:

1
...................................................... 1
1.1 ................................................................................................... 1
1.1.1. ........................................................................................... 1
1.1.2. .................................................................................... 2
1.1. 3. ............................................. 3
1.1.4. ............................................................................. 4
1.2 ................................................. 5
1.2.1. (heat conduction) ................................................................. 5
1.2.2. (mass diffusion) ................................. 7
1.2.3. (momentum diffusion momentum
transport by viscous forces) ...................................................................................... 8
1.2.4. ............................................................ 10
1.2.5. ........................... 11
1.2.6. ....................... 12
2

....................................................................................................................... 14
2.1 ................................................................................................................. 14
2.1.1. ................................................................................................ 14

ii

2.1.2. ................................................................................................. 14
2.1.3 ................................................................. 15
2.1.4 ......... 19
2.2 ...................................................................... 20
2.2.1 ................................................................ 20
2.2.2 ........................................................... 21
2.2.3 ........................................................... 22
2.3 (CONVECTION) ............................. 25
2.4 ............... 26
2.4.1 (Continuity equation)............................................................. 26
2.4.2
. ................................................................................................... 29
2.5 ............................................................. 30
2.5 ................ 33
2.5.1 ................................................................................... 33
2.5.2 .................................................................................... 34
2.5.3 Fick ...................................................................................................... 35
2.5.4 ............................ 36
2.5.5 ......................................................................................... 37
3

....................................................................................................................... 40
3.1 ................................................................................... 40

iii

3.1.1 ................................................................................. 40
3.1.2 ......................................................................... 42
3.1.3 ............................. 42
3.2 ........................................................................ 45
3.2.1 ............................................... 45
3.2.2 .............................................................. 47
3.2.3 ............................................................... 49
3.3 .................................................................... 50
3.3.1 ............................................................. 50
3.3.2 ....................................................... 52
3.3.3 Navier-Stokes .................. 54
3.3.4 [ u ( u )T ] ........................................................... 55
3.3.5 Navier-Stokes ............................. 57
4

..................................................................................... 62
4.1 .................................................................................. 62
4.2 ................................................................................. 64
4.2.1 ........................................................................................................... 64
4.2.2 ........................................................................... 65
4.2.3 .................................................................................. 67
4.2.4 ................................................................................ 68

iv

 5

Navier-Stokes ........................................................................ 71
5.1 ........................................................................................ 71
5.1 .................................................................... 82
5.3 NAVIER-STOKES ....................... 84
6
................................. 87
6.1 - .
. .................................................. 87
6.2 .
. ........................................................................ 89
6.3 ............................. 92
7
.......................................................................................................... 97
7.1 ................................................................................................................. 97
7.1.1 .................................................................................... 97
7.1.2 ..................................... 98
7.2
REYNOLDS .......................................................................................................... 100
7.2.1 ........................................................................ 100
7.2.2 Navier-Stokes ............................................................ 101
v

7.2.3 Reynolds ............................................ 102

7.2.4 Boussinesq ........................................................................................... 103
7.3 ................................................................................ 104
7.3.1 ................................................................................... 104
7.3.2 Reynolds ................................................ 105
7.3.3 Prandtl........................................................... 108
7.3.4 Prandtl ................................ 110

8
.................................................. 114
8.1 .......................................................................... 114
8.2 .................................................................... 117
8.3 .................. 122
8.3.1 ....................................................................... 123
8.3.2 ...................................... 124
8.3.3 .................................... 127
8.4 ................................... 133

9
................................................................................... 137
9.1 ............................................................................................................... 137
9.2 .............................................................................. 139
9.2.1 ............................................................................... 139

vi

9.2.2 ............................................................................... 140

9.2.3 ......................................................................... 144
9.2.4 ................................................................................. 145
9.2.5 ................................... 152
9.2.6 , =- : u ,
......................................................................................................... 162

vii

 1

1.1
1.1.1.
,
,

.
, ,

.
.
,
.

, , .

, ( )
. , ,
( ), .
,
:

, ,
,
,
.
,
.


.
,
.
1.1.2.

, .


,
.
,
, , .. ,

.
,
,
. ,
,
.

.

, .

, .

. 1.1.

.

.

.
,
.
.

V
( )

1.1 .


, , , c,
, , T, , P, ,
e, , h, . .
, ,
V V 0.
. ,
, .
1.1. 3.

, ,
,
.
,

.
,
.
,
:
dU TdS PdV ,

(1.1)

, , .,
de Tds Pd ( 1 / ) ,

(1.2)

, P, , , , e, s
.
,
:
F = C-P+2,

(1.3)

F , C P
. , (..
P) .
,
, : = P MB/RT.

.

1.1.4.

, , , .
,
.

,
. ,
, ,
,

. ,
.
,

. ,

,
.

~500 m/s

~1000 m/s

~10-7 m

~10-12 m

~10-10 s

~10-15 s

,
. ,

, ,
. ,

, ,
.
,
.
, , ,
,
, .. , .

1.2
1.2.1. (heat conduction)
, , L,
. 1.2(), , 0.
t = 0 , 1,

, 0, .
,
,
.
.

y
T1: .

L
t

L
t =

T0: .
()

T1

T0
()

1.2
.

, ,
. 1.2().

. ,
( )

.

. q ,
, =
1 - 0, ,
q ~ /L. , k,
:

( q / A ) k

T
L

(1.4)

y,
. q/A

. , k,
. k . (1.4). ..
SI : k [=] J/(s m K) W/m K.
,
y y. . (1.4), :
( q / A ) k

T ( y y ) T ( y )
.
y

(1.5)

y 0,
:

( q / A ) k lim [
y 0

( q / A ) k

T ( y y ) T ( y )
]
y

dT
.
dy

(1.6)

(1.6) Fourier ,
:

YNTEETH IAOPIKH
POH

X
.
KIH
EPMOTHTA EPMIKH

AIMOTHTA EPMOKPA IA
,
. , ,

, , .
1.2.2. (mass diffusion)
, , L,
. 1.3(),
. c0 .
t = 0 , c1,
,
, c0,
. ,
6

 ,

.
.
y

y
c1: .

L
t

L
t =

c0: .
()

c1

c0
()

1.3
.

, ,
. 1.3().

.
,

.

. J
,
:
( J / A ) D

dc
.
dy

(1.7)

. J/A
.
, D, . ,
D . (1.7). SI : D [=] m2/s.
(1.7) Fick , :

IAOPIKH
POH
YNTEETH
.
KIH
MAZA IAXYH X

YKENTPH

, ,
. ,

, , .
1.2.3. (momentum diffusion
momentum transport by viscous forces)

L,
. 1.4. , t = 0
U1 x-.

.

. x- y ,
.
x- y-.
y

U1 : .

L
t

yx
L

t =

y
x

U1

U0

U0 = 0
()

()

1.4
.

, ,
. 1.4().

.
,

.

F .
, A, , U = U1 - U0,
8

 , L, F ~UA/L.
, , :

( F / A)

U
L

(1.8)

F/A , ,
,
. , ,
. , .
(1.8). SI : [=] / m2 s) Pa s kg/m s. CGS
g/cm s poise. : 1 poise = 0.1 Pa s.
, y,

. x- y-
:

yx

dU
.
dy

(1.9)

, (1.9)
Newton, :

POH

IAOPIKH

YNTEETH
.
X KIH

. (1.19) , y,
, , x,
.
, yx .
y-
.
x. :

[ ]

N
kg( m / s 2 ) ( kgm / s ) / s OPMH /

.

m2
m2
m2

, ,
, , .
1.2.4.
1.5-1.7
,
.
,
9

.
.
.

1.5 - .

1.6 .

1.7 , .

10



. ,
,
,
.
: Bird, Stewart, and Lightfoot, Transport Phenomena, Prausnitz,
Sherwood, and Reid, The properties of gases and liquids, Perry and Green Chemical
Engineers Handbook, CRC Handbook of Physical and Chemical data.
1.2.5.
, , , cP.
:
:

( J / A ) D

: ( q / A ) k
:

dc
,
dy

(1.10)

d ( c PT )
dT
k d ( c PT )
(
)

,
dy
c P
dy
dy

dU
d ( U )
d ( U )
.
( )

dy

dy
dy

(1.10)
(1.10)

, ,
. c, cPT, U, ,
. (D,
, ) ,
(s SI m2/s).
. , (1.10)
:

IAOPIKH
POH

YNTEETH

IIOTHTA IAXYTOTHTA X KIH ,

IIOTHTA

d
,
dy

(1.11)

(
), .

11

1.2.6. .

.
,
z (x3)
, y. ,
Fourier Fick,

y (x2)
. ,
k (e3)

j (e2)
.
i (e1)
,
x (x1)
. ,
.
(x, y, z) (x1, x2, x3)
(i, j, k) (e1, e2, e3),
:
(q/A) ( q / A )x i ( q / A )y j ( q / A )z k ,

(1.12)

(q/A) ( q / A )1 e 1 ( q / A )2 e 2 ( q / A )3 e 3 ( q / A )i e i .
i 1

, ,
Fourier :
( q / A )x k

T
T
T
;( q / A )y k
;( q / A )z k
.
x
y
z

, (1.12) :

(q/A) k (

3
T
T
T
T
i
j
k ) k e i ,
x
y
z
i 1 xi

:
(q/A) kT ,

(1.13)

Fourier .
.
:

i
j k ei .
x
y
z
i 1 xi

(1.14)

,

12

 ( )
. Fourier
,
.
.
Fourier
Fick :
(J/A) Dc .

(1.15)

, ,
.
, .

.
y x yx.

3.
, i j
, :

ij (

u j
xi

u i
).
x j

(1.16)

3x3.
(1.16) :

[ u ( u )T ] .

(1.17)

(1.16),
, .

13

 2


2.1
2.1.1.

.

,
,
,
, .. , , , ,
.
.
2.1.2.

,
.
.
. 2.1. ()
,
,
.
, ,
.
,
. ()

,
.

. ()
.
(material
volume).
.

14

()

()

()

2.1 .

. 2.2 .

() dV = dxdydz.
()
dr, dz dV=2rdrdz.
,
() dr dV=4r2dr.
.
()

()

()

z
dz
y

dz dy

dr
r

dr

dx
x

2.2 .

2.1.3


.


z (x3)
.
u

, .. =
(x,y,z,t).
y (x2)
k (e3)
()
j (e2)
. ,
, ..
i (e1)
,
x (x1)
15

 . u
:
u ux i u y j uz k ,

(2.1)

ux, uy, uz, .

:
3

u u1e 1 u 2 e 2 u 3 e 3 u i e i .

(2.2)

u 1

.
.


.
y
y'
u

uy

x'

uy
u'x

ux

,

.
x, y
x, y ,
,

u

:

u 'x cos
'
u y sin

sin u x
.
cos u y

u, v
:

u.v u v cos ,

(2.3)

u v .

.

,
. :
0 i j

ei .e j ij

1 i = j

16

 ij , Kronecker.

:
3

i 1

j 1

i 1

u.v ui e i . v j e j

j 1

i 1

ui v j e i .e j

j 1

i 1

ui v j ij ui vi ,

u.v u1v1 u 2 v2 u3 v3 .

(2.4)

.
.
:
3

i
j k ei .
x
y
z
i 1 xi

(2.5)

, ..
T

T
T
T
i
j
k,
x
y
z

.
:
3

.u
i 1

3
3

e i . u j e j
xi j 1
i 1

u j

x
j 1

e i .e j
i 1

u j

x
j 1

ij
i 1

ui
,
xi

.u

u x u y u z
.

x
y
z

(2.6)

.

:
ab ab ba ,

(2.7)

.
:
.u .u u. .

(2.8)

,
.
17

.
i 1

2
2
2
2
.

xi2 x 2 y 2 z 2

Laplace.
.
Green .




n
, V, ,
dS S.
dS
n,
, .
Green
S
V
.
:
b

df

dx dx f ( b ) f ( a ) .

(2.9)

,
. ,
Green P :

PdV PndS .

(2.10)

. (2.9)
,
.
,
, n. (2.10)
.
, Green.

.udV u.ndS .
V

(2.11)

. (2.11) ,
.

18

2.1.4



z
.
z

n

y

y
.
k
j

,
i

x
.
x

,
. x, y, z.
,
n.
x ( y,z), y,
z. i, j, k, .

x ,
(q/A)x x.
(q/A)y y (q/A)z z. ,
(q/A)n .
:

( q / A )x Ax ( q / A )y Ay ( q / A )z Az ( q / A )n A . (2.12)

, :

mc T Vc T xyz c T .
P
P
P

t
t
6
t

(2.13)

x, y, z

. l, .
(2.12) l2,
l2. ,
(2.13) l3.

(2.12)
l
.

19

 x, y, z 0 :
( q / A )x dAx ( q / A )y dAy ( q / A )z dAz ( q / A )n dA 0 .

(2.14)

. , z
, .
dAz = cos dA. ,
n k, n.k = cos = nx, nx z- n.
:

dAx ( dA )n x ; dAy ( dA )n y ; dAz ( dA )n z .

(2.15)

. (2.15) (2.14) :
( q / A )x n x ( q / A )y n y ( q / A )z nz ( q / A )n 0 .

n
(q/A) n.

( q / A )n (q/A).n .

(2.16)

, n
dA
:

n ( .n )dA .

(2.17)

.u
(2.11) Green. u ,
.
.u
.
Laplace. -kT
. , .(kT) = -k2T
( k). ,
Laplace .
2.2
2.2.1

,
:

20

, . ,
,
.
.
.


t, t, t 0.
:

'

. (2.18)

.
.
2.2.2

, (.
cA ).
,
. , G
.
n
, V,
dS , S.
dS
n,
.
V

d
dt dV .

(2.19)

21

.ndS .
S

(2.19)

G dV .

(2.19)

,
:
d

dV
dV .

dt V

t
V

Green
(2.11)
:
.ndS .dV .
S

. (2.18)
:

. G )dV 0 .
t

(2.20)

, V
, (2.20)
.

:

. G 0 .
t

(2.21)

2.2.3

(2.21)
, ,
, cP. ,
= cP(-0), 0 . ,
d =
cPdT. , : = kT. , ,
, .
q G .

22

 (2.21)
:

c P

T
.( kT ) q G 0 .
t

(2.22)

, , .

c P

T
k 2T q G .
t

(2.23)

,

, Laplace, .


(2.18) . O
o Green,
,
.

, , , cP,
x, y, z,
.
y
z y

. x, x+x
x
x (
x
). , y,
y+y, z, z+z ,
. , :
z

: mcP

T
T
T
Vc P
( xyz )c P
t
t
t

( q / A )x A x ( q / A )y A y ( q / A )z A z
( q / A )x yz ( q / A )y xz ( q / A )z xy

( q / A )x x A x x ( q / A )y y A y y ( q / A )z z A z z
( q / A )x x yz ( q / A )y y xz ( q / A )z z xy

: Vq G ( xyz )q G

23

 . (2.18) xyz :

c P

T ( q / A )x ( q / A )x x ( q / A )y ( q / A )y y ( q / A )z ( q / A )z z

q G .
t
x
y
z

x, y, z 0,
:

c P

( q / A )x ( q / A )y ( q / A )z
T

q G
t
x
y
z

c P

T
.(q/A) q G
t

(2.24)

, Fourier (1.13) , (q/A) kT ,

, . (2.22):
T
.kT q G ,
t

c P

(2.25)

(2.23).
Laplace,2.
(2.23)
.

,
.
Laplace.
(x, y, z).

z
y
x

2T 2T 2T
T 2 2 2 .
x
y
z
2

(2.26)

24

 (r, , z).

2T

1
T
1 2T 2T
.
(r
) 2

r r r
r 2 z 2

(2.27)

(r, , ).
r

2T

1 2 T
1

T
1
2T
(
r
)

(sin

.
r

r 2 r
r 2 sin
r 2 sin 2 2

(2.28)

2.3 (CONVECTION)
,
,

.

u
,
.
, , .
t
l = u t,
V = l
= ut

25

. , ,
V = ut. ,
u.

u,
:

: C u

(2.29)

,
.

cA

cA u

cPT

cPT u

,
. ,
,
(2.21) :

C D ,

(2.30)

(2.29)
, (1.11) , :

D .

(2.31)

2.4
2.4.1 (Continuity equation)

(2.21)
. ,
.
-- , ,
.
= = u.
.
26

 , .
, , :

.u 0 .
t

(2.32)

.
2.1.3 . (2.8),
:

u. .u 0 .
t

(2.33)

, .. ,
, . (2.33) . ,
:
.u 0 .

(2.34)

. (2.34)
.
,
.

.
.
.
( )

(2.32).
, .. . ,


, (2.34)
, .

.

27

 .u
(x, y, z).
z

uz

uy

ux

.u

u x u y u z
.

x
y
z

(2.35)

(r, , z).
z

uz

.u

ur

1
1 u u z
.
( rur )

r r
r
z

(2.36)

(r, , ).
u

ur
u

.u

1 2
1 ( u sin )
1 u
(
r
u
)

.
r
r sin

r sin
r 2 r

28

(2.37)

2.4.2
.

.
= (x,y,z,t), (x,y,z) .

,
:
d

dt
dx
dy
dz .
t
x
y
z

(2.38)

dx, dy, dz
. , . (2.38),
:
d dx dy dz
.

dt
t x dt y dt z dt

(2.39)

w,
:

wx

dx
dy
dz
;w y
;wz .
dt
dt
dt

(2.40)

, , (2.39) :
d

wx
wy
wz
w. .
dt
t x
y
z
t

(2.41)

. (2.41)
w, :

)w
w. .
dt
t

(2.42)

,
.
,
. ,
,
.

.


,

29

 ,
w = u. :

u. ,
Dt
t

(2.43)

D , .
, (
). ,
, ..
.
, (2.33),
:

D
u. .u 0
.u
t
Dt
1 D
.u .
Dt

(2.44)

.
2.5

,
, ..
.
= e ,
,
, e, :
e e

(
, 1/2u2,
).
, C = eu,
D = -kT. = eu - kT . ,
q G .
(2.21)
:

e
.( eu ) .kT q G .
t

(2.45)

30

e
e

,
e
t
t
t
, (2.8),
.( eu ) u.e e.( u ) ,

e
e

.( eu ) ( u.e ) e(
.u ) .
t
t
t

(2.46)

e
u.e ) .kT q G ,
t

, , :

De
.kT q G .
Dt

(2.47)

, ,
,
, .

Laplace.

. ,
,
.
(. ),
U = U(T,P) U = U(T,V).
, : e = e(T,P) e =
e(T,). , ,
, , . e
= e(T).
,
:

de c P dT .

(2.48)

. (2.47) :

c P

DT
.kT q G
Dt

31

c P (

T
u.T ) .kT q G
t

(2.49)

, , :

c P (

T
u.T ) k 2T q G .
t

(2.50)

. , . (2.23),
, .
Laplace .
(2.50)
, .
.
(x, y, z).
T

T
T
T
ex
ey
ez .
x
y
z

(2.51)

u uxe x u y e y uz ez ,

(2.52)

u.T :
u.T u x

T
T
T
.
uy
uz
x
y
z

(2.53

(r, , z).

T
1 T
T
er
e
ez .
r
r
z

(2.54)

u u r e r u e u z e z ,

(2.55)

u.T :
u.T u r

T u T
T

uz
.
r
r
z

(2.56)

32

 (r, , ).
T

T
1 T
1 T
er
e
e .
r
r
r sin

(2.57)

u u r e r u e u e ,

(2.58)

u.T :

u.T u r

u T
T u T
.

r
r r sin

(2.59)

2.5
2.5.1
.
. ,

. cA
(kmol/m3 SI) (kg/m3 SI). :

A cAM A ,

(2.60)

.
,
, (/)
(kmol/ m2 s SI), (n/)
(kg/ m2 s SI). , :

( n A /A ) ( N A /A )M A .

(2.61)

, R A rA , ,
,
..
, (2.21)
:
c A
.( N A /A ) R A ,
t

(2.62)

:
A
.( n A /A ) rA .
t

(2.63)

33

2.5.2
c
:

c c A cB ,

(2.64)

A B .

(2.65)

x A c A / c;x B c B / c ,

(2.66)

A A / ; B B / .

(2.67)

x A xB 1,

(2.68)

A B 1 .
, uA, uB,
.

( N A /A ) c A u A ( n A /A ) A u A ,

(2.69)

( N B /A ) c B uB ( nB /A ) B uB ,

(2.70)

:
u( M ) x A u A x B uB ,

(2.71)

u A u A B uB .
x

x
uB
u(M)
u

,
,
.
,
x-
,

34

 ,


(JA/A). :
( N A /A ) c A u A c A [ u( M ) ( u A u( M ) )] c A u( M ) ( J A /A ) .

(2.73)

,
(jA/A). :

( n A /A ) A u A A [ u ( u A u )] A u ( j A /A ) .

(2.74)

, :
( N B /A ) c B u( M ) ( J B /A ) ,

(2.75)

( nB /A ) B u ( j B /A ) .

(2.76)

. :
( N A /A ) ( N B /A ) c A u A c B uB c( x A u A x B uB ) cu( M ) ,

( N A /A ) ( N B /A ) c A u( M ) ( J A /A ) c B u( M ) ( J B /A ) cu( M ) ( J A /A ) ( J B /A ) ,

( J A /A ) ( J B /A ) 0 .

(2.77)

( j A /A ) ( j B /A ) 0 .

(2.78)

2.5.3 Fick
Fick, ,

:
:

( J A /A ) cD AB x A ,

(2.79)

( j A /A ) DAB A .

(2.80)

DAB .

35

 . ,
.
, , :

( J B /A ) cDBA x B ,

(2.81)

( j B /A ) DBA B .

(2.82)

D .
Fick
D D . .
(2.77) :

( J A /A ) ( J B /A ) 0 cD AB x A cDBA xB 0 .
(2.68) xB = 1-xA, :

cD AB x A cD BA ( 1 x A ) 0 cD AB x A cD BA x A 0
cx A ( D AB DBA ) 0

DAB DBA .

(2.83)

, .
,
(2.79-2.82).
2.5.4
(2.63), :
A
.( n A /A ) rA ,
t

(2.63)

(2.74) :

( n A /A ) A u ( j A /A ) .

(2.74)

Fick (2.80) :

( j A /A ) DAB A .

(2.80)

, :
A
.( A u ) .D A rA
t
A
u. A A ( .u ) .D A rA .
t

, :
36

 A
u. A .D A rA
t

(2.81)

c A
u.c A .Dc A R A .
t

(2.82)

(2.82) (2.49)
, (2.50) :
Dc A c A

u.c A D 2 c A R A .
Dt
t

(2.83)

,
(2.26-2.28) (2.51-2.59).
,
. Fick
,
. (2.83)
, .. , .

, .. .
2.5.5
.
,
.
. ,
, :

( N A /A ) c A u( M ) ( J A /A ) c A ( x A u A x B u B ) cDx A
,

cA
( c A u A c B u B ) cDx A
c
,

( N A /A ) x A ( N A /A N B /A ) cDx A .

(2.84)

(2.62)
.

, ,
, , .
, , ..
z-:

37

.( N A /A )

d ( N A /A )z
0 N A /A . ,
dz

(2.85)

, , :

.( N /A ) 0 N /A .

(2.86)

(equimolar counterdiffusion)

, ,
.
,

. , ( N A /A N B /A ) 0 ,
, (2.84) :
( N A /A ) ( J A /A ) cD

dx A
. ,
dz

.


.

(diffusion through stagnant gas)

, .
(2.85-2.86) .
- ,
.
cA
cB
.

, (2.86) ,
. (2.84)
z
:

38

( N A /A ) x A ( N A /A ) cD
( 1 x A )( N A /A ) cD

dx A

dz

dx A

dz

1 dx A
( N A /A ) / cD .
1 x A dz
,
. , ,

.
, .
- (non-equimolar counterdiffusion)
,
, .

, .

.
, 1,
,

,
.

(2.85-2.86) ,
, ( N B /A ) ( N A /A ) . (2.84)
:

dx A

dz
dx
( N A /A ) x A [( N A /A ) ( N A /A )] cD A
dz
dx
[ 1 ( 1 )x A ]( N A /A ) cD A
dz
dx A
1
( N A /A ) / cD .
[ 1 ( 1 )x A ] dz
( N A /A ) x A [( N A /A ) ( N B /A )] cD

, , 1 .

.

39

 3


,
, ,

.
,
.
3.1
. ,
,
.
, ,

. , , .

.
,
, .
3.1.1

,
.
x, y, z,
z
i, j, k,
z
,
n

y

y
n.
k
j

,
i

x
x

.

40

 x ( ) Px,
:

FAx Px Ax i ,
, , Py Pz ,
:
FAy Py Ay j FAz Pz Az k .

, , :

FA PAn .
,
:
Fs Px Ax i Py Ay j Pz Az k PAn .

Fg mg Vg

xyz
6

g.

.
x, y, z, l
, ,
l3,
, l2. l 0
. :
Px dAx i Py dAy j Pz dAz k PdAn 0 .

(3.1)

, , :
dAx ( dA )n x ; dAy ( dA )n y ; dAz ( dA )n z ,

(3.2)

.
(3.1) :

Px n x i Py n y j Pz n z k Pn 0
Px n x i Py n y j Pz n z k P( n x i n y j n z k ) 0

(3.3)

, :
Px P;Py P;Pz P .

(3.4)

.
, ,
, .

41

3.1.2
, ,
, V, , S.
dS
n,
n
. ,
dS
S ,
. :


PndS ,

Green (2.10)
:

PndS PdV .
S

(3.5)

, :

gdV .

(3.6)

,
, :

( P g )dV 0 .

(3.7)

, ,
.
, :
P g 0 .

(3.8)

3.1.3
)
z
P =P

, ,
, ..
z-
. : g = gez, P =(dP/dz)ez,
(3.8):

dP
g 0 P P gz .
dz

42

(3.9)

 ( = 1000 kg/m3)
10.3 m .
)



.
z
,

P =P


. .
(3.9), H
: P gH .
H
.
)

z
h

PA
A

U

.
,
.


.
. (3.9),
A z = -h
:

PA P gh .

, .

)

:

dP
g 0 .
dz

(3.10)

43

PMB
RT
.
P
RT
MB

,
,

dP d RT
.

dz dz MB
(3.10)
:
d

MBg
dz .
RT

0 exp(

MBg
z ),
RT

(3.11)

0 . ,
.
(3.11) 100 m 0.990, 1000
m 0.890, 10000 m 0.310.
)
n
dS

Y, ,
(3.8).
:

FA PndS PdV ,
S

Green.
, . (3.8)

FA Y gdV Y Vg .

(3.12)

, . (3.12)
, ,
.

44

.


.

.

(
).
:

B 0V0 g 1V1 g ,
:

V0
1 V0

.
0 V1 V0 Sh
S h
. V0 , h
S
.
3.2
3.2.1

. ,
, .
, ,
:
. .

u, v.
:
3

i 1

j 1

i 1

uv u i e i v j e j

u v e e
j 1

j i

(3.13)

, uivj, ei
ej.
. :

45

 u1v1
uv u 2 v1
u 3 v1

u1v 2
u 2 v2
u3v2

u1v3
u 2 v3 .
u 3 v3

(3.14)

, ,
.
.

.
-yy
,
-yx
,
y
-xy

.
x
-xx ,
x, y, -ij
j
i.
j i.
:
xx xy xz

3 3
yx yy yz i j e i e j .
zx zy zz i 1 j 1

(3.15)

:
3

.u ij e i e j . u k e k ij u k e i ( e j .e k ) ij u k e i jk ij u j e i
i 1 j 1

k 1

i 1 j 1 k 1

i 1 j 1 k 1

i 1 j 1

(3.16)

.u ( 11u1 12u 2 13u3 )e1 ( 21u1 22u 2 23u3 )e 2 ( 31u1 32u 2 33u3 )e3 .

, .
,
.
3

: ij ji .

(3.17)

i 1 j 1

46


,
:
3

u
i 1

3
3
3 u

j
ei u j e j
ei e j .
xi j 1
i 1 j 1 xi

(3.18)

.
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3

kj
kj
.
ei . ikj e k e j
( ei .e k )e j
ik e j
i 1 xi
k 1 j 1
i 1 j 1 k 1 xi
i 1 j 1 k 1 xi
3

.
i 1 j 1

ij
xi

ej,

(3.19)

. (

11 21 31

)e1 ( 12 22 32 )e 2 ( 13 23 33 )e3 .
x1
x2
x3
x1
x2
x3
x1
x2
x3

:
.ab ( .a )b a.b .

(3.20)

Green
(2.1.3)

.dV .ndS
V

(3.21)

.
,
.
3.2.2
()

()
n

-(n)

(n)

.

.
,
.

() (),
() ()

47

 () (). .
:
(n) : () (), :
(-n) = - (n): () ().


.
, (n)
z
.
(n)

z
n

y

n. y ( ),
y
j,
k
j
(-y) = - (y). ,
x, z - (x) - (z).
i

x
-(y)
x

:
FS (x) Ax ( y ) Ay ( z ) Az ( n ) A .

(3.22)

, :

Fg mg Vg

xyz
6

g.

(3.23)

, u ,
:

du
du
xyz du
.
V

dt
dt
6
dt

(3.24)

,
,
.
, .
x, y, z 0
. . (3.22)
:
(x) dAx ( y ) dAy ( z ) dAz ( n ) dA 0 ,

, ,

dAx ( dA )n x ; dAy ( dA )n y ; dAz ( dA )n z ,

:

48

 ( n ) (x) n x ( y ) n y ( y ) n y .

(3.25)

,
. (3.25)
:
x-: ( n ) x (x)x n x ( y ) x n y ( z ) x n z ,
y-: ( n ) y (x) y n x ( y ) y n y ( z ) y n z ,
z-: ( n ) z (x)z n x ( y ) z n y ( z ) z n z ,
, ,
( n ) n. ,

(3.26)

, :
xx

yx
zx

xy xz

yy yz .
zy zz

(3.27)

3.2.3
(3.27)
, .
, 3
. .
,

z
x = y =
z = a.
yy

yx

2
y
xy
z. , ,

-xx 3
x
xx
.
1
a 0
-xy

-yx 4
.,
-yy
.

z,
. 1
xx , xy
: 1 = (xy )x/2 = xy yzx/2. , 3, -xy
: 3 = (xy )x/2 = xy yzx/2. , 2 yy
, yx : 2 = -(yx
49

)y/2 = -yx xzy/2. T, 4 2 = (yx )y/2 =- yx xzy/2. , :

= xy yzx- yx xyz = (xy - yx)a3.

(3.28)

,
:
T I

d z
,
dt

, , I m

(3.29)
a2
a2
a5
a 3

.
6
6
6

a 0 a
, a
. a 0 (xy - yx) = 0,
.
, :

xy yx

(3.30)

yz = zy , xz = zx,
.
3.3
3.3.1

:

(3.31)

50

 ,
= u. ,
= uu.


.
n
dS

d udV u dV
t
dt
V
V

uu.ndS .( uu )dV ,
S

Green (3.21) .
,
:

n.dS .dV .

.
.
:

gdV .

V
(3.31) ,
:

u
.( uu ) . g ]dV 0 ,
t

, ,
:

u
.( uu ) . g .
t

(3.32)

51

, ,
:

u
u

u
t
t
t
(3.20)
.( uu ) u.u .( u )u .

(3.32)

u
u

.( uu ) (
u.u ) u[
.( u )] ,
t
t

. , :

u
u.u ) . g .
t

(3.33)

Du
. g .
Dt

. .
,
,
( ).
,
.
3.3.2

, . , xy
= yz = zx , xx = yy = zz = -P. :

0
P 0

0 P 0 PI ,
0
0 P

(3.34)

.

xx, yy, zz

52

 . P
:
P

xx yy zz
3

(3.35)

. , :
0 xx P
xy
xz
P 0

0 P 0 yx
yy P
yz ,
0
0 P zx
zy
zz P

(3.36)

.
(3.36)
PI .

(3.37)

.

.
, ,
, ...

.
,
, , ,
.
.
:

ij (

u j
xi

u i
).
x j

(3.38)

[ u ( u )T ] .

(3.39)

.
u ( u )T .
:

[ u ( u )T ] (

2
)( .u )I ,
3

53

(3.40)

3.3.3 Navier-Stokes

:

PI [ u ( u )T ] ,

(3.41)

(3.33)
Navier Stokes,
1822 1845 . . :

. P [ .u .( u )T ] .

(3.42)

:
3

.u
i 1

3
3
3
3
3
3
3
u
2uk
2u

e i . k e j e k
ij e k 2k e k
xi j 1 k 1 x j
i 1 j 1 k 1 xi x j
i 1 k 1 xi

.u (
k 1

2uk 2uk 2uk

)e k 2 u .
2
2
2
x1
x2
x3

(3.43)

3
3 u
3
3
3
3
3
2u j
2 ui

j
.( u ) e i .
e j e k
ij e k
ek
i 1 xi
j 1 k 1 x k
i 1 j 1 k 1 xi x k
i 1 k 1 xi x k
3

3 u i
(
)e k ( .u ) 0 ,
k 1 x k
i 1 xi
3

.( u )T

(3.44)

.
(3.43-3.44) (3.42) :

. P 2 u ,
, NavierStokes:

u
u.u ) P 2 u g ,
t

(3.45)

. (3.45)
.
, ,
.u 0 .

. . (3.37) :

54

u
u.u ) P . g .
t

(3.46)

3.3.4 [ u ( u )T ]

u(x,y,t) ,
. Taylor
:
u( x , y ) u( 0,0 )

u
u
x
y ..
x
y

v( x , y ) v( 0 ,0 )

v
v
x
y ..
x
y

(0,0):

v x

y ux

v
x ,
v

u x.u .

(3.47)

, (3.47) :

1
2

1
2

u x . [ u ( u )T ] x. [ u ( u )T ] ,

u x.D x.

(3.48)

D .
.

(0,0), .
:

(3.48)

55

u = dx/dt = y v = dy/dt = -x.

: dx/dy = -y/x
dx2+dy2 = 0 (x2+y2) = .

,

.

.
.

,

.
D .
:

(3.49)

-
. u = dx/dt = x, v
= dy/dt = -y. (0,0)
. y
u =0
. x v = 0

y
.
x

x
.
.


u = dx/dt = x, v = dy/dt = -y.
:
dx/dy = -x/y dlnx+dlny=0 ln(xy) = . xy = .
.
.
, y ( y0)
y-. t
y- y0t. ,
56

 x , x
.
y
A

x-

x0t.
. ,
t

, .
y x,
.

D
. 2D
, .
3.3.5 Navier-Stokes
(x, y, z).

u x
u x
u x
u x
2u x 2u x 2u x
P
ux
uy
uz
)
( 2

) g x .
x-: (
t
x
y
z
x
x
y 2
z 2

u y

u y

u y

u y

2u y 2u y 2u y
P
ux
uy
uz
)
(

) g y .
y-: (
t
x
y
z
y
x 2
y 2
z 2
u z
u z
u z
u z
2u z 2u z 2u z
P
ux
uy
uz
)
( 2

) g z .
z-: (
t
x
y
z
z
x
y 2
z 2
(3.50)

x-: (
y-: (
z-: (

yx zx
u x
u
u
u

P
ux x u y x uz x )
( xx

) g x .
t
x
y
z
x
x
y
z
u y
t

ux

u y
x

uy

u y
y

uz

u y
z

xy yy zy
P
(

) g y .
y
x
y
z

yz zz

u z
u
u
u
P
ux z u y z uz z )
( xz

) g z .
t
x
y
z
z
x
y
z
(3.51)

57

 -
u y
u
u
xx 2 x ; yy 2
; zz 2 z .
x
y
z

xy yx (

u x u y

).
y
x

u x u z

).
z
x
u y u z
(

).
z
y

xz zx (

yz zy

(3.52)

(r, , z).

r-:

u r
u r u u r u2
u
(
ur

uz r )
t
r
r
r
z
2
P
1 ( rur )
1 ur
2 u 2 u r

[ (
) 2

] g r
r
r r r
r 2 r 2
z 2
-:

u
u u u u u
u
ur r u z )
t
r
r
r
z
2
1 P
1 ( ru )
1 u 2 ur 2u

[ (
) 2

2 ] g
r
r r r
r 2 r 2
z

z-:

u u z
u z
u
ur z
uz
t
r
r
( u z )
P
1
1

[
(r
) 2
z
r r
r
r

u z
)
z
2u z 2u z

] g z
2
z 2
(3.53)

58


r-:

ur
u u u u 2
u
ur r r u z r )
t
r
r
r
z
P
1 ( r rr ) 1 r rz

] gr
r
r r
r
r
z

-:

u
u u u u u
u
ur r u z )
t
r
r
r
z
2
1 P
1 ( r r ) 1 z

[ 2

] g
r
r
r
r
z

z-:
u z
u u u
u
ur z z u z z )
t
r
r
z
P
1 ( r rz ) 1 z zz

] gz
z
r r
r
z

(3.54)
-

rr 2

u r
u
1 u u r
; 2(
); zz 2 z .
r
r
r
z
u
1 u r
r r [r ( )
].
r r
r
u
1 u z
z z (
).
z r
u
u
rz zr ( r z ) .
z
r

(3.55)

59

 (r, , ).

r-:

u u r u2 u2
u r
u r u u r
(
ur

)
t
r
r r sin
r

u
P
2
2 u
2
2
[ 2 u r 2 u r 2 2 u cot 2
] g r
r
r
r r
r sin

-:
2
u u u r u
u
u
u u
2 u cot
ur

2
)
t
r
r r sin
r
r
r
u
1 P
2 u
2 cos u

[ 2 u 2 2 2 2
] g
r
r r sin r sin 2

-:
u

u u u r u u u
u u

cot )
t
r
r r sin
r
r
u
u r
1 P
2
2 cos u

[ 2 u 2
2
2
] g
2
r sin
r sin r sin r sin 2

ur

(3.56)
Laplace . (2.28)

1 2
1

1
2
(
r
)

(sin

.
r

r 2 r
r 2 sin
r 2 sin 2 2

60


r-:
u ur u2 u2
ur
ur u ur
(
ur

)
t
r
r r sin
r

P
1 ( r 2 rr )
1 ( r sin )
1 r
[ 2

] gr
r
r
r
r sin

r sin
r

-:
u
u u u u u
u
( ur r u z )
t
r
r
r
z
2
1 P
1 ( r r )
1 ( sin )
1 r cot

[ 2

] g
r
r
r
r sin

r sin
r
r
-:
u
u
u
u ur u u u
u u
( ur

cot )
t
r
r r sin
r
r
2
1 P
1 ( r r ) 1
1 r 2 cot

[ 2

] g
r sin
r
r
r
r sin
r
r

(3.57)

rr

-
u
1 u u r
1 u u r u cot
2 r ; 2(
); 2(

).
r
r
r
r sin
r
r
u
1 u r
( )
)] .
r r
r
sin ( u / sin )
1 u
[

].
r

r sin

r r [ r

r r [

( u / r )
1 u r
r
].
r sin
r
(3.58)

61

 4


4.1
,
Fick, Fourier Newton ,
, , ..
(, k, D), :

c P (

T
u.T ) k 2T q G ,
t

(4.1)

,
c A
u.c A D 2 c A R A ,
t

(4.2)

u
u.u ) P 2 u g ,
t

(4.3)

. :
.u 0

(4.4)

.
.
:

c P

DT Dc A
Du
;
;
Dt Dt
Dt

,
. ,
Laplace, .

.
, -. ,

.
.

62

,
, .
.

. ,
(.. , )
, (4.1) (4.2) :
0 k 2T q G ,

(4.5)

0 D 2 c A R A ,

(4.6)

Laplace, 2 0 ,
.
:

2 ,
t
:

ux

2 .
x

, , .. .

. ..
, :

d 2
1 d
d
0
0 2 0
(r
)0
2
r dr
dr
dx
2

(.. , , ..).
:

0 P 2 u g ,

(4.7)

.
.
,
.
, .
(creeping flows).
Laplace. ,
. (4.7) Laplace.

63

 ,
(..
, ).
(ideal potential flows).
Laplace .
,
,
.
.

.
4.2
4.2.1
, ,

. ,
, ,
: ()
, . = .
Dirichlet. ()
, . .n = .
Neumann. (). , ,
, . .n = .
Robin.


. ,

, -.
.
.

.
.
,
. ,
, , , .
, .

64




. ,
.
.

, .
4.2.2

, S, I
,
n, .
:

II

n
S

T I T II

S.

(4.8)

, 0, ,
Dirichlet : = 0 S.

.
, :

( q/A ) I .n ( q/A ) II .n .

(4.9)

, , :
k I T I .n k II T II .n .

x,
,
:

S
I

II
x

x0

(4.10)

kI

T I
T I
k II
, x = x0.
x
x

, q,
, Neumann:

kI

T I
q.
x

(4.11)

65

 .
, q (4.11)
.
.

, ..
,
(/)
II
n
.
.

S
:
I

k I T I .n k II T II .n ( H )( N/A ).n ,
.

,
, .
0 r .

(4.11)

.
r = 0
r = 0
. ,

.
:
1 d
dT
dT
dT c1
(r
)0r
c1
.
r dr dr
dr
dr
r

c1 = 0.

66

4.2.3


c AI c AII . ,
:

c AII

Pvap
RT

Pvap .
Raoult:

PAII Pvap x A ,
PAII , xA
.
Henry:

PAII Hx A ,
Henry.
.

,
(.. ).
(4.9),
:

( N/A ) I .n ( N/A ) II .n .

(4.12)

.. :

D I c AI .n D II c AII .n .

(4.13)

DII ~ 0 .
-.
.

:
DI

dc AI
kcAII ,
dx

Robin.
,
.

67

4.2.4
-

, ,
n t
. ,

, :

u.n 0

(4.14)

-.
, :
u.t 0 .

(4.15)

-.
, .
, ,
.
.
,
, :
ux = 0 uy = 0 y = 0.

,
r0 : ur = 0 , u = 0 uz = 0
r = r0. -
-.

, , :
u = u

(4.16)

, :
u = u.

(4.17)

68

 .
, ,
.

,
,
:

II
y
S

yxI yxI I

u xI
u II
II x
y
y

(4.18)

:
PI = PII,

(4.19)

<< ,
:

u xI
0.
y

.
,

II

.
,
R

PII
R, ..
.

.
PII
PI
,
I
PI
. ,

, .
.
:

P I ( R 2 ) P II ( R 2 ) ( 2R ) ,

P I P II

2R

(4.20)

69

, , R1
R2.
, , :
[ II .n I .n ] n(

1
1

).
R1 R2

(4.21)

PI .

70

 5

NavierStokes
5.1
,

.
, .

U0
,
yx
,
+
.
h
y

.
x

( u/ t 0 ),

(uy = uz = 0),
( u/ z 0 ) W z-
(W >> H).
.
:
.u 0

u x u y u z

0,
x
y
z

:
u x
0,
x

(5.1)

y. :
ux = ux(y).

(5.2)

A x- (
).
A x- :

71

u x
u x
u x
u x
2u x 2u x 2u x
P
(
ux
uy
uz
)
( 2

).
t
x
y
z
x
x
y 2
z 2

. ,
,
.
, (5.2),
y. :

d 2u x
.
dy 2

(5.3)

O (5.3) :

du x
c1
dy

ux

c1 y

(5.4)

c2 .

(5.5)

,
- .
y = 0, ux = 0 c2 0
y = h, ux = U0

c1h

U 0 c1

U 0
h

, , :
ux

U0 y
h

(5.6)

(5.4) :

yx

du x
U 0

dy
h

(5.7)

. yx
y (
) , ( -),
, ( +).

, . .

,
.

72


,
S :
h

U0 y
U h
dy 0 ,
h
2
0

Q uds udy
S

(5.8)

:
u

Q Q U0
.

S h
2

(5.9)

,


.
.
x = 0 P0 x = L
PL.

y=h
y
P0

PL

y = -h

, ( u/ t 0 ),
(uy = uz = 0),
( u/ z 0 ) W z-
(W >> H).
:
u x
0,
x

(5.10)

y. :
ux = ux(y).

(5.11)

y- y-
. :

u y
t

ux

u y
x

uy

u y
y

uz

u y
z

2u y 2u y 2u y
P
(

) g .
y
x 2
y 2
z 2

uy = 0, :

P
g 0 ,
y

(5.12)

73

P gy P m ( x ) .

(5.13)

. Pm,
,
(dynamic modified pressure).
.
x-:

u x
u
u
u
2u
2u x 2u x
P
ux x u y x uz x )
( 2x

).
t
x
y
z
x
x
y 2
z 2

,
.
y. :

2u x
P

.
x
y 2

(5.14)

x,
(5.11), :

dPm
d 2u x

.
dx
dy 2

(5.15)

x
y.
, c. (5.15)
:
dPm
c,
dx

(5.16)

d 2u x

c.
dy 2

(5.17).

(5.16)
c.

Pm cx c1 .
.
:
x = 0, P = P0 c1 = P0.
x = L, P = PL PL = cL + c1 ,

c = (PL-P0)/L = -P/L.
O (5.17) :
74

du x
cy
dy

u x

(5.18)

cy 2
c 2 y c3 .
2

(5.19)

,
- .
y = -h, ux = 0 0

ch 2
c 2 h c3
2

ch 2
y = h, ux = 0 0
c 2 h c3 ,
2

c2 0 c3

ch 2
2

:
ux

c
P 2
( y 2 h2 )
( h y2 )
2
2L

(5.20)

u max

P 2
h .
2L

(5.21)

(5.18) y:

yx

du x P

y
dy
L

(5.22)

, :

P h 2
P 2
y3 h
2Ph 3
2
Q uds udy
( h y )dy
[h y
] h
,
2L h
2L
3
3L
S
h
h

(5.23)
:

Q Q Ph 2

.
S 2h
3L

(5.24)

2/3 .

75



.
.
y
x
h
g

,
( u/ t 0 ),
(uy = uz = 0),

( u/ z 0 ).
:
u x
0,
x

(5.25)

y. :
ux = ux(y).

(5.26)

y- y-
. uy = 0,
:

P
g cos 0 ,
y

(5.27)

P gy cos P m ( x ) .

(5.28)

, y = h, .
Pm x.
x-.
.
. y
.

. :

d 2u x
g sin .
dy 2

(5.29)

. :

du x
g sin y c1
dy

(5.30)

76

u x g sin

y2
c1 y c2 .
2

(5.31)

.
- :
y = 0, ux = 0 c2 0 .
, ,
. :
y = h, yx = 0

du x
0 c1 gh sin ,
dy

ux

g sin
y2
( hy
)

(5.32)

u max

gh 2 sin
.

(5.33)

(5.31) y:

yx

du x
g sin ( y h )
dy

(5.34)

:
h

Q udy
0

g sin h
y2
g sin
y 2 y 3 h gh 3 sin
(
hy

)
dy

[
h

]0
,
0
2

2
6
3

Q gh 2 sin

.
h
3

(5.35)

, 2/3 .

77

P0 hII
PL
.
y

x
, (.
hI

),

L

.
hI hI, , .
,
.
. y-

Pm x. , x-
.

.
, :

dPm
d 2u I
,
I
dx
dy 2

(5.36)

dPm
d 2 u II
II
dx
dy 2

(5.37)

x y
, :
dPm
c P / L .
dx

du I
cy c1 ,
dy

(5.38)

du II
II
cy c3 .
dy

(5.39)

I u I c

y2
c1 y c2 ,
2

(5.40)

78

 II u II c

y2
c3 y c 4 .
2

(5.41)

.
.
y = -hI, uI = 0 c

hI2
c1 hI c2 0 .
2

hII2
y = hII, uII = 0 c
c3 hII c4 0 .
2

(5.42)
(5.43)

. :
y = 0, uI = uI c2/ = c4/,

(5.44)

:
y = 0, yxI yxII I

du I
du II
II
c1 c3 .
dy
dy

(5.45)

(5.42-5.45).
:

( I hII2 II hI2 )
,
c1 c3 c
2( I hII II hI )

c2 c I hI hII

hI hII
,
2( I hII II hI )

c4 c II hI hII

hI hII
.
2( I hII II hI )

. ,
, (5.45).

r
P0

r0
z

PL
L

r0,
.
.
z = 0 P0 z = L PL.

( u/ t 0 ), (ur = u = 0) , ,
( u/ 0 ).
:
79

 .u 0

u
1
1 u u z
( rur )

0 z 0.
r r
r
z
z

(5.46)

r: (uz = uz(r). A z-
.
z- , ,
r- -
. :

u u
u2
u r
u
u
P
ur r r u z r )

t
r
r r
z
r
r
u r
ur
1
1 2ur
2 u 2 u r
[
(r
) 2 2

] g sin
r r
r
r
r 2 r 2
z 2

u
u
u u
uu
u
ur r u z )
t
r
r
r
z
2
1 P
1 ( ru )
1 u
2 u r 2 u

[ (
) 2

] g cos
r
r r r
r 2 r 2
z 2

, :

P
g sin 0 ,
r

(5.47a)

1 P
g cos 0 ,
r

(5.47b)

P rg sin Pm ( z )

(5.48)

z-,
:

u
u z
u
ur z
t
r
r
u
1
1
[
(r z ) 2
r r
r
r

u z
uz
P
uz
)

z
z
2u z 2u z

]
2
z 2

, ,
r.
0

dP
u
du
P
1
1 d
[
( r z )] m [
( r z )] .
z
r r
r
dz
r dr
dr

80

(5.49)

 , z
r. :
dPm
c
dz
,

(5.50)

du
1 d
( r z )] c .
r dr
dr

(5.51)

A (5.50) :

P cz c1 ,
c c1:
z = 0, P = P0 c1 = P0.
z = L, P = PL PL = cL + P0 ,
, c =- (P0-PL)/L = -P/L

(5.52)

(5.51) :
du z
du z
du
1 d
r2
r c

(r
) c r
c c2 z c 2 ,
r dr
dr
dr
2
dr
2 r

(5.53)

u z c

r2
c2 ln r c3 .
4

(5.54)

- :
r = R, uz = 0 0 c

r02
c 2 ln r0 c3 .
4

, r = 0,
. .
c2 = 0.

uz

c
P 2
( r 2 r02 )
( r0 r 2 ) .
4
4L

(5.55)

:
u max

P 2
r0 .
4L

(5.56)

(5.53):

81

 rz

du z P r
,

dr
L 2

(5.57)

r.
.
:
r0

Q udS u 2rdr
S

P 4
r0 .
8L

(5.58)

. Hagen-Poiseuille,
19 .
, :
u

P 2
r0 .
8L

(5.59)

, .
5.2 E .

ur

r
u

a.

U0.
( )

.

Navier-Stokes ,
(
, ),
.

U0
,
. 0 P 2 u
, , .u 0 .

. ,
r .
:
P P0

3U 0 a
cos ,
2r 2

(5.60)

82

ur U 0 (1

3a a 3

) cos ,
2r 2r 3

(5.61)

3a a 3
u U 0 ( 1

) sin ,
4 r 4r 3

(5.62)

u 0 .

(5.63)

. , (n) =n.,
n = -PI .
n = er :
n. Pe r rr e r r e r e .

(5.64)

(3.58)
, :

rr 2

u r
r

r [ r

r [

0,
r a

3U 0
u
1 u r
( )
)]

sin ,
r r
r
2a
r a

( u / r )
1 u r
r
] 0.
r sin
r

(drag force)
:

FD n.dS Pe r dS r e dS .
S

, ,
(form drag) ,
, (friction drag).

, ,
, ez eR, er
e :
e r e z cos e R sin ,

e e z sin e R cos .
:

FForm Pe r dS ( P0
S

3U 0
3U 0
cos )e r dS
cos e r dS ,
2a
2a S

. :

83

FForm

3U 0
2a

cos ( e

cos e R sin )a 2 sin dd

0 0

eR
. .
:

FForm 3U 0 a cos sin e z d 3U 0 a cos 2 d cos e z

2

FForm 2U 0 ae z
(5.65)
, :

FFriction

3U 0
r e dS
2a
S

sin ( e

sin e R cos )a 2 sin dd

0 0

3U 0 a sin 2 ( sin e z )d
0

FFriction 4U 0 ae z
(5.66)
:
FD 6U 0 a .

(5.67)

(5.67) Stokes.
- , . .
5.3 NAVIER-STOKES

.

.
,

U0
.

L
.
y
,

x
.


.
Navier-Stokes:

84

u
(5.68)
u.u ) P 2 u ,
t
: U0, L,
, . ,
.

Navier-Stokes, x, y, t, u, P.
, .

L
( x , y ) ( x / L, y / L )

U0

u / U0
u

t0 = L/ U0

t t / t 0

P0 = U02

P/ P
P
0

, (5.68) :
( u U 0 )
1
1
1 2
U 0 ).
[
(u
( u U 0 )]
( PP0 ) 2
( u U 0 )
( t t 0 )
L
L
L

[(

U 0 u
U2
u ] ( P0 )
P ( U 0 )
2 u
) ( 0 )u .
2

t 0 t
L
L
L

U 02

U 02
U 2
u

(
)(
u.u ) (
)P ( 2 0 )
u

L
t
L
L

(5.69)
U0 /L
(5.68) , U0L/.

u
u
P
( )
2u
.
)
.
(
u
t
U 0 L
2

, ,
Reynolds:

Re

U 0 L

(5.70)

, , :

u
u
P
1
2u
.
)
.
(
u
(5.71)
t
Re


.
Reynolds. ,
85


,
. ,
, ,

Reynolds.
,
Reynolds .
U02/L . (5.69)

. U0/L 2

. ,
Reynolds, :

REYNOLDS

Reynolds

.
,
.
, : Re <<
1. Reynolds .
, Re >> 1 ,

.

86

4
,
,
. , ,
.
.

,
.
.

.
- .

,
, .
6.1 - .
.
y = 0.

- y 0,
. 0, t
= 0
1,
y

. ,

t

.

y-,

T0
T1
:

87

c P

T
2T
k 2 ,
t
y

T
2T
2 ,
t
y

(6.1)

.

. ,
y. ,
1% = 1 0 y1% = (t).


.
y/(t)

y/(t),
,
.

= y/ (t),
0.3
0

68

100

.

(6.2)
= y/ ta,

a ..
(6.1) a 1/2.

.

. y t
. :
T dT
dT
1 y
dT
,

(
)
( 3/ 2 )
t d t
d 2 t
2t d
T dT
dT 1

(
)
(
),
y d y
d t 1 / 2

2T
dT 1
d dT 1
d 2T 1

(
)

(
)

( ).
d d y t 1 / 2 d 2 t
y 2 y d t 1 / 2
(6.1) :

88

dT a d 2T

2t d t d 2

d 2T dT
a 2
0
2 d
d

(6.3)

, .
.
(6.3).
:
dT
exp( 2 / 4a ) ,
d
:
n

T T1 exp( 2 / 4a )d .
0

0.
:
T T0 ( T1 T0 )[ 1

x y /

4 at

2
exp( x )d x ] ,

x 0

T T0
y
y
[ 1 erf (
)] erfc(
),
T1 T0
4at
4at

(6.4)

erf(x) (error function) erfc(x)

.
(.. Abramowitz and Stegun, Handbook of Mathematical Functions).
6.2 .
.

2H y

(x)

x
T0

x=0 T1

.
0,
, x = 0,
1,
.

89

ux U 0 [ 2

y
y
( )2 ] .
H
H

(6.5)

U0 .
x = 0 o
. (x).

,
. << .
, . y
(x), .
,
.
:

c P u x

T
2T 2T
k( 2 2 ) .
x
x
y

(6.6)

(x),
.
, U0(y/H)2
2U0y/H y << . :

u x 2U 0

y
y ,
H

(6.7)

.
y, x.
1 0 , x L.
. :

T T

T T
.

x
L

:
T
T
T
T
O(
)
O(
).
y

x
L

(6.8)

(order of magnitude).
:

90

T
T
.

x
y

2T
T
2T
T

O
(
)
O( 2 ) .
2
2
2
y

x
L

(6.9)

2T
2T
,

x 2
y 2
y-
x-.

(6.6)
. (6.6) :

T
2T
y
a 2 .
x
y

(6.10)

x- y.

(6.10):

T
T
O(
),
x
L

(6.11)

2T
T
a 2 O( a 2 )
y

(6.12)

. (6.11-6.12) :

3 O( aL / )

O( aL / )1 / 3 ,

.
L ,
, :

( x ) O( ax / )1 / 3 .

(6.13)

91

, . x

y/(x).
, x y, :

y / x1 / 3 .
.
. :

T
y dT 2T
1 d 2T
.
4/ 3
; 2 2/ 3
x
d y
3x
x
d 2
(6.12) :

d 2T 2 dT

0,
d
d 2 3

(6.14)

.
:

T T0 ( T1 T0 )

( 1 / 3,

y 3

)
9ax ,
(1 / 3 )

(6.15)

() (,) .
. (
: (1+n) = n!, .)
,
.
:

T
3L2 1 / 3
1
Q k dx kT (
)
,
y

2 ( 1 / 3 )
0
L

(6.16)

(1/3) = 2.679. ,
,
.
6.3
, U0,
,
, .
-
.
.

92

,


.
y

(x)
x

L
,



.
.
.
,
x- :

ux

u x
u
2u
2u x
u y x ( 2x
),
x
y
x
y 2

(6.17)

u x u y

0.
x
y

(6.18)

(x) << L,
y x. E
:

u x
U
2u
U
O( 0 ); 2x O( 20 );
y

(6.19)

u x
U 0 2u x
U
O(
); 2 O( 20 )
x
L
x
L
, :

2u x
2u x

,
x 2
y 2

(6.20)

x-
. , x- :

ux

u x
u
2u x
uy x
,
x
y
y 2

(6.21)

93


y-.
V uy.
, :
u y
u x
U
V
) O(
) O( 0 ) O( )
x
y
L

.
U 0
V O(
)
L
O(

(6.22)

, ,
. (6.21)
.

u x
U2
O( 0 );
x
L
.
u x
U 0V
U 02
uy
O(
) O(
)
y

ux

(6.23)

.
,
y-. :
U 02
U
) O( 20 )
L

.
L 1 / 2
O(
)
U0
O(

, x, , :

( x ) O(

x
U0

)1 / 2 .

(6.24)

,
.
, . ,

y/(x). Blasius :

y
x

1/ 2

U0

)1 / 2

(6.25)

u x U 0 f ' ( ) ,

(6.26)

94

 .
uy :
1 U
u y ( 0 )1 / 2 ( f ' f ) .
2 x

(6.27)

(6.26-6.27) x- Blasius
f:

f '''

1 ''
ff 0 ,
2

(6.28)

:
f f ' 0 0
f ' 1

(6.28) Blasius. -
.

(.. Schlichting, Boundary layer theory).
f ,
ux , f f, uy.
. 6.1 =4.9, f = 0.99.
:

( x ) 5(

x
U0

)1 / 2 .

6.1
.

uy . 6.2.

95

 6.2

, ,
. .
:

u x
du
U

( x )(
)
U 0 f '' ( 0 )( 0 )1 / 2 .
y
d y y 0
x

f(0) 0.332, :

0 0.332U 0 (

U 0 1/ 2
)
x

(6.29)

. :
L

FD 0 dx 0.332U 0 (
0

U0

1/ 2

1
1/ 2

dx ,

:
FD 0.664U 0 (

U0L

)1 / 2 .

(6.30)

.
3/2. ,

,
.

96

 7

7.1
7.1.1
,
5, , 6.

.

,
.
laminar flows. ,
. ,
.
, , .
, .
. 7.1
.
()

()

()

()

()

7.1 . () , ()
, () , () , () .

97

 Reynolds.
Reynolds
. Reynolds
, ,
.
, Reynolds,
. ,

,
.
.
,

, . 7.2.
Osborne Reynolds 1883.
,
,
.
,
,
.
Reynolds
2100.

7.2 Reynolds. ,

7.1.2

,
. 7.3.
.

98

 7.3 .

, ..
.

,
. ,
, .. , ,
, .
. ,
, ,
.
. O
:

1
u( t )
T

t T / 2

udt ,

(7.1)

t T / 2

.
, . 7.3,

. ,
(7.1) .

, .. P , T ,
c A .

. , :

99

u u u' ,

(7.2)

P P P' ,

(7.2)

T T T' ,

(7.2)

c A c A c A' .

(7.2)

' '
' 0.

(7.3)

7.2
REYNOLDS
,

.
,
,
.
Navier-Stokes ,
2
(2.50) (2.83).
.
7.2.1
.u 0 (7.2) :
.( u u' ) 0 .u .u' 0 .

(7.4)

(7.1), ..

( .u )

1
T

t T / 2

( .u )dt .

t T / 2

, :

1
( .u ) .(
T

t T / 2

u dt ) .u .u .

t T / 2

100

(7.5)

.u' .(

1
T

t T / 2

u' dt ) .u' 0 .

(7.6)

t T / 2

(7.5-7.6) (7.4) :
.u 0 .

(7.7)

, .
. NavierStokes -
, .
7.2.2 Navier-Stokes
:

u
u.u ) P 2 u g
t

( u u' )
( u u' ).( u u' )] ( P P' ) 2 ( u u' ) g ,
t

.
:

g g ,

2 ( u u' ) 2 ( u u' ) 2 u 2 u' 2 u ,

( P P' ) ( P P' ) P P' P .
:
( u u' ).( u u' ) u .u u .u' u'.u u'.u' .

u .u u .u ,
u .u' u .u' 0 ,

u'.u u'.u 0 ,
u'.u' .u' u' u' ( .u' ) .u' u'

.
:
( u u' ) ( u u' ) u

.
t
t
t

101

 ,
. , Navier-Stokes
:

u
u .u ) P 2 u .u' u' g
t

(7.8)

u' u' ,
(t) ,
. , -(t)

Reynolds (Reynolds stress tensor). (7.8)
:

u
u .u ) P . g ,
t

(7.9)

:
(m) (t ) .

(7.10)

. ,

,


. ,
,


.

7.2.3 Reynolds
,
:

c P (

T
u .T ) k 2T c P .u' T' q G .
t

102

(7.11)

 c P u' T' ,
:
(q/A)(t) = c P u' T' .
, :
(

c A
u .c A ) D 2 c A .u' c A ' R A ,
t

(7.12)

:
(J/A)(t) = u' c A ' .
7.2.4 Boussinesq
Reynolds ,

, .

,
.

closure problem.
, ,
Boussinesq, :

(yxt ) ( t )

du x
du
( t ) x ,
dy
dy

(7.13)

(t) . , (t)
.
, :
( q / A )(y t ) c P a ( t )

dT
,
dy

(7.14)

( J / A )(y t ) D ( t )

dc A
.
dy

(7.15)

a(t) D(t)
H(t) (t).
:
(t) = a(t) = D(t) ,

(7.16)

Reynolds.

103


Boussinesq Reynolds.

.
Prandtl.
Reynolds
, .
, Reynolds
.
(closure problem).
1
k = u'.u' ,
2
( ), u' : u' ,

.
k.
7.3
7.3.1
5,

. , . 7.4,

.

7.4 .

104


, y = 1 - r/R,
:
u u max y 1 / n ,

(7.17)

n 7 Reynolds,
. 7.5.
.

7.5
Reynolds (7.17).

7.3.2 Reynolds
Reynolds ,
.
z u / z 0
. ,
, u / u 0 . ,
r. Reynolds.
A :
1 ru r 1 u u z

0
r r
r
z
,
ru r
0
r

u r 0 , :

ur 0 ,

(7.18)

r.
,
Reynolds r- :

105

P
1 ( r rr )
[

]
r
r r
r

, , ,
. Reynolds
r. :
P
1 ( r rr )
[

]
r
r r
r
r

P [
R

1 ( r rr )

]dr Pw ( z ) ,
r r
r

(7.19)

Pw ( z ) ,
.
z-. , .
:

P
1 ( r rz )
[
]
z
r r

dPw
1 ( r rz )
[
].
dz
r r

(7.20)

, z r.
:

dPw
c,
dz
1 d( r rz )
[
] c
r dr

(7.21)

:
Pw cz c1 ,

(7.22)

:
c1 = P0 c =- P/L.
, (2) (5) :
P

P
L

z P0 [
R

1 ( r rr )

]dr .
r r
r

(7.23)

z r Reynolds, .
(7.21) ,
, :

106

1 d
r rz c r rz cr 2 / 2 c2 rz cr / 2 c2 / r ,
r dr

r = 0 c2 = 0.
:

rz

P r
L 2

(7.24)

, ,
r. 0 :

P R
L 2

(7.25)

, (7.25) :

rz rz( m ) rz( t ) 0

r
R

(7.26).

. 7.6,
. ,
- , ,
.
Reynolds.

7.6 .

107

, , . 7.7.
(viscous sublayer),
. ,
(turbulent core) ,
. ,
(buffer layer).

r=R
7.7
.

7.3.3 Prandtl


u
+
.
y

l
Prandtl,
y0
.
l
, ,
y
y0,
.
l. ,
y+ x- y0 , ,
y- .
du
, l

dy
x- y0.
108

y+ y- y- y Prandtl y- ,
du
l
. :
dy

u 'x u 'y l 2 (

du 2
) .
dy

,
,

, :

y+
y0
y-

(7.27)

l
l

u 'x u 'y l 2 (

du 2
) .
dy

(7.28)

, , (7.27-7.28) :

u 'x u 'y l 2

du du
(
).
dy dy

(7.29)

yx u 'x u 'y l 2

du du
du
(
) ( t ) (
),
dy dy
dy

(t ) l2

du
.
dy

(7.30)

, Prandtl
.
.
, l,
, .
, , Prandtl
l
y
, :
l = y,

(7.31)

Prandtl.

109

 , :

(t ) 2 y2

du
.
dy

(7.32)

7.3.4 Prandtl
(7.26) ,
:

rz 0

r
du
,
( ( t ) )
R
dr

(7.33)

0 . y = R r,
(7.32)
Prandtl , :

0 (1

y
du du
) ( 2 y 2
)

R
dy dy

du
(1 y / R )
( 0 )
.
dy

2 2 du
y
dy

(7.34)

.
.

, y/R << 1,
. (7.34)
:

1
y
du
( 0 ) u ( 0 ) .
dy

(7.35)

.

,

. , y
. , (7.34) :

110


du
( 0 )
dy

1
du
2 y2
dy

1
du 2
1
du
.
) ( 0 ) 2 2
0
dy
y
dy
y

:
u

0 1
ln y B' ,

(7.36)

.
.

0 / ,

u*.
0 (7.25) .
u*
:
u (

0 y
y
u*
u
y
.
) u*2 u* (
)y

u* / u*

/ u * l*.
:

u y ,

,
(7.37)

u u / u * y y / l * .
,

:

ln y B .

(7.38)

= 0.4 = 5.5.

y .

,
,

111

 , ,
, .. , (7.37-7.38)
(universal velocity profile)
.
:

u y

y 5

( )

u 5 ln y 3.05

5 y 30

( )

u 2.5 ln y 5.5

30 y

( )
(7.39)

. 7.7.

7.7
.

,
,
. .

, .
, Prandtl
,
.

112

 , k-,
k1/2 /k.
: (t) = ck3/, c .
k
.

113

 8

8.1

. ,
,
.

, , , ...
, ..
.
race car aerodynamics
sports aerodynamics


.

, .. , ,
(.. , ).

(..
).

.


.
,

.
.


.
, - ,
.
,

, .. , , ,
(, , , .).

114


, ,
, .
F ~ PA .

(8.1)

,
.

.

1
U 2 ,
2

(8.2)

U .

.
.
. 5. U
L (..
) (U2/L).

(/L).
Reynolds
, .
,
. (8.2).
1/2U2
. 8.1
.
, ,
1/2U2 P0
. ,
,
1/2U2 P0.
.
,
Reynolds
1/2U2.
.
( )
. DAlembert.

115

8.1

U2/2 (8.1).
,
cD. :

FD c D

1
U 2 A ,
2

(8.3)

D drag
cD .


. ,
, ,
5 .
, .
,
:

FL c L

1
U 2 A .
2

(8.4)

(lift)
.
.

(.. ).

116

,

.

F f

1
U 2 A ,
2

(8.5)

f .
8.2

.
. 5
(5.67):

FD 6U 0 a 3U 0 D .

(5.67)

(8.3), D2/4,

cD

24
24
,

UD Re

(8.6)

, , Re <<1.
. (8.6)
Reynolds (perturbation analysis).
Oseen (. Van Dyke, Perturbation Methods in
Fluid Mechanics)

cD

24
3
( 1 Re) .
Re
16

(8.7)

Reynolds , (. Clift, Grace
and Weber,Bubbles, Drops and Particles). Reynolds
. Re 20
,
Re = 130 .

8.2

117

8.2
Reynolds () 37.7, () 73.6, () 118 () 550, .

Reynolds, 550
.
,
.
Reynolds 8.3.
Reynolds (500<Re<2x105)
0.44
13%.


0.07 Re = 4x105 (. Clift, et. al). drag crisis.

118

 8.3 ,
Reynolds.

.
:

cD

24
4
1 / 2 0.40 ,
Re Re

(8.8)

20% Re < 3x105,

cD

24
( 1 0.15 Re 0.687 ) 0.42( 1 4.25x10 4 Re 1.16 )1
Re

(8.9)

6% Re < 3x105.

Reynolds
(Van Dyke,
Perturbation Methods in Fluid Mechanics)

cD

8
7.406 1
[log(
)] .
Re
Re

(8.10)

Reynolds

.
Re > 5.
Re > 30 Re ~ 40

119

 Von Karman. ( 8.4) Re ~ 2500.

.

8.4
Reynolds () 26, () 140 () 2000, .
(Jeju
Island) . (1900 .)

Reynolds
8.5.

Reynolds (. Clift et al.)

c D 9.689 Re 0.78 ( 1 0.147 Re 0.82 )

(0.1 < Re < 5)

(8.11)

c D 9.689 Re 0.78 ( 1 0.227 Re 0.55 )

(5 < Re < 40)

(8.11)

c D 9.689 Re 0.78 ( 1 0.0838 Re 0.82 )

(40 < Re < 400)

(8.11)

120

 8.5 ,
Reynolds.

121

 8.6
Reynolds.

8.3

,
.
,
. Boundary-Layer theory H.
Schlichting.

r
D
z 0
P0
.
PL
L
D, .
L
P0 , PL,
, 0.
-rz.
,
.

.

.
122

P0 S PL S 0 A 0 P0

D 2
4

PL

D 2
4

0DL 0 ,

(8.12)

P0 PL P

4 0 .
L
L
D

(8.13)

(. 8.5)
:

F 0DL f F

1
U 2DL ,
2

(8.14)

U .

0 fF

1
U 2
2

(8.15)

P
L

4 fF

1
U 2 / D .
2

(8.16)

fF Fanning.
,
4, :

P
L

fD

1
U 2 / D .
2

(8.17)

fD Darcy

1
f D 4 f F 0 f D U 2 .
8

(8.18)

8.3.1
Reynolds ~2100 ,
, ,

. .
5.1. :
u

P 2 2
( r0 r ) ,
4L

(5.55)

P 2
D ,
32L

(5.59)

123

P D
L 4

(5.57)

(8.13)
(8.12). (5.59)
(8.17) :

P
L

32

U
D

64

1
UD 2

U 2 / D

64 1
U 2 / D .
Re 2

(8.19)

, Darcy:

fD

64
.
Re

(8.20)

, ,
,
Reynolds.
8.3.2
. 7,

.

Blasius 1911.

f D 0.3164 Re 1 / 4 ,

(8.21)

. 2 . 8.7

4000 < Re < 105, .
Reynolds .

124

 8.7
. 1 , 2 Blasius 3
Prandtl.

(8.17)
7/4.
, .

.
-, -
Prandtl 1935. ,
. 6
,

u* 0 / .

(8.22)

,
Reynolds.
Prandtl Reynolds

,
.
(7.38).

.

125

u
0

2rdr
,

R 2

(8.23)

U
Ru *
[ 2.5 ln(
) 1.75 ] .
u*

(8.24)

u* 0 /

fD
U 2
8

u*

8
.
fD

(8.25)

ln

Ru *

ln

DU f D

2 8

ln(

DU f D

) ln

1
2 8

ln Re

f D 1.732 .

(8.24)

1
2.03 log Re
fD

f D 0.91 ,

(8.26)

Prandtl
.
Reynolds
. 8.7 ( 3)
Reynolds 3.4x106.

1
2 log Re f D 0.8 .
fD

(8.27)

Prandtl. (Prandtls universal law of friction

for smooth pipes).


. , McKeon, Zagarola, Smits (Journal of
Fluid Mechanics, 2005)
3x104 < Re < 108

126

1
1.93 log Re
fD

f D 0.537 .

(8.28)

8.3.3


.
,

.
,
.
.

.

.

.


.
,
.
Nikuradse
,

.
Nikuradse 1933

,
.
ks/R 1/500
1/15, ks R .

Reynolds
ks/R.
Nikuradse . 8.8, /d = ks/R
.

127

 8.8 Nikuradse
.

Reynolds
(I, II, III)
(IV)
Reynolds (V).
Reynolds
.
Reynolds

,
.
Nikuradse
l*
, l* =/u*,
(. 7). ks/l* = ks+ < 5,

. 5 < ks+,
(5 <
y+ < 30). , ks+ > 70,

.



.

128

 Reynolds,
.
Nikuradse

u
yu *
2.5 ln
B,
u*

(8.29)

ks+.

B 8.5 2.5 ln

ksu *

(8..30)

,
u

u
y
2.5 ln 8.5 ,
u*
ks

(8.31)

Reynolds
.
,
Prandtl .

Reynolds
.
(8.23)
:

U u * ( 2.5 ln

R
4.75 ) ,
ks

(8.32)

(8.26)

1
fD

2.03 log

R
1.68 .
ks

(8.33)

Nikuradse:

1
fD

2 log

R
1.74 .
ks

(8.34)

(, , , )

129

 Nikuradse.

Reynolds .

Nikuradse . Moody 1944

, /D,
Nikuradse
.
. 8.9 .

8.9 A Moody .

130

 Moody
. 8.10.

8.28
8.34.
Colebrook 1938 . 8.28
8.34.

1
fD

( 2 log Re

f D 0.8 ) ( 2 log

D/ 2

1.74 ) ,

(8.35)

Reynolds
. Colebrook

1
/D
2.51
2 log(

).
3.7
fD
Re f D

(8.36)

Moody
.
10%.

131

 8.10 Moody
Reynolds .

132

8.4

.
,

. o
(deep-bed filtration),

.
, ..


.
(, ),
. ,

,

.
,
.
,

. ,
,

,
,

.

.

, ..

.

.

.

.
,
,
,

133


.
D L

d, .
d

.
Uo
(superficial velocity). Uo
L
,

.


D
. Ue
Uo/.


De
,

.

L
.



.
D


,
. ,
n De.

- .
n De
, :
:
V

D 2
4

L,

(8.37)

Ve V

D 2
4

L.

(8.38)

134

 , Vp = V - Ve ,
:
np

3
D2

(
1

)
L.
d 3 / 6 2
d3
Vp

(8.39)

-:
3
D2
Ap n p d 2 ( 1 )
L .
2
d

(8.40)

Vm n

De2
4

L,

(8.41)

Am nDe L .

(8.42)

2
De (
)d ,
3 1

(8.43)

9 D 2 ( 1 )2
.
4 d2

(8.44)

. :
Q U0

D 2
4

(8.45)

Q nU e

De2
4

(8.46)

Ue U0 / .

(8.47)

Reynolds :

Re

U e De
U 0 d

( 1 )

(8.48)

135


Reynolds
Re, (. 8.20).
:

P
L

1
1 1
U e2 / De ~
U e2 / De
2
Re 2

(8.49)

P
L

1 ( 1 )2
U0 .
d2
3

(8.50)

.

.
.
:

P
L

150 ( 1 )2
U0 ,
d2
3

(8.51)

Re < 10 < 0.5. Blake-Cozeny

Carman-Cozeny.
, Reynolds
,
Reynolds,
. :

P
L

1
1
U e2 / De ~ U e2 / De
2
2

(8.52)

P
L

U 02 ( 1 )
.
d
3

(8.53)

. Re >
1000

P
L

1.75

U 02 ( 1 )
.
d
3

(8.54)

Burke-Plummer.
Ergun,
Colebrook
Moody.
Blake-Cozeny Burke-Plummer.

136


. Ergun :

P
L

U 02 ( 1 )
150 ( 1 )2
.
U

1
.
75
0
d
d2
3
3

(8.55)

8.11 Ergun
.

8.11
Ergun.

137

 9

9.1.
,
, u, e, h, u, 1/2u2, , , ,
, .
, .. u, u, uu, eu, 1/2u2u, ,
, , .
, ,
.

. ,

, .. ,
.
,
,
, , .

. ,
,

.
, ,


,

,

.

.
(.. ,
) . ,
/
, ,
.

.

138

9.2.
9.2.1

S1
u1
S2
u2

, ,

.
.
, ,
:

.
:

dm dV

1 u1 S1 2 u 2 S 2 ,
dt
dt

(9.1)

V , , 1 2
, <u> S .
9.1: ,
S n,
, u.ndS , u.ndS

u.ndS .
S

9.1. .
: Va = 971 km/h,
: S1 = 0.8 m2,
mf
: : S2 = 0.558 m2,
u1

: V = 1050 km/h,
u2
: a =
0.736 kg/m3, :
= 0.515 kg/m3.
.
S2
,
S1

139

 . <u1> = 0 +
Va = 971 km/h <u2> = V + Va = 2021 km/h.
:
f 2 u2 S 2 ,
0 1 u1 S1 m

m f , . ,
:
m f = 0.515x2021000x0.558-0.736x971000x0.8 = 9050 kg/h

9.2.2
, , :

N OKO

.
, , :
M =

d
udV .
dt V

S1
u1

x,
,
:

-x =( 1<u1>)(<u1>S1) = 1<u1>2S1,

.

140

 S1

n1,

<u> = -<u1>n1. :

S1
n1

u1

= (- 1<u1>n1)(<u1>S1) = - 1<u1>2S1 n1,

S2
n2, <u> = <u2>n2,
:

S2
n2

u2

= ( 2<u2>n2)(<u2>S2) = 2<u2>2S2 n2.

9.2: , S

uu.ndS .
S

u = un,
:

uu.ndS ( unun ).ndS u

S

ndS u 2 Sn .

. ,
, . ,
u = umax(y/R)1/7,
. : <u2> = 1.02<u>2.

,
, , .
:

FP1 P1 S1n1 .
,

FP 2 P2 S 2 n2 .
.
Fs
.

141

, . :
Fg mg .

,
:
0 ( 1 u1 2 P1 )S1n1 ( 2 u 2 2 P2 )S 2 n2 Fs mg

(9.2)

9.3: dS n
dF .ndS , PI .

Fs PndS .ndS .

, Fs
.
, ..

S2
. ,
P0

,
,
.
:
S1
Fa P0 ndS .
S
S

,
:

Fa P0 n1dS P0 n2 dS .
S1

S2

, F = -Fs
+ Fa, :
Fo [ 1 u1 2 ( P1 P0 )] S1n1 [ 2 u 2 2 ( P2 P0 )] S 2 n2 mg (9.3)

,
.

142

 9.2
.
u1
0.6 L/s,
k
464 kPa
S1
.
16 mm
5 mm.
.

S2

1 2,
.
:
Q = <u1>S1 =<u2>S2 ,
:

u2

u1

Q
0.6 x10 3 m 3 / s

2.98m / s
D12 / 4 x( 0.016 )2 / 4

u 2

Q
0.6 x10 3 m 3 / s

30.56m / s
D22 / 4 x( 0.0056 )2 / 4

,
. (9.3) :

Fo [ 1 u1 2 ( P1 P0 )] S1n1 [ 2 u 2 2 ( P2 P0 )] S 2 n2 mg ,

n1 = k n2 = -k. :
F=-[1000x2.982+464000]x(0.016)2/4k - [1000x30.562+0]x(0.005)2/4(-k)
F = -76.7k N.
, 8 .

.

143

9.2.3

, e, , u2,
.
:

YPEYH

ENEEIA

ENEEIA ENEEIA
( ET . KIN . YN .)
.
EPO

EMOTHTA

OY POEPETAI

N OKO

N OKO

, ,
:
. =

d
1
( e u 2 gz )dV

dt V
2

. = [ 1 ( e1

1
u1 2 gz1 )]( u1 S1 ) ,
2

. :
. = [ 2 ( e2

1
u 2 2 gz 2 )]( u 2 S 2 ) ,
2

9.4:
S

( e 2 u

gz )u.ndS .

, u = un, :

( e 2 u
S

1
1
gz )u.ndS ( e u 2 gz )udS [ e u u 3 gz u ] S .
2
2
S

.
u = umax(y/R)1/7 : <u3> = 1.06<u>3.
.

144


Q
.
.

:
)
. :
= ,

/. = x .
, ,
, :

W1 P1 S1 u1 ,

W 2 P2 S 2 u 2 .
)
(.. , , , ),
W s .
.
9.5: dS n
dF .ndS , PI . ,
dW dF.u Pu.ndS ( .u ).ndS

S Ws Pu.ndS ( .u ).ndS .
S

0 [ 1 ( e1

P
1
u1 2 gz1 1 )]( u1 S1 )
2
1

P
1
[ 2 ( e2 u 2 2 gz1 1 )]( u 2 S 2 ) Q W s
2
2

(9.4)

, e + P/ , h,
<u>S , m , .
, :

145

0 m [( h1

1
1
u1 2 gz1 ) ( h2 u 2 2 gz 2 )] Q W s .
2
2

(9.5)

.
:
h Q .
0m

(9.6)

9.3.
, ,
15 , 1 . 50 L
,
;


,
.

.

.

.
100%

. Q W s
.
:

dVe
Q Ws ,
dt
:

Vc p

Q W s
dT
Q W s T
t o
dt
Vc p

2 x750W
x900( s ) 6.4 o C
50( kg )x 4200( J / kg / K )

146

9.2.4
,
.
,
.
m
, :

du
mg ,
dt

dz
.
dt

u :

mu

du
mgu ,
dt

du
dz
mg
dt
dt
2
1 du
dz
m
mg .
2
dt
dt
d 1
( mu 2 mgz ) 0
dt 2

mu

. ,
,
.
, F, :

d 1
( mu 2 mgz ) Fu ,
dt 2

,
Fu < 0, .

- ( ).
,
.
, :

147

u.

Du
P .u ( . ).u g.u .
Dt

D 1 u2
Du
2 .
u.

Dt
Dt
z-

g gk gz ,

= gz .
(. /t = 0) :

u. u.

t
Dt

D( 1 u 2 )
2

P .u ( . ).u ,
Dt

(9.7)

.
:
P .u .( Pu ) P.u .

.
, .. .
.
.
( . ).u .( .u ) : u .

.

.
, :

( 1 u 2 )
2
.[ ( 1 u 2 )u ] .( Pu ) P.u .( .u ) : u .
2
t

148

(9.8)

 - : u
.

9.6:
.
U0 , u =
U0y/h,
0 = U0/h,
U
0
0
yx = -du/dy
= -0. U00
h y

,
x

.
x- :

d yx
dy

0,

d yx

dy

du yx
dy

yx

du yx
du
du du
0
(
)
dy
dy
dy dy

y- :
h

( u yx ) (
h

U 0 0 (
0

du 2
) dy
dy

du 2
) dy
dy

.

.

.

(9.8).
Green.
- .
.
,
149

 -
, Ws 9.5. ,

Ec , .
:
0(

P
P
1
1
u1 2 gz1 1 )1 u1 S1 ( u 2 2 gz 2 2 ) 2 u 2 S 2
2
1
2
2

(9.9)

E c Ws

1 u1 S1 2 u 2 S 2 m ,
:
0(

P
P
1
1
u1 2 gz1 1 ) ( u 2 2 gz 2 2 ) E' c W ' s ' ,
2
1
2
2

(9.10)

.
Bernoulli.

. . (9.9) ,
Q u1 S1 u 2 S 2 , Bernoulli :
1
1

0 ( u1 2 gz1 P1 ) ( u 2 2 gz 2 P2 ) W
s
2
2

(9.11)

.

Bernoulli :
2

0(

1
1
dP
u 2 2 gz 2 ) ( u1 2 gz1 )
W ' s ' ,
2
2

(9.12)

,

.
:

PMB
~P
RT

:
P

. ~ P1 / .

cP/cV.
(9.12)
150

1
dP
d u 2 gdz
dWs d .
2

(9.13)

9.7: (9.12) :


. s
dV =
S2
S(s)ds, .

S(s)

S1

d
.[ ( 1 u 2 )u ] [ ( 1 u 2 )u ]
2
2
ds

.[ ( 12 u

dV

)u ] Sds d [ ( 1 u 2 gz )uS ]
2

.( Pu )Sds d ( PuS ) .

(9.14)

dV

.u

.u (

).u ,

P.uSds PuSd ( ) m Pd ( )

dV

1 2 ,
. (9.8) .
:
2

d ( PuS ) P2 u 2 S 2 P1u1 S1 m (
1

P2

P2

P1

).

P1

) m

:
2

m Pd (
1

) m d (
1

) m
1

dP

) m (

dP

(9.15)

(9.15), (9.12).

151

152

9.2.5
( Torricelli)
.



S1
. :
h

S2
z

u1 S1 u 2 S 2 ,
S1 >> S2 u1 << u2.

:

1
1
2
2
.
( u 2 gz 2 P2 ) ( u1 gz1 P1 ) W
s
2
2

,
, , .

u 2 2 gh ,

(9.16)

Torricelli. ,
.

:
Q uS ,

S .

. , ,
S = S2 , S < S2.

153

) Borda

(contraction coefficient)
:

Q Cc uS 2 ,

(9.17)

o 0.5 < Cc < 1. Borda Cc = 0.5,

.

u1

n1

,
, :

n2

Fs
z

u2

S1

u1 u 2

S2

:
( u12 P1 )S1n1 ( u 22 P2 )S 2 n2 Fs mg 0 ,

n1 = -ez n2 = ez Fs = -Fez
. :
F ( P1 P2 )S ( P1 P2 )

D 2
4

, :
F fF

f 1
1 2
u ( DL ) D u 2 ( DL ) ,
2
4 2

P1 P2 f D

1 2 L
u
.
2
D

154

1
1
2
2
,
( u 2 gz 2 P2 ) ( u1 gz1 P1 ) W
s
2
2

:
1
L
P1 P2 f D u 2 .
2
D

.
,
:

f Di
i

L
1
u i 2 i .
2
Di

, , , , ,
, ,
k.
:

1
2

k u 2 .

:
1
2

( u 2 gz P ) W s f Di
i

L
1
1
u i 2 i k j u j 2 ,
2
Di
2
j

(9.18)

.
.

:
2 ft .

, 100 psi.
70 F
40 ft/s
10 (16 km).

.
:

P1 MB ( 100 / 14.7 )x16

4.51 kg/m3.
RT
0.082 x 294.1

155

 :
u1 = 40x.3048 = 12.19 m/s
:
S = (2x0.3048)2/4 = 0.292 m2.
:
uS = 16.05 kg/s.
m

dL
:
1 2 dP
du
d ' ,
2

d ' f D

1 2 dL
.
u
2
D

O Reynolds , ,
, .
. ,
Reynolds . :
Re

uD uS D m D
.

S S

= 1.09 kg/m/s
Re = 3x106.
, Moody :
fD = 0.01.
:
1 2 dP
1 dL
du
fD u2
0,
2

2
D

,
L.
uS .
m
2
(S) :

156

1 2 2 2
1
dL
S du S 2 dP f D ( uS ) 2
0
2
2
D
1 m 2 2
PMB
1
dL
du S 2
dP f D m 2
0
2
2u
RT
2
D
m 2
S 2 MB
m 2
du (
)PdP ( f D
)dL 0
u
RT
2D
, u = .
du + ud = 0

du
d
dP

:
m 2

dP
S 2 MB
m 2
(
)PdP ( f D
)dL 0 ,
P
RT
2D

.
:

m 2 ln

P2
S 2 MB
m 2
2
2
(
)( P2 P1 ) ( f D
)L 0 ,
P1
2 RT
2D

o , P2, . -
.

P2 2
P
2 RTm 2
L
) 1 2 2
[ fD
ln 2 ]
P1
2D
P1
S P1 MB

P2 2
P
) 1 0.002( 131.23 ln 2 ) .
P1
P1

. ,
P2/P1 = 0.86 P2 = 86 psi.

(0)

S1

S1
u1

u2
z

n1
n2
157


. ,
. ,
, .
:

u1 S1 u 2 S 2 u1

D12
4

u2

D22
4

u 2 u1 (

D1 2
) .
D2

.


. , 0,

. , P0 ,
:
( D22 D12 )
Fs ( P0 )nS ( P0 )( e x )S P0
ex
4

,
0, P0 = P1. n1 = -ez n2 = ez
:
( u12 P1 )

D12
4

( u 22 P2 )

D22
4

P1

( D22 D12 )
4

0 ,

P2 P1 u12 (

D1 2
D
) [ 1 ( 1 )2 ]
D2
D2

. ,
:

1
1
( u 22 P2 ) ( u12 P1 ) ,
2
2
:

D
1 2
u1 [ 1 ( 1 )2 ] 2 .
2
D2

, , k, :

k [1 (

D1 2 2
) ] .
D2

(9.19)

158


.

) Venturi

S1
S2



, .

P2
P1


.
.

. :
u1 S1 u 2 S 2 u1 u 2 (

S2
)
S1

,
, :

1
1
( u12 P1 ) ( u 22 P2 )
2
2
S
1 2
P P1 P2 u 2 [ 1 ( 2 )2 ]
2
S1

:

Q u2 S 2 S 2

2P
.
S
2
2
[1 ( S ) ]
1

, CD (discharge coefficient),
. :

Q CD S2

2P
.
S
2
2
[1 ( S ) ]
1

(9.20)

. 9.1 Reynolds
Venturi.

159

 9.1. Venturi Reynolds.

)
S1

S2

P1

,



.
Venturi

:

P2

Q CD S2

2P
,
S
2
2
[1 ( S ) ]
1

(9.21)

. . 9.2
Reynolds .

160

 9.2.
Reynolds.

) .
.


(vena contracta)

.

.
, CC ,
(9.21) :

S1

S2

P1

P2

Q CD S2

[1 (

2P
Cc S 2

S1

)2 ]

(9.22)

Q CD S2

2P
,
[ 1 ( S 2 S )2 ]
1

(9.23)

. . 9.3
Reynolds
.

161

 9.3.
Reynolds.

:
A

,
. , ,
(
),

. ,
,
1 2 :

u1 A u 2 a ,
.
, ,
.
, , :
1
1
u1 2 gz1 P1 u 2 2 gz 2 P2
2
2

A , , 1 2
, , :

162

( u12 P1 ) A P2 A u 22 a mY g m g 0 ,
mY = VY, VY
, (z2-z1), V = m/.
2 2,
.

. ,
u2 , :

u12
A
A( 1 )2 m g( 1 / ) .
2
a

(9.24)

u1,
.
<< << , :
Q u1 A a

2 m g
.
A

(9.25)

, , ,
.
.
9.2.6. , =- : u ,
.
(x, y, z).

2[(

ux 2 u y 2 uz 2
u u y 2 uz u y 2 ux u z 2
) (
) (
) ] ( x
) (

) (

)
x
y
z
y
x
y
z
z
x
(r, , z).
ur 2 1 u ur 2
u
) (
) ( z )2 ]
r
r
r
z
u u
u
1 ur 2 1 u z u 2
[r ( )
] (

) ( r z )2
r r
r
r
z
z
r

2[(

163

 (r, , ).

ur 2 1 u ur 2
1 u ur u cot 2
) (
) (

) ]
r
r
r
r sin
r
r
u
u
1 ur 2
sin
1 u 2
[r ( )
] [
( )
]
r r
r
r sin
r sin
1 ur
u
[
r ( )] 2
r sin
r r

2[(

164