Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Piping
Piping
system under prevailing process conditions and design parameters. It is the study for developing an efficient and
economical way for the transport of fluid from the source to the destination as indicated in the Piping and
Instrumentation Diagram (P&ID).
2. Process licensor:
Project design basis, plot plan, PFDs(Process Flow Diagram), P&IDs (Process and Instrumentation Diagram), PDS (Process Data
Sheet), process description, equipment list, line list, site data, licensor, capacity etc.
3. Process information:
Process data sheet showing overall dimensions, supporting arrangement, all nozzles location, size, rating, etc. for equipment.
5. Instrument drawing:
Tray width requirement on pipe rack/sleepers.
Instrumentation hook-up drawing.
Instruments drawings for control valves, safety valves, inline instruments etc.
6. Electrical layout:
Tray width requirement on pipe rack/pipe sleepers and cable trenches width in units/off-site.
Types of pipes:
1. Seamless:
Pipe produced by piercing a billet followed by rolling or drawing or both.
They are used for high pressure applications.
2. Welded:
a. Electric fusion welded (EFW): Pipes carrying a single or double longitudinal but weld joined wherein coalescence is produced by
manual or automatic electric arc welding in the preformed tube.
b. Electric resistance welded: (ERW): Pipe carrying longitudinal but weld joined wherein coalescence is produced by heat obtained
from resistance of the pipe to flow of electric current in a circuit of which the pipe is a part and by application of pressure.
3. Forged and bored:
Pipes prepared by forging and then boring to the desired thickness.
In case of Low pressure services the branching off is done by directly pipe to pipe welding. This is called as Stub-in or Stub-on
connection. Depending on the size and the thickness of the branch-off sometime times reinforcement pads are welded on the
main pad for the area compensation purpose.
The requirement of the reinforcement pad is specified in the code ASME B31.3. The branch table or schedule are generally is a part of
each piping specification which gives the type of fitting to be used depending on the size of header and corresponding size of the
branch.
Couplings:
There are three types of coupling available each type is used in the piping system depending upon the requirement
Full coupling:
Used to join small bore plain end pipes where the pipe spec requirement is socket weld
Half coupling:
Used to take a small bore pipe branch-off from a large bore pipe where the pipe spec requirement is socket weld in small bore size
Reducing coupling:
Used to reduce the size of a small bore pipe maintaining the centerline of the pipe.
Swage Nipples:
The function of Swage nipples are the same as reducer the only difference is that they are generally used to connect butt welded pipe
to a socket welded or screwed pipe.
There are also available as Concentric and Eccentric type.
The different end connections available are:
PBE-Plain Both Ends
PLE-Plain Large Ends
PSE-Plain Small End
BLE-Beveled Large End
TSE-Threaded Small End
Leakage at joints.
Excessive thrust and moments on connected equipment (such as pumps and turbine).
Excessive stresses in the supporting (or restraining) elements.
Resonance with impose fluid induced vibrations.
Excessive interference with thermal expansion and contraction in a piping system, which is otherwise adequately flexible.
Unintentional disengagement of piping from its supports.
1. Non-metallic Gaskets:
Usually composite sheet materials are used with flat face flanges and low pressure class applications. Non-metallic gaskets are
manufactured non-asbestos material or Compressed Asbestos Fibre (CAF). Non-asbestos types include arimid fibre, glass fibre,
elastomer, Teflon (PTFE) and flexible graphite. PTFE or RPTFE are used in high corrosive applications.
Full face gasket types are suitable for use with flat-face (FF) flanges and flat-ring gasket types are suitable for use with raised face (RF)
flanges.
2. Semi-metallic Gaskets:
Semi-metallic gaskets are composites of metal and non-metallic materials. The metal is intended to offer strength and resiliency while
the non-metallic portion of a gasket provides conformability and sealability Commonly used semi-metallic are spiral wound, metal
jacketed, Cam profile and a variety of metal-reinforced graphite gaskets.
Semi metallic gaskets are designed for the widest range of operating conditions of temperature and pressure. Semi-metallic are used
on raised face, male-andfemale and tongue-and groove flanges.
Spiral wound gaskets are used for high temperature and high-pressure applications. The main parts of spiral wound gasket are metallic
windings and filler material. The criteria for material selection of windings are: corrosive nature, fluid concentration, operating
temperature and material cost. Commonly used material for winding are Stainless steel 304, 316 and 321.Alternate winding materials
also can be used depending upon the services. General filler material used are Asbestos and graphite. Graphite filler are
recommended for very high temperature application.
For proper positioning, spiral wound gaskets are provided with outer centering ring made up of Carbon Steel. In Vacuum service
application they are provided with inner ring. The material of the ring should be compatible with the process fluid.
Spiral wound gasket is recommended with flange face finish of 63-250 AARH.
3. Metallic Gaskets:
Metallic gasket is fabricated from one or a combination of metal to the desired shape and size. Common metallic gasket is ring-joint
gasket and lens rings.
It is suitable for high-pressure and temperature applications and require high bolt load to seal.
Dimensional Standards:
API 601- Metallic Gasket for Refinery Piping
BS 3381- Spiral Wound Gaskets to suit BS 1560 Flanges
ANSI B 16.20- Metallic Gasket for Steel Pipe Flanges, Ring Joint, Spiral Wound and Jacketed
ANSI B 16.21- Non-Metallic flat Gasket for Pipe Flanges
In a chemical plant pipes run from one unit to another unit, lines coming from outside facilities etc. The structure which used for these
purpose is termed as Piperack. So while preparing the plot plan for a plant one of the most important activity is to plan the piperack
through which the piping has to run from one unit to the other.
Generally it is cheaper to run pipes at grade, but only where resulting hindrance to access is unimportant. The arrangement of pipe
rack and structures should be given special attention as savings in structural steel and civil costs can often be greater than increased
cost due to extra pipe length. Piperack constructionablity (structural or concrete) needs to be freezed at early stage of project in
consultation with client & civil . Piping that needs to be free draining or no pocket will often dictate the levels for elevated structures.
The following types of Pipe racks may be required:
Interconnecting piperacks carry process and utility lines to and from process and utility units. They should not run through process
or utility units. Unit racks connect to the main rack taking lines into the respective units via a battery limits station. These racks should
be at different elevations to the interconnecting rack.
Unit piperacks are the main arteries carrying the pipes into the units, and as such should be centrally located and are usually
elevated. They should be of sufficient height to allow vehicle access beneath. The width of rack will be determined by the number of
lines (plus future requirements) it carries, along with any allocation for cable trays.
In off-site areas or where only a few lines are required to run to an isolated plant area it is more cost effective to run pipes on pipe
tracks or sleepers, at grade. Sleeper spacing will depend on limiting pipe spans. Sleeper piping is also preferred in off-site area as
pipe runs on elevated structure often acts as hindrance for fire protection.
Pipe trenches are used mainly in large off-plot storage areas where pipes need to run at low level and require to pass under plant
roads. However use of unfilled open pipe trenches has to be reviewed considering the draining requirement.
Galvanization (or galvanisation) is the process of applying a protective zinc coating to steel or iron, in order to prevent rusting.In few
services care should be taken to avoid rusting of the pipeline as it might be hazardous to personnel, cause damage, malfunction of
equipment, instrument, etc. so for that reason the piping is galvanized.
7. Product inspection plan / inspection frequency / (For ex.: Inspection methods / frequency / Inspectors qualifying procedures etc)
8. Product testing requirements (For ex.: Codes applicable / PMI / NDE / Hydrotest / sampling etc)
9. Product certification requirements (For ex.: EN10204 3.1 or 3.2 etc)
10. Product marking requirements (For ex.: Color code / tagging etc)
11. Product Preservation requirements (For ex.: preservation methods / Preservation requirements etc)
12. Products minimum documentation to be submitted for approval (For ex.: As per SDRL)
13. Product packing requirements (For ex.: Packing for sea / land / road transportation etc)
14. Product delivery information (For ex.: Final destination / Delivery period etc)
15. Product shipping information (For ex.: Weight & volume of product / Freight charges etc)
16. Size compatibility between Nominal sizes API 6A Sizes
Corrosion can be defined in a more simplistic way as deterioration of materials under the influence of an environment.
Pipelines in the pipe rack are classified as process lines, relief-line headers and utility headers.
Process lines:
(a) Which interconnect nozzles on process equipment more than 20ft. apart (closer process equipment can be directly interconnected
with pipelines)
(b) Product lines which run from vessels, exchangers, or more often from pumps to the unit limits to storage or header arrangement
outside the plant.
(c) Crude or other charge lines which enter the unit and usually run in the yard before connecting to exchangers, furnaces or other
process equipment e.g. holding drums or booster pumps.
Utility lines:
Utility lines in the pipe rack can be put in two groups:
(a) Utility headers serving equipment in the whole plant. Such lines are: low and high pressure steam lines, steam condensate, plant air
and instrument air lines. If required, cooling water supply and return and service water can also be arranged on the pipe rack.
(b) Utility lines serving individually one or two equipment items or a group of similar equipment (furnaces, compressors) in the plant.
Such lines are: boiler feedwater, smoothering steam, compressor starting air, various fuel oil lines, lubricating oil, cooling oil, fuel gas,
inert gas and chemical treating lines.
The first step in the development of any pipe rack is the generation of a line-routing diagram. A line routing diagram is a schematic
representation of all process piping systems drawn on a copy of pipe rack general arrangement drawing / or on the unit plot plan
where the pipe rack runs in the middle of the process unit.
Based on the information available on the first issue of P&I Diagram / Process flow diagram i.e. line size, line number, pipe material,
operating temperature etc. the line routing diagram is to be completed.
Once the routing diagram is complete, the development of rack width, structural column spacing, road crossing span, numbers of
levels and their elevations should be started.
After analyzing all the requirements and arrangements, the dimensions are to be rounded off to the next whole number. Based on
the economics, the width and the number levels e.g. two tier of 30 ft. wide or three tiers of 20 ft. wide rack will be decided.
The gap between the tiers shall be decided on the basis of the largest diameter pipeline and its branching. The difference between
the bottom line of pipe in the rack and the bottom of a branch as it leaves the rack shall be decided carefully, to avoid any
interference due to support, insulation, size of branch etc. All branch lines from the main lines on pipe rack shall be taken
aesthetically on a common top of steel (TOS).
Piping / Civil:
Civil Skeleton/ Civil Information Drawings of Units, Pipe Rack and Tank Farms.
Civil Drawing review/ release for construction.
Release of HOLDS at subsequent dates.
Piping/ Mechanical:
Piping/ Process:
Special Parts List fixing responsibility for procurement action (i.e. by PI, PE or MQ Group).
Piping/ Procurement:
Finalization of Master Plot Plan after getting clearance/ agreement with Licensor, Client, Statutory Bodies etc.
Finalization of Procurement Philosophy/ Spare Philosophy with Client
Monitoring of Project Schedule and updating the month wise activity and follow-up/ coordination with Client, Vendor and Licensor.
Progress Report/ Constraint Report.
Piping/ Electrical:
Finalization of Cable Tray Layout and requirement of Insert Plates on RCC Column/ Beam, Floor opening for Cables etc.
Cable connection/ Push Button supports near the Terminal Box of all motors.
Finalization of location of Switchboards, Lighting Fixtures floor wise.
Piping/ Instruments:
Nominal Pipe Size (NPS) is a North American set of standard sizes for pipes used for high or low pressures and temperatures.
Pipe size is specified with two non-dimensional numbers: a nominal pipe size (NPS) for diameter based on inches, and a schedule
(Sched. or Sch.) for wall thickness
NB (nominal bore) is the European designation equivalent to NPS is DN (diamtre nominal/nominal diameter/Durchmesser nach
Norm), in which sizes are measured in millimeters.
Generally, layout analysis should be started from the top of the tower and those having reboilers should be started from the bottom,
but with the designer visualizing the layout as a whole. There will be no trouble in dropping the large lines (such as overhead vapour
lines) straight down the side of the column. The lower spaces can then be laid out with piping and nozzles knowing what space is
already occupied by these large vertical lines.
Condensers are often located at grade. In such cases, a large overhead lines drop right alongside the tower to the condenser at grade.
Condensers can also be elevated. An elevated condenser is more convenient from a tower piping layout standpoint because the large
overhead line leaves the immediate vicinity of the tower at a high level, leaving the lower section open, say, for a ladder from grade to
the first platform.
Whether the condenser is at grade or at an elevated level, the flexibility and thermal load problems connected with large diameter
overhead lines must be considered.
For valves and blinds, the best location is directly at tower nozzles. Valves in branch connections or at nozzle should be in a
position where the line will be self-draining on both sides of the valve. A dead leg over closed valve collects liquid or solids. The
trapped liquid can freeze, or when opening the valve, without draining the leg, can upset process conditions.
All instruments should be oriented so as not to obstruct the passage way at the ladder exits or entrance. Convenient access and
groupings of instruments and valve will help inspection and plant operation. Instruments should not be located adjacent to manholes.
The breather valve also known as pressure/vacuum relief valve is a protective device mounted on the top of a fixed roof
atmospheric storage tank. Its primary function is to conserve the loss of storage tank content when the tank is in out-breathing mode.
The purpose & selection of breather valve is mainly to control the in-breathing and out-breathing of storage tank by protecting the tank
under over pressurization and vacuum and possible rupture or imploding.
A plug valve is a quarter-turn on-off valve. The plug can be cylindrical or tapered and has a variety of port types. Plug valves are
available in either a lubricated or non-lubricated design. Plug valve ends can be flanged, hub type or butt weld.
TYPES:
1. Non-Lubricated Plug Valve- These valves are not torque seated. Low Maintenance
2. Lubricated Plug Valve- These valves are not torque seated.
3. Eccentric Plug Valve- These valves are torque seated.
4. Expanding Plug Valve- These valves are torque seated.
Storage tank are containers used for storage of fluids for the short or long term. Cluster of tanks together in a same are termed as
Tank Farms.
Types of Tanks:
Types of Tanks in Process plant depend on the product to be stored, potential for fire, and capacity to be handled.
Underground Tanks:
Commonly used for drain collection of the plant at atmospheric pressure.
FRP Tanks:
Commonly used for corrosive fluid at atmospheric pressure.
1.
Larger installations: Aggregate capacity of Class A and Class B petroleum product is more than 5000 cu.m or diameter of Class A
or Class B product tank is more than 9m.
2.
Smaller installations: Aggregate capacity of Class A and Class B petroleum product is less than 5000 cu.m or diameter of Class A
or Class B product tank is less than 9m.
Dyke Enclosure
1.
2.
3.
4.
1.
2.
Piping from / to any tank located in a dyked enclosure should not pass through any other dyked enclosure. Piping connected to
tanks should run directly to outside of dyke to the extent possible to minimize piping within the enclosures.
Inside dyked area, earth shall be graded and gravel filled. H.P (High point) level inside the dyked area shall be 300mm above the
outside grade & shall slope towards the drain sump inside dyke.
In dyked area of tankfarm, arrangement shall be made to drain containment to either OWS or storm water drain by providing two
valves. Generally for the first 10 -15 mins of rainwater will be routed through the OWS and subsequently through the storm water.
Pumps & its associated piping shall be located outside the dyke wall.
Pipes Crossing the dyke wall shall pass through a sleeve suitably sealed.
Piping elevation to be fixed considering settlement values.
Spiral stairways shall be provided on each tank considering ease of access and minimizing paving requirement. Wind direction
consideration should be taken into account
Pumps shall be provided in a curbed area (150 mm high) with proper provision for draining either to OWS & storm water drain.
Pump plinth shall be minimum 300mm high from finished floor level.
Carbon Equivalent CE shall not exceed 0.43%
Where CE = C + Mn/6 + (Cr+Mo+V)/5 + (Cu+Ni)/15
The above formula for CE is applicable when the carbon content is greater than 0.12%
Requirements for Pipes
Carbon steel pipes shall be supplied in double random lengths (11 to 13m) for pipe sizes 2 to 36, and in single random lengths (5 to
7m) for pipe sizes 1.5 and smaller.
SS, DSS and CS galvanized pipes shall be supplied in single random lengths (5 to 7m) for all pipe sizes.
CS & LTCS Pipes shall be fully killed, fine grained and shall be supplied in normalized or normalized and tempered condition. All
stainless steel pipes shall be supplied in solution annealed condition.
Welded pipe shall be supplied with single straight seam for sizes upto 36 and double straight seam for sizes greater than 36
subjected to approval from the contractor.
All DSS welded pipes with a wall thickness greater than 30 mm shall also be 100% ultrasonically examined.
Requirements for Fittings
3.7
3.8
Galvanizing of fittings shall be in accordance with ASTM A153. Threaded portion of fittings shall be supplied with threads
free of galvanizing.
3.9
Swage nipple shall be pipe swaged by forging only. Machining of bar stock, forgings or heavy wall pipe not permitted.
All reduction sizes for tees and reducers to be in accordance with ASME B16.9.
3.11
CS & LTCS fittings shall be fully killed and fine grained and shall be supplied in normalized or normalized and tempered
condition.
3.12
100% of CS & LTCS welded fittings, with wall thickness greater than Sch 80 shall be examined by Magnetic Particle
Examination for weld bevel ends. Acceptance standards shall be in accordance with ASME VIII Division 1, Appendix 6. This shall be
done after final heat treatment.
3.13
100% of CS, LTCS & SS forged fittings, with wall thickness greater than Sch 80 shall be examined by Magnetic Particle /
Dye penetrant examination. Acceptance standards shall be in accordance with ASME VIII Division 1, Appendix 6 / 8. This shall be done
after final heat treatment.
3.14
100% of SS & DSS wrought fittings having wall thickness more than 20mm shall have the bevel and weld end over a width
of 25mm, examined by Dye penetrant Method.
Acceptance standards shall be in accordance with ASME VIII Division 1, Appendix 8.
3.15
100% of DSS welded fittings with a wall thickness greater than 30mm shall be 100% ultrasonically examined in accordance
100% of DSS forged fittings weld bevels shall be examined by Dye Penetrant inspection.
Rigid Supports:
This type of support arrangement is generally very simple and has maximum use in piping. It does not have adjustability to the erection
tolerances. It will directly rest on foundation or structure which is supporting the pipe. Common type of RIGID SUPPORTS are shoe
type (welded), shoe type (with clamp) Trunnion type, valve holder type, support brackets (Secondary Support
2.2
Elastic Supports:
This type of support is commonly used for supporting hot piping. It shall be able to support pipes even when the pipe is moving up or
down at support point.Common types of elastic supports are variable type spring supports, constant type spring supports.
2.3
Adjustable Supports:
This type of support is Rigid type in construction but is has few nuts and bolts arrangements for adjusting the supports with respect to
the actual erected condition of pipe. The support can be adjusted for the erection tolerances in the piping. These are required for a
better supporting need at critical locations of pipe supports.Mostly all type of rigid supports can be modified by using certain type of
nuts and bolts arrangement, to make it as an Adjustable support.
b)
c)
Spiral Exchanger
d)
e)
P&ID
Process Data Sheet
Mechanical Data Sheet / First Pass Vendor drawings
Vendor drawings for Column Internals
Piping Material Specifications
Piping Studies
30% Model review comments
Instrument Level Sketches
Piping requirements for Instruments
Standard details for Platform and ladders.
Material Selection
Material selection is determined by:
- service conditions (pressure, temperature, medium, etc.)
- design
- manufacturing method
The following rubber types are used for lining purposes (classification according to ASTM D 1418):
- Isoprene or natural rubber (NR)
- Synthetic isoprene rubber (IR)
- Styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR)
- Chloroprene rubber (CR)
-
Strainer
It is a device used in Piping Systems, its function being to arrest foreign particles like dirt, weld sputter, scale etc upstream of rotating
equipment such as compressors, turbines, pumps, rotary instruments, steam traps etc.
Restriction orifice (RO) is mainly used to achieve controlled or restricted flow of process medium. The orifice offers a restriction to the
process flow and the pressure head drops from the upstream to the downstream.
Because of high stress intensification factor they are not recommended on high temperature lines.
Pressure-temperature rating for mitre bend is not the same as for pipe and in order to withstand same pressure-temperature conditions
as applicable to pipe, a higher thickness is required for mitre bend.
Types of loads
All the American code for Pressure Piping classifies the loads mainly into three types.
1.4.1 Sustained Loads: Those due to forces present during normal operation.
1.4.2 Occasional Loads: Those present during rare intervals of operations
1.4.3 Displacement Loads; Those due to displacement of pipe
an offshore engineer you could find yourself responsible for finding ways in which to extract oil and gas from natural reservoirs, in both
an economic and an environmentally sound way, as well as designing offshore installations and offshore drilling equipment, or devising
methods to maximise productivity.
An oil platform, offshore platform, or (colloquially) oil rig is a large structure with facilities to drill wells, to extract and
process oil and natural gas, and to temporarily store product until it can be brought to shore for refining and marketing.
The upstream sector includes the operations involved in searching for underground or underwater oil and gas fields and drilling
exploratory wells and at the same time, operating the wells that recover to re-direct the crude oil or raw natural gas to the surface. This
sector is also referred to as the 'Exploration and Production or E&P sector'.
The midstream sector processes and stores, markets and transports crude oil, natural gas and the various natural gas liquids like
ethane, butane and propane. The midstream sector involves the transportation (by pipeline, rail, barge, oil tanker or truck), storage, and
wholesale marketing of crude or refined petroleum products. Pipelines and other transport systems can be used to move crude oil from
production sites torefineries and deliver the various refined products to downstream distributors
The downstream sector includes all oils refineries and petrochemical plants, petroleum product distribution via the affiliated retail
outlets and natural gas distribution companies, within the operations. The downstream industry markets products such as gasoline and
diesel and jet fuel. This is also the sector responsible for the availability of natural gas and propane.
The need for independent energy supply has spurred many companies to invest heavily in storage facilities of oil & gas and
(petro)chemicals. The downstream sector commonly refers to the refining of petroleum crude oil and the processing and purifying of
raw natural gas,
[1][2]
as well as the marketing and distribution of products derived from crude oil and natural gas.
mechanical
process
where
wellbore
is
drilled
through
the
seabed
is
referred
to
as Offshore
drilling.
The main purpose of drilling is to explore for and subsequently extract petroleum which lies in rock formations beneath the seabed.
A offshore drilling rig is a machine which creates holes(usually called wells or boreholes) and/or shafts in the ground.
The offshore drilling concept is to drill a hole in the ground and stabilize it against collapse of its walls.
The drilling is made using drill bits that penetrate the soil and creates the hole.
Mud (mixed with cement) is injected in the hole to stabilize the sides and prevent it from collapse.
The drilling tower (Derrick) is used to handle the pipes and drilling equipment during drilling.
Drilling rigs can be massive structures housing equipment used to drill water wells, oil wells, or natural gas wells.
Drilling rigs can be mobile equipment mounted on trucks, tracks or trailers, or more permanent land or offshore-based marine units.
The term rig therefore generally refers to the complex of equipment that is used to penetrate the surface of the earths crust.
THE OFFSHORE DRILLING CONCEPT
A blow-out prevention system and/or Christmas Tree is used to cap the well after completing drilling.
Piping Offshore: Main Components of Drilling
The main components involved in theoffshore drilling process are the drilling rig, the mud system, the blow-out preventer (BOP) etc.
THE MUD SYSTEM (BASICS):
This mud scours the bottom of the hole to keep the bit cutters clean and keep a fresh rock surface for the bit to attack.
Three Main Functions of the Mud are: (1) Cleans the bit, (2) Removes the Cuttings from the hole, (3) Keeps the hole from
collapsing.
DRILLING RIG:
The main component of the jack-up rig which is critical for selection in a drilling operation is the drill string.
THE DRILL STRING
The basic drill string is composed of drill bit, drill collars, Bottom Hole Assembly (BHA) and drill pipe.
Each joint of drill pipe is around 30ft long.
Each joint is between 2 3/8 to 6 5/8 in diameter depending on the location and the well type.
The drill string is hollow for the continuous circulation of drilling mud.
BLOW OUT PREVENTORS (BOP):
Sometimes formation fluids do enter the wellbore (the hole that is being drilled) under great pressure. When this happens, a well is
said to take a kick. It is especially risky if the fluid is a gas or oil.
To guard against the dangers of such events, rigs are usually equipped with a BOP.
If a well takes a kick and the mud cannot stop or slowly release the pressure, the BOP is the last line of defense.
If done correctly the gas is trapped in a bag type preventer and the mud and kick fluids special chemicals that are released into the
hole to stop the gases/oils from reaching the Surface) are pumped out into a separate pit for disposal.
Methods of Offshore Installations: Lift Barges, Floatover
There are two main methods of marine installation of heavy equipment. The conventional way to install major facilities, such as
topsides and production equipment, is through lift barges, while the other method which is gaining acceptance in offshore installation
is the floatover method.
1. Offshore installation Lift Barges
For past many years, heavy lift cranes have been deployed in offshore oil and gas fields for installation purposes. Heavy-lift barges are
used to both transport the equipment offshore and lift it into place via powerful cranes.
For ease of installation and to use smaller capacity of crane, major marine installations can be divided into modular lifts. For example, a
processing facility can be fabricated in multiple modules that are then installed offshore one by one as per the construction planning
and scheduling.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The fixed tower structures are the most common offshore structure. These structures are commonly used in water depths less than 150
meters. However this can be used in water depths up to about 300 meters. Within this category there are 4-leg, 6-leg, and 8-leg towers.
The Tension Leg Platforms are used in water depths greater than 300 meters. They consist of a floating deck structure anchored to pile
heads on the sea floor by means of long pipes, which are always kept in tension
Semi-submersible vessels
As fixed structures are not practical for water depth greater than around 500 meters, so the offshore drilling operation is required to be
carried out using a floating vessel.
A specialized marine vessel with good stability and seakeeping characteristics is known as semi-submersible vessel. It can be moved
in different locations and anchored to the seabed using mooring system.
In offshore, the specific role for which semi-submersible vessel designs used are: offshore drilling rigs, safety vessels, oil production
platforms and heavy lift cranes.
A floating production system is in-effect a floating Oil rig. It contains all the equipment associated with a fixed installation and is used in
conjunction with sub sea well heads to explore moderate to deep-water oil fields. FPS is particularly suitable for the development of oil
reserves where the installation of a fixed structure would be either impractical or economically not viable.
Piping Systems
Piping systems can be broadly classified into two basic categories of Hydrocarbon Piping and Utility Piping
Cloud point is the temperature at which dissolved solids are no longer completely soluble, precipitating as a second phase giving the
fluid a cloudy appearance.
Pour point is the temperature at which the crude oil becomes semi solid and ceases to flow.
Crude stabilization is a process of removing volatile components from crude oil to reduce its vapour pressure.
Overview Production
The primary function of a production facility is to separate the product from the wells into saleable products and dispose of the rest in
an environmentally friendly manner. The product from the wells typically consists of oil; gas; associated produced water and sediment
Well fluids enter a separation train where the crude oil, gas, and bulk water are separated. The separation train may consist of several
stages of separators. In the separation train, most volatile components of the well fluid will be vaporized. Thus the crude oil will either
be stabilized or partially stabilized. Crude stabilization is performed to achieve the specified RVP
After free water removal, produced oil may contain residual emulsified water. The crude oil is then further processed in a dehydration
unit to reduce the water content to a value that acceptable for transportation or sales. Dilution water must occasionally be added to
reduce the salt content of the residual emulsion to a suitably low level. The addition of dilution water and followed by dehydration is
called desalting process.
Gas separated from the separation train enters the gas processing train. The train normally comprises of gas compression system and
gas dehydration system. Gas dehydration unit is required to remove water from the gas stream to prevent hydrate and corrosion
problem in the pipeline. The most common method for gas dehydration is a TEG contactor unit which is completed with a TEG
regeneration system. The TEG (liquid) absorbs water from the gas stream to achieve the specified water content of the export gas.
Compression of the gas to pipeline pressure is normally required to allow economic transport in reasonable small diameter pipeline.
A more complex gas processing train may include gas sweetening system to remove the acid gases which are CO 2 and H2S. Both
gases are very corrosive when liquid water is present. Gas sweetening usually uses aqueous solution of various chemicals. Therefore
a gas sweetening, if required, is normally placed upstream of dehydration unit. However, gas sweetening system is not common for
offshore processing facilities. Generally, any sour gas produced from offshore will be further processed in onshore gas plant.
Separated water from the well fluids is directed to the produced water treatment unit to render the water suitable for disposal to the sea.
Oil removal is the first treatment for produced water. Oil-water emulsions are difficult to clean up due to the small size of the particles,
as well as the presence of emulsifying agents. Hydrocyclone is common equipment for produced water de-oiling purpose.
As an alternate of disposing water into the sea, the produced water could be re-injected into water injection wells. Before re-injection,
produced water is usually filtered and treated with biocides. Booster pumps and injection pumps are normally installed for water
injection system.
This guideline discusses the treatment of the crude oil to meet the product specifications such as vapor pressure, base sediment and
water, salt content, and H2S concentration.
Product Specification
Typical specifications of crude oil are as follow: