 y w
1 - 0.654 y w
(11.38)
Evaporation also causes an increase in the viscosity which can be calculated by
oil = 0oil exp ( C 4 F e )
(11.39)
where
C4 = dimensionless content in the oil [wt %]
Fe = fraction of oil evaporated
The combined effect of emulsification and evaporation can be calculated
by the following equation, which is the sum of the two effects in differential form
dy w
2.5 oil
1 dV e
d oil
+
= C 4 oil 0
2
dt
V oil dt (1 - y max
y w ) dt
w
(11.40)
101
Oil Spill Processes
11.7.3
Surface tension
The surface tension of the oil is simply calculated by
8
T = X iTi
(11.41)
i=1
11.7.4
Heat capacity
The heat capacity of the air, oil and water is given as the following equations, respectively
C p a = 998.73 + 0.133 T air -
C p o = 1684.74 +
119.3 10 5
2
T air
,
(11.42)
3.3912 ( T oil - 273.15)
oil 10 -3
(11.43)
and
3
C p w = (4.3684 - 0.00061 T w ) 10
(11.44)
All temperatures are given in Kelvin.

11.7.5
Pour point
For water-free oil the following simple correlation is used (CMFMWOS
/3/)
P p,oil = P p 0 + K p 1 F e
(11.45)
The pour point increase for the water-in-oil emulsion is calculated by

(CMFMWOS /3/)
P p oil - water = P p oil + | P p oil | K p 2 y
102
(11.46)
M3&M21 PA/SA
APPENDIX A
103
104
M3&M21 PA/SA
A.1
REFERENCES
AppenDIX A
/1/
Al-Rabeh, A.H., 1994. Estimating surface oil spill transport due to

wind in the Arabian Gulf. Ocean Engng, Vol. 21 No. 5, pp 461-465.
/2/
Bird, R.B., W.E. Steward and E.N. Lightfoot, 1960. Transport Phenomena. Wiley and Sons, New York.
/3/
CMFMWOS, 1985. Computer Model Forecasting Movements and

Weathering of Oil Spills. Final Report for the European Economic
Community, WQI and DHI, October 1985.
/4/
CONCAWE, 1983. Characteristics of Petroleum and its Behaviour

at Sea. Report no 8/83.
/5/
Deigaard, R. and E.A. Hansen, 1994. Simulation of Turbulent Diffusion of Suspended Sediment by a Random Walk Model. Prog. Rep
75, Institute of Hydrodynamics and hydraulic Engineering, technial
University of Denmark.
/6/
Duffie, J.A. and W.A. Beckmann, 1974. Solar Energy Thermal

Processes. Wiley Interscience, New York.
/7/
Engelund, F.A., Fl. Bo Pedersen, 1982. Hydraulik. Den Private

Ingenirfond, Danmarks Tekniske Hjskole, pp 68-69.
/8/
Fay, J.A., 1969. The spread of Oil Slick on a Calm Sea. In Oil on
the Sea.
/9/
Gardiner, C.W., 1985. Handbook of stochastic methods for Physics

Chemistry and Natural Science. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
/10/
Hossain, K and D. Mackay, 1980. Demoussifier - a new chemical

for oil spill countermeasures. Spill Technology Newsletter, v5, n6,
pp 154-156.
/11/
Hunter, J.R., 1987. The application of Lagrangian particle tracking

technique to modelling dispersant in the sea. In Numerical Modelling: Application to Marine Systems, ed. J. Noye, North-Holland.
/12/
IKU - Institut for kontinentalsokkelundersgelser: The experimental Oil Spill in Haltenbanken 1982, IKU Publication No. 112,
1984.
/13/
Kloeden, P and E. Platen, 1995. Numerical Solution of Stochastic
105
References
Differential Equations. Springer
106
/14/
Mackay, D, I. Bruis, R. Cascarenhus and S. Peterson, 1980. Oil

Spill Processes and Models. EPS, R&D Division, Canada.
/15/
Yong, W.E. and H. Wang, 1977. Modelling of Oil Evaporation in

aqueous environment. Water Research, Vol. 11 pp 879-887.
M3&M21 PA/SA
INDEX
107
Index
A
advection
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
C
current motion
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
D
Dispersion . . . .
dispersion . . . .
dissolution . . . .
dissolved matter
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
89
70
91
77
E
Evaporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
F
Fokker-Planck equation . . . . . . . . 63
L
Lagrangian Discrete Parcels Method 61
Langevin equation . . . . . . . . . . . 62
light extinction . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
O
Oil fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
R
Reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Resuspension . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
S
Settling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
slick temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
T
temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
V
vertical displacement . . . . . . . . . 78
Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
W
water-in-oil emulsion . . . . . . . . . . 91
wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
wind friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
108
M3&M21 PA/SA

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MIKE 21 & MIKE 3 PA/SA

Particle Analysis and Oil Spill Analysis Module

DHI Software 2007

Software development by : xxxxx

G:\f-share\MikeZero\new\source\M3\ParticleSpillAnalysis\Manual\Cover.fm 22 January 2007 5:40 am

MIKE 21 & MIKE 3 PA/SA

ABOUT THIS GUIDE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

OIL SPILL PARAMETERS . . . .

5.21.5 Shore Current Zone and Depth of Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

ADVECTION AND DISPERSION . . . . . .

Appendix A A.1REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

ABOUT THIS GUIDE

ABOUT This Guide

as a limited number of flow patterns, a socalled database. The database

Furthermore the Number of Particles pr. timestep should be given.

In an SA simulation the decaying processes are due to Heat Transport

Horizontal dispersion (longitudinal and transversal coefficients)

If the dispersion is independent of the current, the dispersion coefficient

NOTE: Dispersion coefficients in a Lagrangian model are independent of

as a constant value in time and space

Eddy and Logarithmic Velocity Profile

The threshold value should be given in units

kg/m3 (concentration) for a PA simulation and

mm (oil slick thickness) for a SA simulation

The program calculates the exceedance frequency between 0 and 100%,

1st Order Sediment Process

Mud and Sand

Frequency function for settling velocity

Frequency function for particle size

In both cases a type 0 file containing measured settling velocities/grain

Output Areas (PA)

Output Areas (PA)

Particle tracks including vertical position in Oresund , Denmark

OIL SPILL PARAMETERS

Dissolution and Entrainment

Oil Spill Parameters

Output Areas (SA)

Selecting the Model Area

adding one more component to be calculated, the CPU time increases

the specification file containing the simulation specifications. This file

the model set-up

statistics of files used and generated

a message for each completed time step

Instantaneous oil components (up to eight) [mm]

Remarks and Hints (CPU)

Dispersion Coefficients Within the Models

A dispersion coefficient to account for the dispersion caused by

A dispersion coefficient for the description of the stirring due to

Except for Dw the dispersion coefficients are either described as constants

Recommended Dispersion Values

where Dl is the longitudinal dispersion coefficient, x is the grid size, t is

uf Bottom friction velocity

kg/m3 (concentration) for a PA simulation

mm (oil slick thickness) for a SA simulation

The program calculates the exceedance frequency between 0 and 100%,

as a limited number of flow patterns, a socalled database. The database

Line Discharge Calculations

Logarithmic Velocity Profile

Orientation of discharge line

You can make up to 3 discharge calculations, and it is allowed that the

Logarithmic Velocity Profile

Maximum Particle Age

the advective current should be specified for each area

bed resistance should be specified for each area (constant or 2D map)