Urine treatment

treatment,
reuse and
diversion component
technology review
Literature Overview
Mariska Ronteltap, March 2011

Reports
Technology Review Urine Diverting Components

ECOSAN_AT / Issue 3: Use of Urine

35

Practical Guidance on the Use of Urine in Crop Production

68

Toepassingsmogelijkheden voor urine in de landbouw

137

Verwijdering medicijnresten en hormoonverstorende stoffen uit urine

214

Praktijkproef toepassing urine zorglocatie Anderen

225

H2O: Ervaring met urinescheiding in Europa

254

Are pharmaceutical residues a problem for urine reuse in agriculture?

257

Three years of operation of the UD system in GTZ headquarters

277

Table of Content

Technology Review | Urine diversion components

Overview of urine diversion components such as waterless urinals,
urine diversion toilets, urine storage and reuse systems

Imprint
Published by:
Deutsche Gesellschaft fr
Technische Zusammenarbeit GmbH (GTZ)
Sustainable sanitation - ecosan program
Postfach 5180, 65726 Eschborn, Germany
T +49 61 96 79-4220
F +49 61 96 79-80 4220
E ecosan@gtz.de
I www.gtz.de/ecosan
Place and date of publication:
Eschborn, December 2009
Authors:
Dr. Elisabeth von Mnch, Dr.-Ing. Martina Winker
Responsible editor:
Dr. Elisabeth von Mnch
Acknowledgement:
Nathasith Chiarawatchai, Florian Klingel,
Christine Werner and Patrick Bracken
(authors of an earlier version),
Dr. Hkan Jnsson, Dr. Elisabeth Kvarnstrm
and Dr. Arno Rosemarin
(reviewers of the current document)
Printed on 100% recycled paper

Design:
creative republic
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www.creativerepublic.net
Photos:
Cover: Philipp Feiereisen, Steffen Blume, Lukas Ulrich,
Abdoulaye Fall, Sren Rd, Robert Gensch, iStock
Back: GTZ, Steffen Blume, Elmer Sayre, Sren Rd,
Patrick Zimmerer, Alexandra Hhne/Rwanda Village Concept Project,
Elisabeth von Mnch, Stefanie Lorenz
Inside: Elke Mhlegger/EcoSan Club Austria, Patrick Zimmerer,
Philipp Feiereisen, Julia Littmann, Hkan Jnsson, Abdoulaye Fall,
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PrePress:
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Technology Review | Urine diversion components

Overview of urine diversion components such as waterless urinals,
urine diversion toilets, urine storage and reuse systems

Foreword
This publication is an important contribution of the GTZ
program Sustainable sanitation ecosan as it pulls together
scattered knowledge around the topic of urine diversion in a
concise manner.
The program is commisioned by the German Federal Ministry
for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ). The
ecological sanitation (ecosan) approach is able to address both:
child health which needs to be improved through better sanitation, and sustainable management and safe recycling of
important resources such as water and nutrients, in particular
phosphorus.
It is a positive development that more and more people are now
becoming aware of the present worldwide sanitation crisis
which is killing thousands of young children each day. It is also
becoming more widely known that phosphorus (in the form of
phosphate rock deposits), is a non-renewable, limited resource.
High-quality phosphate rock will run out in the future.
The safe use of urine as a fertiliser can enable all farmers
to grow more food not only those who have the means to
buy artificial fertilisers. When prices for artificial fertiliser
increase again as in 2008 when prices increased by up to
eight times in some countries farmers relying on urine will
be less affected by such fertiliser price hikes.
I am sure this technology review will help and inspire people
working on sustainable solutions for excreta management.
Feedback about this publication is welcome and should be sent
to ecosan@gtz.de.
Let us jointly continue to work towards the aim of safe and
sustainable sanitation for all!

Andreas Kanzler
Head of Water Section
Division Water, Energy, Transport
Deutsche Gesellschaft fr
Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH
Eschborn, Germany
Eschborn, December 2009

Contents
1 Summary........................................................................................... 8
2 Introduction to urine diversion (UD).................................... 8
2.1 Definition of UD..................................................... 8
2.2 Purposes of UD installations................................... 9
2.3 Benefits of UD systems............................................ 9
2.3.1 Benefits of all types of UD toilets and
waterless urinals....................................................... 9
2.3.2 Further additional benefits of UDDTs compared
to pit latrines............................................................9
2.4 Challenges with UD systems................................... 10
2.4.1 Social acceptance amongst users.............................. 10
2.4.2 User cooperation...................................................... 10
2.4.3 Urine reuse/disposal issues....................................... 10
2.4.4 Urine precipitation.................................................. 10
2.5 Quantity of urine.................................................... 11
2.6 Quality of urine....................................................... 11
2.6.1 Source considerations.............................................. 11
2.6.2 Pathogens................................................................ 11
2.6.3 Nutrients................................................................. 11
2.6.4 Micro-pollutants...................................................... 12
2.7 Urine treatment....................................................... 12
2.7.1 Treatment objectives................................................ 12
2.7.2 Treatment by storage............................................... 12
2.7.3 Other urine treatment technologies......................... 12
2.8 Are UD systems more cost effective?....................... 13
2.9 Technical components used for achieving UD........ 13

3 Reuse of urine as fertiliser in agriculture........................ 13

3.1 How to use urine as a fertiliser................................ 13
3.1.1 Basic guidelines....................................................... 13
3.1.2 Specific advantages of urine compared
to other mineral fertilisers..................................... ..14
3.1.3 Disadvantages of urine compared
to other mineral fertilisers..................................... ..14
3.1.4 Should urine be applied undiluted
or diluted with water?............................................ ..15
3.2 A re hormones and pharmaceutical
residues in urine problematic for reuse?................... 15
3.3 Is urine an organic fertiliser
and can it be used in organic farming?.................... 16

4 Waterless urinals......................................................................... 16
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4

Definition and purpose...............................................16

Historical development of waterless urinals............. 17
Odour control methods (general)............................ 17
Odour control for connection of urinal
to sewer or storage tank........................................... 17
4.4.1 Rubber tube seal...................................................... 17
4.4.2 Curtain valve seal ................................................... 17
4.4.3 Sealant liquid (blocking fluid)................................. 18
4.4.4 Other methods for the odour seal........................... 19

4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9

Further design information..................................... 19

Use and maintenance of waterless urinals................ 19
User acceptance of waterless urinals........................ 20
Suppliers and costs of waterless urinals.................... 20
How to choose the right type of waterless urinal.... 20

5 Urine diversion toilets .............................................................. 21

5.1 Definition................................................................ 21
5.2 Basic design information for UD toilets.................. 21
5.3 Urine diversion dehydration toilets (UDDTs)......... 21
5.3.1 Basic design information......................................... 21
5.3.2 Odour control for urine collection system............... 22
5.3.3 Construction methods and materials....................... 22
5.3.4 Use and maintenance.............................................. 22
5.3.5 Project examples...................................................... 22
5.4 UD flush toilets....................................................... 22
5.4.1 Overview on historical development....................... 22
5.4.2 Basic design information......................................... 22
5.4.3 Odour control for the urine collection system......... 23
5.4.4 Materials.................................................................. 23
5.4.5 Use and maintenance.............................................. 23
5.4.6 Project examples...................................................... 23
5.5 Suppliers and costs for UD toilets........................... 23
5.6 How to choose between a UDDT
and a UD flush toilet............................................... 23

6 Urine piping and storage tanks.............................................. 24

6.1 Urine piping............................................................ 24
6.1.1 Functional principles............................................... 24
6.1.2 Materials.................................................................. 24
6.1.3 Pipe size and layout................................................. 24
6.1.4 Odour control.......................................................... 24
6.2 Urine storage tanks.................................................. 24
6.2.1 Functional principles............................................... 24
6.2.2 Locations................................................................. 25
6.2.3 Materials.................................................................. 25
6.2.4 Urine tank size........................................................ 25
6.2.5 Number of urine tanks needed................................ 25
6.2.6 Urine overflow pipe................................................. 26
6.2.7 Examples................................................................. 26
6.3 Ventilation for pressure equalisation
of pipes and tanks.................................................... 26
6.4 Maintenance of urine pipes and tanks..................... 27

7 References........................................................................................ 27
7.1
7.2
7.3

References used in this document........................... 27

Video clips............................................................... 29
Additional photos.................................................... 29

8 Appendix:
Worldwide listing of suppliers for waterless urinals,
UD pedestals and squatting pans ....................................... 29

List of Tables & Figures:

Table 1. Average chemical composition of fresh urine
(literature values) and stored urine (simulated values,
see Udert et al. (2006))....................................................... 12

Figure 1. Waterless urinals for men.

Left: Centaurus model of Keramag company.
Right: Plastic urinal from Addicom, South Africa,
with Eco-Smellstop device (sources: left: E. v. Mnch,
Delft, 2006; right: Addicom)............................................. 16
Figure 2. Two types of odour seals for waterless urinals.
Left: Flat rubber tube (Keramag Centaurus).
Right: (left side) See-through pipe fitting;
(right side) see-through EcoSmellstop (ESS) unit
showing the blue silicon curtain one-way valve inside
(source: (left): E. v. Mnch, 2007; right: Addicom)........... 18
Figure 3. EcoSmellstop (ESS) unit with pipe fitting
and extractor. Inside the ESS is the silicon curtain
valve (source: Addicom)...................................................... 18
Figure 4. Example instruction sheet, showing
replacement of sealant liquid for Uridan urinals
(other urinals with sealant liquid have a similar
maintenance routine) (source: Uridan)............................... 18
Figure 5. Left: Indoor UDDT (pedestal type) in Johannes
burg, South Africa in the house of Richard Holden (source:
E. v. Mnch, 2006). Right: UDDT squatting pan in Bangalore, India, with three holes: the area in the front is for anal
washing, middle is for faeces and back is for urine (source:
D. Schfer, 2008)................................................................ 22
Figure 6. UD flush toilets. Left: Gustavsberg
(in Meppel, the Netherlands); Right: Dubbletten
(in Stockholm, Sweden), (sources: E. v. Mnch, 2007)...... 23
Figure 7. Left: Low-cost solution: 20 L plastic jerrycan for
urine storage at individual toilet level in Ouagadougou,
Burkina Faso (source: E. v. Mnch, 2006)
Right: Below-ground plastic urine storage tanks
at Kulln, Sweden during the construction process.
The tanks will be covered with soil (photo:
Mats Johansson, source: Kvarnstrm et al., 2006).............. 26
Figure 8. Urine storage tank made of a 150 m
plastic bladder at Lake Bornsjn near Stockholm,
Sweden (photo comissioned by: E. v. Mnch, 2007).......... 26
Figure 9. Plastic urine storage tank in Ouagadougou,
Burkina Faso as part of the EU-funded project ECOSAN_UE
led by CREPA (source: S. Rd, 2008)................................ 26

1 Summary
The target audience for this publication are people who
are new to the topic of urine diversion or new to the topic
of ecological sanitation (ecosan), and who:
 need to obtain an overview of the main issues for
urine diversion and the main technical components
 want to know which are the main important documents for further reading
 have a particular interest in developing countries,
with a pro-poor perspective
 need information on available suppliers worldwide
and on costs for waterless urinals and urine diversion
toilet pedestals and squatting pans.
This publication explains the purposes of urine diversion, its
benefits and challenges, urine precipitation, urine treatment
and reuse in agriculture. It provides an overview on design and
operational aspects for equipment needed, such as waterless
urinals and urine diversion toilets including supplier information and indicative costs. The publication also provides basic
design information for urine piping and storage tanks (inclu
ding tank sizing, odour control and ventilation design issues).
Urine diversion is the term used to describe keeping urine and
faeces separate from each other at the point of excretion. The
four main purposes of implementing systems with urine diver
sion (UD) are: to reduce odour, to prevent production of wet
faecal sludge, to reduce water consumption and to collect pure
urine for use as fertiliser in agriculture.
Further benefits include minimised excreta-related groundwater
pollution, the fact that the toilet can be indoors (as opposed
to a pit latrine) and better control over micro-pollutants discharged to the environment. The challenges include social
acceptance, user cooperation, urine reuse or disposal issues
and urine precipitation.
Equipment used in urine diversion systems includes waterless
urinals, urine diversion toilets (either with or without flush
water), urine piping and urine storage tanks. The most common and cheapest method to treat urine for pathogen removal
from faecal cross-contamination is by extended storage.
Urine can safely be used in gardening and agriculture as a
nutrient-rich fertiliser, provided relevant reuse guidelines (see
WHO, 2006) are followed. If there is no use for the urine,
it can be discharged to a sewer or possibly infiltrated in the
ground (if local soil and groundwater conditions permit this
without adverse impacts on groundwater quality).
Waterless urinals enable the collection of undiluted urine and
are already widely used in many industrialised countries (particularly in Germany) in public or communal buildings (not

common at household level). But so far, they are usually just

connected to the sewer system and the urine is neither collected
nor reused. Odour control in waterless urinals is crucial for
user acceptance, and is achieved by (i) various designs for an
odour blocking mechanism (most notably with a flat rubber
tube, silicon curtain valve or sealant liquid), and (ii) by ensuring correct maintenance procedures.
Urine diversion dehydration toilets (UDDTs) collect faeces
in a dry system (i.e. separately from urine, flush water and anal
washwater) in vaults or buckets located underneath the UD
pedestal or squatting pan. For pro-poor approaches in deve
loping countries, UDDTs are more suitable than UD flush
toilets, as the latter still require a sewer system and treatment
for brownwater. UDDTs can easily be designed to suit users
who use water instead of toilet paper by providing a separate
drain hole for anal washwater.
Odour control and pressure equalisation within urine pipes and
urine storage tanks need to be included in the design in the case
of indoor multi-toilet systems. Waterless urinals and UDDTs
are a promising step forward towards implementing water sa
ving, more sustainable sanitation and reduced dependency on
costly artificial fertiliser, thus contributing to poverty reduction.

2 Introduction to urine diversion (UD)

2.1

Definition of UD

Urine diversion (UD) devices collect urine separately from

faeces and from water (or with minimal flush water). A urine
diversion toilet has two outlets with two collection systems: one
for urine and one for faeces (and possibly a third one for anal
washwater), in order to keep these two (or three) excreta or
wastewater fractions separate. UD toilets may, or may not, mix
water and faeces, or some water and urine, but they never mix
urine and faeces. Section 5.1 provides an overview of the two
main types of urine diversion toilets: UD toilets without flush
water (these are called urine diversion dehydration toilets or
UDDTs) and those with flush water (UD flush toilets).
Urinals widely used by men at public toilets, restaurants,
schools, etc. work as urine diversion devices because urine
is collected separately from faeces. When urinals are of the
waterless type, they can collect the urine pure, meaning
without dilution with water.
Urine diversion may be used in ecological sanitation (ecosan)
concepts, but not all ecosan projects use urine diversion.
Ecosan is an approach to sanitation which focusses on reuse
of nutrients and organic matter contained in excreta and
wastewater, and emphasises sustainability in all aspects 1.

1 The definition of sustainable sanitation is provided in the

first vision document of the Sustainable Sanitation Alliance
http://www.susana.org/lang-en/intro/156-intro/267-vision-document

2.2

Purposes of UD installations

The purpose of a UD installation is usually one, or several

of the following four purposes which can be split in two
categories:
Purposes relevant for all types of UD systems (described in
more detail in Section 2.3.1 below):
1. to reduce water consumption
2. to be able to collect urine pure and undiluted so
that it can after sanitisation by storage be safely
used as fertiliser in agriculture.
Purposes relevant for UDDTs (urine diversion dehydration
toilets) compared to pit latrines (described in more detail in
Section 2.3.2 below):
3. to reduce odour
4. to avoid production of wet, odorous faecal sludge,
which has to be removed by someone when the pit
latrine is full.




future, increased efforts to recycle the phosphorus
content of human and animal excreta are inevitable
(EcoSanRes, 2008).
If there is concern about hormones and pharmaceutical residues entering drinking water sources via house
hold wastewater (sewage), then the separate collection
of urine can simplify removal of these substances from
the environment. Particularly for industrialised countries, this could be a major driving force in favour of
UD systems (see Section 3.2).
Urine diversion may also create business opportunities
for the private sector via the sale of UD technology and
related services.
In many cases, cost savings can be realised when implementing UD systems especially regarding economic
costs when a system-wide analysis is performed (inclu
ding external costs due to groundwater pollution for
example), see Section 2.8 for details.

2.3.2 Further additional benefits of UDDTs compared

to pit latrines

2.3

Benefits of UD systems

2.3.1 Benefits of all types of UD toilets and waterless urinals

 Water savings: UDDTs and waterless urinals require

no flush water, whereas conventional urinals use around

4 L per flush (flush toilets use about 8-12 L per flush;
pour flush toilets use 2-3 L per flush). UD flush toilets
can also reduce water consumption when compared to
conventional water-flushed toilets: this is because the
urine flush uses a low volume to flush away remai
ning urine drops and used toilet paper (0.5 to 2 L of
flush water, depending on the toilet model). If urinesoiled toilet paper is collected in a bin, rather than
flushed away, water savings could be even greater.
The collected urine can be used as fertiliser, which
can increase crop yields. As explained further in
Section 3, urine is a liquid fertiliser rich in nitrogen
and phosphorus. This is of particular importance for
those farmers in developing countries who cannot
afford mineral fertilisers.
Recycling of phosphorus from urine may become
necessary in the mid-term future and is easier to
achieve if urine is collected pure rather than mixed
with wastewater. Phosphorus is an essential element
for agricultural production. It is either available in the
soil or added with fertiliser, and is produced from mined
deposits of phosphate rock. High-grade phosphate rock
reserves are running out: at current rates of exploitation
(increasing at around 3% per year), the economic reserves of phosphorus will last no more than 50 years.
The economically viable reserves in the United States
for example, will be depleted within 25 to 30 years
(Rosemarin et al., 2008; Cordell et al., 2009). In the

 There is significantly less odour when urine and faeces



are not mixed as in a UDDT compared to the case

where urine and faeces are mixed as in a pit latrine.
Since UDDTs are odour-free when designed and operated correctly and since they do not need contact with
the soil to infiltrate liquids, UDDTs can be indoors,
which leads to improved security, privacy and user
comfort. This aspect is very important especially for
women and girls, for whom it may be too dangerous
to go to the toilet outside in darkness (sexual assaults).
No production of wet faecal sludge: Faeces collected
in a dry manner, separately from urine and water, are
not offensive, especially after an extended drying period.
Hence, it is much easier to empty the faeces vault of a
UDDT than the pit of a pit latrine. This is particularly
important for hilly or crowded areas where access to
pit latrines by conventional trucks is impossible.
Minimised toilet-related groundwater pollution with
nitrate and pathogens. Pit latrines and septic tanks are
designed to infiltrate liquid into the soil, which can
lead to groundwater pollution if the population density
is high, the groundwater level is high or there are pre
ferential pathways in the soil to the groundwater.
UDDTs on the other hand collect the urine and faeces
above-ground and therefore do not pollute the ground
water. Note that onsite greywater disposal can also lead
to groundwater pollution and this issue is not addressed
by urine diversion toilets.

10

2.4

Challenges with UD systems

2. 

2.4.1 Social acceptance amongst users

Regarding social acceptance, the successful adoption of
urine diversion systems is closely linked to:
 Users' motivation and willingness to change existing
habits and behaviours, for example:
The willingness of men to sit down on pedestal-type
UD toilets for urination if no urinals are being provi
ded this does not apply to squatting-type UD toilets;
The willingness to move backwards a little bit so that
anal washwater can be collected separately from faeces
in the case of UDDTs and anal washers.
 Supportive attitude of all stakeholders involved
(users, maintenance staff, planners, farmers,
politicians and so on).
 Possible use of urine as a fertiliser (or some other
disposal option for collected urine if reuse in
agriculture or aquaculture is not possible).
 Cultural obstacles like superstition of the users.
Odour nuisance (be it only perceived or actual) is a further
potential obstacle to social acceptance, but with the correct
design and operation, odours from waterless urinals and
UD toilets are the same or less than conventional urinals and
toilets. Also, UDDTs have significantly less odour and flies
than pit latrines, and can therefore be placed indoors which
may prove to be a significant driver for social acceptance.

3. 

If users do not cooperate, toilet misuse can result in

odour (e.g. if users urinate in the faeces compartment
of a UDDT) or in a messed-up toilet (e.g. if users
defecate into the urine compartment of a UD toilet)
although this is not dissimilar from pit latrines and
flush toilets.
Cleaning of UD toilets is a little more time consu
ming than cleaning of conventional toilets, due to
the separate urine section in the toilet bowl.

2.4.3 Urine reuse/disposal issues

The following issues regarding urine reuse or disposal are
important:
 Urine needs to be transported to the reuse areas which
leads to increased traffic, and is problematic if the distances are large (noise, air pollution and CO emissions).
 W hen urine is used in agriculture, the farmers need to
be trained on the correct methods (see Section 3.1).
 If urine cannot be reused, it is sometimes infiltrated
in the ground. In some circumstances, this has no adverse environmental impacts. In other cases, this can
lead to groundwater pollution with nitrate (depen
ding on the amount of urine infiltrated per area, soil
properties, groundwater table) just like with pit
latrines (but with pit latrines there is the added pro
blem of pathogen transport to groundwater).

Social acceptance also depends to a high degree on:

 The current sanitation situation (are people used to




flying toilets (plastic bags), pit latrines or flush toilets?)

and the users expectation for the future.
The prevailing norms regarding reuse of human
excreta and related taboos.
Available service providers who can offer a collection
and maintenance service.

Hence, careful planning with stakeholder participation is crucial.

2.4.2 User cooperation

There are three main issues to be kept in mind regarding
user cooperation:
1.  Users have to think a bit when they use UD toilets
for the first time (this point does not apply to water
less urinals, which are used in the same way as waterflushed urinals). Thus, urine diversion toilets need
some upfront awareness raising to ensure correct usage
and social acceptance.

2.4.4 Urine precipitation

The information given in this section was mainly taken
from Larsen and Lienert (2007). In fresh urine, the main
nitrogen compound is urea. During storage, urea is hydrolysed to ammonia/ammonium and hydrocarbonate by urease
enzymes present in the urine storage container, soil and in
aquatic systems (see also Table 1). This process is accompanied by an increase in the pH value. The increased pH value
results in precipitation of struvite (MgNHPO) and calcium
phosphate (Ca(PO)(OH)) crystals. Those crystals can form
incrustations, also called urine stone.
Precipitation in urine pipes and storage tanks occurs in both
water-flushed and waterless systems. In addition skin cells,
hair and excreted organic complexes will also settle.
The end result may be hard precipitates (incrustations) or soft,
viscous, paste-like precipitates (deposits). Incrustations tend
to occur on the inner walls of pipes and pipe bends. Soft
deposits occur in storage tanks (where they form a sludge at
the bottom of the tank) and in near-horizontal urine pipes.

The following design parameters reduce the extent

of precipitation:
 Short retention time: precipitation often occurs at
locations where the urine flow velocity is low or even
stagnant (such as siphons, horizontal pipes, U-bends
of the toilet). Such arrangements should therefore be
avoided.
 Smooth surfaces and hydrophobic materials should
be used. Scratching of surfaces by mechanical cleaning
should be avoided. Plastic PVC pipes are commonly
used for urine pipes.
 If flushing with water: Flushing with soft water,
such as rainwater, is preferred to flushing with hard
water (soft water has less calcium and magnesium
which can precipitate with the urines ammonium
and phosphate).
 Pipes with a relatively large diameter (at least 2.5 cm)
are less likely to get clogged.
Using no flush water at all (as in waterless urinals) does not
eliminate the problem, since urine also contains calcium and
magnesium which can precipitate with ammonium and phosphate to form struvite. In waterless UD systems, more soft
deposits tend to occur than hard incrustations, whereas for
water-flushed UD systems it is the other way around. Informa
tion about maintenance tasks to prevent or remove blockages
in urine pipes is provided in Section 6.4.

2.5

Quantity of urine

The quantity of urine produced by an adult is around 0.8

to 1.5 L per adult per day (WHO, 2006, Volume 4) it mainly
depends on the amount a person drinks and his or her transpi
ration. Children produce approx. half as much urine as adults.
A widely used design figure, based on Swedish data, is 1.5 L/
cap/d (or 550 L/cap/year)2.

2.6

Quality of urine

2.6.2 Pathogens
There are four types of pathogens relevant for sanitation:
bacteria, viruses, parasitic protozoa and intestinal helminths.
It is important to know that urine in the bladder of a healthy
person is sterile (meaning it contains no pathogens). Only
very few diseases are transmitted via pathogens in urine. The
only disease which needs to be considered from a risk perspective when urine is reused in agriculture is Schistosoma haematobium and only in areas where this disease is endemic
(WHO, 2006, Volume 4). In contrast, the amount of pathogens in faeces can be very high, depending on the prevalence
of diseases in the population.

2.6.3 Nutrients
Macro-nutrients in excreta include N, P, K and S (nitrogen,
phosphorus, potassium and sulphur) of which N and P are
the most important.
With regards to the nutrients contained in urine, the following design figures are used (derived mainly from Swedish
data but considered to be quite universal, see Jnsson et al.,
2004):
 Mass of nutrients excreted with urine: 4 kgN/cap/yr,
0.36 kgP/cap/yr and 1.0 kgK/cap/yr.
 Concentrations of macro-nutrients in urine (design
figure): 7300 mg/L N; 670 mg/L P; 1800 mg/L K.
 Concentration figures are based on a persons diet
and should preferably be verified onsite.
 80% of the nitrogen excreted by a person is excreted
with the urine, and the rest with the faeces. Hence,
in terms of nitrogen fertiliser, urine is more important
than faeces. For phosphorus, 55% is excreted with the
urine, the rest with the faeces.
 Adults excrete the same mass of nutrients as taken up
in their diet, as there is no retention of nitrogen and
phosphorus in the human body, except for children
where a small amount is retained for bone growth.

2.6.1 Source considerations

The description of urine quality in this section applies to
urine collected without cross-contamination with faeces. Such
cross-contamination is dealt with via urine treatment methods
(see Section 2.7).
Additionally, it should be highlighted that the quality of the
collected urine is related to the health and life style of the
people excreting it and to the urine collection system. For example, if urine is collected from a hospital or an old-age home
it will most likely contain more pharmaceutical residues than
urine from healthy and young people. And if urine is led
through copper pipes it may have a high copper concentration.
This has to be kept in mind during the design phase, especially
when reuse is planned.

The chemical composition of fresh and stored 3 urine is

summarised in Table 1 (see next page) and the following
observations are highlighted:
 Fresh urine contains nitrogen mainly in the form
of urea; stored urine contains nitrogen mainly in the
form of ammonium/ammonia (the transformation
process is described in Section 2.7.2).
 The lower phosphate, magnesium and calcium con
centrations in stored urine compared to fresh urine
are due to precipitation processes during storage.

2

Cap = capita = person

3 Stored urine means urine which is completely hydrolysed

(Udert et al., 2003), and this typically occurs within 2-4 weeks depen
ding on the amount of urease present (Maurer, 2007).

11

12

Table 1. Average chemical composition of fresh urine (literature

values) and stored urine (simulated values, see Udert et al. (2006))4 .
Significant changes during storage are indicated in bold.
Parameter

Fresh urine

pH

6.2

Total nitrogen, TN (mg/L)

8830

9200

Ammonium/ammonia-N,
NH 4 + and NH3 (mgN/L)

460

8100

Nitrate/nitrite NO 3 + NO 2
(mgN/L)

0.06

Chemical oxygen demand,

COD (mg/L)*

6,000

10,000

Total phosphorus, TP (mg/L)

800 2000

540

Potassium, K (mg/L)

2740

2200

Sulphate, SO 4 (mgSO 4 /L)

1500

1500

Sodium, Na (mg/L)

3450

2600

Magnesium, Mg (mg/L)

120

Chloride, Cl (mg/L)

4970

3800

Calcium, Ca (mg/L)

230

Stored urine
9.1

careless users deposit faeces in the urine compartment

of a UD toilet (this is termed cross-contamination of
urine with faecal material). As mentioned above, pure
urine is virtually pathogen-free.
 Other possible treatment objectives may include:
Volume reduction by evaporation or by conversion
into solid form (struvite) to reduce transport costs.
Extraction (further concentration) of nutrients.
Elimination of micro-pollutants.

2.7.2 Treatment by storage

* COD is a measure of the organic components.

2.6.4 Micro-pollutants
Micro-pollutants in urine could include the following
categories of substances:
1. Natural hormones
2. Pharmaceutical residues, including hormones
from contraceptive pill
3. Heavy metals
4. Persistent organic pollutants (POPs)
The last two categories of micro-pollutants heavy metals
and POPs are virtually non-existent in urine as they would
originate from the food a person has eaten. Urine is an important pathway for the body to eliminate organic degradation products which are toxic to the human body, but these
substances are easily biodegradable by soil microorganisms
after excretion. The first two categories of micro-pollutants
the natural hormones and pharmaceutical residues do occur
in urine and can be managed (see Section 2.7.3 and 3.2).

The simplest, cheapest and most common method to

treat urine with the aim of pathogen kill, is extended storage
in storage tanks.
Storage of urine in a closed tank or container (not necessarily
gas tight) is an efficient treatment method for reducing pathogens in urine: The decomposition of urea into ammonia/
ammonium and hydrocarbonate which is facilitated by the
natural enzyme urease leads to an increased pH value (pH
around 9) which has a sanitising effect (meaning it kills pathogens), so that bacteria, parasitic protozoa, viruses and intestinal
helminths die off over time. An environment with a high temperature and low dilution with water enhances this effect.
Time itself also leads to pathogen kill.
Safe reuse of urine in agriculture can be ensured if the following recommended storage times are used (for details see
WHO, 2006, Volume 4):
 Urine originating from larger systems (community level)
where cross-contamination with faeces cannot be
ruled out should be stored for at least one month if
it is used on food or fodder crops which are processed.
For a higher safety margin, 6 months of storage can be
used (in which case the urine can be used on all crops).
But if the ammonia level in the urine is greater than
2mgN/L (which it should be for undiluted urine) then
shorter storage times will suffice (Winker et al., 2008).
 No storage is needed when urine from own production
(or from systems where cross-contamination with faeces is definitely not occurring 5) is used for crops grown
for own consumption. This is because disease transmission within the household via the urine-oral route
is much less likely compared to day-to-day contact of
the household members.

2.7 Urine treatment

2.7.1

Urine treatment has the following objectives:

 Pathogen kill (this is the main objective): Collected
urine may be contaminated with faecal pathogens if

2.7.3 Other urine treatment technologies

Treatment objectives

Source: Maurer (2007)

Advanced urine treatment technologies can include biological processes (nitrification), chemical processes (struvite
precipitation; ozonation) or physical processes (membranebased). Some of these high-tech methods (such as ozonation

For example when urine is collected from waterless urinals.

and membrane-based processes) can remove micro-pollutants

from urine (see Larsen and Lienert (2007); Tettenborn
(2007)). This is useful to know if there is concern about
micro-pollutants in urine (see Section 3.2).

2.8

Are UD systems more cost effective?

Possible cost savings of urine diversion systems may be related to the following aspects (in each case, one needs to consider which systems are being compared):
 If a centralised sewer system and wastewater treatment
plant can be avoided by using UD toilets, then cost
savings will be significant. However, the collection
and treatment of greywater, industrial wastewater
and rainwater still requires a sewer system of some
sort (separate, decentralised systems may often be
preferable). Note that the remaining greywater in UD
systems contains a far lower concentration of pathogens and nutrients compared to conventional domestic
wastewater.
 In regions where water is scarce and expensive, water
savings from UD toilets (in particular UDDTs) can
lead to overall cost savings compared to flush toilets.
 In regions where soil fertility is poor and fertiliser expensive, farmers may have production cost savings or
higher yields when using urine as a fertiliser instead of
mineral fertiliser or no fertiliser at all.
Regarding potential energy savings, this needs to be analysed
on a case by case basis. Energy savings may be possible with
UD systems in three areas:
1. If the system is set up to use less water, energy savings
are possible with respect to pumping, processing and
distribution of the tap water.
2. Energy savings may be possible at the wastewater
treatment plant, which receives a lower load of nitrogen in the sewage if urine is collected separately
(hence less oxygen required for nitrification process).
3. If urine replaces artificial mineral fertiliser, then energy savings are possible for fertiliser production as well
as for fertiliser transport (most African countries have
no local mineral fertiliser production facilities).
A life cycle analysis, comparing the energy demand for nutrient removal and mineral fertiliser production versus nutrient
recovery identified a considerable energy saving potential with
urine diversion nutrient recovery (Maurer et al., 2003).
On the other hand, the following aspects can lead to UD
systems having higher costs than conventional systems:
 In comparison with conventional sewer-based sanitation
systems, urine diversion systems using UD flush toilets
tend to have a higher initial investment cost as they require additional components for the separate collection,
transport and treatment of the urine and faeces.

 A UDDT usually has a slightly higher capital cost

than a simple pit latrine or of course the do-nothing option of open defecation.

Adequate financing and operating schemes have to be found

that ensure financial sustainability and make the system afford
able for the users. Further information is available in the fact
sheet of the SuSanA working group on costs and economics
(http://www.susana.org/index.php/lang-en/working-groups/
wg02/documents-wg02).

2.9

Technical components used for achieving UD

To achieve urine diversion, the following technical components are used: waterless urinals, urine diversion toilets,
urine piping to a urine storage tank (or to a sewer) and a
reuse system for the urine. Further information is provided
in Sections 4 to 6.
There are two main variants of UD toilets: UDDTs (urine-
diversion dehydration toilets - no flush water is used at all)
and UD flush toilets (water is used to flush the faeces away
and to rinse the urine compartment).

3 Reuse of urine as fertiliser

in agriculture
3.1

How to use urine as a fertiliser

When sanitation projects are set up where collected urine

is to be used as fertiliser, consultation with farmers and soil fertility experts is essential, as the engineers setting up the sanitation projects usually lack the necessary agricultural expertise.

3.1.1

Basic guidelines

The benefits of urine as a fertiliser and its application me

thods have been well documented, for example in SuSanA
(2008), PUVeP (2008), Morgan (2007), WHO (2006) and
Jnsson et al. (2004). Some highlights from these documents
are summarised below.
Urine is a quick acting fertiliser that can be used for any crops
which require the macro-nutrients N, P, K or S (nitrogen,
phosphorus, potassium or sulphur 6). The fertilising effects
of these nutrients in urine are the same as those of artificial
mineral fertiliser if the same amount of nutriens is applied.
Hence, reuse of urine in agriculture has the potential to reduce demand for artificial mineral fertiliser.

6 Sulphur is an important macro-nutrient, needed in

approximately the same amount as phosphorus, and often lacking.

13

14

Below are some rules of thumb for the use of urine as a fertiliser with respect to its nutrient content (taken from Jnsson
et al. (2004) and others):
 Urine is a nitrogen-rich complete fertiliser, containing
also sodium and chloride. This makes it well suited as
fertiliser for crops thriving on nitrogen (such as maize)
and especially for crops also enjoying sodium, such as
chard (similar to spinach). Care should be taken when
applying it for crops sensitive to chloride (such as potatoes and tomatoes), although yields of these crops can
also be much improved by appropriate urine application.
 If all urine from one person is collected, it will suffice to
fertilise about 300-400 m of crop per person per year,
e.g. producing for example 250 kg of maize (roughly
equal to the food intake of one person per year).
 Apply the amount of urine that one person excretes in
one day on one square metre per cropping season (this
means approx. 1.5 L undiluted urine per square metre).
If we assume that there is 7 gN/L in urine (typical value
for Swedish conditions), then 1.5 L urine/m2 will correspond to 105 kg N/ha, which is a low to normal dose
for cereals (depending on the country, soil and expec
ted harvest from the field).
 The crop yield also depends very much on the soil, and
urine will always work better in living soils compared
to barren, sandy soils. The nitrogen converting bacteria must be present and compost helps enormously 7.
Some recommendations for the methods on how urine should
be applied as a fertiliser are:
 Between last fertilisation and harvest a period of at
least one month should always be applied (for both
large and small scale systems).
 The person applying the urine to the fields should
follow good personal hygiene practices (thorough
hand washing after applying the urine, and if possible
also wearing gloves and boots).
 The best nitrogen fertilising effect is obtained when
urine is applied close to the ground and directly incorporated or watered into the soil in order to minimise
ammonia losses to the air. In order to avoid leaching,
and for climates with heavy rainfall or very sandy
soils, frequent application of small amounts of urine is
favourable but not essential. It is necessary to balance
maximum crop yield with what is practical in real life.
 Urine should always be applied to the soil next to the
plant (in furrows) but not onto the plant. Otherwise
it might lead to burning of the leaves.

Note: We fertilise the soil, not the plant!.

Source: Peter Morgan, Aquamor, Zimbabwe in 2008

3.1.2 Specific advantages of urine compared to

other mineral fertilisers

As pointed out by Elisabeth Kvarnstrm (Stockholm Environment
Institute), one of the great advantages of urine is that the content of
heavy metals and organic compounds is very low, as these only come from
the food which you have once considered having a high enough quality to
ingest. Artificial mineral fertilisers can have a relatively high content of
heavy metals.
Secondly, when farmers are able to use the urine from their
families and neighbours in their own fields, this fertiliser is
essentially for free (but if urine has to be transported over a
distance from production to use, there are transport costs).
Urine fertiliser is also independent from the availability and
price of mineral fertiliser on the world market. Furthermore,
urine contains micro-nutrients which the soil may need for
higher soil fertility.

3.1.3 Disadvantages of urine compared to

other mineral fertilisers
Whilst urine is a proven fertiliser, it has some drawbacks
compared to artificially manufactured chemical fertilisers:
 Urine is, compared to artificial fertilisers, a diluted
fertiliser: The N, P, K and S concentration in urine
is much lower than in artificially manufactured fertiliser. Urines nutrient content expressed with the international fertiliser convention of N:PO:KO 8
is approximately 0.7:0.15:0.22 compared to for example di-ammonium-phosphate (DAP) or (NH)HPO
with the composition N:PO:KO of 21:46:0. This
means that a huge volume of water is transported
whenever urine fertiliser is transported.
 Urine contains traces of pharmaceutical residues and
hormones, and potential buyers of crops fertilised with
urine may be put off even if the actual health risks are
extremely low (see Section 3.2).
 Urine is a multi-component fertiliser, containing N, P,
K and S in a slightly variable ratio, which may or may
not be the right fertiliser for a given soil and crop.
The macro-nutrient concentrations in urine may vary
somewhat (although in relatively narrow ranges), depending on peoples diet and whether toilet users add
flush water to the toilet.
 Urine is a liquid fertiliser, whilst some farmers may
prefer a solid fertiliser if this is what they are used to
(unless urine is converted to struvite, by addition of
magnesium and raising pH, which is also a proven
process).

8 This means 0.15% by weight of PO, or 1500mg/L PO (multiply % value by 10,000).

The following disadvantages are not specific to urine as a

fertiliser but still need to be kept in mind:
 Like other fertilisers, urine can cause plant fertiliser
burn (also called leaf scorch) if not applied correctly.
Fertiliser burn is the visible symptom of insufficient
water in a plant associated with an over application
of fertiliser salts (salts dissolved in urine) 9.
 Urine adds salinity to the soil and therefore its use as
fertiliser to pot plants is only recommended when the
soil can easily be exchanged.
 A lso like other fertilisers, urine can lead to ground
water pollution (with nitrate) and nutrient run-off
(resulting in eutrophication in water bodies) if excess
amounts are applied.
 Urine is a multi-component fertiliser (with a fixed
ratio of N, P, K and S) which should only be applied
until the first nutrient reaches its optimum for the
soil (probably nitrogen or sulphur). Otherwise (if
applied until phosphorus is sufficiently supplied)
it can cause over-fertilisation of nitrogen and sulphur.

3.1.4 Should urine be applied undiluted

or diluted with water?
Urine can be applied either undiluted or diluted with
water, depending on the soil and the gardeners or farmers
preferences. Some gardeners dilute urine with water in a
ratio of 1:3, 1:5 or even up to 1:15, and this dilution has the
following advantages:
1. R educes risk of plant fertiliser burn (see previous
section).
2. Enables irrigation and fertilisation in one step (also
called fertigation) and with one piece of equipment.
But nozzles of drip irrigation may clog when a urinewater mixture is used for fertigation.
3. Reduces odour during application, especially if a
high dilution ratio is used (1:5 or greater).
4. Minimises the risk of applying too much fertiliser
to potted plants, as the pot will overflow before too
much nitrogen is applied.
On the other hand, applying urine undiluted has the advantage that a smaller volume of an odorous liquid has to be
handled.
When applying urine undiluted, fertiliser burn of the roots is
avoided by adding urine in furrows, somewhat to the side of
the plants (approx. 15 cm). Odour nuisance is minimised by
immediately covering the urine with soil after the urine has
been added to the furrows. Usually, irrigation water is added
directly after the urine application.

9 Root cells actively absorb fertiliser salts from soil solution, and
under normal conditions maintain a higher osmotic pressure. If excess
fertiliser salts are applied (i.e. concentrated urine which is not diluted),
the osmotic pressure of the soil solution is raised. This means water cannot enter the cell and may actively move out of it. The resulting injury is
known as fertiliser burn or physiological drought (Robert Holmer,
Ecosanres discussion forum, 2008).

3.2 Are hormones and pharmaceutical residues

in urine problematic for reuse?
The information in this section is based on Winker (2009)
and the input from Arno Rosemarin (Stockholm Environment
Institute). The publication of Larsen and Lienert (2007) is also
recommended in this context.
Hormones and pharmaceutical residues are two types of micro-pollutants which occur in urine (concentration levels are
available in Winker (2009)), as humans excrete them with
their urine and faeces (as a rule of thumb: two thirds of pharmaceutical residue substances are excreted with the urine, one
third with faeces, although the figures can vary widely for individual substances 10).
If urine is reused in agriculture, some of these micro-pollu
tants can be taken up by plants and thereby enter the human
food chain. This is a risk, but a small one. A full evaluation of
the potential toxic effects of pharmaceuticals ingested by humans via urine-fertilised crops is very difficult and has not yet
been done. The potential risks from consuming crops fertilised
with urine need to be compared with the risks related to pesticide use on crops, as well as antiobiotics and hormones given
to farm animals (poultry and cattle) which can be traced for
example in milk and eggs. At the end of the day, it comes down
to a risk analysis and risk management strategy.
Animal manures and sewage sludge containing pharmaceutical residues and hormones are already now being used on fields.
It was shown that the load of hormones and antibiotics in
human urine is in fact much lower than in animal manure
(however not all groups of substances can be compared in
this way as they are not all present in animal manure). With
sewer-based sanitation systems, these types of micro-pollu
tants are not removed in conventional sewage treatment plants
and are thus discharged into surface water bodies and can
reach the groundwater (detected concentrations of pharmaceutial residues in groundwater are in the order of 50ng/L in
several locations in Germany).
When comparing the two approaches (discharging urine with
treated wastewater to surface water versus urine application to
soil), it is likely to be safer to discharge urine to soil rather
than water. The micro-pollutants can be degraded better in
the aerobic, biologically active soil layers (high concentration
of micro-organisms per cubic centimetre) with longer residence
times than in water bodies whose ecosystems are much more
sensitive. This has previously been proven in the case of hormones 11, and more research is needed to prove it for other
types of micro-pollutants as well.

10 To be more precise: around 70% of pharmaceutical substances

are excreted via urine accounting for 50% of the overall ecotoxicological
risk (Larsen and Lienert, 2007). The ecotoxicological risk of the fraction
of pharmaceutical residues contained in urine and in faeces is the same
regardless of the higher number of substances excreted via urine.
11 This finding is of particular relevance regarding the artificial
hormones which are excreted in urine from women taking the
contraceptive pill.

15

16

Terrestial systems (soil) are more suitable for natural degra

dation of pharmaceuticals than aquatic systems because:
 The oxygen levels are around 50,000 times higher
in soil than in water.
 Exposure to UV light helps to degrade pharmaceuticals, although this only applies to the surface (1-2 cm
soil depth) and crops can shade the ground.
 The high specific surface of soil particles maximises
the exposure of adsorbed chemicals, maximising the
kinetics of degradation.
 The wide biodiversity of the fungal and bacterialflora
of soil is adapted to degrade various types of organic
molecules, both complex and simple.
Finally: Drug residues in sustainable sanitation products used
to supply plant nutrients can hardly be a serious issue in regions
where malnutrition, groundwater and surface water pollution
due to inappropriate sanitation and irrigation with untreated
wastewater is a reality 12.

3.3 Is urine an organic fertiliser and

can it be used in organic farming?
The definition of organic fertiliser may be according
to two different categories:
1. Organic in the analytical chemistry sense (a compound which contains carbon and may contain other
elements such as hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen).
2. Organic in a green, eco or natural sense.
Fresh urine contains urea and is thus an organic fertiliser in
the analytical chemistry sense. Stored urine contains ammonia and no urea (see Section 2.6.3), and is therefore not organic
but rather a mineral fertiliser in the analytical chemistry
sense. In other words: Urine is both a natural mineralised or
mineral fertiliser, and an organic, ecological or natural fertiliser 13.
The organic farming 14 regulations differ between countries
with regards to which type of fertiliser is allowed (and is in
this context called organic fertiliser). For example, countries
in the European Union are subject to the EU organic farming
legislation, where urine is not considered an allowed fertiliser.
In China on the other hand, urine is considered a natural fertiliser and thus allowed in organic farming. Making urine allowed for organic farming in the EU remains an important
challenge. It should be possible as urine is a natural fertiliser
with a similar composition as for example pig urine.

12 Source: Jrn Germer on Ecosanres discussion forum,

April 2009.
13 Source: Hkan Jnsson (on Ecosanres Discussion Forum, December 2008, http://www.ecosanres.org/discussion_group.htm)
14 A possible definition of organic farming/agriculture: Organic
agriculture is a production system that sustains the health of soils, ecosystems and people. It relies on ecological processes, biodiversity and
cycles adapted to local conditions, rather than the use of inputs with
adverse effects. Organic agriculture combines tradition, innovation and
science to benefit the shared environment and promote fair relationships

4 Waterless urinals
This chapter draws on the publication by v. Mnch and
Dahm (2009). Note: waterless means without water in
English. Some people also use the term waterfree. We do not
recommend any particular urinal model in this publication.

4.1

Definition and purpose

A urinal is a specialised toilet for urinating only, which is

used while standing up, and is designed primarily for male
users. Urinals are widely used around the world, especially in
public facilities being frequented by a large number of boys
and men, because they save space and costs compared to toilets (simpler design; no separate cubicles needed, although in
many cases separation panels are installed). Urinals are not
commonly used in private households due to their additional
space requirements.
A limited number of urinals for females (to be used while
standing or squatting) are on the market but they are not
widely accepted for various reasons, such as females having
greater needs for privacy as they have to partially undress.
Squatting-type urinals (squatting pans without an outlet for
faeces) are sometimes used for girls in African or Asian primary schools to save on space and costs compared to toilets.
Conventional urinals are flushed with approx. 4 L of water
either after each use or based on a timer, whereas waterless
urinals (see Figure 1) use no water for flushing.
The main motivation for using waterless urinals is to:
1. Save water and hence costs these urinals are
connected to a sewer system.
2. A llow collection of pure, undiluted urine for use in
agriculture as a nitrogen and phosphorus-rich fertiliser
these urinals are connected to a urine storage tank.
Waterless urinals are the first and easiest step towards urine
diversion and, possibly, ecological sanitation (ecosan).

Figure 1. Waterless urinals for men. Left: Centaurus model of Keramag

company. Right: Plastic urinal from Addicom, South Africa, with EcoSmell
stop device (sources: (left) E. v. Mnch, Delft, 2006; right: Addicom).
and a good quality of life for all involved (source: International
Federation of Organic Farming Movement, http://www.ifoam.org/).

4.2

Historical development of waterless urinals

In 1894, Mr. Beetz from Austria patented a drainage

device (trap) which allowed urinals to be made "flushless". The
trap used a sealant liquid (the mechanism is explained in
section 4.4.3). This patent was then commercially exploited
by the company F. Ernst Engineer in Zrich, Switzerland
who was the sole supplier of waterless urinals worldwide for
approximately 100 years.
In the early 1990s, water saving came into fashion and several
companies appeared on the market using derivatives of the
Beetz patent. At more or less the same time Hepworth, a UK
plumbing manufacturer, patented a drainage device (one way
valve) which was in fact a flat tube. A similar device is used
in small boats to drain spray water from the bilge. Derivative
patents of the flat tube elements are used today in waterless
urinals and marketed by various sanitary ware companies, for
example Keramag (model Centaurus).

place urinal in a well ventilated area (located outside

2.
3.

4.

4.4

of houses), and put up with some odour (may be

possible for rural areas).
Appropriate surface of the urinal bowl (smooth,
non-sticky, e.g. with wax coating).
Correctly designed interrelation between urinal bowl
and the drain fitting to minimise crevices where
urine can accumulate.
On an operational level: a thorough maintenance regarding the bowl and the odour blocking device. The
surface of the urinal bowl is usually wiped clean once,
twice or several times per day with a moist sponge.
For the odour blocking device, the maintenance
depends on the specifications of the urinal supplier
(see below).

Odour control for connection

of urinal to sewer or storage tank

4.4.1 Rubber tube seal

In 2002, a Swiss engineer living in South Africa (Peter Dahm)
patented a one way valve similar to the flat tube design but
using a curtain mechanism in order to reduce maintenance
requirements. This unit, which is now used in waterless urinals of several suppliers, is sold under the name of EcoSmellstop (ESS).
At present, Germany is probably the country with the highest
number of waterless urinals per capita, as the price of municipal tap water in Germany is one of the highest in the world,
and Germans are consequently very interested in all watersaving opportunities (1,200 waterless urinals of Keramag are
in use in the public toilets of Hamburg in Germany).

For this method, a flat rubber tube is used (Figure 2).

This rubber tube is flat at the bottom when not in use (and
hence blocks odour from the sewer or urine storage tank)
but opens up when urine is flowing through. This one-way
valve allows passage of grit up to 2 mm.

Waterless urinals are commonly used in industrialised countries for public toilets which are not connected to the sewer
(such as rest stops along highways). It would be beneficial if
they became widely used in developing countries as well.

Urine precipitates (urine stone), which stick to the rubber

tube need to be cleaned off with water regularly (otherwise
the flat rubber tube does not close properly anymore). The
cleaning frequency depends on the number of uses per day
(cleaning once per month under average circumstances may
be sufficient). The rubber tube needs to be replaced around
once a year. The rubber material is sensitive to solvents, acids,
and deodorising tablets often used in urinals. Therefore, the
use of acids or aggressive cleaning agents must be avoided. This
system is used for example by the German company Keramag
in their Centaurus model.

4.3

4.4.2 Curtain valve seal

Odour control methods (general)

To gain wide acceptance, waterless urinals must meet the

accepted standards applicable for conventional waterborne installations. Their odour emission must be less or at worst equal
to the old system. To achieve this odour-free performance four
aspects are absolutely crucial for waterless urinals:
1. Suitable mechanism to block the odour coming back
from the sewer and urine storage tank, for example
(discussed in detail in the sections below):
rubber tube seal
curtain valve seal
sealant liquid (blocking fluid)
plastic table tennis ball placed in a funnel which
is inserted in the opening of a jerrycan; or

The curtain valve seal is similar to the rubber tube seal,

but was designed to reduce maintenance requirements. This
type of one-way valve has self-cleaning properties as a small
pressure difference forces the urine to wet the whole inner
surface between the curtains, therefore flushing them clean.
The element is designed in a manner to minimise build-up of
urine precipitates or urine sludge and thus keeping the sealing
surfaces clean. Like the flat rubber tube seal, this one-way
valve also allows passage of grit up to 2 mm.

The silicon curtain element is integrated into a plastic casing
(Figure 2). The placing of the EcoSmellstop (ESS) element
into a plastic sleeve has two purposes, firstly to guarantee that

17

18

no odour from the sewer or urine storage tanks escapes into

the room, and secondly to allow an easy removal of the ESS
unit for maintenance purposes. For replacement of the
curtain (if simple cleaning is no longer possible), the entire
plastic casing is removed with a small plastic extractor tool
(Figure 3), then discarded and replaced with a new ESS. This
replacement process may be necessary about once per year
and takes only a few seconds. It can be performed without
having to touch the ESS element by hand.
The ESS manufacturing process is not simple as the injection
moulds are of extreme complexity, and the mixing and injection requires very sophisticated machinery. For this reason, it
is not yet possible to manufacture the ESS locally in develo
ping countries, but it can easily be imported as it is small,
light-weight and low-cost. This patented ESS unit is used by
the companies Addicom, Kellerinvent AG and F. Ernst Ingenieur AG 15 since 2006.













Figure 2. Two types of odour seals for waterless urinals. Left: Flat rubber
tube (Keramag Centaurus). Right: (left side) See-through pipe fitting;
(right side) see-through EcoSmellstop (ESS) unit showing the blue
silicon curtain one-way valve inside (source: (left) E. v. Mnch, 2007;
(right) Addicom).



















Figure 3. EcoSmellstop (ESS) unit with pipe fitting and extractor.
Inside the ESS is the silicon curtain valve (source: Addicom).

4.4.3 Sealant liquid (blocking fluid)

This system works with a sealant liquid (also called blocking fluid) which is made of vegetable oils or aliphatic alcohols
they are biodegradable if released to the sewer or urine storage tank. The sealant liquid, with a specific gravity of around
0.8, floats on top of the urine contained in the trap and thus
constitutes an effective odour barrier. Urine immediately pe
netrates the sealant liquid and flows to the drain. Urine precipitates are collected in a cartridge or inner cylinder of the
trap. The maintenance program of waterless urinals with a
sealant liquid consists of cleaning of the urinal bowl, and
the regular exchange of the cartridge (or the sealant liquid,
see Figure 4). The required exchange frequency depends on
the number of users. With each use and in between uses,
some urine precipitates accumulate which eventually renders
the trap inoperative. Foreign objects, such as cigarette stubs,
accelerate the process. At this point the cartridge has to be
cleaned or replaced.
If the trap starts to smell, while it is still freely passing urine,
merely a refill with the sealant liquid can resolve the problem
for some designs. In the USA, this is currently the most common type of waterless urinal, as under current legislation only
these liquid-filled traps are approved for waterless urinals.





























Figure 4. Example instruction sheet, showing replacement of sealant
liquid for Uridan urinals (other urinals with sealant liquid have a similar
maintenance routine) (source: Uridan).

Possible advantages of sealant liquid systems in the context of

developing countries may include:
No need to be exchanged when full with precipitates,
but can be easily cleaned.
After being cleaned, they can be refilled with some
thick cooking oil16 (this does not last as long as the
recommended liquid, but is available almost anywhere).
There is no clear evidence yet which of the three systems discussed above is better for low-cost, low-maintenance applications, and this may depend on the preference of the individuals or companies responsible for the urinals maintenance.

4.4.4 Other methods for the odour seal

Other methods for odour control are on the market (see
also suppliers listing in Appendix). One example is the system
by Urimat where the sealant liquid is replaced by a float (hydrostatic float barrier) which is magnetically activated thus
opening the channel to the overflow chamber. For low-cost
applications in developing countries, this system has the disadvantage of a higher complexity compared to the systems
described above 17.
Small-scale simple systems may utilise just a pipe or hose (without any odour trap) connecting the urinal with the tank. Here,
the odour can be controlled by having the urine pipe (filling
hose) going down to almost the bottom of the collection vessel,
thus creating a liquid seal in the collection vessel. Another option is to pour some cooking oil into the collection vessel, thus
creating a thin sealant film in the collection vessel itself. A cutoff condom on the urine outlet pipe has also been used.
Another very simple option for a waterless urinal is the eco-lily,
where a plastic funnel is inserted into the opening of a plastic
jerrycan. An old light bulb or a table tennis ball is placed into
the funnel to act as odour seal (it should float up when urine
enters the funnel but could end up sticking to the funnel).
The disadvantage of the light bulb over the plastic ball is that
the solder and metal cap on the light bulb contains heavy metals
which can contaminate the urine.

4.5

Further design information

The space requirement of a urinal is less than that of a toilet, which makes them popular for any venue where many men
need to urinate (soccer stadiums, restaurants, schools, etc.).
Waterless urinals are usually wall hung and do not require
piping for flush water nor flushing devices, thus allowing a
considerable cost saving. The flushing devices as well as the
traditional water traps in the outlet piping (U, P or bottle
shaped) of conventional urinals tend to attract a considerable
amount of vandalism (hence waterless urinals can further re-

duce maintenance costs). Waterless urinals do not need to be

connected to a sewer but can be connected to a urine storage
tank instead (important for remote locations not connected
to sewers). Obviously, water for hand wash basins and waterf lushed toilets (if not replaced by waterless toilets) is still
required next to the waterless urinals.
Materials
Urinal bowls are typically made of acrylic, ceramic, stainless
steel or glass-fibre reinforced polyester, but can also be made
of simple low-cost plastic, provided that it has a smooth surface (for odour control). Self-construction of inexpensive
waterless urinals is also possible. When using plastic urinal
bowls, one option is to use linear low density polypropylene
as it is one of the most inert plastics (non-stick surfaces). The
hot production process at 180C guarantees a smooth, non-
porous surface, therefore minimising bacterial biofilm growth.
Converting water-flushed urinals to waterless urinals
It is in principle also possible to convert conventional waterflushed urinals to waterless urinals (depending on the bowl
design), for example by using the ESS, which is also sold as a
stand alone unit. It is very important to get a snug fit of the
ESS into the urinal drain.

4.6

Use and maintenance of waterless urinals

The instructions given below are not for urinals at households but for installations at institutions or public places 18.
At household level, different maintenance routines apply than
those described below due to much lower frequency of use.
The urinal bowl should be cleaned daily, just like any other
(water-flushed) urinal. There are 100% biodegradable clea
ning solutions on the market that are simply sprayed onto
the urinal bowl and not wiped off. For example, URIMAT
MB-AktivReiniger with tensides is used for the 50 waterless
urinals in the GTZ headquarters in Eschborn, Germany.

15 The company F. Ernst Ingenieur AG used the sealant liquid sys (in its waterless urinals installed mostly in Switzerland and Germatem
but changed over to the EcoSmellstop system in October 2006, and
ny),
is now retrofitting all of its approx. 100,000 urinals which were installed
prior to that date (F. Ernst AG operates its urinals under a maintenance

contract
should the client not decide otherwise).
Hakan Jnsson: the important properties of oil for this use are
16
density
lower than water - most oils have a density around 0.7 kg/L - this

way it floats on urine; hydrophobic - maintains a lid above the urine and its

content;
and both of these are shared by cooking oils. Cooking oils are partly

unsaturated
and will thus oxidise faster and need replacement, but this is
secondary
to them being generally available.

17 Hans Keller used to run the company Urimat and has the pat
ents.
But he now runs Keller Invent which bought F Ernst AG (hence
Keller moved from hydrostatic float barrier to ESS).
Mr.
18
In countries with wide-spread sewer systems, urinals are not
used at household level. But in countries where onsite sanitation is com
mon,
waterless urinals at household level are used together with urine diversion dehydration toilets.

19

20

Any type of odour seal (be it flat rubber tube, curtain seal or
sealant liquid) needs to be cleaned (or replaced if cleaning is
no longer possible) at regular intervals to keep it fully functional. The frequency of cleaning or replacement of the odour
seal system depends mainly on the number of uses per day as
well as user and cleaning staff behaviour (in terms of foreign
objects discarded in urinal). It can therefore vary widely,
ranging from once a week to once every six months.

In some instances, there may be a psychological barrier of users

or cleaning staff (if a urinal is not flushed it cannot be hygie
nic). The thought that water is always equal to hygiene is an
understandable misconception. However, when faced with a
well-functioning, odourless waterless urinal, those fears are
quickly alleviated, which is why demonstration projects can
be useful. Todays waterless urinals are designed to be odourless and simple to maintain.

The flat rubber tube and ESS units can be cleaned many times
before having to be replaced. Some sealant liquid cartridges
cannot be cleaned but need to be replaced when they fail,
whilst for example the Uridan system can be cleaned, and
the sealant liquid replaced, any number of times. To give an
example: According to information given by Addicom, an ESS
element can last for 16 months with careful maintenance, such
as spraying the urinal bowl regularly with the cleaning agent
DestroySmell (containing tensides and active microorganisms),
and removing the ESS element and rinsing with diluted citric
acid to slow down the formation of urine precipitates on the
curtains.

As waterless urinals are a novelty for many people, any smell

emitted from a waterless urinal gets blamed on the new system.
However a smelly water-flushed urinal is accepted as normal
as they have a long odorous history. It is a fact that any type
of urinal (water-flushed or waterless) will not smell if well
maintained. The extent of maintenance required for waterless urinals can be higher or lower compared to water-flushed
urinals, depending on the type of waterless urinal used (as
explained above).

Empirical evidence gathered in low-income settings in South

Africa (such as public parks and taxi ranks in Johannesburg)
since 2004 suggests that the curtain seal (ESS system) can
perform with less maintenance than the flat rubber tube. In
regions where diligent maintenance of urinals cannot be gua
ranteed (such as public toilets in informal settlements in subSaharan Africa), the ESS system may therefore be a better
choice of the two. More side-by-side comparisons between
different waterless urinal types are required, particularly for
urban, low-income areas in developing countries with a potentially high level of abuse and neglect.

The following options exist for buying waterless urinals in

developing countries:
 Imported waterless urinals with or without patented
odour control devices
 Plastic waterless urinals manufactured locally and
imported ESS element or liquid seal inserted for
odour control
 Self-constructed waterless urinals made from plastic
containers.

4.7

User acceptance of waterless urinals

Experience worldwide has shown that waterless urinals enjoy the same level of user acceptance as water-flushed urinals
do, since for the male users there is no behaviour change required (many users do not even notice that they are using a
waterless urinal). For those men who are shy and do not like
using urinals in public places (for lack of privacy), it makes no
difference whether the urinal is water-flushed or not.
In cultures where anal washing with water is practiced, each
urinal can be installed in a cubicle to guarantee privacy. For
example, many Muslim males wash their genitals with water
after urinating, which requires water supply and separate drai
nage facilities. Prior to providing waterless urinals, one has
to establish whether the community in question is willing
to accept such facilities. Note also that in some cultures
men are used to squatting when urinating. Waterless urinals
could be placed on the ground instead of being wall-hung.

4.8

Suppliers and costs of waterless urinals

For low cost applications, simple plastic urinals may be a good

option. These can be produced in a "rotation moulding" pro
cess. This is a cheap and simple process to make a single-skin
type unit, which can be replicated in any country.
Suppliers lists for waterless urinals are provided in the Appendix.
For reference installations either contact the manufacturers or
see the case study descriptions of sustainable sanitation
projects on www.susana.org. Many of these projects incorporate waterless urinals. Photos of waterless urinals are also
available here: http://www.flickr.com/photos/gtzecosan/
sets/72157613881735035/

4.9

How to choose the right type of waterless urinal

When choosing a waterless urinal from the large range of

suppliers and models, the following guide questions can be
used (for waterless urinals in institutions and public places 19):
1. Do the urinals need to be as cheap as possible?
2. Do the users prefer ceramic urinals over plastic urinals?

19 Note: For waterless urinals at households, the maintenance considerations are quite different. Households want to use maintenance materials that can be found in a general store at a minimal cost.

3.

 re the urinals available locally (local distributor)

A
or do they have to be imported?
4. Does the supplier offer you to get in contact
with the suppliers existing clients?
5. Does the supplier have reference letters?
6. How many units has the supplier sold already?
7. Do the urinals need spare parts and can they be
obtained locally with minimal waiting times?
8. Is there likely to be any vandalism in the location
where the urinals will be installed?
9. W ho will do the maintenance and will they be
diligent or rather unreliable?
10. A fter how many uses does the odour seal need
replacement (or after what time period)?
11. How long does each event of odour seal
replacement take?
12. How difficult is the odour seal replacement routine?

5 Urine diversion toilets

5.1

Definition

Urine diversion (UD) toilets are designed to not mix urine

and faeces at the point of collection in the toilet. There are
two main main types of UD toilets and both types can be
built indoors:
1. Urine diversion dehydration toilets (UDDTs)
 No flushwater is used. These toilets are often called
ecosan toilets but this would wrongly label one
particular toilet type as the toilet to be used in
ecosan projects.
2. U D flush toilets
Water is used to flush the faeces away and to
rinse the urine compartment.
These toilets may be implemented within new sanitation
systems or may complement existing systems. In any case,
additional pipework such as a pipe from the toilets to the
urine storage tanks becomes necessary (see Section 6).

5.2

Basic design information for UD toilets

Careful planning and appropriate design is essential for

successful application of UD toilets. They should be designed
or chosen based on the needs and the customs of the users.
The preferred posture of the user can be:
 Sitting toilets (with pedestals):
these can be wall-hung or floor mounted; or
 Squatting toilets (with squatting pans): many people
are used to toilets which are used in a squatting position.

Further design considerations which are important for all types

of UD toilets (details are provided in Section 5.3 and 5.4):
1. Do the users wash their anal area with water after
using the toilets or do they use toilet paper (washers
as opposed to wipers)? This is customary in many
Muslim and Buddhist cultures but may also be linked
to factors other than religion.
2. Needs of disabled people, elderly, children when
using the toilet
3. Specific needs of females
(menstrual hygiene; privacy and security needs)
4. Odour control for the urine collection system
5. Will the toilet be an indoor or an outdoor toilet
(indoor is likely to become the norm in the future
and is possible with UD toilets)?

5.3

Urine diversion dehydration toilets (UDDTs)

This section on UDDTs contains only basic information.

For more information on this important technology and its
operation and maintenance requirements see:
 Technology review on UDDTs by GTZ
(http://www.gtz.de/en/themen/umwelt-infrastruktur/
wasser/9397.htm)
 Berger and Lorenz-Ladener (2008); Morgan (2007);
Austin (2006); Kvarnstrm et al. (2006); Winblad
and Simpson-Hebert (2004)
The benefits of UDDTs compared to pit latrines were listed
in Section 2.3.2.

5.3.1 Basic design information

UDDTs do not use water for flushing. They use a very simple system where the urine is captured in a bowl which is
integrated in the front of the toilet pedestal or squatting pan.
From here, the urine is drained off to a storage container.
For the faeces, a straight drop (or chute if toilets are on seve
ral levels in the house) is provided from the toilet pedestal or
squatting pan to a collection vault or bin.
A vent pipe is provided to ventilate the faeces chamber, remove
odour from the room and to speed up the drying process.
UDDTs are not designed for composting to take place in the
faeces vault but just for drying.
In regions where people practise anal cleansing with water, a
third outlet hole is used, to collect and treat the anal washwater
separately from urine and faeces (see Figure 5). It is best not
to mix anal washwater with urine to keep pathogen levels in
the urine at a minimum, if urine is to be used as a fertiliser.

21

22

The anal washwater can be infiltrated in a gravel filter or

treated together with greywater in a subsurface constructed
wetland. UDDTs are especially popular wherever there is water
scarcity and a demand for cheap fertiliser. They can be built
indoors or outdoors.

5.3.4 Use and maintenance

The main operational requirement when using UDDTs is
that the faeces vault is kept as dry as possible (no addition of
urine or water). The urine and faeces containers need to be
emptied when full.
Covering material should be added to the faeces vault after
each defecation. Covering material can be ash, sand, soil,
lime, leaves or compost and should be as dry as possible.
The purpose of adding covering material is to:
 reduce odour
 assist in drying of the faeces (to soak up excess moisture)
 prevent access for flies to faeces
 improve aesthetics of the faeces pile (for next user)
 increase pH value (achieved when lime or ash is used).

5.3.5 Project examples

Figure 5. left: Indoor UDDT (pedestal type) in Johannesburg, South

Africa in the house of Richard Holden (source: E. v. Mnch, 2006).
Right: UDDT squatting pan in Bangalore, India, with three holes: the area
in the front is for anal washing, middle is for faeces and back is for
urine (source: D. Schfer, 2008).

UDDTs are used in many rural and urban sustainable

sanitation projects worldwide. They have been installed
at households, schools, prisons, universities etc. and for public
toilets (see for example SuSanA case studies on:
http://www.susana.org/lang-en/case-studies).

5.4

UD flush toilets

5.4.1 Overview on historical development

5.3.2 Odour control for urine collection system
An odour seal may be used on the urine pipe if the toilet
is indoors, especially in systems with many toilets (the same
types of seals as for waterless urinals can be used, including
the ESS (see Section 4.3)). Some UDDTs even have an integrated fan (such as the toilet of Separett), which removes odour
from both the faeces bucket and the urine pipe. No separate
odour blocking device is necessary in this case.
For outdoor UDDTs with individual urine storage tanks, the
connection to the urine storage tank is usually direct, without any odour trapping device. The faeces chamber has a vent
pipe to remove odour from the toilet, and dry additives assist
in odour control.

5.3.3 Construction methods and materials

Possible materials for the toilet pedestal or squatting pan
are: ceramic, concrete, acrylic or glass-fibre reinforced plastic.
The toilet can either be self-constructed or prefabricated.
Metal components (except for stainless steel) cannot be used
since urine is corrosive.

UD flush toilets were invented in Sweden in the 1990s

(Kvarnstrm et al., 2006). They were first adopted in eco-
villages and holiday homes. Today, they are also used in some
housing projects and public buildings in several countries
in Europe, although still only at a pilot scale. A detailed study
(called NOVAQUATIS) on UD flush toilets was conducted
by Eawag, Switzerland (Larsen and Lienert, 2007).

5.4.2 Basic design information

The benefits of UD flush toilets compared to flush toilets
were listed in Section 2.3.1. The UD flush toilet has a partition in the toilet bowl isolating a bowl for urine in the front,
and a bowl for faeces in the back. The bowl is similar to
bowls used for UDDTs, except that for the UD flush toilet,
water is used to flush the faeces away. The flushing mechanism
for the urine part is designed in one of two ways:
1. The urine pipe stays open and therefore receives a
certain amount of flushing water when the bowl is
flushed (see Figure 6); or
2. t he urine pipe is closed by a valve and therefore
receives no flushing water (this is the case for the
Roediger NoMix toilets).

The UD flush toilets can reduce water consumption compared to conventional water-flushed toilets because the water
required for the urine flush is less than the amount for the
faeces flush.
UD flush toilets can also be combined with the concept of
vacuum toilets (realised for example by the company Roediger for a pilot project in Berlin Stahnsdorf and by the Swe
dish company Wost Man Ecology, see Appendix). This type
of toilet collects urine and a small, concentrated amount of
brownwater (faeces with about 1 L of flush water).













Figure 6. UD flush toilets. Left: Gustavsberg (in Meppel, the Netherlands);
Right: Dubbletten (in Stockholm, Sweden); (sources: E. v. Mnch, 2007).

5.4.3 Odour control for the urine collection system

For the urine pipe, several types of odour seals are used by
the toilet manufacturers, such as a valve (Roediger NoMix toilets), a urine/water seal (Gustavsberg toilets) or a novel silicon
seal (Dubbletten toilets).
Odour locks in the UD toilets urine pipe are required to pre
vent back flow of odour into the toilet room; but these are not
necessary in the case of short urine pipe systems of up to 3-4 m.
For the faeces part, odour control is achieved by a water seal in
a U-bend (just like for conventional flush toilets).

A particular problem found with the Roediger NoMix toilet

is that toilet paper thrown into the urinal bowl is not flushed
away with the small urine flush; and hence more than one
flush becomes necessary negating the water saving effect of
this type of toilet 20.
Another problem of the Roediger NoMix toilet is that the valve
on the urine pipe can get blocked over time. In this case, urine
is no longer collected in the storage tank but flows to the faeces
section of the toilet, or the valve is not closing anymore causing
odour problems in the toilet room. Therefore, the user needs to
carry out preventative maintenance by adding diluted citric acid
to the valve once per month for a period of 24 hours.

5.4.6 Project examples

UD flush toilets are used in some industrialised countries
and they are not a low cost option. So far they are mainly used
in Sweden and in some projects in Germany, the Netherlands,
Switzerland and Austria.
Two project examples for which detailed descriptions are avail
able are (both on http://www.susana.org/lang-en/case-studies/
region/europe):
 Urine and brownwater separation at the GTZ
main building, Eschborn, Germany
 Urban urine diversion & greywater treatment
system, Linz, Austria

5.5

Suppliers and costs for UD toilets

Information on models and suppliers can be found in

the Appendix. The costs for some of these toilets are relatively
high, as the number sold is quite low. If the market for these
types of toilets grows and more suppliers enter the market,
then the unit costs will decline.

5.6

How to choose between a UDDT

and a UD flush toilet

5.4.4 Materials
As UD flush toilets have been designed for users in highincome countries, they have been manufactured only in cera
mic and have a similar appearance to conventional flush toilets.

5.4.5 Use and maintenance

The faeces section of UD flush toilets is cleaned in the
same way as for conventional f lush toilets (with a brush).
Toilet paper is flushed away together with the faeces.

For pro-poor approaches in developing countries, UDDTs

are more suitable than UD flush toilets, as the latter still require
a reliable 24-hour water supply, a sewer system and a treatment
process for the faeces-water mixture (brownwater).
In countries with existing infrastructure for wastewater treatment, the UD flush toilet may become competitive with the
conventional flush toilet in the future if the benefits listed in
Section 2.3 are drivers for the required switch.

20 The Roediger NoMix toilet is a first prototype which requires

further development of its design.

23

24

6 Urine piping and storage tanks

A comprehensive description of the technical details for

urine pipes and tanks is available in Kvarnstrm et al. (2006).
Some key considerations are provided below.

6.1

Urine piping

6.1.1

Functional principles

6.1.4 Odour control

To prevent odours, the piping system should be only sparingly ventilated, pressure equalisation is enough (see Section 6.3
for more details on ventilation). Also the pipe opening needs to
be immersed into the liquid in the storage tank. This is parti
cularly important in long vent pipes that can act as chimneys
with upward flow of air 23.

The urine piping system connects waterless urinals or the

urine section of a UD toilet to the urine storage tank. As
urine generates a considerable amount of urine precipitates
and sludge (see Section 2.4.4 for causes), special attention has
to be paid to the design and maintenance of the urine piping
system.

This means that the incoming pipe to the urine storage tank
should go down almost to the bottom, so that a liquid seal is
formed preventing undue gas movement through the piping
system. But it is not recommend to place a bucket at the base
of this pipe, as it might fill with sludge and thus introduce a
flow restriction.

6.2

Urine storage tanks

6.1.2 Materials

6.2.1 Functional principles

Urine pipework is normally made of durable plastics such

as polyethylene (PE) or polyvinyl chloride (PVC).

The urine which is collected by means of a waterless urinal

or by a urine diversion toilet flows to a urine storage tank.
These tanks have a lid and are closed to prevent odour and loss
of nitrogen via ammonia gas. The tanks are either emptied by
the users themselves (small-scale systems) or emptied by a pump
and truck arrangement. The urine is then transported to the
point of agricultural reuse or to further storage or treatment.

6.1.3 Pipe size and layout

To maximise the owrate of the urine (and any sediments),
the insides of the pipes should be smooth. Flow restrictions,
such as sharp 90 bends, should be avoided as much as possible.
The minimum recommended diameter of the pipes is 50 mm,
but the optimum range is from 75 mm to 110 mm.
For larger systems (several toilets connected to one urine tank),
the slope of the pipe should be at least 1% to minimise urine
precipitation. For individual toilet systems, the slope should
be at least 4%, but can be built with smaller diameter pipes,
down to about 15 mm.
For inspection and cleaning, the pipes should be made
accessible (by provision of inspection openings).
As a rule of thumb: keep urine pipes as short as possible
and with the highest possible slope. Horizontal pipes should
not exceed 200 m because of the problems of sludge accumulation in the continuously wetted side of the pipe 21.

Urine storage tanks have one or several of the following three

main purposes:
1. To bridge the time in between collection/emptying
events.
2. To sanitise the urine: over time, pathogens in the
urine are killed off (increased pH due to urea conversion to ammonia (see Section 2.7.2).
3. To bridge periods where plants are not fertilised: The
plants need for fertiliser is not constant all year round
(except in the tropics). Fertiliser nutrients are generally
only needed just before sowing and in the beginning
of the growth period (see Section 3).
There are two types of urine tanks: the receptor urine tank at
the toilet and the urine storage tank for storage, sanitisation
and reuse (these functions can be realised in the same vessel
or in separate vessels).

Over time crystals and sludge may accumulate in the slow

flowing horizontal parts of the pipe system, so periodic flushing may be necessary (once every few years in the best case;
more frequent in the worst case) 22.

21 Source: Arno Rosemarin (March 2009)

22 Hakan Jnsson (March 2009): My fairly extensive experience is
that as long as there is at least a slope of 1% and the diameter is 75 mm or
more, then the sludge will flow out at the rate of generation and flushing is
not necessary. The reason why extensive pipes should be avoided is that frequently there has been problems with groundwater leaking into the pipes, diluting the urine!
23 Source: Arno Rosemarin, March 2009, based on experience with
large-scale urine diversion system with indoor UDDTs in Erdos, China.

6.2.2 Locations

6.2.4 Urine tank size

The location of the urine storage tanks can be:

1. At toilet level: If the urine is to be used in the household garden, a simple plastic jerrycan can be used.
2. At household/building level (several toilets together).
3. A t community level (several houses together)
this is possible if distances between houses are short.

The urine tank system may be set up to use one large urine
storage tank or several smaller tanks (even down to using a large
number of 20L jerrycans). In either case, the required total
storage volume (Vstorage) can be estimated as follows (additional safety factors may be applied):

25

Vstorage=Nuserspurinet storage ftimefraction

As the urine tanks must be emptied regularly, suitable access
for persons or vehicles is required.
The tanks can be located either in the cellar of the building,
next to the building or below ground. Urine tanks below
ground have the disadvantage that leaks from the urine tank
are difficult to detect (a leaking urine storage tank can lead
to groundwater pollution with ammonia and nitrate or to
the tank being filled with groundwater). Underground tanks
have the advantages however that they are usually cheaper
to build, have a better insulation in winter (relevant for cold
climates) and the access to the manhole is usually also easier.
In the case of underground tanks it is important to take the
groundwater level into account to avoid tanks floating in the
event of rising groundwater.
Whilst the tanks are closed and designed to minimise odour,
some odour could still occur. Hence, the tanks should be in
a well-ventilated area and away from kitchens, offices and
bedrooms to minimise odour complaints.
A secondary urine storage tank at the farmers premises may
be necessary to enable the farmers to apply the urine when they
need it (Figure 8).

6.2.3 Materials
Urine storage tanks need to be completely watertight to
avoid loss of urine fertiliser, groundwater contamination and
groundwater entering. They are most commonly made of glass
fibre reinforced plastic, PE, PP or PVC, but they can also be
made of rubber bladders or high-quality reinforced concrete
(there are a fair number of concrete urine tanks in Sweden,
but they need to be built to a high standard to avoid leakages).
Metal components cannot be used since urine is corrosive (except for stainless steel, which could be used but is expensive).
Plastic tanks which are sold for rainwater harvesting are also
suitable as urine storage tanks, and can be a good solution in
developing countries.

with:
Nusers
purine

= number of users
= specific urine production per person
(~ 1.5L/cap/d of urine if the user is at the
premises 24 hours per day 24)
= desired storage time 25
= fraction of time that the users stays at the
premises where the toilet is.

t storage
ftimefraction

The required storage time (t storage) was already discussed in

Section 2.7.2). For example, typical design criteria for a sto
rage tank are 360 L of urine per person per year (if they spend
2/3 of their time at the premises) and a storage time of one
month.
It is obvious from this equation that if urine is flushed away
with water, then a larger urine storage tank is required compared to a toilet where urine is collected undiluted.
When designing the size of the urine storage tank, consideration also needs to be given to the capacity of the emptying
vehicle. Details on possible emptying vehicles in the low-cost
context are provided in Slob (2006).
If transportation occurs manually, the collection tanks
should not be larger than 20L which equals 20kg when
full (this would already be too heavy for the elderly,
females and children).

6.2.5 Number of urine tanks needed

For proper sanitisation (to kill pathogens originating from
cross-contamination with faeces) it is important that the urine
is stored without fresh urine entering before it is applied in
agriculture. Hence, at least two tanks are recommended (a receptor tank and a storage tank).
For large installations, the use of several urine storage tanks is
advisable so that one can be taken out of service if necessary.
24 Plus flushing water if UD flush toilets are used, unless they have
a valve like the Roediger NoMix toilet model.
25 This could also be the desired time between emptying events if
sanitisation by storage is not the aim (for receptor tank with additional
storage elsewhere).

26

6.2.6 Urine overflow pipe

Installation of a urine overflow pipe on the tank is not
recommended, as this increases costs and introduces a risk of
contamination of the urine when there is an overflow or block
age in the ordinary wastewater system. Also, if there is an over
flow arrangement, users may be tempted to just let the urine
overflow and not ensure its use. It is better that the urine is
pumped to an acceptable disposal point with a portable waste
water pump if the collection tank becomes too full.

6.2.7 Examples
Examples for urine storage tanks of different sizes are
shown below.













Figure 7. Left: Low-cost solution: 20 L plastic jerrycan for urine storage at in dividual toilet level in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso (source: E. v. Mnch, 2006).
Note: it might be quite difficult to lift up a full jerrycan out of this enclosure.
Right: Below-ground plastic urine storage tanks at Kulln, Sweden during the
construction process. The tanks will be covered with soil (photo: Mats
Johansson, source: Kvarnstrm et al., 2006).


















Figure 8. Urine storage tank made of a 150 m plastic bladder at Lake
Bornsjn near Stockholm, Sweden (photo comissioned by: E. v. Mnch,
2007).

Figure 9. Plastic urine storage tank in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso as part
of the EU-funded project ECOSAN_UE led by CREPA (source: S. Rd, 2008).

6.3 Ventilation for pressure equalisation

of pipes and tanks

The pipe and tank system should only be pressure equalised (not ventilated) which is best done by a small hole in the
tank for equalisation with the urine tank pressure. This allows the replacement of headspace air by urine flowing into
the tank, and vice versa when emptying the tank.
The reasons why the pipe system should not be ventilated are:
 To eliminate ammonia emissions and odour.
 To reduce risk of sucking the liquid out of any liquid
urine seals in the UD toilets.
A one-way valve or air admittance valve placed at the top of
the vent pipe can also be a good option. Advantages of such
a valve are 26:
1. that ammonia is not emitted,
2. internal pressure is equalised ensuring proper drainage
downwards to the tank (emptied urine pipes mean no
standing urine and less precipitation),
3. t he installation can be done inside the building just
above the top floor in the building so that the top of
the vent pipe does not need to penetrate the rooflike
old-fashioned ventilation pipes,
4. saves on construction costs,
5. eliminates problemscaused by condensation ice in
cold climates and UV weathering of plastic pipes.

These one-way air valves are popular in Sweden for greywater

and urinesystems, and many new houses no longer have protruding vent pipes.
The urine tank should not be opened more often than necessary in order to prevent odour development and ammonia-
nitrogen losses. Important points concerning the tanks
ventilation system are:

26 Posting by Arno Rosemarin (SEI, Sweden) on Ecosanres discussion forum, August 2008.

  Normally no vent pipe is needed, provided that the




6.4

main opening is not very tightly sealed.

In places where odour control is essential, a small
diameter vent pipe can be used for pressure equalisation of the tank.
If the tank is emptied by a pump, provisions should be
made for sufficient flow of air into the tank. This prevents excessive vacuum in the tank, which can cause
tank implosion.

Maintenance of urine pipes and tanks

It is difficult to predict how frequently pre-emptive maintenance should be carried out as this depends on local circum
stances. Trial and error will lead to an optimised cleaning
schedule. Experience has shown that correctly installed pipes
generally need no cleaning, except for the odour seal or 90
bends (which should be avoided).
Detailed instructions for cleaning and preventing blockages in
U-bend odour seals are provided in Kvarnstrm et al. (2006),
from where the following paragraphs are taken:
In all installations there is a risk of blockages occurring mainly
in the odour seal in the urine pipe. It is a result of bres and other
particles entering the piping system and of chemical precipitation
of struvite and calcium phosphates from the urine caused by the
increase in pH which occurs when its urea is degraded. The precipitation also forms a viscous sludge, which will slowly ow towards the tank provided that the slope of the pipes is correct.
Most blockages that occur in urine-diverting toilets are soft blockages caused by precipitation on hair and paper bre. The other
type is hard blockages, caused by precipitation directly on the pipe
wall 27. The blockages are removed either mechanically by a drain
auger or chemically by use of strong solutions of caustic soda
(2 parts of water to 1 part of soda) or acetic acid (>24%).

It is important that the cleaning is carried out without affecting the quality of the urine in the urine storage tanks is not
negatively affected.
If the urine can flow freely and immediately without additions of water directly after urination to the storage tank,
then no or very few blockages in the pipe will occur.
At the bottom of the urine storage tank a layer of sludge
forms over time (containing precipitates and crystals see
Section 2.4.4), with high levels of nitrogen, phosphorus,
calcium and magnesium. If the full nutrient value of urine
is to be used for fertiliser purposes, then it needs to be ensured that also the bottom sludge layer is emptied and reused.
Incomplete emptying would also result in reduced available
storage volume.

27 Hard blockages tend to occur when water is mixed with urine,

whereas soft blockages tend to occur in pure urine systems.

7 References
7.1

References used in this document

Austin, L. M. (2006) Guidelines for the design, operation and
maintenance of urine diversion sanitation systems, Volume 4,
Report to the Water Research Commission, WRC TT 275/06,
South Africa,
http://www2.gtz.de/dokumente/oe44/ecosan/en-guidelinesurine diversion-sanitation-systems-2006.pdf
Berger, W. and Lorenz-Ladener, C. (2008) Kompost-Toiletten
Sanitrtechnik ohne Wasser (in German). kobuch Verlag,
Staufen bei Freiburg, Germany (www.oekobuch.de). Table of
contents: http://www2.gtz.de/Dokumente/oe44/ecosan/deTOC-ONLY-kompost-toiletten-ohne-wasser-2008.pdf
Cordell, D., Schmid-Neset, T., White, S. and Drangert, J.-O.
(2009) Preferred future phosphorus scenarios: a framework
for meeting long-term phosphorus needs for global food demand. International Conference on Nutrient Recovery from
Wastewater Streams, Vancouver, Canada, May 2009,
http://www2.gtz.de/Dokumente/oe44/ecosan/en-preferred-
future-phosphorus-scenarios-2009.pdf
EcoSanRes (2008) Closing the loop on phosphorus, EcoSanRes Factsheet 4, Stockholm Environment Institute, Stockholm, Sweden, http://www.ecosanres.org/pdf_files/ESRfactsheet-04.pdf

Jnsson, H., Richert Stintzing, A., Vinners, B. and Salomon, E. (2004) Guidelines on the use of urine and faeces
in crop production, EcoSanRes Publications Series, Report
2004-2, Sweden, www.ecosanres.org/pdf_files/
ESR_Publications_2004/ESR2web.pdf
Kvarnstrm, E., Emilsson, K., Richert Stintzing, A., Johansson, M., Jnsson, H., af Petersens, E., Schnning, C., Christensen, J., Hellstrm, D., Qvarnstrm, L., Ridderstolpe, P. and
Drangert, J.-O. (2006) Urine Diversion-One Step Towards
Sustainable Sanitation. Report 2006-1, EcoSanRes Programme,
Stockholm Environment Institute, Stockholm, Sweden,
http://www.ecosanres.org/pdf_files/Urine_Diversion_2006-1.pdf
Larsen, T. A. and Lienert, J. (2007) Novaquatis final report.
NoMix A new approach to urban water management.
Eawag, Dbendorf, Switzerland, www.novaquatis.eawag.ch/
publikationen/final_report_E
Maurer, M. (2007) Urine treatment absolute flexibility,
Eawag News, March 2007, results from Novaquatis research
project, Dbendorf, Switzerland, http://www2.gtz.de/
Dokumente/oe44/ecosan/en-urine-treatment-absolute-
flexibility-2007.pdf

27

28

Maurer, M., Schwegler, P. and Larsen, T. A. (2003) Nutrients

in urine: energetic aspects of removal and recovery. Water
Science and Technology, 48 (1), p. 37-46. Abstract available
here: http://www2.gtz.de/Dokumente/oe44/ecosan/
en-ABSTRACT-ONLY-nutrients-in-urine-energetic-
aspects-of-removal-and-2003.pdf
Morgan, P. (2007) Toilets That Make Compost -
Low-cost, sanitary toilets that produce valuable compost
for crops in an African context, Stockholm Environment
Institute, EcoSanRes Programme, Stockholm, Sweden,
http://www.ecosanres.org/toilets_that_make_compost.htm
Mnch, E. v. and Dahm, P. (2009) Waterless urinals: a proposal to save water and recover urine nutrients in Africa. 34th
WEDC International Conference, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia,
May 2009, http://www2.gtz.de/Dokumente/oe44/ecosan/
en-waterless-urinals-a-proposal-to-save-water-and-recoverurine-nutrients-in-africa-2009.pdf
PUVeP (2008) Philippine allotment garden manual with an
introduction to ecological sanitation. Periurban Vegetable
Project (PUVeP), Xavier University College of Agriculture,
Cagayan de Oro City, Philippines, http://puvep.xu.edu.ph/
publications.htm or http://www2.gtz.de/Dokumente/oe44/
ecosan/en-philippine-allotment-garden-manual-2008.pdf
Rosemarin, A., Ekane, N., Caldwell, I., Kvarnstrm, E.,
McConville, J., Ruben, C. and Fogde, M. (2008) Pathways
for Sustainable Sanitation - Achieving the Millennium
Development Goals. SEI/IWA. Available for order from:
www.ecosanres.org. Table of contents available here:
http://www2.gtz.de/Dokumente/oe44/ecosan/en-TOC-
ONLY-pathways-for-sustainable-sanitation-2008.pdf
Schnning, C. and Stenstrm, T.-A. (2004) Guidelines for
the safe use of urine and faeces in ecological sanitation systems, EcoSanRes Publications Series, Report 2004-1,
www.ecosanres.org/pdf_files/ESR_Publications_2004/
ESR1web.pdf
Slob, M. (2005) Logistic aspects of ecological sanitation in
urban areas. Case study in low-income community in Delhi,
India. MSc Thesis, University of Twente, The Netherlands
and WASTE, Gouda, http://www2.gtz.de/Dokumente/oe44/
ecosan/en-logistic-aspects-of-ecological-sanitation-2005.pdf
SuSanA (2008) Food security and productive sanitation
systems. Fact sheet of Sustainable Sanitation Alliance,
www.susana.org/lang-en/working-groups/wg05/own-docs-05

SuSanA (2009) Urine and brownwater separation at the GTZ

main office building, Eschborn, Germany. Case study of sustainable sanitation projects. Sustainable Sanitation Alliance,
http://www.susana.org/lang-en/case-studies/region/europe
Tettenborn, F., Behrendt, J. and Otterpohl, R. (2007) Resource recovery and removal of pharmaceutical residues Treatment of separate collected urine. Final report of the
demonstration project "Sanitation Concepts for Separate
Treatment of Urine, Faeces and Greywater" (SCST). Institute
of Wastewater Management and Water Protection, Hamburg
University of Technology, Germany, http://www.tu-harburg.de/
aww/publikationen/pdf/endbericht_tutech151009.pdf
Udert, K., Larsen, T., Biebow, M., Gujer, W. (2003) Urea
hydrolysis and precipitation dynamics in a urine-collecting
system. Water Research 37(11), p. 2571-2582.
Udert, K., Larsen, T. and Gujer, W. (2006) Fate of major
compounds in source-separated urine. Water Science and
Technology 54 (11-12), p.413-420, http://www.
iwaponline.com/wst/05411/0413/054110413.pdf
WHO (2006) WHO Guidelines for the Safe Use of Wastewater, Excreta and Greywater. Volume 4: Excreta and greywater use in agriculture. World Health Organisation, Geneva,
Switzerland, http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/
wastewater/gsuweg4/en/index.html
Winblad, U. and Simpson-Hbert, M. (2004) Ecological
Sanitation-revised and enlarged edition. Stockholm Environment Institute, Stockholm, Sweden, www.ecosanres.org/
pdf_files/Ecological_Sanitation_2004.pdf
Winker, M. (2009) Pharmaceutical residues in urine and potential risks related to usage as fertiliser in agriculture, PhD
thesis, Technical University of Hamburg-Harburg, Institute
of Wastewater Management and Water Protection, Germany,
http://doku.b.tu-harburg.de/volltexte/2009/557
Winker, M., Vinners, B., Arnold, U., Muskulos, A. and
Clemens, J. (2008) New fertilisers from advanced wastewater
treatment: Their potential values and risks. In: Proceedings of
13th RAMIRAN International Conference, Potential for
simple technology solutions in organic manure management,
June 2008, Albena, Bulgaria, http://www.tu-harburg.de/aww/
publikationen/pdf/winker_etal_final.pdf

7.2

Video clips
The following video clips are available on Youtube.com:

8 Appendix

 Many videos on waterless urinals can be found

Worldwide listing of suppliers for waterless urinals, UD

pedestals and squatting pans

The Appendix is provided as a separate file to keep

the file size of this document low. It can be downloaded here:
http://www.gtz.de/en/themen/umwelt-infrastruktur/
wasser/9397.htm




7.3

by 29 entering the keyword waterless urinal in

the search field of Youtube.com.
Waterless urinal at UNESCO-IHE in Delft,
the Netherlands (2007): www.youtube.com/
watch?v=z0GKD3JAUOY
Waterless urinal maintenance at University of
Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa (Addicom):
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nTa4yerQL1o
Videos on UDDTs can be found by entering
ecosan toilet in the search field.

Additional photos

The GTZ ecosan team and partners have uploaded a large

number of ecosan-related photos to the photo sharing website
Flickr.com:
 Waterless urinals: http://www.flickr.com/photos/
gtzecosan/sets/72157613881735035/
 Urine diversion toilet seats and squatting pans:
http://www.flickr.com/photos/gtzecosan/
sets/72157612793192986/

We thank all suppliers who have provided information

on their products.

29

30

Notes

31

Published by:
Deutsche Gesellschaft fr
Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH
Dag-Hammarskjld-Weg 1-5
65760 Eschborn / Germany
T +49 6196 79-0
F +49 6196 79-1115
E info@gtz.de
I www.gtz.de

SustainableSanitation

Practi c e

Issue3.04/2010

Openingmindsandclosingloops
productivesanitation
initiativesinBurkinaFasoand
Niger

Experiencesfromuseofurinein
ArbaMinch,Ethiopia

PharmaceuticalResiduesin
UrineasFertiliser

Backyardurinerecyclinginthe
UnitedStatesofAmerica

FoodSecurityandProductive
Sanitationpractical
guidelinesontheuseofurine

UseofUrine

partner of

Impressum

publishedby/Medieninhaber,HerausgeberundVerleger
EcoSanClub
Schopenhauerstr.15/8
A1180Vienna
Austria
www.ecosan.at
Editors/Redaktion
ElkeMllegger,GnterLangergraber,MarkusLechnerEcoSanClub
JournalManager/JournalManagement
IsabellePavese
Contact/Kontakt
ssp@ecosan.at

Disclaimer/Haftungsausschluss
ThecontentofthearticlesdoesnotnecessarilyreflecttheviewsofEcoSanClubortheeditorsandshould
not be acted upon without independent consideration and professional advice. EcoSan Club and the
editors will not accept responsibility for any loss or damage suffered by any person acting or refraining
fromactinguponanymaterialcontainedinthispublication.
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des Redaktionsteams. Der praktischen Anwendung dargestellter Inhalte muss eine unabhngige Begutachtung und professionelle
Beratung vorausgehen. EcoSan Club und das Redaktionsteam haften in keiner Weise fr Schden (Sachschaden oder
Personenschaden),diedurchdieAnwendung,oderNichtanwendungderindieserPublikationvermitteltenInhalte,entstehen.
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Permission is granted for reproduction of this material, in whole or part, for education, scientific or
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aimandscope/OffenlegungderBlattliniegem25,Abs.4Mediengesetz

Sustainable Sanitation Practice (SSP) aims to make available high quality information on practical
experienceswithsustainablesanitationsystems.ForSSPasanitationsystemissustainablewhenitisnot
onlyeconomicallyviable,sociallyacceptableandtechnicallyandinstitutionallyappropriate,butitshould
also protect the environment and the natural resources. SSP is therefore fully in line with SuSanA, the
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sanitation systems and the practical approach to it. Articles are published after blind review only.
SustainableSanitationPracticeispublishedquarterly.Itisavailableforfreeonwww.ecosan.at/ssp.
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sanitationbereitzustellen.sustainablealsonachhaltigisteinSanitrsystemfrSSPwenneswirtschaftlichmachbar,soziokulturell
akzeptiert,technischalsauchinstitutionellangemessenistunddieUmweltundderenRessourcenschtzt.DieseAnsichtharmoniert
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SanitationPracticeerschientvierteljhrlich,kostenlosunter:www.ecosan.at/ssp.
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publisher: EcoSan Club, Schopenhauerstr. 15/8, A1180 Vienna, Austria chairperson: Gnter
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SustainableSanitationPractice

Issue3/2010

Editorial

TheSuSanAfactsheeton"foodsecurityandproductivesanitationsystems"statesthat

"The nutrient content of human excreta depends on the diet and varies between countries as well as
betweenindividuals.Excretacontainallessentialmicronutrientsandanaverageamountofplantavailable
macronutrientsof4.5kg/person/year(kg/p/a)fornitrogen,0.6kg/p/aforphosphorusand1.2kg/p/afor
potassium.Mostplantnutrientsarefoundintheurinewithaformulationsimilartoammoniumandurea
andcomparableresultsonplantgrowth.Acombinedapplicationoffaecesandurineisadvantageous,since
faeces are a very good soil conditioner due to its high share of organic matter. The use of excreta in
agriculture improves the pH, the nutrient content and water retention capacity of the soil as well as the
abilityofplantstowithstandinsects,parasiteattacksandpests".(seewww.susana.org)

"Use of urine" is the thematic topic of the third issue of Sustainable Sanitation Practice (SSP). If urine is
collectedseparately,treatedandconvertedtoagriculturalusage,thebiggeststeptowardsnutrientreuseand
highlyefficientwaterprotectionistaken.

Thepaperspresentvariousaspectsontheuseofurine:PracticalexperiencesfromtheuseofurineinEthiopia,
West Africa and from the United States of America are presented. Findings on the fate of pharmaceutical
residues in urine are summarized in another article. The final contribution gives an outline on updated
guidelinesontheuseofurinethatwillbepublishedduring2010.

The next issue (issue 4, July 2010) will present the main results from the ROSA project (ResourceOriented
Sanitation concepts for periurban areas in Africa) which lasted from October 2006 until March 2010 and
proposedresourcesorientedsanitationconceptsasaroutetosustainablesanitation.ROSAwasimplemented
infourpilotcities:ArbaMinchinEthiopia,NakuruinKenya,ArushainTanzania,andKitguminUganda.

Informationonfutureissuesisavailablefromthejournalhomepage(www.ecosan.at/SSP)andwillberegularly
updated. Please feel free to suggest further topics for issues of the journal to the SSP editorial office, Ms.
Isabelle Pavese (ssp@ecosan.at). Also, we would like to invite you to contact the editorial office if you
volunteertoactasareviewerforthejournal.

SSPisavailableonlinefromthejournalhomepageattheEcoSanClubwebsite(www.ecosan.at/SSP)forfree.
WedohopethatSSPwillbefrequentlydownloadedandfurtherdistributedtointerestedpeople.

Withbestregards,
GnterLangergraber,MarkusLechner,ElkeMllegger
EcoSanClubAustria(www.ecosan.at/ssp)

Content:
-

Openingmindsandclosingloopsproductivesanitationinitiatives
inBurkinaFasoandNiger ............................................................................................................................... 4

ExperiencesfromtheuseofurineinArbaMinch,Ethiopia ......................................................................... 12

Arepharmaceuticalresiduesinurineaconstraintforusingurineasa
fertiliser?....................................................................................................................................................... 18

Backyard Urine Recycling in the United States of America: An

AssessmentofMethodsandMotivations .................................................................................................... 25

Food Security and Productive Sanitation; Practical guideline on the

useofurineincropproduction .................................................................................................................... 31

SustainableSanitationPractice

Issue3/2010

implementing
organisation:

Openingmindsandclosingloops
productivesanitationinitiativesinBurkina
FasoandNiger
Thispapershowshowtwoagriculturefundedsanitationprojectsinrural
NigerandBurkinaFasohaveintroducedsanitizedurineandfaecesasnew
fertilizersforimprovedlocalnutrientmanagement,foodsecurityandhealth.
Authors:L.Dagerskog,M.Bonzi

Abstract
Thelinkbetweenfoodproductionandsanitationisatthecentreoftwoagriculturefundedsanitationprojects
inBurkinaFasoandNiger.Productivesanitationisusedtoincreasefoodsecurity,basedonthefactthaturine
and faeces from a family of ten contain nutrients equivalent to approximately 100kg of chemical fertilizer,
locally worth ~80US$. Urine contains the main part of these nutrients and is relatively easy to collect and
reuse. The agriculture extension officers have a key role in supervising participative tests with urine as a
fertilizer that help create demand for sanitation. Farmers are trained on how to produce liquid and solid
fertilizersfromurineandfaeces,byeliminatingthedangersandcapturingtheresourcesviathegooduseof
simple urinals and productive toilets. The article describes the arguments and methodology used in the
projectsandperspectivesforupscalinginBurkinaFasoandNiger.

Introduction

Nutrient management and the link to

sanitation

Byemphasisingthestronglinkbetweensanitation
and agriculture, the Regional Centre for low cost
Water and Sanitation (Centre Rgional pour l'Eau
Potable et l'Assainissement faible cot, CREPA)
has obtained funds from the agriculture sector
with the main objective to improve food
production in rural areas via the promotion of
sanitized urine and faeces as fertilizers. The two
mainproductivesanitationprojectsatthemoment
are the ECOSAN_UE2 project in province of
Kourittenga, Burkina Faso, and the PSAgui
project in the province of Agui, Niger (see boxes
at the end of the article). Urine is central in both
projects, since it is relatively easy and cheap to
collect and represents a substantial and often
neglectedsourceofnutrients.Thisarticledevelops
the arguments used to involve the agriculture
stakeholders and the methodology and current
resultsofthetwoprojects.

Thebigpicture
On a global level, the price hike of chemical
fertilizers in 2008 and the emerging peak
phosphorousandpeakoilindicatethattheera
of cheap chemical fertilizers is coming to an end
(see Cordell, 2010 for details). Since there is no
substituteforphosphorousinfoodproduction,our
societies will need to improve nutrient
management on all steps along the productive
cycle.

The agriculture sector is trying to reduce nutrient

losses from soils as well as recycling animal
manure and plant residues, but relatively little
effort has been made to recycle the nutrients
present in the food taken away from the field for
human consumption, and subsequently excreted

Keyactionsforintroducingsanitizedurineandfaecesasfertilizers:

Illustrativeexamplesofthequantityoffertilizerinhumanexcretaandresultsofreuse
Simpleurinalsforliquidfertilizerproductionandcomposting/drylatrinesforsolidfertilizerproduction
Involvetheagricultureextensionofficers
Participativeevaluationofurineasafertilizertocreatedemandforproductivesanitation

Sensitizationondangersandresourcesinexcretaandhowtoeliminatedangersandmaintaintheresources

Followuponthewholeproductivesanitationchaini.e.collection,sanitizationandreuse.

SustainableSanitationPractice

Issue3/2010

Openingmindsandclosingloopsproductivesanitationinitiatives

N=2.8kg

as urine and faeces. The global

N=2.8kg
P=0.45kg
phosphorous flow analysis by Cordell et
P=0.45kg
K~1.3kg
~500l
K~1.3kg
al. (2009) estimates that only 10% of
Intheurineand
urine
Consumedper
faecesper
phosphorous in human excreta is
personperyear
personperyear
recycledtoarablesoil,while50%endsup
in water and 40% underground or on
nonarable soil. These losses are
~50kg
equivalent to around 20% of the annual
faeces
phosphorousmined(Cordelletal.2009).

Figure1.Theaverageannualfertilizerproductionperperson
In Burkina Faso and Niger chemical
fertilizers are out of reach for most
partofconsumedplantnutrientsisincorporatedin
farmers,whileagrowingpopulationincreasesthe
growing body tissue. Dagerskog (2007) used the
pressureonarableland.Table1showsthedifficult
method proposed by Jnsson et al. (2004) and
soil fertility and sanitary situation in these two
statisticsonproteinconsumption(FAOSTAT,2005)
countries with low chemical fertilizer use, high
toestimatethehumanfertilizerproductionforthe
nutrient losses from agricultural land, a high
percentageofopendefecationinruralareasanda
tencountriesinWestAfricaconcernedbyCREPAs
ECOSAN program: Benin, Burkina Faso, Congo,
high number of child deaths per year due to
Cte dIvoire, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Mali, Niger,
diarrhoea.
Senegal and Togo. An average person in these

countriesexcretesannually2.8kgofnitrogen(N),
Saferecyclingofurineandfaecescanhelpimprove
0.45kgofphosphorous(P)andapproximately1.3
both food production and health, but the farmers
kg of potassium (K) with the urine and faeces
are rarely aware of the possibilities of how to
(Figure1).
eliminatethedangerandusetheresourcesin
humanexcreta.

This regional average was used to illustrate the

Table1.Challengeswithsoilfertilityand
value of human excreta in Burkina Faso. The
sanitationinBurkinaFasoandNiger
annual quantity of N and P in urine and faeces
from a family of ten persons corresponds
Burkina
roughlytothequanitityofNandPin50kgof
Niger
Faso
ureaand50kgofNPK(142314)whicharethe
Chemicalfertilizeruse
two most common chemical fertilizers in
5.9
0.9
199620021(kgNPK*/ha/yr)
BurkinaFaso(Table2).
Estimatednutrientbalance
43
56

200220042(kgNPK*/ha/yr)
Thelocalmarketpriceof50kgofUreaand50
Opendefecationinruralareas
83
92
kg of NPK in Burkina Faso is about 80US$
in20063(%)
(SOGEDIF, Feb. 2010). The total Burkinab
Annualchilddeathsdueto
24300
26400
population of ~15,6 million inhabitants then
diarrhoea4
excrete the equivalent of 125 million US$
*NPK=N+P2O5+K2O
worthoffertilizersperyear.Inaddition,urineand
1
Morrisetal(2007)
faecesarecompletefertilizers,containingthemain
2
HenauandBaanante(2006)
plant nutrients (N, P, K) as well as the important
3

UNICEF/WHO(2008)
4
traceelementsandorganicmatter.
UNICEF/WHO(2009)

Table2.Theannualquantityofnutrientsinthe

excretafrom10personscomparedwithchemical
fertilizer
Thefertilizervalueofhumanexcreta
To capture the attention of agriculture
stakeholders it is important show that human
excreta contain a substantial amount of plant
nutrients. According to Jnsson et al. (2004) the
amount of nitrogen and phosphorous in human
excreta can be calculated from protein
consumption. There is an equilibrium over the
human body what comes in sooner or later also
comes out, except during growth when a minor
SustainableSanitationPractice

Fertilizer
Urineetfaecesfrom10
personsinoneyear
50kgofureaand50kgof
NPK(142314)

N(kg)

P(kg)

K(kg)

28

4.5

13

30

4.9

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Comparingurineandfaecesasfertilizers
The distribution of plant nutrients between urine
and faeces depends mainly on the digestibility of
thefood.IngeneraltheabsolutemajorityofNand
K are excreted with the urine while P is more
evenly distributed between urine and faeces (see
Jnsson et al. 2004 for details). Faeces, rich in
phosphorous and organic material, are a suitable
base fertilizer while the nitrogen rich urine is a
suitablecoverfertilizer.

ThebaselinestudyfortheprojectinAgui,Niger,
showedthatdefecationismostlydoneinthefields
around the villages, while the shower/ablution
area is the preferred place for urinating (CREPA,
2009).Inthissituation,abetterurinemanagement
would make the greatest difference to the local
nutrient recycling. However this does not mean
thatopendefecationshouldbeencouragedforany
reason.Whiledefecatinginthefieldscanbringthe
nutrients in faeces back into the productive cycle,
it is a health hazard and a suboptimal way of
recyclingasitisnotappliedattheplace,timeand
dosetooptimizeplantgrowth.

Figure2.Twobagsoffertilizerwerebroughtalong
forsensitizationsessionsinNigertoillustratethe
annualamountofnutrientsthatarepresentinthe
excretafromonefamily

Resultsandprojectexperiences

Introducingthenewfertilizersmethodology
Bothprojectshavefollowedasimilarmethodology
when introducing sanitized urine and faeces as
fertilizers.Themethodologyisbasedonhowother
newfertilizersareusuallyintroduced,viapractical
participativetests:
All concernedstakeholders are informed on the
new fertilizers, showing the experience from
CREPAs ECOSAN projects in West Africa and
photos from other projects around the world.

The population is sensitized on the amount of

fertilizer they produce (Figure 2) and the local
agricultureextensionofficersaretrained.
Urine collection starts via simple urinals (jerry
canandafunnel)toenabletestswiththelocally
producedliquidfertilizer.
Participative tests are done to demonstrate the
virtue of urine as a nitrogen fertilizer (urine
comparedtourea)atfarmerfieldschoolsandon
individualfields.
Participativeevaluationofthetestplots.
Trainingofvillagefacilitatorsandartisans.
Sensitization in the villages using SARAR/PHAST
tools for understanding the dangers as well as
the resources in human excreta and on how
good use of latrines and urinals can help

Table3.Thescaleatlocallevelofthetwoprojects

Vegetablefarmers:

366farmerstrainedonurineapplication
methods

Cerealfarmers:

1255farmerstestedurinein30farmer
fieldschools,500havedonetestsonown
initiative

PSAgui
Agui,Niger
11
25farmersinvolvedinparticipative
tests,22othersappliedurineonown
initiative
122farmerstestedurineineight
farmerfieldschools,65havedone
testsonowninitiative

Agricultureextensionofficers
trained:

29

10

Numberofvillagesinvolved:

Surfacefertilized:
Urinecollected:
Householdsproducingsolid
fertilizerviatoilets:
Householdsproducingliquid
fertilizerviaurinals:

ECOSAN_UE2,
Kourittenga,BurkinaFaso
30

Atotalof5,7haforcerealtestsinfarmer
fieldschools(halfwithurine)and27hafor
individualtests(withandwithouturine).
?
318(712toiletsstilltoconstruct)
2000

Atotalof0,7haforcerealtestsin
farmerfieldschools(halfwithurine)
>125m3during2009
150(another60toiletsunder
construction)
1143

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UDDTwithadobesuperstructure

Urineseparationintegratedontheslab

Figure3.UDDTandurinalinKourittenga,BurkinaFaso
eliminatethedangersandcapturetheresources.
Construction of fertilizer factories (latrines) that
enabletheproductionofsolidfertilizeraswell
asliquidfertilizer.
Follow up on the whole productive sanitation
chaini.e.collection,sanitizationandreuse.
Useintervillagevisitstospreadthemessage.In
Niger the first pilot farmers were taken on a
studytriptoexchangeandtrainwithfarmersin
BurkinaFaso.Thesefirstpilotvillageswerethen
visitedbyothervillagesintheprovince.

Agui) and a UD Fossa Alterna (called

composting toilet in Agui) (Figure 4). The dry
toiletisbuiltoffthegroundandfaecesissanitized
by desiccation together with ash, while the
composting toilet is a shallow pit toilet were
sanitization is enhanced by composting through
theadditionoforganicmaterialandsomeashafter
defecation. All toilets have two vaults/pits used
alternately.

Bothmodelsweresubsidizedwitharound50US$
tocovertheimportedmaterialsandmasonfeefor
the vaults/pits. The composting toilet has been
verypopularnoroofisneeded,nostairsandthe
anal wash water can enter the pit. A study by
Djariri (2009)showed that it would bepossible to
decrease the subsidy part to 30US$ with some
technicalmodifications.ThisisapproachingIFADs
aim of a maximum subsidy of 20 US$ per
installation.

Storinglargevolumesofurineisexpensiveandcan
be difficult. In Agui the farmers are advised to
enrich their compost or dirt pile or apply the
urine to the field even during the dry period
(covered with soil) if they run out of storage
possibilities.

Scale
The two projects operate on a limited scale, but
serves as references for further productive
sanitation initiatives in Burkina Faso and Niger.
Table 3 provides a summary of the scale of the
twoprojects.
Productionofliquidandsolidfertilizer
Inbothprojectsurinecollectionwassoonstarted
using simple urinals. After the urine tests as
fertilizerandsensitizationsessionsonthedangers
and resources in excreta, the latrines were
introduced. In Kourittenga it was decided to opt
fortheurinedivertingdrytoilet(UDDT),andbuild
solid double vaults with cement bricks with a
180US$subsidy(Figure3).

In Agui, all pilot village households got the

simple urinal, and were then offered a choice
between a low cost UDDT (called dry toilet in

Urinecaneitherbetransferredfromapottothe
jerrycanorenterdirectly.Dugdownitisadopted
forthesquattingposition

Urinaldugdownforsquatting

Urinequality
In Niger the urine was sampled during four
different occasions and analyzed with the results
presentedinTable4:

Thecompostingtoiletwithurinediversion

Thedrytoiletinlocal
materialexcepttheslab
andventpipe.

Figure4.UrinalsandtoiletsinAgui,Niger
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Table4.ResultsfromanalysingagronomicparametersinAguiurine
Parameter
(n=numberofjerrycansanalysed)
Unit

N
(n=37)
g/l

P
(n=33)
g/l

K
(n=28)
g/l

Na
(n=9)
g/l

Average

6,0

0,8

0,9

3,1

Standarddeviation

1,1

0,2

0,3

0,2

The urine is especially rich in nitrogen, and in the

higher range of the 37gN/l given as indicative
valuesinJnssonetal.(2004).Itcanalsobenoted
that sodium concentration is much higher than
magnesiumandcalcium.Inirrigationwaterwhere
theconcentrationofsodiumsaltsishighrelativeto
othertypesofsalt,asodicsoilmaydevelop,which
ischaracterizedbyapoorsoilstructure:theyhave
alowinfiltrationrate,theyarepoorlyaeratedand
difficult to cultivate (FAO, 1985). Even though the
salt concentration is quite high in urine, the total
salt quantity applied per year is not high when
compared to irrigation water. However salinity is
complex and further research on urine use and
salinity would be welcome to avoid long term
problems.

Laminou (2009) followed the volume of urine

generated from 10 men, 10 women and
10children (ca. 10 years old) in two villages in
Agui.Onaveragethemenproduced1.7l/day,the
women 1.9 l/day and the children 0.9 l/day. With
50%ofthepopulationunder15years,theaverage
daily urine production would be about 1.35 litres
perperson.Usingtheconcentrationsintablegives
thattheaveragepersoninAguiurinatesannually
~ 3 kg N, 0.4 kg P and 0.45 kg K with the urine,
which is higher than expected, except for
potassium. It should be noted though that the
study was made just after harvest time when
peoplehaveplentytoeat.

Laminou (2009) also analyzed the sanitization of

urineafter30daysofstorage,andfoundnomicro
organisms except for anaerobic sulphite reducers
that were present in 3 out of 9 samples.
ClostridiumPerfringensisonebacteriaofthistype

Mg
(n=3)
mg/l

Ca
(n=3)
mg/l

pH
(n=29)

20

36

8,8

1,6

3,1

0,2

that can cause food poisoning. However, the

infective dose is quite high and clostridium is
frequently present in the intestines of both
humansandanimalsandalsowidelydistributedin
the environment due to its spore forming
capability(FDA,2009).
Applicationofurineinagriculture
In Kourittenga, urine tests were done on a
relatively large scale. To facilitate application, the
furrows were opened and closed using animal
traction and the urine was poured directly from
thejerrycans(Figure5).

In Agui, the preferred application method has

beenwithabucketandcup.TheurineinAguiwas
dosed to give the same nitrogen quantity as the
locally recommended dose for urea. With a urine
concentration of about 5 gN/l and with urea
containing 46% N, 10 grams of urea corresponds
roughlyto1litreofurine.Aftertheapplicationitis
important to water down thoroughly, or wait to
apply until after a rain. Some farmers have had
problems with wilting plants after urine
application, especially young tomato plants. A
solution has been to avoid application during the
hottest part of the day and to reinforce watering
the two following days after application. For
cereals, urine application has been made after a
goodrainwhenthesoilishumid.
In both projects the local agriculture extension
officers have been supervising the participative
tests.

Figure5.UrinetransportandapplicationinKourittenga
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It is important that farmers see sanitized human

excretaassomethingthatcomplementratherthan
replaces existing fertilizers. Recycling human
excretahelpsreducelosses,buttoincreasefertility
in degraded soils all available resources are
needed: animal manure, crop and food residues,
chemicalfertilizersaswellashumanexcreta.

OM10,5kg

Overcomingmentalbarriers

OMwithurine
17,5kg

To consider human urine and faeces as potential

resources requires a change of mindset. Such
change does not come over night, and initial
resistanceisnormal.Herearesomeexperiencesof
how mental barriers were over come in the two
projects:
The farmers want to see to believe. It was
important to quickly start with urine collection
andtesting.
In Muslim societies urine is considered impure
and something that one should never get in
contactwith.Ontheotherhand,theimportance
ofcleanlinessinIslamprovidesagoodargument
for collecting and taking away urine from the
compound. Men also squat when urinating, so
the alternative to dig down the urinal was
appreciated. When applying urine, gloves and
mouth protection are used, and the same
clothes are not used when praying. If urine
touches the clothes or skin, the accepted
solutionistowashwellwithwater.
Thefieldsclosesttothevillagehasalwaysgiven
thebestyields since animals and people relieve
themselvesthereandnoonehaseverhesitated
to eat what is produced from these fields. The
newwayofrecyclingexcretaisanimprovement
ofwhatisalreadydone.
It is possible to eliminate the danger and keep
the resources by simple storage for urine or
drying/composting for faeces. After sanitization
urine is called liquid fertilizer and faeces is
called solid fertilizer, which makes it easier to
talkabout.
The urine odour is said to be the fertilizer if it

Figure6.IndividualtestinKourittengaon
sorghumwhereorganicmatter(OM)hasbeen
usedasbasefertilizerandurineasan
additionalsourceofnitrogen(piletotheright)

Agronomicresultswithurine
Duringthetests,urinehasbeencomparedtourea
as a nitrogen fertilizer, or complementing the
farmers traditional way of fertilizing using only
organicmatter.ThetestonsorghuminFigure6is
an example of an individual in Kourittenga who
testedthenitrogeneffectofurineonsorghum.

The tests in the farmer field schools were

monitored more closely, and Table 5 summarizes
millet results from four farmer field schools in
Aguiin2009.Alltestplots(T0T3)of200m2had
organicmatter(OM)asbasefertilizeratadoseof
20 ton/ha. T1 and T2 also had 50 kg/ha of Super
SimplePhosphate(SSP)asextrabasefertilizer.The
Napplication was either through 5 grams of urea
(T1) or 0.5 litres of urine (T2 and T3) per plant,
whichwith10000milletplants/hagivesaround25
kgN/ha.

Urinegaveroughly1020%morethanurea.Thisis
not surprising as urine, a part from nitrogen, also
contains some phosphorous and potassium.
Comparedtothecontrolwithonlyorganicmatter,
urine increased the yields in general by 4050%.
One25litrejerrycanofurinegavearound23kg
extragrainsintheAguiconditions.

Table5.Milletharvests(kg/ha)atfourfarmerfieldschoolsinAgui.
Village

DanBid

Tsamiya
Bakoye

Malloumey
Saboua

Zabon
Moussou

T0(OM)

781

660

1244

1209

T1(OM+SSP+Urea)

1160

893

1318

1000

T2(OM+SSP+Urine)

1257

1072

1637

1111

T3(OM+Urine)

1161

948

1773

1399

SurplusyieldT2comparedtoT1(%)

20

24

11

SurplusyieldT3comparedtoT0(%)

49

44

42

16

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Openingmindsandclosingloopsproductivesanitationinitiatives

doesn't smell,it is no good!In Kourittenga, it is

compared to the traditional spice soumbala,
which is considered to be better the stronger
odourithas.
It is people behind desks who can be the real
barriers. Farmers are often very pragmatic in
their struggle to get a decent harvest. The
productive sanitation approach that both
improve the living conditions and food
productionhasbeenreceivedwithopenarmsin
thetwoprojects.
A much appreciated activity in Agui was the
blind tastetests of vegetables and cereals
fertilizedwithurineandurea.Theresultsshowa
sweetertasteforurinefertilizedvegetables,and
in general a higher buying preference for the
urine fertilized vegetables both based on taste
andappearance(Saley,2009).

but the construction and good use of productive

toilets require skill and knowledge. A large scale
programthatprovidesthesenewskillsandfollows
uponthewholesystemwillneedalotoftimeand
resources. However, simple urine collection
captures the majority of plant nutrients in human
excretaandcanbedonetoamuchlowercost,and
with less skills and follow up. An interesting
approach would be to scale up urine recycling via
the agriculture sector while sanitation programs
promote faeces management. The agriculture
extension officers already widely present in the
rural areas could disseminate knowledge on urine
reuse, and prepare the grounds for further
sanitationinterventions.

As an alternative to large national programs a

recentexamplefromMalawi(BramleyandBreslin,
2010) show that basic productive sanitation
servicesalsocanbespreadongrassrootlevelvia
business opportunities for small scale
entrepreneurs. There are signs of this dynamic in
the two projects discussed in this article; In
Kourittenga people have initiated urine collection
on public places, and in Agui an individual has
already bought 140 jerry cans of urine from his
neighbourstoenrichhiscompost.

Scalinguppotential
In Burkina Faso, the use of excreta derived
fertilizers could either be scaled up like other
agricultureinnovations,oritcouldgothroughthe
national sanitation program (PNAEPA) that is
abouttorollout.ThePNAEPAincludestheUDDT
as a technical option, but it does not explicitly
allocate resources for accompanying farmers with
therecycling.Fortunately,inBurkinaFasoitisthe
Ministry of Agriculture who is in charge of water
andsanitation,sotherearegoodopportunitiesfor
synergy between sanitation and agriculture
programs,ifthepoliticalwillisthere.

The ongoing EcoSan projects in Burkina Faso are

still preparing the base, and the information and
resultsareslowlyreachingthetop.Toconvincethe
decisionmakersthereisstillalotofadvocacywork
needed, with precise and reliable data, as well as
good economic arguments. Part of this work is
beingdonewithintheprojectinKourittenga.

In Agui, Niger, the local partner project partner

(PPILDA) will continue to support farmers and
eventually extend the approach to the entire
intervention zone (260 villages). On national scale
in Niger the Rural Development Strategy (SDR)
could be a suitable framework to take the
approach further. The director of the SDR
executive committee has shown interest but
wishestohavemorenationalresearchonhygienic
andagronomicaspects.

Fromanagroeconomicpointofview,thesubsidy
of 180 US$ in the Burkina project or 50 US$ in
theNigerprojectforaproductivetoiletcanhelpa
familytopotentiallycollectaround80 US$worth
offertilizerperyear.Thisisashortpaybacktime,
SustainableSanitationPractice

Conclusion
InthepilotvillagesinKourittengaandAgui,urine
andfaecesarenowlookeduponaspotentialliquid
andsolidfertilizers.Animportantreasonhasbeen
the methodology of participative tests with urine.
In rural areas food production is the main
occupation and an effective entry door to create
interest for sanitation, at least among the men.
The women tend to be more interested by the
comfort, hygiene and prideside of productive
sanitation. Already a simple urinal makes a
difference, as the urine odour in the shower
disappearswiththecollection.

On a global scale, with the absence of political

awarenessandwill,theincentivetorecyclehuman
excreta will come with increasing fertilizer prices.
In Burkina Faso and Niger were commercial
fertilizersarebeyondthepurchasepowerofmost
farmers, there is already a strong recycling
incentive. The important knowledge of urine
collection and reuse can be spread by the local
agriculture extension officers. They are in a good
positiontoleadtheyellowrevolution!

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References
Bramley,
S.,
Breslin,
E.
(2010):
SanitationasaBusiness:Anewspinonthechallengeofsanit
ation.SustainableSanitationPractice2,1014.

Morris et al. (2007): Fertilizer use in African Agriculture

Lessons Learnt and Good Practice Guidelines, World Bank,
WashingtonDC,USA.
Saley,M.(2009):Etudeorganoleptiquedesproduitsmarachers
issus de lapplication des urines hyginises et de lure.
Project
report,
PSAgui
project,
Niger
http://www.ecosanres.org/aguie/documents/EtudeOrganole
ptiqueSALE.pdf(inFrench)

Cordell, D., Drangert, JO., White, S. (2009): The story of

phosphorus: Global food security and food for thought.
GlobalEnvironmentalChange19,292305.
Cordell, D. (2010): The story of phosphorous sustainability
implicationsofglobalphosphorousscarcityforfoodsecurity.
PhD thesis, University of Technology, Sydney, Australia, and
LinkpingUniversity,Sweden.

UNICEF/WHO(2008):Progressondrinkingwaterandsanitation
special focus on sanitation, JMP report,
http://www.who.int/entity/water_sanitation_health/monito
ring/jmp2008.pdf

CREPA(2009):EtudedeltatdeslieuxAPAgui.Projectreport,
PSAguiproject,Niger(inFrench).

UNICEF/WHO (2009): Diarrhoea: Why children are still dying

and
what
can
be
done,
http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2009/978924159841
5_eng.pdf

Dagerskog, L. (2007): ECOSAN et la valeur des fertilisants

humainslecasduBurkinaFaso,ITNconferencepaper,26
28Nov.2007,Ouagadougou,BurkinaFaso(inFrench).

Djariri, M.L. (2009): Rduction des cots des ouvrages

dassainissement dans le cadre du projet assainissement
productif Agui au Niger. MSc Thesis, 2iE, Ouagadougou,
Burkina
Faso
http://www.ecosanres.org/aguie/documents/Memoire
ReductionDesCoutsDJARIRIlowres.pdf(inFrench)

FAO, (1985), Irrigation Water Management: Introduction to

irrigation, Irrigation water management, Training manuals
1,http://www.fao.org/docrep/R4082E/R4082E00.htm
FAOSTAT, statistics from 2005 on protein consumption in
different
countries:
http://faostat.fao.org/site/609/default.aspx#ancor, (Date of
visit:Oct2007)
FDA, (2009): Bad Bug Book Foodborne Pathogenic Micro
organisms
and
Natural
Toxins
Handbook,
http://www.fda.gov/Food/FoodSafety/FoodborneIllness/Foo
dborneIllnessFoodbornePathogensNaturalToxins/BadBugBoo
k/default.htm(dateofvisit:25March2010)
Henau, J.C., Baanante. (2006): Agricultural Production and Soil
Nutrient Mining in Africa: Implications for Resource
Conservation and Policy Development. IFDC, Muscle Shoals,
AL,
USA
http://www.africafertilizersummit.org/Background_Papers/0
3%20Henao%20and%20Baanante
Agricultural%20Production.pdf
Jnsson, H., Richert Stintzing, A., Vinneras, B., Salomon, E.
(2004): Guildelines on the use of urine and faeces in crop
production. EcoSanRes Publications Series, Report 20042,
Stockholm,Sweden.

Name: LinusDagerskog
Organisation:CREPAHeadquarters
Town,Country:Ouagadougou,BurkinaFaso
email:linusdagerskog@yahoo.fr

Laminou,S.(2009):Identificationdesrisquessanitairesetdes
opportunitsdeproductiondefertilisantsdanslesystmede
collecte durine du projet assainissement productif dans le
dpartement dAgui au Niger. MSc Thesis, 2iE,
Ouagadougou,
Burkina
Faso,
http://www.ecosanres.org/aguie/documents/Memoire
RisquesSanitairesEtDesOpportunitesLAMINOUlowres.pdf
(inFrench)

Name: MoussaBonzi
Organisation:CREPAHeadquarters
Town,Country:Ouagadougou,BurkinaFaso
email:bouabonzi@yahoo.fr

TheECOSAN_UE2projectinBurkinaFasoisfinancedmainlywithEUfoodsecuritymoney(~1.5millionEuro,20082011).
CREPA together with the National Environment and Agriculture Research Institute (INERA) and the Ministry of
Agriculture implement the project covering 30 villages in the Kourittenga province. Ecological sanitation is combined
withsoilandwaterconservationtechniquestoimprovefoodproduction.
TheInternationalFundforAgricultureDevelopment(IFAD)granteda200 000US$pilotprojectforCREPA,PPILDA(a17
million US$ IFADfunded rural development project run by the Ministry of Agriculture in Niger) and Stockholm
Environment Institute (SEI) to test urine as a fertilizer in the Agui province in Niger. The objective was to show the
effectivenessof urine and to develop strategic tools as well as low cost appropriate technologiesfor an eventual up
scalingwithinthePPILDAruraldevelopmentprojectandotherIFADfundedprojects.ThePSAguiprojectwascarried
out during16months fromNov 2008Feb2010. See www.ecosanres.org/aguie for more information, fact sheetsand
tools.
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overallproject:

ExperiencesfromtheuseofurineinArba
Minch,Ethiopia
UrinecroptrialsinArbaMinch,Ethiopia,showedthepossibilityforimproving
soilfertilityandincreasingcropyield.

Authors:K.Kassa,F.Meinzinger,W.Zewdie

Abstract
Inthispaperanoverviewofpracticalexperienceswiththecollectionandtheuseofurinefromurinediversion
drytoiletsinArbaMinchisdiscussed.Attwocroptrialsitesmaizewasfertilizedwithurineandthemaizeyield
and the effect on soil was studied.At onesite, the yieldof urine fertilized maize was increased seven times
compared to unfertilized soil. Analyses of the soil fertilized with urine showed that Kjeldahl nitrogen and
salinity was increased whilepH wasdecreased at higher rates of urine application. Urine contains important
nutrients for the plants and increases the quality of soil; however precautions against the development of
salinityintherootsofplantsarerequired.Theurinecroptrialsiteshavechangedtheattitudeofmanypeople
whohadachancetovisit.

Introduction
The EUfunded project called ROSA (Resource
Oriented Sanitation concepts for periurban areas
in Africa) proposed resourceoriented sanitation
concepts as a route to sustainable sanitation to
meet the UN MDGs. These concepts have been
appliedinfourpilotcitiesinEasternAfrica,namely
Arba Minch (Ethiopia), Nakuru (Kenya), Arusha
(Tanzania) and Kitgum (Uganda). Arba Minch is
located about 550km south of Addis Ababa, the
capital of Etiopia, and has a population of about
80'000. ROSA Arba Minch was working in the
wholeofArbaMinchtownonthemanagementof
solid waste, greywater, faeces and urine to
improve sanitation of the town and to increase
agricultural productivity in the Arba Minch area.
Different resource oriented sanitation systems
have been implemented in Arba Minch town
including15urinediversiondrytoilets(UDDTs),30
Fossaalternas,9Arborloos,7greywatertowers,1
biogasunitandmorethan5compostingsites.

One of the most commonly used technologies for

the source separated collection of urine are
UDDTs. Urine is diverted from faeces using
separatingpedestals.Urineisavaluableflowsince
itcontainsphosphate,nitrogenandpotassiumand
canbeuseddirectlyorafterstorage.Itisalowcost
alternative to the application of nitrogen rich
mineralfertilizerinplantproduction.Thechemical
composition of urine and its plant availability is
comparabletochemicalfertilizer(Johanssonetal.
2001;KirchmannandPettersson,1995).

SustainableSanitationPractice

Figure1:TypicalstoragetankinUDDTtoilet

Figure2:UrinestorageinUDDTtoilet

Consideringthecontentsofthemajornutrientsin
urine, research in applying urine in agriculture
especially in developing countries is needed. The
use of urine as fertilizer in arid and semi arid
regions like Arba Minch gives some knowledge
inputandalsomaycontributetothechangeofthe
attitude of the people and even decision makers.
12

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ExperiencesfromuseofurineinArbaMinch,Ethiopia

The use of urine in agriculture may increase

agricultural production and eventually reduce
vulnerabilityindevelopingcountries.

The objective of the research conducted in Arba

Minchtownwastotesturineasfertilizerformaize
on two types of soil with different fertility. The
yield of maize was used to evaluate the effect of
urine application. The impact of urine on the
quality of the soil was also investigated by
measuring parameters such as conductivity, pH
and nutrient content. The trial sites were
furthermoreusedtodemonstratetheuseofurine
tofarmersandothercommunitymembers.

this was not sustainable. Therefore, female and

youth group has been identified which has been
originallyorganizedtocollectthetownsolidwaste
from households and business centres. These
entrepreneurs are now transporting urine from
UDDT toilets to the area of use by donkey carts
(Figure 4). The donkey cart was given by ROSA
under the condition that the entrepreneurs
transport excreta and solid waste to earn extra
income by transporting things different from
waste. The UDDT users have proposed a certain
amountofmoneytheyarewillingtopayforthese
services.

For a hygienic point of view, human urine is a

safe fertilizer with less concern regarding risks
for disease transmission when handling
(Kvarnstrom,et.al.,2006)anditisanuncommon
transmissionrouteofdisease.InruralEthiopia,itis
common to urinate on fresh wounds to stop
bleeding.Inordertoreducetheriskfrompossible
contamination by faeces, urine is stored at the
production or reuse sites. Some families were
using the fresh urine directly in their gardens.
Urine is one of the components of cocompost
producedbyorganizedyouthgroups;recentlythe
compost producers have started selling their
productstoprivatefarmers.

The use of urine as a fertilizer in agriculture in

Ethiopia is generally faced with some cultural
objections,althoughwastewateruseinagriculture
is a common practice in Addis Ababa. In Arba
MinchreuseofurinewasnotpracticeduntilROSA
started it in trials. There was a widespread
perception that urine may burn the plants. A part
fromtheburningeffect,manyhouseholdsinArba
Minch, who were interviewed in the beginning of
the project, stated that they wouldbe hesitant to
eat vegetables fertilized by urine. Nevertheless,
urinetrialfarmswerepreparedinArbaMinch.The
trial sites were successful in showing that urine

Useofurineandanalyses
Urineseparation,collectionandtransportinArba
Minch
Urineisstoredinplasticjerrycansorplasticwater
tanks,whichareavailablefromlocalmarket,inthe
vaultsoftheUDDTs.Jointsofurinecollectingpipes
are connected by adhesives and flexible plastic
pipes are used to reduce nitrogen losses in the
formofammonia.Thesizesofthetanksdependon
thesizeofthefamilyusingtheUDDT.Initially,the
transfer of urine from the UDDTs tank into the
transportable jerry cans was done by pump.
However, this resulted into breakage of two
pumps, therefore, a cheap method of collection
was introduced which is a plastic hose connected
at the bottom of the urine tank and lowered to
pour the urine and raised and bent to seal it
(Figures 12). In some occasions neighbours were
complainingandUDDTownerswerealsoashamed
oftheodourproducedwhenthestoredurinewas
transferredintotransportingjerrycans.Takingthis
as lesson urine was poured carefully from
containertocontainertoavoidnuisance.

Initially, the urine used to be transported by the

ROSAprojectinapickupcar(Figure3).However,

Figure4:Donkeycartusedfortransportingurine,
solidwaste,anddriedfaeces

Figure3:Transportationbypickupcar
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ExperiencesfromuseofurineinArbaMinch,Ethiopia

Table1:UrineapplicationonthemaizeplantatArbaMinchUniversityPlot(plantingon28.06.2007)
Code
T25
T50
T75
T100

Napplied(kg
N/ha)
25
50
75
100

21.6.07
100
200
300
400

04.8.07
50
100
150
200

Urineadded(ml)
28.8.07
50
100
150
200

17.9.07
38.1
76.2
114.3
152.4

Sum
238.1
476.2
714.3
952.4

Theapplicationoftheurineonthefarmwasdone
in different portions at different development
stages of the plant before the first signs of the
maize tassel and cob appearance. Operators
applying urine in the farm were complaining of
strongsmellinthedirectionofwindbuttherehave
been no problems with odour once the urine was
poured on the soil even at high temperatures in
ArbaMinch.

improves yield and they were also successful in

initiatinganattitudechange.ManypeopleinArba
Minch have eventually consumed urine fertilized
maize, lettuce and tomato although they knew it
wasfertilizedbyurine.

Methods
Urinefertilizertrials
ArbaMinchUniversityfarmtrialplot

ROSAofficefarmtrialplot,Secha
Twoplotseachwithasizeof4m2and16planting
spots were prepared at the ROSA office site and
two maize grains were planted in each spot. Each
spotofthefirstplotwastreatedwith1.2litresof
urine in four portions while the second plot was
wateredonlywithwater.Allwateringwasdoneat
thesamedayforallplots.Theamountofnitrogen
added in terms of urine was 175 kg/ha. Finally,
each plant stand was analyzed for the yield and
biomasswhenthecropsweremature.

The urine, which was collected from UDDTs, was

transported in 20 litre jerry cans and stored in a
tank located at the farmland. Twenty plots each
withasizeof16m2werepreparedinArbaMinch
University farm (Figures 5). Five application rates
of urine based on nitrogen amount were chosen
including four replicates. The application rates
were25kgN/ha,50kgN/ha,75kgN/ha,and100kg
N/ha,respectively(Table1).Theyieldofeachplot
wasanalyzedwhenthecropsweremature.

Physicochemicalanalysis
2.5 gram of soil taken from 20 cm depth were
analyzed for potassium using flame photometer
afterextractingwith100mlofammoniumacetate
buffer solution (Dewis, et al., 1970, APHA, 1992).
2.5gramwereanalysedforKjeldahlnitrogen(TKN)
after extraction (Dewis, et al.,1970, APHA, 1992).
pH and conductivity were analysed after shaking
the dispersed sample (1:5 sample: water) (Dewis,
et al.,1970). Urine was analysed for phosphate,
potassium,nitrogen,pHandconductivityaccording
tostandardmethods(APHA,1992).

Figure5:Urineapplicationmethodonfarm

Resultsfromcroptrialplots
Characteristicsofurine

Theapplicationofurinewasdonebywateringcans
after mixing with 50% irrigation water. The plants
were counted in rows; the urine irrigation water
mixturewasappliednearbytherootsoftheplants
keeping the watering at the same pace. The
application was done back and forth until the
mixtureinthewateringcanwasfinished(Figure5).

TheurinesampleswerecollectedfromROSAoffice
for use at the ROSA office trial plot and from
construction site UDDT toilets for use at the Arba
Minch University trial plot as described above.
Table2showsthecharcteristicsoftheurinefrom
the2sites.

Table2:TypicalcharacteristicsofnutrientsinurinecollectedfromtwoUDDTsitesinArbaMinch(ROSAoffice
andconstructionsite)
Sample/Parameter
UrineROSAoffice
Urineconstructionsite
SustainableSanitationPractice

NH4+N
g/l
3.3
3.9

Norg
g/l
0.3
0.4

TKN
g/l
3.7
4.2
14

PO43P
g/l
0.4
0.6

K+
g/l
1.6
2.7

pH

8.8
8.9

Conductivity
mS/cm
25.9
35.8
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ExperiencesfromuseofurineinArbaMinch,Ethiopia

It was shown that there is a difference in quality

dependingonwayofstorage,storagetimeandthe
differences in use of the toilets. The urine from
ROSAofficewascollectedfromofficeworkerswho
drink water when they need and the urine from
theconstructionsiteUDDTwascollectedfromday
workers who had a possibility of dehydration.
Besides, the conductivity of urine from the
constructionsitewashighermaybebecauseitwas
storedforanumberofdaysinopensuninawater
tankbuttheurineROSAofficewasrelativelyfresh
and was stored under the shade in the vault of
UDDT.

Cropyieldsfromtrialsites
Figures 68 show the maize yield on Arba Minch
universitytrialfarmwhichwasfertilizedbyurineat
the rate of 25, 50, 75 and 100kgN/ha,
respectively. Figure 7 shows the maize yield
increases with increasing urine application rates.
However,finallytheincreaseisstabilizedwiththe
increaseofurineamount.Thedifferencebetween
the yield of the fertilized and unfertilized maize
was not much compared to the results from the
ROSAofficetrialplotshowninFigure912.Figure8
shows biomass of maize without the cob but the
changeisnotsignificant.Onereasonforthismight
be the damage caused by wildlife before analysis.
Figure 912 show the results of the ROSA office

Figure6:UrineexperimentonmaizeatArbaMinch
Universityfarm

Figure9:Left:urinefertilized;right:unfertilizedmaize
collectedfromROSAofficefarm.

Figure7:Maizeyield(croptrialperformedonArba
Figure10:Maizeyield(croptrialresultsoftheROSA
MinchUniversityfarm.Thefarmlandisrelativelyfertile) Officedemonstrationfarm)

Figure8:Averageofmaizebiomassmeasuredwithout
cobcoverandroot(Universityfarm)
SustainableSanitationPractice

15

Figure11:Weightofmaizebiomass(ROSAoffice),175
kgN/haequivalentofurinewasadded.
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ExperiencesfromuseofurineinArbaMinch,Ethiopia

trial farm where there is big difference between

the urine fertilized and unfertilized maize most
probably because of the initial lower soil fertility.
The maize yield fertilized by urine at a rate of
175kgN/ha is seven times more than the
unfertilized maize (Figure 10). The related maize
biomassfertilizedbyurineistwiceasmuchasthe
unfertilizedone(Figure11).

Figure12:Control(left)andurinefertilizedmaize
(right)attheROSAofficetrialplot

From these two experiments, it is possible to say

that less fertile soil has a tendency to give good
yield with urine. Hence, the Ethiopian highlands,
which are particularly suffering from nutrient
depletion, are a promising region for using urine
andcompostconditionedwithurine.
Impactofurineapplicationonsoilquality
Figures 1315 show the soil quality changes after
urine addition at the Arba Minch University trial
farm plots. The conductivity of the soil increases
withincreasingurineapplicationwhichmeansthat
there is a possibility of increased salinity as more
urineisaddedtothesoil(Figure13).Farmerswho
are going to use urine as a fertilizer must irrigate
with more irrigation water to leach the salt
accumulation in the root zone of the plants. The
dilutionratiocanstartfrom3:1urinetowaterand
above. If 1 litre of urine is added either diluted
with25%or75%thenutrientsthataresuppliedto
the plat are the same. The problem arises when
concentrated urine is added salt is being
accumulated on the soil surface and not reaching
the plant root. Yet, when the urine is mixed with
more water the nutrient may be leached or
washedawaybeforetherootsabsorbedit.

Figure 14 Kjeldahl nitrogen and potassium of soil

fertilizedbyurine.Theamountofnitrogenslightly
increasedwithadditionofurinewhichisoneofthe
positive values of urine as a fertilizer. Potassium
variation with increasing amount of urine was
neglegible.

ThepHofneaturineappliedwasabout9(Table2).
ThepHofsoilmeasuredafterapplicationofurine
indicated in Figure 15 decreased with increasing
application of urine on the soil. This might be
describedbyasthefactthatammoniumisnitrified
in soil, releasing two protons and thus decreasing
thepH.However,thismightbeonlyatemporarily

Acomparisonoftheresultsfromthetwotrialplots
shows the dependence of the effect of urine on
the initial soil quality. Although the initial soil
quality is not indicated here since it was not
sampled, the Arba Minch University trial plot is
veryrichanditwasinuseasafarmwhilethefarm
in ROSA office is lacking nutrients and was not in
use for agriculture before. The results of Arba
MinchUniversityfarmtrialplotsalsoshowedthat
themaizeyieldandbiomassincreasedinresponse
totheincreasedurineapplication,butataslower
rate at higher urine applications. Jnsson et al
(2004) indicated that the effect of crop yield
increaseswithincreasingfertiliserapplicationrates
and then remains constant at higher
concentrations.

Figure13:Conductivityofurinefertilizedsoilafterharvesting
maize
SustainableSanitationPractice

Figure14:Potassium(filled)andTKNconcentration(clean)in
thesoilfertilizedwithurine,afterharvestingmaize
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ExperiencesfromuseofurineinArbaMinch,Ethiopia

climatic zones and preferably in cooperation with

farmerassociations.

Acknowledgements
TheworkwascarriedoutwithintheprojectROSA
(Resource oriented Sanitation concepts for peri
UrbanareasinAfrica;ContractNo.037025GOCE;
duration: 1.10.200631.3.2010), a Specific Target
ResearchProject(STREP)fundedwithintheEU6th
Framework Programme, subpriority Global
ChangeandEcosystems.Theauthorsaregrateful
for the support. We thank Mr Yesuf Ali for the
anlaysisofsoilsamples.

Figure15:pHofurinefertilizedsoilafterharvesting
maize
effectsincewhennitrateistakenbyplantroottwo
hydroxide ions are released which this therefore
result in the neutralization of the protons in the
soil(Schnning,2001).ThentheremightbenopH
declinepermanentlyinasoiltreatedwithurine.

References
APHA (1992): Standard Methods for the examination of water
and wastewater. 18th Edition, American Public Health
Association/American Water Works Association/Water
EnvironmentalFederation,WashingtonDC,USA.
Dewis, J., Freitas, F. (1970): Physical and chemical methods of
soilandwaterAnalysis,FAO,SoilBulletinNo.10.

ConclusionsandRecommendations

Jnsson, H., Stinzing, A.R., Vinneras, B., Salomon, E. (2004):

Guidelines on the use of and faeces in crop production.
EcoSanResPublicationSeriesp4.

Urinecollection,transport,treatmentandreuseis
one of the difficult step in resourcesoriented
sanitation systems because the society and the
decision makers may not be aware of the
advantages. In Arba Minch the transport and
collection of urine from UDDTs was first done by
car but gradually entrepreneurs were involved to
independently transport by donkey cart without
external support. This is a good progress to
sustainability of the implemented sanitation
systems.

Youth groups also use urine to enrich the co

compost, which they produce from faeces and
organic waste. Costumers are happy to buy the
produced compost so that the youth groups can
gainanincome.

Theresponseofmaizeplantforurineisverygood
butitdependsonwhetherthesoilisalreadyfertile
in terms of nutrients or not. The response is very
good in the ROSA office trial farm, while it is
smallerattheUniversitytrialfarm,wherethesoil
hadalreadyarelativelyhighinitialfertility.

Urine increases soil fertility but the development

of soil salinity might happen especially in areas
where irrigation water is scarce. Therefore,
appropriatemeasuressuchasdrainagemightneed
to be taken and salt tolerant crops should be
selected.
In order to make urine accepted by the Ethiopian
farmers widely repeated research and
demonstration should be done in different agro
SustainableSanitationPractice

Johansson, H., Jnsson, H., Hoglund, C., Richert Stintzing, A.,

Rodhe,L.(2001):Urineseparationclosingthenutrientcycle.
Stockholm water company, Stockholm, Sweden.
Available:www.stockholmvatten.se/pdf_arkiv/English/urinse
p_eng.pdf.
Kirchman, H., Pettersson, S. (1995): Human urinechemical
composition and fertilizer efficiency, Fertilizer Research 40:
149154.
Kvarnstrom, E. Emilsson, K., Stintzing, A.R., Johansson, M,
Jnsson,H., Petersens, E., Schnning, C., Christensen, J.,
Hellstrom, D., Qvarnstrom,L., Ridderstolpe, P., Drangert, J.
(2006): Urine diversion: one step towards sustainable
sanitation.Report20061,EcoSanRespublicationseries,p37.
Schnning, C. (2001) Urine diversion hygenic risks and
microbial guidelines for reuse. In: Hglund, C (2001):
Evaluationofmicrobialhealthrisksassociatedwithreuseof
sourceseparatedhumanurine,PhDthesis,RoyalInstituteof
Technology,Stockholm,Sweden.ISBN9172830395.

Name: KinfeKassa
Organisation:ROSA,ArbaMinchUniversity
Town,Country:ArbaMinch,Ethiopia
email:kinfe_k@yahoo.com
Name: FranziskaMeinzinger
Organisation:ROSA,TUHamburgHarburg,
Town,Country:Hamburg,Germany
Name: WubshetZewdie
Organisation:ROSA,ArbaMinchUniversity
Town,Country:ArbaMinch,Ethiopia
17

Issue3/2010

implementing
organisation:

Arepharmaceuticalresiduesinurinea
constraintforusingurineasafertiliser?
Thispaperprovidesanoverviewaboutpharmaceuticalresiduesinurineand
theirpotentialroleasconstraintforreuseoftheurineinagriculture.
Author:M.Winker

Abstract
Urine is an excellent, complete plant fertiliser (containing nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium), but also
containscertainamountsofpharmaceuticalresiduesevenafterprolongedstorageasatreatmentstep.Ifthose
substancesarepolarandhardlybiodegradabletheycanbetakenupbyplantsandtherebypossiblyenterthe
human foodchain. Research has shown that the low pharmaceutical concentrationsprovided withurine are
unlikely to affect plant development and growth. A full evaluation of the potential toxic effects of
pharmaceuticals ingested by humans via urinefertilised crops is very difficult and has not yet been done.
Perceptionsofsocietiestowardsurinereusevarywidelyandcanworkasadriveroraconstraintforreuse.

pharmaceutical residues to agricultural fields

(Lienert et al., 2007a; Winker et al., 2008b). Only
Introduction
recently the fate of pharmaceuticals regarding
Urine can be used as an alternative fertiliser for
their accumulation in soils, transfer to
agriculture. It contains large amounts of nutrients
groundwater, and incorporation by plants came
such as 80% of nitrogen, 50% of phosphorus, and
intothefocusofresearch.However,theseeffects
70% of potassium usually present in domestic
cannotbeexcludedasfairlyhighconcentrationsof
wastewateraswellasvariousmicronutrients(Ciba
pharmaceuticals are expected in urine (Winker et
GeigyAG,1977;LarsenandGujer,1996;Otterpohl,
al.,2008b).
2002; von Mnch and Winker, 2009). But this

usage of urine includes the risk of transfer of

The urine normally ends up in the domestic

Keymessage:

Pharmaceuticalresiduesarecontainedinurinebutonlyinfewinvestigationsconcentrationshavebeen
measuredsofar.Predicted(German)concentrationswereintherangeof0.1to103g/lofurineand
determinedfor124substances.
Datafromliteratureshowthatplantsaregenerallyabletotakeuppharmaceuticals.Concentrationsinplant
partsdetectedwereverylow(intherangeofng/kg)eventhoughplantswereexposedtohighconcentrations
(mg/kgsoil).Nevertheless,pharmaceuticalswerealsofoundinedibleplantparts.
Pharmaceuticalscanalsocausephytotoxiceffectsindependenceoftheappliedpharmaceuticalconcentration.
Alsohere,ithastobementionedthathighconcentrationswereapplied.
Overall,differentplantspecieshavedissimilarsensitivitylevelstowardsthesamepharmaceuticalasstudies
haveshown.Unfortunately,itisimpossibletoextendtheseconclusionstolongtermeffectsingeneral.
Exposureofryegrasstopharmaceuticalscontainedinurineatexpectednaturallevelsaswellasathigher
concentrationsdidnotaffectdrymatterproductionduringthegrowthperiodofthreemonthseitherforsingle
pharmaceuticals,orforthecombinationofcarbamazepine,ibuprofen,and17ethinylestradiol.
Onlycarbamazepinewasshowntobetakenupbyrootsandaerialplantpartsofryegrass.Theconcentrations
inaerialryegrasspartswereinthemean4950g/kgDM(drymatter),andinroots225g/kgDM.Thisleadsto
theassumptionthatonlypharmaceuticalswhicharepersistentinsoilandnotbiodegradedaretransferredto
plantsinmeasureableconcentrations.
Potentialeffectofpharmaceuticalsubstancescontainedinurinetowardsplantscannotbedeterminedin
germinationexperiments.Theurinematrixitselfismuchmoreaffectingtheseedlingsduetoitsspecificmatrix
thantheactiveagents.
Farmersandconsumersareopentourineasfertiliser,althoughtheyareawareoftheaspectofpharmaceutical
appearance.Theperceptionvariesnotonlyamongthestakeholdergroupsbutalsobetweencountries.

SustainableSanitationPractice

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PharmaceuticalResiduesinUrineasFertiliser

wastewater in conventional, sewerbased

collection systems. Many of these pollutants are
not removed in sewage treatment plants and are
thusdischargedintosurfacewaterbodiesandcan
evenreachthegroundwater.

Thecollection,storageandreuseofurineinclude
various challenges. This article provides an
overview about recent research (excluding
advanced treatment technologies for urine as an
excellent overview on that is provided byMaurer
etal.(2006)).Additionally,itisalsoexplainedwhy
the uptake of pharmaceuticals in plants and the
effectsonplantphysiologyanddevelopmentisof
major interest when crops are fertilised with
urine. The article is based on the results of the
PhDthesisofWinker(2009).

Concentrations of pharmaceutical
residues in urine and the effect of
storage

Figure2.Measuredmeanconcentrationsofactive
agentsinGermansourceseparatedurinedoneby
Strompenetal.(2003)andTettenbornetal.(2007)
(Vinnersetal.,2008).

Urine contains pharmaceuticals: around 70% of

the pharmaceuticals taken in, are excreted via
urine accounting for 50% of the overall
ecotoxicologicalrisk(Lienertetal.,2007a;Lienert
etal.,2007b).Urineanalysedinvariousoccasions
showed
concentrations
from
2200ng/l
(fenoprofen;Strompenetal.,2003)to545000ng/l
(ibuprofen; Tettenborn et al., 2007) (Figure 1).
Apartofthesesubstances,substancebelongingto
various indication groups as well as natural
hormones were detected in human urine (Winker
etal.,2008b).

As analytics are sometimes difficult, Lienert et al.

(2007a) and Winker et al. (2008b) established
theoretical calculations to receive a potential
overview for Swiss and German urine. Winker
(2009) could determine average concentrations in
general German urine for 124 active substances
(for
details
see
https://www.tu
harburg.de/aww/pharma/). Also pharmaceutical
concentrationsintheurineofsinglepersonunder
medication were calculated for 173 substances.
Additionally,Lienertetal.(2007a)determinedthe

excretion rates per person for 212 active

substances along Swiss standards (Fehler!
Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.
Table 1 shows roughly the variations of excretion
possibleamongthedifferentactiveagentsaswell
as it points out the fractions of unchanged and
metabolizedsubstances.

Overall,ithastobepointedoutthattheeffectof
storage, induced by pH augmentation due to
ureolysis (Udert et al., 2003), remains uncertain.
Such as Butzen et al. (2005) detected efficient
removalfordiclofenacaftersixmonth;forfurther
pharmaceuticals partial removal at different pH
levels. In contradiction to these findings, Gajurel
(2007) did not find any decay of clofibric acid,
carbamazepine, diclofenac, and ibuprofen in
spiked urine during a one year storage period
under all investigated storage conditions.
Preliminary sampling in the urine storage tanks in

Table3.Excretionof212pharmaceuticals(Lienertetal.,2007a (modified)).Total percentagesexcretedvia

urineaswellassubstancesexcretedunchangedasparentcompoundaswellasmetabolized.

Excretion(%)

SD(N)

min
0

Total
av
64
27%(212)

max
100

min
0.1

Unchanged
av
max
35
100

33%(132)

min
1

Metabolized
av
max
42
124
28%(57)

avdeterminedaverageofthecollecteddata(fordetailsseeLienertetal.,2007a);SDstandsforstandarddeviation;
Nstandsforsamplesize.

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PharmaceuticalResiduesinUrineasFertiliser

the GTZ headquarters in Eschborn, Germany,

indicated similar tendency. Several betablockers
andantibioticswerefoundinurinestoredformore
than 1.5 years (Montag and Schrmann, 2010;
Institute for Environmental Engineering, RWTH
Aachen;personalcommunication).Thisfindingwill
befollowedupwithininvestigationsregardingthe
storagebehaviour ofactive substancesperformed
bytheRWTHAachenwithintheprojectSANIRESCH
(2010). Hence, it has to be concluded that
pharmaceuticalresiduesarepresentinurineafter
storageandhavetobekeptinmindwhenitcomes
toreuseinagriculture.

Uptake and effects of pharmaceutical

residuestowardsplants
Plantexperiments
Figure3.Overalldryweightofplantpartsofrye
grassdeterminedduringthefullgrowthperiod.n=
naturalconcentration(whitebars),a=artificial
concentration(greybars).Control1indicates
plantstreatedwithMeOHandurine,Control2
didnotreceiveanyapplicationbesidewater;3is
thedesignationforthecombinationofCZ,IBU,and
EE2(Winker,2009).

Greenhouseexperimentsinpots
Thefertilisingeffectofurineisclearlydocumented
(Muskolus, 2008; von Mnch and Winker, 2009)
butnearlynoinvestigationsfocusedonapplication
of pharmaceuticals by urine except Schneider
(2005)andWinker(2009).Intheresultspresented
here the focus is laid on uptake of certain
pharmaceuticals by rye grass. Schneider (2005)
or
applied
diclofenac,
sulfamethoxazole
sulfamethazine but in concentrations 5*105
(diclofenac) and 9*105 (sulfamethoxazole) higher
thanexpectedforanaverageGermanurine(AGU,
Winker et al., 2008b) while sulfamethazine is not
even present in AGU at all. Winker et al. (2010a)
applied carbamazepine (CZ), ibuprofen (IBU), and
17ethinylestradiol (EE2) alone and in
combinations in the expected natural as well as
higherdosedconcentrationsofthoseinAGU.

f aerial plant matter (Figure 2) was identified for

theentire3monthsexperimentalperiod.Novisual
effects were observed except Control 2 which
received only irrigation water without nutrients
and thus showed only about 25% of the biomass
production compared to the fertilised grass. The
lackoffertilisationledtoalargeweightreduction.
The overall dry matter of all plants fertilised with
urine did not show any effect irrespective of the
kind and concentrations of added pharmaceutical
(Figure2).

IBU and EE2 could not be detected in any soil

sample after the 3month growing period. In
contrast to IBU, CZ was detected in all pots
irrespective the concentration level. On average,
49% of the applied CZ was recovered 3 months
after application. In plants, only CZ could be
SustainableSanitationPractice

detected at artificial concentrations (10 times

higherthanexpectedinAGU).CZconcentrationsin
roots showed a mean concentration of
225g/kgDMwhileameanof4950g/kgDMwas
reachedinaerialplantparts.Thiscorrelatestoan
averageof0.21%ofthetotalamountofCZapplied
toeachpotwasfoundintherootsofryegrass,but
30%intheaerialplantparts.

Germinationexperiments
Plants show their highest sensitivity as seedlings.
Therefore, this development stage is very
appropriate for investigations regarding potential
pollutants. Germination tests of cress and four
different cereals (Winker et al., 2010b) were
performed where the seeds were germinated in
urinewatermixcontainingoneuptofivedifferent
pharmaceutical
substances
in
raising
concentration.

The seedlings show sensitivity against

pharmaceutical agents (Table 2; Winker et al.,
2008b). The sensitivity lies far above the
concentration levels expected in average German
urine. In the most cases the sensitivity lies even
above the investigated range of concentrations.
Apart, the urine matrix itself is much more
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PharmaceuticalResiduesinUrineasFertiliser

Table4.Influenceondryweightoftheseedlingsbyadditionof oneactiveagent.>indicatesthatthe
limitingconcentrationcausinganeffectwasnotreachedandliesmostlikelyabovethetestedlevel(Winker
etal.,2010b).
Substance
EE2
E2
CZ
PI
IBU

Cress
>1.000.000
fold
>10.000fold
>10.000fold
10fold
better
>1000fold

Winterwheat

Winterrye*

Winterbarley

Oat

>1000fold

>1000fold

>1000fold

>1000fold

>1000fold
>1000fold

>1000fold
AGUconc.
1000fold
worse
1000fold
better

>1000fold
>1000fold

>1000fold
>1000fold

>1000fold

>1000fold

>1000fold

>1000fold

>1000fold
>1000fold

*worse:theconcentrationlettoanegativeeffectofthedryweight;better:theconcentrationlettoastatistically
relevantincreaseofthedryweight.

affecting the seedlings due to its specific matrix

than the active agents. Nevertheless, in certain
cases reactions of seedlings towards the
pharmaceutical substances could be observed.
Overall, it can be concluded that the potential
effect of pharmaceutical substances contained in
urine towards plants cannot be determined in
germinationexperiments.

Pharmaceuticalconcentrationsinplantsdependon
amounts of pharmaceuticals available in the
respective growth medium. Mapping of naturally
occurring concentrations in plant parts is nearly
impossible. The literature screening performed
(Winker, 2009) identified studies which could be
split into 45 datasets (DS) reporting 9
pharmaceuticals. All studies were performed with
concentrations above those expected by urine. In
18 datasets application rates were 2182 times
higherthanthoseexpectedtobereachedbyurine
fertilisation (see Table 3, ratio DS/AGU) and for 8
ofthesedatasetsbioaccumulationorphytotoxicity
was reported. The others showed DS/AGU ratios
between 2*103 (chlorotetracylcine (Patten et al.,
1980) and 2*108 (chlorotetracycline (Jacobsen et
al.,2004)andwerethustoohightobeofhelpfor
anevaluationoffertilizationwithurine.

Pharmaceuticals also cause phytotoxic effects

depending on the concentration of the
pharmaceutical substance resulting ina changeof
colourtodarkergreen(Groteetal.,2004);lacking
andincompletecolouring(vonEuler,1948;Rosen,
1954); lower chlorophyll content in leaves (von
Euler and Stein, 1955); as well as hard and waxy
leaves (Rosen, 1954). Moreover, Rosen (1954)
reported a lack of lateral root development
subsequent to pharmaceutical exposure and von
Euler(1948)foundthickenedcoleoptiles.

Studies have shown that different plant species

have differing sensitivity levels towards the same
pharmaceutical. However, it must be pointed out
that many articles were published 20 to 30 years
ago and the sensitivity and selectivity of chemical
analyses at that time was somewhat lower.
Furthermore, it is not possible to extend these
conclusions to longterm effects in general, as
most tests described in the literature did not last
forawholegrowingseason.

Literaturereview
As already stated, nearly no literature is available
on the uptake and effect of pharmaceuticals by
plantsspreadviaurine.Nevertheless,researchwas
done regarding the uptake of several active
substances and their effects. Data from literature
show that plants are generally able to take up
pharmaceuticals (Winker et al., 2008a). The
concentrations usually detected in plant parts are
in the range of ng/kg. Pharmaceuticals have also
been found in edible plant parts such as carrot
roots and cereal grains (Dolliver et al. (2007) and
Boxalletal.(2006)).Inaddition,Brianetal.(1951)
and Stokes (1954) reported excretion of
griseofluvinviaguttationdropsattheleafapexof
wheatseedlings.Therateofmovementinplantsis
influenced directly by rate of transpiration, which
in turn is affected by air humidity and
temperature. This finding leads to two
contradictory assumptions. On the one hand,
pharmaceuticalsaccumulateinleaves(Brianetal.,
1951;Stokes,1954),andhigheruptakerateshave
beenfoundinolderleaves(Groteetal.,2004).On
the other hand, leaves are able to secrete
pharmaceuticals (Brian et al., 1951; Stokes, 1954)
and to degrade organic chemicals taken up, in a
process comparable to liver metabolism (Komoa
et al., 1995). Moreover, Kumar et al. (2005)
reported that the correlation between the
concentration applied and uptake is nearly linear,
butitiscurrentlyimpossibletogeneraliseonthese
findings.

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PharmaceuticalResiduesinUrineasFertiliser

Table5.The8datasetsreportingconcentrationsimilartothoseinthecaseofurinefertilisation(DS/AGUratio
<200)whichshowedphytotoxicorbioaccumulativeeffects(Winker,2009).
Substance

Plantspecies

Reportedimpacts1

Concentration
applied

Ratio
DS/AGU2

Ref.

Phytotoxic:negativeimpactonw,h,r,
8000ng/kg
182
Jjemba,2002
s,l(13daftergermination)
Phytotoxic:positiveimpactonh,r
Chlorotetracycline
springwheat
160ng/kg
82
Batchelder,1982
(27daftergermination)
Phytotoxic:negativeimpactonw,h,r,
Chlorotetracycline
pintobean
160ng/kg
82
Batchelder,1982
s,l(45daftergermination)
Uptake:0.013ng/kgFWinsandl
Kumaretal.,
Chlorotetracycline
greenonion
100ng/kg
51
(42daftertransplantation)
2005
Uptake:0.01ng/kgFWinsandl(42d
Kumaretal.,
Chlorotetracycline
cabbage
100ng/kg
51
aftertransplantation)
2005
Phytotoxic:negativeimpactonw,h,r,
Metronidazole
soybean
2000ng/kgDM
67
Jjemba,2002
s,l(13daftergermination)
Phytotoxic:positiveimpactonh,r
Oxytetracycline
springwheat
160ng/kg
2
Batchelder,1982
(27daftergermination)
Phytotoxic:negativeimpactonw,h,r,
Oxytetracycline
pintobean
160ng/kg
2
Batchelder,1982
s,l(45daftergermination)
1
Lettersdenoteweight(w),height(h),roots(r),stalk(s),andleaves(l).
2
"RatioDS/AGU"describestheconcentrationappliedinthespecificinvestigationsummarisedinonedataset(DS)related
to the pharmaceutical concentration calculated to be reached in case of urine application. DS/AGU = 1 describes equal
conditions, <1/>1 implies that lower/higher concentrations would be applied by a fertilisation with urine under the
describedconditions.(March16,2008).
Chloroquine

soybean

900 responded; Blume and Winker, 2010) were

positive towards the idea of urine reuse in
agriculture. 71% stated explicitly that they would
buy crops which have been fertilised with human
excretaaccordingtoWHOguidelines(WHO,2006).
Other studies showed similar results. Muskolus
(2008) interviewed inhabitants in Berlin aswell as
people with an agricultural background, and 62%
of both groups stated that they would buy food
producedwithurineasfertiliser.

Samwel (WECF, www.wecf.org; personal

communication) reported a varying attitude in
Easter European and Central Asian countries:
Acceptance depends very much upon the
awareness of the issue by involved authorities. In
the Ukraine and Romania, members of the
authorities responsible for hygiene and
environment do reject the usage of urine due to
the risk of spreading pharmaceutical residues. A
majorconstraintisthelackoflegalframeworksfor
UDDTs and reuse. In Central Asia and the
Caucasian region, implementation of urine
diversion systems and reuse of urine are well
accepted by the authorities. For example in
Western Georgia and Northern Kyrgyzstan urine
diversion systems are very welcome due to high
groundwaterlevelsnormalpitssimplyfillupwith
water. Moreover, when a community is well
informed, Samwel (2010; WECF, www.wecf.org;
personal communication) observed also that
groundwaterprotectioncanbeastrongdriver.

Importanceofthetopicinsocieties
The reaction of societies varies when they are
confrontedwiththeissueofurinefertilisedcrops.
The concerns regarding pharmaceutical residues
differ between the different stakeholders. A very
important stakeholder group are farmers. In
Switzerland, a high percentage of farmers (57%)
would accept urine as fertiliser (Lienert et al.,
2003).Forthem,thefateofpharmaceuticalsinthe
environment is one of the concerns mentioned.
Approx.80%ofSwedishfarmerswereinterestedin
using urine as fertiliser (Tidker et al., 2004). The
issue of spreading pathogens and pharmaceutical
residues to the fields via any sewageproduct was
thesecondhighestconcernafterheavymetalsand
other organic compounds. Nevertheless, as
pathogens or pharmaceutical residues were
grouped it remained unclear which of the two
aspectwereintheirmajorfocus.Muskolus(2008)
interrogated farmers around Berlin. They tend to
react conservatively when confronted with the
issue. Only one quarter of participating farmers
expressed a positive attitude towards urine as
fertiliser.

Users of urinediverting systems or potential

consumers of agricultural products fertilised with
urine were interrogated in several studies.
Amongst the users of urine diversion flush toilets
at GTZ headquarters (Blume and Winker, 2010) a
remarkable90%oftheparticipants(218personsof
SustainableSanitationPractice

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PharmaceuticalResiduesinUrineasFertiliser

Brian, P., Wright, J., Stubbs, J., Way, A. (1951): Uptake of

antibiotic metabolites of soil microorganisms by plants.
Nature,167(4244),347349.

Sinar(2008)showedthatapartfromappearanceof
pharmaceuticalresiduesinurine,itisimportantto
investigateasocietiesattitudeonpharmaceutical
consumption and that a difference between rural
and urban areas might exist. In Ghana, the
frequently used pharmaceutical groups (often
referred to as indications) are antimalarials,
antibiotics,
analgesics,
antifungals
and
antihelminthics; in urban areas pharmaceuticals
addressing diabetes and cardiovascular diseases
are also consumed (Sinar, 2008). While in Ghana,
consumption of contraceptives is negligible, they
most likely play a major role in Peru. 17
ethinylestradiol is available for all women for free
and very popular (Webb and Fernndez Baca,
2006) as a result of the family planning below
presidentFujimori.

Butzen, A., Werres, F., Balsaa, P. (2005): Aufbau und Einsatz

einer problemorientierten Analytik mit dem Ziel eines
Monitorings ausgewhlter Pharmaka in Bden und Urin.
BonnerAgrikulturchemischeReihe,21,2554.
CibaGeigyAG(1977):TeilbandKrperflssigkeiten.In:Lentner,
C. (editor), Wissenschaftliche Tabellen Geigy, 8th edition,
CIBAGEIGYAG,Basel,Switzerland,pp.5197.
Dolliver,H.,Kumar,K.,Gupta,S.(2007):Sulfamethazineuptake
by plants from manureamended soil. J Environ Qual, 36(4),
12241230.
Gajurel, D. (2007): Investigation of elimination of selected
pharmaceuticals in urine during storage, by UV irradiation
and by ozonsation (in German), report, DFG
Frderkennzeichen: GA 1063/21, Institute of Wastewater
Management and Water Protection, Hamburg University of
Technology, Hamburg, Germany. URL: http://www.tu
harburg.de/aww/forschung/pdf/endbericht_dfg01.pdf
Grote,M.,Freitag,M.,Betsche,T.(2004):Antiinfektivaeintrge
aus der Tierproduktion in terrestrische und aquatische
Kompartimente,
Ministerium
fr
Umwelt
und
Naturschutz,L.u.V.d.L.N.W.,Germany.

Conclusion
If urine is reused in agriculture, some of the
pharmaceuticalresidueswillbetakenupbyplants
and thereby enter the human food chain. This is
expected especially for polar and hardly
biodegradable substances.A full evaluation of the
potentialtoxiceffectsofpharmaceuticalsingested
byhumansviaurinefertilisedcropsisverydifficult
andhasnotyetbeendone.

Moreover, research carried out so far shows that

the expected concentrations of pharmaceutical
residues in average urine do not reach
concentrationlevelswhichaffectplantgrowthand
development.Thisfindingcanbesupportedbythe
fact that the load of hormones and antibiotics in
human urine are much lower than in animal
manurewhichisalreadyusedinagriculture.

Overall,itcanbeconcludedwiththestatementof
Jrn Germer (cited in von Mnch and Winker
(2009)) that Drug residues in sustainable
sanitation products used to supply plant nutrients
can hardly be a serious issue in regions where
malnutrition, groundwater and surface water
pollution due to inappropriate sanitation and
irrigationwithuntreatedwastewaterisareality.

Jacobsen, A., HallingSrensen, B., Ingerslev, F., Hansen, S.

(2004): Simultaneous extraction of tetracycline, macrolide
and sulfonamide antibiotics from agricultural soils using
pressurised liquid excretion, followed by solidphase
extraction and liquid chromatographytandem mass
spectrometry.JChromatogr,1038(12),157170.
Jjemba, P. (2002): The effect of chloroquine, quinacrine, and
metronidazole on both soybean plants and soil microbiota.
Chemosphere,46(7),10191025.
Komoa,D.,Langebartels,C.,Sandermann,H.(1995):Metabolic
processes for organic chemicals in plants. In: Trapp, S. and
Mc Farlane, J. (editors): Plant contamination, Lewis
Publishers,BocaRaton,Florida,USA,pp.69103.
Kumar,K.,Gupta,S.,Chander,Y.,Singh,A.(2005):Antibioticuse
inagricultureanditsimpactonthe terrestrialenvironment.
AdvAgron,87,154.
Larsen, T., Gujer, W. (1996): Separate management of
anthropogenic nutrient solutions (human urine). Water Sci
Technol,34(34),8794.
Lienert, J., Brki, T., Escher, B. (2007a): Reducing
micropollutantswithsourcecontrol:substanceflowanalysis
of212pharmaceuticalsinfecesandurine.WaterSciTechnol,
56(5),8796.
Lienert, J., Gdel, K., Escher, B. (2007b): Screening method for
ecotoxicological hazard assessment of 42 pharmaceuticals
considering human metabolism and excretory routes.
EnvironSciTechnol,41(12),44714478.
Lienert, J., Haller, M., Berner, A., Stauffacher, M., Larsen, T.
(2003): How farmers in Switzerland perceive fertilizers from
recycledanthropogenicnutrients(urine).WaterSciTechnol,
48(1),4756.
Mauer, M., Pronk, W., Larson, T. (2006): Treatment processes
forsourceseparatedurine.WaterRes,40(17),31513166.

References
Batchelder, A. (1982): Chlortetracyline and oxytetracycline
effects on plant growth and development in soil systems. J
EnvironQual,11(4),675678.

Muskolus,A.(2008):Anthropogenicplantnutrientsasfertiliser,
PhD thesis, Institut fr Pflanzenbauwissenschaften,
HumboldtUniversitt zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany. URL:
http://edoc.huberlin.de/dissertationen/muskolusandreas
20080418/PDF/muskolus.pdf

Blume, S., Winker, M. (2010): Three years of operation of the

urinediversionsysteminGTZheadquatersinGermany;user
opinionsandmaintenancechallanges.In:IWAConferenceon
Sustainable solutions for small water and waterwater
treatmentsystems,1922April2010,Girona,Spain.

Otterpohl,R.(2002):Optionsforalternativetypesofsewerage
and treatment systems directed to improvement of the
overallperformance.WaterSciTechnol,45(3),149158.

Boxall, A., Johnson, A., Smith, E., Sinclair, C., Stutt, E., Levy, L.
(2006):Uptakeofveterinarymedicinesfromsoilsintoplants.
JAgricFoodChem,54(6),22882297.

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Patten, D., Wolf, D., Kunkle, W., Douglass, L. (1980): Effect of

antibiotics in beef cattle feces on nitrogen and carbon

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mineralizationinsoilandonplantgrowthandcomposition.J
EnvironQual,9(1),167172.

Protection, Hamburg University of Technology, Hamburg,

Germany.
URL:
http://doku.b.tu
harburg.de/volltexte/2009/557/

Rosen, W. (1954): Effects of streptomycin on certain green

plants.TheOhioJournalofScience,54(2),7378.

Winker,M.,Behrendt,J.,Otterpohl,R.(2008a):Pharmaceuticals
intheenvironmentanoverviewviadatabase(inGerman).
In: Fachhochschule Lbeck: 20.Norddeutsche Tagung fr
Abwasserwirtschaft und Gewsserentwicklung, 20, Lbeck,
Germany,pp.4150.

SANIRESCH (2010): Website of the BMBF project

SanitaryRecycling Eschborn, German Technical Cooperation,
Eschborn,Germany,http//:www.saniresch.de(dateofvisit:1
February2010).

Winker, M., Clemens, J., Reich, M., Gulyas, H., Otterpohl, R.

(2010a): Ryegrass uptake of carbamazepine and iburpofen
applied by urine fertilization. Sci Tot Environ, 408(8), 1902
1908.

Schneider, R. (2005): Pharmaka im Urin: Abbau und

Versickerung vs. Pflanzenaufnahme. In: Bonner
AgrikulturchemischeReihe,21,Bonn,Germany,pp.5481.
Sinar,E.(2008):Pharmaceuticalsinhumansanitaryproductsfor
use in tropical agriculture. Master thesis, University of
Hohenheim,
Stuttgart,
Germany.
http://www2.gtz.de/Dokumente/oe44/ecosan/en
pharmaceuticalshumansanitary2008.pdf.

Winker, M., Dimova, D., Ritter, K., Otterpohl, R., Clemens, J.

(2010b): Effect of five pharmaceutical substances contained
inurineonthegerminationofcressandcerealseedlings.In:
IWAConferenceonSustainablesolutionsforsmallwaterand
waterwater treatment systems, 1922 April 2010, Girona,
Spain.

Stokes, A. (1954): Uptake and translocation of griseofulvin by

wheatseedlings.PlantSoil,5(2),132142.

Winker, M., Tettenborn, F., Faika, D., Gulyas, H., Otterpohl, R.

(2008b): Comparison of analytical and theoretical
pharmaceutical concentrations in human urine in Germany.
WaterRes,42(14),36333640.

Strompen,S.,Werres,F.,Balsaa,P.,Overath,H.(2003):Analytik
polarer Arzneimittelrckstnde in Urinproben einschlielich
der Entwicklung der hierzu notwendigen adquaten
Verfahren mittels GCMS/MS. In: Wupperverband: Das
Projekt
Lambertsmhle:
Zukunftsfhiges
Abwassermanagement im lndlichen Raum?, Remscheid,
Germany,pp.3253.

Tettenborn, F., Behrendt, J., Otterpohl, R. (2007): Resource

recoveryandremovalofpharmaceuticalresidues.Treatment
of separate collected urine within the EUfunded SCST
project, Institute of Wastewater Management and Water
Protection, Hamburg University of Technology, Hamburg,
Germany.
Tidcker,P.,Sjberg,C.,Jnsson,H.(2004):Theuseofsewage
fertiliser products on arable land requirements from the
farmers'perspective.In:Werner,C.,etal.(editors):"Ecosan
closing the loop" Proceedings of the 2nd International
Symposiumonecologicalsanitation,711April2003,Lbeck,
Germany,pp.455462.
Udert, K., Larsen, T., Biebow, M., Gujer, W. (2003): Urea
hydrolysis and precipitation dynamics in a urinecollecting
system.WaterRes,37,25712582.
Vinners, B., Clemens, J., Winker, M. (2008): Nonmetallic
contaminants in domestic waste, wastewater and manures:
constraintstoagriculturaluse.In:TheInternationalFertiliser
Society,Proceedings,641,UnitedKingdom,pp.131.
von Euler, H. (1948): Nukleinsuren als Wuchsstoffe in
Gegenwart von Colchicin und von Streptomycin. Arkiv fr
kemi,mineralogiochgeologi,25A(8),19.
von Euler, H., Stein, M. (1955): Einfluss von Streptomycin und
vonTetracyclinenaufdieEntwicklungkeimenderSamen.Cell
MolLifeSci,11(3),108110.
vonMnch,E.,Winker,M.(2009):TechnologyReviewonUrine
diversion components. Overview of urine diversion
componentssuchaswaterlessurinals,urinediversiontoilets,
urine storage and reuse systems. German Technical
Cooperation (GTZ) GmbH, Eschborn, Germany. URL:
http://www.gtz.de/en/dokumente/gtz2009entechnology
reviewurinediversion.pdf
Webb,R.,FernndezBaca,G.(2006):AnuarioEstadstico:Per
enNmeros2006.InstitutoCunto,Lima,Peru.
WHO(2006):WHOGuidelinesfortheSafeUseofWastewater,
ExcretaandGreywater.Volume4:Excretaandgreywateruse
in agriculture. World Health Organisation, Geneva,
Switzerland, http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/
wastewater/gsuweg4/en/index.html (date of visit: 1
February2010).

Name: MartinaWinker
Organisation:GermanTechnicalCooperation
(GTZ)GmbH,Sustainablesanitationecosan
program
Town,Country:Eschborn,Germany
email:martina.winker@gtz.de

Winker, M. (2009): Pharmaceutical residues in urine and

potential risks related to usage as fertiliser in agriculture.
PhDthesis,InstituteofWastewaterManagementandWater
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implementing
organisation:

BackyardUrineRecyclingintheUnited
StatesofAmerica:AnAssessmentof
MethodsandMotivations
This paper discusses the newly emerging urine harvesting movement in the
UnitedStatesofAmerica.
Authors:L.Allen,J.Conant

Abstract
IntheUnitedStatesofAmericaawarenessandpracticeofecologicalsanitationisinitsinfancy.Inthisarticle
webrieflyassesstheurineharvestingpracticesofasmallgroupofindividualsintheSanFranciscoBayArea,
California,Portland,Oregon,andcoastalMassachusetts.Thoughtherearenocoordinatedorsponsoredurine
harvestingprojects,afewAmericans,learningprimarilyfromtheinternationalurineharvestingcommunity,as
well as from historic practices, are beginning to implement individualscale, backyard urine harvesting
projects.Wefoundthaturinereuseisgaininginpopularity,isacceptedincertainsocialgroups,andthaturine
harvestershaveseenexceptionallybeneficialresultsfromusingtheurinefertilizer.Urineharvestingseemsa
goodfirststeptowardsecologicalsanitationpracticesbecauseitislegalintheUnitedStates,whereasother
practicesarenot.SomeU.S.regulationsarenowchangingaroundecologicalsanitationpractices,whichbodes
wellforatrendtowardgreateracceptanceofurinerecyclingandotherecologicalsanitationpractices.

harvesting projects. We believe there is similar

interest and practice of urine harvesting in other
Introduction
partsoftheUSAaswell.
IntheUnitedStatesofAmerica,despiteadvanced

technology, high levels of education, and growing

The USA have a long history of composting toilet
concern about environmental sustainability,
use, mainly in rural areas that do not have sewer
awareness and practice of ecological sanitation is
or septic systems. Traditionally, American
in its infancy. In this article we briefly assess
composting toilets have not separated urine. All
residentialscale ecological sanitation practices in
manufactured American composting toilets today
the USA by focusing on the urine harvesting
combineurine,exceptone,"Nature'sHead",which
practicesofasmallbutactive,andrepresentative,
is designed for use on boats and has only been
groupofindividualsintheSanFranciscoBayArea,
available since 2007 (Nature's Head, 2010). The
California,Oregon,andMassachusetts.
mostpopularbookonthesubject,TheHumanure

Handbook, by Joseph Jenkins (Jenkins, 2005; first

Urine harvesting practices in the USA are growing
edition 1994, now in its 3rd edition), advocates
from the grassroots level. Though there are no
combined sources, though most rural compost
coordinated or sponsored urine harvesting
toiletusersencouragepeopleto"peeoutside"and
projects,afewAmericans,learningprimarilyfrom
notinthetoilet.Thereisonlyonebookabouturine
the international urine harvesting community, as
harvesting from the USA (Steinfeld, 2004) which
well as from historic practices, are beginning to
includesinformationontheglobalurineharvesting
implement individualscale, backyard" urine

Keymessages:

UrinereuseispracticedintheUnitedStatesofAmericaeventhoughtherearenocoordinatedprojects
Urineissociallyacceptedincertainsocialgroups
Urinerecyclingisgainingpopularity
Regulationsarechangingaroundsustainablesanitationpractices
Urinerecyclingislegal,contrarytopopularbelief

InternationalinformationonurinerecyclingcouldspurgrowthofUSA'surineadoption

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BackyardurinerecyclinginUnitedStatesofAmerica

movement, as well as a few examples from the

USA s. A few public examples of urine diverting
toiletsarefoundacrossthecountry,includingone
at the office of 2020 Engineering in Bellingham,
Washington.Currently,thereareplanstobuildthe
largest urine diverting project in the U.S. in a
futuresixstorybuildinginSeattle,Washington,at
theheadquartersoftheBullittFoundation(Pryne,
2010).

During January 2010, we conducted interviews

with seven individuals in the San Fransisco Bay
Area,California,andtwoindividualsinotherstates
who practice some form of urine recycling
(capturing and using urine to fertilize plants).
Systems ranged in sophistication from a simple 5
gallon (18.9 liter) bucket (Figure 1) to collection
from urinediverting compost toilets.Interviews
with urine recyclers covered basic quantitative
aspects (quantities of urine collected and specific
collection methods), as well as qualitative aspects
(individuals motivation, sources of information,
observed benefits, and social acceptance of the
practice).

The results of the interviews show that people

have learned from a variety of sources, with the
international ecological sanitation movement
being a major one.Urine recyclers expressed the
belief that American society in general holds an
unfavorableviewofthepractice,butreportedthat
among their friends and colleagues there is much
interestandacceptance.Thoughthescopeofthis
studyisextremelylimitedbythesmallnumberof
interviews conducted, the information about
successes and challenges leads to a few
preliminary suggestions for best management
practices, and highlights an undocumented
segment of the ecological sanitation movement:
Americans.

Urinereuseisgainingattentionatthegloballevel
asscientists,agronomists,backyardgardeners,and
development professionals look to this universally
available substance for solutions to a variety of
water and sanitation problems. Urine collection
reduces toilet water use by as much as 80% by
decreasing flushes (Larsen, et. al., 2001), and
reducesenergyneededbysewertreatmentplants
to remove nitrogen (Wilsenach and van
Loosdrecht,2006).Plantnutrients,mainlynitrogen
and phosphorus, can be captured from urine and
usedasagriculturalfertilizer,reducingdemandfor
chemical fertilizers. Composting toilets that
separateurinefromfecescanbeeasiertomanage
and have fewer odor problems than non
separatingcompostingtoilets,astheycontainless
liquid.
SustainableSanitationPractice

As a matter of public
policy, urine reuse can
reduce
infrastructure
costs
and
conserve
energy. Recent research
alsoshowsthaturinemay
Figure1:Fertilizingroseswith
be an efficient source of
urine.
hydrogen for energy
(Boggsetal.2009).

Urine harvesting projects funded by international

or national agencies are found all over the world,
from urine diverting flush toilets in apartments in
Sweden (Esrey, S. et al. 1998), and the GTZ
headquarters in Germany (GTZ, 2005), to
communityscale urine collection in Tepoztlan,
Mexico (Esrey, S. et al. 2001) and cityscale urine
divertingdrytoiletsinDongshen,China(SEI,2004).

For backyard gardeners, urine diverting toilets

provide a free source of fertilizer while reducing
household water consumption due to fewer toilet
flushes.Eachadultproducesanestimated1.5liters
perday,(WHO,2006)whichcontainsabout4kgof
nitrogen,0.36kgphosphorus,and1kgpotassium
per year. This amount is enough to fertilize about
300400 square meters of crop for each person
(Jonsson et. al. 2004). The range of lowcost
options for collection makes backyard urine reuse
accessibleforallincomelevelsandforbothrenters
andhomeowners.

Legalaspects
In Alameda County, California, where we
conductedmostofourinterviews,thereisnolegal
code that specifically prohibits use of urine or
regulates backyard urine use, although public
perception generally views it as unacceptable or
perhaps illegal. The two legal regulatory bodies
that could potentially regulate backyard urine use
are the state plumbing code, which, in California,
mandatesonetoiletperdwellingunitconnectedto
either a private septic system or to municipal
sewerage (IAPMO, 2007), or the Environmental
Health Department, which regulates a large range
ofconcernsrelatedtohealthandtheenvironment.
Staff in Californias Environmental Health
Departments reported that they had no
regulations on urine, and had never been asked
aboutit'susebefore(Allen,2010).
Regulations in the United States that historically
prohibited legal ecological sanitation practices are
changing. In 2009 the California state plumbing
code, which regulates greywater reuse, was
revised to allow for simple and legal grey water
reuse,allowingirrigationofediblecrops,reducing
26

Issue3/2010

BackyardurinerecyclinginUnitedStatesofAmerica

dischargedepth,andwaivingpermitrequirements
for very simple systems from washing machines.
Since 2001, beginning with the state of Arizona,
droughtaffected states like Arizona, Texas, and
New Mexico have revised grey water standards,
and wetter states such as Oregon are revising
standards to allow for legal rainwater reuse. In
addition, composting toilet use has been on the
rise for many years (While there is a lack of
quantified growth trends, reports in the media
affirm the growth in use and interest in compost
toilets:
see
http://www.treehugger.com/files/2009/07/compo
stingtoiletsuscities.php, and http://www.carol
steinfeld.com/compostingtoilets.html though the
regulations around it in most states remain
prohibitiveatworst,andunclearatbest.

Given Californias history as a region of early

adopters and cultural visionaries, it is not
surprising that a fledgling ecological sanitation
movementshouldemergehere.Itisalsotimelyat
the current moment, as California has been in
drought for three consecutive years. According to
the California Drought Center the last two water
years have resulted in 63 and 72 percent of
average annual precipitation (CA Department of
WaterResources,2009).

The change in state regulations on greywater

reflects a growing awareness of the need for
increasing water efficiency practices, while the
practices of individual urinerecyclers reflect a
growing
desire
for
more
progressive
environmentalpolicies.Urineharvestingisaneasy
firststepforindividualsconcernedaboutreducing
wateruseandrestoringnaturalcycles.

The law presents a major barrier in the USA to

adoption of many ecological practices. Many
sustainable practices, like greywater, rainwater,
andcomposting toilets,are illegal under local and
state building regulations. Because of this, early
adopters of ecological practices in the United
States are often breaking local or state laws.
Thoughmostdosowithoutconsequence,thereis
a history of a few "pioneers" being fined, losing
property, and being forced to remove the
unpermitted projects (Kettmanm, 2009).
Organizationsarehesitanttoattemptprojectsthat
breaklocallaws,thusfurtherslowingtheprogress
ofecologicalsanitationimplementationintheU.S.
Residentialurineharvestingfallsoutsideofexisting
laws;withincreasingknowledgeaboutitsbenefits,
andlegality,moreuserswillbeabletoimplement
thepracticewithoutfearoflegalconsequence.

SustainableSanitationPractice

Motivation
Nine urine recyclers were interviewed during
January and March, 2010. Since there are no
sanctioned urine recycling projects in the USA,
the authors found the participants through
networks of environmental organizations. The
participantshadadiverserangeofoccupations:a
director of a small ecological justice nonprofit
organization, an "ecoartist" and dog border, an
architectspecializingingreendesign,agardener
and public park employee, a supervisor in a
constructioncompany,anecologicaldesigner,a
medicalprogrammanager,asmallbusinessman,
andastatistician.

The nine individuals surveyed range between 27

and 60 years of age; live in cities of the
metropolitan Bay Area: Oakland, Berkeley, and
SanFrancisco,orinPortland,Oregon,andcoastal
Massachusetts. Five of the nine own their
homes, while four are renters. The average
period they have practiced urine recycling is
around two years, though one individual has
maintained the practice over a period of twelve
years. All nine survey participants voluntarily
practice other forms of residentialscale
ecological resource stewardship, including
recycling and composting, both locally common
practices. Most are innovators in other ways:
seven of the nine practice some form of
unregulated grey water reuse, while two of the
nine collect and channel some portion of the
rainwater on their property (also an
unsanctionedandunregulatedpractice).

Given the propensity of this group to engage in

ecological practices, it is not surprising that their

Figure2:This"Peepeeponics"systemusesurine
towaterFigureandfertilizeplants.Credit:Nik
Bertulis
27

Issue3/2010

BackyardurinerecyclinginUnitedStatesofAmerica

motivations are fairly similar; all cited saving

water or problems with sewers as a prime
motivating factor; seven cited fertilizer as a
primaryfactor,whilefourspokeoftheimportance
ofhavingafreeandavailable,fertilizer,andthat
the practice itself is simple and accessible,
makes sense, and is a good way to turn a
problem into a solution. One cited feeling good
that "my nutrients are being cycled without
compromisingfurtherourstressedwatershed"and
"saving energy at pumps and processing at the
wastetreatmentfacility."

Due to the lack of public U.S.based urine reuse

projects,themajorityofindividualslearnedabout
and were inspired to practice urine harvesting
from ecological sanitation projects in other
countries. Five attended a workshop or lecture
where they learned about urine recycling projects
inMexico,Zimbabwe,Sweden,andChina.Therest
came to the practice through the experience of
livingrurally(whereregulationsaremorelaxand
outdoor latrines are common), growing up on "a
family farm," or simply not wanting to flush the
toilet due to ecological concerns. These people
learned about the fertilizing benefits later on,
through informal conversations with friends. One
person began collecting urine while living without
a flush toilet during a home remodel, but didn't
reuse it (he poured it down a shower drain) until
he attended a lecture and learned about other
peoplearoundtheworldfertilizingwithurine.

Figure3:Urinecuredthisformerlysick
lemontreeinSanFrancisco.

answers showed a general lack of concern with

precise dilution ratios; dilution ratios range from
undilutedusetoaratioof8:1.Noonestoredthe
urine for longer than a week, and did not report
anyissueswithodors.

Seven of the nine reported seeing significant

results from using urine as fertilizer. They were
delighted in roses blooming all winter long,
luxuriant plant growth, "super happy bamboo,"
and that their "bougainvillea really took off and
started blooming much more [after receiving
urine]." Their reports on edible plants reported a
citrustreeperkedup,Igrewverylargebroccoli,
and had happy trees, my kale and tomatoes
were really happy, I cured a sick lemon tree
(Figure3),andafterfertilizationmypepperstook
off.Onlyonerespondentobservednoresults,but
reported that he started only recently and the
trees he fertilizes are currently dormant, and
another respondent said he "hadn't done any
formal trials and the results were merely
psychological benefits at this point." One person
notedadramaticreductioninfamilywateruse.His
family of three, who also maintain many other
ecological practices including reuse of grey water
fromthelaundryandacompostingtoiletinoneof
the two bathrooms, has measured its water
savingsfrom130140gallons(492530liters)per
day down to 6070 gallons (227265 liters) per
day.

Materialsandmethods
A variety of lowtech methods were used to
separate the urine. Three of the respondents use
prefabricatedSeparretteurinedivertinginsertsin
custommadecomposttoiletsasshowninFigure4
and 5 (most of the prefabricated composting
toilets made in the U.S. do not separate urine),
while the other five use homemade systems
ranging from a plastic bucket (Figure 1) and a
yogurt container to an antique urinal that was
used on trains. One uses a selfmade urine
diverting toilet and one respondent uses a "pee
peeponics"system(showninFigure2):anoutdoor
urinal that directly fertilizes a planted container
(withasoilmediumof2/3finewoodchipsand1/3
potting soil). Four respondents are the sole users
of their systems; two (who both live alone) use
their systems with one or two guests, while the
remainingthreemaintainsystemsthatareusedby
three or more people (a family of two and three
andacollectivehouseoffive,respectively).

All of the respondents use the urine to fertilize

garden plants and fruit trees. Respondents
SustainableSanitationPractice

Socialacceptance
Cultural acceptability is an important indicator of
theadoptionpotentialofanysanitationpracticeor
technological change; because urine collection is
largely unfamiliar in the United States, peoples'
reactions to it show a particular sensitivity. One
person only talks about it to people [she] thinks
will be interested, like other gardeners, and
sometimes worries what people will think;
Another,whoworksinthebuildingtrade,doesnt
28

Issue3/2010

BackyardurinerecyclinginUnitedStatesofAmerica

All

the
nine
respondents
demonstrated a sense
that urine collection as
theypracticeitisneither
legal nor illegal, with
comments ranging from
Im sure its illegal to
Theres no law against
it to my knowledge, to
I try not to know the
law. These responses
demonstrateatoncethe
lack of regulation of the
practice, the lack of

Figure4:Urineandfaecescollection
Figure5:Compostingtoilet
informationaboutit,and
fromtoiletinFigure4.
withSeparrettediverting
the
spontaneous,
insert.
grassrootsapproachof
these individuals in
talk about it with her coworkers, and cites
addressing the perceived problem. One
respecting the other people who live on [her
respondentsaidshefeltsecretiveaboutitanddid
property] as a concern. A third also cites
not want her neighbours to know, though she
personal challenges: a roommate didnt like it,
wasn'tsureifitwasactuallyillegal.
andanothersaysthathisfriendsseemtofeellike
its something theyd feel uncomfortable doing.
Conclusion
The final person, who uses an antique urine pot,
cited perhaps the most extreme concerns over
As a major world power and an exporter of both
acceptability,saying,Ihavetodecidewhattodo
culture and technology, the United States of
when company comes over, usually I hide [the
America has a unique ability to affect the
system] when guests come over for a party, and
perception and acceptance of sanitation
atfirstIdidn'ttellmygirlfriend.
technologies globally. Given the widespread

acceptance of the flush toilet as the gold

At the same time, each of the respondents
standard of sanitation technology and the
reported clearly positive reception from those to
increasing scarcity of both fresh water and fertile
whom they've revealed their practice, ranging
agriculturalsoils,webelievethatwideacceptance
from bemusement and generally positive to
of ecological sanitation in the United States can
intrigue and inspiration. One person says that
both conserve resources locally and play a crucial
afterseeinghissystem,Some[friends]haveeven
role in shifting perceptions of these practices
built their own [urine diverting composting]
worldwide.
toilets.

From this small sample of ecological sanitation

Four of the nine cited small technical challenges,
practitionersinoneregionoftheUnitedStateswe
suchasdifficultyemptyingtheurinecontainerand
candrawseveralconclusions:acceptanceofthese
minor odor issues, but none found these
practices is minimal, with practitioners made up
challengesinsurmountable.
largely of people who share both a high level of

ecological awareness and a willingness to engage

Reporting other insights into their practices, one
inpracticesthatdivergefromtheperceivednorm.
said the ability to make the change to urine
At the same time, the material benefits (water
collection speaks to how adaptable we are as
savings and fertilization) are so considerable as to
humans. Our cultural norms are socially
be observable almost immediately, and
constructed, we have such a phobia around pee
acceptance, while slow, is growing, as
and poo, but its easy to adapt. The architect
demonstrated by the fact that the average period
who specializes in green design and tries to
of practice among the nine people surveyed is a
incorporate other ecological practices into his
meretwoyears.
buildings, expressed concern that public health

norms in the United States have made living

The recent change in Californias state plumbing
sustainably illegal and are so rigid as to have
regulations to better accommodate residential
madetheperfecttheenemyofthegood.
grey water reuse bodes well for a trend toward

SustainableSanitationPractice

29

of

Issue3/2010

BackyardurinerecyclinginUnitedStatesofAmerica

IAPMO, (2007): California Plumbing Code (2007): Chapter 29

PlumbingSystems,IAPMO,Ontario,CA,p410

greater acceptance of urine recycling and other

ecologicalsanitationpractices.Giventhatconcerns
among our respondents to issues of social
acceptance appear to weigh more heavily than
technological or infrastructure challenges and
those empirical benefits are readily apparent, it
appears almost certain that more progressive
regulatoryframeworkswillleadinevitablytowider
cultural acceptance of ecological sanitation in the
UnitedStates.

The increased exposure and awareness of global

ecological sanitation practices, including urine
harvesting,willhelppromoteincreasingecological
sanitationpracticesintheUnitedStates.

Jenkins, J., (2005): The Humanure Handbook, 3rd Edition,

JosephJenkins,GroveCity,PA.
Josson, H., Richert Stintzing, A., Vinneras, B., and Salomon, E.
(2004) Guildelines on the use of urine and faeces in crop
production, EcoSanRes Publications Series, Report 20042,
Sweden.
Kettmanm,M.(2009):GettingGriefforGoingGreen,TheSanta
BarbaraIndependent,Sep.10th,2009
Larsen, T., Peters, I., Alder, A., Eggen, R., Maurer, M., and
Muncke, J. (2001): Reengineering the toilet for sustainable
wastewater management. Environ Science Technology May
1,2001/Volume35,Issue9/pp192A197A.T.
Nature's Head (2010): Composting Toilets for Marine, RV,
Cabins, and Trucks. A Nature's Head Composting Toilet,
http://www.natureshead.net/store/index.phpmain_page=pr
oduct_info&products_id=1(dateofvisit:3February,2010).
Pryne, E. (2010): Rain, even urine, would help make Bullitt HQ
city's'greenestbuildingever',EricPryne,March15th,2010,
TheSeattleTimes.

Recommendations

SEI, (2004) SEI EETP Office, 2004, China Sweden Erdos Eco
TownProjectDocument,Erdos,InnerMongolia,China

There is a lack of studies and projects on urine

recycling in the United States. We believe there
shouldbeU.S.focusedstudiesandorganizedurine
recyclingprojects.
Americanscanbesociallyacceptingofurineuse.
Urine harvesting is a good first step toward
ecologicalsanitationpractices.
Increased knowledge that urine harvesting is
legal in the USA can increase numbers of
adoptersofthepractice.
Increased exposure of the international
ecological sanitation practices can positively
affectpracticesintheUSA.

Steinfeld, C. (2004): Liquid Gold: The Lore and Logic of Using

UrinetoGrowPlants,CarolSteinfeld,Sheffield,Vermont.
WHO, (2006): Guidelines for the Safe Use of Wastewater,
ExcretaandGreywater.Volume4:Excretaandgreywateruse
in agriculture. World Health Organization, Geneva,
Switzerland.
Wilsenach, J., and Van Loosdrecht, M., (2006): Integration of
ProcessestoTreatWastewaterandSourceSeparatedUrine
JournalofEnvironmentalEngineering,vol132,p331

References
Allen, L. (2010): Phone conversation with staff at Berkeley
Environmental Health Division and Alameda County
Environmental Health division on Jan 28th, 2010 by Laura
Allen.
Boggs,B.,King,R.,andBotte,G.(2009):Ureaelectrolysis:direct
hydrogen production from urine Chem. Commun., 2009,
48594861,DOI:10.1039/b905974a
CADepartmentofWaterResources(2009):California'sDrought
Update
Sep.
30th
2009.
Retrieved
from
http://www.water.ca.gov/drought/on1February,2010.
Esrey,S.etal.(1998):EcologicalSanitation.Esrey,S.Gough,J.,
Rapaport, D., Sawyer, R., SimpsonHebert, M., Vargas, J.,
Winblad, U., Swedish International Cooperative
DevelopmentAgency,Stockholm,Sweden.
Esrey,S.etal.(2001):ClosingtheLoop:EcologicalSaniationfor
FoodSecurity.Esrey,S.,Anderson,I.,Hillers,A.,andSawyer,
R., Swedish International Cooperative Development Agency,
Mexico.

Name: LauraAllen
Organisation:GreywaterAction
Town,Country:Oakland,California;USA
email:laura@greywateraction.org

GTZ (2005): "Urine separation and reuse project at the main

building of GTZ GmbH. data sheets for ecosan projects
016. Syahril, Sonny, Rth, Nicola, Klingel, Florian; Werner,
Christine and Bracken, Patrick, ecosan sector project,
Gesellschaft fr Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH,
Eschborn,
Germany
,
digitally
available
at:
http://www.gtz.de/de/dokumente/enecosanpds016
germanygtzeschborn2005.pdf

SustainableSanitationPractice

Name: JeffConant
Organisation:GreywaterAction
Town,Country:Oakland,California;USA
email:jeff.otherworlds@gmail.com
30

Issue3/2010

organisation:

FoodSecurityandProductiveSanitation;
Practicalguidelineontheuseofurineincrop
production
Thispaperdescribesanupcomingpublicationcontainingapracticalguideline
ontheuseofurineincropproduction.
Authors:A.Richert,R.Gensch,H.Jnsson,L.Dagerskog,T.Stenstrm,M.Bonzi

Abstract
ThepublicationPracticalGuidelineontheUseofUrineinCropProduction,isacollaborativeeffortofseveral
international organisations and institutions active in the field of sustainable sanitation and agriculture under
the aegis of the Sustainable Sanitation Alliance (SuSanA) working group on Food Security and Productive
SanitationwithStockholmEnvironmentInstitute(SEI)asthelead.Itwillbelaunchedduring2010.
The Guideline is directed towards decision makers, professionals and extension workers in the sectors of
agriculture, water & sanitation,planningand environment as well as the donor community. The main target
groupisprofessionalsinthesectorofagriculture.Thetextgivespracticalguidanceontheuseofurineincrop
productionasavitalcomponentofsustainablecropproductionandsanitationsystems.Itcoverskeyaspectsof
howtouseurineasafertiliserinproductivesanitationsystemsandalsoincludesguidanceonhowtoinitiate
activities that will facilitate the introduction of new fertilisers to the agricultural community. The handbook
should help in establishing links between research and professionals interested in implementation of
sustainablesanitationsystems.Itiseasytoreadandinformative,withexamplesfromcasestudiesandtipson
furtherreadingforthoseinterested.

different regions reflect differences in the

uptakeoftheconsumedcropsandthusinthe
Useofurineincropproduction
plant nutrient supply needed for maintained
Consumed plant nutrients leave the human body
crop fertility in the region. Irrespective of the
with excreta, and once the body is fully grown
amountsandconcentrationsofplantnutrients
thereisamassbalancebetweenconsumptionand
in the excreta, one important fertilising
excretion.Thishasthreeimportantimplications:
recommendationisthustostrivetodistribute
1. Theamountofexcretedplantnutrientscanbe
theexcretafertilisersonanareaequaltothat
calculated from the food intake, for which
usedforproducingthefood.
data is better and more easily available than

forexcreta.
Source separation and safe handling of nutrients
2. If all excreta and biowaste, as well as animal
fromthetoiletsystemsisonewaytofacilitatethe
manure and crop residues, is recycled, then
recirculationanduseofexcretaincropproduction.
the fertility of the arable land can be
Urinecontainsmostofthemacronutrientsaswell
maintained, as the recycled products contain
assmallerfractionsofthemicronutrientsexcreted
the same amounts of plant nutrients as were
by human beings. Nitrogen, phosphorus,
takenupbythecrops.
potassium and sulphur as well as micronutrients
3. Differencesincompositionofexcretabetween
areallfoundinurineinplantavailableforms.Urine

Keymassages:

Urineusedasafertilisercanhelpinthemitigationofpovertyandmalnutrition,andimprovethetradebalance
ofcountriesimportingchemicalfertilisers.
Foodsecuritycanbeincreasedwithafertiliserthatisavailablefreeforall.
Safe handling of urine including treatment and sanitisation before use is a key component of sustainable
sanitationaswellassustainablecropproduction.
The"PracticalGuidelineonUseofUrineinCropProduction"willbepublishedduring2010andwillbeavailable
fromtheEcoSanResandSuSanAwebpages,i.e.www.ecosanres.organdwww.susana.org,respectively.

SustainableSanitationPractice

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FoodSecurityandProductiveSanitation,guidelinecomingup

isawellbalancednitrogenrichfertiliserwhichcan
replace and normally gives the same yields as
chemicalfertiliserincropproduction(Figure1).

pathogen transmission since most pathogens are

excretedwithfaecalmatter.Theamountoffaecal
crosscontamination is directly related to the
health risk in the system for urine use in crop
production.Collectionsystemsforurineshouldbe
designed to minimise the risk of faecal cross
contamination. Groups that are potentially at risk
are collection personnel and field workers,
households, local communities and product
consumers. As regards other contaminating
substances excreted with human urine (heavy
metals, hormones and pharmaceuticals) possible
health risks are far smaller than those associated
with the common sanitation system and the risk
for negative effect on the quantity and quality of
thecropsisnegligible.

The WHO guidelines for safe use of excreta in

agriculture (WHO, 2006) promote a flexible multi
barrier approach for managing the health risks
associated with the use of excreta in agriculture.
This concept is comprised of a series of
measures/barriers from toilet to table. Each of
the barriers has a potential to reduce health risks
associated with the excreta use and it is
recommended by WHO to put in place several of
these barriers if needed in order to reduce the
healthrisktoanacceptableminimum(Figure2).

Barriers include for example storage, crop

restrictions, withholding periods and reduced
contact, correct handling and cooking of the food
crop.Thepracticalguidelinegivesexamplesofhow
urine can be handled in a safe way in order to
minimise risk of pathogen transmission based on
theWHOGuidelinesforsafeuseofexcretaincrop
production.

Figure1.Theyieldandsizeofvegetablesimproves
withurineuse(PicturefromMoussaBonzi,
CREPA,BurkinaFaso).

The urine from one person during one year is

sufficienttofertilise300400m2ofcroptoalevel
ofabout50100kgN/ha.Urineshouldbehandled
in closed tanks and containers and should be
spreaddirectlyontothesoil,notontheplant,inN
dosesequivalenttowhatisrecommendedforurea
and ammonium fertilisers. In the small scale,
plasticwateringcansaresuitableforspreadingthe
urine, while in larger scale, spreaders for animal
slurryaresuitable.Aircontactshouldbeminimised
in order to avoid ammonia losses and the urine
should be incorporated into the soil as quickly as
possible.

Economics
The economical value of the urine can be
calculated by comparing with the price ofmineral
fertiliser on the local market or by calculating the
value of the increased yield of the fertilised crop.
An example from Burkina Faso gives at hand that
theannualamountofplantnutrientsintheexcreta
fromonefamilyisroughlyequaltothequantityin
one 50 kg bag of urea and one 50kg bag of NPK.
AccordingtoDagerskogandBonzi(2010)thevalue
of this per person is approximately 10US$, while
the value of the increased yield of maize is
approximately 50US$ per person. The value of a
20litrejerrycanofurinewasestimatedtobe25US
cents.

Institutionalaspectsforupscaling
Economic and institutional aspects are important
as productive sanitation systems become
mainstream. A challenge is to integrate use of
excretainexistingregulatoryframeworks.Initially,
the following activities are suggested when
productivesanitationsystemsareimplemented:
Identifyallstakeholdersandclarifydrivers
andrestrictionsforeachofthesegroupsin
relationtotheimplementationofurine
separation,storage,transportanduse;
Includeandtargettheendusers(thefarmers)
intheplanningprocess;
Organiseanarenaforjointanalysis,planning
andmonitoringofthestakeholders;
Organiselocalcommunitiessothatthereisa
structureforimplementationandastructure
formonitoring

Barriers protect producers, workers

andconsumers
Health risks associated with the use of human
urineinplantproductionaregenerallylow.Source
separation of urine is a strong barrier against

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FoodSecurityandProductiveSanitation,guidelinecomingup

Figure2.Barrierconceptforsafeuseofurineasafertiliser.
Very important in dissemination and upscaling of
the use of urine as a fertiliser are participatory
localdemonstrationsinvolvingallparties.Urineas
afertiliserneedstobeintroducedinthesameway
asanynewfertilisertotheagriculturalcommunity.
Logisticsforhandlingofurinearediscussedinthe
guidelines and examples are given for large and
small scale handling of urine. The logistics are a
challenge and there are environmental as well as
practical and economical implications of
transporting urine if there is no reuse possible on
site. However, as is pointed out in the text, local
reuse is often possible and urban agriculture
provides possibilities for recycling of human
excreta.

Although there is a wealth of location specific

information in this guideline, every location is
unique and further translation and adaptation of
the guidelines is required. The last chapter of the
guideline gives recommendations on how local
guidelines can be developed and reasonably
structured. Existing local guidelines from Burkina
FasoandthePhilippinesareprovidedasanannex.

References

Name: AnnaRichert
Organisation:StockholmEnvironmentInstitute
Country:Sweden
email:anna@richert.se
Name: RobertGensch
Organisation:XavierUniversity
Country:Philippines
Name: HkanJnsson
Organisation:StockholmEnvironmentInstitute
Town,Country:Sweden

Dagerskog, L., Bonzi, M, (2010): Opening minds and closing

loops productive sanitation initiatives in Burkina Faso and
Niger.SustainableSanitationPractice3,pp.411.

Name: LinusDagerskog
Organisation:CREPAHQ
Town,Country:BurkinaFaso

WHO(2006):Guidelinesforthesafeuseofwastwater,excreta
and greywater; Volume 4: Excreta and greywater use in
agriculture.WorldHealthOrganisation,Geneva,Switzerland.
http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/wastewater/g
suweg4/en/index.html,pp.295306.

Name: ThorAxelStenstrm
Organisation:StockholmEnvironmentInstitute
Town,Country:Sweden

ReinosoR.,TorresaL.A.,BcaresE.(2008):Efficiencyofnatural
systems for removal of bacteria and pathogenic parasites
fromwastewater.ScienceoftheTotalEnvironment395,80
86.

Name: MoussaBonzi
Organisation:CREPAHQ
Town,Country:BurkinaFaso

SustainableSanitationPractice

33

Issue3/2010

Stockholm Environment
Environment Institute,
Institute, EcoSanRes
EcoSanRes Series,
Stockholm
Series, 2010-1
2009-1

Practical Guidance on the Use of

Urine in Crop Production
Anna Richert, Robert Gensch, Hkan Jnsson,
Thor-Axel Stenstrm and Linus Dagerskog

Practical Guidance on the Use of

Urine in Crop Production

Anna Richert(1), Robert Gensch(2), Hkan Jnsson(1),

Thor-Axel Stenstrm(1) and Linus Dagerskog(1),(3)
With contributions from:
Elisabeth von Muench(4), Martina Winker(5), Claudia Wendland(6),
Marianne Kjelln(1), Moussa Bonzi(3), Cofie Olufunke(7),
Almaz Terrefe(8) and Peter Morgan(9)

Stockholm Environment Institute

Sustainable Sanitation Center, Xavier University, Philippines; CIM; lead of SuSanA
working group 5
(3)
Centre for Low Cost Water Supply and Sanitation (CREPA)
(4)
Deutsche Gesellschaft fr Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ)
(5)
Hamburg University of Technology
(6)
Women in Europe for a Common Future (WECF)
(7)
International Water Management Institute (IWMI)
(8)
Society for Urban Development in East Africa (Sudea)
(9)
Aquamor
(1)
(2)

EcoSanRes Programme
Stockholm Environment Institute
Krftriket 2B
106 91 Stockholm
Sweden
Tel: +46 8 674 7070
Fax: +46 8 674 7020
Web: www.sei-international.org and www.ecosanres.org
This publication is downloadable from www.ecosanres.org

Head of Communications: Robert Watt

Publications Manager: Erik Willis
Research and Communications Manager, EcoSanRes Programme: Arno Rosemarin
Layout: Richard Clay

Cover Photo: Application of urine on eggplants during a comprehensive

urine application field testing study at Xavier University, Philippines
William Vergara Repulo
This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part and in any form
for educational or non-profit purposes, without special permission from
the copyright holder(s) provided acknowledgement of the source is made.
No use of this publication may be made for resale or other commercial
purpose, without the written permission of the copyright holder(s).
Copyright September 2010

ISBN 978-91-86125-21-9

Contents

Foreword

vii

Reading instructions

viii

Executive summary

ix

PART I General information and recommendations for the use of urine in crop
production
1

Characteristics of human urine

Macronutrients amounts and plant availability
Excreted amounts and volume
Analyzing human urine
Chemical pollutants
Salinization

Economic value of urine

Crop fertilization with urine research results and practical experiences

Cereals in Northern Europe
Cereals in India
Vegetables in South Africa
Vegetables in Western Africa
Vegetables in Eastern Africa
Vegetables in Northern Europe
Vegetables in Central America
Fruit in India

Application strategies
Application time
Application rate
Storage techniques
Storage in soil
Application techniques
Odour when using urine as a fertilizer
Combined application of urine and organic fertilizers

Treatment and sanitization

Health risks
Multi barrier concept

Handling system for use of urine as fertilizer

Larger scale systems

1
1
3
4
4
5
7
10
10
10
11
11
11
12
13
13
15
15
16
18
20
20
22
22
23
23
23
29
29

Gender aspects

33

Institutional aspects of agricultural use of urine

35

Regulatory framework
Urine use in organic agriculture

36
37

Crop experiments using urine as a fertilizer

Demonstration experiments
Controlled experiments to test the fertilizing potential
Controlled experiments to test the real life fertilizing effect
Farm and crop rotation experiments
Statistical considerations
Dissemination of results

38
38
38
39
39
39
39

Web-based tools for calculation

40

PART 2 How to develop local guidelines

41

The productive sanitation approach

Local site conditions
Plant requirements and nutrient content in urine
Application recommendations
Risk management

41
41
42
42
44

PART 3 - Example of a local guideline

Guideline for application of sanitized urine (Takin Ruwa) in the agricultural conditions
of Niger
46
Excerpts from the guideline

References

46

47
52

s to c k h o l m e n v i r o n m e n t i n s t i t u t e

Foreword

his book gives practical guidance on the use of

urine in crop production as a vital component of
sustainable crop production and sanitation systems. It
also includes guidance on how to start activities that
will facilitate the introduction of new fertilizers to the
agricultural community. The handbook should help in
establishing links between research and professionals
interested in implementation of sustainable sanitation
systems. It is easy to read and informative, with
examples from case studies and hints on further reading
for those interested.
The target group is mainly professionals and extension
workers in the agricultural sector. In addition, the authors
would like to see this text used by water and sanitation,
planning and environment professionals in order to
establish cross-sectoral links since the use of urine in
crop production touches on several of these areas at the
same time. Important readers are also decisionmakers
on all levels, as well as the donor community.

The text has been produced as a collaborative process

within the Sustainable Sanitation Alliance (SuSanA1)
Working Group 05 on Food Security and Productive
Sanitation Systems. Stockholm Environment Institute
has taken the lead in the authorship, and important
contributions have been made by the following people
and institutions:
Anna Richert (SEI; lead author), Robert Gensch
(Xavier University, Philippines; chair of SuSanA
working group on food security), Hkan Jnsson
(SEI), Thor-Axel Stenstrm (SEI), Linus Dagerskog
(CREPA and SEI), Elisabeth von Muench (GTZ),
Martina Winker (Hamburg University of Technology),
Claudia Wendland (WECF), Marianne Kjelln (SEI),
Dr Moussa Bonzi (CREPA), Cofie Olufunke (IWMI),
Almaz Terrefe (Sudea), Peter Morgan (Aquamor),
workshop participants.
The document has been peer reviewed by Dr Ralf
Otterpohl and Mr Christopher Buzie at Hamburg
University of Technology.

1 http://www.susana.org/

vii

p r ac t i c a l g u i da n c e o n t h e u s e o f u r i n e i n c r o p p r o d u c t i o n

Reading instructions

he text is based on scientific knowledge as well as

practical experiences on the of urine as a fertilizer
and will focus on the urine use in crop production
only. Other technical aspects related to the supporting
sustainable sanitation technologies and how urine
is finally collected are only included if they have an
implication for the use of urine as a fertilizer. For further
information on technical components of the supporting
sanitation systems please see for example Technology
Review Urine Diversion Components (von Mnch
and Winker 2009) or the Compendium of Sanitation
Systems and Technologies (Tilley et al., 2008).

PART 2 gives an introduction on how this wealth of

information can be translated further to the respective
local site/country specific needs and conditions by giving
recommendations on how locally adapted guideline
versions can be developed and reasonably structured.
It summarizes the most important factors that directly
or indirectly influence the farming activities related to
the urine use.

The guideline is divided into three major parts:

It is the intention of the authors that this guide should be

used as a general resource book and as a support tool for
the development of local guidelines on the use of urine
in crop production. At the beginning of key chapters of
Part 1 there is a short box headed practical guidance
with practical tips indicating what is most important,
and what could be included in a simplified guideline. If
time for reading the entire guideline is a constraint, it is
recommended to focus on the executive summary and
the boxes introducing each chapter and then proceed to
Part II on how to develop local guidelines.

PART 1 of the guidelines gives general information and

recommendations on the use of urine in crop production
including information on urine composition, value
and use in crop production, health risk management
based on World Health Organization (WHO)
recommendations as well as institutional aspects and
knowledge development for the implementation of
urine use in crop production on local level. The first part
acts as a generic resource base related to the use of urine
in agricultural production.

viii

PART 3 is an annexed local guideline from Niger

translated into English to give a colorful example of
such a local guideline.

s to c k h o l m e n v i r o n m e n t i n s t i t u t e

Executive summary

he Practical Guidance on the Use of Urine in Crop

Production is directed towards decision makers,
professionals and extension workers in the agriculture,
water and sanitation, planning and environment sectors,
as well as the donor community. The main target group
is professionals in the agricultural sector. The text gives
practical guidance on the use of urine in crop production
as a vital component of sustainable crop production and
sanitation systems. It covers key aspects of how to use
urine from productive sanitation systems as fertilizer
in crop production and also includes guidance on how
to initiate activities that will facilitate the introduction
of new fertilizers to the agricultural community.
The handbook is intended to help in establishing
links between researchers in the field of sustainable
sanitation and agricultural practionners, as well as endusers interested in implemented sustainable sanitation
systems. It is easy to read and informative, with
examples from case studies and tips on further reading
for those interested.
Urine used as a fertilizer can help in the mitigation
of poverty and malnutrition, and improve the trade
balance of countries importing chemical fertilizers
if adopted at large scale. Food security can be
increased with a fertilizer that is available free for all,
regardless of logistic and economical resources. Safe
handling of urine including sanitization before use is
a key component of sustainable sanitation as well as
sustainable crop production.
Consumed plant nutrients leave the human body with
excreta, and once the body is fully grown there is a mass
balance between consumption and excretion. This has
three important implications:

The amount of excreted plant nutrients can be calculated

from the food intake, for which data is better and more
easily available than for excreta.
If all excreta and biowaste, as well as animal manure
and crop residues, is recycled, then the fertility of the
arable land can be maintained, as the recycled products
contain the same amounts of plant nutrients as were
taken up by the crops.
Differences in composition of excreta between different
regions reflect differences in the uptake of the consumed
crops and thus in the plant nutrient supply needed for
maintained crop fertility in the region. Irrespective of
the amounts and concentrations of plant nutrients in the
excreta, one important fertilizing recommendation is
therefore to strive to distribute the excreta fertilizers on
an area equal to that used for producing the food.
Source separation and safe handling of nutrients from
the toilet systems is one way to facilitate the recirculation
and use of excreta in crop production. Urine contains
most of the macronutrients as well as smaller fractions
of the micronutrients excreted by human beings.
Nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and sulphur as well as
micronutrients are all found in urine in plant available
forms. Urine is a well balanced nitrogen rich fertilizer
which can replace and normally gives the same yields
as chemical fertilizer in crop production. Table I shows
an example of yields from field research in Burkina
Faso, where yields of urine-fertilized crops did not
differ from mineral fertilized crops.
The urine from one person during one year is sufficient
to fertilize 300-400 m2 of crop to a level of about 50-

Table 1: Yield of vegetables as an average of three years of field trials in Burkina Faso.
Source: CREPA

Egg plant
(t ha-1)

Gombo
(t ha-1)

Tomato
(t ha-1)

Unfertilized control

2.8a

1.7a

2.1a

Mineral fertilizer

17.8b

2.7b

5.7b

Stored urine

17.7b

2.4b

5.2b

Urine (b) and mineral fertilizer (b) gave a statistically significant yield increase compared to unfertilized control (a). However, there is no
statistical difference between yields using urine (b) or mineral fertilizer (b)

ix

p r ac t i c a l g u i da n c e o n t h e u s e o f u r i n e i n c r o p p r o d u c t i o n

Figure I: The yield and size of vegetables improves with urine use.
Photo: CREPA, Burkina Faso, Dr Moussa Bonzi

100 kg N/ha. Urine should be handled in closed tanks

and containers and should be spread directly onto the
soil, not on the plant, in N-doses equivalent to what is
recommended for urea and ammonium fertilizers. In the
small scale, plastic watering cans are suitable for spreading
the urine, while in larger scale, spreaders for animal
slurry are suitable. Air contact should be minimized in
order to avoid ammonia losses and the urine should be
incorporated into the soil as quickly as possible.
The economical value of the urine can be calculated
by comparing with the price of mineral fertilizer on the
local market or by calculating the value of the increased
yield of the fertilized crop. In Burkina Faso the value of
a 20 l jerrycan of urine can be estimated to 25 US cents.
A person produces around 500 litres of urine per year
corresponding to ~ 6-7 dollars. Including the nutient
value of faeces the annual value reaches approximately
10 $US. However the increased maize yield from using
this amount of fertilizer is estimated to 50 $US.

An example from Niger shows that the annual amount

of plant nutrients in the excreta (urine + faeces) from
one family is roughly equal to the quantity in one 50
kg bag of urea and one 50 kg bag of NPK, see figure 2.
The majority of these nutrients are in the urine, which
is relatively easy to collect.
Health risks associated with the use of human urine in
plant production are generally low. Source separation
of urine is a strong barrier against pathogen
transmission since most pathogens are excreted
with faecal matter. The amount of faecal crosscontamination is directly related to the health risk in
the system for urine use in crop production. Collection
systems for urine should be designed to minimize the
risk of faecal cross-contamination. Groups that are
potentially at risk are mainly collection personnel
and field workers, groups that come in direct contact
with the excreta. Other categories where risks

s to c k h o l m e n v i r o n m e n t i n s t i t u t e

Figure 2: The annual amount of nutrients in excreta from one family in Niger is equal to nutrients
Photo: Linus Dagerskog, CREPA/SEI
in the two bags of fertilizers.
exist, however diminished, are households, local
communities and product consumers.

agricultural land at levels corresponding to the plants

needs.

Urine is a high quality fertilizer with low levels of heavy

metals. Regarding hormones and pharmaceuticals
excreted with urine, the risk of negative effects to
plants or human beings is low if urine is spread on

The World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines

for safe use of excreta in agriculture (2006) promote a
flexible multi-barrier approach for managing the health
risks associated with the use of excreta. This concept

Figure 3: Barrier concept for safe use of urine as a fertilizer.

xi

p r ac t i c a l g u i da n c e o n t h e u s e o f u r i n e i n c r o p p r o d u c t i o n

comprises a series of measures/barriers from toilet to

table. Each of the barriers has a potential to reduce
health risks associated with the excreta use and it is
recommended by WHO to put in place several of these
barriers, if needed, in order to reduce the health risk to
an acceptable minimum, see figure 3.

Organize an arena for feed-back and interaction

between stakeholders.

Organize local communities so that there is a

structure for implementation and a structure for
monitoring.

Barriers include, for example, storage, crop restrictions,

withholding periods and reduced contact, correct
handling and cooking of the food crop. The text gives
examples of how urine can be handled in a safe way in
order to minimize risk of pathogen transmission based
on the WHO Guidelines for safe use of excreta in crop
production.

Dissemination and knowledge development on urine as

a fertilizer is best gained through local demonstration
experiments involving organizations that work with
small scale farmers and local communities as well
as local research organizations. The new fertilizer
should be introduced with the same methodology as
when introducing any new fertilizer in the agricultural
community.

Institutional aspects are increasingly important as

productive sanitation systems become mainstream.
A challenge is to integrate use of excreta in existing
regulatory frameworks. Initially, the following activities
are suggested when productive sanitation systems are
implemented:

Identify stakeholders and clarify drivers and

restrictions for each one in relation to the
implementation of urine use in crop production.

Include and target the farmers in the initial planning.

xii

In order to be implementable in a local context there

is often an additional need to further translate or adapt
the wealth of information given in this text to the
respective local site conditions. Part two of the book
gives recommendations on how local guidelines can be
developed and structured and it summarizes the most
important factors that directly or indirectly influence
farming activities related to urine use. It is complemented
by an example of an existing local guideline from Niger
that is annexed to the publication.

s to c k h o l m e n v i r o n m e n t i n s t i t u t e

PART I General information and recommendations for

the use of urine in crop production
Characteristics of human urine
Practical guidance:
Urine is a well-balanced nitrogen-rich quickacting liquid fertilizer. The nutrient content in
urine depends on the diet. If the nitrogen content
in urine is not known, then as a rule of thumb, a
concentration of 3-7 grams of N per litre of urine
can be expected. Phosphorus in urine is excreted
in a plant-available form making urine an efficient
phosphorus fertilizer as well. The quantity of urine
produced by an adult depends on the amount of
liquid a person drinks, a common figure is 0.8-1.5
litres per adult per day.

Urine is an aqueous solution made up of more than

95 per cent water, with the remaining constituents
made up of urea, creatinine, dissolved ions (chloride,
sodium, potassium, etc), inorganic and organic
compounds or salts. Most of these remain in solution,
but there can be a tendency for phosphorus-rich
substances to sediment in containers that are stored for
hygienization. This substance has a syrupish texture,
and if urine is collected in a piping system, this urine
syrup can sediment in pipes if the inclination is not
sufficient.

Macronutrients amounts and

plant availability

Consumed plant nutrients leave the human body with

excreta, and once the body is fully grown there is a
mass balance between consumption and excretion, see
figure in box 1. This has three important implications:

Urine contains significant quantities of the main macro

nutrients required by plants; nitrogen (N), phosphorus
(P) and potassium (K). Nitrogen occurs in high
concentration (mostly as urea), whereas phosphates
and potassium occur in comparatively lower
concentrations, in dissolved plant available forms.

he text in the following section presumes that the

urine is handled according to the WHO (2006)
guidelines for the safe use of wastewater, excreta and
greywater in agriculture and aquaculture.

The amount of excreted plant nutrients can be calculated

from the food intake, for which the data are better and
more easily available than for excreta.
If all excreta and biowaste, as well as animal manure
and crop residues, is recycled, then the fertility of the
arable land can be maintained, as the recycled products
contain the same amounts of plant nutrients as were
taken up by the crops.
Differences in composition of excreta between different
regions reflect differences in the uptake of consumed
crops and thus in the plant nutrient supply needed for
maintaining crop fertility in the region.
Irrespective of the amounts and concentrations of
plant nutrients in excreta, one important fertilizing
recommendation is to strive to distribute the excreta
fertilizers on an area equal to that used for growing the
crop.

Urine used directly or after storage is a high quality,

low cost alternative to the application of N-rich
mineral fertilizer in plant production. The nutrients
in urine are in ionic form and their plant-availability
compares well with chemical fertilizer (Johansson et
al., 2001; Kirchmann and Pettersson, 1995; Simons
and Clemens 2004). Urine also contains large amounts
of phosphorus, potassium, sulphur and micronutrients,
but due to its high content of N, its P/N and K/N ratios
are lower than in many mineral fertilizers used for
crop production, and lower than what many crops need
according to fertilizer recommendations.
An advantage of urine in comparison with organic
fertilizers is that the phosphorus exists in forms
that are plant-available. This means that urine is
quite efficient as a phosphorus fertilizer, which has
implications for the future with regard to the concept
of Peak Phosphorus and the fact that phosphorus is a
finite resource.

p r ac t i c a l g u i da n c e o n t h e u s e o f u r i n e i n c r o p p r o d u c t i o n

Table 2: Proposed default values for excreted mass and nutrients. 

Vinners et al., 2006

Urine

Faeces

Toilet paper

Blackwater
(urine+faeces)

kg/person,year

550

51

8.9

610

Dry mass

kg/ person,year

21

11

8.5

40.5

Nitrogen

g/ person,year

4000

550

4550

Phosphorus

g/ person,year

365

183

548

Parameter

Unit

Wet mass

Since it is quite difficult to analyze human urine

for nutrient content, there is a need for a method to
calculate the composition of urine from easily available
data. Such a method, which uses the FAO statistics
(see www. fao.org) on the available food supply in
different countries, has been developed by Jnsson and
Vinners (2004). This method uses equations derived
from the FAO statistics and an estimation of the average
excretion by the Swedish population (table 2), where
many measurements on excreta have been made.
Based on this estimate of average excretion, on the
food supplied to the Swedish population according to
the FAO statistics and on statistical analysis of different
foodstuffs, relationships (equations 1 and 2) have been
developed between the food supplied according to FAO
and the excretion of N and P.
N = 0.13* (Total food protein)
..............Equation 1

P = 0.011* (Total food protein + vegetal food protein)

..................... Equation 2
In equations 1-2 the units of N and P are the same as
those of the food protein. As is shown by equation
2, there is a strong positive correlation between the
contents of protein and phosphorus in the food stuffs.
Furthermore, vegetal food stuffs contain on average
twice as much phosphorus per gram of protein as animal
ones, which is why the vegetal protein is counted twice
in equation 2.
These equations are useful for estimating the average
excretion of N and P in different countries. The input
to such estimates are FAO statistics on food supplied,
found on the FAO website. Examples of inputs and
results of such estimates for a few countries are given
in tables 3 and 4.
These estimates assume that the loss between the
food supplied and the food actually consumed, i.e.

Table 3: Food supply (crops primary equivalent) in different countries in 2000. 

Country

China, Asia

Total energy
kcal/cap,day
3029

FAO 2003

Vegetal energy
kcal/cap, day

Total protein
g/cap, day

Vegetal
protein
g/cap, day

2446

86

56

Haiti, West Indies

2056

1923

45

37

India, Asia

2428

2234

57

47

South Africa, Africa

2886

2516

74

48

Uganda, East Africa

2359

2218

55

45

s to c k h o l m e n v i r o n m e n t i n s t i t u t e

Table 4: Estimated excretion of nutrients per capita in different countries. 

Jnsson and Vinners 2004

Nitrogen (kg/cap, year)

Phosphorus (kg/cap, year)

Potassium (kg/cap, year)

China

3.5

0.4

1.3

Haiti

1.9

0.2

0.9

India

2.3

0.3

1.1

South Africa

3.0

0.3

1.2

Uganda

2.2

0.3

1.0

Sweden

4.0

0.4

1.0

the food waste generated, is of the same relative size

in the different countries. This assumption is verified
by Chinese data. The total excretion reported by Gao
et al., (2002) for China was 4.4 kg of N and 0.5 kg of
P. These values agree quite well with those calculated
in table 4, considering how difficult it is to carry out
representative measurements of the excretion of a
large population.

shows that in these areas urine could provide a

nitrogen rich fertilizer of the ratio 10:1:4 and faeces
a more evenly balanced 2:1:1 fertilizer. The weighted
average nutrient content, which would be the result of
application of these two fertilizers derived from the
same number of people during the same time, yields
approximately a 7:1:3 fertilizer ratio.

Basic data on urine composition can also be found in

the following: NASA Contractor Report No. NASA
CR-1802, D. F. Putnam, July 1971. This document is
available online at:

Excreted amounts and volume

The quantity of urine produced by an adult mainly
depends on the amount of liquid a person drinks and
perspires. Children produce approximately half as
much urine as adults. Excessive sweating results
in concentrated urine, while consumption of large
amounts of liquid dilutes the urine. Vinners et al.,
(2006) suggested a design value for urine generation
to be 1500 g/p,d based on measurements in Sweden,
while Schouw et al., (2002) found that in Southern
Thailand between 0.6-1.2 L/p,d of urine was produced.

http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.
gov/19710023044_1971023044.pdf
Table5 below shows the calculated N, P and K
values of urine and faeces and urine + faeces for the
10+ age group of rural households in the Limpopo
province of South Africa (CSIR, 2008). The table

Table 5: N:P:K excretion of nutrients per capita per annum and the ratio for urine, faeces and
CSIR, 2008
urine + faeces fertilizer in South Africa 
Product

kg/p/yr

Ratio

Urine

3.56

0.34

1.26

10

Faeces

0.42

0.24

0.21

Urine + faeces

3.98

0.58

1.47

p r ac t i c a l g u i da n c e o n t h e u s e o f u r i n e i n c r o p p r o d u c t i o n

Analyzing human urine

Chemical pollutants

Correct sampling and analyzing of urine is difficult,

and results of single analysis of unpooled samples
should be interpreted with care. Laboratory analyses
will give the most correct answers, however, such
analyses may not always be possible for field
conditions and absence of laboratory equipment.
Simple analytical methods are available, but
these have not been validated for human urine.
Measurements of conductivity have been suggested,
which may be an interesting possibility. A tool that
has been developed for analysing animal slurry has
been used successfully for human urine, however,
calibration may be necessary. The method is based
on the fact that ammonium dissolved in the fertilizer
reacts with an additive to form gaseous ammonia.
The tool measures the gas pressure that results, and
indicates a rough figure for the content of ammonia
nitrogen in the fertilizer (See www.agros.se).
Sampling of urine should be carried out with stringency.
Urine should be well mixed because phosphorus-rich
subsances in urine tend to sediment in a container
during storage of urine.
A comment on the content of P and K in urine is
relevant. In many countries, the K content is expressed
as K2O, and the P content as P2O5. Table 6 below gives
conversion factors for use when needed in order to
convert the formulas.
Table 6: Conversion factors for major nutrients
To Convert

To

Multiply by

K2O

1.2

K2O

0.83

P2O5

2.29

P2O5

0.436

Practical guidance:
Source separation of urine results in one of the
safest and cleanest fertilizers available to the
agricultural community.
Pharmaceuticals and
hormones are excreted with urine, but the risk of
negative effects to plants or human beings is low.
When excreta is processed in a sweage treatment
plant contaminants from industries, traffic and
grey water are added resulting in a product of
much lower quality. The following text gives some
answers to frequently posed questions regarding
chemical pollutants in urine. However, it needs to
be noted that the risk when using urine is far lower
than when using wastewater treatment sludge,
and also lower than when using farmyard manure.

The information in this section is mostly based on

Winker (2009). The publication of Larsen and Lienert
(2007) is also recommended.
Hormones and pharmaceuticals2
Hormones and pharmaceutical residues are two
types of micro-pollutants which occur in urine
(concentration levels are available in Winker,
2009), as human beings excrete them with their
urine and faeces (as a rule of thumb: two thirds of
pharmaceutical residue substances are excreted with
the urine, one third with faeces, although the figures
can vary widely for individual substances).
There is the possibility that if urine is reused in
agriculture, these micro-pollutants would be taken up
by plants and thereby enter the human food chain.
This is a risk, but a small one: a full evaluation of the
potential toxic effects of pharmaceuticals ingested by
humans with crops is very difficult and has not yet
been done. The risks need to be put in perspective
compared to pharmaceutical residues contained in
animal manure, or the risks resulting from pesticide
use. In sewer-based sanitation systems, these micropollutants are discharged from sewage treatment
plants into surface water bodies and can reach the
groundwater in the long run. For example, detected
concentrations of pharmaceutical residues in
groundwater lay in the range of 50ng/l in Germany
(Heberer et al., 2000).

2 From von Mnch and Winker (2009)

s to c k h o l m e n v i r o n m e n t i n s t i t u t e

When comparing the two approaches (mixing urine

with water in conventional wastewater management
versus urine application to soil), it is likely to be safer
to discharge urine to soil, rather than to let it pass
the conventional system. The micro-pollutants can
be degraded better in the aerobic, biologically active
soil layers (high concentration of micro-organisms
per cubic centimetres) with long retention times than
in water bodies whose ecosystems are much more
sensitive. Soil is considered a more suitable medium
for natural degradation of pharmaceuticals than water
because:

The oxygen levels, promoting biodegradation, are

around 50,000 times higher than in water

Exposure to UV light also helps to degrade

pharmaceuticals, although this only applies to the
surface (1-2 cm soil depth) and crops can shade the
ground.

Terrestrial systems are much better equipped to

degrade organic compounds than aquatic ones. The
high specific surface of soil particles maximises
the exposure of adsorbed chemicals, maximising
the kinetics of degradation such as oxidation,
reduction, enzymeenhanced diagenesis, etc.

The wide biodiversity of the fungal and bacterial

flora of soil are also adapted to degrade various
sorts of organic molecules, both complex and
simple.

Ultimately, the potential risks from consuming

crops fertilised with urine need to be compared with
the risks related to pesticide use on crops, as well
as antibiotics and hormones given to farm animals
(poultry and cattle) which can be traced e.g. in
milk and eggs. The human use of pharmaceutical
substances is small compared to the amount of
pesticides (insecticides, fungicides, bactericides
and herbicides) used in agriculture, which are just
as biologically active as pharmaceutical substances.
Substance flow studies have confirmed that the dose
of natural and synthetic hormones and of many
pharmaceutical substances is larger when applying
manure than when applying human urine (Magid,
2006; Hammer & Clemens, 2007). Although it has
to be mentioned that the variety of pharmaceutical
residues applied via urine is higher than via animal
manure.

Urine is strongly toxic to earthworms as reported

from a PhD study (Muskolus, 2008). Urine
fertilization has been found to give a temporary
set-back to the population of earth worms, but the
effect is not permanent and after about 6 months,
the population had recovered (Muskolus, 2008). It
was investigated whether this response was related
to ammonia or pharmaceuticals in urine, however,
no such connections could be made. Soil microbial
enzyme activities were not influenced by urine used
as a fertilizer. (Muskolus, 2008)
Trace metals
Human faeces and to a small extent urine contain
trace metals. The amounts of harmful heavy metals in
urine are miniscule and much lower than wastewater
sludge or even farmyard manure (WHO, 2006). This
is a result of the biological uptake being small and
their excretion being even smaller (Vinners, 2002).
Essentially all the heavy metals in the excreta from
a normal population come from the food ingested
and a large proportion of these metals will have been
removed from the fields with the crop. Thus, it is
possible to recycle excreta fertilizers, provided that
they have not been polluted when handled, without
threatening the sustainability of the agricultural soil
(Jnsson et al., 2004).

Salinization
Practical guidance:
Urine use in areas where salinization is an issue
should be monitored. Urine is a solution of
salts, and salt stress can be a major constraint
to plant production in arid areas. When urine is
used in these areas, irrigation practices should
be adapted, the urine should be watered down,
and application of urine should regularly be
interchanged with applications of water only.

The concentration of soluble salts in urine depends on

the amount of salts excreted as well as the amount of
liquid that passes through the body. A figure reported
in Ganrot 2007 gives at hand that human urine
contains approximately 150 mM of NaCl (sodium
chloride), corresponding to a concentration of 8.8 g
per litre (Ganrot et al., 2007). Salt stress from sodium
chloride can be a major constraint in crop production,
especially in arid conditions. Salt sensitivity varies

p r ac t i c a l g u i da n c e o n t h e u s e o f u r i n e i n c r o p p r o d u c t i o n

Table 7: The relative tolerance of common plants to salinity. 

Brady and Weil, 1999

Tolerant

Moderately tolerant

Moderately sensitive

Sensitive

Barley (grain)

Ash (white)

Alfalfa

Almond

Bermuda grass

Aspen

Broad bean

Apple

Black cherry

Barley (forage)

Cauliflower

Apricot

Cotton

Beet (garden)

Cabbage

Bean

Date

Broccoli

Celery

Blackberry

Olive

Cow pea

Clover

Boysenberry

Rosemary

Fescue (tall)

Corn

Carrot

Fig

Cucumber

Celery

Harding grass

Grape

Grapefruit

Kale

Lettuce

Lemon

Orchard grass

Pea

Onion

Oats

Peanut

Orange

Pomegranate

Radish

Peach

Rye (hay)

Rice (paddy)

Pear

Ryegrass (perennial)

Squash

Pineapple

Safflower

Sugar cane

Potato

Sorghum

Sweet clover

Raspberry

Soybean

Sweet potato

Strawberry

Squash (zucchini)

Turnip

Tomato

Wheat

with factors such as plant species and temperature.

Bernal et al., (1974) reported growth depression of
10 to 50 per cent grain yield of wheat when treated
with a solution of 50 mM NaCl. Salt-affected soils
are distributed all over the world but most of them are
found in arid and semi-arid regions
Fertilizers are to a large extent soluble salts and if
they are not managed properly they can contribute
to or cause salinization. For example, a study made
to investigate salinity and nitrogen rate effects on
the growth and yield of chile pepper plants by VillaCastorena et al., (2003) showed that high amounts of
nitrogen application, 140 kg ha-1 and more, increased
soil salinity and in turn decreased plant growth and
yield.
In a South African study on the evaluation of human
urine as a source of nutrients for vegetables by Mnkeni
et al., (2005) it was found that under South African

conditions, very high rates of urine application

lowered yields. This was due to increased salinity of
the soil that led to high levels of sodium in plant tissue.
However the rates of N-application in the study were
extreme: 1600 kg N/ha, which increased the electrical
conductivity of the soil, resulting to classification of
the soil as a very strong saline soil after harvest. The
use of this level of application is never recommended.
It was also suggested that the salinity status of soils
fertilized with urine should be monitored in order to
detect possible salt-build up, which is reasonable.
Monitoring in arid regions would be advisable in order
to get long-term data on possible salt build-up in soils
and/or to keep rates of urine fertilization at a level that
is well adapted to the climate and crop. Plants vary in
their ability to tolerate salinity and a good selection of
crop is therefore an important part of optimizing the
crop yield in arid areas (table 7).

s to c k h o l m e n v i r o n m e n t i n s t i t u t e

Economic value of urine

Practical guidance:
The value of the nutrients in urine can be calculated
by comparing the quantity of plant nutrients in
urine to the price of the same nutrients in chemical
fertilizers on the local market. Depending on the
current local fertilizer prices, the value of the urine
produced by one person per year will usually
be within the range of 4-7 Euros. To illustrate
the potential of the urine use this figure can be
multiplied by the number of household or village
members, or even by the entire population.

ssessing the economic value of urine has many

dimensions. The value of reusing urine in crop
production is often much higher than the mere value
of the nutrients contained in urine. The yield increase
that can be attributed to the application of nutrient
rich urine compared to no fertilizer application
at all makes a strong case for the resource reuse
in agriculture and sustainable sanitation systems.
Monetary arguments are helpful when creating
awareness of the potential of productive sanitation.
Health and environment benefits are quite difficult
to evaluate in monetary terms, while the economic
value of excreta in chemical fertilizer equivalents is
easier. This can be done by comparing the quantity
of the plant nutrients in excreta to the price of the
same nutrients in chemical fertilizers such as urea,
phosphate and different NPK fertilizers.
Dimensions on the economic and financial value of soil
nutrients have been explored by for example Drechsel
et al (2004). The two main models used in developing
countries focus on either the value of introduced
fertilizers, which will be further developed in the text
to follow; and the value of products from the studied
farming systems. Both methods have limitations and
potential, and the choice should be based on a decision
regarding target group, quality of in-data and desired
result.
A study on the marketing of urine and faeces from
residential areas in Kampala, Uganda, was carried out
by GTZ (Schroeder, 2010). Among the conclusions
were:

the larger the systems are designed, the higher is

the economical profit;

the profit of the systems can be influenced

significantly by a variety of factors. Among them
transport distance, project lifetime and nutrient/fuel
prices showed the largest effects;

the distance between residential and agricultural

area should be minimised;

economic tools are likely to help change peoples

perceptions and behaviours sustainably and present
an option to increase the implementation efficiency
of the proposed systems;

a fertilizer will not be purchased and used by

farmers if it is not competitive in terms of nutrient
content and plant availability, handling/managing
effort/costs and product price.

The text in box 1 (pages 8 and 9) describes a method

developed by CREPA using the monetary argument to
promote productive sanitation in Burkina Faso and Niger.
Cost/Benefit analyses
Carrying out a cost/benefit analysis can provide support
for planning a sanitation system including the recycling
of urine and faeces to agricultural land. One such
analysis has been made in a project in South Africa
(CSIR, 2008) where costs and benefits of using urine as
a fertilizer were compared to costs and benefits of using
no fertilizer at all or using mineral fertilizer. The analysis
was based on interviews with subsistence farmers in
rural areas. Despite the higher installation construction
cost of a urine diverting toilet, this technology option
had a greater economic benefit irrespective of the
manner of management of the contents of the vaults.
This implies that the urine diverting toilet technology is
a better option for subsistence farming areas which are
attempting to improve soil fertility.
Another cost/benefit analysis was carried out in Niger
(Dagerskog, personal communication), where the cost
of constructing a toilet was compared to the value of the
fertilizer generated in the toilet. This small comparison
of figures showed that the family using the urine as
fertilizers could, if they sold it on a market at slightly
less than the nutrient value in the liquid, get back the
money they paid to build the toilet in less than two
years.

p r ac t i c a l g u i da n c e o n t h e u s e o f u r i n e i n c r o p p r o d u c t i o n

Box 1: Calculating the economic value of urine - experiences from Burkina Faso
How much nutrient is there in human excreta
per year?
The amount of nitrogen and phosphorus in excreta
is calculated using the FAO statistics for food supply (equations 1 and 2). Due to the uncertainty of
FAOs statistics for individual countries, the data in
figure 4 is based on the average for the ten West
African countries.
The excreta generated by a family represent a substantial quantity of fertilizers. The average family
in the Agui province in Niger has nine members.
Urea and NPK (15:15:15; %N: %P2O5 : %K2O)
are the common fertilizers. Interestingly, the annual
amount of plant nutrients in the excreta from one
family is roughly equal to the quantity in one 50 kg
bag of urea and one 50 kg bag of NPK.

Table 8: Annual amounts of nutrients in

excreta compared with mineral fertilizers.
Nutrient

Excreta
Kg per
person

Excreta Urea (50kg) +

NPK15:15:15
Kg per
(50kg)
family (9)

2.8

25

27

0.45

3.2

(K)

(1.3)

(11.7)

(6.2)

Most families cannot afford two bags of fertilizers.

No surprise then that the message one family produces the equivalent to two bags of fertilizer has
been met with great interest by the populations in
rural Niger. Locally, two bags of chemical fertilizer
cost roughly 80 $.

For Burkina Faso with 13.5 million inhabitants, the

annual amount of plant nutrients in excreta is in the
same order of magnitude as the annual amount in
imported fertilizer (table 9)

Figure 5: The family in Niger produces as

much nutrients in urine and faeces as there
are in the two bags of mineral fertilizers.
Table 9: Amount of plant nutrients per year
in imported fertilizers compared to the
amount in excreta for Burkina Faso.
N (tons/ P (tons/
year)
year)

K (tons/
year)

Fertilizer imported*

22 632

8 801

14 801

Excreta produced

38 024

5 780

19 265

1.68

0.66

1.30

Ratio excreta/
fertilizer

*FAO statistics 2005

Figure 4: The nutrient content in the excreta from an average person in West Africa (based
on FAO data on food intake from 10 countries).

s to c k h o l m e n v i r o n m e n t i n s t i t u t e

How much is it worth?

Calculating the market price for the different nutrients can be straightforward.

Table 10: The price of different nutrients in

Burkina Faso.
Kg
Price / kg
Price for
nutrient
nutrient
Nutrient Fertilizer 50 kg
per 50
(CFA)
(CFA)
kg
N

Urea

20000

23

870

TSP

20500

9.86

2079

KCl

22500

24.8

907

However, this kg-price is based on single nutrient

fertilizers. Using this kg-price for the formula of the
most common NPK fertilizer, shows that buying the
nutrients individually is around 10% more expensive than buying them as complex NPK fertilizer.
To take this fact into account, the excreta value is
reduced by 10 % in table 11.

Table 11: The annual value of nutrients from

one person in Burkina Faso.
Nutrient

The incentive to use a fertilizer is primarily that

the value of the extra crop produced will exceed
the cost of the fertilizer. The following calculation
can show this: Maize needs around 60 kg of N/ha
which is possible to provide with the excreta from
~ 20 persons. A well fertilized field (60 kg N/ha)
can yield 3 tons/ha, compared to 0.5 tons for the
traditional field. A surplus of 2.5 tons due to the
application of excreta from 20 people, or 125 extra
kg of maize for each of these 20 persons. 125 kg
of maize is worth around 50 $ US on the market
in Burkina Faso. This can be compared with the
nutrient value of the excreta (10 $ US) and with the
average annual income in Burkina Faso.
What is the value of a specific quantity of
urine?
In Burkina Faso the most common container for
urine storage is the 20 litre jerry can. The fertilizer
value of the urine can be estimated to 120 CFA or
0.25 $ US. It should be remembered that for correct analysis of the nutrient content of urine, the
urine and its sediment has to be well mixed, and
care has to be taken so that ammonia is not lost
from the urine.

Table 12: The value of nutrients in one

jerrycan of urine.
Nutrient

g/l

Kg/jerry Price/
can
kg

Value/jerry
can

TOTAL

0.43

1.3

0.1

870

87

Price/kg

870 2079 907

0.5

0.01

2079

21

Value (CFA)

2400 900 1300

4600

1.5

0.03

907

27

136

~ 120 FCFA

kg/person/year 2.8

Value - 10 %

4100 (~10 $)

TOTAL
TOTAL 10 %

For Burkina Faso with 13.5 million people, the human fertilizer value corresponds to 135 million $ per
year. In many countries chemical fertilizers are heavily subsidized. A discussion based on the figures in
this text could be initiated to investigate the potential
of subsidizing toilets instead of chemical fertilizers.

The content of secondary macronutrients such as

sulphur, magnesium and calcium, and micronutrients are seldom calculated, however, they contribute to the value of the urine since they make the
urine a full fertilizer.

p r ac t i c a l g u i da n c e o n t h e u s e o f u r i n e i n c r o p p r o d u c t i o n

Crop fertilization with urine research results and

practical experiences

esearch on urine as a fertilizer is carried out all over

the world, in settings ranging from very applied
demonstration trials to rigorous scientific studies.
The following text describes some of the ongoing or
concluded activities. The examples are intended to give
a broad picture of results and research setup, and to
inspire future work in this area.
The yield achieved when fertilizing with urine varies
depending on many factors. One important aspect is
the soil condition. The effect of urine, just as that of
chemical fertilizers, is probably somewhat lower on a
soil with a low content of organic substances than on
a soil with a high organic content. Experience shows
that it is beneficial for soil fertility to use both urine and
faeces or other organic fertilizers on the soil, but they
can be used in different years and for different crops.
Human urine has been used frequently as fertilizer in
small scale gardening, though mostly not documented
(figure 6).

Cereals in Northern Europe

Urine was tested as a fertilizer to barley in Sweden
during 1997 to 1999 (Johanssson et al., 2001; Rodhe
et al., 2004). Results showed that the N effect of urine
corresponded to about 90 per cent of that of equal
amounts of ammonium nitrate mineral fertilizers,
which is estimated to correspond to about 100 per
cent of equal amounts of ammonium fertilizers, after
accounting for the N lost in the form of ammonia from
the urine.
Urine has been tested as a fertilizer to barley and ley in
both greenhouse and field trials in Germany (Simons
and Clemens, 2004). The urine in some treatments was
acidified in order to reduce ammonia emissions and
microbial contamination. The results from field trials
showed that the fertilizing effect of urine was higher
than that of mineral fertilizer in production of barley.
There was no difference in yield between plots fertilized
with acidified urine and untreated urine (Simons and
Clemens, 2004).

Figure 7: Spreading of urine to barley.

Photo: Ebba af Petersens, WRS Uppsala

Cereals in India

Figure 6: Small scale gardening using urine in

Niger. 
Photo: Linus Dagerskog

10

Field experiments were conducted in farmers fields at

Nagasandra village, Doddaballapura Tq, Bangalore
district in India for one year to study the response of
maize to human urine when applied to meet the nitrogen
requirement (Sridevi, 2009). The treatments were

s to c k h o l m e n v i r o n m e n t i n s t i t u t e

control, recommended dose of fertilizers, recommended

dose of nitrogen through human urine with and without
gypsum and fertilizer applied to soil and different
combinations of human urine and fertilizers. The results
of the field experiment revealed that recommended
dose of nitrogen through human urine in 6 split doses
with irrigation water + gypsum increased the grain
(8.10 t ha-1) and stover (33.88 t ha-1) yield of maize.
Significant increase in the nitrogen, phosphorus and
potassium content of plant samples was observed in
the crops. The outcome of the investigation revealed
that urine diverting toilet systems help to provide better
sanitation, help farmers to save the cost on fertilizers
without negatively affecting the crop yields and thus
help to achieve food security.

Vegetables in South Africa

Pot trials were conducted in South Africa where the
use of human urine on cabbage, spinach, maize and
tomato was studied (Mkeni et al., 2006). Yield, nutrient
content in soil and leaves as well as soil electrical
conductivity was monitored. The urine was diluted
1:3 (urine:water). The treatments were replicated four
times and arranged in a randomized complete block
design. Diluted human urine was found to be a good
source of nutrients, especially nitrogen, for cabbage and
spinach. Maize responded more or less equally to urea
and urine. Added N up to 200kg/ha in the form of urea
or urine resulted in significant increase in biomass dry
matter yield. However, above 200 kg N/ha there was
little or no significant increase in yield. As observed for
maize, tomato growth responded more or less equally to
added urea and human urine. The application strategy
is important, however, as risk of elevated salinity was
identified in the research. Results showed that urine is

to be considered as effective agronomically as urea or

ammonium sources of nitrogen.

Vegetables in Western Africa

A research project was carried out in Ghana during
2004 and 2005 to investigate the nutrient efficiency of
urine in comparison with mineral fertilizer and compost
and to estimate the value of cereal fertilization under
local conditions (Germer et al., 2006). The trials were
carried out north-east of Accra within Ghanas coastal
savannah zone. Urine treatment was compared with
unfertilized control and compound fertilizer, compound
fertilizer plus water (same amount as supplied by
urine) as well as compost treatment on the performance
of cereals. The nutrient supply was based on the
application of 667<kg ha-1 NPK 15:15:15 compound
fertilizer (100<kg N, 44<kg P and 83<kg<K). Urine
and compost were adjusted by the addition of TSP, KCl
and Urea to provide the same amount of N, P and K. In
both years the yield of the urine and compost treatment
were significantly higher than in the control (p<0.05). It
is concluded that the fertilization with P and K enriched
urine increases the yield of sorghum about 3.5 times
under the given conditions. Therefore, as a nutrient
source the efficiency of urine is at least comparable to
mineral fertilizer. The additional sorghum grain yield of
1.4 t ha-1 has locally a current market value of 1.000
and sets off manifold the equivalent NPK fertilizer cost
of 100 (200 without subsidies).

Vegetables in Eastern Africa

Plant trials with urine have been carried out with
various vegetables in Zimbabwe (Morgan, 2003 and

Table 13: Average yields (grams fresh weight) in plant trials with urine as a fertilizer to
vegetables in Zimbabwe. 
Morgan, 2003
Unfertilized
plants
(g)

Fertilized, 3:1 water/urine

application 3x per week
(g)

Relative yield
fertilized to unfertilized

Lettuce, 30 days (n = 3)

230

500

2.2

Lettuce, 33 days (n = 3)

120

345

2.9

Spinach, 30 days (n = 3)

52

350

6.7

Covo, 8 weeks (n = 3)

135

545

4.0

Tomato, 4 months (n = 9)

1680

6084

3.6

Plant, growth period and

number of repetitions (n)

11

p r ac t i c a l g u i da n c e o n t h e u s e o f u r i n e i n c r o p p r o d u c t i o n

2008). The following text reports one of the manyfold

trials that have been carried out. Plants were grown
in 10-litre cement basins and fed with 0.5 litres of a
3:1 water/urine mix three times per week. Unfertilized
plants were cultivated as a comparison. The increase
in production was large but no statistical analysis was
performed.

Figure 8: The spinach to the right was

unfertilized. The spinach to the left was
fertilized with urine diluted with 3 parts of
water to one part of urine applied two times
per week. 
Photo: Peter Morgan, Aquamor
Vegetables in Northern Europe
Human urine was used in trilas carried out in Finland
as a fertilizer in cabbage cultivation in comparison
with industrial fertilizer and nonfertilizer treatments
(Pradhan et al., 2007). The main objectives of the
study were to evaluate the use of urine fertilizer
on (1) growth and pest-resistance of a crop plant,
(2) chemical and microbial quality of the crop,
and (3) flavor quality of a vegetable food product
prepared with natural lactic acid fermentation.
Urine achieved equal fertilizer value to industrial
fertilizer when both were used at a dose of 180
kg N/ha. Growth, biomass, and levels of chloride
were slightly higher in urine-fertilized cabbage
than with industrial-fertilized cabbage but clearly
differed from nonfertilized. Insect damage was
lower in urine-fertilized than in industrial-fertilized
plots but more extensive than in nonfertilized
plots. Microbiological quality of urine-fertilized
cabbage and sauerkraut made from the cabbage
was similar to that in the other fertilized cabbages.
Furthermore, the level of glucosinolates and the

12

taste of sauerkrauts were similar in cabbages from

all three fertilization treatments. The results show

Figure 9: Cabbage from field trials in Finland.

Photo: Helvi Heinonen Tanski

that human urine could be used as a fertilizer for

cabbage and does not pose any significant hygienic
threats or leave any distinctive flavor in food
products.
In a field trial in Sweden in 2002, different
application strategies for urine as a fertilizer to
leeks were tested (Bth, 2003). Fertilizing with
urine gave a three-fold yield increase. Neither yield
nor nutrient uptake were significantly affected by
whether the same total amount of urine was applied
in two doses or whether it was divided into smaller
doses applied every 14 days. The N efficiency (i.e.
(N yield N yield in unfertilized plots)/added N),
when using human urine was high, ranging from 47
per cent to 66 per cent. This is on the same level
as when mineral fertilizers are used. N efficiency
for most other organic fertilizers, e.g. compost, is
normally between 5 and 30 per cent.
Human urine obtained from separating toilets was
tested as a fertilizer for cultivation of outdoor cucumber
(Cucumis sativus L.) in a Nordic climate (Heinonen-

s to c k h o l m e n v i r o n m e n t i n s t i t u t e

Table 14: Results of a field trial using human

urine as a fertilizer for leeks. There was no
statistically significant difference between
After Bth, 2003
treatments A, B and C. 

ha for the three treatments. Soil sampling showed no

differences between treatments regarding physical or
chemical characteristics.

Treatment

Fruit in India

N rate
kg/ha*

Yield

N yield

ton/ha** kg/ha *

A Urine every 14 days

150

54

111

Urine twice

150

51

110

Urine every 14 days

+ extra potassium

150

55

115

17

24

D Unfertilized
* kg/ha= gram/10 m2

Tanski et al., 2007). The urine used contained high

amounts of nitrogen with some phosphorus and
potassium, but numbers of enteric microorganisms
were low even though urine had not been preserved
before sampling. The cucumber yield after urine
fertilization was similar or slightly better than the yield
obtained from control rows fertilized with commercial
mineral fertilizer. None of the cucumbers contained
any enteric microorganisms (coliforms, enterococci,
coliphages and clostridia). In the taste assessment, 11
out of 20 persons could recognize which cucumber of
three cucumbers was different but they did not prefer
one over the other cucumber samples, since all of them
were assessed as equally good.

At Musiri near Trichy, Tamil Nadu, the organization

SCOPE established urine diverting toilets and the
National Research Centre for Banana started its
research experiments, using collected human urine as
fertilizer through a drip irrigation system (Jeyabaskaran,
2010). More information can be found at http://www.
scopetrichy.com/banana_research.asp .In the study,
Poovan banana was grown with 30, 40, 50 and 60 litre/
plant of human urine applied with irrigation water (1:10)
along with graded levels of commercial potassium
fertilizers. Yield (number of bunches and bunch weight)
was studied, as well as nutrient content in leaves, height
of plants and total amount of soluble solids in banana.
The number of fruits per bunch varied significantly
with application of graded levels of urine along with
different levels potassium Urine application at the rate
of 50 litres/plant recorded the highest average number
of fruits per bunch (185) and the control (without urine
application) recorded 110.3 fruits per bunch. Among
the treatment combinations, application of 50 litres of
urine/plant along with 75 per cent recommended dose
of potassium recorded the highest number of fruits per

Vegetables in Central America

Urine has been tested as a fertilizer to greenhousegrown lettuce in Mexico (Guadarrama et al., 2002).
There were treatments comparing urine with compost,
a urine-compost mixture, and no fertilizer at all. The
application rate was 150 kg of total N per hectare in
all treatments, except for the unfertilized control. Urine
gave the best yield of lettuce, due to its high availability
of N.
Urine has been tested as a fertilizer to amaranth in
Mexico (Clark, personal communication). Results show
that a combination of urine and poultry manure gave the
highest yield, 2 350 kg/ha. Chicken manure alone gave
a yield of 1 900 kg/ha. Human urine alone gave a yield
of 1 500 kg/ha and the unfertilized control gave a yield
of 875 kg/ha. The amount of N applied was 150 kg N/

Figure 10: Bananas from field trials in Trichy.

Source: www.scopetrichy.com

13

p r ac t i c a l g u i da n c e o n t h e u s e o f u r i n e i n c r o p p r o d u c t i o n

bunch (223.4), which was 47.7 per cent more than that
applied with mineral fertilizer.
Application of 50 litres of human urine per plant with
75 per cent of recommended dose of potassium was
superior by recording 32.1 per cent more plant height,
25.6 per cent more pseudostem girth, 71.5 per cent
more number of leaves and 68.8 per cent more leaf
area, 25 per cent more leaf nitrogen concentration, 52.6
per cent more phosphorus concentration and 6.5 per
cent more leaf potassium than normally grown banana
plants without urine application (control).
Application of 50 litres of urine per plant along with 75
per cent recommended dose of potassium alone could
give an additional net profit of Rs. 45,175/- per hectare
when compared to mineral fertilizer alone, ie., normally
grown Poovan banana without urine application.
Field experiments were also conducted in farmers fields
at Nagasandra village, Doddaballapura Tq, Bangalore
district for one year to study the source separated human
urine as a source of nutrients for banana cultivation

14

(Musa paradisica) to meet the nitrogen requirement of

this crop (Sridevi et al., 2009). The treatments were
absolute control, recommended dose of fertilizers,
recommended dose of nitrogen through human urine
with and without gypsum and fertilizer applied to
soil and different combinations of human urine and
fertilizers. The results of the field experiment revealed
that the highest bunch yield (30.0 t ha-1) of banana was
recorded in the treatment which received RDN through
human urine (After 30 days of planting) + Gypsum
applied to soil when compared to control, and other
treatment combinations. The available nutrient content
of harvest soil viz., N, P and K had significant influence
on it. Significant increase in the nitrogen, phosphorus
and potassium content of plant samples was observed
in the crop. The highest total soluble solids (25.85 per
cent), reducing sugars (20.93 per cent) and total sugars
(23.87 per cent) were recorded in banana grown using
human urine. The outcome of the present investigation
revealed that ecosan system helps to provide better
sanitation, help farmers to save the cost on fertilizers
without affecting the crop yields and thus help to
achieve food security.

s to c k h o l m e n v i r o n m e n t i n s t i t u t e

Application strategies
Practical guidance:
The urine from one person during one year
suffices to fertilize 300-400 m2 of crop to a level of
about 50-100 kg N/ha. Urine should be handled
in closed tanks and containers and should be
spread directly onto the soil, not on the plant, in N
doses equivalent to what is recommended for urea
and ammonium fertilizers. Air contact should be
minimized and the urine should be incorporated
into the soil as quickly as possible.

hen fertilizing plants, the yield first increases

up to a certain application rate, and then
decreases if the application rate is increased. If
the optimal application rate is not known, then the
application of the urine from one person during a
full day per square metre (approx 1.5 litres of urine/
m2, corresponding to 40-110 kg N/ha) and cropping
season can be used as a rule of thumb. If there is
a restriction in plot size, it is usually possible to
increase the fertilization up to three or four times
without any negative effects on crops or environment
and even larger amounts can beneficially be applied
if there is no or low risk of salinization. However,
both the quantity and the quality of the yield are
important and high rates of available N can affect the
quality, positively and negatively. For example, the
quality of wheat is generally improved by a high N
dose, while the quality of for example Irish potatoes
may decrease since the tubers can become watery.
The timing of the application is also important here
since the nutrient uptake by most crops decreases
after the crop enters the generative phase, such as
ear setting in maize.
The practical application strategies are a part of
the safe barrier approach introduced in the chapter
on safe handling of urine. The following sections
present different ways to apply urine in crop
production.

Figure 11: Urine fertilized sorghum to the left.

Photo: Linus Dagerskog

Application time
Practical guidance:
Urine should be applied according to the needs
of the plants. Good availability of nutrients is
important in the early stages of cultivation, though
once the crop enters its reproductive stage nutrient
uptake diminishes. From a health perspective this is
good since increased time between application and
harvest decreases risk of pathogen transmission. A
waiting period of one month between fertilization
and harvest should always be observed. In regions
where there is heavy rainfall during the cropping
season, repeated applications of urine may be an
insurance against losing all the nutrients in one
rainfall event.

In the early stages of cultivation, good availability of all

nutrients is important to enhance growth. If fertilizer is
applied only once, this should normally be carried out so
that nutrients in urine are available during the first half
of the time between sowing and harvest. If the crop is
fertilized twice, the second fertilization can be performed
after approximately 1/4 of the time between sowing and
harvest, but depending on the needs of the crop. The
crop can also be continuously fertilized, e.g. if the urine
is collected in smaller containers and used more or less
directly. However, once the crop enters its reproductive
stage most crops do not take up substantial amounts of
nutrients. An example is maize; fertilizer applied until

15

p r ac t i c a l g u i da n c e o n t h e u s e o f u r i n e i n c r o p p r o d u c t i o n

the plants are setting ears is well utilised, but after this
stage the uptake of nutrients from the soil declines.
After this stage the nutrients are mainly relocated within
the plant (Marschner, 1995). This is fully appreciated in
recommendations on use of chemical fertilizers. E.g.
in Zimbabwe, where maize is harvested 3-5 months
after planting, the recommendation is to fertilize it
three times, but no later than 2 months after planting.
As a rule of thumb, fertilization should stop after 2/3 to
3/4 of the time between sowing and harvest. Crops not
entering the generative stage, e.g. lettuce, spinach, as
well as roots and tubers, e.g. Irish potatoes and sweet
potatoes continue to take up nutrients throughout their
growth period. However, a waiting period of 1 month
between fertilization and harvest is recommended
from a hygiene point of view for all crops eaten raw
(Schnning and Stenstrm, 2004; WHO, 2006).

Figure 12: Application of diluted urine in early

stages of cultivation. 
Photo: Linus Dagerskog
An often stressed aspect is the risk of leaching of
nutrients. In regions where there is heavy rainfall during
the cropping season, repeated applications of urine may
be an insurance against losing all the nutrients in one
rainfall event. However, from a eutrophication point of
view, it should be remembered that the leaching after
fertilization is small compared to the leaching from a pit
latrine or from just letting diverted urine leach into the
ground close to the toilet.
The total applied amount of urine and whether it should
preferably be applied once or several times also depends
on the N need of the plant and its root size. Root size
varies widely between different crops. Plants with
inefficient or small root systems, e.g. carrots, onions and

16

lettuce, can benefit from repeated applications of urine

throughout the cultivation time (Thorup-Kristensen,
2001).

Application rate
A starting point for the estimation of suitable urine
application is the local recommendations for use of
commercial mineral N fertilizers, especially of urea or
ammonium fertilizers. If such recommendations are not
available, another starting point can be to estimate the
amounts of nutrients removed by the crop, where the
removal of nutrients has to be adjusted for the expected
yield level. Urine can be recommended for most crops.
The productive area (e.g. grass, flower beds, vegetable
garden, trees) necessary per person for use of all the
urine on household level depends on several factors:

the nitrogen demand and tolerance of the crop;

the concentration of nitrogen in the collected urine;

the ammonia loss when applying the urine;

how many harvests that can be taken per year;

whether the soil already is saline or has a high risk

of becoming saline.

Rules of thumbs are useful when the exact figures

for the above factors are unknown. The nitrogen
demand for common crops varies between 100 200
kg/ha, depending on type of crop and the yield. The

Box 2: I have a flower bed the size of 1 m2,

how much urine do I need to fertilize it?
The flower bed really only needs about 1.5 litres
of urine for one season, but this amount can be
increased by up to four times as needed, depending on the type of flower. Summer flowers (annuals) demand a good soil structure and quite a
good nutrient status in the soil. Roses need low
amounts of nutrients in the autumn in order to
survive the winter. A good strategy would be to
apply urine on a few occasions during the flower season, for example with 2-3 decilitres each
time, and to water down the urine afterwards.

s to c k h o l m e n v i r o n m e n t i n s t i t u t e

Box 3: Calculation of necessary productive area in garden to maximize nutrient use in urine.
A family of five has a plot size of 300 m2 on which
they want to use the urine they collect in their urine
diversion toilet. The family lives in a climate allowing for two yearly crops. If we assume that they apply 4 l per m2 for the first crop, and 2 l per m2 for
the following crops, how many m2 do they need to
use their urine in their garden?
Answer:
Since they live in an area where two crops can
be taken per year and 6 l/m2 can be applied

concentration of nitrogen in urine depends on diet.

Undiluted urine will usually contain between 3 7 g
N/l. A person excretes about 300-550 l urine per year,
depending on liquid intake, climate etc. The excreted
amount of N per person per year with urine varies
between about 1.6 kg 3.8 kg. If the nitrogen demand
of the crop is 100 kg/ha and the N concentration in the
urine is 7 g/l the urine from one person can fertilize

yearly. Each person excretes about 550 l, but assuming that some of the time is spent outside the
home, about 300 l per person is collected yearly.
The result is 1,500 l of urine from a family of
five. This will fertilize 250 m2 since each m2 will
receive 6 l m2/ on a yearly basis, giving a quite
high level of nitrogen fertilization. Thus, the plot
size would be more than sufficient to productively
use the collected urine.

Box 4: My 20 litre container for urine is full.

How do I use it in the garden?
Twenty litres of urine is sufficient for 4-13 square
metres of cropping area, depending on how
much nitrogen is needed or beneficially tolerated.

Table 15: Application levels and intervals for specified crops in Burkina Faso.


Source: Moussa Bonzi, CREPA, Burkina Faso

Days (weeks)
after planting
Onion/carrot
Lettuce
or emergence Eggplant Tomato
of first plant
from seedling
1 litre /m2
0.4 litres
14 (2)
0.5
per plant
litres
(assuming 20
(when
per
plants per and
the plant
plant
dilution: 1part
starts to
urine to 1 part
flower)
water)
21 (3)
1 litre of urine per m2
(assuming 50 plants
per m2 and 1 part
urine to 1 part water)
28 (4)
0.4 litre
1 litre /m2
(assuming 20
per plant
plants per m2
and dilution:
1part urine to
1 part water)
35 (5)
0.5 litre
per plant
42 (6)

56 (8)

1 litre of urine per m2

(assuming 50 plants
per m2 and 1 part
urine to 1 part water)

Pepper

0.5 litre
/ plant

Sorghum/
millet

Corn

0.5
litre per
plant
before
seeding

0.6 litre

0.5
litre per
plant

0.6
litre per
plant

0.6 litre
per plant
(when
first fruits
appear)

0.5 litre
per plant

0.5 litre
per plant

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p r ac t i c a l g u i da n c e o n t h e u s e o f u r i n e i n c r o p p r o d u c t i o n

385 m2 (1.5 l of urine per m2), if one single crop is

taken per year. If there is a restriction in plot size, it
is usually possible to increase the fertilization up to
three - four times, thus using up to 6 l per m2 without
any negative effects on crop or environment and even
larger amounts can beneficially be applied, if there is no
or low risk of salinization. Such large applications of
urine can be beneficial for the crop yield, if excessive
ammonia is lost in the application and especially on
phosphorus deficient soils as the phosphorus application
is increased. However, care should be taken on soils and
in regions prone to eutrophication of watercourses to
use nutrients in urine in the most efficient manner.
Dilution
Practical guidance:
Urine can be applied neat or diluted with water.
There is no standard recommendation for dilution/
non-dilution and the existing recommendations
vary depending on the local conditions. Levels
of dilution can vary between 1:1 (1 part urine to
1 part water) and 1:15 (one part urine to fifteen
parts water). Most common dilution ratios are 1:3
or 1:5. However urine should always be applied at
the rate corresponding to the desired application
rate of N, while additional water should be applied
according to the water needs of the plants.

Urine can be applied neat (without dilution) or diluted

with water, which is practised in many places. The level
of dilution varies between approximately 1:1 (1 part
water to 1 part urine) to 1:15 (one part urine to fifteen
parts water ), and 1:3 seems common. Dilution involves
increasing the volume to be spread and thus the labour,
the equipment needed, the energy use and the risk for
soil compaction are all increased.
Dilution has the advantage of decreasing, or
eliminating, the risk of applying urine at such high
rates that it becomes toxic to the crop. However,
irrespective of whether the urine is applied diluted or
neat, urine is a fertilizer and should, just as the much
more concentrated chemical fertilizers, be applied at the
rate corresponding to the desired application rate of N,
while additional water should be applied according to
the needs of the plants. Thus, urine can be applied neat,
or even concentrated to the soil, which then is irrigated
according to crop water requirements. The urine can
also be diluted into the irrigation water at a rate that
depends on the need for nutrients and water by the crop.

18

The application of a water/urine mix normally needs to

be interspersed with irrigation with water only.
Diluted urine should be handled in the same way as urine.
In order to avoid smells, loss of ammonia, generation of
aerosols, burns and possible contamination on plants by
remaining pathogens, urine should be applied close to,
on or incorporated into the soil. Foliar fertilization is
not recommended due to odour, loss of N, risk of plant
toxicity and hygiene risks.
Concentrated urine has a higher pH, and consequently,
dilution means that the effect of storage on pathogen
content in urine will be lowered. Keep the urine
concentrated during storage, and if dilution is chosen
as a strategy, this should be carried out as close to
application as posssible. It has been observed that if
diluted urine is stored in open containers (which is not
recommended), this may become a breeding site for
mosquitoes that can act as disease vectors. This has
never been seen in concentrated urine.

Storage techniques
Practical guidance:
Storage of urine should always take place in
a closed container in order to avoid ammonia
emissions.

Urine needs to be stored in order to achieve proper

hygienization, especially if collected from many
households. There is also need of storage if urine is
collected when there is no cropping season. One thing
that all storage systems have in common is the fact that
urine must be stored in closed containers in order to
avoid ammonia losses.This section presents different
techniques for storage of urine. There is a need to
develop low-cost storage methods for small and large
scale collection of urine.
Jerry cans are the most common way of collecting
urine, and a very good way to store urine for a short
period. A good example was introduced by CREPA
Burkina, where the jerry cans used for collection of
urine were yellow, and jerry cans used for transportation
of hygienized urine from storage to field were green, see
figure 14.

s to c k h o l m e n v i r o n m e n t i n s t i t u t e

One cubic metre tanks are also quite common in small

and medium scale collection systems, figure 13. The
advantage is that the tanks are also readily available,
they can easily be filled and emptied, and they are
durable.
For large scale storage, slurry tanks can be used
(figure 16). However, these seldom have a cover that
minimizes ammonia losses, and such a cover needs to
be built. Ready-made tanks can also be bought for large
scale storage of urine, as has been shown in Sweden
(figures 15 and 17).
Figure 15: Ready-made large scale storage of
urine in Bornsjn, Sweden.
Photo: Ebba af Petersens, WRS Uppsala

Figure 13: Storage of urine in one cubic metre

tank. 
Photo: Anna Richert

Figure 16: Slurry tank in wintertime, Sweden.

This slurry tank will be used for human
urine, and it will be equipped with a cover to
minimize ammonia losses.
Photo: Lennart Qvarnstrzm

Figure 14: Yellow container for fresh urine,

green container for stored urine to be sold to
farmers.
Photo: Linus Dagerskog, CREPA/SEI

Figure 17: Storage tank during construction of

housing area in Kulln, Sweden. Each tank is
12 m3. 
Photo: Mats Johansson, VERNA

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p r ac t i c a l g u i da n c e o n t h e u s e o f u r i n e i n c r o p p r o d u c t i o n

Storage in soil
Practical guidance:
Practical guidance:
Urine can be stored in the soil if storage capacity
is lacking. Storage in soil is carried out by applying
urine where is will be used during a dry intercultivation period.

Storage of urine may be a constraint in settings

where low-cost options are a neccessity. Therefore
different methods to avoid storage containers have
been developed. In regions where the inter-cultivation
periods are dry, storage of urine nutrients in soil is an
alternative for extending the storage capacity and also
the labor intensive fertilization period. This is carried
out by applying and incorporating the urine into the
soil during the dry inter-cultivation period, followed by
normal cultivation of the already fertilized soil during
the cropping season. The idea is that the main portion
of the nutrients remain in the soil and will be available
for the plants during the growing season. Further
investigations are needed to determine the loss and
availability of nutrients, especially N and P, to crops
during and after such storage. Results from SUDEA
in Ethiopia (Terrefe, personal communication), as
well as from an ongoing project in Niger (Dagerskog,
personal communication) indicate that the method
is an interesting alternative where storing the urine
in containers until the cropping season is impossible,
even though the N loss might be fairly high. During
one measurement where the urine nutrients were stored
28 days in the soil, the loss of mineral N was found
to be 37 per cent (Sundin, 1999). There is also a risk
that some P might be bound in forms that are less plantavailable during the storage, but K and S should remain
fully available. An additional advantage of soil storage
is that the labour of applying the urine is carried out
during the dry season, which is normally less labourintensive than the cropping season.

For best fertilizing effect and to avoid ammonia

losses, urine should be incorporated into the soil
as soon as possible after application, instantly if
possible. This also limits potential health risks of
direct exposure A shallow incorporation is enough,
and different methods are possible. One is to
apply urine in small furrows that are covered after
application. When spreading urine, it should not
be applied on leaves or other parts of the plants,
as this can cause foliar burning. Spraying urine
in the air should also be avoided due to the risk
of nitrogen loss through gaseous emissions of
ammonia and the hygiene risk through aerosols.
Drip irrigation with urine is another possible
application technique. However, when this
technique is used, measures must be taken to
avoid clogging of emitters. In the larger scale,
equipment for spreading of animal slurry is used.

Application techniques
Manual application techniques
The choice of application technique varies for different
types of crops. For crops that are grown in rows, urine
can be spread in a trench right next to the crop row. For
crops that are planted in rows, with spacing between
the plants, urine can be applied in a dug hole next to
the crop. For trees, urine shoud be spread in a circle

20

Figure 18: Different application techniques for

urine. 
Photos: Linus Dagerskog

s to c k h o l m e n v i r o n m e n t i n s t i t u t e

around the tree that corresponds to the circumference

of the branches. All these application recommendations
are also beneficial from a health perspective since they
avoid direct contact of urine with the planted crops.
For best fertilizing effect and to lower ammonia losses
and odour, the urine should be incorporated into the
soil as soon as possible after the application, instantly if
possible (Rodhe et al., 2004). A shallow incorporation
is enough, and different methods are possible. One is
to apply urine in small furrows that are covered after
application. Washing the nutrients into the soil with
subsequent application of water is another option.
When spreading urine, it should not be applied on
leaves or other parts of the plants, as this can cause
foliar burning due to high concentrations of ammonia
and salts when drying as well as hygiene considerations.
Spraying urine in the air should also be avoided due
to the risk of N loss through gaseous emissions of
ammonia (Johanssson et al., 2001; Rodhe et al., 2004),
odour and the hygiene risk through aerosols.
Some crops, e.g. tomatoes, are sensitive to having all
their roots exposed to urine, at least when plants are
small, while on many crops no negative effect at all
is seen. Therefore, before the sensitivity of a crop is
known, it is wise not to simultaneously expose all the
roots of the plant to urine, be it neat or diluted. Instead,
urine can be applied either prior to sowing/planting or
at such a distance from the plants that the nutrients are
within reach of the roots, but not all of them are soaked.
For annual plants this distance may be about 10 cm.

Figure 19: Large scale application of urine on

agricultural land.
Photo: Ebba af Petersens, WRS Uppsala

drip irrigation, it might be a good idea, instead of

mixing urine and water, to apply the neat and filtered
(desludged) urine for some time and then for the rest of
the time to apply only water
Drip irrigation of rice, vegetables and yam has been
tested by CREPA, Ivory Coast (Comoe, personal
communication). Polyethylene piping, with 30 cm
between the holes, is tested on a field of 500 m2. The
urine flows with gravity fom a tank, through a filter,
and directly to the crop. No blocking of pipes has
been reported. The piping is rinsed with water after
each urine application. Urine application is carried out
during rainfall to facilitate urine introduction into the
soil.

Large scale application techniques

Urine application in the larger scale is best done with
equipment ordinarily used for farmyard slurry. In areas
where soil compaction is an issue, care must be taken to
keep the urine as concentrated as possible. No dilution
with water is receommended here, and application is
best done just before light rainfall.
Drip irrigation
Drip irrigation using urine as a fertilizer is another
possible application technique. However, when this
technique is used, measures must be taken to avoid
blockages due to precipitation of salts forming sludge
as the total amount of precipitation often increases
after dilution, since the dilution water normally
contains magnesium and calcium. Thus, when using

Figure 20: Drip irrigation of cassava in Cote

dIvoire.
Source: Bernard Comoe 2009, CREPA Cote dIvoire 2009

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p r ac t i c a l g u i da n c e o n t h e u s e o f u r i n e i n c r o p p r o d u c t i o n

Odour when using urine as a

fertilizer
Practical guidance:
Urine has a distinctive smell. However, this is seldom
a problem if urine is stored in closed containers
and spread according to the information in this
text.

Bad odour is culturally associated with pathogens.

However, smell may also signal that urine contains
nutrients since ammonia smells strongly. Experience
shows that if the urine is spread close to and directly onto
the soil and watered down there is little smell. Handling
of urine is naturally a smelly activity and procedures
minimizing air exposure, e.g. by using closed containers,
application close to soil and immediate incorporation
or irrigation, are strongly recommended. All of these
measures will also contribute to minimizing ammonia
losses and protecting health.

22

Combined application of urine and

organic fertilizers
The combined use of urine and organic fertilizers
such as faeces, compost, farmyard manure or slurry is
beneficial, especially in cases where the soil is depleted
and deficient in nutrients and organic matter. Organic
fertilizers improve the structure of the soil, and increase
microbial activity. This in itself will facilitate the
uptake of nutrients inte the plant since microorganisms
participate in transforming nitrogen into forms that are
taken up by the plant.
When faecal matter is used, care should always be
taken to follow guidelines for safe use of faeces in
order to render the food chain safe and minimize the
risk emanating from pathogens in the faeces. Faeces
should be properly treated and hygienized.

s to c k h o l m e n v i r o n m e n t i n s t i t u t e

Treatment and sanitization

rine is essentially sterile when it leaves the body.

The main issue for urine use in agriculture is how
to avoid faecal cross-contamination. In addition, there
are diseases that in some regions in the world are spread
with urine. The following section gives hints on how to
handle urine in order to minimize the risk of using urine
as a fertilizer. It should be noted that the advantages
of using urine for food production outweighs the risk
of disease transmission by far. There are a number of
easily undertaken activities that will render the use of
urine safe, so read on.

Health risks
Practical guidance:
Health risks associated with the use of human
urine in plant production are generally low if there
is no or little faecal cross-contamination. Storage
of urine in closed containers will lower health risks
substantially.

Health risks associated with the use of human urine

in crop production are generally low. However
during source separation in the toilet faecal crosscontamination of urine can occur. The amount of
faecal cross-contamination is directly proportional to
the health risks. If faecal matter enters urine, the urine
will contain different types of enteric pathogens that
can represent a potential health risk. Their presence is
naturally dependent on whether the users are infected
or carriers of the organisms in question. In the case
of diarrhoea the risk of faecal cross-contamination is
higher.
In addition a few organisms of health concern may be
excreted with the urine. One example is Salmonella
typhi/paratyphi. These bacteria have a short survival in
stored urine, there is reduction of the risk of pathogen
transmission by at least 1000 times after a week of
storage. Therefore never use unstored urine when
typhoid/paratyphoid cases are suspected. Another
example is Schistosomiasis Haematobium, which is a
parasite found only in Africa. However, in order to pose
a risk, the eggs need to reach a watercourse and find
a suitable snail-host. Use of urine in agriculture with
spreading techniques recommended in this book greatly

diminishes this risk. Again, a storage time for a week or

longer will substantially reduce the risk, the longer the
better. More information on storage times is found in
the sections below. Groups that are potentially at risk
comprise collection personnel and field workers, local
communities and product consumers. Here the handling
and application practices in the field is of importance.
As regards other contaminating substances in human
urine (heavy metals, hormones and pharmaceuticals)
there are many indications that possible health risks
are far smaller than those associated with the common
sanitation system and that it is reasonable to believe that
the risk for negative effect on the quantity and quality of
the crops is negligible.

Multi barrier concept

Practical guidance:
The WHO guidelines for safe use of excreta in
agriculture (2006) promote a flexible multi-barrier
approach for managing the health risks associated
with the use of excreta in agriculture. This multibarrier concept contains a series of measures/
barriers along the entire sanitation system from
toilet to table. Each of the barriers has a certain
potential to reduce health risks associated with the
excreta use and it is recommended by WHO to put
in place several of these barriers in order to reduce
the health risk to an acceptable minimum.

The World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines for

safe use of wastewater, excreta and greywater (2006)
recognize the potential of using excreta in agriculture
and promote a flexible multi-barrier approach for
managing the health risks associated with the use of
excreta in agriculture. This multi-barrier concept is
comprised of a series of measures/barriers along the
entire sanitation system from toilet to table. Each of
the barriers has a certain potential to reduce health risks
associated with the excreta use and it is recommended
by WHO to put in place several of these barriers if
needed in order to reduce the health risk to an acceptable
minimum. The reduction from each of the barriers can
be added together, which then give both enhanced total
risk reduction and also ensure that variabilities and
insecurities in each step are balanced in the long run.
Thus even insufficiently treated excreta can be reused

23

p r ac t i c a l g u i da n c e o n t h e u s e o f u r i n e i n c r o p p r o d u c t i o n

Figure 21: The Multi Barrier Approach. 

as long as the emanating risks can be managed with

subsequent barriers. Effective barriers for safe use of
urine in agriculture can be found in the graphic below.
For more information visit the WHO website: http://
www.who.int/water_sanitation_health.
Source Separation
Source separation is an efficient barrier to reduce the
risks compared to a combined wastewater system. A
key objective of urine collection is to minimize faecal
cross-contamination. Urine diverting toilets should be
designed in a way to minimize the cross-contamination.
If urine is collected from urinals, the risk of crossBox 5: Example of risk assessment and
ablution water.
In a school in Tanzania a very well designed sanitation system was implemented with separate
collection of faecal material and urine to be used
in an agricultural plot within the school. However, from a risk reduction point of view there were
still substantial problems since the ablution water was lead untreated to an area that was used
for the pupils to play in (direct contamination as
transmission) and to a part of the agricultural
plot (transmission from the produce). The ablution water normally constitutes a minor volume
(100 500 ml/washing). If this water instead
had been lead through a pipe directly into the
ground to a small soak-pit the risk for groundwater contamination would have been very small
due to the small volume.

24

Figure by Robert Gensch

contamination is negligible. The ablution water for

washers should also be considered. If this water is
combined with the urine the risk of cross-contamination
is increased, especially if the users have diarrhea.
The mode of collection, transport and emptying of the
urine may also create situations where an exposure to
humans can occur. If the urine collection chamber is
flowing over, the cross-contaminated urine will be on
the ground where direct contact may occur to playing
children (design have an overflow with a soak
away). The containers for urine should not be used
for other purposes such as fetching water or brewing
beer. Transport to the field or to a secondary storage
container should avoid spill. Containers for transport
should have a tight-fitting lid.
Storage and Treatment
It is recommended that prior to application urine should
be treated in order to sanitize the urine and reduce
microbial health risks. Storage at ambient temperature is
considered a viable treatment option. The storage times
should be based on temperature and the likelihood of
faecal cross- contamination as well as the vulnerability
of the exposed population. A single family will most
probably transmit disease between each other through
direct routes and not through the use of collected urine.
Thus in a family, when the urine is used in a local garden
and the produce is used for family purpose only, a less
strict storage regime can be applied. A less strict storage
(1-2 weeks) can also be applied for urinals where the
faecal cross-contamination is excluded. When urine is
collected from many different users as well as when the

s to c k h o l m e n v i r o n m e n t i n s t i t u t e

produce is sold/transferred to a third party, the microbial

risk increases substantially. In these situations a longer
storage time should be used, rendering the used
urine safer and increasing the reduction of potential
pathogens present. Recommended storage times vary
depending on the system type (large-scale systems:
1-6 months, households/urinals: 0-1 month). If crosscontamination is likely to occur the storage time can
be adjusted upwards, exceeding 1 month. This also
applies for cold climates since the temperature is also
a governing factor in the die-off. As a rule: The longer
the storage the better.
Urine should be stored in sealed containers in order to
prevent direct contact with the urine for humans and
animals. Urine should not be diluted while stored, to
provide a harsher environment for microorganisms
and increase die-off rate of pathogens. Examples exist
where the washing water of the toilet room has been
mixed with the urine, resulting in a high dilution. This
again has resulted in mosquito breeding in the highly
diluted urine with open lids as well as a lowered
pathogen reduction.

When hygienization is finished, the liquid is tapped into

green jerry cans, figure 14, and sold to farmers under
the name Birg Koom which means liquid fertilizer in
the local language. The same concept is being used in
Niger in a similar project. This is one way to demystify
urine as a fertilizer and to signal that the product is safe
to use in agriculture.

Figure 22: Collection of urine from

households in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso.
Photo: Linus Dagerskog

An interesting example of the introduction of new

fertilizers to the agricultural community comes from
Burkina Faso. Urine from over 1000 households in the
capital Ouagadougou is collected in yellow jerry cans
(see figure 22). The urine is taken to a treatment station
where it is stored in tanks for a specified amount of time.

The storage intervals stated in table 16 are for urine

collected in toilet systems where there is a risk of
faecal contamination. If urine is collected from urinals,
shorter storage intervals (1-2 weeks, see above) are
recommended due to lower risk.

Table 16: Recommended storage times for urinea based on estimated pathogen contentb and
recommended crop for larger systemsc.
WHO, 2006
Storage temperature Storage time

Possible pathogens in the

Recommended crops
urine mixture after storage

4C

>1 month

Viruses, protozoa

Food and fodder crops that are to be processed

4C

>6 months

Viruses

Food crops that are to be processed, fodder cropsd

20C

>1 month

Viruses

Food crops that are to be processed, fodder cropsd

20C

>6 months

Probably none

All cropse

a Urine or urine and water. When diluted it is assumed that the urine mixture has at least pH 8.8 and a nitrogen concentration of
at least 1 g/l.
b
Gram-positive bacteria and spore-forming bacteria are not included in the underlying risk assessments, but are not normally
recognised for causing any of the human infections of concern.
c
A larger system in this case is a system where the urine mixture is used to fertilize crops that will be consumed by individuals
other than members of the household from which the urine was collected.
d
Not grasslands for production of fodder.
e
For food crops that are consumed raw it is recommended that the urine be applied at least one month before harvesting and
that it be incorporated into the ground if the edible parts grow above the soil surface.

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p r ac t i c a l g u i da n c e o n t h e u s e o f u r i n e i n c r o p p r o d u c t i o n

Crop restrictions
When treated urine is used no particular crop restrictions
need to be applied. However, as an additional
precautionary measure the urine use may be restricted
to non-food crops (e.g. cotton), crops that are processed
(e.g. wheat) or cooked before consumption (e.g. potato)
as well as crops/trees that allow for a distance between
soil and harvested part of the crop. In general it can
be stated that the longer the time between application
and harvest the less risky. Thus for crops with short
rotation times, like spinach, salad crops and radish the
risk will be higher, and pretreatment is recommended,
i.e. storage is required, but in the case of pineapples,

for example, (rotation time 1-2 years) the risk is nonexistent from the urine if it is spread at amounts and
timing corresponding to the needs of the plants,
consequently minimum 3 months before harvest.
One goal when constructing systems for the use of
urine in crop production should be to reach a reasonable
level of risk reduction for persons involved in the use
of the system, such as field workers, households or
consumers. The following matrix suggests strategies
for crop choice and fertilization in order to minimize
risk and maximize utilization of nutrients.

Table 17: Risk levels in relation to crop and handling strategy.

Crop

Example

Inherent People exposed

Application time****
risk
to risk

Urine
storage***

Slow growing crops

Pineapple

Low

Workers

In early stages

No storage
needed

Low

Workers

Up until one month

before harvest

No storage
needed

Ornamental flowers, garden

plants
High growing crops not picked
off the ground and with cover

Banana.

Low

Workers

Up until one month

before harvest

No storage
needed

Grain crops processed before

eating

Millet, Rice,
Sorgum,
Low
Maize

Workers

Up until one month

before harvest

No storage
needed

Hanging plants not in direct contact with the ground and usually Egg plant
not eaten raw

Medium

Consumers and Up until one month

workers
before harvest

Storage
needed

Fruits likely picked from the

ground and eaten directly*

Mango,
passion
Low
fruit, orange

Workers

Hanging plants partly or fully in

contact with the soil and eaten
raw

Tomatoes

High

Consumers and Up until one month

workers
before harvest

Storage
needed

Root crops processed/cooked

Cassava,
potatoes

Low

Protection of
workers

No storage
needed

Root crops eaten raw

Carrots

High

Consumers and Up until one month

workers
before harvest

Leafy crops on the ground that

are cooked

Spinach

Low

Workers

Leafy crops eaten raw

Lettuce,
cabbage

High

Consumers and Up until one month

workers
before harvest

Energy or fibre crops

Cotton, oil
Low
crops

Workers

Outside the fruiting sea- No storage

son**
needed

Up until one month

before harvest

Up until one month

before harvest

Up until one month

before harvest

Storage
needed
No storage
needed
Storage
needed
No storage
needed

* If vegetables are grown under fruit trees then the measures of precaution or barriers for vegetables need to be observed.
** If fertilization takes place close to the fruiting season, then precautionary measures or barriers need to be observed such as
storage of urine.
*** The storage time for urine is not indicated, since this also depends on local factors such as temperature or design of collection
system (degree of faecal contamination).
****Urine application should take place considering crop needs and common practice in the region. Continuous application can
take place where so noted, from a barrier point of view. A waiting period of one month should always be observed.

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s to c k h o l m e n v i r o n m e n t i n s t i t u t e

Withholding period
Practical guidance:
The time between urine application and harvest
should be at least one month.

A withholding period between the last urine application

and the harvest is a barrier that provides time for
pathogen die-off. Risk calculations have shown that a
1 month withholding period results in substantial risk
level reduction and combined with the other barriers in
the multiple barrier approach the result will be a risk far
below 10-6 DALY for pathogenic bacteria, viruses and
parasitic protozoa (WHO 2006). Therefore, a withholding
period of 1 month between last urine fertilization and
harvest is always recommended. The withholding time is
based on the die-off of organisms due to external factors
like drying, temperature and UV-light on the surface of
leafy plants. The die-off may be lower in the soil. This
does not contradict the recommendation to apply the
urine in the soil. For root-crops that are eaten raw (radish,
carrots, onions etc), the post-harvest handling is of
importance. However, it needs to be strongly stated that
in these situations use of urine still constitutes a lower
risk than sludge, manure, wastewater or irrigation with
contaminated surface water.

Figure 23: Application of urine using

protective equipment.
Photo: Linus Dagerskog

Application techniques
Practical guidance:
Urine application close to the ground is
recommended in order to reduce contact with edible
parts and minimize spreading of urine drops.

Urine application close to the ground is recommended.

This reduces the direct contact with the edible parts
of the plants. For example do not apply urine with a
watering can on the edible or foliar parts of vegetables).
The urine should be incorporated into the soil either
mechanically or by subsequent irrigation with water.
If urine is applied before or during sowing/planting
a further die-off will occur of potential remaining
pathogens (see with-holding period) and thereby the
risk will be reduced.
Protective Equipment
Although there is little risk associated with treated
urine it is recommended if possible that agricultural

fieldworkers wear appropriate protective clothing

(shoes and gloves) as an effective barrier to reduce
potential health risks. This is of importance when
heavy faecal cross-contamination has occurred and
is of less concern for urine than wastewater or sludge
application. A heavy faecal load can lead to exposure
through bare skin by hook-worms and during direct
contact and subsequent contact with the mouth (the
faecal-oral route) while touching the face, eating and
smoking. In these situations gloves reduce the risk.
Protective clothing is of concern not just for the workers
but also so that contaminants are not transported to the
households/families.
Handwashing with soap after urine handling
Washing hands with soap after urine handling can be
considered an additional barrier in the system. Selfevidently basic recommended health and hygiene
practices like hand washing after toilet use and prior to
meals should always be observed.

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p r ac t i c a l g u i da n c e o n t h e u s e o f u r i n e i n c r o p p r o d u c t i o n

Food handling and cooking

Harvested crops should always be washed before
consumption. Cooking or peeling of fruits/vegetables
is another effective measure to considerably reduce
the associated health risks since pathogen reduction
between 2-6 log units can be achieved.
Health and hygiene promotion
Effective hygiene education and promotion should
be conducted in order to inform local growers and
food handlers in markets, restaurants, home and
food kiosks how and why they should wash produce
fertilized with urine.

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Microbial treatment of urine

Microbial treatment of urine has been introduced in
order to lower smell and increase the nutrient value of
urine. This has been studied in Mexico since the 1990s
(Arroyo, 2005), and in ongoing (2010) projects in the
Philippines (Terra Preta Sanitation, Xavier University).
The concept is to introduce microorganisms into the
urine at storage. Microbial inoculation liquid or ordinary
compost/vermicompost is added to the urine container
prior to storage. The fermentation prevents the bacterial
urease process that hydrolyses urea into ammonia
and bicarbonate, which usually happens during urine
storage. Added benefits may be less volatile ammonia
and lower smell.

s to c k h o l m e n v i r o n m e n t i n s t i t u t e

Handling system for use of urine as fertilizer

he following section describes the handling chain

for urine from toilet to field, for different settings.
Regarding the household, a handling system is easy
to construct and major points of consideration have
already been covered in the text. A good example of
small scale use of urine as a fertilizer and the handling
system is from the Phillipines where an allotment
garden manual has been compiled (PUVeP, 2008).
But for large scale settings there are few functioning
examples and many see the need to explore this subject
in order to move urine diversion systems into full scale
and mainstream function. The text below presents two
major such systems, both functioning, but with their
respective drawbacks. Further development in this area
is neccessary.

Larger scale systems

This section presents two cases to demonstrate the
complexity of handling systems for urine. One case
is from Sweden, where urine is collected from 250
households for use in agriculture, and one case is from
Burkina Faso where more than 1000 toilets have been
built in urban Ouagadougou and urine is used in crop
production.
Important aspects to consider when planning
transportation of urine are choice of technique,
entrepreneur,
hygiene
and
documentation.
Municipalities usually have companies that are
contracted to transport waste fractions generated within
the municipality, see figure 24. An interesting alternative
is to contract the farmer who will be using the urine
for transportation services. This way the farmer can
generate some additional income from handling the
urine. The hygiene aspect must be considered, and the
entrepreneur must have information about measures
such as proper hand hygiene after handling of urine.
A mouth cover is not necessary, more important is to
eleminate spill and to maintain good hand hygiene. All
transport should be documented as a part of a quality
control system.

Figure 24: A conventional Honey-sucker,

collecting sludge from on-site waste-water
systems. 
Photo: Vsterviks Municipality, Sweden
An important challenge for the sustainability of large
scale urine handling systems is to minimize the costs
of the system towards the goal that no subsidies would
be needed. Experience from Sweden and Burkina Faso
show that the fertilizer value of urine, when valued as
chemical fertilizer, is not sufficient to pay for additional
costs in the handling system such as transportation or
storage, and thus an emptying fee is probably needed
from the household and/or a subsidy by the municipality
to pay for the handling system. The cost of handling
and applying the urine as a fertilizer is in many cases
lower than the cost of flushing the urine to a wastewater
treatment plant where the N and P are removed.

Box 6: Quality control and certification

One need for the farmers is to insure that the
company buying the crops does not have objections to the choice of human fertilizers. Recent
development has seen quality control systems
for crop production evolving, and this is applicable for the fertilizers as well. In Sweden, certification schemes have been developed for sewage sludge, as well as digested and composted
household waste, supporting the use of these fertilizers in agriculture. A similar setup for source
separated urine is proposed, which would simplify more widespread use of urine in Swedish
agriculture.

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p r ac t i c a l g u i da n c e o n t h e u s e o f u r i n e i n c r o p p r o d u c t i o n

Case one: reuse of urine in Vaxholm, Sweden

Kulln is located on an island in the municipality of
Vaxholm, not far from Stockholm. 250 households
have one or two urine diverting double flushing
toilets installed. Urine is collected in groups of 1020 m2 tanks that serve from 5 to 40 houses each. The
system has been described in ESR report 2006:1 by
Kvarnstrm etal; http://www.ecosanres.org/pdf_files/
Urine_Diversion_2006-1.pdf
Two times a year urine is collected by lorry, on
commission by the household owners organised in a
collective. This is a service that the household owners
pay for outside their normal taxes for waste and
wastewater collection which has caused conflicts in the
area.

demands documentation and analyes of the urine in

initial stages.
Overall the system has taken much much work to initiate
and an overlying conclusion is that the handling system
from an institutional point of view was not fully taken
into account when the housing area was planned, which
has caused problems. However, a functional system for
the use of urine in agriculture exists, and the farmer is
quite content with the business that he is running.

Figure 26: The slurry spreader comes to fill up

urine for application to winter sown wheat in
spring.
Photo: Anna Richert.

Figure 25: Inhabitants of Kulln inspecting the

urine tanks.
Photo: Anna Richert
The urine is taken to a farmer where it is stored for
more than 6 months. The farmer is paid for the storage
and treatment by the housing collective at Kulln,
and has entered this project as a part of the business
diversification of his agricultural enterprise.
The stability of the system is at stake since the
municipality, who has the responsibility for collection
and treatment of household waste, has not fully taken
the responsibility for this. Increased costs in the system
have been imposed on the households, whereas the
households do not see why their sanitation system
which has been proved more environmentally friendly,
should cost them more.
The farmer using the urine needs to show a certificate
to the buyers of his products in order to guarantee the
quality and traceability of the used fertilizers. This

30

Case 2: Urine collection and use in urban

Ouagadougou
During 2006 to 2009, a project was implemented in
Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, with financing from the
EU, GTZ and CREPA (Coulibaly, 2009). Through a
broad range of activities the project aimed to support
1,000 households in obtaining appropriate and
affordable closed-loop sanitation. A key point in this
urban project is that it established an urban supply chain
for urine and faeces from urine diverting dry toilets
(UDDT). The project has so far:

built 1000 UDDT;

supported the establishment of two supply chains

for the collection, transport and distribution of the
raw and the treated excreta;

trained 1,000 gardeners to use these products as

fertilizers;

supported 20 SMEs (small to medium enterprises)

who are now involved in system operation;

s to c k h o l m e n v i r o n m e n t i n s t i t u t e

trained 100 artisans (masons etc.) to provide

the necessary infrastructure, in particular the
construction of the toilets.

The physical infrastructure of the ecosan system

consists of:

UDDTs at household level and at public places in

four sectors of Ouagadougou;

four treatment sites called eco-stations for urine

and faeces in the same four sectors, each run by a
separate association;

collection, transport and delivery of urine, dried

faeces, sanitised urine and of sanitised dried faeces;

the use of sanitised urine and faeces in peri-urban

gardening.

The vaults are emptied by the collection service workers

and urine and faeces are brought to an eco-station for a
further drying/storage period and for final packaging.
For the transport to the eco-stations, urine is collected
in 20 L yellow jerricans, and faeces are transported
in plastic bags. Every full 20-L jerrican collected is
replaced by an empty one. A central point of the urban

ecosan system is the treatment site, or eco-station,

which connects the households with the gardeners/
smallscale farmer. Two of the four ecostations are built
near the sites of market-gardening. The eco-stations
are equipped with the sanitizing equipment required
(plastic tanks for urine and storage pits for faeces) and
accompanying infrastructure such as a hangar for the
working material, space for the donkeys which pull
trolleys of urine jerricans and a storage room for the
finished fertilizer products. The number of plastic urine
tanks varies from 6 (in small sectors 19 and 27) to
12 (large sectors 17 and 30). For sanitisation, urine is
transferred to the eco-stations and stored for one month
in closed 1 m3 plastic tanks, while faeces from double
vault UDDTs are stored and kept dry in chambers (total
volume: 6 m3) for two months.
To facilitate the collection in the households, the sectors
are divided into smaller areas. Each team of collectors
has to visit all latrines within 2 weeks. The collectors
may have to cover distances of up to 12 km (the daily
work time is estimated to 5-6 hours). In total, the four
associations operate with approx. 28 people, 10 donkeys
and 10 donkey carts.
At the beginning of the project, the technical team
and facilitators informed the households and farmers

Figure 27: Components of urine collection system in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso.

Photos: CREPA

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p r ac t i c a l g u i da n c e o n t h e u s e o f u r i n e i n c r o p p r o d u c t i o n

about the benefits of using ecosan products for crop

production. To raise acceptance among the users
(gardeners, farmers and consumers), it was decided
to rename the urine and faeces. Thus, sanitised urine
is sold in green 20-L cans labelled birg-koom in the
local language which means liquid fertilizer, while
sanitised dried faeces are sold in bags labelled birgkoenga meaning solid fertilizer.
One important aspect of the project was to ensure the
quality and the safety of the ecosan products which
are to be sold to the farmers. The gardeners and
small-scale farmers were trained to use the treated
urine and faeces on different vegetables (e.g. Tomato,
cabbage, cucumber, zucchini, carrot, salad, aubergine,
strawberry, etc.). Moreover, samples of sanitised urine
und dried faeces are sometimes taken and analysed by
the National Water Laboratory (Laboratoire National
des Eaux) for N, P and K values, and for pathogens

32

such as E. coli. Results shown that sanitized urine is

safe (without pathogens) and, used as fertilizer, has no
negative impact on the environment and the health.
One important question has been the economic
stability of the supply chain. As established, the costs
for running the collection system are higher than the
finances that are generated in the system, through a fee
to the household and through selling urine and faeces at
market prices. The fee for households was $US 0.60 per
month and the urine was sold to the farmers from the
eco station at $US 0.20 per jerry can of 20 litres, faeces
at $US 0.10 per kg. This means that there is a need to
cut costs without risking the safety of the reuse system.
The project is described in the SuSanA case study
format: http://www.susana.org/images/documents/06case-studies/en-susana-cs-burkina-faso-ouagadougouuddt-2010.pdf

s to c k h o l m e n v i r o n m e n t i n s t i t u t e

Gender aspects
Practical guidance:
In order to achieve sustainable use of urine in crop
production the gender perspective needs to be
included in implementation. This can for example
mean to consider the different roles of men and
women regarding the production of cash crops
and food for the household.

he process to integrate a gender perspective

in institutions and operations is called gender
mainstreaming, a process to insure that intervention
effects on women and men are anticipated and
deliberate. Well planned, this should lead to additional
benefits that go beyond good water and sanitation
performance, such as economical gain, empowerment
of women, increased equality and benefits to children
(African Development Bank, 1998).
The gender aspect of ecological sanitation has been
described in Dankelmann (2009) and in SuSanA 2009,
Working Group 12. However, regarding the specific
question of how use of urine in crop production
influences the gender question, very little has been done.
There are important gender perspectives in agriculture
linked to ecological sanitation, and further research and
documentation would be valuable.
Women are responsible for basic household food
security in many countries in the world. With agriculture
based on ecological sanitation, families could save
money by growing their own fruit and vegetables and/
or selling some of the produce. This, however, has to be
weighed against the significant time constraints faced
by many women, particularly those who are the main
or sole income- earners for their households. Moreover,
women are often constrained by lower access to
formal education and training, relative to men, and
are often confined to the informal sector. Small scale
agriculture, as a means of ensuring greater food security
and potential supplementary income, is particularly
attractive to women as it allows them to work close
to their homes and facilitates the carrying out of other
traditionally important roles, such as care of children,
the elderly and the sick. The importance of ensuring
that women as well as men are involved in planning
and decision-making on agricultural initiatives, and
have equitable access to training and extension services
needs, however, to be emphasized.

Figure 28: Harvest of urine fertilized tomatoes.

Photo: Linus Dagerskog, CREPA/SEI

Both women and men need access to cash incomes and

would be assumed to welcome the potential economic
benefits of ecological sanitation, if the opportunities
for small-scale entrepreneurship in construction and
operation of latrines and collection systems as well as
starting small market gardens are made available to both
women and men. It has not yet been documented, but
a potential conflict between household food production
and the production of cash crops may arise as the
knowledge increases of urine as a fertilizer. How this
would affect the gender balance is unclear but in many
situations, the household garden with implications for
food security is the responsibility of the woman, and the
cash crop production is the responsibility of the men in
the family. There is also a question relating to the value
of the urine. If urine is sold as a fertilizer, who in the
family will access this financial input? Traditionally,
women take responsibility for waste products in the
household, but if they have a value, will this change?
With regard to the issue of waste handling, to what
extent will reuse of urine affect the traditional roles in
this area? To what extent will the labor involved increase
the womens, mens or childrens work burden? How
are such issues affected by whether there is a market
for urine or not? Further documentation and research is
recommended.
Specific attention is also needed for the hygienic needs
of women and girls. During a menstrual cycle, blood
will enter the urine and faeces chambers when women
use a urine diverting toilet. Usually, the amount of

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menstrual blood is small in comparison to the amount

of urine in a container. The urine may be slightly more
reddish in color, but its properties are unchanged by
the addition of menstrual blood and there is no threat
to the sanitizing or composting process or to its future
use as agricultural fertilizer. A more pressing issue is
most likely the impression of the urine when it contains
menstrual blood, which is closely linked to the issue of
dignity and well-being of those using the system and
handling the urine.

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s to c k h o l m e n v i r o n m e n t i n s t i t u t e

Institutional aspects of agricultural use of urine

se of human excreta often falls outside existing

regulatory frameworks. This is increasingly
evident for agricultural application, where the new
fertilizers are often not defined in the legislatory or
advisory texts of many countries. The weak legal and
institutional framework in many countries makes it
difficult to implement and scale up innovative sanitation
solutions. The following text gives some support in the
work to establish an institutional setup for use of urine
in crop production.

Key aspects for establishing an institutional setup for

the use of urine in agriculture
Practical guidance:
The following activities can help to establish an
institutional setup for urine use in agriculture.
- Stakeholder analysis: Identify stakeholders and
clarify drivers and restrictions for each one in
relation to the implementation of urine use in
crop production
- Include and target the farmers in the initial
planning
- Organize an arena for feed-back and
interaction between stakeholders
- Organize local communities so that there is a
structure for implementation and a structure for
monitoring

Institutional aspects include how to organize a system.

This organization is done by defining roles, setting up
a legal framework, policies and institutions to manage
the system. The following points suggest activities that
are of importance when implementing an institutional
setup for use of urine.
Identify stakeholders and clarify drivers and
restrictions for each stakeholder.
There are many stakeholders in a recycling sanitation
system and it is important that the drivers and restrictions
of each stakeholder are understood. This is especially
important for farmers as they are key stakeholders.
Farmers are businessmen and the recycling system can
often become more sustainable if the farmers are also
used as entrepreneurs for the collection and handling of
the products, as this can give benefits corresponding to
their business potential.

Figure 29: Small scale entrepreneur using

urine as a fertilizer.
Photo:Linus Dagerskog, CREPA/SEI

Include the farmers in the initial planning

When sanitation systems are planned, farmers are
frequently not involved from the start. If farmers
are allowed to influence the implementation of
sustainable sanitation systems from the start,
problems can be avoided that would otherwise lead to
sub-optimization and economic problems. If farmers
are involved from the beginning, then for example the
implementation of storage and collection systems can
be adapted to the possibilities and constraints of the
farming community.

Figure 30: Information about productive

sanitation in Niger.
Photo:Linus Dagerskog

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p r ac t i c a l g u i da n c e o n t h e u s e o f u r i n e i n c r o p p r o d u c t i o n

Organize an arena for feed-back and interaction

It is also important that there is an arena where
the different stakeholders of the system meet and
communicate. This is especially so, since the systems
are new and thus their improvement potential is
large. An arena where agriculture stakeholders can
meet stakeholders within the domains of sanitation,
environment, planning, technical implementation, etc,
is of vital importance.
Organize local communities so that there is a
structure for implementation and a structure for
monitoring.
Local government has a key role as facilitator and
regulator, finding ways to promote innovation while

Box 7: Case study regulatory aspects of urine

use in agriculture in Sweden
The Swedish legislation embraces the idea of nutrient reuse and includes sustainability and protection
of the environment in different pieces of legislation and policies. The Environmental Code (http://
www.naturvardsverket.se/en/In-English/Menu/
Legislation-and-other-policy-instruments/The-Environmental-Code ), dating from 1999, contains
several opportunities for the implementation of
closed nutrient loop oriented sanitation technologies for on-site sanitation in Sweden. Recycling
and efficient use of natural resources are integral
objectives of the Code as is the precautionary principle; the polluter pays principle and the concept
of Best Available Technology. These principles
are, however, not always used by the local environmental authorities when specifying the requirements for on-site sanitation system. In accordance
with the Environmental Code, urine is considered a
household waste fraction and the responsibility for
collection and treatment falls on the municipality.
This fact has made the municipal departments (often the technical departments) responsible for solid
waste in Sweden look closer into their responsibility
for urine and the implications of urine collection
and reuse. The Planning and Building Act gives the
municipalities the ability to single-handedly decide
on the spatial planning and infrastructure development in the local situation but this has never been
used to enable closed-loop approaches for wastewater systems.
In parallel to the Environmental Code, National
Environmental Quality Standards were estab-

36

holding service providers accountable and achieving a

degree of protection to the environment and health

Regulatory framework
The regulatory framework is often not well developed
regaring the implementation of systems for recycling
of nutrients from sanitation systems. The question may
often be whether there is anything that specifically
prohibits the use of urine in crop production, such as
there is in Germany, or if the use is simply unregulated
and therefore possible. Ideally, a regulatory framework
facilitates the recirculation of nutrients from sanitation
systems, and sets targets for environment or health that
use of urine in crop production can help in meeting.

lished in 1999 (http://www.naturvardsverket.se/

en/In-English/Menu/Legislation-and-other-policyinstruments/Environmental-quality-standards
).
Swedens Environment Policy is based on sixteen
environmental quality standards for different areas. These describe what quality and state of the environment should be to be sustainable in the long
term. Recirculation of natural resources (including
nutrients) is included and one of the targets states
that by 2015 at least 60% of phosphorus compounds present in wastewater should be recovered
for use on productive land, out of which half should
be returned to arable land1. Another example of
the mainstreaming of nutrient recycling is the revision of the agricultural use of sludge statutes ,
issued by the Swedish Environmental Protection
Agency in 1995, which also will regulate the use of
human urine in agriculture as well as other wastewater fractions. The proposal is expected to be decided on in 2010. The background to the statutes
proposal and also the background to the target of
60% P recovery are described in Kvarnstrm et al
(2002).
The conclusion is that there is a relatively enabling
legislative environment for recycling and reuse of
nutrients from sanitation systems in Sweden. What
is missing are economic incentives that could unleash the on-site sanitation market, and the integration of reuse aspects in the strategic municipal
planning.

1 http://www.miljomal.nu/Environmental-ObjectivesPortal/

s to c k h o l m e n v i r o n m e n t i n s t i t u t e

Practical guidance:
Key activities to establish a regulatory framework
that enables and facilitates use of urine in crop
production:
- establish use of excreta in local, regional and
national legislative texts for health, sanitation,
environment and agriculture
- establish correct terminology on use of excreta
in regulatory texts
- invite legislators on local, regional and national
level to discuss the question of reuse of excreta
from toilet systems
- start work in setting up policy and targets
regarding use of excreta at local, regional and
national level.

The International Federation of Organic Agriculture

Movements, IFOAM, indicates that source
separated human excreta which is monitored for
contamination is not to be directly applied on edible
parts of plants. In addition, there is a restriction
in the use of human excreta on food crops, but
exceptions may be made where detailed sanitation
requirements are established by the standardsetting organization to prevent the transmission
of pathogens (http://www.ifoam.org/about_ifoam/
standards/norms/norm_documents_library/Norms_
ENG_V4_20090113.pdf ).

Urine use in organic agriculture

Urine is a perfect fertilizer for organic production,
where synthetic mineral fertilizers are not allowed.
However, there are certain barriers to the use of urine
in production systems when labelling for organic
production is used. These barriers are expressed
for example in regulations by the European Union.
Organic agriculture is governed by the European
Union regulation (EEG) 2092/91 which applies
to all certified European organic agriculture. This
regulation regulates among other things the inputs
allowed in organic agriculture. Human urine is at
present not included as a fertilizer in the EU regulation
which makes it difficult for organic farmers in Europe
or exporting to a European market to use human
urine. The Swedish Organic Agriculture Certifying
Organization (KRAV) has achieved an exemption
for one farmer, who has a closed loop system where
nutrients are recycled and food delivered in the same
community, resting on the assumption that if there is a
proximity between the community and the farmer, the
risk of contamination or unsustainble practices will
be diminished.

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p r ac t i c a l g u i da n c e o n t h e u s e o f u r i n e i n c r o p p r o d u c t i o n

Crop experiments using urine as a fertilizer

Practical guidance:
Crop experiments should be started on local
level in order to establish the use of urine as a
fertilizer in the local agricultural community. The
level of experimentation can range from simple
demonstration trials to scientifically rigorous
research. In any case, demonstration trials should
be started in a place that is easily accessible to
farmers and househols owners.

hen planning a crop fertilization experiment

the first and most important question is to
define the objective of the experiment. The answer
to this question has a decisive influence on how
the experiment should be planned, its costs and
complexity. If the answer is that the desired result
is increased knowledge among local population,
a simple demonstration trial showing yields with
urine, with mineral fertilizer and without fertilizer
can be used. If the answer is increased knowledge
in the farming community and for extension
professionals, a more extensive experiment
allowing statistical analysis is needed. The
following sections describe different strategies to
increase knowledge about cropping systems where
urine is used as a fertilizer.

Figure 31: Spinach (Swiss Chard) fertilized

with urine (left) and without fertilizer (right).
Photo: Peter Morgan

Figure 32: Field trials from Niger. Urine

fertilized millet to the right. Photo: Linus Dagerskog
Demonstration experiments
Demonstration experiments are very useful and
flexible tools as they are cheap, quick and easy to
set up. They can be small pot experiments or large
field experiment. A good idea is often to set up small
demonstration trials just outside the entrance doors
to the extension office, in schools or other places in
the centre of the society where many persons can be
reached. There is no need for repetition and the need
for documentation is small. But it is good if the results
are clearly visible and therefore the fertilization level
should preferably be large and the water factor well
controlled. The photos below show pot experiments
by Peter Morgan Zimbabwe and field experiments in
Rwanda.

38

Controlled experiments to test the

fertilizing potential
In this type of experiments, as many factors as possible
should be controlled e.g. the amount of water , weeds,
insects and fungi, and maybe even climate, and the
crop should be established in the optimal way. These
experiments can be done on a very small scale, pot
or lab scale, and they often yield good, repeatable
and reliable results. Due to this small scale, this type
of experiment is actually the cheapest one for getting
repeatable and reliable results. To get statistically
significant and conclusive results several repetitions
should be done, which due to the small scale often is
fairly easy and cheap.

s to c k h o l m e n v i r o n m e n t i n s t i t u t e

The advantage of this type of well controlled

experiment is that the variation between years is small
even if it is performed outdoors. This means that after
just one experimental season the result can be fairly
representative. Another advantage that this type of
experiment shows the full fertilizing potential of urine
to the crop in question. One disadvantage however,
is that this full potential might not at all show the
fertilizing effect that a farmer will experience in a real
situation.

Controlled experiments to test the

real life fertilizing effect
This type of experiment is much more realistic, as the
same crop management procedures are followed for
the experimental plots as are usually followed by the
farmers. This means that if the year is very dry and
the crop is not irrigated, then the crop might suffer
severely and the fertilizing effect might be negligible
as it is the water factor that decides the yield. Likewise,
other years it might be weeds, fungi or insects, that has
decisive influence on the crop yield. These experiments
are often participatory and carried out on farms.
Repetitions in order to carry out statistical analysis
increase the possibility of drawing conclusions from
this type of research, but it is often a challenge to ensure
that the treatment actually is the same on the different
farms involved. .
This type of experiment has the clear advantage that
its results are much more realistic and more easily
transferred to, and scaled up by the farmers than the
fully controlled experiments previously described. It,
however, also has the clear disadvantage that the yield
results are very much influenced by the weather and
season, which vary between years. This means that to
be fairly sure to get any type of representative results
normally at least 3 years and preferably 4-5 years of
crop experiments are needed.

Farm and crop rotation experiments

This is the most complex, realistic and most difficult
and expensive type of experiment. While the two
previous types of experiments normally are confined to
one crop at a time, in this type of experiment, the full
range of crops normally grown by a farmer each year

is included in the experiment, and the effect on farm

economy of fertilizing these crops is evaluated. This is
a highly relevant type of experiment, especially under
marginal farming conditions, but these experiments are
very resource demanding, as they include several crops
and need to be repeated at least 3-5 years.

Statistical considerations
For all types of controlled crop experiments (not
including demonstration trials), the experimental
plots should be as even as possible, but even so, the
comparison between the treatments should be repeated
several times, if possible 3-5 times in the same field.
The order of the treatments should be randomized
within each repetion.
Table 18: Example of experimental layout.
Repetition 1

T4

T3

T2

T5

T1

Repetition 2

T4

T1

T2

T3

T5

Repetition 3

T2

T1

T3

T5

T4

Repetition 4

T1

T5

T4

T2

T3

In table 18, 4 repetitions with 5 treatments (T1-T5)

in randomized order in each repetition are shown in
a simplified experimental layout. While the whole
blocks should be treated according to the plan, it is
only the harvest of the central area that should be
measured and allowed to influence the results, in
order to minimize the edge effects of the small plots.

Dissemination of results
The volume of published results from projects where
urine has been introduced as a fertilizer is rapidly
increasing. However, there are numerous knowledge
gaps, and therefore it is important to capitalize on
experimentation that is done by publishing results
in fora that reach as many professionals as possible.
It is quite important to reach not only agricultural
professionals, but also professionals within sanitation,
sociology, environment, etc. as well as the general
public and local target groups.

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p r ac t i c a l g u i da n c e o n t h e u s e o f u r i n e i n c r o p p r o d u c t i o n

Web-based tools for calculation

simple excel-based tool has been developed

for calculation of collected amounts as well as
nutrient content and value. The tool is available at
http://www.sanergy-net.de/calculator.php. Similar tools
can well be developed for the extension level in order to
get a view of the potential for nutrient reuse when urine
is used as a fertilizer.
A simple calculator has been created (2010) to provide
information on crop productivity increases from using
treated urine (Takin Ruwa) as fertilizer compared to
unfertilized, for millet growing in Niger. http://www.

ecosanres.org/aguie/model.htm The model is built

in Excel. The model requires two input variables to
function. The input variables are a combination of
number of people, amount of urine, cropping area and
application rate. Using these input variables, the model
calculates the potential crop productivity for millet. The
output is given in two groupings, one for millet without
fertilizer and one for millet with Takin Ruwa fertilizer.
Both the crop productivity and the yield are given,
including a range that is based on the standard deviation
for the source data.

Figure 33: A sample page from the Aguie calculator for providing information on crop
productivity increases from using treated urine. 
AP-Aguie 2009

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s to c k h o l m e n v i r o n m e n t i n s t i t u t e

PART 2 How to develop local guidelines

n order to be implementable in a local context the

wealth of information given in this book so far needs
to be further translated or adapted to respective local
site conditions. The following chapter provides some
recommendations on how local guidelines can be
developed and structured and it summarizes the most
important factors that directly or indirectly influence
farming activities related to urine use. Not all of the
listed aspects necessarily need to find their way into
the final guideline version at a local level and it is very
much up to local experts to finally decide on what needs
to be included. However the listed aspects set the frame
of what generally needs to be considered for successful
local adaptation. Examples of local guidelines for urine
use in crop production are presented in annexes.
The main aim of a local guideline as presented in this
text is to be a national, regional or local support tool
that is clearly targeted at agricultural extension workers
and not the farmers. For farmer level frequently more
simplification is needed, which can be done by the
extension workers on the basis of the local guidelines
developed using these instructions.

The productive sanitation approach

A general understanding of the concept of reuseoriented productive sanitation is a prerequisite for
successful local implementation. If the concept is well
known no further explanation is necessary. Otherwise
a brief introduction on the reuse-oriented sustainable
sanitation approach, the link between sanitation
and agriculture, the global limitations in synthetic
fertilizer production, the resource value of urine and
its productive potential should be included prior to the
more practical oriented recommendations.
Links to more information:
- SuSanA WG 05 fact sheet (food security) http://
www.susana.org/images/documents/05-workinggroups/wg05/en-wg5-factsheet-2008-05-28.pdf
SuSanA vision document I (towards more sustainable
sanitation solutions) http://www.susana.org/
images/documents/04-meetings/side-events/2009singapore/01-en-panesar-introduction-susana-wtssingapore-2009.pdf

Food

Urine + faeces
PEOPLE

SOIL
Crops

Safe fertiliser

Figure 34: Closing the loop.

Local site conditions
Although people working in agriculture usually know
quite well how their respective local climate, soil and
water conditions are it might be relevant to include a
chapter that specifically focuses on how this impacts
on urine use.
Climatic conditions
Information on climatic region, temperature, rainfall
pattern, humidity and seasonal specifics. For example,
in arid regions with low rainfall and high temperature
evaporation might be very high or in tropical areas with
high rainfall it should be recommended to apply urine
more often in smaller doses.
Water situation
General information on availability, sources and
potential contamination of water that is used for
plant irrigation. If data is locally not available
the water situation should be at least described
qualitatively.
Soil conditions
Basic information on soil quality and general soil
conditions that influence the foreseen agricultural
activity. This includes soil type and texture (e.g. if
soil is more sandy then more frequent fertilization
is needed) soil ph (acidity/alkalinity that affects the
availability of nutrients in the soil), as well as organic
matter content (fertilizing effect of urine lower on soils
with low organic matter content) and salinity (e.g.
if soil is saline organic material should be added as a
buffer or more water needs to be added). In many cases
this information is locally available. In any case good
agricultural practises should be observed in order to
maintain the soil fertility.

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Plant requirements and nutrient

content in urine

Table 19: Food supply (crops primary

equivalent) in different countries in 2000.
FAO 2003

This section of the local guideline gives instructions on

type of crops, nutrient requirements, need for urine as
a fertilizer and the benefits of using urine as a fertilizer.
The section on benefits is especially important, and can
be used as an advocacy text not only for agricultural
extension personnel.
Type of crops
The type of crop(s) determines the farming system, soil
requirements as well as amount of nutrients and water
required for optimal plant growth. If only urine will be
used as a fertilizer it is recommended to give priority to
crops that have high value and respond well to N (e.g.
maize, spinach).
Plant nutrient requirements
Demand of primary macronutrients (N,P,K) that are
required for optimal plant growth and harvesting results.
It will determine the amount of urine (depending on
its respective local nutrients content) that needs to be
applied during the planting season.
Plant density and distance
Recommended number of plants per area and distance
between crops that affects area productivity and
determines the degree of competition between the
plants.
Amount of urine produced
The estimated total amount of urine that can be used
for crop production should be presented since it
directly affects the area size that can be fertilized
and the potential value for the farmers. Depending
on the amount of water consumed and on the climate
conditions one adult person produces around 1 - 1.5
litre of urine per day. It should be kept in mind that in
some cases only part of this amount can be collected
(e.g. other sorts of toilets or no toilets are used during
the day, local habits of peeing in the shower etc.)

Nutrient content in urine

Content of macro- and micronutrients in human urine
that determine the amount of urine to be applied to
plants. If local data is not available the following
average amounts of primary macronutrients can be
assumed for the following countries:

42

Nitrogen
(kg/cap/a)

Phosphorus
(kg/cap/a)

Potassium
(kg/cap/a)

China

3.5

0.4

1.3

Haiti

1.9

0.2

0.9

India

2.3

0.3

1.1

South Africa

3.0

0.3

1.2

Uganda

2.2

0.3

1.0

Sweden

4.0

0.4

1.0

Value of urine as a fertilizer

The monetary value of the nutrients in urine can be
calculated by determining the synthetic fertilizer
equivalent of the basic macronutrients (N,P,K) in
urine times the current local synthetic fertilizer prices.
To make it more demonstrative and more impressive
illustrate the potential of the urine use this figure can be
multiplied with the number of household members or
even with the entire population.
Value of yield increase that can be attributed
to urine use
The value of reusing urine in crop production is much
higher than the mere value of the nutrients contained
in urine. The yield increase that can be attributed to
the application of nutrient rich urine compared to no
fertilizer application can make a case for the resource
reuse in agriculture. Data based on local field trials if
there are any such available.

Application recommendations
Application rate
Amount of urine that should be applied per cropping
season. Because of its high nitrogen content urine
should be applied at a rate corresponding to the
desired N requirements of the plant. A starting
point for estimating the urine application are local
recommendations for use of commercial mineral
N fertilizers (Urea or Ammonium fertilizers). If
these crop and region specific recommendations

s to c k h o l m e n v i r o n m e n t i n s t i t u t e

are available the amount of urine needed can then be

calculated by using the data of the respective local urine
nutrient content. Another option is to back-calculate
the amount of urine needed from the estimated amount
of nutrients removed by the crops at harvest. However,
a lot of this information might not be available
particularly on small-scale household level. In this
case it is recommended to conduct experiments prior to
the actual implementation to gain first experiences on
appropriate application levels. Most farmers anyway
will soon get a feel for the right amount of urine that is
needed for optimal plant growth.
Dilution
Urine can be applied neat or diluted with water
and advice should be given on appropriate dilution
ratios (or non-dilution respectively) depending
on the local conditions. There is no standard
recommendation for dilution/non-dilution and the
existing recommendations vary widely depending on
the local conditions. Dilution increases the volume
to be spread and thus also increases labour, transport
expense, equipment needed etc. particularly in largerscale systems. Advantages of dilution include a
noticeable odour reduction and a decreased risk of
over-application, in order not to be toxic to the plants.
Pros and cons should be properly weighed. Levels
of dilution can vary between 1:15 (1 part urine to 15
parts water) and 1:1. Most common dilution ratios are
1:3 or 1:5. However urine should always be applied
at the rate corresponding to the desired application
rate of N, while additional water should be applied
according to the water needs of the plants.
Application time
Recommendations on when and how often the urine
should be applied should ideally be given in an easy
to understand schedule. Good availability of nutrients
is particularly important in early stages of cultivation.
Once the crop enters its reproductive stage it hardly
takes up any more nutrients. As a rule of thumb,
fertilization should stop after between 2/3 and 3/4
of the time between sowing and harvest. A waiting
period of one month between fertilization and harvest
should always be observed. As regards the risk of
nutrients leaching particularly in regions where there
is heavy rainfall during the cropping season, repeated
applications of urine may be an insurance against
losing all the nutrients in one rainfall event. The
total applied amount of urine and whether it should
preferably be applied once or several times also

depends on the nitrogen need of the plant and its root

size. Root size varies widely between different crops
and plants with inefficient or small root systems (e.g.
carrots, onions and lettuce) can benet from repeated
applications of urine.
Application technique
Detailed recommendations on how the urine should be
applied should be given. For best fertilizing effect and
to avoid ammonia losses, urine should be incorporated
into the soil as soon as possible after application,
instantly if possible. A shallow incorporation is
enough, and different methods are possible. One is
to apply urine in small furrows that are covered after
application. Washing the nutrients into the soil with
subsequent application of water is another option.
When spreading urine, it should not be applied on
leaves or other parts of the plants, as this can cause
foliar burning. Spraying urine in the air should also
be avoided due to the risk of nitrogen loss through
gaseous emissions of ammonia and the hygiene risk
through aerosols. Drip irrigation with urine is another
possible application technique. However, when this
technique is used, measures must be taken to avoid
clogging of emitters. Some plants (e.g. tomatoes) in
their early stages are sensitive to having their roots
exposed to urine, while on many crops no negative
effect is seen at all. Therefore, before the sensitivity
of a crop is known, it is wise not to simultaneously
expose all the roots of the plant to urine, be it neat or
diluted. Instead, urine can be applied either prior to
sowing/planting or at such a distance from the plants
that the nutrients are within reach of the roots. For
annual plants this distance may be about 10 cm.
Combined application
Urine is a valuable nutrient source (particularly for
N) but due to its comparably high N and low organic
matter content it is often recommended to complement
urine application with other nutrient and organic
matter sources. The most obvious source that can be
recommended would be, of course, source-separated
faeces due to its high organic matter content and the
high P and K concentrations given that it is acceptable
for the users and associated health risks can be
properly managed. Another organic matter source
would be humus/compost that could be applied prior
to planting time. If the P and K demand of the plant
cannot be met with urine alone other P- and K-rich
mineral fertilizers might be a good complementary
solution.

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Risk management
Health risks
Health risks associated with the use of human urine in
plant production are generally low. The objective of a
section on health risks is to present credible information
on how to minimize the health risks when using urine as
a fertilizer. Groups that are potentially at risk comprise
collection personnel and field workers, households,
local communities and product consumers. As regards
other contaminating substances in human urine (heavy
metals, hormones and pharmaceuticals) possible health
risks are far smaller than those associated with the
common sanitation system and the risk for negative
effect on the quantity and quality of the crops is
negligible.
WHO Multi-barrier approach
In local guidelines it can be relevant to mention that the
WHO has presented international guidelines on the use
of urine in agriculture. The WHO guidelines for the
safe use of wastewater, excreta and greywater use in
agriculture and aquaculture (2006) promote a flexible
multi-barrier approach for managing the health risks
associated with the use of excreta in agriculture. This
concept comprises a series of measures/barriers from
toilet to table. Each of the barriers has the potential
to reduce health risks associated with the excreta use
and it is recommended by WHO to put in place several
of these barriers if needed in order to reduce the health
risk to an acceptable minimum. The local guidelines
should then present barriers that are relevant to the local
context, see section in Part 1 of this book. For more

information visit the WHO website: http://www.who.

int/water_sanitation_health.
Barrier I: Source separation
Source separation is an efficient barrier for reducing
the risks compared to a combined wastewater system.
A key objective of urine collection is to minimize faecal
cross-contamination.
Barrier II: Storage and treatment
It is recommended that prior to application urine should
be treated in order to sanitize the urine and reduce
microbial health risks. Storage at ambient temperature
is considered a viable treatment option. Recommended
storage times vary depending on the system type. This
also applies for cold climates since the temperature is
also a governing factor in the die-off. As a rule: The
longer storage, the better.
Urine should be stored in sealed containers in order to
prevent direct contact with the urine for humans and
animals . Urine should not be diluted while stored, to
provide a harsher environment for microorganisms and
increase die-off rate of pathogens.
Barrier III: Application techniques
Urine application close to the ground should always
be recommended. This reduces the direct contact with
the edible parts of the plants. For example do not
apply urine with a water can on the edible or foliar
parts of vegetables. The urine should be incorporated
into the soil either mechanically or by subsequent
irrigation with water. If urine is applied before or during

Figure 35: Barrier concept for safe use of urine as a fertilizer.

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s to c k h o l m e n v i r o n m e n t i n s t i t u t e

sowing/planting a further die-off will occur of potential

remaining pathogens and thereby the risk.
Barrier IV: Crop restriction
When treated urine is used no particular crop restrictions
need to be applied. However as an additional safety
feature the urine use may be restricted to non-food
crops (e.g. cotton), crops that are processed (e.g. wheat)
or cooked before consumption (e.g. potato) as well as
crops/trees that allow for a minimum distance between
soil and harvested part of the crop. In general it can
be stated that the longer the time between application
and harvest the less risky. Thus for crops with short
rotation times, like spinach, salad crops and radish the
risk will be higher, and the pretreatment should be better,
but in the case of for example pineapples (rotation time
1-2 years) the risk from urine is nonexistent.
Barrier V: Withholding period
A withholding period of one month between the
last urine application and the harvest is a barrier that
provides time for pathogen die-off, and is always be
recommended.
Barrer VI: Protective equipment
Although there is no high risk associated with treated
urine it is recommended if possible that agricultural
fieldworkers wear appropriate protective clothing
(shoes and gloves) as an additional effective barrier to
reduce potential health risks.

Barrier VII: Handwashing with soap after urine

handling
Washimg hands with soap after urine handling can be
considered an additional barrier in the system. Selfevidently basic recommended health and hygiene
practices like hand washing after toilet use and prior to
meals should always be observed.
Barrier VIII: Food handling and cooking
Harvested crops should always be washed before
consumption. Cooking or peeling of fruits/vegetables
is another effective measure to considerably reduce the
associated health risks (pathogen reduction between 2-6
log units)
Barrier IX: Health and hygiene promotion
Effective hygiene education and promotion should be
conducted in order to inform local growers and food
handlers (in markets, restaurants, home and food kiosks)
how and why they should wash produce fertilized with
urine.
Handling systems
Information should be given here on the specifics of
the locally used collection, treatment and transport
components of the sanitation system.
Demonstration experiments and
dissemination strategy
Information should be taken and summarized from
local experimentation and the generic chapter.

45

p r ac t i c a l g u i da n c e o n t h e u s e o f u r i n e i n c r o p p r o d u c t i o n

PART 3 - Example of a local guideline

Guideline for application of sanitized urine (Takin Ruwa)

in the agricultural conditions of Niger
April 2010
SUMMARY
1 Introduction
2 Aim
3 The potential of human urine as a fertilizer
3.1 The quantity of fertlizers excreted by humans
3.2 The charcteristics of urine as a fertilizer
4 Urine collection
5 Mode of Takin Ruwa (sanitized urine)
application
5.1 Application material
5.2 Application to crops with space between the
plants
5.3 Application to crops planted densely
5.4 Fruit trees
6 Application of sanitized urine (takin Ruwa) -
recommended periods and doses for different
crops
7 Security measures
8 Bibliography

Foreword
This guide was put together within the project
Productive Sanitation Agui which was executed
from October 2008 to February 2010. The project was
mainly financed by IFAD. CREPA, PPILDA and SEI
have been project partners during the implementation
phase.
This guide was put together by professor Moussa
Barag, independant consultant, in collaboration with
the SEI. It is destined towards agriculture extention
officers as well as other persons and organizations
interested in the possibilities of reuse of human urine as
a fertilizer the Niger context.

Figure 36: Urinals.

Different simple urinals that allow for urine collection. The three photos to the left show the bidur (jerry can with urine). It is
made of a jerry can, funnel and a light bulb that avoids odors and nitrogen losses. The urinal can be off the ground or dug down
according to preference.

46

s to c k h o l m e n v i r o n m e n t i n s t i t u t e

Figure 37: Latrines.

During defecation, only the urine is canalized towards the recipient (jerry can) outside the toilet. The separation facilitates the
treatment and reduces problems with odors and flies in the toilets.

Excerpts from the guideline

Urine collection
Urine is easy to collecte either from urinals (figure 36) or from latrines (figure 37) that allow for separation of urine
and faeces.
Method for Takin Ruwa (sanitized urine) application
Application technique
Takin Ruwa can be applied with a watering can, bucket or directly from the jerry can. Metal easily rusts in contact
with urine, and should be well washed after use. Use a recipient of known volume to facilitate the application of the
recommended dose

Application using a
watering can

Application with bucket

and cup

Direct application using

the jerry-can

47

p r ac t i c a l g u i da n c e o n t h e u s e o f u r i n e i n c r o p p r o d u c t i o n

Application to crops with space between the plants

To apply to single plants, make a furrow beside or around the plant or just a hole around 10 cm from the plant. Apply
the Takin Ruwa, and close the furrow or hole. The application is followed by watering to avoid toxicity effects
(option 1). The alternative is to apply the Takin Ruwa after a good rain (option 2)

Option 1: Application of Takin Ruwa followed by generous watering

Makea furrow or hole

10cm from the plant

Apply the Takin Ruwa

in the furrow/hole

Close the
furrow/hole

Water down using generous

amounts of water

Option 2: Apply the Takin Ruwa after a good rainfall

For crops grown during the rainy season (millet, sorghum etc) the applications can be done after a good rainfall
of at least 15 mm.

Wait for a rainfall of

at least 15mm

48

Makea furrow or hole

10cm from the plant

Apply the Takin Ruwa

in the furrow/hole

Close the
furrow/hole

s to c k h o l m e n v i r o n m e n t i n s t i t u t e

Application to crops planted densely

If possible make furrows in a quadratic fashion with
a hoe, and apply the Takin Ruwa before closing the
furrows. If the crops are very dense, dilute the Takin
Ruwa at least 200 per cent (at least two volumes of
water for every volume of Takin Ruwa), and apply in
a uniform manner immediately followed by abundant
watering of the leaves (see drawings).

Dilute the Takin

Ruwa with water

Apply the dilution

to the plants

Water the plants

immediately after the
Takin Ruwa application

Fruit trees
For fruit trees, make a furrow 5-10
cm deep around the tree starting
from the distance of the canope
line. The width of the furrow can
be half the canope width, measured
from the edge towards the centre.
The application of Takin Ruwa
should be combined with compost
or manure application to supply
enough oligo elements.

The roots generally Make a furrow

have the same length around the tree proportional to the line
as the branches.
of the canopy. The
furrow should not
reach the trunk.

Apply Takin Ruwa in Cover the Takin Ruwa Water abundantly in

the furrow all around with some soil.
the furrow.
the tree.

49

p r ac t i c a l g u i da n c e o n t h e u s e o f u r i n e i n c r o p p r o d u c t i o n

Application of sanitized urine (Takin Ruwa)

recommended periods and doses for
different crops
The different doses and franctions presented in the table
on this page is based on the reults obtained from two
stations as well as the recommendations for nitrogen
fertilization in Niger, the nitrogen concentration of
Takin Ruwa being around 4.5 gN/l (the content of P,

K and oligoelements is lower) and finally the plants

nitrogen need. Bear in mind however that Takin Ruwa
is mainly a fast acting N-fertliizer and should be
complemented by the addition of P and K or an organic
base fertilizer. These Takin Ruwa recommendations
are also preliminary; ongoing research will enrich this
technical guideline.

Table 20: Periods and doses of sanitized urine for different crops.
ApplicaTomato
tion period

Aubergine

Two weeks
after sowing or
planting

0.5 litre
/ plant

0.5 litre
/ plant

0.6
litre /
plant

0.5 litre
/ plant

0.7 litre
/ plant

0.7
litre /
plant

0.3 litre
/ plant

0.3 litre
/ plant

0.5
litre /
plant

Start of
the flowering (3
weeks
after the
first application)

During
fructification (3
weeks
after the
2nd application)

50

Pepper Potatos

2.5 litres /
m2

2.5 litres /
m2 applied
at the start
of the of
tuberization (around
4 weeks
after the first
application)

Lettuce
Sandy soil:
1 litre / m2
Clayey soil:
0.7 litre /
m2
Sandy soil:
1 litre / m2
Clayey soil:
0.7 litre /
m2
(2 weeks
after the first
application)

Onion,
garlic

1 litre /
m2

Melon
CucumGombo /marber
row
0.5
litre /
plant

1.5 litres
0.7
/ m2 (at
the start of litre /
plant
the bulb
forming,
around
4 weeks
after the
first application)
0.3
litre /
plant

0.5
litre /
plant

0.5 litre /
plant

1
litre /
plant

0.7 litre /
plant

0.5
litre /
plant

0.3 litre /
plant

s to c k h o l m e n v i r o n m e n t i n s t i t u t e

(Table 20 cont) Periods and doses of sanitized urine for different crops.
AppliCabCarrot Millet Sorghum Mango
cation
bage
period
Two
weeks
after
sowing or
planting

2
litres
/ m2

Start
2
of the
flower- litres
/ m2
ing (3
weeks
after
the first
application)

At the
start
of the
fructification

Orange

Goyava

Papaya

Banana

1
litres
/ m2

0.8
litre*
/
plant
(start
of
tillering)

0.7 litre*
/ plant
(start of
tillering)

Growth fertilizer (tree

aged 0-4
years): apply
2 litres/tree
4 times per
year. (start of
rainy season,
during the
rainy season,
start of cold
season and
during the
cold season).

Growth
fertilizer
(tree aged
0-4 years):
apply 1.5
litres/tree
4 times per
year. (start
of rainy season, during
the rainy
season,
start of cold
season and
during the
cold season).

Growth fertilizer (tree

aged 0-2
years): apply
1 litres/tree
4 times per
year. (start of
rainy season,
during the
rainy season,
start of cold
season and
during the
cold season).

3 litres
/ tree 1
month
after sowing

3 litres /
pied en
couronne
1 mois
aprs
plantation

1.25
litres
/ m2

0.7
litre*
/
plant
(Fin
montaison

0.7 litre*
/ plant
(Fin
montaison
dbut
piaison,
soit 4

Production fertilizer(trees
aged >
4 years):
Apply 6 litres
per tree, 4
times per
year (start of
rainy season,
during the
rainy season,
start of cold
season and
during the
cold season).

Production fertilizer(trees
aged >
4 years):
Apply 5
litres per
tree, 4 times
per year
((start of
rainy season, during
the rainy
season,
start of cold
season and
during the
cold season).

Production fertilizer(trees
aged >
2 years):
Apply 4 litres
per tree, 4
times per
year (start of
rainy season,
during the
rainy season,
start of cold
season and
during the
cold season).

4 litres /
tree 1.5
months
after the
1st application

4 litres /
tree 1.5
months
after the
1st application

(NB: make
the same
application
for the next
production
cycle)

(NB: make
the same
application for
the next
production cycle)

4 litres /
tree 1.5
months
after the
2nd application

3 litres /
tree 1.5
months
after the
second
application

*The recommended doses for millet and surghum, are based on the results from the first tests in Torodi. In Agui the dose has
been 0.5 litres, fractioned into 0.25 litres per application. This is aligned with the local recommendations for urea as a source of
nitrogen.

51

p r ac t i c a l g u i da n c e o n t h e u s e o f u r i n e i n c r o p p r o d u c t i o n

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ISBN 978-91-86125-21-9

Practical Guidance on the Use of Urine in Crop Production

Richert, Gensch, Jnsson, Stenstrm and Dagerskog

SEI

Toepassingsmogelijkheden voor urine in de landbouw

in Friesland

In opdracht van provincie Frysln zijn de potenties van urine

voor de landbouw in beeld gebracht



  
     


  
  
 







  


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www.grontmij.nl

Grontmij
Zonnedauw 2
9202 PA Drachten
Postbus 91
9200 AB Drachten
T (0512) 33 52 33
F (0512) 51 02 00
noord@grontmij.nl

Verwijdering van medicijnresten en

hormoonverstorende stoffen uit urine
Quick-scan technieken

Definitief

STOWA-koepelgroep Ontwikkeling Nieuwe Sanitatie Systemen (ONNS)

Grontmij Nederland bv
De Bilt, 17 juni 2005

@ Grontmij

, rev.

Verantwoording

Titel

Verwijdering van medicijnresten en hormoonverstorende stoffen uit urine

Projectnummer

178603

Documentnummer

Revisie

Datum

17 juni 2005

Auteur(s)

dr.ir. J.H. Roorda (Jelle)

e-mail adres

jelle.roorda@grontmij.nl

Gecontroleerd

ir. N.C. Wortel (Nico)

Paraaf gecontroleerd

Goedgekeurd

Paraaf goedgekeurd

@ Grontmij

ir. P. Roeleveld (Paul)

, rev.
blad 2 van

Inhoudsopgave

Inleiding.........................................................................................4

2
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5

Overzicht technieken ......................................................................5

Biologische technieken ...................................................................5
Oxidatieve technieken ....................................................................6
Fysisch-chemische technieken ........................................................6
Membraanfiltratie ..........................................................................6
Adsorptieve technieken ..................................................................7

3
3.1
3.2

Conclusies en aanbevelingen ..........................................................8

Conclusies ......................................................................................8
Aanbevelingen................................................................................8

Literatuur....................................................................................................10

@ Grontmij

, rev.
blad 3 van

Inleiding

Bij de gescheiden behandeling van urine kunnen de nutrinten Stikstof en

Fosfaat op efficinte wijze verwijderd of omgezet worden in bruikbare meststoffen. In STOWA (2005) worden een aantal zuiveringsconcepten beschreven die daarvoor in aanmerking komen. Naast de genoemde stoffen bevinden
zich ook andere milieuvreemde stoffen in de urine. Daarbij nemen de geneesmiddelen en hormonen een belangrijke rol in.
Na opname of omzetting in het lichaam, worden geneesmiddelen en afbraakproducten van geneesmiddelen uitgescheiden. Het grootste deel hiervan verlaat via de urine het lichaam. Hierover zijn slechts in nauwelijks harde gegevens bekend, maar diverse auteurs die zich bezighouden met gescheiden inzameling en verwerking van urine geven aan dat in de urine het grootste deel
van de geneesmiddelen te vinden moet zijn. (Larsen et al., 2004; Pronk et al.,
2004). Von Wolffersdorf (2004) heeft wel gemeten in urine en vindt geneesmiddelen in concentratieranges van tientallen tot honderden g per liter urine.
In afvalwater is de range waarin deze gevonden wordt een factor 100 tot 1000
lager (Grontmij, 2005).
STOWA heeft Grontmij opdracht gegeven een quick-scan uit te voeren naar
technieken die de medicijnen, medicijnresten, (natuurlijke en synthetisceh )
hormonen en hormoonverstorende stoffen in het ingezamelde (verdunde)
urine vergaand kunnen reduceren. Daartoe is een globale scan gemaakt van
de beschikbare literatuur. In onderhavige rapportage is hiervan het resultaat
gegeven. Als gesproken wordt over medicijnresten worden daarmee ook de
andere hierboven genoemde stoffen bedoeld. Waar specifiek wordt ingegaan
op de andere stofgroepen wordt dat vermeld.

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Overzicht technieken

2.1

Biologische technieken

Biologische afbraak
Over de verwijdering van medicijnresten door biologische afbraak van de
urine is zeer weinig bekend (Larsen et al., 2004). Uit eerste onderzoek blijkt de
halfwaarde tijd van natuurlijke hormonen in een biologische reactor 15 minuten is. Het is onduidelijk wat dit in het (biologisch afbreekbare urine, oa
ureum) betekend. Uit ervaringen met huishoudelijk afvalwater (100 maal
verdunde urine) blijkt dat de helft van de geneesmiddelen ongewijzigd door
een rwzi heen gaan en in het effluent terechtkomen (Ternes, 2005).
Bij de toepassing van technieken voor de behandeling van urine, zoals voorgesteld in STOWA (2005), lijkt de verwijdering van de medicijnresten een
goede nageschakelde stap te kunnen zijn. In STOWA (2005) is een overzicht
gegeven van:
- Struviet precipitatie (niet biologisch). Daarbij komt een vaste stof vrij,
die vrij is van medicijnresten. In de vrijkomende waterstroom bevinden zich de medicijnresten. Er wordt geen afbraak van medicijnresten
verwacht.
- Biologische N verwijdering. Daarbij wordt ammonium en nitraat/nitriet omgezet in stikstofgas wat vervluchtigd. In de overblijvende waterstroom bevinden zich de medicijnresten. Deze worden
door de korte verblijftijden in het systeem naar verwachting nauwelijks afgebroken. Wel vindt verwijdering plaats door adsorptie aan het
slib.
Adsorptie aan slib
De retentie van slib in biologische systemen om urine af te breken is vele malen hoger dan in rioolwaterzuiveringsinstallaties (Larsen et al., 2004; STOWA, 2005). Medicijnresten die aan het slib geadsorbeerd zijn, worden met het
afgevoerde slib (de hoeveelheid is dus beperkt) verwerkt middels indikking,
(vergisting,) ontwatering en verbranding.
Biologische afbraak in de bodem
Kstner et al. (2004) heeft onderzocht wat de afbraak van nonylphenol en
bisphenol A. Deze hormoonverstorende stoffen (die overigens niet in urine
voorkomen) breken binnen 5-7 dagen tot bijna 90% af tijdens een gesimuleerde bodempassage. Voor andere hormoonverstorende stoffen en ook medicijnen wordt op grond van vergelijkbare chemische eigenschappen een dergelijke
afbraak verwacht. Uit groot EU-project POSEIDON is gebleken dat ruim
80% van de geneesmiddelen uit rwzi-effluent voor meer dan 90% afbreken en
adsorberen aan de bodem. Desondanks worden een aantal belangrijke geneesmiddelen (carbamazepine en sulfamethoxazole) niet verwijderd en daarom teruggevonden in het grondwater (Ternes, 2005).

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Overzicht technieken

2.2

Oxidatieve technieken

Chlorering
Dosering van chloor is onvoldoende effectief om alle medicijnen en hormonen
volledig te oxideren (Ternes, 2005).
Ozonbehandeling
Ozon is selectief voor medicijnresten en wordt in gedoseerde vorm toegepast.
Een verwijdering tot 60% is aangetoond (Pronk et al., 2004), waarbij de andere organische stoffen (ureum) slechts deels werden afgebroken. Als nabehandeling van een biologische methode wordt verwacht dat ozonisatie nog effectiever is (Larsen et al., 2004). In effluent wordt een vergaande reductie van een
deel van de stoffen gevonden bij ozonbehandeling (Joss, 2004).
UV-behandeling
Met UV-behandeling is veel ervaring als methode voor desinfectie. Als referentie voor afvalwaterbehandeling is literatuur beschikbaar, voor urine is nog
geen ervaring opgedaan.
AOP
Onder geavanceerde oxidatie (AOP) wordt verstaan een combinatie zoals
UV/H2O2, Ozon/UV, Ozon/H2O2. Het voordeel van deze technologiecombinatie is dat bij een juist ontwerp geen schadelijke bijproducten ontstaan. Er is
geen ervaring met AOP voor verwijdering van medicijnresten uit urine. Bij
rwzis is een verwijdering van meer dan 90% gemeten voor medicijnen (Ternes, 2005).
2.3

Fysisch-chemische technieken

Strippen
Vluchtige medicijnresten zouden door middel van strippen verwijderd kunnen
worden. Vooralsnog wordt dit niet realistisch geacht voor de behandeling van
urine.
2.4

Membraanfiltratie

Membraanfiltratie is een scheidingsmethode op grond van deeltjesgrootte

(micro- en ultrafiltratie) en op grond van molecuulgewicht (nanofiltratie en
reverse osmosis). Geneesmiddelen zullen door micro- en ultrafiltratie niet
worden tegengehouden. Nanofiltratie en reverse osmosis zijn wel in staat om
een groot gedeelte van de medicijnresten tegen te houden. Bijzondere vormen
van membraanfiltratie zijn bijvoorbeeld electrodialyse, waarbij scheiden
plaats vindt op basis van lading van moleculen.
Nanofiltratie
Pronk et al. (2004, 2004a) beschrijft onderzoek naar de verwijdering van aan
urine gedoseerde ethinylestradiol, propranolol, ibuprofen, diclofenac en carbamezapin. Van deze stoffen werd 92%-98% door het membraan tegengehouden. Ureum werd volledig door het membraan doorgelaten, ammonium
voor meer dan 50% en fosfaat werd tegengehouden. Hierbij blijven twee
stromen over:
1. Geconcentreerde stroom met fosfaat en medicijnresten. Fosfaat kan verwijderd worden door struviet te vormen, waarbij geneesmiddelen niet in
de struvietmatrix worden opgenomen.
2. Stikstofrijke waterstroom waaruit de stikstof geconcentreerd kan worden
tot meststof.

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Overzicht technieken

Electrodialyse
In dit proces worden geladen componenten uit de urine gebonden aan het
geladen membraan. Daarbij wordt de urine opgeconcentreerd. Het concentraat kan biologisch verwerkt worden, in combinatie met struvietvorming
voor P-verwijdering. De medicijnresten zullen in het restproduct overblijven
(Pronk et al., 2004). Het lijkt erop dat de zouten in oplossing blijven (concentraat) en de medicijnresten adsorberen aan de electrodialyse membranen.
2.5

Adsorptieve technieken

Actief Kool filtratie

Adsorptie aan actief kool kan door dosering van poederkool of doorstromen
van een korrelkool reactor (Granular Activated Carbon, GAC). Voor medicijnresten kan een vergaande reductie worden behaald (Joss, 2004). Uit rwzieffluent tot meer dan 90% (Ternes, 2005). Voor zover bekend, is er met de
behandeling van urine geen ervaring opgedaan.
2.6

Combinatie van technieken

Een combinatie van technieken kan waarschijnlijk zeer effectief zijn. Daarbij
wordt gedacht aan combinaties als AOP en actief kool, of actief kool en nanofiltratie (ANF, Roorda et al., 2004).

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blad 7 van

Conclusies en aanbevelingen

3.1

Conclusies

Vanuit verschillende studies is naar voren gekomen dat medicijnen, medicijnresten, hormonen en hormoonverstorende stoffen in RWZIs afkomstig zijn
van de menselijke urine. Een klein deel wordt ook in de feces gevonden. Gescheiden inzameling en behandeling van urine kan de emissie van deze stoffen
naar het oppervlaktewater vergaand reduceren.
Voor de verwijdering van medicijnen, medicijnresten, hormonen en hormoonverstorende stoffen die zich in de urine van mensen bevinden, is een
breed scala aan technieken beschikbaar en in de praktijk toepasbaar. Deze
technieken zijn over het algemeen kostbaar, maar voor de behandeling van
geconcentreerde stromen lijken ze goed toepasbaar. Het kostenaspect speelt
dan een minder belangrijke rol (dan bijvoorbeeld bij de vergaande behandeling van communaal afvalwater, wat zeer verdund is ten opzichte van urine).
De technieken voor vergaande reductie van medicijnresten kunnen worden
ingezet in het proces als voorbehandeling van de urine, maar ook als nabehandeling van de biologisch behandelde of struviet geprecipiteerde urine. Op
dit moment kan nog geen voorkeur worden uitgesproken en is afhankelijk
van de zuiveringsstappen.
De ervaring met deze technieken is voor de behandeling van urine beperkt.
Op een aantal onderzoeksinstellingen wordt onderzoek verricht op lab-schaal,
voorzover bekend is op praktijkschaal geen voorbeeld bekend. De hier gepresenteerde informatie is daarom beperkt en vraagt om meer uitwerking.
De kosten van de beschikbare technieken zijn bekend voor verdunde waterstromen, voor de behandeling van relatief geconcentreerde urine kan op
grond daarvan een globale inschatting gemaakt worden van de kosten. Dit
voert voor deze quick-scan te ver.
Een combinatie van technieken zou een effectieve optie kunnen zijn.
3.2

Aanbevelingen

Over de verwijdering van medicijnen, medicijnresten, hormonen en hormoonverstorende stoffen die zich in de urine bevinden is weinig bruikbare
informatie beschikbaar. De beschikbare informatie is versnipperd aanwezig
en tot op heden niet samengebracht in een goed overzicht. Gezien de mogelijkheden om met behandeling van gescheiden ingezamelde urine de reductie
van medicijnen, medicijnresten, hormonen en hormoonverstorende stoffen
afkomstig van huishoudens vergaand te reduceren, wordt aanbevolen om een
goed overzicht van de beschikbare kennis op te stellen. Daarbij zal aansluiting
gezocht moeten worden bij enige grote projecten die in Zwitserland, Zweden
en Duitsland op dit moment worden uitgevoerd.

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Conclusies en aanbevelingen

De concentraties aan medicijnen, medicijnresten, hormonen en hormoonverstorende stoffen in urine zijn slechts enkele malen bepaald. Om een goede
inschatting te kunnen maken van de mogelijkheden van technieken voor reductie van deze stoffen, dient de gemiddelde samenstelling van urine te worden bepaald.
De kosten van de beschikbare technieken zijn bekend voor verdunde waterstromen, voor de behandeling van relatief geconcentreerde urine kan op
grond daarvan een globale inschatting gemaakt worden van de kosten. Een
realistische inschatting van de kosten moet gemaakt worden.

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blad 9 van

Literatuur

Grontmij (2005). Ketenanalyse humane en veterinaire geneesmiddelen in het

watermilieu - indicatieve kwantitatieve analyse en mogelijkheden voor
reductie van belasting van het watermilieu. Rapport opgesteld voor het
Ministerie van VROM, onder begeleiding van de LBOW-werkgroep
(dier)geneesmiddelen en watermilieu. Auteurs: A. Derksen en J.H.
Roorda. Mei 2005.
Joss, A. (2004). Arzneimittel in Wasser und Abwasser Schlussfolgerungen
von POSEIDON. Kooperationsforum Innovation der
Wasserwirtschaftsinitiative NRW und der WEDECO AG
Arzneimittelrckstnde und endokrin wirksame Stoffe in Trink- und
Abwasser - Herausforderungen, Lsungen und Kosten - Dienstag, 30.
Mrz 2004.
Krstner, M., Mller, J., Kappelmeyer, U., Richnow, H.H. en Kuschk, P.
(2004). Analyse des mikrobiellen Abbaus von organischen
Spurenstoffen in Anlagen zur Abwasserbehandlung Schicksal
hormonell wirksamer Substanzen in bewachsenen Bodenfiltern.
Proceedings Bremer Colloquium Produktionsintegrierte Wasser-/
Abwassertechnik 2004, Pharmazeutische Reststoffe in Abwssern
Vorkommen Gefhrdungspotenzial Techniken zur Eliminierung.
13.-14. September 2004.
Larsen, T.A., Lienert, A.J. en H. Siegrist (2004). How to avoid pharmaceuticals in the aquatic environment. Journal of Biotechnology 113: 295
304.
Pronk, W., Biebow, M. en Boller, M. (2004). Assessment of processing alternatives for source-separated urine. Proceedings World Water Congress
and Exhibition, Marrakech, September 2004.
Pronk, W., Palmquist, H., Biebow, M. en Boller, M. (2004a). The separation
of pharmaceuticals from nutrients in source-separated urine. Environmental Science & Technology (submitted September 2004)
Roorda, J.H., Wortel, N.C., Koreman, E. en Dalen, R. van (2004). ANF,
doorbraak in technologie van effluentfiltratie. H2O 37(11), p. 33-35
STOWA (2005). Separate collection and treatment of urine and new potentials for wastewater treatment. Auteur: J. Wilsenach, TUDelft. (concept, druk in voorbereiding)
Ternes, T. (2005). Assessment of technologies for the removal of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCP) in sewage and drinking water
facilities to improve the indirect potable water reuse. Detailed report re-

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lated to the overall project duration: January 1st, 2001 to June 30th,
2004 of the EU-project POSEIDON. August 2004, version January
18th 2005. www.eu-poseidon.com (17 juni 2005).
Wolffersdorf, S. von (2004). Untersuchungen zu Sortiertoiletten unter
besonderer Bercksichtigung der Urinverwertung. Diplomarbeit.
Universitt Rostock Agrar- und Umweltwissenschaftlichen
Fakultt Institut fr Umweltingenieurswesen. 1. Juli 2004, Rostock.

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Nuttige inzet van urine als meststof voor energiegewassen

Praktijkproef toepassing urine

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29.4.2010

Are pharmaceutical residues a problem for

urine reuse in agriculture?

Dr.-Ing. Martina Winker, M.Sc.

Sustainable Sanitation ecosan program
German Technical Cooperation (GTZ) GmbH

19-22 April 2010 | S2Small 2010 - IWA Conference | Girona | Spain

Folie 1

19-22 April 2010 | S2Small 2010 - IWA Conference | Girona | Spain

Folie 2

29.4.2010

What is a fertilizer?

Fertilizers are substances which are determined to

be applied directly or indirectly towards agricultural
crops to support their growth, to enhance their
yields or to improve their quality;
Excluded are substances which are determined to
protect plants from pests and diseases without
supporting plant nutrition, determining plant
nutrition, influencing life cycles in plants as well as
soil conditioners, culture media, plant additives,
carbon dioxide, peat and water.
(Dngemittelgesetz, 1977; BGBl. I S. 2134)

Folie 3

19-22 April 2010 | S2Small 2010 - IWA Conference | Girona | Spain

Classification of Fertilizers

Liquid Solid
Mineral Organic
Nutrient concentration
Nutrient availability

mineral
high
> 8%
high

(Timing & Efficiency)

Soil structure
CEC
Hygiene
Price

high

Fertilizer type
organic
low
< 1-5%
partially available
N - hardly available
P - medium term like MF
K like MF
Improvement
Improvement
Treatment required
Treatment required
(Clemens, 2005)

19-22 April 2010 | S2Small 2010 - IWA Conference | Girona | Spain

Folie 4

29.4.2010

Change of perspective
Matching of capabilities of existing fertiliser application
technologies:
10 - 50 m3 ha-1 liquid fertilisers
40 t DM ha-1 solid fertilisers
100 - 600 kg ha-1 granulates

19-22 April 2010 | S2Small 2010 - IWA Conference | Girona | Spain

29.4.2010

Folie 5

29.4.2010

Folie 6

Properties of products

19-22 April 2010 | S2Small 2010 - IWA Conference | Girona | Spain

29.4.2010

Urine
High concentrations of N and P as
well as other nutrients
Low ammonia emission
Comparable to liquid manure after
field application
Multi-component fertiliser

Winker, 2007

Vinners

Muskolus, 2006

29.4.2010

19-22 April 2010 | S2Small 2010 - IWA Conference | Girona | Spain

Folie 7

Nutrient compositions and crop requirements

N

19-22 April 2010 | S2Small 2010 - IWA Conference | Girona | Spain

29.4.2010

Folie 8

 Mostly derived in high-tech solutions

Achieved through a combination of
various treatment steps
Limiting factor in production: energy
costs
Different plant availability of different
MAP products according to specific
crop (Simons, 2008)

Stercorit

Urines fertiliser products

Potassium Ammonium
Phosphate

29.4.2010

Tettenborn, 2007

Tettenborn, 2007

Tettenborn, 2007
19-22 April 2010 | S2Small 2010 - IWA Conference | Girona | Spain

29.4.2010

Folie 9

History E. Wolff

(Emil Wolff, 1868)

19-22 April 2010 | S2Small 2010 - IWA Conference | Girona | Spain

Folie 10

29.4.2010

Fertilizing Effect
of Urine

Barley
Control

Urine pH 4

Urine pH 4/Slurry

us

Mineral fertilizer (CAN) m

yield [t/ha]

10

8
6
4
2
0
c

u/s

19-22 April 2010 | S2Small 2010 - IWA Conference | Girona | Spain

(Clemens, 2005)

Folie 11

Nutrient equivalents

Comparison with Manure

(Hammer & Clemens, 2007)

19-22 April 2010 | S2Small 2010 - IWA Conference | Girona | Spain

Folie 12

29.4.2010

Fertiliser demands worldwide

= Fertilizer prices
= $/t

= Fertilizer usage
= Mio. t

(FAZ.NET, 2008)

Folie 13

19-22 April 2010 | S2Small 2010 - IWA Conference | Girona | Spain

Fertiliser demands worldwide

= Fertilizer usage
= Mio. t

= Fertilizer usage
= Mio. t

(FAZ.NET, 2008)

19-22 April 2010 | S2Small 2010 - IWA Conference | Girona | Spain

Folie 14

29.4.2010

Urine as fertiliser
Consume of pharmaceuticals is common
in everyday life.
Urine is a component in new sanitation
systems.

Urine has a good potential as liquid

fertilizer.
But: Urine might contain pharmaceutical
substances

19-22 April 2010 | S2Small 2010 - IWA Conference | Girona | Spain

Folie 15

Pharmaceuticals

(Winker et al., 2008)

19-22 April 2010 | S2Small 2010 - IWA Conference | Girona | Spain

Folie 16

29.4.2010

Schematic Approach

PHASE I

Pflanzenversuche

Screening
Feedback

PHASE II

First Results

Analysis

Verified Results

Folie 17

19-22 April 2010 | S2Small 2010 - IWA Conference | Girona | Spain

Database

Place

Media
Water, Wastewater, Soil, Plants

Substance

Transformation
products

Article

Degradation
e.g. Sorption, Biodegradation

19-22 April 2010 | S2Small 2010 - IWA Conference | Girona | Spain

Folie 18

29.4.2010

Database

Place

Substance

380 of 760

310

330

Media
1670

Water, Wastewater, Soil, Plants

2050

1700

420

350

Transformation
products

Article

Degradation
e.g. Sorption, Biodegradation
490

330

Folie 19

19-22 April 2010 | S2Small 2010 - IWA Conference | Girona | Spain

Evaluation of Database
Two aspects investigated regarding plants:
Uptake and Phytotoxicity

Uptake

Phytotoxcity

Datasets

162

348

Substances

14

30

Plant species

25

30

Plant families

16

11

19-22 April 2010 | S2Small 2010 - IWA Conference | Girona | Spain

Folie 20

10

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Evaluation of Database - Substances

Uptake

Phytotoxicity

Mainly antibiotics investigated!

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Evaluation of Database Plant types

Uptake

Phytotoxicity

Mainly cereals and umbellifers reg. uptake.

Mainly cereals and legumes reg. phytotoxicity.

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Evaluation of Database
Comparison of collected data with urine
Tests with liquid medium
- Urine-water mix assumed
- 112 DS - 12 pharmaceuticals
- Only two articles comparable reporting on uptake by
very old bioassays.

Tests with solid medium

- Application of urine: 25 m3 ha-1
- Infiltration of 0.5 m assumed
- 45 DS - 9 pharmaceuticals

Hammer & Clemens. 2007. A tool to evaluate the

fertilizer value and the environmental impact of
substrates from wastewater treatment. Water Science &
Technology 56 (5), pp 201 209

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Evaluation of Database
Factor
(DB/U)

Substance

Plant species

Reported impacts

Chloroquine

soybean

Phytotoxic: neg. on w, h, r, s, l

182

Chlorotetracycline

spring wheat

Phytotoxic: pos. on h, r

82

Chlorotetracycline

pinto bean

Phytotoxic: neg. on w, h, r, s, l

82

Chlorotetracycline

green onion

Bioaccumulation:
0.013 ng kg-1 FW in stalk & leaves

51

Chlorotetracycline

cabbage

Bioaccumulation:
0.01 ng kg-1 FW in stalk & leaves

51

Metronidazole

soybean

Phytotoxic: neg. on w, h, r, s, l

67

Oxytetracycline

spring wheat

Phytotoxic: pos. on h, r

Oxytetracycline

pinto bean

Phytotoxic: neg. on w, h, r, s, l

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Evaluation of Database
Pharmaceuticals found in guttation drops.
(Stokes, 1954; Brian et al., 1951;)

Uptake via peel observed for carrots and potatoes.

(Dolliver et al., 2007; Boxall et al., 2006)

Different behavior regarding pharmaceutical

substances by different plants.
(Batchelder, 1982)

Uptake of oxytetracycline detected in barley grain.

(Jacobsen et al., 2004)

Applied amount are much higher then in

case of fertilization with urine.

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Design of Pot Experiments with Rye Grass

Winker et al. 2008. Fertilisation of rye grass using urine spiked

with carbamazepine, ibuprofen, and 17-ethinylestradiol a
greenhouse experiment. Handed in.

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Results of Pot Experiments

Only Carbamazepine (CZ) found in soil.
No effect on biomass production visible.
Aside of well-known fertilizing effect of urine.
No differences observed during course of the
vegetation period.
Analytics: (Reich & Engel Zentrallabor TUHH)
EE2 not measurable (matrix effects)
IBU only in roots (LOQ: 20 g kg-1 TM)
CZ LOQ in roots: 30 g kg-1 TM
LOQ in aerial plant parts: 75 g kg-1 TM

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Plant Tests with Rye Grass

(Winker et al., 2008)

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Results of Pot Experiments

CZ fraction:
0.2% of total
amount

CZ fraction:
30% of total
amount

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Results of Pot Experiments

Dairy Cow
(Weight: 600 kg / Milk production: 50 kg d-1)

Dry matter:

approx. 19 kg d-1 (DLG, 2005)

CZ uptake:

1.4 mg d-1

Human being: 0.8 - 2 g d -1 (Mutschler et al., 2001)

Kanton Solothurn, 2007

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Results of Pot Experiments

?
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Pot experiments
Biodegradation seems to be an important factor.
Biomass production was not influenced in the
pharmaceutical concentrations applied via urine.
CZ was found in roots and aerial plant parts of rye
grass.
Assumption: Pharmaceutical substances persistent in
soil can be taken up by plants in higher
concentrations.
Only first results!!!

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Germination Tests
5 pharmaceuticals used
Winker et al. 2008. Comparison of
and theoretical
At different concentration levels to identify analytical
pharmaceutical concentrations in
human urine in Germany. Water
phytotoxicologic effects.
Research 42 (14), pp. 3633 -3640.
Duration of test: 10 days
Applied in a water-urine-mix
Evaluated: successful germination and dry weight

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Results and discussion

Roots of winter barley in contact with ibuprofen.

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Germination Tests
The different types of cereals as well as cress react
differently.
Application of urine had a much larger effect on
germination.
It seemed that certain pharmaceutical substances
might even have a positive effect.

An effect on germination due to naturally

expected pharmaceutical concentrations in
urine is not expected.

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Conclusion I
An evaluation of potential toxic effects for human beings
is not possible at the moment.
If urine is reused in agriculture, some of the
pharmaceutical residues will enter the human food chain.
Moreover, research carried out so far shows that the
expected concentrations of pharmaceutical residues in
average urine do not reach concentration levels which
affect plant growth and development.
Load of hormones and antibiotics in human urine are
much lower than in animal manure which is already used
in agriculture.
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Conclusion II
Statement of Jrn Germer (cited in von Mnch and Winker (2009))
Drug residues in sustainable sanitation products
used to supply plant nutrients can hardly be a
serious issue in regions where malnutrition,
groundwater and surface water pollution due to
inappropriate sanitation and irrigation with
untreated wastewater is a reality.

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NH3-Emissions
20

[kg N ha -1]

cummulated NH 3 volatilization

25

15
slurry
urine/slurry
urine

10

0
0

20

40
60
hours after application [h]

80

100
(Clemens, 2005)

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Micro nutrients vs. Heavy Metals

(Hammer & Clemens, 2007)

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Three years of operation of the urine-diversion system

in GTZ headquarters in Germany; user opinions and
maintenance challenges
S. Blume* and M. Winker*
*German Development Cooperation (GTZ) GmbH, Sustainable sanitation - ecosan program,
Postfach 5180, 65726 Eschborn, Germany.
(Email: steffen.blume@gtz.de; martina.winker@gtz.de)
ABSTRACT In the main office building of GTZ in Eschborn, Germany a resource-oriented
sanitation system containing urine-diversion toilets and waterless urinals is in operation since
2006. After 2.5 years of operating the system, a first overall evaluation of the system and its
acceptance amongst users and cleaning staff was conducted. The overall result is that most of
the users appreciate the resource oriented sanitation concept (recycling of nutrients and water
savings) but have problems with the technical design. Also, it is difficult to convince the
cleaning staff of the necessity of special cleaning routines. Hence, before such systems can be
widely spread, clear cleaning routines and maintenance documentations are required as well as
certain technical modification to ease optimise the separation in the toilet bowl as well as the
change of spare parts of the toilet.
Keywords acceptance, resource oriented sanitation system, source control, UD flush toilet,
urine diversion, waterless urinal

INTRODUCTION
The main building (Building 1) of the GTZ headquarters which consists of four
buildings and is located near Frankfurt, Germany, was renovated from 2004 to 2006
after being in use for 30 years. As part of this renovation, principles of
environmentally friendly construction for the water and energy management of the
building were included. This contained a urine separation system with 50 waterless
urinals, 25 source separating or urine-diversion (UD) flush toilets, and a urine storage
tank of 10 m to allow the separate collection of urine.
The background of this ecosan initiative is described in SuSanA (2009) and the
objectives were to demonstrate the implementation of such a resource-oriented
sanitation system, to reduce the amount of water used in the GTZ building, and to
research important aspects for Germany such as social acceptance and reuse of urine
in agriculture. This third objective started now within SANIRESCH, an
accompanying research project funded by the German ministry (since mid 2009) and
was initiated by the former head of GTZs ecosan program, Christine Werner.
Operation of the system started in 2006 and the experiences gained since then with
user behaviour, user acceptance, and with the technical components are described in
this paper.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Implemented technologies in Building 1 of GTZ headquaters
The urine separation system consists of:
- 50 water flushed urine-diversion toilets for the waterless collection of urine
(NoMix Toilet of Roediger Vacuum). The toilets have two compartments for
urine and feaces respectively. The urine is collected undiluted by means of a

valve located under the toilet seat, triggered when the user
user sits down. This toilet
consumes about 1-2 l for the urine flush and 4-6
4 l for the solids flush (Figure
(
1).
v. Mnch et al. (2009) describes this toilet type in more detail.
25 waterless urinals equipped with a patented flat rubber tube smell stop
system of the Centaurus model of the German company Keramag (Figure 1), for
further details on the mechanism see v. Mnch and Dahm (2009).
4 x 2.5 m3 PE urine storage tanks located in the underground car park of
Building 1.

Figure 1: Left: UD flush toilet and its schematic side view; right:: waterless urinal.
The toilets and urinals are located in the core of the building in the restrooms closest
to the canteen and the large meeting rooms (Figure 2). In the wings in each floor
(aside the top floor) are bathroom equipped with conventional toilets and urinals
available. Hence, persons working in the building on a daily base have the choice
choic
between the two different options aside those in the top floor where bathrooms are
only located in the core section.
section The usage is that of typical office building which is
mainly frequented from Monday to Friday from 9 am to 5 pm. On average around
120 l of urine is collected per day.

Figure 2: Schematic design of the restroom locations at an average floor of the 10storey building which is double-Y
double shaped.
User surveys with questionnaires
uestionnaires
Two user surveys were undertaken since the operation started in 2006.
2006 The first one
was carried out in September 2008 to evaluate the general acceptance of the toilets by
the users. The second survey was performed in May 2009 and had a more specific
focus on toilet hygiene issues as a result of the earlier questionnaire.

Both surveys were conducted electronically (using the websites Surveygizmo and
Surveymonkay). In the first one, about 900 GTZ employees working in the
headquarters were contacted independently of their office location within the four
GTZ buildings at this site. All contacted employees were employed within the
Department of Planning and Development, which is GTZs department for the
worldwide technical support of its programs. The questionnaire took approx. 5 min to
complete. Apart from statistical parameters about the employees and the general
perception of reuse oriented sustainable sanitation systems, it covered topics of toilet
design, hygiene, odour, ease of use and reuse.
The second questionnaire (in May 2009) was focussed on hygienic aspects and an
improvement of the hygienic situation. This questionnaire was sent to only 50 GTZ
employees, whose offices are located close to the respective restrooms in the core of
Building 1 (Figure 2). This selection was done to focus on employees who use the UD
flush toilets and waterless urinals daily. It was designed so that it could be answered
within 3 min. Apart from statistical information such as distance to the toilets,
regularity of usage, age and gender, the questions tried to determine what measures
could encourage users to sit down on toilets in an office building.
Attitudes of cleaning and maintenance staff
The cleaning staff (employed by an external service provider) and GTZ facility
management staff were contacted regularly in connection with user feedback and
technical problems. As the waterless urinals and UD flush toilets were new, the
personnel had to find out how to maintain the system. In fact, it took some time to
discover the crucial aspects and to rectify technical problems.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Survey 1: Employees views
In the first survey 24% of the contacted employees responded (218 of 900 people).
53% of the people were within the age of 30-50 years, 30% were younger, and 20%
were older than 50 years. When comparing the UD flush toilet and the conventional
toilets regarding optical appearance, cleanliness, odour, and ease of use, results
showed that the majority of the participants felt that the cleanliness of the UD flush
toilets and odour of the urinals were worse (Table 1). The conventional toilets were
rated better in almost all parameters (Table 1). 52% or respondents mentioned that the
UD flush toilets have problems with flushing, and 48% stated that it needs two or
even more flushes after each use (12% of respondents).
Table 1: Parameters used for measuring of the users acceptance by comparing the
source separating with a conventional system. Numbers show percentages (%) of total
answers (218) for toilets and (88) answers of the male urinal users.
Perception
compared to
conv. system
Better
Same
Worse

UD flush toilets
Optical
CleanOdour
appearance liness
12
5
7
76
45
61
12
51
32

Waterless urinals
Optical
CleanOdour
appearance
liness
17
14
8
77
52
32
6
34
60

Both
Ease of
use
5
57
39

When asked for their private decisions, almost

a
50% or respondents stated that they
would move to a flat with UD flush toilets whilst 27% are not sure and 25% would
not. 17% would even pay a higher price for buying such an apartment (40% maybe
and 43% not). Asked about the waterless urinals, 37% would support that other GTZ
offices
fices install waterless urinals, 41% had no opinion and 22% would not support such
measures.
Although the technical functionality and hence acceptance of the UD flush toilets is
not good, a remarkable 90% of the participants are positive towards the idea to collect
urine and faeces separately
ly from each other and to use them as fertiliser
er in agriculture.
71% would even buy crops which have been fertilised
fertili ed with human excreta according
to WHO guidelines (WHO, 2006). Even more people (82%) would buy none-edible
none
products which have been fertilised
fertili
with human excreta. When asked for their opinion
if urine shouldd be allowed as fertiliser for organic agriculture, 45% agreed
agree and 42%
might agree while 12% do not support this concept.
concept On a personal level, one
o third of
the participants would use and further 39% said they might use urinee for their own
balcony plants.

Figure 3: User opinions regarding the resource oriented sanitation in GTZ Building 1
according to Survey 1 (total of 218 participants).
The reactions for acceptance of food fertilised with urine is in line with other similar
investigations. Muskolus (2008) interviewed inhabitants in Berlin as well as people
with an agricultural background,
background and 62%
% of both groups stated that they would buy
food produced with urine as fertiliser.
fert
Also in Switzerland, 72%
% of different user
groups (also partially users of UD flush toilets) consider these techniques as a good
idea and 86% would even move into a flat equipped with such a concept (Lienert et
al., 2006; Larsen and Lienert, 2006). This is a much higher percentage than
th found in
Survey 1 undertaken at GTZ and is most likely due to technical and maintenance
problems (see below).

Survey 2: User views regarding sitting on toilets

This survey investigated the enhancement of the hygienic perception by the users to
encourage them to sit on the toilet. Age distribution of the participants was similar to
Survey 1, and 40% of the respondents were female and 60% male. As only 25 people
responded (out of 50 approached) the survey results are not necessarily representative
but provide a general idea. 52% of respondents said that they used the UD flush toilets
on a regular basis.
They employees were asked which hygienic devices they would prefer to entice them
to sit on the toilet.. Sitting is necessary in order to activate the urine valve (otherwise
urine flows to the faeces section and mixes with the brownwater). Almost 50% of
respondents would prefer disinfection spray which is applied with toilet paper to clean
the toilet seat, 8% would favour
favo paper covers and 35% other devices. The respondents
stated that they would apply these hygienic devices either on a regular basis (26%),
only if the toilets were not clean (21%) or not at all (17%).
The participants were also asked if they would sit down on the toilet if the above
mentioned hygiene devices were available (results
results summarised in Figure 4). The
question was a restatement of the earlier ones to receive more precise information of
users attitudes towards sitting on a public toilet.
toilet The results confirmed that most
users would prefer a disinfection spray (52%)
(52
or a paper cover (48%)
%), and 35% of
users find it sufficient to use toilet paper used as cover (35%).. The willingness to sit is
52% of respondents if they had a disinfection spray
spray available compared to only 17%
of respondents if no hygiene device was available.

Figure 4: Survey 2 results: Employees willingness to sit on the UD flush toilet if

certain hygienic devices were provided (at the moment, none of these are provided).
Total number of respondents was
w 25.
These results on attitudes regarding sitting on public toilets are interesting and should
be researched further since they relate to users (partly irrational) fears of catching a
disease when sitting on a public toilet
toile The findings from the small Survey 2 are in
contrast to earlier findings
indings in Switzerland where 72%
72% of the respondents stated that

they are willing to sit when it is required (Larsen and Lienert, 2007) although there
is naturally a major difference between toilets at home and toilets outside of the home
environment. The monitoring of the system installed in the Eawag building (Zurich,
Switzerland) has not shown discrepancies to this statement so far (Goosse et al.,
2009). On the contrary, it seems that female users in that building tend to flush the
toilet while sitting which causes dilution of the urine with flush water.
Technical problems and solutions
Experiences with waterless urinals
In the beginning of the operation in mid 2006 it was found that urine accumulated on
the ground underneath the urinals. Further checks showed that the urinals had sunk
slightly down (only a few millimeters). As the discharge pipes were fixed in the wall,
this resulted in pressure on the joint where the urine pipe is connected with the urinal.
Due to this pressure a gap developed between the inlet and the urinal, and urine
leaked to the inner part of the urinal and down the outlet pipe. Bad odor occurred as a
result of this small vertical movement of the urinal (this might be a reason for the
worse perception of waterless urinals (stated by 60% of respondents, Table 1)
compared to conventional ones conducted in Survey 1). Hence, the screws need to be
checked regularly to prevent vertical movement of the urinal (it has not occurred
again since that initial event).
To avoid odor problems with the waterless urinals different cleaning agents were
tested. Best results were achieved with the MB Aktivreiniger of Urimat. This is an
environmentally friendly cleaning agent with microbiologically active ingredients.
Furthermore, a permanent deodorant air diffuser was installed in the toilet room in the
first floor.
There is quite a high turn-over of cleaning staff employed by an external company
who is responsible for the cleaning in the GTZ buildings in Eschborn. As a result, the
urinal sieves and smell stops in some of the restrooms were not cleaned for many
weeks or even months. This led to the accumulation of urine precipitates, well as
pubic hair and slime deposits which then caused odour problems. Thorough cleaning
staff instruction and supervision is crucial but difficult due to high staff turn-over.
Even for the (in Germany) quite widely spread waterless urinals, awareness raising
and training is still required for the cleaning staff when they are not familiar with such
urinals. Additionally, Keramag introduced an improved design for the smell stop in
2007 which has less dirt accumulation and is easier to clean.
Experience with the urine-diversion (UD) flush toilets
The installed type of UD flush toilet has two main weaknesses:
1. Design of the bowl: Toilet paper thrown into the front part of the bowl (urinal
section) is not flushed away with the small urine flush and hence more than one flush
becomes necessary negating the possible water saving effect. And even for the
faeces sometimes 2-3 flushes are required. Similar findings were reported for the
installations at Eawag: in 17% of all cases a second flush was necessary (Goosse et
al., 2009).
2. Urine valve: The valve on the urine pipe can get blocked over time (Figure 5). In
this case, urine is no longer collected separately but flows to the faeces section of the
toilet. Or it can result in the fact that the valve does not close anymore, causing odour
problems in the restroom and dilution of the urine. Therefore, the cleaning staff needs

to carry out preventative maintenance which can be done by adding citric acid to the
valve once per month that remains there for 24 hours. Our experience showed that if
this maintenance is neglected, these valves stop working after approx. 2 years of use.

Figure 5: Left: Soft urine precipitations inside a urine valve. Right: the same valve
after cleaning soaking in citric acid for several days (source: L. Ulrich, 2009).
Low nitrogen content of the collected urine
Low nitrogen concentrations were observed in the urine collection tanks at GTZ: With
2,800 mg l-1 the measured nitrogen concentration for the stored urine is two thirds less
than typical literature values for pure urine of 8,000 mg l-1 (Meinzinger and
Oldenburg, 2009). The main reason for this is probably that nitrogen loss occurs in the
form of ammonia gas being emitted through the tanks ventilation system, which has
also been reported at the Eawag building (Goosse et al., 2009). Urine tanks should not
be ventilated, only pressure equalized (v. Mnch et al., 2009) but in this case, a
10 mm vent pipe from the urine tanks goes all the way to the top of Building 1,
causing more ventilation than desired. It is also possible that the urine is diluted with
flush water if users flush while being seated or if the urine valve is broken.
Recommendations for maintenance
Based on the three years of experience, now the following maintenance routines
(supervision that they are really being adhered to is crucial and not always easy) are
recommended:
Every evening the waterless urinals have to be cleaned (wiped down manually).
On highly frequented toilets (on ground floors close to canteens and meeting
rooms) additional cleaning on an hourly base is recommended using a wet cloth
and subsequently spraying the detergent containing fragrant substances as well.
The smell stops (flat rubber tubes) have to be taken out daily and cleaned with
detergent and rinsed with water.
As the rubber of the smell stops fatigues and then sticks together, the smell stops
have to be replaced about once per year.
The daily cleaning routine for UD flush toilets is in principle the same as for
conventional ones although it is more time consuming to clean away faeces stains
due to the more complicated bowl design.
For precipitation prevention the urine valve needs to be soaked once per month
with citric acid for a period of 24 hours. This is done by filling 200 ml of the citric
acid into the open valve (seat pressed down to open the valve).
Annually, the functionality of the urine valves should be controlled and once per
year clogged valves should be cleaned or replaced.

CONCLUSIONS
The overall result from the user surveys is that the users appreciate the resource
oriented sanitation concept (recycling of nutrients and water savings) but are unhappy
with the inconveniences caused by the technical design of the UD flush toilets.
Furthermore, it was shown that a crucial point for users is perceived or actual toilet
hygiene: Peoples willingness to sit down on the toilet could be raised significantly if
disinfection devices were available.
For a wider acceptance, further technical development of the UD flush toilets would
be necessary. A high turn-over in cleaning staff and communication difficulties makes
it difficult to communicate the necessary cleaning routines which take a little bit more
extra time and are new for the cleaning staff. Hence, before such urine-diversion flush
toilets can be widely spread, clear cleaning and maintenance routines are required.
On a positive note, this demonstration and research project has attracted wide
attention for the ecosan approach within GTZ (implementing development
cooperation projects worldwide) and outside of GTZ. Each year, many international
delegations and student groups take part in guided tours of the installations, which
raises their awareness about resource oriented sanitation systems.
ACKNOLWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to thank Christine Werner (AGIRE programme, GTZ, Morocco) for initiating the
project in her position as team leader of the GTZ Ecosan team, Lukas Ulrich (former GTZ intern; now:
ETH Zurich, Switzerland) for devising and conducting the second survey and Dr. Elisabeth von Mnch
for critical review of this paper.

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