Development of Village Irrigation Works By S. ARUMUGAM, .sc. (LOND.), B.SC. (ENGINEERING) LOND. M.LC.E., M.L.W.E. Deputy Director of Irrigation Srrigation Department Ceylon 9606—B‘Development of Village Irtigation . Works By S. ARUMUGAM, B.Sc. (LOND.), B.SC. (ENGINEERING) LOND. MALE. M.LW.E. Deputy Director of Irrigation Irrigation Department Ceylon PREFACE At the Annual Conference of the Engineering Association of Ceylon, held in August, 1933, the late Mr. J. S. Kennedy, M.C., M.A,, B.Se., M.LC.E., Director of Irrigation, 1935—1939, read a paper entitled ‘The Evolution of Scientific .Development of Village Irrigation Works '. Copies of the paper were in great demand by engineers and technical staff and the Association therefore reprinted the contribution as a separate booklet. With the increased interest in the development of village irrigation works and food production activities, there has been a large demand for reprints of the booklet by young technical officers, to whom it had become indispensable. Much water has however flown since Mr. Kennedy prepared his paper in 1933 and many are the changes since then, both in ‘the definition and scope of village irrigation works in Ceylon. A fresh contribution on the subject of village irrigation work has therefore become necessary, maintaining however, Mr. Ken- nedy’s original approach to the subject ; no apology is therefore made for the inclusion both in the text and in the appendices of suitable extracts from -the original contribution ; extracts have also been made from ‘ An Introduction to Anti-Silt Measures on Up-country Irrigation Elas ', a paper read before the Association in 1936, by Mr. W. A. Guthrie, B.Sc, M.L.C.E., Director of Irrigation, 1950—§2. The scope has been extended and useful data added so as to present a useful guide to the young engineer, in his practice of village irrigation works ; the inquiring mind will also discern, in addition, sufficient matter to provoke further studies in irrigation engineering. A village irrigation work is a major irrigation scheme in miniature ; the study of the one leads to the other.4 TRANSACTIONS OF THE ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION OF CEYLON ACKNOWLEDCEMENT ‘The author acknowledges the kind permission granted by the Director of Irrigation to utilise information available in the departmental documents and the assistance given by Mr. S. Veerakathy, B.Sc. (Lond.), B.E. (Hons.) Madras, A-M.I.C, Irrigation Engineer, and other officers of the Irrigation Department. CHAPTER I THE VILLAGE IRRIGATION WORK ORIGIN OF SYSTEMATIC STUDY The Railway disaster of 1923 forcibly directed attention to the potential danger that every village tank lying above the railway constituted. As a result it was decided that the [rrigation Department should conduct a full investigation into the safety of every village tank whether‘ worked ' or abandoned that was in any way a potential danger to the railway between Polgahawela, Mannar and Jaffna. The investigation of these tanks—354 on the original list—-was commenced by Messrs. Emerson and Biddell in October 1923 and was subsequently completed by Mr. Kennedy in 1926. Apart from pursuing its original object, namely the safety of the railway from floods caused by the breaching of village tanks, the investigation soon revealed the great possibilities of development that many of the tanks offered, and its scope was accordingly extended. In- this investigation, knowledge of the subject of village tanks was for the first time systematically collected and collated on scientific lines and the foundation of systematic study for their scientific development soundly established. A considerable advance has subsequently been made with the subject in all its many ramifications. ADOPTION OF POLICY 2. In 1932 the Executive Committee for Agriculture and Lands accepted the recommendation of its sub-committee on the re-organisation of the Irrigation Department ‘ for the production of paddy and the development of the rice industry the country should look more to the latent possibilitics of the innumerable village works thronghout the Island—‘. A sum of Rs. 200,000/- was voted for the improvement of village irrigation works and a special Village Works Division of the Department attended to this work with headquarters at Anuradhapura. 3. The Irrigation Policy of 1932 was not inaugurated exclusively for the benefit of the dry zone of Ceylon, where shortage of water is the chief obstacle to paddy development, its main objective was an extensive improvement and extension of-DEVELOPMENT OF VILLAGE [RRIGATION WORKS 5 paddy cultivation throughout the country. This focussed the attention of the Irrigation Department on the development of village irrigation works—village tanks, village elas, etc. 4. Inr939, Rules of Procedure for the preparation of Irrigation Works were adopted which defined Village Irrigation Works ‘as those works under which the land-holders do not, asa general tule, pay any rate but carry out the earth work and jungle clearing, necessary for their construction and maintenance, itn part or whole’. PRIORITY LIST OF VILLAGE IRRIGATION WORKS 5. The District Agricultural Committee prepares a list _of village works in their area for preliminary investigation, The Divisional Irrigation Engineer causes an Irrigation Reconnaissance to be made of the work. This report is prepared on the approp- riate Preliminary Investigation Report form, shown in Appendices I{L to VI. He makes his recommendations on the feasibility of the project as an engineering proposition, stating the nature of improvement work necessary and the benefits likely to be derived therefrom together with a forecast of probable cost. 6. The purpose of this preliminary investigation is to cnabie the District Agricultural Committee to decide whether the project should be placed on the priority list of village works for full survey investigation, in greater detail. If the decision is favourable, the Divisional Irrigation Engineer will have a survey carried out and frame proposals, plans and estimates for the necessary improvements required for the work. If the cost of improvements be within the economic limit of expenditure prescribed, then, he will also obtain from the Revenue Officer the proprietors’ agreement on form Irrigation 24 (Appendix XXVI) in terms of Irrigation Ordinance No. 32 of 1946. The work is then placed on the construction priority list of village irrigation works for construction. CONTRIBUTION BY THE PROPRIETORS 7. In consideration of the above decision of the Government to effect improvements to a_ village irrigation work, the proprietors of the lands benefited by the work were required to, and agreed, in terms of the agreement on Form zq, tocontribute towards the cost of improvements either by executing part of the work, e.g. jungle clearing and earthwork in bund raising, or by making a monetary contribution in addition to their generat obligation to maintain the work. The proprietors’ contribution was normally fixed as not to exceed the equivalent of two years’ earthwork as prescribed by the Irrigation Rules in force tn the District. Later, this contribution was waived and the present policy is for Government to meet the entire cost of improvement6 TRANSACTIONS OF THE ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION OF CEYLON to the irrigation work, the proprietors being responsible only for doing earthwork towards maintenance of the completed work. ECONOMIC VALUE OF VILLAGE IRRIGATION WORKS 8. Ceylon is essentially an agricultural country and the staple food of her people isrice. The total area under paddy cultivation in Ceylon in 1954/55 was as follows :— 1. ‘Cultivated under major irrigation works . we ve 269,853 Acres 2. Cultivated under village irrigation _ works... a ve 292,669 Acres 3, Cultivated by direct rainfall 469,089 Acres Total we 1,031,611 Acres For our consideration, we are concerned only with village works, viz. village tanks, village elas, etc., of which there are approximately 10,500 in working condition today. These between them benefit an extent of 292,669 acres which forms 30% of the total lands under paddy. 9. There are some 6,000 village tanks in a working condition and possibly more lie abandoned. In the bunds of the working . tanks alone there must be 30 million cubes of earthwork and possibly another 30 million cubes stand waiting in-the jungle to be restored to usefulness. One is compelled to pay a tribute of awe-struck admiration to the labour commissioners of by-gone days who were able to achieve such a monumental output. This is a valuable permanent asset to the country in the practical development of her agricultural resources. ‘THEIR DOMESTIC IMPORTANCE 10. Everybody who is acquainted with the village life of this Island will realise the predominant importance to the villager of his village tank or village ela, and it is unnecessary to enlarge on their sociological aspect. In the dry zone areas, it has been said, that ‘a tank means a village and a village means a tank ’. The tank is the provider of all the material needs of village life; when a tank breaches the village migrates. 11. Toa much less, but still appreciable extent, the work our predecessors accomplished in the construction of village elas, remains an asset for modern development. In the Central Province, Upper Uva, and Sabaragamuwa there are at least 7,500 village irrigation works, other than tanks, in use today.DEVELOPMENT OF VILLAGE IRRIGATION WORKS 7 ‘The scope for extensive development of the great majority of these works is limited, both by the small extent of potential paddy land undeveloped, and by the economic conditions attendant on agriculture under them. Large scale development, in a wide commercial sense, is impossible under these works, but their domestic importance to the villagers immediately concerned is just as vital as that of the village tank in the Low Country. It is in recognition of this fact that their improvement on scientific lines is being prosecuted, with a view to improving the irrigation amenities of existing cultivation, and to giving the cultivator more time to attend to his other agricultural operations. CHAPTER II SCIENTIFIC TECHNIQUE FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF VILLAGE IRRIGATION WORKS . : CRITERIA OF DEVELOPMENT 12., With this prefatory sketch of the general position and possibilities of the village irrigation works of Ceylon, we may pass on to the more immediate subject, namely, the evolution of a scientific technique for dealing with the problem and possibilities that these works present. Essentially, such a technique must be evolved, not from tradition, but from deliberate research and experiment in the utilization of the natural forces concerned, of which, in this instance, hydraulic phenomena present neither the only, nor the most difficult, problem. There are four main criteria in every irrigation development scheme :— . (i) Accurate estimation of the average yield of the catchment, ie, of the amount of water available in normal years for irrigation, and of the maximum flood run-off that will have to be discharged ; (ii) Sound appreciation of the natural or existing possibilities of the site for storage or diversion ; iii) Definite information as to the extent of potential paddy land available for irrigation under the scheme ; (iv) Scope of the development of Jand. The first of these criteria is concerned with meteorological and hydrological data. Trained judgement will always be necessary for the accurate application of the principles involved, particularly when, as is usually the case, the available data are scanty, but the principles themselves have already acquired the status of scientific laws.:-The second criterion requires a complete and thorough investigation of the topographical, artificial, and geological conditions existing at the site or alternative sites of the work, and the presentation of all relevant facts in the8 TRANSACTIONS OF THE ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION OF CEYLON most concise and coherent form. Judgement is again required for the third criterion, so far as village irrigation works are concerned, as circumstances will seldom justify the expense of a preliminary survey of the potential irrigable area. The fourth is a concern for the Revenue Officer to establish ; development is dealt by him in consultation with the Director of Land Develop- ment. The whole art of development of village irrigation works on a practical, economic, and efficient basis, depends on the accurate establishment of these four criteria, on the sound appreciation of their inter-related effects, and on the production of a scheme that makes the best possible use of the possibilities offered by all four. CO-OTERATION OF THF PROPRIETORS 13. The creation and encouragement of a spirit of co-operation in the villagers must be the constant aim of aJl concerned with the project. There must, of course, be no sentimental inter- ference with the villager’s healthy and traditional sense’ of personal responsibility for his own village irrigation work. His appreciation of the improvements effected must be sincere and spontancous, if he is to be relied on to exploit, and maintain them, to his own advantage ; and there is no way of establishing such appreciation unless he is convinced they are sound and snitable, and unless he has himself co-operated in their accom- plishment. It must be remembered that the average villager ts an experienced practical irrigator. His knowledge of the records anit possibilities of his water supply is extensive, and, though. founded on tradition and untrained observation, is generally valuable to the scientific investigator. Practical Suggestions by the villager are always worth consideration on their own merits, and, while it would be as imprudent to accept as established, without further verification, the data he suggests, as it would be foolish to ignore his suggestions on their merits, the mere fact that he has been consulted will go a long way towards inclining him to appreciate the offer of scientific assistance. SCIENTIFIC ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS FOR THEIR DEVELOPMENT 14. The procedure of the engineer and the lines along which he conceives, and designs, what he considers the best scheme or alternative schemes of development for the work, may be analyzed thus :-— (i) The formation of accurate general impression in regard to the four criteria of development specified in para 12. (ii) The checking, confirmation, completion, and expansion of the data given in the plans and report.DEVELOPMENT OF VILLAGE IRRIGATION WORKS 9 (iii) Visualization of possible development schemes both in scope and detail. (iv) Selection of a final scheme or alternative schemes in outline and the completion of the component details. (v) Production of detailed plans and estimate, and his own report on the general criteria of the project. This, in the barest outline, summarizes the process of assimila- tion of data, and production of a scheme, by the enginecr, and, in order to make the later constructive process intelligible, some of the items in the first two stages will have to be considered in more detail. 15. Every village irrigation work is a major irrigation scheme in miniature, but with its own problems, hydraulic and otherwise occurring ‘full size’ ; it willbe appreciated that minor irrigation works offer an ideal training ground, both for the embryo engineer and for the intelligent technical assistant. ‘The problems they present are the same problems in concentrated form that confront the engineer on larger projects. Officers engaged in the systematic development of village works should be thoroughly familiar with the problems that may arise and be trained to solve such difficulties. CHAPTER III PRELIMINARY RECONNAISSANCE AND SURVEY INVESTIGATION—VILLAGE WORKS LOCATION ON MAP 16, The first thing that must be known definitely about an irrigation scheme is its precise position on the map. The one inch to the mile topographic maps produced by the Survey Department are used for the purpose. These ‘topo sheets’ contain valuable and very often exhaustive, information. It is difficult to exaggerate the importance of these contoured topo maps to the Irrigation Engineer ; their indispensable assistance has to be gratefully appreciated. 17. A system of ‘co-ordinates’ is adopted in the Irrigation Department to locate the position of an irrigation scheme on the map. The East and West co-ordinate is always given first, and in the case of village tanks and bunds, the convention is standardized that the point defined shall in all cases be the ‘left bank’ end of the bund. Thus G/16 (3.3 X 4.3) defines Moragaswewa, G/22 (12.45 X 1.9) locates the Veherageda Trig. In view of the obvious convenience and absolute definitencss of this method of location it is generally adopted.IO TRANSACTIONS OF THE ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION OF CEYLON CATCHMENT AREA 18. Having fixed the precise position of the work on the topo map, the catchment area or the area which drains into the streams that feed the work is then determined. Even on an up-to-date coloured and contoured topo map the marking of the perimeter of the catchment requires a certain amount of expefience and judgement, particularly in flat country, and correct inference must be drawn from the position and lie of adjacent tanks, roads, paths, boundaries and other topo features. The informa- tion on the map must be supplemented and confirmed by local enquiry during the investigation, and, before finally fixing the definite area and shape of the catchment, a rough comparison of the maximum theoretical and recorded flood run-off at the dischargé point should be made, for reconciliation of these factors. Where however, the natural features cannot be well defined from the topo sheets, the water shed line should be marked on the maps by actual verification on the ground, if necessary by a catchment area survey. When finally plotted, the area of the catchment is computed by planimeter, and, if extensive (e.g., if more than 10 miles in length or 20 square miles in area), its mean Jength and shape should be noted. 1g. In addition to providing the means of defining the catch- ment area, the one-inch topo-map generaily-offers the engineer a considerable amount of valuable information in regard to the general features, of the irrigation work, and this ‘ one inch to the mile’ view should be thoroughly assimilated before the study of the detailed ‘ 40 feet to one inch ’ data is begun. The catchment areas of principal river basins in Ceylon are marked on Plate I and their values given in Appendix XI. PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION REPORT 20. The initial step towards systematic procedure, is the collection of the preliminary schedule of the hydro-data and other relevant facts regarding the work, after a reconnaissance of the work and the scheme. The data so collected is used to prepare a Preliminary Investigation Report (P.I.R.) on the work, 21. The first reconnaissance and the preparation of the Preliminary Investigation Report form a very responsible task in the development of the work and it is absolutely essential that only weil erienced officers be entrusted with the work. Every village irrigation work has an individuality of its own and the inspecting officer should acquire the sense and substance of that individuality. 22. Suitable forms in which the Preliminary Investigation Report may be prepared are given in Appendices III to VI, separately for tanks, elas, minor flood protection and salt water exclusion schemes.DEVELOPMENT OF VILLAGE IRRIGATION WORKS In 23. The information provided on the P.I. Reports will have to be revised and supplemented when surveys, plans and proposals have ‘been made and fuil investigation carried out of the work. FULL OR SURVEY INVESTIGATION 24. A full investigation of the work is carried out with contour survey, longitudinal section, site surveys and cross sections of the bund, ela, etc. A set of specifications suitable for carrying out the surveys is given in Appendix VII. The comprehensive nature of the plans to be produced as a result of the survey work is shown in Appendices VI Land EX. Clarity, neatnessand accuracy are insisted on, and the plans produced should be of a very high quality. 25. Asa matter of practical convenience, the sill level of the lowest sluice in a tank, ie. the level up to which the water in the tank can be drained, is fixed as an arbitrary datum of assumed value 100.00. All levelling work is then carried out with respect to this assumed value. 26. During the field investigation, the surveying officer is expected to pay special attention to the establishment of confi- dence and keenness in the villagers, to keep an open ear for their suggestions and opinions, and. as far as possible, to enlist their active assistance with manual work of the survey. Apart from this, he must interpret his specific orders with intelligence and be ready to extend the investigation to include fresh features that strike him as likely to be of value in the engineer's considera- tion of the project. FOUNDATION EXPLORATION 27. A knowledge of sub-soil data is invaluable in deciding the nature and depth of foundation of any structure to be erected. This knowledge enables the selection of the proper type, exact lay out and economy in the construction of structures thereon. : Usual methods of exploration of foundation are by :— (a) Trial pits ; (b) Test rods or sounding rods ; (c) Driven pipes ; (d). Auger borings ; (e) Diamond drill borings.12 TRANSACTIONS OF THE ENGINERRING ASSOCIATION OF CEYLON Generally, at village irrigation works, structures, etc., it would be sufficient if the foundations are explored by trial pits. This isan invaluable adjunct to any site survey work. It is advisable to have the pits wide enough to accommodate the working labour. Trial pits expose to visual examination the foundation material in its own natural setting and position in the ground. Procedure is costly but information gained is complete. TANK CAPACITY 28. Granted access, it is not a very difficult or expensive matter to make a skeleton contour survey of a tank bed during the course of the investigation, to plot the contours, compute their areas by planimeter, and calculate the capacity by the prismoidal or other formula. An example of the calculation is given in. Appendix X. Access, however, is not always feasible, as the tank may be full, or partly full, when the investigation is being -carried out. Moreover, reliable information as to the storage capacity of a tank may be required before its investigation js undertaken. For this purpose a reliable formula would be invaluable. An empirical formula in frequent use is the following :— V=O04AD where V is the capacity in acre-feet of the tank at depth D feet, and A the water spread area in acres at that depth. The formula has its uses as a first approximation, though it is not logically applicable to any volume save a paraboloid. It will be noted, however, that without a contour survey the factor A has to be estimated, and this is not an easy thing to do accurately even if the tank is full to depth D. The factor A is, of course, a function of D (as well as of certain other variables), and our object is to eliminate this factor from the formula, and to express ¥ in terms of the simple independent D. If it could be evolved, a simple exponential formula of the type: V = cD? would be ideal, but, on account of the other variables concerned, it may not be possible to derive quite so simple an expression. We cannot as yet say definitely from what characteristics of the ‘tank these other independent variables may originate. The depth D is the most obvious, but the length, width, and shape of the basin must have their effect on the capacity. It seems probable that all these characteristics of tank basins may be connected with the catchment areas, as all natural basins were to some degree, formed in prehistoric ages by the’ action of water. If this is so, the geological formation of the valicy is possibly the original determinant of all the other characteristi 2g. An exponential formula of this type, if applicable, is clearly the most concise way to record the capacity ofa tank, though, for practical use, most engineers would prefer to have aDEVELOPMENT OF VILLAGE IXPIGATION WORKS 13 graph. The capacity diagram is generally plotted on logarithmic paper as this gives a much straighter curve than if it were plotted on squared paper. It is easier to plot, requires less ‘ points” to be calculated, and can be produced to give extrapolated values with a much greater degree of accuracy. CHAPTER IV VILLAGE TANK DESIGN 30. The generalised statements and requirements mentioned in the earlier chapters are applicable to village works in general. We now proceed to the detailed study and design of the village or minor tanks which form a large number of village works schemes. The engineer, will have with him, the preliminary investigation report and a complete set of survey plans. ‘The stage is now set for him to apply the principles enunciated earlier of scientific analysis and synthesis. HYDROLOGY 31. Accurate knowledge of the catchment area in conjunction with the meteorological data available for it, is required for the estimation of the hydrologic characteristics of the scheme. First there is the beneticent aspect of rainfall as the source of the ' Yield ' which is stored or diverted for irrigation. There is also the sinister aspect of rainfall, as the primary cause of the floods for which every irrigation work must be designed to cope. 32. Rainfall: The map on Plate 1—will be useful in the selection of rain gauge stations having a bearing on the catchment. Reference is then made to the rainfall returns in the ‘ Report on the Colombo Observatory’ to obtain the average monthly rainfall at the selected rain yange stations over a period of 30 years. It will be found convenient to divide the rainfall year Into two seasons— (1) Sept.—Feb. inclusive—The Maha or North East Monsoonal Season. (2) Mar.—Aug. inclusive—The Yala or South West Monsoonal Season. ‘Though the periods will not necessarily conform with anything like exactitude to the normally specificd monsoons, they will generally do so with sufficient closeness to permit the terms North East and South West being applied or alternatively the terms Maha and Yala may be used. 33. It may be noted that the precipitation habits are such that the mean or average rainfall is one that may be expected to be exceeded only in 35 to 4o times out of a hundred, Hence a14 TRANSACTIONS OF THE ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION OF CEYLON conclusion relative to yield determined from considerations of mean rainfalls affords a rosy picture of the irrigation potential. For the assessment of the yield from a dry zone catchment in an average year it is often advisable to ignore the raiufall in September and the yield during the South West Monsoon. YIELD 34. Having ascertained the periodic totals of rainfall of the area, the average yield available for storage has to be estimated. This factor of yield is the most difficult to assess correctly and there are several methods of estimating the yield from a catchment. Rough and conservative estimates of yield may be arrived at from the mean seasonal rainfall in one of the two following ways— -(a) Strange’s yield tables for bad catchments. (8) The Kalawewa and Minneriya Curves of the Irrigation Dept. Strange’s yield table for bad catchment extracted from Strange’s * Indian Storage Reservoir ' is suitable for estimating yield from seasona] rainfall. The Kalawewa and Minneriya curves are based on the known and observed replenishments of these two tanks. The characteristic of the Kalawewa catchment is the presence of a large number of working tanks, approximately about one per square mile of catchment area whereas Minneriya catchment is devoid of such development. Hence the Kalawewa curve ‘gives plausible estimate of the yield for a catchment with that degree of exploitation while the Minneriya curve furnishes the corresponding yield for a dry zone catchment without working tanks. The table on Appendix XIV gives the yield per square mile as per Kalawewa, Minneriya and Strange’s yield curves for a bad catchment in reference to the seasonal rainfall. These values of yield may be used in determining the yield that can be expected from a catchment. For practical purposes one is advised to use the Kalawewa curve for village tank catchments possessed of oneor more working tanks per square mile, the Minneriya curve for village tank catchment having one working tank in every two or three square miles of catchment and Strange’s curve for catchment almost free of working tanks. 35. The best method however of arriving at the yield from rainfall is by direct measurement of actual stream flow by gaugings. Gaugings over long periods are necessary for reliable estimate of the anticipated yield. It is however only in very rare instances that stream gaugings for such long periods are available but valuable information can be deduced from the result of gaugings even of shorter periods.DEVELOPMENT OF VILLAGE IRRIGATION WORKS 1§ , FLOOD RUN-OFF 36. Having thus arrived at the beneficial aspect of rainfall, viz, the amount of ‘ Yield’ available from it for storage, the other aspect of rainfall—as the primary cause of the floods, Le. probable maximum flood run-off, due to rainfall, has to be considered. . Existing medium which is used as a point of departure, for assessing the flood run-off is Dickens’ formula :-— Q=cm where Q is the flood run-off in cusecs and M the catchment area in square miles, The value of the coefficient C has to be carefully selected for each particular case. it has been found that a value of 645 for the coefficient C, gave results with reasonable accuracy for many low country or dry zone tanks and is therefore very commonly used. Appendix XII indicates necessary modifications to the value of the coefficient under different conditions. A table of values of Q worked out for catchment areas up to 100 square miles for four different values of the coefficient C is shown in Appendix XIII. The table also gives the values obtained from Inglis’s formula:— 2,000 M Q= Vite 4 In using the table, it is advisable to select particularly the higher values of Dickens’ coefficient when dealing with small catchment areas, Thus, C = 2,000 may be a consideration for a tank with a catchment area of only a square mile, whereas in view of the distinct improbability of simultaneous uniform peak intensity down pour in a widespread area, adoption of 2,000 may be extravagant for a 50 square mile catchment area. 37. ‘The Irrigation Department is engaged in the study of flood peaks on the evidence of flows based on actual recorded flood— history in Ceylon. For this purpose, the Island divides into three hydrological zones, viz. the wet zone catchments, the dry zone catchments which extend to hill country and the dry zone catchments which do not extend to hill country. It is hoped that the study of this subject will very soon result in the issue of a working nomograph, for correct estimation of maximum flood flow at any point of concentration. For the present, however, Dickens’ formula may be used as a point of departure, the selection of value for coefficient C depending on—(a) extent of catchment area, (6) the hydrological nature or the peak flow behaviour of the area.16 TRANSACTIONS OF THE ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION OF CEYLON In the case of most tillage tenks however, value of 645 has beew presumed to depict ordinary flood condtitons and C = 1,000, cyclonic flood condttions. Whereas, schemes in the North Eastern Zone of Ceylon, where high intensities of rainfall have been experienced, require consideration with C == 2,000. 38. Jt must be realised that the Dickens’ formula is at the best empirical and does not profess to bescientifically accurate in structure or results. An engineer who uses it as anything more than a point of departure, who fails to amend its results on large catchments by correction for ‘ shape ’ and time and by reconcilia- tion of its results with recorded flood discharges from the area, is incurring a grave risk. With this warning the use of the tables on Appendix XIII is recommended as giving with the suitable coefficient, reasonably reliable average maximum flood discharges. The rate of run off from large catchments is materially affected by their length, shape and slope, by the nature of the cover growing or constructed upon them and by the texture of their soils. As regards shape, a catchment that is semi-circular round the discharge point will have a large run oft factor, compared with a long, narrow catchment, from which, unless the storm is travelling down its length, the run-off is likely to be prolonged and gentle. Small catchments tend to have a higher maximum rate of run-off as intense rainfall is generally localised. A steep, barren impervious catchment gives a very high rate of run off and a pervious catchment, if saturated when a major storm occurs may be regarded as impervious. Swamps, minor tanks and abandoned tanks tend to lower the rate by absorbing or detaining a part of the flood water. SPILL DISCHARGE 39. The flood run-off gives an estimate of the maximum anticipated flood flow into the tank. The spill has to be designed to pass this flood without endangering any of the component structures of the tank. The two classes of spill in vogue in the Irrigation Department are the masonry clear overfall spill and the natural or channel spill. The selection of one or the other type depends on site conditions. 4o. The discharge over a masonry spill, with clear overflow conditions is given by Francis Formula (for sharp crested weir) a Q = 3.33 LH.” where Q = total discharge in cusecs. L = length of spill crest in feet H = head, in feet measured from crest to tank water level.DEVELOPMENT OF VILLAGE IRRIGATION WORKS 17 ‘This is used for all masonry spills and should suffice, as it is, for village tanks. However, this ignores several factors :—The length of spill crest as measured at site is a gross length and an allow- ance is necessary for end contractions at piers and abutments— the effective discharging length of spillway becomes L —o.1 nH; where n = number of end contractions and the coefficient 0.1 may be decreased to 0.05 for well rounded ends, No provision is made in the formula for increase in head due to velocity of approach, This initial velocity increases the discharge as though the equivalent velocity head were added to the measured head. But in large tanks the velocity of approach is usually slight, though appreciable at diversion anicnts where storage capacity is little. The cffective head then becomes H + hp where hy = ran Vo being the velocity of approach. The omission however of this provision in the computation, provides a safer spillway and is therefore to be preferred. ‘The value of the constant 3.33 is dependant on the shape of the crest. For broad crests the value may be lower and rounded crests indicate higher values. The sharp crest, required for value of 3.33 is however not practically possible in the field. This had lead to the adoption of a section with curved crest and downstream profile, known as the OGEF. spillway. where the upper section is parabolic in shape and the downstream face is concave upwards inducing discharge horizontally at the toe of the structure. The common types of masonry spill structures are shown on Plate 2. 41. The natural or the channel spill affords the most economic form of spill. This is adopted in all situations where site conditions permit. These spills are certain to erode if the velocity exceeds a certain value. Permissible velocities in different types of soil are given in Appendix XVI. The table on Appendix XV gives the discharge over C.O. spills and channel spills for various heads, as also seen on Plate 3. 42. The existing practice for the design of village tank spills is to assume the maximum inflow (obtained by Dickens’ Formula) at conslant rate for 12 hours. This gives high values but further _assumptions made in the preparation of the spillanalysisdiagram brings down this value within reasonable limits. This has been found to be satisfactory in practice. This assumption affords an easy method of preparation of the spilt analysis ‘diagram. it may be noted that an inflow at the rate of 1 cusec for 12 hours is approximately equal to 1 acre foot. FLOOD DETENTION IN TANKS 43. Flood detention in tanks is partly permanent and partly temporary. The part permanently detained is the amount of water required to fill the tanks up to spill level. The parta8 TRANSACTIONS OF THE ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION OF CEYLON temporarily detained is the volume of water that piles up in a tank above spill level, until the increasing discharge of the spill (a function of the afflux thus created), or the decreasing inflow of floods, first balances and then reverses the process. Such detention hasan equalizing effect on flood run off. After cautious appraisal of all the considerations involved, the conclusion has been reached that it is safe to allow for this effect, both in the tank under consideration (self detention) and in every working tank (detention in‘ the catchment) above it of appreciable size and in a resonably safe condition. 44. Self Deteniion: A certain volume of the flood inflow is utilized in heading up the water level in the tank above the spill crest, level. This heading up provides the necessary head required for spill discharge and the piling up causes a momentary retention of part of the total flood inflow. This self detention has to be, therefore, allowed for in the process of equating inflow with spill discharge and will necessarily increase with the head above the spill. In the process of equating, this detention is converted into an egutvalent rate of flow, and deducted from the gross inflow, 45. Detention in the Catchment: Another deduction from the gross inflow becomes necessary due to such ‘self detention’ occurring in each of the working tanks, situated within the catchment area. The total effect of such detention would be represented by the sum total of ‘ self detention ' in each working tank in the catchment area and this sum total has also to be deducted from the gross inflow. This factor is however, not so easy to assess. The allowance suggested is expressed by the formula‘/E=A xD cusecs. Where Eis the’ absorptive capacity * or detention effect of a tank expressed in cusecs, A, is its water spread area at F.S.L. in acres and D, the maximum allowable flood lift, in feet. This allowance is calculated for each certified tank in the catchment which is known to be in satisfactory working condition and the total is deducted from the gross run-off. Emphasis must be laid on the fact that no deduction whatever must be made for tanks of which the safety status is not estabti- shed. Such tanks are just as likely to be sources of added danger, through their liability to breach during a flood, as ta be in any way a mitigating factor. It will be noted that the suggested formula ignores the increase in top water area above spill Jevel, as this simplifies the formula and introduces an additional ‘ factor of safety’. Sometimes an approximate computation for the above is arrived by ascertaining the full supply area of the tank from the topo maps and presuming one foot as the maximum allowable flood lift for an average village tank, provided of course, the safety status of the tank is assured by actual inspection.DEVELOPMENT OF VILLAGE IRRIGATION WORKS 19 . FACTOR OF SAFETY 46. The commonly accepted meaning of the term ‘ factor of safety ' in the design of a tank is the height, or ‘ freeboard ’ of the bund top above the probable maximum flood level. The term may not be a very accurate measure of the tank's absolute safety, but it is certainly a concise and perspicuous way of expressing the final relationship between the engineer's estimate of the run-off into the tank, the discharge out of it, and the necessary bund level. We have already dealt, in some detail, with all three of these constituents independently. The consideration of their inter-relationship brings us to the construc- tive stage in the process outlined in para 14. There are, of course, far more constituents to consider than those we have just mentioned. All are the products of the analytical and dressing processes already described. Both in their production and application these constituents are closely inter-connected, and mutually reactive, and the process of welding them into an effective implement for the increase of paddy cultivation is a complex one, both to perform and to describe, Science has certainly contributed to the production of the individual constituents of the problem, and will assist the engineer to appreciate their mutual reactions. Science will also furnish the background for the welding process, but the process itself, which we may now consider, would be more correctly termed an * Art ‘ rather than a ‘ Science’. SYNTHETIC PROCESS—PROJECT PLANNING 47. The task that now confronts the engineer is to conceive and design the best and widest scheme of development possible within the limits of the interdependent criteria (para 12) now established. He can approach the task by any one of the several avenues that these criteria suggest. The most usual avenue will be that suggested by the existing possibilities of the site for maximum storage. In view of the high cost, soil investi- gations are not done to ascertain the condition of the bund of an abandoned village tank before restoration. Seepage through these bunds after restoration is not uncommon. To minimise seepage and consequent failure of bund, the head of water in the tank has to be kept low. Cultivation needs require the head to be high to store as much of the yield from the catchment as possible. As a compromise the level at full supply is not generally allowed to exceed the average top level of the bund before restoration. The net yield of the catchment has been calculated. If less than the permissible storage the scheme must be modified to store the net yield. If in excess, an increase of the scope of development will be suggested and noted for further examination later. The duty of irrigation water for village works is assumed to be 3 ac. it. of storage per acre. The storage divided by the duty gives the maximum extent that can20 TRANSACTIONS OF THE ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION OF CEYLON be developed under the tank. If this is less than the potential area available, then the surplus area is left out for future develop- ment. If in excess the scheme is modified to benefit the area available. One more aspect that needs consideration is the demand for lands under the proposed scheme. This will not limit the scope of the scheme as there is an insatiable demand for Jand. Agreement is thus reached on the storage to be provided and hence the full supply level of the tank. FLOOD LIFT 48. Having settled the spill level or the full supply level to siiit storage requirements and calculated the net flood run off (so far as it can be calculated until the allowable flood lift in the tank and hence its approximate detention value, are settled) the next requirement is to determine the maximum flood lift that is to be allowed. This will depend on ihe type of spilt adopted and its length of crest. The type will determine the discharge formula applicable (see Plate 3) and the length will be the quotient of the net run off divided by q, the unital discharge obtained from the graph of the formula or the tables on Appendix XV. There is, of course, an indefinite number of types of spills and there is an infinite number of ways of solving the equation L x q = net run off, L and q both being variable. ‘The site conditions dealt with below, determine the most suitable type of spill and limits the range of suitable lengths of spill. A reduction in value of L increases q, hence the flood lift and height of bund are increased, A few triat studies with different spill lengths and corresponding bund heights give the most economic spill length to be adopted. For the spill length the spill analysis graph will give the floocl lift. SPILL ANALYSIS GRAPH 49. The process of eyuating the flood run off or the flood inflow from the catchment into the tank with the spill discharge or the flood outflow from the tank is visualised very clearly on graphical representation of relevant factors. A type spill analysis diagram or graph for a 60 foot clear overfali spill is shown on Plate 2. The » co-ordinate represents the afflux head or height in feet above the spill crest level in the tank water levels. The y co-ordinate represents total discharge or run off over the full length of the spillway. Straight lines parallel to the abscissa are drawn to indicate the gross run off from the catchment for values of c = 645 and I,ovo (sometimes a third line is also dra for C == 850). As however some of the run off is momentarily detained in the working tanks within the catchment, the total amount of the detention in the catchment is deducted and fresh horizontal lines are drawn. he ‘self detention ' is the amount detained in the tank itself in creating afflux head forDEVELOPMENT OF VILLAGE IRRIGATION WORKS 4 necessary discharge. This quantity, converted into equivalent discharge as referred to‘earlier is taken off and the curved lines drawn representing nett run off to be spilt over. Curves of discharge for possible types of spill are now tried. The high flood level is given by the abscissa of the point of intersection of the nett run off curve and the selected spill discharge curve. FREEBOARD 50. Freeboard, has already been termed the factor of safety of a tank. It is the extra, precautionary height of the bund above high flood level, or in the symbols generally used :— ‘Bund level = Spill level + flood lift + freeboard ; B.L. =FS.L, + D + FB. Freeboard, like all factors of safety, is largely a factor of ignorance. A bund, being of earth, and liable to damage by the elements and by the passage of human beings, animals and vehicles, will not remain at the specified level without constant maintenance and repair. Portions of it may, and, in the case of village tanks, almost certainly will be *low’ wher the flood atrives, This consideration accounts in part for freeboard. Again the action of wind on the surface of water causes waves, which are proportionate in height to the fetch of the tank. Apart from the erosive action of waves, and the constant movement of water against the face of the bund earthwork —such waves are liable to overtop the bund unless the latter is raised above the water surface. Here is another reason for freeboard. Lastly, with the most copious data systernatically collected, and with every care in the application of scientific laws, the prediction of maximum floods is still a matter of estimation, and must remain so until man can control the forces producing rain. For all these reasons freeboard must be provided, but the cogency of the reasons adduced has not yet reconciled the evillagers to the necessity of raising their bunds to an adequate level, nor convinced them of the danger of utilizing part of what appears to be wasted storage, by the erection of temporary dams across their spills. CHAPTER V VILLAGE TANK CONSTRUCTION SPILL TYPES 51. The selection of the most appropriate site and type of spill is fundamental in the whole process of village tank develop- ment. The design of the spill has already been discussed. Spills are generally located at the flank of the tank in continuation of the bund. Mid-bund spills, though ideal under certain conditions are more costly. Flank spills suffer the disadvantage22 TRANSACTIONS OF THE ENGIXRERING ASSOCIATION OF CEYLON of being the cause of damage to the downstream toc of the tank bund. To prevent this, training bunds are constructed to lead the tail water away from the tank bund. The ideal site conditions for'a spill require sufficient length, a flat longitudinal and gently sloping cross section, hard strata, proper elevation and clear approach and tail. Spills commonly adopted for village tanks ate 7— {z) Channel spills, usually referred to as natural spills, (2) Clear overfall spills—gravity type trapezoidal section, {3) Clear overfall spills—fume type. . CHANNEL SPILL 52. The simplest type of village tank spill is an earth channel. This type is most economical and is permissible only if velocity in the tail channel does not under any circumstance, exceed the limiting velocity which the material of the tail channel could with-stand {vide Appendix XVI). This restriction precludes the adoption of steep tail slopes and therefore limits the use of this type to cases where the slope of the terrain is considerably flat. CLEAR OVERFALL SPILL 53. Failing ideal conditions necessary for the adoption of a channel spill at the flank, the best site for the spill is at the original main drainage line. The spill in this case will be of the clear overfall type and the getaway route will be down the parent stream. Due however to the high structure needed this is usually’ costly. The heavy cost of this spill precludes its adoption except as a last alternative. In the vast majority of cases, either a modified channel spill or a clear overfall spill at the flank is adopted and the best possible provision made to, eliminate getaway difficulty. 54. The clear overfall spill can either be of the gravity type or the flume type. The gravity type:is applicable to sites where :— (a) ‘there is a more or less sudden drop in ground levet eg. at the upstream limit of an etoded gully or below the crest of a neglected channel spill. (0) the average ground level is below the designed crest level of the spill and suitable getaway conditions are assured. In all cases a rocky site is very desirable for a gravity type spill ; otherwise downstream water cushion protection should be provided.DEVELOPMENT OF VILLAGE IRRIGATION WORKS 23 55. The flume or chute type spill is adopted in situations where the absence of suitable rock foundations and the deep drop render the adoption of the gravity type very expensive. This type is applicable to sites where the ground level at the uppermost point is at crest level or higher and the slope gradual, this can be located at any point along the bund. FILLING BREACH AND BUND RAISING 56. The maximum water pressure on the tank bund is on the section of the bund across the breach stream. This section of the bund should therefore be constructed with utmost care. In the case of major tanks and large village tanks, the breach filling is done under proper ficld control. The burrow area is demarcated after laboratory tests of the samples of the material are done. ‘The designs and specifications are prepared on the basis of these tests. During construction, field tests are made at various stages to controi the quality of the work as per designs and specifications. Even in minor tanks, the filling of breaches should be done with special care. In these cases a core wall generally of puddle extending from below the bed up to H.F.L. is provided at the centre, The puddle consists of stiff clay with about 20%, of sand. The material for the breach filling should be carefully selected. ‘Top soil, soil containing roots, peat and swamp soils are not to he used, 57. Before the filling of the breach commences the base and the two exposed faces are cleared of all trees, shrubs, weeds, grass and other vegetable matter. All roots, loose stones and rubbish of all sorts should be removed. If the material at the base is not nearly as good as the fill to be placed it should also be removed till better material is met with. No sandy deposits in _ the breach should be allowed. Sand on the downstream side to a width of about 1/3 base may however be allowed to remain provided it is coarse and that a graded rock filter is provided at the toe. The central core trench is then excavated to a bed width of about 2‘, depth 3’ and side slopes 2 on 1 or less. It is very necessary to key the trench into both sides to an appreciable length. . The clay for the puddle core wall should be excavated and exposed till it is completely dry. It should then be pulverised with rammers. About a day or two previous to using, it should be wetted and worked into a plastic mass. When being laid each basketful shall be well trodden and worked in with that already laid, care being taken that no stones, bricks, roots, grass, or rubbish of any kind is allowed to remain in the puddle. The construction of the puddle core wall should proceed simultane- ously with the raising of the rest of the breach. The sides of24 TRANSACTIONS OF THE ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION OF UBYLON the puddle core wall shall be covered over with earth immediately after construction. The top face shall be divided into several compartments by short clay bunds and kept continuously wet. On no account should the puddle core wall be allowed to dry and crack up. 58. Before depositing earth filling, the prepared bed should be scarified to a depth of about 3” in ordinary earth and 8" in clay. This operation would roughen and break up surface cracks without disturbing the foundation. It should then be moistened and filling commenced. The earth used for filling should be free from stones, roots and other vegetable matter Alt clods and lumps must be broken up as the filling proceeds, to ensure close consolidation. The filling should be done in layers of 6"'to 9” thick, wetted and well consolidated. The layers should have a slight slope towards the centre of the bund, the earth being thrown down from the sides towards the centre. To ensure proper bonding of the new filling with the existing work, the bund should be benched to secure the filling. VILLAGE TANK SLUICE 5y. A village tank sluice consists of a pipe running under the bund to convey water from the tank to the distribution channel with suitable regulating arrangements at the upstream end and stilling arrangements at the downstream end, The size of the pipe is determined by the maximum quantity of water it is required to convey. It is desirable to use bigger pipes than are theoretically necessary so that the replacement of the sluice will not become necessary when additional lands are taken under the tank. The additional cost of bigger pipes is very small compared to the cost of thesluice. The theoretical sizes of pipes required for sluices for various extents of irrigable lands are given in Appendix XXIV. 6o. The simplest type of sluice is the vertical pipe sluice commonly known as the V.T. type. The use of this type is limited to tanks with a low full supply depth. The operation of this type is very cumbersome and the type is unsatisfactory. Consequently these are being replaced by other types. The most common types of tank sluices now adopied are the simple head wall type and the hume pipe tower sluice. The simple headwall type sluice is adopted for village tanks with low heads. This consists of a headwall at the upstream end of the pipe with suitable wing walls. A simple cistern on the downstream provides the necessary stilling arrangements. The sluice gate is fixed to the upstream headwall and is operated from the top.DEVELOPMENT OF VILILAGE IRRIGATION WORKS 45 The hume pipe tower sluice is adopted for village tanks with higher heads. This consists of a 3’ diameter hume pipe placed vertically to serve as a tower in place of the headwall. The sluice gate is installed in the tower and the operating lever is mounted on the top. - Access to the tower is hy means of an R.C. foot bridge leading from the top of the bund. In some cases instead of the foot bridge the bund top is widened up to the tower to afford direct access. In big tanks the hume pipe ‘tower is replaced by an R.C. tower built on an R.C, raft. BREACHING SECTION 61. The estimated ‘maximum flood run off’ may not necessarily be the maximum precipitation ever to occur in the catchment. The occurrence of fluods in excess of the estimated ‘value cannot certainly be ruled out though the frequency of such occurrence may be rare. The construction of tank spills ‘capable of disposing all possible floods is of course uneconomic. ‘When a flood in excess of the estimated value occurs, the tank bund would breach at some weak section to afford the additional ‘surplusing capacity. It is therefore prudent to localise such possible breaching to a selected advantageous site on the bund, known as Breaching Section. ‘hese sections are provided in the flanks or in the periphery of the tank where a breach will cause the minimum damage. The breaching section is kept lower and weaker than the remainder of the bund to be vulnerable and breach to provide the additional surplusing capacity. The breaching of a tank is Hable to cause breaching of other tanks lower down the catchment. The provision of suitable breaching sections is a very desirable precaution not only for the safety of the parent work but also for the safety of the other tanks lower down. A breach at the breaching section will not empty the tank and indeed frequently does little more than supplementing its surplusing capacity to a reasonable degree to the greater security both of the parent tank and of those elow it. CHAPTER VI IRRIGATION FACILITIES TO FIELDS UNDER VILLAGE WORKS IRRIGATION FACILITIES 62, The ultimate object of storage or diversion from a village work is the supply of irrigation water for cultivation in the developed lands. This takes us to the other aspect of develop- ament of village irrigation works, viz., the provision of irrigation26 TRANSACTIONS OF THE ENGINEKRING ASSOCIATION OF CEYLON facilities to lands under village schemes. It should include the provision of rot only supply channels but also the necessary drainage and access facilities. ENGINEERING SURVEYS 63. The primary requirement for the design of irrigation facilities is the engineering survey plans of the area. These are detailed survey plans of the area plotted to a scale of 4 chains to an inch showing form lines at 1’ vertical intervals, In addition they show all topographical and civic features such ax outcrops, streams, roads, buildings, etc. These surveys carried out by the Survey Department. . TRACT PLANS 64.- The next step is the preparation of the tract plan of the area on the engineering survey plans. This divides the area into-a number of tracts. Tracts are parcels of irrigable land bounded on one side by the main supply channel and on the other three sides by definite natural boundaries. Each tract therefore comprises of a portion of the irrigable area which could conveniently be irrigated as an independent sub-unit. 65. The main supply channel, which forms the upper boun- dary of the tract, is first traced on the contour plan generally along a falling contour. The level at the commencement of the trace is the proposed F.S.L. of the channel and the gradient is that obtained from a preliminary design of the channel. The main and subsidiary drainage lines are then picked out. At this stage it should be decided which streams are to be retained and which asweddumised, the decisions being governed by the catchment of the streams and the proposed tracts. What should be aimed at is the elimination of small tracts and the combination of several. to form a: fair sized unit. The-entire irrigable area is thus divided into tracts each independent of the other. Each tract, as far as possible, should be irrigated from a separate outlet but more than one outlet can serve the same tract, if necessary. A single outlet however should not be designed to irrigate more than one tract. BLOCKING OUT PLANS 66. Preparation of B.O.PP..consists of dividing each tract into a number of lots or blocks with the necessary irrigation, drainage and access_facilities to each: lot. The extent of each lot is determined in’ consultation with’ the Revenue Officer: The first step is to lay down the supply channel to each tract ; this depends upon the nature of the land to be irrigated. Three types of terrain are commonly met with. The flat terrain with contours almost parallel to the main channel, has field channelsDEVELOPMENT OF VILLAGE IRRIGATION WORKS 27 taking off from the main channel across the contours with drainage channels alongside. The boundaries of the lots extend from one channel to the other as the field channel can irrigate only on one bank. There is then the steep terrain;” Here distributary channels (off the main channel} are laid across the contours with field channels off these distributaries running » along the contours, Each field channel carries alongside and above it a drainage channel. The third type is the undulating terrain where alternate ridges and valleys occur. The method of approach in this case would be to locate supply channels on ridges and drainage channels in valleys. 67. After the channels have been laid the required reservations for the channels, streams, etc. are marked off. These reservations are the total widths of land strips.left out of the blocking and represent the minimum width required for the provision and proper maintenance of the work in good working order. Certain channels like the main and distributary channels always carry toads along them. Field channels occur either alone or with cart tracts or drainage channels. The width of the necessary reservations for various typesof work is given in Appendix XXV. The width of stream reservations is laid down in G.O. 732. The revision of this G.O. is under consideration. The G.O. and the proposed amendments to the G.O, are in Appendix XXV. 68. The balance area is then blocked into lots. Individual lots are usually near rectangular in shape with the longer side not more than 4 times the shorter. The blocks should not be parailel to the contours but are ty be rotated slightly towards the lower contour, to ensure water entering a lot at the highest point, reaching all parts of the lot. The method of laying down channels and blocking out as described above indicates the basic principles to be followed. Varying conditions necessitate modifications to above; the fundamental requirement is that every lot should be provided «with: satisfactory-irrigation, ;drainage and access facilities. HOUSING AND GARDEN LOTS 69. In colonisation schemes the highland is blocked out to provide housing and garden lots with necessary access. Every 150 house lots are served by a community centre, for which a reservation of 20 acres is provided, for the purpose of health, social and other recreational facilitics of the community, Township reservation of 50 acres is provided at a central site. The house lots are laid symmetrically with respect to the road system. The lot boundaries are therefore made parallel to the roads and the lots are either square or reclangular in shape, each being accessible by road.28 TRANSACTIONS OF THE ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION OF CEYLON An example of a blocking out plan is shown on Plate 4. IRRIGATION SUPPLY CHANNELS Classification 70. Irrigation supply channels are classified under 4 types > (i) Main Channel: This is the principal supply channel from the tank or the diversion anicut. This is generally a contour channel from which no direct issue is made to the field. (ii) Branch Channel : This is an offshoot from the main channel from which there will generally be no direct issue. This type of channel is not generally used on smaller schemes but is used in the case of very large tracts to feed distributaries and field channels, (tit) Distributary Channel: This takes off from a main or branch channel and as a tule, supplies field channels together with a few individual issues. through pipe outlets. (iv) Field Channels : These are channels from which direct issues are made to the fields. The first two types are not generally met with in village irrigation schemes. The channel taking off from the village scheme sluice comes under the category of distributary channel and is designed as such. : DUTY OF WATER 71. The relation between the area of crop irrigated and the quantity of irrigation water, required as supply, is termed the duty of water. The term ‘duty’ is generally used in reference to the whole cultivation period though it can he used in reference to any base less than the whole cultivation period. Apart from the base the place of measurement should also be stated to define duty. The quantity of water issued at the head of a channel is more than the quantity delivered in the fields due to conveyance losses in the channel. Thus duty in the field is less than the duty at the channel offtake Duty is generally expressed in terms of the number of acres that can be irrigated by an averdge flow of 1 cusec at the head of the channel for the whole crop period or the quantity of water in acre feet required to be stored for the cultivation of one acre of land. ‘The value of duty varies from place to place. Thenature of the soil, nature of the crop, type of cultivation, intervening rainfall and the type of cultivator all contribute to the variation. Their behaviour particularly those of the last two factors cannot be predicted with any reasonable degree of accuracy. The observed.DEVELOPMENT OF VILLAGE LRRIGATION WORKS 20 duty at storage excluding evaporation and other storage tosses at major tanks have been known to vary from 4 ac. ft. to 7 ac. ft. during Maha and 4 ac. ft. to 1g ac. ft. during Yala, against a generally assumed duty of 5 and 7.5 ac. it. respectively. How- ever for purposes of design of village works a duty of 3 ac. ft. of gross storage per acre and for design of irrigation channels under village tanks a duty of 35 acres per cusec for main channels and 30 acres for field channels are assumed. CULTIVATION PERIOD 72. There are two main cultivation seasons in vogue in this country, called Maha and Yala or Muanmari and Pinmari or Kalapoham and Sirupoham. The duration throughout which water issue is made during these cultivation seasons are :— (i) Maha—Munmari or Kalapoham—QOctober to March about 150 days. (ii) Yala—Pinmari or Sirupohaim. 120 days. April to August, about ‘The duration of water issue for paddy depends on the particular variety sown, there being three popular varieties known as 3, 4 and 5 months paddy. In all cases water issue is required for 3 weeks for the preparation of the fields prior to sowing or transplanting. The 3 month paddy requires water issue for 10 weeks after it is sown or g weeks after it is transplanted. In the case of the 4and 5 month varieties the corresponding periods are 14 and 12 weeks and 18 and 15 weeks respectively. CHANNEL VELOCITIES 73. Water flowing down an irrigation channel cari certain amount of silt. Silt is defined to be the solid material carried by flowing water, either in suspension or in solution. At low velocities the silt is deposited in the channel while high velocities cause scour to the channel bed and sides. Both these factors impair efficient distribution of water to the fields and result in excessive expenditure on maintenance. — rrigation channels should therefore be designed to have a non-silting non-scouring velocity. She problem of silt transportation in irrigation channels is still a subject that has not yet reached a final stage of solution. Various theories have been put furward from time to time and various formulae given to determine the critical velocity at which a channel neither silts nor scours, the most common being Kennedy's and Lacey’s equations. In view of the simplicity of application, Kennedy's formula is now adopted in the Irrigation Department for the determination of the critical velocity. Kennedy’s formula is most conveniently written in the form : V=0.84 M.D Oo30 TRANSACTIONS OF THE ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION OF CEYLON where M is the critical velocity ratio. This equation was derived by Kennedy from observation made on the Upper Bari Doab Canal, Punjab and he regarded the sandy silt of that canal as standard, the coefficient M for that canal being unity. Sands coarser than standard were assigned values of M greater than unity and finer sands less than unity. The value of M for irrigation channels in Ceylon is taken to be between 1.1 and. 1,25. The maximum velocities are however limited to 3.5 f.p.s. for large earth channels, 2.5 f.p.s, for small earth channels and 12 f.p.s. for concrete lined channels. © DESIGN OF IRRIGATION CHANNELS 74. Irrigation channels can be designed by any of several channel. formulae known. The formulae commonly used are Bazin's, Kutter’s and, Manning’s. If used with the same ease and understanding it is probable that each will be found equally reliable. On the other hand no great degree of precision can be expected from them. All are based upon experiments and in applying them in practice inconsistencies corresponding to inconsistencies in experiments are to be expected. ‘The adoption ofa particular formula becomes therefore a matter of convenience or expediency. It is however important that the engineer who deals frequently with hydraulic problems should familiarise himself with one particular formula. He should consistantly think in terms of that formula, in order that a certain value of coefficient will have a definite meaning to him. 75. In view of the simplicity of application, engineers in the Irrigation Department are encouraged to use the Manning formuli. Advantages claimed for this formula are :— That, ° (x) It is more readily adaptable to solution by tables and diagrarns, (2) lt provides a simpler solution for problems that are best solved by direct application of the formula. (3) It is readily applicable to pipes and makes possible the adoption of a single formula, having a single coefficient to become familiar with, for both pipes and open channels. {4} It is used with the same coefficient as in Kutter’s formula ancl gives practically the same values as the Kutter formula under conditions that usually obtain in practice. The coefficient in Manning's formula— $4 = 1.486 R S is assumed as. n -0225 — For excavated channel in earth,DEVELOPMENT OF VILLAGE IRRIGATION WORKS 31 .030 —For excavated channel in earth not under regular maintenance. -040 — For excavated channel in rock. .ar§ — For conerete lined channel without forms. ,OL4 —For concrete lined channel with forms. The velocity obtained by the above formula should be between 1.1 and 1.25 times Kennedy’s critical veloci The velocities should in no case exceed the limiting velocities given in para 73- Suitable sections for distributary and field channels for discharges of 1 cusec to 12 cusecs are shown in Appendix XX. CHANNEL SECTION 76. The permissible side slopes of channels depend on the materia! through which they are cut. ‘The following side slopes are considered suitable :— (a) When excavated inordinary earth .. ront () —do-—— hard earth +. Z2onT (ce) —do— rock .. 40n Tor steeper (4) —do— normal good soil... 2 on Lis preferred 77. All channels are provided with berms. The width of the berm varies with the depth of the excavated section of the channel. The usual berm width allowed is given by 4+ 1’ for small channels and 4d + 2" for large channels. CHANNEL BUND 78. Channel bunds are designed with sufficient freeboard taking into consideration the catchment drainage, spillways provided and the bund material. Channel bunds are provided on both sides of the channel except in the case of contour channels. The top width of these bunds is usually 2 to 4 ft. except in the case of bunds which carry a roadway when the top width is the formation width of the roadway. In the case of village scheme channels a top width of 2’ is adopted. The freeboard for a channel under a village scheme is generally 1 to 14 ft. As a rough guide the following freeboards arc recommended for channel bunds. 1} when F.S.D. is below 2’ 2" —do— between 2’ & 3’ 3 —do— between 3’ & 5' 4 —do— over 5".32 TRANSACTIONS OF THE ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION OF CEYLON CHAPTER VII ANICUT DIVERSION SCHEMES AND VILLAGE IRRIGATION ELAS 79. Yhe work our predecessors accomplished in the construction of Village Elas remains an asset for modern develop- ment. In the Central Province, Upper Uva and Sabaragamuwa there are over 8,000 village irrigation works, other than tanks, in use. Though Village Ela Schemes do not always lend themselves to extensive development, dite to the small extent of potential paddy land and economic conditions attendant on such development, yet, their domestic importance to the villagers immediately concerned is j vital as that of the village tank in the Low-country. It is in recognition of this importance that their improvement on scientific Jines is being prosecuted with a view to improving the irrigation amenities for existing cultivation, and to giving the cultivator more time to attend to his other agricultural operations. The climate in the higher altitudes is healthier than in the Low-country and the villages are more thickly populated. The supply of water in the Streams is abundant. The problem to be settled is more the proper control than the supply or storage of this natural asset. DIVERSION BY TEMPORARY AMUNAS 30. Methods adopted by the villagers were to erect stick-dams or amunas across streams or oyas at suitable places high above the level of the lands which were to be cultivated as paddy fields. From the stick-dam water was diverted from the oya, along a channel or ela, cut in many cases along very steeply falling slopes, to their fields, The cultivators do not always cut these elas with due consideration for gradient or best possible trace, and in. consequence these channels caused an enormous amount of work in the way of maintenance. The amunas erected across the streams were invariably washed away during the flood season, in spite of frequent strengthening in the form of large boulders firmly packed together. Small streams—kanduras, dolas or aras, crossing the elas created an additional amount of work and worry to the cultivators because simultancously with the breaching of the stick-dams by floods, the bunds of the elas were often scoured away. All these unfortunate occurrences with which the villager has to contend, do not help or encourage him to take up and cultivate more land than was absolutely necessary for the production of sufficient food for himself and his family. 81. Very insecure methods of crossing the kanduras were employed by placing hollowed-out tree trunks or semi-circular kitul troughs across these breaches preventing the kanduraDEVELOPMENT OF VILLAGE IRRIGATION WORKS 33 ‘water from entering the ela. The purpose was good, as not only was the extra water from the kandura kept out, but also the, more damaging sand and boulders, Unfortunately however the sides or banks on which the troughs rested soon eroded -and these breaches became wider and unmanageable. The other method of dealing with these crossings was to construct a heavy bund protected with stones at these junctions and by this means divert the kandura flow along the channel. ‘This resulted in large quantities of sand and boulders, which were constantly brought down from the steep surrounding country, being deposited in the cla and these again became factors which ded to the breaching of the latter. SCOPE OF IMPROVEMENTS 82. A typical improvement scheme for an up-country Anicut Diversion Scheme will necessitate the— {1) construction of a permanent masonry anicut in teplacement of the stick and boulder dam, or amuna, previously used, (2) introduction of proper control at the intake of the channel for exclusion of flood entry, (3) provision of means for dealing with indrawn silt in the head reach, (4) improvement of the earth work sections of the channel bunds, (5) construction of necessary masonry works along the channel, eg., regulators, spills, under-crossings, over-crossings, falls and outlets. So far as principles of hydrology are applicable, the same ‘procedure is followed as in the case of village tanks. ‘The actual design and construction of the improvements present many points of engineering interest. THE DIVERSION ANICUT 83. The diversion is-effected by a dam or ‘ Anicut’. The dams, as constructed nowadays, are generally of gravity section with plank bays for desilting, end usually constructed on rock foundations. The genera! layout of two typical head works for the diversion and control for Village Ela Schemes is shown on Plate 7. NOTE: For this consideration, an ‘ Ela' means an‘ Irrigation Channel ’ distinctly separate froma drainage line which is often referred to as Ela by the villager. A ‘ Kandura’ means a natural stream, and ‘amuna’ refers to temporary dams erected by villagers across streams, 3690—C34 TRANSACTIONS OF THE UNGINEERING ASSOCIATION OF CEYLON The planks should be removed during the ‘close’ or non- cultivation season to allow the river bed above the dam to be cleared of most of the accumulated sand and debris. The anicut wall, before joining the ‘ Inlet Sluice ’, should turn at right angles and assume a position parallel to the river flow. This parallel wall must be long enough to allow for the insertion of a scour-gate. . ‘The ‘stability of concrete dams’ calculations shown in Appendix XVII provide good guidance for the design of a suitable section for the anicut. The generalised formula is —lb+lW T= 3-7 — p H(A + sh) which simplifies to we LW Tt = yp (H + 3h) when there are no planked bays. As ‘ drowned ’ conditions will obviously prevail when the value of h exceeds that of H, maxi- mum value of h that needs consideration will be h equal to H, even though higher flood lifts may occur. Some suitable sections from above are given in Appendix XVIII. $4. A stream diversion anicut also obstructs water passage, in the process of heading up water for diversion of the stream. It is therefore essential to provide sufficient, preferably as much as the original, water way for passage of flow. Cross sections of the stream taken at a few representative places in the vicinity would provide necessary data. Insutficient water way would xtra inundation difficulties upstream. caus ‘This aspect needs particular consideration where there are developed lands immediately upstream. The observed High Flood Level before anicut provision and the calculated High Flood Level after anicut construction (with and without planks} should he compared and necessary alterations to design effected to avoid inundation of developed lands. 83. Provision of planked bays in the anicut structure facilitates desilting operation and also provides extra water way if judicious unplanking during floods can be assure. Theoreti- cally therefore, provision of as many as possible planked bays appear advantageous. But practical consi erations limit such provision ; planking operations higher than a man’s height is difficult and may not be done ; therefore maximum height of planking should not exceed five feet. In the case of high anicuts, it may be possible to rai long planks are unwieldy, width of planked ba restricted to five feet. Most desirable approach ts limit planking to such as could be handled by an indi should be therefore to sidual. ¢ the sill tevel of the planked bay. As*DEVELOPMENT OF VILLAGE IRRIGATION WORKS 35 86. In the anchoring of the anicut, provision of mild steel dowels is absolutely essential, even though the rocky bed may have been well scartfied. THE INLET SLUICE CONTROL $7. ‘The infet sluice consists of an opening, somewhat larger insize than is actually required for the supply, through a headwall ‘or abutment and has the only function of preventing excessive flood water and debris from entering the channel. Toeffect the Jatter, an iron-grill is placedand fixed across the opening, but no planks or gate is necessary at this point of the cla. The abutment is set back from the anicut, tu allow for a scour-gate to be constructed at right angles to the anicut face, and as close to the “Inlet Stuice" as possible. The scour-gate planking ‘must be made thoroughly leak-proof. The height of the * Inlet Sluice ’ wall or abutment should be at least one foot above the calculated normal High Flood Level over the anicut to ensure against over-topping. The opening for this sluice being larger than the required size has the effect of allowing more water to pass than is actually needed, therefore permitting ejection with all its silt al some suitahte plice in the ela as explained in the next paragraph. ‘The sill level is identical with ‘that of the head shuice. THE SILT REACH 88. This is the most important item in silt ejection and is the first portion of the ela below the * Inlet Sluice ’, varying in length according to the natural features of the river bed and banks. This section of the ela just below the dam has, of necessity, a masonry or concrete retaining wall as bund, as no varthen embankment would withstand the flood rush at this point. ‘This wall has generally to be carried along the channel to such a place, where damage from floods cannot be done to the bund by virtue of its high elevation, above the high flond level of the ova. It has to be built on solid rock skirting the river bank, and, as the tock level along this line is in most cases lower than the required bed level of the cla, the deep portion thus created between the, latter and the rock level and between the retaining wall and the tock face of the bank forms an ideal elongated pit or ‘ silt reach ' in which silt and sand can be collected. If no suitable rock is available on the river bank the pit will have to be lined with concrete or masonry. _ 89. A scour-gate has to be inserted in the retaining wall as lose to the junction of the latter with the ‘ Head Sluice’ possible. The sill of the ‘ Inlet Sluice’ and ‘ Head ‘Sluice’ is kept at the same level in urder to reduce the velocity of flow in the ‘Silt Reach’. The top of retaining wall being of the same36 TRANSACTIONS OF THE ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION OF CEYLON level as the anicut, should slope or be stepped up to the top of ‘Inlet Sluice’. This will prevent flood water from the river backing into the ‘Silt Reach’, but at the same time will allow surplus water which has been forced through the ‘ Inlet Sluice * under a flood head to spill back into the river and consequently not enter the ela. ‘Lo make the ‘Silt Reach” more efficient it could be divided inte several pits with their own scour-gates in the retaining wall by means of cut-off or profile walls constructed transversely across it, the levels of which should again be the same as the sill level of the sluices. THE HEAD SLUICE CONTROL go. . The Head Sluice structure is of primary importance in that it controls the quantity of discharge permitted to enter the channel. Due to its controlling nature, the sill level, size of opening, mode of closing the sluice and the height of the head sluice wall, ‘require very careful consideration before adoption. The important factor in deciding the sill level is the level of the highest paddy field to be commanded and its distance from the headworks. [t should be possible to allow six inches of supply in the field; allowance should also be made for losses in the gradient in the irrigation channel and at the structures, e.g., falls. The size of opening of the sluice should necessarily be much larger than for immediate requirements and provide for possible expansion of the scheme, subject however to effective control gear being feasible. gr. The sluice must be provided with a controlled opening, the cheapest method for which, in case of village elas, is the ordinary - lifting planked type, as one by one the planks can be lifted accord- ing to requirements and in every case the surface water only is drawn into the ela. But however very often the planks are found missing, and as the latter must be operated frequently for the control of the required amount of water, frequent replace- ment becomes necessary. A lifting gate with screw gear that can be operated from the top is best adopted. This device has a greater chance of being operated frequently due to easy mani- pulation. gz. The ‘ Head Sluice’ wall has to be built high to be quite sufficient to prevent any overtopping by flood water in the ' Silt Reach ‘ as the retaining wall of the latter acts as spill at anicut crest level. Entrance into the ‘ Silt Reach ’ of flood water from. an extraordinary high flood, which might even overtop the “Inlet Sluice ' wall cannot economically be prevented, but will” not enter the channel, if the ‘Head Sluice’ wall has been constructed or raised to a height higher than the possible high flood level.DEVELOPMENT OF VILLAGE IRKIGATION WORKS . 37 DRAINAGE CROSSING , 93. A great deal of trouble is caused to the satisfactory maintenance of an irrigation channel by drainage crossings. The channel is generally traced along the sloping face of steep land and is crossed at several points by kanduras. These kanduras are mostly dry during the dry months, but become veritable streams in the wet season, carrying with them all the silt from above. In dealing with this problem, the following considerations predoniinate :— (a) The kandura water is required to augment the channel supply, (6) The run-off from the kandura is not required to replenish the channel supply. g4- In the case of (a) the only solution to safeguard the channel is to construct a strong retaining wall across the kandura on rock foundation. A part of the watl will have to act as a spill with crest at F'.S.L. of the channel. The pit formed in front of the retaining wall, due to the difference in levels between the actual ela bed and the scoured out kandura bed, makes an ideal silt depositing chamber, whilst the surplus ,water spills back over the retaining wall into the stream. ‘The entrance of the channel to, and its exit from, the pit must be kept to the actual designed level, for which purpose cut-off walls cither in concrete or masonry must be cunstructed. -Provision will have to be made for a planked scourgate cither one or two, in the retaining walt, through which any silt.deposited in the pit can be ejected. 95. In the case of (6) one of three methods could be adopted. If there is sufficient head-room between the channel and the kandura bed then the channel can be carried in a trough over the kandura. If the clearance is not sufficient then the trough will have to be replaced by a pipe allowing for discharge above and below it. Care must be taken in the latter case to allow for adequate anchorage in the design. In the third case, where the kandura bed is high and its flow not required in the channel, a culvert has to be built across the kandura bed to deal with the ela flow. The upstream bed of the kandura will become silted up, in consequence, to the top level of the culvert and the latter will assume the function of a spill but care must be taken to construct the abutment walls above the H.I’.L. of the kandura over the culvert. CHAPTER VIII SALT WATER EXCLUSION SCHEMES AND MINOR FLOOD PROTECTION WORKS 9G. Land reclamation by Salt Water Exclusion Schemes and Minor Flood Protection Works are now no longer classified asg8 TRANSACTIONS OF THE ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION OF CEYLON village irrigation works, though initially most of these were developed as village works. As these however originate even now from the V.W. Priority Lists, summarised reference to these here is not considered out of place. SALT WATER EXCLUSION 97., The cultivation of paddy is, in gencral, widely practised in the flat areas of the island. Unfortunately, the flat areas are to be found in Ceylon, near the maritime regions of the island all along the sea coast. Commencing from narrow fringes in the South Western coastal regions, these rapidly expand inte large tracts.in the Eastern and the Northern areas. The natural water sources from the highlands in mid-country meander through these flat lands to reach the sea, in the form of streams or rivers. During the rainy season, due to ample replenishment, fresh water flows down the water courses. but in dry weather, when such flow is depleted, sea water travels up the water course and in spreading over the tract, renders the soil in the flat areas saline and ruins cultivation ; this is particularly so during high tide periods. On the other hand, if sufficient head of fresh water does not accumulate in the basins, then discharge inte the sea becomes difficult and stagnation takes place. The situation is further aggravated when, as in the south west coast, a high sand bar forms at the mouth of the outfall to the sea. The problem devolves itself into two parts ; the prevention of ingress of salt water into the basin nevertheless keeping in function an efficient scheme for the drainage of the basin. g8. This subject does not seem to have received as much attention as construction of tanks in the early days. Evidently some of the water courses were well established and had been dredged and maintained as navigational routes for passage of boats. The contents of the basin, when full, may have been emptied by the cutting of a pilot channel in the sand bar at the outfall. The natural reformation of the sand bar prevents further ingress of salt water. But the damage is invariably done during the interim period when the accumulated head within the basin is insufficient to discharge, and the monsoonal blowing not heavy enough to mount up an effective sand bar to prevent salt water entry. CONSIDERATIONS IN THE FORMATION OF A S.W.E, SCHEME gg. As in the case of storage tanks and diversion of streams, the coHection of sufficient data is a necessary preliminary forDEVELOPMENT OF VILLAGH IRRIGATION WORKS wo Consideration of formulation of a Salt Water Exclusion and Land Reclamation Scheme. e report will contain, along with other information, details of:— . Basin and tract to he protected Location details Name of tract and swamp to be drained Extent of developed area requiring drainage ~ Extent of swamp which cannot be drained Average level of tract Average level of swamp Extent of damage due to lack of drainage Extent of damage duc to infiltration of sea water, Drainage Name of main drain Sufficiency of subsidiary drains Sufficiency, in size and openings of bridges and culverts at road cro: Seu outfall Location Width and height of sand bar Approximate date when sand bar usually breaches Approximate date when sand bar re-forms Frequency of breaching of sand bar in a year Average height of basin water head required for natural breaching of sand bar . Is the breaching usually initiated by manual help, ifso, at what height of water is it usually done ? Hydrographic Catchment area of basin Ba Maximum daily rainfall Average daily rainfall High Flocd Level in the basin Permissible period {in days) and height of food-stay allowable, without damage to development in the tract. sin area 100. The Survey Investigation will be facilitated by’ the procurement of necessary 16 chains to the inch Survey Maps of the Survey Department: Such sheets are usually available of all developed areas. Contour levelling has to be done and plotted on the general tract plan prepared from the 16 chain40 TRANSACTIONS OF THE ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION OF CEYLON sheets. Longitudinal sections of the main drainage courses are necessary to consider improvements and regrading of the drains. Details of bridges and culverts at road crossings are required to consider the adequacy of their openings for water passage. A suitable site has to be selected and a site survey made, for the erection of the sult water exclusion gates. DEVELOPMENT Jor, The construction of a battery of one-way flap gates close to the outfall of the drainage water course into the sea, prevents any ingress of sea water into the basin, The essential function of such gates is to shut out eniry to sea water, but at the same time permit the discharge of the drainage out to the sea. A typeof one-way gates adopted recently is shown on Plate 5. To avoid difficulties in writing negative figures, it is usual to assume mean sea level datum to be 50.00 in value, on the drawings of such schemes. The efficient function of the whole scheme depends on the quick and free response of the flap gate to the accumulating head of water; the hinges have therefore to be maintained free from rust etc. Sometimes this is also helped by the provision of movable balancing counter weights. To encourage free flow and to avoid stagnation of drainage, all the drains within the basin and the protected area require careful examination. Necessary new drainage lines should be provided and existing drainage courses widened and re-graded for efficient discharge. The formation of a sand bar at the outfall will choke the discharge. In order to prevent such re-formation of the sand bar at the outfall, it may become necessary (where the outfall faces heavy monsoonal seas) to protect the outfall by the erection of a sea wall jetty or groyne of large rubble into the sca. MINOR FLGOD PROTECTION WORKS 1oz. Rivers and streams when they reach the lowlands, after leaving their hill country sources, tend to spread out and flatten in the coastal regions, ‘Ihe frequent inundation of low lying tracts situated in the basins of the tributary streams, by flood accumulation in the parent river and the consequential damage to agricultural persuits, within the basin, has led to the evolution of Flood Protection Schemes. In all these cases it is usual to find the cultivator adamant in continuing his agricultural practice and also his residence in the low areas because of the sedimentary fertility of the soil. The lower reaches of the Kelani Ganga has several such tributary basins, on either bank: The periodic flooding of these basins, “by the Kelani when in spate, makes the soil in the basins highly fertile.DEVELOPMENT OF VILLAGE IRRIGATION WORKS ar 103. Essential factors that would need consideration in the evolution of protection works against minor floods in the river should be ;— (a) The exclusion, particularly during the cultivation season of minor floods that occur with considerable frequency in the parent river. It is neither feasible nor desirable to exclude major floods, which are not so frequent and are also of great manurial value ; but means should however be provided for admit- ting such floods safely into the protected basin, when they do occur. (©) The incorporation of suitable one way sluices for dis- charging with reasonable promptness the drainage from the internal catchment uf the basin itself and also the impounded flood waters from the river which gained entry into the basin during major flood. In both, the possibility and spced of discharge will be determined by the stage at which the river is flowing. (c) The provision of proper internal drainage within the basin or tract, in order to expedite post flood discharge. 104. Consideration of (a) above, necessarily requires the prior fixing of the actual value of the level up to which the basin is to he protected from flood entry ; this is referred to as Protection Levei and should be identifiable with the Minor Flood Level on the spot. Fixing of this level is largely decided by observation and judicious selection. Correct appreciation should be made of the usual flood season and the probable stage of cultivation progress at that time. Consideration (6) relates to the barrage of ‘ emptying out’ sluice gates for post-flood drainage discharge. These are essentially “one way’ or non-return gates, usually hinged at the top, so as to permit basin discharge but prevent ingress of river flood water. It is but natural for the cultivator to expect his lands emptied out, as rapidly as possible, of all flood water, immediately the flood is over ; in the pre-scheme period the water in the land went down freely with the dropping of the river level whercas post-scheme conditions require passage of drainage through the one way sluices, involving a certain time lag. 105. As in Salt Water Exclusion Schemes, a correct appreciation of the period, when the basin can remain inundated in keeping with local agricultural pursuit and practices, requires careful and mature assessment. ‘This factor, in turn, decides the-number of gates to be provided. A period of two days has been used.42 TRANSACTIONS OF THE ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION OF CEVLON CONCLUSION In the midst of large scale national agricultural development. the Village Cultivator still stands as thi country’s backbone and his Village Irrigation Work is his priceless possession. To him it is the provider of all material needs for existence. The Village Irrigation Work irrigates over 50% of Ceylon’s irrigated paddy land.Appendix T Appendix IE Appendix TI Appendix LV Appendix V Appendix VI Appendix VII Appendix VIII Appendix IX Appendix X Appendix XI Appendix XI Appendix XILL Appendix XIV Appendix X¥ Appendix XVI Appendix XVII Appendix XVIII ‘Appendix XIX Appendix XX Appendix XX1 Appendix XXIL Appendix XXII Appendix XXIV Appendix XXV Appendix XNVI APPENDICES * 43 APPENDICES Useful Memoranda Some conventions adopted in Irrigation Practice PLR. for Village Tanks P.LR. Village Anicut Scheme PLR. Salt Water Exclusion Scheme P.1,R, Minor Flood Protection Scheme Specification for Survey Investigation of Village Tanks Village Tank Plans Village Anicut Scheme Plans Capacity Calculations Catchment Area of River Basins Classification of Catchments Flood Run Off Catchment Yield Discharge of Tank Spills per foot length Tail Channel Velocities Stability of Concrete Dams Base width of Piers for different Heads Actual Flood lift, etc. Suitable Channel Sections Larthwork in Channel Excavation Earthwork in Channel Bunds Discharge through Hume Pipes Sizes of Pipes for Village Tank Stuices Reservations for Streams, Channels, etc. Scheme for the {mprovement Village Irrigation Work.44 1. TRANSACTIONS OF THE ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION OF CEYLON APPENDIX I USEFUL MEMORANDA Measurements of Water: - 1 Cusec. = 4 E Ac. ft. = 1 Million Cu. ft. a Cu. ft. 1 gallon of water weighs = a Cu. fts a Cu. ft. sea water Rainfall : Inches of rainfall x 3,630 I il i cubic foot per second 374 gallons per mimte 340,000 gallons per day 1.98 Ac. ft, per day-i.e. 2 Ac. it. (Approx.) 1 Ac. ft in 12 hours (Approx.) 272,000 gallons-i.e, } niillion gallons (Approx.} 6.04356 million cubic feet. 22.90 Ac. tt. 6.24 gallons rolbs. 7 62.4 Ibs. 64 Ibs. == Cu. ft, per acre Inches of rainfall x 2,323,200 i run-off per hour - per sq. mile = Land Measure : i Perch = 160 perches = 1 sq. mile = 1 Acre = Cu. ft. per sq. mile 645.33 Cusecs: one cusec, per acre (Approx.}. 3ofsq. yards | x Acre = 4,840 sq. yds. = 43,500 sq. ft. 640 Acres = 27,878,400 sq. ft. 10 sq. chains (Gunters. or Surveyors chain — 66’). To Estimate Extent of Land : I Acre. = 1 Perch = Power: 1 Horse Power = 200° -X 200" (Approx.) 8 * 1 mile (Approx.) 16.5' X 16.5’. 550 ft. Ibs, per second 33,000 ft. Ibs. per minuteAPPENDICES 45 APPENDIX I—(Contd.) = 8.8 cusecs. of water falling by x foot (Approx.) = 746 Watts 0.746 Kilowatts 1 Kilowatt = 1.34 HP. q 5, Conversion of C.G.S. and F.P.S. Units : 1 Millimetre = 0.3937 inch: rinch = 25.4 m.m. 1 Metre = 39.37 inches: 54 c.m. = 7.0936 yards:r yard = 0.914 m. 1 Decimetre = 10 centimetres 1 Hectemetre = 100 metres 1 Hectare = sq. Hectometre == 10,000 sq.mtrs: 1 Acre= 0.4 Hectare 2.47 Acres 1 Kilometre 1,000 metres o.f2 miles: 1 mile ==1.61 kilometre 1 Litre = rt cubic decimetre = 1,000 c.c. = 1.76pints: rgallon = 4.55 litres = 0.22 gallons 1 Gramme "= 09.0022 Ibs.: 1b. == 453.6 gins. 1 Kilogramme = 1,000 gms, = 0.000984 ton: 1 ton == 1,016 kgms. = 2.204 Ibs. 6. General: 1 Long ton == 2,240 Ibs. t Short ton = 2,000 lbs. 1 Metric ton = 1,000 kgms. x Imperial gallon = 1.20 U.S. gallons 1 U.S. gallon = 0.833 Imp. gallons46 TRANSACTIONS OF THE ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION OT CEYLON APPENDIX I—(Corid.) x Cube = 1 Cu, yd. = 1 Square = 1 Sq. yd. a t Bushel = 7. Measurement of Paddy : ‘ry Amunam =e 1 Amunam = “y Marakkal = x Ton of paddy 1 Ton of rice = 1 Measure of paddy ==" Cultivation Seasons : 1 Maha Season ) Kalapokam => Munmari J I] Yala Season } Simpokam > Pinmari 3-7 en. yds. 0.27 cubes 31.1 sq. yds. 0.09 square T.25 cu. ft. 4 pelas yo lahas or kurunis 160 seers or neli ro! bushels (Trinco District} + bushels (Batticaloa District): 1 bushel (Ratticaloa District) 49 bushels 39 bushels 2 Ibs, October-Febrnary April-August March- July. Weights of Materials Per Cubic Feet : Cement — golbs, average Earth — = go—1z0 ths. » Clay — 120~—130 lbs. ” 120 tbs. Granite — i60—180lbs. 165 Ibs, Limestone — 120-150 lbs. ,, 140 Ibs. Concrete — wo-tyolbs. ,, 135 Ibs. Brickwork in lime or cement mortar — 100—730 Ibs. » 120 Lbs, Random rubble in cement mortar — 130-140 Ibs. 140 Ibs. Mild Stcel — 490 Ibs. » 4go Ibs River sand — ELS ths. , rs tbs, Pit sand — too Ibs. i ree Ibs, Weight of a cube : . of sand — § Tons (Approy.}APPENDICES 47 APPENDIX I—(Contd.) Weight of a cube of : metal — 6.5 Tons (Approx.} Weight of a cubic inch of steel — 0.283 Ibs. fide Levels : Stalion Max. Level Min, Level Colombo 1.67 MS.L. —1.63 MSL, ‘Trincomalee 1.61 MSL. —1.39 M.S.L. Galle 1.36 MS.L, —-1.64 M.S.L.48 8 TRANSACTIONS OF THE ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION OC CEYLON APPENDIX JE SOME CONVENTIONS ADOPTED IN IRRIGATION PRACTICE R.B. and L.B. of tank bund The Co-ordinate location ofa tank . Datum of 100.00 Chainage of tank bund Plotting of tank bund cross- sections. Plotting of spill site plans a Scale of L.SS. CSS. Contour plans Spill site plan Masonry Details Natural Spill Purana Fields Section of bund on the right and Jeft banks of the main stream intercepted. Refers to the L.B. end of bund. Assigned level of the sill of the Jowest sluice or lowest point in bed. From L.B. end. Tank side on left. Direction of flow from top: to bottom. Left to right. 200' to an inch horizontal zo’ to an inch vertical. ro’ to an inch natural. 4 chains (264) toan inch. 4o’ to an inch, 4’ or 8’ to an inch. Bund Top Level. Fult Supply Level. High Flood Level. Full Supply Depth. Mean Sea Level. Reduced Level above an. assumed datum. Elevation above M.S.L. Blocking Out Plan. Upstream—same side as the tank or channel. Downstream—side oppo- site the upstream side. Channel spill with offtake level at approximate crest level. Existing paddy fields beiore restoration of tank (usually private).APPENDICES 4> APPENDIX III PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION REPORT FOR VILLAGE TANKS Date: Name of Officer Reporting........ Name of Work:... Co-ordinates... Village -... Electoral District +... Patty :.... Province : ... ton D.R.O's Division Information supplied by : . 2. Means of Access : 3. Topo tracing, showing means of access, bund, spills,sluices, &c., land to benefit and proposed main channels. Tank Components 4, Bund: Massive, normal, weak, overgrown Length : Max. height : Good Top width : Side stopes : Normal Details of big breaches, number, width Poor and overall depth50 TRANSACTIONS OF THE ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION OF CEYLON APPENDIX III —(Conud.} 5. Sluices: Type Size Sill Level — Conditions " we 6. Spills: , Length Nature Condition Spill water os General 7. Number and Attitude of Shareholders : Do. shareholders reside at tank ? Total number of persons resident at tank. Does the community depend in whole or in part on the tank for their livelihood ? If so, state number of persons thus dependent : %. Materials: Metal on spot/ ......mls. away. Sand on spot/.... ls. away. Turf on spot/............mls. away Puddle clay on spot/........ mls, away. PHD eee oncft, carry 9, Details of usual cultivation and sufficiency of water : What depth of water remains in tank after sluice or bund cut ceases to function ? . Is this because fields are higher than tank bed ? Approximate distance of fields from tank bed ?APPENDICES. st APPENDIX I1—(Contd.) Supply, Capacity and Command 10. Catchment Area : sq. miles with...... working and...... abandoned tanks 11, Description of Catchment—-(vegctation—slope, &c.) 12. Total Capacity of Working Tanks in Catchment 13. Approx. Depth of Tank feet Approx. Capacity of tank. ac, ft. 14. Rainfall : Highest daily fall ins, on cS, Month A Cc cata Oe | Yiel September ield . . Curve f Minneriva October os 5 | used Nachchaduwa November December January S.WM. February N.E. Monsoon Supply other than Total .. from Catchment :- Description March N.EM, Ac.ft. April S.W.M. Ac. ft. May June . | July a August S.W. Monsoon | Totat 15. Probable Command ;52 TRANSACTIONS OF THE ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION OF CEYLON . APPENDIX I[]—(Centd.) 16. Spilling History : R.B.Spill. Spills tim per year or Total duration in days.. Breach Average depth ovel . crest Length of Spill Clear overfall or natural = Wet year| Dry year LB. Spill. Spills times per year or Total duration in days. . Breach Average depth over crest te Lenght of Spill Clear overfall or natural ———— 17. Irrigable Area under the Private... _ Scheme o UCrown. ~ (Maha... Acres 18. Acreage Cultivated -4 Yala, { Maha. 4 { Yala. i. (Private... 19. Additional Acreage Available .. 4 . (Crown.._.......... Acres 20. Acreage of fields in tank submerged at present F.S. . Acreage Abandoned 21. Acreage of fields or private lands abut on F.S.L.contour—.. a Acres - 22. Details of area that will be submerged if tank is restored or improved we ao eneesnnenead SCTESAPPENDICES 53 APPENDIX I[|—(Contd.) Flood Run Off 23. 1. Flood History H.F.L. feet above F.S.L.. Date: 2. Cause of H.F.L. 3. Did tank breach ? 4. Did bund overtop? How frequently ? 5. Damage caused by H.F.L. 6 Damage caused by normal F.L. [fee discharge calculated C = 645, 850, 1,000, 2,000 7. Estimated Q= ‘Licom observed flood level Q = 24, Additional information (if any). Remarks re urgency, &c., and description of what cultivators ask for: 25. Catchment Development.-—[ffect of the proposed restoration on existing works, and the degree to which it will limit future utilisation of the water resources of the basin of which the tanks own catchment is only a part. 26, Proposals : BTL... .. .. Bund top width...... wp WS Slope ...nnond G/S SlOPC. een FS Denes nme HB Dee en ent Free Board cee ( State whether C.Q. or natural, Length of spill... 34 and if natural, give tail channel gradient. No. of sluices with sill levels ... ww Ae, ft. Useful storage... f [Maha.. .. Ac. at duty 3 ac. proposed cultivation < ft. facre. LYala.uuuAc. at duty 5 ac.fl-/acre 27, Estiniate for Consteuction* AN Inclusive 1. Mls. preparation of access track/service road to work sites 2. Ac. Jungle clearing of bund, spill sites, preaches, camp area, &c. *Strike out unnecessary items and add any others that may be required.54 IkANSACTIONS OF THE ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION OF CEYLON APPENDIX II[—-(Conéd:) 3. Cu. E/work in bund raising, transport feet 4. Cu. Puddle clay in core walls, trans- port mls. Sq. turfing D/S slope of bund, transport mis. we 6. Sq. Rubble/concrete slab protection to u/s face of bund 1 7. Item allow for clear overfall/skin . type masonry spill - 8 Cu. excavation in natural spill and tail channel 9 No. .sluices size type 10. Item allow Bund level Blocks, sign boards, guage posts, Kc. 11. Sq. Temporary sheds/seini perma- nent quarters 12, Item Allow Pay of overseers...... months, watchers...... months, Xe... 13. “Item Allow L..T. and contingencies. . Head works 14, Allow for Irrigation Facilities to...--- Ac. @..../=.. ve ne eee tenance Total Cost ——— Signature and Designation of Reporting Officer. Date :APPENDICES. 55 APPENDIX IV PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION REPORT FOR VILLAGE ANICUT SCHEME Dat .. Name of Officer Reporting........ Name of work 00. 2... .-Priority List No. .... Co-ordinates... oe Village. -Electoral District. 0 5 semen Pattu.. .-Province..... a D.R.O’s Division ..... . Information supplied by : Means of Access : ' Topo tracing of Head Works, including channel system and lands benefited stating whether Crown or Private land: Description of Scheme Head Works—Detail description and sketched cross sections of streain. Sluices: Nos. Type Size Sill Level Possible alternate sites for Head Works : fa) Upstream: (6) Downstream :56 TRANSACTIONS OF THE ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION OF CEYLON APPENDIX IV-—(Contd.) 9. Detail description of channel system-—- LB. RB. (a) Length of channels .. (4) Approxinyate dimensions .. ‘(c) Gradients (@) Cross drainage works tate nn tt » (¢) Other stractures 1o. ‘Distance from head works of highest paddy field benefited : General i1.. Existing Anicut/Amuna/Bemma : Nature: Height : Length: Date first constructed : No. of times washed or damaged per yeat : Annual labour required for repairs + 12. No, and attitude of shareholders : 13. Do shareholders reside in the neighbourhood ? 14. Total No. of people resident : 15. Does the community depend in whole or in part on the scheme for their livelihood ? a 16. If so, state No. of persons thus dependant : 17. Cultivation date— ' she . 5 (a) Usual cultivation and results : : , (8) Sufficiency of water :APPENDICES 57 APPENDIX IV—(Contd.) (c) Total irrigable area under the scheme : (r) Private .. wn UTES. (2) Crown acres (d) Acreage cultivated: (1) Maha a ACLES. (2) Vala oe onsen FES (e) Acreage abandoned: (r) Private .. .... (2) Crown 18. Materials— (a) Stones suitable for dressed stone masonry at spot/ se . .iniles away (b) Metal at spot/.200 0 ou. miles away (c) Sand at spot/ oe one Imiles away (2) Turf at spot/..... so enes wetites away Supply and Command 39. Catchment area... Sq. miles with. _ working... «pal tanks or Anicuts or Amunas. 20. Description of catchment (Vegetation, slopes, &c) : 21. Total capacity of working tanks (if any) in water shed : 22. 23. Description of other diversion schemes across the stream : (2) Situation : (b) Command : (c) Cultivation system : Any modification necessary in the cultivation system under .,- this work due to presence of other diversion schemes higher up:58 TRANSACTIONS OF THE ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION OF CEYLON APPENDIX IV—(Contd.} 24. Rainfall: (2) Highest rainfall ins. on... Average monthly rainfall recorded miles away B.. Lowe sane «Miles away miles away Months : N.E. Monsoon A B Cc - September * wi cee set ea October . November December bee me soe January wae February Total S.W. Monsoon March April May June wae ce covet etn - July - August September * Total .. *This month should be deleted from one of the periods in accordance with duration of the monsoon for that particular station.APPENDICES 59 APPENDIX 1V—(Contd.) 25. Run Off: N.E. Monsoon Yield. ... acre feet S.W. Monsoon Yield. we wee ere fect {a) Is the stream perennial ? If not what is the duration of flow ? (0) Is the supply augmented by spring ? Tf so give details. (c) Supply other than from catchment : Description : N.E. Monsoon Yield 20.2. ees. ue wont feet S.W. Monsoon Yield 002. occ oon ane ere feet Flood Run Off 26. Flood History— fa) Observed H.F.L. (b) Cause of H.F.L. {c) Did anicut damage ? (d) Did flank bund overtop ? (e) Damage caused by H.F.L. ({) Damage caused by normal F.L., {g) Area submerged by H.F.L. {4) Area submerged by normal H.F.L. is a Flood discharge calculated : c Q= 28. Is anicut/Amuna/Bemma crest level satisfactory, too high or too low? 645, 859, 1,000, 1,500, 2,000 29. Additional information (if any) re urgency of work and description of what the cultivators ask for :60 TRANSACTIONS OF TIE ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION OF CFYLON APPENDIX IV—(Contd.} 30. Catchment Development— Effect of the proposed restoration on existing works, and the degree to which it will limit future utilisation of the water resources of the basin of which the catchment of this anicut is only a part : Proposals 31. * Anicut/Bemma/Amuna— : Crest Level : Length: Type : "No. of openings, if any, and whether planked or screw operated. Flank Bunds, ifany, vith length, level and top width, side slopes, &c. Head Sluice Type Size Sill Level 32. Channel systemn— Length of channel : Approximate dimensions : Gradient : Cross drainage works necessary : Other structures necessary : Private Crown Proposed cultivation : Maha a YalaAPPENDICES 6r +33. Recommendation : | +. 34. Estimated Cost— Cost of Anicut o fate we Cost of Channel Cost of Structures .. &e. &e. Total Signature and Designation of Reporting Officer ™ Dale : .....$2 5. Village ... .. TRANSACTIONS OF THE ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION OF CEYLON APPENDIX V IMINARY INVESTIGATION ORT FOR SALT WATER EXCLUSION SCHEME Date Name of work ...... ... Priority List No... Co-ordinates Electoral District Pattu .. Province ve ee cm ent ~ -D.R.0's Division... ‘Information supplied by : Means of Access : Topo tracing showing the lands affected hy the itrusion of Salt Water, existing drainage and channel systems, lands benefited stating whether Crown or Private land. wa. Name of Officer Reporting 00.0 2 enAPPENDICES 63 APPENDIX V—(Contd.) 6. Description of Scheme (a} Does salt water enter the land due to fluctuation in tide levels ? Give the High Tide Level and the Low Tide Level at the point considered and its distance from the sea. or (6) Does the salt water enter the fields whenever the mouth of the river is blocked /open with a sand bar ? If so give the maximum height of the salt water level entering the fields. During what months does the sand bar form and how often do the Cultivators breach it ? Ts the site at the mouth of the river suitable for a salt water exclusion structure, it not are there better alternate sites ? (c) Show on a sketch plan the following information, * (a) Catchment of the basin affected by salt water entry. (6) All the drainage channels and other features. {c) Individual catchments of each of the drainage channels. (d) Suitable traces for salt: water exclusion bunds. (e) Probable trace for deviation channels to the sea if necessary. (f), Sites for Sea Outlet Structures. (g) Sites for Spills, if necessary. (4) Area affected by salt water. (3) Cross sections of all the drainage streams from the scheme. (d@) What extent of land is annually affected by intrusion of sea water. 7 Drainage Channels—Give a detail description of the streams showing the catchment area, flood heights together with sketches of cross section of each stream. * Annex sketch plan."64 Io. It. 12. 13. 14. TRANSACTIONS OF THE ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION OF CEYLON APPENDIX V—(Conid.) General Number and attitude of the shareholders. Do shareholders reside in the neighbourhood ? Total number of people resident. Does the community depend in whole or in part on the . Scheme for their livelihood? If so state number of persons thus dependant. * Cultivation Date - (a) Usual cultivation and results. (6) Source of supply of water and the sufficiency of water. . {c) Total cultivated area under the scheme, 1. Private... ...... 2. Crown. (4) Acreage cultivated. Te MaMa eee nee z. Yala (e) Acreage abandoned. 1. Private... 2. Crown........ Rainfall (a) Highest rainfall....ins. on. Ab Be eee ee —» Miles away B.. .. miles away © . miles away Months: N.E. Monsoon A B c September... ence Octoberce : APPENDICES 65 APPENDIX V—(Contd.) November we see en December January February Total S.W. Monsoon March Angust on oe nes Total .. . 15. Yield N.E. Monsoon Yield ses en acre feet S.W. Monsoon Yield .... : woe tre feet 16, Flood Run Off Flood history (a) Observed H.F.L: (b) Cause of H.F.L, (c) Damage caused by H.F.L. (a) ‘Dainiage caiised-hy normal F.L. (e) Area Submerged by H.F.L. {f) Area submerged by normal FL. 3696--D17. 18, 1g. 20. ai. 22, TRANSACTIONS OF THE ENGINEBRING ASSOCIATION OF CEYLON APPENDIX V—(Contd.) Flood Discharge Calculated Cc = 645, 1,000 1,300 Q.= Additionat Information (if any) re urgency of work and what the cultivators ask for. Catchment Development.—EAlcet_of the proposals on . existing works and the extent to which it will limit future utilisation of the water resources of the basin of which the “catchment of this scheme is only a part. Brief Description of Proposals Recommendation Forecast of Estimated Cost All Inclusive Acres Clearing along bund trace _ Cubes E/W in forming bund _ Sqrs. Turfing bund No. Structures No. Outlet shnices No. Other Structures we, a Item For supervision Item For Contingencies Total. . Signature and Designation of Reporting Officer. Date:APPENDICES 67 APPENDIX VI PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION REPORT FOR MINOR FLOOD .. PROTECTION SCHEME Date ..... ame of Officer Reporting Name of work... senmeneePTiOTItY List NO. usu « Co-ordinates Village... .. Eleetoral District. Pattu » Province. D.R.O's Division. Information supplied by : Means of Access : Tope tracing showing the lands affected by minor foods stating whether crown or private lands.68, TRANSACTIONS OF THE ENGINEERING ASSOIATION OF CEYLON APPENDIX VI—(Contd.) 6. The following information should be given. (@) Number of times the lands are flonded during the year. (6) Brief description of the major and minor floods giving the months in which they occur, and the period of flooding. : {c) Catchment of the river. ot _ (a) Description of the catclnent (Vegetation, slopes, etc.). (c) What is the depth of water in the area affected by 1. A major flood. 2. A minor flood. Description of Scheme 7. Stow ona sketch plan {e} Depth of inundation of land by a minor t food and. the | area affected. (6) All the drainage lines within the basin with cross sections of each stream. . . c (c) J-ow places“along the bank of the river through which - flood waters enter the basin. (a) Catchment areas of all drainage outlets. §. Give the H.FL. and M.F.L. of the river (a) Upstream of the Scheme. {a) At the Scheme. : {c) Downstream of the Scheme. | g. Willany private property, house or industmy along the banks of the river be affected by the proposals? If so, give details, ro. Are there any lands depending on flood waters of the river ' for cultivation or for any other purpose. Give the extent ' so depending. uz. To what depth of water from the river should the basin be protected from flooding.| APPENDICES APPENDIX VI— (Contid) 69 12. Number and attitude of shareholders, 313. Do shareholders reside in the neighbourhood ? 14. Total aunber of people resident. 15. Does the community depend in whole or in part on the scheme for their livelihood ? 16, Ifso, state number of persons thus dependant. 17, Cultivation date : (a) Usual cultivation and results. (6) Sufficiency of water. (c) Total irrigable area under the scheme. r. Private . Acres 2. Crown vo acres {d) Acreage cultivated Maha . acres : Yala . acres, fe) Acreage abandoned I. Private 0... .. acres 2. Crown . acres 18. Rainfall {a) Highest rainfall. . _ ins, on... miles away * miles away iniles away Months N.E. Monsoon A B September October * November December January February Total... See7 TRANSACTIONS OF THE ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION OF CEYLON APPENDIX VI—(Contd.) S.W. Monsoon 19. 23. n Bb _ August NUE. Monsoon Yield .... ” $.W. Monsoon Yield ... March April May June july Total. . Yield one me aCKe feet, awe acre feet. Flood Run Off Flood history (a) Observed H.F.L. (B) Cause of H.F.L. {e) Damage caused by H.F.L. (@) Damage caused by normal F.L. (2) Area submerged by H.I°.L. (f) Area submerged by normal H.F.L. Flood Discharge Calculated C = 645, 1,000, 1,500 Qo = Additional information {if any) re urgency of work and description of what the cultivators ask for. Catchment Development.—Effect of the proposal on existing works, and the degree to which it will limit future utilisation of the water resources of the basin of which the catchment of this scheme is a part.APPENDICES nm APPENDIX VI—(Contd.) 24. Brief Description of Proposals 45. Recommendation 26. Estimated Cost All Inclusive Acres clearing for bund traces Cubes E/W in forming bund Sqrs. Turfing slopes of bund No. ~ Outlet Sluices No. Other Structures Item — For Supervision Item — For Acquisition etc. Item — For contingencies Date ; Total .. Signature and Designation of Reporting Officer72 TRANSACTIONS OF TIE ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION OF CEYLON APPENDIX VII SPECIFICATION FOR SURVEY INVESTIGATION OF VILLAGE TANKS 1. The survey shall consist of + parts :— Part 1 — Tank bund surveys to determine (1) the alignment of the bund and (2) the quantity of earthwork necessary for improvements to bund. Part [1 —- Tank bed contour surveys to determine (1) the capacity at different elevations (2) the flowage damage. Part I[f — Breach site surveys te determine (1) the alignment of the bund at the breach (2) the quantity of earthwork in breach filling (3) the quantity of silt and other unsuitable materials to be removed. Part IV — Spill site surveys to determine the most suitable alignment and type of spill. 2. Unless otherwise specified all levels shall be to an assumed datum, the assumed level of the lowest point of the bed shall be 100.00 R.L. Part I—Tank Bund Surveys : 1. ‘The axis of the bund shall be the centre line of the existing bund extended on either side till the ground level is about 5’ above the average top level of the existing bund. 2. The burid axis with the left bank end as the zero point shall be marked by sawn wouden pegs at 100’ intervals and at points of change of direction, the pegs shall project 3" above the surrounding ground level and shall show the chaiage number. A traverse survey of the bund shall be made. All topographical and civic features such as rock outcrops, streams, roads, honses, private lands, ete. falling within 66’ on either side of the axts shall be surveyed by offset Jines and shown on the plans. te Two bench marks of standard construction shall be estab- lished one at each extremity of the axis and their position and values shall be shown on the plans.To. APPENDICES 73 APPENDIX VII—(Contd.) Spot heights along the axis and along the upstream and downstream toes shall be taken at 190’ intervals (at each chainage point) or closer to indicate gullies, stream cross- ings, breaches or other topographical features. Spot levels along cross lines at cach chainage point shall be taken at z0’ intervals or closer to bring out the true profile of the bund. These levels shall extend to ro’ on either side of the toe. Additional cross sections shall be taken to show marked charige in existing bund profile. A flat plan and longitudinal section of the axis and cross -sections cf the bund shall be plotted to the following scales :— Fat plan oa 200° toan inch. Longitudinal section 200" to an inch horizontal and 10’ toan inch vertical. Cross section io’ to an inch natural. The flat plan and longitudinal section shall be drawn on the same sheet. The plan shall occupy the upper portion of the sheet and the longitudinal section the lower portion. The flat plan shall show in addition to the bund axis all the topographical and civic features within the area surveyed, the chainage number of the trace and the location of the cross sections. The longitudinal section of the axis shall also show in dotted lines the upstream and downstream toe. Part II—Tank Bed Survey: Using the bund axis as the base line cross lines shall be taken into the tank bed at 4 chain intervals. Spot levels along these cross lines shall be taken at ron’ intervals or closer to enable the contours to-be correctly drawn. Marked variations in the topography that will not be clearly indicated by the spot levels along the cross lines shall be surveyed by offset lines and levelled, The spot levels along the cross lines shall be continued till the ground level is about 4’ above the average top level of the existing bund. All civic features such as roads, houses, private lands, cultivations, etc. coming within the area shall be surveyed74 ~ FRANSACTIONS OF THE ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION OF CEYLON APPENDIX VI[—(Condid.) and shown on the plans. Rock outcropsand main streams shall be surveyed, levelled and shown on the plans, The plan shalt be plotted to a scale of 4 chains to an inch and shall show the bund axis, the spot heights, the topographic and civic features. From the spot heights contour lines at 1’ vertical intervals shal! be drawn. Part 11]—Breach Site Surveys ; Using the bund axis as the base line cross lines shall be taken at 40’ intervals starting from the L.B. end of the breach and ending at the R.B. end. The cross lines shall extend to 8o' on either side of the base line. Spot levels:shall be taken along the cross lines at 20 intervals or closer to show marked undulations. All topographical features such as rock outcrops, streams etc. falling within the area shall be surveyed, levelled and shown on the plans. The plans shall be drawn to a scale of 40’ to an inch and shall show the bund axis with the chainage, the spot levels and the topographical features. Each breach site shall have a separate plan. ‘Trial pits shall be excavated along the bund axis and along two parallel axis ro'—20' on either side of it to estimate the quantity of silt and other unsuitable materials to be removed and to ascertain the suitability of the base on which the breach filling can be commenced. The pits shall be excavated to 2’ below the probable base and their Jocation shall preferably be staggered. The number of pits shall be determined according to site conditions, The location of the trial pits and the reduced levels of the different strata shall be shown on the site plan. » Part IV—Spill Site Surveys : The spill axis shown on the plan shall be established on the ground at site. The two extremities shall be marked by sawn wooden pegs projecting 3° above the surrounding gtound level. This axis shall be tied to the bund axis.APPENDICES 5 APPENDIX VII—(Conid.) With this axis as the base line, the areashownon the plan shall be covered by cross lines at 4o’ intervals and, spot heights at 20’ intervals or closer to show marked undulations, shall be taken, All rock outcrops, cavities, streams, private lands, etc. together with their boundaries and levels shall be surveyed in, One permanent bench mark of standard construction shall be established at one extremity of the spill axis. The plan shall be drawn to a scale of go’ to.an inch. All spot levels and features surveyed in, the bearing of spill axis to bund axis, the position and value of the bench mark, etc. shail be shown on the plan. Trial pits shall be taken along the spill axis and along two parallel axis 5’—r0’ on either side of it to verify the suitability of the foundation materials, The depth of the pits shall be 5! or less if suitable foundation for the type of structure contemplated is mct with earlier. The location of the pits along the axes shall preferably be staggered. The number of pits shall be determined according to site conditions. A few trial pits along the tail channel shall be taken to determine the type of material of the tai! channel bed. The location of the pits and the reduced levels of the different strata through which the pits are excavated shall be shown on the site plans,76 TRANSACTIONS OF THE ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION OF CEYLON APPENDIX VIII VILLAGE TANK PLANS (See para 24) LD. WORKS ORDER Plans of Village Tank Improvement Schemes shall be prepared on D.E. or Imp. sheets of drawing paper in accordance with the following instructions. After approval by the D.I.E, concerned, the plans will be inked in and coloured, and each. sheet will be registered (under the Divisional system in vogue) and subsequently be referred to exclusively by that registration number in the report and correspondence. 2. The following data will ‘always be given, with such further information as may be necessary in any particular case :— (rt). General Plan, 4 chains to one inch, of bed, bund, spills, adjacent fields, roads, railways, streams. Bed contours to be shown, and areas computed. Getaway route from existing spills to be shown. (2) Bund: Longitudinal Section, too feel fo one inch, horizontal , 10 feet to one inch, vertical, of top (full line} and toe (dotted line) of bund. This section must always be plotted from left bank end of bund to right. Position and data of spills, sluices, former breaches, etc., to be shown. (3) Bund: Cross Sections, 10 feet fo ome inch, natirat “scale. - (4) ~ Spill Sites, 40 feel fo one inch detailed, contoured site- . ‘plans of-present and potential spill sites. (5) Existing Spills. /arge scale detailed plans, elevations, longitudinal and cross sections of existing spills and of their approach and tail channels. Masonry Details, 4 feet fo one tuck. (6) Catchment Area, one mile io one inch outline of catch- ment showing tanks included. (7) Diagrams : the following diagrams should be plotted or pasted on the Plans: (a) Capacity Diagram, on logarithmic paper. {0} Spill Discharges, total discharge as ordinates, flood lift as akscissae.an] Lotte APPENDICES 7 APPENDIX VIII—(Contd.} {c) Monthly Rainfall, inches fail per month on base of months ; 3. All permanent features are to be inked in d/ack, contours ‘are to be inked in orange; bund profile should be washed in light burnt sienna ; tank area should be clearly washed in blue. '' 4° The datum of all levels on the tank shall be 100.00,- the assigned level of the sill of the lowest sluice. Care must be taken ‘to specify precisely where and how this level was taken. ,. ,78 TRANSACTIONS OF THE ENGUNEERING ASSOCIATION OF CEYLON APPENDIX IX VILLAGE ANICUT SCHEME PLANS ILD. WORKS ORDER Plans of Village Ela Improvement Schemes shall be prepared on D.E. or Imp. sheets of drawing paper in accordance with the following instructions. After approval by the D.LE. concerned, the plans will be inked in and coloured, and each sheet will be registered (under the Divisional system in vogue) and sub- sequently referred to exclusively by that registration number in the report and correspondence. 2. The following data, afer alia as circumstances require, will be given :— (1) Head Works, large scale, 40’ 20', 10" fo one inch plans of : site or proposed site ; cross sections, 10 feet to one inch natural, with recorded High Flood Level (H.F.L.) marked, (2) Parent Stream, 200 feet and 10 feet to one inch longi- tudinal sections from above to below selected site. (3) Ela, (a) 100 feet (or 200 feet) and to feet to one inch longitudinal section of existing ela (bed and bank) and extension trace. (6) 10 feet to one inch natural cross sections of ela and trace. (4) ‘Masonry Works, 4 feet to one inch details (plan cle~ vation and sections) of existing masonry structures. (5) Silt Control, /arge scale details of head reach showing existing pofaivas, etc., for design of silt and flood control measures. (6) Diagrams, the following should be given when it is possible to include them. (2) Monthly rainfall. (0) Discharge over anicut for various heads. {c) Discharge through head sluice for various heads and openings. 3. All permanent features should be inked in and the plans coloured and completed as neatly as possible. 4. The datum of all levels should be the final crest level of the anicut and the value 100.00 should be assigned to this datum.APPENDICES 29 APPENDIX X - CAPACITY CALCULATION (See para 28 et seq) LD. NOTE 1. The bed of the tank up to probable F.S.L. at least, and preferably up to H.F.L., is contour surveyed; the levels are taken either on a grid or on lines radiating from a central point -on the bund up the main arms of the tank. 2. The contours are plotted at 1 foot vertical intervals above datum (sill of lowest sluice), and the total area embraced by each and the bund is computed. j. Either, or both of the following formulae are used to compute capacity :— (a) if the number of areas is odd :-— AD SA, + 4A, + 2A, + 4Ay to} V= 3 Loo Ane + 4Any + An (@) if the number of areas is even :— v= ap{% +A, + Ay tot Asa Ae A D is the vertical interval between contours, 4. An example of the calculation, which, for convenience, should always be done in tabular form, is given for GALKADALA TANK, F/23 (2.25 X 1.87), the areas being obtained from ‘Plan WD/D 2—1.So TRANSACTIONS OF THE ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION OF CEYLON APPENDIX X-—(Contd.) Odd numbers of Areas Capa- conta 68 J-———A——— = factor | Product 2? | tactor | product | feet 3 97] t-5 |2 1.5 4 “75 98 | 4.95.14 19.8 (h | 2.47 1) 3.22 | 3.22 “| 2.47 99] 8 I 8 I 8 9.8 2 39.4.) 2 ir | 233 | 8 Too |13.6 |q 54.4. (4 6.8 14 “20.49 20. W ] 68 » oI [22.4 fr 22.4 I 22.4 2 mmq.t | 4 38.0 \z 22.4 102 |32.2 |4 128.8 4 16.1 85.79 | 65. re 5-79 103 {40 Tr 40 , 305-3 | # jor.d and soon a—————— The calculated capacities are then plotted on the special logarithmic paper provided, and an exponential formula, or formulae, derived. N.B.—In view of the uniformity of the logarithmic plot, ample accuracy can be secured by making D=2 feet, or even more for higher values of 1), and this will reduce the labour of computing areas and of the capacity calculation.APPENDICES. Br APPENDIX XI CATCHMENT AREA OF RIVER BASINS {VIDE PLATE No. 1) ” No. of No. of ‘ : =, area in . : came area in Drainage; Name Sq. Mile prainage: Name Sq. Mile 1. Kelani Ganga 885 39. Tandiadi Aru 8.6 2. Bolgoda Ganga 140 40. Kangikadichi Ara — 22 3. Kalu Ganga 1050 qi. Rufus Kuiam 13.5 4. Bentota Ganga 243 42. Pannel Oya 72 5.” Madu Ganga and 43. Ambalam Oya 45 Randombe Lake — 23 44. Gal Oya 700 6. Madampe Lake 35 45. Andella Oya, Nau- 7. Telwatte Ganga akiri Aru 204 and Hikkaduwa 46. Tumpankeni Tank 1.5 Ganga 20 47. Manakada Aru 14.5 8.- Ratgama Lake 4 48. Mandipattu Ara 30 g. Gin Ganga 370 4g. Pathanthodaphue 10. Koggala Lake 25 Aru 39 In. Polwatte Ganga gt 30. Vett Ara 10 12. wala Ganga 375 51. Magalavatavan Arn. 13. Sinimodera Oya 15 Unichai 135 14. Kirama Oya 87 52. Mundeni Aru 500 15. Rekawa Ova 29.5 53. Miyangolla Ela 88 16. Urubokka Oya 136 84. Maduru Oya Go2 17. Kachigal Ara 86 55. Pulliyanrota Aru 20.3 18. Walawe Ganga 954 56. Kirinechchi Odar 30 39. Karagan Oya 22.5 57. Bodigoda Aru 64 20. Malala Oya 156 58. Mandan Aru 5 zi. Embilikala Oya 23 59. Makarachch Aru 14.5 22. Kirindi Oya 455 60. Mahaweli Ganga 4034 23. Bambawe Ara 31 61. Kantalai Basin and 24. Mahasiliwa Oya 5 Per Arn 174 25. Butawa Oya 15 6g. Pan Ova 50 26. Menik Ganga 497 63. Palampotta Aru 27 27. Katupila Ara 33-5 64. Pankulam Are 147 28. Kurundu Ara 3r 68. Kunchikumban 29. Nabadagas Ara 42 Ara So 30. Karambe Ara 42 66. Pulakutti Aru. 8 31. Kumbukkan Oya = 476 67. Yan Ova 504 Bagura Oya 36 68. Mee Oya 35 Girikola Oya 6 69. Ma Oya 400 . Helawa Ara 20 70, Churiyan Aru 29 . Wila Oya 189 ax. Chavar Aru 12 . Heda Oya 230 2. Palladi Aru 24. . Karanda Oya, 73. Manal Aru 73 Kirimeti‘Ara 165 74. Kodalikallu Aru 29 38. Aymena Ara 20 75. Per Aru Tyo82 TRANSACTIONS OF THE ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION OF CEYLON APPENDIX X]—(Contd.) 76. 7 72. 79- 30. 81, 82. 83. 384. 55. 86. 87. 88. 89. Pali Aru 33 Maruthapilly Aru 160 Therauil Aru 35 Piramenthal Aru 32 Netheli Aru 47 Kanakarayan Aru 350 Kalawalappu Aru 22 Akkarayan Aru 75 Mandekal Aru 116 Pallauarayankadu Aru 62 Pali Aru 176 Chappi-Aru, Punadi Aru > 26 Panangi Aru 325 219 Nay Aro gv. an. 92. 93- a 95- go. 97- 98. 99. 109, 0%. 102. 103. Aruvi Aru 1268 Kal Aru 82 Modaragama Arn 364 Kala Oya 7064 Moongil Aru 7 Mi Oya 675 Madurankuli Aru 28 Kalagamue Oya 59 Rathambala Oya = 84 Deduru Oya 1022 Karambala Oya 230 Ramal Oya 84 Maha Oya 599 Attanagalla Oya 284 22,948 .4APPENDICES . 83 APPENDIX XII CLASSIFICATION OF CATCHMENTS (See para 36) For Dicken's Formula, Q=CM*" — cusecs DESCRIPTION OF CATCHMENT SUGGESTED C Flat, sandy plains. : 200 to 400 Flat, sandy soils or paddy fields... +. 500 Gentle slopes and absorbent soil... +. 645 Undulating, hard clay soil... - S00 to 1,000 Undulating, impervious, within hills 1,000 to 1,200 Mountainous and rocky a see 1,400 to 2,000 Note:—If 1 inch of rainfall per hour runs off 1 acre of surface in the same period, the rate of discharge will be reusec, Similarly 1 inch of rainfatl per hour from 1 square mile gives‘a discharge of Gyo cusecs. This will suggest the physical significance of the above co-efficients.84 TRANSACTIONS OF THE ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION OF CEYLON APPENDIX XIII FLOOD RUN OFF ( See para 36) 0.75 Inglis ee Discharge Q=CM (Dickens) in Cusecs =7000M C=645 C= 830 C=1000 C=2000 Mtg OT Ing 155 £78 356 + 346 0.2 195 255 300 600 684 0.3 265 350 405 $10. 1014 0.4 330 425 503 1006 1336 0.5 385 510 594 T18E 1652 06° 435 575 82 1364 1959 0.7 - 495 055 765, 1560 2260 "0.8 550 725, 846 1092 2559 0.9 595 785, 924 1848 2850 T.0 . 645 850 100 2000 3132 1.1 690 gI5 1073 2146 3410 1.2 740 975 1147 2204 3085 1.3 . 785 1035 1217 2434 3955 Teg 825, 1095 1287 2594 4221, 1.5 875 1155 1335 2710 4478 1.6 g20 1215 1423 2846 49735 Lg 965 1270 1489 2978 4982 1.8 1005 1325 1553 3106 5230 Lg 1050 1380 1618 3236 5478 2.0 1085 1430 1682 3304 5720 2.2 1165 1540 1808 3012 or85 2d 1250 1640 1928 3856 6640 2.0 1325 1740 2047 4004 7080 2.8 1400 1845 2165 4330 F515 3.0 1470 1940 2279 4558 7935 3.2 1545 2035 2392 4764 8352 3.4 1620 2125 2503 5006 &750 3.6 1685 2220 2613 5220 9138 3.8 1735 2310 2721 5442 9332 4.0 1825 2405 2828 5656 $900 4.2 1892 2490 2934 5898 10270 4.4 1960 2580 3038 6076 10020 4.6 2025 - 2670 3142 6284 10ggo 4.8 2095 2755 3243 6486- T1330 5-0 2155 2840 3344 6688 11670 5-2 2225 2925 3443 6886 12010 5-4 2290 go10 3542 7084 12340 5.6 2350 3090 3640 7280 12660 5.8 2420 3175 3737 7AT4 12980 6.0 2475 3250 3934 7068 13290 6.2 2540 3340 3929 7858 13020 6.4 2600 3425, 4024 8048 13900APPENDICES 85 APPENDIX XII]—(Conéd.} 0.75 Inglis oon Discharge Q=CM (Dickens) in Cusecs Q=je0oM C=645 C= 850 C=1000 C=2000 iM +4 6.6 2660 3500 fElZ 8234 14210 6.8 2720 3580. 4210 8420 14490 7.0 2775 3055 4303 8606 14780 7.2 2840 3740 4394 8788 15070 74 2900 3815 4487 8073 15340 7.6 2950 3895 4578 9156 15630 78 3015 3970 4608 9336 15900 8.0 3070 4045, 4756 512 16190 8.2 3125 4120 844 -9688 16450 8.4 3180 4195 4934 g868 =. 16710 : 8.6 3235 4275, 5022 10044 16980 8.8 3295 4340 5110 10220. 19240 9.0 3355 4420 5196 10392 17480 9.2 3405, 44go 5282 10564 = - 17750 9.4 3465 4560 5368 20730 17990 9.6 3515 4635 5354 rogos 18240 9.8 3570 | 4705 5539 11078 18470 10.0 3625 4I75 5623 - 11246 18730 10.25 3695 4865 - 5738. 11456. -EQOIO 10.5 3760 4955 5833 11666 19300 10.95 3830 5040 5937 11874 19000 II.0 3895 5130 Gogo 12080 - 19880 11.25 3965, 5215 6142 12284 20160 W.5 4020 5290 6244 12488 20440 11-75 4095 5385 6347 T2094 20720 12.0 4160 5480 6qq8 12896 21000 12.25 4220 5560 6548 13006 21256 12.50 4290 5650 6648 13296 21525 12-75 4355 5739 6748 13496 21805 13.0 4420 5820 6847 13094 24057 13.25 4480 5900 6945 13890 22316 13-5 4540 5985 7042 14084 22582 13-75 4605 6070 F140 14280 22834 14.0 4670 6150 9237 14474 23100 34-25 4730 6240 7334 14068 23345, 14.5 4790 6315 7430 74860. 23004 14-95 4855, 6395 7526 15052 - 23835 15.0 4915 6475 722 15244 24087 15.25 4980 6560 9716 15432 24318 15.5 5040 6640 7812 15624 245977 15-75 5100 6720 7906 15812 24806 16.0 5160 6800 8000. 10000 25046 16.25, 3220 6880 Sa95, 16190 25297 16.5 5285, 6955 8190 16380 2550886 TRANSACTIONS OY THE ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION OF CEYLON. APPENDIX XIII—(Conid.) Inglis SNe Discharge Q=CM (Dickens) in Cusecs Q=jn0oM Ca645. C= 850 Cx1000 C2009 /M+4 16.75 5345 7040 8280 16560 25739 17.0 5400 7X15 8372 16744 25950 17-25 5460 7200 5465 16930 26194 17-5 5520 7275 8556 7112 20397" 17.75 5375 7355 8648 17296 26021 18.0 5035 7430 8740 17480 26860. 18.25 "5700 F510 8830 17660 27070 18.50 5755 7580 8g22 17844 27300 18.57 5815 7065 go12 18024 273510: 19.0 5870 9735 gI0o 18200 27713 19-25. 5935 7515 9x90 18380 27825, 19-50 5985 7885 g280 18560 28140 19.75 6Go50 7905 9370 18740 28364 20.0 6100 $040 9460 18920 28574 20.50 6220 2195 9635 19270 28980 21.0 6325 8340 9810 19620 29400: 21.50 6435 8485 9984 19968 29785 22.0 65350 86035 10160 20320 30198 22,50 6660 8780 10330 20660 30583. 23-0 6770 8925 TO510 | 2T020 30990 23.50 75 9070 106%0 21360 31367 24.0 Gggo g2t5, 10840 21680 31766. 24.5 7095 9360 IIO1O 22020 32116 25.0 7210 g500 11180 22360 32480: 25.5 7310 9645 11340 22680 32865. 26.0 7425, 9755 T1510 23020 33215, 26.50 7520 9925 11680 23360 33565. 27.0 7035, 10065 11850 23700 33050 27.59 7735 10Z00 12000 24000 34300 28.0 7850 10345 12170 24340 34650 28.50 7950 10480 12330 24660 35000, 29.0 $065 10625 12500 25000 35350 29.50 8170 10760 12660 25320 35005 30.0 8270 10895 12820 25640 36015 31.0 8475 4170 13140 26280 36680 32.0 8675 31435 13450 26900 37331 33-0 8880-11705, 13770, 2754037975 34.0 goto 11970 14080 28160 38626 35-0 9280 12230 14390 28780 3g2t4 36.0 482 12495 £4700 29400 39844 37-0 9680 12750 15000 30000 40460 38.0 9870 13000 15300 30600 41055 39.0 10070 13270 15610 31220 41608 40.0 10270 13525 15920 31840 42196