2. The work of internal forces—strain energy ‘R. Hook realized that, if material or a structure isto resist Toad, it cam only do so by poshing back ati with qual and opposite 2.1 Definition of internal forces With the exception of calculating the strain energy of linear springs, we have not yet discussed the work of the internal forces of an elastic structure; this will be done in detail in what follows. We start with some definitions and sign conventions for a ‘one-dimensional continuous elastic body. Internal forces are the reultants of internal stresses which are decomposed into a ‘component normal to the cross-section, termed normal force, and another tangential to the cross-section, termed shear force. In addition, we have stress couples which are termed bending moment. Inthe case of space structures, we could have another kind of internal fore, namely torsional moments. Thus, in Fig. 21 the internal fores, ic normal force N, shear force Q and bending moment M of straight beam due to loading P are represented. In Fig. 2-1 toe, the definition ofa positive internal fore on both sides ofan element dx is shown. Tt should be noted in pasting that internal forces are double-action forces and thus C/L, on the ‘other hand, any perturbation will make the system depart from the vertical unbuckled state with no return. The self-explanatory ball analogy'° to this siuation is shown in Fig. 36. Note, however, that Fig. 3.6a suggests asymptotic stability, ahilein the absence ‘of damping, our model is only orbitally stable (for more details of the dif and definitions of stability, see Sec. 12.1.5). Ne ON (0) Sable equiom (&) Uneabie squirm Figure 16. tricty speaking, as stable only in he presence of damping wil (b)isan unstable {adsl pat with or without damping[THE WORK EQUATION 47 3.4 The order of magnitude of the work done by different internal 46 _sTRES, STARILITY AND CHAOS IN STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING 3.34 Deflections of a beam using an assumed deflection shape In the preceding example of a beam loaded by a mid-point load (Fig. 3.2) we calculated the strain energy via the bending moment and did not resort to the expression = [inn as Because w is unknown and we would like to determine 6 = wleeyia in one equation, = Why = Way We Would have w and w” as unknowns; that means et was SP wlenuse and consequently EIth eas ‘The following trick, however, could overcome this difficulty. It is true that we do not know the exact shape of w but we intuitively have a reasonably good idea about what it would look like, Ta other words, we could assume a shape w which looks as close as possible to the expected one. Such an assumed shape which is termed a trial or test function could be a second-order parabola or even simply a half sine wave. The only problem is to adapt this wave to the boundary conditions of the problem, namely that Wwaw" = Ofor x= Oand x= Land w= 6 for x = 1/2, Such a half sine wave, as easly checked, is w= bsin* x Inserting this inthe work equation, we ind BL (oan Flt PE Pe (PEI 87H which means We see that an engineering estimation has led us to a short and practically exact solution, The method of trial (or test) function will be treated in detail later on in connection with the Rayleigh-Ritz'”** procedure and the Galerkin method,'®7° ie. in connection with the so-called direct method of the calculus of variations*-*> (see ‘Chapter 7). In this form, the work equation can be used for structures loaded with several singular or distributed loads. forces—energy due to shear forces ‘As can be seen from Fig. 3.7, deflection of the central axis can te due not only to bending but also to shear deformation. However, in developing the elastic chain and ‘the subsequent derivation of the expression for the strain energy, we have not so far ‘mentioned the shear forees nor made any allowance for shear flexibility in our model ‘One may, therefore, presume that the shear deformation is a very small quantity and that it was ignored for practical reasons. We would like to give a justification for this previous omission and examine in this connection the order of magnitude of the work done by the diferent internal forces. To explain this point, consider the simple cantilever shown in Fig. 38 loaded by a lateral force P and an axial force Hat the free end. yt (@) Defetion dew bending of cour ass by (b)Denevon due w shear deformation 5, Figure 37 Figure 38 ‘Siar ey mig have Un dry noted in he famous olpsfthe Que Bridge in Canada ‘in 1907 (see Rel. 15, p. 137, as well as Ref. 266). "= -|48._ STRESS, STABILITY AND CHAOS IN STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING “The cross-section and the modulus of elasticity are assumed to be constant along the entire length of the cantilever. The internal forces are NaH, M=Px and Q=P ‘The eigenwork of the internal forces WE Yas 2) \ga* er * Gax etl (ae 2} eA ‘The first (wo terms of this expression represent the strain energy of stretching (normal force strain energy) and the strain energy of bending (bending moment strain energy) ‘which are familiar from the previous derivation. The only new expression is that of the strain energy of shear deformation, ic. the strain energy due to shear forces. The ‘expression is given here without derivation, but its meaning is easily explained.!*'* We see that it is analogous to that of moment and normal force strain energy since the shear force is squared and divided by the shear flexibility Gx, where G is the modulus of shear and x = I/a is a cross-section shape factor. For a rectangular section, it can be shown that x ~ 1/1.2 ~ 0.8333. The derivation of the expression for shear strait ‘energy could be obtained in a very similar manner to that of normal force and moment using our discrete chain model. We only need to allow for shear deformation using a third shear spring to connect the rigid element of the chain, and it is left to the reader to construct such a model and to derive the expression. Now, the relationship between the material constants is given by the well-known equation®!° i 20+») and taking v = 0.3 the eigenwork expression becomes AL (1A, E BE 4! vs) —W is thus naga PET a 1” * Ge, 1PL(H? | 4D pa Cee ia (eee") Wy + Mt Wo where his the height of the cross-section, Let us first compare W with Wy. Taking a typical beam with L/h= 15, we find that Wo __ 3.12 We GUS = 0.00347 = 0.03% rue wore eouarion 49 We is therefore negligibly small compared to Wy. However, we should note that this isnot always the case. For an I-beam with trong flanges and very thin web the factor arcan become up to ten times larger than that of a rectangular seston and Wa could not be ignored. One should remember in this connection that a factor in some of the historically famous collapse of bridges was shear deformation. We now compare Wy With Why. Its clear here that Hy can always be neglected compared to Wy a8 long as H has the same order of magnitude as P. An exception is only when M = 0; then Hy cannot be neglected. This could be the case for trusses for which 1eL 2 BA cannot be neglected and similarly for arches carrying their loads by a supporting line action.’ For instance, a parabola under uniformly distributed lead has no bending ‘moment because it has the shape ofa funicular curve and we cansot neglect the work of the normal force. 35 The work method as an alternative to the equilibrium method and the integration of the differential equation 3.5.1 Sinusoidal loading Ta system such as a simply supported beam is loaded by a single, evenly distributed or triangular load, then determining the bending moment isa relatively elementary task using elementary statics. However, one needs only to think ofa sinusoidal loading such as that shown in Fig. 3.9 to appreciate the difficulty of finding the bending moment diagram of even a simply supported beam, tis here that it might be advantangeous to go back to the original ferential equation ‘and solve it. For the system shown in Fig. 3.9 the amount of caleulations is not any won asings Figure 39 ‘Supporting lin acon ish one-dimensional analogu of the membrane srs state Inthe English arate, stsretoed to more reqonty she fui cre tom th Latin Yicls mean asmalfope orn)50 _STRUSS, STARILITY AND CHAOS IN STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING, larger than for constant loading if we use the diferentil equation. A second advantage of using the differential equation is that the distinction between statically determinate ‘and indeterminate systems is irelevant as this is only a matter of boundary conditions. Before discussing this any further the equilibrium method will be employed to derive the differential equation of an initially straight elastic rod, In Fig. 3.10 an element dx is isolated from the rod and the internal forces are drawn on both ends of the element, following the sign convention introduced earlier (see Chapter 2). If the rod is in equilibrium, every element of the rod must also be in equilibrium and the equilibrium condition can be applied to the isolated clement of Fig. 3.10. ‘This is standard procedure in obtaining the differential equation ofa problem using the equilibrium condition.’~"° It is much easier to proceed in this way than to consider the equilibrium condition for the whole rod. As 2 first consequence of considering an clement dx the assumed distributed load q(x) can now be regarded as being constant ‘within the element, Second, due to this loading, N, Q and M will in general vary as we ‘move with x so that in general they will experience with dx an incremental alteration GN, dQ and dM, respectively. The equilibrium condition, the sum of all forees in the horizontal direction equal to 2ero (SF = 0), now gives N-(N+dN)=0 Dividing by dx we find that an eee ‘This means that Nis constant, as expected. The equilibrium condition in the vertical direction EF, = 0 gives Q~ (0+ d0)— ae) dx Dividing again by dx, we obtain ao pe We Has =0 ate) ‘THE WORK EQUATION SI ‘This means that the rate of change of Q with respect to x is equal to the negative value of the loading q(x) which isthe first result of interest. Now, the equilibrium condition EM =0 on the right-hand-side end of the element gives 5 swede aineetaaeaune Diving once more by dx we find that dx dM Q- atx) 2 ae Letting dx and dM tend to zero, the second term vanishes and we find that O+Mm0 or On) ‘This means that the rate of change of M with x is equal to the shear force Q, our second result of interest. In order to eliminate the shear force the last equation is differentiated. g=-M" and then from Q’ = —q(x), we find that Mt =a) ‘This means that differentiating the bending moment twice is equal to the loading. In ‘other words, when integrating the loading as a function of x twice, the bending moment ‘of the rod is obtained. This isthe dilferential equation of an initially straight rod in the ‘moment form. To find the constants of integration the boundary conditions for M are needed. It is advantageous to find this differential equation in terms of the lateral displacement w(x). This can be done using the known linear relationship M=Ele'=Elw, gw" ‘Thus we obtain the differential equation ofclasticstraight rodsin the displacement form Elw™ ~ q(x) =0 ‘This is an ordinary linear diferential equation ofthe fourth order and therefore requires the knowledge of four boundary conditions to determine the four constants of integration so that the line of deflection can be found from 1 le wetewtec, web [ff ffummscscae ste rte see] Once w is known the moment M = Elw" and the shear Q = —Elw" are easily found. ‘Now, we return to our initial example. Since a) $x‘52_ STRESS, STARILITY AND CHAOS IN STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING we obtain 1 x 1(_ab wei(fasindxarte, Heo Ex +e, all L ee ) al eee vod ffesntcacacren +6) nit Ext let + C+ Cy meee ) 1 x a sin — x dx dx dx 2 Oyx? + = Cqx? + Cy ce T(J fffesngxararaedes Fc? +cat + ont ‘The boundary conditions of the problem can now be used to find C,, Cy, C3 and C,, From w = 0 for x =0 we find, from the fourth equation, that C.=0 From M = Blw" = 0 for x=0, we find that G ‘The remaining two boundary conditions, ‘equations for determining C, and C,, namely Oand M = EIw" for x = L, give two oes cu — Hewnstense C=C) =6=C ‘Therefore, under a sinusoidal loading a simply supported beam deforms sinusoidally ‘The bending moment is also a sine wave. It might be interesting at this stage to show hhow the much simpler work method would lead to the same result by assuming a trial [THE WORK BQUATION 53 shape function, for instance ‘This trial function should in general approximate the deflection as well as possible but must satisfy all the boundary conditions related to deflection and slope (w and w’) ‘The theory of the trial fonction method will be given in detail in Chapter 7. Now, we write first the internal work Hg fPseiw as and inserting we find that ‘asin(x/L.)x, where is a constant equal to the mid-point deflection, w=) “The external work, assuming a linear load deformation relationship, is ror [homed f [eed om eee a ‘Since the tral Function a sin(nx/.) just happens to be the exact shape of deflection, one should of course expect the result to bein this particular case the exact one, rather than ‘an approximation, From the work equation — Wig = Won we find that ‘Therefore exactly as that obtained from solving the differential equation, Of course, taking = asin(ex/L) was a lucky guess; however, using & parabola w = af — (43*/L2)] as ‘trial function where @ is @ coordinate measured from the centre of the beam, a Very ‘g00d approximate value is easily obtained.‘SA_ STRESS, STABILITY AND CHAOS IN STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING 352 Strut on an elastic foundation ‘The work method is not only a viable alternative to the differential equation method where the loading configuration is dificult to treat using the standard methods of structural analysis but also where, due to complicated supporting and boundary ‘conditions, the system becomes highly statically indeterminate. An example of this is the strut on an elastic foundation? shown in Fig. 3.11 ‘From the point of view ofthe theory of statically indeterminate structures, this is an infinite-degree statically indeterminate system. Consequently, all the classical methods of analysing indeterminate systems are rendered useless and it would seem that the only ‘method left is that of the differential equation. However, the work method, again using ‘a shape function (see Chapter 7), also provides here an economical and simple solution. ‘To do this, we assume as a trial shape function w = asin(ins/L) where the hall-waves ‘number / is to be determined later. For the internal work we therefore have -W, [fener ace [oor ERs omar = in FL a(®)* ( (sin ® x) ax + (* 4a?(sin x) ax Uc) [ (etsy es (eer) 2) (©) Soe) He Ca BJAG) sete 2) eae AD Here we have simply added fo the bending energy, the energy stored in the elastic foundation, namely [ere For the external work we have We = PA where A is the end shortening which can easily be found in terms of the deflect using simple differential geometrical considerations, to be anf wide Figure 311 ‘THE WORK EQUATION _55 ‘The derivation of this expression is given in detail in Sec. 12.2.3. Note that we do not hhave in Wa, the factor $ because in buckling problems the load P exists in full at the ‘moment when buckling is triggered. This is unlike bending problems, where P increases with the deflection. The external work is therefore [ipa fe) na ate Equating both expressions we find that Pa[(El),,, CL) _ 220 pa Ce) Sa {rom which the critical load is found to be Ele, CP pn ble Bee ‘To obtain the smallest critical load * as a function off we assume that fis very large so that P® can be viewed as being approximately a continuous function of / and thus can be differentiated with respect to it, Thus, we find from ap _26Ini_2C1? caret: ci El w, that Inserting in P*, the smallest critical load is found to be * Puig = 2/EIC ‘Again this happens to be the exact solution’* because the shape furction used happens to be the solution of the corresponding differential equation in the case of a very large wave number i 3.6 Limitation of the classical energy methods and extension to non-conservative systems ‘Compared to the equilibrium method classical energy methods have several limitations. Using the equilibrium method to establish the diflerential equation, vtually any problem ‘can be treated provided one is able to integrate this differential equation. However, using the energy method only conservative systems can be treated. This implies @ *Locleton of bucking in a tra on slat foundation cn give a cx! load Py. ~ VIC a8 shown by EL Nascie n Re. 24 Sofeing nontinent foundation can lend fo envelope ike sito deformation (xt ets 26710 212 and so See 2L1 3,‘56 _ STRESS, STABILITY AND CHAQS IN STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING restriction to elastic deformation and excludes all forms of energy dissipation and damping. Also, the external load must be conservative and path independent. In addition, rot all energy methods can be used for non-linear and large-defletion analysis. For instance, the unit load method which will be discussed in the next chapter assumes small deformation and linear behaviour. Thus, in using the energy method one should bbe careful to check the assumptions and the range of validity in each particular case. Tehas frequently been proposed that the classical concept of work should be extended to allow for treating non-conservative systems using energy and energy-like methods. In this way, the work is to be replaced with other quantities that do not necessarily have a physical meaning. Examples for this are the prolongation method used by Batman ‘and Van der Dungen.2*2" Several other alternatives were recently proposed by Leipholz.2? Some of these methods will be discussed in Part Three in connection with the vibration and dynamical instability of non-conservative systems. Summary of Chapter 3 “The principles of virtual work which states that for equilibrium the sum ofall work done by all Applied an internal forces is zero for al virtual displacement EM t DMhoe EK, is completely equivalent and can replace the equilibrium condition DP EM,=0 “Taking this principe as an axiom we can prove the energy theorem of the elastosttis -8W = BW, where Wis the work of internal forces and Wa, is the work ofthe external fores. In an elastic Closed system the work done by the lead musi be equal to the work obtained from the elastic body after removing the load inthe absence of dissipation. The work equation Wig + Waa = fs valid for both the displacement work and the eigenwork as long as the work integral is path independent ia the mathematical sease. The work equation ean be used directly in solving ‘problems, This i particularly simple in the case of linear small-dsplacment theory where the Theorem of Clapeyron, WY P5/2, i valid, The contribution of the diferent ternal frees to the ‘Stain energy oF the work of the internal foross i ofa different order of magnitude and depends fn the form and dimensions of te structre isl For most beams and frames axial and shear deformations can be ignored. On the other hand, large anal force deformations in arches and suspension bridges have to be taken into account, tuflch alo the case with trusses. Similarly, for deep beams, shear deformations can reach large Wales. “The work equation isan alternative method to the classical integration of the diferential = equation. The concept of assumed shape function was shown to give identical results to thal of {he differential equation method fora beam under sinusoidal loading as well s forthe buckling fof an Euler strut resting on a continuous elastic foundation. The energy method in its classical {orm i estrictd to systems for which the energy is conserved. However, these classical methods ‘an now be extended to some non-conservative systems. “The interelationship between the energy and the equiibeium method is shown in Fig 3.12. {THE WORK EQUATION _57 ‘Conservative and an conservative | ceservatve Sens eens | Buia mod | ergy maths (etonian mec) ‘mecunc) Exact equation of equ, (aie equation) aN Poel funciona, poctal eneny (7) ‘reo 1 “he dre method ae | [Aaronimt tin. ofthe cass of sti | | tines Gale’ | santions for ace | | Ri mete Figure 3.412. The iterelationship between the equilibrium and the ene-gy method