‘THE HISTORY OF HUMAN SOCIETY General Baier: JH. Pram Prehistoric Societies Grahame Clark nd Smart Pit ‘Phe Durch Seborne Erpize 16c0-t850. C, R. Bow Tae Spanish Seaborne Empize JH. ary Pioneer America Joe ln ‘The Grecke $809) Andros ‘Thetomgmse Sane li sah CR Ber pe Romans" Dal Daly Input Cine Raywed Des “The Fest Gent Gvations Jape Haber “The Jews Cui Roth Siman Sohne The Bish Seaboane Empire J Ph ‘The French Sesborne Empire Frederik Qxine “The Mesieal Mediterascan World ArthrHibert Thain and the West Ani Sel China and the West Jame Cen Span Mri Jes ‘Aiea J.D. Faye THE PORTUGUESE SEABORNE EMPIRE 1415-1825 Cc. R. BOXER Hutchinson of London38 Vicistudes of Empire spice monopoly, and the belief that Christian allies could be found in some of the lands bordering on the Indian Ocean, enabled King Manel to overcome the hesititions of several of his counsellors, and to launch bis litle kingdom on its spectacular cateer of ailtant enterprise in Monsoon Asia CHAPTER I Shipping and spices in Asian seas 1f00- 1600 se A pistinguisien Tadien historian, the late K. M. Pasikkar, Sherved in his populas book Asie and Wectere Deminane (1949) Gat the pioneer voyage of the Portuguese to India inaugurated ‘vint he termed the Vasco da Gama epoch of Asan history, rg-1943. This period may be defined as an age of maritine power, of authority based on the control of the seas by the Enropean nations alone; at any rte down to the emergence of America and Japan as major naval powers at the end of the nineteenth century. In the history of these 4oo years nothing is more remarkable thaa the way ia Which the Portaguese managed to secute and retain for virtually the whole of the sisteenth ‘century 2 dominant positon inthe maritime tade of the Jadin ‘Gcean and an importaat share of the seabomne trade to the east of the stats of Melua. “Admittedly the Portuguese reached India ata singulaly forex- tic time for themselves, as may be seen by taking the briefest pesible survey of the Asian Scene atthe tam of the Sfeenth and Sinteenth centuries. This is best done by dealing with the coun- ttcs concesned from west to ett, roughly in the order in which the Portuguese came into contact with them. The East African lito is here included in the tezm Asi, since thea and for long sftereards che Swahili coast from Somaliland to Sofa was closely connected with Arabia and India, politically, cultueally snd economically, The Portuguese used the expression Estado da Inds (State of Ind) to describe theis conguerts and discoveries4 Vicistudes of Enpire in the maritime zegions between the Cape of Good Hope and the Persian Gulf on the one side of Asia, and Japan and Timor on the other, Confusingly enough, the Portuguese also used the sword ‘Inds’ to denote sometimes the Indian subveontinent and sometimes the narrow strip of land between the Western Ghats and the sea "The most important of the chain of Swahili city-states strung along the Fast Afvican coast in 15c0 were Kilwa, Mombacs, Malindi and Pate. They had artiged a high degree of cull Aowering and commercial prosperity, although their degeee of Ilamisation varied from the thinnest venee® to the austerely devout, Thele culture was predominantly Ara, chough Persian (Ghiras) origin was claimed by many, and Swahili society asa ‘whole wis deeply Afccanised through generstions oF marriage tind concubiaage with Bantu women from the interior. Gold, ivory, and slaves were the principal products which chese wah setlementsseoared from the Bants, or Kafies (unbelievers) a= they ailed them. These were exchanged for beads, textiles and other commodities brought by Arb ind Gujarati traders from the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea and India. Distegarding the Coptic Christin kingdom of Abyssinia in its highland fistness, we come next to the Mameluke empire, com- prising Bgypt, Sia and the Hej, which was thea stil out. ‘wardly prosperous. Its commercial prosperity was largely due to the tole which the Mameluke rulers levied on the overland spice trade routes to Eutope, respeedively ftom the Persian Gulf via Aleppo and Alexasdeeta, and from the Red Sea via Suez, Cairo, ‘and Alexandria, Most of Arabia was a barren waste inubed by roving Bedouis, an finged from the southern boundary of the [igjz tothe head of the Pessin Gulf by a numberof states and tribes, of which some on the nozth coast owed a shadowy alle lance tn the Shah of Ormuz. This potentate claimed to rule over the Petsin and the Arabian coats opposite the litle island atthe fenttance to the Gulf on which his capital city stood; but in eect, his authority was limited to tis barre islet and tothe neighbour ing one of Kishm (Queixome). Ormu2 city was one ofthe richest entrepots in the world, although the island on which it was sitwated produced nothing save sale and sulphur. But nearly all the trade berween Tedia and Persia was channelied throug it sipping and spies in Asian seas 1500-1609 a apart fom its large shave of the commerce in Indonesian spices tod Arabian horses. Ts ins, the gold era (sera) and the fiver lari, were current in all the Indian, Persian and Arabian feaports and as far east as Malace, In Persia proper, the foonder Of the Sul (Safavid) dynasty, Shah Ismail I, was expanding his (dominions in all dictions, and was on the verge of coming into tollsion with the Ottoman Turks oa his western borders. The ‘sh, when it cue in 1514, was exacesbated by the Fact thatthe “Grand Sophy” was an ardent Shia, whereas the “Great Turk yas fanatical adherent of the Sunni form of Islam. Tria, then a5 now, was deeply divided between Windus and Muslims. The so-called Moguls or Mughals (in reality, Centeal ‘Asian Turks) ad aot yet crossed the Hinds Kush to invade the plkins of Hindustan; but much of qorthesa India had been con fqvered by previous Muhammadgn invaders, whose descendants fled powerful principalities in Gujarat, Delhi and Benge Nevertheles, northern India, though ‘politically ruled by ‘Muslims, save for the powerful Rajput confederscy, contained & fsumerous Hindu popolation which passively resisted all the Jisempts of its conquerors to iepose thei creed. The same was tue, 0 some extent of the Devesn, where five Mubammadan saltnates wacred with each other and with thie southecly neigh ‘ou, the grest Hindu empire of Vijayanagae. This empire, known to the Portuguese as Bisraga, was the largest and most power Indian state a the time of Vasco da Gama’sacrval. But ie had a0 direct acess to the sea on the west coast, whereas one of the Deceani kingdoms, Bijapur, had a flowishing port at Gos, The (Canart and Malabar coastal regions t0 the south ofthis place were largely secluded from the interior by the Western Ghats. ‘They were divided among a number of independent petty Hinds sas, of whom the Semorin (Ser-aja) of Calicut wis the most lmporant If southern India was politically Hindu, in contrast to the Muslim centre and north, there were many peiceful com ‘munities of Arab and other Mubammadan traders seatered throughout the Hindu sates, where they were greatly respected tnd wielded considerable igiuence. Ie may beadded that Ceylon, ‘mainly peopled by Buddhist Sinhalese, included the Hindu Tamil [kingdom of Jafin in the north of the idand. A Muslim power fad never invaded Ceylon, bur there were a sumber of Mubaan-ma Virsstndes of Empire sada merchants of ladian or Arsb origin established at Colombo and elsewhere on the coast, ‘The regions corsespanding to present-day Burma, Sitm, ad Indochina were occupied by 4 number of warring sates whone laleidoscopi shifts of fortune cannot be followed even in outline hhere. The Hinayana form of Buddhism was dominant in Pegs (Lower Buzma), Siam and Cambodia, but it was tinged with many Hindu practices, particulary in Cambodia, where the Brahmin influence was stl very song. The Khmer empire in Indochins was a thing of the past, and Angkor an oversrown ruin in the jangle. Champa was steadily yielding ground to ce southward advance of the Annamites (ot Vietnamese) down to the east coast. The later were much mace influenced by Chinese than by Tadian cultural aod religious contac; but they were tsowilling to accord more than s purely token overlordship to the occrpants of the Deagoa Tone st Peking: ‘Coming down the Malay peninsula towards the Indonesian sschipelago we find the kingdoms of Patani, Singora, and Ligor Under Siamese politial inftence, but also affected by Chinese ccoltural and commercial contacts. Malacea was the sext of the ‘wealthiest sultanate ia the peninsula, and a great emporium for ‘the spice trade with the Molaces, ships eoming feom places 2 fir away as the Ryukyu Islands and Arabia es rulers had gone over to Islam in te fourteenth century, but Hinde Tamil traders From ‘Coromandel were made as welese in the port as were Muslims From Gujuet, Java and Sumatra, Europeans who visited Malaocs at the heigh oF its prosperity just before the Portuguese occupa: tion wrote Iyeieal accounts oF this thriving port which were echoed by Tomé Pies in his Syme Oriertal of 153. "No trading pore ar large ss Malacca is known, nor any where they dealin Such fine and highly prized merchandise. Goods from all over the East are found here; goods from all over the West are cold her, Its atthe end ofthe monsoons, where you fad what you want, And sometimes more than you ae looking for.” Ormuz at cae ead ‘of the Indian Ocean and Malacca at the other were the two great ‘Asian entrepéts for the collection sad diveribution of luxury ‘Boods, including the Indowesian spices which eventually reached Burope via the Levant. ‘Sumatra, che second largest island ofthe Indonesian group, wae ‘Shipping end spies in Asian seas 1500-1600 43 divided into a varying number of petty states, most of them Ishmised by this time. Achia, spreading outwards snd down- tratde fom the north-west ip ofthe island, became much the host important Sumatran kingdom in the second half of the Gent century, Pepper, bensoin, and gold were the most “rluble commodities exported from this lind to Malacca, India tnd China; bur forest produets and foodstifs were readily avail> ble many of the Sumatean ports. The Javanese Hindu empire ‘fF Madigpabit, whieh at one time (1536-1400) had. controlled mos of the Indonesian archipelago, was ow reduced to 8 ‘feudily declining kingdom in cental and east Java. It had not jet been supplanted by the rire ofthe Muslin cnpire of Mataram, but Islam was estending its influence rapidly on this island, purdcularly in the coastal kingdoms, The leser Sunda islands ‘ere of small itmpoctance to the outer world, sve for the sandal Sood of Timor which was a prized commodity in Chins, The Muslim sultas of Temnate and Tidose, ‘whence merchants bring theie spicy drugs (parr Milton), competed for the euzersinty of the clove-besring Moluccas and the adjoining islands feom (Gaches 9 New Guinea, the Suan of Temate heing rather more posedial than hig opponeat. Borneo boasted of a smal civilised ate the sultanate of Brunei oa the north coas, but most of the inland was more of leis virgin jungle inhabited by head-honting tans uninuenced by Islam. Muslin waders Working theie way up fom the Islamised states of Indonesia had already reached the ‘sand group now known as the Philippines, where they had converted the inhabitants of several of the islands, ‘Theis free progress northwards was soon (1565) to be blocked by the Seelement of the Spasiards at Cebu and Luzoa, ‘This politcal bird's-eye view of exely sixteenthcentury Asit| may be Concluded with «bref reference to Chiza and Japan. The Ming dynasty hud given up it earlier overseas expansion policy, and Chinese feets no longer visited the Indian Ocean as they had done as far asthe Persian Gulf and Somaliland in the days of [arco Polo and the celebsated eunuch admiral, Cheng Ho. The reasoas for the abandonment ofthis adventurous maritime policy axe notaltogethe clear, butconstant attacks by Japanese prstes on the east coust and the perennial menace of the nomadic Mongols and Manchus on China's northern marches may have had mite4 Vicsitaes of Empire to do wit i Chine met and aie fm he faces of Pukien and Kwangting, with or without the cow aac ofthe local otal contin Yo tae some of ic ‘ands in the Philipines a Tndopes sod, on octson a Be ‘went ab Malach. But it was not on any very extensive sie and thei activities were iter ignore or downed bythe Ina iovernment. Korea wn regeming ina pact claion Fedby ister sobriquet of The Heme Kingdon and is leg Acknowledged the sopersntyof Chins. Japan wer in the throes of the vn, or ‘conte a 4 pevod, with the shod of {he aominal Emperor and of the Shogun (Generis) both reluced wo ztby while she unraly feudal nobly ay) Strugled among themelves fo land and power. Fortunately forthe Portas atthe tine of tei appearance In Asian water, the empiter of Egyp, Petia and Vijayanagar had so amd shiping in the Hdian Ocean, inet they pote fy ships at all Even the wealthy entepé of Ota aed Mauer, whose prosperity emrely depended on thir rabore tex, pstessed ao oe ing warship. The Maly vese were Inowiy of the ype known a lord a small saglesul ad quarerigged vessel steered by Ovo oats mounted tn the Sem, fave for few lrge merchantjnks which were bul at Pep and Java Bt the Javanese hough good shipbuilder and avistomy Sto had at one period sll a fir a (ad pari clot} Madagascs now rnd thir seabome fade the Indo neslan archipelago and its immediite vic. The Aad, Guje {at and other Muslim-consled shipping which dovsmated the ‘ead of the Indian Ooesn comprises arg ocean ping vesels ts well as anmll cotta ship but even the ages ete not provided wth alee, and no ion wae eed inte Wl cone Strction. They were theefoetcavely mach moe fl than the Portuguese eamacks and allens which they had to ea- "The Portugues habit of describing all the Mostims they met from Moroce 0 Minko a ‘Moot (Mewar) ead to obce the ace tht when they seached the Indlan Oca the Arab m0 eager dominated the seaborne tide of Moosoon Asa from Cnnue to Canton, a they had done much eaten. ARB ships and Seamen were rll yey portant in the west fal ofthe Indian sipping aed pice in Asin eas 1300-1600 “ ‘vein but thee pce inthe eaten half had been en ver STmoweniely by Indium Mali. tders and sete fon Gtr, Malabar, Coromaodel snd Beogal. The Hide Tana tercant of Kala and Coropsnel, known othe Poagere [Sling stl ads good sate ofthe Indian tele tae with dur, to which pot they sled in this owa ships. Bete, there the Hiads Imerchaots temained shore ase, and they Shed thei goods im Mslim vessel. This asthe rent cE {eran socoselgioas cite toe which had aoe append, Sein operative in caer century, when the Chole Linge of staticrn Inds ovate inprestvesahome xpedsocs elon the Samara empte of Cy. Bat by i300 costing theses ts in leaf coniered at's flemea’ by many higonte Hinds, fie ‘wich incoenient and expeasive pertcnion temoties had to be performed: Moteone,f the} embarked thei persons tin from hl goods, on board Masi: or liter Esropesn) owned and sinned ese they equally Coed dellement thoogh tnsvoidablecontace-with sly um Gees individuals, Apart from thee. peices many’ of the Seigily Hinds consedweling peopl of Indi fom Gujae Shrug Nalaar snd Coromandel o Bengal hl ben convened flan by the fourteenth cent. ‘The domioation ofthe siborne cade ofthe Idan Ocean, fet by the Area atc toa lange ene by Modis 0 Taina origi, chilly Gort, we achieved in bor es eps. Ely. Pople engaged in oceni ade aid not tavel Wie thle flies, lea of al Masi men with porous is aboot Ge seclusion of women. The Ars, Gujanat and other merchants tnd mutinets who taded to Cejlon, Nace end indonesia trish tok ween, temporcy or otherwise, om among te women of the por wher hey sayed wile seating he outs Bie monoeas for thir return voyage. Tho chien were Almost Inari ras x Mins when ey grew op fey in Wel tr beled to seed the th among ear mothers compatriots These varios Nos ting clonic grew ad foolshedy and tit rest and mon ine urs wee sooner of later granted the right to bull mosques the ports Where they lived "They then sent for Nd or tliat tscher who in thi etn helped oat! many other Masts‘é Vicsstudes of Empire from elsewhere and to propagete Islam lol. Tn thi way the followers ofthe Prophet spend thei creed and thei ade tothe Sw const of Est Aftcs an to the Spice Ishnd of Inde, ‘without tie ever having eo employ the militant methods which Id churctiged the orginal exprosion of Ishm fom de ‘Aabian desert tothe Pyrenes and to the Himalayas. The fe that onthe west coast of India in paul, they co-opentad owaly and cordially with wealhy Hinds merchants and rij Sethout either purty tying fo convert the tke, cemented tis “Muslim monopoly of te trade ofthe Indian Ocean. The Porta ose inmediely realised that they could only brea it by bre {fee and not by peaceful competion “This they proceed to do with complete ruthlessness and sswonshing speed. In oer to achieve their aim they needed few fortited harbours to serve as naval bases and comet nuepots. These key points were secured during the governor Ship of Afonso de Albuquerque (509-19) The landlocked istnd Gon was wrested from the Saltan of Bijapur on St. Catherine’ Day (io Novembet) 151, and Golden Goa! soon s5pplanted Cates as the principal tading port beeween Camby and Cape CComorin The harbour was alto paricalsiy well stead to function as the transipment. post for the Tuesative Arabian Penian bonctaade with the Hinda kingdom of Visyanaga ‘Aboguersue nade Goa the Portaguese beedguacter, and be fain! the suppest ofits Hinds inlabtants. Conteol of te emtan Gulf was secured by the seize of Orb in 1535, the Shah becoming Porugvete vassal and puppet. Albuquraie’s Capture of Malaceafout years eater gave the Portuguese the major istibuting cente fx Indonesin spies, a8 well a naval thse which contelled the botleneck beoween the Indian Ocean, the Java Sea and ehe South China Sea, fr he akeznative owe Piso She seats of Sanda was ml) wed, "These exploits of Albuquerque were made posible by bit predecessor Franco de Almeide’s poor destruction of a make EAE Bpyplan- Gujarat: ee off Dio (Rebescy 1305), thes aveng- ing hisown son's defeat and death at the bande of the ae roncnt inte previo yest at Chaul and ins cliinaing he Ship Maslim naval fore capable of meeting the Portuguese ‘watthips on something approaching equal term Portagvese shipping and spices in Asian seas 1500-1600 a7 juval supremacy on the East African coast wa already assured by thie construction of fors at Sofa (2505) and Mogembigue (sen aad by thei alliance with the Sultan of Malindi. The one {naj setback in this zemarkable success story was thee fallue foclse the spice cute through the Red Sea by securing astong- fold at its enteanee which would form a counterpart to Orma fn the Persian Gulf. The island of Socotra, which they Gest ‘oxupied for this purpose, proved to be too distant and t00 im- wetshed to serve sta naval base, and it was abandoned in 1520 Albuquerque sazrowly failed in his subsequent attempt to tke ‘Aden by storm (March 1533): and though the Portuguese then ind subsequently entered the Red Sea briely they aver achieved anything of lasting importance there. This sea remained, in eet, 4 Masi lake after the frst occupation of Aden by the Turks in {38 The presence or the threat of Portuguese ships cruising off tbe stsits Of Bub-el-Mandeb helped to disrupt this spice-tmade route fortwo of three decades, but it was then re-established, as swe shall see below. ‘While fall eredit should be given to Albuquerque for his igure of Goa, Malacea and Ormuz, when the fleting oppor. ‘nnities For doing so oceutted, i isa mistake to credit him with the entire inception sad execetion ofa vas strategic plan method Jelly involving these moves, The pla to close the mouth ofthe Red Sea was exty formulated at Lisbon, while the capture of Goa was suggested to him by a indy cossie, Timbja; though ‘Albuquerque deserves great credit for adopting it and for in- siting on retaining Goa ia the face of doubts subsequently tpresed by the government at Lisbon. Sinslaely, the import- nce of Malaca had been recognised in King Manuele instroc- tions to the commanders of the fcets which left Lisbon in 1509 tad 110, though it fll to Albuquerque to achieve the actual suaqust ‘The the key trongpoints of Goa, Ormuz and Malacca, which conured Portuguese control ofthe major spicetrade routes in the Tadian Ocean, save for the Red Sea gap, were soon supplemented by many other fortified coastal settlements and trading posts ((tioras) from Sofala in south-east Affica to Terate in the Moluces. In addition, the Portuguese were allowed to form a number of unforified setements and faforie: in some regions“ Vieisitdes of Empire ses i le pei enor wt nr coming, pcr piel 7 Ia ve ae, nd Fy ed An i Sat Gi oman che ot ee Se Ta oe ets ok Gorman, Hegl Bees of Nino Cin Meta ae te aye ai non of see ge Inn re on gz mere em of tn or. ed ng oe ere te Rupee Coe etl eee Trew le deed 3 Permpice CGpen osea teh et pe mu banc Mee ich’ Sd see ee eee na aes aa on eee oe Seapets rad cera so Gon ee ee occas ed Oe a as inca eld meen teu cl ce as were of Meme, Orme Di Gouda pers peepee ya fe pene en eases Rorarog eg he hs ale le hi rem te mus Sng il pled ee Ne ei iprieint dened gta ce eels ces ees et Shipping and spices in Anise see t500~-2600 ” cargoes of cloves from Amboina, Temate and ‘Tdore, and of tmace and nutmegs feom the Banda ldundsy but Porte Shipping in thie elon wes merely one more head inte eopeeg wap and woof ofthe Mali Indootseniterpor as Wine they ed to apply i the Sout China Sen the stangsem ene which had served them swell inthe Indus Octo they ee ecivelysfeted by the Chinese constguard fees tyes ent ise. Though they subsequently gabe imision tothe orced Ghina trade, it'was on the teams ld down by the Chee ssthoridies and not on those imposed by heneelon. [Nevertcles, when all sd, he Prcaguseaelevemene in esclishing »seaborne empite in Monsoog As war ne en fuchable than that of the Speirs in coublhing thes a dase empire in Amecca. Pethape even mote ae; whens ‘onside thatthe popsation of Portal inte tea eae wobably never exceeded about «millon anda steele oy there was a perenial shortage of Portagucne sipping er ak vs the only Potaguee por in Asn Wits aden decked fier; and chat he Portaguse had many ater coms tn Morocco and West Afi fo say nothing ofthe chen cofoise the Brain coast fom 1539 oowhids, Moseoree oy technological gap between the Porteese and the eeloney ne their Asin opponents was much le than that bereeee ie Spicirds andthe Ametindans ofthe New Wadd: Diogo ae Goto (o543-1616) and ner contemporary Poraptens cee des were fond of poiting ost that tc companion ar aay tad to contend wit weltatmed opponents whe wete ws skint 4 the we of firearms and canon ae they were thenselve wheres the Castilian agai of Metco tnd Bese had ones pie wats amed nl it oe nd wootea weapons In these teumstance it wot ly sone some ficiors which contbuted to the speceine se of oe Portguete Easter empire and to is eomparsvely long due on, deat the sender demographle nd economic tesoetne of Porigl ise The admited opecionty of the rately welled Ports {9 ies over he unned Mam meant veace oh = Ceean was reinforced by arena of parpon on te pe of the Raropean intruders which was Lagdly heliog i ee/iesitadesof Empire se Viesitdes of mpi an opponents A Sit George Sansom fs pointed ont nis ‘aan orpome Dla ie Wn Woda Jor "Te Fac Ria spit of termination ered Poseurs we oe wl ofthe Asn people 0 sae vlc wn song a oe nan Oc, stood los Ee opus dd ot big the eens of 2 ee continues ole ened cory > its Buropean rival.’ It is often forgotten that the Portu. lye is Fae face an Ora al fale or be Ste ee acy in png again that hey evenly AMbaauera mn rear sace the conviction of See Sr ng of Gaus tat wat by vate et Bi i and oh comer tote prog of tg a esc nas wich Pores ee They, to een en y teal o state by Pr wines, which prevented chem fon uniting fectivey ca ee eee any mie forty engin of tie A or ti a afi are hb Pe ae vary betwee Mobs and Nala i ean te Sees Porugace eal ter pover oa ae A el ing tnmeles with be ie The ae aan toe Sanrio aa andthe Ra of ‘Cochin enabled the Portege to get thet it Sem foothold Ca eaten foes oy rae poston nthe Maks poppet tle the Porn A enfon of the endemic eamity baween i Tide cold them to achieve 2 com Sataas of Tepe clove wae of te Mole Ate dine ae st oe ie ‘Supatny Beau Wan ws Et eicand muti tstle kingdoms which aided berms es Mecmary oni ay pent ited See spruces powes The base cmt Be kal Sin Brand the fespen wee ten San Te tnd Hinds sot of Indy tie a eee ta Ma poston to Peteguseagpeion 2 Pete Acin and Pohore, the most dangerous enerin of cxpson, Ach ors wh ech oer Te elie Mc at Plig fave ay comme slipping and spies in Asian sear 1300-1600 7 other dealings withthe Barbarians from the Western Ocean wat frequently creumvented by the deste of the ofc and the teers of the Chinese coastal provinces fo contabiod trade ‘Tt the said Barbarians. The Portaguese didnot of courte, ete these evalties, but they aaturaly exploited thore which thoy found. In this respect eheteprogeess in Asa real the even fnote spectacular fest ofthe Spanish eonpuiradrr in. Americ. ‘sPalte José de Acosta, 8, pote out in 159 the Spanias id not exploited the enmity been the Artec and the Tasca lane ia Merco, or the rvaley between the Inca half brotbers “Aubualpa and fuasaein Pero: (Comer and Pisareo could hardly fave maintained themselves ashore, although they were excellent pains” "The mot striking feature ofthe Portuguese seaborne empire, asitwasesublshed by the midsisteent cetary, was ip exteme fispersion In the East was represented by acai of forts and factories, extending from Sof and Ormax on the western side of Monsoon Asia tothe Moluccas and Macso (in 1337) on the fdge ofthe Pacific. On the oer side of the world it was eaualy fetended with few sttoogholde in Morocco (Ceuta, Tange ‘Maragio), with some fetta and afew forts between Cape Verde snd Luanda (in 1573) om the west cost of Afi, withthe nds in the Gulf of Guin, and with some struggling settlements slong the Brian lta Lisbon had regelae maritime connee tons with Antwerp, which was « major dstbuting centre for the Asian spices and other colonia! products. The Poetoguete fished off the Newfoundland Bunks in considerable numbers, una hie sbery was reduced to isgnieane inthis region by ‘aggressive English competion athe end ofthe siteenth cen tury. Among the imporant producs of thi farfung empire were the go of Gaines (Eling), of sotineast Afric (ono moapa) and of Somaten (Kampan); the sugar of Mair, Sto ‘Tom, and Briss peper from Malabar and Indones mice and numegs from Banda; cloves fom Ternate, Tidore snd Ambon, ‘Saaamon fom Ceylon; gol, silks and porcein ftom China; ser fom Jspans horses fom Petia and Aria; coton textes from Cambay (Gojart) and Coromandel, The various kinds of merchandise oiginating in Asia were cir bartered in the inter pom tre of at continent ot ele chey were taken round these Vicia of Ege Cape of Good Hope to Lisbon, whence they were reds pays peepee ae ert tte Meter As a cae me ey ee oy ie Sere Sate ae ages serecck econo nee Fae male principal export to “Golden Gor’ te Se a don wor scr ae ce nat 2 orm Tn the first plce, as indicated above (p. 4-5, the popula Terapia ee oer sre ers oe a a shen A ee a ea et Seber rng heer) Mey ger ope nly yey ree menue perk Pee ay Fe ee it ter ea Se eer comreeeatelaee ce rece ee Seneca sete wetness cet ee er a See br ieee repre mire ren ne asses Se ee a a hen te pee errr ne rary Ps ene ten te tice tee Ce a aah Pete eee REC] ee ea ome Rererrsre moet sree ts ary ech at Sa oe Eee ll cn tt ee er ae poets ke sup nd he ion at 1300-1600 8 ned by 00 opens was ony once Setngly achieved — ont as of eighteen “al ships’ and twenty-five smaller aye elieved Malaeea in 1606. Dating the sixteenth * Weumstances conspired to make the Portuguese over- ee ee crmpents between Sofala and Nagasaki, which numbered more Ee oe py ok mee foe Ti es ee cee ee nl alone gan thos SE wey apcion Oe eta ee eee er te ee er esi women nor a oe oe Seated i, mao be Frm oo sey compton te dene fn ae ie Si ce etl i ec a rae ae nn ea sete es Moped Maco Tp of ere rere Se heb of Sonne ge sg ee i eee ee tn ee 1a i ro ea on mitered Go Be ao of sie po erer arene tern ere Seis Se ih ye pps See ee cet aa gee send ech naa lenge ‘the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries were che northern province fone eh rege rl lof Te, sd te‘Onaed wyase — Rete voyage a a Winks -> Caen cares a Chase wr Sita Se ek, 5 Tr DN < 1h J rosnee . igh presae The Caria da nde, sneer co eighteenth centuries56 Vieivitats of Empire indicated above (p. 19} smal-holdings snd lange falies were he zener cule, 20 there Was every incentive for Younger sons to cmigente. similar station prevailed in Madeiss andthe A ‘where the fertile volani valleys were thickly populated, and the terraced hillsides carefully cultivated, but where the population uikly seached saturstion point. The lange quota of emigrants supplied by Lisbon was due to che busy capital acting as « Mecca to the serving and the unemployed, jurt at London, Paris and “Amsterdam later id in England, Prunce and Holland. Many of these desttutes were unable to find work after thei atival, and $0 they ether volunteered or were foroed 0 emigeste 48 & list resource. When contemporaties claimed that Portugal was thickly populated (as some of them did), they were thinking of these relacively favoured regions. They forgot or they ignored the much larges regions ike the Alentejo and the Algirve, which never had the population they were capable of supporting undl the second half of he nineteenth ceatsry. 1 manpower was one perennial problem in the Portuguese seaborne empite, shipping was another. We have no complete figures for Portiguese shipping at this period, but two well informed contemporaries, Garca de Reseade and Damifo de Gois, both stte cat Portage did aot possess more than sbout seo ocean-going ships at the height of its musitime powes, 21536. Ths figure is 2n impressive one for such a small county: that i was obviously totaly insulicient forthe adequate support ff seaborne trading empice with world-wide ramiiation. Suitable timber was not easly avaiable in Portugal itself, party for want of adequate roads and navigable ivers which could be used 0 transport it from the oak Woods of the intsior. The pine forest of Lecia, planted near the coast by the Crown during the Midale Ages expeessly to provide timber for shipbuilding, did ‘ot produce wood of a very lasting quality. Much ofthe times had to be ought in Biscay and northern Europe, as did lange quantities of naval stores, Sich a8 spars, ironwork, canvas and ‘ther material for sis snd rigging ‘To some exten, ths deficiency was made good in Tndia, where ‘the teak foress on the western coast supplied the dockyard at Goa with the durable imbee which was fashioned to build some of the largest cracks and galleons in the sixeenth-and seventeenti- shipping and spies in Asian sax 1500-1600 7 ceaary worl a8 we sal sein Chapter IX below. The sip- gis o the sop yu a Lisbon and Oporto als rod ose TEE Nay fine vcs which ato the admin of Ge open conemportis, bt these gest hips were slow and Eipohive to bully and diel ro replace. India, Naya and Gee ininedy furnibed 20 valiied soppy of wood fox Ballig soul coastal vewes of the rye own a gli, teat, a,j, te, which cul ety be replace when fie but here apun te manpowes problem made sl fe 28 (Spine in Capes KC. Comequeny, Poraguee siping ia GE fmerpor rae of Aa was loeetingy operated fom the thy: of Alluqurgse onward, by Asan seamen woring we ‘Bort ve Eurisan ofr Even the gest ecko 200~ 1225 ton which pled between Goa, Macao and Nagle igh i£Shurety crowed by Astns tnd Neg sven stv oe the ss ‘ier aed iten ot twenty Portugese solder and gear {hePorsuguete ships pping te Indian Ocean nterpor rae, be ‘Gouin or smster was sometimes the only wie man on boards {Breve the plot and bostswiin aswell the sors were offen Muslin Gusrt, Aves 50139706 find tat D. Joo de Casto, when erasing an expedition co the Red Ses, fond eat nome Wine Dergute plot were familie with he sts of Babel. Mane, oid ay adegunte charts of ht egion, Hew forced to nly oa Any Gut and Nolibar pl with thelr owe Sjpes Of oneal har Foc obvious seasons Portage omttine power ee most esexive in the seas in the immediate ect ofthe peopl {Sser Gon, Diy, Ora, Males and Mogimbiqu. Even 3, Selabereoty bite suertacar of te nace dominance fs shown by the sweeping success achieved by two wet TTarish idng Boils in 3st and in 1985-6 reapectivel. On the fonmer oceson the Tusksh admit Pe Res, with weap thee gale tom the Red Sey fe sacked Moses and then Degd for some weeks the Porauguese case Or, [bough by all accounts Ri force wa early inferior i Sambers tthe dene, Oa che second ocssion sa advenret fuinel Nic Ali Bey, with one ery ltgunned sip, swept the orguese from the whole of the Seal oss ve only alin, cptsing twenty Portuese pss aod vast booty58 Vitistudes of Empire with no loss whatever to himself. Ae the other end ofthe Taian ‘Gcean, Malacen was frequently reduced to severe sits by te action of blockading Javanese or Achinese lets; and the Malays fometines scored substantial successes aguas the Portuguate ‘when operiting with ated erat in the confined wates of rivers and estuaries, where carscks and galleons could not manavte Drelse became bealmed. Even almost within gunshot ofthe out. lying forts of Gos, tee Moplah corsairs of Malabar petiodially wrought great havoc on the Portugucte coastal ede by inter cepting the cfiler or convoy of sal vessels laden with rice and provisions for the colonial apie ‘Nevertheless such reverses, serio a5 they sometimes were, didnot desteoy the foundations of Portuguese mavtime power fn the Tadian Ocean, Turkist, Egyptian, Malabar ot Malayan ‘conairs in oared galleys und single-masted fists could aot eee: tively cballenge on te high seas the great carracis and gallons ‘which formed te core of Portuguese naval steeagts. Only the (Chinese war juaks could (znd did) do his; and the opensions of the Chinese coastguard Meets were srcly limited t0 thie pro vinwial waters by order ofthe Imperial government. As a broad ‘generalisation it ean be said thatthe Portuguese did more of less tletively dominate the maritime trde of the Indian Ocexn for ‘most of the siteenth ceatury. The losses which they sued from Malabar and other corsies who preyed on thelt constal commerce did not affect the real sinews of their setpower; just as the much greater damage done by Trench cotsitt ‘and privatots to English sesborae trade duting the War of the Spanish Suecesion failed eo sap the power of the British Navy. Te raust also be remembered that on the only occasion when the Muslim powers of India and Indonesia agreed to co-operate in a combined attack on the Portuguese strongholds of Gon, (Chul, Malacca and Ternate they were decisively defeated in all save the lat-aamed. And if Tetnate eventually tad eo be aben- doned to Sultan Baab in 1575, this was mainly because of the Incompetence of the local Portuguese commander. ‘The other three places were held against great odds; and the successful defence of Gon and Chaul in 1571 was rightly regarded by con- temporatce ae the Portuguese equivalent i the Indian Ocean of sipping and spies in Asian seas 1500-1600 59 Don Jian dle Austia’s victory over the Turks at Lepanto in the same YE Portuguese plans ¢o establish an effective monopoly of the Asin spice teade were thwarted by other fators besides short= get of shipping and of manpower. Although they dominated ‘Roane tade in the Persian Gulf, thanks eo their strongholds rOuue and Muse, they could not close his route completely {5 Muslim traders, since for most of the sixteenth century they tad to Keep on good terms with Persia, whose friendship was pecesnty to them ot a counterweight to the Turkish menace. ‘The Ottoman Turks ad conquesed Syxia and Egypt between tyegand 1317, and they occupied most of Ira ia 1334-5. They took Aden i'1338 and Basch in 1346. The spice ede to the [Levant through the Red Sea, which had never been entcely closed by the Portaguese for any leagth of time, revived markedly from bout 1540 onwards, although the Persian Gulf route and that ound the Cape of Good Hope both retained ther importance. "The production of spices ia Asia and the demand for them ia [Bueope roughly doubled during the second half of the siteenth century, and prices likewise increased two- or even threefold. The flobal smounts of the cargoes carsied by the Portuguese round the Cape have been estimated at an annual toal of between 49,000 fans 50,000 gual in the frst tied of Ube century and between ‘ooo and 72,000 guntal Inter on. The proportion of pepper in these cargoes oscilated between 10,000 aod 43,000 gulls, but {ora longtime averaged about 20,c0>~50,000, The other spices— tinaamon, cloves, mace, autmegs, giager, et—secounted for ‘erween s,000 and 10,000 gual in these yearly shipments. By the end ofthe cenary the Portuguese share of the pepper exports to Europe had dropped t0 about to,000 guia, and greater quantities were seaching Europe by the overland routs to the evant. Te was stated in 1585,by 2 Poreuguese official in postion to know, tht the Achinewe were exporting (mostly in Gujarat ships) some 40,000 oF 50,000 quits of spices to Jd each yeas. “The goeat bull ofthese cargoes certainly coassted of pepper, but we do not know how mach wa destined for che Euzopean market snd how much was cogsumed in the Turkish empire. With the "The vind was the Portagucte hudcdwsght of «138 avoindupois ese& Vices of Emping lawn ofthe seventeenth century and the ttval of the Dutch ang Eaglish in the Fast, the Poreuguese position deteiorted sti fucthet. Bue as late a8 x617 it was ofllly stated at Lisbon thay pepper ws still the basic commodity of the Portuguese Tacia trade, and the only one which yielded a satisfactory profit tothe Crowe. “The pepper laden in the homeward-bound Portuguese India. ‘men exme chiefly feom Malabas, where the Ceown agents had to ‘uy itoa the open matket in places like Cochin and Craagsnore, andin competition with Indian merchants As noted above, large ‘quantities of pepper were also produced in Sumatra and Wester Java, but much ofthis was absorbed by the Chinese matket, This Indonesian pepper was cheaper than the Malabar variety and of equally good (or better) quality; but owing to Achinese and CChinete competition the Portuguese were never able to secure ‘enough to bring down the price of pepper in Malabas. For moet Of the second hulf of the sixteenth eentury the Malabar pepper traders refused to accept payment in anything but gold; but the Portuguese never kad to send from Lisbon as much gold specie as the Venetans employed in hei spice purchases inthe Levane. Uafortunuely the records of the Indo-Portuguese mints at Ges and Cochin have not survived, nd the figures forthe amounts of specie sent annvally from Lisbon to India are fa from eomplete, Bat taking one thing with another, it sems clea thatthe eater part ofthe gold required by the Portuguese for their purchsses in ‘Malabar was obtained fom south-eart Ais, Sumatra and China from about 1547 oaatds. In that year (or the next) the Goa mit ‘commenced the issue of the Sao Tom, a gold coin which held its ‘own for centuries slongside the ever popular Venetian duct (Gert), the ara (gern) of Orme, and the Turkish sequins, ‘Vijayanagar pagods, Moghul mohurs and other gold coins which rculated throughout the East. ‘Originally the sale of pepper at Lishon was fice to all comes, but after 1503 all imports were sold through the iateemedizgy of the Cate dr Indi Todi House). In 2330 the Crown deeseed that the Casa should only sell spices in gross (one guint! and above), save for the small amounts needed to replenish apothecris" ‘medicine chests. Portuguese and foreign merchants both partici- pated in the purchase of pepper at Lisboa, age of the ealesto Vitictudes of Empirg hd abandoned their efforts to enforce the ofcal monopoly of the clove trade, under which one-dind ofthe total export ctop ‘was reserved for the Czown. Whea the Dutch adm Steven van der Hagen caprared Amboina in 1605 he found that the Porta. jguese allowed Muslim merchants from all ove® Asia, and oven from Turkey itself to buy cloves inthis island, A similar state of fies prevailed at Ormoz where, during the lst quarter of the ‘century, Persian, Torkish, Araby Armenian and Venetian met ‘chants frequented the island to buy spices fom the Pornaguese ‘ficials 2nd private traders, in complete disregard ofthe Ibeiin Ceowa’s theoretical monopoly "The prosperity of Ormur a thie period was attested by Ralph Fitch, the Elizabethan merchant-adventurer WhO Visited it in 1583 ‘Orraur is an sland in eleclt about 25 of so mls and is the die ‘saad in the word for there i aohing growing init but only sl for thee wate, wood or views and all things necessary come ost of Persia, which (about 12 mies fom thence. All ebereabout be vey frail, from whence lind of victuals ate seat into Onmu. Inet town ate merchants ofall ation, and kay Moots and Gentes, Here is very great trade of ll sors of Spices, drug, sks, oth of sil, Se tapestiy of Peni, geet store of pearls, which come from the eof Balvein, nd are che best peas ofall others and many horses of Pers which seveall India They havea Moor 0 thet King which s chore sad goveraed by the Portege, [As regards cinnamon, the Portuguese were able to exercise a ‘mote efective monopoly inthis than in any other spice, since the bese vareey grew only in the lowland distsics of Caylon which were wnder Portuguete control, and the Sinhalese had no. mer chant shipping of their owa. Inferior vatiedes were grown in Malabar and in Mindanao, but, as Linichoten observed in 1596, ‘the cinnamon of che island of Ceylon isthe best and finest ia the world, and is at least three times dearer in price’. The Crown should therefore have profited greatly from the royal monopoly inthis spice, but in actal practice the chief profits were reaped by the govetaors and officials who embezzled or traded in cnn son, despite all the legislation enacted at Gos and Lisbon t0 prevent such malpractices. The fame of cinnamon as a valuable tnd coveted spice was reflected in the Verses of the post SA de ‘shiping and spices in Asian seas 1300-1600 % Iiranda (1550), who complained thae Portugal was being de- tated by the aummbers of mea who left Lisbon for the East the scent of cis cinnamon’ ‘the detetioration of the Portuguese position in the Spice ands fer thir lost of Temate ia 1575, was largely offer by their virtual monopoly of the valuable caeying trade between {China and Japan which they achieved about this time. Their firs from 0 establish themselves on the shores of he south Cin ‘Goat had filed, patly through their own mismanagement 2a fry through the seluctance ofthe Chinese imperial bureaucracy Eetake any offical cognizance of unwanted barbarian intruders feom the Great Western Ocean. Buta precarious smuggling trade toes connived at by the coastal ofcials of Kwangeung and Fukien Jrovinees foe their own peoft. This eventually led to the Porte [hese securing a footing s¢ Macao (1557), which was reluctantly Eisctioned by the Emperor at Peking when he belated dis- Covered the exstonce ofthis sectlement after some ewenty ears. Owing to the constant friction prevailing between China and Jopan at thie period, and to che Ming dynasey’s prohibition of jende with the ‘dwieEsobbers’ of the ishind-empire in etber Chinese o Japanese shipping, che Portuguese of Macao were able to secure 4 more of less ofelal monopoly of the trade between the two shuntries. This trade was extentlly based on the ex: change of Chinese rw and mannfuctured silks and of gold for Japanese silver ballion. Ofcourse, be Ming prohibition of direct Chinese trade with Japan was not shways rigorously enfocceds but iewas suiclently fective to easuce that the most valuable part “of the eade was lef inthe hands ofthe Portuguese. The political ‘unification of Japan by Toyotomi Hideyoshi snd his subsequent invasion of Korea (1392-8) greatly stimolated the Japanese emad for gold in the last quarter of the sixteenth century Moreover, although Japan was a silk~producing country, the Japanese much preferied Chinese silk, whether aw oF woven, #0 iheie own asi Was of superior quality. “The sound *oyage between Goa and Nagasaki (teemioal port of the Japan trade after 1570) took anything between eighteen month and tees yeu, depenig onthe length of te ship stay at Macao (and/or Nagasaki she missed the monsoon. This ‘voyage, which originally had been open to all nd sundry, was64 Vicistudes of Empire 1000 ited oan anol i, o tick, vader capo mae fppointed by the Crown, The pants coud ether make he oyagehimelf or sell the ign fo do soto the highest dee "Te seal sil rade was lngely inthe hando of the mechan dnd the Jets at Maco, whe opercd a oem of ingore ‘rioged‘on 4 suot bat among ll thove who lad a dace ia prowling the cargo. The cpinnajor gota Modeome kof From mont item inthe ego in aitonf the pros ofhisown private investment. Lischoten, wring in 1396 estimated te frolts a 000 or 20000 dss on the concd voyages and Sou ch Yop wa fn eugene te apg tore wih #orane Both Macao and Nagual rote from being obcu hing vllgesto ousting waportsby tend ofthe Satcnth eta sa resul of bis mutually pote tad. ‘The peleged postion stsined by the mechs from Maca at Negus eat ‘oe dred bys envious Dutch viola “The ship coming from Macao usally has about 2c0 or more mes ehantson board ho go ashore at onee, each of them taking & house ‘whesein to lodge with his servants and saves They take no heed of ‘what ehey spend and nothing is to enstly for them. Sometimes they Aidbuse fa the seven or eight months tha they stayin Nagas mare than so0j00 oF gone [aver] tals, though which the populace roe grey; and his oe of the reasons why the oalJepunese ate ‘ery tendly to them. Daring the lase decade ofthe sisteenth centucy the Portuguese monopoly of Japan's overseas trade and the Jesuit monopaly of the Japan mission founded by St. Francis Xavier in 1549 were alike threatened by the appearance of Spanish traders and mis Sionacy fiars from the Philippines. ‘There Iberian vals caused the Portuguese coasiderable jealousy 2nd concern, but their activities did aot, ia the upshot, greatly reduce the profs of the Macso-Nagusaki trade. Despite the union of the two Ibesan CGrowins in the person of Philip II ia 158o, the government st adsid accepted, by and lngge, the Portuguese contention that Japan lay within their sphere of induence (as demarcated by the ‘Treaty of Tordesils in 1494) and that the Japan trade should be monopolised by Macao eather than by Manila carrer a1 Converts and clergy in Monsoon Asia 1500-1600 ee ‘Ture importnce of Japanese silver, Chinese silks, Indonesian spices, Persian horses and Indian pepper in Portaguese Asia Should aot obscure the fact chat God was omnipresent as well is Mammon, As Padre Anténio Vieia, the great Portuguese Jesuit missionary, observed in his Hizey of the Puteres Ie there fyere aot merchants who go to see for easly treasures in the East and West Indies, who would trxnsport thither the preachers ‘who take heavenly eeasures? The preachers take the Gospel 2nd the meschants take the preachers. If teade followed the flag in the British empire, the missionary was close behiad the mezchant in the Portuguese empite. Admittedly, if Vasco da Garva's men said they had come to India in search of Christians and spices, the ‘quest for the latter was prosecuted with mach more vigose than the cae for the former during the irs four decades of Poreuguese fctvty inthe East. Until the Jesuits arrived with new men and new methods at Goa in 1542 elatvely few missionaries had been sent out, od they had achieved relatively litle. Most of them ‘made no effort to learn any of the Oriental languages, and they ‘depended upon interpreters who were natuily better aeqoainted ‘vith market prices and bazaaz gossip than with subtle theological gumeats, Nor did these missionaries and theis beter qualied Jesuit successors for a long time take the trouble to study che Sacred books snd basic seligious beliefs of those whom they wished to convert, whether Maslim, Hindu or Buddhist, being Inclined to dismise them all athe works of the Devi