-_— Ancient Mesoamerica 10 (1999), 87-98 opyrien © 1999 Cambridge Unversity Pres. Printed inthe US.A. ASTRONOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN THE AZTEC EXPRESSION OF HISTORY Eclipse data Abstract azz - - 55S ‘Anthony E Avenit and Edward E, Calnek® 2eo “Deparment of Phys and Astronomy, Colate Unters, Hamiton, NY 1546, USA 58 Department of Anthropology, Unversty of Rochester, Rochester, NY 627, USA ee bo Q28 Oaks In his pes we present s compere is of elpses documented in he Mexia manuscps. We we this is together with sss Thain inthe chronic ouine a possible metod ued by Mexia chonolgis for inking histori wih redicabe Eg3 vain even that were deliberately chosen cf hsteisl cmstance. Sola evens, partial eclipses, igre prominealy 38 ‘earns tat suse the ecunees oe kind evens ponloned at multiples ofthe Xivhmopil (2-ea") yee. Ths. ZS teak ontaonof th opi and clndrial adsense tothe leona chronology of Word Ages re comet fo ge ‘Shpes tha mere visible at Tenchi and tht ll thera he solstice othe enpinores, az Ea 3 eg & “The history of it was saved, brit was burned when Tout ruled in Mexico. A council of rlers of Mexico tok place, They Said “Ins not accestary for ll he common people to know of the wings; goverment wil be defamed, and this will only Speed sorcery inthe and fort ontanet many falsehoods.” (Gahagin 1950-1982:Boak 10:191) [Anyone thumbing through the Aztee-period pictorial histories is immediately struck by the way in which the events of human and cosmic history ate mixed together and conflated. Pictorial scenes coupled with year-bearer glyphs depict such social occasions as battles, conquests, famines, and feats as if these were inseparable from such natural phenomena as eclipses, “smoking stars,” earth- awakes, and floods. The Franciscan chronicler Fray Toribio de Benavente, better known as Motoinf, tes us that, They wrote doen and painted the notable things that happened. cor were seen nthe sk or onthe lad, such as an eclipse ofthe Sorte oon, 9b well a comets or any ther ne i then ‘when they began a pe filly Year vel, they put down the house ofthe years and the masters of counting Began wo record allof the things worth remembering, wars, the deaths of ei heat persons. earthquakes, fans, wumerous deaths, ad the Uke. (Moris 1971:390) ‘An obvious difference between Aztec time and our own lies in the repetitive, eyelic nature ofthe former. Although sometimes over- simplified, at Fariss (1987) has shown, we know that this empha- sisoncyclcity was ancient and deeply rooted in the Mesoamerican cultural tradition. That two basic time eycles—the tonalpohuall (260 days; Table 1) and the xihutl (365 days; Table 2)! —were pneMesoamerican in distribution, thus testifying to the contin- ity ofthis philosophy of time in all regions. ‘The discovery that a commensuration principle united several distinet spheres of temporal experience led to extensive use of the tonalpolalli as an expression ofthe contact experienced between the phenomena of human culture and the world of nature (Aveni 1989;197-203). For example, 260 days approximates the gesta- tion eycle ofthe human female, as well as the length ofthe agri cultural eyele in many regions. In eddtion, several astronomical periods fall close to 260 days. These include the average moring- land evening-star intervals of the planet Venus, the time the Sun spends south ofthe zenith in southern Mesoamerica, andthe eclipse half year of 173.5 days, which resonates ina 3 to 2 rato with the tonaipohuali (thus, 3 % 173.5 = 2 X 260). The Moon is further “implicated by the fact that nine lunar synadic months (265.8 days) are also a close approximation of the ‘onalpohualli. Coincidences this type made it possible to attach eclipses or the aspects of ‘Venus to particular name days in the cycle. Accordingly, we may think of the ronalpohuall as reflecting the convergence of a mul- titude of repetitive rhythms experienced botb inside and outside of the human bod. “The process leading toa solar-based calendar in Mesoamerica ‘cannot be triced with any precision. It seems to have been com pleted atleast several centuries before the end of the frst millen- nium .c. As in ancient Rome, a solar calendar may have arisen "Together these formed the calendar ound of 5 years = 73x 260 = 52 x 366 days Ths was the terval Between performances of he New Fire rite in years named ? Reed. 7‘Aveni and Calnek 8 “Table The days of the 260-day Tonaipohuall count Nonber Nehwsl—sEngiah = 23 4 S678 ' Coote «91 8 2 9 3 WW 4 HS 6 BT 2 Wind 29 3 0 4 $3 B 6B 7 1 8 3 Howe 3 0 2 1 S$ 2 6 B 7 1 8 2 ® 4 Flint ‘ou 5 2 6 B 7 1 8 2 9 3 W 5 Smet 5 «12 6 «413 7 1 8 2 9 3 6 Death 63 7 1 8 29 3 0 40 5 2 7 Deer 7 1 8 2 9 3 0 4 0 5 2 6 OB 5 ibe el 10) ee el 5 Water Ose 10 eh se eee ee 10 evi Dot Oe se ap eG) oe 0 Gomi = Maky «= 52 6 OB 9 8 2 Manali = Gass 2 TLS 1B Act! Reed bot 1 8 2 9 3 H 4 5 2 6 4 Oeela Jaguar 1 8 2 8 3 0 4 No 5 2 6B 7 1s CCoauit Eagle > 9 30 4 nN $2 6 B 7 1 8 6 (cimereme Were ee | se ia 18) rte ee 29) 0 Olin Peeper aM shes) ic) (0 sl is ‘Teepatl Fin: ete eg ee ees oe 3 Quiahid Rain 63 7 1 8 2 9 3 0 4 ns 2B 2» Kochi Power = 7} 8 20 9 3 WW 4 1 5 BR 6 ‘out of conscious desire to bureaveratize time." Thus, political lites would have patterned time by aligning key historical events ‘with cosmic occurrences, s0 that they would be perceived as di- rectly inked tothe sources of power in the cosmos. “The sihuitl, once established, consisted of 18 20-day “months.”* plus five days (see Table 2). Individual years appear to have been ‘named for the tonalpohuall day falling onthe frst day of the first ‘month among the lowland Maya, or, as in most other tegions, for the last day of the eighteenth month. Because 365 divided by 20 leaves a remainder ofS, only 4 ofthe 20 day names can be applied to the year. Those used in Tenochutln and most ater central Mex ‘can city-states at the time ofthe Conquest were Rabbit (Tochil, ‘Reed (Acatl), Flint (Teepatl), and House (Calli) Dividing 365 by 13 leaves a remainder of 1, so thatthe year-bearer coeficiets a ‘ways advanced by 1. This system yields a total of 32 individually named yeats called the xiukmolpil, or “binding of the years” (Table 3). 2 This eyele-building process typically Begins with attempts o spor tion or account forall parts ofthe seasohal eyele. rather than just those felted te human actions, whichonce had been named aftr the nar moms fo which hey occured. In older forms of the Roman calendar. the emain- flor of the year, during which peope ere ile ce inate, had been left both unmarked and unnamed, Such 9, 10- or 1T-month years exist in ‘any soveis that were less hierarchically stuctored than urban Tenoch tila and other Mesoamerican city-states. Ip many cases. te lunt-based ‘ese falling wel shor ofthe 368-y solar yea estarted by the iah- ing of atual phenomenon keyed the solar cycle (eg. the appearance bbe Paolo Worm inthe Trobrian Islands, te fooding ofthe Oro River tn Ethiopia or the helical ize of the Pleiades in Cuzco (se Aven (1989), or a etuleg account) Iie ikely tat the midnight sighting ofthe Pia: es overhead mentioned by Sabagin, was an arfac of this bureaucrat “Slog setng” tat emanated fom siniarshor-count calendar ele "although aot obviously related ofuations the erm for his period in several Mesoamerican languages aso meant Meon (ein Nahuatl, mers m Yestee May anal, so ta there may have been at atcac ‘The name of the frst month in Tenochtitlan at the time of the ‘Conquest is open to some question, Most early chroniclers in- cluding Sahagsn (1950-1982, Book 2:1, 42), Motolinia (1971:51, and Durin (1967:1:239-240), state that Aticahualo (also called ‘Cuahuitlehua) occupied this position, and that Lacali was the last, ‘The Codex Magliabechiano and Codex Tudela are in accord, a8 well, However, Caso’s analysis of well-established correlational ‘Table The names of the months in Tenecitan amber ‘Month Name 1 eel 0 Atleahualo or Coauuitlehua m ‘Tiacaxipeualz v Toxoztonl v Hiewozsa vw ‘Toca vir Exalewali vit ‘Teeuhuitonth * Hoetecihut x Tiaxochimaco or Nexochimaco XI oeothuet xi Ochpania xu Teotlco xiv “Tepeithaitt xv uzerot xvi Pangoteai xv Acenozti xval Tai ove: tah eh fn the yar and on a's (0967) rereton of te Cotes Barnes (91. ‘seas nme he est most fh en ‘any ent pon Congues oneEclipse data and Aztec history Table. The Xtuhmospill or S2yer cyde 1 Rabi 1 Reed 1 Fine 1 House 2 Reed 2 Fm 2 Hose 2 Robi 3 Flot 3 Hose 3 Rabbie 5 Reed 44 House 44 Rabbit 4 Rest 3 Fin 5 Rabbit 5 Reed 5 Flin 5 House 6 Reed 6 Fine 6 Howse 6 Rabbit 7 Blin 7 Hause 7 Rabbit 7 Reed 8 House 8 Rabbit 5 Reed 8 Flin 9 Rabbic 9 Reed 9 Flint 9 House 10 Reed 10 Flint 10 House 10 Ret 1 Flint 11 House 11 Rabbi 1 Reed 12 House 12 Reb 12 Reed 12 Flim. 1 Rabbit 13 Reed 13 Flint 13 House dates (see Tater) seems to prove that Izcalli must have been the first rather than the last month ofthe calendar year. Strong sup- porting evidence comes from alist of months found in the third part of the Coder Borbonicus* ‘One of the major problems in comparative chronology deals Wit the question of how indigenous time counts ean be affixed to our own Christan (originally Roman) calendar. Aztee sources indicate thatthe siege of Tenochtitlan came to an end when Em pperor Cuauhtemoc surrendered 10 Cortes on the day 1 Snake 2 in a year named 3 House; this was Friday, August 3 inthe European Julian) calendar (Caso 1967:47; Tena 198724244) Even given this equation, we must stil deal with the problem of hhow Aztec history, expressed as cyclically repeating inteoon- nected social and cosmic phenomena, was transposed int the ln- car band of western timekeeping. Because no linear time frame similar to the Maya Tong count was used, we cannot always be certain where specific events should be placed in a so-called “real time” sequence. Ina few texs, narrative continuity served this pur pose. The Leyenda de los soles (1992), for example, contains an unbroken sequence extending from the creation ofthe world the tenth century 8.¢.° up to a,b. 1558, Other examples include the Historia de los mesicanos por sus pinturas (1941) and Tirade fa ‘peregrinacién (Codex Boturini 1944), al of which used a contin- ‘uous year-count format. Unfortunately, many important post- Conquest texts employed a cut-and-paste technique in which dates and events from several sources were sometimes mixed together in the wrong order. Isolated dates found on sculptures or in achi- ‘eetural settings can be assigned to a specific 52-year cycle only * Although the duing ofthe Codex Borbonicus i sili disput, i ‘may be the only Aztec pictorial manvscript pained Before the Congues Allothes show clear evidence of thei colomal origin, probably a5 copies feat. but pow fst. petoral texts. Roberson (1989:86-93) was nh tally convinced that the Codex Borboncas was pate some years fer the Spanish Conquest. A set of notes sent o Calnek by Marthe Robertson soon afer the unmely death of het husband init that he had moe fied his earlier opinion, in favor of the view thai as proba con pleted before the Conguess all dates fered on his sud. ules eters specified are Juan ‘This dates reached simply by counting back from 1558. The ext set contains adequate ealenrical information for this purpose. 89 ‘when the archaeological contest oF stylistic tition is wel un- derstood. Somewhat different problems arise when we ask how the Az- tees reckoned the positon of the seasonal year in relation tothe hui, that is how “Yea” astronomical and “abicated” canoe time were linked. Because the seasonal years 365.2422 andthe calendar year 365 whole days i length, slippage between the two sccumulates ata rate of approximately 1 day every 4 yeas, 13, ater 52, and fll 20-day “month ater 83, wih the eyeie pair realigning after 1,508 calendar years” Thus, ifthe fist dy of he first Aztee mont, let us say 1 Ica fell on January 26,1513, i ‘would fall on January 25 in 1517, on January 24 in 1821, and so on, Exrapoltingbackvard to Tenochtan’s “oficial” founding de (2 House 1525), we find tha 1 Teal would have fallen on March 14, rwo days after the spring eguinox® AL this rate of divergence, calendar time would soon be out of joint withthe seasons. This was the case withthe Roman calendar inthe ime of the ulus Caesar, esuling in the lian reform an, once agin the Gregorian reform of 1582. The Julian reform added ‘one exra day every four years, ut this produce a sight overcor- rection, because the actual discrepancy between the tue and enone years grows atthe rate of 2422 rather than 25 days every yea. ‘The Gregorian reform introduced rule and amendments ofa more complex nature, fine-tuning the system so tat natural and canonic time will coincide almost perfectly for thousands of Yeas. Although Aztee and other Mescamerican calendar pics, a8 (Caso (1971:346) remarks, “surely knew the duration of the asto- nomical years they did not make a Julian correction, and con- Sequel, dd nt inuoduce the leap yea.” He goes on to observe that The fact thatthe several cycles Were considered coincident tonalpohuall, the moon, the synodical revolution of Venus — made it impossibe to compute the leap year” (Caso 1971:348) ‘The Maya approach, for which far better documentary evi- ‘dence exists, wast rack points nthe 365-day (or any other) time ‘yee by referring to fixed points inthe 260-day coun. Both the “Mayas andthe Aztces pegged the 260-day cycle to the 365-day “year” trough the use of year bearers. In doing this, they used a procedare that could also be applied, with appropriate modifica tions. for purposes of eclipse prediction. Thus, inthe Dresden Co- dex eclipse table, specified dates i the 260-day count served as ‘waming days, eventhough completely diferent eycles were in- ‘volved. In this ease, the bility to expres the position in onetime eye by refering o that in another solves the problem of slippage 2s wells any leap-year mechanism, but without breaking thea ithmetical sequence ofthe day count. Sill another way to align “time counted” with “time experi enced” would be wad or delete months. The Babylonians, who 7 This is because 1507 % 365.2422 = 1508 % 365 = $50,420 das, * Over the course of Aztec story calculated from this point, the otal slippage would have teen aboot 48 dys, al 20-day months. Ths, 1817 ~ 1325 ~ 192; 192, © Aguile and Galindo T1991) and Ten (1987) are among the shol- ars who advocate the possibility ofan inerealion, We agree with Caso however even if be was wong, the ony effect upon our analysis ould involve eclipses that atally curred in call, that the ame ofthe ‘year would be in some doubt. None ofthe eclipses listed in our Tele § {alls in lea, therefore, their enfin wth pei named years would not be changed. Consequently. as tis aot cent the argument of tit sper, we have choven fo omits more dead consideration of the core ation probes90 ‘were as exacting in calendrical matters as any bureaucratic society Jpeerted a double month when needed in order to align the lunar tount withthe solar year. Imagine, if you will that from time to time our own calendar repeated the month of December, Edmon- von (1988.11 1-116), arguing that all Mesoamerican calendars op- rated on an unbroken, astronomically geared time Count, suggests Several hypothetical methods for calendar correction ‘Having given a brief background sketch of the essemial char acteristics ofthe Azice understanding of time, together with some Of the problems and pitfalls coafronted by modern scholars who ‘rudy world calendars, we turn next to a review of our own recent efforts at linking Aztec history with retrodictable cosmic events STRUCTURE AND PATTERN IN AZTEC HISTORY ‘The Aztecs of Tenochtitlan gained independence and commenced their own career of imperialist expansion with a victory over the ‘Tepanecs of Azcapotzalco inthe year 1 Flint 1428. A newly inde- pendent people may fc! the need to revise of even reinvent their Bun history, and this is precisely what the Aztecs seem 10 have (done, The burning of historical texts mentioned in the episTaph to this paper would have occurred sometime between 1428 and Ike~ coats death in 1440, For abvious reasons, we cannot know pre- Chely how earlier records were eventually changed. We do know, fs Umberger (1981-13) femarks, that in the Final versions “a num- ber of events of early history were assigned to dates with impor- tan positions in the 52-year eycle and tat certain types of events ‘were recorded as occurring in years ofthe same name.” “This pe of chronological patterning in Aztec history is well inustrated by the following events assigned to years named 1 Flin 1. The beginning of the Aziee migration from tei ancient homeland, Aatian 2. The bith of Huititopoctl thee chief ear go, a Coaepec eat Tol 3, Thee artval atthe site of hee frure capital ty. Teron 4. The enthronement of Acamapiti asthe ety’ fst king. The wining of independence and beginnings of empire “The present inquiry specifically examines the degree to which in their rewriting of history, the Aztecs consciously pegged such vents to cosmic phenomena and the manner in which this might have been done. Such an inquiry is fraught with difficulty, be ‘cause Itzcoal’s revisions may themselves have been rewritten many fimes averby later kings. Whatever the specific rationale, its clear that historical chronologies were routinely manipulated, particu tary those applied to events more than two or three generations in the past. The possibility that soch astronomical events as equi- rnoxes, eclipses or planetary alignments were also taken into a&- ‘Count has not yet, to or knowledge, received serious consideration, ‘We nonetheless suggest that societies convinced of the repetitive nature of bistory-—that the present and future are somehow em- bedded in the past—may well have aceepted the close patterning of historical and cosmic events as a matter of course The ewelfth hook of Sahagun's (1950-1982) Florentine Codex, for example, opens with a description of eight omens presaxing the Spanish Conquest. Of thes, three were celestial events, whereas the other five were magical of miraculous in greater or lesser de~ free, The fist set included phenomenon described asa "tongue (fie, like the light of daw,” seen at night in the east inthe year ‘Aveni and Calnek {4 House 1509 (Sahagun 1950-1982, Book 12:1." A solar eclipse in 1510, represented in the Codex Telleriano-Remensis, also falls {nthe seme period of time (Table 4). "These and similar events would have been recorded inthe quasi- journalist format of continuous year-count annals, which would hheve supplied the raw materials used when realigning major sociat ‘ents with “religiously correct” dates inthe calendas. If these hap- pened tobe juxtaposed with an equinox, eclipse, or planetary con- Janction, so much the better. Umberger(1981:Figure 1) provides a “useful submodpil table showing some of the ways in Which ike- in-kind events were deliberately positioned at the junctions of the our quarters (ilalpill) ofthe 52-year eyele. In a few cases (8. the creation of fire in 2 Reed, th birth ofthe Sun in 13 Reed, and the founding of Tenochtitlan in 2 House), major events were dis- placed from these junctions by +1 year. The linking of like-in- [ind events to particular year inthe $2-year ele, however, would have been no more than a first step when revising historical chro- nologies. It was also necessary t0 stipulate the specifi cycle in tich the selected event would be placed, as well asthe number Df eyeles separating like-in-kind pais of events, The fact that the Congest of Azcapotzaleo in 1 Flint 1428 followed the founding of ‘Tenochutlan by two xlukmolplli cycles minus one year strongly siiggests that atleast one, and probably both, of these dates was contrived with this objective in min. Fixing Beginnings in Aztec History Inan earlier paper (Aven et al, 1988:294-297), we discussed con nections between the founding myth, architectural design, and the rbanistc plan of Tenochtitlan, The ethnohistorical record in- ‘ludes mumterous allusion to locative schemes that offer clues to the kinds of astronomical events that may have been involved in the setting of resetting ofthe Aztec time clock. Motolinia(1971:51), for example, writes that rites performed during the ceremonial ‘month named Tlacaxipehualiath ("The Flaying of Men”) were eyed t observation ofthe equinoctial Sun aver the Templo Mayor. Fie goes on to say that Motecuhzoma (Xocoyotzin? [reigned 1502 1520)) found the temple to have been misaligned and ordered it {om down and rebuilt. That a solar event should figure so promi- rently in this context is no surpise. The Aztec ideology of war land conguest emphasized the close relationship between the Sun's ‘annual movements and the political course of the Aztec state ‘We analyzed the scenario that might have been involved in this “pinning down” of astronomical ime in the following terms: 1. The Mess lid out their ealiest structures jn an east-west rection, “Meuntin oaks on ihe eas and west horizons may have served as the corgi reference pains ‘Fav carbex mpl exposed by archaoological excavation probably co Fhrcted beeen 1370 and 1390, was n0 more than 10-12 min height {Moon 1982) As the city prospered andthe Amee empire expanded tw and progresvely higher temples wer bat drecly over the ist DMesserements by Aveni etal. (1988) showed tha the oignal rent om rernlnedsobsantaly the stme from the begining unt the Con- [Guest Anysgefica nereas in eight woulhave presented something SPS problem wen actualy observing te equinota Sun, The el ent deseibed by Movolnia may have been Motecuhvom's response to this problem, TW -The Codex Chimalpopoca (1992-122) say that» loud banner” hegan trapper inthe cast int House 1509, and by the next yea (5 Rabbit S10) “tsecme like Hire. The people were extremely teriEclipse data and Aztec history 3. When they wished to incorporate the equinox alignment into their cer emonialsrutues as an enduring peitcple, they Ini out the west facing Temple Mayor so dat, when viewed by an observer atthe base ‘ofthe temple along an axis posivoned approximately 7 south of east ‘he equinox Sun, viewed progressively over a higher horizon and shift ing farther othe south a ose ighe nthe eky, would spear nthe notch between the vo temples oni smi platform, Atthe ime ofthe Conquest, Tenochtitlan wis divided into Great (Quarters by avenues extending from the gates of its ceremonial precinct. Whether this equinoctilly based quartering was repre- sented in the earliest city plan or was introduced later stil aaits archaeological investigation. In any case, the choice of 2 House 1325 as the city’s foundation date, as discussed below, was very possibly influenced by the fact thatthe First day ofthe year was a ‘ery close approximation to the actual day ofthe spring equinox. ‘In seeking out candidate cosmic events for an Aztec beginning, however, a wide range of meteorological and geological occur ‘ences, such as floods, droughts, earthquakes and volcanic erup- tions, are also available for consideration. Itis, however, usually ‘impossible to find independent, reliable evidence affixing these t0 specific calendar dates. At the same time, many periodically re current astronomical events, such as eclipses, planetary conjunc ‘ions, meteor showers, and perhaps a few comets, can be easily ‘identified with a high degree of precision and reliability. Fortu- nately, phenomena of these kinds figure importantly inthe doeu- mentary record ofthe codices and chronicles (e.g, Quifones Keber 1995:318-23). Do they reveal pattems bearing a clearly defined relationship to the patierned calendrical dates found in early his- torical texts? ‘We approached this problem by first compiling detailed work ing list of cosmic events as recorded in central Mexican historical texts. Our long-term objective isto find the extent to which celes- tial phenomena may have served as temporal anchors for purport- ‘edly historical events, and whether the like-in-kind natura events selectively recorded in these texts were deliberately positioned at intervals dictated by the numerical structure of the calendar sys- tem. In particular, we have tried to sift out all identifiable astro ‘nomical phenomena that would have been visible inthis region of Mesoamerica. Previously availabe lists include partial invento- Fes by Aguilera and Galindo T. (1991), Berger (1994), Kahler (1989). Quiftones Keber (1984, 1995), Milbrath (1995), and Weit- 2211950) Our own compendivn takes these into account, adding several revisions and new identifications. Ths article deals pri= ‘marily with the eclipse record, which happens tobe the mast ame- nable to independent verification ‘We hypothesize that calendrical adjustments were frequently geared to the 52-year xiukmolpili os one its multiples, and that both equinoxes and visible eclipses were considered when dete: ‘mining the chronological placement of specific like-in-kind events, In some instances, these were undoubtedly based on the aceum- lation of records kept by generation ater generation of Mesoamer- ican astronomers. In others. some type of formula-based back ccleulation must have been used, although precisely what it was We disagree withthe assignment by Kahler (1989-291) of many "smoking sar events foune inthe codes to comets. Many ofthe exa ples of comets cites om astonomicl sources would have been sae Visible a Intltxochit’s Toltee Relaciones provides an unusually clear il lustration ofthe close articulation of historically defined time pe- riods with astronomical phenomena. This important chronicler based his work on « now-lost pictorial text cited as La historia y crénica de los nltecas ina 1608 legal deposition (Testimonio) (1k- Uilkochil 1985:1:518). This was paired witha seeond pictorial cited a8 La crdnica de los reyes chichimecas.”* which caries the count of years forward tothe year 13 Reed 1427 ‘The Toltec Relaciones cover the period from the creation of the ‘orld in @ year named 1 Flint to the destruction of Tula (also in 1 Flin) 6,136 years later The Chichimec Relaciones add 260 years, fora total of 6,396. Figure 1 is a simplified time line representing the succession of World Ages or Suns, their durations expressed ‘both as years since ereation (Creation Years, hereinafter abbrevi- ated CY) and in aiuhmolpill and their multiples, where required. ‘The following observations, based on the chronology of Toltec history, offer clues to the ways in which the Aztecs and their cen: ‘ral Mexican neighbors went about structuring and restructuring historical time. The duration of World Ages, inthe first instance, is always a large multiple of the standard 52-year eycle.Signifi- ‘cant tuming points within each age were spaced a intervals of one ‘or more 52-year cycles or, in some instances, 13-year subunits called Halil. The “standing stil” of te Sun in § Rabbit CY 4779, sup- posedly unl it was bitten by 2 mosquito san interesting bat un- explained departare from this norm, ‘The durations assigned tothe first three World Ages were 1716, 1716, and 1560 yeas, respectively. Expressed as xiuhmolpili ml Uipls, the corresponding numbers are 33, 33, and 30, The fourth ge was to be the las, and was therefore sill “in progress.” 50 to speak, and is subdivided ito shorter intervals of me. Tolte his- tory extends through two 572-year subperiods of the Fourth Su the fall of Tua, in 1 Flint CY 6137, dates to the first year ofa third subperiod. I¢ should be noted that $72 x 3 = 1.716, so that the projected duration ofthe fourth World Age would have been the same as tha ofthe first two, Intltxochil provides the following description ofa calendar re form said to have taken place in Huehuetlapallan, ancient seat of the Toltee people, probably located near the part city of Costza- ‘coals in southern Veracruz according to Jiménez Moreno (1954 1955:225): In the year 5.007 afer the cestion ofthe work, which was 1 lin, Tote sages, astrologers, and masters of Jal other at, assembled inthe aptly, Huchurlapalian wher they ex. "= This is curently known as sh Coder Kolo. Ie present repository is the Bibitheque National de Pars. Reflecting a widely held perspective ‘snong manuscript scholars one of our referees commented that eonela- sions based on data found inthis source had baer remain speculative. So fares Iioehit concerned, much coiticims has centered on fis posely confused chronologies. This. however, is agely a artifact ofthe ‘ay in which Chaveroseorganized” mater found n xiaochi «man Script collection (reather- im copies mage by Bourn and his successes [because the engial andre text gem o hive bes lost) The teal ‘question is whether Duikochit's anseipions of pica) manusries ‘vere accutte, and how we understand #he chrnologial material ree served in his fashion. Dibble found Tuaocht's reading ofthe Coder olor have been substanally cect, bat with ceeasonal, tnd us understandable, misreading of afew name glyphs The same miy have boon tue of hs reading and tanscripsion ofthe now-lost Histon alec ‘manuscript Our reconsuuetion of teronology ss based onthe sequence ‘of year pares and ferences othe umber of years separating Key event. ‘ther thay on Tlnochit's commentaries and corlaional datesamined the happenings, calamities and movements ofthe sky apanehe creation ofthe wold and (accompliahed many ther ie mong whic waste ang of ap year inorder (Bus ie solr [ve calendar) year to the equinox (an) ‘Ghd been one hundred and sixy-sin years since they ada ‘ited te jours and times with he equinox. whe de S48 sar don were elipsed andthe earth wembled wich wt inthe year of 1 House (Leixoeit 1985:1:265)" “he statement that Tolte sages had reviewed the “movements ofthe sky" since creation before adjusting their calendar to an equ sox suggests that they were attempting to commensurate tre SO Tur and ennonie ealendar years. The correct ratio based on moder entific measurement is 1,507 10 1.508 (as diseussed eater). AP- plying this to a peri of 5.096 years (the las complete year D> Fore I Flint CY 5087), we se that 5,096 = 3 % 1.508 + $72, This tnight have passed unnoticed had the number 572 not been idem ‘ied asa singularly important number in the triadic composition ff the first and second World Ages and the first two subperiods of the fourth aliochitt (1985:1-420, $31; 1:13) repeatedly emphasizes the {importance ofthis interval by stating that 572 years was the du- Jaton of the empire governed by the Tula Toles. Now the slip page between calendar and Sun after 5,096 yeas would therefor: hve included three fll returns ofthe Sun to the original equinox. plus 378 of the nextcycle, At that point in time, the calendar year erpuld he 139 days ahead of any observed solar event, such asthe auinox, Whatever else it may mean, the designation of 1 Flint Cy 5007 as a calendar-reform year strongly suggests that the “leap Seat” adjustment mentioned by Tlilxohit) was based prior Brscovery of the 1,507 t0 1,508 ratio. We do not yet know pre- heely how this ratio, once confirmed, was transposed into the fic- ‘ional chronoloay of Word Ages preserved in the orginal pictorial ‘Was he revised ratio implemented by undertaking an actual eal ‘endar reform? Some interesting coincidences support the histor seh authentiity of such an occurrence, while identifying the most probate dat. First of all, counting back from the year 13 Reed M27 takes us to the year a. 1 Flint 129, The name of the first day in terminally named 1 Flint yearsis 6 Rain, We found that this seas precisely the name of the day ofthe all equinox inte corect Jest (September 26, 129). The ods that this might happen by Shance are 1 in 110,000 (or 1 in $5,000 if both equinoxes are con- ‘Sidered), Secondly, the reliability of this identification is eon: firmed by Inthlxochit's reference to a double eclipse 169 years Tater, in 1 House CY 5266 (a.0. 298), We discovered that lunar telipse took place on Decemier 5, followed by a solar eclipse (70% Sf totality) on December 20." Despite the great antiquity of the ‘eference involved the record ofthis rare pair of events may have ‘Deen deemed important enough tobe preserved as part ofthe his tomeal record more than a millenium Tater. Indeed the likelihood ‘Topp interval between 1 Flint and 1 Howse years must be ether 13. a muluple of 13 The number 166 inthis text hs been corected 0 1699 gure AT ie coant is based onthe CY time ein Figure 1. The September ag, aa isd, anton date ws found using the Voyager program. Day 24 Feasdlon heequaion 3 Snake = August 13,1521 (which agrees Munthe standard Maya coretation 586,263), Sean art nlar and Ion eclipses occuring on Sune 25 and July tte Dob ovle ave been recorded ine preceding year, 13 Fin (x2. 2917298), ‘Avent and Calnek I | 5 z i z \,| z a4 El zp 248 12! eae ee is ge 8 8g We] z= 2 3,5 \ 3 & fe ¢ ge8 2 poo ef 2 Ege | 2 dee 8Beegcetests | ase ae | jz ade ane ! \ — Mesoamerican Moat 15 Toner! Day Mesoamerica 9 Snake ToWind Reed 3 Fale 12 Water F Mowe 2298 $28 yi7l493 references in central Mexican sources A. 98-1523 Tbe 4. Ec 142457 1210; V: CXXIK, visible fray: ¥. EXXX atl BoIcodex Xotot epane 260 TUETONATIUH + Howse [ruta toundes a a sto 13 Reed 1427 [CV 6396 sisr [1 rns [ruta cogvoyedt Topitan fees fo Hvenuetapaner | ‘Aveni and Calneke Fire Sun)? TTFint fTulanzinoo founded [Suopareds Va & VO s72e57201 1x52 11352 fi WALonTONATION|_a77a_[ 6am tne base Figure. Creston yar (C1) on latlxochit's Tote Reon srt [Totes setle im Husbootapalen (Wind-Sur) 21g [Fine [Languages diverge: et Toles migration begins Teint ‘hat we are dealing with random chance inthis ase appears not to be very high, ‘We have found no convincing explanation of how an actual re calibration process might have been carried outa this early dates however, we note parenbetically that both the date and the prob- able geographical location, near Coatzacoalcos, correspond well with the time period and region linked with the epi-Olmec tradi- tion of southern Veracruz and adjacent regions. An eclipse re- ‘corded on La Mojarra Stela 1 shows that historical records were ‘being punctuated by astronomical evens in the inscriptions at this carly time period (Se, e.g. Justeson and Kaufman 1992). Equinoxes, Eclipses, and the Proximate History of the Aztec Empire ‘The evidence summarized to this point suggests that the Aztec framework for recording long periods of time would have been founded on the pursuit ofthe Sun, and tat the joints in this frame ‘work would probably have included solar eclipses and equinoctal vents. We turn next to records from the later eycles im Aztec his tory, where we find the same kinds of events in a pivotal role. Tn Table 4 we list 21 references to solar eclipses gleaned from ‘Antec-period records, together with ther dates and the sources in ‘whic they are mentioned. (The magnitude liste im the table is the percentage of the solar disk covered at maximum eclipse.) Rf- trenves to such other events as earthquakes, droughts, military cm (quests, and the deaths of ralers will be found inthe notes to this table [Nineteen of the 21 events in Table 4 can be identified with ac- tua eclipses. Of the remaining two, one (Number 8) is likely to be ‘misdated reference to cither eclipse number 6 in 1475,7 in 1476, for 9 in 1479 The second (Number 21) isa false (perhaps mis- taken or miscalculated?) reference found inthe Codex Aubin. The ‘ay cited in this texts October 8, 1523. This was the day of anew Moon, when a correctly calculated eclipse might have occurred, ‘but in this case there was no actual eclipse inthe calendar yea ‘Our preliminary survey indicates that more than 65 visible so Jar eclipses would have laken place over the period of historical ecard for Tenochtitlan, and many more if this were extended ‘back to the first recorded eclipse (Number 1) on August 4, 1198. If we compare our fist of actual with the list of historically re- corded eclipses, it is immediately clear that Aztec skywatchers did not invariably select the most obvious. impressive eclipses ‘We found, for example, that eclipses recorded for the years 1504, 1508, and 1510 would not have been particularly impressive events in this region. They may have been chosen only because they bracketed the great New Fire ceremony performed in the year 2 Reed 1507. We suggest that calendar Keepers were choosing only those eclipses that happened to occur in proximity to other events © Chimalpain’s (196521) seventh Racin mentions this eclipse o gethec witha feference toe wounding of Emperor Axayacal ip a hate SFStguipico, ‘The sources eed i Table 4 assign the Iter evento the Shne your athe eclipse dated 12 Rabit 1478, we believe tat Chimale- ‘innstbcled the year The contra! Mexican histones requently disagree fn the exset datas for speifc events,Eclipse data and Aztec history (ome historical, some invented) that were to be highlighted and emphasized ‘Note that fewer than half the eclipses cited in Table 4 were ac- ‘wally visible from Tenochtitlan. Mast of them fall within the 40 ‘years tha preceded contact. The Schedule of these observed later {events may have served asthe resource material that set the pat {em for reiroditing eclipses. We are not suggesting thatthe Az~ tecs were able to single ou prehistoric eclipses that were actually Visible at Tenochtitlan, only that, as the Maya had done inthe fa- ‘mous Dresden lunar table, they had managed to discover warning Periods or intervals during which eclipses might occur. Indeed, ‘many eclipses were visible (assuming clear weather) at Tenocht- tan that were not cited, perhaps because they didnot occur a times. of historical significance. We consider it highly likely that many visible eclipses cited by the Aztecs have not been discovered ei- ther because the records were lost or destroyed or because they have been confused in our minds or theirs with other natural (Our approach in searching out the possibility of the rhythmic repetition of sky events has been conservative in that we have con- sidered all events that could possibly have been observed, rather ‘than limiting our database tothe most spectacular phenomena. Any ‘one who witnesses even a partial eclipse, however, will be sick by the most unusual appearance ofthe solar disk when “bitten by the Moon, (One of our most intriguing results was a possible link between ‘the most frequently recorded date forthe founding of Tenochiitlan (2 House 1325) and a total eclipse one hour before noon on April 13, 1325. The first day ofthis calendar year, as previously re- ‘marked, was March 14, or two days after the spring equinox. Im- ‘mediately after sundown on the same day, a vertical alignment of thee closely gathered major planets—Mars, Jupiter and Saturn — ‘would have been seen in the westem sky. In addition, the rarely ‘observed planet Mercury lay just below and tothe side ofthe Ple- ides celestial timing device that played a key role when iterossed the celestial meridian on the night of a New Fire rit."* ‘These circumstances and the selection of a year named 2 House, which was the next year after I Flint, suggest that Aztec historians may have chosen this particular founding date when re inventing their history during or after Itacoatl’s reign precisely be- ‘cause the calendar date was reinforced by just these astronomical ‘events. The events noted above might have been gleaned fom ear lier astronomical record of, if these were unavailable, could have ‘been easily reconstructed through back calculation—a useful too! for narrowing the search for an astronomically suitable date in records compiled a century or so later. With respect to the planets, it would only be necessary to know the time interval separating & siven planet’ appearance inthe same positon relative tothe ris- ing of setting Sun. Eclipse prediction requires no more than rec Cognition of the normal (G-month) and abbreviated (S-month) linar " Forthase who might be ineresed, we list here the dates of al eclipses rot already mentioned that were visible fom Tenochtlan between 1200 ‘nd comin 8/28/1402, 112/ldb9, 6/26/1405, 41471810. 871812, 118! 1417, 971971419, 12/1423, g/2644, 10/301626, 2722/1830, 11307 1434, 4/5/1437, 3/28/1438, 7/1442, $/ T1444, 6/28/1451, 6/1 71482, 9729/1486, 128/148, 919/466, 8/29/1467, 6/28/87, 23/1477, 120 180, 3/26/1484, 3/16/1485, 137688, 10/21/1511, and 97301152) "While upterand Saturn had been dancing arodndin Tauri clove conjonctio since the spring equinok Mars had entered te scene scarcely 4 week before the clipe date. Meroury would have appeared shortly theres 95 semesters over which these phenomena occur. This knowledge was certainly available to calendar specialists long before the Aztecs speared on the seene.” ‘The data relating to eclipses documented in Aztee-period sources suggest a tendency to select events spaced at intervals that were whole multiples ofthe xivkmoipii, not unlike those that bracket ‘the creation epochs found in Intilxochit's account. Thus, the in- terval between the first and second of the eclipses ised in Table 4 (1198 and 1300) is only three years short of 2 x 52 years. Also, ‘he third (1404), fourth (1455), and fifteenth (1507) eclipses oc- curred in years named 2 Reed, in each of which a New Fire rite ‘was performed. By far the largest numberof eclipses isto be found in historical records covering the last 50 years or so before the Spanish inva- sion, Even so, the interval between potentially significant eclipse events frequently approximates 52 years. The date of a near total eclipse (81%) on May 28, 1481, is just 84 days short of 3 xiuh- ‘molpill after the founding-year eclipse in 1325. Adding to te like- ikind nature ofthe two phenomena, a close conjunction of Mars nd Jupiter occurred § days ater the 148) eclipse, on June 2. This eclipse also may have been thematically linked to a series of “smoking-star” events 52 years later, beginning in 1533 (The practice of recording information in continuows-year-count-annal format was maintained during much ofthe early Colonial period, ‘bat with European script eventually replacing pictorial scenes and slyphic entries.) Sill another example of like-n-kind astronomical events can be found in the pictorial record of a total solar eclipse in 4 Flint 1496 (Codex Tlleriano Remensis (Quifones Keber 1995:40v]; see also Codex Vaticanus A 1964:93¥) that unquestionably coincides with an actual eclipse on August 8, 1496. The pictorial represen tation is unusually realistic, It shows a partially eclipsed Sun that appears to be setting behind a mouncain visually similar to those actually found on Tenochiitlan’s western horizon. Although sun disks are sometimes shown with pie-shaped bites in other codices, the Codex Telleriano Remensis provides 2 far more realistic rep. resentation ofan eclipse event: it is unigue in providing a clear view of the horizon with the stars shining above it. The eclipse ‘maximum (approximately 96%) would have occurred late in the afternoon (at 3:00 rt. local time). The eclipse would have just concluded as the Sun descended behind the mountainous western horizon (3° elevation). Adding tothe spectacular nature of this ce- lestial performance, the planets Venus and Mars would have been visible ust 10° apart inthe glow of dawn the following mornin. ° See Aveni(1980-88-92 fora discussion of the eltvely simple meth ods for fiting together planetary commenseration. This eclipse occured during the ealene year named 2 Reed, which 4d wot end unt Ferry 21,148, 2° series of five "smoking tar” evens was recorded ia tbe Coder Tellerino Remenss forthe yeats 1833, 1534, 183, 1837, and 1539 (Quitones Keber 1998-45 48u).Earthguahes wer recorded in connec tion wih the fest and fourth. A glom attached to the 1533 event reas, "Ad they show smoke siming fromthe star hey sl itll choo. which isthe one we ell Venus, ast they consider be very importa” (Quinones Keter 1995:278) Later losis alo identy these images with Venus A Moot Venus conpnetion search revealed tha the erescen’ Moon passed very close to Venbs in these years Moreover his st-yar interval of lose conjunctions was preceded by a teeyear gap. and Followed by a fve- ‘ear pap, daring whieh no clove conjunctions (4 separation) cccuted. ‘Although the instant ofthe closet appearance of Venus andthe Moan was ‘not visible in each case. we believe that pre-Hispanie asuonomers were Sely capable of atsipating such events% ‘Aveni and Calnek ‘Table. Likedn-knd ecpses vibe an integral number of Xiuhmodpll apart In Tenochtitlan of which atleast one event Is recorded a an ecpse Dae Distance beeween Pais of Dates Eclipse Events| Year Bearer Source istrcal Events An3/I325 $7.024= 3% 52365 +84 days total solar eclipi: planetary House no detectable ecord_foundaton of Tenochitlan lineup inthe West involving Mars Juper| sraeiasi partial sola eclipse: 2 Howe see otek, Tabled ‘ose conjunction in West Jnvolving Mars Jupiter 672811340 57.0233 52x 365 +83 daye partial solar eclipse; close 4 Flint ——_no detectable record conjunction in West involving Mats & Jupiter av8n396 {neary) total solar eclipse; $F’ see noteo, Table 4 conquest of Zohepee ‘conjunction of ‘ens & Mas inthe East BNLAN3SS 565886 3 x 52. 365 ~ 94 days pari sola eclipse 6 Reed no detectable record tnsio Paral solr eclipse S Rabbit sce note Table 4 siege of Tepatepec GI17N452 18,900 = 52% 365~ days partial soar elise 12 Flint no detectable recon snsisos paral solar eclipse T2Flin See note q Table ¢ famine, death of Itcoat() ‘Itmay also be noted that there had been a pair of partial eclipses, each near a solstice, in 1340, three xiukmolpll before the 1496 event. The firs, on January 26, was followed after sunset by 2 planetary lineup consisting of Mercury, Venus, Mars, and Jupiter ‘Although no record of the 1340 eclipse and planetary alignment appears in curently availabe sources, the coincidence linking these very similar astronomical combinations in years named 4 Flint was probably noticed. Table S summarizes these possible sets of like- inckind eclipse events within an Aztee calendrical framework CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS ‘The evidence summarized to this point suggests thatthe Aztecs restructured thir history by establishing close links between cer- ‘in natural events and particularly important beginnings pertain- ing to ther state, such asthe founding ofthe city, the gaining of independence, and major conquests. Using the relative exactitude ‘with which itis possible opin down real eclipses in absolut time, and taking advantage of references to solar eclipses in the Aztec records, we suggest that Aztec chronologists selectively recorded visible eclipses that served as "punctuation marks” bracketing teal historical events spaced at intervals determined by the xiuh- ‘molpil! cyclic framework. We have been able to match 15 of 21 cclipse records with events visible in Tenochtitlan. On the other hhand, we have been unable to fin any reference to many tot ‘eclipses as prominent visible inthe same region, There were, for ‘example, at least seven such eclipses of magnitude 80% or more in the fifteenth century alone. Although the Aztec historical cor ‘us is far from complete, we nonetheless suspect that these phe- ‘nomena may have been passed over deliberately because they did ‘not occur ata significant postion in the siukmolpili cycle. (Our strategy has consisted of using surviving sources to derive as much as can be reasonably leared about the ways in which very rare like-in-kindeclipse events separated by some whole number of 52-year eycles may have been involved inthe restructuring of is- torical chronologies, Although far from conclusive, we believe that sufficient evidence exists to justify continuing investigation of the extent to which social and cosmic events were conflated. ‘What implications does the study of solar eclipses have for our ‘understanding of the Aztec use of like-in-kind events in general? Using a more extended list of sky events as a reference frame, we ‘have now began the more arduous process of extrapolating back- ‘ward and forward through pictorial manuscripts and prose texts ‘with the goal of identifying all such events. We ae also looking for pocentially repestable patterns, especially those that may be correlated with events in the history of the Aztec state, Our solar eclipse data is now substantially complete. We are currently com- piling alist of the mote impressive planetary conjunctions and line- ‘ups that occured ator near the time ofa given eclipse, as well as all historically recorded comets that may have been noted by AZ- te astronomers. Once complete, a master chart ofthis kind will greatly [aclitate continuing investigations of the relationship be- ‘ween cosmic and historical events as conceived within the Aztec temporal framework. RESUMEN, [Nowotrospresentamos una lisa completa de eclipses que estin documen- tados en lor manurertos mexias. Usamos esa Ista junto on I infor racine ls ernicas para mostrar un método usado por los cronstas rmeviets que enlaza los eventos coos hstrcos con Tos evens cs- ‘micas retrodictables que foeron escojidos pura coined cn ls circu Sancis hisses, Los evento oars, arclarmene ls eclipses, iguran en om esquems que enfaia la repeticin de eventos similares que coin- ‘iden confor multipos del suhmopil (el cicio de $2 abs) Af a un ‘lacie del impero las juts calendieo rescionados con la cronologit Fieticin dels dads mundales son conectados con los eclipses que fe cron visibles en Tenochitlan y que eayeron en ls solsticios © los equincceiosEclipse data and Aztec history ACKNOWLEDGMENTS (Our project arose out of a symposium on “Aatee Time and Ceremonial Landscapes” eid at the Mesoamerican Archive atthe Unversity of Cl ‘grado, Boulder, uly 1-5, 1991. We are indebted especially 10 David {Caraco for initating this vere of interdsiplinary conferences on Arce -elgin, This effort as played a profound le in binging wgether schol ani efforts formerly pursued separately We are especialy indebted he Paricipnts atthe conference wh have offered tefl comments on our ‘work, both orally and in wig, Tey include Heny Nicholson, Lindsay Jones Philp Amold, Doris He¥den. Johanna Brods, and especially El ‘beth Boone, Susan Milrat. and Elise Quitones Reber, who offered REFERENCES ‘Apuler, Carmen, and Jesus Galindo T 1991 "Registro de eclipses en codices de aiplano Mexicana (1199 1531). In Belipses en Mexico, edted by L. Merigue Caste. p.61= 67. Insitato Nacional de Anopologia © Historia, Meso, ‘Aven, Anthony 1980 "Shywatchers of Ancien Mexico, University of Texas Press, Aus- 1989. Empires of Time. Basic Books, New York. ‘Aven, Anthony. Edward Calne, nd Horst Hartung 1988 "Myth, Environment. and the Onentaton of the Templo Mayer of Tenochtlan. 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