AO- Trans-fo ruers CHAPTER 5 POWER TRANSFORMERS AND REACTORS Original Authors: J. E. Hobson and R. L. Witzke 'N this chapter are included the fundamental theory, I operating practices, pertinent application data, and some of the physical characteristics of power trans- formers and reactors. No attempt is made to give a com- plete exposition of the material. Tt is expected that the listed references will be consulted for a mote detailed con- sideration of each section. Although the fundamental the- ory presented here holds also for distribution transformers, the standards of operation and present. practices regarding. distribution transformer application are not ineluded in this chapter. Grounding transformers are included since they are ordinarily associated with power systems. 1. THEORY 1. Fundamental Considerations Before going into the various problems involved in the application of transformers and the methods used in ana- lyzing their effect on system operation, it is well to review briofly the fundamental theory of transformer action. ‘Two windings on a common magnetic core are pictured in Fig, 1. Let the number of turns in the P winding be m, ee te 5 °O® @ es Fig. 1 Two-winding transformer. and the number of turns in the $ winding be m, Assume that there is a flux in the core which links both windings and is a sinusoidal function of time. a ‘Then the voltage induced in the P winding at any instant by the flux is ae. p= m2 10-8 volts y= MX 10-* volts = Som Sin wt Oy mseane C08 wl X 10" volts w= 2nf hence, ep= ~2nfrnidmax C08 WX 10-* volts where Revised by L. Witzke and J. S. Williams and the rms value of this voltage is @ Across sectional area of magnetic circuit in square centimeters (assumed uniform), Baxx= maximum flux density in the core in lines per square centimeter. Similarly, the rms voltage induced in the S winding by the ux is given by By= 4A frad Bux X10 volts, ® ‘Thus it is evident that a sinusoidal flux linking a coil in- Guces in it a voltage which is also sinusoidal and which, lags the flux by 90 electrical degrees. To apply the above principle to the operation of a trans- former, refer again to Fig. 1 and consider the S winding, as, ‘open and let a sinusoidal voltage be impressed on the P winding. ‘The current, Z., that flows in the P winding under this condition (/,=0) is called the exciting current and sets up an alternating flux about that winding, which consists of two parts: a mutual flux whose path is wholly in the core and which, therefore, links both windings, and 4 leakage flux whose path is partly in air and which tinks only the P winding. The ratio of the leakage flux to the mutual flux depends on the relative reluctance of their respective paths, which in turn is a function of the satura- tion of the core and the magnitude of the current. It is convenient to consider the voltage induced in the P wind- ing, by the flax linking it, as made up of two eomponents, fone produced by the Tinkages resulting from the mutual fiux and the other produced by leakage flux. In the or- inary commercial transformer the leakage flux is small anc can be neglected for the present. ‘Then, if the small 1 rap in the winding is also ignored, the voltage induced in the P winding by the mutual flux ean, with close approx- imation, be set equal and opposite to the impressed voltage. Jf, ag assumed, the latter is sinusoidal, then the mutual flux must also be sinusoidal and the induced voltage is given by Eq. (3), By= A.A fA Bogs X10 volts, By hypothesis, all of the mutual flux which has just been considered in connection with the P winding must also link the S winding. Hence, a voltage is induced in the S winding, which is expressed by Eq. (4), AffiteA Baye X10" volts, 96Chapter 5 If the circuit connected to the $ winding is closed, a current, Is, flows and, in the manner already deseribed in Sonnection with the P winding, sets up 2 mutual snd leak- flux about the winding, ‘The direction of this current Freuch that the mutual flux produced by it opposes that. radueed by the P winding and it, therefore, tends to hullify the flux in the core. Consideration of the energies jnvolved shows that an additional component, J,’ must be adil to the current in the P winding before the S winding. js closed, such that the magnetomotive foree acting, on the magnetic circuit remains unchanged after S is closed. In other words, the resultant flux in the core produced by the eombined action of the currents flowing in the Pand S ‘windings must equal the mutual flux present when the S winding is open. ‘Therefore, nly=mTp — Male, (3) remembering that the flux caused by J, is opposite that caused by I, which accounts for the negative sign. In well-designed transformer, the exciting current is small in comparison to the normal load current I's, hence we ean sssume the total current, [,, in the P winding to be equal to I’, and obtain +21, @ ‘The leakage flux produeed by Z, induces a voltage in the '§ winding opposing that produeed by the mutual flux. However, itis small as in the case of the P winding, and, ifneglected along with the resistance drop, permits writ the relation between the P and S voltages as Ba +% The seven equations developed above summarize the general relationships between the flux, the induced volt- ‘ges, and the primary and secondary voltages and currents. involved in transformer action. However, they are based on a number of assumptions that, in analyzing the opera- tion of the transformer or of the éystem to whieh itis eon~ nected, eannot always be made. A more rigorous develop- ment that takes into consideration the effects of exciting current, losses, and leakage fluxes is therefore required. Referring again to Fig. 1, and considering instantaneous currents and voltages, the classical equations for the coupled circuits are @) @) oS tie pai tals dt es where Rp and Rs are, respectively, the effective resistances of the primary and secondary windings: Ly and Ls are the self-inductances of the primary and secondary windings: and M is the mutual inductance between the two windings. ‘The positive direction of eurrent low in the two windings is taken such that the fluxes set up by the two currents will bein opposition, The coefficients Lr, Ls, and M are not constant but vary With the saturation of the magnetic eizeuit!. As previously Power Transformers and Reactors 97 stated, the total fix linking either winding ean be divided into two components, a leakage flux whose path is wholly or partly in air and a mutual fx most of whieh lies in the iron core. Furthermore, the mutual coupling between cit= cuits must have an energy component to furnish the iron Joss in the magnetic cireuit. With the above considerations in mind the equivalent circuit representing the two coupled windings in Fig. 1 can be derived ‘The equivalent cireuit is shown in Fig, 2(a), where the mathematical artifice of an ideal transformers introduced to preserve actual voltage and current relationships at the terminals, and to insulate the two windings. ‘The ideal transformer is defined as having no losses, no impedance drop, and requiring no exciting current.’ ‘The ratio of transformation for the ideal transformer is N, where a @ Sa @ Fig. 2-Equlvalent clrcuits for two-winding transformer. () Equivalent circuit in ohms, with magnetising current con- sidered, () Equivalent eiouitin obms, with all impedances onthe primary: ‘voltage base. () Equivalent cireuit in ohms, with the magnetizing branch negleted, (@) Pquivalent eirenit ferred to the secor (© Equivalent cireuit in ohms, with the leakage impedance 2=- voltage base percent,98, ‘The shunt resistance branch in Zw represents the iron losses and the shunt reactive branch ( it path for the no load, or exciting current of the transformer. ‘The variation in A during the cycle of instantaneoos cure rent and voltage variation is ignored anda mean vate is used, ‘The branches, Ze Reto be 2) and 2 Rs ) provides a -+io(Io—B) are eseentially constant, regardless of in- stantancous current variations, since their corresponding Teakage fluxes lie mostly in air. Ze and Zs are components of the leakage impedance between the P and S windings such that Brom Zeta Zea is defined as the leakage impedance between the P and 5S windings, as measured in ohms on the P winding. with the § winding short-circuited. Actually it is not possible? to segregate Zs into two parts, Zp associated ‘with the P winding and Zs associated with the S winding by any method of test; for example, Zp, the portion of Zrs associated with the primary winding, varies with ex- citation and load conditions. Tt is customary, in many. calculations involving the equivalent circuit, to make (a0) mie Drm yom Vs a ‘The ideal transformer ean be shifted to the right, as in Fig. 2(b), to get all branches of the circuit on the same voltage base. Since the impedance of the shunt branch is large compared to Zes, it can be omitted for most ealeula- tions involving transformer regulation, and the equivalent circuit becomes that of Fig. 2(c). A notable exception to those cases where the shunt branch ean be disregarded is the ease of the three-phase core-form transformer exeited with zero-sequence voltages. This will be discussed in detail later. ‘The form of the equivalent eireuit given in Fig. 2c) ean, be changed to show the leakage impedance referred to the secondary voltage, by shifting the ideal transformer to the left, as in Fig. 2(d). For this condition Zsr, the leakage impedance between the P and $ windings as measured in ‘ohms on the S winding with the P winding short-circuited, is related to Zes us follows: nin ‘The equivalent circuit using percentage impedances, percentage voltages, and currents in per unit is given in Fig. 2). Anideal transformer to maintain transformation ratios is not required. ee 12) 2. Transformer Vector Diagram tor diagram illustrating the relationship between inal voltages, the internal induced voltages and the currents in the transformer of Fig. Lean be drawn directly from the equivalent cireuit for the transformer. ‘This circuit is repeated in Fig, 8(a) and the various voltages Power Transformers and Reactors Chapter 5 Tyr Ret Ky Fig. 3—-Equivatenc circuit and corresponding vector diagram for two-winding transformer. and currents are identified there. ‘The primary and second- ary leakage impedances Zp and Zs are shown separately, and the primary and secondary resistances Rp and Rs are also indicated. /,and Im represent the core-loss component sand the magnetizing eomponent respeetively of the exciting current [,. ‘The vector diagram in Fig. 3(b) is drawn for 4 1:1 ratio of transformation and for load of lagging power factor. The power-factor angles at the P winding terminals and the.S winding terminals are designated in the diagram as Op and 85 respectively. Il, ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS 3. Transformer Impedances ‘The turns ratio of a two-winding transformer determines the ratio between primary and secondary terminal volt- ages, when the transformer load current is ero. However, ‘when lond is applied to the transformer, the load current encounters an apparent impedance within the transformer which causes the ratio of terminal voltages to depart from the actual turns ratio. ‘This internal impedance consists ‘of two components: (1) a reactance derived from the effect ‘of leakage flux in the windings, and (2) an equivalent, resistance which represents all losses traceable to the flow of load current, such as conductor 2R loss and stray eddy-current loss. Tinpedance drop is conveniently expressed in percent, and is the impedance-drop voltage expressed as a percent= age of rated terminal voltage, when both voltages are referred to the same cireuit; in three-phase transformer banks, it is usually appropriate to refer both impedance- Arop voltage and rated voltage to a line-to-neutral basi. Percent impedanee is also equal to measured obmie im- pedanee, expressed as a percentage of normal” ohms. Normal ohms for a transformer circuit. are defined as the rated current (per phase) divided into rated voltage (line- to-neutral). Representative impedance values for distribution and power transformers are given in Table 1; for most purposes the impedances of power transformers may be consideredChapter 5 nytna nna i pt (BE) jr normal value. (the percent change in By ist he =n 100. 2) Abeta) C2) (6) Tops in both primary and secondary: mbm mpm,” m(LFh) +m +e) Transformer volts per tum are & times their normal value, The percent change in B, __nalti—t) m(1+4)-tn(1+e) Ifthe transformer were designed for constant volts per turn (= 1), then the percent change in B, would be: ha AB.=4:X100. (65) tis often advisable to specify a tap combination which will allow the autotransformer to operate at practically constant. volts-per-turn, regardless of tap position. As indicated in some of the eases above, a tap change in ‘only one winding may be less effective than would normally be anticipated, because of the nullifying effect of the ‘accompanying change in volts-per-turn. Also, a significant inerease in volts-per-turn at some tap setting would be reflected in a magnetic core of larger size than otherwise necessary. 30, Autotransformer Operating Characteristics ‘An autotransformer inherently provides metallic con~ nection between its low- and high-voltage circuits; this is unlike the conventional two-winding transformer which isolates the two circuits. Unless the potential to ground ‘of each autotransformer circuit: is fixed by some means, the low-voltage circuit will be subject, to overvoltages originating in the high-voltage eireuit, ‘These undesirable effects ean be minimized by connecting the neutral of the autotransformer solidly to ground. If the neutral of an autotransformer is always to be grounded in service, an induced potential shop test is more appropriate than an applied potential test, bocause it represents more closely the field operating conditions; building @ grounded auto- ‘transformer to withstand s full-voltage applied potential test would not be economical beeause of the excess insula- tion near the neutral. ‘To summarize the preceding discussion, the autotrans- former has advantages of lower eost, higher effcieney, and better regulation as compared with the two-win former; it has disadvantages including low reaetanee which may make it subject to excessive short-circuit currents, the Arrangement of taps is more complicated, the delta tertiary ‘may have to earry fault, currents exceeding its standard rating, the low- and high-voltage circuits cannot be iso- lated, and the two circuits must operate with no angular Phase displacement unless # zig-zag connection is intro- duced. ‘The advantages of lower eost and improved effi- Power Transformers and Reactors C) 19 (> (@) staR-veuT ‘GROUNDING-TRANSFORNER (INTERCONNECTED -STAR (GROUNDING TRANSFORMER. WINDINGS ORAWN PARALLEL [ARE ON THE SAME CORE (©) SCHEMATIC. WINDING ARRANGEMENT OF AN INTER™ [GONNECTED-STAR GROUNDING TRANSFORMER OF THE "THREE-PHASE CORE-FORM CONSTRUCTION eg 2 eens | CCRC | (4) EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF AN INTERCONNECTED-STAR GROUNDING TRANSFORMER Fig. 27—Star-delta and zig-zag grounding transformers.120 ciency become less apparent as the transformation ratio increases, so that autotransformers for power purposes are usually used for low transformation ratios, rarely exceeding tol. XI. GROUNDING TRANSFORMERS A grounding transformer isa transformer intended solely for establishing a neutral ground connection on a threc- phase system. ‘The transformer is usually of the star-delta, or interconnected-star (zig-zag) arrangement. as shown in Fig. 27 ‘The kva rating of a three-phase grounding transformer, or of « grounding bank, is the product of normal line-to- neutral veltage (kv) and the neutral orground amperes that the transformer is designed to carry under fault conditions for a specified time. A one-minute time rating is often used for grounding transformers, though other ratings such as those suggested in ATEE Standard for “Neutral Grounding Devices” (No. 32, May 1947) can be specified depending upon the probable duty to be imposed on the unit in service. Rated voltage of a grounding transformer is the line-to- line voltage for which the unit is designed. ‘When operated at rated three-phase balanced voltage, only exciting current circulates in the windings of a ground- ing transformer. Current of appreciable magnitude begins to flow in the grounding circuit only when a fault involving ground develops on the connected system. Grounding transformers, particularly the zig-zag type, normally are designed so that rated neutral current flows when a solid single-line-to-ground fault is applied at the transformer terminals, assuming supply voltage to be fully sd. This is equivalent to 100-percent zero-sequence impressed at the transformer terminals resulting in the elreulation of rated neutral current. ‘Transformers so designed are said to have 100-percent impedance based on rated kva and rated voltage. Sometimes a resistor or other impedance is connected in the transformer neutral, and in these cases it may be desirable to specify that the grounding transformer shall hhave less than the conventional 100 percent impedance. Equivalent cireuits for star-delta and zig-zag grounding ‘transformers with external neutral impedance are inchid- ed in the Appendix. Because a grounding transformer is a short-time device, its size and cost are less than for a continuous duty trans former of equal kva rating. ‘The reduced size ean be estab- lished in terms of an “equivalent two-winding 55°C kva” U, by applying « reduction factor K to the short-time rated kva of the grounding transformer, and this reduced kva can be used for a price estimate. U,= Uo K: for a three-phase grounding unit. (58) Up=3U 9K; for a bank of single-phase grounding units | (87) where [.= equivalent two-winding 55 Ckva, three-phase Ua = (line-to-neutral kv) x (rated neutral amperes) ‘Values for K are listed in Table 12 for vat nus types and Power Transformers and Reactors ‘Chapter 5 ‘Table 12—“K" Factors ron Derenunvine Baviwatene ‘Two-Winpine 55 C kVA oF GROUNDING TRANSFORMERS Zig-Zag Connection ‘Time eee Rating 410] 2310 | any ° Slat 5 be} 48¥ | 69.ky | 02 ky K, For A Three Phase Unit _ 10 seconds ~. | 0.064 | 0.076 Aminute | 0.170 | 0.104 | 0.110, 2minutes | 0.240 | 0.199 | 0.158 Bminutes | 0.205 | 0.170 | 0.187 minutes | 0.320 | 0.196 | 0.216 Smimutes_| 0.380 | 0.290 | 0,242 For A Single Phase Unit (One of three in bank) Iminate | 0.057 | 0.033 | 0.037 | 0.040 | 0.088 | 0.046 2minutes | 0.080 | 0.046 | 0.081 | 0-055 | 0.060 | 0.064 3 minutes | 0.008 | 0.057 | 0.084 | 0.068 | 0.074 | 0.080 4mimutes | 0.113 | 0.065 | 0.073 | 0.078 | 0.084 | 0.001, Sminutes_| 0.127 | 0.073 | 0.082 | 0,088 | 0.095 | 0.102 classes of grounding transformers; the table includes values for both three-phase and single-phase units, though the single-phase type is uncommon. Conventional power transformers may be connected to serve solely as grounding transformers, but the current and time ratings for grounding service are open to question depending upon the form and details of construction, When these modified ratings are desired, they should be obtained from the transformer manufacturer. Star-Delta Impedances—The impedance to zero sequence currents in each phase of a solidly-grounded star- delta grounding bank made up of single-phase units is equal to Zps, the ohmic leakage impedance between one primary (stat) winding and the corresponding secondary (delta) winding: Zy= Eos (68) Pereent zero-sequence impedance is normally expressed in terms of short-time kva and line-to-line voltage: ZsXUa B80 TOscect In a three-phase star-delta grounding transformer Za may be smaller than Zrs by an amount depending on the form of core construction: a typical ratio of Z to Zrs is 0.85, though variation from this value for different designs is likely. Zig-z0g Impedances—The impedance to zero- sequence currents in each phase of a solidly grounded zig-zag bank ean be derived on a theoretical basis bY reference to Fig. 27(d) Ey=1XZna~eybey. (9) () Bam (1) Gia to= fos. ( Percent. zero-sequence impedance for the zig-zag connecGhapter 5 sent for any combination of ratios and jmpedane cure choull not execed ten percent of the falllond promt eurrent of the smaller unit, ‘More than two transformers may of course be paralleled, and the division of load may be calculated from an ex: anged equivalent circuit similar to the one in Fig. 45. 44, Three-Phase Transformer Banks ie same considerations apply for the parallel operat ot vee pace tnforne hanks ahve Sutlined for single-phase transformers. In addition it is fecesary to make sure that polarity and phase-shift be- tween high-voltage and low-voltage terminals are similar for the parallel units. A single-phase equivalent eireuit may be set up on a line-Lo-neutral basis to represent one phase of a balanced three-phase bank, using the theory of symmetrical components. ‘When three-phase transformer banks having any con- siderable degree of dissymmetry among the three phases are to be analyzed, it is necessary either to set up a com- plete three-phase equivalent circuit, or to intereonnect equivalent sequence networks in a manner to represent the Unbalanced portion of the circuit according to the rules of symmetrical components, 45, Three-Winding Transformers Currents flowing in the individual windings of parallel three-winding banks can be determined by solving an ‘equivalent circuit, such as that shown in Fig, 45. ‘The Mig. 46—Equivatent circuit for parallel connection of single- phase three-winding transformers, {terminal loads, as well as winding ratios and impedances, affect the division of currents among the windings of three-winding transformer, so all these factors must. be known before a solution is attempted. 46. Three-Winding Transformer in Parallel With /o-Winding Transformer The equivalent, cireuit for a th i wuivalent circuit for a three-winding transformer Parallcled with a two-winding transformer is given in Fig. Power Transformers and Reactors Fig, 47—Equivatene circuit for a single-phase throe-winding transformer paralleled with a two-winding unit, 47. Division of currents may be calculated from thi uit, if the load currents 1 and 1," are assumed. Parallel operation of two such transformers is not usually satisfactory, since a change in tertiary load will alter the distribution of load between the other two windings. If the impedances are proportioned to divide the load prop- erly for one load eondition, the load division between trans formers at some other loading is likely to be unsatisfnetory. An exception is the ease wherein the a” circuit of Fig. 47 represents a delta tertiary winding in a three-phase bank, with no load eonneeted to the tertiary; in this instance the transformers ean be made to divide currents similarly at all loads. Tt is possible to design a three-winding transformer 60 that the load taken from the tertiary winding does not. seriously affect load division between the paralleled wind- ings of the two transformers. If the impedance Zr is made ‘equal to zero, then current division at the a’ terminals will be determined by Zs and Z only, and this impedance ratio will remain independent of tertiary loading. It is difficult to obtain zero as the value for Zp, particularly if this winding is of high voltage; however, values near zero can be obtained with special design at increased cost. Such a design may result in a value of Zr which is undesirable for other reasons. XVIII. TRANSFORMER PRICES 47. Two-Winding Type OA Transformers ‘Estimating prices for Type OA, oikimmersed, self-cooled, 60-eycle, two-winding transformers are given in Fig. 48. ‘The estimating prices per kva are based on net prices as of December 1, 1949. As prices change frequently, the eurves should be used principally for comparing the priecs of different voltage classes, comparing banks made of phase and three-phase units, etc. Ii the insulation level of the low-voltage winding is 15 ky, or higher, the prices in Fig. 48 should be corrected in accordance with Table 16. Price additions are also required when the rating of either the high- or low-voltage winding is 1000 volts and below. ‘Transformers designed for star connection of the high- voltage winding may be built with a lower insulation level136 XX. EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS FOR SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMERS Representation of a transformer by an equivalent circuit is a commonly used method for determining its perform- ‘ance as a circuit element in complex power and distribution networks. Without the simplifications offered by the use of such equivalent cireuits the handling of transformers with their complex array of leakage and mutual imped- anes would be a formidable problem. For the purposes of calculating short circuit currents, voltage regulation, and stability of a power system, the normal magnetizing eurrent required by transformers ia neglected. Thus Figs. 2(¢), (d), or (e), a the choice may be, will adequately represent a two-winding transformer for calculation purposes. For three-, four-, and in general multi-winding trans- formers, an equivalent network can be always determined that will consist only of simple impedances (mutual imped- ances eliminated) and accurately represent the transformer sa circuit element. ‘The impedances which ean be most readily determined by test or by calculation are those between transformer windings taken two at a time, with other windings considered idle; therefore the impedances jn an equivalent circuit can well be expressed in terms of these actual impedances between the transformer windings taken two at a time. ‘The number of independent impedances required in an equivalent circuit to represent a multi-winding transformer shall be, in general, equal to the number of all possible different combinations of the windings taken two at a time. ‘Thus, one equivalent impedance is required to represent, 1 bwo-winding transformer, three branch impedances for a three-winding transformer, and six independent branch impedances to represent a four-winding transformer. Equivalent circuits for the two-winding transformer and suto-transformer are presented in sections 1 and 27, re- spectively. ‘The following sections discuss the equivalent cirouits for three-winding and four-winding transformers. 54, Equivalent Circuits for Three-Winding Trans- former ‘The equivalent cirenit for transformer having three windings on the same core is shown in Fig. 68, where the magnetizing branches have been omitted. The number of turns in the P, S, and 7 windings are m, ng, and ns, respectively. ‘The equivalent cieuit is shown in Fig. 53 {b) with all impedance in ohms on the P winding voltage base and with ideal transformers included to preserve actual voltage and current relationships betsveen the P, S,and T windings. On the P winding voltage base Ze= 3 Zest Zer— Ban (str 2) tant felort estes) (0) ; Ley Bem t( Bort Jefe Zn) yom Mn™ Power Transformers and Reactors Chapter 5 rave [atert2e-2r] zyx Tape Fig, 53—Three-winding transformer, (4) winding diagram. () equivafent cient in obtns {c) equivalent cireut in pereent, Note that Zp and Zs as defined and used here differ from Zp and Zs in Fa. 10. ‘The equivalent circuit. ex- pressed in percent is given in Fig, 53 (c) with all imped- ances referred to the kva of the P winding, ‘ i) Heanor Zoa~ tre) Biho= (toahor brio F 2h= 4( 1) Balen (tenor Year Eesh) ‘The quantities can be expressed in percent on any arbi- trary kva base, Uc, by multiplying each impedance bycat Chapter 5 the ratio ve ‘The notation used is defined as follows: Up=kva of the P winding, Us=kva of the S winding, Urekva of the T winding, Zos=leakage impedance between the P and S wind= ings as measured in ohms on the P winding with the S winding short-circuited and the 7 winding open-eircuited. Zrs%o=leakage impedance between the P and § wind- ings, with the 7 winding open-ciruited, ex pressed in pereent on the kva and voltage of the P winding Zex=leakage impedance between the P and T wind- {ngs ax measured in ohms on the P winding with the T winding short-circuited and the S winding open-cireuited. Zer%=leakage impedance between the P and 1’ wind ings, with the S winding open-circuited, ex- pressed in percent on the kva and voltage of the P winding, Zer=leakage impedance between the S and T wind ings as measured in ohms on the S winding with the T’ winding short-cireuited and the P winding open-cireuited. Jeakage impedance between the S and T wind- ings, with the P- winding open-circuited, ex- pressed in percent on the kva and voltage of the S winding. ‘The equations given in Fig. 53 (b) and Fig. 53 (c) for Zp, Z1%y ete, are derived from the relationships: Zox% Zr=Zrtly — LasSo= leo Z%o Zralrtls Linon lot lake @) LareNMlvbla) tanto Ute 22%) azo Ze~RetiXe Zrs= Rost iXvs~Ret+Rati(XetXs) (83) LraYo=ResVotiXra%o te, where Xvg is the leakage renetance between the P and S windings (with 7 open-circuited); and Rrs is the total effective resistance between the P and S windings, as measured in ohms on the P winding with S short-circuited and T open-cireuited. Rea and Xvs% are the respective quantities expressed in percent on the kva and voltage of| the P winding. ‘The equivalent circuits completely represent the actual transformer as far as leakage impedances, mutual effects between windings, and losses are concerned (except ex citing eurrents and no load losses). It is possible for one of the three legs of the equivalent circuit to be zero or negative. 55. Equivalent Circuits for Four-Winding Trans- former ‘The equivalent cireuit representing four windings on the same core, shown in Fig. 54 (a), is given in Fig. 54 (b) using ohmic quantities. ‘This form is due to Starr's, and Power Transformers and Reactors 137 ao} | _e ® fee rede te Be oe 8 le Ze z 2 oom | i. tek x Re the age ic = = i ri i ler (by Fig. 54—Four-winding transformer. (2) winding diggram, (©) equivalent eireuit, here again the magnetizing branches are omitted. ‘The branches of the equivalent circuit are related to the leak- age impedances between pairs of windings as follows: 2on1(Zrobtee tan( Zoot giver Zee-K) (34) RRAK, tn V Riki Ke wher, K=VKiKi= 2% “At 1 Kim fort yew Zea— 5 1 fer pilav Zev Racer sels ‘The windings will ordinarily be taken in the order that makes Ki and K; positive so that Zy and Z will be posi- tive. ‘The leakage impedances are defined as before; for example, Zrs is the leakage impedance between the PPorfenaauee &Devigu AC Meclinm MG Say 108 DESIGN OF ALTERNATING CURRENT MACHINES steepness of the wave-front, the losses absorbing surge energy and reducing the voltage reaching the h.v. winding. Method (c) aims to produce for all conditions a uniformity of voltage distribution. The two basic types are— 1. Shields. If the coil-to-carth capacitances C’ can be neutralized by provi capacitances C, to line (on precisely the same Ylore | ionky A ALY. and core A G80) , W elsI219 y formal m ‘100 wean 20, BueGo INEN| SS A unshielded A Shiela (a) Static shield - (b) Surge voltage distribution (c) Special coils Fic. 75, Surce Vorrace Grapine principle as is used for grading transmission-line suspension- insulator strings), then the coil-to-earth currents through C will be directly provided by line-to-coil currents through C,, leaving the inter-coil currents through ¢ all equal to produce a uniform distribu. tion over the winding. This may be done by mounting, outside and Leakage lox around the winding, insulated metal Ee shields connected to line, Fig. 75 (a). \ The effect on the electric field is shown diagrammatically in (b), the figures in- dicating equipotentials corresponding to a surge of value 100, for an un- shielded and for ashielded transformer. 2. Interleaved Turns. Two normal dise-type coils are shown in Fig. 75 (c). If the order of turn-connection is altered to increase the voltage between adjacent turns, their capacitance cur- rent is increased so that the effective ies coil-eapacitance cis raised. This tends to counter the effect of the earth Mio. 76. Comroxents o capacitances, for it is obvious that, if Leaxace Frux ¢ & C, the voltage distribution under surge conditions must approach uniform’ 14, Mechanical Stresses. When a transformer is loaded, the primary and secondary ampere-turns are in magnetic opposition with reference to the core, but act cumulatively with respect to the space between them (Fig. 76). The effect of this 1s twofold: the magnetic- ally-excited state of the inter-coil space gives rise to— (@) Leakage flux: i.e. flux linking one or other winding ; Y, _ Redlal Z components ¥ Core= TRANSFORMERS; OPERATION (6) Mutual forces between windings.* ‘The mechanical repulsive force with normal load currents is low compared with the strength of the coils. Under fault. conditions, particularly those of dead short-circuit, the forces produced may be increased several hundreds of times. ‘Thus a transformer with a 0-05-p.u. reactance will carry a fault current initially 20 to 40 (or even occasionally more) times full-load current, with disruptive forces consequently 460 to 1 600 times those produced by full-load current. (@) Conve ( Sandwieh, (c) Effect of asymmetry, Wig, 77. Mecmastcan Forces ox Corns The forces produced may be considered as capable of analysis into the components— (1) Radial, tending to burst outer and erush inner windings; (2) Axial compression; and (3) Unbalanced axial forees due to asymmetry. Rapiat Force. Any electric circuit when carrying current Jops mechanical forces, tending to enlarge its area. For a coil, implies a tendency to become circular, provided that there is no magnetic asymmetry, The mechanical foree is developed by the coil current interacting with the axial components of its own flux. Considering a transformer with concentric coils, the flux initiating the mechanical forces occupies the space between the coils. Conse- quently the outer coil is subjected to internal pressure tending to burst it, but the inner coil is subjected to external pressure, and tends to collapse on to the core. A circular coil section is preferable in the latter as well as in the former case, as being the strongest shape mechanically for withstanding these pressures. Fig. 77 (a) illustrates the action of the hoop-stress and counter forces. In shell-type transformers the coils are rectangular, but braced by enclosure within the core for a considerable part of their length. * Norris, “Mechanical Strength of Pow Proc LE.B. WO4(A), pe 289 (1957). ‘Transformers in Service,”@ 110 DESIGN OF ALTERNATING CURRENT MACHINES For an instantaneous current i in the 7’ turns of one winding, the flux density in the annular duct between the cylindrical primary and secondary coils of a core-type transformer (Fig. 99 (a)) is B, = pgiT/L,. Its mean value in the windings is By. ‘The mean radial force per circumferential m. length and per m. of axial depth of coil is therefore p = }yg(7/L.)(i7/L,). For the whole area LgLime of the cylindrical face of a coil Pr = BpeliT)*(Lmel Li.) newtons. On the worst fault conditions, i may reach twice the symmetrical peak short-circuit current, i.e. 2/e times full-load current, where e is the per-unit impedance. In a 100-kVA. transformer with 0-04 p.u. impedance the radial force may reach 40 tons: in a 100-MVA. transformer with 0-1 p.u. impedance it may approach 3.000 tons. "AXIAL Compression, So far, reference has been made only to stresses produced by the axial leakage flux. The radial components of the flux, which cross the windings chiefly at the ends (Fig. 76), will give rise to axial compressive forces tending to squeeze the windings together in the middle. With a symmetrical arrangement of wind ings these stresses are unimportant, even on short circuit. Sandwich coils produce axial compressive stresses as illustrated in Fig. 77 (6). In shell types, the outer coils experience repulsion which is taken up by the core in the buried length, but those parts of the coils exterior to the core will have to be braced. Srressrs Dur to Asymmerry. Hitherto only symmetrical cases have been considered : i.e. windings symmetrically placed with respect to each other and of the same length. Ideal symmetry is never actually attained in practice, while the demand for wide tapping ranges (involving some parts of the various windings being out of circuit) makes complete symmetry quite impossible, Considering concentric windings, Fig. 77 (c), if one is displaced relatively to the other, the currents give rise to unbalanced axial forces tending to increase the asymmetry. These stres are transferred directly to the end supports and clamping devices, and increase with the amount of difference in length. ‘Thus in Fig. 78 (6) and (c), end effects will obtain, although con- siderably less than in case (a). It should be observed that the forces are so directed as to tend to increase the degree of asymmetry of the geometrical arrangement of the coils. Cases (a) and (c) in Fig. 78 are typical respectively of end and centre-tapped coils. The mechanical superiority of (c) over (a) is obvious, but at the same time the uso of tappings at all is an added complexity in the mechanical design. Internal faults, involving short-circuits between parts of a winding or tapping connections, may produce very large currents in restricted parts, and will inerease asymmetry and mechanical stresses in consequence.(12) TRANSFORMERS; OPERATION lll ‘The self-compression effect is related to the radial force p, in the ratio a/1,. Additional forces due to asymmetry can be roughly estimated from the cross-flux developed by the out-of-balance m.m.f, ki), Fig. 79. The windings are deemed to be enclosed between iron surfaces separated by a distance 2x = 2(a + b, + by). ‘The cross-flux density has the maximum value jigk(i7)/2x. For the case shown the axial force will be that produced by the mean cross- flux density (one-half the maximum) acting on 7’ turns, i.e. Pa = §Mok(iT 2). Lys - (6T) = Iytgk(iT)* De] 2(a + 0, + by) newtons, ‘The stress can become very large if the asymmetry is marked. Ampere-turn distribution 5 7B, ' l \ rary hy 2 L ‘ K X i K K | K | K \ i ‘ \ S i i ‘ bad @) ©) IA Fic, 78, Ovr-or-naracr Onoss Amrens-runss Fro, 79, Axtan Ovr-or-BaLaNce Bracra. In so far as the stresses are inwards axially, they are taken by the windings themselves. Inward radial stresses are passed to the formers, packing pieces and cores. Outward axial stresses must be withstood by the end insulation. A well-constructed trans- former will have a suitable choice of conductor dimensions and interturn insulation, and coils well supported and braced, with the compressive stresses kept in view. The end supports are not easily arranged to give good insulation and at the same time great mechani- cal strength, so that as far as possible the need for the latter quality must be avoided by maintaining symmetry, or by a suitable distri- bution of the unpreventable symmetry caused by tappings, connections, ete., as indicated in Fig 15. Low-voltage Transformers. The use of the electric arc furnace has become increasingly common in recent years, particularly in the chemical and metallurgical industries. Such furnaces require large current at low and variable voltage, and demand special considera- tions in transformer design, Where possible, a shell design is used, as the windings on the low-voltage side can be sectionalized with greater uniformity of impedance. A three-phase furnace requiringoo” 144 DESIGN OF ALTERNATING CURRENT MACHINES 2, from eq. (33), and an appropriate value of K. A, can be cal- culated from £, and the chosen value of B,,. The core is designed to conform to a standard frame, from which d and D (Fig. 96) are obtained. The length L of the window is obtained from Ay and the width between core-circumscribing circles. Typical core sections are shown in Fig, 23, with their appropriate 40 net core areas A, in terms of the diameter of the cireumseribing circle. The factor 0-9 accounts for a 99] 10 per cent loss of gross 5 core area in plate insula- e tion. Boo) 6. Coils and Insulation. 8 The constructive features g of the several types of 3 coils have already been outlined (Chapter IV). The insulation of individ: ual turns is rarely called upon to withstand vol- 0 0 700, 200 300 400 tages greater than 75 V. Test voltage, kV, under normal conditions Fic. 97. Crrarances of service so that the insulation between successive turns is langely determined by the mechanical characteristics of the insulating material. The end turns of h.v. windings must, of course, be carefully designed and insulated to withstand overvoltages (Chapter VI, § 13). The insulation to earth, between h.v. and lv. windings, and between coil sections, is determined by the voltage for which the transformer is designed. The clearances, thicknesses, ete., for these purposes are fixed from test combined with experience. Fig. 97 summarizes typical distances and thicknesses for (2) h.v. to Lv. winding, (c) end of h.v. winding to yoke, for oil-immersed three-phase transformers The clearance between coil sections is of the order of 1 om. The voltage gradient should be across boards, oil duets and paper layers, in which direction these materials have greatest electric strength. Tappings, by BS. 171: 1936, are designed for -+ 2} and 6 per cent voltage adjustment. The reinforcement of end turns depends on the rated voltage ; the total number of reinforced end-turns at cach end of a winding varies from 3 per cent of the total turns in lower-voltage trans- formers down to 1-75 per cent for 132 kV. and 0-75 for 220 kV. transformers. The practice of reinforcement, particularly for large hiv. transformers, is now closely integrated with investigations, theoretical and practical on models, into actual surge-voltage distribution.TRANSFORMERS: DESIGN 145 «7, Reactance. The estimation of reactance is primarily the esti- mation of the distribution of the leakage flux and the resulting line linkages with the primary or secondary coils. An accurate solution to this problem is well-nigh impossible—as is, in fact, almost every problem of magnetic field distribution in the neighbourhood of iron masses, ‘The distributionof the leakage flux depends on the geometrical con- ‘oF window J i CL. of window cols ) Fig. 98, Leaxace Prox formation of the coils and of the neighbouring iron masses, and also on the permeability of the latter. The diagrams in Fig. 98* show typical calenlated distributions based on simplifying assumptions (such as constant permeability ye, = 10, two-dimensional symmetry, ete.). In case (1), that of cylindrical core-type coils of equal length, it is noteworthy how the leakage field is packed into the space between the windings, and how it runs parallel with the core for nearly the full length of the coils. Where there is an inequality in the coil-lengths, however, the field is very considerably altered, as shown in Fig. 98 (b). For the shell-type transformer with sandwich coils, Fig. 98 (c) shows a typical leakage-field dis- tribution. In cases (a) and (c) the field is sufficiently symmetrical and geometrical to permit of considerable simplification for the sake of a usable approximate expression. Cyninpricat Concentric Coms, Equat, Lanerx. For this case the actual leakage field, e.g. Fig. 98 (a), is assumed to consist of a longitudinal flux of uniform and constant value in the interspace between primary and secondary ; anda field crossing the conductors, reducing linearly to zero at the outer and inner surfaces. See the “axial component” in Fig. 76 and the A7' distribution in Fig. 99 (a). Further, the permeance of the leakage path external to the coil length L, is assumed to be so large as to require the expenditure of a * Based on Figs. 95, 97, and 102 of Hague’s Electromagnetic Problems in Electrical Engineering (Oxford).146 DESIGN OF ALTERNATING CURRENT MACHINES negligible m.m.f.; i.e. all the mam.f, is expended on the length L,. The effect of the magnetizing current in unbalancing the primary and secondary ampere-turn equality is neglected, Let (AT) be the ampere-turns of either the l.v. or the h.y. coils on one limb, Then the flux density in the duct of radial width a is Ba =f AT){L,. Taking one-half of the total duct leakage as linking either winding (it makes little difference to the result whether this is strictly true or not), then the duct flux linking each of the 7, primary turns is approximately j(AT)4aDny/L,, and the linkages are consequently ig(AT)Ty}aLiny/Lq. Here Dmg 18 the mean circumferential length of the annular duct, nearly the same as the mean length of a primary turn. The flux density at the radial distance a from the surface of the primary winding is 2B,/b,. The flux in an elemental annular ring of width dx and approximate circumference Dn, iS Ly,xBq/b,)dz. This flux does not link 7', turns, but only the outer portion 27'/b, the linkages are therefore L,.B,T,(x/b,)"dx. Summing the total linkages over the radial distance b,, nf ‘The total linkages of the primary are EuaBil(5 b 3) = pl ATT, Bol by. Long L, Similarly the linkages of the secondary are Lm T € 7 3) ohms, since, per ampere, (A), = 7,8, For the secondary reactance, by fuse ¢ ' 3) ohms. From eq. (13), the total reactance in primary terms is fol? x, + a! = a, +2,(7,/T,)%, which becomes " palm 7 Ky = ofall (« +5 ) ohms. Se OD where L,,, may be interpreted as the mean length of turn of primary and secondary together. The per-unit reactance is = 1XIVy( TRANSFORMERS: DESIGN 147 and using the value of X, in eq. (34), ebtalnali PE (Oat by (Soe ener Ameen a) iNet ae) per unit . (35) lly or = substituting (47) for the ampere-turns per limb of either coil, and &, = V,JIT, for the volts per turn, @ Fie. 99. Perarsisa vo rae Carcuration or LEAKAGE Rracrance or Cviiypricar Cons: . 100. ANALysIs of Asya- TRICAL CYLINDRICAL COILS In some cases one of the windings (usually the h.v. coil) is split into two approximately equal concentric parts. Fig. 99 (0) shows that, with similar assumptions to those made above, the percentage reactance may be written 2rftiel, aC S Biches + per unit (36) Cyzinpricar Concentric Coms, UnnquaL Lenorns. Fig. 98 (6) indicates that, compared with the case of equal length, considerable difficulty will be found in making suitable simplifying’ assumptions. Obviously the assumption illustrated in Fig. 99 is quite inadmissible, The leakage field depends on the proportional difference in length, and on where the difference occurs (e.g. at one or both ends, or in the middle, ete.). The ease isa very common one, as it may be pro- duced by end-turn reinforcement, tappings, or by the normal small difference of coil length usual in manufacture even in the absence of tapings, ete, ey@ 14s DESION OF ALTERNATING CURRENT MACHINES The effect of divergences on the reactance requires to be investi« gated for each individual case, Fig. 100 shows one method of treating the problem. ‘The coils, each of ampere-turns (A’7) are shown in section. The actual arrangement (a) can be considered as equal to the sum of (4), a symmetrical system of longitudinal ampere-turns amenable to the treatment leading to eq. (35), and (c) an asym- metrical transverse system of ampere-turns producing a cross-flux. Having determined the flux distribution due to each of the systems (b) and (c) as in Fig. 76, the reactance is determined from the e.m.f.’s induced in the actual windings due to each of the flux distributions. LA ye as 100 a | | : Fede 0 37 _ an ee) Sc.stress | 100 | 54 | 63 94 Axialstress| 0 78 9 53 Fio. 101, ARRANGEMENTS of ASvuMMETHICAL CytiNaicaL Cons In Fig. 101, a few typical cases are given, with figures of per- centage reactance compared with that with symmetrical concentric coils of equal length. Sanpwicu Corts. Fig. 102 shows the simplified case of Fig. 98 (c). It is usual to arrange the winding as in Fig. 29 (6), where the end o one-half the turns of the remainder. There will be » ils, (n — 1) L.v. coils of equal ampere-turns, and two I.v. half. ‘Taking two adjacent half-coils as a unit, the reactance of such an arrangement is, by analogy with eq. (34), Tin\? If, by +b 2, ais = at" 2afo 3 Vong *+ $ where 7, is the number of turns per whole section. For the n sections and 2n units, the total reactance is X= Papen Do l2) Lae (ete a by + by ohms. : wc a as BE since nT, — T,. The effect of ae is apparent. The per- unit reactance is nts a+ *) per unit +. (7) mt AT) E, (A171) is the full phase ampere-turns e either primary or secondary.G) TRANSFORMERS: DESIGN 149 8. Mechanical Forces. The general’ discussion in Chapter V, § 14, gave for the radial force on a cylindrical coil the expression Pr= MeliT)(Lyi[Le) newtons . (88) The stress produced can usually be withstood by the copper provided that the coil is cylindrical. The axial force due to asymmetry was shown to be Pa = igh(ET)*Lpe]2(a +b, + 53) newtons . (39) for an instantaneous current i, For the cases shown in Fig. 101 the tant axial stress will be lower because the oppositely-directed terms partially neutralize. The two bottom rows of figures give stresses in terms of the radial stress in the symmetrical case. 9. Magnetizing Current. In a. single-phase transformer, the ampere-turns Jj7', provided by the primary winding on no load (and by the resultant of J,7', and J,7, on load) require to be sufficient to produce the working flux in the complete magnetic cirouit. The maxi- mum flux-density B,, in the core is chosen as a compromise between the reduction of the length per turn of the winding and the eed per vi : ° Tye. 102. Leaks saturation of the core. A density of I-4Wh.Jm.? or Saxpwien Cons is typical of large power transformers: higher densities than this tend to require excessive magnetizing current and introduce undesirable harmonies into this current. A lower ity is generally used in the yokes of core-type transformers, here it is possible to reduce the m.m.f, and core losses without adversely affecting the length of the copper. A 25 per cent increase may be used. ‘The calculation of the magnetizing current must take account of the small gaps between the core-plates unavoidable with the con- structional methods adopted. If, is the total equivalent length of such gaps, then the r.m.s, magnetizing current is Toy = (ate + atyly + 800 000Byl,)/(V2)P, = alg lif( VT, fee (40) where at, aly are the ampere-turns per cm. length of core and yoke respectively with the flux-densities employed; /,, l, are the lengths of those parts; 7’, is the number of primary turns; L, is the mean core length and al, a mean value for the ampere-turns per m. length. The calculation is performed with maximum densities, and on the assumption that the current is sinusoidal (a very rough approximation), the r.m.s. value is obtained by dividing by V2.® Power TRANSFORHER. CALCULATION EXAMPCE CALCULATION GXAMPCE Raliug : 2000 kVA Voltage Rate: 66,000 /i,a60 Tapping rouge Neu Frequency SOUR cooliug ONAN. STANDARD 1EG aeaeael Current Iw LV + 20,000 gure Pups VE x14 00a Curreedy in HV = 20,20 > LO Aups VR x GG, Vector | AY AS Voltage ‘im HV Corl GE6,000_ 29, (Oe Volts Vz Voltage tw Lad. tibeo 2 6354 Votts { Assuuphous _ “ Core ERGO losses: 4 sol ks © (ST. CB) [oss variation (Be) Ls ws /eg Ruu= 002 Chet) Density CREO: FES eafawr, Cu Bat kg/d cost Fe Cerac) 1S0Rs f\ Cu Chee) 25ORs / 4g First Trial. Carreutdonsity % ab Af Flan daucdy 1°65 Voltage per tum : 30 Avice Seo ces [240 3O LV Tums ) 6354 2 gir 30 Tuvus refio: S49 Cus Arca ef HY Couductew 36% 2 GR uw a Lu use| (20x4-6)foe|x2 > Guuur . L Actual eee QO RGA forseCw 2 use Croxzyfo2s 1D 1 porallel XL Actual area: Yoo Actual Currant Roec 2695 A fouu® eS - 4. a Betest. 6. as 61354. Q ogg 8 wes 6 68d7:a wo A= 344 use 350mm Cave. DD $ Hu wdiug 2 Dise ududee Yon coudnete (20% 4 6) gross pita. 2S 2 4 Turns /Aige © 20 u “ETE No of Aises 1240 2 OHS vr bu Aises 20 heights Aisesx pithy = {eo rene rediad (Wax 24) = 38-2 JO . Lv Wiudiag 1 Spel | 3 layer with Muck. Redeh (20 s) x10 = Qs Blagers 4S Audis 5x2 gress este Radel ( F54+5%2) = 85. Turas pss longer 213 2 FA arraQ haigh&® 20-5 «32 ~ 1496 Winders herght 2 [630 + 60+60 = (TSOWur@ . 2 O64 - > | "| cove) ICAO SAT 2 38a | 4 } | | ae eal eee ee morro Z lev fav) | Civ) CSET OST Aug bur | Ad eee i at Z| | Cale Ramee games CiGenOce Cre et | 2 Cuv) PSEA ON rs Ritu = Atti hat 15| 40 _ 38 oT i CORE & LOINDING BUILD UP - 7350 a CORE FRAME DIAGRAM@ Cone volume pernctre S46 t CAAT = BLY Voluue = Ax per O-O81A ¥Q2h 2 O-WSBUP Lrdight 5 CO FS8x FES= SA78kg a loss af 46ST = ES) 8 oe Tote? lose S923% 114K 4S = 10,480 Weetls Redigfauce of LY OOD AW xA US OOASSER hbo : 2 lose» 397R 3. (ese): Dores > Sea2aw Relistowe HV. 010% x 1300 %24 6 geen éu . Loss ; 317R 3. CHG FH) @ ess = Fas w Tot. 49810 $1924. T3443 | Stray @ous 19 800 ' 18483% wall¢ €, « and: pis bak CAT) it cat) (a+ tha) teenie _— ma. 4-63 He al Hv} AT = 222600 GQ-oas b, 0090 Pid bo: DOSS. bed bd Ey = 0235 pu “7 Go) 15) Ssh" | bi & 62 | Lot Capper Hy. Lut: Tune x area of ¢/s Sto quifus 4668 kg tv : 3384 kq 3 Sé kg hue Cost, ASox 5923 = B, 8a. 4So 280x052 = 2 43, 000 20,004,480@s) Selita enter, Reducing Trou locees, Cer Lod Court. use Beasst. Area: os = 00832 a: 0:08 12'S oF = B6Ouu gh. Vucaae iu Ata. 36 7 . whee See's 103 (3% A) 1] Lut: = 4 8bus ley ws oa AVerage 1S BRIS .93) Lut = 1 Su Lt Ld cuyy Lut 2 2. AG Cuv) Pernaclre Ge 3uBuw waght &398kg Losses 38 Y's LS 6S8B = 10, 246 Walle LV Rog : O-otSB SL Lv Less : $2,000 wells H¥ Res 2 6-854 2 HV Loss 2 14 622 Totak 134622 watts cant Hy Uasske Hae Lv_a5eut AST Tong BSE lost 6398 «180 - 4, 5% 400 BASyx Woe 24 84 250 36, 88 AsO_ TRIACS - @¥) Vets/Tury 2S BA 6ST. ase wus hy, SO day ® OM 2G As OZ. O-068a5 UO oc 4-GS As (eae sebasy) : ras = SG % S2Omu g- Tuns HV 38te6 , (Sau Tuws LV €3S4 . acy. as ag (46503 Cok ya itleg stro 2agis “bE EW @st g3qaxtso = Seg toe BIW x ASD = pTrae 4 R= to az GO: ABSA Ao eau \ ee ail [hy | 202 356 496 S16 View Sud Hy du | teakeg Tote? 2 T2SBkg Lv Loss: WB 290 Hv Loss sto 4 Stray | = AS 46Y% 5) ,- Sov- i os Oo1as. A= (22388) S32 ww 0 68 col feaght Lv 11980 Hye 1956 Lut (overages) A hus Lut (wv) 4 Buh ue Cut + 4 862u- Cv) | | ' low pt i 688 ye ean el Perucetee DQ Bus Vol. 6-4 ued wot Fe = Cogtkg- Trow loss Cyt oF Cot Gogixiso: 3, lt, Sso 4288 x20 = 18, 14,S00 2A, 23,050 —