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Something can burn

Gaseous Fuels
Natural gas
Refinery gas

Liquid Fuels

Kerosene
Gasoline, diesel
Alcohol (Ethanol)
Oil

Why hydrocarbons?
Many are liquids - high density, easy to transport
Lots of it located at Middle East, Saudi Arabia,
Iran, Iraq
Relatively non-toxic fuel & combustion products
Relatively low explosion hazard

Solid Fuels
Coal (Anthracite, bituminous, subbituminous, lignite)
Wood

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Covalent Bonds and Radicals

Chemical bonds result from a mutual sharing of electrons between atoms,
the shared electrons are in the outermost shell, known as valence electrons
Lewis notation:
Hydrogen Atomic # 1 1 valence electron

Carbon Atomic # 6 4 valence electrons

Oxygen Atomic # 8 6 valence electrons

Atoms like to have electron configuration like noble gas, usually eight valence
electrons, an octet.

H2

H
CH4 H C H
H

H H

Atoms and molecules with unpaired valence electrons are called radicals
e.g. O, H, OH, N, C

Most common hydrocarbon fuels are Alkyl Compounds and are

grouped as:
Paraffins (alkanes): single-bonded, open-chain, saturated (no more
hydrogen can be added)
CnH2n+2

n= 1 CH4 methane
n= 2 C2H6 ethane
n= 3 C3H8 propane

H
H

methane

propane

n= 4 C4H10 butane
n= 8 C8H18 n-octane and
isooctane
H

n-octane

For alcohols one hydroxyl (OH) group is substituted for one hydrogen
e.g. methane becomes methyl alcohol (CH3OH) also known as methanol
ethane becomes ethyl alcohol (C2H5OH) also known as ethanol

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Olefins (alkenes): open-chain containing one double-bond,

unsaturated (break bond more hydrogen can be added)

CnH2n

n=2 C2H4 ethene

n=3 C3H6 propene

propene
H

Note: n=1 yields CH2 is an unstable molecule

H
C

(not very stable -lots of strain in C-C bonds)

C
C

Cyclopropane

H-C-C-H

H
|
H

Benzene

H
|

Aromatics - contains one or

more six-sided ring structures
(benzene structure)

Napthenes Alkanes with cyclo structure

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Olefins (alkenes): open-chain containing one double-bond,

unsaturated (break bond more hydrogen can be added)

CnH2n

n=2 C2H4 ethene

n=3 C3H6 propene

propene

Note: n=1 yields CH2 is an unstable molecule

Acetylenes (alkynes): open-chain containing one C-C triple-bond

unsaturated
CnH2n-2

n=2 C2H2 acetylene

n=3 C3H4 propyne

acetylene

More Fuels : hydrogen, carbon monoxide, ammonia

Alkana C - C
Aliphatic

Alkena C = C
Alkuna C C

Hydrocarbon

Alicyclic

Cyclo-alkana
Cyclo-propana

Cyclo-butana

Aromatic
Benzene

Toluene

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COAL (others : wood, coke)

Macro-organism

Bituminous

Semi-anthracite

Peat (gambut)

Sub-bituminous

Anthracite

Brown coal

Lignite

Meta Anthracite

Grapite

Anthracite (hard)
Bituminous (soft)
Mixture of C, H2, S, O2, N2, water and non-combustibles
(e.g. Ash)

Proximate Analysis

Elemental Composition

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C
H
O
S
N
Char
Ash
H2O
VM

65-95%
2-7%
<25%
<10%
1-2%
20-70%
5-15%
2-20%
20-45%

Inhomogeneous organic fuel formed

mainly from decomposed plant
matter.

Over 1200 coals have been

classified.

Coalification forms different coal

types:
(Peat)
Lignite
Bituminous coal
Anthracite
Time, Temperature
(Graphite)
Coal Rank

Coal

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Highest grade; over 85%

carbon.
Most efficient to burn.
Lowest sulfur content; the least
polluting.
The most exploited and most
rapidly depleted coal resource
in many areas.

Carbon content (%)

0

20

40

60

80

100

Energy
Carbon

Lighite

Anthracite

Bituminous
Medium grade coal, about 5075% carbon content.
Higher sulfur content and is
less fuel-efficient.
Most abundant coal found in
the USA.

Bituminous

Anthracite

500

1000

1500

2000

Burned energy (1,000 calories per kg)

Carbon

Volatile matter

(%)

(%)

Lignite
Lowest grade of coal, with
about 40% carbon content.
Low energy content.
Most sulfurous and most
polluting.

Moisture
(%)

Ash

Heating value

(%)

(106 J kg-1)

Anthracite (PA)

77.1

3.8

5.4

13.7

27.8

Bituminous (PA)

70.0

20.5

3.3

6.2

33.3

Subbituminous (CO)

45.9

30.5

19.6

4.0

23.6

Lignite (ND)

30.8

28.2

34.8

6.2

16.8

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Main Processes in Coal

Combustion
volatiles

coal particle

p-coal, d=3070m

char

homogeneous
combustion

heterogeneous
combustion

CO2, H2O,

CO2, H2O,

devolatilization

tdevolatile=1-5ms

tvolatiles=50-100ms

tchar=1-2sec

Coke :
adalah batu bara yang
dihilangkan moisture dan volatile
matter. Prosesnya disebut
karbonisasi pirolisa.

900 1200 C high temperatur coke

750 900 C medium temperatur coke
500 600 C low temperatur coke

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Coal Applications

Homes heat and cooking

Transportation steam engines
Industry metal works
Electricity power plants

A. Analisis PROXIMATE
Analisis yg paling sederhana, yaitu dgn memanaskan batu bara dgn cara2
tertentu, untuk memperoleh hasil analisa :
1.

MOISTURE, M (water) : dipanaskan pada suhu 104 110oC dalam waktu

tertentu. Pengurangan berat dikalikan 100% = M
Surface moisture : moisture karena sumber luar, mis : percikan air,
hujan, kondensasi udara dll
Inherent moisture : moisture yg terikat dg batu bara dimana
menimbulkan kebasahan. Contoh : kadar IM 2 4 % u/ anthracite
& bitiminous

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2. VOLATILE MATTER , VM adl bahan yg mudah menguap : dipanaskan dalam ruang

tertutup pada 950oC selama 7 menit. VM terdiri dari Hidrogen, CO, CO2,
uap air
3. Kadar abu, A, (ash), caranya membakar sisa batu bara dalam dapur muffler pada
suhu 700 750oC.
4. FIXED CARBON, FC : dianggap sb kadar karbon tetap, ditentukan dg mengurangi
sisa M, VM dan A sehingga didapatkan :
FC = 100 ( M + VM + A )
Catatan : FC tsb bukan merupakan karbon murni, karena masih mengandung Si, Al, Fe,
Ti, Mg dll. Dan juga tidak mewakili total karbon dari batu bara krn ada C
dikeluarkan sebagai CO, CO2 dll

A. Analisis ULTIMATE
Analisi ultimate adalah analisa kandungan unsur kimia bahan bakar secara
kimia, terutama unsur-unsur karbon (C), hidrogen (H), oksigen (O) dan sulfur (S).
Dari kedua analisa diatas dapat dibuat suatu hubungan antara analisa ultimate
dengan analisa proximate seperti dibawah ini :

%C

0,97 + 0,7 ( VM - 0,1A ) M ( 0,6 - 0,01M )

%H

0,036 FC + 0,086 ( VM - 0,1A ) - 0,0035M2

%N2

2,10 0,020 VM

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O
8

Nilai kalor bahan bakar dapat dicari dengan :

1. Pengujian langsung dengan menggunakan CALORIMETER
- Padat & cair : bomb calorimeter
- Gas : gas calorimeter
2. Analisis dengan menggunakan rumus pendekatan yang dikembangkan oleh
DULONG PETIT :
HHV = 8080 C + 3446 ( H O / 8 + 2250 S )

( kkal / kg bb )

Catatan : - diperlukan data analisa Ultimate

- Analisa tsb akan valid jika kadar karbon 76% dan kadar oksigen 10 %
- Jika kadar tsb memenuhi maka hasil yang didapat berbeda hanya 2% dari uji
laboratorium

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What is Petroleum?

Petroleum, also known as Crude Oil ,is

occurring brown to black flammable
liquid.
Mainly constituted of hydrocarbons mixed
with variable amount of sulfur, nitrogen,
oxygen and metal (such as V,Ni) compounds.
100,000 to 1,000,000 different compounds

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Mainly properties of petroleum

API gravity

APIg rav ity

141.5
131.5
SG1 5 C

Most commonly crude oil in the rang 20~45

Higher API, more paraffine, higher yields of gasoline

Sulfur, wet %

Sour is S% > 1, Sweet is <0.5

Viscosity at 100F

Skematik
Distilasi

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Technical features to make/improve fuels

Convert heavier products into lighter ones into gasoline, Such

as thermal cracking,coking, viscosity breaking, catalytic
cracking, and hydrocracking
C16H34

C8H16 + C5H10 + C3H8

Combining lighter products into heavier ones, such as butane

and propylene into alkylate , a high-octane gasoline
component,such as alkylation and polymerization
CH3

CH3

CH3
C

CH2

CH3

CH3

CH3

C
H

CH3

CH3
CH2

CH3

CH3

Rearranging the molecular structure to improve desirable

qualities,such as reforming low-octane gasoline into high octane,
such as catalytic reforming and isomerization
CH3
CH3

CH2

CH2

CH3

CH3

CH3

Treating, to remove contaminants such as sulfur and nitrogen

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A fuel designed for SIEs

Mixture of Hydrocarbon, (over 500)1, plus
additives.

1.

1 B. Hamilton, FAQ: Automotive Gasoline

Coal tar distillates: Late 19th century.

Gasoline from Petroleum: Early 20th century.
Typical mid-1920s gasoline was 40 - 60 Octane.
1950s: compression ratio increase, requiring higher
octane fuels: Leaded was introduced.
1970s: leaded was prohibited.
1970-1990: slow changes in gasoline as lead was
phased-out.
1990 + : the US Clean Air Act started forcing major
compositional changes on gasoline.
These changes will continue into the 21st Century.

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The sound of abnormal combustion.

Detonation

Ketika terjadi detonasi, flame front merambat

mendekati kecepatan suara.
Ketika terjadi detonasi, tekanan di dalam ruang
bakar terbentuk dengan cepat, sehingga bisa
merusak mesin dan menimbulkan spark knock
(suara)

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Octane

Bahan bakar terbakar dalam ruang bakar dalam

hitungan beberapa millisecond, tetapi
diharapkan sebagai suatu pembakaran yang
terkontrol, bukan sebuah ledakan.
Flame merambat pada kisaran 50 250 m/s.
Octane number : kecenderungan suatu bahan
menahan detonasi/knock pada kondisi operasi
tertentu.
Semakin besar octane number, semakin besar
dia mampu menahan detonasi

Cara mengukur octane number :

normal heptane (n-C7H16) = 0

isooctane (C8H18)
= 100

campuran dari dua hydrocarbon diatas

menunjukkan nilai octane suatu bahan bakar.
Mis: campuran dari 10% n-heptane dan 90%
isooctane mempunyai nilai octane = 90.

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Octane Number Measurement

Dua methode telah dikembangkan untuk mengukur nilai octane,

dengan sebuah mesin standar satu cylinder dibawah prosedur yang
ditetapkan oleh Cooperative Fuel Research (CFR) Committee th. 1931.
Mesin CFR engine yang dipakai adalah 4-langkah dgn 3.25 bore and
4.5 stroke, compression ratio dapat divariasi dari 3 to 30.
Research
Inlet temperature (oC)
Speed (rpm)
Spark advance (oBTC)

Motor

52
600
13

Coolant temperature (oC)

Inlet pressure (atm)
Humidity (kg water/kg dry air)

149
900
19-26
(varies with CR)
100
1.0
0.0036 - 0.0072

Knock Characteristics of Various Fuels

Formula

Name

CH4
C3H8
CH4O
C2H6O
C8H18
Blend of HCs
n-C7H16

Methane
Propane
Methanol
Ethanol
Isooctane
Regular gasoline
n-heptane

Critical r
12.6
12.2
7.3

RON

MON

120
112
106
107
100
91
0

120
97
92
89
100
83
0

Suatu baha bakar dg antiknock lebih tinggi dari angka octane 100, ON
disetarakan dg:

mT adalah jumlah milliliters dari tetraethyl lead per U.S. gallon

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RON yang berasal dari fraksi proses distilasi pada kondisi

atmosfer :
60-70 untuk naphtha ringan
40-60 untuk naphtha menengah dan berat
Tidak dapat digunakan langsung untuk mesin gasoline yang
membutuhkan ON kisaran 90 98.
Dibutuhkan produk refenery lain sebagai campuran dan
penambahan bahan aditif, serta pengolahan lebih lanjut untuk
meningkatkan ON.

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Fuel Additives

Bahan kimia aditif dapat digunakan untuk menaikan ON gasoline.

antiknock agents paling efektif adalah lead alkyls;
(i) Tetraethyl lead (TEL), (C2H5)4Pb di introduce th 1923
(ii) Tetramethyl lead (TML), (CH3)4Pb di introduce th 1960
Pada th 1959 antiknock manganese compound disebut MMT diintruduce
sebagai supplement TEL

Sekitar 1970 low-lead and unleaded gasoline mulai dipakai akibat isu beracun
yang disebabkan oleh lead alkyls (TEL mengandung 64% berat lead).
Alcohols seperti ethanol dan methanol mempunyai knock resistance tinggi.
Sejak 1970 jenis lain seperti alcohol methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE) telah
ditambahkan ke gasoline untuk meningkatkan ON. MTBE dibuat dengan
mereaksikan methanol dan isobutylene.

Future Antiknocking Additives

The aromatics, toluene and xylene amerupakan candidat
antiknock agent masa depan.
Mereka sebenarnya sudah ada di dalam gasoline dan
tidak menimbulkan efek samping yang merugikan.
Organo Silicon Compounds masih terus dikaji dan
dikembangkan

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Jenis Gasoline

ON

Compression Ratio

Regular

87

Mid grade

89

Premium

88

Pertamax

92

9:1 - 10:1

Pertamax Plus

95

10:1 - 11:1

amerika

7:1 - 9:1

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Natural Gas :
1. Low pressure Natural Gas : yang biasanya digunakan langsung untuk
memasak atau memanaskan rumah tangga. Umumnya disalurkan dalam pipa
dalam tanah.
2. CNG ( Compressed Natural Gas ) : adalah gas alam yang di compress
pada tekanan tinggi sehingga bisa di bawa dengan kendaraan misalnya
truck.
3. LNG ( Liquid Natural Gas ) : Gas alam yang di dinginkan sehingga
menjadi cair. LNG lebih padat dari CNG karena berbentuk cair sehingga
lebih mudah diangkut. LNG dibuat dengan proses refrigerasi 260 F.
Pendinginan tersebut akan menghilangkan uap air, butane, propane dan
beberapa gas lain, sehingga komponen utama LNG adalah 98 adalah
methane
LPG ( Liquid Petrolium Gas ) : Gas yang terutama terdiri dari propane
dan beberapa gas lain yang di compress dengan tekanan tinggi ( 200 psi)
sehingga mencair dan disimpan dalam tangki bertekanan.

Tugas I :
Buat atau carilah artikel mengenai sifatsifat bahan bakar cair dan gas. Bagaimana
mengujinya dan kemudian sajikan dalam
bentuk yang menarik untuk dibaca atau
dipresentasikan.
Kirimkan tugas saudara ke alamat email agung_swd@yahoo.com
dengan format nama file TBH_nim.*

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Jenis Gasoline

ON

Compression Ratio

Regular

87

Mid grade

89

Premium

88

7:1 - 9:1

Pertamax

92

9:1 - 10:1

Pertamax Plus

95

10:1 - 11:1

amerika

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