TECHNOLOGY

Jerome Schubert,
SPE, is an assistant
professor in the
Harold Vance
Department
of Petroleum
Engineering at Texas
A&M University. He has more than 30
years experience with Pennzoil, Enron
Oil and Gas, the University of Houston
Victoria Petroleum Training Institute,
and Texas A&M University. Schubert
earned BS, ME, and PhD degrees in
petroleum engineering from Texas A&M
University. He is a coauthor of Managed
Pressure Drilling and the author of
more than 35 technical papers. Schubert
serves on the JPT Editorial Committee
and has served on several SPE
committees and as a Technical Editor
for SPE Drilling & Completion. He serves
as Faculty Advisor for Pi Epsilon Tau.
Schubert is a registered professional
engineer in Texas.

Recommended additional reading

at OnePetro: www.onepetro.org.

WELL CONTROL
Procrastination: Is it too many things going on at once that causes us to rush
to meet deadlines, or makes us forget to complete important tasks in a timely manner,
or even try to do too many things at once, resulting in nothing getting done correctly?
You probably are wondering how this relates to well control. In our work schedules,
we all are faced with situations in which we are required to complete multiple concurrent tasks. This often is the case when we rush to finish drilling a problem well so that
we can get the drilling rig moved to the next location and turn this well over to the
completions team. Multiple activities must be completed concurrently that, individually, are relatively simple, but each activity requires the attention of the driller, tool
pusher, company man, and others on the crew. When one of these tasks begins to go
awry, our attention may be on something else, and we can miss important warnings
until it is too late to avoid a disaster.
What is the point? Once again, I will use the Macondo blowout as an example. To
leave the well in a position to be completed by another crew, mud had to be removed
from the riser and top of the well and be replaced with seawater. A spacer was pumped
between the mud and seawater to prevent mixing of the seawater and mud. This is a
simple enough operation, it seems, but when seawater is being pumped into the well,
mud has to be pumped onto a workboat to prevent the pits from running over, and the
spacer is being dumped overboard; keeping track of how much of each fluid is going
where becomes a daunting task. Could this have been a contributing factor in not recognizing the beginning of the kick? JPT

SPE 138465 Qualification of WellBarrier ElementsTest Medium, Test

Temperatures, and Long-Term Integrity.
By Birgit Vignes, SPE, University of
Stavanger.
SPE 142076 Well-Integrity Analysis
in Gulf of Mexico Wells Using Passive
Ultrasonic Leak-Detection Method.
By J.E. Johns, Seawell, et al.
SPE 140255 Development of an
Automated System for the Rapid
Detection of Drilling Anomalies Using
Standpipe and Discharge Pressure.
By Don Reitsma, SPE, @balance-A
Schlumberger Company.
SPE 143101 A Proposed Method for
Planning the Best Response to Kicks
Taken During Managed-Pressure-Drilling
Operations. By J.R Smith, SPE, Louisiana
State University, et al.

84

JPT JANUARY 2012

Kick-Tolerance Misconceptions and

Consequences for Well Design

ick tolerance defines the

appropriate number and setting
depths of casing strings required to
achieve drilling objectives. It also is
used during drilling to determine
whether it is safe to continue drilling or
if there is a need to run a casing string.
Alternatively, it is used to indicate
whether it is safe to circulate a kick
out of the well or whether bullheading
is necessary. During development
of a new well-control system, a
thorough review of the fundamental
concepts involved was carried out,
and, in relation to kick tolerance, a few
misconceptions wereidentified.

Introduction
Even though kick tolerance is a critical and fundamental concept for the
drilling industry, there is no standard
used by operators, drilling contractors,
or training institutions. Hence, there
are several definitions of kick tolerance
and different ways of calculating it. This
lack of consistency may be why the subject is not well understood and, therefore, is sometimes used dangerously.
Definitions of kick tolerance may be in
terms of pit gain, mud-weight increase,
or underbalance pressure.
Another point of disagreement is
on how the predicted pore pressure
should be used in calculations. Some
companies use a value greater than the
mud weight, while others use a value
greater than the predicted pore pressure. Despite the variations, the goal
is consistent: to use a procedure that
ensures safe drilling of a well. Often,

this lack of a standard and of understanding the topic leads to uncertainty

and discussions during drilling. Questions often arise regarding whether
it is safe to continue drilling. Because
wells are now drilled in more-challenging environments, such as high-pressure/high-temperature and deep and
ultradeep water, a small variation in
the way that kick tolerance is calculated
can lead to premature abandonment of
the well or, worse, to a hazardous drillingsituation.

Kick-Tolerance Calculation
Current Approach
The first step of a simplified kick-tolerance calculation (i.e., constant temperature, constant density, and no compressibility) is to define the maximum
vertical height of a gas influx Hmax at the
casing shoe (assumed to be the weakest
point in the open hole). Hmax is determined on the basis of fracture gradient;
mud weight; kick-fluid density; predicted pore pressure; and adjusted maximum allowable annular surface pressure
(MAASP), which is reduced by a safety
margin. What is conceptually wrong is
that if the bottomhole-assembly (BHA)
length is greater than Hmax, the kick
cannot be circulated out of the wellbore because it will reach the top of the
drill collars with a kick height greater
than Hmax, which would induce losses
at theshoe.

Misconception 1:
Kick Volume Around the BHA
To address this point properly, an
extra calculation must be performed if

This article, written by Senior Technology Editor Dennis Denney, contains highlights
of paper SPE 140113, Kick-Tolerance Misconceptions and Consequences for Well
Design, by Helio Santos, SPE, Erdem Catak, SPE, and Sandeep Valluri, Safekick,
prepared for the 2011 SPE/IADC Drilling Conference and Exhibition, Amsterdam, 13
March. The paper has not been peer reviewed.

the BHA length is greater than Hmax.

Instead, Hmax must be at the top of the
drill collars. Then, calculations must
be made for the volume across the top
of the drill collars and must be taken
to the bottom of the wellbore by use of
Boyles law, in the same way that it is
used with the kick volume calculated at
the casing shoe. Usually, if Hmax is greater than the BHA length, the difference in
annular volume compensates the expansion of the gas when it travels upward,
reducing the chances of creating
a problem.

Misconception 2:
Safety Margin
The safety margin can lead to an overly conservative solution. This conservative approach can lead to the use of
unnecessary casings and liners in the
well design, especially in deep water.
It has been widely accepted that when
calculating kick tolerance, a safety margin should be applied to the MAASP to
reduce the chance of inducing fractures
during a well-control event. MAASP is
calculated on the basis of fracture pressure at the casing shoe (assumed to be
the weakest point in the open hole) and
current mud weight above the casing
shoe. In most cases, the safety margin
comprises three components: chokeoperator error, annular frictional pressure loss, and chokeline frictional pressure loss. Some companies and publications call for the use of only the first
two terms as safety margin. Although
each well section is different, many procedures establish a fixed value for the
safety margin to be used when calculating kick tolerance. Typical values are
150 or 200 psi. A value of 100 psi is
assumed for the choke-operator error
and the remaining for the frictionalpressure-loss component. Because the
physical principle and rationale behind
the annular frictional pressure loss and

For a limited time, the complete paper is free to SPE members at www.jptonline.org.
JPT JANUARY 2012

85

chokeline frictional pressure loss are

the same, the effects will be grouped
together. The choke-operator-error
component is addressed separately, to
make sure that each effect is understood
and evaluatedindependently.
Annular and Chokeline Frictional Pressure Loss. When fluid is circulated in a well during a well-control
operation, frictional pressure loss in the
chokeline and annulus will be generated. The magnitude of the frictional
pressure loss will depend on well geometry and the length and diameter of the
chokeline. In deepwater and slimhole
wells, the frictional-pressure-loss component can be significant. To prevent
formation fracturing, the backpressure
applied at surface while the well is static
should be compensated when the fluidcirculation rate changes. Because it is
difficult to estimate frictional pressure
loss in real time during well-control
events, the adopted approach has been
to subtract the frictional-pressure-loss
value from the MAASP. Even though this

approach reduces the chances of fracturing the formation, it imposes large

sacrifices in the well design, leading to
several unnecessary casing strings. The
alternative approach would be to use
this frictional pressure loss proactively
during any fluid circulation; it makes no
difference to the wellbore whether the
pressure at the bottom is coming from a
choke at surface or from friction generated in the wellbore.
Choke-Operator Error. The chokeoperator error is intended to compensate for expected poor manual control of
the choke by the operator. Todays standard is to use a 100-psi safety factor.
However, automated chokes are readily
available. Automation allows better control with smaller oscillations in pressure, and it removes issues related to
operator fatigue or error. Automated
chokes have been used reliably in applications including drilling, well control,
and well cleanup. With improved control, the 100-psi safety margin can be
reduced to 20 psi or less.

Misconception 3:
Simplification
Current kick-tolerance calculations are
based on many assumptions and simplifications. The belief is that these simplifications represent the worst-case scenario, thus leading to a safe well design.
Afterflow Effect. Usually, for the sake of
simplicity, the afterflow effect is ignored.
Therefore, kick tolerance is considered
equal to the maximum allowable pit gain.
In reality, the formation continues to
flow until the casing pressure increases
enough to equilibrate the bottomhole
pressure to the sandface pressure at the
point of influx. Accordingly, when determining maximum allowable pit gain,
the additional flow into the well after
shut-in must be considered. This afterflow volume may be significant, especially for deep wells with large bores.
Some companies use a fixed value (e.g.,
10 bbl). This simplification can lead to
a conservative result. However, companies not taking this effect into account
may encounter dangerous situations. In

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JPT JANUARY 2012

CONTROL WITH CONFIDENCE

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this paper, formation flow after shut-in

is considered to be equal to the wells
totalcompressibility.
Temperature Effect. The change in
temperature along the wellbore will
affect the density and the rheology of
the mud, having a direct effect on the
hydrostatic gradient and the frictional
pressure losses during circulation. Currently, it is assumed that the temperature in the openhole section is constant;
thus, no correction to the volume calculation is applied. The effects of temperature on influx volume are described by
Charles law, which states that the volume of the gas is directly proportional
to the absolute temperature. Contrary
to the afterflow effect, the temperature
correction results in a higher kick tolerance. Therefore, the conventional constant-temperature assumption results in
a conservative solution.
z-Factor Correction. z-factor (compressibility factor) enables use of idealgas equations to model real-gas behav-

ior. Because calculating the z-factor is

not straightforward, the industry has
assumed a constant z-factor equal to 1.0
when performing gas-behavior calculations. In this paper, a 0.6-SG hydrocarbon gas is assumed as the influx fluid.
The pseudocritical properties were calculated using Katzs correlations. Then,
the z-factor was calculated by use of
Dranchuk and Abou-Kassem correlations combined with the Newton-Raphson iterative method. z-factors were calculated for conditions along the open
hole and were used in the bottomhole
kick-volume calculations through the
real-gas law.
Influx-Density Correction. Kick-fluid
density was assumed to be 1.9 lbm/gal
and constant along the openhole section. Once the z-factor was calculated,
the influx density was estimated. Using
0.6 SG for hydrocarbon gas and the
pressure, temperature, and z-factor for
the point of interest (i.e., casing shoe
and bottomhole conditions), volumes at
the bottom of the well were calculated.

Influx density had a direct effect in the

kick-tolerance calculation.

Combined Correction
Effects on Kick Tolerance
Because some effects increase the kick
tolerance while others reduce it, it is
important to combine all the effects to
identify the overall effect on kick tolerance. The consequences are not consistent, illustrating why it is important to
take all effects into account. It has been
argued that the overall conservative
nature of the single-bubble model will
eliminate any detrimental effect produced by simplifications. Because the
magnitude of each simplification and
conceptual error is different, the change
of the final result cannot be predicted. If
it is clear that a conservative approach
is being used, the consequences might
be only economical, with the end result
being an overengineered well. However, when the scenario leads to increased
risk, as is the case with calculating the
kick volume on bottom, this simplification should not be acceptable. JPT

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JPT JANUARY 2012

Kick Detection and Well Control

in a Closed Wellbore

losing the wellbore at the top with

a rotating control device (RCD)
for some kind of managed-pressuredrilling (MPD) operations raises a
number of issues with regard to well
control and kick detection. The use
of an RCD provides drillers with an
additional level of comfort because it is
a pressure-management device, but it
does not eliminate the need to have well
control as a primary objective. Early
kick detection and annular-pressure
control are essential parts of MPD
operations, but there can be confusion
as to where the responsibility for well
control lies.

drilled are unknown, then kicks can still

be taken. This leads to the next challenge:
To contain an influx safely, the influx
first must be detected. If MPD is used to
control the bottomhole pressure (BHP)
in the well, then it can be stated that
MPD is the primary well control because
the pressure in the well is controlled to
avoid an influx of formation fluids into
thewellbore.
The use of an RCD to close in the
wellbore makes drilling operations safer.
However, it must be noted that, often,
the objectives of MPD are to reduce the
hydrostatic pressure, avoid losses, and
drill the well with a lower mud weight.
Reducing the mud weight can introduce
more well-control events.

Introduction
The detection of inflow from a formation is one of the primary safety aspects
of drilling operations. Even with a closed
wellbore and with the use of MPD technology, kick detection and the subsequent well-control procedures must
remain in place. The rig crew can get a
false sense of security that with MPD,
the well is controlled at all times and as
such there is no further need for well control. The causes of kicks are not removed
when MPD operations are being conducted. The procedures and risk assessments for MPD operations must include
kick-detection and well-control methods
andprocedures.

Primary Well Control

Controlling the annular-pressure profile
is one of the main reasons for MPD, but
it may not avoid kicks in a well. If the
pore pressures of the formations being

MPD Operations
Fig. 1 diagrams the MPD flow process.
The RCD is installed on top of the annular preventer and closes the wellbore
around the drillpipe. The outlet from
the RCD is split between the main return
flowline and the MPD choke manifold.
The MPD manifold is installed in parallel
with the rigs main flowline and in parallel with the rigs conventional rig choke
manifold. This setup allows conventional circulation and circulation through
the MPD manifold. Backpressure can be
applied to the well at any time by use of
the MPD manifold. Any gas being circulated out through the MPD manifold
can be vented safely through the mud/
gas separator. If the surface pressure
exceeds the RCD pressure ratings, the
entire well-control setup can be switched
quickly to standard drilling well-control
equipment. During tripping operations,

This article, written by Senior Technology Editor Dennis Denney, contains highlights
of paper SPE 143099, Kick Detection and Well Control in a Closed Wellbore, by Steve
Nas, SPE, Weatherford, prepared for the 2011 IADC/SPE Managed Pressure Drilling
and Underbalanced Operations Conference and Exhibition, Denver, 56 April. The
paper has not been peer reviewed.

circulation with the trip tank can be performed through the MPD manifold or
through the existing flowline.
When MPD equipment is used, it
is important that the secondary wellcontrol equipment, such as blowout preventer (BOP) and rig choke manifolds,
remain ready for operations. The secondary well-control equipment should
not be used for routine drilling operations during the MPD operations.

Causes of Kicks
A kick is defined as any influx that constitutes a well-control emergency. Normally, this means use of the BOP to shut
in the well and, subsequently, removing
the influx by use of a choke on the annulus to maintain sufficient backpressure
to prevent further entry. In MPD, the
well-control emergency may not apply
because the system is already set up for
this occurrence.
The pressure in the wellbore can be
controlled with surface pressure, but if
the formation pressure is greater than
the pressure in the wellbore and a formation is permeable, then the well will kick.
Loss of primary well control usually is
caused by the following.
Insufficient drilling-fluid density
(insufficient BHP)
Failure to keep the hole full while
tripping
Swabbing while tripping
Lost circulation

Kick Detection
Detecting a kick early and limiting its volume by shutting in the well are critical to
secondary well control, and they could
mean the difference between a manageable situation and one that leads to loss of
control. Immediately following an influx,
the BHP in the annulus is reduced to
some extent by the influx and by the
added lift energy given by the formationfluid flow. This effect leads to a decrease

For a limited time, the complete paper is free to SPE members at www.jptonline.org.
JPT JANUARY 2012

89

Main Flowline

Bleedoff
Valve

Shale
Shakers

Rig Choke
Manifold

Gas to vent

Mud/Gas
Separator

Trip-Tank Fillup

MPD Choke Manifold

With Coriolis Meter

Trip
Tank

Trip-Tank
Pump

Fig. 1MPD-process flow diagram.

in pump pressure, but this change is very

difficult to detect until relatively late in
the flow.
The flow into and out of the well is
in a steady-state condition during normal
circulation. A kick violates this balance,
and the return flow out of the well will
increase if a kick is taken. Following this
flow increase, there also is an increase in
the surface volume as formation fluid is
added to the circulation process.

Kick Detection in
Closed Wellbores
Closing in the wellbore with an RCD,
in principle, does not change the physics of kick detection. Although the level
in the well is not visible, the increase in
return-flow rate and increases in pit levels remain the most-reliable indicators
of a kick. The use of mass-flow meters
in combination with accurate standpipepressure sensors enables use of an automated kick-detection system on some
MPD systems. This system works during
drilling conditions, but when tripping or
making connections, the flow out of the
well often is the only reliable indicator of
a well-control issue.

Early Kick Detection

It is possible to calibrate the flow into
the well from the pump strokes and then
measure the flow out of the well with
a Coriolis meter. A software program
allows the flow in and the flow out to be
calibrated inside the casing before drill-

90

ing a new formation. Once calibrated, the

variation between the flow in and flow
out can be displayed and alarmed on the
rig floor, making a highly accurate flowrate-detection system.

Ballooning
Borehole ballooning or breathing, or
loss/gain, is the result of slow mud losses while drilling ahead followed by mud
returns after the pumps have been turned
off, such as during a connection or flow
check. Usually, any flow during these
periods is cause for concern because it
may be caused by an influx of formation
water, liquid hydrocarbons, or gas. Any
influx from the formation can result in
a well-control problem, the magnitude
of which depends on the influx volume
and composition. However, if the flow is
the result of mud returns, well control is
not an issue.
To be safe, the suspected influx can
be circulated out using the choke, but this
method is time consuming and wasteful,
particularly if the influx is only returning mud. The normal cure is to increase
the mud weight and ensure an adequate
overbalance in the absence of circulation.
If the mud weight is increased and the
influx is only mud, the situation will get
progressively worse with a rise in mud
weight and, therefore, the equivalent circulating density (ECD). Mud losses will
continue, and, eventually, the fracturepropagation pressure will be exceeded,
resulting in total losses.

The use of accurate flowmeters

helps determine whether the increased
flow is an influx or returning mud. Soon
after the pumps are shut down, the flow
out of the well can be observed. If the
flow declines, ballooning is occurring.
When the pumps are started again, the
flowmeter will show that the flow out
of the well lags behind the flow into the
well, which is another indication of ballooning. The accurate measurement of
flow into and out of the well allows kick
detection and detection of losses and
ballooning of a wellbore, but a kick can
still be taken if attention is not paid.

Handling a Kick
Well control can be described as maintaining BHP within a window having
upper and lower pressure limits. On the
low side, the margin normally is bounded by pore pressure and wellbore stability, whereas on the high side, it can be
bounded by differential sticking, lost circulation, and fracture pressure. A kick is
detected in a closed wellbore by use of
the mass-flow meter. With an MPD system installed, there are two choices to
circulate out the influx.
With MPD Equipment. The MPD choke
manifold makes it possible to continue circulating, increase the backpressure
on the well until the flow in and flow
out are balanced, and then circulate out
the influx using the drillers method.
This procedure will work if the forma-

JPT JANUARY 2012

tion pressure can be obtained accurately.

Once a kick is taken, the formation pressure must be determined to establish
the proper kill-mud weight. The formation pressure can still be determined, but
with full circulation this must take into
account the ECD and the BHP must be
used. Without an accurate pressure measurement through a pressure-while-drilling (PWD) tool, this may not be possible.
The backpressure and ECD calculations or measurement can provide the
formation pressure. Accuracy of this
measurement may depend on readings
from the PWD tool. The flowmeter will
provide an indication of the size of the
influx and can be checked with the pit
levels, provided that this kick is large
enough to be seen.
One issue that must be considered
is the potential surface pressure while
circulating the kick out because the RCD
pressure limits will need to be known
and cannot be exceeded. Kick modeling must be conducted to establish the
kick intensity and kick volumes that can
behandled.

With Rig Equipment. If a kick is detected, conventional well-control procedures can be used as follows.
1. Pull up and space out the drillstring.
2. Stop the pumps.
3. Close the BOP.
4. Record the shut-in drillpipe pressure and the shut-in casing pressure.
The shut-in drillpipe pressure will
provide the level of underbalance (formation pressure), while the shut-in casing pressure will give an indication of the
kick size and density. The pit levels can
be measured to confirm the influx.
Kick Volume and Intensity. The kick
volume is the volume of formation fluid
that entered the wellbore. The volume
gained at surface will provide an indication of this volume. The kick intensity is defined as the pressure difference
between the hydrostatic pressure in the
well and the formation pressure.
With these two parameters, the decision can be made whether to handle the
kick with the MPD system or to close the

BOP and use the rigs choke manifold to

circulate the kick out of the hole. This
decision is driven by the expected surface
pressures and by the pressure ratings of
the equipment.
Generally, a kick with volume of
5bbl or less and kick intensity less than
1-lbm/gal equivalent mud weight can be
circulated out of the hole using the RCD
and the MPD choke manifold. If BHPs are
high, as in the case of high-pressure/hightemperature wells, then the values should
be reviewed on a case-by-casebasis.
Switching From MPD to Conventional Well Control. Once a kick is taken
and controlled using an MPD system,
it becomes important that the driller
and the MPD operator coordinate their
actions if the surface pressures rise and
indicate that the kick should now be
controlled by the BOP system. Switching from the MPD system to the rigs
BOP and choke manifold must be accomplished in a controlled manner.
Standard well-control preparations
in the form of kick sheets, slow circula-

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JPT JANUARY 2012

tion rates, and pressures must be continued by the rig crew, as in all drilling operations. Although a well is drilled with
MPD techniques and can be controlled
with the MPD system, the driller must be
able to take over at any time in the wellcontrol process.
It has been seen in several MPD
operations that well-control preparations by the drill crew were not being
performed because the crew relied on the
MPD provider to conduct well-control
operations. Upon entering a well-control
circulation and the system needing to be
switched to lower pump rates and a different pressure, this lack of preparation
can cause significant issues during the
well-control operations.

MPD Operators
and Well Control
If the detected influx is small and has a
low kick intensity, it is possible to circulate the kick out using the MPD equipment. The drillers method normally is
used for this, and the MPD operator must
hold the drillpipe pressure constant while
the driller circulates the kick out. Once
the influx reaches the surface equipment,
the MPD operator must divert any gas
away from the main flowline to a suitable
mud/gas separator.
This process assumes that all MPD
operators have the experience and
understanding required for well-control
operations. Before any MPD operations
are conducted, it must be verified that
all MPD personnel operating the choke
understand the procedures and actions
required when a kick is detected. The
MPD operator must understand the wellcontrol situation fully. Both the MPD
operator and the driller must maintain
a close watch on the surface pressures to
ensure that these remain within the limits of the equipment being used.
Advantages of using the MPD equipment for well control include that the
pipe can be moved up and down and
can be rotated and that stuck-pipe incidents, often associated with well-control
operations, can be avoided. If something
goes wrong at any time during an MPD
well-control situation, the driller must
be able to stop the pumps and shut in
the well using the BOPs and then continue the well-kill operation using the rigs
chokemanifold. JPT

JPT JANUARY 2012

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93

Kick Mechanisms and Well-Control

Practices in Deepwater Vugular Carbonate

tandard well-control training that

drillers receive prepares them
to respond to an influx that occurs
during underbalanced conditions. The
mechanism by which hydrocarbons
may enter the wellbore following a
vugular loss can be different. One
potential result is that the influx
may not be detected as early as
during conventional underbalanced
conditions. A model was developed to
explain the unique mechanism by which
kicks may occur following vugular
losses. Effective recognition and
response practices are proposed that
are consistent with thatmodel.

Well-control
equipment

Practices address
reduced reaction time

Introduction

Fig. 1The reaction time available to shut in following an influx in

deepwater wells is significantly less than with surface BOPs.

When massive losses occur in vugular

formations, the wells behavior does not
follow a conventional well-control scenario. Gains in pit volumes are not seen
despite hydrocarbon entry, and kicks
can go undetected until they have traveled some distance up the annulus. Once
the kick is detected, backpressure cannot be held effectively to prevent further
influx while circulating the initial kick
out and the annulus-pressure trends and
values appear to be unpredictable. It
also is difficult to control the placement
of fluids or pills. The most significant
challenge is the inability to detect an
influx as soon as it occurs. In deepwater wells, the distance from the vugular zone to the subsea blowout preventers (BOPs) may be short, as shown in
Fig. 1.

Operators are aware of these behaviors, and the industry has developed
unique practices for drilling vugular carbonates safely. Rigs having surface BOPs
address the risks by use of a rotating
control device (RCD). RCDs have been
used in a similar fashion at the surface
on marine risers with subsea BOPs. The
RCD has been installed at the top of the
riser above the slip joint, and a tensionring system is under development that
will enable the RCD to be placed below
the slip joint. In subsea applications, the
pressure that can be applied below the
RCD is more limited than on land locations, usually to the rating of the slip
joint or marine riser. In some cases, the
rating is adequate for the given well. In

This article, written by Senior Technology Editor Dennis Denney, contains highlights
of paper IPTC 14423, Kick Mechanisms and Unique Well-Control Practices in
Vugular Deepwater Carbonates, by F.E. Dupriest, SPE, ExxonMobil, prepared for
the 2011 International Petroleum Technology Conference, Bangkok, Thailand, 1517
November. The paper has not been peer reviewed. [Note: Conference rescheduled to
79 February 2012.] Copyright 2011 International Petroleum Technology Conference.
Reproduced by permission.

other situations, the pressure limitations of the riser system or RCD may not
provide the robust capability needed.

Attributes of Vugular Losses

The unique behaviors observed during
massive vugular losses are associated
with the bottomhole pressure (BHP)
falling instantly to equal the pore pressure in the vug. It is widely believed that
the practice of filling the back side continuously prevents this drop in BHP and
that an influx does not occur unless the
fill rate is inadequate and the fluid level
is allowed to fall sufficiently to underbalance the zone. Actually, the degree
to which the BHP falls is more a function of the rate at which the loss zone
can take the fluid than of the fill rate. In
severe vugular losses, filling the annulus is not effective and the BHP will fall
to equal the vugular pore pressure. As
the vug size or density decreases, there
is a point at which the fill rate will create some backpressure within the vugs
at the face of the borehole, and the
BHP will increase by the amount of this

Because the conference was rescheduled, the complete paper will be free to
SPE members at www.jptonline.org during March and April 2012.
94

JPT JANUARY 2012

backpressure. Consequently, the BHP is

almost entirely a function of the vugular conductivity rather than the annulus fill rate.
When complete losses occur and
the annulus level drops quickly, the vugs
are likely to be large; therefore, filling
the annulus continuously may not prevent the BHP from falling. The observed
kicks are not the result of allowing
the annulus fluid level to fall; they are
caused by the well becoming underbalanced because of the drop in BHP,
which allows flow from another location. However, field observations and
pressure-while-drilling data show that
the influx may initiate immediately with
the loss in very vugular formations. The
key question that cannot be answered
with conventional thinking is, If the
mud weight is overbalanced and flowing into the vugs, how can gas be flowing
out of the same vugs?
It is still good practice to fill the
annulus continuously until a diagnostic pill of large lost-circulation material (LCM) can be pumped because this
ensures that the influx travels down to
the loss zone rather than up the annulus, but it does not prevent the influx
from occurring or continuing to occur
while filling. If the pore throats are in
the range of 150 to 3000 m, LCM may
be effective, in which case the losses
will stop, the BHP will increase above
the formation pressure, and the influx
will stop. If the pore throats are larger, continuous fill is used to control the
gas level in the annulus until cementing
or other operations can be executed to
stop the loss.

Interzonal Flow Cell

Wells that drill carbonates containing
hydrocarbon usually are designed to
have casing set in a competent impermeable formation just above the carbonate. If the carbonate is drilled without
losses, or with only low seepage losses, a
filter cake forms and overbalance exists
across the open hole. When a vugular opening is encountered, complete
losses occur and the BHP falls to equal
the pore pressure. Although the annulus
will continue to be filled, this procedure
does not prevent the BHP from falling
to equal the pore pressure in the vugular interval on bottom. The pressure at

JPT JANUARY 2012

any point in the wellbore above the loss

zone is then equal to the BHP minus the
fluid head.
While the greatest underbalance
will be at the top of the carbonate, the
entire borehole will be underbalanced
by some amount as long as there is mud
in the wellbore across the carbonate. If
the annulus fill is stopped, the hydrocarbon will continue to flow into the
wellbore and displace mud downward
between the top and the loss zone until
the annulus across the interval is converted entirely to hydrocarbon. At that
point, there is no differential between
the pressure at any point in the wellbore and that in the adjacent formation. Because the pressure at all depths
is equal, the influx will stop. This is
referred to as a flow cell because the
process tends to drive itself. As mud
swaps and moves downward across the
carbonate, the flow cell again becomes
unbalanced and additional influx
occurs. As the swapped gas moves up
the annulus, its expansion will lighten
the head and a gain in pit volumes eventually will be observed.
The most important operational implication of the flow cell is that
an influx can occur with no gain in
the pits. When an influx occurs, the
rig crew should observe a sudden loss
of all returns. Consequently, the work
process should be to close the BOPs
in response to any complete loss of
returns. While a sudden complete loss
will not always result in an influx, it is
an indication that the opportunity for
one exists.
The argument can be made that the
BOPs should be closed following any
major loss, even one that is not complete. In theory, an influx should not
occur if partial returns are maintained
because getting continued returns
implies that the BHP must be adequate
to lift the head of the drill-weight mud.
In practice, however, the loss may be
temporary because continued pumping will move the gas up the annulus,
which lightens the head quickly and
may allow full circulation. The conservative practice is to shut in on any major
loss, observe the chokeline pressure to
determine whether gas is migrating,
and, if possible, circulate out through
the chokeline to reach bottoms up.

95

The reason for being conservative is

that if circulation continues through the
open stack following what is believed to
be a partial-loss event and an influx
has actually occurred, then a pit-volume increase may not be seen until the
gas reaches a depth at which expansion occurs, or until the gas comes
out of solution if using a nonaqueous
fluid (NAF).

Swap Management
The industry is trained to manage kicks
by circulating through a choke and
applying sufficient backpressure for
the pressure in the annulus to become
overbalanced to the flowing zone. This
method is ineffective with a vugular loss
because the BHP will remain equal to
the pore pressure in the vugs regardless
of the backpressure observed at surface. In addition, if losses are complete,
there is no flow and pressure cannot
be applied. The influx can be stopped
permanently only by plugging the loss
zone to stop the flow cell. The common
practice of filling the annulus continu-

ously, which has been learned empirically, is a correct one. But filling the
annulus does not stop the flow. Actually, continuous introduction of heavy
mud across the carbonate ensures that
the imbalance that drives the flow cell
is maintained and that the influx will
continue to occur. Because there is no
operational technique to allow the BHP
to be elevated above the pore pressure
in the exposed vugs, and the mud that
is pumped to fill the annulus drives even
more influx, the kick response should
be first to determine the fill rate that
exceeds the swap rate and then to maintain this fill rate until the vugular zone
can be plugged. This method is referred
to as swap management. It does not
stop the influx, but it does allow the
annulus pressure to be controlled at the
desired level during treatments or while
drilling ahead.

Slide Drilling With

a Straight Motor
Slide drilling with no rotation through
a closed subsea annular preventer with

Endowed Faculty Position -- Petroleum Engineering (Drilling and Production)

Oklahoma State University
The School of Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering at Oklahoma State University
(OSU) invites applications for an endowed faculty position in Petroleum Engineering,
with an emphasis on Drilling and Production. This position is supportive of a new
interdisciplinary initiative within the College of Engineering, Architecture and
Technology. Substantial increases in faculty and resources are planned. Participants in
the initiative will include faculty members from Chemical Engineering, Electrical
Engineering, Mechanical Engineering and other disciplines, who wish to contribute to
addressing the manpower and technology development needs of the petroleum and
energy industries. At the undergraduate level the participants will be responsible for a
new interdisciplinary Petroleum Engineering Minor, designed to prepare Chemical,
Electrical and Mechanical Engineering graduates for the Petroleum Industry. The
successful applicant will join an interdisciplinary team to develop and implement
undergraduate and graduate coursework and research in Petroleum Engineering. The
successful candidate must have a high potential for excellent teaching at the
undergraduate and graduate levels and for developing a strong, externally funded
research program. An earned doctorate in engineering or a closely related field is
desired. Substantial engineering and/or research experience in industry, government or
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consistent with experience and accomplishments. Salary and other compensation will
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summary of previous and current research; a statement of plans for securing
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least five references. The application package should be sent electronically to:
Dr. L.L. Hoberock, Chair Search Committee, Petroleum Engineering (Drilling &
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larry.hoberock@okstate.edu
School of Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering, Oklahoma State University
218 Engineering North
Stillwater, OK 74078-0545
Screening of applications will begin 11/01/11 and continue until the position is filled.
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96

a straight motor enables the driller to

continue to make progress during complete losses. Because the annular preventer is closed at all times, gas cannot enter the riser. A sacrificial fluid,
such as seawater, is used to drill. Double
floats are installedone plunger and
one flapper type. Kill-weight mud continues to be pumped down the annulus at the swap-management rate established in the process described in the
preceding section.
At a minimum, slide drilling continues until the local vugular system
is believed to have been fully exposed.
Although it varies, the general experience has been that highly vugular intervals tend to extend for only short distances. When the bit is believed to have
re-entered pore throats that can be
plugged with LCM or barite, a decision
may be made to treat the major vugular
zone above so that conventional drilling
is possible until the next highly vugular
network is penetrated.
There are several important considerations when planning to slide drill
through a closed annular preventer.
The annular-preventer manufacturer
should be consulted on the planned
interval and the number of tool joints
that will pass through the upper annular preventer. These practices are based
on proprietary stripping tests with specific equipment, and not all preventers may be equally capable. The annulus injection fluid used in deepwater
wells should be designed to prevent
hydrate formation during unexpected
upset conditions, and the drillstring
should be displaced to an inhibitive
fluid whenneeded.

Treating Vugular Losses

Awareness of the flow cell has changed
some elements in the treatment strategy. There are two primary challenges
in treating a vugular zone. The first is to
avoid overdisplacement. The resistance
to flow in a vugular opening is, essentially, only the pore pressure in the vug.
Because drill-weight mud is designed to
be overbalanced, any treatment that is
displaced with drill-weight mud is likely
to be overdisplaced. This operator has
developed a family of practices that use
hydrostatic packers to prevent this overdisplacement. A hydrostatic packer is a

JPT JANUARY 2012

column of light fluid pumped at the end

of displacement to make the total column underbalanced to the integrity so
that when pumping is stopped, the fluid
cannot continue to travel downward.
In the case of vugular carbonates, the
integrity pushing back to support the
column is, effectively, the pore pressure
in the vug, so the hydrostatic packer
must be designed to lighten the column
sufficiently to place it underbalanced to
pore pressure to prevent overdisplacement. Therefore, there will be positive
pressure on the drillstring at the end of
displacement. By use of surface BOPs, it
is necessary to preinstall this light column in the annulus to place it underbalanced to the pore pressure and achieve
a positive surface pressure to prevent
the fluid from moving downward to contaminate the treatment during the operation. In subsea wells, it is possible to
close the choke- and kill-line valves to
remove the fluid head from the annulus so that it is necessary to use a packer
only inside the drillstring.
The new issue raised by the awareness of the flow cell is that even if proper steps are taken to prevent overdisplacement with drill-weight mud, the
flow cell itself may displace the material to the loss zone. When pumping
stops, the influx and downward displacement occur whether the fluid in
the wellbore is drilling fluid, cement,
or some other mobile material. Even
when overdisplacement has been prevented with hydrostatic packers, a gap
or poor-quality cement has sometimes
been found from the top of the carbonate downward to the loss zone as a
result of displacement by the flow cell.
Also, as soon as hydrocarbon begins to
enter the wellbore, it starts to swap with
the fluid above, and this swapped material is displaced downward to the loss
zone. By monitoring the stack gauge, the
volume that has been swapped upward
can be calculated from the rise in pressure, which reflects the height of cement
or other treatment fluid that has been
replaced by the light hydrocarbon. The
rate of change in the annulus pressure
also reflects the rate of change in the
swap rate, which is a useful surveillance
diagnostic in predicting the likely effec-

JPT JANUARY 2012

tiveness of the treatment. Treatments

with stable pressure, indicating that no
swapping is occurring, have been uniformly effective.

Tripping Out of Hole

The swap-management practices may
be used while tripping. The annular preventer is kept closed, and the string
is stripped out until the bottomhole
assembly (BHA) arrives at the BOP. The
swap rate typically is higher after the
string is removed because there is more
clearance in open hole or casing than
in the small annulus around the string.
The chokeline gauge at the stack is monitored as the string is pulled. Any rise in
stack pressure is an indication that the
fluid level in the chokeline has risen.
Because the BHP is constant and equal
to the vugular pore pressure, any rise in
the fluid level in the chokeline must be
the result of an increase in the volume
of lighter hydrocarbon in the column
and an indication that the hydrocarbonswap rate has begun to exceed the fill
rate. If this situation is observed, the fill
rate is increased until a stable pressure
is achieved, indicating that the fill rate
is adequate. In most cases, a pattern is
observed quickly and the rig team establishes drilling-fill and tripping-fill rates
that differ. When the BHA arrives at the
BOP, steps are taken to clear any trapped
gas in the stack before opening the stack
temporarily to pull the BHA through.
The annulus fill continues throughout
the process. The process is reversed to
trip in the hole.
If the swap rate is not high, it
can be controlled further by positioning fluid with high gel strength above
the top of the carbonate. With waterbased mud and favorable conditions,
a high-gel-strength pill can reduce the
swap rate to less than 0.1 bbl/min with
17-lbm/gal mud positioned above gas
in underground flow. In contrast, it is
difficult to build gel strength in NAF
pills, and the swap rate generally is high
enough that it is not practical to hold
a pill in position for the time required
to trip. Crosslinked polymers and
other materials have been considered
to reduce the swap rate and resultant
fill rates. JPT