Cover

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EncyclopediaofTravelLiterature

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EncyclopediaofTravelLiterature
ChristopherK.Brown

SantaBarbara,California
Denver,Colorado
Oxford,England

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Copyright2000byChristopherK.Brown
Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystem,ortransmitted,inanyformorbyanymeans,electronic,mechanical,
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LibraryofCongressCataloginginPublicationData
Brown,ChristopherK.(ChristopherKevin),1967
Encyclopediaoftravelliterature/ChristopherK.Brown.
p.cm.
Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.
ISBN0874369401(hardcover:alk.paper)
1.Travelers'writingsEncyclopedias.2.TravelinliteratureEncyclopedias.I.Title.
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ManufacturedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica.

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CONTENTS
EncyclopediaofTravelLiterature
Introduction,vii
ADAMS,DOUGLAS,1
ADDISON,JOSEPH,2
AKENSIDE,MARK,3
BAEDEKERS,5
BARTRAM,WILLIAM,5
BAUDRILLARD,JEAN,7
BELL,GERTRUDE,8
BIGNOLD,THOMASFRANK,9
BIRD,ISABELLA,10
BISHOP,ELIZABETH,14
BLIGH,WILLIAM,15
BLY,NELLIE,18
BLL,HEINRICH,19
BORROW,GEORGE,20
BOSWELL,JAMES,21
BOUGAINVILLE,LOUISANTOINEDE,23
BOUGRENET,JACQUESLOUISDE,24
BROWNE,EDWARDGRANVILLE,25
BROWNING,ROBERT,26
BRUCE,JAMES,28
BRYDONE,PATRICK,28
BUCCANEER,29
BURCHELL,WILLIAMJ.,30
BURCKHARDT,JOHANNLUDWIG,31
BURTON,SIRRICHARDFRANCIS,32
BUTLER,SAMUEL,35
BYRON,LORD,36
BYRON,ROBERT,37
CABEZADEVACA,ALVARNEZ,41
CALDERNDELABARCA,FRANCES,41
CALVERLEY,CHARLESSTUART,42
CAPEHORN,43
CAPEOFGOODHOPE,43
CARERI,GIOVANNIFRANCISCOGEMELLI,43
CARR,SIRJOHN,45
CARRE,ABB,46
CATHAY,47
CLINE,LOUISFERDINAND,47
CERVANTES,MIGUELDE,49
CHAMPLAIN,SAMUELDE,51
CIRCUMNAVIGATION,52
CLAUDEMIRROR,52
COLERIDGE,SAMUELTAYLOR,53
COLUMBUS,CHRISTOPHER,54
THECONTINENT,57
COOK,CAPTAINJAMES,57
COOPER,JAMESFENIMORE,59
CORYATE,THOMAS,62
DALLAM,THOMAS,65
DALLAS,SIRGEORGE,66
DAMPIER,WILLIAM,66
DANA,RICHARDHENRY,68
DARWIN,CHARLES,69
DAVIDSON,ROBYN,71
DAYLEWIS,CECIL,72
DEFOE,DANIEL,73
DICKENS,CHARLES,76
DOUGHTY,CHARLESMONTAGU,78
DRAKE,SIRFRANCIS,79
ELDORADO(ORELDORADO),81
EMPIRE,81
EMPSON,SIRWILLIAM,81
FIELDING,HENRY,83
FLAUBERT,GUSTAVE,84
FORSTER,E.M.,85
FOX,CAPTAINLUKE,87
FRASER,G.S.,87
FULLER,MARGARET,88
GAGE,THOMAS,91
GALTON,SIRFRANCIS,92
GAMA,VASCODA,92
GOETHE,JOHANNWOLFGANGVON,93
GOLDSMITH,OLIVER,95
GRAILQUEST,96
GRANDTOUR,98
HALL,CAPTAINBASIL,99
HARDY,THOMAS,100
HARRER,HEINRICH,101
HEMINGWAY,ERNEST,102
HILTON,JAMES,104
HOOD,THOMAS,105
HUXLEY,ALDOUS,106
JAMES,CAPTAINTHOMAS,109
JAMES,HENRY(JR.),109
JENKINSON,ANTHONY,111
JOHNSON,SAMUEL,112
KALM,PETER,115
KANE,ELISHAKENT,115
KEROUAC,JACK,116

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KINGLAKE,ALEXANDERWILLIAM,118
KNIGHT,SARAHKEMBLE,119
LASALLE,RENROBERTCAVELIER,SIEURDE,121
LAHONTAN,LOUISARMANDDELOMDARCE,BARONDE,122
LAWRENCE,D.H.,123
LAWRENCE,T.E.,124
LEONOWENS,ANNA,126
LEVANT,127
LEWIS,NORMAN,128
LITHGOW,WILLIAM,129
LIVINGSTONE,DAVID,130
LORD,W.B.,ANDTHOMASBAINES,132
LOTI,PIERRE,132
MACLEAN,SIRFITZROY,135
MACNEICE,LOUIS,136
MAGELLAN,FERDINAND,137
MARVELL,ANDREW,138
MASEFIELD,JOHN,139
MAYLE,PETER,140
MELVILLE,HERMAN,142
MILLER,HENRY,145
MILNES,RICHARDMONCKTON,146
MISSIONARY,148
MONTAGU,LADYMARYWORTLEY,148
MONTESQUIEU,CHARLES,150
MOODIE,SUSANNA,151
MOORE,THOMAS,152
MORITZ,KARLPHILIPP,153
MORRIS,JAN,154
MORRIS,WILLIAM,155
NAIPAUL,SIRV.S.,157
NORTHWESTPASSAGE,160
OLEARIUS,ADAM,161
PARDOE,JULIA,163
PARK,MUNGO,163
PECK,ANNIE,165
PERIPLUS,167
PICARESQUE,167
PICARO,167
PRINCE,NANCY,168
RAJ,169
RALEIGH,SIRWALTER,169
RICCI,MATTEO,170
ROGERS,SAMUEL,171
SAND,GEORGE,173
SCOTT,ROBERTF.,173
SEDGWICK,CATHARINEMARIA,175
SVIGN,MARQUISEDE,176
SHELLEY,MARYWOLLSTONECRAFT,177
SILKROAD,179
SLOCUM,JOSHUA,180
SMITH,CAPTAINJOHN,181
SMOLLETT,TOBIAS,183
SOUTHEY,ROBERT,184
SPEKE,JOHNHANNING,185
SPICEISLANDS,186
STANLEY,SIRHENRYMORTON,186
STEINBECK,JOHN,189
STEPHENS,JOHNLLOYD,191
STERNE,LAURENCE,193
STEVENS,THOMAS,195
STEVENSON,ROBERTLOUIS,195
STRAITOFMAGELLAN,199
SWIFT,JONATHAN,199
TATCHELL,FRANK,203
TAYLOR,JOHN,203
THACKERAY,WILLIAMMAKEPEACE,203
THEROUX,PAUL,205
THOMPSON,HUNTERS.,207
THOREAU,HENRYDAVID,208
TOCQUEVILLE,ALEXISDE,209
TRENCH,RICHARDCHENEVIX,210
TROLLOPE,ANTHONY,211
TROLLOPE,FRANCES,213
TWAIN,MARK,214
TYRRELL,ALBERTE.,218
VARTHEMA,LODOVICODE,221
VERNE,JULES,222
VOLTAIRE,224
WAUGH,EVELYN,227
WELLSLEY,DOROTHY,DUCHESSOF,228
WHARTON,EDITH,230
WILLARD,EMMAHART,232
WILLIAMS,WILLIAMCARLOS,233
WOLFF,JOSEPH,234
WORDSWORTH,DOROTHY,234
WORDSWORTH,WILLIAM,235
WORKMAN,FANNYBULLOCK,237
YOUNG,ARTHUR,239
References,241
AbouttheAuthor,243
Index,245

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INTRODUCTION
WhenItellpeoplethatIwrotetheEncyclopediaofTravelLiterature,theyusuallysmileandlookconfused.Somethinkitisabouthotellistings,trainschedules,and
touristattractions.Othersthinkitisacompendiumoftripjournalsandvoyageaccounts,ananthologymisnamedencyclopedia.Mostjustrespondbyasking,What
istravelliterature?
Ofcourse,aswithanyreallygoodquestion,theansweriscomplex.Tomoreclearlyexplainwhatitisthatthisbookisabout,wehavetorecognizethetwodistinct
componentsoftheterm:travelandliterature.
Ontheonehand,wehavetravel,whichevokesimagesofavoyage,ofajourney,orofgoingfromoneplacetoanother.Inspiteofthewaythewordtravelis
sometimescolloquiallyusedTraveltimeontheinboundexpresswayis20minutesorFrenchwinedoesnottravelwellIwanttoemploythewordtosuggestits
fullestandtraditionalsense.TravelasamodernEnglishwordgrewoutoftheMiddleEnglishtravailen(totoilortomakeatoilsomejourney),whichcomesfromthe
OldFrenchtravaillier(tolaborortoworkatstrenuousphysicalormentalactivities).Thesamerootgrewintothecontemporarytravailwithitssimultaneous
connotationsofgruelinglaborandmisadventure.Thustravel,atitscore,maynotbeaswethinkofitavacationbutratheraseriousactivitythatisfilledwith
adversity,difficulty,anddiscomfort:inshort,travelisasortofwork.
Oneaspectoftheworkoftravelliesinrecordingthejourney,theexperiences,andthelearninggainedfromthem.Inmanyworldculturestheideaofapilgrimage,
religiousorotherwise,iscentraltothenarrativehistoryofapeople.WhetheritbeanIslamicpilgrimagetoMecca,oronemadebyearlyAngloChristiansto
Canterbury(asseen,forexample,inGeoffreyChaucersCanterburyTales),orothertypesofpilgrimagesincountlessothertraditions,thejourneyisimaginedtobe
educationalandworthyofrecountinginnarrativeform.
Wemustalsorecallthattravelliteraturecanneverbeobjective.Thesetextsarealwaysarepresentationofaperception,andassuch,thereisasignificantelementof
subjectivitycontainedwithinthem.Ashardassomeofthesestoriestrytobedocumentarystylereports,theycanneversucceedinfullycapturingtheobjective
phenomena.Inreadingthesetextswemustresistthetemptationtoviewthemasanythingmorethananindividualstakeonaverycomplexworld.
Moreover,giventhatthemajorityofhumanhistoryoccurredbeforetheadventofthephotographiccamera,awrittenrecordservedasproofofhavingactuallybeen
somewhere.AsWilliamBligh,captainoftheBounty,notedinalettertohiscolleague,Iamindebtedforsecuringmyjournalsandcommission,withsomematerialship
papers.WithouttheseIhadnothingtocertifywhatIhaddoneandmyhonourandcharactermighthavebeensuspected,withoutmypossessingaproperdocumentto
havedefendedthem(Rugoff437).Thetextprovidesmaterialevidence,albeithighlysubjective,ofaparticulartravel.

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Towardthisend,theauthorsdiscussedinthisvolumehavewrittenabouttheirowntravels,eitherinfirstpersonaccountsorinmediatedfictionaldisguise(or
somewhereinbetween).Whileitmaybepossibletoimagineaplaceonehasneveractuallyvisited,itseemstomethatthereisasparkofenergyandverisimilitudethat
shinesoutofpersonalexperiencerecalled.Weoftenunderstandlifeasajourneytoinvertthemetaphorsuggeststhatthetravelsoflifefunctiontoteachusprofound
andpersonallessons.
Itisatthispointthatwehavetoconsiderthesecondterm:literature.Whatmakesatextliteraryornotremainsavexingquestionthatstillarousesgreatdebatesamong
scholars.Yetitiscleartomethatnoteverythingwrittenconstitutesliterature.Tobesure,atextmayhavespecificcomponentsofinterestorgreatvalueinacertain
context,butitmaybeallbutunreadabletoageneralaudience.Forthepurposeofthisbook,Iwilluseaveryconservativeandsomewhattraditionalmeasuringstick:
literaturenamestextsthattranscendtheirowneratoringtrueortobevaluabletosubsequentgenerations.Textsthatcanstillteachusaboutcuriosityandwonder,
aboutcourage,aboutdetermination,aboutthoseabstracttraitsthatmaybecalledthehumanspiritaretomymindliterature.Inaddition,theauthorscoveredinthis
volumehaveageneralappealbasedbothonthequalityoftheirwritingstyleandontheirplots.Withoutadoubt,almosteverytextisofsomeinteresttosomespecialist
forsomereason,butliteratureisinterestingtoabroadcommunityofpeopleforavarietyofreasons.
Hencetravelliteraturedesignatesthosetextsthatrecountthejourneyofapersonfromoneplacetoasignificantlydifferentplaceandthathaveenduringqualitiesbe
theyformalorcontentbasedthatresonatewithreadersfromdifferenteraswithdifferentinterestsandbackgrounds.
Usingthesequalificationsasselectioncriteriawouldyieldabook10timesaslargeastheoneyouholdinyourhands.Justwanderintoagoodantiquarianbookstore
andbrowsetheshelvesandshelvesoftraveltales,manywithprovocativetitlesbutlittlenamerecognition.Manyofthesetexts,thoughperhapstravelliterature,have
notbeenintegratedintothecanon,thatis,thesanctionedorgenerallyacceptedbodyofrelatedworks.Asscholarsandstudentsinvestigateadditionalprimarytextsand
formulatemoreinclusivedefinitionsoftravelliterature,surelysomeoftheseworkswillberesuscitatedandincludedinthecanon.Tofurtherrefinethetopic,letmelimit
thescopeofthisprojecttotravelliteratureofseveralparticularvariants.
Forthisvolume,IamrestrictingcoveragetoincludeonlyWesternEuropeanculture,includingtheUnitedStates.Therearemanygreatandmagnificentexamplesof
travelliteraturefrommanydifferenttraditionsIshallleavethemforsubsequentvolumes.NotonlyaretheauthorsdiscussedinthisbookfromtheWesterntradition,
theymustalsobewidelyavailableinamodernEnglisheditionortranslation.ThereexistsawealthofuntranslatedDutchtravelogues,ahostofoutofprintnineteenth
centurytravelnovels,endlessraretravelpoems,andsoforth.Thesetoo,unfortunately,mustbeomittedfromthiscollection.Finally,Ihaveattemptedtoselectthemost
famoustravelersmanyofwhomarefamousforotheraccomplishmentsandthemostwellknownaccountsoftravel,exploration,andadventure.Inotherwords,
youwillnoticeapreponderanceofcanonicalliteraryfigureswhoyoumightbesurprisedtolearnwereavidtravelerswhowroteastoundinglyvividtalesoftheir
journeys.
Beyondbiographicalandhistoricalfact,theauthorscoveredinthisencyclopediashareanothercommoncharacteristic:theyallemploytraveleitherastheengineofthe
plotorasthemotivationforwritingthebook.Inotherwords,themaineventoftheplothastobetravel,asinJulesVernesAroundtheWorldinEightyDays,or
travelhastobethereasonforwritingthetext,asinChristopherColumbussdiaries.Tobesure,thereareavastnumberof

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textsthatdealinpartwithtravelorcontaininstancesoftravel.Almosteverynoveleverwrittenhassomemomentoftravelortransition.Althoughtheprinciples
employedinthisbookandoutlinedinthisintroductionsurelyapplytothesesituationsinothertexts,forthesakeofamanageableproject,thisvolumecontainsonly
textsinwhichtravelisbothprimaryasathemeandcentralasanevent.
Furthermore,IhaveselectedtheAgeofExploration(roughlythefifteenthcentury)asachronologicalstartingpoint.Itisnocoincidencethatthisperiodcorrespondsto
theRenaissanceandtheriseofprintculturefacilitatedbytheinventionoftheprintingpress.AsEuropeanstatesbecamemorestableandwealthier,peoplebeganto
rangefarandwideabroad.Concurrently,emergingprinttechnologiesallowedanexchangeofwrittenideasinunprecedentedquantities.Writingaboutjourneyswasa
waytolearnaboutfarflungandwondrousplaceswithoutriskingthedanger,hardship,andexpenseofthevoyage.
IdonotmeantodiscountthegloriousandeducationaltravelliteratureoftheGreeks,Romans,andearlyChristians.Certainly,tonameonlythemostfamous,The
Odyssey,TheAeneid,andtheBibleremainarchetypaltravelerstalesthatdefinethegenre.Oraltalesandfolkloreaswellcontainvastquantitiesofwhatmustsurely
becalledtravelliterature.Suchtextsare,alas,nottobefoundinthisvolume.However,someofthemarediscussedindetailinotherABCCLIObookssuchasThe
EncyclopediaofTraditionalEpicsandTravelLegendandLore.
Whenlimitingthescopeofthisproject,Iconsciouslysoughtanarrayofdifferentforms.Ihavetriedtobalancethenumberoftravelogues,fictionaltravelnovels,travel
poems,andadventurelogs.Toachieveroughlyproportionalcoverage,Ihavehadtopassoversomedecentandworthytextsineachcategory.
Nowthatwehavesomepreciseparameters,letmenoteaconsistentthematiccomponentthatmarksthetextsinthisstudy.Thebestsortoftravelliteraturetellstwo
stories:thestoryoflookingatdifference,ofseeingotherpeoples,otherplaces,otherideasandthestoryofwhatsuchlookingtellsusaboutthelooker.Infact,this
combinationhasmadethegenreoftravelliteratureacurrentacademichottopicthatgreatnumbersofscholarsarepursuingandanalyzing.
Throughreadingthesestoriesoftravel,exploration,andadventure,wenotonlygettoseemanyforeignpeoplesandplaces,butwealsocometoseehowthe
narrator/authorrespondstodifference.Theacademictermsforthesepositionsaretheselfandtheother.Asassertedbymanytheoreticalschoolsfrompsychoanalysis
topostcolonialism,humansmustrecognizetheotherinordertoknowtheself.Theprocessbywhichthisrecognitionoccurshingesuponknowingandacceptingoften
profoundandirreconcilabledifferencesamongindividuals,cultures,oranynumberofideologicalcamps.Byextension,readingthesetextssuggeststousstrategiesto
accommodateanarrayofunfamiliarothersfoundateveryturnindailylife.Saidanotherway,readingthesetextscanteachusquitealotaboutourselves.
Itisthroughcomparisonandcontrastthatweknowmostcertainlywhoweareasindividualsandasmembersofalargerculture.Ininfancy,eachoneofushadto
identifyadifferentiatedselfthatisdistinctfromtheotherthatisthemother.Associalcreatures,weformvariousgroupsfromfamiliestocommunitiestonationsin
ordertodefineourselvesasinsidersamongoutsiders.Althoughofteninsubtleways,humansnoticeandrespondtodifferenceeveryday.Onlybyrecognizingwhatwe
arenotcanwefullyunderstandwhatweare.Whenweleaveourhomes,whenwestepoutsidethefamiliar,webegintoseethatwhichwehavetakenforgranted.
Travelingtoanewcityinvariablyleadstocomparison:ThissureisntlikeNewYorkorevenThisremindsmeofBerlintheimplicationofthelatterbeingthatthe
cityoneisinandBerlinarealikeinbeingverydifferentfrom,say,Bangkok.Thustravelandnarrativeaccountsthereofserveasallegories

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oflargerissuesofpersonalgrowthandculturalexchange.
Notionsofdifferenceexistdowntothefundamentalnatureoflanguage.Asstructuralistsanddeconstructionistsargue,linguisticcommunicationdependsupon
differentiationanddistinctiontocarrymeaning.Therefore,inthewritingofthejourneytherearemanylevelsofrecognizingdifference.
Accountsofprolongedtraveloftenstarklydifferentiatehomefromelsewhere.Nothingencourageshomesicknessandpatriotismmorethanayearorsoabroad.It
fascinatesmetoseehowwerememberourowncultureafteranextendedabsence.Thatwhichnormallygoesunnoticedcanbecomeanobsessionwhenwearefar
awayfromhome.HowmanyBritishtravelersyearnforthelandscapesofEngland,ofwhichtheyheretoforethoughtnothingorevenbemoaned?Mostofthe
travelerstalesincludedinthisbooksharethecommonthreadofnotingdifferencetheyusethefamiliarnotionsofhomeasasortofcanvasonwhichtopaintanimage
oftheforeign.TouseDorothysfamouslinefromTheWizardofOz:Toto,IdontthinkwereinKansasanymore.Obviously,Ozdiffersgreatlyfromhome.
Consciouslyorsubconsciously,thetraveleralwayssetstheforeignincomparisontohome.
Embeddedintravelliteratureisalinktoalargerdiscussionofcolonialism.Implicitwithinmostculturalcomparisonslurksajudgmentalhierarchy:Wedoitthisway,
theydoitthatwaymaysoundneutralbutmayalsocontainasubtextofsuperiorityandinferiority.Notingdifferencemaybebenign,butseekingtoeradicatethose
differences,especiallyonaselectivebasis,hasledtosomeoftheworstatrocitiesofmoderncivilization.Throughoutthevariousentriesinthisencyclopedia,Iprovide
examplesofparticularlyprovocativeincidentsofimperialism,butforthemostpartdiscussionsofcolonialismrequireagreaterlevelofhistoricalcontextandtextual
detailthanIcanprovideinthespaceofthisvolume.Certainlymanyofthetextsexaminedinthisworkcanbediscussedintermsoftheircolonialisttendencies,butI
leavesuchpreciseapplicationstothereader.
Finally,Iwishtoacknowledgetherichmetaphorictraditionoftravel.Lifeisoftenfiguredasasortofjourneyandreadingasavoyageintoanotherworld.Toborrow
JohnKeatssfamouslineaboutreadingatranslationofHomer,MuchhaveItravelldinrealmsofgold.Toreadisaformoftravel,andtravelliteraturefunctionsas
morethanarmchairrecreation.Wemightthinkoftravelasoneoftheprimaryexperiencesofhumanexistence,againstwhicheverythingelseiscompared.Iinviteyou,
then,tojoinmeinanadventurethroughtextsandtheworldstheydescribe.Whatwecanlearnaboutourselvesandavarietyofothersisalmostlimitless.
Bonvoyage!

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EncyclopediaofTravelLiterature

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A
ADAMS,DOUGLAS
AccordingtoDouglasAdams(English,1952),theideaforTheHitchhikersGuidetotheGalaxyfirstcroppedupwhileIwaslyingdrunkinafieldinInnsbruck,
Austria,in1971(Adamsvi).HehadbeenwanderingwidelythroughEuropewhentheideastruck.Inthelast25years,Adamshasadaptedhissatiricparodyoftravel
literatureformanymedia:aBBCradioseries,televisionandfilmversions,comicbooks,and,ofcourse,abewilderingcollectionoftexts.Theserieshasenjoyed
astoundingsuccess,withworldwidesalesofthebooksaloneestimatedatover14millioncopies!Forthesakeofthisstudy,Iwillrestrictmycommentarytothe
collectedstoriespublishedbyWingsBooksasTheUltimateHitchhikersGuide(1996).ThiseditioncontainsanintroductoryessaybyAdamsandallsixnovels:
TheHitchhikersGuidetotheGalaxyTheRestaurantattheEndoftheUniverseLife,theUniverse,andEverythingSoLong,andThanksforAllthe
FishYoungZaphodPlaysItSafeandMostlyHarmless.Ofcourse,allofthesetextshavebeenpublishedseparatelyandinvariouscombinations.
Thepremiseforallofthesestoriesisthedesireforcheaptravelandaimlessadventure,goingnottogetanywhereinparticular,butsimplytogoyetinsteadoflimiting
thescopetoEarth,Adamsdepictstherandomwanderingsofhischaractersthroughthewideuniverse.Yetagainandagain,travelthroughouttheuniverseresembles
nothingsomuchaswanderingaroundEurope.
TheprincipalpersonalitiesinallsixnovelsareArthurDent,abumblingEnglishmanwhostumblesintoandoutofallmannerofremarkablesituationsFordPrefect,a
pluckyintergalactictravelwriterwhobefriendsArthurZaphodBeeblebrox,onetimepresidentoftheuniverseturnedrenegadeturnedheroandTrillian,theEarthling
loveinterestof,atvarioustimes,allthree.
Asneophytestoarichlyinhabiteduniverse,readersidentifywithArthur,towhomallofthisisstrange,new,andmostlyincomprehensible.Hequicklylearns,however,
thatthekeytointergalactictravelistheabilitytohitchhikeonpassinginterstellarshipsandthattheonlyinvaluabletoolintheuniverse,forthecosmicvagabondatleast,
isacomputerizedbookcalledTheHitchhikersGuidetotheGalaxy.Thisbookcontainsallheneedstoknowabouttheinfiniteuniverse(!):itspeople,itsplaces,
anditsquirks.Usingthisguide,ArthurandFordgallivantinmanydirectionsthroughtimeandspace.
Astravelliterature,Adamssworkfunctionsbyrepeatedlyusingtheoddnessoftheuniversetosetthefamiliar,Earthlyequivalentsinrelief.Inotherwords,by
experiencingdifference,Arthurand,byassociation,thereaderreflectsuponhisownhome.
ThephysicaldifficultiesoftravelingprovideoneexampleofArthurfindingthatsomecomponentsofajourneyareindeeduniversal.Todepictthefatigueanddiscomfort
ofintergalactictravelistoinflatethefamiliarwoesofEarthlyvoyages.Alongtheway,Adamsinsertshisownwryandbitingcritiqueofmodernity.Arthurmuses:
Thetroublewithmostformsoftransport...isbasicallythatnotoneofthemisworthallthebother.OnEarthwhentherehadbeenanEarth,beforeit
wasdemolishedtomakewayforanewhyperspacebypasstheproblemhadbeenwithcars.Thedisadvantagesinvolvedinpullinglotsofblacksticky
slimefromoutofthegroundwhereithadbeen

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safelyhiddenoutofharmsway,turningitintotartocoverthelandwith,smoketofilltheairwithandpouringtherestintothesea,allseemedtooutweigh
theadvantagesofbeingabletogetmorequicklyfromoneplacetoanotherparticularlywhentheplaceyouarrivedathadprobablybecome,asaresult
ofthis,verysimilartotheplaceyouhadleft,i.e.,coveredwithtar,fullofsmokeandshortoffish.
(257)
Onanotheroccasion,Arthurlikensthedevelopmentoftimetraveltothehomogenizationofthemodernworld.Backwardtimetravelhasthecurious,ifnotparadoxical,
abilitytomakethepastmorelikethefuture:Justaseasytravelerodedthedifferencesbetweenonecountryandanother,andbetweenoneworldandanother,sotime
travelisnowerodingthedifferencesbetweenoneageandanother.Thepast,theysay,isnowtrulylikeaforeigncountry.Theydothingsexactlythesame
there(390).Muchastheearlymoderntravelersfoundthatventuringforthtoforeignculturescouldshedlightupontheirbelovedhomelands,sotoodoesAdams
proposethatspaceandtimetravelcanteachvaluablelessons.Asreadersofthisseries,wemayfindituncannytoimagineauniversethatisatonceverydifferentbut
alsososimilartowhatwealreadyknow,asthoughaffirmingourhopethatsomecharacteristicsandideasareuniversal.Cynically,Adamsseemstopositgreed,lust,
andegomaniaasthetraitsthatweEarthlingssharewithourcosmiccousins.
Nonetheless,travelteachesArthurandchangeshisperspective.UponhisreturntoEarth(hehastogobackintimetogetthere),afterhavingseentheuniverse,Arthur
viewshisfamiliarhomeverydifferently:Theywerenotthesameeyeswithwhichhehadlastlookedoutatthisparticularscene,andthebrainwhichinterpretedthe
imagestheeyesresolvedwasnotthesamebrain.Therehadbeennosurgeryinvolved,justthecontinualwrenchingofexperience(506).Thispassagemightserveas
anencapsulatedsummaryoftheentirehistoryoftravelliterature:expandingoneshorizonschangeseverything.Havingseendifferencechangestheentireperceptive
processwedoindeedseewithneweyes.
Arthurcontinueswiththisideainthenextbook:Hehadlongagorealizedthatalotofthingsthathehadthoughtofasnatural,likebuyingpeoplepresentsatChristmas,
stoppingatredlightsorfallingatarateof32feetpersecond,werejustthehabitsofhisownworldanddidntnecessarilyworkthesamewayanywhereelse(709).It
seemsaneasyleaptoapplythesamelogictoEarthlytravelbetweendifferentcultures:seeingtheforeignmakesusawareofthefamiliar.Thatwhichwetakefor
grantedmaybeentirelyculturespecificorworseyet,completelyarbitrary.Seeingtheothercancauseustoviewourhomesinanewlight.
TheHitchhikersGuideseriesgoesalongwaytowarddemonstratingandhighlightingtheprinciplesoftravelandthelessonsoftravelliteratureindeed,asreaderswe
donotneedtohitchhikefarandwidetolearnwhatArthurcanteachus.
References:
Adams1996
ADDISON,JOSEPH
Oneofthetoutedliterarylionsoftheeighteenthcentury,JosephAddison(English,16721719)hasanynumberofgreataccomplishmentstohiscredit.Famousinhis
ownlifetime,hepublishedwidelyinpopularjournalslikeTatler,TheGuardian,andTheSpectator.Sometimeteacher,translatorofRomanclassics,statesman,poet,
operalibrettist,andtraveler,Addisonscuriosityhadvastresources.
Welleducatedandsociallywellconnected,Addisonquicklymadeanameforhimselfasapromisingyoungmanofletters.Tofacilitatehisfurtherculturaldevelopment,
thegovernmentgavehimfinancialsupporttocontinuehisstudiesoflanguage,history,art,andcultureontheContinent.Forfouryears,

Page3
17001704,theCrownliberallyfundedAddisonspursuitofwhatsoeverhedesiredtolearn.HechosetospendhistimeinFranceandItaly.Theresultwasasmall
andmostlyoverlookedtextcalledRemarksonSeveralPartsofItaly...intheYears1701,1702,1703.Hardlyatitleforabestseller,yetthisrichlittletext
providesafineexampleoftravelliterature.
Thoughitwillperhapsseemdryandlongwindedtocontemporaryreaders,instyleandstructureitispureeighteenthcenturyessay.Addisonsaimseemstobeto
captureahistoryofwhathelearnedandhowhelearneditwhileontour,andassuch,hiswritingisaseriesofattemptsatunderstandingculturaldifference,noting
historicalcontinuity,andexplainingtheworldaroundhim.Likeaboundlesslycuriouschild,AddisonrelateshisexperimentsandeffortstocomprehendbothFranceand
Italymorefully.OneofthejoysofreadingthisworkistoseehowAddisonskeenanalyticalpowerstakesimpleobservationsandplacetheminahighlysophisticated
largercontext.
AwiderangeoftopicsreceivesAddisonsattentioninthistext.Regionallinguisticquirks,geographicwonders,historicliteraryplaces,art,music,andmanymore
subjectsmakeupthiseclecticcollection.HemusesonthepopularityofsnowratherthanicetochilldrinksinNapleshecontrastscourtmannersindifferentcities
hetracksdownreferencesfromVirgilsAeneidhedescribesthenuancesofItalianoperaheexperimentswiththepoisonousvaporsofthegrottodelCani(near
Naples)andhecommentsupondozensofotherotherwiseunrelatedsubjects.Initsscatteredlogichistextembodiesthepureessay,literallyanattemptortrialat
suggestingideasandevokingimages.
AmongthemostinterestinganecdotesareAddisonsinsightfulcharacterizationsoftheFrenchandtheItaliansingeneral:whiletheyhavesomedecideddistinctions,it
becomesclearthatthey,withtheEnglish,shareacommonculturallegacyandaremoresimilarthandifferent.Insteadofconfirmingadisassociation,Addisonsuggestsa
unity:havingseentheforeign,heplacesBritain,Italy,andFranceinalargerculturalandhistoricalcontextnamely,Europe.
Withitselegantstyleandexuberantfocus,Addisonsaccountremainsoneofthemorelucidexamplesofthegrandeducationaltourthatteachesinsomanydifferent
ways.Byprovidinghimwithalargercircleofexperienceandexposure,thetourencouragedAddisontothinkinbroadertermstheresultofwhichisobviousinhis
subsequentworks.Itisthroughtravelthatthisgreatandcuriousmindwasencouragedtolookatitshomecultureandtoseeboththestrengthsandweaknessesof
England.
Seealso:
GrandTour
References:
Adams1988
Addison1726
Fussell1987
AKENSIDE,MARK
MarkAkenside(English,17211770)was,likesomanyofthetravelwritersoftheeighteenthcentury,noteworthyprimarilyinanotherfield:hewastheofficial
physiciantoKingGeorgeIIIin1761.InthiscapacityhetraveledthroughoutEurope.Besideshisofficialfunction,Akensidewasalsoaninnovativepoetwhosesubject
matterwasoftentravel.HisbookThePleasuresofImaginationwasnotpublisheduntil1774,fouryearsafterhisdeath.
ThePleasuresofImaginationisinterestingforanumberofreasons.Forthesakeofthisstudy,Akensidesbookofblankverseservestoblend,asthetitlesuggests,
theworldofimaginationandtheworldoftravelintoonesingularexperience.Ponderingandmusingbecomeformsoftraveltowanderinthemindisthesameprocess,
forAkenside,astowanderinexoticlands.
Inaddition,Akensidetakestoheartthesentimentthatthepastisaforeignplace.Thusthroughouthisbook,thenarratoris

Page4
voyagingintoclassicalGreekidealsasmuchasheistravelingtoeighteenthcenturyGreece.Hisphysicaljourneycorrespondswithhisimaginativevoyagebacktothe
GoldenAge.
Stylistically,ThePleasuresofImaginationbrimswithenthusiasm,energy,andvigor.Akensidepossessesavividimaginationandanimpassionedsenseofwording.
Hishighlymetaphoriclanguageandinnovativeuseofabstractcomparisonsmakehimfascinatingtoread.Evenwithintheratherrigidconfinesofblankversesiambic
pentameterlines,heisabletoexpressanenergyandvitalitythatmakethepoemthrill.
AsanexampleofAkensideswriting,letuslookatasectionaboutGreece.Thenarrator,awedbythelegacyoftheplace,invokesthegloriousandidolizedpastasa
waytounderstandthecountrythathecurrentlyvisits:
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l

...Fromthebloomingstore
Oftheseauspiciousfields,mayIunblamed
Transplantsomelivingblossomstoadorn
Mynativeclime:whilefarabovetheflight
Offancysplumeaspiring,Iunlock
ThespringsofancientwisdomwhileIjoin
Thyname,thricehonoured!withthimmortalpraise
Ofnaturewhiletomycompatriotyouth
Ipointthehighexampleofthysons,
AndtunetoAtticthemestheBritishlyre.
(CrossleyHolland135)

Notonlydoeshepresumethatthereasontotravelistolearnlessonsthatcanbetakenhome(mayIunblamed/Transplantsomelivingblossomstoadorn/Mynative
clime),buthealsosetshispraiseofGreeceagainstthebackdropofBritain(AndtunetoAtticthemestheBritishlyre).Todosoreinforcesoneofthecentralthemes
ofthisvolume:asmuchaswetraveltolearnofaforeignculture,wealmostalwayscomeawaylearningsomethingaboutourownculture.Indeed,Akensideseemsto
beminingGreeceforwaystomakeeighteenthcenturyBritainabetterplace.
References:
CrossleyHolland1986
ARMAND,LOUIS,BARONDELAHONTAN
SeeLahontan,LouisArmanddeLomdArce,Baronde

Page5

B
BAEDEKERS
Baedekersisthenameofoneofthemostwidelyusedandwellrespectedofalltravelguidebookseries.Inthe1830s,GermanprinterKarlBaedeker(18011859)
begantheseriesthatcontinuedtosetthestandardforindependenttravelguidesuntilthe1920s.Whilethenamewasresuscitatedinthelatterpartofthetwentieth
century,thenewBaedekersguidesbearlittleresemblancetotheoriginalsofold.
LiteraryreferencestoBaedekersFranceandBaedekersItalyareinnumerableinturnofthecenturynovelsitseemseveryonewhotraveledtotedaBaedekers.
BeyondthestandardContinentaldestinations,theseriesexpandedtoincludepartsofNorthAfricaandCentralAsia.
Generallymeticulouslyresearchedandcontainingamazinglyaccuratemaps,theseoldvolumescanstilloccasionallybefoundatantiquarianbookstores.Eachvolume
providesacomprehensiveifconservativehistoricalbackgroundoftheregionitcoversaswellasanenormoussupplyofliteraryandartisticreferences.From
experience,Icansaythattothisdaytheyarestillavaluabletravelresource(althoughtherestaurantlistingsleavesomethingtobedesired!).
Nineteenthcenturyguidebooksarequiteworthyofstudywhattheypresumetellsusmuchaboutthesortofpersonwhotraveled.Byreadingtheseguides,wecansee
whatsortsofthingsmatteredtothenineteenthcenturytraveler.Everyvolumebrimswithexamplesthatrangefromsillysnobbismtohorrificracism.Travelersare
assumedtohavehadaclassicaleducationearlyversionsdonotevenbothertotranslateLatininscriptionsandtohaveplentyofmoneytospend.Sexismabounds
intheveryformatofthesebooks,fortherearespecialsectionswithadviceforwomentravelersgenerallythesesectionsrecommendabsurdmodesty,paranoid
precautions,andminimalexertion.
Thesefascinatingdocumentsgoalongwaytowarddescribingwhatitmusthavebeenliketobeatravelermorethan100yearsago.Toanalyzethemistodelveinto
thenatureofeliteanglophonetravelersexpectations.Tomyknowledge,thereexistsnomajorscholarlystudyofthesetravelguides.
BAINES,THOMAS
SeeLord,W.B.,andThomasBaines
BARTRAM,WILLIAM
Althoughaminortravelwriter,WilliamBartram(American,17391823)servesasanexcellentexampleofanAmericancolonisttravelinginthewildsofNorth
America.ParticularlynoteworthyarehisattitudestowardnaturalphenomenaandNativeAmericans.
ThesonofaprominentPennsylvaniaQuaker,Bartramgrewupwithsubstantialopportunities.Hisfathertookhimonseverallengthyandarduousjourneyswhilehe
wasstillachild,andtheseformativeexperiencesclearlymadeagreatimpressiononBartram.Thoughtrainedasabotanist,hewaswellversedinthearts,notedasa
painter,andspokeanumberoflanguages.Hisbook,humblytitledTravels(1791),metwithwidesuccessbothinAmericaandinGreatBritain.Itchronicleshis
extensivevoyagearoundNorthAmerica,particularlytheSouthwestandtheWildWest.

Page6
Bartramwasmostinterestedinundevelopedandunpopulatedtractsoflandthenaturalworldwashisdomain.
Hiswritingisattimesobsessedwithtaxonomy,butamidhiscopiousandaccuratedetailaremomentsofextremebeauty.Hisenthusiasmmaystrikethemodernreader
asstickysweet,butinhisdaysuchanemotionalresponsetonaturewasindeedpraiseworthy.Infact,Bartramsworkappearstohaveinfluencedthesubsequent
generationofpoetsandessayistssignificantly:ThomasCarlyleandRalphWaldoEmersoneachpraiseBartram,whilebothSamuelTaylorColeridgeandWilliam
Wordsworthappeartohaveborrowedimageryfromhim(Adams423).
InalongsectionfromTravelsthatdetailshisexplorationoftheSt.JohnsRiverinFlorida,weseeBartramcalmlynarratingaharrowingnightintheswamps.Alonein
hiscanoe,hecampsforthenightonasmallisthmus.Withpainstakingdetail,hedescribeshisencounterswithalligators,bears,andwolves.Hislongandtranquil
paragraphsrarelyshowfear,butinsteadexpressaweatthebruteforceofthesepredators.Hedescribesthescene:
Thealligatorswereinsuchincrediblenumbers,andsoclosetogetherfromshoretoshore,thatitwouldhavebeeneasytohavewalkedacrossontheir
heads....Ihaveseenanalligatortakeupoutofthewaterseveralgreatfishat

Page7
atime,andjustsqueezethembetwixthisjaws,whilethetailofthegreattroutflappedabouthiseyesandlip,erehehadswallowedthem.Thehorridnoise
oftheirclosingjaws...thefloodsofwaterandbloodrushingoutoftheirmouths,andthecloudofvapourissuingfromtheirwidenostrils,weretruly
frightful.
(Adams427)
Methodically,Bartramsecureshisbelongingsandfendsoffavarietyofwildbeastsforthenight.Inmostcases,hedepictsthenaturalworldastheoppositeofthe
civilizedworldwhencehecame.Thisbinaryrelationshipcontainstheseedsofthenotionthattheraw,bruteforcesofnatureareinneedofbeingharnessedbyman.
Inanotherinstance,Bartramobservestheprofoundabundanceofnatureagain,butthistimeitisrepletewithCherokeeIndians.Adheringtoeighteenthcentury
attitudes,heregardstheCherokeeaspartofnature,notunlikethefloraandfauna,andtherebysomethingtobestudiedandrecorded.InsteadofwritingtheNative
Americansasbloodthirstykillers,assomanyofhiscontemporariesdid,Bartramenvisionsthemasnoblesavagesatermthatdenotespeoplesthoughtofasnaturally
simpleandvirtuousonthebasisofnothavingyetbeencorruptedbyWesterncivilization.Assuch,theCherokeeareprelapsariantheyhaveneitherfallennorbeen
evictedfromEdenandarethusinnocentandjoyous.Bartramwritesbreathlesslyof
avastexpanseofgreenmeadowsandstrawberryfieldsameanderingriverglidingthrough,salutinginitsvariousturning...flocksofturkiesstrolling
aboutthemherdsofdeerprancinginthemeadsorboundingoverthehillscompaniesofyoung,innocentCherokeevirgins,somebusygatheringtherich
fragrantfruit,others...layreclinedundertheshadeof[anarrayoffloweringtrees],disclosingtheirbeautiestotheflutteringbreeze,andbathingtheir
limbsincoolfleetingstreamswhilstotherparties,moregayandlibertine,wereyetcollectingstrawberries,orwantonlychasingtheircompanions,
tantalisingthem,stainingtheirlipsandcheekswiththerichfruit.
(Adams431)
Paradisefoundindeed!
ItispreciselytheemotioninhiswritingthatmakesBartraminterestingtostudy.Bycarefullyreadinghistexts,wemaybegintounderstandmoreabouttheauthorand
thesocietythatmadehim.Bartramsrepresentationsprovideaclearexampleofatravelerwhooverlookstheruggedhardshipsofthelandandinsteadlaudsthevast
anduntouchedandhighlyidealizedrealmofnature.Inhiseranatureservedasantidotetothemaladiesofcivilization.Thoughhetreatsustonumeroustalesof
natureandbeautyinthewilderness,hiswritingalsoprovidesaninsightintotheideologyofhisage.Onceagain,thisisoneoftheprimaryjoysoftravelliterature:
beyondthepleasureofthetaleweareaffordedinsightintothenarratorandhisculture.
References:
Adams1988
BAUDRILLARD,JEAN
JeanBaudrillard(French,1929)isoneoftheleadingphilosophersofpostmodernism.Hehaswrittenanumberofhighlytheoreticalworksaswellashis1986travel
essaycalledAmerica.FollowinginthetraditionofAlexisdeTocquevilleandotherFrenchtravelerstotheUnitedStates,BaudrillardfindsmodernAmericaaplaceat
oncemysteriouslybeautifulandunthinkablyhorrible.ThecommonplaceeventsofhisjourneyarespunintodeeplytellingsymbolsofAmericasfundamentalidentity.
Baudrillardstextisnotinadiaryorajournalformatrather,hegivesusunconnectedobservationsandsnippetsfromhistripacrosstheUnitedStates.Itisalmostasif
hisanecdotesarepostcards:eachoneistinyandselfcontained,yeteachcapturesminusculedetailsandstartlinglyastuteobservations.Whathenotesoftenseems
random,butwhenframedinhis(sometimesconvoluted)interpretation,

Page8
theobjectsbecomeclearlymeaningful.California,SaltLakeCity,andNewYorkunfoldunderBaudrillardsscrutiny.
Thetextfunctionsasprovocativepostmoderntravelliteratureinthatittransformstheroutineintosomethingnoteworthybyseeingitfromadifferentinthiscase
foreign,specificallyFrenchperspective.Thatwhichwemightordinarilynotnoticeaboutourownhomelandstrikestheoutsiderseyeasbizarreorpoeticor
magnificent.WhentalkingaboutNewYork,forinstance,heobserves:
Thenumberofpeopleherewhothinkalone,singalone,andeatandtalkaloneinthestreetsismindboggling....WhydopeopleliveinNewYork?
Thereisnorelationshipbetweenthem.Exceptforaninnerelectricitywhichresultsfromthesimplefactoftheirbeingcrowdedtogether.Amagical
sensationofcontiguityandattractionforanartificialcentrality....Thereisnohumanreasontobehere,exceptforthesheerecstasyofbeingcrowded
together.
(Baudrillard15)
Indeed,suchobservationsshiftusnecessarilyintoseeingthroughthephilosopherseyesratherthanthroughtheeyesofastudentpursuingadegree,aparentearning
herliving,oratouristintownforaBroadwayshow.Byseeingalternatively,thehopeisthatwemightbegintobemoreconsciousofthedecisionsandactionsofour
lives.
Attimesheisbitinginhisobservationsatothertimesheisfullofadmiration.PerhapsitisthisambivalencethatmakesBaudrillardsointerestingtoreadbutatthesame
timemakeshimverydifficulttopindown.Wehavecomeanenormousdistancefromtheearlyexplorersofthesixteenthcentury,withtheirclearsenseoftheEuropean
Christianassuperiorandthenativeasinferior.Indeed,asanexampleoftravelliteratureforthepresent,perhapsthisisoneofthemostsophisticatedexercises.From
highwaysignstosupermarkets,fromarchitecturetoadvertising,frompoliticstocommerce,BaudrillardaddressesaremarkablearrayofAmericanelements.Asa
highlytrainedthinker,heisabletounmaskaspectsofcontemporarysocietytodisplaytheirunderlyingmeaning.Itisbyborrowingthetravelersperspectivethatweare
abletolearnfromthistextaboutourselves.
Tocqueville,Alexisde
References:
Baudrillard1988
BELL,GERTRUDE
Atirelessandintrepidtraveler,GertrudeBell(English,18681926)plungedboldlyintotheIslamicworld.Herskillsweremanyshehasbeennotedasamountaineer,
asanarcheologist,andevenasaBritishspy.Whileitispossibletocallherawriter,herbookisadifficulttofindcollectionofherletters.Perhapsitsunassumingtitle,
TheLettersofGertrudeBell(1911),dissuadessomereaders.Nonetheless,herwritingisindeedfinetravelliterature,foritisvivid,daring,andinsightful.
Beginningintheearly1890s,BellembarkeduponaseriesofjourneystotheNearandMiddleEast.Herrouteifitcanbecalledsuchcirclednearandfar
throughoutPersia,Syria,andAnatolia.Alltold,hervoyageslastedalmost20years!
Oneparticularanecdoteillustrateshercharacterquitewell.AftersurvivingtwoweeksofcrossingtheharshSyriandesert,sheemergedfullofvigor.Thedumbfounded
Arabchiefwhowastoserveasherhostissaidtohaveexclaimedwithtrepidation,Andifthisisoneoftheirwomen!Allah,whatmusttheirmenbelike!(Newby
271).Sexismaside,theanecdotereflectspositivelyonBellstenacityanddetermination.
Morethansimplydemonstratingthatwomencouldandwoulddowhatmendid,BellwriteswithgreatdelightandkindnessontheoftcriticizedIslamicworld.Upon
reachinganoasisinPersiainJuneof1892,Bellfoundherselfregaledbytheprince.

Page9
Outofasenseofdutyandhospitality,hetreatedBellmagnificently.Astonished,sheremarked,withherpeculiarsecondpersonvoice,Andallthetimeyourhostwas
probablyaperfectstrangerintowhoseprivacyyouhadforcedyourselfinthisunblushingway.Ah,wehavenohospitalityinthewestandnomanners(Newby272).
SuchopencomparisonsofPersiatoEnglandtothefavorofPersiaoccurthroughoutBellswritingandhighlightherlearningprocess:shelearnedbothoftheArab
culturesandofherself.
Bellsproseisextremelyaccessible,butitisnotwithoutsubtlenuances.Hertalesmovequickly,buttheyarepunctuatedwithtidbitsofculturalobservations,
geographicnotes,andherownexuberantemotions.UnlikemanyoftheepistolarytraveloguesbetheyreallettersoraformalconventionBellsringswithgenuine
excitementandunpretentiousdesires.
TheharshclimateofthedesertfunctionsasanelaboratemetaphorthroughoutBellswriting.Theconstantstruggleforwaterandshelterseemsadistillationofthemore
complexadversitiesoflife.Whenthereisnowaterorsheltertobefound,littleelseisimportantcontinuingthetrekbecomesamatterofsurvivalratherthanasimple
pleasure.Atthismoment,travelandlifebecomeone.Yetthelessonslearnedunderextremedeprivationcaneasilybeappliedtomoremundanesituations.
Evenwithdeatharealandimmediatepossibility,Belldoesnotdespairbutcontinuestonotethebeautyofthelandscape,thecheerofhercompanions,andherown
excitement.Whenthingsarebleakest,shewritesbeforebed,withoutahintofirony,Ifyoucouldseethewesternskywiththeeveningstarburninginit,youwould
givethanksasIdo(DOyley291).Perhapsthisoptimismisonethegreatestlessonstobefoundinherwriting.
References:
DOyley1932
Newby1985
BIGNOLD,THOMASFRANK
ThomasFrankBignold(English,18391888)servedinHerMajestysBengalCivilServiceduringtheBritishoccupationofIndia.Asacivilservant,Bignoldsjourney
toIndiawasnotsomuchachoiceasaduty.Yethisbookofverse,Leviora:BeingtheRhymeofaSuccessfulCompetitor(1888),servesasagoodillustrationof
howsomecolonialistwritingcanexistasasubsetoftravelliterature.Bignoldsbookhasnumerousworthyexamplesthatcanindeedhelpusseehowthissubspeciesof
travelliteratureworks.Otherthanthissingle,fairlyrarevolume,itseemsnothingelsehasmarkedBignoldtoberememberedbyhistory.
MostofBignoldspoemsareautobiographical:theyrelatestoriesofafirstpersonnarratorandhisfamilyinIndia.LetususeforourexamplehispoemThe
Holiday(CrossleyHolland308).ImaginethenarratorasabureaucratduringaparticularlytroubledandviolentperiodoftheRaj.Thepoembeginswithaclassical
trope(orfigurativeexpression)theapostrophe(orphraseaddresseddirectlytotheaudienceoragod)ofEmbalm,OMuseandthenquicklyshiftstosomething
muchlesspoetic:hisdesireforavacationfromtherigorsofwork(ThewornCivilianswellearnedholiday).Alreadydisplacedandlivinginaforeignculture,the
narratorpositstravelasameansofescape.
Inspiteofstartinginanexoticlocale,inthiscaseCalcutta,Bignoldscarcelynoteshissurroundings.Theforeignlandhasbecomeasortofhome,henceitis,toa
degree,invisible.Butallthehumansensesaretobepiquedbythetonicoftravel.Thenarratorchoosesaseapassage,withthemysteryandpotentialvastnessofthe
watertoexcitehim:
l
l
l

Atriptosea!butwhither,gentleMuse?
Thewavesareallbeforeus,wheretochoose
Boundforwhatport,ofalltheportsthatare?

Itistheprocessofbeinginmotionthatconstitutestheexcitementinthiscase.Itmatters

Page10
lesswhereheisboundthanthatheisgoing.
Bignoldalsonotesthattravelingdoesnotbeginandendwiththetriprather,itprecedesdepartureandlingersconsiderablyafterreturn.Theformulationofplans,the
arrangementofnecessities,thepreparationsmanyandvariouscompriseaportionofthetravelersjoy.Saidotherwise,thenarratorrecognizestravelasconsiderably
morethanphysicallygoingfromoneplacetoanother.
Bignoldsaccountoftheactualjourneyshiftsquicklytoalightandplayfulstylethatcontrastswiththesternandworriedtoneofthepoemsfirst30lines.Hejests,
perhaps,atthethings,attendants,andbaggageheandhisfamilyneedswhenhesays,AndIwithwifeandchildrenwillembark/AbandtwoshortofNoahsinthe
ark.Stressandworryhavedepartedbeforetheshiphasleft.
Astheysetouttosea,Bignoldprovidesalengthyaccountofthepenalcolonythattheypass.Hespeakscompassionatelyoftheprisoners,asthoughtheyarebutplying
adifferenttradethanheis.Muchsuggeststhatthissectionsymbolicallyrepresentstheconstraintsofhisownlifeasacivilservant.Bignoldsescape,however,iseasy,
andsothejourneybegins.
Onceatsea,thenarratordelightsinhisisolation.Thecaptainbecomesasubstitutekingandtheirshipamicrocosmofsociety.Saysthenarratorofthecaptain,
l
l
l
l

Hereinhisseagritrealm,midbalmygales,
Teasedbynowireandonlymonthlymails
Highinhistreecladseatabovethewave
Heholdssuchcourtascrownedkingmightcrave.

ThecaptainisthuscontrastedtotheveryrealmonarchwhomBignoldserves,andlifeatseasetshisbureaucraticlifeintostarkrelief.
Thejourneycontinuesbutbriefly,astheholidayisquicklyover.Remember,thisisaworkingfellow,notanaristocratonaGrandTour.Theyreturn,tiredbut
refreshed,tothechaoticviolenceofIndiaundertheRaj.Thoughtheactualtravelisdone,itseffectsarenot.Thestoriesremaintobetold,thepoemstoberead,and
theexperiencetoberelived.Truetoitsformastravelliterature,TheHolidayendswiththenarratorhavingbenefitedfromhisjourneyandbrimmingwithenthusiasm
forsharinghisaccount(andsendingittohispublisher,theEnglishman).Thefinalstanzareads:
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l

SotoPortBlaironcemore.Nay,donotpout!
MyMuse,likeyou,fairreader,istiredout
Iwillbutnotethekindnessandgoodwill
Thatalluntiringlightedonusstill
Andurgeonallwhoneedachangeofair
Theround,Rangoon,Camorta,andPortBlair
AndtothatendasswiftlyasIcan
ShalltakethiscopytotheEnglishman.

Travel,literature,work,andlifemeltintoasingleiteminthispoem,andassuch,itremainsanexemplarywork.
Seealso:
GrandTourRaj
References:
CrossleyHolland1986
BIRD,ISABELLA
NottobeconfusedwiththesimilarlynamedElizabethBishop,IsabellaBird(laterBishopbymarriageEnglish,18311904)wasaproperbutintrepidVictorianlady.
Afteraratherunpromisingstart,shedevelopedintooneofthegreatesttravelersofalltime.Hernumerousvolumesdisplayagiftforstorytellingandanexquisitely
unpretentiousexpressivemanner.ForBird,travelmeantlifeandfreedomsheventurednearandfartolearnofgeographies,ofcultures,and,perhapsmostimportantly,
oftheuniversaltraitsthatallhumansshare.
Asthedaughterofaprominentclergyman,sheledafairlyshelteredearlylife.Shyandsickly,shefoughtanumberofillnessesinherchildhood.Asanadolescent,things
hardlyimproveditwasonlywhenthefamilydoctorrecommendedtravelasatonicthat

Page11
Birdbeganafullrecovery.Herfatherallowedheramodestsumthatshecouldusetotravelasshesawfit.Sheshrewdlysucceededinmakingthatgiftgoaverylong
way.Thisjourneyseemedtoflowintomanyothers,andwhenallwassaidanddone,shehadcircledtheglobemanytimesandwrittenamultitudeofveryfinetravel
books.Theyare:TheEnglishwomaninAmerica(1856),SixMonthsintheSandwichIslands(1875),ALadysLifeintheRockyMountains(1879),Unbeaten
TracksinJapan(1880),TheGoldenChersoneseandtheWayThither(1883),JourneysinPersiaandKurdistan(1891),andTheYangtzeValleyandBeyond:
AnAccountofJourneysinChina(1899).
In1854,BirdsetofftovisitrelativesinCanada.Thevoyageoverseemedtohavearemarkableeffect:boththefreedomandthefreshairoftheAtlanticworked
wondersonherillness(Stefoff30).Thrilledwithhernewfoundindependence,shestayedonlybrieflywithhercousinandventuredoffforathreemonthtourofeastern
CanadaandtheGreatLakesregionoftheUnitedStates.Awedbythevastlandscapeandtheoftenrustictrainsandcoaches,Birdsentcopiouslettersbacktoher
familyinGreatBritain.
Theseletterswerelatercompiledintoherfirstbook,TheEnglishwomaninAmerica.Geniallyobservationalandcertainlytheproductofanovicevoyager,thetextis
pleasantmostlyforitsyouthfulexuberanceandlevity.Birdrarelymindsbeingthebuttofthejoke,playfullyacknowledgingherownmisconceptionsandmistakes.As
herfirstwork,itsetsthetoneforhersubsequentjourneysandaccountsthereof.
Afterthisjaunt,shereturnedhome,whereherhealthdeterioratedagain.Foranumberofyearsshelanguished,writingoccasionallyformagazinesandnewspapers.
Whatsheseemedmosttowantwasmaterialforanewtext,butshefoundlittleathandinBritain.Returningtohisoriginalremedy,herdoctoradvisedanotherjourney
thismedicineBird

Page12
happilytook.Sooffshewentintheoppositedirectionin1872,toseetheSouthPacific.
Aswithherearliertrip,thevoyageitselfprovedrestorative.Tellingly,herlettersfromthepassageoutshineheraccountsoftheplacesshevisited.AustraliaandNew
ZealandproveddisappointingBirdthoughtthemdullandnasty.ShequicklychangedherplansandcaughtafreighterboundforSanFrancisco.
Magically,herspiritsrebounded,eventuallyreachingasortofblisswhentheshipwascaughtinaragingstorm.Clearly,thejourneyitselfwaswhatmostthrilledBird.
Atonepointsherhapsodizes,AtlastIaminlove.AndtheoldseagodhassostolenmysoulthathereafterthoughImustbeelsewhereinbody,Ishallbewithhimin
spirit(Stefoff31).Thisobsessionwiththeseawoulddriveherformanyyears.
Afterthestorm,theystoppedoffintheSandwichIslands(modernHawaii).Captivated,shedisembarkedandspentmorethansixmonthstraversingtheislands
independentlyandcapriciously.Heraccountoftheseexcursions,likeherfirstbook,iscomprisedoflettersshesenthome,publishedasSixMonthsintheSandwich
Islands.
EnchantedwiththenativesanddelightedwiththeclimatewhichwaswarmenoughthatshecouldshedthemanystifflayersaVictorianwomanwasexpectedto
wearherenergyandexcitementpropelthetexteffortlessly.Shetraveledfreelyandoftensolo,camping,climbing,ridinghorses,andwearingtrousers.Shewritesof
herunencumberedlifestyle:Thisistheheightofenjoymentintravelling.Ihavejustcampedunderalauhaulatree,withmysaddleinvertedforapillow,myhorsetied
byalonglariattoaguavabush,mygear,saddlebags,andrationsfortwodayslyingabout,andmysaddleblanketdryinginthesun....ThenoveltyisthatIamalone,
myconveyancemyownhorsenoluggagetolookafter,foritisallinmysaddlebagsnoguidetobother,hurry,orhinderme(Stefoff32).Notably,thiswasthe
antithesisofVictoriantravelforwomen,anditthuscausedsomethingofascandaluponpublicationofthetext.
Aftertheislands,shecontinuedtoNorthAmerica,againforsakingtheestablishedcitiesforatasteofthewilderness.Usingherskillsathorsemanship(perhapswe
shouldsayhorsewomanship),shesetouttoexplorethemountainsthatstretchfromCaliforniatoColorado.Thisjourneylastedsometwoyears,withoneentire
winterspentstrandedsnowboundinamountaincabin.HerdiaryandlettersofthisadventurewerecompiledandpublishedasALadysLifeintheRockyMountains.
Thistextiswritteninamoresophisticatedvoice,perhapspartlyasaresultofherhavingspentlongperiodsofrelativeidleness.Shewaxespoeticaboutthenatural
beautyofhersurroundingsandspendsconsiderabletimedevelopingthecharactersofthosewhomshemeets.Mostprominentinthisbook,asidefromBirdherself,isa
loveinterestnamed,aptly,MountainJoeNugget.Whilethereisclearlyagreatattractionandmutualinterestbetweenthetwo,Birdeventuallydecidesthatmarriage
wouldcurtailherwanderlustandfreedom.SoshereturnedtoBritainaloneandpublishedhertale,whichwasmetwithconsiderablesuccess.
Shortlyafterherreturn,BirdmetDr.JohnBishop,whopromptlyfellinlovewithher.Stillscornfulofamaritalencumbrance,Birdrejectedhisproposalsandsetofffor
Japan.ForhalfayearsheroamedthesmallvillagesandmountainhamletsofJapan,learningmuchaboutthecountrypeopleandoldtraditions.Seekingremoteand
untraveledcites,BirdwasprobablyoneofthefirstEuropeanstovisittheisolatedJapaneseislandofHokkaido.Withthesuccessofherlastbookensuringpublication
ofhernext,shesoughttoincreasethedangerfactorofhertravelsandelevatethestyleofheraccounts.Hertwovolumeaccount,calledUnbeatenTracksinJapan,
provedthatBirdhadattainedthestatusshedesired:shehadbecomeamajorandinfluentialtravelwriter.

Page13
Branchingoffintopoeticinclusionandelaborateliteraryreferences,andseekinggeographicfirsts,BirdstalesofJapanareremarkablygood.Hervoiceasanauthor
hasasereneandknowingtone,unlikeherearlierworkthatreliedonherautobiographicalnavet.Suchconfidence,however,isnotwithoutrisks:sheseemsobsessed
withthelackofChristianityamongtheJapanese,andthussheveersoccasionallytowardproselytizing.Nonetheless,Birdretainsagenuineinterestintravelasan
opportunitytolearn.InonesituationinJapan,shehasjustwitnessedafrightfulconstructionaccident.Sherecounts,Fourpolicementhenappearedanddemandedmy
passport,asifIwereresponsiblefortheaccident....TheyaskedmewhatIwastravellingforandonbeingtoldtolearnaboutthecountry,theyaskedifIwas
makingamap!(Newby359).Indeed,wecanseethegentletonewithwhichBirdrelatesthetalesheknowsthevalueoftravel,butshekindlyoverlooksthefactthat
thismakeslittlesensetosomepeople.
BirdabandonedherformerprocedureofreturningtoEnglandwithatextinfavorofsendingittoherpublisher.Insodoing,shecouldremaininAsiaandbeginyet
anotherproject.ShehadstumbleduponapassageonasteamerboundfortheMalayPeninsulaanopportunitythatBirdreadilyembraced.Herroutesentherto
HongKong,andtovariousportsinsouthernChina,Vietnam,andSingaporeeachoftheseplacesisdetailedlavishlyinTheGoldenChersoneseandtheWay
Thither.Perhapsmorehurriedthanherpreviousbooks,theentriesareoftenslightlydisjointedandclipped.YetBirdremainsvividandendearinginthistextaswell,
sharingjoviallyheradventuresinaradicallyexoticland.Ratherthandelvingintodetailsoftheindigenouscultures,however,inthisbookBirdseemscontenttorelate
herdailyadventures,fromridingelephantstoeatingfieryhotfoodstodonningnativegarb.
EvenatravelerasheartyasBirdcansufferfromexhaustion.AfterMalaysia,shereturnedtoScotland.SettlingintohersafelifeagainproveddepressingtoBirdthe
deathofherdearsisterdismayedherevenfurther.Sensingthetimewasright,Dr.Bishoprenewedhisproposal,thistimemeetingwithsuccess.In1881,theywere
marriedBirdwasthen50yearsold.Dr.Bishop,sadly,diedlessthanfiveyearsintothemarriage.Aperiodoffranticdomesticactivityfollowed,butBirdfoundthese
activitiesonlyminimallysatisfying.Asameansofrecoveringfromtheloss,IsabellaBirdBishopwentontheroadagain,notebookinhand.
ForyearsshehadbeenobsessedwithCentralAsia.In1888,shesetouttowandertheregionindefinitely.Shespentmorethantwoyearsexploringandadventuringin
India,Pakistan,Tibet,andtheMiddleEast.Thistripprovedtobethemostphysicallyharrowingofall,withruggedterrain,frigidtemperatures,andgenerally
misogynisticpeopleateveryturn.Againsheendured,andshesucceededinwritingapatientyetgrippingaccountpublishedintwovolumesasJourneysinPersiaand
Kurdistan.
Bythispointinhercareer,BirdBishopwasfamousbothforherdaringdeedsandforhereloquenttales.In1892,shebecamethefirstwomanevertobeinvitedasa
distinguishedguestspeakerforLondonsRoyalGeographicSociety(Stefoff38).Shewassubsequentlyelectedtofullmembershipofthesamesociety,againthefirst
womantoachievethedistinction.
Astoundingly,BirdBishopcontinuedtotravel.HerCentralAsiantrip,whichshehadsuggestedwouldbeherlast,wasfollowedbyyetanotherjourney:threeyearsin
China(18941897).Ofcourse,shecontinuedtowriteandpublishthedetailsofhertravels,thistimeasTheYangtzeValleyandBeyond:AnAccountofJourneysin
China.Onthisjunket,shemetwithsomeofthemostdangeroussituationsofhercareer.
Duetothepoliticalclimate,ChinawasgenerallyconsideredhostiletowardEuropeantravelers.Inspiteofnumerouswarnings,Bird

Page14
Bishopinsistedonmakingthetripandventuringintomanyisolatedandprovinciallocales.Armedwitharevolverandherironwill,shefoundherselfattacked,harassed,
andhoundedrepeatedly.Remarkably,shewasneitherseriouslyinjurednorprovokedintoshootinganyofherattackers.Inhertextsheexhibitsanextraordinary
amountofgraceandgoodwillsheforgivesandevensympathizeswithherassailants.Shelightlybrushesoffparticularlyroughtreatmentinonevillagebysaying,in
retrospect,IwashalfinclinedtoreturntoWan,but,infact,thoughtherewasmuchclamourandhootinginseveralplaces,Iwasonlyactuallyattackedonceagain,and
amverygladthatIperseveredwithmyjourney(Robinson299).
Thoughfearless,BirdBishopwasnotstupid.ShequietlytraveledalongtheriverwestwardintoTibet.Shewasalwaysathomeinthemountains,soheraccountsofthe
monthsshespentwithvillagersintheHimalayasaresomeofthemostjovialsheeverwrote.OnecanonlyimaginetheshockanddelightofTibetanyakherdersatthe
sightofa65yearoldEnglishwomanridingaloneoutofChina!Bythistime,BirdBishophadbecomelegendaryinBritainherbookswereeagerlyawaited,andeach
causedasensationuponrelease.
Shereturnedhomeyetagain,onlytofindidlenessdepressing.Aged70years,shepackedamodestbagandsetoffyetagainforanepicadventure:thistimeshechose
themountainsofNorthAfrica.Sherodeafull1,000milesonhorsebackthroughtheAtlasMountains(inMorocco)butfoundthatherenergywasflagging.Indeed,this
istheonetripthatdoesnothaveapolishedandpublishedaccount.ShereturnedtoScotlandsomewhatsaddenedathavinghadtocutthetripslightlyshort.
Inherfinalyears,BirdBishopshiftedherfocustophilanthropyandsocialwelfare,foundinghospitalsandorchestratingreliefwork.Shediedin1904,abeloved
celebrity.
PerhapsIsabellaBirdBishopwasoneofthegreatesttravelersmaleorfemaleofalltime.Forherboundlesswitandcreativity,herexpansiveandpassionate
interests,andhertirelesspursuitoftheforeign,shedeservesgreatpraise.Inherextensiveoeuvre,orbodyofwork,wecanseeherownphilosophiesoftraveldevelop
andexpand:whatbeginsaswondergrowsintoaworldview.Herstaunchrefusaltobehavelikeafragileladycertainlyinspiredmanywomentravelersofherownand
subsequenterastogoforthsimplyforthepleasureofgoing.Throughitall,shetookthetimetowrite,toshare,toteach,andtoexpressthemyriadofjoysthatflow
fromalifeofmotionandadventure.
References:
Newby1985
Robinson1994
Stefoff1992
BISHOP,ELIZABETH
Afreespiritedandfeistycharacter,ElizabethBishop(American,19111979)seemedpreoccupiedwithtwothings:travelandwriting.Herpoems,likeherlife,seem
edgyandunsettled.AmongherfineworksoftravelverseareNorthandSouth(1946),QuestionsofTravel(1965),GeographyIII(1976),andCompletePoems,
19271979(publishedposthumouslyin1983).In1956,shewonthePulitzerPrizeforPoems:NorthandSouth:AColdSpring,whichrevisedandadded17poems
tothe1946edition.
BorninMassachusettsandstrictlyraisedbyhergrandparentsinCanada,Bishoplearnedtobetoughataveryyoungage.Theearlydeathofherfatherandmental
collapseofhermothercouldeasilyhavethwartedalessdrivenyoungwoman.AfterhereducationatVassar,shetraveledwidelyandfinallysettledinSouthAmerica.
Theseperegrinationsservedasrichsourcematerialforherpoetry.
ManyofBishopstravelpoemsatfirstglanceseemimpressionistic,withtheirevocativedescriptionsandvisualemphasis,yetthisstyleisbalancedwithextremelysubtle
semanticsandcomplexthematicarrangements.Theyoftencontainmultiplevoicesthatseem

Page15
tostruggleinaseriesofpointsandcounterpoints.Inthisrespect,Bishopaspirestocapturethementalambivalencethatoftenarisesduringtravel.Ontheonehand,the
adventureisgloriousontheother,itisoftenunpleasantortaxing.
OneexamplecanservetoillustrateBishopstravelpoetry.QuestionsofTravelbeginswithaseriesofrapidlyflowing,observationallinesdescribingwaterfalls:
l
l
l
l
l
l

Therearetoomanywaterfallsherethecrowdedstreams
hurrytoorapidlydowntothesea,
andthepressureofsomanycloudsonthemountaintops
makesthemspilloverthesidesinslowmotion,
turningtowaterfallsunderourveryeyes.
(Craig433)

Thenarratorseemsdissatisfiedwiththesight,andshecontinuesbywonderingifsheoughttohavemadethetripatall.Deeplyquestioningtheideabehindtravel,she
wondersifdreamsoffaroffplacesarenotbetterleftinimagination.
Thefirststanzacloseswithdoubt,butthenextriseswithcertainty:
l
l
l
l
l
l

Butsurelyitwouldhavebeenapity
nottohaveseenthetreesalongtheroad,
reallyexaggeratedintheirbeauty,
nottohaveseenthemgesturing
likenoblepantomimists,robedinpink.
(434)

Asacounterpoint,thenarratorrealizesthatoftenthemostpreciousaspectofthejourneyisnottheendresultthedestinationbuttheprocessofgettingthere.
Thepoemcontinuesonthispositivenote,listingasequenceofthingsitwouldhavebeenapitynottohaveseenordone.Justwhenthemomentumofthissortof
descriptionbecomesconvincing,however,theoriginal,skepticalvoicereturns.Inthesuddengoldensilence...thetravellertakesanotebookandwrites:
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l

Isitlackofimaginationthatmakesuscome
toimaginedplaces,notjuststayathome?
OrcouldPascalhavebeennotentirelyright
aboutjustsittingquietlyinonesroom?
Continent,city,country,society:
thechoiceisneverwideandneverfree.
Andhere,orthere...No.Shouldwehavestayedathome,
whereverthatmaybe?
(434)

Notonlydowehavetheconflationofwritingandtravelindeed,travelprovidestheopportunityandinspirationforthenarratorscommentarybutalsowehavethe
quintessentialtravelersquestionaskedinthisstanza:Whatistheuseoftravel?Inresponsetothatquestion,thenarratordemonstratesratherthanstatesthebenefit:to
learn.ShehasbeguntoquestiontheCartesianlogicofPascalthatanchorsexistenceinthemereactofthinking.Shehaslearnedofexperienceandactionintheprocess
oftraveling.
Suchlessons,metaphysicalaswellascultural,arethematerialforBishopstravelpoetry.Throughout,shealternatesbetweenavoicethatquestionstheworthoftravel
andavoicethatgushesatthethrillofnewplaces.Forthissophisticatedreckoningofopposites,Bishopspoetrydeservesmentionasaformoftravelliterature.
References:
Craig1996
BISHOP,ISABELLABIRD
SeeBird,Isabella
BLIGH,WILLIAM
CaptainWilliamBligh(English,17541817)wasbothheroandauthorofoneofthemoredramaticexamplesoftravelliterature.Hisadventureischronicledinhisown
Narrativeof

Page17
theMutinyontheBounty(1788),aswellasinLordByronsTheIslandandinCharlesNordhoffandNormanHallsnovelistictreatmentalsocalledMutinyon
theBounty.
Thestoryinallcasesisrelativelysimple:adrivenandsevereCaptainBlighpusheshiscrewtothepointofmutiny.Blighissetadriftonasmallopenboatinwhichhe
navigatesthousandsofmilesoftheSouthPacific.NarrativeoftheMutinyontheBountyisaclassicexampleoftraveloguethatbecomesfictionalizedthecharacters
arealmosttooperfectlycasttobestrictlyhistoricallycredible.Theresultisacontinuousliteraryandcinematicreworkingofthestorytothepointwherethehistoricand
fictionalaspectsareintertwined.
Blighsautobiographicaltaleindicatesthathewasamastermarinerandadedicatedevenobsessedexplorer.HavingservedonCaptainJamesCookssecond
voyage,BlighwasrecruitedtotakeHMSBountytothePacificislandofTahititogatherbreadfruitplantsfortransplantationtotheWestIndies.Afteraprolongedstay
inTahitiBlighevensuggeststhatanardentdesireforthemagnificentclimateandbeautifulnativewomenmusthavebeenthecausetheBountysetoutforthe
FriendlyIslands(alsocalledTongaIslands).Seeminglyoutoftheblue,firstmateFletcherChristianandarowdyportionofthecrewmutinied,settingthecaptainand
18menadriftinanopenboat.Blighrosetotheoccasionbymasteringhisnewcraftandcommandingwhatremainedofhiscrew.Againstalloddsandinthefaceof
extremedifficulties,thesmallboatsurvivedanestimated4,000miles,finallylandingonTimor.Fromthere,BlighreturnedwithhisloyalsailorstoEngland,wherethey
receivedaheroswelcome.
Undaunted,Blighattemptedthesamevoyageagain,thistimesucceedingintransplantingthebreadfruittrees.Hisownstorycontinuesthroughnumerousadventuresand
twistsandturnsofhiscareer.Forourpurposes,however,itistheNarrativeoftheMutinyontheBountythatissignificant.Hissubsequentaccountsareextremely
rare,andhislateradventuresneverrivalhisearlyfeats.
ThestoryisinterestinganddramaticprincipallybecauseBlighseemsunawarethathismenarerestless.Hisownsenseofdisciplineismighty,buthecannotseethat
hiscrewmightperceivehimastyrannical.Theresultisthatwehaveanarratorwhoisatonceprotagonistandantagonist.Withremarkablecalm,Blightellsofhis
undoing:Idemandedwhattheirintentionwasingivingthisorder[tocastusadrift],andendeavouredtopersuadethepeoplenearmenottopersistinsuchactsof
violencebutitwastonoeffect(Rugoff436).Themutineersseemtornintheirresolvetheyoustthecaptainbutprovidehimwithprovisionsandevenswords.Oneof
theleadersoftherebellion,afellownamedChristian,seemsparticularlyambivalent.Hischaracterismuchdevelopedinthefictionalaccountsbutonlysuperficially
notedinBlighsownretelling.
Blighmaintainsapositiveattitudeandwritesaremarkableseriesofreassessmentsofhisownhistory.Inexile,hereviewsandreviseshisownstorythefulltextisthus
anaccountoftheeventsleadinguptotheclimacticmutiny,thenareviewandembellishmentofthesamestory.Theresultisamagnificentlookatnarrativeandmemory
asreaders,wecanseehowBlighsstorychanges.Perhapsthejourneyhelpshimtoseedifferently.
YetanothernoteworthyaspectofthestoryisBlighsencounterswiththenatives.Thecontrastbetweenthekindnessoftheislandersandthecrueltyoftheships
mutineerscausesBlighsomeremorsehisownmenbehavedinafarlessChristian(notetheironyofthechiefmutineersname)mannerthanthenatives.Yet
eventuallytheytooturnagainsthimandattacktheopenboatwithstones.ThisleadsBlightoavoidfurthercontactwithnativepeoples,henceheandhiscrewsuffer
longweeksatsea,buffetedbytherainsandwithlittletoeat.Throughitall,Blighretainscontrolandorderonhisshipsuchextremedisciplinewasprobablytheonly
reasontheysurvived.

Page18
TheNarrativeoftheMutinyontheBountyenduresbecauseitcontainsalltheelementsofagoodnovel:desire,confrontation,theunexpected,astruggleforpower,
charactergrowth,andanexoticsetting.AlthoughostensiblywrittenfromBlighsownshiplog,thetalesucceedsinstimulatingthearmchairliterarytravelertoa
satisfyingdegree.Intheend,wemightdescribethetextasthestoryofatravelerwithanunquenchabledesiretofulfillhisduty:ononelevel,heisdutyboundto
completehismission,butonanother,Blighseemstofeelthattravelandexplorationarealsohisgreatestpleasures.
References:
Rugoff1960
BLY,NELLIE
NellieBly,pennameofElizabethCochraneSeaman(American,18671922),hasbecomesomethingofalegend.Heraccomplishmentsasanactivist,asareporter,
andasawriteroftravelliteraturewouldalonehavemeritedherfame,buthernamerecognitionhasindubitablybenefitedfromthewildlypopularStevenFostersong
(NellieBly)thatsingsherpraises.Energeticandintrepid,shedelightedreaderswithhercommentaryonAmericanlife,politics,corruption,andwomensrights.Her
newspapersenthertoMexico,whereshefiledcomparativereportsonlifeinanothercountrythisexcursionseemstohavepiquedherappetitefortravel.Following
thisjourney,shehadherselfcommittedtoamentalwardinordertodocumentthetreatmentofmentalpatients.Heraccountoflifeinaninsaneasylum(TenDaysina
Madhouse,1888)increasedbothherpopularityandhercredibilityasaseriousauthor.Perhapshercrowningachievementwasherwellpublicizeddasharoundthe
globe,theaccountofwhichshepublishedasNellieBlysBook:AroundtheWorldinSeventytwoDays(1890).Itremainsaclassicoftravelwriting.
Asayoungjournalist,BlythrilledreadersofseveralAmericannewspapersandmagazineswithherdaringfranknessandimpassionedtone.Sheinsistedupon
uncoveringtheheartofastoryregardlessofthedangerinvolvedandthusbecameoneofthepioneersofhardhittinginvestigativejournalism.Afterherbookon
madness,shesetouttoliterallyconquertheworld:withthesupportoftheNewYorkWorld(newspaper),Blyembarkedonawhirlwindcircumnavigationoftheglobe.
JulesVernesfictionalaccountAroundtheWorldinEightyDays(1873)hadbeenasmashsuccessBlysoughtnotonlytocircletheglobeforrealbuttobeat
PhineasT.Foggs(Vernesprotagonist)time.

Page19
Shesucceededinmanagingsuchanarduoustrip,andwithherreportsfiledenrouteshecharmedAmericanandEuropeanreaders,whowatchedherjourneywith
excitement.Uponhercelebratedreturn,shecompiledherreportsandjournalsintoasubstantialanddelightfulaccount:NellieBlysBook:AroundtheWorldin
SeventytwoDays.Suchafeatdrewpraiseonmanyaccounts.Shehadtakenthestuffoflegendandmadeitrealtotraveltheentireglobeinoneswiftroutewas
nothingshortofanawesomedisplayofthemodernmarveloftravel.Beyondthis,truetoherfeministspirit,shehaddoneitasawoman,provingthathergendercould
betough,brave,andpioneering.Totopitalloff,herbookisbeautifullywrittenandfullofdramaaswellashumor.
Heraccountbalancesthenaturalsplendoroftheastoundinglydiverselandscapesshecrossedfromoceanstomountainsfromscorchingheattobittercoldwith
excitedreflectiononthesimilarityoftheworldspeople.Indeed,Blyisdelightedbythewarmthandencouragementshefindsateveryturnhertripdemonstratesthat
thoughpeoplearoundtheworldmaylookdifferentandspeakdifferentlanguages,thereisahumanessencethatunifiesthemall.Inspiteofherfranticandexhausting
pace,Blysenergyneverflagged.Inthisonejourneyshecoveredtheglobeand,throughherwriting,broughtthousandsofreadersalongwithher.Uponherreturn,she
waslaudedasahero,anadventurer,andanambassadorofpeaceandgoodwill.
Afterthisepicadventure,sheshiftedherfocusawayfromtravelandliterature,preferringtheworldofbusiness.AftershemarriedRobertSeamanin1895,Blys
activismfocusedupongrowingsuccessfulcompaniesthatbelievedinqualityproductsandhumanetreatmentofworkers.Againsheprovedwildlysuccessful,interms
ofbothprofitabilityandsocialconscience.
HertravelslaterinlifeincludedatriptoEurope,whereshefoundherselfstrandedbytheoutbreakofWorldWarI.Seizingtheday,shereturnedtojournalismandfiled
numerousstoriesaboutthewaranditshumanconsequences.Thoughfineinquality,thesewritingsdonotfallunderthescopeofthisproject.
Blyslifeandtravelsremainatestamenttothebraveryofwomenstrugglingtoprovetheirequality.Shewasoftenthevoiceofthepowerlessandthepoorbothmen
andwomenandassuredlycountlessfollowerslivedvicariouslythroughherboldjourneyaroundtheworld.
Seealso:
Verne,Jules
References:
Hart1965
Stefoff1992
BLL,HEINRICH
Agreatandlaudednovelist,HeinrichBll(German,19171985)wasawardedtheNobelPrizeforliteraturein1972.Tobesure,hiscontributiontoliteraturehasbeen
vast,butintermsoftravelliteraturehewrotebutasinglevolume,IrishJournal,althoughtravelfiguresprominentlyinmanyofhisworks.Thoughaloneexampleofthe
genreinhisoeuvre,thetextissignificantforitsstructure,itsstyle,anditscontent.
Inthe1950s,BllmadeajourneytoIreland,andintheprocessofwanderinghekeptadetailedjournalofhisexperiences.Heresiststheurgetojudgeovertlyinstead,
headoptsastylethatcanbestbedescribedassubtleselfeffacement.Rarelydoeshenotehimself,hisopinions,orhisemotions.Hisaccountsfeelgenuineand
authentic,morecinematicthanliterary.InreadingBll,Ifindtheillusionofreallyhavingbeentherequitesustainable.
TruetoBllsmasteryofthenovelisticform,IrishJournalreadslikeanovel:charactersdevelopevenlyandmeaningfully,thedialoguefeelsnatural,andthedescriptive
detailsarecrediblyrandom.Asastudyinform,thisworkisagreatexampleofautobiographythatblendsseamlesslyintonovelisticfiction.

Page20
Fullofliteraryreferences,BllstextdefinesIrelandbytheartcreatedthere,mostparticularlyitsrichliteraryheritage.Bllseemstowanttomakeaconnection
betweenthegeographywinds,rain,sea,greenhillsandIrishliteraryproduction.OnanexcursiontoWilliamButlerYeatsstomb,forexample,thecabdriverand
theclimatebecomemoreimportantthanYeats.Bllsdescriptionsofthevillageanditsinhabitantsaremorevividlycoloredthanhisaccountoftheactualgravesite.
Yetthereisanincrediblerespectandtendernesswithwhichthesceneisrendered:
Rooksflewupfromtheoldgravestones,circledcawingaroundtheoldchurchtower.Yeatsgravewaswet,thestonewascold,andthelineswhich
YeatshadhadinscribedonhisgravestonewereascoldastheiceneedlesthathadbeenshotatmefromSwiftstomb....Thefernslayflatonthe
surroundinghills,beatendownbytherain,rustcoloredandwithered.Ifeltcold....Rocksinthemist,thelonelychurch,encircledbyflutteringrooks,
andthreethousandmilesofwaterbeyondYeatsgrave.Notaswantobeseen.
(Newby246)
Bllsisamodernvariantoftravelliterature,influencedbyeveryonefromJamesBoswelltoJohannWolfgangvonGoethetoSirRichardBurton.Heseemshappyto
acknowledgetheinfluencesonhiswriting.Inthisregard,IrishJournalisalessoninthehistoryoftravelliteraturetoreaditistoseetributestomanyoftheclassically
greataccountsoftravelandexploration.
Yethisjournalismostinterestingbecauseitissobeautifullywrittenandbecauseitssubjectissoobjectivelyseen.IfwethinkthatBllstripoccurshardontheheelsof
WorldWarIIandyetissotenderly,respectfully,andlovinglytold,wecanbegintoseethejoyofthistext.Inspiteofbearingpoliticalanimosities,Bllisabletoseea
foreigncultureandrecognizethatithasthingsitcanteachhim.Withthatframeofmind,Bllstravelsareaneducationinunderstandingacommonalityamongall
humans,regardlessofnationality.
References:
Newby1985
BORROW,GEORGE
VictorianwriterGeorgeBorrow(English,18031881)defieseasycategorization.Hispersonaltravelswerewideanddiverse,andhiswritingreflectsthisrange.Part
journal,partreportage,andpartliteraryessay,hisbookswerewellreceivedandcontinuetobeendearing.Manyofhisbooksresideonthefringesoftravelliteraturein
thattheycontainsignificantincidentsoftravelandadventurebutarenotprimarilydrivenbyajourneyorvoyage.Severalofhistitles,however,dofocusprimarilyon
travel.TheBibleinSpain(1843),WildWales(1862),andBalladsofAllNations(1874?)areusuallyconsideredBorrowscontributionstothegenre.
Borrowtrainedasalawyerandworkedasamissionaryinhisearlyyears.HistravelsinEurope,Russia,andtheFarEastwerewideandprotracted.Hehadan
extraordinaryearforlanguagesandapassionforculturaldifferenceasaresult,Borrowfoundtraveladelight.Enthusiastic,fullofenergy,andfearless,Borrowsetout
totravelandtowriteasawayoflife.Hisvoyagesseemtohavebeenpuretravelinthatherarelyhadafixeditineraryrather,heletoneplaceleadtoanotheraccording
tothepeoplehemetorthetalesheheardthatrecommendednewplaces.
Hiswritinggenerallyappealswithitspicaresquepaceandvividcharacters.Exoticsettingsandstrangeadventureslendexcitementtohistales.Oftenspicedwith
gypsies,rogues,tricksters,andconartists,Borrowstalesresideinahybridspacesomewherebetweenfictionandautobiography.EveninhistravelogueWildWales,
Borrowreliesonextensivepassagesofdialoguetotellhisstory.
TheBritishBibleSocietycommissionedBorrowtotranslatetheNewTestamentintoseverallanguages.Later,pleasedwithhiswork,

Page21
theysenthimonafiveyearmissiontocirculatetheAnglicanBibleinCatholicSpain.HistaleTheBibleinSpaintellsofhisadventuresonthistrip,includinghis
imprisonment.Spainwasinthemidstofacivilwar,thusBorrowfoundhimselfinnumerousscrapesandclosesituations.Whilehismissionwasostensiblyreligious,his
textfocusesalmostexclusivelyontravelratherthanspirituality.Alongtheway,heencountersaquirkyandalmostunbelievablesetofcharacters,someofwhomaidhim
whileothersimpedehim.
Intypicallyexuberantform,Borrowspentfourmonthsof1854inWalestrampingaboutonfoot.Hewalkedhundredsofmiles,wanderingwherevertheroads
happenedtolead.HetellshisstoriesofthisjourneyinWildWales.Borrowcomesacrossasanunpretentious,oldfashionedtraveler:impervioustoweather,delighted
withthecountryside,andalwayseagertohaveapintandachatatthepub.Hevisitshistoricandliterarysitesaswellasrandomplacesthatsimplycatchhiscurious
eye.InsteadoffindingWaleshopelesslyagrarian,Borrowappearstofindgenuinepleasureinslowpacedcountrylife.IncontrasttoLondonsurbanlife,ruralWales
providesadelightfulchange.
Inallofhisbooks,BorrownotesthedifferencesbetweenhisdestinationandhisfamiliarEngland.Thecomparisonsnearlyalwaysreflectalessonlearnedandthen
transmittedtothereader.Indeed,eveninnearbyWales,Borrowfindsconsiderableandnoteworthydifference.InascenefromWildWaleslabeledDialoguewitha
CrustyCountryman,Borrowwrites:
Strollingalong...Iwasovertakenbyanoldfellowwithastickinhishand,walkingverybriskly.Hehadacrustyandratherconceitedlook.Ispoketo
himinWelsh,andheansweredinEnglish,sayingthatIneednottroublemyselfbyspeakingWelsh,ashehadplentyofEnglish....IaskedaboutRhys
Gochandhischair[alocallegend].Hetoldmethatheknewnothingofeither,andbegantotalkofHerMajestysministersandthefinesightsofLondon.
Iaskedhimaboutastream[nearby]....HetoldmehedidnotknowandaskedmethenameoftheQueenseldestdaughter.ItoldhimIdidnotknow,
andremarkedthatitwasveryoddthathecouldnottellmethenameofastreaminhisownvale.HerepliedthatitwasnotabitmoreoddthanthatI
couldnottellhimthenameoftheeldestdaughteroftheQueenofEnglandItoldhimthatwhenIwasinWalesIwantedtotalkaboutWelshmatters,and
hetoldmethatwhenhewaswiththeEnglishhewantedtotalkaboutEnglishmatters.
(Rugoff588589)
Indeed,therustichastaughtBorrowavaluablelessonaboutperspectives.
BalladsofAllNationsisaninterestingcollectionofverseaboutmanyoftheexoticcountriesBorrowvisited.Hisdisjointedpoemslackasingularnarrativethread
instead,theystandaloneasexcerptsfromalifeoftravel.Overtheyears,Borrowhadjourneyedtonumerouscountries,includingRussia,China,andmostofthosein
EuropeandintheFarEast.Thoughoftenheavilyladenwithproselytizingandreligiousrhetoric,thepoemsresultingfromthesetripsnonethelesscapturemuchofthe
gloryandexcitementofencounteringforeignpeopleandplaces.Aswithhisotherworks,Borrowspoemsbrimwiththejoyofnewexperiencesandunfamiliarways.
References:
Harvey1967
Newby1985
Rugoff1960
BOSWELL,JAMES
ThebiographyofJamesBoswell(Scottish,17401795)underwentaremarkablerevisioninthetwentiethcenturywiththediscoveryofhislifelongjournal.Thisvast
recordofhiscomplicatedandinterestinglifehasspurredBoswellscholarshipenormously.Hisliterarycontributionsaremany,includingtwofinevolumesoftravel
literature:AnAccountofCorsica:TheJournalofaTourtoThatIsland(1768)andAJournaloftheTourtotheHebrideswithSamuelJohnson,LL.D.
(1785).

Page22
Bornintoanunhappyfamily,Boswellmanagedtoescapeintoahalfheartedpursuitoflaw.Thisfirsttasteoffreedomfromhistroubledfamilyinspiredsubsequent
journeys,firsttoUtrecht,ostensiblytocontinuehislegalstudies,andlaterthroughoutEuropeonaGrandTourofItaly,Germany,Switzerland,andFrance.Hisinitial
departurefromLondoninspiredinBoswellconsiderableambivalence:Isetoutuponmytravelswithakindofgloomuponmymind.MyenthusiasticloveofLondon
mademeleaveitwithaheavyheart(Newby133).Yetsoonenoughhediscoveredthejoysoftravel,althoughthroughouthisworksherepeatedlylongsforthe
familiarcomfortsofLondon.
Dissatisfiedwithhislegalstudies,hesetoffin1764toseeEuropeandtoengageasmanydifferentideasaspossible.Hisencounterswiththeintellectualsofthe
Continent,includingJeanJacquesRousseauandVoltaire,inspiredhim.OnRousseausrecommendation,Boswell,fullofzealandexcitement,venturedtoCorsica.His
trueinterestresidedinwriting,andhisrecordofhisearlytravels,AnAccountofCorsica,launchedhisliterarycareer.Thebookbroughthimamodestdegreeoffame
and(perhapsanimmodestdegreeof)confidence.
BoswellopenshisnarrativewithrathermoreenthusiasmthanheshowedforhistriptoUtrecht:
Havingresolvedtopasssomeyearsabroadformyinstructionandentertainment,IconceivedadesignofvisitingtheislandofCorsica.Iwishedfor
somethingmorethanjustthecommoncourseofwhatiscalledthetourofEurope,andCorsicaoccurredtomeasaplacewhichnobodyelsehadseen,
andwhereIshouldfindwhatwastobeseennowhereelse,apeopleactuallyfightingforlibertyandformingthemselvesfromapoor,inconsiderable,
oppressednationintoaflourishingandindependentstate.
(Fussell181182)
Indeed,BoswellsCorsicantextdelvesintohistory,politics,andlocalcustoms.Hisstylebrimswithyouthfulenthusiasmandbrashidealism.Itisalsorichwithsarcasm
andhischaracteristicmomentsofmelancholia.
Throughoutthetext,BoswellfocusesonwhatcanbelearnedfromtheCorsicans.HewritesasthoughhefeelsanobligationtosharetheirstrugglewithhisEnglish
readershistonesuggestsaconsiderableempathywiththeiroppressedplight.Wheneverpossible,herelatestheCorsicansituationtoother,perhapslesssevere,
strugglesinEngland.
UponhisreturntoLondon,Boswellfoundthatfameandsuccesssuitedhimverywell.Hetriedhishandatpoliticsaswellasliteraryprojects,failingintheformerand
succeedinginthelatter.HisfriendshipwithSamuelJohnson,amongotherintellectuals,ensuredhispositionintheworldoftheLondonliterati.
In1773,BoswellandJohnsonsetofffortheirfamoustourofScotland.Johnsonpublishedhisaccountofthejourneyin1775,whereasBoswellsaccount,AJournal
oftheTourtotheHebrides,waspublishedonlyafterJohnsonsdeath.Itisafascinatingandrichmomentinliteraryhistory:twosuperiorwritershaveleftaccountsof
theidenticaltrip.Toreadthemtogetheraffordsustheopportunitytoobservehowdifferentlytwoindividualsobservethesameobjectivephenomenaaroundthem.
BoswellstextfocusesheavilyonJohnsonsprocessofobservation.AsaScotsman,BoswellfindslessaboutScotlandnoteworthy:tohim,itwasfairlyfamiliar.
Instead,heprovidesawonderfulnarrativeofhisfriendstraveldiscoveries.PepperedwithaffectionateandamusingquotesfromJohnson,Boswellstextisanchoredin
acharacterratherthanaplace.Proudandpleasedtobeinthecompanyofsuchanillustriousfigure,theyoungerBoswellbeamsabouttheiradventures.Whereas
Johnsonindulgesindetails,Boswellevokesthemoodoftravelviatheexcitementofseeingpartlythroughhisfriendseyes.
Inmymind,thesetwotextsareinseparable:alonetheyaresimplygoodexamplesof

Page23
travelwriting,buttogethertheyaremasterful.HappytoplaythejestertoJohnsonsstraightman,Boswelldelightfullyrecountsavastseriesofamusinganecdotes.Yet
learningalwayslurksashissubtext.Indeed,JohnsonteachestheyoungerBoswellhowtolearnfromtravelinexperienceresideswisdom.Insharinghisversionofthe
story,webegintoseejusthowsubjectivetravelliteraturecanbe.
Seealso:
GrandTourJohnson,Samuel
References:
Drabble1998
Fussell1987
Newby1985
BOUGAINVILLE,LOUISANTOINEDE
Amanofextraordinarylearning,LouisAntoinedeBougainville(French,17291811)camefromaprivilegedbackgroundbutdistinguishedhimselfbyhisownsuperior
accomplishments.Havingstudiedlaw,sailedintheFrenchnavy,writtenatreatiseoncalculus,servedasambassadortoEngland,andmastermindedthecolonizationof
theFalklandIslands,Bougainvilleatage38decidedhewantedtocircumnavigatetheglobe.
Histwoyearjourney(17671769)wasanoverwhelmingsuccess,closelywatchedbyboththeFrenchandtheEnglishpress.Histwoships,theBoudeuseandthe
Etoile,masteredtheStraitofMagellanandthenexplorednumerousPacificislands,includingTahiti.Throughitall,Bougainvillewrotespiritedanddetailedaccounts,
focusingonawiderangeofsubjects,includingnativecultures,geography,lifeaboardtheship,languages,andhisownprocessofselfdiscovery.
HisTahitianentriesaresomeofthemostinterestingstoriesinthetwovolumesofhisaccount.HenamedTahitiNewCythera,areferencetoaGreekmythological
islandthatwasassociatedwithAphrodite(Venus),thegoddessoflove.Inoneparticularlyclassicalpassage,Bougainvillenotesthathishostsnotonlyofferedfood,but
alsosexualaccesstoyoungwomen:thehutwasimmediatelyfilledwithacuriouscrowdofmenandwomen,whomadeacircleroundtheguest,andtheyoungvictim
ofhospitality.Thegroundwasspreadwithleavesandflowers,andtheirmusicianssunganhymenealsongtothetuneoftheirflutes.HereVenusisthegoddessof
hospitality,herworshipdoesnotadmitanymysteries,andeverytributepaidtoherisafeastforthewholenation(Adams300).Tobesure,Bougainvillesaccountsof
theunspoiledsavagesoftheislandsandtheirallegedsexualfreedombecamefamous,nottomentioncontroversial,throughoutEurope.
DenisDiderotwrotehisfamousSupplmentauvoyagedeBougainville(SupplementtoBougainvillesVoyage)immediatelyafterreadingBougainvillesaccountin
1772.Diderot,unlikeBougainville,nevervisitedtheSouthPacifichistalesarepureimaginativeextensionsoftheoriginaljourney.Bougainvillesstoriesseemedto
provesomeofJeanJacquesRousseaustheoriesaboutnaturalman(theideathatalthoughmenarenotnaturallyequal,itisthedevelopmentofsocietiesfrom
primitivetoadvancedcivilizationsthatspawnsartificial,politicallyenforcedinequalitiesthatcanleadtoruin)andtheTahitianstobeanexampleofnoble
savages(nativesdeemednobleandvirtuousonthebasisofnonexposuretotheinfluenceofWesterncivilization).FromBougainvillesaccounts,itiseasytoseewhy
TahitievokedvisionsofanEdenlikeparadiseyet,aswithmosttravelliterature,whatBougainvilleseestellsusasmuchaboutEuropeanmoresandfantasiesasittells
usaboutTahitianculture.Ontheislands,hefoundaculturethatseemedtodemonstratethattheChristian,Europeandoctrineofmonogamyisonlyonepossibledogma.
TheramificationsarevastitistoBougainvillescreditthatheattemptstodescribewhatheseeswithhonestyandaccuracy.
SexualfreedomcausesthegreatestconundrumforBougainville(and,heclaims,forhismen):ourcustomsdonotadmitthesepublicproceedings....[Infact,]every
oneof

Page24
ourmenhadfounditimpossibletoconquerhisrepugnance,and[now]conform[s]tothecustomsofthecountry(Adams300).Indeed,whenhismenwerefacedwith
thetemptationofsexoutsideofmarriageapracticedeemedunacceptableinEuropeansocietybutwhichisconsideredsociallyacceptablebythenativestheyall
succumbtothepractice.Travelcausesthesementoreevaluatetheirnotionsofpropriety.
BougainvillesaccountconstantlycomparesthenativeculturetoEuropeanculture.Hismenandthenativesplaymusicforeachother,sharefood,andcompare
behaviorineveryinstance,thereisacontrastbetweentheselfandtheother.Theresultisatextthatspeaksasmuchabouthishomecultureasitdoesabouta
shockinglyforeignculture.SeeingaradicaldifferencedefinitelycausesBougainville,andhisreaders,toobservethefamiliarmorecarefully.
Afterreturningfromhiscircumnavigationandfindinghiswritingshighlysuccessful,Bougainvillerefusedtorest.Hemadeanumberofsubsequentjourneysand
continuedtoprovidedutifulservicetotheFrenchgovernment.Althoughtheliteraryoutputfromthesetravelswaspublished,Bougainvilleslatertalesnevercapturethe
samewideeyedwonder,excitement,andstylisticcoherenceofhisfirstwork.
Seealso:
Circumnavigation
References:
Adams1988
BOUGRENET,JACQUESLOUISDE
JacquesLouisdeBougrenet,ChevalierdelaTocnaye(French,?1798),inspiteofhiselaboratelyelegantname,strikesmeasoneofthemoreunassumingofthewell
todoeighteenthcenturytravelers.AFrenchcavalryofficerbytrade,BougrenetfledtoEnglandin1792whentheRevolutioninFranceturnedagainsttheking.He
madehishomeinBritainforseveralyearsbuthappilyremainedanoutsiderlookinguponhisadoptedhomewiththeeyesofaforeigner.Whenthepoliticalsituationin
Francecalmeddown,Bougrenetreturnedbecauseofhisyearsabroad,however,hewasthenabletolookuponhisoriginalhomewiththesamedetachedtravelers
perspective.
Obviouslyamanofconsiderableindependentmeans,hespentsixyearswalkingacrossGreatBritainandthenIreland.Thefruitsoftheseendeavorsaretwoquirky
travelbooks,PromenadedansLaGrandBretagne(publishedintranslationasAWalkthroughGreatBritain,1795)andAFrenchmansWalkthroughIreland
(1798).Unlikemanyeighteenthcenturytravelerswhoclaimtohavemadewalkingtoursbuttookcarriagesbetweenmanytowns,Bougrenetevidentlydidwalkthe
wholeway.
Underthenecessityoftravelinglightly,hecarriedallofhisbelongingsinseveralsmallsilkbundlesthatheslungoverhisshoulders.Althoughthisdescriptionmakeshim
soundlikeatramp,hewasabletoengageboththelowerandtheupperclasses,thusmakinghimasocialwandereraswellasatraveler.Bougrenetsucceededinbeing
oneofthelightestpackersever.Heclaims:
Althoughmybaggagewasinconsiderable,Iwantedfornothing,andhadthemeansofappearinginsocietyaswelldressedasothers.
Fortheinformationoffuturetravellersonfoot,itismypleasuretogivedetailsofmycompleteequipment.
Apowderbagmadeoutofawomansglove.
Arazor.
Thread.
Needles.
Scissors.
Acomb,carriedinoneofapairofdressshoes.
Apairofsilkstockings.
Breeches,fineenoughtobe,whenfolded,notbiggerthanafist.
Twoveryfineshirts.
Threecravats.
Threehandkerchiefs.

Page25
TheclothesinwhichItravelled.
(Newby220)
Hiswritingrangesfromlivelyandanecdotaltohorriblydull.Theslowerpassages,however,havevalueinthattheyarerigorouslyaccuratenotesofplacesandtheir
characteristics.Neveronetoshunthesmallervillages,Bougrenetoffersuniquedescriptionsofcountryfolkandtheirlifestyle.
Aboveall,Bougrenetwriteswithahumbleearnestnessthatisendearing.Heseemsgenuinelyexcitedtoseeandtowriteabouteventhemostbanaloccurrences.
Thus,whilehisproseandhisstructuremaynotbethemostscintillating,totrytomakesenseofamanwhowouldspendsixyearswalkingandnotingallthingsBritish
andIrishisafascinatingexercise.
References:
Newby1985
BROWNE,EDWARDGRANVILLE
AminorlateVictorianfigure,EdwardGranvilleBrowne(English,18621926)wasbothascholarandatraveler.HisardentpursuitofmultiplePersiandialectsledhim
toliveamongvariouspeoplesoftheMiddleEastfrom1887to1888.Hisaccountofthisexperience,AYearamongthePersians(1893),isahighlyregardedclassic
oftravelliterature.
Whilehistaleisthrillingandwelltold,BrownerarelyescapeshisAnglocentricbias.Hiscolonialistbentoftenseemsabsurdlyarroganttocontemporaryreaders.
Invariably,thePersianscomeacrossasbumblingandfoolishtheyserveascomicimpedimentstohisnoblequestforunderstandinganddocumentingthestructureof
thePersianlanguage.
Brownesobsessionwithlanguageistellingandsignificant.Heintuitivelyrecognizesthatknowingalanguagepreciselycaninformoneofhowaculturethinks.Words
arenotonlyatoolforknowing,buttheyarevaluableinthemselves.Hisstrugglestocomprehendlinguisticdetailsthusstandinforhislargerculturalcuriosity.
Inaddition,wecanpraiseBrowneforbeingoneofadyingbreed:heisatravelerwhojourneysinthenameofscholarlyknowledge.Hisgoalwastobethedefinitive
expertonPersiandialectstowardthatend,heriskedallmannerofdangersanddifficulties.HistonereflectsatypicalBritishstiffupperlipinthefaceofadversity.
Thissametonemakeshimasortofcaricature.
Finally,hisadventuresareoftenamusing.PersiaofthenineteenthcenturycapturedthefantasyofmanyEuropeanstheOrientalistmovementinartandliteraturetestifies
clearlytothat.BrowneisalmostgiddywhentheactualPersiaheisvisitinglivesuptohisexoticfantasiesoftheLevant.Forexample,havinginjuredhiseye,desperate
forsomerelief,BrowneallowshisfriendUstAkbartoapplyapoulticeofeggwhitesandhollyhockleaves.Thecureturnsouttobeworsethanthedisease,irritating
hiseyeintolerably.Apologetically,Akbarrecommendsasecondcure:apipeofopium.Brownesresponse:
Opium!Therewassomethingfascinatingabouttheidea.Theactiononthementalfunctionsexercisedbynarcoticdrugshadalwayspossessedformea
specialinterest....IsignifiedmywillingnesstotryUstAkbarsnewcureandtenminuteslatermywholebeingwaspermeatedwiththatglowoftranquil
beatitude,consciousofitself,nay,almostexultantinitsownpeacefulserenity,whichconstitutesthefatalcharmofwhatthePersianscallparexcellence
theAntidote(tiryk).
(Newby268)
Notehowculturalunderstanding,linguistics,andnewexperiencesallblendtogetherinthispassage.
Thoughhisjourneyostensiblysoughttostudylanguage,itisclearthatBrownewasalsostudyinghimself.Inwritinghisaccount,heattemptedtocataloghisprogress
andtoteachhisreadersofhisgains.Intheprocess,heproducedatextthatintriguesaswellasentertains.

Page26
Seealso:
Levant
References:
Newby1985
BROWNING,ROBERT
RobertBrowning(English,18121889)figuresprominentlyinthehistoryofBritishliterature.Hispoeticproductionwasvastandoftenstunninglyfine.Althoughheis
notnotedasatravelwriter,hismanyyearsabroadinfluencedanumberofhispoemstovaryingdegrees.Forthesakeofthisvolume,wecanlookatoneexample,
HomeThoughtsfromAbroad,thoughtherearemanyothersfromwhichtochoose.
DespitethefactthatBrowningwasminimallyeducatedandfromamodestfamily,hecaughttheeyeofsomeoftheerasmajorliteraryandpoliticalfiguresveryearlyin
hislife.Justover20yearsofage,hepublishedhisfirstwork,Pauline,in1833itsoldfairlywellandhelpedtofundBrowningstriptoItaly,Greece,andTurkeyin
1834,butlaterinhiscareerBrowningdistancedhimselffromthisearly,somewhatmelodramaticpoem.Hisnextmajorwork,Paraclesus(1835),wasinspiredbyhis
journey.IttellsthetaleofahistoricalfigureandissetinItaly,Constantinople,andSwitzerlandallplacesthathehadvisited.Thisworkcapturedtheattentionofsuch
literarygreatsasThomasCarlyleandWilliamWordsworth,whosubsequentlyhelpedtomakeBrowningscareer.
Continuouslywritingandpublishinghisworks,Browningbecameawellknownpoet.ManyofhispoemsrelyonGreekandRomanhistoryaswellasclassicalallusions
totheseculturesintheseworksthedetailsaresurelydrawninpartfromhisowntravels.WhenhemarriedElizabethBarrettin1846,theliterarycouplemovedtoItaly
andtraveledwidelyinsouthernEuropeandtheNearEast.Whenshediedin1861,BrowningreturnedtoLondon,althoughhecontinuedtotraveloccasionally.In
thesemanyyearsabroad,Browningfoundhimselffeelingdeeplyambivalent:whilethehistory,climate,andexcitementofItalysuited,itneverfeltlikehome,thushe
exhibitedatendencytowardnostalgiaandidealizationofEngland.
HomeThoughts,fromAbroaddemonstratesaninterestingfeatureoftravelliterature:beingabroadseemstoinspiredetailedrecollectionsthatareordinarilynot
noted.Thepoemsopening,Oh,tobeinEngland/NowthatAprilsthere,locatesthenarratorsomewhereabroad,probablyItaly,ashereminisceslonginglyabout
hishome.Hisrecollectionsareelaborateandprecise:fromthesongsofthefinchandthethrushtoelmleaves,pearblossoms,andbuttercups,henotesextraordinary
detailsandfondlyweavesthesedetailsintohispoem.Theimplicationofthissortofrepresentationisthatwhenoneisabroad,boththenaturalandsocialworldsare
differentwecanassumethatwhereverthenarratoris,hehasnotfoundittobethesameasEngland.Inthefaceofsuchunfamiliarity,thenarratorisinspiredtorecall
minuteandoftenverypersonaldetails.Werethesedetailseverpresent,theymightcontinuetobeunnoticedbutbecausetheyareabsent,thememoryofthemmust
serveasreplacement.
EvokinghiserstwhilelifeinEngland,Browningindulgesinaformofnostalgiaandcontrast.Perhapsassymbolicofhischildhoodinnocence,theidealizedEnglishspring
standsincontrasttohisownaccumulationofyearsandexperiences.Astravelliterature,thepoemmarksthedifferencesbetweenhomeandanywhereelsewhileatthe
sametimeportrayingthesedifferencesaslearningexperiences.
Onlyinthefinallineofthepoemdoweescapefromtherealmofmemorytogetaglimpseofthepresentforeignland:thenarratorproclaimstheflowersofEngland
Farbrighterthanthisgaudymelonflower!Althoughthepoemendsperhapsregrettablyinthepresentandintheforeign,wemustnote

Page28
thatitisbeingabroadthathascausedboththememoriesandthepoemitself.
References:
CrossleyHolland1986
Harvey1967
BRUCE,JAMES
Inspiteoftheirfabulousandflamboyantcontent,thebooksofJamesBruce(Scottish,17301794)havenotbeeninprintformorethanacentury.Onlyinthelate
twentiethcenturydidBrucesworkseearesurgenceinanthologiesandinscholarlyanalysis.Alifelongtraveler,explorer,andadventurer,Brucespenttheearlypartof
hiscareertrackingdownRomanruinsscatteredfromCentralAsiatoNorthAfricatotheMediterraneanislands.Asaresultofhiseasewithlanguagesandcomfortwith
culturaldifferencesandarobustlygregariouspersonalityBrucewaspostedastheBritishconsultoAlgiersin1763.
Hisgreatestadventure,however,occurredfrom1768to1773,whenhesetouttoexploretheRedSea,eventuallylandinginGonder,thecapitalofAbyssinia(present
dayEthiopia).AlthoughhereturnedtoGreatBritainin1773withvastquantitiesofnotes,drawings,artifacts,andobservations,ittookuntil1790forBrucetocompile
hisstoryintoanelaboratefivevolumeworktitledTravelstoDiscovertheSourceoftheNile.
Althoughtheworkwaslongincoming,BrucehimselfwassomethingofalegendarysensationinBritain.Hisstorieshadcirculatedviawordofmouthfromhisown
repeatedandanimatedrenditions.Equalpartsbraggadocio,fact,andhumor,hisstoriescausedgreatcontroversies.Allegationsofexaggerationifnotoutright
fabricationswarmedaroundthetales.Doggedly,Brucemaintainedthathistalesweretrue,defendinghishonorandhiswordagainstavarietyofsatiricattacks.
Powerful,egoistic,andeasilyexcited,Bruceremainedacelebratedtargetforjestsandjibes.Regardlessofthetruthofsomeofhismoredubiousstories,Bruces
Travelscontainsawealthofbothuniqueobservationsandthrillingadventures.
WhetherheistellingofculturalpracticesoftheAbyssiniansorthegeographicquirksoftheNile,Bruceiseasilyreadable.Hehasadecidedknackforblendingdry
observationswithstoriesofdangeranddaring.Inthisregard,hisworkcanbeconsideredliteraryhisstructureandprosestylearefarmorenovelisticthanmost
travelogues.Oneofhismorefamoustalesdescribesingreatdetailthe(alleged)Abyssinianpracticeofeatingbeefslicedfromalivecow.Thisstorywastoomuchfor
Britishaudiencestostomach,anditsveracityremainedconstantlysuspect.Nonetheless,thelevelofdetailisextremelyvaluable.Brucecarefullynotesgenderroles,
tablerituals,andthelike,andheevenmakesanattemptatproposingrecipes.Asaresult,Bruceprovidesasuperiormodelforobservinganotherculture.
WhenBruceopenlychallengesotherexplorerswhoclaimedtohavefoundthesourceoftheNile,heisnotonlyservinghisownglory,butputtinghimselfwithinthelong
traditionoftravelandexplorationwriting.Heseemstohaveaninsatiabledesireforcompetition,forbestingandsettingstraightthosewhoprecededhim.Thus,when
talkingoftheNileandFatherJernimoLobosobservationsofitssourceBruceslidesintohisownbrandofsarcasticdismissal.
Overall,wemustacknowledgeBruceseffortsasextremeandhisstorytellingassuperb.Histalesrankwithsomeofthemostvividofalltimebetheytrueor
exaggerated,theyarenothingifnotfuntoread.
References:
Adams1988
BRYDONE,PATRICK
PatrickBrydone(Scottish,17361818)isaminorfigureinbothhistoryandliterature.Educatedandmoderatelyprominentheattainedthetitlescomptrollerofthe
Stamp

Page29
OfficeandfellowoftheRoyalSocietyBrydonemadeasinglecontributiontotravelliterature:atwovolumeworkcalledATourthroughSicilyandMaltaina
SeriesofLetterstoWilliamBeckford,Esq.(1773).Thebookwasextremelysuccessfulinhislifetime,sellingoutseveneditions,butinmoderntimesithasnotbeen
reissued,norisitoftennotedbyscholarsorinclassrooms.
Asatraveltale,thetextisnoteworthybecauseofBrydonesincessantcomparisonofdifferentculturescontainedtherein.AttimeshecomparesSicilytomainlandItaly
attimeshecomparesthewholeofMediterraneanculturetoBritishculture.TheseoppositionsallowthereadertoobserveBrydonelearningandchanginghisideas.
Indeed,afterallissaidanddone,hehaslearnedmoreabouthimselfthanoftheItalians,Sicilians,orMaltese.
Theepistolarystructureisaliterarydeviceinthiscasetheletterscomprisingthetextwerenotsent(sofarasscholarscantell),butratherwrittenfromBrydonestravel
notesandjournalsafterhisreturn.Unfortunately,theoriginalnotesarenotavailableforustostudy.Nonetheless,structuringhisaccountsasiftheywerelettersneatly
dividesthebookintoindependentessaysofsortandeliminatestheneedforcompletelyseamlesstransitions.Inotherwords,hisstructuremarshalsthefactualdetails,
whichotherwisemayhavebeendryanddull,intoaliterarynarrative.
Thebookcontainsnumerousamusingandhighlydetailedanecdotesgenerally,Brydoneisanastuteobserverandagracefulwriter.Hisfocusrepeatedlyreturnsto
womenandtheirsituationinItaly,andforthisreason,thestoryhasnumerousapplicationsforgenderstudies.Hevisitsaconventaswellasaristocratichouseshe
interactswiththepooraswellasthewelltodo.Inaddition,hisenthusiasmisendearingandcontagious.SicilyandMaltaseemseductive,alluring,andexotic.
ForatasteofBrydone,wemightvisitapassagethatdescribesanaristocraticparty:
Wewerejoyfullyadmittedofthischearfullittlecircle,whereweamusedourselvesverywellforseveralhours.Ionlymentionthis,toshewyouthe
differentsystemofbehaviourhere[inSicily]andinItaly[asawhole],wherenosuchfamiliarintercourseisallowedamongstyoungpeoplebefore
marriage.Theyoungladieshereareeasy,affable,andunaffectedand,not(asonthecontinent)perpetuallystuckupbythesidesoftheirmothers,who
bringthemintocompany,notfortheiramusement,butrathertoofferthemtosaleandseemmightilyafraidlesteveryoneshouldstealthem,orthatthey
themselvesshouldmakeanelopementwhichindeedIshouldthinktherewassomedangerof,consideringtherestraintunderwhichtheyarekept.
(Adams398)
Hisenthusiasmisclearfromhisgushingsentences,andhisinterestmaybemorethansimplyobjectivemusings.Throughoutthetext,Brydonefollowshisincisive
observationswithwittycommentaryandplayfulasidesthatservetoframethepassages.Theresultisatextthatisripeforanalysisaswellasfuntoread.
References:
Adams1962
BUCCANEER
Beginningintheseventeenthcentury,England,France,andHollandequippedcaptainswithlettersofMarque,allowingthemtopreyuponSpanish,Portuguese,and
occasionallyothernationsships.SaysDavidMarleyinhisPiratesandPrivateersoftheAmericas,thesebuccaneerswereadistinctclassofmercenary...who
madeseabornedescentsagainsttheirenemiesunderanyflagofconvenience,motivatedprincipallybygreedandathirstforviolentreprisal(Marleyix).
ThewordbuccaneercomesfromtheNativeAmericanboucan,whichisasortofsmokehouseorbarbecue.Whileitwouldbenicetoimaginethenamesuggesting
thatthe

Page30
buccaneersroastedtheirprisoners,thenamewasgiventotheseshipboundroguesbecausetheyroastedtheirmeatonboardshipadangerousmaneuverona
woodenvessel.
TheSpanishcalledthemcorsariosafterthesortofshiptheEnglishfavored,theCorsair,whiletheDutchcalledthemvrijbuiter(andtheFrenchflibustiers),literally
freebooters.Asroversandswashbucklers,thebuccaneersoftenfigureprominentlyintravelliterature.Attimestheyarefearsome,asseeninmanyoftheeighteenth
centurytravelogues,andattimestheyareromantic,heroicwanderers,asseeninanumberoftravelnovels.
OfficiallysanctioningprivateerscontinuedinEuropeuntil1856,whensuchpracticeswerebannedbyatreatysignedinParisbythemajorEuropeanpowers,the
DeclarationofParis.
References:
Marley1994
OED
BURCHELL,WILLIAMJ.
WilliamJ.Burchell(English,17821863)remainsaminorfigureinhistorybutanauthorworthreading.Hischiefclaimtofameisthathediscoveredanewtypeof
zebraandlentithisname.Althoughhehasseveralnaturalhistorybookstohiscredit,hissingletravelwritingisthelittleknownTravelsintheInteriorofSouthAfrica
(1822).
BurchellwassenttoSouthAfricaasaroyalbotanistin1810.Plansweremadeforhimtoestablishhimself,thenforhisfiancetofollowshortlythereafter.Shemadeit
asfarastheshipbutevidentlyfellinlovewiththecaptain,whomshemarried.Enragedanddespondent,Burchellsetoutforthedeepest,darkestwildsofAfrica.From
1811to1812,hetraveled,fearlesslyandtirelessly.

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NotonlydidBurchellsexplorationprovidehimwithliterarymaterial,buthisexpeditioncollectedsome60,000itemsrangingfromartifactstoplantstospeciesof
animals.Hislogsandrecordsaremeticulous,ifvast.
Therestofhislifewasspentwritinghistravelogue,cataloginghisfinds,anddiscussinghiscollection.Itisasthoughthetwoyearshespentintheinteriorweretheonly
timehewastrulyalive.Whenhefoundthatthismaterialhadbecomeexhaustedwhenhewasaged82yearshekilledhimself.
TravelsintheInteriorofSouthAfricaisconsiderablymoreexcitingtoreadthanBurchellsnaturalhistorybooks.Inthistexthetellsmanyharrowingtalesof
savages,wildbeasts,andarelentlessclimate.Butbeyondbeingasimpletaleofthewildernesstherearemany,manyofthoseBurchellsaccountrevealshis
fascinationwiththeotherwhitecolonistswhomheencountered.HespendsadisproportionateamountofenergydescribingtheDutchfarmersinextraordinarydetail.
Thescientistinhimseemstobedrawntostudythesecharacterswhoaremorelikehimthanthenativesbutwhoarestillwhollyforeign.Fortunatelyforus,hisscientific
inquisitivenesswasmatchedbyagiftforwriting:hisstoryisbothdramaticandwrittenwithaliteraryflair.
Burchellstextisthusnotableasastrangemix:ontheonehand,heusestravelandexplorationasanescapefromthehurtofhavingbeenjiltedontheother,heseems
genuinelysurprisedathowothersbetheyDutchornativeoranythinginbetweenlive.ItisexactlythisenthusiasticwonderrunningthroughBurchellstextthat
makesitinteresting.
References:
Newby1985
BURCKHARDT,JOHANNLUDWIG
Surelyoneofthemostfascinatingandboldofalltravelers,JohannLudwigBurckhardt(Swiss,17841817)experiencedadventuresthatleavereadersdelightedwith
wonder.Amasterofdisguisesandlanguages,BurckhardtrecountshisforaysintoAfricaandtheMiddleEast,fillingthemwithdaringdeedsandnarrowescapes.His
tworatherfamousbooks,TravelsinNubia(1819)andTravelsinSyriaandtheHolyLand(1822),vividlytellhistales.
In1812,hereadiedadisguiseandplungedintotheNubiandesert(presentdaySudan)withacamelcaravan.HisintentionwastoreachtheslavemarketsofShendi
atradingcrossroadsalongtheNileRiverandfromtheretoJidda,acoastaltownontheRedSea.FromJidda,hebelieved,hecouldblendinwiththrongsofpilgrims
ontheirwaytoMecca,themostholyandforbiddentooutsidersoftheMuslimmosques.Hisreturnroutewasequallyelaborateandexoticunfortunately,hedied
halfwaythroughhisreturn,inCairo,wherehewasburied,stilldisguisedasaMuslim,withthenameIbrhmibnAbdAllh.
Burckhardtsexploitsalongthewaysetonesheadspinning.HewasthefirstEuropeantoseteyesonthecityofPetra,anancientandholystonecityinpresentday
Jordan.HeiscreditedwithdiscoveringthegreatrocktempleinEgyptthatbelongedtoRamsesII(atAbuSimbel).AndofcoursehesucceededinvisitingMecca.
Beforereachinghisdestination,fromasmalltownoutsideofMeccacalledTaif,Burckhardtfoundhiscoverblown.Whilehewasinfearforhislife,andalmost
certainlythwartedinhisbidtoaccessMecca,amostpeculiareventoccurred:theviceroyofEgypt,MehemetAli,whoknewBurckhardtbyreputationalone,
pronouncedhimadevoutandknowledgeableMuslim,whichwascertainlystretchingthefactsabit.Suchanhonorwasandstillisunheardof.Alismotivationhas
neverbeenrevealed.ThisenabledBurckhardttoattainhisgoal,perhapstheonlyEuropeannonMuslimtoopenlyandsafelyvisitMecca.
Burckhardtsbooksarebotheasilyaccessibleandfullofglorioustales.Writtenas

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firstpersontravelogues,theyswayfromthequotidian(meals,customs,provisions,geography,andclimate)totheexceptional(disguisedskulkinginthenight,brash
deception,harrowingescapes).Whilehelackedanespecialknackforstorytelling,histalesneverthelesssurviveonthebasisoftheirsheerfearlessness.Nonchalant
understatementssubstituteforstylisticdrama,butthetextsstillthrill.
Inthefinalanalysis,Burckhardtwasagreattravelerandapassableauthor.Hisworkisafascinatingstudyintoapassionfortravelandforseeingifnotimitatingthe
culturalother.Truetothegenreoftravelliterature,theactofwritinghistaleswas,forBurckhardt,inseparablefromtheactoftraveling.Onealmostgetsthefeelingthat
Burckhardtcalculatedsomeofhisadventuresandriskssimplytoprovideamorespectacularstory.Tohim,travel,tales,andlivingwereoneinthesame.
References:
Newby1985
BURTON,SIRRICHARDFRANCIS
SirRichardFrancisBurton(English,18211890)mustbeconsideredoneofthedarlingsoftravelliterature.Hislifeandhisenormousbodyofwritingformone
seamlesswhole.Overtheyears,hehasbecomealegendoftravelandliteraryproduction,belovedequallyforhisdaringdeeds,hisstirringprose,andhischarismatic
manner.Althoughheistheauthorofnearly80books,hismostfamoustaleremainshisPilgrimagetoAlMedinahandMecca(18551856).Hisothertravelstook
himfarandwidethroughIndia,Africa,theAmericas,and,ofcourse,Islamicregions.
BurtondroppedoutofTrinityCollege,Oxford,tojointheIndianarmyin1842.Hequicklydemonstratedoutstandingskillsasaleader,swordsman,andstrategist
thesesameabilitieswouldservehimhandilythroughouthiscareer.Thepatternofhislifeappearscyclicalinretrospect:hewouldspendseveralyearsadventuringand
compilingexperienceandnotes,thenhewouldreturntoEnglandtopublishhiswork,andthenhewouldlaunchagainintosomeevermoredaringorexoticadventure.
Inadditiontohisvastbodyoftravelliterature,BurtonalsotranslatedmanyforeignclassicsintoEnglish.Anastoundinglygiftedlinguist,histranslationsof1001Arabian
Nights(18851888),TheKamaSutra(1883),andThePerfumedGarden(1886)weresmashingsuccesses.Oncehepassed50years,hesloweddownslightly,
servingasaBritishdiplomatfirstatDamascusandthenatTrieste.
Forthesakeofspace,Iwillconcentrateononlyafewofhistexts,althoughtheyareuniversallyofhighquality,extremeinterest,andsubstantialmerit.Allentirely
autobiographical,theycombinetopaintastunningpictureofperhapsthemostcrafty,impetuous,suave,andadeptofalltravelers.Heearlyacquiredthenickname
RuffianDickandcertainlyliveduptothemoniker.Intellectuallyvoracious,amasterofdisguises,astoundinglywidelyread,afrightfulwomanizer,aferociouswarrior,
amasterstoryteller,andinfinitelyadaptabletoobscureorextremesituations,Burtontowersaboveallothertravelers.
Sometimeintheearly1850s,BurtonbegantoschemeaboutpenetratingtheholycityofMecca.AsaChristian,hewasstrictlyforbiddentoentertheheavilyguarded
andsacredspaceofthecity.HemighthavebeenabletoconverttoIslam,butheshunnedtheideainfavorofacceptingachallenge.HewouldgoasaChristianin
disguise,andthushisAfghanMuslimalteregowasborn.Hadhebeencaughtatsucharuse,hewouldhavebeensummarilyexecuted,butsuchdangersonlyexcited
himfurther.Toexpandhisjourneyintoanevenmoreimpressivegambit,hesetouttoreachnotonlyMeccabutMedina(burialplaceoftheprophetMuhammad)as
well.
Ofcourse,hesucceededbrilliantly.Andalthoughhisrisksweremonumental,hereturnedwithanaffectedairofnonchalance.

Page34
HisconclusionispureBurton:havingaccomplishedtwoincrediblefeatsofbravery,daring,andadventure,hewrites,Thosewhofinddangerthesaltofpleasuremay
visitMeccahbutifaskedwhethertheresultsjustifytherisk,Ishouldreplyinthenegative(Newby264).Indeed,forBurton,itappearsthatthejourneyitselfisthe
objectoftheexercisetherewardsarethereturnhome,theglory,andthestoryratherthantheactualarrivalatthedestination.
Notonlyisachievingthegoalimportant,butsoisthestylewithwhichitisachieved,atleastinBurtonsworld.Tobesure,heaccomplishedhismissioningrandform.
ThetaleisrelatedboisterouslyinhisPersonalNarrativeofaPilgrimagetoAlMadinahandMecca.Althoughthebookisoftenderidedasarrogant,itisalso
sardonicallyfunnyandfilledwithawealthoftangentialstoriesandhistoricalasidesthatdelightintheirownright.Asaportraitofatravelerratherthanofaplace,thisis
fineliteratureindeed.
Afterthisjourney,hesetoffforEastAfricatotryhisluckatinfiltratingadifferentculturesforbiddencity.Againhesucceeded:hewasthefirstwhitemantoenterand
returnfromtheclosedcityofHarar.ThisaccountispublishedasFirstFootstepsinEasternAfrica(1856).
OnhisnextjourneyhereturnedtoAfricaagaintodogeographicexploration.TheracetofindthesourceoftheNileRiverwasinfullswing,andBurtonwantedbadly
tohavethedistinction.TeamingupwithexplorerJohnSpeke,weseeBurtonasfrightfullycompetitiveandperhapsratherabrasive.Togethertheyexplored900miles
ofEastAfrica.Throughgreatadversityandhardshiptheysloggedon,injuredandoftenill.Adisagreementpartedthembrieflyaseachfollowedhisownhunch.Burton
isusuallycreditedwithdiscoveringLakeTanganyikawhileSpekewasoffdiscoveringLakeVictoria,therebyearningthehonorofdiscoveringtheNilesheadwaters.
BurtonwasfuriouswithSpekeasaresult.BurtonsaccountisfoundinTheLakeDistrictsofAfrica(1860).
Changingpacealtogetherin1860,BurtonvisitedtheUnitedStates.HewasparticularlyfascinatedwiththeMormonsettlementinUtah,probablybecauseoftheir
curiouscodesofbehaviorandsecretiveways.AccesstothecentraltempleisforbiddentononMormons,andthisprobablychallengedBurton.Againheadapts
himselfinordertobeacceptedbythelocalcommunity,andasanintimateoutsider,hereflectsatlengthontheirculture.ThestoryistoldinhisCityoftheSaints
(1861).ThelatterportionofthetextrecountshisoverlandtripfromUtahtoCalifornia.
WanderingsinWestAfricadescribesBurtonslongjourneyandfascinatingfurtherexploitsinAfrica.Hemakesdetailedobservationsofthelivesandcustomsof
nativetribesdwellingalongtheWestAfricancoast.Anthropologistshavelongheldinvaluablehisdescriptions.Inthisvolumehedescribestribalritualsconcerningbirth,
marriage,anddeath,tribalfetishism,ritualmurder,cannibalism,andexoticsexualpractices.Recently,however,manyoftheaccountsfromthistexthavecomeunder
scrutinyasexaggeratedorembellished.
OtherBurtontextsincludeGoa,andtheBlueMountainor,SixMonthsofSixLeave(India),TheGoldMinesofMidian(ArabianPeninsula),Sindhandthe
RacesThatInhabittheValleyoftheIndus(India),TwoTripstoGorillaLandandtheCataractsoftheCongo(Africa),TheEroticTraveler(sexcustomsand
practices),AMissiontoGelele(Amazonbasin),andVikramandtheVampireor,TalesofHinduDevilry(sorceryinIndia).
Burtonledanamazinglifefilledwithtravelsandprolificliteraryproduction.Hiscontributiontothefieldhasbeenenormous.Forhissmugattitudesandcultural
insensitivitywemightcriticizehim,butwemustalsomarvelathisaccomplishments.Toamasssuchaquantityofexcursionsandnoteworthyexploitsisrareindeedto
capturethemwithflair,literarystyle,andexcitementisrarerstill.
Seealso:
Speke,JohnHanning
References:
Bent1965
Newby1985
Rice1991

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BUTLER,SAMUEL
Acuriousfigure,SamuelButler(English,18351902)existsonthefringesoftravelliterature.Hewasaneminentlylearnedmanwhowasbothanimportantliterary
scholarandanotablebiologist.Erewhon(1872),perhapshismostfamousnovel,isasmuchataleofadventureasoftravel.Butlerdid,however,writeaseriesof
lettersandjournalentriesthatwerecollectedandcompiledbyhisfatherunderthetitleAFirstYearinCanterburySettlement(1863).Theselettersdocument
Butlersbreachwithhisfamilyin1859:theywantedhimtoentertheclergy(hisgrandfatherhadbeenabishopandhisfatheraclergyman)herefusedandfledtoNew
Zealandtotryhishandatfarming.
Butlerslettersareaharshlookatacultureandlifestylethatdidnotsuithim.HereturnedtoEnglandin1864,toworkonhisscholarlyandliterarypursuits.Becauseof
hiscriticaleye,AFirstYearinCanterburySettlementcanbecalledrathergoodtravelliterature.Butlersconstantoppositionbetweenhere,NewZealand,and
there,England,demonstrateshiskeenneedtocomparethesetwolifestyles.Healsoseemstomockthetidytaxonomiesofmanyanaturalisttravelwriterwithhis
cynicalobservations.Forexample,whenspeakingofplantandinsectlife,Butlerstates,Theinsectsareinsignificantandugly,and,liketheplant,devoidofgeneral
interest.Thereisoneratherprettybutterfly,likeourEnglishtortoiseshell.Thereisasprinklingofbeetle,afewants,andadetestablesandfly(Newby522).Compare
thistotheelaborateandprecisedescriptionsofplantandinsectlifewefindinotherexplorersaccounts!
WhatmakesButleramusingishisdrywit.Hewrylyrelatesstoriesthatbetrayanironicdetachmentthatmarkshimasatruetraveler.Toexistinthestrangenessof
anotherland,onemusthaveasenseofhumoranddetachment.And,besides,hehasanobviousloveforstories,howeversillyandimprobable.Wecanseebothtraits
inabriefpassagethatbeginsbydescribingthelackoffishbuttheoverwhelmingpresenceof(onlybarelyedible)eels.RelatesButler,theservants,gettingup,foundan
eelchasingacatroundabouttheroom.Ibelievethisstory.Theeelwasinabucketofwateranddoomedtodieuponthemorrow.Doubtlessthecathadattemptedto
takelibertieswithhimonwhichasuddenthoughtstrucktheeelthathemightaswelleatthecatasthecateathimandhewaspreparingtosuittheactiontotheword
whenhewasdiscovered(Newby522).Humorous,detached,literary,andcriticalallatonce,Butlerconstantlyforceshisreaderstoexaminetheiropinionsand
beliefs.
Ishoulddiscusshisnovelisticworkbriefly.Erewhon,probablyhismasterpiece,isananagramfornowhere.Thenovelisframedasatravelerstale,butthenitmutates
intosomethingelse.TheplotbeginsasashepherdsetsouttocrossamountainrangeandbumblesintoautopiancommunitythatsatirizestheharshnessofVictorian
London.Inthisstrangeland,culture,beauty,truth,andhonestyarevaluedaboveall.PeaceandequalityreignsupremeinErewhonscornandharshcriticismare
directedatplaceslikeEngland.AttheheartofButlerssatireisaboldcritiqueofthepracticeofreligion.Althoughsomeaspectsofthisnovelresemblepuretravel
literature,itwouldbebesttocategorizethistaleasutopiansatirethatusestravelasadeviceforescape.
AsanexpatriatefirstinNewZealandandlaterinCanada,Butlerslifewascomprisedofasequenceofexperiencesinforeignlands.Whileheclearlystatesthat
Englanddidnotsuithim,itseemsthatneitherdidhisadoptedhomes.AsacerbicashecanbetowardBritain,thereremainssomedegreeofnostalgiaforhishome.The
resultisasortofcritiquethatdemonstratessomerealemotionsforhisbirthplace.Rarely,ifever,doesButlerescapetheperspectivesandexpectationsinstilledinhim
byhisnativeEngland.Forthisreason,hiswritingcanfunctionastravelliteraturehisvantageisalmostalwayscomparativein

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natureandrevealsanongoingstruggletoreconcileanidealvisionofhomewiththeflawedreality.
References:
Newby1985
BYRON,LORD
ThestoryofGeorgeGordon(English,17881824),betterknownasLordByron,defiessimpleanalysis.Capableofmagnificentpoetryandbrilliantvision,Byronalso
madehisshareofidioticdecisionsandstupidgestures.Asaresultofthisenigma,LordByronplaysalargepartinthelegendsofBritishliterature:manyregardhislife
asthemodelforhisfamousByronichero.Withhislifeandsomeofhispoeticoutput,Byrondemonstrates,amongmanyotherthings,atravelerssensibilities.
Byrongrewupinatroubled,ifwealthyandinfluential,family.Hecameintohistitle,andtheopportunitiescontainedtherein,attheyoungageof10.Aftercompleting
hiseducationatHarrowandCambridge,hepublishedHoursofIdleness(1807)amidcontroversyandmixedreviews.ThisearlyworkdemonstratedByronsgreat
potential,butalsohisdangeroustendenciestowardselfindulgenceandarrogance.Itbombedwiththecritics,andthisstungByronspridesobeganhislifelongbattle
withcriticsandthepress.Heproceededtosatirizereviewersandcriticsinhisnextworkitalsometwithatepidreception.ThissentByronpacking:hemadeaGrand
TourofEuropeandtheNearEastfrom1809to1811,wherehegainedbothmaturityandexperience.Thisvoyageseemstohavemadeallthedifference,forhis
subsequentwritingbubbleswithanenergyandexcitement,nottomentionexoticcharactersandbackdrops.
HepublishedhisfictionalizedpoeticaccountofthetourasChildeHaroldsPilgrimage(1812,1816,1817).Thepoemtellsofadisillusionedyoungtravelerwhosets
outtogainknowledgeoftheworldandtoexperiencetheplaceshehaslearnedofatschool.Asaresult,thepoemisbothwonderfullydescriptiveandfullofliterary
andhistoricalreferences.Whereverthenarratorgoes,theplaceconjuresupsomefamousaccountoroccurrencefromhistoryassuch,thepoemisawonderfulsource
ofreferencestootherfamoustravelaccounts.Overthecourseofthepoem,ChildeHaroldnarratesvisitstoPortugal,Spain,Greece,Albania,Belgium,(whatisnow)
Germany,andtheAlps.
ChildeHaroldsPilgrimageisaninterestingandchallengingaccountofplaces,butpeopleareconspicuouslylackinginthepoem.Byronseemstohavebeenvastly
moreenchantedwithgeography,history,andartthanwithlocalcultures.Theonlyexceptioniswithbeautifulwomen:Haroldnotesthemandpursuesthemwith
romanticfervor.Thissamethemeis,ofcourse,expandeduponconsiderablyinDonJuan,thestoryofawanderingrake(picaro)whosetravelsareaseriesof
seductions.
ByronreturnedtoEngland,tookhisseatintheHouseofLords,andwrotenumerouspoemsthatfeaturedetailsfromhistravels.Manyoftheseworksareexperiments
withclassicismratherthanpuretravelverse,buttheymarkByronasaculturalandhistoricaltravelerofgreatpotential.
Afterafailedmarriageandcontinuedbattleswithagenerallyconservativeculture,ByronagainlefthishomefortheContinent.Foratime,helivedatLakeGeneva,
Switzerland,withPercyByssheandMaryShelley.Therestofhislifewasspentabroad,nearlyinconstantmotion.Histravels,attimeswiththeShelleys,rangedover
muchofItaly,Switzerland,Greece,andTurkey.Hislifelongimmersioninforeignculturesinfluencedmuchofhisgreatpoetry.TheurgetotravelcompelledByronuntil
theendthatsamewanderlustappearsasadominantmotiforcentralrecurringthemeinmuchofhislaterwriting.HemovedtoVeniceandlatersetoutforGreece,
wherehedied.
Whilehisliteraryproduction,culminatingintheunfinishedmasterpieceDonJuan,

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earnshimaplaceamongthegreatestauthors,Byronisnotespeciallynotedasatravelwriter.Yethisownwanderingadventuresunquestionablyinfluencedhiswriting
tothepointthatwhateverelseitmightbe,itleanstowardtravelliterature.Byronsbreathlessexcitementanddelightwithtravelfunctionasmorethanjustenthusiasm:
travelofteneffectschangesinhischaractersandinspiresthemtopursueeverloftieridealsanddreams.
Inadditiontohismorefamouspoetry,Byronalsoleftaquantityofinterestingcorrespondence,whichhasbeencollectedandpublishedasLetters.Becauseofhis
manyyearsoftravel,theseletterscoverawidearrayofplacesandexperiences.Oftentheyaremorecandidandobservationalthanhisemotionfilledpoetry.Yetthe
Byronicenthusiasmoftenshinesthroughinthelettersaswell.
Alltold,Byroncanbeconsideredacontributortotravelliteratureinseveralregards.Primarily,hispoetryisrichwithfactualdetailsandreferences.Second,thespiritof
traveldrovehislifeandhiswritingwecanseethisinhisformaswellasinhiscontent.Hisverseoftenwandersbetweenideasandplaces,muchasatravelerwanders
forthethrillofthejourneyratherthantoreachaprecisedestination.Andfinally,hisjourneysabroadtaughthimandhiswritingsreflectthislearningofthe
foolishnessofhisfamiliar,stifling,upperclassEngland.
Seealso:
GrandTourPicaro
References:
CrossleyHolland1986
Harvey1967
Newby1985
BYRON,ROBERT
RobertByron(English,19051941),thoughperhapslessfamousthanhisdistantrelativeLord(GeorgeGordon)Byron,appearsonalmostanymustreadlistoftravel
literature.AlthoughhislifewascutshortwhenhewaskilledinthelineofintelligencedutyinPersiaduringWorldWarII,hiscontributionstothefieldremaingreatand
praiseworthy.
Abrilliantscholarwhocrackledwithenergy,wit,andcuriosity,hebegantodistinguishhimselfshortlyaftertakinghisdegreeatOxfordUniversity.Hisearlypursuits
includedacelebratedaccountofByzantineaestheticstitledTheStation:Athos,Treasures,andMen(1928).ThishefollowedwiththeequallyfineTheByzantine
Achievement(1929)andthenanevenmoreambitiousbooktitledTheBirthofWesternPainting(1930).Hisscholarshipwasabalancedmixtureofthetheoretical
andthepractical:hedevotedenormousenergytofindingexamplesofartandarchitecturenotpreviouslyincorporatedintothecollectionofartisticworksacceptedby
theEuropeanestablishmentasclassicalandthenweavingthemintoarigorousthoughtheoreticalframework.
HethenturnedtopuretravelliteraturewithhisaccountoftheSovietUnionandCentralAsiainTheRoadtoOxiana(1937).Laudedforinventinganewformoftravel
literature,Byronappliedmodernisttechniquestothegenre:hisnarrativeisexpressionistic,fragmented,destabilizing,andintentionallyobtuse.Thetextmustbereadand
studied,foritchanges,kaleidoscopelike,oversubsequentreadings.Heblendsobjectiveexperiencewithsubjectiveassociationsfactstanglewithemotionstheform
ofthetalecompeteswiththeplotforprimacy.Hisworkisamontageofmaterialhistory,officialdocuments,anecdotes,analysis,dialogues,asidesaveritable
scrapbookfromhisjourneysstitchedlooselytogetherwithhisnarration.Doubtless,Byronsworkhasinfluencedalltravelliteraturethathasfollowedit.
Theplotisfairlysimple:insearchofarchitecture,Byronandafriend,ChristopherSykes,departfromEnglandin1933toPersia,Afghanistan,andtheIslamicportions
oftheUSSR.ThenameOxianareferstotheOxusRiverthatrunsalongthenorthernborderofAfghanistan.Ostensibly,ByronandSykesareseekingasinglework:
aneleventhcenturyburialcolumncalledGumbadiKabus.Butgettingthereisanothermatter

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entirely.TheychooseanoverlandroutethattakesthemthroughRussiaandthensouthtotheMiddleEast.Whiletheyhaveapreciseobjective,theprocessofgetting
theresooneclipsestheimportanceoftheirprimarygoal.Indeed,thisisacelebrationoftravel,looselyguidedbyasingularend.
Earlyinthebook,Byronmakeshisratherfamousproclamationthattravelisaforgottenliberalart:Thepleasuresoftravelneednoreiteration.Butwhentheimpulseis
soimperiousthatitamountstoaspiritualnecessity,thentravelmustrankwiththemoreseriousformsofendeavour(Fussell528).Hisaccountsareclearandincisive,
rangingfromculturalcritiquetoaestheticinterpretation.Hisattentiontodetailisnotatallcodifiedorpredictableinstead,likethemodernistfictionofJamesJoyceor
VirginiaWoolf,hislanguagerunswildtoevokethetale.Selectinganexampletoembodythisworkisnearlyimpossiblenearlyeverypageisdenseandrichlytextured.
Perhapsthisexcerptwilldemonstrate.ByronisinhisseconddayinMoscowandfindsthiscapitaltobethrillingandstrange.HewritesoftheRedSquare:
Andthenasthelightscameoutandthesnowflakes,longimminent,begantowanderdowninfrontofthem,thescenebecamealive.AsIreachedtheturn
tothebridge,acompanyofsoldierscamemarchinguptheoppositestreettheRedArmy!visibleagentofproletarianpowerandhardlylessfantasticto
myeyesthanitsfortressovertheriver.Intheirgreysergedressinggownsswingingrightdowntothefeet,andtheirgreysergehelmetwithpointedTartar
crowns,theylookedlikesomanygoblinsonaninfernalerrand.Tramp!tramp!swungthegreysergeskirtsbutnotafootfallsounded....Behindthe
chantinggoblinstheKremlinroseaglowwithelectricity,likesomeghostlybackclothtothehurryingcity,towerupontower,domeupondome,pilingup
fromtheroseredrampartsandthesnowyeminencewithinthem,tothelastgiganticonionofIvanVeliki,450feetabovetheblackriver.
(Byron86)
Thesmalldetails,deeplycoloredbyByronsownsubjectivity,carrythenarrativeandmakeitvivid.
ForByron,travelchangesthewayweseehistoryand,byextension,thewayweseeourselvesinhistory.Hisexperienceiscapturedinhismindseye,andittravels
withhimevermore,influencingallsubsequentvisionsandexperiences.HeconcludesinthechapteraboutMoscow,Thevisionwasover.Ihadexchangedthe
experienceofamomentforamemorythatwillsupportmetillIdie.IshallneverseeMoscowagainasIsawitonthatafternoon(86).Memory,andthewritten
accountthattriestorepresentthatmemory,istheprizeoftravel.
Thepoliticalsituationwastense,andtravelthroughtheMiddleEastcausedthemendlessdifficulties.GovernmentswereextremelysensitivetoWesterncritiqueand
wereworriedperhapsrightfullysoofspies.Ateveryturn,visasandcustomsrequirementschallengedByronandSykes.But,ofcourse,ourheroesprevailandfind
thatoncebeyondanybordertheyhavedelightsaplenty.Fromhagglingtoexploringtothedailyadventureofameal,Byronexuberantlyrelateshistale.
Pluckyanddaft,thetwosomeproceedtohavegreatfunateachstop.Forexample,inAzerbaijantheyarebothcommandedtoproducefiveidentificationphotographs
forcustoms(anabsurdquantity)theyprotestbystagingasortofsitinatthecustomshouse,orderinginteaandrefusingtoprovideevenonephoto.Notwantingtobe
bothered,theagentallowsthemtopasswithonlyonephoto.WhentoldtofilloutalengthyformwhichByronincludescompletedinhisbooktheyhavegreatfun
mockingit.Claimingthemselvestobeapainterandaphilosopher,theydeclarethattheyareaccompaniedbyagenieandabookbyHenryJames(Fussell542).
Byronseemsselfaware,evenperformative,inhisbehavior,asthoughsimultaneouslyacknowledgingandmockingthefactthathis

Page39
travelsarelargelydesignedtoberepresentedinliterature.
Byronsdepictionsofthecharacterstheymeetareequalpartscaricatureandrandomdetail.Theypokefunatabsolutelyeveryoneandeverything.Yettheirjestsareof
afairlygoodnaturedsorttheaccountsseematworstsnobbish,atbesthilarious.
Againandagaintheiradventuresthrillfromarreststoadverseweathertoarcheologicalwonders,Byronstaleispackedfullofgloriousexperiences.Hisentriesare
madedaily,buttheyvarywidely:somedaysreceiveascantparagraph,whileothersmeritdozensofpages.
Whentheyfinallyreachtheirdestination,thestunningGumbadiKabus,theaccounttakesbutafewpages.Itistheostensibleendtheywereseeking,butwhenthey
arrivewefeelnothingbywayofclosure.Rather,webegintoseethattheprocessoftravel,thesimpledailyadventuresofobtainingfood,water,andshelter,thatwas
theunspokenobjectiveallalong.Itisthisjoyintheprocessoftravelandtheunflaggingdesiretocapturetheaccountsonpaperandinmemorythatmakesthisa
greatworkoftravelliterature.
References:
Byron1982
Fussell1987
Newby1985

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C
CABEZADEVACA,ALVARNEZ
AlvarNezCabezadeVaca(Spanish,1490?1557?)wrotetwoverypopularaccountsoftravelasasixteenthcenturyexplorerandwriter,CabezadeVacacanbe
saidtohavebeenoneoftheearliestsuccessfultravelwriters.Histravelerstaleswerewidelycirculated,althoughtheydidnotgettranslatedintoEnglishuntilthe
nineteenthcentury.TheEnglishtranslationsaretitledTheJourneyofAlvarNezCabezadeVacaandHisCompanionsfromFloridatothePacific(1537)and
CabezadeVacasAdventuresintheUnknownInteriorofAmerica(1545?).
HisfirstbooktellsofhisjourneytotheGulfofMexico(15281536),whilehissecondrecountshissubsequentjourneytoSouthAmerica.Inhisfirstjourneyhesetout
tofindgoldandtreasureintheNewWorld.Whathefoundinsteadwasextremehostility:ofsome600men,CabezadeVacasurvivedwithonly3otherstowander
fromtribetotribethroughoutwhatisnowtheAmericanSouthwest.ItispreciselythiswanderingthatgavehimareputationasanexpertontheNewWorld.His
accountsareoftenexaggerated,yethemustbegivencreditforwritingthefirstEuropeanaccountofabuffaloandforhavingspenttimelivingwithseveralofthenative
tribes.Perhapsitisthisintimateunderstandingofindigenousculturesthatlatergothimintrouble.
Againstallodds,CabezadeVacamadeitbacktoEuropeandwaspromptlygivenchargeofanotherexpeditiontotheNewWorld.Uponarrival,hemadeitveryclear
thathebelievedinmercyandkindnesstothenativepeoples.HejoinedintellectualforceswithseveralofthehighrankingmissionariestopromoteAmericanIndian
rights.Hissecondtraveloguetellsofhisfighttohelpthenativeswhilepersuadinghisfellowcolonialiststhatthesepeoplewerenotbeasts.
CabezadeVacawritessympatheticallyandpowerfullyfromhisadoptednativeperspective.HeistheEuropeanwhohasbecometheotherandwhowritesaboutit
fromtheinside.Afteranextendedstayinthewilds,heencounterssomefellowSpanishexplorershedescribesthemeeting:Iovertookfourofthemonhorseback....
[Theywere]astonishedatthesightofme,sostrangelyhabitedasIwas,andinthecompanywithIndians.Theystoodstaringatmealengthoftime,soconfoundedthat
theyneitherhailedmenordrewneartomakeaninquiry.Ibadethemtakemetotheirchief:accordinglywewenttogetherhalfaleaguetotheplacewherewasDiego
deAlcaraz,theircaptain(Adams86).NoticehowevenhislanguagehecallstheleaderachiefsuggestshisidentificationwiththeNativeAmericans.
Simultaneously,CabezadeVacaisaninsiderandanoutsider.Hehasseenthroughtheeyesofthenative,buthecannoteverescapewhoheactuallyis.Assuch,
CabezadeVacaseemsconstantlytostrugglebetweenfollowinghisorderstoexploreSouthAmericaanddoingwhathebelievesisbestforthenatives.
References:
Adams1988
Rugoff1960
CALDERNDELABARCA,FRANCES
ThoughbornFrancesErskineInglis(Scottish,18041882),whenshemarriedDonAngelCalderndelaBarcain1838bothher

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nameandherlifechanged.HewassoonappointedSpanishministertoMexico,andsotheysailedtoVeracruzbywayofCuba.Overthecourseofseveralyears,
CaldernwrotelivelylettersthatweresubsequentlypublishedasLifeinMexico(1843).Asaforeignerinaprominentrole,onemightexpectCalderntoberather
primandproper:notso.Herlettersdemonstrateagreatsenseofhumorandawonderfullyunpretentiouscharacter.
HerstoriesoftenpaintlifeinMexicoasnasty,grimy,anddifficult,butthereislittlejudgmentattachedtothesedescriptions.Instead,Caldernisratheroffhandabout
thetravailofherjourneys.Havingbeencrammedintoacoach,forexample,shegroansadieutoherfriendsandthenbeginstodescribehercoachmates.Onelady
getsthebruntofheracerbicwit:[Sheis]ahorrible,long,lean,birdlikefemale,withimmenseredgoggleeyes,coalblackteeth,fingerslikeclaws,agreatgoitre,and
drinkingbrandyatintervals[!](Newby470).
Oragain,thisdiplomaticladydisplaysherunassuminghonestywhenrelatingastoryofseeingarobbersseveredheaddisplayedinaforestasanexampleto
vagabonds:
Anobjectreallyinkeepingwiththewildscenery,wastheheadofthecelebratedrobberMaldonado,nailedtothepinetreebeneathwhichhecommitted
hislastmurder.Itisnowquiteblack,andgrinsthere,awarningtohiscomradesandanencouragementtotravellers....Thatgrinningskullwasoncethe
headofaman,andanuglyonetoo,theysaybutstrangerstillitistothinkthatthismanwasonceababy,andsatonhismothersknee,andthathis
mothermayhavebeenpleasedtoseehimcuthisfirsttooth.Ifshecouldbutseehisteethnow!
(Newby471)
Inanotherfamousaccount,sheisinvitedtoanelaborateceremonycommittingayounggirltoaconvent.Sensitivetodifferentcustoms,butdisturbednonetheless,
Calderniscriticalofthisprocedureinwhichachildcanthusbedraggedfromthemotherwhoboreandbredher,andimmuredinacloisterforlife,amongst
strangers,towhomshehasnotie,andtowardswhomsheowenoduty....Lettheyoungtaketheirchanceofsunshineorstorythecalmandshadyretreatisfor
helplessandunprotectedoldage(Robinson414415).Thoughappalled,sherefrainsfrommakingascene,wellawarethatsheisanoutsiderwhocandonothing
morethanobserveandlearn.
Asamodest,femalevoiceofatravelerinMexico,Caldernswritingisnoteworthy.Shehasclearlycalculatedherletterstoresoundwithasmuchshockvalueasshe
canmuster,butinafairlyunpretentiousmanner.Inaddition,sheprovidesavaluableinsightintothedailylifeofadiplomatswifeinnineteenthcenturyMexico.Finally,
shepaintsararepictureofthecustomsandbehaviorofthewelltodoclassoflocals.Herlettersareinterestingreading,forshehasatrueopennesstotheadventures
ofexperiencingaforeignculture.
References:
Newby1985
Robinson1994
CALVERLEY,CHARLESSTUART
CharlesStuartCalverley(English,18311884)wasalightheartedfellow,knownprincipallyforhisparodiesandlightverses.Hewasalsoatranslatorofclassics.His
publications,thetitlesofwhichareratheruninspired,includeVersesandTranslations(1862),TheocritusTranslatedintoEnglishVerse(1869),andFlyLeaves
(1872).Asamanofletters,CalverleymadeanumberoftripstotheContinentandoftenwrotepoemstotellofhisjourneys.Withinthisoeuvre,orbodyofwork,area
numberoffinepiecesoftravelverse.
OneexampleofhistravelverseisapoemcalledDovertoMunich.ThepoemiswritteninCalverleysusuallightandplayfulstyleandconcentratesonthesensations
thattravelcausesinhim.Eachmodeoftransportationisnotedandcommentedupon:fromferryto

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coachtoriverboat,Calverleycomparesthemeritsofeachvehicle.Thenormaltravelersgripesarisewhimsicallyfromthepoem:fromslovenlypassengerstotiny
benchestoatrociousfood,hecomplainsbutalsoenjoystheadventure(andperhapsthecatharticreliefofgriping).
ThepeoplewhomCalverleyencountersseemtowarranthisfocusedpoeticattention.Ontheriverboathedescribeshiscabinmates:
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Weveanunhere(calledTherse),
Twocouriersoutofplace,
OneYankeewithaface
Likeaferrets:
Andthreeyouthsinscarletcaps
Drinkingchocolateandschnapps
Adietwhichperhaps
Hasitsmerits.
(CrossleyHolland16)

BeyonddescriptionsCalverleydoesnotgoheisasarecordingmachine,notingsightsandthosearoundhimwithoutengagingthem(atleastinthepoem).Travelseems
toinspirehissenses:sights,sounds,smellsallreceivelovingdescriptions.
Laterinthepoem,Calverleyprovidesuswithafineexampleofthescholartravelerwhoseeksoutart.WhenthenarratorfinallyreachesMunich,thecityratesseveral
stanzas,buttheartgalleryratesnearlyadozen.Hedescribesandreactstopaintingswithtransportsofjoyandexcitement:
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Andallpurest,loveliestfancies
Thatinpoetssoulsmaydwell
Startedintoshapeandsubstance
AtthetouchofRaphael.
(CrossleyHolland17)

Thustravelprovidesthenarratorwithaheightenedawareness,exposuretoart,andasubjectuponwhichtowrite.Inthisregard,travelfunctionsasatypeofmusethat
inspiresCalverleyspoetry.
References:
CrossleyHolland1986
CAPEHORN
CapeHornisthepromontoryatthesouthernmostpointofSouthAmerica.SailingthistreacherousroutefollowsthecontoursoftheislandscomprisingTierradel
Fuego.FerdinandMagellan,inanefforttoavoidthisharrowingpassage,discoveredanarrowstraitstillcalledtheStraitofMagellantothenorthwestofTierraDel
Fuego,thusavoidingCapeHorn.ManytravelershavewrittenofthehorrorofCapeHorn,amongthemCaptainJamesCookandJacobRoggeveen.
References:
OxfordAtlasofExploration
1997
CAPEOFGOODHOPE
Thesouthernmost(althoughlocatedatthesouthwesttip)promontoryofAfricastillbearsthenameCapeofGoodHope.Itremainsadangerouslyroughpassagein
spiteofitsmildsoundingname.Notoriousforitsstorms,massiveswells,andgaleforcewinds,itremainsachallenginganddangerouspassage.Earlyconquerors
includePedrolvarsCabral,BartolomeuDias,andFerdinandMagellan.
References:
OxfordAtlasofExploration
1997
CARERI,GIOVANNIFRANCISCOGEMELLI
Unfortunately,GiovanniFranciscoGemelliCareri(1668?1705?)hasmostlyvanishedfromtheannalsofhistory.Weknowpreciouslittleabouthislife,andhissix
volumeTriparoundtheWorld(1700)isaveryrarebook.Hiswritingis,however,reprintedinbriefexcerptsinanumberoftravelanthologies.
AwealthyandeducatedItalian,Carerisetouttotravelaroundtheglobefrom1693to1699.Herefusedtocouchhisexpeditioninscientifictermshesimplywanted
toseeandexperienceamyriadofplaces.Theresulting

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accountofthejourneyisthuspersonalandunpretentious.
WhatanadventureCarerihad!Magnificentlywellrounded,Carerishowsasmuchinterestinarchitectureasgeologyheisasthrilledtohuntasheistotalkpoliticshe
seemsaspleasedtoencounterindigenouspeoplesastobeentertainedbyexpatriateEuropeans.HisvoyagetookhimfirsttoAfrica(bothNorthandSouth),thenoffto
theFarEast,andfinallytoCentralandSouthAmerica.Employingeveryimaginableformoftransport,CarerifindshimselfonaSpanishgalleononcamels,mules,and
horsesincanoesinasedanchairand,ofcourse,onfoot.
ThevalueofCarerisworkistwofold.First,hestrivesforasmuchobjectivityashecanmuster.Hisaccountstrytobeunbiasedandnonjudgmentalwithregardtothe
hugearrayofwondrousthingshesees.Asahistorical,culturalrecord,hisbookhasgreatvalue.Second,herangeswidelyand(relatively)quicklybutfromaconsistent
perspective.Wecanthuscompare,say,CarerisaccountofAfricawithhisownaccountofSouthAmericawithouthavingtofactorinadifferentwritersperspective.
Inaddition,hisaccountrepresentsagreatcrosssectionoftheglobeoverthecourseofafewdecadesthisquicksurveyallowsustocomparediverseculturesfroma
singleperspectiveoverarelativelybriefperiodoftimeinsteadofcomparingaccountsthatareseparatedbyagreaterspanoftime.Inotherwords,Careris
observationshelpustoformamoreaccuratesociologicalopinion.
Formally,Carerisaccountisratherlax.Whileheattemptstomakedailyentries,

Page45
manydaysseemtohavevanishedentirely.Whilesomeentriesarecopiousandthorough,othersarebutafewlinesofvaguedescription:Thursday25th,Iwent
shootingamongthevineyards,wherethereareabundanceofthrushes,andwoodcocks(Adams270).Nonetheless,thequalityofhismoreambitiouspassagessheds
amusingandfactfilledlightuponhissubjectaswellasuponhispresumptions.WhatCarerifindsnoteworthyisitselfanimportantdetailindirectly,wecanbeginto
piecetogetheranexampleofanearlyeighteenthcenturyworldview.
Asthejourneyproceeds,thesimpleobjectiveofseeingtheworldfuseswithCarerisdesiretowriteaboutwhathesees.Indeed,thesegoalsareinextricablybound.In
oneinstance,CareriishavinggravedifficultywiththelawinSmyrna:hehasbeenmistakenforaknowncriminalandfindshimselfbeforeamagistrate.Foratime,things
lookgrim,buteventuallyheiscleared.Insteadofrage,thegoodnaturedCareridisplaysgratitudetowardhisaccusers:Yougivemesuchasubjecttoinsertintomy
Manuscripts,ashasnothappenedtomeinallmyTravels,norperhapshasanyotherTravellermetwiththelike(Adams271).
Inshort,Careriisaconsummategentlemantravelerwhoseeksexperiencebothtolearnfromitandtowriteofit.Hispassionforseeingothercultureslotsofother
culturesisextraordinary,andhiscalm,rationalvoiceisrefreshing.Forthesereasons,Carerisworkifyoucanfinditisexemplary.
References:
Adams1988
CARR,SIRJOHN
Anominallyprominenteighteenthcenturyfigure,SirJohnCarr(English,17321807)wroteessays,plays,andasatireoftravelliteraturecalledTheLifeandOpinions
ofTristramShandy,Gentleman,Volume3(1760),aparodyofLaurenceSternespicaresquetravelstoryTristramShandy.Asaparody,thisvolumeputsan
interestingspinonthegenre,butitcannottechnicallyberegardedastravelliteratureitself.Carralsocomposedanumberofinterestingpoems,manyofwhichqualifyas
travelliterature.HissimplytitledPoems(1809)waspublishedafterhisdeath.
CarrstravelsappeartohavebeenmostlyinEuropeanumberoflettersandothercorrespondencerefertohisjourneystoScandinavia,theMediterraneanbasin,and
France.Generally,CarrseemstohavetraveledasanescapefromthediversionsofhislifeinEnglandandasanexcusetowritepoetryandpersonalessays.Whilehe
wasnotobsessedwithtravel,hisexcursionsabroadseemtohavemadeaconsiderableimpactuponhisthinkingandprovidedhimwithinterestingmaterial.
Forthesakeofthisencyclopedia,CarrsSonnetuponaSwedishCottage,WrittenontheRoad,withinaFewMilesofStockholmservesasafineexampleoftravel
versethatdescribesculturalexchangeandthedesiretoincorporatetheforeignintothehomeland.
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Here,farfromallthepompambitionseeks,
Muchsought,butonlywhilstuntastedpraised,
Contentandinnocence,withrosycheeks,
Enjoythesimpleshedtheirhandshaveraised.
Onagreyrockitstands,whosefrettedbase
Thedistantcatractsmurmringwaterslave,
Whilstoeritsmossyroof,withvaryinggrace,
Theslenderbranchesofthewhitebirchwave.
Aroundtheforestfirisheardtosigh,
Onwhichthepensiveeardelightstodwell,
Whilst,asthegazingtravllerpassesby,
Thegreygoat,starting,soundshistinklingbell.
Oh!inmynativeland,erelifesdecline,
Maysuchaspot,sowild,sosweet,bemine!
(CrossleyHolland223)

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Tothenarratorofthispoem,thesolitudeoftravelingallowshimtoappreciatethesimplicityandhumilityofasmallcottage.Heinfersahappilyrusticandinnocentlife
associatedwiththatvision.Thecabinandgroundsaredescribedinlanguageusuallyreservedformajorarchitecturalorhistoricallandmarksclearly,thenarratorhas
idealizedthisplace.
Throughthequartetofthethirdstanza,hispraiseincreases:thescenebeginseventoseempastoral.Yet,asthisisasonnet,Carrusesthefinalcouplettomarka
transitionintoneandmeaning.Inthesefinaltwolines,linkedbytheirrhyme,heshiftsoutofthepresentandintothefutureandleapsfromSwedentoBritain:hewants
toreproducethiscozycottageinhisownhomeland.
Implicitly,theselinescontainacomparisonbetweenhomeandelsewhere.Suchadesiretocapturetheforeignmuchaswetakephotographs(ormemories)andto
bringithomemarksamajorthemeoftravelliterature.Borrowing,adopting,andadaptingthatwhichisdiscoveredontheroadisacommonresponsetotravelthe
desiretoabsorbtheforeignaformoflearningabouttheotherremainsoneofthedrivingforcesbehindtravelandtravelliterature.
Seealso:
Sterne,Laurence
References:
CrossleyHolland1986
CARRE,ABB
LittlerecordremainsofAbbCarre(French,1633?1699?)savehisthreevolumetraveloguefrom1699thatrecordshisjourneyfromFrancetotheMiddleEastand
thentoIndia.Whilethesevolumesmayhavebeeninsufficienttoearnhimapermanentplaceasamajorfigureinhistory,theydoengaginglycapturetheearlymoments
ofEuropeanimperialisminAsia.Herecordshisadventures,hisobservations,and,mostofall,hisopinions.BynotingwhatCarrechoosestorecordandhowhe
describesit,wecangaininsightintothemanaswellastheEuropeanculturethatproducedhim.
WemustrememberthatCarrestravelscorrespondwithanimportantperiodofEuropeanpoliticalhistory.France,England,Portugal,andtheNetherlandswereall
vyingfortraderoutestotheFarEast,andthisrivalryoftenescalatedintofullscalewars.LouisXIVhadjustsentpartofhisfleettosecureFrancestradechannels,
andthereissomeevidencetosuggestthatAbbCarrewassenttoseefromtheinsideiftheFrenchEastIndiaCompanywasindeedloyal.(Carre,introductiontovol.
1).ThuslargeportionsofCarresjournalsdetailtradeandcommercialpractices.
Yetinterspersedwiththesebanalaccountsaresomewonderfulexamplesoftravelwriting.Hisstyleofwritingisvivacious:hetellsstorieswithnearlycertain
exaggeration,andhistonesuggestsasortofarrogantswagger.Igetthefeelinghehadnodesireforobjectivity,butratherwantedsimplytotellagoodstory.Healso
hasaloveforseeminglygratuitousdetailherandomlydigressesandspeculatesaboutallmannerofthings.Oneofmyfavoriteasidesisalengthycomparisonbetween
thestateofhappinessofaFrenchnunandaconcubineinaharem(vol.1,251ff.).BotharehypotheticalcharactersthatservetoillustrateCarresvividimagination.The
sceneisinsomewaysadistillationofhiswholeproject:bycomparingtheEastwithhisEuropeanhomeland,Carreprovidessignificantdetailsaboutbothcultures.
Inotheraccountsheuseshisquickwitandnimblethinkingtogethimselfoutofserioustrouble.Evidentlyquiteanaccomplishedlinguistandactor,Carretellsofseveral
situationswherehehaspassedhimselfoffasDutchorPortuguese.NotethatthissuggestsaEuropeanaffinity,asortofusagainstthemscenario.Thesocalledwhite
racesappearasinterchangeable,inspiteoftheirpoliticalsquabbles.
Carreclaimsinhisdedicationthathisworkisastainlessmirror,inwhichIshowclearlythemosthiddenandsecretthingsthat

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haveoccurredintheadministrationofyour[MinisterColberts]tradeinthesedistantEasternlands(vol.1,1).Yetinpracticehetendstowardexaggerationatalmost
everyturn.Asahistoricaldocument,hiswritingsaresuspect,butastravelliterature,theyareexcellent.
Firstandforemost,Carreisconcernedaboutwritinghisstory.Hesuggeststhatunlesshecanrecordit,theeventswillbesomehowlostandthusthejourneynotworth
havingbeenmade.Onevividyarnrelatesachasewhereinhefinallydecidestostandandfightagainstthebandofrobbersthathaspursuedhim.Findinghimself
severelyoutnumbered,hetriestonegotiateadeal:Itoldthemthatiftheywouldnottouchmypapersandletters[i.e.,thetraveloguewearediscussing]Iwouldgladly
givethemmyclothesandallmybelongings,andthatotherwiseIwasresolvedtodieandtokillfiveorsixofthem(vol.1,71).Theyagree,robhimofeverything,and
leavehimhorselessandinacoarseshirtwithhispapers.Heseems,inthetext,unconcernedwithhismisfortune,althoughheadmitstosomeuneasinessatthesoundof
nearbylionsroaring.
Suchastorylendsasenseofworthtothetextitwasboughtatsuchextremehardship,henceitmustbeprecious.Wemaysharehisexcitementandanxiety,butlike
theplotofmostanynovel,weassumethathewillmakeitthrough:afterall,therearestilltwomorevolumesaheadofus.Inthisway,Carrehasblendedgenresto
combineapicaresquenovelwithatravelogue.Assuch,hehasmadehimselfintosomethingofaliterarycharacter,aroguishpicarowhodealsnonchalantlywith
adversitybecauseheknowshewillsurviveatleastuntiltheendofthebook.
Carreisalsosignificantbecauseofhisattitudetowardthecultureshepassesthrough:tohim,Asiaisnotacultureoraplace,butratheracommoditytobeboughtand
sold.Suchacommodificationoftheotheristhetrademarkofhighcolonialism,andCarrereflectshisculturesextrememercantiledesires.WhatcanbehadinAsiaare
thingstosell,betheyspices,tea,orstoriesofadventureandexoticothers.AfterreturningtoFrancewiththefirstvolumeofhiswork,Carredeclaredthathemust
travelagaininordertowritethenexttwovolumes.Inthiscase,writingaboutthejourneyservesasthedrivingforcebehindtravel:Carregoesinordertolivethatwhich
hecansubsequentlyreducetonarrative.
Seealso:
PicaresquePicaro
References:
Carre1947
CATHAY
Thearchaicname,thoughstillusedinpoetryorasanarchaism,forChina.ThetermderivesfromtheTatar(i.e.,theTurkicandMongoltribesthatdominatedthe
MiddleEast,China,andEasternEuropeintheMiddleAges)nameforChina.ThisoriginissignificantbecauseitmarksCathayasanameimposeduponChinabyan
outside,invadingforceassuch,ithascolonialistorimperialistundertones.
OED
CLINE,LOUISFERDINAND
LouisFerdinandCline(French,18941961)isthepennameofLouisFerdinandDestouches.ClinewasatroubledFrenchnovelistbestknownforhisabsurdly
misanthropicbooksJourneytotheEndofNight(1932)andDeathontheInstallmentPlan(1936).Bothofthesebooks,whilefiction,drawheavilyonClines
ownvoyagesandtravels.Afterbecomingacommunist,ClinemadeajourneytoRussiaandquicklyrenouncedhispositioninhistreatiseMeaCulpa(1937).These
threeearlyworksareonthefringesoftravelliteratureinthattheycontainconsiderableepisodesoftravelandexplorationbutarenotexpresslyabouttravelitself.Ihave
includedthembecausetravelistheenginethatdrivestheplotofthesetales

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thecharactersdevelopdirectlyasaresultoftheirbeinginmotion.Inaddition,Clinesprotagonistsemploytravelasanescapefromallthatiswrongwiththemodern
world:tothem,voyagingabroadisawayofbeingrebornintoadifferentcontext.Clineslaterworksaremostlypoliticalinnatureandthusoutsidethescopeofthis
encyclopedia.
AsadissatisfiedandcynicalFrenchcitizen,Clinespentmuchofhislifemoving.LongstintsinDenmark,EastAfrica,andavarietyofFrenchcitieswerepunctuatedby
significantvoyagestoRussia,EastAsia,theUnitedStates,andseveralnationsinAfrica.AlwaysskepticalofFrenchpolitics,Clineproposedthatmovingabroadwas
apoliticalact.Fromhisforeignperspective,heargued,hecouldbeamoreincisivecriticofhishomelandinprinciple,thisisoneofthefundamentalaspirationsofall
travelliterature.
PerhapsthebestillustrationofClinesworkastravelwritingisJourneytotheEndofNight.Thenovelisamoreorlessautobiographicalaccountofacynicaldrifter
namedFerdinandBardamuintheaftermathofWorldWarI.Bardamusjourneysrangewideandfarhisfundamentalalienationmakeshimatravelerwhereverhe
goes,fromhishomeinFrancetocolonialAfricatotheUnitedStates.Ofcourse,Bardamusjourneyisnotonlyaphysicalstate:hisbodilywanderingscorrespondto
hispsychologicalgrowthandmentaladventures.JustashetriestounderstandtheradicaldifferencebetweenhimselfandthenativesinAfrica,hetriestounderstandan
equallyradicaldifferencebetweenhimselfandhisfellowEuropeans.Thestoryisthusaboutseekingdifferencesandlearningfromthem.
Writteninavividandmodernstyle,thestoryishauntingandmemorable.Bardamusendlesspessimismchargeseveryobservationhemakeswithadeepandcutting
irony.Afterastintinamentalhospital,BardamuhitsuponthenotiontoheadforAfrica:ThefurtherawayIgo,thebetter....PersonallyIonlywantedtogetaway,
butasoneoughtalwaystolookusefulifoneisntrichandas,anyway,mystudiesdidntseemtobegettingmeanywhere,itcouldntverywelllast....SoAfricahas
it,Isaid,andIletmyselfbehoundedtowardsthetropicswhereIwastoldyouonlyhadnottodrinktoomuchandtobehavefairlywelltomakeyourwayat
once(Cline108).Certainlynotthemostinspiredtraveler!Withthatglibassertion,helauncheshimselfintoanewworld.
HisenthusiasmgoesfrombadtoworseashedetailsthehorrorsofAfrica.Butinspiteofhisendlesscarping,Bardamulearnsnumerouslessonsfrombothnativesand
hisfellowcolonists.Ingoodcynicalfashion,however,theyarenotwiselessons,butlessonsinhowtodeceive,trick,andmanipulate.Nonetheless,itistheprocessof
beinginmotionandbeingabletofleethatfacilitatesBardamuslearning.
FromAfrica,heheadstotheUnitedStates.IntheslumsofNewYorkorthefactoriesofDetroit,Bardamufindshumiliationandunpleasantnessonparwithwhathe
foundindeepestAfrica.Butonceagain,itistheexposuretotheforeignandhavingtheperspectiveofanoutsiderthatallowhimtolearn.ThedetailsofClinesown
lifeandtravelsseemtoresemblethegrumblingvoyagesofhisprotagonistinnearlyeverysituation.
Throughouthismisadventures,Bardamuremainsinmotion:itisallhehas.Asapoliticalstatement,hisrootlessnessenableshimtoallyhimselfnotwithacountryora
flag,butwiththelargerpopulationofinternationalworkers.Thissocialistsentimentmadethebooksomethingofascandaloriginally.Forourpurposes,letitbesaid
thatClinesstoryusestravelasasustainedmetaphorforlifeindeed,thetravelerinmotionisafreeman.Ifthereisanysolaceatalltobefound,forBardamuatleast,
itisintheoccasionalsolidaritythathefindsinmeetingwaywardcynicslikehimselfontheroad.
References:
Cline1960
France1995

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CERVANTES,MIGUELDE
OneofthemostpraisedandstudiedstoriesinWesternliteratureisDonQuixote(1605and1615)byMigueldeCervantes(Spanish,15471616).Whilenotprimarily
aworkoftravelliterature,thisnovelhashadsufficientinfluenceontravelwritingtomeritabriefentryinthisencyclopedia.
Cervanteswassomethingofatravelerhimself.Comingfromawealthyfamily,hehadtheopportunitytowanderwidelythroughtheMediterraneanregionandinNorth
Africa.HewasimprisonedinAlgeriaforseveralyears,eventuallytoberansomed.Suchtraveladventuresseemtohaveinfluencedhimconsiderably.Hisliterary
reputationisalmostwhollycontingentuponDonQuixote.Whilehewroteinmanyforms,herarelyifeverapproachedthegreatnessofthisearlywork.Inthistext
Cervantestoyswithnotionsofperceptionandperspective:Quixoteisawandererperceivingthestrangeworldverydifferentlyfromthosearoundhim.Inmanyways,
Quixoteisthearchetypaltraveler.
Verybriefly,thestorytellsofanunsettledcountrygentlemanwhoreadshimselfcrazyenoughtobelievethatheisreallyanerrantknightnamedDonQuixotedela
Mancha.Thestoryisthusasatireofchivalricromancesandofcourtlytalesofloveandbravery.Quixoteandhiscomicsidekick,SanchoPanza,setofftofollowa
peasantgirlwhoismistakenlybelievedtobethelovelyLadyDulcinea.Theadventureleadsthemfarandwide,throughaseriesofcomicmisadventures,includingthe
famousscenewhereinQuixotemistakeswindmillsfordragonsandsheepforarmies.Throughout,ourherosoverlyactiveimaginationcauseshimtomisperceivethe
commonplaceinsodoing,CervanteshasmadeQuixoteaforeigntravelerinhisownland.
TheinfluenceofthisbookonWesternfictionhasbeenenormous.AsoneoftheearliestexamplesofaEuropeannovel,itsformaloneissignificant.Shunningthemore
traditionalverseinfavorofproseallowedCervantestowriteinadescriptiveandratheruninhibitedmanner.Asprosebecamethedominantformoftravelwriting,we
mustacknowledgesomedebttothisearlyproseaccountofadventuresontheroad.Indeed,itiswhatQuixoterandomlyencountersonhisjourneythatdrivesthetale.
Inaddition,DonQuixoteisaprimeexampleofthepicaresquenovel.Inthisformofwriting,awandering,likableroguefiguresatthecenterofthestoryhis
adventures,usuallygreatdifficultiesandmiraculousrecoveries,formthenucleusoftheplot.Assuch,Quixoterepresentsaveryearlypicaro.Histroublesareexcessive
tothepointofcomedy,andhissolutionsareendearingandinnovative.Thepicaresquenovelbecameasignificantcategoryoftravelwriting,especiallyintheeighteenth
centuryclearly,laterwritersinthiscategoryowesomedebttoCervantes.
AnothermajorthemeinDonQuixoteisthenotionofaquest.OfteninterpretedasareformationofthesearchfortheHolyGrail,theGrailQuestwasanabundant
tropethatis,asymbolusedtofigurativelyrepresentsomethingelseinmedievalandearlyRenaissanceliterature.WiththebeginningoftheEnlightenment,Cervantes
refiguredtheGrailQuestbysatirizingandmockingit.Insteadofajourneytosearchforthekeytosalvation,Quixotesquestsafteranillusion.WheretheGrailQuestis
noble,gallant,andchivalrous,Quixotesquestisfarcical,boorish,andselfish.Asquestsnecessarilyinvolvetravelandadventure,thereisoftenaresidueoftheGrail
Questoramockeryofthesameinalmostalltravelliterature.
Finally,DonQuixotemustbeconsideredtravelliteraturebecauseitisthroughtheherosadventuresthathelearns.Histravelsteachhimmanylessons,theleastof
whichisnottoreadtoomanychivalricromances!Byencounteringdifferentandunfamiliarpeopleandplaces,Quixoteisabletolearnofhimself

Page51
andhisownshortcomings.Andbytraveling,heisabletoovercomehismadness.Whocouldaskforanythingmorefromajourney?
Seealso:
GrailQuestPicaresquePicaro
CHAMPLAIN,SAMUELDE
SamueldeChamplain(French,15671635)hasgivenusaverydetailedaccountofhisnumeroustravelsfromEuropetoNorthAmerica.Hisfirstvoyagewastothe
WestIndies,wherehedistinguishedhimselfasabravesailorandakeenobserver.Hisjournalsfromthefirstvoyagebetrayhisardententhusiasmandhisbolddreams.
HisnextvoyagewastoCanadain1603totradefurs.ThemixofcommercewithexplorationsuitedChamplainwellhistravelscouldbefinanciallyselfsustaining,thus
moreindependent.
Overthenext20years,ChamplainexploredCanadaandleftusanexquisitelydetailedrecordofitsgeographyanditsnativepeoples.Inadditiontobeingahistoric
record,histalesareendearing.Hisstoriesoftendisplayconsiderablenarrativetalentanddramaticexcitement.EarlyinhistravelshebefriendedtheHurontribeand
overtheyearsdealtwiththemfairlyandhumanely.HeeventuallyhelpedtheHurontodefeattheIroquois,therebymakingtheIroquoisaswornenemyofFrance.By
tradingwiththeHuron,Champlainsincerelybelievedthathecouldcivilizethem.Regardlessofhowwenowviewthiscolonialistambition,thebenefitsoftradingwith
theEuropeansallowedtheHuronopportunitiesthatothertribesdidnothave.
AswellasproducingoneoftheearliestrecordsoftheHuronways,ChamplainwasoneofthefirsttomaptheGreatLakes.EverexcitedtobethefirstEuropeanto
seeaparticularplace,Champlainslistoffirstsisastounding:hewasthefirstEuropeantoseemuchoftheinteriorofNorthAmerica.Hisaccomplishmentswerenot,
however,limitedtothegeographicChamplainwastobecomethefirstgovernorofQuebec(1620).
Hiswritingisnolessprolificthanhisdeeds.Everyoneofhisvoyageshasanelaboratepublishedjournalasarecord.Furthermore,numerousvolumesofcollectedtales
andexcerptshavebeenpublishedindifferentcombinations.FortheEnglishreader,theauthoritativeeditionistheChamplainSocietyssixvolumesetoftranslated
journals(Champlain1927).
Likemostexplorersofhisera,ChamplaincannothelpseeingwithEuropeaneyesimplicitinanyofhisobservationsisacomparisonthatsetsNativeAmericansand
Europeansinopposition.Repeatedly,Champlain

Page52
comparesthetwocultures,asinthisdescriptionoftheHuronlifestylefromVoyagesandDiscoveriesinNewFrancefrom1615to1618.Theirlifeisamiserable
oneincomparisonwithourownbuttheyarehappyamongthemselves,nothavingexperiencedanythingbetter,andnotimaginingthatanythingmoreexcellentistobe
found(Rugoff792).
WhilereadingChamplainasasourceofinformationabouttheNewWorld,wecanalsoreadhimbackwardand,insodoing,learnsomethingaboutEuropean
attitudes.Indeed,whilewelearnabouttheHuron,wesimultaneouslylearnabouttheEuropeanswhoobservedthemandsoughttoconquerthem.Inthismode,we
mightreadChamplainastheepitomeoftheearlyEuropeanexplorer:hefeltithisdutytospreadEuropeanwaystothoselessfortunate.Butasweseefromhislife
andwriting,thesavagesalsotaughtChamplainquitealot.Perhapsthisconcurrentgiveandtakeisoneofthefinestresultsoftravelandexploration.
References:
Adams1988
Champlain1927
Rugoff1960
CIRCUMNAVIGATION
Theprocessofsailing(orflying)aroundtheentireearth.Thegoalofcirclingtheglobepresumesanunderstandingofaroundearth,thusthedesiretoachievethisend
aroseinthelatefifteenthcenturyintheAgeofExploration.Earlyattemptstocircumnavigatetheglobeweredrivenasmuchbyasenseofadventureasbyadesirefor
traderoutestotheEastIndies.ThefirstsuccessfularoundtheworldjourneyisusuallyattributedtoFerdinandMagellanalthoughhediedbeforethetripwas
complete,hiscrewfulfilledthemission.Tothisdaythereisstillalluretothenotionofcirclingtheentireplanet,asseenbythemanyadvertisementsfortravelaroundthe
world.
Interestingly,thenotionofcircumnavigationshiftstheemphasisofthevoyagefromthereachingofthedestinationtotheprocessoftransportation.Inthisregard,
circumnavigationisanabstractnotionthatimplicitlyrecognizesthevalueoftravelitself.
CLAUDEMIRROR
TheClaudeMirror,alsoknownastheClaudeLorraineGlass,wasatypeofmirrorusedmostlybyeighteenthcenturytravelerstohelpframetheirviewsoflandscapes.
Themirrorwashandheld,convex,andoftentintedtheeffectwastofocusawideangleviewintoasmaller,borderedimage.Thetintedglassservedtomore
dramaticallyhighlightthecontrastsbetweenlightanddarkandtocutdownonglare(inanerabeforesunglasses).Thetravelerstoodwithhisbacktothevistaandheld
themirrortoreflectthescene.
TheClaudeMirrorwasnamedaftertheFrenchpainterClaudeLorraine(16001682),whopopularizedtheclassicallandscapeamongtheupperclassesofEurope
intheseventeenthcentury.ThisgenreofpaintingoftenidealizedtheancientRomancountrysideasanidyllicandharmoniousplacewherenatureandculturepeacefully
coexisted.Stylistically,Lorrainespaintingsconcentratewideangleviewsontoacanvas,oftenemployingadramaticlighttodarkcontrast(chiaroscuro).Characters
areusuallysmallandminimalcomparedtothevastnessofthelandscape,whichisoftenbalancedwithastaunchclassicalstructure.Thenoveltyandpopularityofboth
thethemeandthestyleenjoyedconsiderablesuccessfornearlyacentury.
UseoftheClaudeMirrorisinterestinginthatthedevicemediatestheviewofnaturethroughamechanicaldevice:natureisthusmadetolooklikeapaintingratherthan
theotherwayaround.Fortheeighteenthcenturytraveler,whowouldmostlikelyhavebeenwealthyandeducated,makingtheforeignsceneslookmorelikethemore
familiar

Page53
paintedimageswasdesirable.PerhapswemayseetheClaudeMirrorasaprecursortothephotographiccamera,whichoftenfunctionsinasimilarmanner.
References:
OED
CLEMENS,SAMUELLANGHORNE
SeeTwain,Mark
COLERIDGE,SAMUELTAYLOR
Oneofthegreatpoetsoftheromanticperiod,SamuelTaylorColeridge(English,17721834)wroteavastnumberofpoems,essays,andplays.Ashewasthesonof
avicar,itwasalwaysassumedhewoulddevotehislifetothechurch.Buthissuccessatschool,combinedwiththedeathofhisfather,impelledColeridgetopursue
literature.AlthoughhisearlylifewasspentinEngland,heeventuallydiscoveredtheallureoftravel,anditseemstohavemadeagreatimpressiononhim.Partofhis
educationwasspentinGermany(17981799),andhelaterlivedinMalta(18041806)andItaly(1807).HistravelsaroundEnglandandIrelandwerealsovastand
frequent.Asafamous,ifnotorious,figure,hehadampleopportunitiestovisitmanyofthecapitalsofEurope.
Coleridgesenergeticpoetryproclaimsinjubilanttermsthevirtuesoftravel.AsamajorforceinEnglishromanticpoetry,hisprolificliteraryproductionhashadwide
ranginginfluencelikewise,hisrelativelyfewtravelpoemsareoftenregardedashighlyinfluentialtolaternineteenthcenturypoets.Whileheisnotnotedparticularlyasa
travelpoet,muchofhisfamousworkcontainselementsoftravelliterature.KublaKhanandTheRimeoftheAncientMarinerbothutilizetravelandexotic
backgroundsasmajorcomponents,butinneitheroneistravelthemainpointofthework.Assuch,thesepoemsmightbecalledfringetravelliterature.
Thereare,however,anumberofexamplesofColeridgespoetrythatfunctionmore

Page54
purelyastravelverse.OneexamplewillsufficetodemonstrateColeridgestravelsensibilities.TheDelinquentTravellersisasubstantialsamplethatcontainsmanyof
theelementsofpuretravelliterature.Itbegins:
l
l
l
l
l

Somearehomesicksometwoorthree,
TheyrethirdyearontheArcticSea
...ButO,whatscoresaresickofHome,
AgogforParisorforRome!
(CrossleyHolland9)

Thedesirefortravelseemsuniversalandunquenchable:onlyatinyfewarehomesick,andonlyafterlonelyyearsatsea.Travelfunctionsinthispoemasinspiration,to
poetsandwanderersalike.
Coleridgegoesontocomparestabilityandmotionlessnesstohumiliatingconfinementinotherwords,motionequalsfreedom.Heurges,
l
l
l
l
l
l
l

Keepmoving!Steam,orGas,orStage,
Hold,cabin,steerage,hencoopscage
Tour,Journey,Voyage,Lounge,Ride,Walk,
Skim,Sketch,Excursion,Traveltalk
Formoveyoumust!Tisnowtherage,
ThelawandfashionoftheAge.
(10)

Inthenameofgloryandadventure,oneoughttofeelcompelledtowardmotion.
Inthelessmanicmiddlesectionofthepoem,thenarratordoesacknowledgethedangersandthecostofsuchjourneys.Inromanticfashion,Coleridgeweighsboth
sidesoftheequation,andhisemotionsswingagainsttravel.Thissentimentisquicktofade,however,asheconcludesthatonemustdoanythingnecessarytomakea
journey.Likethetravelerwhooscillatesbetweenfeelingglumattherigorsoftravelandfeelingexultantatthejoys,sotoodoesthepoemwildlybouncebetween
emotionalpoles.
Intheend,thenarratorinsiststhattherewardsoftravelaregreat,bothtoindividualandtocountry:
l
l
l
l
l
l
l

WhorambleEast,West,NorthandSouth,
Withleakypurseandopenmouth,
Insearchofvarietiesexotic
Theusefullestandmostpatriotic,
Andmerriest,too,believeme,Sirs!
AreyourDelinquentTravellers!
(12)

Thisexuberantodetotravelsofallsortssuggeststhattravelisakindofriteofpassageforallwhowouldbegoodfathers,patriots,andgentlemen.Assuch,travel
servesasanintegralpartofacitizenseducationandmaturation.
Inthispoem,aswellasinnumerousothers,Coleridgeemotionallydebatesthecostsandbenefitsoftravel.Withhiskeeninterestinperspectiveandvantagepoints,
Coleridgeneedsthejoltingeffectsoftraveltoencouragehimtolookattheconstantnaturalworldandhumanconditionfromdifferentangles.Inhislife,hisletters,and
hispoetry,hereturnstothisthemeandallowshimselftobetaughtbyhistravels.
References:
CrossleyHolland1986
Harvey1967
COLUMBUS,CHRISTOPHER
Afamousnameinexploration,tobesure,ChristopherColumbus(Italianborn,laterPortuguese,14511506)maynotinfactliveuptothemyththatusuallysurrounds
him.OftenerroneouslycreditedwithdiscoveringAmerica,ColumbuswasbutthefirstEuropeantostumbleontotheAmericasandtopublishhisaccount.Nordic
seafaringpeopleshadreachedthesamedestinationlongbefore.Nonetheless,Columbuswasanintrepidtravelerwithabold,evenstubborn,vision.
Hisstoryisoftentold:repeatedlyridiculedforhisnotionthattheearthwasround,hestruggledtofindapatrontosupporthisvoyages.Afteranumberoflessambitious
expeditions,hebelievedthathehadsufficientexperiencetoseektheFarEastCathay(China)

Page55
andCipangoorCipangu(Japan)asdescribedbyMarcoPolobytravelingwestward.MonarchsfromPortugal,thenEngland,thenFrancerefusedtosupportthis
venture.AtlasttheSpanishmonarchsFerdinandandIsabellasomewhatreluctantlypledgedthreeshipsandtheircrewstotheexpedition.AndoffwentColumbuson
hisfamous1492voyage.
WhileColumbusdidnotwriteatraveldiaryassuch,itwasstandardpracticeforthecaptainofanexpeditiontokeepashipslog.Columbuswasparticularly
enthusiasticabouthislogbook.Afterhissuccessfulreturn,hepresentedhisjournaltoFerdinandandIsabella,whotreasuredit.Asinglecopywasmadeandreturned
toColumbus.Unfortunately,bothcopieshavebeenlost.WhatwedohaveisathirdpersonjournalwrittenbyBishopBartolomdeLasCasas,wholivedintheNew
Worldstartingin1502.HeobviouslyhadspentconsiderabletimetalkingwithColumbusandreading,evenquoting,hisshipslog.
Afterhisinitialdiscovery,ColumbusmadeseveralreturntripsexploringwhatisnowCuba,theBahamas,numerousCaribbeanislands,andthenortherncoastofSouth
America.Hislogsofthesejourneys,partsofwhichstillexist,havelostthethrillandexcitementthatseemtohavebeenpresentonhisfirstjourney.Inaddition,
ColumbusslatervoyageswerefraughtwithdisciplineproblemsandpersonalstrifeitturnsoutthatColumbus

Page56
wasaratherbettervisionarythananadministratorofSpanishcolonialinterests.
ThusColumbus,whileagreatexplorer,cannotbeconsideredamajorauthoroftravelliterature.Yetbecauseofhisfameandimportance,heratesaplaceinthisstudy.
Forthesakeofpurity,wecanlookatLasCasasstranscriptionheclaimsverbatimofColumbussinitialdaysintheBahamas.
Onthisvoyage,weseeColumbusamazedathisdiscovery.Heisambivalenttowardthenatives:ontheonehand,herepeatedlytriestobefriendthemontheother,he
keepsanumberofthembyforceaboardhisship.Whileheseemsveryinterestedinthediscoveryofotherislands(whichwillturnouttobeCuba),hisdesireisnotin
thenameofgeographicdiscovery,butratherinsearchofgold.
Columbussdescriptionofhisfirstencounterwiththenativesistellingindeed.Hewrites(allegedly):
Iknewthattheywereapeopletobedeliveredandconvertedtoourholyfaithratherbylovethanbyforce.[We]gavetosomeamongthemsomered
capsandsomeglassbeads,whichtheyhungroundtheirnecks,andmanyotherthingoflittlevalue.Atthistheyweregreatlypleasedandentirelyour
friendsthatitwasawondertosee.Afterwardsthey...broughtusparrotandcottonthreadinballs,andspearsandmanyotherthings....Infact,they
took

Page57
allandgaveall,suchastheyhad,withgoodwill,butitseemedtomethattheywereapeopleverydeficientineverything.Theyalsogonakedastheir
mothersborethem.
(Adams55)
Wecanseehismissionarytendencies,hiscolonialisturges,andhisEurocentricattitudesquiteclearlyinthispassage.Yetasafirstencounter,hiswritingsaresureto
fascinateandtoilluminateaculturethathadbeenunrecordedpreviously.
MuchofColumbusslogbookistechnicalnavigationalheadings,windcharacteristics,climatebutfrequentlyhefallsintoreveriesaboutthevastpotentialforgoldin
theseunchartedandabundantislands.ItshouldbenotedthatColumbusthoughthehadreachedtheFarEasthehadnoideahehaddiscoveredanentirevastcontinent
betweenEuropeandAsia.Althoughdisappointedatnotfindinggoldimmediately,ColumbusnonethelessseemstoviewtheNewWorldasasortofparadisefound,if
aslightlydeficientparadisewithnogold.HecomparesittohisfavoriteplacesinEurope:
TheplainofCordova[did]notcomenear[thequalityoftheselands],thedifferencebeingasgreatasbetweennightandday.[Thenatives]saidthatall
theselandswerecultivated,andthatawideandlargeriverpassedthroughthecenterofthevalley....Allthetreesweregreenandfulloffruit,andthe
plantstallandcoveredwithflowers.Theroadswerebroadandgood.TheclimatewaslikeAprilinCastillethenightingaleandotherbirdssangasthey
doinSpain...anditwasthemostpleasantplaceintheworld.Somebirdssangsweetlyatnight.Thecricketsandfrogsareheardagooddeal.Thefish
arelikethoseofSpain....Goldwasnotfound,anditisnotwonderfulthatitshouldnothavebeenfoundinsoshortatime.
(Rugoff695)
OneofthemaincharacteristicsofColumbusswritingsisawideeyedwonderthatmaywellmakehisaccountsslightlysuspect.Yetifwecomparehisearliervisions
withtheinfinitelylessenthusiasticlogsofhissubsequentvoyages,wecanbegintoformalargerpictureofColumbus.
Withoutadoubt,hisidealismfadedquickly.Thejoyandexcitementofhisinitialdiscoveriesgavewaytodisgustattheendlessgreedandcrueltyonthepartofhismen
andtheearlycolonists.WhileColumbusappearstohaveresistedawholesalepillageoftheNewWorld,hewasguiltyofnumeroustransgressionsandabuseshimself.
EventuallyhewasreprimandedbytheCrownandrecalledtoEurope,wherehelivedouthisdaysinpovertyandscorn.
References:
Adams1988
Fussell1987
OxfordAtlasofExploration1997
Rugoff1960
THECONTINENT
AlthoughtechnicallyageographictermthatdescribesanyoneofthemajorlandmassesoftheearthAsia,Antarctica,Australia,Europe,NorthAmerica,South
AmericamanytravelwritersusetheContinenttorefertocontinentalEurope(asopposedtoGreatBritain).HenceanEnglishtraveler(oranAmerican)mightrefer
toanimpendingvisittothecontinentmeaningatriptomainlandEurope.ThisphrasingisparticularlycommoninaccountsthatdescribetheGrandToursthatwere
popularintheeighteenthandnineteenthcenturies.
Seealso:
GrandTour
COOK,CAPTAINJAMES
CaptainJamesCook(English,17281779)isanotherofthelegendaryadventurersoftheEuropeantradition.PerhapsthedefiningfeatureofCookasamanwashis
insatiableyearningforexploration:inhisintroductiontoCaptainCooksJournalduringHisFirstVoyageroundtheWorld...17681771,hewritesthathefeels
drivennotonlytogofarther

Page58
thananymanhadeverbeenbefore,butasfaraspossibleforamantogo(Rugoff419).Beyondhisurgentneedtosurpassanypreviousexplorers,Cookhaddeep
desirestoservescientificinquiryandtotreatnativepeopleshumanely.Hiswritingsdisplaythisrarecombination:heisscientific,orderly,andprecisewhilealsobeing
humane,compassionate,andhonest.
Asayoungman,hemadehisnameasasuperiorseaman,surveyor,andcartographer.In1768,CookwasgivencommandofanexpeditiontothelegendarySouthern
Continent(whatwenowknowasAntarctica)itwasthebreakheneeded.Theexpedition,fundedlavishlybytheBritishmonarchy,seemedsimpletobeginwith,but
Cooktooktheopportunitytomakeafewsidetrips.Alongtheway,heexploredTahiti,discoveredtheSocietyIslands,revealedthatNewZealandwasanisland,and
mapped1,000milesofAustraliascoast.Clearly,Cookwasamandrivenbymanyambitions.AfterreachingAntarctica,hefoundthathistimingwasbad,fortheice
floesblockedfurtherprogress.Hereturnedtogreatpraise,butinhisownmindheseemstohavefelthisjourneyafailure.
Asaremedy,hemadeasecondvoyage(17721775)toAntarctica.HesailedasfarastheicefieldsandthenbegantocircumnavigatetheentireofAntarctica!
Survivinginsuchextremeconditionsforoverayearrepresentsagreattestamenttohisfortitude,nottomentionhisskillsasaleader.Topreventamutinyundersuch
conditionsrequiredacreativeblendofirondisciplineandfierceloyalty.Aftercirclingthecontinent,heconcludedthattherewerenohabitablelatitudesinAntarctica.
HereturnedtoasecondroundofgreatpraiseinEngland.
In1776,CooksetoutfortheotherPoleinsearchofanArcticpassagefromthePacifictotheAtlanticaboveNorthAmerica(abackwardNorthwestPassage).
Curiously,hefirstsailedtheSouthPacificdiscoveringtheHawaiianIslandsalongthewayandthenupthecoastofNorthAmericaandaroundAlaska.Hismapsof
thiscoastlineweresomeofthefirstandbest.AbovetheBeringStrait,however,Cookfoundhispassagethwarted,sohereturnedtowarmerclimes.Unfortunately,he
waskilledbynativesinHawaii.
Remarkably,inalittlemorethanadecadeoftravels,Cookmadeadozenmajorcontributionstogeographicexploration.Hisjournalsshowhimtobeamanofdeep
convictionwithakeensenseofjustice.Thesetextsaresomeofthefinestandearliestexamplesofwritingthatneitherromanticizesnativepeoplesnorassumesthatall
thingsEuropeanaresuperior.DescribingtheAustralianAborigines,Cookwrites:
TheymayappeartosometobethemostwretchedpeopleuponearthbutinrealitytheyarefarmorehappierthanweEuropeans,beingwholly
unacquaintednotonlywiththesuperfluousbutthenecessaryconveniencessomuchsoughtafterinEuropetheyarehappyinnotknowingtheuseofthem.
...Theycovetnotmagnificenthouses,householdstuff,etc....Inshort,theyseemedtosetnovalueuponanythingwegavethem,norwouldtheyever
partwithanythingoftheirownforanyonearticlewecouldofferthem.
(Rugoff426427)
ItisthisenlightenedandopenmindedperspectivethatmakesCooksjournalssoenjoyableandsointeresting.HiswritingsdemonstratethatwhileCookwasa
consummateexplorerindeed,hewentsimplyforthesakeofgoinghewasalsoanexploreroftheideasofcultureandcivilization.Implicitbehindtheabovepassage
isacomparisonbetweenhimself(theEuropean)andthenative.TheresultofthecomparisonisthatCookseemstoquestionhisownculturalvalues:thenativeappears
wretchedbutisinfacthappierthanweEuropeans.Cookisabletoseethatthereisavarietyofperspectivesonsuchabroadnotionashappiness,andheseemsto

Page59
realizethathisperspectiveisnotnecessarilythebestone.
References:
Rugoff1960
COOPER,JAMESFENIMORE
JamesFenimoreCooper(American,17891851)haslefthismarkonseverallearnedfields.Authorofmorethan50books,Cooperwrotefiction,politicaltheory,a
guidetomannersandetiquette,socialcriticism,andtravelliterature.AlthoughmostfamousforhissonamedLeatherstockingseriesfivetalesfeaturingtheprotagonist
NattyBumppoCooperstravelliteratureisextraordinaryinitsownright.
ThesonofawealthyFederalistpolitician,Cooperwaseducatedthoroughlyandintensivelyasachild.Atage13hewassenttoYale,

Page60
onlytobeexpelledafterthreeyears,muchtothedismayofhisfather.Inrebellion,Coopertooktotheseaforanumberofyears.Whileatseahecametolovethe
excitementofthevoyageandrealizedthatadventuresabroadcanbeagrandopportunityforlearning.Althoughheclearlymadenoteswhileabroad,itwasnotuntilhis
returnfromseathathebegantocomposethesenotesandstoriesasnovels.By1811,hehadreturnedtoNewEngland,married,andestablishedhimselfasa
gentlemanfarmer.Itwasonlyatage30thathebegantowriteseriouslyandforpublication.Someaccountscontendthathisfirstbook,Precaution(1820),was
writtenonachallengefromhiswife(Hart182).
HisearlybooksTheSpy(1821),ThePilot(1823),andThePioneers(1823)metwithenoughcriticalsuccesstoencourageCoopertocontinuewriting.Hislater
fictionisusuallyconsideredoneofthefoundationsofAmericanliteratureandincludestheclassicTheLastoftheMohicans(1826).
Perhapsasaresponsetohisfathersvocalfederalism,Cooperdisplayedacontinualfascinationwithpoliticsandsocialclass.Amonghisworksarebooklengthstudies
ofdemocracy,classstructure,andAmerica.HiseloquentcomparisonsbetweentheUnitedStatesandthegreatEuropeannationsrelentlesslycontrastthedifferencesin
cultures.Asaresult,CooperwasoneoftheearliestAmericanwriterstobetakenseriouslyinEurope.Tocontinuehisresearchandwriting,helivedandtraveledinthe
OldWorldfrom1826to1833.Intheseyearshewrote,amongotherworks,fivesuperiorbooksoftravelliterature.
Ingeneral,thesetalestellofEuropeanculturefromanAmericanperspectiveandarethusgreatexamplesofthelearningthattakesplaceduringtravel.Coopermakes
decidedlyAmericanobservations:heiscriticalbutrespectfulofEuropeanpolitics,classdynamics,andpower.Ashesays,Ihavenoideaofboringmankindwith
statistics,anddryessaysonPolitics,buttogiveonly,rapidsketchesofwhatIshallsee,withAmericaneyes(Cooper258).Inaddition,theyarebeautifullywritten.
OverhissevenyearsinEurope,CooperpublishedaccountsofEngland,France,Germany,Switzerland,andItaly.Aswithhisseatales,ittooksomeyearstocrafthis
notesintopublishableworks:hereturnedtotheStatesin1833butdidnotpublishhisaccountsuntilseveralyearslater.Thetimewaswellspent,however,foritis
obviousthathetookconsiderablecarewithhiswritingandstructure.ThemajorityofallfivevolumesofGleaningsinEuropeismadeupofletterssenttoawide
rangeofpeoplebothintheUnitedStatesandinEurope.Forthisreason,thereisnolinearchronologyorplotinthesebooks,saveCoopersownedificationand
development.Yethislettersareelaborateenoughtobeengaging.Becauseeachletterismoreorlessselfcontained,Coopercanchangetones,styles,andsubjects
veryquicklyandwithlittlefanfarethistendstoquickenthepaceofhisworkinthatheneednotmaketransitions.
HisbookswerepublishedbothintheUnitedStatesandinEuropesimultaneously.ThereissomevariationinthetitlesoftheAmericanversustheBritishfirsteditions,
butforourpurposes,IhaveusedthetitleoftheAmericaneditions.SketchesinSwitzerland(1836),SketchesinSwitzerland:ParttheSecond(1836,which
includedGermany),andGleaningsinEurope(18371838,withonevolumeeachonEngland,France,andItaly)remainsomeofthebetteraccountsofEuropean
cultureintheeighteenthcentury.
Althoughhisreputationbythistimewassufficientlyestablished,histravelliteraturedidnotsellwellatall.ItmaybethatCooperwastoocriticalofbothAmericaand
Europetomakethesebookscommercialsuccesses.ItwasalsothecasethatCooperwasextremelyantagonistictowardthepress,andthushehadplentyofenemies
amongreportersandreviewers.Finally,themarketwasgluttedwithaccountsoftravelandexplorationofEuropereadersweremoreinclinedtobuythewildtalesof
AfricanorAsian

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explorationwiththeirnudenatives,cannibals,andunthinkablebeasts.Nonetheless,inretrospect,thesefivebooksareexemplary.
Throughout,Cooperconcentratesonthehigherreachesofpolitesociety,buthedoessowithparticularlyAmericanstyle.Hestatesrepeatedlyifproudlythat
althoughhehasallsortsoflettersofintroductiontotherightpeople,heabsolutelyrefusestousethem.Therefore,insteadofimposinghimselfasanobligationupon
others,heseekstowinhisfriendsbyhiswitandcharm.Thishasthebenefitofallowinghimatravelersfreedom:hemustmakehisownwayandtrustfatetoshowhim
theway.Inaddition,thisprocessfeedshisego:heknowsheisappreciatedandwelcomedintoEuropeansocietyonhisownmeritsratherthanbecauseofhisfame.
Tobesure,hefoundgreathospitality.Doorsopenedtohimasifbymagic,andthebestpeopleembracedhimwarmly.Theseyearsseemfilledwithelegantdinners,
culturalperformances,andlivelydiscourses.Ateveryturn,hemakescomparisonsusuallytriangularcomparisonsamongAmerica,England,andwhereverhehappens
tobe.Forexample,inParis,acityheparticularlyadored,Cooperobserves:
Itis,moreover,agreatmistaketoimaginethattheFrencharenothospitable,andthattheydonotentertainasfreely,andasoftenasanyotherpeople.
TheonlydifferencebetweenthemandtheEnglish,inthisrespect,orbetweenthemandourselves,isinthebettertasteandeasewhichregulatetheir
intercourseofthisnature.Whilethereisagreatdealoftrueelegance,thereisnofuss,ataFrenchentertainment....Societyisdividedintocastes,in
Paris...andthedegreesofeleganceandrefinementincreaseasoneascends,asamatterofcourse,butthereislessofeffort,ineveryclass,thanisusual
withus.
(Adams457)
Amonghisencountersarenumerousminornobles,culturalfigures,andpoliticians.ThesebrusheswithfameseemtothrillCooper.Heoftenseemsinnocentlyawed
whenhemeetsthem,andhetakesgreatpainstoquotethemexactly.SeveraltimesherelateshisconversationswithSirWalterScott,includingScottsownreflections
onCooperswork:IlltellyouwhatImostlike...anditisthemannerinwhichyoumaintaintheascendancyofyourowncountryonallproperoccasions,without
descendingtovulgarabuseofours(Cooper150).Yetinspiteofthiscompliment,CooperisnotafraidtobecriticalofScott,tohisreadersatleast,afewpages
down.HecomplainsfirstofScottshandwriting,thenofhismanners:Iwasmuchsurprised...foritdenotedawantoffamiliaritywiththeworld,thatonewouldnot
haveexpectedinamanwhohadbeensoverymuchandsolongcourtedbythegreat.But,afterall,hislifehadbeenprovincial(Cooper153).Thishonestyisoften
whatmakesCoopersointerestingtoread:herarelypullshispunches.
InhisaccountsofItaly,asistobeexpected,Cooperrhapsodizesovertheclassicalruins,althoughwithalesserscholarlyandhistoricalknowledgethanotherfamous
travelersoftheera.ThismayimplyabitofsnobberytowardItalyinthatitssocialsphererateslowerthanitsruins.AsimilarthinghappensinSwitzerland:headoptsa
romantictonewithregardtothenaturalsplendor.Itisaninterestingstruggletowatch.Cooperwrangleswiththeemotionsirrationalanduncontrollableevokedby
thisgrandeurasconflictingwithhissenseoforderandreason.
ParticularlyinhisSwissgleanings,aswellasinhisseatales,Cooperisfamousforhisoppositionofnatureandculture.Thisthemerunsthroughouthiswork.Nature,
wilderness,andtheuncivilizedarenotrelegatedtothebeastlyinCooperrather,theyareattractiveandpowerful,ifdangerous.Speakinggenerally,wemight
summarizethatCoopersoughttoimportlessonslearnedfromwildnatureintothecivilizedworldinwhichhemostoftenlived.
UponreturningtoAmerica,Coopercontinuedhisprolificproductionandturnedout

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abewilderingarrayoftexts.Anumberofthemareparttravelliteratureandmustbenotedassuch.HomewardBound(1838)andHomeasFound(1838)areboth
fictionalaccountsofsocialidealssetagainstareturnfromabroad.Heexpoundselaboratelyupontheinfluencehomehasonmenofgoodspirit:homeisatthecoreof
patriotism,whichisforCooperanoblevirtue.SeveralyearslaterhereturnedtothethemeoftravelinhisfactualaccountofChristopherColumbussfirstexpedition
calledMercedesofCastile(1840).Thisseemstohaveledhimtorevisitthesailingthemessodeartohiminhisearlyworks,forhesubsequentlywroteahistoryofthe
Britishnavy(TheTwoAdmirals,1842),ahistoricalnovelaboutprivateers(WingandWing,1842),astoryofasailor(NedMeyers,1843),andtwomostly
autobiographicaltalesofhisowndaysatsea(AfloatandAshore,1844,andMilesWallingford,1844).
Insum,Cooperswasanextraordinarycareerfullofadventuresinbothnatureandsociety.Hisbookshavebeeninfluentialinmanyarenas,andhistravelliterature
providesuswithadetailedandrichhistoryoftheEuropeanupperclasses,aswellasapictureofCoopersownstruggletocarveoutadistinctlyAmericanidentity.For
Cooper,travelseemstohavebeenawaytolearnaboutpoliticsandsociety.InvisitingEurope,hefoundthathisownbelovedAmericahadsomethingvaluableto
contribute.
References:
Adams1988
Cooper1983
Hart1965
CORYATE,THOMAS
Afascinatingcharacter,ThomasCoryate(English,15771617)startedhiscareerasacourtjesterunderJamesI.AlthoughOxfordeducated,hewasatruecomicfool:
everythingabouthimseemstohavebeensteepedinmirth.Thehistoryisunclear,butforwhateverreason,hesetoutonamonumentaljourneythateventuallytookhim
2,000milesonfoottonearly50cities!Truetoform,hetitledhisbookaboutthisexperiencewhichwasoneofthefirsttravelersguidesCoryatsCrudities:
HastilyGobledUpinFiveMonethsTravellsinFrance,Savoy,Italy,RhetiaCommonlyCalledtheGrisonsCountry,HelvetiaAliasSwitzerland,SomeParts
ofHighGermany,andtheNetherlandsNewlyDigestedintheHungryAireofOdcombeintheCountyofSomerset,andNowDispersedtotheNourishment
oftheTravellingMembersofThisKingdome(1608)!Uponhisreturn,hisshoesweremadearelicofsortsandhunginalocalchurchtheyremainedtherefor200
years.
Notcontentwithoneepicjourney,Coryatesetoutonasecondvoyageagainonfootin1612toGreece,Turkey,AsiaMinor,NorthAfrica,theMiddleEast,and
India.Hisaccountofthistravelisfragmentaryhenevermadeithome,butsomelettersandnotebooksdid.ThesepieceswerecompiledintoabookcalledThomas
CoryateTraveller(1616).
CoryatsCruditiesisasimpleaccountoftravel,partcommentary,partusefulguidebook.Forbothaspects,itisaremarkabledocumentthatshedsanoddlightupon
manydifferentplaces,customs,andpeoples.Inaddition,Coryatesworkcanbeusedasaninsightintowhatwasconsideredcommonplace:hestatesthathispurpose
istonotetheextraordinary,thuswecandeducethatifhenotessomething,itwasuncommonattheEnglishcourt.Finally,aswemightexpect,Coryatestextisrich
withhumorofallsortsandisthusamarvelouslyamusingread.
AttheendofCoryatsCrudities,Coryatestatesgleefully:Ofallthepleasuresintheworldtravellis(inmyopinion)thesweetestandmostdelightful(Adams216).
Thisjoyoverflowsfromhistext.Noeffortistoogreattobearforthispleasureheoftentellshappilyofcoldnightsspentsleepinginaditchorhisgreatrigorsinlearning
alanguage.Eventhemostextremesituationsseemnottoastoundthisbrashandhardytraveler.Henonchalantlynotesallmannerofstrangeculturaldifferenceswith
littleornojudgment.

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AsingleexampleofmanyshouldsufficetoillustrateCoryatesstyle.WhenpassingavineyardnearthetownofWormes,Germany,heplucksabunchofgrapes.The
farmer,furious,brandishingaweapon,inagreatfurypulledoffveryviolentlymyhatfrommyhead...lookedveryfiercelyuponmewitheyessparklingfireina
manner,andwithhisAlmannewordeswhichIunderstoodnot,swaggeredmostinsolentlywithme,holdinguphishalbertinthatthreateningmanneratme,thatI
continuallyexpectedablow,andwasindeadlyfearelesthewouldhavemademeapreyforthewormesbeforeIshouldeverputmyfooteinthegallantCityof
Wormes(Adams223).Perpetuallyjovial,observant,andfaithfultohisdutyofrecordinghisjourney,Coryatedelightshisreaderswithhistales.Heistrulyoneofthe
fathersoftravelliterature.
References:
Adams1988
Newby1985
Rugoff1960

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D
DALLAM,THOMAS
ThestoryofThomasDallam(English,fl.1600)isbothcharmingandfascinating.AsQueenElizabethsmasterorganmaker,DallamwassenttoTurkeytopresent
SultanMehmedIIIwithagiftfromHerMajesty.Constantinoplewasabustlingtradecity,andElizabethanmerchantswerehungryfornewmarketsbutthesultanhad
aferociousreputation.Toflatterhim,ElizabethhadDallambuildanexquisiteinstrumentandthenaccompanyittoTurkey.Awarethathismomentofgloryhadbegun,
DallamkeptadelightfuldiaryofhisyearlongadventureandpublishedTheDiaryofThomasDallam(1600)uponhisreturn.
VerylittleisknownofDallam,butonethingiscertain:hewasanextraordinarycraftsman.Tobesuretoimpressthesultan,Elizabethsparednoexpenseon
constructingtheorgan.FromDallamsowndescriptions,welearnthattheinstrumentcouldbeplayedmanuallyorallowedtoplayfivepartsongsbyitself.Inaddition,
thecontraptionhadmechanicalmusiciansthatblewhorns,carvedbirdsthatflappedandtwittered,aglockenspiel,andanynumberofothermovingornamental
components.Becauseofitscomplexity,Dallamwastheonlyonewhocouldbetrustedtoassembletheorganandtorepairanydamagethatoccurredinshipping.
Thestory,then,isofacraftsmanturneddiplomat.
ThefirstportionofDallamsaccountisratherdullinthathedwellswithanoviceseyeontheshipandthejourney.Althoughnotexciting,thissectionisavaluable
descriptionoflifeonanElizabethansailingvessel.WhenhearrivesinConstantinople,however,thetalebecomesmuchmoreinteresting.
Theorganprovestobeasmashingsuccesswiththesultan,whofindsitamostamazingdevice.Dallamsdelightiscompoundedbythedreamlikegrandeurofthe
sultanspalace.Inthegrandhallwherethegiftispresented,thesultanisalonewithhisstaffof200dazzlingpagesandcourtiersandanother200bodyguardsand
eunuchscladinlavishOrientalgarb.ThesultancommandsthatDallamplayforhimwithgreattrepidation,foreventhemildestbreachofetiquettewouldcosthimhis
life,Dallamperforms,withroaringsuccess.
Emboldenedbyhisintimacywiththesultanandapursefullofgold,Dallamrisksapeekattheharem,anothercapitaloffense.Hisdescriptionisoneofthefewfromthe
era,andhewasabletorecallaswellasdescribethegirlsattirewithgreatdetail.ButhisguidetoleratedonlyabriefglimpsebeforeputtinganendtoDallams
excessivegawking.Theguide,madeawrymouthandstampedwithhisfoottomakemegiveoverlooking,whichIwasveryloathtodo,forthatsightdidpleaseme
wondrouswell(Rugoff173).
OneofthemostinterestingaspectsofDallamsbookishisinnocentperspective.TravelscholarMiltonRugoffwritesofDallam,although[hisjourney]wasrelatively
uneventful,seeingitthroughhisnaveeyesmakesitseemlikeavisittoWonderland.Itsculmination...[is]oneofthemostquaintandbeguilingdescriptionsin
Elizabethanwriting(169).Indeed,asatravelersaccountofaradicallydifferentworld,Dallamsbookisadelight.Foritsdetails,foritsboyishtone,andforits
straightforwardpresentation,thisstoryremainsagreatworkoftravelliterature.
References:
Brent1893
Newby1985
Rugoff1960

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DALLAS,SIRGEORGE
SirGeorgeDallas(English,17581833)maynotbeahouseholdname,norindeedistheremuchwrittenabouthim,buthedidwriteasingularlyfinebookoftravel
versecalledTheIndiaGuideor,JournalofaVoyagetotheEastIndiesintheYearMDCCLXXX(1785).InthisbookDallasdwellsuponthepassageitselfthat
is,heharpsuponthejourneyratherthanthedestination.Suchafocusissignificantinthatitcallsattentiontothenatureoftravel:motion,adversity,andunpleasantness
allreceivedetaileddescriptions,andtheyaretoberespectedfortheirpowertoteach.
DallassetoutforIndiaasacolonistin1780,asthetitleindicates,butittookfiveyearsforhimtopublishtheaccount.Insteadofasimpletravelogue,Dallassaccount
becameanelaboratelywroughtliterarywork.Heestablishesaliterarydevicetomediatehisowncomplaints:hisbookispurportedlytherecordofaprobablyfictitious
MissEmilyBrittle.Ostensibly,TheIndiaGuiderepresentsherletterstohermother.Usingawomanasamouthpiece,Dallasisabletofullyvoicedismayand
displeasurewiththejourneyandeventuallytomakefunoffrailtravelers.Thetextalsoraisessomeinterestinggenderissues:asamale,hiscomplaintswouldhavemade
himseemweak,whereashiddeninafemalevoice,hecanbemoanthedifficultiesoftravelwithimpunity.
Thenarratorveryquicklywishesnottohaveembarkeduponthejourney:...tistoolatetorepentIlefthome,/TisnotsotogrievethatIventuredto
roam(CrossleyHolland6).Thetumultuousseas,theroughaccommodations,theterroroftheunknownareherchiefcomplaints.Whatsometravelersrevelin,this
narratorloathes.
YetDallassvoiceshinesthrougheventually,makingMissBrittlehernameadescriptionofhercharactersomethingofajoke.Shecomplainsofthepitchingofthe
shipandsomeunfortunate,ifcomic,consequences:
Notmanyweekssince,Ihadonlytoscoop
Frommylapthecontentsofatureenofsoup
AndwhenwithmycleanclothesIagainhadsatdown,
Avilelegofmuttonfellrightonmygown.
SometimesIwassoiledfrommyheadtomytoe
Withnastyporkchops,orgreasypilau.
(CrossleyHolland8)
Hertroublesbecomealmostunbearableasthesixweekvoyageprogresses.Misadventuresabound,fromtheescapeoftheshipslivestocktotheperpetualprofanity
shehastoendure.Inheroutragewecannothelpfindingabitofhumor.
PerhapsDallasemployedthisdeviceasawaytomakelightoftravelwhileatthesametimeexpressingadeeprespectforthepoweroftraveltoteachtoughness.Over
thecourseofthemanypoeticlettersofthebook,MissBrittledoeslearnquiteabitanddoesbecomeconsiderablymoredurable.Atitscore,then,Dallassbookis
aboutthepoweroftraveltoeffectpersonalgrowthandabouttheengrossingnatureofthevoyageitself.Intheend,itisnotarrivingthatisimportant,buttheprocessof
gettingthere.
References:
CrossleyHolland1986
DAMPIER,WILLIAM
OneofthegreateighteenthcenturyinfluencesonlatertravelliteraturesurelymustbeWilliamDampier(English,16521715).Hiswritinghasbeencalledinfluentialto
everyonefromSamuelTaylorColeridgetoDanielDefoe.Hisseveraltravelbookswerewidelypraisedfortheirform,style,andcontent.
Atravelerfromhisearlyyears,DampierstartedasasoliderintheCaribbean,whichledtoacareerasaprivateer.Insearchoftreasuretopillageandunvisitedlandsto
discover,hisjourneytookhimallthroughCentralandSouthAmerica,andeventuallyhe

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circumnavigatedtheglobe.Hisaccount,ANewVoyageroundtheWorld(1697),madehimfamousandinfluential.Thisfameearnedhimofficialrecognitionandroyal
sponsorshipthat,inturn,ledtoamajorexpeditiontothePacificandanotherbook:VoyagetoNewHolland(1703).Alltold,hehasthreecircumnavigationstohis
credit,andhewasthefirstEnglishmantoseequiteanumberofplaces.
Inadditiontohisstatusasanauthor,hewasatalentedartistandacollectorofartifactsaswellasbiologicalsamplesandspecimens.Hisdrawingsofharborsweresaid
tobeveryvaluabletocartographersseekingtomappotentialcolonialoutposts.Hisaccomplishmentsweremany:hewasthepilotwithWoodesRogerswhenthey
capturedaSpanishgalleonladenwithtreasure,hehelpedrescueAlexanderSelkirk(themodelforthecharacterRobinsonCrusoe),hewasoneofthefirstEnglishmen
toseeAustralia,hewaspresentedtoQueenAnnescourt,hewasfriendswiththefamousdiaristSamuelPepys,andhewasaneminentmemberoftheRoyalSociety.
Hisbookshaveseencontinualpopularityandhaveinspireddreamsandadventuresformorethantwocenturies.
Abraveandfiercelydisciplinedman,Dampierranatightshipandneverpassedupachanceforglory.Truetohisbuccaneeringbeginnings,healsosawhisshareof
violentscrapswithavarietyofindigenouspeoplesandwithhisSpanishfoes.InthenameofEnglandandcommerce,Dampierwasconsideredoneofthemost
aggressiveexplorercolonistsoftheearlyeighteenthcentury.
Hisnarrativesarefactfilledandnonchalanthedescribeslifethreateningencountersinthesametoneasherelatestheweather.Butduetothesheervolumeofadversity
heencounteredandbested,histalesareexciting.WhilecontemporaryreadersmayviewDampierascrueltothenativesthathemeets,hejustifiedhisbehaviorinthe
nameofChristianizingandcivilizingtheheathenworld.Whattooursensibilitiesisaroughimpositionofideaswastohimanobleandlaudabletask.Inhisownerahis
exploitswereconsideredwildlyheroic.
OneoftheinterestingaspectsofDampierswritingishowcarefullyhenotesthepainshetooktopreservehisjournalsandnotebooks.Forexample,whiletrudging
throughthejunglesofSouthAmerica,witharestlessfollowingofsemihostilenativeswhomheconstantlybribed,henotes:ForeseeingaNecessityofwadingthrough
RiversfrequentlyinourLandmarch,ItookcarebeforeIlefttheshiptoprovidemyselfalargeJointofBambo,whichIstoptatbothEnds,closingitwithWax,soas
tokeepoutanyWater.InthisIpreservedmyJournalandotherWritingsfrombeingwet,thoIwasoftenforcedtoswim(Adams245246).Formanydayshetoted
thiscontraption,oftenmoreworriedabouthiswritingthanhiscrew.SuchdevotiontotherecordofthejourneyisafineexampleofDampiersattitude:thetripandthe
storyofthetripareinseparable.Theworkofthejourneyisasmuchthewritingaboutitastheactualeffortofexploration.
AnothervalueinDampiersworksisthatheillustratesthefiercecompetitionamongthecolonialpowersEngland,Spain,Portugal,andtheNetherlandstoclaim
rightstotheirdiscoveries.Hewaskeenlyawareoftheprogressbeingmadebyhisrivals.Inoneinstance,heandhismenstealapackageofmailtoseewhatthe
Spanishareuptoandwhattheyknowofhisownprogress.Itiswithnosmallamountofpridethatherelatesthecontentsofonesuchletter:Thattherewouldbe
EnglishPrivateersthatYearintheWestIndies,whowouldmakesuchgreatDiscoveries,astoopenaDoorintotheSouthSeaswhichtheysupposedwasthefastest
shut:AndtheLetterswereaccordinglyfullofCautionstotheirFriendstobeverywatchfulandcarefuloftheirCoasts(Adams250).Theseintriguesaddconsiderably
toDampierstalesnotonlyisheanexplorer,butasortofspyaswell.
InhiswritingsaboutthePacific,Dampierbalancesgeological/geographicalobservations

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withdescriptionsofindigenouscultureswithnotesastothepotentialforcommerceandcolonization.ItisremarkablehowsimilararehisexperiencesinboththePacific
andtheWestIndiesheemployspreciselythesametacticsofbriberyandgoodwillbackedupwiththebrutalforceofhismusketinbothcases.AndagainintheEast
Indies,heseemsalmostobsessedwithdiscoveringlucrativegoodstobringbacktoEuropewithhim.
Inthefinalanalysis,Dampiersbooksarefascinatingdocumentsthatdescribehisincredibleexplorations.Butperhapsmostinterestingistoreadthemasaninsightinto
thiseminent,ifcryptic,character.Rarelydoeshegiveusanyclueastowhatdriveshimtopresseveronwardrarelydoeshestrayfromakindofobsessive
professionalism.Weknowlittleornothingabouthisownemotions,desires,orpersonalattributes.Insomerespects,heeffaceshimselftosuchadegreethatDampier
themandissolvesinfrontofhisavowedlyobjectivedescriptionsofhisadventures.Perhapsthisiswhatmakesthestoriessuchgreattravelliterature:thewrittentales
standinforandreplacetheactualmanandhisjourneys.
Seealso:
Buccaneer
References:
Adams1988
DANA,RICHARDHENRY
RichardHenryDanas(American,18151882)storyisaninterestingone.Althoughhewasamemberofaliteraryfamily,Danasmostimportantinspirationcamenot
fromtheworldofhighculture,butfromhisowngreatadventuresatsea.TheresultisthebelovedTwoYearsbeforetheMast(1840),aclassicoftravelliterature.
TheproductofaculturedandwelloffMassachusettsfamily,DanaledanuneventfullifeuntilhisthirdyearatHarvard,whenproblemswithhisvisionforcedhimto
withdrawfromtheuniversity(1834).Tofacilitatearecovery,hesetoutonachallengingseavoyagesomemedicine!Despitehiswealthyanddistinguishedupbringing,
Danaimpetuouslychoseaworkingpassageonthemerchantbrig.Oneshipledtoanother,andfortwoyears,Danatraveled.Afterthisoneextendedepisode,Dana
curtailedhiswandering.Hisvisionimprovedduringthejourney,andhewentontobecomealawyerwithconsiderablesympathyforsailors.Helaterbecameanexpert
onnavallawandthetechnicalaspectsofnavalprotocol.Hisliteraryfirewasneverrekindled.
WhilehemadeseveralothermajorjourneysinhislaterlifetoEurope,totheCaribbean,andaroundtheUnitedStateshepublishedbutoneothertravelbook,To
CubaandBack(1859).Unfortunately,itlacksthevividandendearingqualitiesofhisfirstbook.
Perhapsbecausethehighliterarysetofhisdayincludedhisfather,Danaanonymouslypublishedhissensationalanddramaticaccountofhisinitialjourney,TwoYears
beforetheMast.ThetalerecountstheadventuresarisingonavoyagefromBostontoSanFranciscoviaCapeHorn.Danawrotehisaccountinelaboratejournal
entriesthatcontaincomplexpsychologicalportraitsofhisfellowsailors,detailsabouthislaborasadeckhand,andanongoingnarrativeofhisownmaturation.
Danasstoryincludeslengthyandlyricalpassagesaboutthebeautyoftheseasetbesidequickpacedjauntstotheportgroghall.Repeatedly,Danadescribesinpainful
detailthemistreatmentofsailors:whippings,vindictiveorders,psychoticcaptains,andgruelinglabor.ThereislittledoubtthatDanalovedthephysicalmechanismsof
theshiphelovinglyincludesthemonnearlyeverypage.AlthoughDanaoriginallyintendedhisbookasanexposontheterribleconditionsforsailorsatsea(Adams
526),hischeerful,upbeatwritingstyleandenthusiastictalesmakethisanenjoyablebookratherthanasomberundercoverreport.
Wheneveronland,Danaisquicktonotecharacteristicsoflocalpeopleandplaces.His

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detailsarerichanddeepbutnotoverwhelminglythickheseemstohaveaninstinctivesenseofhowmuchisenough.Becausehisshipmatesremainthesameforlong
periods,Danaisabletodevelophischaractersashecomestoknowhisfellowtravelers.Suchcharacterdevelopmentmakeshistraveloguefeellikeanovel,fullof
dramaandsuspense.
Throughoutitall,however,Danarepeatedlyplaystheroleofoutsider.Hisclassstatusandhiseducationlendhimaremovedperspective.Whileheparticipatesinthe
sailorslifestyle,hecanneverbeatrueinsider.Afterobservingtwoofhismatesendureasavagewhippingbythecaptain,Danafumes,Afewrapidthoughts,I
dontknowwhatoursituation[assailors],aresolutiontoseethecaptainpunishedwhenwegothomecrossedmymindbutthefallingoftheblowsandthecriesof
themencalledmebackoncemore(Adams530531).Heimaginesusinghissocialstatusandknowledgeofthelawtobringchargesagainstthecruel,
megalomaniacalcaptain.Hisdistancedvantagepointmeansthatheisbothtravelingasasailorandtravelingbetweensocialclassesbyslummingwiththecommon
seamen.ThesecombinedtravelsworkprofoundchangesonDanascharacterindeed,helearnsmuchabouthimselfandhisformerlifestylefromhisjourneys.
WhetherheiscomparingshipboardfoodtotheluxuriousmealsheremembersfromhomeorcontrastingthecharacteristicsoflightandraininSouthAmericatothosein
Boston,Danaclearlydemonstratesthatobservingdifferencenecessitateslookingcarefullyatthefamiliar.Thebondsamongmenatsealaboring,living,andinsome
casesdyingtogetherteacheshimofhonorandloyaltythetyrannyofvariouscaptainsteacheshimofjusticeandright.Manycomplexlessonsspilloffthepagesof
Danasbook,perhapsnonesoimportantashisrecognitionthattheactsofwritingandtravelingarethestuffoflife.
Seealso:
Picaro
References:
Adams1988
Bent1965
Hart1965
DARWIN,CHARLES
Althoughfamousforhistheoryofevolutionvianaturalselection,CharlesDarwin(English,18091882)maybeconsideredasuperiortravelwriteraswell.HisVoyage
oftheBeagle(1839,revised1845and1860)interestsbothasscientifictreatiseandastravelliterature.PerhapsbecauseDarwinsnaturalisticwork,particularlyhis
theoryofevolution,hasbeensooverwhelminglyinfluentialtomodernscience,weoftenpassoverhistalesofadventureandexploration.Itisashametodoso:theyare
particularlyfine.
Educatedroundlyinmedicine,theology,andnaturalscienceatEdinburghandCambridge,hesetoffin1831onafiveyearjourneytoSouthAmericaandAustralia
tostudyzoology.Hisfirstbook,VoyageoftheBeagle,tellsthestoryofhisfirstmajorexplorationandtheastoundingthingshesaw.Uponhisreturn,hewasmadean
officeroftheGeologicalSociety,whichputDarwinincontactwithmanynotedscientistsoftheday.Hesteadilydevelopedhisideas,inspiteofconsiderableresistance
fromthescientificcommunity.FinallyhepublishedOriginofSpecies(1859)itmadeanimmediatesplashandgeneratedatempestofcontroversythatinsome
communitiesisstillragingtoday.Fivemorescientificworksfollowed,eachoneaddressingcriticismofhisoriginalthemesandprovidingadditionalexamplesas
evidence.
Yetitishisfirstbook,VoyageoftheBeagle,thatisthefinestexampleoftravelliterature.Impressionableandindefatigableasayoungman,Darwinreveledinthe
excitementofseeingsomanyexoticanddifferentplaces.Itwasinfactpreciselythesedifferencesthatledhimtohistheoryofevolution:inseeingothercommunitiesin
thiscasenothuman,butzoologicalhewasabletolearnnewlessonsaboutthatwhichwasfamiliartohim.
Astheshipsnaturalist,hewastoconcentrateonbotanyandzoology,butanalysisofnativepeoplesunofficiallyfellunderDarwins

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jurisdictionaswell.Hespentconsiderabletimedocumentingbehaviorofvariousindigenoustribes.Fromnotingritualstophysiologytoapparel,Darwinspowersof
observationastound.ModernreadersmayfindhisaccountsratherbristlingwithAnglocentrism,butifwecanfilterouthisownbias,wearetreatedtoanincredibly
astuteandinterestingsetofdescriptions.
BeyondakeenlookatSouthAmericaandAustralia,Darwinoffersusawonderfullythoughtfulandliteraryaccount.Whiletheworkiswrittenindailyentries,heoften
digressesintovividandhumanisticdescriptions.Forexample,onFebruary20,1835,hewritesofamajorearthquakeheexperiencedinChile:
ThisdayhasbeenmemorableintheannalsofValdivia,forthemostsevereearthquakeexperiencebytheoldestinhabitant....Therewasnodifficultyin
standingupright,butthemotionmademealmostgiddy:itwassomethinglikethemovementofavesselinalittlecrossripple,orstillmorelikethatfeltbya
personskatingoverthinice,whichbendsundertheweightofhisbody.
Abadearthquakeatoncedestroysouroldestassociations:theearth,theveryemblemofsolidity,hasmovedbeneathourfeetlikeathincrustovera
fluidonesecondoftimehascreatedinthemindastrangeideaofinsecurity,whichhoursofreflectionwouldnothaveproduced.
(Darwin212)
HisencountersandinteractionswithlocalsexpressDarwinsobviousdesiretocompareperspectivesontheworld.HequizzessomenativesofMaldonado(inpresent
dayUruguay)tofindthatthegreaternumberoftheinhabitantshadanindistinctideathatEngland,London,andNorthAmerica,weredifferentnamesforthesame
placebutthebetterinformedwellknewthatLondonandNorthAmericawereseparatecountriesclose

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together,andthatEnglandwasalargetowninLondon!(Fussell349).
Notonlyisthisaninterestingreflectionofwhatwasknownbythenatives,butwecanalsoseeDarwinsowncharacterthroughthequestionsheasks.Indeed,itstrikes
himasshockingthatthewholeworlddoesnotknowpreciselytherelationshipbetweenEnglandandLondon.
HisconclusiontoVoyageoftheBeagleisaclassicpassageoftravelliterature.Darwinspendsadozenpagesdiscussingthecostsandbenefitsoftravelinminute
detail.Whatisbeautiful,whatisterribleprivationsandboonsjoysandsorrowsgainsandconsequencesarealldiscussedinthismarvelousessay.Heconcludes:
Ithasbeensaidthattheloveofthechaseisaninherentdelightinmanarelicofaninstinctivepassion.Ifso,Iamsurethepleasureoflivingintheopen
air,withtheskyforaroofandthegroundforatable,ispartofthesamefeelingitisthesavagereturningtohiswildandnativehabits.Ialwayslookback
toourboatcruises,andmylandjourneys,whenthroughunfrequentedcountries,withanextremedelight,whichnoscenesofcivilizationcouldhave
created.Idonotdoubtthateverytravellermustremembertheglowingsenseofhappinessthatheexperiencedwhenhefirstbreathedinaforeignclime,
wherethecivilizedmanhadseldomornevertrod.
(Fussell361)
Travel,Darwingoesontosay,teachesamanoftheworldandofhimself.Throughseeingdistantlandsandforeignpeoples,thetravelerlearns,bestofall,howmany
trulykindheartedpeoplethereare,withwhomheneverbeforehad,oreveragainwillhaveanyfurthercommunication,whoyetarereadytoofferhimthemost
disinterestedassistance(Fussell362).
Cheerful,goodnatured,curioustotheextreme,Darwinexhibitssomeofthefinesttraitsofagoodtraveler.Hiscommitmenttohisdiarytestifiestohisinsistencethat
travelandwritingarefusedtogether.Lastly,itisfascinatingtowatchthegenerationofagreatideafromhisearlyjournalstothemuchlaterFallofMan,Darwins
notionsgrowandshiftwithaweinspiringsubtletyandprecision.Itisthroughexperienceoftheforeignthroughseeingdifferencethathewasabletoproducehis
monumentalhypothesis.
References:
Adams1988
Darwin1906
Fussell1987
Newby1985
DAVIDSON,ROBYN
Oneofthequirkiestofthecontemporarytravelwriters,RobynDavidson(Australian,1950)hasmadeacareeroutofhertoughness.Sometimescalledthecamel
woman,shehasapoeticappreciationforthesubtletiesofthedesertandthelessonsthatdesolationcanteach.Hertwobooksoftravelliterature,Tracks(1980)and
DesertPlaces(1996),tellofherepicadventuresintwodifferentdeserts.
Tracksrecountsher1,700milesolotrekacrossthewesternhalfofAustralia.Withherdogandfourcamels,shewalkedfromoneisolatedsettlementtoanother
throughsomeoftheharshestandmostbarrenlandscapeintheworld.Marshalingfourstubbornpackanimals,enduringscorchingheat,defendingherselfagainstanimal
andmalepredators,andprovidingherreaderswithalivelynarrativeitsallinadaysworkforDavidson.
Withadauntlessspiritandanendlesssenseofhumor,Davidsoncookeduptheideaofthistripasawaytotestherselfreliance.Indeed,thejourneyitselfistheheart
oftheprojectreachingherdestinationsimplymeantthatthetripwasdone.Alongtheway,shefoundthatthechallenges,thesilence,andthebeautyofthewilderness
affectherdeeply.DavidsonsjourneyisasmuchaboutselfdiscoveryandselfunderstandingasitisaboutfindingsomethingheretoforeundiscoveredintheAustralian
desert.

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Similarly,DesertPlacestellsofajourneythroughabarrenland,althoughthistimeDavidsonsdesertisinnorthwestIndia.Seekingtoutilizeherskillsandtravel
wisdom,in1992DavidsonjoinedanomadicpeoplecalledtheRabari.Shespentafullyearlivingwiththistribe,wandering,trading,andtendinglivestockasoneof
them.Highlysensitivetothetenuousexistenceofthesepeople,Davidsoncametolove,trust,andbeacceptedbyherhosts.Throughallimaginabledifficultiesfrom
illnesstolanguagebarriers,fromnaturaldisasterstomalnutritionDavidsondidmorethanendure:shethrived.DesertPlacesisthusatonceastoryofdetermined,
extremeculturalimmersionandatalethattellstheworldofawayoflifethatteetersonthebrinkofextinction.Aswithherfirstbook,theresultofthejourneyisa
newfoundappreciationforlifeandforherownabilities.
WritesDavidsonattheendofTracks,
AsIlookbackonthetripnow,asItrytosortoutfactfromfiction,trytorememberhowIfeltatthatparticulartime,orduringthatparticularincident,try
torelivethosememoriesthathavebeenburiedsodeep,anddistortedsoruthlessly,thereisoneclearfactthatemergesfromthequagmire.Thetripwas
easy.Itwasnomoredangerousthancrossingthestreet,ordrivingtothebeach,oreatingpeanuts.ThetwoimportantthingsthatIdidlearnwerethatyou
areaspowerfulandasstrongasyouallowyourselftobe,andthatthemostdifficultpartofanyendeavouristakingthefirststep....Cameltrips,asI
suspectedallalong,andasIwasabouttohaveconfirmed,donotbeginorend,theymerelychangeform.
(Davidson254)
ThefactandthefictionoftravelhavemergedforDavidson,andherwrittenwordsareentirelytangledwithhermemories.Herjourneysandherlifeblendtogetherto
becomeonesaidotherwise,dailylifefunctionsasasortofjourney.Andeveryjourneyteachesussomething.Thesearethetraditionalthemesoftravelliteraturethat
appearinbothofDavidsonsfineworks.
References:
Davidson1995
DAYLEWIS,CECIL
IrishbornEnglishmanCecilDayLewis(19041972)isanotablepoetandauthorinseveralgenres.HewrotemysteriesunderthepseudonymNicholasBlakeand
wasaMarxistpoetinthe1930swithsuchnotablesasW.H.AudenandStephenSpender.Notusuallynotedasatravelwriteralthoughhedidwriteaverse
translationofVirgilsarchetypaltraveltaleTheAeneidin1952DayLewisdoeshaveoneveryfinebookoftravelpoems.AfterajourneytoItalyin1952withthe
BritishnovelistRosamondLehmann,DayLewispublishedanentirebookoftravelversetitledAnItalianVisit(1953).
Anexamplefromthiswork,thepoemTheTourists,willsufficetodisplaythecaliberofDayLewisstravelwriting.Inthispoemwecanseethecomplexityofhis
notionsoftravelandtourism.Alongtheway,wecanalsogetafeelforDayLewissevocativemetricsandstaccatophrasing.
l
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Arrivingwastheirpassion.
Intothenewplaceoutoftheblue
Flying,sailing,driving
Howwelltheseveterantouristsknew
Eachfashionofarriving.
Leavingaplacebehindthem,
Therewasnosenseofloss:theyfed
Upontheactofleaving
Sohottheirheartsforthelandahead
Asakindofpreconceiving.
Arrivalhassternlaws,though,
Condemningmentolosetheireyes
Iftheyhavetreatedtravel
Asabriefnecessarydisease,
Apausebeforearrival.
Andmercilessthefateis
Ofhimwholeavesnothingbehind,
Nohostage,noreversion:
Hetravelson,notonlyblind
Butastatelessperson.
Fleeingfromloveandhate,
Pursuingchange,consumedbymotion,
Sucharrivistes,unseeing,

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Forfeitthroughendlessselfevasion
Theestateofsimplebeing.
(CrossleyHolland25)

Thesefiverathercomplexstanzassuggestsomeofthedominantaspectsoftravelandtravelwriting.Asthoughmimickingtheceaselesscomingandgoingofthepoems
subjects,stanzaonetreatsarriving,twodeparting,threearriving,fourleaving,andfivefleeing,asthoughthewholeprocessissubsumedunderthisfinal,largerheading.
DayLewisisaddressingthenotionoftravelsimplyfortravelssake.Howmanytravelersgosimplytobeabletosay,Ivebeenthere?Quiteafew,itseemstome.
Theyarrive,againandagain,thoughindifferentplaces,equatingallarrivalsasthesame,regardlessofthespecificsofthedestination.
Whentheyleave,Therewasnosenseofloss:theyfed/Upontheactofleavingtoconcentratenotonwhattheyhadseenordone,butonwhatnewarrivalis
forthcoming.Suchtravelmaniafirmlyestablishestravelastheendratherthanthemeanstosomeformoflearning.Inanerathatglamorizedtravel(the1950s),Day
Lewisasksustodivebeneaththeglitteringsurfaceandtohavehumanandemotionalinteractionswithaplace.
DayLewisconcludesthatmercilessthefateis/Ofhimwholeavesnothingbehind.Wecanreadtheselinesintwoequallyplausibleways.Howemptyisadeparture
whereonehasnotgivenofoneselftothevisitedspot,andhowshallownottoleavebehindawrittenaccountbeitpoem,letter,orjournaltosolidifytheexperience
intotext.Withoutsouvenirs,withouttakingsomethingawayfromthetripbestperhapsalessonthetravelerisdoomedtoblindnessandtostatelessness,whichwe
mightstretchtosuggestlackinginidentity.Weknowwhowearefromourmemories,yetwhoofushavenotfoundmemoryinfinitelyfallible?
InthefinalstanzaDayLewisreallyturnsuptheheat:byfranticallyfleeing,thoseconsumedbymotiondenythemselvesinaprocessofselfevasionsothatthey
becomelikeT.S.EliotsfamousHollowMen.Furthermore,theyforfeitTheestateofsimplebeing,whichwemightreadtomeantheydoomthemselvestolivenot
inthepresentmomentgloriousortragic,butalwaysrealbutintheperpetuallydeferredandjustaroundthecornerillusionoftomorrow.
Perhapswecansummarizethispoembysayingthatitasksustoimagineengagingthemomentandplacethetimeandthespaceweinhabitpresently.Oftentravelis
awaytoforcethatawarenessbutforsome,thelessoniswhollymissed.
References:
CrossleyHolland1986
DEFOE,DANIEL
TheaccomplishmentsandcontributionstohistoryofDanielDefoe(English,1660?1731)aremany.Politicalactivist,merchant,traveler,andwriter,Defoeappearsto
havebeenastoundinglydiverse.Hisearlywritingsaremostlyjournalistictheyrangefromapoliticalsatiretodiscussionsoftradeandexploration.Amonghisvast
oeuvre,orbodyofworkmorethan500books!aremanyfamoustitles,anumberofwhichareoutstandingexamplesoftravelliterature.Histravelnovelsinclude
RobinsonCrusoe(1719),ANewVoyageroundtheWorld(1725),andTheFourYearsVoyageofCaptainGeorgeRoberts(1726).Hismostsignificant
nonfictiontraveltitleisTourthrotheWholeIslandofGreatBritain(17241726).
Throughouthislife,Defoefeltdrawntoforeignlands.HisearlyvoyagesincludedsubstantialvisitstoFrance,Spain,theLowCountries,Italy,andGermany.Foratime
hefoundhimselfentangledinEnglishpolitics,butaftersomeyearshesetouttotravelinevenwidercircles.Hisjourneys,whetheraroundtheBritishIslesorfarabroad,
continueduptothepointofhisdeath.
GenerallycreditedwithbeingoneofthefirsttrueEnglishnovels,RobinsonCrusoeisamainstayofEnglishliteratureandliterary

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history.IthassignificantelementsoftravelliteratureandmustbenotedasoneoftheearliestEnglishexamplesoffictionaladventureprose.Defoebasedhisvividtaleon
themarooningofAlexanderSelkirkintheSouthSeas(probablyastoldbyWilliamDampierand/orWoodesRogers).Ratherthanretellingasomewhatfamiliartale,
Defoemadeitintoadramaticromancenovelofadventureandpersonalgrowthbysignificantlyembellishingandalteringthestory.Nonetheless,hepresentedthenovel
asatrueaccount,anditthereforebecameallthemorethrillingtoitsreadership.
TheplotofRobinsonCrusoeisfairlysimple.Shipwrecked,Crusoehastoconstructatolerablelifeinsolitudeandutterselfreliance.Withprecisedetail,Defoe
describeshowhisherofashionsthephysicalspaceoftheislandintosomethingresemblingcivilization.Crusoessuccessesaremany:hedomesticatesgoats,he
continuouslyimproveshislivingspace,hebuildsaserviceableboat,heshunsthecannibalisticnatives,herescueshiseventualcompanionFriday,andhegenerallyfinds
peace.Thismicroutopia,ofcourse,standsinforastrippeddownbutidealizedversionoftheEuropeheremembers.Ateverystep,thereader,andoccasionally
Crusoehimself,canseeareflectionoraprojectionofthefamiliarontheforeignisland.
Inaddition,Crusoeundergoesprofoundpsychologicalandphilosophicalchangesinresponsetohissolitude.HereflectsuponthewaysofEuropeandrealizesthe
foolishnessandmyopiaofthatsociety.Crusoehaslearnedvolumesabouthimselfandhisfamiliarculturebyhavingtorecreateitfromthegroundup.Anopportunityto
testhisnewfoundlessonsariseswhenanEnglishshipappears.Withthecrewinastateofmutiny,Crusoemustplaytheheroandmakepeaceontheship.Hequells
theirfiercepassionsandistakenbacktoEngland.
Withitswealthofdetailsandinherentcredibility,RobinsonCrusoeisbothentertainingandprovocative.Contrastsalwaysfeatureprominentlyintravelliterature,andin
DefoesnovelitisthecontrastbetweenEnglandandanisolatedislandthatdrivesthetext.Observingdifference,andconsequentlyreflectinguponthestandardsofthe
familiar,seemsformulaictomodernreaders,butinDefoeserathisprocesswasrarelyrepresentedinliterature.Assuch,RobinsonCrusoestandsasoneofthe
originaltravelnovels.
Defoesearliernovels,TheFourYearsVoyageofCaptainGeorgeRobertsandANewVoyageroundtheWorld,bothpresentedthemselvesastravelogues.
Usingexistinghistoriesandhiscopiousimagination,Defoewasabletowritethese(mostly)fictionaltalesthatwerecalculatedtocaptivatereadersmanypresumedthat
theyweretruestories.Asnovels,theyfeellikeromances,andastravelliterature,theyespousethelessonsandbenefitsofexperiencingdifference.Theseadventures
bringoutthebestandtheworstinmen.Itis

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asiftravelprovidesaccesstoapersonscoreidentity.
Asanovelist,Defoemetwithconsiderablesuccess,buthisnonfictiontravelwritingremarkablymetwithanevengreaterpopularity.Ofcourse,inthepresenterawe
havemostlyforgottenDefoestraveloguesinfavorofhisnovels.Nonetheless,thecharmofhisfirsthandtravelaccountsisunmistakable.
TourthrotheWholeIslandofGreatBritain(inthreevolumes)metwithravereviewsandwentthroughnumerouseditionsandprintings.Someuseditasatravel
guide,othersasawaytorememberplacestheyhadseen,andstillothersweresimplycaptivatedbyitsvividdescriptionsandthoroughcoverage.Itisusually
consideredoneofthefirstbestsellertravelguides.
DefoesTourisremarkableinthatitdeftlyblendshistorywithfirsthandexperience.Drawinguponawealthofmaterials,includingearliertravelguides,purehistory,
localfables,andhisownobservations,Defoewritesatraveloguethatfeelsmorelikeanovelthananythingelse.Balancingtheruralandtheurban,Tourwandersfrom
majorhubsouttosmallvillages.Cuttingacrossclasslines,Defoeinterviewsanddescribesbothdignitariesandfarmers,andarangeoffolksinbetween.
Masterfully,Defoedrawshisreaderintothetale.Unlikemanytravelogues,DefoesTourdoesnotrelyuponanoverwhelmingfirstpersonvantagepoint.Indeed,itis
writteninthefirstperson,perhapsfromDefoesperspective,butitismodestlyso.Theeffectisreassuring:wefeelthatwearereadingsomethingveryobjectiveand
preciselyreal.ThenarratoralmostseemstoeffacehimselftoleavetheglorioussubjectGreatBritainastheprimaryfocalpoint.Andunlikesomanytravelers,
Defoesnarratoriseasygoingandwillingtofindhimselfinavastarrayofdifferentanddifficultsituationsandplaces.Tobesure,heiswillingtocriticizegeneral
aspectsofthecultureanditsactions,butonlyinanabstractandremovedmanner.
ThisisnottosuggestthatDefoeissolelytheoretical.Muchofthisnarrativerevolvesaroundthemundaneandquotidian.Foodisdulynotedwithdetailthedifferences
betweenonetownsdishesandanothersarecarefullyelaborated.Commercialventuresalsoreceiveconsiderablementioninthistext,asthoughDefoewerefascinated
withthefactthatLondonreceivedsomuchfromsomanydifferentplaces.ItisatestamenttoDefoesshrewdeyethatthismercantilemagicintriguedhim,foratthe
timeBritainwasonlybeginningtoshiftfromanagrariansocietytoanindustrialsociety.Hefoundthetransitionfascinatingandworthyofsustainedcommentary.
Throughoutallthreevolumes,Defoeengagesinaseriesofcomparisons.Ateveryjuncture,henotesdifference:thistowndrivesitsgeesetomarketdifferentlythanthat
townthesefarmersbehavedifferentlythanLondonersthisvillagesarchitectureisdifferentfromthattowns.Inthismanner,DefoesTouristruetravelliterature.Heis
comparingwhatismostfamiliartohimthebigcity,politics,refinementwithwhatheseesonhistour.Thecomparisonteacheshimnotonlyabouttheotherregions
ofBritain,butofhimselfhelearnsofhisownpresumptions,hisownnationalism,andhisownexpectations.
Downtotheverylanguageheuses,Defoeistravelingintheforeignnessofhishomeland.Hecomments:Itcannotpassmyobservationhere,thatwhenwearecome
thislengthfromLondon,thedialectoftheEnglishtongue,orthecountrywayofexpressingthemselvesisnoteasilyunderstood,itissostrangelyaltered(Adams331).
Itisfascinatingtohimtonotedifferencesoclosetohome,asthoughthefamiliarweresomehowmadeforeign.
AfterthesuccessfulTour,Defoecomposedseveralothertravelrelatedtitles.HewroteaHistoryofDiscovery,whichcompiledsummariesofexplorationand
adventure.Hethencontinuedwritingnovels,manyofwhich,likeRobinsonCrusoe,describetravelandawanderingspirit.MemoirsofaCavalierisastoryabouta
youngpicaroandhisjourneys.OfCaptainMissiontellstheadventuresofa

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mildmanneredpirate(privateer).Inalmostallofhisworkswecanfindelementsoftravelliteratureandapermeabilitybetweenfactandfiction.
PerhapsitisthecompositenatureofDefoeswritingpartfact,partfictionthatmakeshimoneofthegreatsofbothliteratureandtravelliterature.Heisbelievable
andvividineverycaseasreaders,weareinvitedtobelievewhatismakebelieveandtofictionalizetruehistory.Withoutadoubt,allsubsequenttravelliteratureowes
adebttoDefoeformakingthegenreaformofpopularandcommercialentertainment.
Seealso:
BuccaneerDampier,WilliamPicaresquePicaro
References:
Adams1988
Harvey1967
DESTOUCHES,LOUISFERDINAND
SeeCline,LouisFerdinand
DICKENS,CHARLES
Oftenregardedasthegreatestnovelistofthenineteenthcentury,CharlesDickens(English,18121870)remainsapopularliterarylion.Hisvastbodyofworkstill
interestseveryonefromscholarstobeachholidayreaderstofilmdirectors.Perhapsbecausehisnovelsaresowelllovedandsolengthyhistwoworksoftravel
literaturearemostsorelyneglected.Yettheyarebeautifulandamusing,iflessdramaticthanhisnovels.AmericanNotes(1842)andPicturesfromItaly(1846)detail
hisextendedjourneys.Partdiary,partnewspaperstylereportage,partnovelisticsketches,thesetwobooksareamusingaswellasinformative.
Dickensraisedhimselfabovehisfamilyspovertybyhardwork.Hislegendaryenergyanddesiretosucceedpropelledhimfromhisearliestdaysaschildworkerina
warehousetoajuniorclerkatalawfirm.Thiseventuallyledhimtojournalism,whichinturnencouragedhimtowritefiction.Mostofhisnovelswerepublishedserially
inavarietyofnewspapersorliterarymagazines.
Asafamousandsuccessfulauthor,DickenstraveledtoAmericain1842andpublishedhisaccountasAmericanNotesverysoonafterreturningtoEngland.Thetext
addressesnumerousissues:slavery,manners,politics,copyrightlaw,andmoralsallreceiveattention.ManyofDickenssopinionswerecontroversial,eitherinthe
UnitedStatesorinEngland.Itseemsthatalmosteveryonetookissuewithsomeaspectofthetext,butthisisexactlyitsstrength:Dickenswasoneofthefirstmajor
figurestowriteofAmericaandEnglandasbrotherswhoagreetobedifferent.InsteadofreflexivelylamentingtheUnitedStatesasasongoneawry,Dickensalternates
betweencritiquingandpraisingtheformerBritishcolony.
Truetohisnovelisticstyle,Dickensrelateshisexperiencesinvividterms,oftenwithconsiderablehumor.Forexample,whendescribingthesightsinWashington,D.C.,
DickensnotesthefigureofJusticeintheCapitolbuilding.HereadsinhisguidebookthatprudishAmericantastewouldnotallowforanudeJustice,assheappearsin
mosttraditionalrepresentations.Dickensdescribestheclothedfigure:PoorJustice!ShehasbeenmadetowearmuchstrangergarmentsinAmericathanthoseshe
pinesin,intheCapitol.Letushopethatshehaschangedherdressmakersincetheywerefashioned,andthatthepublicsentimentofthecountrydidnotcutoutthe
clothesshehidesherlovelyfigurein(Fussell314315).SuchplayfulchidingisaneffectivewayofcontrastingthetasteofEnglandtothatofAmerica.Fundamentally,
AmericanNotesisanelaboratecomparisonwhereinDickensobservestheEuropeanroots,andthestrangenewflowers,oftheUnitedStates.
Fouryearslater,DickensjourneyedtoItalyandwroteadifferentsortoftravelbook.PicturesfromItalyistruetoitsname:thetextunfoldsasaseriesoftourist
vignettesand

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wonderfullydescriptiveaccountsofeverythingDickenssaw.MuchlesspoliticalandmorehistoricalthanhisearliertravelogueAmericanNotes,DickensstalesofItaly
feelmorelikefictionthanculturalcommentary.Hegusheswithenthusiasmandexcitementforevensuchsimplepleasuresasamealatastagecoachstop.Throughout
thebook,DickenspromotesandenjoysthegrandhistoryandcontemporaneouscharmofItaly.
Bothtextssharethemasterful,descriptivecraftsmanshipforwhichDickensisjustlyfamous.Inaddition,bothbookshavehistoricalvalueinthattheyportraytheir
subjectnationswithpainstakingdetail.Intheend,theseworksseektoteachofforeignplacesandoftheneedtoexperienceavarietyofcultures.
References:
Fussell1987
DOUGHTY,CHARLESMONTAGU
CharlesMontaguDoughty(English,18431926)wasalateVictoriantravelwriterwithanobsessionforlanguage.Hismostfamousbookisanotedandmassivework
oftravelliteraturecalledArabiaDeserta(1888).Inaddition,hewroteafairlypopularbookofverse:TheDawnofBritain(1906).Hesetouttoliveagreattravel
adventureandtowriteagreatworkofliteraturethatdescribedit:onbothaccounts,hesucceededbrilliantly.
ArabiaDesertatellsofDoughtystwoyearsofwanderingaroundArabia.Hesetoutintheautumnof1876withtheintentofjoiningacaravanfromDamascusto
Mecca.Eventually,Doughtyleftthecaravaninfavorofroaming,boldly,onhisown.HenonethelessdidmakeittoMecca.Mostlyonfootanddressedasapilgrim,
DoughtychosetocallhimselfaChristian,whichsubjectedhimtovariousabusesatthehandsofseveraltribes.EuropeancolonialismoftheMiddleEastwasgoingfull
steamatthetime,thustherewasconsiderableanimositytowardEuropeans.ButDoughty,throughhispainstakingacquisitionofvariouslanguagesandhisunderstanding
ofculturalmanners,foundhiswaysafelyamongotherwisehostilepeoples.
OneofhismostvividaccountsisoflifeamongthenomadicBedouins.Writteninaseriesofvignettes,theaccountbouncesbetweentopics.Constantlyindangerfrom
rivaltribes,fromharshelements,fromtreacheryDoughtydisplaysadmirablecourageandfortitude.Inoneofmyfavoritepassageshedescribesthescenearoundhim:
Thesun,enteringasatyrantuponthewastelandscape,dartsuponusatormentoffireybeams....Graveisthatgiddyheatuponthecrownofthehead
theearstinglewithaflickeringshrillness,asubtlecrepitationitseems,intheglassinessofthissunstrickennature:thehotsandblinksintheeyes,thereis
littlerefreshmenttofindinthetentsshelter....Mountainsloominglikedrybonesthroughthethinair,standfararoundaboutus....Herdsofweak
nomadcamelswaverdispersedly,seekingpastureinthemidstofthishollowfaintingcountry,wherebutlatelytheswarminglocustshavefrettedevery
greenthing.
(Newby265)
Whatalovelyplaceforaholiday!ItisthisintimatehonestythatcharacterizesDoughty:herefusestoromanticizeoridealizewhathesees.
Doughtysstylereflectshisinterests.HisEnglishispepperedwithArabicexpressions,words,andliteraltranslations(thatheoftengoesontoexplain).Modernreaders
mayfindhisclassicallyeducated,evenarchaic,proseabitdense.Yetitisthisanachronisticandelaboratelywroughtphrasingthatisoftensplendidlytelling.Hiscare
andsubtletyoflanguagemasterfullysculpthisdetailsintooneofthemostvividandmemorableworksoftravelliteraturewritteninthenineteenthcentury.
Whenaskedwhyhemadehisarduousjourney,heallegedlyrepliedthathetraveledinordertoredeemtheEnglishlanguagefromthesloughintowhichithadfallen
sincethetimeofSpencer(Fussell16).Insosaying,

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heidentifiedtravelashismusetotravelistobeinspiredtowrite.Indeed,Doughtyisatextbookexampleoftheeducatedgentlemanadventurewriterforwhomtravel
andliteraryproductionareinseparable.
References:
Fussell1987
Newby1985
Rugoff1960
DRAKE,SIRFRANCIS
ThenameSirFrancisDrake(English,1540?1596)invariablyconjuresupimagesofheroicadventures.Indeed,hewasthefirstEnglishmantocircumnavigatethe
globe.Butcuriously,hisstatusasheroisratherdubious:totheSpanish,Drakeisavillainofthehighestmagnitude.HisexpeditiontoSouthAmericaisthestuffofwhich
legendsaremade.AfterlandinginPanama,hewaylaid30tonsofsilverfromtheSpaniards.Withhisloot,heproceededsouthtotheStraitofMagellan,brutally
suppressingamutinyalongtheway.Attritiontookitstollonhisfiveships:twowereabandoned,onesankinastorm,andanotherfledhome.Drakeremainedonthe
GoldenHind,lootingandpiratinganytown,ship,orcaravanthatheencountered.HeworkedhiswayasfarasthePacificNorthwestandthencontinuedwesttothe
Philippines.HisplunderingandthievingdecreasedashemadehiswaytoAsiaandthenaroundCapeHorn.WhenhereturnedtoEngland,hewasknightedbyQueen
Elizabeth(andvilifiedbySpain).
Hissecondvoyagebeganalmostimmediatelythereafter.HeledafleettotheAtlanticcoastofNorthAmericaandtheGulfofMexico.Accountsofhisbattleprowess
approachmythicproportions:heapparentlysank30SpanishshipsintheBayofCdiz.AsSpainandEnglandfoughtforterritory,Drakemaysafelybesaidtohave
beenamajorfactor.
Unfortunately,mostofDrakesownwritingshavebeenlost.Wehavenumerousaccountscollectedfromhiscontemporariesandatranscribedoralhistorybyhis
nephew(whoalsoborethenameandtitleSirFrancisDrake).Thuswhatappearstobeafirsthandtellingof(theelder)Drakesadventuresisinfactwritten
secondhandbyarelation.ThestoriesvaryinqualitywhatredeemsthemistheextremecourageandpluckofDrakeasaheroicvagabond.
References:
Adams1988
Penzer1926
DUDEVANT,AMANDINEAURORELUCILEDUPIN
SeeSand,George

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E
ELDORADO(ORELDORADO)
ThislegendarycityoftheNewWorldwassaidtoberuledbyElDorado(literally,thegildedone).ThecityisalsoknownasManoa.SomeversionshaveElDorado
thekingascoveredinoilandgolddust,whileotherssuggestasortofclothofgold.ThelegendappearstohavecomefromtheSpaniards,althoughthestoryofa
goldenrulerisnotuncommoninIncanlore.MostexplorersbelievedthatthecitywaslocatedinwhatisnowColombia.
Manyconflictingnotionscirculatedaboutthiscityanditsgoldcladruler,butonetraitisuniversal:thecitywasbelievedtohaveunimaginablewealthfromgoldand
jewels.Thisfactledtonumerousorganizedattemptstofindthecity.SirWalterRaleighorganizedtwoexpeditions(1595and1617)expresslytofindandpilferthecity
hefailedonbothoccasions.Voltaire,writingmuchlater(1759),hashischaracterCandidestumbleuponEldorado.
Inlaterusage,thetermisusedforanyplaceofspectacularwealthandgrandeur.
References:
OED
Voltaire1966
EMPIRE
Literally,empiredenotesastateofsupremerulebyanemperor.Thenotionofempirehasalonghistory.ThewordisofLatinoriginandreferredinitiallytothelands
ruledbytheRomanemperors(beginningwithAugustusCaesarin27B.C.E.).Subsequently,thetermwasappliedtotheHolyRomanEmpire.Intheearlynineteenth
century,NapoleonIadoptedtheterm(asdidNapoleonsIIandIII).TheBritishbegantousethetermIndianEmpirein1876whenVictoriawasnamedempressof
India.Thesearebutafewofthemanyusesoftheword.
Empireisimportanttotravelliteraturebecauseitistherootoftheideaofimperialism.Notonlydoesimperialismnamethesystemofgovernmentunderanemperor,but
italsosuggeststhesystematicandpremeditatedgoalofdominatinganunderdevelopedorweakernation.Mostoften,imperialismworksbydrainingmaterialsandlabor
ofthecolonytothemarketsoftheimperialpower.Whilethecolonyprovidestheproduct,theimperialpowerreapsthelionsshareoftheprofits.
Imperialismcommercial,political,orculturalhasoftendriventravelersfirsttotradewith,thentocolonize,avarietyofculturesaroundtheworld.Fromthezealof
theearlyspicetraders,tothegreatracetoclaimtheIndies,tothecolonizationofAfricaandtheAmericas,toEuropeandominationoftheworld,thehistoryof
imperialismisinextricablylinkedtothehistoryoftravelliterature.
References:
Harvey1967
OED
EMPSON,SIRWILLIAM
Althoughnotusuallyassociatedwithtravelliterature,SirWilliamEmpson(English,19061984)wasamodernmanofletters.Hewasauthorofnumerousbooksof
verse,essays,andcriticism,includingPoems(1935),TheGatheringStorm(1940),TheStructureofComplexWords(1951),andMiltonsGod(1962).His
worksareoftencharacterizedbytemperingrationalscientificdiscourseswithwit,creativity,andphilosophy.
Asaprominentscholar,heheldteachingpostsinGreatBritainandlaterinbothJapanandChina.Histravelsbeyondtheseextended

Page82
staysweremostlytouristicinnature.Nonetheless,hislettersandpoemsreflecttheinfluencethesevisitshadonanalreadycomplexcharacter.
Oneofhispoemsinparticularisverywellsuitedtothisstudy.TitledsimplyChina(fromCompletePoems,1949),itisanaccountofasmalltripthathemadewhile
livinginChina.Empsonusuallywritesinaveryclassicallyconstrainedverse,yettheexperienceoftravelinthiscasechangeshisstyle.Helearnsfromtheexperience,
andasthepoemprogressesheadoptsadifferenttone.Itisaverygoodexampleoftravelasacatalystfornewforms,styles,orimages.
Empsonsrenderingoftravelisdeeplypoeticandshroudedinmetaphor.Whatbeginsasaseriesoflamentsaboutthehardshipoftraveltheoddfood,thejarring
sensationofmotion,therawclimaterapidlygiveswaytoacomparisonofcultures.Inthefifthstanza,hewrites:
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Theseriousmusicstrainstosqueeze
Theangelcooliessinglikeus
Duties,andliterature,andfees
Toliftanunderroadedbus
(CrossleyHolland331)

Chineseculture,radicallydifferentfromEmpsonsown,strainsandconfuses.Seeingthedifferencesqueezesortestsnotionsofobligations(andtaxes!),art,
expectations.Yetwhathavetheseloftyandtheoreticalnotionstodowiththecommondifficultiesoftravel?Empsonsunderroadedbusreferstothebushewas
ridingbecomingrepeatedlyboggedinthemud.ThedailyeventsoftravelmixandblendwiththehigherculturalcomparisonsthatEmpsonwantstomake.
Inthefinaltwostanzas,Empsonisathismostabstract.Heconcludesthepoem:
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Thepaddyfieldsarewingsofbees
ThegreatWallasadragoncrawls
Toonewhofliesoronewhosees
Thetwistedcontouroftheirwalls
Aliverflukeofsheepagrees
Mostrightlyproudofhercomplacencies
Withsnailsowelltheymakeonepiece
Mostwreckedandlongestofallhistories.
(332)

Thenaturalworld(bees,field,sheep,snails)andthemanmadeworld(thewall)coalesceintoonecompositeexperiencebytheendofthepoem.Empsonhasbeen
changedbyhisexperienceoftheforeignhisresponsetothetripistofeelanewrespectforChinaasaresultofitsvastandancientheritage.Alongtheway,heseems
togainanaspectofhumility,atraitnotusuallyassociatedwithEmpson.Inotherwords,historyandpoetry,andtravelandwriting,showthemselvestobeinseparable
fromeachother.
References:
CrossleyHolland1986

Page83

F
FIELDING,HENRY
FamousfortwogreatnovelsJosephAndrewsandTomJonesHenryFielding(English,17071754)alsowroteatravelbook:JournalofaVoyagetoLisbon
(1755).Whilehisnovelsincorporatemanyincidentsoftravelandadventure,theyarenot,strictlyspeaking,travelliterature.Rather,theyareconsideredpicaresque
novels,whichistosaythatwanderingandtraveladventuresarecentraltotheplot,butitisunimportantwherethecharacterstravel.Travelinthepicaresquenovel
functionstodrivethestoryforward,yetitismorealiterarydevicethanareflectionofarealjourney.Often,asweseeinFieldingsnovels,regardlessofwhereone
travels,thesamegreed,violence,lust,andinstabilityexist.Thisisincontrasttotruetravelliteraturewheretheforeignisnoteworthyparticularlybecauseitisdifferent
fromhome.
WhileFieldingsnovelsoftenreadlikesomeofthegreataccountsoftravelandadventure,theymarkthemselvesasdifferentinthattheyarewildlyfictitiouseven
sarcasticintheirexaggerationofnormalcy.Moreover,Fieldingstextsfigureloveofawomanasthedrivingforcebehindtheadventuresratherthanloveoftravel.
Finally,whilethetravelnovelandthepicaresquenovelbothencouragetravelfortravelssakethatis,theobjectoftravelisnotnecessarilytogetsomewhereinthe
travelnovelforeignlandsandpeoplesteachtheprotagonisthis/herlessons,whereasinthepicaresquenoveltheherolearnsofhim/herselffromcoincidenceandoften
fromasuddenrevelationbyoneoftheothercharacters.InJosephAndrews,forexample,JosephlearnsfromLadyBoobythatheisnotthesonofafarmer,butthe
sonofanoblemanhisedificationcomesnotfromaneventorfromvoyaging,butfrombeingtoldofhisimportance.
Unlikethenovels,however,FieldingsJournalofaVoyagetoLisbonmustbeconsideredfinetravelliterature.Withhishealthfailing,Fieldingsoughtthewarmclimate
ofPortugal.Accompaniedbyanentourageofhiswife,hisdaughterandherfriend,andtheirvariousservants,theysetoutforaseapassage.Diligently,Fieldingkepthis
journalandevenediteditandarrangedforitspublicationbeforehishealthfailedutterlyandhediedinLisbon.
Hisjournalreflectshisenormouserudition:itisfullofliteraryandartisticreferences,classicalmaxims,andhistoricalcorrelatives.Inaddition,thetextislighthearted,at
timesgentlyironic,atothertimesflavoredwithslapstick.Alwaysamasterofcharacterization,

Page84
Fieldingdescribesthevariouspeoplehemeetswhileonthevoyageinavividandcomplexmanner.Fromfashionabletravelingaristocracytoworkingclassmerchants,
Fieldingdrawsthemallwithmasterfulprecisionandwit.Inspiteofhisdebilitatingillnesswhichoftenconfinedhimtobedhekeepsupacheerfultone,almostas
thoughtoassurehimselfthatheisnotgravelyill.
InhisprefaceFieldingadeptlypositionshisbookinrelationtothehistoryoftravelliterature,asubjectaboutwhichhehadconsiderableknowledge.Inthisregard,
Fieldingsworkanchorsthegenrebyacknowledgingandrespondingtotheentirehistory.ForFielding,itisnotenoughsimplytotravel:onemustlearnalongtheway,
andbeyondthat,onemustwriteabouttheprocess.Headvisesaspiringtravelwriterstohavegoodsenseenoughtoapplytheirperegrinationstoaproperuse,soas
toacquirefromthemarealandvaluableknowledgeofmenandthings,bothwhicharebestknownbycomparison.Ifthecustomsandmannersofmenwere
everywherethesame,therewouldbenoofficesodullasthatofatraveler....Surelyitwouldgivehimverylittleopportunityofcommunicatinganykindof
entertainmentorimprovementtoothers(Adams334).ForFielding,andforthisencyclopedia,thevalueoftravelandtravelwritingisbothentertainmentand
education.Traveling,asFieldingsaid,eitherinbooksorships(Adams336),isasimilarendeavor:bothgoingabroadandreadingaboutitimproveperspectiveand
increasewisdom.
Fieldingsaccountsarenovelisticintheirdialogueandendearingintheirlevity.Fromthedepictionsofhisencounterswithprovincialinnkeeperstothosewithmiserly
seacaptainsanddaringcoachmen,thisJournalreadsmuchlikefiction,althoughFieldinginsiststhatheismerelyrecordinghisdaysfaithfully.Gentlyhemakesfunof
himselfand,byextension,ofstandardEnglishbehavior,bycontrastinghisdesiresforfood,lodging,decorum,andsoforthtowhathereceiveswhiletraveling.The
differencesinPortugalhighlightwhatmightbetakenforgrantedinLondon.Alongtheway,welaughandenjoytheJournalindeedisbotheducationaland
entertaining.
Seealso:
Picaresque
References:
Adams1988
FLAUBERT,GUSTAVE
GustaveFlaubert(French,18211880)achievedgreatfameasanovelistindeed,heisusuallyconsideredoneofthefinestandmostinfluentialwritersofthenineteenth
century.Hismostcelebratednovels,includingMadameBovary,ASentimentalEducation,andSalammb,cannotbeconsideredtravelliterature.Butinhisletters
andjournalshesucceededincapturinghisowntravelswithastoundinggraceandexcitement.AfterFlaubertsdeath,someofhistravelwritingwascollectedand
publishedasCorrespondence(1881).ItisthisworkthatIwillconsiderFlaubertscontributiontothegenreoftravelliterature.
Amasterofphraseologyandsubtleusageoflanguage,Flaubertproducedwritingthatisatoncelyricalandvivid.Hewasobsessedwithfindingtheperfectwordand
theperfectsentencetoconveyhisidea,oftenincolorfulvisualmetaphors.Flaubertalsobelievedinthedoctrineofartforartssakeinotherwords,arthasan
intrinsicvaluethatisnotinfluencedbyoutsidefactorslikepublicreception.Forthisreason,Flaubertpioneeredanumberofnewtechniquesandstylisticturns.Hewas
convincedthathecouldrefinehiswritingtoperfectionandbeauty,regardlessofliteraryconventionortradition.ItwasaneasyleapforFlauberttosubstitutetravel
forart,resultingintravelfortravelssake.
In1849,alreadyanotableauthor,FlaubertsoughtexperienceandadventureintheOrient(whatwewouldnowcalltheNearEastandtheMiddleEast).Hiszealfor
experimentationandsocialinteractionremainslegendary:hewasmoreconcernedwithexotic

Page85
encountersthanwithancienthistory.ThatwhichwasdifferentfromFranceseemedtointriguehimmost,includingopium,harems,andMuslimrituals.
MuchofhisaccountoftheOrientishighlychargedwitheroticism.Evensubjectmatterthatisnotovertlysexualismadesomewhatsensualorsexy.Whenthispenchant
iscombinedwithhissensitiveeyefordetailandhisincrediblyprecisewordchoices,Flaubertswritingisnothingshortofdizzying.Forexample,hereweseehis
descriptionofadancerinEgypt(whichhewouldlaterechoinSalammb):
[She]isatall,splendidcreature,lighterincolouringthananArab...herskin,particularlyonherbody,isslightlycoffeecoloured.Whenshebends,her
fleshripplesintobronzeridges.Hereyesaredarkandenormous,hereyebrowsblack,hernostrilsopenandwideheavyshoulders,full,appleshaped
breasts.Sheworealargetarboosh[conicalhat],ornamentedonthetopwithaconvexgolddisk,inthemiddleofwhichwasasmallgreenstoneimitating
anemerald.
(Newby74)
InallofhisaccountsFlaubertiskeentocapturehisexperiencesinwordsforthis,hecanbedeemedatravelwriter.Ratherthanseekingtoflaunthisfameabroad,
Flaubertsoughthumblytolearn.Saidhe,Travelingmakesonemodest.Youseewhatatinyplaceyouoccupyintheworld(Fussell14).Itisthespiritofthe
unexpectedandthewhollydifferentthatthrillsFlaubert.Bylivingthosemoments,hewasabletowriteofthem,inasomewhatsubduedandmediatedform,inhis
novels.
References:
Fussell1987
Newby1985
FORSTER,E.M.
E.M.Forster(English,18791970)oftenranksasoneofthemajorliteraryfiguresofthetwentiethcentury.Hisliteraryproductionisvastandwidelyvaried:itincludes
anumberoffamousnovels(manyofwhichhavebeenmadeintofilms),volumesofliterarycriticismandessays,andamarvelousselectionofshortstories.Forsters
workisdifficulttoclassifysimplyastravelliteraturebecausehistextsarecomplexandmultidimensional.Nonetheless,manyofhisstoriesusetravelandexotic
adventureasmuchmorethananamusingbackdrop.InForster,travelisoftenoneofseveraldrivingforcesbehindtheplotandthegrowthofhischaracters.
WelltodoandmeticulouslyeducatedatCambridgeUniversity,Forsterrefusedtolethissocialadvantagesleadhimtosloth.Rather,hebeganwritingwhileatthe
universityandcontinuedwithastoundingenergyforthenext20oddyears.Evenhisearlieststoriesarewellcraftedandprovocativehebegantopublishthem
immediatelyaftergraduationinanumberofjournalsandnewspapers.Withhismeteoricrisetofamecameadditionalprivilegesandresponsibilities:hefeltthathiswork
hadtoimprove,sohesoughtdetailsbytravelingtotheremotelocationsthatserveassettingsforhisstories.WidelytraveledinEurope,ForsteralsolivedinAlexandria
(Egypt)andinIndiaforatime.
TwoofForstersearlynovels,WhereAngelsFeartoTread(1905)andARoomwithaView(1908),followedhisextensivestayinItalynotcoincidentally,both
booksaresetthere.WhereAngelsFeartoTreadfollowsagroupofuppermiddleclassEnglishtouristsexploringItaly.Throughout,thecharacterstakegreatnoteof
thecultural,historical,andgeographicdifferencesbetweenEnglandandItalyinsodoing,theybegintolearnofthemselvesandhowsillytheirclassmoresactuallyare.
AsinmanyofForsterstales,travelleadstoromanceandtransformationsofvarioussorts.
ThissamethemeappearsagaininARoomwithaView.ThewellbredLucyHoneychurchisallowedtovisitItalyunderthestrictsupervisionofherguardian.Upon
arrivalatthehotel,shelamentsvociferously

Page86
thatherroomhasnoview,solowermiddleclassGeorgeEmerson,afellowtraveler,gallantlyofferstoswaproomswithher.Slowly,amidtheadventure,excitement,
anddisorientationoftravel,LucyandGeorgefallinlove.WhencomparedtoherstolidsuitorinEngland,Georgeistheverypictureofpassion.Itistravelandbeing
abroadthatallowLucytoseehertruedesiresonhervoyageshefindsherself.
EvenHowardsEnd(1910),notaworkoftravelliteratureatall,containsstrongelementsofatravelersethos.OstensiblyastoryoftwoBritishfamiliestherich
WilcoxclanandthepoorbutwellrearedSchlegelsistersthenovelrevolvesaroundacoremessage:onlyconnect,asForstersaidofhisnovelstopic.Bythishe
meantthatdifferentpeople,betheydifferentclasses,races,nationalities,orgenders,shouldfindawaytoconnectwithoneanother.Throughthisaffinityofinformed
comparison,onemightfindcreativity,selfknowledge,andevenpassion.WhilesetonlyinEngland,thetheoryunderlyingthestoryisthestuffofpuretravelliterature:
throughknowingtheotherwecanbetterknowourselves.
PerhapsForstersmosttravelorientednovelisAPassagetoIndia(1924).Again,duetothecomplexityofthestoryanditsstructure,itisnot,strictlyspeaking,pure
travelliterature.Butseveralelementsofthebookmarkitasatextbookexampleofgreattravelwriting.SetinIndiaduringthetimeoftheRaj,thenovelpoignantly
contraststheEnglishcoloniststotheHindulocals.
Theplotiscomplex:AdelaQuestedtravelstoIndiatovisitherfianc,RonnyHeaslop.WhilevisitingMarabarCaves,Adelahasamisguidedhallucinationthather
HindufriendDr.Azizhastakenadvantageofher.Thisleadstoasortofracialhysteriainthecommunitythatdestroysfriendshipsandtrust.Overthecourseofthis
culturalcomparison,

Page87
theunderlyingracismandcrueltyoftheBritishruleoverIndiaisunveiled.WiththehelpofRonnysmother,AdelacomestoknowDr.Aziz,Indianculture,andsomeof
itsunsettlingmysticism.Intheend,Adelaretractsheraccusation,therebyassertingatruththatfliesinthefaceofracistexpectations.
Onceagain,travelandcrossculturalexposureleadtolearningandtransformation.OnlythroughacquiringamorethoroughknowledgeoftheIndiancultureisAdela
abletoseethetruth.Hertravelshaveradicallyalteredherlife:socially,spiritually,andintellectually,shefindsherselfchangedbythejourney.
Forthesenovels,aswellasformanyofhisshortstoriesthatcontainsimilarelements,E.M.Forstermustbeallowedthedesignationoftravelwriter.Histalesfigure
travelandexposuretoforeignculturesatthecoreoflearningbeingdisorientedinaforeignlandoftenisthecatalysttoamajorpsychologicalordevelopmental
transition.Andlastly,hisstoriesoftravelurgeustotaketimetoreflectdeeplyonourdesires,ourprejudices,andourselves.Whatbetterwaytodothisthantotakea
voyage?
FOX,CAPTAINLUKE
Likemanyotherexplorers,CaptainLukeFox(English,15861635)ardentlysoughtthelegendaryNorthwestPassage.In1631,hedepartedEnglandwithacrewof
22.Lessthanayearlater,hiscrewillandhismissionfailed,Foxreturned.Hisaccountofthevoyage,FoxfromtheNorthwestPassage(1635),makesthebestof
anunsuccessfulendeavor.
Foxswritingdeservesnotefortworeasons.Bystandardsoftheday,Fox,aged45whenbebeganhisvoyage,wasamongtheolderoftheseacaptainsexploring
NorthAmerica.Perhapsthisgavehimamorematureperspectiveindeed,theyouthfulandidealisticeuphoriaofsomeoftheyoungercaptainsdoesnotcolorFoxs
writing.Second,asaclassicallyeducatedfellow,Foxpepperedhisbookwithclassicalreferencesandawrysenseofhumor.Infact,whenFoxpublishedhisjournal,
headdedtwoessayswrittenafterhisreturntoEngland:onearguestheprobabilityoftheexistenceoftheNorthwestPassage,theotherexplainshisdecisiontoreturnto
England.Intheend,werememberFoxmoreforhiswritingthanforhistravels,theformerbeingsuperior,thelatterbeingrelativelydull.
References:
Adams1988
FRASER,G.S.
GeorgeSutherlandFraser(Scottish,19151980)isaminorintellectualfigure.MostlyassociatedwiththeNewApocalypsemovement,hewasapoet,essayist,and
critic.HismostfamousworkisVisionandRhetoric(1960),althoughforatimehewasafairlynoteworthyscholarofDylanThomasandEzraPound.Buriedinhis
workareacoupleoffascinatingtravelpoems,probablyautobiographicalinnature.
Forthesakeofthisbook,Iwouldliketotalkaboutonlyoneofthesepoems,TheTravellerHasRegrets.InthisworkFraserhighlightsseveralkeyaspectsoftravel
literatureforthis,heservesasagoodexampleofawriterwhohashelpeddefinethegenre.
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Thetravellerhasregrets
Fortherecedingshore
Thatwithitsmanynets
Hascaught,nottorestore,
Thewhitelightsinthebay,
Thebluelightsonthehill,
Thoughnightwithmanystars
Maytravelwithhimstill,
Butnighthasnoughttosay,
Onlyacolourandshape
Changinglikeclothshaking,
Adancerwithacape
Whosedanceisheartbreaking,
Nightwithitsmanystars
Canwarntravellers
Theresonlytimetokill

Page88
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Andnothingmuchtosay:
Butthebluelightsonthehill,
Thewhitelightsinthebay
Toldusthemealwaslaid
Andthatthebedwasmade
Andthatwecouldnotstay.
(CrossleyHolland27)

Thispoemisaparticularlygoodexampleofseveralofthethemesthatdefinetravelliterature.Immediately,Fraserestablishesasissuestheephemeralnatureof
experienceandtheunstoppablepassageoftime.Hisnarratorlamentsthedeparture(recedingshore)andtheimpossiblereturntothatmoment(nottorestore).His
journeytothatparticularplaceunnamedinthepoem,thusanyplacehasended,andalthoughhemayreturntothatphysicallocation,itwillneverbepreciselythe
same.Indeed,experiencesdependonbothspaceandtime,thustoreturntoanyplacecansatisfyonlyhalfofthedesire.Perhapswemightthinkoftimeaslikethe
waterflowinginariverbed:onecanreturntothesamebanksoftheriver,buttechnicallyspeaking,itisnotthesameriverinthatthewaterhasflowedonward,
irretrievably.
Hecontinuesthisthemeinalargercontext.WhilethenightskyMaytravelwithhimstill,itwillalwaysbeanewanddifferentexperiencethatoccursunderthatsky.
Justbeinginagivenplaceinthiscaseunderthoseparticularstarsdoesnotmaketheexperiencewhole.Inthesameway,beinginaparticulartowndoesnotensure
thatthesamegrandtimeshadtherebeforewillbehadagain.
Clearly,thenarratorlamentshisdeparture.Fromtheheartbreakingdancetothemessagethatwecouldnotstay,sadnessatleavinghasoverwhelmedhim.Yet
thereisanenergyandabeautytohislinesthatsuggestthattravel,likelife,mustcontinue:noonecanstayfixedinapureandperfectmomentforlong.Hencewhenthe
nightskywarnsthetravelerthatTheresonlytimetokill/Andnothingmuchtosay,werealizethatwemustsailontheseaofdaysthatswellsbeforeus.
Thenarratorappearstohavelearnedfromtravelalessonaboutlifeandhassharedthatlessoninwriting.Whetherwebetravelersonthehighseasorthrough
cyberspace,oranywhereinbetween,wemustcontinuetomove.Ourconsolationcanbeonlythatthereareblueandwhitelightsofotherharborswaitingtogreetus
elsewhere.
References:
CrossleyHolland1986
FULLER,MARGARET
Oneofthegreatfemaleintellectualsandsocialcriticsofherday,MargaretFuller,MarchionessOssoli(American,18101850),alsowrotesomeparticularlyfinetravel
literature.SummerontheLakes(1844)washerfirstattemptattravelwriting.Hersuccesswiththisfirstbookledtonumerousletters,essays,andjournalisticpieces.
ManyofthesesmallerpieceswerecollectedandpublishedposthumouslyasAtHomeandAbroador,ThingsandThoughtsinAmericaandEurope(1856).The
restofhertravelwritingcanbefoundamidpolitical,social,andphilosophicalworkpublishedasWritings(1941).
WelltodoandpartofahighlyeducatedHarvardUniversityfamily,Fullerdemonstratedherintellectualcapacitiesasayounggirl.Withagiftforlanguagesandliterary
studies,shecompletedarigorousandbroadlyclassicaleducation.Usingthesementaltools,shebecameascholar,lecturer,andwriter.FriendlywithRalphWaldo
Emersonandanumberofthetranscendentalists,sheisnotedasaphilosopher.Applyinghertheoreticalframetotheworldaroundher,shealsowroteandlecturedon
womensrights,theevilsofslavery,andtheshamefulfederalpoliciestowardNativeAmericans.Avoiceoftheunderprivilegedandabused,Fullerarguedvociferously
forsocialchange.
SummerontheLakeschronicleshervoyagetotheGreatLakes.PartlytoobservethesocialdifferencesbetweentheEastCoastandtheMidwest,andpartlyto
experiencelife

Page89
amongtheAmericanIndiantribes,thetripwasnottourism,butratherachancetolearn.Fromtheoutset,Fullersintentionwastowriteabookonthesesubjects.In
thisrespect,travelingfacilitatedherwritingthetwoactionswereinseparabletoFuller.Thetextmetwithcriticalsuccessdespiteitsprogressivepoliticaltone.
Onesuccessledtoanother,andFullerwasofferedajobasacorrespondentinEuropefortheNewYorkTimes.Herlettersandcolumnsdidasplendidjobevoking
theexcitementofEuropewithoutsuccumbingtoautomaticpraise.Gracefully,tactfully,butincisively,FullercomparedEuropetoAmerica,notalwaystotheOld
Worldscredit.HighlightingtheculturaldifferencesservedasaveryeffectivevehicleforFullertoencouragebothAmericanandEuropeanselfreflection.Asshesaysin
oneofherletters,TheAmericaninEurope,ifathinkingmind,canonlybecomemoreAmerican(Adams477).
FromEngland,France,andItaly,Fullerwroteonawiderangeoftopics.Herpettopicswomensrightsandtherightsofthepoorcontinuedtoappearwith
regularity,butmoresophisticatedanalysesofthelegalandpoliticalsystems,classstructures,andthevalue(andcost)ofalonghistorybecamerecurrentthemesaswell.
ShemarriedanItaliannobleman,MarcheseOssoli,andcontinuedtowritebothfortheAmericanpressandforItalianpublication.In1850,Margaret,herhusband,and
theirchildboardedavesselboundforAmericaunfortunately,theirshipsankinastormandthefamilydrowned.
Inspiteofhershortcareer,MargaretFullerstravelwritingissignificantforitsstyleaswellasforitscontent.Withitsbreezyreportagetone,herwritingisgenialand
casual.Butherissuesareoftendeceptivelythorny.Herkindnessandwillingnesstotakeupunpopularandunglamorouscausesshadeherwritingwithawarming
generosity.AsanAmericanfemalevoice,sheaddressesdifferentissuesandhasdifferentperspectivesfrommanyofhercontemporaries.Andherexpressive
exuberancefortravelandadventureconfirmsherstatusasatruetravelerwholearnedfromherexcursionsandinsisteduponteachingherreaderswhatshehadlearned.
References:
Adams1988

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Page91

G
GAGE,THOMAS
ThestoryofThomasGage(English,16001656)isanelaboratetangleofculturesandideas.InhistravelogueTheEnglishAmerican,HisTravelsbySeaandLand
or,ANewSurveyoftheWestIndies(1648)arealltheelementsofagothicnovel:religion,spite,passion,deception,andaseriesofexoticlocations.Thesenovelistic
elementsblendbeautifullywithGagesfocusontravelandadventure.Whilethetextfeelslikefiction,itisinfactapolishedrepresentationofGagesvoyages.
GageturnedtotheRomanCatholicChurchfairlyearlyinhislife.HebelievedthathecouldbestserveGodbyworkingasamissionaryintheNewWorld.His
convictionstookhimtoCentralAmerica(16251637)andlatertoJamaicaandtheislandsoftheCaribbean.Hiswritingisanoddcombinationofstylesandforms:
althoughstructuredasatravelogue,thetextincludessignificantcharacterdevelopmentandlengthypassagesthatreadmorelikeessays.Throughout,Gageappearsas
thecentralcharacteroverthecourseofthebook,weobservehispersonalgrowthandspiritualdifficultiesinthefaceofmanytroublingandchallengingexperiences.In
thisfashion,Gageisaproductofhisadventures.
Theplotofthestoryisroughlyasfollows.DuetotheEnglishhostilitytoRomanCatholicism,youngGagewenttoSpaintobecomeaDominican.Requestingand
receivingapostinginthePhilippines,GagedepartedEuropeforEastAsiaviatheNewWorld.Inademonstrationofresistanceanduneasinesswithcolonization,Gage
remainedinMexico,againsttheordersofhisclericalsuperiors.Formorethanadecade,GagewanderedCentralAmerica,increasinghispersonalfortuneandrailing
uponthecrueltyofhisformerchurchbrothers.Hisfaithcontinuedtoslip,untilheeventuallyrenouncedCatholicismtoadoptPuritanism.Hewriteshimselfasa
legendaryfiguretobefearedforhiswordsandforhishonesty.
Fortheera,hiswordsareoftenshockinglyprogressive.Forexample,Gageupbraidstheentirecolonialventure,looselydisguisedasmissionarywork:
Thusinreligionthey[thenatives]aresuperstitiouslyledonandblindedintheobservanceofwhattheyhavebeentaughtmoreforthegoodandprofitof
theirpriestthanforanygoodoftheirsouls,notperceivingthattheirreligionisapolicytoenrichtheirteachers.Butnotonlydothefriarsandpriestsliveby
themandeatthesweatoftheirbrows,butalsoalltheSpaniards,whonotonlywiththeirworkandservice(beingthemselvesmanygiventoidleness)
growwealthyandrich,butwithneedlessofficesandauthorityarestillfleecingthem,andtakingfromthemthatlittlewhichtheygainwithmuchhardness
andseverity.
(Adams190)
ItisnowonderthatGagesbooksoldwellinBritainandthattheSpanishvilifiedhim!
Asarenegade,andasanobserveronthefringesofnationalismandreligion,Gagemustbenotedashavingauniqueperspective.Hebrashlydarestodescribemany
sortsofethical,spiritual,andmoraltransgressionsbytheSpaniardsandtheCatholicChurch.Veryliterally,hewasalwayssimultaneouslyaninsiderandanoutsider.As
oneofthefirstnonSpaniardsintimatewithSpanishcolonialpolicies,andasalapsedCatholicfamiliarwithchurchmachinations,Gagehasmuchinsighttoofferus.In
thisparticularcase,travelingtothecolonieswasanexercisenotin

Page92
observingtheindigenouspeoples,butinobservingthecolonizers.TolearnmorefullyofhisreligionandhisEuropeanculture,Gagetooktotravelwhathesawshook
hisbeliefstothecore.
References:
Adams1988
GALTON,SIRFRANCIS
Booksthatprovideadvicetotravelersconstituteasubsetoftravelliterature.SirFrancisGalton(English,18221911)wroteoneofthefinestexamplesofthis
subgenre.TheArtofTravel(1860)istheresultofhisownratherextensivetravels,anditisaninterestingguidetowhatVictoriantravelerswereexpectedtoknow.
Galtonsfamecamefrommanyendeavors.Agentlemanofdiverselearning,hepublishedbooksofmanysorts.Hewroteongenetics,meteorology,mathematics,
psychology,memory,cartography,andcriminology,aswellastraveltheory.Inaddition,hewasacousinofCharlesDarwin.
Intheearly1850s,hebravedthewildsofsouthwesternAfrica,andfromthisexperiencehecomposedTheArtofTravel.Itcontainsamyriadofdata:practical
advice,fieldmedicine,transculturalcommunicationtips,navigationtechniques,andwhatcanonlybecalledaprimerofpositivetravelattitudes.
Whilemostlyconfinedtofactualinformation,asopposedtonarrativesofadventure,Galtonsbookisnonethelesswrittenwithnumerouspracticalexamplesthatserve
asillustrationsofhispoints.Theintroductionremainsparticularlyinterestinginthatitpropoundsseveralreasonsforadventuretravel:tolearn,totestoneself,todo
onesduty,andtocapturetheunexploredinwriting.Galtontakesgreatpainstomakemuchofthedrymaterialinterestingbyreferringtoabewilderingarrayoftravel
advicegleanedfromwiderangingsources.Inthisregard,thebookisafascinatingcompendiumofthoughtsandtipsonhowtocopewithcommonanduncommon
circumstances.Itisalsoarichsourceofreferenceshoweverbrieftotravelwritingthroughouttheages.
Furthermore,Galtonsworkstandsoutforitshonestacknowledgmentofthemanyandvariousadversitiesanddifficultiesthatwereexpectedcomponentsof
nineteenthcenturytravel.Forthoseofusaccustomedtoplushandleisurelyvacations,Galtonsbookhelpstohighlightthearduousnatureofpremodernadventuresin
Africa(orelsewhere).Readingthetextinthismanner,webegintounderstandthecourageanddevotionthatthegreatadventuretravelerspossessed.Thatthey
managedtowritesucheloquentandliteraryaccountsundersuchcircumstancesissuretocauseustowonder.
References:
Newby1985
GAMA,VASCODA
AlongwithFerdinandMagellanandChristopherColumbus,VascodaGama(Portuguese,1469?1524)mustberecognizedasapioneerofexploration.Therecordof
hisjourney,publishedinEnglishbytheHakluytSocietyin1898,iscalledAJournaloftheFirstVoyageofVascodaGama.Itrecountshisquesttofindatrade
routetoIndiathatwenttothesouthofAfrica.Despiteencounteringdifficultieslikehurricanesandmutinies,daGamareachedCalicutafternearlyayear.Facedwithan
extremelyhostileruler,daGamahadtofighthiswayoutoftheharbor,sufferingconsiderablelosses.HereturnedtoPortugalandwasknightedbyKingEmanuelforhis
greatdiscovery.Asexploration,thevoyagewasaresoundingsuccess.
Inhisaccountofhisfirstjourneyitbecomesclearthat,fordaGama,thepointisgoingratherthanarriving.ThevoyageitselfistheimportantsubjectofdaGamas
journal.FromthetrivialdailyroutinesontheshiptothefirstEuropeandescriptionofthenativesofsouthernAfrica,daGamastextsareanexerciseindiscipline.He
relatestheordinary

Page93
andtheextraordinarywiththesametoneandinthesamefactualmanner:Weremainedfivedaysatthisplaceenjoyingourselves,andreposingfromthehardships
enduredduringapassageinthecourseofwhichallofushadbeenfacetofacewithdeath(Adams69).Asastudyinorderandbravery,daGamasjournalsare
magnificent.Whathelacks,however,isanysortofdramaorflairforstorytelling.
AsafoundationforthePortuguesecolonialempire,daGamasjournaldescribeshowthetradingoutpostsintheIndianOceanwereestablished.Insubsequent
voyages,daGamaledamilitaryconvoybacktoCalicuttoestablishafactory.ThisshowofforceenabledPortugaltosecureastrongholdinIndia,therebyensuringa
supplyofsuchvaluablecommoditiesascinnamon,cloves,ginger,pepper,andpreciousstones.Inthehistoryofcolonialism,daGamasjournalsaresignificantbecause
theydescribethefirstmomentsoftheveritableconquestoftheEast.WhatbeganasthespiritofexplorationfordaGamatransformsintothespiritofmercantilismfor
hissuccessors.
References:
Adams1988
GOETHE,JOHANNWOLFGANGVON
Oftenevokedasthebestnineteenthcenturyexampleofauniversalgenius,Goethe(German,17491832)distinguishedhimselfinanastoundingarrayoffields.
Althoughfamousforhisplays,poems,andnovels,GoethealsowroteawhollysuccessfulandexquisitetravelbooktranslatedasTravelsinItaly(1813).Fromhis
notes,journalentries,andactualletters,Goethecompiledthevolume,whichmetwithimmediatefavorthroughoutEurope.Whilethetextisostensiblyepistolaryin
form,itisgenerallyagreedthattheselettersaremoreofaliterarydevicethanactualmissives.

Page94
Byandlarge,thelettersrecountavarietyofsightsanddeeds,allofthemframedbyGoethesincisivemindandrichwritingstyle.AsbefitsamanofGoethesdiverse
abilities,TravelsinItalydescribesallsociallevels,fromtheupperclassestoartiststoservants.Heremarksonartandarchitectureaswellasonclothingand
conversationstyles,andonverymuchinbetween.Inaddition,Goethesreputationasawomanizermadehimveryattractiveinsomesocialcirclesopenly,he
describessomuchasnineteenthcenturydecorumallowshisflirtationsanddalliances.Inalmosteverysituation,Goetheseemstobeextremelyfrankandforthright
itisforthisreasonthatthestoryisoftencalledanautobiographicalsketch.Byextension,thisalsomakesitgreattravelliterature,forwearelearningnotonlyofthe
foreignplace,butoftheauthoraswell.
Charm,wit,keenperception,andunpretentiousnessareonlyafewofthevastnumberofcharacteristicsthatGoethedisplaysinthiswork.Throughout,Goetheseems
nevertoforgetthattravelingisaboutlearningofandrecognizingnewperspectives.InascenesetinMalesine(nearVenice),forexample,Goetheisdrawinganold
battlementtowerinthemorninglight.Curiousonlookersgather,andoneboldfellowaccusesGoetheofbeingaspythetowerbeinganancientfortificationnowin
disuse.Asthelocalauthoritiesarrive,afriendlydebateensuesinsteadofmaddening,Goethefindsthescenewhollyamusing.Hetriestoconvincehisaccusersthathe
issimplylookingattheruins,buttotheconstabularytheyarenotruins,buttheinfrastructureofthecity.Thetownsfolkcannotseethebeautyofthetowerbecauseitis
familiarandplaysaspecificroleforthembuttoGoethesforeigneyes,itissomethingdifferent.Reconcilingthosetwodistinctpositionsprovesimpossible,and
Goethesdrawingistorninhalf.Yetthestoryistoldwithrelish,notwithpiqueinsodoing,Goetheaffirmshimselfaswillingtolearnallsortsoflessons,includingsome
thathehadnotexpectedtoencounter.
Inanotherincident,similarintheme,Goethemuses:
Myoldgiftofseeingtheworldwitheyesofthatartist,whosepictureshavemostrecentlymadeanimpressiononme,hasoccasioned[in]mesome
peculiarreflections.Itisevidentthattheeyeformsitselfbytheobjects,which,fromyouthup,itisaccustomedtolookupon,andsotheVenetianartist
mustseeallthingsinaclearerandbrighterlightthanothermen.We,whoseeyewhenoutofdoors,fallsonadingysoil,which,whennotmuddy,is
dusty,andwhich,alwayscolourless...canneverattaintosuchacheerfulviewofnature.

Page95
(Newby137)
Onceagain,perceptionisdeemedwhollysubjective,thusthesameobjectmightappeardistinctlydifferentfromtwoperspectives.Learningtoacceptthepossibility
andprevalenceofdifferentperspectivesisattheheartoftravelliterature.
Relativelyearlyinthesequenceofletters(March9,1787),Goetheprovidesalucidsummaryofthejoyoftravelandthepoweroftravelwriting:Thisisthepleasant
partoftravelling,thatevenordinarymatters,bytheirnoveltyandunexpectedness,oftenacquiretheappearanceofanadventure(Adams373).Tobesure,Goethe
takesthequotidianmomentsofhisjourneyandcraftsthemintostoriesthatteachmonumentallessons.Inthefinalanalysis,TravelsinItalythrillsandteaches
simultaneously,andasaresult,itmustbeconsideredamongthefinestoftravelwritingsinourtradition.
References:
Adams1988
Newby1985
GOLDSMITH,OLIVER
Aswithmanyofthegreateighteenthcenturywriters,OliverGoldsmith(Irishborn,English,1730?1774)madeaGrandTourofEuropeasapartofhiscultural
education.Hehadstudiedmedicine,andbeforesettlingintoapractice,hespenttwoyearswanderingonthecheap.Usuallybrokebutalwaysreadyforadventure,
Goldsmithfundedhistourbygambling,busking(playingmusiconthestreetsfordonations),andengaginginanarrayofpettyswindlesandcons.Perhapshismost

Page96
successfulventurewastransposinghisadventuresintoapoemcalledTheTraveller(1756),whichhesoldwithconsiderablesuccess.UponreturningtoGreatBritain,
heturnedhisattentiontosmallscalewritingandpublishing,workingwiththenovelistSamuelRichardsonandmakingtheacquaintanceofSamuelJohnson.
AcopyofTheTravellermadeitintothehandsofthepowerfulLiteraryClub,andsobeganasuccessfulwritingcareer.Goldsmithtookhisnotesandexpandedthem
intoAnEnquiryintothePresentStateofPoliteLearninginEurope(1759).Thissociologicalstudyofmannersandculturalbehaviorisacousintotravelliterature
andinterestinginitsownright.ItcomparesthesocialbehaviorofEnglandwiththatoftheothergreatEuropeanpowers.Goldsmithwentontopublishwidelyandto
earnhimselfaplaceinthehistoryofliteraturewithsuchgreatnovelsasTheVicarofWakefield(1766)andhisspoofofCharlesMontesquieusPersianLetters
calledTheCitizenoftheWorld(1762),aswellashiscaricatureoftheliterarywitsofhisagetitledRetaliation(1774).Butforourpurposes,itishisfirst,earlypoem
thatisnoteworthy.
TheTravellerisacuriouspoemthatattemptstoteachifalittleheavyhandedlyGoldsmithsreadersaboutthevariousculturesofEurope.Particularly,heis
concernedwithhowdifferentpeopleshaveverydifferentmodesofbeinghappy.Hisstyleisoverblownandsophomoric,buthisinsightsareprovocativeandoften
compelling.Partlybecausehewasonaverylimitedbudget,Goldsmithencounteredalargesmatteringoflowerclasslocals.Whilemanyeighteenthcenturytravelers
kepttotheirownsocialmilieu,Goldsmith,perhapsoutofnecessity,oftenengagedwithpeasantsandlaborers.Hisobservationsofthemarenotsimplysnobbish
descriptionsrather,hegentlyandhumblysuggeststhattherichmightlearnsomethingfromthepoor.Thuswhendescribingafarmershumbleevening,Goldsmith
writes:
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l

Atnightreturning,everylaboursped,
Hesitshimdownthemonarchofashed
Smilesbyhischeerfulfire,androundsurveys
Hischildrenslooks,thatbrightenattheblaze
Whilehislovedpartner,boastfulofherhoard,
Displayshercleanlyplatterontheboard:
Andhaplytoosomepilgrim,thitherled,
Withmanyatalerepaysthenightlybed.
(CrossleyHolland188)

Tobesure,Goldsmithisidealizingthepeasantlife,andclearlyhispresencealterstheirbehavior.Nonetheless,thathecharacterizesarustic,laboringfamilyinpositive
andfriendlytermsisnotable.
Inaddition,wecanseethevalueofnarrativeintheabovepassage:thenarratorrepayshisroomandboardbytellingtales.Itisasubtlereminder,butarecurrenttheme
inthisdidacticpoem,thattravelandstoriesgohandinhand.SonotonlyisGoldsmiththetravelerwritingapoemabouthistravels,butheisthecharacterinthepoem
whouseshistalesascurrency.Asthetravelerencountersnovelty,helearnsashelearns,hewritestoteachothers.Inoneneatpackage,Goldsmithgivesthethrillsof
adventure,theinsightslearnedfromencounteringavarietyofforeigncultures,andthewellcraftedliteraryaccount.
Seealso:
GrandTourMontesquieu,Charles
References:
CrossleyHolland1986
Fussell1987
GRAILQUEST
TheGrailQuestisafrequentlyfoundthemeinmanymedievalwritings.Thecommonideaisthatalongandarduousjourneyorquestismadeinsearchofapowerful
talisman,theGrail(alsoknowastheHolyGrail,orSangrealorSangraal).Duringthecourseofthistravail,theseekeroftenlearnsabouthimself.
ThemythoftheGrailfeaturesprominentlyinmanyEuropeanliterarytraditions,perhapsmostfamouslyinArthurianlegend(asseenin

Page97
SirThomasMalorysMortedArthur).Inthisvariantofthelegend,theHolyGrailhasaChristianlineage:itissaidtohavebeenJesusChristscupattheLastSupper.
TheGrailprovidesavarietyofpowers,includingpeace,power,andblessedness.WithouttheGrail,KingArthursreigndeterioratesdesperate,hesendshisknights
onamightyquestthattakesthemfarandwideinsearchofthetalisman.
OthervariantsofthemythtracetheGrailtoapagansymboloffemalesexualitywithouttheGrail,fertilitysuffers.InCelticlore,theGrailbestowswarriorcourageand
strengthinbattle.Regardless,itissomethingthatistobesoughtonanepicpilgrimage,thusGrailQueststoriesareanearlyformoftravelliterature.
Whilemostoftheoriginallegendswerewritten(orotherwiseimagined)beforethefifteenthcenturythestartingpointofthescopeofthisencyclopedianumerous
subsequenttraveltalesevokethemythoftheGrail

Page98
Quest.Initsdistilledform,theGrailQuestthereforesignifiesanyjourneythroughextremeadversitymotivatedbyasearchforsomethingideal.Usingthisdefinition,
mosttravelliteratureisaGrailQuestifweimaginetheGrailtoholdwisdom,experience,andselfknowledge.
GRANDTOUR
Inthelateseventeenthcentury,aftertheReformationinEngland(1660),thewellheeledofEurope,especiallythoseinGreatBritain,begantomakewhathascometo
becalledTheGrandTouroftheContinent.Thestatedpurposewastogainsomeexperienceofthewiderworld,althoughgiventhatmanyGrandTouristsstuck
togetherandranthroughanidenticalitineraryofsights,onewondershowmuchlearningactuallytookplace.Rather,thispursuitseemstohavebeensomethingofa
statussymbolandatestoftenacity,forsuchajourneywasdifficultandanythingbutluxurious.
Usuallylastingseveralmonths(oftenthepleasantsummermonths),theGrandTourwasawaytogainacertainamountofContinentalpolish.Younggentlemenoften
went,eitherbydesireorattheirfatherscommand,aftercompletingtheiruniversitytraining.Inmanycases,travelerswereaccompaniedbyatutorpaidtooverseethe
journeyandtoensurethatsomelearningtookplace.Bytheearlyeighteenthcentury,theGrandTourwaswellenoughestablishedthatmanywomen,thoughalways
withachaperone,wereencouragedtomakeajourneytotheContinent.
Typically,theroutebeganinLondon,togetoutfittedandtoprocureguidebooksandsupplies,anditthenproceededtoDovertocatchaferrytoCalais.Fromthere,it
wasmandatorytoheadtoParis,Versailles,andFontainebleau,withasmanyhighsocietyengagementscrammedinaspossible.Inaddition,itwasquitecommonto
spendsomeweekstakingFrenchlessons,iffornootherreasonthantobeabletoflirtwiththeoppositesex.AfterParis,Switzerlandwasacommondestination:the
refinedcultureofPariscontrasteddramaticallywiththeruggedAlps.HavingwalkedinthemountainsandtakenthebriskSwissair,thetouristwasalmostrequiredto
gotoFlorence,Venice,andRometolookatartandarchitecture.MoreadventuroussortsmighthavegoneasfarsouthasNaples,especiallyifinterestedinmusicor
thedangeroushistoryofMountVesuvius.AfterItaly,thetravelerusuallyheadednorthwardagain,toGermany,particularlyBerlinandPotsdam,andperhapsabrief
stopinoneoftheuniversitytowns.Finally,usuallylowonenergyandmoneybynow,theGrandTouristvisitedHollandandFlanderstolookatthepaintings.
Squeezingthisscheduleintoasummer,especiallygivenslowcoachtravel,madeforawhirlwindtourthatusuallyexhaustedeventhemostenergetic.Savvytravelers,
however,slowedthepacedownconsiderablyitwasnotuncommonforthemoreintrepidtravelerstospendseveralyearsonaGrandTourofEurope.
OtheraspectsoftheGrandTourwerealmostuniversalaswell.Souvenirhuntingbecamesomethingofamania.Theevercompetitivewealthysoughttooutdotheir
peerswithexoticorexquisitepurchasesfromafar.Andwritingwasconsideredadailyduty.Vastquantitiesofletterswerewrittentofriendsandfamilyathome,both
tocommunicateandtosharethegloriesofthetour.Additionally,itwasstandardpracticetokeepadetaileddiaryorjournalofevents.Asistobeexpected,thequality
ofthesewritingsvariesenormously.
TheGrandTour,asawelltodoaffair,diminishedwiththepopularizationofcheapandefficientrailtravelinthe1830s.Bythattime,theContinentwasnotconsidered
especiallyexotic,andthewealthysoughtotherritesofpassage.Thenewlymobilemiddleclass,alongwithAmericans,continuedasortofGrandTourwellintothe
twentiethcentury.
References:
Fussell1987

Page99

H
HALL,CAPTAINBASIL
BasilHall(Scottish,17881844)showedgreatcuriosityandexuberantenergyfromchildhoodonward.Sonofafamousscientist,hefinishedhisgeneraleducationin
Edinburghbyhismidteens.HepromptlyjoinedtheRoyalNavyandspentmostoftherestofhislifetravelingwidelyandwritingprolifically.HisFragmentsand
Voyages(1831)waspublishedinninevolumesandrepresentsonlythegreatesthitsofhistales.Individualvolumesandothertravelaccountswerereleasedin
multipleeditionsandtranslatedintosevenlanguages.Hispopularitywasgreatamongthescientificcommunity,amonglaytravelers,andwiththeRoyalSociety,of
whichhewasanhonoredandesteemedmember.
Betweenhisvastseafaringadventures,HallmadeextensiveoverlandtripsthroughoutEuropeandtheNearEast.Buthistruepassionremainedthesea.Asasailor,he
wasrapidlypromotedtocaptainoverthespanofhiscareer,hetraveledtotheFarEast,SouthAmerica,theMediterranean,andAfrica.Hisepicjourneywithhis
familythroughouttheUnitedStatesischronicledinTravelsinNorthAmericaintheYears1827and1828(1829).
Regardlessofhisdestination,Halldemonstratedakeeneyefordetailandatruezestfortravel.Asaculturalobserver,hewasunrivaled,particularlybecausehe
appearstohavehadasuperiorinstinctforfindingopportunitiestoseeauthenticornaturalmoments.Hevisitedmainstreaminstitutions,likeschools,hospitals,and
museums,aswellasmanylesslikelydestinations,likesmallcommunities,homesofpoorerfamilies,andbusinesses.Thushisaccountsblendthequotidianwiththe
extraordinary.Aboveall,hiscuriositydrovehim,andhisenthusiasmledhimtowritedetailedaccountsofallhesaw.
Becauseofhiswiderangeofexperiences,heveryeffectivelycomparedhisdestinationtoavarietyofotherculturesandgeographiesthatheknewintimately.His
manneroftellingtalesiseasyandcongenial:herarelywroteindailydiaryentries,preferringinsteadaloosernarrativeformthatseemstoflownaturally.Infact,Halls
storiesunfoldmuchthewaytravelactuallydoes:tangentially,unpredictably,atvariousspeeds.Nevershywithasides,commentary,andsubjectiveopinionsbut
mostlyrespectfulandhonestHallstalesevokeadelightfullycrediblepictureofwhatitwasreallyliketohavebeenthere.
Hallswritingdelightswithitselegantlycraftedphrasesandengagingstructure.Heoftenintroducesanecdotesinaroundabout,framedmannerorbywayofaflashback
toadifferentexperience.Committedtousingtravelasameansoflearning,andwritingasameansofremembering,Hallwrites:
Itisamusingtolookback,afterajourneyisover,atthoseobjectswhichatthetimeexcitedthemostvividinterest,butwhichhavefadedfromthe
recollectionsocompletely,thatanydescriptionofthemfrommemorywouldbefeebleandunsatisfactory,whilealiteraltranscriptofthenoteswrittenon
thespotwouldbenolessinaccuratefromtheirextravaganceandhighcolouring.Themereproximityofsomethings,givesthemanimportancewhichwe
areapttomistakeforapermanentandintrinsicvaluewhereastheirrealconsequencemaynotextendbeyondtheirownsmallcircumference.Evenonthe
spot,itisfrequentlynoeasyjobforthestrangertodecidewhichofavarietyofobjectsheshalldevotemostofhisattentionto.

Page100
(Adams492493)
ItispreciselythisearnestnessandsinceredesiretocapturethetruthinhiswritingthatmakesHallsosatisfyingtoread.
Asanexampleofatravelerdrivenbytheneedtowriteallofhisexperiencesintotextsthatcanservetoteachothers,Hallhasproducedsuperiorbooks.Hedevoted
hislifetolearningoftheworldthroughengagementwithfarflungpeopleandplacestheresultofthisquestisasetofvolumesthatisthenextbestthingtoactually
havingbeenthere.
References:
Adams1988
HARDY,THOMAS
ThomasHardy(English,18401928)ranksamongthegreatnineteenthcenturyauthors.FamousforhissocalledWessexnovels,includingFarfromtheMadding
Crowd(1874),TheMayorofCasterbridge(1886),TessoftheDUrbervilles(1891),andJudetheObscure(1895),Hardyalsowroteaconsiderableamountof
poetryoverthecourseofhislife.Finallyamassedintooneeditionafterhisdeath,CollectedPoems(1931)remainsaformidablepoeticachievement.Intermsofstyle
andtopic,hisverserepresentsasignificantliterarybridgetothetwentiethcentury.
Bornintoafinanciallystrugglingfamily,Hardyhadtofendforhimselffromanearlyage.Althoughhedidnothavetheluxuryofforeigntravelasayouth,helearneda
travelersethosbymovingfromtowntotownlookingforopportunities.BythetimehemadeittoLondon(1862),hewaswisetothewaysoftheworld.Afterhis
literarysuccessprovidedhimwithsufficientincome,HardyventuredtotheContinentonseveraloccasions.Hismostsignificantjourneywasayearlongvisittothe
Continentwithhiswifein18841885.Remnantsofthistripappearinmostofhissubsequentwork.
Whilehisnovelsofteninvolvemovingfromonetowntothenext,theycannotbecalledtravelliterature.Instead,theyarecousinsoftravelliterature.Beinginmotion,
beingbetweenplacesinshort,travelingservesasanobvioussymbolofthepsychologicalorsocietalchangeshischaractersexperience.Forexample,Judeslong
walktoChristminster(anOxfordstandin)isasmuchabouthisnewdirectioninlifeasitisabouttakingtheroadtoanewtown.ThroughouttheWessexnovels,
Hardyscharactersmakenumerousregionaljourneys:whattheyfindisthatmotionmaybeambivalent,butitalwayscauseschange.
SeveralofHardysworksdescribelifeasajourney.Tobesure,agreatdealofliteraturehasdonethesame,butHardysisaparticularlyindustrializedvariantofthat
metaphor.WritestravelscholarPaulFussell:
Thatlifeisajourneyisoneoftheoldestclichslodgedinthehumanimagination.Thatlifeisarailwayjourneybecameeasilyconceivableduringtheage
ofsteamandelectricity.ButittookHardy,withhisflairfortheportentous,thedangerous,andtheuncertain,toimaginelifeasariskyandmysteriousrail
journeydespitethestraighttracksandthepublicstationsandtheticketboughtforaspecificdestinationtowardsaworldunknown.
(Fussell473)
InhispoetryHardyfocusedmoreconciselyandclearlyontravelwriting.SuperiorexamplescanbefoundinhisCollectedPoemsaswellasinanumberof
anthologies.Allofthegreatthemesoftravelliteraturerecurrepeatedlyinhisdelightfulverses.
TravelmergeswitheducationashewanderstheclassicalruinsofancientRomeinapoemcalledIntheOldTheatre,Fiesole.Asthenarratorimagineshistoryinthe
ruins,alittlegirlapproaches,sellinganancientcoin.Forallhisimagination,thenarratorneedsthisrealmomenttospanthevastnessoftimebetweenancientand
modern:thegirlallowsthescenetomakesense.Thenarratorremarks,
l
l

Shelightlypassednordidsheonceopine
How,betterthanallbooks,shehadraisedforme

Page101
l
l
l

InswiftperspectiveEuropeshistory
ThroughthevastyearsofCaesarssceptredline.
(CrossleyHolland125)

Makingthejourneytoseetheruinsispartofthelessonengagingtheculturethatinhabitsthespacepresentlyisanother.Theexperiencesoftravelarenotlimitedsimply
toseeingthesightsandreflectinginternally.
Perhapswithsomeamountofnostalgia,HardypennedMidnightontheGreatWesternin1917.Ittellsofajourneyingboythrilledandalittleafraidofhistrip
acrossa(relatively)greatdistance.SuchajourneywouldhavebeenimpossibleinHardysownyouthperhapsHardyisprojectinganimpossibleperspectiveontothe
boy.Inthispoemwecanseetravelasametaphorforpotentialtheyoungboystandsonthethresholdofbecomingamanoftheworld,muchasHardyhadthrown
himselffromDorchestertoLondoninhisyouth.Inthepoemthecharacterisanxiousbutexcited,tryingtomusterasmuchbraveryashecan.Thejourneystandsinfor
acondensedversionoflife:aheadlayunexpectedjoysandsorrows,behindtheunchangeablepast.
InAttheInnfrom1898,weseethattravelaltersthewayvoyagersbehave:anaffabilityandaffinityshroudsthoseinmotion.Thenarratorhasgonetoaninnwithhis
lover,avaguelyillicitactioninthelatenineteenthcentury.Ingood,hospitablefashion,theinnkeeperwelcomesthetravelers:
l
l
l
l
l
l
l

Whenweasstrangerssought
Theircateringcare,...
Theywarmedastheyopined
Usmorethanfriends
Thatwehadallresigned
Forlovesdearends.
(Ricks465)

Totravelistoescape,atleasttoadegree,culturalconventionsandexpectations.Thedecisiontotakeatripservesasaninducementtoexperiencesuchexperiences,
especiallywhenwrittenabout,formgreatandlastingmemories.Thepoemconcludeswiththenarratorlookingbackuponthattimewithgreatfondness.
InthebodyofHardysworkwecanseesuchtravelthemesrepeatedandpraised.Changeandunpredictableinteractionsdrivehischaracterstheyoftenseeksuch
propulsionliterally,bymoving.ForHardy,then,travelandexperienceand,wesurmise,writingarethefundamentalcomponentsoflife.
References:
CrossleyHolland1986
Fussell1987
Ricks1987
HARRER,HEINRICH
PerhapsoneofthemostaccomplishedtravelersinTibet,HeinrichHarrer(Austrian,1912)blendedtravelandliteratureandpoliticssogracefullythattheyseemone.
Hisjourneys,histeaching,andhiswritinghaveentertainedaswellasinfluenced.SevenYearsinTibet(1953)chronicleshisremarkabletravelsintotheTibetanculture
andhisamazingrelationshipwiththeDalaiLama.
Whatbeganasasimpleadventureculminatedinthemakingsofliterature(andfilmseethe1997movieSevenYearsinTibet).Harrerwasonanexpeditioninthe
HimalayaswhenWorldWarIIbrokeouttheBritishimprisonedhimasarefugee.Heescapedbyconsiderableguile,preferringthewildsofthemountainstohiscell.
Yethewasalone,withoutfunds,withoutmountaineeringequipment,andwithoutadestination.Fortwoyears,hewandered.HefinallyendedupinTibet,stilla
relativelyisolatedsanctuarywherethepoliticsofthewarweredistant.Byacombinationofgoodfortuneandperseverance,hemettheyoungDalaiLamaand
eventuallybecamehisclosefriendandtutor.
HisbooktellsofhowhecametoknowandrespectthiswiseyoungDalaiLamaandtheTibetanpeople.Harrersbookischarminginthatitexpresseshisgenuine
excitement

Page102
andenthusiasmfortheexchangeofideas.HeknowsthatheistheDalaiLamaseyestotheWest,andassuch,hehasagraveresponsibility.Itisaprofoundlyclear
exampleoftravelthatteachesoftheselfinordertoteachtheDalaiLama,Harrermustclearlyrememberhimself.
Harrerdescribesthesituation:
Iobservedthen,forthefirsttime,thathelikedtogettothebottomofthingsinsteadoftakingthemforgranted.Andso,lateron,likemanyagoodfather
whowishestoearntherespectofhisson,Ioftenspenttheeveningrevivingmyknowledgeofhalfforgottenthingsorstudyingnewones.Itooktheutmost
troubletotreateveryquestionseriouslyandscientifically,asitwascleartomethatmyanswerswouldformthebasisofhisknowledgeofthewestern
world.
(Rugoff150)
Harrersbooktellsofanadventurethatbeganundertheworstimaginablecircumstancesbutthathemadeintosomethinggrandandsignificantinspiteofadversity.Itis
thisspiritofadventureandexchangethatisthegreateststrengthofthestory.
References:
Rugoff1960
HEMINGWAY,ERNEST
NobellaureateErnestHemingway(American,18991961)deservesmentionasafigureonthefringesoftravelwriting.Hiscontributiontomodernliteraturehasbeen
notedandstudiedatgreatlengthindeed,hisworkfallsintomanygenres.Althoughtravelplayedagreatroleinhislifeandinmanyofhisstories,Hemingwayisnot
usuallyregardedasa

Page103
giantoftravelliterature.Severalofhisstories,however,meritannotationinthisvolumebecausetheyareeminentlyliteraryandtraveldrivessubstantialportionsofthe
plot.Inthisregard,aspectsofHemingwaysworkintersecttravelliterature.
Asanewspaperjournalistinthe1920s,HemingwaylivedandworkedthroughoutEuropeandAfrica.Wheredangerwastobefound,therewasHemingway.Asa
supporteroftheSpanishCivilWar,HemingwayvolunteeredinbothWorldWarIandIIinavarietyofroles,frompartisantoambulancedrivertowarcorrespondent.
Whennotinvolvedwithhumanconflict,helovedbiggamehunting,deepseafishing,andadventuresports.Thisobsessionwithdangeranddeathisathemethatruns
throughoutHemingwayslifeandwork.
AmemberoftheartisticandliterarysetofParisdubbedtheLostGeneration,Hemingwaypublishedhisfirstmajorwork,TheSunAlsoRises,in1926.Thiswork
launchedhiscareerandmarkedhimastheliteraryvoiceofhisgeneration.Asamodernistnovelist,Hemingwaysinfluenceonliteraturehasbeenenormousasatravel
writer,hisinfluencehasbeenmoremodest.
Mostofhisnovelsandshortstoriescontaininstancesoftravelthatfacilitatecharacterdevelopmentandconstitutenecessaryelementsoftheplot.InTheSunAlso
Rises,thetriptoPamplona(Spain)toparticipateintherunningofthebullsservesasthecatalysttoJakesdevelopment.InAFarewelltoArms,FredricHenrys
escapetoSwitzerlandfunctionsasajourneythatallowsHenrytolearnofhimself.InTheOldManandtheSea,itisaseavoyagethatprovidestheopportunityforthe
protagonisttoencounterthemarlinthatteacheshimoflifesgrandstruggle.
GreenHillsofAfrica(1935)andTheSnowsofKilimanjaro(1936)changethesettingtoAfrica,buttheroleoftravelremainsthesame.Inbothofthesestories,the
escapefromfamiliarityandnormalcyspursthecharacterstointrospection,conflict,anddevelopment.Theextremesituationsandhardshipsthecharactersencounter
bringouttheirbestandtheirworsttraits.
TheSnowsofKilimanjarodescribesasafarigoneawry.Astheprotagonistlaysdyingofgangreneinhistent,hisloverhelplesstosavehim,hereminiscesabouthis
myriadoftravels:
Herememberedthegoodtimeswiththemall,andthequarrels.Theyalwayspickedthefinestplacestohavethequarrels.Andwhyhadtheyalways
quarreledwhenhewasfeelingbest?Hehadneverwrittenanyofthatbecause,atfirst,heneverwantedtohurtanyoneandthenitseemedasthoughthere
wasenoughtowritewithoutit.Buthehadalwaysthoughtthathewouldwriteitfinally.Therewassomuchtowrite.Hehadseentheworldchange...
andhadwatchedthepeople....Hehadbeeninitandhehadwatcheditanditwashisdutytowriteofit.
(Hemingway49)
InthispassageHemingwayfusestravel,learning,andwritingintoasinglepackage.Anintegralpartofthevoyagealwaysremainsthewritingofthetale.Assuch,this
storymovesclosertoatextbookexampleofmoderntravelliterature.Toensurethathispointismade,Hemingwayhastheadventureofthesafaripromptthe
protagonisttomuseabouttravelingeneralandthentorecognizehisobligationtowriteaboutit.
PerhapstheclosestHemingwayevercametopuretravelwritingwasAMoveableFeast(1964).ThebookrecallsHemingwaysearlyyears(19211926)inParis.
Althoughwrittendecadesafterthefact,thetextcontainsremarkablypreciserecollectionsofpeopleandeventsofthisnearlymythicalperiod.Hemingways
autobiographicalnarratorinthiscasedetailshisownfascinationwiththestrangenessofParis.Tobesure,thenarratorrespondstothedifferencesbetweenParisand
Americancitieswithaspurtofgrowthanddevelopment.Indeed,theopportunitiesofaforeignlifestyleinspirethenarratortoreflectpoignantlyonhisformerlife.
Nonetheless,hisfocusonhisfellowexpatriatesinParislike

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F.ScottFitzgerald,GertrudeStein,EzraPound,andhisexwifeHadleyfrustratestheconventionsoftravelliterature.Atbest,thisworkcanbelabeledan
experimentalextensionoftravelliterature.
AlmostallofHemingwaysstoriescontainaspectsoftravelliteratureinoneformoranother.Throughouthiswork,travelprovidesanopportunityforrevelationabout
humannatureandforselfawareness.Hemingwaybelievedthatitisviaexposuretothewideworld,contactwiththeunfamiliarandextreme,andinteractionwiththe
foreignthatwecometoknowourselves.Forhismodernistrecastingoftravel,Hemingwaymaybeconsideredatravelwriter.
References:
Brian1988
Hemingway1987
HILTON,JAMES
JamesHilton(English,19001954)publishedhisbestsellingnovelLostHorizonin1933.Itisafineexampleofutopiantravelliteratureinthatthevoyagetothe
impossiblyidyllicShangriLaexposesthefaultsofEuropeansocietyonceagain,visitingtheotherteachesthevoyagerabouthimself.Consideringthatthisnovelwas
writtenagainstthebackdropofamountingsocialistthreatandimpendingchaosinEurope,itseemsclearthatHiltonsutopiaismeantasacorrectivecontrasttothe
worldinwhichhelived.
ThestorybeginswiththereunionofoldschoolfellowstalkingofalonglostcompanionnamedConway.RutherfordtellshowhehasbeentrackingConwayforyears.
TravelhasbecomesasortofdetectiveworkforRutherford:tracesofConwayfoundhere,asightingthere,astoryofhispresenceelsewhere.Rutherfordsquestto
findConwaycomesfromhavingseenhimandheardthestoryofhisadventurewhichhepromptlywrotedownasnotesforanovelandhasjustgiventothenarrator.
AdventureandwritingaboutthatadventurebecomeoneactwhatwasConwaysexperiencebecomesRutherfordsstory(whichthenarratorthenrelatestous).
Conwaysstoryissimple:heandarandomgroupofthreeothersarekidnappedandflowntoaremotemountainretreat.Theyarerescuedbykindlymonkswhotake
themtotheirfabulousmonasteryandtreatthemasguests.Duetotheharshclimateandextremelyremotesetting,contactwiththeoutsideworldisinfrequentand
unreliable.Theyaretobeguestsforanindefiniteperiodinthemeantime,theyhaveaccesstoallthedelightfulpleasuresofthemonastery:finefood,abundantnature,a
library,aconservatory,conversation.Eachcharacterrespondsdifferentlytothesituation,buteachresponsesignalsaverypersonalselfreflection.
ThenovelfocusesprimarilyonConwayandhowhecomestounderstandhimselfmorefully.Heisquicklyacceptedbythemonksandisgivenspecialtreatment.He
comestorealizethatthepeaceandcontemplativenatureofthemonasticlifestylesuithimverywell.Incontrast,theyoungestandmostzealousmemberofthe
maroonedgroupinsistsuponanescapeatanycost.SaysConway:IfyoudhadalltheexperiencesIvehad,youdknowthattherearetimesinlifewhenthemost
comfortablethingistodonothingatall.Thingshappentoyouandyouletthemhappen.TheWar[WorldWarI]wasratherlikethat(Hilton64).Welearnthatthis
hasbeenConwaysmodusoperandiinlife,intravel,andincrisis.Heallowswhateverpresentsitselftooccur,andthenhelearnsfromit.Itisalsonoteworthythathe
comparesthisadventuretowar:indeed,ittakesanextremesituationtoteachthemostprofoundlessons.
TheradicallyexoticsettingandcultureofthemonasteryfunctionasglaringcontraststoEuropeandAmerica,thusmakingmemoriesofhomeallthemorevividforthe
visitors.PartofthiscontrastisthefamiliarOrientalversusOccidentalcomparison:theAsianisoftenmythologizedasinscrutable,mystical,andhighlyspiritual,whereas
theEuropeanis

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forthright,rational,andpragmatic.Theresultisoftenasenseofinsiderversusoutsider,whichcreatesatension.ButConwaybridgesthegap.HeisatonceaEuropean
outsiderandamonasticinsider.Inhisattemptstoacclimatehimself,hemuses:Therecameatime,herealized,whenthestrangenessofeverythingmadeitincreasingly
difficulttorealizethestrangenessofanythingwhenonetookthingsforgrantedmerelybecauseastonishmentwouldhavebeenastediousforoneselfasfor
others(Hilton165).Infact,Conwayishavingagenuinecrisisoftheself:heissureofneitherwhatheisnorwhathewantstobe.
Onceinformedthatthefourguestscannotleave,Conwaybeginsamoralstruggleacceptingthispolicymakessensetohismonasticside,whilerejectingitmakes
sensetohisEuropeanside.RemaininginShangriLainvolvestakingapotionthatisanelixirofyouthheispromisedextremelongevityandextraordinarypleasuresof
themind.Thesoleconditionisthathecanneverleavethevalley.Thissituationfunctionsononelevelasaverypowerfulmetaphorfortravel.Tobeawayfromhomeis
toreducehometomerememorythelongerandfartherawayfromhomethetraveleris,themorefullyarememoriesreducedtocertainelementalcomponents.Beingin
ShangriLaistakingthatideatothemaximumdegree:youcannevergohome,butyoucanspendthenexttwocenturiesrememberingandmakingsenseofthose
memories.Intheory,thenewnessofShangriLaandthenewnessofthetravelerseverchangingperspectivewillyieldendlesscomparisonsandrevelations.
AlthoughtheofferproposedtoConwayisanintriguingidea,herejectsitinordertohelphisyoungfriendMallinsonescape,whichrequireshisowndeparturefromthe
valleyasheaccompanieshim.YetfromtheframenarrationwelearnthatConwayhassincesoughttoreturntoShangriLa,whichsuggeststhathereversedhisposition
intheend.Thisapparentreversalmightbereadasacknowledgingthatregardlessofwhetheroneisathomeorabroad,thereisalwayssomethingdesirablehappening
intheoppositeplace.Perhapswemightcallthisthegrassisalwaysgreenersyndrome.Partofthewisdomthattravelteachesusisthattheworldmarchesonwithout
us.
Asisusuallythecasewithutopianliterature,theidyllicparadiseturnsouttohavesomeseriousflaws.ShangriLa,whileonthesurfaceandintheoryaseeminglyideal
society,appearsmonstrouslyselfishatadeeperlevelandinpractice.Preservingmusic,literature,philosophy,andideasinavacuumfailstobenefithumankindandruns
countertothetraditionoftheHumanities.Furthermore,asocietywithpreciseandinvariablerules,howeverbenign,deniesitscitizensfreedom.Evenapparentlygood
endeavorssuchasart,music,andliteraturecanbepursuedtoexcess.OnceagaingiventhetroubledtimeinwhichHiltonwrotethenovel,Ifeelthatwemust
considerthebookgravelyskepticalofextremismofanysort.
Thusasaworkoftravelliterature,LostHorizondepictsajourneytoamythicallandbutitisthisjourneythatdemandsthattheparticipantsandweasreadersmust
benumberedamongthemreflectupontheirowncultures.Onlybygettingoutsideofthefamiliarcanweseeourselves.Inthebestcases,thislearningisthenreturned
totheoriginalculture,eitherintheindividualorintheliterature.
References:
Hilton1960
HOOD,THOMAS
In1826,todepicthisjourneytoRotterdam,Netherlands,whilehisbelovedremainedinLondon,ThomasHood(English,17991845)pennedhisdelightfulpoemTo
*****.HoodwasaminorearlyVictorianfigurewhoisnoteworthyalsoforthearrayofmagazinesthatheeditedandhisfriendshipwithliterarynotablesCharles
Lamb,William

Page106
Hazlitt,andThomasDeQuincey.HisownpublishedworksamongthemFaithlessNellyGray(1834),TheSongoftheShirt(1843),ThePleaofthe
MidsummerFairies(1827),andWhimsandOddities(1826)werecourteouslyreceivedbutneverparticularlyfamousorlauded.Hoodsinfluentialfriends
promotedhisworkstotheirlimitsthemostcommonpraiseforthemisthattheyarefullofpuns,wit,andhumor.
To*****maystrikethemodernreaderasaparticularlyoddtitleforapoem.Therowofasteriskssignifiesthatthepoetwantstoprotecttheidentityofthereal
personforwhomitwaswritten.Asromanticinvolvementwasoftencauseforscandal,proprietydictatedthatanonymitywastobepreserved.Thereisalongtradition
inpoetryofeffacingapersonsnameforthesakeofmodestybutalsoasameansofteasing:readers,eventheonetowhomthepoemwasdedicated,canneverbe
absolutelysurewhotheauthorhadinmind.Itcausesustowonderandtospeculateontheidentityofhislover.
Inthispoem,thenarratoristornbetweentheexcitementandadventureofaContinentalvisitandhisremorseatbeingapartfromhislove.Perhapsthepoemwas
writtentohislover,whoisstuckathome,asatokenofaffectionandfidelity.Writteninsevenstanzasofeightlineseach,To*****beginswithdisorientedaweat
arriving.Beforethestanzaisfinished,however,thenarratorhasanchoredhimselfwithafamiliarmemory:
l
l
l
l
l

FromsidetosideIsaunter,
AndwonderwhereIam
AndcanyoubeinEngland,
AndIatRotterdam!
(CrossleyHolland168)

Eachsubsequentstanzaendswiththesamesentiment:sheisathomeandheisabroad.Thefinallinesdepictthenarratordrinkingwithhisnewfoundfriendsbut
proposingatoasttoThegirlIloveinEngland.Hehasimportedherintothepub,ifonlyinspirit.Insteadofembracingthestrangenessofhisnewsetting,heseeksto
makeitresemblehisfamiliarhaunts.
To*****isinterestingchieflybecauseitdescribeshowthedifficultiesoftraveloutweighthejoys.Ateveryturn,whatmightbeexcitingorbeautifulistainted
preciselybecauseitisnothome,thedefiningfeatureofwhichisthepresenceofhislover.Rotterdamiscastinnegativelight:AsortofvulgarVenicewhereThey
dealinforeigngestures,/Anduseaforeignspeech.Itisthedifferencefromwhatisfamiliarthatkeepsremindinghimofhome.Althoughhegripesineverystanza,the
narratortellsofalusciousrangeofsensualpleasuresheencounterswhileabroad,fromthesilvermoonbeams...restlessintheirsleeponthecanals,tothetobacco
ofhookahsinthecoffeeshop,tothevarietyofwinesinthebar.Inspiteofsuchpraiseworthyelements,thenarratorremainsaloofandattimessnobbish.Eventhe
rhythmofthepoemsuggestsstiffnessandconstraint.Indeed,theprotagonistofthispoemrefusestoembracethepleasureofbeinginaforeignland.
References:
CrossleyHolland1986
HOUGHTON,FIRSTBARON
SeeMilnes,RichardMonckton
HUXLEY,ALDOUS
MostfamousforhisutopiannovelBraveNewWorld,AldousHuxley(English,18941963)alsowrotetravelliteraturewithconsiderableskill.Althoughraisedina
prominentfamilyandeducatedatOxfordUniversity,Huxleywasknownforhisbitingcriticismofpretentiousnessaswellasforhisdry,satiricwit.Hehadstudied
medicinebutneverpracticedduetohispoorvisionnonetheless,allofhiswritingdemonstrateshisscientificbackground.Hisnearly50publishedbooksfallintomany
categories.

Page107
Asanaffluentandsuccessfulmanofletters,Huxleytraveledwidelyandwheneverpossible.HisjournalofayearlongvoyagethroughIndia,Burma(modernday
Myanmar),Malaysia,Japan,China,andtheUnitedStateswaspublishedasJestingPilate:TheDiaryofaJourney(1926).Avividandlooselykeptaccount,Jesting
Pilaterecordshisobservations,adventures,andencountersalongthisstrangeroute.ItappearsthatthisvoyagemadealastingimpressiononHuxley,forhisbeliefsand
attitudesunderwentamarkedshifttowardmysticismfollowingthistrip.ItisnoleaptoassertthatHuxleystravelschangedhim.
BeyondtheMexiqueBay(1934)chroniclesHuxleysexpeditionintheCaribbean,Guatemala,andMexico.ComparedtotheadventurescapturedinJestingPilate,
thisjourneyappearstohavemadealessfavorableimpressiononHuxley.Heisoftencriticalandcrankyinhisdescriptions.Bythispointinhiscareer,Huxleyhad
adoptedaspiritualmysticismashisguidinglight,andperhapstheWestIndiesandCentralAmericaweresomethingofadisappointmentwiththeirstrongCatholic
beliefs.Nonetheless,BeyondtheMexiqueBayissignificantastravelliteratureinthatitdescribesatravelerreconcilinghispreconceivednotionswithwhatisinfact
beforehim.ThespanbetweenexpectationsandrealityisoftengreatinthisbookHuxleyfocusesonwhathappenswhenatravelerbridgesthatgap.
Island(1962),whichtookitstitlefromLordByrons1823poemofthesamename,tellsthestoryoftheHMSBounty.Huxleytakesthetaleandweavesanovel
aroundit.Whilenotentirelytravelliterature,Islandhasseveralelementsbeyondthelineageofitstitlethatmakeittravelwriting.LikeBraveNewWorld,Island
createsautopianculture,thistimeonanislandcalledPala.Asreaders,webecomevisitorstothisstrangeandexoticplace.Wenecessarilyformculturalcomparisons
andexperiencethesamesortofselfreflectionthatiskeytoanyworkoftravelliterature.
ThesethreeworksinparticularrepresentthebestofHuxleystravelliterature.Togethertheydepictanenormouslylearnedmancontinuinghiseducationandhoninghis
selfawarenessbytravelingandengagingforeigncultures.Hisvoyagesmadeaprofounddifferenceinhisownlifeaswellasinhiswriting.Huxleygrowsviacultural
crosspollination,andasreaders,wecanfollowthatdevelopmentoverthecourseofhisprolificcareer.
Seealso:
Byron,Lord
References:
Harvey1967
Newby1985

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Page109

J
JAMES,CAPTAINTHOMAS
TheclaimtofameofCaptainThomasJames(English,1593?1635),aminorexplorer,istheexplorationofthesouthernreachesofHudsonBay.Hewassearchingfor
theelusiveNorthwestPassage.UponreturningtoEngland,hepublishedhisaccount,TheStrangeandDangerousVoyageofCaptainThomasJames(1632).
Hisstoryisindeedaharrowingtale:hiscrewreducedtoadozen,Jameshadhismenbuildashelterandsinktheshipinordertosaveitfrombeingcrushedintheice.
TheyenduredthefrigidCanadianwinter,sufferinggreatprivationsandmiseries,untilfinallytheweatherbrokeandtheycouldraisetheshipforrepairs.These
completed,theyhappilyreturnedtoEngland.
Jamessjournalisatoncebothgrippingandpitiful.Itexpressestheperseverance,thetenacity,andthebraveryofthesespiritedexplorers.Jamesdepictshimselfasa
remarkablyenlightenedleader:dependinguponthesituation,hecouldbeincrediblycompassionate,whollydemocratic,orunflinchinglyfirm.
Uponleavingthesettlement,Jamescomposedapoemtohonorthosewhodiedduringthewinter.Itsfinallinesexpressthebitterglorythatmarkedthemission:
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l

Theirlivestheyspent,tothelastdropofblood,
SeekingGodsgloryandtheirCountriesgood.
And,asavaliantSoldierratherdyes
ThenyieldshiscouragetohisEnemies,
Andstopstheirwaywithhishewdflesh,whendeath
Hathquitedeprivdhimofhisstrengthandbreath,
Sohavetheyspentthemselvesandheretheylye,
AfamousmarkofourDiscovery.
(Adams166)

AsanexpressionofthewillfulsacrificesthattheseearlyexplorersmadeandasadramatictaleofthehumanspiritJamessjournalisworthalook.
References:
Adams1988
Christy1894
JAMES,HENRY(JR.)
Authorofavastnumberofhighlyacclaimedbooks,HenryJames(American,laterBritish,18431916)pennedseveralremarkableworksoftravelliterature.Anavid
travelerandanearlycompulsivewriter,whereverhewenthewrotereflective,insightful,andprovocativeessays.Hissubjectsrangedfromhistorytoartand
architecturetoprofilesofindividualsheencountered.Hisfourgreatestworksoftravelliteraturewerepublishedrelativelyearlyinhiscareer:TransatlanticSketches
(1875),PortraitsofPlaces(1883),ALittleTourinFrance(1884),andItalianHours(1909).HisCollectedTravelWritings(compiledandreprinted1993)
containsanumberofshorterworksincludingEnglishHours,TheAmericanScene,andaseriesofotherwiseuncollectedtravelwritings.InthesebooksJames
concernedhimselfwithinvokingthehistoryoftheplaceshevisitedandthenengagingthathistoricalcurrentinthepresent.
Borntoawelltodointellectualfamily,JameswasshuttledbetweenEuropeandtheUnitedStatesthroughouthischildhood.HenryJamesSr.insistedthatHenryJr.
andhisbrother,William,begiventhefinesteducation.Thefamilyemployedprivatetutorswhotraveledwiththefamily.PerhapsthisisoneofthereasonsthatJamess
booksconjoin

Page110
travelandlearning:fromhisearliestboyhood,histutorsusedtravelasapartofhiseducation.Becauseofhisprominentfamilyandtheconsiderablefameandpraisehe
achievedonhisown,Jameshadaccesstotherich,powerful,andfamousofbothEuropeandAmerica.Lesserwritersmighthaveconcentratedonprofilingthese
glitteringacquaintancesandtheirlavishlifestyles,butJamesalmostwhollyignorestheminhistravelwritinginfavorofmoreabstractandbroadertopics.
Anastoundinglymeticulousandorganizedfellow,Jamesreflectshisownpersonalityinhistravelwritings.Hisnarrativesareextremelythoroughandconsistentlyfocus
onhistory,literature,architecture,andmannersofaparticularplace.Bywayoftransition,heoftenshareshisimpressionsandthencommentsuponthem,thereby
framinghisownseeminglyobjectiveaccountwithhisownsubjectivity.Constantlyfascinatedwiththepsychologyofperception,Jamespeppershisworkswithmany
wonderfullyunstablemomentswhereheundermineshisowndescriptionsandaccountsasunreliablypersonalandcoloredbyanynumberofextraneousfactors.
JamesfeltanxiousaboutbeinganAmerican.Therawnessandlackofhistoryinthecountrycausedhimtofeelrootlessasasolution,heestablishedtiesinEurope.
Effectively,likemanynineteenthcenturyAmericans,headoptedtheEuropeanheritageandallitstrappings.Jamessoughtsocial,aesthetic,andintellectualgroundingin
thegreatContinentaltraditions.Tolearnthisbearing,hefirstreadvoraciouslyandthenwenttoexperiencethoseplaces.Inthisregard,Jamesusedtravelasanintegral
partofhisongoingeducation.InmanyofhisnovelsthecontrastbetweenAmericaandEuropeplaysacentralroleindeed,itisbytravelingbetweenthetwocultures
thatJameswasabletogainextremeinsightintoboth.
Jamesrightlydeserveshisreputationasamasterstylist.Histravelwritingmixescerebralmeditationswithemotionaloutbursts.Hislong,complexparagraphsareoften
exhaustingwiththeirphysicaldetailsandrelatedculturalasides.Heincludeslittlebywayofdialogue,preferringinsteadextendeddescriptionsandanalyses.Asinhis
laternovels,histravelliteraturestrivesforanevocativerealismandpsychologicalcredibility.
Asahighlyeducatedintellectual,Jamesspiceshistravelliteraturewithanabundantarrayofclassicalliteraryreferences.FromHeroditustoWilliamShakespeareto
JohnMiltontoJeanJacquesRousseau,andeveryoneinbetween,hisprofusionofallusionseffectivelyenhanceshisaccounts.Jamessessaysroamfreelyofftheir
topics,buthealwaysseemstoreturntoafewfamiliarthemes.
ALittleTourinFrancechroniclesoneofhistripstoFrance.Thisexpeditionappearstohavebeenpoliticallyaswellassociologicallymotivated.James,asusual,
dwellsonthehistoricalbackgroundoftheplaceshevisits.GiventheweightoftheFrenchRevolutioninFranceshistory,Jamesoftenanchorstheplaceshevisitsin
1789andthentracestheirhistorybackwardandforwardfromthere.Healsospendsconsiderabletimeobservingandanalyzingarchitecturallysignificantplaces,
includingChenonceauxandFontainebleau.Lastly,JamesseemsvexedbythegeneralFrenchrejectionsocially,artistically,historicallyoftheirRomanheritage.Thus
whenvisiting,forexample,Rouen,heisbotheredbytheapparentlackofrespectforanddenialofthetownsancienthistory.
TransatlanticSketchesandPortraitsofPlacesbothcontainavarietyofobservationsofEurope.Concentratingonculturalhistoryandarchitecture,thesebooks
containnumerousnoteworthyimagesofbuildings,structuralhighlights,andcommonscenes.Interestingforwhattheyinclude,thesebooksprovideanumberofinsights
thatonlyaninsidercouldsupply.Astravelguides,theyareinterestinganduseful,fortheyofferaparticularlysophisticatedseriesofdescriptions.Inaddition,theyafford
aglimpseofwhatalatenineteenthcenturytravelermighthavefoundnoteworthy.

Page111
TheessayscomprisingItalianHourswerenotcollectedandpublisheduntilaftertheturnofthecentury.Theyareunrelatedarticleswritteninthe1860sand1870s
overaseriesoftoursandtravels.SaidJamesofonesuchvisittoItaly:AtlastforthefirsttimeIlive!(Fussell438).InthisvolumeJameswritesoftenofItalyasa
singularplace,generalizingaboutbehaviorandnationaltraits.Therearesomemorespecificaccountsinthecollection,includinganotherlovingdescriptionofVenice.
Aswithhisotherworks,Jamesremainscriticalofmodernizationandchange,assertingthatallthismoderncrudityrunsriotovertherelicsofthegreatperiod(Fussell
441).YetJamesdoesnotcomeacrossasinsolentrather,itishisfamiliaritywithandobviousloveforItalythatallowhimtobecriticalwithoutbeingobnoxious.
ItalianHoursreadslikealovingeulogyforItaliangreatnessflavoredwithlavishexamplesfromavarietyofcities.Additionally,whatJamessawaslamentablymodern
remainsextremelyinterestingtothecontemporaryreaderwhomaybetemptedtoidealizenineteenthcenturyconstructions.
HislessfamousandperhapslessmagnificenttravelwritingsincludeTheAmericanScene(1907),whichdescribesalongtriparoundAmericaaftertwodecadesof
absence,andEssaysonLondonandElsewhere(1893),whichfocusesonEngland.
Furthermore,travelandjourneysplaysignificantrolesinmanyofJamessnovels.Veryoften,visitingstarklycontrastingculturescauseshischaracterstodevelopin
waystheyhadnotanticipated.TheAmerican(1877)isalovestorythatcontrastsFrenchandAmericanmannersandmores.TheEuropeans(1878)depictsa
fictitiousEuropeanobservingNewEngland,andassuch,itclearlycanbelabeledatravelnovel.Inthisintricateandpsychologicallycomplextale,travelfunctionsnot
onlyasthebackdropfortheplot,butalsoitsveryessence.
Jamesimaginedhistravelsasifhewereobservingsomesortofshow:thestorysurroundedhim,anditwashisjobtomakesenseofit.Heviewedhimselfasa
detachedspectator,obligedtotakenotesandweaveastoryfromthegreathistorythatflowedaroundhim.AshewroteofVeniceforCenturymagazineinNovember
1882:
Venice.ItisagreatpleasuretowritethewordbutIamnotsurethereisnotcertainimpudenceinpretendingtoaddanythingtoit.Venicehasbeen
paintedanddescribedmanythousandsoftimes,andofallthecitiesoftheworlditistheeasiesttovisitwithoutgoingthere.Openthefirstbookandyou
willfindarhapsodyaboutit....Thereisnothingmoretobesaidaboutit.Everyonehasbeenthere,andeveryonehasbroughtbackacollectionof
photographs....Itisnotforbidden,however,tospeakoffamiliarthings,andIbelievethat,forthetrueVenicelover,Veniceisalwaysinorder.Thereis
nothingnewtobesaidaboutitcertainly,buttheoldisbetterthananynovelty....Iwritetheselineswiththefullconsciousnessofhavingnoinformation
whatevertooffer.IdonotpretendtoenlightenthereaderIpretendtogiveafilliptohismemory.
(Rugoff607608)
TheselinesepitomizeJamesstravelwriting:introspectiveandevocativeatonce,andclearlyinlovewiththetopic.ForJames,textsarebutremindersofrealplaces
nevercananaccountreplaceanactualvisit.
References:
Adams1988
Fussell1987
Harvey1967
Newby1985
Rugoff1960
JENKINSON,ANTHONY
AstheRenaissancespreadnorthward,thewholeEuropeancontinentfounditselfinamercantilecompetition.Vastfortunesweretobeearnedfromimportinggoods
fromAsiatheprincipaldifficultywasthegreatdistancethatprovidednumerousopportunitiesforthieves,pirates,storms,wildbeasts,andendlessotherimpediments.
AnthonyJenkinson(English,?1611)wasoneofmanymerchantsoftheElizabethanerawhosoughthis

Page112
fortunebytradewithAsiaandhisfamebywritingaboutit.
Hisaccountofhistravels,VoyagefromMoscowtotheCityofBokhara(1561),relateshisattempttofindaneasierandthusmorelucrativeoverlandroutetothe
SilkRoad.HewasconvincedthattraversingRussiawashisbestbet,andtowardthataim,hefirstjourneyedtoMoscowtobecomethecaptaingeneralofthe
MuscovyCompanyofLondonMerchants.Hearrivedin1558andspentthenexttwoyearstryingtomakeittoChina.Afterconsiderabledifficultytheusualstorms,
mutinies,thieves,illnesseshereachedthedesertregionsofCentralAsia.Stillconfident,heequippedhimselfwithacaravanof1,000camelsandcountlessporters.
Foreightmonths,heploddedthroughthedesertlookingforthetradingcitiesofBokhara(Bukhara)andSamarkand(Samarqand).
TheregionatthetimewasfirmlyunderTurkishcommand,andithadwitheredasacentralhuboftradebecauseArabianmerchantssoughttoavoidtheirTurkish
enemies.Withinweeksoffindingthesecitieslackinginthegoodshesought,JenkinsonsoldhiscaravanandreturnedtoMoscowwiththerecommendationthata
RussiantraderoutetoChinawasimpossible.
Jenkinsonsnarrativeisnoteworthyforseveralreasons.First,hiscalmnarrationofharrowingandbitterlydisappointingeventssuggeststhathisattitudesabouttravel
tookforgrantedgravedangerandastronglikelihoodoffailure.Inotherwords,thoughhesoughttomakehislivingbytravelingthetraderoutes,hefoundthejourney
interestingandexcitinginitself.Second,Jenkinsonshowsustheboldspiritofanewlyemergingcapitalistsensibility:partofthevalueofgoodsfromAsiacamefromthe
difficultyofobtainingthem.Travelservesasasortofbusinessinthiscase.Third,hiswritingstyleisamongthebestoftheElizabethanmerchants.Hisproseiswitty,
dramatic,andattimesquiteamusing,whilehisopinionsarebold,brave,andgenuine.Hedoesnotcolorhisdescriptionwithoverlyexcitedawe,butratherwithan
endearingsincerity.Itisthisearnestnessthatmakeshimbothenjoyableandinterestingtoread.
Seealso:
SilkRoad
References:
Morgan1886
JOHNSON,SAMUEL
AnindispensablecharacterinthehistoryofEnglishletters,SamuelJohnson(English,17091784)remainsfamousinmanyregards.Hisprolificcareerproducedmany
works,includingtheRambler(anewspaperhepublishedandedited),ADictionaryoftheEnglishLanguage,Rasselas,andTheLivesofthePoets.Beyondthese
formidablecontributions,healsowrotetwofascinatingbooksoftravelliterature:AJourneytotheWesternIslandsofScotland(1775)andJournalofaTourtothe
Hebrides(1785).
AlthoughhetraveledperiodicallythroughoutEurope,hisjourneytoScotlandandtheHebridesIslands(inthecompanyofJamesBoswell)seemedtohavemost
inspiredhistravelwriting.Dr.Johnsonbelievedprogresstobepropelledbyobservationallearning.Tohismind,akeenobserverabroadmightlearnvolumesthatmight
aidBritain:LetObservation,withitsextensiveview/SurveymankindfromChinatoPeru(Fussell130).Significantly,hesoughtthenearestforeignothertostudyin
detail.
Amanofenormousenergyandprominentideas,Johnsonstartedlifewithmodestmeansandworkedextremelyhardtobetterhisposition.Afterafailedattemptat
teaching,hefoundthathewasabletoekeoutanexistencefromhiswriting.Slowly,themomentumofhiscareerbuilt,abettedsignificantlybyhisDictionaryofthe
EnglishLanguagein1755.Afterthispoint,hebecamemoderatelyfamousandcontinuedhisprolifictextualproduction.Hisfameandfortuneincreasedsignificantly,
andheredoubledhis

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effortstoleavehismarkuponanumberofdisciplines.Ashegainedprominence,hefoundhimselfinacircleofLondonintellectuals,includingBoswell.Thetwo
becamefastfriendsandtraveledwidelytogether.
OneofhisstatedgoalsofthetriptoScotlandwithBoswell(1773)wastowriteadifferentsortoftraveltextthanwaspopularinhisday.Generally,hefoundmost
traveloguesuninspiredanddull.Heblamedthismostlyonthemodeoftraveling:Thegreaterpartoftravelerstellnothingbecausetheirmethodoftravelingsupplies
themwithnothingtobetold.Hethatentersatownatnightandsurveysitinthemorning,andthenhastensawaytoanotherplace,andguessesatthemannersofthe
inhabitantsbytheentertainmentwhichhisinnaffordedhim,maypleasehimself[alone](Fussell241).Indeed,suchsuperficialtravelersofferreadersnothing
entertainingoreducating.Tocurethisill,Johnsontookhistimetravelingandmeetinglocalfolkofallcategories.Withhistremendouslybroadknowledgeandhiseasy
waywithconversation,hefoundthatthebestwaytoengagepeoplewasbytalkingwiththem.Inaddition,BoswellandJohnsonpridedthemselvesonutilizingavariety
ofmethodsoflocomotion,fromwalkingtobargestopostcarriages.
HisbooksthusdocumenthistravelsthroughScotlandwithgreatdetailandprecision.Ratherthanfollowingthetraditionalchronologicaltravelogueformat,Johnsons
booksareorganizedbyplacenames.Foreachtown,hewritesanessaydescribingthephysicalaswellasthesociologicalspecificsoftheplace.Althoughhisintention
waspraiseworthy,Johnsonsobsessionwithcompletenesstendstostiflehisstories:theyoftenplodthroughseeminglyendlessdetailsandhistoricalreferences.
Nonetheless,nestledamidthefactsisanextraordinarilymultifacetedimageofScottishlifeinthelateeighteenthcentury.
AlthoughDr.Johnsonsmodusoperandiwasengagement,hewriteshistextfromadetachedperspective.Rarelydoeshequoteorrecreateaconversation,preferring
insteadtosummarizeandrelaywhathedeemstobeofvalueintheexchange.Theeffectofthisnarrativevoiceisareassuringsenseofobjectivity,althoughonsome
levelweknowthatweareathissubjectivemercy.
AnotherintriguingaspectofJohnsonstextarisesfromthewayinwhichherepresentsScotlandasalmostexotic.Unabletounderstandthedialectinmanycases,
amazedattheruggedgeography,andastoundedatthesocialbehaviorofthevillagers,JohnsondepictsalandthatseemsasforeignasdeepestAfrica.Implicitinthis
starkcontrastisa

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defaultcomparisontohisfamiliarlifeinliteraryLondon.Perhapspredictably,Johnsonsbookmetwithmixedreviews.Forhisconservativepolitics,theScotsmaligned
himforhiseffusivepraiseofthebeautyofScotland,theBritishscornedhim.Regardless,oneoftheenduringelementsofJohnsonstravelwritingisthatitdidnotshy
awayfromcontroversyoroffensiveness.
Intheend,Johnsonstravelwritingvalueseducation.Itisthroughobservationandengagementthatwelearnofdifference,andinsodoing,weareoftenforcedto
adjustourownopinions.AshewritesinanessaytitledSomeRatherConflictingObservationsonTravel,
Alltravelhasitsadvantages.Ifthepassengervisitsbettercountries,hemaylearntoimprovehisown,andifthefortunecarrieshimtoworse,hemaylearn
toenjoyit....Booksoftravelswillbegoodinproportiontowhatamanhaspreviouslyinhismindhisknowingwhattoobservehispowersof
contrastingonemodeoflifewithanother.
(Newby15)
WewillletthisstandasasummaryofDr.Johnsonstravelprojects.Irreducibly,travelandwritingresideatthecoreoflearning.
Seealso:
Boswell,James
References:
Drabble1998
Fussell1987
Newby1985

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K
KALM,PETER
NaturalistPeterKalm(Swedish,17161779)providesaninterestingperspectiveontheUnitedStatesinthedecadesjustbeforetheAmericanRevolution.Asa
Swede,hehadaratherdifferentviewpointthanmanyofhiscontemporaryFrenchandEnglishwriters,whohadsignificantcolonialinterestsinAmerica.Inaddition,as
ascientist,Kalmattemptstomaintainastanceofobjectivityanddistance.
CarolusLinnaeus,thebotanistwhocodifiedaclassificationsystemforplants,commissionedKalmsthreeyearjourney.Kalmsscientificworkstandsassuperior,but
itishispersonaljournalthatinterestsus.Althoughhistravelsbeganin1748,hisaccountofthemwasnotpublisheduntilsomeyearsafterhisreturnin1751,andthen
another20yearselapsedbeforeKalmsworkwastranslatedintoEnglish.Thattext,TravelsintoNorthAmerica(1772),remainsaninterestinglookmostlyat
colonialNewEnglandandCanadaduringacriticalhistoricalperiod.
Kalmsprosemaynotbeascraftedasthatofsomeofhisliterarypeers,butitisdecidedlythoroughanddescriptive.Hisfocusisalmostalwayscomparativeinnature
heusuallycategorizespeopleintooneofthreecamps:Europeans,Englishcolonists,orFrenchcolonists.NativeAmericansaremostlyincidentalanddonotconstitutea
majorportionofKalmsstudy.
Yetinspiteofhisscientificformandrigidorder,Kalmchoosestoobserveandcommentuponadelightfullyquirkyselectionofcharacteristics.Socialmoresand
manners,fashion,regionallanguagedifferences,climate,andcuisineallstrikeKalmasnotable.Pharmacology,linguistics,religion,andslaveryinterestedKalmaswell.
Detachedfromhissubject,asthoughaflyonthewall,Kalmobservesandanalyzesthedailylifeofthefiguresheencounters.
HeisoftenhighlycriticalofthebehaviorofNorthAmericans.PerhapsthisisonereasonittooktwodecadesfortheEnglisheditiontogetpublished.Butthisisalsoone
ofthechiefvaluesofthetext:hiscriticalSwedisheyeseesmuchthatEnglishandFrenchtravelersinNorthAmericadidnot.Indeed,itisKalmsattemptatobjectivity
thatmakeshimaninterestingandinformativesource.
References:
Newby1985
KANE,ELISHAKENT
Duringthemidnineteenthcentury,amaniaforextremeexpeditionscapturedtheimaginationsofEuropeanandAmericanexplorers.Themagneticpolesoftheearth
providedparticularlytemptingdestinations.Nationsracedtobethefirsttofieldanexplorationtotheseinhospitableextremesoftheglobe.Aseriesofmisadventures
from1845to1851leftseveralmajorexcursionsmissinginactionorthwarted.Onhisfirstmajorvoyage,ElishaKentKane(American,18201857)wrotethe
relativelydullU.S.GrinnellExpeditioninSearchofSirJohnFranklin(laterabridgedandreprintedasAdriftintheArcticIcePack,1915).
In1853,ateamfromtheGeographicalSocietyofNewYorksetoutfortheArcticinsearchofcluesastothefateofpreviousmissionsaswellasinhopesofreaching
theNorthPole.Kaneservedasteamdoctor.WithseveralArcticexpeditionsunderhisbelt,Kanehadvaluableexperienceandmedicalknowledge.Thistriptoowas
illfated.Thecrewexpected

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agruelingandharrowingjourneywhattheygotwasvastlyworse.Thatsomemembersoftheteamsurvivedremainsremarkable.Buttheydidsucceedinsettinga
recordnamely,theyattainedthedistinctionoftravelingFarthestNorth(atthetime)byreaching8010'north.Kanesgrippingandvividaccount,Arctic
Explorations(1856),metwithresoundingsuccessbothbecauseofitsterrifyingcontentanditsexcitingwriting.
Kanestextisagreatexampleofthedesiretogowherenomanhadgonebefore.Heclearlydemonstrateshowcompellingitwastogowherefew,ifany,menhad
eversetfoot.Inoneway,thissortofexplorationispuretravel:thevoyageisboththemeansandtheend.Inthiscase,Kanetraveledsimplytoreachhisdestinationand
thentoreturn.Intheprocessofextremetravel,thevoyagerlearnsofhimself,foradversitybringsouthisbestandworstcharacteristics.
ArcticExplorationstellsofthenorthboundrouteontheshipAdvanceandthensubsequentforaysovertheiceinsleds.Thetreacherousiceeventuallytrappedthe
ship,andtheteamhadtosetoutovertheicefornorthernGreenland.Alreadytwoyearsintothejourney,themenweretiredandweak.Whentheylefttheship,they
packedamonthsworthoffoodtheirtrekendeduptaking83days.AidedbyfriendlyEtahEskimos,whatremainedofthepartyeventuallyemergedincivilization.
Uponreturn,theteamwasregardedasheroic.Kane,however,wasmortallyweakenedbytheordeal.Herushedthroughthewritingofhisbookanddiedwithinayear
ofitsrelease.
Foritsagonizingdetailsanditsunderstateddepictionofcourageandtenacity,ArcticExplorationsrankshighonthelistofadventuretravelliterature.Asanexample
oftravelforitsownsake,thetextisalsonoteworthy.Andlastly,asawelltoldstory,allthemoreexcitingforitstruth,Kanesbooksucceeds.
References:
Newby1985
KEROUAC,JACK
BeatpoetJackKerouac(American,19221969)isoftenafavoriteoftravelers.AftercompletinghiseducationinNewYork,Kerouacembarkeduponalifethat
wouldsendhimwanderingaroundtheglobe.HisextensivetravelsintheUnitedStatesandMexicoarechronicledinhisquasiautobiographicalnovelsandpoetry.He
alsovisitedEurope,NorthAfrica,andAsiaoverthecourseofhislife.
Kerouacfitsintomanycategories,amongthemtravelwriter.Hisstoriesembracetheexciteddiscoveriesthatcomefromencounteringanewplacefullofdifferent
people.OntheRoad(1957)isKerouacsmostclearlydefinedexampleoftravelliteratureinthattheplotitselfisdrivenbythenotionofmotion.Whilethereare
considerableelementsoftravelwritinginsomeofhisotherworks,wewillconcentrateonthissingletextasanexample.

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OntheRoadremainsJackKerouacsmostfamousnovel.Itdefinedbeatnikattitudesaboutmotion,travel,andinspiringplaces.Ultimately,thecharactersfigureout
thatbeingontheroadisbetterthanactuallybeingatthedestinationitisthestateofbeinginmotionthatinspirestheimagination.
ThenovelisastoryofayoungwriternamedSalParadise(modeledonKerouachimself)whosetsouttohaveafewlastadventuresbeforesettlingdownintoamore
mainstreamandconservativelifestyle.Alongtheway,heencountersahostofwildandcounterculturalcharacterswhohelphimtogrowemotionallyandspiritually.The
mostvividandinfluentialofhisfriendsisDeanMoriarty(basedonNealCassady),perhapstheultimateBeat:hissoulwaswrappedupinafastcar,acoasttoreach,
andawomanattheendoftheroad(Kerouac4).Deanisbothexconvictandconman,constantlystirringuptrouble,yethisoverwhelmingcharmandenergymake
himthelikablecenterofattention.Assuch,heisdescendedfromthetraditionalfigureofthepicaro.HeinspiresfierceloyaltyinSal,amongothers,anddevotionfrom
hisstringofloversbutintheend,Deanfindshimselfunabletoreturnthefavor:hedesertsSalinaMexicanhospitalinordertoheadbackoutontheroad.
AnumberofcolorfulcharactersrevolvearoundDean.CarloMarx(basedonAllenGinsberg),thefriendwithtwopiercingeyestheholyconmanwiththeshining
mind,andthesorrowfulpoeticconmanwiththedarkmind,(7)servesastheintellectualofthebunch.OldBullLee(basedonWilliamS.Burroughs)isthedrug
addictedelderofthegroupwhoistieddownwithawife,kids,andahousebutwhononethelessmanagestoprovideawildtimewheneveranyoneispassingthrough.
RolandMajoristheantithesisofSal:hetooisanaspiringwriter,butinsteadofusingtravelashismuse,hestagnates,acholeric,redfaced,pudgyhaterofeverything
whositsinhissilkdressinggowncomposinghislatestHemingwayanshortstory(4041).RemiBoncour,theFrenchmanwiththebigheart,isdownonhisluckbut
alwaysinajovialmood,readytospendwhatlittlecashhecanscrapetogether.TerryistheLatinamigrantworkerwhoteachesSalabouttrustandsimplepleasurehe
nonethelessdesertsher.AndMarylou,Camille,andInezarethelongsufferinggirlfriendswhotrytowinDeanselusiveaffections.Eachcharacterhashisorherown
personalstrugglethatisdeferredbythecarefreetimesontheroad.
Sal,Dean,andacombinationofcohortsbouncerepeatedlyfromNewYorktoDenvertoCaliforniawithnumerousdetours.Eachcity,eachregion,hasitsownunique
characteristics:allarounduswasfragrantgreengrassandthesmelloffreshmanureandwarmwaters.WereintheSouth!(138).Afterseveralcrosscountry
jaunts,theyimaginetheultimateroadtrip:fromNewYorkdowntoSouthAmerica.OncetheyimmersethemselvesintheforeignnessofMexico,theybegintorealize
howclosedmindedtheyhavebeen.Encounteringaradicallydifferentcultureforcesthemtobecomeevenmoreawareoftheconstraintsunderwhichtheyhadlived.
Onceremovedfromfamiliarexpectations,theyexperiencethemostmagicalandmysticalbutunsustainabletimeoftheirlives.
Thestateofbeingontheroadischaracterizedbyanearlylimitlessopennesstoanychancehappeningunexpectedturnsintheroadarewhatthrill.Asaresponsetothe
staidAmerican1950s,Kerouacsnovelprovidesameansofprotestagainstconservativeexpectations.Wherethemainstreamculturesoughtorderandpredictability,
theBeatgenerationembraceddisorderandhappenstance.Theroadprovidedaseeminglyunendingsourceofnewpeopleandplaces.Bothliterallyandsymbolically,
OntheRoadisfilledwithconfrontationsbetweentheestablishmentandthecounterculture:formainstreamculture,

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theroadisameanstoanendfortheBeats,theroadisanendinitself.
Perhapsthenoveldepictstravelasanambivalentmetaphorforlife:tolive,totravel,istohavegreatpotentialbutalsotoleavesomethingsbehind:Whatisthatfeeling
whenyouredrivingawayfrompeopleandtheyrecedeontheplaintillyouseetheirspecksdispersing?itsthetoohugeworldvaultingus,anditsgoodby.Butwe
leanforwardtothenextcrazyventurebeneaththeskies(156).Ultimately,OntheRoadpresentstravelasrebellionandfreedom.
Seealso:
Picaro
References:
Kerouac1976
KINGLAKE,ALEXANDERWILLIAM
HistorianAlexanderKinglake(English,18091891)wroteoneoftheclassicsoftravelliterature.HisEothen(1844)remainsasingularmasterpieceofstorytellingand
adventure.Thetextisatoncethrilling,emblematicoftheVictorianage,andabenchmarkexampleofengagingtravelwriting.
AsastudentoftheclassicsatCambridgeUniversityandthenalawstudentinLondon,Kinglakewasknownforhisskepticalviewsandcheerfuldisposition.After
takinghisdegrees,heoptedforanextendedtouroftheNearEastin1834.WithhisloyaltranslatorandfriendMysseri,Kinglakesoughtexoticadventuresthroughout
theIslamicOttomanEmpire.
AbundantadventuresandcruciallifelessonsgreetedKinglakeoverthenext15months.Thoughhemadecopiousnotesandsentsomeinterestinglettershome,histext
wasnotpublishedfor10years.Duringthistime,hecraftedthestoriesformaximumeffectandpolishedhisprosetoitsgleamingpresentstate.WhenEothenGreek
foroutoftheEastwasreleased,itmetwithimmediatepraiseandaffection.Formorethanacentury,Kinglakestextreignedasoneofthefinestandmostpopular
examplesoftravelliterature.ContemporaneoustravelwriterJanMorrisdescribedEothenasoneofthemostoriginal,graceful,andcreativeofalltravelbooks,which
hascastasortofspelloverthegenrefromthatdaytothis(Fussell328).
WrittenasaseriesofletterstohisschoolmateEliotWarburton,Eothenfeelscongenialandintimate.Yetwerapidlydiscoverthattheepistolaryformisbutadevice:
thelettersgrowfartoolengthytobeactual.Overthecourseofthetext,Kinglakeproffersadviceontravelandroutes,remarksonarchitecture,engagesabewildering
selectionofpeople,andreflectsonthenatureoftravel.Alwayscheerful,positive,andgoodhumored,hesetsthestandardforhappilyallowinghisadventurestooccur.
Inthisregard,wemightimaginehisbookmorenovelisticinthatthecentralfocusofthestoryisasmuchonKinglakesowncharacterasitisonhisdestinations.
OneofthefactorsthatmakesthistextpuretravelliteratureisKinglakesowninsistencethathisbookissimplyastoryofhisownexperience.Hepresumesnograndor
loftymotivessaveentertainmentandtheoccasionalintuitivelesson.InhisprefaceKinglakedescribeshisbookas
quitesuperficialinitscharacter.Ihaveendeavouredtodiscardfromitallvaluablematterderivedfromtheworksofothers,anditappearstomethatmy
effortsinthisdirectionhavebeenattendedwithgreatsuccessIbelieveImaytrulyacknowledgethatfromallthedetailsofgeographicaldiscoveryor
antiquarianresearchfromalldisplaysofsoundlearningandreligiousknowledgefromallhistoricalandscientificillustrationsfromallmoral
reflections,thisvolumeisthoroughlyfree.
(Kinglake1)
Indeed,Kinglakesrealmisnotscienceorhistoryortheology,butratherlifeexperienceandthehumanspirit.
Charmingandunflappable,Kinglakeplungesintohisadventureswithzestandglee.ThoughCairoreeledundertheplague,

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hedelightsinhistimetherethoughlostintheforestsofServia(Serbia),hemarvelsasthevastunspoilednatureoftheplacethoughdelayedinthescorchingdesert,he
findsgreatbeautyandpeace.Regardlessofhisadventures,Kinglakecaststheminapositivelight,learningfromeverysingleexperience.
Oftenhilariouslyfunny,Eothenreadslikeajourney,ramblingandamiable.Nevershytolaunchintoobtusetangentialasides,Kinglakeevokesthefreeassociative
thinkingthatisafeatureoftravel.ConstantlycomparingforeignmannersandbehaviortoEnglishstandards,Kinglakegentlylearnsofandrecognizesthearbitrary
constructofsuchcodes.Gracefulandinoffensiveexpressionoftheselessonsmaybeoneoftheprimarymeritsofthetext:itteachesoflifeandhappinesswithhumor,
humility,andpatience.
Withoutadoubt,Kinglakestexthashadagreatinfluenceonmoderntravelwriters.Hisimpreciseitinerarywouldbecomethetravelersnorm.Hisjocundandmerry
toneembodiestheidealgentlemantravelerofthenineteenthcentury.Andhisnonjudgmentalperspectivewouldserveasanexampletomanyofthegreattravelersof
thenextcentury.KinglakesubtitledhisstoryTracesBroughtHomefromtheEast,andundoubtedlythefragmentsofexperienceandwisdomthathecollectedarestill
precioustoday.
References:
DOyley1932
Fussell1987
Kinglake1908
Newby1985
KNIGHT,SARAHKEMBLE
Asaboldyoungwoman,SarahKembleKnight(American,16661727)wroteamuchpraisedaccountofherjourneysinthecolonialNortheast.Herdiary,The
JournalofMme.Knight,remainsavaluablehistoricaldocumentforitsprecisegeographicdetailandforitscommentaryaboutgenderrolesinearlyeighteenthcentury
NewEngland.Meticulouslyaccurateaboutstreetnames,descriptionsofbuildings,geography,andotherphysicaldetails,sheprovidesaclearpictureoftheregion.In
addition,shenarratestheactionsandwordsofnearlyallwhomsheencounters,thusdemonstratingsocialinteractions.
HeraccountdetailsatripfromBostontoNewYorktoNewHavenin17241725(alongwhatisnowknownastheBostonPostRoad).Employingasophisticated
narrativevoice,MadameKnightdepictsherselfasafearlessandtirelessjudgeofcharacterandsocialcritic.Eachdaysaccountisthoroughandoftenendswithan
originalpoem.Herworkisfilledwithlivelyaccountsofadventures:unpalatablefood,wretchedweather,bizarrecharacters,andunexpectedoccurrences.Asawoman
fromawellestablishedfamily,shewouldhavebeenexpectedtostaywithwelltodoacquaintancesalongtheway.Shunningculturalexpectations,shestayedat
severalroadhouseswithpeopleshemetonherjourney.Theresultisthatshetravelsthroughsocialclassesaswellasfromtowntotown.Ateveryturn,however,she
maintainsajoyoussenseofhumorandakeenwit.Alwaysquicktostepbackandtomakethebestofasituation,MadameKnightstandsoutasanembodimentofthe
spiritoftravel.

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L
LASALLE,RENROBERTCAVELIER,SIEURDE
RenRobertCavelier,SieurdeLaSalle(French,16431687),wasoneofthemostintrepidexplorersoftheNewWorld.Asawriteroftravelliterature,LaSalle
posessomethingofaproblem:unfortunately,heneitherkeptajournaloradiary,norwasheafaithfulcorrespondent.Yethisstoriesanddeedsareastounding.We
knowofthemvialoyalcomradeswhowroteexhaustivelyabouthimandhisexplorations.Becausehistravelsweresovastandgrand,LaSalledeservestobeincluded
inthisvolumedespitethefactthathedidnotpersonallywritetheaccounts.
Compoundingthematteristhefactthathedidnothaveasingleandconstantbiographer.Rather,asequenceoffollowerswroteandpublishedtheiraccountsofLa
Sallesadventures.FatherMembrchronicledLaSallesvoyagedowntheMississippiRiverin1682LaSallesbrotherJeanwroteofhisexplorationsofCanada
LouisHennepincompiledandembellishedasetofstoriesallegedlytoldbyLaSalleFatherChrestienLeClercqdescribedLaSalleonhisshipsFatherAnastasius
DouayfocusedonLaSalleslatetravelsinthesouthwesternportionofAmericaandHenriJoutelattemptedalifestoryofLaSalle.Undoubtedly,tomeritthisquantity
ofinterest,hisactionsmusthavebeenextraordinary.ExcerptsfromallofthesewritershavebeencollectedbyI.J.CoxintoatwovolumesetcalledTheJourneysof
RenRobertCavelierSieurdeLaSalle(1922).
Welleducatedandfromaprosperousfamily,LaSallemadehisfirstexcursiontotheNewWorldwithhisolderbrotherJeanin1666.ThetwoLaSallesboughtland
andprospered,butbothbrothershadtheurgetoexplore.AfterlearninganumberofNativeAmericanlanguagesandmakingnumeroussmallsorties,thetwodecided
toseekapassagetothePacific.OtherNorthAmericanexplorers,includingSamueldeChamplain,AlvarNezCabezadeVaca,andHernandodeSoto,hadsought
aNorthwestPassageorariverroutetotheWestCoastapparently,thesevoyagershadlittlesenseofthevastwidthoftheNorthAmericancontinent.
LaSallehadheardtheNativeAmericanstalkofavastbodyofwatertothewesthesurmisedthatthismightbethePacificOcean.Atthetime,PennsylvaniaandOhio
werefairlywellmapped,soLaSalletooktheOhioRiverwestandeventuallyreachedtheGreatLakes.Heexploredandmappedtheregionnowknownasthe
Midwestwithgreatprecision.Buildingsmallforts,tradingwiththenatives,andlivingmostlyofftheland,LaSallestalesarefascinatingfortheircomplex
representationsofNativeAmericancultures,fortheiraccountsofthevastnessoftheheartlandwilderness,andfortheirdescriptionsoftheingenuityofthistinypartyof
travelers.
Theyears16731685LaSallespentmakingextendedtripstothefrontier,thenbacktotheEastCost,andseveraltimesreturningtoFrance.AftertheMidwest,he
turnedhissightsontheSouthandfollowedtheMississippidowntotheGulfofMexico.FollowingalesselaboratevisittotheGulf,LaSallefocusedhisattentionon
TexasandMexico.HistravelsintheSouthwestwerealsofilledwithconsiderableadventureandexcitement.FatherDouaysaccountofthisportionofLaSalles
careerisquitegoodandrendersadetailedpictureofthemanandhisideas.ItalsoprovidesanaccountofLaSallesdeath:allegedly,hewasbetrayedandkilledby
someofhisfollowers.

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AsLaSallewasamajorexplorerwithsuchacollectionofsecondhandcontemporarysourcestellinghistales,wecanbendtherulesalittleandincludehiminthis
volume.For,indeed,allaccountssuggestthathewasamanwholovedtotravelandwholovedtolearn.Onhismanyjourneys,heengagedanarrayofcultureswith
equalopennessandhonestythroughout,hesetanexampleforallwithhisforthrightmanneranddeepsenseofpiety.
Seealso:
CabezadeVaca,AlvarNezChamplain,SamueldeNorthwestPassage
References:
Adams1988
Cox1922
LAHONTAN,LOUISARMANDDELOMDARCE,BARONDE
Oneoftravelliteraturesmanyenigmaticcharacters,LouisArmand,BarondeLahontan(French,16661715),undoubtedlyfelttheneedtobeinmotion.Hislifewas
filledwithexplorations,adventures,andtravelsnearandfar.HepublishedawildlysuccessfulvolumetitledNewVoyagestoNorthAmericathatwasrevisedand
expandedseveraltimesaswellastranslatedintonumerouslanguages.Inaddition,contemporarieshavetoldmanyofhistalesinotherworks.Inthisregard,heis
perhapsmorefamousasatravelerthanasawriter.Thecombinationofhislegendaryadventuresandhissinglebestseller,however,earnshimaplaceinthisvolume.
Borntowealthandprivilege,Lahontanexertedhisformidableleadershipskillsasateenager.Byage17hewasaboldFrenchofficerstationedinCanadaservingunder
LaSalle.Asoldierandaphilosopher,LahontanwasconcernedwiththeconquestoftheNorthAmericanwildernessandthespreadofChristianitytothenative
populations.Itshouldbenotedthathewasoftencriticalofthemissionaryzealexhibitedbymanyofhisfellowofficersandexplorers.Henonethelessledforcesin
numerousbattleswithavarietyofNativeAmericantribes.LegendsofvastdepositsofgoldintheSouthwestandinMexicoluredhimawayfromCanadaandthe
Frenchmilitaryintoexpeditionsofhisown.Theseprospectingventuressucceededinfindingnothingbutmorestorieswildtalesthatarealmostcertainlyexaggerated
inLahontanswritings.
Hisdisappointmentatnotfindinggreatmineralwealthandhisdismayatnotdiscovering(bychance)whatisnowknownastheNorthwestPassageevidentlybothered
Lahontanconsiderably.Hisletterssuggestamountingsenseoffailureasanexplorerthisledhimtoevermoredesperateschemes.HereturnedtoEuropeand
wanderedthere,sellinghisservicesasaspy,explorer,andgeneraladventurer.Heneverpublishedhiswritingsfromthisperiod.
Whilehemighthavethoughthimselfafailure,LahontanswritingsmadeaconsiderableimpressiononeighteenthcenturyEurope.Perhapshisgreatestcontributionwas
theformhechosetoemployforhiswritings.Hisbookcontainsnumerousletterssomeactuallysent,mostcontriveddiaryentriesandintellectualdialogues.In
thelatter,herecountshisallegeddiscourseswithaCanadianNativeAmericannamedAdario.LikePlato,Lahontanusesthedialogueformatasarhetoricaldevice
ratherthanasanattemptatreportage.ThisformofpolemicaldiscourseissaidtohaveinfluencedsuchmajorfiguresasDenisDiderotandJeanJacquesRousseau
(Adams174).
InthedialoguesLahontanandAdariodiscussarangeoftopics,althoughtherecurrentthemeisChristianity.Thedialoguesrepresentapedanticapproachto
constructinganoblesavagetheconceptionofaninnatelysimplisticandvirtuousnonEuropeanwhohasnotbeencorruptedbyWesterncivilizationwhoshames
theproselytizingChristianconquerors.SaysAdario:
IfyourReligiondiffersfromours,itdosnotfollowthatwehavenoneatall.ThouknowestthatIhavebeeninFrance,NewYork,and

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QuebecwhereIStudydtheCustomsandDoctrinesoftheEnglishandFrench.TheJesuitsallege,thatoutoffiveorsixhundredsortsofReligions,
theresonlyonethatisthegoodandtrueReligion,andthatstheirownoutofwhichnoManshallscapetheFlamesofafirethatwillburnhisSoultoall
Eternity.Thisistheirallegation:Butwhentheyhavesaidall,theycannotofferanyProofforit.
(Adams182)
Throughoutthedialogues,LahontanchallengesthestatusquoEuropeanideologyandjustificationforconquestoftheNewWorld.
Lahontansletters,ontheotherhand,aremorefactualandtouchonculturaldifferences,geography,myths,familystructure,diets,dailylife,andmuchinbetween.They
remaininterestingasmaterialhistoryandfortheirdetails,buttheylacktheliteraryflairandideologicalpunchofthedialogues.
Intheend,Lahontansisadifficultcasetocategorize.Hiswritingsamounttoahybrid:partfact,partfabrication,theydefyneatboundaries.Toconfoundmatters,his
positionseemedtochangeoverthecourseofhiscareer.InhisearlyworksheexhibitsabrutalcrueltytowardNativeAmericans,whereasinhislaterwritingheseems
whollysympathetictothem.Perhapshelearnedfromhistravelstoquestionhisbeliefs.Regardless,forhisdaringdeedsandforhisformalinnovations,hedeservesa
positionasanoteworthyfigureinthehistoryoftravelliterature.
Seealso:
LaSalle,RenRobertCavelier,SieurdeNorthwestPassage
References:
Adams1988
LAWRENCE,D.H.
AnothermajorliteraryfigurewhoseartisticproductionincludesseveralworksoftravelliteratureisDavidHerbertLawrence(English,18851930).Authorof
numerousnovels,poems,essays,andshortstories,Lawrencebelongsinmanycategoriesatonce.Inhislifeandinseveralofhisbooks,however,Lawrencemaybe
consideredatraveler.TwilightinItaly(1916),SeaandSardinia(1921),MorningsinMexico(1927),andEtruscanPlaces(1927,posthumouslypublishedin
1932)areeachdelightfulandprovocativeintheirownrespect.Besidesthesepurerformsoftravelliterature,Lawrencesnovelsoftencontainexoticlocalesand
challengingjourneystheyoftenrelyupontravelandexplorationtopropeltheirplots.Hiscollectedletters,variouslypublished,alsocontainmanyexamplesoffinetravel
writing.
AlthoughEnglishbybirth,D.H.Lawrencespentmostofhislifelivingabroad.Remarkably,overthecourseofhislife,helivedinItaly,Germany,Ceylon,Australia,
NewZealand,Tahiti,France,Mexico,andtheUnitedStates.Hisnovelsandpoemsreceivedbothpraiseandsanctionsomeofhisearlierworkwasbannedas
scandalouslysexual.SuchpruderyenragedLawrenceandledhimabroad.Inaddition,heisoftennotedforhisnaturalismandhismysticism.Allthreeofthese
fascinationsforsensuality,nature,andmysticismfigureprominentlyinhistravelwriting.Ashisbodyofworkgrew,hecametoberecognizedasoneofthefinest
andmostinnovativewritersofthetwentiethcentury.
Lawrenceneededtobeinmotion.Hesoughttoinvigoratehimselfbychangingculturesradically.Learninganewsetofcustoms,manners,geography,andhabits
thrilledhimandkepthisastoundingpowersofobservationoccupied.Amanofgiganticpassions,heloveddiscoveryandnewnessperhapsmostofall.Withhiswife,
Frieda,hewanderedtheglobe,tryingtodiscovertheminusculedifferencesbetweencultureswhileallthetimeconfirmingsomeuniversalhumancharacteristics.For
Lawrence,naturewasakindofgod,andthemorehetraveled,themorehelearnedofasingularnaturalworld.
Delightedbytheresidueofclassicalhistory,LawrencevisitedrepeatedlyandlaterlivedinItaly.BothTwilightinItalyandEtruscanPlacessproutfromanattemptto
reconcilethepastwiththepresent.AlthoughbothtextsroamwidelythroughItaly,theyare

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interestingtocontrast:theearliertextreadsmorelikeastandardmoderntravelogue,whereasthelatterisamoregeneraleulogytotravelandmotion.Bothtexts
proposetheexistenceofasortofspiritthatcolorsaplaceandthatrepresentshistory.Tobesure,LawrenceidealizesItalyanditsromanticizedclassicalhistory.
Nonetheless,hisqueerandseeminglyrandomsetofobservationslendsrealismtoeachofthetextsandmakesthemhighlyevocative.IncludedinTwilightinItalyare
severalsectionsdevotedtoSwitzerlandandGermany,whileEtruscanPlacesremainsonlyinItaly,tracingEtruscantombpaintings.
FollowingabriefvisittoSardiniain1921,LawrenceallegedlywroteSeaandSardiniainameresixweeks(Fussell475).Alwaysfondofislandshethoughtthey
increasedtheintensityofeveryemotionLawrencecreateswiththistextavividsketchofhisimpressions.Nearlyobsessedwithcolor,light,thecontrastbetween
waterandland,hewritesoftenbreathlesslyofhissensations.Gentlyblendinggeographicspecificswithhistoricalreferencesandsubjectiveopinions,Lawrencesbook
readsmorelikeanovelthanatravelogue.Fullofrichlytextureddescriptionsofencounters,activities,andreflections,SeaandSardiniamustbeoneofthemostgenial
andenthusiasticexamplesoftravelliteratureinthecanonthatcollectionofworksdeemedtheauthoritativelistofliteraryclassics.
EntrancedbylegendsoftheAzteccivilizationanddeeplyintriguedbymysticism,LawrencealsoauthoredMorningsinMexico,whichreadslikeacollageofimages
pastedroughlytogether.ThetropicfloraandfaunaofMexicoseemtofascinatehim.Evercapricious,thisstorytoowandersgentlyanddiscoversastrangeassortment
ofpeople,places,andideas.PerhapsLawrencesoughttomimicthepleasureofexplorationinhiswriting,for,indeed,thebookfeelslikethefirsteveninginaforeign
place.Hisparagraphsmeanderlikewindingstreetshissentenceshavethetextureofcobblesprotruding.
TravelandwritingarethestuffofLawrenceslifeheseemstohavefoundequivalentjoyingettingthere,beingthere,andwritingaboutthere.Ashecommentedtohis
wifeinSeaandSardinia,Totellthetruththereissomethinginthelong,slowliftoftheship,andherlong,slowslideforwardwhichmakesmyheartbeatwithjoy.Itis
themotionoffreedom(Fussell1987).SuchfreedomLawrencecertainlyenjoyedandsharedwithhisreaders.
References:
Fussell1987
Rugoff1960
LAWRENCE,T.E.
ThomasEdwardLawrence(English,18881935)alsoknownasLawrenceofArabiaregardedadventureasaduty.Rigorouslyeducatedasaclassicistand
archeologistatOxfordUniversity,LawrencesetoutforSyria,wherehetraveledandexcavated.AstheturmoilofWorldWarIapproached,hewascommissionedby
BritishIntelligencetoserveasaspyandasoldier.Formorethanadecade,hetraveledtheMiddleEast,blendinghisdutiesasanintelligenceofficerwithhisinterestin
archeologicalhistoryandhisfascinationwithArabcultures.
Hislonebookisaclassicoftravelliterature:ThePillarsofWisdom(1926).Itscreationisalegendarystoryinitself:theoriginalmanuscriptwaslostin1919,sohe
rewroteitwithoutnotes.Buthedeemedtheresultunsatisfactoryanddestroyedthisversiontoo.Finally,heproducedathirdversionthathetentativelysenttopress.
Originallyprintedinverylimitednumbersandthenreleasedagaininamuchlargerrunin1935,attheendofLawrenceslife,thetextcontinuestobepopularandto
remaininprint.
Thescarcityoftheoriginal,firsteditiononlyfueledthefireforthetext:copieswerecoveted,andthetextwasdiscussedassomethingrareandprecious.Anabridged
versionwasfirstreleasedin1927andistitledRevolt

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intheDesertitsoldverywell.Surprisedandratherbotheredbythesensationalsuccessofhisbookandthefameitbroughthim,Lawrencechangedhissurnameto
Shawin1927andbecameapilotintheRoyalAirForce.HerefusedaknighthoodandtheVictoriaCross(amilitaryawardgrantedforvalor)forreasonsthatare
unclear.
ThePillarsofWisdomchroniclesLawrencesquestforacontributiontoarcheologyandhispoliticalinfluencewithArableaders.Hisextensivetravelsintheregionled
theBritishgovernmenttorecallLawrencetoEgyptin1916.AtthebriefinginCairo,helearnedthathewastoaidthesharifofMeccainhisuprisingagainsttheTurkish
forces.Hissuccessinleadingtherebelforceswasphenomenal.Throughcraft,guile,andbravery,heledhistroopsinaseriesoflegendaryexploits.Partofhisgenius
washisunpredictability:attimeshefavoredtraditionalmilitaryengagement,whileatothertimeshedevisedsmashinglyeffectiveguerillacampaigns.
Lawrenceswritingiscuriousaswell.Sometimeshisproseswaggerswithbravado,andsometimesitisgentlyinflectedwithtendersympathy.Muchmorethanataleof
insurrection,Lawrencescampaignsaretreatedlikestrangeholidays:hisobservationsaremorecultural,historical,linguistic,andgeographicthanmilitaristic.His
experiences,however,areoftenharrowingandterrifying,yetherarelyacknowledgesdifficultyinfavorofadetached,matteroffacttone.Inaddition,hiseducation
manifestsitself,forhisaccountbrimswithclassical,Elizabethan,andromanticallusionsandreferences.
Lawrencesquirkybehaviorprovidesafascinatingsubjectforextendedstudy.Presumingthathewasinearnestinhismodesty,wecanconsiderhimoneofthetrue
travelersofhisday.ForLawrence,travelandadventurewerenotextrememomentstobecapturedandbroughthomeasornamentalsourcesoffamerather,they
weremomentsinlife,chancestolearn,andpartofordinarybehavior.Hisarduousstrifeforliteraryperfectionseemstohavebeendrivenbyasenseofobligation,
whichimpliesthat,forLawrence,travelandwritingwereinseparable.
References:
Harvey1967
Newby1985
LEONOWENS,ANNA
Recentlyrediscoveredasafigurewellworthseriousstudy,AnnaLeonowens(Welsh,18341914)isafascinatingsubject.Herfourbooks,TheRomanceofthe
Harem(1873sometimeslistedasTheRomanceofSiameseHaremLife),TheCityofVeiledWomen(1872),TheEnglishGovernessattheSiameseCourt
(1870),andLifeandTravelinIndia(1884)aresplendidexamplesofthemostsophisticatedsortoftravelliterature:partautobiographicaltravelogue,partadventure
fiction,andpartphilosophicaltreatise.ItishardtodecidewhethertotreateachbookasaseparatesubjectorherlifeasasingleworkIhavechosenthelatteroption,
particularlyhavingbeenpersuadedbySusanMorgansintroductiontotheUniversityofVirginiaPresseditionofTheRomanceoftheHarem.
Asayounggirl,Leonowens(bornCrawford)wasleftwithagovernesswhileherparentswenttoIndia.Herfatherwaskilledandhermotherremarried,andonlyasa
teenagerwasAnnaallowedtojoinhermother.Evidentlyfascinatedbytheseexoticlandsandilltreatedbyherfamily,Annamadeseveralsolojourneysthroughout
IndiaandtheMiddleEast.ShemetMajorThomasLouisLeonowensinBombayandmarriedhimayearlater.Aftersevenyears,MajorLeonowensdiedandleft
Annawithtwochildren.SheattemptedvariouswaysofmakingalivingamongthemservingasgovernessandrunningaschoolandeventuallysetoutforBangkok.
WhyshechoseBangkokremainsamystery.
Atleastthisisthetraditionalstory.Newscholarshiphascastsomesignificantdoubtonthishistory(forafulleraccount,seeMorgan1991).Nonetheless,itiscertainly
the

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casethatshearrivedinSiam(nowThailand)toworkasaroyalgoverness.Fromtheseexperiences,shewrotehernovels.
Theymustbeconsiderednovels,regardlessofthehistoricalandfactualdatatheyemploy,becausetheycontainnumerouscontradictionsandhistoricalinaccuracies.
NoonedoubtsthatLeonowenshadanincrediblyprivilegedperspectiveonthecourtofSiamindeed,itisperhapstheonlyWesternaccountofthissubjectever
written.Asawoman,shehadaccesstotheCityofVeiledWomenandKingMongkutsharemtwothingsnoEuropeanmalehadeverseen.Suchsecretsmadeher
booksextremelydesirable.Shehadtraveledwhereallthemaleadventurerscouldnevermanagetogotheresultingallurewasirresistible.Herstorieshavebeenretold
variouslyinotherforms,perhapsthemostfamousbeingtheRodgersandHammersteinmusicalTheKingandI.
HernovelsrevolvearoundherownstoryofearningtherespectofKingMongkut,whoapparentlytookanespeciallikingtoLeonowens.Thestoriestelloftheir
relationship:bothpartiesteacheachotheroftheirhugelydifferingcultures.Shecrossesnotonlyclassbutculturalboundariesinsodoing,sheisanintrepidvoyager.
TherelationshipbetweenLeonowensandthekingistroubling.Whileitappearstohavebeenanintellectualfascination,littleinherwritingsuggeststhatLeonowenshad
aparticularlykeenintellect.Perhapsweshallneverknowthefulldetails,butthismuchiscertain:shehadsomeclearinfluenceonthekingandaleveloffreedom
unheardofinarestrictive,absolutistsociety.
Leonowenssstorytellingisavividfirstpersonnarrativethatslipsoccasionallyintoaratherbelievablefreeindirectdiscourse.Hertalesareoftenhauntingandgraphic:
torture,enslavement,andbrutalitypepperthetext.ButifhertalesreflectthedarkersideofSiameseculture,theyalsodescribeBuddhisminaveryfavorablelightand
theCityofVeiledWomenassomethingofasanctuary.
Herdescriptionsofthesealmostmythicalplacesaresomeofherbestwork.IntermsoftheCityofVeiledWomen,shetellsofanalmostutopiansocietyoffemalesand
eunuchs.Whilemanywerewivesandconcubinesofthekingandhiscourt,manywerealsofemaleteachersandmerchants.Inall,sheboaststhatthisthrivingcityhada
populationofaround9,000residents!InTheRomanceoftheHarem,shepresentsuswiththeconverse:thesugarcoatedslaveryofconcubinage.Insteadof
wallowingintheanguishofthesituation,however,Leonowensgivesusthestoryofhowthesewomenovercometheirterriblelot.
TheissuesaddressedinLeonowenssworkaremany,includinggenderroles,absolutistpolitics,imperialism,slavery,andtherelationshipofliteraturetohistory.In
lookingataradicallydifferentculture,LeonowensurgedherVictorianreaderstoevaluatetheirownculture.Byconcentratingontheother,shemakesheranalysisof
herownculturemorepalatable.Asliterature,herbooksareprogressiveandexceptionalashistory,herlifeappearstohavebeenequallyso.
References:
Morgan1991
Rugoff1960
LEVANT
LevantreferstothecountriesoftheeasternMediterranean.ThewordisderivedfromtheancientFrenchlevant,thepresentparticipleoflever(torise).Itwas
adoptedintoEnglishtomeanthepointwherethesunrises.ThusthecountriesoftheEast,particularlytheeasternMediterranean,aresaidtobetheLevant.For
example,ManyyearsspentintheLevanthaddarkenedhisskin.
ThenameobviouslyisEurocentrictheLevanttoaTurkwouldbeIndia,theLevanttoanIndianwouldbeOceania.Usingthewordinitsfullestsenseanchorsones
perspectiveinEurope.
Itisalsopossibletoarguethatwetendtofigureadayasprogressivelydevelopinglikeahumanitbeginslikeachildandendsasan

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oldman.Assuch,theEast,theLevant,istheinfantundeveloped.OnlyintheWest,thatistosayEurope,doesthebrightestpointofthedayemerge.Toextendthe
metaphor,westofEuropeisthedecline,themoveintodarkness.Clearly,thissenseofthewordmakesLevantaproblematicterm.Perhapsthisiswhythetermis
rarelyusedanylonger.
References:
OED
LEWIS,NORMAN
NormanLewis(English,1914)hasvisitedanastoundingnumberofplaces.Hisnovels,travelessays,andmagazinearticlesarenumerousanddiverse.Hepenned
significanttextsthatdescribeItaly,Spain,theBalkans,theMiddleEast,andSoutheastAsia.Whilehisnovelsaresetinavarietyofinternationalandexoticlocales,the
arenotusuallyconsideredtravelliterature.Hisnonfiction,however,isamongsomeofthebesttravelwritingofthelatetwentiethcentury.
ADragonApparent(1951)describestheturmoilandanguishinVietnam,Cambodia,andLaoscausedbyasuccessionofruthlesscolonialgovernments.Itcaneasily
bereadaspropheticofthehorrorsthatloomedonthehorizonfortheU.S.interventionintheregionattheendofthedecade.Inaddition,itaddressesthealways
thornyquestionofwhathappenstofolkwisdomandancientcustomswhenmodernizationandprogressareusheredin.
AnEmpireoftheEast(1994)findsLewisfascinatedonhisjourneythroughIndonesia.Withsome15,000islands,acompletetourofIndonesiaisobviously
impossible.MoreinterestedinpoliticsandethnicdifferenceswithinIndonesia,Lewisrestrictsthisbooktothreeislands:Sumatra,EastTimor,andIrianJaya.Like
manyofLewisstravelbooks,thisoneisendearinginitsseeminglyrandomsetofobservations.Lewisbecomeslikeaflyonthewallwatchinganddescribingwhathe
sees.Inthismanner,thebookbounceslightlyfromstrangeandwonderfulcharacterstoclimatetoquirkyanomaliesofaculturethathasmodernizedveryrapidly.Just
asthecontrastbetweenthefamiliarWestandtheexoticislandsofIndonesiacausesinterestingtension,sodoesthecontrastbetweenoldtribalwaysandmodernglobal
standardization.Inthesetenseintersections,wefindLewistellinghisstoryanddubiouslywonderingatthenatureofsocalledprogress.
AGoddessintheStones(1992)chronicleshisexpeditiontoIndia.Lewissperspectiveisrare:althoughheseeswiththeeyesofaEuropeanaccustomedtocertain
materialconveniences,heappearsquitewillingtoliveinthegruelingpovertyofthelocalsandislittlebotheredbysuchconditions.Insteadofcomplainingaboutthe
wretchedconditions,heearnsthelocalsrespectandconsequentlytheirtrustbysharingtheirplight.Heenthusiasticallynarrateshisexperiencesinfeudalstateslike
Bihar,intheslumsofCalcutta,andamongsomeofthesmall,ratherhostiletribes.ThemassivebeautyofIndianhistoryandcultureisblendedwiththeveryrealhuman
squalortheresultisataleofhumanspiritandcouragethatcannothelpbutcausereaderstoreflectupontheirownwilltosurvive.
VoicesoftheOldSea(1985)isacharmingtaleofSpainandCatalonia.Itfocusesontheoldtraditionsoffishingvillagesandtheheartyattitudesthatcomewithrelying
onnatureforemployment.Whennotfishing,thepeoplearetendingtocorktrees.Tenderandamusing,itisfilledwithfolkwisdomandanappealinglookataculture
thatseemsimpossibleinthemodernera.Onceagain,theclashbetweencontemporarycitylifeandtheremnantsoftheOldWorldisadeeplymovingandprovocative
subjectthatencouragesustowonderatthesenseofmodernsociety.
Anoddmixofautobiographythatreadslikefiction,TheWorld,theWorld(1988)mightbecalledametatraveltale.Indisjointedessaysofvariousexcursionsand
encountersthroughoutthewideworld,decadesapart,

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thenarratortellsofhisinitiationintoandsubsequentinfatuationwiththeworldoftravelandtravelers.Inconstantmotionhimself,andrecountingthelettersandtalesof
othertravelerswhomhemeets,thisisarichandinterestingtreatiseonthecompellingnatureoftravel.Withepisodesonfourcontinents,thisbookmaybeoneofthe
bestsamplesofLewisstravelwritingavailable.Asherevisitsplacesafterdecadesofabsence,webegintoseethattravelisalwaysaboutgrowthandchange,bothon
thepartoftheplaceandonthepartofthetraveler.
Lewisblendsdescriptionswithanalyticalcommentaryseamlesslyandgracefully.Exoticplacesandsituationsserveasmorethandrama:theymakeadifferenceinhis
ideasandinhisunderstandingofhimself.FromhishilariousscenesatthetraditionalVietnamesebanquettohisdelightatthecolorsofjunglefoliage,Lewishasakeen
eyefordetailandanamiablewayoftellingatale.Histoneisfamiliaranddelightedwiththeendlessdistinctionsbetweentheforeignculturesandhismorefamiliar
Englishways.
References:
Newby1985
LITHGOW,WILLIAM
ThehistoryofWilliamLithgow(Scottish,15821645)strainstheimagination.Parttraveler,partsideshow,Lithgowclaimedtohavewalkednearly40,000miles
throughEurope,Asia,andAfricaoverthecourseofatwodecadeslongtour!HewasjocoselyknownasCutluggedWillieasaresultofhavinglosthisearsthey
werecutoffbyfourbrotherswhohappenedtodiscoverWilliamamorouslyentangledwiththeirsister(Newby112).Morethanacuriousanecdote,thisearly
misadventureprefiguredaraftofdifficultiesandunfortunateaccidentsthatweretobefallLithgowthroughouthislife.Metaphorically,lifeisoftendescribedaslikea
journeyinLithgowscase,mostofhislifeliterallywasoneextendedjourney.
LithgowmeticulouslychronicledhisepicvoyageandpublishedhisbookshortlyafterhisreturntoScotlandin1629.Thetitleisrichindeed:TheTotallDiscourse,of
RareAdventures,andPainfulPeregrinationsofaLongNineteeneYearesTravayles(1632).Infact,inthe1682WrightandPassingerLondonedition,thefulltitle
providesagreatsummaryofthebook:
Lithgowsnineteenyearstravelsthroughthemosteminentplacesinthehabitableworld:containinganexactdescriptionofthecustoms,laws,religion,
policiesandgovernmentofemporers,kings,andprinces:alsoofthecountriesandcities,trades,rivers,andcommerceinalltheplacesthroughwhichhe
travelld:alsoanaccountofthetortureshesufferedundertheSpanishInquisitionbyrackingandotherinhumaneusages,forhisowningtheProtestant
religion:togetherwithhismiraculousdeliverancefromthecrueltiesofthepapists,whichfarexceededanyoftheheathencountrieshereindescribed
Quiteamouthfulforatitle!
LikehiscontemporaryThomasCoryate,Lithgowprovidesawealthoffascinatingstoriesofincredibleadversity.UnlikeCoryate,however,Lithgowseemstohavehad
consistentlybadluck.Discerninghowmuchofhisstorytobelieveisatrickymattergenerally,Lithgowstaleisthoughttobereasonablyaccurate.Nonetheless,for
centuriesreadershavegonewideeyedwithwonderathistales.ThereissomeevidencetosuggestthatVoltairescharacterCandideowessomedebttoLithgow.
Infact,RareAdventuresandPainfulPeregrinations(analternativeshorteningofthetitleinsomeeditionsafter1770)oftenfeelsmorelikeafarcethanatravelogue.
LithgowfoundhimselftorturedbytheInquisition,beatenandrobbedbybandits,chasedbywildanimals,buffetedbytheelements,jailed,andbesetbyillnessoverthe
courseofhistravels.Tobefair,wemustrememberthatallthistookplaceoveraspanof19years.Conversely,healso

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foundhimselfdiningwithprinces,exploringtheholylandsofJerusalem,experiencingnaturalandmanmadewonders,andencounteringthingsbeyondthelimitsof
imagination.
Lithgowswritingstyleisastoundinglystraightforward.Herecountsnonchalantlythemostharrowingexperienceswhichoccurinnearlyeveryepisode.Forexample,
inTransylvaniahefindstroublewithbandits:
Iwasbesetwithsixmurders,HungariansandMoldavians:wherehavingwithmanyprayerssavedmylife,theyrobbedmeeofthreescoreHungarDuccats
ofgold,andallmyTurkishclothes,leavingmestarknaked....Fortheirbettersecurity,theycaryedmeealittleoutoftheway,andboundmynaked
bodyfastaboutthemiddletoanOakentree...swearingtomethatifIcryedforhelpe,ormarredthemoftheirdesignesbeforetheSunset,theywould
turnebackandkillme....Butnightcome,andIforgotten,waslefthereinatremblingfeare,forWolvesandwildBoarestillthemorrow.
(Newby112113)
Always,heperseveredandcontinuedontoadditionaladventures,alldescribedwithdetailanddetachment.
Beyondbeingsimplyexcitingtoread,Lithgowsbookprovidesaninvaluableinsightintodailylifeintheearlyseventeenthcentury.Hisattentiontodetail,aided
considerablybyhisapparentknackforlanguages,allowshisreadersasubstantivelookintomanyforeignlandsandcultures.Althoughsometravelerssoughtgoodsto
bringhometotrade,Lithgowsoughtonlystories.Ideas,descriptions,taleswerewhathebroughthomeandsharedwithBritain,thusteachingofforeigncultures,of
geography,andofdifference.Suchliteraryproductionremainsoneofthefundamentalmotivesofallsubsequenttravelliterature.Withinthehistoryoftravelliterature,
Lithgow,Coryate,andothersrepresentadistinctstage.Whileseafaringvoyagesandexplorationshadasenseofgloryandgrace,overlandperegrinationsbefore
roughly1650wererareandagonizingendeavors.Unlikelatertravelwriting,whichoftenservedtopromoteorglorifytheforeign,overlandtravelofthesixteenthand
earlyseventeenthcenturieswasdangerous,painful,andgenerallyunpleasant.Itservedasareminderofwhyonewouldnotwanttostraytoofarfromhome.Those
whodiddarewereobligedtowriteoftheadventuresuchwritingsservedasareplacementfortravel.
Seealso:
Coryate,ThomasVoltaire
References:
DOyley1932
Newby1985
LIVINGSTONE,DAVID
AnotherofthefamousAfricanadventurersofthenineteenthcentury,DavidLivingstone(Scottish,18131873)mustbenotedasafascinatingcharacterwhosedeeds
weremoreimpressivethanhiswriting.Buthisjourneysweresooverwhelminglydramaticthateventheoftenponderousjournalsareinterestingtoread.

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Asamedicalmissionary,LivingstonefirstwenttoAfricawithextraordinarycompassionforthenativepeoples.Hesoonfound,however,thatgeographyand
explorationwereevengreaterpassions.SpurredonbythecommonVictorianurgetogowherenowhitemanhadgonebefore,Livingstonespent30yearsseekingnew
peoplesandplacesinAfrica.Andalways,writesMiltonRugoff,underlyingallothermotives,wasthedaemonoftheexplorer,anirresistibledesiretogoonand
on(Rugoff320).
Livingstonescollectedjournalsrunmanyheftyvolumes.Fordecades,hemadefaithfuldailyentriesthisexercisealoneisfascinating.Tobeabletotracethedaily
activitiesofanyonefornearly30yearsisremarkable.Hisobservationscoveranamazingrangeoftopicsaswell.Boththenaturalworldandthevariouscultureshe
encounteredfigureprominentlyinhisjournals,buthealsodivesintophilosophicaldiscourses,theologicaldebates,medicalresearch,andpoliticaltheory.Hisjournals
areanastoundingtestamenttoamanwhodevotedhislifetolearning.Overtheyearsheseemstohaveretainedaloveoflearningandanopenmindwithinhisjournals
arenumerousexamplesofchanginghismindorlearningsomethingnewthatforceshimtoadmittohavingmadeamistake.
Apparentlyveryhardy,Livingstonerarelyfoundhimselfill.Asawhitemanintheinterior,hewasalreadyintriguingcombinethatwithashrewdmindandmedical
learning,anditisnowonderthatthenativesrespectedhimdeeply.Duetothepermanenceofhistravels,Livingstonewasabletoretainaselectcoreofcompanions
whosedevotionwasunflinching.Whenhedied,hisnativefriendspreservedhisbodyandcarriedit1,500milesthroughthejungletothecoast(Rugoff321).
Livingstonesmotivationfortravelandwritingwasclearlymixed:ontheonehandwerethethrillsofadventureanddiscovery,andontheotherwashisardentdesireto
stoptheslavetradeandtoimprovethelivingconditionsforAfricans.Inhisintroductiontotheaccountofhis1866voyagetoexploretheNilessource,hewrites:
NowthatIamonthepointofstartingonanothertripintoAfrica,Ifeelquiteexhilarated:whenonetravelswiththespecificobjectinviewofamelioratingthecondition
ofthenatives,everyactbecomesennobled(Livingstoneii).
Hebelievedthathistravelsandhiswriting,thoughhardwork,wereacredittohimselfandtohisculture.Hisglorycomesfromhisseeminglysinceredesiretohelpthe
Africanpeoplesalongtheway,hegainedfameasabraveandboldexplorer.Itisalsointerestingtonotethatwhiletheostensiblepurposeofthejourneyistoexplore,
heimpliesthatbysodoinghecanimprovethesituationofthenatives.
OneofthemoreremarkableaspectsofLivingstonescharacterwasthathardshipsneverseemedtodiscouragehim.Byhislogic,theharderthestruggle,thegreaterthe
glorybyextension,thegreatertheglory,thegreaterthepleasure.Therefore,toLivingstone,adversityequatedwithpleasure.Thisisdemonstratedmostclearlyinthe
storyofhisfinaldays.Withoutadoubtoneofthemostdramaticpassagesinalloftravelliterature,weasreadersgettowatchashisjournalentriesdiminishtonothing.
VariouseditorshavecompiledandarrangedthejournalsandstoriesofthosewhowerewithLivingstoneinordertorecreateadescriptionofhisbravedemise.Inspite
ofpain,delirium,andutterdisability,Livingstoneinsistedupongoingforward,evenifitmeantbeingcarriedinasortoflitter.Virtuallyparalyzedwithvariousmaladies,
Livingstonepressedhiscompanytocontinue.Finallyheexpired,praying,afteranagonizingfewdays.Thenarrativeitselfdemonstratesthetenacityofthismanthatitis
completedbyhisfriendsdemonstrateshowtrulybelovedhewas.
Asoneofthegreattraveltalesofourculture,Livingstonesjourneysembodythespiritofadventureasameanstolearning.TravelinLivingstonesjournalsishardand
dangerousworktheproductofthatlaboris

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gloryandprogress.Hisimpactuponvariousnativepeopleswasgreathiscontributiontogeographicknowledgewassignificant.Butmoreimportanttothisproject,
Livingstoneisalegendwhosedeedsfunctionalmostasmyth.Whilehiswritingmaynotconstitutegreatliteratureinitself,Livingstonehimselffunctionsasaliterary
character.Inthisregard,thestoryofLivingstonesadventurescanteachusquitealot.
Seealso:
Stanley,SirHenryMorton
References:
Livingstone1874
Rugoff1960
LORD,W.B.,ANDTHOMASBAINES
W.B.Lord(English,fl.1870s)andThomasBaines(English,18221875)werebothtravelersandwriters.Lordwasamilitaryman,andhavingservedintheVictorian
erawhenBritishcolonialventureswerebooming,hesawhisshareofmilitaryexcursions.Baineswasanartistandaminorexplorerwhohadcompletedexcursionsto
AfricaandAustralia.Whileneitherhasthedistinctionofwritingexquisitetravelliterature,theydidcombinetowriteasingularlyvaluableresourcefortravelers:Shifts
andExpedientsofCampLife,Travel,andExploration(1876).
Thebookisamassivework,filledwithdetailedillustrationsandvastinscope.Becauseofitsphysicalsizenotinypaperbackvolumewasprinteditmusthavebeen
intendedassomethingofanencyclopediaoftravelandexplorationskills.Indeed,itcanstillserveasacourseincreativeproblemsolvinginthebush.Asprerequisite
readingforadventuretravel,LordandBainesstextsetthestandard.Althoughitisimpossibletotelljusthowmanytravelerssavedthemselvesbypracticingwhatthey
hadlearnedinShiftsandExpedients,itissafetoassumethatthehistoryoftravelliteraturewouldbelessrichhadtheynotwrittenthisbook.
Inthisastoundingcompendium,LordandBainescoverahugeassortmentoftopics,fromtreatingsnakebitetoconstructingrudimentarysheltertonavigationviastars,
andabewilderingnumberofissuesinbetween.Morethanasimplesurvivalhandbook,however,ShiftsandExpedientsisfascinatingbecauseofitsattimesbizarre
solutions(whichIcanonlypresumewouldbeeffective).Forexample,Incasesofextremenecessity,andwhenthepreservationofhumanlifedependsonthe
obtainmentofwater,thesupplytobefoundinthestomachofthecamelshouldnotbeoverlookedorforgotten(Newby17).Indeednot!
Utilizingsourcesasdiverseastribalcustoms,folkwisdom,Britishmilitarysurvivalmanuals,andthescienceoftheday,LordandBainescompiledsolutionsto
thousandsofpotentialproblems.Byreadingthismanualasalistofwhatadversitymightoccurwhileonanexpedition,wecanseeclearlythattourismandadventure
travelareverydistantcousins.
References:
Newby1985
LOTI,PIERRE
PierreLotiisthepennameforLouisMarieJulienViaud(French,18501923).Hebeganhiscareeratage17asanavalofficer,theresultofwhichwasafascination
withforeignplacesandpeoples.Indulginginhiscreativeurges,heselectedanomdeplumeandbeganwritingsentimentaladventuressetinexoticlocaleswhile
progressingthroughthemilitaryranks.Navalserviceprovidedhimendlessopportunitiesfortravelandampletimetocapturethestoriesonpaper.
Lotisbookscombineevocative,impressionisticdescriptionswithmelodramaticencountersbetweenEuropeanandlocalcharacters.Theresultisaseriesof
romanticizedtalesoftravel,exploration,and(oftenamorous)culturalengagement.Laterinhiscareer,hisnovelsfocusedonFrance,andwhiletheyhaveelementsof
travelinthem,theyarecertainlynottravelliterature.Thismatureworkisoftenmoreheavilypraised,buthisearlierworkiswhyheappearsinthisvolume.

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Lotisliteraryoutputamountstoagreatnumberofbooks.Histravelliteraturealoneincludesatleast10volumeshislettersandcorrespondencesincreasethenumber.
Oftenthinlydisguised,thenarratorsofhisfictionaltalesresembletheauthorhimself.Hisnovels,conveniently,aresetinplaceshehadvisited.SaysPercyAdams,a
scholaroftravelliterature,ofLotisnovels:Theyareinfacttravelbooksdisguisedasnovels(Adams595).Althoughtheplotsofthesenovelsareexaggeratedifnot
fabricatedtheirwealthofdetailmakesthemfascinatingaswellasentertaining.
Lotistravelnovelsaremany.IwillbrieflysummarizethebestthathavebeentranslatedintoEnglish.Aziyad(1879),setinConstantinopleandontheTurkishAegean
coast,maybethemostclichandmanicofLotisnovels,butitcontainsextraordinarydetailsofthesultansopulencerepletewithafamousharemscene.The
IcelandFisherman(1886)describesaNorthSearomance.SetinBrittany,itisthestoryofawomanwaitingforherseafaringlover.MadameChrysanthme(1887)
isthestoryofaJapanesegeishaandherFrenchhusband.ItalsoservedasoneofseveralsourcesforPuccinisoperaMadameButterfly.TheExile(1891)
recountstheromancebetweenasailorandaRomanianprincess.TheymeetinvariousEuropeanportsanddelightinthevarietyofarchitectural,cultural,andhistorical
differences.
Inallcases,thereisanoverwhelmingsentimentalitytoLotisnovels:loveisatthecenterofthemall.Theyarefilledwithvividandscintillatingdescriptionsoftheir
settings.Theyoftenendsadly,eventragically,asthemalesetsoutfornewadventures.Wemightreadthistrendinseveraldifferentways.Perhapsitsuggeststhattravel
isagreaterlurethanromance:oncehookedonthelifeofadventure,amancannotbehelddown.Orperhapsmoresubtlywemayinterpretthispatternasawayof
recognizingsubstantiveculturaldifferences:themaleheroesbelievethattheycanunderstandtheirlovers,butinfacttheyarealwayswrong.WemightinferthatLotis
novelssoughttowarnnonchalantmenofthepotentialpaintheycouldcausebybeingirresponsibleandculturallyignorant.
Inadditiontohisnovels,Lotiwroteanumberoftravelogues.Oddly,heusedhispseudonymbuttoldthestoriesinatravelogueform.Nonetheless,hisaccountsare
oftenasbreathlessandexuberantashisnovels.LeMariagedeLoti(1880)takesplaceinTahitiandisadreamy,idealizedaccountofanislandparadisethathadthe
reputationofuninhibitedsexuality.Jrusalem(1885)andGalile(1885)bothdescribeLotisvisittotheHolyLand.Hisreflectionsonreligioushistoryandtheusual
ancientsightsareespeciallyrichwithdetail.Impressions(1898)isparticularlyinteresting:itssubjectistravelingeneral.Thistextshouldbeamongtheclassicsoftravel
literature,butbecauseLotiisoftenmalignedasmonothematicandoverlysentimental,itisusuallyoverlooked.Hisimpressionisticvignettesofvarioustravelsandhis
discussionsonmemory,learning,andpleasure(tosaynothingofromance)makethistextafirstratecollectionoftravelmusings.IndiawithouttheEnglish(1903)
representsaslightpoliticalbarb:thecolonialcompetitionbetweenFranceandEnglandmanifestsitselfinLotisrepeatedcritiqueoftheRaj.Politicsaside,itisa
wondrousforayintoarichlyhistoricalculture.TowardIsfahan(1904)describesLotisexcursiontotheMiddleEast.Asalways,heisenchantedwiththedifficulties:
theharshdesert,thenastycamels,Bedouinbandits,andsoforth.
Throughout,Lotisstyleofwritingisdramaticandhisadventuresaredescribedwithnovelisticflair.Likeachildwideeyedwithwonder,Lotinarrateshisvoyagesin
greattorrentsofadjectivesandmodifiers.Withhissuperioreyefordetail,hegushesdescriptionsinhistraveloguestheresultofwhichisthathistextshoveronthe
edgeofunbelievability.
WhileexoticplacesfeatureprominentlyinalmostallofLotiswriting,suchlocalesfunctionprimarilyasabackdropforhisromantic

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novels.Inmostofhisstorieshisnarratorisblasaboutplacesbutpassionateaboutwhathappenstooccurthere.Oneexample,fromTheExile,willsuffice:Still,on
thepresentoccasion,IscarcelylookatthismarvelousVenicetheonlyvalueithastomenowisthatofbeingacharmingaccessory,asomewhatidealbackgroundor
frametothesweetlysadfigureofthequeen,thefairyIhavecometovisit(Adams596).Wemayalsoreadintothispassageahintthatitistheprocessofthevisitor
anytravelthatmatters.Simplyachievingthegoal,beitavisitorajourney,maybetheostensibleaimoftheexercise,buttheentireprocessiswherethelessonslurk.
AnotherthemethatrunsthroughoutLotiswritingisthenecessityofengaginglocalpeopleswheneverpossible.Suchinteractionsandexchangeshelpthetravelerto
betterknowforeignplaces.InMadameChrysanthme,forexample,theFrenchnavalofficersarehavinganafternoonsholidayintheJapanesecountryside.One
Frenchmanexclaimsdelightedlyhowfarawayfromhometheyare.Thenarratormuses,Therecanbenodoubtthatinthisspotweareagreatdealfartherawayfrom
FrancethanwewerethismorningonboardtheTriomphante.Whilstoneisonhisownship,thattravellinghousehehasbroughtwithhim,heissurroundedbythe
facesofhisowncountrymen,byallthecustomsandhabitsofhisland,andthisdeludeshim(Adams603).Thedistancebothphysicalandpsychologicalbetween
JapanandFranceismoreclearlymanifestwhentheyhaveescapedthefamiliarspaceoftheirship.Uponencounteringtheunfamiliar,thesailorsmustquickenthepace
oftheirlearning:theycometoseetheirownandtheforeignculturesmoreclearly.
Allinall,Lotiscontributiontotravelliteraturehasbeenconsiderable.Thesheermagnitudeofhistravelsandthequantityofhispublishedworkmarkhimasamajor
figure.Thequalityofhiswritinganditsuniversalinterestintravelmakehimajoytoreadaswellasavaluablesourceofhistorical,cultural,andgeographicaldata.
References:
Adams1988
DOyley1932

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M
MACLEAN,SIRFITZROY
SirFitzroyMacLean(Scottish,19111996)isoneoftheadventuretravelerswhocarriedthetraditionsofnineteenthcenturytravelliteratureintothemodernera.
MuchlikeRobertByronintermsofrouteaswellasliterarystyle,MacLeandescribesanarduousseriesofdestinationsinhisdecidedlymodernworkoftravel
literature,EasternApproaches(1949).Whileauthorofanumberoftravelbooks,includingEscapetoAdventure(1950),APersonfromEngland,andOther
Travellers(1958),BacktoBokhara(1959),Yugoslavia(1969),TotheBackofBeyond:AnIllustratedCompaniontoCentralAsiaandMongolia(1974),and
ToCaucasus,theEndofAlltheEarth:AnIllustratedCompaniontotheCaucasusandTranscaucasia(1976),MacLeansbestworkoftravelliteratureremains
EasternApproaches.
Overthecourseofhiscareer,MacLeanworeseveralhats:diplomat,traveler,memberofParliament,writer,andspy.Hiscourage,tenacity,andquickwitareall
readilyapparenttoanyreaderofhistexts.
EasternApproachestellsofMacLeansdefiantjourneyintotheSovietUnionbeginningin1937.Naturally,thepoliticalclimatewastense,butwiththebrashnessofhis
youthandthepluckofhischaracter,MacLeansucceededintravelingthroughoutCentralAsia.HeusedhisemploymentasanofficialoftheBritishgovernmentto
facilitatesomepartsofhisjourney,butmostlyhistravelsweredrivenbyhisowncuriosity.Indeed,thefactthattherewassomuchpoliticalresistancetoforeign
travelersintheSovietCentralAsianstatesseemstohavemadethemallthemoredesirableasdestinations.Partofthejoyofvisitingaforbiddenorforebodingplaceis
thedifficultyonemustencounter.Inthisregard,MacLeancarriestheheritageofthetruetravelers:adversitymakesthejourneysweeterandpiquesthetravelersdesire
togo.
ThestorybeginswithMacLeandepartingParisforMoscow.Aswitheverydeparture,thereisamomentarysadnessatleaving.Quickly,herecovershiszealand
asserts,Butnowitwastimeforachange.Ihavealwaysrelishedcontrasts,andwhatmorecompletecontrastcouldtherebeafterParisthanMoscow?Ihadseen
somethingoftheWest.NowIwantedtoseetheEast(MacLean11).Hisjourneybeginswithadesiretocontrastthefamiliartotheforeign,andthroughouthisepic
journeyhenotesdifferencesandlearnsfromtheother.
FromhispostinMoscowheplanshistrip,firstmakingasortofreconnaissancevoyagetoBaku.ThisminiaturevoyageturnsouttobeasuccessandfiresMacLeanto
renewhisplanning.Ostensibly,heembarksonajourneytoSiberia,alessrestrictedregion,butsurreptitiouslyswitchestrainsinaprovincialcity.WithSovietagents
tailinghimatasafedistance,MacLeanheadstowardCentralAsia.
Hisdifficultiesrangefromthesimplyinconvenienttothelifethreatening.Hedescribesendlessbureaucracy,treachery,andbadfoodaswellasincrediblemonuments,
amazinghistory,andawarmwelcomefromapoliticallocals.Playingcatandmousewithvariousagentsassignedtomonitorhisactivities,MacLeanbluffs,bribes,and
chanceshiswaysafelyacrossvastdistances,fromAlmaAtatoTashkentandfinallytoSamarqand.Ratherthansatisfyinghim,thistriponlyincreaseshisdesires.
Overthecourseofthenexttwoyears,whilebasedinMoscow,MacLeanmakesanumberofdifferent,andevermoredaring,

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journeystoCentralAsia.Thetriangularcontrastisinteresting:aScotsmanlivinginMoscowandvisitingCentralAsiacomparesallthree.Subsequentforaysinclude
travelstoMongolia,ChineseTurkestan,Kazakhstan,Uzbekistan,andAfghanistan.
By1940thewarwason,andMacLeanwasrecruitedbyBritishIntelligence.Hewritesoftheinterview:For[thelast]sixyears,theysaid,Ihadbeenlearningmy
job(MacLean148).Herespondedincharacteristicfashion:thiswasanothersortofjourney,sweetbecauseofitsrisks.
ThesecondhalfofEasternApproachesfindshimbasedinCairo.MacLeansintelligencegatheringtripssendhimacrossNorthAfricaandtheMiddleEast.Withthe
sametravelerseye,hedescribeshiswartimeadventures.Afteratime,MacLeanisrotatedtotheBalkans,wherehisshrewdtravelskillsareagainemployedforAllied
intelligencegathering.
Parttravelerstale,partwarstory,parthistory,EasternApproachesisafascinatingworkofmoderntravelwriting.Lacedwithheavyhandedliteraryallusionsand
tintedwithvividdescriptions,MacLeansworkcapturestheessenceoftravelwithhisexcitementandhiswillingnesstotakerisks.Inthisregard,heisoneofthelastof
thegreattravelers,formostwhofollowaremoretouriststhanadventurers.
Seealso:
Byron,Robert
References:
MacLean1951
MACNEICE,LOUIS
MuchhasbeenwrittenaboutLouisMacNeice(Irishborn,English,19071963),amajortwentiethcenturypoet.Heisnotusuallynotedasatravelwriter,buthis
manyvolumes,includingBlindFireworks(1929),CollectedPoems(1949),AutumnSequel(1954),EightyfivePoems(1961),andSolstices(1961),contain
severalnotableexamplesoftravelverse.Hisownperegrinationsweremostlytouristicinnature,butthesesafevacationsinspiredandinfluencedhimconsiderably.
CloselyassociatedwithW.H.Auden,MacNeicecountedamonghisfriendssomeoftheerasfinestminds.Hewasascholarofclassics,amildsocialactivist,anda
writer,andhispoemsarestillwellrespectedandoftenanthologized.TheOxfordBookofTravelVerse,forexample,containssixofhispoems.Laterinlife,he
becamefamousasalecturerandpresenteronBBCradio.Forthesakeofbrevity,twoexamplescandemonstrateMacNeicesskillasapoetandhisinterestsasa
traveler.Asalaudedspeakerandpoet,hewasaffordedtheopportunityorperhapssometimescoercedtotravelwidely.
SolitaryTravelisacurious,24linepoemthatseemstolamenttheantisepticnatureofmoderntravelandthedeeplonelinessthattravelingalonecaninspire.
MacNeicebeginswithalistofcitiesonseveralcontinents:BreakfastingaloneinKarachi,Deli,Calcutta,/Dacca,Singapore,KualaLumpur,Colombo,Cape
Town(CrossleyHolland26).Whatisstrikingishowdifferentthesewordssound,howexotic,howexciting.Withtheirforeigntextures,thewordsperforman
abbreviatedversionofthedistinctionbetweensuchdiverseplaces.Buthegoesontocommentnotabouttheplacesthemselves,butratheraboutthealienating
accommodations,whichadheretoasortofworldstandard:Thehotelsareallthesame.Thoughsomespecificsmaychange,thoughthewaitersareofdifferent
racescoffeecolouredoryelloworblacktheexperienceisthesame.
Fromblandhotels,hemovestoindistinguishableairportsandtheidenticalgameofcustoms,regardlessofthecountry.ItisonlyinthefinalstanzathatMacNeice
offersasolution:...IfIcouldonly/Escapeintoiceboxoroven,escapeamongthepeople.Thisisthetravelersdream:toescapetherotetoshunthefamiliar
routineoftheglobaltouristandtoencounterdifferenceinaforeignplace.Withhissomberwordsandflattone,MacNeiceevokesdrudgeryitistravel,thatbrightand
boldexposuretothenewanddifferent,gonehorriblyawry.

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Incontrast,MacNeicespoemMahabalipuramdescribeshisvisittoIndiaandthespiritualaswellasphysicalexcitementhefoundthere.Withitslongandhighly
embellishedlines,thepoemdescribesanornateandbeautifulholysite.Inthedark,slightlythreateningspace,hedescribesthefantasticandprovocativesculptedreliefs
oftheHindugodsVishnuandSivaandexclaims,Beholdwhatajoyoflife(CrossleyHolland317).Theexperienceoftheforeigninthiscasehashelped
MacNeicesnarratortoseevalueandjoyinhisownlife.Hisaweattheaestheticandspiritualbeautyofthesceneaffirmshisownvitality.Indeed,isthisnotoneofthe
principalandidealvaluesoftravel?
Hecontinuesforseveralelaboratestanzastodescribetheexperienceoftheseworksofart.Attheendheconcludes,
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Butthevisitormustmoveonandthewavesassaultthetemple,
Livinggraniteagainstdeadwater,andtimewithitsweatheringaction
Makephraseandfeatureblurred
Stillfromtodayweknowwhatanavataris,wehaveseen
Godtakeshapeanddwellamongshapes,wehavefelt
Ourageinglimbsrespondtothoseagelesslimbsintherock
Reliefs.Reliefistheword.
(CrossleyHolland319)

Thetravelerhasbeentouchedbywhathehasseenandhaslearnedfromthiswhollyforeignicon.Hisencounterwiththestrangehasshedlightuponthefamiliar,andhe
feelsasenseofsatisfactionandfulfillment.Inthisexposuretobothadistantcultureandadifferenttime(thereliefsarethousandsofyearsold),thenarratorfeelspartof
somethinglarger,perhapsahumanhistorythattranscendsindividualsorevensinglecultures.
ThusinsomeofhispoemsMacNeicedemonstratesseveralofthecorethemesoftravelliterature.Sprinkledthroughouthispoemsandlettersaremanysuchnuggets
thatmarkMacNeice,amongotherthings,asaninterestingtravelwriter.PerhapsMacNeicecanbestbeconsideredatravelwriterinthathelamentstheantiseptic
replacementoftravelwithtourism.
References:
CrossleyHolland1986
Harvey1967
MAGELLAN,FERDINAND
AmerethreedecadesafterChristopherColumbushadmadeitacrosstheAtlanticOcean,Magellan(Portuguese,14801521)setouttocircumnavigatetheglobe.
AttemptingthejourneywouldhavebeenboldenoughMagellanactuallycompletedit,therebyprovingthattheearthwasundoubtedlyround.LikeColumbus,Magellan
wasdrivenbythedesiretofindatraderoutetotheEast.HisstoryistoldinVoyageroundtheWorld(1522).
WhilebothColumbusandMagellansailedunderaSpanishflag,neitheronewasaSpaniard.BecauseofSpainsgreatwealth,power,andardentdesireforabetter
traderoute,explorersfromsurroundingcountriesfoundreadysupporttherefortheirvoyages.MagellanwasPortuguesebybirth,butheseemedtohavelittleallegiance
tohishomeland.
In1519,MagellansetoffonhismissiontolocatetheMoluccas(theSpiceIslands).Findingsailorsforhissmallfleethadbeenagreatproblem,fortheboldnatureof
thevoyage,itsformidableduration,andlingeringfearsoftheflatnessoftheearthdissuadedmanyaman.OnlythedeeppocketsofKingCharlesVofSpainsavedthe
expedition.Withroughly50menoneachofhisfiveships,Magellanembarked.
Inspiteofencounteringallimaginabledifficultiesenroute,MagellanreachedthecoastofSouthAmerica.Buthisvoyagehadonlyjustbegun.Workinghiswaydownto
thesoutherntipofthecontinentprovedtobeslowandtreacherous.Afullyearafter

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leavingSpainhefinallyreachedthehowlingstraitthatisnownamedafterhim:theStraitofMagellan.Oneofthemoredramaticmomentsintravelliterature,Magellans
accountoftheterrifyingwindandwavesstillstrikesfearintheheartsofsailors.AlthoughhehadsucceededinreachingthePacific,hisfleetwasinshambles,hiscrew
wasstarvingandmutinous,andhisconfidencewasshaken.Reducedtobarbaricconditions,Magellansshipssailedonward,claimingthePhilippinesforSpain.Soon
afterdoingso,Magellanwaskilledbyoneofthenatives.
AsmallcrewofsurvivorscontinuedontotheMoluccas,loadedtheirsingleremainingshipwithcloves,andsailedhometoSpain.Eighteensurvivedthethreeyear
journey.Ofcourse,ifMagellandiedhalfwaythroughthetrip,howisitthatwehaveanaccountofMagellanscircumnavigationoftheglobe?Hissecretary,anItalian
noblemannamedAntonioPigafetti,faithfullytranscribedthefirstyearofMagellansdictationwhenMagellanwaskilled,Pigafetticontinuedthejournalsforhiscaptain.
Thejointworkisremarkablebecauseitrepresentssomanyfirstimpressions.ManyofthesightsandpeopleshadneverbeforebeenobservedbyEuropeansassuch,
thejournalsareoftenfantasticandexaggerated.AfterthepointwhereMagellandied,thenarrativegetslessliteralandmoreimaginativeperhapsPigafettiwasrather
moregulliblethanhislatemaster.Nonetheless,asatestamentofbravery,determination,andspirit,therecordstandsasagreattravelstory.
Thejournalsarealsointerestinginthattheyprovideawonderfullessonineconomics.Asmentioned,theostensiblepurposeofthejourneywastofindatraderouteto
theSpiceIslands.SpicesinEuropewereveryrareandthusquitevaluableintheEasttheywerecommonandrelativelycheap.Yetalongtheway,thesmalltradingthat
Magellanandhiscrewengagedinseemstomeverytelling.Inaneconomywithnouniversalcurrency,anythingcanbevaluable.ThusweseeMagellantrading
seeminglyworthlessitemsforfoodandsupplies:Wemadeexcellentbargainshere:forahookoraknifewepurchasedfiveorsixfowlsacombbroughtustwogeese
asmalllookingglass,orapairofscissors,asmuchfishaswouldservetenpeople....Ourplayingcardswereanequallyadvantageousobjectofbarterforakingof
spadesIobtainedhalfadozenfowls,andthehawkerdeemedhisbargainanexcellentone(Rugoff396397).Magellangoesontotalkabouthowthissortofbarter
hasmadehimthinkofthevalueofeverydayitems.Indeed,whenputinaradicallydifferentcontext,themostworthlessofcommoditiescanbecomeararetreasure.
InthewordsofhissecretaryPigafetti,Magellanwasadornedwitheveryvirtueinmidstofthegreatestadversityheconstantlypossessedanimmovablefirmness.At
seahesubjectedhimselftothesameprivationsashismen.Betterskilledthananyoneintheknowledgeofnauticalcharts,hewasaperfectmasterofnavigation,ashe
provedinmakingthetouroftheworld,anattemptonwhichnonebeforehimhadventured(Rugoff406).Asagreatadventurerandasubtleobserverofdifferences,
Magellanmustbepraised.Thespiritofhismemorypropelledhismentocompletethejourneyevenafterhisdeathitisthatsamespiritthatmakeshisjournalsgreat.
References:
Rugoff1960
MARVELL,ANDREW
Awelleducatedandsomewhatprivilegedfellow,AndrewMarvell(English,16211678)hadbothopportunitiesanddesirestoengageintheturbulentpoliticsofhis
era.HeismostfamousforhisassociationwithJohnMiltonandwithOliverCromwell,aswellasforhisscathingsatiresattackingthemonarchy,butinearlierdayshe
pennedanumberofsignificantpoemsthatcannominallybecalledtravelliterature.

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MarvellspentfourwelldocumentedyearstravelingontheContinentandexchangingideaswithwhomsoeverhecouldengage.Hewasagiftedlinguistwhowas
passionateabouthisideas,andhistravelsarethestuffoflegends.Lessconcernedwithgeography,climate,andcustoms,Marvellremainedfocusedontherealmof
ideas,particularlypoliticsandreligion.Althoughhispoemscirculatedwidelyinpamphletformorinprivateeditions,itwasnotuntil1681thattheywereofficially,and
posthumously,published.Thuswithinhiscollectedworkstherearepoemsonmanythemesandtopicsscatteredamongtheearlyworksareseveralexamplesoftravel
literature,includingBermuda(1652?)andTheCharacterofHolland(1651?).Inaddition,muchofhisearlywork,thoughdevotedtomoregeneralthemes,contains
strikinginstanceswhereheusestravelasametaphorforunderstandingandknowing.
BermudaservedasagifttoanumberofEnglishexilessettingoutfortheWestIndiestoescapereligiouspersecutionandpoliticalturmoil.AlthoughMarvellhadnever
beenthere,themythoftheNewWorldwasvividforhim.Employingtheimagesofthepastoral,heconstructsaBermudathatresemblesaparadisefound.Adeeply
religiousman,MarvellattributesallthebeautyandgoodnessoftheNewWorldtoakindandgenerousGod.ThusthegardenofBermudaisbathedineternalspring
andisformedbyagrassystage,/Safefromthestorms(CrossleyHolland364365).Alandofheavenlyabundance,[God]makesthefigsourmouthstomeet,/
Andthrowsthemelonsatourfeet(365).Thepoemisinterestingforitsimaginativerenderingofaforeignplaceanditsidealizedsenseofelsewhere:paradiseisalways
somewhereelse,usuallyjustoverthehorizon.
MarvellslongpoemTheCharacterofHollandispeculiarandchallengingtoread.Whileitostensiblyfunctionsastravelliteratureitcontraststhefamiliartothe
foreignandlearnsasaresultoftheencounteritalsoaddressespoliticalandreligiousissues.Complexinitsbalanceofoppositionalideas,yetengagingwithitslyrical
beautyandsubtlety,thepoemmeritssustainedanddetailedstudy,whichisbeyondthescopeofthisvolume.Asforitsbeingatraveltale,sufficeittosaythatinit
MarvelltakesgreatpainstodescribethereclaimednatureoftheDutchland,itslawsandpolitics,anditseconomyallwithintheframeofhiscomparisonbetween
HollandandEngland.
Asamajormetaphysicalpoet,Marvellhasmanyclaimstoliteraryfame.Inasmallway,hemayalsobenamedapoetoftravelliteratureforhisunusualblendingof
travelwithpoliticsandreligion.PerhapsonewaytoreadMarvellistoimaginelifeitselfasajourneytosalvation.
References:
CrossleyHolland1986
Fussell1987
Harvey1967
MASEFIELD,JOHN
Asaveryyoungman,JohnMasefield(English,18781967)setouttoseatofindhisfortuneintheworld.Meetingwithgrandexperiencesbutlittlefortunethatcould
sustainhim,MasefieldmovedtotheUnitedStatesandbouncedaroundthecountrydoingoddjobs.Findingthiswanderinglifestyleunsuitable,hereturnedtoEngland
in1901totryhishandatwritingforaliving.
Drawingonhisearlyadventuresasaseaman,Masefieldfoundhehadsubstantialliterarytalent.Publishingpoems,essays,articles,andfictionwhereverhecould,he
amassedquitearecordofsuccess.Muchofhisearlyworkreliesonthethemeoftravelandadventureforitsmotivation,whereashislaterworkmovesinmanyother
directions.Althoughpublishedinavarietyofforms,histwoearlybooksoftravelpoemsareusuallycalledSaltWaterBallads(1902)andBalladsandPoems(1910).
EchoesofhistravelsareprominentinDauber(1913)andinmanyofhisshortstories,includingAMainsailHaul(1905)andATarpaulinMuster(1907).

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Masefieldwentontopublishdozensofbooksonawiderangeofthemes.HissuccesswasgreatenoughforhimtohavebeennamedBritishpoetlaureatein1930.
Forthesakeofbrevity,oneexamplefromSaltWaterBalladscandemonstrateMasefieldsstyleandthematicfocus.OftenprintedasanexcerpttitledSeaFever,
thepassagereads:
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Imustdowntotheseasagain,tothelonelyseaandthesky,
AndallIaskisatallshipandastartosteerherby,
Andthewheelskickandthewindssongandthewhitesailsshaking,
Andagreymistontheseasfaceandagreydawnbreaking.
Imustgodowntotheseasagain,forthecalloftherunningtide
Isawildcallandaclearcallthatmaynotbedenied
AndallIaskisawindydaywiththewhitecloudsflying,
Andtheflungsprayandtheblownspume,andtheseagullscrying.
Imustgodowntotheseasagain,tothevagrantgypsylife,
Tothegullswayandthewhaleswaywherethewindslikeawhettedknife
AndallIaskisamerryyarnfromalaughingfellowrover,
Andquietsleepandasweetdreamwhenthelongtricksover.
(CrossleyHolland21)

Wecanseequiteobviouslyanumberofmajorthemesoftravelliteratureinthissection.Thenarratorvaluesthejourneymorethanthedestinationbeingatsea,beingin
motion,isanenduntoitself.Hefeelsdrawntomotion:notetherepeatedimperative,Imustgodowntotheseasagain(myitalics).ForMasefield,travelfunctionsas
anantidotetoLondonsociety:itisavagrantgypsylife.Tobeontheseasistobeimmersedinthenaturalworldofthestars,wind,mist,tides,spume,gulls,and
whales.Finally,hislastrequest,perhapsmostimportant,istohearamerryyarnfromalaughingfellowrover.Masefieldrecognizesthecrucialroleofstoriesintravel.
Tolivestoriesandtosharenarrativesarefundamentalelementsoftraveltocapturethosestoriesinwritingiswhatmakestravelliterature.
References:
CrossleyHolland1986
Harvey1967
MAYLE,PETER
In1989,PeterMayle(English,1939),anadvertisingexecutiveturnedwriter,movedwithhiswifeandtwodogstoProvence,France.Theresultingbooks,AYearin
Provence(1989),ToujoursProvence(1991),andHotelPastis(1993),chroniclesomeoftheirmore

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memorablemomentswhiletryingtoassimilateintoruralFrenchsociety.Thetalesarecharming,funny,anddeliciouslyEpicureantheyflowlikeaneasydinner
conversation,oneidealeadinggenially,ifhaphazardly,tothenext.Ineachofthebooks,Mayleseemstohaveoneunderlyingtheme:HowdifferentisFrancefrom
Britain?Fortunately,differenceinthiscaseisnotnegativebutratherexcitingitinspiresMayletoreflectuponbothhisformerandpresenthomelands.
AYearinProvencefollowsalinearstructure:itisamonthbymonthaccountoftheMaylesfirstyearofresidence.Frompracticalissueslikeactuallybuyingthe
house,tolinguisticpeculiaritiesofProvenalFrench,tounderstandingruralrituals,Mayletellsevenbanaltaleswithwitandmodesty.Oftenthebuttofhisownjokes,
MayleisabletolaughathisownassumptionsandpreconceivednotionsaboutFranceandtheFrench.
Gradually,theMaylesbecomecomfortableasexpatriatestheirincessantstreamofBritishandAmericanguests,however,serveasremindersofnonProvenal
normalcy.Foolsservingascomicfoilstothehero,thevacationerscauseustolaughatourselves.Abusinessmanwithaneuroticneedtophonetheoffice,weak
stomachedacquaintances,sunburnedidiotswhorefusetowearsunscreen,andfriendsoffriendswhoinsistuponhospitalityallremindtheMaylesoftheculturethat
theyhaveabandoned.Itisbyobservingandbyaskingoftenembarrassingquestionsthattheylearntolove,andtobeaccepted,intheirforeignhome.
Thesecondbook,ToujoursProvence,ismorelooselyorganizedaroundstories.Theyseemtoflowlikeaforestpath,oneleadingtoanotherandtoanother,withno
particulardestinationinmind.Ourprotagonistshavegonenative(inapositivesense)andseemtomakefarfewermistakes.Adventurescontinue,guestsreturnagain
andagain,andthedelightfulcharactersthatliveintheLubrondistrictcontinuetheirmarvelousantics.
Bytheendofthesetwobooks,Mayledeclaresthatheusesthenaturalworldashiscalendarandthesunandthemoonashisclock.Therhythmofcountrylifehas
foreverchangedthewayheviewsthepassageoftime.Ofcourse,thisisacontrasttothewaymostofusexist,utterlydependentuponourwatchesandplanners.
Perhapsthisispartofthepointofthebooks:whatwetakeforgrantedasthewayeveryonelivesisinfacthighlyculturespecific,nottomentionclassspecific.Mayle
hasjourneyedtoaforeigncountrybutalsotoaforeignclass.Shiftingfromyuppieculturetofarmingcultureisavoyageinitsownright.
HotelPastis,thoughpublishedlast,actuallynarratestheMaylesdecisiontomovetoFrancewemightconsideritaprequeltotheothertwobooks.Withouthaving
readthesubsequenthistory,however,thestoryfallsflat.Mostofthesterlingmomentsofthetextremindmetoomuchofmorecarefullycraftedexperiencesintheother
twostories.Forthesereasons,HotelPastisfeelslikeanafterthought.Regardless,whenreadasatrilogy,intheorderofpublication,thissetoftalessatisfiesand
amusesgreatly.
Allalongtheway,Maylelearnswithjoy.Andasaresult,hereciteshislessonsjoyously.ItisdifferencethatstimulatesanddrivesMayleitisalsodifferencethat
teacheshimlessons.Bybeingelsewhere,byknowingandevenbecomingtheother,Maylelearnsofhimselfandhelpsustoseeourownculturalquirksandfoolishness.
Makenomistake:Mayleisalsocritical,asonlyanoutsidercanbe,oftheFrenchandtheirpeculiarities.Theclearvantagepointprovidedbybeingawayfromhome
doesnotdiscriminatebothhomeandhomeawayfromhomereceivescrutiny.
Heconcludesattheendofthefirstbook,Ithadbeenaselfabsorbedyear,confinedmostlytothehouseandthevalley,fascinatingtousinitsdailydetail,sometimes
frustrating,oftenuncomfortable,butneverdullordisappointing.Andaboveall,wefeltat

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home(Mayle207).Itseemstomethatthisisafinedescriptionofthebestsortoftravel.Inthisselfabsorptionarelessons,andfromfascination,frustration,and
discomfort,selfreflectioncanfollow.Inthegrandtraditionoftravelliterature,Maylebothlearnsfromhisjourneyandthenwriteshislessonsinordertoteachwithhis
tales.
References:
Mayle1989
MELVILLE,HERMAN
HermanMelville(American,18191891)isuniversallyknownforhismasterpiecesBillyBuddandMobyDick,buthealsowrotealargequantityofoutstandingtravel
literature.HistravelbooksincludeTypee(1846),Omoo(1847),Mardi(1849),Redburn(1849),JournaluptheStraits(posthumously1935),JournalofaVisitto
LondonandtheContinent(posthumously1948),andJournalofaVisittoEuropeandtheLevant(posthumously1955).Itwasinfacthistravelliteraturethat
nineteenthcenturyaudiencesappreciatedfarabovehislaternovels.
Bornintoawelltodofamilythatsawasharpreversaloffortunewhenhewas12,Melvillehadtomakehisownwayintheworldafterhavinggrownupinrelative
ease.Hemostassuredlyrosetotheoccasion.AfterworkingatvariousoddjobsinNewYork,anddespisingthedrudgeryandstructureofhisworkadaylife,Melville
shippedoffasacabinboyonatransatlanticshipin1839.Sobeganalifetimeoftravels,adventures,andliteraryaccountsthereof.
Althoughtheworkwashard,unfamiliar,andamongsaltysailors,Melvillefoundtheseatopossessirresistibleallure.Afterreturning,heattemptedtoteachschoolbut
foundtheenticementofmotiontoostrong:in1841,heshippedouttotheSouthSeasforan18monthcruiseonawhalingboat.MostofthefactualdetailsforMoby
Dickweregainedduringthistime.BouncingabouttheSouthSeaIslands,hefoundadventuresaplenty.Hejumpedshipwithafriendonseveraloccasions,washeld
captivebynativesintheMarquesasislands,stowedawayonatradingship,workedinTahiti,andeventuallymadeitbacktoHawaiiasawhaler.Thisepicadventure
satisfiedMelvilleforatime.HereturnedtotheEastCoastconfidentthathehadsufficientliterarymaterialfromwhichtodraw.
Melvillewasfondofclaimingthattheseafaringlifewashiseducationheonceremarkedthat,asapooryoungman,theseawastheonlyuniversityopentohim.Travel
asaninvaluableformoflearningisathemethatappearsinalmostallofhisbooks.Hisearlywork,alltravelromances,metwithconsiderablesuccess,andthisfreedom
allowedhimtopursuethemorehighlyliteraryandabstractnovelsofhismostfamousmiddleperiod.
AsarenownedmanofAmericanletters,newopportunitiesopenedupforMelville.HewenttoLondonandParisin1849butfoundhepreferredthequietlifeonhis
Massachusettsfarmtotheglitteringinternationallifeoftheliterati.Formorethanadecadeinthe1850sand1860s,heremainedmostlyintheStates,writinghis
masterpiecesandmakingonlybriefjourneysabroad.ButeventhesesmalladventureshadagreateffectonMelville.
Afterthisperiodofrelativestabilityandprolificliteraryproduction,Melvilleagainfelttheneedtotravel.Somescholarsattributethisrestlessnesstothefactthathis
literaryreputation,surprisingly,hadfaltered.Hefoundhisgreatworksdidnotsellnearlyaswellashisearliertravelwriting.Hissolutionwastomakeaseriesoflecture
toursintheUnitedStatesandabroad.HislateryearswerepepperedwithtravelsacrossNorthAmerica,Europe,theLevant,andtheMediterranean.Onthesetripshe
keptfabulouslydetailednotesandmadetypicallybrilliantobservations.ThesejournalswereessentiallylostuntilMelvillesreputationwasresuscitatedinthe1920s,and
theywerefinallypublishedintheirunpolishedbutnonethelessremarkableforminthe1940s.

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Generally,Melvilleisnotedasbothashrewdstylistandagiftedwordsmith.Hisworksconsistentlyblendrealismwithphilosophicabstraction,andhistalesarefilled
withallegoricalorsymboliccharactersthathaveastoundingcomplexityanddepth.Behindhisabstractdevices,however,restsasizablequantityoffirsthandfactual
data.Allofhistravelnovelsaresetinplaceshevisitedinhistravels.Frequently,histravelwritingpositsnaturalphenomenaasspirituallysignificantinasense,travel
servesasaformofworshipinMelvillestexts.
TypeewasMelvillesfirstnovelandisbasedlargelyonhisownvoyagetotheSouthSeas.Thatsaid,manyoftheaccountsaresignificantlyexaggeratedorembellished
fordramaticpurposes.Aftermorethanayearatseaonawhalingship,thenarrator(Tom)andhisfriend(Toby)jumpshipintheMarquesasIslands.Tiredoflousy
food,backbreakingwork,andatyrannicalcaptain,theyabscondtoparadise.Aperfectantidotetotheirhellishship,Typeedelightsthem.Theyarereveredbythe
natives,treatedashonoredguests,feted,fed,andallowedaccesstobeautifulgirls.Amidtropicalsplendorandperpetuallyabundantleisure,theyliveamongcarefree
nativesonanenchantedisland.Itisasortofparadisefound,anislandpopulatedbynoblesavagesthosedeemedvirtuousandpureonthebasisofneverhavingbeen
influencedbyWesterncivilization.Indeed,throughoutthetext,thenarratorrailsagainstthecorruptinginfluenceofwhitemenupontheidyllicnatives.
Tomfallssick,andTobysetsouttogethelp.Hemeetswithmisadventureandcannotreturn,leavingTomalone.Ratherquicklythereafter,Tomtiresoftheparadise,
dubiousofthecannibalisticpracticesandthewarringwaysoftheislanders.HeenliststhehelpofafriendlyturncoatislandertomakehiswaytoanAustralianvessel.
Thereissomesuggestionattheendofthenovelthatoneofhisreasonsforleavingwastobeabletotellhisfantastictalestowhitemen(andtofindhisfriendToby).
Typeecontainslong,languiddescriptionsofthenaturalbeautyoftheisland,thequaintandsimplecustomsoftheinhabitants,and,ofcourse,anativeloveinterest,
thebeautifulandinnocentFaraway.Moreromancethantravelogue,thenovelchroniclesvariousprosaicandpoeticmoments.Frequently,Melvilleovertlycompares
theislandtoEurope,mostlytothepraiseoftheisland.SuchculturalcomparisonsanchorthetextinaWesternperspectiveandtargettheWesternreadersdesirefor
anEdenthatbearssomeresemblancetothefamiliar.Forexample,thenarratorfrequentlyvisitsthesexsegregatedbachelorchiefsatalodgecalledTi.WritesMelville,
TheTiwasarightjovialplace.Itdidmyheart,aswellasmybody,goodtovisitit.Securefromfemaleinclusion,therewasnorestraintuponthehilarityofthe
warriors,who,likethegentlemenofEuropeaftertheclothisdrawn,andtheladiesretire,freelyindulgedtheirmirth(Rugoff458459).Suchcomparisons,although
casualasides,servetomakeMelvillesaccountmoreinvitingandlessalientohisreadership.
OmooactsasthesequeltoTypee.ThenovelpicksupwithTom,injuredandweak,signingonasaseaman.Thisshiptooturnsouttobepoorlyequippedanda
hotbedofstrifeanddeceit.Thecrewrevoltsbutfailstogaincontroloftheship.TheyareincarceratedandthendesertedonTahiti.Islandlifesuitsthem,thoughthey
quicklypressthehospitalityofthegenerousnatives.Tomandhisnewfriend,Dr.LongGhost,smelltroublebrewingandsetofffornearbyImeeo.Theyfindworkas
fieldhandsbutfeelsuchlaboristootaxing.
Amidthetropicalabundance,povertyisnotanissue.ThedoctorandTomsetouttostudythenativesandrelaxinthesecondhalfofthenovel.InthissectionMelville
incorporateshisownstudiesofPolynesianpeoples.Manners,customs,clothing,food,religion,andlanguagereceiveelaboratedescriptions.Inthemidstofthenovel,
then,atravelogueresides.Valuableforitsfactualdatabutsomewhatlongwindedafterthequickpaceofthe

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firsthalfofthenovel,thesectionisacuriousinclusion.Afteratime,culturalanthropologylosesitsfascinationforTom,andheleaveshisfriendtopressonward.He
signsonasawhalerontheprovocativelynamedshipLeviathan.
PerhapstheintellectualsequeltoOmooisMardi,althoughthenarratorandthetoneshiftsignificantly.TajiistheheroofthisnovelheandhisfriendJarldeserttheir
whalingshipintheSouthPacific.Throughseveralmisadventures,theyfindthemselvesadriftinalifeboatwithathirdcharacter,Samoa.Incredibly,theyencountera
nativepriesttakingabeautifulwhitewoman,Yillah,tobesacrificed.Theyrescueher,Tajifallsinlove,andtheylandontheislandofMardi,anotherparadise.Alas,
Yillahsoonvanishesmysteriously,andthedespondentTajiseeksherfarandwide.Formanychapters,hescourstheMarquesasIslands.
Thoughimplausiblymotivated,thisvoyageisoneofthebestexamplesofMelvillestravelwriting.Notonlyarehisdescriptionssuperb,Tajiandhiscompanionshavea
continuousdiscussionaboutthenatureoftravelandexploration.Inaddition,theymakeextendedandoftensarcasticcomparisonsofthevariouscolonialpowers
thatowntheislands.Thetaleendsenigmatically:Tajileaveshiscompanionstocontinuehissearchoveranendlesssea,butwearenolongersureifheisseeking
Yillahorhimself.Eitherway,Melvilledepictstravelastheonlymeanstosatisfactionandselfknowledge.
HavingnearlyexhaustedhisexperiencesintheSouthSeas,Melvilleturnedbacktohisfirsttransatlanticvoyagein1839forhismaterialinRedburn.Althoughheis
muchmorecapableasanauthorhere,thestorydescribesamuchlessabletraveler.WritinghimselfasWellingboroughRedburn,Melvilledescribeshisgaffesasa
noviceseaman.Thesailorsloathehim,thepassengerscondescendtohim,andheishopelesslylonely.Hissalvationishisexcitementwithbeinginmotionandknowing
thathewillsoonbeabletoexplore,howeverbriefly,England.
Onceashore,thenarrativefollowsRedburnswanderingsinLiverpool.Hiswideeyedwonderandinnocencemakehimafirstrateculturalcritic.Skepticalof
EnglandsmythicalstatusassuperiortoAmerica,Redburnfindsnumerouswaysinwhichitcomparesunfavorablytohishome.Asoftenhappens,whenathome,the
protagonistcriticizesAmerica,butwhenabroad,hebecomesremarkablypatriotic.Redburnandhisnewfriend,Harry,makeaboisteroustriptoLondonandthensign
ontoreturntotheUnitedStates.
Thenovelendsrathertragicallyandbitterly.Thehomewardpassageisanightmareofdisease,privation,anddeceit.Whentheyarrive,thecaptainrefusestopaytheir
wages.Redburnreturnstowherehestarted,poorandaimless,andHarrysignsontoawhalingship,whereheiskilled.Suchanabruptlytragicendingrepresentsa
rarelymentionedaspectoftravel:itcanbedangerousanddestructive.
Melvillesposthumouslypublishedtraveljournalsarealsoquiteinteresting.Muchlessdramaticthanhisnovels,theynonethelesscontainengagingexploitsand
adventures.Withhisevercriticaleye,Melvillecutstothequickofculturaldifferenceandlamentstheusualtouristpractice.JournaluptheStraitsdescribeshis
journeytotheHolyLandandhisdesiretofindsomesortofspiritualreassurancefromtheancientrelics.JournalofaVisittoLondonandtheContinentand
JournalofaVisittoEuropeandtheLevantbothcoverthemainstaysofEuropeantravelbut,onceagain,fromMelvillesskepticalperspective.Moreoftenthannot,
hefindshimselfnonplussedbythatwhichawesothers.Richindetailsandpunctuatedwithcomicalsnapjudgments,thesetextslendaninsightintoMelvillethetraveler.
Overhislongandfruitfulcareer,Melvilleusedtravelasinspirationforhiswriting.Asourceforengagingstoriesandexcitementaswellasatoolforlearningandself
reflection,travelliesattheheartofhiswork.His

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enthusiasticembraceoftheunfamiliarandhisidealizationofhisownexperiencesintoromancesmakehisworkasortofliteraryhybrid.Hisbooksfusefactandfiction
intoastrangecompositethatepitomizestravelliterature.
References:
Hart1965
Rugoff,1960
MILLER,HENRY
HenryMiller(American,18911980)maybeanembodimentofarestlesscentury.Constantlyinsearchofnewexcitementandtrends,hespentlargeportionsofhis
lifeintransition.AsamajorAmericanwriter,Millerfitsintomanycategories.Whilehisliteraryproductionwasvast,severalofhismostfamousworksarenotableas
travelliterature.
TounderstandMillersbooks,whicharemostlyautobiographical,weneedtorealizethatherejectedtheUnitedStatesashishomeandmovedtoEuropefrom1930
to1940.Itisduringthisdecadethathefocusedonculturalcomparison,firstwritingofEuropefromanAmericanperspectiveinTropicofCancer(1934)andthen
adoptingaEuropeanperspectivetowriteofhisownchildhoodinNewYorkinTropicofCapricorn(1939).Althoughthesetwotextsareonlynominallytravel
literature,theymaybeincludedinthisencyclopediainthatthefundamentalthemeofeachisgettingtoknowoneselfthroughexperiencingdifferentcultures.Ina
particularlymodernmanner,Millerdescribeshisownadolescenceinhishomecountryasavoyageoflearningandselfunderstanding.Inaddition,itisbygoingto
differentplacesbothathomeandabroadthatMillerscharactersdevelopandgrow.Lastly,thesetwotextsreadliketravelliterature:thereisavividdescriptive
energyinthesebooksthatsuggestsatravelerswideeyedwonderatdiscoveringpeople,places,andthings.
Althoughlessdaringandinnovativeasnovels,severalotherofMillersbooksaremoreclearlytravelliterature.TheColossusofMaroussi(1941)grewoutofMillers
owntriptoGreeceanddescribesthepeople,theruins,andthegeographywithbreathtakingdetail.Thenovelbeginsasastandardchronicleofaholidaybutgrowsinto
aremarkablyimpressionisticsetofsketchesandscenesofGreece.WorldWarIIhadjustbegun,andMillerseemedtobereachingforagreatersenseofcivilization
thanthetwentiethcenturycouldprovidehim,thusTheColossusofMaroussievokesclassicalGreekhistory.Althoughdelightedwiththeruins,myths,andantique
heritage,MillersnarratorfindsthespiritofthecontemporarypeopletobethegreatestgeniusofGreece.Inthisregard,Millerstravelnovelcanbecomparedtothe
travelwritingofhiscontemporaryD.H.Lawrence.RejectingtheidealizedhistoryofGreeceinfavorofarealpresentrepresentsashiftawayfromsomanyeighteenth
andnineteenthcenturyworksoftravelliterature,andthusthisshiftmarksMillerasaninnovatorandaprogressivewithinthehistoryofthegenre.
Aftermanyyearslivinginnumerouscountries,MillerreturnedtohisnativeUnitedStatesandmadeanextensivetour.Hisreflections,reactions,andinsightswere
publishedintheverysuccessfulnovelTheAirConditionedNightmare(1945)anditssequel,RemembertoRemember(1947).Bothbooksresideintheintersection
betweennovelandtraveloguetheyclearlyrepresentanautobiographicalaccount,buttheyreadasfictionwiththeemphasismoreonperceptionthanonobjectivefacts
anddetails.DeeplycriticalofAmericanvaluesandattitudes,thesetextsmetwithhugelypolarizedreceptions.BothtextsshowMiller,whowasbothwealthyand
famousasaresultofhisearlierwork,jesting,provoking,andscandalizinganynumberofpeople.TheresultisanamusingandenlighteningstorythatusesMillerssharp
witandaudaciouscynicismtomaketheentiresocietyseemtoberiddledwithdotards,idiots,andfanatics.
Throughouthislife,Millerbothlivedandwroteofhisownwidetravels.Eachtrip

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representedajourneyofselfdiscoveryandanopportunitytoteachothersoftheirownmyopia.Millersemploymentoftravelliteratureassocialcriticismhasdeep
roots,buthisstyleandformwereuniquelyhisownandcanbesaidtohavehadasignificantinfluenceonmuchofthetravelwritingofthelatetwentiethcentury.
Seealso:
Lawrence,D.H.
References:
Bent1965
Harvey1967
Newby1985
MILNES,RICHARDMONCKTON
RichardMoncktonMilnes,FirstBaronHoughton(English,18091885),wasaminorVictorianfigurewithapassionfortravelpoems.EducatedatCambridge
Universityandfriendlywithsomeoftheliterarygreatsofhisday,includingAlfred,LordTennysonandWilliamMakepeaceThackeray,Milneswentontowrite
scholarlystudiesofJohnKeatsandtoserveinanumberofpoliticalcapacities.Forourpurposes,hisPoeticalWorks(1876)ishisclaimtofame:itcontainsnumerous
substantialandinterestingtravelpoems.
Milnesssocialstandingaffordedhimgreatopportunities.HissenseofloyaltyanddutytoGreatBritain,however,preventedhimfromlivingabroad.Yethedidtravel
extensivelythroughoutcontinentalEurope,Greece,andTurkey.HistravelsanchoredhissomewhatarrogantimpressionofBritainandservedtoaugmenthisalready
strongpatriotism.Whereassometravelersusetheirexposuretoculturaldifferenceasameansofcritiquingtheirhomeland,Milnesrespondedtohisjourneyswitha
renewedcertaintythathisfamiliarculturewassuperior.
AproductoftheVictorianera,Milnessverseishighlydramaticandexcited.History,particularlyBritishorclassical,providesarichlytexturedbackdropforevery
monument,building,orcity.InonelongcyclecalledTheIonianIslands,MilnesdwellsuponthepastgloriesofGreece,specificallyasseenfromtheeyesofa
nineteenthcenturyEnglishtraveler.Thepoembegins,
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l

Thoupleasantisland,whoserichgardenshores
Havealonglivedfameofloveliness
Recordedinthehistoricsong,thatframed
Theunknownpoetofanunknowntime,
IllustratinghisnativeIthaca,
Andallherbrightsocietyofisles,
Mostpleasantland!Tous,whojourneyingcome
Fromthefarwest,andfalluponthycharms.
(CrossleyHolland146147)

ThetravelersexperienceblissinthepresentbybaskinginthelonggonegloriesofthemythicalancientGreeceofliterature.Ingoodcolonialfashion,thenarratorshifts
focusaftersome30gushinglines:heclaimstoseeasimilaritybetweenancientGreeceandhisownBritain.Indeed,tobeimmersedinaforeigntimeandplacecanonly
bringthenarratortoreflectuponhisownhome.ThisresponsewascertainlynotuniquetoMilnesmanyotherwritersandtouristshadusedvoyagestoGreecetoaffirm
theirbeliefthatBritainwasamodernembodimentofancientGreekideals.
InthesamepoemMilnescloseswiththenotionthattravelisagreatteacher.Urgingthetravelereverforward,henotesthathisownmemoryofthevoyage(andthe
poeticlinesthatdescribetheexperience)Willbearthefruitofmanyanafterthought,/Brightinthedubioustrackofafteryears(CrossleyHolland148).The
journey,anditswrittenaccount,willfixlifelessonsinhismind.
ToMilnes,astomanytravelers,thepastisindeedaforeigncountry.Thustovisitforeignlands,particularlythoselocaleswithfamousancienthistories,istoencounter
thewisdomofthatlonglostera.IntheconclusionofTheBurdenofEgypt,Milnesnotes:
l
l
l
l

Whereisforthemthetaleofhistorytold?
Howistheirworldadvancingonitsway?
Howaretheywiser,better,ormorebold,
Thattheywerenotcreatedyesterday?

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l
l

Whyarewelifetaughtmen,whypoorephemeralsthey?
(CrossleyHolland265)

Acomplicatedpassage,tobesure,butitsuggestsononelevelthatthevoyageteachesofhistoryandrelativeprogress,thatitprovideswisdomandstrengthof
character.Forthissortofblendingoftravel,learning,andwriting,Milnesratesapositionasanoteworthytravelwriter.
References:
CrossleyHolland1986
Harvey1967
MISSIONARY
Thegeneraldefinitionofmissionaryasanounisanyonewhoissentonamissionbyareligiousorganizationtopreach,teach,work,orproselytizeinaforeigncountry.
InthecontextofEuropeanandAmericanhistory,missionaryworkisgenerallyChristianandsuggeststhatthelandtowhichthemissionaryissentisheathen.
Manytravelers,particularlyinthesixteenthandseventeenthcenturies,wereconsideredmissionaries.TheJesuitorderwasparticularlyvigorousinitsmissionaryefforts,
althoughnumerousotherCatholicordersinFrance,Spain,andPortugalfundedsubstantialnumbersofmissionaries.
Thehistoryofmissionarytravelisinextricablytangledwiththehistoryofcolonialismbecausetheearlymodernstateswerenotentirelydistinctfromthechurch,political
andreligioushistorieswereoftenunited.ThemajorEuropeanpowersjustifiedtheircolonialconquestoftheNewWorldassavingthepagannativesfrometernal
damnationbyconvertingthem,viamissionaries,toCatholicism.Underthesamerationale,missionaryeffortsweresenttotheSouthPacific,China,Africa,andjust
abouteverywhereelsehumanlifecouldbefound.
Itisdecidedlyatrickydesignationtocallthewritingsofmissionariestravelliterature.InthisencyclopediaIhaveincludedonlythosewritingsthathavesubstantial
literarymeritandthoseaccountsthatrepresentamajorcultural,geographic,orhistoricdiscovery.Inmanycases,missionariesweresimplytravelerswithdeepreligious
convictionswhocombinedaloveoftravel,learning,andadventurewiththeopportunitiesprovidedbytheirrespectivechurches.
MOLUCCAS
SeeSpiceIslands
MONTAGU,LADYMARYWORTLEY
Asthedaughterofamarquisandaladyoffashion,LadyMaryWortleyMontagu(English,16891762)mighthavelivedanentirelyunremarkableupperclasslife.But
Montaguhadapassionforlearning.AdeptintheLatinandGreeklanguagesatanearlyage,shequicklybecameanaccomplishedstudentoftheclassics.Her
voraciousappetiteforart,music,andliteratureimpelledhertowardtheloftiestartisticcircleofthedayshewasafriend,correspondent,andsometimesatiristofthe
likesofAlexanderPope,JosephAddison,andWilliamCongreve.Inaddition,Montaguwasnotedasbeautiful,witty,andvivacious.
HerhusbandwasappointedambassadortoTurkey,sothecouplemovedtoIstanbul.Howtheirmarriagesurvivedremainsamystery:shewaslively,byallaccounts,
andhewasdullandstolid.Perhapsbywritingshewasabletoescapefromwhatisthoughttohavebeenagravemismatch.ItisfromIstanbulthatherfinestworkof
travelliteraturewaswritten:LettersandWorksofLadyMaryWortleyMontagu(1718).Acollectionofletters,smallessays,anecdotes,andtalesmostlyofherlifein
theupperreachesofTurkishsociety,thisworkdemonstratesMontagusheartytravelspirit.Sherecountsherexperiencesatcoffeehouses,Turkishbaths,social
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case,sheisakeenobserverofdifference.HerstoriesinvariablycontrastsocialbehavioroftheEuropeanandtheTurk.
Furthermore,MontaguoffersusararepictureofthedailylifeofIslamicwomenintheeighteenthcentury.Onceagain,fromherEnglishperspective,wemustwonder
howmuchbiasisbuiltintoheraccounts,butinmanyinstancesherdescriptionsappeartobeamongthemostobjectiveavailable.
MontagusfascinationwithdifferencesuggestsaslightuneasinesswiththesplendorofTurkey.Implicitly,toher,TurkeycannotrivalBritain,yetmuchthatshesees
beitarchitectural,historical,cultural,orartisticismagnificent.Repeatedly,shenotesthatherclassstandingoutranksthosearoundher,asthoughtoreassureherself
ofherpersonalsuperiority.Asadiplomaticwifewithafreespiritandaneducatedmind,shehadthefreedomtoaccessalmostanyaspectofTurkishculturewithlittle
actualrisk.Inthisregard,heraccountsarevaluable.ButmoreinterestingarethemomentswhereMontagulearnsofherselfandfindsthattheworldassheknewitin
Englandisheavilycoloredbyperspective.Theserareandpreciousmomentsofgrowthmakethistextgenuinetravelliterature,andfuntoboot.
AfterTurkey,shereturnedtoEnglandandseemstohaveseparatedfromherhusband.ShemovedtoItalyforatimeandthentoFrance.Lettersfromthislaterperiod
ofherlifearealsocontainedinhercollectedwriting,andmanyofthesearefineexamplesoftravelwriting.Everwitty,scandalous,andshrewd,Montaguoffersus
numerousculturalinsightsanddescriptionsofarichselectionofdestinations.
References:
Pick1988
Rugoff1960
MONTESQUIEU,CHARLES
CharlesLouisdeSecondat,BarondeLaBrdeetdeMontesquieu(French,16891755),whowroteunderthenameCharlesMontesquieu,wasamanofletters,a
lawyer,aphilosopher,andanobleman.Hewroteanumberofverydifferentbooks,includinghisseminalpieceoftravelliterature,PersianLetters(1721),which
remainsamagnificentlycomplexandsubtleworkthatisparttravelfiction,partsocialcommentary,andparthistoricaldocument.Togathermaterialforthiswork,
MontesquieumadeabriefvoyagetotheLevantandthensupplementedhisexperiencewithvigoroustextualresearch.From1728to1731,hetraveledthroughout
continentalEuropeandGreatBritain,butbythistimeheunfortunatelyhadturnedhisattentionawayfromtravelwritinginfavorofothergenresandtopics.
Awealthy,powerful,andwelleducatedFrenchman,Montesquieuseemstohavebeenabornpolitician.Hisfamilywasactivelypolitical,andhewassenttoParisto
studylawasayoungman.Tohissurprise,hefoundParisbothfascinatingandsomewhatridiculous.Fullofyouthfulvigorandascathingwit,hewrotethemarvelously
incisivePersianLettersasasatireoftheParisianhighsocietythatshockedhimso.Topreservehisgoodfamilyname,hepublishedthebookanonymouslyinHolland
itranthrough10editionsinitsfirstyearandsoldbrisklyforthenextseveraldecades.
PersianLettersisaremarkablenovelandanearlyexampleofawildlyinnovativeadaptationofthetraditionoftravelliterature.Playingoffofthepopulareighteenth
centuryepistolaryform,Montesquieupenned161fictitiousletters(mostly)amongaPersiansheiknamedUsbek,hisservants,andthewivesandeunuchsinhisharem.
UsbekisonanextendedvisittoParisandhaslefthispossessionsinthecapablehandsofatrustedeunuchthelettersdetaildailylifeintheharemandUsbeks
adventuresandobservationsinFrance.
TheprincipaldelightofthetaleisacleverandsubtleinversionoftheOrientalisttradition:insteadofaEuropeannoblecommentinguponstrangeforeignlands,
Montesquieureversestherolessothataforeigngentleman

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critiquesParis.Asthetaleprogresses,themockeryofParisiansocialandsexualpoliticsbecomesmoreandmoreapparent.
Oneofthestrongestappealsofthebookisthesuggestiveeroticismoftheharem.Althoughthemythoftheharemisalwayspresent,Usbeksharemisuncomfortably
reminiscentofParisianhighsociety.Withintheharem,sexualdesireanddeceptiondestabilizethecommunitybyextension,thesamedrivesareimpliedtobe
weakeningParis.
Thecomplexissueofculturalcritiqueinthisnovelneedsafewwordsofexplication.Montesquieuisbehindthescenespullingallthestrings,tobesure,buthewrites
essentiallytwotravelbooksatonce:thefirstisasomewhatfantasticaccountoflifeinaharem,andthesecondisafakeforeignperspectiveonFrance.Inboth
directions,theforeignerlearnsofhimselfbybeingoutsideofhiselement:thefictitiousUsbeklearnsmanygreatlessonsfromParis,whilerealParisianreaderslearn
manylessonsfromthePersians.
LikehiscontemporaryJonathanSwiftinGulliversTravels,Montesquieudeftlyblendsfictionwithenoughverisimilitudetocreatepowerfulsocialsatire.Maskedin
theformoftravelliterature,PersianLettersindeedteachesgreatlessonsandmandatessustainedselfreflectionbyfrustratingtherelationshipbetweentheforeignand
thefamiliar.Theimpliedmessageisthestuffofpureandpropertravelliterature:byvoyagingtoseetheother,welearnofourselves.
Seealso:
Swift,Jonathan
References:
Bent1965
MOODIE,SUSANNA
NovelistSusannaMoodie(Englishborn,Canadian,18031885)wroteseveralnovelsandbooksofpoetryoverthecourseofhercareer.None,however,isasvivid
andpassionateasherfirstnovelRoughingItintheBush,orLifeinCanada(1852).BornSusannaStricklandinSuffolk,shegrewupinamiddleclassfamily.A
durableandambitiousyoungwoman,shewasgreatlyfrustratedbythedelicacywithwhichEnglishwomenoftheeraweretreated.SheeventuallymarriedJ.W.D.
Moodie,amilitaryofficer,andthecouplemovedtoCanadain1832.
Ratherthanstoppinginoneofthelargercities,theysettledfarintotheprovinces.RoughingItintheBushisthestoryofherhardshipsasapioneerandherdiscovery
ofaradicallydifferentwayoflife.Hernovelisinterestinginthatitfollowshertransitioninto,andacceptanceof,anewculture.Moodiefoundallthecertaintiesof
Englishlifemissinginresponse,shewasforcedtorelearnjustabouteverything.Oneoftheconsequences,quitelogically,wasthatherjourneycausedhertoreflect
uponherowncharacteratgreatlength.Inthissense,RoughingItintheBushisafineworkoftravelliterature.
Fulloffolkwisdomandquirkybutoftencharmingcharacters,Moodiesnovelsurpassesmostfrontiertalesofhomesteadingbyitselegantproseandsophisticated
narrator.Sheisobjectiveinhervoicebutlikableaswell.Moodieschoiceofdetailsmovesthenovelalongataswiftpacewhileremaininghighlyevocative.
Constantlyunderduress,Moodietellsofherstrugglestomaintainadecenthouseholdforherfamily.Theweatherisaconstantthreat,fromtheicytemperaturesinthe
wintertothegreatstormsinthespring.Duringoneparticularcoldsnap,Moodiefindsherhouseonfirefromoverstokingthestove.Aftersendingherkitchengirlto
fetchhelp,theindefatigableMoodiewrites,Iwasleftquitealone,withthehouseburningovermyhead,Ipausedonemomenttoreflectwhathadbestbe
done(Robinson388).Coolly,shebeginsevacuatingthecabinofitsmostpreciouscontentsthechildrenandthemostessentialpossessions.Sheworriesthatto
exposetheyoung,tenderthingstothedirefulcoldwasalmostasbadasleavingthemtothemercyofthefire.AtlastIhitupona

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plantokeepthemfromfreezing.Iemptiedalltheclothesoutofalarge,deepchestofdrawers,anddraggedtheemptydrawersupthehilltheseIlinedwithblankets,
andplacedachildineachdrawer,coveringitwelloverwiththebedding...(Robinson388).Thefirecausesseveredamage,butnotenoughtodetertheMoodies.
Throughout,Moodienarratesthejoysandsorrowsofthepioneerfamilywithgoodhumor,insight,andpatience.Herhumilityandtenacitymakeherendearing,her
keeneyefordetailsanddistinctionsmakesheravaluablesourceofinformation.Insum,RoughingItintheBushisatraveloguethatreadslikeanovel.Theheartof
thestory,however,remainsataleofcharacterdevelopmentcausedbyencounteringandbestingtheunfamiliar.
References:
Bent1965
Robinson1994
MOORE,THOMAS
Oneofthemostpraisedandpopularpoetsoftheromanticera,ThomasMoore(Irish,17791852)pennedgreatverseonamyriadoftopics.Inhiscollectedworks
areseveralsuperiorexamplesoftravelverse.Acrosstheboard,hispoetryisnotableforitsastoundingmusicalityandgentletexture.
ThesonofaDublingrocer,MooreusedhisskillsinmusicandlanguagetoworkhiswaythroughTrinityCollege.Restless,hewanderedaboutGreatBritaininsearch
ofhimself.Asayoungman,hepublishedhisfirstbook,PoeticalWorks(1801),undertheassumednameofThomasLittle.From1819to1822,helivedinItaly,and
hehadapropertyinBermudathathepresumablyvisitedatsomepoint.Afteravarietyofalternatingsuccessesandsetbacks,hewasfinallygivenaliterarypensionin
1835.Overtheyearshewrotesongs,essays,satires,anovel,andseveralplays.Onlyinhisversedoeshepickupthethemesthatallowhimtobecalledatravel
writer.
OneofthebestexamplesofMoorestravelliteratureisamultipartsetofpoemscalledRhymesontheRoad.WrittenaftertouringtheBritishIsles,thepoemshave
severalunusualcomponentsthatmakethemfascinatingandengaging.Throughout,thereisananimositybetweenthenarratoranIrishmanandthevarious
Englishmenheencounters.Playingwiththeideathatencounteringtheforeigncanteachusofthefamiliar,thisnarratorfindsthatmeetingtheEnglishotherremindshimof
howwellhelikestheIrish.Moorebeginsonesectionwiththisexclamation:
l
l
l
l
l

Andistherethennoearthlyplace
Wherewecanrest,indreamElysian,
Withoutsomecursed,roundEnglishface,
Poppingupnear,tobreakthevision?
(CrossleyHolland12)

TheinfluxofEnglishvisitingIrelandmayhavestartedthecomplaint,butthenarratorgoesontoimaginethesilliestsortofEnglishtravelersatsomeoftheworldsgreat
monuments.Indeed,
l
l
l
l

...[no]fearofMameluks[Egyptianmilitarycaste]forbids
Youngladies,withpinkparasols,
ToglideamongthePyramids
(13)

Orforthatmatter,thenarratorexpects
l
l
l
l

...flyingtotheEastward,[to]see
SomeMrsHopkins,takingtea
AndtoastupontheWallofChina!
(13)

RhymesontheRoadcoversmanytopicsusuallynotblendedintotravelliterature.Intenselypolitical,Mooreusestravelbothasaliteralactionandametaphoric
descriptionoflifeingeneral.ThusinhiswanderingsthenarratorencounterscarefullyfabricatedelementschosenbyMooretoprovokeandtoanchorapoliticalstance.
Inthisseriestravel

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isthebackdropfortheexchangeofideasandforcriticism.
Usingtravelasafigurativereplacementforthejourneyoflife,Mooreisabletomergedidacticlessonswithcrediblenarratives.InSongoftheEvilSpiritofthe
Woods,atravelerfindshimselflostandimperiledbyahostofrealandsymbolicdangers.Themessageseemstobeoneofcautionandprudence,forevillurksalong
theroadsideoflife.Withenergizedandmagnificentlypowerfullines,Moorewritesofhisstrickenwanderer:
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l

Hitherbendyou,turnyouhither
Eyesthatblastandwingsthatwither!
CrossthewanderingChristiansway,
Leadhim,eretheglimpseofday,
Manyamileofmadningerror
Throughthemazeofnightandterror,
Tillthemornbeholdhimlying
Oerthedampearth,paleanddying!
(CrossleyHolland368)

Suchpowerfultalesofdoomanddangerspinthemeaningoftravelliteraturequitedifferentlythanusual.
Forthequalityofhisverseandtheinnovativeapplicationofcommonthemes,Moorestravelpoemsarespectacularindeed.Theymarkthemselvesastravelliterature
thatthenwrapsitselfaroundpoliticalorpedanticendssuchthattheassociationoftravelwithlifecannotbedenied.ForMoore,adventurousjourneysandscintillating
talesthereofneednotbetothefarflungandexotictheycaneasilybefoundinonesownbackyard.
References:
CrossleyHolland1986
Harvey1967
MORITZ,KARLPHILIPP
AnembodimentofGermanromanticism,KarlPhilippMoritz(German,17571793)triedhishandatmanyprofessions.Overhisbriefbutfulllife,hedabbledinacting,
teaching,writing,psychology,andevenclericalpursuits.WhenhemetJohannWolfgangvonGoetheinRome,thetwobecamefastfriends,andMoritzwas
subsequentlyintroducedtothegreatfiguresoftheday:FriedrichvonSchiller,JohannGottfriedvonHerder,andGottholdEphraimLessing,amongothers.Itisa
testamenttoMoritzsabilitiesthathewasabletocharmandfascinatethelikesofthiscrowd.
Extremelywellread,Moritzwasanavidobserverofculturaldifference.HespokeEnglishalmostaswellashisnativeGermannottomentionLatinandGreekand
hadaparticularfascinationwithEnglishliteraryhistory.ThisledhimtorepeatedvisitstoGreatBritain,theaccountsofwhichappearinKarlPhilippMoritzin
England(1782).
Hisstoriesareremarkableinthattheyarefullofwryirony.Asaforeigner,hefoundhimselftreatedasaguest,butoftenthehospitalityofferedseemsabsurdor
ridiculous.AsanexampleoftheculturaloutsidercomingtoEnglandandobservingtheodditiesofthatculture,Moritzstextissuperior.Becauseofhisknowledgeof
thelanguageandthehistoryofBritain,heisabletotoywithnumerousreferencesinseveralcases,itbecomesclearthatMoritzknowsmoreaboutEnglishhistorythan
theEnglishmanwithwhomhespeaks.
Moritzswritingconcentratesonthenaturalandthesocialratherthantheartistic.Heinsisteduponwalkingwhereverpossiblea40miletrekfromonetownto
anotherwouldnothavebeenunusualandstayingatsmallinns.Asaresult,Moritzisexposedtothemorecommonfolkinsteadoftheupperclass.Partlywith
fascination,partlywithhorror,herelateshisencounterswithinnkeepers,maids,drivers,farmers,andbartenders.
Forexample,inWindsor,Moritzfindsaninnthatlooksniceandhasapleasantinnkeeperbutthathasthesurliestofservants.Theepisodeproceedsgeniallyupuntil
theclimax,whenMoritzisforcedtosharehisroomwithadrunkensoldierbecauseofanoverbooking.Heleavestheinninthemorningfollowedbythecursesofthe
servants

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whomhehasrefusedtotip.Throughout,Moritzneverloseshissenseofhumorandhisdetached,travelersperspective.InOxfordhemeetsadrunkencrewof
clergymenwhoimmediatelybefriendhim.HiscompetencyinLatinandhisrhetoricalskillssoimpresshisnewfriendsthattheyinsistupontoastaftertoast.Adrunken
partyensuesandastoryresults.
IntheseandmanyotherepisodesMoritzcultivatescasualencountersintostories.Hisfocusseemstobeonhumaninteractionratherthanfamouslandmarksor
geographicsights.AsanoutsidertotheBritishculturewhononethelessspeaksEnglish,MoritzisabletoobservewhatmightgounnoticedbyaBriton.Inthisregard,to
Englishaudiences,MoritzsbookisaverytellingsetofobservationsthatoftenpokesgentlefunatBritain.
Seealso:
Goethe,JohannWolfgangvon
References:
Adams1988
Fussell1987
Newby1985
MORRIS,JAN
JanMorris(bornJamesHumphryMorrisEnglish,1926)hasapassionforallsortsofadventure.Asauniversitystudent,Morrisdevelopedareputationforcrackling
energyandunpredictabilityinsubsequentyearshewouldliveuptothatearlyreputationineveryway.
AsasoldierandwarcorrespondentinWorldWarII,Morrisfirstdiscoveredhisabilitiesfortravelunderduressandreportage.Afterthewar,hewasemployedbythe
LondonTimes.Morrisgainedsignificantfamein1953whenhejoinedSirEdmundHillaryssuccessfulassaultonMountEverestastheexpeditionsreporter.Witha
sufficientlevelofnamerecognition,Morrisfoundhecouldtravelandwriteforaliving.
Hisbooksoftravelwritingaremanyandvaried.TheshortlistincludesAsISawtheU.S.A.(1956),IslamInflamed:TheMiddleEastPicture(1957),Coronation
Everest(1958),SouthAfricanWinter(1958),TheWorldofVenice(1960),SouthAmerica(1961),TheRoadtoHuddersfield:AJourneytoFiveContinents
(1963),Places(1972),Travels(1974),Journeys(1984),HongKong(1988),andSydney(1992).Indeed,Morrishasvisitedandwrittenaboutallfivecontinents.
In1972,afteralongandagonizingstruggle,Morrisunderwentsurgerytocompletehisgendertransformation:JameshadbecomeJan.Thejourneyofbecominga
transsexualischronicledinhermemoirConundrum(1972).Morrisscaseremainsaninterestingstudyingenderedlanguage:Isthereastructural,stylistic,or
thematicchangeinherwritingoverthecourseofthistransition?Thejuryisstillout.
Regardless,Morrisswritingisexceptionallyengagingandheradventuresarevariouslythrilling.Oneofthemostdescriptiveandexhaustivelythoroughwritersinthe
modernera,Morrissproseoftenbehaveslikeaphotograph:shetriestocaptureasnapshotoftheplaceandthemoment.Thoughfabulouslyrichindetails,her
writingissophisticatedalsobecauseshealwaysremindsusthatshe,theauthor,istherebehindthescenes.So,forexample,afteravividdescriptionofHongKong,she
writes:
Thereareflashesofsunondistantwindows.Ileavemytypewriterforamoment,opentheslidingglassdoorsandwalkouttothebalconyandawayfrom
thehotelsinsulatedstillness,instantlyliketheblastofhistoryitself,thefranticnoiseofHongKonghitsme,theroarofthattraffic,thethumpingofthat
jackhammer,thechatterofamillionvoicesacrossthecitybelowandonceagainthesmellofgreasyduckandgasolinereachesmeheadilyoutofChina.
(Robinson306)
Whilerelyingonthedetailstoevoketheplaceandaddironcladcredibilitytohertales,Morrisrepeatedlyanchorstheexperienceoftravelintheprocessofwriting.She
impliesthatthereasonsheistravelingistowriteforus,toseewhatwecannot,andtocaptureit

Page155
forus.TheactofwritingisalwayspartoftravelforMorrisassuch,shedistinguishesherselfasanoteworthyandinfluentialwriteroftravelliterature.
References:
Fussell1987
Robinson1994
MORRIS,WILLIAM
Forhiswriting,forhisimages,forhisdesign,forhispolitics,andforhisarchitecture,WilliamMorris(English,18341896)isdeservedlyfamous.Hisprominenceasa
poetandartistbeganinhisstudentdaysatOxfordUniversityoverthecourseofhislife,Morrisdemonstratedadazzlingarrayoftalents.Foratimelinkedwiththe
PreRaphaeliteBrotherhood,MorriswasintimatelyassociatedwithsomeofthefinestcreatorsoftheVictorianera.Amonghisaccomplishmentsareanumberof
poemsthatfunctionbeautifullyastravelliterature.
OneofMorrissintellectualfascinationswaswithNorsemythology.TostudytheseancientsagasandtheirrelationshiptoBritishliteratureMorrismadetwo
extendedvisitstoIceland,firstin1871andthenin1873.Notonlywerethesetripsfruitfulintermsofhisscholarlywork,buttheymadearemarkableimpressionon
himpersonally.HisPoemsbytheWay(1891)describesaspectsofthisvoyageaswellasanarrayofreflectionsonIceland,myths,andthenatureoftravel.
Withinthiscollectionisawidevarietyofdifferentpoeticstylesandliterarythemes.FromlightheartedandrousingsongslikeOdetotheLastPotofMarmaladetothe
moresternandpatternedGunnarsHoweabovetheHouseatLithend,Morrisdisplaysmultipletalents.Inalmostallcases,however,heseemsfascinatedwiththe
IcelandiclanguageandhowitstexturemarksitasdifferentfromMorrisssoftandpolishedEnglish.Constantly,heincludesnamesofpeopleandplaces,Icelandic
expressionsandexclamations.Forexample,thechorusofOdetotheLastPotofMarmaladeis:Come!UpwiththeSmr!Come!OutwiththeBrod,/Wellhave
onemoreSpisethatsfitforagod(CrossleyHolland227).Theresultofthislinguisticcontrastisperhapsakintothesocialexperienceoftheforeign:feelingthe
distinctionbetweenlanguagesbeginsthecultural,historic,andgeographicrecognitionofdifference.
Atoncedecisiveandinquisitive,Morrishasaspecialtalentforgracefullybalancingthefactualwiththespeculative.Asatraveler,heeasilynoteswhathesees,butasa
poet,hedistanceshimselfandwondersatthenatureofperception.Inotherwords,hequestionshismotivationandthereasonsforhisemotionalresponsestohis
adventures,asthoughaskinghimselfWhydoIseeitthus?InIcelandFirstSeen,thetravelerhasjustlandedathisdestinationalreadyheisexuberantbutquizzical
aswell.Thefirststanzaofthis84linepoemdescribesthephysicallandscapewithdramaticexcitement:thetravelerremainsintherealmofthephysicalwithhis
toothedrocks,withthedesolategreen,withthemountains/allcloudwreathedandsnowfleckedandgrey.Butimmediatelyinthesecondstanza,theintellect
pipesin:
l
l
l
l

Ah!whatcameweforthtosee
thatourheartsaresohotwithdesire?...
Whydowelongtowendforth?
(CrossleyHolland224)

ItissuchambivalencethatmakesMorrisstravelversesointerestingandprovocative.
ForMorris,ajourneytoaforeignlandisaboutlearningstoriesandthenwritingaboutthosestories.Thuswhenheexclaimstotheisland,Oland,assomecaveby
thesea/wherethetreasuresofoldhavebeenlaid,thetreasuresareancientstories.HisinsistencethattravelandtalesareinextricablylinkedargueswellforMorriss
statusasawriteroftravelliterature.
References:
CrossleyHolland1986
Harvey1967

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Page157

N
NAIPAUL,SIRV.S.
SirV.S.Naipaul(Trinidadborn,Indian,1932)writesbothnovelsandcriticism.BornintoafamilyofIndianimmigrantstoTrinidad,andlatereducatedatOxford
University,Naipaulembodiestravelwritinginthesecondhalfofthetwentiethcentury:hisproseisprofoundlydecentered.Ifoneofthedefiningcharacteristicsoftravel
literatureistheencounteroftheforeignthatcausesareassessmentofthefamiliar,whathappenswhenthetravelerisgenuinelymulticulturalandtransnational?Whilethis
isproblematicfortheanalysisoftravelwriting,itisalsoagreatstrengthforwriterslikeNaipaul.Hehastheabilitytoseewithafascinatinglycompositeperspectivehis
observationsandinterpretationsareallthemoreinsightfulasaresult.
TravelscholarPaulFussellwritesofNaipaul:Itisasadisplacedpersonthatheviewstheworld,exploringAfrica,India,Iran,andSouthAmericaonlytorecoilfrom
theirvariousperversionsorsimplificationsoftheWesternideal(Fussell784).Inthisregard,Naipaulcanaddressthelingeringramificationsofcolonialisminhistravel
writing.ButitisnotallgloomanddoominNaipaul:hisnovelsarepepperedwithhilariousfrustrationsandironic,darkmomentsofhumor.Morethaninsertedsimply
foramusementvalue,theselighterinterludescanbeveryeffectiveatteachingusofdifferenceandatencouragingtolerance,patience,andasenseofhumor.
WemightcallNaipaulaposttouristicwriterinthathischaracterstravelnotfortheescapeofavacation,butforsomedeeperlesson.Hisbooksoftenincludea
characterthatwritesabouthisjourney,thusfusingtravelandliteraturetogether.Scornfulandalmostalwaysdisappointedwithtouristsightsandattractions,Naipaulis
oneofthefewmodernwriterswhomakesanabsolutedistinctionbetweentravelandtourism.Theformerisachancetolearnoftenofoneselfwhereasthelatterisa
chancetoescapeintoemptydenial.
Naipaulsliteraryproductionhasbeensignificantbothinitsquantityanditsquality.Almostallofhisnovelscanbecalledtravelliteratureinthatencounteringaforeign
cultureisatthecenteroftheplot,andtravelservesasmorethanaconvenientexcuseforanexoticbackground.However,hismostlaudednovel,AHouseforMr.
Biswas(1961),isgenerallynotconsideredaworkoftravelliterature.Abrieflistingofsomeofhisbetterexamplesoftravelliteraturefollows.Naipaulwritesinahighly
autobiographicalstyleforhisfictionandarathernovelisticstyleforhisnonfiction.Itisthusdifficult,andperhapspointless,todistinguishbetweentheforms.

Page158
AnAreaofDarkness(1965)featuresIndiaandhighlightsthedifficultiesandjoysofacharacterthatdiscovershisheritageonlytofindthatitissimultaneouslyfamiliar
andforeign.Asinmanyoftheclassicnovelsofselfdiscovery,theprotagonistofthistalecomestorealizethepowerofracial/culturalhistory.
ABendintheRiver(1979)roamsAfricawithanexiledIndian.Thenarrator,Salim,findsasmalltownthatiscaughtbetweenthemodernandtribalworlds.Salims
journeybothphysicalandspiritualbecomesonewiththefateofthistown:bothareintransitionandstrugglingtofindanidentity.Slowlythingsunravel,andinstead
ofstabilityandpeace,chaosandviolenceerupt.Theimplicationisthatthemotionofchangesometimescalledprogressproceedscontinuouslyinotherwords,
therecanbenorestorpeaceinthisworld.Oftenconsideredoverlycynicalanddark,thisisatraveltalethatdoesnotpromoteAfricaintheleast.
AmongtheBelievers(1982)chroniclesajourneythroughtheIslamicworldandaddressesthepowerandproblemsofIslamicfundamentalism.BeyondBelief(1998)
isthesequel(ofsorts)thatbroadensthescopeofIslamicculturestoincludeIndonesiaandMalaysiaandthatfillsinsomeoftheholesfromhisearlierwork.His
concentrationfocusesagainonthepowerofstories:modernpoliticsreconciledwiththeancientnarrativesandtraditions.Naipaulintroduceshisreaderstoanarrayof
verybelievablecharacterswhoillustratetheambivalencethatoftenaccompaniesfundamentalism.Thestorytriestoapproximateanobjectivestudyoffaithwhile
wearingtherobesofanovel.
InaFreeState(1971)isanoddcompilationofshortstories,anovella,andextractsfromNaipaulstraveljournals.Thethematicglueistheideaoffreedom,inallits
forms:personal,political,spiritual,andintellectual.Travelistheteacher,asinmostofNaipaulswork.Italsodealsatlengthwithissuesofexile,akindofforcedtravel,
andintolerance.
TheEnigmaofArrival(1987)isevenmoreautobiographicalthanhisothernovels.IttellsthestoryofajourneyfromTrinidadtoEngland,withallthecultureshock
andcomparativelessonsonewouldexpect.Althoughwrittenrelativelylateinhiscareer,thisnovelreturnstoNaipaulsearlyformativeyears.Forthisreason,itisa
goodstartingpointforastudyofhiscollectedworks.
ATurnintheSouth(1990)issetintheUnitedStatesanddirectsNaipaulscriticaleyetoAmericanculture.Concentratingonthevolatilemixoftheendearingandthe
maddeningaspectsofSouthernprovincialism,Southernhistory,andSouthernautonomousidentity,thisbookispoliticalandprovocative.Initscharacterizationthe
SouthlooksasoddandthreateningasanyoftheexoticlocalesofNaipaulsotherworks.Withitsracialeconomy,itsculturaltraditions,anditsextraordinary
regionalism,theSouthappearsasaworldapartfromtherestoftheUnitedStates.
OneofNaipaulsmostsophisticatedexamplesofculturalcomparison,TheMiddlePassages(1962)provideshisimpressionsandreflectionsonthecolonialpowers
GreatBritain,France,andHollandandtheirinfluenceonWestIndiesandSouthAmericancultures.Ahugelycomplexandwonderfullyinsightfulstudy,thisbook
epitomizesNaipaulspositionasoutsideofanyoneculture.Heisindeedapostnationalcitizenoftheworld.
Asanexampleofhiselegantproseandhismeditativethemes,wemightlookatapassagefromAnAreaofDarkness.EnroutetoIndia,andanxious,Naipaulwrites,
Ithadbeenaslowjourney,itsimpressionsvariedandsuperficial.ButithadbeenapreparationfortheEast.AfterthebazaarofCairothebazaarof
Karachiwasnosurpriseandbakshishwasthesameinbothlanguages.ThechangefromtheMediterraneanwintertothestickyhighsummeroftheRed
Seahadbeenswift.

Page160
Butotherchangeshadbeenslower.FromAthenstoBombayanotherideaofmanhaddefineditselfbydegrees,anewtypeofauthorityandsubservience.
ThephysiqueofEuropehadmeltedawayfirstintothatofAfricaandthen,throughSemiticArabia,intoAryanAsia.Menhadbeendiminishedand
deformedtheybeggedandwhined.Hysteriahadbeenmyreaction,andabrutalitydictatedbyanewawarenessofmyselfasawholehumanbeinganda
determination,touchedwithfear,toremainwhatIwas.ItmatteredlittlethroughwhoseeyesIwasseeingtheEasttherehadasyetbeennotimeforthis
typeofselfassessment.
(Fussell788)
Inthispassagewecanseeawealthofimportantthemesandarichnessofdescription.Thejourneyiscriticalasaframeorapreludetothearrivalitestablishesthe
parametersinnouncertainterms.Thelevelsofcultural,social,linguistic,andevenpsychologicalcomparisonaremanyandvaried.Andfinally,theexposuretothe
foreignleadstoselfknowledgeandintrospectivereflection:toseetheotheristobeforcedtolookcloselyattheself.
Naipaulspopularityandcriticalacclaimhasbeenwideandmighty.In1971,hewontheBookerPrizeandin1989hewasknighted.Hecontinuestotravelandto
writehistravelliteratureisundeniablyamongthemostinfluentialandexperimentalinmoderntimes.
References:
Fussell1987
NORTHWESTPASSAGE
ThewaterroutefromtheAtlantictothePacificOceanthroughtheArcticislandsofCanada.SixteenthcenturyexplorersimaginedashorttraderoutefromEuropeto
thePacificbasintheyfounditpossiblebutextremelyhazardous.Varioustravelaccountsfromthesixteenthtothenineteenthcenturiesdocumentexplorationofthe
NorthwestPassage.
Seealso:
Champlain,SamueldeDampier,WilliamJames,CaptainThomasLaSalle,RenRobertCavelier,Sieurde
NCABEZADEVACA,ALVAR
SeeCabezadeVaca,AlvarNez

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O
OLEARIUS,ADAM
WemightimagineAdamOlearius(German,16031671)asaprofessionaltraveler.Hisvoyageswerestatemissions,forthemostpart,buthisstoriesaretravel
literature.Awellrespectedmanofletters,OleariuswassentbyDukeFrederickofHolsteinfirsttoRussiaandthentoPersia.Thefirstofhisninevolumesofjournals
andaccountswaspublishedin1656.TheyveryrapidlybecameseminallypopularandweretranslatedintoallthemajorEuropeanlanguages.ThefirstEnglisheditionis
titledTheVoyagesandTravelsoftheAmbassadorsfromtheDukeofHolstein,totheGreatDukeofMuscovy,andtheKingofPersia(1662).
OleariussfirstjourneywastoMoscowin1633,withthesolepurposeofgainingpermissionforalongerstayandthenpassagetoPersia.Thisprecursortooktwo
yearsbutservedtoteachOleariustheRussianlanguage.HissubsequentvoyagebacktoMoscowandthendowntoPersia(16351639)hadamorepractical
purpose:hewassenttoopenatraderoutetoIsfahan.AthirdtriptoMoscowin1647seemstohavebeenmadesimplytothankthedukeofMuscovy,who
encouragedOleariustostayandtosettleinRussia.Herefused,preferringtoreturntoHolsteintowritehisbooks.
Acompulsivediarist,Oleariussoughttocaptureasmuchoftheculture,art,politics,andmannersofaplaceaspossible.Hiswritingsareinteresting,however,because
hetookgreatcaretoedit,correct,andcompilethemintoanarrativeasaresult,itwasnotuntilmanyyearslaterthathepublishedtheaccount.Hissenseofliterary
craftsmanshiphelpedtoproducefascinatingdocumentsthatarehighlyaccessibleandenjoyable.Tothisday,hisaccountsofseventeenthcenturyRussiaareconsidered
someofthefinestandmostdetailed.
WovenintoOleariussobservationsarehisretrospectivecomments.Heoftencorrectshimselforcheckshisfactselsewhere.Insodoing,hepresentshisreaderwitha
narrativethatseemstobewritingitself.Theeffectisapersuasivetrustworthiness:wereadtheaccountsandimaginethathehasmeticulouslyresearchedandconfirmed
hisobservationsandassessments.Asascholar,heutilizedwhateveroutsidesourceshecouldfind.HisbookcontainsreferencestoGerman,Latin,Russian,and
Persiantexts.Hisobsessionwithwritingandtellingthetaleaccuratelysuggestshowimportanthefelthiswordstobe.Indeed,whilethesimpleostensibleobjectiveof
hisjourneyswastofostertrade,asecondary,ifunspoken,missionwastoteachthecourtofHolsteinoftheRussiansandthePersians.
Histopicsrangefromreligiousritualstoarchitecturalhistory,fromcourtmannerstopublicbehavior.Eachvolumedifferssomewhatinsubjectmatter,althoughthereis
achronologythatflowsthroughtheentireseries.Whilehistextsarestructuredastraveloguesthatistosay,writtenintheformofdailyentriesheburiestangential
essays,reflections,andasidesbetweenhisobservationsoftheprocessoftravel.Openminded,tolerant,andinquisitive,Oleariusremainsoneofthemoreenduringand
endearingwritersofclassicaltravelliterature.
References:
Adams1988
OSSOLI,MARCHIONESS
SeeFuller,Margaret

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P
PARDOE,JULIA
Aphenomenallyenergeticauthoroftheromanticperiod,JuliaPardoe(English,18061862)wasalreadywritingpublishablepoemsasateenager.Somewhatreclusive,
sheledaquietbutprolificlifewithherfather,MajorThomasPardoe.Theyseemtohavehadanunusuallystrongrelationshipatage29,shemovedwithhimto
Constantinople(nowIstanbul).Herverseisperhapshermorefamouscontributiontohistory,buthertwobooksoftravelliteraturearenoteworthyforourpurposes.
TheCityoftheSultanandDomesticMannersoftheTurks(1837)andTheBeautiesoftheBosphorus(1839)bothresultedfromherextendedresidencein
Turkey.
TheCityoftheSultanisaformalattempttocomparedailylifeinConstantinople,foraprivilegedEuropeanwomanatleast,tothatinLondon.Withaverysubtleeye
fordetailsbothphysicalandcultural,PardoeprovidesavividpictureofthebeautyandexoticnatureoflifeinConstantinople.Witharelativelyopenmind,sheseeksto
describethedecidedlyforeignwayoflifesheadoptedasherown.
InhersecondlookatTurkey,Pardoeindulgesinalittlemoreromanticexcitementandtitillation.Evokingthemythoftheharemandthe(mostlymale)fantasyofthis
ideawithhertitle,TheBeautiesoftheBosphorus,PardoeproducedabookthatcelebratesConstantinople.Whereasthetitlesuggests,andthecontentconfirms,an
interestintheharem,Pardoehasplayedajokeuponherreaders:insteadofbeingaboutharemgirls,thebookisaboutthebuildinginwhichtheharemresidesandother
architecturalbeautiesofthecity.ThebookcontainsPardoesowndrawingsanddescriptionsofartandarchitecture.Tobesure,sheplayswiththeexclusivenature
oftheharem:shedrawsthestructurethathousesit,alongwithmuchofTopkapi(thesultanspalacecomplexinIstanbul),painstakingly,evenlongingly.Shecansee
andcaptureonlytheoutsideoftheseplaces,butherimaginationwantstosuggestwhatgoesoninside.ByreadingPardoethroughherimagesanddescriptions,wecan
seeadeliciousambivalencetowardthelifeoftheTurkishcourt.
Bothbooksremaininterestingandvividrepresentationsofanincrediblyopulentandpoliticallysignificantmomentinhistory.Inaddition,ifherworksarereadinthe
contextofcolonialsubjugation,Pardoebecomesculpableasaculturalimperialist.Finally,forherlyricalandcarefullycraftedprose,Pardoecanbereadasasortof
lovingconnoisseuroftheexoticother.
References:
Newby1985
PARK,MUNGO
MungoPark(Scottish,17711806)issaidtohavefearednothing.AftercompletinghismedicaltrainingatEdinburghUniversity,hevolunteeredasashipsdoctoron
anEastIndiaCompanyvesselboundforSumatra.Afterthisvoyage,Parkneverstoppedtraveling,adventuring,exploring,andriskinghisneck.Hismostfamous
journeywasinsearchofthesourceoftheNigerRiver,publishedasTravelsintheInteriorofAfrica(1799).HereturnedtoAfricain1805tocontinuehis
explorationoftheNigerheadwaters,buthisluckdidnotholdout:hediedinaroaringriverafterabloodyskirmishwithnatives.
WhilesomeofParksjournals,notes,andletterssurvive,hisonlymajorpublication

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remainsTravelsintheInteriorofAfrica.Nonetheless,thissinglebookisamajorworkoftravelliteraturethatinfluencedmanyoftheromanticandVictorian
accountsofadventure.Withhisdeadpantoneandnonchalantbravado,Parkismuchadmiredandlovedasastoryteller.
Thetaleiscomplexandfullofadventures.ArrivinginGambia,hespentseveralmonthsreadyinghisexcursion.Unliketheoverstaffedandelaborateexplorationparties
ofsomeofhiscontemporaries,Parkswashighlylimited:asingleservantnamedJohnson,aboyporter,andthreepackanimals.Parksowngearwasamazingly
sparse.Heclaimshecarried,afewchangesoflinen,anumbrella,apocketsextant,amagneticcompassandathermometertwofowlingpiecesandtwopairsof
pistols(OxfordAtlasofExploration60).Inaddition,heworealargehat,underwhichhehidhispapersanddocuments.Withthislightload,Parkandhisparty
spenttwoyearsexploringmorethan500milesofWestAfrica.
Partanthropology,partnaturalism,andpartgeographicexploration,Parksaccountisfascinatinglydiverse.HisencounterswithavarietyofsubSaharanpeoples
remainavaluableanthropologicalrecord,whilehisdescriptionsofvariousfloraandfaunaexcitenaturalists.Geographically,ParkwasthefirstEuropeantodetermine
thattheNigerdidinfactfloweastward.Hisexplicationsbrimwithpreciseanddiscriminatingdetails,andhisengagingnarrativemovesatafastpace.Cleverand
inquisitive,Parktreatshisexpeditionasasortofgrandpuzzletobesolvedforgreatglory.Histextreflectshisprogresstowardthesolution,anditgoesalongway
towardexposingtheprocessbywhichheresolvedproblems.
Dauntlessofspiritandremarkablytough,Parkrefusedtoquit.HehadbeencommissionedbytheBritishAfricaAssociationtoexplorethecommercialandnavigational
possibilitiesoftheriver,andhisindomitable23yearoldspiritspurredhimeveronward.HeldprisonerformonthsbythekingofLudamar,stymiedbyatorrentialrainy
season,oftennearstarvation,sufferingfromfever,andillequipped,Parkenduredandpressedforward.Althoughhehadnotachievedhisobjective,eventuallyPark
hadtoturnback:worndownbysickness,exhaustedwithhungerandfatigue,halfnaked,andwithoutanyarticleofvaluebywhichImightprocureprovisions,clothes,
orlodging,Ibegantoreflectseriouslyonmysituation(Newby42).ExpeditionorganizersinBritainhadthoughthimdead,thushisreturnwasmetwithgreatsurprise
andexcitement.Aheroswelcomeensuredeventualbrisksalesofhisbook.
TravelsintheInteriorofAfricafascinatesforitsearnestnessanditscourage.DespitethehorrendousdifficultiesParkfacesthroughout,herefusestocomplain.His
descriptionofnativepeoplesthoughtheyoftentriedtokillhimissensitive,openminded,andrefreshinglyunpretentious.Hisadventuresaremagnificentandthrilling,
butmostexquisiteinthistextisParksowncharacter.Craftyandshrewd,hiswitsaveshisskinonvariousoccasions.Forexample,whenheldcaptivebyaMuslim
tribe,Parkfindshisbelongingsimpounded.Thechiefofthetribe,curiousaboutParkscompass,askshowitisthattheneedlealwayspointstothegreatdesert.Aware
thatthetoolisinvaluabletohissurvival,Parkmustfindawaytomakeitrepugnanttothechief.Cleverly,Parktellsthechief,
thatmymotherresidedfarbeyondthesandsofZaharra[theSahara],andthatwhilstshewasalivethepieceofironwouldalwayspointthatwayand
serveasaguidetoconductmetoher,andthatifshewasdeaditwouldpointtohergrave.Alinowlookedatthecompasswithredoubledamazement
turneditroundandroundrepeatedlybutobservingthatitalwayspointedthesameway,hetookitupwithgreatcautionandreturnedittome,manifesting
thathethoughtthereweresomethingmagicinitandwasafraidofkeepingsodangerousaninstrumentinhispossession.

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(Rugoff266267)
SuchadventuresfillthistextwithexcitementandsuggestthesterlingcharacterofParkhimself.
Thesecondvoyagewasillfatedfromthebeginning.Wellfundedandequippedwithaguardof30soldiers,Parksetoutin1805.Thesoldiersdidnotlastlong:hostile
tribes,abrutalclimate,anddiseasetookaheavytoll.BeforetheyevenreachedtheNiger,Parkhadlostmostofhisparty.Inspiteofsuchgreatlossesincludinghis
brotherinlawParkandhismencontinued.Withhisreducedcrew,Parksailednearly1,000milesdowntheNigerRiver.Finally,withonly4Europeans(ofan
original45)andafewporters,Parkdecidedtoheadback.Preciselywhathappenedissomethingofamysterythelonesurvivortellsofanambushofnativesinroaring
rapids.Parkandtherestofhispartywereneverseenagain.
Asoneofthelegendsoftravelliterature,MungoParksadventurescontinuetointerestandentertainreaders.ForPark,grandandterribleadventureswerethestuffof
lifetoexplorewasthefinestglory.ItseemsthatParkrespectedadversityasatestofcharacterandthatbyenduringextremehardshiphecouldlearnofhisownlimits.
References:
Newby1985
OxfordAtlasofExploration1997
Rugoff1960
PECK,ANNIE
AnnieSmithPeck(American,18501935)hadanextraordinarypassionforadventure.Herfeatsasafemalemountaineerarelegendary,herloveforLatinAmerican
cultureseemsboundless,andherzealforwomensrightsisinspiring.Wecanlearnmuchaboutthisremarkablefigurebyherfourbooksthatblendmanyofher
interestsunderthesinglebanneroftravelwriting:ASearchfortheApexofAmerica(1911),TheSouthAmericanTour(1913),IndustrialandCommercialSouth
America(1922),andFlyingoverSouthAmerica:TwentyThousandMilesbyAir(1932).HertravelsandherwritingsmarkPeckasabravetravelerwithasocial
conscienceawomanwhoundertookadventuresfewmeninherdaydareddreamof.
Aftercompletinghereducationwithhighhonors,PeckbouncedaroundvariousuniversitiesintheUnitedStatesandinEurope.Shetaughtatseveralplacesandshowed
greatpromiseasaclassicsscholar.Butherrealpassionslayelsewhere.OnatourofEuropeshefoundtheAlpstobeenchantingandvowedtoreturntoscalethe
Matterhornmanyofherprofessorsandmalefriendsinsistedthatsuchaclimbwastoorigorousforawoman.
ThusPecklatchedontothenotionofmountaineeringasameanstoprovingthatmenandwomenareequal.Inthelatenineteenthcentury,scalingmountainswasan
activitymostlyreservedfortheheartiestandbravestofmen.Afterarigorousapprenticeshipand

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trainingregimenintheUnitedStates,Peckfeltreadytoattemptmoredangerouspeaks.Shequicklyprovedthatshecouldbejustastoughastheboys.Herearly
adventuresintheAlpsledtohighpeaksinMexico(1897)andtheAndes(1908).Notonlywassheawomanbutinmanyofherlaterclimbsshewasinherlateforties
andearlyfifties!Withherindomitablewillandboundlessenergy,sheamassedastunningrecordofascents.
Notcontenttobesimplyamountaineer,shedevotedherselftothesuffragemovementwithequivalentzeal.Betweenexpeditionsandwhiletrainingshecontinuedto
writearticlesbothscholarlyandforamassaudienceandwasmuchsoughtafterasalecturer.Herfocuswasupontheabilitiesofwomenandthesexismthatheld
themdown.UponreachingthesummitofMt.Coropunain(1911)inPeru,sheunfurledabannerthatreadVotesforWomenandleftitatopthemountainasa
statement.InthissmallexamplewecanseehowPeckblendedherloveforphysicaladventurewithhersociopoliticalinterests.Suchafusionofphysicalandintellectual
passionswouldremainconstantthroughoutherlife.
VeryearlyinhercareerPeckrealizedthatmountaineeringwasanexpensivebusinessthatneededsponsorship.Sheproceededdeftlytouseherwritingskillsandher
feministagendatogainthefundingandsupportofvariousnewspapersandmagazineshenceheraccountswerewidelyreadinthepopularpress.In1897,withsupport
fromJosephPulitzersSundayNewYorkWorld,PecktraveledtoMexicoandclimbedMt.Popocatapetl(17,883ft.),andafterthatMt.Orizaba(18,660ft.).The
latterpeakgavePeckthehonorofhavingclimbedhigherthananyotherwoman.
TheseearlyexpeditionsledtosevenothertripstoCentralandSouthAmericatoscalemountains.ASearchfortheApexofAmericachroniclestheseearly
mountaineeringadventuresinMexicoandthePeruvianAndes.PecksearlywritingbristleswithannoyanceatthesexismsheencounteredinMexico.However,this
obstacle,likeallothers,provesnomatchforPeck:sheovercomesitaseasilyasshetraversesglaciers.Morethanasimpleaccountofadventure,Peckstaledescribes
theplanningofhertripsandthehumaninteractionwithherfellowclimbers,withporters,andwithvillagerstheymeetalongtheway.Withobviousfascinationand
interest,Peckwritesatraveloguethatcontainsrichlydrawncharactersaswellaspoliticalessays.Itisacuriousandoriginaltextinwhichwebegintoseethedrywit
thatbecomessoprominentinherlaterwriting.
TheSouthAmericanTourpicksupwiththelaterofPecksclimbingadventures.Sincethepeakssheisattemptingarebecomingmoredifficult,theamountof
organizationandplanninghasincreasedaswellthusthistextissetinavarietyoftownsandvillageswherePeckispreparingherAndeanmountainassaults.Knowing
thatshewassupposedtobewritinglecturestobedelivereduponherreturnbothaboutmountaineeringandaboutwomensrightsPeckincludedinthisbookan
assortmentofessaysaboutlaborrightsandgenderrelationsthatshewrotewhileorganizingherexpeditions.
OverthecourseofthesefirsttwobookswecometoknowPeckasindefatigable.Despiteinjury,hardship,andbrutalconditions,sherefusestoquit.Fivetimesshe
failstosummitaparticularpeakfinallyonthesixthexasperatedattemptshesucceeds.Withherfundsdwindling,shealwaysfindsthedoggeddeterminationtowritean
articleorpresentalectureinordertoreplenishherpurse.Onecannothelpbutadmirehertenacityandspirit.
Asshegrewolder,Peckfoundthatshewaslessabletospendmonthsinthemountainslivinginatent.Insteadofretiringtothesedatelifeofawriter,shewrotean
interestingbookcalledIndustrialandCommercialSouthAmerica.Whilethisisnotstrictlyaworkoftravelliterature,itisalovinglookatthebusinessclimateof
SouthAmerica.OveratwoyearlecturetourofmuchofSouthAmerica,

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Peckwrotethiscollectionofessaysonthecultureandthecommercialclimate.ThebookgreatlyencouragedAmericanandEuropeanfirmstoinvestinLatinAmerica.
AfterastintinpoliticsintheUnitedStates,PeckreturnedagaintoLatinAmerica.Inhereighties,shewasnolongerabletoclimbmountains,soshesoughtanother
formofadventuretravel:byair.Commercialairtravelwasstillquiteexoticandevenslightlysuspect.Intrepidasalways,PeckfollowedthecoastlineofSouthAmerica
onanassortmentofairlines.Shestoppedtoobserveandtolectureinthemajorcitiesandthenpressedonward.FlyingoverSouthAmerica:TwentyThousand
MilesbyAircanbegreatlyamusingtomodernreadersbecausethehardshipsofairtravelseemattimestobeofthesamemagnitudeashighalpinemountaineering!In
otherplaces,shewaxespoeticatthetremendousviewsofthepeaksthatshehadlovedsodearlyallofherlife.Everpolitical,Peckchronicleshermeetingswith
ambassadorsandlocalpoliticians,withwomensgroupsandlaborers,andwithfellowtravelers.Itisalivelyaccountoftravelinthe1930sfromawomanwhospent
herlifeinmotion.Inmanyways,thisfinalbookisherbestexampleoftravelwritinginthatitcelebratesthemyriadofdifferentpeopleandplacesthatitispossibleto
knowinalifetimeoftravel.
PecksfinaltravelsacruisetotheWestIndiesfollowedbyareturntoherbelovedGreecewerenevercapturedasatext.ShecollapsedattheAcropolisandhad
tobesentbacktotheUnitedStates,whereshediedafewmonthslater.Herlifehadbeenuseduptravelingandwritingaboutthoseadventures.
References:
Robinson1994
Stefoff1992
PERIPLUS
Rarelyusedanylonger,thewordperiplusmeansacircumnavigationoraccountofsuchavoyage.ComingfromtheGreek,itliterallymeanssailingaround.
EmployedfrequentlyineighteenthcenturytranslationsofclassicaltravelliteratureandsubsequentlyinEnglishtravelaccounts,manytravelersrefertoanaroundthe
worldvoyagesasaperiplus.Thuswemightread,Drakesperiplusremainssignificantcenturieslater.Inaddition,anymotionaroundsomethingforexample,sailing
aroundthecoastofMadagascarcanalsobecalledaperiplus.Totakeanotherexample,in1853,EnglishauthorThomasDeQuinceyusedthewordtorefertoa
walkingcircuit:Mymothernowentereduponaperiplus,orsystematiccircumnavigationofallEngland(OED).Forourpurposes,thewordisnoteworthybecauseit
conflatesthejourneyandtheaccountthetravelandtheliteratureinasingleword.
References:
OED
PICARESQUE
Thenameofagenreofnovelsthatdepictstheadventuresandexploitsofalikablerogue,apicaro(fromtheoriginalSpanishpcaro).Usuallyintheformofanovel,the
picaresquestorychroniclestheupsanddownsofascoundrelwhotrickshiswaythroughadversity.Oftenthestructureofthestoryisbasedonepisodesinaseriesof
differentplacescasuallyconnected.ExamplesofpicaresqueelementsappearinMigueldeCervantesDonQuixote,DanielDefoesMollFlanders,HenryFieldings
TomJones,andMarkTwainsAdventuresofHuckleberryFinn.
PICARO
Technicallyspeaking,thepicaroisthecharacterfeaturedinapicaresquestory.ThetermhasbeenborrowedfromtheSpanishpcaro(rogueorrascal),whichis
derivedfromtheverbpicar(variouslyusedastosting,bite[insects]ornipaswellastoitchortoburn).Moregenerally,wedescribeanycharacterwhoisalikable
rogueasapicaro.Lookinga

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theetymologyoftheword,weseethatitsuggestsvariousminordiscomfortsasting,a(mosquito)bite,a(squirrels)nipinsteadofmoreseriousbodilyharm.By
extension,thepicaroisguiltyoflessertransgressionsratherthanegregiouscrimesheisatricksterwhodupessomeoneoutofmoney,orstealsalover,orconsafriend
intodoinghisworkforhim.
Thepicaromustbelikableandforgivableoftenheisfunnyandhistricksareaimedatcharacterswhodeservewhattheyget.Heuseshiswitstomovethestory
forwardandemploysprankstogetaheadintheworld.Usuallythepicaromendshiswaysoncehehasaccomplishedhisprincipleobjectiveinthestory.Inscholarly
usage,charactersfromanyformorgenreofliteraturecanbereferredtoasapicaro.
PRINCE,NANCY
Asafreewomanofcolor,NancyPrince(neGardenerAmerican,17991860?)pennedanautobiography,ANarrativeoftheLifeandTravelsofMrs.Nancy
Prince(1850,revised1853and1856),thatdeservesmention.AftermarryingNeroPrince,anofficerattachedtothecourtoftheczarofRussia,Nancymovedto
Russiaandwroteanaccountofherlife.Later,thecouplemovedtoJamaicaandthenbacktotheUnitedStatesbothplacesareincludedinherbook.
Hernarrativeismostlyachronologicalaccount,orderlybutlackingstructuralinnovation.Atherbest,Princenonchalantlynarratessomeextraordinarilyharrowing
situationsincludingfloods,revolutions,kidnappings,attemptsatenslavingher,andashipwreck.Betweentheseinterludes,however,sheoftenramblesexcessively.In
addition,modernreadersmaybalkatPrincesreligiousmotivationforherjourneys:shewasdeeplycommittedtomissionaryworkandraisingfundstosupporther
mission.Nonetheless,herperspectiveremainsunique,andassuch,shecanprovidevaluableinsightintotheculturessheobserves.ForPrince,lifeandtravelarethe
samethingshewritesofherlifeasamarvelousjourney,hereperilous,thererewarding,elsewheresurprising.
References:
Schriber1995
PRIVATEER
SeeBuccaneer

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R
RAJ
ThenamegiventotheBritishruleovertheIndiansubcontinentupuntil1947.Literally,itmeanssovereignty,rule,orkingdom.ItcomesfromtheHindiraj,which
meanstoreignortorule.LooseusesofthewordaboundonecouldbeinIndiawiththeRaj,orthewordcanbeusedmetonymically,asintheRajadministered
brutaldiscipline.Ironically,inmoremodernHindirajahascometomeananypettychief,official,ordignitary.
Anoverwhelminglycolonialistterm,Rajrarelyseesnonironiccontemporaryusagehowever,fromthemidnineteenthcenturytothemidtwentiethcentury,theword
wascommonlyaccepted.
RALEIGH,SIRWALTER
SirWalterRaleigh(English,1554?1618)appearstohavelivedmanylivesinhis64years.AsafavoriteofQueenElizabeth,hemustbenotedasacourtierand
politicianwhospenttimebothinParliamentandinjail(whenhefoundhimselfonthewrongsideofpoliticaldebates).AsaclosefriendofthelikesofEdmundSpenser,
ChristopherMarlowe,SirPhilipSidney,andGeorgeChapman,andastheauthorofanumberofveryfinepoems,Raleighcanalsoclaimthetitleofartist.Finally,asan
adventurertotheNewWorldandtheBritishcoloniesinNorthAmerica,Raleighcanbecalledatraveler.Combiningthesethreeaspectsofhischaracter,wecansee
howSirWalterRaleighcanbeconsideredatravelwriter.
HisfirstmajorjourneyinthecolonycalledVirginia(nowNorthCarolina)wastohelpsecurethelostcolonyofRoanokeIslandin15841586.Theexpedition
accomplishedlittleexcepttocostRaleighandhisbackersaconsiderablesumofmoney.Nonetheless,Raleighwasaprominentenoughfiguretopublishamediocre
bookabouthisratherdulljourney.InEngland,aspoliticalproponentofcolonizationoftheNewWorld,heusedhisbookasevidenceofthepotentialforextracting
richesfromAmerica.Ironically,hisactualjourneyhaddonenothingofthesort:ratherthanproducinggreatprofit,ithadincurredgreatloss.
Itwasnotuntil1595thatRaleighreturnedtothelifeofadventureandtravel.His

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expeditionsetouttoexploretheOrinocoRiverinwhatarenowVenezuelaandBrazil.HesoughtthelegendarycityofManoa(alsoknownasEldorado)andpursued
varioustalesofgoldenstatuesneitherdidhefind.HereturnedtoEnglandwithapitifulquantityoflootandlittlebywayofgeographicaccomplishment.Tosaveface,
however,hepublishedTheDiscoverieoftheLarge,Rich,andBeautifulEmpyreofGuiana,withaRelationoftheGreatandGoldenCityofManoa(Which
theSpanyardscallElDorado).ThetitlealonesuggestsRaleighsinsecuritywiththeproject.AndwhileDiscoverielacksthedramaandnarrativeofsomeofthegreat
travelerstales,ithasanumberofremarkablyvividnaturalisticpassages.Perhapsforthisreason,thebooksoldwell.
Inadditiontothevalueofitsdescriptivedetails,RaleighsDiscoverieisoftenreadasadefenseofcolonialism.MuchaswithhisearlierworkonRoanoke,Raleigh
urgesEuropeanstocivilizenativepeoplestohismind,thatmeanttoconvertthemtoChristianity.Inthisregard,hisbookhaditsmostlastingeffect.Asapartofthe
legacyofexploitationoftheNewWorld,Raleighmayfindhisreputationnowslightlytarnished.
Seealso:
Eldorado
References:
Adams1988
Harlow1928
Newby1985
RICCI,MATTEO
FatherMatteoRicci(Italian,15521610)isoftennotedasthefirstsuccessfulJesuitmissionaryinChina,wherehewentbythenameLiMatou.Chinainthe
SixteenthCentury:TheJournalsofMatteoRicci,15831610(1612?),originallywritteninLatin,isanimpressivelegacytoamanofgreatlearningandseemingly
boundlessenergy.ItincludesdetailedjournalentriesthatspandecadesofhislifeinChina,elaboratemaps,illustrations,anecdotes,philosophical/theologicalessays,and
transcriptsofmanyChinesetales.Hismissionarywork,hisloveofbooks,andhistravelsseemfusedinoneneatandsubstantialpackage.
PerhapsthedrivingforcebehindRicciwashisendlessloveforlearning.HequicklylearnedtheMandarinlanguageandcustomsandthenproceededtoencourage
intellectualexchangewiththelocalscholars.InPekingheestablishedasmalllibraryofEuropeantexts,maps,andartifacts:theseobjectsfascinatedtheChinese,and
Riccispentvastamountsoftimeexplainingthepolitical,social,andspiritualdifferencesbetweenEuropeandChina.Adeptinastronomy,cosmography,andthefine
arts,aswellastheology,Riccispentthefirstdecadeofhismissionaryworksimplyexchangingideasinanopenandnonproselytizingmanner.AsArnoldH.
Rowbothamnotes,FromthefirsttheJesuitsrealizedthevalueandinfluenceoftheprintedpagethepicture,theengraving,themap,andthetextbookwerethroughout
thehistoryofthemissionaryapowerfulaidtopropaganda(Rowbotham56).Riccithuspromotedhimselfunderthebanneroflearningandexchange.Hemighteasily
haveusedthisasaslymeanstowardconversion,butitappearsthathechosealessaggressivesortofmissionarybehavior.
HisaccountsdetailsomeofthetechnologicalmarvelsofChina.Hedescribesinvividdetailexquisitefireworks,massivewoodentemples,and200yearoldtelescopes
thatweresuperiortoanythingEuropehadyetproduced.Clearly,theChinesemanoflearningwasequal,ifnotsuperior,totheEuropean.Thisnotionfascinatedand
perhapstroubledRiccithroughouthislifeinChina.
Inaddition,Riccitellsoflocalaswellasimperialpolitics,ofmanners,ofgovernmentstructures,andofideologies.Innearlyeverycase,hepreachestoleranceof
differenceoftenheadmitshavinglearnedmightyspirituallessonsfromhisChinesehosts.Perhapsthisiswhatmakeshimgreatasatravelwriter:hecanseewherehis
ownprejudicesinterferewithhispursuitofwisdom.

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Oneofhistalesservesasaperfectexample.Ricci,anavidcartographer,producedamapoftheworldusingChinesecharactersfortheemperor.Aswouldhavebeen
normalforaEuropean,RiccidrewEuropealongthecentralaxisandChinainthelowerrightcorner.Theemperor,aftercomplimentinghimonhiswork,notedthis
peculiarmarginalizationofhisgreatempireRiccitellsusthathehadtoquicklypromisetodrawanewmap.ThepointisthatRicciwasmadetoseehisown
perspectivalbias.Itisaclassicmomentoftravelliterature:thetravelercomestorealizethathowhehasheretoforeseentheworldislimitedbyhisownpersonal
viewpoint.
Insum,RicciwasgenerallylikedandtoleratedbytheChinesepreciselybecausehewasnotoverlyzealousasamissionary.Rather,hewaszealousasatravelerandas
atranscriberofthemarvelsofChinaanditsrichhistory.Hebeganbylearningoftheotherinanefforttoconverthimintheend,itappearsthattheotherhadmoreof
animpactonRicci.HislaterwritingssuggestanacceptanceofConfucianbeliefsandancestryworshipasperhapscompatiblewithChristiannotions.Herealizedthat
ahybridharmonywaspossiblesolongasopenexchangeandcompromisetookplace.
References:
Rowbotham1942
ROGERS,SAMUEL
SamuelRogers(English,17631855)wrotepopularandwellcraftedpoetry.HisverseislessextremeinitspassionsthanthatofhisfriendsWilliamWordsworthand
LordByronnevertheless,Rogers,amanofwealth,fame,andpower,wasnotedforhisprominentwitandsophisticatedformulationofideas.Hispersonaltravels
appeartohavebeenlimitedtocontinentalEuropeandtheMediterranean,foraswithmanywelltodogentlemenofhisera,heundertookaGrandTourafterfinishing
hiseducation.Hisverseoftencombineshisthreefascinations:travel,recollection,andpoeticlanguage.Repeatedly,hemixesthesenotionsindifferentproportions,but
theresultisusuallyconsistent:memory,likepoetry,isnotfixed,butratheranevocativerepresentation.
Hisbestexamplesoftravelversearealsosomeofhismostfamousworks:ThePleasuresofMemory(1792),Columbus(1814),andItaly(1828),acollectionof
poetictalesofhistravels.Hisabilitytoprojecthisnarratorintoawiderangeofsituationsisoneofhisfinestskills.Stylistically,Rogerssversesuggestsstabilityand
orderframingatemperedenthusiasm.Hisimagesaresensualandpowerfullyvisual.
Astravelliterature,Rogersspoemsstrivetodemonstratethesubjectivenatureofperception,particularlyperceptionoftheforeign.InItaly,forexample,hisnarrator
strugglestokeephispreconceivednotions,formedbyhisclassicaleducation,fromoverwhelminghisobservations.Thecompetitionbetweenfactandfictionresidesat
theheartofRogersspoetry.Thushewrites:
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l

FableandTruthhaveshed,inrivalry
Eachherpeculiarinfluence.Fablecame
Andlaughedandsung,arrayingTruthinflowers,
...
Yethere,methinks,
Truthwantsnoornament,inherownshape
Fillingthemindbyturnswithaweandlove.
(CrossleyHolland99)

Inshort,Rogersprovidesadifferentsortofromantictravelverse.Hisquesttorepresenttheemotionsandsensationsofhistravels,ratherthanattemptingsimplyto
capturethedetails,anchorshiminhisera,buthisprecisetechniqueisunique.Asaprecursortotheriseofrealism,thestyleofmostmoderntravelliterature,the
romanticmovementmustberegardedasanimportantinfluence.
Seealso:
Byron,LordGrandTourWordsworth,William
References:
CrossleyHolland1986
Harvey1967

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Page173

S
SAND,GEORGE
WhentalkingofGeorgeSand(French,18041876),oneisalwaystemptedtoemphasizeherfascinatingandrebelliouslifeoverherfinewriting.Tosuccumbwouldbe
ashame.However,afewwordsaboutherhistoryareinorder.
GeorgeSandisthepseudonymforAmandineAuroreLucile(orLucie)Dudevant(neDupin),anaristocraticFrenchladywhorefusedtobehavelikeone.Aftera
failedmarriage,shedecidedtolivelifeonherownterms.Hercigarsmokingandhermasculineattirecombinedwithherquicktonguemadeheraninstantspectaclein
Paris.Public,passionaterelationshipswithAlfreddeMussetandlaterFrdricChopinservedtoenhanceherreputationasafreethinkingandradicalwoman.Her
manynovelsandbooksofsocialcriticismwerehailedasprogressiveandunique.Asabrashbutpersuasivevoiceforwomen,workers,andthepooringeneral,Sand
washighlyeffectiveatincitingdebate.
Inaddition,shewroteasingularlyinterestingbookoftravelliterature:LettresdunVoyageur(1837).Comprisedofadozenlengthylettersfromhertravelsin
Europe,thebookisbothamusingandinfluential.Theseletterswerenotsenttofriendsrather,theywerepublishedinavarietyofperiodicals.Parisiansfoundthem
fascinating.HerewasaflamboyantwomandressingasamanandengaginginvariousformsofmasculinefreedomallovertheContinent.Itshouldbenotedthat
throughoutEuropeitwasstrictlyillegalforwomensimplytoweartrousers,letalonetodonafakemustacheandimpersonateamaleforextendedperiods.
Nonetheless,Sandsskillatdisguisesandheroutspokencharacterallowedhertocompletetherusewithoutrunningafoulofthelaw.
Hertalesareremarkablyforthrightandemotionallyhonest.Behindhernarrativeoftenlurkstheanguishofherrecentdifficultieswithherlover,deMussetthusSand
swingsfrompassionatejoytodarkdespairoveronlyafewpages.Invariably,theexcitementofseeingsomethingnewormeetingsomeoneinterestingliftedherfrom
despond.Itisthejoyofthetravelertohavefreshandunexpectedexperienceswaitingaroundeverycorner.
ThroughItaly,theAlps,andpartsofFrance,Sandcontinuedhermasquerade.Justasthevoyageisalwaysaboutlearningoftheself,beingdisguisedcanbeapowerful
toolforselfreflection.CombiningtravelwiththeanonymityofadisguisemakesthisjourneyoneofrevelationanddevelopmentforSand.Happilyforreaders,shetook
thetimetotranscribeherexperiencesintoanengagingandintimatestory.Astravelliterature,LettresdunVoyageurisrareandpreciousforitsrangeoftopics,its
provocativeperspective,anditsinsistencethattravel,writing,andlifeareirreduciblyone.
SCOTT,ROBERTF.
ThegreatAntarcticexplorerRobertFalconScott(English,18681912)wroteoneofthemostinterestingaccountsofpolarexpedition.CompiledasScottsLast
Voyage(1913),ittellsaharrowingtaleofadventureanddisappointment.Theworkcomprisestwovolumesthefirstcontainshisjournalsfromyoungadulthood
onward,whilethesecondisdevotedtohisfinaljourney.Inbothcases,Scottswritingrichlydevelopshischaracter.Foritsvividdescriptionsandforitsspirit,Scotts
talemeritsconsideration.

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ScottreturnedtoEnglandin1904fromthreelongyearsexploringtheAntarctic.Laudedasahero,heenjoyedhissuccess,buthealsoyearnedtobethefirstmanto
theSouthPole.ThatgoalhadprovedelusivetoScottandanumberofotheradventurersallseekingtobethefirsttosetfootonanabstractandotherwise
undistinguishedspot.Usinghisnewfoundpopularity,hebegantoorganizeateamtotryagain.Overcomingsignificantresistanceandadearthoffunds,hefinallypieced
togetheranillequippedandpoorlytrainedteam.Whattheylackedinfinancesandexperiencetheymadeupforinspirittheyhadthehottestsortofadventurersfire
intheirblood.
In1910,hesetoutfortheRossSeainhisragtagvesselTerraNova.Afterayearoftryingtosailasfarsouthaspossible,navigatingthetrickyicefloesandever
changinginlets,heandhisthreecompanionscontinuedonfoot,pullingtheirsleds.NearlythreemonthslatertheysucceededinreachingthePole,exhaustedbutthrilled,
onlytofindtheNorwegianflagofRoaldAmundsenalreadyflying.HehadreachedthePolefirst,byamatterofweeks.
Demoralized,theteambeganthelongtrekbacktotheship.Theynevermadeit.Asearchpartynearlyayearlaterfoundthemenfrozenintheirtents.Amongtheir
effectswereScottsjournals,whichprovideadailylogofthehorrorstory.For60days,theyhadtoiledheroicallyagainstextremefatigue,illness,andashockinglack
ofsupplies.Awarethathehadmadeseveralmajormiscalculationsandbaddecisions,Scottcompletesanarrativethatspiralsintotragicdespairastheendnears.
Withheandhismenfrostbitten,gangrenous,andoutofsupplies,andwithtemperaturesat40degreesFahrenheit,Scottsfinalentriesareriveting.Awarethatthey
werewithintwodaysjourneyfromaresupplydepot,herealizesthattheycannotmakeit.Oneailingmemberhaswanderedofftodieinordertoavoidbeingaburden.
Scottslastentryreads:
Thursday,March29Sincethe21stwehavehadacontinuousgalefromtheW.S.W.andS.W.Wehadfueltomaketwocupsofteaapieceandbare
food[emergencyrations]fortwodays....Everydaywehavebeenreadytostartforourdepot11milesaway,butoutsidethedoorofthetentit
remainsasceneofwhirlingdrift.Idonotthinkwecanhopeforanybetterthingsnow.Weshallstickitouttotheend,butwearegettingweaker,of
course,andtheendcannotbefar.
Itseemsapity,butIdonotthinkIcanwritemore.
R.Scott.
ForGodssakelookafterourpeople[families].
(Scott278)
Thismovingtaleofabrilliantlycharismaticmanremainsoneofthegreatexamplesoftravelasobsession.Asinthebestsortofliterature,Scottsrecognitionofhis
hubris,orexcessivepride,afteritistoolatemakesforafascinatingcharacterstudy.Inaddition,hisdescriptionsofthedesolateandhowlingAntarcticaresomeofthe
bestavailable.Evenwithhisincrediblefortitudeandburningdesires,Scottcouldnotavoidhismortalityandhishumanity.Withhisremarkablehonor,courage,and
humilityinthefaceoffailure,Scottlearnstheultimatelessonfromtravel.
References:
Newby1985
Scott1913
SEDGWICK,CATHARINEMARIA
ThewritingofCatharineMariaSedgwick(American,17891867)ismostnoteworthyforitsconstantcomparisonsofEuropetoAmerica.AsasuccessfulAmerican
novelistshepublished12novelsSedgwickwasshockedtofindhowdifferentlyEuropeansviewedtheUnitedStates.Accordingly,herworkLettersfromAbroad
toKindredatHome(1841)servesasagreatexampleoflearningaboutoneself,eitherindividuallyorculturally,bytravelingtomeettheother.
Sedgwickwrites:

Page176
WithmystrongAmericanfeelings,andmyloveofhomesoexcitedthatmynerveswereallontheoutside,Iwasagooddealshockedtofindhowvery
littleinterestwasfeltaboutAmericainthecirclesIchancedtobein.Thetruthis,wearesofaroff,wehavesolittleapparentinfluenceonthepolitical
machineryofEurope,suchslightrelationswiththeliteraryworld,andnonewiththatofartandfashion,thatexcepttothephilosopher,themanofscience,
andthemanufacturingandlabouringclasses,Americaisyetanundiscoveredcountryasdistantandasdim[as]Heaven.
(Schriber7778)
Indeed,itneveroccurstoSedgwickthatAmericain1841wasnotanequalofthegreatEuropeannations.WecanalsoseefromthetexthowAmericanisolation,
geographicaswellascultural,leadsSedgwicktowardasortofcountercolonialism:theformerpossession,theUnitedStates,desperatelyseeksinfluencewiththe
formermaster.
Amusingandengaging,Sedgwickstextdescribesajourneyofselfunderstanding.AsinHomersOdyssey,thechildhastoknowtheparentbeforeshecanknow
herself.Sedgwick,asastandinforallAmericans,needstotraveltotheOldWorldinordertomorefullyunderstandwhosheis.
References:
Schriber1995
SVIGN,MARQUISEDE
TheMarquisedeSvign(French,16261696)bornMariedeRabutinChantalfoundherselfwidowed,withtwoyoungchildren,atage25.Alreadyestablished
asaprominentwomanoffashion,shechosenottothrowherselfbackintothemarriagemarket,butrathertolivealifeofprivilegeandtasteasawidow.Oneofher
obsessionswasart,inallofitsforms.AmidthebaroquesplendorofLouisXIVscourt,Svignindulgedinherpassionforbeauty.
Herliterarylegacyisacollectionofover1,500letters,mostlytoherdaughterandsometoherintimatecircleofaristocraticfriends.Theselettersarepublished
variouslyRogerDuchneeditedathreevolumeeditiontitledCorrespondance(1972).Asapersonofwealthandnobleheritage,Svignmadeanumberoftrips
throughoutEurope.Herlettersfromtheseplacesarerichwithdetail,wit,andwisdom.Notonlyaretheyawonderfulsketchoftheluxuryoftheera,buttheyrepresent
arareportraitofhowasingle,ifaristocratic,womanwastreated.
Svignstravellettersarealsointerestinginthatshedoesnotrestrictherselftodiscussinghighsocietyfunctionsandluxury.Instead,shetakesgreatcaretodescribe,
withgoodwillandsometimeshumor,herencounterswithcoachmen,housekeepers,andotherordinaryfolks.Thisisinkeepingwithherconsistentlyupbeatand
generallyoptimistictone.Whileshedoesnotethequotidian,herprimaryfocusisonthefopperyoftheupperclasses.
Throughoutherletters,sheprovidescharmingandcomicalmoments.Hergentlemockerymostoftenfallsupontheridiculousmenandwomenofthehigherclasses.In
oneparticularlyfunnyletter,SvignisatVichytotakeawatercure.Slightlyskepticalbutasportnonetheless,shehasgreatfunlaughingatsomeoftheother
persnicketymatronswhoimaginethewatersapanacea.Sherelates:WeareadvisedMadamdePecquignyhasalsoarrivedorisexpected.SheistheCumaeanSibyl,
andwishestobecuredofhersixtysixyearswhichsheresentsthisplaceisbecomingamadhouse(Newby116).ThereferencetoCumaeanSibylisparticularly
acerbic:shewasaprophetwhowasgranted1,000yearsoflife.Unfortunately,sheforgottobargainforyouthandthuslivedoutthemajorityofherdaysasawretched
haginhercave(Zimmerman7576).Svignthereforejestswiththisoldwomanwhowishestobecuredofherage.
Theexampleaboveisbutabrieftasteofherwriting.EvenwhensheisathomeinParis,shewritesasifshewereobserving

Page177
somethingveryforeign.Perhapsthisishergift:toseeandquestionallasifitwereexotic.Whensheisindeedtraveling,heracutevisionismagnifiedfurtherstill.Svign
constantlyusesthecontextoftravelasawaytoquestion,doubt,andprovokeherownclass,culture,andmilieu.
References:
Bent1965
Newby1985
Zimmerman1964
SHAW,T.E.
SeeLawrence,T.E.
SHELLEY,MARYWOLLSTONECRAFT
ThereissomeriskincallingMaryWollstonecraftShelley(English,17971851)atravelwriter.UsuallyShelleyisconsideredaGothicnovelistoraromanticwriter
withthesedesignations,Iwillnotquibble.Yetforherlifeandfortwoofherbooks,Ibelieveshecanbeproductivelyincludedinthecategoryoftravelwriters.
Hermother,MaryWollstonecraft,diedseveraldaysaftergivingbirthtoMary.Shegrewuprebelliousandbold.In1814,atage17,sheleftEnglandwithPercy
ByssheShelleyandsettledontheContinent.Whenhiswifediedtwoyearslater,PercyandMaryweremarried.Theirlifewasacontinuoussequenceoftravelsand
textualproduction.AnchoredinSwitzerlandformanyyears,theymadeextendedandfrequenttripstoItaly,Greece,Germany,andFrance.
Shelleystravelbooksaretwo:RamblesinGermanyandItalyin1840,1842,and1843(1844)andherclassicnovelFrankenstein.Giventhepopularityofher
fictionandthemiddlingqualityofhertravelogue,IwillfocusmoreattentiononFrankenstein.Inbothcases,Shelleyseemstocracklewithelectricexcitementatthe
notionoftravel:theenergyofavoyageinspiresaswellasdelightsher.
ThenovelFrankensteinor,TheModernPrometheuswasfirstreleasedin1818andthenunderwentsubstantialrevisionsforathirdeditionin1831.Mostscholars
generallyrecognizetherevisionsasenhancingthetext,thusIrefertothe1831editioninthissummary.
Throughasophisticatedsuspendednarrative,Shelleyhasblendedthreedistinctstoriesfromthreedifferentperspectivesintoonenovel.Thefirstlevelisthestoryof
explorerandadventurerRobertWaltonwritingletterstohissister(Mrs.Saville)abouthisvoyagetotheNorthPole.Withintheseletters,wereadthestoryofWaltons
encounterwithVictorFrankenstein,thescientistwhocreatedanartificialhumanoid.NestedwithinthisstoryisVictorsrecountingofthemonstersownstory.While
decidedlydifferentstories,eachofthethreetaleselegantlyengagestheothershencetheformalconstructionofthenovelbeautifullyaccentsitsthematiccontent.
Theoutermostlayer,sometimescalledaframenarrative,iswhatmakesthisstorya

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superbexampleoftravelliterature.Thestorybeginsasanepistolarynovel(i.e.,thenovelconsistsofaseriesofletters),althoughweareprivyonlytoWaltons
missives.Theselettersservetosetthestageandtoestablishsomeofthemajorthemes:WaltonismakinghiswaytotheArcticclearlyheisasensitiveandatleast
moderatelyeducatedgentlemanhedelightsintellingofhisexoticsetting,especiallyoftheclimateandheseemstowanttosharewithhissisterasenseofperilthatonly
braveryandtenacitycanovercome.
InthefirstletterwelearnofWaltonsmotivationforthejourney:aspiritofadventureandanintrepiddesiretoobserveonthebehalfofallhumankindwhathasnever
beenseenbefore.Heaskshimself,Whatmaynotbeexpectedinacountryofeternallight?Imaytherediscoverthewondrouspowerwhichattractstheneedleand
mayregulateathousandcelestialobservations....Ishallsatiatemyardentcuriositywiththesightofapartoftheworldneverbeforevisited,andmaytreadaland
neverbeforeimprintedbythefootofman(Shelley16).ThisquestforgloryerasesallfearandallpaininWalton,yetheisstillnaggedbyanintenseloneliness.Hefeels
friendlessandaloneinthefrigidnorth.Perhapstheisolation,oftentheresultoftravel,istheinspirationforthewholetext.
Otherbedrockelementsoftravelliteratureappearintheepistolaryframe:natureinthiscase,weatherandicebergsisfiguredasaforcethatwouldthwartthe
adventurertheexoticlandissupposedtohidegreatandmarvelousmysteriesandtravelisaformoflabor.SaysWaltonofhisletters/journals,Iampractically
industriouspainstakingaworkmantoexecutewithperseveranceandlabour(21).
WhenWaltonmeetsthestrandedandillVictorFrankenstein,thelettersbecomeanimpossiblyextensiveretellingofVictorshistory.Theepistolaryframedissolvesinto
amoreconventionalnarrative.WelearnthatVictorattemptstoforgethissorrowsbygoingonajourney,whichdistractshimfromtheguilthecannotescape.Like
Walton,Victorseeksruggedanddangerousnatureasasolace.
Inchapter11,Victortellsthestorythatthemonstertoldhim.Fundamentally,themonsterhasbeenanunwillingtravelerinaforeignculture:hehashadtofindawayto
communicatehehashadtoendureharshelementsandhislifehasbeengovernedbytravelersneedsfood,shelter,andclothing.Hisencountersarealessonin
misunderstandingtheother,foreverypersonhemeetsassumesthatbecausehelooksdifferentheisoftendescribedashideousheisevil.Inthissectionofthe
novelwelearnthathecanbekind,generous,andjust.
Throughoutthenovel,theimagesofmotionandtravellinkthetalestogether.Inaperfectthreewayexampleofobservingtheother,Victor,Walton,andthemonsterall
learnofthemselvesbylookingatoneanother.Thatthisintenselyproductivelearningoccurswhileundertheextremeconditionsofavoyageisnosimplecoincidence.
MuchlaterinhercareerShelleypennedatraveloguethatalsodeservesnote.RamblesinGermanyandItalyresultedfromalongseriesoftripsandvoyagesoverthe
years18401843.JustasShelleyrambledbetweenplaces,sotoodoesthenarrativeramblealongwithlittleformalstructure.Instead,thebookisacompilationof
stories,anecdotes,observations,andmusingsinspiredbyhertravels.InthistextShelleyrepeatedlybalancesthegrandeurofnaturewiththepettinessofsociety.Toher
conception,artistheforcethatmediatesbetweenthetwo.Carefullycrafted,vivid,andattimesquiteemotional,thistextprovidedaninterestingpictureoftraveland
adventureintheromanticera.
AlthoughShelleyisnottraditionallylistedasoneofthegreattravelwriters,Icontendthatwiththesetwotextstohercredit,onecouldpersuasivelyargueforher
inclusion.Inherlifeandinherwriting,sheemployedtravelasinspiration,motivation,andpedagogy.Whatmorecouldweask?
References:
Shelley1969

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SILKROAD
TheseriesoftraderoutesrunningfromsoutheastChinatoEuropeiscalledtheSilkRoad(alsoknownastheSilkRoute).Asshownbytheaccompanyingmap,thisis
notonefixedroutebutaseriesofpossibilitiesandoptions.TheSilkRoadisnolongerusedfortrade,althoughnumerousgroupsofheartyadventuretravelershave
attemptedtofollowpartsofthisancientroute.
InitiallythegeneralpathoftradecaravansoftentransportingprecioussilkfromChinainthesecondcenturyB.C.E.,thisroutecontinuestobetheprincipalroad
acrossEurasia.FormanycenturiesbeforeEuropecongealedintotradingstates,theCentralAsiancitiesalongtherouteflourishedasmoneyandideasflowedinasa
resultofthiscommerce.Suchcitiesprovidedanexusofexchangeandunderstanding:theyweretravelerscitieswhereallthingsunfamiliarandexoticcouldbefound.
InthelateMiddleAges,Europeansbegantotakeaninterestinthesetraderoutes.BytheRenaissance,EuropeantravelershaddocumentedmuchoftheSilkRoad.It
wasonlyaftersailingvesselsandnavigationbecamesufficientlyadvancedintheseventeenthcenturythatoverlandtradingcitiesbegantheirdemise.Nonetheless,well
intothetwentiethcentury,thearchitecture,history,andcontinuedsmallscaletradeofgoodsfromAsiaalongtheSilkRoadkepttravelersinterested.
Withitsmystique,itsharshgeography,anditsexoticproducts,theSilkRoadhasfiguredprominentlyinmanytravelaccountsandexamplesoftravelliterature.The
collapseoftheSovietUnionin1991madetravelalongmuchoftherouteeasier,hencemanyoftheoncegrandcitiesalongthistraderoutehavereopenedand
emergedasexoticmarketsforcarpets,silks,spices,andtextiles.

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References:
Muqi1989
SLOCUM,JOSHUA
Littlerememberedbyhistorybutnearlylegendaryamongsailors,JoshuaSlocum(Canadian,laterAmerican,18441909?)wasthefirstmantosailalonearoundthe
globe.HerecountshisepicsolocircumnavigationinhisbookSailingAlonearoundtheWorld(1898).Histwoearlierbooks,TheVoyageoftheLiberdade(1894)
andTheVoyageoftheDestroyer(1896),arerareandrelativelyuninteresting.SailingAlone,however,isagenuinelygreatworkoftravelliterature.
Asayoungman,hejoinedthemerchantmarineandsawhisshareofsuccess,attainingtherankofcaptainatage25.Formanyyears,hejourneyednearandfar.As
steamshipsincreasedinnumber,sailingcaptainsfoundworkscarce.Slocumhadtoaccepteverriskiercommissionsformeagerpay.Withhiswife,herselfanavid
traveler,andfamily,SlocumsailedtheSouthSeas,theAtlantic,andtheIndianOcean.Tragically,hiswifediedonavoyagetoSouthAmerica,andSlocumfound
himselfdeeplygrieved.
Severalturnsofbadluckfurtherdegradedhisreputationand,moresignificantly,hisfortune.Acholeraepidemicforcedhisshipintoquarantine,wherethecargo
rotted.SlocumpreventedanattemptedmutinyoffUruguaybyshootingthetwoleaders,buttheresultinglengthycourtcasediminishedhisfinancesevenmore.Finally,
heinexplicablyranhisshipintoasandbar.Broke,alone,anddepressedinSouthAmerica,Slocumhadtoreinventhimself.
Neveronetoquit,hefoundanewwifewhohappenedtohavetwoadventurous,seafaringsonsandbegantobuildashipfromscratch.Fromhisimaginationand
experienceonmanysortsofboats,Slocumbuiltanastonishing35footvesselthatissaidtohavecostabout$100tobuild.Sheprovedtobeunshakablyseaworthy,
transportingthefamilybacktotheUnitedStateswithoutafuss.
Middleagedandfulloffireagain,Slocumbegantheseriousworkofrestoringabandonedvessels.Thiswasnotthehobbyofanidlyrichmanrather,itwashisticket
outofpoverty.Hisingenuityanddedicationtohis

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boatsastoundwhilehisfriendsmockedhim,hepatientlyrefurbished,andinmanycasesgreatlyimproved,hisships.
Themodestsuccessofhistwofirstbooksandhisreputationasacrackrenovatorledtoanofferhecouldnotrefuse:in1892,adistantacquaintanceofferedhimanold
fishingboattorestoreanduseashesawfit.ChristenedSpray,thisunorthodoxsailingvesselbecamethedreamprojectofJoshuaSlocum.
Thevoyageanditstellingarevintagemaritimetravelliterature.Salty,humorous,andpersonable,Slocumsbooktellsthetaleofamatureandexperiencedsailor
seekingnothingsomuchasagoodvoyage.Thisisnotanaccountwrittenbyayoungandshrillcaptainimaginingheisthefirsttoseethewondersoftheworld.Instead,
itisasober,oftenphilosophicalaccountofintrospectionandinteractionwithallpartsoftheglobe.
Uponsettingout,Slocumstatedhisintentionwassimplytotravel.Inanageofsteamshipsandmechanizeddevices,herewasonemansailingashipheeffectivelybuilt
byhand.WroteSlocum:IftheSpraydiscoverednocontinentsonhervoyage,itmaybethattherewerenomorecontinentstobediscoveredshedidnotseeknew
worlds,orsailtopowwowaboutthedangersoftheseas.Theseahasbeenmuchmaligned.Tofindoneswaytolandsalreadydiscoveredisagoodthing(Kanellos
77).
Beyondsimplyventuring,Slocumhadhisshareofadventures:piratesrepeatedlygavechase,stormsbuffetedtheship,andsuppliesranlow.Wryandexperienced,his
accountisajoytoread.Likeavaudevillehero,Slocumthwartedintrudersbyleavingtacksondeckorusingstuffeddummies.Exhaustionplayedapartaswell,leading
tohallucinationsandblearyconfusion.
NeverdidSlocumcomplain,however.Quitetothecontrary,thevariousadversitiesseemtohavemadehisvoyageallthesweeter.Ateveryport,Slocumfound
interestingpeopletopopulatehistext.Somewerefamous,someinfamous,andsomewerejustlocalfolkscurioustoseeanoldmaninastrangecraft,butallare
brilliantlydescribedinSlocumsbook.
Repeatedly,Slocumfoundthathecouldlearnmuchofhimselfandofhumannaturebyvisitingfarflungplaces.Hislifemaybereadentirelyasonegrandstudyof
foreignandfamiliarculturesfromthevantagepointofasailingship.Inarapidlymodernizingworld,Slocumisaclearvoiceforslowingdownthepaceandseeingallthe
majestyoftheworldanditsinhabitants.
References:
Kanellos1999
SMITH,CAPTAINJOHN
JohnSmith(English,1580?1631)spenthislifehavingadventuresandthenwritingthemdown.Hehasninebookstohiscredit,includingATrueRelationofVirginia
(1608),ADescriptionofNewEngland(1616),TheGenerallHistorieofVirginia(1624),andTheTrueTravels,Adventures,andObservationsofCaptaine
JohnSmith(1630).At16yearsofage,heleftEnglandtosellhisservicesasasoldieroffortuneinthewaragainsttheTurksincentralEurope.Hewascapturedand
imprisonedinConstantinopleforatime,buteventuallyheescapedandfledtoRussia.WhileworkinghiswaybacktoEngland,hevowedhisnextjourneywouldbeto
theNewWorld.
From1606onward,helaboredintheserviceoftheEnglishmonarchyasacolonialseacaptain.Hisvariousbookstellofdifferentvoyagesandadventures.Smithis
creditedwithexploringandmappingtheAtlanticcoastsouthofJamestownitwasduringthesetopographicalmissionsthathebefriendedseveralnativetribes.
Throughouthiscareer,SmithsoughttoconverttheNativeAmericanstoChristianity,buthedidsowithaconsiderablequantityofcompassionandopenness.Herose
throughvariouscivilandmilitaryranksuntilhewasgovernorofVirginiaandlateradmiralofNewEngland.

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MuchofSmithswritingisdryandpurelydescriptive.Asahistoricalrecord,thematerialisvaluable,butastravelliterature,itoftenlacksanengagingstyleorasenseof
drama.Curiously,Smithoftenwritesinthethirdperson,perhapstryingtosuggestthatthetaleismoreobjectivethananobviouslysubjectivefirstpersonnarrative.
ThuswhenwereadSmith,littledreamingofthataccident...,itappearsahistoryratherthanapersonalnarrativethefactremains,however,thatSmithisboththe
authorandtheprotagonistofhistales.Nonetheless,scatteredthroughouthisworksaremomentsoffabulousexcitementforsuchaccounts,Smithisworthreading.
OneofSmithsmostfamouspassagesfromTheGenerallHistorieofVirginiadescribeshisfirstencounterwiththechildPocahontasin1607.Accordingto
Smithsaccount,Pocahontasriskedherlifetosavehim.HavingbeentakentoChiefPowhatan,Smithfindshimselfreadytobeslaughtered:theconclusionwas,two
greatstoneswerebroughtbeforePowhatan:thenasmanyascouldlaydhandsonhim[Smith],draggedhimtothemandthereonlaidhishead,andbeingreadywith
theirclubs,tobeateouthisbraines,PocahontastheKingsdearestdaughter,whennointreatycouldprevaile,gothisheadinherarmes,andlaidherowne[head]upon
histosavehimfromdeath(Adams151).Sobeganarelationshipthathasbeenthesubjectofconsiderablespeculationandembellishment.InSmithsbookweseehis
friendshipwiththegirlleadtoafriendshipwiththetribehebecomestheirtradingpartnerandadviser.Eventually,PowhatancametoconsiderCaptainSmithoneofhis
sons,althoughthisdoesnotimplyamarriagebetweenSmithandPocahontas.Infact,inhislaterworkTheTrueTravels,SmithwritestothequeenofEngland,telling
ofPocahontasandhermarriagetoanEnglishman.Ratherquickly,itseems,SmithtiredofPowhatanandhisdaughterandmovedontoneweradventures.
Timeandtimeagain,Smithdemonstratedhisinsatiabledesiretosee,tolearn,andtowriteaboutnewpeopleandplaces.Hisstruggletorecordobjectivelytheworld
aroundhimhasearnedhimaplaceintheannalsof

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history.Asabraveanddeterminedtraveler,heseemedtolivetobeinmotion:uponarrivingsomewhere,hebegantolooktothenextjourney.
References:
Adams1988
DOyley1932Newby1985
SMOLLETT,TOBIAS
Agiftednovelistwithmanydifferentliteraryskills,TobiasSmollett(Scottish,17211771)pennedseveralextremelypopularandinterestingtalesoftravel.While
TravelsthroughFranceandItaly(1766)remainshismostfamousworkoftravelliterature,hehasanumberofbookstohiscredit,includingRoderickRandom
(1748),PeregrinePickle(1751),TheExpeditionofHumphryClinker(1771),andACompendiumofAuthenticandEntertainingVoyages(1756).
ManyscholarsandhistorianshavecommentedupontheexchangebetweenSmollettandLaurenceSterne,whosenovelASentimentalJourneythroughFranceand
Italy(1768)containsacharactercomicallynamedSmelfunguswhoisclearlyaparodyofSmollett.Indeed,uponthepublicationofSternesbook,Smolletts
TravelsthroughFranceandItalysawamarkeddecreaseinsalesandremainedoutofprintformorethanacentury(Adams345).
Sternenotwithstanding,Smollettstalehasregaineditsrightfulplaceintheliterarycanon(theauthoritativebodyofworksacceptedbyscholars)becauseitisindeeda
veryfinetalethatdemonstratesthepedagogicalpotentialoftravel.Toboot,itisafunandoftenfunnytale.
TheostensiblepurposeofSmollettsvoyagewastoimprovehisfailinghealth.Hewasnotawealthyman,andhehadjustlosthisdaughterastonic,heandhiswife
decideduponajourney.Curiously,hefelthecouldnotlivewithoutasizablequantityofbooks,soheshippedalibraryofsome150volumesalongwithhim.Imaginea
sickly,underfunded,cantankerousScottishintellectualgrumblingandgripingthroughtheFrenchandItaliancountryside,andyouwillhaveafairlyaccuratepictureof
Smollett.Hechronicleswithgreat,evenabsurd,detailthedisputeshehaswithavarietyofinnkeepers,coachmen,waiters,travelers.Hispagesarerifewithcomplaints
tothepointthatthemodernreaderisusuallyinclinedtoreadSmollettthroughthelensofironyormisanthropy.
The40oddlettersthatmakeupthebookwereneveractuallypostedtheyareaddressed,infact,toafictionalfriend.Hisstoriesareripewithbrashcriticismand
eruditeverbalizationsofverycommontravelerswoes:aslightlyseedyinnleadstotheproclamationthatAlltheinnsofFranceareexecrableanduponfindingsome
Frenchplumbinginadequate,heproclaimstheFrenchbeastly.Heisalsogiventocritical,ifhumorous,generalizations:IfaFrenchmanisadmittedintoyourfamily..
.thefirstreturnhemakesforyourcivilitiesistomakelovetoyourwife,ifsheishandsomeifnot,toyoursister,ordaughter,orniece(Fussell200).Suchcultural
criticismdelightedBritishreadersonecanimaginehowthebookwasreceivedinFranceand,onamoresophisticatedlevel,forcedreadersintolookingattheir
habitsandfamiliarsurroundingsinaslightlydifferentlight.Smollettsbookisatitsbestwhenitasksthereadertonoteandtoappreciatewhats/hemighteasilytake
forgranted.
Bycomparingculture,theusandthethemofBritainandFrance,Smollettisindeeddemonstratingthathehaslearnedfromhisjourney.Asanintellectual,heisnot
contenttopossesshisknowledgeidlyrather,heseekstoshareitinhiswriting.Throughouthisbook,hegentlytransformshiswryobservationsintolessons:
TheFrench,however,withalltheirabsurdities,preserveacertainascendancyoverus,whichisverydisgracefultoournationandthisappearsinnothing
morethaninthearticleofdress.Wearecontentedtobethoughttheirapesinfashionbut,infact,weareslavestotheirtailors,

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mantuamakers,barbers,andothertradesmen....WhenthenativesofFrancecometoLondon,theyappearinallpublicplaces,withcloathsmade
accordingtothefashionoftheirowncountry....Why,therefore,dontwefollowitimplicitly?No,wepiqueourselvesuponamostridiculousdeviation
fromtheverymodesweadmire,andpleaseourselveswiththinkingthisdeviationisamarkofourspiritandliberty.But,wehavenotspiritenoughto
persistinthisdeviation,whenwevisittheircountry....[Indeed,]thefashionsofbothcountriesareequallyabsurd.
(Adams347)
Franceisnottheonlysubjectattackedinthisjourney,tobesure.SmollettsresponsetoItalyrangesfromracisttiradestoclassistlamentstosimplekvetching.Ifthe
peopledonotelicitacomplaint,thentheclimatedoesiftheruinsareexciting,thenthelandscapeisalmostinvariablyterrible.Thatwhichpertainstoordatesfromthe
classicaleraissuretomeetwithSmollettsfavorthatwhichiscontemporaryandItalianissuretobeasubjectofscorn.Suchnationalismisamusinginretrospect
perhapsitcanhelpusavoidbeingsimilarlyoverimpressedwithourselves.
OneoftheadvantagesoftotingahugecollectionofbooksisthatSmollettisabletoquoteatlengthfromOvid,Horace,Virgil,andthelike,inanattempttoseethe
samesightsaboutwhichtheywrote.Thusthebookisdeeplyliterary,withSmollettquotingtheclassicsandthencommentinguponhowbadlythesamevista,structure,
orcharacteristichaschanged.
Hisotherworksareworthabriefnoteaswell.ACompendiumofAuthenticandEntertainingVoyagesisacollectionoftravelerstalesthatSmollettcompiledand
thenentirelyrewrote.Forthesakeofthisbook,Iammoreinterestedinhearingtravelerstelloftheirowntalesintheirownwords,butasasourceofamusingnarratives
andclearlytoldstories,Smollettsbookissuperb.
HumphryClinker,RoderickRandom,andPeregrinePicklearepicaresquenovelsthatdefycategorization.Asfictionalepistolarytales,theyarepurenovelisticin
thattheirletterstellcredibletraveltalesofrealplaces,theymayapproachbeingconsideredtravelwriting.Thestoriescontainasingle,centralhero,whodevelopsand
growsinarealisticbutalsosarcasticmanner.Whateverelsetheymaybe,thesetextsofferfinestoriesthatresideontheedgeoftravelliterature.
Seealso:
GrandTourPicaresqueSterne,Laurence
References:
Adams1988
Fussell1987
Newby1985
SOUTHEY,ROBERT
AlthoughRobertSouthey(English,17741843)wasaprominentpoetinhisday,hisreputationhassufferedoflate.OneofthesocalledLakePoets,Southeywrote
vastamountsofproseandversethatareusuallycategorizedsimplyasromantic.Heservedaspoetlaureatefrom1813to1843.Manycontemporaryreadersfindhim
lessthrillingandmelodramaticthanLordByronandPercyByssheShelleyandlesstechnicallygiftedthanhisfriendSamuelTaylorColeridge.Suchjudgmentsdo
injusticetoafascinatingwriterwhocomposedanastoundingquantityofpoetry,prose,andessays.
Aswithanyprolificoeuvre(bodyofwork),Southeysvariesenormously.Tuckedwithinhispoemsandlettersareafairnumberofveryfineworksoftravelliterature.
SoutheysowntravelstoSpain,Portugal,andItalywereveryfruitfulhisliteraryproductionfromabroadisdominatedbythethemeoftravel.Averyshortlistofsome
ofhisbesttravelwritingincludesHistoryofBrazil(18101819),Thalaba(1801),ATaleofParaguay(1825),MyDaysamongtheDeadArePast(1822),and
RecollectionsofaDaysJourneyinSpain(1797).
Generallyspeaking,Southeystravelwritingexposesthetensionbetweenfeeling

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excitementfortheforeignandfeelingnostalgiaforthefamiliar.Whereastheunfamiliarandtheexoticprovidebeautyandinspiration,thetravelermustrealizethefleeting
natureoftheexperience.ThephilosophicaldifficultyforSoutheylurksintheimpossibilityofmemory(orpoetry)tocapturetherealexperience.Thusthetravelermust
wranglewithhisownknowledgethathisrecollectionprovidesbutapaltryandflatrepresentationofthatvanishedmoment.
WefindasingularlyfineexampleofthisideainhispoemRecollectionsofaDaysJourneyinSpain.Thetitlelocatesthenarratoralreadyremovedfromtheactual
experienceandthereadersdoublyremovedinthatwereceiveapoetic,textualrepresentationofamemoryofanevent.Delightedly,thenarratorcallstomindwildand
lovelyscenesofSpainandretracesandreviewsthevistaswithapleasurenotlessdelightedthanthatwithwhichhebeheldthemfirst(CrossleyHolland78).
Allseemswellforthetravelerrememberinghisexcursion.
Inthesecondstanza,emotionaltroublebegins.Welearnthathisvoyagewasayearago,andheisrecollectingthesunnyhappinessofSpainfromrainy,gloomy,cold
England.Buteventhememoryistainted,forthenarratoradmitsthatwhenhewasinSpainhelonginglythoughtofEngland,andallmyhearthelddear/Andwished
thisday[thereturnhome]werecome(78).Whiletraveling,heprojectedhimselftothesafeandcomfortablefuturespaceofrecollectinghisadventures.Indeed,
wheresoeverthenarratoris,helongstobeelsewhere.WheninSpain,hethoughtofhisfamiliar,dearhomewhenathome,helongsforhisforeignadventuresagain.
Suchisthenatureoftravel:itconfoundsourdesires.
ThethirdandfourthstanzasexpanduponthegloriousrecollectionsofSpain.Vividly,enticingly,Southeydescribesthescenewithminuteandenchantingdetailsthat
evokesensuousmemoriesofvarioussorts.Thisisanidealizedrecollection,thestuffofretouchedmemory,ratherthanatranscriptionoftherealityofthemomentwith
itsachingfeet,burningthirst,anddisorientation.
Inthelastfewlinesofthepoem,Southeyyanksusbacktothepresent.Hewritesinconclusion,
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l

...Olovelyscenes!
Igazeduponyouwithintensedelight,
Andyetwiththoughtsthatweightthespiritdown.
Iwasastrangerinaforeignland
And,knowingthattheseeyesshouldnevermore
Beholdthatgloriousprospect,Earthitself
Appearedtheplaceofpilgrimageitis.
(80)

Bothoriginallyandinretrospect,thenarratorrealizesthattheexperienceoftraveliscomprisedofsingularandunrepeatablemoments.Assoonasasightisseen,it
vanishesintotheflatrepresentationofmemory.Inaddition,perspectivematters.Foreigneyesseeandnoteasceneverydifferentlyfromlocaleyes.Whatpasses
unnoticedindailylifemaybeextraordinarytotheoutsider.Finally,Southeyconcludesthatalloflifeisthissortofjourney.Humanlifeisnothingmorethanapilgrimage,
atravelthatismoreaboutthejourneythanthedestination.
Southeysvisionisadeepandattimestroublingone.Hissenseoftravelasboththestuffoflifeandthedeferralofdeath,alongwithhisconflationofmemoryand
textualrepresentation,makeshimasophisticatedtravelwriter.Throughouthisworks,onecanfindincidentsandexamplesofsuperiorandprovocativetravelliterature.
References:
CrossleyHolland1986
Harvey1967
SPEKE,JOHNHANNING
ServinginIndiawiththeBritisharmygaveJohnHanningSpeke(English,18271864)

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hisfirsttasteoftravelandadventure.Italsoconditionedhimtothinkonlyinimperialistterms.AftermultipletreksintotheHimalayas,Spekebecameratherwellknown
asanexplorer.Butinhisearlyyears,hisjournalslackanyspecialgiftforstorytelling.By1850,however,SpekehadbefriendedtravellegendRichardBurton,andit
seemstohavehadaremarkableeffectonhistravels,hiswriting,andhislife.
Burtontaughthimmuchabouttravelandtravelwritingafterall,Burtonwasalreadywidelyidolizedastheultimateadventurer.Together,BurtonandSpekeventured
intoEastAfrica,butSpekewasseriouslywoundedinaskirmishwithnativesandhadtoabandonthejourney.Burtoncontinuedon,afactthatenragedthejealous
Speke.
BothBurtonandSpekehadasinglegoal:todiscoveranddocumentthevastlakesthatserveasthesourceoftheNileRiver.Whatbeganasafriendshipquickly
deterioratedintoabitterrivalry.Eventually,SpekedidbeatBurtonbydiscoveringLakeVictoriaandpublishingthestoryinhisJournaloftheDiscoveryofthe
SourceoftheNile(1863).Thestorytellsofhisthreeyears,18601863,tracingbackwardfromtheNiletoLakeVictoriaassubstantialproof.
Thejournalitselfisonlymildlyinteresting.Heincludestheusualwealthofgeological,botanical,andculturalobservations,butscatteredamongthesefactsareahandful
ofmoredramaticevenmelodramaticaccountsthatseemtomockBurtonsheroicnarratives.Inonememorablescene,Spekeandhiscohortsbattleafamilyof
rhinoswiththeirswords!Eveninthesemomentsoffancy,however,SpekeisunabletoescapehisVictoriansensibilities.Tohismind,Africaisadiversion,agame,and
travelisacompetition.Littleinhisjournalsuggestsanythingmoresignificantthanfactuallearningonthewhole,Spekeisagoodexampleofatravelwriterwhocantell
usabouttheimperialisticattitudesofthenineteenthcenturyBritishexplorer.
Seealso:
Burton,SirRichardFrancis
References:
Rugoff1960
SPICEISLANDS
ThegroupingofislandsnowknownastheMoluccas,ascatteredrangeofislandsandatollsineasternIndonesia.Numberingoverathousandandspreadoveramillion
squaremilesofsea,theseislandshavealwaysbeenremote.DuringtheEuropeanMiddleAges,ArabandChinesetradersexploredandmappedtheseprecious
sourcesofclovesandnutmeg.OnlyaftertheAgeofDiscovery(roughlythefifteenthandsixteenthcenturies)didtheEuropeansbegintoexploreandexploitthese
islands.
Suchanardentdesireforspicesmayseemoddtothemodernreader,butwemustrememberthatspiceswereusedtopreserveandtocureperishablefoodsandto
maskthesmellofslightlyspoiledingredients.Thus,alongwithsaltandsmoke,spicesbecameessentialtoprolongedstaysawayfromsourcesoffreshfood.Inother
words,lengthyseafaringvoyages,travelstoinhospitableclimates,andscoresofotherventuresthatrequiredselfsufficiencyweremadeeasierbyaccesstospices.In
addition,aswithanyhighlysoughtcommodity,spicesalsoprovidedasourceofenormouswealthhewhosucceededinreturningtoEuropesafelywithacargoof
clovesandnutmeghadaninstantfortune.
Thesetinytropicalislandswerethecauseofintensecompetition,colonialsquabbles,navalskirmishes,andevenwars.Empireswerebuiltonthewealthofgoods
acquiredfromfarflungcoloniestheSpiceIslandsfiguredprominentlyinearlyDutch,Portuguese,andEnglishcolonialpursuits.
STANLEY,SIRHENRYMORTON
OneofthemajornamesintheexplorationofAfrica,SirHenryMortonStanley(born

Page187
Welsh,American18411904)istothisdayalegend.InextricablybundledwiththeexplorerDavidLivingstone,Stanleysfamouswords,Dr.Livingstone,Ipresume?
donotdojusticetothemeritsofhisownexplorationandwriting.HedevotedhislifetoAfricanexpeditionsand,asaresult,pennedseveralvaluableandinteresting
books,includingHowIFoundLivingstone:Travels,Adventures,andDiscoveriesinCentralAfrica(1872),ThroughtheDarkContinent(1878),TheCongo
andtheFoundingofItsFreeState(1885),andInDarkestAfrica(1890).
FromStanleyshistorywemaybeabletomorefullyunderstandhisfearlesstenacityanddoggedperseverance.Asapoororphan,Stanleyhadtolearntofendfor
himselfquiteearlyinlife.Byage17,hehadalreadysailedfromEnglandtofindhisfortuneinAmerica.Takeninbyamerchant,Stanleyfoundinstantsuccess.Heand
hisadoptivefathermadenumerousvoyagesthroughMissouriandArkansas,aswellasallalongthefrontier.ItwasduringthisperiodthatStanleydecidedtotraveland
towriteforaliving.AfterservingintheCivilWar,Stanleylandedajobasanewspapercorrespondent.Followingastringofsuccessfulreports,Stanleywassentto
seekthelonglostAfricanexplorerDavidLivingstone.Neveronetowasteajourney,StanleyfiledreportsfromtheSuezCanal,Crimea,Palestine,Persia,andIndiaon
hiswaytoAfrica.Onewondersathissenseofgeography!
HischronicleoffindingLivingstoneprovidesanexampleofStanleysimmensespiritandextremefortitude.SloggingthroughAfricawasbothdangerousanddifficult,
andStanleyhadtosearchblindly,mostlyonrumors,formanymonthsbeforeheevenfoundtangibleevidencethatLivingstonewasstillalive.Startingwithapartyof
nearly200portersandtrackers,Stanleyfindsattritionshockinglyrapidly.Todisease,skirmishes,desertion,naturaldisasters,andevenadisciplinaryexecution,he
losesmembersofhiseverdwindlingteam.Throughaneverendingseriesofdifficulties,whilesurmountingvarioushumanandnaturaladversaries,Stanleyfinally
succeedsinachievinghisobjective.Butaswithanytravel,reachingthedestinationissomewhatanticlimacticitistheprocessofgettingtherethatmakesthisagreat
story.
Forfourmonths,LivingstonandStanleyexploredtogether,andundersuchgreattutelage,Stanleybecamequiteanexplorerhimself.HissubsequenttripstoAfrica
andtheircorrespondingaccountsarealsosignificanttogeographichistoryandtravelliterature.
Thefirsttrip,describedinThroughtheDarkContinent,tellsofStanleys1,000dayjourneydowntheCongoRiver.HisnexttripsenthimtocentralAfricaagain,this
timewiththeideaoffoundingastatethere.Stanleysfinaljourney,perhapshismostbrash,wasanattempttobringsupportonbehalfofGreatBritaintoEminPasha,
thegovernoroftheEgyptianSudan.InsurrectionhadpinneddownthegovernornearLakeAlbert,andhissituationlookedgrim.InDarkestAfricatellsthetaleofthis
journey.
Onallofhisjourneys,asimilarendingarises:whatStanleyexpectstofindbearslittleresemblancetotheactualsituation.WhetherheisdiscoveringLivingstoneorEmin
Pasha,Stanleyfindsthattheseheartyexplorersneitherneedtobesavednorwishtobereturnedtocivilization.Thoughhisjourneysoftenhadtangibleobjectives,inhis
writingStanleyfocusonthevoyageitself:indeed,thetruevalueoftravelistheprocess,nottheresult.
Overthecourseofthesejourneys,Stanleycastshimselfasheroic.Throughthemosthorrificofexperiences,hekeepshisheadbothliterallyandfigurativelyand
leadshispartyeveronward.PerhapsStanleyisoneoftheeminentexamplesofgraceunderpressure:henevercracks.Oneofthegreatestvaluesofhiswritingremains
thathisstoriesdescribeasortofruggedtravelthatpushesmentotheirlimits.Undersuchcircumstances,corecharacteristicscometotheforeitmaybethat
encounteringextremeadversityistheultimatewayoflearningofoneself.

Page188
Althoughthehorrorofhisadventuresoftenovershadowshistexts,Stanleystravelwritingisvastlysuperiortothatofmostexplorers.Whilehisprosestumblesattimes
andhisstructurewavers,hedoesagoodjobofpreservingasenseofdramaandexcitement.Contemporaryreadersoftenfindhisdeadpannonchalanceastounding
herelateslifethreateningencountersinpreciselythesametoneashisdiscoveryofanewbotanicalsubspecies.Althoughhisformatofdailyentriesoftenfeelsstiltedand

Page189
constraining,Stanleyablymakespuredescriptioninteresting.
Seealso:
Livingstone,David
References:
Newby1985
Rugoff1960
STEINBECK,JOHN
Oneofthegreatnovelistsofthetwentiethcentury,JohnSteinbeck(American,19021968)hasbeenstudiedinmanycapacities.Hiscontributiontomodernliterature
hasbeengreatinnumerousregards.Hiscollectedworkscontainmanyaspectsoftravelliteratureandseveralbooksthatfigureprominentlyaspuretravelwriting.
Perhapssignificantly,hisearliestandhislatestbooksaremosttrulytravelliterature:theymaybesaidtoframeallofhisotherwork.
AwardedboththePulitzerPrize(1940)andtheNobelPrize(1962),SteinbeckswritingisastapleoftheAmericancanonthoseworksofliteraturecomprisingthe
authoritativecollectionapprovedbytheliteraryestablishment.Hischaractersarecredible,complex,andmemorablehisthemesarebroadreaching,poignant,and
decidedlymodern.Hisstoriestellofmigrantfarmworkers,countryfolk,cannerylaborers,pearldivers,andalienatedcitydwellers.Theyarevividandsensitivetalesof
thehumanspiritstrugglingtirelesslytoovercomeadversity.Innearlyallofhisbooks,physicalmovementmarksthebeginningofchangeanddevelopment.Generally
speaking,travelinhisnovelsoperatesonbothliteralandmetaphoriclevels:thespecificjourneyisbutadistillationofthelargerjourneyoflifewithunexpectedjoysand
sorrowsjustdowntheroadoraroundthebend.
CupofGold:ALifeofSirHenryMorgan,Buccaneer,withOccasionalReferencestoHistory(1929)reflectsSteinbeckslifelonginterestinseafaring,adventure,
andconflict.Anidealizedromance,thenovelimaginesthelifeofPrivateerHenryMorgan,wholeftnoliteraryaccounthimself.Thestorytellsofhighseasadventuresin
thePanama,Jamaica,andtheCaribbean.AlthoughSteinbeckdidconsiderableresearchonthetopic,manyoftheincidentsarewhollyfabricatedorextrapolatedfrom
thetinybitofhistoricdatathatexists.Astravelandadventure,thestoryisinteresting,butitisperhapsmoreunusualasahybridoftravelfactandtravelfiction.
TheSeaofCortez(1941,laterreissuedandexpandedasTheLogoftheSeaofCortezin1951)isapuretravelogue.ThistextprovidesanaccountofSteinbecks
travelswithmarinebiologistEdwardF.RickettsthroughouttheGulfofCalifornia.Parttravelogue,partessayonthejourneyoflifeandtheevocativepowerofthesea,
thebookisaninterestingcounterparttoCupofGoldinthatitisnonfictionthatoftenreadslikeanovel.Usinghisformidableliterarytalent,Steinbeckwritesahighly
readablerecordofanactualjourney.
TheWaywardBus(1947)isanovelaboutthesocialinteractionandsexualmisadventuresoftravelersstuckatareststation.Thescenariotransmutescommontravel
intoamicrocosmofmodernAmericansociety.Thefrustratedtravelershavetointeractinspiteofanimosityanddistrustsomeofitquitejustified.Thestoryprovides
anexampleoftravelgoneawryandmadechallenging,butitalsonotesthepreciousaffinitythattravelersoftenfeelwithoneanother.Indailylife,thesecharacters
wouldhavenoaffinityorinterestinoneanother,butinthecontextoftravelandmildadversitytheyformfriendshipsandbonds.PerhapswemightreadThe
WaywardBusasanelegytothepoweroftraveltoinfluencebehaviorandhumaninteraction.
RussianJournal(1948)representsSteinbeckstravelsinRussiaduringWorldWarII.Asawarcorrespondent,hisreportageismorepoliticalandsociologicalthan
personal,butonceagainSteinbeckblendsformsanddescribesacomplexandveryhumanresponsetowar.Hisfocusonindividualanecdotesandsmalldetailsmakes
thisarareexampleofwarreportingthatisalsotravelliterature.
EvenhistalesofEuropeTheMoonIsDown(1942),TheShortReignofPippinIV

Page190
(1957),andBombsAway(1942)amongthemcanbereadasobservationsofdifferentculturesthatcausethereadertoreflectonbeingAmerican.Thoughset
elsewhere,thedominantthemesofastruggle,strife,andtranscendencebuildabridgebetweentheOldWorldandAmericaregardlessofwhenandwhere,thereare
similaritiesinallhumanexistence.
TravelswithCharley(1962)isajournalisticaccountofSteinbecksroadtripacrosstheUnitedStateswithhisoldpoodle.Lateinhis

Page191
life,hedeclared,Ididnotknowmyowncountryandthusboughtapickuptruckanddrovethrough30oddstatesinsearchofknowledge,understanding,and
experience.Steinbeckdescribedhiscompanion,Charley,asanoldFrenchgentlemanpoodle(Newby439).Withhismagnificentearforregionaldialectsandhis
carefreeitinerary,SteinbeckmakesofthisjourneyacelebrationofthesubtlediversityofAmericafromitsgeographytoitsdazzlingarrayofpeople.Enhancedby
characteristicrealismandreadability,TravelswithCharleyreadslikeanexceptionallywellcraftednovel.Theprotagonist,however,isSteinbeckhimself.Every
encounterspurshimtoreflectonhiscountryandhimself.Itisoneofthefinestaccountsoftravelproducedinthetwentiethcentury.
Throughouthisworks,Steinbeckdemonstratesaremarkablerespectforsometimesevenaweoftravel.Allofhistravelwritingevokesboththephysicalsettingand
thenarratorspsychologicalresponsetothejourney.Forthistwoprongedfocus,Steinbeckstravelliteraturemustberegardedashighlysophisticated.Hisenormous
talentasanauthorallowshimtocomposebelievable,moving,anduncommonlyaccessibletravelliteraturethatblendsdifferentgenres.Steinbecksliteraryhybrids
pavedthewayformodern,posttouristictravelwriting.
References:
Bent1965
Hart1965
Newby1985
STEPHENS,JOHNLLOYD
JohnLloydStephens(American,18051852)hadaparticularknackforinspiringpeopletotrusthim.Althoughtrainedasalawyer,Stephensfoundthelureoftravel
irresistible.WhatbeganasrecreationalvisitstoGreekandRomanhistoricsitesthroughoutEuropeandtheNearEastturnedintothreesubstantialjourneys,the
accountsofwhichwerepublishedasIncidentsofTravelinEgypt,Arabia,PetraeaandtheHolyLand(1837)IncidentsofTravelinGreece,Turkey,Russia
andPoland(1838)andIncidentsofTravelinCentralAmerica,ChiapasandYucatan(1843).Hiseasymannerandcandidinteractionwithpeoplemakehistravel
writingbothendearingandinformative.
Welleducatedandmoderatelyprosperous,StephenswastornbetweenhiscomfortablelifeasaNewYorklawyerandhisthrillingadventuresasanamateur
archaeologistandardenttraveler.Hiscompromisewastothrowhimselffullyintolengthytrips,butbetweentripshereturnedtoNewYorktopracticelaw.Itwasan
admirableschemethathekeptupthewholeofhislife.
OneofStephenssprimaryinterestswasinancientcultures.Histravelswerealwayspartlydevotedtoarchaeologyandartresearchheearnedconsiderablefamein
scholarlycircleswithhisbookIncidentsofTravelinEgypt,Arabia,PetraeaandtheHolyLand.Yetthestoryhetellsismuchmorethanascientificjournalithas
warmthandcharmthatcomesfromStephenssunpretentiousinterestinthepeoplewholiveamongtherelicsandruinsoftheancientworld.Hisroutewasawhirlwind
tourofaNorthAfricaandmuchoftheMiddleEasthisdesireseemstohavebeentoseeasmuchaspossible.Alongthewayheencounteredacolorfulcastof
characters,fromtradesmentosheiks.Hisstoriesaredramaticinthattheytellofwildplaces,exoticanimals,magnificentruins,andstrangeculturalpractices.
Stephenssfirstworkfollowsinalonglineoftraveloguesthatchroniclethefamousclassicalsitesoftheregion.Yethiswritingstandsoutforitslucidenergyand
exuberantstyle:hewriteswithgenuineexcitementandtheapparentdesiretoconstructanarrativeoutofhistory.Stephensseemstohavehadkeeninstinctsthatledhim
tosniffouttroublewithoutrecklesslyendangeringhimselfandthushewasprivytoscenesoftorture,unrest,rarerituals,andimprobablycoincidentalmeetings.
Afterthebookspublication,manyvieweditwithskepticism:theythoughtit

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musthavebeenconsiderablyexaggerated.Stephensstaunchlymaintainedthathehadsimplycapturedwhathehadbeenluckyenoughtosee.Weshallneverknowfor
sureifhistalesarestrictlyaccurate,butwecancertainlyfindthemamusingandthrillingasstories.
Havingfoundsuccesswithhisfirstbook,Stephensimmediatelybeganplanninghisnexttrip,alogicalextensionofhisfirstvoyage.Herecalledtheclassicalruinsof
GreeceandTurkeyfromanearliervisit,butthistimehesoughttodescribeandinvestigatethemsystematically.OnthewaybacktoEuropehemadestrategicstopsin
PolandandRussia,hencethetitleofhisbook:IncidentsofTravelinGreece,Turkey,RussiaandPoland.Stephenscapturesaremarkableseriesofadventureswith
hiscustomaryeaseanddetachment.Thoughsituationsoftendeterioratetothreatening,hisnarrativevoiceremainsobjectiveandunafraid.Thisisnottosayunemotional,
however:throughoutallofhisbooks,Stephensdescribeshisjourneyswithpassionandfeeling.
HisreturntotheStatesledStephenstoengageinlegalworkfortheU.S.StateDepartmentonatreatywithCentralAmerica(1839).Inthiscapacityhewassentto
negotiatewithCentralAmericangovernments,buthefoundthatpoliticalpowerwasscatteredwidelyanddifficulttotrace.Thisscuttledtheproject,atleastpolitically.
Instead,Stephensdevotedhisvastenergytoastudyoftheculturalandarchaeologicalhistoryoftheregion.
Thisbook,publishedasIncidentsofTravelinCentralAmerica,ChiapasandYucatan,furtherincreasedhisfame.Aswithhisearlierbooks,thisstudymeticulously
chronicleshisquestfornotedancientruins.Forthisthirdproject,StephensenlistedanartistnamedFrederickCatherwood,whoillustratedtheprojectlavishly.These
drawingsweresomeofthemostcomprehensiveanddetailedoftheera,andassuchtheyhadgreatarchaeologicalandscholarlyvalue.Thepairtraversedmostof
CentralAmerica,coveringmorethantwothousandmilesanddocumentingmanyofthefinestMayanruins(Rugoff746).
Ifanything,thisLatinAmericantripprovedtobethemostarduous.Manyoftheruinstheysoughtwerehiddendeepinthejunglesaccesstothesesitesproved
dangerousaswellasdifficult.WhileStephensretainshisinterestinlocalpeople,muchofthetripwasspentsloggingthroughuninhabitedwilds,hencenatural
elementsbothfloraandfaunaplayalargerrolethaninhispreviousbooks.Asiftocompensateforthelongpassagesinthebush,Stephensseemstohave
redoubledhiseffortstocapturethespiritedtimeshehadinthetownsandcities.Weareprivytoseveralsplendidfiestas,repletewithexoticcocktailsandalluringnative
womengorybullfightsdramaticCatholicmassesandgargantuanfeastsfeaturingstrangelocaldelicacies.TomymindthisthirdtextisStephenssfinestworkinthatit
gracefullycombinesthesocialandthearchaeologicalinequalmeasure.
AsmallexampleofhisproseshouldsufficetoconveyStephensspleasantandreadablestyle.HehadjustdiscoveredthelostMayancityofCopnwhenhewrote:
ItisimpossibletodescribetheinterestwithwhichIexploredtheseruins.Thegroundwasentirelynewtherewerenoguidebooksorguidesthewhole
wasavirginsoil.Wecouldnotseetenyardsbeforeus,andneverknewwhatweshouldstumbleuponnext.Atonetimewestoppedtocutaway
branchesandvines,whichconcealedthefaceofamonument,anddugaroundtobringtolightafragment,asculpturedcornerofwhichprotrudedfrom
theearth.IleanedoverwithbreathlessanxietywhiletheIndiansworked,andaneye,anear,afoot,orahandwasdisentombed....Thebeautyofthe
sculpture,thesolemnstillnessofthewoodsdisturbedonlybythescramblingofmonkeysandthechatteringofparrots,thedesolationofthecity,andthe
mysterythathungoverit,allcreatedaninteresthigher,ifpossible,thanIhadeverfeltamongtheruinsoftheOldWorld.

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(Newby472473)
Fittingly,StephensreturnedtotheStatestoconsiderableacclaim,inspiteofthefactthathehadfailedathisdiplomaticmission.
Overall,wecanreadStephensasanearlyAmericanvoiceintravelliterature,perhapsproneattimestohyperboleandchildlikeoutburstsofexcitement.Hetakesthe
traditionoftravelwritingandapplieshisownstyletotherenderingofhisstoriesinthisregardhecanbeconsideredanimportantpioneerinthefield.Inaddition,his
balanceofscholarlyfocuswithliterarycraftsmanshipisanencouragingexampletosubsequenttravelwriters.
References:
Newby1985
Rugoff1960
STERNE,LAURENCE
NovelistLaurenceSterne(Irish,17131768)followedhismorecelebratedmasterpiece,TheLifeandOpinionsofTristramShandy(1760),withatravelogue.
Althoughbothhaveelementsofthepicaresque,ASentimentalJourney(1768)remainsthebetterexampleofhistravelwriting.ThetextwasinspiredbySternesown
sevenmonthjourneythroughFranceandItaly.Hewasterminallyillatthetime,andheseemedtoimaginehisjourneyabroadasasortofwarmupforhisownjourney
intodeath.
ASentimentalJourneyisagreatpieceoftravelliteratureforseveralreasons.First,Sternecompressestheactoftravelingandtheactofwritingintooneaction
journeyingandwritingbecomethefundamentalelementsofexistence.Second,Yorick,Sternesquasiautobiographicalprotagonist,expresslyemploystravelasa
meansofgainingexperienceandwisdom.Andthird,Yorickpositionstravelasanactivityabovethepoliticalfrayintheend,itmattersverylittlewhetherheisFrench
orBritish.
Tobrieflysummarize,thenoveltellsthetaleofParsonYorickandhiswanderingsinFrancewithhisservantLaFleur.Theirprincipalactivityatleastasrecountedin
thetextisgettingfromoneplacetotheotherand,intheprocess,encounteringanarrayoflovelywomen.Fromshopgirlstoamerchantswifetoarichwidow,
chancemeetingsprovidedelightfuldiversionsforYorick.OneinterludeflowsuntilanotherintersectsititisthiscoursethatYorickandthusthenarrativefollows
untilanotherchancemeetingtakeshiminyetanothernewdirection.Justashisjourneybouncesfromoneplacetoanother,sotoodoesthestoryprogressfromtaleto
tale,aseriesofonlylooselyconnectedstoriesandasides.Itispreciselythisunexpectedsetoftwistsandturnsthatmakesthejourneyandthenovelsointeresting
nothingfollowsinalinearmanner,andsonothingiseasilyforeseen.
Inthismanner,writingandtravelareconflated.Thetextdemonstratesitsownplotand,assuch,canbecalledamanifesto.Aseverypageisturned,anewhelpor
hindranceappears,justaseachdaypresentsnewopportunities.SpontaneousactionsandresponsestowhateverchanceeventsoccurdriveYorickand,inturn,the
story.Travelbecomesnotameanstoanend,butratheranendinandofitselflikewise,theadventuresthatYoricklivesleadtonooverwhelmingtruthorunified
climax.Instead,theobjectoftheexerciseremainsverysimplytocontinuetravelingandwritinghaphazardly:inshort,theobjectoftheexerciseistolive.
Aswithmanypicaresquenovels,Sterneincludesgenerousdosesofsatireandsarcasm.Yorickisasmuchabuffoonasahero,asmuchthebuttofthejokeasthe
joker.Heelaboratesasortoftaxonomyoftravelersveryearlyinthefirstvolume:
l

IdleTravellers

InquisitiveTravellers

LyingTravellers

ProudTravellers

VainTravellers

SpleneticTravellers

ThenfollowtheTravellersofNecessity

ThedelinquentandfeloniousTraveller

TheunfortunateandinnocentTraveller

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l

ThesimpleTraveller,

Andlastofall(ifyouplease)

TheSentimentalTraveller.(Sterne3435)

Thelistitselfisfacetious,yetSternerescuesYorickbyhavinghimaddwisely,Itissufficientformyreader,ifhehasbeenatravelerhimself,thatwithstudyand
reflectionhereuponhemaybeabletodeterminehisownplaceandrankinthecatalogueitwillbeonesteptowardsknowinghimself(35).Suchgoodsensetendsto
balancethesatiricoversentimentalityofYoricktheresultisasatirethatisbothmoralizingandplayful.Overthecourseofhisownjourney,Yorickcomestofindthathe
isindeedajokeofsortsindeed,hisnameisborrowedfromoneofShakespearesfinestfools,areferencementionedrepeatedlyinthenovel.Thefinalproductisa
novelregardedatonceasgreattravelliteratureandasagreatspoofoftravelliterature.
ThroughoutclassicalliteratureasinDante,Homer,andVirgillifehasbeenfiguredasajourney,withtheultimatedestinationbeingdeath.Onseverallevels,Sterne
hasincorporatedthisideaintohisnovel.AlthoughtheoriginaltitlepageindicatesthatthisisanaccountofASentimentalJourneythroughFranceandItaly,Yorick
diesbeforereachingItaly.Inpart,thishastydenouementisduetoSternesownfailinghealthsomescholarscontendthathediedbeforehecouldfinishthetext.
Regardless,theassociationismade:deathanddestinationareinonecamp,andlifeandtravelareinanother.Intheplotofthestory,thisnotionisdemonstratedby
Yoricksstubborndesiretocontinueatallcosts.UponrealizingthathehadforgottentosecureapassporttoFrance,andrealizingthatFranceandEnglandwereat
war,Yorickfindshimselfinadangerousposition.Viewedasaspy,hehasthepoliceonhistail,yetherefusestoreturnhomeGobuttotheendofthestreet,Ihave
amoralaversionforreturningbacknowwiserthanIsetout(92)evenifthatmeansgravedangertohimself.
ThegoalofYoricksadventureostensiblyremainsthepursuitofwisdom.Whetherroamingthroughforeignlandsormarchingthroughaseriesofyears,bothagingand
travelingaresupposedtosupplywisdom.SaysYorick,soitfareswiththepoorTraveller,sailingandpostingthroughthepoliterkingdomsoftheglobeinpursuitof
knowledgeandimprovements(36).Yorickseemstounderstandthatitisthroughobservingdifferencethathewillbestbeabletounderstandhimselfandhisown
culture.Insteadofseekingtocatalogthearttreasuresavailableforviewingatthesiteshevisits,Yorickdesirestoseethepeopleandthelandscapes(whicharealso
popularsubjectsincontemporaneouspainting)heseekstoknowtheoriginalratherthanthereproduction.Heisquitecertainthattoreallyknowtheotherisvaluable:
Icouldwish...tospythenakednessoftheirhearts,andthroughthedifferentdisguisesofcustoms,climates,andreligion,findoutwhatisgoodinthemtofashionmy
ownbyandthereforeamIcome(108).Tolearnfromtheotherisoneoftheirreduciblemotivesoftruetravelliterature.
IftheacquisitionofwisdomisYoricksgoal,thencertainlyheissuccessful.Throughaseriesofencounterswithmenandwomenofseveralclasses,Yorickrealizesthat
thereisahumancommunitythattranscendsnationalism.Thoughhisandhisservantsnationsareatwar,YorickcanemployandlovetheFrenchLaFleur.Inspiteof
nationalgrievances,YorickandMons.leCountdeB****canbecomefriendsandalliesonthestrengthofhonor,decency,andindividualpersonality.Travel,in
Sternesnovel,servesasanantidotetopoliticsitfunctionsasameansbywhichfreecitizenscaninteractoutsideoftherealmofgovernmentsandblindpolicy.Itseems
clearthatSterneissuggestingthattravelleadstoknowledgeoftheother,whichinturnleadstounderstanding,whichendsinpeace.
Infineform,thenovelbothbeginsandendsinthemiddleofthingsthefirstlineisinmidconversation,thelastinmidsentence.

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Thissuggeststhatperhapsthetextistobeimaginedasanencounterwhilstonajourney.Asabriefseriesofjollytales,thenovelreadsmuchlikeaneveningoftalkata
pubstoriesandcharacterscomeandgo,perhapsexaggerated,perhapswhollyfabricated,butgenialnonetheless.Tomakeamodernanalogy,thisnovelislikea
holidaysnapshot:theremaybeonestoryatthecenter,buttherearemanyothersthatarecutofforleftoutoftheframe.
Seealso:
Picaresque
References:
Fussell1987
Sterne1987
STEVENS,THOMAS
Amostcurioustraveler,ThomasStevens(American,1855?)hasasingle,ifmonumental,claiminthehistoryoftravel.Inthespringof1884,hesetofftoridearound
theglobeonhisbicycle.HisdiaryispublishedasAroundtheWorldonaBicycle(1887).Histripisastoundingforitsdaftenergyhisjournalisamusingsimplyforhis
accountofthereactionshereceived.
HisroutecrossedthemiddleoftheUnitedStateswithoutahitch.HethensailedtoGermanyandpedaledthroughsouthcentralEuropeintotheBalkans.Next,he
followedaroutebasedontheSilkRoadthroughCentralAsiaandintoChina.ThenheloopeddownforgoodmeasuretotheMalayPeninsulabeforeheadingnorthto
Japan.Afternearlythreeyearsand15,000miles,StevenssailedbacktoAmerica.Hewaslaudedasaheroandcelebratedonbothcoasts.
Arrivinginvariouscitieswherebicycleswerestrangebeastsprovidedbothexcitementandchallenges.Hisaccounttellsofexcitedthrongsenthusiasticallyencouraging
himbutatthesametimecausinghimperilanddifficulty.Predictably,theroadsthroughAsiawereoftenabysmal.Forhisheartyenduranceofgreatdistancesand
extremeduress,Stevensdeservespraise.
Hisnarrativeisastraightforwardcompilationofobservationsorganizedintovignettes.Stevensseyefordetailisgood,buthissenseofhumorisbetter.Rarely,inthe
textatanyrate,doeshelosehischeerfuloptimism.Forexample,afterhavingreachedanimpassablestretchofroadinChina,hewrites,Hoursareconsumed
scramblingforthreeorfourmilesupanddownsteps,andoverthemostabominablecourseabicyclewaseverdragged,carried,upendedandluggedover(Newby
362).Nofuss,justthewilltopresseveronward.ThistenacityanddauntlessspiritmakeStevensworthyofreading.
Seealso:
SilkRoad
References:
Newby1985
STEVENSON,ROBERTLOUIS
Oneofthemostfamousandmostbelovedofalltravelwriters,RobertLouisStevenson(Scottish,18501894)hashadanenormousinfluenceontravelliterature.With
hisactualadventures,hisnovels,histravelogues,hisessays,hispoetry,andhisletters,hedemonstratesaloveforadventureandexperience.Asapillarofthegenre,
Stevensonprovidesadiverseandfascinatingbodyofworkthatremainsexciting,charming,andbeautifulmorethanacenturyafteritwaspenned.
Asateenager,Stevensonalreadyhadburningurgestoroam,observe,andwrite.Duetoachronicpulmonaryinfection,whichlaterdevelopedintotuberculosisand
becamealifelongailment,hewassentonmanysmalltripstotakethefreshair.Stevensoncastthesetherapeuticjourneysinapositivelight:theywereexcusesto
explorenewplacesandtowriteaboutthem.Bythetimeheenteredcollege,hewasalreadyanavid,andpublished,writer.Althoughhestudiedlawandengineeringat
EdinburghUniversity,therecanbenomistakinghistruelove:travel.
WecandivideStevensonstravelliteratureintothreecategoriesaccordingtowheretheactiontakesplace:inEurope,inNorthAmerica,andintheSouthSeas.While
there

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aremanythematicandstylisticstrandsthatremainconstant,hisworkmaturedconsiderablyoverthecourseofhislife.Hisearlierphasesareanchoredindefacto
descriptionsandaccounts,whereashislaterperiodsarewildlyimaginativeandmoreevocativethanrealistic.AlsonotethatitoftentookStevensonadecadeormore
topublishhisaccounts.Thissuggestsahighlycrafted,revisionarywritingprocess:whileheobviouslymadecopiousnotesandsketches,hispublishedworkisedited,
polished,andarrangedformaximumentertainmentandemotionaleffect.HisoeuvreisindeedvastandnotlimitedtotravelliteratureTheStrangeCaseofDr.Jekyll
andMr.Hyde(1886)beingthemostfamousexample.Forthesakeofspace,onlysomeofhisfinerworksoftravelwritingarelistedhere.
InlandVoyage(1878)narratesatourofthewaterwaysofBelgium,France,andGermany.Inhiscanoe,alwaysingoodspiritsinspiteofconstantdifficulties,
Stevensonhasampletimetoobserveandtomuse.Asaresult,thetaleisasmuchabouthisreveriesandimpressionsasitisaboutspecificpeopleandplaces.Although
atravelogue,itreadsmorelikeanovel:ourprotagonistundergoesadevelopmentofcharacterasthebookproceeds.Insteadofstrictlychroniclinghisdays,Stevenson
writesinvignettesthatmostlyamuseanddelight.Amasterattellingtaleswithdrama,timing,andexactlyenoughdetailtoensurecredibilitywithoutweighingthestory
down,Stevensoncapturesthesensationsoflightness,freedom,andexpectationthataretheprincipalalluresoftravel.
TravelswithaDonkeyintheCvennes(1879)findsStevensonagainoptingforalternativetravelthroughruralFrance.Ostensibly,thetriprepresentedanothercure
forhisTB.StevensonsoughttocampformonthsamidthecrispmountainairoftheAlpsandin

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otherpartsofsouthernFrance.Ahighlysubjective,oftenveryfunnyaccountofaratherslowandawkwardjourney,TravelswithaDonkeydisplaysStevensonathis
jovial,goodhumoredbest.Fascinatedbypeopleandtheircustoms,manners,andquirks,Stevensondelightsinstayingweeksinbackwaterhamlets,bafflingthelocals.
OfavillagecalledMonastier,wherehespentamonth,Stevensonwrites:inthislittlemountaintown...theyallhate,loathe,decry,andcalumniateeachother.Except
forbusinesspurposes,ortogiveeachotherthelieinatavernbrawl,theyhavelaidasideeventhecivilityofspeech....InthemidstofthisBabylonIfoundmyselfa
rallyingpointeveryonewasanxioustobekindandhelpfultothestranger(Fussell417).Pageafterpage,Stevensonsaccountisanendearingblendofobservations
andamusingreactionstoallhesaw.Inthisregard,thestoryisasmuchaboutthenarratorasitisabouttheFrench.
InthistaleStevensonalsoemploysawonderfulconceitanextendedmetaphorthatlikenstwoseeminglydissimilarthings,usuallyoneconcreteandonemoreabstract:
namely,whileitistruethatthenarratordoesindeedpurchaseadonkeyashiscompanionandaid,wecometoseethatournarratorhimselfmaybedonkeylikeinhis
stubbornnessandobstinacy.Ashelearnstocajole,command,andloadhisbeast,wecanchuckleasweseehimlearningtocontrolhimselfaswell.Hemustlearna
decidedlydifferentwayoflifeinthehills,andjustasforhisdonkey,itoccasionallytakesacroptoteachthelesson.
In1879,StevensonsetofffortheUnitedStates,firstsailingtoNewYorkandthentakingthetrainacrossthecountrytoCalifornia.Thestoryofhisjourneyistoldin
TheAmateurEmigrant(1895).Fromthecrampedshipscabinstotherattling,smoky,noisytraincarriage,thejourneyisdecidedlyunromanticanddownrightpainful.
Mingledwithpersonalnarrativearenumerousdetailsaboutthehistoryoftherailroads,customs,andtravelprotocol.PerhapsoneofStevensonslessinteresting
stories,itremainsfascinatingforitshistoricaldetails.AsthisjourneyoccurredbeforeStevensonmetwithfameandfortune,heidentifieswiththepoorimmigrantshe
meets,manyofwhomareonjourneysofhopeandexpectation.Amidoptimisticsqualor,StevensonobservesAmericathroughthewindow.Uponarrival,hefindsa
landoframbunctiousandunpredictablebehavior.AshissomewhatrefinedEuropeanmannersscrapeagainstthewaysoftheOldWest,avarietyofembarrassingand
comicalsituationsoccur.AcrossthePlains(1892),alsopublishedyearsafterthisexperience,isanotherofStevensonsbooksthatdrawsdeeplyonthematerial
gatheredinAmerica.
StevensonhadfollowedhisfiancetoAmericatheymarriedandsettledforseveralyears.Inadditiontohisbooks,Stevensonconcentratedduringthisperiodon
shorterstories,essays,andpoems,manyofwhichwerepublishedandreceivedwithgreatpraise.Infact,hisworksbeganearningenoughmoneytosupporthim.A
numberofsmallertexts,mostlyautobiographical,werepublishedinavolumecalledVirginibusPuerisque(1881).ThisperiodalsosawthepublicationofThe
SilveradoSquatters(1883),astoryaboutCalistogaandthestrangecongregationoffortuneseekers,travelers,andwanderersheencounteredthere.Hopingtostrike
silverinthelocalmineandfindingaharshnaturalenvironmentinstead,theearlypioneersoftheWestwhoinhabitthisstoryprovideapictureofrelentlessdetermination.
TheNewArabianNights(1882)similarlyhighlightsthebehaviorandadventurementalityoftheAmericanWildWest.ComparedtotheOldWorld,Americawas
exotic,magical,andfullofexcitementsuchastarkdifferencepropelledStevensonsimaginationtogreatheights.
BythetimeStevensonreturnedtoGreatBritainintheearly1880s,hehadbeenworkingonwhatisperhapshisfictionalmasterpieceforyearsfinally,in1883,
TreasureIslandwaspublishedinbookform.Partromance,partadventuretale,thisnovelisoftenlabeled

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travelliterature.Inmanyways,itis.JimHawkinsnarratesthestoryofhisassociationwithanoldpiratewhohasamapdescribingthewhereaboutsofCaptainFlints
buriedtreasure.JiminadvertentlyoutwitstheevilpiratePewandhisgangtosecurethemap,whichhepromptlygivestoSquireTrelawneyandDr.Livesey.Thethree
setoffinsearchoftreasure.Throughvariousadventures,battles,andobstacles,nottheleastofwhichisarchnemesisLongJohnSilver,theyfindthebooty.
Theelementsoftravelliteratureinthisnovelareseveral.First,thestarkcontrastbetweenthepirateslifeandaBritishboyslifecausesJimtoreflectonbothstates.
Second,thetreasure,ordestination,isnotallthatimportantinstead,itistheexcuseforagoodadventure.Assuch,thejourneyitselfcontainsthevaluenotto
mentionthebulkoftheexcursion.Third,travelandadventureteachgreatlessons.Alongtheway,Jimlearnsabouthonor,trust,fidelity,andcompassion:theseare
the(ideal)lessonsofexperience.ThestatusofTreasureIslandasaclassicoftravelliteraturethusseemswelldeserved.
By1888,Stevensonhadmovedagain,thistimetotheSouthPacific.Afteranextensivetour,hesettledinSamoa,wherehediedsuddenlyin1894.Hewasburiedatop
amountain,andtothisdayhisgraveremainssomethingofaculttouristattraction.Duringhislateryears,hecontinuedtowritenovels,essays,andpoetryaswellashis
constanttravelogues.
IslandNightsEntertainments(1893)andIntheSouthSeas(1896)telltalesofStevensonsadventuresfrom1888to1892.Thesecollectionsoftalesrepresenta
ratherarbitraryassortmentofunconnectedstoriesaboutHawaii,Tahiti,theMarshallIslands,theGilbertIslands,andAustralia.Isuspectheselectedandcompiled
theseparticularstoriesfortheirdramaticappealandjollytone.Asatrader,traveler,andseekerofstories,Stevensonwanderedfarandwideovertheislands.
Sometimesengagingnatives,othertimescolonialists,theseworkspainttheSouthPacificasawonderfullyexcitingandhospitableregion.Perhapsthemostsignificant
valueofthesetextsistheelegantwayinwhichtheybalancehumanpersonalitieswithgeographicplaces:therealwaysseemstobearelationshipbetweenthecharacters
andtheislanduponwhichtheylive.AlsosignificantisthewaytheislandersbothnativesandexpatriatesregardEurope.Frequently,Stevensonisconfrontedwith
amusingandchallengingimpressionsofhishomeland.Toseeanislandking,forexample,displayhisfinemannersistoseeaparodyofEuropeanbehavior.These
marvelouslypedanticmomentsaresomeofthefinestinStevensonswritingsimplybecauseheisintellectuallynimbleenoughtolaughathisowndistortedcultural
reflection.
Inhisglorioustravelverse,Stevensondescribesmagnificentadventuresbutoftenwithasubstantivenodtotheambivalenceofleavinghome(again).InChristmasat
Sea,forexample,thenarratorisinafiercesquall,iceintheriggings,andtheshipinperil.AndthoughitbeChristmas,aholidayostensiblyofspiritualsignificance,the
excitementofthemomentdrivesallotherthoughtsaway.Then,justasthevesselbreaksintocalmerseas,theperilgone,thepassengersallheavedamightybreath,
everysoulonboardbutme:ButallthatIcouldthinkof,inthedarknessandthecold,/WasjustthatIwasleavinghomeandmyfolksweregrowingold(Crossley
Holland19).Evenforahearty,lifelongtraveler,thereisambivalenceintravel:whiletherewardsaregreat,sotooarethecosts.
AsStevensonhimselfobserved,WearealltravellersinwhatJohnBunyancallsthewildernessofthisworld(Fussell417).Indeed,allofhislifewasajourney.Few
travelershavemaintainedthepaceandconstantenthusiasmfornewnessthatStevensonmadeappeareffortless.Withhisbuoyantspirit,inspiteofperennialpoor
health,heprovidesuswithanexampleofpassionanddrive.Andwithhisnumerousworksofwonderfullyvivid,carefullywrought,andlovinglyrenderedtravel
literature,Stevensonoffersusaworldoftextsthatteachusofourhumanityandofourfoolishness.

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References:
Adams1988
Cox1949
CrossleyHolland1986
Fussell1987
Harvey1967
Rugoff1960
STRAITOFMAGELLAN
ThenarrowpassagebetweenthesoutherntipofSouthAmericaandTierradelFuegoiscalledtheStraitofMagellan.Exploringthisintricateanddangerouslycomplex
seriesofchannels,FerdinandMagellanfinallyfoundanavigablesequencein1520andthusbestoweduponithisname.Uponreachingtheopenseaandfindingitcalm,
MagellanproclaimeditPacific(peaceful,tranquil).
OneofthegreatchallengesofnavigatingaroundthetipofSouthAmericaisthedifficultchoiceofroutes:bothpossibilitieshaveelementsofextremedanger.Evenwith
Magellansmap,riskingtheshallow,narrow,andconfusingstraitprovedfataltomanycaptains.Alternatively,roundingtheferociousCapeHornsouthofTierradel
Fuegomeantenduringmonumentalseas,frequentstorms,andviciouswinds.
Insubsequentcenturiesnavigationchartsimprovedconsiderably,andtheStraitofMagellanbecamethepreferredroute.However,anewperilaroseintheseventeenth
century:buccaneers.Themazeofchannelsandcalmwaterwastheperfectsettingformaraudingpiratestoambushtradingshipsandthenescape.Heavycargoships
andeventhelargegalleons(warships)couldnotmaneuveraswellasthesmaller,morenimblepiratevessels.HencetheStraitofMagellanbecametreacherousonce
againasthesiteofmanygreatbattles.
Seealso:
CapeHornMagellan,Ferdinand
References:
OxfordAtlasofExploration1997
SWIFT,JONATHAN
OneofthegreatesttalentsofJonathanSwift(bornIrish,English,16671745)wastobemanythingsatonce.Soitiswithhiswriting:hisgreatworkscanbereadfrom
variousvantagepointswithequallysatisfyingresults.Thus,althoughheisknownasasatirist,apoliticalpundit,andaclergyman,wemightalsoreadhimasoneofthe
finestoftravelwriters.Hismostfamouswork,GulliversTravels(1726),isalsoarguablyoneofthefinestpiecesoftravelliteratureoftheeighteenthcentury.
Throughouthislife,SwiftwastornbetweenDublin,hishome,andLondon,thecenterofhisliterary,political,andecclesiasticalcareers.Hispersonaltravelswerefew
andnotparticularlyadventurous,butbetweenthesecitieshejourneyedmanytimes.Justasanyofthegreattravelers,Swiftkeenlyobservedthesetwosites,often
alternatingbetweenbeingtheinsiderandtheoutsider.Indeed,hisstrangestatusasneither(orboth)IrishandEnglish,atatimeofintenserivalryandantagonism
betweenthetwo,isafascinatingstoryinandofitself.Foravarietyofreasons,Swiftwasabletocritiquebothplacesandpoliticswithequalease.
Swiftsnumerouspublicationsdelveintoawiderangeofsubjects,butamongthemajorityofthemthereisacommonality:socialsatire.Repeatedly,Swiftattacked
socialbehavior,politicaldealings,foreignpolicy,andeducationwithhiscuttingwitandincisivesatirictalesinshort,societywashistarget.
Hissingularworkoftravelfiction,andtoadegreetravelsatire,isGulliversTravels.Onapurelyformallevel,hetookthetravelnarrativeanambiguousformthat
couldbeeitherfactorfictionandtoyedwithit.ToEuropeanaudiencesoftheeighteenthcentury,exotictravelaccountsoftheSouthPacific,Africa,andthe
Americasprovidedanincreasinglyshockingandastoundingsourceofwildtales.Cannibalism,strangehybridcreatures,bizarrerituals,andsexualimmodestywerethe
stockandtradeofpopulartravelstoriesoftheday.SwiftplaysoffthistraditionbyanchoringGulliverinthealmostplausibleandthenpushinghimoffintotherealmof
thesatiricallyimpossible.
Withhischaracteristicgoodhumorandenergeticwit,Swiftfabricatedatextthatcouldnotbecategorized.Muchofitwas

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thoughttohavebeenpartlyorwhollytrue.Debatesragedaroundthetext,astheyoftendidaroundSwiftswriting.HisdeftparodyofformandthemeleftSwifts
contemporaryreadersoffbalance:torightthemselves,theyhadeithertoacceptthetaleastrueortorejectitasenchantingfantasy.Eitherway,tothisday,theutopian
talehasbeenswallowedonsomelevel:therationalityoftheculturesthatGullivervisitsmakestoomuchsensetobedeniedentirely.
Thestoryisfairlycomplex.LemuelGulliver,doctoronasailingship,narrateshistaleofadventure.Hisvoyagesarepresentedastraveloguesthatread,byandlarge,
verymuchlikesomanyotherrealaccounts.ThesejourneystakehimtofourseparateplacesLilliput,Brobdingnag,Laputa,andHouyhnhnmlandeachofwhich
teachesGulliveranewlesson.Perhapsunrealistically,eachadventureiswrittenasaindividualexcursionframedbyareturntotheship.
ThefirstpartofthebookintroducesthecharacterofGulliverandsetshimquicklyofftosea.Promptly,heisshipwreckedandfindshimselfasurvivorinLilliput,the
inhabitantsofwhichareameresixinchestall.Everythingphysicalisscaleddowninsizebutasthoughtocompensatefortheirphysicalstature,theLilliputiansare
hugelypompousandselfimportant.Theseirritableandquerulousfolkareconstantlybickering,squabbling,andfightingoverthemosttrivialofmatters.Asaresult,
Gulliverdeemsthemaridiculouspeople.Throughout,therearemultipleveiledreferencestoEnglishandIrishissuesthatmark

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Lilliputasasatire.Indeed,bymakinghisreaderslookatafoolishforeignrace,Swifthasmadethemalsolookinthemirror.
Incontrast,giantspopulateBrobdingnag.Accidentallyleftontheshoreofthisland,GulliverfindsheretheinverseofLilliput.Heassumesthatbecausethenativesare
gigantic,theymustbebrutesinstead,theyprovetobepreciselytheopposite.InthissectionGulliverismadetotellthekingallaboutthemanners,customs,and
politicalstructureofEurope.Whendescribedandcritiquedbytheking,thefamiliarwaysofEuropeseemlaughablypettyandunthinkablystupid.ProclaimsHis
MajestyattheendofGulliversaccount,Icannotbutconcludethebulkofyournativestobethemostperniciousraceoflittleodiousverminthatnatureeversuffered
tocrawluponthesurfaceoftheearth(Swift2095).Onceagain,observingtheforeigncausesGulliver,andSwiftsreaders,toreflectinwardly.
GulliversnextdestinationisLaputa,afloatingislandfilledwithwisemen.Thesewisemenscientists,philosophers,historians,andthelikeprove,ofcourse,tobe
fools.TheirtheoriesandideasprovideahilariousmockeryofmanyofSwiftscontemporaries.Thewisemenaresoenthralledbytheirstudiesthattheyhaveno
conceptionofthepracticaldetailsofdailylife.Theirabsurdexperiments,irrationalconclusions,anduniversalmiserymakeLaputadecidedlydistastefultoGulliver.
Finally,ourprotagonistsailstoHouyhnhnmland,wheretheeponymousHouyhnhnmsandYahoosdwell.Theformerarehorseswithhumanintellectthelatterare
humanbodieswiththeintellectofbeasts.Gulliverassumesphysicalformtobeanindicationofintellectualcapacity,thusheisshockedtofindhisexpectationsfrustrated
bythereverse.Whatappeartobehorsesaredeeplylogical,compassionate,andinquisitivecreatures.Inaword,theHouyhnhnmsareexemplaryintheirhumanistic
rationality.Incontrast,whatappearstobehumanturnsouttobebase,vile,cruel,andbrutish.UglyandselfishdesiresandpassionsdrivetheYahoos.Thisconfusion
sendsGulliverintoagreatdepressionofselfdoubt,forhehastowonderwhatheis.WhenheisexpelledbytheHouyhnhnms,hefindsthatadeepandintractable
misanthropydominateshim.
Afterallissaidanddone,bothGulliverandSwiftsreadershavelearnedfromtheforeign.Gulliverisaruinedmanwhocannotreturntohishomebecauseitistoogrim
andhorribleafterwhathehasseen.Hisexposuretothewildlyexotichaschangedhisperceptionofthefamiliar.Similarly,readershavebeenmadetoreflectontheir
social,intellectual,andindividualstructure.
Throughtheseadventures,Swiftsdetailsdisguisethetextastravelliterature.Notationoffloraandfauna,preciseobservationsanddescriptionsofhishosts,andthe
framestoryofGulliverbeingashipsurgeononajourneywiththesetaleshislettershomeallsuggestatruetaleoftravel.Andwhilethevariousraceshemeetsareodd
indeed,theyarenotsoexaggeratedastobeentirelyunbelievable.Wethereforereadthetaleasatravelogue,acceptingthefantasyofstrangeandwondrousracesin
farflungplaces.Swifthascaughtuswithhiscraft,andwebelievetheillusion.
Theresultisabitterandwrycritiqueofthefollyofhumanity.Foolish,brutish,irrational,andendlesslycorruptible,mankindappearsabungledmistake.Ifthesearethe
lessonsthatGulliversTravelspresentsitsreaders,wehaveassuredlybeentakenonawildjourneyintoselfreflectionandanalysisofwhatitistobeenlightened
andcivilized.
References:
Fussell1987
Harvey1967
Swift1987

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T
TATCHELL,FRANK
AmostlyunknownEnglishvicar,FrankTatchell(fl.1920)composedasingleratherinterestingtravelbook.Hisbookoftraveladvice,titledTheHappyTraveler:A
BookforPoorMen(1923),isadelight.AlthoughhelivedinSussex,judgingfromhistext,hemusthavewanderedfarandwide.Aboveall,Tatchelldescribestravel
asaformoflearning:fromtheexperienceoftravel,onecanlearnvolumes.
Ashistitlesuggests,Tatchellwasanadvocateoftravelingonthecheap.Forhim,travel,motion,andexperienceweresimplydifferentfacetsofthesameexperience.
Fullofsomewhatdubioustipsforthenearlydestitutetraveler,thistextamusesforitsenthusiasm.Whetherprofferingadviceastohowtothwartstraydogsor
explainingthefineriesofditchcamping,Tatchellprovidesararevoicefortheimpoverishedwanderer.Forhim,tourismwithitshotels,servants,andprivatecarsis
nottravelatallitisonlyunderduressthatatravelercanengageaforeignculture.
References:
Newby1985
TAYLOR,JOHN
KnowninhisdayasthewaterpoetbecauseheworkedasawatermanontheThamesRiver,JohnTaylor(English,15801653)supplementedhiswagesbywriting
verse.Eventually,theversecaughttheearofBenJonson,whosponsoredTaylorsliteraryefforts.Belovedforhisbawdyandenergeticrhymes,hebegantopublish
pamphlets.Thusencouraged,Taylormadeaseriesofjourneysinordertowriteaboutthem:indeed,thestatedobjectiveoftheadventureswastoproducetextsabout
thejourneys.
Overtheyearshepublishedafairnumberofworks,whichhecollectedandpublishedasAlltheWorkesofJohnTaylor,theWaterPoet(1630).Thisvolume
containsavarietyofvoyagingtales.AmongthebestareThePennilessPilgrimage(1618),whichtellsofTaylorstrekfromLondontoEdinburghonfoot,and
TaylorsTravelsfromLondontoPrague,whichchronicleshislengthyvoyagetopaytributetothequeenofBohemia.Inallofhiswork,Taylordemonstratesan
acuteeyefordetailanddifference.
Quirky,daft,andbold,Taylorsadventuresareindeedremarkable.Combinedwithhisconsiderabletalentasapoet,Taylorstalesmakeforinterestingtravelliterature.
Itremainsaconsiderableachievementtohavesurvivedsuchadventuresandtohaveretoldtheminclear,cleanverse.Inaddition,Taylorcanbenotedasanuncommon
voiceofalesseducatedtravelerwhoattempted,tothebestofhisability,tocaptureobjectivelywhatheobserved.
References:
CrossleyHolland1986
Harvey1967
THACKERAY,WILLIAMMAKEPEACE
WilliamMakepeaceThackeray(English,18111863)maybewellknownasaVictoriannovelist,butmuchofhisearlycareerwasdevotedtotravelwriting.Evenhis
greatestnovelsVanityFair,HenryEsmond,andBarryLyndoncontainsignificantremnantsofhisearlywanderingandechoesofhisconvictionthatrestlessness
encourageschange.ForThackeray,motionsignaledtransition,forbetterorforworse.Inhislifeasinhiswriting,movingfromoneculturetoanother

Page204
providedanoutwardmanifestationofpsychologicalandemotionalchanges.
BorninCalcuttaintothefamilyofanEnglishcivilservant,Thackeraybeganhislifefromaforeignperspective.PerhapshisforeignearlyyearscausedEnglandalwaysto
seemoddtohim:oftenhefoundmuchofhislifeinBritainmaddening.Whenhisfatherdied,thefamilyreturnedtoEngland,andThackeray,agesix,wassenttothe
bestschools.HerefusedtoapplyhimselfatCambridgeUniversityandleftwithoutadegreeinordertotravelinEuropewithsomefriends.Thistripseemstohave
inspiredhimtowrite.
Anaccomplisheddraftsmanaswellaswriter,Thackeraysubmittedsomeofhissketchesandessaysforpublication.In1836,hehadsomedrawingsaccepted,anda
numberofsmallsuccessesfollowed.HemovedtoParistobecomeacorrespondentbutfoundhimselfuncomfortabletheretoo.Nonetheless,hewroteTheParis
Sketchbook(1840)duringthisuneasytime.Itcontainsdrawingsandcommentaryaboutthelifestyle,sights,manners,andfashionsoftheFrenchcapital.
HisnextjourneywastoIreland.TheresultsofthisexpeditionweredisappointinglysimilartohisParisexperiment:hefoundIrelandlessthanheexpected,buthewrote
abook,againcontainingdrawingsandcommentary,called,unimaginatively,TheIrishSketchbook(1843).Nevertheless,inconjunctionwithhisfiction,these
sketchbookssoldandwerereceivedcourteouslybycritics.TheyremaininterestingasaninsightintoThackeraysownunstableperiod:thethingshenoticesand
commentsuponarequitetelling.
Withhisrisingsuccess,Thackeraygainedgreaterconfidenceandthustookmoreliterarychances.Hisgreatworksunfoldedratherquicklythereafter.Stillrestless,he
sailedtoAthens,Constantinople,Jerusalem,andCairoin1844.OnthistriphewrotetheextremelyinterestingNotesofaJourneyfromCornhilltoGrandCairo
(1846).Itisinthistextthathefinallyuseshissignificantliterarytalentstowritetravelliterature.Althoughthisworkwascomposedasasequenceofnotesandvignettes,
Thackerayfinallyescapestherigidconfinesofsimpleobservationtodelveintointerpretationandamoreevocativestyle.Hebeginstoplaywithmajorissueslike
cynicism,difference,andthedisappointmentresultingfromfrustratedexpectations(oftenwhathefoundwhenhetraveled).Continuingwithhispatternofsketchbooks,
thisoneisillustratedwithhisoriginaldrawingsaswell.
Inadditiontohisnovelsandtraveltales,Thackerayisalsonotedforhispoetry.Anumberoffineexampleshavebeenanthologizedandreprinted,perhapsthebest
amongthembeingTheBalladofBouillabaisse.ThepoemtellsofatravelingnarratorwhorevisitshisfavoritehauntinParis,asmallhotelthatservessublime
bouillabaisse.Thereturntoafamiliar,yetstillforeign,placeisoftencauseforconflictedemotionsindeed,inmemorypleasantthingshaveawayofbecoming
impossiblynice.Findingthatthe

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proprietorhasdied,thenarratorlamentstheswiftpassageofyearsandtheimpossibilityofrelivingfondmemories.Dispiritedatthenews,hesinksintohisrecollections.
Tohishappysurprise,thenewcookssoupprovestobedifferentbutremarkablypleasantnonetheless.Whatcouldhavebeenasomberpoemaboutlossturnsoutto
beacelebrationofthenew.Tobesure,itistravelthatprovidesthesettingandtheframeforthislesson.
ThethemesoftravelliteraturearemostapparentinThackeraystravelsketches,butinhisnovels,aswellasinhislife,travelplaysacrucialrole.Mostoften,travel
openshiseyesnotsomuchtothenatureoftheforeigner,buttohisownstateofmind.ItisthisselfreflectivelearningthatmarksThackeraysworkastravelwriting.
References:
CrossleyHolland1986
Harvey1967
Newby1985
THEROUX,PAUL
PaulTheroux(American,1941)hasbeenoneofthedominantvoicesintravelliteraturesincethepublicationofhisfirsttravelbookin1975.Oftendeemedpost
touristicbecauseofhisemphasisonthetravailoftravel,heisamongthemostentertainingandsophisticatedofthecontemporarytravelwriters.Keenlyawareofthe
historyoftravelliterature,Therouxoftenplayswithmanyofthecanonicaltravelauthorsbyborrowingsomeoftheirmannerisms,writingstyles,textualstructures,or
destinations.Hisoutputhasbeenvastbutofconsistentlysuperiorquality.
Afairlyordinary,middleclassupbringingledtotheusualsoulsearchingincollege.Aftergraduation,stillunsureofwhathewantedtodo,Therouxmadeajourneyto
Africa.Thisjourneyinspiredhimtowrite,andhepublishedseveralinterestingpiecesofreportageinvariousmagazinesandnewspapers.Thetravelbughadbittenhim,
butfreelancingasayoungjournalistprovedtobethefasttracktopoverty.HejoinedthePeaceCorpsandseemedtolikeitwellenough,butherefusedtostiflehis
politicalopinions.Particularly,hevociferouslyprotestedtheU.S.involvementinVietnamafterseveralwarnings,thePeaceCorpsexpelledhim.
TeachingEnglishseemedanaturaloption.From1968to1971,hetaughtinSingaporeanddevotedhissparetimetotravelandwriting.Thisprovedtobetherecipefor
success.HecontinuedtoexploreAsiafarandwide,gatheringideasforhisfirstbestsellingtravelogue,TheGreatRailwayBazaar.HemovedtoEnglandin1972to
writefulltimeandtolivewithhisfamily.
ForTheroux,itisunthinkabletowritesimplyfromimagination.Instead,hewritesofwhatheknowshisnovelsareautobiographicalinthattheyrecordrealexperiences
butnovelisticinthattheyarecomposed,edited,andpolishedformaximumliterarypunch.Afterhisfirsthandfulofsuccessfultravelbooks,Therouxbranchedoutintoa
varietyofdifferentnovelisticgenres,althoughinalmostallofthemtherearesubstantialelementsoftravelandalivelyarrayofexoticsettings.
TheGreatRailwayBazaar(1975)launchedTherouxscareer.Althoughwrittenasafirstpersontravelogue,thestoryreadsmorelikeanovel.Ittellsthestoryofone
mansencounterwiththelargestcontinentonearth.Alongthisepicrailwayodyssey,Therouxvividlyevokesapictureoftravelasdecidedlydistinctfromtourism.
Ratherthanmakingtheusualcodifiedobservationsoftouristattractionsanddescribingthesuperficialtraitsofthelocals,Therouxdevelopshischaracterswith
considerablecare.FromasequenceoffamousrailroutestheOrientExpress,theKhyberMail,andtheTransSiberianExpressheobservesthevastquantityof
differencetobefound.ThroughTurkey,Iran,India,SoutheastAsia,Japan,andtheSovietUnion,Therouxexperiencesthefadedgloryofonceopulentrailtravel.Ina
nodtothegreatnineteenthcenturytravelers,hefeelsnostalgiafortheeleganttraincarsandstationsof

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old.Indeed,theslownessofrailtraveldelightsTheroux:onlyinslowtransitionscanonenotemanyofthesubtlechangesthatoccurculturally,geographically,and
emotionally.
Throughoutthestory,Therouxsfocusisonpeople.Neveronetosugarcoathisexperiences,heseemsjustascomfortablecritiquingaspraising.Perhapsthisisone
aspectofhisinsistencethatheisatraveler,notatourist:whereasthetouristisinclinedtogusheffusively,thetravelerwouldrathertellastorythatbalancesthegood
withthebad.Oftenindulgentlywild,asthoughlookingforagreatstory,Therouxtakesanumberofmoderaterisks.Drugs,contraband,prostitutes,anddealingswith
pettycriminalsrecurrepeatedly.Atitsheart,aswithallpuretravelliterature,TheGreatRailwayBazaarismostlyaboutitsnarrator.Thevarietyofthingsthatannoy
orevenoutragehim,thenumerousfabricatedidentitiesheassumes,andthedevelopmentthatheundergoesmakethestoryanovelaboutatravelerratherthan
observationsofasequenceofplaces.Intheend,thenovelitselfreflectsTherouxsflaggingenergy:initstone,language,andscope,thenovellosessteamasthejourney
windsdown.
TheOldPatagonianExpress(1979)describesTherouxsnextgreatrailwayexcursion.InsteadofAsia,hetacklestheAmericas.FromBostontosouthernArgentina,
Therouxridestherailsagain.Predictably,heencountersamyriadoffascinatingcharactersandplentyofdifficulties.Hisincisiveobservationsregardingtheconsiderable
effortoftravelareatoncehumorousandalarming.Thevastquantityoftimethisjourneytakesallowsthenarrativetoflowatagentleandeasypacesomefinditabit
tooslow.Asinhisearlierwork,Therouxtellshisstoryasheseesit:nothinginthisbookiswhitewashedinordertomakeitpleasant.TravelforTherouxishardwork,
anintegralpartofwhichisprolongedobservationandkeepingawrittenaccount.
RidingtheIronRooster(1988)describesTherouxsrailwayvoyagethroughChina.Withhisadventurousspiritandrichprose,hehasproducedafascinatingstudyof
theordinarypeoplesChina.HiscommentaryrangesfromtheculturalrevolutiontoMaoTsetung,fromthestoicperseveranceofChinesefarmerstothecurious
tokensofWesterncapitalismvisibleinthecities.MuchofthisstudyisovertlydirectedatwonderingnotwhatChinacanlearnfromtheWest,butwhattheWestcan
learnfromChina.ThisthemeofculturalcrosspollinationisrarelyexpressedsoopenlyperhapsitreflectsTherouxsownopennesstoforeignideasandways.Instark
contrasttothisoverarchingtheme,muchofTherouxsindividualdescriptionsarehighlynegativeandcriticaloftheChinese.Whilemanyfindhimoffensively
cantankerous,Therouxalwaysattacksgenuineproblemsthatare,inmostcases,quitepossibletofix.Inthistravelbook,asinhisfirsttwo,heclearlymarkshimselfnot
asatouristseekingsimplytobeamused,butasatravelertheretolearnandtowriteastory.
TheHappyIslesofOceania:PaddlingthePacific(1992)tellsofTherouxsjourneythroughdozensofPacificislandsinakayak.HestartsinNewZealandandthen
proceedstoNewGuineafromthere,herangesfarandwide.Wandering,orratherpaddling,tomanyofthefamousSouthSeasdestinations,Therouxfollowsinthe
wakeofHermanMelville,RobertLouisStevenson,W.SomersetMaugham,LouisAntoinedeBougainville,andmanyotherfamoustravelwriters.Insteadofidealizing
theseplacesandfindingthemparadiseregained,Therouxisoftencritical.Thisislandispestridden,thefoodonthatoneisbad,everythingisdirty,thenativesare
absurdlysuperstitioustheseareonlyafewofhiscomplaints.Butratherthansimplywhining,Therouxisplayingagainstthetradition:wherehispredecessors
romanticizedtheseplaces,Therouxisdemystifyingthem.Theyarejustreal,humanplaceswithbeautyandflaws.Suchhonestyandrealismmetwithconsiderable
publiccriticism:most

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peoplewanttokeeptheseplacesmythicallypure.
Therouxsobjectiveseemstobetravelforthesakeoftravel.Tautologicalasthatsounds,itinfactrecallstheaestheticmovementsartforartssakedoctrine.The
comparisonworks:travelforTherouxisaworthyendinitself.Oneresultisthatthefocusshiftsawayfromtheplaceanditspeopletotheauthorandhisstrugglesto
makesenseofwhathesees.Always,Therouxsadventuresareadmirablybold,andinspiteofhiscomplaining,hedisplaysextraordinarytenacity.Hisworkblends
preciseandvividobservationoftheregionwithamorecomplexnarrativeofthenatureoftravel.Athisbest,heoffersfascinatinginsightsintothepowerofisolationand
thegruelingselfreflectionthatoccursonsuchajourney.
Inadditiontoanumberofveryfineworksofshorttravelstories,Therouxhaspublishedmanybooklengthworksthatintersectthegenreoftravelliteratureinsome
fashion.TheMosquitoCoast(1981)fictionallydepictstheadventuresofanexpatriatefatherandsoninSouthAmerica.KingdombytheSea:AJourneyaroundthe
CoastofGreatBritain(1983)isacomic,teasinglookattheBritishtheirmannersandtheirsenseofidentity.ThePillarsofHercules(1995)representsTherouxs
GrandTouroftheMediterranean,whereherevisitsmanyofthecitiesofclassictravelliterature.MyOtherLife(1996)revisitsTherouxsearlydaysinAfrica,
Singapore,andLondonasastrugglingtravelwriter.OntheEdgeoftheGreatRift(1996)containsthreeseparate,whollyfictivenovelsofAfrica.Kowloon(1997)
addressesidentityissuesinthepoliticallychallengedcityofHongKong.SirVidiasShadow(1998)chroniclesTherouxsjourneyasawriter,fromhisearliestdaysof
readingtravelliteraturetohishugesuccess.
Throughouthisoeuvre(bodyofwork),Therouxplaystheforeigner,alwaysremainingdetachedandirasciblebutperfectlyobservant.Thereisalwaysagapbetween
himandthelocalswhomheencounters.Thisdistanceiswhatthetravelwriterseekstobridge,howeverartificially.Inthisregard,Therouxissuccessful,forheallows
hisreaderstohavevariousexperienceswithoutactuallysittingonatrainfor12weeks.Additionally,hisconstantawarenessoftheprocessofwritingrepresentsa
sophisticatedliterarydevice.Repeatedly,thenarratorisaskedwhatheisdoinginagivenplacehisanswer,writingabook.Thelaboroftravelproducesliterature.
Therouxrecognizesthattheworkofajourneyresultsininsightandwisdomthathecansharewithhisreaders.
Seealso:
GrandTour
References:
Fussell1987
Newby1985
THOMPSON,HUNTERS.
HunterS.Thompson(American,1935)writesastrangetypeofparodictravelliterature.Hisstoriesoftentangletravel,drugs,andlawlessnessintoahappy,illicit
bundle.Asaresult,hisnovelsarewildlypopularwithsomereadersandinfamousamongothers.Onethingissure:hisstoriestellofwanton,capricioustripswhereon
thejourneyistheobjectoftheexercise.
Intheearly1960s,Thompsonrecognizedhiswanderlust.HehadfoundmiddlingsuccessasajournalistintheStatesandapparentlyfiguredthathecouldfindequal
successinamoreinterestinglocale.ThushemovedtoRiodeJaneirotoserveasaforeigncorrespondent.Aftertwoyears,hehadpublishedjournalisticandcreative
piecesandhaddiscoveredawildstyleofliving.ManyofhistravelvignettesaretoldinhisbestsellerTheGreatSharkHunt(1962).HereturnedtoSanFrancisco
andpromptlywentundercovertowriteabooklengthexposoftheHellsAngelsmotorcyclegang.HisothermajortravelpieceisFearandLoathinginLasVegas
(1971).
TheGreatSharkHuntisaratherwhimsicaltitleforabookthathaslittletodowithfishing.Instead,thesharksarestories,someof

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whicharedangerousandmightconsumeaperson.Asareporter,Thompsonsreasonfortravelingistogathertales,writethemupinadramaticallyentertainingfashion,
andpublishthemforcash.Travelfunctionsashislabor,andwritingiswhathisstoriesareabout.ThusweseeThompsonarrivinginapoorLatinAmericanvillage:As
Icameoverthebrinkofthecliff,afewchildrenlaughed,anoldhagbeganscreeching,andthemenjuststared.HerewasawhitemanwithtwelveYankeedollarsinhis
pocketandmorethan$500worthofcameragearslungoverhisshoulders,haulingatypewriter,grinning,sweating,nohopeofspeakingthelanguage,noplaceto
stayandsomehowtheyweregoingtohavetodealwithme(Newby494).Tobesure,Thompsonisnoescapeorientedtourist,butratheratravelerreadytocoax
storiesoutofhistravelexperiences.
Similarly,inFearandLoathinginLasVegas,thepurposeofthejourneyistowrite.Thenarratorisonassignmentfromhismagazinetocoveraconvention:Iwas,
afterall,aprofessionaljournalistsoIhadanobligationtocoverthestory,forgoodorill(Thompson4).Thompsontakesarelativelytamescenarioandblowsitinto
asurrealvisionoftravelmademonstrous.Throughanoutrageouslyheavydrugandalcoholhaze,thenarratorexperienceseverypossibletravelersnightmare,from
botchedreservationstolegaltrouble.Inlieuofatouristssedateandrationalresponsetosuchadversities,Thompsonsnarratorrespondsintheworstpossibleway
(butnevergetscaught):withviolence,hysteria,anddeception.Intheend,hehastakenthemotherofallroadtrips,andthereinresidesthestory.
Thompsonstravelliteraturealsoimplicitlyrecognizestravelasthebestmeansforselfreflection.Throughtheirdifficulties,thecharactersgrowandlearnofthemselves.
WhetherinSouthAmericaortheNevadadesert,theexperienceofadifferentgeographyandastrangeculturejostlesthetravelersperspectivesufficientlytoallowhim
toseedifferently.Asapostmodernexampleoftravelliterature,Thompsonsworkbendstraditionsinoddandinterestingdirectionswithoutdiscardingthementirely.
References:
Newby1985
Thompson1971
THOREAU,HENRYDAVID
NotedessayistandphilosopherHenryDavidThoreau(American,18171862)canbeconsideredatravelwriteraswell.Whilehiswritingaddresseesmanyissues
naturalism,selfreliance,politics,andspiritualismsimultaneously,hisworksfundamentallyaretraveloguesthatdescribehisimpressionsofandresponsetovarious
locales.Indeed,forThoreau,lifeisasortofjourneyinwhichthe

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experienceofvariouspeopleandplacesencouragesselfdiscovery.Asatranscendentalistphilosopher,perhapsThoreauwouldalsohaveagreedthatspiritualgrowth
isanidealizedjourneythatbehavesverymuchlikephysicaltravel.
SeveralofThoreausworkscanwellbeseenastravelliterature.AWeekontheConcordandMerrimackRivers(1849),TheMaineWoods(1864),CapeCod
(1865),andAYankeeinCanada(1866)allcontainconsiderableelementsoftravelandexposuretoculturaldifference.Thoreausjourneyswereoccasionstolearn
andtoreflectuponthenatureofhumanity.Butithismostfamouswork,Walden(1854),thatisperhapsbestreadastravelwriting.
In1845,Thoreaubeganhisfamousexperimentwithselfreliance:hemovedintoanisolatedcabinandvowedtolivedeliberately.Fortwoyears,hemoreorless
sustainedhimselfindependently.HiselaboratedailyjournalswerethencraftedandshapedintothecollectionofreflectionsthatweknowasWalden.Itiskeytonote
thatoneoftheobjectivesofhisselfexilewastoforcehimselftowrite.Thejourneythusfunctionedasanimpetustowardliteraryproduction.
ThebooktellsofThoreaucomingtoknowhimselfinthestrangeandsilentforest.Byescapingconventionsofsociety,likeshoppingorwearingornamentalclothes,he
wasabletoreflectuponthenatureofthatsociety.Bysteppingoutsideofthefamiliar,Thoreaugainedanewperspective.Thisshiftinviewpointisthetravelers
principaltrick.Tobesure,Thoreaugivesusnumerousbeautifuldetailsofhisforeignland,yettheprimaryemphasisofhisstoryisonhowtheexperiencecausedhim
toseehimselfandhisformerlifestyleverydifferently.
Thoreausexuberantstyleofwritingandhisobviousenthusiasmforhisprojectleadtosomebreathlesslybeautifulpassages.Hisdeepaffectionfornature,labor,
idealism,andsimplicitymanifestsitselfinmostofthe18essaysofthebook.Asatravelogue,hisbookthrills,forwearegivenanaccountofanincrediblejourney
inwardtowardwhatThoreauimaginedisbestinhumanity.
References:
Hart1965
TOCQUEVILLE,ALEXISDE
HistorianandpoliticaltheoristAlexisdeTocqueville(French,18051859)maybebestknownforhisstudiesofdemocracy,politicalupheaval,andsocialstructures,
buthealsopennedtwosignificantworksoftravelliterature.Whilehisfamoushistories,LAncienrgimeetlarvolution(1856)andDeladmocratieenAmrique
(1835),werepublishedinhislifetime,Tocquevillesvastquantityofpersonaltravelnotescarefullyorganizedandrevisedwasnoteditedortranslateduntilwellinto
thetwentiethcentury.J.P.MayerandYaleUniversityPressissuedseveralvolumesofTocquevillestravelwritingin1959

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theyarepublishedinEnglishasJourneystoEnglandandIrelandandJourneytoAmerica.
Deeplyconcernedwithencouragingpoliticalfreedomandcivilrights,TocquevillemadeextensivevisitstoEnglandandIrelandinthe1830sand1840s.Hispurpose
wastocompareandtocontrasttherelativelystablepoliticsofEnglandwiththeturbulentpoliticsofFrance.Inascholarlymanner,Tocquevilledidwhatallgreat
travelersdo:hewentabroadtohelplearnofhishomeland.Whathefoundwasasystemofgovernmentthatwasarcaneandtangledupinanimmensehistory.The
commonpeoplewhomhemethadlittlesenseoftheirpracticalroleingovernmenttheparliamentariansandminorpoliticians,incontrast,hadaninflatedsenseofduty.
Asanexerciseinpreciseobservation,JourneystoEnglandandIrelandisinvaluable.NotonlydoesitprovideoneoftheenduringpicturesofBritishsocietyofthe
era,butalsoitasksnumerousprovocativeandinsightfulquestionsabouttheidealroleofgovernment.Tocquevillepossessesarareintellectualmethodologythat
balancesahighlysophisticatedtheoreticalapparatuswithsociologicaldataandrealinterviews.
Stillseekingotherperspectivesonthesamesubjects,TocquevillesetoffforAmericain1831.Hewantedtoobserveafledglingdemocracyfirsthand.Fornearlya
year,hetouredNewYork,Boston,NewOrleans,andmanypartsinbetween.HisobservationsappearinJourneytoAmerica,althoughitcontainsbutaselectionof
the14volumesheoriginallycomposed(Adams516).HisexperiencesintheUnitedStatesweredeeplymoving:manyoftheideasfromthisjourneyappearinmore
highlydeveloped,theoreticalforminhislaterpoliticalwritings.
Everthorough,Tocquevillesoughtalargesampleofimportantpersonages.Universitypresidents,SupremeCourtjudges,prominentbusinessmen,andlocalpoliticians
allappearinhisaccount.Hismethodwastoengagepeopleinanimatedandintricatediscourseessentially,Tocquevilleintervieweddozensofpeople.Notcontentto
visitonlythepowerful,healsosoughtoutformerslaves,NativeAmericans,andfarmers.Forhisbreadthofsubjects,Tocquevilleisrareandvaluable.Thetopicshe
discussedwereoftenthorny:thejusticesystem,taxation,civics,NorthversusSouthanimosity,andthebreachwithEngland.Charmingandwitty,Tocquevillehada
greatgiftforinspiringpeopletotalkabouttheirideas.Faithfully,herecordedthem.
InadditiontoTocquevillessocialandpoliticalobservations,JourneytoAmericacontainsseveralsubstantiveessaysonthenaturalsplendorandvastnessofthe
UnitedStates.Greatlyimpressedbythescaleofthecountryandbythemythofthefrontier,TocquevillemadetripsintothewildernesswithAmericanIndianguides.He
believedthatabundantwildernesshadadecidedinfluenceuponthecollectivecharacterofAmericans.
InhistravelsinAmerica,Tocquevillefoundwhathewasseeking:somethingtoinspirehopeforthefutureofdemocracy.Armedwiththisevidence,hereturnedtohis
homelandwithaclarifiedvisionofFrenchhistory.Hissubsequentpoliticalwritingowesmuchtohisobservationssomeofthemclearlyidealizedorromanticizedof
America.HisvoyagestaughthimtoseehisfamiliarFranceinaslightlydifferentlight.
Certainly,Tocquevilleisnotthemostexcitingoftravelwriters,butwhathelacksinphysicaladventurehemorethanmakesupforinintellectualbrilliance.Thisbrandof
literaryandtheoreticaltravelliteratureremindsusofthesignificantimpacttravelcanhaveonbothindividualsandpolitics.
References:
Adams1988
Bent1965
TRENCH,RICHARDCHENEVIX
AstheAnglicanarchbishopofDublin,RichardChenevixTrench(English,18071886)hadbothgreatprivilegesandgreatpower.Aftercompletinghiseducation,he
embarkeduponthefirstofnumerousvisitsthroughout

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EuropeandtoNorthAfricathesetripswouldimpelaportionofhiswritingtowardtravel.Beyondhispoliticalandreligiousabilities,hewasapoetandanintellectual
aswell.HisworkwiththePhilologicalSocietysupportedtheprojecttomoveaheadwiththeOxfordNewEnglishDictionary.Inaddition,hehasseveralvolumesto
hisname,includingPoemsfromEasternSources(1842),TheStudyofWords(1851),EnglishPastandPresent(1855),andAlmaandOtherPoems(1865).
Whilenotamajortravelpoet,someofhispoemsareinterestingillustrations.
Gibraltar,forexample,figurestravelasatoolofselfawarenessandpatriotism.
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l

England,welovetheebetterthanweknow.
AndthisIlearnedwhen,afterwandringslong
Midpeopleofanotherstockandtongue
Iheardagainthymartialmusicblow
Andsawthygallantchildrentoandfro
Pace,keepingwardatoneofthosehugegates,
TwingiantswatchingtheHerculeanStraits.
WhenfirstIcameinsightofthatbraveshow,
Itmadetheveryheartwithinmedance,
Tothinkthatthouthyproudfootshouldstadvance
Forwardsofarintothemightysea.
Joywasitandexultationtobehold
Thineancientstandardsrichemblazonry,
Agloriouspicturebythewindunrolled.
(CrossleyHolland84)

Asallreadersaresuretonote,thispoemgusheswithpatriotismandnationalism.IngoodVictorianfashion,Englandisfiguredasthemightymother.Sheisstable,
strong,andforgivingasshewatcheshergallantchildrentoandfro.Thestateandthequeenthebodypoliticandthemonarchsbodyconflateintoasingleentity.
RememberthatTrenchiswritingduringtheheightoftheBritishEmpire,thusBritishinfluenceistrulyglobal.
YetthenarratorisnotsailinghometoGreatBritainatall.Heis,asthetitleofthepoemindicates,passingthroughtheStraitsofGibraltar.WemustrecallthatGibraltar
wasunderBritishcontrolatthetimeandwasthereforeguardedbytowers,flags,armedmen,andgates,allunderHerMajestyscontrol.Thenarratorfeelsbothpride
andasenseofsecurity.WemightreadbetweenthelinesabittoinferthathehasfeltratheralienatedinthoselandsnotunderBritishdominion.
Thekeytothepoemasaworkoftravelliteratureisinthefirstthreelines.Thenarratorsuggeststhatonlybylongwanderingsinforeignlandsdoesherecognizehow
muchheloveshismotherland(andmothertongue).Saidotherwise,byextensivelyvisitingforeignplaces,thenarratorcomestoknowhishomeand,byextension,he
comestoknowhimself.PerhapswecanseeinGibraltaramomentofclearselfrecognition,wherethenarratorrealizeswhathehaslearnedfromhistravels.Itisjust
suchanepiphanythattravelteachesusofourselvesthatmarksthispoem,tomymind,asgreattravelwriting.
References:
CrossleyHolland1986
TROLLOPE,ANTHONY
Likehismother,FrancesMiltonTrollope,AnthonyTrollope(English,18151882)wroteanenormousquantityofbooks.FamousforhisnovelsofVictorianlife,
particularlytheBarsetshireseriesandtheparliamentarycycleknownasthePallisernovels,healsowroteseveralinterestingandpraiseworthytravelbooks.Describing
hisintention,Trollopesaid,Anovelshouldgiveapictureofcommonlifeenlivenedbyhumorandsweetenedbypathos(Bent1027).Hecouldequallyhavebeen
describinghistravelliterature.
Bornintoapoorfamily,hestartedhiscareerasalowgradepostofficeofficial.Afterobservinghismothersliterarysuccess,hestartedmoonlightingasawriter.His
first

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novelwaspublishedin1847,althoughhekepthisdayjobformanyyears,evenafterhisliterarysuccessandpopularitywereconsiderable.Evidentlyamanof
extraordinaryenergy,hefoundtimebetweenhisofficework,hiswriting,andhisfairlyactivesocialscheduletomakeanumberofmajorvoyagesandjourneys.
Trollopestravelbooksaredullytitledbutquiteinterestingtoread.TheyareTheWestIndiesandSpanishMain(1859),NorthAmerica(1862),Travelling
Sketches(1866),Australia(1873),andSouthAfrica(1878).Allfivebooksarevoluminous,meticulous,andverytidilyorganized,yettheyallhavemomentsof
novelisticexcitementandimaginativeevocations.Heinsisteduponreworking,editing,andpolishinghisworkconsiderablytheresultisasuperiorliteraryquality.A
singleexamplewillservetoillustrate.IndescribingminersinSouthAfrica,hewrites,Perhapsthemostinterestingsightatthemineistheescapingofthemenfrom
theirlabouratsixoclock.Then,atthesoundofsomewelcomedgong,theybegintoswarmupthesidesclosetoeachothersheelsapparentlyaltogetherindifferentas
towhethertherebeapathorno.Theycomeasfliescomeupawall,onlycaperingasfliesnevercaperandshoutingastheycome.Inendlessstrings,asantsfollow
eachother,theymoveon(Rugoff359).
Hisfirstmajorjourneywasostensiblyinanofficialcapacity:hewaschargedwithobservingandrestructuringthepostalsystemintheWestIndies.Fromthisjourney
grewhisfirsttravelbook,TheWestIndiesandSpanishMain.Themostfactualandbusinesslikeofhistravelbooks,itcontainslengthydescriptionsofcommerce,
politics,geography,andculture.ModernreadersmaybalkatTrollopesunquestioningsenseofBritishsuperiorityandnativeincompetence.Inspiteofsomeunsavory
elements,theaccountoffersawealthofdataandinsightintotheBritishcommercial,colonial,andintellectualinterestsintheWestIndies.
WithhismotherandsomeofhissiblingsinAmerica,TrollopemadefourjourneystotheUnitedStates.HisfirstjourneycorrespondedtothebeginningoftheCivilWar,
thusmuchofthebookNorthAmericaisalucidandobjectivediscussionofboththeNorthernandSouthernpositions.Likehismother,althoughnotquitesovitriolic,
heroundlycriticizedAmericanmannersandsocialgraces.Nonetheless,heexpressesawideeyedfascinationwiththecitiesandthepeoplewhomheencountered.His
descriptionofWashington,D.C.,mostlyunderconstruction,isagreatremindertomodernAmericansofthebrevityofourhistory.Inhistravelstothefrontier,mainly
theMidwest,hefindstheexcitementandrawnessthathehadhopedtoexperience.
HissonhadimmigratedtoAustralia,causingTrollopetwicetosailthePacificOceantovisit.Australiadescribesthejourneysandhisimpressions.IfTrollopewas
criticaloftheUnitedStates,hewasdisparagingofAustralia.Withitspenalatmosphereandextremeisolation,yetitsrelativelackofexoticnatives,Australia,for
Trollope,hadlittletorecommendit.Thepossibleexceptionwasthehonestyandforthrightnesshefoundthere:unlikeAmerica,Australiahadnopretenseofbeing
civilized,innovative,orindependent.Scarcelyredeemingqualities!
Lateinhislife,TrollopefelttheneedtovisittheonlymajorBritishcolonyhehadnotseen:SouthAfrica.Histwovolumeaccount,SouthAfrica,rangesbroadlyover
thecultureandthenaturalbeautyofthecolony.Onhorsebackhecrisscrossedthesubstantialdistancesofcolony.HisinteractionwithBoerfarmersprovidesarare
glimpseattheunrestthatwouldleadtotheBoerWar(18991902).Withgreatexcitement,hedescribesthediamondmines,thewildlife,andthepositiveinfluenceof
Britishruleonthenatives.Insomeways,hislasteffortishisbest:hetakesmoreliterarychancesandbouncesmorewildlythaneverbeforeamonghisimagesandhis
themes.

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Inadditiontohisactualtravelaccounts,TrollopewroteamagnificentbookcalledTravellingSketchesthatcanbestbedescribedasaseriesofessaysonaspectsof
travel.Inthisbookheaddressesthebenefitsanddifficultiesoftravelingalone,obstaclestofemaletravelers,reasonsfortravel,tipsforemigratingfamilies,travelas
entertainment,asadventure,andaseducation,andfinally,inanessaysotitled,TouristsWhoDontLikeTheirTravels.Awonderfulprimerthatsoldquitewell,it
providesuswithaglimpseofTrollopestheoriesontravel.
Throughouthistravelwriting,Trollopemaintainedacomparativestance:inallfivebookshisscrutinyofhisdestinationisincomparisontoBritain.Inthisregard,travel
taughtTrollopetoknowhishomeland.Inthecolonieshewasconfrontedoftenwithunpleasantinterpretationsoffamiliarideas,manners,andcustoms.Trollopehadan
openenoughmindtoseehisownsocietyreflectedinthecolonies,notalwaysinthebestlight.Furthermore,forhisorderlystructuresandwellcraftedstyle,Trollope
remainsoneofthegreatliteraryreportersofforeigntravels.
Seealso:
Trollope,Frances
References:
Bent1965
Harvey1967
Rugoff1960
TROLLOPE,FRANCES
Frances(neMilton)Trollope(English,17801863)hasmanyclaimstofame.Authorof40oddbooks,familybreadwinner,andmothertoequallyprolificVictorian
authorAnthonyTrollope,FrancesTrollopeinspireswithherenergyandstrength.Shealsowroteseveralfamousworksoftravelliterature.
FrancesTrolloperefusedtoconformtothegenderrolesadvocatedbyherera.Findingherfamilyreducedtopoverty,shebeganhermonumentalliterarycareer,
eventuallysupportingthemcomfortablywithherwriting.Herearlynovelstendtowardsentimentalityandsensationalism,andtheyhadcorrespondinglyweaksales.It
wasonlyaftershesetouttoobserveandreflectupontheworldthatherwritingbecamepopularandmoreliterary.
AfterathreeyearstintintheUnitedStates,shepublishedhermasterpieceoftravelliterature,DomesticMannersoftheAmericans(1832).Thebookmetwithwildly
mixedreviews:theAmericanstookgreatoffenseatherrepresentation,whereastheEnglishfounditwonderfullysound.Suchragingdebateaboutherworkassuredher
aleveloffamethatmadehersubsequentdozenbooksbestsellers.
Neveronetosoftpedalherideas,Trollopespokeforcefullyandearnestlyonawiderangeofsubjects.Agreatcriticofpuritanicalprudery,anadvocateofwomens
rights,avehementantislaveryactivist,andasophisticatedtheoristofdemocracy,shecourtedcontroversywithherwriting.SaidMarkTwainofherDomestic
Manners,Sheknewhersubjectwell,andshesetitforthfairlyandsquarelywithoutanyifsandandsandbuts.Shedeservedgratitudebutitisanerrortosupposeshe
gotit(Fussell295).
WhileintheUnitedStates,shelivedforalmosttwoyearsinCincinnati,theninasmallfrontiertown.Therestofthetimeshetraveledwidelyandcompiledawonderful
selectionoftalesandreflections.HerdescriptionsofNiagaraFalls,NewOrleans,andWashington,D.C.,areparticularlystrong.
HerCincinnatiwritingsaredeeplycriticalofAmericanbehavior.ShebeginsthesectionofDomesticMannersonthiscitybyproclaiming,Ineversawanypeople
whoappearedtolivesomuchwithoutamusement....IamtemptedtobelievethatastrangerfromthecontinentofEuropewouldbeinclined,onfirstreconnoitering
thecity,tosupposethattheplacesofworshipwerethetheatresandcafsoftheplace(Fussell296).Astonishedatthepuritanicalobsessionwithappearingmodest,
pious,andchaste,Trolloperailsagainstthelackofdiscourse,culture,andintellectualfreedom.Tohermind,suchoppressivereligiousobsessionswereexactlywhat

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theearlyAmericanshadfledfrominEuropetorecreatethemintheNewWorldseemstoherabominable.
Americawassupposedtobealandofsocialinnovationandfreshideas,yetTrollopefindsittobeasstagnantandexclusionaryasEurope.Insteadoffinding
townspeoplebuildingasocialnetworkaroundavarietyofinstitutionsschool,townhall,neighborhood,etc.shewasdisappointedtodiscoverthatthechurchstill
dominatedAmericansocialaffinities,asitdidinEurope.Furthermore,whilegirlscouldbeeducatedandgranteddiplomas,unlikeinEurope,theywerenotallowedto
doanythingwiththeireducation.WhiletherhetoricofAmericainsisteduponsocialequalityandadegreeofclassmobility,Trollopefindslittletodemonstratethese
ideasinpractice.
Othernotableobservationsinthebookincludeherscathingattackagainstthetreatmentofslaves,herlamentatthelackofrefinedmannersandtaste,andher
enthusiasmatthemagnificentdiversityofthecountrysgeography.Althoughthetitlesuggestsasingularconcernwithdomesticspace,muchofherbookinfact
addressesthepublicandartisticspheres.CommercialhabitswereofspecialinteresttoTrollope,whoattemptedtostartasortofbazaarofEuropeangoodsin
Cincinnati.Itfailedmiserably,muchtoherchagrin.
InspiteofTrollopesenthusiasticlambastingofAmerica,onegetsthesensethathercriticismisconstructiveandcorrective.Sheimpliesthatshewantstolikethe
UnitedStatesandwantstoseetheimmenseandobviouspromiseofthisnewdemocracycometofruition.Indeed,shestrivestobefairmindedandequitableinher
perceptions.Whensomethingmeritspraise,sheeagerlygrantsitbutwhenanoccasiondeservescritique,sheisequallyeager.
Asatraveler,Trollopeunderstoodthatshewasanoutsider.Shemadeaconsiderableefforttowardrecognizingherpotentialbias.Forexample,whileonariverboat
fromNewOrleans,shortlyafterarriving,shewrites:Iknowitisequallyeasyandinvidioustoridiculethepeculiaritiesofappearanceandmannerinpeopleofa
differentnationfromourselveswemay,too,atthesamemoment,beundergoingthesameordealintheirestimationandmoreover,Iambynomeansdisposedto
considerwhateverisnewtomeasthereforeobjectionablebut,nevertheless,itwasimpossiblenottofeelrepugnancetomanyofthenoveltiesthatnowsurrounded
me(Adams511).MuchofherbookovertlycomparesAmericatoEurope,presumablywiththehopeofexchangingsomeoftheirrespectivestrengths.
Energetic,insightful,andattimesverywitty,TrollopesvisionofearlynineteenthcenturyAmericaisavaluabledescriptionofboththelargercitiesBoston,New
York,Washingtonandsmalltownlifeinafrontiertown.Shecapturesahugequantityofmaterialdetailsandprovidesaverycrediblepictureoftheera.Especially
whencombinedwithasmatteringofcontemporaryresponses,herbookrepresentsasignificantcontributiontotheliteratureoftravel.
Seealso:
Trollope,Anthony
References:
Adams1988
Fussell1987
Harvey1967
Robinson1994
TWAIN,MARK
MarkTwain(American,18351910),thepennameofSamuelLanghorneClemens,standsasoneofthemastersofliteraturehisoeuvre(orcollectivebodyofwork)
includesanumberofexamplesofinnovativeandexcitingtravelwriting.Histravelogues,socialcommentary,andtraveltalesareuniversallypraisedandappreciated.
Witty,incisive,andoftenirreverent,TwainprovidesaparticularlyAmericanvoiceforliteraturetravelorotherwise.HisimpactuponlaterwritersbothintheUnited
Statesandabroadhasbeenmonumental.

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FollowingearlydaysasaMissouriscamp,thenriverman,thenapprenticeprinter,TwainsetoutforthesomewhatWildWestofNevada.Uponarrival,hequickly
foundworksimultaneouslyasaminerandasajournalist.Sobeganhiscareerofwritingaccountsofvariousplaces,firstfornewspapersandlaterforhisbooks.In
1865,hisfirstmajorstoryappearedinprint:TheCelebratedJumpingFrogofCalaverasCounty.Afterthissuccess,Twainmadealecturetourthatonlyinspiredhim
totravelfartherandwider.
In1867,hemadehisfirstjourneytotheOldWorld,sailingtheMediterraneanandvisitinghistoricsites.ThechronicleofthisvoyagehepublishedasTheInnocents
Abroador,ThePilgrimsProgress(1869).Thebookmetwithwildapproval,sellingwellover100,000copiesinitsfirstyearsofpublication.Successwiththis
storyledhimtowriteatravelaccountofhisearlydaysasajournalistthishetitledRoughingIt(1872).AsecondtriptoEurope,thistimeanextendedstayonthe
Continent,inspiredATrampAbroad(1880).Hislasttravelbook,FollowingtheEquator(1897),describesagloballecturetourthatTwainmadein1895.Between
thesetravelbooks,Twainwrotenumerousnovels,shortstories,andessays.Whilenothismostfamousworks,Twainstravelliteraturehasanespecialcharmand
energythatmakesitamongthemostbelovedtravelwritingofalltime.
Ingeneral,Twainstravelliteratureishighlyreadable.Heemploysaheartyquantityofslang,idiom,andcoinagestodescribehisdestinations.Thestoriesaredramatic,
exaggerated,andpopulatedwithimpossiblyrichcharacters,oftencompositesofseveralpeoplewhomheactuallymet.Twainstraveloguesrelatethehistoryofa
journey,noteventbyevent,butratherinanimpressionisticandscatteredmanner.Theresultisasort

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ofrealismandbelievabilityofsettingandevents,butwiththeinclusionofcharactersthatarepurecaricature.Nonetheless,histraveltalesareprimarilyautobiographical
andwrittenfromthenarrativeperspectiveofTwainhimself.Insum,histalesareeasilyaccessibleontheinformativeordescriptivelevel,butthentheybounceinto
sarcasticoroutrageousexaggeration.Asforfocus,Twainismoreinterestedinpeoplethanplaces,andheseemsaslikelytoconcentrateonhisfellowtravelersason
thelocals.
InnocentsAbroad,Twainsfirstbooklengthtravelpiece,isinfactacompilationandreworkingofletterswrittenforavarietyofnewspapers.Steamingonaluxury
shipthroughItaly,Greece,Turkey,Egypt,andtheHolyLand,Twainfindsmorethanenoughtoamusehim.Thetextsomewhatcynicallylaughsatbothhisdestinations
andhisfellowtravelers.Twainexhibitshistrademarkirreverence,thistimetowardthegreatrelicsofantiquity.
Throughoutthetext,heberatestourismandtheherdmentalityofhisfellows.Hejestsincessantlywiththehuckstersinthetouristtradeandlaughsatthepoortourists
whoareinnocentenoughtogetdupedbyguides,innkeepers,shopowners,andevencorruptofficials.Twainsaccountdelightsinthathepokesfunatnearly
everythingbutparticularlyatculturalbehaviorsthathedoesnotunderstand.Forgoodmeasure,healsoridiculesEuropeanmannersandcustoms.Withtheirsevereawe
andoverblownsincerityastheyencounterthemostfamousruinsandresidueofancienthistory,Twainscompanionsprovideamplelaughs.
RoughingItcontinuesthesameraucousstylewithadifferentfocus:thewesternUnitedStates.TwainbeginshisjourneyinSt.Louisandheadswestwithstopsin
Nevada,Utah,andCalifornia.ThetextendswithTwainsjourneytotheSandwichIslands(nowtheHawaiianIslands),where,inreallifechronology,hisprevious
bookbegan.Onceagain,thecentralfocusofthestoryisnotonplacesthemselves,butonhowthenarratorfairlycloselymodeledonTwainhimselfrespondstohis
varietyofexperiences.
InthistaleweseeTwainattempttoliveasaminer,journalist,humorist,andwriter.Setonthefreespiritedfrontier,theadventuresareexaggeratedforeffect,asthough
topropupthemythoftheAmericanWest.FactsmeltunderTwainsobviousdesiretobeentertaining,thusthestoryismorebawdyandcomicalthanhistoricallyor
geographicallyaccurate.Nonetheless,helaudsthefrontierspiritthatencouragesamantowander.Intheend,wecanreadthestoryasataleofgrowthand
development,forthenarratorindeedshiftshispositionfromtentativeresistancetowanderingtoastrongacceptanceoftravelasagrandteacher.
ATrampAbroadmarksTwainsreturntoEurope.ItdescribesawalkingtourthroughtheBlackForest,theAlps,andnorthernItaly.Thepuninthetitlesuggeststhe
storyscontents:initsverbform,trampistotrekorwanderonfoot,butinitsnounform,trampisabeggarorhomelesswanderer.Playingoffbothsensesofthe
word,Twainfoundwhileonhistourthathewasoftentreatednotasaguest,butasaninconvenience.Heattributeshistepidwelcometothefactthatheisan
American,providingonemorereasontocontinuehiscomicattackonEurope.
ATrampAbroadrepresentsTwainsmostambitiousattempttoaddressanextensiveselectionoftopics.Itisalsoperhapsthemosttraditionalofallofhistravelwriting
initsstyleandform.Lessvernacularandmoreromanticinhislanguage,Twainwritesatlengthaboutthenaturalbeautyhefinds,folktaleshehears,mannershenotes,
historyheremembers,andartheobserves.Althoughthistripseemstohavebeenthemostpleasantofallhistravels,heslylyincludeshispraiseforthecomparable
facetsoftheUnitedStatesalongsideofhispraiseforEurope.Thereremainsasubtlehintofsatireflowingjustbeneaththe

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surfaceoccasionally,thisgentlesubversioneruptsintoblatantlysatirictangentialaccountsof,forexample,theawfulGermanLanguageorTheGreatFrenchDuel.
Withitssophisticatedstructureandthemes,thismaybeTwainsmostaccomplishedtravelogue.
FollowingtheEquatorreversesmanyofthetrendsinTwainsfirstthreetravelbooks.Strugglingwithdebtfromfailedspeculation,Twainwasforcedtomakea
worldlecturetour.Reluctantly,hesetoutforAsia,Australia,andIndia(withstopsalongtheway).Thetexttellsofthisforcedtravel,andassuch,noneofthejoyof
freewanderingispresent.Instead,Twainisbitterandsardonicwithhishighlycomplexandanalyticalculturalcomparisons.Hefocusesalargeportionofthetexton
Australia,evidentlyfascinatedbytheprofounddifferencesbetweenitandhishomeland.AsbothareformerBritishcoloniesgeographicallyisolatedfromEngland,one
mightsupposegreatsimilarities,yetTwainfindsthattheybearnoresemblancewhatsoever.
Interestingly,inhislasttextTwaindwellsonthepainoftransportationasneverbefore.Butironically,theseunpleasantmomentsfacilitatehiswritingandmakeuphis
story.Whereasinhisearlierworkshiscarpingisamusingbecauseofitscrafteddramaticimpactandimpeccabletiming,inFollowingtheEquatorTwaincomes
acrosssimplyaswhining.Forexample,hissectiononIndiadepictshimexhaustedandoverwhelmedbythepopulationdensitytheradicallyunfamiliarculture,myths,
andmannersandtheplagues,famines,andnaturaldisastersthatseemtobeeverywhere.Ratherthantheinsightfuloutsiderseeingfromadifferentperspective,he
insteadresemblesamisanthrope.Inspiteofitsnegativeemphasis,thetextisstillamusing,especiallywhenreadinconjunctionwithhisearlierworks.
ForTwain,travelisaboutencounteringstories.Throughouthisworks,wemeetavarietyofcharactersthattellsomeofthemostmagnificentifunbelievablestories
ofall.Twainrecognizedthevalueofthetaleshecouldpickupalongtheway.InInnocentsAbroadhewrites,
TheOldTravelersthosedelightfulparrotswhohavebeenherebefore,andknowmoreaboutthecountrythan[theking]....Welovetohearthem
prateanddrivelandlie.Wecantellthemthemomentweseethem.Theyalwaysthrowoutafewfeelers:theynevercastthemselvesadrifttilltheyhave
soundedeveryindividualandknowthathehasnottraveled.Thentheyopentheirthrottlevalves,andhowtheydobrag,andsneer,andswell,andsoar,
andblasphemethesacrednameofTruth!...ButIstilllovetheOldTravelers.Ilovethemfortheirwitlessplatitudesfortheirsupernaturalabilitytobore
fortheirdelightfulasininevanityfortheirluxuriantfertilityofimaginationfortheirstartling,theirbrilliant,theiroverwhelmingmendacity!
(Fussell394)
Indeed,thesestorytellersoftenmakeTwainsstoriescometolife.
EvenTwainsfamousnovels,TheAdventuresofTomSawyer(1876),LifeontheMississippi(1883),andTheAdventuresofHuckleberryFinn(1884),
poignantlydemonstratethedeeplessonsthattravelcanfacilitate.HuckFinnserveswellasanexample,althoughanyofthesethreecouldeasilybecalledtravelfiction.
Elementsoftravelliteratureaboundinthesenovels.HuckandTomarefiguredasAmericanpicaroswhodowhateverisnecessarytosurvive,includingrelyingontheir
boyishcharm,whichisoftenaffected.Throughanarrayofadventures,HuckandTomlearnofthewideworldbyparticipatinginitfromthefamilyfeudbetweenthe
GrangerfordsandtheShepherdsons,tothetricksterDukeandtheconmanKing,totheunpredictablenatureoftheriver,theyreceivequiteaneducationontheir
adventures.Travellifeontheriveroffersthemlibertyitisbeinginmotionthatgivesthemfreedom,foreverydaydeliversanewsetofeventsripefortheir
response.

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Thedesiretotravelinitiatestheprimarynarrativeofthestory:whenHucksabusivealcoholicfatherreemergestokidnaphisestrangedson,Huckrespondsbyflight:
AllIwantedwastogosomewheresallIwantedwasachange,Iwarntparticular(Twain12).Itisthisdesiretoseeandtoparticipateindifferencethatinspiresthe
journey.Intheend,travelfacilitatesadeepandmeaningfulfriendshipwhereinTomandHuckwilltakesignificantrisksfortheotherswhomtheyencounter.Onlyby
beinginunpredictablesituationsnamely,bybeinginmotioncantheeventsofthisstoryandthegrowthofHuckoccur.
Overhisentirecareer,Twainseemedtoassertthatitistravelthatteachesandtravelliteraturethatrelatesthatlearning,perhapsteachingthelessonsagain.Twain
himselflearnedtheselessonsoveralifetimeoftravelsandsharedhisexperiencewiththeworldinhismanybooks.Inhislifeandinhiswritinginhistravelsandinhis
literatureTwainrecognizedthevalueofsteppingoutsideofthefamiliar.
Seealso:
Picaresque,Picaro
References:
Fussell1987
Hart1965
Harvey1967
Rugoff1960
Twain1959
TYRRELL,ALBERTE.
Acuriousandreclusivewriteraboutwhomverylittleisknown,AlbertE.Tyrrell(CanadianAmerican,fl.1990)publishedasinglehighlyprovocativeworkoftravel
literaturetitledMisadventuresofanAmericanAbroad(1990).Thisselfproclaimedjackofalltradesturnedtotravelandwritingratherlateinlifeafterworkingina
varietyofengineeringjobs.Feelinganeedtoshiftthefocusofhislifeagain,Tyrrellestablishedhimselfasapublisherandthensetouttowriteabook.Inordertodo
so,heneededmaterial,thusheorganizedavoyage.
TyrellembarkeduponawhirlwindtouroftheglobeinthreemonthsanodtoJulesVernesAroundtheWorldinEightyDays#8212withtheexpresspurposeof
usingthatvoyageasthematerialforhisbook.Writtenasadisjointedtravelogueofseeminglyrandomencounterswithindividualsandinstitutions,thetextcarriesus
fromLosAngelestoNewZealand,toAustralia,toSoutheastAsia,toEurope,andthenbacktoNorthAmerica.AlthoughTyrrellsbookassumestheformofa
travelogue,withchronologicalentriesdescribingeachcity,itsformalsoswervestowardnovelistic:abovethestructureofthejourney,hehasoverlaidaconsistentand
recurrentadversaryandanarratorwhoundergoesasignificantdegreeofgrowth.
ThebookissubtitledBigBrotherExposed,areferencetoGeorgeOrwellsNineteenEightyFour(publishedin1949),whichdescribesanightmaresocietyinwhich
thegovernmentconstantlyscrutinizescitizensinordertocontrolthem.OrwellsfuturistvisionbecomesTyrellspresentreality,andthethemeofsurveillancerecurs
throughoutthetext.Constantlyscrutinizedandtrackedbyvariouspassportagencies,governmentinformationgroups,andcomicalmysterycharactersthatappear
repeatedly,Tyrrellblendsreportagewithpostmodernnovelisticparanoia.Thisplayfulpasticheservesaparticularpurpose:tonotetheubiquitouspowerofbureaucracy
asitcurtailsthefreedomoftravel.Subjecttoconstantofficialmonitoring,thenarratormocksandjeersatthewasteofenergyspentgatheringuselessinformationabout
aharmlesstraveler.
Insomeregards,likePaulTheroux,Tyrrellcanbecalledposttouristic:travelinthepostmodernworldservesnotasanescape,butasconfirmationthatEuro
Americandominationhasrunamok.Insteadoffindingagenuinelydifferentworldinthefarflungcornersoftheglobe,thenarratorfindsagarishandhorriblereflection
ofNorthAmerica.Ofcourse,theseechoesofthefamiliarservepowerfullytoaccentuatetheabsurdityofglobalcapitalismandculturalhegemony.

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Asanexampleofahybridformoftravelliterature,thenovelisaprovocativeexperiment.Wittyandhumorousmomentspepperthetext,althoughtherearemanyfailed
attemptsaswell.Inspiteofitsstrangestructure,thenovelanchorsitselfintheclassictropesorfigurativerepresentationsoftravelliterature:travelaslabor,travelas
pedagogy,andtravelasselfreflection.Inaworldwheretourismandtouristwritingdominate,Tyrrellseffortisrefreshing.

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Page221

V
VARTHEMA,LODOVICODE
Remarkably,LodovicodeVarthemas(Italian,fl.1505)Travelshasbeeninprintalmostcontinuouslysinceitsoriginaleditionin1510.Ithasbeentranslatedintoat
leasteightlanguages,anditisalmostalwaysexcerptedinanthologiesoftravelliterature.Varthemaspopularityisdeserved:hisgiftsasastorytellerareexceptional.
Histalesareunabashedlyinthefirstpersonandlivelywecangetagoodsenseofthemanbyreadinghisstories.Inaline,Varthemawasoneoftheoriginalgreat
adventurerswhosewitandclevernesscarriedhimintoandmoreimportantly,outoftrulyextraordinarysituations.Insomeways,Varthemacanbeconsidereda
picarothatis,alikableroguewhogetsintopotentiallydangeroussituationsbutnarrowlyescapes.
ThemostfamoustalesfromhisbookoccurintheMiddleEast.Fascinatedbythebustlingtradeofthecaravans,VarthemadecidestopasshimselfoffasanArab.He
quicklylearnsArabic,convertstoIslam,anddisguiseshimselfconvincinglyasaMameluke,amercenaryofthesultan.Employedasaguardofthecaravan,hefinds
thathehasgreatfreedomtoengageinadventuresandexploits.HeisnotedasonlythesecondnonMuslimtohavevisitedtheholycityofMecca.Disguised,hefinds
friendshipandromance,richesandhightimes,andexcitementanddramaintheextreme.Hegetshimselfintoconsiderabletrouble,includingonesequencewhereinthe
sultanswifetakesquiteafancytohim.Todissuadeheradvances,heplaysstillanotherrole:
Finally,thelotfelluponmetobemad.Havingthentakenthisenterpriseuponmyself,itbehovedmetodosuchthingsaswerenaturaltomadmen.Truly,Ineverfound
myselfsoweariedorsoexhaustedasduringthefirstthreedaysthatIfeignedmadness.ThereasonwasthatIhadconstantlybehindmefiftyorsixtylittlechildren,who
threwstonesatme,andIthrewstonesatthem[!]....Ihadmyshirtconstantlyfullofstones,andactedlikeamadman.Thequeenwasalwaysatherwindowwithher
damsels,andremainedtherefrommorningtilleveningtoseemeandtalkwithmeandI,beingmockedbymanymenandmerchants,takingoffmyshirt,went,quite
nakedasIwas,beforethequeen,whotookthegreatestdelightinseeingme,andwouldnotletmeleaveher,andgavemesoundfoodtoeat.(Newby257)
Theimageisahilariousone:Varthemapeltingchildrenandthenstruttingnudebeforethequeen.Yettheresultisperfectinthatheisrewardedwithfoodandfriendship
(andwhoknowswhatelse).ForVarthema,lifeisbutaseriesofadventuresandconquestsbeinginmotionandinaforeignlandsimplyfacilitatesthem.
Drivenbyhisintensecuriosityandaninsatiabledesireforexcitement,Varthemasexploitsareirreverent,astoundinglybold,andoftenhaphazard.Perhapsthisispartof
theircharm,forthewaytheyarerecountedinhistextmakesitseemasthoughhereallyismakingitallupashegoesalong.Indeed,suchafancyfreeattitudeembodies
thespiritoftravel:wegosimplytogo,notnecessarilytogetanywhere.Varthematakesitastepfurtherinthatheoftenriskshislifeforabitoffunorforajokeinhim,
weseethetravelerwhowilldoanythingforanadventure.
Seealso:
Picaro
References:
Adams1988
Hammond1963
Newby1985

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VERNE,JULES
NovelistJulesVerne(French,18281905)wrotesomeofthemostbelovedadventurefictionofhisera.HisfabulouslyfamoustalesincludeJourneytotheCenterof
theEarth(1864),TwentyThousandLeaguesundertheSea(1870),AroundtheWorldinEightyDays(1873),andTheMysteriousIsland(1874).Fantastically
imaginative,hisadventureromancesarecousinstotravelliteratureinthattheydescribetravelsintotheimaginaryrealm.
Vernestalestellofwondrousexpeditionstoimpossibleplacesbecauseofthepopularityofhisbooks,thesedestinationshavebecomemythical.Whilehisnovelsdo
notaddressactualjourneys,theydodemonstratethenatureoftravel.Inthesefourbooksparticularly,Vernesnarratorsnoteculturaldifference,proposetravelasa
meanstoselfreflection,andutilizeadventuresenroutetogrowth.Inordertobeconsideredtravelliterature,travelmustworkastheengineofabooksplotinallfour
ofVernesstories,itsurelydoes.
Unbelievablyprophetic,Vernesstoriespressedthescienceofthedaywellintothehypothetical.Itisdifficultformodernreadersforwhomsubmarines,global
balloonflights,andexcursionsbeneaththee```````````arthscrustarehardlynewsworthytounderstandhowwildlyoutrageousthesedevicesseemedtoVernes
audience.Fornineteenthcenturyreaders,Vernestalesweresciencefiction,yetitissignificanttonotethatthesenovelsproposetravel,exploration,andadventureas
worthyextensionsofscience.Aswithspacetravelinthemodernera,Vernesfancifuljourneysrepresentthevastpotentialforsciencewhencombinedwithboundless
humancuriosity.
JourneytotheCenteroftheEarthrecountstheadventuresofOttoLidenbrock,animpetuousGermanprofessorofgeology.HestumblesuponaRenaissance
manuscriptthatdescribesaroutetoreachthecenteroftheearth.Hehurriedlyreadiesanexpeditiontoexplorethisnewworld,enlistinghisnephewandseveralother
vividcharactersalongtheway.TheytraveltoanextinctvolcanoinIcelandanddescendintotheliteralunderworldwhich,tellingly,bearssomeinteresting
resemblancetomythical,especiallyDantean,hell.Forseveralmonths,theyexplorethislandofnaturalwonders,vastforests,fantasticcreatures,andbarbariccavemen.
Theyescapefromthecorebyridingavolcaniceruptionandland,conveniently,offthecoastofItaly.
Insomeways,thenoveldescribesavoyagebackintime.Vernescenteroftheearthissimilartoprehistoricsurfacecivilizations,andthusthestorymaybereadasa
contrastbetweencivilizedandprecivilizedlife.Ofcourse,theexplorersarecastasthegoodguys,whereastheuncivilizednativesarethreateningandmostlydevoidof
theloftierofhumansentiments.Nonetheless,thereisamagnificentelementofculturalcomparisoninthistale:theunderworldrepresentstheantithesisof(idealized)
Westerncivilization.
TwentyThousandLeaguesundertheSeatellsofagroupoftravelingscientiststryingto

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understandaseriesofunderseaanomalies.Somethinghasbeensinkingships,andmanysuspectaseamonster.Anexplosionkillsmostoftheteam,butAronnax,the
narrator,andtwocompanionssurvive.TheyarecapturedbyCaptainNemo,anenigmaticvillainwhotakesthemaboardhissubmarine.FromCeylontotheSouth
Pole,theyvoyagewithNemo,breathlesslydescribingthestrangeandunknownunderseaworld.Theiradventurethenbecomesastrugglewithethics,asNemo,
megalomaniacalbutcharismatic,holdsthemcaptive.BothfascinatedandhorrifiedatthewayNemouseshismagnificentship,theprisonersmustthwarthisevil
intentions.Lifeonboardtheclosedsocietyofthesubmarinefunctionsasamicrocosmofthelargerworld,andassuch,thenoveladdressesnumeroussocialissues,
includingfreedom,power,andselflessness.
AroundtheWorldinEightyDaysisoneofVerneslaternovels.Hismaturityasanovelistallowshimtoaddresssomesubtleissues,andhisideasoftravelarequite
sophisticatedinthistale.Theplotisasimpleone:sedentarygentlemanPhileasFoggmakesabetathisLondonclubthathecancircumnavigatetheglobeinfewerthan
90days.ThisambitiousbetsendsFoggandhisfaithfulservantPassepartoutthroughaseriesofgrandadventuresinthemostexoticandhighlyembellishedplaces
onearth.Throughcleverness,determination,andloyalty,theysucceedhandily,managingthetaskinamere80days.Onceagain,goodintentionsandboundless
curiositydefeatadversity.
Employingeverymeansoftransportationavailabletrain,ship,coach,sled,elephants,andsoforthFoggdefiesdeathandtrickeryinaccomplishinghisjourney.As
thestoryissimplyabouttravelindeed,theobjectoftheexerciseisnottogetsomewhere,butsimplytopassthroughtherearemanymomentswhereFoggreflects
upontherestorativeandinvigoratingnatureofbeinginmotion.Uponhisreturn,Foggfindsthatheisanewmanwithrenewedhopeandenergy.Suchisthepowerof
traveland,toalesserdegree,travelliterature.
TheMysteriousIslandtracestheadventuresofapartyoftravelerswhofindthemselvesmaroonedonaremoteisland.Fivepassengers,fleeingtheAmericanCivil
Warinaballoon,blowhopelesslyoffcourseandcrashlandintototalisolation.Theirtaskistorebuildasocietyusingwhateversurvivalistsavvyandskillstheyhave.
Pirates,natives,weather,beasts,andtheirowndesiresprovideampleadversityforthestory.Eventually,theyarerescuedbyapassingshipandreturntothefamiliar
worldwhencetheycame.
Thisnovelisoftenreadasasortofutopiantale,whereinasmallgroupisgiventheopportunitytobuildsocietyanew,ifonavastly

Page224
diminishedscale.Theirsuccessesandfailuresteachgreatlessonsabouttheiroriginalculture.Inthisregard,wemightreadTheMysteriousIslandasmildlycriticalof
EuroAmericansociety:whenstrandedinaradicallyforeignenvironment,inherentprejudices,misconceptions,andfoolishnessbecomepainfullyobvious.Yetcooler
headsultimatelyprevail,andtheperceivedstrengthsofWesterncivilizationwinoutintheend.
Inallcases,Vernesstoriesproposeamarriagebetweenscienceandexploration.Whencombined,thetwocanaffordmankindaccesstothesublimewondersofthe
world.Invariably,theheroesarethosecharacterswhocanbalancetheirloveforadventureandtravelwithgoodintentionsandproperapplications.Traveltherefore
hasenormouspowerforVerne,includingthepowertochangemindsandtobetterthelotofhumanity.
References:
Bent1965
VIAUD,LOUISMARIEJULIEN
SeeLoti,Pierre
VOLTAIRE
Voltaire(French,16941778)thepseudonymofFranoisMarieArouetranksamongthefinestauthorsofhistime.Hewroteinmanydifferentgenres:tragedy,
epic,history,philosophicaltreatise,fiction,andacombinationthereof.Candideor,Optimism(1759)maybeconsideredmanydifferentways,butforourpurposes,it
hassomesignificantelementsofsuperiortravelliterature.
RestlessinFrance,Voltaireresidedinseveralcitiesbutfoundeachonetobeunsatisfactoryforsomereason.In1726,hemovedtoEnglandforaperiodofroughly
twoyears,havingbeenexiledfromFranceforhispoliticalbeliefs.HereturnedtoParistoremainonlybrieflyandthenmovedagaintoBerlin,latertoGeneva.Various
journeyspunctuatedhisresidences:hevisitedmuchofPrussia,Russia,largeportionsofEurope,andtheMediterraneanbasin.Histravelscontributedtohis
encyclopedicknowledgeofcultures,politics,andhistory.
ManyofhisideasandexperiencesweredistilledintoCandide.Thestoryissimpleenough:youngandnaiveCandidefallsinlovewithCungondebutfindsthatan
unimaginableseriesofobstaclesintercedestheirunion.Faithfuluntiltheend,heremainsdevotedtohisloveinspiteofextremedifficultiesanddiversions.Henever
ceasestoprogresstowardrescuingCungondefromherownstringofmisfortunes.ThispursuittakesCandidethroughoutEurope,totheNewWorld,andthenback
toTurkey.Althoughthestoryisnotactuallyatravelnarrative,theincidentaljourneysthatCandidemustmakearetreatedinaparticularlyfineway.Inaddition,
Candidecontainsanumberofpicaresqueelements.
Throughoutthetale,coincidenceplaysasignificantroleinCandideslife.Whileinmotion,whiletraveling,hebychancemeetsaseriesoftrickstersandrogueswho
playuponhistrustingnature.Mostoftenintheguiseoffellowtravelers,thesecheats,swindlers,andvillainsmightilyabuseCandide.Earlyinthestory,ourpenniless
protagonistthinksitishisgoodfortunetomeetsomefriendlytravelersontheroad.Theybeginbyofferingtobuyhimdinnerandendbyabductinghimintothe
Bulgarianarmy.Themoralseemstobethatwhilecirculatinginthewideworldmayofferopportunities,italsoposesrisks:thosewhoseemfriendlymaynotbeso.This
isCandidesfirsttravellesson,onethatisrepeatedanumberoftimesinthestory.
AnotherlessonCandidelearnsisthatinothercultures,thingsarenotalwayswhattheyappeartobe.ThishastheeffectofmakingCandideawareofhisownEuropean
cultureasdifferentfromothercultures,particularlythoseintheNewWorld.Firstheseestwogirls,completelynaked,whowererunningswiftlyalongtheedgeofthe
meadow,

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pursuedbytwomonkeyswhosnappedattheirbuttocks(Voltaire31).Behavingchivalrously,Candideshootsthemonkeys,therebysavingthegirls.Orsohethinks.
Infact,hehaskilledtheirlovers!CandidescompanionCacamboexplainsthesituationandchidesCandidethatheisalwaysastonishedbyeverything.Whydoyou
thinkitsostrangethatinsomecountriesmonkeyssucceedinobtainingthegoodgracesofwomen?Theyareonequarterhuman,justasIamonequarter
Spanish(32).Thisculturalrelativism,althoughherepresentedinahumorouslight,underscoresthevalueoftravel.
Againbyextraordinarychanceandincredibleluck,CandidemanagestodiscoverthemythicalcityofEldorado,whichprovestobethecompleteoppositeofEurope.
CulturaldifferencesprovidegreathumorinthesechaptersasCandidelearnsofthisstrangesocietyinsodoing,VoltaireismockingEuropeanways.Itisbyspending
timedeepwithinanotherculturethatCandidelearnsofhishome.Likewise,itisbythisdevicethatVoltairesatirizesEuropeanculture.TheutopiathatisEldorado
directlycontrastsandopposestherealityofFranceintheeighteenthcentury:whereEldoradoispeaceful,egalitarian,humble,andcharitable,Franceiswarring,
aristocratic,vain,andgreedy.
Finally,CandideobtainshisbelovedCungonde,theprocessofwhichtakesthemtoTurkey.Onceagain,thiscultureprovidesacontrastto,butalsoacritiqueof,
France.GreedandlustagainopposeCandide,butheprevails.Finallyhehasallhisheartdesires:hislove,thoughnowsheisoldanduglyhismentor,thoughhehas
changedhistuneconsiderablyandstabilityfromthewanderings.Yetsuchmotionlessnessisdull.Inasearingpassage,thecharacterofawiseoldwomanstates:I
shouldliketoknowwhichisworse,beingrapedahundredtimesbynegropirates,havingabuttockcutoff,runningthegauntletintheBulgararmy,beingfloggedand
hangedinanautodaf,beingdissectedandrowinginthegalleysexperiencing,inaword,allthemiseriesthroughwhichwehavepassedorelsejustsittinghere
anddoingnothing?(75).Candidehastoadmitthatthequestionisatoughone.
Indeed,itisthefreedomofmotion,theunpredictablenatureoftravel,thathasvalue.Travelexistsasoneformofaction.Suchactionistheoppositeofcomplacent
inaction.Voltaire,throughCandide,seemstobechallengingtheclosedmindedsecurityofstayinghome,whereeverythingissafeandpredictable.Action,activity,
motion,allanimatelifeitisbettertomoveandsufferthantostaystillandfeelnothing.Inthisregard,Candideworkstopromoteadventureandtoproclaimitself
travelliterature.
Seealso:
EldoradoPicaresque
References:
Voltaire1966

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W
WAUGH,EVELYN
EvelynWaugh(English,19031966)wroteagreatnumberofnovels,shortstories,andessays,mostofthemcharacterizedaswitty,wry,andironic.Asasuccessful
andprominentmanofletters,WaughcouldaffordtosatirizetheridiculousbehavioroftheBritishupperclasses.Amonghisdozensofnovelsareseveraltraveltalesthat
deservementionfortheirinfluenceonthegenre.
WaughspublicpersonaradiatedBritishfastidiousness.Althoughaveterantraveler,henevergotusedtothedisruptionandunpredictabilityoftravelorperhapsitis
bettersaidthathenevertiredofcomplainingaboutit.From1928to1937,hetraveledalmostconstantly,producingnovelsandtravelbookssimultaneously.
Generallyspeaking,histravelliteraturemocksthetraditionallylaudedaspectsoftravel.Insteadoffindingtruthandtranscendence,Waughsnarratorsfindan
interminablestreamofkitsch,filth,unpleasantness,andinanefellowtravelers.Commentingonthenatureoftourism,Waughisquotedassayingthatthetourist
debauchesthegreatmonumentsofantiquity...[andis]acomicfigure,alwaysinaptinhiscomments,incongruousinhisappearance....Avariceanddeceitattack
himateverysteptheshopsthathepatronizesarefullofforgeries...[but]weneedfeelnoscrupleortwingeofuncertaintywearetravellersandcosmopolitansthe
tourististheotherfellow(Fussell653).Indeed,thetouristispathetic,butwhoadmitstobeingatourist?Waughhaspokedasharpjabatallwhoassuagetheirguiltby
blamingtheirfellowsforuglytouristicbehavior.
OneofWaughsmostsignificantcontributionsistheoretic:hearguesforafundamentaldistinctionbetweentravelersandtourists.Travelersplyatradevoyagingisboth
theirjobandidentity.Touristsareinterloperswhodartnearandfarseekingquickthrillsandmomentaryglimpsesofwhattheyfeeltheyoughttosee.Invernacular
terms,thetourististhebeenthere,donethat,itsTuesdaysothismustbeParisvisitor.Incontrast,thetruetravelerdeeplyfeelstheplaceshevisitsandoftenvalues
theprocessofthejourneyasmuchasthearrival.Travelersseektoencountertheforeign,whiletouristsseektodiscoverthefamiliarabroad.WealthyBrits,particularly,
werenotoriousfor

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theirinsistenceuponfindingwherealltheBritishtouristswere.Waughsparodiesaddressthisissuerepeatedly.Yetwemustnotethattomakethesedistinctionsandto
parodysuchbehavior,Waughneededtohaveplentyoffirsthandexperience.
Hisfirsttravelbook,Labels(1930),chronicleshisMediterraneancruise.Thetitlereferstoallthestickersonhisluggagefromvariousportsofcall,asthoughrather
thanstories,thetouristtravelssimplytoamassanimpressivecollectionofappliqusonherportmanteau.Writtenasatravelogue,thebookdescribesunspeakablyugly
touristicbehavior.Drunkendebauches,revelswithstreetwalkers,deceit,andgenerallyrambunctiousbehaviormakeupthemeatofthistale.Whileamusing,and
occasionallyveryfunny,thebookputsthereaderintheuncomfortablepositionoffeelingembarrassedforthenarrator.GivenWaughsskillasanovelist,onecanonly
presumethatthiswasentirelyintentional.HisdescriptionofMountEtnawillservenicelyasanexample:IdonotthinkIshalleverforgetthesightofEtnaatsunsetthe
mountainalmostinvisibleinablurofpastelgrey,glowingonthetopandthenrepeatingitsshape,asthoughreflected,inawhispofgreysmoke,withthewholehorizon
behindradiantwithpinklightfadinggentlyintoapastelgreysky.NothingIhaveeverseeninArtorNaturewasquitesorevolting(Newby178).
InlatertaleshebreaksawayfromtheposhtraveldepictedinLabels.NinetytwoDays(1934)describesaroughandarduousexcursionthroughBritishGuianaand
Brazil.Onfootandonhorseback,thetravelingpartyslogsthroughthemercilessjunglehopingtoreachManos.Theyfailbecausetheirboatneverarrives.Evenwhen
offthebeatenpath,Waughchoosestodwellonnegativereactions.Repeatedly,hisgrandexpectationsareleftunfulfilled:Allthatextravagantandhighlyimprobable
expectationhadbeenobliteratedlikeasandcastlebeneaththeencroachingtide(Fussell519).Squalor,inconvenience,andunfamiliaritygrateonWaughinshort,itis
differencethathecannotaccommodate.Inthisregard,histravelwritingreversesalongstandingtrendofopennessandeagernesstoencountertheculturalother.
EvenhisshorttravelstoryCruiseapproachesbeingsardonic.Aninnovativetale,itsimplyreprintsonesideofapostalcorrespondencebetweenaladyofleisureona
cruiseandherbelovedathome.Thoughcheerful,thepostcardsandlettersdescribeamyriadofpettydisastersandintrigues.Theladysbuoyantandbubblyreportage
isindirectcontrasttothefactthatsheishavingdulltimeasatouristbutagrandtimesocializingwithherfellows.Infact,sheinformsherbeauinonenote,Darling,I
cantwaittotellyouImengagedtoArthur.ArthuristheoneIthoughtwasapansy(Craig116).DeadpanandironicCruisepresentsanamusingiffabricated
perspectiveinaveryeffectiveform.
ContemporaryreadersmayfindWaughpoliticallyincorrectandhopelesslysnobbish,butifwerememberthathisbodyofworkleansalmostfullytowardmockeryand
satire,wemightresuscitatehisposition.Inaddition,Waughsdisenchantedtoneandhisdistinctionbetweentravelersandtouristscannotbedeniedasmajorinfluences
onposttouristictravelwriting.AuthorslikeRobertByron,PaulTheroux,andEricNewbyclearlyoweadebttoWaughsinnovations.
References:
Craig1996
Fussell1987
Harvey1967
Newby1985
WELLSLEY,DOROTHY,DUCHESSOF
MuchadmiredbytheesteemedwriterWilliamButlerYeatsforherextremelyrichverse,Dorothy,DuchessofWellsley(English,18891956)wasanavidtraveleras
wellasapoet.HercollectedversewaspublishedafterherdeathasEarlyLight(1956).Amonghermanyexquisitepoemsareseveralgreatexamplesoftravelverse.

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Awealthyandprivilegedwomanwithakeendesiretoseetheworld,shemadevoyagestotheMediterraneanandtotheMiddleEast.Muchofherworkblends
lusciousimagesofnatureoverlaidwithhistory.Herversehasadreamyqualitythatidealizeshersubjectswithoutcrossingintoabsurdabstraction.Twoofherbest
travelpoemsareFirstFlightandCamelsinPersia.
FirstFlightdescribesherimpressionsofPersia.Thepoembegins,
l
l
l
l

Hereistheperfectvision:inthedawn,
InsmudgyduskIriseabovetheplain
OfthePersiandesert
(CrossleyHolland2122)

Itthenproceedstodescribetheachingbeautyofthevistauponwhichshegazes.Herexperienceofanexoticlocationevokesasenseofhistoryandvastunderstanding:
theplacecontainsallofitspast,itslegends,anditslore.Asapoet,shefeelsbygonetimeslingeringinthegeographyasshecontinues:
l
l
l
l

Thedesertskimsbelow.
Likecaterpillartrailsthecamelsgo
Markedbroadlybytheirstacksofcamelthorn.
(22)

TheancienthistoryoftheSilkRoadremainstangibleandalive.
Underthecanopyofendlessskyanddesert,shefeelsunifiedbygeographyinthatthesameskyhangsoverherEnglishhome:
l
l
l
l
l

Besidemyhandthestarshangclose,goout,
Spentcandles.Nowthemoonmostsurelydies,
SohaggardhandssheonthePersianpeaks,
WhowhitensmistyonanEnglishlawn.
(22)

ForWellsley,travelandexperienceofforeignlandsservetodemonstrateahumancommonalityunderauniversalearthlygeographyinasimilarway,travelalsoserves
tocondensethepastandthepresentintoastateoftimelessness.
InCamelsinPersia,Wellsleywriteswhatbeginsasareflectionofcamelsbutendsbyusingthebeastandhisburdenasametaphorforlife.Astheanimalsplod
reluctantlyalongtheirdesolatepath,theymarchtowardaninevitableend.Strewnalongthecaravanpatharethearchedwhiteribsofhiskind,thebonesoffallen
beastsandemblemsofmortality.Personifyingthepachyderm,shecontinues,
l
l
l
l
l
l
l

Thecamelissullenandproud,heisnotmyfriend,
Willhavenoneofmyfellowship.
Soonheknowshewillfail,hewillfallbytheway
Andhiscaravanpass,andleavehimtovultures,butnow
Heknowshewilldrinkhisfillatthejourneysend,
Andbeatpeacebythepalmsintheheatofday.
(CrossleyHolland270)

Hebearshisbrutishburdenawarebutshowsnoresistance.
Abruptlysheswitchestoneandfocus,andhermetaphorbecomesclear:PastthetallstonetombwhereonceKingCyruslay,/Whocarvedamaximforallhewould
subjugate:Traveller,pause!Foryouwillpassthisway...(270271).Humanandcamelbotharepartofthemortal,naturalorderandcannotescapetheir
inevitablefate.Ifwereturnthentothedescriptionsofthecamelinthefirstfivestanzasandreadthemassharedhumantraits,wemustbelikethesebeasts,stubborn
andgroaninguntilourtimeisup.
Inbothpoems,aswellasinmanyofWellsleysworks,experienceintheworldhelpshertoreflectuponthehumanconditionandthefutilearroganceofWestern
civilization.ItbecomesaneasyleaptosuggestthatWellsleywouldagreethatlifeitselfisaformofjourneywhereuponthevoyagesupersedesthe

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destinationintermsofjoy,excitement,andimportance.
Seealso:
SilkRoad
References:
CrossleyHolland1986
Harvey1967
WHARTON,EDITH
TheliterarycontributionofEdithWharton(American,18621937)cannotbedenied.Authorofdozensofhighlyacclaimedandbelovednovels,Whartonmustbe
notedasoneofthegreatwritersofherera.Whileitistruethattravelandexoticlocationsfeatureprominentlyinmanyofhernovels,mostofthemarenot,strictly
speaking,travelliterature.ButtravelwasalifelongpassionforWharton,thusshepennedseveralsignificanttravelbooksthatarelargelyignored,includingItalian
Backgrounds(1905),AMotorFlightthroughFrance(1908),InMorocco(1920),andherrecentlydiscoveredTheCruiseoftheVanadis(written1888,
published1992).Likehernovels,Whartonstravelbooksarelyrical,vivid,anddelightfullyentertaining.
Bornintoaprominentfamily,Whartonlearnedtotravelwhenshewasveryyoung.Atagefour,sheandherfamilymovedfromNewYorktoEurope,residinginParis
andRomeandtravelingextensivelyoverthenextsixyears.InherautobiographyWhartonclaimedthatthiswildearlypilgrimage...[gaveher]anincurablepassion
fortheroad(Whartonxvii).Indeed,overthecourseofherprolificlife,shewouldmakemorethan60transatlanticcrossings,voyageintoforeignandthreatening
landscapesmostoftenforbiddentowomen,andindulgeinliterallyhundredsofsmaller,butnolessinteresting,trips.
Privatelyandmeticulouslyeducated,WhartoninitiallyencounteredEuropeasagrandfieldtrip.Desirousofshowingherthetreasuresofart,architecture,culture,and
history,herfamilyusedtheirwealthandleisuretoschoolWhartoninthebesttheContinenthadtooffer.ThissenseoftravelaspedagogyneverleftWhartonevenin
herlateryears,sheinsisteduponcarefullyresearchingherdestinationbeforeembarking.ExplainsWhartonscholarSarahBirdWright,Herpassionfortravelandthe
obsessiontotellstoriesjoinedtogethertoformtheprimaryspringboardofEdithWhartonscreativity.Theseactivitiesoftenproceededapacetravelprovidingthe
occasion(andthenecessaryleisure)towrite(Whartonxviii).ThiscomminglingoftravelandliteraturemarksWhartonasapuretravelwriter.
Ratherthansimplyjottingdowntheusualclichsandbreathlessbabble,Whartonsought

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toevoketheplacesshevisitedandtosuggestherpsychologicaloremotionalresponsetothescene.Theresultingprosedelightsasbothhighlyvisualanddeeply,
charminglysubjective.YetitwouldbegravelymisleadingsimplytorelegateWhartonswritingtotherealmofpleasing:beneathitslustroussurfacerestsextraordinary
insight,knowledge,andincisiveness.Asaculturalcriticandatheoristofthenatureoftravel,Whartonhasfewpeers.Asifthiswerenotenough,Whartonaddstothis
alreadypotentmixaprofoundsenseofliterarycraftthatinfusesherstorieswithdrama,characterdevelopment,andtension.Alltold,hertravelwritingisamongthe
best.
ItalianBackgroundsistheresultofnearlytwodecadesofvarioustripstoItaly.WritteninconjunctionwithherarchitecturalstudyItalianVillasandTheirGardens
(1904),ItalianBackgroundsrepresentssomethingofagreatesthitsofherItalianadventures.Thetaleispepperedwithcostumesandcharactersthatrecall
commediadellarte,aformofItaliancomedyprominentinthesixteenthtotheeighteenthcenturythatfeaturesstocksituationsandcharacters.ThuswefindWharton
mountaineeringonaropeteamintheAlps.ThenshevisitsanasceticmonasteryinSanVivaldotoresearchaparticularartist.Anotherpassagereflectsuponthemerits
ofarchitecturalrenovationinMilanandhowpoorrestorationmighthaveaterriblydetrimentaleffectuponthelocalculture.Fromplacetoplace,fromideatoidea,
Whartonbounceseffortlessly.
Writtenasaseriesofsmalleressays,eachonaparticularplaceandtopic,ItalianBackgroundshasanintellectual,theoreticaltonebehinditssparklingdescriptionsof
peopleandplaces.Inconclusion,Whartonwrites:[Famousartandarchitecture]areamongthecataloguedrichesofthecity.Theguidebookspointtothem,theylie
inthebeatentrackofsightseeing,anditisratherintheintervalsbetweensuchsystematizedstudyofthepast,intheparenthesesoftravel,thatoneobtainsthosemore
intimateglimpseswhichcanhelpcomposetheimageofeachcity,topreserveitspersonalityinthetravellersmind(Wharton111).Itistheprocessoftravel,the
unexpectedencounters,thedailyminutiaethatmakethevoyageresonate.
InAMotorFlightthroughFrance,Whartonlikensherjourneytoamedievalpilgrimage,withitsjoyfulcamaraderieandhopefulglee.Anchoringherselfinthehistory
oftravelliterature,WhartonandHenryJamespackedtheworksofGeorgeSandalongforreading.Demonstratingherindependence,Whartoninsistedontraveling
wheresoevershedesiredtodowhateveritwasthatstruckherfancy(muchasGeorgeSandhaddone).Rouen,Fontainebleau,Paris,andPoitiersmadeupthepolesof
hervoyage,withassortedsidetripsanddiversionsinbetween.Enthusiasticthroughout,someofWhartonsmostprovocativelypoeticimagescanbefoundinthistext.
DuetothefastpaceandfreedomofcartravelasopposedtocoachoreventrainWhartonalteredherstructureandstyleofwritinginthiswork.Ratherthanmusing
leisurelyovertownsandvistas,AMotorFlightleapsfromplacetoplaceintorrentsofdescription,almostasifFrancewereabluroutsidethewindow.Perhapsasa
functionofherownaging,Whartonseemsconstantlypressedfortime.Theresultingchaptersarethussomewhatjitteryanddisjointedbutnolessliteraryandevocative.
InMoroccorepresentsWhartonsattempttowriteaguidebookforMorocco.Shedescribedtheworkasaslightsketchofthehistoryandartofthecountry[for]
happywanderers.Travelingin1917,attheheightofWorldWarI,Whartonalsoseemstohavewantedaslightescapetoaculturenotembroiledinwar.Toachieve
thisgoal,WhartonprocuredaninvitationbytheFrenchministerofwar,GeneralLyautey,tocometoMorocco.AsthecountrywasaFrenchcolony,muchof
Whartonstextringswithacolonialisttone.Thisideologicalbiasaside,herwritingremainsinterestingandenjoyable.

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Anabsoluteoutsider,sheimmediatelyrecognizedheralienperspective:shewasawomaninanIslamiccountry,andafamousnovelisttoboot.Herthreeweekjourney
gaveheramplematerialontheexoticandexcitingIslamicculture.Thebazaarsprovideherespecialfodder,thecustomsstrikeherasnoteworthyandmeaningful,and
MuslimautocracyimpressesherasantitheticaltoChristiandemocracy.Mimicking,perhapsmocking,themaleobsessionwithharems,Whartonmadeavisittoone
herself:notsurprisingly,shewonderswhatallthefussisabout.Throughoutthebook,sheevokesthespecterof1001ArabianNightsanditsingenious,iffanciful,
storyteller,Scheherazade.Intheend,herguidewasnoBaedekers,butitremainsaquirkyandusefulstudyofMorocco.
TheCruiseoftheVanadiswasonlydiscoveredin1991.ItappearstohavebeenWhartonspersonaldiaryofacruiseshetookwithherhusbandin1888.Her
journalincludesremarkableaccountsbyayoungandunpolishedingenue:wanderingclassicalruins,delightingintheexoticismofNorthAfrica,andinformally
interviewinganyonewhomsheencountered.
SheisoftencreditedwithbeingthefirstAmericantohavewrittenanaccountofMountAthos.LocatedonapeninsulaintheGreekAegean,Athosishometomore
thanadozenmonasteries.Nofemalesareallowedonthemountainnotevenfemalelivestock.MonkspreventedWhartonslanding,butshewasabletoobserveand
explorefromasmalllaunch.
Writtenasaseriesofdailyentries,TheCruiseoftheVanadisisfilledwithfactualinformationthatWhartonusuallyomittedfromherfinishedworks.Eveninthisearly
work,Whartonsrangeofinterestsisvastfromfoodtoarchitecture,fromhistorytolanguages,fromculturetonature,sheseemstowanttocaptureeverything.We
mightcharacterizeWhartonasaravenousconsumerofexperiences,intellectuallyhungryforthenew,exciting,andunpredictable.
Whartonstravelbooksdistinguishherasbothscholarandpoetheraccountsaremeticulouslyresearchedandreasoned,buttheyarerepresentedwiththeutmostskill
andaccessibility.Feistyandwitty,shehadthebackgroundandtheexperiencetomakebroadandmeaningfulcomparisonsamonggeographies,cultures,and
perspectives.Withhersophisticatedtheoryoftravelasentertainment,asasourceofwisdom,andastherootofastory,Whartonexemplifiesthegreattravelwriter.
Seealso:
James,HenrySand,George
References:
Newby1985
Wharton1995
WILLARD,EMMAHART
EmmaHartWillard(American,17871870)isaratherunderstudiedAmericanwomanofgreatanddiverseaccomplishment.Asascholarandeducatorofwomen,she
workedinmanydisciplines,includingscience,geography,philosophy,andhistory.Hertravelswerebroadandherjournalselaboratelydetailed.Hermajorwork,
JournalandLetters,fromFranceandGreatBritain(1833),providesaveryfineaccountofhowmuchfreedomandrespectalearnedwomancouldhaveinboth
EuropeandAmericainthenineteenthcentury.
Inherelaborateprefacetothebook,Willardclaimstohavesetouttomakeobservationsnotonlyformyself,butformycountrywomen(Schriber4).Anearly
advocateofwomensrightsbothintheWesternworldandelsewhereWillardinsistedthattheroadtoequalitybeginswitheducation.Essentialtothepursuitof
knowledgeandwisdom,arguedWillard,areexperiencesandexposurestodifferentculturesanddifferentideas.Thustotravelorinlieuofactuallygoing,toreada
detailedaccountliketheoneshewroteistobegintoquestiontraditional,andinflexible,genderroles.
Whilemuchofherworkispuredetail,Willardfrequentlyinterjectsherownpassionateopinions.Forexample,whileinParis

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shenotesthesocialacceptanceofwomenworkingforaliving,apracticemuchstigmatizedinAmericaatthetime:
Muchevilamongus,originatesinaprejudicefromwhichtheFrenchseem,ingreatmeasure,freethatthereissomethingdegradinginawomansdoing
anythingtoearnmoney.Infamilieswithus,wherethefatheremployshishandsfrommorningtillnightincuttingoffyardsofcalico,astyinguppoundsof
tea,notforcharitybutforprofithisdaughterswouldconsideritashockingdegradationtoemploytheirs,toearnmoney,bymakingcaps,orhats,or
dressesforothers.
(Schriber26)
EssentialtoEmmaHartWillardsvisionisanexchangeofideasfromdifferentculturesandevensubcultures.Travelencouragesthissortofsocialcrosspollination.
References:
Schriber1995
WILLIAMS,WILLIAMCARLOS
ModernistpoetWilliamCarlosWilliams(American,18831963)ismostfamousforhisimagistpoetry.Vivid,transient,economic,andrealistic,hisverseiswidely
knownandappreciated.Lesswellknownarehisproseworks,whichsharemanycharacteristicswithhispoetry.Amonghisfictionresidesoneveryfineworkoftravel
literaturetitledAVoyagetoPagany(1928).
AttheinsistenceofhisfriendEzraPound,WilliamsmadeasinglesixmonthtourofEurope.HehadalwaysbeenunabashedlyAmericanandexpressedgreatdismayat
seeingmanyofthegreatAmericanwritersPound,T.S.Eliot,F.ScottFitzgerald,ErnestHemingway,andmanyothersfleetoEurope.TheOldWorldwasthought
tobetheplacewheregreatideascouldcometofruitionWilliamshadalwaysrejectedthisnotioncategorically.Nonetheless,hedidgotoseewhatallthefusswas
about,andhisresponsewasanunapologeticrejection.
Althoughtechnicallyanovel,AVoyagetoPaganyborrowsliberallyfromhisactualexperiences.Thetitleitselfsetsthetone:Paganyisacoinagethatissupposedto
meantheplacewherePaganslive.ThestorychartsthemisadventuresofmiddleagedDr.Evans,whoisafacsimileofWilliamshimself.Afirsttimetravelerto
Europe,heattemptstoseethestandardtouristsitesbutfindstheherdmentalityofthisventurestifling.Aromanticandastutevoyager,Dr.Evansfindsallofhis
expectationsmightilyfrustrated.InspiteofhisdispleasureorperhapsbecauseofitEvanskeepsatraveloguethatdetailshisexperience.
Playfully,Williamshasturnedthetablesoftravelliterature.EndlessaccountsofEuropeansvisitingandderidingAmericahaveachievedfameintheestablishedliterary
canon(AlexisdeTocqueville,bothFrancesandAnthonyTrollope,andCharlesDickensarebutafewexamples),butWilliamswritesofanAmericaninEuropewhois
everybitasskepticalanddissatisfiedasthesefamousvoyagersintheUnitedStates.Evenasacarpingtraveler,however,Evans(andWilliams)recognizestheneedto
capturetheexperienceintextualform.
Drippingwithsarcasm,AVoyagetoPaganyisclearlyaparody.WilliamsseemstohavesetouttocritiquetheEuropethathisgenerationalmostuniversallylauded.
RatherthanidealizingEuropebytintingitwithromanticizedshades,Williamsdwellsonthebanalobservationsofatourist.TimedragsinterminablyasEvansscurries
fromtowntotown,fromtrainstationtohotel,andfrommisunderstandingtomistreatment.
Inspiteofitscynicism,ormaybebecauseofit,thenovelisdamnedentertainingandstylisticallyinnovative.Williamswriteswithavoiceuniqueinliteratureforexample,
inGenoaanunexpecteddelaygivesrisetothefollowingreflection:
Genoa.Thenamesoundedhollow,depressingasthecoldlysulphurousgallerythroughwhichhewaspassing,baggageinhand....Heknew

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noItalian.Theportershruggedandwalkedaway.Evanswanderedaroundaimlesslyuntilhefoundthecheckroom.12:05toFlorence.ThankGod.Only
twohourstokill....Steps,hilluponhill,streetlightsatthebottomsoffunnels.Giovanezzaarminarm,drunk.Giovanezzaamobshoutingdrunk
towersgoingupintonightwithouttop.Nodirection.Nonorth,nosouth.Onlythestreettotherailroadstationhome.Lonelystairs,up.Upnowhere.
WhereistheseaColumbussailedon?
(Fussell662663)
Indeed,thetoneofthisbookmarksashiftinAmericantravelwritingthatmadeposttouristicauthorslikePaulTherouxpossible.
Asatravelbookthatbreakswithtraditionandstandsexpectationonitshead,Williamssbookisremarkable.Goodfunaswellasprovocative,AVoyagetoPagany
meritscloseattention.Tobesure,itdemonstratesthattravelisnotforeveryone.
References:
Fussell1987
WOLFF,JOSEPH
TroubleseemedtofollowJosephWolff(German,17951862)nomatterwherehewent.Hissingleliteraryclaimtofame,NarrativeofaMissiontoBokhara
(1845),isaharrowingaccountofhisilladvisedadventures.Perhapsoverlydramaticandexaggerated,hisstorywasaninstantsuccess.
Althoughhisfatherwasaprominentrabbi,WolffconvertedtoCatholicismatage11,anactthatprecipitatedhisexpulsionfromhishome.Hebouncedaroundvarious
monasteriesandschools,eventuallylandinginRomeandprocuringanaudiencewiththepope.In1819,however,hemovedtoEnglandandconvertedtotheChurchof
Englandandsignedonasamissionary.ThenextfiveyearshespentinEasternEurope,theMiddleEast,andCentralAsiaconvertingJewstoAnglicanism.Evidently,
thiswasnotexcitingenoughforWolff:from1843to1845,hesoughttodiscoverthefateoftwoBritishofficersbeingheldbytheemirofBokhara(Bukhara).
Hisbooktellsofhisincrediblejourneyandtheendlessstringofdifficultiesheencountered.AsaChristianintheIslamicworld,Wolffwasconsideredaninfidelandthus
persecutedvariously.Whenhearrived,hefoundthattheofficerswhomhesought,ColonelStoddartandCaptainConolly,hadsufferedheinoustortureandwere
alreadydead.ThisdidnotbodewellforWolff.Inspiteofhisprecarioussituation,heobstinatelyrefusedtoconverttoIslamastrangepositiongivenhisseriesof
previousconversions.Sentencedtodeath,hestoicallypreparedbytakingopiumtodullthepainofdecapitation.Areprievewasgrantedhimatthelastminute,andhe
scurriedoutofBokharabutcontinuedtorunintodifficultiesallthewayhome.
Alivelytalethatalternatesbetweenbraveryandfoolishness,WolffsbookservedtoconfirmEuropeanfearofMuslimpeoples.Vastlylesssuave,clever,andromantic
thanmanyofthegreatIslamicvoyagersSirRichardBurtonatthetopofthelistWolffcomesacrossasabunglingwanderer.Perhapsbecausehewasnotlarger
thanlife,althoughhisadventureswerehairraising,hisbooksoldextremelywellandisreferredtobymanylatertravelerstothesameregion.
References:
Newby1985
WORDSWORTH,DOROTHY
DorothyWordsworth(English,17711855)livedmuchofherlifewithherpoeticbrother,William.Herselfanaccomplishedwriter,sheproducedseveralvolumesof
interestingwork,includingonebookoftravelliterature.Hermemoirs,publishedposthumously,alsocontainsomeextremelyfinetravelwriting.
In1803,DorothyWordsworthaccompaniedherbrotherandSamuelTaylorColeridgeonalengthytrekthroughScotland.Therecordofthisjourneyshepublishedas

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RecollectionsofaTourMadeinScotland(1803).Herbookinterestsonseverallevels.First,whenreadinconjunctionwithWilliamWordsworthsandColeridges
writingsfromthesametrip,aninterestingtriangulationappears.Eachauthorwroteaverydifferentaccountofthesameexperienceeachnoticedandnotedvery
differentaspectsofthetour.Second,DorothyWordsworthswritingmeritsstudyforitsgentle,dreamyqualities.Finally,herbookoffersatraveloguethatfillsinmany
ofthecontextualdetailsthatcanhelpustomakesenseofherbrotherssomewhatobtusepoetry.
AlthoughColeridgebailedoutoftheexcursionquiteearly,theWordsworthsiblingscarriedon.Muchhasbeenmadeoftheirmountingdependenceonopiumduring
thisperiod,butfromreadingDorothysaccount,onewouldneversuspectaproblem.Inaddition,Recollectionspaintsavaluablepictureoftherelationshipbetween
DorothyandWilliam:shealternatesbetweenmotheringhimandtoilingasasterncriticofhiswork.
Thetravelogueiswrittenindiaryform.ItprovidesgreatandwonderfullyliterarydescriptionsofScotland:rustic,weatherbeaten,andhospitable.Herchoiceof
languageandimageryevokesnatureinitsmanymoods,fromangrilylashingtosoftlywarmingtocoldlyforbidding.Withherplethoraofprecisedetails,Dorothy
Wordsworthoffersusavividpictureofastrangeholidayindeed.
MuchofthetimetheWordsworthsstayedinrusticanddesolateaccommodations,butDorothyfoundthisthrilling.Inonepassagedescribingtheirstayinaferrymans
hutinPerthshire,Wordsworthwrites:
Wecarousedovercupsofcoffee,laughinglikechildrenatthestrangeatmosphereinwhichwewere:thesmokecameingusts,andspreadalongthewalls
andaboveourheadsinthechimney,wherethehenswereroostinglikelightcloudsinthesky.Welaughedandlaughedagain,inspiteofthesmartingof
oureyes,yethadaquieterpleasureinobservingthebeautyofthebeamsandraftersgleamingbetweenthecloudsofsmoke....Whenwehadeatenour
supperwesatabouthalfanhour,andIthinkIhadneverfeltsodeeplytheblessingofahospitablewelcomeandawarmfire.
(Newby222)
Suchthingsthatarenormallytakenforgrantedarenoteworthyonavoyage,andoftentheselittledetailsprovidethegreatestpleasure.Wordsworthhadarrivedina
strangeandunfamiliarworldherresponsewastoreflectwithexcitementonitsdifferenceandherappreciationthereof.
Seealso:
Coleridge,SamuelTaylorWordsworth,William
References:
Harvey1967
Newby1985
WORDSWORTH,WILLIAM
WilliamWordsworth(English,17701850)iscelebratedasoneofthefinestpoetsoftheromanticera.Hisvastbodyofworkdemonstratesmanydifferentabilities
onefacetofWordsworthsoeuvreishistravelwriting.Overhiscareer,hepublishedmanyoutstandingexamplesoftravelversethatwerebelovedthenasnow.
Aftersomethingofaslowstart,includinganundistinguishingperformanceatSt.JohnsCollegeinCambridge,Wordsworthdiscoveredhismuse:nature.In1790,ona
walkingtourofFrance,Italy,andtheAlps,hefoundinspiration.Thedramaofthemountains,theferocityofthewinds,themightofglaciers,thecopiousquantitiesof
Italiansunlight,andthecolorsmanmadeaswellasnaturalofforeignplaceswererevelationstoWordsworth.Tothesevividimages,firstobservedandnotedon
thatinitialvoyage,hewouldreturnfortherestofhislife.ItwastravelthatcausedWordsworthtoseethebeautyoftheworldaroundhim.
Duringhislifetime,hemadedozensofjourneysandtravels,mostlyinEurope.In1801,hefirsttouredScotland,thenin1802,hesetoffforFranceagain(hehadlived
there

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forayearin17911792).In1814,hereturnedtoScotlandtocompleteTheExcursion.Afterhis1820touroftheContinent,hepublishedMemorialsofaTouron
theContinent(1822).His1829triptoIrelandandScotlandinspiredYarrowRevisited.AreturntoItalyin1837providedmuchofthematerialforPoemsChiefly
ofEarlyandLateYears(1842).Indeed,therearescatteredtravelpoemsineveryoneofhisbooks.Inaddition,hewroteasinglebookoftravelprose:A
DescriptionoftheSceneryoftheLakesintheNorthofEngland(1810,revised1822).Clearly,travelmatteredgreatlytoWordsworthspoeticprocess.
Itischallengingtowriteabriefaccountofsuchavastbodyofworkthatvariessogreatly.SufficetosaygenerallythatWordsworthstravelverseevokesmajestically
vividimagesofnature,seekstocompareculturalcharacteristics,andoftenaddressespoliticaldifference.Overall,Wordsworthstravelliteraturesuggeststhatby
voyagingtotheunfamiliaronecanbejoltedintointrospection.Itispreciselythissoulsearchingthatcausesthetravelertoknowhimselfandthereforetoknowhisplace
inthenaturalworld.
ImagesofnatureaboundinWordsworthspoetry.Thephysicalworldoftenservesasingressintothesublime,thatambivalentlyawesomeandterrifyingrealmso
popularwiththinkersofthisera.Whennotprovokingextraordinaryemotions,natureissimplybeautiful,thusinspiringinamoremodestmanneraswell.For
Wordsworth,newexperiences,asonajourney,causethetravelertooscillatebetweenthesublimeandthebeautiful.
Inmanyofhispoems(andinhisDescriptionoftheScenery)Wordsworthinsistsuponmakingdetailedculturalcomparisons.InThePrelude,forinstance,he
concentratesatlengthuponthedifferencesbetweentheContinentandEngland.Eachcanlearnfromtheother,thusWordsworthproposeshimselfasasortofcultural
ambassadorwhotransfersideasinbothdirections.ThebenefitsofsuchacrosspollinationofculturesappearthroughoutWordsworthswork.
ItwouldbeamistaketoignoreWordsworthspoliticalinterests.Helived,afterall,inFranceduringtheFrenchRevolutionandinEnglandduringsignificantpolitical
strife,debates,wars,andreforms.Blendinghisinterestinforeignplaceswithhisinterestingovernment,Wordsworthwroteseveralinterestingtravelpoemsthatframe
culturalandgeographicdifferencewithpolitics.Travelingtoseeforeigngovernmentsinactionrepresentsanunusualmotiveandanevenmoreunusualsubjectfortravel
literature.
AnotherinterestingcharacteristicofWordsworthspoetryisambivalence.Travelisnotpuregood,forithasacost.Recognizingtheconsequencesoftravel,or
accommodatingboththeforeignandthefamiliar,Wordsworthcanstabilizewhatareoftenunstablebinaryopposites.Forexample,thefollowingpoemsimultaneously
celebratesanexoticforeignlandandhome.Veryclearly,Wordsworthspellsouthismessage:toknowhomewell,oneneedstoknowelsewherealso:
l
l
l
l
l

ItravelledamongunknownMen
InLandsbeyondtheSea
Nor,England!didIknowtillthen
WhatloveIboretothee.
(CrossleyHolland385)

YetthenarratorgoesontovownevertoleaveEnglandagain,inthiscasebecauseofaparticularlybelovedwoman.ThepoemispartofalongseriesofsocalledLucy
poemsbecauseitidentifiesLucyastheobjectofdesireandthemotivationforthenarratorsactions.Wordsworthsetsloveandtravelinoppositioninthispoemtravel
ispaidforbyseparationfromthebeloved.
Giventhatwomenweregenerallydiscouragedfromeventhemostlocaltraveluntilthemidnineteenthcentury,goingonajourneyabroadmeantasignificanttimeaway
fromoneswifeorlover.Whiletravelingaffordedaccesstonewandexcitingthings,itsconsequenceisabsence.Whenabroad,onemissesallthathappensinthe
familiarworld.

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WordsworthsninebookpoemTheExcursion(1814)representstravelverseatitsmostcomplexandsophisticated.Wordsworthsownsubtitle,OnMan,on
Nature,andonHumanLife,suggeststhewiderangeofideascontainedinthestory.Theplotissimple:apoetandawandererencountervarioussortsofcharacters
intheirtravels.Theirdiscussionswitheachotherandwiththosetheymeetleadtogrowth,development,andfamiliaritywithnature,God,andsociety.Aworthyresult
oftravelindeed!
Forhisgushingenthusiasmandhisastoundingtalentasapoet,Wordsworthasatravelwriterissignificant.Ahighlysophisticatedandexperiencedtraveler,he
understoodandreflectedupontheideathattravelinspires.Althoughhispoetryresistseasyaccess,perseveranceandtenacitywillleadthereaderonawonderfully
satisfyingjourney.
References:
CrossleyHolland1985
Harvey1967
WORKMAN,FANNYBULLOCK
Oneofthegreatwomantravelers,FannyBullockWorkman(American,18591925)astoundedtheworldwithheraccountsofmountaineeringandexploration.Her
twomostfamousworksoftravelliteratureareThroughTownandJungle(1904)andIntheIceWorldoftheHimlaya(1900).Bothbookssharewithreadersthe
excitementoftravelanddemonstratethatwomencanbeeverybitasadventurousasmen.
FannyBullockmarriedawelltodoMassachusettsdoctorin1881.Theyseemedamatchmadeinheaven:bothwereadventurous,intelligent,andfulloflife.They
movedtoEuropeinordertomoreeasilytraveltheOldWorld(18891898).Andtraveltheycertainlydid!Mountaineeringexpeditions,abicycletripalongmuchof
theMediterraneancoast,aphotographicsafaritoCentralAsia,andtheusualstopsinmajorEuropeancapitalswereonlyafewoftheirmanyexcursions.Theyspent
nearly25yearstravelingtogetherineverydirection.
AmongFannyBullockWorkmansaccomplishmentsisthealtituderecordforafemalemountaineer.Atage46shebestedAnniePecksrecordbyscalingSilver
ThronePlateauinPakistan.Shewentontobeatherownrecordtwice,retaininghertitleuntil1934.Morethansimplyatourist,Workmanvociferouslypromoted
womensrights.LikePeck,WorkmanplantedasignthatproclaimedVotesforWomenatopseveralhighpeaks(Stefoff59).
Withherhusband,FannyBullockWorkmansetofftoexploreIndiaandtodocumenttheartandarchitectureoftheregion.Foraddedthrills,theyplannedtocrossthe
countryonbicycles!Thejourneybeganin1897,andittookthemnearlythreeyearstopedaltheroughly14,000milesacrossthesubcontinent.Oneoftheresultsofthe
tripistheveryfinebookThroughTownandJungle.Ittellsoftheirspiritedadventuresandhardships,theirastoundingreceptionbycuriouslocals,andtheirjoyous
engagementwithaneverchanginggeography.Writingwithpluckandhumor,WorkmannarratesthetaleasifshewerewritinganaccountofSundayafternooninthe
park.Atthetime,IndiawasstillaBritishcolony,andWorkmanmakesnoattempttohideherannoyancewiththefragileBritishwomenwhoareconstantlyafraidofthe
heat,thecold,orthedamp.TheintrepidAmericansenduredtheseallandfoundthemselvesnoworseforthewear.
Upontheirreturnthebookwaspublished,toconsiderableacclaim.Perhapsthisinspiredthecoupletotakeonanevenmoreambitiousvoyageforanencore.Sobegan
theplanningstageofatripthatwouldcoverthehighestpeaksintheworld:anextensivetouroftheHimalayanandKarakorammountainranges.Muchoftheregion
wasasyetunexploredbyWesternerspartswereevenclosedtoalltravelbydespoticprincesandisolationistrulers.Suchresistanceseemsonlytohave

Page238
spurredWorkmanandherhusbandonward.ThestoryofthisvastadventureistoldinIntheIceWorldoftheHimlaya.
AnearliervisittoKashmirhadenchantedtheWorkmans.EuropeanandAmericanclimberswereracingtomapandconquerthegreatpeaksoftheregion,andthe
Workmanswantedtobepartoftheexcitement.Asmountaineeringwasanewsport,theyhadtodesignmuchoftheirownequipment.Improvisationandquickthinking
wereessential.Thetextdescribestheirnumerousassaultsandthedaftcastofcharactersthathappenedtofindthegreatpeaksirresistible.Alltold,theirexpedition
lastedanastounding13years(18991912)!Duringthisperiodtheymadesixmajorexpeditionstoremotemountainsanddozensoflesserforaystothetopsofsmaller
peaks.
InWorkmansnarrativeweseethehusbandandwifeteamfunctioningascompleteequalsthiswasoneofherobjectives.Inaddition,bothappeartohavebeen
astoundinglyhardyandabletoendurelifethreateningcoldandlongperiodsofextremeexertion.Withcourageandboundlessenthusiasmtheyclimbedintheevenings,
whilemanyoftheothermountaineersslept,Fannywroteherjournal.
InadditiontoFannystravelogues,thecouplewroteorcontributedtoanumberofgeographicalstudies.Theirmapping,measuring,andclimaticdatarepresenta
seriouscontributiontotheearlystudyoftheHimalayanMountains.ThemostfamousoftheirgeographicwritingdetailsanarduousexpeditiontotheSiachenGlacierin
theeasternKarakoramcalledTwoSummersintheIceWildsoftheEasternKarakoram:TheExplorationofNineteenHundredSquareMilesofMountains
andGlaciers(1917).Upontheirreturn,theywerehonoredbyaninvitationtospeakattheprestigiousBritishRoyalGeographicalSociety.Inaddition,Fanny
WorkmanwasaskedtolectureattheSorbonneinParis,makingherthefirstwomanlecturerattheuniversity(Stefoff66).
Aftertheirlongstayinthemountains,thecoupleretiredcomfortablytothesouthofFrance.Fannywentonnumerouslecturetoursandwroteessaysnowandagain.
Uponherdeath,truetoherbeliefs,sheleftaconsiderableamountofmoneytoseveralwomenscollegesintheUnitedStates.
References:
Robinson1994
Stefoff1992

Page239

Y
YOUNG,ARTHUR
Anoddandrarelystudiedfellow,ArthurYoung(English,17411820)earnedhisreputationnotasatravelwriter,butasanagriculturalwriter.Hismassivehistoryof
worldagricultureremainedabenchmarkuntilthetwentiethcentury.Howeversuccessfulhisprofessionalwritingmighthavebeen,itishistravelwritingthatearnedhim
anentryinthisvolume.
Althoughadullfarmingauthorityinonesituation,Youngbecameaseeminglydifferentpersonwhenontheroad.LavishlypraisedbynovelistFannyBurneyasa
scintillatinganderuditegentleman,YoungappearstohavecometolifeassomethingofasocialitecharmerwhilstonhisvisitsthroughouttheBritishIslesandtoFrance.
Hepublishedfivetravelbooks,butonlyoneofthem,AYearsTravelsinFrance(1892),wasstillinprintinthetwentiethcentury.Hewritesasortof
autobiographicaldiarythatisboththoughtfulanddetailedandthatchronicleshisvariousadventuresandobservationsinlandsonlyslightlyremoved,thoughwholly
different,fromhishomelandofSuffolk.
Becauseofhischarmandsocialgraces,Youngwaswelcomedeverywhere,andhecountedamonghisfriendsmanyinfluentialintellectualsandpoliticians.Oneofhis
greattrickswastospendsufficienttimeinagivenlocaletoensurethathemetandcametoknowtheinhabitantsasfriendsratherthanascursorytravelacquaintances.
Aswithmanywritersofhisday,YoungalmostalwaysframeshisobservationsbycontrastinghiswhereaboutstohisEnglishhomeinthisway,hemustbeconsidered
exemplaryasawriteroftravelliterature.Forhim,travel,writing,andlearningwereoneexercise.
Wecanseehiszealfortravelandhiscultivateddesiretofurtherhisgeographicandgeologicinquiriesinalmosteveryentry.MildlyvexedbytheFrenchcustomof
eatingaformalmealatmidday,thegenialbutenergizedYoungobserves:
Astheceremonyofdressingiskeptup,youmustbeathomefromanymorningsexcursionbytwelveoclock.Thissinglecircumstance,ifadheredto,wouldbe
sufficienttodestroyanypursuits,exceptthemostfrivolous.Dividingthedayexactlyinhalves,destroysitforanyexpedition,enquiry,orbusinessthatdemandssevenor
eighthoursattention,uninterruptedbyanycallstothetableorthetoilette....WedressfordinnerinEnglandwithpropriety,astherestofthedayisdedicatedto
ease,toconverse,andrelaxationbutbydoingitatnoon,toomuchtimeislost.Whatisamangoodforafterhissilkbreechesandstockingsareon,hishatunderhis
arm,andhisheadbienpoudrCanhebotanizeinawateredmeadow?Canheclambertherockstomineralize?(Adams446)
Weshouldalsonoteseveralotherelementsoftheabovepassage.YoungsexplanationaboutdifferingdiningcustomsinEnglandemployswe,suggestingthathemay
haveenvisionedaforeignreader.Indeed,histraveloguewaspublishedinFrance,aswereatleasttwoofhisothertravelbooks.Unlikemanyofhiscontemporaries,
Youngsgentlecritiquesdonotbemoanthedifferencesrathertheysimplyobserve,withasmuchneutralityaspossible.Perhapsthisisthesortoftactthatallowedhim
tomakefriendswhereverhewent.
Bycomparisontosomeofthemorebombasticoftheeighteenthcenturystravelwriters,Youngistamebutinhissoberobservations

Page240
thereismuchtobelearnedaboutboththecultureshevisitsandtheculturethatcreatedhim.Wemightimaginehimasoneoftheidealgentlemantravelersoftheera,
wellbredandcontenttonotethedailyexperiencesoftravelasthoughtheywereextraordinary.Insodoing,Younghaswrittenabodyofworkthatmostassuredly
valuestheprocessoftravelasasingularendeavordirectedtowardunderstandinghimselfaswellascomingtoknowthosefromelsewhere.
References:
Adams1988

Page241

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CrossleyHolland,Kevin,ed.1986.TheOxfordBookofTravelVerse.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.
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Zimmerman,J.E.1964.DictionaryofClassicalMythology.NewYork:Bantam.

Page243

AbouttheAuthor
Dr.ChristopherBrownhasdegreesfromNotreDame,NorthwesternUniversity,andtheUniversityofColorado.Hehastaughtinseveralhumanisticdisciplinesat
collegesanduniversitiesinfourdifferentcountries.PresentlyheisanassistantprofessorofEnglishliteratureatZayedUniversityinAbuDhabi.Alifelonglovefor
literatureandtravelcometogetherinthisstudy.

Page244

Page245

Index
Abyssinia,18thc.,28
AnAccountofCorsica:TheJournalofaTourtoThatIsland(Boswell),21,22
AcrossthePlains(Stevenson),197
Adams,Douglas,12
Adams,Percy,133
Addison,Joseph,23
AdriftintheArcticIcePack(Kane),115
Adventuretravels
16thc.,221
18thc.,7374,163164,199201
19thc.,24,31,32,34,115116,177178,187,197198
20thc.,12,135136,173,175
advicefor,132
SeealsoExplorationsFantasytravelsMountaineering
TheAdventuresofHuckleberryFinn(Twain),217218
Africa,subSaharan
16thc.,9293
17thc.,129
18thc.,163165
19thc.,34,92,131,186,187
20thc.,48,103,158,207
SeealsoNorthAfricaSouthAfrica
Airtravel,167
TheAirConditionedNightmare(Miller),145
Akenside,Mark,34
Alaska,18thc.,58
Albania,19thc.,36
AlltheWorkesofJohnTaylor,theWaterPoet(Taylor),203
Alps,19thc.,36
TheAmateurEmigrant(Stevenson),197
America(Baudrillard),7
TheAmerican(HenryJames),111
AmericanNotes(Dickens),76
TheAmericanScene(HenryJames),109,111
AmongtheBelievers(Naipaul),158
Anglocentrism,7071
Antarctic,58,173,175
Arabia,19thc.,34,78
ArabiaDeserta(Doughty),78
Arctic,58,115116,177178
ArcticExplorations(Kane),116
AnAreaofDarkness(Naipaul),158,160
Armand,Louis,BarondeLahontan.SeeLahontan,LouisArmanddeLomdArce,Baronde
AroundtheWorldinEightyDays(Verne),222,223
AroundtheWorldonaBicycle(Stevens),195
Aroundtheworldtravels.SeeCircumnavigation
TheArtofTravel(Galton),92
Arthur(legendarykingoftheBritons),9697
AsISawtheU.S.A.(JamesMorris),154
Asia
17thc.,129
20thc.,205206
SeealsoCentralAsiaSouthPacificSoutheastAsia
AsiaMinor.SeeMiddleEast
AttheInn(Hardy),101
Athos,Mount,232
Auden,W.H.,136
Australia
18thc.,58,67
19thc.,70,198,212,217
20thc.,71,154
Australia(AnthonyTrollope),212
AutumnSequel(MacNeice),136
Azerbaijan,20thc.,38
Aziyad(Loti),133
BacktoBokhara(MacLean),135
Baedekersguides,5
Bahamas,16thc.,55,56
Baines,Thomas.SeeLord,W.B.,andThomasBaines
Balkans,20thc.,136

Page246
TheBalladofBouillabaise(Thackeray),204205
BalladsandPoems(Masefield),139
BalladsofAllNations(Borrow),20,21
Bartram,William,57
Baudrillard,Jean,78
Beatnikattitudes,117
TheBeautiesoftheBosphorus(Pardoe),163
Bedouins,19thc.,78
Belgium,19thc.,36,196
Bell,Gertrude,89
ABendintheRiver(Naipaul),158
Bermuda,17thc.,138
Bermuda(Marvell),138
BeyondBelief(Naipaul),158
BeyondMexiqueBay(Huxley),107
TheBibleinSpain(Borrow),20,21
Bicycletravel,19thc.,195,237
Bignold,ThomasFrank,910
Bird,Isabella,1014
Bishop,Elizabeth,1415
Bishop,IsabellaBird.SeeBird,Isabella
Bligh,William,vii,1518
BlindFireworks(MacNeice),136
Bly,Nellie,1819
photoof,18
Bokhara,112,135,234
Bll,Heinrich,1920
BombsAway(Steinbeck),190
BookerPrize,160
Borrow,George,2021
Boswell,James,20,2123,113
Bougainville,LouisAntoinede,2324
Bougrenet,JacquesLouisde,2425
Bounty,HMS,17,107
Browne,EdwardGranville,2526
Browning,Robert,2628
portraitof,27
Bruce,James,28
Brydone,Patrick,2829
Buccaneers,2930
16thc.,79
17thc.,6667,199
18thc.,76
paintingof,30
Burchell,WilliamJ.,3031
Burckhardt,JohannLudwig,3132
Burma,20thc.,107
Burton,SirRichardFrancis,20,3234,186
portraitof,33
Butler,Samuel,3536
Byron,Lord,17,3637
Byron,Robert,3739,228
CabezadeVaca,AlvarNez,41
CabezadeVacasAdventuresintheUnknownInteriorofAmerica(CabezadeVaca),41
CalderndelaBarca,Frances,4142
Calverley,CharlesStuart,4243
Cambodia,20thc.,128
CamelsinPersia(Wellsley),229
Canada
17thc.,5152
18thc.,115
19thc.,11,151152,209
Candideor,Optimism(Voltaire),129,224225
CapeCod(Thoreau),209
CapeHorn,43,199
CapeofGoodHope,43
photoof,44
CaptainCooksJournalduringHisFirstVoyageroundtheWorld(Cook),5758
CaptainMission(Defoe),7576
Careri,GiovanniFranciscoGemelli,4335
Caribbean.SeeWestIndies
Carlyle,Thomas,6,26
Carr,SirJohn,4546
Carre,Abb,4647
Catalonia,20thc.,128
Cathay,47
Catherwood,Frederick,192
Cline,LouisFerdinand,4748
CentralAmerica
17thc.,66,91
19thc.,191,192
20thc.,107,189
mapof,56
CentralAsia
16thc.,112
19thc.,5,13
20thc.,3738,135136
SeealsoSilkRoad
Cervantes,Miguelde,4951
Champlain,Samuelde,5152
TheCharacterofHolland(Marvell),139
ChildeHaroldsPilgrimage(LordByron),36
China,47
16thc.,170171
19thc.,1314
20thc.,82,107,154,206
China(Empson),82
ChinaintheSixteenthCentury(Ricci),170171
ChristmasatSea(Stevenson),198
Circumnavigation,52
16thc.,79,137138
17thc.,4345,67
18thc.,23,73,74
19thc.,1819,180181,195
20thc.,218
ofAntarctica,58

Page247
fictional,223
illustrationoffirstshipin,53
CityoftheSaints(Burton),34
TheCityoftheSultanandDomesticMannersoftheTurks(Pardoe),163
TheCityofVeiledWomen(Leonowens),126,127
Class,Europeanupper,61,62,150,176177
Classicalsites,4,28,5253,61,146,184,191
ClaudeMirror,5253
Clemens,SamuelLanghorne.SeeTwain,Mark
Coleridge,SamuelTaylor,6,5354,66,235
CollectedPoems(Hardy),100
CollectedPoems(MacNeice),136
CollectedTravelWritings(HenryJames),109
Colonialinterests,x,67,186
16thc.,9293,169,170
17thc.,47,9192
19thc.,9,87,163,169,212
20thc.,128,157,158,169,231
andmissionaries,148
SeealsoImperialismTradeinterests
TheColossusofMaroussi(Miller),156
Columbus,Christopher,5457,62
illustrationsof,55,56
Columbus(Rogers),171
Commercialinterests.SeeTradeinterests
ACompendiumofAuthenticandEntertainingVoyages(Smollett),183,184
CompletePoems(Bishop),14
TheCongoandtheFoundingofItsFreeState(Stanley),187
Constantinople
16thc.,65
19thc.,133,163,204
Continent,Europeas,57
Cook,CaptainJames,43,5759
Cooper,JamesFenimore,5962
CoronationEverest(JamesMorris),154
Correspondance(Svign),176
Correspondence(Flaubert),8485
Corsica,18thc.,22
Coryate,Thomas,6263,129,130
CoryatsCrudities(Coryate),6263
TheCruiseoftheVanadis(Wharton),230,232
Culturalcomparison,x
17thc.,44,46,5152
18thc.,3,24,29,46,114,115,150151,183,194,225,239240
19thc.,89,21,35,60,89,119,146,212,217,222,236
20thc.,82,145,158
andhumancommonality,19,69,229
andimaginedrealm,222
SeealsoSocialcommentary
Culturalcrosspollination,4,4546,206,233,236
CupofGold:ALifeofSirHenryMorgan,Buccaneer(Steinbeck),189
DalaiLama,101102
Dallam,Thomas,65
Dallas,SirGeorge,66
Dampier,William,6668,74
Dana,RichardHenry,6869
Darwin,Charles,6971
Dauber(Masefield),139
Davidson,Robyn,7172
DayLewis,Cecil,7273
DeLasCasas,Bartolom,5556
Defoe,Daniel,66,7376
TheDelinquentTravellers(Coleridge),54
ADescriptionoftheSceneryoftheLakesintheNorthofEngland(WilliamWordsworth),236
DesertPlaces(Davidson),71,72
Deserttravel,9,7172,78
Destouches,LouisFerdinand.SeeCline,LouisFerdinand
DiaryofThomasDallam(Dallam),65
Dickens,Charles,7678
photoof,77
Diderot,Denis,23,122
DiscoverieoftheLarge,Rich,andBeautifulEmpyreofGuiana(Raleigh),170
DomesticMannersoftheAmericans(FrancesTrollope),213214
DonJuan(LordByron),36
DonQuixote(Cervantes),49,51,167
illustrationfrom,50
Douay,FatherAnastasius(chroniclerofLaSalle),121
Doughty,CharlesMontagu,7879
DovertoMunich(Calverly),4243
ADragonApparent(Lewis),128
Drake,SirFrancis,79
portraitof,53
Dudevant,AmandineAuroreLucileDupin.SeeSand,George
EarlyLight(Wellsley),228230
EasternApproaches(MacLean),135136
Egypt
19thc.,85,118,191,204,216
20thc.,136
EightyfivePoems(MacNeice),136
Eldorado,81,170,225
Emerson,RalphWaldo,6
Empire,81
AnEmpireoftheEast(Lewis),128

Page248
Empson,SirWilliam,8182
TheEnglishAmerican,HisTravelsbySeaandLand(Gage),9192
TheEnglishGovernessattheSiameseCourt(Leonowens),126
TheEnglishwomaninAmerica(Bird),11
EnigmaofArrival,The(Naipaul),158
AnEnquiryintothePresentStateofPoliteLearninginEurope(Goldsmith),96
Eothen(Kinglake),118
Erehwon(Butler),35
TheEroticTraveler(Burton),34
Eroticism,85,151
EscapetoAdventure(MacLean),135
Espionage.SeeIntelligenceservices
EssaysonLondonandElsewhere(HenryJames),111
EtruscanPlaces(D.H.Lawrence),123124
Eurocentrism,127128,171
Europe,57,110
andinterestinU.S.,175176
Seealsoindividualcountries
Europeantravel
17thc.,129,138,176,203
18thc.,34
19thc.,5,42,133,144,146,173,191,236
20thc.,145,189190,233234
SeealsoGrandTour
TheEuropeans(HenryJames),111
Everest,Mount,154
TheExcursion(WilliamWordsworth),236,237
TheExile(Loti),133,134
TheExpeditionofHumphreyClinker(Smollett),183,184
Exploration,Ageof,ix,52
Explorations
16thc.,79,9293,137138
17thc.,87,109,121,163164,181
18thc.,28,58,67,68,163,165
19thc.,31,6971,130131,186,187,192
20thc.,238
advicefor,132
SeealsoAdventuretravelsDeserttravel
Fantasytravels,12,34,15,199201,222224
AFarewelltoArms(Hemingway),103
FearandLoathinginLasVegas(Thompson),208
FerdinandandIsabella(kingandqueenofSpain),55
Fielding,Henry,8384
portraitof,83
FirstFlight(Wellsley),229
FirstFootstepsinEasternAfrica(Burton),34
AFirstYearinCanterburySettlement(Butler),35
Flanders,17th19thc.,98
Flaubert,Gustave,8485
FollowingtheEquator(Twain),215,217
Forster,E.M.,8587
Foster,Stephen,18
TheFourYearsVoyageofCaptainGeorgeRoberts(Defoe),73,74
Fox,CaptainLuke,87
FoxfromtheNorthwestPassage(Fox),87
FragmentsandVoyages(Hall),99
France,98
17thc.,62
18thc.,3,150151,183,193,239
19thc.,60,61,89,110,133,196197,204,232233
20thc.,103104,140141,158,231
Frankenstein(Shelley),177178
Fraser,G.S.,8788
AFrenchmansWalkthroughIreland(Bougrenet),24
Fuller,Margaret,8889
Fussell,Paul,100,157
Gage,Thomas,9192
Galile(Loti),133
Galton,SirFrancis,92
Gama,Vascoda,9293
printsof,93,94
Genderroles.SeeWomen
TheGenerallHistorieofVirginia(Smith),181,182
Geographicstudies.SeeExplorations
GeographyIII(Bishop),14
Germany,987
17thc.,62
19thc.,43,60,178,196,216
20thc.,124
Gibraltar(Trench),211
GleaningsinEurope(Cooper),60
Goa,andtheBlueMountain(Burton),34
AGoddessintheStones(Lewis),128
Goethe,JohannWolfgangvon,20,9395,153
portraitof,95
Gold,57,81,122,170
TheGoldenChersoneseandtheWayThither(Bird),11,13
illustrationfrom,11
TheGoldMinesofMidian(Burton),34
Goldsmith,Oliver,9596
GoodHope,Capeof,43
photoof,44
GrailQuest,49,9698
paintingof,97
GrandTour,57,98
18thc.,22,9596
19thc.,36,171
20thc.,207

Page249
GreatBritain,98,158,186
17thc.,62,203
18thc.,2425,75,153154,183
19thc.,60,89,111,144,146,152,210,232,236
20thc.,158,207
politicsin,210
SeealsoScotlandWales
TheGreatRailwayBazaar(Theroux),205
TheGreatSharkHunt(Thompson),207208
Greece
17thc.,62
18thc.,4
19thc.,36,146,191,192,204,216
20thc.,145,232
GreenHillsofAfrica(Hemingway),103
Guatemala,20thc.,107
GulliversTravels(Swift),199201
illustrationfrom,200
GunnarsHoweabovetheHouseatLithend(WilliamMorris),155
Hall,CaptainBasil,99100
TheHappyIslesofOceania:PaddlingthePacific(Theroux),206
TheHappyTraveler:ABookforPoorMen(Tatchell),203
Harar(EastAfrica),34
Hardy,Thomas,100101
Harems
17thc.,65
18thc.,151
19thc.,85,163
20thc.,127,232
Harrer,Heinrich,101102
HawaiianIslands,12,58,198
Hemingway,Ernest,102104
Hennepin,Louis(chroniclerofLaSalle),121
Hilton,James,104105
Himalayanmountains,19thc.,237238
HistoryofBrazil(Southey),184
HistoryofDiscovery(Defoe),75
TheHitchhikersGuidetotheGalaxy(Adams),12
HolyGrail.SeeGrailQuest
HolyLand,19thc.,31,133,144,191,204,216
HomeasFound(Cooper),62
HomeThoughtsfromAbroad(Browning),26
HomewardBound(Cooper),62
HongKong(JanMorris),154
Hood,Thomas,105106
Horn,Cape,43
HotelPastis(Mayle),140,141
Houghton,FirstBaron.SeeMilnes,RichardMonckton
HowIFoundLivingstone(Stanley),187
HowardsEnd(Forster),86
HuckFinn.SeeTheAdventuresofHuckleberryFinn
HudsonBay,17thc.,109
Humancommonality
19thc.,19,69
20thc.,229
Huxley,Aldous,106107
Iceland,19thc.,155
IcelandFirstSeen(WilliamMorris),155
TheIcelandFisherman(Loti),133
Imaginedtravels.SeeFantasytravels
Imperialism,x,46,47,81,186,211
Impressions(Loti),133
InaFreeState(Naipaul),158
InDarkestAfrica(Stanley),187
InMorocco(Wharton),230,231232
IntheIceWorldoftheHimlaya(Workman),237,238
IntheOldTheatre,Fiesole(Hardy),100
IntheSouthSeas(Stevenson),198
IncidentsofTravelinCentralAmerica,ChiapasandYucatan(Stephens),191,192
IncidentsofTravelinEgypt,Arabia,PetraeaandtheHolyLand(Stephens),191
IncidentsofTravelinGreece,Turkey,RussiaandPoland(Stephens),191,192
India,169
16thc.,9293
17thc.,4647
18thc.,62,66
19thc.,9,34,169,217,237
20thc.,72,8687,107,126,128,133,137,158,160,169
TheIndiaGuide(Dallas),66
IndiawithouttheEnglish(Loti),133
Indonesia,20thc.,128,158.SeealsoSpiceIslands
IndustrialandCommercialSouthAmerica(Peck),165,166167
InlandVoyage(Stevenson),196
InnocentsAbroad(Twain),215,216
Intelligenceservices,20thc.,124,126,135
Intergalactictravel,12
TheIonianIslands(Milnes),146
Ireland
18thc.,24
19thc.,204,210,236
20thc.,1920
IrishJournal(Bll),1920
TheIrishSketchbook(Thackeray),204
IslamInflamed:theMiddleEastPicture(JamesMorris),154
Islamicculture
18thc.,150

Page250
19thc.,8,3132,85,234
20thc.,8,154,158,232
SeealsoMecca
TheIsland(Byron),17
Island(Huxley),107
IslandNightsEntertainments(Stevenson),198
ItalianBackgrounds(Wharton),230,231
ItalianHours(HenryJames),109,111
AnItalianVisit(DayLewis),7273
Italy,98
17thc.,62
18thc.,3,29,150,183,184,193
19thc.,60,61,76,78,89,9395,111,171,178,184,216,236
20thc.,7273,8586,100,123124,154,231
Italy(Rogers),171
Jamaica,19thc.,168
James,CaptainThomas,109
James,Henry,Jr.,109111,231
Japan
19thc.,1213,133
20thc.,107
Jenkinson,Anthony,111112
Jrusalem(Loti),133
JestingPilate:TheStoryofaJourney(Huxley),107
Johnson,Samuel,2223,112114
printof,113
Jonson,Ben,203
Jordan,19thc.,31
JournalandLetters,fromFranceandGreatBritain(Willard),232233
JournalofaTourtotheHebrides(Johnson),112
JournalofaVisittoEuropeandtheLevant(Melville),142,144
JournalofaVisittoLondonandtheContinent(Melville),142,144
JournalofaVoyagetoLisbon(Fielding),8384
TheJournalofMme.Knight(Knight),119
JournaloftheDiscoveryoftheSourceoftheNile(Speke),186
AJournaloftheFirstVoyageofVascodaGama(Gama),9293
AJournaloftheTourtotheHebrideswithSamuelJohnson(Boswell),21,2223
JournaluptheStraits(Melville),142,144
Journals,98
16thc.,170171
17thc.,5152,65
18thc.,3,5759
19thc.,6869,6971,8485,130132,142,150,195,232233
20thc.,106107,173,175
SeealsoTravelaccountsTravelogues
JourneyofAlvarNezCabezadeVacaandHisCompanionsfromFloridatothePacific(CabezadeVaca),41
JourneytoAmerica(Tocqueville),210
JourneytotheCenteroftheEarth(Verne),222
JourneytotheEndofNight(Cline),4748
AJourneytotheWesternIslandsofScotland(Johnson),112113
Journeys(JanMorris),154
JourneysinPersiaandKurdistan(Bird),11,13
JourneysofRenRobertCavelierSieurdeLaSalle(Cox),121
JourneystoEnglandandIreland(Tocqueville),210
Joutel,Henry(chroniclerofLaSalle),121
Kalm,Peter,115
Kane,ElishaKent,115116
KarlPhilippMoritzinEngland(Moritz),153154
Keats,John,x
Kerouac,Jack,116118
photoof,116
TheKingandI(RodgersandHammerstein),127
KingdombytheSea:AJourneyaroundtheCoastofGreatBritain(Theroux),207
Kinglake,AlexanderWilliam,118119
Knight,SarahKemble,119
Kowloon(Theroux),207
KublaKhan(Coleridge),53
LaSalle,Jean,121
LaSalle,RenRobertCavelier,Sieurde,121122
Labels(Waugh),228
ALadysLifeintheRockyMountains(Bird),11,12
Lahontan,LouisArmanddeLomdArce,Baronde,122123
TheLakeDistrictsofAfrica(Burton),34
Landscapeviewing,18thc.,5253
Language,andculture,25
Laos,20thc.,128
Lawrence,D.H.,123124,145
Lawrence,T.E.,124126
photoof,125
LeClerq,FatherChrestien(chroniclerofLaSalle),121
Leonowens,Anna,126127
Letters
17thc.,176177
18thc.,29,122123,148,150,183184
19thc.,37,4142,6061,9395,118119,173,175176,177178
20thc.,89
Letters(LordByron),37

Page251
LettersandWorksofLadyMaryWortleyMontagu(Montagu),148,150
LettersfromAbroadtoKindredatHome(Sedgwick),175176
TheLettersofGertrudeBell(Bell),8
LettresdunVoyageur(Sand),173
Levant,25,127128,144,150
Leviora:BeingtheRhymeofaSuccessfulCompetitor(Bignold),9
Lewis,Norman,128129
TheLifeandOpinionsofTristramShandy(Sterne),45,193
TheLifeandOpinionsofTristramShandy,Gentleman,Volume3(Carr),45
LifeinMexico(CalderndelaBarca),42
Life,theUniverse,andEverything(Adams),1
Lithgow,William,129131
ALittleTourinFrance(HenryJames),109,110
Livingstone,David,130132,187
portraitof,130
Localpeople
17thc.,176
18thc.,96,153154,194
19thc.,134,181,192,198
20thc.,128,135,206
Lord,W.B.,andThomasBaines,132
Lorraine,Claude,52
LostHorizon(Hilton),104105
Loti,Pierre,132134
MacLean,SirFitzroy,135136
MacNeice,Louis,136137
MadameButterfly(Puccini),133
MadameChrysanthme(Loti),133,134
Magellan,Ferdinand,43,52,137138,199
portraitsof,53,56
Magellan,Straitof,43,70(illus.),138,199
Mahabalipuram(MacNeice),137
TheMaineWoods(Thoreau),209
AMainsailHaul(Masefield),139
Malaysia
19thc.,13
20thc.,107,158,207
Malta,18thc.,29
Mardi(Melville),142,144
LeMariagedeLoti(Loti),133
Marley,David,29
Marvell,Andrew,138139
Masefield,John,139140
photoof,140
Mayanculture,192
Mayle,Peter,140142
MeaCulpa(Cline),47
Mecca
16thc.,221
19thc.,31,32,78
Medina,19thc.,32
MediterraneanSea,20thc.,228.SeealsoLevantNearEast
Melville,Herman,142145
Membr,Father(chroniclerofLaSalle),121
MemoirsofaCavalier(Defoe),75
MemorialsofaTourontheContinent(WilliamWordsworth),236
MercedesofCastile(Cooper),62
Mexico
19thc.,42
20thc.,107,124,166
MiddleEast,127128
16thc.,221
17thc.,4647
18thc.,62
19thc.,89,25,3132,34,8485,133,144,234
20thc.,38,124125,136,154
TheMiddlePassages(Naipaul),158
MidnightontheGreatWestern(Hardy),101
Miller,Henry,145146
Milnes,RichardMonckton,146,148
MisadventuresofanAmericanAbroad(Tyrrell),218219
AMissiontoGelele(Burton),34
Missionaries,148
16thc.,56,57,170171,181
17thc.,91,122123,170171
18thc.,2021,67
19thc.,13,234
engravingof,147
MobyDick(Melville),142
Modernism,37,103104
Modernization,128
Moluccas.SeeSpiceIslands
Montagu,LadyMaryWortley,148150
engravingof,149
Montesquieu,Charles,150151
Moodie,Susanna,151152
TheMoonIsDown(Steinbeck),189
Moore,Thomas,152153
Morgan,Susan,126
Moritz,KarlPhilipp,153154
Mormons,34
MorningsinMexico(D.H.Lawrence),123,124
Morocco
19thc.,14
20thc.,231232
Morris,Jan(bornJamesHumphryMorris),118,154155
Morris,William,155
TheMosquitoCoast(Theroux),207

Page252
MostlyHarmless(Adams),1
AMotorFlightthroughFrance(Wharton),230,231
Mountaineering,165167,237238
AMoveableFeast(Hemingway),103
Muslims.SeeIslamicculture
MutinyontheBounty(film),stillscenefrom,16
MutinyontheBounty(NordhoffandHall),17
MyDaysamongtheDeadArePast(Southey),184
MyOtherLife(Theroux),207
TheMysteriousIsland(Verne),222,223224
Naipaul,SirV.S.,157158,160
photoof,157
Narcoticdrugs,25,85
NarrativeofaMissiontoBokhara(Wolff),234
ANarrativeoftheLifeandTravelsofMrs.NancyPrince(Prince),168
NarrativeoftheMutinyontheBounty(Bligh),15,1718
Nativepeoples
16thc.,41,5657,138
17thc.,5152,9192,121,122123,181182
18thc.,17,2324,58,68,6970,200201
19thc.,78,88,89,130,131,143,210
20thc.,72
illustrationsof,6,51
NorthAmerican,5,7,41,5152,8889,121,122123,181182,210
ofSouthPacific,17,2324,41,58,6970,138,143
SeealsoNaturalmanNoblesavage
Naturalman,18thc.,7,23,224
Naturalworld
16thc.,57
18thc.,57,5253,67
19thc.,11,12,13,31,35,61,143,178,186,192,209,210,235,236
20thc.,140
viewingof,5253
NearEast,127128
19thc.,8,31,8485,118119,144,191,204
20thc.,207
NellieBlysBook:AroundtheWorldinSeventytwoDays(Bly),1819
Netherlands,98,158,18617thc.,62,139
TheNewArabianNights(Stevenson),197
ANewVoyageroundtheWorld(Dampier),67
ANewVoyageroundtheWorld(Defoe),73,74
NewVoyagestoNorthAmerica(Lahontan),122
NewYork,20thc.,8
NewZealand
18thc.,58
19thc.,35
Newby,Eric,228
NigerRiver,explorationof,163,164,165
NileRiver,explorationof,28,34,131,186
NineteenEightyFour(Orwell),218
NinetytwoDays(Waugh),228
NobelPrize,19,189
Noblesavage,7,23,122,143
NorthAfrica
17thc.,62
19thc.,5
20thc.,136,232
SeealsoEgyptMorocco
NorthAmerica
16thc.,41,169
17thc.,121,122123,181182
18thc.,57,58
coastof,58
mapof,56
SeealsoCanadaMexicoUnitedStates
NorthAmerica(AnthonyTrollope),212
NorthandSouth(Bishop),14
NorthPole.SeeArctic
NorthwestPassage,58,87,160
17thc.,109,122
paintingof,159
NotesofaJourneyfromCornhilltoGrandCairo(Thackeray),204
Novels,novelisticaccounts
17thc.,49,51,9192
18thc.,15,1718,28,7375,8384,150151,184,193195,199201,224225
19thc.,35,62,76,78,111,126127,132134,143145,151152,177178,196,197,217218,222224
20thc.,12,1920,4748,8587,102105,107,116118,145146,157158,160,189,190191,205207,218219,228,233234
SeealsoPicaresquenovel
Nubia,19thc.,31
NezCabezadeVaca,Alvar.SeeCabezadeVaca,AlvarNez
OdetotheLastPotofMarmalade(WilliamMorris),155
TheOldManandtheSea(Hemingway),103
TheOldPatagonianExpress(Theroux),206
Olearius,Adam,161
Omoo(Melville),142,143144
OntheEdgeoftheGreatRift(Theroux),207
OntheRoad(Kerouac),116118
1001ArabianNights,32,232
Opium,25,85

Page253
Orwell,George,218
Ossoli,Marchioness.SeeFuller,Margaret
Other,andself,ix
OttomanEmpire,19thc.,118119
Pakistan,19thc.,237
Pardoe,Julia,163
Paris(France),61
TheParisSketchbook(Thackeray),204
Park,Mungo,163164
Parody,1,45,207,228,233
APassagetoIndia(Forster),8687
stillfromfilmversionof,86
Patriotism,19thc.,211
Peasantlife,18thc.,96.SeealsoLocalpeople
Peck,Annie,165167
photoof,165
ThePennilessPilgrimage(Taylor),203
PeregrinePickle(Smollett),183,184
Periplus,167.SeealsoCircumnavigation
Persia
17thc.,161
18thc.,150151
19thc.,89,13,25
20thc.,89,229
PersianLetters(Montesquieu),150151
APersonfromEngland,andOtherTravellers(MacLean),135
Petra,19thc.,31,191
Picaresquenovel,45,49,83,167,184,193,224
Picaro,36,167168
16thc.,221
17thc.,47,49
18thc.,75
19thc.,217
20thc.,117
PicturesfromItaly(Dickens),76,78
Pigafetti,Antonio,138
PilgrimagetoAlMedinahandMecca(Burton),3334
Pilgrimages.SeeGrailQuestMecca
ThePillarsofHercules(Theroux),207
ThePillarsofWisdom(T.E.Lawrence),125126
PioneerlifeinNorthAmerica,151152
Pirates.SeeBuccaneers
PiratesandPrivateersoftheAmericas(Marley),29
Pizarro,Francisco,illustrationof,56
Places(JanMorris),154
ThePleasuresofImagination(Akenside),34
ThePleasuresofMemory(Rogers),171
Poems(Carr),4546
PoemsbytheWay(WilliamMorris),155
PoemsChieflyofEarlyandLateYears(WilliamWordsworth),236
Poems:NorthandSouth(Bishop),14
PoeticalWorks(Milnes),146
Poetry
17thc.,138139,203
18thc.,34,4546,66,9596
19thc.,910,26,28,3637,4243,5354,105106,146,148,152153,155,171,184185,198,204,211,235237
20thc.,1415,7273,8182,8788,100101,136137,139140,228230
Poland,19thc.,191,192
Polarexplorations.SeeAntarcticArctic
Politicalstudies,139,210,236
PortraitsofPlaces(HenryJames),109,110
Portugal,186
18thc.,8384
19thc.,36,184
Postmodernism,8,208,218
Posttouristicwritings,157,205,218,228,234
ThePrelude(WilliamWordsworth),236
Prince,Nancy,168
Privateers.SeeBuccaneers
Provence,140142
PulitzerPrize,14
QuestionsofTravel,1415
Railtravel,20thc.,205206
Raj,9,169
Raleigh,SirWalter,81,169170
portraitof,169
RamblesinGermanyandItaly(Shelley),177,178
RecollectionsofaDaysJourneyinSpain(Southey),184,185
RecollectionsofaTourMadeinScotland(DorothyWordsworth),235
Redburn(Melville),142,144
Religion,studyof,139.SeealsoMissionaries
RemarksonSeveralPartsofItaly(Addison),4
RemembertoRemember(Miller),145
TheRestaurantattheEndoftheUniverse(Adams),1
RevoltintheDesert(T.E.Lawrence),125126
RhymesontheRoad(Moore),152153
Ricci,Matteo,170171
engravingof,147
Ricketts,EdwardF.,189
RidingtheIronRooster(Theroux),206
TheRimeoftheAncientMariner(Coleridge),53
TheRoadtoHuddersfield(JamesMorris),154
TheRoadtoOxiana(RobertByron),3738
RobinsonCrusoe(Defoe),7374
illustrationfrom,74
RoderickRandom(Smollett),183,184
Rogers,Samuel,171

Page254
Rogers,Woodes,67,74
Roggeveen,Jacob,43
TheRomanceoftheHarem(Leonowens),126,127
ARoomwithaView(Forster),8586
RoughingIt(Twain),215,216
RoughingItintheBush,orLifeinCanada(Moodie),151152
Rousseau,JeanJacques,22,23,122
Rowbotham,ArnoldH.,170
RoyalSociety,67
Rugoff,Milton,65,131
Russia
16thc.,112
17thc.,161
19thc.,168,191,192
SeealsoSovietUnion
RussianJournal(Steinbeck),189
SailingAlonearoundtheWorld(Slocum),180181
SaltWaterBallads(Masefield),139,140
Sand,George,173,231
caricatureof,174
SandwichIslands.SeeHawaiianIslands
Sardinia,20thc.,124
Satire,1,35,45,199,216217
Scheherazade,232
Scientificexplorations
19thc.,31,6971
20thc.,238
SeealsoExplorations
Scotland
17thc.,203
18thc.,2223,112,113114
19thc.,234235,236
Scott,RobertF.,173,175
Scott,SirWalter,61
ScottsLastVoyage(Scott),173,175
SeaandSardinia(D.H.Lawrence),123,124
SeaFever(Masefield),140
TheSeaofCortez(Steinbeck),189
Seavoyages
19thc.,9,10,62,6869,142,143,144,180181
20thc.,103,106,139140,189
ASearchfortheApexofAmerica(Peck),165,166
Sedgwick,CatharineMaria,175176
Selkirk,Alexander,67,74
ASentimentalJourneythroughFranceandItaly(Sterne),183
Serbia,19thc.,119
SevenYearsinTibet(Harrer),101102
filmof,101
Svign,Marquisede,176177
Sexism.SeeWomen
Sexualfreedom,2324
ShangriLa,104105
Shaw,T.E.SeeLawrence,T.E.
Shelley,MaryWollstonecraft,177178
portraitof,177
ShiftsandExpedientsofCampLife,Travel,andExploration(LordandBaines),132
TheShortReignofPippinIV(Steinbeck),189
Siam,20thc.,127
Siberia,20thc.,135
Sicily,18thc.,29
SilkRoad,112,179,195,229
mapof,180
photoof,179
TheSilveradoSquatters(Stevenson),197
SindhandtheRacesThatInhabittheValleyoftheIndus(Burton),34
SirVidiasShadow(Theroux),207
SixMonthsintheSandwichIslands(Bird),11,12
SketchesinSwitzerland(Cooper),60
Slocum,Joshua,180181
Smith,CaptainJohn,181183
Smollett,Tobias,183184
TheSnowsofKilimanjaro(Hemingway),103
SoLong,andThanksforAlltheFish(Adams),1
Socialcommentary
17thc.,123
18thc.,96,113,119
19thc.,68,76,8889,223
20thc.,128
SeealsoCulturalcomparison
SolitaryTravel(MacNeice),136
Solstices(MacNeice),136
SomeRatherConflictingObservationsonTravel(Johnson),114
SongoftheEvilSpiritoftheWoods(Moore),153
SonnetuponaSwedishCottage(Carr),4546
SouthAfrica,43
19thc.,3031,212
20thc.,154
SouthAfrica(AnthonyTrollope),212
SouthAfricanWinter(JamesMorris),154
SouthAmerica,43,199
16thc.,41,55,79,81,170
17thc.,66
19thc.,34,70,184
20thc.,154,166167,206,207,208,228
mapof,56
SouthAmerica(JamesMorris),154
TheSouthAmericanTour(Peck),165,166
SouthPacific
18thc.,17,23,58,6768
19thc.,12,13,142144,198
20thc.,206
mapof,59

Page255
SeealsoSoutheastAsiaSouthernHemisphere
SouthPole.SeeAntarctic
SoutheastAsia
19thc.,13
20thc.,107,127,128,158
SouthernHemisphere,58
chartof,59
Southey,Robert,184185
SovietUnion,20thc.,37,47,135136,189
Spain
19thc.,21,36,184,185
20thc.,103,128
Speke,JohnHanning,34,185186
SpiceIslands,138,186
Stanley,SirHenryMorton,186189
photoof,188
Steinbeck,John,189191
photoof,190
Stephens,JohnLloyd,191193
Sterne,Laurence,45,183,193195
Stevens,Thomas,195
Stevenson,RobertLouis,195199
photoof,196
Storytellers,19thc.,217
StraitofMagellan,43,70(illus.),138,199
StrangeandDangerousVoyageofCaptainThomasJames(ThomasJames),109
SummerontheLakes(Fuller),8889
TheSunAlsoRises(Hemingway),103
stillfromfilmversionof,102
Sweden,18th19thc.,4546
Swift,Jonathan,151,199201
Switzerland,98
17thc.,62
19thc.,60
20thc.,103,124
Sydney(JanMorris),154
Syria,19thc.,31
Tahiti
18thc.,17,2324,58
19thc.,133,143,198
ATaleofParaguay(Southey),184
ATarpaulinMuster(Masefield),139
Tatchell,Frank,203
Taylor,John,203
TaylorsTravelsfromLondontoPrague(Taylor),203
Thackeray,WilliamMakepeace,203205
portraitof,204
Thailand,20thc.,127
Thalaba(Southey),184
Theroux,Paul,205207,228
ThomasCoryateTraveller(Coryate),62
Thompson,HunterS.,207208
Thoreau,HenryDavid,208209
ThroughtheDarkContinent(Stanley),187
ThroughTownandJungle(Workman),237
Tibet
19thc.,14
20thc.,101102
Timetravel,2
To*****(Hood),105106
ToCaucasus,theEndofAlltheEarth(MacLean),135
ToCubaandBack(Dana),68
TotheBackofBeyond:AnIllustratedCompaniontoCentralAsiaandMongolia(MacLean),135
Tocqueville,Alexisde,7,209210
portraitof,209
TheTotalDiscourse,ofRareAdventures,andPainfulPeregrinations(Lithgow),129130
ToujoursProvence(Mayle),140,141
TourthrotheWholeIslandofGreatBritain(Defoe),75
ATourthroughSicilyandMaltainaSeriesofLetters(Brydone),29
Tourists,7273,132,136,137,157,203,205,216
andposttouristic,157,205,218,228,234
andtravelers,227228
TheTourists(DayLewis),7273
TowardIsfahan(Loti),133
Tracks(Davidson),71,72
Tradeinterests,47,81
16thc.,65,9293,111112,137,138
17thc.,46,47,161
18thc.,68,75
19thc.,212
20thc.,166167
barter,138
SeealsoColonialinterestsSilkRoad
ATrampAbroad(Twain),215,216217
TransatlanticSketches(HenryJames),109,110
Travel,vii
andadversity,131,135,187,203
ambivalencetoward,15,54,106,198,236
cheap,1,95,203
andengaginginplace,7273,134
andhome,x
intellectualdialogueasaccountof,122123
journalpreservationin,47,67
andlearning,84,9495,209
andliterature,viiix
andmemory,26,38,99,105,185,204205
asmetaphorforlife,x
motionof,54,116117,140
preparationsfor,10,2425,92,132,213
processof,910,15,52,134,207,227
asquest,49
andselfandother,ix

Page256
standardizationin,136
fromtransnationalperspective,157
asunrepeatable,8788,185
andwriting,38,47,67,71,7879,82,89,96,98,103,207,208
SeealsoTravelaccounts
Travelaccounts,viii
15thc.,5457
16thc.,41,79,9293,111112,137138,221
17thc.,87,109,121122,129130,169170,181183
18thc.,56,2123,2324,2425,4345,6668,112114,115,119,153154,163165
19thc.,1114,1819,2021,25,3031,32,34,35,7879,8889,99100,109111,115116,163,168,180181,185189,191193,197,204,208210,
211217,234,239240
20thc.,3739,7172,101102,123126,128129,135136,140142,154155,165167,189190,207208,230232,237238
SeealsoAdventuretravelsExplorationsFantasytravelsJournalsLettersNovels,novelisticaccountsParodyPoetrySatireTravelguidesTravelogues
Travelguides
17thc.,6263
18thc.,75
19thc.,5,110
TheTraveller(Goldsmith),9596
TheTravellerHasRegrets(Fraser),8788
TravellingSketches(AnthonyTrollope),212,213
Travelogues
17thc.,4647,161
18thc.,28,74,200
19thc.,3132,109,111,133,178,196,234235
20thc.,145,166,189,218,227228
SeealsoJournals
Travels(Bartram),57
frontispieceandtitlepageof,6
Travels(JanMorris),154
Travels(Varthema),221
TravelsinItaly(Goethe),9395
TravelsinNorthAmericaintheYears1827and1828(Hall),99
TravelsintheInteriorofAfrica(Park),163164
TravelsintheInteriorofSouthAfrica(Burchell),3031
TravelsintoNorthAmerica(Kalm),115
TravelsthroughFranceandItaly(Smollett),183184
TravelstoDiscovertheSourceoftheNile(Bruce),28
TravelswithaDonkey(Stevenson),196197
TravelswithCharley(Steinbeck),190191
TreasureIsland(Stevenson),196197
Trench,RichardChenevix,210211
Trinidad,20thc.,158
TriparoundtheWorld(Careri),4345
Trollope,Anthony,211213
Trollope,Frances,213214
TropicofCancer(Miller),145
TropicofCapricorn(Miller),145
TheTrueTravels,Adventures,andObservationsofCaptaineJohnSmith(Smith),181,182
illustrationfrom,182
Turkey
17thc.,62
18thc.,148,150
19thc.,133,146,191,192
SeealsoConstantinople
ATurnintheSouth(Naipaul),158
Twain,Mark,213,214218
photoof,215
TwentyThousandLeaguesundertheSea(Verne),222223
illustrationfrom,223
TwilightinItaly(D.H.Lawrence),123124
TwoSummersintheIceWildsofEasternKarakoram(Workman),238
TwoTripstoGorillaLandandtheCataractsoftheCongo(Burton),34
TwoYearsbeforetheMast(Dana),68
Typee(Melville),142,143
Tyrrell,AlbertE.,218219
TheUltimateHitchhikersGuide(Adams),1
UnbeatenTracksinJapan(Bird),1213
UnitedStates
18thc.,115,119
19thc.,11,12,34,76,8889,99,168,197,209,210,212,213214,216,217218
20thc.,78,48,107,111,145,154,158,189,190191,208
CivilWarin,212
midwestern,11,8889,217
northeastern,115,119,209
politicsof,210
socialcustomsof,213214
southern,158,212
western,12,34,197,208,216
Utopia
18thc.,74,225
19thc.,35
20thc.,104105,107
Varthema,Lodovicode,221

Page257
Venice(Italy),111
Verne,Jules,18,222224
photoof,222
Viaud,LouisMarieJulien.SeeLoti,Pierre
Victoria(Magellanssailingship),printof,53
Vietnam,20thc.,128
VikramandtheVampire(Burton),34
VirginibusPuerisque(Stevenson),197
VoicesoftheOldSea(Lewis),128
Voltaire,22,81,129,224225
VoyagefromMoscowtotheCityofBokhara(Jenkinson),112
VoyageoftheBeagle(Darwin),6971
illustrationfrom,70
VoyageroundtheWorld(MagellanandPigafetti),137138
VoyagetoNewHolland(Dampier),67
AVoyagetoPagany(Williams),233234
VoyagesandDiscoveriesinNewFrance(Champlain),5152
illustrationfrom,51
TheVoyagesandTravelstotheGreatDukeofMuscovy,andtheKingofPersia(Olearius),161
Walden(Thoreau),209
titlepageof,208
Wales,19thc.,21
AWalkthroughGreatBritain(Bougrenet),24
Walkingtravels
17thc.,62,129130,203
18thc.,24,153,153154
19thc.,78,216
WanderingsinWestAfrica(Burton),34
Warreporting,20thc.,189
Waterwaytravel,19thc.,196
Waugh,Evelyn,227228
photoof,227
TheWaywardBus(Steinbeck),189
AWeekontheConcordandMerrimackRivers(Thoreau),209
Wellsley,Dorothy,Duchessof,228230
WestIndies
16thc.,51,5556
17thc.,91,139
19thc.,168,212
20thc.,107,158,189
TheWestIndiesandSpanishMain(AnthonyTrollope),212
Wharton,Edith,230232
photoof,230
WhereAngelsFeartoTread(Forster),85
WildWales(Borrow),20,21
Wilderness.SeeNaturalworld
Willard,EmmaHart,232233
Williams,WilliamCarlos,233234
Wolff,Joseph,234
Women
18thc.,29,66,119
19thc.,5,8,127,232233,236
20thc.,166
Womensrights,19thc.,166,232,237
Wordsworth,Dorothy,234235
Wordsworth,William,6,26,234235,235237
Workman,FannyBullock,237238
TheWorldofVenice(JamesMorris),154
TheWorld,theWorld(Lewis),128129
Wright,SarahBird,230
TheYangtzeValleyandBeyond:AnAccountofJourneysinChina(Bird),11,13
YankeeinCanada(Thoreau),209
YarrowRevisited(WilliamWordsworth),236
AYearamongthePersians(Browne),26
AYearinProvence(Mayle),140142
AYearsTravelsinFrance(Young),239
Young,Arthur,239240
YoungZaphodPlaysItSafe(Adams),1
Yugoslavia,20thc.,135
Yugoslavia(MacLean),135