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Vat Li Dai Cuong A1
Vat Li Dai Cuong A1
------- -------
BI GING
VT L I CNG (A1)
(Dng cho sinh vin h o to i hc t xa)
Lu hnh ni b
H NI - 2005
Chng I: ng hc cht im
CHNG I: NG HC CHT IM
ng hc nghin cu cc c trng ca chuyn ng c hc (phng trnh chuyn ng,
phng trnh qu o, qung ng dch chuyn, vn tc, gia tc) nhng khng xt n nguyn
nhn gy ra s thay i trng thi chuyn ng.
1. S CHUYN NG CA MT VT
Trong thc t ta thng ni my bay bay trn tri, t chy trn ngTrong vt l,
ngi ta gi chung cc hin tng l chuyn ng.
1. Chuyn ng.
Theo nh ngha, chuyn ng ca mt vt l s chuyn di v tr ca vt i vi cc vt
khc trong khng gian v thi gian. xc nh v tr ca mt vt chuyn ng, ta phi xc nh
khong cch t vt n mt vt (hoc mt h vt) khc c qui c l ng yn.
Nh vy, v tr ca mt vt chuyn ng l v tr tng i ca vt so vi mt vt hoc
mt h vt c qui c l ng yn. T ngi ta a ra nh ngha v h qui chiu.
Vt c qui c l ng yn dng lm mc xc nh v tr ca cc vt trong khng gian
c gi l h qui chiu.
xc nh thi gian chuyn ng ca mt vt, ngi ta gn h qui chiu vi mt ng h.
Khi mt vt chuyn ng th v tr ca n so vi h qui chiu thay i theo thi gian.
Vy chuyn ng ca mt vt ch c tnh cht tng i ty theo h qui chiu c chn, i
vi h qui chiu ny n l chuyn ng, nhng i vi h qui chiu khc n c th l ng yn.
2. Cht im, h cht im, vt rn.
Bt k vt no trong t nhin cng c kch thc xc nh. Tuy nhin, trong nhiu bi ton
c th b qua kch thc ca vt c kho st. Khi ta c khi nim v cht im: Cht im
l mt vt m kch thc ca n c th b qua trong bi ton c xt.
Kch thc ca mt vt c th b qua c khi kch thc rt nh so vi kch thc ca
cc vt khc hay rt nh so vi khong cch t n ti cc vt khc. Vy, cng c th nh ngha:
Mt vt c kch thc nh khng ng k so vi nhng khong cch, nhng kch thc m
ta ang kho st c gi l cht im.
Nh vy, ty thuc vo iu kin bi ton ta nghin cu m c th xem mt vt l cht
im hay khng. V d khi xt chuyn ng ca vin n trong khng kh, chuyn ng ca qu
t chung quanh mt tri, ta c th coi vin n, qu t l cht im nu b qua chuyn ng
quay ca chng.
Nhiu khi ngi ta cn gi cht im l ht hay vt.
2
Chng I: ng hc cht im
(1-1)
z = z(t)
r
Do bn knh vect r ca cht im
chuyn ng cng l mt hm ca thi gian t:
r r
r = r (t )
z
+
(1-2)
A.
r
r
(c)
O
y
x
x
Hnh (1-1)
V tr ca cht im chuyn ng
V d.
1
y = gt 2 , z = 0 .
2
y Hnh 1-1
Qu o ca cht im
Chng I: ng hc cht im
1
2
2 gx
2v 0
(1-3)
r
2. VN TC
c trng cho chuyn ng v phng, chiu v nhanh chm, ngi ta a ra i
lng gi l vn tc. Ni cch khc: vn tc l mt i lng c trng cho trng thi chuyn
ng ca cht im.
1. Khi nim v vn tc chuyn ng
Gi s ta xt chuyn ng ca cht im trn ng cong (C) (hnh 1-2). Ti thi im t,
cht im v tr M, c honh cong:
s=AM
Do chuyn ng, ti thi im sau t=t+t cht
im i c mt qung ng s v v tr M xc nh
bi: s = AM = s + s.
Qung ng i c ca cht im trong khong thi
gian t = tt l:
4
M
s
Hnh 1-2
thnh lp cng thc vn tc
Chng I: ng hc cht im
MM = s s = s
T s s/t biu th qung ng trung bnh m cht im i c trong mt n v thi
gian t M n M, v c gi l vn tc trung bnh ca cht im trong khong thi gian t
(hoc trn qung ng t M n M) k hiu l v , tc l:
v=
s
t
(1-4)
Vn tc trung bnh ch c trng cho nhanh chm trung bnh ca chuyn ng trn
qung ng MM. Trn qung ng ny, ni chung nhanh chm ca cht im thay i t
im ny n im khc, v khng bng v . V th c trng cho nhanhAchm ca chuyn
ng ti tng thi im, ta phi tnh t s s/t trong nhng khong thi gian t v cng nh, tc
l cho t 0.
Theo nh ngha, khi t 0, MM, t s s/t s tin dn ti mt gii hn gi l vn tc
tc thi (gi tt l vn tc) ca cht im ti thi im t v k hiu l v :
v = lim
t 0
s
t
v=
ds
dt
(1-5)
mt
(m/s).
giy
2. Vect vn tc
c trng y c v phng chiu v nhanh
chm ca chuyn ng ngi ta a ra mt vect gi l vect
vn tc.
r
v
r
ds
Hnh.1-3
nh ngha vect vn tc 5
Chng I: ng hc cht im
r
nh ngha:Vect vn tc v ti v tr M l vect c phng v chiu trng vi phng
chiu ca chuyn ng, c ln c xc nh bi cng thc (1-5). c th vit c biu
r
thc ca vect vn tc, ngi ta nh ngha vect vi phn cung ds l vect nm trn tip tuyn
vi qu o ti M, hng theo chiu chuyn ng v c ln bng tr s tuyt i ca vi phn
honh cong ds . Do ta c th vit li (1-5) nh sau:
r
r ds
v=
(1-6)
z
dt
v tr s ca n l v =
ds
nh c (1-5).
dt
c xc nh bi:
r
r
r
r
r
r'
O
x
Hnh 1-4.
Xc nh vect vn tc trong
h to Descartes
r
MM' = OM' OM = r
r
r
r
r
Khi t 0 , M' M , r dr , do MM MM ' , dr = ds .
r
r
Hai vect dr , ds bng nhau, do ta c th vit li biu thc (1-6) ca vn tc nh sau:
r
r dr
v=
(1-7)
dt
Tc l: Vect vn tc bng o hm bn knh vect v tr chuyn ng ca cht im theo
thi gian.
r r r
r
r r
r
V trong h to d Descartes r = xi + yj + zk , (trong i , j, k l cc vect n v trn
cc trc ta ox,oy,oz ) cho nn theo (1-7), ta c th vit:
r
r
r r
r dr d
dx r dy r dz r
v=
( xi + yj + zk ) =
k.
i +
=
j+
dt dt
dt
dt
dt
r
r
r
r
hay l:
v = v x i + vy j + vz k
r
trong v x , v y , v z l ln ca cc thnh phn ca vect v trn ba trc ta ox, oy, oz
v bng:
vx =
v
v ln ca v l:
dx
dy
dz
, vy =
, vz =
dt
dt
dt
(1-8)
Chng I: ng hc cht im
v =
v +v +v
2
x
2
y
2
z
dx
dy
dz
+
+
dt
dt
dt
(1-9)
V d
V tr ca cht im chuyn ng trong mt phng Oxy c cc phng trnh nh sau: x=5t,
y=7t-4t2.
Xc nh qu o ca cht im, vect vn tc ca cht im ti thi im t=1s. Coi thi
im ban u t0= 0. n v ca x, v y l mt (m).
Li gii
Chn h to nh hnh 1-5. H quy chiu gn vi gc to O. Kh thi gian t trong cc
phng trnh chuyn ng, ta c phng trnh qu o ca cht im:
4
7
y = x - x 2,
5
25
r
Vect v hp vi phng ca trc Ox mt gc xc nh bi:
vy
= -1/5,09 = -0.196. Suy ra -11,120 ( xem hnh 1-5).
tg =
vx
y
ymax =3,06m
xm
v
r
v
Hnh 1-5
x=5,09m
3. GIA TC
c trng cho s bin thin ca vect vn tc, ngi ta a ra mt i lng gi l vect
gia tc. Ni cch khc, gia tc l i lng c trng cho s bin i trng thi chuyn ng ca
cht im.
1. nh ngha v biu thc vect gia tc
Khi cht im chuyn ng, vect vn tc ca n
thay i c v phng chiu v ln. Gi s ti thi
v
im t cht im im M, c vn tc l v , ti thi im
sau t = t+t cht im v tr M c vn tc
r
v
M
r
v'
Hnh 1-6
Vn tc ti nhng im khc nhau
Chng I: ng hc cht im
r r
r
v' = v + v (Hnh 1-6). Trong khong thi gian t=t- t, vect vn tc ca cht im bin thin mt
lng:
r r r
v = v' v .
r
v
xc nh bin thin trung bnh ca vect vn tc trong mt n v thi gian
T s
t
v c gi l vect gia tc trung bnh ca cht im chuyn ng trong khong thi gian t v
r
k hiu l a tb :
r
r
v
a tb =
(1-10)
t
Nhng ni chung ti nhng thi im khc nhau trong khong thi gian t xt, bin
r
thin vect vn tc v trong mt n v thi gian c khc nhau. Do , c trng cho bin
thin ca vect vn tc ti tng thi im, ta phi xc nh t s
cng nh, ngha l cho t 0, khi t s
r
v
trong khong thi gian v
t
r
v
s tin dn ti gii hn gi l vect gia tc tc
t
r
v
a = lim
t 0 t
(1-11)
dv z d 2 z
= 2
dt
dt
r
v ln ca vect a s c tnh nh sau:
az =
r
a = a x2 + a y2 + a z2
(1.13)
Chng I: ng hc cht im
MB = M ' A' =
r
v' c gc ti M.
r
Ta t trn phng MA mt on MC sao cho MC = v' . Khi , nh trn hnh v (1-7),
r
v
AC
CB
r
a = lim
= lim
+ lim
t 0 t
t 0 t
t 0 t
(1-14)
r
Theo (1-14), vect gia tc a gm hai thnh phn. Sau
y ta s ln lt xt cc thnh phn ny.
a. Gia tc tip tuyn.
Ta k hiu thnh phn th nht ca (1-14) l:
r
AC
a t = lim
t 0 t
Thnh phn ny lun cng phng vi tip tuyn ca qu
r
o ti thi im t, v vy a t c gi l gia tc tip tuyn.
r
v A
C
R
O
M'
B
r
v'
A'
Hnh(1-7). Vn tc ca cht im
ti cc thi im t v t'
r
r
r
Chiu ca a t trng chiu vi AC . V vy khi v' > v th a t cng chiu vi v , khi v' < v ,
th a t ngc chiu vi v .
ln c tnh nh sau:
at = lim
t 0
AC
t
= lim
t 0
v
AC
v' -v
MC - MA
= lim
= lim
= lim
t 0 t
t 0 t
t t 0
t
Chng I: ng hc cht im
r
Thnh phn th hai ca gia tc, c k hiu l a n v theo (1-14), ta c:
r
CB
a n = lim
t 0 t
CMB
=
2
2
2
r
CB
ln ca a n cho bi: a n = lim
t 0 t
r
r
Ch rng cc gc: BMC = MOM= . Khi t 0, M M, v' v , gc rt nh,
c th coi gn ng:
s =MMR,
trong R =OM l bn knh cong ca ng trn mt tip ca qu o ti im M. Ta suy ra:
CB = v'. = v'.
s
R
r
Vy ta c th tm ln ca a n nh sau:
CB 1
v' s
1
s
= lim
=
lim v' . lim
t 0 t
t 0 t
R t 0 t
R t 0
a n = lim
lim v' = v
t 0
lim
t 0
s
t
(1-16)
ds
=v
dt
v2
R
(1-17)
Cng thc (1-17) chng t an cng ln nu cht im chuyn ng cng nhanh (v cng ln)
r
v qu o cng cong (R cng nh). Vi cc iu kin ny, phng ca vect vn tc v thay i
cng nhiu. V th, gia tc php tuyn c trng cho s thay i phng ca vect vn tc.
10
Chng I: ng hc cht im
r
Tht vy, trong chuyn ng thng, R = , an = 0, vect vn tc v c phng khng i.
r
Trong chuyn ng cong ni chung vect gia tc a gm hai thnh phn: gia tc tip tuyn
r
r
a t v gia tc php tuyn a n , tc l:
r r
r
a = at + an
(1-18)
r
Gia tc tip tuyn a t c trng cho s bin i v ln ca vect vn tc.
r
Gia tc php tuyn a n c trng cho s bin i v phng ca vect vn tc.
Ta cng c th phn tch vect gia tc theo cc thnh phn trn cc trc to ox, oy, oz,
do kt hp vi (1-18) ta c:
r r
r
r
r
r
a = a x i + ay j + a zk = an + at
(1-19)
r
M
a
t
V tr s:
a = a x2 + a y2 + a z2 = a t2 + a n2
a =
d x
+ d y + d z = dv + v
dt 2
R
dt 2
dt 2
dt
r
- Khi an = 0, vect vn tc v khng thay i phng, cht im
r
a
r
an
Hnh 1-8
Gia tc tip tuyn v
chuyn ng thng ( qu o chuyn ng l ng thng ).
gia tc php tuyn
r
- Khi at = 0, vect vn tc v khng i v tr s v chiu, n
chuyn ng cong u.
r
- Khi a = 0 vect vn tc v =const, cht im chuyn ng thng u.
Chng I: ng hc cht im
Chuyn ng thng l dng chuyn ng c gia tc hng tm bng khng: an= 0. Khi ,
qu o ca chuyn ng l thng, gia tc ton phn bng gia tc tip tuyn, c phng trng vi
phng ca qu o, c chiu trng vi chiu bin i ca vect vn tc, c tr s bng:
a = at =
dv
dt
a=
dv v v vo v vo
=
=
=
dt
t
t to
t
(1-20)
T suy ra:
v = v o + at
v v
v=
(1-21)
ds
= v o + at
dt
cho nn c th vit:
ds = (v o + at ) dt
(1-22)
ds = ( v
ta c:
+ at )dt
at 2
s = vot +
2
(1-23)
2 as = v 2 v 02
(1-24)
s = vt
2. Chuyn ng trn
Trong chuyn ng, nu bn knh cong ca qu o khng thay i (R = const), chuyn
ng s c gi l chuyn ng trn.
Trong chuyn ng trn, do c s thay i gc quay ca bn knh vect OM , ngoi cc i
lng v, a, at, an, ngi ta cn a ra cc i lng vn tc gc v gia tc gc.
a.Vn tc gc
12
Chng I: ng hc cht im
(1-25)
= lim
t 0
d
=
t dt
(1-26)
t l:
= .t.
2
=
.
V ta suy ra:
T =
Vy:
2
T =
s
M'
Hnh 1-9
Lp cng thc vn tc gc
f =
=
2 T
Chng I: ng hc cht im
=
Nu cho t 0,
hiu l . Do :
= lim
t 0
d d 2
=
dt
dt 2
(1-27)
= 0 + t
(1-28)
1 2
t + 0 t
2
(1-29)
2 02 = 2
(1-30)
Vi ch l: ti thi im ban u to = 0, o = 0, vn tc gc c gi tr o.
c. Vect vn tc gc v vect gia tc gc
Trong nhiu bi ton, ta cn biu din v l i lng vect. Ngi ta nh ngha vect
r
vn tc gc l vect c ln bng nh ngha (1-26), nm trn trc ca qu o trn,
c chiu tun theo qui tc vn nt chai: Nu quay ci vn
nt chai theo chiu chuyn ng ca cht im th chiu tin
r
ca ci vn nt chai ch chiu ca vect (Xem hnh 110).
r
Vect gia tc l mt vect c tr s xc nh theo
r
(1-27), nm trn trc ca qu o trn, cng chiu vi nu
r
r
r
r
tng v ngc chiu vi nu gim (xem hnh 1-11).
r
v
14
M
Hnh 1-10.
Chng I: ng hc cht im
r
r d
=
dt
(1-31)
d. Cc h qu
r
r
* Lin h gia cc vect v v . Gia bn kn R, cung MM v gc c mi lin h
(xem hnh 1-9): MM = s = R , do :
s
= R.
t
t
Khi t 0, theo (1-5) v (1-26) ta c:
v = R
(1-32)
r
Nu t OM = R (hnh 1-10) ta thy
r r r
ba vect , R, v theo th t to thnh
mt tam din thun ba mt vung. Ngoi ra
theo cng thc (1-32) ta c th vit:
r r r
v =R
(1-33)
r
2
r
1
r
r
R
v= R, ta suy ra: a n =
an =
v2
,
R
(R )2
= 2 R
R
an = 2 R
r
v
r
R
r
v
(a)
* Lin h gia an v
Theo (1-17) v (1-32)
r
1
r
2
(b)
Hnh.1-11
r r r r
Lin h gia cc vect R , v , ,
a-quay nhanh dn, b-quay chm dn
(1-34)
* Lin h gia at v
Thay v=.R vo a t =
dv
ta c:
dt
d
R = .R
(1-35)
dt
r r r
r r r
Theo nh ngha ca cc vect , R, a t , ta thy ba vect , R, a t theo th t lun
to thnh tam din thun ba mt vung; Kt hp vi (1-35) ta c th vit:
r r
r
at = R
(1-36)
at =
15
Chng I: ng hc cht im
y
p
r
v0
v0x
xm
xr
voy = vosin
Coi chuyn ng gm hai thnh phn: thnh phn theo phng ox, c vn tc ban u vox,c
gia tc bng khng ax= 0; thnh phn oy c vn tc ban u voy, gia tc bng ay=g, gia tc ny
ngc chiu vi trc oy. Vy phng trnh chuyn ng ca vin n l:
x = (vocos)t
y = (v o sin )t
(1)
gt 2
2
b. Phng trnh qu o
Kh t t hai phng trnh (1) v (2) ta c:
16
(2)
Chng I: ng hc cht im
y=
gx 2
+ tg.x
2v 0 cos 2
(3)
gt
v o sin
t = 0
2
t 2 = t =
2v o sin
g
(4)
d. cao cc i
Khi t n im cao nht p, vn tc ca vin n theo phng oy bng khng:
v y = v 0 y gt p = v 0 sin gt p = 0
tp =
y max
v o sin 1
= t2 .
g
2
t p2
v sin g v o sin
= (v o sin )t p g
= v o sin o
2
g
2
g
y max =
v o2 sin 2
2g
(5)
v 2x
an = g =
R
T suy ra:
R=
v 2x
(v cos ) = v o2 cos2
= o
g
g
g
2
(6)
f. Tm bay xa ca vin n
Khi vin n chm t, n cch gc O mt khong OR = xr. Khi y=0.
T (3) ta c:
(7)
17
Chng I: ng hc cht im
18
= 45o.
CHNG II
NG LC HC CHT IM
ng lc hc nghin cu mi quan h gia s bin i trng thi chuyn ng ca cc vt
vi tng tc gia cc vt .C s ca ng lc hc gm ba nh lut Newton v nguyn l tng
i Galilo.
1. CC NH LUT NEWTON
Cc nh lut Newton nu ln mi quan h gia chuyn ng ca mt vt vi tc dng t
bn ngoi v quan h gia cc tc dng ln nhau gia cc vt.
1. nh lut Newton th nht
Cht im c lp: L cht im khng tc dng ln cht im khc v cng khng chu tc
dng no t cht im khc.
nh lut Newton th nht pht biu nh sau:
Mt cht im c lp nu ang ng yn, s tip tc ng yn, nu ang chuyn ng,
chuyn ng ca n l thng v u.
r
Trong c hai trng hp, cht im ng yn ( v = 0 ) v chuyn ng thng u
r
( v = const ) u c vn tc khng i. Khi vn tc ca cht im khng i, ta ni trng thi
chuyn ng ca n c bo ton.
Nh vy theo nh lut Newton I: Mt cht im c lp lun bo ton trng thi chuyn
ng ca n.
Tnh cht bo ton trng thi chuyn ng c gi l qun tnh. V vy nh lut th nht
ca Newton cn c gi l nh lut qun tnh.
C th vn dng nh lut qun tnh gii thch nhiu hin tng thc t. V d, on tu
ang ng yn bng chuyn ng t ngt. Khi , hnh khch ang ng yn hoc ngi trn tu
s b ng ngi v pha sau do qun tnh. Tng t, khi on tu ang chuyn ng thng u b
dng t ngt, hnh khch s b chi ngi v pha trc.
2. nh lut Newton th hai
nh lut th hai ca Newton xt cht im trng thi khng c lp, ngha l chu tc
dng ca nhng vt khc. Tc dng t vt ny ln vt khc c c trng bi mt i lng l
19
r
r
F = ma
(2-2)
r
r
Ghi ch: Gia tc a v lc F
c th phn tch thnh cc thnh phn theo cc trc ox, oy, oz:
r
r
r
r
F = F x i + Fy j + F z k .
r
lc F
c cc thnh phn:
Fx = m
20
dv x
= ma x ,
dt
Fy = m
dv y
dt
= ma y ,
Fz = m
dv z
= ma z .
dt
r
Nu lc F = 0, th
th nht.
r
r
a = 0, do v = const, iu ny ph hp vi nh lut Newton
r
= 0, th a = 0, vt
i =1
i =1
r
r
( F v F ' ) khi c gi l ni lc tng tc trong h, tng hp hai vect ni lc ny ca h
bng khng:
r
r
F + F' = 0 .
21
2. CC LC LIN KT
T nh lut Newton th 3 ta suy ra rng: tng tc l hin tng ph bin ca t nhin. Do
gia vt chuyn ng v vt lin kt vi n lun c cc lc tng tc gi l cc lc lin kt.
Di y ta s xt mt s loi lc lin kt thng gp.
1. Lc ma st
a. Ma st trt
Thc nghim chng t khi mt vt rn m trt trn gi S, n tc dng mt lc nn ln
r
mt gi S. Theo nh lut Newton III, mt ny li tc dng ln vt m mt phn lc R gm
r
r
hai thnh phn f ms v N (hnh 2-2) sao cho:
r r r
R = N + f ms
r
r
- Thnh phn N gi l phn lc php tuyn, n
r
R
N
hng vung gc vi gi S ti im tip xc v lun
r
trc i vi p lc N ' (lc nn vung gc vi mt tip
r
r
v
f ms
xc) ca vt m tc dng ln mt gi S sao cho iu
kin sau y c tho mn:
r
r
r
N ' =- N .
N'
r
- Thnh phn f ms gi l lc ma st trt, n c
Hnh 2-2
phng trng vi tip tuyn vi mt gi S ti im
xc nh lc ma st trt
r
tip xc, ngc chiu vn tc v v cn tr chuyn ng
ca vt. Nu vn tc ca vt khng qu ln th lc ma st
trt c ln t l vi phn lc php tuyn:
fms = kN
Trong , k l h s t l, gi l h s ma st trt, lun c gi tr nh hn n v ( k<1), n
ph thuc vo bn cht v tnh cht ca cc mt tip xc gia cc vt lin kt. Bng sau y cho
v d v h s ma st ca mt s mt tip xc:
22
Tn vt liu
Tn vt liu
G rn trn g rn
0,25
0,17
0,40,6
0,20,4
b. Ma st ln
l lc ma st xut hin mt tip xc gia mt vt ln trn mt ca mt vt khc. ln
r
ca lc ma st ln cng t l vi ln ca phn lc php tuyn N v c tnh theo cng thc:
fms =
N
r
r
lc F vt c mt trng thi ng lc hc no (ng yn hay chuyn ng vi gia tc xc
r
r
nh). Si dy s b ko cng. Ti mi im ca dy s xut hin nhng lc T v phn lc T ' .
Cc lc ny l cc lc tng tc gia hai nhnh hai pha ca si dy v c gi l lc cng ca
si dy. Theo nh lut Newton III ta c:
r
r
T = - T'
ln ca cc lc cng ph thuc vo trng thi ng lc hc ca si dy.
Mun tnh lc cng cu si dy, ta tng tng ct si dy ti mt im M bt k thnh hai
r
r
phn. t vo mi u (b ct) ca si dy cc lc cng T v T ' sao cho trng thi ng lc hc ca
mi nhnh dy (v ca c h) vn gi nguyn nh khng ct dy. Sau p dng phng trnh c
bn ca ng lc hc cho mi phn ca h vt chuyn ng (mi phn gn vi mt bn dy).
3. Lc tc dng trong chuyn ng cong
Trong chuyn ng cong, gia tc ca cht im gm hai thnh phn gia tc tip tuyn at
r
r
v gia tc php tuyn a n . Gia tc tng hp ca cht im l a (xem 1-18):
r r
r
a = at + an
23
r
at
r
an
r
Ft
r
a
r
F
r
Fn
r
r
r
F = F t + Fn
(2-3)
Hnh 2-3
r
Lc hng tm v lc ly tm
r
Thnh phn Ft = ma t c gi l lc tip tuyn,
lc tip tuyn gy ra gia tc tip tuyn, tc lm thay i
r
r
ln v chiu ca vn tc; cn thnh phn F = ma n c gi l lc php tuyn hay l lc hng
tm, lc hng tm gy ra gia tc hng tm, lm thay i phng ca vect vn tc.
Nh vy iu kin cn thit cho cht im chuyn ng cong l phi tc dng ln n mt
lc hng tm, c ln:
F n = ma n = m
v2
R
(2-4)
r
r
Phng trnh c bn ca ng lc hc F = ma p dng i vi cht im cng p dng
cho cc vt rn chuyn ng tnh tin (nh s chng minh trong chng sau).
Ta hy xc nh gia tc chuyn ng ca h hai vt A v B v sc cng ca si dy ko hai
vt (hnh 2-4). Hai vt ln lt c khi lng mA v mB. Vt A trt khng ma st trn mt
phng nghing mt gc so vi phng nm ngang. B qua khi lng ca rng rc v ca si
dy. Tc dng ln vt A c:
r
r
r
* Sc cng T ,
N
T
'
r
r
* Trng lc P ,
T
r
* Phn lc php tuyn N ca mt phng nghing.
r
r
r
P1
Trng lc P tc dng ln vt A c phn tch
T1
P2
P = P1 + P2
r
r
r
Trong P2 vung gc vi mt phng nghing
P
P
B
r
Hnh 2-4
v trit tiu vi N :
r
r
Chuyn ng ca h vt trn
P2 + N = 0
mt phng nghing
24
r
P2=Pcos =mAgcos , cn P1 (P1=mAgsin ) song song vi mt phng nghing.
r r
Vy cc ngoi lc tc dng ln A cn li l: P1 , T . Hai lc ny cng phng nhng ngc
chiu nhau.
(**)
T phng trnh ny ta c:
T = mBa+mBg =mB(a+g).
Thay T t phng trnh ny vo (*) ta c:
a=
(mA sin mB )
g.
mA + mB
mA sin mB
g+g)
mA + mB
Rt gn kt qu trn, ta c:
T=
m Am B
(1 + sin ) g
mA + mB
Nu P1< T th
a=
( m B m A sin )
g
mA + mB
V sc cng T:
T=
m Am B
(1 + sin ) g
mA + mB
hng theo P B
r
N
r
Fht
r
N
r
Fht
r
p
r
p
(a)
(b)
Hnh 2-5
p lc ca t chuyn ng trn cu cong
25
r
Gi N ' l p lc ca t tc dng ln mt cu. Theo nh lut Newton th ba:
r
r
N ' =- N
Chiu biu thc (b1) ln phng php tuyn v ly chiu hng vo tm cong ca mt
chic cu lm chiu dng, ta s tm c p lc N. C hai trng hp khc nhau.
* Mt cu cong ln (hnh 2-5a):
Fht=P-N, suy ra N= N = P-Fht= P-
mv 2
<P
R
mv 2
> P.
R
3. CC NH L V NG LNG
T nh lut Newton II ta c th suy ra mt s pht biu khc, l cc nh l v ng lng.
1. nh l 1
r
Gi s cht im c khi lng m chu tc dng ca lc F , theo nh lut
r
im s chuyn ng vi gia tc a sao cho:
r r
ma = F
r
dv r
Hay
m
=F
dt
(2-7)
r
r
r
bin thin ca vect K t thi im t1 c K 1 n thi im t2 c vect ng lng K 2
c th tnh c nh sau:
r
r
r
K = K 2 K 1 =
t2
Ngi ta gi
F .dt
r
K2
r
K1
r t2 r
dK = F .dt
(2-8)
t1
r
l xung lng ca lc F trong khong thi gian t t1 n t2. Biu
t1
(2-9)
r
r
K
=F
t
(2-10)
hay:
m a
i =1
F
i =1
r
=F
r
r
d( m i v i )
= Fi v vi c h
dt
ta c:
r
r
r
r
d
( m 1v1 + m 2 v 2 + ... + m n v n ) = F
dt
r
Trong F l tng hp cc ngoi lc tc dng ln h (tng hp cc ni lc tng tc gia
r
cc cht im ca h bng khng). Nu h l c lp, F = 0, th:
r
r
r
d
( m1v1 + m 2 v 2 + ... + m n v n ) = 0
dt
T ta suy ra:
r
r
r
m 1v1 + m 2 v 2 + ... + m n v n = const
(2-11)
ln phng x, ta c:
m1v1x+ m2v2x +... + mnvnx = const
28
Hnh.2-6
Sng git li khi bn
b. Chuyn ng phn lc
Ta c th vn dng nh lut Newton III v nh lut bo ton ng lng gii thch
chuyn ng phn lc ca tn la.
Gi s c mt vt cha mt hn hp kh nng, ban u ng yn. Nu hn hp kh pht ra
pha sau th theo nh lut bo ton ng lng, vt s tin v pha trc. l nguyn tc chuyn
ng ca tn la.
Ta gi khi lng tng cng ban u ca h tn la l Mo, ng yn i vi h qui chiu
chn. Trong qu trnh chuyn ng, tn la lun pht kh nng ra pha sau, do khi lng ca
n gim dn, vn tc tng dn. Ta gi khi lng ca tn la ti thi im t l M, vn tc ca n
r
r
r
l v . ng lng ca tn la lc l k1 = Mv . Qua mt khong thi gian dt, tn la pht ra
sau mt khi lng kh l dM1.
r
Nu vn tc pht kh i vi tn la lun lun khng i v bng u th vn tc pht kh
r r
i vi h qui chiu ang quan st bng ( u + v ) v ng lng ca khi kh pht ra l dM1
r r
( u + v ). Sau khi pht kh mt lng dM1, khi lng ca h tn la cn bng M-dM1, vn tc
r
r
ca n tng ln thnh v +d v . t dM1 =-dM l gim khi lng h tn la. Vy ng lng
r
r
ca tn la sau khi pht kh l (M+dM)( v +d v ). ng lng ca h sau khi pht kh ( thi im
t=t+dt ) l:
r
r r
r
r
K 2 = dM ( u + v ) + ( M + dM )( v + dv ) ,
(vi dM1=-dM)
29
dv = u
dM
M
Tch phn hai v ca phng trnh trn t lc u c vn tc bng khng, khi lng Mo
n lc c vn tc v, khi lng M, ta c:
v = u ln
MO
M
(2-12)
Cng thc (2-12) c gi l cng thc Xincpxki. Theo cng thc ny, mun cho vn tc
ca tn la ln th vn tc pht khi u phi ln v t s Mo/M cng phi ln.
5. NH LUT NEWTON V LC HP DN V TR
Nhiu hin tng trong t nhin chng t rng cc vt c khi lng lun lun tc dng ln
nhau nhng lc ht. V d: qu t quay xung quanh mt tri l do lc ht ca mt tri, mt trng
quay xung quanh qu t l do sc ht ca qu t Cc lc ht gi l lc hp dn v tr.
Gia cc vt xung quanh ta cng c lc hp dn v tr nhng qu nh, ta khng pht hin c
bng cch quan st trc quan thng thng.
Newton l ngi u tin nu ln nh lut c bn v lc hp dn v tr.
1. nh lut hp dn v tr
nh lut ny c pht biu nh sau:
Hai cht im m v m t cch nhau mt khong r s ht nhau bng nhng lc c phng
trng vi ng thng ni hai cht im , c cng t l thun vi hai khi lng ca chng
v t l nghch vi bnh phng khong cch r gia chng. Pht biu c biu din bng
cng thc:
mm'
(2-13)
F = F' = G 2 .
r
Trong G l mt h s t l, ph thuc vo cch chn n v ca cc i lng trong cng
thc (2-13), c gi l hng s hp dn v tr.
30
G = 6,67.10
11
m2
kg 2
1
.10 9 Nm 2 / kg 2
15
mM
R2
Po = G
(2-14)
(2-15)
M
R2
(2-16)
Mm
(R + h )2
(2.17)
(R + h )2
r
P
= g o 1 +
g = go
2
R
1 +
R
(2-18)
Cc vt gn mt t c cao h << R, do
h
<<1
R
v c th tnh gn ng:
h
1 +
R
Hnh 2-7
S ph thuc ca gia tc
trng trng vo cao h
1 2 .
R
g = g o 1 2
R
(2-19)
Cc cng thc (2-18) v (2-19) cho thy cng ln cao gia tc trng trng ca cht im m
cng gim.
3. Tnh khi lng ca cc thin th
a. Khi lng ca qu t
T (2-16) ta tnh c khi lng M ca qu t:
M =
go R 2
G
9,8. 6,37.10 6
M=
6,67.10 11
6.10 24 Kg.
MM '
R' 2
(2-20)
Fn = M .
v2
R'
(2-21)
2
T
(2-22)
M 2
4 2 MR'
(
R' ) 2 =
R' T
T2
(2-23)
=G
MM '
R' 2
M' =
4 2 R' 3
.
.
T2 G
6. CHUYN NG TNG I V
NGUYN L TNG I
Ta bit rng chuyn ng c tnh cht tng i, vy tnh cht tng i nh hng nh
th no n cc nh lut vt l xt trong cc h qui chiu khc nhau. Mc ny s xt vn .
1. Khng gian v thi gian theo c hc c in.
Ta xt hai h qui chiu O v O gn vi 2 h trc ta Oxyz v Oxyz. H O ng yn,
h O trt dc trc Ox i vi O sao cho OxOx, OyOy, OzOz (hnh 2-7). Ta gn
vo mi h ta mt ng h ch thi gian. Ta xt mt cht im chuyn ng trong h O.
Ti thi im t n c cc ta x,y,z. Cc ta khng gian v thi gian tng ng ca cht im
trong h O l x,y,z', t.
C hc c in c xy dng trn c s nhng quan im ca c hc Newton v khng
gian, thi gian v chuyn ng. Cc quan im ca Newton nh sau:
33
(2-24)
.M
O A
B x
z
Hnh 2-7
xB-xA= xB-xA
tc l:
l = l0,
xB = xB+ OO' ,
chiu di ca thc bng nhau trong hai h qui chiu (khng ph thuc h qui chiu).
d. Php bin i Galio
Ta xt cht im chuyn ng trong h O. Coi rng ti thi im u t0=0 gc O v O
trng nhau, O chuyn ng thng u dc theo trc Ox vi vn tc V. Khi :
OO' = Vt,
Theo (2-24) v (2-25)
x = x+ Vt, y =y, z = z, t = t
(2-26)
x= x - Vt, y= y, z= z, t= t
(2-27)
v ngc li:
Cc cng thc (2-26) v (2-27) c gi l php bin i Galilo.
2. Tng hp vn tc v gia tc
Ta hy tm mi lin h gia vn tc v gia tc ca cng mt cht im i vi hai h qui
chiu O v O khc nhau.
34
OM = OO' + O' M
r
r
hay r = OO' + r '
c:
(2-28)
tng
hp
vn tc v gia tc
=
+
(2-29)
dt
dt
dt
r
r
r
dr ' r
dr
= v l vn tc ca cht im i vi h O,
= v' l vn tc ca cht
Ch rng:
dt
dt
im i vi h O,
r
d( OO' )
= V l vn tc chuyn ng ca O i vi O. Nh vy:
dt
r r r
v = v' +V
(2-30)
(2-31)
Hai cng thc (2-30) v (2-31) l cc cng thc tng hp vn tc v gia tc.
3. Nguyn l tng i Galilo
Ta hy xt chuyn ng ca cht im trong hai h qui chiu khc nhau O v O nh nu
trn. Ta gi s O l h qun tnh, cc nh lut Newton c tha mn. Nh vy phng trnh c
bn ca ng lc hc ca cht im s l:
r
r
(2-32)
ma = F
r
a l gia tc ca cht im i vi h O
r
F l tng hp cc lc tc dng ln cht im xt trong h O.
r
r
Gi a' l gia tc ca cht im i vi h O, A l gia tc chuyn ng ca h O i vi
h O, theo (2-31), ta c:
r r r
a = a' + A
35
r
Nu h O chuyn ng thng u i vi h O th A = 0 do
r r
a = a'
r
r
r
Vy
m a' = m a = F
r
r
m a' = F
(2-33)
r
By gi ta gi s h qui chiu O chuyn ng c gia tc A i i vi h O. Khi nu
cht im chuyn ng trong h O th theo (2-31):
r r r
a = a' + A
nhn hai v vi m ta c:
r
r
r
ma = ma' +mA ;
36
V O l h qui chiu qun tnh nn trong h ny nh lut Newton c nghim ng cho nn:
r
r
F = ma
r
r
r
r
Thay a (2-31) ta c: ma = ma' +mA
r
r
r
ma' = F +(- mA )
(2-34)
hay
Nh vy trong h O chuyn ng c gia tc i vi h O, cc nh lut chuyn ng ca
cht im c dng khng ging nh trong h O. Trong h O, ngai cc lc tc dng ln cht
r
r
r
r
im cn phi k thm lc F qt = (- mA ). Lc F qt = (- mA ) c gi l lc qun tnh, n lun
r
cng phng ngc chiu vi gia tc A ca chuyn ng ca h O i vi h O. H qui chiu
O nh vy c gi l h qui chiu khng qun tnh. Phng trnh ng lc hc ca cht im
trong h O l:
r r
r
ma' = F + F qt
(2-35)
Nh khi nim lc Qun tnh ta c th gii thch s tng gim trng lng v khng trng
lng trong con tu v tr v nhiu hin tng khc xy ra trong thc t, nh cc hin tng do
chuyn ng quay ca qu t xung quanh trc ca n gy ra (s gim dn ca gia tc trng
trng v pha xch o, s l dn ca mt bn b ca cc con sng chy theo hng bc nam).
37
CHNG III:
CNG V NNG LNG
1. CNG V CNG SUT
1. Cng
Trong vt l, khi mt lc tc dng ln mt vt (hoc mt h vt), lm cho vt di chuyn
(im t lc di chuyn), ngi ta ni rng lc thc hin mt cng. Cng lc theo phng
dch chuyn cng ln, qung ng di chuyn cng di th cng cng ln. T ngi ta a
ra nh ngha cng nh sau.
a. Trng hp lc khng i. Gi s vt chu tc dng ca lc khng i F = const v
r
im t lc di chuyn theo mt on thng MM ' = s (hnh 3-1). Theo nh ngha, cng A do
lc F thc hin trn on chuyn di MM ' l mt i lng c xc nh bi tch sau y:
A = F.s.cos
(3-1)
r
ca s nn c th vit:
A = Fs . s
(3-2)
r
F
Nhn xt:
Cng A l i lng v hng, c th c gi tr dng hoc m.
*A > 0 khi <
Fs M
Hnh 3-1
Minh ho tnh cng ca lc
*A = 0 khi = , lc F vung gc vi phng dch chuyn, thc hin cng bng khng.
2
r
Lc lm cho vt chuyn di trn ng cong AB v trong qu trnh lc F thay i c
v phng, chiu v ln, do p dng nh ngha (3-2) v (3-3), ta chia ng cong AB
thnh nhng on chuyn di vi phn ds MM ' sao cho mi on ny c th coi nh thng
38
r
r
r
v c th vit ds = MM ' , trn lc F khng i. Cng ca lc F thc hin c trn on
r
chuyn di v cng nh ds c gi l cng nguyn t dA. Theo theo nh ngha (3-3), dA cng
ny bng:
r r
M M
dA = F .ds
(3-4)
r
ds
r
Ton b cng ca lc F thc hin trn qung ng AB
r
r
bng tng tt c cc cng nguyn t thc hin bi lc F trn tt
F
B
c cc qung ng nguyn t ds chia uc t ng cong AB. A
Cng ny bng tch phn dA ly t A n B:
r r
Hnh 3-2
A = dA = F .ds
(3-5)
Minh ho tnh cng ca
r
( AB )
( AB )
lc F thay i
2. Cng sut ca lc
r
r
Trong thc t, lc F c to ra bi mt my no . Nu lc F thc hin c cng A
trong khong thi gian cng ngn th my cng mnh. Do , c trng cho sc mnh ca
my, ngi ta a ra khi nim cng sut.
r
A
Gi s trong khong thi gian t, mt lc F no thc hin cng A, t s Ptb =
t
xc nh cng trung bnh ca lc thc hin trong mt n v thi gian v c gi l cng sut
trung bnh ca lc thc hin trong khong thi gian t.
tnh cng sut ti tng thi im, ta ly t rt nh, tc l cho t 0. Gii hn ca
khi t 0 c gi l cng sut tc thi (gi tt l cng sut) ca lc, k hiu l P v bng:
P = lim
t 0
A dA
=
t
dt
A
t
(3-6)
Vy: cng sut (ca my to ra lc) l mt i lng bng o hm ca cng theo thi gian.
r dsr
dA
=F
Gia cng sut, lc, v vn tc c mi lin h sau: P =
dt
dt
p = F .v
Tc l
(3-7)
(1KJ = 103J)
39
1J
1s
(3-8)
(1kW= 103 W).
(3-9)
2. NNG LNG
1. Nng lng v cng
Nng lng l mt i lng c trng cho mc vn ng ca vt cht. Trong t nhin
c nhiu dng vn ng vt cht khc nhau. Mi dng vn ng vt cht c th c mt dng nng
lng c th.
Vn ng c hc (chuyn ng c hc) l s thay i v tr trong khng gian, c dng nng
lng gi l c nng. Vn ng nhit l s chuyn ng hn lon ca cc phn t cu to nn mt
vt, c dng nng lng tng ng l ni nng, vn ng in t c dng nng lng tng ng
l nng lng in t
Vt l hc khng nh rng mt vt trng thi xc nh th c mt nng lng xc nh.
Ta suy ra, khi trng thi ca vt thay i th nng lng ca n thay i. Do c th ni nng
lng l hm ca trng thi.
Khi xt n cc qu trnh vn ng c hc, ta thy s thay i trng thi chuyn ng c
ngha l vt chuyn ng c gia tc, iu ny lin quan n lc tng tc gia vt vi cc vt khc.
Lc tng tc ln vt lm cho vt di chuyn, tc l lc tng tc thc hin mt cng ln
vt. Nh vy s thay i nng lng ca mt vt l kt qu ca vic trao i cng gia vt vi
bn ngoi. Nu xt cc dng vn ng khc ta cng c kt lun nh vy.
Ngi ta cng chng minh c rng khi vt (hoc h vt) thc s nhn cng (A > 0) th
nng lng ca vt tng, cn khi vt thc s truyn cng ln ngoi vt (A < 0) th nng lng ca
h gim. Thc nghim chng t rng: bin thin nng lng ca h W = W2 - W1 bng cng
A m h nhn c, tc l:
A = W2 - W1
(3-10)
(3-11)
3. NG NNG
Trong mc ny ta xt mt dng nng lng c th, l ng nng. ng nng l mt phn
ca c nng.
1. nh ngha:
ng nng l phn c nng ng vi s chuyn di v tr ca cc vt.
2. Biu thc ca ng nng, nh l v ng nng
mt lc F lm cho n di chuyn t v tr (1) n
v tr (2) trn ng cong (c) (hnh 3-3).
Cng ca lc F thc hin trong qu trnh ny l:
( 2 )
A =
r
F.d s
r
v
r
ds
(1)
r
F
(2)
Hnh 3-3
nh ngha ng nng
(1)
41
F = ma = m
Ta cng bit
v=
dv
dt
ds
dt
A=
( 2)
( 2)
( 2)
( 1)
( 1)
( 1)
F .d s =
m a .d s =
m.
dv
.d s =
dt
( 2)
m v .dv
( 1)
Nu m khng i, ta c th vit:
r
v2
A = md
2
( 1)
( 2)
( 2 ) mv 2
= d
( 1) 2
Ti cc v tr (1) v (2) cht im c vn tc tng ng l v1, v2. Thc hin php tch
phn, ta c:
A=
mv 22 mv12
2
2
(3-12)
Theo (3-10), cng ny bng bin thin ng nng ca cht im khi chuyn t trng thi
c v1 sang trng thi c v2 cho nn ta suy ra:
mv 22 mv12
A=W2 - W1 =
2
2
(3-13)
ng nng ca cht im ti v tr 1:
mv12
W1 =
2
ng nng ca cht im ti v tr 2:
mv 22
W2 =
2
mv 2
2
(3-14)
4. TRNG LC TH
1. nh ngha
Nu mt cht im chuyn ng trong mt khng gian no lun lun chu tc dng ca
mt lc, th khong khng gian c gi l trng lc.
Trng hp tng qut lc F tc dng ln cht im ph thuc vo v tr ca cht im
trong trng lc. Do , lc F l mt hm ca cc ta v cng c th l hm ca thi gian.
Trong phm vi chng trnh ny, ta ch xt trng hp F l mt hm ca cc ta khng gian,
tc l:
r
ds
F = F ( r ) = F ( x , y , z ) (3-15)
Nu lc F ca trng lc tc dng ln cht im di
chuyn t im (1) n im (2) trong trng lc th cng
m
(1)
r
F
A12 =
F .d s
r
v
(2)
(1)
(3-16)
T (3-16), ta thy rng nu ng thi cng Wt1 v Wt2 cng vi mt hng s C th h thc
(3-16) vn ng. Ni cch khc, th nng ca cht im ti mt v tr ca trng lc th c xc
nh sai khc mt hng s cng tu thuc gc th nng c chn.
3. Tnh cht ca trng lc th
Sau y ta tm tt mt s tnh cht ca trng lc th.
a. T (3-16), mc d th nng ti mt v tr c xc nh sai khc mt hng s cng nhng
hiu th nng gia hai im xc nh th hon ton xc nh.
43
r
b. Gia trng lc th F v th nng c h thc sau:
( 2)
F .d s = W
A12 =
t1
Wt 2
(3-17)
( 1)
WM=
r r
F .ds ,
(3-17b)
(M )
hay
- dWt = Fs.ds
dW t
ds
(3-18)
Wt
Wt
Wt
, Fy =
, Fz =
.
x
y
z
Wt r Wt r Wt r
F =
i +
j+
k = grad( Wt )
y
z
x
F = grad( Wt )
(3-20)
grad( Wt ) =
44
Wt r
Wt r
Wt r
i +
j+
k
x
y
z
Theo (3-20) v theo gii tch vect, th nng gim nhanh nht theo hng ca lc F .
Th nng l dng nng lng c trng cho tng tc. V d, th nng ca cht im c
khi lng m l nng lng c trng cho tng tc gia qu t v cht im.
4. nh lut bo ton c nng trong trng lc th
Ta gi c nng ca cht im l dng nng lng ca cht im chuyn ng c hc. Trong
trng lc th, nng lng ny gm ng nng v th nng. Khi cht im khi lng m chuyn
ng t v tr (1) sang v tr (2) trong mt trng lc th th cng ca lc th c xc nh bi:
A12 = Wt1 - Wt2
Theo nh l v ng nng th nu cht im ch chu tc dng ca lc th, ta c:
A12 = W2 W1
T hai biu thc ny ta suy ra:
Wt1 - Wt2 = W2 W1
Chuyn cc s hng c cng ch s sang cng mt v, ta s c:
Wt1 + W1 = W2 + Wt2 = const
(3-21)
5. TH D V TRNG LC TH
1. Trng tnh in
Gi s xt chuyn ng ca in tch im q
t im (1) n im (2) trong trng lc F ca
in tch im q ng yn (hnh 3-5). Trng lc
F do q tc dng ln q c gi l trng tnh
in.
(1)
r1
O
r
F
r+d
M
Q
r2
(2)
Hnh 3-5
Minh ho cch tnh cng ca lc th
45
r
r ' = OQ + QM ' r + dr , ds = MM'
A12
(2 )
(r2 )
(1)
(r1 )
r r
= Fds =
F .dr
1 qq'
4 0 r 2
( r2 )
( r1 )
qq'
dr =
1 qq'
1 qq'
4 0 r1 4 0 r2
Wt 1 Wt 2 =
1 qq'
1 qq'
4 0 r1 4 0 r2
Wt =
1 qq'
+ C
4 0 r
Wt =
1 qq'
4 0 r
2. Trng hp dn
gii thch lc hp dn gia cc vt, ngi ta cho rng xung quanh mt vt c khi lng
tn ti mt trng lc gi l trng hp dn. Biu hin c th ca trng hp dn l n tc dng
ln bt k vt no c khi lng t trong n.
Ta gi s xt cht im c khi lng m chuyn ng t im (1) sang im (2) trong
trng hp dn ca cht im c khi lng m theo ng cong (C) (Hnh 3-6).
46
r
Cng nguyn t ca lc F do m tc dng ln m trong chuyn di vi phn ds PQ l:
r
dA = Fd s = F .ds. cos
r
H
ds.cos = PH , PH l hnh chiu ca ds
r
P m
ln phng ca lc F . Vi lc hp dn F hng (1)
Q
M
t m' n m, th l gc t, do
r
r r
F
N
ds.cos < 0, nn: F .ds = F .PH
r1
Do NQ PH MQ MN
r2
(dr + r) r= dr
M
Mt khc lc hp dn c cng :
F =G
(2)
r+dr
m .m'
,
r2
m
Hnh 3-6
Minh ho tnh cng ca lc hp dn
vi G l hng s hp dn.
Cng A12 do lc hp dn thc hin c trn c qung ng t im (1) n im (2) l:
( r2 )
r r
F
d
s
=
F .dr
( 2)
A12 =
( 1)
( r2 )
A12 =
( r1 )
( r1 )
mm'
mm'
mm'
G
dr = G
2
r
r
r
1
2
(3-22)
Wt1 = G
mm'
+C
r1
Wt 2 = G
mm'
+C
r2
ti v tr (2):
Wt = G
mm'
+C
r
(3-23)
Wt = G
Do :
mm'
r
(3-24)
Wt = G
Mm
+C
r
Wt ( R ) = 0 = G
Mm
+C,
R
Mm
, R l bn knh ca qu t.
R
Do , th nng im cch mt t mt khong h l:
t rt ra C = G
Mm
Mm
Mm( r R )
+G
=G
R
r
rR
V r = h + R, nn r R = h. Do :
Wt = G
Wt = GMm
h
.
( R + h )R
Wt = mgh
g=
GM
.
(h + R)2
h+R
R
mv 2
+ mgh = const
2
Nh vy khi ng nng ca vt tng th th nng ca n gim v ngc li.
V d
Mt vt nh khi lng m ri t cao h so vi mt t, vi vn tc ban u v1, xuyn su
vo t mt on s (hnh 3-7). Tnh vn tc ca vt khi chm t v lc cn trung bnh ca t tc
dng ln vt. B qua lc cn ca khng kh.
48
Li gii
Xt h gm vt v qu t. Trong qu trnh vt ri t v tr 1 c vn
tc v1 n v tr 2 c vn tc v2 trong trng trng, nu b qua lc cn
ca khng kh, th ngoi lc tc dng ln h vt bng khng. V vy c
th p dng nh lut bo ton c nng cho h ny:
r
v1
h
mv 22 mv12
=
+ mgh
2
2
v 2 = v12 + 2 gh
Trong qu trnh vt xuyn su vo t t v tr 2 n v tr 3 (c v3
=0) n chu tc dng lc cn Fc ca t. Lc ny ngc chiu chuyn
ng ca vt v thc hin cng cn: Ac= -Fc.s.
3
Hnh 3-7
p dng nh l ng nng i vi vt m ta c:
mv 32 mv 22
= A c = Fc .s
2
2
V v3 =0, nn lc cn ca t tc dng ln vt bng:
mv 22 m v12
Fc =
=
(
+ gh )
2s
s 2
Ch : Nu khng phi tnh v2, ta c th tnh Fc da trn lp lun sau y: gim c nng
ca h t v tr 1 n v tr 2 bng cng m h thc hin thng cng cn ca t t v tr 2
n v tr 3:
mv12
+ mgh = FC .s
2
Suy ra
m v12
Fc =
(
+ gh )
s 2
6. VA CHM GIA CC VT
Thc nghim chng t khi va chm vi nhau, cc vt rn s bin dng. Nu bin dng ca
cc vt t hi phc sau khi va chm th va chm c gi l va chm n hi. Trong qu trnh
ny, tng ng nng ca h khng thay i v c nng ca h khng chuyn thnh cc dng nng
lng khc. Nu bin dng ca cc vt khng t hi phc th va chm c gi l va chm khng
n hi hay va chm mm. Trong qu trnh ny, tng ng nng ca h vt sau va chm b gim
do mt phn nng lng ca h bin thnh cng lm bin dng cc vt v mt phn bin thnh
nhit lm nng cc vt.
49
m 1 ( v1 v1' ) = m 2 ( v 2' v 2 )
m 1( v12 v1' 2 ) = m 2 ( v 2' 2 v 22 )
Chia hai phng trnh ny cho nhau vi gi thit v1 v1' 0 v v 2' v 2 0, cui cng ta c:
v1' =
( m 1 m 2 )v1 + 2m 2 v 2
m1 + m 2
v 2' =
( m 2 m 1 )v 2 + 2m 1v1
m1 + m 2
r
v1
r
v2
m1
m2
r
v 1'
v 2'
Hnh 3-8
* Nu m1= m2 th v1' = v 2 v v 2' = v1 tc l hai qu
Va chm n hi gia hai vt
cu va chm trao i vn tc cho nhau.
r
*Nu m1<< m2 v v 2 = 0 th v1' = v1 tc l sau va chm, qu cu m1 i chiu chuyn
ng, quay ngc tr li v c vn tc gi nguyn ln ban u.
b.Va chm mm
Sau va chm, hai qu cu dnh vo nhau v chuyn ng vi cng vn tc v. Khi , tng
ng lng ca h theo phng va chm vn bo ton:
(m 1 + m 2 )v' = m 1v1 + m 2 v 2
r
v1
r
v2
v' =
m 1v1 + m 2 v 2
m1 + m 2
m1
r
v'
m2
Hnh 3-9
Va chm mm gia hai vt
m v2 m v2
Wd = 1 1 + 2 2
2
2
Wd =
Hay
( m 1 + m 2 )v ' 2
m 1m 2
( v1 v 2 ) 2
2( m 1 + m 2 )
a n = g0 =
v0 2
R
T suy ra:
v1 =
Rg 0 =
b. Vn tc v tr cp 2
Gi s vin n xut pht t A cch tm qu t mt khong bng bn knh R ca qu t,
vn tc ban u v0 v bay ngy cng xa qu t. p dng nh lut bo ton c nng i vi vin
n ta c:
51
mv 0 2
Mm mv 2
Mm
+ G
+ G
=
2
R
2
mv 0 2
mv 2
Mm
Mm
0 v G
G
= 0 nn
2
R
2
v0
Ta suy ra:
2GM
R
GM
. Do :
R2
GM
v 0 2 2 R = 2 g 0 R
R
Gi tr ti thiu ca v0 chnh l vn tc v tr cp 2.
v2 =
2g0 R =
mv 2
+ W t (x ) = W = const
2
V
(3-25)
mv 2
0 nn ta suy ra iu kin:
2
Wt (x) W
(3-26)
(3-27)
O
xA xD xB
xC
r
dWt
Khi cht im chuyn ng trong khong D n A,
= F < 0 , F > 0, tc l F
dx
r
hng v chiu dng ca trc Ox. Lc F ko cht im theo chiu t A n D. Trong khong
r
dWt
D n B,
= F > 0 , F< 0, lc F hng ngc chiu trc x, n ko cht im theo chiu
dx
r
B n D. Kt qu l lc F lm cho cht im chuyn ng qua li trong khong t xA n xB i
qua D, khi n A v B vn tc ca n i chiu.
r
dWt
= F < 0 , F > 0, lc F hng v chiu dng ca trc Ox ko cht
dx
im chuyn ng ra xa v cng.
Khi x > xC,
53
1. CHUYN NG CA H CHT IM
1. Khi tm ca h cht im
Gi s c h gm 2 cht im c khi lng m1, m2 t
ti cc im tng ng M1, M2 trong trng trng. Trng lc
r
tc dng ln cc cht im m1 v m2 l 2 vct: m 1 g v
r
m 2 g song song cng chiu vi nhau. Tng hp 2 lc ny c
im t ti G nm trn phng M1M2 tho mn iu kin:
M1
r
m2g
r
m 1g
M 1G
m g
m
= 2 = 2
m1g
m1
M 2G
T ta suy ra:
M2
r
(m 1 + m 2 )g
m 1 M 1G + m 2 M 2 G = 0
(4-1)
Hay c th vit:
n
m
i =1
M iG = 0
(4-2)
Ta c th xc nh to ca khi tm G i vi mt gc to O no . To ny c
th xc nh theo cch sau y i vi cht im th i (hnh 4-2):
OG = OM i + M i G
54
(4-3)
i =1
m i )OG =
i =1
m i OM i +
M iG
i =1
M1
m
i =1
)OG =
m OM
i
i =1
M3
(4-4)
Hnh 4-2
xc nh khi tm
ca h cht im
T , ta suy ra:
n
m .OM
i
i =1
OG =
(4.5)
m
i =1
M2
r
r
t OG = R c 3 to X,Y,Z; OM i = ri c 3 to xi, yi, zi, ng thc (4-5) tr thnh:
n
R=
m .r
i
i =1
n
m
i =1
(4-6)
r
Chiu R ln 3 trc to , s c:
n
X =
m i .x i
i =1
n
m
i =1
Y =
i =1
n
m i .y i
i =1
,
i
Z =
m .z
i =1
n
m
i =1
(4-7)
m
i =1
2. Vn tc ca khi tm
r
r dR
Khi h cht im chuyn ng, khi tm c vn tc: V =
v theo (4-6) vn tc ny c
dt
biu thc:
r
n
dri
r
m
r dR i =1 i dt
V =
=
n
dt
mi
i =1
55
r
r
dri
Trong
= vi l vect vn tc ca cht im th i. Do vn tc ca khi tm ca h
dt
cht im c biu thc:
n
r
mv
r i =1 i i
(4-8)
V = n
mi
i =1
Trong (4-8),
i =1
r
m i vi =
i =1
r
r
pi = P
(4-9)
(4-10)
r
dv i
r
Ch l a i =
l gia tc ca cht im th i tun
dt
r
r
mi a i = Fi . T (4-11) ta c:
n
r
a = i =1n
m
i =1
Ta c
i =1
m
i =1
r
=F
r
miai
=
i
i =1
n
r
Fi
m
i =1
r
r F
a=
m
r
r
F = ma
hay
(4-12)
(4-13)
Phng trnh (4-13) ging nh phng trnh chuyn ng ca mt cht im. T ta kt lun:
Chuyn ng ca khi tm ca mt h cht im ging nh chuyn ng ca mt cht im
mang khi lng bng tng khi lng ca c h v chu tc dng ca mt lc bng tng hp cc
ngoi lc tc dng ln h.
Chuyn ng khi tm ca mt h c gi l
chuyn ng ton th ca h. V d nm mt ci thc
ln cao, khi tm ca n s chuyn ng nh mt cht
im c khi lng bng khi lng ca thc chu tc
dng ca lc bng tng hp cc ngoi lc tc dng ln
thc ( y l trng lc). chnh l chuyn ng ca
cht im trong trng trng u. Qu o l mt
parabol (xem hnh 4-3).
Hnh 4-3
Chuyn ng ton th ca cy
thc trong trng trng
r
r
r
m 2 a 2 = F2 + F2'
r
r
r
m n a n = Fn + Fn'
F
i =1
r
r
ma = F
A
B
Hnh 4-4
Chuyn ng tnh tin ca vt rn
(4-14)
r r
F
i = F l tng hp tt c cc ngoi lc tc dng ln vt rn.Tng hp tt c
n
Trong ,
i =1
n r
cc ni lc trit tiu nhau: Fi ' = 0 ; m=
i =1
m
i =1
3. CHUYN NG QUAY CA VT RN
QUANH MT TRC C NH
Khi mt vt rn chuyn ng quay xung quanh mt trc th:
Mi im ca vt rn s c qu o trn, cc ng trn qu o ca chng c cng
trc, trc ny trng vi trc quay v c tm nm trn trc quay , c bn knh r khc
nhau
Trong cng mt khong thi gian t, bn knh ca mi im ca vt rn u quay c
mt gc nh nhau.
r r dr
r
d
) v gia tc gc ( =
).
Mi im ca vt rn c cng vn tc gc ( =
dt
dt
Ti mi thi im, vect vn tc di v gia tc tip tuyn ca mt cht im bt k ca
vt rn cch trc quay mt on r lin h vi vn tc gc v gia tc gc bi cc h thc
nh xt trong mc 4 ca chng I:
r r r
v = r
r r
r
at = r
58
= o + t
1 2
t
2
Cc phng trnh ny cho php suy ra c:
= ot +
2 02 = 2
Trn y l cc tnh cht ng hc ca vt rn quay quanh mt trc c nh.
Sau y ta s xt chuyn ng quay ca vt rn v mt ng lc hc v thit lp phng
trnh ng lc hc c bn ca vt rn quay quanh mt trc c nh. Cc i lng c trng cho
chuyn ng quay ca vt rn v mt ng lc hc l: mmen lc, mmen ng lng v mmen
qun tnh.
1. Mmen lc tc dng ln vt rn quay
Gi s c mt vt rn quay xung quanh
r
mt trc c nh di tc dng ca lc F .
r
Khi im t M ca lc F vch mt qu
o trn bn knh r nm trong mt phng vung
gc vi trc , c tm nm trn trc ny, v c
r
th phn tch lc F thnh 3 thnh phn (hnh
r r r
4-5) Ft , Fn , F sao cho:
r
r
r
r
F = Ft + Fn + F
r
M
r
r
F
r
r
r
F
r
Ft
r
Fn
Hnh 4-5
trong :
r
r
Phn
tch
lc
F
thnh 3 thnh phn
Ft : thnh phn tip tuyn vung gc vi
r
r
bn knh r tc l cng phng vi tip tuyn ca qu o, v cng phng vi vect vn tc v
ti im , nm trong mt phng qu o vung gc vi trc quay . Lc ny c tc dng lm
cho vt quay quanh trc quay .
r
r
Fn : thnh phn xuyn trc cng phng vi bn knh r ti im t lc, nm trong mt
phng qu o. Thnh phn ny ch c tc dng ko vt rn di khi trc .
r
F : Thnh phn song song vi trc quay khng gy ra chuyn ng quay, ch lm cho
vt trt dc theo trc quay.
r
Nh vy: Tc dng ca lc F lm cho vt rn quay quanh trc c nh ch tng ng
r
vi tc dng ca thnh phn tip tuyn Ft ca lc ny.
r
Mt khc, thc nghim chng t rng tc dng ca lc F lm vt rn quay quanh trc
cn ph thuc vo khong cch r = OM t im t M ca lc n trc . Do , c trung cho
r
tc dng ca lc F , trong chuyn ng quay ca vt rn quanh trc , ngi ta a ra i lng
r
r
vt l gi l mmen lc M i vi trc quay . Vect mmen lc M c nh ngha:
r r r
M = r Ft
(4-15)
59
r
Mmen lc M c:
r
r r
tr s: M = r .Ft . sin(F , r ) = r .Ft
(4-16)
r r
(Hai vect r , Ft vung gc nhau).
r r
phng vung gc vi mt phng cha r , Ft ,
r r r
chiu sao cho ba vect r , Ft , M theo th t hp thnh tam din thun.
r
r
r
r
Ch : M = 0 khi F =0 hoc khi F ng phng vi trc quay , ngha l khi F
r
r
r
( Ft =0), hoc F ct trc (r=0). iu ny ph hp vi kt qu phn tch tc dng ca lc F
nu trn.
n v o ca mmen lc l Newton.met (N.m).
2. Phng trnh c bn ca ng lc hc
vt rn quay quanh mt trc c nh
r
M
r
Ta xt mt vt rn chu tc dng ca
r
mmen lc M , quay quanh trc c nh vi
r
gia tc gc (Hnh 4-6). Ta tm mi lin h
r
r
gia v M .
r
F i
r
ri
r
Fi
r
Fti
r
a ti
r
Fni
Hnh 4-6
Minh ho vic lp phng trnh c bn
ca chuyn ng quay ca vt rn
(4-17)
r r
r
r
Nhn hu hng bn tri ca (4-17) vi ri v thay a ti = ri , ta c:
r
(4-18)
r
r r
r
Vi ch l tch v hng ri . = 0 v ri v vung gc nhau, v tri ca (4-18) s bng:
r r
r r r r r r
r
r
mi .ri ( ri ) = mi ( ri .r ) - ri ( ri . ) = m i ri2 .
r r r r
ri Fti + ri F' ti =
60
r
r
M i + M i'
r
r
trong , M i + M i' tng hp cc mmen ngoi lc v mmen ni lc tc dng ln phn t
th i.
Nh vy, (4-18) tr thnh:
m i ri2 . = M i + M i'
(4-19)
r'
M
i = 0 ta s c:
i
r
r
2
(
m
r
)
=
M
ii
r
I = M
hay:
Trong ,
Mi = M
(4-20)
I = mi ri
(4-21)
61
Trong mi ri2 l mmen qun tnh ca cht im th i i vi trc , php cng ly cho
cc cht im ca vt rn. Theo (4-21), mmen qun tnh ca vt rn quay khng nhng ph
thuc vo khi lng ca vt rn m cn ph thuc vo khong cch t cc cht im ca n n
trc quay. Hai vt cng khi lng nhng khi lng ca vt no phn b cng xa trc quay th
mmen qun tnh ca vt cng ln, do qun tnh ca n cng ln. iu ny c thc
nghim xc nhn.
Nu khi lng ca vt phn b lin tc trong ton th tch ca n, ta chia vt thnh nhng
phn t c khi lng v cng nh dm, khi php cng trong tng (4-21) tr thnh php ly tch
phn cho ton vt rn:
I= r dm
(4-23)
c vt
2
i i
r1 = r2 = r3 =
Ta c:
m r
l
a
dx
x dx
a2
I = 3mr = 3m
= ma 2
2
( 3)
2
dm =
m
dx .
l
Do
I 0 = dI =
c vt
62
m 2
x dx
l vt
c
dI =
m
. Khi lng ca dm l:
l
m 2
x dx
l
I0 =
ml 2
12
(4-24)
V d 3. Tnh mmen qun tnh ca khi tr c ng cht khi lng m, bn knh R, quay
quanh trc i xng o ca khi tr .
Ta chia khi tr c thnh nhiu phn t c y dS l hnh
vnh khn bn knh x rng dx, cao h. Mi phn t c th tch dV
v c khi lng dm (hnh 4-8):
o x
dx
dm = dV = h2xdx.
Thay kt qu ny vo (4-23) v thc hin tch phn, ta c:
R
R 4
I 0 = h 2 x dx = h
2
0
I0 =
mR 2
,
2
(4-25)
Hnh 4-8
tnh mmen qun tnh
ca khi tr c
Io = mR2
2
I o = mR 2
5
1
m. a 2 + b 2
Io =
12
(hnh 4-9a)
(hnh 4-9b)
(hnh 4-9c).
0
R
a) vnh trn rng
b) khi cu
c) mt ch nht
Hnh 4-9
3. nh l Steiner-Huyghens
Nhiu trng hp ta phi tm mmen qun tnh I i vi mt trc quay bt k, khng trng
vi trc i xng. Trong trng hp trc quay song song vi trc i xng ta c th p dng
nh l Steiner- Huyghens nh sau: Mmen qun tnh I ca vt rn i vi mt trc song song
vi trc i xng o bng mmen qun tnh ca vt i vi trc i xng o cng vi tch khi
lng m ca vt vi bnh phng khong cch d gia hai trc :
I = Io + md2
(4-26)
63
mR 2
+ mR2
I=
2
nh l trn c th chng minh c, nhng ta ch cng nhn m khng chng minh.
4. CC NH L V MMEN NG LNG
NH LUT BO TON MMEN NG LNG
1.Cc nh l v mmen ng lng
r dr
Nu ta thay =
vo phng trnh c bn ca ng lc hc vt rn quay quanh mt
dt
r
r
trc c nh I = M v nu I = const th ta s thu c:
r
r
r
r
Id d (I ) dL
=
=
=M
dt
dt
dt
r
r
dL
tc l
=M
(4-27)
dt
r
r
r
Trong L = I c gi l mmen ng lng ca vt rn i vi trc quay .Vect L cng
r
phng chiu vi vect vn tc gc v nm trn cng trc quay
Cng thc (4-27) l nh l th nht v mmen ng lng:
o hm theo thi gian vect mmen ng lng ca vt rn quay quanh mt trc c
nh bng mmen tng hp ca cc ngoi lc tc dng ln vt rn .
r r
(4-28)
T (4-27) ta suy ra:
d L = Mdt
r
Trong d L l bin thin mmen ng lng ca vt rn trong khong thi gian dt,
r
cn i lng Mdt c gi l xung lng ca mmen tng hp ca cc ngoi lc tc dng ln
vt rn trong khong thi gian dt.
r r
r
L2
r
L1
r
dL =
t2
r
Mdt
(4-29)
t1
r
Nu M = const th t (4-27) v (4-29) ta c:
r
r
r
r
L
= M v L = M t
t
(4-30)
tng.
V d 1. Khi din vin ma bal quay ngi trn u mi giy, nu b qua ma st th trng
lc v phn lc ca sn din tc dng ln ngi u c phng hoc ct hoc trng vi trc quay
i qua khi tm ca ngi nn mmen tng hp ca chng i vi trc quay bng khng do
mmen ng lng ca ngi c bo ton. V th khi din vin h tay xung th I gim nn vn
tc quay tng (din vin quay nhanh), nu giang tay ra th I tng nn vn tc quay gim (din
vin quay chm li)... Tng t nh vy din vin xic nho ln ngi trn khng, vn ng vin
nhy cu bi mun quay nhanh hn th phi cun ngi li, cn nu mun quay chm li th
phi dui thng ngi.
V d 2. Mt ngi cm mi tay mt qu t ng trn gh Giucxki ang quay (Hnh 4-10a).
Nu ngi h tay xung (I gim), gh quay nhanh ln ( tng); nu ngi giang ngang tay
ra (I tng), gh s quay chm li ( gim).
65
Ta suy ra 2 =
(a)
(b)
Hnh 4-10
(a) Hnh v d 2, (b) H gm nhiu phn quay
I1 r
, tc l hai phn ca h s quay ngc chiu nhau.
I2 1
Vnh 1
Hnh 4-12
Con quay c trc ta trn im c nh
ng tu sai, ngi ta to ra trong nng sng trng cc rnh xon (khng tuyn) to ra
chuyn ng quay quanh trc ca vin n. V th, khi c gi cn, do hiu ng hi chuyn, u
n khng b ht ngc ln m vn bay ti trng ch.
Ngi ta cn ng dng con quay v hiu ng con quay vo vic nh hng mn, thu
li..v gii thch cc hin tng thc t khc (nh gii thch chuyn ng ca con c...).
5. CNG CA LC V NG NNG
CA VT RN QUAY
1. Cng v cng sut ca lc trong chuyn ng quay ca vt rn
Nu vt rn quay xung quanh trc c nh , lc tip tuyn Ft nm trong mt phng qu o
lm cho vt rn quay (xem hnh 4-13) th khi , cng vi phn ca lc tip tuyn Ft l: dA = Ft.ds.
Mt khc ds = r.d, vi d l gc quay ng vi chuyn di ds. Vy
dA = r.Ft.d.
Vi ch M = r.Ft l mmen ca lc Ft i vi trc quay (hai vect r , Ft vung gc
nhau) ta c th vit:
dA=M.d
(4-32)
Md
P=
dA
d
=M
= M
dt
dt
r
r
V hai vect M v cng chiu nn c th vit:
r r
p = M .
(4-33)
Cng thc (4-33) c dng tng t nh cng
thc (3-7) i vi chuyn ng ca cht im.
ds
O
R
r
Ft
Hnh 4-13. Minh ho
tnh cng ca mmen lc
2. ng nng ca vt rn quay
Gi s di tc dng ca lc tip tuyn Ft im t lc ln vt rn quay c mt cung ds.
Theo (4-32), cng nguyn t trn ds l: dA=M.d.
Ta c phng trnh ng lc hc ca vt rn quay v nh ngha vn tc gc v gia tc
d
d
gc:
M = I , =
, =
;
dt
dt
68
dA = I.d = I .
Khi I = const, ta c th vit li: dA= d (
d
d
d = Id.
= Id
dt
dt
I2
).
2
1 n lc c vn tc gc 2 bng:
A
A = dA =
d(
I 2 I 2
I 2
)= 2 1
2
2
2
(4-34)
W =
1
1
mv 2 + I 2
2
2
(4-36)
69
BI M U
Nhit hc nghin cu cc hin tng lin quan n nhng qu trnh xy ra bn trong vt
nh vt nng chy, vt bay hi,vt nng ln khi ma st nhng hin tng ny lin quan n mt
dng chuyn ng khc ca vt cht l chuyn ng nhit. Chuyn ng nhit l i tng
nghin cu ca nhit hc.
nghin cu chuyn ng nhit ngi ta dng hai phng php:
1. Phng php thng k (ng dng trong vt l phn t)
Da vo cu to phn t ca cc cht v s chuyn ng hn lon ca chng; Ngi ta s
dng cc quy lut ca xc sut thng k tnh gi tr trung bnh ca cc i lng trn c s
nghin cu cc qu trnh xy ra cho tng phn t. Phng php ny cho ta bit mt cch su sc
bn cht ca hin tng .
Tuy nhin trong mt s trng hp vic ng dng phng php ny tng i phc tp.
2. Phng php nhit ng (ng dng trong phn nhit ng lc hc)
Nghin cu qu trnh trao i v bin ho nng lng da trn hai nguyn l
c bn c rt ra t thc nghim gi l nguyn l th nht v nguyn l th hai nhit ng hc.
Phng php nhit ng hc khng gii thch c su sc bn cht ca hin tng nhng n li
c phm vi ng dng su rng hn v n gin hn phng php thng k .
1. CC KHI NIM C BN
1. p sut
p sut l mt i lng vt l c gi tr bng lc nn vung gc ln mt n v din tch.
Gi F l lc nn ln din tch S th p sut l:
P=
F
S
70
2. Nhit
Nhit l i lng vt l c trng cho mc chuyn ng hn lon phn t ca cc
vt. Nhit lin quan n nng lng chuyn ng nhit ca cc phn t. Tuy nhin khng th
dng nng lng o nhit v khng th o trc tip nng lng chuyn ng nhit, hn na
nng lng ny li rt nh. Do d ngi ta o nhit bng n v l .
3. Nhit giai
Tu theo cch chia ngi ta s dng cc nhit giai khc nhau.
a. Nhit giai Celsius (nhit giai bch phn)
K hiu: OC.
Ngi ta chn im tan ca nc v im si ca nc tinh khit 1at l 0 0 C v 100 OC
ri chia 100 phn bng nhau, mi phn l 1OC.
b. Nhit giai Fahrenheit
K hiu: OF.
Ngi ta chn im tan ca nc v im si ca nc tinh khit 1 at l 32oF v 212
O
F ri chia 180 phn bng nhau, mi phn l 1 OF.
H thc lin h gia nhit giai Celsius v nhit giai Fahrenheit
t O C t O F 32
5
=
t O C = (t O F 32)
100
180
9
c. Nhit giai Kelvin (nhit giai tuyt i), k hiu l K
Gi T l nhit tuyt i, th n lin h vi bch phn t:
T = tOC+273,15
Khi khng cn chnh xc cao v tnh ton n gin ta ly: T= tOC+273.
J
)
mol .K
Pv=
RT
PV
PV
PV
= const hay 1 1 = 2 2
T1
T2
T
3. nh lut Boyle-Mariotte
nhit nht nh, p sut v th tch mt khi kh xc nh t l nghch vi nhau.
Tht vy, khi T= const
(T2>T1)
T2
T1
Hnh
ng a
ng nhie
t
Hnh 5-1.
5-1.
ng
ng
nhit
P1
V V
V
= const hay 1 = 2
T
T1 T2
ng biu din th tch V bin thin theo
nhit T khi p sut khng i gi l ng ng
p, l ng thng.
5. nh lut Charles
Hnh5-2.
5-2.
ng
Hnh
ng ang
ng app
72
P1 P2
=
T1 T2
(P1<P2)
P2
P
= const hay
V
( 1< 2)
V
V2
T
H nh 5-3.
ng biu din p sut P l ng bin thin theo nhit T khi th tch khng i gi l
ng ng tch, l ng thng.
Cc phng trnh trn c th vit:
P P0
=
T T0
V V0
=
T T0
1
a
P=P0 aT
V=V0aT
73
1. CC KHI NIM C BN
1. Nng lng ca chuyn ng nhit: l nng lng do chuyn ng hn lon ca cc
phn t to nn v chnh l ng nng ca cc phn t. Nng lng ny ph thuc vo nhit
ca cc phn t vt cht v c gi l nhit nng.
i vi cc phn t cht kh c mt nguyn t, ng nng trung bnh ca chng l:
Wd =
vi
K=
3
KT
2
R
= 1,38.10-23 J/K
NA
Ngi ta chng minh rng biu thc ng nng trung bnh ca phn t trong trng hp
tng qut c dng:
Wd =
i
KT
2
W = N A .Wd =
i
i
N A KT = RT
2
2
W=
i m
RT
2
2. Ni nng
Nng lng ca h gm ng nng ng vi chuyn ng c hng ca c h, th nng ca
c h v phn nng lng ng vi chuyn ng bn trong ca h tc l ni nng ca h: W=W
+Wt+U
74
A=
pdV
(1)
(1)
Nu qu trnh l ng p, ta c
( 2)
A= -P
dV = P(V
V2 )
(1)
V1
(2)
V
V2
Hnh 6-1
Trn th, ta thy ln ca cng ny bng tr s din tch hnh phng gii hn bi ng
ng nhit v trc honh ng vi qu trnh bin i t trng thi (1) n trng thi (2).
khi U=0
hay U= const.
Vy ni nng ca h c lp c bo ton.
Nu h c lp gm hai vt ch trao i nhit vi nhau v gi s Q1,Q2 l nhit lng m
chng nhn c th:
Q = Q1+Q2= 0
Q1 = -Q2
A Q1 Q2
=
Q
Q1
hay = 1
Q2
Q1
= 1+
Q2
Q1
ng c nhit hot ng tun hon theo cc chu trnh. Chu trnh thun nghch c li nht l
chu trnh Carnot gm hai qu trnh ng nhit v qu trnh on nhit:
1. Qu trnh bin i ng nhit: h nhn nhit Q1 ca ngun nng T1 gin kh t trng
thi (1) n trng thi (2) ng thi cung cp cng A1 cho mi trng.
77
Ngun nng
T1
Q1
Q2
Cng A
Tc nhn
Ngun lnh
T2
Hnh 6-2
(1 )
(2 )
(4 )
V1
(3 )
V4
V2 V3
H n h 6 -3
Ngun nng
T1
Q1
Q2
Q2 Q1 A Q1
=
=
1
A
A
A
Tc nhn
Cng A
Ngun lnh
T2
Hnh 6-4
(1)
Q
T
= 1+ 2 = 1 2
Q1
T1
hay
Gi
(2)
(4)
Q2
T
= 2
Q1
T1
(3)
V
Q1 Q2
+
=0
T1 T2
Q
l nhit lng rt gn, ta c:
T
Qi
Hnh 6-5
=0
1+
Q2
T2
< 1Q1
T1
Q2
T
< 2
Q1
T1
hay
Q1 Q2
+
<0
T1 T2
hay
Qi
< 0.
Q
T
79
80
q1 . q 2
4 0 r 2
=k
q1 . q 2
r2
(7-1)
Trong : hng s in
0 = 8,86.10-12C2/Nm2 (hay F/m).
h s t l k = 1 9.109 Nm2/C2.
40
biu din nh lut ny di dng vct,
ta qui c gi vct khong cch gia hai in
r
F10
r
F20
r
r21
r q
F10 1
r
r12
r
F20
q2
q1
q2
r
F10
r
r
r
F20
F =
1 q1q2
r = k q1q32 r
3
40r
(7-3)
81
F = F1 + F2 + .... + Fn =
F
i =i
(7-4)
F1 = kq1Q3 r1
Lc do q1 tc dng ln Q l:
r1
F2 = kq2Q3 r2
Lc do q2 tc dng ln Q l:
Hp lc tc dng ln Q l:
r2
F = F1 + F2 = kq1Q3 r1 + kq2Q3 r2
r1
r2
F1 = - F2 hay
kq1Q3 r1 = -kq2Q3 r2
r1
r2
r2 2 = q2 r 2 =
r12 q1
r1
T r1 + r2 = a v
82
a/4
r
r2
3a/4
kq1Q2 = kq2Q2
r1
r2
Suy ra:
q1
r
r1
q2
q1 = 9 = 3
r2 = 3 d dng tm c r = a v r = 3a
1
2
4
4
r1
q2
2. IN TRNG
Fn
F1 F2
=
= ............. =
= const
qn
q1 q 2
Vct hng s ny c trng cho in trng ti im M c v ln, phng v chiu; n
c gi l vct cng in trng ti im M, k hiu l E :
E =
(7-5)
q> 0
r
E
(a)
r
F
r
E
q<0
(b)
Hnh 7-2
Lc in trng tc dng ln in tch q
r
F
83
F =q E .
(7-5a)
r
r
r
E
r
E
F = k Qq3 r
r
E = k Q3 r
(7-6)
r 2
F = F1 + F2 + .... + Fn = Fi
i =1
F 1
=
q q
E =
Fi =
i =1
Fi
q
i =1
Fi
= E i chnh l vct cng in trng do in tch
q
Qi gy ra ti M nn:
E=
E
i =1
(7-7)
Biu thc (7-7) l biu thc ton hc ca nguyn l chng cht in trng c pht biu
nh sau:
Vct cng in trng gy ra bi mt h in tch im bng tng cc vct cng
in trng gy ra bi tng in tch im ca h.
b. Cng in trng gy bi h in tch im phn b lin tc
Xt mt vt mang in c kch thc bt k v in tch phn b lin tc trn vt ny. R
rng ta c th xem vt nh mt h in tch im c phn b lin tc trong khng gian. Do
tnh cng in trng gy bi vt ny ta tng tng chia vt thnh nhiu phn nh sao
cho in tch dQ trn mi phn c th xem l in tch im. Nu gi d E l vct cng
in trng gy ra bi in tch dQ ti im M cch dQ mt khong r th vct cng in
trng do vt mang in gy ra ti im M c xc nh tng t theo cng thc (7-7).
r
E = dE =
ca vat
r
r
k 3 dQ
ca vat r
(7-8)
Ta xt mt s trng hp c th sau y:
dE
E = dE = k
L
dl r
r
r 3
dE n
(7-9)
+ Nu vt mang in l mt mt S vi mt in tch mt
(C/m2) th in tch trn mt vi phn din tch dS l dQ = dS.
Khi :
E = dE = k
S
.dS r
r
r 3
dV r
r
r 3
(7-10)
E = dE = k
dEt
(7-11)
dQ
Hnh 7-4
in trng gy bi
vng dy trn tch in u
85
dE =
EM =
vong
( vong )
dQ r
r
r 3
EM =
r
d
E
n
vong
dEn .
vong
Vy:
EM=
(R
dEn = k hQ
vong
hay:
Nhn xt:
86
+h2)-3/2
dQ
vong
Ti tm vng dy: h = 0, do E0 = 0
ni kh xa vng dy: h >> R: r h, EM = kQ2
h
Nu vng dy tch in m (Q < 0) th E M c chiu hng vo tm O ca vng dy v
c ln.
EM = k hQ (R2 + h2) 3/2
3. LNG CC IN
1. nh ngha
Lng cc in l mt h hai in tch im c ln bng nhau nhng tri du +q v q, cch
nhau mt on l rt nh so vi khong cch t lng cc in ti nhng im ang xt ca trng.
2. Mmen lng cc in
Vct mmen lng cc in c nh ngha l:
r
p e = ql
(7-12)
trong l l vct khong cch gia hai in tch , hng t in tch (-q) n (+q).
ng thng ni hai in tch gi l trc ca lng cc in.
3. in trng gy ra bi lng cc in
a. Cng in trng ti im M nm trn mt phng trung trc ca lng cc
r
E (+)
EM
= E (+ ) + E ( )
r
E
Hay
r+
r
q
3 (- l )
r
r
pe
EM = -k 3
r
r
E (-)
r-
r+ + k(-q)
E M = k(+q)
r = kq3
3
3
r +
r r
(r+-r) = k
-q
r
O pe
+q
(7-13)
Hnh 7-5.
Cng in trng
c m t bi (7-13)
87
kq
(r + l/2)2
-q
r
+q
r
r
E( ) N E N
r
E( + )
in tch (+q) gy ra E (+ ) l v c ln
E(+) =
kq
> E(-).
(r - l/2)2
EN =
2kql
.r 3
Cui cng ta c: E N = E (+ ) + E ( ) =
2k pe
(7-14)
r 3
r
F( - )
r
pe
r
F( + )
+q
Gi s lng cc in p e c t trong in
lsin
r
Eo
-q
88
Mmen c tc dng lm quay lng cc in theo chiu (trong hnh 7-6 l theo chiu
kim ng h) sao cho p e trng vi hng ca in trng E 0 . n v tr m p e E 0 th cc
lc F(+ ) v F( ) trc i nhau. Nu lng cc in l cng
(l khng i) n s nm cn bng. Nu lng cc l n hi, n s b bin dng.
Khi quay lng cc in t v tr ng vi 0 v v tr = 0 in trng E 0 sinh cng.
ln ca cng ny ng bng gim th nng U ca lng cc in ng vi hai v tr ny
trong in trng E 0 . D dng tm c cng thc tnh th nng ca lng cc in trong in
trng E 0 nh sau:
U = - pe . E0 .
(7-16)
4. IN THNG
1. ng sc in trng
m t dng hnh hc ca in trng ngi ta
dng ng sc in trng. Theo nh ngha, ng sc
in trng l mt ng cong m tip tuyn ti mi im
ca n trng vi phng ca vct cng in trng
E'
h hai in tch im dng bng nhau (hnh c) v in ph ca mt h hai in tch im bng nhau
nhng tri du (hnh d).
Nhn xt
ng sc in trng xut pht t in tnh dng, tn cng trn in tch m.
ng sc ca in trng tnh l nhng ng cong h.
Cc ng sc in trng khng ct nhau v ti mi im trong in trng vct
E ch c mt hng xc nh.
2. Vct cm ng in
a. S gin on ca ng sc in trng
Khi ta biu din in trng bng in ph qua cc mi
=2
trng khc nhau th gp phi kh khn v cng in
=1
trng E ph thuc vo mi trng (t l nghch vi hng s
S
in mi ). Khi i qua mt phn cch ca hai mi trng,
hng s in mi v do , cng in trng E bin
thin t ngt. V vy in ph b gin on b mt phn
cch hai mi trng. Trn hnh (7-9) l in ph ca mt in
tch im +q t tm mt mt cu S, bn trong S l chn Hnh 7-9. S gian oan cua ien pho
khng ( = 1), cn bn ngoi S l mi trng c hng s in mi = 2. Ta nhn thy rng, qua
mt phn cch S, s ng sc gim i 2 ln, tc l in ph b gin on trn mt S. S gin
on ny khng thun li cho cc php tnh v in trng. khc phc, ngi ta kh s gin
on bng cch a vo mt i lng vt l khc khng ph thuc vo tnh cht ca mi
trng c gi l vct cm ng in D (cn gi l vct in cm). Trong trng hp mi
trng l ng nht, ngi ta nh ngha:
D = 0 E
(7-17)
=2
V d: vct in cm D do in tch im q gy
ra ti mt im cch q mt khong r c xc nh bi:
=1
q
D=
r
4r 3
q
. Nh vy ti mi im trong
4r 2
in trng D ch ph thuc vo q, tc l ngun sinh ra
in trng m khng ph thuc vo tnh cht ca mi
trng. Trong h SI, cm ng in c n v o l C/m2.
c ln D =
Sn
r
D
Dn
rr
nn
r
D
r
S
Hnh 7-11.
in thng ca in trng u
(7-18)
dS
(S)
Hnh 7-12.
in thng qua din tch dS
de = D dS
v in thng gi qua ton mt S s l:
e =
de = D dS
S
(17-9)
5. NH L XTRGRATXKI - GAUSS (O - G)
Mc ch ca tit ny l thit lp mi quan h gia vct cm ng in D v in tch gy
ra n. chnh l ni dung ca nh l O G.
1.
Thit lp nh l
91
DdS
(S )
trong : S = 4r ;
Do
e =
(S )
4r 2
Dn.dS = D dS = D.S.
D=
r
dS
(S )
r
n
r
D
4r 2
. 4r2 = q > 0
Hnh 7-13
in thng qua mt kn S.
nh l O-G
4r 2
4r2 = - q = q < 0
DdS = q
(S )
2. Pht biu nh l
in thng qua mt mt kn bng tng i s cc in tch nm trong mt kn :
e =
DdS = q
(S )
(7-20)
Khi in trng c tnh cht i xng (i xng cu, i xng tr, i xng phng), xc
nh vct E hay vct D ca in trng th p dng nh l O-G l phng php n
gin, ngn gn hn phng php tnh theo nguyn l chng cht in trng. Ta thc hin tun t
cc bc sau y:
Bc 1: Nhn xt v s i xng trong s phn b ca h in tch.
Bc 2: Xc nh dng i xng ca h ng sc v xc nh qu tch nhng im m
cc vct D (hoc vct E ) c cng ln v bng vi D hoc E ti im ta cn kho st.
Bc 3: Xy dng mt kn S (gi l mt Gauss) l qu tch ni trn. Nu qu tch
cha to thnh mt kn th ta lm kn li bng cc mt khc ty sao cho vic tnh ton l n
gin nht.
Bc 4: Tnh tng v ca biu thc (7-20) rt ra i lng cn xc nh.
Bi ton 3: Xc nh cng in trng E gy
bi mt khi cu tm O, bn knh R, tch in u vi mt
in khi > 0 ti mt im bn ngoi v ti mt im
bn trong lng khi cu .
Gii: i vi im M ngoi khi cu, cch tm O
mt khong r > R.
+ Bc 1: V khi cu tch in u nn h ng sc
c tnh cht i xng cu.
S
S
M
+ Bc 2: H ng sc trng vi cc bn knh,
hng ra ngoi. Do qu tch ca nhng im c ln
Dn
dS
D
l mt cu S tm O, bn knh
+ Bc 3: Mt kn S chnh l mt cu S.
+ Bc 4: p dng nh l O G.
DdS =
(S )
i =1
(S )
(S)
q
i
= Q = 4 R3.
3
E
E(R)
-R O +R
Hnh 7-15.
93
4 R 3
3
Rt ra:
D = R2 ,
3r
v dng vect
D = R3 r
3r
hay
r
D = Q2 ,
4r r
r > R,
r>R
(7-21)
kQ r
. Kt qu ny ging vi biu thc tnh cng in trng ca
0
r 2 r
mt in tch im Q t ti O.
Do E =
D = 1 r = Q 3 r ; r < R
3
4R
Do vy
(7-22)
E = 1 r = kQ3 r
30
R
n
D
Hnh 7-16.
q
i
trong (r<R): v
q
i
94
= 0 nn E trong = 0.
=Q
DdS
D dS
n
mat ben
(s)
D dS
n
hai ay
DdS
v phi ca (7-20),
D dS
n
= D.2S.
hai ay
(S )
ca phn mt phng c ct bi mt trn ca hnh tr (l phn din tch b gch trong hnh (7-16)
cho nn y
= . S.
D=
2
Hay
D= n
2
(7-23)
E= n
20
(7-24)
(7-25)
D x D y DZ
).
+
+
x
y
z
6. CNG CA LC TNH IN - IN TH
1. Cng ca lc tnh in
r
F
r
E
kqQ
F = +q E =
r
.r 3
A
A
r
r
r + dr
r
r
+q
rN
rM
Q
Hnh 7-17
Sau thi gian dt, in tch q thc hin chuyn di v cng nh ti im B trn qu o.
Vct dch chuyn ds AB . Trn chuyn di v cng nh ny c th xem nh E = const , do
cng nguyn t ca lc tnh in F trong chuyn di vi phn ny c tnh l:
dA = F . ds =q E ds
96
= qEds.cos = kQq
ds.cos;
r2
trong = ( r , ds ).
Theo hnh v 7-17, c th xem
BB = dr AA = ds.cos; nn dA = kqQ
dr. Vy cng ca lc tnh in trong s dch
r2
chuyn ca in tch q t M n N s bng:
N
AMN = dA = kQq
rN
rM
AMN = k Qq - k Qq
rM
rN
dr
r2
(7-26)
AMN =
i =1
k qQi riM
i =1
k qQi
riN
(7-27)
E ds = 0.
Vy:
+ Trng tnh in l trng th lc tnh in l lc th.
+ Lu s ca vct cng in trng (tnh) dc theo mt ng cong kn bng khng.
2. Th nng ca in tch trong in trng
Trong c hc ta bit khi di chuyn mt cht im gia hai v tr trong trng th, cng
ca lc th c ln bng hiu th nng ca cht im ti hai v tr trong trng th. i
chiu vi trng tnh in, ta suy ra th nng ca in tch q ti mt im trong in trng c
tnh theo cc biu thc sau:
W = kqQ
r
Hoc
W=
k
i
(7-28)
qQi
.ri
(7-29)
97
(7-30)
(7-31)
Qi
k r
i
(g)
in trng bt k: VM =
(7-32)
r r
E .ds ,
(7-33)
(M )
(7-34)
Ch :
n v o in th v hiu in th trong h SI l Vn, k hiu l V.
Trong k thut, i lng hiu in th c s dng nhiu hn i lng in th. V
gi tr ca hiu in th khng ph thuc vo cch chn gc tnh in th (hoc th
nng). Do vy ngi ta thng chn in th ca t hoc ca nhng vt ni t bng
khng. Khi ni in th ca mt im no chnh l ni v hiu in th gia im
vi t.
Mt vt tch in Q c phn b lin tc, khi mun tnh in th ti mt im no
trong in trng do Q to ra th thay cho cng thc (7-32) ta s dng cng thc sau y:
V=k
toan bo vat
dQ
r
(7-35)
VM - V N =
E ds
(7-36)
b. Tnh cht ca mt ng th
. Cng ca lc tnh in trong s dch chuyn mt in
tch bt k trn mt mt ng th bng khng.
N
q
ds
Hnh
Hnh7-15.
7-18.Minh
Minhhoa
ho tnh
tnh cha
chtt
V
r
E
V+dV
ds
dn
N
P
Hnh 7-19.
r
Lin h gia E v V
99
E vung gc vi mt ng th ti mi im ca mt .
Ch : Theo tnh cht ta cng suy ra cc ng sc n trng lun vung gc vi cc
mt ng th.
2. Mi lin h gia E v V
Vct cng in trng E v in th V ti mt im no l hai i lng c trng
cho in trng v hai phng din khc nhau: vct E c trng v phng din tc dng lc
ds = MN
vi
E ds = - dV
(7-37)
A
B
b. Hnh chiu ca E ln
mt phng no v tr s bng
VA>VB
VA<VB
VA=VC>VB
gim in th trn mt n v
Hnh
7-17.
Mo
ta
ie
n
tr
n
g
ba
n
g
n
g
s
c(ne
t lie
Hnh 7-20.M t in trng bng ng sc (lin
nt)
vn)
di ca phng :
va ng
ng anng
g the
t)
th(ne
(ntt
t).
Es = -dV
(7-38)
ds
Trong h ta Descartes, biu thc (7-38) c tng qut ho nh sau:
r V
r V
V
E = - gradV = - ( i
+ j
+ k
)
(7-39)
dV
dV
dn
ds
Hnh 7-20 l mt th d minh ho mi quan h gia E v V trong mt vi trng hp n gin.
Bi ton 4: Mt khi cu tm O bn knh R tch in
dng vi in tch Q c phn b u theo th tch. Chn
gc tnh in th v cc, hy xc nh:
a. in th ti im A trn mt cu.
b. in th ti tm O .
Hnh 7-21. Bi ton
E tr (trong) =
r,
30
r< R,
E ng (ngoi) = k Q3 r ,
r
= 3Q 3
4R
r>R
a. Tnh VA:
+ Xt dc theo mt phng bn knh, p dng biu thc (7-38) cho A l mt im trn mt
khi cu, ta c:
- dV = Erdr = Etrdr = r dr
30
A
dV =
30
0
rdr
0
2
hay V0 VA = R
60
Suy ra
2
VA = V0 - R
60
Q = 4 R3, nn R2 = 3Q v ta s c:
3
4R
(7-40)
VA= V0 - 1 Q = V0 - kQ
40 2R
2R
(7-41)
VA - V =
kQ
A E ng dr =
dr
r
R
= kQ
R
V v cng V = 0 nn suy ra
101
VA = kQ
R
(7-42)
(7-43)
V0 V T =
Etr dr =
A
rT
30
rdr =
.rT2
6 0
T
VT = V0 -
(7-44)
d. Tnh VN: Ta c VN - V = E ng dr = kQ
rN
Do :
Vn = kQ
rN
dr
rN
= kQ
rN
(7-45)
102
Chng VIII: Vt dn
CHNG VIII: VT DN
Trong t nhin vt cht chia lm ba loi: Vt dn, in mi v bn dn. Vt dn l vt c
cha cc ht mang in t do, c th chuyn ng trong ton b vt. Khi nim vt dn bao gm
nhiu cht nh kim loi, dung dch in phn, cht kh ion ho.
y ta ch nghin cu kim loi, c cc in tch t do l cc electron t do chuyn ng
trong ton mng tinh th ca n. Do khi ni v vt dn, ta hiu theo ngha hp l vt dn kim
loi m thi.
1. VT DN CN BNG TNH IN
1. nh ngha
Mt vt dn c tch in m cc ht mang in ca n trng thi ng yn, c gi l
vt dn cn bng tnh in.
Trong k thut, vt dn cn bng tnh in l vt dn c np in tch (tha hoc thiu
electron) hoc vt dn c t trong in trng khi tt c in tch trong n ng yn.
2. Tnh cht ca vt dn cn bng tnh in
a) Vct cng in trng E ti mi im trong vt dn cn bng tnh in bng khng.
Tht vy, xt mt in tch q bt k trong vt dn cn bng tnh in, v n nm yn nn lc
tc dng ln n F = q E = 0. Suy ra E = 0.
b) Ti mi im trn b mt ca vt dn cn bng tnh in, vct E (do c ng sc
in trng na) phi vung gc vi b mt vt dn.
Tht vy, nu ti mt im no trn b mt vt dn cn bng tnh in c vct E khng
vung gc vi b mt, khi ta phn tch E = E n + E t v chc chn thnh phn tip tuyn vi
b mt E t 0. Do vy mt in tch bt k nm s chu tc dng ca lc tip tuyn vi b
mt F t = q E t 0 khin q b dch chuyn v nh vy vt dn khng cn trng thi cn bng
tnh in na.
c) Vt dn cn bng tnh in l mt khi ng th, b mt vt dn l mt mt ng th.
Tht vy, vi hai im M, N bt k trong lng vt dn v L l ng cong bt k ni hai
im , p dng cng thc (7-37) ta c: VM VN =
E ds
MN
103
Chng VIII: Vt dn
r r
E'
Eo
Hnh 8-1.
Hien tng ien hng
Trong lng khi kim loi s xut hin in trng ph E ' ngc chiu vi in trng E 0 .
in trng E ' s tc dng ln cc electron lc F ' = -e E ' ngc chiu vi lc F0 , tc l lc
F ' cn tr vic to thnh cc in tch hng ng. Trng thi cn bng c thit lp khi F ' = - F0 ,
tc l E ' = - E 0 . Khi vt trng thi cn bng tnh in (cc electron t do khng di chuyn
na) th trong lng n c: E = E 0 + E 1 = 0, V = const, = 0.
Hin tng ny cng xy ra i vi khi kim loi rng hoc mt v hp kim loi hnh dng
bt k c t trong in trng.
104
Chng VIII: Vt dn
Ngi ta phn bit hai loi hin tng in hng: in hng ton phn v in hng
mt phn.
in hng ton phn: trng hp mi ng sc in trng c xut pht v kt
thc trong cc vt tch in ca h kn; khng c ng sc ra khi h hoc t ngoi i
vo h. V d: Hin tng in hng gia hai bn ca mt t in.
in hng mt phn: trng hp h h, c ng sc i ra khi h hoc t bn ngoi
i vo h.
d) Mn chn tnh in
Da vo hin tng in hng, ngi ta dng mn chn tnh in (l hp hoc li kim
loi) bo v thit b in (c bit l thit b v tuyn) khi tc ng ca in trng bn ngoi,
nu khng dng s b nhiu rt mnh. Trng hp in trng ngoi khng qu mnh, mn chn
ch cn c dng li (v d lp li kim loi v cp in) cng lm trit tiu nh hng ca
in trng gy nhiu.
Ch rng mn chn tnh in ch ngn cn khng cho in trng t bn ngoi xm nhp
vo trong. Nu t in tch Q bn trong mn chn th do hin tng in hng, mt trong ca
mn chn s tch in tri du vi Q, cn mt ngoi s tch in cng du vi Q. Khi pha
ngoi mn chn vn c in trng (tc l mn mt tc dng chn).
(8-1)
Chng VIII: Vt dn
(8-2)
V1
V2
E1 =
2 0
hng ra xa n.
Bn m c in th V2, mt in mt - = - Q gy ra in trng u
S
u c cng :
E2 =
2 0
hng vo gn n.
.
0
Chng VIII: Vt dn
Xt trn phng ca ng sc in trng (phng n), t biu thc (7-38) ta suy ra: -dV =
Edn. Ly tch phn hai v biu thc ny theo lch in th ng vi khong cch hai bn t, ta c:
V2
V1
( dV ) = Edn ,
hay V1 - V2 = E dn = Ed
0
U = V1 - V2 = Ed
Tc l
(8-3)
S
C=Q=
= 0 S
U d / 0
d
(8-4)
3. Ghp t in
a) Ghp song song
Gi s c hai t in vi cc n dung ln lt l C1, C2 c ghp song song vi nhau
(hnh 8-3). Trong trng hp ny v U1 = U2 = U nn suy ra:
Q1 = Q2 hay C1 = Q1 ngha l t no c in dung ln hn th
C1 C2
C2 Q2
tch in c nhiu hn v ngc li. Nu thay h hai t ny bng
mt t in duy nht vi in dung Ctd c vai tr tng ng, khi
in tch trn mi bn ca t tng ng s l Qtd = Q1 + Q2.
Suy ra:
Do :
Ctd = C1 + C2
+Q1 -Q1
U
+Q2 -Q2
Ctd = C1 + C2 + .... + Cn =
C2
C
i =1
(8-5)
C1
Hnh 8-3. Hai t in
ghp song song
b. Ghp ni tip
Xt hai t in ghp ni tip vi nhau (hnh 8-4).
Ta thy cc bn cc ca hai t khi c ni vi ngun
in s c tch in theo hin tng in hng
(ton phn).
Do ln in tch trn cc bn u bng nhau.
U1
+Q1 -Q1
U2
+Q 2
-Q2
C1 = U 2
C2 U1
Chng VIII: Vt dn
Utd = U1 + U2 hay Q = Q + Q = Q( 1 + 1 )
Ctd C1 C2
C1 C2
Do
1 = 1 + 1
Ctd C1 C2
i =1
(8-6)
A=
dA = C udu = 2 CU .
0
(8-7)
e =
2
We 1
= 0E2 = 1 D = 1 ED = 1 E D
2 0 2
2
2
(8-9)
Chng VIII: Vt dn
+ in trng bt k:
p dng phng php vi tch phn d dng tnh c nng lng in trng bt k trong
mt th tch no theo cng thc sau:
We = e d =
1 rr
ED.d
2
(8-10)
(1)
(2)
109
Chng IX: in mi
CHNG IX: IN MI
Bnh thng in mi l nhng cht khng dn in. Chng c ng dng quan trng v
rng ri trong k thut v i sng. Bn th tng tng cc dy cp dn in m khng c v
cch in th nguy him bit chng no. Hu ht cc hp cht oxyt u l in mi v c s
dng ph bin trong k thut in - in t. Cc t in u phi dng cht in mi ghp vo
gia hai bn cc. Cc linh kin in t nh transistor trng (FET), vi mch CMOS.v.v... trong
cu to u phi s dng n in mi ixyt silic (SiO2), nguyn l hot ng ca chng l da
trn hin tng phn cc in mi ca lp SiO2 trong in trng phn cc bn ngoi. Do
kho st v in mi l ni dung ca chng IX ny.
Mc ch: Kho st hin tng phn cc in mi, tnh ton in trng trong cht in
mi v tm hiu tnh cht ca mt s cht c bit (cc hiu ng p in thun, ngc trong in
mi scnht).
Yu cu: Gii thch c hin tng phn cc in mi, hiu khi nim vct phn cc
in mi v phng php tnh in trng trong cht in mi. Bit cc tnh cht ca in mi
scnht v phn bit c s khc nhau gia hiu ng p in thun vi hiu ng p in nghch.
110
Loi th nht: l cht in mi c phn t t phn cc. Trong loi ny, cc phn t
c phn b electron khng i xng quanh ht nhn nn tm in tch m cch tm
Chng IX: in mi
Loi th hai: l cht in mi c phn t khng phn cc. Trong phn t, cc electron
c phn b i xng quanh ht nhn khin tm in tch m trng vi tm in tch
dng. Phn t ca in mi loi ny khng phi l lng cc in. l cc cht
nh H2, N2, Cl2, kh him,.v.v...
+
+
a)
+
+
b)
Eo
Hnh
ienmi
mophn
i pha
phacc
n cc
Hnh 9-1.
9-1. in
tntt
phn
a) Khi
chaa
t
trong in
a) Khi
cha
t trong
ientrng
trnngoi.
g ngoai
b) Khi
trong ie
inntrng
b) Khi
at
t trong
trnngoi.
g ngoai Eo
Chng IX: in mi
c. in mi tinh th rn
Di tc dng ca in trng ngoi, cc mng ion dng b x dch theo chiu in
trng, cn cc mng ion m b x dch ngc chiu in trng, gy ra hin tng phn cc in
mi. Dng phn cc ny gi l phn cc ion.
Tm li, d l in mi loi no, khi c t trong in trng ngoi th ti hai mt gii
hn i din ca n u xut hin hai lp in tch tri du, gi l cc in tch phn cc hay in
tch lin kt. Mt in tch phn cc ln hay b (cht in mi b phn cc mnh hay yu) ph
thuc vo bn cht ca cht in mi v vo cng in trng ngoi.
4. Vct phn cc in mi
c trng cho mc phn cc cht in mi, ngi ta nh ngha khi nim vct phn
r
r
cc in mi nh sau: Vct phn cc in mi Pe l tng vct mmen lng cc in p e ca
cc phn t c trong mt n v th tch ca cht in mi.
Biu thc: Xt mt th tch V ca cht in mi b phn cc (bi trng ngoi), th
tch ny ln cha mt s ln n cc phn t. Khi theo nh ngha trn th:
Pe = 1
V
p
i =1
(9-1)
ei
p
i =1
'
Trong
p
i =1
ei
ei
= S.L, cn th tch
+'
E0
112
Do :
Pe = '.S.L = '
S. Lcos cos
Suy ra:
= Pecos = Pen
(9-2)
L
Hnh 9-2. e thiet lap quan he
gia Pe va
Pe
Pen
Chng IX: in mi
E = E 0 + E'
E = E0 - E
E = E0 - ' hay
0
E = E0 - Pen
0
(9-3)
E' E Eo
E = E0
1+
(9-4)
E = E0
(9-5)
1+=
(9-6)
113
Chng IX: in mi
D = 0 (1 +) E
hay
r
r
D = 0 E + o E = 0 E + Pe
(9-7)
E1
E 1 = E 0 + E '1
E0
E1t
E'
E2t
E1n
E2n
E'1
E2
E'2
E 2 = E 0 + E '2
Chiu hai ng thc vct trn ln lt ln cc phng php tuyn v tip tuyn vi mt
phn cch, ta c:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
E1t = E2t = 0
E1t = E2t
(9-8)
Vy: Thnh phn tip tuyn ca vct cng in trng tng hp bin thin lin tc
khi i qua mt phn cch ca hai lp in mi.
Mt khc, v E = /0 = E nn E1n = E1n. Thay biu thc ny vo (a) v ch rng 1 +
= 1, ta rt ra:
E1n = E0n / 1.
Tng t, ta cng c:
114
E2n = E0n / 2.
(e)
(f)
Chng IX: in mi
(9-9)
Vy: Thnh phn php tuyn ca vct cng in trng tng hp bin thin khng
lin tc (trng hp tng qut 2 1) khi i qua mt phn cch ca hai lp in mi.
1
Kt lun: ng sc in trng l khng lin tc khi i qua mt phn cch gia hai lp
in mi.
i vi vct in cm trong hai lp in mi
trn, ta c:
D1
D 1 = 01 E 1 , D 2 = 02 E 2
Cng lm php chiu nh trn, ta c:
D1t
D'1
D2t
D1n
D'2
D1t = 01E1t
D2n
D2
D2t = 02E2t
V E1t = E2t nn:
D1t = 1
D2t 2
(9-9)
Vy: Thnh phn tip tuyn ca vct cm ng in bin thin khng lin tc khi i qua
mt phn cch ca hai lp in mi.
Tng t, s c D1n = 01E1n
D2n = 02E2n
D1n = D2n.
(9-11)
Vy: Thnh phn php tuyn ca vct cm ng in bin thin lin tc khi i qua mt
phn cch ca hai lp in mi.
Ch : T cc kt qu trn ta thy rng khi i qua mt phn cch ca hai lp in mi, khng
nhng ch vct E m c vct D cng thay i. Tuy nhin in thng (do s ng cm ng
in), theo nh ngha bng e =
D dS
n
4. IN MI C BIT
1. in mi Scnht
Khong nhng nm 1930 - 1934 hai nh Vt l Nga l Cucsatp v Cbic tm thy
mt hp cht tinh th c cng thc NaK(C2H2O2).4H2O (bitctrat natri Kali ngm nc), gi tt l
115
Chng IX: in mi
mui Scnht, c nhiu tnh cht c bit. Sau ngi ta tm thy mt nhm nhng in mi
tinh th khc cng c cc tnh cht tng t v gi tn chung cho chng l in mi Scnht.
Sau y l nhng tnh cht c bit ca in mi Scnht:
Trong mt khong nhit no , hng s in mi ca in mi Scnht rt ln, c
th t ti 104.
Hng s in mi (v do h s ) ca n ph thuc vo cng in trng trong
in mi.
Sau khi tt in trng ngoi E 0 , tinh th Scnht vn cn b phn cc. y l hin
tng in tr trong Scnht.
Khi tng nhit ln qu mt nhit Tc no , cc tnh cht trn ca Scnht bin mt
v n tr thnh cht in mi bnh thng. Tc c gi l nhit Curi.
in mi Scnht c rt nhiu ng dng trong k thut. V c hng s in mi rt ln nn
n c dng ch to cc t in c kch thc nh nhng in dung rt ln.
2. Hiu ng p in
a. Hiu ng p in thun
Nm 1880 hai nh Vt l Php l Pie Curie v Gic Curie tm thy mt hin tng mi:
khi nn hoc ko dn mt s tinh th in mi theo nhng phng c bit trong tinh th th trn
cc mt gii hn ca tinh th xut hin nhng in tch tri du, tng t nh nhng in tch
xut hin trong hin tng phn cc in mi. Hin tng ny gi l hiu ng p in thun, xy
ra vi cc tinh th thch anh, tuamalin, mui scnht, ng, titanat bari,.v.v...
Nu i du ca bin dng (t nn
sang dn hoc ngc li) th in tch
xut hin trn hai mt gii hn cng i
du (hnh 9-6). Do c in tch tri du
xut hin nn gia hai mt gii hn ny
c mt hiu in th.
Hiu ng p in thun c p
dng trong k thut bin i nhng dao ng c (m) thnh nhng dao ng in.
b. Hiu ng p in nghch
Trong cc tinh th nu trn, ngi ta cn quan st thy hin tng p in nghch: Nu ta
t ln hai mt i din ca mt tinh th mt hiu in th th n s b dn ra hoc b nn li. Nu
y l mt hiu in th xoay chiu th tinh th s b dn, nn lin tip v s dao ng theo tn s
ca hiu in th xoay chiu. Tnh cht ny c ng dng ch to cc ngun pht siu m.
Bi ton: Mt t in phng c cc bn cc vi din tch S = 115cm2 v cch nhau mt
khong d = 1,24cm. Mt hiu in th U = 85,5V c t vo gia hai bn t in. Sau ngt
n ra khi hiu in th trn v mt tm in mi dy b = 0,78cm v c hng s in mi = 2,61
c a vo gia cc bn cc ca t in (xem hnh bn). Tnh:
a) in dung C0 ca t trc khi tm in mi c a vo.
b) in tch t do xut hin trn cc bn cc.
116
Chng IX: in mi
( 1) nn:
-12
x 10-4 F
C0 = 0S = 8,85 x 10 x 115
-2
1,24 x 10
d
b) Tnh
7,02 x 10-10
V/m = 6.900 V/m = 6,9kV/m.
8,85 x 10-12 x 115 x 10-4
U1 = E0 (d b), U2 = Eb nn:
117
1. BN CHT CA DNG IN
chng VIII ta bit l trong mi trng dn in, cc in tch t do lun lun chuyn
ng nhit hn lon. Di tc dng ca in trng ngoi, chng s chuyn ng c hng xc
nh: cc ht in dng chuyn ng theo chiu ca vct cng in trng E , cn cc ht
in m chuyn ng theo
chiu ngc li. Dng cc ht
E
E
E
in chuyn ng c hng
I
I
nh vy gi l dng in, cn
I
cc ht in c gi chung l
a)
b)
c)
ht ti in.
Hnh 10-1. Ban chat dong ien trong kim loai(a),trong chat ien
Bn cht ca dng in
phan(b)va trong chat kh(c)
trong cc mi trng khc
nhau cng khc nhau (xem hnh 10-1).
118
i = dq
dt
(10 - 1)
S
I
dq = i dt
(10 2)
Nu phng, chiu v cng ca dng in khng thay i theo thi gian th dng in
c gi l dng in khng i. i vi dng in ny, ta c
i = I = const v do
t
q = I dt = It
(10 3)
Nu dng in trong vt dn do hai loi in tch tri du to nn (in tch dng chuyn
ng theo chiu in trng, cn in tch m th ngc li) th cng dng in qua din tch
S s bng: i = dq1/dt + dq2/dt, tc l bng tng s hc cng dng in do mi loi in tch
to nn.
T cng thc (103) ta c nh ngha ca Coulomb nh sau:
119
Coulomb l in lng ti qua tit din mt vt dn trong thi gian 1 giy bi mt dng
in khng i theo thi gian c cng 1 ampe.
2. Vct mt dng in
Cng dng in l mt i lng v hng, c trng cho mnh ca dng in
qua mt din tch cho trc. c trng cho phng, chiu v mnh ca dng in ti tng
im ca mi trng c dng in chy qua ngi ta a ra
dSn
mt i lng khc l vct mt dng in.
Xt din tch nh dSn t ti im M v vung gc vi
phng chuyn ng ca dng cc ht in qua din tch y.
nh ngha: Vct mt dng in j ti mt im
M l mt vct c:
im t ti im M.
Hnh 10-3
Vect mt dng
(10 4)
dSn
dS
r
Jn
r
J
dS
Hnh 10-4
Dng in qua dS
din tch dS trn mt phng vung gc vi ng dng (tc l vung gc vi j ) th ta nhn thy
rng cng dng in qua dS cng bng cng dng in qua dSn v bng dI = jdSn.
Gi l gc gia vct php tuyn n ca din tch dS vi vct mt dng j , khi
dSn = dS.cos, cho nn: dI = jdScos = jndS, vi jn = jcos l hnh chiu ca vct j trn
phng ca vct php tuyn n . Nu gi dS l vct c cng hng vi n v c tr s bng
din tch dS ( dS gi l vct din tch) th ta vit c dI = j dS .
Nh vy cng dng in I qua din tch S bt k c tnh theo cng thc
I=
dI = j dS
s
120
(10 - 5)
Hnh 10-5.
tnh mt dng in
dI = q dn = n0 q v dSn.
T ta suy ra biu thc ca mt dng in j =
dI
= n0 q v (10.6)
dt
(10-7)
j = n01 q 1 v 1 + n o q 2 v 2
(10-9)
I
V1
r
E
V2
Hnh 10-6
on mch c dng in -nh lut Ohm
121
2. in tr v in tr sut
Thc nghim chng t: in tr R ca mt on dy dn ng tnh tit din u t l thun
vi chiu di l v t l nghch vi din tch tit din vung gc Sn ca on dy .
R = l/Sn
(10-10)
dl
dSn
- dV
Hay j = dI = (1) (
)
dSn
dl
Theo cng thc (7-38) th -
dV
= E, t 1 =
dl
r
E
B
B
r
J
V+dV
Hnh 10-7. thit lp dng vi
phn ca nh lut Ohm.
j = E.
trong 2 ta bit rng hai vct j v E l cng hng, cn =
j = E
(10-11)
4. SUT IN NG
122
1. Ngun in
Xt hai vt dn A v B mang in tri du: A mang in dng, B mang in m (hnh 10-8).
Nh vy in th A cao hn in th B, gia A v B xut hin in trng tnh hng theo
chiu in th gim. Nu ni A vi B bng vt dn M th cc ht ti in dng s chuyn ng
theo chiu in trng t A v B, cn cc ht ti in m th ngc li. Kt qu l trong vt dn
M xut hin dng in theo chiu t A sang B, in th ca A gim xung, in th ca B tng
ln. Cui cng, khi in th ca A v B bng nhau th dng in s ngng li.
Mun duy tr dng in trong vt dn M ta
phi a cc ht ti in dng t B tr v li A
(v cc ht ti in m t A tr v li B) lm
M
r
E
r
E*
r
E
Ngun in
Hnh 10-8.
tin ti khi nim ngun in
Trong ngun in tn ti c trng l E * v trng tnh E song chng ngc chiu nhau,
v cng th E* > E th mi a c cc ht ti in dng t cc (-) v li cc (+) v cc ht
ti in m t cc (+) v li cc (-).
Trong thc t, ngun in c th l pin, cqui, my pht in.v.v... Bn cht lc l trong cc
ngun in khc nhau l khc nhau (trong pin v cqui lc l l lc tng tc phn t, trong my
pht in dng hin tng cm ng in t l lc in t). Mun to thnh dng in, ngun
in v dy dn M phi to thnh mt mch kn.
2. Sut in ng ca ngun in
c trng cho kh nng sinh cng ca ngun in, ngi ta a ra khi nim sut in
ng c nh ngha nh sau:
Sut in ng ca ngun in l mt i lng c gi tr bng cng ca lc in trng do
ngun to ra lm dch chuyn mt n v in tch dng mt vng quanh mch kn ca ngun .
=A
q
(10-12)
123
A=
q( E + E *) ds
(C )
( E + E *) ds = E ds
(C )
V E l trng tnh in nn
(C )
E * ds
(C )
E ds = 0. Do vy:
(C )
E * ds
(10-13)
(c)
E * ds
(10-14)
Cu
Zn
lm v d v mt ngun in n gin, ta xt cu
to v qu trnh to nng lng trong pin anien.
Pin anien gm mt in cc bng km (Zn) nhng
trong dung dch km sunft (ZnSO4) v mt in cc bng
ng (Cu) nhng trong dung dch ng sunft (CuSO4).
Gia hai dung dch c vch xp ngn khng cho chng
trn ln vo nhau nhng vn cho cc electron v ion
chuyn ng qua li d dng (hnh 10-9). Tng tc phn
t gia dung dch v cc in cc xy ra nh sau:
Cc phn t nc (mi phn t l mt lng cc
in gm mt ion m O2- v hai ion dng H+) trong dung
dch CuSO4 li ko cc electron t do ca cc ng chy
vo dung dch, khin cho cc ng mt electron v tr
thnh cc mang in dng. V vy, i t cc ng (in
th VA) vo dung dch CuSO4 (in th VA) in th gim
mt lng: A = VA - VA = +0,61V
124
ZnSO4
CuSO4
a)
VA
V'A
b)
V'B
VB
x
VA
(10-15)
,r
H n h 1 0 -1 0
UABI = I2 (R +r) - I.
U=I(R+r)-
(10.16)
125
(10-17)
I i Ri
i
(10-19)
(a)
Phng trnh cho vng kn MR1NR2M vi chiu thun c chn l chiu kim ng h:
I1R1 I2R2 = -E1 + E2
(b)
Phng trnh do vng kn MR2NR3M vi chiu thun c chn l ngc chiu kim
ng h:
-I2R2 I3R3 = +E2 E3
(c)
CHNG XI : T TRNG
CA DNG IN KHNG I
Chng ny nghin cu t trng do dng in khng i gy ra, tc dng gia cc dng
in, v tc dng ca t trng ln dng in. Nh , chng ta ta s hiu c nguyn tc hot
ng ca cc dng c v thit b in da trn tnh cht t ca dng in.
1. TNG TC T CA DNG IN
NH LUT AMPRE
1. Th nghim v tng tc t
a. Tng tc t gia cc nam chm
Th nghim chng t hai thanh nam chm c th ht nhau nu hai cc khc tn t gn
nhau, hoc y nhau nu cc cc ca chng cng tn. Cc thanh nam chm li c th ht c cc
vn st. Cc tnh cht ca nam chm c gi l t tnh. Tng tc gia cc nam chm c
gi l tng tc t.
b. Tng tc gia dng in vi nam chm
I
S
(a)
(b)
(c)
128
Khi ch c cc dng in vi nhau, chng cng tng tc vi nhau. Tht vy, th nghim
chng t: hai dy dn thng song song nhau, gn nhau, khi trong chng c dng in cng chiu
chy qua th chng ht nhau, khi trong chng c dng in chy ngc chiu nhau th chng y
nhau (Hnh 11-3). Hai ng dy in cng ht nhau hoc y nhau tu theo dng in hai u
ca chng cng chiu hay ngc chiu nhau. Mi cun dy nh vy tng ng vi mt nam
chm: u cun dy no m khi nhn vo, ta thy c dng in chy ngc chiu quay ca kim
ng h th l cc bc (N) ca nam chm, cn ngc li th l cc nam S (Hnh 11-4). V
th ngi ta gi ng dy c dng in l nam chm in.
N
N
Hnh 11-2
Nam chm tc dng ln
dng in
Hnh11-3
Tc dng gia hai
dng in
Hnh 11-4
Cc bc (N), cc nam (S)
ca nam chm in
Kt lun
Qua cc th nghim trn, ngi ta kt lun: tng tc gia cc dng in cng l tng tc t.
2. nh lut Ampe (Ampre)
thun li cho vic xc nh lc t, Ampre a ra khi nim phn t dng in, gi tt
l phn t dng. Phn t dng in l mt on rt ngn ca dng in. V mt ton hc, ngi ta
r
biu din n bng mt vect I dl nm ngay trn phn t dy dn, c phng chiu l phng
chiu ca dng in, v c ln Idl (hnh 11-5a).
Ta gi s xt hai dng in hnh dng bt k, c cng ln lt l I, v I0. Trn hai dng
r
r
in , ta ly hai phn t dng bt k I. dl v I 0dl0 (hnh 4-5b) c v tr tng ng l O v M.
r
r
r
r
r
t r = OM v gi l gc gia phn t I. dl v vect r . V mt phng P cha I. dl v im
r r
C ln bng
dF =
(11-1)
Vi:
0 l mt hng s gi l hng s t, trong h n v SI n c gi tr bng:
Henry
0 = 4.10-7 H/m ( met )
(11-2)
l mt s khng th nguyn, ph thuc vo tnh cht ca mi trng bao
quanh cc phn t dng, c gi l t thm ca mi trng hay l t thm t i
ca mi trng so vi chn khng; n gin, ta gi l t thm ca mi trng.
Vi chn khng =1, vi khng kh = 1+0,03.10-6, vi nc: = 1- 0,72.10-6
V ca khng kh gn bng 1 nn trong
nhng trng hp khng yu cu chnh xc cao,
c th coi khng kh c = 1, tc l c th coi cc th
nghim v tng tc t tin hnh trong khng kh nh
l c thc hin trong chn khng.
Pht biu nh lut Ampre trn y cng c
th biu din bng biu thc sau:
r I dl ( Idl r )
dF = 0 . 0 0
,
3
Hnh 11-5
r
Tng tc gia phn t dng I. dl v
r
phn t dng I 0 dl0
(11-3)
r
Mt cch tng t, lc dF' do phn t dng
r
r
I 0dl0 tc dng ln phn t dng I. dl :
r
r
r 0 Idl ( I 0 dl0 rr' )
dF ' =
.
4
r3
(11-4)
v c ln:
dF' =
(11-5)
Hnh 11-6
Cm ng t gy bi phn t dng
ch ph thuc vo:
r
- Phn t dng in I. dl , l phn t gy ra t trng,
r
r
- Bn knh vect r v , tc l vo v tr ca im M trong t trng ca I. dl , ti
r
r
ta t phn t dng in I 0dl0 , m khng ph thuc vo phn t dng in I 0dl0 .
131
r
Vy vect dB c xc nh theo (11-6), l vect c trng v mt tc dng lc cho t
r
trng ti im M gy bi phn t dng I. dl , v c gi l vect cm ng t do phn t dng
r
I. dl gy ra ti M.
Biu thc (11-6) c gi l nh lut Biot-Xavart-Laplace, c th pht biu nh sau:
r
r
"Vect cm ng t dB do phn t dng I. dl gy ra ti im M, cch n mt khong r l
mt vect c:
- ln
dB =
0 Idl sin
.
4
r2
(11-7)
r
r
( l gc gia vect I. dl v vect r )
r
Ngi ta cng c th xc nh chiu ca vect dB bng qui tc vn nt chai nh sau:
t ci vn nt chai theo phng ca dng in, nu quay ci vn nt chai sao cho n tin
theo chiu ca dng in th chiu quay ca n s ch chiu ca vect cm ng t ti im
(hnh 11-7).
Trong h n v SI, cm ng t c tnh bng n v Tesla ( k hiu l T), s c nh
ngha sau ny, t cng thc (11-26) mc 3.
I dl
Hnh 11-7
r
Xc nh vect dB
theo qui tc vn nt chai
r
cc vect cm ng t dB do tt c cc phn t dng ca dng in gy ra ti im c xt.
Tc l:
r
r
B = dB
(Tch phn ly theo c dng in)
(11-9)
( Ca dong )
r r r
r
B = B1 + B2 +...... + Bn =
Bi
(11-10)
i =1
Ampe
(k hiu l A/m). n v ny s
met
c nh ngha mc di y (11-15).
r
r
3. Xc nh vect cm ng t B v cng t trng H
r
r
Sau y ta s xt mt vi v d tnh cm ng t B v vct H .
a. T trng ca dng in thng
Xt mt on dy dn thng AB, c dng in I chy qua (Hnh 11-8). Hy xc nh vct
r
r
cm ng t B v vct H do dng in gy ra ti mt im M nm cch dng in mt
khong a. Ta tng tng chia AB thnh nhng phn t nh, c chiu di dl.
r
r
Theo nh lut Biot-Savart-Laplace, vect cm ng t dB do phn t dng I. dl gy ra ti
r
im M c phng vung gc vi mt phng cha M v I. dl ( mt phng hnh v) v c ln:
dB =
0 Idl sin
.
4
r2
133
r
Theo nguyn l chng cht t trng, vect B do
dng in trong on mch AB gy ra ti M bng tng hp
r
cc vect dB do tt c cc phn t dng ca on AB gy ra:
r
r
(11-12)
B = dB
B
I
AB
dl
r
V trong trng hp ny, tt c cc vect dB c cng
phng chiu (vung gc vi mt phng hnh v v hng
r
r
vo), nn B cng c phng chiu nh dB v c ln:
r
B
B=
A
O Idl . sin
r2
AB 4
Hnh 11.8
xc nh vect cm ng t
ca dng in thng
a
sin
0 I
4 a
sin d
0
I(cos 1 -cos 2 )
4 a
(11-13)
0 I
2 a
(11-14)
H=
I
2a
(11-15)
v suy ra:
1 Ampe
A
=1
1met
m
b. Dng in trn
r
r
Ta hy xc nh vct B v H do dng in cng I chy trong dy dn hnh trn bn
knh R gy ra ti im M nm trn trc ca dng in, cch tm O ca dng in mt khong h
(Hnh 11-9).
Ta c nhn xt, do tnh i xng ca dng in trn, bao g cng c th chn c nhng
cp phn t dl1 v dl2 c chiu di bng nhau v nm i xng vi nhau qua tm O ca vng
r
r
r
r
trn. Do cc vect cm ng t dB1 v dB2 do hai phn t dng I . dl1 v I . dl2 gy ra ti M s
r
i xng vi nhau qua trc ca dng in. Do tng hp hai vect ny ta c 1 vect dB12 :
r
r
r
dB12 = dB1 + dB2
r
nm trn trc ca dng in, do vect B do c dng in gy ra ti M cng nm trn
trc y. Ta suy ra: cm ng t tng hp do c dng in trn gy ra ti M:
r
dB12
r
dB1
r
dB2
r
pm
trong
0 Idl sin
.
cos
4
r2
r
dBn l hnh chiu ca dB ln trc ca dng in do mt
r
phn t dng I.dl gy ra ti M, l gc gia dB vi trc ca
R
dng in. Trong , = , sin =1, cos = . Do :
r
2
2
r
I . dl1
ca dong dien
dBn =
M
r
r
S
dB
B =
r
I . dl2
Hnh 11-9
xc nh cm ng t
gy bi dng in trn
B=
. 0
I . dl o RI
.R 3 =
4 r 3
r
ca dong dien 4
dl
ca dong dien
. 0 . R . I
. 0 I
2 R=
( R 2 )
3
3
4 r
2 r
. 0 I . S
B=
2 ( R 2 + h 2 ) 3/ 2
=
r
r . 0 I . S
B =
.
2 R 3
135
c tng cho tnh cht t ca dng in trn, ngi ta a ra vect mmen t ca dng
r
in trn pm , c xc nh bi biu thc:
r
r
pm = I. S ,
(11- 16)
r
r
trong S l vec t din tch ca dng in c xc nh nh trn. Theo , pm cng
r
r
hng vi B . Khi , vect B c xc nh bi:
r
B =
. 0
r
. pm
2
2 3/ 2
2 (R + h )
(11-17)
r
r
r
Idl =jdSn. dl =noqvdSn. dl
hon v v vi dl v c th vit:
r
r
r
r
Idl = no.qdSn.dl v = no.q.dV. v = n.q v ,
trong dV=dS.dl l th tch ca phn t dng, n=nodV l s ht in trong th tch dV ca
phn t dng.
r
r
(11-18)
Tm li, ta thu c: Idl = n.q v .
T , ta tm c vect cm ng t gy bi mt ht in chuyn ng vi vn tc:
r r
r
r r
r
dB 1 0 Idl r 1 0 n.q.v r
.
Bq =
=
=
.
n n 4
n 4
r3
r3
r q.vr rr
Bq = 0 .
(11-19)
4
r3
r
r r r
Nu q> 0, vect Bq c chiu sao cho 3 vect v ,r , Bq theo th t hp thnh tam din
thun.
r
r
Nu q<o th vect Bq c chiu ngc vi Bq do in tch dng gy ra (Hnh 11-10b).
r
iu ny tng ng vi vic quay ci vn nt chai n tin theo chiu ngc vi vn tc v ,
r
chiu quay ca cn ci vn nt chai s ch chiu ca Bq .
136
r
Bq
r
Bq
r
v
r
r
r
r
r q v
q
(a)
Hnh 11-10
(b)
b) q<0
3. T THNG - NH L XTRGRATSKI-GAUSS
I VI T TRNG
1 ng cm ng t.
Ni chung, trong t trng, vect cm ng t thay i theo v tr, c mt hnh nh khi
qut nhng c th v t trng, ngi ta a ra khi nim v ng cm ng t.
nh ngha
ng cm ng t l ng cong vch ra trong t trng sao cho tip tuyn ti mi im
ca n trng vi phng ca vect cm ng t ti nhng im y, chiu ca ng cm ng t l
chiu ca vect cm ng t .
Cc ng cm ng t khng ct nhau. Khc vi ng sc in, cc ng cm ng t l
nhng ng cong kn.
a)
b)
c)
Hnh 11-11. T ph: a) ca dng in thng, b) ca dng in trn
c) ca ng dy in
(11-20)
137
Tp hp cc ng cm ng t ca mt t trng c gi l t ph. c t ph ca mt
dng in thng, ta rc vn st nh ln trn mt tm ba cng c dng in xuyn qua vung gc
vi ba. Di tc dng ca t trng do dng in gy ra, cc vn st s tr thnh nhng thanh
nam chm nh. G nh vo tm ba, cc nam chm nh s sp xp li theo phng ca vect cm
ng t v cho ta hnh nh ca t ph. T ph cho ta bit mt cch khi qut nhng cng tng i
y s bin i ca t trng t im ny qua im khc. Hnh (11-11) cho ta t ph ca mt
s dng in: thng, trn, ng dy in.
r
T trng u l t trng trong vect B c phng chiu v ln nh nhau ti mi
im trong t trng. Nh vy, theo qui c v cach v ng cm ng t, t trng u c cc
ng cm ng t song song v cch u nhau.
2. T thng
r
Ta gi s xt mt din tch rt nh dS sao cho c th coi vect cm ng t B ti mi im
ca din tch y l khng i (t trng u).
Theo nh ngha: T thng gi qua din tch dS l i lng c tr s t l vi s ng
cm ng t gi qua din tch y.
Theo qui c (11-20) v theo nh ngha ca t thng, ta c th vit biu thc t thng gi
qua din tch dS:
d m =BdSn
(11-21)
r
n
T hnh v (11-12) ta thy dSn cng chnh l hnh chiu ca
r
din tch dS ln phng vung gc vi vect B , do :
r
B
dSn dS
Hnh 11-12
nh ngha t thng
qua din tch dS
(11-22)
dSn=dS.cos
r
Gi n l vect php tuyn n v ca din tich dS, gc hp
r
r
bi hai vect B v n cng bng gc gia din tch dS v hnh chiu
r
dSn ca n ln phng vung gc vi cc ng cm t B . Kt hp
(11-21) vi (11-22) v t cc nhn xt trn, ta c th vit biu thc t
thng qua din tch dS nh sau:
r r
d m = B.dS cos = B. dS
(11-23)
Mt khc, Bn= B.cos l hnh chiu ca vect B ln phng ca php tuyn n , do cng
c th vit li (11-23) nh sau:
r r
(11-24)
d m = B.dS cos = Bn.dS = B. dS
tnh t thng qua din tch S hu hn, ta chia din tch thnh nhng phn t v cng
r
nh dS sao cho c th coi mi phn t l phng v trn , vect B khng i, khi t thng
r r
qua dS l d m = B. dS , v t thng gi qua ton b din tch S s c tnh bng tng ca cc
t thng gi qua tt c cc phn t din tch c chia t din tch S y:
r r
m = B.dS
(11-25)
(S)
138
m =
B.dS
=B
( s)
dS = B.S
(11-26)
(S)
m 1Wb
Wb
=
= 1 2 = 1Tesla (T)
2
S
1m
m
(11-26b)
r r
B
.dS =
(S)
divB.dV
(V )
(11-27)
divB.dV = 0
(V )
(11-28)
r r
Tch H . dl l mt tch v hng, v th ta c th vit
li biu thc ca lu s nh sau:
r r
H
.dl =
(C )
H .dl cos =
(C )
r r
H
.dl =
(C )
r
dl
(C)
(a)
(b)
Hnh 11-14
a) Lu s c gi tr dng
b) Lu s c gi tr m
H .dl cos = H
(C )
(C)
.dl
(C )
r
r
r
r
trong l gc hp bi hai vect H v dl , Hl l hnh chiu ca vect H ln vect dl .
Nh vy nu l gc nhn, tc l nu chiu
dch chuyn trn ng cong (C) thun vi chiu ca
cc ng sc th lu s c gi tr dng, ngc li
nu l gc t tc l chiu dch chuyn trn ng
cong (C) ngc chiu vi cc ng sc t th lu s
c gi tr m.
2. nh l Ampre v dng in ton phn
Gi s ta xt t trng gy bi mt dng in
thng di v hn c cng I.
Ta ly mt ng sc nm trong mt phng P
vung gc vi dng in v mt ng cong (C)
140
I
2r
r r
H
.dl =
(C)
dl .cos
r
(C )
H .dl .cos = 2
(C )
r r I
H
.dl = 2
(C)
(11-29)
(C)
r r I
H .dl = 2
(C)
d =I
(11-30)
(c)
d =
(1a 2 )
d =
r
r
Cn trn on 2b1 gc gia H v dl l gc l gc t, ta c:
d =
( 2 b1)
d = -
Kt qu:
r r I
H
.dl = 2 ( (1a 2) d +
(C)
( 2 b1)
d )=
I
( -) = 0
2
Cui cng ta c:
r r
H
.dl =0
(11-31)
(C)
(C )
r
r r
r
r
r
H .dl = ( H 1 + H 2 + ... + H n )dl =
(C )
I1
I2
I3
I4
k =1
(C)
r r
H .dl =
(C)
(11-32)
Hnh 11-17
Th d tnh lu s ca
vect cng t trng
k =1
r r
E
.dl = 0 , cc ng sc in trng l nhng ng cong
(C )
n
r r
H
.
dl
=
Ik ni chung l
(C)
i =1
(C)
Ch :
+ Trong tng cc dng in, khng cn ch n
nhng dng in khng xuyn qua din tch gii hn bi
ng cong kn.
+ Nu ng cong kn bao quanh dng in nhiu ln
th phi ch n du ca cng dng in i vi mi
vng dch chuyn trn ng cong .
(a)
(b)
Hnh 11-18.
ng cong bao quanh
dng in nhiu ln
Th d (Hnh 11-17) xuyn qua ng cong (C) c cc dng in: I1 = 4A, I2 = 2A, I3 = 3A,
I4 =5A.
p dng nh l Ampre ta tnh c:
r r
H .dl = 4 + 2 -3 = 3A.
(C)
142
3. ng dng nh l Ampre
nh l v dng in ton phn cho php ta tnh c
mt cch nhanh chng cng trng H v cm ng t B
ca mt s dng in.
a. Cun dy hnh xuyn
Hnh 11-19
Cun dy in hnh xuyn
nI
2R
(11-34)
b. ng dy thng di v hn
T biu thc (11-33) v (11-34) c th suy ra cng
t trng ti mi im bn trong ng dy thng di v
hn (hnh 11-20) u bng nhau v bng:
H = n0I
(11-35)
v cm ng t
B= 0 n0I
(11-36)
Hnh 11-20
ng dy in thng di v hn
r
T ta suy ra rng, nu ta t mt phn t dng in I . dl ti im M c vect cm ng
r
r
t B th phn t I . dl s chu tc dng mt t lc:
r r
r
dF = I . dl B
(11-37)
Lc ny c gi l lc Ampre, c:
ln:
dF = I. dl.B.sin
(11-38)
r
r
( l gc hp bi cc vect I . dl v B ),
r
r
phng: vung gc vi cc vect I . dl v B ,
r
r
r
chiu: tun theo qui tc nhn c hng hai vect I . dl v B : Vect dF c chiu sao
r r r
cho 3 vect I . dl , B , dF theo th t hp thnh tam din thun.
xc nh chiu ca lc Ampre ngi ta cn dng qui tc bn tay tri nh sau: t bn
tay tri sao cho cc ng sc t xuyn vo lng bn tay, dng in i t c tay n u cc
ngn tay, th chiu ca ngn tay ci choi ra ch chiu ca t lc.
2. Tng tc gia hai dng in thng song song di v hn
Cho hai dng in thng song song di v hn nm cch nhau
mt khong d, c cng ln lt l I1, I2. Dng in I1 gy ra
mt t trng. Theo cng thc (11-14), ti v tr t dng I2 vect
cm ng t do I1 gy ra c ln bng:
B1 =
0
I1 ,
2d
I2
I1
r
F2
r
B1
F2 =
o
I1 I 2l
2d
(11-39)
T c nh ngha:
Ampre l cng ca mt dng in khng i theo thi gian, khi chy qua hai dy
dn thng song song, di v hn, c tit din nh khng ng k, t trong chn khng cch nhau
1mt, th gy trn mi mt di ca mi dy dn mt lc bng 2.10-7 Newton.
3. Tc dng ca t trng u ln mch in kn
Xt mt khung dy dn kn hnh ch nht ABCD c cc cnh l a v b. Dng in chy
r
trong khung c cng I. Khung c t trong t trng u B c phng vung gc vi
cc cnh AB,CD. Gi s khung rt cng v ch c th quay xung quanh trc i xng ca n.
r
Ban u, mt khung khng vung gc vi t trng, vect mmen t ca n hp vi vect B
mt gc .
Nh qui tc bn tay tri ta xc nh c:
Cc t lc tc dng ln hai cnh AD v BC trit tiu nhau.
r
r
T lc F tc dng ln cnh thng ng AB hng v pha trc, cn lc F' tc dng
ln cnh thng ng CD hng ra pha sau. Hai lc ny lun vung gc vi cc cnh
r
AB, CD v vi vect B , hp vi cc cnh AD, BC mt gc , c ln: F=F=IaB.
r
Cc lc ny to thnh mt ngu lc c mmen M , c tc
dng lm khung quay xung quanh trc cho n khi = 0, lc
r
r
mt khung vung gc vi B , vect mmen t Pm ca dng
r
in cng phng chiu vi vect B .
xt tc dng ca cc lc ny, trn hnh (11-22b) ta ghp
u A ca cnh AD vi u B ca cnh BC, u C ca cnh BC
vi u D ca cnh AD. R rng l d = b.sin, l khong cch
gia hai lc. Mmen ngu lc i vi trc quay c ln
bng: M= F.d .
(a)
Nh vy,
M=F.b.sin=I.a.B.b.sin=I.S.B.sin
=pm.B.sin.
trong , pm=I.S l ln ca vect mmen t ca khung
r
dy. Vect mmen ngu lc M c phng vung gc vi hai
r r
vect B , p m , c chiu hng ln trn. Do , ta c th vit:
r
r r
M = pm B
(11-40)
Khi khung quay mt gc d, mmen ngu lc thc hin
mt cng:
dA=-Md=-pmB.sind (11-41)
(b)
Hnh 11-22
T trng tc dng ln
khung dy in kn
lm cho gc tng (d>0) th ngu lc t sinh cng cn (dA< 0). Nh vy, cng ca mmen
ngu lc thc hin khi lm cho khung trng thi ng vi gc lch v v tr cn bng (=0) l:
0
= pmB(1-cos)
(11-42)
Theo nh lut bo ton v chuyn ho nng lng, cng ny bng gim nng lng (th
nng) ca khung dy in trong t trng:
Wm - Wmo=-(pmB.cos) (- pmB.cos0).
Ta suy ra nng lng ca khung dy in ng vi gc l:
r r
Wm = -pm.B.cos =- p m .B
(11-43)
m2
(1)
m1
A= Id m = I
d m = I ( m2 - m1 )
Cng ca t lc trong s dch chuyn mt mch in bt k trong t trng bng tch gia
cng dng in trong mch v bin thin ca t thng qua din tch ca mch in .
6 TC DNG CA T TRNG LN
HT IN CHUYN NG
1. Lc Lorentz
r r
r
r
mi ht in. Thay th Idl bng nq v ta s c lc Ampre tc dng ln n ht in chuyn
r
v trong t trng bng:
r
FL
r
r
dF = nqv B ,
v lc Ampre tc dng ln mt ht in:
r dFr
FL =
.
n
Ta c:
r
r r
FL = q v B
r
B
q+
r
v
(11-45)
r
Lc FL tc dng ln mi ht in chuyn ng trong
q-
r
FL
r
B
r
v
(b)
(a)
t trng c gi l lc Lorentz.
r
r r
ln, phng, chiu ca lc FL c xc nh theo tch c hng ca hai vect v v B
r
nu q> 0. Nu ht in mang in m (q< 0) th chiu ca FL ly ngcli vi trng hp q>0
(xem hnh 11-24).
Theo (11-45) lc Lorentz vung gc vi vn tc chuyn ng ca ht nn cng thc hin
bi lc ny lun bng khng.
2. Chuyn ng ca ht in trong t trng u
mv 2
R
(11-46)
r
r
r
r
V vn tc v ca ht vung gc vi cm ng t B nn lc Lorentz lm cho ht chuyn
r
ng trong mt phng vung gc vi vect cm ng t B , c qu o trn (hnh 11-25) bn knh
a. Vn tc v ca ht vung gc vi cm ng t B
mv 2
FL = qvB=
,
R
mv
R=
qB
Chu k quay ca ht:
2R 2m
=
T=
v
qB
V tn s quay:
2 qB
=
=
T
m
r
v
r
B
(11-47)
r
v
r
B
Hnh 11.25
(a)
(11-48)
(b)
(11-49)
Cc biu thc (11-48), (11-49) chng t chu k v tn s quay (T, ) khng ph thuc vo
bn knh R v vn tc v ca ht.
r
r
r
r
gc vi B v thnh phn v // song song vi vect B :
r r r
v = v + v //
(11-50)
Trong trng hp ny, c th phn tch vect v thnh hai thnh phn: thnh phn v vung
R=
mv
qB
(11-51)
(11-52)
Hnh 11-26
Chuyn ng ca ht in trong t trng,
trng hp
r
r
v hp vi B mt gc
r
v
r
v
r
B'
r
B
a)
r
B'
r
B'
r
B
r
B
b)
Hnh 12-1
Th nghim Faraday v cm ng in t
148
Trong hnh (12-1a), do t thng qua vng dy tng, dng cm ng Ic gy ra t trng B ' ngc
r
chiu vi B chng li s tng t thng qua vng dy.
r
r
Trong hnh (12-1b), dng cm ng Ic gy ra B ' cng chiu vi B chng li s gim
ca t thng qua vng dy.
3. nh lut c bn ca hin tng cm ng in t
a. Sut in ng cm ng
S xut hin ca dng in cm ng chng t trong mch tn ti mt sut in ng. Sut
in ng gy ra dng in cm ng c gi l sut in ng cm ng.
b. nh lut c bn ca hin tng cm ng in t
Ta gi s dch chuyn mt vng dy dn kn (C) trong t
trng. Khi t thng qua vng dy thay i. Gi s trong thi
gian dt t thng qua vng dy thay i mt lng d m v trong
vng dy xut hin dng in cm ng cng Ic. Cng ca t
lc tc dng ln dng in cm ng trong qu trnh l:
dA = Ic. d m
y s dch chuyn ca vng dy l nguyn nhn gy ra
dng cm ng, do cng ca t lc tc dng ln dng cm
ng l cng cn. V vy, dch chuyn vng dy, cn phi c
ngoi lc thc hin mt cng dA c tr s bng nhng ngc
du vi cng cn :
Hnh 12-2
Vng dy dn
dch chuyn trong t trng
dA = - dA = - Ic. d m
Theo nh lut bo ton nng lng, cng dA c chuyn thnh nng lng ca dng
in cm ng c .Ic.dt, trong c l sut in ng cm ng, nn ta c:
c .Ic.dt = - Ic. d m
149
c = -
d m
dt
(12-1)
c = == m
dt
t
t
Khi , ta suy ra:
m = c . t
Nu t = 1giy, c = 1vn, th m = 1vn. 1giy =1vbe (Wb).
T ta c nh ngha vbe nh sau:
Vbe l t thng gy ra trn 1 vng dy dn bao quanh n mt sut in ng cm ng 1
vn khi t thng gim u xung khng trong thi gian 1 giy.
Trong thc t, hin tng cm ng in t c ng dng to ra dng in, c nh
hng rt quan trng trong i sng v khoa hc k thut.
d. Dng in Fu-c (Foucault)
Khi ta t mt vt dn c kch thc ln vo trong mt t trng bin i theo thi gian,
trong th tch ca vt dn cng xut hin dng in cm ng khp kn, gi l dng in xoy
hay dng in Foucault. V vt dn c kch thc ln nn in tr ca n nh, do cng
ca cc dng in Foucault thng kh ln. T trng bin i cng nhanh, dng in ny cng
ln. V vy, dng in Foucault c vai tr quan trng trong k thut.
Trong cc my bin th v ng c in..., li st ca chng thng chu tc dng ca t
trng bin i, lm xut hin trong chng cc dng in Foucault. Cc dng in ny lm cho
my mau b nng ln, mt phn nng lng b hao ph v ch, hiu sut ca my b gim, tui th
ca my gim nhanh.
gim tc hi ny, ngi ta khng dng c khi st ln m dng nhiu l st mng sn
cch in ghp li vi nhau sao cho cc l st ct song song vi cc ng sc t, tc l vung
gc vi cc dng in xoy. Nh vy, dng in xoy ch chy c trong tng l st mng,
cng dng in xoy gim nhiu so vi dng in xoy trong khi st ln. Nh gim
ng k nng lng hao ph v ch, tng hiu sut v tui th ca my.
Dng in xoy cng c nhng ng dng c ch nh dng trong l in cm ng nu
chy kim loi, dng rt ngn thi gian dao ng ca kim trong cc my o v.v...
150
2. HIN TNG T CM
1. Hin tng t cm
Xt mt mch in nh hnh v (12-3), gm mt ng dy
c li st v mt in k mc song song vi n, c hai li mc
ni tip vi mt ngun in mt chiu v mt ngt in k .
Gi s ban u mch in ng kn, kim ca in k
nm mt v tr "a" no . Nu ngt mch in, ta thy kim
in k lch v qu s khng ri mi quay tr li s khng
(h.12-3b). Nu ng mch in, ta thy kim in k vt ln qu
v tr a lc ny, ri mi quay tr li v tr a (Hnh 12-3c).
Hin tng c gii thch nh sau:
Hnh 12-3
Khi ngt mch, ngun in ngng cung cp nng lng
Th nghim v
cho mch. V vy, dng in do ngun cung cp gim ngay v
hin tng t cm
khng. Nhng s gim ny li gy ra s gim t thng qua cun
dy. Kt qu l trong cun dy xut hin mt dng in cm ng
cng chiu vi dng in ban u chng li s gim ca dng in ny. V kho k ngt, dng
in cm ng khng th i qua k, n chy qua in k theo chiu t B sang A (ngc chiu vi
dng in lc u). Do kim in k quay ngc pha lc u, sau khi dng cm ng tt,
kim in k mi v s khng.
m = L.I
(12-2)
tc = -
d ( L. I )
dt
(12-3)
dI
dt
(12-4)
m
I
(12-5)
1H=
m
I
1.Wb
Wb
=1
.
A
1A
d. H s t cm ca ng dy in thng di v hn
Khi c dng in cng I chy trong cc vng dy dn, mi im bn trong ng dy c
vc t cm ng t bng nhau v bng:
B = 0 n0 I = 0
n
I,
l
m = nBS = 0
n2 S
I
l
Vy h s t cm ca ng dy l:
n2 S
= 0
L=
I
l
(12-6)
Hin tng t cm thng xut hin khi ngt cc cng tc in, c bit l khi ngt cc cu
dao in. Khi ta thy c tia la in xut hin cc cu dao in. l do khi ngt mch
in, dng in gim t ngt v gi tr khng, do trong cc cun dy ca my in xut hin
dng in t cm kh ln. Dng in ny phng qua lp khng kh gia hai cc ca cu dao in
gy nn tia la in. Hin tng ny lm hng cu dao v c th gy nguy him cho h thng
in, do ngi ta t cu dao trong du hoc dng kh pht mnh... dp tt cc tia ny.
3. Hiu ng b mt (skin-effect)
Hin tng t cm cng xy ra ngay trong lng mt dy dn c dng in bin i theo
thi gian. Sau y ta xt hin tng ny.
Gi s dng in i t di ln v ang tng (hnh 12-4), n gy ra trong lng dy dn mt
t trng c ng cm ng t nh hnh v 12-4a (ng c phn t nt).
T trng ny gi qua cc tit din cha trc i xng ca dy (hnh ch nht gch cho)
mt t thng ang tng. V vy trong cc tit din xut hin dng in t cm khp kn c
chiu tun theo nh lut Lentz (ng lin nt c mi tn). Ta nhn thy, gn trc dy dn,
dng in t cm ngc chiu vi dng in bin thin; cn gn b mt dy dn, dng t cm
cng chiu vi dng in bin thin trong dy dn.
Nh vy, khi dng in trong dy dn tng,
dng t cm gp phn lm cho dng in gn
trc dy dn tng chm li nhng lm cho dng
in gn b mt dy dn tng nhanh hn.
Ni cch khc, khi dng t cm chng li
s tng ca dng in gn trc dy dn v tng
cng s tng ca dng in b mt dy dn.
Khi dng in trong dy dn gim, dng t
cm c chiu ngc li (hnh 12-4b). N ngc vi
chiu dng in bin thin gn b mt dy dn,
do lm cho phn dng in ny gim nhanh hn;
tri li, n cng chiu vi phn dng in bin thin gn trc ca dy dn, do lm cho phn
dng in ny gim t hn.
Tm li, khi tng cng nh khi gim, dng in bin thin trong dy dn gy ra dng t
cm c tc dng chng li s bin thin ca phn dng in gn trc ca dy dn, nhng tng
cng phn dng in gn b mt ca dy dn. Tn s dng in cng cao (dng in bin i
cng nhanh), tc dng ca dng t cm trong dy cng mnh, phn dng in chy trong rut ca
dy dn cng gim.
Khi tn s ca dng in kh cao, phn dng in chy trong rut ca dy dn hu nh b
trit tiu, dng in cao tn ch chy b mt rt mng ca dy dn. Hin tng ny c gi l
hiu ng b mt (skin-effect).
L thuyt v thc nghim chng t: vi dng in c tn s f= 1000Hz, dng in ch chy
lp b mt dy 2mm, cn khi f= 100.000Hz, dng in ch chy lp b mt 0,2mm. V l do
, khi dng dng in cao tn, ngi ta lm cc dy dn rng tit kim kim loi. tng
dn in ca b mt, ngi ta m mt lp kim loi dn in tt nh bc, vng tu theo mc ch
s dng. Trong c kh, ngi ta ng dng hiu ng b mt ti cng b mt kim loi cc chi
tit my (nh: trc bnh xe, bnh rng khav.v..) nhng vn gi do cn thit bn trong.
3. HIN TNG H CM
1. Hin tng
Gi s c hai mch in kn (C1 ) v (C2 ) t cnh nhau, trong c cc dng in I1, I2
hnh (12-5).
Nu dng in I1 chy trong mch C1 thay i th t thng do dng in ny gi qua mch C2
s bin i, gy ra trong C2 mt S cm ng. Dng cm ng ny lm cho dng in trong C2
bin i, v t thng do n gi qua C1 s bin i, lm xut hin S cm ng trong C1.
Kt qu l, trong c hai mch s xut hin dng
in cm ng. Ngi ta gi hin tng ny l hin
tng h cm, v cc dng in cm ng c gi
l dng in h cm.
2. Sut in ng h cm, h s h cm
a. nh ngha
Hnh 12-5
Hin tng h cm gia hai mch in
Sut in ng gy ra dng in h cm c
gi l sut in ng h cm.
m12 = M12.I1
154
(12-7)
m21 = M21.I2
(12-8)
(12-9)
hc2 = -
d m12
dI
=-M 1
dt
dt
(12-10)
hc1 = -
dI
d m 21
=-M 2
dt
dt
(12-11)
v trong (C1 ) l:
Wm = I
I
k
+
E
Hnh 12-6
S xut hin nng lng t
trng trong cun dy
L.I.dI
=
1 2
LI
2
(12-12)
n
Ta bit cm ng t B trong ng dy l: B = 0 . I . Nh vy, mt nng lng t
l
2
1 B
trng bng:
m = .
(12-13)
2 0
Ngi ta chng minh c rng cng thc (12-13) ng i vi t trng bt k. V vy,
tnh nng lng ca mt t trng bt k, ta chia khng gian ca t trng rthnh nhng
phn th tch v cng nh dV, sao cho trong th tch y ta c th coi cm ng t B khng i.
Nh vy, nng lng t trng trong th tch dV l:
1 B2
dWm = m dV = .
dV.
2 0
Do nnglng ca mt t trng bt k chim th tch V, bng:
Wm =
dW
m
( V)
1
=
2
B2
dV
( V ) 0
(12-14)
trong tch phn c thc hn cho ton b khng gian trong th tch V ca t trng.
r
r
rr r
rr r
B
V H =
, BB = B 2 = B2, HH = H 2 =H2 nn c th vit (12-14) di dng:
0
1
Wm=
2
156
r r
1
B
.HdV =
2
( V)
r
B2
1
dV = 2
(V) 0
r2
H
dV
0
(V)
(12-15)
r r
qE .dl
(13-1)
(C)
r
Gi s ta xt mt vng dy kn (C) nm trong t trng B ang bin i theo thi gian
(hnh13-2).
r
Theo nh lut c bn ca hin tng cm ng in t, sut
dS
r
r
in
ng
cm ng xut hin trong vng dy l:
B
n
r r
m
= - ( B
.dS ) ,
t
t( S )
=-
dl
trong m =
r
E
(C)
Hnh 13-2
thit lp phng trnh
Maxwell-Faraday
r r
B.dS
(13-2)
(S )
hn bi vng dy dn kn (C).
Ni chung, t trng c th bin i theo thi gian v theo
r r
khng gian, tc l B = B (x,y,z,t).
dB
bng o hm ring theo thi gian
.
t
dt
Theo nh ngha v sut in ng, ta c:
r r
c = E . dl
(13-3)
(C)
r
r
trong E l vect cng in trng xoy trn on dch chuyn dl . So snh (13-2)
vi (13-3) ta c:
r r
E
.dl = -
(C)
r r
( B .dS )
t( S )
(13-4)
(C)
158
( S)
(13-5)
Mt khc, ta c th vit:
r
B r
r r
( B .dS ) = ( ).dS
t( S )
t
(s)
(13-6)
r
B
rotE = -
(13-7)
Hnh 13.3
Dng in xoay chiu trong mch kn
2. Mt dng in dch
V bn cht, dng in dch khng phi l dng chuyn di c hng ca cc in tch, n
c gi l dng in ch v n tng ng vi dng in dn v mt gy ra t trng. V vy
n phi c phng chiu v ln hp l.
I
+
I
r
H
trong
t
in
vct
D
r
r
J d , D
hng t bn dng sang bn m v ang gim,
r
r
vct D ngc chiu vi vct D , nhng cng
r
chiu vi dng phng in, tc cng chiu vi
D
S
dng in dn qua cun cm L. Cn khi in tch
trn t tng (hnh 13-5), in tch trn hai bn ca
I
r
t
tng,
vct
D
trong t tng, dng in dn
Hnh 13-4: Dng dch ni tip dng in dn
r
chy qua t v D trong t cng chiu vi nhau
trong mch kn khi t phng in
r
v cng chiu vi D .
r
Trong c hai trng hp, ta u thy vct D v dng in dn trn dy dn cng
chiu vi nhau.
S
r
H
Ta cng bit rng trong mch in ni tip, cng dng in qua mi tit din ca dy
phi bng nhau. Do Maxwell cho rng: dng in dch chy qua ton b khng gian gia hai
bn ca t in cng chiu vi dng in dn trong mch, v c cng bng cng ca
dng in dn trong mch .
r
H
S
r
H
I=
r
r
J d , D
r
D
Hnh 13-5
Dng dch ni tip dng in dn
trong mch kn khi t np in
T , ta c:
160
dq
= Id
dt
D
=S
.
t
t
Vy, ta c:
Id= S
D
.
t
Jd =
Id
D
=
t
S
(13-8)
T lp lun trn, v dng in dn trong mch v dng in dch trong t cng chiu, nn
r
vct mt dng in dch J d bng:
r
r
D
Jd =
(13-9)
t
Vy: Vct mt dng in dch bng tc bin thin theo thi gian ca vct cm
ng in.
M rng cho trng hp mt in trng bt k bin i theo thi gian, Maxwell i ti gi
thuyt tng qut sau y:
Xt v phng din sinh ra t trng, th bt k in trng no bin i theo thi gian
cng ging nh mt dng in, gi l dng in dch, c vct mt dng bng:
r
r
r
D
Jd =
, trong D l vct cm ng in ti im c xt.
t
Phng chiu ca t trng do dng in dch gy ra cng c xc nh theo qui tc vn
nt chai nh t trng ca dng in dn, v cng dng in dch qua din tch S bt k:
Id=
r r
J ddS
( S)
Trong
r chng in mi ta bit
r vect in cm D lin h vi vect cng in
trng E v vect phn cc in mi Pe theo biu thc:
r
r r
D = o E + Pe
(13-10)
r
r
E
Trong chn khng, Pe = 0 , do mt dng in dch trong chn khng l: J d = o
.
t
iu ny c ngha l dng in dch tn ti ngay c trong chn khng, khng c bt k s
dch chuyn no ca in tch. V bn cht, n ch l in trng bin thin theo thi gian.
Trong cht in mi, mt dng in dch gm hai thnh phn:
r
r
E
l dng in dch trong chn khng, khng lin quan n bt k s dch
J d = o
t
chuyn no ca ht in.
161
r
Pe
(S )
(S )
r
r
rotH = J +
r
D
.
t
(13-14)
3. TRNG IN T V
H CC PHNG TRNH MAXWELL
1. Trng in t
Theo hai lun im ca Maxwell, t trng bin i theo thi gian gy ra in trng, v
ngc li in trng bin i theo thi gian th gy ra t trng. Nh vy, trong khng gian,
162
= e +m =
1
1 r r r r
( 0 . . E 2 + 0 . . H 2 ) = ( E . D + B. H )
2
2
(13-15)
.dV =
( V)
1
2
( 0E 2 + 0H 2 ) dV =
(V )
1
2
r r r r
( E . D + B. H ). dV
(13-16)
(V )
Tch phn phi thc hin i vi ton b th tch V ca khong khng gian c trng in t.
2. H cc phng trnh Maxwell
m t trng in t, Maxwell nu ra h cc phng trnh c bn sau y, gi l h
cc phng trnh Maxwell v trng in t. H gm cc phng trnh c thnh lp trong
cc phn trc y v phn trc ca chng ny.
a. Phng trnh Maxwell -Faraday
L cc phng trnh din t nh lng lun im th nht ca Maxwell: Mi bin i ca
t trng theo thi gian u lm xut hin mt in trng xoy.
Dng tch phn
r r
E .dl = -
(C)
r
B r
.dS
t
(13-17)
Dng vi phn
r
r
B
rotE = t
(13-18)
(S )
r
r
r
D
rotH = J +
t
(13-20)
163
c. nh l xtrgrtxki-Gauss i vi in trng
nh l ny din t tnh cht khng khp kn ca cc ng sc in trng tnh. Cc
ng sc in trng tnh l nhng ng cong khng kn, lun xut pht t cc in tch dng
v tn cng trn cc in tch m; N chng t rng in trng tnh l trng c ngun.
r r
Dng tch phn
(13-21)
D. dS = q
S
Dng vi phn
r
div D =
(13-22)
d. nh l Oxtrogratxki-Gauss i vi t trng
nh l ny din t tnh khp kn ca cc ng sc t, cc ng sc t khng c im
xut pht v khng c im tn cng, chng t trong thin nhin khng tn ti nhng t tch
hay: t trng khng c im ngun.
r r
B
(13-23)
Dng tch phn
.dS = 0
S
Dng vi phn
r
div B = 0
(13-24)
4. SNG IN T
Trong mc ny ta s p dng cc lun im Maxwell v h cc phng trnh Maxwell tm
hiu s b mt hin tng quan trng: sng in t.
1. S to thnh sng in t
Vo nhng nm 1887-1889, Hertz kim tra v xc nhn bng thc nghim l thuyt in
t ca Maxwell.
Hertz dng mt ngun in xoay chiu cao tn ni qua
hai ng dy t cm n hai thanh kim loi hai u c gn
hai qu cu kim loi A v B (hnh 13-6). iu chnh khong
cch AB c hin tng phng in qua AB. Nh vy gia
A v B xut hin mt in trng bin thin theo thi
gian. Dng cc thit b o in trng v t trng, Hertz
xc nhn rng mi im xung quanh A v B c c in
trng v t trng bin thin theo thi gian, lan truyn
trong khng gian. Vy th nghim Hertz chng t in t
trng bin thin theo thi gian c truyn i trong
khng gian.
Qu trnh ny c gii thch da vo hai lun im
ca Maxwell.
~
Hnh 13-6
M hnh th nghim
ca Hertz
r
r
B
rotE =t
(13-25)
165
r
divB = 0
(13-26)
r
r
D
rotH =
t
r
divD = 0
r
r
D = o E ,
(13-27)
r
r
B = o H
(13-28)
(13-29)
r r r r
tm phng trnh sng in t, trc ht ta ch l cc vect E , D , B , H bin thin thi
gian, do o hm cc vect ny theo thi gian phi khc khng. Ly rot hai v ca (13-25)
ta c:
r
r
B
r
) = - ( rotB )
rot( rotE ) = - rot(
t
t
r
r
r
2
Theo gii tch vect, ta c: rot( rotE ) = (div E )- E
r
divE = 0 nn (13-31) tr thnh:
Nhng theo (13-28) th
r
r
rot( rotE ) = - 2E
(13-30)
(13-31)
(13-32)
Kt hp (13-30) v (13-32) ta c:
r
( rotB ) =
t
r
E
(13-33)
T (13-27) v (13-29) ta c:
r
r
2
2
r
r
D
E
( rotB ) = ( 0 rotH ) = 0 ( rotH ) = 0 2 = oo 2
t
t
t
t
t
Thay kt qu ny vo (13-33) ta c:
r
2
r
E
E - oo 2 = 0.
t
v 2=
1
0 0
(13-34)
(13-35)
Thay gi tr ny vo (13-34) ta c:
r 1
2
E - 2
v
r
E
2 = 0.
t
(13-36)
166
r 1
B - 2
v
r
B
= 0.
t2
(13-36)
(13-37)
trong , c =1/oo 3.108 m/s l vn tc ca nh sng trong chn khng. Trong chn
khng, = 1, =1, v=c. Vy trong chn khng, sng in t truyn vi vn tc bng vn tc ca
nh sng trong chn khng. Maxwell nghin cu mi lin h gia sng in t v nh sng,
ng cho rng nh sng l mt loi sng in t v xy dng nn thuyt in t nh sng.
t
c
n
(13-38)
r r
r r
r r
r
H , E v, H v .
r r
c
ta c:
n
cT o
=
n
n
Bc sng (m)
Sng
Bc sng (m)
Tia gama
10-12 10-10
4,4.10-7 7,810-7
Tia rnghen
10-10 10-8
7,8.10-7 10 -3
167
Tia t ngoi
168
10-9
10-7
Sng radio
10-3 tr ln
PH LC
CC K HIU THNG DNG
Th t
168
Tn i lng
K hiu
Chng
5, 6
7
p sut
Cm ng in
r
D, D
Cm ng t
r
B, B
11, 12, 13
3, 4, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12
Cng sut
3, 4
Cng in trng
E,
Cng t trng
H,
Cng in trng l
E*,
E*,
10
Cng dng in
11
Chu k quay
r
E
r
H
r
E*
r
E*
7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13
11, 12, 13
10
12, 13
I, i
10, 11
1
7, 8, 9, 10, 11
12
Din tch
r
S, S
13
in dung
14
in th
V,
15
in tch, in lng
Q, q
7, 8, 9, 10, 11
16
in thng
17
in tr
R, r
10
18
ng lng
r
K, K
19
ng nng
3, 11
20
Gia tc
1, 2, 3, 4
21
Gia tc gc
1, 4
22
H s h cm
12
23
H s t cm
12
24
Hiu sut
Th t
Tn i lng
K hiu
Chng
M, m
r
F, F
2, 3, 4
2, 3, 4, 7, 10, 11
25
Hiu in th
26
Khi lng
27
Lc
28
Mt in tch di
29
Mt in tch mt
30
Mt in tch khi
r
J, J
10
31
Mt dng n
32
33
12
34
Mmen lc
35
36
Mmen t
37
Mmen ngu lc
38
Mmen ng lng
39
r
M, M
4, 11
r
pm, p m
11
r
M
7, 11
Mmen lng cc in
r
L, L
r
r
p e , Pe
7, 9, 11
40
Wm
11, 12, 13
41
We
8, 12, 13
42
Nng lng
3, 8, 11, 13
43
Nhit lng
44
Nhit tuyt i
5, 6
45
Ni nng
5, 6
46
s, l
1, 3, 4, 11
47
Sut in ng
10
48
Sut in ng cm ng
12
49
Sut in ng h cm
hc
12
50
S bc t do
5, 6
51
Tn s
52
Th nng
Wt
53
Th tch
5, 6, 7, 10, 12
169
Th t
Tn i lng
K hiu
Chng
54
Thi gian
1, 2, 3, 4
55
T thng
11, 12, 13
56
Vn tc gc
1, 4
170
Tn hng s
K hiu
Tr s
Gia tc ri t do
9,8m/s2
Hng s hp dn
No
6,025.1026kmol
VO
22,4m3/kmol
Hng s cc kh
8,31.103J/kmol.K
Hng s Bolzman
1,38.10 -23J/K
in tch electron
1,602.10 -19C
me
9,11.10-31kg
Hng s in mi
8,86.10-12F/m
10
Hng s t
1,257.10-6H/m =4.10-7H/m
11
3.108m/s
12
mp
1,67.10-27kg
171
Mc lc
MC LC
Th t
1
Ni dung
Chng I. ng hc cht im
1. S chuyn ng ca mt vt
2. Vn tc
3. Gia tc
4. Mt s dng chuyn ng
12
19
1. Cc nh lut Newton
19
2. Cc lc lin kt
22
3. Cc nh l v ng lng
26
28
5. nh lut hp dn v tr
30
33
38
38
2. Nng lng
40
3. ng nng
41
4. Trng lc th
43
5. Th d v trng lc th
45
6. Va chm gia cc vt
49
51
172
Trang
52
54
1. Chuyn ng ca h cht im
54
57
Mc lc
Th t
10
Ni dung
Trang
58
64
68
70
1. Cc khi nim c bn
70
71
74
1. Cc khi nim c bn
74
75
76
80
80
2. in trng
83
3. Lng cc in
86
4. in thng
88
5. nh l O-G
91
6. Cng ca lc tnh in - in th
95
98
Chng VIII. Vt dn
102
1. Vt dn cn bng tnh in
102
104
Chng IX. in mi
109
109
2. in trng trong in mi
112
113
4. in mi c bit
114
117
1. Bn cht ca dng in
117
118
173
Mc lc
Th t
11
12
13
14
Ni dung
3. nh lut Ohm vi on mch thun tr
120
4. Sut in ng
121
5. nh lut Kirchhoff
125
127
127
130
3. T thng-nh l O-G
136
139
142
146
148
148
2. Hin tng t cm
151
3. Hin tng h cm
154
155
157
157
159
162
4. Sng in t
165
168
174
Trang
170
171