D.E.

GASKIN

11~.~,..!t"~'[ G.J.D. SMITH ~~~~~

BRAUNE~II~~~~~~~~~~~~

W.G. HALINA
8.M.
..... =.--- B.VARI

,-"'."........

A REPORT TO THE UNITED STATES FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE

STATUS OF RESIDENT AND TRANSIENT

SEA BIRDS

IN HEAD HARBOUR PASSAGE AND

VICINITY NEW BRUNSWICK, CANADA

D.E.GASKIN

G.J.D.SMITH

B M B. RAUNE

W.G.HALINA

B.VARI

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY

UNIVERSITY OF GUELPH

GUELPH ONTARIO CANADA

N1G 2W1

SEPTEMBER 1979
@

DATA IN THIS REPORT MAY ONLYBE CITED WITH THE

WRITTEN PERMISSION OF THE SENIOR AUTHOR

2
CONTENTS
1.0 CURRICULUM VITAE OF SENIOR AUTHOR

2 0 I NT ROD UCT ION . . . . . ..~ . . . . . . . . 5

3.0 METHODS

4.0 INVENTORY OF MARINE BIRDS (EXCLUDING

SHORE BIRDS SUCH AS SANDPIPERS)

4.1.

BALD EAGLE

10

11

4.1.1. BREEDING .......... 11

4.1.2. FEEDING ...... 13

4.2. OSPREy ..... '. ......... 15

4.2.1. BREEDING .................. 15

4.2.2. FEEDING

17

4.3. HERRING
GULL ... 19
4.3.1.
BREEDING .......... 19
4.3.2.
FEEDING . .. 19
4.4. GREATER
BLACK-BACKED GULL. ...... 25

'"'.-4.\.4 ~:1' :5~ BREEDIN G......... 25

..

~."

:-.

:.;

._:.-

:,'~,

4.4.2. FEEDING ............ 25

4.5. BONAPARTE'S GULL ...... 29

4.5.1. BREEDING ..... 29

4.5.2. FEEDING

30

4.5.2.1. POPULATION ESTIMATES AND

GENERAL DISTRIBUTIONS ... 30

4.5.2.2. FEEDING BEHAVIOUR .......... 30

4 5. 2. 3. PRE Y SPECI ES ......... 35

4.5.2.4. DISTRIBUTION OF FEEDING BIRDS .. 36

4.6. BLACK-LEGGED KITTIWAKE. .......... 39

4.6.1.

BREEDING ...... 39

4.6.2. FEEDING ........ 39

4.7. COMMON AND ARCTIC TERNS

41

4.7.1. BREEDING 41

4.7.2. FE ED ING

41

4.7.2.1. PREY SPE CI ES 46

4.7.2.2. DISTRIBUTION OF FEEDING BIRDS . 46

4.8. NORTHERN PHALAROPE 47

4.8.1. BREEDING
4.8.2. FEEDING

47

,.

47

1.0

CURRICULUM VITAE OF

SE~IOR

AUTHOR

Dr. D.E. Gaskin, born 21 June 1939, presently Associate Professor

_of Marine Biology at the University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
N1G 2Wl. He has held a position at the University of Guelph since
December 1968. Currently Dr. Gaskin is responsible for the Marine
Biology Option and :ts facilities at the University of Guelph, and oper
ates a small research station at Lord1s Cove, Deer Island, New Brunswick
as a base for cetacean studies by the University.
Dr. Gaskin graduated vlith Speci al Honours in Zoology at the
University of Bristol, England, in early 1961. FollovJing this, he
joined the Institute of Oceanography of the United Kingdom and the
Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, holding a joint appointment
during 1961 and 1962 \'/hile he served with the floating \'/haling factory
expedition "Southern Venturer", operating in the Southern Ocean in the
vicinity of the Falkland Islands Dependencies. After this appointment
he accepted a post with the Fisheries Research Division of the New
Zealand Government and, based in Wellington, studied the humpback and
sperm whale populations of the Western South Pacific and the Ross Sea
until early 1965. He returned to this region again in 196&-67 on appoint
ment with the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, to
work the sun~er season as a biologist on the Japanese whale research
vessel Chiyoda Maru #5 in the South Pacific.
With the cessation of whaling in New Zealand Dr. Gaskin accepted

a faculty appointment at r'1assey University, Nev.J Zealand, and lectured in

ecology, fisheries, ~nd population dynamics until December 1968, when he

moved to Canada. Dr. Gaskin received his Ph.D. after part-time study at

Massey, in 1968.

As well as the degree of Ph.D., Dr. Gaskin is M.I.Biol. (London)

and F.R.E.S.(London). He has published about 65 papers, most of them

concerning Cetacea, in refereed primary scientific literature, has

published t\'!o books on the Cetacea, and is currently \'!riting another for

Heinemann Educational Books International. Dr. Gaskin has worked in

various capacities with the International Whaling Commission since 1962,

including being New Zealand scientific representative until 1968, and an

advisor to the Small Whale Subcommittee of the Scientific Committee of

the IWC.

He is currently a member of the Population Biology Grants Committee

of the National Research Council of Canada.

'

'

- 5

2.0

INTRODUCT10N

The University of Guelph, Department of Zoology, has maintained a

research presence on the southern New Brunswick coast since 1968-69. The

cetacean research unit moved its summer base of operations to Lords Cove,

Deer Island in 1970-71. Since that time we have collected cetacean sight

ing data, carried out species collections, and studied the environmental

characteristics of the Quoddy region and adjacent ~reas.

In 1974 we began a pilot study of the seabird and cetacean concentra-

tions off Long I and Brier I, on the Fundy coast of Nova Scotia in conjunction
with the Canadian Wildlife Service. In 1976, with funding from Fisheries ~
and Oceans Canada, we started a comparative study of the interrelationships
of upper trophic level animals and their prey species in three selected areas
of the Bay of Fundy, one of which was the Inner Quoddy region.
In 1977 we carried out an inventory of seabird species in the Inner

Quoddy region; coverage was limited to the area directly adjacent to Deer

Island and Campobello Island because of manpower and time restrictions.

Since then, more sporadic attention has been given to all speci s , but

intensive studies of Bonaparte's Gull and Common and Arctic Terns were made

in 1978.

The Pittston Company has filed application to build a supertanker ter

minal and oil refinery at Eastport, Me, at the lower end of Head Harbour

Passage, New Brunswick, Canada. The government agencies of both the United

States and Canada are seriously concerned about the possible deleterious

effects on the-physical marine environment and the wildlife of the region

which would result from such a development.

Since we have many new data on seabi rd di stri buti on and abundance in -- .- .
this area, and supporting environmental data related to feeding conditions,
we have agreed to make these data available through the medium of the present
report, to the appropriate working groups of the United States Fish and
Wildlife Service.
The study area, demarcated by latitudes 44 0 54 45
45 0 04 25 N and
1
1
longitudes 6650 40" - 67 0 00 20"W, is encompassed by the Western Isles
district of Deer Island off southwestern New Brunswick (Fig. 1). Deer Island
plus approximately 40 smaller islands and ledges straddles the mouth of
. Passamaquoddy Bay, funnelling the tidally driven waters through two main
passages, Letite Passage and Western Passage, respectively, northeast and
. '~outhwest of Deer Island. Campobello Island acts as an outer barrier to the
outflow from Western Passage deflecting tidal waters around both its extrem
ities through Head Harbour Passage to the northwest and Lubec Narrows
Friar Roads to the west.
1

11

11

Anomalistic, semi-diurnal tides of between 5.6 m and 8.3 m, with an .~

average monthly range of 6.4 m, are characteristic of the area (Forrester,
1960; Macmillan, 1966). Strong currents generated by these large tides are
of the order of 4.8 knots in Letite Passage and 3.0 knots in Head Harbour
Passage and Cobscook Entrance (Forrester, 1960).

Preliminary results of an intensive oceanographic study initiated in

the area during 1977 have been summarized by G.J.D. Smith (unpublished
data). Surface temperatures for June show the area of highest temperatures
during the flood tide being overrun by colder water on the ebb tide. The
large volume of colder water moving offshore creates a mearisurface temper
ature 0.5 0 lower than during the flood tide mean of 7.60C.~Mid-July to
September conditions are more stable; no difference was recorded in the mean
surface temperature of 10.80 for flood and ebb tides, possibly suggesting
stratification of the water column. The area of relatively cold water,
though more restricted in extent than in June, still lies north of Campobello
Island and moves offshore during the ebb tide. Cold water is often
associated with vigorous upwellings, many of which are the result of topo
graphic resistance to strong tidal flow (Fig. 3). Deep channels (> 210 m)
offshore and north of Campobello Island (Head Harbour Passage) shoal qUickly
towards Deer Island and many of the small outer islands.
Euphausiid surface swarms have been recorded for the Bay of Fundy (Smith,
1878-1882; Bigelow, 1924; Graham, 1936), and Gaskin (1973) has noted their
presence in the study area annually during the late summer months. These
concentrations attract herring schools, commercially important in the area
(Graham, 1936; Doucet, 1960; Mackenzie and Tibbo, 1960; Iles, 1975), which
feed on the euphausiids (Smith, 1878-1882; Lebour, 1922; Bigelow, 1924;
Graham, 1936; Gaskin, 1973; D.B. Yurick, personal communication). Conse
quently, as local accumulations of plankton build up, preferential feeding
in these areas occurs (MacKay, 1973). Since feeding assemblages of upper
trophic animals including phalaropes (Lobipes lobatus, Phalaropus fulicarius) ,
terns (Sterna hirundo, S. paradisaea), gulls (Larus philadelphia, L. argen
tatus, L. marinus), harbour porpoises (Phocoena phocoena), and finback whales
(Balaenoptera physalus) must establish themselves in only six hours (one tide
phase), feeding activity is intense and brief, causing aggregations of sea
birds and marine animals in the study area to be discontinuous and mobile.
As the feeding zones expand and move, the animals tend to move with them.
The accessibility of the feeding zones for observation, combined with the
large numbers of migrating terns and gulls, creates a favourable situation
for the study of larid feeding ecology (Braune, 1979).

6700'

[}i

(~J'~~~

PASSAMAQUODDY
BAY

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LETITE'

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ISLAND

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---- ISLAND

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~
ISLAND
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11

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(OUTER QUO
REGIO

QUODDY
LIGHT

'~~'0 / ' ~."

~~~

~~

LO
CARRYING PLACE
COVE & WEST QUODDY
HEAD (OFF MAP)

1000

IHARRH

2000 ,.,

66

3.0 METHODS
The basic inventory study extended throughout the summer of 1977 and
1978, from 1 June to 10 October 1977 and the detailed study of Bonaparte's
Gull and Common and Arctic Terns from 12 June to 2 December 1978.
Observations were recorded during these periods by experienced observers
of the University of Guelph research team under the guidance of Dr. R.G.B.
'Brown of the Canadian Wildlife Service. Investiga~ions during 1977 were
largely of a preliminary and inventory nature, but included surface plankton
tow sampling, and observations of flock size, composition, behaviour, and
distribution of several species of seabirds. In 1978, the number of species
under observation was narrowed to three: Bonaparte1s Gulls (Larus philadel
phia), Common Terns (Sterna hirundo), and Arctic Terns (s. paradisaea).
Specimens of all three species were taken for stomach content samples during
1978 and 1979.
Most sightings were made at sea from a 6.5 m outboard cruiser. Major

shore observation sites included northeastern McMaster Island, and Hoyt

Island at the northern end of Letite Passage, the northeastern tip of East

Quoddy Head on Campobello Island and Deer Island Point on Deer Island (Fig.

1). Binoculars (10 x 50) aided in sightings and species identification.

The complete tidal cycle (flood tide plus ebb tide) was divided into
eight phases: slow flood 1 (SF}), fast flood (FF), slow flood 2 (SF z ),
slack high water (SH), slow ebb 1 (SE 1 ) , fast ebb (FE), slow ebb 2 (SE z ), _
and slack low water. (SL). Each phase is of approximately 90 minutes duration;
Attempts were made to record observations in each study sector during each
tidal phase. Observations within a study sector were rarely feasible for a
whole tidal cycle due to shifts in the loci of seabird activity and changes
in weather conditions. Therefore, data on distributions of feeding birds
relative to the tidal cycle were pooled for July - September. This treatment
of data can be justified by the stable oceanographic conditions during mid
July - September.
Flock sizes and compositions were estimated and behaviour recorded so
that any activity levels could be related to flock characteristics. Forma
tion of feeding assemblages of birds was also monitored for use in determining
key food-finding species, that is, those species which actually locate a
food source and by their feeding activity attract other avian species to the
area. This was done by noting the first species to commence feeding in an
area and record the subsequent arrival of other species, usually within one
tide phase (approximately 90 minutes).
Monthly population estimates were established by setting mlnlmum and
maximum limits to numbers. The minimum limit was taken as being the maximum
number of birds of a given species recorded during one sighting (Vermeer,
1977). The maximum limit was taken as being the sum of the maximum numbers
of birds of a given species recorded during one sighting per study division.
This method was used since many of the species under study do not breed in
the immediate area, thus usually eliminating the possibility of using nest
counts for breeding pairs to establish population size. Due to the uneven
distributio~ of each species in the area, counts made in a san~le sector
would give highly erroneous estimates. Counts on roosts and on open water
. were made visually, and by photography.

Whenever possible meteorological conditions were recorded in conjunc

tion with observations of bird flocks .. Estimates of percent cloud cover
over the immediate area, wave height (cm) and wind speed (mph later
converted to knots) were recorded for both years. A hand-held anemometer
was used to measure wind speed during 1978 .. For comparative purposes,
light intensity (eV) was measured during 1978 using a light meter (Zeiss
Ikophot-S) directed sky'tJard. These parameters were used in determining
. meteorological effects on seabird feeding behavioL-. Daily air temperatures
were recorded during 1978 on a maximum-minimum thermometer (C ) located in a
shaded area by the field station.

10

4.0

INVENTORY OF MARINE BIRDS (EXCLUDING SHORE BIRDS SUCH AS SANDPIPERS).

The most visible species of marine bird in the Inner Quoddy re9ion
(which includes some of the rarer species, numerically), are the following;

Bald Eagle, Osprey, Herring Gull, Greater Black-backed Gull, Bonaparte's

Gull, Kittiwake, Common Tern, Arctic Tern, Northern Phalarope, Black
Gui 11 emot, Daub 1e-cr~sted Cormorant, and Ei der Duck. Certain other ducks
are encountered but were not considered in our study. A number of other sea
birds occurred sporadically; some of these are much more abundant on the
Nova Scotia side of the Bay of Fundy (e.g. shearwaters), or in the vicinity
of Grand Manan, especially the southern region. These have been considered
together in section 4.12., under "occasional sightings".
The major species of interest, those listed above, are discussed in
sections 4.1 - 4.11. Some comments have been made on breeding, and feeding
under each heading. Many of the species which are numerically important
here, e.g. Bonaparte's Gull and Northern Phalarope, are in fact not residents
of the regi on , i t seemed therefore, appropri ate .to keep i nformati on separate
with respect to the breeding phase of life.

11

4.1

BALD EAGLE

4.1.1.

BREEDING

By combining our own data with those kindly supplied by Mrs. T. Barto

of Clam Cove, Deer Island, who has observed these cirds over many years,

we think we have an inventory of all nesting sites in the general vicinity

of the Passamaquoddy region.

One pair has nested on White Island in recent years (see Fig. 2).
Eagles were first seen off the east coast of Deer Island by the University
of Guelph group in 1971, and again in 1973, on a regular basis. In 1974
.two birds were seen in the specific vicinity of White Island, and again in
1975. There was no evidence that they were nesting in these years, as far .
as our own observations go. We believe, as does Mrs. Barto, that they nested
for the first time in 1976, but with unknown results. There is a possibil
ity that one chick was reared. These birds nested again in 1977, and suc
cessfully reared one young. In 1978 they reared two, and two more in 1979.
Another pair has nested for a number of years behind Cummings Cove,

Deer Island.

Mrs. Barto reports that one nest is said to be in use on Campobello

Island at the prese~t time; we have no other information on this one.

One nest exists not far from the Bocabec bridge at the head of Passama
quoddy Bay; this site was active in 1978, and young were reared.
One nest exists at Cooksons Island in the St. Croix river, and is appar

ently active at the present time.

Five nests have been reported by Mrs. Barto along the Canadian side of

the St. Croix from St. Stephen northwards.

One nest for certain, and quite possibly two, occur near Lake Utopia.

Eagles have been seen in this area for many years by Mrs. Barto and her

associates.

Barnes Island, Simpsons Island, McMaster Island, and Sprague's Hill,

Deer Island are reported to us as sites at which eagles nested in past years,

but not in the latter part of the 1970s.

Persistent reports of nesting eagles along the Mascarene shore of Passama

quoddy Bay have. been carefully investigated by Mrs. Barto - she states cate
gorically that these reports all proved to relate either to osprey sightings
or feeding eagles.
The known number of nests in the Canadian territory of the immediate
Quoddy region therefore, is either eleven or twelve, these being the ones
known to be active in 1978. Inactive nest sites are not included in this
count.

12

Fig.2. Known nest sites of bald eagles. Arrows indicate sites which are
off the map. We have not 'attempted to indicate Bocabec or St Croix
river sites on this map.
o

...on

o
o
o

~.

.'8..,...

o
o
o

13

4.1.2.

FEEDING

The eagles of White Island have been observed by us, or by Mrs. Barto,
to range from Sandy Ledge, near Pope Island, up the Leonardville coast of
Deer Island as far perhaps as Stuarts Landing in the Irish Water. They are
not often seen feeding in the relatively deep water around White Island
itself. In 1978 the two adults were often seen foraging with one or both
-of the young eagles.
The eagles from Cummings Cove feed from the Oak Head area of Deer

Island to the G1easons area, and are most often seen in the latter locality.

The eagles reported breeding along the Mascarene shore are almost cer

tainly feeding only, and are believed by Mrs. Barto to be birds from Lake

Utopia, or perhaps the pair at Bocabec.

Mr. A.A. MacKay of Lords Cove, reported that up to six eagles at one

time were observed feeding each winter between 1964 and 1971 in the Oak Bay

area of the St. Croix river.

We have not observed eagles feeding in the vicinity of Campobello Island,

but we rarely work the coastal belt of the east coast. We have observed
eagles feeding on the Pendleton Island coast of Passamaquoddy Bay, and in
the shallow waters on the northern side of Letite Passage. We do not know
from which nesting sites these birds came.

14

Table 1. Sightings of bald eagles at sea, 1978, 1979, in the Inner

Quoddy region.
Month

# days on
which the
species
was sishted

Total
sightings
Flood

Freq. index
(sightings per
sighting day)

Ebb

1977

1.0

11

11

2.2

August

a
a

3.0

September

October

June

July

0
Novembe r
0
0
0
0
-------------------------------------------------------------------2.1
19
2
Totals/mean
9
17

1978
June

July

1. 75

August

0.36

September

October

15

11

0.73

Totals/mean

It is difficult to more accurately quantify these sighting data in

the time available. More sighting effort was put into some areas
than others in 1977, but generally not in areas where eagles might
be expected to be seen more frequently. We did get a subjective
impression that eagles were ranging more widely in 1978 and were
thus seen less often. This seems to be borne out by these figures.
We have no evidence of fewer eagles in 1978 than 1977. The 1977
figures are likely to be more complete, since this was a year in
which a conscious inventory was made.

15

4.2.

OSPREY

4.2.1.

BREEDING

One nest has been in use on Spruce Island since the University of
Guelph group first began to make observations in ~969; in fact Mrs. Barto
advised us that this nest has been used for at least 20 years. This nest
was not active in 1979; in fact several key nests in this area were inactive
in 1979, we are rather alarmed at this sudden change in -events. 1978
appeared to De a very successful year for osprey reproduction, judging by
the reports we have collected.
A nest at Gardner's Point, Deer Island, has been active for 17 years
according to Mrs. Barto; this nest, while producing 4 young in 1978, was
also inactive in 1979.
Two nests are known inland from Leonardville, on the eastern side of
Deer Island, one near the Beaver Dam, and the other near Leonard's Lake.
Both nests produced 4 or more young in 1978; but the latter was inactive in
1979.
A nest on Parker Island was reliably reported to be active in 1979.
One or two nests have been reported to exist on Barnes Island, one of
them active in 1979.
One active nest is believed to exist on Pope Islet, or rather, it appear
ed to be active in 1978, but again, not in 1979 ..
Two nests previously occurred on St. Croix Island, but have not been
active for some years.
Two nests were active on Pain Island in 1978, perhaps not in 1979.
The tally of active list for 1978 is therefore ten, the active number of
1979 seems only to have been three: There may be other nests along the
Passamaquoddy shores, but we have not been able to verify these.
See Fig. 3 for sites.

I6'
Fig.3. Nest sites reported occupied by breeding ospreys during 1978
in the Inner Quoddy region. There may be other nests on

Campobello Island; we have no information.

.'8
'".

.'"....
",

E
o

."'"
'0

17

4.2.2.

FEEDING

Sightings of ospreys in transit, or feeding were not uncommon during

1977 and 1978, during the period worked by the University of Guelph team
(see Table 2). Ospreys were usually seen working in relatively shallow
waters, and commonly frequented feeding sites including the Irish Water,
shallows near Letite, Lords Cove and Fish Harbour, the southern end of Beans
Island, waters near Bar Island, Leonardville, Nort~west Harbour, the waters
between Spruce and Sandy Island, Back Bay, and the approaches to Letang
Harbour.

18

Table 2. Sightings of ospreys at sea, 1978,1979, in the Inner

Quoddy region.
Month

# days on
which the
species
was sighted

Tide phase
Flood

Total
sightings

Freq. index
(sightings per
sighting day)

Ebb

1977
June

1.4

July

17

2.4

August

10

12

22

3.7

September

2.0

October

2.0

20

22

Totals/mean

28

50

1978
June

July

August

September

2.0

1.3

10

3.3

a
October
a
a
a
a
------------------------------------------------------------------Totals/mean
17
2.1
8
11
6
Our opinion is that these figures represent reasonable support for
the hypothesis that osprey numbers did not change greatly in the
study area during these two years. It is still difficult to be sure
how accurate such quantification is in two different seasons.
Observers were the same in both years.

19

4.3.

HERRING GULL
4.3.1.

BREEDING

We identify six major herring gull nesting islands in the Inner Quoddy
region; Whitehorse Is., Spruce Is., Sandy, Is., Hospital Is., and North and
South Spectacle Is. There is another colony in the Wolves Islands, this has
not been examined by us. Our nest counts are only very approximate, since
we have not had the manpower to carry out a full census.
Our approximations for nesting pairs on these islands are
500+
South Spectacle Is.:
Whitehorse Island
Hospital Island
: 400
Sandy Island
North Spectacle Is.: 150
Spruce Island
J,
-.''{.
TOTAL: 1,700 pairs (minimum?)

as follows:
250
250
150+?*

* The nesting population on Spruce Island is particularly difficult to

count, since the birds are nesting among the trees. These counts, which may
be on the high or low side by at least 50%, are, we believe, of the right
order of magnitude, and are certainly not incompatible with the "standing
population" estimate of slightly over 9,000 birds given in the next section.
Many of the gulls which feed in the Inner Quoddy region during the day may in
fact come from the Wolves; gulls are often seen flying towards the the Wolves
Islands about one hour before dusk.

4.3.2.

FEEDING

This is a major feeding area for herring gulls, and the gross sightings
for 1977 and 1978 during operations at sea are given in Table 3. In Table 4
we have presented the results of counts of all the roosting islands and islets
in the Inner Quoddy region; our conservative estimate is that the herring gull
population which exploits this re~ion in the summer months is of at lea~t.nine
thousand individuals. The larges,,'flocksalwaysoccur ln Head Harbour,Flg.6).
Herring gulls will take herring up to 25 cm in length in the Quoddy re
gion, they follow fishing boats, as might be expected, and many hundreds use
the dumps on Deer Island and Campobello Island for supplementary, or in some
cases perhaps main feeding. Leonardis Lake, Big Pond, and Little Pond are
also roosting sites which may support a thousand birds or more - these were
not included in our minimum estimates, since some of these birds may come
from Passamaquoddy Bay.
During the summer months herring gulls will join Bonaparte's gulls in
frenzied feeding on euphausiid shrimp surface' swarms in the Head Harbour area,
and the River. This is a strictly opportunistic process.
Main feeding areas, and the major roosts, are shown in Figs. 4 and 5.

20

Table 3. Sightings of herring gulls at sea, 1978, 1979, in the Inner

Quoddy region.
Month

# days on
which
species
was sighted

Tide phase
Flood

Total
sightings

Freq. index
(sightings per
sighting day)

Ebb

1977

July

850

282

1132

283.0

13

6021

12105

18126

1394.3

September

4845

3665

8510

2127 .5

October

285

840

1125

225.0

26

12001

16892

28893

1111.3

August

Total/mean

1978

June

280

150

430

215.0

July

11

663

1916

2579

234.4

August

11

131

1768

1899

172.6

September

DATA

October

DATA INCOMPLETE

INCO~1PLETE

November
4550.0
3
1950 11700
13650
--------------------------------------------------------------------18558
Total/mean
27
687.3
3024 15534
The data for 1977 are quite complete. Those for 1978 must be treated
with caution, since only those for November were made with comparable
recording effort. 1978 data in particular refer only to feeding
concentrations which were observed in areas worked by Bonaparte's
Gulls; otherwise they are understated by about 80%, except in November.
We recommend that only the 1977 data be used.

21

Table 4. Conservative counts of roosting herring gulls in the month of August

1977. This will include gulls whi~h have been nesting on Hospital
and Whitehorse and the two Spectacle Islands. All slack water counts.
Loca 1ity

#counts

#present*

Thumb I., Letite

100

McMaster Ledge,
Letite
Crow I.
Green PO"j nt
Beach
Mohawk Island
Dry Ledge
Chattys Point
Hoyt I.
Back Bay Ledges
Bliss Island
Whitehorse
Little Letite
Parker I. Ledges
Haddock Ledge
S. Bean I. Ledge
Bar Island
Simpson I. Ledge
Hospita 1 Is 1and
S. Spectacl e 1.
N. Spectac1e 1.
Mink 1. Ledges

75
25
2
2

1
1

150
200
10
100
30

150
200
900
50
150
25
50
50
25
500

300

200
75

1
1

2
4

5
3

t;;a~
~:.-

. _

...
'C'!"

North Tinker
ledge
Tinker Islet
S. Tinker Ledge
Sandy Ledge
Green Islet
Casco Ledges
S. Casco Island
E. Casco Is 1and
Sandy I. Beach
Sandy I. Ledges
Spruce Island
Bl ack Rock
Indian Island
Cherry Island
East Quoddy
Wilsons Beach
Windmill Point
Eastport Beach
Chocolate Cove
Lords Cove
NW Harbour
Pope Islet

#counts

#present

4
3

200
25
150

125
125
500
500
200
550
800

110

1100

2
5
2

150
150
150
100

1
3
2.

2
3
3

1.

10
1
2

600
30

50
150
50

Conservative estimate of standing herring gull population in Head Harbour Passage,

Letite Passage and adjacent areas during August 1977: 9,185.

* Estimates based on all counts, corrected upwards or downwards if the resulting

means seem too low because of near-zero counts (gulls elsewhere), or too high'
(gulls from other areas clustered for a big run of small herring).

22
Fig.4. Major roosting sites of herring gulls and greater black-backed
gulls in Inner Quoddy region. Herring gull breeding sites +.

..

on

..

on

'",

'",

'"

'"

o
o
o

...

fI~ ~ .a O .~
~ +++
+

.~,
~
Q

<p'

.~

'...

"

"

.~~

.//-.

6'00'

Oc:::::;g

af~

po

KEY

Single small
Single small

1000

!SAARA

2000 '"
~

6700

<:>

at

0Q
-<1.

~oo'

=p-
--.q

.,

KEY
Flocks of 100-999
(usually 500 or less)
.,
.,

II1I1I

Flocks of 1000-10000
(usually 1000-3000)

THERE IS NO SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCE

DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS BETWEEN FLOO
TIDE PHASES
'000

IBAHHR

2000 ""

25

4.4

GREATER BLACK-BACKED GULL

4.4.1.

BREEDING

While there are major breeding colonies of the Greater Black-backed

gull around Grand Manan, we regret we have no data or counts of nesting
Black-backs in the Inner Quoddy region, except to note that they are greatly
outnumbered by herring gulls on all the islands. It would be a worthwhile
short-term project to accurately census nesting Black-backs in this region.

4.4.2.

FEEDING

Greater Bl~ck-backed gulls feed actively-in this region through the

summer months, and also appear to be present in the region throughout the rest
of the year.
The population is substantially smaller than that of the Herring Gull;
our conservative estimate based on counts made on roosting areas is about 3,175
individuals. This does not include animals roosting inland around fresh water
bodies on Deer Island. The distribution of the major roosts is shown in Fig.
4~ together with herring gulls.
The two species often share roosting ledges,
although careful observation will usually show that there is some degree of
segregation between the two species actually on the ledge, or beach.
Sightings of Greater Black-backed gulls at sea are given in Table 5; we
recommend that only 1977 data be used for population estimation. The relative
changes in numbers during that year are probably reasonably accurate, as the
same observers, using the same methods, worked throughout that season.
Counts of "standing population", made from observation of all roosting
points at slack water, are given in Table 6.

26
Table 5.

Month

Sightings of Great Black-backed gulls at sea, 1978,

1979, in the Inner Quoddy region.
# days on

which
species
was sighted

Tide phase,
Flood

Total
sightings

Frq. index
(Sightings per
sighting day)

Ebb
1977

\July
August
September
October

11
7

Total/mean

50
1714
740
445

25

2949

;r'

3407
440
645

52
5121
1180
1090

26.0
465.5
168.6
218.0

4494

7443

297.7

1978
June
July
August
September
October
November

31
1
474
267
10
12
371 1022
DATA INCOMPLETE
DATA INCOMPLETE
2
1700 11450

32
741
1393

16.0
74.1
116.1

13150

6575.0

Total/mean

26

2581 12740

15321

589.2

The crew working out of Deer Island during November 1978 remarked
on the extraordinary numbers of Black-backed gUlls seen on the
two cruise days. The actual numerical values could be too high
by 50%, because of the difficulty of making counts as the birds
were feeding. We do not know if this was part of a fall migration
phenomenon, but it would certainly merit more study.

27
Table 6. Conservative counts of roosting Greater Black-backed gulls in the month
of August 1977. This will include gulls which have been nesting on
Hospital and Whitehorse and the two Spectacle Islands. All slack water
counts.
~ocality

#counts

#present*

Thumb I., Letite

MacMaster Ledge,
Letite
Oak I.
Green Point
Beach
Mohawk Island
Dry Ledge
Chattys Point
Hoyt I.
Back Bay Ledges
Bliss Island
Whitehorse
Little Letite
Parker I. Ledges
Haddock Ledge
S. Bean I. Ledge
Bar Island
Simpson I. Ledge
Hospital Island
S. Spectacle I.
N. Spectacle I.
Mink I. Ledges

80

1
1

50
Nil

2
2
2
1
1
1
1
3
2
4
5
3
1
2
3
4
2
7

Nil
50
Nil
25
20
25
25
No count
Nil
25
10
30
No count
Nil
Nil
Nil
20
50

Locality
North Tinker
Ledge
Tinker Islet
S. Tinker Ledge
Sandy Ledge
Green Islet
Casco Ledges
S. Casco Island
E. Casco Island
Sandy I. Beach
Sandy I. Ledges
Spruce Island
Black Rock
Indian Island
Cherry Island
East Quoddy
Wilsons Beach
Windmill Point
Eastport Beach
Chocolate Cove
Lords Cove
NW Harbour
Pope Islet

#counts

#present

60

4
3
6
1
3
2
2
3
3
3
2
5
2
5
2
3
7
1
10
1
2

Nil
Nil
40
75
Nil
50
50
500**
525**
250**
220
500
Nil
90
100
100
200
Nil
5

Nil
Nil

Conservative estimate of standing Greater Black-backed gull population in Head.

Harbour Passage, Letite Passage and adjacent areas during August 1977: 3,175.
* Estimates based on all counts, corrected upwards or downwards if the resulting
means seem too low because of near-zero counts (gulls elsewhere), or too high
(gulls from other areas clustered for a big run of small herring).
** On Spruce I., Black-backs were concentrated at the N.E. & S.W. tips. On Sandy
I. and the related ledges, Black-backs were concentrated at the southern end.

6100

.c#,
o

<)-

~'IIIIc?
<It

4~OO'

() . r!liJ'V
t? <5:$:;;:-':
C>

~
KEY

o Single small flock-flood

Single small flock-ebb
Flocks 100-1000
present on flood
Flocks 1000+
present on flood

1/111

~
~

Flocks 100-lOOO
present on ebb

0:
/

~DO

Flocks 1000+.
present on ebb

~
D

IAHARII

JOOOm

66

29

4.5.

BONAPARTE'S GULL

4.5.1.

BREEDING

The Bonaparte's Gull (Larus philadelphia Ord.) is a widely distributed

American species. Little is known of this small gu:l on its breeding
grounds which are located in the northwestern regions of Canada (Bent, 1963).
However, a study of sea bird feeding assemblages including Bonaparte's Gulls
has been carried out on a wintering ground off California (Baltz and
Morejohn, 1977). On the Atlantic coast, the wintering grounds of Bonaparte's
Gulls range from South Carolina, with a few stragglers as far north as Maine,
southward to the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico (Bent, 1963).
Bonaparte's Gulls pass through the Bay of Fundy during fall migration
to their respective southern wintering grounds. Their sojourn on the Bay
provides an opportunity to observe the feeding ecology of these birds, free
from the energetic stresses imposed by defense of territory, courtship and
rearing of chicks. Such observations complement information of feeding
ecology on the breeding grounds. The waters off southwestern New Brunswick,
Canada, in particular host particularly large numbers of these migrating
gulls.

30

4.5.2.

FEEDING

4.5.2.1.

POPULATION ESTIMATES AND GENERAL DISTRIBUTIONS

Bonaparte's Gulls were present in the study area from 12 July to at

least 8 December 1977 (field season ended 10 October) and from 21 June to
at least 2 December 1978 (field season ended 2 December). During 1978,
post-nuptial moult in Bonaparte's Gulls, as monitored by changes in head
feathers, appeared to last from mid-August to the end of September. Minimum
and maximum monthly population estimates for the study area (Table 7) indi
cate that numbers of Bonaparte's Gulls peaked rather abruptly in August at
5,000 to 10,000 birds and stabilized between 2,000 to 5,000 birds during
the fall season.
Proportions of immature and adult gulls estimated on a
monthly basis, for 1978, showed significant changes over the summer (Table
8). Immature Bonaparte's Gulls were the first to arrive in June, followed
closely by the adults which predominated until at least September. Monthly
distributions of Bonaparte's Gulls by zone, based on the sum of the maximum
number of birds recorded during one sighting per division, showed a signifi
cant trend during both 1977 and 1978 (Table 9). The birds arrived in Zones
I and II but quickly concentrated in Zone III during the period July to
September, only to spread intermittently back into Zones I and II during the
fall.*

4.5.2.2.

FEEDING BEHAVIOUR

A survey of flock sizes for Bonaparte's Gulls showed a significant

relationship to feeding, non-feeding and roo~ting activities (Braune, 1979,
Table 6). Numbers per feeding flock commonly ranged from 3 to 500 birds.
Numbers in non-feeding flocks frequently ranged from 3 to 50 birds with
flocks up to 500 birds during 1977. Numbers of birds roosting together
usually ranged from 21 to 500 birds.
Bonaparte's Gulls were observed to utilize two main feeding methods:
surface seizing and diving. In Head Harbour Passage, Indian Passage and
Letete Passage, where tidal flow is strong, Bonaparte's and large gulls
(Larus argentatus, L. marinus) fed by surface seizing, drifting with the
tide to the edge of the food concentration, then flying back up the current
to the upstream edge of the concentration.

* The zones used by Braune (1979) are shown in outline in fig.8.

Table 7.. Mi nimum a and maximum b month'ly population estimates for Bonaparte I s Gul '1
Comic Terns in the Inner Quoddy region,,1977 ,and 1978,. These data take
directly from Table 7 of Braune (1979).
Bonaparte's Gulls
Minimum No.
1977

1978

Comic Terns

Maximum No.
1977

Maxim

Minimum No.

1978

1977

17

1977

1978

June

--

15

--

,Jul:y

150

500

:154

,7,76

,25

30

32

,August

'5000

'5000

10454

,7920

300

:200

lT260

Septenitre r

'2500

;1000

4150

:22BO

;200

noo

'250

October

2000

75

4530

260

20

'12

20

'November

--

3000

--

'5200

December

-'-

1500

'-

2000

--

,a :Max'imum number of birds 'recordea 'on any one 's:igl1ting 't!ur:tng ,a 'molith..
'b Sum of the maximum number of birds 'recorded 'on any 'onesigh'bing 'per
division during a month.

"

II

, I

Table 8. Proportions of immature and adult Bonaparte's Gulls and Comic Terns in
populations of the Inner Quoddy region during 1978. These data taken
directly from Table 2 of Braune (1979).
Comic Terns b

Bonaparte's Gulls a

NC

% Juveniles

June

17

100.0

July

617

7.3

92.7

124

21.0

1436

20.1

79.9

610

18.7

18

16.7

83.3

30

36.7

August
September
a
b

X2
2

33.26; P

6.07; 0.05 > P > 0.01.

<

0.001.

% Adults

% Juveniles

Data pooled for June-July and August-Septembe

c Cumulative sightings of individual birds.

Table 9. Monthly distribution of Bonaparte's Gull and Comic Tern populations (%)a in the
region. These data taken directly from Table 3 of Braune (1979).
Comic Terns c

Bonaparte's Gulls b
Zone I

Zone II

Zone II

Zone I

Zone I II

1977

1978

1977

1978

1977

1978

1977

1978

1977

1978

June

--

5.9

--

94.1

--

--

--

--

--

July

--

4. 1

2.6

16.4

97.4

79.5

--

33.6

---

42.4

August

4.3

3.4

3.4

4.3

.92.3

92.3

55.6

54.8

10.3

11.6

September

1.2

7.9

10.8

19.7

88.0

72.4

--

68.7

80.0

30.9

October

13.2

42.3

13.9

30.8

72 .9

26.9

--

100.0

--

--

November

---

La

--

39.4

--

59.6

--

--

--

--

25.0

--

--

--

75.0

December

a Based on maximum numbers given in Table

b

X 1977 = 1338.19; P
c X2 1978

= 196.60; p

<

<

0.001.
0.001.

X2 1978

= 5302.27; P <

0.001.

Data pooled for Jun

Data pooled for September-October 1978.

34

Fig.8. Major roosting sites used' by Bonaparte1s gulls and Common and Arctic
Terns, and the zone division boundaries used by Braune (1979).

..

..,

..

'..,
0..,
..,

..

'..,
0..,..,

'0

..,"

35

Relationships of flock size to feeding method for Bonaparte's Gulls

were summarized by Braune (1979). Surface seizing appeared to be the
predominant feeding method in large flocks (100 - 1000+ birds) and among
scattered feeding birds (1 - 2 birds), whereas diving predominated in smallr
flocks (3 to 20 birds). There seemed to be an intermediate flock size
(21 to 500 birds) where both feeding methods were employed. A few flocks _
(3 to 50 birds) were observed feeding on intertidal mud flats along the
receding water line.

An analysis of feeding associations indicated that Bonaparte's Gulls

tended to feed either in a flock consisting of their own species only, or
with Comic Terns only, or with large gulls only, (Braune, 1979). The feeding
methods used by Bonaparte's Gulls also varied significantly with the feeding
association. Surface seizing predominated in most associations other than
those with terns, when diving appeared to predominate.
Bonaparte1s Gulls, alone or in association with large gulls, most fre
quently functioned as the key food-finding species, even though Comic Terns
took on this role fairly frequently in the Letite- area (Braune, 1979). Key
species and attracted species were determined by analysis of a series of
case histories of flock formation by Braune (1979).
Roosting counts showed that Bonaparte's Gulls associated with their own
species on about half the occasions recorded, and with the terns and other
species (usually large gulls) on the other occasions (Braune, 1979).

4.5.2.3.

PREY SPECIES

Euphausiid swarms were found predominantly in the Head Harbour Passage

River area (Zone III); most intermittent local concentrations of euphausiids
were also found in this area. Prey being eaten by the gulls and the terns
showed a significant disparate distribution by zone (Braune, 1979, Table 15).
Small fish were taken mainly in Zone I, and euphausiids plus some insects
in Zone III. Zone II was a transitional intermediate area.
Observed feeding behaviour changed with euphausiid concentration (deter
mined from surface plankton samples) (8raune 1979). Very low euphausiid con
centrations were exploited mainly by Comic Terns,* whereas heavy concentrations
were utilized by Bonaparte's and large gulls. As euphausiid concentrations
increased, Bonaparte's Gulls changed their feeding tactic from diving to
almost exclusively surface seizing. Feeding frenzies, initiated by very dense

36

euphausiid concentrations (approximately 2 to 4 euphausiids m- 3 ), involved

both Bonaparte's and large gulls which drove the terns, still feeding by
diving, to the periphery of the main prey concentration.

4.5.2.4.

DISTRIBUTION OF FEEDING BIRDS

Birds feeding on euphausiids occurred mainly in the Head Harbour and

River areas (Zone III) of the Quoddy region, where the densest concentrations
of euphausiids were formed (Battle et al., 1936; Graham, 1936; Kulka, 1977;
personal observations). Consequently, Bonaparte1s Gulls whose stomach
contents indicate that they fed predominantly on euphausiids, concentrated
in Zone III, the Head Harbour and River areas.

6700'

aJ
@"

. KEY

Single small flock- flood

Flocks 100-1000
present on flood

IIIIII
~
%
~
1000

rR'""'R""RAk

Flocks 1000+
present on flood
Flocks 100-1000
present on ebb
Flocks 1000+
present on ebb
2000'"
I

66

38

Table 10. Sightings of Bonaparte's Gulls at sea, 1978, 1979 in the

Inner Quoddy region.
Month

# days on
which the
species
was sighted

Total
sightings

Tide phase

Freq. index
(sightings per
sighting day)

Ebb

Flood

1977
June

320

324

324.0

20

6900

16600

23500

1175.0

740

1760

"2500

416.7

July
August
September

1276.0
6380
3680 2700
5
October
------------------------------------------------------------------1022.0
32704
11324 21380
32
Total/mean
1978
18

9.0

5645

6022

463.2

27

11532

26404

977.9

12

6198

7306

608.8

140

422

105.5

June

July

13

August
September
October

991.4
3850
6940
November
7
------------------------------------------------------------------Total/mean
65
27366
47112
724.8
Bonaparte's gulls were intensively studied in both seasons, but
particularly in 1978. Both frequency indices are of the same order
of magnitude; we are reasonably confident that the relative numbers
from month to month within years, and between years, are quite
comparable.

39

4.6

KITTIWAKE

4.6.1.

BREEDING

The nearest breeding site of Black-legged Kittiwakes to this region

is probably at Cape breton Island (Brown et al., 1975). While Kittiwakes
spend several months roosting on Whitehorse ISland, we have no evidence
that they are nesting in this area.
We have been unable to confirm the reports of Baird et al. (1973) and
Brown et al. (1975) of large numbers of Kittiwakes aggregating in the western
approacheS-to the Bay of Fundy, specifically in the Passamaquoddy region
during the fall and winter. Our own observations revealed only large num
bers of immature Bonaparte's gulls in the area in October and November. We
are forced to suggest therefore, that the previous statement was based on a
misidentification, one which is easy to make at a distance.
Our sighting data collected during routine operations are shown below
in Table

4.6.2.

FEEDING

We have few specific observations of feeding Kittiwakes, and those

mostly in the vicinity of Whitehorse, Barnes and vJhite Is. Their numbers
are so low, relative to the other species, that at any distance' they pass
notice among the herring gulls and Bonaparte's gulls. They are presumed
to feed largely on small herring, but we have no data.

40

Sightings of Black-legged Kittiwakes at sea, 1978,

1 979, in the Inner Quoddy region.

Ta b1e 11.

Month

# days on

wh i c h
species
was sighted

Tide phase

Total
sightings

Freq. index
(Sightings per
sighting day)

Ebb

Flood

1977
July
August
September

3
1

2
6

1.3
6.0

--------------------------------------------------------------

Total/mean

10

2.5

2.0
43.7

1978
July
August
September

1
3

2
100

31

2
131

Total/mean

102

31

133

a
33.2

41

4.7. COMMON AND ARCTIC TERNS

4.7.1. BREEDING
The Common Tern breeds mainly from Cape Breton southwards
to North Carolina, and the Arctic Tern breeds from Massachusetts
northward
to the Arctic (Bent 1963). The southern hemi
sphere serves as the wintering ground for both species, with
the Common Tern ranging from the Straits of Magellan northwards;
some birds only going as far south as Florida. The Arctic
Tern winters primarily in the Antarctic to 74 0 S, and the
northern winter limit of its range is not known.
The nearest breeding colony of terns to the Quoddy
is at Machias Seal Island, to the south of Grand Manan.

Re~ion

4.7.2. FEEDING
Difficulties arise in distinguishing between Common and
Arctic Terns at a distance, or in flight (Wynne-Edwards 1935,- --
Guiget 1971). Since close-range observation of feeding terns
was not always possible, Common and Arctic Terns are referred
to collectively as IIComic Terns, a name used for convenience
by Grant and Scott (1969).
ll

Comic Terns were present from- 25 June to 9 October 1977

and from 19 July to 8 October 1978 in the Inner Quoddy region.
The numbers sighted at sea during ratine operations are given
in Table 12, together with the sighting frequency indices for
each month. Sighting data- for both seasons are bel ieved by us
to be very reliable, and represent a real measure of relative
abundance. In this case 1979 data have also been included;
special attention was paid to the birds in this season by the
senior author. Terns were far less abundant in the Inner
Quoddy region in 1979; we relate this to the very poor quality
of the euphausiid surface populations in this season. Only one
or two low-concentration surface swarms were recorded, compared
with many in 1977 and 1978 .. Terns were presumably dispefsed
and feeding over a much wider area in 1979.
During 1978 and 1979 some corrected population estimates
were made; these are shown in Table 7 with those for Bonaparte's
gull. The proportions of juveniles to adults through the
summer of 1978 are shown in Table 8, and the monthly distribution
of Comic Terns by Zones (following Braune,1979) is compared
with Bonaparte1s gulls in Table 9. Major roosting sites of
Comic Terns are shown in Fig.8; they were usually roosting with
Bonaparte's gulls, but not invariably.
Based on the samples in which Common and Arctic Terns
could be identified, we show the proportions of adults of the
two species in July-September 1978 in Table 13, and the monthly
distribution of the two species by zone, in table 14.

42
Table 12. Sightings at sea of Common and Arctic Terns (not
distinguished) in the Inner Quoddy region, 1977-79.
...:8<..

Month

# days on

which
species
wa s sight ed

Tide phase
Flood

Total
sightings

Freq. index
(Sightings per
sighting day)

Ebb
1 977

June
July
August
September
October

2
2

a
a

23

Total/mean

2476
303

32
3402
250

2
32
5878
553

16.0
255.6
138.2
2.0

32

2779

3688

6467

202.1

1.0

1978
June
July
August
September
October
November

132
2722
527

1119
1305
292
15

1251
4027
819
23

22
8

139.0
183.1
102.4
11 . 5

----------------~-~--------------------------------------------

Total/mean

41

2731

3389

6120

149.3

1 979
June
July
August
September

o
6

12
1

61
155

126
128

187
283

. 31.2
23.6

1.0

---~----------------------------------------------------------

Total/mean

19

216

255

471

24.8

43

Table 13. Proportion of adult Common and Arctic Terns in the

tern population of the Inner Quoddy region during
1978a . These data taken directly from Table 4 of
Braun A (1979).
Nb
"

July
August
September

% Common
Terns

%Arctic
Terns

23

69.6

30.4

456

26.5

73.5

25

52.0

.48.0

a X2 = 25.95; P < 0.001.

-

b Cumulative sightings of. individual birds.

Table 14. Monthly distribution of Common and Arctic Terns in the Inner Quoddy reg
during 1978a . These data taken directly from Table 5 of Braune (1979).
Arctic Terns

Common Terns
Zone I
July

Zone II

Zone II I

100.0

August

28.9

September

100.0

43.8

27.3

Zone I

Zone II

57.1

42.9

21.0

42.6

16.7

83.3

a expressed as percentages of Common Tern population and Arctic Tern

population, respectively, as shown in Table

Zone

36

45

Fig.lO. Feeding areas of Common & Arctic Terns on ebb and flood tide in
the Quoddy region. Areas of high and low concentration indicated.

"0

0
0

,....

.0
.0

QJ
I
til

I
til

..:.::
u

0
,....

.,.... ,....
,....

CbD~

~.,.

..:.::
u

GI

'0

.,
0

L[')

OQJ

It:

It:

00

L[')

L[')

til

til

+..>

+..>

QJ

QJ

tilt:
":'::QJ

til t:
":'::QJ

t:

t:

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V)

'r-
V)

UtIl

o QJ
..-s

LL

LL

n.

:::

UtIl

..-S

OQJ

E
0
0

n.
0

111111

~ ~

L[')

00

~.

.0
0.0

ro

en en

~ '~~Cb

0
0
0..
04

ro

,....

"0

~. ()

~~

...

.~
~

O
0
0

'

c::l,

'.~

.'s..,..
'8

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, ..

~.,

46

4.7.2.1. PREY SPECIES

The diet of Common and Arctic Terns was studied in this
region by Braune (1979). Visual, film, and direct stomach
content sampling methods were used.
Common Terns feed almost exclusively on small fish, in
particular small herring, but also small smelt and pollack.
Arctic Terns take a mixture of fish'and euphausiid shrimp.
Comic Terns appeared to feed onl~ by diving, rather than
using surface feeding, as was commonly observed in Bonaparte's
gulls. Larger feeding flocks predominated in 1977 as compared
to 1978 and 1979. In the latter year, terns were present only
in small, scattered flocks of 5-10, or even solitary birds.
4.7.2.2. DISTRIBUTION OF FEEDING BIRDS
Comic Terns tended to feed in flocks composed only of
their own species, or in company with Bonaparte's gulls.
They were rarely seen in feeding flo~ks with other species.
The distribution of feeding birds was dependent mainly
upon food distribution. Braune (1979) pointed out that
herring sizes reported by Battle et al. (1936)and Graham
(1936) decreased from the Head Harbour Region to Back Bay
and Letite. Herring of about IDem appear round about late
August in the area, and grow until ~ctober. Herring in the
stomachs of terns ranged from 8 - 12cm in length. Fish much
larger than this probably cannot be swallowed easily by the
smaller larid species. Bent (1963) maintained that a fish
of about IDem was the largest that a tern could consume.
Braune therefore did not find it surprising that most
terns feeding on fish were confined to the northern part of
the Inner Quoddy region.
.
Numbers of feeding terns peaked rapidly in August at 200
to 1,000 birds. Number declined sl ightly in September, and then
very rapidly in October to zero as all birds left the area.
Common terns were the first to arrive, but Arctic terns
predominated in numbers during August. In 1977 Terns appeared
earliest in Zone III, shifted to Zone I in August, and dispersed
back into Zones II and III in the late summer and early fall.
During 1978 however, they arrived first in Zone II, and then
rapidly concentrated in Zone I. In August and September, when
feeding terns were most numerous, Arctic terns predominated in
Zones II and III (the euphausiid-rich areas), while Common
Terns predominated in Zone I.

47

4.8. NORTHERN PHALAROPE

4.8.1. BREEDING
Both Red Phalaropes and Northern Phalaropes occur in the
approaches to the Bay of Fundy; the former however, is usually
found in large numbers on the Nova Scotian side of the Bay. In
the Inner Quoddy region Northern Phalaropes are overwhelmingly
predominant. For this reason we have ignored the occasional
presence of Red Phalaropes in our counts.
The Northern Phalarope is a bird of the 18w A6ctic, with a
breeding distribut~on extending from about 54 -65 N in Canada,
and up to about 71 N in western Greenland (Brown et a1. 1975).
Phalaropes move northwards into Arctic regions in May, and the
first migrants returning through the Atlantic reach the waters
off southern New Brunswick in late June (see Table 15).

4.8.2. FEEDING
Northern Phalaropes in the Quoddy region appear to be taking
copepods and the smaller size classes of euphausiids. Studies on
the feeding ecology of the two Phalarope populations in the Bay
of Fundy during the summer months are being actively pursued by
Dr R.G.B.Brown of the Canadian Wildlife Service, Dartmouth, N.S.,
at the present time, with the co-operation of the present authors.
These birds are intensely gregarious during feeding, and
the Head Harbour Passage and its appnBches and adjcent waters
surely form one of the most important feeding grounds for Northern
Phalaropes in the Atlantic Provinces. They are closely associ~
ated with the upwelling zones of that part of the Inner Quoddy
region.
They feed in much more localized zones than the other species
considered in this report (fig.ll). Feeding flocks have never
been observed by us in Letite Passage. The reason for this is
not known, but the phenomenon is of great interest to us, and is
being investigated. The lee of White Island is a feeding ground
of importance on the flood only; the northern River area, southern
Head Harbour and the approaches to Eastport are important only on
the ebb tide. The area of Head Harbour Passage from Casco I to
southern Spruce I is a vital feeding area to this population on
all running sub~phases of the tidal cycle (fig.ll).

48
Table 15.

Month

Sightings of Northern Phalaropes at sea, 1977-79,

in the Inner Quoddy Region.
# days on

which
species
was sighted

Tide phase
Flood

Total
sightings

Freq.index
(Sightings per
sighting day)

Ebb

~-f,.;
'

June
July
August
September
October

3
6

17
7
1

1 977

95
5049
20058
44492 103496
174
1500
12
o

95
25107
147988
1674
12

.. "-

:' ,;

31.7
4184.5
8705.2
239.1
12.0

----------------------------------------------------------------Total/mean

34

66050

108826

174876

5143.4

1 978
June
July
August
September
October
November

14
23

74000
46110
16548

108847
82509
3000

182847
128619
19548

3.5
13060.5
5592.2
3909.6

o
o

20*

20

o
1

20.0

-~-~-~---~---~-------~-------------------~----------------------

Total/mean

45

136658

194383

331041

7356.5

1979
June
July
August
September

0
8
17
1

0
915
115142
0

0
354
71870
600

0
1269
187012
600

0
158.6
11000.7
600.0

Total/mean

26

116057

72824

188881

7264.6

Sighting data collected during 1979 are for this species of

comparable quality to the previous years; an intensive effort
to collect "data oA~this species was maintained through all 3 years.
Counts are of course reflecting that small flocks were counted
accurately, large flocks were e~timated by density and area, both
Visually and by photographic methods.
*These stragglers were almost certainly Red Phalaropes.

49

Fig.ll. Feeding distributions of Northern Phalaropes in the Inner Quoddy

region, 1978, 1979. Only flocks of 1,000+ have been included in these plot
o

...'"

...

'",

0",

'"

-a
4-0
o 0
r

Vl4
.:>t:

.:>t:

UOJ
0-'=
r-

-.,- ~~
0

+->

r-

+->

010

....... +

~.

U OJ
0-'=

010

-a

81

4
0..0
..0
Vl OJ

OJo
OJo

lJ.... r-l

'r

-a

+
0

OJo
OJo

~~

lJ.... r-l

11111111
g
~

'0

...

'"

50

4.9.

BLACK GUILLEMOT
4.9.1. BREEDING

It is quite possible that Black Gui11emots are breeding

within the Inner Quoddy region, but we have no positive data
ourselves to that effect. None of thefie1d teams recall ever
seeing the characteristic return behaviour of birds which have
been feeding and are returning to the nest with fish in their
beaks.
If nests occur on the islands, they are scattered.
Baird et al. (1973) showed nesting sites at an unspecified
location between Campobello and Deer Islands. We have no
reason to doubt this information.
4.9.2. FEEDING
Black Guil1emots usually feed in small scattered groups
in the Inner Quoddy region, but not invariably so. We have a
number of records of quite large feeding concentrations, but
these are sporadic in occurrence. The total numbers sighted
by us during normal operations in 1977 only are presented
in Table 16. Our records of the feeding distributions of
black guillemots when presence in concentrations (10-200 birds
together), are displayed in fig.12.
Ta b1 e 16. Sightings at sea of B1a c k Guillemots dud ng 1977.io tbe
Inner Quoddy region.
Month

# days on

which
species
was sighted

Tide phase
Flood

Total
sightings

Freq. i nd ex

(Sightings per

sighting day)

Ebb

1 977

June
July
August
September
October

11
6

12
5

115
73
348
3
21

125
143
73
35
2

240
216
421
38
23

21.8
36.0
35. 1
7.6
23.0

-----------------------------------------------------------------Total/mean

35

560

378

938

26.8

Data are available for 1978 but arenot presented here. We believe
these data to be very incomplete and misleading. Some observers
ceased to record gui11emots during that season on certain cruises,
because of pressure of other work.

Fig.12.

51

of feedin~ concentrations of Black Guillemots

in the Inner Quoddy region by flood and ebb tide phases, 1977.

Dist~ibutions

'8

.~

...
'

<>
<>

-0

0
0

Vl

Vl

-0

-0

~-o

0
..00

'r

Vl
~

0
r-

4
rr

ttl

04
0
"-!OJ
I

~I

01,

s:::

..c

o +->

.---i

.---i

s:::

s:::

4-0
0

4-0
0

VlS:::

"~"

Vl

+->
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~O)

0)

..0 ..0
..0
00)
0
"-!OJ

o+->

E
Vl

..c

'r

Vl

+->
OJ

Vl

oO)

OOJ

r-~

r-~

LL 0..

LL 0..

'r
(/)

"

""S!

I r 1111

.'8...

.0

-.

52

4.10 DOUBLE-CRESTED CORMORANT

.4.10.1. BREEDING
Nesting sites of this species are probably scattered through
the region, but Whitehorse Island is the only substantial
colony with which we are fami1ar.
In 1977-79 there appeared to
be (by photographic count), at least 400 pairs nesting on the
island. At least a similar number are ~e1ieved to nest at the
Wolves Is.
This species, unfortunately, has not greatly occupied our
attention, except during the 1977 inventory. The roosting sites
of this species shown in fig.13 certainly include at least one,
and probably more nesting sites. Further detailed census work
is required. One of the problems is that this species is
regularly shot at by fishermen because of the prbblems it causes
in herring weirs. As a result, they are exceedingly wary of
boats, and a group will take flighteven:when a vessel is some
hundred of metres away.
4.10.2. FEEDING
The gross counts made during our 1977 inventory are given
in Table 16; the species was largely ignored by recorders in
1978 and 1979 because of concentration of effort on a few
species, and pressure of other commitmen~. Feeding concentrations
are displayed. in fig.14, representing groups of 10-500 birds.
The western fringe of Head Harbour Passage and the northern
part of the River area appear to be the most important feeding
areas.
Table 16. Sightings at sea of Double-crested Cormorants in 1977
in the Inner Quoddy region.
Month

# days on

which
species
was sighted

Tide pha se
Flood

Ebb

Total
sighted

Freq. index
(Sightingsper
sighting'day)

June
July
August
September
October

10
9
19
13
5

221
187
1088
540
120

269
454
556
961
220

490
641
1644
1501
340

49.0
71.2
86.5
115.5
68.0

Total/mean

56

2156

2460

4616

82.4

53

Fig.I3.

Roosting and breeding sites of the Double-crested Cormorant

in the Inner Quoddy region.

'",

0",

'"

Fig.14.

54
Feeding distribution ~f double-crested cormorants in the
Inner Quoddy region, by flood and ebb tide, in 1977.
'8

'~

'",

'",

'"

Ul

Ul

-0

-0

.'- 0
.00

.r

s...-o

-0

0
0
r

4
I
Ul

81

Ul

L.{)O)

L.{)O)

..c:

r-i

r-i

4-0
0

0)

~O)

r-

UUl

Or-

(/)

(/)

-'-

+J
Ul

Ul

s...

r-

s...

LL.

Q..

LL.

Q..

00)

~O)

r-

111111

-@
_.

4-0
0

+J

0)

0'>
C

..c:

O+J

UlC

C
or-

O+J

en

04
0

-0
-0
0)
T

s...

.0 .0
-0
00)
0

0)

55

4.11.

EIDER DUCK
4.11.1. BREEDING

Eider breed in a large number of scattered localities

right through the Inner Quoddy region, and females with a train
of youn~, sometimes as many as fifteen or mor~, are a common
sight during the summer. Unfortunately this species has not
bee n g i ven. a hi 9h prio r i t y. i n 0 ur s tu die s, and we hav e n0 c 0 un t
of nesting bird~.
4.11.2. FEEDING
We have made however, an inventory count of eiders
during 1977 and mapped the major feeding zones of this ~ather
gregarious species. It is always seen feeding close to small
spits of land or islands, presumably because the young cannot
cope with the strong current conditions which prevail in open
water. We have no data relating to diet for the species in
this area. The numbers noted during 1977 are given in Table
17, and the distribution of feeding birds in fig.15.
Table 17 .
Month

Sightings at sea of Eider Ducks during 1977 i n

the Inner Quoddy region.

# days on

which
species
\'1 a s sighted

Tide phase
Flood

Ebb

Total
sightings

Freq. index
(Sightings per
sighting day)

June
July
August
September
October

10
9
15
12
2

437
683
748
70
310

618
371
971
309
0

1055
1054
1719
379
310

105.5
117 . 1
114.6
31. 6
155.0

Total/mean

48

2248

2269

4517

94.1

oaj5.
~

KEY
,
"

o Single small flocks - flood

Single small flocks - ebb

Flocks of 10-100 birds
present on the flood tide

0
"

Flocks of 10-100 birds

111111 present on the ebb tide

j',

'000

IAHAAB

2000'"

66

57

4.12. OCCASIONAL SIGHTINGS

Apart from shore birds~ we have recorded nine other marine
species in the Inner Quoddy region in 1977-79 (fig.16). All
s i g htin 9 s were of no more than 4 i ndt-v i dua 1 s at o-n e time. No-t
shown ~ since we have restricted oursel \'es to recent data ~ are
Greater Shearwaters~; a stream of perhaps 250 passed through
the area just to seaward of Whitehorse I in August 1971, flying
northeast.
The species shown in fig.16 are:
D - Dovekie
G - Gannet*
J -

Parasitic jaeger

LP - Leach's Petrel

MS - Manx shearwater
P - Puffin
R - Razorbill
S - Skua

M - Common Murre
* The Gannet .is an intefisting record. In 1977, 1978 and 1979
a pair of Gannets have been nesting on Whitehorse Island; as
far as we know, the only pair in Canadian waters south of the
St Lawrence. Unfortunately we have no evidence that they have
been able to rear young successfully. We have not approached
the nest closely for fear of disturbing the sitting bird and
exposing the nest to marauding herring gulls, which were nesting
all round the gannets.

58

Fig. 16.

Sighting localities of occasional visitors to the Inner Quoddy

region; specimens recorded 1977-79.

on

0..

z
o

'on
0-0
-0

.....
I

l.J.I
V')

l.J.I
l.J.I
V')

V')

l.J.I

.....
U
l.J.I

n.
V')

c.
0::

u..

"
o
o

'0

o~

""

59

5.0 IMPACT OF OIL ON FEEDING AREAS ~F BIRDS IN THE INNER QUODDY

REGION, WITH SPECIFIC REFERENCE TO HEAD HARBOUR PASSAGE AND
ADJACENT AREAS
Two aspects of possible oil pollution must be addressed
if the Eastport refinery is constructed an~ put into operat~on,
firstly the chronic level of spillage and lts effect on marlne
birds, and secor<:lly, the consequences of a major spill.
The effect of the latter would be clearly catastrophic,
since this is functionally a semi-enclosed area with a" very large
tidal amplitude. Most of these data hme been summarized in
the Fisheries Research Board Technical report #428. The residency
time of water in Passamaquoddy Bay can be as long as 70 days.
Drift bottle work carried out in the 1950s showed that water
movement into the Bay ultimately was inshore on the western side
of Fundy. There is therefore every reason to suppose that the
residence time of spilled oil would be extensive in this region.
A major spill in this region will be spread at velocities
of up to 4 knots, or even more in some areas of Head H9rbour or
letite, depending on the time of tide, and the nature of the tide
at the time of the spillage. Current measurements (including
those made recently by our own research group in the island
channels adjacent to Head Harbour Passage (Gas~n et al. 1979,
A 'R~port to the National Marine Fisheries Service:"Environmental
Co~ditions in Head Harbour Passage and vicinity New Brunswick,
Canada with s ecial reference to visibilit and some local water
movements" indicate that even in the "backwater" areas between
Campobello and Deer Island there is 1 ittle or no hope of significant
oil retrieval or containment.
Such a spill, we can now say, will impact some nine
thousand herring gulls, three thousand black-backed gulls, ten
to fifty thousand northern phalaropes, ten thousand Bonaparte's
gulls, one or two thousand com~on and arctic terns, some hundreds
of kittiwakes, and several thousands of doub1e-crested cormorants,
eiders, and black guillemots. Almost the whole balo eagle
population of southern New Brunswick, and up to a score of ospreys
are also likely to be involved. Altogether, perhaps some eighty
thousand birds will be immediately at risk AT THE ABSOLUTE MINIMUM
if such a spill took place in July or August, a period notorious
for unpre d i c t a bl e fog (G ask i n eta 1. 1 979 ) .
It is necessary to stress that we know very 1 ittle about
the passage of birds through this region; there is almost certainly
a substantial turnover of birds through this feeding region, and
those other prime feeding locations nearby, such as off Grand Manan
and Brier Island, N.S. The number of birds involved in a major
spill could well be three or four times the number cited above.
In a single day of observations in the late summer of 1977 we
estimated that in excess of 50,000 northern phalaropes were present
between Casco I nnd East Quoddy Head. We must also stress that
our counting methods are very conservative, and contain no correction
factors, except in the case of the herring gull and Bonaparte's
~ull estimates.
In these cases we had good information and

60

experience to guide those corrections.

in this report only minimum estimates.
It is evident~ if one
figures in this report~ that
the only species which might
Common Tern, which primarily

Even

then~

we present

reviews the data presented in the

of all the marine birds discussed~
not be immediately affected is the
feeds in the Letite Passage.

The problem of chronic spillage is more difficult to

assess. In their impact report~ the Pittston Company have claimed
that bacterial action will take care of the minimal spillage
at the diffusor site. The EPA permit grants casual and unavoid-~
able spillage of 2 barrels per day - ie. 700-750 barrels~ or
24~500 - 26~250 gallons per annum~ year in and year out.
In
the cold water temperatures that prevail in this region wesimply
do not believe that this will be readily taken care of by natural
bacterial action~ without demonstrable proof~ which is not forth
coming as yet. Nor do we believe~ from statistics on normal
refinery operations around the world~ that casual spillage will
be limited to an average of only 2 barrels per day. This would
require a level of standards of operation that are simply beyond
belief in a cold temperate climate~ in winters which freeze valves~
crack lines, and in a region that has such poor visibility for
nearly a third of the year that one can hardly see from one side
of a wharf to the other.
Apart from deterioration of the environment~ which i~
inevitable in any major port area~ the major feeding zone for
almost all the marine species is Head Harbour Passage itself~
and the closely adjacent River area. As the tide changes~ the
major feeding masses of birds~ especially Herring and Black
backed gulls, Bonaparte's gulls~ terns and phalaropes~ move with
the food~ moving down the Passage towards the Eastport area with
the flood phase~ and back towards the mouth again on the ebb.
The movement of Bonaparte's gulls and terns was accurately
mapped by Braune (1979); these movements are summarized in fig.
17.
The major feeding movements of the birds~ and the preferred
areas, all relate to the complex local oceanography of the region~
which has been hitheto very poorly known from a very few station
sites. In fig.18 we show the major anomalous areas of the Inner
Quoddy region. The areas of upwel ling~ and the adjacent slicks
which trap masses of weed~ are prime feeding areas for all the
birds, in the case of the latter areas~ especially the phalaropes.
These sl icks may be rotating at up to 2 knots or more at the
periphery; with no hope of oil containment~ even though oil ~ like
the weed and debris, would accumulate within them. The ~hear
zones and suspected shear zones are believed to be areas of down
welling which would take oil into the water column. More would
be mixed into the water column by displacement beside and around
the upwelling areas. The close association of the major feeding
areas with the Head Harbour and Letite upwelling zones is very
exact (see fig.IS t and equivalent species distributions). The shear
zone in the River is another margin of the main concentration zone.

61

Fig.I7.

Tidally related movements of gulls and terns in feeding

aggregations, following prey movements in the Inner Quoddy region.
o

':i

E
o
o
o

~.

62

Fig.18. DISTRIBUTION OF IMPORTANT RIPS, SHEARS, UPWELLINGS AND SLICKS.

~

"8

Cl

0:;1

V'l

lLJ

2:

2:lLCO~O

OOCOUl-i
N
lLJl-i1-J

et:

V'l::E:
,1 .. -:.

.......

..; .. ,'. .
","

..

ex::
0

V'l V'l lLJ

lLJQ...VlC:::
Z l-i ::> lLJ
OC:::lLl

u-

f/Jfi

C'-.
~
(1)

lLJ
U

'"

r-

S-

Zet:
03:

(!)

I2:
lLJ Vl

c::: .a:::

c:ll/) ttl

et: <r:

l..L1.LJ -0

Q... lLJ

2:'~

0"

V'l

l-i

lLJ

-J:g
lL -J

0 0
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lLJ
3:

~'\~\
I

~
...
. ...,:
'

.. :
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......

~,

.......

'8
.....

It has been suggested that the birds will avoid the area
of an oil slick; in the case of birds whi~h feed in an opportunistic
and often frenzied way, such as the sp~ies in question here,
we believe this to be extremely unlikely. Food in such
situations is patchy. Birds search mainly iD the most profitable
areas, and less time in other areas. The zone of maximum
feeding - Head Harbour Passage - is one of the " re liable" food
zones (Braune,1979). It is also the region of maximum oil I~isk.
Braune observed that numbers of Bonaparte 1 s gulls were often.
noted as peaking up to 90 minutes before the peak availability
of food, indicating probable habituation and anticipation.
At the right time of tide, t~ese birds will leaves their roosts
to move into Head Harbour Passage and the other usual feeding
areas.
If there is oil there, then those birds will become oiled,
as their normal behaviour is to settle on the water and wait
for local food patches to come near the surface.
The conclusion of the authors is that we have here the
worst possible combination of circumstances for an ecological
disaster if a spill occurred, and occur it certainly will; even
the EPA recognized this when it first granted the permit.
Even in the case of birds which might be considered shore
birds, for example the bald eagles, the benaviour patterns are
essentially the same. The eagles and ospreys leave their roosts
some time before the peak. feeding period, and move into what are
favourable positions for feeding on an average day. These birds
are all shallow water feeders; these are the areas where oil. is
likely to be deposited in thick layers on the surface,in view
of the large tidal amplitudes here. The wide-ranging foraging
behaviour of the eagles would.mitigate against designating high
risk and low risk areas for impaction of eagles by a spill. If
there is any kind of a fish kill, with moribund fish struggling
at the surface, the eagles and ospreys will inevitable be drawn
to them, even into areas beyond their normal foraging range.
It is the belief of the curr~nt authors that, taking all
aspects of this proposed development into account, we are not
talking of risks and probabilities, but of certain disaster sooner
or 1a ter. As the seni or author indicated in hi s report to the
Biological Station in 1973, the only factor that is unknown is
exactly when the disaster will occur, and what form it will take.

63

6.0 LITERATURE REVIEW AND LIST OF ALL PUBLICATIONS, AND

THESES, RELATING TO BIRDS AND FEEDING AREAS IN THE
INNER QUODDY REGION.
To avoid duplication, those articles directly relating
to this region's birds and their feeding, have been marked
clearly with asterisks in the references (section 8.0).
Suffice it to say that the relevant literature makes
up only a small body. Even basic data are lacking for many
species in this region, and the major mark left by successive
Canadian Governments on research into upper trophic level
species of animal in the Bay of fundy is one of almost total
neglect.
Too often, in such literature as exists, the same pioneer
works are cited over and over again for lack of any alternative
or fresh data, works which were published in far different
times. Most local residents of long standing will confirm
that the Quoddy region is not the productive region it was
fifty years ago. Nevertheless, by the standards of many other
parts of the Bay of Fundy, it is one of Canada's treasures.

64

7.0 THE UNIQUENESS OF THE QUODDY REGION AND APPROACHES TO

PASSAMAQUODDY BAY FOR FEEDING BIRDS, ITS VALUE TO THESE
SPECIES, AND THE ACCESSIBILITY OF SPECIES IN THIS REGION
FOR RESEARCH
Many workers have remarked, in both popular and technical
publications, on the very high seasonal concentrations of birds
that can be found in the western approar.hes to the Bay of Fundy~
Such research as has been carried out has shown that this area
is one of the important staging zones in the western Atlantic
coastal fly-way to the Canadian Arctic.
Biologists on retainer for Pittston have remarked that the
Bay of Fundy actually appears to have relatively low primary
productivity, and no unique features. While it may have relatively
low primary productivity in most areas, it shows a most extra
ordinary concentration of secondary productivity, and this
productivity presents itself in such a way as to provide a basis
to support one of Canada's most important fishing industries,
and very large populations of feeding migrating birds. The
very physiography of the Bay, its great tidal amplitudes, and
the diversity of marine temperate fauna concentrated in a rather
small area, attest to a degree of uniqueness that makes the
statements of Pittston apo~gists almost incomprehensible.
The numbers of marine birds that pass through this region
are so large that the very fact that they are there forces one
to accept that this region must be vital to them or they would
be somewhere else.
The key, we think, is the remarkable
concentration of surface phenomena in a small compass. This is
one of the few areas in the world other than the coast of Japan
and the vicinity of the Antarctic Convergence, that reliable
J

surface swarming and concentration of euphausiid shrimp takes

place.
The birds which arrive in this region have evolved the

present pattern of behaviour over a long period of time, perhaps

since the last major climatic warming period, about five to six
thousand years ago. Selection for the optimal pattern of migration
is severe. If an individual bird does not "balance its annual
energy budget", it does not survive the migration, and does not
pass on its particular gene pool fragment.
The approaches to Passamaquoddy, with their abundant small
herring shoals and large biomass of euphausiids and copepods,
concentrated by the interplay of water masses in the western
approaches to the Bay of Fundy, provide a valuable source of
protein and lipid to these bird populations, which, having suffered
substantial depletion of their reserves through the stress of
breeding in the Arctic, must make good these losses quickly, if
they are to survive in what are often food-poor wintering grJunds.
It may be that in such a feeding ground as this, they can
obtain certain types of nutrition which they cannot obtain in
other areas, at least at the same minimal energy expenditure
( 0r V. G. Tho mas. , per s . com m. ) .

65

The results of damage to these feeding grounds are likely

to go quite a way beyond the loss of a high percentage of several
year classes of a number of species of birds. We are not, we
must stress, talking about a few thousands of local birds in
the Bay of Fundy, but in some cases a substanjial fraction of
the total populations of the North American eastern seaboard

which must feed in this area if the populations are to maintain

anything like their present numbers. Loss of these feeding
grounds would inevitably result in thousands of birds, even if
they survived the initial disaster, having to forage further
afield, at higher energy costs, in sUb-optimal feeding areas,
for diminishing returns. Population drop is q~ite natural and
inevitable under these conditions. Pittston's biolpgists assure
us that the development will have no effect on this region.
Data from refinery areas allover the wonld clearly indicate
otherwise.
There is no other part of coastal Canada which really
resembles the ecological situation found in the Bay of Fundy;
from the Canadian point of view the combination of factors,
rather than the existence of any si~le factor or species of
animal, makes it completely unique. The University of Guelph
group has worked at about seven other localities in the Atlantic
Provinces, and has long since settled on this area as the one
which provides the optimum balance of favourable conditions
for the kind of ecological research which we wish to undertake
on upper trophic level marine animals. The presence of the
fisheries and Oceans Canada Biological Station in St Andrews,
and the closely related university-sponsored Huntsman Marine
Laboratory, provides a very strong and flexible investigatory
research structure in the area. The fact that the Bay of Fundy
is of relatively small size, has a high level of concentration
of secondary marine productivity that attracts and supports a
large fraction of the migratory seabirds of the eastern seaboard,
and also supports several major fisheries of great local economic
imp 0 r tan c e, ma kest his reg ion a 11 fie 1d 1abo rat 0 r y II 0 fin est i ma b1e
value to the nation of Canada.

66

8.0

REFERENCES DIRECTLY CITED IN THE TEXT, AND OTHER

PUBLICATIONS RELEVANT TO SEA BIRDS IN THE QUODDY REGION
(THOSE OF SPECIAL RELEVANCE ARE MARKED WITH A *).

* Baird, J.C., et al. 1972. Birds and Mammals, pp. 131-174 in:

Lorneville Environmental Impact Study, Environment Canada

and New Brunswick Department of the Environment, Vol.II.

Baltz, D.M., and G.V.Morejohn. 1977. Food habits and niche

overlap of seabirds wintering in Monterey Bay, California.
Auk 94: 526~543.

* Barker, S.P. 1976. Comparative feeding ecology of Puffinus

(Order Prcoellariformes) in the Bay of Fundy. M.Sc thesis,

University of Guelph.

Battle, H.I., et al. 1936. F-tness, digestion and food of

Passamaquoddy young herring. J.Fish.Res.Bd Canada 2:401-429.

Bent, A.C. 1963. Life histories of North American Gulls and Terns.
Ne\ York, Dover Publ. Inc., 337 pp.

Bigelow, H.B. 1924. Plankton of the offshore waters of the Gulf

of Maine. Bull. U.S.Bur.Fish., 40(pt II); 1-509.

Braune, B.M. 1979. Dynamic feeding- ecology of migrating

populations of Bonaparte's gulls, common terns and
arctic terns. M.Sc*thesis, Uni~ersity of Guelph.
*(With distinction).

* Brown, R.G.B., et al. Atlas of Eastern Canadian Seabirds.

Canadian Wildlife Service, 1975, 220 pp.

* Brown, R.G.B. etal. 1979 in press.

Daytime surface-swarming
by Me an cti hanes norve ica(M.Sars) (Crustacea,
Euphausiacea off Brier Island, Bay of Fundy. Can. J.Zool.
Brown, R.G.B. et al. 1979 in prep. The foods and feeding of
Great and Sooty shearwaters Puffinus gravis and P.griseus
in eastern Canadian waters.

* Charlotte County Bird Sighting Records, New Brunswick Museum,

St.John, N.B.

Cooke,

W.W~ 1915. ITistribution and migration of North American

gulls and their allies. U.S.Dept.Agric.Bull 292, 70 pp.

* Doucet, W.F. 1960.

Economic study of the herring fishery of

Charlotte County, New Brunswi~k, 1956-1957. J.Fish.Re~.
Bd. Canada 17: 815-870.

67

* For res t e r, W.O. 1960 .

~i:~~ ..-..

Cur ten t .m e as urem en t sin Pas sam a quo ddy

Bay and the Bay of Fundy 1957-1958. J.Fish. Res.Bd.
Canada 17: 727-729.

* Gaskin, D.E. 1973. The marine mammals of the Grand Manan

Passamaquoddy region, with special reference to the Head
Harbour Passage approaches, and the- probable impact ofa
proposed oil refinery at Eastpor~, Me, on these animals.~
Report to Environmental Impact Committee, Fisheries
Research Board Biological Station, St.Andrews, N.B.

Gaskin, D.E., et al.1978. Organochlorine residues in shearwaters

from the approaches to the Bay of Fundy, Canada. Arch.
Environm.Contam.Toxicol.7: 505-513.

Graham, M. 1936. Investigations of the herring of Passamaquoddy

and adjacent regions. J.Fish.Res.Bd. Canada. 2: 95-140.
S.Corey.

Aspects of the life history

(M.Sars) Crustacea
in Passamaquoddy Bay. Can.J.Zool.52: 495-505.

*
*

*
*

1974.

lles, T.D. 1975. The New Brunswick weir fisheries for juvenile
herring: a preliminary analysis of catch data for the
years 1957-1962. I.C.E.S. Pelagic Fish/Norther/Comll.,
C.M. 1975?Doc.H:54.
Kulka, D.\4. 1977. The life history of Thysanoessa inermis (Kroyer)
and the community structure of euphausiids in the Bay of
Fundy. M.Sc thesis, University of Guelph.
Lebour, M.V. 1922. The food of YOJlg clupeoids. J.Mar.Biol.Assoc.
U.K. 12: 458-467.

* Lord, J.S. 1925. St Stephen, N.B. to Deer Is, N.B. and return.
Can.Field-Nat. 39: 24-25.

MacMillan, D.H. 1966.

McKenzie, R.A. & S.N.Tibbo. 1960. Herring fishery .in southern

New Brunswick. J.Fish.Res.Bd.Canada 17: 133-168.

Scott, D.M. 1959. Observations on marine birds off southwestern

Nova Scotia. Can Field-Nat. ,73: 15-20.

Seymour, N.R. 1972. Success of three gull species feeding on

swarming ants in Antigonish County, Nova Scotia.
Can. Field-Nat. 86: 391-392.
Smith, S.l. 1878-1882. The stalk-eyed crustaceans of the Atlantic
coast of North Ametica north of Cape Cod. Trans.Conn.
Acad. Art sSe i. 5: 27 - 138.

Tides. Elsevier Publ.Co., New York, 240 pp.

68

Snyder, L.L. 1957. Arctic Birds of Canada. University of Toronto

Press, Toronto, 310 pp.
* Townsend, C.W. 1923.Notes on the bint of Grand Manan, New
Brunswick, Can.Field-Nat., 37: 141-~44.
Tuck, L.M. 1960. The Murres. Canadian Wildlife Series I.,

Canadian Wildlife Service, Ottawa, 260 pp.

Verbeek, N.A.M. 1977. Comparative feeding behaviour of immature

and adult herring gulls. Wilson Bull. 89: 415-421.
Vermeer, K. 1973. Comparison of food habits and mercury residues
of Caspian and common terns. Can.Field-Nat.87: 305.
Wynne-Edwards, V.C. 1935. On thehabits and distribution of birds
on the North Atlantic. Proc.Boston Soc.Nat.Hist. 40:
233-246.