Section 2

Principles of Petroleum Production

System Analysis

Introduction to well flow capacity calculations

Production from undersaturated oil reservoir
Production from two-phase reservoir
Production from natural gas reservoir

Single phase flow of compressible vs.

incompressible flow
Introduction to two-phase flow systems

Introduction
Due to economy of a production system, the flow capacity of a well is a very important and
therefore crucial to assess. It should be noted however that the flow capacity evolves over time
and it tends to decrease as more fluid is produced.
The flow rate of the well depends on the reservoir driving force, i.e., the differential pressure
between the reservoir and the back pressure exerted on the downhole (bottomhole pressure),
and other parameters involving formation and fluid properties as it will be discussed in the next
few slides.

Undersaturated Reservoirs Darcys law

application
Darcys law in cylindrical coordinate radial direction
q k dp
(2.1)
=
A dr
Transient flow equation: Production-Rate-Decline curve:

2 p 1 p ct p
162.6 qB
k
log t + log
+
=
pwf = pi
3.23
r2 r r
k t
k h
ct rw2

q=

(2.2)

kh ( p i p wf )

k
162 .6 B log t + log
3 . 23
2
c t rw

(2.3)

Single Liquid (Oil) Flow Udersaturated Reservoirs

Production-rate-decline curves are widely used throughout the producing side of oil industry in
assessing individual well and field performance and in forecasting future behaviour. For an
undersaturated reservoir (where no gas exist the reservoir pressure is above bubble point),
the analytical technique presented here through the use of radial diffusivity equation, provides
a mathematical model by which the rate of decline of a producing well could be estimated.
The parameters in the transient flow equation were all defined before. The only undefined
parameter is the total system compressibility ct which determines how the volume of fluid
system changes with pressure. This variable is known as the isothermal compressibility
coefficient, determined by experiments, and is defined as follows:

ct =

1 V

V P T

In the transient flow equation in this slide, ct is the total system compressibility (change of fluid
volume with pressure) in psi-1, k is in md, h and rw in ft, B in res bbl/STB, t in hours, in cp. is
porosity and dimensionless.
As it is noticed the equation requires accurate reservoir parameters such as rock permeability
and other parameters in addition to the initial (p i ) and bottomhole (p wf ) pressures which can be
measured. Using the above equation production management could have an estimate of the
life of the well if enhanced recovery techniques (gas injection, water flooding, etc.) are not
employed to keep the reservoir pressure and production rate at a rather constant level.
Note the above equation is more suitable to predict the decline of reservoir pressure when
there is a constant production rate (q ) which should be close to the rate shortly after
production. Therefore the equation provides an approximation of the decline rate as it can not
be used to estimate for instance the production at time zero or production at the very early
production period.

Steady state well performance

Rearranged Darcys equation:
q =

2 rhk dp

dr

p p wf =

q
r
ln
2 hk
rw

(2.4)

Well damage and skin effect:

p p wf =

pe pwf =

q
r
(ln
+ s)
2 hk
rw

r
141.2Bq
(ln e + s )
hk
rw

(2.5)

(2.6)

If the reservoir pressure could be kept constant we could expect to have a rather steady flow of fluid
through the production tubing. The Darcys equation can be used again to obtain the steady state flow
rate for a constant differential pressure (driving force), between the reservoir and the bottomhole
pressure or p e-p wf, also known technically as drawdown.
Equation 2.4 is logarithmic in nature therefore the near wellbore conditions (areas where rrw ) are
extremely important in predicting well production this is where most of the pressure drop occurs. The
oil which flows into the well during the afterproduction period comes from the intermediate
surroundings of the wellbore. If the formation close to the wellbore is damaged in any way by drilling
and formation of a filter cake of fluid mud or invasion of sand or if it is improved by acidizing or
fracturing this damage or improvement will affect the production rate. The near wellbore condition is
taken into account by introducing the concept of skin effect, presented by parameter s, which results in
an additional steady state pressure drop which is added to the pressure drop in the reservoir (see
equation 2.5). If s is negative, formation improvement has occurred, for s = 0 no improvement or
damaged has occurred and for positive s formation damage has occurred.
If the reservoir exhibits a constant pressure outer boundary (at re), where the pressure can be assumed
constant at p e and the well operates under steady state conditions therefore the radial flow equations
becomes as shown by equation 2.6 in this slide.
The productivity index J can now be derived from this equation as the ratio of steady state production
rate (q) over drawdown. The production engineer should maximize this parameter usually by reducing
the skin effect by stimulation techniques such as acidizing and fracturing or reducing the drawdown.
The bottomhole pressure can also be reduced (and therefore driving force increased ) by reducing the
density of column of fluid above the bottomhole. For very heavy crude oils thermal recovery
techniques such as steam or hot fluid injection or in-situ combustion are used to reduce viscosity and
enhance the productivity index.

pwf (psi)

Inflow Performance Relationship - IPR

S2

S3

S4

q (STB/d)

It is more useful to present the well performance rate as a function of the bottomhole pressure
because if the bottomhole pressure is given, the production rate can be obtained readily. The
bottomhole pressure however is a function of wellhead pressure and frictional pressure losses
in the system and other parameters being dictated from the downstream operations.
Therefore what the well can actually deliver is a function of the well potential (pressure
availability in the reservoir) and hydraulics of the production system. The plot or relationship
between the bottomhole pressure and production is called Inflow Performance Relationship
or IPR.
These plots can indicate for instance whether a certain series of remedial actions would lead to
a targeted production rate or not and can help to identify the problems in smooth production of
oil.
At a zero flowing bottomhole pressure the potential of a well to produce is determined;
therefore the intersection of the plot with the q axis can be compared before and after
treatment and decide whether the treatment has been successful or not. We expect to see an
IPR curve with smaller absolute value for slope after a successful treatment.

Production from Horizontal Wells

q=

Permeability anisotropy:

where : 1 =

a+

a2
L/2

L2
4

k H h( p e p wf )
141. 2 B (ln 12 )
Ianih

I ani h
, 2 =

rw ( I ani + 1 )

4 0 .5

L
reH
a = 0 . 5 + 0 .25 +

2
L / 2

k
, and I ani = H
kV

(2.7)

0 .5

0 .5

for

L
< 0 .9 r eH
2

Skin effect:
q=

k H hp

(2.8)

I h
141 .2 B ln 12 + ani s 'eq
L

Horizontal wells have become very popular as they provide a larger surface area by letting the
well pass through the reservoir in a rather horizontal direction. This technique has proven very
successful especially for reservoirs with small thicknesses and where the formation exhibit higher
permeation rates in the vertical direction. A horizontal well with a length of L penetrating a
reservoir with horizontal permeability kH and vertical permeability k V creates a drainage pattern
that is different from a vertical well. The drainage shape is an ellipsoid with the larger half-axis
length of a.
The equation presented in this slide (Equation 2.7) was presented for steady state well production
calculations. In this equation Iani is the anisotropic factor which represents the effect of
permeability anisotropy in horizontal and vertical directions and is defined as shown in the slide.
The effect of skin is considered by the introduction of the equivalent skin factor Seq. The impact
of the skin effect on the production rate can be very large.

Two-Phase Reservoir Production

Fluid properties

Condensate
reservoir

Oil reservoir

bubble point
formation volume
factor
GOR

Pi, T

Gas
reservoir

Pwf, Twf
Ptf, Ttf
C

Two-Phase Region
(Gas+Liquid)

E
Cricondentherm

Pressure

Basic reservoir
property estimation
Standing Charts

Temperature

When the reservoir pressure falls below the bubble point two gas and liquid phases will
form. This may happen both when the reservoir pressure is naturally below the fluids
bubble point or when the pressure falls below the bubble point due to pressure losses as
the fluid moves within the reservoir or natural loss of reservoir pressure due to production.
The reservoir pressure and temperature, the bottomhole pressure and temperature as well
as the surface facilities operating temperature and pressure are shown on the phase
envelop in this slide.
Figure B-1 of Ref. 1 shows the typical variation of reservoir properties, including oil and
gas formation volume factors Bo and Bg , and solution gas ratio Rs with pressure. Bo
increases with increasing pressure because more gas is dissolved in the fluid and make it
swell at higher pressures until the pressure reaches the bubble point above which we have
only one single phase and the variation of volume with pressure is very small due to the
low compressibility of liquids (large Bulk Modula). Bg declines with pressure as gases
have significant change of volume change with pressure changes. The solution gas ratio
Rs also increases with pressure (as discussed before more gas is dissolved in the liquid at
higher pressures) and remains constant at bubble point.
The variation of Bo , Bg and Rs can be related through the definition of total formation volume
factor as follows:

Bt = Bo+(R sb-Rs)Bg

(2.9)

Where Rsb is the solution gas-oil-ratio at bubble point pressure. Note that when the above
equation is used the unit for Bo and Bg should be consistent, i.e., if the unit of Bg is in res
ft3/SCF it should be devided by 5.615 to convert to res bbl/SCF as the unit of Rs and Rsb are
in SCF/STB.
Bo , Bg , and Rs and Rsb values are obtained through standard PVT laboratory tests. When no
PVT data are available the Standing charts (Figures 3-2 and 3-3 of Ref. 1) can be used to
estimate the reservoir bubble point and formation volume factor of bubble point fluids.

Two-phase reservoir - Property estimation

(cont.)

Liquid actual volumetric flow rate:

ql=Boqo
(2.10)
Gas actual volumetric rate:
qg=Bg(GOR-Rs)qo
(2.11)
Solution gas -oil-ratio (Vasquez Beggs correlations):

C R
gs p1 / C 2 a
p = ( 10 ) a 1 s Rs =
10

C1

gs
( l )
where a = -C 3
and
T + 460

ps
gs = g 1 + 5.912 10 5 ( l ) T s log(
)
114 .7

C2

coefficient

API =30

C1

27.62

56.18

C2

0.914328

0.84246

C3

11.172

10.393

API>30

l or S.G. of liquids/oil= density of liquids/density of pure water @ 60 oF

(15.5 oC)
o
API = (141.5/ l) -131.5

Specific gravity (gases) g = MW/29

The oil and gas formation volume factors - FVF (Bo and Bg see definition given before) and
solution gas -oil ratio (Rs ) determined in PVT labs can be used to relate the downhole flow rate
to the production rate measured at the surface facility using the formula shown in this slide,
where ql and qg are the actual liquid/oil and gas flow rates at some location in the well or
reservoir, qo is volumetric flow rate of oil at measured at surface and Rs is solution oil-gas ratio
or the amount of gas still remained dissolved in the liquid. GOR is the overall measured gas oil ratio or the amount of gas released when the oil is completely degassed or technically
speaking stabilized at atmospheric conditions. Bg is the gas formation volume factor. We
shall discuss this parameter later when the gas reservoirs will be discussed.
The FVFs and Rs are measured in laboratory however empirical equations are also available to
estimate these parameters if very accurate PVT lab reports were not available. The Standing
equation were presented by charts (see Figures 3.2 and 3.3 discussed before). There are also
Vasquez-Beggs equations which can be used to estimate these properties as shown in this
slide. In Vasquez equation l and g are the specific gravities of oil and gas respectively. The
specific gravity is a dimensionless property; in the field API degree is used to indicate the
relative density of the crude with respect to water at a standard temperature (15.5o C or 60o F).
Ts and p s are the surface separator temperature in oF and pressure in psia, respectively.

Two-phase reservoir - Property estimation (cont.)

FVF for pressures below bubble point:
Bo= 1.0 +
Rs +
FRsF
Bo= 1.0 + 4.67x10-4 Rs + 0.11x10-4F + 0.1337x10-8RsF
4.67x10-4

Where:

0.1751x10-4

1.8106x10-8

(2.13)
30o

?l =
API
?l > 30o API

F = (T 60) l
gs

For pressures above bubble point:

co =

co =

1
Bo

Bo

or Bop = Bob exp[ co ( p pb )]

1 .433 + 5 Rs + 17 .2T 1.150 gs + 12 .61 l

p 10 5

(2.14)

The Vasquez-Beggs equations for calculation of oil formation volume factor at pressures below
bubble point and the way it could be translated to the values for pressures above bubble point
using the bulk modulus of elasticity or the isothermal liquid compressibility coefficient
co , are shown in this slide. co in the equation shown in this slide is the reciprocal of bulk
modulus. Bob is the formation volume factor at the bubble point. GOR is the total amount of
gas released when the reservoir fluid pressure is brought to atmospheric conditions. It is
hence the total amount of gas that can be dissolved in the unit volume of crude at the reservoir
bubble point pressure. GOR is measured in standard PVT tests by depressurizing a sample
starting at its bubble point, therefore, GOR is equal to solution oil-gas ratio Rs at the
bubble point,. The Vasquez-Beggs equation presented in the previous slide (Eq. 2.12} can be
used to calculate the bubble point pressure and using this bubble point pressure the FVF
equations given in this slide are used to calculate the FVF at bubble point Bob .

Two-phase reservoir - Property estimation

(cont.): Density and viscosity

Fluid apparent density:

8 ,830
+ 0 . 01361 gd R s
131 .5 + l
o =
Bo

(2.15)

o = o b exp [c o ( p p b )]

Fluid (oil) viscosity :

(2.16)

Beggs Robinson equation for dead oil viscosity

od = 10 A - 1 and log A=3.0324-0.02023? l -1.163log T

Egbogah -Ng modified equation for A: log A=1.8653 0.025086( ? l ) - 0.56441log T
B

Beggs-Robinson equation for live oil including dissolved gas: ob= Cod
Where, C

= 10.715 (Rs+100) -0.515 and B = 5.44 (R s+150)-0.338

Vasquez -Beggs correction for pressure:

Where,

m = 2.6p

1.187

o= ob(p/pb)m

exp (-11.513 - 8.98x10 -5 p)

Labedis pressure correction: o= ob + (p/p b - 1)(10

-2.488

0.9036

od

0.0197 l

p b0.6151/ 10

The apparent density of the oil at pressures below bubble point ?ab , including the dissolved gas,
at the standard conditions is determined by dividing the total mass by the apparent volume for
one STB (standard barrel) of oil, as shown by the equation given in this slide. For pressures
above the bubble point the concept of isothermal compressibility of liquids can be used here
again. gd in the oil density equation can be estimated from the Katz gas density chart (Figure 34 - Ref.1)
The dead oil viscosity (oil with no dissolved gas) is estimated with the Beggs-Robinson
equation as shown in this slide. Parameter A in the Beggs -Robinson equation was modified by
Egbogah and Ng later as shown in the slide. T is in oF and viscosity is calculated in
centipoises in the above equations.
Beggs and Robinson proposed the shown equation in this slide to take into account the effect
of dissolved gas on the oil viscosity. Vasquez and Beggs proposed the equation shown in this
slide to correct for the effect of pressure. Later Labedi proposed the other equation shown in
this slide for the pressure correction. In the above equations pressures are in psia, Rs in
SCF/STB viscosity is calculated in centipoises and l in oAPI.
Oil and water can make emulsions and depending on the water content of the emulsion
viscosity can increase significantly. The Vand s equation can be used to calculate the viscosity
of emulsified oil as follows:
eff=c(1+2.5f+10 f 2 )
Where f is the volume fraction of the discontinuous phase

Fluid properties estimation - Accounting for

water presence

ql = qo ( WOR + Bo )
l =

WOR w + Bo o
WOR + Bo

(2.17)

(2.18)

WOR w

Bo o
w +
o
l =
WOR w + Bo o
WOR w + Bo o
(2.19)

The effect of water on the estimation of properties discussed before can be calculated using
the volume fraction weighted average equation presented in this slide. WOR is water oil ratio
and can be measured experimentally or during surface operations when wells are tested.

10

Reservoir Saturation and Relative

Permeabilities
Relative permeability: k o = k k ro , k w= k k rw and kg =kk rg

(2.20)

Inflow equations:

( pe pwf )o =

141.2 Bo qo o
r
(ln e + s)
hkkro
rw

(2.21)

In a real reservoir water always exists. The permeability used in all equation discussed so far
was for a fluid which consisted of only oil. Presence of water affects the permeability of the
reservoir fluid.
Therefore in all previous equations k should be considered effective
permeability which is different from the individual permeabilities of oil and water. The
permeability of pure oil and water can be measured in the laboratory. A relative permeability
can also be measured which is the ratio of pure oil or water permeabilities and effective
permeabilities (see the pertinent equations in this slide). Therefore the inflow equations should
be modified as shown in the slide taking into account the effect of relative permeabilities in the
flow of oil and water in the reservoir. The relative permeabilities depend on the saturation of
water (fraction of formation volume rock occupied by water) in the reservoir and are normally
less than the absolute permeabilities of water or oil.

11

IPR for two-phase reservoirs

Vogel IPR equation:

p
p
k o hp 1 0. 2 wf 0 .8 wf

p
p
qo =
r
254 .2 Bo o ln e + s
rw

(2.22)

Fetkovich Approximation:

q o = q o ,max

p wf

(2.23)

It is important to note to the effect of relative permeabilities on the well productivity of a

reservoir. Vogel used the data from a number of various production systems and correlated
the data using a second order equation as shown in this slide. Unlike the Inflow Performance
Relationship (IPR) for a purely liquid system the relationship is not linear. The advantage of
the Vogel equation is that only the properties of oil is used in a two-phase system to predict the
well productivity.
In a similar attempt Fetkovich used a power law equation to relate the production rate and the
bottomhole flowing pressure as shown in this slide. qo,max is the well absolute open flow
potential (when there is no friction, hydrostatic head and resistance to flow within the
production tubing and surface production facilities). Both qo,max and n are characteristic of a
specific well and are determined through well testing operations by calculating the stabilized
flow rates in various bottomhole pressures.

12

Natural Gas Production Gas Properties and

Phase Behaviour

Behavior of ideal gas: PV=NRT

Behavior of a real (non-ideal) gas
Compressibility factor approach: PV=NZRT
Important equations of state PVT Relationships
Virial
Benedict-Webb-Rubin (BWR)
Cubic equations
Van der Waals
Saove-Redlich-Kwang (SRK)
Peng-Robinson (PR)
Etc.

In natural gas reservoirs the reservoir fluid exists in a gas phase only. It is important to know how
the fluid behaves in gas reservoir. The prediction of gas properties and behaviour is important to
study the production efficiency of the reservoir. All fluids follow physical laws that define their state
under physical conditions. These laws are mathematically represented by equations of state
(EOS) which essentially correlate pressure, temperature, and volume values. Many different
empirical equations of state have been developed over the years, ideal gas equation of state being
the simplest one used. An ideal gas is defined as a gas in which the molecules occupy negligible
volumes and there is no interaction between the molecules, collisions between them are purely
elastic implying no energy loss on collision. At low pressures (<400 psi) most gases exhibit an
almost ideal behavior. The ideal gas can be stated as follows: PV=nRT, where P and T are
absolute pressure and temperature, n is the number of moles, and V is the volume occupied by the
gas. R, the constant of proportionality in this equation is called universal gas constant. The
value of R can be easily determined from the fact that 1 lbmole (pound mole) of any gas occupies
378.6 ft3 at standard conditions (14.73 psia and 60oF or 520o R). Similarly in CGS system of units
1 grmole of any gas occupies 22,400 cubic centimeters (cc or milliliters) in normal conditions (1
atmosphere and 0o C).
R = PV/nT = (14.73 x 378.6)/(1 x 520) = 10.732 (psia)(ft3)/(lbmole)(o R)
In SI units where P is in kPa, T is in K and V in m3, the value of R to use is 8.314 kPa-m3/kgmole.K
or kJ/kgmole.K
In general, gases do not exhibit ideal behavior. The reason is that non of the assumptions made
above actually exist in reality. Molecules for even sparse systems occupy a finite volume;
intermolecular forces such as electrostatic or Coulomb and attraction and repulsion forces exist
even for a perfectly non-polar gas such as argon; and molecular collisions are never perfectly
elastic. To correct for non-ideality, the simplest equation of state uses a correction factor known as
compressibility factor, Z: PV=nZRT. Z, therefore, can be considered as the ratio of the volume of
gas occupied by real gas to its volume under the same T and P if it is ideal. This is the most
widely used real gas equation of state. Z is a function of temperature and pressure and usually can
be estimated using Figures 23-3, 23-4, 23-5, 23-7, 23-8, and 23-9 of the GPSA data book.

13

Natural Gas Production Gas Properties and

Phase Behaviour: Physical Property Tables

14

Natural Gas Production Gas Properties and

Phase Behaviour: Physical Property Tables

15

Natural Gas Production Gas Properties and

Phase Behaviour: Molecular Weight Mole
concept
Weight of a mole of any substance
Different units in Imperial, SI and CGS
systems
Moles = Weight of a gas component divided by
its molecular weight
Keys mixing rule of molar averaging
Average molecular weight =

MW = [ yN .(MW ) N ]

(2.24)

Molar averaging is a technique used to find the average value for mixture properties when the
values for pure components are known. For instance, for pure components, critical pressure
and temperature data can be found from Figure 23-2 of the GPSA data book. For mixture, the
Kay s mixing rule can be used to find the effective critical properties as follows:
Ppc = S yn Pcn and Tpc = S yn Tcn
Average molecular weight for a mixture of natural gas is calculated using the same principles
by the following formula:

MW =

[y

.( MW ) N ]

yN = mole fraction of component N = moles of component N in gas phase divided by total

moles in gas phase.
Moles = Weight of a gas component divided by its molecular weight
For instance moles for 32 lbs of methane is 32/16=2 lbmole. Molecular weight of individual
compounds can be found in Figure 23-2 of GPSA data book. Since molecular weight is the
weight of one mole of a compound it can have various weight units depending on the unit
system used. Number of moles is also represented in different forms depending on the unit
systems used; therefore for instance we may have 2.2 lbmoles of methane which equal to 1
kgmole of methane in SI system of units. Therefore, the number of moles is not the number of
molecules rather an indication of weight of the compounds in molar basis. One grmole of each
compound of course contain 6.02 x 102 3 molecules (the Avogadro s number), therefore one
lbmole contains 6.02 x 1023/453.5 molecules of the same compound.

16

Natural Gas Production Gas Properties and

Phase Behaviour: Properties estimation
techniques

Specific Gravity and Density

Density=mass of unit volume
(lb/ft3)
Specific gravity (liquids/oil)
l or S.G. = density of
liquids/density of pure
water @ 60oF
o API=141.5/ S.G. -131.5
Specific gravity (gases)
g = MW/29
Density:
or

g = 2.7

g p

g = 0.093

TZ

( MW ) p
TZ

(2.25)

Fluid Properties estimation techniques

In designing petroleum production, processing, transport, and handling systems, a complete knowledge of fluid
properties is crucial. It is important to know and predict the amount, composition, and density of any phases
present in any process situation.
Specific Gravity and Density. Specific gravity (S.G.) of a liquid is the ratio of the density of the liquid at 60oF to
the density of pure water. API gravity is related to specific gravity by the following equation:
Density = mass of unit volume (lb/ft 3 or kg/m 3)
l or S.G. = density of liquids/density of pure water @ 60oF
oAPI=141.5/S.G. -131.5
Specific gravity of petroleum fractions may be estimated using the chart of Figs. 23 -12 and 23-14 of the GPSA
data book.
Specific gravity of a gas is defined as: density of the gas divided by density of air at standard conditions of
temperature and pressure (i.e.,14.7 psi and 60oF);

for gases: g = MW/29

where , MW = molecular weight of gas
g = specific gravity (for air=1)
Density of the gas is given as:

Or:

( MW ) p
g = 0 . 093
TZ

g = 2 .7

g p
TZ

where,
= density of gas, lb/ft3
g = specific gravity of gas (air=1)
p= absolute pressure, psia (gauge pressure = atmospheric pressure; at sea level 14.7 psi )
T = absolute temperature, oR (temperature in oF + 460)
Z= gas compressibility factors (see charts given in Figures 23-7 to 23-9 from GPSA data book; will be
discussed further in the following sections)
MW= gas molecular weight

17

Natural Gas Production Gas Properties and

Phase Behaviour: Properties estimation
techniques, cont.
Critical temperature = the maximum temperature at
which the component can exist as a liquid
Critical pressure= vapour pressure of a substance at its
critical temperature
Beyond critical temperature and pressure there is no
distinction between a liquid and a gas phase
p pc = S ynp cn and

Tpc = S ynTcn

(2.26)
pcn and Tcn from Figure
23-2 GPSA

Principles of corresponding states and gas

compressibility factor

For pure compounds, critical pressure and temperature data can be found from Figure 23-2
of the GPSA data book. For mixture, Kay s mixing rule can be used to find the effective
critical properties:
p pc = S ynp cn and Tpc = S yn TCn
Where p pc and Tpc are the pseudocritical pressure and temperature, respectively, for the
mixture and yN is the mole fraction of component N in the gas mixture. These are called
pseudo because they are used a correlation basis rather than as a very precise
representation of mixture critical properties.
Gas compressibility factor Z. Several different correlations are available for this important
parameter. The basic correlations use the corresponding states concept. According to the
Van der Waals law of corresponding states, the physical characteristics of a substance
are a function of its relative proximity to the critical point. This means that the deviation from
ideal behavior of gases is the same if they are located at the same state relative to their
critical state. This implies that all substances behave similarly at critical points, hence, should
have equal critical point compressibility factor, Zc =p cVc/RTc. The real value of critical
compressibility factor, however, is not the same for all compounds. The compressibility
charts provide reliable estimation particularly for supercritical gases and at low pressure
conditions. Therefore the relevant temperature and pressure values that express the
departure of a real gas from ideal behavior are the reduced pressure, p r , and reduced
temperature, Tr :
Z = f (p r , Tr )
Where Pr = p/p c and Tr = T/Tc. For gas mixtures, the reduced parameters are denoted as
pseudo reduced temperature T Pr (=T/Tpc), and pseudo reduced pressure, p pr (=p/p pc).
There are several ways to calculate compressibility factor that will be discussed later in the
next sections of the course.

18

Natural Gas Production Gas Properties and

Phase Behaviour: Properties estimation
techniques, cont.
Standing -Katz compressibility charts (Figures 23-3,
23-4, and 23-5 GPSA)
Brown-Katz-Oberfell-Alden charts (Figures 23-7, 238, and 23-9 GPSA)
Acid gas content consideration by Wichert-Aziz
correction factors
PpcT pc'
'
T pc = T pc
and
Ppc =
(2.27)
T pc + B ( 1 B )
e from Figure 23-10 GPSA
Compressibility from equations of state

There are several ways to calculate compressibility factor:

1- Standing-Katz charts: Figures 23-3, 23-4, and 23-5 of GPSA data book are used to
estimate the compressibility using the reduced temperature and pressure values. These
charts are generally reliable for sweet natural gas with minor amounts of nonhydrocarbons such as N2.
2- Brown-Katz-Oberfell-Alden charts: Figures 23-7, 23-8, and 23-9 of GPSA data
book are used to predict the compressibility for low molecular weight natural gases.
These figures cover a wide range of molecular weights (15.95 to 26.10), temperatures (100o to 1000o F), and pressures (up to 5,000 psia). For gases whose molecular weights
lie in between the molecular weights shown in Figs. 23-7 through 23-9, linear
interpolation should be used to compute the compressibility. In general compressibilities
for gases with less than 5% noncondensable components, such as nitrogen, carbon
dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide, are predicted with less than 2% error. When molecular
weight is above 20 and compressibility is below 0.6, errors as large as 10% may occur.
Natural gases which contain H2S and CO 2 exhibit different compressibility factor
behavior than do sweet gases. The Wichert and Aziz equation should b e used to
correct for the acid gas content. Figure 23-10 of the GPSA data book is used to find the
correction factor and then correct the pseudocritical pressure and temperatures
determined by Kay s rule as follows:
'
TPC
= TPC

and

p'PC =

'
p PCTPC
TPC + B ( 1 B )

where e is the correction factor and B is the mole fraction of H2S. These values of
critical pressure and temperature are used to find the corrected Z factor for acid gas
containing gases. Equations of state may also be used to calculate Z factor by replacing
Z=pV/RT in EOS, a cubic equation is obtained which should be solved for Z values.
Numerical techniques are used to solve these cubic equations.

19

Compressibility charts

Brown -Katz-Oberfell-Alden Z charts

Standing-Katz compressibility charts

When gas specific gravity is known, the Sutton correlations can also be used to estimate the
pseudo critical properties as follows:

Ppc = 756.8 131.0 g 3.6 g 2

T pc = 169.2 + 349.5 g 374.0 g 2

(2.28)

ppc and Tpc are in psia and o R, respectively.

The Thomas et al. equation takes a linear regression for the pseudo critical properties
estimation and may also be used to obtain the pseudo critical properties from the gas
specific gravity as follows:

p pc = 709.604 58.718 g
T pc = 170.491 + 3097344 g
g

(2.29)

Where
is the specific gravity of gas. This equation is only accurate within the limits of up to
3% H2S, 5% N2, or a total impurity (non-hydrocarbon) content of 7% beyond which errors in
critical pressure exceeds 6%. It should be noted that the gas gravity method is not very
accurate. If the analysis of the gas is available, it must be used in accordance with the Kay s
mixing rule.

20

Empirical Correlations Natural Gas: Viscosity

Carr et al. correlation (Fig. 23-32 and 23-33 GPSA)
Viscosity of gas mixture from single component data:
n

1 g =

1gi

i =1

yi M i0 .5

(2.30)

yM
i=1

0 .5
i

Lee et al. for natural gas:

g = K exp( X gy ) where , K =

10 4 (9 .4 + 0 .02M g )T 1.5

209 + 19 M g + T
X = 3.5 + 986 / T + 0.01M g and y = 2.4 0 .2 X

(2.31)

GPSA charts Figs. 23-30 through 23-38

Dean and Stiel method
1/ 6
5 /9
T PC
; for T Pr > 1. 5, g = 166.8(105 ) [0. 1338TPr 0.0932 ] ,
1/ 2
2/ 3
( y i M i ) PPC
5
8 /9
and for TPr 1. 5, g = 34. 0(10 )TPr
(2.32)

= 5. 4402

The most accurate method to determine viscosity is, obviously, to measure it for a given fluid under the desired conditions.
This, however, is not generally possible, given the various complex mixtures of hydrocarbon and non-hydrocarbon
compounds present in gas mixtures. Some common methods of predicting gas viscosity are given below:
1. The Carr et al. correlation for natural gas: This method only needs gas gravity or average molecular weight to
calculate viscosity. The correlations were presented in graphical forms as given in Figures 23-32 and 23-33 of
the GPSA data book. Figure 23-32 is used first to calculate the viscosity at one atmosphere pressure and any
given temperature. Corrections for non-hydrocarbons such as CO2, H2S, and nitrogen are provided Then,
Figure 23-33 can be used to correct for pressure based on the corresponding state principle.
2. Viscosity from single-component data: If the analysis of gas is known, it is possible to calculate the viscosity of
the gas mixture from the component viscosities. First viscosity is determined at one atmosphere (or any low
pressure) and the given temperature using the Herning and Zippere mixing rule as:
n

1g =

1 gi

i =1

y i M i0.5

yM
i

0 .5
i

i =1

3.

where, yi = mole fraction of component i in the gas mixture; and 1gN =pure component viscosity at 1
atmosphere pressure and the desired temperature. The pressure correction is made using the Carr et al.s
charts. Viscosity of some natural gas constituents can be found from Figure 3-16 the Kumars Gas Production
Engineering book .
The Lee et al. Correlation for natural gas: Lee et al. provide an analytical expression which can be used for
programming purposes. where, T is oR, ?g is in g/cm 3,, and g is in cp. This equation however does not correct
for impurities such as CO2, H 2S, and N 2.

10 4 (9 .4 + 0 .02 M g )T 1. 5
209 + 19 M g + T
X = 3 .5 + 986 / T + 0.01 M g and y = 2 .4 0 .2 X

g = K exp( X gy ) where, K =

4.

The Dean and Stiel method:

1/ 6
TPC
5/ 9
= 5 .4402
; for TPr > 1.5, g = 166 .8(10 5 ) [0.1338TPr 0.0932 ] ,
1/ 2 2 / 3
( y N M i ) PPC
and for TPr 1 .5, g = 34.0(10 5 )TPr8 / 9

21

Viscosity Charts

22

Natural Gas Production Gas Properties and

Phase Behaviour: FVF

Gas formation volume factor FVF

Bg =

T
VR
= Z
VSC
TSC

PSC

T
B g = 3 .47 10 4 Z ( SI units )
P

(2.33)
SC= Standard Conditions:
P = 14.696 psia = 101.325 kPa,abs
T = 60 o F (520 o R) = 15.5 o C (288.7 K)

T
B g = 0. 0283 Z ( Field units )
P
Gas isothermal compressibility coefficient:

Cg =

1
1 V
1 1 Z
=
=

bulk mod ulus

V P T P Z P T

(2.34)

Dry gas PVT tests are rather simple and straight forward. No phase change is expected for a dry gas sample
and therefore tests only involve density and compressibility factor (Z) measurement routines.
Procedure:
A known volume of gas is loaded in the PVT cell at the reservoir temperature
Weight of the known gas volume is determined
Molecular weight is determined using the gas chromatography technique
Gas formation volume factor is determined based on the following definition:

Bg =

Volume of gas at reservoir conditions

Volume of gas at standard conditions

Using the real gas relation PV=nZRT the definition is converted to the following mathematical expressions:

Bg =

T
VR
= Z
V SC
T SC

p SC

p

T
B g = 3 . 47 10 4 Z
p

( SI units )

T
B g = 0 .0283 Z ( Field units )
p
The gas isothermal compressibility coefficient, Cg , can also be calculated using the variation of Z with
pressure. This parameter should not be confused with gas compressibility factor Z. For ideal gases cg is
the reciprocal of absolute pressure as the bulk modulus equals absolute pressure.

cg =

1
1 V
1 1 Z
=
=
bulk mod ulus
V p T P Z p T
23

Natural Gas Production Well Deliverability

Bg =

0.0283 Z T
1424 q Z T
2
p e2 p wf
=
( pe + p wf ) / 2
kh

re

ln + s
rw

(2.35)

For Darcy flow:

2
q = C( p 2 pwf
)

(2.36)

high gas flow rates, turbulent (non-Darcy flow):

2
q = C( p 2 p wf
)n

whe re

0.5 < n < 1

(2.37)

The relationship developed for the Darcy incompressible flow can also be used for the
compressible flow if the average compressibility and formation volume factors are used. The
equation shown in this slide is used to calculate the deliverability for a gas well where q is the
gas standard volumetric flow rate in 1000 Stdft3/day (MSCFD), the values for viscosity and
compressibility factor Z should be calculated in average pressures.
The equation can be shown in a simplified form as shown in this slide for reasonably small flow
rates (e.g., ~1,000-5,000 MSCFD or 1-5 MMSCFD). For larger flow rates a power law form of
equation can be used as shown in this slide. A plot of q vs the difference between the pressure
squares in a log-log coordinate should result in a straight line with slope of n and intercept of C.

24

Natural Gas Production Well Deliverability:

Non-Darcy Flow
Aronofsky-Jenkins equation:

q=

kh( p 2 pwf2 )
r
1424 Z T ln d
rw

+ s + Dq

(2.38)

and

rd
0 .00026 kt
= 1. 5 t D where t D =
rw
ct rw2

Determining the non-Darcy coefficient - D:

p 2 p 2wf
= a + bq
q
alternativ ely D can be estimated using :
2
p 2 pwf
= aq + bq 2 or

D=

6 10 5 k s0 .1h
rwh 2perf

(2.39)

(2.40)

The well deliverability can be more precisely estimated using the Aronofsky-Jenkins equation
presented in this slide in which D is the non-Darcy coefficient and rd the time dependent
Aronofsky effective radius. rd varies with time until it reaches a minimum value of rd =0.472re,
otherwise it is calculated using the equations shown in this slide. The term Dq is called
turbulent skin effect.
The Anorofsky equation can be rearranged and shown in a quadratic (2n d order) equation. The
parameter a can be defined by comparing the actual Anorofsky equation and is very similar to
equation discussed before for Darcy gas flow equation (Eq. 2.35). The q 2 multiplier b accounts
for non-Darcy effects and can be used to obtain the parameter D through actual tests. In the
absence of field measurements and experimental data the empirical equation shown in this
slide can be used to approximate the value of D, where ? is gas gravity, k s is the near wellbore
permeability in md, h and h perf the net and perforated thickness, both in ft and is the gas
viscosity in cp evaluated at the bottomhole pressure.

25

Natural Gas Production: Production-RateDecline curve or Transient Flow

Combing Darcys and conservation of mass laws:
2 p2 1 p2
c t p 2
+
=
2
r
r r
k
t

and m(p) = 2

po

p
dp
Z

2 m ( p ) 1 m ( p ) c t m ( p )
+
=
r 2
r
r
k
t

(2.41)

Similar solution to the oil diffusion equation results:

q=

kh m( p i ) m ( p wf )

k
1 ,638 T log t + log
3 .23
2
( c t )i rw

(2.42)

Using the Darcys law and writing the relevant equations for a cylindrical element in the
reservoir one can obtain the partial differential equation (PDE) similar to what we had for oil
reservoirs. Only pressure terms will be replaced with square pressure terms. The same
solution that we had for oil reservoirs can be obtained here, the only problem is the variation of
viscosity and gas density/fluid compressibility with pressure which should be taken into
account when a solution is developed. The use of the concept of real gas pseudo pressure
function m(p) was used to obtain the solution to the above partial differential equation.
Change of variable using this concept results in a PDE very similar to oil flow equation and
therefore a similar solution, only pressure terms will be replaced with pseudo pressure function
terms as shown in this slide. In this equation q is in 1000 standard cubic ft per day (MSCFD)
and the product ct should be calculated at the original reservoir pressure. T is the absolute
temperature (oR) and t is time in hours.

26

Natural Gas Production: Horizontal Wells

2
k H h( pe2 pwf
)
q=
I h

1424ZT ani Dq + ln 1 2
L

where: 1 =

(2.43)

L2
Ianih
0.5

kH
I
h
4 , =
ani
, and I ani =
2

L/ 2
rw( Iani +1 )
kV

a + a2

L
reH
a = 0.5 + 0.25 +

2
L / 2

0.5 0.5

L
for < 0.9reH
2

For horizontal wells similar equations to those of the oil reservoirs can be developed.
Turbulence effects ( Dq ) in horizontal wells can be neglected as they are multiplied by the
scaled aspect ratio Iani h/L term and since L is usually large the term will be very small. The
skin effect can also be included in the first term (the non logarithmic term) in the denominator
of the flow equation. All parameters are defined as they were for the oil system.

27