Basics of Refrigeration

TEMPERATURE

Temperature is a physical property of a

system and is one of the principal
parameters
of
thermodynamics.
Temperature underlies the common notions
of hot and cold; something that is hotter
has the greater temperature. Temperature is
used as a measure of the internal energy in
a system.
The Temperature of a system is defined as
the average kinetic energy of microscopic
motions of a single particle in the system.
Temperature
is
measured
with
thermometers that may be calibrated to a
variety of temperature scales. Throughout
the world (except for in the U.S.), the
Celsius scale is used for most temperature
measuring purposes. Fahrenheit scale is
used in the U.S.

In this animation, the size of helium atoms

relative to their spacing is shown to scale under
136 atmospheres of pressure. These roomtemperature atoms have a certain, average
speed (slowed down here two trillion fold).

HEAT

Heat is a form of energy transfer, associated with

the different motions of atoms, molecules and
other particles that comprise matter when it is hot
and when it is cold. High temperature bodies result
in high heat transfer. Heat transfer can be created
by chemical reactions (such as burning), nuclear
reactions (such as fusion taking place inside the
Sun), or mechanical dissipation (such as friction).
Heat is defined as energy in transit.

Heat can only be transferred between objects, or

areas within an object, with different temperatures.
In the absence of work, only in the direction of the
colder body.

Solar-thermal "heat" emissions recorded

via the SOHO/EIT telescope.

LATENT HEAT & SENSIBLE HEAT

Latent Heat
Latent Heat is the heat given up or absorbed by
a substance as it changes state and is not
associated with a change in temperature. Each
substance has a characteristic latent heat of
fusion, latent heat of vaporization, latent heat
of condensation and latent heat of sublimation.

Sensible Heat
Sensible Heat is the heat given up or absorbed by a substance with no change of state
and is associated with a temperature change, as opposed to latent heat. This is so-called
because it can be sensed by humans. If the air in a building was to be heated from 60 F to
70 F only sensible heat would be involved. However, if the air in a building was to be
cooled from 80 F to 70 F and humidity was to be removed from the air at the same time,
then both sensible and latent heats would be involved.

ENTHALPY & ENTROPY

Enthalpy
Enthalpy is the total amount of heat in one Lb. of a substance. It's unit is therefore
BTU/Lb. The metric unit is kJ/Kg. (kilo joules/kilogram)
Entropy
Entropy measures the energy dispersion in a system divided by temperature. This ratio
represents the tendency of energy to spread out, to diffuse, to become less concentrated
in one physical location or one energetic state. That spreading out is often done by
molecules because molecules above absolute zero always have energy inside of them.
That's why they are incessantly speeding through space and hitting each other and
rotating and vibrating in a gas or liquid. Entropy is measured in BTU per Lb. per degree
change for a substance.

LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS:
If two thermodynamic systems are in thermal equilibrium with a third, they are also in thermal
equilibrium with each other.

FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS:

The increase in the internal energy of a thermodynamic system is equal to the amount of heat
energy added to the system minus the work done by the system on the surroundings.
In simple words, in any process, the total energy of the universe remains constant.

LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS (CLAUSIUS STATEMENT):
The entropy of an isolated system not in equilibrium will tend to increase over time,
approaching a maximum value at equilibrium.
It is impossible to carry out a cyclic process using an engine connected to two heat reservoirs
that will have as its only effect the transfer of a quantity of heat from the low-temperature
reservoir to the high-temperature reservoir.

Heat cannot of itself pass from a colder to a hotter body.

THIRD LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS:

As a system approaches absolute zero of temperature, all processes cease and the entropy
of the system approaches a minimum value.
In simple terms, the Third Law states that the entropy of a pure substance approaches zero
as the absolute temperature approaches zero.

UNDERSTANDING REFRIGERATION

These experiments can help you understand the properties of gases and their role in
refrigeration.
Experiment 1
Put a pot of water on the stove, stick a thermometer in it and turn on the burner. You will
see (if you are at sea level) that the temperature of the water rises until it hits 212 F. At
that point, it will start boiling, but will remain at 212 F -- this is the boiling point of water
at sea level. If you live in the mountains, where the air pressure is lower than it is at sea
level, the boiling point will be lower -- perhaps between 190 and 200 F.
Experiment 2
Put a thermometer in a container of water, put the container in the oven and turn it to 400
F. As the oven heats up, the temperature of the water will again rise until it hits 212 F, and
then start boiling. The water's temperature will stay at 212 F even though it is completely
surrounded by an environment that is at 400 F. If you let all of the water boil away, as
soon as the water is gone the temperature of the thermometer will shoot up to 400 F.

UNDERSTANDING REFRIGERATION

Butane Lighters
Check out a disposable butane lighter with a clear case, what you are seeing is liquid
butane stored in a high-pressure container. The boiling point of Butane is 31 degrees F
at normal atmospheric pressure (14.7 PSI). By keeping butane pressurized in a
container, it remains liquid at room temperature. If you open the container, the butane
would boil, and the temperature of the boiling liquid would be 31 F.
Butane lighters don't work very well on cold winter days. If it is 10 degrees Fahrenheit
outside, the butane is well below its boiling point, so it cannot vaporize.

UNDERSTANDING REFRIGERATION CYCLE

In a refrigeration cycle, the same refrigerant is used over and over again for transferring
the heat. You can get an idea of how this works by the same oven experiment. This
involves the following four steps:
1. The air temperature in the oven is 400 degrees F. The water in the cup boils away,
remaining at 212 F but producing a lot of 400 F steam. Let's say the this steam is collected
in a steel container.
2. Once all the water boils away, the steam in the container is to be pressurized. In the
process of pressurizing it, its temperature rises to 800 F and it remains steam.
3. The steel container dissipates its excess heat to the air in the oven, and it eventually
falls back to 400 F. In the process, the high-pressure steam in the container condenses
into pressurized water (just like the butane in a lighter).
4. At this point, the water in the steel pressurized container is released into the pot, and it
immediately begins to boil, its temperature dropping to 212 F.

By repeating these four steps, the same water is reused over and over again to provide
refrigeration. Now let's take a look at how these four steps apply to your refrigerator.

UNDERSTANDING REFRIGERATION CYCLE

The Refrigeration Cycle
The refrigerator in your kitchen uses a cycle that is similar to the one described
in the previous section. But in your refrigerator, the cycle is continuous. In the
following example, we will assume that the refrigerant being used is pure
ammonia, which boils at -27 degrees F. This is what happens to keep the
refrigerator cool:
1. The compressor compresses the ammonia gas. The compressed gas heats up
as it is pressurized (orange).

2. The coils on the back of the refrigerator let the hot ammonia gas dissipate its
heat. The ammonia gas condenses into ammonia liquid (dark blue) at high
pressure.
3. The high-pressure ammonia liquid flows through the expansion valve. The
expansion valve is a small hole. On one side of it, is high-pressure ammonia
liquid. On the other side of the hole is a low-pressure area.
4. The liquid ammonia immediately boils and vaporizes (light blue), its
temperature dropping to -27 F. This makes the inside of the refrigerator cold.
5. The cold ammonia gas is sucked up by the compressor, and the cycle repeats.

VAPOR COMPRESSION CYCLE

The vapor-compression cycle is most commonly
used in Residential and Commercial Refrigeration
and Air Conditioning systems. The Figure 1
provides a schematic diagram of the components
of a typical vapor-compression system. The
thermodynamics of the cycle can be analyzed on a
diagram as shown in Figure 2.
Point 1 to 2: A circulating refrigerant such as
Freon enters the compressor as vapor. The vapor
is compressed at constant entropy and exits the
compressor superheated.

Figure 1: Vapor compression refrigeration

Point 2 to 3 to 4: The superheated vapor travels

through the condenser which first cools and
removes the superheat and then condenses the
vapor into a liquid by removing additional heat at
constant pressure and temperature.

Figure 2: TemperatureEntropy diagram

VAPOR COMPRESSION CYCLE

Point 4 to 5: The liquid refrigerant goes through

the expansion valve where its pressure abruptly
decreases, causing flash evaporation. This
results in a mixture of liquid and vapor at a
lower temperature and pressure as shown at
point 5.
Point 5 to 1: The cold liquid-vapor mixture then
travels through the evaporator coil and is
completely vaporized by cooling the warm air
(from the space being refrigerated) being blown
by a fan across the evaporator coil. The
resulting refrigerant vapor returns to the
compressor inlet at point 1 to complete the
thermodynamic cycle.

Figure 1: Vapor compression refrigeration

Figure 2: TemperatureEntropy diagram

PRESSURE-ENTHALPY DIAGRAM

COMPRESSOR
A Compressor is a mechanical device that increases the pressure of a gas by reducing its volume.
Compression of a gas naturally increases its temperature.
Compressors are similar to pumps: both increase the pressure on a fluid and both can transport the
fluid through a pipe. As gases are compressible, the compressor also reduces the volume of a gas.
Liquids are relatively incompressible, so the main action of a pump is to transport liquids.
Compression Ratio = Absolute Discharge Pressure / Absolute Suction Pressure
The Capacity of a Compressor is determined by its Mass Flow rate (Lb/Min) and not by Volume Flow
(CFM).

LOW PRESSURE
LOW TEMP.
GAS

COMPRESSOR

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPRESSORS
BY MODE OF OPERATION

BY CONSTRUCTION

RECIPROCATING

OPEN TYPE

CENTRIFUGAL

SEMI-HERMETIC

SCROLL

HERMETIC

SCREW

HIGH PRESSURE
HIGH TEMP.
GAS

RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR
Reciprocating compressors use pistons driven by a
crankshaft. They can be either stationary or portable, can
be single or multi-staged, and can be driven by electric
motors or internal combustion engines. Small
reciprocating compressors from 5 to 30 horsepower (hp)
are commonly seen in automotive applications and are
typically for intermittent duty. Larger reciprocating
compressors up to 1000 hp are still commonly found in
large industrial applications, but their numbers are
declining as they are replaced by various other types of
compressors. Discharge pressures can range from low
pressure to very high pressure (>5000 psi or 35 MPa).
A motor-driven six-cylinder reciprocating
compressor that can operate with two, four or
six cylinders.

Mechanism of a Reciprocating pump

CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR
Centrifugal compressors use an impeller in a shaped
housing to force the gas to the rim of the impeller,
increasing the velocity of the gas. A diffuser (divergent
duct) section converts the velocity energy to pressure
energy. They are primarily used for continuous,
stationary service in industries such as oil refineries,
chemical and petrochemical plants and natural gas
processing plants. Their application can be from 100 hp
(75 kW) to thousands of horsepower. With multiple
staging, they can achieve extremely high output
pressures greater than 10,000 psi (69 MPa).
Many large snowmaking operations
(like ski resorts) use
this
type
of
compressor. They
are also used in
internal combustion
engines
as
superchargers and
turbochargers.

SCROLL COMPRESSOR
The Scroll Compressor has one Scroll (or Spiral) orbiting in
a path defined by a matching fixed scroll. The fixed scroll is
attached to the Compressor body.
The orbiting Scroll is coupled to the crankshaft. The
orbiting motion created a series of gas pockets traveling
between the scrolls. On the outer portion of the scrolls, the
pockets draw in gas, then move into the center of the scroll,
where the gas is discharged.
As the gas moves into the increasingly smaller inner
pockets, the temperature increase to the desired discharge
pressure.
Due to its higher efficiency,
quiet operation and lower
Vibration levels, the Scroll
Compressors are widely
used as a replacement for
other types of Compressors
in the latest Air Conditioning
systems with higher SEER
ratio.

Mechanism of a scroll pump

SCREW COMPRESSOR
Within the compressor body there are two screws with
mating profile: a female and a male screw, female having
concave inlets and the male with convex helical inlets. The
screws rotate in opposite directions with the female screw
receiving the driving power and transmitting this power to
the male screw through a set of synchronization gears.
As the screws rotate, the air is drawn into the inlet port and
fills up the space between the screws. This phase is the
Admission. The key phase is the Compression. It starts
when the end of a male thread blocks the end of a female
thread. The volume available between the compressor body
and these two threads then progressively decreased during
rotation. When this volume merges into the delivery outlet of
the compressor, the third phase takes place, hence the
Exhaust.
Throughout this process, there is no
contact between the screws. This
means no wear, total reliability, and
non-pulsating air delivery.

CLASSIFICATION BY CONSTRUCTION

Open-type: One end of the compressor crankshaft protrudes

outside of the casing and is connected to the drive shaft
externally, which in turn is driven by a motor. Maintenance is easy,
but the overall size is bulky. These are used in heavy industrial
applications.

Hermetic: The casing is welded and sealed, and the heads of

the cylinders cannot be accessed for inspection or maintenance.
These are used in household refrigerators and in mediumcapacity air-conditioning units.

Semi-hermetic: Both the compressor itself and the drive motor

are housed inside the casing, which is designed so as to be
opened for inspection and maintenance. In this case, the drive
shaft and the crankshaft are one single piece. Semi-hermetic
compressors are made so as to prevent air or dust from
entering the mechanisms.

CONDENSER

Condenser is a heat exchanger which rejects heat from the refrigeration system.

It takes in a high temperature and high pressure gas from the Compressor and changes
it into a Liquid at the same temp. and pressure conditions.
Types of Condensers:

Air-Cooled
Water-Cooled

HIGH PRESSURE
HIGH TEMP.
GAS

CONDENSER

HIGH PRESSURE
HIGH TEMP.
LIQUID

AIR-COOLED CONDENSER

It rejects heat directly to the Outdoor Air. This is a Fin and

Tube (Hair-Pin type) heat exchanger. Air cooled
condensers are used in systems upto 100 Tons capacity.
This is less energy efficient when compared to Water
cooled condenser, since it can operate only at more
Temperature differences.

WATER-COOLED CONDENSER
This condenser works in three steps:
1. Heat transferred from the refrigerant to the water.
2. Hot Water is pumped to the Outdoor Cooling Tower.
3. Cooling Tower rejects heat to the outdoor air.
Though this system is more complex and expensive, this is more energy efficient, since it can
operate at even lower temperature differences. This system is generally preferred on large tonnage
units (more than 100 tons).
Types of Water-Cooled Condensers
Tube in Tube

Shell and Tube

Shell and Coil

METERING DEVICE / EXPANSION VALVE

Metering Device provides a Pressure Drop in the system. It separates the high side of the
system from the low side.
The Metering Device converts the High Pressure and High Temperature Liquid from
Condenser to Low Pressure and Low Temperature Liquid-Vapor mixture, which will be fed to
the Evaporator.

HIGH PRESSURE
HIGH TEMP.
LIQUID

METERING
DEVICE

Commonly used types of Metering Device:

CAPILLARY TUBE

THERMAL EXPANSION VALVE

LOW PRESSURE
LOW TEMP.
LIQUID+VAPOR MIX

CAPILLARY TUBE
A Capillary tube is a long tube with a very small diameter. When the high pressure refrigerant is forced to go
through a small orifice it loses a lot of the pressure. The liquid refrigerant is sort of misted into the evaporator.
So not only is the pressure reduced, the surface area of the liquid is vastly increased. The surface area of
zillions of liquid droplets is much greater than the surface area of the column of liquid in the pipe feeding the
metering device. The capillary line has no moving parts and can not respond to changing conditions like a
changing thermal load on the evaporator.

THERMAL EXPANSION VALVE

This valve not only introduces a Pressure drop, but also has the additional capability of modulating the
refrigerant flow. If the load on the evaporator changes the valve can respond to the change and increase or
decrease the flow accordingly.
The TXV has a sensing bulb attached to the outlet of the evaporator. This bulb senses the suction line
temperature and sends a signal to the TXV allowing it to adjust the flow rate. This is important because if not all
the refrigerant in the evaporator changes state into a gas, there would be liquid refrigerant content returning
down the suction line to the compressor. That could be disastrous to the compressor. The flow rate through a
TXV is set so that not only is all the liquid changed to a gas, but there is an additional 10 F safety margin to
insure that all the liquid is changed to a gas. This is called Superheat.

EVAPORATOR
Evaporator is a heat exchanger which absorbs heat into the refrigeration system. It takes in a low
temperature and low pressure liquid from the Metering device and changes it into Vapor at the
same temperature and pressure conditions.

LOW PRESSURE
LOW TEMP.
LIQUID+VAPOR MIX

EVAPORATOR

LOW PRESSURE
LOW TEMP.
VAPOR

This is generally a Fin & Tube (Hair-Pin type) heat exchanger, similar to Air-Cooled Condensers.

REFRIGERANT
A refrigerant is a compound used in a heat cycle that undergoes a phase change from a gas
to a liquid and back. The two main uses of refrigerants are refrigerators and air conditioners.
In olden days, the mainly used Refrigerants were R-11 and R-12, due to their low boiling point. These are
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) which deplete the Ozone layer to a greater extent. According to the 1987
Montreal Protocol and the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, the production of CFCs (R-11 and R-12) were
stopped in 1995.
The next alternative is Hydrochloro-fluorocarbons (HCFCs), due to their lower ozone depletion potential. R22 is a HCFC based refrigerant. This is widely used currently. But as per the Clean Air Act Amendments of
1990, even HCFCs are to be phased out in 2010.
In 1991, Honeywell announced the development of a new environmental friendly hydrofluorocarbon (HFC)
refrigerant, whose designation is assigned as R-410A. This does not deplete the Ozone layer.
Carrier began a cooperative development program with Honeywell to develop the first residential air
conditioners in the United States that would use R-410A. In 1995, Carrier launched a new product line using
the registered trademark Puron Refrigerant, which uses R-410A.
In 1996, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) recognized Carriers and Honeywells foresight by
presenting both collaborating companies with the Stratospheric Ozone Protection Award. Also in 1996,
the EPA formally recognized R-410A as an acceptable substitute for R-22.
Since that time, other manufacturers have followed Carriers lead and developed their own line of R-410A
products. Now every major air-conditioning equipment manufacturer has a line of R-410A equipment.
Until now, most R-410A equipment has been for residential service. Carrier is boldly breaking that barrier by
introducing new lines of high-efficiency commercial air conditioning units specially designed for Puron
refrigerant.

UNIT OF REFRIGERATION
Refrigerators and Air-Conditioning systems may be rated in kJ/s or Btu/h of cooling or
Tons of refrigeration.
One ton of refrigeration is the rate of heat removal required to freeze one ton (2000 pounds) of
water at 0 C (32 F) to ice in 24 hours.

Based on the above statement:

Latent heat of ice (i.e., heat of fusion) 144 Btu / lb (or 334.5 kJ/kg)
One ton of water

= 2000 lb

Heat to be extracted

= 2000 * 144 = 288000 Btu / 24 hours

= 12000 Btu/hour
= 200 Btu / Minute

1 ton refrigeration = 200 Btu / minute = 3.517 kJ/s = 3.517 kilowatts

Most residential air conditioning units range in capacity from about 1 to 5 tons of refrigeration.

SEASONAL ENERGY EFFICIENCY RATIO (SEER)

SEER is the ratio of the cooling output divided by the power consumption. It is the Btu of
cooling output during its normal annual usage divided by the total electric energy input in watt
hours during the same period. This is a measure of the cooling performance for rating of central
air conditioners and central heat pumps. Higher the SEER, the system will be the more energy
efficient.

SEER = BTU Wh
US Government SEER Standards

The appliance standards required a minimum SEER of 10 for split-system central air
conditioners and heat pumps in 1992. The average heat pump or central air conditioner sold in
1986 had an SEER of about 9.
Today, it is rare to see systems rated below SEER 9 in the US. The United States now requires
that residential systems manufactured after 2005 have a minimum SEER rating of 13.
Substantial energy savings can be obtained from more efficient systems.
For example by upgrading from SEER 9 to SEER 13, the power consumption is reduced by 30%.
It is claimed that this can result in an energy savings valued at up to US$300 per year depending
on the usage rate and the cost of electricity.
Residential split-system ACs of SEER 18 or more are now available, but at substantial cost
premiums over the standard SEER 13 units.

RELATIONSHIP OF SEER TO EER

The Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER) is the efficiency rating for the equipment at a particular pair
of external and internal temperatures, while SEER is calculated over a range of expected
external temperatures (i.e., the temperature distribution for the geographical location of the
SEER test).
Formulas for the approximate conversion between SEER and EER in California are:
SEER = EER 0.9
The relationship between SEER and EER is relative depending on where you live because
equipment performance is dependent of air temperatures, humidities, and pressures. The
relationship stated above is typical if you live in the lower-elevation portions of California.
However, if you live in Georgia it is better approximated by:
SEER = EER 0.80
due to the much higher humidities. A similar relationship exists in relating SEER and COP, also
depending on where you live.

CALCULATING THE ANNUAL COST SAVINGS

Air conditioner sizes are given as "tons" of cooling where 1 ton of cooling is 12,000 BTU/h.
The annual cost of electric power consumed by a 6 ton (72,000 BTU/h) air conditioning unit
operating for 1000 hours per year with a SEER rating of 9 and a power cost of $0.12 per kilowatthour (kWh) may be calculated as follows:
(unit size, BTU/h) (hours per year, h) (power cost, $/kWh)
(SEER, BTU/Wh)
(1000 W/kW)
(72,000 BTU/h) (1000 h) ($0.12/kWh)
(9 BTU/Wh)
(1000 W/kW)
= $960 annual cost
Considering a SEER rating of 13 for the above system, the annual cost would be:
(72,000 BTU/h) (1000 h) ($0.12/kWh)
(13 BTU/Wh)
(1000 W/kW)
= $665 annual cost
If the system is upgraded from a SEER of 9 to 13, the Annual Cost Savings is 30%.

WINDOW AC UNITS
A Window Air Conditioner unit
implements
a
complete
air
conditioner in a small space. The
units are made small enough to fit
into a standard window frame. The
following are the components of a
standard Window AC unit:
A compressor
An expansion valve
A hot coil (on the outside)
A chilled coil (on the inside)
Two fans
A control unit
For larger applications, all the above
components are packaged in a
single unit and mounted on the roof.
The distribution of cool air and recycling of warm air is through duct
work. This is called as a Roof-Top
Unit (RTU).

SPLIT-SYSTEM AC UNITS
A split-system air conditioner splits the hot side
from the cold side of the system.
The cold side, consisting of the expansion valve
and the evaporator coil, is placed inside the
building. The air handler blows air through the coil
and routes the air throughout the building using a
series of ducts.

The hot side, known as the condensing unit, is

placed outside the building.
This approach has evolved over the years because
it is low-cost, and also because it normally results
in reduced noise inside the house.
In warehouses, businesses, malls, large department
stores, etc., the condensing unit normally is placed
on the roof and can be quite massive.
Alternatively, there may be many smaller units on
the roof, each attached inside to a small air handler
that cools a specific zone in the building.

CHILLED WATER AC SYSTEMS / CHILLERS

In multi-story buildings, the split-system
approach is not practical, since either
running the refrigerant piping exceeds
distance limitations or the length of duct
work becomes unmanageable. At this
point, a Chilled-Water system is used.
In a chilled-water system, the entire unit
is on the roof or behind the building. It
cools water to between 40 and 45 F (4.4
and 7.2 C). This chilled water is then
piped throughout the building and
connected to air handlers as needed.
There is no practical limit to the length of
a chilled-water pipe if it is well-insulated.
You can see in this diagram that the air
conditioner (on the left) is completely
standard. The heat exchanger lets the
cold Refrigerant chill the water that runs
throughout the building.

Cooling Tower:
In all the systems described earlier, air-cooled
Condensers are used. In large systems (more
than 100 tons), the efficiency can be improved
significantly by using water-cooled Condensers.
The Water that is used to cool the condenser is in
turn cooled in a Cooling tower.
In a cooling tower, air is blown through the stream
of water so that some of the water evaporates,
thereby cooling the warm water.