Running head: YERBA MATE (ILEX PARAGUARIENSIS)

Yerba Mate (Ilex paraguariensis):

Its Biologically Active Molecules and their Health Implications

Karen A. Brenes

California State University, Los Angeles

NTRS 464: Medicinal Herbs & Nutrition

Dr. Chick F. Tam
March 5, 2014

Running head: YERBA MATE (ILEX PARAGUARIENSIS)

Table of Contents
Introduction....................................................................................................................4-5
Section I. Mate (Ilex paraguariensis): Herbal Monograph from PDR for Herbal
Medicine..........................................................................................................................5-8
Description............................................................................................................5-7
Medicinal
parts............................................................................................5
Flower and
fruit...........................................................................................5
Leaves, stem, and
root..............................................................................5-6

Characteristics ............................................................................................6

Habitat.........................................................................................................6

Production....................................................................................................6
Other
names.................................................................................................6
Actions and Pharmacology...................................................................................6-7

Compounds..................................................................................................6

Running head: YERBA MATE (ILEX PARAGUARIENSIS)

Effects.......................................................................................................6-7
Indications and Usage...........................................................................................7-8
Approved by Commission
E.........................................................................7
Unproven
uses..............................................................................................7
Homeopathic
Uses.......................................................................................7
Precautions and Adverse Reactions.........................................................................7
Dosage..................................................................................................................7-8
Mode of
administration................................................................................7

Preparation...............................................................................................7-8
Daily
Dosage...............................................................................................8
Homeopathic
dosage...................................................................................8
Section 2: History of yerba mate as a folk
medicine.......................8-11
Section 3: Biologically Active Compounds in Yerba
Mate.............12-16
Polyphenols......................................................................................................13-14

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Chlorogenic
Acid..................................................................................14-15
Saponins............................................................................................................15-16
Ursolic acid, oleanolic acid and mate
saponins........................................16
Section 4: Research & Experimental Stuides: Bringing New
Insights
into the Biochemical Process of Illex
paraguriensis..............................17-20
Chlorogenic acid and cholesterol oxidation.....................................................17-18
Matesapoins and their effect on cholesterol and Obesity......................................18
Saponinsandinflammation..............................................................................1819
Yerba mate, genes and obesity.........................................................................19-20
Conclusion................................................................................................
........................20
List of Figures...................................................................................................................21
List of Tables....................................................................................................................22
References....................................................................................................................23-24

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Introduction
Made from the infusion of the dried leaves of the tree Ilex paraguariensis,
a species of holly native to Brazil, Paraguay, Argentina and Uruguay, yerba mate
tea (mate) has long been enjoyed throughout Latin America (Yerba Mate, 2014). In
recent years, yerba mate consumption has grown in the United States where its been
promoted as possessing a myriad of health benefits, including being marketed as a
healthier alternative to coffee for its ability to provide an allegedly jitter-free caffeine
boost and high antioxidant content (Conis, 2009).
Yerba mates reputation as an herbal panacea extends far back in its history.
From its earliest use in the folk medicine traditions of the indigenous peoples of South
America, the leaves of Ilex paraguariensis have long been believed to have
medicinal properties. Indeed, early Spanish settlers came to call the leaves of the mate
tree by the Spanish word for herb: yerba . The drinking of yerba mate tea for its
stimulative and medicinal benefits was readily adapted by European colonizers, who
spread the drink throughout South America. To this day, the tea occupies a unique social
and cultural significance in Uruguay, Paraguay and Argentina (History of Yerba Mate,
2013). Its expansion into broader world markets in recent years has been accompanied by
an increased interest in the plant by the scientific community. Though still not as
abundant as the research done on coffee or other teas, scientific research into Ilex
paraguariensis, its chemical composition, physiological mechanisms and therapeutic
properties have greatly increased over the past fifteen years (Bracesco et al. 2011). The
objective of this paper is to explore the history of yerba mates use in folk medicine,
examine the current scientific understanding of the herbs medicinal properties and

Running head: YERBA MATE (ILEX PARAGUARIENSIS)

identify some of the biologically active molecules found in Ilex paraguariensis. The
paper will also examine what is currently known about how these molecules exert their
influence on the human body and the potential therapeutic uses of yerba mate in the
prevention and treatment of disease.
Mate (Ilex paraguariensis): Herbal Monograph from PDR for Herbal
Medicine
[Copied verbatim from PDR-Herbal Medicine (Text), 572-573]
Figure 1. Rare chromolithograph of Illex paraguariensis.a

Adapted from Kohler, F.E. (1887). Illex paraguariensis. [Online Image]. Retrieved March 3, 2014
from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yerba_mate&oldid=598383559
a

Description
Medicinal parts. The medicinal parts are the dried or roasted leaves.
Flower and fruit. The white flowers are axillary and are in clusters of 40 to
50. They have a 4 to 5 sepaled calyx and 4 to 5 petalled corolla, are unisexual and
dioecious. The fruit is a globoid reddish drupe with 5 to 8 seeds.
Leaves stem and root. The plant is an evergreen shrub or tree up to 20 m

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tall with pale bark and an oblong-oval crown. The leaves are alternate, obovate,
acuminate with a crenate or serrate margin. They are dark green above and pale green
beneath and are tough, coriaceous and 6 to 20 cm long and 3to 9 cm wide.
Characteristics. The taste is astringent and bitter. The odor is characteristic
and aromatic.
Habitat. The plant is only found in South America between the 20th and 30th
parallel.
Production. Mate consists of the dried leaf and leaf stem of Ilex
paraguariensis. It is harvested every 2 years from May to September, then dried and
cut.
Other names: Yerba Mate, Jesuits Tea, Paraguay Tea.
Actions and Pharmacology
Compounds.
Purine alkaloids. Chief alkaloids caffeine (0.4-2.4%) and
theobromine
(0.3-0.5%).
Caffeic acid derivatives. Including among others chlorogenic
acid,
neochlorogenic acid, cryptochlorogenic acid.
Flavonoids. Including among others rutin, isoquercitrin, kaempferol
glycosides.
Triterpene saponins (mate saponins)
Nitrile glycosides. Menisdaurin, not cyanogenic.

Running head: YERBA MATE (ILEX PARAGUARIENSIS)

Volatile oil.
Effects.
The main active principles are caffeine in varying amounts, tannins and
small amounts of essential oil. Depending on the caffeine content the drug can display
analeptic, diuretic, and positively inotropic and positively chronotropic, glycogenolytic
and lipolytic effects. The centrally stimulating effect of the drug is due to the chlorogenic
acids.
Indications and Usage
Approved by Commission E:
Lack of stamina. Mate is used for mental and physical fatigue.
Unproven uses. In folk medicine Mate is used internally for ulcers,
rheumatism, anemia, neurasthenia, depression, as a diuretic for oliguria and as a
prophylaxis against fever and infections. Externally Mate is used as a poultice for ulcers
and inflammation.
Homeopathic uses. Ilex paraguariensis is used to treat poor digestion.
Precautions and Adverse Reactions
No health hazards or side effects are known in conjunction with the proper
administration of designated therapeutic dosages.
Dosage
Mode of administration. Mate is available as comminuted herb
diffusions, herb powder and as galenic preparations for internal use. Drug is available as
filter teas in mono tea form and in various tea combinations such as bladder and kidney
teas.

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Preparation. To prepare an infusion, pour water that has just been brought to
boil over 1 teaspoonful drug (2 gm) and leave to draw for 5 to 10 minutes, then strain.
The briefly infused drink is more stimulating, less astringent and tastes better (caffeine
dissolves more quickly than the tannins).
Roasted leaves. The dried leaves are heated for 20 minutes to 100
C
and then rinsed with water. The leaves are stored for 3 to 4 days to allow the taste and
aroma to develop.
Daily dosage. 3 gm of drug.
Tea. As required (1 teaspoon corresponds to 2 gm drug).
Homeopathic dosage. 5 drops, 1 tablet or 10 globules every 30 to 60
minutes (acute) or 1 to 3 times daily (chronic); parenterally: 1 to 2 ml sc acute, 3 times
daily; chronic: once a day.
History of Yerba Mate as Folk Medicine
Figure 2. (A) Map of South America showing growing regions for Yerba Mate [Ilex paraguariensis]
1 Argentina; 2 Brazil, 3 Paraguay, 4 Uruguay. (B) Yerba Mate plant. a

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10

Adapted from (Heck & De Mejia, 2007, p. R139).

Mate was first used medicinally by the Guarani, an indigenous

people native to Paraguay, Brazil and Argentina for centuries before
the arrival of Europeans in the new world (see Figure 2). The Guarani
consumed yerba mate as a drink, sipping it through straws from
hollowed out gourds or chewing the leaves (History of Yerba Mate,
2013). It was used to treat a variety of health issues, including
rheumatism, gastric and digestive problems, depression, as a diuretic
and to prevent fever and infection. (Milner, J. et al., 2007).
Beyond its medicinal uses, yerba mate was also a part of the
religious and social fabric of Guarani culture. It was used in rituals and
as a form of currency when trading with other indigenous peoples.

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Yerba mate has even been found in Pre-Colombian tombs near Lima,
Peru suggesting the prestige with which the plant was viewed (History
of Yerba Mate, 2013). However, it was yerba mates properties as a
stimulant to combat fatigue and elevate mood that most intrigued
Spanish explorers when they first encountered the Guarani in the 16th
century. The tea seemed to relieve their fatigue and produced a
feeling of exhilaration (Cavalcanti, 2013, p. 99). Later, it was the
Jesuits who decided to promote yerba mate as an industry. This lead to
the widespread adoption of the beverage among the European
colonizers who would come to name it chimarrao in Brazil, mate in
Argentina and Uruguay and terere in Paraguay where it is prepared
with cold water in the summer (Braseco et al., 2011).
Like it did for the Guarani, the drinking of yerba mate came to
hold an important social significance amongst the Europeans that can
still be seen in South America today. The tea is traditionally prepared
and served in a hollowed calabash gourd (see Figure 3), a bulb
shaped fruit that is narrower at its top than it is wide.
The yerba mate is drunk from the gourd through a special straw like
device called a

Figure 3. Yerba mate brewing n a traditional calabash gourd. a

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Adapted from Mate (beverage). (2014, February 27) Mate in a traditional calabash gourd [Online
Image]. In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved March 3, 2014, from
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mate_(beverage)&oldid=598496809
a

bombilla (see Figure 4).

Traditionally, yerba mate is drunk in a particular social setting
such as at gatherings of family and friends where everyone will drink
from the same shared gourd and bombilla. One person at the
gathering, (known as the cebador in Spanish) the will assume the role
of preparing the gourd and brewing the tea and then testing it to make
sure it is of good quality before it is passed around for all to enjoy
(Mate [beverage], 2014). The social significance in this traditional
offering and sharing of yerba mate has led some researchers to
compare it to the traditional tea ceremonies seen in Asian cultures
(Bracesco, et al. 2011).

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The traditional method of brewing yerba mate in a gourd and

drinking it
Figure 4. A variety of different bombillas with a matchstick for scale.a

Adapted from Bombilla.(2013, December 16). Different types of bombillas, drinking straws used
for drinking mate teas. [Online Image]. In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, Retrieved March 3,
2014, from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bombilla&oldid=586410856
a

through a bombilla also has an effect on the chemical quality of the tea
that is produced. Because the opening of the gourd is narrower at its
top than its middle, the leaves on top near the opening often remain
dry and compress the leaves submerged below it. This compression
results in the continuous extraction of the yerba mate compounds from
the leaves and ultimately results in a tea with a very high
concentration of the plants beneficial molecules (Bracesco, et al.,
2011). Unlike a conventional straw, the end of a bombilla is not open
but is instead a closed bulb with tiny perforations that filter out any
fine solids from the pure tea extract. Together, the gourd and the

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bombilla produce and deliver a highly concentrated form of the tea and
its medicinal compounds to its drinkers (Bracesco et al. 2011).

Biologically Active Molecules of Illex paraguariensis

Though scientific research on Illex paraguariensis is still in its infancy, new
research over the past few decades has greatly increased our understanding of the tea and
its bioactive compounds (Bracesco et al., 2011; Heck & De Mejia, 2007). Yerba mate has
been shown to contain a very diverse amount of chemical compounds that are not easily
found in other forms of tea (Heck & De Mejia, 2007). Some of the biologically active
chemical compound groups that have been identified in both the leaves of Ilex
paraguariensis and its extract (yerba mate tea) include purine alkaloids, caffeic acid
derivatives, flavonoids and saponins (Bracesco et al., 2011; Milner, J. et al., 2007).
Within these various groups of compounds are individual molecules that have known
bioactive properties. Table 1 details a partial list of some these compounds and their
reported biological activities.
Yerba mate has always been known for its properties as a stimulant. The
molecules responsible for this effect are caffeine, thophylline, and theobromine (Heck &
De Mejia, 2007). Recent research however has begun to focus on other groups of
molecular compounds that have more potentially interesting implications for human
health and disease. Chief among these groups are yerba mates polyphenols and their
antioxidant capacities, as well as its saponins which appear to exert anti-inflammatory,
anti-cholesterol and possibly even anti-obessity effects (Bastos et al., 2007; Braseco et

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15

al., 2011; Heck & De Mejia, 2007).

Table 1. Compounds identified in yerba mate leaves and some of their

bological activities. a

Adapted from (Heck & De Mejia, 2007, p. R144).

Polyphenols
Polyphenols are a class of chemical compounds that contain a benzene ring bound
to a hydroxyl group in their structure. Overall, yerba mate has been shown to have only a

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16

slightly higher polyphenol concentration than other types of tea (see Table 2).The
concentration of one particlar polyphenol however has been shown to be unique to yerba
mate: chlorogenic acid (Bastos et al., 2007; Bracesco et al., 2011). On average, the
amount of this particular polyphenol extracted from yerba mate tea leaves has been
shown to be roughly equivalent to 92mg of chlorogenic acid per gram of dry leaves. This
is a significantly higher concentration than that found in any other variety of tea,
Table 2. Polypheonols found in green tea, black tea and mate tea. a

Adapted from (Heck & De Mejia, 2007, p. R141).

including green tea. This higher concentration of chlorogenic acid has also been directly
corelated to its overall antioxidant capcity (Braseco et al., 2011). It gives yerba mate a
great ability to quench reactive oxygnen, an ability that has even been compared to
peroxidase, the bodys own natural antioxidant enzyme (Heck & De Mejia, 2007).
Chlorogenic acid therefore is the molecule that makes yerba mate an antioxident
superpower (Bastos et al., 2007; Bracesco, et al. 2011) .

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Chlorogenic acid. Chlorogenic acid is a caffeic acid derivative and a family

of esters that are formed between certain trans cinanamic acids and quinic acids.
Chlorogenic acid can act as either a hydrogen or electron donor or as a transition metal
ion chelator, giving it great potency as a free radical and metal scavenger. It has also
been shown to effect the gene expression of antioxidant enzymes.
Figure 5. Molecular structure of chlorogenic acid.a

Adapted from Chlorogenic acid (2014, February 3) [Online Image]. Skeletal form of chlorogenic
acid. [Online Image]. In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved March 3, 2014, from
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mate_(beverage)&oldid=598496809
a

Research has begun to show that the chlorogenic acid in yerba mate also plays a role in
lowering LDL-cholesterol levels in humans (Bracesco et al., 2011).
Saponins
Saponins are a group of glycosides that are highly water-soluble and form foam
when they are dissolved in water (see Figure 6). Biochemically, they are known for
their membrane-disrupting properties, which allow them to form large mixed micelles
with steroids and bile acids (Bastos et al., 2007).
Figure 6. Molecular structure of a generic saponin structure.a

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Adapted from (Heck & De Mejia, 2007, p. R143).

Ursolic acid, oleanolic acid and mate saponins. The leaves of yerba contain a
large amount of a particular class of saponins known as titersapenoid saponins that
contain ursolic or oleanolic moieties (Bastos et al., 2007; Bracesco, et al., 2011). The
primary Matesaponins that contain ursolic acid have been identified and named as
Matesaponins 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 (Bastos et al., 2007). The biochemcial properties of these
urosolic (see Figure 6) and oleanolic (see Figure 7) matesaponins also play a significant
role in yerba mates anti-inflammatory capabilities and the way the tea affects cholesterol
metabolism and lipid absorption (Bastos et al., 2007; Bracesco et al., 2011; Heck & De
Mejia, 2007).
Figure 6. Molecular structure of ursolic acid.a

Adapted from (Bastos et al., 2007, p. 41).

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Figure 7. Molecular structure of oleanolic acid.a

Adapted from (Bastos et al., 2007, p. 41).

Research & Experimental Stuides: Bringing New Insights

into the Biochemical Process of Illex paraguriensis
Chlorogenic acid and cholesterol oxidation
While past experiments were able to demonstrate yerba mates antioxidant
abilitities in lab and animal experiments, in 2009 the first translational study in humans
was able to show the same results; consumption of Illex paraguriensis improved
serum lipid levels in healthy dyslipidic human subjects. LDL-chloesterol levels were
significantly reduced in parallel with an increase in HDL-cholesterol in a cohort of
dyslipidemic subjects that drank mate for 2 months as compared to controls that did not
(Bracesco et al., 2011). The mate biochemical exerting this effect was shown to be
chlorogenic acid, which protects an antioxidant enzyme that HDL-cholesterol (HDL)
carries called paraoxonase 1 (PON 1). The PON1 enzyme protects LDL-cholesterol
(LDL) from oxidation, which renders the LDLs more reactive and likely to inflict damage
and inflammation on surrounding tissues. It is for all these reasons that the PON1
enzyme is thought to be artheroprotective (Bastos et al., 2007; Bracesco, et al., 2011).

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However, PON1 activity can be reduced when HDL itself is oxidated by hypocholric acid
(HOCl), that is released by neutrophils and macrophages found in large amounts in
inflammed areterial lesions
By preventing the oxidation of HDLs, the chlorogenic acid from yerba mate
protects the PON1 enzyme from being inactivated which in turn not only helps to
maintain a high level of healthy HDLs, it also protects LDLs from becoming oxidized
which can ultimately lead to arterosclerosis (Bastos et al., 2007; Bracesco, et al., 2011).
This study was also able to show that the tea could be used in conjunction with statin
therapy to achieve additional LDL lowering benefits. This finding suggests that one day,
the tea may be used to reduce statin dosages and therefore the side effects that accompany
them (Bracesco, et al. 2011).
Matesapoins and their effect on cholesterol and Obesity
The primary Matesaponins that contain ursolic acid have been identified and
named as Matesaponins 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 (Bastos et al., 2007). Animal studies in mice
and rats have begun to confirm that these Matesaponins interfer with both cholesterol
metabolism and the absorption of dietary fats in the intestine (Pang et al., 2008). The
saponins appear to inhibit the uptake of cholesterol from the small intestine by forming
micelles that cannot be absorbed through the intestinal lining and are therfore excreted
(Pang et al., 2008; Bastos et al., 2007). Matesaponins have also been shown to have an
inhibitory effect on fat absorption by binding to pancreatic lipase enzymes in the small
intenstine. This prevents the lipase enzymes from hydrolyzing dietary lipids. The
unhydrolyzed lipids will not be able to be absorbed, resulting in less absorption of dietary
fats and a lower caloric intake (Pang et al., 2008). This mechanism has been

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21

demonstrated in vitro and more recently in an experiment involving mice who were fed
a high fat diet. Mice who were fed the yerba mate extract along with their high fat diet
appeared to gain less weight than the experimental controls (Pang et al., 2008).
Saponins and inflammation
Yerba mate was often prescribed in folk medicine to treat a variety of
inflammatory conditions. A study on the inflammatory response of human macrophages
activated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) gives us new insights into how yerba mate may
exert an anti-inflammatory effect. Researchers first introduced individual chemical
components of yerba mate extract into the experiment to observe their effect on the
inflammatory response of the macrophages to LPS. They observed the flavanoid
quercertin was the most potent inhibitor of the COX-2 enzyme, an important mediator in
the inflammatory response. When the quercetin was combined with mate saponins, a
synergistic effect occurred resulting in an even greater anti-inflammatory effect.
However, when the macrophages and LPS were exposed to the complete mate extract, the
anti-inflammatory effect was greatly reduced, possibly due to the antigonistic effects of
other components of the tea (Bracesco et al. 2011). This experiment demonstrates that
individiual compounds from the tea do have anti-inflammatory properties and the
complex ways that mate compounds interact with and affect each other. Future research
will hopefully shed more light on exactly how mate compounds interact with each other
in the human body.
Yerba mate, genes and obesity
Furthurexperimentationonobeseratswhoweregivenyerbamateextractin
conjuntcionwithahighfatdietrevealedthattheextractmayalsohavearegulatingeffect

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22

ontheexpressionofgenesrelatedtoobesity(Bracescoetal.,2011).Theprocesses
involvedarecomplexandnotyetfullyunderstood,butitdoesappearthatyerbamate
mayexertaprotectiveeffectagainstweightgainthatresultsfromahighfatdiet.The
mechanisminvolvesthewaycompoundsinyerbamateaffecttheactionsoftheenzyme
Adenosinemonophosphate(AMP)dependentkinase(AMPK).Duringtherat
experiment,researcherswereabletoobservethatmateenhancedtheuncouplingof
certainproteinsthatsignificantlyelevatedtheactivitylevelofAMPKinthevisceral
adiposetissueoftherats(Pangetal.,2008).AMPKisbothasensorandregulatorof
metabolismandisbelievedtoplayavitalroleinthedevlopmentofmetabolicsyndrome,
obesityanddiabetes.FindingwaystoincreasetheactivityofAMPKhaslongbeenagoal
ofpharmaceuticalcompanies(Brasecoetal.,2011).Thepossibilitythatyerbamate
compoundsmayhavethisabilityraisestheexcitingprospectthattheteacouldbe
beneficialasanaturaltreatmentforthosedisorders.
Conclusion
Yerba mates evolution from a medicinal plant sacred to the native Guarani people
to the cultural, medicinal and social role it now occupies in modern day South America
and beyond is a fascinating example of how an herbal remedy with a history rich in folk
medical tradition has begun to draw the interest of modern day science. Though
scientific exploration of yerba mates biochemical properties and their effect on humans
has only just begun, the herb and its tea have already demonstrated an impressive
potential for therapeutic uses in a variety of diseases and health conditions, many of them
nutritionally based. The 2009 human cohort studies are particularly exciting because they
were able to demonstrate that the herb in its traditional dietary form as a tea can have a

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23

significant, measurable impact in lowering cholesterol levels in humans. That the tea was
also found to work safely with and enhance the effect of a prescribed pharmaceutical
(statins), implying the possibility that the tea may one day be used to lower the amount of
the drug needed to achieve the same effect was also very encouraging. Hopefully, future
human clinical trials will be able to demonstrate yerba mates efficacy on a range of other
conditions. Then the traditional tonic of indigenous South America would begin a new
chapter in its history as a scientifically proven effective herbal remedy, truly the best of
both worlds.

List of Figures
Figure
Page
1.

Chromolithograph of Ilex paraguariensis from rare 19th century German medicinal

guide 1

2.

(A) Map of South America showing growing regions for Yerba Mate [Ilex
paraguariensis] 1 Argentina; 2 Brazil, 3 Paraguay,4 Uruguay. (B) Yerba Mate
plant

3.

Yerba mate brewing in a traditional calabash gourd...............................5

4.

A variety of different bombillas with a matchstick for scale...................................6

5.

Molecular structure of cholorgenic acid..................................................................7

6.

Molecular structure of ursolic acid..........................................................................8

7.

Molecular structure of oleanolic acid......................................................................9

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List of Tables
Figure
Table
1.

Compounds identified in yerba mate leaves and some of their biological

activities

2.

Polyphenols found in green, black and mate tea

24

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References
Bastos, D.H., de Oliveira, D.M., Matsumoto, R.L., de Oliveira Carvalho,
P., Ribeiro, M.L. (2007). Yerba mate: Pharmacological properties,
research and biotechnology. Medicinal and Aromatic Plant
Science and Biotechnology 1, 37-46.
Bracesco, N., Sanchez, A. G., Contreras, V., Menini, T., & Gugliucci, A. (2011). Recent
advances on ilex paraguariensis research: Minireview. Journal of
Ethnopharmacology, 136(3), 378-384.
doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2010.06.032
Cavalcanti, M. (2013). European Journal of Business and Social Sciences, 2(4), March 3,
2013-http://www.ejbss.com/recent.aspx.
Conis, E. (2009, March 16, 2009). Yerba mate tea: Drink in moderation. Los Angeles
Times. Retrieved from http://articles.latimes.com/2009/mar/16/health/he-nutrition16

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Heck, C. I., & De Mejia, E. G. (2007). Yerba mate tea (ilex paraguariensis): A
comprehensive review on chemistry, health implications, and technological
considerations. Journal of Food Science, 72(9), R138-R151. doi:10.1111/j.17503841.2007.00535.x
History of yerba mate. (2013, July 28). In Wikipedia, The Free
Encyclopedia. Retrieved March 2, 2014, from
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_yerba_mate
Mate (beverage). (2014, February 27). In Wikipedia, The Free
Encyclopedia. Retrieved on March 2, 2014 from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mate_(beverage)
Milner, J., Smith, L., Wayne, J. (2007). Mate. In PDR for herbal
medicines (4th ed., pp. 572-573). Montvale, NJ: Thomson.
Pang, J., Choi, Y., & Park, T. (2008). Ilex paraguariensis extract ameliorates obesity
induced by high-fat diet: Potential role of AMPK in the visceral adipose tissue.
Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics, 476(2), 178-185.
doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.abb.2008.02.019
Yerba mate. (2014, February 26). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia.
Retrieved on March 2, 2014 from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yerba_mate