PHYSICS CHAPTER 8

CHAPTER 8:
Alternating current
(6 Hours)

1
 PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
Learning Outcome:
www.kmph.matrik.edu.my/physic s

8.1 Alternating current (1 hour)

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
 Define alternating current (AC).
 Sketch and use sinusoidal AC waveform.
 Write and use sinusoidal voltage and current equations.

2
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8

8.1 Alternating current (AC)

 is defined as an electric current whose magnitude and
direction change periodically.
 Figures 8.1a, 8.1b and 8.1c show three forms of alternating
current.
I
I0

0 1 T 3 2T t
T T
2 2
− I0
Figure 8.1a: sinusoidal AC

3
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
I
I0

0 1
T T 3
T
2T t
2 2
− I0
Figure 8.1b: saw-tooth AC
I
I0

0 1
T T 3
T
2T t
2 2
− I0
4
Figure 8.1c: square AC
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
 When an AC flows through a resistor,
resistor there will be a
potential difference (voltage) across it and this voltage is
alternating as shown in Figure 8.1d.
V
V0

0 1 T 3 2T t
T T
2 2
− V0
Figure 8.1d: sinusoidal alternating voltage
where V0 : peak( maximum) voltage
I 0 : peak( maximum) current
T : period
5
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
8.1.1 Terminology in AC
Frequency (f)
 is defined as a number of complete cycle in one second.
second
 Its unit is hertz (Hz) OR s−1.
Period (T)
 is defined as a time taken for one complete cycle.
cycle
 Its unit is second (s).
 Formulae,
1
T= (8.1)
f
Peak current (I0)
 is defined as a magnitude of the maximum current.
current
 Its unit is ampere (A).

6
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
8.1.2 Equations of alternating current and voltage
 Equation for alternating current (I),

I = I 0 sin ωt (8.2)

 Equation for alternating voltage (V), phase

V = V0 sin ωt (8.3)

where ω : angular frequency OR angular velocity

(ω = 2πf )
I 0 : peak current
V0 : peak voltage
t : time

7
 PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
Learning Outcome:
www.kmph.matrik.edu.my/physic s

8.2 Root mean square (rms) (1 hour)

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
 Define root mean square (rms) current and voltage for
AC source.
 Use the following formula,
I0 V0
I rms = and Vrms =
2 2

8
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8

8.2 Root mean square (rms)

8.2.1 Mean or Average Current (Iav)
 is defined as the average or mean value of current in a
half-cycle flows of current in a certain direction.
 Formulae:
2I 0 I 0
I av = = π (8.4)
π ( 2)
Note:

Iav for one complete cycle is zero because the current

flows in one direction in one-half of the cycle and in the
opposite direction in the next half of the cycle.
cycle

9
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
8.2.2 Root mean square current (Irms )
 In calculating average power dissipated by an AC, the mean
(average) current is not useful.
 The instantaneous power, P delivered to a resistance R is
P = I 2R
where I : instantaneous AC
 The average power, Pav over one cycle of AC is given by
Pav = I 2 R
2
where I is the average value of I2 over one cycle and is

I 2 = ( I rms )
given by 2
(8.5)

Therefore
2
Pav = I rms R (8.6)

10
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
 Since I = I 0 sin ωt thus the square value of current is given by
2
I 2 = I 0 sin 2 ωt
and the graph of I2 against time, t is shown in Figure 8.2.
I2
2
I0
2
I0
2

0 1 3
t
T T 2T
T
2 Figure 8.2 2
 From Figure 8.2, the shaded region under the curve and above
the dashed line for I02/2 have the same are as the shaded region
above the curve and below2the dashed line for I02/2.
2 I0
Thus I = (8.7)
2 11
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
 By equating the eqs. (8.5) and (8.7), the rms current is
2 2
I0 I0
( I rms ) 2 = I rms =
2 2
I0
I rms = (8.8)
2
 Root mean square current (Irms) is defined as the value of the
steady DC which produces the same power in a resistor as
the mean (average) power produced by the AC.
 The root mean square (rms) current is the effective value of the
AC and can be illustrated as shown in Figure 8.3.
I
I0
I rms 0.707 I 0

0 1 T 3 2T t
T T
2 2
Figure 8.3 − I0 12
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
8.2.3 Root mean square voltage (Vrms )
 is defined as the value of the steady direct voltage which
when applied across a resistor, produces the same power
as the mean (average) power produced by the alternating
voltage across the same resistor.
 Its formula is
V0
Vrms = (8.9)
2
 The unit of the rms voltage (potential difference) is volt (V).
(V)
Note:
Equations (8.8) and (8.9) are valid only for a sinusoidal
alternating current and voltage.
voltage

13
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
Example 1 :
An AC source V=500 sin ω t is connected across a resistor of
250 Ω . Calculate
a. the rms current in the resistor,
b. the peak current,
c. the mean power.
Solution : R = 250 Ω
By comparing V = 500 sin ωt to the V = V0 sin ωt
Thus the peak voltage is V0 = 500 V
a. By applying the formulae of rms current, thus
I0 V0
I rms = and I0 =
2 R
V0
I rms =
R 2
500
= I rms = 1.41 A
250 2 14
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
Solution : R = 250 Ω
b. The peak current of AC is given by
I0
I rms =
2
I0
1.41 =
2
I 0 = 1.99 A
c. The mean (average) power of the resistor is
2
Pav = I rms R
= (1.41) ( 250)
2

Pav = 497 W

15
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
Example 2 :
I (A)

0.02

0 20 40 60 80
t (ms)
and
− 0.02
Figure 8.4
Figure 8.4 shows a graph to represent alternating current passes
through a resistor of 10 kΩ . Calculate
a. the rms current,
b. the frequency of the AC,
c. the mean power dissipated from the resistor.

16
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
3
Solution : R = 10 × 10 Ω
From the graph, I 0 = 0.02 A; T = 40 × 10 −3 s
a. By applying the formulae of rms current, thus
I0 0.02
I rms = I rms =
2 2
I rms = 1.41 × 10 −2 A
b. The frequency of the AC is
1 1
f = f =
T 40 × 10 −3
f = 25 Hz
c. The mean power dissipated from the resistor is given by
2
Pav = I rms R
(
= 1.41× 10 ) (10 ×10 )
−2 2 3

Pav = 1.99 W
17
 PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
Learning Outcome:
www.kmph.matrik.edu.my/physic s

8.3 Resistance, reactance and impedance (2 hours)

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
 Use phasor diagram and sinusoidal waveform to show
the phase relationship between current and voltage for a
circuit consisting of
 pure resistor
 pure capacitor
 pure inductor.
 Define capacitive reactance, inductive reactance and
impedance.
 Analyse voltage, current and phasor diagrams for a
series circuit consisting of
 RC
 RL
 RCL. 18
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8

8.3 Resistance, reactance and impedance

8.3.1 Phasor diagram
 Phasor is defined as a vector that rotate anticlockwise about
its axis with constant angular velocity.
 A diagram containing phasor is called phasor diagram.
diagram
 It is used to represent a sinusoidally varying quantity such
as alternating current (AC) and alternating voltage.
 It also being used to determine the phase angle (is defined as
the phase difference between current and voltage in AC
circuit).
circuit
 Consider a graph represents sinusoidal AC and sinusoidal
alternating voltage waveform as shown in Figure 8.5a.
Meanwhile Figure 8.5b shows the phasor diagram of V and I.

19
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
V0
ω I0

I V
0 1 T 3 2T t
T T
2 2
− I0
− V0
Figure 8.5b: phasor diagram Figure 8.5a
 From the Figure 8.5a: I = I 0 sin ωt and V = V0 sin ωt
Thus the phase difference is ∆φ = ωt − ωt = 0
 Therefore the current I is in phase with the voltage V and
Note: constant with time.

∆φ = positive value Leads

∆φ = negative value Lags behind
∆φ = ±π radian In antiphase 20
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
8.3.2 Impedance (Z)
 The quantity that measures the opposition of a circuit to the
AC flows.
flows V0
 It is defined by
2
Vrms
Z= (8.10)
I rms
I0
OR 2
V0
Z= (8.11)
I0
 It is a scalar quantity and its unit is ohm (Ω ).
 In a DC circuit, impedance likes the resistance.
resistance

21
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
8.3.3 Pure resistor in an AC circuit
 The symbol of an AC source in the electrical circuit is shown in
Figure 8.6.

Figure 8.6
 Pure resistor means that no capacitance and self-inductance
effect in the AC circuit.
Phase difference between voltage V and current I
 Figure 8.7 shows an AC source connected to a pure resistor R.
R

VR
I
AC source
Figure 8.7 V 22
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
 The alternating current passes through the resistor is given by
I = I 0 sin ωt
 The alternating voltage across the resistor VR at any instant is
given by
VR = IR
= ( I 0 sin ωt ) R and I 0 R = V0
VR = V0 sin ωt = V
where V : supply voltage
 Therefore the phase difference between V and I is
∆φ = ωt − ωt = 0
In pure resistor, the current I always in phase with the voltage
V and constant with time.
time
 Figure 8.8a shows the variation of V and I with time while Figure
8.8b shows the phasor diagram for V and I in a pure resistor.

23
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
V0
ω I0

I V
0 1 T 3 2T t
T T
2 2
− I0
− V0
Figure 8.8b: phasor diagram Figure 8.8a
Impedance in a pure resistor
 From the definition of the impedance, hence

Vrms V0
Z= = =R (8.12)
I rms I 0

24
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
8.3.4 Pure capacitor in an AC circuit
 Pure capacitor means that no resistance and self-inductance
effect in the AC circuit.
Phase difference between voltage V and current I
 Figure 8.9 shows an AC source connected to a pure capacitor C.
C

VC
I
AC source
V
 Figurethe
The alternating voltage across 8.9capacitor V at any instant is
C

equal to the supply voltage V and is given by

VC = V = V0 sin ωt 25
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
 The charge accumulates at the plates of the capacitor is
Q = CVC
Q = CV0 sin ωt
 The charge and current are related by
dQ
I=
dt
Hence the equation of AC in the capacitor is
d
I = ( CV0 sin ωt )
dt
d
= CV0 ( sin ωt )
dt
= CV0ω cos ωt and CV0ω = I 0
I = I 0 cos ωt
OR
 π
I = I 0 sin  ωt + 
 2 26
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
 Therefore the phase difference between V and I is
 π
∆φ = ωt −  ωt + 
 2
π
∆φ = − rad
2
In the pure capacitor,
the voltage V lags behind the current I by π /2 radians.
radians
OR
the current I leads the voltage V by π /2 radians.
radians
 Figure 8.10a shows the variation of V and I with time while
Figure 8.10b shows the phasor diagram for V and I in a pure
capacitor.

27
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
π
∆φ = rad
2
V0
ω I0
I V
0 1 T 3 2T t
T T
2 2
− I0
− V0
Figure 8.10b: phasor diagram Figure 8.10a
Impedance in a pure capacitor
 From the definition of the impedance, hence
V0
Z= and I 0 = CV0ω
I0
V0
=
CV0ω 28
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
1
Z= = XC and ω = 2πf
ωC
1
XC = (8.13)
2πfC
where XC is known as capacitive (capacitative) reactance.
reactance
f : frequency of AC source
C : capacitance of the capacitor
 Capacitive reactance is the opposition of a capacitor to the
alternating current flows and is defined by

Vrms V0
XC = = (8.14)
I rms I 0
 Capacitive reactance is a scalar quantity and its unit is ohm
(Ω ) .
29
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
 From the eq. (8.13), the relationship between capacitive
reactance XC and frequency f can be shown by using a graph in
Figure 8.11.
XC
1
X C∝
f

0 f
Figure 8.11
8.3.5 Pure inductor in an AC circuit
 Pure inductor means that no resistance and capacitance
effect in the AC circuit.
Phase difference between voltage V and current I
 Figure 8.12 shows an AC source connected to a pure inductor

L.
30
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
L

VL

I
AC source
V
Figure 8.12
 The alternating current passes through the inductor is given by
I = I 0 sin ωt
 When the AC passes through the inductor, the back emf caused
by the self induction is produced and is given by
dI
ε B = −L
dt
d
= − L ( I 0 sin ωt )
dt
ε B = − LI 0ω cos ωt (8.15) 31
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
 At any instant, the supply voltage V equals to the back emf ε B
in the inductor but the back emf always oppose the supply
voltage V represents by the negative sign in the eq. (8.15).Thus
V = εB
= LI 0ω cos ωt and LI 0ω = V0
V = V0 cos ωt
OR
 π
V = V0 sin  ωt + 
 2
 Therefore the phase difference between V and I is
 π π
∆φ =  ωt +  − ωt = rad
 2 2
In the pure inductor,
the voltage V leads the current I by π /2 radians.
radians
OR
the current I lags behind the voltage V by π /2 radians.
radians
32
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
 Figure 8.13a shows the variation of V and I with time while
Figure 8.13b shows the phasor diagram for V and I in a pure
inductor.
π
∆φ = rad
2 V0
ω I0
V
I 0 1 T 3 2T t
T T
2 2
− I0
−V0

Figure 8.13b: phasor diagram Figure 8.13a

33
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
Impedance in a pure inductor
 From the definition of the impedance, hence

V0
Z= and V0 = LI 0ω
I0
LI 0ω
=
I0
Z = ωL = X L and ω = 2πf
X L = 2πfL (8.16)

where XL is known as inductive reactance.

reactance
f : frequency of AC source
L : self - inductance of the inductor

34
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
 Inductive reactance is the opposition of a inductor to the
alternating current flows and is defined by

Vrms V0
XL = = (8.17)
I rms I 0
 Inductive reactance is a scalar quantity and its unit is ohm
(Ω ).
 From the eq. (8.16), the relationship between inductive
reactance XL and the frequency f can be shown by using a
graph in Figure 8.14.
XL
X L∝ f

0 f
Figure 8.14 35
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
Example 3 :
A capacitor has a rms current of 21 mA at a frequency of 60 Hz
when the rms voltage across it is 14 V.
a. What is the capacitance of the capacitor?
b. If the frequency is increased, will the current in the capacitor
increase, decrease or stay the same? Explain.
c. Calculate the rms current in the capacitor at a frequency of
410 Hz.
−3
Solution : I rms = 21 × 10 A; f = 60 Hz; Vrms = 14 V
a. The capacitive reactance of the capacitor is given by
Vrms = I rms X C ( )
14 = 21 × 10 −3 X C
X C = 667 Ω
Therefore the capacitance of the capacitor is
1 1
XC = 667 =
2πfC 2π ( 60 ) C
C = 3.98 × 10 −6 F 36
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
Solution : I rms = 21 × 10 −3 A; f = 60 Hz; Vrms = 14 V
b. The capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to the

frequency,
frequency so the capacitive reactance will decrease if the
frequency increases.
increases Since the current in the capacitor is
inversely proportional to the capacitive reactance,
reactance therefore
the current will increase when the capacitive reactance
f = 410 Hz
decreases.
decreases
c. Given
1 is
The capacitive reactance 1
XC = XC =
2πfC (
2π ( 410) 3.98 × 10 −6 )
X C = 97.5 Ω
new=rms
Hence theVrms I rmscurrent
X C in the (
14 =capacitor
I rms 97is )
.5given by
I rms = 0.144 A
37
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
Example 4 :
A rms voltage of 12.2 V with a frequency of 1.00 kHz is applied to a
0.290 mH inductor.
a. What is the rms current in the circuit?
b. Determine the peak current for a frequency of 2.50 kHz.
Solution : Vrms = 12.2 V; f = 1.00 × 103 Hz; L = 0.290 × 10 −3 H
a. The inductive reactance of the inductor is given by
X L = 2πfL
( )(
= 2π 1.00 × 103 0.290 × 10 −3 )
X L = 1.82 Ω
Thus the rms current in the circuit is
Vrms = I rms X L
12.2 = I rms (1.82)
I rms = 6.70 A
38
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
Solution : Vrms = 12.2 V; f = 1.00 × 103 Hz; L = 0.290 × 10 −3 H
b. Given f = 2.50 × 103 Hz
The inductive reactance of the inductor is given by
X L = 2πfL
( )(
= 2π 2.50 × 103 0.290 × 10 −3 )
X L = 4.56 Ω
Thus the peak current in the circuit is
V0 = I 0 X L and V0 = Vrms 2
Vrms 2 = I 0 X L
12.2 2 = I 0 ( 4.56 )
I 0 = 3.78 A

39
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
8.3.5 RC, RL and RCL series circuit
RC series circuit
 Consider an AC source of rms voltage V is connected in series

to a resistor R and a capacitor C as shown in Figure 8.15a.

R C

VR VC
I
AC source
V
Figure 8.15a
 The rms current I passes through the resistor and the
capacitor is equal because of the series connection between
both components.
40
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
 The rms voltages across the resistor VR and the capacitor VC
are given by
VR = IR and VC = IX C
 The phasor diagram of the RC series circuit is shown in Figure
8.15b. VR
I where φ : phase angle
φ
VC is an angle between the rms
V
current I and rms supply (or
ω total) voltage V of AC circuit.
Figure 8.15b: phasor diagram
 Based on the phasor diagram, the rms supply voltage V (or total
voltage) of the circuit is given by

V = VR + VC
2 2
V= ( IR ) 2 + ( IX C ) 2
2
V = I R + XC
2
(8.18)
41
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
 Rearrange the eq. (8.18), thus the impedance of RC series
circuit is V 2 V
= R + X C and Z =
2

I I
2
Z = R + XC
2 (8.19)
 From the phasor diagram in Figure 8.15b , the current I leads
the supply voltage V by φ radians where
VC IX C
tan φ = tan φ =
VR IR
XC
tan φ = (8.20)
R
 A phasor diagram in terms of R, XC and Z is illustrated in Figure
8.15c. R
φ
XC
Z

Figure 8.15c ω 42
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
RL series circuit
 Consider an AC source of rms voltage V is connected in series
to a resistor R and an inductor L as shown in Figure 8.16a.
R L

VR VL
I
AC source
V
Figure 8.16a
 The rms voltages across the resistor VR and the inductor VL
are given by
VR = IR
and
VL = IX L
43
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
 The phasor diagram of the RL series circuit is shown in Figure
8.16b. ω
V
VL
φ
I
VR
Figure 8.16b: phasor diagram
 Based on the phasor diagram, the rms supply voltage V (or total
voltage) of the circuit is given by
2 2
V = VR + VL

= ( IR ) 2
+ ( IX L )
2

2
V = I R + XL 2
(8.21)
44
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
 Rearrange the eq. (8.21), thus the impedance of RL series
circuit is V 2 V
= R + X L and Z =
2

I I
2
Z = R + XL
2 (8.22)

 From the phasor diagram in Figure 8.16b , the supply voltage

V leads the current I the by φ radians where
VL IX L
tan φ = tan φ =
VR IR
XL
tan φ = (8.23)
R
 The phasor diagram in terms of R, XL and Z is illustrated in
Figure 8.16c. ω
Z
XL
φ
Figure 8.16c 45
R
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
RCL series circuit
 Consider an AC source of rms voltage V is connected in series
to a resistor R, a capacitor C and an inductor L as shown in
Figure 8.17a. R C L

VR VC VL
I
AC source
V
Figure 8.17a
 The rms voltages across the resistor VR, the capacitor VC and
the inductor VL are given by
VR = IR
VC = IX C
and VL = IX L 46
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
 The phasor diagram of the RL series circuit is shown in Figure
8.17b. VL
ω
(VL − VC ) V
φ
I
VR
VC
Figure 8.17b: phasor diagram
 Based on the phasor diagram, the rms supply voltage V (or total
voltage) of the circuit is given by

V = VR + (VL − VC )
2 2

= ( IR ) 2
+ ( IX L − IX C )
2

V = I R2 + ( X L − X C )
2
(8.24)
47
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
 Rearrange the eq. (8.24), thus the impedance of RL series
circuit is
V
= R + ( X L − XC ) V
2 2
and Z=
I I
Z = R + ( X L − XC )
2 2
(8.25)

 From the phasor diagram in Figure 8.17b , the supply voltage

V leads the current I the by φ radians where
VL − VC
tan φ =
VR
=
( IX L − IX C )
IR
X L − XC
tan φ = (8.26)
R 48
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
 The phasor diagram in terms of R, XC, XL and Z is illustrated in
Figure 8.17c.
XL
ω
( XL − XC ) Z
φ
R
XC
Figure 8.17c

49
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
8.3.6 Resonance in AC circuit
 is defined as the phenomenon that occurs when the
frequency of the applied voltage is equal to the frequency
of the RCL series circuit.
circuit
 Figure 8.18 shows the variation of XC, XL, R and Z with
frequency f of the RCL series circuit.
X C , X L , R, Z
Z

XL ∝ f

R
1
XC ∝
Figure 8.18 f
0 fr f 50
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
 From Figure 8.18, the value of impedance is minimum Zmin
when
X L = XC (8.27)

where its value is given by

Z = R + ( X L − XC )
2 2

Z min = R 2 + 0
Z min = R
This phenomenon occurs at the frequency fr known as
resonant frequency.
frequency
 At resonance in the RCL series circuit, the impedance is
minimum Zmin thus the rms current flows in the circuit is
maximum Imax and is given by
V V
I max = = (8.28)
Z min R 51
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
 Figure 8.19 shows the rms current I in RCL series circuit varies with
frequency.
I
I max

0 fr f
 Figure
At frequencies above or below 8.19
the resonant frequency fr, the rms
current I is less than the rms maximum current Imax as shown in
Figure 8.19.

52
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
 The resonant frequency, fr of the RCL series circuit is given by
X L = XC
1
ωL =
ωC
1
ω =2
and ω = 2πf r
LC
1
( 2πf r ) =
2

LC
1
fr = (8.29)
2π LC
where ω : resonant angular frequency
 The series resonance circuit is used for tuning a radio
Note: receiver.
receiver
At resonance, the current I and voltage V are in phase.
phase
53
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
Example 5 :
A 2 µ F capacitor and a 1000 Ω resistor are placed in series with
an alternating voltage source of 12 V and frequency of 50 Hz.
Calculate
a. the current flowing,
b. the voltage across the capacitor,
c. the phase angle of the circuit.
−6
Solution : C = 2 × 10 F; R = 1000 Ω; V = 12 V; f = 50 Hz
a. The capacitive reactance of the inductor is given by
1 1
XC = XC =
2πfC (
2π ( 50 ) 2 × 10 −6 )
X C = 1592 Ω
and the impedance of the circuit is
2
Z = R + XC
2
Z= (1000) 2 + (1592) 2
Z = 1880 Ω
54
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
Solution : C = 2 × 10 −6 F; R = 1000 Ω; V = 12 V; f = 50 Hz
a. Therefore the current flowing in the circuit is
V = IZ
12 = I (1880)
I = 6.38 × 10 −3 A
b. The voltage across the capacitor is given by
VC = IX C
( )
= 6.38 × 10 −3 (1592)
VC = 10.2 V
c. The phase angle between the current and supply voltage is
XC −1  XC 
tan φ = φ = tan  
R  R 
−1  1592 
= tan  
 1000 
φ = 1.01 rad OR 57.9 55
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
Example 6 :
I R C L

153 V 115 V 314 V

Figure 8.20
Figure
Based on the RCL series circuit 8.20 8.20 , the rms voltages across
in Figure
R, L and C are shown.
a. With the aid of the phasor diagram, determine the applied voltage
and the phase angle of the circuit.
Calculate:
b. the current flows in the circuit if the resistance of the resistor R is
26 Ω ,
c. the inductance and capacitance if the frequency of the AC source
is 50 Hz,
d. the resonant frequency.

56
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
Solution : VR = 153 V; VC = 115 V; VL = 314 V
a. The phasor diagram of the circuit is
VL From the phasor diagram,
ω the applied voltage V is
(VL − VC ) V V = VR + (VL − VC )
2 2

φ
VR
I = (153) 2
+ ( 314 − 115)
2

VC
V = 251 V
and the phase angle φ is
VL − VC  VL − VC 
tan φ = φ = tan  −1

VR  VR 
−1  314 − 115 
= tan  
 153 
φ = 0.915 rad OR 52.4 57
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
Solution : VR = 153 V; VC = 115 V; VL = 314 V
b. Given R = 26 Ω
Since R, C and L are connected in series, hence the current
passes through each devices is the same. Therefore
VR = IR
153 = I ( 26 )
I = 5.88 A
c. Given f = 50 Hz
The inductive reactance is
VL = IX L 314 = ( 5.88) X L
X L = 53.4 Ω
thus the inductance of the inductor is
X L = 2πfL
53.4 = 2π ( 50) L
L = 0.170 H 58
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
Solution : VR = 153 V; VC = 115 V; VL = 314 V
c. Meanwhile, the capacitive reactance is
VC = IX C 115 = ( 5.88) X C
X C = 19.6 Ω
thus the capacitance of the capacitor is
1 1
XC = 19.6 =
2πfC 2π ( 50) C
C = 1.62 × 10−4 F
d. The resonant frequency is given by
1
fr =
2π LC
1
=
2π ( 0.170) (1.62 ×10−4 )
f r = 30.3 Hz
59
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
Exercise 8.1 :
1. An AC current of angular frequency of 1.0 × 104 rad s−1 flows
through a 10 kΩ resistor and a 0.10 µ F capacitor which are
connected in series. Calculate the rms voltage across the
capacitor if the rms voltage across the resistor is 20 V.
ANS. : 2.0 V
2. A 200 Ω resistor, a 0.75 H inductor and a capacitor of
capacitance C are connected in series to an alternating
source 250 V, 600 Hz. Calculate
a. the inductive reactance and capacitive reactance when
resonance is occurred.
b. the capacitance C.
c. the impedance of the circuit at resonance.
d. the current flows through the circuit at resonance. Sketch
the phasor diagram of the circuit.
ANS. : 2.83 kΩ , 2.83 kΩ ; 93.8 nF; 200 Ω ; 1.25 A
60
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
Exercise 8.1 :
3. A capacitor of capacitance C, a coil of inductance L, a resistor
of resistance R and a lamp of negligible resistance are placed
in series with alternating voltage V. Its frequency f is varied
from a low to a high value while the magnitude of V is kept
constant.
a. Describe and explain how the brightness of the lamp
varies.
b. If V=0.01 V, C =0.4 µ F, L =0.4 H, R = 10 Ω and the
circuit at resonance, calculate
i. the resonant frequency,
ii. the maximum rms current,
iii. the voltage across the capacitor.
(Advanced Level Physics,7th edition, Nelkon & Parker, Q2, p.423)
ANS. : 400 Hz; 0.001 A; 1 V
61
 PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
Learning Outcome:
www.kmph.matrik.edu.my/physic s

8.4 Power and power factor (1 hour)

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
 Apply
 average power,
Pav = IV cos φ
 instantaneous power,
dW
P=
dt
 power factor,
Pr Pav
cos φ = =
Pa IV
in AC circuit consisting of R, RC, RL and RCL in 62
series.
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8

8.4 Power and power factor

8.4.1 Power of a pure resistor
 In a pure resistor, the voltage V and current I are in phase,
phase
thus the instantaneous power P is given by
P = IV
= ( I 0 sin ωt )(V0 sin ωt )
= I 0V0 sin 2 ωt and I 0V0 = P0
P = P0 sin 2 ωt (8.30)

where P0 : peak(maximum) power

 Figure 8.21 shows a graph of instantaneous power P being
absorbed by the resistor against time t.

63
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
P Power being absorbed
P0 P = P0 sin 2 ωt

P0
Pav
2

0 1 3
t
T T 2T
T
2 2
Figure 8.21
 The average (or mean) power Pav being absorbed by the resistor
is given by
Pav = P0 sin 2 ωt

1 1
Pav = P0 = I 0V0 (8.31)
2 2
64
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
8.4.2 Power of a pure capacitor
 In a pure capacitor, the current I leads the voltage V by π /2

radians thus the instantaneous power P is given by

radians,
P = IV
= ( I 0 cos ωt )(V0 sin ωt )
1
= I 0V0 sin ωt cos ωt and sin ωt cos ωt = sin 2ωt
2
1
P = P0 sin 2ωt (8.32)
2
 Figure 8.22 shows a graph of instantaneous power P of the
pure capacitor against time t.

65
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
P Power being absorbed
P0 1
P = P0 sin 2ωt
2 2
Pav
0 1
T T 3
T
2T t
2 2
P0
−
2
Power being returned to supply

Figure
The average (or mean) 8.22
power P of the pure capacitor is given
av
by
1
Pav = P0 sin 2ωt
2
Pav = 0

66
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
8.4.3 Power of a pure inductor
 In a pure inductor, the voltage V leads the current I by π /2

radians thus the instantaneous power P is given by

radians,
P = IV
= ( I 0 sin ωt )(V0 cos ωt )
1
= I 0V0 sin ωt cos ωt and sin ωt cos ωt = sin 2ωt
2
1
P = P0 sin 2ωt
2
 Figure 8.23 shows a graph of instantaneous power P of the
pure inductor against time t.

67
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
P Power being absorbed
P0 1
P = P0 sin 2ωt
2 2
Pav
0 1
T T 3
T
2T t
2 2
P0
−
2
Power being returned to supply

Figure
The average (or mean) 8.23
power P of the pure inductor is given
av
by
1
Pav = P0 sin 2ωt Pav = 0
Note:
2
The term ‘resistance’ is not used in pure capacitor and inductor because
no heat is dissipated from both devices.
devices
68
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
8.4.4 Power and power factor of R, RC, RL and
RCL series circuits
 In an AC circuit in which there is a resistor R, an inductor L and

a capacitor C, the average power Pav is equal to that dissipated

from the resistor i.e.
2
Pav = IVR = I R (8.33)

rms values
 From the phasor diagram of the RCL series circuit as shown in
Figure 8.24, VL
ω
(VL − VC ) V
φ
I
VR
Figure 8.24 VC
69
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
VR
We get cos φ = VR = V cos φ
V
then the eq. (8.33 ) can be written as
Pav = IV cos φ and V = IZ
Pav = I Z cosφ = Pr
2
(8.34)

where cos φ is called the power factor of the AC circuit, Pr is

the average real power and I2Z is called the apparent power.
power
 Power factor is defined as
Pr Pr
cos φ = 2 = (8.35)
I Z Pa
2
Note: where Pa : apparent power = I Z = IV
From the Figure 8.24, the power factor also can be calculated by using the
equation below: VR IR R
cos φ = = cosφ = (8.36)
V IZ Z 70
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
Example 7 :
A 100 µ F capacitor, a 4.0 H inductor and a 35 Ω resistor are
connected in series with an alternating source given by the
equation below:
V = 520 sin 100t
Calculate:
a. the frequency of the source,
b. the capacitive reactance and inductive reactance,
c. the impedance of the circuit,
d. the peak current in the circuit,
e. the phase angle,
f. the power factor of the circuit.

71
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
−6
Solution : R = 35 Ω; C = 100 × 10 F; L = 4.0 H
By comparing V = 520 sin 100t to the V = V0 sin ωt
Thus V0 = 520 V; ω = 100 rad s −1
a. The frequency of AC source is given by
ω = 2πf 100 = 2πf
f = 15.9 Hz
b. The capacitive reactance is
1 1
XC = XC =
2πfC (
2π (15.9) 100 × 10 −6 )
X C = 100 Ω
and the inductive reactance is
X L = 2πfL
= 2π (15.9 )( 4.0 )
X L = 400 Ω
72
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
−6
Solution : R = 35 Ω; C = 100 × 10 F; L = 4.0 H
c. The impedance of the circuit is

Z= 2
(
R + X L − XC ) 2

= ( 35) 2 + ( 400 − 100) 2

Z = 302 Ω
d. The peak current in the circuit is
V0 = I 0 Z
520 = I 0 ( 302)
I 0 = 1.72 A

73
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
−6
Solution : R = 35 Ω; C = 100 × 10 F; L = 4.0 H
e. The phase angle between the current and the supply voltage is
X L − XC X L − XC 
−1 
tan φ = φ = tan  
R  R 
−1  400 − 100 
= tan  
 35 
φ = 1.45 rad OR 83.3
f. The power factor of the circuit is given by
power factor = cosφ
= cos 83.3
power factor = 0.117

74
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
Example 8 :
A 22.5 mH inductor, a 105 Ω resistor and a 32.3 µ F capacitor are
connected in series to the alternating source 240 V, 50 Hz.
a. Sketch the phasor diagram for the circuit.
b. Calculate the power factor of the circuit.
c. Determine the average power consumed by the circuit.
Solution : R = 105 Ω; C = 32.3 × 10 −6 F; L = 22.5 ×10 −3 H
V = 240 V; f = 50 Hz
a. The capacitive reactance is
1 1
XC = XC =
2πfC (
2π ( 50 ) 32.3 ×10 −6 )
X C = 98.6 Ω
and the inductive reactance is
X L = 2πfL
(
= 2π ( 50) 22.5 ×10 −3 )
X L = 7.07 Ω 75
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
Solution : R = 105 Ω; C = 32.3 × 10 −6 F; L = 22.5 ×10 −3 H
V = 240 V; f = 50 Hz
a. Thus the phasor diagram for the circuit is
XL ω
R
φ
( XC − XL ) Z

XC
b. From the phasor diagram in (a),
the impedance of the circuit is
Z = R + ( XC − XL )
2 2

= (105) + ( 98.6 − 7.07 )

2 2

Z = 139 Ω 76
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
Solution : R = 105 Ω; C = 32.3 × 10 −6 F; L = 22.5 ×10 −3 H
V = 240 V; f = 50 Hz
b. and the power factor of the circuit is
R 105
cos φ = cos φ =
Z 139
cos φ = 0.755
c. The average power consumed by the circuit is given by
V
Pav = IV cosφ and I=
V2 Z
= cos φ
Z
=
( 240 ) 2
( 0.755)
139
Pav = 313 W
77
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
Exercise 8.2 :
1. An RLC circuit has a resistance of 105 Ω , an inductance of
85.0 mH and a capacitance of 13.2 µ F.
a. What is the power factor of the circuit if it is connected to a
125 Hz AC generator?
b. Will the power factor increase, decrease or stay the same
if the resistance is increased? Explain.
(Physics, 3rd edition, James S. Walker, Q47, p.834)
ANS. : 0.962; U think
2. A 1.15 kΩ resistor and a 505 mH inductor are connected in
series to a 14.2 V,1250 Hz AC generator.
a. What is the rms current in the circuit?
b. What is the capacitance’s value must be inserted in series
with the resistor and inductor to reduce the rms current to half
of the value in part (a)?
(Physics, 3rd edition, James S. Walker, Q69, p.835)
ANS. : 3.44 mA, 10.5 nF
78
 PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
Learning Outcome:
www.kmph.matrik.edu.my/physic s

8.5 Rectification (1 hour)

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
 Explain half-wave and full wave rectification by using a
circuit diagram and V-t graph.
 Explain the smoothing of rectified output voltage by
capacitor by using a circuit diagram and V-t graph.

79
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
8.5 Rectification
 is defined as the process of converting alternating current to
direct current.
 Rectifier:
 is a device that allows current to flow in one direction only.
only
 diodes are usually used as rectifiers.
 Diode is said to be forward biased when positive terminal of the
diode connected to the positive terminal of the battery and vice
versa, hence a current will be able to flow (Figure 8.25a).

Diode
+ -

I I
+ -
Figure 8.25a: forward biased 80
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
 Diode is said to be reverse biased when positive terminal of
the diode connected to the negative terminal of the battery
and vice versa, hence no current flows (Figure 8.25b).

+ -

I =0
- +
Figure 8.25b: reverse biased
 There are two types of rectification i.e.
 half-wave

 full-wave

81
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
8.5.1 Half-wave rectification
 Half-wave rectification means that only one half of an AC
cycle can pass through the rectifier (diode).
 Figure 8.26a shows a half-wave rectification circuit.
supply voltage, V
supply B V0
voltage, V 0 T 2T
t Figure 8.26b
A − V0

D VD
V0
VD
0 T 2T
t Figure 8.26c
−V0
VR
V0
VR R 0
T 2T
t Figure 8.26d
−V0
82
Figure 8.26a
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
Explanation:
 First half cycle (Figure 8.26b)
 When terminal A is positive, diode is forward biased and
offers low resistance such that a pulse of current flows
through the circuit.
 There is negligible voltage across the diode, V (Figure
D
8.26c).
 Thus the voltage across the resistor, V is almost equal to
R
the supply voltage (Figure 8.26d).
 Next half cycle (Figure 8.26b)
 When terminal B is positive, diode is now reverse biased and
has a very high resistance such that a very small current
flows through it.
 The voltage across the diode, V
D is almost equal to the
supply voltage (Figure 8.26c).
 The voltage across the resistor, V is almost zero (Figure
R
8.26d).
83
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
 An alternating voltage is thus rectified to give direct current
voltage across the resistor. The current flows through the
resistor in one direction only and only half of each cycle cab
pass through the diode as shown in Figure 8.26e.
I
I0
0 T 2T
t
− I0
Figure 8.26e
Rms value after half-wave rectification:
 In the half-wave rectification, half of the supply voltage is
suppressed and therefore the mean square voltage is given by
Mean square value 1 × Mean square value
=
after rectification 2 before rectification
2 1 2
V = V
( half − wave rect.) 2 ( before half − wave rect.)
1 2 2
= V0 sin ωt
2 84
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
1  V0  V0 2
2
V2 = =
( half − wave rect.) 2  2  4

 Therefore the rms voltage of the half-wave rectification is
given by 2
Vrms = V
( half − wave rect.)

2
V0
=
4
V0
Vrms = (8.37)
2
 In the similar way as to find the rms voltage of half-wave
rectification, the rms current of half-wave rectification is
given by
I0
I rms = (8.38)
2
85
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
8.5.2 Full-wave rectification
 The half-wave rectification only allows half of each AC cycle to
pass through the diode, but the full-wave rectification allows
both halves of each AC cycle to pass through the diode. diode
 To obtain full-wave rectification, four diode are used and are
arranged in a form known as the diode bridge.
bridge
 Figure 8.27a shows a full-wave rectification circuit.
B supply vol tage (V )
V0
0 T 2T
t
A 4 1 − V0
supply D C Figure 8.27b
voltage,V F 3 VR R V
2 R
V0
0 T 2T
t
E
Figure 8.27c
Figure 8.27a
86
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
Explanation
 First half cycle (Figure 8.27b)
 When terminal A is positive, diodes 1 and 2 are forward
biased and conduct the current.
 The current takes the path ABC, R and DEF.

 Diodes 3 and 4 are reverse biased and hence do not conduct

the current.
 The voltages across diodes 1 and 2 are negligible, the

voltage across the resistor VR is almost equal to the supply

voltage (Figure 8.27c)
 Next half cycle (Figure 8.27b)
 When terminal F is positive, diodes 3 and 4 are forward
biased and conduct the current.
 The path taken by the current is FEC, R and DBA.
 Diodes 1 and 2 are reverse biased and hence, do not
conduct the current.
 The voltage across the resistor is again almost equal to the
supply voltage (Figure 8.27c).
87
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
 Both halves of the alternating voltage are rectified. The current
flowing through the resistor is in one direction only i.e. a varying
DC is obtained as shown in Figure 8.27d.
I
I0
0 2T
t
T
Figure 8.27d
Rms value after full-wave rectification
 Notice that the negative side of supply voltage is flipped over to
become positive side without being suppressed, thus the rms
voltage and current of full-wave rectification are the same
as the rms voltage and current of supply voltage and given
by
V0 I0
Vrms = and I rms =
2 2

88
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
8.5.3 Smoothing using Capacitor
 The output obtained from half-wave and full-wave rectifications
are unidirectional but varying DC.
 Usually a steady (constant) DC is required for operating various
electrical and electronic appliances. To change a varying DC
into a steady (constant) DC, smoothing is necessary.
 A simple smoothing circuit consists of a capacitor ( with a large
capacitance >16 F) connected parallel to the resistor R as
shown in Figure 8.28.

I
+
Rectified unsmoothed C R VR = Voutput
voltage, V -

Figure 8.28
 The capacitor functions as a reservoir to store charges.

89
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
Smoothing of a half-wave rectified voltage
 Figure 8.29 shows an effects of smoothing a half-wave rectified
voltage.
(
VR Voutput )
Discharge
Charge

Smoothed voltage, VR
A B

time, t
Figure 8.29 Rectified unsmooth input
voltage, V
 Initially, the half-wave rectified input voltage V causes the current
to flow through the resistor R. At the same time, capacitor C
becomes charged to almost the peak value of the input voltage.
 At A (Figure 8.29), input V (dash line) falls below output VR, the
capacitor C starts to discharge through the resistor R. Hence the
current flow is maintained because of capacitor’s action.

90
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
 Along AB (Figure 8.29), V output falls. At B, the rectified current
again flows to recharge the capacitor C to the peak of the input
voltage V.
 This process is repeated and hence the output voltage VR
across the resistor R will look like the variation shown in figure
8.29.
Smoothing of a full-wave rectified voltage
 Figure 8.30 shows an effects of smoothing a full-wave rectified
voltage.
VR (Voutput )
Discharge Charge

Smoothed voltage, VR
A B

time, t
Figure 8.30 Rectified unsmooth input
voltage, V 91
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
 The explanation of the smoothing process likes for a half-wave
rectified voltage.
 The fluctuations of the smoothed output voltage are must
less compare to the half-wave rectified.
rectified
 The smoothing action of the capacitor is due to the large time
constant τ , given by RC so the output voltage cannot fall
as rapidly as the rectified unsmoothed input voltage.
voltage
 Therefore a large capacitor performs greater smoothing.
smoothing
 However, an initially uncharged capacitor may cause a
sudden surge of current through the circuit and damage the
diode.
diode

92
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8

Next Chapter…
CHAPTER 9 :
Quantization of light

93