Prlogoc

To parn sggramma apeujnetai se proptuqiakoc foithtc Tmhmtwn Poluteqnikn Sqoln kai Teqnologikn Ekpaideutikn Idrumtwn sta opoa didskontai
eisagwgik topografik majmata. Epiplon apeujnetai se epaggelmatec Mhqanikoc lwn twn eidikottwn pou epijumon mia parousash twn arqn leitourgac
twn basikn topografikn orgnwn mtrhshc kai mejdwn upologismo, kajc kai
se epistmonec suggenn gnwstikn perioqn pou anazhton mia prth eisagwg
sthn epistmh kai to antikemeno thc Topografac.
Proerqmenoc ap mia diaforetik ereunhtik perioq, tan prin ap tssera qrnia anlaba didaktik kajkonta sto Poluteqneo tou Berolnou me antikemeno
thn Topografa, rja antimtwpoc, kat th diadikasa proetoimasac tou didaktiko uliko twn sqetikn proptuqiakn majhmtwn, me kpoia basik erwtmata.
Orismna ap aut, pou apotlesan kai shmeo ekknhshc tou parntoc biblou, tan
ta exc: Poia enai h majhmatik diatpwsh twn basikn topografikn problhmtwn; Poia h sqsh twn topografikn orgnwn mtrhshc me to fusik peribllon
twn metrsewn kai poio rlo pazoun basik kataskeuastik qarakthristik twn
orgnwn sth sqsh aut; Pc sundontai oi topografikc metrseic pedou me to
telik pron miac topografikc ergasac, dhlad th sntaxh enc topografiko
qrth enc topografiko diagrmmatoc;
Prospajntac na diatupsw kpoiec apantseic sta parapnw erwtmata kai qontac wc odhg to ulik pou eqe sugkentrwje ap tic sqetikc paradseic sto
Berolno kai sth Jessalonkh xeknhsa th suggraf tou parntoc. H filosofa
pou dipei to gryimo twn kefalawn kai ton trpo parousashc enai na doje mfash stic arqc leitourgac twn topografikn orgnwn mtrhshc kai sth sndes
touc me to fusik peribllon twn metrsewn. Gia thn katanhsh tou edouc thc
plhroforac pou dnetai ap na topografik digramma parousizontai epshc kpoioi basiko orismo susthmtwn anaforc kai susthmtwn suntetagmnwn kajc
kai oi sqseic metasqhmatismo pou sundoun diaforetik sustmata sto eppedo.
Basik nnoia pou apotele to sundetik krko metax twn ep mrouc kefalawn
enai aut tou orizontou epipdou. To orizntio eppedo apotele to eppedo anaforc gia lec tic metrseic pou lambnontai ap ta ep mrouc metrhtik sustmata
sto pedo, en tautqrona enai kai h epifneia sthn opoa anafrontai loi oi

vi

Prlogoc

majhmatiko upologismo.
To biblo mpore na qwriste jematik se treic enthtec. Thn prth enthta apotelon ta prta tssera keflaia, sta opoa sugkentrnontai lec ekenec oi jewrhtikc nnoiec kai oi orismo pou dipoun to snolo twn praktikn topografikn
ergasin. H parousash gnetai men sunoptik, qei mwc katablhje prospjeia
na gnei me so to dunatn pio autnomo trpo. Sth deterh enthta, sthn opoa
ankoun to 5o kai to 6o keflaio, parousizontai ta kria rgana kai oi mjodoi
mtrhshc twn basikn topografikn parathrsewn, dhlad twn gwnin kai twn
apostsewn. Sto shmeo aut qei doje idiaterh mfash sthn arq leitourgac
kai ta qarakthristik enc hlektromagnhtiko orgnou mtrhshc apostsewn, pou
apotele plon anapspasto mroc twn sgqronwn gewdaitikn stajmn. Tloc,
sthn trth jematik enthta, pou apartzoun ta keflaia 7 kai 8, dnontai oi basikc
mjodoi upologismo thc jshc qarakthristikn shmewn tou edfouc sto eppedo
enc topografiko diagrmmatoc. O orizontiografikc prosdiorismc exetzetai
sto 7o keflaio kai o prosdiorismc uyomtrwn kai uyometrikn diaforn sto 8o
keflaio. Ap ta tra parartmata pou paratjentai sto tloc tou keimnou axzei ed na anaferje to prto ap aut, sto opoo qoun sugkentrwje lec oi
basikc mondec mtrhshc me idiatero endiafron gia thn Topografa. To sugkekrimno parrthma mpore na qrhsimopoihje autnoma wc nac qrsimoc odhgc
(pocket guide) gia tupikoc arijmhtikoc upologismoc, pwc p.q. gia thn allag
tou sustmatoc mondwn mtrhshc miac gwnac.
Sto shmeo aut mou dnetai h eukaira na ekfrsw tic jermc mou euqaristec se
louc souc sunbalan me mmeso meso trpo sthn oloklrwsh auto tou biblou. Sthn prth kathgora ankoun sgoura loi oi prhn kajhghtc mou kai nun
sundelfoi sto Tmma Agronmwn kai Topogrfwn Mhqanikn tou Aristoteleou
Panepisthmou Jessalonkhc. Oi empneusmnec dialxeic touc kai o enjousiasmc
touc kat th dirkeia twn proptuqiakn mou spoudn mou dhmiorghsan gia prth
for thn ida miac akadhmakc karirac. Kat th dirkeia thc metpeita ergasac
mou sto Mnaqo kai sto Berolno thc Germanac eqa epshc thn tqh na sunergast me ristouc sunadlfouc kajhghtc kai episthmonikoc sunergtec. Idiaterec
euqaristec ankoun ston prhn sundelfo sto Poluteqneo tou Berolnou Dr.
Svetozar Petrovic gia tic apolaustikc kai sunjwc atelewtec suzhtseic mac grw ap difora gewdaitik zhtmata. Pra mwc ap louc touc parapnw stic
seldec auto tou biblou katagrfontai tso st kemeno so kai se arket ap ta
sqmata pollc estoqec parathrseic foithtn ap to Berolno kai th Jessalonkh, pou prokuyan kurwc kat thn pragmatopohsh twn antstoiqwn ergasthrwn

Prlogoc

vii

kai thn prth touc epaf me ta topografik rgana metrsewn.

To anigma thc qrshc ellhnikn qaraktrwn ap to ssthma tupografac LATEX,
me to opoo grfthke aut to biblo, mou lusan me ton plon didaktik trpo oi
krioi Basleioc Andritsnoc, Dhmtrioc Aramploc kai Apstoloc Surpouloc.
Gia thn upomon touc kat thn exghsh diforwn teqnikn zhthmtwn me ttoion
trpo, ste akma kai eg wc mh eidikc na mpor na katalbw, touc euqarist
pol. H kura Ioula Karrnth dibase to kemeno kai prteine arketc suntaktikc
kai glwssikc diorjseic. Thc axzoun idiaterec euqaristec, tonzontac ti oi
poiec asfeiec qoun apomenei barnoun apokleistik kai mnon to suggrafa.
Ja jela tloc na euqaristsw jerm ton krio Arh Srmo kai tic Ekdseic Zth
gia th bojeia pou mou prosferan sto telik stdio thc proetoimasac tou biblou,
kajc kai gia thn mprakth sumbol touc sth beltwsh thc poithtac orismnwn
sqhmtwn.

Jessalonkh, Agoustoc 2005

Dhmtrioc Tsolhc

Contents
1 Introduction
2 Basic definitions of reference frames and coordinate systems

1
11

2.1

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11

2.2

Local coordinate systems and fundamental transformations on the

plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

14

Projection on the map plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

33

2.3

3 Basic definitions of the gravity field

43

3.1

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

43

3.2

Potential, gravity and acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

45

3.3

Equipotential surfaces and geoid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

56

3.4

Global coordinate systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

68

3.5

Gravity field approximations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

71

3.5.1

The ellipsoidal approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

72

3.5.2

The spherical approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

73

3.5.3

The planar approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

74

4 Definition of height and height difference

81

4.1

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

81

4.2

Definition of the different height systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

85

5 Instruments and methods for angle measurements

99

386

Introduction to Surveying

5.1

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

99

5.2

Optical Prisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

5.3

Theodolite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
5.3.1

Connection of the Theodolite with the field of measurements 123

5.3.2

Levelling and centering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

5.3.3

Measurement of horizontal and vertical angles . . . . . . . . 133

6 Instruments and measurement methods of distances

137

6.1

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

6.2

Measuring tape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

6.3

Basis of known length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

6.4

The electromagnetic method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

6.5

6.4.1

Carrier and measuring signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

6.4.2

Pulse method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

6.4.3

Phase comparison method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

6.4.4

Range and accuracy of EDMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

6.4.5

Internal error sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

6.4.6

External error sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

Calibration of distance measurement instruments . . . . . . . . . . 188

6.5.1

Measuring tape calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

6.5.2

EDM calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

7 Methods of computing the horizontal position of field points

205

7.1

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

7.2

The cartesian coordinates method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206

7.3

The polar coordinates method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210

7.3.1

Polygonal traverse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

7.3.2

The intersection problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229

7.3.3

The three-point resection problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236

Contents

7.4

387

7.3.4

The remote base problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240

7.3.5

Line intersection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242

7.3.6

Circle center computation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245

7.3.7

Eccentric station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248

Indirect computation of inclined distances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254

8 Instruments and methods for the computation of heights and

height differences
257
8.1

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257

8.2

Geometric levelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

8.3

8.2.1

Line of sight error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278

8.2.2

Accuracy of geometric levelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295

Trigonometric levelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302

8.3.1

Effect of the gravity field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306

8.3.2

Effect of the atmospheric refraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311

8.3.3

Computation of the refraction coefficient from the mutual

and simultaneous observation of zenith angles . . . . . . . . 318

8.4

Barometric levelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327

8.5

Gravimetric levelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335

8.6

Algorithm for the computation of heights and height differences . . 337

Appendix A: Measurement units

343

Appendix B: Basic definitions in adjustment theory

355

Appendix C: Similarity transform on the plane

363

Literature

375

Index

377