A Repression, INSTRUCTION MANUAL F 9092 FOR F 9092, FORMERLY M082 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS AND HYDROSTATICS BENCH ISSUE « SerT i983ARNFIELD TECHNICAL EDUCATION COMPANY LTD INSTRUCTION MANUAL c ‘GRD. REP, 79092. connenns, PAGE = Introduction 1 Bquipment Schedule 2 ry Ttem List, 3 Installation Diagram 4 i Schematic Diagram 5 Assonbly and Commissioning 6 a Section Properties of Fluids a La Density 9 1.2 ‘Specific Gravity or _ Relative Density 3 13 ‘The Hydrometer 10 _ Experiment 1: Measurement of Densities and Specific Gravities a2 = 14 Viscosity a4 Experiment 2: Measurement of Viscosity v7 15 4 Capitiarity a. Experiment 3: Observation of Bffect of 4 Capiliarity 23 Experiment 4: Veasurement of Capillary a Elevation 24 mr tion static Pressure a 2a Introduction 26 Experiment 5: Free Surface of Static Liquid 27 a Experiment 6: Effect of Flow on Free Surface 29, Experiment 7: Measurement of Liquid Levels 3h1 INSTRUCTION MANUAL CAT. REF. £9092 conte ns PAGE n Section 2. Static Pressure (cont'd) 2.2 Variation in Intensity of A Pressure with Depth 34 i Experiment 8: Intensity of Liquid Pressure 35 a 2.3 Pressure on a Plane Surface Immersed in a Liguid 7 ri Experiment Centre of Pressure on a Plane Surface 40 Section 3. Measurement of Pressure 3. The Baroneter 46 a Experiment 10: Use of a Direct Reading i Mercury Barometer 49 ‘The Bourdon-Type Pressure Gauge 50 Calibration of a Bourdon-Type on Pressure Gauge 52 Manometry 55 Use of a Water Over Mercury Manoneter 87 = Use of an Air Over Mercury Manometer 59 Use of a 'U? Tube Manoneter to Determine Pressure Differential 60 Section 4. Stability of Floating Bodies 4. Buoyancy 62 Experiment 15: Archimedes* Principle 65 qn 42 Equilibrium of Floating Bodies 69 43 Analytical Determination of ia Matacentric Height 2 44 Experimental Determination of q Metacentric Height 8 Bxperiment 16: Determination of Metacentric 4 Height nYTRODUCTTON A fluid is defined as any substance which when acted Spon by a shear force, however small, undergoes a con~ Yinuous and unlimited deformation. Tf the rate of Geformation 14 directly proportional to the magnitude Of the applied force the substance is termed a Newtonian fluid and the apparatus provided here has been selected to permit the study of all the important properties of such fluids. With this apparatus students are able to develop their Knowledge of a wide range of principles and techniques ‘that will be of lasting value in their studies of fluid mechanics. ‘he equipment 1s entirely self-contained, mobile and Independent of all laboratory services. ‘It includes a full range of ancillary equipment required for the experiments.RQUIPMENT SCHEDULE Receipt of Gooas Sete een as Sele ciming tte mt ae ete Sent o'er anna rea Armfield Technical Education Company Lta., Bridge House, Wost Street, gs BHA Hampshire; awe ENGLAND, Description ‘An installation drawing on page 4 shows the general Jayout of the bench and the schematic diagram on page 5 shows the relevant: pipework and isolating valves. ‘The equipmant is mounted on a steel-framed hench fitted with castors. Water is stored in a polythene tank Situated on the lower shelf of the bench. A positive Aisplacoment hand-cperated pump, situated on the bench top, is used to transfer vater from the storage tank £0 an Slevated open surface tank. ‘This latter tank is connected to a number of glass tuhes for free surface studies, Alternatively, the water may be transferred Via another positive displacement hand-operated pump Girectly to a plastic sink which 18 recessed into the working surface so that bench top experiments may be conducted without spillage. All excess water 13 retumed to the storage tank via the sink drains ‘The remainder of the equipment consists of individual pieces of apparatus which are either free standing o: fastened to the backboard of the bench.Beeranusune 20 a 22 23 UnIVEREAL myoROMErER HYDROMETER JARS FALLING SPHERE VISCOMETERS FREE SURFACE TUBES OOK AKD PoIWT GAUGE MERCURY BAROMETER BOURDON GAUGE MERCURY. MANOMETER MERCURY MANONETER HAND POMS DEADWEIGHT PRESSURE. GAUGE CALIBRATOR AND WEIGHTS, Fl-21 (Free. standing) HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE APPARATUS, Fl-12 (Free standing) PASCAL'S APPARATUS (Free standing) 600 ml BEAKER (Free standing) STOP CLOCK (Pree standing) PARALLEL PLATE CAPILLIARY APPARATUS (Free standing) CAPILLIARY TUBE APPARATUS (Free standing) WEIGHTS (Free standing) LEVER BALANCE WITH DISPLACEMENT VESSEL, BUCKET AND CXEINDER (Free standing) METACENTRIC HEIGHT APPARATUS (Free standing) MEASURING CYLINDER (Pree standing) ‘THERMOMETER AIR PUMP,MODEL F092 INSTALLATION DIAGRAM as] OC oy } boo 4 1a 4ASSEMBLY AND COMMISSTONING Assembly: ‘The equipment is supplied with the bench unit as the major sub-assembly and the associated glassware and equipment 1s packed separately. The individual items should be placed on the bench in accordance with the tem List on page 3 and the Installation Diagram on Page 4. Several items should be secured to the backboard using the wood screws provided. ‘Comm! stoning: The bench should be positioned in a convenient location on a level floor and the castors should be locked. Close valve V7 in the base of the sump. FALL the sump, tank no. 1, with clean water. Operate the positive displacement hand pump (B) and check that water is delivered to the sink. Open the sink drain and allow the water to return to the sunp. Close valves v2, v3 and v4. Open valve vi. Operate the positive displacement hand pump (A) and check that water is delivered to tank no. 2. Open valves v2 and v3 and check that tank no. 2 draing to the sink. Open the sink drain and allow the water to return to the sump.Open valve v'9. Close valve vio. two mercury manongters should be filled with clean insert in zr eat s at the top of the manoneters, Mercury should be is 250mm. All inter-connecting pipework on the bench should be filled with water and air bubbles expelled prior to experimental use. During transit, the mercury column in the barometer may have broken and the following procedure should be adop~ ted prior to installation on the bench: 1. Place barometer on a desk with upper end resting fn “soft backed" books so that the instrument 13 inclined at approximately 30°. 2, Unscrew retaining bracket and remove reservoir cap. 3. Withdraw wire slightly out of reservoir cork and remove cork. 4. Remove glass tube retaining clamps and withdraw glass complete from backboard, ensuring no loss of mercury. 5. Place thumb over reservoir inlet hole, incline glass tube to approximately 30° and then quickly Swing tube to the inverted position. 6. With the thumb still over’ the reservoir hole, Gently tap the top end of the tube on the “soft backed" books so that the trapped air is gradually expelled up the tube into the 'U' bend at the reservoir. 7. Wolding the reservoir (still uppermost) towaras the body, quickly flip the reservoir avay from the body several tines in order to transfer the resers voir mercury into the bend. The final movement should be made so that the tube is swung over to bring the reservoir to the lover position and with the tube upright.Refit tube to backboard taking care not to “over tighten" the glass tube retaining clamps and thus damage the glass tube.SECTION 1. PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS SECTION 1. PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 1.1__pensrry The density of any fluid is defined as the mass per unit volume and is denoted by "5" Mase of f1uta a Volume occupied by the mass ~ 3 La since any volume is proportional to a linear dinension cubed. It should be noted that the density of a liquid remains sensibly constant because the volume occupied by a given mass of liquid is almost invariable. Sutin the case of a gas, the density will vary as the volune Occupied by a'given mass of gas varies. From this it Ray be deduced that a liquid may be taken as virtually incompressible while, of course, gases are compressibie. 2,2 _ SPECIFIC GRAVITY OR RELATIVE DENSITY 2:2__SPECIEIC GRAVITY OR RELATIVE DENSITY. ‘The specific gravity or relative density of a fluid is defined as the mass of a given volune of a fluid Aivided by the mass of the same volume of water and is denoted by "s" 5 = M29 of a given volune of fiuta mass of an equal voluse oF aeeee TE V,ds the volume of a 1iguia and of the water, 9, is the density of the liquid and pie the density of the ov % then s = 2H zt1.3 Tae HyDROMETER { In the Armfield Technical Education Company Properties of Fluids, Aydrostatics Education System the two proper~ 5 ties dealt with in paragraphs 1.1 and 1.2 are obtained using the hydrometer situated on the extrene right of na the apparatus (item 1, page 3). ‘The principle of the common hydroneter depends upon the mo fact that when a body floats in a liquid the gravita~ tional force on the mass of the volume of liguid dis placed is equal to the gravitational force on the mass of the body. That is, it depends upon Archimedes’ principle which will be dealt with in Section 4. A simple hydrometer may be made, therefore, from a Piece of glass tube closed at one end and inside of 1 which is placed a paper scale. A small anount of lead shot, sand or mercury should be placed in the bottom of pa the tube as shown in Pig. 1. LeyunoR _coNTANNG LEAD svor -10-First immerse the tube in water and mark on the paper Scale the length immersed. Then repeat by immersing the tube in another liquid, and again, mark the length ersed.. Tela: and t, = length immersed in 1iguta of density 0, length immersed in water of density ot = apy then the grativational force on the mass of water dis- placed = ,9.AL,, (where A = cross section area of glass tube) ,“the g¥avitational force on the mass of Liquid displaced "=" 45.0.1) = s9,g.Ady, from Archimedes" principle the gravitational force on tube = gravitational force on the mass of water dis~ Placed = gravitational force on the mass of liquid Aisplacea. = Spyg-A-b, = length imorsed in water igen imeroed te agua Ef then, the depth of immersion in water is marked on ‘the paper scale as 1.00 and for the 1iquid by Ly rt using a number of different Liquids a scale may be con- structed to read specific gravities directly. aieEXPERIMENT 1+ MEASUREMENT OF DENSITIES AND SPECIFIC GRAVITIES Object + To determine densities and specific gravities. Apparatus : Universal Hydrometer (item 1, page 3) 4 off Hydrometer Jars (item 2, page 3) THE tvonoweTER SONTAWING GVO | 1110 sr FG. 2 Analysis: The specific gravity 1s read atrectly from scale. See paragraph 1.3 for the principle on which the instrument works. =eMethod + (a) FLL2 one hyérometer jar with sufti- cient water to float the hydrometer and check that the seale marking Oorresponding to depth of inner: reads 1,00. ston (b) Fill three hydrometer jars with the liguids to be tested with sufficient of the liquids to float the hydro meter and note for each liquid the nove: Results: Barometric pressure scale reading. It is suggested that the Liquids should be those to be used in Experiment 2 for determining the viscosity of liquid glycerol and castor oil. temperature Liguia Seale Reading = specific Gravity, = water Engine O12 Glycerol Castor 012 density of water since s = density of uote _ ee (ean, ow -2- an engine oil, mm of Hg, 2.2)Density p Eiguia w/a kg/a water Rngine O11 Giycerot ‘castor ott 14__viscosray ‘The viscosity of a fluid is that property of the liquid which resists the action of a shear force. Since vis~ cosity depends upon the combined effect of molecular activity and cohesion, the viscosity of gases, in which the effect of cohesion ts small, increases as’ tempera: ture rises. Whereas, with liquids, because the greater cohesion, particularly at low temperatures, has = greater effect than the molecular activity, the visco- Sity decreases as temperature rises. To obtain a measure of viscosity it is necessary to consider the viscous flow of a fluid and for this two basic assumptions must be made. There can be no slip or motion relative to any solid boundary. 2. The shear stress is directly proportional to the fate of shear perpendicular to the motion. Consider an element of fluid as shown in Figure 3. -ueFiG.3 Let the one face of the element move with a velocity wand the other with a velocity u + du. Then the rate of shear perpendicular to the motion, or the transverse velocity gradient = du ay From assumption 2 the shear stress raf! : ‘ay au oo Be yhadFaaels wd where u is a coefficient of proportionality termed the coefficient of viscosity. By arranging for the transverse velocity gradient to be numerically equal to unity, Maxvell defined the co- efficient of viscosity as follows: If two plane surfaces are placed parallel to one another and at unit distance apart, the space between them being completely filled with fluid, and if one of the plane surfaces is moved parallel to its surface at unit velo- city relative to the other, then the foree per unit area acting on either plane surface, in the form of a resie= tance to motion 1s numerically equal to the coefficient of viscosity of the fluid. 215 -‘From Eqn. 1.3 = 7%. force | linear dimension ¥ au area" velocity = mass . acceleration . linear dimension area ‘velocity a MeM.bet Bor L u te PR ee. vas vabepsieaddavenvee Le Thus the coefficient of viscosity is expressed as a unit of mass per unit of length and tine, eg. gm or kg = An alternative measure of viscosity is the kinematic 15 viscosity which 1s denoted by y =U. sesers 2 B ¥ ‘The kinematic viscosity is expressed as a linear dimen- sion squared per unit of time. e.g. emt or nt NOTE: y expressed in gm is termed poise* andy expressed in on? is termed stoket* * one p= 1 kg/ms ** one st = 0.0001 m?/s 16 - 16 -EXPERIMENT 2: MEASUREMENT OF vIscosrTY + fo determine the viscosity of various liguids at atmospheric pressure and temperature, Apparatus : the Falling Sphere (Ball) Viscometer (item 3, page 3) The Stop Clock (item 15, page 3) Hydrometer (item 1, page 3) ‘THE FALLING SPHERE vISCOMETER Analysis: From Fig. 4 when the ball is moving with a uniform velocity u, the forces acting on the sphere are: (a) the gravitational force on the ball ng. -a-(>) the buoyant force or upthrust Py (©) the viscous force resiting motion a Since the velocity of €a12 is uniform, the algebraic sum of these forces must be zero, cong = ‘The gravitational force on the ball mg = pggare? 3 where p, = density of bai1 F = radius of sphere The buoyant force FL = 9, g4nr® 3 where 9, = density of liguia. The viscous force Fy = Gay.zu from Stokes Law, RSEC u | Zp foefficient of viscosity and u = mean Velocity of ball Pa St) = mg 4 oe? - Gary = 0 a 2, Bo tert g (0, -) = 2 22g SONS aethare (Ps “Pe 3 -weMethod Results (a) Fill the three tubes with the liguids under test to a level of just below the exit from the captl- lary tube as shown in Fig. 4. ‘The liquids under test being:- (4) an Engine O12 (e.g. Castrol XXL) (4) Glycerol, (444) castor O11 | NOTE: Since glycerol absorbs moisture easily from the atmosphere, a small amount of cotton wool should be Placed in the top of the capillary tube if the tube is left full for any length of time. (b) Use three balis of different dia~ meters with each liquid; measure diameters of the balls. Suggested nominal size of balls: Imm, 1.5mm, 2mm. (c) Using the universal hydrometer, obtain the specific gravity of each Liquid. Baronetric pressure nm Hg, temperature *o,, Measured dianeter of balls Imm ;. 1.510 2am Specific gravity of steel : 7.8 = 19Specific gravity of liquid : Engine O11 0.89 (figura quoted for Castrol Xx) Glycerol 1,25 Castor 011 0.95 Mean velocity of ball u = Distance through which ball falls aS average thse = average time Note r- in metres, g in m/s? p inkg/m?, 0 in m/s and kinematic viscosity y = y/p Coeéticient of | average | Kinematic vista Viscosity We | viseogity ¥ a ngine OL iyeerot Gastar on Check from standard tables the accuracy of the results obtained for Glycerol and Castor Oil, = 20-Note that with the Engine O11, since it is considerably less viscous than either Castér 011 or Glycerol only, the 1.5mm ball can be used. With a larger size ball the time to fall 75mm is too short ond with a smaller size ball it cannot be seen falling through the oil. Further, because the time is so short, the accuracy must be sus= pect. 2.5 capruagriy When a tube of small bore is inserted into a container of liquid, the level will either rise or fall within the ‘tube as shown in Fig. 5, depending upon the angle of con- tact between the liquid’ surfaces. tape wettee) (abe not wates) Figs For liquids, such as water, which wet the tube, the con- itions are’as shown at (aj and result in a capillary elevation, while for liguids which do not wet the tube, Such as mercury, a capillary depression results as shown at (b). aie‘The gravitational force on the column of Liquid elevated must be supported by the surface tension o, acting round the periphery of the tube, Resolving vertically ogh x4? = oa cos 6 do cos 8 > ad oeapheT vhs When the liquid wets the wall of the tube 9 is zero then Ban. 1.7 becomes nh = 805 ‘This capillary action can cause sérious errors when Reasuring pressures in terms of a head of liquid such as with a piezoneter tube, if the bore of the tube is too small. -22-= EXPERIMENT 3: OBSERVATION OF object! : 1 Apparatus + Ne woes - HABEED nowNo one pave EPEC? OF CAPILLARITY To observe the effect of the size of the gap Between two fiat plates on capillary elevation. Parallel Plate Capillary Apparatus (Item 16, page 3) oe aprome noun SOmTATNG waren FING wae panes semen) “Z2" Methoa : y uanccy Fig. (@) Thoroughly clean the two plates and weap a length of fine wire around one plate near one end. (b) FALL trough with water. (c) Place the two plates between the supporting clips and slide to the bottom of the trough. (@) Note the pattern of the capillary rise as indicated in Pig. 6. Tt should be noted that where the gap is at its smallest the rise is greatest, and conversely where the gap is widest the capillary rise is at its amallest. -22-EXPERIMENT 4: a MEASUREMENT OF CAPILLARY ELEVATION Object To measure the capillary elevation pro- os duced by various sizes of capillary tube. Apparatus Capillary Tube Apparatus (Item 17, page 3) H Dividers (not supplied) analysis From Eqn. 1.8 paragraph 1.5 fo ae Bo pod A Methoa (a) Make sure the capillary tubes are thoroughly clean. t (b) PALL the water trough to the level of the bottom support plate and my insert the capillary. tubes. (c) Place a card behind the capillary tubes, “3a 5Result (@) Mark the card with the height of the capillary elevation in each tube. (©) With a pair of dividers, take off ‘the capillary rise "h" for each tube and measure each height. x of mise | Measured capitiary | calculated an Rise, (em) capillary Rise, by (om) Surface tension of water s, = .07¢N/m. Comment on the difference between the measured and calculated capillary rise. ) Place a known mass, say 209m, on the scale pan. (c) With tube "a" in position, care- fully add water until the point of balance is reached. (2) Mark the water level in the tube with the pointer. (e) Repeat using tubes “b’ ae ‘c" and The student must take care that the sealing pad does not stick, and that it moves freely off its seat. = 36 =2.3 PRESSURE ON A PLANE SURFACE IMMERSED IN A LIQUID Fig. 13 shows a plane surface MN inclined at an angle 8 to the free surface of the liguid 00. Consider an elemental strip of breadth, b, and ax, distance x from B. Intensity of pressure on strip ap = 9,gx sin Total pressure on strip aP = 0,9x sin Total pressure on surface P = og ain but sx bdx = 1st moment of area of surface -37- thickness e ° bax Osx b ax about Bwhere A is the area of the surface. JP = ogg ein 0 RES BS 24 Zt should be noted that the total pressure on a plane surface is independent of the angle of inclination of the surface to the free surface of the liguid- ‘This total pressure, P, may be taken as acting at the centre of pressure, Cc, To determine the position of the centre of presure ‘The moment of P about B = sum of the moments of the pres- sure on the elemental strip about By fi 2 Pogby = oy sine s x’b ax but P = p,gaX (Eqn. 2.4) sess 28 = 38-EXPERIMENY. 9: SENTRE OF PRESSURE ON A PLANE suRPAcR SERENE OF PRESSURE ON A PLANE SURFACE object Apparatus eam Lever 4 To determi of pressur the toroid. Bydrostatic (item 12, page 3) amon cLanPnG screw ine the position of the centre fe on the rectangular face oF Pressure Apparatus, Fl-12, eounTeRaaLance Nuss i simi Lever, poe ee shoeAnalysis (see 2.3) For the above apparatus, the formulae P= gofa ana ¥en may be applied to give expressions for the moment of the hydrostatic force about the knife-edge axis. Partial Immersion (See Pig. 15) Baeey - Zp a = by P gp by? 2 soy MARS yg by?/2 Moment M of P about knife-edge axis is given by ¢ Mongo by? (ata-Eed) = 490 bytiata-¥) Also ou Where m = mass added to balance pan L = distance from knife-eage axis to balance pan suspen- sion rod axis M = 4p by? (a+a~¥) 3 + 2.8 adherm Complete Immersion (See Pig.16) P= gp ya d 3 ee Fe OIL ang F MS" 95 tha tain GaSe % : 2 ML eit tae St Ps 129 a Mso 7 wy- ) Locate the torroid on the two dovel Pins and fasten to the balance ore by the central screw. ») Measure the dimensions a, b, and a, and the distance 1 from the katte? edge axis to the balance pan ‘aris, ©) Position the perspex tank on work Surface and locate the balance em, on the knife edges. @) Attach a length of hose to the Grain cock and direct the other end gf the hose to the sink. attaches ZERIER Of hose to tap V3 and piace Foxeh the tank, using the adjustable fect i conjunction with the seieie level. ©) Adjust the counter-balance weight qaiit the balance arm is horizontal, {bits 18 indicated ona gate adjaccee to the balance arm, - a2£) Open valve v2. punp water from tank 1 to the Perspex tank, using hand punp (B) providea, until the water 4s level with the bottom edge of the torroid. 9) Place a mass on the balance pan. Using the hand pump, (B) £111. the tank until the balance arm is horizontal. "Note the water level on the scale, Fine adjustment of the water level may be achieved by over-filling and slowly draining, using the arain cock. h) Repeat the procedure under section 9) for different masses, using the corresponding water levels. | 4) Repeat readings for reducing masses on the balance pan. | Calculations and Graphs for y < d (partial immersion) ulate B, Tabulate 2, and plot 2) against | plot Fe agi y from (2.88, = BB ta+a-% | = 3b The slope of this graph should be ~ 2 and the intercept shoua pe 22 (2+ a) -43-For y > d (complete immersion) teboteve F = y -$ Plot B against ¥ cues From (2.9) the slope of this graph should be. pba’ a and the intercept should be Sey ee Conclusions | Give reasons for the discrepancies, if any, between the measured and predicted Values of the above expressions for the graph parameters, acPARTIAL _ugasiow COMPLETE mensionSECTION 3. MEASUREMENT oP PRESsuRE ‘SECTION 3. MEASUREMENT OP PRESSURE, 3.1 "He BAROMETER mogebafometer is one of the most widely used pressure Teper ing instruments. It te found not only in eevee EefEE laboratories but also in many hones, In eho heey TE iE Used Bot so much as to record pressure sen ne soidcate, the weather conditions to be expected, hoe Sbeentiftcally it is the instrunent used’ to secoen the absolute pressure exerted by the atmosshere. dreeggiit was the first to discover that the pressure PRgrted by the atmosphere could support a ceiuee ae Jiguid and, ‘therefore, that the height of the een is ‘@ Measure Of the pressure of the athosphers” = 45 -de ghown in Fig. 17, 4¢ a long, sealed tube is £i11ea with mercury and inverted s0 that the open ena i fimersed in a reservoir of mercury, thus exiuding air Tne ine, ftber 8 vacuous space will be left at the top. The length of the resulting column of mercury will be approxinately 76Gmm. This arrangement forms’ the basss ff the modern barometer. the relationship between the feight of the column of mercury, terned the baronetere Refght, and the pressure of the atmosphere may be deter mined by equating pressure at the points I ani 25 a shown in Fig. 17. Bauating pressures P, = p,9h = s.6,¢h neglecting the vapour pressure above the mercury where fn 7 specific sravity of mercury = 22 33.6 (o,, = density of water) The standard barometric height, which gives ‘the standara atmospheric pressure, is 760mm'of mercury, hence = Moxie nsee yoy S 10? x 9,81 Ths type of barometer fitted to this Hyarostatics Bench is the siphon barometer as shown in Pig tat -47-saroserne HEIGHT ham hg | wescuny The instrument consists of a U-tube with linbs of un~ gaya length. The shorter linb which has an enlarged ghd. 45 open to the atmosphere. ‘the longer lini Seach Ag about 500mm in length, is closed. ‘The tube concede Rercury and the space above "A" ie a Torricel lian sarin, When the mercury rises at "A" it falla ate") ony Pressure of the atmosphere, acting at "BS", suppor a ‘Polght of @ column of mercury whose height is’ che aise ference of level of the mercury in the two linen’ Alternative types of barometer are the Portin barometer and the anerotd barometer, and the student should tantii~ arise himself with both these tyres. - 4aEXPERIMENT _1o: USE OF A DIRECT READING MERCURY paRoMpTER ‘SSE OF A DIRECT READING MERCURY BAROMBTER object, To read the baronetric or atmospheric pressure. Apparatus Direct reading mercury barometer (item 6, page 3). Mathoa + (a) With atmospheric pressure acting on the enlarged bowl (Pig. 19), Fead the level of the mercury column on the engraved scal (b) Read the room temperature. Results Room temperature °c Barometric pressure ma ug Comment on the accuracy of this type of barometer. -49-3.2 THE BOURDON-TYPE PRESSURE GAUGE 4:2__THE BOURDON-TYPE PRESSURE GAUGE This type of industrial pressure measuring instrument is shown in Fig- 19 and measures the pressure above atmos~ pheric or gauge pressure. The principle on which thee type of gauge works is described below, Before use this type of gauge should be calibrated against a standard pressure gauge or by using a dead- Mgight pressure gauge calibrator, a diagrammatic sretch of which is shown in Fig. 20. = 50 -‘EBXPERINEWE 12+ GALTBRATION OF A BOURDON-rYPE PRESSURE GAUGE SALIBRATION OP A BOURDON-~TYPE PRESSURE GRUGE Object + To calibrate a Bourdon-type pressure gauge using the dead-weight pressure gauge calibrator. ‘Apparatus Dead-weight Pressure Gauge Calibrator, Fi-11 (Ttem 11, page 3). Goomt Beaker (Item 14, page 3). apruico wasees Mothoa + (a) Close valve v8. ana level apparatus. {b) Pill cylinder of dead-weight cali~ brator with water and insert piston. (©) Open valve V6. open vent valve to exhaust air from the system. -s1-Results (@) Close vent valve. (©) With piston only in tester, take gauge reading. Keep piston rotating to avota sticking. (£) Load up piston in increments of 4 kilogramme, and note gauge read~ ing for each applied mass. Make sure piston is rotated. On no account should valve VB be ‘opened with masses applied to tho galibrator since the pressures involved will result in loss of mercury from the manoneter, (9) Repeat with decreasing masses. {m). When test is finished, remove and dry piston and lightly coat with "Vaseline". Drain cylinder. Do not leave piston in cylinder when not in use. Protect piston when not in use by placing it in @ cardboard tube or wood block. Nominal mass of piston = 0.5 kg | he Nominal area of piston = 2.45 x 107"n: Pressure = Force | mg area * Ah 1x 9.81 e.g. 1 kg mass = L 2.45 x 10) we = 4x 10° W/m’ = 0.4 bar = 4.08m of water ~ 52 -septs 943 uo pedueys soaten oy3 403 peanatasqne soaTeA Poanseou pue poybran Ext se oe st ot 0 070A 30.u eq seven zou |, 30q 030 30 24 aad porrddy Jousseeaneq peor surpuoy ebneo bussvexour peor Surpeey abnep sowesartes wOren-peed oxy andng -53-ROTIDRIIOS > k a i BAR 18 OF WATER TOLD - 54 -3.3__MaNoweTRY ‘The Bourdon-type pressure gauge is generally used to Measure large pressures above atmospheric. If the pres- gure to be recorded is relatively small, some convenient fe form of manometer should be used. All manoneters are basically U-tubes but the exact shape depends upon the . magnitude of the pressure to be recorded. Simple U-tubes al of the type included in this test rig can, depending on their size, read pressures accurately over a range of about 1.38’bar down to 0.1 bar. The two gauges actually nm Provide cover ranges of approximately 0.6 bar, down to 0.1 bar and 0.05 bar down to 0.01 bar. For smaller pressure differences, the following alterna~ tive forms of the basic U-tube may be used a (a) The inverted u-tube. () U-tube with enlarged ends. (©) tnelined gauge. (@)— Micro-mancneters. The student should refer to any good standard text book for further details of these gauges. ‘The simple U-tube is shown in Fig. 21. se pRessuRE p cq AtMosPuemc PRESsuEE. /—~—_s.ue_unoen paessune SeWsiTY 5 y wanewerme rw. FIG. 21 =55-Referring to Figure 21: Equating pressures at the aatun oo P+ peay = Py + o,gh 2 Gauge pressure = p- py = opgh ~ ogy N/m’ Substituting specific gravities in equation 3.2 Sphy9h ~ Seo,oy = density of water Sgh- Spy metres of water Where og ie VeEY small compared with o,, a8 in the case of # befng'a gas, the term e,gy may beMieghected” 2 hence, in this instance, p-p, = oggh N/m’... 3.4 or 27 Pa = S,h metres of water ee eeeeeeee a5 oye = 56 -4 EXPERIMENT 12 USE_OF A WATER OVER MERCURY MANOMBTER n Object + To use a water over mercury 'U' tube manoneter to determine the pressure at a point. To compare the reading of a manometer with a Bourdon gauge. Apparatus : Deadweight Pressure Gauge Calibrator, Fi-ll (item 11, page 3), Mercury Manometer (Item 8, page’ 3). ry pressure = n vow I E16, 22 ~57-Method Nove: @) Close Valve vio. open Valve v9. ») Enoure that the tube connecting the Ranometer and Bourdon gauge and the Fespective limb of the manoneters are fully primed with water. If air is present in the systen, disconnect the tube and fi11 with water. ©) Level the deadweight pressure gauge calibrator. @ F411 cylinder of deadweight caliba~ tor with water and insert piston, ©) Open Valve V6. open vent valve to exhaust air from system. Close vent valve. £) Open valve #8. 9) FAll deadweight calibrator with water, insert piston, and note levels of each manometer Lind: h) With piston only in calibrator, note levels of each manometer limb.’ Note zeading on the Bourdon gauge.” Keep’ Piston rotating to avoid sticking, 4) Load up piston with 4 kg mase and Rote levels of each manometer limb. Note reading on the Bourdon gauge, 3) Load up piston with li kg mass only and note levels of each manoneter Limb. Note’ reading on the Bourdon gauge. Do not attempt co use the calibrator with masses in @xcess of 1 kg as this will result in loss of mercury from the manometer. K) When test is finished, remove and ary piston and lightly coat with "Vaseline". Drain cylinder. = 584EXPERIMENT 13: USE OF AN ATR OVER MERCURY MANOMBTER object Apparatus Method To use an air over mercury 'U' tube manometer to determine the pressure at a point. Air Pump (Item 23, page 3), Mercury Manometer (tom 9, page 3). a) b) ° a Close valve vio. Attach air pump to inlet valve on manometer manifold. Operate hand pump and observe change in manometer level. Release inlet valve and observe that manometer returns to original level. Do not exceed the maximum and mini~ mum levels in the manometer limbs. ~59-EXPERIMENT 14 USE_OF_A_‘U' TUBE MANOMETER TO DETERMINE PRESSURE POE OF A ru TUBE MANOMBTER TO DETERMINE PRESSURE object. 1 To use a water over mercury manometer r ‘to determine and compare differences in pressures in a water and air systen. Apparatus : Deadweight Pressure Gauge, F1-11 (item mr 11, page 3), Mercury Manometer (Item 8. and Item 9, ‘page 3) air Pump (Item 23, = page 3) and Bourdon Gauge (Iten 7, f Page 3). Pacsoune FIG. 23 = 60 =Method a). Close Valve vio. Open valve v9. b) Ensure that the tube connecting the Ranoneter and Bourdon gauge and the respective linb of the manometer, is fully primed with water. If air is present in the system, @isconnect the tube and fill with water. ©) Level the deadweight pressure gauge calibrator. 4) Fill cylinder of deadweight cali- brator with water and insert piston. ) Open Valve V6. Open vent valve to exhaust air from system. Close vent valve. £) Open Valve ve. 9) Fill deadweight calibrator with water, insert piston, and note levels of each manometer Limb. h) Close Valve v9. open Valve vio and connect aif pump to inlet valve on manometer manifold. 4) Operate air pump until manifold (rtem 8, page 3) returns to origi- nal position. Note Bourdon gauge reading and levels on manometer (item 9, page 3). 3) Repeat i) with } kg mass on dead- weight calibrator. k) Repeat 4) with 1 kg mass on dead- weight calibrator. 1) When test is finished, remove and dry piston and lightly coat with "vaseline". Drain cylinder. Do not leave piston in cylinder vhen not in use. -6l-SECTION 4. STABILITY OF FLOATING BODIES SECEION 4. STABILITY OF FLOATING BODIES 4.1 suovaney When a body floats freely ina fluid, whethor completely or partially immersed, it is acted upon by two forces only: the gravitational force on the nass of the boiy acting vertically downward through its centre of gravity; the buoyant force or upthrust exerted by the surroundiny fluid on the body. This upthrust acts vertically upward through the centre of buoyancy which is at the centre of gravity of the displaced liquid. Abody totally immersed and floating freely in a fluid of density p, is shown in Pig. 24. Ee RUD DENSITY py a 6 26 Consider a vertical prism taken from within the body and having an area 6A. Tet the pressure acting on the top of the prism be p and that on the botton be (p+ p,gh)~ = 62-‘The net vertically upward force or upthrust acting on the prism af, = (B+ ogg) AA~ pan = oy an I£ the whole body is considered to be made up of a large humber of such prisms, then the net total upthrust on the whole body Fy EAP, = oy3.t (haa) but r (han) = Volume of body = v iy = ogv serene Ged ™ gravitational force on the mass of fluid displaced by the body. Equation 4.1 expresses algebraically Archinedes’ princi- ple, which states that every body experiences an upenrust, egal to the gravitational force on the mass of fluid ie displaces. In practice, the body usually floats at the surface of Separation of two fluids and the fluids conmonly encoun- tered are air and water. In general, let a body float freely in two fluids which do not mix having densities of 04, and 9, a8 shown in Fig. 25, - 63 -Considering a vertical prism taken from within the body and having an area Bay Let the pressure acting on the top of the prism be p and that on the bottom be (p+, gh Foy shal ‘The net vertical upward force or upthrust acting on the r prism + + ~ pan (+ oy ,9h, + by gh.) aa . + 04,9, + by gm yan ~64-EXPERIMENT 15; ARCHIMEDES" PRINCIPLE object + fo verity archis Apparatus: Lever Balance w: Bucket and cy1ii ‘BUOYANCY exPenMenTS 4 cenrRas yor - 65 - mede: ith Displacement Vessel, Inder (Item 19, page 3) avn pamautan cunsoa Principle. 2. DOUBLE seaue 020.35 ig 2-00 9 nueva 2 6 senewIf the whole body 1s considered to be made up of a large number of such prisms, then the net total upthruse on the whole body Fy = tary Zo, gh + by ww, (04,98, + oy 9h.) but rh, 4A = volume of body imersed in lighter fluia Y and th, aa volume of body immersed in heavier fluia = ve os TY, HoT Vo weve 403 = the gravitational force on the masses of fluid dis- Placed by body. ‘An examination of Egn. 4.2 will make it clear that when a body is floating freely in a gas and a liquid, such as air and water, and since the density of the yas ts negii~ gible compared to that of the liquid, then the gravitce fional force on the mase of the gas displaced by the body 2 Pat YD = the gravitational force on the mass of the Liquid dis~ Placed by body. Tt should be noted that the upthrust is simply the resui- tant vertical force due to static fluid presafec. ~ 65 -Analysis From Section 4.1, Archimedes’ Principle states that when's body is wholly or partially inmersed in a fluid it oxpori- ences an upthrust equal to the gravita- tional force on the mass of fluid dis placed. Mass of bucket and cylinder in air - msm Mass of bucket with cylinder inmersed in water = mn gm - m) upthrust = —¥ 10" Mass of bucket = mgm Filled with water = mgm Mass. of water (m= m3) om. and gravitational force on the mass of aim ~ m3) y 10 From Archinedes' Principle, upthrust = gravitational mass of water displaced by cylinder g(m ~ m) gly ~ my) 10° 10” mom = mo my -67-Method Results fay (») we @ te) Suspend bucket and cylinder by a fine thread from heck 3 on the underside of pan 1 of the double Fange lever balance as shown in Fig. 26, With balance set to operate on O,> 025kg range, note the mass Of bucket and cyiinges Jimerse cylinder completely in a beaker of water and again note mass. Remove cylinder and beaker of Water and note mass of bucket only. Completely £111 bucket with water and note mass Mass of bucket with cylinder, im, Mass of bucket with cylinder inmersed inwater, omy = Mass of bucket Mass of bucket filled with water Hence, show that m; — mj = my 2 my = m3 ~ 68 -4.2 EQUILIBRIUM OF FLOATING BODIES From the analysis in Section 4.1, it should be clear that if a body is floating freely and 1s, therefore, in equilibrium, the following two conditions mst be satis- flea: 1. The upthrust must equal the gravitational force on the body. 2 ‘The centre of gravity of the body and the centre of buoyance must be in the sane vertical Line. In addition, consideration must also be given to the effect Of linear and angular displacement of the body. A floating body is said to be in stable equilibrium if for any change, however small that change from its original position, there exist forces or moments tending to restore the body to its original position. This cont ition will be satisfied in ali cases when the centre of gravity of the body lies below the centre of buoyancy. For, as shown in Fig. 27, if the body receives @ stall angular displacement there will always exist @ moment tending to restore the body to its original position. Fis. 27 -69-The equilibrium of floating those cases where the centre below the centre of buoyancy. large nunber of cases tn watch above the centre of buoyancy. bodies is not confined to of gravity of the body Iles There are, in practice, a the centre of gravity is Fig. 28. sep dy aot Fectangular section ts’ shown in Pig. 28. the CE gibal free surface of the liquid is RS, and the contre Ce ,buovancy 4s at B on the same vertical line as ene Genre Of gravity of the body G, but it is below tre sngeter ep oTavity- When the body is subjected toe email angular displacenent 6, the liquid and hence the shape of th changes, causing the centi By. When the boay heels overs emerges,’ pueYancy from B to By, a weage of the body, One, energes; jThe, line Joining B td’ay will be paretnen’ fot and opne joining the contres of glavity of the welges ons uptneree BS shown by the dotted lines in Fig, 280 eee Tone Set Ahe Sct vertically upward through &; and ine atm. recrion intersects the axis of the bey throtah Be Biaco attpis Position, the body 1s in stable eeee eS ee rete sMnting Moment of magnitude nox exists; wentres fo restore the body to its original posstsnn® due to the movement of the = 20 -When 6 18 small x om q, When the metacontre is above the centre of grav- | ity, the body is in stable equilibrium, 2 When the metacentre coincides with the centre of Gravity, the body is in neutral equilibrium, 3 When the metacentre is below the centre of grav- ity, the body is in unstable equilibrium, he distance GM is termed the metacentric height, and it must always have a positive value, if the body is mpi stable. The metacentric height 1 of importates te haval architects in the design of ships, for trite {ilue is too large, the vessel ie said to be ‘stiff’, Shag 15, i€ tends to rol badly, particularly in rough seas. Comercial vessels, particularly liners, are STig Relght of between 0.3 and 0.6 metres for roliieg Gisplacements about a longitudinal axis, whereas, the ferresponding values for pitching, will, in both’ caves, be much larger. -n-4:3 ANALYTICAL DETERMINATION OF METACENTRIC HEIGHT “5 RETICAL DETERMINATION OF METACENTRIC HEIGHT Fag. 29 again shows the rectangular body after a small angle of heel 48, As stated in the preceding section, ERIE causes a wedge of the body, 008, to become immersed, while an equal wedge, OPR, emerges. ‘The effect of ante 48 to transfer the buoyant force from B to By, Fis. 23. "y* initial buoyant force acting at B Fp, "buoyant force after heeling, acting at 9). 4. Fy = Buoyant force due to immersion of wedge 09S, and emergence of wedge OPR, both acting er the centre of gravity of the respective wedges. - neTo find the position of By, it is convenient to express the buoyant force Fy os Power Fp, Fy te Py aw Taking moments about B By BS hence the centre of buoyancy has moved from B to By through a distance ar, ay, Bo Bo wg BE bates ro le 3 RoR By Fy = Moment of buoyant force due to transference of wedges Gravitational force os nass OF Tienes a eee Liquid displaced. Since the position of By varies with the angle of heel ao, At is more convenient to work in terms of the metacentre M, which remains fixea for small angles of heel, ‘The moment of buoyant force due to transference of wedges can be expressed more conveniently by considering @ small element of the wedge Ogs distance xy fron oO. Let the element have a thickness dx,, and a length dl in the direction of the longitudinal axis through 0. height of element = %x,40 since ao is small volume of element = atag xiax; Gravitational force on mass of Liquid displaced by slenent = upthrust due to elenent dF, = p,g0Ldox,dx -73-Moment due to upthrust on element 2M = »,g@Lsox, “ax, Moment of buoyant force due to transference of wedge. 2 2 fam = estore, ana now sat = ary 2b 2 2 Fy jb = p,900fdax,” since dx,db = area of element a but sax, 2nd moment of area about the longitudinal axis through 0. «2 oar, Ep tary ib =F, y, sari pygor but 4, 2 ie x py sA0r hence, x but Fh = oav where V = volume of liguia displaced. = 2% now x = z Mae = tor o. BKBe : BH a2 ‘Then the metacentric height GH = EH - BG. In practice, Eqn. 4.4 may be used for all cases where the angle of heei 48, measured in radians, is approxi~ mately equal to tan jo, and thus the optimum angie of heel is between 10° and 15°, =e4:4 EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF METACENTRIC HETcHT tion on the body: as shown at (a) in Fig. 30. one be these masses is then moved a short distance in towards the centre, causing the body to heel through an angle 9; as shown at (b) in Pig. 30, Fos pisvens fal oon £16. 20 The angle of heel is measured by the apparent’ movement gf 8 Plunb bob suspended from a suitable point in the Body, The body heels over until the upthrust and the gravitational force on the mass m, which now aces fhrough, the new position of the centre of gravity Gy, are in Line, Then, taking moments about G, since the moment of the resultant = sun of the moments of the parte, - 75.gcc, where mg but 6G, ‘The value series of £ = (omg) x = (amg) (x=) "gravitational force on the mass of liquid displaced = gravitational force on body + 2 (amg) (amg) mg” *L + Otten 9 = Laney, (amg) x arms xy ° mg tans ~ “wo tang ace of the metacentric height is determined for a values of x1, and by plotting a curve of GM, fgginst 9, as shown in Fig. 31, the initial metacenters height can be obtained by reading the value of GN hay eis 0. ura weracen Tac fetent ee 8 0 gm oe we ae Fig 3 - 76 -EXPERIMENT 16; DETERMINATION OF METACENDRIC HETCHT Object Apparatus ven wo. ‘Aowsr osmon Powtoos Fa To determine the matacentric height of ‘a model pontoon. Metacentric Height Apparatus, F1-12 (Item 12, page 3). jo nse ADIUSTABLE MASS. Om F16_32 -17-Analysis: Prom Een 4.5 Where GM = metacentric height in mm am = mass of moveable weight oy in kg % = Distance of moveable weight from central posi- ‘tion in mm m= mass of assembled pontoon in kg ® = Angle of heel in degrees From gn 4.4 | a : | ax = E where T= 2nd monent of area of mn Water plane about longi- tudinal axis | = Rept n i v= Volume of water displaced BM © Distance between centre of buoyancy and metacentre Then ca BM - BG | Methoa +a) Obtain mass of the transversely ae moveable weight. b) Assemble pontoon with rider near to to top of the mast, and obtain mass of the assembled pontoon.“on gum e aT van gues a ° “au x 933490 aa fez3u09 30 3397 ay. 30 aubT = no aubron | teen z0 orbux | seve stqeeaon | = no aubTen | to0q 30 otéuv | een eraeoncn DeuaoeieH 30 soueasya | oTzquase30 30 souraeTa L COR Coo Ct C to -19-Results ©) Determine the position of the con- tre of gravity of the pontoon by obtaining the point of balance, either by using a knife-edge of by suspending it froma suitable post- tion by a light string. 4) Fill the sink by ‘operating the hand pump(s). ©) With moveable mass in the central Position, float the pontoon £) Move moveable mass to the right of gentre in lon increments until che full range of scale 1s covered, Note angular displacement of plunb bob for each position. 9) Repeat £) for movement of moveable mass to the left of centre. 4) Repeat c), ©), £) and g) for the rider in a different position, i.e. Gifferent centre of gravity. Dimensions of Pontoon: length 350mm, breadth 2oonm, depth 73mm. Moveable mass acti Be Mass of assembled pon- toon, m - kg Position of CG of assen- bled pontoon from base F = mm From the macs and plan area of the pon- toon, deduce v and hence the Depth of immersion, @ 9 = mm Position of cB from base, a eS 2 —Plot CM against See Fig. 31 and read Ghwnen © =o Note © and b must be tn mm wavs B Beto 8 nx 10" om Conclusions Does the position of the metacentre depend on the position of the Centre of Gravity? Does the metacentric height vary with Angle of Heel? - ale