Fundamentals of Concrete Design

This assignment covers all basic
concepts of concrete, its history,

merits and demerits of concrete
construction and methods to
design concrete. This report
assigned by Dr. Tauqir, civil
Engineering deptt. UET, Lahore.
Fundamentals
Of Concrete
Design
2010-TE-45
Hafiz Syed Rizwan
Fundamentals of Concrete Design
Table of Content
Concrete: ..................................................................................................................................... 1
1.
Binding Material: ........................................................................................................................ 1
2.
Filler Materials: .......................................................................................................................... 2
3.
Water: ......................................................................................................................................... 3
4.
Additives:.................................................................................................................................... 3
History of Concrete: ................................................................................................................... 3
Difference b/w Plain & Reinforced Concrete: ............................................................................ 4
Merits & Demerits of Concrete Construction: ............................................................................ 4
Merits: ....................................................................................................................................................... 4
Demerits: ................................................................................................................................................... 4
Concrete Design: ........................................................................................................................ 5
Self-Weight/ Load: ..................................................................................................................... 5
Imposed Load: ............................................................................................................................ 5
Load Combination: ................................................................................................................................... 5

Steps to Design: .......................................................................................................................... 6
1.
Collect & List all known DATA: ............................................................................................... 6
2.
Select the Trial Section: .............................................................................................................. 6
3.
Perform Strength Checks: ........................................................................................................... 6
4.
Perform Service ability Checks: ................................................................................................. 6
5.
Accept the trial section, if all checks are O.K. ........................................................................... 6
6.
Write Final design Results. ......................................................................................................... 6

Important Terminologies: ........................................................................................................... 6
Limit State:................................................................................................................................................ 6
Design Strength:........................................................................................................................................ 7
Factor of Safety: ........................................................................................................................................ 7
Assignment # 1
2010-TE-45
DTEM, UET, LHR.
Nominal Strength: ..................................................................................................................................... 7

Design Methods: ......................................................................................................................... 7
Basic Design Equation: ............................................................................................................................. 7
1.
Allowable Stress Design: ............................................................................................................ 7
2.
Load & Resistance for Design (LRFD): ..................................................................................... 8
3.
Plastic Design: ............................................................................................................................ 8

References: ................................................................................................................................. 9
Table of Equations
Equation 1 ..................................................................................................................................................... 7
Equation 2 ..................................................................................................................................................... 7
Equation 3 ..................................................................................................................................................... 8
Equation 4 ..................................................................................................................................................... 8
Assignment # 1
2010-TE-45
DTEM, UET, LHR.

Concrete:
Concrete is a composite construction material made primarily with aggregate, cement,
and water. There are many formulations of concrete, which provide varied properties, and
concrete is the most used man-made product in the worldi
The main constituent of concrete is as described under:
1. Binding Material:
It is usually a paste of cement in water and is relatively costly constituent of the cement
concreteii. Materials that can be used as a binder are discussed as follow:
Portland Cement:
Portland cement was developed from natural cements made in Britain in the early part of the
nineteenth century, and its name is derived from its similarity to Portland stone, a type of
building stone that was quarry Portland cement clinker is a hydraulic material which shall
consist of at least two-thirds by mass of calcium silicates (3 CaOSiO2 and 2 CaOSiO2), the
remainder consisting of aluminum- and iron-containing clinker phases and other compounds.
The ratio of CaO to SiO2 shall not be less than 2.0. The magnesium oxide content (MgO)
shall not exceed 5.0% by mass ed on the Isle of Portland in Dorset, Englandiii.
Lime:
Lime is usually made by burning of limestone. Chemically; lime itself is calcium oxide (CaO)
and is maThe main ingredient of this concrete is slaked lime as binding material. The slaked
lime is obtained in various forms as hydrated lime powder, lime putty, slaked lime slurry that
is prepared by grinding in suitable Grinding Mills. Slaked lime is first mixed with sand to
prepare lime mortar which is then further mixed with coarse aggregates, in suitable proportion.
For preparation of lime concrete, first hard impervious level base is prepared by stones or
brick pitching. Then quantity of sand is spread as the horizontal base. Generally lime & sand
are taken in ratio of 1:1 to 1:3 by volume. Measured quantity of slaked lime is then added to
sand and then mixing is done. In this mixing, water is sprinkled continuously to make the
whole mass plastic.
Assignment # 1
2010-TE-45
DTEM, UET, LHR.
Then the whole mass is allowed to mature for 1 to 3 days. After that coarse aggregates of
desired type are used to lay on the prepared hard impervious level surface. After that lime
mortar which is made with sand & lime is introduced into the base. Sufficient water is
sprinkled over the base and it is cut into the layers and then is turned upside down with the
help of spade or shovel until the whole assembly has become uniform.de by roasting calcite
(CaCO3) to remove carbon dioxide (CO2).iv
Bitumen:
Bitumen is also used as binder in concrete. Ancient civilization like Babylon people used
bitumen to bind stones for their construction.
Gypsum:
Used as a binder in concrete, the most common form is (CaSO4.1/2H2O) (Calcium sulfate
hemihydrate)
Similarly there are also other products that can be used as binder like resins & acrylic
emulsion etc.v
2. Filler Materials:
Filler material required to reduce the cost of the concrete and to provide the natural strength of
stone particle. Most commonly filler material is composed of a combination of various sizes
crushed stone.
Other Materials can be round gravel, bricks, bloated clay and iron fillings may also be used in
concrete for filling purposes.vi
The stone aggregate should be well graded so that interlocking between all particles should be
as good as possible. We get a dense mass also. Depending on the size, we can classify
aggregate into course and fine aggregate.
Course aggregate:
Course aggregate having particle size greater than 5mm or 3/16 inch
Fine aggregate:
Fine aggregate having particle size lesser than 5mm and usually termed as Sand.vii
Assignment # 1
2010-TE-45
DTEM, UET, LHR.
3. Water:
Water is added according to water to cement ratio (w/c). for example w/c ratio of 0.45 means
45 liters of water will be added in 100kg of cement.
4. Additives:
These are added to improve concrete properties like higher strength etc.
History of Concrete:
The word concrete comes from the Latin word "concretus" (meaning compact or condensed),
the perfect passive participle of "concrescere", from "con-" (together) and "crescere" (to
grow).viii
3000 BC Egyptian used mud with straws to bind bricks. They also used gypsum mortars and
mortars of lime in the building of the pyramids. On the other hand, Chinese used cementious
material in the construction of Great Wall.
In 800 BC, The Greeks used lime mortars that were much harder than later Roman mortars.
300 BC, The Babylonians and Assyrians used bitumen to bind stones and bricks together
bricks together.ix
During the Roman Empire, Roman concrete (or opus caementicium) was made from
quicklime, pozzolana and an aggregate of pumice. Its widespread use in many Roman
structures, a key event in the history of architecture termed the Roman Architectural
Revolution, freed Roman construction from the restrictions of stone and brick material and
allowed for revolutionary new designs in terms of both structural complexity and dimensionx.
Modern tests show that opus caementicium had as much compressive strength as modern
2
Portland-cement concrete (ca. 200 kg/cm ). However, due to the absence of reinforcement, its
tensile strength was far lower than modern reinforced concrete, and its mode of application was
also different.
A method for producing Portland cement was patented by Joseph Aspdin on 1824. In 1889 the
first concrete reinforced bridge was built, and the first large concrete dams were built in 1936,
Hoover Dam and Grand Coolee Dam.Reinforced concrete was invented in 1849 by Joseph
Monier.xi
Assignment # 1
2010-TE-45
DTEM, UET, LHR.
Difference b/w Plain & Reinforced Concrete:

The Plain Concrete consists of Binder, Filler and water only, while Reinforced concrete also
embedded with Steel Bars. Basalt rubber, fiber glass etc. can also be used as alternative of
steel bars.xii
Merits & Demerits of Concrete Construction:

Merits:
All structures and buildings are subject to everyday wear and tear, and this is where the use of
concrete really makes sense. Its hard, tough surface is extremely resistant to everyday dents and
dings.
Concrete is resistant to rain penetration, flood damage and wind-blown debris. It can also
withstand many winters of freeze-thaw cycles unlike other materials, which can deteriorate
quickly with such regular exposure to expansion and contraction.
Can be formed in any shape, size and texture, it can be designed to deflect or absorb sound. This
makes it a good acoustic material for music but also an effective sound barrier along busy roads.
With homes and offices increasingly wired for information technology, it is good news that
precast concrete buildings do not interfere with radio signals, local wi-fi or internet networks.
This makes precast the most technology-friendly material for homes and places of work.
With a specific gravity of 2.40, precast concrete resists buoyant forces better than any other
material.
Concrete buildings from hundreds of years ago are still in use today. Some say concrete can last
up to 2,000 years, and there are certainly many structures around that are well on their way to
such a ripe old age.xiii
Demerits:
Concrete is weaker in Tension therefore we have to reinforced it. This increase the cost.
Concrete is a brittle material.
Concrete has a greater self-weight. Some-times it may increase than live load.
Even if the concrete is reinforced but cracks appears on it due to tensile load.xiv
Assignment # 1
2010-TE-45
DTEM, UET, LHR.
Concrete Design:
To define proper ratio of Concrete ingredients (cement + water + aggregate), size and numbers
of steel bars in a member of structure such that it is more economical, durable and feasible is
called Concrete Design.
As we design our structure against possible loads that a structure to be faced, So, before
proceeding we will discuss the type of loads.
Self-Weight/ Load:
The applied by structure due to its weight is called Self-weight.
Imposed Load:
All loads other than self-load is called imposed load. E.g. live load, dead load, wind load etc.
a. Live Load:
Loads which are expected to change in context of position and magnitudes are called live load.
b. Dead Load:
The loads which are fixed in terms of point of application and magnitude are called dead
loads.
c. Wind Load:
The force on a structure arising from the impact of wind on it.
d. Factored Load:
To consider the uncertainty due to number of factors we increase the load by some factor and
resultant load is termed as Factorial load.xv
We consider different load combinations for a specific structure. Most commonly
combinations are as follow:
Load Combination:
1.4D
1.2D + 1.6L + 0.5 ( Lr or Snow load)
1.2D + 1.6 (L + Lr) + 0.8 W etc.
Assignment # 1
2010-TE-45
DTEM, UET, LHR.
Steps to Design:
1. Collect & List all known DATA:
To know about the type of structure, uses of structure, spans and loads of structure like
shear and bending moments.
2. Select the Trial Section:

Based on experience, make a structure for trial. We select it by thumb rule.
3. Perform Strength Checks:

Check whether our trial structure is according to load or not.
4. Perform Service ability Checks:

Perform all serviceability checks on a designed structure and select appropriate one.
5. Accept the trial section, if all checks are O.K.

6. Write Final design Results.
Important Terminologies:
Limit State:
A limit state is a condition of a structure beyond which it no longer fulfills the relevant
design criteria. The condition may refer to a degree of loading or other actions on the
structure, while the criteria refer to structural integrity, fitness for use, durability or other
design requirementsxvi
Limit State is divided into two Categories:
Strength/ Safety Limit State:

Means conditions of loading corresponding to maximum ductile flexural strength like
fatigue, fracture, overturning etc.
Serviceability State:
Concerned with occupancy of building, such as excessive deflection, undesirable
vibration etc.xvii
Assignment # 1
2010-TE-45
DTEM, UET, LHR.
Design Strength:
The design strength of structural steel is assumed to be equal to the yield stress. The structural
properties of different materials are conveniently expressed in terms of their design strength.
This does not necessarily correspond directly to failure of the material, but rather to some
point at which the structural performance becomes unacceptable. In the case of structural steel
this is defined as the yield stress of the material. The quality of structural steel is carefully
controlled with a high degree of quality assurance, and its design strength, py, is expressed as
a guaranteed minimum yield stressxviii
Factor of Safety:
Factor of safety is the ratio between internal resistance and load effects.
FOS = Internal resistance Load effects
Equation 1
Nominal Strength:
Strength of section/ member determined using design codes is called nominal strength.
Design Methods:
There are three different design methods.
Allowable Stress Design. (ASD)
Load & resistance for Design. (LRFD)
Plastic Design
Basic Design Equation:

In design, the applied forces and moments due to external loads are equated to the maximum
resistive forces and moments that can be developed within the material of a member with
factor of safety one or greater.
External Forces due to loads FOS = Max internal resistance offered by Material
Equation 2
1. Allowable Stress Design:

For this method, the FOS is taken on right side of the basic design equation.
Assignment # 1
2010-TE-45
DTEM, UET, LHR.
Forces per unit area due to load = Material resistive force FOS
Equation 3
If the factor of safety is applied by reducing the material strength and service loads are
considered as such without any increase, the design method is called Allowable Stress Design
(ASD) or working stress design.xix
2. Load & Resistance for Design (LRFD):

In this method, FOS is divided into two parts. Major part of FOS is applied on load and minor
part on material strength. In LRFD by which loads are increased is termed as Overload factor
and material strength part is called resistance factor.xx
In this method, the engineer uses the Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) load
combinations (below) to determine the required strength of a member and arranges for the
allowable strength to satisfy this equation:
Equation 4
where:
Ru = required strength,
Rn = nominal strength, specified in Chapters B through K of the AISC SCM,
= resistance factor, specified in Chapters B through K of the AISC SCM,
Rn = allowable strength.
3. Plastic Design:
This method is similar to LRFD but we also consider inelastic behavior of material in design
and analysis.
Assignment # 1
2010-TE-45
DTEM, UET, LHR.
References:
Lomborg, Bjrn (2001). The Skeptical Environmentalist: Measuring the Real State of the World. p. 138. ISBN 978-0-52180447-9.
ii
Concrete Structures Part-I by Zahid Ahmed Siddique

Gillberg, B.; Jnsson, .; Tillman, A-M. (1999) (in Swedish). Betong och milj [Concrete and
environment]. Stockholm: AB Svensk Byggtjenst. ISBN 91-7332-906-1.
iv
http://www.enggpedia.com/civil-engineering-encyclopedia/dictionary/engineering-materials/329lime-concrete
v
Alternative of concrete other than cement by Jame SK Yeung Honk Kong Concrete Institute.
vi
vii
iii
viii
"concretus". Latin Lookup. Retrieved October 1, 2012
ix
Alternative of concrete other than cement by Jame SK Yeung Honk Kong Concrete Institute
x
Lancaster, Lynne (2005). Concrete Vaulted Construction in Imperial Rome. Innovations in Context.
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-511-16068-4
xi
Herring, Benjamin. "The Secrets of Roman Concrete". Romanconcrete.com. Retrieved 1 October 2012.
xii
Smarter Building Systems, Newport, Rhode Island USA
xiii
A little book of concrete by British Precast and NPCA
xiv
xv
Class notes by Dr. Tauqir, UET, LHR.
xvi
EN 1990:2002 E, Eurocode - Basis of Structural Design, CEN, November 29, 2001
xvii
xviii
http://www.tatasteelconstruction.com/en/reference/teaching_resources/architectural_studio_reference/el
ements/introduction_to_design_codes/design_strengths/
xix
xx
Class notes by Dr. Tauqir, UET, LHR
Assignment # 1
2010-TE-45
DTEM, UET, LHR.

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This assignment covers all basic

concepts of concrete, its history,