JRLS 6 2015 PDF

JOURNAL OF ROMANIAN LITERARY STUDIES
Issue no.6/2015
Issue no.6/2015
Journal of Romanian Literary Studies is an international online journal published by the

ALPHA Institute for Multicultural Studies in partnership with the Department of Philology
at Petru Maior University in Targu-Mures, and the Gh. incai Institute of Research for
Socio-Human Sciences of the Romanian Academy. It is an academic publication opened to
professors, literary critics, theoreticians or researchers who are interested in the study of
Romanian literature, as well as the Humanities. Our essential goal is to set communication
paths between Romanian literary and humanistic research and the contemporary European
cultural discourse, bringing the most valuable phenomena recorded in Romanian culture to
a beneficial dialogue with the other European cultures.
SCIENTIFIC BOARD:
EDITORIAL BOARD:
Prof. Virgil NEMOIANU, PhD

Prof. Nicolae BALOT, PhD
Prof. Nicolae MANOLESCU, PhD
Prof. Eugen SIMION, PhD
Prof. George BANU, PhD
Prof. Alexandru NICULESCU, PhD
Editorial Manager:
Prof. Iulian BOLDEA, PhD
Executive Editor:
Prof. Al. CISTELECAN, PhD
Editors:
Prof. Cornel MORARU, PhD
Prof. Andrei BODIU, PhD
Prof. Mircea A. DIACONU, PhD
Assoc. Prof. Dorin STEFANESCU, PhD
Assoc. Prof. Luminia CHIOREAN, PhD
Assist. Prof. Dumitru-Mircea BUDA, PhD
The sole responsibility regarding the contents of the articles lies with the authors.
Desktop publishing: D.-M. Buda
Published by
Arhipelag XXI Press, Trgu-Mure, Romnia, 2014
Moldovei Street, 8, Trgu-Mure, 540519, Romnia
Tel: +40-744-511546
Editor: Iulian Boldea
Editorial advisor: Dumitru-Mircea Buda
Email: editura.arhipelag21@gmail.com
http://www.asociatiaalpha.comxa.com
ISSN: 2248-3004
The issues of "Journal of Romanian Literary Studies" are included in the following International
Databases : CEEOL, Global Impact Factor, Google Scholar, Academia.Edu, Researchgate.org.
Indexation in currently in progress in the following International Databases:
INDEX COPERNICUS / DOAJ / EBSCO HOST / SCOPUS / THOMSON-REUTERS WEB OF
KNOWLEDGE / SCIPIO
Issue no. 6/2015
TABLE OF CONTENTS:
BEAUTIFUL AND FORGOTTEN (ANTOANETA BODISCO)
Al. CISTELECAN ............................................................................................................................................. 17
PRACTICAL APPROACHES OF THE DRUG-PREVENTION
ALBERT Lorincz Eniko ............................................................................................................................... 21
TRIBUNA LITERARY MAGAZINE AND ITS ROLE IN ROMANIAN CULTURE
Dumitru DRAICA ........................................................................................................................................... 28
CULTURE, CULTURES, CULTURAL APPRENTICESHIP
Veronica GASPAR ......................................................................................................................................... 33
MEMORY, EXILE, IDENTITY: NORMAN MANEA
Iulian BOLDEA ............................................................................................................................................... 42
LIVIU REBREANUS RELATIONS WITH THE PRESS OF THE EPOCH
Mariana FLAIER .......................................................................................................................................... 47
TO SEE AS OR THE HERMENEUTICS OF THE RELATION OF RESEMBLANCE
Dorin TEFNESCU ..................................................................................................................................... 52
METAPHYSICAL RED HERRING
Drago AVDANEI........................................................................................................................................ 61
READING AND WRITING THE CITY IN MODERNIST FICTION
Dana BDULESCU ........................................................................................................................................ 67
THE MOTIF OF THE DOUBLE PARENTS AND MAGICAL ADOPTION IN TRADITIONAL
ROMANIAN CULTURE
Gabriela-Mariana LUCA.............................................................................................................................. 75
METAPHORICAL MEANINGS IN STANESCUS POETIC ESSAY
Luminia CHIOREAN ................................................................................................................................... 81
ARGHEZI BETWEEN RUG AND RUGCIUNE (PRAYER)
Mina-Maria RUSU ......................................................................................................................................... 88
SEDUCTION AND SEDUCERS IN CAMIL PETRESCU'S WORK
Florica FAUR ................................................................................................................................................... 93
ROMANIAN LANGUAGE IN EUROPEAN CONTEXT IDENTITY AND NATIONAL
SPECIFICITY
Valerica DRAICA..........................................................................................................................................101
VIRGIL DUDA A PORTRAIT OF THE ARTIST AS A MATURE MAN
Sorina CHIPER .............................................................................................................................................108
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Issue no. 6/2015
AGRAFA ROIE THE NOVEL AS REALIST STORY AND MOTIVATING DOCUMENT

Larisa Ileana CASANGIU...........................................................................................................................113
CONTACT ETHICS FOR TRANSLATORS
Attila IMRE ....................................................................................................................................................119
THE WORKSHOP AS AN EDUCATIONAL APPROACH IN STUDENT SCIENTIFIC
ACTIVITIES
Maria Dorina PACA ..................................................................................................................................125
CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS OF PRESUPPOSITIONS IN DIFFERENT TEXTS
Reka SUBA .....................................................................................................................................................132
DER ERFOLGREICHE REDNER
Olga KAITER .................................................................................................................................................139
A EULOGY TO CONTEMPORARY CANADIAN LITERATURE OR HOW I STARTED TO
TEACH ALICE MUNROS SHORT STORIES
Cristina NICOLAESCU ...............................................................................................................................144
DIASPORA IS GOING ONLINE. IDENTITY, LANGUAGE AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATION
Gabriela GOUDENHOOFT ........................................................................................................................150
THREE MEN IN A BOAT: NIETZSCHE, ADORNO AND CIORAN. ON TRANSMUTATION OF
VALUES
Ovidiu Marius BOCA ................................................................................................................................160
THE LYRICISM OF THE VOYAGE OUT
Irina-Ana DROBOT .....................................................................................................................................171
LE CHAMPS SEMATIQUE DU MOT BLANC
Adela-Marinela STANCU, Mihaela Claudia RACU ...........................................................................180
TRUTH AND FICTION
MAROSFI Enik ........................................................................................................................................188
APPROACHES TO TEACHING LITERATURE IN EFL CLASSROOMS
Alina Nicoleta PADUREAN ......................................................................................................................195
ARCHETYPAL MISSIONS
Otilia SRBU ..................................................................................................................................................201
PLEADING FOR AN AESTHETICS OF COLOURS, SOUND AND FORMS. KANDINSKY, SATIE
AND BRNCUI
Ariana BLAA ............................................................................................................................................207
PROPER NAMES DERIVING FROM LATIN IN THE WORKS OF V. ALECSANDRI AND I. L.
CARAGIALE
Iuliana Adelina ILIESCU ...........................................................................................................................212
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Issue no. 6/2015
THE ROLE OF LANGUAGE TESTING AND EVALUATION IN DEVELOPING

COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE
Cristina MARIN, Corina GEAN ............................................................................................................217
ONLINE COMMUNICATION PRAGMATISM
Adriana Denisa MANEA ...........................................................................................................................227
WHAT DO SUBTITLERS TRANSLATE? PARTICULARITIES OF THE AUDIOVISUAL TEXTS
WITH A SPECIAL VIEW ON THE SUBTITLING OF HUMOUR
Violeta TNASE ...........................................................................................................................................231
ADAM AND TWO EVAS AN UNIQUE EROTIC TRIANGLE
Liliana FLORIA .............................................................................................................................................238
SHORT ISTORIOGRAPHICAL REVIEW OF THE CATHOLIC REFORM/COUNTER-REFORM
IN 17TH CENTURY TRANSYLVANIA: EVOLUTIONS, FEATURES
Diana Maria DIAN ....................................................................................................................................247
ALEXANDRU PHILIPPIDES POETRY IN THE CONTEXT OF 20THE CENTURY ROMANIAN
POETRY
Gabriela CRCIUN ......................................................................................................................................260
POETIC TRANSYLVANISM IN THE CASE OF KNYDI SNDOR
Carmen HURUB (DUDIL) ...................................................................................................................268
UTILITARIANISM AND CREATIVITY IN PREHISTORY: THE SMALL ART OF GUMELNIA
CULTURE
Ioana-Iulia OLARU......................................................................................................................................274
THE RELIGIOUS LITERATURE FOR CHILDREN IN THE UNIQUE BOOK(1946)
Antonina Silvia FRANDE ANDONE ....................................................................................................282
STUDY ON THE UTILITY OF CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS IN THE CONTEXT OF AUTHENTIC
TEXTS CORPUS DEVELOPMENT
Laris BULAI ...................................................................................................................................................288
POSTMEMORY IN JONATHAN SAFRAN FOER'S EVERYTHING IS ILLUMINATED
Sorin-Daniel FAUR, West Universitz of Timioara ........................................................................296
HUMAN CAPITAL A CENTRAL CONCEPT FOR SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT,
CONTEXTUALIZED TO THE PROCESS OF GLOBALIZATION
Gabriela-Violeta IORDCHI ..............................................................................................................302
THE FUNCTIONING OF THE CONSULATS IN GALAI DURING THE FIRST HALF OF THE
19TH CENTURY
Ana-Maria CHECU ....................................................................................................................................306
Issue no. 6/2015
THE ITINERARY OF THE ROMANIAN FAIRY-TALE

Maria MOVIL (POPA) .............................................................................................................................318
ION HELIADE RDULESCU AND THE 1848 GENERATIONS LITERARY PHYSIOLOGY
Marta ALBU ...................................................................................................................................................324
MYTH AND POETIC VISION IN CONVORBIRI CU DIAVOLUL AND NTOARCEREA FIULUI
RISIPITOR BY ION MUREAN
Vasile FEURDEAN .......................................................................................................................................338
FROM WORD-MIRACLE TO WORD-WEAPON IN THE WORK OF NORMAN MANEA
Aurica STAN..................................................................................................................................................360
LA LITTERATURE MAGHREBINE DEXPRESSION FRANAISE-UN ESPACE DE
QUESTIONNEMENT IDENTITAIRE
Otilia Maria AIOANEI ................................................................................................................................368
CHILDHOOD-TIME OF FIRST RESOURCEFUL EXPERIENCES IN THE POETRY OF ILEANA
MALANCIOIU
Ioan GHEORGHIOR ..................................................................................................................................379
BENIAMIN FUNDOIANU BENJAMIN FONDANE AND ILARIE VORONCA: PORTRAITS OF
TWO ROMANIAN-FRENCH TRANSLATORS
Cosmin-Gheorghi PRGHIE .................................................................................................................385
UN REGARD SUR LIMPOSSIBILITE DE LA TRADUCTION
Sperana DOBO .........................................................................................................................................394
THE CRITICAL RECEPTION OF MIRCEA IVNESCUS POETRY IN 2005
Diana DAN ............................................................................................................................. 402
NTOZAKE SHANGES HOLISTIC VISION OF ART
Amada MOCIOALC ...................................................................................................................................406
NARRATIVE STRUCTURES IN THE NOVELS OF RODICA OJOG-BRAOVEANU
SPECIALIZED STUDY
Dorina Nela TRIFU .....................................................................................................................................411
TRAIAN CHELARIU AND THE REWRITING OF THE MIORITIC MYTH
Dana-Alexandra DOLGU-URSULEANU ...............................................................................................415
MIHAI EMINESCU AND TE OPHIL GAUTIER - FROM THE AVATAR TO POOR DIONISBETWEEN UNSLEEPING AND DREAM
Mihaela-Gabriela PUN............................................................................................................................419
GEORGE BLIS CULTURAL AND HIS LITERARY ACTIVITY IN POST COMMUNISM
Sabina MARCU .............................................................................................................................................425
Issue no. 6/2015
PUPA RUSSA THE NOVEL AS THE EFFECT AND LIMIT OF A THEORETICAL FICTION
Florica PERSCEL (TEODORIUC) .........................................................................................................431
THE IMAGE OF COMMUNISM REFLECTED IN THE ARCHIVES
OF A FEW ORTHODOX PARISHES OF BUCHAREST
Claudiu COTAN ............................................................................................................................................439
ROMANIAN CULTURE, PATRIMONIAL HERITAGE AND POPULAR ART
Adela MARINCU ..........................................................................................................................................448
THE POETICS OF THE FANTASTIC IN MIRCEA ELIADES PROSE
Nicoleta DUMITRACHE (HEN) ............................................................................................................454
UNDER THE SIGN OF MAGIC FANTASTIC SPACE IN VASILE VOICULESCUS AND ION
AGRBICEANUS PROSE
Ana Alexandra SANDULOVICIU ............................................................................................................459
THE MARQUEZIAN PATRIARCH: AN UN-MYTHISIZED MESSIA
Alina IEI ....................................................................................................................................................464
EUROPEAN LITERARY DIRECTIONS AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON THE ROMANIAN
CULTURE (PRE-ROMANTICISM, ROMANTICISM, POST-ROMANTICISM, REALISM)
Ana-Elena COSTANDACHE .....................................................................................................................470
PROMOTING SCHOOLS THROUGH SOCIAL MEDIA
Alexandru-Cosmin APOSTOL .................................................................................................................478
BESSARABIA IN MIHAI EMINESCUS JOURNALISTIC WORKS
Mihaela MOCANU .......................................................................................................................................484
THE POETIC ODYSSEY-A THEORETICAL DESCENT INTO THE WHITMANESQUE
RENAISSANCE. PROLEGOMENA FOR WHITMANS UNIVERSE OF PERCEPTIONS
Ioana MUDURE-IACOB .............................................................................................................................492
OBSERVATIONS REGARDING THE STATUS OF THE PREPOSITION A IN ROMANIAN
Cristina CORLA (HAN) ...........................................................................................................................500
OVIDIUS EXILE POETRY SOURCE FOR ESTABLISHING THE TRUTH REGARDING THE
PLACES, CLIMATE AND VEGETATION IN TOMIS
Coca DORICA ................................................................................................................................................505
PARNASIAN FEATURES OF ROMANIAN SYMBOLIST POETRY
Andreea Iuliana DAMIAN ........................................................................................................................511
FEATURES OF LIFE IN THE WEST, REFLECTED IN IOAN SLAVICIS WRITINGS
Adela Cristiana GORCEA ..........................................................................................................................518
Issue no. 6/2015
MARGARET ATWOOD AND SUZANNE COLLINS: PERSPECTIVES ON SPACE, WAR AND

SURVIVAL
Adela Livia CTAN ..................................................................................................................................528
THE APPRECIATIVE MODE IN OLD ROMANIAN LANGUAGE
Iuliana-Valentina BOBOAC ...................................................................................................................537
THE ROMANIAN POSTMODERNISM: DICHOTOMIES UNDER DEBATE
Bogdan RAIU..............................................................................................................................................541
TRANSLATING OTHERNESS: CROSS-CULTURAL DIALOGUE IN MONICA ALIS BRICK
LANE
Susana BUCIUMEANU ...............................................................................................................................552
THE EXPERIENCE OF THE INTERVAL. NOTES REGARDING ANDREI BODIUS POETRY
Catrinel POPA...............................................................................................................................................563
CHARACTER ENLIGHTENMENT IN IRIS MURDOCHS RETROSPECTIVE FICTION
Aura PANDELE ............................................................................................................................................569
CHRISTIANITY CREATED EUROPEAN CULTURE
Clin ROU.....................................................................................................................................................577
(INTER)DISCIPLINARY FRONTEERS AND METHODOLOGIC ALTERNATIVES IN
COMPARED LITERATURE: INTERCULTURALITY AND INTERSEMIOTIC
TRANSPOSITION
Nicoleta POPA BLNARIU .......................................................................................................................581
THE COMPLEXITY OF ALEXANDRU ODOBESCUS PERSONALITY
Elena Lavinia DIACONESCU .................................................................................................................596
THE COMPLEX OF THE EXTERNAL HELP: BETWEEN PARASITISM AND FAKE
MESSIANISM
Lucian D. BICEANU .................................................................................................................................604
SPATIO-TEMPORAL CONFIGURATIONS IN MIRCEA NEDELCIUS PROSE
Ana-Valeria GORCEA (STOICA) .............................................................................................................609
THE BOOK OF AUCTORIAL SINCERITY. OCTAVIAN PALERS NOVEL LIFE ON A
PLATFORM AND THE CONTINUOUS NECESITY OF PROBLEMATIZING THE EXISTENCE
Mariana Simona VRTAN (PLEA) .......................................................................................................618
ON THE AUCTORIAL SUBJECTIVITY IN SPECIALIZED LITERATURE
Ioana-Crina COROI .....................................................................................................................................630
LITTERATURE ET MARKETING : LE CAS DE ZOLA
Daniela-Ionela COVRIG .............................................................................................................................636
Issue no. 6/2015
ABOUT THE LABYRINTH OF SELF-KNOWLEDGE AND THE MYTH OF INTERNAL

HAPPINESS
Adrian IANCU ...............................................................................................................................................646
PLACE APPELLATIVES AND PLACE NAMES IN ROMANIAN. SPECIAL ATTENTION PAID
TO THE TOPONYMS OF BISTRA AND SEBE VALLEYS (CARA-SEVERIN COUNTY)
Diana BOC-SNMRGHIAN...................................................................................................................654
DIVERSITE MULTICULTURELLE ET FRANCOPHONIE DANS LA LITTERATURE DE
L'ESPACE EUROPEEN ET CANADIEN
Mdlina Camelia INGRAM (INTEIA) ..............................................................................................662
DO ASSERTIONS, QUESTIONS OR WISHES MAKE A THICK TRANSLATION?
Anca-Mariana PEGULESCU .....................................................................................................................670
MIRCEA CRTRESCU: THE PUBLICISTIC PROSE BETWEEN AUTOBIOGRAPHY AND
FICTION
Sofian DIANA ................................................................................................................................................675
DU-TE VREME, VINO VREME! AND THE MYTH OF PARADISE
Doina POLOGEA ..........................................................................................................................................683
TEACHING FOREIGN LANGUAGES TO THE NEW GENERATION
Edith-Hilde KAITER ...................................................................................................................................688
EDWARD GORDON CRAIG ET LART DU SPECTACLE
Cristina SCARLAT .......................................................................................................................................696
A DISTINCT PROFILE: AUTOFICTION WOMEN-AUTHORS OF EGO.PROZA COLLECTION
Violeta Teodora LUNGEANU...............................................................................................................700
THE PANORAMA OF A POLYPHONIC REALITY, THE ANALYSIS OF AN ADDENDA IN
LIVIUS CIOCRLIES DIARY CU DINII DE LN. JURNAL 1978-1983
Elena MATEIU ( MANOLE) ......................................................................................................................707
ELIADIAN HERMENEUTICS IN POLAND: STANISLAW TOKARSKI ELIADE AND THE
WEST
Magdalena FILARY .....................................................................................................................................712
RELIGIOUS FORMS GENERATED BY THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EROS AND
THANATOS IN CEZAR IVNESCUS POETRY
Valeria CIOAT ............................................................................................................................................720
THE EVOLUTION OF THE CONCEPT OF LITERARY HISTORY. THEORETICAL
DELIMITATIONS
Roxana-Oana MNDRU .............................................................................................................................726
GOETHES FAUST IN ROMANIAN CLOTHING
Emilia TEFAN .............................................................................................................................................734
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Issue no. 6/2015
LE DERNIER FONDANE
Bianca-Livia BARTO ................................................................................................................................740
THE FRACTALS OF VASILE LOVINESCUS VISION
Elena Alina BRBU ...............................................................................................................................746
FROM MYTHS TO ARCHETYPES: BRANCUIS ENDLESS COLUMN
Minerva-Teresa LCTUU....................................................................................................................751
ARS POETICA IN THE POETRY OF DETENTION
Lavinia-Ileana GEAMBEI ..........................................................................................................................755
GEORGE BARIIU REFLECTIONS UPON THE HOME INDUSTRY REFLECTED IN THE
TRANSILVANIA MAGAZINE
Gherghina BODA .........................................................................................................................................762
A GENDER-NEUTRAL LANGUAGE: MYTH OR REALITY?
Giulia SUCIU ..................................................................................................................................................766
INDIVIDUAL AGENCY IN HISTORY? GOETHE AND TOLSTOY ON NAPOLEON
BONAPARTE CASE
Mdlin ONU ................................................................................................................................................770
THE LYRICAL LANGUAGE OF POST-COMMUNIST ROMANIAN WRITERS
Irina GRIGORE .............................................................................................................................................777
THE LIFE AND POWER OF STORIES: HANS CHRISTIAN ANDERSEN AND ION CREANG
(CASE-STUDY)
Luiza MARINESCU ......................................................................................................................................782
IMAGINARY SYMBOLISM IN FNU NEAGUS PLAYS
Ana-Maria OLARU (TICU) .......................................................................................................................793
CLASSIC INTERTEXTUALITY VS. RIZOMATIC GENOTEXTUAL PHENOMENA
Igor URSENCO ..............................................................................................................................................798
IOANICHIE OLTEAN, THE THIRD BALLAD-AUTHOR OF THE SIBIU LITERARY CIRCLE
Delia Natalia TRIF (ANCA) ......................................................................................................................806
ROMANIAN PRESS IN TIMISOARA AT THE BEGINNING OF THE XXTH CENTURY
Ionela Simona SCRIDON ..........................................................................................................................812
THE HISTORY AND TRADITION OF THE ROMANI
Ana NICULESCU ..........................................................................................................................................817
IN TWO SUITCASES AND THREE BUNDLES OR BASARABIA - BUFFER LAND. NONPLACE REPRESENTATION IN THE NOVEL BESSARABIA BY PAUL GOMA
Veronica NANU ............................................................................................................................................821
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Issue no. 6/2015
JEDEDIAH BERRY, INHERITANCE: AN APPROACH FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF THE

NEW CRITICISM
Ofelia TOFAN (married AL-GAREEB) .................................................................................................827
THE ROLE OF STEAUA MAGAZINE IN PROLTETCULT
SZAB Zsolt ..................................................................................................................................................832
THE GAME OF ANTINOMIES IN CAMIL PETRESCUS THEATRE
Cosmina Andreea ROU ...........................................................................................................................837
NARCISSISM AND EROTISM IN MARIANA MARINS POETRY
Angelica BEAN (STOICA) ...................................................................................................................846
DUNREA REVRSAT: RADU TUDORANS CUSTOMISED VERSION OF SOCIALIST
REALISM
Jeanina Simona CACUCI ...........................................................................................................................852
ISLAMIC METAPHYSICAL ELEMENTS
Adriana Claudia CTEIA............................................................................................................................860
THE SUPPORT GROUP FOR AUTIST CHILDREN PARENTS
Loredana BNIC .......................................................................................................................................868
AVANT-GARDE VERSUS MODERNITY
Mirela RADU, Titu Maiorescu University of Bucharest
Cristina Veronica ANDREESCU, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy,
Bucharest .......................................................................................................................................................878
WRITING AS EXISTENTIAL SOLUTION REGARDING ANA BLANDIANAS FALS TRATAT
DE MANIPULARE
Anamaria DOBRESCU (POPA) ...............................................................................................................885
LITERARY HISTORY GOES FURTHER
tefan VLDUESCU .................................................................................................................................890
THE SPIRITUAL BODY AND THE THEME OF THE MIRROR IN HORTENSIA
PAPADAT-BENGESCUS SHORT PROSE
Mihaela STANCIU (VRAJA)......................................................................................................................895
THE SPACE IN ALEXANDRU VONA`S NOVEL
Lucian-Nicu RDAN .............................................................................................................................899
LA TRADUCTION DU DISCOURS DRAMATIQUE
Violeta LUPACU CRISTESCU ................................................................................................................903
KAFKA'S METAMORPHOSIS APPROACHED VIA AN INTERDISCIPLINARY
PERSPECTIVE
Clementina Alexandra MIHILESCU ...................................................................................................912
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Issue no. 6/2015
LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS IN A COMPARATIVE CLASSIFICATION OF INTERJECTIONS.

POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO THEIR TRANSLATION
Olivia-Cristina RUSU..................................................................................................................................917
NERVALS VISIONARISM. AURELIA
KOZAK Larisa ...............................................................................................................................................925
EKPHRASIS AND REVERSED EKPHRASIS AS ADAPTATION PROCESSES
Lavinia HULEA .............................................................................................................................................933
LE PROBLEME DE LART DANS RUE DU HAVRE DE PAUL GUIMARD
Emanuel TURC .............................................................................................................................................939
LE SUJET EN TANT QUALTER EGO DANS LE ROMAN AUTO-SPCULAIRE
Leontina COPACIU......................................................................................................................................948
LES FESTINS FEERIQUES DE PERRAULT : SYMBOLES DANS LA TRADUCTION
Iulia CORDU ................................................................................................................................................953
UPON SOME LEXICALIZATIONS OF CHRISTIAN SPIRITUALITY IN THE 1648 CALVINIST
CATECHISM
PL Enik ......................................................................................................................................................962
ROMANIAN LANGUAGE IN THE FIRST HALF OF THE 19TH CENTURY
Elena Andreea POPA .................................................................................................................................976
THE LITERALITY OF THE JUXTAPOSITION OF BLANCHOT, MAGRITTEM DE CHIRICO
Patricia APOSTOL .......................................................................................................................................981
FEMININE CONFESSION LITERATURE. HORTENSIA PAPADAT-BENGESCU, ARABESCUL
AMINTIRII
Elena FILOTE (PANAIT) ...........................................................................................................................987
AN ANTHROPOLOGY OF THE LUDIC EXPRESSION CONSIDERING THE QUESTION
WHAT HAPPENS WHEN IRONY IS (NOT) TAKEN SERIOUSLY?
Liviu Iulian COCEI.......................................................................................................................................998
COSTACHE OLREANU MOMENTS OF ADOLESCENCE
Elena LAZR (BURLACU) ..................................................................................................................... 1003
ONEIRIC SYMBOLS IN MIRCEA CARTARESCUS TRAVESTI
Silvia-Maria COMANAC (MUNTEANU)............................................................................................ 1008
SEPTIMIU BUCUR THE TOPOLOGY OF A PERSONALITYS DEVELOPMENT
Dumitria Florina TODORAN (POP) ................................................................................................. 1019
ALIMAN AND THE MEPHISTOFELIAN PACT
Nicoleta Doina POP (POCAN) .............................................................................................................. 1028
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Issue no. 6/2015
THE METAMORPHOSIS OF WINE WITHIN IAGOS VILLAINY - SHAKESPEARE IN VERDIS

OTHELLO
Letiia GOIA, Babe-Bolyai University of Cluj-Napoca
Cornelia CUTEANU, Gheorghe Dima Music Academy of Cluj-Napoca ............................. 1033
DAS MOTIV DES WAHNSINNS IN DER DEUTSCHEN LITERATUR VON GEORG
BCHNER BIS PATRICK SSKIND (THE MOTIF OF MADNESS IN GERMAN LITERATUREFROM GEORG BCHNER TO PATRICK SSKIND)
Simona OLARU-POIAR ........................................................................................................................ 1039
THE (PRE)ROMANTIC MACABRE IN VASILE AARONS WORK: REPORTA DIN VIS
Oana POP .................................................................................................................................................... 1048
THE GREAT WAR AND THE GREAT DEPRESSION: THE LOST LINK
Cristian Alexandru BOGHIAN ............................................................................................................. 1053
LE LANGAGE SPCIALIS DE LA PUBLICIT. DIFFICULTS DE LA TRADUCTION DU
TEXTE PUBLICITAIRE
Maria Ctlina RADU .............................................................................................................................. 1060
THE ETNOGRAPHIC WRITING AND THE DISCURSIVE TECHNIQUES OF THE POSITIVIST
PARADIGM
Maria GROSU ............................................................................................................................................. 1065
THE MYTH OF ORPHEUS. PARALLEL BETWEEN THE ANCIENT POETRY OF OVID AND
VERGIL AND THE MUSIC FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE 17TH CENTURY COMPOSED BY
CLAUDIO MONTEVERDI
Maria Virginia ONIA............................................................................................................................. 1073
LE TOPOS DE LA MATER DOLOROSA DANS UN RCIT DE SYLVIE GERMAIN
Serenela GHIEANU ............................................................................................................................... 1083
THE MYTH AND LITERATURE: THE LEGEND
Alina Luciana OLTEAN .......................................................................................................................... 1088
OTHERHOOD, DEATH AND THE REMAKING OF AN IDENTITY IN TONI MORRISONS
UNBALANCED WORLDS
Daniela-Irina DARIE ............................................................................................................................... 1092
NICOLAE STEINHARDT- ESSAYIST
Claudia CREU (VALOBAN) .............................................................................................................. 1100
SYMBOL, IMAGE AND NATURIST METAPHOR IN ION HOREAS POETRY
Ana-Maria TEFAN (PAPUC) .............................................................................................................. 1104
THE METAMORPHOSES OF A DESTINY GABRIELA MELINESCU
Bianca CRUCIU .......................................................................................................................................... 1113
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Issue no. 6/2015
NO GIPSY VENUS- ZOLI, ANOTHER HEROINE OF COLUM MCCANN

PUSKS-BAJK Albina........................................................................................................................... 1119
STATUTES OF THE CULTURAL AND SOCIAL MEETINGS AND THEIR ROLE IN
ASSERTING ROMANIAN CULTURAL MOVEMENT IN TIMISOARA. 1867-1918
Alin Cristian SCRIDON ........................................................................................................................... 1128
A LOVINESCIAN MARK
Carmen Elena FLOREA .......................................................................................................................... 1136
FORMS OF TRANSTEXTUALITY IN IOAN PETRU CULIANUS LITERATURE
Adriana Dana LISTES POP .................................................................................................................... 1142
IOAN AL. BRTESCU-VOINETI CORRESPONDENCE, NOVEL AND POLEMICS
Mirela Alina MORAR (POPA)............................................................................................................... 1151
PIERRE MICHON, LHISTORIEN
Alina PINTICAN ........................................................................................................................................ 1159
COUNTERCULTURE BETWEEN DEMOCRACY AND TOTALITARIANISM
Senida POENARIU ................................................................................................................................... 1163
SYMBOLICS OF LIGHT AND THE LIVING IN A POETIC MODE
Lorena-Valeria STUPARU ..................................................................................................................... 1169
POSTMODERNISM: HISTORICAL AND THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Monica SIMON .......................................................................................................................................... 1178
THE NEED FOR MARKETING IN RELIGIOUS ACTIVITIES
Doina GURI ........................................................................................................................................... 1184
QUENTIN COMPSON: TRAPPED IN ILLO TEMPORE
Oana-Raisa Stoleriu ................................................................................................................................ 1191
TERMES ET CONCEPTS DE LECONOMIE VERTE
Ruxandra PETROVICI............................................................................................................................. 1197
RELIGION AND LITERATURE PARADIGMS WITH IMPACT ON THE PRESENT SOCIAL
MENTALITIES
Amalia-Florentina DRGULNESCU................................................................................................ 1201
ELEMENTS OF AESTHETIC IDENTITY IN CHARLES BAUDELAIRES WORK
Simona-Andreea OVA .......................................................................................................................... 1208
TRADUCTION ET RFRENCE: ENJEUX PRAGMATIQUES ET NARRATOLOGIQUES DE LA
TRADUCTION DES STRUCTURES COHSIVES DU FRANAIS VERS LE ROUMAIN
Raluca-Nicoleta BALACHI .................................................................................................................. 1215
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THE ROMANIAN GULAG AND THE MEMORY OF A TRAUMATIZING PAST

Dumitru-Ctlin ROGOJANU ............................................................................................................... 1222
METAMORPHOSIS AND IDENTITY IN RINOCERII, ALICE N ARA MINUNILOR AND ALICE
N ARA DIN OGLIND
Andreea SNCELEAN............................................................................................................................. 1226
A SHORT HISTORY OF THE CONCEPT OF PERSONIFICATION
Anca NEME .............................................................................................................................................. 1236
SECULAR ASPECTS OF CHRISTIANITY IN THE POSTMODERN CONTEXT (GIANNI
VATTIMO AND REN GIRARD)
Ion VRABIE................................................................................................................................................. 1242
TOMIS IN THE CONTEXT OF COMMERCIAL RELATIONS FROM THE EASTERN
MEDITERANIAN (I-IV CENTURY A.C.)
Monica-Luminia LU COZMEI .......................................................................................................... 1248
THE CONCEPTS OF FOREIGNER AND ABROAD IN THE LITERARY WORKS OF HERTA
MLLER
Teodora-Bianca MORARU .................................................................................................................... 1255
ARGUMENTATIVE STRATEGIES IN THE CARAGIALIAN POLITICAL DISCOURSE
Anda-Elena MOLDOVAN ....................................................................................................................... 1263
THE SECESSION ORNAMENT IN TRGU-MURE. THE STUCCO ORNAMENT
Cristiana PUNI .......................................................................................................................................... 1267
THE DISCOURSE OF DISSOLUTION AND THE ORDER OF THE DENIAL. THE POSSIBILITY
OF A PATTERN TO THE STRUCTURE OF IMAGERY
Doina-Emanuela VIERIU ....................................................................................................................... 1275
ROMANIAN MASS LITERATURE: THE LITERARY ADVENTURES OF CHILDHOOD AND
YOUTH
Bianca VENE ........................................................................................................................................... 1281
UNDER THE SIGN OF REALISM. A POSSIBLE DIALOGUE BETWEEN TWO WRITERS:
GEORGE BLI AND JAMES JOYCE
Elena Biceanu (PRLOG).................................................................................................................... 1289
TEODOR NE OAMENI DIN BIHOR
Ioan FABIAN .............................................................................................................................................. 1297
THE PRIVILEGED SPACE OF THE MIRROR IN ALICE BOTEZ'S IMAGINATION
Mihaela ICALO-GRDINARIU ........................................................................................................... 1304
THESES AND ANTITHESES IN THE LINGUISTIC WORKS OF ION HELIADE-RDULESCU
Andreea-Sabina NAPEU ........................................................................................................................ 1312
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THE 1956 DEBATE. SUBVERTING THE PRIMACY OF THE TEXT?

Viviana IACOB ........................................................................................................................................... 1316
THE CHARACTER FICU, BETWEEN REALITY AND IDEALITY. AN ANALYSIS OF THE
NOVEL CALEA VCRETI BY ISAC PELTZ
Claudia C .............................................................................................................................................. 1326
V.S.NAIPAULS THE MYSTIC MASSEUR: DEFINING FAILURE AND SUCCESS FOR THE
COLONIAL SUBJECT
Roxana Elena DONCU............................................................................................................................. 1332
THE ROMANIAN DISCOURSE ON TRANSLATION IN PERIODICALS (1800-1945)
Ana-Magdalena PETRARU ................................................................................................................... 1339
THE VELVET CAGE. OPPRESSIVE MOTHERS IN LITERATURE
Iudita FAZACA ........................................................................................................................................ 1350
THREE MEN IN A BOAT: NIETZSCHE, ADORNO AND CIORAN. ON TRANSMUTATION OF
VALUES
Ovidiu Marius BOCA ............................................................................................................................. 1357
BIBLICAL TOPONYMS IN THE CEREMONIAL TEXTS FROM THE RITUAL OF COLINDAT IN
THE VALLEY OF ALMJ, THE CARA-SEVERIN COUNTY
Maria VTCA ............................................................................................................................................. 1366
VALENCES OF RELIGIOUS IMAGINARY REFLECTED IN ROMANIAN FAIRY-TALES
Maria HOLHO, Horea, Cloca i Crian National College of Alba-Iulia
Andra Gabriela HOLHO, Eugen Pora Highschool, Cluj-Napoca............................................ 1372
MANAGERIAL VALUES
Diana Lona LEONTE ............................................................................................................................... 1382
LIFE, LIMITS AND WORRY IN THE NOVEL LIFE ON A PLATFORM BY OCTAVIAN PALER
SZILGYI (SZVRFI) Judit-Mria .................................................................................................... 1387
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Issue no. 6/2015
BEAUTIFUL AND FORGOTTEN (ANTOANETA BODISCO)

Al. CISTELECAN
Petru Maior University of Trgu-Mure
Abstract: The article describes the literary work of Romanian poetess Antoaneta Bodisco,
focusing on the most relevant features of her style and thematic universe, while at the same
time contextualizing her cultural profile in the Romanian society of the first half of the 20th
century. As the author underlines, Bodisco stands out as a poetess favoring confession and
reflection in a mediated way and employing a classicist style.
Keywords: Antoaneta Bodisco, Feminine Romanian poetry, poetic classicism, reflection,
confession, sense, sensibility.
Era att de frumoas nct nu numai c tulbura toat strada i rsucea toate capetele
dup ea, dar mai i strnea gesturi spontane de mare teatru galant-stradal: n noiembrie 1943,
abia ajuns la Madrid ca secretar a Institutului Cultural romn i asistent a directorului
Alexandru Busuioceanu, un spaniol absolut i intempestiv i aterne pelerina sub picioarele
ei, att de brusc nct fata mai c se mpiedic.1 Dar n-o face, firete, cci frumuseea nu se
mpiedic n omagii, ci doar trece suveran peste ele. Tot frumuseea ei trebuie s fi fost i
cauza imperativ care l-a determinat pe Cioran s-i care bagajele la tren (de era s-l i piard),
mcar c Cioran nu era nici atunci singur. n orice caz, la hotelul din Paris, unde s-a oprit
pentru a lua trenul spre Madrid (va cltori, de la Paris pn la grania spaniol, n acelai
compartiment cu Mircea Eliade, aflat i el n drum spre Lisabona), o atepta un ntreg ciopor
admirativ: Cioran, Eliade, Horia Rdulescu, Ion Dragu2 .a. De nu se vor fi strns acolo anume
pentru Antoaneta, nu conteaz: conteaz c-au rmas mai toat noaptea pentru ea, sporovind
vrute i nevrute. Iar dac mai e cineva care nu crede c era att de frumoas pe ct zic, n-are
dect s se uite la fotografia ei din nr. 4/1998 al Vetrei. S vedem dac mai ncap apoi obiecii
i rezerve.
Dac i aa mai ncap, mai adaug doar poeziile pe care i le nchin Alexandru
Busuioceanu (dintre care una att de frumoas nct nsui Vicente Aleixandre ar fi vrut s fie
scris de el); ca s nu mai spun c, din scrisorile publicate de Liliana Corobca,3 rezult destul
de transparent c Antoaneta n-a fost cauz chiar mic n impulsul poetic al lui Busuioceanu.
i asta nu e totul. Cine a auzit-o vorbind/citind la Europa liber (dup moartea soului,
n 1962, se mut, cu fetia nc mic, din Spania n Germania) tie c Antoaneta ar fi fost
lectoria ideal: cu un glas de nu profund, n orice caz cu ape de mtase adnc, n care fceau
ecou discret vibraiile interioare; o voce nvluitoare ca o ninsoare nsorit i ca o umbr de
tei. O voce de vraj, asta e sigur.
Pe Antoaneta Bodisco o chema, nainte de mriti, Iordache i ne spun dicionarele4
era nepoata lui Vladimir Streinu.5 E piteteanc, fat de ofier (s-a nscut n 1916, la Piteti;
Cel puin aa-i amintete i nu cred c inventeaz n Rememorri-le din Vatra, nr. 12/1997.
Bucureti, Gara de Nord, nov. 1943, n Vatra, nr. 9/1997.
3
n Romnia literar, nr. 7/2004.
4
Har Domnului, e prezent att n Dicionarul scriitorilor romni, A-C (coordonat de Mircea Zaciu, Marian
Papahagi i Aurel Sasu, Editura Fundaiei Culturale Romne, Bucureti, 1995; articolul dedicat ei aparine chiar
lui Mircea Zaciu), ct i n Dicionarul general al literaturii romne, A-B (Editura Univers Enciclopedic,
Bucureti, 2004; articolul e semnat de Stancu Ilin), n Enciclopedia exilului literar romnesc, 1945-1989
(Editura Compania, Bucureti, 2010, Ediia a II-a revizuit i adugit) a lui Florin Manolescu, precum i n
1
2
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moare la Kln, n 2005), cu o copilrie ce pare, din memoriile ei, o poveste frumoas i
inocent.6 La Piteti ncepe s i scrie poezii (sub nucul btrn, pe care nu-l va mai regsi n
1970, cnd face o vizit n ar, dup exilul nceput la sfritul rzboiului), printre leciile de
vioar predate de domnul Serafim.7 La secia de clasice de la literele bucuretene e
coleg cu viitorul mare arheolog (italian; sau pentru italieni) Dinu Adameteanu iar dup
absolvire Ion Petrovici o va angaja la ministerul propagandei i la cel al culturii de unde o
va trimite la Madrid.8 Tocmai la timp pentru a asista la premiera spectacolului madrilen dup
Demonii lui Dostoievski, n adaptarea lui Arvid de Bodisco, balticul germano-ruso-estonian
pe care-l i cunoate cu acest prilej i cu care se i mrit (nu chiar repede, dar nici prea
trziu).9 Exilai amndoi, i ea i Arvid, triete, zice Mircea Zaciu, din meditaii i colaborri
la radio i-n presa madrilen.10 n orice caz, nu se las i se probeaz ca scriitoare n spaniol,
publicnd, n 1949, la Madrid, un roman - Un puerto en el Mar Negro, despre care Florin
Manolescu zice c e de aventuri pentru tineret.11 A scris i poezii n spaniol, ba chiar a
nceput i un alt roman spaniol, din care a rmas doar cu fragmente (plus nite traduceri din
Properiu, n amintirea profesorului ei preferat, N. I. Herescu); s-a ncercat, fr mare noroc,
i-n cariera de scenarist.12 ncepe s-i publice poeziile (i prozele), n revistele exilului
romnesc, dup 1950, iar n 1970 Mircea Popescu i foreaz mna i-i editeaz, la Roma,
singurul volum: La apus de cuvnt.13 E un volum care are elegana unui album de art, cu
ilustraii de Eugen i Tudor Drguescu.
n cele Dou cuvinte aezate de Mircea Popescu n deschiderea volumului, acesta o
consider o post-gndirist umblat prin Europa (nu doar ca turist, firete, ci mai degrab
ca instrucie poetic) i mai nrudit cu Pillat dect cu Blaga; dar nrudit, mai ales, cu
Voiculescu. E o empatie pillatian de substan, remarcat i de Mircea Zaciu i de Stancu
Ilin (dar mai vizibil e o tentaie barbian, reflectat n epitetele ermetizante sau
abstractizante). Primete pentru carte vorbe frumoase de la Vintil Horia, care o admir pentru
claritatea // simbolic (asta se trage, fr-ndoial, din coala latin) i o consider
flatant eminent o poet mare printre poei muli i mici (spre cei din exil bate maliia lui
Vintil Horia).14 Comentariu mai aplicat i rezerv ns doar Sanda Stolojan, n Limite,15
evideniind senzualismul subtil i pendularea/mbinarea ntre dou dimensiuni opuse i
necesare: intensitatea i msura, elanul i reinerea. Despre senzualitate suav vorbete i
Mircea Zaciu, constatnd i el o pendulare ntre ascez i senzualitate, ntre ideal i
Dicionar-ul subiectiv de literatur. Arge (Editura Ordessos, Piteti, 2012), realizat de Sergiu I. Nicolaescu. Ba
chiar cteva vorbe bune spune despre ea i Marian Popa, n Istoria literaturii romne de azi pe mine, I
(versiune revizuit i augmentat, Editura Semne, Bucureti, 2009). Din aceste dicionare am luat majoritatea
datelor biografice.
5
Se poate, dei doamna Ileana Iordache-Streinu mi-a mrturisit c ar avea dubii n aceast privin; Vladimir
Streinu lucra i el, n anii '40, n acelai Minister al Propagandei unde lucra i Antoaneta i rmne de mirare c
nu l-a cutat/ntlnit niciodat. Ca nepoat cu preocupri literare e, ntr-adevr, ciudat s nu-i fi cutat unchiul
care era deja o personalitate n domeniu.
6
Nu tiu dac i-a terminat de scris memoriile, dar fragmente din ele au aprut n Vatra n 1996, 1997 i 1998.
Chiar neterminate, ele ar merita s apar ntr-un volum nu mai spun de poezii! Nu doar pentru valoarea
documentar, ci i pentru limpezimea artistic i elegana rememorrii.
7
Rememorri, n Vatra, nr. 9/1998.
8
Cf. interviului din Vatra, nr. 5/1998.
9
Yo que soy tiempo, n Vatra, nr. 3/1998.
10
Dicionarul scriitorilor romni, A-C, p. 300.
11
Florin Manolescu, op. cit., p. 94.
12
Cf. interviul din Vatra, nr. 5/1998.
13
Colofonul zice c ediia a fost ngrijit de Eugen Drguescu, Mircea Popescu i Gino Viana, iar volumul a
fost tras n 666 de exemplare.
14
Cf. Vatra, nr. 4/1998, unde e reprodus scrisoarea lui Vintil Horia, trimis Antoanetei la 12 aprilie 1971.
15
Numrul pe decembrie 1971; comentariul e reprodus n Vatra, nr. 4/1998.
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Issue no. 6/2015
epicureic.16 Dar dac Marian Popa are dreptate (i are) iar simbolurile sunt din genul
slbatic feline, fiare, ciute, erpi, snge,17 devine c senzualitatea nu poate fi chiar suav, ci
doar bine inut n fru i reprimat prin sublimri ori condensat imploziv n simboale cu
arden (spiritual i senzual deopotriv). Cam aa i e n peisajele epifanice ale Antoanetei,
unde misteriozitatea are mereu electricitate senzual i tulburarea lumii induce un fel de
narcoz. Peisajele ce ies de sub aceast pensul cu firele muiate n mister surprind clipa de
transfigurare, momentul de salt n tulbureal i de subvertire narcotic a lumii. E o descripie
aparent detaat, cu o scriitur contemplativ, a intrrii n vraj, a crizei de miraj, cu destule
infuzii senzuale lng senintatea de reportaj: Semne de foc s-artau n dumbrav./ Crd de
lstuni mai veghea pe uluc,/ Valea, pdurea, le sorbea o nluc,/ Greerii goi aipeau n
otav.// Vremea n pruni se sfia s se culce./ Duh de pripas vnturase ghiocul,/ Ceasul din
urm-i plinise sorocul,/ Zodii de om cu ochii pe cruce,// Fiara, tiptil, cobora pe potec,/ Lotru
sihastru cu luna-n privire!/ Tremur-n ea ndejde de mire,/ ale subiri ca aa-n suveic etc.
(Presimire). Antoaneta are o imaginaie auster, concentrat (poate unde vrea s reproduc
ntr-adevr esenele unei lirici subtile i profunde, cum zice Zaciu), 18 dar strile pe care le
reporteaz sunt, n general, de transport, de alunecare: Ce lene nfrngere n pleoape!/ O
raz se strecoar nevzut/ i tremur nvins ntre gene.// Conturul scade-n umbr, se
destram./ Te doare zborul clipei n orbit,/ Tcerea fr rost din ntuneric.// n snge, domolit,
se-ngn somnul./ Fr-ncetare mintea nscocete/ Mnunchi mbelugat de-nchipuiri.//
Aluneci, deodat, n genune./ Zadarnic caui zorii ntre ceuri./ Msoar ceasul, vremea, din
perete (Somn). Ce-i al ei e al ei, ns: tie prea bine s insinueze n reverie o und de
primejdie i s tensioneze astfel strile, unind narcoza cu panica: Viaa-ntrzie ameit n
valuri./ Clipa e somn i mirare i preget!/ Visul mngie o tristee de alg.// Farmecul lumii se
topete n mare./ Ochiul bolnav de ostrov i lumin/ Caut umbra n odihna din mluri.//
Spaima-nfioar i trupul de arpe./ Ochiul vegheaz, cel viclean de moren./ Gura suspin
mbtat de snge./ Vine iubirea ca un chip de nluc,/ Scutur frunza i mrgeanul n floare./
Vremea se-nchide, speriat, n scoic (Marin). Versuri de exil (tema exilului flutur deschis
n cteva piese), era inevitabil ca Antoaneta s nu parcurg n primul rnd constelaia reveriei
de natale i s nu dea curs, ntr-un climat melancolic, reveriei anamnetice: La umbra
curatelor mini/ anii s-au mplinit spornic,/ glasuri m ndemnau din fntni// Muma mea,
nenuntit, Pdurea,/ legna pruncii./ Snul proaspt de rou/ ademenea smeii.// Rtceam
nvoit/ prin smburi i oapte/ nmulite n vnt.// Minuni fr numr/ mi aineau calea.// i
m vroiam n vzduhul/ care mnuia zborul/ somnoroaselor psri.// M nsoeam cu
Nimicul,/ cu clipa gola, cu dorul/ care-mi ispitea jocul (Copilrie). Nostalgiile se topesc,
ntr-adevr, n plcerea rememorrii, cum constat Mircea Zaciu, 19 i sunt antrenate ntr-o
feerie scriptural de mare candoare prerafaelit, apropiind-o pe Antoaneta, cu voie ori fr, de
viziunea candid-fantast a lui Emil Botta. Dar gndirismul ei tardiv e discret i fr doctrin,
chiar dac i ea vede poezia, alegoric, n proiectul asistenial al graiei i al cooperrii: n
lutul neplns/ nici de om, nici de prunc,/ a zbovit/ din zori pn seara;/ izbvit de timp/
lumina mi-a ndrumat mna//. Rotunjeam toarte, copi/ ncepute de Domnul (Olar). Ce-i
drept, evenimentul fie c-i de peisaj, fie c-i eveniment, ca s zic aa, contemplativ, fie c-i
unul participativ e revelat ntotdeauna ca epifanie, fie c-i strbtut de unda erotic, fie c-i
strbtut de presimiri funeste. Asta ar putea ine de patentul gndirist, mai ales c metafora
Antoanetei, dus mereu spre contragere, sublimeaz i domesticete, de regul, o violen (fie
senzorial, fie pur traumatic), fcnd transparent un tipar expresionist bine aezat sub
16
Mircea Zaciu, op. cit., p. 301.

Marian Popa, op. cit., p. 1088.
18
Mircea Zaciu., op. cit.
19
Idem.
17
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notaiile descriptive: Tremur plopii la capt de lume./ Fr zbav, nu, fr odihn:/

grabnic, cu spor, ca un arpe n umbr.// Noaptea se-nal i ip ca o bufni./ Fr prihan,
nu, fr pricin:/ trupul de ger e btut i de viscol.// Goal e via de vie-n rugin!/ Fr arom,
nu, fr duh de tmie:/ Buna Vestire nghea n sloiuri! (Triptic, III). Clasicist, ar fi fost
mirare s nu fac mic parad de teme clasice i s nu gloseze pe seama lui Narcis, a Tristiei
ori a Morii lui Don Quijote; nu e, ns, pur poezie de reflecie i glos, ci poezie ntoars
spre i asumat confesiv; confesionale nu mai puin mediate dect celelalte, cci
Antoanetei nu-i place confesiunea imediat, ci doar cea implicit.
20
Issue no.6/2015
PRACTICAL APPROACHES OF THE DRUG-PREVENTION

ALBERT Lorincz Eniko
Babe-Bolyai University of Cluj-Napoca
Abstract: In our study we offer a practical explanation of the prevention which can
contribute to a change of perspective and to long-term, multilevel interventions.
Topics about prevention are present among the resources and discussions in home specialty
literature for decades, in campaigns or rather sporadically. However, we can observe a lack
of regional or national coordination, and planned collaborative prevention practices. In the
same time, we rarely find an aggregation and summarized interpretation of the theoretical
models. Our study presenting the practice of the integrated prevention is a theoretic paper,
based on research experiences and with the purpose to offer orientation to those deal with the
planning of the school-related preventive programs and activities. Our study raises to
theoretic level the empirical dates which we have gained through various researches focused
on drug-related topics in the last decade.
Keywords: levels of prevention-integrated, process of the implementation, preventionmultilevel planning, principle relating to prevention
1. The interpretive framework and the realization of the prevention
Multilevel
planning
+
implement
ation
Verification
(Efficiency test)
Experts (well trained staff)
Change of
attitude
MENTAL
HYGIENE
Legal-administrative
framework
keret
The purpose of our study is to present how it is possible practically to carry out the
prevention advised by us, which reflects a change of perspective too. The change of
perspective means that prevention is nothing else but health-development, the consolidation
of the need for a healthy way of life. Thus the prevention, even the drug-prevention is not
only related to drugs but to many various topics source.
According to Catalano and Dooley (1980) the intervention must happen on both
micro- and macro level. Targeting the individual, the school, the family, the friends and the
free time and community activities. The intervention must be imagined as part of a
continuum: individual-family-community-organizations-whole population. This can be
realized in several steps. Adapting it for the home circumstances we suggest the following
model:
Figure 3. The process of the implementation of the integrated prevention (AlbertLorincz 2011.)
21
Issue no. 6/2015
The change of attitude refers to the health-protection, to the organization of the healthpreserving and health-developing activities. For this it is necessary to treat health as a value to
be followed, avoiding the restriction of the prevention only for drugs and for the instruments
of the police and the criminal law. The change of attitude must happen on both of the
individuals and on the societys level. An effect must be taken on the interpersonal relations,
to the group-structures, institutions and organizations. The effects must roll on in groups, this
is called multiplicative effect.
This approach requires on the individuals level a complete change of attitude and
lifestyle, the changing of the habits which are harmful for the health and the practice of the
healthy lifestyle. In order to realize this theres need of conscious self-control, which the
bibliography labels as restructuring (reforming) self control (Rosenbaum 1990, cited by
Kulcsr 1998). All these require adaptation and flexibility, as the former habits must be
overwritten. The
learning of necessary skills which one needs in situations requiring
adaptation, creativity, flexibility contributes to the construction and planning of the positive
health-conduct.
To the change of attitude belongs the fact that the prevention must be realized not in
ad-hoc way, through minor programs, but in a planned way, integrated into the school-work,
teaching-plans, and thus the personalize approach is also necessary. A complex healthdeveloping programs should be integrated into the school curriculums which would offer
specific skills and not only knowledge adapted to the school-classes and age related
peculiarities. First of all the implementation of the mental hygienic attitude into the schools
life should be reached, the creation of the so called ,,healthy school which- eve mom the
planning of the ratio of learning-free time- not only in theory, but also in practice focuses on
the holistic image of health. A very important role should have the programs targeting the
elimination of the risk factors generated by the schools. The drug-related programs should not
be deterrent or based on prohibition. The positive, why and how to do-like programs are
much more efficient.
2. Points of principle relating to prevention
In the case of the teen-agers the efficiency of the school-related prevention is very
important. We are convinced that in such activities all the members of the teaching stuff
should participate, it shouldn`t be a duty of only the helping professionals (psychologists,
social workers etc.). Their participation can happen in the following ways:
The teachers must develop themselves in order to be able to carry out efficient
preventive activities.
They have to face and to acknowledge their of drug-consumption habits and
problem-solving abilities.
The collaboration among teachers as colleagues is an important task.
The teacher who coordinates the prevention must be able to bring into discussion the
drug-issue in front of his colleagues and to let them know all the relevant details and should
make them understand the importance of the prevention and should encourage the launch of
the given programme. In the same time he must be open for his colleagues` drug-consumption
related problems.He must be able to work in groups, helping the teachers` work with casediscussing groups.
He should keep in touch and discuss continuously his work with an expert in drugtopics. He should create professional contacts with ex-scholar institution and advising
bureaus.
The tasks of the teacher are multiple and various:
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They should share information about the healthy way of life and the dangers of drugconsumption
They should help the students to be able to say no to the drugs, to coordinate their
physical and psychical development, to develop and to create their self-confidence, to be able
to the self-education and self-evaluation. They should teach them to apply a critical attitude
towards the effects of the mass-communication, and advertisments, especially.
They should evaluate and should mark the group of young persons who are
endangered by drugs
The teachers should encourage the parents to support the children`s participation at the
prevention-programmes. On long term they also have to deal with the parents` drugconsumption habits and with the issue that the parents influence their children`s drugconsumption habits.
Racz (2007) summarizes the methods of school-prevention in the following points:
emotional education,
group-effect, the organizing of age-group inflence,
the implementation of skill-developing programmes: problem-solving, stress-handling,
decisionmakint, expression of feelints, self management, self accepting, denying, etc.,
alternative activities: mount-climbing, relaxation,
the shaping of a healthy lifestyle.
On the reactive prevention level such programs can be realized which have as target
the development of skills in order to prepare the young people to confront the risk factors with
greater efficiency. Such programs can be for example the stress-management programs, where
the techniques and methods of coping with the problem-situations can be learnt, developed,
and even the efficient ways of stress-reducing can be learnt. The programs developing the
emotional intelligence can also be efficient where the young persons can learn to handle their
emotions better and to discover and to identify the others emotions. The realization of
communicational programs would be necessary on this level, through which the students
could learn adaptive communicational schemes and could use them efficiently in their
relations with their peer groups and parents. In the frame of similar programs could be
realized the formation of the students future-planning as they would learn to plan their lifeperspectives and to manage efficiently their time.
The teaching life planning skills (problem coping, communication, assertivity) should
not only promote the efficient coping with drugs, but should offer applicable knowledge on
various fields of the life. In the school the emphasis should be on the finding of the flowexperience, and to encourage the young persons to enjoyable activities. In Indianapolis there
is a Key School with experimental character which has as purpose the development of the
sides of the flow which are related to the personality and to ambience. They try to create such
a learning ambience which promotes the flow-experience, to find the students own area of
interest and to develop the skills related to this. The students have the opportunity to try
enjoyable activities, without help while the teacher helps the to discover new challenges and
to cope with these. The task is to experience-like, differentiated learning, where the final
objective is the personal fulfillment of the students, the proper application of the skills. For
the fulfillment of the personality the sentiment of joy is necessary and it has to get to the
young persons in a natural way, because artificial forms of joy (like the use of drugs) have a
strong negative effect on the personality being in development.
So the change of perspective means that in the school the mental hygiene has an
important role. The spiritually developing schools is realized which puts emphasis on the
consolidation of the coping personality, on the self-efficiency of the personality, on
independence, on the increasing of the activities, on the general strengthening.
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The students can not be developed taken out from their original ambience. It is
necessary not to forget about the parents. For this purpose the informative and healthdeveloping groups for parents can be useful to inform them about the potentially harmful
effects of the family on the development of the child and to tell them how to be able to create
a health-friendly environment. The family-oriented programs are more efficient than the
prevention focusing only on children and parents.
The main scene of the anti-drug fight is the school, but the formation of the proper
attitude of the teachers is important and so is the acceptance of mental hygienic perspective
and the acknowledgement of health-education. The right attitude can be realized only having
the right information. This can be reached through written materials for the educators, which
inform about the theoretical background of the drug prevention, the main objective of the
national drug strategies, and about the interventional possibilities of the educators. The
prevention should have an effect on the educator-community too, in order to let them aim
such competences and skills which can form the school work enjoyable and into such an
environment in which both students and teachers can live the flow experience. It is important
to dedicate attention to the spiritual state of the educators, to their quality of life because only
on the base of spiritual harmony can be formed those competences through which the riskconduct of the students can be diminished: the acceptance, the acknowledgement, the
attention, the help.
Without well trained experts the formerly described activities can not reach their
purposes. Among the helping experts there are already plenty who have gained competences
either at home or abroad in order to cope efficiently with drug-related issues. Several
universities, like the Social Work Department of the Babes-Bolyai University in Cluj Napoca,
Romania organizes trainings for consultants and advisors in the field of addictology.
The existence of the legal-administrative framework is important because the drug
means the illness of the individual, the family, the community and the society. It can be fight
against only with organized cooperation. The efficient coping with this challenge can be
insured with a well elaborated governmental program with emphasis on prevention and with
the support of the whole society. The countrywide program can made be really existing and
alive on the level of small communities. For this is necessary that the youth and the groups
who are in close touch with them, teachers, educators and parents get information about the
countrywide strategy and local initiatives and about what they can do for the restriction of
drug consumption.
In Romania the base of the organization of the drug-prevention is the common order
referring to the illegal drug consumption elaborated by the Ministry of Internal Affairs, the
Ministry of Health and Family, the Ministry of Education and Research, The Ministry of
Youth and Sports and the Ministry of Public Administration. The main coordinator of the
prevention activities is the Interministrial Committee for the Prevention of Drugconsumption. The national Drug-Strategy and prevention program is supported and executed
by the 47 Centers for Drug-assistance and Prevention which have been founded. 41 of these
are in county-centers, 6 in the administrative divisions of the capital city (www.ana.gov.ro).
The target- group of the prevention must be the local community. The communityapproach means, that every subsystem of the individuals life-area should reflect the drug
problems and should consider the prevention as important. The selective and indicated
prevention must happen in the community, in order to prevent the quality of life of the
community and the individual. The community assistance means complex bio-psycho-social
care with the implication of the family. It is not limited in time, it integrates the somatic and
psychic treatment according to the patients needs and also deals with the patients
environments. Its purpose is the reintegration of the patient into the society, his/her efficient
existence in the community and the improvement of the life quality. The community24
Issue no. 6/2015
connection means integration according to Buda Bla (2002). The feeling of belonging has a
maintaining, protective role. So can the community used in the process of prevention.
In the case of efficient prevention programs the multilevel planning is absolutely
necessary. The execution or implementation should have as starting point the idea that the
health-development is a life-program. So the prevention should be as comprehensive as
possible and should target the general well-being. It should mean universal improvement in
the field of life quality, the compensation of risk factors and the strengthening of protecting
factors and coping potential. In the same time it must be of a wide-spectrum ensuring the
coping with stress, the self-esteem, the confrontation with negative feelings, the elaboration of
the self-acceptance. In its methods it should encourage the environment-based approach, the
modification of the micro and macro-environment. It should have an impact on the decisionmakers, on the politicians (measures aiming health-preserving, well elaborated countrywide
strategy), the media (what it commercializes and promotes, the alcohol should not be part of
nice, exotic environment), on the education (mental hygienic attitude) should rely on
individuals and should encourage to further researches.
The intervention aiming the compensation of risk-factors should target on micro level
the individual or the family, on macro level the larger communities, the whole population.
The central objective is the strengthening of the protective factors on the level of the
individual, the family and community, which requires the creation of predisponant and
allowing conditions. The individual should have a proper look on his life (knowledge,
attitude) and should possess resources, the system of beliefs and the rules of his environment
and the services must be health-focused.
The compensation of risk-factors includes- *on the level of the individual, the family
and the community- the insurance of the strengthening factors. It is not sufficient the
elimination of the predictive factors, the strengthening is also important, the awarding of the
positive health-behavior, on principle and practical level. Vitally important is the social
responsibility, the investments for health-development, the community partnerships.
In the light of our researches and bibliographical references we could summarize the
steps of the elaboration of an efficient prevention program in the following points:
starting problem (in what kind of ambience we deal with it, in what time-frame)
determination of the target group
evaluation of status and necessity
the analysis of the health-protecting traditions of the local community and its
integration into the program:
definition of goals (operationalization and the selection of indicators),
the selection of the program and its adaptation to the local peculiarities,
budget, resources,
experts,
searching of cooperating partners in the local community,
the elaboration of the evaluation,
the implementation of the program,
evaluation (efficiency test),
necessary changes and restart.
Recommended methods:
focus groups: to create possibility for a better understanding of the drug-related
problems, for the discussion and understanding of experiences and to understand how
these influence the behavior;
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Consolidatet
space of life.
Means and
resources
Health-protecting physical
and social ambient
Challenges, handling of
change, coping
Personal compentece
and controll
Assertivic conduct and

decisional skills.
Emotional
development: flow
and autonomy.
Information, healthculture
mass media analysis with the students, teachers (for instance, how the commercials
influence us, what messages to TV-programs and movies promote);
environment analysis : creation ,,problem-tree, ,,objective-tree about the problems
and treatment possibilities which exist in our environment;
self discovering trainings, for example to identify the own natural needs;
skill-developing training.
The previous methodological conclusion could be summarized into the following
model. The final goal is the improvement of the life-quality, the establishing of a safe
environment. To this purpose the necessary factors are: the establishing of the health-culture,
the positive social experiences, the demonstration of the proper behavior models and values,
the learning of the combative techniques, the experiencing of the personal efficiency and
control, in one word the creation of positive health-preserving techniques.
On general, selective and indicated levels: in a personalized way for

the assurence of life quality (health- preservation and rehabilitation)
making able through the representative
Figure 4. Practical approaches of the prevention (Albert-Lorincz 2011)
A specific topic of the prevention programs is the verification and the study on the
efficiency. The most comprehensive study of the drug-prevention programs among the
adolescents has been realized by Tobler (cited by Rcz 2007). Rcz, based on Tobler
considers that the main elements of the efficiency are the peer-group influence and
interactivity.
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Conclusion
The information related to the prevention can be integrated into the materials of the
thought materials in the schools. The organization of school prevention programmes requires
careful preparation. The goals of the programme must be set, de applyable methods should be
gathered, the staff should be selected and prepared and the programme-responsible teacher
should also be prepared. The teachers, the colleagues also have to accept the programme, just
like the parents. There should be some contacts with experts in mental-hygienics and the
evaluation-process should be planned ahead.
A central task is the identification and the compensation of the preventive factors and
the consolidation of the protective factors- the consolidation of internal and external
resources. The community, the parents and the school should be unified in the confrontation
of the drug-consumption they should demonstrate positive values and examples for the
teenagers while they become adults. This, however, can not happen from one day to another,
the adult population often doesn`t show proper attitude towards the socially accepted drugs,
like cigarette, coffee, alcohol. The idea of the prevention should be promoted, and planned
school interventions should be carried out. The efficient school prevention- as a result of the
attitude changes of the teenagers- can have positive effect on the adults too and can create
changes in the adults` consuming habits too.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Albert-Lrincz E., 2011: Az egszsges letviteltl a drogfogyaszt magatartsig,
Presa Universitara Cluj and Editura Loisir Budapesta.
Buda B., 2002: A drogmegelzs elmleti alapjai. Budapest, NDI.
Catalano, R., Dooley, D., 1980: Economic change in primary prevention. In:
Prevention in mental health. Research, policy, and practice. In Price, R.H., Kerterer, R.F.,
Bader, B. C., Monahan, J.). Sage Publications, Beverly Hills, CA.
Kulcsr Zs., 1998: Egszsgpszicholgia, ELTE Etvs, Budapest.
Rcz J., 2007: In: Demetrovics Zs., (szerk.), Az addiktolgia alapjai I., Budapest,
ELTE Etvs, 417446.
www.ana.gov.ro, accesat 2. 03. 2014.
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TRIBUNA LITERARY MAGAZINE AND ITS ROLE IN ROMANIAN CULTURE

Dumitru DRAICA
University of Oradea
Abstract ; One of the most important publications in Transylvania, from the late 19th century,
was Tribuna, published in Sibiu and edited by Ioan Slavici. Like in other newspapers and
magazines of the time, in the Tribuna pages was found a series of comments regarding the
Romanian language, its unification and orthography, promoting and developing the literature
among the masses. The contributors were one of the most remarkable Romanian writers who
expressed themselves in order to promote a true literature, for valuing the folklore, for the
unity of our literary language
Keywords: Romanian orthography, etymology and latinism, literary unitary language,
cultural unity, popular realism.
Spre sfritul secolului al XIX-lea, n paginile multor publicaii, i face loc o nou
idee, privitoare la ortografia limbii romne, care va ctiga tot mai mult teren: ortografia nu
este scop, ci numai mijloc, scopul este cultura i rspndirea acesteia1, de aceea se pledeaz
pentru ortografia stabilit, n 1880, de Academia Romn, unicul organ competent. A.P.Alexi
mai meniona i faptul c cele mai multe dintre colile transilvnene, cu excepia gimnaziilor
din Blaj i Beiu, adoptaser ortografia cu semne, promovat de Academie n anul 1880.
n anul 1884, la14/26 aprilie, aprea, la Sibiu, unul dintre cele mai importante
cotidiene ale romnilor din Transilvania, de pn la Unire, Tribuna, avndu-l ca director, ntre
anii 1884-1890, pe Ioan Slavici, i care a avut un rol important n viaa politic i cultural a
Transilvaniei, a luptat pentru problemele limbii i pentru unirea politic a romnilor prin
cultur.
1.A.P.Alexi, nc ceva despre conferina de la Blaj i despre ortografia scrierii
romneti, n Tribuna, 2, nr. 125, 1890, pg. 499.
Preocuparea cunoscutului scriitor ardelean pentru studiul fenomenului lingvistic era
cunoscut i acest interes data nc de cnd era redactor la ziarul Timpul, n Bucureti.
Tribuna a combtut exagerrile latiniste, desprinderea de etimologism, a promovat realismul
popular, a valorificat i publicat texte folclorice i literatur inspirat din viaa maselor de
rani, a militat pentru unificarea limbii literare.
Tribuna a fost, n primul rnd, un organ politic care s-a zbtut cu consecven pentru
drepturile limbii romne n administraie i nvmnt, mpotriva maghiarizrii i
germanizrii numelor de persoane sau a toponimelor romneti, de altfel, publicaia a adoptat,
de la nceput, ortografia stabilit de Academia Romn, n 1880, chiar dac n primii ani de
apariie, discuiile privitoare la ortografie au avut un scop mai mult didactic, ce viza
necesitatea introducerii n colile romneti a normelor academice elaborate n anul 1880.
Popularizarea lucrrilor Academiei Romne a reprezentat un imbold i pentru numeroase alte
cercetri lexicografice i dialectale, ntreprinse n diverse zone ale Transilvaniei i pentru
culegeri de literatur popular, realizate de ctre Vasile Vaida, Emiliu Bran; astfel de
recomandri pentru studiul graiurilor romneti se fceau din diverse zone ale rii, nu numai
din Transilvania (2)
n domeniul lexicologiei, merit amintit o ampl recenzie a lui Ioan Urban Jarnik,
unul dintre primii colaboratori ai Tribunei, asupra dicionarului elaborat de Lazr ineanu, n
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care recunotea valoarea dicionarului i i reproa autorului aversiunea fa de

provincialisme. (3)
Ioan Slavici, care a condus publicaia n primul ei deceniu de existen, a fixat i linia
principal de conduit, care a constat ntr-o atenie special acordat culegerii i valorificrii
folclorului literar romnesc, recomandndu-le multora s citeasc scriitori romni valoroi, la
acea vreme, i chiar, ntr-o mare msur, literatur popular.
Considerm c a doua preocupare de baz a Tribunei a fost cea din domeniul limbii,
pentru realizarea unitii culturale a tuturor romnilor fiind nevoie ca aceeai limb i
literatur s circule peste tot, s fie neleas de toi.
2. vezi Leontin Ghergariu, Vasile Vaida, n CL, XVII, 1972, nr. 1, pp. 135-140, i E.
Bran, Graiul romnesc din Slaj de lng Some, n Tribuna, VI, 1889, nr. 121, pp. 481482.
3. Ioan Urban Jarnik, Dicionarul lui ineanu, n Tribuna, XIV, 1897, nr. 20, p. 79,
nr. 21, p. 83, nr. 22, p. 87, nr. 23, p. 91, nr. 24, p. 95, nr. 25, p. 99
Etimologismul i latinismul sistemului ortografic, de dincoace de muni, mpotriva
crora se rdicase Maiorescu, erau racile serioase n calea progresului literar.
Curentul literar inaugurat de Tribuna a fost numit realism poporan sau popular, avnd
multe puncte comune de vedere cu Junimea, care formulase prin Titu Maiorescu teoria
formelor fr fond i a romanului popular, i care obliga la noi cutri i experiene
artistice. De orientare projunimist, n linie maiorescian, revista i propunea, printre altele,
realizarea unitii culturale a tuturor romnilor, prin promovarea unei limbi literare corecte,
unitare, cu o exprimare proprie n diverse domenii, considerndu-se c cei care ncercau s
fac literatur n Transilvania nu cunoteau destul de bine limba romn sau nu scriau corect
romnete, abuznd de numeroase cuvinte maghiare i germane.
Poziia Tribunei a fost una dintre cele mai realiste, fcnd deosebire ntre limba
vorbit i limba scris, literar, Slavici invoca drept model limba vie a poporului,
exprimndu-i, n acelai timp, rezervele pentru folosirea abuziv a neologismelor:
Nu-i este nimnui iertat a se folosi de cuvinte nou pentru exprimarea unor noiuni
vechi pentru care exist cuvinte n limba romn i cu att mai puin poate s-i fie cuiva iertat
a se abate de la regulile gramaticale stabilite de popor....
n paginile Tribunei, numit centru de lucrare literar, au fost publicate mai multe
culegeri de folclor transilvnean, lucrri ale unor autori romni cunoscui, traduceri i
contribuii literare, chiar i din partea cititorilor.
Colaboratorii au fost nume dintre cele
mai prestigioase: Ioan Slavici, George Cobuc, Ion Popovici-Bneanu, Virgil Oniiu,
Gheorghe Bogdan-Duic, Ion Pop-Reteganul, Octavian Goga, Ion Agrbiceanu, Ioan Urban
Jarnik..., care au trasat o direcie unitar de aciune n domeniul limbii, al atitudinii fa de
folclor i al creaiei propriu-zise.
Pe lng obiectivele de ordin politic, ce aveau n vedere unirea cultural i politic a
tuturor romnilor, idee exprimat de Slavici n celebra formul: Soarele pentru toi romnii
la Bucureti rsare, gazeta sibian a nutrit sperana realizrii unei renateri literare i
culturale de amploare, Slavici nsui, unul dintre scriitorii de seam ai secolului al XIX-lea, a
pledat pentru o cultur unitar a romnilor, punnd un accent deosebit pe tradiiile i
obiceiurile naionale ale poporului nostru.
Cititorii revistei Tribuna erau din toate pturile sociale, ea deschiznd calea spre
receptarea n Transilvania a marilor scriitori de dincolo de muni, mai ales a junimitilor,
contribuind, n acest mod, la procesul de unificare cultural a tuturor romnilor. Realismul su
popular a fost o coal critic absolut necesar n pregtirea viitoarei generaii de prozatori i
poei romni realiti (Ion Agrbiceanu i Liviu Rebreanu, tefan Octavian Iosif, Octavian
Goga i Aron Cotru...), inaugurnd o direcie literar tradiional.
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Este adevrat c, n secolul al XIX-lea, viaa social-politic i cultural fusese animat

de ziare i reviste care au avut un larg ecou n inimile romnilor, precum Foaie pentru minte,
inim i literatur, Gazeta Transilvaniei, Familia, Telegraful romn etc., dar niciunul dintre
aceste organe de pres nu a reuit s impun o tradiie, un stil i o coal literar de proporia
i importana celei de la Tribuna.
Profilul de ziar impunea Tribunei i un caracter strict informativ, erau recomandate
majoritatea lucrrilor cu privire la limba romn, din acea perioad, dar materialele lingvistice
publicate aici tratau probleme dintre cele mai interesante cu privire la originea limbii i a
poporului romn, unificarea i corectitudinea limbii romne literare, lexicografie i
dialectologie
Redacia Tribunei saluta, la nceputul secolului al XX-lea, iniiativa ASTREI pentru
unificarea deplin a limbii literare, nelegnd prin aceasta nu o unificare forat sau
unilateral, ci o unificare pe baza limbii noastre promovate i consacrate de mari scriitori
romni.
i-a ncetat apariia la Sibiu, n 29 aprilie 1903, Tribuna fiind considerat, la sfritul
secolului al XIX-lea, cel mai important ziar romnesc.
n ianuarie 1904, ziarul Tribuna Poporului, din Arad, ncepe s apar sub denumirea
Tribuna, pn n februarie 1912, cnd apare ultimul numr aici, i fuzioneaz cu ziarul
Romnul. La nceputul secolului al XX-lea, n Transilvania, un rol important n lupta pentru o
limb naional unitar i pentru introducerea unor norme gramaticale corecte n scrierea
limbii romne l-a avut i ziarul Tribuna, de la Arad, aprut nc din 1897, sub titlul Tribuna
poporului, i care a reprezentat cel mai de seam eveniment publicistic al nceputului
secolului al XX-lea, alturi de Luceafrul, constituind totodat un eveniment deosebit n viaa
cultural-literar a Transilvaniei.
n cel mai scurt timp, ziarul ardean a devenit o adevrat coal literar i filologic a
tinerilor scriitori romni transilvneni contemporani, dar i din Principate (aici au publicat,
printe alii, I. Slavici, I. Agrbiceanu, O. Goga, G. Cobuc, t. O. Iosif, Z. Brsan, E. Isac, M.
Sadovean, D. Anghel, G. Toprceanu, I. Minulescu).
n ziarul Tribuna, din Arad, au fost publicate mai multe intervenii pe teme filologice,
ale unor specialiti n domeniu, rubrici speciale destinate cultivrii limbii romne,
constituindu-se ntr-un ndreptar practic pentru limb i stil. i la nceputul secolului al XXlea a continuat btlia pentru stabilirea normelor ortografice comune tuturor romnilor, n
vederea unificrii limbii literare. Limba reprezenta i acum un mijloc de afirmare i
promovare a culturii naionale, ziarul din Arad militnd pentru meninerea limbii romne n
coal i justiie, nelipsind rubricile de cultivare a limbii literare, articolele despre originea
limbii i a poporului romn sau cele despre probleme deosebite de gramatic, lexicografie,
ortografie Aici au scris unii dintre marii notri istorici, N. Iorga, A. D. Xenopol, D. Onciul,
Gr. Tocilescu, Al. Lapedatu, care comentau, n articolele lor, vechimea i continuitatea
romnilor pe aceste meleaguri, fcnd trimitere la izvoare i documente ale istoriei noastre;
istoricul Xenopol a avut meritul de a aduce n dezbatere toponimele i elementele ungureti
din limb (4), tot el demonstrnd i prezena masiv a elementului romanic n stnga Dunrii,
pn dup retragerea roman (5).
Sextil Pucariu vorbete despre romanitatea limbii romne, afirmnd, printre altele:
De fapt limba romn nu e nici mai romanic, nici mai puin romanic dect cea italian,
francez, spaniol, sard sau oicare alta din limbile surori, ci numai romanic.(6) Pucariu
mai susine c lexicul este partea cea mai schimbtoare a unei limbi i c procentul cuvintelor
de origine strin este tot mai mic. Tot el vorbete despre unele fenomene lingvistice, precum
economia n limb, dubletele, contaminarea, circulaia cuvintelor, fenomenul de adaptare i
selectare a neologismelor. (7) Ali autori vorbesc despre felul cum s-a modificat limba romn
n urma contactelor ei cu limbile altor popoare, insistnd n scrierile lor asupra duratei i
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intensitii acestor influene. Vasile Vrcol a studiat raporturile noastre cu maghiarii,

concluzionnd c aceast influen nu este una de structur, ea manifestndu-se mai mult n
domeniul material, n sfera lexicului comercial. (8)
4. Tribuna, VI, 1902, nr. 188, p. 3.
5. Ibidem, XI, 1907, nr. 75, p. 3.
6. S. Pucariu, Din carnetul unui filolog: Romanitatea limbii noastre, n Tribuna,
XV, 1911, nr. 17, p. 1. i Influena mediului, n Tribuna, XV, 1911, nr. 53, p. 2.
7. S. Pucariu, Despre neologisme, n Tribuna, XV, 1911, nr. 38, p. 1
8. Vasile Vrcol, Legturile noastre sufleteti cu poporul unguresc, n Tribuna, XI,
1907, nr. 30, p. 6.
n paginile Tribunei din Arad se mai afirm dreptul poporului romn din Transilvania
de a-i folosi i cultiva limba proprie n coal i n alte instituii ale statului, ocupndu-se de
limba literar din colile de la sate, cernd un mai mare interes pentru predarea i nvarea ei
corect, este demonstrat teoria latinitii noastre, colaboratorii ziarului protestau mpotriva
strictorilor de limb din diverse domenii, ridicndu-se i mpotriva publicrii afielor
culturale cu greeli de limb i a manualelelor necorespunztoare care se foloseau n colile
de atunci.
Preocuprile de istorie a limbii ocup i ele un loc important, n Tribuna, unele
articole vorbesc despre limba crilor bisericeti, altele trateaz amnunit limba unor
importante monumente de limb veche, redactorii ziarului se vor preocupa constant de
progresele filologiei romneti, vizavi de vocabularul limbii, ortografia ei i, mai ales, de
msurile pe care presa transilvnean trebuia s le aib n vederea unificrii limbii i
ortografiei, dezbateri iniiate i de adunarea ASTREI, de la Sibiu, din iulie 1902.
Mai multe ziare i reviste transilvnene (Familia, Libertatea, Drapelul) au avut n
centrul ateniei problemele limbii, de ortografie, lexic i limb literar. n acest context, Gh.
Bogdan-Duic pledeaz pentru aportul tuturor dialectelor, al tuturor provinciilor rii, la
mbogirea limbii romne literare. (9)
Pentru a fi alturi de cititori i pentru a veni n sprijinul lor, n coloanele Tribunei i-au
gsit loc rubrici speciale, destinate informrii i cultivrii lor; astfel, George Cobuc, n
rubrica Vorba luia: Zictori explicate, pe care a susinut-o din 1898 i pn n 1903,
explica numeroase zictori i proverbe romneti, vorbind i despre puterea de rspndire i
infiltrare a limbii noastre. (10)
Criticul transilvnean Ilarie Chendi, care a fcut parte din cea dinti echip de
colaboratori ai ziarului, a contribuit la stimularea interesului pentru limba literar, a luat
atitudine mpotriva unor abuzuri i imperfeciuni de limb din presa transilvnean, mpotriva
celor care ncrcau fraza cu expresii greoaie, strine limbii romne. (11)
9. G. Bogdan-Duic, Limba literar i Asociaiunea, n Tribuna, VI, 1902, nr. 168,
pp. 2-3.
10. Tribuna, VI, 1902, nr. 142, p. 5, nr. 155, p. 3 i nr. 237, pp. 3-4, III, 1899, nr.
70, pp. 2-3 i nr. 102, pp. 2-3, IV, 1900, nr. 90, pp. 2-3, VII, 1903, nr. 209, pp. 4-5
11. vezi Mircea Popa, Ilarie Chendi i problemele limbii literare, n Cercetri de
lingvistic, XIII, 1968, nr. 2, pp. 281-293.
Pe tot parcursul apariiei ziarului Tribuna, care a avut un rol important n lupta pentru
emanciparea social i naional a romnilor transilvneni, limba a rmas o component
esenial a problemei naionale.
La apariia, n 1915, celei de-a treia serii a revistei, redactorul principal Gh. Popp
scria: Timp de treizeci de ani aproape, numele Tribunei a cluzit viaa politic a neamului
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romnesc din Transilvania... Cuvntul Tribuna a ajuns mai mult dect o firm, a fost o
noiune, un titlu... Tribuna a fost o cetate inexpugnabil de idealism i radicalism politic.
Cea mai cunoscut serie a Tribunei este cea inaugurat la 10 februarie 1957, n care au
scris unii dintre cei mai cunoscui poei i prozatori ai notri: Nichita Stnescu, Ioan
Alexandru, Ana Blandiana, Augustin Buzura; n 18 februarie 1968, ziariti consacrai au
nfiinat Tribuna Sibiului, care a atins ntre anii 1968-1989, cel mai mare tiraj din ar, iar din
anul 2002, reapare, la Cluj, actuala serie a Tribunei, care se revendic de la ziarul nfiinat n
1884, la Sibiu, de Ioan Slavici, cunoscnd mai multe serii de apariii la Bucureti, Arad, Cluj,
Braov
Bibliografie
Al. Andriescu, Limba presei romneti n secolul al XIX-lea, Iai, Editura Junimea,
1980.
A.P.Alexi, nc ceva despre conferina de la Blaj i despre ortografia scrierii
romneti, n Tribuna, 2, nr. 125, 1890, pp. 499-503.
D. Draica, Tribuna i rolul ei literar, n Contribuii la istoria ortografiei romneti,
Cluj-Napoca, Editura Casa Crii de tiin, 2010, pp. 147-149 .
M. Popa, Probleme de limb n Tribuna de la Arad (1897-1912), n Cercetri de
Lingvistic, 17, nr. 1, 1972, pp. 153-162.
Elena Stan, Preocupri de lingvistic n Tribuna sibian (1884-1903), n Cercetri de
Lingvistic, 19, nr. 1, 1974, pp. 117-123.
G. Vasiliu, Preocupri de limb n presa romneasc din Transilvania, Cluj, Editura
Napoca Star, 2001.
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CULTURE, CULTURES, CULTURAL APPRENTICESHIP

Veronica GASPAR
National University of Music, Bucharest
Abstract: This essay is proposing a brief overview on some significant features of the
evolution of the Culture from its syncretic-mystical roots until the post-modern concept of
cultures, mirrored in the cultural apprenticeship, mainly centred on the musical education
in the primitive cultures, passing through the Antique China and Greece, Medieval Japan and
Europe until the Modern and Contemporary Epochs. It aims to arouse a discussion on the
actual cultural and educational crisis, trying to emphasise possible causes and to highlight
the communicational and energetic pattern of the musical apprenticeship as a possible
vehicle to overpass the gap splitting the nowadays cultural consumers. The approach is
focused mainly on the resemblances and common features revealing some systematized ways
to transmit a cultural experience.
Keywords: Tradition, European vs. foreign imaginary, Master-apprentice, Shamans, Modern
re-definition
Culture and cultures

The actual teaching-learning system is facing a contradiction between the need to
cover an increasing amount of information and a prevalent educational politics oriented
toward simplification and minimal resistance. The humanistic sciences and the art education
must decide whether to adapt to, or to fight against the general trend wherein Culture is
ceasing to be a consensual ideal and begins to be a levelled juxtaposition of cultures. The
broad-wide opening of modern Europe implies the re-settlement of a huge amount of data.
Maybe we have not yet the right perspective to estimate the dimensions of this cultural ebbtide we are going under. Since more than a century, we are interrogating about ourselves and
try to reappraise both prospects and criteria in quest of a comprehensive overview of a global
spirituality.
The modernity in Europe brought three essential phenomena in the social psychology:
the laicization, (including the abandon of the transcendental pattern that traditionally was
followed in the ethical and aesthetical criteria); the striving for scientific objectivity, (meaning
the cult for exact sciences until fanaticism, tending to refill the godless altars) and a
tremendous development of the communication, in all senses. Paradoxically, right in the
climax of its global spreading Europe begins to foster an intriguing and peculiar self-denial
and to open enthusiastically toward foreign cultural styles. The contacts with the others
spirituality act on our academic routine, leading to significant changes in our criteria and
approaches. The opening to otherness, the tolerance for the foreigner seems to become the
main request for nowadays cultural behaviour. Nevertheless, such qualities are often
presuming disregard, when not despise of our own tradition, which are seemingly generated
by a wide-spread confusion between discernment and prejudice.
The penetration of the foreign imaginary, firstly evident in the Arts, was not just an
exotic ornament, but a vehicle for a real change as well in the value criteria as in the
perception of the cultural frontiers. The rejection of any European artistic tradition satisfied
in the first place the imperative of renewal that began to be (and still is) the dominant ideal for
any artistic creation. This iconoclastic renewal trend, bringing transformation of forms,
languages or styles was the main characteristic of the last century. In 1911, at the opening of
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the Blaue Reiter exhibition in Paris, one of the promoters, the German painter Franz Marc
affirmed: We must be brave and turn away from everything that, so far, the Europeans felt
good to be valuable and essential. The ideas and ideals must be dressed in fur coats; we must
be fed with locusts and wild honey, not with history, if we want ever to get rid of the bad slain
of our European taste1. In the same way the established dogmatic edifice2 built around the
concept of Culture started to crack under the pressure of the new democratic tide that had
begun to play an increasing role in the Western society.
These inwards and outwards openings of the cultural paradigm have been also
developed by the technological outburst which has brought with it promotion of
communication and infiltration of commercial criteria. The preservation of the European
Culture, as ideal to be reached was confined to the academic institutions until the final third
of the 20th century. In May 68, on the walls of the revolutionary Paris one could read slogans
as: La plus belle sculpture, cest le pav quon jette sur la gueule des flics (The most
beautiful sculpture is the pavement thrown on the cops mug) or: Lart est mort, ne
consommez pas son cadavre (The Art is dead; dont eat its corpse). This movement
particularly held by students stand not just against the authority of the traditional culture but
also against any authority. The nowadays Europhobic displays, which deserve to be more
meticulously discussed are no more issued from some insurgent students, but are concerning
also curricula and even the whole politics of some universities decided to reject the exclusive
authority of the white, dead males , a triad which seems to symbolize the European cultural
tradition.
A personal incident might be relevant for the strength of the non-European or even
anti-European contemporary trend. In 2004, attending a vast international meeting, initiated
by an important association of music teachers I tried to protest against an allegation claiming
that the musical art of some ethnical small group from Middle East has to be considered equal
with the European classical music. I realized immediately that my intervention was seen
under some political-ideological lens hindering any argumentation; so I had the idea to oppose
to that grupusculus, not the European music, but the Indian and the Chinese one. Only then
could be heard the arguments I consider relevant for a qualitative difference between cultures,
whatever they could be: temporal dimension, complexity, deepening of strata, crossdisciplinary sending and, last but not least, the surrounding subsequent constructions as
instruments, techniques/manners to be taught, special spots and timings involving
architecture, scenography, history etc.
The word culture is often abusively used nowadays; not only as a too large
umbrella, harbouring all kind of impostures, but also passing over some essential valences
that can provide a clear definition. Culture is not a line, unifying or splitting horizontally only.
The recent use of the term limits the average meaning to the totality of life forms and habits of
any nation. That points out exclusively the local specific existing in the same time
simultaneously. Thus, the term is degraded and simplified until a pure anthropological notion.
Therefore an evaluation of the culture cannot be deprived of a vertical dimension3, opening
the temporal dimension of a phenomenon which can hardly be reduced to a horizontal
stringing of events or objects however might be they different. The reduction of the meaning
of the term culture to the customs of a group, implying the detriment of any other meanings
which are presupposing elaboration, lead to a distort perspective and to an unfair levelling.
1
Robert Goldwater: Primitivism in the Modern Art, Ed. Meridiane, 1974, p.183
Abraham Moles: Sociodynamics and Policy of Cultural Equipment in Urban Society In: Communication,
Vol. 14, No. 14, pp. 142-143
3
Veronica Gaspar: The Vertical Frontier and the Cultural Challenge of the Global Society In: Volume of The
Romanian-German Conference, Humboldt University, Berlin, March 2006
2
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We could realize the differences of mentalities in the last two centuries if we are
comparing the definition of culture from 1805: "The training, development, and refinement
of mind, tastes, and manners" (Oxford English Dictionary) to a recent definition from the
American Heritage English Dictionary: The totality of socially transmitted behaviour
patterns, arts, beliefs, institutions, and all other products of human work and thought."
Regarding the latter definition, besides the keyword totality, we could also be aware of the
severe diminution of the connection with any educational process. Or, I believe that the
relations connecting the factors involved in educational processes, be they concomitant
(teacher-student) or temporal (ways to onward transmitting the heritage), could be significant
for the cultural specificity of a human community. Even if it is not always a conscious action,
the transmission of a cultural experience is involving a social ritual, especially visible in the
temporal arts. In this regard, the musical education could be more illustrative for a general
outlook. This domain is showing clearer as well the communications differences in time, as
the ratio of associated fields involved in the teaching-learning processes.
Culture and apprenticeship
A brief systematization of the main performance training styles is pointing out some
significant aspects of the musical communication, in the hypostasis of direct performance or
in its subsequent pedagogy. The temporal classification reveals three main levels: the
relationship between master and student (apprentice), the ratio between preservation of a
tradition and renewal and the importance of the above-mentioned associated fields together
with, or even instead of the concrete technical guidance. Most of the arts, but notably music
went throughout history from the status to be a part of a more complex spiritual activity, until
becoming an autonomous discipline. Beyond evident differences, the both basic pedagogical
styles, either based on oral tradition or on written text are sharing some common aspects,
bound up to the aforesaid classification. Performing is a complex creative activity which
always implies the belonging to a specific cultural context. As well the detection and selection
of meaningful structures as the building, disclosure and transmission of integrated entities,
involve both emergence (Adornos Bewegung) and social or psychological expectation. We
cannot refer to an activity designated for public emotional communion separate from its
cultural context. Education is a matter of study and practice (to know and to do). The
difference regarding the to know part is discerning the type of a society, disposed toward an
ideal or toward a pragmatic pattern.
The oldest educational layer involving music is a syncretic discipline related to magic
and healing rituals. In its pure form it can be found in the Andean area or in the South-Eastern
Asia. We pass over the communitarian contamination which can be found in almost all the
primitive tribes. In this educational system, music was a part of a complex magic-artistic
ensemble. It can be seen as a miscellany of medicine, mysticism, fortune telling, popular
astronomy, songs, dances, significant stories The artist-sorcerers and their occult training
play the role of link in the vertical transmission of the eternal world of God/Gods to the
temporal world of men, and in the horizontal transmission from hand to hand, within the
temporal world of men. When and if the ritual became more sophisticated requiring special
skills or, at least, a special training, the rule was (and still is, in the Tibetan Buddhist
monasteries for instance) rather simple: the apprentices sung or recited together following a
model: the teacher himself or a more advanced student. The method was very simple and,
it seems, either efficient: when a mistake occurred, the guilty was stroked, mostly without to
be informed about his/her awkwardness. It was the apprentices duty to find out the reason
and to correct alone his route toward the Guides wisdom...
In the second hypostasis music as part of magic: the apprenticing was secret, not
open to everyone, after long periods of more or less unpredictable tests. The main salient
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feature of this relationship was the emphasis on the irrational. Knowledge comes through a
special state which obscures the average sensorial perception (trance, drugs). Music and
sometimes language are different from those used in public rituals. In the Eastern Europe
there exists still a genre half verse - half music, a peculiar kind of a rhythmical parlando used
for healing, good fortune or for chasing the evil.
A particular connection of these two hypostases is still kept in shamanist practices,
wherein the initiation is not severely restricted and the secret formulas coexists with public
renditions in connection either to private conjuring or to social events. Another level refers to
the shamanic apprenticeship which assumes a narrower zone of associated fields and a
superior systematization. Because of the modern times (especially migration and
industrialization) many traditional ways of communitarian life are decreasing. Nevertheless,
in the Eastern Europe, in Romania, numerous communitarian traditions strained by archaic
significations remain miraculously unaltered. Customs and habits are still practiced in
important moments of the social or private existence. If the day-light music (used in public
ceremonies, feasts etc.) underwent the modern times changes, the hidden spells did not suffer
important alterations.
The Shaman plays a main role in the preservation of ancient traditions4. The name
refers currently to the healer-artist-sorcerer in the North-Eastern Asia, but his attributes can be
found to the popular healers in other regions, as, for instance, in Romania. These archaic
layers are maintaining their specific old musical traditions, untouched by any kind of
neighbour influences, or official pressures. Such old stable strata are intriguingly similar to
each other, no matter the geographical distance that separates them, thus pleading for an
ancestral cultural unity.
By artistic means, the Shamans perform masterful manipulation and presentation of
mental images in the audience, aiming at achieving the expected spiritual, psychological, and
physiological responses. The salient feature of the Korean shamans is the emphasis on the
artistic part of his mission and hence the elaboration of his/her artistic renditions. In order to
keep alive all the features of their complex Kraft, the great Illuminated become guides in a
thorough process of initiation. The disciple is living for a long lasting period near the Master,
starting with domestic servitudes and, eventually, getting to earn the privilege to gradually
learn some of the secrets of the art. This pattern of apprenticeship is similar to that found in
the painting workshops in the Medieval and Renaissance Europe. If for the modern
anthologists the knowledge about shamanism is the result of an interdisciplinary study
drawing from comparative mythology, history of religions, cultural and psychological
anthropology, history etc. for the Shamans themselves, knowledge comes from intuitive
compatibility, added to the above-mentioned long lasting initiation. The follower was selected
through a specific grill, mostly from the Masters relatives, according to some mysterious
signs and after a slavery-like initiation stage.
The evolution of the science and the conquests of the 20th Century had a price to pay:
the loss of the ancient artistic-medical-mystic tradition. The mystery, the complicated rituals
for access and poor written information increased the vulnerability of the Art. But, in the last
decades, the opening to the exotic world resurrected the ancient concern for the shaded zones
of the spirit. In fact, the striving for scientific objectivity emblem of the Modernity was
the first to decline, probably under the influence of the non-European thinking style. That is
why, in the present, we are crossing a period, which seems overweighed by the invasion of the
The references concerning the Shamanss music are part from a more extended research-study: Guides and
Initiates in Quest of Illumination: Non-European Traditions in Musical Teaching-learning presented at the
International Conference The Reflective Conservatoire: Apprentices and Sorcerers? Guildhall School of Music
& Drama, London, 16 -19 February 2006
4
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primitive layers of humanity. Nevertheless, this renewed cultural fashion, which puts its mark
everywhere from the average preoccupation of ordinary people until the highest researchstudy facilitates a fantastic trip backward to the human roots. It reveals astonishing
coincidences connecting remote cultures but also the survival of old epochs in our present
habits and art forms.
A musical school in a more proper way was created in the antique Greece. It had a
paradoxical resemblance with the traditional musical apprenticeship in Japan. The educational
level represented by these schools is supposing the transmission of the knowledge through
writings and public schools. The apprentice is no more part of the Masters life; he becomes a
student. He has no other obligations, except to learn and to venerate his Master, whether the
lessons take place outdoor, as for the peripatetic style, or in a confined room. As in the archaic
societies, the mastering of the knowledge was not taught, but was the indirect result from the
proximity of the Master.
For the Europeans, the Ancient Greece is the cradle of the collective pedagogy,
meaning a public school, pending on the Citadel and not on the Monastery. The culture was
unified with the religion through the Ethos. Contrary to all other teaching systems, in Athens
the relation teacher-student was based on dialectics. The student was encouraged to ask
questions until to the freedom to gainsay or to express doubts. In Greek schools, music was an
important cultural mark, together with literature and gymnastics. The instrumental music was
compulsory in gymnasia and palestrae and sometimes a student was trained by a special
teacher. Young Athenians learnt to play both the lyre and the aulos (wind instrument). The
musical theory was learnt only at a superior level. According to some pictures on vases, the
pupil was steering to his master and tried to imitate him. It seems that the free dialogue has
not a similar extent in the instrumental education. Beginning with Pythagoras, music was
integrated in the mathematics sciences corpus. The culture and its pedagogical corollary were
different in Sparta. Sparta before 6th century b. C. was a musical capital comparable to
Vienna in the 18th century. Afterwards, the cultural life decreased together with the
strengthening of the militarization.
The education system in the Greek antiquity encountered avatars and raised discussion
rather similar to the actual ones. Writings have been preserved, as, for instance, the 7th book
of Aristotles Politics, which treats on some eternal dilemmas referring to art education,
strategies to follow in order to keep a large access to education, resistance against the decay of
the public taste etc. etc.
Until the 5th century, it was a perfect balance between education, culture, and a nonsophisticated musical art. In the Hellenistic epoch, the musical education in schools became
increasingly restricted: only for the two last years and only few hours a week for learning lyre
and music (probably music theory, that meant a mathematic subject-matter or, perhaps,
vocal singing). The teachers were fewer than their colleagues and better paid. When great
composers as Melanippides, Kinesias, Phrynis and Timotheos refined the structure of
harmony, the complexity of the form and instruments, music became the appanage of
specialists requiring not only gift but also a special complementary education. In the 4 th
century, the technitai (profesionals) drove away amateurs and dilettanti from the renditions to
the non-participative auditory.
The restraining of the musical education reflects also on the Ethos, indissolubly
connected to music. Consequently, an entire parallel universe of myths raised by music turned
to simple anecdotes. The free dialogue linking the Master to disciple has decreased during the
centuries. However, in spite of a millennium and half of the Christian Churchs dominance,
the dialectic esprit emerged whenever the circumstances allowed it. The growth and
diminution of music in the Hellenistic social space mark the main distinction between the
ways to preserve tradition in Asia comparing with Europe: in Asia the society allows the
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simultaneous cohabitation of diverse cultural types unaltered, while the European culture is
ceaselessly changing. Each epoch or major influence clears up and replace the former style or
ideology in opposition with the Asiatic concern for unaltered preservation.
In Japan, a school (either for soloists or for ensemble) refers more specifically to a
style of playing. The organization is comparable to the old European guild system. The
manner to teach is mostly imitative, as in the shamanic training. The Sensei () (the
Foregoing Master or the Guide) plays and the student try to do the same, without many words
or theoretical explanation. The students become Masters followers, keeping strictly the
technical secrets and the imperatives of absolute obedience, aiming at acquiring the
professors personal touch. For the slightest change, the initiator had to leave the school.
Afterwards, the dissident was free to create another school, if he had enough force or talent to
do this. Only in his own school he was free to practice according to his style. The school
system was, and still is, extremely strong in Japan and the competition can be fierce. This
mentality works also for the learning of the Western music and it might be the principal
reason for the omnipresence of Japanese performers in the international musical life.
The Chinese musical culture offers a first example of a classical (cultured) music
entirely forged by specialists. Alain Danilou is convincingly demonstrating that the musical
system, including the pentatonic system assumed a school and not an adaptation of popular
forms5. Moreover, the Chinese musicology is offering not just a system of analogies like any
other antique culture, but also pedagogical indication related to musical performance. A
manuscript from the 13th century, The Fishermans song is showing pictures and instructions
for performance. A special mention on musical playing can also be seen in a Chinese
encyclopaedia from the beginning of the 17th century (1607-1612) with regard to an
instrument from the zither class: the qin (chin), considered as the most characteristic
instrument for the Chinese music6.
All these schools kept something from the archaic mystical relationship between
master and disciple. A good apprentice did not try to extort any information before its time
and that proper time was established by the Master, in accordance to some mysterious
reasons, never explained. Besides, the apprentice has to emphasise in the first place with the
spiritual essence of his/her teaching and not to get after an immediate technical result. We
recognize this type in Borgess story about Paracelsus. A young apprentice-candidate in this
story makes a decisive mistake when he challenges the Master to demonstrate his magic
powers. The young pretended to see him reviving a rose burnt in the fire. Paracelsus admits
his powerlessness, but, after the young left, alone, he made the miracle for himself The
apprehension against the parade of skills and the priority of obedience and modesty over any
achievement continued a long tradition asserted by almost all the important spiritual leaders.
Conclusions; to be discussed
The early modernity switches the sense of music as spiritual gesture to the art of
musical gestures. The relation with the transcendental world becomes more and more reduced
to particular analogies and correspondences. The former gods were replaced by astrology,
then by intellectual games as numerology, somehow recalling the liaison between sounds and
digits in China, but in a much lower extend. Nevertheless, numbers played an important role
for several scholars as Victorin de Pettau, Saint Augustine and Saint Ambrosias in the early
Christianity. So, the musical apprentice was aware that, before learning the gestures for music
he had to learn music as gesture leading into a spiritual state.
5
6
Alain Danilou: Treaty of comparative musicology pp. 69-70

Chou, Wen-Chung Towards a Re-Merger in Music p. 311
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Progressively, the technical complication as well as the damping of the mystic links
led to that, that the image part of the ritual gesture prevails on the signification part. The
musical education in the early modern Europe became more and more specialized and centred
on technical and aesthetical acquisitions under the increasing dominance of the written score.
In the 18th century the pure instrumental music becomes structured. Step by step the soloist
takes over the main role in the musical process. This new star appears in a de-sacred world
and replaces the empty space of the messenger of the transcendental. In this conjuncture,
music is no more an intermediary between the human and the divine but its substitute.
Consequently the public apparitions and the audiences feedback become more and more
ritualized. The new intermediary (performer of other peoples music) is now the hermeneutist
of a human message.
The passage to modernity brought in the cultural history some transformations: change
of temporal rituals in myths or symbols (eventually literature or aesthetical marks),
interference of numerology, specialization, aesthetical and ideological autonomy etc. All these
avatars determined important mutations in communication.
However the ancestral relations Master-disciple were still persistent, even if the first is
no more the messenger of a transcendental world, but an audience star. Even if the teaching is
far from being rigorous or systematized, the modern apprentice seems to believe that he can
be contaminated just by the proximity of the celebrity. Often, as in ancient times, the student
from Romanticism and even nowadays must observe and intuitively feel what the teacher
wants him to learn. So, such wordless communication is provoking a sort of natural selection
reminding the secret tests in archaic initiation. For instance an assertion like: you are not of
my world! as unique information left behind by a famous Chamber music professor in Cluj
could be considered to be inadmissible in a Mathematics or Literature class; though in the
musical field it has generated a feverish search to guess the way toward the Masters world.
No matter how it could be defined, the culture of a community implies the specific
way to keep and transmit its traditional heritage. Therefore the collocation cultural building
cannot elude a temporal dimension and the imperative to forge followers able to understand
this heritage in all its complexity. In the same time, the culture has also another dimension,
designing the level differences in the same society. The global era, through mass-media,
Internet etc. favoured links between any of these internal layers and consequently increasing
the internal gap in within the strata of a same society. The main danger for the culture is no
more the horizontal acculturation (where a stronger culture swallows the other) but this
disproportionate separation between a thin layer of cultured people and a mass that the actual
educational system not only does not educate, but, on the contrary, it encourages the blocking
within its own limits. Most of the nowadays schools, especially the Higher Education could
illustrate such tendency by creating arbitrary or limited value systems, often added to a
mechanical and stupid implementation of the political correctness. And, as a proved sensitive
social barometer, the Performing Arts keep a privileged place in this regard. Nevertheless
these fields, especially Music could facilitate the unification of the diachronic route to the
actual need for communication.
Some of the features defining communication in the exotic music are general human.
The ground layer was not always replaced, only covered. The specific cultural mentality
predisposed to keep traditions, as China, Japan and partly the profound Romania, might offer
an interesting survey, not as foreigners but as mechanisms to preserve our spiritual roots. The
immaterial patrimony, keeping the gestural dowry might provide more suppleness in our
cross-cultural relations and, maybe, it could be useful to re-create the missing link in the
vertical structure of the society. Some traditional training practices are subsisting under the
actual scientific pedagogy because of the human tendency to replace and not just to disclose
an ideology, a custom or a myth. The inner altars if empty tend to recreate new gods, which
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could become cultural preservers or the forgers of what J.-J. Wunenburger calls utopia. The
actual trend in Europa to explore the ancestral spirituality could help toward the recovering of
our forgotten spiritual identity and to generate appropriate messengers for this special
communication, linking the contemporary receivers to the cultural dowry. In this regard the
musical experience of the humanity could provide useful energetic and communicational
patterns, which are not totally lost in the collective memory.
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S. A., Paris [Romanian translation], Ed. Artemis, Bucharest, 1995
Chou, Wen-Chung. 1965. Towards a Re-Merger in Music (An interview on WBAI
radio, New York, 1965); Published in Elliott Schwartz, Barney Childs, Jim Fox:
Contemporary Composers on Contemporary Music, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1967, p.
308-316
Coman, Mihai. 2003. Mass Media, Myth and Ritual. An anthropological Perspective,
Ed. Polirom, Iai
Courant, Maurice. 1913. Essai Historique sur la Musique Classique des Chinois
(Historical Essay on the Classical Chinese Music) Encyclopdie de la musique et
Dictionnaire du Conservatoire, Vol. I, p. 77-211, Co-ordination Albert Lavignac, Charles
Delagrave, Paris
Danilou, Alain. 1959. Trait de musicologie compare (Treaty of comparative
musicology) Ed. Hermann, Paris
Durand, Gilbert. 1964. Imaginaia simbolic (The Symbolic Imagination) [Romanian
translation] Ed. Nemira, Bucureti, 1999
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Durand, Gilbert. 1994. Limaginaire. Essai sur les sciences et la philosophie de

limage (The imaginary. Essay on the Science and Philosophy of the Image) [Romanian
translation] Ed. Nemira, Bucureti, 1999
Elliot D. J. 1995. Music Matters. A New Philosophy of Music Education, Oxford:
Oxford University Press
Farb, Peter. 1968. Man's rise to civilization, Ed. Paladin, London, 1971
Gaspar, Veronica. 2004. ncntare/Descntare: Eseu despre percepia sacrului i
muzicii n imaginarul social (Enchantment Exorcism: An essay on the perception of music
and magic in the social imaginary) Ed. Libra, Bucureti
Gaspar, Veronica. 2006. Die senkrechte Grenze und die kulturelle Herausforderung
der globalen Gesellschaft (The Vertical Frontier and the Cultural Challenge of the Global
Society) In: Volume of The Romanian-German Conference, Berlin, 3-5 March 2006,
Humboldt Universitt Verlag, Berlin
Goldwater, Robert. 1988. Primitivismul n arta modern (Primitivism in Modern Art)
[Romanian translation] Ed. Meridiane, 1974 pag.183
Granet, Marcel. 1929. La civilization chinoise (The Chinese Civilization) Ed. Michel
Albin, Paris, 1968
Gunon, Ren. 1962. Simboluri ale tiinei sacre (Symbols of Sacred Science)
[Romanian translation] Ed. Humanitas, Col. Terra Lucida, 1997
Leroi-Gourhan, Andr. 1964. Le geste et la parole. Mmoire et rythmes, (Gesture and
Speech; Memory and Rhythms) Ed. Albin Michel,1998 Paris
Lvi-Strauss, Claude. 1962. La pense sauvage, (The Wild Thinking) Ed. Plon, Paris
Moles, Abraham A. 1969. Sociodynamique et politique d'quipement culturel dans la
socit urbaine, (Sociodynamics and Policy of Cultural Equipment in Urban Society) In:
Communication, Vol. 14, No. 14, pp. 137-149
Nakamura, Hajime. 1975. Orient i Occident; o istorie comparat a ideilor (A
comparative History of Ideeas) [Romanian translation] Ed. Humanitas, Bucureti, 1997
Nattiez, Jean-Jacques. 1967. Music and Discourse: Toward a Semiology of Music
[English translation] Ed. Princeton University Press, 1990
Nemescu, Octavian. 1986. Comunicare i recepie muzical (Musical Communication
and Perception) In: Vol. Arta modern i problemele percepiei estetice (Modern Art and
Problems of Aesthetical Perception), Ed. Meridiane, Bucureti
Park, Mikyung. 1985. Music and Shamanism in Korea: a Study of Selected SsikkumGut Rituals for the Dead, Ph.D. Thesis, University of California, Los Angeles
Perrin, Michel. 2001. Le chamanisme, (The Shamanism) Ed. Presses Universitaires de
France, Coll. Que sais-je
Ricoeur, Paul. 1986. Eseuri de hermeneutic (From Text to Action; Essays of
Hermeneutics II), [Romanian translation] Ed. Humanitas, Bucureti, 1995
Riegl, Alois. 1893. Istoria artelor ca istorie a stilurilor (History of Arts as History of
Styles) [Romanian translation] Ed. Meridiane, 1998
Sachs, Curt. 1943. The Rise of Music in the Ancient Word, East and West, Ed. W.W.
Norton, New York
Shepherd, John. 1991. Music as Social Text, Ed. Polity Press, Cambridge,
Wunenburger, Jean-Jacques. 1979. L'utopie ou la crise de l'imaginaire (Utopia or
Crisis of imaginary) [Romanian translation] Ed. Dacia, (Seria Arhetipologie generala), 2001
Wunenburger. Jean-Jacques. 1995. La vie des images (The Life of Images) [Romanian
translation] Viata imaginilor, E. Cartimpex, 1998
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MEMORY, EXILE, IDENTITY: NORMAN MANEA

Iulian BOLDEA
Abstract: The identitary problem is, of course, the one that offers esthetic and ethical
individuality to Norman Manea's works, as well as the theme of subversion, which is
modulated in the characterial features of some symbolic heroes (the clown, "the stupid", the
marginalized, etc.). Three major topoi are configuring an epical universe of undisputable
esthetic and ethical coherence: the experience of the Holocaust, the sufferings endured during
the communist dictatorship and, at the same time, the avatars of exile. The traumatic history
of the self is incorporated in the all-comprising history of a demonized and absurd century.
Keywords: history, memory, exile, identity, symbolic heroes
Autor al unor cri dificil de ncadrat ntr-o tipologie ferm, Norman Manea a reuit s
impun, prin romanele sale, timbrul unei voci singulare, ce face ca limitele dintre ficiune i
autoficiune, dintre documentul psihologic i evocarea netrucat s fie dintre cele mai fragile,
mai perisabile. Trei toposuri majore configureaz un univers epic de incontestabil pregnan
estetic i etic: experiena Holocaustului, suferinele ndurate n epoca totalitarismului
comunist i, nu n ultimul rnd, avatarurile exilului. Toate aceste toposuri sunt reunite n
ntoarcerea huliganului, carte emblematic pentru scriitura disponibil, mobil, proteic a lui
Norman Manea, o scriitur att de sensibil la traumele istoriei, la agresiunile unei lumi
desfigurate etic. Fixnd n pasta unui scris dens i translucid totodat, meandrele, trdrile i
dramele celor dou dictaturi (dictatura antonescian i apoi cea comunist), scriitorul reface,
n fond, arhitectura unui destin traumatic, n care diversele plci tectonice ale structurii
narative se ntreptrund i se completeaz, ntr-un spaiu al rupturilor violente i al
interstiiilor unei culpe netiute, redate cu percepia acut a unui martor necomplezent, de
maxim intransigen etic. De altfel, istoria traumatic a eului e ncorporat n sfera
cuprinztoare a Istoriei unui secol demonizat i absurd. Semnificative sunt, din aceast
perspectiv, chiar cuvintele lui Norman Manea, care, ntr-un dialog cu Carmen Muat,
ncearc s descifreze propriul demers din perspectiva unei memorii traumatizate de isteria
unei Istorii declinante: Ceea ce am ncercat, cu o formula literar personal, n aceast
ntoarcere nu doar n biografia mea, ci i n cea a timpului i locului i mediului n care am
trit, a fost sa recuperez un destin individual din masificatul simbol colectiv. Tragedia devine
parte a memoriei colective doar cnd a devenit clieu i acioneaz ca i un clieu. Individul
este anulat nu doar prin lespedea totalitar, ci i prin aceea, ulterioar, a memoriei colective.
Sunt referine critice n carte la trivializarea contemporan a tragediei, la comercializata
retoric a victimizrii i la rutina melodramei n literatura dedicat abisului n care s-a extins,
n secolul al XX-lea, suferina. Contient i mpovrat de enorm cantitate de volume i filme
care au tratat experiena-limit, am evitat s reiau imaginile deja consacrate. Am numit,
generic, INIIERE, un termen criptico-ironic, imersia protagonistului n oroare i am scrutat,
mai curnd, contradiciile dintre entitatea vieii private i identitatea pe care ne-o propune
mediul din jur. n tensiunea dintre viaa interioar, le moi profund, cum spunea Proust, i
scena social spre care individul trimite cte unul dintre multiplele sale euri, am sperat c
cititorul va descoperi nu doar tenebra suferinei necicatrizate, ci i o structur literar
incitant, umor, lirism, joc, ironie, chiar i, uneori, o nc pulsatil i infantil candoare. O
incursiune, pn la urm, cum ai neles, n acea incertitudine pe care obinuim s-o numim
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Eu, eu nsumi. Un eu condamnat la exil, dar i mntuit prin exil. Exilul dinainte i dup
exil: intensitatea rtcirii noastre lucide, ptimae, mbogitoare. O traum benefic, ritmat
n serie de traume i treziri regeneratoare.
Problematica identitar este, desigur, cea care confer individualitate estetic i etic
operei lui Norman Manea, alturi de tema subversiunii, modulat n amprenta caracterologic
a unor personaje emblematice (clovnul, prostul, marginalul etc.). Pe de alt parte, percepia
bolii, a unei corporaliti degradate, dar i decupajele anamnetice sau expresivitatea simbolic
a dialogului etic dintre victime i cli sunt fixate, cu incontestabil expresivitate narativ,
ntr-un fragment ce red imaginea Tatlui, evreu bolnav de Alzheimer, ngrijit de un infirmier
german, fragment elocvent prin plastica redrii unor gesturi emblematice i a unor figuri
exemplar reunite de metaforele suferinei, ale rnii, ale durerii mprtite: l priveam: era
gol, n picioare, n dreptul ferestrei, cu spatele spre u. Tnrul nalt i blond l tergea cu
dou prosoape n acelai timp i avea alt teanc de prosoape i crpe, la ndemn, pe jos.
Infirmierul m vzuse, mi zmbea, ne tiam, vorbisem de cteva ori. Un tnr voluntar
german, venit s lucreze la azilul de btrni din Ierusalim. (...) Se apleca, grijuliu, asupra
fiecrei poriuni de trup care trebuia curat de fecale: braele osoase, coapsele osoase,
glbui, spatele, ezutul flecit, genunchii sticloi. Tnrul german l cura, precaut, pe
btrnul evreu de murdria cu care l identificaser afiele naziste! Am rmas intuit n
imagine i am nchis, precaut, ua. M-am ntors n sala de mese. Tata a aprut, dup jumtate
de or, zmbind. Astzi eti n ntrziere, i-am spus. Am dormit, a rspuns, cu acelai
zmbet absent. Nu-i amintea c abia se desprise de tnrul care i splase trupul de ccat i
putoare, i alesese haine curate, l mbrcase, l condusese spre masa unde l ateptam. Ajuns,
dup nou ani, la nmormntarea mamei i a Patriei, trebuia, nainte s prsesc cimitirul
trecutului, s las devotatei soii a pacientului din Ierusalim preioasa informaie: eliberat, n
sfrit, de singurtate, tata se afla, senin, fr gnduri sau tristee, n grija delicat a unui tnr
german care ine la onoarea rii sale.
Deloc ntmpltor, Norman Manea nsui recunoate, ntr-un interviu, c raportul
dintre ficiune i realitate e unul ambiguu, tipic literaturii i artei. Sunt elemente biografice,
dar niciodat nu este biografie. Eroul respectiv sunt i nu sunt eu, adic i mprumut situaii
prin care nu a trecut niciodat i care mi sunt cerute de fluxul scrisului. mi cere anumite
situaii care nu in de biografia mea, pe care pur i simplu le inventez. Una peste alta, n
structura personajului se pstreaz probabil o anumit coeren de sensibilitate i de percepie,
dei faptic nu este o pictur dup model. Adic nu este un mimesis perfect, este cu devieri, cu
artificii, cu trucuri de scris, de expresie. Realitatea se transform prin nsui procesul
scrisului. Expresiile ficionalitii, ca i modelele pactului autobiografic rezum un scenariu
etic al unui exil care ncepe de la 5 ani din cauza unui dictator i a ideologiei sale, s-a
desvrit la 50 de ani, din cauza altui dictator i a unei ideologii aparent opuse. Raportul
dialectic dintre moarte, suferin i salvare nu e lipsit de un fundament iniiatic, alctuit din
meandrele rememorrii, din experienele revelatorii ale suferinei sau din spasmele unei dureri
mereu rennoite (Nucul Noah se iniia nu doar n via, ci i n Viaa de Apoi. Moartea
cptase, mai nti, chipul supt i adorat al bunicului Avram! Brusc magie a nensufleirii:
Viaa de Apoi, n groapa fr nume i via. [...] nc viu, n via, gndind propria moarte, dar
nelegnd, atunci, c plnsul i foamea i frigul i frica snt ale vieii, nu ale morii. Nimic nu
era mai important dect supravieuirea, aa spunea mama, ncercnd s-i ncurajeze soul i
fiul. Moartea trebuia, cu orice pre, refuzat. Doar astfel meritm supravieuirea, repeta
responsabila cu supravieuirea). Iniierea n spaiul Jormaniei socialiste, evocat i n cri
dinainte (Despre Clovni, Fericirea obligatorie) expune situaii tragi-comice, cum ar fi postura
prietenului silit s devin informator al Securitii, care ns i mrturisete aceast calitate
chiar celui urmrit: Viaa dubl-tripl-multipl a ceteanului socialist fusese suplimentat cu
o misiune precis, secret i nepltit: s raporteze existena dubl-tripl a celui mai bun
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prieten. [...] M informase, pn n ultima clip, asupra serviciilor pe care le furniza Instituiei
Supreme. Pn la urm, falsul informator prsise Jormania socialist. n acelai timp,
scriitorul reacioneaz, n mod ferm, transparent, la aluviunile limbajului dogmatizat, clieizat,
al ideologiei comuniste, care a pus stpnire cu perfidie pe contiinele oamenilor, pe
cuvintele i pe tririle lor (Sloganele, clieele, ameninrile, duplicitatea, convenia,
minciunile mari i mici, rotunde i coluroase, colorate i incolore, puturoase i inodore, ca i
minciunile insipide de tot felul).
Spaiul i timpul sunt, n regimul comunist, confiscate, devin bunuri colective, i pierd
orice not individual (Dup etatizarea spaiului, inovaia socialist cea mai extraordinar:
etatizarea timpului, pas decisiv spre etatizarea fiinei nsei, creia timpul i rmsese ultima
posesie. Un termen nou n noua realitate i n vocabularul vremurilor noi: edina. ed i tot
ed la edine, suna un vers satiric, banal consemnare a realitii banale. Timpul individului
transferat colectivitii: edina, derivat lingvistic de la a edea edere, numea operaia
major de jefuire a timpului). Deloc ntmpltor, n prefaa a un volum de interviuri, Norman
Manea definete i caracterizeaz sindromul Puterii, ce are drept reper esenial refuzul,
incapacitatea acceptrii diversitii opiniilor (Sindromul Puterii autentific un dialog al
surzilor, incapacitatea de a asculta, cu adevrat, opinia preopinentului n toate nuanele sale,
graba de simplificare brutal. Informaia corect i respectul adevrului sunt instantaneu
nlocuite cu insinurile i invectiva, cnd nu de-a dreptul prin aria calomniei. Nimic nu pare
excesiv n reafirmarea autoritii; retorica bunelor intenii, candoarea tartuffian,
manipularea cras. () Ostilitatea fa de interlocutor prevaleaz, uneori, chiar i dup
curmarea controversei, printr-o persistent operaie de discreditare (n cazul unui scriitor,
campania se extinde, firete, rapid asupra operei i biografiei sale).).
Fericirea obligatorie promovat de ideologia comunist nu este altceva dect un
subterfugiu al imposturii i minciunii, o alt form a oprimrii la care era supus scriitorul,
obligat s se supun constrngerilor mutilante ale cenzurii. Edificator, pentru o astfel de
condiie umilitoare e eseul Referatul cenzorului n care sunt evocate avatarurile apariiei
romanului Plicul negru. Confruntarea cu cenzura, cu mutilrile i opresiunile impuse de
ideologia comunist l-a determinat, n cele din urm, pe scriitor s prseasc definitiv
Romnia: Volumul a aprut n vara lui 1986. Editura, tot mai strangulat de presiunea
Cenzurii, ncerca s profite comercial de fiecare carte publicat. Aa se face c volumul a fost
tiprit n douzeci i ase de mii de exemplare, tiraj privilegiat, la care nu ndrznisem s aspir
n cei douzeci de ani de cnd publicam n Romnia. Rumoarea strnit n jurul unui volum
oprit n timpul tipririi i masacrat insistent de Cenzur a stimulat, probabil, interesul
publicului. Cartea s-a epuizat din librriile bucuretene n cteva zile. Prietenii m asigurau c
versiunea nlocuitoare publicat i-a pstrat totui ascuimea critic i originalitatea literar.
n toamna lui 1986 au aprut cteva prime recenzii favorabile romanului, n principalele
reviste literare ale rii. n decembrie 1986 prseam Romnia.
Desigur, exilul problematizeaz i condiia lingvistic a celui ce prsete matca
originar, pentru a se integra ntr-un alt mediu, ntr-un alt context, ntr-o alt ambian. E
drept c experiena romneasc a reprezentat, pentru Norman Manea, i o continu aspiraie
spre casa pe care doar Cartea mi-o promitea, n timp ce exilul a reprezentat o suferin ce
nsoea evaziunea spre spaiul libertii: Exil, boal salvatoare? Un du-te-vino spre i dinspre
mine nsumi [...] Gsisem, iat, n cele din urm adevratul domiciliu. Limba promite nu doar
renaterea, ci i legitimarea, reala cetenie i reala apartenen. Decizia de a abandona
spaiul natal e nsoit de opiunea reconstruirii utopice a fiinei exilate prin limbaj (nu-mi
rmnea dect s-mi iau limba, casa, cu mine. Casa melcului). Foarte semnificativ e, n acest
roman, capitolul Casa Fiinei, n care jocurile metaforice conduc la destinul limbii pribege,
aceea purtat cu sine de exilatul ce ncearc s contureze, la un moment dat, un exerciiu de
imaginaie interesant i iluzoriu, ce ilustreaz constrngtoarea legitimitate lingvistic a
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exilatului: i doresc ca ntr-o diminea s ne trezim cu toii vorbind, citind i scriind

romnete. i ca romna s fie declarat limba naional american (cu o lume comind
lucrurile ciudate de astzi, nu exist nici un motiv ca aa ceva s NU se ntmple).
Ce este, ns, pentru Norman Manea, huliganul? Desigur, referina la cartea lui Mihail
Sebastian e transparent; huliganul lui Norman Manea este un exclus, o fiin periferic, un
ins situat ntr-o poziie i o postur marginal, fapt pe care scriitorul l recunoate, de altfel,
ntr-un interviu: Atacat din toate prile pentru romanul De dou mii de ani, Sebastian se
vede asaltat huliganic, dar i definit ca unul dintre ei; o definiie pe care o ntoarce pe dos [...]
ntrebrile ce l obsedau pe huliganul Sebastian au o particular rezonan, cred, pentru cei
care au trit sub dictaturi de dreapta sau de stnga. [...] Huliganul meu se vede pe sine ca un
venic outsider, un intrus, un suspect i un marginal, un clovnesc i pgubos August Prostul,
silit s parcurg traumele unui secol dementizat, o Istorie de convulsii sngeroase. Exilatul
dintotdeauna, exilat din nou i din nou, oriunde s-ar gsi. Deloc ntmpltor, Mircea
Iorgulescu crede c ntoarcerea huliganului este o carte zguduitoare. Prin experienele
teribile trite i evocate de autor - deportarea i lagrul, apoi nceata, dar inexorabila, teroare a
ruloului compresor al socialismului real, de inspiraie sovietic mai nti, regenerat apoi
prin racordare la naionalism fascizant, n sfrit exilul ca suferin i eliberare -, dar i, poate
chiar n primul rnd, prin expresia literar, prin unicitatea artistic a confesiunii i refleciei.
Martor sau scriitor? mpria Documentului sau mpria Eului? Mrturisitorul suferinei
(administratorul, arhivarul, istoricul) sau artistul? Depoziia sau Compoziia? Formula acestei
literaturi este prin definiie ambigu, frontierele dintre domenii sunt uneori, deseori, fluide,
exist apoi momente care privilegiaz un anumit tip de lectur n dauna celuilalt, iar opiunile
tranante sunt pandite de capcane i riscuri. Nencercate de un accent de relativitate care s
le nuaneze, certitudinile devin bestii absolute, scrisese demult cineva, ntr-o carte ironic i
disperat, probabil cel mai dramatic manifest pentru gndirea liber din cultura romn. Un
manifest pentru omul fr uniform.
Naraiunea lui Norman Manea se ncheie ntr-o not de aparent nerezolvare a
conflictului, de ntoarcere obsesiv n punctul de plecare, n msura n care autorul
mrturisete: Plecarea nu m eliberase, ntoarcerea nu m ntorsese. mi locuiesc stnjenit
biografia. Singurtatea esenial ce prinde contur n crile lui Norman Manea are ca punct
de plecare sentimentul de exclus, de damnat, de proscris ce l-a nsoit pe scriitor de-a lungul
ntregii sale viei i cariere literare (Trecuser patru ani de cnd fuseserm gonii n pustiu,
nici o lun nu mai avea s treac pn la ncheierea oficial a rzboiului. Comarul trgea
cortina. n acea amiaz de primvar reapruse Viitorul ca o gogoa subire, colorat, la care
eram chemat s suflu din rsputeri, s umflu golul cu lacrimi i saliv i gemete, s m salvez
din trecut). Lecia de demnitate conturat n aceast carte este, n fond, nsoit de un recurs,
lipsit de orice striden retoric sau edulcorare, la memorie. O memorie neconcesiv, de
exemplar acuitate i expresivitate etic.
Bibliography
Iulian Boldea, Claudiu Turcu (coord.), Norman Manea departe si aproape, Editura
Arhipelag XXI, Trgu Mure, 2014; Matei Clinescu, Reflecii despre ntoarcerea huliganului
(postfa), n Norman Manea, ntoarcerea huliganului, ediia a II-a, Editura Polirom, Iai,
2006; Nicolae Manolescu, Istoria critic a literaturii romne. 5 secole de literatur, Editura
Paralela 45, Piteti, 2008; Eugen Negrici, Literatura romn sub comunism. Proza, Editura
Fundaiei Pro, Bucureti, 2003; Ion Simu, Incursiuni n literatura actual, Editura Cogito,
Oradea, 1994; Aurica Stan, Exilul ca traum, trauma ca exil n opera lui Norman Manea,
Editura Lumen, Iai, 2009; Mircea Tomu, Romanul romanului romnesc. n cutarea
personajului Vol. 1, Editura Gramar, Bucureti, 1999; Ion Vlad, Romanul universurilor
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crepusculare. Eseu, Editura Eikon, Cluj-Napoca, 2004; Claudiu Turcu, Estetica lui Norman
Manea, Editura Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 2012; Mircea Zaciu, Marian Papahagi, Aurel
Sasu (coord.), Dicionarul scriitorilor romni, Editura Albatros, Bucureti, 2001.
Acknowledgement: This paper was supported by the National Research CouncilCNCS, Project PN-II-ID-PCE-2011-3-0841, Contract Nr. 220/31.10.2011, title Crossing
Borders: Insights into the Cultural and Intellectual History of Transylvania (18481948)/Dincolo de frontiere: aspecte ale istoriei culturale si intelectuale a Transilvaniei
(1848-1948)/ Cercetarea pentru aceasta lucrare a fost finanata de ctre Consiliul Naional
al Cercetrii tiinifice (CNCS), Proiect PN-II-ID-PCE-2011-3-0841, Contract Nr.
220/31.10.2011, cu titlul Crossing Borders: Insights into the Cultural and Intellectual History
of Transylvania (1848-1948)/Dincolo de frontiere: aspecte ale istoriei culturale si
intelectuale a Transilvaniei (1848-1948).
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LIVIU REBREANUS RELATIONS WITH THE PRESS OF THE EPOCH

Mariana FLAIER
Gr. T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Iai
Abstract: Although in the history of the Romanian Literature Liviu Rebreanu remained
through his writings in prose, through his novels, the writer considers himself a journalist. At
the beginning of his career he was a journalist for a number of newspapers and literary
magazines (Falanga literar i artistic [The Literary and Artistic Phalanx], Convorbiri
critice [Critical Conversations], Ordinea [The Order]), he collaborated in numerous other
publications of the time, he was the director of a newspaper and established certain literary
magazines: Romnia literar [The Literary Romania], Micare literar [The Literary
Movement], etc., and he was always concerned to record thoroughly and as objective as
possible the artistic and cultural phenomenon, to maintain interest in art and culture. Liviu
Rebreanu knows the media world with all its bright and dark sides. He was blamed,
denigrated, blackmailed by some journalists at times, but also praised by others. He
understood what does the breaking news and "group interest" of certain newspapers mean,
but also the value of the comments of the literary criticism, of the news report, of the interest
in the Romanian publishing art. In conclusion, we may state that the journalist work of Liviu
Rebreanu, the writer's relationship with the press of the time, deeply marks his entire
existence. Thus, the journalistic work of Liviu Rebreanu has to be known in order to better
understand his entire literary creation.
Keywords: Phalanx, journalist, interview, news report, press
ntr-un Memoriu adresat Consiliului de Minitri, prin care Liviu Rebreanu dorea s
clarifice un episod nefericit din trecutul su, pentru care fusese condamnat, persecutat i, mai
ales, denigrat n presa vremii, scriitorul se prezint ca publicist, secretar de redacie al
revistelor Convorbiri critice, Falanga literar i artistic, redactor al ziarului Ordinea1. Este
adevrat c debutul celor mai muli scriitori este nlesnit de exerciiul publicistic. i n cazul
lui Liviu Rebreanu, activitatea jurnalistic a fost o modalitate prin care acesta a luat contact cu
varietatea de idei, diferitele tendine, curente literare2, pulsul vieii culturale romneti, n
general.
Este lesne de neles c scriitorii au nevoie de pagina de ziar ca s-i fac cunoscute
produciile literare. n acest sens, Liviu Rebreanu debuteaz n 1908 la revista Luceafrul cu o
povestire autobiografic: Cuibul visurilor. Multe dintre nuvelele sale sau fragmente din
romane vor fi publicate, ulterior, n gazetele literare ale timpului.
Un alt aspect, extrem de important n creaia literar a unui scriitor este felul n care
opera sa este receptat de cititori, n general, i de critici, n mod particular. Ecourile criticii,
recenziile, comentariile apar, de asemenea, n ziare i reviste. Rebreanu noteaz n acest sens:
Recenziile i notele literare au un rol important n impunerea unui scriitor (Rebreanu, 1984,
a, p. 501). Prin urmare, presa decide, de foarte multe ori, soarta unui artist.
Complementaritatea scriitor jurnalist este o stare fireasc, uneori de echilibru, de raporturi
Liviu Rebreanu, Memoriu, n Jurnal, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1984, vol. I (a), p. 331.
D. Murrau, n prefaa intitulat Lupta de idei n presa literar romneasc (1900 1918) din volumul Din
presa literar romneasc, 1900 1918, Editura Albatros, Bucureti, 1970, p. 5-55, comenteaz atmosfera
literar a nceputului de secol XX, atmosfer animat de o varietate de gazete literare, unele de o deosebit
importan pentru literatura romn: Viaa romneasc, Convorbiri critice, Semntorul, etc.
1
2
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Issue no. 6/2015
armonioase, alteori, otrvit de opinii i atitudini divergente, ostile. Rebreanu subliniaz n

Jurnalul su, n unele interviuri, importana presei n viaa cultural a unui neam: Presa, a
patra putere n stat domin i convinge prin puterea cuvntului (Rebreanu, 1984, a, p. 386).
Ct privete presa literar, scriitorul este de prere c acesta are datoria de a nregistra
contiincios i ct mai obiectiv posibil, fenomenul artistic i cultural, s [ntrein] interesul
pentru art i cultur (Rebreanu, 1984, a, p. 410). Aceste principii i idei generale sunt
deseori uitate. i nainte de Rebreanu, i n epoca sa, pn n actualitate, paginile de jurnal se
transform ntr-o aren n care fauna publicistic, aa cum o numete plastic Adrian
Marino3, atac violent pe aceia care nu au ansa de a fi n graiile vreunui ziarist sau ale unui
director de ziar. Rebreanu a fost ani la rnd inta atacurilor denigratoare i a injuriilor unor
confrai de la Universul, Curentul, ndreptarea, Viitorul. Atmosfera dumnoas ntreinut
de Nichifor Crainic la Gndirea, Dianu i P. eicaru la Curentul i ali jurnaliti ale cror
nume istoria literar nu le-a reinut, l determin pe Rebreanu s hotrasc c va colabora doar
cu acele ziare i reviste unde i se arat simpatie i unde [se simte] ca acas (Rebreanu, 1984,
a, p. 26). E. Lovinescu, ntr-un articol din ziarul Comedia, vorbete de tendina distructiv a
unor ziariti care i exerseaz condeiul prin articole defimtoare: Critica, scrie Lovinescu, a
ajuns un fel de piraterie S-l dobori pe cutare, s-l loveti n cinstea de om i de scriitor, sl stropeti cu noroiul insultei zilnice Trist meserie. Trebuie s facem zgaz acestor
revrsri de vulgaritate i patime4. Atacurile presei nu s-au oprit. Rebreanu a neles din acest
rzboi cu gazetarii ruvoitori ai timpului c presa poate fi i o bun arm defensiv
(Rebreanu, 1984, a, p. 235).
Referitor la rolul presei n cultura romneasc, scriitorul noteaz care sunt direciile n
care trebuie s acioneze ziarul de informaii generale i gazetele literare. Astfel, menirea unui
ziar este s transmit corect, obiectiv tiri i informaii privind viaa politic i evenimentele
cetii. n acest sens, perioada istoric n care Rebreanu a fost ziarist, prozator, director la
diferite ziare i gazete literare, director al teatrului, a fost extrem de agitat. n Jurnal, n unele
articole, n scrierile literare autorul noteaz despre cderea guvernelor, imaginea i politica
regelui, asasinarea lui Armand Clinescu, momentul intrrii n rzboi, mobilizarea general,
atmosfera tensionat dinaintea intrrii n rzboi: toat lumea pe Calea Victoriei smulge din
minile vnztorilor foile de ziare Rzboi sau pace?... Intrm sigur n rzboi (Rebreanu,
1984, a, p. 344).
Martor al celor dou rzboaie mondiale, Rebreanu este de prere c Rzboiul e o
nebunie (Rebreanu, 1984, b, p. 192) i c politica Romniei n acest context trebuie s fie
de mare cuminenie i modestie: Iar primejdie i spaima rzboiului!... Iar ne aflm ntre doi
uriai hrprei. Ce s facem? Garania Angliei i Franei e frumoas doar pe hrtie. Cine s
ne ajute? De jur-mprejur dumani i totui, numai printr-o politic de mare cuminenie i
modestie vom putea s dinuim ntre cele dou mari imperii. Lumea e a celor mari care
ntotdeauna vor vdea la nvoial pe socoteala celor mici. Principiile i ideologiile sunt praf n
ochii mulimilor (Rebreanu, 1984, b, p. 187).
Rolul jurnalistului n vreme de rzboi este de a lmuri opinia public prin reportajul
de rzboi despre evoluia evenimentelor, iar documentul poate fi fructificat de scriitor n
compoziiile sale viitoare (Rebreanu, 1984, b, p. 358 359). Rebreanu nu spune nimic
despre primejdioasa activitate de reporter de rzboi. i atunci, ca i astzi, jurnalistul poate
deveni victim colateral n teatrul de lupt n care a ajuns din dorina de a transmite, ct
mai exact, tirile de rzboi.
Despre presa de dup 1989, scrie Adrian Marino n Viaa unui om singur, Editura Polirom, Iai, 2010, pp. 113,
267, 358, 386. Observaiile i comentariile lui A. Marino demonstreaz c se pot gsi similitudini ntre lumea
publicistic de acum i cea din vremea lui Rebreanu.
4
E. Lovinescu, Comedia, an I, nr. 1, 15 aprilie 1917, Bucureti.
3
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Issue no. 6/2015
Strns legat de viaa politic romneasc din prima jumtate a secolului al XX-lea
este starea culturii i a artelor despre care Liviu Rebreanu vorbete deseori n interviurile din
diferite ziare. n acest sens, Rebreanu este un continuator al ideilor primilor gazetari romni:
Gheorghe Asachi, I. H. Rdulescu, I. Barit, M. Koglniceanu, T. Maiorescu i alii.
Fie c vorbim de ziarul politic sau de informaii generale, fie c avem n vedere doar
gazetele literare, primii jurnaliti romni considerau presa un important mijloc de rspndire a
culturii i tiinei5 spre binele spiritual al romnilor. Crezul literar al lui Rebreanu, profilul
moral, ideile dar, mai ales, aciunile omului de cultur ancorat n realitile vremii sale se
lmuresc n discuiile cu Felix Adenca, Camil Baltazar, Ioan Massof, Vasile Netea, Dan
Petraincu, I. Valerian, ziariti care i-au publicat interviurile n Viaa literar, Rampa,
Vremea, Adevrul literar i artistic6.
Astfel, dup Primul Rzboi Mondial, Rebreanu, artndu-se entuziasmat de
efervescena vieii culturale i fiind convins c temeliile adevratei culturi romneti acum se
pun, cere oamenilor politici ai timpului s acorde mai mult sprijin culturii i artelor
romneti: Omul politic romn este imbecil, barbar i anticultural. Cine ar fi dispus s nu m
cread s binevoiasc a asculta discursurile parlamentare sau a citi articolele de gazet ale
oamenilor notri politici. Cum s ceri simpatie pentru art i cultur unor oameni care nu sunt
n stare s nchege o fraz? Arta i cultura n-au s atepte dect dumnie de la oamenii
politici de azi (Rebreanu, 1984, a, p. 362). S-ar prea c, dei au trecut decenii, schimbri
majore n fiziologia politicianului romn n-au intervenit. i astzi, ca i atunci, cultura i arta
sunt ignorate printr-o susinut politic de subfinanare. Coincidene izbitoare aflm i n
privina situaiei de criz n care se afla i se afl Romnia: Crizele s-au permanentizat de un
rstimp n viaa omenirii. Cnd nu e criz politic, trebuie s fie una economic, dac nu e
financiar, va fi negreit una social, cnd nu e criz de guvern, se gsete o criz de regim
Poate c ele prevestesc sau sunt semnele exterioare ale unei prbuiri generale. Poate c
avalana de crize s fie inevitabilele dureri ale naterii unei lumi noi (Rebreanu, 1984, a, p.
444). Toate neajunsurile provocate de crizele amintite culmineaz cu micorarea fondurilor
pentru art i cultur, situaie care i se pare de neacceptat. Coincidenele izbitoare ntre criza
crii din vremea lui Rebreanu i criza crii din zilele noastre fac ca scepticismul s planeze
asupra urmtoarei afirmaii a scriitorului: n momentul cnd cartea va deveni un articol de
prim necesitate, problema cultural va fi principal rezolvat (Rebreanu. 1984, a, p. 410).
Colaborator la mai multe jurnale literare, director al unor ziare, fondator al unor gazete
de aceeai factur (Micarea literar), Liviu Rebreanu definete profilul revistei literare: O
cluz obiectiv n toate chestiile de literatur i art, o revist scris de crturari talentai
(Tudor Vianu, Perpessicius, Aderca i alii), reoglindind sincer toate frmntrile vieii
noastre culturale (Rebreanu, 1984, a, p. 365). Revista, scrie L. Rebreanu, este veriga de
unire ntre creatori i cititori, fr a avea preferine pentru anume curente sau bisericue, ci
numai pentru opera de art adevrat (Rebreanu, 1984, a, p. 367). Convins c tam-tam-ul
gazetresc este fr utilitate pentru impunerea unei opere literare sau a unui scriitor,
Rebreanu subliniaz rolul criticii literare n aprecierea obiectiv i ierarhizarea valorilor
literare (Rebreanu. 1984, a, p. 501).
n viaa cultural romneasc, dezbaterile evenimentelor politice, literare, sociale nu se
regsesc doar n ziar sau n paginile gazetelor literare ci i la ntrunirile literare, cenacluri,
n primul numr al Gazetei de Transilvania se spunea: Lirea tiinelor i a cunotinelor, mprtirea ideilor
la toate plasele de oameni strig astzi toate naiile; mijlocele acestea sunt crile, literatura, scrierile periodice
(s.n.) lite i propovduite la toi. Aceleai scopuri i idealuri se regsesc n mai toate programele ziarelor din
secolul al XIX-lea (cf. Din presa literar romneasc a secolului XIX, Editura Tineretului, Bucureti, 1967, p.
86).
6
Vezi capitolele Interviuri i note i comentarii din volumul Amalgam, Editura Dacia, Cluj-Napoca, 1976, pp.
246, 318, 354, 592.
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conferine, cafenele. Este tiut c n perioada interbelic prestigioase reviste literare: Viaa
Romneasc, Sburtorul, Convorbiri critice, etc. devin spaii culturale n care produciile
literailor timpului sunt comentate i analizate. G. Ibrileanu, E. Lovinescu, spiritele
directoare ale Vieii Romenti i Sburtorului reuesc s stimuleze verva creatoare i s
contribuie la selectarea talentelor prin critici i aprecieri privind stilul literar i valoarea al
unei opere de art7.
La unele dintre aceste reviste, la Convorbiri critice, Viaa Romneasc, Ramuri,
Falanga, Rebreanu a colaborat, publicnd scrieri literare sau interviuri. Locul unde pulsul
vieii literare se simea mai alert era, scrie L. Rebreanu, cafeneaua literar: Oeeleeanu
Imperial, Capsa: Acum ne adunm cum se tie la Capsa. Aversiunea pe care o au unii pentru
cafenele n-o gsesc just. Scriitorii vin aici de dou ori pe zi Nu trebuie confundai cu
anumii stlpi de cafenea. Se discut asupra ultimelor nouti literare, se aduc manuscrisele,
fiind singurul mod de a ne ntlni. Cafeneaua are i o atitudine critic destul de muctoare
(Rebrreanu, 1984, a, p. 374).
Despre atitudini critice curajoase, despre libertatea de expresie a scriitorului i grania
dintre libertatea de expresie i libertinajul expresiei vorbete Rebreanu ntr-un interviu care
are ca tem literatura pornografic. Referindu-se la aceast literatur pe care o
dispreuiete, scriitorul nu este de acord cu intervenia justiiei n actul de creaie. ntr-o lupt
pentru purificare n care doi scriitori tineri au fost arestai, Rebreanu pune n discuie faptul
c unele cri scrise cu gnduri comerciale vor fi judecate de timp i de critica de
specialitate i nu de tribunale. Literatura nu se poate dezvolta dup reete prescrise de
moraliti. Ceea ce i se pare inadmisibil n acest caz este lipsa de atitudine a scriitorilor n
faa unei ameninri grave a nsi existenei lor i a evoluiei literaturii romneti, laitatea i
lipsa spiritului camaraderesc (Rebreanu, 1984, b, p. 276).
O alt problem prezent n paginile presei romneti interbelice, dezbtut prin vocea
lui Liviu Rebreanu, este vizibilitatea Romniei n Occident i articolele denigratoare la adresa
romnilor din unele ziare europene. Vina, i n timpul lui Rebreanu, i n zilele noastre, pare
s fie a romnilor nii. Cnd un ataat de pres la Paris i semnaleaz c romnii sunt
cuprini ntr-un cerc de dumnii i relevoini ziaristice cest la course aux informations de
sensation tout prix, Rebreanu exclam: Iat presa! Politic jurnalistic cu tradiie care
vizeaz creterea tirajului, a ratingului, punnd n prin plan strile negative, catastrofele care
vnd mai bine ar fi una din cauzele care adncesc rul (Rebreanu, 1984, a, p. 187). O alt
cauz a imaginii trunchiate a culturii romneti n strintate este, n opinia lui L. Rebreanu,
lipsa de preocupare a romnilor de a face cunoscute valorile literare i tiinifice n lume: nu
s-a fcut aproape nimic pentru difuzarea culturii [romneti] peste hotare. Aa se explic de ce
nici teatrul, nici literatura i nici chiar tiina noastr n-au putut fi valorificate n strintate
i din tot ce e caracteristic romnesc, aproape nimic nu este cunoscut A sosit momentul,
noteaz L. Rebreanu, pentru a arta c suntem i altceva dect productori de petrol i
grne8.
Strnsa legtur a scriitorului cu presa vremii nu putea rmne fr urmri n planul
creaiei literare. n romanele Rscoala, Jar, Gorila, prozatorul creioneaz, uneori apelnd la
date autobiografice, cteva portrete de gazetari: Titus Herdelea, Remus Oloman, Toma
Pahonu. Schematice, lipsite de vigoare, personajele amintite intervin n estura romanelor,
comentnd evenimente, observnd i ascultnd dramele celorlali. Oloman este confidentul
G. Clinescu povestete n Istoria literaturii romne de la origini pn n prezent cu o fin ironie cum se
desfura o edin a cenaclitilor de la Sburtorul: edina literar const din lecturi de romane, piese de teatru
i poezii E. Lovinescu era obsedat de ludabila dorin de a descoperi talente Dup rzboi, E. Lovinescu se
bucur de un prestigiu considerabil i primele nume ale Sburtorului fur devorate (G. Clinescu, Istoria
literaturii romne de la origini pn n prezent, ediie i prefa de Al. Piru, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1985).
8
Liviu Rebreanu, Amalgan, Editura Dacia, Cluj-napoca, 1976, p. 321 322.
7
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Lianei Pahonu, nsoit de btrnul gazetar Titu Herdelea plaseaz n prim plan preocuprile
redaciilor de jurnal: tiraje, preul hrtiei, agenii de publicitate, agenii telegrafici, etc. 9. n
opinia lui G. Clinescu, Pahonu este mai bine individualizat dect Oloman sau Titus
Herdelea dei rmne amorf i fr consisten, Rebreanu fiind maestru n portretizarea
grupurilor i nu a personajelor (Clinescu, 1985, p. 763).
n concluzie, raporturile lui Liviu Rebreanu cu presa vremii i-au marcat puternic
ntreaga existen. Debutnd n gazete literare, colabornd pe parcursul ntregii sale viei la
numeroase ziare i reviste, director de gazete literare, fondator al altor jurnale, Rebreanu s-a
considerat, pe bun dreptate, publicist, jurnalist al cetii, avnd datoria de a informa i a
convinge prin puterea cuvntului. Dei a rmas n istoria literaturii romne mai ales prin
creaiile sale literare, autorul lui Ion, al Pdurii Spnzurailor i al Rscoalei, a avut
preocupri statornice de gazetar care l-au adus n permanen n prim planul vieii culturale
romneti a epocii sale.
Bibliografie
Clinescu, 1985 G. Clinescu, Istoria literaturii romne. De la origine pn n
prezent, Ediie i Prefa de Al. Pinu, Editura Minerva, Bucureti
Lovinescu, 1917 E. Lovinescu, articol n Comedia, an I, nr. 1, 15 aprilie 1917,
Bucureti
Marino, 2010 Adrian Marino, Viaa unui om singur, Editura Polirom, Iai
Munteanu, 1967 Romul Munteanu, Prefaa la Din presa literar romneasc a
secolului XIX, Editura Tineretului, Bucureti, 1967
Murrau, 1970 D. Murrau, Prefa la volumul Din presa literar romneasc,
1900 1918, Editura Albatros
Rebreanu, 1957 Liviu Rebreanu, Rscoala, Editura de Stat pentru literatur i art,
Bucureti
Rebreanu, 1976 Liviu Rebreanu, Amalgan, Editura Dacia, Cluj-Napoca, 1976
Rebreanu, 1984 Liviu Rebreanu, Jurnal, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1984, vol. I
(a) i II (b)
Rebreanu, 1985 Liviu Rebreanu, Jar. Amndoi, Editura Eminescu, Bucureti
Rebreanu, 1991 Liviu Rebreanu, Gorila, Ediie i Prefa de Niculae Gherman,
Editura Eden, Bucureti
Liviu Rebreanu, Gorila, Editura Eden, Bucureti, 1991, p. 148 149.
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TO SEE AS OR THE HERMENEUTICS OF THE RELATION OF RESEMBLANCE

Dorin TEFNESCU
Abstract: The study bellow focuses on Paul Ricurs interpretations about the function of the
metaphor concerning the work of the resemblance that defines the structure of the poetic
language. This hermeneutic approach is developed on three levels. Firstly, the metaphor is
seen as an associated image that makes possible a new pertinence of the meaning. Secondly,
it is the very place of the unapparent, a transparent image through which one can see.
Thirdly, it lets be that what is showing itself, because to see as takes part to the opening of
another dimension of the reality, where things are being as. This original opening of that
what shows itself and is seen as transcends the imaginary horizon and transports the sight
towards the native site of the poem.
Keywords: Paul Ricur, metaphor, resemblance, image, pertinence, unapparent
Refleciile de mai jos i propun s nsoeasc, poposind n miezul articulaiilor nodale,
tematizrile propuse de Paul Ricur ntr-unul din cele mai incitante capitole din Metafora vie,
cu referire la travaliul asemnrii ce subntinde creator drept trstur esenial structura
limbajului poetic.1
Metafora imaginea asociat i noua pertinen
Dac, potrivit lui Michel Le Guern,2 metafora este productoare de imagine, aceasta
pentru c schimbarea de izotopie sau chiar ruptura izotopic n definirea metaforei const n
raportul dintre denotaie i conotaie, funcia conotativ exprimndu-se prin rolul imaginii
asociate (conotaie psihologic ce nu adaug nimic la informaia denotativ a mesajului, dar
evoc o imagine nou, strin de imaginea obinuit asociat primar cu sensul unui lucru
oarecare). Astfel, imaginea perceptiv, pstrat datorit experienei n contiina
rememorativ, este substituit de noua imagine care se asociaz semnificaiei conotative. Se
aseamn (prin analogie) cu cea dinti (cci, spre exemplu, lumina lmpii rmne n sine
lumina emanat de orice lamp cunoscut), dar n aceai timp imaginea asociat acestei noi
lumini deviaz semnificaia nsi. Lucrul important pentru aceast discuie, precizeaz
Ricur, este c analogia e introdus n acelai timp cu imaginea asociat ca raport ntre un
termen aparinnd izotopiei i un termen care nu-i aparine, imaginea. n schimb, imaginea
metaforic nu face apel la logica contient a raionamentului prin analogie i abia acum
putem vorbi de o imagine asociat propriu-zis. Este cazul amintitei metafore a luminii, n
interpretarea creia nu logica analogic ne ajut, nu raionamentul care mut imaginea n
cmpul extralingvistic pentru a o elucida, ci o nelegere intralingvistic: doar n limbajul
poemului n imanena textului lumina unei lmpi strlucete n acest fel.3 Iat de ce,
precizeaz Ricur, cnd metafora se uzeaz, imaginea, care nu intr n denotaie, tinde s se
atenueze pn la a nu mai fi perceput. E evident c, n acest caz, imaginea neperceput,
absent, care nu mai face relief, implic atenuarea i tergerea metaforei nsei (de ex.,
Paul Ricur, Metafora vie, Ed. Univers, Bucureti, 1984, pp. 271-334.
Smantique de la mtaphore et de la mtonymie, Larousse, Paris, 1973.
3
Este cazul interpretrii pe care Gadamer o face n Text i interpretare la poemul lui Mrike n cinstea unei
lmpi. O lamp care nu lumineaz (...) dobndete aici adevrata ei strlucire, deoarece ea este o oper de art
(Adevr i metod, Ed. Teora, Bucureti, 2001, p. 617).
1
2
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lumina fericirii). Se observ aici cum incompatibilitatea ntre termeni devine

compatibilitate, substituia fiind aproape o identificare. Este i motivul pentru care Pierre
Reverdy spunea c o imagine nu e puternic pentru c e brutal sau fantastic, ci pentru c
asocierea ideilor este ndeprtat i precis, fiind vorba de fapt de un raport de
incompatibilitate ntre dou realiti alturate.4 Incompatibilitatea poate fi de dou feluri:
explicit, exprimat n metafora in praesentia, i implicit n metafora in absentia.
O discuie aparte suscit limpezira urmtoarei probleme: dac doar incompatibilitatea
maxim (cea implicit: in absentia) creeaz imaginea metaforic propriu-zis, n ce const
funcia asemnrii, de vreme ce logic vorbind se aseamn numai lucruri care au ceva
compatibil ntre ele? Potrivit lui Le Guern, analogia semantic instaureaz un raport ntre un
element aparinnd izotopiei contextului i un element strin de aceast izotopie i care,
tocmai de aceea, se constituie n imagine; faptul de a fi strin de izotopia contextului este
deci o trstur constant a imaginii. n aceast accepiune, incompatibilitatea (ntre un
element determinat contextual ca sens propriu i un alt element, figurat) confer stranietatea
unuia n raport cu cellalt. Imaginea se constituie n virtutea acestui raport de
incompatibilitate ntre, s zicem, sensul luminii ca fenomen fizic i semnificaia pe care o
comport lumina strlucitoare a frumosului, n poemul interpretat de Gadamer. Aceast a
doua valoare, implicit (implicat) n textura poemului (in absentia pentru nelegerea de
prim instan) e strin sau deviat fa de cea dinti. Dar prin aceasta nu explicm nc actul
asemnrii, cci ce face ca cele dou valori incompatibile s participe la un raport de
asemnare? Clarificatoare vor fi, n concepia lui Ricur, instaurarea unei noi pertinene, de
data aceasta mai sus de cuvnt, la nivelul ntregului enun textual, i apoi aa-numita
iconicitate a imaginii. Imaginea nu-i capt statutul propriu-zis semantic dect atunci cnd
este legat nu numai de perceperea devierii, ci i de reducerea ei, adic de instaurarea noii
pertinene n raport cu care reducerea devierii la nivelul cuvntului nu este dect un efect. Pe
de alt parte, dac imaginea este, ca fapt de conotaie, strin de izotopia logic a contextului,
cum poate ea s contribuie la suprimarea incompatibilitii semantice, i tocmai prin aceasta
s instaureze raportul de asemnare? Altfel spus, cum poate ea semnifica n afara contextului
de semnificaii? Prin ce poate fi numit semantic analogia care opereaz n metafor?.
Momentul reducerii devierii n enunul textual conine rezolvarea problemei i justificarea
analogiei semantice n definirea rolului imaginii asociate.
Spre deosebire de contextul uzului comun al limbajului care limpezete sensul,
restrngndu-l la valoarea lui de folosin ntr-un enun dat hic et nunc, contextul poetic l
ambiguizeaz, marcnd alunecarea de la un sens literal la unul figurativ. Mai mult ns dect
de o simpl alunecare sau deviere, este vorba de medierea pe care sensul metaforic o
realizeaz, dar el nu se desprinde ntru totul de sensul imediat sau nemijlocit; spune altceva
prin mijlocirea acestuia. Metafora luminii, dei marcheaz o deviere nspre sensul figurativ
(amplificat n semnificaii plurale), trimite totui napoi la ceea ce se nelege cu referire la
tot ce lumineaz, ca la ceva ce subntinde semantic i face posibil sensul poetic. Dar, dincolo
de faptul c metafora spune altceva, nu ne face ea oare s vedem altceva? nseamn c sensul
figurativ se nsoete cu un semn iconic, cu o imagine care d ceva de vzut. Metafora conine
o dualitate intern care este depit; ntlnind metafora luminii ntr-un poem, echivocitatea ei
ne pune pe gnduri, d de gndit, nu pentru c nu am ntrezri nicio asemnare cu sensul ei
literal, ci pentru c tocmai raportul de asemnare este pus n criz: ceea ce ne pune pe gnduri
e faptul c imaginea seamn i nu seamn cu sensul ndeobte atribuit. n imaginea poetic
pe care metafora ne-o pune n faa ochilor se strvede imaginea poetal, de fundal, a ceea ce
4
Pierre Reverdy, Le Gant de crin, Flammarion, Paris, 1968, p. 31. Specificul imaginii puternice este acela de a
proveni din alturarea spontan a dou realiti foarte ndeprtate crora numai spiritul le-a surprins raporturile
(ibidem, p. 32).
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Issue no. 6/2015
semnific lumina n general. Aceast dualitate trebuie ns depit; imaginea de fundal este
trezit de rememorarea perceptiv (nu trebuie s vedem lumina pentru a ti ce este lumina),
pe cnd lumina imaginii poetice se arat doar n limbaj, ea nu lumineaz dect n cuvntul
care ilumineaz discursul. Iar aceasta n pofida a tot ceea ce tim c este lumina pe care o
vedem de obicei. n termeni kantieni, am putea numi imagine reproductoare pe cea dinti,
i imagine productoare pe aceea specific semnului iconic al metaforei; sau re-prezentativ
i prezentativ. Metafora, spune Ricur, se analizeaz deci n funcie de dou modaliti de
relaie semantic; ntr-adevr, expresia funcioneaz mai nti literal (...); ea funcioneaz apoi
iconic, desemnnd indirect o alt situaie asemntoare. Iconicitatea este chipul n care
sensul se nfieaz, chip vzut i vizat de gndirea analogic.
Chiar dac termeni precum analogie ori asemnare sunt destul de confuzi (ei
presupunnd, dincolo de o definire a statutului metaforei, intrarea n joc a unei comparaii), a
existat dintotdeauna o relaie strns cu figura metaforic, aa cum declar Aristotel la
sfritul Poeticii: a folosi bine metafora nseamn a vedea ceea ce este asemntor. Ce
nseamn ns a vedea ceea ce este asemntor? n primul rnd, o identitate general, a
vedea similitudini (to homoion) chiar ntre obiecte foarte deprtate. ntre cele dou elemente
constitutive ale metaforei exist prin urmare o similaritate, care poate merge pn la
identitate: n orice sens am privi lucrurile, lumina oriunde am ntlni-o: n natur sau n
cuvntul unui poem e ceea ce ne face s vedem, d ceva de vzut. Aceast asemnare de
baz este ns cea care creeaz imaginea, sau dimpotriv asemnarea neprevzut se las
dintr-o dat surprins ntre lucruri care pn atunci nu ndemnau la apropiere? Prima situaie
apare n cazul metaforelor srace sau in praesentia (n expresia lumina ochilor, de pild, nu
ntlnim nimic surprinztor, cci tim c ntre cei doi termeni exist o asemnare printr-un al
treilea termen, care e vederea; dei nici chiar aici raportul nu este ntru totul limpede: lumina
nu e a ochilor, ci se d pentru ca ochii s poat vedea) care nu fac imagine, asemnarea
consumndu-se la vedere. Metaforele vii sau in absentia pun n joc un raport de asemnare
dezechilibrat, n sensul c doar unul din termeni este cunoscut, pe cnd al doilea e un invizibil
absent. Mai mult dect a fi dup chipul sau imaginea a ceva cunoscut, a semna nseamn
acum o apropiere neprevzut, pe care o face posibil imaginea, ntre ceea ce e vizibil dup
simul comun i un ne(mai)vzut, deci ne(pre)vzut. Dup chipul i asemnarea exprim
tocmai acest raport ntre ceva vizibil i ceva invizibil, dar raportul nsui face imagine, d de
vzut ceea ce trebuie neles. Spre exemplu, n poemul Lumina de L. Blaga, S fie lumin!
reia semnificaia biblic originar a luminii nsetat adnc de via, care e chiar lumina
Vieii, pus ns n asemnare cu lumina ce-o simt...cnd te vd. ntre cele dou semnificaii
ale aceluiai semn (lumina) asemnarea se stabilete ntre lumina simit la vedere, am
spune, i lumina increat, nevzut, trecut n vizibilul dinti al creaiei (lumina creat n
ziua dinti). Dar pn i acest vizibil originar este un invizibil pentru noi, un neptruns cu
nelegerea, adic un mister: orbitoarea lumin de-atunci. n pofida acestor dificulti,
important i semnificativ este apariia ca atare a imaginii n cuprinsul poemului; nu este
oare o caracteristic a figurii ca atare (se) ntreab Ricur de a oferi o aparen, de a face
s apar discursul?.
Pentru a desprinde rolul asemnrii ce creeaz o tensiune sau o contradicie logic,
Ricur alege drept exemplu expresia metaforic o lumin ntunecat, care prin sensul su
literal constituie o enigm a crei soluie este oferit de sensul metaforic. Tensiunea
desemneaz n enigm doar forma problemei, o sfidare semantic aruncat logicii sau o
nonpertinen semantic (Jean Cohen). Sensul metaforic ca atare nu este coliziunea
semantic, ci noua pertinen ce rspunde sfidrii sale. E ca i cum logica, scandalizat i
pus n criz de incompatibilitatea dintre lumin i ntunecat (alturare nonpertinent
semantic), se vede confruntat cu o imagine care totui semnific, spune ceva, dar semnific
i spune prin deviere ori mutaie. Asemnarea i joac rolul tocmai n aceast mutaie de
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sens; ea nu e prestabilit i previzibil (ca n cazul metaforelor srace), ci creat n chiar

spaiul noii figuri de proximitatea semantic ce se stabilete ntre termeni n ciuda distanei
lor. Altfel spus, doar n expresia mai sus citat funcioneaz o astfel de asemnare, doar aici,
n rsprul oricrei pertinene logice, lumina i ntunericul au ceva asemntor din moment ce
par dintr-o dat a se nvecina. Relum cuvintele lui P. Reverdy: Imaginea este o creaie
pur a spiritului. Ea nu se poate nate dintr-o comparaie, ci din apropierea a dou realiti
ndeprtate [s.n.]. Cu ct raporturile celor dou realiti apropiate vor fi mai ndeprtate i mai
exacte, cu att imaginea va fi mai puternic, avnd mai mult putere emotiv i mai mult
realitate poetic.5 Claudel ofer aceeai argumentaie: Metafora, ca i raionamentul, adun
la un loc, dar de mai departe.6 Aspect ce pune n lumin chiar rolul metaforei, cel de
translatio: a transpune ori de a transfera, a transporta, cu alte cuvinte a apropia ceea ce e
ndeprtat. Cci n ciuda distanei ce separ imaginea imanent de sensul transcendent,
asemnarea face ca imaginea corporal s urce la nivelul sensului spiritual. Prin
homosis, eikn devine analogon al lui eidos. Aristotel vorbete de nrudirea generic drept
cea care pune n apropiere ceea ce e eidetic asemntor (homoeidon), adic un substrat ori o
origine preconceptual comun. Tensiunea formal este astfel rezolvat de apropierea
esenial prin care metafora produce sens. Produce ns, aa cum spuneam, i ceva de vzut,
o imagine creat de asimilarea de adncime ntre lucruri ce par strine la prima vedere. E
evident c aceast prim vedere este cea a contiinei realizante care vede conform pertinenei
logice. A doua vedere, interioar, are acces la imaginea care unete asemntorul de
asemntor. De aceea, spune Aristotel, a metaforiza bine nseamn a vedea a contempla, a
ti s vezi ceea ce este asemntor.
Locul inaparentului
Revenind acum la hermeneutica raportului de asemnare cu referire la statutul
metaforei, putem afirma c aceasta presupune i o paradoxal stare-de-vedere, identitatea n
diferen prin care cel ce vede e nrudit cu ce e de vzut.7 Ceea ce apare i se pune n vedere
nu e un previzibil, ci un inimaginabil real, trupul poetal al unui semnificabil altfel inaparent.
Ca atare, a ti s vezi ceea ce nicio vedere n-ar crede este un dar intuitiv, o contemplare care
i are sursa n imaginaie. A vedea ceea ce este acelai lucru n ceea ce este diferit nseamn
a vedea ceea ce este asemntor. n enunul metaforic, ceea ce este asemntor este vzut n
ciuda contradiciei. Ceea ce nseamn c travaliul asemnrii menine diferena pe care o pune
n eviden contradicia literal; prin aceast trstur specific, enigma este reinut n nsi
inima metaforei. Metafora s-ar degrada ca figur poetic dac ea ar elimina ntru totul
tensiunea, asemnarea oferind locul unei ntlniri conflictuale dintre acelai i diferit. De
aceea ea e i resimit astfel ca echivocitate. Dac ns, n metafor, apare conflictul dintre
identitate i diferen, prin asemnare ariile semantice ale diferenelor fuzioneaz n identitate.
Asemnarea are loc ntre un element prezent n aparen (corpul imaginii poetice prezent n
re-prezentativitatea sa imanent) i un element prezent n esen (sensul inaparent
nemanifestat n realitatea transcendent a trupului poetal). Dei asemnarea pare s
stabileasc un raport de apropiere ntre dou prezene ndeprtate, doar raportul dintre acestea
se bazeaz pe o absen referenial, fiind chiar locul inaparentului, imaginea transparent
prin care se vede. n metafora lumin ntunecat, de exemplu, resimim conflictul literal
(oximoronic) ce pune n diferen nu doar cei doi termeni alturai, ci mai adnc sensul
uzual al cuvntului lumin i semnificaia pe care o face posibil aceast alturare insolit.
5
Pierre Reverdy, op. cit., p. 30.

Paul Claudel, Journal, I, Gallimard, Paris, 1968, p. 42.
7
Cci vztorul trebuie s se dedice contemplrii dup ce s-a nrudit cu lucrul vzut i s-a identificat cu el. Cci
n-ar putea vreodat un ochi s vad soarele de n-a cptat el nsui chipul soarelui (Plotin, Enn. I, 6, 9).
6
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Echivocul nu e depit, el e pstrat; este aceeai lumin pe care credem c o tim i totui
diferit. Conflictul la vedere creeaz o imagine tensionat, n care cmpurile semantice se
suprapun divergent, fuzionnd n ceea ce e asemntor n ciuda diferenelor: o imagine clarobscur care pune pe gnduri. n acest fel, metafora dezvluie dinamica prezent n
constituirea cmpurilor semantice, dinamic pe care Gadamer o numete metaforica
fundamental (...). Metafora, figur de discurs, prezint n mod deschis, prin mijlocirea unui
conflict dintre identitate i diferen, procesul care, n mod acoperit, genereaz ariile
semantice prin fuzionarea diferenelor n identitate.8 Imaginea clar-obscur de care vorbeam
(care, n exemplul dat, ntunec lumina i lumineaz ntunericul) este chiar locul
semnificaiilor nscnde, al noii pertinene semantice care se nate din prbuirea ariilor
semantice sub ocul contradiciei. Momentul iconic constituie surprinderea identicului n
diferene, n ciuda diferenelor, iar aceasta ntr-un mod preconceptual, n modul imaginaiei.
Aspect ce face din imaginaie locul de emergen a sensului figurativ n jocul identitii i al
diferenei, loc al revelrii comprehensibilului n care identitatea i diferena nu sunt
confundate ci confruntate.9 Ceea ce e perceput drept incompatibil semantic la nivelul sensului
literal e asemntor n imaginea care d un corp sensului figurativ creat de imaginaie. A da
corp nseamn a face vizibil, a arta o figur ori un chip: o imagine a crei apariie constituie
sinteza dintre identic i diferit.
Lucrul de care trebuie inut seam acum este momentul sensibil al metaforei, i anume
caracteristica acesteia de a aeza sub ochi. Aspect pe care Le Guern, aa cum am vzut, l
surprinde prin noiunea de imagine asociat, adic prin latura concret i sensibil a
vehiculului iconic. Este adevrat c pledoaria pentru asemnare a ajuns, potrivit lui Ricur, la
o anume reabilitare a momentului iconic al metaforei; dar aceast reabilitare nu a mers
dincolo de aspectul verbal al iconului, nici dincolo de un concept pur logic al asemnrii,
conceput ca unitatea dintre identitate i diferen. Problema imaginaiei productoare nu
este ns una lesne de explicat, ntruct n metafor are loc legtura ntre un moment logic
(verbal) i un moment sensibil (nonverbal). Contradicia ce pune n valoare diferena este de
ordin logic iar asemnarea realizat n identitate este un proces sensibil. Cu alte cuvinte,
trebuie cutat punctul de inserie al psihologicului n semantic, adic locul unde, n limbajul
nsui, sensul i sensibilul se articuleaz. Este, n ultim instan, punctul de ancorare al
imaginarului ntr-o teorie semantic a metaforei. Este vorba, n primul rnd, de un icon
verbal, deci de o imagine poetic n care fuzioneaz ceea ce ea arat i ceea ce ea spune,
adic imaginea i sensul. Legat de o teorie a lecturii conform creia aceasta reprezint o
suspendare a oricrui real i o deschidere activ ctre text (B. Hester), trstura esenial a
limbajului poetic nu mai este fuziunea sunetului cu sensul (aa cum apare la Valry i la
Gadamer), ci fuziunea sensului cu un val de imagini evocate sau strnite, ceea ce constituie
adevrata iconicitate a sensului. Cuvntul citit (prin extensie, poemul ntreg) suscit imagini
semnificante, imagini care artndu-se spun ceva. Sensul nsui e iconic ntruct el e n
msur s apar n imagini, s arate ceea ce spune i s spun ceea ce arat. Actul de a citi se
prezint att ca o suspendare, n imagine, a realitii naturale, ct i ca o deschidere a sensului
nsui; desfurarea imaginii este ceva care se ntmpl i ctre care sensul se deschide la
nesfrit, conferind interpretrii un cmp nelimitat. Orbitoara lumin de-atunci din poemul
Transferul dintr-un domeniu n altul nu are doar o funcie logic, ci acestuia i corespunde metaforica
principial a limbii nsei. Figura stilistic a metaforei este doar varianta retoric a acestui principiu formativ
universal n acelai timp lingual i logic (Hans-Georg Gadamer, Adevr i metod, ed.cit., p. 321).
9
Dac a se nelege nseamn a se nelege n faa textului, nu ar trebui oare s spunem c nelegerea cititorului
este suspendat, irealizat, potenializat la fel ca i lumea nsi metamorfozat de poem? Dac lucrurile stau
aa, trebuie s spunem c imaginaia este acea parte din noi nine care rspunde textului ca Poem i doar ea
poate ntlni revelaia nu ca pe o pretenie inaccesibil, ci ca pe o chemare neconstrngtoare (Hermneutique
de lide de rvlation, n Paul Ricur, crits et confrences 2. Hermneutique, Seuil, Paris, 2010, p. 269).
8
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blagian e expresia metaforic n care actul lecturii suspend realitatea imediat a oricrei alte
lumini (ca i cum lectura s-ar desfura n lipsa luminii exterioare), pentru a se deschide
totodat spre ceea ce lumineaz n poem: lumina unui sens imemorial care pune n cumpn
comprehensiunea, eliberat de nsui textul citit drept imagine care orbete, dar vorbete,
spune ceva cu sens.10 n poezie, deschiderea ctre text este deschiderea ctre imaginarul pe
care sensul l elibereaz. Doar sensul care i suspend raportul cu desemnarea exterioar,
sensul nonreferenial, poate elibera imaginarul, el nsui fiind investit n acesta. Cci nimic
altceva nu este retras din lume n afar de imaginarul dezlnuit prin sens. Suspensia proprie
imaginarului (acea epokh fenomenologic) retrage iconului verbal orice referin la realul
empiric. Imaginea metaforic este interpretat aadar ca fiind chiar fictivul, irealul sau ceea ce
creeaz iluzia atunci cnd citim o oper poetic. Totui trebuie specificat c suspensia iconic
i non-referina la contingent sunt determinri care nu nlocuiesc ceea ce numim realitate cu
o irealitate fr niciun raport real. Iluzia imaginarului (irealitatea sa, n accepiune
sartrian) nu se opune realului, ea nu e o non-realitate absolut, ci faa pn acum nevzut
a realitii recreate cu propriile ei materiale. Atribuirea metaforic este astfel o potenare a
realitii, o putere revelatoare.11 Metafora nu se mrginete s suspende realitatea natural, ci
deschiznd sensul ctre imaginar, l deschide totodat ctre o dimensiune de realitate care nu
coincide cu ceea ce limbajul obinuit nelege cnd vorbete despre o realitate natural. 12
Desfurarea iconic a sensului n imaginar i deschiderea sa, prin semnificaii
multiple, n imagini comport drept element esenial investirea sa n imaginar. Ceea ce
nseamn c imaginile nu sunt libere s arate i s spun orice; ele sunt imagini legate.
Chiar dac imaginile sunt semnificante, fiind purttoare de semnificaii, sensul este cel care le
nainte ns de a stabili o relaie lung cu textul ca mediere a comprehensiunii, sensul acestei spuneri intr mai
nti n orbita relaiei scurte a intuiiei eidetice. Dac, pentru Ricur, a nelege lumea semnelor este mijlocul de
a se nelege n orizontul deschis de altul sensului ascuns ntr-un sens aparent, aspect care duce la nchiderea
cii scurte a intuiiei i la deschiderea cii lungi a interpretrii semnelor (cf. Paul Ricur, Le conflit des
interprtations. Essais dhermneutique, Seuil, Paris, 1969, p. 260), pentru noi n conformitate cu dezideratele
studiului de fa lucrurile stau invers: intenionalitatea interpretrii e pus n parantez iar calea intuiiei e
deschis, dar numai n msura n care intuiia comprehensiv e vzut drept presupoziia posibilitatea intuitiv
cu ajutorul creia calea interpretrii este ea nsi deschis mai n adncime. Locul intuit de nelegerea alb e
primul loc, umplut intuitiv, al discernerii reflexive, aurora interpretrii.
11
Suspensia raportului natural cu lucrurile este doar condiia negativ a instituirii raportului signifiant.
Principiul diferenial este doar cealalt fa a principiului referenial, cci, neleas n sens pozitiv, reducia nu
nseamn abolire a oricrei referine reale, ci prefigurare i transfigurare a realitii, posibilitatea pentru o fiin,
care s-a smuls prin diferen din raporturile intranaturale, s se ntoarc spre lume, s o neleag drept propria
lume rectigat, configurat (cf. Paul Ricur, op. cit., p. 256). Realitatea este astfel metamorfozat prin ceea
ce a numi variaiile imaginative pe care literatura le opereaz asupra realului (Paul Ricur, Eseuri de
hermeneutic, Ed. Humanitas, Bucureti, 1995, p. 48).
12
Este un aspect pe care Benjamin Fondane l imput atitudinii psihologizante a lui Bachelard. Cnd acesta
din urm scrie, de exemplu, c impulsul psihismului este cel care are continuitatea duratei. Viaa se mulumete
s oscileze (Lair et les songes, Jos Corti, Paris, 1987, p. 291), el o afl n imaginaia metaforizant, acolo
unde spune Fondane metafora nu semnific realul, n felul conceptului, ci este realul, trit efectiv
(Bachelard apprivoise le rve, n Benjamin Fondane, Le Lundi existentiel et le dimanche de lhistoire suivi de La
philosophie vivante, ditions du Rocher, Monaco, 1990, p. 189). Ar trebui s ne oprim puin asupra acestor
formulri schellingiene folosite de Fondane. Se tie c pentru Schelling, n Filosofia artei i apoi n Filosofia
mitologiei, simbolul este un semn de prezen tautegoric, ntruct el realizeaz sinteza ntre a fi i a semnifica.
Dac conceptul semnific ntr-adevr realul universal, imaginea este realul concret (cum spune Fondane), dar
adaug Schelling ea l semnific fiind deopotriv realul. Simbolul este deci o imagine semnificant (Sinnbild).
Or ce spune Bachelard? C n aceast privin, imaginile nu ar mai fi simple metafore, ele nu s-ar prezenta doar
pentru a suplini insuficienele limbajului conceptual. Imaginile vieii ar fi una cu viaa nsi. (...) Imaginaia ar fi
atunci un domeniu de eleciune pentru meditaia asupra vieii (op. cit., p. 291). Dac imaginea este viaa i
totodat domeniul meditaiei asupra vieii, decurge c imaginea este semnificant, n sensul n care viaa care
este ea are ceva de spus, se d ca semnificare ce se ofer comprehensiunii cu toat ponderea ambiguitii sale
simbolice.
10
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leag, ordoneaz proliferarea acestora, reprezentnd un factor reglator i moderator al

expansiunii lor. Legarea de care se vorbete este de fapt recunoaterea n i prin imagine a
unei ascendene semantice majore, a preeminenei unui semnificabil originar, proces prin care
asemnarea face ca imaginea s participe, n esen, la destinul sensului creator, adic s-i
ofere trupul poetal n care acesta se poate arta vizibil i rostitor. Legare ce sugereaz ideea
unei liberti relative a imaginii care, orict de original ar fi, rmne dependent, n
adncul ei, de originarul unui semnificabil nemanifestat. Iconicitatea implic acest control al
imaginii prin sens; n ali termeni, este un imaginar implicat n limbajul nsui. Poemul lui
Blaga citat anterior ne ofer, ca orice text de altfel, un astfel de imaginar legat prin sens.
Complexul imaginar al luminii, format din imagini ce par disparate (lumina ce-o simt,
un strop din lumina creat n ziua dinti, lumina aceea-nsetat adnc de via, S fie
lumin!, un vifor nebun de lumin) e totui o plsmuire nchegat, cci semnificaiile
dezvoltate de aceste imagini se leag, se resorb creator ntr-un sens major (n acea valoare de
origine de care vorbea Bachelard)13 ce subntinde imaginarul la nivelul textului: orbitoarea
lumin de-atunci care face imagine acum, artndu-se prin ceea ce spune sensul creaiei
(divine sau poetice). n actul lecturii, cititorul textului vede lumina pe care o simte ca pe
orbitoarea lumin de-atunci.
A lsa s fie ceea ce se arat
Ce nseamn a vedea ca? Este un factor revelat prin actul de a citi, ca mod de
realizare a imaginarului, relaia intuitiv care menine mpreun sensul i imaginea. A vedea
ca i funcia imaginal a limbajului poetic se lumineaz reciproc; metafora care face s se
vad n acest fel este faa sensibil a limbajului poetic sau imaginea n care se dezvluie
sensul. Este o experien i totodat un act; experien, pentru c apariia sensului ca
imagine trebuie intuit i resimit, experiat ca altceva absolut nou; act, ntruct ceea ce
apare astfel trebuie neles iar a nelege nseamn a face ceva. 14 Imaginea nefiind liber ci
legat (ntr-un mnunchi de semnificaii), a vedea ca ordoneaz fluxul, regleaz desfurarea
iconic, asigurnd implicarea imaginarului n semnificaia metaforic. Implicarea reciproc
sau meninerea mpreun a sensului i a imaginii reprezint o relaie de asemnare,
asemnarea fiind ceva ce rezult din actul-experien de a vedea ca . Trebuie ca
imemoriala lumin orbitoare s fie vzut ca lumina simit acum, pentru ca relaia de
asemnare s se poat ntemeia pe aceast apariie iconic. Deodat ea nu mai e orbitoare de
vreme ce apare ca lumin care nu se pune pe sine n vedere, ci arat i spune ceva: pune n
lumin. Dar pune n lumin ceva ce este ca ceva, cci aici raportul de asemnare este
deopotriv un raport de fiinare: a vedea un lucru ca nseamn a face manifest fiinarea-ca
(ltre-comme) a lucrului.15 Imaginea nu este lucrul reflectat, dar ea este ca acesta; n natura
Noutatea esenial a imaginii poetice pune problema creativitii, a fiinei care vorbete. Prin aceast
creativitate, contiina imaginant devine, n mod foarte simplu dar foarte exact, o origine. O fenomenologie a
imaginaiei poetice trebuie s ncerce, studiind imaginaia, s desprind aceast valoare de origine a diferitelor
imagini poetice (Gaston Bachelard, La potique de lespace, Quadrige / PUF, Paris, 1981, p. 8).
14
Prin urmare o dubl legtur: a tuturor semnificaiilor imaginale ntr-un sens ordonator i a acestuia cu sensul
ce orienteaz lectura. Aici similitudinea (asemnarea) este n cea mai mare msur asimilare existenial a ceea
ce se spune i se arat: Cum se face c ceea ce leag sensul de sens m leag i pe mine? Prin faptul c micarea
care m antreneaz ctre sensul secund m asimileaz cu ceea ce este spus, m face participant la ceea ce mi
este anunat. Similitudinea n care rezid fora simbolului i de unde el i extrage puterea revelatorie nu este cu
adevrat o asemnare obiectiv, pe care s-o pot considera o relaie expus n faa mea; este o asimilare
existenial a fiinei mele de ctre fiin potrivit micrii analogiei (Paul Ricur, Despre interpretare, Ed. Trei,
Bucureti, 1998, p. 41).
15
Paul Ricur, Eseuri de hermeneutic, ed. cit., p. 31.
13
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acestui raport zace ntreaga distan care face cu putin naterea imaginii.16 ns tensiunea
dintre a fi i a fi ca trece prin a nu fi, deoarece a fi ca nseamn de fapt a nu fi identic, a fi
altfel, dei asemntor.17 Ceea ce este vzut ca lumin nu este lumina ca atare, dar pune n
vedere imaginea care este ca lumina unui sens strlucitor, deschis n lumina manifestrii,
descoperit n posibilitatea imprevizibil a fiinrii.18 n a vedea ca sensul funcioneaz n
mod iconic; el leag lumina sensului de plenitudinea imaginii. ntr-adevr sensul
lumineaz, iradiaz n semnificaii imaginale, arat mai mult dect spune, las s se neleag,
las s fie ceea ce se arat. Iar ceea ce se arat este ceva subzistent, rezistent oricrei vederi a
fenomenelor la ndemn: structura de anticipare sau de prealabil a nelegerii, n care ceva
apare ca ceva. Or ceva ca ceva preced enunul tematic privitor la ceea ce a fost
neles,19 la fel cum preced orice vedere a crei intenie vizeaz cmpul vizibilului.
Preceden nu n sensul unei deineri ori al unei priviri prealabile, al unui ceva avut dinainte,
ci doar dinainte-dat. A-lsa-s-fie-ceea-ce-se-arat fundamenteaz deschiderea originar a
vederii spre ne(mai)vzutul unui nceput absolut, subzistnd ca ceva exprimabil, dar
neexprimat, n calitatea lui de factor constitutiv aprioric i existenial al nelegerii.20
Imaginea care se aseamn cu modelul, vzut ca model pe care l aduce la vedere, nu e totui
ceva ce avem sub ochi.21 Este am spune imaginea care dejoac vederea, i dezice orizontul
n vizibilitatea cruia ea se complace. O abate nspre fondul inaparent, accesibil doar n
transparena care l dezvluie, ca fiinare deschis n posibilitatea semnificrii. Noua
pertinen semantic este rezultatul fuziunii dintre sens i imagine; cu ct textul poetic este
mai plin de astfel de fuziuni, cu att ele hrnesc substana ntregului poem, deversnd limitele
cuvntului, interacionnd n spaiul imaginal al textului. n aceast accepiune larg, sensul
metaforic ca atare se hrnete din densitatea imaginarului eliberat de poem. De poemul
neles ca structur textual articulat ntr-un complex de semnificaii. Cci deschiderea
originar a ceea ce se arat i se vede ca transcende orizontul imaginar, transport vederea
spre situl nativ al poemului, nu n nelesul de context (Umwelt), ci drept fond sau substrat
(Urwelt) al semnificabilului originar, al sensului nemanifestat, dintotdeauna dat, i care nu
este cel al subiectivitii intenionale a autorului, ci al poemului ca propunere de sens a unei
lumi autonome: sens al dinainte-datului, sens al existentului, sens al fiinrii.22 E inutil s
adugm c vederea a ceea ce semnific se arat i se (s)pune n lumina acestei imagini
deschide n actul de lectur orizontul lrgit al comprehensibilului.
Bibliografie
Bachelard, Gaston, Lair et les songes, Jos Corti, Paris, 1987
Bachelard, Gaston, La potique de lespace, Quadrige / PUF, Paris, 1981
Vedem c aici, ntre liter i sens, ntre ceea ce poetul a scris i ceea ce el a gndit, se creeaz o distan, un
spaiu care, ca orice spaiu, posed o form. Numim aceast form figur, i vor fi tot attea figuri cte forme
vom putea gsi pentru spaiul de fiecare dat creat ntre linia semnificantului (...) i cea a semnificatului (...),
care, evident, nu este altceva dect un alt semnificant dat ca literal (Grard Genette, Figuri, Ed. Univers,
Bucureti, 1978, p. 87).
17
A fi ca ar trebui considerat drept o modalitate metaforic a copulei nsei ; acest ca nu ar fi numai
termenul de comparaie dintre termeni, ci ar fi inclus n verbul a fi, a crui for ar modifica-o (Paul Ricur,
Metafora vie, ed. cit., p. 382).
18
Dincolo de situarea mea ca cititor, dincolo de situarea autorului, m ofer pe mine nsumi modului posibil de a
fi n lumea pe care textul o deschide i o descoper pentru mine (Paul Ricur, La mtaphore et le problme
central de lhermneutique, n Paul Ricur, crits et confrences 2. Hermneutique, ed. cit., p. 114).
19
Martin Heidegger, Fiin i timp, Ed. Humanitas, Bucureti, 2003, p. 205.
20
Ibidem, p. 206.
21
Este, mai degrab, ceea ce avem deasupra ochilor i pe care l vedem dup asemnare, aa cum, potrivit lui
Platon, partea divin a sufletului ne poart de la pmnt spre cerurile cu care se aseamn (Timaios, 90 a).
22
Paul Ricur, Eseuri de hermeneutic, ed. cit., p. 39.
16
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Claudel, Paul, Journal, I, Gallimard, Paris, 1968

Fondane, Benjamin, Le Lundi existentiel et le dimanche de lhistoire suivi de La
philosophie vivante, ditions du Rocher, Monaco, 1990
Gadamer, Hans-Georg, Adevr i metod, Ed. Teora, Bucureti, 2001
Genette, Grard, Figuri, Ed. Univers, Bucureti, 1978
Heidegger, Martin, Fiin i timp, Ed. Humanitas, Bucureti, 2003
Le Guern, Michel, Smantique de la mtaphore et de la mtonymie, Larousse, Paris,
1973
Platon, Opere VII, Editura tiinific i Enciclopedic, Bucureti, 1993
Plotin, Eneade I-II, Ed. Iri, Bucureti, 2003
Reverdy, Pierre, Le Gant de crin, Flammarion, Paris, 1968
Ricur, Paul, Metafora vie, Ed. Univers, Bucureti, 1984
Ricur, Paul, Eseuri de hermeneutic, Ed. Humanitas, Bucureti, 1995
Ricur, Paul, Despre interpretare. Eseu asupra lui Freud, Ed. Trei, Bucureti, 1998
Ricur, Paul, Le conflit des interprtations. Essais dhermneutique, Seuil, Paris,
1969
Ricur, crits et confrences 2. Hermneutique, Seuil, Paris, 2010
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METAPHYSICAL RED HERRING

Drago AVDANEI
Al. Ioan Cuza University of Iai
Abstract: American poet Adrienne Rich borrows the title of British metaphysical poet John
Donnes famous poem, A Valediction Forbidding Mourning, not because her poetry is also
metaphysical or because the two poems are similar one way or another (they are not), but
just because this title suited the occasion of her poem, i.e. the death of her husband. So our
incursions into the metaphysical poetry of the seventeenth-century England and the work of
John Donne (and the specific poem of that title) can simply be viewed as the result of a red
herring pulled across the innocent readers tracks by the fiercely feminist (mildly put) author.
Keywords: conceit, Donne, Rich, feminism, metaphysical
When you read a poem titled A Valediction Forbidding Mourning (one cannot help
mentioning a possible young readers translation as Good-bye and Stay Cool) by an
American poet in the twentieth-century, you do not need much familiarity with poetry in
English to think of John Donne (1572-1631)i.e. over four centuries of literary history inbetweenand his famous poem titled A Valediction Forbidding Mourning (written in 1611
or 1612, i.e. four hundred and sixty years earlier). So any readers expectationseven when
he/she is not an Anglo-American poetry scholarare to naturally see the American poem as
an echo, prolongation, imitation, parody, spin-off, parallel or commentary of/on the
seventeenth-century one; or to view Adrienne Rich (1929-2012) as an American heir of the
metaphysical poets that Donne was the most remarkable representative of (alongside such
other contemporary or later poets from the New World as Anne Bradstreetc.1612-1672,
Edward Taylorc.1642-1719, Emily Dickinson1830-1886, T. S. Eliot1888-1965, John
Crowe Ransom1888-1974, Allen Tate1899-1979, who, in some/much of their writing
are more or less recognizable continuators); or even to consider identifying a metaphysical
tradition in British and American poetry from John Donne to Adrienne Rich
The way to go in any of these hypotheses is to start from the Metaphysical Poets
properand John Donne, plus a careful reading of the 1611 poemand come down to
Adrienne Rich and her 1970 poem; and whatever the conclusion, the exploration may prove to
have been worth the effort.
Metaphysical is, of course, of the nature of metaphysics, i.e. after the physics
(as Aristotles writings were arranged), or dealing with the ultimate nature of existence,
reality and experience (Random House Dictionary, 1968), as in some more abstruse selfcontained conceptual systems; this would induce the idea of something recondite, esoteric,
hidden or hard to understand, and, from this point of view, metaphysical poets may seem to
be somewhat of misnomer.
However , the label gets its real meaning when applied to the poets described in his
Lives of the Most Eminent English Poets (six volumes, 1779-1781) by Samuel Johnson,
better known as Dr. Johnson (1709-1784); and Dr. Johnson (also the author of the famous
Dictionary of the English Language1755, The Plays of William Shakespeare, eight
volumes, 1765 and many, many others) is arguably the most distinguished man of letters in
English history(Pat Rogers) or is unmatched by any critic in any nation before or after
him(Harold Bloom, p.239); so one might just take his word/s for granted as he informs his
readers (eighteenth-century and later) that at the beginning of the seventeenth-century there
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appeared a race of writers that may be termed the metaphysical poets (in his Life of
Abraham Cowley). Before him, writing about one of theseJohn Donne, incidentally--,
John Dryden(1631-1700) wrote that he affects the metaphysics/i.e./ nice speculations of
philosophy (see Gardner), while Drummond of Hawthornden (1585-1649) had also
mentioned their metaphysical ideas and scholastic quiddities (also in Gardner).
In his turn, Johnson goes on to describe this race of writers as men of learning,
in whose poems heterogeneous ideas are yoked by violence together; nature and art are
ransacked for illustrations, comparisons, and allusions; their learning instructs, and their
subtilty surprises; but the reader commonly thinks his improvement dearly bought, and,
though he sometimes admires, is seldom pleased. Their witJohnson continuesis a kind
of Discordia concors; a combination of dissimilar images, or discovery of occult resemblances
in things apparently unlike.
Though not formally affiliated (they may not even have known or heard of each
other, so we are not looking at any kind of school or movement), the central figures grouped
together here are those of John Donne, George Herbert (1593-1633)both, to some extent,
contemporaries of William ShakespearesThomas Carew (?1595-?1639), Richard Crashaw
(c.1613-1649), Abraham Cowley (1618-1667), Andrew Marvell (1621-1678), Henry Vaughn
(1621/2-1695), Thomas Traherne (c.1636-1674) From Johnson to Eliot (his 1921 The
Metaphysical Poets) all these (and others) were praised (or criticized) for the union of
thought and feeling in their poems (fusing reason with passion and devouring all kinds of
experience in Eliot, who will move from here to his well-known dissociation of
sensibility), originality, inventiveness, realistic violence and meditative refinement,
psychological analysis, incongruity and confusion, the startlingly esoteric and the shockingly
commonplace, extravagance and absurdity, grotesqueness, elaborate, energetic and uneven
stylistic maneuvers, and some other features that both Dryden and Johnson mostly
condemned for their unnaturalness. We might be interested to see how many of these
characteristics can be found in Adrienne Rich and her poetry.
But most of all they are remembered for their invention and use of the conceit.
Conceit in general refers either to (etymologically) an idea or cognition as such or, closer to
our meanings here, an ingenious and fanciful notion or conception; in this particular case, a
conceit refers to an extended metaphor or comparison/simile with a complex logic; as Johnson
had suggested, it may consist of Juxtaposing (yoking together) images and ideas in
surprising ways (by violence). So, basically, the metaphysical conceits are complex,
startling and highly intellectual analogies; they are expansive metaphors marked by wit,
paradox, symbolism, double meaning, analytical tone and logical reasoning (again we are
looking forward to seeing anything like these in Adrienne Rich). Two examples for now:
Donnes flea (in The Flea, naturally) is a conceit for the lovers intimate unionso it
touches on the hilarious and absurdly far-fetchedafter biting both and sucking their blood;
and, in Marvell, the soul is similar to a drop of dew.
But we can also see what more recent critics can tell us about these unusual figures:
a metaphysical conceit strikes from our minds the same spark of recognition which
the poet had, so that it gives us a perception of the real but previously
unsuspected/originality, therefore/similarity that is enlightening; it speaks to both
our minds and our emotions with force (Holman, p.266)
And Helen Gardner:
a conceit is a comparison whose ingenuity is more striking that its justness,
and a comparison becomes a conceit when we are made to concede likeness while being
strongly conscious of unlikeness/paradox?. (Introduction, p.XXIII)
The pre-eminent representative of the metaphysical poets is, once again, John
Donne (whose presentation here might possibly reveal to what extent Adrienne Rich found
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him congenial, though we know she didnt), poet, satirist, lawyer and cleric in the Church of
England (Dean of St Pauls Cathedral from 1621 to 1631), and member of the British
Parliament (in 1601 and 1614). His mother (who survived Donne by one year) was Elizabeth
Heywood, daughter of playwright John Heywood(c.1497-c.1580) and a great niece of Roman
Catholic martyrs Thomas More(1478-1536). His father, who died in 1576, was a successful
ironmonger. Donne was a student at Oxford and Cambridge (honorary doctorate in divinity in
1615), travelled throughout Europe and was the chief secretary of the Lord Keeper of the
Great Seal, Sir Thomas Eggerton, whose niece Anne More he secretly married in 1601 (when
she was seventeen), against the wishes of both her father and her uncle; for violating canon
law he had to go to Fleet Prison for a short period; the Donnes had twelve children, of whom
only ten survived and of whom three died before being ten; Anne died in 1617 at the age of 33
(see Donnes 17th Holy Sonnet).
Donne wrote sonnets, love poems, religious poems (he converted from Roman
Catholicism to the Anglican Church), epigrams, elegies, songs, satires, sermons (160 in
number), translations from Latin. One of Englands greatest and most innovative poets had
most of his poems published posthumously, in 1633, as Songs and Sonnets. His themes have
often been identified as those of love, death, religion, on such subjects as the corruption of the
legal system, the presence of mediocre poets and pompous courtiers, with frequent
concentrated images of plague, vomit, manure, and sickness, in poems with abrupt openings
marked by paradoxes, ironies, dislocations and cynical statements; their development is
almost always based upon dramatic contrast and urgent arguments built from a subtle and
outrageous logic, with actual speech, jagged rhythms and colloquial vigour as the sources of
his language and style. Memorable statements are those in his Holy Sonnet X (Death be
not proud), Meditation XVII (No man is an island1955 book by Trappist monk
Thomas Merton and 1962 American war filmand Never send to know from whom the bell
tolls; it tolls for theeHemingway 1940 novel) or his famous conceits, especially the ones
in A Valediction
As will be seen, the occasion for both valedictions (Lat. valedicere=to bid
farewell) is rather important; Donnes was most likely written in 1611, just before Sir Robert
Drury decided to take the poet on a mission with him to France and other European countries.
The thirty-six lines of the poem are grouped in nine quatrains in iambic tetrameter with an
ABAB rhyme scheme. The forbidden mourning in the title may look like too strong a term
for a longer or shorter separation from his wife Anne, but it may have been required by the
first extended metaphor or conceit of the poem, where the parting lovers (well, husband and
wife) are compared to the separation of body and soul in death; the first sentence in the poem
extends over two stanzas:
As virtuous men pass mildly away,
And whisper to their souls to go,
Whilst some of their friends do say,
Now his breath goes, and some say, No,/The breath goes now/
So let us melt, and make no noise,
No tear-floods, nor sigh-tempests move;
Twere profanation of our joys
To tell the laity our love.
The second conceit has the same separation of the lovers compared to the cracks in
the earth after a quake, and the poet continues his imaginative exercise by next having this
separation seen as the spreading thin of gold by hammering, when it widens and lengthens:
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Our two souls therefore, which are one,

Though I must go, endure not yet
A breach, but an expansion,
Like gold to aery thinness beat.
So, the highly charged progress from death to earthquake to alchemical gold and,
finally, to the two legs of a compass which operate in unison in the last three stanzas:
If they be two /our souls/, they are two so
As stiff twin compasses are two;
Thy soul, the fixd foot, makes no show
To move, but doth, if thother do.
And though it in the centre sit,
Yet, when the other far doth roam,
It leans, and hearkens after it,
And grows erect, as that comes home.
Such wilt thou be to me, who must,
Like thother foot, obliquely run;
Thy firmness makes my circle just,
And makes me end where I begun.
Thus the non-metaphysical reader has to strain his imagination and see the lovers like
the legs of a compassjoined at the top, with her perfectly grounded at the centre point (in
London) and him roaming about Europe; love is this way described as balanced, symmetrical,
intellectual, serious, and beautiful in its polished simplicity. It is also not difficult to se the
conceit (this and the other ones above) as a mockery of idealized, sentimental love poetry (of
the Renaissance --mostly Wyatt, Spenser, Sidney, Southwell). The poem easily belongs in
the category of other valediction Donne poems, like A Valediction: of my Name in the
Window, A Valediction: of Weeping, and Meditation III.
And here is the new version of A Valediction Forbidding Mourning:
My swirling wants. Your frozen lips.
The grammar turned and attacked me.
Themes, written under duress,
emptiness of the notations.
They gave me a drug that slowed the healing of wounds.
I want to see this before I leave:
the experience of repetition as death
the failure of criticism to locate the pain
the poster in the bus that said:
my bleeding is under control.
A red plant in a cemetery of plastic wreaths.
A last attempt: the language is a dialect called metaphor.
These images go unglossed: hair, glacier, flashlight.
When I think of a landscape I am thinking of a time.
When I talk of taking a trip I mean forever.
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I could say: those mountains have a meaning

but further than that I could not say.
To do something very common, in my own way.
Written in 1970 (and published in The Will to Change of 1971) Richs poem
shares in all or most of the characteristics of (her) modernist poetry: loose and casual open
forms (the influence of William Carlos Williams and Robert Lowell), lapidary precision, the
use of sentence fragments and lines and stanzas of varying lengths, irregular spacing,
notebook-like fragmentation
Author of twenty-five poetry collections (between 1951 and 2010) and seven nonfiction books (1976-2009), Adrienne Richa radical feminist, had married economist Alfred
Haskell Conrad (1924-1970) in 1953 and had three children. For reasons that literary
historians hesitate to mention or simply ignore, one fine autumn morning Alfred Conrad
drove into the woods and shot himself in 1970, at 46 (happily married distinguished Harvard
professor), so his wife writes A Valediction Forbidding Mourning (frozen lips, duress,
emptiness, drug that slowed the healing wounds, departure as in Donnebefore I leave
and taking a trip, the experience of repetition and death, the failure to locate the pain,
bleeding under control, a cemetery of plastic wreaths). With Michelle Cliff, she edited
the art journal Sinister Wisdom (good title!); Rich also took a direct treatment of feminism in
such volumes of poetry as Twenty-One Love Poems of 1977, Dream of a Common Language
(1978), A Wild Patience Has Taken Me This Far (1981) and The Fact of a Doorframe (2001),
or the essays in On Lies, Secrets and Silence: Selected Prose 1966-1978 of 1979. In her
controversial 1976 Of Woman Born: Motherhood as Experience and Institution she explained
her suppressed instincts.
So there is bitter (if not sinister) realism in her title, which she borrowed from
Donne only because it suited the occasionthe death of her husband--, as there is nothing
really metaphysical about her poem: no conceit, no meditative refinement, no logical
argument, no parody or pastiche, no echo or influence, no parallel, no spin-off, but only,
probably, an echo of Donnes paradox in the fourth stanza:
Dull sublunary lovers love
--Whose soul is sensecannot admit
Of absence, cause it doth remove
The thing which elemented it.
But the way we see it now, her poemher title, in factmay have only been a
professors strategy (lecturer at Swarthmore and the City College of New York, teacher at
Columbia University School of the Arts, adjunct professor of writing, professor of creative
writing at Brandeis University) to make her students read John Donne and Metaphysical
Poets and also send later readers (like ourselves) on a wild goose chase (well worth the
while)and thus, a red herring of a title.
REFERENCES
Adrienne Rich at Poetry Foundation.org;
A Valediction Forbidding Mourning by John Donne, from Poems by John Donne,
vol.I: E. K. chambers, ed. (London: Lawrence & Bullen, 1896, pp.51-52);
Bloom, Harold, ed., The Best Poems of the English Language (New York: Harper
Collins Publishers, 2004);
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Carey, John, John Donne: Life, Mind and Art (London: Faber and Faber Limited,
1990);
Gardner, Helen, The Metaphysical Poets (London: Oxford University Press, 1957);
Guibbory, Achsah, ed., The Cambridge Companion to Donne, (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2006);
Holman, C. Hugh, A Handbook to Literature, Fourth edition (Indianapolis: The
Bobbs-Merrill Company, 1980/1972/1960/1936);
Johnsons Lives of the Poets at Project Gutenberg;
Johnson, Samuel, Selected Writings (Middlesex: Penguin Books, 1968);
Keyes, Claire, The Aesthetics of Power: The Poetry of Adrienne Rich (University of
Georgia Press, 2008);
Kunitz, Stanley et al, ed., British Authors before 1800 (New York: The H. W.
Wilson Company, 1952, pp.156-158);
Lakoff, George and Mark Turner, More Than Cool Reason: A Filed Guide to Poetic
Metaphor (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989);
Metaphysical
PoetryTimeline,
Context.(http://crossrefit.info/textguide/MetaphysicalPoetry;
Norton Anthology of American Literature, The, Third ed., vol.2, Nina Baym et al,, ed.
(New York and London: W. W. Norton & Company, 1989/1985/1979, pp.2690-2711);
Norton Poets Online, http://www.nortonpoets.com/(June 2, 2003):
Oxford Book of English Verse, The, 1250-1918, Chosen and Edited by Sir Arthur
Quiller-Couch, New Edition (New York and Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1940);
Rich, Adrienne, The Will to Change: Poems 1968-1970 (New York: W. W. Norton,
1971);
Rogers, Pat, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford: OUP, 1995 online ed.
retrieved 25 Aug. 2008, p.183);
Sherwood, Terry G., Fulfilling the Circle: A Study of John Donnes Thought (Toronto:
University of Toronto Press, 1984);
Sielke, Sabine, Fashioning the Female Subject: The Intertextual Networking of
Dickinson, Moore, and Rich (Ann Arbor, MI: Univ. of Michigan Press, 1997);
The Metaphysical Poets by T. S. Eliot (http://personal.centenary.edul...);
20th Century American Literature, Introd. by Warren French (Great Writers Student
Library, New York: St. Martins Press, The Macmillan Press Ltd., 1980, pp.482-483);
Warnke, Frank J., John Donne (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1987).
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READING AND WRITING THE CITY IN MODERNIST FICTION

Dana BDULESCU
Abstract: This article starts from the premise that in order to make sense of the protean,
complex and challenging reality of the city, modernist writers like Joyce and Woolf first
purported to read it, and then to write about it. In doing so, they looked at its signs, and also
at its gaps and silences. Woolf was interested in thinking spaciously, fusing masculinity and
femininity in the perfectly balanced androgynous mind. The city provides her with the respite
from its hustle and bustle, and also with the elements (signs and signals) which she arranges
in a pattern whose geometry fuses them. Sometimes she shows us minds revelling in the city
traffic, while some other times she captures the shock the mind receives when associated
stimuli strike it. Joyce has Stephen Dedalus standing on the steps of the library and
pondering on birds flying like words flowing on a page, or later in Ulysses he explores the
ineluctable modality of the visible and the ineluctable modality of the audible, looking
for the signs he needs.
Keywords: Modernism, the city, (affective) mapping, reading, writing, signs
At this moment, as so often happens in London, there was a complete lull and
suspension of traffic. Nothing came down the street; nobody passed. A single leaf detached
itself from the plane tree at the end of the street, and in that pause and suspension fell.
Somehow it was like a signal falling, a signal pointing to a force in things which one had
overlooked.
Virginia Woolf, A Room of Ones Own
Preamble
As Raymond Williams argues, For a number of social and historical reasons the
metropolis of the second half of the nineteenth century and of the first half of the twentieth
century moved into a quite new cultural dimension. (Williams in Dennis Walder: 164) Those
reasons were underpinned by a set of radical transformations which had a strong impact upon
culture: as Williams points out, in its earliest stages, this new cultural paradigm was boosted
by imperialism, which turned the capitals of empires into magnets of wealth and power, also
giving access to the cultures of the colonies. Thus, long-established cultural norms and
conventions started to be thoroughly challenged, undermined and supplanted by new ones.
The unprecedented development of large cities in the wake of the Industrial
Revolution brought them to the size of global zones comprising composite groups of people
exchanging new ideas in ways which could not be possible in smaller, traditional, closed
societies. In other words, these new and large urban locations teemed with what Williams
calls a new kind of open, complex and mobile society to which small, often Bohemian
groups contributed their cultures of divergence or dissent (Williams in Dennis Walder:
165)
These very features of openness, complexity, mobility and dynamism turned the cities
into ungraspable entities. However, it was this very ungraspability which attracted interest. In
order for the human mind to encompass their fascinating protean reality, it had to find
footholds in the gaps created by moments when the traffic stopped. In Mrs. Dalloway, there
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are countless times when the mind revels in the hustle and bustle of city life, while the
rhythmical dynamism of the traffic is recorded by the retina and stimulates the imagination:
In peoples eyes, in the swing, tramp, and trudge; in the bellow and the uproar; the
carriages, motor cars, omnibuses, vans, sandwich men shuffling and swinging; brass bands;
barrel organs; in the triumph and the jingle and the strange high singing of an aeroplane
overhead was what she loved; life; London; this moment of June. (Woolf 2007: 129-130)
No matter how dynamic and protean the cityscape is, the eye beholds it adoringly in
passages like this. Nevertheless, the very nature of such impressions is ephemeral, they will
not last. These moments of fascination and enthusiasm are counterpointed, often on the same
page or at least in the same chapter, by episodes when the dynamism and slipperiness of these
stimuli seem to threaten the brain, overloading and exhausting it, or causing it a sometimes
unaccountable apprehension. Thus, in Mrs. Dalloway, this early passage is severely
counterbalanced by the noise produced by a mysterious motor car. The effect of the shock is
terror, and that is a moment when the traffic seems to cease completely in order to give the
brain the necessary respite to readjust to the complexity and mobility of the city.
It is precisely this kind of gap and silence that Woolf uses in her essay A Room of
Ones Own to pull the threads of thought together in a loom in order to weave the theory of
the spacious and embracing androgynous mind. The setting has to be the city anyway: in A
Room of Ones Own, like in Woolfs novels, diary and life, London fascinates even when it
shocks. However, the stimuli are too intense and too varied to be grasped without pauses,
which is why the mind waits for such moments of a complete lull and suspension of traffic.
(Woolf 2007: 622) Once the mind takes this moment off its daily urban routine of responding
to onrushing stimuli, it is alerted to signals that set it thinking in terms of fusion. Like a
camera lens, the eye zooms in and takes the picture of a leaf falling. Unlike the rhythm of the
traffic, the fall of the leaf is slow and charged with meaning. When it hits the ground, it seems
to be hitting the right spot at the right time to make the sense of a force in things which one
had overlooked. (Woolf 2007: 622)
In this passage, which prefaces this study, Woolf signals to her readers that she is a
reader of signals and signs. Such an attentive reader is she that no falling leaf without and no
mark on the wall within pass unnoticed and unaccounted for. The falling leaf is a significant
sign whose slow motion alerts the mind to the faster motion of the city traffic. According to
this design, which the mind responds to and projects further, new elements step onto the
stage, each playing its part in Woolfs urban drama. The lens zooms out and in, and the tempo
quickens and slackens as each actor enters:
Now it was bringing from one side of the street to the other a girl in patent-leather
boots, and then a young man in a maroon overcoat; it was also bringing a taxicab; and it
brought all three together at a point directly beneath my window; where the taxi stopped; and
the girl and the young man stopped; and they got into the taxi; and then the cab glided off as if
it were swept off by the current elsewhere. (Woolf 2007: 622)
The perceiving subject stands at a vantage point, i.e. above the scene observed, and,
recording the successive movements, the mind traces a geometric design of the three elements
meeting at a point, fusing, and then gliding off and out of the subjects sight.
Affective mapping
The very next passage in A Room of Ones Own is an introspective analysis of ones
mental process of reading the signs of this geometric design as one reads the signs on a page:
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The sight was ordinary enough; what was strange was the rhythmical order with which
my imagination invested it; and the fact that the ordinary sight of two people getting into a
cab had the power to communicate something of their own seeming satisfaction. (Woolf
2007: 622-623)
What the artists mind actually does in these passages is to achieve a synthesis which
is essential in the achievement of art. That synthesis is the fulfillment of a universal desire for
a seamless unity, which is imaginatively drawn in this urban spot. As Ann C. Colley accounts
for it in The Search for Synthesis in Literature and Art, the effect of most impressionist
paintings upon the viewer is that the farther one steps back from the painting, the more its
pieces recompose. This retreat dissolves the spaces between the individual strokes until they
run into one another and fuse within the beholders eye to form familiar shapes and
structures. (Colley 1990: 6) Indeed, like in the impressionist paintings, in Woolfs writing
the eye is just a lens, and sensory experience is one half of the process. The other half is
imagination, which fuses the elements into a meaningful shape. The outcome is the synthesis,
which goes beyond the level of the visual into the deeper level of vision. It is vision that
reveals the force in things which one had overlooked. (Woolf 2007: 622)
It is not enough that the sight is perceived. What really matters is that it communicates
something, which clearly indicates that the process is a kind of reading, i.e. extricating a
meaning communicated by signs. The signs are not linguistic, but that is precisely what Woolf
captures here: how the eye perceives, how the imagination fuses, and how her art renders the
urban space in words, discovering a meaning behind the pattern. Had it not been for the
encounter between a man and a woman getting into a cab and being driven away, the mind
would not have had the signs to juggle with in its alternative scenarios:
The sight of two people coming down the street and meeting at the corner seems to
ease the mind of some strain, I thought, watching the taxi turn and make off. (Woolf 2007:
623)
Jonathan Flatley coins the phrase affective mapping, starting from the idea that
affects involve a transformation of ones being in the world, in a way that determines what
matters to one; affects require objects, and, in the moment of attaching to an object or
happening in the object, also take ones being outside of ones subjectivity (Flatley 2008:19).
As far as mapping is concerned, Flatley explains that the affective map is not a stable
representation of a more or less unchanging landscape; it is a map less in the sense that it
establishes a territory than that it is about providing a feeling of orientation and facilitating
mobility. (Flatley 2008: 7) Flatleys concept accounts for Woolfs enactment of her urban
scene in A Room of Ones Own. Indeed, the elements of the scene, their successive
movements and the pattern they form take the thinking mind outside its subjectivity, and
relate it to the world. It is this response to the objects (the anticipation of the falling leaf, then
the entrance of the woman, followed by that of the man and their departure in the cab) that
relates the mind to the world, the room to the street. After the cab leaves the scene, the mind
draws alternative maps:
What does one mean by the unity of the mind? I pondered, for clearly the mind has
so great a power of concentrating at any point at any moment that it seems to have no single
state of being. It can separate itself from the people in the street, for example, and think of
itself as apart from them, at an upper window looking down on them. Or it can think with
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other people spontaneously, as, for instance, in a crowd waiting to hear some piece of news
read out. (Woolf 2007: 623)
In these lines Woolf deconstructs her own designs in fiction. She is interested in the
world in order to recreate it in her own imagination. Whether she writes novels or essays, she
delves into her own mind to retrace the connection between her self and the world, and she
signals it for the reader. In order to write, one needs to read first.
The map of the world
In the opening of Mrs. Dalloway, the narrative voice, which grants readers access to
Clarissas own thoughts, alerts them to the fact that the London in the book is not one but
many (as many as the characters), not stable, but protean (changing its shape in every second)
a mind construct:
For Heaven only knows why one loves it so, how one sees it so, making it up, building
it round one, creating it every moment afresh (Woolf 2007: 129)
Although it is mainly a London novel, Mrs. Dalloway is also a post-World War I
novel, which relates the city and its dwellers to the world. The two protagonists, Clarissa and
Septimus are very keen readers of signs. Looking for their meaning, they chart their own
maps. Just before his final act, Septimus asks Rezia for his papers, the things he had
written:
She brought him his papers, the things he had written, things she had written for him.
She tumbled them out on to the sofa. They looked at them together. Diagrams, designs, little
men and women brandishing sticks for arms, with wings were they? on their backs; circles
traced round shillings and sixpences the suns and stars; zigzagging precipices with
mountaineers ascending roped together, exactly like knives and forks; sea pieces with little
faces laughing out of what might perhaps be waves: the map of the world. (Woolf 2007: 220)
The abstract geometry of Septimuss world is so sharply focused that it feels like a
cutting edge. It turns the reader into a fakir walking on knife blades and needles. The reading
of Woolfs writing here hurts. The most painful aspects of the violent world outside are
brought inside, in the room of Septimuss mind. His map is a cubist collage / montage, while
its fantastic suns and stars, zigzagging precipices and sea pieces that look like little faces
laughing out of ambiguous waves tap into surrealism.
In A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man the young boy Stephen Dedalus tries to get
to grips with the world and himself by writing words on the flyleaf of the geography book.
The words map out the universe and the world starting from himself and getting down to the
universe. What this vertical layout suggests is that the mind projects the world which it
inhabits. However, the opposite page was used by Fleming, who wrote some verses which
place Dedalus in the same central position. Dedalus practices his reading skills by reading
backwards. He discovers that no matter how he reads it, he is central in the sense that it is his
mind that generates the thinking about the universe, the nothing place (Joyce 1993: 13),
everything, everywhere and God. Later in the book, he develops the theory of the artist like
the God of the creation, whose personality finally refines itself out of existence,
impersonalises itself, so to speak. (Joyce 1993: 233)
Perception and apperception
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In the Proteus chapter of Ulysses, a more mature Stephen broods on the ineluctable
modality of the visible (Joyce 1946: 38) while walking along Sandymount strand. Both
Joyce and Woolf liquefied the solidity of the world and of the self, often describing the city as
fluid, thus suggesting that both the mind and what it projects are in a permanent flux.
What Stephen sees in Proteus are signs:
Signatures of all signs I am here to read, seaspawn and seawrack, the nearing tide, that
rusty boot. Snotgreen, bluesilver, rust: coloured signs. (Joyce 1946: 38)
Tackling perception in Joyces writing, Sheldon Brivic argues that its search, in which
Joyce engages both his characters and his readers, finds its sources in the movement of
language. (Brivic 1991: 8) Brivic holds that Joyces characters actually see through
language. Anticipating Derridas deconstructionist idea that il n a pas de hors-texte, Joyce
projected his own mind onto Stephens. Dedalus perceives the world as a world of signs,
which he reads and then writes.
It is vital for him that his body should be moving, i.e. walking, as his mind is moving,
from one sign to the next. The pace of his walks quickens or slackens following the rhythm of
his thoughts, from reading to writing the same world of signs:
Reading two pages apiece of seven books every night, eh? // Books you were going
to write with letters for titles. Have you read this F? O yes, but I prefer Q. Yes, but W is
wonderful. O yes, W. Remember your epiphanies on green oval leaves, deeply deep, copies to
be sent if you died to all the great libraries of the world, including Alexandria? Someone was
to read them there after a few thousand years, a mahamanvantara. Pico della Mirandola like.
Ay, very like a whale. When one reads these strange pages of one long gone one feels that one
is at one with one who once (Joyce 1946: 41)
In the first passage of Proteus Stephen records his sensory perceptions of the
visible, starting from the idea that they are ineluctable but rather deceiving. He is a keen
reader, who would rather see them as signs. In the second paragraph he closes his eyes in
order to hear, i.e. to experience and also experiment with the ineluctable modality of the
audible. (Joyce 1946: 38) Before he walks into the signs of the books he read and wrote,
Stephen walks through his perception of various other objects as signs. The ultimate goal of
any journey (any walk) is the artists self-discovery, which is essential to his art. However, the
only way in which he can achieve this self-discovery is through other objects. In Stephen
Hero Joyce accounted for his concept of epiphany as the adjustment of the vision of the
spiritual eye to an exact focus. Distance is essential, and by that Joyce and his fictional
projection Stephen mean the distance between themselves and any animate or inanimate
object as different from the self, i.e. the objects otherness.
However, it is not only the spatial distance that counts, whether that is the distance
between the self and the otherness of objects or the distance covered by ones walking. Joyce,
like Proust and Woolf, was interested in exploring temporal distances, not so much as
moments of the past per se as the relevance of those moments to the present. The Dead,
which is significantly the last piece in Dubliners, strikes that note of the overwhelming
importance of a moment of the past carefully locked up in the characters hearts and shedding
epiphanic light upon them. That is what Brivic calls apperception, which means both full
awareness of conscious perception and a process by which one realizes how newly observed
qualities of an object are related to past experience. That is exactly the trajectory Gabriel
Conroys mind follows in The Dead: first, he perceives Greta without even knowing it is his
wife, then he projects his desire onto her, making a mental note that the beautiful sight he
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perceives could be a painting, and later he discovers the secret of her youth locked in her
heart, which leads him to a re-adjustment to the world.
Brivic argues that Perception in Joyce searches toward its cause and desire, moving
toward apperception, which means both seeing fully and seeing oneself. As the text grows
aware that the objects it frames are products of convention, it moves toward finding reality in
the structure of its own process. (Brivic 1991: 183) It is most poignantly in Ulysses that the
world appears as a veil of signs, evoking the feeling that reality is beyond, to be sensed only
in hints that flicker through language. (Brivic 1991: 183)
What birds were they?; But what letters?
The modernists took a keen interest in the sky, its colours, its movements. At the end
of the first chapter of Forsters A Passage to India the sky settles everything (Forster 2005:
6) after a rather confusing panorama of the city of Chandrapore. Joyces A Portrait of the
Artist as a Young Man heavily relies on the symbolism of birds and their flight related to the
young artists need to fly by the stifling nets flung at his soul by the Irish society. In the last
chapter of the novel, Stephen looks up and wonders:
What birds were they? He stood on the steps of the library to look at them, leaning
wearily on his ashplant. They flew round and round the jutting shoulder of a house in
Molesworth Street. The air of the late March evening made clear their flight, their dark
darting quivering bodies flying clearly against the sky as against a limp-hung cloth of smoky
tenuous blue. (Joyce 1993: 243)
Stephen watches them in strained attention, trying to count them as they fly round and
round, and although he cannot be sure about their number, because some come down from the
upper sky, he is nonetheless certain that they are ever flying from left to right, circling about
a temple of air. (Joyce 1993: 243) What the direction from left to right suggests here is that
the birds follow a pattern of filling out the space of the sky, their dark bodies against its blue
colour, as letters would on a page. They write a message across the sky, and Stephen, who is a
reader of moving signs which he translates into language, needs to know what they are called,
how many they are, and to listen to the sounds they make. He finds both their sight and the
notes they produce soothing.
As always, Stephen looks for a meaning, and the meaning comes as his mind
continues to ponder and to make associations: he wonders whether they are an augury of
good or evil, and that sends him to his readings (Cornelius Agrippa and Swedenborg) on the
correspondence of birds to things of the intellect and of how the creatures of the air have their
knowledge and know their times and seasons because they, unlike man, are in the order of
their life and have not perverted that order by reason. (Joyce 1993: 244) Perception leads to
reasoning through association, and that further leads him to apperception, though this time the
past is not his own, but that of the human species: And for ages men had gazed upward as he
was gazing at birds in flight. (Joyce 1993: 244) That sends him to an apprehension of his
future as a writer, and in one long sentence his present is connected to his future, and that
future to an archetypal past:
A sense of fear of the unknown moved in the heart of his weariness, a fear of symbols
and portents, of the hawklike man whose name he bore soaring out of his captivity on
osierwoven wings, of Toth, the god of writers, writing with a reed upon a tablet and bearing
on his narrow ibis head the cusped moon. (Joyce 1993: 244)
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The gods image dissipates his fears, and, in a more relaxed mood, he returns to the
question: What birds are they? The answer is not a certainty, but it is a result of reasoning,
and the meaning he draws from their migratory flight is that they build ever an unlasting
home under the eaves of mens houses and ever leaving the homes they had built to wander.
(Joyce 1993: 245) That realization unleashes his creative capacities, and he composes a stanza
which references Yeatss play The Countess Cathleen, and which fills him with a soft liquid
joy of accomplished creation, when he contemplates the words where the soft long vowels
hurtled noiselessly and fell away, lapping and flowing back and ever shaking the white bells
of their waves in mute chime and mute peal and soft low swooning cry, until he feels that the
sign of the birds in the sky above had come forth from his heart like a bird from a turret
quietly and swiftly. (Joyce 1993: 244) In their turn, the verses tap into his memory, which
relates this moment of inspiration to the moment of Yeatss first production of Princess
Cathleen. Surely, this epiphany anticipates Stephens prayer at the end of the novel for him to
be granted the skills to forge in the smithy of my soul the uncreated conscience of my race.
(Joyce 1993: 276)
In the first episode which introduces the readers to Leopold Bloom in Ulysses
(Chapter 4), Bloom sees a cloud covering the sun, and that dramatic sight sends his train of
thoughts to the dead names and a dead sea in a dead land which bore the oldest, the first
race. (Joyce 1946: 61) This is significantly Leopolds first walk in Joyces one-day novel,
and as Leopold walks he thinks at the archetypal wandering of the Jews and relates that to his
own restless wandering. Every single page and turn of the sentence signals myriads of
auguries and signs and draws the readers attention to their status of signs. Just as the
characters are engaged in reading them as they are being written, the readers find themselves
compelled to make sense of the books signs as they read the book.
In Woolfs Mrs. Dalloway the ciphers on the sky are complicated by technology. An
aeroplane writes letters on the sky
But what letters? A C was it? An E, then an L? Only for a moment did they lie still;
then they moved and melted and were rubbed out up in the sky, and the aeroplane shot further
away again, in a fresh space of sky, began writing a K, an E, a Y perhaps? (Woolf 2007: 140)
Either because the perceiving subjects walk, and therefore they are always in motion,
or because the signs themselves move, signs need to be accounted for and interpreted in
motion in Woolfs and Joyces modernist fiction. The interpreting mind is often frustrated by
the incessant motion, but the motion itself is crucial to both life and writing. These writers
often associated it with the fluidity of water and shiftiness of air, and both with the protean
quality of life in the city. In photography, a similar experiment was undertaken by American
photographer Alfred Stieglitz, who, from 1922 into the thirties, took pictures of clouds in a
series which he called Equivalents. Stieglitzs clouds are underpinned by a modernist
aesthetics originated by Kandinsky, which sought to relate images to experiences, thoughts
and emotions.
Therefore, what these experimental artists created was an art which reflected not so
much the cities they saw, but the cities they imagined, recreated and reinvented, seen through
several pairs of eyes (their characters), always in motion, at different times of the day, in
different lights, from above (a window), or below (watching the birds, the clouds, or the
letters written on the sky).
Conclusion
The city generated a challenging context, which both entranced and terrified its
dwellers. Responding to it, the artists felt its duality, captured its dynamism and the synergy
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of their interaction with its complexity. In the first place, these artists were readers of signs,
which they saw both in the traffic and in its gaps and silences. Then they translated these
signs into a language that glimpses into their characters conscious and unconscious minds,
sometimes doubting the adequacy of words. As Harry Levin argues, Joyces own
contribution to English prose is to provide a more fluid medium for refracting sensations and
impressions through the authors mind to facilitate the transition from photographic realism
to esthetic impressionism. (Levin 1971: 53) Both Joyce and Woolf were interested in the
ways in which the minds of their characters reflected on their encounters with the city,
reading or misreading its signs. In doing so, they charted affective maps, or, borrowing
from Impressionism, Post-Impressionism and Cubism in painting, and also from the new arts
of the cinema and photography, they experimented with novels of collage / montage.
Bibliography
1. Brivic, Sheldon. The Veil of Signs: Joyce, Lacan, and Perception, University of
Illinois Press, Urbana and Chicago, 1991. Print.
2. Colley, Ann C. The Search for Synthesis in Literature and Art: The Paradox of
Space, The University of Georgia Press, Athens & London, 1990. Print.
3. Flatley, Jonathan. Affective Mapping: Melancholia and the Politics of Modernism,
Harvard University Press, 2008. Print.
4. Forster, E. M. A Passage to India, Penguin Books, 2005. Print.
5. Joyce, James. Ulysses, Random House, New York, 1946, Print.
6. Joyce, James. A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, Penguin Books, 1993. Print.
7. Levin, Harry. James Joyce: A Critical Introduction, Faber and Faber, London,
1971. Print.
8. Williams, Raymond in Walder, Dennis (Ed.). Literature in the Modern World.
Critical Essays and Documents, Oxford University Press in association with the
Open University, 1990. Print.
9. Woolf, Virginia. Selected Works of Virginia Woolf, Wordsworth Library
Collection, 2007. Print.
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THE MOTIF OF THE DOUBLE PARENTS AND MAGICAL ADOPTION IN TRADITIONAL

ROMANIAN CULTURE
Gabriela-Mariana LUCA
Victor Babes University of Medicine and Pharmacy Timisoara
Abstract: Invoking the motif of the two mothers, an archetype come across in several cultures,
placed at the base of numerous collective representations (Jung), we are actually invoking the
motif of the double origin of the human being, half terrestrial, half divine. We propose a
critical analysis of the mystery of the double birth and of magical adoptions, emphasizing the
symbolism of bears and wolves in the Romanian traditions found in the cultural European
circuit. The wolf, a totem animal of the Dacians- eponym which originates from the Phrygian
name "daos" (Eliade), alongside the bear, a mythological character, both chthonian and
Uranian (Apolzan), are amongst the most respected "adoptive parents", invested with truly
magical-therapeutically attributes in traditional practices. The Romanian term for
"godfather" ("nas") itself, derived from the Latin "nonnus", tied to "nuptiae" (night), and
further to "noces" (wedding), connects with a first association of a totemic nature: "his
son/the son of".
Keywords: magical adoption, bear, wolf, therapy, anthropology
Argument
Strvechii ntlniri a iernii cu primvara, srbtorit prin purificarea cu ap i foc, i
corespunde cretina srbtoare a ntmpinrii Domnului, Stretenia, consacrat primirii
pruncului Iisus de ctre btrnul evlavios Simeon la templul din Ierusalim (02.02/15.02).
Termenul provine din slavona veche vstrecea i nseamn ntlnire, ntmpinare. n
credinele populare, srbtoarea simbolizeaz o divinitate mitic, deosebit de capricioas i
schimbtoare, foarte asemntoare cu baba Dochia care, dup firea ei contradictorie, poate
schimba vremea la nceput de februarie. Ziua este temut i respectat n popor, n special
pentru ca fiarele slbatice, mai cu seam ursul i lupul, cuplul de prdtori cel mai celebru din
ntreaga mitologie european (Bobbe, 2002), s nu atace gospodria.
Tulburtoarea asemnare a ursului cu omul, ntre care exist deosebiri doar de ordin
cultural: ursu-i ca -un om; el i face csua ca omul i i aduce de toate; numai ct atta c
n-are foc (Voronca, 2008, p. 273), polaritatea sa simbolic, precum i strania ambivalen a
lupului care jaloneaz ntre leagn i mormnt ntreaga existen a omului (Ghinoiu, 1988,
p. 84) fac din cele dou animale ale codrului personaje mitologice ce se bucur de un loc
aparte n memoria colectiv, preuii uneori ca strmoi mitici alteori ca prini adoptivi.
Motivul naterii duble a fiinei umane are o generoas rspndire n istoria culturilor i
a mentalitilor i se afl la baza multor mistere, inclusiv cretinismul. n liturghiile romane,
fntnile baptismale se numesc uterus eclasiae, iar binecuvntarea apei de botez, n ziua
numit sabatum sanctum, s-a pstrat i n zilele noastr, practicndu-se n smbta dinaintea
Patilor, zi de prag, de trecere ntre lumi, zi sfnt. Reprezentarea unei a doua nateri are o
larg rspndire spaial i temporal. La nceputurile medicinei ea aprea ca un mijloc magic
de vindecare; n multe religii ea constituie experien mistic iar n filozofia naturii din evul
mediu, ideea central; last not least muli copii, dar i unii aduli, cred c prinii lor nu le
sunt dect prini adoptivi crora le-au fost ncredinai (Jung, 1994, p. 25). Pe baza acestui
motiv al prinilor dubli, copii de astzi, spune Jung, n loc de zne bune ori rele,
rspunztoare de adopiile magice din basmele tuturor popoarelor europene, au astzi un al
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doilea rnd de prini, pe lng cei naturali, care funcioneaz n primul rnd ca protectori
spirituali: n germana elveian, Gotti /Gotte, n englez, godfather / godmather, n limba
francez commre /compre (cel care ine un prunc deasupra cristelniei, fapt ce creeaz ntre
cei doi legtura de ordin spiritual), corespunztor romnescului cumtru/ cumtr. Prin
extensie, acelai nume este dat animalelor cu care omul are relaii subtile.
Termenul romnesc de na, provenit din latinescul nonnus, este foarte legat de
cuvntul nuptie (noapte), din care s-a format noces (nunta). Cobornd n noaptea timpurilor,
putem rzbate pn la primele asocieri de natur totemic: fiul lui1
Fiul ursului, fiul lupului
Simion Florea Marian atrage atenia asupra unui episod foarte important al micii
copilrii: vnzarea copilului bolnav. Cnd un copil era bolnav, familia acestuia l vindea
simbolic unui alt cuplu sau unei alte femei ai crei copii erau zdraveni, sntoi. Ritualul
presupunea i schimbarea numelui, cu credina c, strigndu-l altfel, Diavolul va pierde urma
pruncului i acesta va putea scpa mai lesne de boal. Numele cele mai folosite n astfel de
situaii erau: Ursu, Ursache, Ursa, Lupu, Lupuor i derivate ale acestora.
Invocarea ursului n calitate de binefctor cu puteri magice, apotropaice, trimite i la
alte obiceiuri practicate la natere ori n frageda copilrie. De exemplu, copilului mic n vrst
de pn la un an, pentru a-l ntri n faa prediciilor ursitoarelor, i se ddea s mnnce o
linguri cu grsime de urs. n ara Haegului, o moa ungea trupul copilaului cu grsime de
urs spre a-l face un om puternic, noteaz Lucia Apolzan. Prezena mtii de urs n unele
obiceiuri de iarn i funerare sau n medicina popular sunt argumente care susin ipoteza
existenei unei diviniti antice dace ascunse n piele de urs, pe care romnii au venerat-o pn
la nceputul secolului XX. Mitologia ursului nsumeaz o divinitate purttoare a dou
amprente diametral opuse: chtonian i uranian. Ursul, ca zeu al pdurilor i munilor,
mplinete practici chtoniene (se retrage n vizuin peste iarn i se trezete odat cu natura, n
prag de primvar) i, din punct de vedere astral, dovedete abile caliti uraniene, fiind
socotit un bun cunosctor al semnelor cereti. n tradiiile romneti, Mo Martin, potrivit
etnologilor notri, este mai curnd necesar dect periculos, este mai degrab om dect animal,
influeneaz ursitoarele, copii bolnavi de felurite spaime pot fi afumai cu pr ars de urs i
vindecai, iar calitile sale de kinetoterapeut sunt binecunoscute, clcatul ursului pe spinarea
celui cu dureri de spate fiind un leac popular foarte apreciat din cele mai vechi timpuri. ntrun anume sens, s-ar putea spune c animalul acesta este gndit, n cultura popular, ca un fel
de etap pre-uman, ca o ipostaz slbatic a omului de azi. De aceea, ursul nu numai c
seamn cu omul, cum susin numeroase atestri folclorice (vezi I. Mulea, Ov. Brlea, 1970,
p. 282), dar i fur femei i triete cu ele (Coman, 1996, p. 142). Credinele i practicile
construite pe caracterul su sacru amintesc permanent de fenomenele sincretice comune
mitologiilor antice.
nun (nni), s.m. Na de nunt. Mr., megl. nun. Lat. nonnus (Pucariu 1207; Meyer-Lbke, Mitt. Wien, 5;
REW 5817), cf. alb. nun (Philippide, II, 649), ngr. na, v. sard. nonnu na (Atzori 246), apul. nunnu
na, it. nonno bunic. Der. din ngr. (Cihac, II, 679; Roesler 573) e mai puin probabil. Der. nun, s.f. (na
de nunt); nuneasc, s.f. (dans tipic de nunt); nuna, s.m. (Trans., Banat, na de nunt); nna, s.m. (na de
nunt), alterare a cuvntului anterior; na, s.m. (persoan care cunun sau boteaz); abreviere a cuvntului
anterior (Pucariu, 1207; Pucariu, Donum natalicium Schrijver, Utrech 1929, 432; mpotriv Densusianu, GS,
V, 186, dar fr argumente convingtoare); nae, s.f. (soia naului; femeie care cunun sau boteaz); neasc,
s.f. (dans); ni, vb. (a fi na sau na); nit, s.n. (actul de a fi na()). Na circul n Vechiul Regat, restul
prefer forma nna (ALR, I, 216). Din rom. provine mag. nans (Edelspacher 20); rut. nanako (Candrea,
Elemente, 408); bg. nunko (Capidan, Raporturile, 233).
1
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Pe teritoriul Romniei, au fost gsite oase de urs, datate 100.000-35.000 i. H., ce

preau aranjate dup o practic ritual, ca un fel de ofrand adus regelui animalelor, cu
scopul de a-i ctiga bunvoina i de a obine ajutor la vntoare. i n celelalte culturi
europene, ursul este socotit un simbol al forelor divine. Dup Wilhelm Schmidt, omul arhaic
european oferea divinitii creier i mduv de urs, prile socotite ca fiind cele mai bune,
sursa vieii animalului. Sufletul animalului sacrificat se reunea cu cel al prinilor si i intra
astfel pe trmul su spiritual, n constelaia Ursa Mare.
Ursa Mare este o constelaie circumpolar pentru observatorii situai mai jos de 41
latitudine nordic i care pare s nu mearg niciodat la culcare. n limba greac, cuvntul
corespunztor pentru urs este arktos, acelai termen care le desemneaz pe nsoitoarele lui
Artemis (Konig, 2001). Deosebit de interesant este faptul c aproape n toate limbile, grupul
celor apte stele strlucitoare, fr s exist cea mai mic asemnare cu un urs n forma
desenat de dispunerea lor, poart acelai nume. Mai mult, la originea numelui unor localiti
europene importante, explic Karl Konig, pare s fie acelai concept. Radicalul bar exist n
numele oraelor: Berna, Berlin, Berenbourg etc.. Thurman chiar insist asupra faptului c
seria Bar, Boar, Byorn poate fi strns legat de suedezul Barn, termen care nseamn copil,
dar i AB-Ra, cu nelesul de soare absent, adic nord. Oraul Berna se mndrete i cu o
fntn a urilor. Motivul trimite la grota/coliba din basmul Hansel i Gretel sau, n varianta
francez, Jeannot i Margot, unul dintre cele mai cunoscute dintre toate basmele copilriei.
Cei doi friori, frate i sor, lsai n pdure de prinii naturali, pierdui i devenii apoi
captivii unei vrjitoare antropofage au impresionat generaii ntregi de copii. n Carpai
respectul pentru acest animal este att de mare, recunoate autorul, nct oamenii nici nu-i
rostesc numele. Atunci cnd vorbesc despre el, se adreseaz folosind apelativele cumtru ori
mo. Tot n radicalul bar/ber i au originea cuvintele germane geburt (natere) i geberen (a
da natere, a aduce pe lume). n acest context, Arkas, fiul ursoaicei Callisto, n unele mituri,
fiul zeiei Artemis n vremea n care ea nsi era ursoaic, este un nume ce trimite la unul din
popoarele Atlantidei, acadienii, cei care i-au ntlnit pe ultimii supravieuitori hiperboreeni.
Dou sunt pistele urmate n aceast lectur a adopiilor magice de acest tip:
1. Fora i ritualul simpatetic destinat vntorii osuarele nu sunt dect expresia
intenionalitii magico-religioase, nhumrile cu capetele orientate spre est i privirea
orientat spre vest marcau intenia de a lega soarta sufletelor de un traseu al soarelui,
de sperana renaterii (Eliade).
2. Poziia ghemuit a unor schelete trimite la ipoteza potrivit creia se imita regressum
ad uterum, imaginea ftului n pntecul mamei i, bineneles, ideea c acesta va
renate. Aceeai semnificaie o au i craniile pictate n rou culoarea sngelui, caz n
care, aa cum spune Leroy-Gourhan, ar fi vorba despre acte de magie imitativ. Legat
de acest aspect, se afirm c grota Trois-Frres (Frana) este una dintre cele mai
interesante: un personaj cu cap de cerb, ochi de bufni, urechi de lup, barb de ap,
coad de cal i labe de urs, desenat pe bolt, pe jumtate colorat n negru, domin de la
4 m nlime, mulimea de animale. Din descrierea detaliat i interpretrile abatelui
Breuil2, putem rezuma faptul c analogia cu cerbul trimite la hran, necesitate
imperioas supravieuirii (cerbul, practic vnatul, fiind hrana principal a omului
primitiv se leag de practicile magice ce aveau n vedere creterea anselor de a obine
"Vzut din fa, acest cap are ochii rotunzi cu pupile mari ntre care coboar linia nasului ce se termin ntr-o
mic arcuire. Urechile drepte sunt ca ale unui cerb; pe linia frunii pictat n negru se ridic dou ramuri
puternice . Nu exist o gur ci o barb lung ce cade pe piept. Antebraele ridicate, la orizontal, se termin
prin dou palme cu degete scurte i ntinse; foarte decolorate, aproape terse. O band mare, neagr umbrete tot
corpul i se subiaz la inseria lombar, prelungindu-se apoi pe membrele inferioare ndoite. Un punct
marcheaz rotula stng. Picioarele, inclusiv degetele lor, sunt destul de ngrijite i exprim un soi de micare
analog dansului "Cakewalk ." (traducere din limba francez)
2
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o prad ndestultoare pentru membrii clanului), ochii de bufni sunt simbolul morii,
lupul este semnul pericolului iminent, iar ursul cel al forei.
i simbolismul lupului implic permanent un aspect ambivalent. Pentru c vede bine
n ntuneric, lupul este simbolul luminii, al soarelui. Lupul este strmoul mitic al lui Ginghis
Han, este una din reprezentrile lui Zeus i un atribut al lui Apollo.
mbrcnd pielea lupului, postulantul i asimila comportamentul animalului; cu alte
cuvinte, el devenea un rzboinic ca o fiar slbatic, irezistibil i invulnerabil. Lup era porecla
membrilor confreriilor militare indo-europene. [] S menionm doar asemnarea, din
anumite puncte de vedere, a comportamentului cetelor de rzboinici indo-europeni cu cel al
confreriilor secrete din societile primitive. n ambele cazuri, membrii grupului terorizeaz
femeile i neiniiaii i practic ntr-o oarecare msur un drept la jaf, obicei pe care-l
recunoatem nc, sub o form diluat, n tradiiile populare ale Europei i Caucazului. Jaful,
n special furtul vitelor, asimileaz membrii cetei de rzboinici carnivorelor (Eliade, 1995,
p.112). Furia bersekr (rzboinici n blnuri de urs sekr, vechi rzboinici germani, identificai
magic cu ursul, despre care se credea c se pot metamorfoza fie n uri, fie n lupi), strnit n
neofit, era att de natur marial dar i crescut n urma unor experiene magico-religioase,
capabile s modifice profund modul de a fi al celui implicat n ritualul de iniiere.
Mircea Eliade a demonstrat i faptul c lupul a fost animalul totemic al dacilor i
numele su frigian daos explic eponimul dac, iar I.A. Candrea menioneaz existena a 35 de
zile n calendarul tradiional nchinate celebrrii lupului. Calendarul lupului ncepe la 16
ianuarie, cu Sf. Petru de iarn, continu n 17 ianuarie, zi inut pentru Tnase de cium,
devenit prin contaminare ru de lupi (Coman, 1996, p. 184), iar la sfrit de ianuarie (25) i
nceput de februarie (3, ale lunii), urmeaz grupul de zile nchinat Filipilor de iarn. Stretenia
i Martinii sunt srbtori care se in i de frica lupilor dar i de aceea a urilor. Fria cu lupul
spune I. Ghinoiu (1988, p. 84) ncepe nc din segmentul pre-existenial, cnd copii care
plng n pntecele mamei nainte de a se nate se transform n pricolici (fiar slbatic, mai
ales lup) i continu dup moarte, n post-existen, n lumea miticului, aa cum reiese din
cntecul zorilor cntat la casa mortului. Rolul su n magia popular este covritor i multe
din segmentele sale anatomice au funcii apotropaice: prul afumat este recomandat
bolnavilor cu retenie urinar; dinii sunt talismane puternice; ficatul pare s-i ajute pe
bolnavii de plmni; gtul pe cei bolnavi de fric. Dansul lupului, practicat de friile de
brbai tineri n timpul srbtorilor de iarn n faa caselor femeilor care nu pot avea copii, are
menirea de a le face fertile. Atunci cnd cel care poart masca lupului se apropie de femeia
cu pricina, aceasta smulge cteva fire de pr i le pstreaz cu grij pentru farmece3.
Credinele despre apariiile i faptele pricolicilor ori vrcolacilor (engl. lycanthrope,
fr. loup-garou), exist n mai toate mitologiile i legendele Europei de est: fiine umane,
adesea blestemate sau ursite s se transforme parial sau complet n lup, sau ntr-o creatur
antropomorf foarte apropiat de lup. Aceast transformare poate fi datorat unor numeroase
cauze: muctura de lup sau unui alt vrcolac, un blestem sau un ritual voluntar. Fenomenul
se declaneaz ndeosebi noaptea i, mai ales, n fiecare noapte cu lun nou, cnd omul
transformat n vrcolac rtcete urlnd pn n zori i poate fi explicat, spune Mircea Eliade,
printr-un proces de folclorizare, adic prin proiectarea n lumea imaginar a unor rituri
concrete, fie amanice, fie de iniiere rzboinic (Eliade, 1994). Povetile despre vrcolaci au
fost menionate nc din antichitatea greceasc i s-au extins mai nti n Europa, iar apoi n
lumea ntreag, genernd o tem de ficiune foarte apreciat n prezent. Vrcolacii sunt
oamenii pe jumtate lupi, de o ferocitate ieit din comun, care ucid fr mil n timpul nopii
i care, odat revenii n regimul diurn i recptndu-i forma uman, nu-i mai amintesc
nimic din cruzimile nfptuite la lumina lunii. n prezent, licantropia este recunoscut tiinific
3
Vezi C. Briloiu, Ov. Brlea, T. Pamfile, V. Kernbach etc.
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doar ca simptom al unei boli mintale, rupt de orice demers amanic sau furie rzboinic
menit s asigure glorie etern omului nzestrat cu atributele puternicei fiare prdtoare.
Urmele curajului apus
Binevoitoare i malefice, ursul i lupul sunt purttoarele unor atribute mitologice,
legate intim de izvoarele nceputurilor civilizaiei omului cel puin pe pmntul vechii Europe,
confirmnd nc o dat faptul c fenomenul religios este o constant a spiritului uman nc de
la nceputurile sale, mbrcnd diferite forme de expresie. Oricare din formele de exprimare
ale credinei strmoilor notri arat calea cea mai subtil de a pereniza prin comuniunea cu
spiritele naturii, mprumutnd, imitnd, metamorfozndu-se, reintrnd n circuitul sacru al
elementelor ei. Este imposibil accesul la un mod superior de existen i participare la o nou
irumpere a sacrului n lume sau n istorie altfel dect depind existena profan, neiluminat
printr-o moarte ritual i renscnd la o via nou, regenerat (Eliade, 1995, p.155). Toate
elementele magico-religioase citate nu par a proveni dintr-o revelaie primordiala, dar nici nu
o contrazic, ci cel mult afirm starea unei umaniti n cutarea Divinului. Integrat n
ansamblul datinilor de Anul Nou, contaminat cu mti, gesturi i semnificaii provenite din
celelalte nscenri dramatice, jocul ursului prezint ca toate jocurile cu mti un aspect
polimorf, elemente arhaice mpletindu-se cu cele mai noi, sensurile rituale cu resemnificrile
moderne (Coman, 1996, p. 146).
ntre om i urs, potrivit credinelor populare, sunt asemnri i deosebiri doar de ordin
cultural: am vzut c acesta din urm nu domesticise nc focul, ns c suport numeroase
corecii fizice (ca un copil neasculttor) pentru c nu respect codul alimentar, corecii care-i
modeleaz aspectul corpului (pentru c refuz s guste miere, Sf. Petru l trage de urechi pn
i le rupe; prinznd gust pentru alimentul miraculos i refuznd s plece, Sfntul este nevoit sl trag de coad pn cnd i aceasta se rupe; tot lcomia l las fr coad n basmul n care
este pclit de ireata vulpe, iar n minunata Poveste a lui Harap Alb ursul este posesorul
unor grdini magice n care cresc salturi i nutrimenturi de peste mri i ri, tem
generoas pentru o analiz antropologic a hranei.
Lupul i ursul totemici sunt frai, tovari de fapte vitejeti, strmoi mitici i prini
adoptivi. Datorit acestor cmpuri relaionare, deosebit de profunde, niciunul dintre ei nu
poate fi ataat figurilor demonice subordonate celui chiop, diavolului. Trist ar fi doar
soarta fetelor despre care se zice: Fetele numai dup lupi i uri nu se duc (Voronca, 2008,
p. 274).
Alter ego mitic al omului, fratele animal, pentru a folosi expresia lui Karl Konig, se
altur ori se opune omului ca cel mai fidel prieten ori cel mai aprig duman al su.
Bibliografie selectiv:
Apolzan, Lucia, 1987, Carpaii, tezaur de istorie : Perenitatea aezrilor risipite pe
nlimi, Editura tiinific i Enciclopedic, Bucureti,
Bobbe, Sophie, 2002, L'ours et le loup. essai d'anthropologie symbolique, Editura
Maison des Sciences de l'Homme, Paris
Coman, M., 1996, Bestiarul mitologic romnesc, Editura Fundaiei Culturale
Romne, Bucureti
Creang, I. 1980, Poveti, amintiri, povestiri, Editura Eminescu, Bucureti
Eliade, M., 1995, Nateri mistice, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti
Eliade, M., 1994, Istoria ideilor i a credinelor religioase, 3 volume, Editura
Universitas, Chiinu
Ghinoiu, I.,1988, Vrstele timpului, Editura Meridiane, Bucureti
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Jung, C.J., 1994, n lumea arhetipurilor, Editura Jurnalul Literar, Bucureti

Kernbach, V., 1989, Dicionar de mitologie general, Editura tiinific i
enciclopedic, Bucureti
Konig, K., 2001, Fratele animal, Editura Triade, Bucureti
Leroi-Gourhan, A., 1998, Le geste et la parole. 2 La mmoire et les rythmes, Editeur
Albin Michel, Sciences daujourdhui, Paris
Marian, S. Fl., 2000, Mitologie romneasc, Editura Paideia, Bucureti
Mu, t., 2012, Marele arhitect al universului. Tratat de cosmologie i antropologie,
Editura Rao, Bucureti
Niculi-Voronca, Elena, 2008, Datinile i credinele poporului romn, adunate i
aezate n ordine mitologic, Editura Saeculum Vizual, Bucureti
Vasilescu, E., 1982, Istoria religiilor, Editura Institutului Biblic si de Misiune al
Bisericii Ortodoxe Romne, Bucureti
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METAPHORICAL MEANINGS IN STANESCUS POETIC ESSAY

Luminia CHIOREAN
Abstract: From the features of textual - reticular, inferential, volumed, synergetic meaning
(Vlad, 2000), we chose to interpret the reticular feature manifested by a variety of
networks or a discursive verbal chain and conceptual configuration.
The metaphorical meaning of the text in the essayistic discourse offers a discursive knowledge
of reality (continuous knowledge): the prospective vision (telescopic, exteriorly
transcending) the sensible continues with the introspective one (autoscopic, interior
transcendence) the intelligible. The poetic consciousness (perceptive: My sadness hears
the unborn dogs/ as they bark at the unborn people) dislocates the textual meaning (from the
linguistic sequence) to an imaginary horizon: inter mundi. The reality contemplation meaning
is performed from an outside to an inside. Here the space is compressed, reflected into a
hyper dense universe. The isotopies of poetic (textual) meaning are markers of discourse in
the metatext of Stanescus essay.
Keywords: isotopies; metaphor; prospective vision: autoscopic, interior transcendence vs
introspective vision: autoscopic, interior transcendence; poetic consciousness; essayistic
discourse.
[...] Any text provides a variety of networks [our highlight] established by different
organizations or links through which verbal signs (primarily) but other signs as well, nonverbal, can participate simultaneously, with different functions (values), specific to every
network. (Vlad, 2000:88) or through a metaphorical expression, at the level of isotopies
(here, networks), of Nichita Stanescus type, whose essay, Force de frappe (1985, in
Secolul XX/ Razgandiri: 188), will be the object of the analysis on the textual meaning:
Reeaua orizontal se ntretaie cu reeaua vertical. Reeaua oblic se ntreptrunde cu
reeaua oblic.[s.n.] Stnga cu dreapta, naintea cu n afara, susul cu josul, laptele cu
mduva, totul cu totul ... (The horizontal network intersects the vertical network. The
oblique network intertwines with the oblique network. [our highlight] The left with the right,
before with outside, up with down, milk with marrow, everything with everything); in both
quotes, the authors intention is to argue for a reticular representation of the textual meaning
(through the reticular, inferential, volumed, and synergetic characters).
The reticular nature is surprising due to the dialectics between the surface offer, the
linguistic sequence rendered dynamic by the text, and the conceptual re-offer, from the
inner world of the text.
The textual meaning unifies the prospective vision (telescopic, exterior transcendence)
with the retrospective one (autoscopic, interior transcendence), the sensible and the
intelligible. Surface linguistic relations are joined with conceptual ones (here, concepts about
the aesthetics of poetry) and come to support the interpretation of the inner worlds which are,
in the case of the essayistic discourse, pieces of a cultural mosaic.
No matter the images naming it pnza unui pianjen care s-ar dizolva pe sine n
secreiile constructive ale pnzei sale (a spider's web which would dissolve itself in
constructive secretions of its web) (see Barthes), network diversity or chains of textual
values (Vlad) or force de frappe (Stanescu), textual meaning is disrupted (from the
linguistic sequence) by the devouring or the hunger for being as interior mechanisms of the
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textual labyrinth. The essayist-poet suggests the chronotope passing about this creative
activity: distana dintre gur i hran (the distance between mouth and food.) Distance as
time. Time as being. This is the metaphorical meaning.
Our focus is the essayistic discourse in the ontology of textual meaning1,
exemplified in works like The Pleasure of the Text by Roland Barthes, Cuvant impreun
despre rostirea romaneasc by Constantin Noica or Nichita Stanescus group of essays,
Razgandiri, whose focal essay is Force de frappe. 2
The authors intention means catching the pulse and expressing the diegesis
anchored to the dynamics of the textual meaning, no matter the nature of literary
communication. Metaphorical meaning is managed through the expression force de frappe:
(dis-)location or (dis-)position in a network3.
Here is the essayistic passage of the disruption of the textual meaning at the beginning
of the essays, a defining context in the labyrinth articulation of networks and abolishable
interferences (the category of abductions4), in the configuration5 of significance: Reeaua
orizontal se ntretaie cu reeaua vertical. Reeaua oblic se ntreptrunde cu reeaua
oblic. Stnga cu dreapta, naintea cu nafara, susul cu josul, laptele cu mduva, totul cu
totul ... (The horizontal network intersects the vertical network. The oblique network
intertwines with the oblique network. The left with the right, before with outside, up with
down, milk with marrow, everything with everything).
Simultaneity as poetical principle is manifested in the syntactic parallelism6 which
becomes the guideline in the construction of the reticular spatial axis and it leads the
semantics of the text to a density of the text built on the unity of opposites. Networks are
nothing but a metaphor expressing the poly-isotopy, the source of the textual meaning.
Respecting the reading grid suggested by the speaking instance, we are caught from
the very beginning in the chain of circumstantial values [+ space] which are attracted from the
outside towards the inside and we are warned about the direction of movement of the textual
meaning, a factor to be taken into account in the interpretation, which functions according to
the dichotomous principle telescopy vs. autoscopy.
The circumstances encumber the labyrinth networks, compressing them in a hyper7
dense sphere, breathing a likewise hyper-dense air: [...] pn cnd materia devine att
de dens, nct e totuna cu vidul. // ntunecnd ntunericul, iat porile luminii ! (Haiku)
(until matter becomes so dense, that it becomes one with the void. // Darkening the
darkness, behold the gates of light! (Haiku).
For the fulfilling of the metaphorical (or hyper-dense), meaning we quote from the
essay Marele trohanter sau despre ritual: mi nchipui, uneori, c obiectele ntruchipeaz
1 We respected the authors intention in the interpretation of Stanescus essays. The essay Povestea vorbii (The
Tale of the Word) (FP, 1990: 214-215) argues for the existential meaning of communication, and as such, we
made, in a previous chapter, a trip in the ontology of the textual meaning.
2 Without it being an exaggeration, we argue for the citation of the three works as having the same degree of
interest, despite the fact that two are volumes, and the other work is an essayistic discourse included in
Stanescus posthumous volume, Razgandiri.
3 The last 12 days of the poets creation. 28 November - 9 December 1983. Nichita Stnescu: Razgandiri,
unpublished essays, in Secolul XX. Revist de sintez, edited by the Writers Union in the Socialist Republic of
Romania, no. 289-290-291, Bucuresti, 1985, pp. 188-198
4 Abducia e singura operaie logic ce introduce o idee nou (Abduction is the only logical operation
introducing a new idea) (Peirce, as quoted by Vlad, 2000: 169)
5 Configurations are nothing but representation or essayistic imagery: thought in images vs. thought in notions.
6 Among the figures of construction classified by the School in Lige in the class of metataxes, syntactic
parallelism is the long-living figure, recognized as a mechanism generating the antithesis in Romanticism, the
patch up in Neomodernism, the paradox in Postmodernism.
7 See Luminita Chiorean, vol. I. Arhitectura eseului poetic stnescian, Cap II. 3.2. Titlul discursului eseistic,
2006, Petru Maior University Press, Tirgu Mures, pp. 144.
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vidul. Se cade n obiecte. Numai vidul poate avea form. Ceea ce exist numai murind poate
avea nfiare (I sometimes imagine that the objects embody the void. One falls in objects.
Only the void can have a form. That which exists can have an appearance only by dying.)
[1990: 316]
The representation of the hyper-dense sphere anticipates the presence of the
interpreters and the interpretation manners autoscopy vs. telescopy from the textological
analysis:
Hyper-dense sphere 8
Anterior sphere
Posterior sphere
uncreated
- infinit
a point
[-1 ]
poetic self
regression (involution)
[reported to the past]:
[+1]
unborn
+infinit
evolution
[reported to the
future]:
uncreated
unborn
retrospective vision
prospective vision
9
[autoscopy]
[telescopy]
interior transcendent
exterior transcendent
absentia in praesentia
praesentia in absentia
Together with the hyper-solicited space, the moment [+ time] is stimulated as well,
by the use of the relative adverbial connector of time, preceded by the restrictive adverbial,
modalizing the limit: pana cand... (until), catching the image of time as distance. It is the
expression of the mastery of the textual meaning.
By over-soliciting the textual meaning, we perceive the source of the critical act on
Stanescus poetry: in the semiosic process, the exterior transcendence corresponds to the
sensible imagery, and the interior, autoscopic transcendence corresponds to the intelligible
imagery10.
Prima monad de vid n materie i-apare a fi creatul, sau prima monad de materie
n vid, - acelai lucru. (The first monad of void in matter appears to be the created, or the
first monad of matter in void, - the same thing.). Indeed, by the encumbering of meaning by
the co-participation of networks to being, one may discern the ontical dimension of the textual
meaning:the created. The in-existence may be perceived only in relation to the
existence, only by reporting it to the created may one express the un-created. Meaning
must be thought as ontos.11 Genesis is defined by the chronotopic identity (time and space):
Rsucirea, nnodarea e prima form posibil a timpului, iar monada rsucit, pretextul lui, monada putnd avea orice dimensiune, n funcie de torsiunea timpului [...] (The twist, the
knot is the first possible form of time, and the twisted monad, its pretext, - the monad can
have any dimension, depending on the torsion of time [...). The monad, seen geometrically
8 The scheme respects the views in literary criticism (Braga, 1993).
9 Autoscopy and telescopy, as means of knowledge, are used in the critical texts signed by Corin Braga (Nichita
Stanescu. Orizontul imaginar, Imago, 1993, Sibiu), Daniel Dimitriu (Nichita Stanescu. Geneza poemului,
Alexandru Ioan Cuza University Press, 1997, Iasi), Luminita Chiorean (Natura cuvntului. Din(spre)
razgandirile lui Nichita Stanescu, Studia UPM. Philologia, 1/2002, Tg. Mures, pp. 49-59).
10The interpretation may be the reading grid set forward by Corin Braga.
11 It is the belief according to which we have shaped the inferential argument for the ontology of the textual
meaning.
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as a sphere, becomes the architectural leitmotif in Stanescus work, characterized by volume,

corporality, so space and time, and it corresponds here to the living metaphor (Ricur).
When it comes to the chronotope, expression of the reticular character of the textual meaning,
Stanescu suggests a different metaphor for torsiunea timpului(torsion of time), which is
nnodarea orizontului (the knotting of the horizon).
Another expression, system of reference, is used in order to fulfill the reticular
character and shape an attitudinal configuration: Dar torsiunile nsei ale timpului sunt
multiple, simultane i asincrone n funcie de viteza materiei fa de sistemul de
referin...(But the very torsions of time are multiple, simultaneous, and without synchrony,
depending on the speed of matter related to the system of reference.).
The lack of synchrony, far from being regression (temporal), brings the suggestion of
coming out, beyond/from the grid of the category of ideal being, the multiple torsions of
time proving the return to the reticular nature of text: [...] sau, de ce nu, fa de torsiunea
sistemului de referin ce ncadreaz monada([...] or, why not, to the torsion of the system
of reference that frames the monad). The monad could be exemplified again with the help
of Stanescus reflections about the poet, the reader, poetry, profession: Poetul e de natur
profund monadic, dar el se adreseaz unei mari mase. n singurtatea, n unicitatea lui,
comunic, totui, cu nenumrate uniciti de natur monadic [...] Poezia are un caracter
revelatoriu i de natur monadic [....] Profesiunea este de natur monadic (The poet has
a profoundly monadic nature, but he addresses a large mass. In his loneliness, in his
uniqueness, he communicates, nevertheless, with countless uniquenesses of monadic nature
[...] Poetry has a revealing character, of monadic nature [....]Profession has a monadic
nature).
The monadic nature of matter revitalizes once again the metaphorical meaning: Fa
de un sistem de referin, n micare ... (To a system of reference, in motion), arguing
not for a primary meaning, connotative, but for a final, plenary one the being 12 meaning
or the metaphorical meaning, which implies the presence of poetry: [...] existndul modific
uluitor, pn la simultaneitatea13 cu sine infinitele existentului [...] (the being, world of the
abstractions, ideas existand - amazingly modifies, to simultaneity with itself, the infinites of
the world of objects existente- [...]) The variety of the meaning slides simultaneously with
the possible worlds, themselves of monadic nature, offered by the interpreters.14
By preserving the stylistic of the original gerund in the noun reality of the being (the
fact of being, the world of abstractions), the narrative instance wants to name the shapeless
universal mass the corporality of meaning, the matter that will name its man, poetry,
possible worlds, the time when self consciousness shows itself.
The present continuous of the verb to modify suggests the aesthetic emotion, the
wonder as emotion felt in the process of creation by its association with the absolute
superlative of the adverb amazing with the expression direct object+attribute: infinitele
existentului (the infinites of what exists), an infinite or creative art the ignores the matrix or
the track of matter.
The world of objects (existente) is vitrified in forma de ngheare (the shape for
freezing), and become the expression of the thought in images simultaneous with the
thought in notions, built on isotopies: Forma de ngheare vdindu-se numai n sens i
semnificat, amndou suprapuse i simultane i reprezentnd o dimensiune n afara creatului
i increatului, timpului i spaiului, existenei i existndului, materiei i antimateriei i n
12 ... close to interpretations made from the point of view of Heideggers work.
13 Simultaneity is the process of rendering transparent, trans-substantial. It is the simultaneity of the sign (the
word) with the anything and anytime.
14 In the textological analysis: Ii- Immediate Interpreter, Id- Dynamic Interpreter, If Final Interpreter.
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genere extrapolate oricrei forme antagonice sau contradictorii.(The shape for freezing
proving to be only in meaning and signified, both overlapping and simultaneous and
representing a dimension outside the created and uncreated, of time and space, of the
existence and the being, of matter and anti-matter and generally extrapolated to any
antagonist or contradictory form).
In fact, the creative consciousness discerns between real and truth, between what
exists in reality and in ideality (Hartmann, 1974). We notice that, through the so-called shape
for freezing, the essayist expresses not only the trichotomic relation meaning (referent)
signified (object) dimension outside the object or sign (interpreter), but, though this third
concept of the extrapolated dimension to any antagonism, he verifies the generosity of the
interpretative significance, the extrapolation of the textual meaning beyond the limits of the
text as linguistic sign. It is the context of the disembodiment of the translinguistic, of the
semiotic frame: significance and communication.
Through the capacity to visualize trans-visual realities, angelical worlds, to incorporate
the spirit into matter, the thought in images in the effect of the imaginal perception:
imaginatio vera. This is about a dimension outside the created and the creation, of time and
space. Revealing is the self alone.
The sign and the meaning are omnipresent and simultaneous, a statement justified by
corporality, the represented dimensions which are the metonymical expression in the
imposing the essay as sign. The transparency of the sign in relation to meaning was
anticipated in a different essay by a duplicated instance (Joachim-Thomas): Semnul e
singurul care este n afar. El este dezmbriarea cuvntului cu lucrul cuvntat (The sign
is the only one that is on the outside. It is the disentanglement of the word from the uttered
thing) (1990, FP / Scrisori de dragoste sau nserare de sear: 328).
The sign is on the outside, but the meaning is dynamic, oriented inwards: two
attitudes triggered by contemplation, by the essayistic mechanism of the disruption of
meaning perceived as the exciting je-ne-sais-quoi, a metaphor for the aesthetic emotion, a
pre-ethical phenomenon: Contemplarea prin semn este o form sublim a tuturor
simurilor (Contemplation through sign is a sublime form of all the senses).
The sublime form is tangent to possible universes or worlds: concrete (physical) vs.
logical (metaphysical) vs. metaphysical (anti-metaphysical), hence the imagery sensible
intelligible imaginal angelical. Ea este fora de izbitur [n.n. force de frappe] care pune
infinitul i mreia n funcie.(It is the blow force [force de frappe, our note] that sets the
infinite and greatness in function) through sign (symbol allegory paradox): flight or
anabasic flush vs. the cold of Golgotha vs. vitrification15 vs. to-be-an-angel. Naterea i
moartea sunt numai dou uleiuri de proast calitate care fac s scrneasc osia
timpului.(Birth and death are only two bad oils that make the axis of time squeak).
Art cancels the temporal restrictive. Hence, time interpreted as distance. A time and
a space that prefer geometrization, as an establishment of the palpable being: the sphere, the
line, the point. Because man has access to being through pasul trecerii (the step of
passing) [Blaga] towards time: this is the access to the totality of the being with the purpose
of achieving. [Ne imaginm textul] ca o structur galactic, apt s adposteasc sensul,
izvort din text i amplificat progresiv prin alchimia tuturor semnelor, verbale i neverbale,
osmotic relaionate n jocul de fiecare dat particular al actului concret de vorbire. i, cu
toate c textul i are propriile sale reguli (lingvistice i semiotice) de construcie, acestea nu
pot bloca mobilitatea i fluiditatea sensului, cci n dinamica acestuia este cuprins in
15 O, fii ndurtor i nu ne rupe, / n sfnta mna ta, / puin sticl colorat prin care / prinii notri mult
privit-au. (O, have mercy and do not break us,/ in your holy hand,/ a little colored glass through which/ our
parents have long looked) (Puin sticl colorat, din Belgradul n cinci prieteni)
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nascendi i un act creator. ([We imagine the text] as a galactic structure, able to host the
meaning, originated from the text and progressively amplified by the alchemy of all the signs,
verbal and non-verbal, which relate in an osmosis in the particular game of the concrete act
of speech. And, despite the fact that the text has its own rules (linguistic and semiotic) of
construction, these cannot block the mobility and fluidity of meaning, because in its dynamic
a creative act is incorpored in nascendi [highlight of the author]) (Vlad, 2000: 180).
Our interpretations on the essayistic textual meaning, equivalent to the metaphorical
meaning since the discourse under analysis is metapoetical, respected the order established by
the author. Stanescus essayistic voices direct the reading by (re)ordering the essays not
following a certain aesthetic of poetry, as the editor suggests 16 (an aesthetics ignored or, at
least, postponed for the moment, an idea that should be taken into account by the critics of
Nichita Stanescus poetry, for a postmodern criticism valid in the volume Noduri si semne),
but by the recognition of an anthropological criterion (duct) from the perspective of the
poetic logos: contemplation of man from the outside.
By closely following the authors scenic cues, we suggest the following reading grid
(especially for Fiziologia poeziei, Antimetafizica, Razgandiri.): Contemplarea lumii din afara
ei; Rasu plansu (Vremea calatoriilor; Subiectivisme de epoca; Scrisori de dragoste);
Cuvintele si necuvintele; Nasterea si devenirea artei poetice (from Antimetafizica); Nevoia de
arta; Razgandiri.
While maintaining the option for the real proposed by the author, following the
reading the essays and, of course, accepting their discursive composition, we noticed that the
isotopies, lexical sequences corresponding to the ideatic-essays networks (literary ideas), are
contained (expressed) through a criterion and pretext and then generated through lexical fields
developed as arguments of the essayistic experiment. The essayistic conclusion proclaims
the concept given for the foundation of the (aesthetic) truths about poetry, the subject and the
theme of Stanescus essays The essayistic epilogue is the one that maintains logica
labirintic a sensului textual (the labyrinthic logic of the textual meaning) (see Vlad); it is
Ariadnes thread to be followed in the readers odyssey through the Dedalus-like labyrinth of
the poetical essays.
The textological analysis reveals the contemplative mechanism undergone in the
interior of Stanescus essayistic discourse, as the uleiul ce pune n micare osia timpului
(the oil that moves the axis of time) ...returned to the matrix of feelings. Eseurile sunt
dialogurile cu tine, cititorule.... (The essays are the dialogues with you, reader)
(speaks to us above time, the histrionic Nichita). Contemplation of the poet and of poetry
from the outside. How to become friends with the poet if you do not come from outside him,
if you do not feed on his work?... Fiecare om spune despre sine nsui Eu. Acesta este un
miracol care refuz definiia! (Every man says about himself I. This is a miracle refusing to
be defined!) Or: Eu sunt numele meu. (I am my name) (1990, FP / Ce este omul pentru
marieni? : 68).
The essayists option for the real is made by the hypostases/ behavior of the poet:
Exist un amestec ciudat de forte n fiina lui Nichita Stnescu: un respect aproape religios
pentru poezie i o supunere aproape cinic fa de real. [...] Nichita Stnescu reprezint un
mod specific de a fi poet n lumea noastr. E greu s-i afli un model n literatura anterioar.
" (There is a strange mixture of forces in Nichita Stanescus being: an almost religious
respect for poetry and an almost cynical obedience to the real. [...] Nichita Stanescus is a
specific way of being a poet in our world. It is difficult to find a model in previous literature)
16 Al. Condeescu makes a suggestion to a possible (real, states the editor, a friend of the writer) conversation
with the poet, meant to set the order of the essayistic matter from the volume we set as applicative support of our
research:: Fiziologia poezie (The Physiology of Poetry)..
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(Simion, Sfidarea retoricii, 1985: 103) ... Eu sunt mormntul vostru, eu sunt..., eu! (I am
your grave, I am, I!) Nichita Stnescu a strpuns lumea fenomenal pn la
nominosum (eu esenial iradiant) (Nichita Stanescu has pierced the phenomenal world and
reached the nominosum (essential radiant self)) (Braga: 1993: 29).
Bibliography
Stnescu, Nichita, 1990, Fiziologia poeziei, edition curated by Al Condeescu, Cartea
Romaneasca, Bucuresti.
Stnescu, Nichita, 1985, Rzgndiri, unpublished essays, in Secolul XX. Revist de
sintez, edited by the Writers Union in the Socialist Republic of Romania, no. 289-290-291,
Bucuresti, pp. 188-198.
Barthes, Roland, 1973; 1994, Plcerea textului, translation into Romanian by Marian
Papahagi, preface by Ion Pop, Echinox, Cluj-Napoca.
Braga, Corin, 1993, Nichita Stanescu. Orizontul imaginar, Imago, Sibiu.
Chiorean, Luminia, 2006, Arhitectura eseului poetic stanescian, Petru Maior
University Press, Tirgu Mures.
Dimitriu, Daniel, 1997, Nichita Stanescu. Geneza poemului, Alexandru Ioan Cuza
University Press, Iasi.
Hartmann, Nicolai, 1966; 1974, Estetica, translation by Constantin Floru; foreword by
Alexandru Boboc, Univers, Bucureti.
Ricur, Paul, 1975; 1984, Metafora vie, translation by Irina Mavrodin, Univers,
Bucuresti.
Simion, Eugen, 1985, Sfidarea retoricii. Jurnal german, Cartea Romneasc,
Bucuresti.
Vlad, Carmen, 2000, Textul aisberg, Casa Crii de tiin, Cluj-Napoca.
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ARGHEZI BETWEEN RUG AND RUGCIUNE (PRAYER)

Mina-Maria RUSU
Apollonia University of Iai
Abstract: Arghezi fluctuates between veneration and denying the divinity. Psalms are known
for revealing these experiences. We aimed to study the relationship between man and divinity
within the poems that have things in common with pray or which are requests addressed to
the divinity. The poet distinguishes between sacrifice and sacrilege, postures attributed for
sacred and profane, providing adequate conditions for the eschatological myth. The
Arghezian world is a mixture of pure and impure, fascination and horror, interdiction and
transgression, characterized by the eternal seekings and doubts.
Keywords: cry, pray, numinous, eschatological myth, tragic sense.
Opinii contradictorii despre opera arghezian contureaz, dintr-o anume perspectiv,
personalitatea artistic ce va domina autoritar poezia veacului posteminescian. n 1923,
Lovinescu l definea printr-o constant a sufletului su: acel suflet faustian n care se ciocnesc
principiile contradictorii ale omului modern1. Antitezele i gsesc echilibrul n boala
pentru care, resemnat, poetul declar: mi caut leacul/ i la Dumezeu i la Dracul. Lui erban
Cioculescu, fiina arghezian i se arat ntr-o permanent pendulare ntre angelism i
demonism, spiritualitate i materialitate, puritate i abjecie, umilin i trufie, mpcare i
rzvrtire, gingie i vigoare, suavitate i asprime, rafinament i stngcie2. n acest
context, poezia devine, pentru el, o cale de ieire din sine, un loc geometric al ek-stazei, unde
ntlnirile cu Dumnezeu par a fi unic el existenial. De aceea, ntre tragic i sublim, deseori
apare semnul egalitii, fie c suferina nesfritelor cutri provoac dezndejdea eecului,
fie c lumea suprem, cereasc, este reper al lui Dumnezeu.
n anul 1914, o Rugciune, singura, de altfel, din lirica arghezian, evoc momentul
crerii omului, cnd pcatul originar pare imprimat genetic de Dumnezeu creaturii sale.
Cutezana interogaiilor se nate din contiina limitei i mai ales din sentimentul tragic al
morii; poetul nu-i mulumete Tatlui c l-a zmislit, ci-i reproeaz imperfeciunea
umanului. Dumnezeu devine motivul impasului arghezian3: De ce strnii rna i viu m-ai
zmislit,/ Dac-nceputului i-ai dat sfrit/ De mai-nainte de-a fi i-nceput?/ De cnd te-ai
murdrit pe degete de lut/ Vremelnic i plpnd tu m-ai fcut/ Poi cere o durat
aceluia-njghebat/ Din tin, trup i suflet cu scuipat? (s.n.) (Rugciune) n fapt, rugciunea
are n subtext evidente accente de blestem. Tonul este protestatar, iar textul evoc o
cosmogonie al crei autor a dovedit att lips de inspiraie, ct i amatorism: Tu ai rmas de-a
pururi i viaa noastr piere./ Te mulumeti cu-atta mngiere/ C singur, ntre neguri, eti
venic; sorocit/ Prin mrturia celor ce-au murit.(s.n.) Aici, Dumnezeu are veleiti satanice,
departe de lumina i viaa venic ale raiului cretin. Trim senzaia haosului primordial, pe
care divinitatea se complace s-l administreze, incapabil de a-l cosmiciza sau mcar de a-i
face retuuri. n acelai timp, ura creaturii izbucnete, ca soluie ultim, n faa celui a crui
ndurare n-a putut-o cuceri, cci milostenia pare a lipsi dintre atributele Atotputernicului.
Lovinescu, E., Istoria literaturii romne contemporane, vol. I, II, III, Ed. Minerva, Bucureti, 1981
Cioculescu,erban, Aspecte literare contemporane, Ed.Eminescu, Bucureti, 1974
3
Ciopraga, Constantin, Amfiteatru cu poei, Ed. Junimea, Iai,1995
1
2
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Alte dou texte se numesc simbolic rug, iar nu rugciune, poetul fcnd distincie
ntre aceste moduri de adresare. Alte dou texte poetice - Rug de sear i Rug de vecernie se constituie n confesiuni, din care transpar frmntrile unui suflet chinuit de cutri ce
urmresc atingerea absolutului. Le-am numi, mai curnd, spovedanii care trdeaz fie
sentimentul culpei, fie al prea-plinului sufletesc, ori al revoltei mpotriva propriilor limite, sau
chiar al aspiraiei spre o schimbare de stare, de la materia trectoare, la spiritul peren.
Identificm astfel o acutizare a contiinei tragice i un elan modelator al unei condiii noi,
virtuale, ataate celei divine, transcendente. n Rug de vecernie, aceast nou stare de destin
este trit chiar, ca i cum simpla ei imaginare ar fi trecut n materialitatea universului real;
poetul se crede cnd sfntul palid, sfrit i blnd pe cruce, cnd biciul ce-l izbete i-l
snger-n obraz, n care, un spirit nou, captiv, recuperat dintr-o potec a humii i tutelat de o
stea mai nou, capt virtui sacre.
Noua ipostaz, aceea a eroului din suflet, conduce spre o personalitate n care vocaia
sacrificiului biruie condiia uman, transgresnd astfel limitele i integrndu-se ntr-un univers
dezmrginit: i voia mea de bine, frumos i adevr,/ ngduie s-i ie i-acolo-n gnduri
jugul./ Simindu-mi spinii frunii ieind cu spini prin pr,/ Sunt cel dinti porunca s-o dau:
Aprindei rugul/ Ca sfntul n cenu subt ochii mei s piar,/Ca dreptul s-i strecoare-n
urechea mea scrnirea/ nmormntat n lemne i-nvluit n par!/ i-n mine bate-n palme,
micat, omenirea. Finalul patetic, copleit de interogaii, conserv imaginea unui solilocviu
n care poetul, convertit la venicie prin creaie, cere imperativ divinitii pacea i rbdarea
care s-i deschid universul ascuns al omenirii. Dou verbe exprim singurele aciuni pe care
ar vrea s le conjuge la viitor - a cuta i a cnta - a cror complementaritate evoc dou
tipuri de existen: una zbuciumat, omeneasc, ntr-un perpetuum mobile (a cuta) i alta
armonioas, linitit i divin (a cnta).
Continund ideea unei existene creatoare, Rug de sear o surprinde cnd pustiit de
un timp trector, cnd populat de crncene reprouri, cere Infinitului slava de milligram/ De
praf suflat n univers. Sesizm astfel grefarea structurilor sacre ale unui Dumnezeu
impersonal pe dimensiunea absolut a timpului - Infinitul. Obsedat de curgerea-i ireversibil
i activnd nostalgia timpului paradisiac, se dorete recuperarea lui, de data aceasta prin
bunvoina forelor demonice: Demonic infinit!/ Descinde-n mine cum descend/
Tenebrele-ntr-un schit,/ n care sunete se-ntind/ Dintr-o cupol spre zenit,/ Stropit-n cretet
cu argint. Monorima creeaz un stil incantatoriu, ca ntr-un descntec, deschiznd drumul
spre magic. nvestirea cu puteri sacre se va petrece la nivelul cuvntului. Astfel Logosul divin
alienat i recapt vigoarea originar, care ar putea re-crea Lumea cu o alt fa, limpede i
blnd. Textul poate fi o ars poetica, prin care Arghezi i declar inteniile i, mistuit de har,
se leapd de trup, spre a-i instala spiritul n venicul mit al cosmogoniei: i
m-nghite-ntreg, n haos,/ Umil, senin i mulumit/ C las n urma mea repaos,/ i-o foaie
nou de adios/ La cartea vecinicului mit,/ n care visul mi-i strivit/ Ca un vlstar de mrgrit.
n viziunea lui, cosmogonia apare ca un produs hibrid al magicului i religiosului. Cei doi orbi
par a fi miticii creatori ai lumii, Frtate i Nefrtate, deposedai ns de har, situai la un hotar,
nentrerupt margine de gol,/ ntre lumin i-ntre rdcin. Prezena fiului lui Dumnezeu
devine salvatoare prin gest i cuvnt: Isus ntinde mna, i/ S-a luminat lumea de zi. i aici,
ruga se convertete n miracol, conducnd, inevitabil, spre sentimentul certitudinii n legtur
cu existena transcendentului. Oricnd, cei doi o pot transforma n secven de rugciune, cci
prin ea, umilina neajutoratului i ncrederea oarb c i se va mplini cererea determin
intrarea n dialog cu divinitatea.
Dei numai o poezie poart titlul de Rugciune, n opera arghezian sunt i alte texte
care se ncadreaz n canoanele genului confesiv. Spre exemplu, volumul izvort n urma
experienei din nchisoare, Flori de mucigai, cuprinde secvene de rugciune nscute la limita
puterii omeneti de a suferi. Dumnezeu este un sprijin moral al condamnailor, for tutelar a
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sufletului care, treptat, se desprinde de un trup din ce n ce mai bolnav nzuind s urce la
ceruri. Milostenia divin coboar n celule, iertnd greeli i alinnd suferinele fizice i
morale ale unor oameni a cror zbatere ntre via i moarte devine un mod de a tri. Prezena
divin genereaz miracole, solilocviile iau locul spovedaniei pctosului cu fruntea plecat,
care, prin pocin, se elibereaz de tarele profanului i accede la sacru. Exacerbarea
tragismului existenial, neputina omului n raport cu omnipotena divin i ideea destinului
nendurtor al celor din temni nu le umbresc rugciunea, ci, dimpotriv, o transform ntr-un
solilocviu disperat: E de lege cretin./ Se nchin./ E smerit, bate metanii,/ D acatiste, face
sfetanii,/ Liturghii i srindare./ Plnge la icoana mare. (Candori) Deloc ntmpltor,
Arghezi simte nevoia unei constatri ce deschide sensurile metaforice ale rugciunii; el vede
un deinut rugndu-se i prin acest gest, singurul care i-a mai rmas de fcut ntre zidurile
nchisorii, pcatele i se spulber: i-i nevinovat ca un trandafir/ n odjdii de serasir
(Candori) Cu rolul ei purificator, rugciunea e calea pocinei, urmat de accesul la sacru. n
opera lui Arghezi, acest gen de adresare ctre divinitate apare, de obicei, interiorizat
profund, iar Dumnezeu se comunic blnd, inefabil celui care l invoc4. n acelai sens,
Cntecul Mut e un adagio la Candori. Adoptnd un ton descriptiv n detalii aproape
naturaliste, dublat de naraiune, poemul este, de fapt, un text moralizator, al crui mesaj
servete ideea c Dumnezeu este cel care mpac i iart pe acela care, asemeni lui Iisus,
sufer. E un fel de reiterare a mitului Mntuitorului, adus la scar strict uman, lipsit ns de
nimbul altruistului erou biblic. Se pare c celula nchisorii devine loc n care profanul, n
aspectele sale degenerate, prin suferina omului, devine sacru. Tot aici, Dumnezeu coboar ca
ntr-un adevrat altar, urmat de alaiul divin, Cu toiag, cu ngeri i sfini, iar n celul se
desfoar un ritual, prin care sufletul pctosului iertat urc la ceruri: Doi ngeri au adus o
carte/ Cu copcile sparte,/ Doi o icoan,/ Doi o crm, doi o coroan. Muribundul vorbete cu
prezenele divine, pregtindu-i marea cltorie spre patria cereasc: Scara din
Cereasca-mprie/ Scoboar n infirmerie,/ Pe trepte de cletar,/ Peste patul lui de tlhar.
Efectul este uluitor, cci: Zbrelele s-au ndopat cu faguri de cer,/ i-au atrnat candele de
stele/ Printre ele./ Ferestrele nchise/ S-au acoperit cu ripide i antimise/ i odaia cu mucigai/
A mirosit toat noaptea a rai. Asistm la transgresarea hotarelor sacrului prin convertirea
ntunericului n lumin i a materiei n spirit. Dimineaa, miracolul nocturn se destram,
lsnd trupul fr suflet. Constatarea provoac aceeai ntrebare: unde e Dumnezeu?- cel care
rostuiete drumul sufletelor spre rai.
n Morii, ideea este argumentat cu imaginea unei diviniti distanate de omenire,
mprind dreptatea i pedepsind greeala: Pe la aprinsul stelelor de cear,/ Mai trecei o
dat/ La judecat. Grotescul domin Florile de mucigai att prin eveniment, ct i prin
chipurile celor ce populeaz universul deczut, sumbru; aplecarea ctre umanitatea degradat
fizic i moral - rebut al Creaiei dinti - cu mutilai al cror chip diform evoc haosul, induce
ideea unui mit eshatologic, pe care, n lirica arghezian l descoper alturi de mitul
cosmogonic. Se pare c autorul este convins c sacrificiul nseamn facerea de sacru i de
aceea o poezie ca Sfntul aduce n prim-plan fiina fragil, jucrie de lut pe care Creatorul a
uitat s-o nnobileze cu un chip omenesc. Doar sufletul nchis ntr-o carapace de hum
contorsionat de chinuri este liber, plutind, asemeni lui Iisus, pe deasupra apelor i evocnd
increatul i nimbul su sacru, activat prin Facere: Auzi-l, trece. Gtlejurile sale/ Trgneaz
geamtul agale./ n glasul lui de mut/ Bombne Cuvntul dintru nceput/ Ce se purta chior
pe ape. (s.n.) Paradoxul survine imediat, activnd sentimentul tragic al vieii omeneti,
perisabile: O musc-i suge lacrima din pleoape. (s.n.)
Continund obsesiv sondarea
condiiei umane, n care sacrul n stare latent este umbrit de un timp incompatibil, Ceasul
de-apoi surprinde treptele Marii Treceri i poart n sine ideea de moarte. Admirabil, poetul
4
C. V. Diaconescu, art. Creaia literar de inspiraie cretin ortodox, n Studii teologice, 1992, p.129
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asociaz epitetul-metafor valorilor timpului; celui cosmic, etern, i se atribuie ora de bronz i
de fier, cu sonoriti grave, n care se regsesc ecourile timpului primordial. n ansamblu,
poezia pare un joc n care mutnd abil, n chenarul timpului, cuvintele or, ceas, vreme omul
ncearc s evite condiia-i tragic. i totui, glasul orei de praf - expresie a neierttorului
timp cronologic - prbuete speranele ntr-o constatare tragic: Azi-noapte, sor,/ N-a mai
btut nici o or. Asistm la instalarea trziului ca expresie a epifaniei refuzate5. Dei n
subtext transpare rugciunea, glasul nu o rostete; discreia se manifest aici nu ca un semn al
slbiciunii omeneti n faa transcendentului, ci ca un protest pentru condiia tragic a
creaturii, creia Creatorul i nchide porile timpului etern. Undeva, ntr-un simbolic
solilocviu, exilat ntr-o oaz de linite, creatura devenit Creator constat: Trudim o via,
Doamne, ca s ajungem firea/ i ea dintr-o povar i-un chin i face joc/ De frumusei
gingae, smerindu-ne grdina./ []/ Ce-i munc i osnd la ea e-nchipuire/ Din basm n
basm i-arunc funinginea de aur/ i-acelai grai d moarte i d i nemurire. (Aleluia) i
totui, se pare c scnteia divin a cobort n creaie, cci fugi spre piscuri goal i vie,
dndu-i celui ce-a zmislit-o sentimentul c el nsui a cucerit astfel eternitatea celest, unde
se afl slaul celui fr vrst, fr rm, fr vam. (A venit) Foarte trziu, spre apusul
poetului, Ghiersul ngnat e o rugciune n care pcatele mrturisite se spulber, iar
concluzia e relevant pentru relaia lui cu Dumnezeu: Obinuit cu pasul, i-l atept/ Cu
minile unite-a smerenie, la piept./ Un jil n dreptul rafturilor pline/ St pregtit, nluc,
pentru tine./ Vream s-i srut odat opinca de lumin,/ Dar, ca i mine, nu tii ce-i tihn i
hodin.
tiina de a muri nruie vecia, fr ca vreo rugciune s-o poat salva. Pmntului,
Arghezi i descoper virtuile sacre, pe care, reevalundu-i-le poetic, i le transform n
dimensiune dominant. n acest sens, poezia Sfntule este textul liric declarativ ce nsumeaz
argumentele sacralitii teluricului. Abia acum dup negri i interogaii chinuitoare, dup
dialoguri cu divinitatea antropomorfizat - ntotdeauna euate - el triete satisfacia creat de
revelaia ateptat nc din psalmul n care exclama revoltat i dezndjduit: Vreau s te pipi
i s urlu: Este!. Pentru el, numai sacrul palpabil are valoare, deoarece, trebuie s
recunoatem, ne aflm n faa unei creaturi cu vocaii uzurpatoare, fiu mult prea independent
al Tatlui ceresc, fiina n care nsui harul divin revrsat cu prea mult generozitate provoac
o detaare aproape absolut fa de fora suprem. Arghezi ia pe cont propriu cosmicizarea
lumii. Facerea este reiterat contient, ntr-un ir de schie succesive finalizate ntr-un
monument concret nchinat sacrului: Lumea-cuvnt. Fie i numai pentru att, poezia Sfntule
merit citat n ntregime, cci nsui vocativul din titlu nu are sensul reprourilor i al
interogaiilor cuteztoare din Psalmi, ci reprezint o rugciune ntr-un singur cuvnt, limpede
i sincer, mrturisind copleitorul sentiment al descendeei Fiului din Mama-Natur, al
consubstanialitii. Comuniune i subordonare linitit, i mai ales certitudinea eternitii
fiinei umane, iat doar cteva vibraii sufleteti ce se degaj din acest solilocviu tulburtor:
De cte vremuri i-l tot ii nchis/ Nu tiu ce ai via, vis,/ Bine, ru,/ n strnsul pumnului
tu?/ ii n mn fum, cenue, foc?/ i-am descntat-o ca pe un ghioc,/ Sfntule,/ Pmntule.
(s.n.)/ Nici cntecul, nici ruga n-au descremenit/ Zaua de granit./ N-au dezlipit detele/ Nici
dlile, nici cletele./ Tu eti, oare, Sfinxul din poveste/ Care tie ce este i ce nu este,/
Dincolo de liter i pravil,/ Negur, namil?/ Umbl omul, vntul i fiarele/ S te rcie cu
ghearele,/ Vii./ Nici nu simi, nici nu tii. O constatare n aceeai linie se ntrevede n
Brganul. De ast dat, poetul atribuie pmntului calitile pe care le are Dumnezeu n
raport cu omul, dup svrirea pcatului originar: Dai tuturor cu jurmnt/ Un petic de
brazd i-o groap./ Dup ce le-ai dat pine i ap/ Li le iei napoi/ i-i hrneti buruian
Cf. Crohmlniceanu, Ovid S., Literatura romn ntre cele dou rzboaie mondiale, Ed. Minerva, Bucureti,
1974, p.36
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poas i pepenii goi/ ndoit,/ Cu mzg trit i suflet dospit. (s.n.) Admirabil, ultimul vers
definete metaforic condiia tragic a fiinei umane iar constatrile continu ca argumente ale
acesteia: n sufletul tu sufletele lor,/ Ale tuturor. /[]/ Dintr-o vi, a rmas curat/ O
batist ptrat. Finalul poemului propune o inedit imagine material a timpului profan care
trece n timp sacru, printr-o adecvare la eternitate; momentul apare ca o dematerializare: Cnd
nu mai are timpul nici trup, nici os. (s.n.) Fascinaia timpului sacru, trit ntre rug i
rugciune pare a fi pus stpnire pe fiina omului, dndu-i credina c viaa pmnteasc e o
goan care are drept scop debarasarea de urmrirea ucigtoare de ctre Cronos. Viaa capt
astfel sensul luptei cu acesta i este obiect de disput ntre zei i Dumnezeu. Timpul,
msurabil ca valoare profan i infinit ca dimensiune a sacrului, devine obsesie a creaturii
angajate n actul transgresrii propriilor limite. De aceea, sentimentul c axa timpului are un
ieri i un mine dispare; omul se sustrage clipei profane nlocuind-o cu o valoare psihologic
n care aceasta, prin dilatare, poate dobndi configuraia eternitii: Ziua de ieri s-a inut dup
mine/ / []/ i la o rspntie cu statui/ S-a ntors, vznd c nu-i./ S-a pierdut neputincioas
i pribeag/ Dup ce vremea ntreag/ M-a urmat, pas cu pas, pn azi/ La amiazi.(O zi)
Concluzia este, de fapt, un avertisment i o chemare a omului la a-i depi propria-i
condiie: Cine i-a pierdut o zi ct o via/ S-o caute repede. Se nnopteaz. Se las cea.
(s.n.) (O zi) Distingnd ntre sacrificiu i sacrilegiu, poetul le atribuie subtil sacrului i
profanului, compunnd o lume n care pur i impur, fascinaie i groaz, interdicie i
transgresare coexist ireconciliabil, oferind prilej de eterne cutri i ndoieli. El nsui, robit
de sacrul din transcontient dorete s-l releve n sfera contiinei prin identificarea
elementului numinos6 din lumea profan.
Bibliografie:
Arghezi, Tudor, Scrieri I XXIV, E.P.L., Bucureti, (1962-1974)
Cioculescu, erban, Aspecte literare contemporane, Ed.Eminescu, Bucureti, 1974
Ciopraga, Constantin, Amfiteatru cu poei, Ed. Junimea, Iai,1995
Crohmlniceanu, Ovid S., Literatura romn ntre cele dou rzboaie mondiale, Ed.
Minerva, Bucureti, 1974
Diaconescu, C. V., art. Creaia literar de inspiraie cretin ortodox, n Studii
teologice, 1992
Lovinescu, E., Istoria literaturii romne contemporane, vol. I, II, III, Ed. Minerva,
Bucureti, 1981
Otto, Rudolf, Sacrul, Ed. Dacia, Cluj, 1996
Otto, Rudolf, Despre numinos, Ed. Dacia, Cluj, 1996
Cf, Rudolf Otto, Despre numinos, Ed. Dacia, Cluj, 1996
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SEDUCTION AND SEDUCERS IN CAMIL PETRESCU'S WORK

Florica FAUR
Western University Vasile Goldi, Arad
Abstract: The world history is rich in tales of seducers and seduced. Among them we can
consider Camil Petrescu's male and femalecharacters: tefan Gheorghidiu, Ela,
Fred Vasilescu,Mrs. T., George-Demetru Ladima Andrei Pietraru,
Ioana Boiu, Gelu Ruscanu,Maria Sineti, Alta, Pietro Gralla. To seduce is an art that needs
to be learned. Sometimes men fail because they minimize themeaning of seduction or because
they don't master this art. Others are afraid not to become the slaves of the worshiped
woman, even if being a slave sometimes means to master.
Keywords: seduction, characters, seduced
Dar poate fi dragostea o mare bucurie dac nu exist din partea unuia dintre cei doi
abandonul absolut? (Soren Kierkegaard - Jurnalul Seductorului)
n teoriile freudiene, momentele de seducie sunt rezultatul unor construcii
fantasmagorice prin care individul disimuleaz autoerotismul primilor ani de via, n timp ce
amintirea este realitatea psihic generatoare de fantasme i care transcende acest automatism,
amintirea nu are doar rolul de a conserva, ci i de a spori; orice lucru ptruns de amintire are
asupra noastr efect dublat.1 Seducia privete latura ludic att a subiectului (seductorul),
ct i a obiectului (cel sedus).
Istoria lumii este bogat n poveti despre seductori i sedui. Lucrurile par s nu fie
att de simple dac ne gndim la interrelaionarea elementelor implicate n aceast ecuaie. n
cosmogonia antic, elementele vitale se seduc reciproc, chiar i marii profei i ctig adepii
printr-o form seducie: S nu credei c am venit s stric Legea sau Prorocii; am venit nu s
stric, ci s mplinesc (Matei 5:17). Marii seductori nu viseaz forma brut, ci abia schiat,
virtual aproape, Exista seducie prin semne vide, ilizibile, insolubile, arbitrare, fortuite,
()2, spune Baudrillard, i tot el lmurete: Zei i oameni nu sunt separai de prpastia
moral a religiei: ei nu nceteaz s se seduc reciproc, pe aceste raporturi de seducie, de joc,
ntemeindu-se echilibrul simbolic al lumii3. Aici se afl dinamismul vieii, fora ei. Ceea ce
seduce i fascineaz natura uman trebuie s se defineasc n mod necesar ca o ntlnire ntre
tine i cellalt care nu trebuie ratat.
Iubirea este fragmentat n opera lui Camil Petrescu, nu exist iubire ideal, ea se
petrece secvenial, ca ntr-un vis. Capitolul seduciei este repede traversat, eroii masculini sar
etape, nu fac eforturi mari pentru a-i cuceri iubita, doar cu mici excepii, dar tot pentru a-i
demonstra siei fora.
Verbul a seduce, provenit din latinescul seducere nseamn a incita, a captiva, a
subjuga, a cuceri prin farmecul vorbelor, prin purtare etc., referindu-se strict la brbai, mai
nseamn a abuza de buna-credin a unei femei, ademenind-o i determinnd-o s ntrein
relaii sexuale, cu promisiuni neltoare; a ademeni; a nela; a amgi 4, a aduce de partea
Soren Kierkegaard, Jurnalul seductorului, Editura Scripta, Bucureti, 1992, p. 49.
Jean Baudrillard, Cellalt prin sine nsui, Trad. de Ciprian Mihali, Casa Crii de tiin, Cluj Napoca, 1997,
p. 55.
3
Idem, op. cit., p. 45.
4
Conform DEX, Academia Romn Institutul de Lingvistic Iorgu Iordan, Ediia a II-a, Editura Univers
Enciclopedic, Bucureti, 1998, p. 970.
1
2
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ta, cum a interpretat Gabriel Liiceanu5, cu alte cuvinte de a-l nrobi pe cellalt, numai i
numai n vederea educrii lui n spaiul libertii i al eliberrii lui finale 6, sau de a-l supune
silnic i atunci libertatea unuia se va cldi pe subjugarea celuilalt. Oricum ar fi, din
perspectiva brbatului, seducia este o manifestare a forei prin care i atrage de partea sa
persoana dorit, din motivele artate. Aadar, seducia se poate produce spre binele celui
sedus sau spre binele seductorului, acesta mplinindu-i nevoia de adulare a ego-ului
propriu. Idealul ar fi altul, formulat de controversatul Henry Miller n Sexus: A fi n stare s
te druieti n ntregime, fr nici o reinere, e cea mai mare bucurie pe care i-o poate ngdui
viaa. Iubirea adevrat ncepe de la acest punct de disoluie. Viaa personal se ntemeiaz pe
dependen, pe dependena reciproc7.
Aadar, secretul seduciei const n disoluie, n descompunerea unuia n cellalt.
Acest lucru nu se poate ntmpla atta timp ct seductorul i concentraz atenia doar pe
tririle sale i pentru care O iubire mare e mai curnd un proces de autosugestie8
n aceast situaie a seductorului egotist se afl tefan Gheorghidiu n relaia sa cu
Ela. Jocul su de cuceritor se ntemeiaz pe dorina de a fi destinatarul unei pasiuni care vine
din partea unei femei ndrgostite chiar nainte de a-l cunoate, pentru c Ela are toate
coordonatele unei astfel de femei, deschise iubirii. Cu ochii mari, albatri, vii ca nite
ntrebri de cletar, cu neastmprul trupului tnr, cu gura necontenit umed i fraged, cu o
inteligen care irumpea, izvort tot att de mult din inim ct de sub frunte, era, de altfel, un
spectacol minunat. Izbutea s fie adorat de camarazi, biei i fete deopotriv, cci
nfrumusea toat viaa studeneasc9. Ea, probabil, l viseaz pe tefan nc nainte de a-l
cunoate asemenea ndrgostiilor eterni. Idealul ei de iubire este format deja atunci cnd l
ntlnete. Pe el nu-l atrage o astfel de femeie, ci l atrag femeile brune, care () tulburau
prin voluptatea cu care mbiau pe oricine, n treact ()10. Percepia i se modific atunci
cnd devine el nsui inta voluptii femeii: femeia aceasta ncepuse s-mi fie scump
tocmai pentru bucuria pe care eu i-o ddeam, fcndu-m s cunosc plcerea neasemnat de
a fi dorit i de a fi eu nsumi cauz de voluptate11. Ela are nevoie s fie iubit pentru c nu-i
ajunge siei, cum ar spune Kierkegaard: O fat nu devine interesant dect n relaiile ei cu
ali brbai. Dei femeia aparine sexului slab, n tineree, mai mult dect brbaii, ea trebuie
s-i poat fi siei suficient () 12. Aadar, ea i se abandoneaz lui pentru a se descoperi pe
sine, este o aducere de-o parte voit, consimit. tefan o seduce pe Ela prin estetic pentru a
ajunge la etic. Ela rmne n estetic, pe cnd tefan merge mai departe, depete stadiul
frumuseii i tinde spre stadiul filosofiei. Ela i strig iubirea, tefan o ascunde: Pe cnd
eu cutam s ascund oarecum dragostea noastr, ea inea s-o afieze cu ostentaie, cu mndrie;
nct, dei nu-mi plcea, ncepusem totui s fiu mgulit de admiraia pe care o avea mai toat
lumea pentru mine, fiindc eram att de ptima iubit de una dintre cele mai frumoase
studente, i cred c acest orgoliu a constituit baza viitoarei mele iubiri13.
Dup ndrgostire, el vrea o csnicie n care femeia s se consume ncet i s-l
absoarb cu filosofia lui pentru a deveni ea nsi absorbit. Lecia de filozofie din pat este
o mostr a acestei evoluii. El tie nc de la nceput unde vrea s ajung, dar Ela nu se las
dus: Ufi filosofia asta!, spune ea ca i cum acesta este obstacolul mplinirii ei. Patul,
Gabriel Liiceanu, Despre seducie, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 2010, p. 13.
Idem, p.12.
7
Henry Miller, Sexus, Editura Polirom, Iai, 2010, p. 251.
8
C. Petrescu, Ultima noapte, op. cit., p. 46.
9
C. Petrescu, Ultima noapte, op. cit., p. 50.
10
Idem, p. 49.
11
Ibidem.
12
Soren Kierkegaard, op. cit., p. 45.
13
C. Petrescu, op. cit., p. 49.
5
6
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este un pat al lui Procust unde Ela este ntins peste puterile ei de nelegere a lumii, de
unde sper s primeasc totui libertatea. nc de la nceput, ea are puritatea unei Ofelii sau a
Julietei, nu vrea dect s fie iubit, nu teoretizeaz jocul seduciei. Se las n braele
brbatului, ncredinndu-i-se naiv i neputincioas. Opune nc rezisten - revenind la
Kierkegaard - dar nu rezistena ca gest gndit, ci rezistena obinuit a feminitii. Cci natura
feminin e un abandon sub form de rezisten14. ntlnirea Elei cu seductorul profesionist, Grigoriade, care cunoate bine natura feminin, o face s simt experiena
seduciei ca un obiect sub bagheta magicianului, vrjit i abstras de la realitatea etic, care o
face s se abandoneze jocului: n dragoste interesul crete cu ct te abandonezi mai mult 15.
tefan ncearc aducerea ei pe trmul su, dar nu pentru a-i reda libertatea, ci pentru a se
desvri pe sine. El o urmrete mereu ca pe o prad, i atunci cnd ea ncepe s-i ias din
tipare. Iubirea care se prefigureaz este o povar pentru c ea presupune dou viei ntr-una
singur, purtat pe umeri de cel care seduce. Seducia lui Gheorghidiu eueaz, fundamentul
dragostei lui nu este solid pentru c i acord prea mult timp siei n detrimentul celuilalt. El
se problematizeaz n permanen, ea iubete n permanen. Cnd simte c nu o poate stpni
pe deplin, el seduce i alte femei, are nevoie de confirmri, ncearc s scape de dominaia
uneia singure. n momentul ntlnirii la chiocul de ziare, Ela are o singur curiozitate: Ai
mai sedus pe cineva?16
tefan Gheorghidiu se alint adesea n durerea lui i ignor durerea pe care i-o
provoac femeii. Observ c ea e marcat de comportamentul su fa de alte femei, dar
privete acest lucru ca pe un dat firesc: Cnd am trecut din nou, napoi, sta pe un scaun ca i
cnd era frnt de mijloc, privindu-ne cu ochi ndurerai. ndura parc o suferin peste
puterile ei. Nu mai voia, se vede, nici s-o ascund, cci totul i era indiferent acum. A fost o
mare bucurie care m-a iluminat nuntru ca un soare17. Dovedete cruzimea omului simplu i
nu elegana aristocratic a cuceritorului, cum ar spune Octavio Paz: Curtoazia nu este la
ndemna oricui, este o ntreag tiin i o practic. Este privilegiul a ceea ce am putea numi o
aristocraie a inimii. Nu una a sngelui i a privilegiilor motenirii, ci bazat peanumite daruri
ale spiritului. Dei aceste daruri snt nnscute, pentru a ajunge s se exprime i s devin o a
doua natur, adeptul trebuie s-i cultive mintea i simurile, s nvee s simt,s vorbeasc
i, n anumite momente, s tac. Curtoazia este o coal a sensibilitii i a dezinteresului18.
Fr a avea talente literare, el povestete mprumutnd din pasiunea nevestei, cnd pasional,
cnd misogin i blazat.
n cuplul Doamna T. Fred Vasilescu, seducia se joac asemenea unei piese de
teatru. Fred regizeaz momentele, prin analiza amnunit pe care o face, transmind
frmntarea permanent; de altfel, prin asta se i caracterizeaz seducia sa, el putnd intra n
categoria seductorului - sedus. ntlnirea cu Doamna T. i schimb viaa, l nva ce
nseamn adevrata feminitate, dar l i subjug. Iubirea celor doi irumpe ca un fenomen
neobinuit cruia nu i te poi opune. Fred Vasilescu, brbatul care are femei fr prea mult
efort, cu farmecul su incontestabil, de aceast dat triete dragostea cu intensitatea
condamnatului la moarte. Nu este obinuit s iubeasc, nu crede n iubire, iar cnd iubirea i
subjug simurile, ncepe s o resping. Devine crud cu femeia iubit i cu sine nsui
refuznd aceast realitate imposibil:
Doamn, cred c facei o confuzie V preuiesc nesfrit ca inteligeni-mi
place prezena dumneavoastrdar nu m interesai ca femeie. ()
14
Soren Kierkegaard, op. cit., p. 89.

16
Camil Petrescu, Ultima noapte, op. cit., p. 129.
17
Idem, p. 128.
18
Octavio Paz, Dubla flacr, Dragoste i erotism, Ed. Humanitas, Bucureti, 1993, p. 32-33.
15
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Aa au luat sfrit trei luni de trit nerealitate19. n primele momente ale ntlnirii
dintre cei doi, Fred las impresia c nu ar fi interesat de o nou cucerire, Doamna T., mai
degrab, face gesturi pe care brbatul le observ pn n cel mai mic amnunt: Se aezase cu
coatele pe o vitrin, aducnd umerii cam prea rotunzi, ca merele, legai n arc la spate,
ncovoiai n fa, cci rochia deschis sus, n elips, descoperea cnd pe unul, cnd pe
cellalt20. Seducia se petrece la nivel vizual. Orice femeie are la ndemn nenumrate
trucuri prin care se poate face att atrgtoare sau disponibil pentru partener. Atunci cnd
scopul su este s seduc, este la fel de important s arate asta, s zmbesc senzual, s fie
pur i simplu irezistibil. Limbajul corpului este cel mai uor de citit.
Cu toate acestea, femeia l privea absent i zmbea cu o amabilitate de vecin, parc
att de ndeprtat i indiferent ()21, fapt ce l intrig pe brbat. Tatonrile unui lamour
courtois nu exist aici, cuplul ajunge repede la amorul carnal, ceea ce intrig ns este faptul
c Fred este lovit de daimon, pstrnd proporiile, precum Heidegger n iubirea lui pentru
Hannah22. n Banchetul lui Platon, Eros este numit daimon puternic, ,,fiin ntre zeu i
muritor. Brbatul, care nu a cunoscut pn acum iubirea de acest fel, este luat prin
surprindere de neobinuitul ce i se ntmpl i are reacia celui cruia i se arat o minune: fuge
sau cade n genunchi. Camil Petrescu regizeaz scena primei nlniri carnale n felul
urmtor: M-a nduioat adnc. Mi s-au mpurpurat obrajii de uimire. Am ngenuncheat pe
puful mare ct o roat, de lng patul scund23. Aadar, el simte c n faa lui se petrece o
minune, c urmeaz ndrgostirea care nrobete. i este fric de aceast nrobire cnd este
lng ea, dar i-o dorete cnd este departe: ntr-adevr am lipsit o lun de zile Eliberat de
groaza apropierii, i-am scris de acolo n fiecare zi, scrisori de dragoste smintite, cu voluptatea
de a urla fiecare rnd c o iubesc, de a m umili n declaraii de robire absolut24. De altfel,
Fred se supune noului experiment ca mai apoi s se ridice i s plece. Joac rolul de frivol
monden. Relaiile lui se sfresc fr a-l afecta n vreun fel, ceea ce se ateapt s se ntmple
i aici. Se linitete cnd Doamna T. i confirm c nu vrea mai mult dect o aventur: Pot
s-i spun c-mi placi. Dar nu att de mult i a sczut vocea ca s te iubesc25. Poate c
aceast afirmaie produce o reacie invers i n loc s-l ndeprteze, l apropie. Iubirea l
umanizeaz i-l ridic din superficialitate.
n cuplul Ladima Emilia, seductorul eueaz. Armele seduciei lui sunt veritabile,
dar lipsete consistena obiectului care s primeasc. El i proiecteaz idealul n aceast
femeie, sper ntr-o metamorfozare a fiinei sale, ea ns nu recepteaz metafora seduciei,
asediul devenind inutil spre un obiect demetaforizat, inconsistent. Emilia este un corp i
att, care a suportat o precipitare materialist a unei forme seductoare () 26. n timp,
corpul s-a dezbrcat de secrete i a rmas brut, carnal. Dorina lui este exprimat prea direct
ca s se poat mplini pentru c Seducia nu este dorin: ea este ceea ce se joac cu dorina
i se joac de-a dorina27. Seductorul -ceretor, care este Ladima, i pregtete dispariia,
dar nu moartea, pentru c un seductor de talia lui rmne disipat n lucrurile i fiinele pe
care le-a ntlnit n realitate i nu n aparen, iar aparenele nu se preteaz la interpretare.
Ladima seduce prin subtilitatea scrisului, dar defuleaz prin limbaj.
19
Camil Petrescu, Patul lui Procust, op. cit., p. 253-254.

21
Ibidem.
22
*Cea de-a treia scrisoare pe care i-a scris-o Heidegger lui Hannah Arendt, n 21 februarie 1925, ncepe cu
propoziia Daimonicul m-a izbit din plin.
23
Camil Petrescu, Patul lui Procust, op. cit., p. 294.
24
Idem, p. 250.
25
Idem, pp. 293-294.
26
Jean Baudrillard, op. cit., p.37.
27
Idem, p. 51.
20
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Andrei Pietraru, personaj din neamul lui tefan Gheorghidiu, ironizat c vrea
dragoste n stare pur formeaz un alt cuplu mpreun cu Ioana Boiu, o femeie frumoas,
de vi nobil, care triete ns n alte vremi. Seducia pe care o practic Andrei se petrece
n stratul profunzimilor deoarece, timid fiind, Ioana l copleete cu personalitatea ei. El
ateapt ase ani de zile pn s-i mrturiseasc faptul c o iubete, iar cnd o face, o face
ntr-un fel disperat, dar calculat, asemntor personajului stendhalian: Domnioar, pentru
mine nu mai e cale de ntoarcere. M-am jurat c ast-sear, nainte de miezul nopii, s v
srut mna28. Pentru el e o chestiune de via i de moarte. Nicolae Manolescu remarc n
Arca lui Noe repeziciunea cu care Julien Sorel- Andrei vrea s o cucereasc pe domnioara
de la Mole- Ioana: mi s-a prut c laborioasa tactic a lui Julien Sorel ca s seduc pe d-ra
de la Mole ar putea fi tematic nlocuit cu o irupere psihic att de clocotitoare, att de
neprevzut, nct s izbndeasc n 40 de minute, acolo unde eroul stendhalian avusese
nevoie de luni (i poate ani) de manevre calculate i dibuiri de tot soiul 29. Asemnarea cu
gesturile lui Julien Sorel se remarc, fr ndoial, Andrei Pietraru urmnd paii romanului
fr a-l fi citit ns, dup cum afirm. Straneitatea ntlnirii celor doi const chiar n faptul c
Andrei face gesturi similare personajului din romanul lui Stendhal, pe care Ioana l citete n
momentele ntlnirii. Amndoi joac rolul cuiva i acest obstacol le ncurc mesajul real n
ciuda faptului c se iubesc. Seducia dintre ei a avut loc n toi cei ase ani, Ioana a sedus prin
mndria ei de femeie puternic, Andrei, prin tiin i devotament. Din pcate, totul este un
balast care le ascunde adevrata fa. n timpul discuiilor, lui Andrei i se deschide sufletul ca
un lumini noaptea n cimitir i tie c nu mai e cale de ntoarcere, c dragostea nu se poate
impune metodic, aa cum credea. Nu tie s seduc, a pierdut pariul cu sine, ncercnd
antajul sentimental, practicnd o seducie verbal, mai mult o persuadare. n termenii lui Jean
Baudrillard, concluzia ar fi urmtoarea: Nu servete la nimic s trieti, trebuie s tii s
seduci30. Ioana este n sufletul lui, iar sinuciderea are neles dublu: m sinucid ca s te pot
ucide pe tine. Seductorul - metodic, care este Andrei Pietraru, nu sfrete asemenea lui
Julien Sorel, pentru el sfritul descoper un nou nceput.
Gelu Ruscanu din Jocul ielelor este personajul care a trecut de la puterea enigmatic a
seduciei la mplinirea dorinei. Suprimarea secretului i are finalitatea prin sex, ca un duel
ctigat. Ruscanu nvinge i i urmeaz temeinic calea spre alte succese. Maria nu mai
reprezint un secret, o cucerire, astfel c el poate lupta de partea dreptii, un termen
abstract, n care se adncete cu toat fiina sa. Lucrurile par s-i urmeze adevrul lor, dar ele
i ating apogeul n ciclul aparenelor. n acest caz, seducia este compromis. Maria preia
rolul seductorului atunci cnd simte c totul se nruie. Aduce n discuie amintirea prin
seducia panaceu, care nu funcioneaz ns: Mi-ai fcut semn. Ne-am desprit apoi de
toi Mergeam alturi prin crng i era un verde sfios i fraged. Mereu neastmprat, m
necjeai Mi-ai umplut buzunarele cu miori de ulm. Acetia sunt miorii de atunci.
Uite-i. Lucrurile astea crezi c le-ai uitat, pentru c te preocup altceva, dar, nchise n fundul
sufletului, ele i pstreaz frumuseea, cum pstreaz pmntul strlucirea sculelor de aur31.
Ideea de a lua iniiativa atacului prin amintire o pierde, ea opune dorina sa dorinei celuilalt.
S nu opui niciodat dorina ta dorinei celuilalt, ci s inteti alturi, n ciuda aparenelor,
sau s-l prinzi n propria lui capcan.32, ar putea fi o porunc din decalogul seductorului.
erban Saru-Sineti exercit asupra soiei sale, Maria Sineti, o seducie forat.
Brutalitatea gesturilor i a limbajului nu las loc de secrete i subtiliti, or regula general a
seduciei este s nu fie niciodat discutat, s nu fie declarativ, de genul vreau s te seduc!.
Camil Petrescu, Suflete tari, Ed. Albatros, Bucureti, 1973, p. 73.
Nicolae Manolescu, Arca lui Noe, Editura Gramar, Bucureti, 2007, p. 352.
30
Jean Baudrillard, op. cit., p. 34.
31
Camil Petrescu, Jocul ielelor, Editura Albatros, Bucureti, 1973, p. 219.
32
Idem, p. 52.
28
29
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El are strategia hruirii animalului mic de ctre fiar: Vream s vd pn unde merge
perversitatea unei fete de optsprezece ani, care abia renunase la prul pieptnat pe spate
Ah! Ce teatru tiu s joace fetiele astea!...Dar se poate tri i lng o panter, dac tii i nu
uii niciodat c e panter33 , i pe urm am descoperit acea voluptate mai amar dect
toateacea noim care fr loc te duce, neajuns niciodat. Am descoperit ce hain bucurie,
ca o drojdie, poate s-i dea corpul unei femei care i se refuzCare e a ta numai dup ce se
narcotizeaz34. El este seductorul prepotent care i ajunge sie nsui, se complace n
aceast situaie care i hrnete vanitatea.
Seductorul - casanova sau don juan este Cellino din piesa Act veneian. El vine n
contrast cu Pietro Gralla, un brbat echilibrat care triete n partea etic a vieii.
Cstorit cu Alta, i ador soia i crede c relaia lor este perfect. Discursul su este
al unui brbat sigur pe sine i pe iubirea Altei, n timp ce el nu nceteaz a se minuna de
norocul pe care l-a avut cu o asemenea femeie, Alta i arat ncntarea de a fi soia unui
asemenea brbat. Relaia lor este limitat n libertate, el este brbatul sedus n urm cu patru
ani de ctre o femeie voluntar care tia bine ce are de fcut. ntrebat, atunci, ce gnduri are
cu Gralla, ea rspunde: - Ei bine, (), vreau s dorm o noapte ntreag cu cel mai inteligent
brbat din Veneia35. Seducia s-a consumat, dar pericolul de a cdea prad unui cuceritor, nu
se ntrevede dect pentru Alta, deoarece ea este femininul slab, dispus la provocri
sentimentale. Cellino, n comparaie cu Gralla, este un filfizon, chiar dac el reprezint
floarea junimii veneiene. ntre cei doi are loc un duel verbal din care Gralla iese nvingtor
i pentru faptul c rivalul su nu are poft s lupte astfel. Cellino nu tie iubi, el cucerete
inima femeilor i o pstreaz ca pe un trofeu. Este dorit de multe femei, iar acest fapt le incit.
Discursul su i este superior lui Gralla doar cnd pretinde c tie mai multe despre femei.
Rmne, n continuare un filfizon, ns unul care a nvat multe printre fustele doamnelor de
la curte. De aceea, el nu are niciun interes n cucerirea unei femei, dect suplinirea lipsei sale
de for brbteasc. E, n atitudinea lui o filozofie a reaciei imediate n prezena unei
femei, o suficien de nvingtor cu clopoei: Am prsit totdeauna femeile, privind rece i
hotrt, fr s in seam de comedia pe care o joac. Ascultnd linitit i amuzat plnsetele
lor Femeile nu iubesc ele sufer numai c sunt prsite Sau, mai bine, femeile nu
iubesc i nu sunt frumoase dect dac sunt prsite Atunci recurg la nemaipomenite
nscociri ca s-i capete reparaia pe care o doresc: lacrimi, ameninri, joc desperat pe funie,
umilini i rugmini dezndjduite i devin astfel frumoase Au i bucurii luminoase
uneori, atunci cnd sunt pe cale s obie ceea ce vor cu ambiie copilreasc, i asemenea
bucurii pot zpci pe un brbat, care i le atribuie farmecului lui, ceea ce este de asemenea i
periculos, fiindc atunci el crede c i se cuvin36. Alta l cunoate n circumstane fericite, la
Zara i l rentlnete dup zece ani. Ea l reseduce n momentul n care trece cu barca pe
canal spre admiraia tuturor, el ncearc s o seduc, din nou, cu armele sale de adorat al
femeilor, de brbat dezmierdat: Dace frumoas erai... () i parc totui niciodat ca
astzicnd te-am vzut alunecnd, spintecnd valurile, cu barca. Am rmas nmrmurit
Eram apte-opt pe terasa Ridotto. Coboram anapoda treptele tocite spre canal Ai trecut pe
lng noicu ochii mari, cu buzele ntredeschiseparc ineai n dini o garoaf roie, iar n
spatele tu San-Giovanni nu tiu luase foc cu toate turlele lui Alta Toi te priveau
mpietrii37. Ceea ce l incit este mirosul de femeie, dorina carnal, posesia asupra
obiectului, admiraia celorlali. Femeia seduce i pare c o face pentru a-i pregti o moarte pe
care o merit un amant ca el: rzbunarea unui brbat adevrat, cum este Pietro Gralla. Aceast
Camil Petrescu, Jocul ielelor, op. cit., p. 183.
Ibidem.
35
Camil Petrescu, Act veneian, Editura Curtea veche, Bucureti, 2010, p. 284.
36
Camil Petrescu, Act veneian, Editura Albatros, op. cit., pp. 262-263.
37
33
34
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crim asupra iubitului o apropie, oarecum, de Marchizul de Sade, cruia Denis de Rougemont
i gsete o justificare moral: Nu putem reabilita libertatea dect ucignd ceea ce iubim, de
vreme ce aceasta este ceea ce ne leag. Numai iubirea poate fi ucis, pentru c numai ea este
suveran. Uciderea iubirii impure va salva puritatea38. Alta teoretizeaz ntlnirea, caut s
explice ceea ce nu e de explicat. Introduce, n discursul rostit ca pentru sine, elemente
simbolice de care a fcut uz n dragostea ei pentru Cellino i care prevestesc ceea ce se va
ntmpla: Am dat ultimul ban pe un buchet de viorele i te-am ateptat (). Ai ieit la bra
cu dona Diata, mascat i ea... Cnd ai ajuns n dreptul meu, i-am ntins florile: <<Nobile
cavaler, ia florile acesteaca ele de fraged s-i rmie iubita pn la sfritul dragostei
voastre>> () Te-ai fcut c nu m vezim-ai dat la o parte ca pe un lucru care i
mpiedic drumul. Am ngheat. Cavalere, ia-le au s-i poarte noroc, au s-i deosebeasc
drumul ntre via i moarte ntre via i moarte! Mica Diata mi le-a luat. Mi-au dat
lacrimile i am vrut s-i srut mna de copil. Dar i-ai smuls florile din mn i le-ai aruncat n
canal39.
n imaginarul simbolic, violetul este o culoare a msurii, fcut din rou i albastru
n proporii egale, din luciditate i aciune, din echilibru ntre pmnt i cer, simuri i spirit,
patim i inteligen, iubire i nelepciune.40, astfel c Alta sugereaz ce va urma, dar
Cellino nu este capabil de subtiliti spirituale, el prefer posesia sexual. Ea caut suferina, o
provoac, pentru c, astfel, nu ar fi un simplu obiect sexual i i-ar putea reda i lui Cellino
brbia care-i lipsete. ntr-un moment de amiciie masculin, Cellino i mprtete lui
Pietro Gralla mobilul nevoii sale permanente de a seduce, cutarea femeii ideale despre care
tie c nu exist dect n imaginaie. Cutnd, el nu face dect s se ndeprteze de orice
inocen care seamn cu idealul, ajunge s nu mai cread n nimic, doar n poftele sale
nestpnite. Stpnete, deja, bazele unei teorii, pe care o mprtete cu mndrie despre
nevoia femeii de a fi prsit pentru a putea iubi (i poate c are dreptate!) i despre femeia
risipit n celelate: Cea dinti femeie mai iscusit pe care ai ntlnit-o vi s-a prut c e
femeia cu care ai plecat n gnd de acas cnd erai copil Femeia ideal Eu tiu c
femeia ideal exist totui pe lume, i de aceea o caut Dar mai tiu c nu e ntr-o singur
fiin, ci e risipit n toate femeile Trebuie s-o aduni, lund de la fiecare cte ceva, de la
sute i sute de femei. nu e una mcar, orict de urt, care s nu aduc mica ei contribuie la
femeia pe care o caut Greutatea cea mare este s rmi lucid i s nu iei astfel de la o
femeie mai mult dect ceea ce are cu adevrat frumos. S te fereti de amgeal. Dac-i place
glezna unei femei, s nu te consideri obligat s-i adori i vocea i inteligena41.
A seduce este o art ce trebuie nvat. Uneori brbaii eueaz n seducie pentru c
minimalizeaz sensul seduciei sau pentru c nu stpnesc bine aceast art. Alii se tem de a
nu deveni sclavii femeii adorate, chiar dac a fi sclav nseamn uneori s stpneti, cum
mrturisete un seductor de profesie: Cum ne ferim s recunoatem c nimic nu ne place
mai mult dect s devenim sclavi! Sclav i stpn n acelai timp. Deoarece chiar i n
dragoste sclavul e ntotdeauna un stpn deghizat. Brbatul care trebuie s cucereasc o
femeie, s-o subjuge, s-o nfrng dup placul lui, s-o modeleze dup dorinele sale ce e
altceva dect sclavul sclavei sale?42 Camil Petrescu creeaz tipologia seductorului n
variatele sale ipostaze: seductorul ceretor, seductorul prepotent, seductorul casanova sau don juan, seductorul metodic, pentru care seducia reprezint un adevrat
panaceu. n lipsa seduciei, personajul devine demetaforizat i lipsit de consisten.
Denis de Rougemont, Iubirea i occidentul, Editura Univers, Bucureti, 1987, p. 245.
Camil Petrescu, Act veneian, op. cit., p. 319.
40
J. Chevalier, Alain Gheerbrant, (coord.), Dicionar de simboluri, Editura Polirom, Iai, 2009, p. 1013-1014.
41
Camil Petrescu, Act veneian, op. cit., p. 264.
42
Henry Miller, op. cit., p. 250
38
39
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Bibliografia:
Aris, Philippe, Bottro, Jean et al. Amor i sexualitate n Occident, Introd. de acad.
Georges Duby, Traducere din limba francez de Laureniu Zoica, Editura Artemis, Bucureti,
1994.
Bataille, Georges. Erotismul, Ediie ilustrat cu douzeci de plane n afara textului,
Traducere din limba francez de Dan Petrescu, Editura Nemira, 1998, Bucureti.
Baudrillard, Jean. Cellalt prin sine nsui, Editions Galilee, 1987, Paris.
Baudrillard, Jean. Simulacre i simulri. Editura Idea Design & Print, Cluj,
2008.
Baudrillard, Jean, Cellalt prin sine nsui, Trad. de Ciprian Mihali, Casa Crii de
tiin, Cluj Napoca, 1997.
Bicu, Iulian. Dublul Narcis. Influena lui Marcel Proust i Andr Gide asupra
prozatorilor romni interbelici. Editura Universitii din Bucureti, 2003.
Beaujour, Michel. Miroirs dencre. Rhtorique de lautoportrait. Ed. Seuil, Paris,
1980.
Beauvoir, Simone. Al doilea sex, vol. I-II, Ediia a II-a, Traducere de Diana
Crupenschi i Delia Verde, Prefa de Delia Verde, Editura Univers, Bucureti, 2004.
Chevalier, J, Gheerbrant, Alain (coord.), Dicionar de simboluri, Editura Polirom,
Iai, 2009.
De Rougemont, Denis, Iubirea i occidentul, Editura Univers, Bucureti, 1987.
Liiceanu, Gabriel, Despre seducie, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 2010.
Manolescu, Nicolae, Arca lui Noe, Editura Gramar, Bucureti, 2007.
Miller, Henry, Sexus, Editura Polirom, Iai, 2010.
Kierkegaard, Soren, Jurnalul seductorului, Editura Scripta, Bucureti, 1992.
Paz, Octavio, Dubla flacr, Dragoste i erotism, Ed. Humanitas, Bucureti, 1993.
Petrescu, Camil. Danton, Blcescu, Editura Albatros, Bucureti, 1964.
Petrescu, Camil. Mitic Popescu. Act veneian, Editura Albatros, Bucureti, 1964.
Petrescu, Camil. Suflete tari. Jocul ielelor, Editura Albatros, Bucureti, 1964.
Petrescu, Camil. Ultima noapte de dragoste, ntia noapte de rzboi, Editura Curtea
Veche, Bucureti, 2009.
Petrescu, Camil. Ultima noapte de dragoste, ntia noapte de rzboi, Editura pentru
Literatura, Bucureti, 1962.
Petrescu, Camil. Patul lui Procust, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1982.
Petrescu, Camil. Doctrina substanei, vol. I, II, Editura tiinific i Enciclopedic,
Bucureti, 1988.
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ROMANIAN LANGUAGE IN EUROPEAN CONTEXT IDENTITY AND NATIONAL

SPECIFICITY
Valerica DRAICA
Abstract : At the beginnings of XXI century, Romanian language suffer new transformations
and evolutions because of the European context, regarding the integration of Romania into
the European Union, the language became one of the official languages used in various
Union documents. Romanian language known throughout its historical evolution various
influences , bigger or smaller, without affecting the grammatical structure, and even more
than that, it have enriched, modernized and relatinized the vocabulary. Spoken by millions of
people, used in digital information space, in books, movies, TV stations, Romania maintains
its unity and national identity.
Keywords: l language, unity, character, identity, national character, the European context.
Limba romn a parcurs, mai ales dup anul 1989, un proces de tranziie, de la
limbajul totalitar (limba de lemn, discursul unidirecional etc.) la utilizarea ei deschis, n
care noile modele lingvistice trebuiau s se adapteze la tranziia social i cultural, similar
procesului de relatinizare din secolul al XIX-lea, de dup eliberarea de sub dominaia greac
i otoman. Astfel, romna ca i multe alte limbi de circulaie internaional, a traversat un
proces continuu de internaionalizare, sub influena vocabularului anglo-saxon. Limba
romn este o limb indo-european, din grupul italic i din subgrupul oriental al limbilor
romanice, limba romnilor este ancestral i ncepe cu sunetele din natur, ce alctuiesc un
fond de peste 350 de cuvinte primare, nu a existat nimeni altcineva, n spaiul Dunrii de Jos,
dect neamul romnesc. Strmoii notri, dacii, erau gei, acetia vorbeau tot att de latinete
ca i noi, n ciuda argumentelor unor cercettori. Geii erau elita tracilor, erau cei mai bravi
i mai drepi dintre traci, geii vechii civilizaii danubiene au fost cei care au intrat n India,
ca indo-europeni, iar indo-europeana este limba geilor emigrai n India, din Civilizaia
Dunrii de Jos.
Geii cei Mari, adic massageii, aveau 2000 de cuvinte romneti, dintre care 1000 cu
etimon latin i 350 cu etimon bulgaro-slav, fr s fi ntlnit niciun roman sau slav.
Limba romn este numit, n lingvistica comparat, limba dacoromn sau dialectul
dacoromn, printre limbile romanice, romna este a cincea dup numrul de vorbitori, n
urma spaniolei, portughezei, francezei i italienei. De asemenea, romna este nregistrat
astzi ca limb de stat att n Romnia ct i n Republica Moldova, unde circa 75% din
populaie o consider limb matern (2, 5 milioane de locuitori). Limba romn este vorbit
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n toat lumea de aproximativ 29 de milioane de oameni, dintre care, pentru cca. 24 de

milioane este limb matern. Din numrul total de vorbitori, peste 17 milioane se afl
n Romnia,
unde
romna
(dialectul
dacoromn)
este limb
oficial i,
conform recensmntului populaiei din 2011, este limb matern pentru peste 90% din
populaie). Limba romn este una dintre cele ase limbi oficiale ale Provinciei
Autonome Voivodina (Serbia), de asemenea este limb oficial sau administrativ n cteva
comuniti i organizaii internaionale, precum Uniunea Latin sau Uniunea European. n
afar de Romnia, Republica Moldova i Provincia Autonom Voivodina (Serbia),
menionate supra, limba romn se mai vorbete n:
rile vecine cu Romnia i Republica Moldova, adic Ucraina, Ungaria, Serbia i
Bulgaria.
extremele ariei lingvistice romneti, aflate, la apus, n bazinul cursului mijlociu al
Dunarii (Croaia, Slovenia, Slovacia i Polonia), iar la rsrit, dincolo de Nistru.
romna este una dintre cele cinci limbi n care sunt oficiate servicii religioase n statul
monastic Muntele
Athos,
regiune
autonom
din Grecia,
fiind
vorbit
n schiturile Prodromu si Lacu.

Limba romn prezint un numr de trsturi specifice, care contribuie, n mare
msur, la mbogirea lexicului ei; n cazul limbii romne, cercettorii din universitile i
institutele de cercetare din Romnia i Republica Moldova au dus la dezvoltarea unor sisteme,
modele i teorii de nalt calitate, aplicabile pe scar larg. Cu toate acestea, domeniul de
aplicare pentru cele mai multe resurse, precum i gama de instrumente utilizate sunt nc
foarte limitate n raport cu resursele i instrumentele existente pentru limba englez i nu sunt
suficiente din punct de vedere calitativ i cantitativ, pentru a dezvolta tehnologiile necesare
sprijinirii unei societi a cunoaterii cu adevrat multilingve.
Subdezvoltarea care se resimte n zona resurselor lingvistice (cantitativ i calitativ)
ngreuneaz enorm eforturile de dezvoltare a tehnologiilor limbajului i a aplicaiilor.
Vorbit de aproximativ 29.000.000 de oameni n ntreaga lume, limba romn este
prezent nu doar n diverse cri, manuale, lucrri, filme sau emisiuni i canale TV, ci i n
spaiul informaional digital. Piaa Internetului n Romnia este n continu cretere, din ce n
ce mai muli romni au acces la un calculator acas, fiind i utilizatori de Internet, iar
domeniul.ro nregistreaz 0,4% din paginile web existente n acest moment, comparabil cu
domeniul.eu.
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n asemenea condiii, putem vorbi tot mai mult despre unitatea i identitatea noastr,
despre caracterul i specificul nostru naional; identitatea romneasc desemneaz ceea ce
romnii au specific, ca popor distinct de alte comuniti naionale, reflect calea specific n
care ei i construiesc cultura i i organizeaz viaa personal i public, exprim modul lor
particular de a rspunde la constantele universale ale culturii: mbrcminte, hran, locuin,
religie, joc, art, comunicare, limb. Identitatea romneasc deriv din participarea tuturor
vorbitorilor de limb romn la practicile culturale i activitile proprii romnilor, presupune
atitudini pozitive fa de membrii grupului naional, ataament i mndrie naional,
sentimente de protecie, determinate de apartenena la o naiune, loialitate fa de membrii
grupului naional, revendicarea unei origini comune i mbriarea acelorai tradiii i
obiceiuri.
n aceeai msur, identitatea romneasc este i expresia caracterului naional. Acesta
este ansamblul nsuirilor fundamentale psihice-morale ale unei naiuni, regsite constant n
conduita, concepiile i aciunile membrilor si, nct ei sunt uor de identificat, din modul lor
de a fi ca grup naional. Caracterul naional confer, prin comportamentele indivizilor, o
anumit individualitate, anumite trsturi i reflect personalitatea unei naiuni, tocmai aceste
trsturi distinctive constituie identitatea unei naiuni. Caracterul naional a rezultat din
trsturile afirmate n aciunea de conservare a propriei identiti n contextele provocrilor
permanente ale istoriei i deriv din contiina i comportamentul unei comuniti naionale
fa de particularitile istorice, economice, istorice, climatice, etnologice ale dezvoltrii i
vieii unei naiuni. Caracterul naional este motenit i, deopotriv, dobndit, ceea ce ofer
identitii naionale o stabilitate, calitile, ca i defectele asociate romnilor, sunt determinate
de caracterul naional romnesc i mpreun atribuie un sens concret identitii romneti. De
aceea, caracterul naional cunoate, la fel ca identitatea romneasc, o evoluie istoric i
cultural, fr ns a ajunge la modificri radicale.
Un romn din secolul al XXI-lea nu este total diferit de romnul din secolul al XIXlea, n ceea ce privete exprimarea unor trsturi ale caracterului naional romnesc, n acelai
fel, identitatea romneasc se afirm ca o constant a caracterului naional romnesc, astfel,
identitatea romneasc reprezint, n realitate, suma calitilor i defectelor reale sau
imaginare ale romnilor. Trsturile care alctuiesc identitatea romneasc aparin unei
entiti naionale ai cror membri au aceeai descenden, limb, cultur, religie, precum i
contiina colectiv a apartenenei la aceast entitate.
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nc din secolul al XlX-lea ncepe asumarea identitii noastre culturale n context

european, de cnd se contureaz clar orientarea romnilor spre valorile occidentale, i se
continu n secolul al XX-lea i mai departe, prin asumarea necondiionat sau prin negarea
acestei identiti, iar despre specificul naional, n context european, s-a vorbit ncepnd din
primele decenii ale secolului al XlX-lea, n perioada formrii statelor naionale n Europa.
Astfel, programul revistei lui Mihail Koglniceanu, Dacia literar (Iai, 1840), s-a
conturat
jurul
specificului
naional,
ceea ce trebuie remarcat este faptul c specificul naional nu era neles n epoc ca o
contrapunere la Europa occidental, ci, dimpotriv, ca o sincronizare cu aceasta, sincronizarea
fiind mai mult dorit dect realizat.
Putem vorbi de o identitate romneasc dup constituirea statului naional unitar, din
momentul realizrii identitii prin toate mijloacele i de ctre toate componentele societii.
Un aspect relevant pentru identitatea romneasc este dat de imaginea romnilor asupra lor
nii i imaginea altor naionaliti despre romni, ei se pot evalua predominant prin caliti
sau prin simboluri, tradiii i obiceiuri, la care au aderat spontan i firesc. Este normal ca
romnii s se caracterizeze ca fiind muncitori, ospitalieri, tolerani, capabili, adaptabili,
optimiti, cu umor, creativi, comunicativi etc., primele trei caliti atribuite romnilor sunt
ospitalitatea, hrnicia i omenia. n schimb, alte grupuri naionale pot s accentueze
identitatea romneasc, mai ales prin reliefarea unor defectelor i a unor simboluri, crora
romnii nu le acord o semnificaie aparte.
nceputul secolului al XX-lea a adus n prim-plan opoziia ntre specificul naional i
modelul european. Garabet Ibrileanu considera c specificul naional al literaturii romne
este dat de imitarea" valorilor naionale, ce constituie fondul oricrei opere literare i le
confer acestora valoarea estetic.
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Paralela ntre textele literare ale moldovenilor i ale muntenilor, operat de Garabet
Ibrileanu, face dovada unei atitudini orientate spre regionalizarea specificului naional. O
astfel de atitudine poate fi considerat retrograd, dac este privit n paralel cu articolulprogram Introducie la Dacia literar, n care Mihail Koglniceanu deschidea paginile
revistei scriitorilor romni din toate provinciile, tocmai pentru a stimula formarea contiinei
naionale. Garabet Ibrileanu avea s afirme c aceast contiin nu este vizibil din moment
ce scriitorii accept influenele literaturii occidentale. Am putea spune c una dintre
dimensiunile identitii romneti o reprezint continua schimbare i tranziie a societii
romneti. Aceasta este o cauz dar i un efect ale identitii noastre. Identitatea romneasc
s-a afirmat n evoluia istoric a romnilor, dezvoltarea societii romneti a oscilat, de-a
lungul vremurilor, ntre aprarea fiinei naionale i nscrierea n normele evoluiei specifice
fiecrei etape istorice. (Discursul identitar i prima identificare de sine a colectivitii
autohtone, le ntlnim n nvturile lui Neagoe Basarab ctre fiul su Theodosie). Astzi,
cnd vorbim despre identitatea naional, trebuie s ne referim obligatoriu la contextul n care
ea se afirm, desigur i la realitile postcomuniste, dar mai ales la noua calitate a Romniei,
aceea de ar membr a Uniunii Europene. Uniunea European presupune n sine o anume
omogenitate i respectul pentru norme comune, de la Atlantic pn la Prut. Identitatea
romneasc avea s cunoasc, n timp, anumite modificri, n contextul n care romnilor li sa deschis un orizont extraordinar, dup aderarea la Uniunea European, prin ansa de a putea
cltori sau de a studia oriunde n spaiul Uniunii. n acest fel, suntem convini c identitatea
romneasc se va afirma ntr-un context nu doar al unei direcii proeuropene, dar i al unui
euroscepticism, iar dac n perioada antebelic vorbeam de o identitate naional rezultat
dintr-un specific naional conferit de o Romnie predominant rural, astzi exist mai multe
identiti, n funcie de Romnia la care ne raportm.
nainte de a ne pune problema dac
romnii triesc sau nu o criz identitar, n aceste zile, trebuie s tim ce sens dm identitii
naionale, care nu este doar o construcie sociologic sau teoretic, ci un concept, care
exprim conduite, atitudini i mentaliti ntlnite la grupuri mari de romni. Dac abordm
identitatea naional cu privire nu doar la tradiii, obiceiuri i ritualuri strvechi, nu mai putem
vorbi astzi de o identitate precum cea din secolul al XIX-lea sau din secolul precedent, n
analizele despre identitatea romneasc vorbindu-se prea puin de noua poziie a rii noastre,
aceea de stat membru al UE.
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n ultimii 60 de ani, Europa a devenit o structur politic i economic distinct, pstrndu-i

ns diversitatea cultural i lingvistic. Acest lucru nseamn c, de la portughez la polonez
i de la italian la islandez, comunicarea de zi cu zi ntre cetenii europeni, precum i
comunicarea din domeniile economic i politic, se confrunt inevitabil cu barierele lingvistice.
Aderarea Romniei la Uniunea Europeana a dus pe plan intern i internaional la schimbarea
unor accente prin reglementri legate de rolul limbilor n societate prin facilitile create n
circulaia persoanelor. Adoptarea Cartei europene a limbilor regionale sau minoritare de
ctre statele n care se vorbete i limba romn, inclusiv dialectele ei, credem c este n
msur s favorizeze statutul acesteia, n statele respective. Carta nu este obligatorie nici
pentru statele membre, i probleme exist tocmai n acele state care nu au semnat aceast
Cart. Protecia i ncurajarea limbilor regionale sau minoritare nu trebuie s se fac n
detrimentul limbilor oficiale i a necesitii de a le nsui. Dup aderare, limba romn a
devenit una dintre limbile oficiale ale Uniunii Europene, folosit n multe dintre documentele
acesteia.
Considerm c n ziua de azi, ca de altfel, dintotdeauna, este important s-i cunoti
trecutul istoric, s-l iscodeti mcar din pur curiozitate, pentru a ti cine am fost i cine
suntem, de unde venim i ncotro ne ndreptm n anii viitori!
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Bibliografie:
Maria Cvasni Ctnescu, Limba romn. Origini i dezvoltare, Buc., Ed. Humanitas, 1996.
Lucian Iosif Cuedean, Romna, limba vechii Europe, Editura Solif, Bucureti, 2008.
Valerica Draica, Istoria limbii romne, Sibiu, Editura Alma Mater, 2012.
Ilie Rad, Limba de lemn n pres, Bucureti, Editura Tritonic, 2009.
Mina-Maria Rusu, Identitatea culturii romneti n contextul integrrii europene, n Limba
romn, Chiinu, nr. 7-9, an XVI, 2006, pg. 14-17.
I. I. Russu, Limba traco-dacilor, Bucureti, Editura tiinific, 1967.
Ariton Vraciu, Limba daco-geilor, Timioara, Editura Facla, 1980.
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VIRGIL DUDA A PORTRAIT OF THE ARTIST AS A MATURE MAN

Sorina CHIPER
Al. Ioan Cuza University of Iasi
Abstract: It is a rather regrettable fact that Romanian literature produced beyond the
borders of Romania remains relatively unknown, unless it is supported and promoted by
steady marketing efforts. This holds true for literature written by Israeli authors of Romanian
origin who, despite their long presence in the so new and so old country of Israel, have
chosen to write and publish in Romanian. Virgil Duda is probably the most prominent among
the living authors of literature in Romanian, produced in Israel. This article aims to retrace
his ars poetica, his portrait of a mature artist who has written himself, a la Flaubert, in the
many writer-characters that he has created.
Keywords: vocation, consciousness, rupture, intertextuality, writing.
Introduction: the autobiography of a rupture

In Alvis si Destinul (Alvis and Destiny), the main character argues that in every mans
life there a moment of rupture which marks one for eternity (Duda 1993: 6). Romania, sfrit
de decembrie (Romania, the End of December) (1991), Virgil Dudas most autobiographical
work, maps precisely this moment of breakage. Written at the recommendation of his brother,
the literary critic Lucian Raicu, Romania, the End of December is the first book that Virgil
Duda published after he settled in Israel, at the end of 1988, and it attempts to explain for,
presumably, a foreign audience, how it was possible that Romanians had put up for so long
with the Communist regime. On a first level of interpretation, the book documents the final
years of Communism, the terror and tragedy of the everyday, the personal survival strategies
that allowed some to have access to basic supplies such as hot water or food.
Unlike other authors who put forth the idea that Romanians deserved, more or less, to
suffer under communism because there was something in their DNA, as a nation, that made
them obedient and compliant with perpetrators, Virgil Duda suggests that communism seeped
through recent Romanian history and developed a whole system of terror and oppression that
could not be shaken off easily. In his view, communism survived and grew so strong because
it relied on an all-pervasive mechanism of lies, silences, threats and intimidations, ranging
from the lack of public information about problems that citizens were faced with up to the
terror techniques that party activists were using to extract information from unsuspecting
suspects. As a system of intimidation and terror, communism was not a Romanian
phenomenon; it could have settled in other countries as well, with similarly devastating
consequences.
Yet more than providing an autopsy of Romanian society just before the outbreak of
the Revolution, Romania, the End of December retraces Virgil Dudas own internal rupture,
when he came to the realization that Romania was no longer his homeland, that he could no
longer live in the country in which he had been born:
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I am a Jew, born in a town from Moldova and determined, up to the age of 40 and
something to live and to die in Romania, just as my ancestors have been doing for a few
hundreds of years now. And to write literature. However, I have come now, at the end of the
show, to live in Jerusalem, as a pilgrim of none of the three great religions of the world I
am in the country of Israel. Why? If I were to simplify, because of my profession as a writer,
of life as literature and of literature as life. A writer is especially connected to the environment
which has produced him. Usually, just a monstrosity of Ceausescus kind can pull him out of
a certain place (Duda 1991: 66, my translation).
What determined him to leave the country was the fact that he lost confidence in a
regime that had no logic and no sense of reality. Somehow, the system of discrete yet
powerful terror, that could have entitled one to believe that the Romanian population was
undergoing a genocide, undermined his confidence that Romania was the country where he
could go on living or writing. It was not only that censorship had become too strict, but selfcensorship as well had stiffened any desire or urge to write. For someone who had deeply
believed that writing was his vocation the very reason of my intimate and public existence
and who had had the courage to believe that [he] had something to say, because of which one
always sits in front of blank pages (Duda 1991: 10), the impossibility to write any more was
not a matter of writers block, but the sign of an existential crisis:
I discovered one good day that that inner certainty that comes from what you know
about yourself was gone. Good and bad things, pleasant and unpleasant ones. What your
name is, who your parents and friends are, what the worlds level of wisdom is, which
country is yours. Maybe some other people have never had in the chemistry of their being this
abstract and also concrete element, a country that belongs to you and to which you belong. I
had it. To have noticed its disappearance shook me terribly. How could I survive without a
country that I would feel to be mine? (Duda 1991: 39).
While the perception of having been robbed of ones own country could have been a
good enough reason for anyone to leave Romania, for someone who believed that he came to
the world to write and who felt responsible for what he put on the page, the absurdity of the
communist system made him wish to radicalise his position because, after all,
literature does not represent an occupation among others, such as trading fish. Without
any trace of vanity (...) or of cast spirit, we must all admit that to be a writer implies other
duties apart from that of creating interesting and valuable works (Duda 1991: 102).
This sense of historical responsibility shows that for Virgil Duda, a writer is not an
isolated individual in an ivory tower but someone who lives relationally, among people and
for people, for whom writing is a matter of consciousness and a mature act of courage,
knowledge and self-knowledge.
Virgil Dudas ars poetica un-fictionalising fiction
By the time he left Romania, Virgil Duda had authored ten books (novels and short
stories). The first book that he published after he made alia, Romania, the End of December,
benefited from a quite large leadership and it proved to be a form of personal therapy that
transported him across the impasse of the impossibility of writing. Once he set himself down
in front of the blank page, the book somehow urged to be written, and Duda could produce no
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fiction before he exorcized his inner demons in non-fiction. Thus, though autobiography is a
genre that Virgil Duda has not cultivated, this single autobiographical piece proves to have
played a critical role in his literary career. Just like with other authors, the autobiographical
exercise even though it does not lead to stylistic performances, which would be suspicious
in memoirs or autobiographies has a performative value, in the sense that it creates a reality,
explains a position, suggests a programme, an identity, an assertion of the self as unique or as
relational.
Read against the background of Dudas fictional work, Romania, the End of December
features realistic portraits of several types of characters that haunt his fictional world (the
communist activist, the security officer, the woman who uses her body to get a job or
privileges). The prototype of the activist a mollusc that is capable of becoming
enthusiastic over anything, and who perfectly masters the wooden language of the official
discourse, finds its perfect exemplification in Iancu Herman from Alvis si destinul (Alvis and
Destiny): a simple worker at first, who is introduced in the communist party by Alvis, he
becomes Alvis Security investigator and later, in Israel, his (presumably) German capitalist
boss.
Romania, the End of December acts as an interpretative key to Dudas fiction in that it
problematizes writing. Several novels feature well-established authors: the playwright Orscu
in Sase femei (Six Women), the playwright Raul Siropol in Un cetean al lumii (A Citizen of
the World), authors who are prominent for one book, which is summarized or discussed in the
novel: Sorin in Ultimele iubiri (The Last Loves), author of a crime novel set among ultrareligious Jews, and Aurel Obramovici, the narrator from Desprtirea de Ierusalim
(Separation from Jerusalem), author of a book which, just like Dudas Romania, the End of
December, attempted to depict and explain the last years that the narrator lived under
communism before he moved to Jerusalem in December 1988. Alvis, from the epomenous
novel, used to be a contributor to and the editor of a communist propaganda journal.
Earlier novels such as Razboiul amintirilor (The War of Memories) (1981), Hruiala
(The Harassment) (1984) and Oglinda salvat (The Saved Mirror) (1986) create, as Ioan
Holban pointed out, an autobiographical space that retraces the buildung of an author in the
person of Dan Barbosu. The latter is the type of the intellectual author who is concerned about
whether he is representative for his time, and about the types of persons that would find a
voice through his works. Thus, the notion of literature as a responsible act runs through
Dudas work.
As Duda implied in Romania, the End of December, writing involves risks: the risk of
failure in using, metaphorically, ones pen as an instrument to probe into ones own inability
to understand. As such, writing is an instrument of knowledge and of self-knowledge. As
Anton Maurer, the narrator from A Citizen of the World intimates, trying to understand how
Raul Siropol built his international career and meandered between pro-Semite and anti-Semite
positions means trying to understand himself, since for a while, in their formative years, Raul
and Anton were inseparable friends.
The same idea of risk is restated in Dudas comparison between literature and walking
on a tight rope (Duda 1991: 17). Some of the dangers that befall writers are apparent in
discussions with aspiring authors. Dr Dusmanescu, a gynecologist from Six Women, has
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written a play titled The Red Dog, in which he attempts to rehabilitate general Antonescu. His
only audience, Miriam, warns him, however, that such a play could never pass beyond the
vigilant eyes of censors. Miriam herself, Orascus wife from the same novel, is also an
aspiring author. The discussions over her first short story with a dedicated communist
editor, with a less propaganda-passionate editor and with her own husband point out to the
fact that in communist Romania, the moral of a story was likely to prevail over its artistic
merits in the decision whether to publish a certain piece or not. Also, age is a factor that can
impact ones success with editors, which is not always granted by having a certain set of
desirable qualities but rather by proving to have a set of desirable faults.
Aurel Obramovici (Separation from Jerusalem), Miriam and Dr. Dusmanescu (Six
Women), Alvis (formerly Al. Visu, formerly Carol Wise, formerly Haim Wise) belong to the
category of persons who are possessed by an idea, by an artistic, aesthetic, philanthropic or
social ideal, or by an ideal of love. Thus, in Ultimele iubiri (The Last Loves) Viki and Dror
share the ideal of creating a public library. Radu Glasberg, the focalizer from the same novel,
believes in an ideal love, which is pure, mutual, shared and faithful. This passion for an ideal
likens Dudas characters to Camil Petrescus strong souls: their passion saves them from
banality.
The comparison between Dudas characters and Camil Petrescus strong souls is not
a fortuitous one: Camil Petrescus work is one of Dudas intertexts. Intertextuality, in fact, is a
defining quality of Dudas work. His novels abound in references to classical literature, to the
works of Gogol, Turgenev, Dostoyevsky, Stendhal, Proust, Balzac, Faulkner, Goethe, etc. It is
not only that narrators make conscious references to classical authors, but characters also read
and copy passages from books which they enjoy. For Miriam, copying her favorite passages
from books is an exercise that prepares her for her career as a writer as for her, literature is
born not only from life but from books as well. For Radu Glasberg, the love passages that he
copies from books have the role of intensifying existence, of providing the appropriate
description for reality.
The relationship between art (literature) and reality is often thematised in Dudas
novels. Aurel Obramovici, the narrator from Separation from Jerusalem, is confident that
books are born, in fact, only from what you live, you and those around you, or from
imagination, by deforming memory and implying the dream and dreamings (Duda 2005:
325). Dudas narrators or focalizers often oscillate between memory and dreaming. Glasberg,
for instance, lives in two worlds: the world of his memories from Romania, and the world of
the daily events in his Israeli life, intensified or described by passages from books, or by his
dreams. Similarly, Anton from A Citizen of the World, lives between his childhood memories
in Bucharest and his contemporary reality as a journalist, aspiring writer and traveler in Israel,
Cyprus and the US.
The advice that aspiring authors get in Dudas novels, or the writing tips that Dudas
writer characters use, can be seen at work in his own writing: novels combine dreams and
transnational memories, build tension and are left seemingly un-finalized and unfinalizable:
the story seems to go after one has finished reading the book, in the readers mind, who is left
to wonder and to draw a life-itinerary for the novels (still) living characters. This open
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ending empowers readers to create their own sequel, to endow characters with options that
could escape the authors imagination.
Conclusion
Virgil Dudas ars poetica can be traced by un-fictionalizing his fiction, i.e. by
identifying the writing tips and practices that his consecrated or aspiring writer characters
follow. His novels problematize memory and writing, the relationship between fiction and
reality, between a writers self and his literary alter-egos. Such topics liken Dudas work to
Philip Roths, as Roth too though at another level has raised questions about the
boundaries between reality and fiction, and about the reliability of personal memory. On the
other hand, the penchant for retracing the workings of involuntary memory, and the writing of
a novel that includes the journal of writing a novel that is the novel that we get to read, likens
Dudas work to Prousts.
The rich intertext of Dudas work shows him as an intelligent writer, for whom the
sense of responsibility towards what he writes and towards his readers can be seen in the
construction of open plots and of minutely described characters. The risk that he has assumed
which is the risk of any professional writer who has embarked on the tight-rope walking
which literature is for him, is that of not having too many readers who would be aware of the
entire intertext.
Bibliography
Duda, Virgil 1981 Rzboiul amintirilor. Bucureti: Cartea romneasc.
1984 Hruiala. Bucureti: Cartea romneasc.
1986 Oglinda salvata. Bucureti: Cartea romneasc
1991. Romania, sfirsit de decembrie. Bucureti: Cartea romneasc.
1993 Alvis si destinul. Bucureti: Editura Fundaiei Culturale Romne.
2002 Sase femei. Bucureti: Albatros.
2005 Despartirea de Ierusalim, Bucureti: Albatros
2008 Ultimele iubiri, Iai: Polirom.
2011 Un cetatean al lumii, Iai: Polirom
Holban, Ioan 2014. Scriitori israelieni de limba romn, Iai: Editura 24 : Ore.
Petrescu, Camil 2010. Suflete tari in Suflete tari. Jocul ielelor. Act venetian. Danton.
Bucureti: Curtea Veche.
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Issue no.6/2015
AGRAFA ROIE THE NOVEL AS REALIST STORY AND MOTIVATING DOCUMENT

Larisa Ileana CASANGIU
Ovidius University of Constan
Abstract: The paper aims to identify the intertextuality of "One Red Paperclip" (by Kyle
MacDonald) and analyze its literary features. This literary work has a stated theme (trading a
paperclip for a house, through a game called Bigger and Better) and other implied themes
(relativity of material goods, attractiveness of the game, human wishes and belief, Internet
power/force) and contains some motifs common to several literary works (e.g. Dnil
Prepeleac, by Ion Creang; Jack and the Beanstalk). Literature and life are interwoven
continuously here. We find both literary elements and proofs of authenticity in a realistic way.
We also identify several formative valences that place the work in the literature for children
and teenagers.
Keywords: red paperclip; intertextuality; narrative; barter; formative valences.
Aa cum anun subtitlul, subiectul crii Agrafa roie l reprezint Povestea unui
tnr care, pornind de la o agraf de birou, a fcut troc pn a reuit s-i ia o cas. La
modul cel mai succint, firul epic poate redat astfel: o agraf roie de birou este schimbat pe
un pix-pete; pixul, pe o clan rotund; clana, pe un aragaz de campanie; aragazul, pe un
generator rou; generatorul, pe o petrecere instant1; petrecerea, pe un snowmobil faimos;
snowmobilul, pe o vacan n Yahk; vacana, pe o furgonet; furgoneta, pe un contract de
nregistrri; contractul, pe dreptul de a locui timp de un an ntr-un apartament din Phoenix
(fr a plti chirie); apartamentul, pe o dup-amiaz cu Alice Cooper; dup-amiaza, pe un
glob cu zpad Kiss; globul pe un rol ntr-un film, iar rolul, pe o cas din Kipling. Exist ns
i o serie de evenimente relatate legate de aceste trocuri, de prezentri ale unor oferte
neacceptate de protagonist, de reflecii, dar i spaii alveolare n text, care invit cititorul la o
lectur participativ, nu att n vederea construirii sensului, ct al intuirii unor mecanisme care
genereaz o anumit atitudine/decizie a lui Kyle.
Pentru a configura intertextualitatea pe care o contureaz, raportndu-l la tradiia
literar popular autohton, observm imediat c avem de-a face cu povestea lui Dnil
Prepeleac (de Ion Creang) rsturnat, n literatura universal regsind motivul literar
polarizator n Jack i vrejul de fasole. n ambele opere la care trimite povestea
postmodernist, este vorba ns de schimbul aparent dezavantajos pe care l putem ntrevedea,
din perspectiva protagonistului, printre cele din urm trocuri (din cele paisprezece).
Dnil Prepeleac, un personaj ce pare aproape fr aderen la mundan, de multe ori
fugea el de noroc i norocul de dnsul, cci era lene, nechitit la minte i nechibzuit la trebi;
i-apoi mai avea o mulime de copii (Ion Creang, Dnil Prepeleac, n op. cit., p. 29). Pe
lng c era srac, omul nostru era un om din aceia cruia-i mnca cinii din traist, i toate
trebile cte le fcea, le fcea pe dos (ibidem, p. 30).
Cu un asemenea portret, nu este de mirare c Dnil nu are vocaie de comerciant. El
ajunge s schimbe o pereche de boi mari i frumoi (id.) pe o pung goal (de care, de
altfel, nu avea trebuin!), trecnd prin patru trocuri succesive (boii sunt schimbai cu un car;
carul, pe o capr; capra, pe un gscan, iar gscanul pe o pung goal).
Pachetul denumit petrecere instant coninea: un butoia de bere, o reclam Budweiser cu neon i un bon
valoric pentru o cantitate de bere egal cu un butoia de bere (apud MacDonald, Kyle, Agrafa roie, ed. cit., p.
105)
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Nu se sfiete s-i mrturiseasc fratelui su (al crui portret l indic drept antipodul
total al lui Dnil) toat pania, adugnd ns c de-acum a prins minte, Numai ce folos?
Cnd e minte, nu-i ce vinde (ibidem, p. 33).
Distrugerea carului i a boilor fratelui su arat ns contrariul prerii c ar fi cptat
minte, ba, am spune c starea lui s-a depreciat, din moment ce dup aceast ultim ntmplare
nefericit recurge la minciun i chiar la furt.
O remarc a fratelui su (se vede c tu ai fost bun de clugrit, iar nu de trit n lume,
s necjeti oamenii i s chinuieti nevasta i copiii- ibidem, p. 34) pare s constituie
declicul n transformarea total a lui Dnil Prepeleac. Imediat ce ia hotrrea construirii unei
mnstiri pe o pajite din pdurea n care avusese ultimele pagube, Dnil Prepeleac se
dovedete un iscusit nvingtor al dracilor, probnd abiliti nebnuite i incontestabile de bun
comunicator, care capt o ncredere n sine de neclintit n momentul urmtor intrrii n
posesia unui burduf de bivol umplut cu bani, acionnd n acord cu reflecia popular tot
bogatul minteos, i tnrul frumos (ibidem, p. 36).
Comportamentul lui se schimb brusc, astfel c, dac pn atunci toi rdeau de
Prepeleac, de acum a ajuns s rd i el de dracul (idem). Nu doar c face fa unor ncercri
grele la care l supun dracii, n dorina sa de a-i pstra comoara dobndit de la acetia, ci,
nemaifiind suprat pe nimene i scpnd deasupra nevoiei, a mncat i a but i s-a desftat
pn la adnci btrnee, vzndu-i pe fiii fiilor si mprejurul masei sale (ibidem, p. 41).
Povestea scris de Creang este, fr tgad, o capodoper att prin stilul strbtut
de umor fin i de oralitate, ct i prin imprevizibilul aciunii, soldat cu izbnda
protagonistului.
Dac sub aspect stilistic ni se pare inadecvat alturarea celor dou opere, dat fiind i
faptul c n Dnil Prepeleac naraiunea este de tip heterodiegetic, iar n Agrafa roie este de
tip homodiegetic avnd aspect de jurnal, eroii aparinnd unor epoci i spaii culturale
fundamental diferite (la 130 de ani distan, n Romnia, respectiv, n Canada), considerm c
exist totui cteva motive literare comune ambelor texte. Principalul element care face
posibil intertextualitatea este trocul (chiar dac, n opera autohton este total dezavantajos,
chiar ruintor, n vreme ce, n cealalt, se dovedete cu adevrat inspirat). Eroii, n ciuda
diferenelor majore care i individualizeaz, se situeaz, n incipitul operelor ntr-o oarecare
proximitate de statut (raportndu-l pe fiecare la problemele specifice timpului i spaiului n
care evolueaz), dat fiind faptul c se dovedesc incapabili s se realizeze n sensul de cap de
familie (chiar dac primul, n diacronie, este cstorit i tat, n vreme ce al doilea se afl
ntr-o relaie n care este ntreinut de prietena sa). Mai mult, i Kyle evoc o ncercare euat
n adolescen, n ce privete trocul, n cadrul jocului Bigger and better2, pe care l va relua,
modificndu-i din reguli i numindu-l chiar Agrafa roie.
Exist, de asemenea, i n opera postmodernist o doz considerabil de imprevizibil
n ce privete opiunile personajului din cadrul celor paisprezece trocuri pe care le face, dac
nu avem n vedere subtitlul crii (motivat doar de raiuni strict comerciale), ci doar posibilele
oferte care ne sunt prezentate.
Apoi, ambele personaje, dei oneste n inocena lor iniial, ajung s recurg la
minciun (Dnil Prepeleac i minte fratele, Kyle minte n legtur cu realizatorul de
emisiuni radiofonice George Stroumboulopoulos).
Att n Dnil Prepeleac, ct i n Agrafa roie, trocul se face personal, motiv pentru
care personajele se deplaseaz, cltoria fiind un element iniiatic.
La vrsta de 16 ani, mpreun cu prietenii si, Kyle, influenat de zvonuri/legende urbane privind ce au obinut
alii prin intermediul acestui joc, ncearc s schimbe un brad furat din fondul local pentru Crciun astfel nct s
obin o main! Primul eec privind intenia de troc l descurajeaz, inndu-l departe de
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Se poate considera c i Kyle este supus unor probe privind tentaia (de a pune capt
schimburilor, bucurndu-se de unele oferte de-a dreptul ispititoare), privind transportul
generatorului electric, privind posibilitatea de a obine o cas contra publicitii (prin
abandonarea jocului), privind realizarea unui troc n singurul loc de pe pmnt despre care a
declarat c nu-i dorete s fac acest lucru (n Yahk, Columbia Britanic).
Ambele personaje se dovedesc victorioase n final, n ciuda situaiei iniiale,
dobndind bunuri materiale care le permit att s-i depesc nevoia, ct i percepia
celorlali asupra lor (n special, a cititorului).
*
n afara trocului care apropie basmul Jack i vrejul de fasole de Agrafa roie,
dovedindu-se deosebit de inspirat n ambele situaii, protagonitii acestor dou opere se
nrudesc, la modul simbolic, prin inocena i tria ncrederii pe care o au n faptul c, pe
fiecare, trocul l va conduce la succes, n final. Nici Jack, nici Kyle, nu are procese de
contiin privind moralitatea aciunii sale, n basm fiind aproape o uzan ca protagonistul,
dup ce a cptat simpatia cititorului, s recurg la soluii neortodoxe pentru a-i realiza elul,
pentru ca, n Agrafa roie, problema moralitii obinerii unei case pornind de la un obiect cu
valoare infim s nu fie adus deloc n discuie, dat fiind faptul c protagonistul i ajut pe
oameni s-i ndeplineasc dorinele i c un obiect valoreaz doar att ct este dispus
altcineva s-i ofere pentru el, iar dac nu schimbi ceva pe bani nu ai cum s ataezi acelui
obiect o valoare monetar (MacDonald, Kyle, Agrafa roie, ed. cit., p. 277).
i acest basm, ca i opera hibrid Agrafa roie, ofer cititorului posibilitatea de a-i
satisface la modul simbolic nevoia de aventur i de a empatiza cu protagonistul, ns, la o
atent analiz a faptelor, cel puin din perspectiva moralitii navuirii, aciunile nu se pot
constitui n exemple demne de urmat. Att pedepsirea personal a cpcunului/uriaului (fr
ca acesta s-l fi prejudiciat personal/direct3), prin furtul de ctre Jack al averii acestuia (gina
care fcea ou de aur; monede), ct i specularea dorinelor/poftelor unor persoane fie
generoase, fie naive, pentru propriul interes, sunt comportamente care, dac ar fi generalizate,
ar leza demnitatea uman, nefiind, credem, acceptate de nicio religie legal recunoscut i nici
de multe legislaii n vigoare.
Totui, atractivitatea acestor opere i ncrederea c cititorul este capabil s
discrimineze ntre art i via, ntre verosimil i adevrat, fac ca lectura lor s fie agreabil i
motivat din punct de vedere estetic.
Inserarea coninuturilor unor mesaje primite prin e-mail, n volum, pentru a conferi
autenticitate povetii, chiar dac rareori are efect comic, trimite la tehnica narativ
caragialian prin care telegramele, procesul verbal, darea de seam i reportajul 4 au fost
asimilate literaturii beletristice. n cteva dintre aceste mesaje ale crii Agrafa roie,
mecanismele alegerilor din cadrul aciunii i gsesc o reflectare - la Brittany: Dei cred i eu
c globul de zpad a fost un pas napoi, apreciez faptul c, pe parcurs, ajui oamenii s-i
mplineasc visele. Cum ai spus i tu de persoana care moare de sete n deert ce are mai
mult valoare pentru acel om?? un milion de dolari sau un pahar cu ap? // Dac ar fi att
de uor s schimbi repede agrafe pe case, probabil c toat lumea ar face asta. Nu-i vorba de
destinaie aici, ci despre cltoria pn acolo. (MacDonald, Kyle, Agrafa roie, ed. cit., pp.
265-266) sau la Jay: Cred c majoritatea fanilor ti nu neleg despre ce e vorba aici.
Scopul nu e ctigarea unei case, e nsui cltoria spre acea cas. (ibidem, p. 266)
n unele variante ale acestui basm, uriaul i dobndise averea prin uciderea i spolierea tatlui eroului v.
http://www.lecturirecenzate.ro/2014/08/jack-si-vrejul-de-fasole/ (vizitat: 7.02.2015)
4
v. I. L. Caragiale, Telegrame, Proces-verbal, Urgent, Reportaj, Groaznica sinucidere din strada Fideliii
etc.
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Protagonistul nsui, ntr-un mesaj, mrturisete scopul proiectului su: este vorba
despre oameni, nu despre valoarea de pia a unor obiecte (ibidem, p. 272). Chiar cei doi
termeni inventai de el distractenial (distracie+potenial ibidem, p. 107) i furiozitate
(combinaie rar de furie/oc/curiozitate/perplexitate de neexplicat ibidem, p. 273)
vorbesc despre strile i/sau sentimentele generate de Agrafa roie.
Schimburile iniiale din volumul lui Kyle MacDonald se nscriu ns n jocul Bigger
and better, ceea ce presupunea ca obiectul deinut s fie schimbat cu unul mai mare i mai
bun. Curnd ns personajul va schimba din regulile jocului, denumind noul joc chiar Agrafa
roie, nelegnd c ceea ce putea obine nu trebuia s fie neaprat mai mare i nici mcar
neaprat obiect, prin mai bun lsnd s se neleag ceva mai dezirabil, mai avantajos.
Aa cum mrturisete autorul, ceea ce este minunat n modul n care i atinge idealul
este ns cltoria pn acolo (ibidem, coperta 2). Iar aceast cltorie constituie pentru
cititor att o aventur livresc fascinant, ct mai ales un prilej de reflecie, de analiz, uneori
de introspecie, de a empatiza cu protagonistul, de satisfacie, de uimire, de admiraie, de
insolitare, poate i de dezamgire, dar i de informare, de formare, poate chiar de iniiere
Marketul este privit din perspectiv psihologic, dar i filosofic, naratorul artnd c
Un obiect valoreaz doar att ct este dispus altcineva s-i ofere pentru el, iar dac nu
schimbi ceva pe bani nu ai cum s ataezi acelui obiect o valoare monetar (ibidem, p. 277).
Exist ns numeroase alte reflecii, situate, de regul, la finele fiecrui capitol, unele cu
aparen de concluzii, mici sinteze sau metacogniii, altele fiind expresii neaoe le experienei
colective (Uneori ai nevoie de un pas napoi, pentru a face unul nainte ibidem, p. 278)
sau chiar confesiuni automotivante (Cteva cuvinte bune sau un simplu act de generozitate
pot fi tot ce are nevoie un om ca s poat merge mai departe ibidem, p. 330).
Meninerea regulii din jocul iniial ca schimbul s se fac personal (nu prin
intermediari) constituie unul dintre argumentele motivante ca tot mai muli oameni s-i
doreasc trocul, chiar dac, aparent, pentru ei acesta este dezavantajos. Comunicarea,
relaionarea, cunoaterea, socializarea, care nsoesc schimbul sau decurg din el
contrabalanseaz cu mult orice valoare material. Shawn, personajul care ofer aragazul (n
cadrul celui de-al treilea schimb), recunoate: Nu despre bunuri e vorba. Ideea e s ne
petrecem timpul mpreun, aa ca acum.// Povetile sunt cele mito (ibidem, p. 68).
Aceeai idee se deduce cu uurin i din ceea ce se constituie n cele mai atractive oferte ale
protagonistului: o dup-amiaz cu Alice Cooper i un rol ntr-un film. A petrece cteva ore cu
un star, pe lng privilegiul siturii n preajma acelei celebriti i al mprtirii simbolice a
condiiei sale, este i un bun prilej de a comunica i de a te comunica, de a-i verifica anumite
teorii pe care le ai despre ceilali, de a-i raporta sinele la cel al cuiva pe care l admiri i pe
care l resimi ca pe un graiat de ctre divinitate, ca pe un om plcut lui Dumnezeu, situat, din
acest punct de vedere, mai presus dect majoritatea covritoare a celorlali muritori.
Rolul ntr-un film nu motiveaz att pentru dobndirea celebritii (care are i foarte
multe neajunsuri mai cu seam cnd nu se asociaz unei bunstri excedentare), nici pentru
sperana unui ctig material extraordinar, ct pentru ansa de a fi altcineva, de a avea fie i
temporar un alt rol i un alt traiect existenial dect al individului atestat n plan social-istoric
prin acte de tare civil, experimentnd noi stri, triri i sentimente, relaionnd altfel dect cu
propriile replici, raportndu-te la lume prin prisma altei mini, lsndu-te condus de scenarist,
de regizor i de cei care te costumeaz i te machiaz, spre alte orizonturi dect cel pe care i
l-ai asumat individual.
Este uor de intuit atractivitatea subiectului crii fa de cititorii tineri, att prin
numrul mare de volume vndute, prin numrul mare al accesrii site-urilor menionate n
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volum5, prin traducerile generate, ct mai ales pentru c majoritatea covritoare a

adolescenilor i tinerilor manifest tranant dorina mbogirii ct mai rapide cu putin i cu
un minimum de efort investit.
Protagonistul proiectului, dei fixeaz o limit temporal a realizrii scopului su, se
dovedete a nu fi lipsit de scrupule, ci, dimpotriv, un om onest i perseverent n anunatul su
demers. Ar fi putut uor obine o cas de la o companie imobiliar creia s-i fac publicitate,
ns pentru el este mai important principiul jocului, s manifeste consecven i fidelitate n
crezul su privitor la selectarea ofertelor, sau mai degrab a ofertanilor, fa de ctigul
imediat, care i-ar fi dezamgit i pe fanii si i ne-ar fi privat de o poveste, cu att mai
mult cu ct, discutnd cu Shawn, recunoate: i eu vd schimburile ca pretext pentru
aventuri (idem).
Kyle i atrage astfel i simpatia i aprecierea i casa mult visat, petrecerea de
inaugurare a acestei casei fiind gritoare n acest sens, prin numrul mare al participanilor i
prin iniiativele pe care le au.
Demersul su demonstreaz cu prisosin relativitatea bunurilor materiale, fascinaia
jocului, importana urmririi cu perseveren a idealului respectnd principii civice dezirabile,
dar i uriaul capital de simpatie, de empatie i de generozitate de care se bucur.
Cartea este uor subsumabil literaturii pentru copii, mai cu seam segmentului de
vrst 9 15 ani. ns, aa cum stau lucrurile cu basmul (cea mai dificil specie literar
privind analiza), subtextul se poate adresa oricrui cititor, inocent sau experimentat, pentru c,
n fond, se situeaz sub semnul experimentului, rspunznd att nevoii de aventur (fie ea i
livresc!), ct i dorinei de cunoatere.
ntreg coninutul ilustreaz (sau se vrea) o continu ntreptrundere ntre literatur i
via, ceea ce vectorizeaz firul epic fiind un fapt mundan banal, ns interstiiile in de o
profunzime atent ocultat (poate chiar la modul incontient). Oricum, de la Formalitii rui
este fr echivoc faptul c o oper spune mai mult dect autorul ei i altceva dect a vrut s
spun acesta.
Prin ntindere/dimensiune, cartea este un roman, prin construcia pe un singur plan
epic i participarea naratorului la aciune, cartea este o povestire, prin fabulosul subiectului i
subtitlu, este o poveste, iar prin multiplele dovezi ale autenticitii pe care le conine
(fotografii, date, locuri, titluri de publicaii, site-uri, denominaii etc.), cartea se constituie ntrun document motivaional.
Bibliografie
1. Caragiale, I. L., Momente, schie, notie critice, Ed. Minerva, Bucureti, 1983, pp.
115-125; 135-146, 162-175 (Groaznica sinucidere din strada Fidelitii; Telegrame,
Proces-verbal; Urgent, Reportaj)
2. Creang, Ion, Dnil Prepeleac (Poveste), n vol. Poveti. Amintiri, Ed. Minerva,
Bucureti, 1985, pp. 29-41
3. Jacobs, Joseph, Jack i vrejul de fasole, Trad. Pavel Iselin-Mioara, Ed. Eduard,
Constana, 2014
4. MacDonald, Kyle, Agrafa roie. Povestea unui tnr care, pornind de la o agraf de
birou, a fcut troc pn a reuit s-i ia o cas, trad. Bogdan Odgescu, Ed. Philobia,
Bucureti, 2012
Surse web
Pagina http://oneredpaperclip.blogspot.ro/ a nregistrat, din data de 12 iulie 2005, 10.391 938 vizitatori
(consultat: 27.01.2015, h 15,45)
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http://oneredpaperclip.blogspot.ro/ (consultat: 27.01.2015)

http://www.lecturirecenzate.ro/2014/08/jack-si-vrejul-de-fasole/ (vizitat: 7.02.2015)
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CONTACT ETHICS FOR TRANSLATORS

Attila IMRE
Sapientia University of Trgu-Mure
Abstract: The present article tries to present the importance of contact ethics, mentioning six
types of contact: mail, phone, e-mail, video, social network and cold contacting. The article
discusses the advantages of each type, highlighting the importance of e-mail ethics and the
possibilities of social networks. The conclusion mentions the difficulties of contacting possible
clients, due to the advertisement and propaganda tactics applied by the media.
Keywords: translator, contact, ethics, deadline, client.
Introduction
Managing clients is one of the vital activities for translators in order to maintain their
business. That is why the notion of contact ethics refers to at least six different types of
contact with (prospective) clients. Thus we would like to discuss issues of mail ethics
(traditional), phone ethics (standard voice-based), e-mail ethics (standard text-based), video
ethics (appearance-based), social network ethics (modern) and cold contacting.
From todays prism, a somewhat overenthusiastic introduction to contacting people is
the following:
Thanks to the Internet, professionals from all over the world can be in regular contact
by email or various forms of instant messaging. Work can be sent and received electronically,
across national and cultural borders. This has several consequences: First, in theory, you can
work for clients anywhere in the world. The market for translations need not be your city or
your country... All you have to do is list your name, language combinations and areas of
specialization on one of the many web sites that aim to put translators and clients in touch
with each other. One would expect this process to lead to a situation where the fees paid for
translations will become virtually the same all over the world, in keeping with theories of a
global market. This, however, is very far from happening. (Biau Gil & Pym, 2006, p. 7)
We can agree that the last sentence is rather sobering. The task of the translator is still
to serve the reader (Imre, 2013, p. 95). The intended effect of translating a text (Benjamin,
2000, p. 19) makes sense only if the translator has potential clients. Hence we can say that
contacting them is still vital for the translation business, even if you'll have weeks where you
want to unplug your phone so that clients will stop calling, and weeks where you feel like
you'll never be called by a client again (McKay, 2006, p. 63).
1. Mail ethics
Although mail ethics is listed as a possible traditional text-based contact option, in our
opinion its use is rather limited. Many people remember that decades ago the mail address
represented one of the most reliable contact option (together with the phone). However, today
this is different, mail addresses are usually considered private and should we know someones
mail address, it should not be used for business purposes. Rsums used to contain mail
addresses, but not any more. If they are preserved, they are strictly limited to office mail
address. In conclusion we strongly discourage contacting anyone via his/her personal mail
address. Even if we would like to send a greeting card, the office mail address should do.
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Mail ethics thus usually means relatively short written texts with a clear particular
message, paying attention to important details, such as the heading, salutation, or the reason
for contacting the person. As mails are now considered traditional (almost old-fashioned
enough to be considered classy), we must have a very good reason to use this way of business
communication, which should be specified in the content of the mail/letter. The distinction
between formal and informal letters should be remembered, as ignorance is not an excuse
(e.g. salutation).
2. Phone ethics
Living in the age of cutting edge technology, many predicted the end of obsolete
standard (only) voice-based contact options, such as phones. Many sci-fi movies from the
1970s contained scenes with video calls, which has turned reality in the meantime. However,
on the one hand, phones have turned into smart phones for the past decade, taking over many
functions from personal computers and notebooks. There are even in-between options, such as
tablets and phablets. On the other hand, traditional phones may still be purchased from a
variety of reasons. Seemingly, landline phones are a must for respectable companies, even for
small contractors having an office. Furthermore, customer psychology highlights the
advantage of only voice contacts, as it is much easier to hide our intentions.
Phone ethics includes proper timing for calls (taking into consideration time zones)
and strictly during office hours, not very early and not very late. The length of a phone call
should not be too long, but it may be extended based on the clients needs. The major
advantage of contacting someone via the phone (in an instance) should be proportional to the
desired aim. If the client is willing to answer the phone, it may be the fastest way to reach our
goal. However, phone calls may not be used for taking really important decisions: a translator
may not expect from the client to offer certain answers this way. Phone calls are suitable for
establishing meetings or reminding each other certain things (such as deadlines) and they
should be considered as such.
3. E-mail ethics
Since the invention of social networks, e-mails are not considered to be very
fashionable among the majority of Internet users, yet they are highly used among
professionals. Before the appearance of cloud-based services (Dropbox, Google Drive, Copy,
etc.), attaching documents to e-mails was a very important feature even with the danger of
attaching viruses. Consequently, this text-based contact option has more components when
ethics is concerned: creating an e-mail address, setting the e-mail software, sending e-mails
(text-producing), attachments and replying e-mails.
3.1. Creating an e-mail address
Creating an e-mail address seems to be easy at first sight. However, if we have in mind
professionalism, we have to consider certain aspects. First of all, the rationale for creating an
e-mail address is for keeping in touch with people, in our case business contacts. This means
that the e-mail address should look as professional as possible. The most plausible option is to
use our first name and last name (or their initials); if we have our own webpage (a
professional requirement), then we can have the webpage name as the domain name followed
by the dot section: johnsmith@smithtranslations21stcentury.com. The address may be
funny, within reasonable limits (nicknames), and it should not contain personal information,
such as the owners birth year, birthday, the start year of translation, etc. The key idea here is
to easily remember the address, so special characters (underscore, asterisk, etc.) should be
eliminated. Let us remember the last time when we had to tell our e-mail address during a
telephone conversation with significant background noise.
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Non-professional e-mail addresses may be used with friends, relatives, or people we

have no business contacts with. Deterrent e-mail addresses for professional communication
are of various types (including abusive names of cultural, religious, etc. background), such as
iamgod@anywhere.com
(English),
celmaitaregagiu@pepamant.ro
(Romanian),
bociazisten666@gmail.com (Hungarian). To sum up, building trust may start with a proper email address.
3.2. Writing and sending an e-mail
The ethics of e-mail texts comprises all the aspects mentioned in the mail ethics
section, with several important additions. One of them is the character encoding problem, as
in case the character settings of e-mails are not proper, the client may not be able to read it. At
present two of the most typical character settings are Unicode or Central European (ISO) in
Europe (to avoid seeing a string of various icons, shapes and signs instead of a language
specific letter), but depending on the clients needs, this may be changed to Japanese, Arabic,
etc.
The subject line should be short and contain the essence of the message, offering the
client the possibility to remember the content of the message after having it read.
Kis & Mohcsi offer further recommendations: e-mail texts should be always
unformatted text document, without links, and without using .rtf or html formats. The authors
advice in case of important text-parts: use separator lines, or special symbols/characters to
highlight (Kis & Mohcsi-Gorove, 2008, p. 28).
The style of e-mail should be always formal or the most fairly informal. Never use
impolite remarks or slang, paying a particular attention to spelling (always with diacritical
marks). Should a translator formulate a text with spelling mistakes or without diacritical
marks, it may result in the question: What if he/she commits the same mistakes during
translation as well? The answer is obvious.
The e-mail message should be short, strict to the point, polite and firm, ending with
various contact details: full name, position, office address, phone number (even multiple
options from different service providers) to offer the prospective client a variety of
possibilities to contact you. This may be easily set by the automatic signature option (even in
two languages, having in mind translation).
To round it off, it is also good to know the carbon copy (CC) or blank carbon copy
(BCC) options. Expert users in the long run may even go further and explore particular
options to save the address book in Outlook (Express), text file (LDIF, .tab, .csv, .txt) or
vCard file (.vcf); this comes very handy before reinstalling the operating system. Further
options may include ask for confirmation of received mail and handling attachments, leading
us to the next section.
3.3. Attachments
Adding various types of files to e-mails is often needed in case of translation jobs.
That is why certain rules apply here as well. From the outset, we should remember not to
name files with diacritical marks, as they may result in a string of various signs and symbols,
especially when archived (zipped, compressed) and opened using a different computer.
According to the experts, we should never attach .doc(x), .html, .htm, .rtf, .exe files, even if
we have to attach a single file; thus compression is advisable, otherwise they may be virussuspect (Kis & Mohcsi-Gorove, 2008, pp. 2130). Furthermore, certain clients may require
to add a password to open attachments (in case of very important documents), the key for
which should be sent in a separate e-mail. This may sound paranoid, but who knows?
A further advantage of compression is that two or more files belonging to the same
project are easier to store this way (or a backup copy, which is advisable at all times). In this
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respect, 7zip is an excellent tool (freeware) to compress files into .zip format (unless a
different format is required, for instance .rar), which can be easily opened running using
various operating systems. Compressing files before sending them is also advisable in case of
larger files, as the typical maximum attachable size is around 25 MB. Anything larger than
that size, should be sent via cloud storage services or online upload sites (e.g. wetransfer.com,
fastupload.ro, toldacuccot.hu).
3.4. Receiving and replying an e-mail
Professional translators check their mailbox at regular intervals (at least once a day).
This includes junk mail section and spam as well (messages from unknown addresses may
easily end up here). After having received the mail, we should always confirm it, which
means that we have already checked the attachment(s), downloaded and successfully opened
them. It may be embarrassing to notice the sender shortly before the deadline that there are
problems with accessing a file (meaning that we have not even tried to work on it in due
time).
If it is true that A stitch in time saves nine., then it should be applied to downloading
files to particular folders where we can easily find them. All popular web browsers (Google
Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, etc.) have the option of selecting the download location each time
before download (and not use automatically the Downloads folder). If the attachment contains
the translation job, a short confirmation will do, promising a price offer within reasonable
limits of time (24-48 hours). This entails that no translation job should be ever accepted
without having it entirely seen/checked first (Kis & Mohcsi-Gorove, 2008, p. 22). Failing to
answer an e-mail within 48 hours may lead to losing the particular translation job, or even
losing the client. If the translation job cannot be carried out in due time or we are not satisfied
with the terms of service offered by the client a polite refusal should be formulated (if
possible with alternatives, such as trying their luck with other translators).
In case we have no Internet access for a longer period of time (e.g. vacation), the
automatic vacation response should be activated in which we can specify when we are to
access our e-mails the earliest.
In case of clenching a successful deal, when sending the translated file(s), we should
always thank the client the opportunity, encouraging them to further cooperation. Those who
do not feel themselves comfortable with that may lose clients without realizing why.
A final thought in this section is connected to time management. McKay warns us that
too much time may be spent in front of the computer reading and responding to e-mails
(McKay, 2006, p. 66): Unless you're expecting an important message, give yourself a set
time to check e-mail, for example every hour on the hour for a maximum of ten minutes. If
we have separate e-mail account(s) for private mailing, this is not too difficult a piece of
advice to follow.
4. Video ethics
Although not very typical, clients might initiate a video call, which is appearancebased contact. In this case we should follow a certain dress code, which also involves a
background check: the client should not see anything disturbing behind us. The popular video
contact options (Yahoo! Messenger, Skype, Facebook, etc.) may save time and energy, but we
should use this option only in case the client initiates it and we are comfortable with that. The
client may have reasons to contact us directly: first time assignment, establishing trust, etc.,
and we should be always prepared properly for this type of contact.
5. Social network ethics
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Social networking although not considered professional yet is most fashionable

contact option at present. The advantages include file sharing (documents of all types), video
contact and a rather valuable network of further possible contacts. This all-in-one option
seemingly makes all the previous ones obsolete, except for the fact that the mid-generation
and the older ones seem to be reluctant to accept the concept and use it (Facebook, Twitter,
etc.).
Although Facebook has more than 1.3 billion users worldwide and there is the slogan
if you are not on Facebook, you dont exist1, we should not forget that it is not a
professional association, after all. Many would mention here LinkedIn, which may be
categorized as an in-between option for gathering professionals within a (social) network area.
Even if companies may want to take advantage of the possible clients on social
networks, translators should not use it for cold contacting possible friends. However, this
problem leads us to the last section.
6. Cold contacting
Although marketing strategies encourage beginners to cold contact whenever and
wherever possible (even if with a selected target), this may look like a desperate solution. Of
course, a novice translator has to take advantage of all the possibilities of contacting potential
clients, but this cannot go on for many years. We cannot agree that translators have to cold
contact all their lives as this possibly hallmarks their quality. Keeping clients is a sign of
professionalism, and we strongly believe that they will spread the word, so translators are
not constrained to cold contact for eternity.
Cold contacting may be carried on through all the possible contact channels mentioned
in the previous sections and extremely many books and sites deal with the know-how,
including respectable ones in the field.2
In theory, the ethics of cold contacting is relatively simple: try not to be too
aggressive, and make use of the advantage of the chosen contact option: text, voice, or
appearance, and offer the possibility to get back to you through a variety of channels. Instead
of a direct contact, our recommendation for the best cold contact is a convincing professional
website, which was already designed having in mind potential clients. The website should be
at least bilingual and in English (if this is not one of the two languages), for the search
engines. The website should provide a professional resume in at least two languages, services,
the equipment used (hardware and mainly software: operating system, text-editing, CATtools), referrals (if possible from respectable clients), samples from previous translations and
rates applied. Of course, this may be completed with something unique, for instance useful
links.3
7. Conclusions
In an age of distrust having been caused by the ways advertising and propaganda
developed in the last century, contacting people has turned into a certain type of know-how.
The inventor of the consumerist culture, Edward Bernays, spread an infection that is mastered
artfully in the present-day media: print, movies, television or cable news (West, 2012). When
discussing the translators responsibility, Kuhiwchak (2003, p. 116) states that A truly
professional translator needs to know languages, but also the social norms, reading habits, and
stylistic preferences of the culture from which he takes, as well as of the one to which he
1
http://courses.casmlab.org/snafall2012/if-youre-not-on-facebook-you-dont-exist/, 16. 01. 2015.

http://www.forbes.com/sites/francesbridges/2013/08/01/how-to-write-a-cold-e-mail/, 16. 01. 2015.
3
For
instance:
http://www.ssendelbach.com/index.html,
http://zachar.jimdo.com/deutsch/,
http://www.love2translate.com/ro/.
2
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contributes. We think that contact ethics may be also added to the list. To sum up, in our
view professional translators have to build trust in a very severe environment, and a step-bystep application of contact ethics described above may be a solution.
References
Benjamin, W. (2000). The task of the translator. In L. Venuti (Ed.), H. Zohn (Trans.),
The Translation Studies Reader (1st ed., pp. 1525). London and New York: Routledge.
Biau Gil, J. R., & Pym, A. (2006). Technology and Translation. A pedagogical
overview. In Translation Technology and its Teaching (with much mention of localization)
(pp. 519). Tarragona: Intercultural Studies Group.
Imre, A. (2013). Traps of Translation. Braov: Editura Universitii Transilvania.
Kis, B., & Mohcsi-Gorove, A. (2008). A fordt szmtgpe. Bicske: Szak Kiad.
Kuhiwchak, P. (2003). The Troubled Identity of Literary Translation. In Translation
Today: Trends and Perspectives (pp. 112124). Multilingual Matters.
McKay, C. (2006). How to Succeed As a Freelance Translator. Lulu.com.
West, N. (2012, January 12). 10 Modern Methods of Mind Control. Retrieved January
20, 2015, from http://truththeory.com/2012/01/12/10-modern-methods-of-mind-control/
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Issue no.6/2015
THE WORKSHOP AS AN EDUCATIONAL APPROACH IN STUDENT SCIENTIFIC

ACTIVITIES
Maria Dorina PACA
University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Trgu-Mure
Abstract: By his approach the educational workshop is how the student, in our case, from
medicine comes in contact with a source of information by which relations that are
established receive a special connotation. Otherwise by the theme and horizon of knowledge
the student acquires new information designed to meet the needs of personal and social
identity Focused solely on psychotherapy and knowledge and personal development, this
paper presents the educational strategies and results ultimately lead to student-trainer
relationship to acquire other assets.
Keywords: student interaction, topic, attitude, communication
Dup DEX (1978), cuvntul workshop are la baz englezescul workshop, nsemnnd:
grup de lucru, atelier, ceea ce denot faptul ca implicit, avem de-a face cu un grup de
persoane ce se adapteaz la anumite condiii i cerine metodologice, astfel nct
tema/tematica propus s-i gseasc finalitatea la momentul oportun.
Workshop-ul dobndete astfel calitatea de strategie educaional, fapt ce l claseaz n
categoria activitilor nonformale, dndu-i identitatea i specifitatea momentului, adic
surprind, dezbat sau execut concentrat (timp limitat) un item ce a suscitat din partea unui grup
de indivizi, la un moment dat.
n acest context workshop-ul are o bogat diversitate de abordri, att din punct de
vedere al:
tematicii
timpului de desfurare, durata
locaia ambiental creat
formatorilor
grupului int
numrului de participani
metodologia folosit
astfel nct, reuim s rspundem la ecuaia cunoaterii, pornind de la :
ce tem alegem? (ca informaie)
cine alege tema?
cine ine tema? (ca formatori)
cnd are loc workshop-ul? (ca timp)
unde se desfoar worlshop-ul? (ca locaie)
cum se desfoar workshop-ul? (ca modalitate strategico-educaional)
de ce e necesar a susine acest workshop? (motivaia apare att intrinsec ct i
extrinsec, fapt ce determin luarea nu numai a unei decizii viznd ntrebrile
anterioare, ci i a atitudinii ce comport conduite i comportamente peda-psiho-sociale
menite a-i determina participantului un demers nou spre concepia i valoarea viitoarei
sale identitii i nu numai).
Pentru a susine/desfura un workshop e nevoie de: curaj, proesionalism i
responsabilitate deoarece legatura de feedback dintre emitor (E) i receptor (R) dobndete
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noi valene educaionale. Astfel, studentul se exprima altfel, responsabilizeaz, comunic,

relaioneaz i de ce nu, poate lua o decizie, devenind important prin el nsui.
Din ce, el devine cine, deoarece ne-am centrat pe noua sa identitate. Faptul c
formatorul (profesorul) se manifest ntr-o nou not conceptual, face ca interesul,
curiozitatea, creativitatea i chiar trsturi caracteriale, s-l defineasc, ca fiind un partener de
discuii, flexibil i foarte bun profesionist.
Folosit n condiii de cert valoare profesional, workshop-ul este o reuit a unui nou
demers educaional, implementarea lui la maniestri tiinifice studeneti, considerm c este
consecina competenie i valorii nu numai tiinifice, dar mai ales, umane.
S-a ncetenit deja bunul obicei ca n cadrul manifestrilor tiinifice studenteti
organizate i desfurate de ctre Universitatea de Medicin i Farmacie din Trgu Mure, s
fie prezente aproape la toate disciplinele preclinice i clinice workshopurile, ca modaliti
de interaciune student formator i nu numai, urmrindu-se de fapt, o noua strategie
educaional viznd implicarea i implementarea de noi optici din partea actorilor mediului
universitar.
Astel, la demersul teoretic menionat anterior, cazuistica n fapt, vine a da girul
reuitei atunci cnd: tematica, mesajul, informaia, grupul i nsui formatorul, suscit interes
pentru cel dornic de a cunoate mai mult, sub varii aspecte, metode i procedee mai mult sau
mai puin didactice.
Tematica, n cazul nostru, a vizat n primul rnd elementele legate de cunoaterea
liniilor generale a ceea ce reprezint domeniul psihoterapiilor, n special a celor
compartimentate n terapii prin arte combinate i terapii ocupaionale dar i incursiuni
strategice privind rolul i locul ntrebrilor n comunicarea medic-pacient, puterea cuvantului
n aceeai relaionare, neuitnd n final i momentul important al autocunoaterii i
autoevalurii.
Sub asemenea auspicii ca tematici, s-au desfurat workshopurile care au avut:
durata de 2 ore
grupul int: studeni UMF
data: legat de context
sala amfiteatrele universitii
ora cu precadere cea la care interesul i curiozitatea sunt la cote maxime.
Au fost alese temele amintite anterior n urma unui mic sondaj n rndul studenilor
UMF-iti, astfel nct s-a putut rspunde, interesului pe care l-au manifestat, subliniindu-se
faptul c, sub asemenea prezentri se pot facilita intrrile directe, spre cunoatere,
implicare, dar mai ales, responsabilizarea n timp fa de pacient. Faptul c prini de val, s-a
depit durata de timp fixat la nceput, atmosfera a creat cadrul nou de manifestare i
ntrebarea i rspunsul au fcut cas bun mpreun, a demostrat ncodat c logistica
educaional aplicat n cadrul desfurrii unor asemenea manifestri tiinifice studeneti,
trebuie s ne centreze pe nevoile lor intelectuale i spirituale viznd formarea pentru viitor,
ponind chiar de la: Ce? Cum? Cnd? Unde? De ce? dar mai ales Cine? n ideea de a fi
cineva, i nu ceva.
Considerm c din punct de vedere metodologic, e binevenit a prezenta reperele dup
care au fost realizate workshop-urile ca atare. Este de menionat faptul c, toate activitile
susinute, au avut o structur interna, binedefinit pornindu-se de la:
a) exerciii de nceput tip spargerea gheii
b) introducerea n tematic n mod gradat, jocul i exerciiul adecvat, fiind
prezent i acceptat
c) prezena obligatorie a ctorva elemente de baz, ca teorie, legate de tema
propriu-zisa (scop, obiective, metode, identiti specifice) este binevenit
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d) activiti practice propriu-zise, viznd realizarea itemilor propui prin

implicarea directa a participanilor (studenilor)
e) ncheierea activitii prin prezentarea/expunerea lucrrilor/produselor
realizate pe durata workshop-ului, aprecieri individuale i de grup,
realizarea fedback-ului, menionnd ca au fost atinse cele propuse
f) exercitiu de ncheiere tip strngeri de mn, salutul, mbriri
`
Dorina noastr nu este de a abloniza desfurarea de workshop-uri ci de a
lsa deschis modalitatea lor de desfurare, finalitile fiind cele care trebuie s-i ating
scopul propus i s dea verdictul reuitei att pentru student ct i pentru moderator, iar
experiena ce-am acumulat-o pn n prezent, ne d certitudinea c putem mprtii i altora
din rezultatele dobandite n a desfura i organiza workshop-uri n cadrul manifestrilor
tiinifice UMF Trgu Mure, avnd ca i punct de plecare cunotinele psihologiei
medicale, comunicare i relaionare medic-pacient ct i elemente de psihoterapii.
Vom trece astfel, de a prezenta sub o form structurat, sumarul workshop-urilor
susinute, ct i scopul, obiectivele i metodele aferente:
1. Terapii prin arte combinate
a) Stimularea prin arte combinate reprezint o metoda de intervenie recuperatorie,
care propune realizarea unor sesiuni de stimulare prin: arte vizuale, joc, micare,
muzic i teatru. Unul din punctele forte ale tehnicilor de stimulare prin arte
combinate, l reprezint faptul c pentru beneficiarii cu deficiene, orice exerciiu
devine o joac, totul realizndu-se natural, fr s li se par ca depun vreun efort
considerabil.
b) Ca i beneficii, dezvoltarea:
- motricitii generale i a celei fine;
- consolidarea abilitilor manuale;
- orientrii temporo-spaiale;
- stimularea creativitii;
- capacitii de realizare a unor sarcini de grup;
- ncrederii i stimei de sine.
c) Identiti sub forma:
- Terapia prin arte vizuale: presupune parcurgerea unui program complex
de activiti creative care permit dezvoltarea imaginaiei i a ncrederii n
forele proprii
Tehnici folosite: desenul, pictura, modelajul, colajul etc.
- Terapia prin joc: presupune parcurgerea unui program complex de
activiti ludice care ajut la dezvoltarea psiho-motorie a beneficiarului
Tehnici folosite: jocuri de cunoatere, de micare, spargerea gheii etc.
- Terapia prin muzic: presupune parcurgerea unui program structurat pe
activiti muzicale care contribuie la dezvoltarea i exprimarea
personalitii beneiciarului.
- Terapia prin teatru: presupune parcurgerea unui program complex de
activiti spefice teatrului, ce prmite exprimarea sentimentelor
beneficiarului.
Tehnici folosite: teatru de ppui, teatru de umbre, improvizaii pe diferite semne etc.
- Terapia prin micare i dans: presupune parcurgerea unui program
complex de activiti fizice care contribuie la dezvoltarea psihomotricitii,
coordonarea micrilor ct i contientizarea propriului corp.
Ca i scop, tema propus dorete a aduce n faa studentului, cteva elemente
componente ale terapiilor prin arte combinate, folosite att n interrelaia cu pacientul apt din
punct de vedere fizic i psihic, ct i cu cel cu dizabiliti.
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Obiectivele au constat n:
- dezvoltarea capacitii de interrelaionare n grup
- parcurgeea unui traseu psihoterapeutic
- realizarea unei atmosfere de lucru dar i de relaxare a participanilor
- nvarea unor noi tehnici legate de specificul terapiilor prin arte combinate
Ca metode de lucru:
- conversaia
- convorbirea
- demostraia
- exerciiul
La sfritul activitii, toate produsele realizate de studeni din materialele puse la
dispoziie n cadrul atelierului, au fost expuse ntr-o mic expoziie, urmnd ca la ncheierea
aciunii, acestea s le aparin, ca partea adevarat a celor desfurate n cadrul temei
propuse.
2.Terapii ocupaionale povestea terapeutic
a) Povestea terapeutic, Pasca MD (2008), face parte din expresia verbal, ca secven a
terapiilor ocupaionale avnd ca specificitate faptul c: se adreseaz att copiilor ct i
adulilor, nu se citete ci se nareaz i nu se explic. Aplicarea povetii terapeutice,
determin noi conduite i atitudini comportamentale ntr-o anumit secven cognitiv
dat.
b) Cnd este marcat, povestea terapeutic ine cont de:
- unde = locul n care se spune povestea (spaiul)
- cnd = timpul n care se spune povestea (timpul astral)
- cum = modul n care sunt prezentate evenimentele din poveste
(modalitatea de exprimare)
- ct = cantitatea vzut ca i calitate a expresiei verbale (1-2 poveti)
- de cine = persoana care spune povestea (psihoterapeut, psiholog,
psihopedagog special, printe)
- de ce = motivul pentru care se apeleaz la povestea terapeutic (motivaia)
Ca i scop, tema propus dorete a aduce n prim plan, nararea povestea terapeutica ca
modalitate de folosire a cuvntului n rezolvarea de situaii-problem aparute ntr-o
contextualitate cognitiv special.
- dezvoltarea relaiilor interpersonale
- dezvoltarea capacitii de rezolvare probleme
- reducerea strilor depresive
- dezvoltarea gndirii pozitive
- dezvoltarea comunicrii verbale i non-verbale
Ca metode de lucru:
- convorbirea
- conversaia
- demostraia
- exerciiul
Demersul psihoterapeutic al workshop-ului a adus spre finele su, la realizarea de
ctre studeni, prin exerciiu, a unei poveti terapeutice a caror autori au fost, fcnd astfel
palpabil i palpitant participarea lor la activitatea atelierului de lucru.
3.Terapii ocupaionale Grafoterapia
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a) Grafoterapia, Pasca MD i Tia T. (2009) este una dintre cele mai recente
componente a terapiilor ocupaionale, avnd ca instrument de lucru cuvntul, n vederea
obinerii unei detensionri a subiectului ct i soluionarea concret a problemei ce face
obiectul aciunii, readucnd echilibrul interior.
b) Avnd ca beneiciari:
- copilul: - probleme afective
- dificulti de concentrare
- nesigurana
- anxietatea
- adultul: - recuperarea n cadrul unor boli psihice
- accidente vasculare cerebrale
- stadii de afazie
Grafoterapia reuete, att a depista un dezechilibru aprut la un moment dat ct i
modalitile de remediere specifice ei, dac este aplicat n cunotin de cauz i anume:
scrisoarea, fila de jurnal, povestea de via/vieii i creaiile literare .
Ca scop, tema propus ncearc a stabilii parametrii terapeutici n care grafoterapia ca
parte a grafologiei, se implic n tratamentul psihoterapeutic a unor pacienti, contientiznd
importana folosirii ei ntr-o cazuistic dat.
- dezvoltarea spiritului de observaie
- dezvoltarea capacitii de comunicare i relaionare cu pacientul
- determinarea gradului de afectare a scrisului ca exprimare grafic
- depistarea strilor de afect
Ca metode de lucru:
- conversaia
- explicaia
- demostraia
- exerciiul
La sfritul activitii, studenii au reuit a recunoate (ntr-un script demonstrativ
didactic) elementele ce contureaz dezechilibrul aprut ca efect a problemelor declanate.
Totodata, i-au putut depista i remedia acea situaie-problem, folosind una din formele de
aplicare n grafoterapie, aprnd astfel: poezii, povestea unei scrisori de detaare,
demonstrndu-se ncodat, puterea vindecatoare a cuvantului.
4.ntrebrile n comunicarea cu pacientul
a) tiut fiind faptul c ntrebarea n sine i are locul i rolul bine definit n anamnez
i nu numai, am ncercat a o aduce n prim planul comunicri i relaionrii cu pacientul,
renunnd la formele ei clasice de adresare i punnd n prim plan s asculi cu inima, adic
s te implici, pornind de la formula CEDFE Servan-Schreiber D (2007), unde banalul
cotidian se transform ntr-un moment magic. Autorul pornete de la suma lucrurilor
mrunte ca i cauz n unele situaii-problem, ce prin cunoaterea lor, deschid drumul
rezolvrii n contextul comunicrii i relaionrii dintre medic i pacient.
Decodificat, CEDFE, presupune un set de cinci ntrebri, structurate astfel:
1) Ce s-a ntamplat? (pacientul povestete ce i-a produs suferina pe care o are i
practic, se depete un moment dureros)
2) i ce emoie ai resimit? (pacientul retrieste momentul, clipa, fiind important s ne
simt aproape)
3) Ce i s-a parut cel mai greu/mai dificil? (este intrebarea magic deoarece l ajut pe
pacient s se concentreze asupra ntmplrilor care i-au creat, starea n care se afl,
aceasta fiind de multe ori de natura psihic n general afectiv-volitive)
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4) Faci fa? (l ajut pe pacient s se ndrepte spre a gsii resursa proprie de a rezolva
situaia-problem, avnd certitudinea ajutorului nostru, dar fr ca noi a i soluionm
problema)
5) Emapatia (i imprtim sentimentele asigurndu-l c-i suntem aproape, dndu-i
certitudinea c l-am ascultat, nemaifiind singur)
De aceast tehnic de adresare a ntrebrilor, dup unii, atipic, pot beneficia o larg
paleta de pacieni, vrsta nefiind o barier, doar abordarea fcnd diferena i rezultanta.
Ca scop, tema propus i-a dorit a implica direct n comunicarea i relaionarea cu
pacientul, pe viitorul medic, plecnd de la, dupa unii, banala ntrebare.
- dezvoltarea gndirii pozitive
- abordarea tematicii dintr-o nou perspectiv
- comunicarea verbal i non-verbal
- dezvoltarea creativitii
Ca metode de lucru:
- conversaia
- explicaia
- exerciiul
- demostraia
n cadrul activitii , demersul practic a fost elocvent, astfel nct s-a putut demostra c
lucrul mrunt poate declana: dezechilibre, perturbri i discomort, fcnd ca atitudinea
medicului n comunicarea si relaionarea cu pacientul s fie de un alt calibru, dndu-i acesteia
valoarea respectiv, ducnd n sine, la rezolvarea , sau cel puin, depistarea situaiei-problem
existent la un moment dat, fcnd abordarea astfel structurat i integrat n actul anamnezei.
5.Autocunoasterea i autoevaluarea
a) Pentru evoluia noastr ca individ raportat la comunitatea de referin, propria
cunoatere prin valoarea ce o deinem, poate fi considerat la un moment dat, elementul de
facto al personalitii, ce pornete de la: cunoaterea de sine, ncrederea n sine, stima de
sine, i nu n ultimul rnd imaginea de sine. n acest context, paradigma pornete de la , ce
suntem i cine suntem, deternimrile structurale fiind evidente, raportate, de ce nu i la
timp i spaiu.
Ca scop , tematica n sine i-a propus a aborda elementul de autocunoastere i
autoevaluare, ca instrument al oprortunitilor viitoare ale studentului medicinist ct i a
identitii sale.
- contientizarea elementului de cunoatere
- contientizarea elementului de auto-cunoatere
- recunoaterea propriei valori umane
- implementarea unui stil de via
Ca logistic a a activitii desfurate n workshop, s-au avut n vedere cteva idei,
Levi V(1978) privind autocunoaterea i anume:
- Nu te poi schimba n direcia dorit, fr s te studiezi n mod permanent
- Nu te poi studia, fr s ncerci s te schimbi
- Nu te poi studia, fr s studiezi n acelai timp i pe alii
- Nu-l poi studia pe om fiind pasiv fa de el. l poi cunoate cu adevarat
numa-i ajutndu-l
- Nici pe tine i nici pe alii nu-i poi studia dect n activitate i n procesul
comunicrii
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Cunoaterea i autocunoaterea, fiinei umane, n principal, sunt

inepuizabile pentru c omul este un sistem deschis, care se schimb n
permanen i n mod imprevizibil. Mai mult decat orice alt fiin, omul
nu este ci devine.
ntregul demes a fost unul atitudinal astfel nct calitatea i valoarea uman s conduc
spre o identitate personal raportat ntr-o contextualitate dat, ct i la cea social i nu
numai.
Este momentul n care este necesar a remarca faptul ca la ncheierea tuturor
activitilor de workshop, studenii au primit informaii utile viznd o minim bibliografie de
specialitate, menit a facilita ntelegerea itemilor propui n cadrul aciunii desfurate.
Am considerat de cuviin ca prezentarea ca bun practic a workshop-urilor
susinute n cadrul maniestrilor tiinifice studeneti pe secvena congniscibilitii, au
rspuns att cerinelor studenilor ct i a demostrat facptul c aceast modalitate de lucru,
poate i trebuie s devin: viabil, flexibil i s suscite un viu interes, finalitatea fiind de fapt
tradus prin: atitudine, conduit i comportament psiho-social, ntr-un demers dat de aciunea
oportunitii ivit si soluionat n favoarea celor doi actori din mediul universitar: studentul i
cadrul didactic.
-
1.
2.
3.
4.
Bibliografie:
Levi V (1978) Noi i eu, Ed. Didactic i Pedagogic, Bucureti
Paca M.D. (2008) Povestea terapeutic, Ed. V & Integral, Bucureti
Paca M. D.; Tia T. (2009) Psihologie pastoral, vol. II, Ed. Rentregirea, Alba Iulia
DEX (1975), Ed. Academiei, Bucureti
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CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS OF PRESUPPOSITIONS IN DIFFERENT TEXTS

Reka SUBA
Sapientia University of Trgu-Mure
Abstract: The production and decoding of media texts are phenomena that display certain
linguistic and extralinguistic peculiarities. In the case of audiovisual texts, there is a set of
overtly expressed meanings accompanied by a number of hidden, unstated meanings, called
implied or implicated meanings.
This study attempts to make a contrastive analysis of presuppositions on a corpus extracted
from two main types of media texts: the discourse of advertising and radio news, focusing on
the semantic-pragmatic implications of each.
Keywords: preuppositions, implied meaning, types of significations, overt and hidden
meanings and contents
n privina omului contemporan este un fapt evident c marea majoritate a
informaiilor sale sunt coninuturi transmise prin diferite canale mediatice i digitale. ns
informaiile transmise prin mijloacele mass-media sunt informaii selectate i prestructurate,
deoarece aceste mijloace nu pot face altceva, dect s prezinte o parte din nenumratele tiri i
informaii legate de diferite evenimente de peste tot din lume, a discursurilor i enunurilor
referitoare la evenimente, persoane, servicii sau produse.
Referitor la textele informative din audiovizual, fiecare canal de transmisie i creeaz
singur blocurile informative din anumii segmeni informaionali stabilii i determinai de
conceptul su de baz, avnd la dispoziie, pentru selecie, o gam larg de texte i discursuri
dinainte pregtite. Acest act al seleciei este deopotriv un act de specialitate i un act moral,
avnd n vedere cteva aspecte decisive, cum ar fi: actualitatea evenimentului, valoarea
informativ, importana sa, interesul publicului, precum i atractivitatea informaiei.
ntr-o alt ordine de idei, n cazul discursului propagandistic n ultima vreme s-a
constatat c n societile de consum au devenit mult mai importante serviciile dect
produsele; tocmai de aceea propaganda comercial a trecut de la prezentarea principalelor
nsuiri ale unor produse la un nivel mai abstract, i anume de-a oferi soluii la diferite
probleme n locul persuasiunii prin ndemnul direct la cumprare (Harnos 2005: 422).
n continuare facem o ncercare de analiz contrastiv a tirilor radiofonice,
considerate a fi un segment important al informrii publice i a mijloacelor propagandei
comerciale n mass- media, acest tip de text cu o funcie primordial, specific: persuasiunea,
o analiz din punctul de vedere al caracteristicilor textuale, a coninuturilor implicite i cu
ajutorul exemplelor luate n mod aleatoriu dintr-o perioad predefinit din emisiunile
informative ale unor posturi publice de radiodifuziune din Romnia cu emisiuni n limba
maghiar1, precum i de pe site-urile oficiale ale unor companii multinaionale, alese la
ntmplare din diferite domenii comerciale2.
Referitor la limbajul folosit n aceste tipuri de texte putem pleca de la o cerin de baz
asupra limbajului mediatic, i anume c n pofida necesitii de comprimare, ar fi de preferat
un mod de exprimare exact, clar i explicit, cu utilizarea registrului ct mai concret al limbii,
Perioada vizat: 20-27 noiembrie 2014.

Companiile sunt: OTP Bank Romnia (site bilingv), MOL Romnia (site bilingv), cu site-uri monolingve:
McDonalds Romnia, McDonalds Ungaria, Vodafone Romnia, Vodafone Ungaria
1
2
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Issue no. 6/2015
cu o tehnic de redactare care ar urmri succesivitatea limbajului vorbit i care ar putea

constitui un exemplu lingvistic de urmat pentru comunitatea lingvistic.
n cazul blocurilor informative, punctul nostru de plecare este ceea ce Paul Grice
concludea referitor la principiul de baz al conversaiilor, i anume c receptorul se
conformeaz principiului de colaborare (Grice 1997: 213-218), caut concordane ntre
evenimente, fenomene, fapte i acte petrecute, deoarece presupune c se vrea s i se aduc la
cunotin anumite informaii i c schema acestor evenimente sau fapte exist codat n
mesajul textual, ntr-un mod perceptibil i pentru el, iar el, la rndul su, bazndu-se pe
cunotinele sale anterioare, n vederea decodrii coninutului informaional ar trebui s
recreeze exact acea schem (J. Harnos 2002: 147). Aceste scheme a realitilor multiple create
pe de-o parte de redactorul textului, iar pe de alt parte de ctre receptor, prezint discordan
n mai multe privine. Descoperirea coninuturilor textuale - pe lng aspectele legate de
regulile gramaticale, metodele textologice i de cunotinele despre lume, acumulate anterior
are la baz i alte componente, cum ar fi alegerea tipului de discurs, a registrului lingvistic,
abaterile stilistice (i semnificaia acestor abateri) etc.
n cazul propagandei comerciale, funcia de baz a discursului publicitar, adic
persuasiunea, devine mult mai eficient dac semnificaia latent a enunurilor duce la
concluzii cu ajutorul crora receptorul se autoconvinge asupra celor relatate, ca un efect
scontat. Astfel, receptorul devine mai credul, tinde s accepte mai uor coninutul implicit al
enunului, cum c ar fi prerea sa personal; n afara acestui fapt, cercetrile au artat c i
aduce aminte mult mai uor i pentru un timp mai ndelungat de informaiile conchise de ctre
el nsui (Eysenck-Keane 1997). Calea periferic a persuasiunii include i utilizarea anumitor
puncte de vedere emoionale i stilistice, cu ajutorul crora convingerea se va produce prin
schimbri aduse atitudinilor i preconcepiilor receptorului.
Deoarece stilul intr n corelaie direct nu doar cu factorii lingvistici i textuali, ci i
conform concepiei lui Van Dijk (1988) - cu contextul lrgit al enunului, cu condiiile
comunicatorului i cu aspectele sociale general-valabile, deviaia stilistic se poate manifesta
prin diferena fa de schema original, n modalitatea de alegere a lexicului, n deosebirile
modului de structurare sintactic, dar i n rolul jucat n ierarhizarea elementelor constitutive.
Dac privim din perspectiva teoriei actelor de vorbire, putem conclude c pe lng
aceste aspecte, trebuie s inem cont i de coninuturile implicite, n paralel cu semnificaiile
explicite ale enunurilor transmise. Conform constatrilor lingvistului Tolcsvai Nagy Gbor,
aceste semnificaii implicite nu pot fi interpretate la nivel lexical sau textual, ci numai pe baza
cunoaterii situaiei de comunicare. Aceste semnificaii implicite sunt purtate de presupoziii
pragmatice, coninuturi implicite i inferene. Acesta din urm nseamn extragerea unei
concluzii i consecine din diferite premise, coninuturile implicite sunt purtate de acele
enunuri care n anumite situaii de comunicare, pe lng semnificaia lexical, au i un alt fel
de neles, de multe ori fiind n corelaie cu o anumit aciune, iar presupoziia este
reprezentat n text de acea parte textual care se refer la teze i stri de fapte considerate
valabile i adevrate de ctre comunicator i receptor deopotriv, ns fr o explicitare
lingvistic ns (Tolcsvai 1994: 18-19). Structurile i lexemele purttoare de presupoziii pot
fi considerate n acelai timp i structuri presupoziionale (Kiefer 2000: 347). Aadar,
presupoziiile pragmatice, a cror surs este comunicatorul, care la rndul su consider a fi
adevrate presupoziiile purtate de enun, pot fi recunoscute dup mijloacele lingvistice de
transmisie (Levinson 1983, Kiefer 2000: 350-351).
Astfel de structuri i lexeme presupoziionale urmnd clasificarea lui Kiefer Ferenc
(2000: 352-361) - sunt urmtoarele:
- Structuri substantivale hotrte, cu substantive proprii (Romnia, UDMR, Evox,
Chicken Hot etc.), denumirile unor funcii deinute etc., care instituie presupoziii de existen
i unicitatea obiectelor (de exemplu: preedintele UDMR, senatorul social-democrat, Director
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General McDonalds Romnia etc.), grupuri substantivale care conin sufix genitival sau
structuri genitivale (de exemplu: honlapja - site-ul procuraturii; jra kell gondolnia a
romn llamhoz fzd viszonyt - trebuie regndit relaia sa cu statul romn; tervezze meg
a sajt OTP foto card bankkrtyjt - creeaz-i propriul foto card OTP Bank etc.), precum i
adverbe i locuiuni adverbiale de mod cantitative cu funcie substantival (de exemplu:
sszes, mind, valamennyi tot, cu toii, n ntregime; teljes kr pnzgyi szolgltatsok - o
gam complet de servicii etc.).
- Verbe factive, la utilizarea crora presupunem c starea de fapt prezentat este de
necontestat. Predicaiile factive sunt: tud, tudatban van, magtl rtetdik, emlkszik,
eltitkol, elfelejt, sajnl, meglep, elszomort, letagad - tie, este contient de, este de la sine
neles, i amintete, uit, suprinde,, tinuiete, i pare ru, ascunde etc.
Verbele factive aprute n textele informative analizate sunt:
Igazolta Klaus Iohannis megvlasztott elnk mandtumt az Alkotmnybrsg.
(Radio Bucureti, tiri, 21 noiembrie 2014) a confirmat
A rsztvevk aggodalommal veszik tudomsul, hogy tovbbra sem alakult meg a
marosvsrhelyi Orvosi s Gygyszerszeti Egyetem nll magyar tagozata. (Radio
Bucureti, tiri, 21 noiembrie 2014) iau la cunotin
A MRT tiltakozik minden olyan kezdemnyezs ellen, amely a jogersen
visszaszolgltatott erdlyi egyhzi s kzssgi ingatlanok visszallamostsra trekszik.
(Radio Bucureti, tiri, 21 noiembrie 2014) - protesteaz
Enumerm cteva exemple pentru verbe factive luate din comunicatele de pres,
reclamele i promoiile companiilor comerciale analizate:
Big Mac promite de fiecare dat acelai lucru (McDonalds Romnia)
Campania lansat de McDonalds Romnia promoveaz mesajul (McDonalds
Romnia)
Astfel, am decis c Big Mac-ul merit o campanie special (McDonalds Romnia)
McDonalds Romnia i invit consumatorii ntr-o nou cltorie culinar
(McDonalds Romnia)
Mindannyian tisztban vagyunk azzal, hogy mai vilgunkban a j gyek tiszavirg
letek, azonban hisszk, hogy ezen igenis lehet vltoztatni s a nlunk kevsb
szerencsseket is megilleti mindazon jog, amelyeket mi termszetesnek vesznk. - tim c
trim ntr-o lume n care faptele bune nu prisosesc, dar noi avem ncrederea c aceste
aspecte se pot schimba i c putem s le oferim i celor mai puini norocoi drepturile de
care noi ne bucurm. (OTP Bank Romnia)
- Verbe cu aspect incoativ, n cazul folosirii crora aciunea este considerat ca n curs
de a ncepe, care de asemenea pot semnala o schimbare de stare, rezultatul putnd fi o nou
stare sau concomitent o alt calitate. Pot fi verbe activ-dinamice sau derivai din adjectiv (de
exemplu: se nsntoete, se mbolnvete, se orbete, se constituie, se nfrumuseeaz, a se
aeza napoi etc.):
Nyolc katona lett vesztette s ketten slyosan megsebesltek a dleltt, amikor egy
IAR 330 PUMA tpus katonai helikopter lezuhant Szeben megye szaki rszen Almakerk
kzsg kzelben. (Radio Bucureti, tiri, 21 noiembrie 2014) s-au rnit
A hivatalban lv elnk elhrtotta Klaus Johannis megvlasztott llamf felszltst,
hogy hvja vissza a vlasztsok szervezsben rintett nagykveteket. (Radio Bucureti, tiri,
20 noiembrie 2014) a respins, ales
Kivonul a kormnybl az RMDSZ - jelentette be Kelemen Hunor elnk a Szvetsgi
lland Tancs mai, kolozsvri lse utn. (Radio Trgu-Mures, tiri, 27 noiembrie 2014)
prsete
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Mark Attila szerint a ma kihirdetett jogers tlettel visszallamostottk a

sepsiszentgyrgyi Szkely Mik Kollgiumot. (Radio Trgu-Mures, tiri, 26 noiembrie 2014)
au renaionalizat
compania a pornit un proiect n social media (McDonalds Romnia)
tervezze meg a sajt OTP foto card bankkrtyjt - creeaz-i propriul foto
card OTP Bank (OTP Bank Romnia)
Nvelje megtakartsait az OTP Bank befektetsi alapjaival! - Alege s
economiseti (OTP Bank Romnia)
A hideg tli napokon egy Forr alms pite mindig felmelegti a fagyos ujjakat. Ki
szereti forrn? - nclzete degetele reci (McDonalds Ungaria)
- Verbe care exprim reciprocitate sau aciune reiterat, de exemplu:
A 700 ezres erdlyi reformtussgot csaptk arcul, neveztk hazugnak, csalnak, ezrt
az egyhznak jra kell gondolnia a romn llamhoz fzd viszonyt - mondta Kat Bla, az
Erdlyi Reformtus Egyhzkerlet pspke az tlettel kapcsolatosan. a fnvi igenvi
szrmazk alapigje: jragondol, s ez esetben az igekt idzi el az elfeltevst (Radio
Bucureti, tiri, 27 noiembrie 2014) trebuie s regndeasc
Odat cu venirea sezonului cald, McDonalds Romnia readuce n atenia
consumatorilor delicioasele produse Les Frapps (McDonalds Romnia)
Poftii la McMici de la McDonalds revenirea gustului romnesc (McDonalds
Romnia)
Noutile se in lan la McDonalds Romnia (McDonalds Romnia)
Hallotttok, kedves szlk? A Dreamworks Madagaszkr Pingvinjei visszatrtek s
jra akciba lendltek a McDonald's-okban! s-au rentors (McDonalds Ungaria)
- Structuri de comparaie, n cazul crora presupoziiile prezente se datoreaz
nsuirilor semantice ale adjectivelor:
Az Egszsggyi Vilgszervezet legfrissebb sszestse szerint az elssorban NyugatAfrikt - Sierra Leont, Guinet s Librit - sjt, tbb mint fl ve tombol jrvnyba eddig
5689 ember halt bele s 15935-en fertzdtek meg az ebolavrussal. (Radio Bucureti, tiri,
27 noiembrie 2014) cel mai recent
A mostani a legslyosabb ebolajrvny a vrus csaknem negyven vvel ezeltti
azonostsa ta. (Radio Bucureti, tiri, 27 noiembrie 2014) cel mai sever
A vzolt terv szerint gyakorlatilag egy j kormny ll fel, a jelenleginl kevesebb
miniszterrel. (Radio Bucureti, tiri, 25 noiembrie 2014) mai puini
Van kedvenc kpe, csaldi fnykpe vagy bartokkal kszlt fot, esetleg szeret
rajzolni? - Ai o imagine preferat, o fotografie cu familia sau prietenii, sau i place s
desenezi? (OTP Bank Romnia)
Engedje szabadon kpzelett, hogy a legrdekesebb szemlyre szabott bankkrtya
tulajdonosa legyen! - Las-i imaginaia s gseasc cel mai cool model de card
personalizat! (OTP Bank Romnia)
a sajt, EU-elrsoknl is szigorbb ellenrzsi rendszernk - mai sever
(McDonalds Ungaria)
Mindenki kicsit mskpp szereti, de neknk gy a legfinomabb: mkosguba vanlia z
ntettel s tejsznhabbal! cel mai gustos (McDonalds Ungaria)
O nou premier la McDonalds Romnia (McDonalds Romnia)
Mai mult, iniiativa McDonalds Romnia se altur unui demers mai amplu
(McDonalds Romnia)
Csatlakozz eddigi legjobb hlzatunkhoz! cea mai bun reea (Vodafone Ungaria)
Hozz ssze mindenkit j csaldi ajnlatainkkal, ajndkozz korltlan kapcsolatot
csaldodnak! conexiune nelimitat (Vodafone Ungaria)
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Issue no. 6/2015
Tankoljon fel cscsminsg LED OSRAM fnyforrsokkal! - Alimenteaz-te cu

tehnologia de vrf LED OSRAM (MOL Romnia)
Noile reete McDonalds mbin perfect gastronomia romneasc cu atenia
companiei McDonalds pentru cele mai bune ingrediente. (McDonalds Romnia)
- Anumite particule adjectivale, adverbiale i adverbe propriu-zise care au funcia de a
introduce presupoziii i condiii contextuale n propoziii:
Legutbbi vsa rszben sikerrel jrt, mert a rcsok mgl kikerlhet. (Radio
Bucureti, tiri, 26 noiembrie 2014) Ultima sa contestaie a avut parte de un succes parial
raionamentul acestui enun are la baz o completare venit din partea receptorului, adic
doar cu ntregirea sa cu o condiie preliminar capt sens, condiie care argumenteaz sensul
sugerat, i anume c persoana n cauz a depus contestaii de mai multe ori, dar n zadar.
Tovbb erstettk a Ferenc ppt vez biztonsgi intzkedseket az Iszlm llam
terroristinak mernyleteitl tartva. (Radio Bucureti, tiri, 20 noiembrie 2014) Au fost
ntrite msurile de siguran - presupoziia prezent: msurile de siguran au avut
prioritate i pn acum.
A konzervatv-liberlis brit kormnykoalci meggrte, hogy ha a sktok tbbsge a
szeptember 18-i referendumon az elszakads ellen szavaz, Skcia nrendelkezsi jogkreinek
tovbbi bvtsre szmthat. (Radio Bucureti, tiri, 27 noiembrie 2014) lrgirea i mai
accentuat a atribuiilor - presupoziia: i pn n prezent au fost luate msuri de lrgire a
atribuiilor.
Az egyeztetsek a jv hnapban folytatdhatnak, lehetsges helysznknt Bcs s
Omn jtt szba, de mg semmi nincs eldntve - mondta a neve elhallgatst kr illetkes.
(Radio Bucureti, tiri, 24 noiembrie 2014) dar nc nu s-a decis presupoziia: n
continuare se va lua o decizie clar.
Az orosz agresszi elrettentse cljbl mg legalbb a jv vben maradnak a balti
llamokba s Lengyelorszgba tavasszal veznyelt amerikai katonk - jelentette ki vasrnap
az Egyeslt llamok eurpai szrazfldi erinek parancsnoka. elfeltevsek: mr eddig is a
helysznen llomsoztak a katonk, de legalbb mg egy vig meghosszabbtjk a kldetst
(Radio Bucureti, tiri, 24 noiembrie 2014 ) anul viitor nc mai staioneaz presupoziiile: i pn acum au fost prezente n zon soldaii, dar misiunea va fi prelungit
pentru cel puin un an.
A dntst a Szvetsgi Kpviselk Tancsnak december 13-i, marosvsrhelyi lse
is meg kell, hogy erstse, azonban a Szvetsgi lland Tancs ajnlsa a kormnybl val
kilpsre vonatkozik. (Radio Trgu-Mure, tiri, 27 noiembrie 2014) trebuie s confirme i
plenul - presupoziia: celelalte foruri au luat deciziile deja.
Bogdan Diaconu fggetlen kpvisel tervezete a legdurvbb, mg azt is megtiltja,
hogy a romniai kzalkalmazottak klfldn nem-romn zszlt lobogtassanak. elfeltevs:
egyb tiltsokat is magban foglal a szban forg tervezet (Radio Trgu-Mure, tiri, 27
noiembrie 2014) mai interzice chiar i - presupoziia: proiectul conine i alte interziceri.
"Sosem szmtottam arra, hogy mg az letem folyamn jra a hideghbor msodik
szakaszban talljuk magunkat - mondta Vclav Klaus, aki Ukrajnt "mestersges
llamalakulatnak" minstette. (Radio Bucureti, tiri, 21 noiembrie 2014) ne aflm din
nou - presupoziia: interlocutorul a mai avut parte n prealabil de o situaie similar.
A Nemzeti Liberlis Prt trvnykezdemnyezse a romn zszl s a romn
szimblumok hasznlatrl szl, s bncselekmnynek tekinten azokat a
szimblumhasznlati kihgsokat, amelyek eddig csak egyszer szablysrtsnek minsltek.
(Radio Trgu-Mure, tiri, 26 noiembrie 2014) care au fost considerate doar simple
contravenii - presupoziia: pn acum aceast abatere a fost catalogat ca fiind printre cele
mai simple contravenii.
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Ennek ellenre idhiny miatt ez mr nem kerlhetett fel az e heti plenris lsek
napirendjre, gy a mai hatrid lejrtval a tervezetet a Szentus hallgatlagosan elfogadja.
(Radio Trgu-Mure, tiri, 26 noiembrie 2014) aceasta nu a mai putut fi inclus la ordinea
de zi - presupoziia fiind: altele au fost incluse.
Az EVOX rvn tisztn ltja az lmt! - Cu EVOX i vezi clar visul cu ochii! (MOL
Romnia) - presupoziia prezent: claritatea devine accesibil numai dup cumprarea
produsului.
McDonalds Romnia a demarat o campanie special pentru a evidenia
popularitatea acestui sandvi, dar i pentru a arta c cele mai bune produse sunt pn la
urm cele care ne plac. (McDonalds Romnia ) presupoziia: sunt i alte preri legate de
aceast tem
La McDonalds Romnia tim ct este de important o alimentaie echilibrat.
(McDonalds Romnia ) presupoziia: sunt i alte aspecte importante, dar cel mai important
este cel prezentat.
Ugye mr te is tudod, hogy az ebdid Meki-id?! Htkznaponknt dl s 2 ra
kztt 990 Ft-rt lehet a tid egy vlaszthat szendvics, kis dt s egy kis sltkrumpli. Nu-i
aa c deja ai aflat i tu (McDonalds Ungaria ) presupoziia: alii au aflat naintea ta
Egsz nap rohansz? Egy McWrap-ra biztosan van idd. sigur poi s-i faci timp
pentru un McWrap (McDonalds Ungaria ) presupoziia: eti n criz de timp, dar
celelalte treburi ale tale pot atepta.
Elindtottuk a www.estedreptulmeu.ro honlapot, amelyen a legjelentsebb,
kzssgforml projektjeinket gyjtttk ssze. Az oldal egyik clja, hogy lpsrl-lpsre
bemutassa, miknt prbljuk jobb tenni vilgunkat ezltal ksztetve minket arra, hogy mg
tbbet tegynk. - Am nceput prin exemplul propriu i am strans cele mai importante proiecte
sociale ale noastre pe www.estedreptulmeu.ro. Pe de o parte, pentru a nota pasii pe care i
facem pentru o lume mai bun i a ne motiva s facem mai mult cu fiecare program derulat,
pe de alt parte pentru a te informa asupra initiaivelor noastre de responsabilitate social i
a-ti oferi ocazia s te implici. (OTP Bank Romnia) presupoziiile prezente: prezentul
obiectiv este doar unul dintre multiplele obiective ale companiei; cea de-a doua presupoziie:
i pn n prezent s-au fcut demersuri n aceast privin.
Din aceste cteva exemplificri prezentate reiese clar c aceste discursuri informative
i propagandistice ncearc s menin aparena imparialitii, innd cont de faptul c n
memoria receptorului se va menine doar tema discursului, iar marea majoritate a elementelor
constitutive ale structurii de suprafa se vor elimina, i datorit acestui fapt receptorul nu va
contientiza informaiile codificate prin structuri eufemistice sau expresii lingvistice
apreciative, deoarece conform punctului de vedere al psihologiei cognitive, se pot evoca mult
mai uor coninuturile implice i concluziile trase de receptorul nsui, dect structura
lingvistic a textului (J. Harnos 2008: 154-155). Aadar, un mijloc eficient pentru influenare
constituie tocmai introducerea anumitor coninuturi implicite n text. n cazul interpretrii
acestor discursuri, receptorul nu recurge doar la confruntarea modelului de realitate creat n
text cu cunotinele sale anterioare, cu schemele i modelele situaionale deja cunoscute,
crendu-i reprezentaii cognitive ale semnificaiilor textuale (Tolcsvai 2001: 339-340), ci pe
lng toate acestea i formeaz opinii despre cele relatate, despre locutor i discurs. Formarea
acestor opinii ns, nu e sigur c a fost ghidat de ctre nsui receptorul, ci poate s preia pur
i simplu de la locutor, fr contientizarea acestui fapt, meninndu-i n memorie, ca i
afirmaii apreciative i considerndu-i parte integrant a experienei sale de via (J. Harnos
2008: 155). Iar datorit acestui salt psihologic, impactul mesajului se sporete considerabil,
deoarece nu se percepe ca pe ceva impus din exterior (Mastacan 2004). n concluzie, aceste
tipuri de discursuri pun foarte bine n lumin existena unei fore presupoziionale, deoarece n
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Issue no. 6/2015
cazul acestor texte semnificaia global, bazat ntr-o mare msur pe implicit, depete cu
mult sensul literal al mesajelor.
Bibliografie:
Eysenck, Michael W. Keane, Mark T.: Kognitv pszicholgia. Nemzeti
Tanknyvkiad, 1997.
Grice, Paul: A trsalgs logikja. In: Plh Csaba Sklaki Istvn Terestyni Tams
(szerk.): Nyelv kommunikci cselekvs. Osiris Kiad, Budapest, 1997., pp. 213-218.
Jakusn Harnos va: A nyomtatott sajt hrei a diskurzuselemzs szemszgbl. In:
Magyar Nyelvr, 126. vfolyam 2. szm, 2002. prilisjnius.
Jakusn Harnos va: A kereskedelmi s a politikai propaganda nyelvi eszkzei. In:
Magyar Nyelvr, 2005. oktber-december, 129. vf., 4. szm, 419-436.
Jakusn Harnos va: A figyelem irnytsnak eszkzei a hrszvegek szerkezetben.
In: Ttrai Szilrd Tolcsvai Nagy Gbor (szerk.): Szveg, szvegtpus, nyelvtan, Tinta
Knyvkiad, Budapest, 2008., pp. 151-157.
Kiefer Ferenc: Jelentselmlet. Corvina, Budapest, 2000.
Levinson, Stephen C.: Pragmatics. Cambridge University Press, 1983.
Mastacan, Simina: Miza discursiv a presupoziiei. In: Annales Universitatis
Apulensis, Series Philologica, TOM2, Alba Iulia, 5/2004.
Reboul, Anne, Moeschler, Jacques: Pragmatica, azi. O nou tiin a comunicrii.
Cluj, Editura Echinox, 2001.
Tolcsvai Nagy Gbor: A szvegek vilga. Nemzeti Tanknyvkiad, Budapest, 1994.
Tolcsvai Nagy Gbor: A magyar nyelv szvegtana. Nemzeti Tanknyvkiad,
Budapest, 1991.
Van Dijk, Teun A.: News as discourse. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1988.
Sursele exemplelor textelor publicitare: www.otpbank.ro; www.molromania.ro;
www.vodafone.ro; www.vodafone.hu; http://mcdonalds.ro; www.mcdonalds.hu
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DER ERFOLGREICHE REDNER

Olga KAITER
Ovidius University Constana
Abstract: For many people, regardless of their profession, holding a speech represents a big
challenge, if it is considered the need to limit the exposure to clear and concise ideas. In
order to achieve this, the speech has to be always prepared in advance. This process of
speech preparation involves a summary of the informative material that is to be delivered and
drawing up a text based on well-reasoned opinions. Changing the voice frequency in order to
render the voice qualities meant to attract audience, the power of the word, the importance of
language, emotional control and body language are important strategies for the development
of oratory skills. While drawing up the speech one must follow a clear structure in which the
pros and cons of the subject that informs the audience should be presented, but even more, the
views exposed to be able to convince the listeners.
Keywords: orator, speech, arguments, to convince, success.
In der heutigen Gesellschaft ist die Kommunikation einer der vieldeutigsten Begriffe
der deutschen Umgangssprache. Immer wichtiger wird die Notwendigkeit der
Kommunikation, da es so viele alltgliche Kommunikationssituationen gibt: im Beruf, im
Laden, auf der Post, im Reisebro, auf der Bank, im Restaurant usw. Damit beschftigen sich
heute viele wissenschaftliche Anstze und Theorien, die unterschiedliche Schwerpunkte und
Schlsselthemen vertreten. Darin kann man erfahren und lernen, wie man sich sprachlich
adquat und berzeugend ausdrcken und erfolgreich kommunizieren kann. Die eigene
berzeugungsfhigkeit hngt im groen Mass von der Beherrschung der Krpersprache, der
Gestik und Mimik ab. Nur wer Gestik und Mimik gut beherrscht, kann andere berzeugen. Es
ist schon aus dem Alltag bekannt, dass man bei der Antwort auf eine Frage oft auf die Mimik
bzw. auf die Krpersprache der Person aufpasst und unbewusst die Antwort versteht. In
manchen Situationen untersttzen die Hnde die Sprache. Aber wenige Menschen wissen,
dass unkontrollierte Hndebewegungen, sowie das Hin- und Herlaufen mit entsprechender
Gestikulierung viel Unruhe verursachen knnen.
Die Interpretation der Krpersprache setzt eine reflektierte Beobachtung voraus. Dazu
ist die gesamte Krperhaltung von Bedeutung. Die Krperhaltung sollte aufrecht sein, das
Krpergewicht auf beiden Fen gleichmig verteilt. Das Gesicht sollte man gerade halten,
mit einem stndigen Blickkontakt zum Publikum. Bei vielen Menschen ist die Krperhaltung
von der Kleidung, die sie tragen, abhngig. Grundstzlich soll die Kleidung dezent, bequem,
nicht zu eng sein, damit sie die richtige Atmung nicht behindert
Es ist offensichtlich, dass ein guter Eindruck nicht erreicht wird, wenn die inhaltliche
Kompetenz von unzureichenden Fhigkeiten der Darstellung des Gemeinten begleitet wird.
So ist der Fall der wissenschaftlichen Vortrge auf Konferenzen. Obwohl viele Vortrge
inhaltlich interessant sind, wecken sie kein Interesse bei den Zuhrern, wenn die Redner
verkrampft und undeutlich reden.
Wenige Menschen verfgen ber kommunikative und rhetorische Naturtalente. Diese
beherrschen Charisma, Klarheit und Bildhaftigkeit der Sprache. Man bewundert diese
Menschen und man hrt sie gerne.
Gleichzeitig gibt es auch viele Redner, von denen man erwartet, dass sie ihre Rede
bald beenden, weil ihre Darstellung monoton und die Haltung langweilig sind, obwohl die
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Wortwahl kunstvoll ist. Nicht zuletzt kennt man auch Redner, die ihre eigenen
kommunikativen Kompetenzen so auszubilden versuchen, dass sie gute Redner werden.
Manche wissen, dass die Zuhrer einen frei gesprochenen Vortrag hren wollen. Es ist
wissenschaftlich bewiesen, dass Vortrge, die vom Manuskript abgelesen werden, wenig im
Gedchtnis haften bleiben. Es ist bekannt, dass der beste Weg, sich den Stoff anzueignen, die
intensive Konzentration ist. Je grer die Konzentration ist, desto grer ist die
Aufmerksamkeit der Zuhrer. Wenn ein Vortrag frei gesprochen wird, sind die Zuhrer
aufmerksamer als bei einem vorgelesenen Vortrag. Man hat oft bemerkt, dass die Studenten
unruhig werden, wenn der Lehrer sein Manuskript vorliest und ihre Aufmeksamkeit steigt,
wenn der Lehrer frei spricht. Deshalb haben die groen Redner immer wieder auf die Rolle
der freien Rede hingewiesen. Dabei benutzen viele von ihnen visuelle Hilfsmittel. Es ist
bekannt, dass ein guter Redner selten visuelle Hilfsmittel braucht, weil er weiss, dass seine
Zuhrer diese in der Regel nicht brauchen. Die PowerPoint Prsentationen dienen meistens
als Unterlage fr den Redner. In diesem Fall kann man von visuellen Hilfsmitteln nicht
mehr sprechen, da sie visuell nicht untersttzen. Es sind Textfolien, die die Dokumentation
des Redners wiedergeben. Passende Zitate, Bilder Grafiken sind wichtige Hilfsmittel, die den
Vortrag besser hervorheben knnen, wenn sie sorgfltig vorbereitet sind.
Eine Rede im wahren Sinne des Wortes ist eine einheitlich vorbereitete und
gegliederte, dann aber frei vor dem Publikum geformte mndliche Mitteilung. Eine Rede darf
auch nicht geschrieben und auswendig gelernt sein und dann abgelesen werden. Der Redner,
der eine geschriebene Rede wrtlich auswendig lernt, um sie dann vor dem Publikum
vorzutragen, wird sie nie gut sprechen knnen und die Zuhrer nicht berzeugen. Auch die
Notizen sollen nicht benutzt werden, weil diese whrend der Rede die Zuhrer ermden und
ihre Aufmerksamkeit sinkt. Der Redner verliert den Gedankenaufbau, macht Pausen und die
Wirkung seiner Rede geht verloren. Dieser kann doch einen Plan oder einige Anhaltspunkte
vor sich haben, die im Falle einer Vielfalt von Aspekten eine Hilfe ware, damit man etwas
nicht unterlsst. Eine Ausnahme von dieser Regel machen die offiziellen Staatsreden, die
wegen ihres historischen Charakters jedes freie Sprechen ausschlieen. Die wirkliche Rede ist
ein Gesprch mit dem Publikum. Der Redner hat nur das Gerst der Rede vorbereitet, der
Text muss sich ihm aus der Inspiration des Augenblicks ergeben, im Kontakt mit dem
Publikum.
Kurt Tucholsky hat einige Ratschlge fr Redner formuliert, die in diesem Sinne
erwhnenswert sind. Welche Ratschlge er einem guten bzw. einem schlechten Redner gibt,
lsst sich in den zwei Texten leicht verstehen.
Text 1.
Fang nie mit dem Anfang an, sondern immer drei Meilen vor dem Anfang! Etwa so:
Meine Damen und meine Herren! Bevor ich zum Thema des heutigen Abends
komme, lassen Sie mich Ihnen kurz...
Hier hast du schon ziemlich alles, was einen schnen Anfang ausmacht: eine steife
Anrede; der Anfang vor dem Anfang; die Ankndigung, dass und was du zu sprechen
beabsichtigst und das Wrtchen kurz. So gewinnst du im Nu die Herzen und die Ohren der
Zuhrer.
Denn das hat der Zuhrer gern: dass er deine Rede wie ein schweres Schulpensum
aufbekommt; dass du mit dem drohst, was du sagen wirst, sagst und schon gesagt hast. Immer
schn umstndlich!
Sprich nicht frei- das macht einen so unruhigen Eindruck.
Am besten ist es: du liest deine Rede ab. Das ist sicher, zuverlssig, auch freut es
jedermann, wenn der lesende Redner nach jedem viertel Satz misstrauisch hochblickt, ob auch
noch alle da sind.
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Sprich, wie du schreibst. Und ich weiss, wie du schreibst.

Sprich in langen, langen Stzen- solchen, bei denen du, der du dich zu Hause, wo du ja
die Ruhe, deren du so sehr bentigst, deiner Kinder ungeachtet, hast, vorbereitest, genau
weisst, wie das Ende ist, die Nebenstze ineinandergeschachtelt, so dass der Hrer,
ungeduldig auf seinem Sitz hin und her trumend, sich in einem Kolleg whnend, in dem er
frher so gern geschlummert hat, auf das Ende solcher Periode wartetNun, ich habe dir
eben ein Beispiel gegeben. So musst du sprechen.
Fang immer bei den alten Rmern an und gib stets, wovon du auch sprichst, die
geschichtlichen Hintergrnde der Sache. Das ist nicht nur deutsch- das tun alle
Brillenmenschen. Ich habe einmal in der Sorbonne einen chinesischen Studenten sprechen
hren, der sprach glatt und gut Franzsisch, aber er begann zu allgemeiner Freude so: Lassen
Sie mich in aller Krze die Entwicklungsgeschichte meiner chinesischen Heimat seit dem
Jahre 2000 vor Christi Geburt... Er blickte ganz erstaunt auf, weil die Leute so lachten.
So must du das auch machen. Du hast ganz recht: man versteht es ja sonst nicht, wer
kann denn das alles verstehen ohne die geschichtlichen Hintergrndesehr richtig! Immer
gib ihm Historie, immer gib ihm.
Kmmere dich nicht darum, ob die Wellen, die von dir ins Publikum laufen, auch
zurckkommen das sind Kinkerlitzchen. Sprich unbekmmert um die Wirkung, um die
Leute, um die Luft im Saale; immer sprich, mein Gter. Gott wird es dir lohnen.
Du musst alles in die Nebenstze legen. Sag nie: Die Steuern sind zu hoch. Das ist
zu einfach. Sag: Ich mchte zu dem, was ich soeben gesagt habe, noch kurz bemerken, dass
mir die Steuern bei weitem So heisst das.
Trink den Leuten ab und zu ein Glas Wasser vor man sieht das gern.
Wenn du einen Witz machst, lach vorher, damit man weiss, wo die Pointe ist.
Eine Rede ist, wie knnte es anders sein, ein Monolog. Weil doch nur einer spricht.
Du brauchst auch nach vierzehn Jahren ffentlicher Rednerei noch nicht zu wissen, dass eine
Rede nicht nur ein Dialog, sondern ein Orchesterstck ist: eine stumme Masse spricht nmlich
ununterbrochen mit. Und das musst du hren. Nein, das brauchst du nicht zu hren. Sprich
nur, lies nur donnere nur, geschichtele nur.
Zu dem, was ich soeben ber die Technik der Rede gesagt habe, mchte ich noch kurz
bemerken, dass viel Statistik eine Rede immer sehr hebt. Das beruhigt ungemein, und da jeder
imstande ist, zehn verschiedene Zahlen mhelos zu behalten, so macht das viel Spa.
Kndige den Schlu deiner Rede lange vorher an, damit die Hrer vor Freude nicht
einen Schlaganfall bekommen. (Paul Lindau hat einmal einen dieser gefrchteten
Hochzeitstoaste so angefangen: Ich komme zum Schlu.) Kndige den Schlu an, und dann
beginne deine Rede von vorn und rede noch eine halbe Stunde. Dies kann man mehrere Male
wiederholen.
Du musst dir nicht nur eine Disposition machen, du musst sie den Leuten auch
vortragen das wrzt die Rede.
Sprich nie unter anderthalb Stunden, sonst lohnt es gar nicht erst anzufangen.
Wenn einer spricht, mssen die anderen zuhren das ist deine Gelegenheit.
Mibrauche sie!
Text 2
Hauptstze. Hauptstze. Hauptstze.
Klare Disposition im Kopf mglichst wenig auf dem Papier. Tatsachen, oder Appell
an das Gefhl. Schleuder oder Harfe.
Ein Redner sei kein Lexikon. Das haben die Leute zu Hause.
Der Ton einer einzelnen Sprechstimme ermdet; sprich nie lnger als vierzig Minuten.
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Suche keine Effekte zu erzielen, die nicht in deinem Wesen liegen. Ein Podium ist
eine unbarmherzige Sache da steht der Mensch nackter als im Sonnenbad.1
Es ist nicht leicht vor dem Publikum zu stehen und reden zu mssen.
Sprachgewandtheit und technische Versiertheit sind nicht immer ausreichend, sich vor dem
Publikum sicher zu fhlen. Man rechnet nicht immer mit kritischen Reaktionen des
Publikums, das manchmal andere Erwartungen von einer Rede hat. Deshalb soll der Redner
mgliche Gegenargumente in der Vorbereitung antizipieren. Es ist auch notwendig, dass der
Redner seiner eigenen Persnlichkeit und Identitt sicher ist, aber auch seine Schwche kennt,
damit er in schwierigen Situationen damit umgehen kann.
Der Aufbau einer Rede
Die Gliederung einer Rede ist besonders wichtig. Nur mit einer richtigen Gliederung
kann man den Zuhrer zum Ziel fhren.
Die Rede ist zunchst allgemein gegliedert in Einleitungs-, Haupt- Schlussteil. Die
berschrift der Rede wird als Frage formuliert.
Der Einstieg reprsentiert ein Viertel der Redezeit. Man muss nicht unbedingt den
Titel nennen, es muss aber klar gemacht werden, warum man ber ein bestimmtes Thema
sprechen will und was man damit beabsichtigt, also das Redeziel. Im ersten Teil wird also das
Thema und der Grund der Rede mglichst interessant angekndigt.
Gleichzeitig findet auch die Einstimmung auf das Publikum, auf das gestellte Thema
und seine Problematik statt. Man kann mit einem kurzen Beispiel, einem Zitat, einer zum
Thema passender Anekdote, oder mit einer verblffenden These beginnen. Das Publikum hat
oft Hemmungen, eine neue Meinung anzunehmen, deshalb muss man es vorbereiten auf das,
wovon man es berzeugen will. Das Redethema muss man spielartig einkreisen und sich
allmhlich dem Redethema nhern.
Der Hauptteil kann in der Regel mit einem kurzen Blick in die Vergangenheit
beginnen: Was war und wie kam es dazu? Die Verbindung zur Beschreibung des aktuellen
Zustands wird da leicher hergestellt.
Es ist wichtig aufzuzeigen, was sich ndern muss und wie man das erreichen
kann:Was wre wenn?
Fr das eigene Redeziel muss man gute Argumente, Beispiele, Grnde oder Beweise
bringen, die das Publikum berzeugen sollen.
Ein Blick in die Zukunft wrde den Idealzustand darstellen und auch bei der
Formulierung der Schlussfolgerung helfen.
Zum Schluss wird das Gesagte zusammengefasst: Wir haben erkannt, dass erstens,
zweitens, drittens Die Wiederholungen muss man mglichst knapp halten, jeweils zwei
bis drei Stze. Man muss sie mglichst einfach formulieren. Als Ergebnis der einzelnen
Stationen muss man entsprechende Forderungen / Appelle formulieren. Zum Abschluss kann
man die Zuhrer ermuntern, den aufgezeigten Weg einzuschlagen. Der Abschied vom
Publikum sollte nicht mit einer Negation, sondern mit einer positive formulierten Forderung
passieren, um eine positive Haltung des Publikums zu erreichen. Die letzte Forderung
zum Schluss wird z.B. nicht Nie mehr! oder Keinmehr!, sondern Ab jetzt nur
noch!
Gute Reden zu halten ist nur zum Teil eine Frage des Talents. Mit bung und der
richtigen Technik kann jeder berzeugen.
Kurt Tucholsky, Ratschlge fr einen schlechten Redner sowie Ratschlge fr einen guten Redner in
Gesammelte Werke, Hamburg, Bd. 3, S. 600.
1
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Es geht nicht darum, ob ein Redner sein Publikum begeistern kann oder nicht, oder ob
er mit seiner Stimme arbeitet oder nicht. Es ist auch nicht wichtig, ob er motiviert, inspiriert,
oder eine Botschaft fr sein Publikum hat. Nach Aristoteles besteht die Kunst der Rhetorik
nicht darin, Menschen ber etwas zu informieren, sondern Menschen zu berzeugen und zu
Handlung zu bewegen.
Ein guter Redner ist immer imstande, sein Publikum zu fesseln. Wenn die
Aufmerksamkeit des Publikums nachlsst, kann er durch Gestik, Mimik oder durch Erheben
der Stimme das Publikum wieder fesseln.
Bei einem guten Redner denken die Zuhrer mit, ohne sich durch komplizierte
Gedankengnge berfordert zu fhlen. Sein sicheres und selbstbewusstes Auftreten, seine gut
argumentierten Aussagen, die Beherrschung von allen Stilmittel der Rhetorik lassen immer
den guten Redner erkennen.
Bibliographie
1. GENZMER, Herbert: Rhetorik, Die Kunst der Rede, Dumont, Kln, 2003.
2. SCHUSTER- STEIN, Paul : Die Redekunst im Wandel der Zeit, Editura CD
PRESS, 2011.
3. TUCHOLSKY, Kurt: Ratschlge fr einen schlechten Redner sowie Ratschlge fr
einen guten Redner, in: Gesammelte Werke, Hamburg, Bd. 3.
4. UEDING, Gert, STEINBRINK, Bernd: Grundriss der Rhetorik, Stuttgart/ Weimar,
2005.
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A EULOGY TO CONTEMPORARY CANADIAN LITERATURE OR HOW I STARTED TO

TEACH ALICE MUNROS SHORT STORIES
Cristina NICOLAESCU
Eciyes University, Kayseri, Turkey
Abstract : Literature holds a central place in education and transmission of culture, while
shaping human experiences and analyzing skills of learners. The major concern is what
pieces of literature and what authors should be included in the curricula of English Literature
and what should be left out, and on what account. This paper aims to demonstrate that
Canadian literature is both national and international, equally specific and general, taking as
example a renowned author: Alice Munro. While doing research in this field you cannot help
wondering why we fail to include Canadian literature in the curricula of colleges and
universities, since it has proven to be beyond national borders. Munros Nobel Prize may
bring it more visibility and the rightful place in the world literature and culture. Her
collections of short stories reveal all the qualities of good writing worth reading and
analyzing. Besides her artfulness or good art, Munros fiction writing also has social
implications such as: family relationships, differences between men and women, coming of
age, life in the community. Despite regionalism and specificity of the setting, her characters
are typologies that embody the general human characteristics. I will illustrate those
particularities of Munros work with three short stories from her first volume, Dance of the
Happy Shades, namely: Boys and Girls, Day of the Butterfly and The Peace of Utrecht, with a
critical approach and from a didactic perspective. This paper is the result of my doctoral
research on Canadian literature and my past experience with teaching sophomores Alice
Munros fiction at the University of Athens.
Keywords: Canadian literature, curriculum development, gender, cultural approaches
In the attempt to incorporate cultural diversity, more stress is laid nowadays on

cultural heritages and their contribution to the mainstream culture. Curriculum developers
from other countries than the English speaking ones deal with a new challenge posed by the
contemporary society in selecting the content worthy to be taught in the area of English
Literature and Culture. Bridges of meaningfulness should be built between students
sociocultural experiences as they live and the knowledge they are assumed to get during a
certain level of school organization by years of study. Unfortunately Canadian Literature is a
subject on formal curricula in a lot less universities compared to English and American
Literature for which there is a long tradition. First of all Canadian Literature is not part of
American Literature and it should not be assimilated to it. In order to raise curriculum
developers awareness on this, clarifications and arguments may be brought for the distinctive
identity of each. If this is not an issue anymore then literatures in English should necessarily
include writes whose works have been appraised as having a special literary and cultural
value, no matter their country of origin. It is not understandable why a renowned author such
as Alice Munro, recently awarded the Nobel Prize for literature is still missing from most
European curricula of prestigious universities. Irrespective of the reasons, it is high time we
made changes in the sense of innovating content and strategies while connecting them to
current learning needs and societal demands. In Romania, for example, at the University of
Bucharest, Canadian literature is taught at the Master level, and also recently at the private
Christian University Dimitrie Cantemir. In Greece, at the University of Athens, Canadian
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literature is taught to sophomores. From the research I did for a year on teaching methodology
and the response of the Greek students to my teaching Alice Munros short stories, I gathered
some evidence of this subjects relevance within both the English Studies and Comparative
Literature departments. The themes and sub-themes identified in the texts and critically
discussed during the seminars revealed a high compatibility of the content with the other
cultural subjects they are studying and at the same time with the issues of their own lives as
young adults. The richness of topics and ideas they were exposed to have proven to be an
important step in facilitating students understanding of parodistic intertextuality with works
such as: Atwoods The Penelopiad, Munros The Children Stay and others. The broad
category of 'Canadian Literature' incorporates works written in English, French and languages
of the aboriginal groups or diaspora and the English translation of these texts. English and
French literature in Canada is deemed to have followed separate paths though, obviously,
their mutual influence is easily identifiable. National literature can be divided by language,
but not history. Canadian literary histories written before had as main criterion political
development as major changes in society have coincided with significant changes occurring in
the broad patterns of national literary canon. The dominant forms of literary production in this
country were included in four periods: the colonial, in which France and Britain were battling
dominion over territories that now belong to Canada, the nineteenth century was characterized
by the control of the United Kingdom and the emigration waves from Europe. In these two
periods writers were tributary to the European aesthetic conventions, but there were also
experiments related to the forms of ownership of the American literary phenomenon. The
Period between Confederation (1867) and the 1950s marks a new stage in Canadian history
and literature, and is considered a landmark for cultural nationalism. In the twentieth century,
literary production became prolific, with many representatives of the modern literary canon,
from 1951 to the present, and national identity emerged as a sensitive topic in all areas, threat
of cultural imperialism U.S.A. being reflected in literature. It also denounced the tendency to
subsume Canadian literature to American literature, a good reason for Canadian literary
historians endeavors to assert distinctiveness of Canadian literature. After becoming
politically autonomous, Canada faced another difficult problem, namely the tensions between
Anglophone and the Francophone citizens. As a result, in 1971 Canada became the first
country to implement an official policy of multiculturalism, by the Multiculturalism Act of
1988 renewing the legislation that emphasized multiracial and multilingual nature of society,
encouraging the culture of ethnic minorities. In this way the recurrent themes of migration,
exile and diaspora experience in a wide proportion of the end of the twenty century literature
and early twenty-first century can be explained. Canadian contemporary writers often
combine poetry and fiction (Anne Michaels, Robert Kroetsch, Dionne Brand, etc.) and history
with autobiography (Daphne Marlatt, George Elliott Clarke, Michael Ondaatje and so on).
Lately Canadian literature has reached maturity, a fact demonstrated by the huge international
success of numerous writers honored with various major literary awards, among them:
Michael Ondaatje, Margaret Atwood, Yann Martel, Carol Shields, Mordecai Richler,
Rohinton Mistry, Robertson Davies and Alice Munro.
The book Infinite Horizons: Canadian Fiction in English (2010) by Prof. Monica
Bottez from the Department of English Language and Literature, Faculty of Foreign
Languages and Literatures, University of Bucharest is the first Romanian consistent approach
to the study Canadian literature in Romania and provides readers with an opportunity to
become familiar with a literature that has been too little known until recently. The analysis is
extended to twenty-five novels, of which mention a few: The History of Emily Montague,
Running Water, The Handmaid's Tale, The Stone Angel, Gone Indian, works by
representative Anglophone writers, the author giving a panoramic view of the literature
landscape in Canada, with a cultural approach combined with a pertinent rhetorical and
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stylistic analysis. The main literary methods are presented in relation to the specific trends in
Europe: the Gothic novel, realism, modernism and postmodernism. Also, Prof. Monica Bottez
translated the novel The Handmaid's Tale by Margaret Atwood, a cultural and editorial event.
After this opening, Prof. Monica Bottez, Director of the Center for Canadian Studies at the
University of Bucharest, the interest in the study of Canadian literature has increased
significantly, more and more conferences about specific Canadian issues such as
multiculturalism or cultural mosaic, immigration, national identity being presented at
conferences and symposiums and may become a constant in university curricula. to examine
the representation of the influence of gender on human agency in connection with their
thinking and their depiction of behavior, attitudes and other components of gender identity
construction. My analysis is intended to reveal the general human and Canadas specificity in
this matter at the meeting point of geography, politics, economy, resulting from the tension
between the particular social structures and human agency. Enriches courses by including
multiple perspectives on American culture and history, reflecting various viewpoints
Short-stories represent a genre a very easy to handle for teaching, as they do not have
much plot, can support a deep analysis of varied issues more densely presented than in
lengthy writings like novels. On the other hand, students can do the reading and some
assignments within a week either guided by essay topics or questions.
In the three short-stories that I have selected as an example there is a link in the first
place by their belonging to the same volume, Dance of the Happy Shades (DHS): Boys and
Girls, Day of the Butterfly and The Peace of Utrecht. Secondly, all of them present a
perspective of gender and family relationships with different types of dramatic encounter and
psychological insight.
In Boys and Girls the children learn about the adult world and the gender roles they
are expected to perform in their future life. The girl is more attracted to the kind of work her
father does outside, but she is forced to work in the house, helping her mother. In this story,
for the girl, the fathers image is a positive one, though towards the end of the story he tells
his son about his sister, that she is just a girl, implying that the two males should have
understanding for her sensitivity and incapacity to fully understand what is outside her female
horizon.
The father figure is becoming an important symbol for Munro of fun, freedom,
adventure, good health, and physical strength; of the masculine side of the domestic scene,
which, ironically, is more comforting to the narrator than the repressed, critical, and
discontented female side. (Hooper 11)
A traditional family will adhere to the stereotypes, which is limiting, the female being
generally associated with domesticity and childrens raising, whereas the male has the role of
familys provider or a career-maker.
Often, but not always, parents and childrens gendered behaviors are sex typed, or
consistent with stereotypes about their biological sex. [] We view the dominant discourse of
gender stereotyping as restrictive and problematic both for individuals and for families.
(Blume 785)
The Freudian and Lacanian models of psycho-sexual development during the Oedipal
complex shows girls inferior to boys, in terms of passivity and lack, which are the basis of a
stereotypical image of women. is in line with the literary tradition of realism, though with
clear postmodernist features in their more recent books. bring to light different perspectives
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on gender-related issues highlighting the alternation between the subjective and objective, the
veridical and symbolic.
In Day of the Butterfly the romantic impulse to imaginative transformation of reality
takes the form of self-glorification by legend-making. The narrator remembers her former
poor classmate Myra, a newcomer, an outsider who remained at the periphery of school life.
Myra falls ill with leukemia and so, for a while, her classmates become interested in her, visit
her in the hospital and bring her gifts. We began to talk of her as if she were something we
owned, and her party became a cause says the narrator (Munro DHS 107-08). Myra offers
the narrator one of the gifts she had received and hopes that this one will become her friend
when she returns to school. The narrator, as an adult, thinks of Myra:
She sat in her high bed, her delicate brown neck, rising out of a hospital gown too big
for her, her brown carved face immune to treachery, her offering perhaps already forgotten,
prepared to be set apart for legendary uses, as she was even in the back porch at school.
(Munro DHS 110)
At first, Myra was a good occasion for fun but, after getting ill, she became the
occasion of a pathetic legend that aroused the good feelings of the colleagues who visited her.
Unfortunately, she had no significant place in this legend. She was only transformed into a
saint-like figure by illness, martyrdom, and fashionable charity. When looking back upon her
childhood, with sadness, the narrator opposes her moral virtue to her self-critical resistance to
the legend-making of her childhood and youth. According to Linda Hutcheons definition of
historiographic metafiction, we understand that the legend-making comes easily.
The knowable reality of the ordinary world is called in The Peace of Utrecht the
unsatisfactory, apologetic and persistent reality (Munro DHS 197). I take the term legend
to refer to the romantic, unbelievable type of narrative that inspires a body of stories,
something important or famous. Munro portrays unfavorably the legend-making and those
who participate in it. This is a strategy that makes us trust that her stories, in contradistinction,
are real. So, in this way, she affects us in favor of her ostensible realism but she acknowledges
the other mode of apprehending reality. Munro has sympathy for the impulse of rising above a
common reality but she reveals to the reader the moral frailty of the successful broadening
tale increasing our faith in her own realism. She used to indirectly comment on the tricks she
makes for getting the most uncommon and spectacular fictions. So, we can find in her own
story-telling the same realist device as the narrator does. Munro's stories make us balance the
certitude and reality with legend. Even when sophisticated, the manner Munros stories create
the semblance of being as truthful as the narrative. The narrator steps back from her story and,
in this way, self-consciously, she heightens the verisimilitude of her tale and Munro rejects
simple documentary illusion. In fact, this self-reflexive attitude leads to the reverse effect by
which the narrator is discredited and yet the readers trust the authors truth.
In many of her short-stories, Munro creates the reality effect. Also The Peace of
Utrecht there is a passage in which the narrator returns to her home-town accompanied by
her young daughter who, when passing by her mother's old house asks, Mother, is that your
house? This reflection follows after such a question:
And I felt my daughter's voice expressed a complex disappointment; it contained the
whole flatness and strangeness of the moment in which is revealed the source of legends, the
unsatisfactory, apologetic and persistent reality. (Munro DHS 197)
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Reality disappointed her daughter as she had been told a sentimental tale, a legend.
Therefore, the narrator feels the need to point out the human need and impulse to invent
illusory wonders in the everyday routine for turning disappointment into a small victory, yet
she refers to my Gothic mother.
Munros The Peach of Utrecht is a first-person narrative told by Helen who returns
home after years, studying and making a family, while her sister was taking care of their sick
mother, devoid by the freedom to see about her own life. The real story is what happens in
Helens mind, a psychological insight is given about her guilt about pursuing her freedom.
She got married, had children, leaving her sister behind to sacrifice her life. What is surprising
is what her great-aunts Annie and Lou tell her what her sister did with their mother, namely
she forced her stay in a hospital, thus making her die prematurely. This presumed matricide is
symbolic for a woman who needs freedom by all means, by separation from the maternal
body. According to Carol Ann Howells, this story is a Gothic Tale which figures primitive
female fears nothing less than fears of matricide (Howells 23).
Nancy Chodorow's object relations theory may be compared with Kristeva's account
of revaluing femininity, since they regard the relational self bound up with the mothering
abilities. The theories of jouissance, abjection, the semiotic and the uncanny in psychoanalysis
maintain the ambivalent view on mothering. This is a pivotal issue for psychoanalytic
feminists, due to its implication in womens psychology and for understanding femininity.
While they aim to disentangle femininity from maternity, and provide a critique of
their conflation, they also take seriously the significance of maternity for women and for
children of both sexes. Because they concede the limits of socio-cultural explanations for
women's lack of standing in the social contract, and take femininity and the feminine body as
points of departure for speech or writing, they have often been accused of essentialism. (Eagle
43)
Kristeva uses the concept of the maternal body which precedes the signification
process, it is the source of drives that have two possible effects: either disrupting the symbolic
order or forming the condition for a subject formation. Kristeva makes a distinction between
the symbolic and the semiotic dimensions of language. She accepts the Lacanian account of
the symbolic as the dimension of structured public meaning, in which the phallus is given a
privileged position, and which is thereby governed by the Law of the Father. But she draws
attention to another dimension of language and communication, the semiotic. This originates
in the body and in the infant's relationship to the mother, prior to the entry into language, that
is, prior to any process of splitting or separation, which is necessary to the process of
symbolic articulation. Adopting the realm of the symbolic requires the repudiation of
interdependence with female bodies.
Certainly, the mother-daughter relation is not always as dramatic as presented in The
Peace of Utrecht. For example Del in Lives of Girls and Women have a good relationship
with her mother Ada up to point, from where she feels shame about the mothers unusual
emancipatory attitude and advanced ideas, which, however, she eventually takes over to a
large extent.
I have attached a special importance to the concept of identity, as it subsumes several
other concepts such as gender and sexuality, resulting in the individualization of gender
identity and sexual identity. I have shown their relation to the Oedipus complex (the boys
development in Boys and Girls) and the Electra complex (daughters separation from the
mother in The Peace of Utrecht).
Also self and subjectivity cannot be examined separately from identity, as basic
components of the latter. Agency is in a direct relation to subjectivity and implicitly to
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identity as well, since only subjects can be agents in a power relationship which reveals a
certain behavioral pattern, recognizable in an archetype. I have identified the archetypal
pattern underlying some of Shieldss and Munros characters according to the various
attributes they have in the corpus under analysis. The body helps an individual to shape
his/her identity through lived experience and senses, particularly the gendered body
(male/female) that has implications in the social life. Therefore, I can relate the representation
of the social body to agency again and also to the contemporary trend of psychoanalysis, with
its interactional and relational developments. The examination of the maternal body connects
the motherhood to the Electra complex and the Medusa symbol, through the separation of the
daughter from her mother. After presenting my intention on how to use the concepts above, I
came to the conclusion that what I had examined as separate aspects of individuality are in
fact facets of identity, ways in which this is shaped by psychological processes and external
social forces.
This is one of the examples where the stereotypical images are contrasted with full
effect. The narrator begins to take to pieces her mother's legend when she understands this
gap in it and in this way she no longer needs to create her own anti-myth. This recognition
allows her to get next to her mother in her feelings and mind. The reader has to choose if the
unsentimental final passages of this story can be accepted as the story trails away without the
so much awaited reconciliation like in conventional fiction. Therefore, our appreciation for
the emotional benefit obtained by the narrator's demythologizing is unavoidably transferred to
Munro's realism expressed mainly by her own resistance to legend-making.
The Gothic elements in Munros writing, along with her female characters tendency
to fantasize and romanticize, projecting their repressed desires, pertain to the symbolicallegoric mode. The psychological, social and local context of her stories is very powerful,
providing particularities that are not only regional, as her early oeuvre has been qualified, but
also highlighting characters lived experience which reveals the authors understanding of
human condition.
For all the qualities of good writing Munros works deserves a place in the academic
curricula, since literatures in English mean a lot more than the British and American ones.
The analyses of the three short-stories - as exemplification - were intended to reveal these
qualities of artfulness, but there are also the cultural meanings attached that is a very rich
learning content. The extension of Canadian studies and Alice Munros works study can only
be beneficial to students.
Bibliography:
Blume Balter, Libby &Thomas W. Blume. Towards a Dialectical Model of Family
Gendered Discourse: Body, Identity, and Sexuality. USA: Journal of Marriage and Family
65, 2003, pp. 785-795.
Eagle, N. Morris. Attachment and Psychoanalysis: Theory, Research, and Clinical
Implications (Psychoanalysis and Psychological Science), USA: The Guilford Press, 2013.
Hooper, Brad. The Fiction of Alice Munro: An Appreciation. Westport, Conn.:
Praeger, 2008.
Howells, Carol Ann. Alice Munro. New York: St. Martins Press, 1988.
---. Canadian Literature. Vancouver: Winter 2003, Issue 179; pp. 107.
Munro, Alice. Dance of the Happy Shades. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1968.
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DIASPORA IS GOING ONLINE. IDENTITY, LANGUAGE AND DIGITAL

COMMUNICATION1
Gabriela GOUDENHOOFT
Abstract: The notion of diaspora had a long journey and today it came to designate almost
any group living out of the country of origin and developing a self-consciousness, an
emergent identity and specific relationships with homeland and hostland. Conceived as
imagined or real communities the revived interest in studying diaspora comprises almost
every aspect of this old but also modern or maybe postmodern form of social existence.
Nevertheless a synthetic overview on the links between language, identity and communication
is still useful and might bring new interpretations on a very current phenomenon and maybe
offer a key of understanding the way our world is dwelling in discourse, understood as spoken
or written language, if we were to paraphrase a famous line of Hlderlin: ... full of merit, yet
poetically, man dwells on this earth.
Maybe one of the biggest challenges our world is facing is to dial with the new technology
and to includes it in an effective and harmonious way in daily existence, not only because
media itself is the message (McLuhan) but also because media is telling us in a time when we
are not only receptors and readers but also co-creators of public discourse as we can see in
the following.
Keywords: digital diaspora, identity, media discourse, network.
Diaspora from antiquity to postmodernity

Any attempt to define diaspora is endangered by academic scruples, by the desire to
highlight any up-to date connotations as well also the current debate on the topic, but also the
characteristics the concept incorporates by its telos and last but not least the broad meaning
of diaspora so often used nowadays in political, public and journalistic discourse. In fact,
since 1990s the notion of diaspora has been amazing frequently used, many times in
unappropriated ways and the literature on diasporas phenomenon also has an exponentially
increase over the recent decades, exceeding the original meaning2 and the link to the Jewish,
Armenian or Greek groups reference and/or religious feature.
Diaspora comes to be conceived as any national group of people scatted from their
homeland to other places around the globe, national segments of population dispersed outside
traditional homeland. Diasporas discourse, political, scholar, journalistic emphasizes a lot of
aspects of the phenomenon: social, cultural, linguistic, economic, politic, communicational,
and historical and occurs wherever the phenomenon of population dispersion appears: Where
once were dispersions, there now is diaspora Kachig Tllyan (1996: 3).
The proliferation of diasporas discourse is also related to the post-modernism in the
global age (Cohen, 2008). Robin Cohen highlights the link between diaspora mobilization and
1
This paper is part of an ongoing research project developed within the ERSTE Foundation Fellowship for
Social Research 2015/2016.
2
The word diaspora derives from the Greek diaspeir to distribute; it is a compound of speir, to sow, to
scatter like seed, and dia- from one end to the other. The term has, of course, become associated with the
Jewish historical experience, and hence is associated with being a dispersed people sharing a common religious
and cultural heritage. (Vertovec, 2009: 129).
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globalization, diasporas mobilization being made by the contribution of several conditions

and factors: a globalized economy enabling greater connectivity; new forms of international
migration - limiting and fragmenting family ties specific other way for permanent settlements;
the development of cosmopolitan sensibilities specific to many global cities; the revival of
religion as a focus for social cohesion, linked in many ways with the diasporic phenomenon
(2008: 141).
So in modern or post-modern societies we can apply the extended notion of diaspora
in all those situation where we can find some common features as they were synthetized by
Safran (1991), Cohen (2008: 161-162) and Vertovec (2009: 133):
1. Dispersal from an original homeland, often traumatically, to two or more foreign
regions;
2. Alternatively, the expansion from a homeland in search of work, in pursuit of trade
or to further colonial ambitions;
3. A collective memory and myth about the homeland, including its location, history
and achievements;
4. An idealization of the putative ancestral home and a collective commitment to its
maintenance, restoration, safety and prosperity, even to its creation;
5. The development of a return movement that gains collective approbation;
6. A strong ethnic group consciousness sustained over a long time and based on a
sense of distinctiveness, a common history and the belief in a common fate;
7. A troubled relationship with host societies, suggesting a lack of acceptance at the
least or the possibility that another calamity might befall the group;
8. A sense of empathy and solidarity with co-ethnic members in other countries of
settlement; and
9. The possibility of a distinctive creative, enriching life in host countries with a
tolerance for pluralism.
To this features Safran underlined the ultimate triadic relationship between (1) a
collectively self-identified ethnic group in one particular setting, (2) the groups co-ethnics in
other parts of the world, and (3) the homeland states or local contexts whence they or their
forebears came (Vertovec, 2009: 133). These relations could be a starting point of an
endeavor of explaining the vital social role which diaspora is playing as agent of development
in their homeland3 and as influential agent also in the host country from a cultural but also
economical, demographic point of view. The diasporas dynamic is also an important issue to
be studied in international relation research.
Also in order to define and find the limit within diaspora might be used as a modern
notion, Rogers Brubaker (2005: 5) underlined three major theoretical poles: dispersion in
space (trans nationality out of the borders), orientation to a homeland a real or even a
imagined one as Anderson would describe it defining the notion of nation and boundarymaintenance ((the preservation of a distinctive identity vis--vis a host society (societies)).
So here we find the necessary idea of being scattered, territorial dispersion, and a nonsymmetrical relationship with homeland and host land. Diaspora is oriented and is defining
itself as identity through what homeland can survive out of its borders, meaning collective
memory, national myths, an ideal kinship with a homeland as a virtual possibility of
returning. Preserving identity even reshaping the idea of homeland helps diasporans and it is
conditioned by maintaining boundaries in and towards host country. Sometimes, according
Brubaker observation this goes to a type of resistance to assimilation through several
They bridge the gap between the individual and society, between the local and the global, between the
cosmopolitan and the particular. Diasporas can be used to spread liberal democratic values to their home
countries (Cohen, 2008: 174).
3
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processes as it is self-enforced endogamy or as a consequence of social exclusion. Hence

there is in the current literature a position of emphasizing distinctive communities held
together by solidarity and positions talking on a very prominent hybridization, fluidization,
even syncretism. So on boundary dynamic one can notice an antinomy: boundary
maintenance versus boundary erosion.
Coming back to the present meaning of the notion diaspora, we intend to show the
main sense and signification of the concept and maybe a taxonomy. There are three aspects
targeted by the diasporas discourse, as Vertovec stressed out. Using the notion diaspora,
one refers either to the process of becoming scattered (a phenomenological usage of the term),
or to the community living outside homeland (a cultural and social approach), or simply at the
geographical destination of dispersal phenomenon (a spatial, territorial and geographic
meaning).
But for a log period diaspora has been a notion associated with suffering, loss, and
victimization. Do contemporary, globally scattered communities opt to characterize
themselves in this way? (Modernity linked it to the nation-state idea and post-modernism
questioned the nation-state empowerment perceiving it as hegemonic, discriminatory or
culturally homogenizing. Nowadays by diasporans ones are targeting in a very confusing way
immigrants, guest-workers, ethnic and racial minorities, refugees, expatriates and travelers
(Vertovec, 2009: 131-132).
Following the scholarly evolution we can observe the distinction made between
diaspora, migration, minority status and transnationalism4. Robin Cohen introduced a
classification of diasporas types. He is talking on victim diaspora (Jews, Palestinians,
Armenians), labor diaspora (Indian and Chinese workers), imperial diaspora (British,
Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, French during the colonial period), trade and business diaspora
(merchant communities), homeland diaspora (Zionist, Sikhs), cultural diaspora (post-modern
concept related to post-colonialism, indicating Afro-Caribbean, a cross-border culture spread
to U.S., U.K., the Netherlands) (Cohen, 2008 and Lewellen, 2002).
But as much as the uses of the notion diaspora has been extended it is still linked to
the idea of nation and thats the reason why almost all scholars cite the description made by
Benedict Anderson on nation as imagined communities5 and even extend this definition to
other types of communities as diaspora is. Nations and all communities larger than face-toface groups are imagined according to Anderson (2006), are invented because the
members of these societies, however small a nation would be, will never know each other,
will never meet, or hear them, yet in minds of each lives the image of their communion. Also
the nation is imagined as limited because even the largest one has finite boundaries and they
are limited through the frontiers of other (neighboring) nations living around. This description
is sending us to a matter of representation, a social representation of nations: for these forms
provided the technical means for 're-presenting' the kind of imagined community that is the
nation (Anderson, 2006: 25). In fact, Andersons definition started up from Hugh SetonWatson (1977:4) distinction between the concepts of cultural nation a community based
on language, religion and historical mythology or other cultural bonds and political nation
By transnationalism I refer to the actual, ongoing exchanges of information, money and resources as well as
regular travel and communication that members of a diaspora may undertake with others in the homeland or
elsewhere within the globalized ethnic community. Diasporas arise from some form of migration, but not all
migration involves diasporic consciousness; all transnational communities comprise diasporas, but not all
diasporas develop transnationalism. (Vertovec, 2009:136).
5
I propose the following definition of the nation: it is an imagined political community and imagined as both
inherently limited and sovereign. It is imagined because the members of even the smallest nation will never
know most of their fellow-members, meet them, or even hear of them, yet in the minds of each lives the image of
their communion (Anderson, 2006: 5-6)
4
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a community which also possesses, in addition to cultural bonds, a legal state structure.
From this point on Seton-Watson estimated the nation as a significant number of people in a
community consider themselves to form a nation, or behave as if they formed one, believing
in a national consciousness. The author noticed that this is about a fictitious nation (1977:
5).
An important critique on the theory of nation as imagined community was made by
Manuel Castells. He observed that the distinction between real and imagined
communities isnt very useful from an analytic point of view and empirical inadequate
beyond, of course, the natural demystification of ideologies of essentialist nationalism la
Michelet (2010: 31-32). He thinks that ethnicity, religion, language and territory cannot
neither build, per se, nations, nor, induce nationalism, but shared experience can.
In and despite the crisis of legitimacy our world is facing, Castells thinks that power
continues to exist and is still ruling society through new forms and new codes of information
and in the images of representation around which societies organize their institutions, and
people build their lives, and decide their behavior. The sites of this power are peoples minds
(Idem, 425). There are multiform networks, there is mass self-communication
(autocomunicacin de masas)6 and all of them are staying under the power of identity.
Here we are structuring the very successfully idea of nation, revisiting the idea of
imagination and its critics, using as common issue the idea of representation and selfrepresentation and as in all forms of representation we have to deal with language, because no
representation could be formed outside language and lacked by words as images vehicles.
Language, identity and media
The relevance of language in our social existence was stressed by sociolinguist and
philosophers. The German philosophers emphasized the link between language and nation,
the first one being the basis of the second one. The national consciousness is also related to
language, even there are voices denouncing the trend towards the creation of national
consciousness based on language as tribalism (Steton-Watson, 1977:472).
Diaspora communities are linked by language which involves the communications
vehicle in its triple function: information or messaging, network and transactional or identity
negotiation.
Using the internet as a media or talking about the new media one brings further
evidence of the impossibility of non-communication, an axiom stated by Palo Alto current or
functionalist paradigm. It is impossible not to communicate, the unavoidable feature of
communication. ("One cannot not communicate or Human communication involves both
digital and analog modalities the axioms of Paul Watzlawick turn diasporic communities
and open "online diaspora" as Trandafoiu and others have been called it as an existential
condition. According to Watzlawick, new media has a tremendous effect on communicative
and discursive practices and induced new communicative styles in public sphere.
On the other hand, linking identity on reflection, perception, representations is
inevitable. And even accepting that identity means perception, the concept of identity
comprises and leads to other different concepts like: how the individual perceives himself, a
variable dependent on the context of perception and how the person is popularly perceived,
marked by prejudices and stereotypes (Lewellen, 2002: 92). Those reflections are often
present in media products the more the nowadays society is to be conceived as media and
information society. And Diasporas are communities, even imagined communities which
construct themselves by exchanging products and through the consumption of (media)
See also Constantin Schifirnet: a new form of communication by which the individual exposes himself in front
of a wide audience through new media (2014: 260)
6
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images. (Lytje, 1996). Diasporic groups developed mediascapes, how Arjun Appadurai
named the global cultural flow, using networks and a big rage of media communication
tools: internet, mail, telephone, fax, film, audiotape, videotape, satellite television etc. The
active construction of identities through media discourse and resources became an important
area of investigation for many scholars. Diaspora can be conceived as constructed through
discourse and reflected trough representations. The spaces of identity created by media imply
the possibility of negotiating identity, which is not or is not anymore a given one, but is a
cultural construction including notion as: home, belonging, self and community, self and
nation, loyalty etc.
On the relationship between language/discourse and identity there are several studies,
but the prominent approach is the Critical Discourse Analysis that Ruth Wodak has been
developed. The author uses the idea of discourse (language use in speech and writing) as
social practice implying a dialectical relationship between the discursive event and
situations, institutions, social structure, where there is a two-way influence every element of
the relationship shaping and being shaped by the others. That is, discourse is socially
constitutive as well as socially conditioned it constitutes situations, objects of knowledge,
and the social identities of and relationships between people and groups of people. It is
constitutive both in the sense that it helps to sustain and reproduce the social status quo, and
in the sense that it contributes to transforming it (Weiss and Wodak, 2003: 13). From this
point there are foreseeable consequences regarding power, ideology, unequal position of
social groups, including ethnic and cultural majorities and minorities.
Significant mutations have been spent in diasporic identities once with the
communication and media technology evolution as we will see in the following sections. The
revolutionary changes in communications and media techniques made possible a communities
deterritorialization or more accurate the possibility of virtual communities, online
communities, digital communities able to develop identities and in case of diasporas, able to
homeland orientation and even to social mobilization with economically and politically
effects and influencing events and politics both in country of origin and in country of
residence. The postmodern concept of identity deny the conventionally conceptualized ethnic
group identity (Brinkerhoff, 2009). Identity is a complex construct and hybrid identity,
concerning diasporas case is more complicate, because it is an emerged one, a result of a
synthesis, even an involuntary one, a mixture of cultures and loyalties, with defaults, as the
feeling of being caught in an interspace like no here, nor there and advantages, as is the
competency developed by the diasporans of fully navigate one set of cultural norms and then
the other, as required by the situation at hand (Idem: 32). But the most important advantage
is brought by the information technology, contributing in forming Diasporas, providing
solidary and material benefits, negotiating hybrid identity, and facilitating purposive
objectives (Idem: 44). There are many connections and bond mediated by internet.
Communication on new media, the new journalism and the new reader
Regarding the internet as a channel of communication and a host for new styles of
journalism we can notice that its offering a very personalized message and an instrument of
feedback from the reader. The online journalism creates a new reader, one who can examine
the information and, instead the classical one, who is just a consumer of the product delivered
by journalist, now became co-creator searching for documents, documenting at ones turn,
participating in debates, formulating observations, objections, point of views. The long
distance between the journalist and the reader is shortened by the active reception (Ulmanu,
2006: 244). The interactivity of the online journalism and the closeness to the readers explain
heavily the great success of bloggers fighting redoubtable journalists, surmounting even the
paradox of media as non-direct discourse by its one name. But, on the other hand media is
message (McLuhan) and media built and rebuilt representations in a construction and
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deconstruction of reality. Goffman: in media one doesnt discover reality but is inventing it
and every reader is reinventing and re-signifying it with ones other meanings. The online
journalism offers the possibility for the reader of transcending the status of a simple user,
consumer, to the one of a transmitter in the formula of consumer (user) generated content
(Balaban, 2009: 161). There are people naming the phenomenon citizen journalism, other
are using the term produsage wanting to underline the blending of producing and
consuming information. Another formula is participatory journalism, capturing the idea of
collaborative and collective not simply parallel action (Singer et all, 2011: 2), where
people from and outside the classical newsroom are participating in media creative ongoing
process, even only by comments, discussion forums, user blogs, social networking sites etc.,
questioning even the gatekeeping status of old media and transforming the linear relation with
former audience into a non-linear relation with the new co-creators, which are the former
audience. The audience-driven consumption is a relevant element of interactivity, functioning
between many actors as are the consumers and, the providers able in the online journalism to
change roles in media creation process. (Ward, 2002).
On the other hand, according to McLuhan, every communication technology configure
and recompose in a different way our perception on world. Thats another reason why media
is message. On the other hand in this global village (McLuhan) we are living in due to the
internet everyone is or may be a journalist. Is an amazing and instantaneous journey of
communication from one to one (synchronic communication) to one to few, one to
many, to many to many when internet means social networks, chat, forum inducing civic
activism etc. (Momoc, 2014:35). Still, Trandafoiu doesnt believe that web 2.0. represents a
civic activists space but rather social and cultural one, lacked by traditional structures and by
leadership (2013).
With respect to diasporas online presence, the internet is the quintessential diasporic
medium (Bernal apud Trandafoiu). Here online communication comprising old new media
online newspapers and magazines, but also new media, websites, blogs, forums ensure all
three functions of media: information network and transaction, negotiating identities. Not
ultimately websites, press, forums enable linguistic practices, involving a fictional and virtual
returning home through language.
The migrant needs of acclimatization through useful information are the prime
incentive of being online. Also being a migrant the problem of identity become a critical and
imperative one. Diasporans have to readjust their representations about self and about others
accordingly and media helps in crystallization of self-conscience and the conscience of other.
Diasporans need to relate or to redefine relations with home and homeland. As
Tnnies, in his comprehensive Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft (Community and Society)
defined home as physical location but also living body of kinship. The need for homeland
and the home sickness, the homeland nostalgia is linked to the representation of happiness as
being at home, surrounded by his family and his own circle (chez soi) (Harris, 2001: 28).
The feeling of being deprived by this strong environment, losing home and homeland, make
diasporans to compensate ones lost and being online is a way of recuperating some bearings;
being online isnt equivalent with being at home but it isnt either being elsewhere. Being
online is a third option, is being in a virtual space where language practices enable diasporan
to feel like being home and the need of networking with people feeling the same,
experiencing the same, understanding the privations which ones face in diaspora is satisfied
through a new media environment.
So new media satisfy in different ways different networking needs reestablishing and
redesigning connections with the family left at home, creating new connections with other
diasporans, preparing new connections in host land by using information from media in order
to adjust ones behavior in order to integrate in the new world. So if from one point of view
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media has an escape function, like art or culture, offering a fiction to stand for reality for a
short time, with respect to adaptation process its making the link between the past and the
future and from an interiorized, already acquired world to a one to acquire. Media is out of
space and out of time: is interregnum, recces and for this reason its a privileged reality.
Imagine for a moment the metaphor from Hlderlins poem Abendphantasie: Outside of his
hut, the ploughman sits/In the shade, his hearth comfortably smoking,/The evening bells
graciously welcome/A wanderer into the peaceful village7! The ploughman, the one who
stays, has the infinite comfort of being at home, with a warm hearth, while the wanderer is
only welcomed but he is not staying, he is a wanderer.
Digital Diasporas: communication, community, identification
The Internet is a communication medium that allows, for the first time, the
communication of many to many, in chosen time, on a global scale. As the diffusion of the
printing press in the West created what McLuhan named the 'Gutenberg Galaxy', we have
now entered a new world of communication: the Internet Galaxy. (Castells, 2001: 2-3).
Internet was on the one hand due to the creation of new forms of community
dispensed by the idea that pre-internet territoriality was a necessary condition for the
formation of communities. On the other hand fictionalizing Internet is a form of virtual
community invading our real life. The emergence of all new electronic form of
communication, including internet, changed for good our culture. We are living in a media
environment and new media is now part of our lives, bringing new patterns of social
interactions.
Digital diaspora is a relative recent phenomenon, and its evolution is linked to the
electronic communication one, given the possibility offered by the Internet for the scattered as
they are the diasporans. For diasporas online communication and the use of cyberspace has
been signified not only the possibility to maintain relationships with family friends left behind
and to find out news from the country of origin but it is also being a great opportunity for
forming and strengthening de-territorialized communities.
Expressions like digital diaspora or online diaspora reflect the engagement of
those communities, as defined above, in activities circumscribed to information technology.
Michel Laguerre defines virtual diaspora as an immigrant group or descendant of an
immigrant population that uses it connectivity to participate in virtual networks of contacts
for a variety of political, economic, social, religious, and communicational purposes that, for
the most part, may concern either the homeland, the host land, or both, including its own
trajectory abroad (2010: 50). He considers the digital diaspora as an interface of the real
diaspora. The use of cyberspace by diasporans for the purpose of participating or engaging in
online interactional transactions is not depending if concerns virtual interaction with members
of the diasporic group living in the same foreign country or in other countries, with
individuals or entities in the homeland, or with non-members of the group in the hostland and
elsewhere. In Laguerre conception virtual diaspora is the cyberexpansion of real diaspora.
And our world connectivity achieved by IT tools, made possible the affirmation of
diasporas digital identity.
On the other hand a lot of studies based on online forums revealed that Internet is
offering not only a virtual togetherness but actions and interactions going on there are also
closely intertwined with participants projects and pursuits in their offline lives (De Leewe,
2007: 188). So the online and offline existence are not necessary separated by an ontological
border, they are interfering plans, continuous poles of diasporans existence due the pressing
need of keeping in touch.
7
Friedrich Hlderlin, Abendphantsie/ Evening phantasy, translated by Maxine Chernoff and Paul Hoover.
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We can underline the following dimensions of digital diaspora communication:

informational, interactional, of identification, transactional and escapism. There is a strong
connection between this dimensions, so it is hard to treat them separately.
The first one refers to the ability of finding useful information due Internet, using
conational experience. Diasporans narratives talk on their own specific local experiences,
but also exchanging information on homeland politic and economic situation (Trandafoiu,
2013). The information is vital for the transition process for every person out of own
environment, facing with new experiences: legal information on labor, housing, identity
documents, health and social insurance etc. Beyond the pragmatic layer of practical and
accommodation information, digital diaspora is focusing on cultural information too. There
are numerous cultural association organizing meeting and events and their presence and
activity is signaled by forums and websites, online newspapers, all in all, information is
provided by diasporas media channel.
From here its easy to follow the second dimension of digital diaspora, the
interactional one. Diasporans they need not only information but also ties, relations with other
members of diaspora and with those left at home. The network dimension is a very important
one both psychologically, but also social. It is the dimension stressing the triad diasporahomeland-hostland.
The third dimension concerns identity and online identification. It has been said that
online identity is a fictive one, and for this reason it doesnt prove anything. I am thinking
there are a lot of useful information to be obtain even from a fictive online identity, because
diasporans narratives are often more sincere of anonymity, when a person just use online
channel to express emotions and states and stories that otherwise would not share. Diasporas
communication is sharing identities and reshaping identities even expressing and performing
digital identities.
The transactional dimension concerns any type of exchange, information exchange,
emotional exchange (sharing), but also negotiating identities. Online diaspora is a form of
social contract with rights and obligations, with rules, where diasporans engage in social,
emotional and civic exchanges.
The escape function of digital diaspora refers first of all to the empowerment model.
Digitization empowers marginal peoples in many different ways, as the initiative may come
either from within or from without. Those who must stay at home because of family
obligations (taking care of children, elderly parents, or handicapped persons) have been
isolated from the labor force, but with computer access they are able to look for jobs that do
not require physical presence in the workplace (Laguerre, 2010: 55). The empowerment
concerns not only economic and labor issue, but is also a social, communicational, cultural,
religious, political empowerment. This dimension offer the possibility of demarginalizing
disadvantage people but is also an escape strategy of being under an online identity anyone
you want to be anytime you want to, being at just a click distance from anyone, covering a
serious source of frustration, the one of being scattered.
BIBLIOGRAFIE:
1. ANDERSON, Benedict, Imagined Communities. Reflections on the Origin
and Spread of Nationalism, revised edition, Verso, London and New York,
2006.
2. BAILEY, Olga, GEORGIOU, Myria and HARINDRANATH, Ramaswami
(eds.), Transnational Lives and the Media Re-Imagining Diaspora, Palgrave
Macmillan, London and New York, 2007.
3. BALABAN, Delia, Comunicare mediatic, Tritonic, Bucureti, 2009.
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4. BRINKERHOFF, Jennifer, Digital Diaspora. Identity and transnational

engagement, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge and New York, 2009.
5. BRUBAKER, Rogers, The 'diaspora' diaspora, in Ethnic and Racial Studies,
vol.28, no1, jan.2005, pp.1-19.
6. CASTELLS, Manuel, The Internet Galaxy. Reflections on Internet, Business
and Society, Oxford University Press, Oxford and New York, 2001.
7. CASTELLS, Manuel, The Information Age. Economy, Society, and
Culture,Volume II, The Power of Identity, Owiley-Blakwell, Chichester,
2010.
8. COHEN, Robin, Global Diaspora. An introduction, second edition,
Routledge, London and New York, 2008.
9. DE LEEUW, Sonja and RYDIN, Ingegerd, Diasporic Mediated Spaces,
BAILEY, Olga G. et all (eds.), Transnational lives and the media : reimagining diaspora, Palgrave MacMillan, London, 2007, pp.175-194
10. HARRIS, Jose, (ed.) Tnnies. Community and Civil Society, translated by
Jose Harris and Margaret Hollis, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
New York, 2001.
11. LAGUERRE, Michel, Digital Diaspora, in Andoni Alonso and Pedro j.
Oiarzabal (eds.), Diasporas in the New Media Age. Identity, Politics, and
Community, University of Nevada Press, Reno, Nevada, 2010, pp.49-65.
12. LEWELLEN, Ted C., The anthropology of globalization : cultural
anthropology enters the 21st century, Bergin & Garvey, Weastport,
Conecticut and London, 2002.
13. LYTJE, Inger, Media and the Cultural Condition: Language and
Education in Gill, I., and Karamjit, S., Information society: new media,
ethics and postmodernism, Spring, London, 1996.
14. MARTIN, J.R. and WODAK Ruth (eds.), Re/reading the past: Critical and
functional perspectives on time and value, John Benjamins Publishing,
Amsterdam and Philadelphia, 2003.
15. MOMOC, Antonio, Comunicarea 2.0. New media, participare i populim,
Adenium, Iai, 2014.
16. SAFRAN, William, Diasporas in modern societies: Myths of homeland
and return, Diaspora: a journal of transnational studies, 1(1), 1991, pp.
8399
17. SCHIFIRNET, Constantin, Mass media, modernitate tendentiala si
europenizare in era Internetului, Tritonic, Bucure;ti, 2014.
18. SETON-WATSON, Hugh, Nations and States. An Enquiry into the Origins
of Nations and Politics of Nationalism, Methuen, London, 1977.
19. SINGER, Jane B., HERMIDA, Alfred, DOMINGO, David, HEINONEN,
Ari, PAULUSSEN, Steve, QUANDT, Thorsten, REICH,Zvi and
VUJNOVIC, Marina, Participatory journalism: guarding open gates at
online newspapers, Wiley-Blackwell, Chichester, 2011.
20. TLLYAN, Kachig, Rethinking diaspora (s): stateless power in the
transnational moment, in Diaspora: a journal of transnational studies,
5(1), 1996, pp. 336
21. TRANDAFOIU, Ruxandra, Diaspora online: Identity, politics and
Romanian Migrants, Berghahn Books, New York, Oxford, 2013.
22. ULMANU, Alexandru-Brdu, Jurnalismul online: Internetul, mijloc de
colectare i difuzare a informaiilor, n Coman, Mihai (ed.), Manual de
jurnalism, vol.II, Polirom, Iai, 2006, pp.243-283.
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23. VERTOVEK, Steven, Transnationalism, Routledge, New York, 2009.

24. WARD, Mike, Journalism online, Focal Press, Oxford, 2002
25. WEIS, Gilbert, WODAK, Ruth, Introduction, Theory, Interdisciplinarity
and Critical Discourse Analysis in Weis, G. and Wodak, R. (eds.), Critical
Discourse Analysis. Theory and Interdisciplinarity, Plagrave MacMillan,
London, 2003, pp.1-32.
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THREE MEN IN A BOAT: NIETZSCHE, ADORNO AND CIORAN. ON TRANSMUTATION

OF VALUES
Ovidiu Marius BOCA
North University of Baia Mare
Abstract : The thinker who lived with intensity nihilism until the end, its prophet,who
managed to overcome it, was Friedrich Nietzsche. To go with him beyond nihilism and
skepticism, it is necessary to free ourselves of preconceptions, because there is already a
philosopher profile that goes beyond good and evil, and whose features related to the
reception of truth by pulses of living, by feelings and sensitivity intermediate forms of the will,
the senses and not reason.The direction of nihilism, and still poor image we have about
Theodor Adorno, extremely complex because of his writings addressed primarily to an elite,
we find affinities in fragments full of lessons for our times. From a stylistic direction, Emil
Cioran completes the picture of "Three Men in a Boat" indicating the Styx shores. We
propose to examine, at least in part, the treasure from their boat, always in danger of sinking
due to their weight, as it remained from ancient times: the burden of knowledge.
Mots-cls: nihilism, skepticism, transmutation of values, communication, ethical conduct
INTRODUCTION
Aluzia titlului1 la o naraiune cunoscut pornete de la imaginea brcii plutind pe rul-timp.
Ne referim la parcurgerea timpului din perspectiva unor gnditori de excepie, care par a avea
puine n comun i totui sunt cteva aspecte care fac ca ei s se ntlneasc n acceai
barc. Este vorba de trei gnditori nendreptii prin simpla lor etichetare ca nihiliti. Cea
mai bun definire a nihilismului, ne-a rmas de la Friedrich Nietzsche2. El a profeit
nihilismul i l-a depit. Theodor W. Adorno3 continu s fie studiat cu surprindere crescnd,
descoperind filiaia unor idei aclamate abia la urmaii si -n vog astzi: Karl-Otto Apel4 i
Jurgen Habermas5, a cror realizri i datoreaz mult mai mult dect se tie.6 Am ndrzni a
Jerom K.Jerom ,Three Men in a Boat /Trei ntr-o barc ,este o naraiune comic, n care trei prieteni pentru a
se elibera de osteneala zilei pornesc ntr-o plimbare lundu-i i cinele cu ei. n construcia analogiei ca punct
de pornire, considerm cinele imaginaiei adulmecnd adevrulviclenia istoriei i pasajul hegelian din
Fenomenologia spiritului referitor la rsturnarea lucrurilor. Dac pentru Adorno rspunsul deriv din
dialectica negativ, refuzul sistemului i al generalizrilor, nseamn c ntr-o lectur atent trebuie avut n
vedere amestecul de negativ i pozitiv ca i n scrierile chineze unde se aplic tehnica modulrii
semnelor.Rsturnarea bncii n vltoarea rului , este metafora prin care exprimm obsesia negrii la
Cioran. n acest sens s-ar putea experimenta i citirea invers a lui Cioran: adic pn unde merg consecinele
Silogismelor amrciunii,sau pn unde deconstrucia postmodern din Tratatului de descompunere reprezint
puncte de acumulare ce solicit efortul reflexiv? Fiecare din cei trei au cunoscut n felul lor infernul devenit
realitate. Pentru Adorno,expresia maximei degradri a raiunii este nazismul i reprezentativ pentru toate
atrocitile -fenomenul Auschwitz,de unde i imperativul adornian de a face totul ca aa ceva s nu se mai
repete niciodat. De aceea este nevoie de o educaie care s se opun Barbariei.
2
1844 1900 .Vezi: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche
3
1903 1969. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno
4
n.1922. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl-Otto_Apel
5
n.1929. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas
1
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spune chiar c Adorno i-a fixat idele n diferite puncte de acumulare supuse refleciei,
pstrnd unele rezerve ntemeiate, n vreme ce urmaii lui, n dorina de a clarifica unele
lucruri, n-au scpat de ispitele utopiei. Critic cultural, muzicolog, filosof , membru de frunte
al colii de la Frankfurt, Theodor Adorno poate fi considerat ca personalitate resurs.
Confluene ale gndirii epocii sale, ca i ale filosofiei germane se regsesc n opera sa, care
presupune dificulti majore ntmpinate de cititori din cauza stilului su complex, extrem de
dens cu particulariti ce presupun o deschidere spre un orizont cultural vast 7. Tot ce a scris
Adorno este marcat de accente etice, de compasiune n faa suferinei.
Emil Cioran prin opera sa a construit versiunea unei confesiuni ce a experimentat
negaia dincolo de limitele raionalului.8 Ceea ce nsoete sinuciderea metafizic este bocetul
i carnavalescul i n cele din urm auto-anularea. Procedura mi pare nrudit cu logica
ironico-dramatic a lui Marin Preda ntr-o citare aproximativ din btrnul Moromete Adic
ai dreptate, de ce s tragi carul cu boi de-o parte, cnd salcmul poate cdea peste voi?.Cu
vorbele lui Cioran: Ce e formulat devine mai clar, de o intensitate degradat, n sensul
terapeutic al confesiunii i conslrii...9 Caracterizndu-se la fel de ironic, el subliniaz :
Aspectul de lupttor,negaia ca depire,diminuare a intensitii tririi.nelegi?Impresia c
toi triesc cu o iluzie, cu excepia mea.Comedie i pentru a nu te nela, neparticiparea la
aceast comedie. Presa timpului nota cu aparia Tratatului de descompunere10
piesa clasic a nihilismului secolului XX.: Iat-l pe ce-l ce-l ateptam, profetul vremurilor
concentraionare i a suicidului colectiv...El va depune mrturie pentru epoca noastr.11
1.Voina de putere, interesele i persuasiunea unor nevoi
Ne vom ocupa de filiaia unor idei eseniale n alt lucrare, ns.Un aspect al creaiei sale nu trebuie uitat: Se
tie c a scris ntr-o epoc n care groaza i-a ptruns n oase. Poate c n zilele noastre e mai greu de imaginat
ce nsemna s fii evreu n Germania nazist.Nici exilul american n-a fost un paradis.
6
Amintind nume precum Karl Marx,Gyrgy Lucks,Ernst Bloch, Freud,.Kierkegaard, Max Weber, Max Scheler,
Georg Simmel, Siegfried Kracauer ,Walter Benjamin, Max Horkheimer reprezint doar o enumerare minimal.
Din direcia artistic Schnberg, Schreker, Stravinsky, Bartok, Busoni, Delius, Hindemith. Bernhard Sekles
Eduard Jung. Bartok, Busoni, Delius, i Hindemith reprezint reperele sensibilitii dezvoltate dincolo de
zestrea genetic din partea ramurii artistice a familiei ncepnd cu mama sa.
7
Emil Cioran (1911- 1995) un stilist mult comentat pentru scrierile sale n romn (5) i francez (8) aduce
oarecum complementar imaginea celuilalt rm al Styxului. n timpul su i dup el ,totalitarismele s-au
dezvluit n atrocitatea manifestrilor rului, iar suferinele cutrilor i confesiunilor sale indic zbuciumul
raiunii ce-i pierde semnificaiile ultime. ntr-adevr,ce mai poate rmne,dup negarea vieii,a lui Dumnezeu,a
societii, a moralei?
8
Apocalipsa dup Cioran, http://www.trilulilu.ro/video-cultura/apocalipsa-dupa-cioran-documentar
10
Ibidem, vezi i Apocalipsa dup Cioran, Editura Gallimard,
11
https://vimeo.com/19781872.Vezi i http://webcultura.ro/apocalipsa-dupa-cioran/
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nelesul transmutrii valorilor se face prin impulsurile voinei de putere, prin

raionalitatea ce se supune acestora,devenind o raionalitate instrumental. Voina de putere12
este prefigurat metafizic i la Schopenhauer13, dar este deja un titlu consacrat la Nietzsche
(nti n manuscrisele din 1885), iar intenia abordrii tematice transpare i n corespondena:
chiar dac nainte era doar "sentiment al puterii", apruse ca expresie n capitolul "Despre
depirea de sine"14. Este o ntmpinare a imperialismului i o previziune a erorilor
civilizaiei, a iluziei progresului. Totul este supus dominaiei,raiunea n manifestrile sale se
subordoneaz producerii de bunuri pentru o pia de schimb unde intervin interesele ca forme
ale dezbinrii,antagonismelor. ntr-o lume a bunurilor abundente i consumerismului,totul se
produce i consum standardizat,organizat urmnd persuasiunii mass-media privind presupuse
nevoi,din care se exclude treptat adevrul,binele,frumosul ,pstrndu-se urma
lor,amintirea,umbrele . Revizuiri ale unor aspecte metafizice i epistemologice apar distinct la
Friedrich Nietzsche15 i la Theodor W.Adorno16. ntr-o prim lectur a lui Nietzsche, avem
Ne referim n special la versiunea romneasc,Nietzsche, Voina de putere, ncercare de transmutare a
tuturor valorilor (Fragmente postume),Traducere i Studiu introductiv de Claudiu Baeiu ,editura AION
,1999,ISBN 973-97662-6-9 ,n original Friedrich Nietzsche Der Wille zur Macht Versuch Einer Umwertung
Aller Werthe Nietzsches Werke , BNDE IX-X, Alfred Kroner Verlag Leipzig 1918 cu variantele: a) ediia
"mare": Nietzsche, Werke, Kritische Gesamtausgabe, hg. von G. Coli und M. Montinari, Berlin, 1967, W. de
Gruyter; b) ediia "de studiu": Friedrich Nietzsche, Smtliche Werke, Kritische Studienausgabe in Banden, hg.
von G. Colii und M. Montinari, Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag, de Gruyter, Munchen. Berlin, New-York, 1980.
Obsevm elementul central al gndirii sale voina de putere (der Wille zur Macht), ce face posibil nelegerea
conduitei umane ca sens al adaptrii cf. Nietzsche 1886, p. 13., Nietzsche 1882, p. 349., Nietzsche 1887,
p. II:12, respingnd teoria utilitarismului privind dorina de fericire i plcerea ca innd de un stil de via cf.
Brian Leiter, Routledge guide to Nietzsche on morality, p. 121, respectiv Nietzsche 1888c, 2. Vezi i
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche
12
Lumea ca voin i reprezentare (Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung) opera principal a lui Arthur
Schopenhauer (1788 1860) dezvluie o lume a iluzilor,instinctelor i a unor habitusuri care cluzesc omul
ntr-o adaptare permanent pentru supravieuire.Suntem aadar cluzii mai degrab de iluzii care dau un sens
faptelor noastre,iar aceste fapte sunt reflexul unor obinuine, a voinei de a tri ca for vital i dincolo de
aceasta ,de a ne nconjura de construcii epistemice al cror adevr ncercm s-l argumentm fr a scpa de
contradicii, ndoindu-ne nc de puterea lor asupra noastr i nzuind n puterea noastr ca justificatoare a
adevrului i poate mai puin spre un adevr care s ne justifice. O voin mereu nemulumit , asemenea
ntruprilor sankarei indienilor, i caut adevrul recunoscut de cele 4 nobile adevruri din Vedanta i
Buddism sau misticismul cretism: suferina,boala,moartea, zbuciumul trecerilor succesive. Realizarea
eliberrii de suferin n viziunea sa e posibil prin negarea Voinei, prin contemplaia artistic sau prin ascez,
renunare i meditaie. Schopenhauer are ndoile asupra raiunii umane i a legilor morale ce ar emana de la
aceasta.Doar "mil" ar ntemeia comportamentul moral. Depirea egoismului prin comptimire i nelegerea
suferinei lumii, face posibil o raportare adecvat cu semenii si (ber die Grundlage der Moral, 1840). Dac
am compara cu ntemeierea binelui la Soloviev, am descoperi din nou mila, iar alturi de ea, pietatea i ruinea
sau pudoarea.
13
14
Vezi partea a II-a din Zarathustra

Friedrich Nietzsche (1844 1900),a crui filosofie,aproape o profeie a secolelor urmtoare, explic
fenomene ale timpului nostru n care suntem captivi nc.
16
Theodor W. Adorno ( 1903 -1978) personalitate marcant a gndirii germane de dup al doilea rzboi ,
dezvolt gndirea critic alturi de ceilali reprezentani ai colii de la Frankfurt.El pornete n mod specific de
la cercetarea dezvoltrii personalitii autoritare i anti-semitismului ,ca fenomene ce ar deslui relaia dintre
teorie i practic cluzind palierele metafizicii i eticii .Raportarea fa de cele mai tragice evenimente ale
timpului dup Auschwitz (Bernstein 2001, 371414; Zuidervaart 2007, 4876) dezvolt noul imperativ
adornian de a se aciona n aa fel (sub impulsul unei noi educaii mpotriva barbariei) nct s nu se mai repete
acele imense tragedii. (ND 365). Adevrul,suferina,sensul solicit o schimbare dincolo de ontologia ascuns a
utopiilor. Adorno vorbete despre o filosofie a speranei (aforismul final din Minima moralia) i rezistena prin
raportare la transcenden (ND 4045):No light falls on people and things in which transcendence would not
appear [widerschiene]. Indelible in resistance to the fungible world of exchange is the resistance of the eye that
does not want the world's colors to vanish. In semblance nonsemblance is promised.
15
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impresia unui cerc vicios (anticipat) n care se zbate civilizaia. Pesimismul i nihilismul se
intercondiioneaz i interptrund pentru a defini aspectele decadenei. Nietzsche nota: Ceea
ce povestesc eu este istoria urmtoarelor dou secole. Descriu ceea ce vine, ceea ce nu mai
poate s vin altfel: irumperea nihilismului. Aceast istorie poate fi scris chiar de acum:
cci ea este opera necesitii. Acest viitor griete deja prin sute de semne, acest destin se
anun pretutindeni; pentru aceast muzic a viitorului s-au ascuit deja toate urechile.
Intreaga noastr cultur european se-ndreapt de mult, cu o tortur a tensiunii ce crete de
la un deceniu la altul, ca nspre o catastrof: cu nelinite, violent i rapid: asemntor unui
fluviu, ce vrea s ajung la capt, ce nu mai chibzuiete, cruia i este fric s
chibzuiasc.17
Rspunsul la ntrebarea de ce? este cu att mai dificil cu ct se menine confuzia
dintre cauz i scop , n vreme ce acestea dezvluie rnile pe care le presupune neltorul
progres (al cunoaterii,al tehnologiei ,al organizrii etc. n care omul nsui pare a-i fi pierdut
valoarea). Manifestrile binelui refuznd s se lase surprinse ntr-o lume aflat sub semnul
ororilor rzboiului sau a ceea ce a nsemnat Auschwitz 18, formularea adornian surprinde un
adevr: Viaa bun, corect nu poate fi gsit n viaa greit pe care o trim 19. Astfel, marile
sperane ale Epocii luminilor i entuziasmul ncrederii depline n raionalitate i-au pierdut
suportul de credibilitate n faa eecului cunoscut ,raionalitatea retrgndu-se n mit.20
Adorno are cercetri importante dedicate lui Kant i Hegel. El a observat c dac la Kant
relaia dintre domeniul libertii i cel al istoriei este mediat de conflicte, la Hegel exist
presupoziia unui progres de la contiin la contiina libertii dei precaritatea teoriei se
ntrevede n relaia dintre universal i individual prin parcursul istoric i intensificarea
procesului de concentrare i de birocratizare care are ca efect reducerea la statutul de
funcii,att n Est i n Vest. Aadar, libertatea ajunge s fie limitat la auto-conservare, iar
procesul continu n modul cel mai subtil prin mass-media, prin industria culturii.21 Acest
fapt se explic prin slbiciunea subiectului, dependena de consum, rspndirea excesiv i
dominant a conformismului.22 Se pstreaz poziia sceptic n privina progresului n
contiina libertii, chiar n privina democratizrii treptate a instituiilor politice .Se remarc
Aforismul 2 din Voina de Putere.n Aforismul 3,Nietzsche consider c a trit cu intensitate nihilismul,a
meditat asupra sa i l-a depit.
18
De fapt a totalitarismelor , care completeaz tabloul ororilor, spre a indica fie i doar o lucrare ce le
dezvluie Alain de Becanson,Nenorocirea secolului,Humanitas,2007
19
Prezent ca motto n Minima moralia, este considerat drept principiu al epistemologiei negative dezvoltate
de autorul Dialecticii negative.
20
Vezi i Epoca luminilor ,carte scris de Adorno mpreun cu Marx Horkhemer, n care ntmplrile culturii i
raiunii n manifestrile ei practice ,fetiismul,cultura de mas,reificarea,consumerismul i gsesc analogiile cu
paniile lui Ulise .
21
Termenul german Kulturindustrie este propus i dezvoltat n cap. The Culture Industry: Enlightenment as
Mass Deception din Dialectic of Enlightenment (1944), rod al colaborrii dintre Theodor Adorno (1903
1969) i Max Horkheimer (18951973).Se refer la standardizarea bunurilor i a formelor binelui ca bunuri
culturale i marf de schimb,transformnd i omul n obiect (reificare) n cadrul unei mase sociale pasive
manipulate prin publicitate i tiri ce cultiv false nevoi ce pot fi satisfcute de producia excesiv a unor lucruri
i obinuina unui stil de via (hedonist) i a unor relaii false (precum fetiizarea bunurilor de
consum)neglijndu-se libertatea ,creativitatea etc.Asupra reperelor autentice ca nevoi reale insist Herbert
Marcuse
n
Eros
and
Civilization,
1955),artnd
pericolul
renunrii
.Vezi
ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_industry
17
22
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opoziia n substana puterii sociale i apatia de care e cuprins spiritul ,amintind de remarca lui
D`Holbach privitoare la sufletul omului care se poate revolta sau se vetejete n absena
libertii. Adorno i Horkheimer accentueaz analogia dintre nazismul german i industria
filmului american,ambele fcnd uz de industria culturii create i diseminate de instituii
specializate dezvoltnd consumerismul (inclusiv al valorilor induse prin propaganda
manipulativ) societii devenite mas condus de o raiune i ordine dat n care individul i
pierde idealurile absorbit de alte nevoi dect cele personale.
Analizat din multiple perspective,dar mai puin sub aspect filosofic, zbuciumul
sufletesc al lui Emil Cioran , trimite deopotriv spre nihilismul i pesimismul enunat de
Nietzsche i ecourile unei etici a rezistenei adorniene,cu reticenele asumate.
Operele celor trei autori prezint unele asemnri n msura n care sunt o suit de
fragmente ce au o articulaie conceptual, de regul, paradoxal, adic, tocmai, un aspect
aforistic ntr-o prelucrare extrem de ngrijit. Despre Nietzsche se tie c este este un gnditor
unitar, temele lui se condiioneaz reciproc ntr-o manier logic, iar nu aleatorie, fapt pentru
care filosofia sa a i fost numit un "sistem n aforisme"23. O asemenea caracterizare surprinde
funcia esenial a aforismului pentru aceste scrieri.
Pentru Nietzsche , aforismul este un alt mijloc de cunoatere,ntemeiat pe o alt
perspectiv asupra cunoaterii, sau, mai exact, asupra necunoaterii 24.Aa cum se observ
temele eseniale ale lui Nietzsche sunt voina de putere, transmutarea tuturor valorilor i
eterna rentoarcere.Concepia sa despre "adevr", vizeaz raportul dintre subiect i obiect,
logic, metafizic, aspecte epistemologice prezente i la Emil Cioran,n vreme ce n cazul lui
Adorno se poate vorbi despre o "epistemologic negativ", n sensul c binele nu poate fi
cunoscut datorit lipsei manifestrilor acestuia. Unele teme adorniene sunt recurente i
contradictorii,sau mai precis urmeaz o logic a contradictoriului,din care detaliile
individuale nu pot fi omise,ele furniznd tensiunea dintre form i fond,indicnd prezena unor
forme dominante ,deopotriv n art, muzic i societate ce se dispun n straturi constitutive
ale aa-numitei dialectici negative.Deopotriv metod i trstur specific a scriiturii sale
,dialecticii negative i se consacr o ntreag oper25, extrem de complex,din care capitolul
despre libertate reprezint .
Tem recurent i predilect la Nietzsche ,voina pentru putere este nsoit de o critic a
posibilitii de accedere la "adevr" ca valoare fundamental a cunoaterii : "adevrul" este o
invenie, "cunoaterea" este fabulaie (spre deosebire de legitimitatea cunoaterii kantiene a
"fenomenelor"). Respingerea concepiei aristotelice a adevrului ca adecvatio) implic
reticena fa de subiectul cunoaterii nzestrat cu structuri transcendentale, optnd pentru
pluralitatea de impulsuri ce ajung, pe rnd s domine "contiina". n mod asemntor ,
Adorno are n vedere pulsurile unor habitusuri ale cror repetare i asociere dau un grad de
funcionare,manifestare concret a raiunii , care este raionalitatea,dar uneori opusul ei.
Studiu introductiv la Voina de putere,p.XXI i K. Lawith, Nietzsches Philosophie de,. ewigen Wiederkehr des
Gleichen, Kohlhammer, Stuttgart, 1956, p. 15
24
Ibidem
25
Vezi http://members.efn.org/~dredmond/ndtrans.html
23
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Tensiunea dintre form i fond, explicat de Adorno -i de altfel prima din cele 10 teze ale
vorbirii filosofului26- n abordarea lui Nietzsche vizeaz crearea unei rupturi profunde in
interiorul subiectului27. Dezvoltarea criticii "adevrului", rece dincolo de zona ideilor
metafizice, descriind deopotriv situaia manifestrilor omului ca subiect, i toate valorile:
ntr-o evident transmutare Dincolo de Bine i de Ru , depind planul moral prin
cuprinderea ntregului orizont n care este implicat omul i raionalitatea. Privind din exterior
suma manifestrilor raiunii presupune reevaluarea cunoaterii, a subiectului, a contiinei ce
se nscriu n sfera obinuinelor nu mai gsesc "firului Ariadnei" ,labirintul n care rmne
omul (cnd se renun la rolul privilegiat al intelectului) poate ntlni montri ,unde
obinuinele se leag de paradigma occidental n care opusul intelectului este sensibilitatea "iraionalul" , Minotaurul ce ia n stpnire labirintul.O nou perspectiv valoric n viziunea
lui Nietzsche ine de dominaia snsibilitii asupra intelectului.Dac este vorba despre o
"rsturnare a platonismului" ,ea poate fi o ntoarcere la origini prin sensibilitile corpului
(form strveche a adaptrii originare) i "experiment n privina adevrului", depind
nencrederea n valorile secolului XIX i pstrnd drept ancor "voin de putere".28
Dihotomia raiune i simire nu se construiete ca o realitate i ca atare exist o
memorie,o inteligen i manifestare a raiunii prin simuri ncorporate ale cror sensibilitate,
constituie pentru Nietzsche un cmp al unor stri opuse, ndeobte considerate contradictorii
(plcere-neplcere). Interioritatea omului, de asemenea confirm c aceste stri contradictorii
tind s se exclud reciproc dei ele i asigur subzistena ntr-un acord al posibilitii de
dominare i implicit al dependenei.Tocmai n aceste aspecte rezid modelul "voinei de
putere" ,iar Nietzsche are tentaia extinderii pentru ntregul real,dup acceptarea voinei ca
trire subiectiv asupra creia insistase Schopenhauer pn la demnitatea de principiu
metafizic. Observm afiniti existente ntre voina de via la Schopenhauer i voina de
putere la Nietzsche .Ele coexist i se pot suprapune,dar pentru primul caz reinem c voina
este una i unic (ca principiu) n vreme ce acesteia i revin ipostazieri: o pluralitate de
asemenea voine. Ne ntrebm dac firul Ariadnei l constituie cumva nsui corpul cu tipuri
de voine ce ar decurge din nevoile lui cu tensiunile ce solicit organizarea,specializarea i
chiar armonizarea.29Dac logica nu mediaz ntre tririle contradictorii n chipul de
afecte,pasiuni .manifestri organice ,analogia explic multiplicitatea expresiilor voinei de
putere. Aa cum logica folosea conceptul n sensul unei uniti cuprinznd diversitatea, se
ntrevede un punct de acumulare al aproximrilor ce uit diferenele, or morfologia nu se
supune identitii,fapt ce nu ine de intenionalitate deoarece fiecare organism este un unicat
26
Cele zece teze ale vorbirii filosofului,lucrare netradus
Or aceast ruptur profund,sau falie, poate fi urmat de excluderea oricrei legitimiti a conceptului de
cunoatere, de auto-cunoatere, inclusiv al limbajului (prin bulversarea relaiei semnificant-semnificat)
.Discursul lui Nietzsche implic o dialectic negativ proprie atunci cnd el neag unitatea subiectului, a eului,
pentru a vorbi apoi n numele unui asemenea eu) ,vezi Studiu introductiv XXIIl ca i interpretarea lui Wolfgang
Miller-Lauter, op. cit., p. 18 . Acesta susine c negarea unitii subiectului implic respingerea metafizicii
tradiionale, iar presupusa asumare ca subiect, evideniaz de fapt ineficiena ontologic a noiunilor deoarece
indentitatea subiectului Nietzsche neag toate indentitile cu care opereaz subiectul,inclusiv contradiciile.
28
M. Heidegger, op. cit., p. 26.
29
Do cette obsession de se prsenter comme le secrtaire de ses sensations. Il a un rythme et non un style
(Cioran 1997 : 333).
27
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cu reprezentrile,interpretrile i adaptrile individuale la un mediu schimbtor .Logica nu

mai are un suport obiectiv, pierzndu-i rolul de "deintor al adevrului" .Viaa are legile ei,
mult mai vaste,fa de care logica pare a acoperi doar aproximrile noastre pentru a da lumii o
anumit coeren de care depindem,pe care ne-o construim n bun msur ajungnd la
ncredinarea validitii pn la proba contrarie.Formele realitii sunt "acumulri"
succesive,asemenea unor puncte reprezentnd voin de putere .Ele pot pot fi punctuale sau
organizate ntr-un mod ierarhic .Diferena fa de imuabilul monadele lui Leibniz rezid n
faptul c "punctualizrile" au propria dezvoltare sub semnul unor dependene,dominri i
retrageri,reduceri,subordonri sau anihilri. Reinem c n perspectiva lui Nietzsche (pus
anume sub semnul unei dinamici ambigue) n raportri diverse: ntre oameni,om -realitate,
dintre subiectul ca obiect al cunoaterii de sine i subiectul ca subiect al acesteia ine mai mult
de domeniul artistic,dect de cel metafizic. Ar fi aici o doz de neprevzut i imprevizibil,de
hazard pur de manifestri ale realului n contexte diferite, iar cnd contextul esenial
ncorporeaz omul ,creaia e mediat de impulsuri, de afecte, de triri. Exist o ambiguitate
cutat n raportarea la om , cnd este privit ca artist sau ca reprezentant al speciei sale. Exist
o ambiguitate a interpretrilor,dac manifestrile biologicului urmeaz reperele artistice prin
impulsuri similare impulsurilor artistice,sau analogia aceasta a dus la erori regretabile n
istoria omului, Nietzsche fiind preocupat de creativitate ca proces artistic, n ambele cazuri
este o dorit eliberare de canoanele adevrului,de dogmele unui adevr. 30 Creatorul, artistul
este ntr-adevr un om superior ,dar a trece dincolo de bine i de ru ,este presupoziia operei
de art , astfel c n realitatea cotidian "supraomul" este mai curnd un ideal , "o metafor i
o enigm". Transmutarea tuturor valorilor, mai exact destructurarera valorilor tradiionale i
nlocuirea lor cu noua perspectiv a voinei de putere deschide orizonturi mai puin
cunoscute,ce pentru un cercettor care aspir spre obiectivitate nseamn prealabila eliberare
de idei preconcepute .31
Din aforismul sau fragmentul al doilea32,aflm aspectul narativ profetic al scriiturii
lui Nietzsche,care se refer secolele ce vor urma ca oper a necesiti:ntreaga noastr
cultur european se-ndreapt de mult, cu o tortur a tensiunii ce crete de la un deceniu la
altul, ca nspre o catastrof: cu nelinite, violent i rapid: asemntor unui fluviu, ce vrea s
ajung la capt, ce nu mai chibzuiete, cruia i este fric s chibzuiasc. Al treilea aforism
sau fragment ne indic reflecia autorului asupra nihilismului i trirea pn la epuizare i
depire a acestui fenomen :primul nihilist deplin al Europei, care ns a trit n sinea sa
nihilismul pn la capt, l-a lsat n urm, l-a depit i s-a desprins de el.
2.Depirea nihilismului nseamn descoperirea valorilor ca nevoi eseniale.
30
vezi Prefaa lui Claudiu Baciu la versiunea romneasc a Voinei de putere.
Ar trebui reconsiderate aspecte privitoare la profilul lui Nietzsche :ct ine din portretul cunoscut pn acum
,de amoralism,artistic,stilistic,acordul fa de fora coercitiv ca instrument politic ce
asuprete,mpiedic,elimin libertatea individului i pn unde libertatea e privit ca atare i din ce punct ea a
devenit o tiranie; ct ne de inocen i ct de scepticism sau chiar cinism.
32
Ne raportm la traducerea romneasc a Voinei de putere.
31
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Nietzsche explic "ncercarea de transmutare a tuturor valorilor" prin micarea ce va

nlocui nihilismul , "contrar n ceea ce privete principiul i sarcina"; Dac nihilismul este
consecina ultim a valorilor noastre precedente; pentru c nihilismul reprezint logica gndit
pn la capt a marilor noastre valori i idealuri, pentru c noi trebuie s trim mai nti
nihilismul spre a nelege ce era de fapt valoarea acestor "valori".33
Cauza nihilismului ,aa cum e explicat de Nietzsche n Cartea nti a nihilismului
european nu rezid n "crizele sociale" ,nici n "degenerrile fiziologice" i nici n
corupie,deoarece Trim epoca cea mai onest, cea mai plin de compasiune . Suferina,
mizeria sufleteasc, trupeasc, intelectual nu pot, ca atare, s produc nihilismul34 ,ci acesta
devine posibil ntr-o anumit interpretare, cretin-moral. Sensul n care Nietzsche vorbete
despre declinul cretinismului nu este cel obinuit al negrii acestuia,ct a prefctoriei
:datorit moralei sale i care se autodizolv datorit ipocriziei i spiritului duplicitar care
mimeaz credina n iubire fr a fi nvat adevrul acestei triri,rsturnnd sensul credinei
pn la falsitatea extins peste tot n lumea vieii.Pierderea sensului indic esena
nihilismului,adic scepticismul extins asupra putinei moralei mpins spre lumea de dincolo
cci viaa obinuit este existena n eroare i pedeapsa manifestrii negative,de care ncearc
a se desprinde neleptul, sfntul sau poetul desprinznd i binele de frumos i adevr ntr-o
lume ce i-a pierdut valorile.Nietzsche vorbete despre lipsa unei critici a moralei cretine.
Theodor W.Adorno a extins nevoia gndirii critice la nivelul tuturor domeniilor
spiritului, n vreme ce manifestrile raiunii s-au dovedit n chip repetat
negative,eronate,catastrofale. Exist reineri evidente fa absolutizarea raiunii i
raionamentelor .35Marele pericol nu vine din partea gestului energic susinut de argumente
bazate pe adevr i respectul vieii ci din partea cotidianului cenuiu al obinuinelor i al
nempotrivirii fa de erorile raionalitii .Cum aceste erori au indicat n repetate rnduri
sensul instrumental ,supunerea fa principiul dominaiei i pasivitatea n momentele de
rscruce cnd s-ar fi putut face ceva pentru a evita ororile istoriei, contiina trebuie s rmn
treaz n privina pericolelor din partea ideologiilor,a religiilor degradate sub forma unor
gnoze. Se ntrevede din nou povara cunoaterii i nevoia responsabilitii omului . Adorno
folosete termenul lumea vieii36 cu presupoziia respectului fa de via,fa de
posibilitatea comunicrii i alegerii dintre attea bunuri false, un bine acceptabil. Pentru
33
Vezi Voina de putere,fragmentul 4,
adic refuzul radical al valorii, al sensului i al dezirabilitii.

De ce Caietele au devenit pentru Cioran o raiune de-a fi? mesure que lon rflchit sur lui, on conoit
nanmoins que le Crateur se soit afflig dans son cur de lavoir cr (Cioran 2003 : 1080).
34
35
La Kierkegaard i la Adorno,lumea e vzut ca via,n vreme ce la Schopenhauer ca voin i reprezentare E

vorba de contradicia ntre lumea venerat i cea trit.10.10 Voici venir la contradiction entre le monde que
nous vnrons et le monde que nous vivons, que nous sommes. Il nous reste, soit supprimer notre gnration,
soit nous supprimer nous-mmes. Le second cas est le nihilisme. - Fr. Nietzsche, La volont de puissance.
Essai dùne transmutation de toutes les valeurs, vol. I, Paris, Editions Mercure de France, 1925, p. 31.
36
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Cioran, tot ce intreprinde omul se ntoarce mpotriva lui . 37Pentru Adorno (aforismul 101),
binele nu este de gsit cnd omul a nceput s se asemene plantelor de ser.38
Afinitile ntre cei trei gnditori ai acestei cercetri decurg din faptul c privesc n aceeai
direcie.39Privindu-i printr-o gril comun a nevoii de adevr,sau mai precis a cutrii acestuia
la baza nevoilor propuse de Maslow descoperim c gndirea etic,politic i economic n
lumea noastr in prea mult de suflul mediocrittii, al lamentabilului, al nesinceritii a;adar
nihilismul indic faptul c valorile cele mai nalte se devalorizeaz40. Tipul raionalitii
dezvoltate cu marile sperane i credin n sine a dezvoltat obinuine ale omului de a se
dispreui pe sine i pe aproapele,s se opun vieii i s dispere datorit cunoaterii; era un
instrument de conservare a duplicitii,resentimentului,acceptrii neadevrului.Fiecare din cei
trei filosofi se apleac asupra unor aspecte41 ce par a caracteriza postmodernismul zilelor
noastre (explicit prin cuvintele lui Nietzsche):
a)Ceea ce cunoatem nu mai apreciem, iar ceea ce am dori s ne amgeasc, nu mai avem
dreptul s apreciem ; atunci42 pentu ce scrie Cioran,cel care neag totul:pe Dumnezeu, tradiia
societatea, aproapele,propriile sentimente etc?
b)n msura in care credem n moral, condamnm existena (aa cum ni se arat );43c)
consecina nihilist (credina n lipsa de valoare) ca rezultat al evalurii morale: egoismul ne
dezgust (chiar dup ce am neles imposibilitatea altruismului); necesarul ne dezgust (chiar
dup nelegerea imposibilitii unui "liberum arbitrium" i a unei "liberti inteligibile").44
Constatm c nu mai atingem sferele n care ne-am proiectat propriile valori -dar astfel, sfera
..tout ce que lhomme entreprend se retourne contre lui (Solitude et destin, traduit du roumain par A.
PARUIT, Paris, Gallimard (Arcades), 2004: 223).
37
38
Minima moralia,183
Nihilismul ca logic a decadenei,nu cauz. Le nihilisme nèst pas une cause, mais seulement la logique de la
dcadence Ibid., p. 113
39
40
Alfel spus de acelai Nietzsche: Lipsete scopul. Lipsete rspunsul la ntrebarea "De ce?".
41
Prima parte din Voina de putere comparativ cu Exercitii de admiratie ,Humanitas,2001
Ma thrapeutique consistait donc dire du mal de Dieu, de Dieu videmment, a on ny peut rien, a cest une
thrapeutique extraordinaire. Si vous dites du bien de Dieu et de tout le monde, vous tes foutu. crire, cest la
libration intrieure. [] crire est une faon de se vider soi-mme. Cest une dlivrance. Autrement, ce quon
porte en soi deviendrait un complexe (Cioran 2004 : 279-281).
42
Evocarea cuvntului eec/ chec dezvolt o schem a contiinei ,n care punctul de sosire e opus celui al
ateptrilor : tout ce que lhomme fait se retourne contre lui : cest l son destin, et la loi tragique de
lhistoire (Cioran 2004 : 161).
43
Chute dans le temps :Primul strmo nainte de a se ntoarce spre arborele cunoaterii: Premier anctre, bien
avant quil se tournt vers larbre de la connaissance. Insatisfait de lui-mme, il ltait encore plus de Dieu quil
enviait sans en tre conscient ...Que lignorant sattaqut aux deux arbres, et quil entrt en possession et de
lternit et de la science, tout changeait. Ds quAdam gota au fruit incrimin, Dieu, comprenant enfin qui il
avait affaire, saffola. En plaant larbre de la connaissance au milieu du jardin, en en vantant les mrites et
surtout les dangers, il commit une grave imprudence, il alla au-devant du dsir le plus secret de la crature
(Cioran 2003 : 1071-1072).
44
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cealalt, n care trim, nu a dobndit deloc o valoare: dimpotriv, suntem obosii cci am
pierdut impulsul fundamental. 45
d)Pesimismul ca form premergtoare a nihilismului prin energia logicii sale, ca anarhism i
nihilism, ca analitic. Aforismul 153 din Minima moralia ar putea fi continuarea drept unica
filosofie ce ar putea s se recomande fa de disperare.
BIBLIOGRAFIE
1. Adorno W.Theodor,Minima moralia,Art,2007,ISB978-973-124-098-5

2. Botez A., (2005), Un secol de filosofie romneasc, Bucureti, Ed. Academiei
Romne.
3. Chira, V., (2006), Dominantele gndirii cioraniene, Sibiu, Ed. Univ. Lucian Blaga.
4. Cioran E., (1993), Exerciii de admiraie, Bucureti, Ed. Humanitas.
5. Cioran E., (1992), Tratat de descompunere, Bucureti, Humanitas.
6. Cioran, E., (1997), Despre Dumnezeu, Bucureti, Humanitas.
7. Cioran E., Lacrimi i sfini, Bucureti, Humanitas.
8. Cioran, E., (2002), Ispita de a exista, Bucureti, Humanitas.
9. CIORAN, E,. uvres, Paris, Gallimard (Quarto), 2003 [1995].
10. Cioran, E.,(2004),Solitude et destin, traduit du roumain par A. PARUIT, Paris,
Gallimard (Arcades),
11. Cioran, E., (1996), Demiurgul cel ru, Bucureti, Humanitas.
12. Cioran, E., (1996), Convorbiri cu Cioran, Ed. Humanitas.
13. Cioran E., (1996), Amurgul gndurilor, Bucureti, Ed. Humanitas.
14. Cioran E., (1997), Despre Dumnezeu, antologie, selecia textelor de Aurel Cioran,
Bucureti, Humanitas.
15. Cioran, E., (1992), Silogismele amrciunii, Humanitas, Bucureti.
16. Cioran, E., (1995), Despre neajunsul de a te fi nscut, Humanitas, Bucureti.
17. Cioran, E., (2005), Caiete, vol. I, Bucureti, Humanitas.
18. Cioran, E., (2005), Caiete, vol. III, Bucureti, Humanitas.
19. Liiceanu Gabriel, (1995), Apocalipsa dup Cioran, Bucureti, Humanitas.
20. Nietzsche,Fr., Voina de putere, ncercare de transmutare a tuturor valorilor
(Fragmente postume),Traducere i Studiu introductiv de Claudiu Baeiu ,editura AION
,1999,ISBN 973-97662-6-9
E-sources:
Pourquoi crire et pour qui ? Mais il y a des ncessits intrieures qui chappent cette vision, elles sont
dune autre nature, plus intimes et plus mystrieuses, irrationnelles. [] Mais il y a quand mme cette vitalit
mystrieuse qui vous pousse faire quelque chose. Et peut-tre cest a la vie, sans vouloir employer de grands
mots, cest que lon fait des choses auxquelles on adhre sans y croire, oui, cest peu prs a (Cioran 2004 :
318-319).
45
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https://books.google.ro/books?id=liQAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT216&lpg=PT216&dq=nihilismul+lui+Cioran&source=bl&ots=olAAsNkQKo&sig=RGWWv0k9SAs5
TBm0UP0jyDF77M&hl=ro&sa=X&ei=FVLjVNrAB4LwUuDogJgE&ved=0CFEQ6AEwCA#v=onepage&q=nihilismul%20lui%2
0Cioran&f=false
http://cogito.ucdc.ro/cogito/emilciorannihilistulcugandulgabrielapohoata_1.pdf
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno
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THE LYRICISM OF THE VOYAGE OUT

Irina-Ana DROBOT
Technical University of Civil Engineering, Bucharest
Abstract: Is Virginia Woolfs The Voyage Out a traditional or experimental novel? The aim of
this article is to show that this novel contains features of both. Judging from some of its
features and themes, it can be analysed in the same way that one might analyse poetry.
Woolfs use of previously known texts, especially Romantic lyric poetry, but also other poems
and plays, will be examined in order to see when and how they are used to create a lyrical
novel. The Voyage Out revels in a freedom for the mixture of various literary genres. Woolf
uses this mixture to bring the lyrical aspect into the foreground, especially when characters
reflect about life. Multiple perspectives on what happens in the novel resonate with the view
common in poetry that a characters personality is fragmented, not coherent. The symbolic
dimension of characters achieving a coherent vision on life through communication or other
experiences again resonates with poetry.
Keywords: lyrical novel, water, tragedy, isolation, Romanticism.
Is Virginia Woolfs The Voyage Out a traditional or experimental novel? The aim of
this article is to show that this novel contains features of both. Judging from some of its
features and themes, it can be analysed in the same way that one might analyse poetry.
Woolfs use of previously known texts, especially Romantic lyric poetry, but also other
poems and plays, will be examined in order to see when and how they are used to create a
lyrical novel. Woolf herself states of this kind of novel that it will be written in prose, but in
prose which has many of the characteristics of poetry. It will have something of the exaltation
of poetry, but much of the ordinariness of prose. It will be dramatic, but not a play. It will be
read, not acted (Woolf 2008: 80)
Stella McNichol, in Virginia Woolf and the Poetry of Fiction, notices poetic features
in the Voyage Out, a novel otherwise described as traditional. McNichol claims that, in this
novel, ordinary incidents such as a dance or a picnic have a symbolic dimension which offers
a new layer of meaning to the plot. Anthony Domestico points out the temporary unit of the
participants at the picnic. They are different people brought together by this temporary
moment of communion. Domestico likens this scene to similar scenes in other novels where
people are united: at Mrs. Dalloways party (in Mrs. Dalloway) or at Mrs. Ramsays dinner
(in To the Lighthouse). There, according to Domestico, characters from various social
backgrounds are brought together by their hosts for a brief moment of unity. Such scenes are
poetic due to the focus on characters reflections on the subject of coherence. What is more,
as characters feelings become the focus of these scenes, time is no longer experienced
through action, but through reflection. The action is slowed down and left in the background
as reflections and feelings are brought to the foreground.
The scene at the beginning of The Voyage Out is at times dynamic (there is dialogue
and there are exterior incidents) and at times seemingly static (when the narrative becomes
more reflective). The static aspect of the narrative is due to the expansion of time. Incidents
which, objectively, would not last for a long time are given extended attention in the novel.
Time, in Mllers terms, is not compressed but expanded, in the sense that brief moments are
given a large space on the written page and, as a result, take more of the readers time.
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The ending of this novel differs from that of a traditional novel. However, as is often
the case in traditional novels, the flashbacks are easy to follow and the explanations of the
characters reflections are not always stream-of-consciousness (Pratap Singh 2004: 141),
while the poetic language is represented in embryonic form (Pratap Singh 2004: 142). By
reflecting, characters offer a lyrical perception of everyday life.
Inner reflections form the basis for the lyrical novel. Bradbury supports this view
when he states that the modernist novel focuses on the inner workings of the mind (Bradbury
and McFarlane 1991: 393). Unity of plot is ensured by a reflector or focalizer (Onega
1996: 19). In The Voyage Out, the lyrical monologues of all characters are presented through
a third-person narrators perspective.
Isolation is a theme that is dominant in much of Modernist literature: Woolf chooses to
focus on the isolation of the individual brought about by modern society. Isolation is also a
commonly found trope in Romantic lyric poetry, with the poet or, more generally, the artist,
feeling lonely in society. That is what prompts him to confess in the lyrical mode, as do the
characters in the lyrical novel. Maida Long, in The bitter glass: demonic imagery in the novels
of Virginia Woolf (1975) notices this theme in The Years, but it applies to all of Woolfs
novels. In The Voyage Out, characters sometimes talk without having anything meaningful to
say, and without achieving any sort of personal connection with others. Rachel is described as
a silent young woman. She realizes that verbal communication is not honest: It appeared that
nobody ever said a thing they meant, or ever talked about a feeling they felt, but that was what
music was for. (Woolf 2006: 29). Rachel does not express her feelings for Terence to her
aunt Helen. She just talks to herself and the reader is her only audience. Rachel feels alone in
a crowd, in the sense that she does not feel understood:
She felt herself surrounded, like a child at a party, by the faces of strangers all hostile
to her, with hooked noses and sneering, indifferent eyes.
Rachels isolation prompts her to experience moments of vision. She is isolated in her
own reality and experiences incidents differently from the others. Like a poet, or Romantic
visionary, she experiences various states of intense emotions, and she even hallucinates in the
end. Walker clarifies the issue of Rachels isolation by placing her in her own social and
historical context. Her death is interpreted as a result of her inability to adapt to the new
situations she has to face:
Rachel as an out of time, out of place heroine does not fit into her surroundings
emotionally, physically, or intellectually. She is not like the other characters, she feels apart
from them and they sense this, she does not communicate well with them, and she has intense
aversions to what her contemporaries consider the normal life for a young woman. [] in the
end Woolf has no choice but to write Rachels death because Rachel never finds the time or
place where she fits in. (Walker 1998:1).
Woolf attempted to break away from the traditional marriage plot of the type
portrayed in Jane Austens novels. Woolf turns the storys focus away from the narrative,
towards a dark mood composed of Rachels moments of vision. These will end with the
heroines death, resulting from her inability to fit in or to find anything meaningful in the
world. Even though she experiences moments of vision, these isolated moments are not
enough to give coherence to her chaotic world. Even her moments of vision largely consist of
a dark view of the external world, since they anticipate death (Galbiati and Harris 2010: 70).
Rachels isolation is always connected to a poetic and tragic view of life. For the
Romantics, solitude was coupled with the idea of sociability, in the sense that a balance was
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supposed to be achieved between public and private lives. Here Rachel fails at finding this
balance, and this lack of symmetry is, in the end, her fatal flaw
But because Romanticism also inherited the 18th-century idea of social sympathy,
Romantic solitude existed in a dialectical relationship with sociability [] (Deresiewicz
2009)
Rachels story is in accord with the Modernist understanding of the idea of solitude:
Modernism decoupled this dialectic. Its notion of solitude was harsher, more
adversarial, more isolating. [] the soul, self-enclosed and inaccessible to others, can't
choose but be alone. (Deresiewicz 2009)
Communication problems are at the base of the characters issues. Both Terence and
Rachel realize that there is no honest communication possible between them. Such problems
can come from the insufficiency of language to express and understand reality. Terence
discusses with Hirst: whats the use of attempting to write when the worlds peopled by such
damned fools? Seriously Hewet, I advise you to give up literature. Whats the good of it?
Theres your audience. St. John Hirsts isolation leads him to feel excluded and to wonder
what other characters are thinking. He finds himself comparing his own feelings and selfworth with the happiness he imagines in others:
But St. John thought that they were saying things which they did not want him to hear,
and was led to think of his own isolation. These people were happy, and in some ways he
despised them for being made happy so simply, and in other ways he envied them. He was
much more remarkable than they were, but he was not happy.
Even the place where characters find themselves serves as a pretext for lyricism. Place
is composed not only of the physical location, but also of a certain atmosphere. Places are
seen through the characters perception. They can be regarded as a setting for characters
thoughts. Poetry lines serve to resonate with characters moods. Rachel is presented during a
moment of reflection over a few lines from Tristan:
Her eyes were fixed so steadily upon a ball on the rail of the ship that she would have
been startled and annoyed if anything had chanced to obscure it for a second. She had begun
her meditations with a shout of laughter, caused by the following translation from Tristan:
In shrinking trepidation
His shame he seems to hide
While to the king his relation
He brings the corpse-like Bride.
Seems it so senseless what I say?
She cried that it did, and threw down the book.
Before the lines appear in the storys presentation, Rachels mood and personality are
briefly revealed, then intensified. She is presented as reflective and sensitive. Lucio P.
Ruotolo, in The Interrupted Moment: A View of Virginia Woolfs Novels (1986), sees Rachel
as disengaged from the world. Indeed, she appears isolated in social settings. In this episode
she looks for answers to her questions in books, and reacts to the lines she reads by laughing.
Ruotolo (1986) and Susan Stanford Friedman, in Spatialization, Narrative Theory, and
Virginia Woolfs The Voyage Out. Ambiguous Discourse (1996: 109-135) refer to Rachel as
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the heroine in a failed buildungsroman. These lines bring immediate insight into Rachels
character. During the trip she remains isolated, having trouble communicating with the world.
The corpse-like Bride is an allusion to the novels ending.
In Chapter XXV, there are clearly two embedded texts in the main fabula which echo
and finally interfere with one another. The first embedded text is the scene between Terence
and Rachel. Terence reads some lines from Milton which echo Rachels thoughts regarding
Terences love. The fictional place found in Milton interferes with the characters physical
setting. The fictional place creates a lyrical atmosphere, to the point where the fictional,
imaginary place eclipses the real-life place, making it fade both for the characters and for the
readers. One love story echoes another. In this way, readers and characters alike make their
own associations with previous texts in order to make sense of the reality of the characters in
The Voyage Out. Rachel appears to sympathize with the characters in Comus, a poem by
Milton, and to identify with the female character. She borrows the poems setting since it
better expresses her own inner reality, her own emotional states, and her own personality.
Like the Romantic poets, Rachel recreates reality with the help of her imagination and the
place she chooses for expressing herself will be a reflection of her self-image. In this way she
can make herself feel at one with her surroundings, a habit the Romantics ascribed to.
However, the process here is a bit different: rather than adapting to a real-life place, Rachel
chooses an imaginary place from literature that resonates with her emotions. Readers perceive
this imaginary place as part of Rachel. Rachel comes to feel that the poem is about her
feelings and about her love story with Terence. She reacts to the poem with great intensity.
The imaginary place is chosen to echo this reaction.
Many books had been tried and then let fall, and now Terence was reading Milton
aloud, because he said the words of Milton had substance and shape, so that it was not
necessary to understand what he was saying; one could merely listen to his words; one could
almost handle them.
There is a gentle nymph not far from hence,
he read,
That with moist curb sways the smooth Severn stream.
Sabrina is her name []
The words, in spite of what Terence had said, seemed to be laden with meaning, and
perhaps it was for this reason that it was painful to listen to them; they sounded strange; they
meant different things from what they usually meant.
The imaginary place from Miltons poem is not described in detail. However, it
creates an image for readers based on their knowledge of previous texts. Readers will apply
the grid of interpretation of imagery regarding nature and water that they already have in
place. Rachels story echoes Sabrinas from Miltons poem. Sabrina is a deity from Miltons
Comus; she lives in the depths and is associated with fertility rites and purity. The water
imagery present in the novel is also found in these lines. One place echoes another, with all its
associations related to water symbolism. The depths where Sabrina lives suggest isolation,
which echoes Rachels own isolation with the impossibility of true communication, or of
genuine, close emotional relationships. At the same time, the fact that water is part of the
places where both Sabrina and Rachel are found in their evolution as personalities says
something about their progress in life. Water is fluid, just as their personalities are depicted as
being in a process of change. Sabrinas purity echoes Rachel, who is inexperienced in her
voyage on the sea. For Sabrina, water is her place, her home, while for Rachel it is a place of
travelling. For Rachel, water is an element of freedom, which involves independence, danger,
and a necessity for growth and change. For Sabrina, it is her own element. Water is part of
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Sabrina as well as of Rachel. However, water as part of Sabrinas personality shows us that
she is from another realm, while Rachel moves towards another realm as she voyages across
the sea.
Water imagery contributes to the idea that the characters personalities are fluid. The
image of water is ambivalent and contradictory, just like the characters. It is, moreover, linked
to characters personality. Characters use water in their thoughts about themselves and in their
inner reflections. Water is an enduring metaphor for life or death and for transitory
experiences.
Water becomes part of Rachels understanding of her own personality. For Rachel, the
sea means independence, yet it is not a sort of independence that she desires. Independence is
not viewed as a pleasant adventure, but as a scary one. Water is seen as both protective and
treacherous. The characters that reflect on water as both peaceful and dangerous are
ambivalent when it comes to life. Even as we think of water as a means of escape, the
meaning is ambivalent, as this escape may be an escape in the form of a peaceful daydream or
in the form of death. When seen as a form of peaceful escape, water signifies a retreat into the
inner world. The experience is expressed in a lyrical form. The image of water accompanies
characters during various stages of their lives and during various moments of reflection.
Rachel has an epiphany, where she compares herself with the sea:
The vision of her own personality, of herself as a real everlasting thing, different from
anything else, unmergeable, like the sea or the wind, flashed into Rachel's mind, and she
became profoundly excited at the thought of living. (Woolf 84)
Here the setting is both real and imaginary, in the sense that Rachel is physically close
to the sea while on her voyage by ship and also because she begins to project her emotions on
the sea and thus describe it in the same way that she describes herself. Her journey on the sea
can be interpreted as a journey of self-discovery and independence (she moves towards
maturity during her trip). Rachel Vinrace, twenty-four years old, does not know much about
life. Her aunt Helen will teach her how to live. Rachel does not seem to wish for
independence very much. She is learning about life, yet her personal journey ends in death.
Ernest Dempsey, in The Voyage Out by Virginia Woolf (2007), states that during her voyage
on the sea, Rachel
[] is simply not a woman yet. [] As the voyage proceeds, Rachels own
transformation towards becoming a woman progresses on a minutely conscious level. The
symbolic voyage of the books title starts an inevitable clock going, every tick of which
pushes Rachel a little out of her person.
The sea, while offering independence, also offers escape. According to Roger Poole
(1978: 266),
Water is the dissolution of the self in something greater than the self. Water is the
great forgiver, the great receiver, the great lover, the great divine element which makes all
argument unnecessary and all strife unimportant. Water was the call to death itself.
Rachel dies after her journey of self-discovery, during which we witness, according to
Ernest Dempsey (2007), the transition of Rachels being towards womanhood. Before her
death, while she lies ill in bed, Rachel has a reverie, as Roger Poole (1978: 266-267)
claims:
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The heat was suffocating. At last the faces went further away; she fell into a deep pool
of sticky water, which eventually closed over her head. She saw nothing and heard nothing
but a faint booming sound, which was the sound of the sea rolling over her head. While all her
tormentors thought that she was dead, she was not dead, but curled up at the bottom of the
sea. There she lay, sometimes seeing darkness, sometimes light, while every now and then
someone turned her over at the bottom of the sea.
The tragic side of the story is underlined by the water symbolism. As she lies in her
bed, Rachel associates water with unpleasant moments. Another moment while Rachel lies ill
in bed and which is connected to water has to do with a release from responsibilities:
On this day indeed Rachel was conscious of what went on round her. She had come to
the surface of the dark, sticky pool, and a wave seemed to bear her up and down with it; she
had ceased to have any will of her own; she lay on the top of the wave conscious of some
pain, but chiefly of weakness.
Rachels tragedy has to do with her death, with her incapability of feeling at ease in
social settings, and also with the prospect of marriage. Rachel sees marriage in tragic terms,
as she fears it and some critics have interpreted her death as a way to escape marriage.
Readers are encouraged to imagine a poetic space which builds on their previous
knowledge of lyric poetry. When Sabrina interacts with another character, Cotyto, she shows
him to be uncivilized in expressing his emotions. Rachel perceives Terences interactions with
her in a similar manner. She casts herself in the role of Sabrina, and she casts Terence in the
role of Cotyto. The fact that Rachel is troubled by the lines in the poem suggests that this
novel will deviate from the traditional marriage plot common in the works of authors such as
Jane Austen. Otherwise, the reader might misinterpret the intention of the novel, based on the
setting and the characters interaction, and apply the traditional Romantic grid of
interpretation to the plot in The Voyage Out. The absence of a happy ending is suggested by
the pattern of interaction common to Rachel and Terence, and Sabrina and Cotyto. To this,
another established pattern can be added, that of the paradox of associating love and pain in
Keats Romantic poems:
Keats often associated love and pain both in his life and in his poetry. [] Love and
death are intertwined in "Isabella; or, the Pot of Basil," "Bright Star," "The Eve of St. Agnes,"
and "La Belle Dame sans Merci." The Fatal Woman (the woman whom it is destructive to
love, like Salome, Lilith, and Cleopatra) appears in "La Belle Dame sans Merci" and
"Lamia."1
Rachel is portrayed as a tragic heroine for whom love is coupled with death. Her fate
is anticipated by this pattern of cultural associations. Love, for Rachel and Terence, is
destructive. The space suggested here is that of poetry, and it is more a mood than a physical
space. It is a space constructed by readers as poetic by means of their previous associations
and knowledge. Another character, Ridley, is also troubled by some lines, from Miltons
Nativity Ode, which he remembers later like a refrain. Lines of verse have a direct connection
with characters moods which they project on the atmosphere. The choice of a different place
contributes to the readers perception of the plot as deviating from the marriage plot which
they otherwise might have expected.
http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/english/melani/cs6/keats.html
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According to Diane F. Gillespie, in Sally Greene, ed., in Virginia Woolf: Reading the
Renaissance (1999: 214), Comus is an intertextual reference which does everything to move
away from the marriage plot. Sabrina drowns herself in order to avoid rape. Rachel gets a
mysterious and sudden illness while engaged to Terence so as to avoid the traditional
marriage plot but also to avoid sexual violence (Greene 1999: 131). The marriage plot may be
called traditional since it has reigned over female readers from the novels inception at least
until Woolfs time (Greene 1999: 132).
The reference to the story of Comus and Sabrina is not the only one used by Woolf.
Woolf uses plenty of previous existing literature. She uses the concept of moments of vision
from Romantic poetry in order to play with a Jane Austen-type marriage plot: questioning and
reworking this common trope. The traditional Jane Austen plot is concerned with
relationships: marriage and happiness, marriage and unhappiness, and match-making among
characters. Woolf, however, guides this traditional formula towards a tragic end. Boring
social situations, characters dilemmas concerning relationships, their concern with their
future, and their own experiences are mixed with more reflective moments from Romantic
and Renaissance poems, as well as with a touch of tragedy familiar to readers of ancient
dramas.
As with more traditional stories, in The Voyage Out there is not much distinction
between the situation in the main fabula and the situation in the characters memories. The
story is not reconstructed from memories, as it is in Mrs. Dalloway.
Thompson (2012) sketches the following plot structure for The Voyage Out:
This illustrates the way this novel differs in terms of structure from a traditional novel.
One can notice the importance of various reflections, which coexist with more traditional
scenes.
In Woolfs novels, The Voyage Out included, both traditional and experimental
elements work together to create the lyrical novel. Past traditions serve as a background for
understanding and expressing the characters emotional states.
The elegiac, sometimes mournful or nostalgic, at other times nearly tragic aspect of
her novels contributes, together with the Romantic tropes, to insight into a definition of the
lyrical novel. Woolf shocked her readers with her experimental technique. Yet why did this
happen? Are her novels really that different from traditional ones? Woolf shaped readers
perceptions of what she called the traditional novel in her essays. She defined her new type of
177
Issue no. 6/2015
novel in opposition to the traditional novel. Thus, she outlined expectations about previous
novels and then challenged them. She focused on the idea that previous novels made use of
chronological time and a plot which included lots of incidents. By traditional novel, she
meant one that contained few if any flashbacks, that had a plot driven by the way incidents
happen chronologically, few reflective moments belonging to the characters, and an
omniscient narrator. She later challenged this type of novel, saying that these sorts of novels
reflected little verisimilitude to life.
Critics have traditionally focused on aspects in Woolfs novels such as her focus on
inner reality, her use of language, her use of external reality, her use of other texts, her use of
traditional elements or her innovations in story-telling. All aspects play a role, yet the lyrical
aspect is most prominent. Critics have analysed the lyrical novel focusing on various aspects:
the poetic aspect, the depiction of the external world, the action of the story, and the
relationships among characters. The same aspects retain the attention of readers. Here,
narratological theories relating to the difference between fabula and story account for the
readers attention. The term fabula is defined as the story with no artistic work done by the
writer. The fabula refers to those incidents which occur to the novels characters, arranged in
a logical and chronological way, even if they are not arranged this way in the novel. The
fabula is just the raw material of the story, as Paul Cobley explains. The writer organizes
this raw material to suit his artistic purposes. At the level of the fabula, there are no
flashbacks or variations in point of view at this level of analysis. (Onega 1996: 7) These
belong to the level of the story. Sometimes the fabula draws our attention, but initially it is the
story that attracts us. Woolf wrote her novels at the story level, changing the order in which
she presented the incidents, without being bound to the usual chronological order in which
events occur. A writer can choose which character tells the story and what characters
perspective the readers have access to. The fabula is made up of incidents which have not
gone through the work of the writers. Readers are prompted to imagine something else: a
poem or a drama which is not actually there. The lyrical novel is not just the work of the
writer; it also relies on the work done by the readers. Critics go through a similar process
when a certain aspect commands their attention. Sometimes we do not see what is there, but
instead what we have been taught to see. As readers, we rely on knowledge of previous texts.
The influence of the Romantic poets on Woolf influences our perception of the story,
allowing us to see its poetic aspects.
The Voyage Out revels in a freedom for the mixture of various literary genres. Woolf
uses this mixture to bring the lyrical aspect into the foreground, especially when characters
reflect about life. Multiple perspectives on what happens in the novel resonate with the view
common in poetry that a characters personality is fragmented, not coherent. The symbolic
dimension of characters achieving a coherent vision on life through communication or other
experiences again resonates with poetry. Woolf has directly influenced contemporary authors
like Graham Swift, who have further advanced Woolfs techniques, such as the use of water
(especially the sea) as a symbolic background for the characters reflections, the moments of
vision, the tragic view on everyday life, and the idea that everyday life is not something wellarranged or even coherent.
References
Bradbury, Malcolm, McFarlane, James, ed. Modernism. A Guide to European
Literature 1890-1930, England: Penguin Books, 1991.
Dempsey, Ernest. The Voyage Out by Virginia Woolf, 2007 [Online]. Available at:
http://www.philosophynow.org/issue60/The_Voyage_Out_by_Virginia_Woolf
178
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Deresiewicz, William. The End of Solitude, The Chronicle of Higher Education,

January 30, 2009, http://chronicle.com/article/The-End-of-Solitude/3708
Domestico,
Anthony.
The
Voyage
Out,
http://modernism.research.yale.edu/wiki/index.php/The_Voyage_Out
Ellis, Steve. Virginia Woolf and the Victorians, Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 2007.
Galbiati, Maria Alessandra, and Harris, Peter James. Reality and language in The
Voyage Out, by Virginia Woolf, DOI: 10.4025/actascilangcult.v32i1.3796, Acta Scientiarum.
Language and Culture Maring, v. 32, n. 1, p. 67-72, 2010.
Gillespie, Diane F. Through Woolfs I. Donne and The Waves, in Greene, Sally, ed.
Virginia Woolf: Reading the Renaissance, 1999, Athens, OH: Ohio University Press.
Long, Maida. The bitter glass : demonic imagery in the novels of Virginia Woolf,
1975, https://circle.ubc.ca/handle/2429/19967
McNichol, Stella. Virginia Woolf and the poetry of fiction, London and New York:
Routledge, 1990.
Onega, Susana, Landa, J.A. Garca, ed. Narratology: An Introduction, London and
New York: Longman, 1996.
Pasold, Bernadette. The relationship between form and content in Virginia Woolfs
novels, http://www.ilhadodesterro.ufsc.br/pdf/24%20A/bernadete%2024%20A.PDF
Poole, Roger.The Unknown Virginia Woolf. Cambridge University Press, 1978.
Ruotolo, Lucio P. The Interrupted Moment: A View of Virginia Woolfs Novels.
Stanford: Stanford University, 1986.
Singh, Randhir Pratap. Novels of Virginia Woolf, Sarup and Sons, 2004, p. 141.
Stanford Friedman, Susan. Virginia Woolfs Pedagogical Scenes of Reading) , in MFS
Modern Fiction Studies, Volume 38, Number 1, Spring 1992, pp. 101-125,
http://130.102.44.246/login?auth=0&type=summary&url=/journals/modern_fiction_studies/v
038/38.1.friedman.pdf
Thompson,
Theresa.
The
Voyage
Out
(1915),
spring
2012,
http://www.valdosta.edu/~tthompson/ppts/4150/spring2012/voyage2_spring2012.pdf
Walker, M. B. Rachel Vinrace and The Voyage Out: a heroine out of time and out of
place, 1998, www.uah.edu/woolf/TVO_Walker.PDF
Woolf,
Virginia.
The
Voyage
Out,
Project
Gutenberg,
2006,
http://www.gutenberg.org/files/144/144-h/144-h.htm
179
Issue no.6/2015
LE CHAMPS SEMATIQUE DU MOT BLANC

Adela-Marinela STANCU, Mihaela Claudia RACU
Universit de Craiova
Abstract: Our study aims to present meanings of the word white as they appear in the
specialized explanatory dictionaries. We have shown the extent to which this word has
become known in the common language (idioms, phrases, proverbs) and the onomastics.
Keywords: white, symbol, expression, locution, onomastics
On sait bien que le blanc reprsente une couleur combinant toutes les frquences du
spectre, produisant une impression visuelle de clart neutre, caractrise par une impression
de forte luminosit, sans aucune teinte dominante.
Dans lArt, pendant la Renaissance, la sculpture abandonne la couleur et sexprime
seulement dans le volume blanc du marbre, limitation des statues antiques qui ont perdu les
couleurs.
Symboliquement, le blanc a plusieurs acceptions. Ainsi, dans la symbolique de
lOccident le blanc sassocie la puret, linnocence, la chastet, la paix, la virginit,
au mariage, la spiritualit (couleur de papaut), la saintet, la vie. L'origine de cette
symbolique rside dans le caractre immacul, sans prsence de noir, et absolu de la lumire
blanche, et dans le fait que le blanc est aussi la couleur de la neige et du lait maternel. Cette
symbolique du blanc tait dj prsente dans les cultures europennes antiques (celtes, latins
etc.), la couleur correspondant la premire fonction, du magique et du religieux.
Le blanc est aussi associ une symbolique contraire: la vieillesse (cheveux blancs), la
mauvaise sant (hpital) et finalement la mort (linceul, os), mais aussi l'angoisse devant la
fameuse feuille blanche des tudiants lors des examens, de l'crivain lorsqu'il commence
son uvre ou celle de l'artiste devant son tableau blanc peindre. Cette couleur tait aussi, au
Moyen ge, la couleur de deuil des reines de France.
Dans la symbolique asiatique et en Afrique, le blanc sassocie la mort, au deuil. La
mort tant le passage oblig vers un nouveau monde, elle est considre comme une
renaissance, dont le blanc voque la puret. Dans l'gypte antique, le blanc est associ la
joie et au faste: il rappelle la couleur de l'aurore, la lumire qui triomphe de l'obscurit.
Le terme de Blanc dsigne gnriquement un groupe humain caractris par une peau
naturellement peu pigment: race blanche. Blanc semploie aussi pour designer la droite
conservatrice par opposition aux rouges qui forment la gauche; autrefois, dnommaient les
chouans par opposition aux rpublicains, dits les Bleus et au XIXe, le partisan de la
monarchie. La forme petit blanc (employe dans les anciennes colonies) dsignait un
individu de race blanche mais de condition modeste1.
Blanc tait le nom sous lequel on dsignait les membres de la faction des Guelfes
Florence, Pise et Pistoia, vers la fin du XIIIe sicle. Les Gibelins taient dsigns, par
opposition, sous le nom de Faction des Noirs (Le Dante tait de la faction de Blancs). Dans
lhistoire orientale, on dit des Blancs pour les Omeyades: Les Blancs et les Noires Les
Omeyades et les Abbassides.2
Trsor de la langue franaise, (version lectronique du Trsor de la Langue Franaise, dictionnaire de
rfrence du XIXe et XXe sicle)
2
Louis, Barr, M. Narcisse, Landois, Compltement du Dictionnaire de lAcadmie Franaise, Bruxelles, 1839
(dition en ligne).
1
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Le mot blanc vient du germanique blank, attest le XIe sicle, signifiant brillant,
clair, sans tache, remplaant ainsi le lat. albus.3
En fonction du domaine employe, ce mot dsigne plusieurs notions:
En physique, corps blanc rflchit ou diffuse toute la lumire visible; lumire blanche
o la rpartition dnergie est constante pour toutes les frquences du spectre visible, donnant
lil humain la sensation de lumire de jour.
En acoustique, bruit blanc reprsente un bruit dont la puissance est constante sur tout
le spectre, et en musique blanche dsigne note de musique qui vaut deux noires, blanche
pointe vaut trois noires. Techniquement, salle blanche reprsente une salle dont
latmosphre, entirement protge de la poussire, est contrle: salle blanche pour la
fabrication de semi-conducteurs.
En technique, blanc dsigne largent que le batteur dor mle comme alliage lor. Il
peut reprsenter aussi 1. le pltre que lon applique sur les pices dorer. 2. Terre dont le
salptre, a t extrait. 3. Dpt au fond des tonneaux chez les amidonniers.4
Comme matire colorante, blanc dsigne une peinture blanche: blanc dalbtre
chaux rduite en poudre quon emploie dans la peinture en dtrempe, blanc de bismuth
blanc de fardeau, blanc de zinc oxyde de zinc, blanc dargent, de plombe, de cruse, de
Krems sous-carbonate de plombe prpar au moyen de vinaigre, blanc de chaux, blanc de
craie craie dlaye dans leau gomme, blanc dEspagne (ou de Meudon) carbonate de
calcium naturel, blanc de Troyes craie porphyrise et rduite en pains, blanc de baleine
spermaceti, (mil.) blanc deau inondation provoque artificiellement en avant d'une
position, blanc en beurre enduit compos dargile, de chaux et de bourre.5
En criture, blanc reprsente un intervalle, un espace libre vide entre deux caractres.
Comme terme argotique blanche signifie cocane.
Comme article culinaire, rtisseur en blanc dsigne celui qui vend des viandes
lardes et non rties.6
En botanique, blanc de Hollande reprsente une varit de peuplier blanc.
En mode, blanc dsigne des toffes, chapeaux en blanc, qui nont pas t teints.
Comme terme religieux, blanc se rencontre dans des expressions7:
- Blanc-battu tait le membre dune confrrie de pnitents tablie par le roi Henri
III.
- blanc manteau nom que portaient Paris les servites ou religieux serfs de la
Vierge
- Blanche dame nom dun ordre de religieuses tabli en 1120 prs Savigny, dans le
diocse dAvranches, par Vital, disciple de Robert dArbrissel
- cure blanche se disait par opposition aux autres cures; des cures possdes par des
chanoines rguliers de Saint-Augustin, parce que ces moins portaient des soutanes blanches
- moine blanc religieux de lordre rgulier des chanoines rguliers de Saint-Augustin,
de labbaye de Prmontr ou de celles de Feuillants
En histoire, blanche tait un surnom donn a plusieurs veuves des rois, cause de
lusage ou taient les reines de porter le deuil en blanc; Anne de Bretagne est la premire qui
le porta en noir la mort de Charles VIII. On dit absolument La Reine Blanche de la mre de
saint Louis.8
Jacqueline Picoche, Dictionnaire tymologique du franais, Paris, Editions Robert, 2007; Le Nouveau Petit
Robert de la langue franaise (2008), Paris, Editions Robert, 2007.
4
Louis, Barr, M. Narcisse, Landois, uv. cit.
5
Le Nouveau Petit Robert de la langue franaise (2008), Paris, Editions Robert, 2007.
6
7
Ibidem.
8
3
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Dans la catgorie des jeux, le blanc reprsente dans le jeu de Domino, lextrmit du
d sur laquelle il ny a aucun point marqu.
Nous porterons une discussion sur les sens du mot blanc, tel quil apparat dans des
locutions et des expressions figes.
1. (Le) blanc de entre dans des expressions dsignant la partie blanche de quelque
chose:
le blanc de poulet, de perdrix la chair blanche de la poitrine
le blanc duf partie incolore et visqueuse qui entoure le jaune
le blanc de lil sclrotique
le blanc de champignons myclium des champignons cultives, servant la
multiplication dans la champignonnires
le blanc de Hollande varit de peuplier blanc
regarder quelquun dans le blanc des yeux regarder fixement, en face
se manger le blanc des yeux (fig., fam.) se quereller violement
2. En blanc se retrouve dans des constructions:
chque en blanc sans criture
de but en blanc: sans prparation, l'improviste
police en blanc police sans raison
sige en blanc non couvert
aller de but en blanc aller limproviste, brusquement
signer en blanc signer un acte avant dtre complt
tirer de but en blanc tirer dune but, en visant par la ligne de mire, le centre de la
cible, ce centre tant gnralement peint en blanc enregistre et explique par Maurice Rat 9
comme un fait spcifique lpoque o les armes feu navaient point de hausse mobile, tirer
une telle distance quen visant le blanc de la cible, le coup pouvant porter juste dans le
blanc, donc tirer la distance normale de tir. Le tir de but en blanc nexigeait aucune mise au
point, on a employ au figur la locution elliptique de but en blanc pour dire sans
prparation.
3. A blanc dsigne la manire de devenir blanc:
chauffer un mtal blanc jusqu ce que le mtal de rouge devienne blanc
un public chauff blanc (fig.) fervent, excit
couper blanc de faon ne plus rien laisser
saigner blanc (fig.) puiser par des impts ou des actions par comparaison avec
un malade quun mdecin saigne blanc, cest--dire jusqu le faire plir en le vidant de son
sang10
(fig.) test blanc sans effet rel, pour essayer
tirer blanc sans que le fusil soit charg
rougir jusquau blanc des yeux tre honteux11
Blanc reprsente quelque chose qui ne porte aucune marque, nest pas crit: page,
feuille blanche, avec le sens vierge dans les expressions: rendre copie blanche, bulletin de
vote blanc bulletin vierge; vote d'abstention
Lexpression avoir ou donner carte blanche quelquun est explique par Maurice
Rat12 comme donner lui plein pouvoir, lui laisser toute libert, dagir sa guise.
Maurice Rat, Dictionnaire des locutions franaises, Paris, Editions Larousse, 1957, p. 70.
Maurice Rat, uv. cit, p. 350.
11
Aristia Negreanu, Dicionar de expresii romn-francez, Bucureti, Editura All, 2008.
12
Maurice Rat, uv. cit, p. 52, 80.
9
10
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Une expression voisine avoir carte blanche signifie avoir plein pouvoir. Dans ces
expressions carte blanche signifie papier sign o lon peut crire tout ce quon veut.
Toujours ce mot exprime une notion qui na pas tous les effets habituels:
anne blanche anne scolaire ou universitaire qui ne peut tre sanctionne en raison
de grevs, de troubles sociaux
col blanc un employ de bureau, oppos ouvrier
lphant blanc gouffre financier, projet dmesur
examen blanc, mariage blanc non consomm, arrang pour avoir des bnfices
jeu blanc (au tennis) gagn sans que ladversaire ait marqu un point
opration blanche sans profit ni perte
or blanc richesse reprsente par la neige; la richesse lie au tourisme de la
montagne
petit blanc un verre de gin, de vin blanc
russe blanc russe pro-tsariste
vers blancs sans rime
vie mle de blanc et de noir une vie extrme
voix blanche sans timbre
La variante fminine, blanche, se rencontre dans des constructions:
une arme blanche arme lame: couteau, poignard, pe
les blouses blanches le corps mdical hospitalier
une colre blanche forte colre
une magie blanche magie qui n'a pas recours de mauvais esprits; (livr.) thurgie
une oie blanche une ingnue; jeune fille, bte comme une oie. Cette locution
datant de la fin du XIXe sicle a t mise en vogue par le romancier Marcel Prvost.13
une peur blanche forte peur
une voix blanche voix sans timbre
une boule blanche au jeu du billard jouer, tirer sur la blanche
marquer un jour d'une pierre blanche jour dont on gardera la mmoire
montrer patte blanche donner son identit, une autorisation pour tre admis
On rencontre dans les dictionnaires les composs suivants qui dsignent diffrentes
notions:
blanc-aune nom vulgaire de l'alisier commun
blanc-bec (vieilli) jeune homme sans exprience et sr de soi
blanc-bois bois dont le revenu est presque nul, soit en fruits, soit en coupes
blanc-bourgeois farine de premire qualit
blanc-cul l'un des noms du Bouvreuil
blanc-culet l'un des noms du Moteux
blanc-toc, blanc-estoc coupe complte dune fort
blanc-Madame (hort.) varit de raisin
blanc-nez (zool.) guenon dAfrique
blanc-or sorte de raie des mers du Canada, dont le dos est blanc et or
blanc-pendard (zool.) nom vulgaire de la Pie-griche
blanc-ployant dfaut du fer qui le rend peu propre passer la filire
blanc-poudr poudr blanc
blanc-raisin onguent de cruse
blanc-whasis onguent pour la brlure
blanc-tapis maison de jeu
blanche-coiffe (zool.) espce de corbeau
13
Idem, p. 278.
183
Issue no. 6/2015
blanche dAndilly (hort.) varit de poire

blanche-queue un des noms du Jean-le-blanc, oiseau
blanche-raie (zool.) espce dtourneau
Le mot blanc entre aussi dans la formation de plusieurs locutions:
aller du blanc au noir (fig.), changer du blanc au noir (fig., fam.) se changer
radicalement (fig.), passer dune opinion lune contraire (fig., fam.)14
avoir le blanc maladie des vgtaux
blanc comme neige tre innocent
bonnet blanc et blanc bonnet se dit de deux choses ou de deux personnes identiques
malgr les apparences
c'est crit noir sur blanc: pour insister, dire que c'est crit en toutes lettres
cousu de fil blanc se dit propos dune chose dont lintention se voit aussi bien que
du fil blanc sur une toffe noire.15
cuisson au blanc court-bouillon
de but en blanc l'improviste, brusquement
devenir blanc plir
dire blanc et noir ne pas prendre parti
dire blanc et puis noir (fig., fam.) tre indcis (fig. fam.)
dire tantt blanc, tantt noir dire tout et son contraire
crire noir sur blanc assurer quelquun quon dit la vrit
tre blanc avoir les cheveux blancs; blanchir de peur
tre blanc comme le lait (fig.) avoir la peau blanche
tre blanc comme neige (fig.) tre innocent (fig., fam.)
tre blanc comme un linge / un cachet d'aspirine / un cul / une merde de laitier: avoir
le teint blafard, sous le coup d'un malaise ou d'une motion
tre blanc-bleu avoir une rputation intacte
tre connu comme le loup blanc se dit de quelqu'un qui est trs connu
tre cousu de fil blanc explication grossire, mal faite, et dont on ne peut cacher
lvidence; se dit de quelque chose dont on ne peut masquer l'vidence16
tre entre le blanc et le clairet tre entre deux vins17
tre rduit au blanc ou au bton blanc tre rduit la misre18
tre vou au blanc (arg.) se dit des faubouriens d'un apprenti qui n'aime pas
travailler et qui prfre polissonner avec les voyous et les filles du faubourg
faire chou blanc chouer, obtenir un rsultat nul. Il semble bien que cette locution
nait rien voir avec la plante nomme chou, mais quelle soit emprunte au jeu de quilles, o
lon disait dun joueur nayant rien abattu quil avait fait coup blanc, coup se prononant
choup en dialecte berrichon.19
fils de la poule blanche personne extrmement heureuse en toutes choses20
friture de blancs poissons de rivire, en gnral du hareng sal et prt tre mis en
caque; il se dit aussi de petits poissons que les pcheurs emploient comme appts
hisser le drapeau blanc capituler
l'un dit blanc, l'autre noir l'un dit une chose, l'autre son contraire
Aristia Negreanu, Dicionar de expresii francez-romn, Bucureti, Editura All, 2002; Maurice Rat, uv. cit, p.
273.
15
16
Ibidem.
17
Louis, Barr, M. Narcisse, Landois, uv. cit., p. 109.
18
Ibidem.
19
20
Idem, p. 324.
14
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Issue no. 6/2015
manger son pain blanc commencer par ce qui est agrable, facile
marquer un jour au blanc expression emprunte des Latins. Le mettre au rang des
jours heureux.21
marquer d'une pierre blanche / d'un caillou blanc signaler un jour heureux par
opposition un jour nfaste. La couleur blanche voque des ides de bonheur absolu, de
puret parfaite et de perfection.22
merle blanc objet introuvable quon a coutume de promettre quelquun, sil fait une
chose quon juge impossible. On croyait jadis quil nexistait point de merles blancs. Il y en a
pourtant dans les pays couverts de neige o ils subissent la loi de mimtisme.23
mettre blanc sur noir (fig.) crire clairement (fig.)24
mettre du blanc faire du maquillage
mettre du noir sur du blanc crire, composer des ouvrages
mettre quelquun dans de beaux draps blancs embarrasser quelquun
montrer patte blanche fournir la preuve que l'on appartient ou que l'on est digne
d'appartenir un groupe; tre de bonne moralit, montrer que l'on n'est anim par aucune
mauvaise intention; montrer un laissez-passer, une permission, par allusion la fable Le
Loup, la Chvre et le Chevreau o le biquet souponneux exige du loup, qui connat le mot
de passe, quil montre aussi patte blanche.25
nuits blanches nuits lumineuses, habituelles dans la priode du solstice dt dans les
rgions situes entre les parallles de 50 et 65 nord et sud, dans lesquelles napparat pas
lobscurit totale cause du fait que le Soleil ne descend suffisamment sous lhorizon
passer du blanc au noir changer d'avis, tre versatile
passer une nuit blanche signifie passer une nuit sans dormir. Lexpression est
ancienne et elle aurait son origine dans le fait que le futur chevalier, la veille des armes,
devait faire des prires, vtu de blanc, comme un nophyte.26
se faire blanc de son pe laction de celui qui fait avec son pe des moulinets qui
sen couvre pour ainsi dire tout entier et qui blouit son adversaire; dgainer, se dfendre,
lpe nue tant plus brillante que la gaine. La locution a son origine dans le duel judiciaire et
a pris ensuite un sens figur, o le mot pe a parfois disparu de lexpression.27
se faire des cheveux blancs s'inquiter, s'affoler, se faire de gros soucis
vouer un enfant au blanc lui faire porter des vtements blancs en l'honneur de la
Vierge
Blanc se retrouve aussi dans des proverbes28:
On na jamais vu corneille blanche
Les mains noires font manger le pain blanc
Tte de fou ne blanchit jamais
Consultant le dictionnaire de Dauzat29, nous y avons trouv Blanc, surnom trs
frquent dans les noms de famille, employ avec article Leblanc (surtout au nord), appliqu
lhomme aux cheveux blancs, tandis que le fminin Blanche (nom de baptme ancien et
matronyme) voquait la blancheur du teint. On rencontre nombreux hypocoristiques:
Louis, Barr, M. Narcisse, Landois, uv. cit., p. 151..
23
Idem, p. 257.
24
Aristia Negreanu, uv. cit, 2002.
25
26
Idem, p. 52.
27
Idem, p. 169.
28
Elena Gorunescu, Dicionar de proverbe romn-francez, Bucureti, Editura tiinific i enciclopedic, 1978.
29
Albert Dauzat, Dictionnaire tymologique des noms de famille et prnoms de France, Paris, Editions
Larousse, 1994, p. 46.
21
22
185
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Blanchet, Blanchteau, Blancheton, Blanchon, Blanchonnet, Blanchot, Blanchaud. Blanque,

Blanquet (Midi), Blanquier (nom mridionale, mgissier), Blancot, (forme corse) Bianchi,
(forme alsacienne-lorraine) Blank, les formes composes Blanchecape, Blanchecotte (surnom
daprs lhabillement), Blancpain (avec les variantes Blanpain, Blampain, Blanpin) - surnom
dun boulanger, Blancagnol (Normandie, agneau blanc, surnom symbolique), Blanchard,
Blancard, Blanckaert (Blanquaert) nom de personne germanique Blanc brillant + hard
fort, dur, reprsentant parfois un pjoratif tardif de Blanc, Blanchi, sobriquet, Blancstein
pierre blanche, Blandamour, altration de blanc damour ple damour, Blandenier,
altration de blanc denier (monnaie dargent) pour dsigner sans doute une personne riche,
Blangonet blanc gonet, Gonnet dsignant un vtement et une sorte de pain, existant ainsi
deux possibilits de surnom., Blanguernon (en Normandie, moustache ou favoris blancs),
Blanlil blanc lil, cest--dire blanc de lil, surnom dsignant sans doute une personne
dont le blanc de lil est trs apparent, Blanvillain, blanc vilain, surnom au sens flatteur,
Blanvin, surnom dun buveur de vin blanc.
Morlet30 enregistre en plus les noms Blanchat, Blancat (Blanquat), Blanchod,
Blanchin, Blanchoin, les diminutifs Blanconnier, Blanchetire, domaine dun Blanchet.
Comme composs, nous y retrouvons Blambert, Blangille, Blanjaquier, Blanjean (avec un
nom topographique), Blanchelande, Blanchemaison, Blampignon (blanc pignon,
caractristique de la maison), Blanrue, Blanvillard, Blanchevoye, Blanchefort, Blanchegorge,
Blanchemaine, Blanchemoine, Blancpied (Blampied, Blanpied), Blanpoil, Blanserin,
Blancerin (blanc jauntre, caractrisant la chevelure), Blanchette.
Comme prnom on enregistre la forme du fminin, Blanche, emprunte par dautres
langues (italien, espagnol, anglais). Il tait assez frquent au Moyen Age et il sest bien
maintenu pendant le XIXe sicle, au XXe se trouvant dans une position marginale. La valeur
symbolique de blanc a fait du Blanche un prnom de souveraines et de personnages de
fiction.31
Comme nom de lieu, Blanc / Blanche se retrouve dans plusieurs noms: Mont Blanc
(montagne, premire attestation au XIVe sicle), Lac (petit lac de montagne dnomm ainsi
aprs sa couleur), les Eaux-Blanches, La Blanche (affluent de la Durance), Blanc-Nez (cap).32
Toujours Dauzat enregistre les noms de lieux: Blancafort (village, attest 1164) (avec
les variantes Blanquefort (attest 1110), Blancfoss (allusion la couleur de la terre), avec la
variante Blanchefosse, Blanche-Eglise (noms de lieux), Blanchefontaine (nom de leau),
Blanc-Mesnil, Blancherupt (rivire), Blancheville (attest vers 1252, ville neuve, qui a pris
le nom de Blanche de Navarre, comtesse de Champagne, en 1220).33
Nous pouvons constater que le mot blanc fait part de plusieurs expressions et locutions
et quil entre dans de nombreux proverbes. Comme base anthroponymique, il se trouve
lorigine de quelques noms propres. Il sest impos aussi dans la toponymie.
Bibliographie
Barr, Louis, Landois, M. Narcisse, Compltement du Dictionnaire de lAcadmie
Franaise, Bruxelles, 1839 (dition en ligne)
Dauzat, Albert, Les noms de lieux: origine et volution, villes et villages, pays, cours
deau, montagnes, lieux-dits, Paris, Editions Librairie Delagrave, 1926
Thrse Morlet, Dictionnaire tymologique des noms de famille, Paris, Editions Perrin, 1991, p. 112.
Chantal Tanet, Tristan Hord, Dictionnaire des prnoms, Paris, Editions Larousse, 2000, p. 78.
32
Albert Dauzat, Les noms de lieux: origine et volution, villes et villages, pays, cours deau, montagnes, lieuxdits, Paris, Editions Librairie Delagrave, 1926, p. 22, 202, 204, 210, 215.
33
Albert Dauzat, Ch. Rostaing, Dictionnaire tymologique des noms de lieux en France, Paris, Editions
Larousse, 1963, p. 86.
30
31
186
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Dauzat, Albert, Rostaing, Ch., Dictionnaire tymologique des noms de lieux en

France, Paris, Editions Larousse, 1963
Dauzat, Albert, Dictionnaire tymologique des noms de famille et prnoms de France,
Paris, Editions Larousse, 1994
Dictionnaire de lAcadmie franaise, Paris, 1835 (dition en ligne)
Dubois, Jean, Mitterand, Henri, Dauzat, Albert, Dictionnaire tymologique et
historique du franais, Paris, Editions Larousse, 2006
Gorunescu, Elena, Dicionar de proverbe romn-francez, Bucureti, Editura tiinific
i enciclopedic, 1978
Le Nouveau Petit Robert de la langue franaise 2008, Paris, Editions Robert, 2007
Montreynaud, Florence, Pierron, Agns, Suzzoni, Franois, Dictionnaire de proverbes
et dictons, Paris, Editions Robert, 2006
Morlet, Marie-Thrse, Dictionnaire tymologique des noms de famille, Paris,
Editions Perrin, 1991
Negreanu, Aristia, Dicionar de expresii francez-romn, Bucureti, Editura All, 2002
Negreanu, Aristia, Dicionar de expresii romn-francez, Bucureti, Editura All, 2008
Picoche, Jacqueline, Dictionnaire tymologique du franais, Paris, Editions Robert,
2006
Rat, Maurice, Dictionnaire des locutions franaises, Paris, Editions Larousse, 1957
Schinteie, Ion, Dicionar franco-romn de cuvinte i expresii, Craiova, Editura
Scrisul Romnesc, 1983
Tanet, Chantal, Hord, Tristan, Dictionnaire des prnoms, Paris, Editions Larousse,
2000
Trsor de la langue franaise informatise, (version lectronique du Trsor de la
Langue Franaise, dictionnaire de rfrence du XIXe et XXe sicle)
187
Issue no.6/2015
TRUTH AND FICTION

MAROSFI Enik
Abstract: To describe an epoch in which you live is a responsible objective. To describe it

honestly is brave. To describe a cruel era is ingrate. All these attributives are trait the novel
of Augustin Buzura, who offers a faithful image of the yeas 1970 and it is a great story too. It
has a protagonist, a conflict and fascinating characters.
Keywords: truth, censure, novel, reality, hidden
Avnd n vedere modul de raportare la realitatea istoric i la cea cotidian, putem
vorbi de dou categorii de scriitori. Una care ascunde, mistific, ambiguizeaz pentru c i
este fric de autoriti sau pentru c este contient c altfel opera nu va fi editat sau pentru
c tie c cititorii oricum i vor nelege intenia, mesajul cci ei pot citi printre rnduri,
ntruct adevrurile ascunse sau nespuse le sunt uor de priceput. Cellalt tip iese pe marginea
scenei i spune totul n fa, acceptnd urmrile posibile ale sinceritii, ale cuvintelor directe,
fr formaliti i ascunziuri. Amndoi sunt originali, curajoi i ndrznei. Cenzura,
politicul, frontul cultural avea posibilitile necesare distrugerii carierei sau omului,
operelor sau viitorului.
Ca reprezentant al primei tipologii, scriitorul contemporan Augustin Buzura avea o
nclinaie deosebit spre realismul dur1, spre cercetarea psihologiei umane, a influenelor
sociale ale comportamentului i spre aflarea adevrului social, lucru care l-a dus n anul 1977
n Valea Jiului, imediat ce a aflat de greva minerilor, de simpozionul dup cum numeau
minerii evenimentul declanat de ctre minerul Constantin Dobre la mina Paroeni i
amplificat la mina Lupeni. Motivul revoltei ortacilor era, printre altele, planul de producie
irealist, nmulirea accidentelor n min, penalizrile salariale pentru nerealizarea planului
lunar, prevederile legii L3/1977, obligativitatea prestrii de munc voluntar pe antierele de
construcii, nesoluionarea plngerilor i memoriilor minerilor.
De acest eveniment s-a folosit autorul pentru realizarea romanului Drumul cenuii,
care se dorea a fi literatur i nu o carte de istorie. Dup cum afirma autorul Cartea nu este
despre grev, ci pe fundalul unei greve. n realitate, m-au interesat relaiile omului cu istoria,
cnd aceasta tbrete peste el. Toate datele din roman erau ns reale2.
Drumul cenuii, al doilea volum din trilogia Zidul morii, a aprut n 1988 dar
nceputurile lui dateaz deja din 1977, cnd autorul a fcut schie privind experiena lui din
Valea Jiului. Romanul n 1986 era gata scris dar publicarea lui a fost realizat doar n 1988,
provocnd un scandal uria.
Datele istorice sunt mascate puternic prin fora imaginaiei scriitorului, n aa fel nct
romanul a putut aprea n anii 80'. Cenzura a sesizat legtura dintre tema operei i
evenimentele din Valea Jiului, dar nu a putut-o dovedi i dup scoaterea a 78 de rnduri,
Drumul cenuii a putut fi editat i a fost primit cu laude de masa cititorilor i de majoritatea
criticii. Reprourile sau obieciile priveau mai mult faptul c autorul cedeaz prea mult
spaiu, pn la dezechilibrul construciei epice, pentru naraiuni colaterale, din dorina de a
amplifica intriga3. Publicat n limbile spaniol, francez, suedez, maghiar, opera lui
George Pruteanu, Doar materia cenuie, Convorbiri literare, nr. 6, iunie. 1986
Augustin Buzura, "Drumul cenuii" - zvonuri i ameninri, Jurnalul naional, nr. 8, august, 2007
3
Ion Simu, Augustin Buzura, Editura Aula, Braov, 2001, pg. 27
1
2
188
Issue no. 6/2015
Buzura este un roman social, o critic social ndrznea, avnd n vedere tema i
mprejurrile reale pe care s-a bazat aciunea. Un moment ntunecat al istoriei Vii Jiului i a
minerilor, care s-au revoltat mpotriva regimului. Istoria, realitatea este destul de camuflat n
oper. Aciune ampl sau propriu-zis nici n acest roman nu exist, este vorba doar despre
moartea psihic a fiinei, concept definit prima dat chiar de autor ntr-o tablet (A fi tu
nsui) din 1977 astfel: moartea psihic, adic imposibilitatea omului de a fi el nsui, de a
se manifesta conform convingerilor sale.
Romanul este scris la persoana nti. Protagonistul romanului lui Augustin Buzura este
i narator i personaj, este regizor i ideolog, controleaz i interpreteaz. Prin personajul
principal al acestei opere, Adrian Coman, se realizeaz celebra analiz psihologic, specific
autorului i operelor sale, ntr-un stil greoi, minuios pn la extrem, din care cauz romanul
este o lectur care solicit atenia cititorului la maxim. i totui, citind aceast oper, se pierde
simul timpului, capacitatea sugestiv a autorului este att de puternic, nct cititorul parc se
afl n mijlocul evenimentelor, se zbate mpreun cu personajele crii, i pune i el
ntrebrile obsedante ca Dac ne temem mereu, dac renunm la gnduri, la preri, dac
trim ca nite roboi, doar pentru a face plcere unora, atunci ce fel de fiine suntem?4, Cui
s spui? Unde s strigi? Cine s te aud?5 i este i el dezamgit de soart iat o fa a
realitii dure.
Pe scurt, romanul ne prezint un episod din viaa unui ziarist, care vrnd s scrie o
carte, nregistreaz convorbiri cu diferii oameni cu care discut despre sensul, rostul vieii,
despre fericire, vise, sperane sau ratri. Pentru a se putea concentra se duce cu nregistrrile
lui ntr-un loc retras. Pe drum se ntlnete cu o fat, Ana Maria erban, care i va deveni
tovar de cltorie i amant. Adrian Coman i povestete Anei Maria ideea lui i ascult
mpreun nregistrrile i discut despre marile enigme i ntrebri ale vieii. Aa iese la iveal
misiunea lui Adrian Coman de a cuta un iubit disprut al unei prietene, doctoria Victoria
Oprea, misiune relatat de ziarist.
Cartea ne prezint o poveste de destine paralele. Prima este descoperirea sau
ncercarea de a nelege fapta lui Sabin, un sinuciga ratat i a doua poveste este cutarea
iubitului. Acest iubit este un fost inginer de min, disprut fr urm, ca vreo nou ali mineri
i iar faptul ne duce cu gndul la evenimentele din Valea Jiului, la simpozion-ul din 1977.
Realitatea infiltrat n roman apare i prin limbajul personajelor. Cei din clasa
autoritilor vorbesc vulgar, degradat, dictatorial, ca reprezentanii oamenilor fr coal,
needucai, ca i cei care n regimul comunist erau plasai n funcii de conducere. Ceilali,
studeni, ziariti, doctori, rani, simpli muncitori folosesc un limbaj cult, select, ne vorbesc
prin nite fraze psihologice complicate, ntortocheate, punnd ntrebri existeniale demne i
de un savant. Astfel, proza lui Augustin Buzura devine un interesant aliaj de realism i
intelectualism6. Prozatorul a investigat bolgiile morale ale contiinei personajelor sale, cli
i victime, complici i evazioniti, puternici ai zilei sau oameni obinuii. Impactul de neters
al crimelor i frdelegilor comunismului asupra fizionomiei morale, sociale i culturale este
ceea ce romancierul ncearc s surprind i s configureze n textele sale. Istoria,
comunismul, suprimarea, teroarea psihic, decderea psihic sau moral, lupta pentru
supravieuire, meninerea sau regsirea echilibrului interior, fricile, ntrebrile sunt idei
obsedante n proza lui Augustin Buzura ca i n viaa lui, care apar pretutindeni n romane i
ne dezvluie un ceva care distruge fiina, o arunc n nesiguran, n ndoial: aveam
sentimentul c suntem urmrii, c un ochi ironic ne supravegheaz micrile, frica de
Augustin Buzura, Drumul cenuii, Editura Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 1988, pg. 11
idem, pg.251
6
Ion Simu, Augustin Buzura (monografie), Editura Aula, Braov, 2001, pg. 19
4
5
189
Issue no. 6/2015
mine nsumi, de ea, de acel necunoscut ochi simit pretutindeni care m oblig s-mi cenzurez
micrile7.
Personajul Helgomar David, iubitul disprut al lui Victoria Oprea, poate fi interpretat
ca alter-ego-ul lui Constantin Dobre. Dobre, omul real, era conductorul grevei minerilor,
despre care n anii 80-90 s-a spus c a disprut sau c a nnebunit sau c a fost clcat de o
main. Chiar i azi, unul dintre martorii oculari ai grevei mi-a povestit c Dobre a fost
accidentat. De fapt, el a fost mutat la Craiova i avansat pe linie politic. Buzura ns cnd s-a
documentat pentru carte, a aflat versiunea nereal i astfel personajul lui, Helgomar, apare n
carte ca i nnebunit. Destinul participanilor sau liderilor grevei este la fel redat de autor.
Ceilali conductori, n realitate, au fost dui la interogator, au fost mutai la alte locuri de
munc. Conform investigaiilor ulterioare, din dosarele A.C.N.S.A.S. (fond Coresponden,
dos. nr. 3594, vol. 1, f. 349-352) reiese c au fost arestate i condamnate n jur de 15
persoane, numai pentru infraciuni de drept comun i acte de dezordine public i cei cu
antecedente penale nu au mai fost angajai. Mai mult de 90 de dosare penale privind diferite
infraciuni economice i judiciare au fost ntocmite i trimise n judecat n cursul msurilor
ntreprinse cu ocazia evenimentelor din Valea Jiului. n privina minerilor afectai direct de
msurile securitii: au fost avertizate, pentru manifestri ostile i activitate tendenioas, n
timpul i dup evenimente, un numr de 96 persoane, atenionate 403, de organele de
securitate iar pe linie de miliie s-au aplicat 460 avertismente miliieneti. n privina
membrilor de partid, despre care informatorii au semnalat c au avut o comportare i o
atitudine necorespunztoare - n aceast situaie s-au aflat peste 60 membri de partid - au fost
informate comitetele oreneti i comitetul municipal de partid Petroani.
Toate aceste fapte nu apar n opera lui Augustin Buzura, el msoar oamenii din punct
de vedere psihologic, moral, comportamental, fiecare fiind redat prin utilizarea tehnicii
memoriei voluntare i a monologului, prin vorbele celorlalte personaje, prin amintirile,
povestirile lor. Aa ne ntlnim cu prietenii i colegii de min al lui Helgomar, care n realitate
au fost i ei participani activi ai grevei. Buzura ns nu ne povestete efectiv despre grev. El
ne arat faa ntunecat a epocii fricii, cnd oamenilor le este fric s vorbeasc, s
povesteasc, se uit permanent n jur s vad cine este n preajm, se ntlnesc pe ntuneric,
vorbesc cu muzica dat tare sau cu apa curgnd sau pur i simplu nu vorbesc. Evit orice ce le
poate cauza probleme i le este fric ntotdeauna. Aa ajunge Adrian Coman s spun ntr-o
convorbire cu Victoria: Merg aproape degeaba: nimeni nu spune nimic. Sau: nimeni nu tie
nimic! Nici banii, nici alcoolul, nici altele nu mi-au fost de prea mult folos. Ce-i de fcut?
ncotro?8 Dar, astfel se simte i el, fiind om al epocii, oriunde i cu orice mijloc de transport
se duce n cutarea lui Helgomar, se simte ameninat, urmrit, ascultat. Se pregtete de drum
cu rspunsuri plauzibile la eventualele ntrebri de genul: ce are cu el, de unde l cunoate, de
ce a strbtut cteva sute de kilometri pentru a vorbi cu cineva necunoscut, ce tie despre acel
om etc.
Lund pe rnd prietenii lui Helgo, Coman, colindnd prin 15 localiti, 9 mine, la cele
mai bizare ore, vorbind cu zeci i zeci de oameni, ajunge la un anumit Zaharia Cmpean,
miner, despre care i relateaz o vecin c ... a fost mutat n alt parte... Tot gura, c nu putea
s ascund ce gndete... A mai fost i o poveste cu nite butelii de aragaz...9 i povestete c
s-au revoltat minerii din cauza lipsei aragazelor, cteva sute sub conducerea lui Zaharia s-au
dus la primrie i s-au aezat pe trotuar i c Zaharia i primarul oraului s-au certat. Prin
acest episod, Buzura face aluzii la una dintre marile probleme ale minerilor, mai precis se
refer la faptul c minerii, ca s primeasc aragaz, trebuiau s presteze 100 de or munc
7
Augustin Buzura, op. cit., pg. 324, 338

Augustin Buzura, op. cit., pg. 251
9
idem, pg. 261
8
190
Issue no. 6/2015
voluntar pe antierele din Valea Jiului. ntr-un final, ziaristul l-a gsit pe Cmpean i timp de
trei zile a ncercat s scoat informaii de la el. Dar acest miner uria, calm, i rspundea cu
cunoscutul nu tiu. Cnd dezamgit se pregtea s se rentoarc acas, l caut minerul i i
povestete c a auzit cic ar fi nnebunit ceea ce nu voi crede niciodat i, desigur, dup
asta a fost scos la pensie... Se zice c s-a stabilit ntr-un sat de munte, Poieni... Acolo umbla
toat ziua pe dealuri, nu discuta cu nimeni, i lsase plete i barb... Din Poieni, prietenul
nostru s-a mutat, ori a fost mutat, cine s tie? n Marginea, unde i-ar fi gsit sfritul...
Trecea pe sub o macara i, se zice c din pur neatenie, macaragiul i-a scpat n cap o cup
de mortar.10 Iat, introdus subtil printre rndurile romanului, un cunoscut obicei al regimului
comunist: accidente de munc, accidente pe antiere, pe strzi, accidente peste care s-a trecut
cu vederea, accidente pentru a nltura oamenii incomozi de pe scena vieii publice, iar
toate acestea pentru c n cadrul Conferinei Naionale a P.C.R. din 1977, Nicolae Ceauescu
a afirmat c deinui politici nu exist n ar. De aceea se fceau dosare penale pentru acei
incomozi, n care cei n cauz erau condamnai pentru tulburarea linitii publice, instigare la
violen, distrugere etc. sau se ntmplau acele accidente.
Un alt adevr infiltrat printre rndurile romanului este scrisoarea fals. Cnd Coman
ajunge acas, d-na Oprea l ateapt cu o scrisoare primit de la Helgomar. Scrisoarea o
ndeamn s ncheie cutrile, este rugat de Helgomar s nu se amestece n viaa lui. Dar
doctoria nu se las i lund rnd pe rnd cuvintele, expresiile sub lup, i demonstreaz
ziaristului c nu cel subsemnat este autorul scrisorii. i aceast metod era obinuit n rndul
securitii, de a trimite scrisori false n vederea calmrii i linitirii oamenilor care cercetau,
cutau ceva, i fceau acest lucru neobosit, persistent. n acest episod al romanului putem citi
foarte limpede evenimentele din Valea Jiului. Dac ne gndim c numele de Cristescu din
scrisoare este identic cu cel al lui Ilie Verde (personaj real, secretar al C.C. al P.C.R. i
preedinte al Consiliului Central de Control Muncitoresc i al Activitii Economico-Sociale,
preedinte al Consiliului Economic, iar dup greva minerilor, este numit prim-vicepreedinte
al Consiliului de Minitri i preedinte al Comitetului de Stat al Planificrii) i accidentul
despre care este vorba n scrisoare este de fapt greva i le schimbm, iat cum sun vorbele
Victoriei, n ncercarea de a-l convinge pe Adrian c scrisoarea este fals i explicndu-i cele
relatate: cele ntmplate la min sunt absolut reale, cearta cu Verde i cu toi ceilali de
asemenea... Btile ncasate dup grev au fost, din nefericire, foarte concrete, la unele am
asistat i eu... Procesul n-a mai avut loc, iar prietenii lui trimii care-ncotro... Sigur, foarte
elegant. Am aflat c ... Dobre a fost chemat pentru a i se comunica oficial c s-au analizat cu
atenie cele ntmplate i c cei n drept au ajuns la concluzia c el are dreptate, iar Verde i
toi ceilali vor fi sancionai pentru neatenie, delsare, nerespectarea normelor de protecie a
muncii i aa mai departe... n consecin, i s-a propus un post de conducere la o alt min.
Dobre...le-a explicat c nu pentru asta a spus ceea ce a spus, nu asta i dorete, ci rezolvarea
situaiei minerilor... dup acest refuz, nu i-am mai dat de urm11. Recitind acest pasaj, sun
foarte identic cu urmrile grevei, pentru c, iat ce ne spune istoria i Constantin Dobre:
Ceauescu, parc trezit din pumnii luai pn atunci, a continuat cu acuzaii i ameninri de
destituire la adresa activitilor locali i centrali care, zicea el, nu l-au informat la timp i chiar
au ascuns problemele cu care ne confruntm i a aprobat toate solicitrile minerilor. Au fost
schimbai sau demii secretari de partid i de sindicat, directori, directorul-general al CCVJ
din Petroani. Tot urmare a grevei din august 77 tot personalul tehnico-economicoadministrativ (generalizat apoi la nivelul rii) a fost obligat s presteze 2 zile pe sptmn
la munca de jos. Imediat au gsit soluii privind aprovizionarea, sntatea i locuri de munc pentru soiile minerilor. Cteva le-a avansat chiar Nicolae Ceauescu: posibilitatea cump10
11
Augustin Buzura, op. cit., pg. 278

Augustin Buzura, op. cit., pg. 282 cu schimbri ale numelor
191
Issue no. 6/2015
rrii apartamentelor, un depozit pentru alimente, un magazin propriu pentru fiecare localitate
din Valea Jiului, un spaiu frigorific pentru aprovizionare, contracte de munc pe cinci ani,
stagiu militar pentru mineri la locul de munc, mese calde zilnice. n Vale pn n 1979 s-au
construit cartiere noi, osele, coli, spitale, fabrici de confecii, ntreprinderi de industrie
uoar. Minerii au obinut o mas cald pe zi i diverse reduceri la plata ntreinerii, a energiei
electrice i altele.
Dar, au urmat i represaliile. Unii au disprut, alii s-au pensionat, erau care au fost
mutai la domiciliu forat, la alt loc de munc. Cu toate c Ceauescu le-a promis minerilor
acolo, pe gheret, n faa lor, c nu se va ntmpla nimic cu ei, numai Dobre a avut de ctigat,
probabil din cauza c era mult prea cunoscut i securitii nu aveau curaj s se ocupe de el.
Revenind la oper, dup ce doctoria Oprea discut cu Adrian Coman despre scrisoare,
se hotrte s se duc chiar ea n cutarea lui Helgomar, avnd i indicii precise pentru c pe
plic era precizat o adres i autorul scrisorii a dat nite detalii i despre locul lui de munc.
Doctoria pleac s verifice identitatea autorului scrisorii, iar ziaristul este trimis de
angajatorul lui pentru un schimb de experien n Cracovia. Cnd revine n ar, l ateapt
vestea c Victoria a fost clcat de un autocamion. Copleit de vestea morii tragice, prietenul
ziarist evadeaz n butur. Un alt adevr trist al realitii i obicei al securitii: nlturarea
prin orice metod a celor problematici. Doctoria Oprea, prin perseverena ei, era o
problem pentru organele statului aa c trebuia oprit nainte s descopere adevrul.
Ieind din starea de oc, Coman i aduce aminte c ntr-o localitate numit Bora, un
individ a luat legtura cu el, prezentndu-se drept Helgomar David. Acest individ a ncercat
s-l conving de micimea faptelor mai demult ntmplate n Rul Doamnei dup cum este
denumit n carte localitatea. nc o modalitate de deturnare a adevrului. Oameni pui s
mint, s se dea drept persoana cutat, s dea informaii eronate, false pentru calmarea strii
de spirit.
Cenzura i-a impus lui Augustin Buzura s scoat vreo 180 de pagini din oper, ceea
ce, prin puterea de convingere i viclenia autorului nu s-a realizat, el i-a putut convinge pe cei
de la securitate c nu a scris despre simpozion, avnd n vedere c acel eveniment nu a
aprut n niciun ziar, nicio cuvntare, nu avea de unde s aib cunotin despre cele
ntmplate. i, dup tergerea acelor 78 de rnduri, au dat drumul crii, scpnd din vedere
trimiterea la adevr de la pagina 310: Ai mai fost de atunci? A mai avut loc vreun simpozion
important? Un exemplu pentru faptul c Buzura a avut puterea de a se ridica deasupra unui
ntreg mecanism politic, securitatea, i de a se opune represaliilor, accidentelor i terorii
psihice la care erau expui toi adversarii timpului. Virtutea autorului curajul. Acel adevrat
curaj, care l ndemna s se opun regimului. Exist i un altfel de curaj, cel al maselor:
Curaj n baie, cu apa curgnd dezlnuit, sau n plin cmp, uitndu-te n toate prile ca nu
cumva s fie cineva prin apropiere, curaj n braele unei femei, n obscuritatea ncperii,
spunnd n oapt jumti, falnice jumti de adevruri, curajul de a nu vedea dect micile
nimicuri din jur, de a da vina pe cel mai mic i mai inofensiv dintre cei mai mici, curajul de a
njura pe la spate, cu mintea ntunecat de alcool, sau de a accepta orice i oricnd, ridicnd
degetul cu nevinovie pentru a indica presupusa cauz a relelor... Curajul de a susine c alii,
ntotdeauna alii sunt vinovai de mizeria ta, de degradarea i umilinele prin care treci, de tot
ceea ce nu-i convine. Mereu i mereu: destinul, istoria, conjuncturile, cerul i astrele, diavolul
i tot ce exist n afara ta.12
Continund cutrile dup inginerul disprut, Adrian Coman l gsete n Stoinia,
nnebunit. ...pe msur ce m apropiam de el, pe fa i se citea o spaim greu de descris: i
tremurau minile, faa, ba chiar i cicatricea sngerie relateaz ziaristul. Este ceva ngrozitor
de nchipuit ce s-a putut ntmpla acelui om. Cnd s-a oprit la insistena ziaristului, recita
12
Augustin Buzura, op.cit., pg. 177-178
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Issue no. 6/2015
fraze ideologice, declarative, artificiale, de propagand. Nu se putea vorbi cu el. n acest

punct, istoria nu coincide cu cartea, dar avnd n vedere c la data strngerii informaiilor,
autorul a primit veti c liderul grevei poate fi nnebunit, descrie foarte la obiect rezultatul
interogaiilor securitii, a terorii psihice, fizice sau morale.
Romanul este o lecie de istorie. Politica regimului comunist impus prin fric este
redat cu precizie, acuratee i prin descrierea urmrilor. Securitatea, organul cel mai
important al acelei ere, inventa i nva moduri i metode de tortur inimaginabil de crude,
care distrugeau tot ce era omenesc n fiin.
Crile lui Augustin Buzura sunt rezistente n latur obiectiv, nu analitic,
radiografii ale societii, mai degrab dect ale sufletului13. Ele sunt mrturii ale timpului,
destinelor, eecului, ngrdirii libertii, fricii, confruntrii cu supravegherea i represiunea,
controlului vieii. Ne ofer imaginea unei ere, unei lumi complicate, prin teme sociale,
psihologice, prin cltorii spirituale. Romanele contemporane pentru cei mai muli cititori
sunt ambigue, greu inteligibile. n timpul lecturii i pn la terminarea crii trebuie inut
seama, c literatura modern, contemporan este o literatur care ne vorbete printre rnduri,
subtil, cu multe ncrcturi emoionale, avnd ca surs experiena de via a autorului, istorie
spus pe leau, realitatea cotidian. i, cum spune Ion Simu Unde greim astzi e c
pretindem prozei (lui Buzura, de exemplu) s fi spus adevrul ca ntr-un raport sau ntr-un
protest politic. Prozatorul... a fost un subversiv; negociind cu cenzura nuanele adevrurilor
care pot fi spuse.14
Bibliografie
1
Portretul unei epoci: Romnia anilor 1930, Fundaia Profesor George Manu,
2013
2
Adam Burakowski, Dictatura lui Ceauescu (1965-1989), Editura Polirom, Iai,
2011
3
ANIC, fond CC al PCR Secia Cancelarie, dosar 91/1977
4
Augustin Buzura, "Drumul cenuii" - zvonuri i ameninri, Revista Jurnalul
naional, Nr. 8, 2007, august
5
Augustin Buzura, Drumul cenuii, Editura Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 1988
6
George Pruteanu, Doar materia cenuie, Convorbiri literare, nr. 6, iunie. 1986
7
Ion Simu, Augustin Buzura (monografie), Editura Aula, Braov, 2001
8
Ion Simu, Augustin Buzura. Romanul condiiei umane precare, n comunism i
dincolo de comunism, Literatura romn contemporan, Anul III, curs XII
9
Lavinia Betea, Negru la Securitate i alb la partid, Jurnalul Naional, 31 iulie
2007
1
Nicolae Manolescu, Istoria critic a literaturii romne, Editura Paralela 45,
Piteti, 2008
1
Nicoleta Slcudeanu, Disidena prin cultur, Revista Cultura, 2013, septembrie,
Nr. 20
Piru Alexandru, Istoria literaturii romne de la nceput pn azi, Editura
Univers, Bucureti, 1981
Rachieru A. D., Elitism i postmodernism. Postmodernismul romnesc i
circulaia elitelor, Editura Junimea, Iai, 1999
Raiu D.-E., Disputa modernismpostmodernism, Editura Dacia, Cluj-Napoca,
2001
13
14
Nicolae Manolescu, Istoria critic a literaturii romne, Editura Paralela 45, Piteti, 2008, pg. 1142
Ion Simu, op. cit., p. 11.
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1
Rzvan Voncu, Turnanta Recviem pentru nebuni i bestii, o cheie a operei lui
Augustin Buzura, Revista Cultura, 2013 septembrie, Nr. 34/35,
1
Simion Eugen, Sfidarea retoricii, Editura Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 1986
1
Simion Eugen, Rogalski Florina, Grigor Andrei, Analize i sinteze literare,
Editura Corint, Bucureti, 2006
The research presented in this paper was supported by the European Social Fund
under the responsibility of the Managing Authority for the Sectoral Operational
Programme for Human Resources Development , as part of the grant
POSDRU/159/1.5/S/133652.
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APPROACHES TO TEACHING LITERATURE IN EFL CLASSROOMS

Alina Nicoleta PADUREAN
Aurel Vlaicu University of Arad
Abstract: Students read less and less and illiteracy is an increasing phenomenon in our
society. This study is an attempt to prove that literature is still useful and necessary in the
personal and professional growth of youth and of all individuals. We have also tried to
understand the reasons why students don`t read anymore and also to discuss the relevance of
selected texts and teaching methods used by teachers. The sample of our study consists of
students enrolled in the study programme Romanian Language and Literature & English
Language and Literature of Aurel Vlaicu University of Arad.
Keywords: literature, literary competence, teaching literature, EFL.
Introduction
Literature and reading in general are a controversial topic of our times. Teachers claim
that students read less and less, while students argue that the books they are supposed to read
for exams have out-dated topics. Researchers have also different opinions about the
usefulness and effectiveness 0of teaching literature, especially in English as a Foreign
Language classes. Most of them consider that the language used in literary works is too
complex and difficult and therefore it does not support students in the acquisition of grammar
and lexical structures that can be used in their everyday lives or as Kay posits, it does not
meet their academic or occupational needs (Kay, 1982). There are also researchers (Aina:
1979) who believe that literature can be taught in an integrated manner, thus transcending the
limitations of one school subject. Language can be taught by focusing on the development of
four skills: reading, listening, speaking and writing or it can be taught by integrating ideas and
themes from various subjects. We believe that literature should not be considered a mere tool
of developing these four competences but it should develop the students` literary and cultural
competences as well. Coenen (1992) believes that a reader who is literary competent is able to
communicate with and about literature. Novice readers are sometimes confused by
metaphorical or symbolical uses of words and therefore literary competence is the mastery of
roles and norms of the literary discourse. Each piece of literature demands knowledge of
certain norms. They can be learnt only by attending lectures in literature.
Over the years, the role and approach of literature in the language classroom has
constantly changed. In the Grammar-Translation Method literature was used for teaching a
foreign language because the language used in literary works was considered grammatically
accurate. After GTM literature has gradually lost its importance in the EFL classroom.
Scholars believed that the language used in literature is not the same with the one used in
everyday life and that students should be encouraged to develop their communicative skills.
Thus, the Communicative approach to language teaching focused on the study of language for
practical purposes. They believed that literature has no place in the language classroom as it
does not have a practical use. Literature was considered a potentially disruptive influence in
the well-ordered world of language courses (Widdowson, 1984:161). However, Widdowson
pleaded for literature in the language classroom as language courses should also educate the
youth and not just train them in a certain field. Therefore, in the 80`s due to several linguists
and scholars literature regained its place in the EFL classroom. The scholars considered,
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however, that literature should be taught using a different pedagogical approach for nonnative speakers.
In our country, the teaching of literature in EFL classrooms is partly neglected or
reduced to language development rather than to the students` literary development. The
textbooks contain extracts from novels and short stories but the focus is on the language.
Therefore, typical exercises used in high schools are the following:
rephrasing exercises
vocabulary exercises
sentence structure and substitution exercises
grammar exercises
plot, character exercises
open exercises
Background of the study

Scholars have developed three main approaches to teaching literature (Carter and
Long, 1991:2). They are the language model, the cultural model and the personal growth
model.
The Language Model relies on the development of students` knowledge by working
with familiar grammar, lexical and discourse categories. It focuses on the way language is
used in literary texts. It does not encourage creative thinking but the acquisition of
information related to the target text. This approach is considered too mechanistic and it
demotivates the pleasure of reading literature. Texts are approached in a systematic and
methodological manner and the techniques used in working with these texts are typical for a
EFL classroom: prediction exercises, jumbled sentences, summaries, role-play, etc.
The Cultural Model encourages and teachers students how to deal with a literary work
in relation to the target language. In my opinion it is also a transdisciplinary approach to
teaching as it does not focus on mere language acquisition but also on the knowledge of a
country`s culture and ideologies. It helps students go beyond the lexis to other components of
a nation. Students are asked to explore and interpret the social, political, literary and historical
context of a text (Yimwilai, 2015:15).
The Personal Growth Model is an attempt to create a link between the language model
and the cultural model. The focus is placed on the use of language but used in a specific
cultural context. Students are not only passive receivers of teacher given interpretations but
they have to be intellectually and emotionally engaged in the lesson and especially in the
reading activity. Literature is used as a resource and not just a study subject. In other words
(Carter and Long, 1991: 3-4) students develop their knowledge of and their knowledge about
literature. During this approach to literature, students are encouraged to express their opinions
and beliefs, to make connections between their own experiences and the text and use critical
thinking. Therefore, teachers should take into consideration a few aspects when choosing their
teaching materials:
texts should be interesting and appropriate for the students` age and interests;
they should facilitate students personal discovery and involvement in the text;
they should be a resource which contributes to the students` personal growth
lessons should be student centred as encouraged by learner centred curriculum
(Nunan, 1988) and teachers are only coordinators of certain activities;
teachers should use activities that encourage students` communication and relate to
their personal life. We advise teachers to use pre-reading, while-reading and afterreading activities and explore all resources that a text offers. Activities such as
prediction making, jigsaw reading, matching or gap-filling, reading comprehension,
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debates and creative writings are common activities for work with literary texts in an
interactive manner.
texts should be a resource for literary and linguistic development and they shouldn`t
be regarded as assessment material. If students feel the stress of examination when
working with literature, they see literature just a subject that needs to be passed at the
end of the course.
It is very important for teachers to understand that literature is a very sensitive subject
in a digitized era. Less and less students read out of pleasure and most of them don`t read at
all. Digital summaries replace printed books and if teachers don`t change their approach to
literature, soon they will be the only ones who understand what they talk about. The days of
teacher centred education and teaching are long gone even if some teachers don`t or don`t
want to understand it. Endless data of literary genres (poetry, drama, novel, etc.), data of the
socio-cultural contexts of various literary periods shouldn`t ne memorized by students
because it has already been proven that they fail to use the information in interpretations of
their own. They should be taught to be creative thinkers and not mere reproducers. It is mostly
the teachers` fault, and the literature syllabus`s too, that students cannot think out of the box.
The tenure exams have change in this respect and young teachers are asked to work with a
piece of literature and not just deliver readymade information. That is one of the reasons they
score so low in these exams. The study that we have conducted on 3rd year students of Aurel
Vlaicu University supports our assertion. Students say that they are not taught how to work
with a text because teachers deliver only theoretical lectures.
Parkinson and Thomas (2000: 9-11) posit the benefits of teaching literature. They
believe that literature can provide the following:
Linguistic model: literature provides excellent writing and linguistic diversity.
Extension of Linguistic Competence
Mental Training
Authenticity: it is a linguistic material not a linguistically artificial textbook
Open for interpretations: it can be basis for interaction;
Memorability: especially poetry
Cultural enrichment
As seen, the study of literature in high schools and universities is essential for the
acquisition of linguistic and cultural knowledge of the foreign language.
Research
The sample of this study consists of 47, 2 male and 45 female students aged between
21 and 30 enrolled in the study programme Romanian Language and Literature & English
Language and Literature at the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Aurel Vlaicu
University of Arad. They are 3rd year students facing the graduation exam and the tenure
exam, which consists also of an assessment of their knowledge of literature.
Data were collected using the questionnaire method and the focus group. The
questionnaire is an instrument for the collection of data, usually in written form consisting of
open and/or closed questions (Nunan, 1992:231). Focus group was also used in our research
but the most reliable source was the questionnaire because it was individual and anonymous,
thus giving students confidence.
During the focus group discussions we have tried to collect data on the students`
attitude towards reading, their opinion about the selection of texts and teaching methods used
by literature teachers, their perception of learning literature, the relevance of text selection for
their tenure preparation, the students` involvement in text interpretation, etc. The answers
were sometimes evasive, especially when they had to discuss the teaching methods selection
and the relevance of the selected texts.
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The questionnaire, however, offered us a clear view on the topic.

Before analysing the data, we want to make a short presentation of the study
programme Romanian Language and Literature & English Language and Literature in terms
of syllabus organization. It can be divided into the following categories:
Language practice: it comprises practical courses, oral expression and written
expression;
Language study: it comprises linguistics, phonetics, morphology, semantics and
pragmatics but also discourse analysis.
Literature: mostly British but also some American Literature;
Civilization: British Civilization;
Pedagogical module;
As said, the sample for our study consists of 47 students. The data have not been
analysed according to the gender of the respondents or to their age because we haven`t found
significant differences between the male and female subjects` answers. Also, the statistical
weight of male respondents is insignificant (only 2 men in the 3rd year of study) and thus,
their answers cannot be generalized or considered representative for their gender. In terms of
age, the subjects have similar ages and no significant differences have been noticed between
the age groups 21-25 and 25-30. The questionnaire consisted of 15 questions (8 yes/no
questions and 7 multiple choice questions). The most significant answers will be presented
below.
Results
One of the questions referred to the students` attitude towards reading. 70% consider
reading useful and important, while 30% presented lack of interest for reading literature.
Another question refers to the students` perception of reading literature. The question
was a M/C question and the answers are presented in chart no 2 and reveal that 40% read for
language development and cultural awareness, 36% consider that reading is a challenging
activity, 15% think that it is useless for their professional development and 9% consider
reading boring.
Chart no 1 Students` attitude towards reading

of reading
Chart no 2 Students` perception
Another question refers to the students` opinion about the selection of texts in terms
of difficulty. Most students believe that literary works are too difficult for their level of
language mastery and that literature such as Chaucer, Shakespeare and other classics of
English Literature should be approached differently because the language used is too
complicated for them. 45% believe that texts are too difficult, 37% believe that they are quite
difficult and 18% consider them east. Postmodern literature is easier and they consider that
postmodern texts should be used more frequently (Chart no 3). The question related to the
relevance of the texts for tenure exams reveals the following: most students believe that the
texts are not really relevant because they are not selected from the tenure exam bibliography.
71% believe that texts are not relevant for their exams and therefore they are not very well
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prepared while 29% consider that what they learn from these texts can be used later on at their
exams (Chart no 4).
Chart no 3 Student`s perception of text difficulty

tenure exams
Chart no 4 Text relevance for
Another important topic is the teachers` manner of teaching. Most students consider
that literature lectures are teacher centred and the only student activity is note taking. They
would like to change literature course into debates on the selected texts and consider that they
should be allowed to express their opinion about texts. For the question referring to students`
interpretation of the text, the answers are distributed as follows: 43% say that they are never
asked for their opinion about the text and for their personal interpretation, 26% say they are
rarely asked, 20% are sometimes asked and 11% consider they are always asked (Chart no 5).
It is interesting that there are students who argue that their opinion is never asked for and
students who say that their opinion is always asked for. We believe that this difference is the
result of students` involvement in the lecture, their knowledge of the language and of course
whether they have read the book or not.
The last question that I we would like to discuss is the teachers` reaction to students`
interpretation of texts. Most of them are disappointed by the teachers` rejection of their own
interpretation and argue that tenure exams don`t test just their knowledge of literature
criticisms but their ability to work with literary texts. Work with literary texts can be achieved
only if they are allowed to use their imagination and their own interpretation. Thus, they
believe that literature courses fail to train them for other exams than the exam at the end of the
semester. 15% state that teachers agree to their interpretation, 32% say that teachers correct
their interpretation, 53% mention that teachers reject their interpretation (Chart 6).
Chart no 5 Students` own interpretation of texts

to students` interpretation
Chart no 6 Teachers` reaction
Conclusions
The study offered us some solutions for the encouragement of literature study. Here
are some of them:
teachers should use group work during literature seminars but also during lectures;
texts should be interesting;
teachers should use a wide variety of activities;
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modern and interactive teaching methods would increase openness for reading;
Literary texts develop students` linguistic and literary skills and in the case of
Romanian Language and Literature & English Language and Literature students literary texts
have the following benefits:
personal growth
linguistic enrichment favoured by authentic texts
literary enrichment
Universities have the advantage of being able to design their own syllabus and thus
select literary texts that would suit their students` age, skills and preferences. Good novels
challenge students intellectually, emotionally and linguistically. They read in dialects, in
colloquial language and as Hill points out (Hill, 1989: 10-12) the informational context of
situational dialogues is insufficient when students try to create their own sentences.
Literature is more than language; it is knowledge, culture and personal development.
References:
Aina, N.F. (1979), Social students for primary school teachers, Oxford University
Press.
Carter, R. Long, M.N. (1991), Teaching Literature, Longman: Handbooks for
Language Teachers, New York, Longman, p. 2.
Coenen, L. (1992), Literary competence: useful concept for literary education or new
catch-all term?, in Spiegel, 10(2), p. 55-78.
Hill, J. (1989), Using Literature in Language Teaching, London, Modern English
Publications, p. 10-12.
Kay, S. (1982), Literature in the ESL Classroom. TESOL Quarterly, 16(4), p. 529536, http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3586470.
Nunan, D. (1988), The Lerner Centred Curriculum, Cambridge, Cambridge University
Press.
Nunan, D, (1992), Research methods in language learning, Cambridge, Cambridge
University Press, p. 231.
Parkinson, B. Thomas, H. R. (2000), Teaching Literature in Second Language,
Edinburgh, Edinburgh University Press, p. 9-11.
Widdowson, H.G. (1984), Explorations in Applied Linguistics, Oxford, Oxford
University Press, p. 161.
Yimwilai, S. (2015), An Integrated Approach to Teaching Literature in an EFL
Classroom, in English Language Teaching, vol. 8, No. 2, p. 15.
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ARCHETYPAL MISSIONS
Otilia SRBU
Hyperion University of Bucharest
Abstract: The word archetype is from the Greek arkhetupon, first mould or model, in the
meaning of being the initial version of something later multiplied. It is made up of arkhos,
meaning chief or ruler (used also in e.g. archbishop and monarch), and tupos, meaning
mould, model or type. The archetype has been used to describe original or ideal model
phenomena and characters, such as easily recognizable type-roles in drama - like the evil
stepmother, the miser, the brave hero. In the case of drama and literature, such archetypes
are usually traceable back to myth and fable. Jung's use of the term archetype is similar at
first glance. He repeatedly refers to such fictional type-roles as archetypes, the hero being the
one most frequently used. But to Jung they are far more than recognizable characters - in
fact, they are not at all characters, essentially, but symbolic keys to truths about the human
condition and to the path of personal enlightenment. The Jungian archetypes can reveal the
workings of the world, as to how it affects the human psyche, and what man should do to
accomplish something or for that matter ward something off. They are learning tools, lessons
from primordial time, answers included. And they do more than that:
Archetypes create myths, religions, and philosophical ideas that influence and set their stamp
on whole nations and epochs.
Keywords: myth, religion, symbolic, archetypes.
1.Straturile psihice
Arhetipul un vestigiu istoric i nc ceva n plus n concept freudian. Deloc
asemntor n teoria i cercetarea lui Jung.Prin introducerea noiunilor sale de incontient
colectiv i de arhetip, psihicul uman cpt alte valene, intenia lui Jung de rennoire i
dezvoltare a psihicului fiind una major. Prin performana cercetrilor sale, faimosul medic
distinge trei straturi psihice: incontientul colectiv, incontientul personal i contiina. La
rndul ei, viaa noastr, n ansamblul ei psihic, fiind coordonat de doi centri distinci: ego-ul
i Sinele. n timp ce primul, ego-ul este centrul coordonator al contiinei, Sinele vizeaz ca
element coordonator, incontientul colectiv. Astfel, axa ego-Sine devine coloana vertebral
a psihicului nostru. De ea depinde starea noastr psihic, mplinirea afectiv, apartenena
noastr la acest Univers, rezistena psihic, rezistena fizic fiind o consecin a celei dinti.
n analiza noastr, am ncercat s definim acest raport ego-Sine dintr-un punct
enantiodromic pe temeiul asumrii cercetrilor jungiene, dar i din dorina de a extinde munca
sa.
n viaa fiecrei fiine umane coexist cei doi centri distinci ego Sine. Dei
primul ar trebui s fie ntr-un permanent raport de subordonare, ego-ul nostru este i un
executant n permanent cutare de... sine. Astfel este definit procesul numit individuarea sau
individuaia. Un ego cuttor de... sine, uitnd Sinele major.Rezultatele acestui proces difer
de la individ la individ. Nu ntotdeauna, la sfritul vieii, Sinele este cel ctigtor.Nu
ntotdeauna, ego-ul, dincolo de propria dorin de afirmare, poate deveni i ego-ul altruist,
nelept. Poate, de aceea, dac am acorda mai mult atenie ego-ului altruist, Sinele, btrnul
Sine ce-a traversat cele dou milioane de ani, ar avea anse cu mult mai mici de a pierde
contactul cu propriile instincte, cu vechea nelepciune a lumii. Acum dou milioane de ani,
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Issue no. 6/2015
strmoii notri, al cror creier msura ntre 435cc. i 680cc. doar cu puin mai mare dect al
unei gorile -, fceau lucruri omeneti, lucruri culturale. [...].Vnau, construiau adposturi,
fureau unelte, tratau pieile, triau n tabere i, posibil, multe alte lucruri... 1
2. Arhetipul i Sinele
Arhetipal, omul de nceput, arhaic, primitiv are toate datele. Le tie, le intuiete i
avnd alturi imaginaia, o alt component arhetipal, i supune destinul n drumul su spre
lumin. Anthony Stevens, n celebra sa carte Sinele de dou milioane de ani postuleaz ideea
c Sinele triete de atta timp n ntunecatul labirint subteran al psihicului, nct visele sunt
cele care pot ilumina ntunecimea lumii subterane primitive, cci ele ne permit s descoperim
Sinele etern n aceast lume arhetipal preistoric.
n ciuda vrstei sale naintate, Sinele este un autentic partener de ndejde.Pe acest
temei, dialogul trebuie reinventat. Poate am uitat s purtm cu noi aceast dulce povar.
Ignornd Sinele ajungem s ne ndreptm de fapt spre ego-ul i el trist, cci i-a pierdut
reperul fundamental. Dei se tiu unul n vecintatea celuilalt, cei doi ego i Sinele su,
nereperai i neajutai, pe msur ce timpul devine... milenii, uoruor se destram. ntr-un
secol al aparenelor, devenim fiine ale nimnui, nici mcar nou nu ne mai aparinem.
Singura ans de a anula toate acestea este s ne revendicm dreptul absolut al datelor noastre,
arhetipale. O fenomenologie identic a Sinelui nostru cu cea a realitii incluse n formula
Imago Dei. Tangibil, cognoscibil doar n miezul matricei concentrice a omului i
Universului acolo unde se afl Sacrul. De fiecare dat, o redescoperire a noastr, un
experiment autentic al filogeniei speciei noastre! Procesul individuaiei nu este unul
simplu.Presupune ntrebri, rspunsuri, anularea sau diminuarea unui ego-centrist, asumarea
Sinelui, n toat plenitudinea sa.
Acesta este rolul fundamental pe care dorete s i-l asume aceast lucrare.
Vindecarea Sinelui rnit, expulzat, anulat. Secolul 21 are aceast menire umanitar. Ar trebui
s o aib prioritar. Acolo unde circumstanele contemporane permit mplinirea nevoilor
omului de dou milioane de ani scrie Antony Stevens , rezultatul este acea form a
adaptrii psihice pe care o numim sntate, dar unde circumstanele contemporane frustreaz
nevoile arhetipale ale omului de dou milioane de ani, rezultatul este inadaptarea i boala 2.
Arhetipul nu este doar o metafor, o cercetare, o descoperire, o realitate peste care
se poate trece. Nicidecum. Din punct de vedere medical, existenial, frustrarea inteniilor
arhetipale poate s se finalizeze cu o psihopatologie sever. Anthony Stevens propune n acest
sens cinci legi ale psihodinamicii:
1.Orice fenomen caracteristic tuturor comunitilor, indiferent de ras, epoc istoric,
cultur este o expresie a unui arhetip din incontientul colectiv 2. Arhetipurile au ca scop
auto-actualizarea psihic i comportamental 3. Sntatea mental este o consecin a
mplinirii scopurilor arhetipale 4. Psihopatologia este la rndul ei o consecin a frustrrilor
scopurilor arhetipale 5. Simptomele psihiatrice sunt exagerri persistente ale rspunsurilor
psihofiziologice naturale.
Concluzia e simpl: Aceste legi, care par s se refere explicit la funcionarea
psihicului uman, sunt de fapt simpla aplicare la psihic a legilor care opereaz n mod evident
n natur3.
1
Robin Fox, The Search for Society, Rutgers University Press, 1989, p. 13.
Anthony Stevens, op. cit. p. 40.
3
Idem, p. 137.
2
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Ceea ce merit menionat, alturat acestor postulate este faptul c frustrarea

inteniei arhetipale poate aprea n orice etap a vieii. Dac Freud era convins c perioada
copilriei este cea mai fragil, vulnerabil, supus traumelor, Jung avea o alt variant, cu
mult mai valabil. Dezvoltarea uman se desfoar de-a lungul vieii i fiecare stadiu al ei
are propriile obiective arhetipale, fiecare din el fiind supus frustrrii, nereuitei, suferinei.
Fiecare fiin uman are nevoie de suport efectiv pentru a putea face fa presiunii sociale.
Viaa trebuie neleas i din punct de vedere al riscului asumat pentru cellalt. Lucru ce pare
din ce n ce mai nensemnat, mai ridiculizat. Concluzia specialitilor este una simpl, ns
tocmai aceast simplitate definete esena umanului. Supravieuirea genelor unui individ este
la fel de important, dac nu mai important dect supravieuirea clanului din care face parte
omul. Altruismul, hrana, afeciunea, grija, sacrificiul i multe asemntoare fac parte din
strategiile de rspuns transmise genetic conform concluziilor sociobiologului Wenegrat.
Ceea ce este extrem de dureros este rezultatul final, concluzia ultim. Cauza
suferinelor umane este insuficienta grij a societii pentru ele. Pe ct de mare este nevoia de
afeciune, pe att de mare este nevoia de agresivitate, de acaparare, de dorin amprental
personal. Aici se simte fundamental raportul ego-Sine. Raportul enantiodromic. Cele dou
fragmente arhetipale, eseniale, sunt prinse ntr-o ax, coloana vertebral a psihicului
nostru. O coloan ale crei vertebre gliseaz.
n cartea sa, Max Scheler 4 referitor la subiectul central al crii sale
resentimentul face urmtoarea afirmaie: Resentimentul este o autointoxicare sufleteasc
ale crui cauze i consecine sunt foarte precise. El este o atitudine psihic de durat i ia
natere din pricina reprimrii sistematice a descrcrii anumitor emoii i afecte care sunt
normale n sine i aparin fondului naturii umane; ea determin unele atitudini de durat fa
de anumite tipuri de valori iluzorii i de judeci de valoare corespunztoare acestora.
Emoiile i afectele avute aici n vedere n primul rnd sunt urmtoarele: sentimentul i
impulsul rzbunrii, ura, rutatea, invidia, pizma, perfidia. O coloan ale crei vertebre
gliseaz. O cauz, tocmai am aflat-o. Urmeaz celelalte 999. Cert este c n epoca modern,
iubirea i toate nuanele ei, sunt concepte polemice, protestatare dar i superficiale. n
cotidianul imediat, n cel magic, lucrurile sunt diferite. Pe ct de vehement e protestul n
imediat, pe att de mare este nevoia de afeciune a fiecruia dintre noi. Ci nu ar da din viaa
lor pentru o singur zi, altfel dect celelalte. Aa se explic cauza, demersul noilor
mitologii.ns, despre ele, altdat.
3. Zurck zu Jung
Poate de aceea n plin amiaz-mare, cu soarele n trecere spre alt destinaie, ne
putem tri propriul mit personal, dar i pe cel arhetipal. Cotidianul ars anulat de cotidianul
magic. Zestre arhetipal incontestabil. Pentru o secund, dou, axa ego-Sine poate fi
reinventat i mplinit.
Pentru Jung, orice fiin uman civilizat, beneficiind de o contiin orict de
evoluat, este tot un om arhaic n straturile adnci ale psihicului su.5 Nu este o afirmaie
fcut doar n urma cercetrilor sale de laborator. Datorit cltoriilor ntreprinse n Algeria,
Tunisia, Kenya, New Mexico, Jung a luat contact cu ceea ce el numea omul de dou
milioane de ani din el nsui. Aa cum o amintire din copilrie poate pune stpnire brusc
pe contiin printr-o emoie att de vie, nct ne simim transportai cu totul napoi la situaia
original, la fel peisajul arab aparent din alt lume i total trezete o memorie arhetipal a unui
Max Scheler, Omul resentimentului, trad. rom. Radu Gabriel Prvu, Bucureti, Editura Humanitas, 2007, p.
13.
5
C.G. Jung, Collected Works, The First Complete English. Edition of the Works of C.G. Jung. Retrieved 201401-20.
4
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trecut preistoric prea bine cunoscut, care prea s fi fost complet uitat. Ne amintim o
potenialitate a vieii care a fost nlocuit de civilizaie, dar care n anumite locuri nc mai
exist6. Cltoriile acestea l-au apropiat pe Jung de timpul i omul mitic, ndeprtndu-l nu
de civilizaia occidental ci de mentalitatea sa exclusiv. Jung era convins c europenii
dispreuiesc primitivii pentru a nu fi obligai s fie comparai cu ei spiritual.
Jung era de prere, c tocmai cunoaterea nu ne mbogete, cci ndeprteaz de
lumea miticului, unicul sentiment care confer certitudinea sentimentului de a fi acas.
Contrazicem aceast afirmaie nentemeiat, susinnd contrariul. Miticul este o stare asemeni
multor alte stri sacre. Cunoaterea duce spre apropierea de aceast stare, trirea ei,
desvrirea acestei triri. Cum ar putea fi eliberate altfel forele psihicului spre realitatea
primitiv?
Jung, dincolo de orice, a marcat aceste cltorii marcndu-le simbolic n contiina
omenirii. Cercetarea sa demonstreaz acest lucru. Incontientul trebuia dovedit viabil nu
numai n lumina laboratorului, ci n plin lumin a vieii noastre. Readus la locul su de
nceput, confruntat, scrijelit, despovrat de prejudecile prezentului i reinventat! Acesta e
meritul lui Jung. i nu e singurul. Viaa mea este povestea autorealizrii incontientului.
Incontientul, for demonic ce trebuie cunoscut i mblnzit, tain a vieii. Cum poate
totui incontientul s se realizeze pe sine. Oferindu-i libertatea de exprimare, studiindu-l.
Sufletul are nevoie s-i dea ocol i s se confrunte ceea ce ntlnete, triete. Incontientul
a adus n pragul cercetrilor sale dou figuri arhetipale: anima (Salomea) i btrnul nelept
(Philemon).
S fie i aceast afirmaie, deloc singura, frustrant pentru climatul su, s fie oare
miezul rumorii pe care a provocat-o Jung n timpul vieii sale? Jung a fost ntmpinat, dincolo
de recunoaterea academic, de un climat neprimitor, plin de prejudeci, dominat de spaima
necunoscutului. Ideologic, totul prea s se datoreze lui Darwin. Dar nu numai el a fost de
vin, ci felul n care a fost interpretat i folosit teoria sa. Darwinismul social, un exemplu
nefast. Imperialitii l-au folosit pentru a-i justifica actele criminale mpotriva populaiilor
primitive, Hitler, n actele sale de dominare a lumii, de exterminare a slavilor i evreilor,
criminologii n favoarea pedepsei capitale, eugeneticienii pentru justificarea actului de
eutanasiere selectiv, forele armate n actele lor rzboinice.
n acest peisaj ideologic, ct de favorabil mai puteau fi primite conceptele
biologice, psihologia uman, analitic, deschiderea spre o alt lume?Jung a fost convins
ntotdeauna c inteligena noastr contient este o parte a unei inteligene universale,
superioare. Cercetarea sa a dovedit din plin acest lucru.
Dei suntem supui clasificrilor creznd n ele pentru evita sustragerea din zona
noastr de confort rmne n fiinele noastre destul loc pentru icognoscibil, o misterioas
nevoie de misterul nceputului din noi. Zestrea noastr arhetipal. Pentru Jung, arhetipul este
un element definitoriu, central, coagulant, un concept fundamental cruia psihologia i
datoreaz foarte mult. De o importan suprem, incontestabil, esenial pentru umanitate
aa cum precizeaz Anthony Stevens n cartea sa biografic 7. Exact aa cum fizicianul
studiaz particulele i undele, iar biologul genele, Jung a considerat c este sarcina
psihologului s studieze incontientul i entitile funcionale care-l alctuiesc arhetipurile cum le-a numit pn la urm, ele constituind nsemnata motenire arhaic a umanitii.
C.G. Jung, Amintiri, vise, reflecii, trad. rom. Daniela tefnescu, Bucureti, Editura Humanitas, 1996, p. 245246.
7
Anthony Stevens, Jung, trad. rom. Oana Vlad, Bucureti, Editura Humanitas, 2006, p. 56.
6
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n 1909, Freud i Jung au fost invitai s conferenieze la Clark University din

Worcester, n statul Massachusetts. Prietenia celor doi era departe de a fi cea n care speraser
amndoi, iniial. ase sptmni mpreun, zi de zi, discutnd, interpretnd visele unul
celuilalt. Mai mult dect att. Fiecare ateptnd din partea celuilalt confirmarea sau infirmarea
propriilor convingeri, vise, reflecii.
Ceea ce l-a descalificat pe Freud n ochii lui Jung a fost refuzul celui dinti solicitat
s interpreteze unul din visele sale, pretextnd c nu-i poate risca autoritatea. Fraza
aceasta mi s-a ntiprit n memorie, iar sfritul relaiei noastre se profila deja ntr-nsa. Freud
i pune autoritatea personal mai presus de adevr8.
n timp ce Freud era un extravertit, Jung era opusul su, un intuitiv introvertit. Fapt
explicabil i n ceea ce privete atitudinea noastr fa de cei doi. ntotdeauna extravertiii
atrag mai mult simpatie, mai mult putere de influen.
Revenind la cei doi, Freud i Jung, trebuie precizat c diferena dintre ei nu const
numai din perspectiva aceasta, n primul rnd cei doi proveneau din medii diferite. Freud
crescuse la ora, evreu la origine, avnd o mam tnr i frumoas, educat n spiritul unei
tradiii progresiste.Opiunea sa profesional nu putea fi dect tiina, consecin a educaiei
primite. Jung, n schimb, protestant, provenind din mediul rural, crescut de o mam depresiv,
deseori absent, idealist romantic, nu se poate ndrepta dect spre teologie.Dou destine
diferite, dou opiuni diferite. Scepticismul lui Freud poate fi neles i prin universalitatea
complexului lui Oedip, n timp ce Jung i anuleaz acestuia valabilitatea universalitii. Felul
n care cei doi au abordat diferit arta i medicina este cauzat de multe. Dac Freud avea
tendina de a privi napoi, cu un interes vdit pentru cauze, un interes reductiv, de altfel, Jung
privete nainte, cu un interes adaptiv fa de scopuri. Despre diferendele cu Freud, Jung fcea
urmtoarele remarci: Criticismul filosofic m-a ajutat s-mi dau seama c orice psihologie inclusiv a mea are caracterul unei confesiuni subiective. Chiar i atunci cnd mnuiesc date
empirice, vorbesc, nu ncape nicio ndoial, tot despre mine nsumi9.
Exist i reversul. Dac n cotidianul imediat, n starea obinuit cultural, Freud e
cu mult mai citat, mai amintit, mai revendicat, n concept erudit, Jung devine adevr
confirmat, incontestabil. Psihologia i datoreaz foarte mult, deoarece pe acest concept
fundamental jungian arhetipul s-a edificat o mare parte a ei.
Jung a gsit c e potrivit s defineasc arhetipul ca pe un nucleu neuropsihic
nnscut a crui capacitate este aceea de a iniia, controla i intermedia caracteristicile uzuale
de comportament i tririle tipice tuturor fiinelor umane.Indiferent de ras, localizare
geografic, epoc istoric. Aceast zestre arhetipal poate i reuete s alctuiasc
incontientul colectiv, realitatea lui. Autoritatea i fora sa, conform lui Jung, aparin unui
nucleu central ce integreaz ansamblul personalitii i pe care Jung l-a numit Sine. ntre axa
Eu-Sine, totul capt consistena unui ansamblu: incontientul personal, contientul
(contiina), incontientul colectiv. Pornind de la toate acestea, Jung - n comparaie cu Freud
pentru care experiena era crucial n evoluia uman i atribuia acesteia rolul de a activa
acest potenial arhetipal existent n Sine. Sufletele noastre nu sunt pur i simplu un rezultat al
experienei, dup cum nici trupurile noastre nu sunt doar rezultatul a ceea ce mncm.10
Modelul jungian este reprezentat asemeni unui glob, a unei sfere alctuit din trei
nveliuri. n centru este Sinele, n cercul interior, al celor dou cercuri concentrice este
incontientul colectiv ce este alctuit din arhetipuri. Cercul exterior reprezint contientul,
avnd dominanta eu-ului, care graviteaz n jurul sistemului aa cum luna graviteaz n jurul
C.G. Jung, Amintiri, vise i reflecii, Bucureti, trad. rom. Daniela tefnescu, Editura Humanitas, 2008, p.
154.
9
C.G. Jung, Opere Complete, Freud i psihanaliza, trad. rom. Daniela tefnescu, Bucureti, Editura Trei,
2008, p. 234.
10
Anthony Stevens, Jung, Bucureti, Editura Humanitas, 2006, p.56.
8
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pmntului. Intermediar, fa de contient i incontient se afl incontientul personal alctuit

din complexe. Fiecare complex fiind legat de cte un arhetip. Aceste complexe sunt
personificri ale arhetipurilor, modaliti n care ele se manifest n fiecare persoan.
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
1. Alpay, E. 2000, Self Concept and Self esteem Education Psychology Interactive,
Readings and Educational Psychology. Voldosta: State University
2. Aniei, M. 2000, Introducere n psihologia experimental, Bucureti: Casa de
Editur i
Pres
3. Boeree, G., 2006, Personality Theories, Shippensburg: University Shippensburg
4. Bonchi, E., Druga, M. 2006, Introducere n psihologia personalitii, Oradea:
Editura
Universitii din Oradea
5. Brehm, S., Kassim, M. 1990, Social psychology. Boston: Houghton Mifflin
Company
6. Eliade, M.,1995, Sacrul i Profanul, Ed. Humanitas, Bucureti
7. Eliade, M.,2011, Mitul eternei rentoarceri, Editura Univers Enciclopedic Gold,
Bucureti
8.Eliade, M., 1992, Istoria credinelor i ideilor religioase, Editura Universitas,
Chiinu
9. Guardini, R., 2004, Ieirea din Evul mediu - Sfritul modernitii, Editura
Humanitas, Bucureti
10.Jung C.G.,2003,Opere complete, vol. I, Arhetipurile i incontientul colectiv,
Editura Trei
11.Lipovetsky, G., 2007, Fericirea paradoxal, trad. Mihai Ungureanu, Editura
Polirom, Iai
12.Ries, J.,2000, Sacrul n istoria religioas a omenirii, Editura Polirom, Iai
13.Wunenburger, J-J., 2000, Sacrul, Editura Dacia, Cluj-Napoca.
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PLEADING FOR AN AESTHETICS OF COLOURS, SOUND AND FORMS. KANDINSKY,

SATIE AND BRNCUI
Ariana BLAA
University of Craiova
Abstract: In our paper, we develop an interdisciplinary research about aesthetics of colors,

sounds and forms in the artistic work of Wassily Kandinsky, Erik Satie and Constatin
Brancusi. From a comparative point of view, Satie sought stillness in music, Brancusi sought
movement in stone block and Kandinsky sought sensitivity in colors. These similarities lead us
to believe that there are artistic contingencies twinned symbolic and enigmatic which have
shaped the history of art in the nineteenth century.
Keywords: aesthetics, artistic contingencies, Kandinsky, Satie, Brancusi, nineteenth century.
n sfera artelor plastice ndeosebi, dar i a celorlalte arte, nceputul secolului al XX-lea
e marcat de o micare clar orientat spre revenirea la forma pur. Noua postur intelectual
impune o nelegere cu totul nou a obiectelor culturii, ct i a fenomenelor naturale1.
nc din illo tempore, se observ dou tendine majore creatoare, ale fiinei umane:
prima care-i inspir dorina de a reproduce obiectele care l nconjoar (prin mimesis) i ce-a
de-a doua, o tendin opus, care-l determin s plsmuiasc semne pentru a nlocui obiectele
i s le atribuie acestora o imens for expresiv, metamorfozndu-le n adevrate forme
simbolice.
n cutarea formei pure, aproape generalizat n toate domeniile circumscrise aanumitei art vivant de la nceputul secolului nostru, vom descoperi reprezentate diverse
tendine de a o regsi n variatele aspecte ale picturii, sculpturii i muzicii abstracte
contemporane.
Existena spiritual n toat plenitudinea sa labirintic este cea care creeaz i apoi
modeleaz forma i atrage dup sine o surmontare a materialismului secolului al XIX-lea i a
fotorealismului, dar i nlocuirea sa cu o nou formul a spiritualitii, construit pe o
comuniune panteist cu universul n care culoarea, sunetul i forma i devin elemente
constitutive ale limbajului. Tensiunea dintre ceea ce a impulsionat arta i trecutul ei
circumscrie aa-numitele probleme ale constituirii esteticului.
Arta poate fi interpretat doar prin legea micrii ei, nu prin invariante. Ea se
determin mai degrab n raport cu ceea ce nu este, dect n raport cu ceea ce este. Atributele
specifice artei trebuie deduse sub raportul coninutului, tocmai din alteritatea sa. Arta i
dobndete caracterul specific prin faptul c se separ, uneori brutal, prin negaie, de ceea ce
i-a dat natere; legea micrii ei reprezint legea ei formal. Ea exist doar n relaia acesteia
cu alteritatea ei i este acelai lucru cu procesul care o deruleaz.
n Originile formei n art, depind consideraia din tineree a gratuitii actului
artistic, Herbert Read afirm c arta este ordonatoare, prin crearea formei i frumosului, i n
acelai timp, modelatoare de contiin social. Forma este definit ca rezultat al ntregului
proces de creaie, de la ideea ce a generat opera pn la totalitatea instrumentelor de limbaj
care alctuiesc aspectul exterior al operei de art culoare, linie, volum, sunet din perioada
antichitii greco-latine i pn n contemporaneitate.
Francastel, Pierre, Pictur i societate, Bucureti, Editura Meridiane, 1970, p. 207.
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Chiar dac domeniile artistice (cu precdere cele vizuale), pot fi receptate ca nite
creteri distincte, cu vrfuri ce se individualizeaz prin ardoarea de a realiza performane ntro anumit direcie, ele au totui legturi eseniale prin nsi elementele lor constitutive, din
care se compune i diversitatea formelor n sens creativ.
Am putea considera elementele coninute n limbajul artistic i implicit n limbajul
vizual fiind forme primare ale acestora, aa cum literele i sunetele formeaz cuvintele scrise
i rostite. Pe de alt parte, aspectele elementelor de limbaj plastic, organice i angulare, ne
ndreapt atenia ctre ipostazele lor exclusiv vizuale i ctre anumite semnificaii
corespunztoare formelor ca atare.
Din perspectiva unei contemporaneiti saturate pn la refuz de discursuri care disec
cu acuitate realitatea n desfurare, pentru a-i extrage nelesurile ce sunt remise apoi ctre
context prin variate sensuri de interpretare, aflm i faptul c Pierce a afirmat cndva ntr-o
manier neobinuit de relaxat, c semnul este fie un semn iconic, fie un index, fie un simbol.
Aadar, estetica nonfigurativ sau abstract a descoperit inutilitatea figurii i a depit
n acelai timp limitele pe care aceasta, chiar stilizat, le impunea uneori. Wassily Kandinsky,
Erik Satie i Constantin Brncui simeau c numai o art de tip abstract era capabil s le
exprime gndurile i sentimentele fa de ordinea prestabilit a lumii.
Abstractizarea devine oper a sensibilitii i nu a raiunii, fiind rezultatul elanului
sufletesc, nu al calculului rece, intelectual. Fora primar, nefinisat, de la care pornete
pictorul sau sculptorul poate deveni ulterior, cu timpul, forma final, deliberat nefinisat, la
care se ajunge ca mesaj artistic. O astfel de realitate valideaz modelul cerc-spiral, care
stilizeaz grafic, vizual, perceperea existenei din unghiuri diferite sau faptul c pim parc
n experiene similare pe un parcurs ce se vrea a fi ascendent i transgresiv. Dorina lui
Kandinsky de a exprima elementele cele mai rare i cele mai precise ale acestei transfigurri a
spiritului, care rezum ntreaga sa pictur, nu putea s se mulumeasc cu mijloacele de care
dispunea arta figurativ. Departe de a fi nite scheme cernute prin filtrul raiunii, compoziiile
lui Kandinsky care nu surprind nici natur moart, nici portrete, nici peisaje eman i
nglobeaz aceeai nsuire de a conferi emoie obiectiv unui peisaj construit din elemente
plastice, cu trimiteri mai mult sau mai puin voalate, la reprezentri ale realitii imediate.
n picturile sale lucrurile se petrec cu totul altfel, motiv pentru care operei sale i se
cuvine s i se aplice aceast expresie de transfigurare estetic a realului, pentru c aici este
vorba de cu totul altceva dect de procesul abstractizrii care opereaz asupra unei imagini
naturaliste. Legturile lui Kandinsky cu obiectul au stat sub semnul dramaticului pn n
punctul n care acesta a depit obiectul i influena acestuia asupra artistului n genere: ntrun tablou, fora culorilor trebuie s-l atrag puternic pe privitor, i n acelai timp s
disimuleze coninutul profund2.
Aceast mrturisire direct devine una dintre cheile care ne pot sprijini n procesul de
decodare i interpretare n nelegerea esteticii sale particulare.
n plus, reinem din estetica sa maniera simpl, strania magie care opereaz (chiar i
atunci cnd nu eti avertizat de ctre pictor!) i care desvrete o pnz surprinztoare prin
rigoare i, paradoxal, prin propensiunea spre libertate.
n lucrri precum Acord reciproc (1943), Elan domolit (1944), sau Legtura verde
(1944) cele dou fore, altfel contradictorii i antagoniste (rigoarea i libertatea) se unesc,
armonizndu-se i aciunile lor ntr-o manier aproape ireal de strlucit.
Kandinsky nltur orice abstractizare intelectual sau intelectualist pentru a nu
reine dect abstractizarea sensibil, refuznd formele la care se ajunge pe ci logice, pentru a
nu le accepta dect pe cele generate de un impuls interior care provine din sensibilitatea sa,
Brion, Marcel, Arta abstract, Bucureti, Editura Meridiane, 1972, p. 128.
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Carola Giedion-Welckner catalognd picturile acestuia drept o expresie a universalitii

spirituale3.
n Rgard sur le Pass, cea mai important lucrare teoretic a sa, Kandinsky definete
principiile artei non-obiective din care nu exclude chestiunea unei anumite etici: Acionnd
asupra sensibilitii, arta nu poate aciona dect prin sensibilitate.4 Pictorul va rmne
credincios toat viaa acestei idei, care pentru el era o lege estetic i etic totodat.
Nefiind supus la constrngerea reprezentrii figurative, nu doar pictura, ci i
sculptura i-a inventat propriile sale legi, sau mai degrab, a redescoperit legile eterne pe care
necesitatea sau obinuina figurrii le tinuise pn atunci.
Sculpturile lui Brncui aceste opere care astzi au ptruns n esenele culturii
universale, au rdcini i sunt din aluat curat romnesc, nscute fiind din strvechiul fond
romnesc care se unete peste timpul scurs al mileniilor cu universalul, cu venicia.
Generatoare de arhetipuri, acestea aduc laolalt simbolurile tradiiei cu modernitatea formelor,
a liniilor printr-un procedeu miraculos de sublimare alchimic, unificndu-le ntr-o dubl
transcenden a arhaicului n perpetuu modern i a omului ca parte integrant a Absolutului.
n cutarea formei pure, Brncui s-a ntors la elementele primare, la arbori, copii,
psri n zbor, cerul sau apa5 Ca surs de inspiraie la nivel ideatic, a revenit la mituri, la
pasrea miastr, creatura fantastic din fondul popular mitologic romnesc, ce poate fi
considerat drept ntruchiparea absolut a ideii de pasre.
Lecia major a lui Brncui a constat n primul rnd n integrarea figurii vii sub form
de dinamism (Miastra cu 28 de versiuni realizate n perioada 1912-1940 ori Pasrea n
spaiu) n volumul elementar, pregtind drumul spre sculptura abstract a secolului XX.
Nobleea materialului, verticalitatea, puterea de expresie a formei pure, eliminarea
accidentului i a anecdotei, precum i importana acordat luminii i spaiului l plaseaz pe
acesta n postura de pionier al abstractizrii n sculptur i de printe al sculpturii moderne
(printr-o formul devenit clieu).
Dei sculpturile sale sunt catalogate ca fiind nonfigurative, Brncui nsui susinea
exact contrariul. Lucrrile sale nu i pierd trsturile eseniale prin simplificarea pn la
reducerea la forma primar. Numai excesul de materie este ndeprtat ca un balast inutil, iar
ceea ce persist, ntr-un final, este form i micare. Este i cazul sculpturilor cu psri care
sugereaz nsui conceptul de zbor: operele lui sunt figuri eseniale, imagini concrete ale
unor idei, expresia unui real universal abstract. Nimic nu e mai concret dect pasrea sa n
zbor, forma dinamic palpabil a dinamismului.6
Forma n ntregime nchis a lui Brncui ajunge la crearea unui singur spaiu,
armonios i acordat la sine nsui, ce se afirm cu o sensibilitate (specific i pnzelor lui
Kandinsky) n care radiaz n acelai timp inteligena, raiunea i concordana cu ritmurile
universale. Aceeai sensibilitate nsoete i ritmurile lui Erik Satie.
Satie opune curentelor n vog cu care evolueaz de altfel, n paralel o manier
singular a compoziiei, ca i reflexie a ineditei sale personaliti. Melancolicul Satie va
mbogi astfel paleta de sonoriti a vremii sale seductoare, prin eterica-i amprent
impresionist, tradiionalist prin efuziunile inspiratoare de sorginte postromantic, dar i de o
puternic investigaie i introspecie, viznd sondarea n desiul tenebroaselor fantasme ele
eului, Erik Satie fiind primul compozitor ce apeleaz la surse sonore extra-muzicale (vezi
baletul Mercure din 1924), precum sirene, sticle acordate, pocnitoare, roata de loterie,
pistolul, i, nu n ultimul rnd, maina de scris.
3
Apud. Brion, Marcel, Op. cit., ed. cit., p. 133.

Id., ibid., loc. cit.
5
Ionesco, Eugne, Note i contranote, Bucureti, Editura Humanitas, 2002.
6
Ionesco, Eugne, Op. cit., ed. cit., p. 313.
4
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Prietenia dintre Satie i sculptorul romn, pe care documentele o situeaz ntre anii
1914-1923, curmat de moartea lui Satie n 1925, a fost bazat pe atracia magnetic dintre
dou personaliti diferite, care i gsesc surprinztoare afiniti.
Ei se ntlneau aparent n contrarii: unul era prea complicat, sofisticat pn la manie,
ajuns la simplitate prin dezabuzare, cellalt era prea simplu, suficient de primitiv pentru a
accede la rafinament: Satie avea nfiare burghez, fiind supranumit Velvet Gentelman
datorit plcerii sale de a purta costume exclusiv din catifea, dar era neneles de muli dintre
contemporanii si care vedeau n arta lui o muzic simplist cu titluri bizare, iar Brncui,
cruia Satie i se adreseaz ntr-o scrisoare cu Cher Bon Druide, tria dup strvechile
obiceiuri romneti n locuina sa din mijlocul Parisului care putea fi confundat uor cu
laboratorul unui alchimist, indignndu-i pe unii care vedeau aluzii pornografice n arta sa, n
timp ce un poet ca Apollinaire era de prere c operele sale sunt dintre cele mai rafinate.
Dincolo de contrarii i de contradiciile enorme care nconjoar personaliti de talia
lor n timpul vieii, trstura care i unete fr echivoc este tocmai nonconformismul lor.
Similitudinile dintre creaiile lor rarefierea materiei, ce subnelege att purificarea ei, ct i
vidul, rigurozitatea i claritatea formei, efectul final de lejeritate, chiar imponderabilitate
precizate ncepnd cu V. G. Paleolog atest nclinaiile fiecruia pentru domeniul celuilalt
de creaie.
La Brncui instinctive, dar bazate pe o bogat cultur muzical, la Satie, intelectuale,
cu tez: el compunea ogive, piese reci ca piatra, cutnd diverse echipamente sculpturale
sau arhitecturale pentru a organiza durata n spaiul muzicii, ntr-un stil de o riguroas
verticalitate.
Brncui manifest aceeai obsesie pentru verticalitate, nlare, desprindere i zbor,
aspiraii care i marcheaz ntreaga oper, ncepnd de la linia oblic a Muzei adormite, pn
la estoasa zburtoare i Coloana Infinitului.
Gusturile lor muzicale coincid, amndoi fiind fascinai de liniile melodice simple i
spontane, de capodopera vocii umane fr acompaniament instrumental, de cntecele
populare i de cnturile religioase.
Apropierea lui Erik Satie de folclorul romnesc, lucru interesant, se manifestase
nainte de audiiile din atelierul lui Brncui, care avea aproximativ 2000 de discuri cu muzic
clasic i muzic popular universal i romneasc, acestea din urm fiind n mare parte
druite de Constantin Briloiu.
nainte de a-l cunoate pe Brncui, Satie compusese cele ase Gnossienne ale sale,
ntre anii 1890-1897, puternic influenate de muzica romneasc, a cror surs de inspiraie se
menioneaz cel mai adesea a fi hora romneasc auzit la Expoziia Universal de la Paris,
din 1889.
Delicateea i uurina eteric, atribuite compoziiilor lui Erik Satie, la care putem
aduga i o indicaie de interpretare n spirit brncuian a pieselor sale pentru pian Lger
comme un oeuf, relev o trstur comun cu aceea a sculptorului romn: aspiraia ctre o
stare de graie care se exprim, cel mai uor, prin senzaia de zbor i plutire pe care o ofer
dansul.
n studiul Brncui n Romnia, Barbu Brezianu amintete de episodul n care Lizica
Codreanu (sora sculptoriei Irina Codreanu) a dansat Gymnopediile n atelierul din Impasse
Ronsin, momentul care ar fi rmas aproape uitat n istorie, dac n-ar fi fost aparatul de
fotografiat al lui Brncui care s-l imortalizeze, este un punct de referin n nelegerea
relaiilor dintre muzica lui Satie i sculptura lui Brncui.
n urma noilor cercetri muzicologice, statismul muzicii lui Erik Satie este neles ca o
existen n timp care se dezvolt din ea nsi, desfurndu-se pe vertical, sub forma unei
spirale, poate chiar Coloana Infinitului, pe care filosoful Vasile Conta o descria drept o
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unduire deal-vale pe vertical. Brncui a dat form muzicii lui Satie, i-a creat un corp,
vizibil, marcnd paradoxul creaiilor lor.
Satie cuta nemicarea n muzic, Brncui cuta micarea n blocul de piatr, iar
Kandinsky sensibilitatea n culoare. Toate aceste similitudini ne ndreptesc s subscriem
opiniei c exist contingene datorate nicidecum hazardului, ci mai degrab unor nedivulgate
spiritualiti ale unor personaliti cu totul ieite din comun i care se nfresc simbolic,
enigmatic peste mode i timp i ale cror sigle au marcat secolul al XIX-lea.7
Bibliografie:
Brezianu, Barbu, Brncui n Romnia, Bucureti, Editura All, 2006.
Brion, Marcel, Arta abstract, Bucureti, Editura Meridiane, 1972.
Francastel, Pierre, Pictur i societate, Bucureti, Editura Meridiane, 1970.
Ionesco, Eugne, Note i contranote, Bucureti, Editura Humanitas, 2002.
Paleolog, V. G., Despre Erik Satie i noul muzicalism, Bucureti, Editura Maravan,
1945.
Paleolog, V. G., Tinereea lui Brncui, Craiova, Editura Scrisul Romnesc, 2004.
Read, Herbert, Originile formei n art, Bucureti, Editura Univers, 1971.
Brezianu, Barbu, Brncui n Romnia, Bucureti, Editura All, 2006, p. 25.
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PROPER NAMES DERIVING FROM LATIN IN THE WORKS OF V. ALECSANDRI AND I.

L. CARAGIALE
Iuliana Adelina ILIESCU
Abstract: In this paper we will try to analyse from the point of view of the etymologically and
semantically proper name, which came from the Latins name, in works of V. Alecsandri and
I.L. Caragiale. The proper names represent an additional denomination system, which are
assigned to some objects designated by the common name, a generalizing of the class to
which they belong. The denomination through proper nouns has a limited character, being
restrained to certain categories of objects: persons, animals, places.
V.Alecsandri and I.L. Caragiale are both the creators of a complex work, where they painted
times and people from various times and levels of society, here we try to discuss the problem
of the proper names that are based on the terms of Latins origin.
For this type of analyses we resort to a dictionary which will contain a large part of the name
to which we referred.
Keywords: onomastics, Latins origin, comedy, anthroponym, semantics
Analiza numelor proprii se poate face pe o singur oper sau pe mai multe texte ale
aceluiai autor, sau pe mai multe texte aparinnd aceleiai specii literare (romane poliiste,
romane istorice), sau pe opere ale unei grupe de autori, pe o direcie literar sau pe un curent
literar, ori poate fi dezvoltat pe o ntreag epoc. Onomastica literar se ocup de numele
proprii care, prin apariia lor ntr-un text literar, n comparaie cu numele din afara domeniului
comunicrii literare, au cptat un statut special. n opere, antroponimele vin s ntregeasc
portretul personajului prin sugestia dat, de obicei, de apelativul care st la baza numelui, prin
trimiteri caracterologice.
Numele de persoane din opera celor doi scriitori pot fi grupate dup nume de srbtori
religioase, nume mitologice, nume care indic meserii, nume de plante, nume care indic
originea localnume provenite de la nume greceti, nume proprii provenite de la nume
latineti etc.
n aceast lucrare vom ncerca s analizm din punct de vedere etimologic i
semantic numele proprii provenite de la nume latineti n opera lui V. Alecsandri i I.L.
Caragiale. Pentru acest tip de anliz vom recurge la un dicionar care va cuprinde o bun parte
din numele la care am fcut referire.
Alcidiu Pinax (Ov), histrion Alcidiu < lat. Alcides , descendent din Alceus: Hercule
(Guu, 64). Pinax, -cis desemneaz pictur de lemn. Histrionul (histrio, -onis) la romani,
desemna un actor de comedie (Guu, 548), care are limba lat/i mult influen n clasele de
jos (p.158, Ibis).
Asteria (OV), iubita lui Horaiu < gr. , - stea, acest nume mai poate fi pus
n legtur cu lat. stella, -ae i astrum, -i (Bailly, 124).
Boniface Florescu (Ccr), profesor de limba francez Boniface red lat. Bonifacius
sau it. Bonifacio (DNFR, 72) sau lat. Bonifatius, nume provenite din adj. bonifatus este un
compus din adj. bonus, -a, -um bun i verbul facio, -re a face < adj. lat. bonus, -a, -um
bun i subst. fatum, -i destin avnd semnificaia de norocos, fericit. Explicarea prin
adjectivul bonifatus i nu bonifacies este susinut de faptul c lat. bonifatus era tradus n
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glosarele latine ale Imperiului trziu prin gr. umoiros cu bun destin, norocos (MEO, 67).
Numele Bonifatie i Bonifaciu sunt purtate de monahi i monahii, dar le ntlnim atestate i n
rndul cretinilor laici (DOC, 80-81). Florescu < Floru (sau /i Florea); cf. numele toponimic
Floreti (DNFR, 203).
Cecilia Pavugadi (Lacun) Cecilia corespunde numelor preromane Caecilius,
Caecilia, de origine etrusc, necunoscut. Numele este explicat prin adjectivul lat. caecus
orb sau prin gr. kilis aciunea de a fermeca prin incantaii (DENB, 33). Pavugadi este un
derivat de la Pavu < Pavel (DNFR, 357) + suf. gr. -adis (Graur, NP, 84). Numele latinesc
Paulus a devenit n grecete Pavlos, de unde apoi la noi, prin filier slav, ca nume de botez,
Pavel. Direct din limba greac, ca nume de familie, au venit Pavlu, Pavlid (Graur, NP, 50).
Clara (MC), modist < lat. Clarus, nume de provenien cult apusean, atestat nc
din epoca precretin fie cu valoare de cognomen, fie ca nume pentru sclavi i liberi. Poate fi
pus n legtur cu adj. lat. clarus, -a, -um vestit, ilustru (MEO, 84-85). Numele preios este
pus n valoare de meseria de modist.
Coriolan Drgnescu (Temp), student, este la origine un cognomen latinesc, format
cu suf. -anus de la toponimul Coriolis (DENB, 36). Drgnescu este un derivat de la Drgan
+ suf. -escu (DNFR, 181). Numele roman i sonor ca o trompet de alarm de blci, Coriolan
Drgnescu, se potrivete bine pentru eful zvpiat al naionalismului cu tinctur latinist a
vremii de atunci.
Costandineasca (Five) este un nume matronimic format de la Constandin cu sufixul
easca.
Cynthia este nume de femeie, iubita lui Propertius. Cynthia este denumire purtat de
Artemis care s-a nscut, conform legendei, mpreun cu Apollo, pe muntele Cynthus (MEO,
98).
Domnica (TB), orfan, numele poate fi raportat la cuvntul din latina vulgar
Domnica (ptruns prin filier greco-slav) < dominicus al lui Dumnezeu (DENB, 41).
Fevronia (DV), maica < gr. < lat. februo a purifica, nume calendaristic.
Antroponimul Fevronia reproduce numele personajului grecesc , nume probabil
mprumutat de la romani i este strns nrudit cu numele lunii februarie, Februarius, care are
la baz adjectivul februus purificator. Mult mai plauzibil este explicaia termenului prin
numele ceremoniilor de purificare de la Lupercalii (n lat. dies februatus) (MEO 134). Maic
este termen de politee pentru a vorbi cu (sau despre) o femeie (mai) n vrst (DEX, 593).
Florin (FF), ran < Florian, devenit i nume de familie, corespunde unei forme latine
Florianus, dar este posibil ca apariia numelui romnesc s se datoreze unei latinizri a lui
Florea. ncadrat n bogata familie a prenumelor n -in, Florin corespunde unei forme latine
trzii, Florinus < Florus. (MEO, 139-140)
Florina (FF) este derivat diminutival de la antroponimul Florin + suf. -a. Este un
diminutiv utilizat de Florica pentru a-l mbuna pe Florin.
Florinescu (SM), proprietarul moiei Florineti < Florin + suf. -escu.
Glutto (FB), parazit, este un nume latinesc format de la apelativul glutto mnccios,
mncu (Guu, 524).
Glyce (FB), curtezan, este format de la adj. gr. , -, - dulce(DGRNT, 67).
Hillariu(s) (OV) < gr. < vesel (DOR, 79). Trebuie pus n legtur
cu Hilaritas, numele zeiei din mitologia roman reprezentnd personificarea noiunii
abstracte a rsului i, prin extindere, a veseliei hilare (Kernbach, 225).
Horaiu Ionescu (Rep), poet Horaiu face referire la poetul roman Quintus
Horatius Flacus reproduce numele gentilic roman Horatius. Dei ncercrile etimologice nu
lipsesc (de exemplu apropierea de un cuvnt grecesc care nseamn tnr, nfloritor),
originea i semnificaia lui Horatius rmn obscure. Prezena numelui n onomastica
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contemporan se datoreaz faimei poetului Quintus Horatius Flaccus (MEO, 162). Ionescu v.
supra.
Iulia Peruzeanu (OS), fiica vitreg a Fifinei Finescu Iulia este un nume devoional
antic, reproduce vechiul gentilic roman Iulius, Iulia, format pe baza lat. Juppiter, Iovis,
numele divinitii supreme romane (DEBN, 62). Una dintre cele mai vechi i nobile gini ale
Romei antice, descendent din zeia Venus, Iulia, i-ar trage numele de la Iulus, fiul lui Eneas.
Numele este apropiat i de numele lunii iulie (MEO, 181). Pentru Peruzeanu v. supra.
Leona (CP, NC, Cno), nume de tineri oneti, este un derivat diminutival de la Leon
+ sufixul diminutival -a.
Leonel (CP) este un derivat diminutival de la Leon + sufixul diminutival -el. Este un
nume afectiv folosit de Lulua.
Lucullus (FB) este nume de familie n gens Licinia (Guu, 714). Lucius Licinius
Lucullus a fost general roman n sec. I a. Chr., l-a nvins pe Mithridates, celebru prin luxul su
i prin talentele sale militare (DULR, I, 163). Numele Lucullus este folosit ca termen de
comparaie pentru Scaurus (p. 73, Glutto).
Marin (SM) corespunde numelui lat. Marinus (DOR, 102). Iniial supranume curent
la romani, explicat prin adj. marinus marin, de mare. O ipotez mai veche consider numele
ca fiind derivat de la gentilicul Maria corespondentul feminin al lui Marius (MEO, 203).
Marin Georgescu (De nch), are cas la fel cu George Marinescu vine din lat.
Marinus (DOR, 102) marin, de mare, nume afectiv. O ipotez mai veche consider numele
ca derivat adjectival de la gentilicul roman Maria, corespondentul feminin al lui Marius.
Apropierea numelor personale lat. Marin(-a) i Marius (fem. Maria) de ebraicul Maria ine de
etimologia popular, dar asemnarea fonetic a favorizat larga rspndire a numelor latine
(DENB, 69). Pentru Georgescu v. supra.
Martin lat. Martinus, nume teoforic roman, derivat din Marte, zeul rzboiului
(DOR, 103). Martin poate fi derivat de la numele lunii martie. Cunoscut ca zeu al rzboiului,
Marte era la origine o divinitate, probabil a sabinilor, protectoare a agriculturii i a animalelor.
Legtura mai veche a lui Marte cu primvara i fecunditatea este pstrat pn astzi (MEO,
205). Nume aparine clasei sociale joase: servitorul lui Zgrcea (ZR); pdurarul (LS).
Mrina (SM) este derivat de la Marin + sufixul diminutival -a.
Natalia (LTM) este derivat de la Natalia (< lat. Natalis < nascor, nasci, natus sum
a nate) (MEO, 216) + sufixul diminutival -ia, preluat pe cale cult din occident, unde era
ntrebuinat similar cu rom. Crciun (MEO, 216-217).
Postumus (FB) < lat. postumus dup moarte. Numele sugereaz ironic btrneea,
lipsa de vitalitate: flutur iernatic, degerat; vulpe deelat! / Strigoi din lumea moart, cu
faa ta zvntat / Faci graii lng fete, dai ochii peste cap, / Zbiernd amoru-i veted cu glas
dogit de ap?.
Scaurus Emiliu (FB) Pentru Scaurus v. infra. Emil corespunde unui vechi nume
gentilic roman. Aemilia era la Roma una dintre mai vechi i strlucite gini patriciene.
Aemilius era apropiat de aemulus emul, aemulor, -ari a emula. S-au ncercat i alte
explicaii fie prin gr. aimilyos duios, blnd, fie prin gr. homos asemntor. Dei Emilian
ptrunde n onomasticul cretin, rspndirea i frecvena actual a numelui nu este legat de
influena bisericii (MEO, 124).
Terinte priscariu (Rus), ran < lat. Terentius, cf. terentus sector pentru jocurile
seculare n Campus Martius (DOR, 160). Priscar este persoan care crete albine (pentru a
obine miere i cear); stupar, albinar; apicultor.
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Concluzii
Clasificarea numelor proprii din opera celor doi scriitori ne-a dat prilejul s observm
c scriitorii au folosit n opera lor nume proprii provenite de la nume latineti. Rolul unei
astfel de analize a fost de a adnci cunoaterea operei, de a ne permite s ptrundem n
universul textului literar, mbinnd analiza etimologic i semantic cu cea literar-artistic.
Bibliografie
Alecsandri, Vasile, 1981.Opere, vol. al VII-lea, Ed. Minerva, Bucureti.
Alecsandri, Vasile, 1979. Opere, vol. al VI-lea, Ed. Minerva Bucureti.
Alecsandri, Vasile, 1977. Opere, vol. al V-lea, Ed. Minerva, Bucureti.
Cazimir, tefan, 1967 Caragiale universul comic, Editura pentru Literatur,
Bucureti
Constantinescu, N.A., 1963 Dicionar onomastic romnesc (DOR), Bucureti, Editura
Academiei,
Dicionarul explicativ al limbii romne, ed. a II-a, Bucureti, Ed. Univers
Enciclopedic, 1996
Dicionar grec-romn al Noului Testament, traducere de Gheorghe Badea, Societatea
Biblic Interconfesional din Romnia, Bucureti, 1999
ineanu, Lazr, Dicionar universal al limbii romne, vol. I-V, Iai, Mydo Center,
1995-1996Graur, Al., 1963 Nume de locuri, Editura Academiei, Bucureti
Ibrileanu, G., 1976 Numele proprii n opera comic a lui Caragiale, n Opere III,
Editura Minerva, Bucureti.
Ionescu, Christian, 1975 Mic enciclopedie onomastic, Ed. Enciclopedic Romn,
Bucureti (MEO).
Iorgu, Iordan, 1983 Dicionar al numelor de familie romneti (DNFR), Editura
tiinific i Enciclopedic, Bucureti.
Iorgu, Iordan, 1963 Toponimia romneasc, Editura Academiei, Bucureti,
Ptru, I., 1984. Nume de persoan i nume de locuri romneti, Editura tiinific i
Enciclopedic, Bucureti,
Ptru, I., 1980 Onomastic romneasc, Editura tiinific i Enciclopedic
Bucureti.
Tatiana Petrache, Dicionar enciclopedic al numelor de botez, Bucureti, Ed.
Anastasia, 1998
Abrevieri i sigle
Ccr = Congresul cooperativ romn. edina de inaugurare, n O, II
CNo = Crai-Nou, n O, V.
CP = Chiria n provinie, n O, V
DA = Dicionarul limbii romne, sub conducerea lui Sextil Pucariu, Bucureti, 19391949, A-B, C, D- De, F-I, J-Lacustru, Lad-Lepda, Lepda-Lojni
DCG = Guy Rachet, Dicionar de civilizaie greac, Bucureti, Ed. Univers
Enciclopedic, 1998
De nch. = De nchiriat, n O, II
DENB = Tatiana Petrache, Dicionar enciclopedic al numelor de botez, Bucureti, Ed.
Anastasia, 1998
DEX = Dicionarul explicativ al limbii romne, ed. a II-a, Bucureti, Ed. Univers
Enciclopedic, 1996
DF = Drumul de fer, n O, V
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DGRNT = Dicionar grec-romn al Noului Testament, traducere de Gheorghe Badea,

Societatea Biblic Interconfesional din Romnia, Bucureti, 1999
dim. = diminutival
DLMR = Dicionarul limbii romne moderne (DLMR);, sub conducerea lui D.
Macrea, Editura Academiei, 1958
DLR = Dicionarul limbii romne (DLR), (serie nou), redactori responsabili Iorgu
Iordan, Alexandru Graur, Ion Coteanu, 1965 i urm. M, N, O, P, R, S, , T, Z
DLRM = Dicionarul limbii romne moderne (DLMR), Bucureti, Editura Academiei,
1958
DMG = Victor Kernbach, Dicionar de mitologie general, Bucureti, Ed. tiinific i
Enciclopedic, 1989
DNFR = Iorgu Iordan, Dicionar al numelor de familie romneti, Bucureti, Ed.
tiinific i Enciclopedic, 1983
D = Dezrobirea iganilor, n O, VII
DULR = ineanu, Lazr, Dicionar universal al limbii romne, vol. I-V, Iai, Mydo
Center, 1995-1996
DV = Despot-Vod, n O, VI
FB = Fntna Blanduziei, n O, VII.
Lacun = O lacun, n O, II
LTM = La TurnuMgurele, n O, VII
MC = Modista i cinovnicul, n O, VII
MDE, 1986 = Mic dicionar enciclopedic, Bucureti, Ed. tiinific i Enciclopedic
Romn, 1986.
MEO = Christian Ionescu, Mic enciclopedie onomastic, Bucureti, Ed.
Enciclopedic Romn, 1975
NC = Nobila ceretoare, n O, VI.
O, V = Vasile Alecsandri, Opere, vol. al V-lea, Bucureti, Ed. Minerva, 1977.
O, VI = Vasile Alecsandri, Opere, vol. al VI-lea, Bucureti, Ed. Minerva, 1979.
O, VII = Vasile Alecsandri, Opere, vol. al VII-lea, Bucureti, Ed. Minerva, 1981
Rep. = reportaj, n O, II
Rus = Rusaliile, n O, V
Sp = O scrisoare pierdut, n O, II
SP = Snziana i Pepelea, n O, VII
Temp = Tempora, n O, II
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THE ROLE OF LANGUAGE TESTING AND EVALUATION IN DEVELOPING

COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE
Cristina MARIN, Corina GEAN
Abstract: This paper emphasizes a hands-on approach to testing and evaluation presenting
exercises and activities that can be used in a variety of ways within the English lessons having
in mind that the most obvious characteristic of CLT is that almost is done with a
communicative purpose. If we want our pupils or students to learn English we must put them
in situations where they need to communicate in English.
Keywords: communicative, competence, authenticity, shift, everyday materials.
The centre of attention in learning English as a second /foreign language has shifted
from the teacher and materials (the external) to the student (the internal).This shift is generally
known as the move from teacher-centred instruction to learner centred instruction.
For real communication to take place there are three conditions:
1. we must have something that we want to communicate
2. we must have someone to communicate with
3. we must have interest in the outcome of the communication
In most language-teaching materials, and in most language teaching classrooms, these
three conditions do not exist all the time. If a teacher is to provide students with the tools to
learn language outside the classroom the main aim has to give students confidence in their
ability to communicate despite difficulties to the point where they can:
a) initiate communicative events
b) persist with the attempted communication even when it becomes difficult.
The use of gestures, facial expressions, rewarding, questions, guesswork and
approximations is a crucial part of such communication, and the ability to such strategies
become an essential feature of student needs.
The most obvious characteristic of CLT is that almost everything that is done with a
communicative intent. A speaker can evaluate whether or not his purpose has been achieved
upon the information she receives from the listener. If the listener does not have an
opportunity to provide the speaker with such a feedback, then the exchange is not really
communicative.
Communicative methods work best if:
-the teacher uses realistic activities based on situations which students experience in
their lives
-the teacher sets tasks and problems which interest and motivate the students
-the teacher includes everyday materials such as newspapers, timetables, interviews,
etc. in their tasks.
The exercises and activities presented below can be used in a variety of ways,
depending upon the particular situation:
SUGGESTED ACTIVITY
A Cultural Awareness Project
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The goal of this project is to develop learners overall communicative competence in

the target language by focusing specifically on the four skills, as well as to make them aware
of cultural differences or similarities in different language communities. The project should be
conducted in small groups so that learners can work collaboratively. It consists of four
different stages:
1.preparation stage 2.collection stage 3.implementation stage 4.reflection stage
1. As a preliminary step, teachers should provide learners with a brief introduction
about the nature of intercultural competence in order to make them aware of the importance of
paying attention to different cultural frameworks.
Once the concept of intercultural competence has been introduced in class, the teacher
explains to the learners that they are going to explore the English target culture in the
language classroom. They are then presented with a list of cultural topics which may offer
entry points to the English culture in order to focus on learners intercultural competence.
The topics could be: Family, Education, the World of Work, Regional Identity, Power and
Politics.
In order to help learners with the topic orientation the five-word technique can be
used. The students are asked to note down the first five words they think in relation to each
topic presented by the teacher. In fact, making learners provide such words may be a useful
technique to activate their background knowledge on the cultural topics to be covered. Once
learners have selected the topic they are going to focus on, the next stage of the project is
explained to them:
2. In this stage, it would be tempting for the teacher to make the collection of the
materials him/herself about a particular cultural topic and bring them to the classroom along
with prepared activities for the learners. However we agree with Marshal 1 that doing this
would block one of the major aims of the project, which consists in raising learners cultural
awareness though having to question themselves what is culturally important and
representative of the target language.
Taking this assumption into account, learners are given the task to collect materials in
the English target culture in relation to the particular topic they agreed to work with.
Here, they are recommended to look for a variety of sources including photocopied
information from different printed materials, photo-documentaries, video or DVD scenes,
recorded material, like conversations with native speakers, excerpts from the Internet or the
hard copy of conversations after having contacted English speaking partners through mail
exchanges.
During the process of collecting such material learners are required to meet the teacher
at appointed office hours so that the teacher can provide any help they might need. Once
learners have collected all the material they are asked to hand it to the teacher in order to
prepare the next stage of the project.
3. This stage involves several class sessions devoted to developing learners
communicative competence through the four skills while working in the cultural topics it was
agreed they would deal with in the first stage. Here, learners are presented with structured
activities on the four skills in order to increase their cultural awareness, intercultural
imagination and context sensitivity on that particular topic.
4. After learners have worked on all activities prepared by the teacher in each of the
four skills, a cross-cultural class discussion follows in order to elicit learners opinions about
the topics being dealt with. This discussion will allow them to take a critical and positive
evaluative position in relation to the cultural awareness activities already carried out.
1
Marshal, Bethan. 2011. Testing English. Continuum International Publishing Group, p.55
218
Issue no. 6/2015
In short, by engaging learners in a project such as the described above they become
active participants in their own process of language learning. They are provided with
opportunities to develop their overall communicative competence in the target language by
increasing their ability to communicate in each of the four language skills: listening, speaking,
reading and writing. Additionally, they become aware of the importance of understanding
how cultural issues influence our perception of the world.
This development of learners intercultural competence, thus turns out to be an
essential part of foreign language teaching.
ORAL INTERVIEW FORMAT
When oral production assessment is mentioned, the first thing that comes to mind is
an oral interview: a test administrator and a test taker sit down in a direct face-to-face
exchange and proceed through a protocol of questions and directives.
The interview which may be tape-recoded or re-listening, is then scored on one or
more parameters such as accuracy in pronunciation and/or grammar, vocabulary usage,
fluency, sociolinguistic/pragmatic appropriateness, task accomplishment and even
comprehension. Interviews can vary in length from perhaps five to forty-five minutes
depending on their purpose and content. Placement interviews designed to get a quick spoken
sample from a student in order to verify placement into a course, may need only five minutes
if the interviewer is trained to evaluate the output accurately. Every effective interview
contains a number of mandatory stages.
Two decades ago, Michael Canale 2 proposed a
framework for oral proficiency testing that has withstood the test of time. He suggested that
test-takers will perform at their best if they led through four stages:
1.WARM-UP: In a minute or so of preliminary small talk, the interview directs
mutual introductions, helps the test-taker become comfortable with the situation, apprises the
test-taker of the format, and allays anxieties. No scoring of this phase takes place.
2. LEVEL CHECK: Through a series of pre-planned questions, the interviewer
stimulates the test-taker to respond using expected or predicted forms and functions. If, for
example, from the previous test information, grades, or other data the test taker has been
judged to be a Level 2 (see below) speaker, the interviewers prompts will attempt to
confirm this.
The responses may take very simple or very complex form depending on the entry
level of the learner. Questions are usually designed to elicit grammatical categories (such as
past tense or verb agreement) discourse structure ( a sequence of events), vocabulary usage,
and/or sociolinguistic factors (politeness conventions, formal/informal language).
This stage could also give the interviewer a picture and the test-takers extroversion
readiness to speak, and confidence, all of which may be of significant consequence in the
interviews results. Linguistic target criteria are scored in this phase. If this stage is lengthy, a
tape-recording of the interview is important.
3.PROBE: Probe questions and prompts challenge test-takers to go to the heights of
their ability, to extend beyond the limits of the interviewers expectations through
increasingly difficult questions. Probe questions may be complex in their framing and/or
complex in their cognitive and linguistic design.
Through probe items, the interviewer discovers the ceiling or limitation of the test
takers proficiency. This need not be a separate stage entirely, but might be a set of questions
that are interspersed into the previous stage. At the lower levels of proficiency probe items
2
Canale M., Theoretical Bases of Communicative Approach to Second Language Teaching and Testing,
Applied Linguistics,1 (1980), p.11
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may simply demand a higher range of vocabulary or grammar from the test-taker than
predicted.
4. WIND-DOWN: This final phase of the interview is simply a short period of time
during which the interviewer encourages the test-taker to relax with some questions,
sets the test-takers mind at ease, and provides information about where and when to
obtain the results of the interview. This part is not scored.
Sample questions for the four stages of an oral interviewer
1. Warm-up
How are you?
Whats your name?
What country are you from? What city/town?
Let me tell you about this interview
2. Level-check
How long have you been in this (country, city)?
Tell me about your family.
What is your (academic major, professional interest, job)?
How long have you been working at your (degree, job)?
How do you like your home (city, town)?
What are your hobbies or interests? What do you do in your spare time?
Have you travelled to another country beside this one and your home country?
Tell about your country.
Compare your home (city, town) to another (city, town).
What is your favourite food?
Tell me how to (make, do) something you know well.
What
will
you
be
doing
ten
years
from
now?
Id like you to ask me some questions.
Pretend that you are.and I am a(guided roleplay follows).
3. Probe
What are your goals for learning English in this program?
Describe your (academic field, job) to me. What do you like and dislike about it?
What is your opinion of (recent headline event)?
Describe someone you greatly respect, and tell me why you respect that person.
If you could redo your education all over again, what would you do differently?
If you were (president, prime minister) of your country what would you like to change
about your country?
4. Wind-down
Did you feel okay about this interview?
What are your plans for the weekend, the rest of the day, the future?
Youll get the results from this interview (tomorrow, next week).
Do you have any questions you want to ask me?
It was interesting to talk to you. Best wishes.
DIALOGUE COMPLETION TASK
In a department store:
Salesperson: May I help?
Customer:..
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Issue no. 6/2015
S: Okay, what size do you wear?

C
S: Hmmmm. What about this green sweater here?
C:.
S: Oh. Well, if you dont like green what colour would you like?
C:.
S: How about this one?
C:..
S: Its on sale today for 39.95
C.
S: Sure, we take VISA, MATERCARD, AMERICAN EXPRESS.
C:.
DISCOVERING MISSING INFORMATION
Learner A has information represented in tabular form. For example, he may have a
table showing a summary of each teams results so far (how many games they have
played/won/lost/drawn, how many goals they have scored, etc.)
However, some items of information have been deleted from the table. Learner B has
an identical table except that different items of information have been deleted. Each learner
can therefore complete his own table by asking his partner for information that he lacks.
The teacher may (if he wishes) specify what language forms are to be used. For
example, the distances table would require forms such as: How far isfrom? Which
town ismiles from? while the league table would require forms such as How many
games have
played? and How many goals havescored?
POOLING INFORMATION TO SOLVE A PROBLEM
Learner A has a train table showing the times of trains from X to Y. Learner B has a
timetable of trains from Y to Z. For example:
Learner As information
Learner Bs information
Newtown dep.: 11.34,13.31, 15.18 ,16.45

16.39, 18.49
Shrewbury arr:12.22, 14.18, 16.08, 18.25
20.37, 22.32
Shrewbury dep: 13.02, 15.41,

Swansea arr.: 17.02, 19.19,
Together, the learners must work out the quickest possible journey from Newton to
Swansea. Again, of course, it is important that they should not be able to see each others
information.
The last two activities illustrate functional communication activities. The idea behind
the is that the teacher structures the situation so that learners have to overcome an information
gap or solve a problem. The activities are intended to help the learner find the language
necessary to convey an intended message effectively in a specific context.
ROLE PLAYING CONTROLLED THROUGH CUES AND INFORMATION
Two learners play the roles of a prospective guest at a hotel and the hotel manager.
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STUDENT A: You arrive at a small hotel one evening. In the foyer, you meet the
manager (-ess) and:
Ask if there is a room vacant.
Ask the price, including breakfast.
Say how many nights would you like to stay.
Ask where you can park your car for the night.
Say what time you would like to have breakfast.
STUDENT B: You are the manager (-ess) of a small hotel that prides itself on its
friendly atmosphere. You have a single and a double room vacant for tonight. The prices are:
8.50 for the single room, 15 for the double room. Breakfast is 1.50 extra per person. In
the street behind the hotel, there is a free car park. Guests can have tea in bed in the morning
for 50 p.
CITY ACCOMODATION SERVICE

April 14-th North 6th Elm Street
Road
Address
16-th
Place
Own room
Shared room
Good public transport
Garden
Cooking facilities
Furnished
v
3
v
6
v
8
20
12
10
Unfurnished
v
Number of people in a 4
house flat
Price
16
Notes
2
Cambridge
Square
No telephone
Gets cold in No
animals Please
provide
Non
smokers winter.
allowed
your own bed
only
linen
LETTER
You are going to live in England. Write to an estate agent to ask for some suitable
accommodation for yourself and your family. Use the information that you have in the table
above CITY ACCOMODATION AGENCY to help you compose your letter. Start your letter
like letter 1:
Letter 1
Dear Sir,
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I shall be coming to live in England from.. and I would be extremely grateful if your
agency could find
me somewhere suitable to live.
I would like to have
Change letters with your partner and write a reply making an offer of suitable
accommodation.
Start your letter like letter 2:
Dear Mr/Mrs/Miss/Ms..
Thank you for your letter ofabout accommodation. I have considered your
requirements carefully and find that I have the following suitable accommodation available.
The address is.. and it is.
PICTURES
The choice of pictures is important. The more dramatic the pictures are, the more
motivated the learners will be. You can find pictures in the magazines, on the internet, in
holiday brochures and so on.
PREPARATION: Find or draw pictures of terrible and fabulous holidays. Make
copies of the jazz chant or make a poster for the front of the class.
TIME GUIDE: 45 minutes
LEAD IN: Show the class on fabulous holiday picture and ask What was the weather
like?.
Show them a terrible picture and ask what it was like.
USE THE LANGUAGE: Put the class in pairs. Ask them to tell each other about the
best and the worst holiday they have had. Ask them about the food, where they stayed, the
weather, the people encountered, so on.
INTRODUCE LANGUAGE: Ask questions to individual learners What was the food
like? What was the weather like? Put the adjectives they use on the board. Add a test of
adjectives. Ask the class which words describe best or worst holidays.
BRAINSTORMING
It means thinking quickly about anything related to a topic, for example, brainstorming
Preparing for a holiday might lead to the following ideas:
Passports, packing, sun tan cream, foreign money, locking the house, calling family
and so on.
MIND MAPPING
It involves putting idea into a sort of order, for example, into separate categories:
Money
Security
Get currency
lock the house
Holiday
Travel
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Issue no. 6/2015
buy tickets
check times
By doing this kind of activity before a task (writing, speaking, reading, listening) helps
activate any vocabulary learners already have and gives them the chance to add this by
putting together words and phrases from other members of the class.
NEWSPAPERS ACTIVITIES
In some newspapers there is a place for letters from readers to be printed. Readers
write in describing their relationship problems or other personal problems and an answer
giving advice about their problems is printed next to each letter.
These letters and their answers can be used for class discussion. Hall3 suggests these
steps:
1. Read the letter to the learners, but not the answer. Unknown vocabulary and other
difficulties
should be explained. The learners can take notes as they listen to the letter, ask
questions, repeat it
aloud phrase by phrase, or write it as dictation.
2. After the letter is read, the learners discuss it in small groups and suggest advice of
their own.
3. The last step is when the teacher presents the advice given in the newspaper. This
advice can be
discussed and composed with the advice suggested by the learners:
Here is a typical letter:
Dear Belle,
My boss keeps inviting me to participate in various sporting activities with him, such
as playing golf and squash. I am quite good at the sports and enjoy them. However, it is
affecting my relationship with my wife .The time that we would usually spend together is now
devoted to keeping my boss happy. I dont know what decision to make. Should I refuse my
boss and risk my promotion, or should I continue with golf and squash and risk my
marriage?
CONFUSED
SPORTSMAN
IDENTITY CARDS
Aims:
Skills-speaking (writing)
Language questions about the personal data
Other- introducing someone else to the group, getting to know each other
Level
Intermediate
Organization Pairs
Preparation: As many identity cards as there are students
Time:
10-30 minutes
3
Hall R. Innovation in English Language, Teaching English Language Worldwide,p.13, 1995
224
Procedure
Issue no. 6/2015
Step 1: The students are grouped in pairs and each of them receives a
blank
Identity card
Step 2: The two students in each pair interview each other to fill in the blanks
on the identity card.
Step3: each student introduces his partner to the class using the identity card as
a memory aid.
The paired interviews can be conducted without identity cards. Each student must find
out those things from his partner who he thinks are important or interesting.
1. The task Find out five things about your partner that one could not learn by just
looking can be given before the interviewing starts
2. Each student draws a portrait on the identity card. All cards are exhibited on the
classroom wall.
3. If these interviews are done at the beginning of a course or seminar a question about
individual expectations can be added.
4. With a simple identity card this activity is suitable for beginners as well. An
appropriate card might look like this:
Name
Family
Hobbies
Something Id like to do
Three things I like

Three things I dont like
CONCLUSION:
Language teachers must foster meaningful communication in classroom by using
authentic language as a vehicle for communication in the class and by developing activities
that integrate listening, speaking, reading and writing skills.
There are essentially three reasons why well-known authentic texts should occupy a
central role in any second language learning process. First, because they have been written for
a communicative purpose, they are more interesting than texts which have been invented to
illustrate the usage of some feature of the target language, learners are thus likely to find them
more motivating than invented texts.
Second, because they revolve around content rather than form, authentic texts are
more likely to have acquisition. Third, if used in sufficient quantities authentic texts can begin
to replicate the language bath in which the first language learner is immersed from birth.
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
Biber, Douglas; Johansson, Sting; Luch, Geoffry; Conrad, Susan; Finegan, Edward.
1999. Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English. Longman.
Brown, H. Douglas. 2007. Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. Longman.
Brown, H. Douglas. 2001. Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to
Language Pedagogy. Longman.
Byram, Michael. and Phipps, Alison. 2005. Language for Intercultural Communication
and Education. Cromwell Press Ltd.
Canale M., Theoretical Bases of Communicative Approach to Second Language
Teaching and Testing, Applied Linguistics,1 (1980).
Cohen, Louis; Manion, Lawrence and Morrison, Keith. 1977. A Guide to Teaching
Practice. Routledge.
Marshal, Bethan. 2011. Testing English. Continuum International Publishing Group.
225
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Hadfield, Jill and Hadfield, Charles. 2008. Introduction to Teaching English. Oxford
University Press. Hall, R. David and Hewings, Ann. 2001. Innovation in English Language
Teaching. Routledege.
226
Issue no.6/2015
ONLINE COMMUNICATION PRAGMATISM

Adriana Denisa MANEA
Abstract: The recorded technological progress influenced both the educational and the social
systems, at a worldwide scale. If, at the beginning of the year 1993 the first Internet
connection occurred in Romania, today, according to the sociological studies, the young
generation cannot imagine its existence outside the Internet. We expect that the new studies
identify the particularities of virtual social communication and mark the transformations
generated by it. E-mail interactions are connected to the psychological field, to the unique
language found in a permanent evolution, while speech, at the level of discussion groups,
seems to be institutionalized. The pragmatism of communication is dependent on the value
system of the computerization field in society, which is why the current article makes an
inventory and explains the functions of online communication, its particularities and
finalities.
Keywords: online communication, virtual space, pragmatism, active learning, communication
efficiency.
Comunicarea reprezint totalitatea proceselor prin care o minte poate s o afecteze pe
alta (Waren Weaver). Ca urmare a faptului c n societatea contemporan suntem permanent
conectai la sisteme de comunicare multiple precum: telefonul, televizorul, calculatorul
accesul la informaii este liber i .continuu. Conectarea la internet i la sisteme de comunicare
on-line, primirea de sms-uri, mms-uri, mesaje video sau vocale, n timp real prin intermediul
diverselor aparaturi disponibile faciliteaz obinerea i transmiterea de informaii, respectiv
comunicarea, definit ca fiind procesul transmiterii, recepionrii, stocrii, prelucrrii i
utilizrii informaiei (Popescu, 2003). Procesul deosebit de complex al comunicrii ne
asigur interaciunea permanent cu mediul uman, socio-economic, tiinific i cultural.
Desfurndu-se simultan prin canale multiple i modaliti senzoriale variate, de la mijloace
rudimentare la cele mai tehnologizate, comunicarea a devenit un act indinspensabil
funcionrii psiho-fizice a individului i societii n ansamblul su. Wilburg Schram nelege
prin comunicare procesul stabilirii unei comuniuni sau identiti de reflecii, idei, concepii,
ntre emitorul mesajului i receptorul acestuia, prin intermediul unui canal de comunicare
(apud. Popescu, 2003).
La nivelul societii procesul de comunicare asigur manifestarea a trei funcii
(Lasswell 1948): supravegherea mediului, dezvluind tot ceea ce ar putea amenina i afecta
sistemul de valori al unei comuniti sau a prilor ce o compun; punerea n relaie a
componentelor societii, pentru a produce un rspuns fa de mediu; transmiterea
motenirii sociale, crora Paul F. Lazarsfeld i Robert K. Merton le adaug i o a patra:
distracie (entertainment).
Era digital a permis i a stimulat apariia comunicrii ntr-o lume fr limite
teritoriale sau de timp, fr constrngerile impuse n lumea real de tradiii, legislaie,
considerente religioase sau interese politice. Acest teritoriu numit i spaiu virtual a fost
ingenios organizat i mai ales valorificat prin apariia unor platforme sociale i a unor jocuri
din ce n ce mai atractive i mai complexe. Comunicarea interuman s-a extins n lumile
virtuale. Din ce n ce mai muli locuitori ai acestei planete i petrec o parte din timp n aceste
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Issue no. 6/2015
lumi care ofer, printre altele, marele avantaj c nimeni nu este obligat s-i dezvluie
adevrata identitate (Buia, M, 2011).
Comunicarea on-line este orientat spre asigurarea unor funcii de baz, cum sunt:
funcia de informare (informaiile influeneaz, orienteaz i dirijeaz opinia public,
interesele i motivaiile oamenilor, contiinele chiar i dincolo de propria voin);
funcia de interpretare (producii specifice de tipul editorialului sau al comentariului
pot ajuta consumatorul de informaii n reducerea incertitudinilor, clarificarea i
diseminarea de informaii);
funcia de divertisment (tendina de a transforma totul n spectacol, de detaare fa de
problemele grave prezentate);
funcia instructiv-culturalizatoare (transmiterea, popularizarea de informaii,
cunotine cultural - tiinifice);
funcia de liant.( se refer la faptul ca poate genera un mecanism de solidaritate
social).
Analiza procesului comunicaional realizat on-line ne permite s identificm
componentele acestuia. Astfel, pentru a exista comunicare se impune manifestarea unor
entiti A i B ce se constituie n poli comunicaionali, prin pol nelegnd un punct care
emite, primete i retransmite informaii. n funcie de aceste entiti i tipul relaiilor stabilite
se disting factorii comunicrii, respectiv, pentru a exista o comunicare este necesar ca n
existena lui A s se manifeste o intenie care se va transforma la B n atenie i apariia n B a
duplicrii (nelegerii) a ceea ce s-a ntmplat n A. Efectele comunicrii se poziioneaz pe
dimensiunea cognitiv, afectiv sau comportamental i se nregistreaz la nivelul
receptorului sau emitorului, ca reacie la propriul mesaj. Finalitatea procesului de
comunicare exist n msura n care mesajul codificat de emitor este decodificat i acceptat
de receptor. Fiind un proces activ de transmitere i recepionare de informaii, comunicare nu
e posibil nafara deinerii de ctre interlocutori a capaciti de comprehensiune a mesajului i
activarea unui determinism motivaional n susinere conversaiei. Prin urmare, conexiunea
presupus de actul comunicaional implic racordarea la un set comun de valori i principii,
norme i expresii comportamentale, indicatori ai experienelor proprii. Cunoaterea codului de
ctre fiecare dintre actanii procesului comunicaional este obligatorie, iar coninutul i
maniera n care se comunic se afla sub influena contextului comunicrii. De informaia
transmis (coninut i form) depinde originalitatea mesajului i pragmatismul su. Semnalm
prezena efectului de redundan, care apare deseori din dorina de a se asigura exactitatea
mesajului, n sensul c, emitorul ar putea fi preocupat de emiterea unei mai mari cantiti de
informaie dect ar fi necesar n mod normal.
Un alt aspect important n comunicare este reprezentat de inteligibilitatea mesajului.
Ne referim att la forma i coninutul mesajului, ct i la structura sa, deseori mult prea
elaborat sau dimpotriv, banal i previzibil. Schimbul de mesaje ntre participanii
angrenai n comunicare st sub semnul interaciunilor stabilite. Informaiile vehiculate n
spaiul on-line au un neles nu doar din perspectiva respectrii unor reguli precise de
comunicare ci i prin dezvoltarea unor forme instrumentale comunicaionale de genul:
argumente, persuasiune, manipulare, negociere, ceea ce conduce la formarea de convingeri i
influeneaz atitudini i comportamente. n funcie de numrul de participani ce
interacioneaz n cadrul reelelor comunicaionale distingem dou tipuri de comunicri:
comunicarea bipolar (un emitor i un receptor) i multipolar (un emitor i mai muli
receptori; un receptor i mai muli emitori).
Motivele ce declaneaz aciunea comunicaional sunt multiple. Van Cuilenburg ne
propune o varietate de motive nsoite de descrierea lor.
228
Motive
Informaie
Prestigiu
Issue no. 6/2015
Descriere
Intenia de a fi la curent cu ceea ce se petrece n lume
Intenia de a stpni subiectele de discuie
social
Recreare
Ocupaie
Ritual
Siguran
Emulaie
Contact
Evadarea din lumea obligaiilor zilnice

Intenia de a da un sens timpului liber
Consumul mediatic ca ritual sau ceremonial
Absena tirilor i informaiilor despre actualitate
provoca nesigurana sau dezorientare
Necesitatea de a trai evenimente palpitante
Lrgirea sferei personale de via
ar
social
Instrument
Utilizarea cu scop precis a informaiei (tiri, anunuri)
Tabelul1. Motive declanatoare ale comunicrii (dup, J. J. Van Cuilenburg, 2000)

Indiferent de motivele care ne anim pentru a susine comunicarea clasic, n form
oral sau scris, cu certitudine putem afirma c, n societatea contemporan, pentru a putea s
ne manifestm existenial, s ne dezvoltm i s progresm trebuie s comunicm i on-line.
n acelai timp este necesar a contientiza impactul revoluiei tiinifice asupra vieii noastre i
nelege c, internetul reprezint noua pia de ntlnire, popularizarea i manifestare a ideilor,
de desfacere a produselor i de achiziii de bunuri i servicii. Sloganul: Gndesc, deci exist!
este ntregit azi cu verbul a comunica:Gndesc i comunic, deci exist!. Mijloace de
comunicare pe care le putem folosi sunt multiple, ns experienele practice au confirmat c
cele mai folosite i de efect sunt urmtoarele: webiste-ul i blogul, newsletter, reelele de
socializare, comunicate de pres, advertoriale, site-uri i blogurile, google adwords, portaluri
de afaceri.
Pentru a fi eficient comunicarea on-line este dependent de satisfacerea unor
condiii, printre care amintim:
- abordarea de subiecte i tratarea lor cu responsabilitate n domeniul de expertiz proprie
i n care doreti s te afirmi;
- postarea de coninuturi relevante pentru grupul int, oferind soluii sau indicii pentru
rezolvarea unei probleme. Pentru a ne asigura c respectm aceast regul vom cuta
rspunsul la ntrebrile: Ceea ce urmeaz s postez ajut pe cineva?, Ceea ce urmeaz
s postez adaug n percepia oamenilor ceva util despre persoane (persoane de interes
public, inclusiv EU) sau evenimente?
- seriozitate i perseveren n a menine constant exprimarea n scris (cuvinte, imagini),
conform principiului Exist atta timp ct m exprim!.
Eficiena comunicaional, indicator dezirabil al oricrui proces comunicaional
derulat, rezid i din pragmatismul abordrii comunicrii sociale, atingerea obiectivelor
propuse de actanii/partenerii comunicaionali, starea de bine i pozitivismul intra i
intergrupal. Avnd n vedere faptul c, efectele comunicrii produc transformri n modul de a
gndi, simi i aciona al oamenilor nelegem de ce continuitatea i simultaneitatea mesajului
transmis prin canalele i instrumentele specifice spaiului virtual, alturi de autenticitatea
acestuia, reprezint condiii eseniale n evitarea instalrii de blocaje comunicaionale. n
acelai registru al preveniei se nscrie i evitarea producerii efectelor de ordin negativ, cu att
mai mult cu ct, studiile ntreprinse n sfera comunicrii on-line semnaleaz existena unei
probleme majore a acesteia reprezentat de manipularea produs att la nivelul individului ct
i la nivelul opiniei publice
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Micarea liber i dezinvolt n spaiu virtual, agreat i valorificat pe scar larg de

un numr de persoane aflat n cretere continu, certific faptul c, pentru oameni, relaiile
create prin comunicarea on-line conteaz deseori mai mult dect coninutul informaional
transmis, aa nct, rolul comunicrii de a crea comuniunea i comunitatea este evident. John
Dewey, plaseaz comunicarea n spaiul de interferen dintre societate i comunitate,
considernd comunicarea un mod de a exista al comunitii: Nu numai c societatea continu
s existe prin transmitere, prin comunicare, dar este corect s spunem c ea exist n
transmitere i n comunicare. Este mai mult dect o legtur verbal ntre cuvinte precum
comun, comunitate, comunicare. Oamenii triesc n comunitate n virtutea lucrurilor pe care le
au n comun; iar comunicarea este modalitatea prin care ei ajung s dein n comun aceste
lucruri. Pentru a forma o comunitate sau o societate, ei trebuie s aib n comun scopuri,
convingeri, aspiraii, cunotine - o nelegere comun - acelai spirit cum spun sociologii.
Asemenea lucruri nu pot fi transmise fizic de la unul la altul, aa cum se procedeaz cu
crmizile, ele nu pot fi mprite aa cum se mparte o plcint la mai multe persoane prin
divizarea ei n buci fizice. Comunicarea () este cea care asigur dispoziii emoionale i
intelectuale asemntoare, moduri similare de a rspunde la ateptri i cerine (apud.
Dobrescu, P., 1999).
Prin urmare, comunicarea on-line prin spaiul virtual n care se plaseaz asigur
accesul nelimitat la informaii, o exprimare liber i necenzurat a ideilor, tririlor, i
problemelor personale, o nvare activ generatoare de progres, acumulri n dezvoltarea
personal i spiritual a individului, posibilitatea identificrii de soluii dezirabile n beneficiul
comunitilor largi de populaii.
Bibliografie
1. Buia, M, (2011). Unele aspecte evolutive
privind complexitatea modelelor de
comunicare www.crifst.ro/noema/doc/2011_2_02.pdf, accesat, 2014
2. Dobrescu, P,(1999).Aisbergul comunicrii, Revista Romn de Comunicare &Relaii
Publice,
nr.1
http://www.comunicare.snspa.ro/revista/files/comunicare/aisbergul_comunicarii.htmacce
sat, 2014
3. J.J.Van Cuilenburg, O. Scholten, G.W. Noomen, )2000=. Stiina comunicrii, versiune
romneasc i studiu introductiv de Olteanu, T., Editia a II-a, Humanitas, Bucureti
4. Lasswell, H., (1948). The Structure and Function of Communication in Society,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lasswell's_model_of_communication
5. Popescu, I.C., (2003). Comunicarea n marketing, Ediia a II-a, Editura Uranus,
Bucureti,
6. Lazarsfeld P. F.,. Merton, R.K, (2002). 'Mass Communication, Popular Taste and.
Organized Social Action', in Lyman Bryson, New-York University Press
7. Shannon, C. E., Warren W., (1949). The Mathematical Theory of Communication. The
University
of
Illinois
Press,
Urbana
(Ill)
http://waste.informatik.huberlin.de/Lehre/ss11/SE_Kybernetik/reader/weaver.pdf, accesat, 2015
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WHAT DO SUBTITLERS TRANSLATE? PARTICULARITIES OF THE AUDIOVISUAL

TEXTS WITH A SPECIAL VIEW ON THE SUBTITLING OF HUMOUR
Violeta TNASE
Abstract: One of the branches of Translation Studies that has been the focus of interest over
the past decades is audiovisual translation (AVT). This study aims at raising a few questions
regarding the typology of the audiovisual text, which is a polysemiotic, multimedial text,
deeply connected with and determined by extratextual markers, a dynamic, short-lived text,
strictly governed by a series of technical, temporal and spatial constraints, a type of text that
dramatically depends on how it is perceived by the audience.
In order to tackle the typology of the audiovisual text this study focuses on the translation of
humour, a situation in which the challenges encountered by the translator are even more
specific. The main questions resulting from the analysis are: What does one actually
translate in AVT? Are these texts or pseudo-texts? How much of the original dialogue can be
translated and what is left out? With all the constraints and challenges imposed by cultural
references, puns, dialects, idiolects, taboo language, rhythm of speech, etc. how can
audiovisual translators make sure the perlocutionary effect, i.e. the skopos of the original
dialogue was maintained? Some of these questions can be partially answered, while a few
will remain rhetorical. Yet the aim of this study is just to suggest a certain attitude for the
translator, who is, when dealing with AVT, challenged by a new type of text.
Keywords: AVT, perlocutionary effect, audience, humour, cultural-bound terms.
Introduction
Much has been said and written on the dichotomies governing the process of
translation: fidelity versus infidelity, translators invisibility versus translators visibility, the
possibility versus the impossibility of translation, to mention just the most important. These
dichotomies apply differently to different types of texts or textual units to be translated.
Certain kinds of texts belonging to certain genres allow for more fidelity, while in others
the translator is more obviously visible. The fact that issues like these are frequently revisited
by researchers is good proof that the discipline of Translation Studies is still vividly looking
for answers and attracts the interest of academics from different and sometimes distant fields:
from linguists to anthropologists, sociologists, philosophers, etc.
Special features of the audiovisual text
The paradox with AVT is that it does not represent a mere transformation of a source
language text into a target language text. First of all, the nature of the SL text is completely
different. The audio medial text, at least in case of subtitling, is a polysemiotic text with a
triadic structure: image, words, sounds. Delabastita (1989: 101) has best emphasized the
four basic elements that inter-relate in order to form the inter-semiotic texture of the
audiovisual text: the acoustic-verbal elements (dialogues, monologues, voices, voice-off), the
acoustic-nonverbal elements (musical score, sound effects, noises), the visual non-verbal
elements (images, photography, gestures) and the visual-verbal elements (inserts, intertitles,
images of letters, screens, news headlines, etc.). Thus the reader is also viewer and
hearer of a polysemiotic entity that somehow imposes itself on its receptor with a certain
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speed, range of images and sounds. The written word does not only trigger an image, like in
the case of reading a book, as images come along with it, either reinforcing or contradicting it.
The sound may add information, it may even contain narrative elements (as certain musical
themes are associated to certain actions or rhythms of actions), it might distract the
reader/viewer or it might intensify an intended effect (tragic, dramatic, comic, etc.)
Audiovisual texts, dealt with by subtitlers, dubbers, interpreters or other types of
specialized translators are texts that have already been altered by code-switching before being
subject to translation; these texts represent the transition from the oral to the written code,
namely from the original SL dialogue to the written TT version. There is a Catch 22 situation
in the very nature of the text. The SL dialogue is actually called original dialogue because it
is heard in the original source language. In fact, it is not so original, as it has been written
to be spoken in such a way as to appear spontaneous. Audiovisual translators must therefore
be skillful at imitating spontaneous-sounding conversation in the target language. In a sense,
the translator of audiovisual texts could be considered as a second scriptwriter, whose task is
to transfer the exchanges on screen in such a way that they sound believable in the target
language, and could thus be identified as true-to-life dialogues and easily understood by the
target audience. (Chaume, 2009)
The impression of originality is given by the prefabricated informality (Chaume,
cited in Valdeon 2008:118) in the SL. The orality, or prefabricated informality of the
source text has to be transferred to the target text in a manner that will ensure that the target
audience gets as much as possible of the illocutionary effect as the ST audience. It consists
mainly of interjections, greetings and farewells, attention signals, hesitators, politeness
formulae, etc. In order to preserve naturalness in the TT, the subtitler should render the same
degree of informality in his/her translation. The paradox is that these prefabricated
informality elements are exactly the ones that make the subject of omission, a translation
strategy quite common in subtitling, due to the specific time and space constraints governing
the process. It is true that target viewers who are familiar with the SL or have at least basic
knowledge of the SL can recognize elements such as hesitators or greetings, farewell and
attention signals, yet subtitlers shouldnt be very eager in omitting interjections and politeness
formulae, especially when subtitling a sitcom, as these elements might be closely related to
the perlocutionary (humorous) effect.
Moreover, the audiovisual text is a permeable text, mainly due to the permanent
interference of the original dialogue and the multitude of cultural references it contains, that
are quite often rendered by calques. AVT translators should be responsible regarding their
role in the linguistic change and more aware of the importance of AVT in the general
education of the target audience.
The audiovisual text is often multi-layered. In many situations, the SL text (to
preserve the inverted commas used by Gambier) does not have a single author: an entire team
has contributed to its creation (from script-writer, to director, to technicians, etc.). Its
translation might also be the responsibility of a team: in most cases the subtitler provides the
translated version of the original dialogue and a whole technical team work at synchronizing
the subtitles with the visual and audio extratextual elements. Any of these nonverbal systems
undergo profound changes through translations, and translators need to become extremely
sensitive to all that happens or does not happen as they translate a text, for it is well known
that translation is not only an interlinguistic exercise, but an intercultural one as well.
(Poyatos cited in Snell-Hornby, 2006:79)
The extratextual elements give the text its full meaning, which can be completely
altered if extratextual markers are neglected. When it comes to sitcoms, canned laughter, for
instance, puts an extra-pressure on the subtitler, who is not only supposed to obtain the
humorous effect intended by the original dialogue, but has to obtain it right before the canned
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laughter sequence, otherwise the whole perlocutionary effect would be compromised and the
final audience would feel frustrated when they hear the studio audience laugh at a joke they
did not have a chance to get.
Sometimes a source language dialogue uses more than one language. In this case the
translator may encounter huge challenges due to the strong intercultural element. In Fawlty
Towers, for instance, one of the main characters is Manuel, a Spanish waiter with very poor
command of English. He addresses everybody in either Spanish or some sort of Spanglish.
Even funnier are the scenes in which Basil, the British hotel owner, is using broken Spanish to
make himself understood by Manuel. In order to preserve the comic effect, the best solution
for the Romanian subtitler is probably to leave the fragments in Spanish unchanged (or at
least to reproduce almost all words in Spanish, as Spanish and Romanian spelling and
pronunciation rules are quite similar, and the Romanian viewer would not be overstressed
because of them). The real challenge is the attempt to translate the original English dialogue
so that word-play could still be perceived by the Romanian audience. The Spanish dubbed
version, for example, solved this problem in quite a creative manner by turning Manuel from
Barcelona into an Italian from Naples called Paolo. Yet this solution is only possible with
dubbing, where the audience has no access to the original SL dialogue.
AVT works with a dynamic text-type, a text that literally moves across the screen
with a certain speed (the maximum duration of each caption is around six seconds). The target
viewer is not given a second chance to read the caption in case the message was not clearly
perceived. If the humorous effect is compromised at one specific moment, there is a good
chance that the follow-up joke would be compromised as well. There are cases, in a sitcom,
for instance, when several characters speak at the same time. The resulting humorous effect is
actually perceived as such by the target audience who can see and hear the characters. Yet the
subtitler has to prioritize and choose to translate only the funniest or the most relevant lines,
or to insert two sets of captions if the dialogue lines are short enough to be exposed for less
than 3-4 seconds.
Yves Gambier (2008:13) rightfully remarks that AV texts are always by nature
short-lived and volatile. It is not in fact that the translated texts will be read time and again
for decades or stored in national archives collections for frequent consultation. Yet, some
cinematographic productions remain in archives and are watched time and again for decades.
At one point they might need to be subtitled or dubbed again, because language changes
continuously and the translated versions might sound obsolete. Maybe the contribution of a
good translation to the success of an audiovisual production in a certain country is difficult to
quantify. But logically, in the case of subtitling at least (Romania fortunately still remains a
subtitling country) the viewers who really need a good translation in order to fully benefit
from watching a movie or a sitcom are those who have only a poor or no command of the SL.
The ones who are very familiar with or fluent in the SL only need subtitles for reassurance.
They also represent that critical part of the target audience who is very sensitive to whatever
they perceive as cases of mistranslation, that are invariably blamed on the subtitler.
Relationship between the audiovisual text and the audience
One of the most important features of the audiovisual text is its relation to and
dependence on the target audience, be it primary target audience (the studio or live audience,
as in the case of sitcoms and stand-up comedy routines), whose feedback is immediate, or the
secondary or final target audience (the public watching the subtitled or dubbed production on
TV, DVD or the internet), whose feedback can only be measured based on ratings. In
sitcoms, the studio audience (represented by canned laughter) is actually one of the key
extratextual elements to be taken into account by the subtitler. On the one hand, it helps
entertaining the audience, as the sound of laughter in itself is entertaining and triggers more
laughter. On the other hand, it may represent an extra challenge upon the translator, especially
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when cultural references are at stake. Some words or phrases may be more jocular in one
language than in the other. If the canned laughter instance is too intense or lasts longer
compared to the effect the translated joke would produce upon the target audience, the latter
might perceive the subtitles as a case of mistranslation and might feel frustrated. Moreover,
the translator cannot remain invisible, mainly due to the fact that the target audience has
permanent access to the original dialogue, and the subtitles are under the permanent scrutiny
of those members of the target audience that have a certain command of the source language.
All the specific features of the audiovisual text described above become even more
specific in the translation of humour, especially in sitcoms. The perlocutionary effect has to
be transferred in the TT not only with the same intensity, but with surgical precision, as well,
so that the canned laughter instance follows immediately after the humorous utterance. Due to
the fact that the text is dynamic and the target viewer has no second chance to re-evaluate a
joke, the subtitler is under extra-pressure: s/he has to make proof of both humorous awareness
and humorous complicity and make sure the associations triggering the humorous effect are
deeply rooted in the target audiences culture, so the joke is understood. The relationship
between text and audience is vital; if the target text fails to produce the expected effect on the
target audience, subtitles are actually useless.
Translatability of humour in particular types of audiovisual texts
In AVT, the translation of humour sometimes confronts the translators with practically
impossible challenges. To illustrate this aspect, I chose the example of stand-up comedy,
which provides AVT that can be hardly rendered through translation, either by dubbing or
subtitling.
Stand-up comedy is a comic style in which a comedian performs in front of a live
audience, to which s/he usually speaks directly, reciting a fast-paced grouping of hilarious
stories, short jokes and one-liners (jokes delivered in a single line), in what is typically called
a monologue, routine or act. Although most often performed in comedy clubs, night clubs,
colleges and theatres, stand-up comedy has started to acquire significant commercial
distribution via DVD, internet, and mainly television, which makes it an important candidate
among audiovisual texts. In stand-up comedy the feedback from the audience is crucial for the
comedians act; the stand-up comic is under continuous pressure, as the audience expects
him/her to provide a steady stream of laughs throughout the performance.
The routines are quite rich in over-strong language, often labelled as adult language,
which makes this type of production particularly difficult to either dub or subtitle in
Romanian. Romanian television is still handling four-letter words with conspicuous caution;
taboo words are being used increasingly in subtitling, yet they are not translated into equally
strong language. In dubbing, this tendency cannot really be analysed, as techniques like
dubbing or voice-over are only used for animation movies, cartoons, news and documentaries,
where taboo items appear quite rarely, if ever. The mechanisms behind stand-up comedy are
quite complex and subtle; the strong language is in itself an act of courage, but it is mainly
used to cover up the seriousness of the matter the comedian mocks at or actually brings to the
attention of the audience. The source text, which most of the time attacks really deep social,
political or economic issues, is so heavy with culture-bound terms or social and political
references strictly related to the source audience, that, in order to get the joke, the target
audience should not only have an excellent command of the source language, but also good
knowledge of the social and political realities behind the jokes, case in which AVT of any
kind seems almost useless. Subtitling is an option, yet the resulting target text is again meant
as a support for that supposedly high-brow segment of the target audience who decipher the
jokes from the original dialogue and only check subtitles either to verify if they had the same
good guess as the subtitler, or in order to get particular bits that they misheard or did not
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clearly understand. Sitcom dialogues abound in orality markers, yet registers are mixed
(standard, colloquial and taboo language, dialects, idiolects, etc.). Stand-up comedy texts are
usually monologues in which the dialectal and idiolectal elements are the main trait. Specific
accents and intonation are main components of the humorous effect. These dialectal and slang
elements are actual indicators of the social and cultural background of the comedian or the
characters s/he embodies or ridicules. Stand up comedy shows are usually one man (or one
woman) shows. The comedian actually switches roles by means of dialectal, idiolectal and
intonation elements, sustained by usually vivid body language, although there are cases when
the comedian barely moves, but he/she switches registers so wisely that the audience is in
tears. The rhythm of speech is particularly high, and omissions can lead to important losses
and prevent or cut off from the intensity of the humorous effect. Cultural references are most
of the times extremely specific to the social, political, geographical and historical background
of the target audience and could sometimes mean nothing or very little to the target audience,
even when successfully translated. A domesticating approach would be an unnecessary favour
paid to the target audience, who might be even perceived as offensive, as it underestimates the
target viewers listening and comprehension skills of the source language. At the same time, a
bias towards domestication would create a feeling of unnaturalness (for example a black
comedian speaking of contemporary Romanian political issues).
Thus, in the case of stand-up comedy, there is the question if this kind of audiovisual
text should be translated at all, as it seems solely dedicated to native speakers or target
audiences that share the same geographical, ethnical, political and linguistic background with
the comedian. In this case, for the overseas audience with a good command of the SL,
intralingual subtitling might be sufficient for a satisfactory comprehension of the SL original
dialogue (or monologue).
Since we considered the specific features of the audiovisual text and their relation with
the translation of humour, it might be worth noting the presence of audiovisual productions
that could qualify as extreme forms of audiovisual texts in the broad sense of the term. In
funny interpretative dance (one of the best known representatives is David Armand, who
performed his routines as guest of the British TV show Fast and Loose), a player mimes out a
popular song while members of the audience who have no access to the sound try to guess
what song it is. This hilarious mime act may sometimes be labelled as containing adult
humour, because of the explicit gestures used during miming. The paradox is that the
audience neither hear the offensive words, nor read them on a screen. They are actually
challenged to associate the interpretative dancers gestures with taboo language that they
actually produce or utter mentally; the translated text is actually induced in the viewers
minds by the interpretative dancer, but it is produced by the audience, who have thus no
reason to be offended.
Funny interpretative dance is part of physical comedy, a common and rarely subtle
form of comedy, a clownish exploitation of movement that often introduces, replaces or
sustains verbal humour. Physical comedy movements are also often incorporated in sitcoms
scenes, functioning as comic relief during more serious or intimate scenes. That is exactly
what allows the association with audiovisual texts: the funny interpretative dance routine is
based on a source text (the original song, for instance) and represents a translation (that is the
transition or switch from one code into the other, this time from a linguistic into a nonlinguistic code). It is interesting that although the resulting product is a series of apparently
clownish movements, that do not involve any sort of verbal utterance, the translation of the
sound and lyrics into movement is only possible through linguistic associations. The most
exploited elements are obviously puns, polysemous words or homonyms and homophones. In
his interpretative dance routines, David Armand performs his hilarious mimic gestures that
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require his audience to associate pairs such as: so-sow, be-bee, we-wee, but-butt, vain-vein,
better-butter, to-two, I-eye, said-sad, well-well, depend-deep end, moon-(to) moon, etc. This
extreme type of pseudo audiovisual text is not even subject to interlingual translation of any
kind; this type of programme is almost never translated, as television companies would rather
buy the licensed format of the show and tailor it into a version that would suit their national
audience. It contains elements that are common to the audiovisual text and to verbal humour
(image, sound, source lyrics, body movement, actors, code switching, canned laughter, word
puns, verbal elements). It was briefly analysed here just to point out to the unpredictability of
what we call audiovisual texts, as well as the very permeable borders of this concept.
Conclusions
As seen so far, the audiovisual text is so much more than a text. Of course nobody
pretends that translation can dispense with language (or with source and target texts)
altogether, but it is now seen as a tool or instrument for translatorial action rather than as the
central object of study in itself. With this approach the definition of text is also widened
considerably. (Snell-Hornby, 2006:79)
Taking into account its numerous atypical characteristics, one may legitimately
wander what do screen translators translate, after all? As Chaume (2004:17) states, It is
obvious that without the presence of a linguistic code in a text we would not be able to speak
of a process of translation properly. Yet, the screen translator deals with much more than the
linguistic code: s/he translates words that are intricately related to sounds, images and other
extratextual elements.
The translation unit is the speech act, and not sentences or words, this is a fact. The
main concern of the screen translator should be, especially when translating humour, to
produce the perlocutionary effect. Cultural-bound terms should be carefully and sensitively
considered, as in screen translation the audience can either be the translators best friend and
right hand or his worst enemy. Domestication is a very delicate issue, and it is more reluctant
to subtitling than dubbing, due to the permanent access the target audience has to the sourcelanguage original dialogue in a subtitled film, sitcom or programme. Consequently, the screen
translator has to make proof of intercultural awareness and complicity with his/her target
audience, giving priority to the skopos. More than that, the screen translator has to know very
well the target audience segment his translation is aimed at. In other words, s/he should not
under- or over-estimate the target audience and should also be aware that s/he plays an
important part in their education and language acquisition process. The screen translator is
also responsible with deciding what to keep, what to omit and sometimes what to add to the
source text in order to make his/her target version compatible with both the original dialogue
and the expectations of the target audience. And last but not least, the screen translator has to
prove all these qualities and take all these decisions within very strict temporal and spatial
constraints, a task that most often requires quite a great deal of technicality.
Audiovisual texts are textual units and at the same time cultural units. The screen
translator is not only there to decipher and transfer meaning, but to mediate and negotiate it.
S/He is ultimately responsible with presenting his target audience with a cultural unit that is
not only comprehensible and meaningful, but can also be incorporated in the target culture.
As consumers of such a vast diversity of screen products, we are actually not mere spectators.
These products get assimilated in our cultures, constantly bridging them.
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Acknowledgement: This work was supported by the strategic grant

POSDRU/159/1.5/S/133652, co-financed by the European Social Fund within the Sectorial
Operational Program Human Resources Development 2007 2013.
References:
Attardo, S. and V. Raskin (1991): Script theory revis(it)ed: Joke similarity and joke
representation model, Humor: International Journal of Humor Research 4 (3-4), pp. 293347.
Chaume, Frederic. (2004): Film Studies and Translation Studies: Two Disciplines at
Stake in Audiovisual Translation Meta: Translators Journal, vol. 49, no. 1, pp 12-24
Chaume, Frederic and Roco Baos-Piero. (2009) Prefabricated Orality - A
Challenge
in
Audiovisual
Translation
http://www.intralinea.org/specials/article/Prefabricated_Orality
Delabastita, Dirk (1989): Translation and Mass-communication: Film and T.V.
Translation as Evidence of Cultural Dynamics. Babel 35(4): 193-218
Diaz-Cintas, Jorge. (2008) Audiovisual Translation Comes of Age, in Benjamin
Translation Library, Volume 78, Between Text and Image. Updating Research in Screen
Translation, Edited by Delia Chiaro, Christine Heiss and Chiara Bucaria
Dimitriu, Rodica. (2006) The Cultural Turn in Translation Studies, Iasi, Institutul
European.
Gambier, Yves. (2008) Recent Developments and Challenges in Audiovisual
Translation Research, in Benjamin Translation Library, Volume 78, Between Text and
Image. Updating Research in Screen Translation, Edited by Delia Chiaro, Christine Heiss and
Chiara Bucaria.
Gottlieb, Henrik. (1998) Subtitling. In: Baker, Mona. (Ed.). Routledge
Encyclopedia of Translation Studies. London/New York: Routledge, pp. 244-248.
Snell Hornby, Mary. (2006) The Turns of Translation Studies: New Paradigms of
Shifting Viewpoints, in Benjamins Translation Library, Volume 66
Valdeon, Roberto A. (2008) Inserts in modern script-writing and their translation
into Spanish in Benjamin Translation Library, Volume 78 Between Text and Image.
Updating Research in Screen Translation, Edited by Delia Chiaro, Christine Heiss and Chiara
Bucaria
Venuti, Lawrence. (1995) The translators invisibility. New York: Routledge.
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ADAM AND TWO EVAS AN UNIQUE EROTIC TRIANGLE

Liliana FLORIA
1 decembrie 1918 University of Alba-Iulia
Abstract: The first chapter of the Bible offers the image of an Atropogony, wich surprises two
variants for the woman creation. Two perspectives on the woman have in view the pull, as for
the outlook of the masculine imagination, from the worship of wisdom and fecundity oddesses
to the degraded image of an obedient personality. The route follows the demonization of the
feminine goddes to make the transition to the worship of a single male god. As for the outlook,
this removal matches with the misogyny of the religious message.
Keywords: goddess, Adam, Eva, Lilith, Erotic triangle, demonization.
O cosmogonie i dou antropogonii
Primul capitol al Bibliei1 - considerat revelarea cuvntului lui Dumnezeu, de a crui
sacralitate nu se ndoiete nici comunitatea evreilor, nici cea a cretinilor ofer una dintre
imaginile consacrate ale unui triunghi erotic, care a suscitat nenumrate comentarii i
interpretri. De la prima lectur a Genezei, un cititor atent poate observa existena a dou
naraiuni i prezena a dou diviniti creatoare distincte, cu mentaliti demiurgice
contradictorii chiar: o prim Facere, care ncepe cu 1,1 i dureaz pn la 2, 4 are drept
creator o divinitate numit generic Dumnezeu, iar cea de-a doua continu de la 2-5 i se
sfrete la 3, 20, unde acioneaz o divinitate numit Iahve. Primul creator controleaz
Logosul pentru a da natere universului, participnd apoi nemijlocit la crearea omului pe carel face stpn asupra pmntului i asupra tuturor vieuitoarelor acestuia. El poruncete
Haosului s se ordoneze, utiliznd verbul a fi la conjunctiv prezent, cu nuan imperativ,
pentru a separa lumina de ntuneric (1, 3-5), apele de ape (1, 3-8), apele de uscat (1, 9-10),
pentru a crea plantele i animalele de pe pmnt 1, 11-13, lumintorii pe ntinderea cerurilor
ca s separe ziua de noapte (1, 14-19), pentru a popula apele i cerul cu tot felul de
vieuitoare, crora le-a poruncit s se nmuleasc (1, 20-23). Aceste rostiri divine creatoare sau petrecut n primele cinci zile de creaie, fiecare zi fiind dedicat unei singure aciuni
ntemeietoare. Cea de-a asea zi pare a fi cea mai activ, deoarece sunt utilizate att verbul
fiinrii la imperativ, pentru a crea animale slbatice i domestice terestre (1, 24-25), ct i
verbul unei aciuni directe, prin care divinitatea este implicat efectiv, verbul tranzitiv a
face, al crui obiect direct este omul (1, 26-31). Faptul c divinitatea alege s se implice n
mod direct n crearea omului sugereaz importana acestuia, dup Abraham Joshua Heschel,
Biblia nefiind o carte despre Dumnezeu, ci doar despre om2. Persoana nti, plural utilizat
pentru acest verb a suscitat numeroase comentarii i controverse3, cci Dumnezeul Vechiului
i Noului Testament este unic.
Sfintele Scripturi. Traducerea lumii noi, traducere dup New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures, ediie
englez revizuit n 1984, Roma, Congregazione Cristiana dei Testimoni di Geova, 2006.
2
Constantin Blceanu-Stolnici, Kabbala, ntre gnoz i magie, Bucureti, Editura Vremea XXI, 2004, p. 198.
3
Limba ebraic cunoate nu doar formele de singular i plural, ci i dual (Sarivan Ciprian, Numele Elohim i
semnificaia lui, partea I, https://sarivan.wordpress.com/2008/04/02/numele-elohim-si-semnificatia-lui/ [accesat
n 07.02.2015]. Acest plural folosit sugereaz existena a cel puin trei persoane, de aici survenind diversele
interpretri cu privire la identitatea celor trei: unii cercettori afirm c ar fi vorba despre cele trei ipostaze ale lui
Dumnezeu care apar n Biblie, El, Elohim, Iahve, alii susin ideea familiei divine, Tatl, Mama i Copilul , iar
cretinismul a vzut proiecia Trinitii, Tatl, Fiul i Sfntul Duh. Dac inem cont de faptul c denumirea
1
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Dup ce a creat i omul, Dumnezeu se odihnete n cea de-a aptea zi, dar pare c o ia
de la capt. Dei se afirmase anterior c divinitatea crease vegetaia, toate plantele cu
smn de pe faa ntregului pmnt i orice pom care d rod cu smn (1, 29), pmntul
fiind roditor i primitor, oferit n dar oamenilor pentru a fi stpnit, autorul revine surprinztor
pentru a oferi imaginea unui spaiu, unde vegetalul exista ntr-o stare latent, n ateptarea
ploii, care nc nu czuse i a oamenilor care de asemenea nu existau: Iahve Dumnezeu nu
fcuse s plou pe pmnt i nu era nicun om care s cultive pmntul (2, 5-6). Acesta este
versetul unde este schimbat numele divinitii, devenind Iahve, nume primit odat cu Exodul
i impus de Moise. Asistm la o nou genez, dar nu cosmogonia este reluat, ci
antropogeneza, nesatisfctoare posibil din punctul de vedere al sugerrii ideii de pcat
primordial. Muli cercettori surprind ideea c prima versiune a creaiei evidenia o vin a
divinitii n explicarea cderii primilor oameni, de unde ideea gnosticismului cu privire la
demiurgul cel ru, care a creat omul ru, n timp ce cea de-a doua versiune evideniaz vina
omului, de unde i posibilitatea de recuperare, de mntuire. Mai mult, distanndu-se de
scenariul mitic, ce presupune atemporalitate i repetabilitate ritualic, Biblia consider acele
evenimente unice, pierdute, neimitabile4. Prima variant valorific un filon mitic generalizat
n spaiul cultural al Orientului Mijlociu, n care o divinitate pluralist creeaz din nimic totul
prin puterea cuvntului. O cosmogonie asemntoare poate fi identificat la asiro-babilonieni,
n care elementele constitutive ale creaiei sunt desprite, ordonate i supuse de ctre o
divinitate suprem. De acest tip de abordare se detaeaz evreii, i sub influena platonismului
i a neoplatonismului, contureaz premisele unei religii noi, cu o divinitate androgin, care
creeaz omul dup chipul i asemnarea Sa5.
De aici diferenele majore dintre cele dou antropogonii. n prima, Dumnezeu a creat
omul dup chipul Su, l-a creat dup chipul lui Dumnezeu: i-a creat de sex brbtesc i de sex
femeiesc (1, 27), i-a dat voie s se nmuleasc, semn c sexualitatea nu cptase nc valene
negative, fcndu-l stpn asupra ntregului pmnt, unde niciun tabu alimentar nu fusese nc
instituit. Or, dac nu exist interdicie, n ce const rolul divinitii i sensul cderii? n a doua
variant a antropogenezei biblice apar amnunte noi cu valoare simbolic profund din
perspectiva interpretrii cderii adamice: omul este creat din pmnt, un pmnt neroditor,
steril, mort n absena divinitii, care nsufleete creatura: i Iahve Dumnezeu l-a fcut pe
om din rna pmntului, i-a suflat n nri suflare de via i omul a devenit un suflet viu (2,
7). Omul este plasat ntr-o grdin, spaiu al unei noi intervenii civilizatoare a acestei
diviniti, care supune natura slbatic creat iniial, un loc neprimitor i periculos, i a fcut
s creasc din pmnt tot felul de pomi plcui la vedere i buni de mncat, precum i pomul
vieii n mijlocul grdinii i pomul cunoaterii binelui i rului (2, 9). Iat prima dramatizare
a unui scenariu, n care protagonitii sunt dou fiine proaspt create, fr discernmnt, pur
instinctive, una avnd contact direct cu divinitatea, Adam, cealalt, informat indirect de
interdicie.
Diabolizarea femininului erotic
Elementul care ntrete suspiciunea crerii unei noi femei, c Adam a avut o alt
pereche i c Eva este cea de-a doua, poate fi identificat tot la nivel lingvistic, n cuvintele
divinitii: Nu este bine ca omul s rmn singur (2, 18). Verbul a rmne surprinde o
opoziie n timp ntre dou stri: Adam nu a fost singur, el a rmas astfel pn n momentul
cnd va primi o nou pereche. Exclamaia brbatului, care contempl noua femeie ntrete
ebraic pentru Duhul Sfnt al lui Dumnezeu este Ruah, iar acest substantiv este de gen feminin, atunci ultimile
dou versiuni nu s-ar contrazice, cel puin n esen, ci doar aparent.
4
Vezi Moshe Idel, Cabala i Eros, traducere de Ctlin Patrosie, Bucureti, Editura Hasefer, 2004, p. 44.
5
George Minois, Originile rului. O istorie a pcatului strmoesc, traducere din limba francez de Daniela
Floare, Iai, Editura Sapientia, 2010, p. 23.
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aceeai idee a unei creaii rennoite: Aceasta este, n sfrit, os din oasele mele i carne din
carnea mea (2, 23). Sintagma n sfrit poate fi att expresia uurrii, dar poate conine i
nuana pur temporal n sine. Interesant este faptul c divinitatea constatase aspectul benefic
al aciunilor sale creatoare, iar singurtatea lui Adam, datorat absenei primei femei, nu este
bun. Ca atare, imperativul creator se manifest din nou, de data aceasta sub forma dorinei:
am s-i fac un ajutor care s i se potriveasc (2, 18). Gndul divin al crerii Evei este
anterior manifestrii puterii denominatoare a lui Adam, iar crearea ei propriu-zis urmeaz
acestui episod, ntrind i mai mult ideea supunerii prin orice mijloace a ajutorului de ctre
Adam, de data aceasta cu sprijin divin. n sprijinul acestor idei vine n mod ugestiv statutul
ambiguu al particulei o, care nsoete substantivul femeie, articol nehotrt sau numeral
cardinal, care surprinde astfel fie indiferena autorului anonim pentru aceast nou creatur,
fie valoarea numeric i doar scrierea cu majuscul a substantivului ncearc s evoce
unicitatea acesteia. Punerea n scen a dramei cderii este completat de apariia unui personaj
surprinztor, arpele, cel mai prudent dintre toate animalele slbatece ale cmpului pe care le
fcuse Iahve Dumnezeu (3, 1). Cuvntul ce denumete aceast vietate este scris cu
majuscul, poate pentru a sublinia importana acestuia, sau pentru c este un nume propriu al
unei fiine, sau pentru a sublinia mrcile falice mprumutate de ctre narator, sugernd
personificarea rului, a lascivitii, a sexualitii perverse, innd cont i de faptul c, odat cu
apariia lui, sexualitatea pozitiv a primilor oameni se altereaz6. n Zohar, dialogul femeii cu
aceast creatur este ru, pentru c seducerea Evei de ctre arpe (ca reprezentare a lui
Samael) este vzut nu numai ca manifestare verbal, ci i fizic, n acest fel nscndu-se
Cain, n calitatea lui de asasin7. Dialogul arpelui nu a fost iniiat cu Adam, cel care a
dovedit caliti verbale concrete, ci a implicat femeia, de unde o ntreag literatur ulterioar,
n care aceasta devine poart a Infernului, dialogul cu arpele reprezentnd n fapt primul
gest de independen fa de brbat i fa de divinitate. Dialogul presupune comunicare,
comprehensiune a mesajului de ambele pri, un cod comun, o intimitate empatic, o legtur
emoional ce electrizeaz participanii. De aceea, Eva este acuzat: a gsit n arpe un
conlocutor, nu n Adam, nu n divinitate, ci n aceast creatur prea puin cunoscut ei: Mai
mult, aici femeia reprezint ntoarcerea omului ctre animalitatea arpelui, dar i ctre un alt
tip de nelepciune dect aceea transmis imediat, prin logosul divin. Ulterior mam a celor
vii, femeia care vorbete cu arpele este deocamdat mama dialogului, a conversaiei i a
relaiei ntreinute discursiv. Dialogul lui Dumnezeu cu oamenii este legiferator i vertical,
mai degrab un monolog, pe cnd dialogul femeii cu arpele exerseaz pentru prima dat,
orizontal i argumentativ, puterea omului de a comunica unui alter8. Referindu-se la cauzele
ce au condus la cdere, Denis de Rougemont are o atitudine nelegtoare pentru Adam, care a
vrut s fie romantic i condescendent superioar fa de Eva, mai uor de nelat pentru c
ea este lipsit de obiectivitate, de concizie n aprecieri, de distan n raport cu realul, sau cu
un cuvnt: de retoric9.
Aceast aciune independent a Evei, care a condus la consumarea fructului interzis va
fi pedepsit de ctre divinitatea autocrat. Odat cu deschiderea ochilor, cei doi devin
contieni de propriile simuri: vd c sunt goi, se ruineaz de ceea ce vd i se tem. n acest
moment, odat cu trezirea contiinei de sine i a prezenei celuilalt, contientizeaz
diferenele. Oricum, pentru c au preluat prerogativele autoritii, nclcnd porunca, arpele,
femeia i brbatul sunt condamnai s rmn ntr-un triunghi al erotismului i al sexualitii
Vezi Mihaela Ursa, Eroticon. Tratat despre ficiunea amoroas, Bucureti, Editura Cartea Romneasc, 2012,
p. 70.
7
Felicia Waldman, Ocultarea n mistica iudaic. Ocultismul Kabbalei, Bucureti, Editura Pandeia, 2002, p. 208.
8
Mihaela Ursa, op. ci., p. 71.
9
Denis de Rougemont, Iubirea i Occidentul, traducerea, note i indici de Ioana Cndea-Marinescu, prefa de
Virgil Cndea, Bucureti, Editura Univers, 1987, p. 142.
6
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Issue no. 6/2015
blestemate. Femeia este cea care are de suferit att prin dependena total fa de brbat, ct i
n raport cu arpele, agentul rului. Brbatul este pedepsit s smulg, cu preul unui efort
continuu i considerabil, roadele unui pmnt ru, care pare s fi fost privat de fertilitate. Iar
arpele este blestemat s se trasc n rna care-i va deveni i hran, aflndu-se n rzboi cu
femeia i descendenii acesteia.
Este interesant aceast deplasare, n planul mentalitilor, a felului cum este
perceput femeia n planul religiei iudeo-cretine: femeia, egal a brbatului iniial, a disprut
din peisaj, demonizat vom vedea pentru a fi nlocuit cu o nou versiune, divinitatea i
brbatul rmas singur conlucrnd pentru a o supune n totalitate, fr prea mult succes
dup cum aiderea se va vedea. O divinitate trinitar, expresie a echilibrului familial, creeaz
o pereche pe care o las stpn pe ntreg pmntul pentru a deveni expresia lui imitatio
Dei, dup principiul ceea ce este sus este i jos. Experimentul eueaz i divinitatea este
nlocuit de o alta, eminamente androcrat, care impune brbatul n detrimentul femeii i al
familiei. Marija Gimbutas subliniaz un alt aspect n studiul su i anume preexistena cultului
zeitilor feminine, care a fost treptat nlocuit de cele ale virilitii masculine: Zeiele
partenogenetice i asexuate (nscute din sine, fr ajutorul inseminrii masculine) s-au
modificat treptat n mirese, soii i fiice, devenind erotizate, legate prin principiul iubirii
sexuale ca urmare a sistemului social patriarhal i patriliniar al indo-europenilor10. Eva
primete statutul de soie att ca expresie a dependenei ei totale de brbat, dar i ca expresie a
instituionalizrii unui ritual, cel al cstoriei, care se face sub binecuvntarea unei diviniti
masculine. Faptul c zeiele sunt nlocuite de soii este subliniat de mai muli cercettori, care
au evideniat ncercarea autorilor biblici de a anula cultul unei zeiti feminine supreme, prin
schimbarea succesiv a statutului acesteia n prima soie a lui Adam i mai apoi prin
demonizarea ei i caricaturizarea produs de fantezia masculin sadic i antifeminin pe
rugul sfritului de Ev Mediu i al sngerosului Timp Nou11. O alt explicaie a demonizrii
femininului este de natur pur psihologic, innd cont de fiziologia corpului femeii, de
funciile lui multiple, legate de via i moarte, care au fost tabuizate, din cauz c a inspirat
brbailor o groaz sfnt, ntrit, de altfel, de caracterul misterios interior al sexualitii
sale i de capacitatea sa orgiastic, net superioar celei a brbatului12.
Prima creaie feminin a Bibliei femeie, demon sau concubin a divinitii?
Cine este aceast prim femeie misterioas a Bibliei, care dispare fiind nlocuit de o
alta? Ea a fost creat egal a lui Adam, dar dispare n mod misterios pentru a face loc celei dea doua femei. Dac prima a fost creat independent de masculin, cealalt va fi zmislit drept
parte integrant a acestuia, n sperana unei conexiuni depline, dar i a unei dependene mai
evident. Dac cea de-a doua va fi numit de ctre Adam, Eva, al crei nume o
individualizeaz ca persoan, dar, n egal msur, stabilete principalele sale coordonate
fiiniale prin semantismul denominrii, mama celor vii, prima femeie a fost condamnat la
dispariie, prin anonimat, conform ideii c numele este totuna cu peroana. Aceas credin
este specific popoarelor semite, preluat de ctre evrei de la egipteni, iniiatorii
monoteismului, pentru care numele constituia o dimensiune esenial a personalitii
umane, ceva viu, cci scriind sau rostind numele unei persoane o faci s triasc sau,
dimpotriv, s dispar dintre cei vii13. Tradiia o va numi pe aceast prim femeie Lilith, prin
Marija Gimbutas, Civilizaie i cultur. Vestigii preistorice n sud-estul Europei, traducere de Sorin Paliga,
Prefa i note de Radu Florescu, Bucureti, Editura Meridiane, 1989, p. 118.
11
Walter-Jrg Langbein, Lexiconul erorilor biblice, traducere din limba german, note i prefa de Silviu
Dancu, Piteti, Editura Paralela 45, 2005, p. 80.
12
Jean Libis, Mitul androginului, traducere din limba francez de Cristina Muntean, Cluj-Napoca, Editura Dacia,
2005, p. 237.
13
Petru Adrian Danciu,, Teologia numelor divine. Egiptul Antic, Caransebe, Editura Dalami, 2005, p. 6.
10
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asociere cu numele unui demon asiro-babilonian, Lilu (entitate masculin) i Lilitu (entitate
feminin). Despre acestea din urm se spunea c seduc brbaii i pun n pericol viaa
femeilor pe timpul naterii14. Aceast anonim va suscita n special imaginaia cabalitilor
Evului Mediu, care au numit-o Lilith, conferindu-i statutul de demon, urmnd direcia
androcrat a diabolizrii femininului.
Cabalitii Evului Mediu, spirite nelinitite, curajoase i ndrznee au ncercat s aduc
umple golurile lsate n naraiunea biblic cu scenarii imaginare, care vor scoate n eviden
dou triunghiuri erotice, construite n oglind: n plan cosmic, superior, Dumnezeu este prins
ntre soie, Shekhinah i concubina sa cosmic, n timp ce n plan uman, Adam triete o
uniune erotic cu Eva i una ilicit cu Lilith. Prin prisma acestei viziuni, specialiti n
interpretarea cabalei au identificat aa-numitele teorii etno-erotice i teo-erotice15, prin
intermediul crora s-a ncercat fie asocierea comportamentului uman cu cel divin, fie
interpretarea metafizic a dihotomiei sexuale umane, prin proiecia polaritii sau
complexitii umane pe planul divin16. Astfel, legmntul dintre Dumnezeu i poporul su
este vzut n plan simbolic drept uniune sacr a soului divin cu soia sa. Tot Dumnezeu ns
are legturi intime i cu cealalt ipostaz a femininului sacru, pe care o viziteaz ilicit, pe
ascuns, i care este mama celorlalte popoare. Iudaismul timpuriu a cunoscut poligamia, dar
odat cu impunerea monugamiei, concubina a cptat valene negative. De aici, atribuirea
unui rol negativ acesteia, care apare i n ipostaz de servitoare uzurpatoare a soiei. n unele
parabole cabaliste, n urma distrugerii Templului sacru i a nceputului noului exil al exvreilor
n toat lumea, Shekhinah a plecat ndurerat alturi de acetia, prsindu-l pe Dumnezeu,
care i-a luat o alt soie, pe Lilith, despre care Zoharul afirm c este goliciunea lui
Shekhinah n exil17. Evoluia acesteia de la statutul de demonu, la cel de concubin, apoi la
cel de consoart este pus n relaie direct cu dezastrele majore trite de ctre poporul evreu,
pn la Holocaust, puse pe seama domniei acestei consoarte negative.
Alfabetul lui Ben-Sira18 este primul text cabalistic n care prima femeie a lui Adam
este numit de ctre creator Lilith. Egali fiind, cei doi au luptat pentru supremaie, sau, mai
exact, brbatul nu a dorit s stea n poziia inferioar, considernd c ar fi menit femeii.
Aceasta nu a acceptat i, fr a se plnge divinitii pentru atitudinea lui Adam, pronun
numele inefabil al lui Dumnezeu pe care, n alte variante, l-ar fi aflat dup ce l-a sedus pe
Acesta -, lundu-i zborul. Interesant este faptul c Lilith cunoate numele ascuns al
divinitii, dei nu este dect om creat din lut, trimind astfel la mitul lui Isis i al lui Osiris,
n care viclenia zeiei conduce la aflarea numelui secret al lui Ra pentru a-l nvia pe soul ei.
Aceast prim femeie pare a fi explorat tainele divinitii, pare a fi fost animat de dorina de
a cunoate binele i rul, mucnd poate fructul care nu fusese nc interzis. Astfel, asocierea
ei cu arpele ispititor poate fi plauzibil i cel puin prima parte a promisiunii fcut Evei,
aceea de a fi asemeni lui Dumnezeu pare a fi adevrat. Divinitatea hotrte n mod
surprinztor s o pedepseasc pentru ceva de care nu se fcea vinovat, cci nu fusese creat
pentru a se supune lui Adam, ci pentru a-i fi egal. Dar Midraul este totui expresia socioantropologic a noii mentaliti profund contaminate de un antifeminism, ce ncerca s explice
rul prin intermediul rebeliunii, al nesupunerii femeii. Cnd Lilith este oprit de cei trei ngeri,
care i expun alternativele moartea copiilor ei sau revenirea n sclavie ea expune noile
atribute demonice, subliniind c a fost creat n acest scop. Femininul erotic nesupus
Dicionar encyclopedic de iudaism, traducere: Viviane Prager, C. Litman, icu, Goldstein, coordonare,
Viviane Prager, Schi a poporului evreu, traducere: C. Litman, Bucureti, Editura Hasefer, 2000, p. 468.
15
Moshe Idel, op. cit., p. 248.
16
Ibidem, p. 249.
17
Ibidem, p. 307.
18
Paul Deane, Sex i paranormal. Interferenele realului cu imaginarul n sexualitatea uman, traducere i note
de Radu Theodor Badale, Bucureti, Editura Runa Grupul Editorial Corint, 2005, p. 53.
14
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Issue no. 6/2015
masculinului este metamorfozat ntr-o pruncuciga de temut, demon sucub care nmulete
numrul demonilor folosindu-se de poluiile nocturne masculine. n Testamentul lui Solomon,
apar trei demoni-femeie, care reprezint expresia total a diabolizrii unei categorii sociale
marginale, femeia19, care apare n trei ipostaze: infanticida rzbuntoare Lilith, cum se
poate lesne deduce seductoarea fatal i vrjitoarea. Demonizarea femininului se realizeaz
n dou etape, prin identificarea celor care aparin arhetipului mamei ratate care le reunete
pe femeia care a nscut un copil mort, femeia steril i fecioara moart prematur, pentru ca
n cea de-a doua etap, ele s-i piard toate virtuile de gen, devenind urte, canibale,
ucigae20. Pilozitatea ei excesiv la nivelul picioarelor poate fi att o caricaturizare a
masculinitii mpropriate, fie un revers grotesc al prului lung de pe capul femeilor, simbol al
feminitii autentice, fie expresie a sexualitii sale debordante, la fel cum falusurile enorme
ale zeitilor-demoni simbolizau puterea lor impresionant. Seductoarea este reprezentat cu
picioare de catr, avnd pasiunea de a strangula brbaii, cu o putere de atracie magnetic, iar
vrjitoarea trimite la zeia-vrjitoare Hecate din mitologia greac. Aceste trei ipostaze evoc
tot attea spaime ancestrale ale imaginarului masculin, vrjit iremediabil de frumuseea
feminin, captiv al acestui paroxism al feminitii21, care aduce moarte i imoralitate i care
ntruchipeaz trei dintre spaimele masculine: impotena, singurtatea i moartea prin absena
progeniturii22.
Valorizarea negativ a femininului n raport cu masculinul se realizeaz la toate
nivelurile religiei iudeo-cretine, care demonizeaz zeie venerate ale altor credine religioase,
asimilndu-le unor figuri demonice proprii. Exemplul elocvent este asocierea zeitii
feminine, puternic ncarcat de sexualitate, Lucifer, cu demonul Satan. Cum sugereaz
numele, aceast zei simboliza strlucirea, asociat cu Artenis, Diana, Lucifera, alt nume
pentru Marea Mam, al cror izomorfism este legat de noapte i de lun. Poate de aici
asocierea lui Lilith cu o nluc a nopii (Isaia, 34, 14), cci zeitile feminine erau legate de
cultul lunii, iar cele masculine de cel al soarelui. Lilith este reprezentat avnd un trup
feminin superb, naripat, cu dou bufnie, una n stnga, cealalt n dreapta, i ghearele de la
picioare strivesc un leu, simbol solar, masculin, care i se supune n totalitate. Ori bufnia este
deopotriv pasrea simbol a zeiei Atena, zei a rzboiului i a nelepciunii, iar mentalitatea
iuceo-cretin a suprapus un simbol negativ noaptea, tenebrele, pustiul demonizat - unei
reprezentri cultice a nelepciunii feminine. Ea se va opune femininului obedient, matern prin
excelen, care va da via, Eva, dar ambele ipostazele surprind aceeai imagine negativ a
femeii, cci amndou au dovedit tendine ex-centrice, prima nate rul i ucide viaa, cealalt
o perpetueaz n mod dramatic, fcnd imposibil depirea condiiei umane. n termeni
sociologici, s fi existat un complot al divinitii, nc trinitare, i al brbatului pentru a
nltura, n plan cosmic i terestru, femininul puternic, independent i nesupus? Este posibil,
innd cont de faptul c, de-a lungul timpului, demonizarea acestui tip de feminin s-a legat
strns i de o sexualitate debordant, insaiabil, care consum vitalitatea creatoare i energia
de via a brbatului.
Triunghiul erotic i ratrea hierogamiei
Geneza ofer imaginea unui triunghi erotic celebru, Lilith, Adam, Eva, prin
intermediul cruia masculinul arhetipal relaioneaz cu dou ipostaze arhetipale polarizate ale
femininului, femininul diabolic, sexualizat, insaiabil, puternic i nesupus i unul aparent
Testamentul lui Solomon. Regele, demonii i zidirea templului, traducere inedit din greaca veche i studiu
introductiv de tefan Colceriu, Bucureti, Editura Humanitas, 2010, p. 46.
20
21
Rabin Pauline Bebe, Femeile i iudaismul. Dicionar, traducere de Janina Ianoi, Bucureti, Editura Hasefer,
2002, p. 149
22
Ibidem
19
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Issue no. 6/2015
obedient, reflexie a femininului din interiorul masculinului. Triunghiul reflect tensiuni

ontologice care au legtur cu puterea i ncercarea de a deine puterea, iar sexualitatea este
cmpul de btaie a acestor fore. Masculinul rmne liniar n comportament, mai mult absent,
fr a asuma cunoaterea, n timp ce ambele ipostaze ale femininului, una mai violent, cealalt
mai discret, au vocaia libertii, a relaionrii, a comunicrii. Aceast independen mpiedic
osmoza pacifist a celor dou principii, polarizndu-le continuu, reducndu-le la stadiul de
sexe, ratnd androginia proiectat de ctre divinitate dup chipul i asemnarea Sa,
sugernd poate c nici androginia divin nu este desvrit, ci constituie un cmp de tensiuni
i seisme ale acestor dou ipostaze. Triunghiul erotic ia natere n urma eurii succesive a
dou antropogonii, cci prima femeie, prsindu-l pe Adam, va sta n apropierea cuplului
Adam-Eva, ispitind-o pe femeie i seducndu-l pe brbat: pe brbat l va seduce n plan
sexual, pe femeie n plan verbal. Primul cuplu biblic este antagonic prin nsi punerea fa n
fa a celor dou sexe diferite, alteritatea este puternic manifestat prin tensiunea forelor
egale, care doresc nu uniunea armonioas i total, pierderea de sine, anularea de sine n
cellalt, ci independena. Ori, aceast atitudine este modern i aparine unei perioade istorice
care recunoate i admite diferenele, acceptnd alteritatea nu drept o pedeaps, ci o
binecuvntare a personalotii independente. Crearea Evei din Adam a fost o ncercare a
pozitivrii relaiei dintre masculin i feminin, prin anularea sau atenuarea alteritii, dar, i
de data aceasta, elementul rezultat i-a revendicat independena. Concubina a devenit soie,
dar cuplul nu a devenit astfel infailibil eecului, uniunea sacr nu a devenit total i venic,
deoarece a cunoscut infidelitatea, iar fidelitatea este ea nsi o formul care introduce
venicia n timp23.
Nenelegnd alteritatea, Adam va ncerca, de-a lungul istoriei, iniial s o domine i s
o demonizeze, fie prin intermediul religiei, fie n literatur, fie n filosofie, i mai apoi s o
anuleze, printr-un proces de egalizare, care se produce n contemporaneitate. Pentru
Kirkegaard, apariia femeii trezete n sufletul lui Adam sentimentul propriei sale
imperfeciuni, simindu-se incomplet24. n mentalul comun, din nume generic, care denumea
fiina perfect, adam a devenit numele propriu care desemneaz brbatul, manifestndu-i
supremaia asupra celorlalte fiine, numindu-le, cum o va numi ulterior i pe femeie, Eva. (...)
Acesta este punctul scenariului genezic de la care pornete receptarea demonizat a femeii, ca
ru i ispit, pn la vehemena cu care Tertulian o numete poart a Infernului , Bernard
Clairvaux bestie crud 25. Fr s neleag esena ontologic a neputinei de a anula
alteritatea, impactul negativ al acestei impotene a generat nevoia de a depi eecul ncifrat al
erosului misterios printr-o afiare provocatoare i obscen a celuilalt : Erosul este tocmai
relaia cu cellalt situat dincolo de a putea . A-nu-putea-s-poi este verbul sau modul
negativ. Negativitatea alteritii, anume atopia celuilalt care se sustrage lui a putea este
constitutiv pentru experiena erotic26.
n umbra cuplului fragil va veghea spectrul libertii, al ex-centricitii, al singurtii
care este Lilith. Ea reprezint o reactualizare profund negativ a unui feminin ancestral
mitologic, independent de factorul masculin, care se folosete de puterea sa toxic de seducie
pentru a-l supune. De la aceast sexualitate n absena iubirii, s-a dorit evoluia spre un eros
senzual, restaurator, att n plan uman, ct i cosmic. Acest lucru nu va fi posibil dect n
capitolul biblic al Cntrii Cntrilor, un veritabil imn erotic al iubirii plenare, prin care
trupul, sufletul i mintea se unesc printr-o androginie total, spectrul triunghiului erotic al
Byung-Chul Han, Agonia erosului i alte eseuri, traducere din german de Viorica Nicov, Cuvnt nainte de
Ctlin Cioab, Bucureti, Editura Humanitas, 2014, p. 152.
24
Apud Julius Evola, Metafizica sexului, cu un eseu introductiv de Fausto Antonini, traducere de Sorin
Mrculescu, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 1994, p. 178.
25
Mihaela Ursa, op. cit., p. 68.
26
Byung-Chul Han, op. cit., p. 136.
23
244
Issue no. 6/2015
Genezei fiind nlturat: Eroul devine astfel mirele etern, ea este mireasa venic, iar
ntlnirea lor este nunta, hierogamia, taina suprem a unirii, cu valene cosmice i adnc
psihice, tlmcit ca atare n filosofii antice. Fora iubirii reunete elementele cosmosului,
cosmicizeaz lumea, fuzioneaz elementele, dup cum lipsa iubirii genereaz durere, haos,
sterilitate27.
Postmodernismul, prin Mircea Crtrescu, de exemplu, va regndi mitul androginului
din varianta platonic, prin cutarea mplinirii personale, a fericirii depline nu n alt
persoan, ci n sine nsui. Sexualitatea distruge androginia printr-o anulare a masculinului ce
se pierde mistuit n creuzetul feminitii devoratoare, n timp ce femininul feciorelnic este
anulat de maternitatea planturoas. Este surprins metamorfozarea dramatic a cuplului
Savin-Clara, care trece din ipostaza adolescentin-edenic la cea matrimonial, care-i
transform n dou entiti fade, depersonalizate i complet banale. Soluia: El trebuie s
ignore tunelele false ale dragostei sexuale i s se-ntoarc n sine , s fie brbat i femeie-n
acelai timp i s fac dragoste cu sine nsui n singurtatea de fiar a palatului cerebral 28.
BIBLIOGRAFIE
BLCEANU-STOLNICI, Constantin, Kabbala, ntre gnoz i magie, Bucureti,
Editura Vremea XXI, 2004.
BEBE, Pauline, Femeile i iudaismul. Dicionar, traducere de Janina Ianoi, Bucureti,
Editura Hasefer, 2002.
Crtrescu, Mircea, Travesti, Bucureti, Editura Humanitas, 2013.
*** Cntarea Cntrilor, studiu introductiv de Zoe Dumitrescu-Buulenga, traducere
din limba ebraic, note i comentarii de Ioan Alexandru, Bucureti, Editura tiinific i
Enciclopedic, 1977.
Danciu, Petru Adrian, Teologia numelor divine. Egiptul Antic, Caransebe, Editura
Dalami, 2005.
DEANE, Paul, Sex i paranormal. Interferenele realului cu imaginarul n
sexualitatea uman, traducere i note de Radu Theodor Badale, Bucureti, Editura Runa
Grupul Editorial Corint, 2005.
DICIONAR enciclopedic de iudaism, traducere: Viviane Prager, C. Litman, icu,
Goldstein, coordonare, Viviane Prager, Schi a poporului evreu, traducere: C. Litman,
Bucureti, Editura Hasefer, 2000.
EVOLA, Julius, Metafizica sexului, cu un eseu introductiv de Fausto Antonini,
traducere de Sorin Mrculescu, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 1994.
HAN, Byung-Chul H, Agonia erosului i alte eseuri, traducere din german de Viorica
Nicov, Cuvnt nainte de Ctlin Cioab, Bucureti, Editura Humanitas, 2014.
IDEL, Moshe, Cabala i Eros, traducere de Ctlin Patrosie, Bucureti, Editura
Hasefer, 2004.
GIMBUTAS, Marija, Civilizaie i cultur. Vestigii preistorice n sud-estul Europei,
traducere de Sorin Paliga, Prefa i note de Radu Florescu, Bucureti, Editura Meridiane,
1989.
LANGBEIN, Walter-Jrg, Lexiconul erorilor biblice, traducere din limba german,
note i prefa de Silviu Dancu, Piteti, Editura Paralela 45, 2005.
LIBIS, Jean, Mitul androginului, traducere din limba francez de Cristina Muntean,
Cluj-Napoca, Editura Dacia, 2005.
Cntarea Cntrilor, studiu introductiv de Zoe Dumitrescu-Buulenga, traducere din limba ebraic, note i
comentarii de Ioan Alexandru, Editura tiinific i enciclopedic, Bucureti, 1977, p. 11.
28
Mircea Crtrescu, Travesti, Bucureti, Editura Humanitas, 2013, p. 131.
27
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Issue no. 6/2015
LILAR, Suzanne, Cuplul, traducere de Livia Iacob, Iai, Editura Institutului European,
2008.
MINOIS, George, Originile rului. O istorie a pcatului strmoesc, traducere din
limba francez de Daniela Floare, Iai, Editura Sapientia, 2010.
ROUGEMONT, Denis de, Iubirea i Occidentul, traducerea, note i indici de Ioana
Cndea-Marinescu, prefa de Virgil Cndea, Bucureti, Editura Univers, 1987.
SARIVAN, Ciprian, Numele Elohim i semnificaia lui, partea I,
https://sarivan.wordpress.com/2008/04/02/numele-elohim-si-semnificatia-lui/ [accesat n
07.02.2015].
*** Sfintele Scripturi. Traducerea lumii noi, traducere dup New World Translation of
the Holy Scriptures, ediie englez revizuit n 1984, Roma, Congregazione Cristiana dei
Testimoni di Geova, 2006.
*** Testamentul lui Solomon. Regele, demonii i zidirea templului, traducere inedit
din greaca veche i studiu introductiv de tefan Colceriu, Bucureti, Editura Humanitas, 2010.
URSA, Mihaela, Eroticon. Tratat despre ficiunea amoroas, Bucureti, Editura
Cartea Romneasc, 2012.
WALDMAN, Felicia, Ocultarea n mistica iudaic. Ocultismul Kabbalei, Bucureti,
Editura Pandeia, 2002.
246
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SHORT ISTORIOGRAPHICAL REVIEW OF THE CATHOLIC REFORM/COUNTERREFORM IN 17TH CENTURY TRANSYLVANIA: EVOLUTIONS, FEATURES
Diana Maria DIAN
Abstract: The European historical contributions of the last two centuries have tried to
establish at the level of the analysis pattern two key-concepts meant to surprise the
fundamental evolutions registered by the post-tridentine Catholicism: the Catholic Reform
and the Counter-reformation. Generally speaking, it has been considered that the notion of
Counter-reformation makes a direct reference to the auto-defense of the Catholicism when
confronted to the Protestantism. But the Roman Church has needed also an auto-reformation
of its members, a renewal of its institutional structures and a revival of the models and of the
devotional practices by returning to the ideal of the early Christian religion (Catholic
Reform). From this point of view, the research aims to evaluate the main debates on the
theme of the Catholic Reform/Counter-reformation as found in the Romanian
historiographical field during the last two centuries, emphasizing the main ideas that have
lead the historical researches especially during the communist and the post-communist
period. Secondly, the study constitutes a historical analysis realized through reading the
primary sources (published documents) and outlining the secondary literature (general
papers, articles and studies), intending to show to what extent a larger interest for exploring
the Transylvanian Catholic universe can be detected for the last 10 years compared to the
previous decades. Finally, the research intends to show whether we assist at a conceptual and
methodological innovation inspired by the patterns provided by the European historical
literature, aspect that could prove the integration of the Romanian historical science in the
universe of the European historical evolutions.
Keywords: Catholic missions, confessional culture, historiographical debates, methodology,
conceptual innovation
1.1.
Consideraii preliminare
Biserica reprezint pentru spaiul transilvnean una dintre temele care s-a bucurat de
un interes deosebit din partea istoricilor, interes justificat de faptul c, n special n Evul
Mediu, Biserica a fost instituia fundamental, la care s-a raportat i sub al crei patronaj s-a
situat majoritatea populaiei. Importana acestei instituii trebuie subliniat o dat n plus n
cazul Transilvaniei, unde, ca urmare a ciocnirilor culturale i civilizaionale, s-a nregistrat
concurena i nu de puine ori, confruntarea dintre Biserica Rsritean i cea Apusean.1
Biserica roman (catolic) din Transilvania i-a consolidat poziia ncepnd cu secolul
al XIII-lea, bazndu-se cu precdere pe Regatul Maghiar i pe viaa monahal. Atributul de
regat apostolic al acestuia evidenia misiunea major auto-asumat de atragere i convertire
a populaiei la catolicism, n timp ce impulsul vieii monahale din secolul al XIV-lea s-a
datorat n mare parte ofensivei catolice iniiate de regii angevini.2 n sprijinul acestei ofensive
Ioan-Aurel Pop, Thomas Ngler (coord.), Istoria Transilvaniei, vol. I, ediia a II-a, Centrul de Studii
Transilvane, Cluj-Napoca, 2009, p. 269.
2
Ibidem.
1
247
Issue no. 6/2015
catolice venea i activitatea ordinelor mendicante (dominicani, franciscani)3, al cror principal

obiectiv era aducerea populaiei la catolicism, printr-o interaciune direct cu laicii, crora li
se oferea un ghidaj spiritual.
Ideea de Cretintate (Christianitas)4 n sensul teritoriilor care l recunosc pe Pap
drept autoritate spiritual suprem a primit o puternic lovitur n secolul al XVI-lea, odat cu
apariia i rspndirea ideilor Reformei protestante.5 Reforma lui Luther a adus o perspectiv
diferit de nelegere a Cretinismului, oferind noi posibiliti de obinere a mntuirii,
respectiv de salvare a sufletului. Micarea reformatoare nsi poate fi privit din punctul de
vedere al unei respingeri totale sau selective a tradiiei cretine (apostolic, patristic,
medieval), propunnd o transformare fundamental la nivelul instituiilor, practicilor,
ritualurilor i ideilor Bisericii romane.6 n acelai timp, Reforma protestant propriu-zis
poate fi neleas ca o restabilire a tradiiei cretine prin ntoarcerea la idealul Bisericii
originare (apostolice), ceea ce necesita o purificare dogmatic i doctrinar. Rspndirea
rapid, popularitatea Reformei protestante n Transilvania, dar i adeziunea contient a
credincioilor transilvneni fa de noile idei exprimat prin militantismul orenilor i
dezbaterile aprinse pe teme religioase a stimulat o dat n plus rspunsul catolic, necesitatea
unei revitalizri a structurilor instituionale, a unei reevaluri a aspectelor dogmatice i
doctrinare devenind imperios necesar.7
Michael Goodich, Morphology of Piety: Mendicant Saints, n Vita Perfecta, Hiersemann, Stuttgart, 1982, p.
147; Augustine Thompson (recenzor), Luigi Pellegrini, Che sono queste novita? Le religiones novae in
Italia meridionale (secoli XIII e XIV) (Ligouri, Napoli, 2000), n Speculum, vol. 77, nr. 4, 2002, pp. 1378-1379,
www.jstor.org; Marie-Madeleine de Cevins, Les travaux sur les ordres mendiants en Transylvanie mdivale au
regard des tendances actuelles de la recherche europenne, n Studia Universitatis Babe-Bolyai, Historia, vol.
56, nr. 1, 2011, pp. 1-25; David Peterson (recenzor), Daniel R. Lesnick, Preaching in Medieval Florence: The
Social World of Franciscan and Dominican Spirituality (University of Georgia Press, Athens, 1989), n
American Historical Review, vol. 96, nr. 1, 1991, p. 154, www.jstor.org; Nicholas Terpstra (recenzor), Maiju
Lehmijoki-Gardner, Worldly Saints: Social Interaction of Dominican Penitent Women in Italy, 1200-1500
(Suomen Historiallinen Seura, Helsinki, 1999), n Speculum, vol. 76, nr. 1, 2001, p. 189, www.jstor.org;
Rosalind B. Brooke (recenzor), Randolph Daniel, The Franciscan Concept of Mission in High-Middle Ages
(University Press of Kentucky, Lexington, 1975), n Speculum, vol. 52, nr. 3, 1977, pp. 643-644, www.jstor.org;
Marie-Madeleine de Cevins, The Influence of Franciscan Friars on Popular Piety in the Kingdom of Hungary at
the End of the Fifteenth Century, n Maria Crciun, Elaine Fulton (ed.), Communities of Devotion: Religious
Orders and Society in East-Central Europe: 1450-1800, Ashgate Publishing Ltd., Farnham, 2011, pp. 71-91.
4
Conceptul de Christianitas devine sinonim cu Biserica universal, ajungnd s nglobeze o dimensiune social.
Astfel, Christianitas reprezint unitatea temporal i spiritual a credincioilor. Roberto Paciocco,
Canonizzazioni e culto dei santi nella Christianitas: 1198-1302, Editura Porziuncola, Assisi, 2006, p. 282;
Tomaz Mastnak, The Muslims as Enemy of Faith: The Crusades as Political Theology, n Pietro Costa (ed.),
Quaderni fiorentini per la storia del pensiero giuridico moderno, vol. XXXVIII, 2009, p. 175; Sylvio Hermann
De Franceschi, Les irremediable brisures de la chretiente de lhistoire. Paolo Sarpi entre ide italienne et ideal
chretientaire, n Alain Tallon (coord.), Le sentiment national dans lEurope meridionale aux XVIe et XVIIe
siecles, Casa de Velazquez, Madrid, 2007, p. 274; Gerd Tellenbach, The Church in Western Europe from the
Tenth to the Early Twelfth Century, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1993, p. 351.
5
Bridget Heal, Ole Peter Grell (coord.), The Impact of the European Reformation: Princes, Clergy and People,
Ashgate Publishing, Farnham, 2008; Andrew Johnston, The Protestant Reformation in Europe, Longman,
London, 1991; Andrew Pettegree, The Clergy and the Reformation: From <devilish priesthood> to new
professional elite, n Andrew Pettegree (ed.), The Reformation of the Parishes, The Ministry and the
Reformation in Town and Country, Manchester University Press, Manchester, 1993, pp. 1-21; Bob Scribner, For
the Sake of Simple Folk. Popular Propaganda for the German Reformation, Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, 1981, pp. 1-13; 190-250; Diarmaid MacCulloch, Reformation:Europes House Divided 1490-1700,
Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2003, pp. 442-448.
6
Edit Szegedi, Identiti premoderne n Transilvania, Editura Fundaiei pentru Studii Europene, Cluj-Napoca,
2002, p. 144.
7
Graeme Murdock, International Calvinism, Ethnic Allegiance and the Reformed Church of Transylvania in
the Early Seventeenth Century, n Maria Crciun, Ovidiu Ghitta (ed.), Ethnicity and Religion in Central and
Eastern Europe, University Press, Cluj-Napoca, 1995, pp. 92-100; Edit Szegedi, Reforma n Transilvania.
3
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1.2.
Issue no. 6/2015
Clarificri terminologice: Reform catolic vs. Contrareform
Reacia Bisericii catolice de contracarare a succesului Reformei protestante i de

recuperare a poziiilor pierdute n detrimentul ideilor inovatoare exprimate i popularizate de
reformatorii secolului al XVI-lea figureaz nu numai n prim-planul cercetrilor de teologie,
ci se regsete cu uurin i n dezbaterile istoriografice ale epocii contemporane.
Contribuiile europene ale secolului XX au ncercat s fixeze din punctul de vedere al grilei de
analiz dou concepte-cheie menite s surprind transformrile fundamentale, nregistrate de
catolicismul post-tridentin: Reforma catolic i Contrareforma.8 n general se consider c
noiunea de Contrareform trimite direct la auto-aprarea i auto-afirmarea
catolicismului confruntat n secolul al XVI-lea cu protestantismul; dar Biserica roman avea
nevoie i de o auto-reform a membrilor si, de o revitalizare a structurilor instituionale i
de o rennoire a modelelor i practicilor devoionale prin rentoarcerea la idealul
cretinismului timpuriu (Reform catolic).9 Cercetri recente au stabilit o relaie direct
ntre regndirea n form modern a coninuturilor teologice ca ataament i angajament
personal, iniiativele privind reorganizarea instituional i mai ales, procesul de
reevanghelizare a zonelor rurale ale Europei, prad superstiiilor pgne n epoca medieval,
lansnd diferite ipoteze de lucru i elabornd noi concepte-cheie: rennoire catolic10,
respectiv catolicism modern timpuriu11.
Constituirea identitilor confesionale, n Ioan-Aurel Pop, Thomas Ngler, Andrs Magyari (coord.), Istoria
Transilvaniei, vol. II, Centrul de Studii Transilvane, Cluj-Napoca, 2005, pp. 237-248; Graeme Murdock,
Principatul Transilvaniei n epoca confesional n Studia Universitatis Babe-Bolyai, Historia, nr. 53, vol.
1-2, 2008, pp. 59-75; Krista Zach, Stri, domeniu seniorial i confesionalizare n Transilvania. Reflecii asupra
disciplinrii sociale (1550-1650), n Studia Universitatis, pp. 100-126.
8
A se vedea n acest sens Guy Bedouelle, La riforma del cattolicesimo (1480-1620), Jaka Book, Milano, 2003;
Robert Bireley, The Refashioning of Catholicism, 1450-1700: A Reassessment of the Counter-Reformation,
Macmillan, London, 1999; Olivier Chaline, La riforma cattolica nell'Europa Centrale (XVI-XVIII sec.), Jaka
Book, Milano, 2005; Jrg Deventer, Gegenreformation in Schlesien: die habsburgische Rekatholisierungspolitik
in Glogau und Schweidn, 1526-1707, Bhlau Verlag, Kln, Weimar, Wien, 2003; France Martin Dolinar,
Katholische Reform und Gegenreformation in Innersterreich 1564-1628, Hermagora Verlag, Styria Verlag,
Klagenfurt, Graz, 1994; Johann Gustav Droysen, Geschichte der Gegenreformation, F. W. Hendel Verlag,
Leipzig, 1934; Erwin Iserloh, Storia della Chiesa, vol. 6: Riforma e Contrariforma: crisi, consolidamento,
diffusione missionaria (XVI-XVII sec.), Jaka Book, Milano, 1985; Heinrich Lutz, Reformation und
Gegenreformation, R. Oldenbourg Verlag, Mnchen, 1997; John W. O'Malley, Trent and All that: Renaming
Catholicism in the Early Modern Era, Harvard University Press, Harvard, 2002; Ronnie Po-Chia Hsia, The
World of Catholic Renewal, 1540-1770, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1998; Markus Reisenleitner,
Frhe Neuzeit, Reformation und Gegenreformation: Darstellung, Forschungsberblick, Quellen und Literatur,
Studien-Verlag, Innsbruck, 2000; Werner Weisbach, Der Barock als Kunst der Gegenreformation, Verlegt bei
Paul Cassirer, Berlin, 1921; Ernst Walter Zeeden, Das Zeitalter der Gegenreformation, Herder Verlag, Freiburg,
1967.
9
Po-Chia Hsia, The World, pp. 61-82; pp. 127-144; Iserloh, Storia della Chiesa, pp. 517-526; pp. 576-587; pp.
615-631; Bireley, The Refashioning, pp. 25-45; William V. Hudon, The Papacy in the Age of the Reformation,
n Kathleen M. Comerford, Hilmar M. Pabel (ed.), Early Modern Catholicism: Essays in Honour of John W.
O'Malley, University of Toronto Press, Toronto, 2001, pp. 46-67; 114-131; Martin D. W. Jones, The Counter
Reformation: Religion and Society in Early Modern Europe, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1995, pp.
79-114; Ole Peter Grell, Health Care and Poor Relief in Counter-reformation Europe, Routledge Printing Press,
London; New York, 1999, pp. 1-19.
10
Sintagma rennoire catolic face trimitere la revitalizarea doctrinal (afirmarea autoritii Vulgatei,
discutarea studiilor scripturistice, definirea pcatului originar i dezbaterea doctrinei justificrii prin credin) i
ecleziastic (obligaia episcopilor de a rezida n teritoriu, reformarea vechilor ordine religioase i apariia noilor
ordine-iezuiii, capucinii) ce marcheaz catolicismul post-tridentin, precum i la progresul Reconquistei iniiate
de Roma ad intram Christianitatis i n teritoriile non-cretine ale Americii, Africii sau Asiei prin intermediul
misiunilor, predicaiei i educaiei. Rennoirea catolic nu trebuie neleas ca un proces monolitic condus de
papalitate, episcopi i coroan i implementat de ordinul iezuit. Cultura catolic post-tridentin este una extrem
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n ciuda numeroaselor produse istoriografice europene privind evoluia catolicismului

post-tridentin pe continent, dezbaterile pe tema Reformei catolice/Contrareformei sunt srace
n peisajul istoriografic romnesc. Constatm o dat n plus numrul redus de cercetri
focusate asupra Principatului calvin al Transilvaniei pe parcursul secolului al XVII-lea, dei
nu puine sunt contribuiile la reconstituirea transformrilor ce au marcat confesiunea catolic
n teritoriul de la est i sud de Carpai, n Moldova sau n ara Romneasc ale aceluiai
secol. n acest sens, la nivel de surse amintim Diplomatarium italicum, volumele Cltori
strini despre rile Romne, ngrijite de Maria Holban, Codex-ul sau Lettere-le lui Marco
Bandini ctre Sfntul Scaun. Mult mai numeroase se dovedesc ns lucrrile generale,
articolele i studiile de specialitate, evideniind faptul c evoluia particular a catolicismului
n Moldova i n ara Romneasc din secolul al XVII-lea a suscitat interesul istoricilor
romni i al cercettorilor din strintate: Alexandru Ciocltan, Iosif Gabor, Rafael-Dorian
Chelaru, Maria Crciun, Violeta Barbu, Liviu Pilat, Cesare Alzati, Teresa Ferro, Jean
Nozille.12
Cercetri istorice pe tema Reformei catolice/Contrareformei n Transilvania
secolului al XVII-lea n perioada comunist
1.3.
Revenind la situaia i evoluia confesiunii catolice n Principatul transilvan n secolul

al XVII-lea, propunem n prim instan o analiz istoriografic prin lectura surselor primare
(documente publicate) i a literaturii secundare (lucrri generale, articole i studii de
specialitate). Este lesne de neles numrul relativ redus de cercetri sistematice axate pe
aceast problematic n contextul istoriografiei dominate de marxism de dup cel de-al Doilea
Rzboi Mondial, cnd istoria Bisericii romane i implicit, misionarismul catolic i strategiile
misionare post-tridentine s-au nscris pe lista subiectelor indezirabile.13 La nivelul surselor, a
de complex i multifaetat, cu numeroase variaii locale n ciuda unitii doctrinare i organizaionale pe care o
presupune. Po-chia Hsia, The World, pp. 10-42; Piotr Stolarski, Friars on the Frontier: Catholic Renewal and
the Dominican Order in Southeastern Poland, 1594-1648, Ashgate Publishing, Farnham, 2013, pp. 1-5; Carter
Lindberg, The European Reformations, 2nd edition, Wiley-Blackwell, West Sussex, 2010, pp. 321-333.
11
Prin modern timpuriu sau premodern, John OMalley nelege perioada cuprins ntre Rzboiul de 100 de
ani i Marea Revoluie Francez, iar prin catolicism totalitatea popoarelor, instituiilor, manifestrilor culturale
i religioase care nainte de 1517 pot fi etichetate drept cretine i care dup aceast dat nu sunt protestante.
John OMalley, Trent and All That: Renaming Catholicism in the Early Modern Era, Harvard University Press,
Cambridge, 2009, pp. 1-15; John OMalley, Kathleen M. Comerford, Hilmar M. Pabel (eds.), Early Modern
Catholicism: Essays in Honour of John OMalley, University of Toronto Press, Toronto, 2001, p. XIV; Robert
Bireley, Early Modern Catholicism, n David M. Whitford (ed.), Reformation and Early Modern Europe: A
Guide to Research, Truman State University Press, Kirksville, 2008, pp. 57-75.
12
A se vedea n acest sens Alexandru Ciocltan, Contrareforma la Cmpulung. Noi documente (1635-1646),
n Revista istoric, vol. 19, nr. 1-2, 2008, pp. 99-118; Idem, An Unpublish Account of 1676 on Catholicism in
Wallachia, n Historical Yearbook, nr. 4, 2007, pp. 113-124; Idem, Catolicismul n ara Romneasc n
relatrile edite i inedite ale arhiepiscopului de Sofia, Petru Bogdan Baksic (1663, 1668, 1670), n Revista
istoric, vol. 18, nr. 1-2, 2007, pp. 61-90; Iosif Gabor, Comunitile catolice din ara Romneasc, n Pro
Memoria, nr. 3, 2004, pp. 25-41; Rafael-Dorian Chelaru, Catholic Parishes in 17th-18th century Moldavia
(Diocese of Bacu): Economic Aspects, n Transylvanian Review, vol. 19, nr. 1, 2010, pp. 96-106; Idem,
Consideraii privind problema protectoratului misiunii catolice din Moldova (secolele XVII-XVIII), n Relaii
internaionale i studii de istorie, Bucureti, 2009, pp. 514-519; Idem, Misionarismul catolic din Moldova i
problema limbii de evanghelizare (secolele XVII-XVIII), n Hrisovul, nr. 14, 2008, pp. 48-58; Violeta Barbu,
Purgatoriul misionarilor: contrareforma n rile Romne n secolul al XVII-lea, Editura Academiei Romne,
Bucureti, 2008; Maria Crciun, Protestantism i ortodoxie n Moldova secolului al XVI-lea, Cluj University
Press, Cluj-Napoca, 1996; Cesare Alzati, n inima Europei. Studii de istorie religioas a spaiului romnesc,
Center of Transylvanian Studies, Cluj-Napoca, 1998; Jean Nozille, Les catholiques de Moldavie. Histoire dune
minorite religieuse de Romanie, Editura Sapientia, Iai, 2008.
13
Procesul de comunizare a societii romneti a presupus i instituirea unei revoluii culturale, adic
impunerea controlului asupra acestui domeniu. Manifestat cu predilecie din anul 1948, cnd regimul comunist
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lipsit interesul pentru sistematizarea documentelor prin lectura crora se putea scrie o istorie
evenimenial sau tematic a catolicismului post-tridentin n spaiul transilvnean (decizii
dietale, documente sinodale, relatri misionare); mult mai vie s-a dovedit ns preocuparea
pentru cronicile locale (Johannes Oltardus, Janos Szalardi, Janos Kemeny, Laureniu
Toppeltinus, Miklos Bethlen) i pentru descrierile Transilvaniei aparinnd cltorilor strini.
Cu toate c cea mai mare parte a coninutului acestor lucrri poate fi redus la informaii
despre pericolul otoman (naintarea turcilor n Europa, campaniile antiotomane), viaa politic
din Principatul transilvan, ara Romneasc i Moldova, luptele pentru tron, politica extern a
rilor Romne, se poate identifica i o pist de lectur asupra sistemului religiilor recepte din
Transilvania i implicit, asupra evoluiei particulare a confesiunii catolice n acest spaiu. 14 n
ceea ce privete literatura secundar privitoare la particularitile catolicismului transilvnean
pe parcursul secolului al XVII-lea, din perioada menionat putem aminti doar ncercarea lui
tefan Pascu15 de a reconstitui schematic prin publicarea memoriului din anul 1696 al
episcopului Transilvaniei, Andrei Illyes, principalele repere ale unei istorii politice i
ecleziastice transilvnene de la sfritul secolului al XVII-lea. Acestei iniiative i poate fi
adugat demersul lui Constantin erban, menit s evalueze locul fondatorului ordinului
franciscan i desigur, al Fiilor spirituali ai Sfntului Francisc n peisajul istoriografic
romnesc.16 Considerm ns c aceste demersuri ar trebui puse n legtur cu produsele
istoriografice relative la autoritatea central i ndeosebi la componentele culturale i
confesionale ale politicii princiare17, aspecte n msur s reconstituie dimensiunea pro- sau
anti-catolic a aciunilor ntreprinse de principii Transilvaniei n intervalul 1601-1700.
Problematica Reformei catolice/Contrareformei n Principatul calvin al secolului
al XVII-lea n istoriografia deceniului post-decembrist
1.4.
Cderea regimului comunist a reprezentat un moment de cotitur i n evoluia

istoriografiei romneti, determinnd o deschidere la nivelul temelor supuse dezbaterilor
reuete s se consolideze, fenomenul a devenit sinonim cu excluderea vechilor academicieni i nlocuirea lor de
oameni fideli noii puteri, ideologizarea nvmntului superior i controlarea de partid a universitilor,
combaterea vechii istoriografii (acuzat de a fi burghezo-reacionar, aservit Occidentului i
antiromneasc) i necesitatea rescrierii istoriei Romniei n concordan cu viziunea noului regim. Liviu
Plea,
Mihail
Roller
i
<stalinizarea>
istoriografiei
romneti,
http://diam.uab.ro/istorie.uab.ro/publicatii/colectia_auash/annales_10/studii/10%20liviu_plesa.pdf, accesat la
data de 17.07.2014, ora 18:01.
14
A se vedea n acest sens Iacob Mrza, Alba-Iulia n viziunea cltorilor strini (secolele XVI-XVIII), n
Transilvania, vol. IV, nr. 5, 1975, pp. 27-28; Constantin erban, Cronicari transilvneni pn la mijlocul
secolului al XVIII-lea, n Studii i articole de istorie, vol. 39-40, 1979, pp. 226-235; Mircea Popa, O descriere
a rii Ardealului din 1679, n Anuarul Institutului de Istorie i Arheologie, nr. 22, Cluj-Napoca, 1979, pp. 297300; Ion Toderacu, Transilvania ntr-o nsemnare de cltorie necunoscut din secolul XVII, n Romnii n
istoria universal, vol. 3, Iai, 1988, pp. 71-79.
15
Structurat pe dou pri, memoriul lui Andrei Illyes i propune s reconstituie starea politic i starea
bisericeasc a Transilvaniei de la venirea maghiarilor pn la instaurarea stpnirii habsburgice. Bogat n
informaii privind succesiunea principilor Transilvaniei pe parcursul secolului al XVII-lea, materialul este lipsit
de date relative la situaia catolicismului ardelean n intervalul 1610-1687. tefan Pascu, O schi a istoriei
politice i bisericeti transilvane de la sfritul secolului al XVII-lea, Cluj-Napoca, 1947.
16
Constantin erban, Francois dAssise et les franciscains dans lhistoriographie roumaine, n San Francesco
nelle ricerce storiche degli ultimo 70 anni, Perugia, 1969.
17
Petru Bunta, Gabriel Bethlen (1613-1629) (Micromonografie), Editura Militar, Bucureti, 1981; Lajos
Demeny, Bethlen Gabor es kora, Editura Politic, Bucureti, 1982; Erno Fabian, Bethlen Gabor politikajanak
realizmusa, n Korunk, vol. 39, nr. 4, 1980, pp. 255-261; Andrei Kiss, Domnia lui Gabriel Bethlen, n
Magazin istoric, vol. 14, nr. 2, 1980, pp. 29-32.
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istorice i stimulnd interesul cercettorilor fa de subiecte considerate indezirabile n timpul

regimului precedent.18
Astfel, primul deceniu de la rsturnarea comunismului a adugat preocuprii pentru
valorificarea izvoarelor primare i pentru istoriile cu un caracter predominant evenimenial,
cronologic, aplecarea spre istorii tematice; despre o situaie similar putem vorbi i n cazul
problematicii Bisericii catolice n spaiul transilvnean, unde cercetrile istorice s-au
desfurat pe mai multe paliere. Pe de o parte, a existat o vie preocupare pentru editarea
documentelor relative la activitatea misionar catolic n Principatul transilvan al secolelor
XVI-XVII i pentru lansarea de noi ipoteze de cercetare pornind de la valorificarea acestor
surse primare.19 Pe de alt parte, imaginea panoramic a confesiunii catolice s-a construit prin
nglobarea mai multor componente: Status-ul catolic20, misiunile iezuite i franciscane21,
strategiile misionare catolice post-tridentine (promovarea unui cler instruit i devotat
pastoraiei, catehizarea n limbile vernaculare, nfiinarea de coli)22.
Un loc important n tabloul istoriografic relativ la tradiia ecleziastic a rilor romne
l ocup cercetrile de istorie a Bisericii Unite cu Roma. Cu rdcini n epoc (Jozsef Benk,
Peter Bod) i continuat apoi de Gheorghe incai, Petru Maior, Timotei Cipariu, tradiia
istoriografic a fost rennodat de noile generaii reprezentate de Augustin Bunea i Zenovie
Pclianu, respectiv Francisc Pall, Virginia Vasiliu, Endre Veress, Laszlo Szilas, Petru
Tocnel, dar i de Bonaventura Morariu. La sfritul secolului XX, istoricul clujean Pompiliu
Teodor23 remarca faptul c se poate vorbi despre afirmarea unei noi generaii de erudii n
Prbuirea regimului comunist n Romnia a dat posibilitatea istoricilor de a reflecta i a scrie despre trecut n
absena unor obstacole impuse de cenzura unui stat totalitar. Comunismul nsui devine o tem preferat a
cercetrii istorice. Florin Abraham, Istoriografie i memorie social n Romnia dup 1989, p. 2,
http://www.historica-cluj.ro/anuare/AnuarHistorica2012/10.pdf, accesat la data de 18.07.2014, ora 12:25.
19
Saviana Diamandi (ed.), Codex Caioni: saeculi XVII, seria Musicalia Danubiana, Editura Muzical, Bucureti,
1993; Ovidiu Popescu, Un cltor strin despre Reform i Contrareform din Transilvania [Antonio
Possevino], n Corviniana, vol. IV, nr. 4, 1998, pp. 122-136; Lucian Peri, Documente din arhiva Curiei
generale a ordinului iezuit din Roma. Spicuiri din corespondena misionarilor George Forro i George Buitul, n
Iacob Mrza, Ana Dumitran (ed.), Spiritualitate transilvan i istorie european, Muzeul Naional al Unirii,
Alba-Iulia, 1999, pp. 176-197.
20
Andras Derzsy, Az Erdelyi Romai Katolikus Status [XVI sz-1948], n Kereszteny, 1, 14, Cluj-Napoca, 1990,
pp. 1-2; Sas, Peter, Az Erdelyi Romai Katolikus Status, n Mvelodes, 1999, vol. 52, nr. 1, pp. 26-30.
21
Andras Cs. Balazs, A del-erdelyi Jezsuita misszio [XVII sz XX sz], n loc. cit., vol. 5, nr. 2, 1994, pp. 13-16;
David Albert, Az erdelyi jezsuita misszio es a szekelyudvarhelyi gimnazium alapitasa [XVI sz XVIII sz], n
loc. cit., vol. 4, nr. 3, 1993, pp. 15-18; Vasile R. Rus, Rudolphi Bzenszky e Societate Jesu Relatio de Ecclesia
Transilvana-studiu introductiv i text reconstituit, n Medievalia Transilvanica, vol. 2, nr. 2, 1998, pp. 289-330;
Idem, Syllogimaeorum Transylvanae Ecclesiae Libri Septem de Rudolph Bzenszky, n Acta Musei
Napocensis, vol. 33, nr. 2, 1996, pp. 269-357; vol. 34, nr. 2, pp. 183-275; Mult es jelen Erdelyben. Visszatekintes
a Ferences Vilagi Rend tortenetere, Deva, 1997; Janos Balasz, Erdelyi jezsuitak a Bathoriak koraban, n
Kereszteny, 1997, vol. 8, nr. 5, pp. 22-24; Botond Gudor, A Jezsuita rend misszioja Erdelyben, 1601-1606
kztt, a misszios jelentesek alapjan, n Spiritualitate transilvan, pp. 94-138; Aura-Lucia Popa, Activitatea
misiunii iezuite din Cluj i Cluj-Mntur (1579-1588), n Acta Musei Porolissensis, vol. 13, nr. 1, 2000, pp.
649-663; Eadem, Activitatea misiunii iezuite din Oradea, n Revista Bistriei, nr. 14, 2000, pp. 168-172.
22
David Albert, 400 eves a szekelyudvarhelyi Tamasi Aron Gimnazium 1593-1993, Szekelyudvarhely, 1993;
Sandor Pal-Antal, A csiksomlyoi tanoda a fogimnaziumok sorabab, n Mvelodes, vol. 40, nr. 11-12, 1991, pp.
63-65; Imre Antal, Tisztesseg adassek. Lapok a csikszeredai romai katolikus fogimnazium tortenetebol,
Csikszereda, 1994; Erno Daniel, Iskolak Erdelyben a 16-18. Szazadban, n Kereszteny, vol. 9, nr. 7, 1998, pp.
25-27; Erzsebet Muckenhaupt, Lovoldi kotes a csiksomlyoi ferences konyvtarban, n Emlekkonyv Jako
Zsigmond szuletesenek nyolcvanadik evfordulojara, Koloszvar, 1996, pp. 402-408; Violeta Barbu, Rezidenele
iezuite din prima jumtate a secolului al XVII-lea n vestul Transilvaniei. Strategii misionare, n Verbum, vol.
6-7, nr. 7, 1995-1996, pp. 279-288.
23
Afirmaie n original: laffermazione di una nuova generazione di studiosi nella storia della Chiesa e della
vita religiosa al interno della Chiesa Greco-cattolica unita con Roma. Lucian Peri, Le Missioni Gesuite in
Transilvania e Moldavia nel Seicento, Editura Fundaiei pentru Studii Europene, Cluj-Napoca, 1998, p. 13.
18
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domeniul istoriei Bisericii i a vieii religioase din cadrul Bisericii greco-catolice (unite cu
Roma), propunndu-i o umplere a vidului istoriografic lsat de ultimele cinci decenii de
oprimare i exil.24
Universul misiunilor catolice n Principatul transilvan al secolului al XVII-lea:
tem de reflecie a istoriografiei romneti la nceputul secolului XXI?
1.5.
Ce se poate spune cu privire la direciile de cercetare regsite n peisajul istoriografic

romnesc al secolului XXI? Exist un interes mai mare pentru explorarea universului catolic
transilvnean al secolului al XVII-lea comparativ cu deceniile trecute? Dar mai ales cine, ce i
cum anume scrie?
Asemenea altor domenii, la nceputul secolului XXI istoriografia romneasc
traverseaz un proces de integrare n tiina istoric european, fiind pus n situaia de a-i
perfeciona metodologia, de a-i diversifica paleta de teme de cercetare, respectiv de a-i
moderniza discursul i abordrile prin alinierea la standardele i rigorile metodologice i
tematice ale analizei istorice europene.25 O preocupare timid pentru teoretizare i
conceptualizare privind istoria Bisericii ncepe s-i fac treptat apariia pe scena
istoriografic romneasc, punndu-se cu precdere problema calitii actului de a scrie istorie
i supunndu-se dezbaterilor aspectele tehnice ale scrisului istoric (repere istoriografice,
abordri metodologice).26
O prim observaie pe care o putem face este legat de preocuparea istoricilor pentru
reevaluarea surselor primare relative la situaia confesional a Transilvaniei pe parcursul
secolului al XVII-lea (cronici, relatri misionare) i pentru editarea acestora sub forma
culegerilor documentare sau pentru prelucrarea lor n cadrul unor cercetri cu o tematic bine
definit. Amintim n acest sens contribuiile lui Costin Fenean 27, Ovidiu Cristea28, Istvan
Gyrgy Toth29.
A doua observaie major ine de interesul crescnd pentru lucrrile de sintez
dedicate subiectelor <virusate> ideologic.30 Astfel, referindu-ne la situaia Bisericii catolice
n Transilvania secolului al XVII-lea i la misiunile catolice din acest teritoriu, constatm
apariia unor lucrri cu caracter general (sinteze de istorie a Bisericii, istorii ale ordinelor
catolice) care pot servi ca puncte de plecare n viitoarele demersuri tiinifice. 31 O premis des
Vasile Rus (recenzor), Lucian Peri, Le Missioni Gesuite in Transilvania e Moldavia nel Seicento (Editura
Fundaiei pentru Studii Europene, Cluj-Napoca, 1998, 223 p.), n Mediaevalia Transilvanica, vol. II, nr. 2, 1998,
p. 334.
25
tefan Purici, Harieta Mareci, Dumitru Vitcu, <Frontiere> i <identiti> n istoriografia romneasc
postdecembrist, http://atlas.usv.ro/www/codru_net/CC11/frontiere.pdf, accesat la data de 18.07.2014, ora
13:34.
26
Petru-Bogdan Maleon, Clerul i societatea n Evul Mediu romnesc. Repere istoriografice i abordri
metodologice, n Alexandru-Florin Platon (coord.), Noi perspective asupra istoriei sociale n Romnia i
Frana, Editura Universitii Alexandru Ioan Cuza, Iai, 2003, pp. 216-225.
27
Doi cronicari ardeleni din secolul al XVII-lea. Studiu i ediie de Costin Fenean, Editura de Vest, Timioara,
2001.
28
Ovidiu Cristea, Un cltor strin n Transilvania secolului al XVII-lea: Giovanni Lengi Zani, n Revista
istoric, vol. 14, nr. 5-6, 2003, pp. 159-180.
29
Istvan Gyrgy Toth, Jelentes a szekely fldi formces szerzetessegrl 1655 bl, n Violeta Barbu (coord.),
Historia manet: volum omagial: Demeny Lajos: 75, Editura Kriterion, Bucureti, 2001, pp. 271-286; Idem,
Primul recensmnt catolic din Secuime (Raportul lui Istvan Szalinai din 1683), n Studii i materiale de istorie
medie, nr. 19, 2001, pp. 273-298.
30
Ibidem.
31
A se vedea n acest sens Lucian Peri, Prezene catolice n Transilvania, Moldova i ara Romneasc (16011698), Editura Buna Vestire, Blaj, 2005; Vasile Rus, Operarii in Vinea Domini. Misionarii iezuii n
Transilvania, Banat i Partium (1579-1715). Tablouri istorice i spirituale, vol. I, Presa Universitar Clujean,
24
253
Issue no. 6/2015
invocat n sfera dezbaterilor i a cercetrilor este reprezentat de existena a dou perioade

majore n evoluia confesiunii catolice transilvnene la finalul Evului mediu i la nceputul
epocii moderne: 1. Prosperitatea catolicismului pe fondul intensificrii activitii misionare la
sfritul secolului al XVI-lea i nceputul secolului al XVII-lea; 2. Renaterea catolicismului
dup 1687 (instaurarea stpnirii habsburgice), cnd asistm la ntoarcerea masiv a
misionarilor i implicit, la revigorarea spiritului misionarismului.32
O ultim observaie surprinde inovarea conceptual i metodologic inspirat de
modelele furnizate de literatura universal de specialitate. Apariia a numeroase studii i
articole, dar i organizarea de manifestri tiinifice de tipul dezbaterilor, conferinelor i
simpozioanelor pe tematici bine definite probeaz interesul crescnd pentru corectarea
informaiilor vagi sau denaturate transmise de o istoriografie ideologizat, pentru acoperirea
direciilor de cercetare deficitare, dar i pentru stimularea cercetrilor cu caracter tematic n
detrimentul istoriilor cronologice, evenimeniale. n acest context, a scrie despre confesiunea
catolic n Principatul transilvan al secolului al XVII-lea devine parte a unui proces de
cercetare interdisciplinar, istoria Bisericii catolice, a ordinelor religioase (ordinul
franciscan)33 i a raporturilor interconfesionale34 mpletindu-se cu istoria cultural35, istoria
mentalitilor i a vieii private36, respectiv istoria sentimentului religios37.
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259
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ALEXANDRU PHILIPPIDES POETRY IN THE CONTEXT OF 20THE CENTURY

ROMANIAN POETRY
Gabriela CRCIUN
University of Piteti
Abstract: The study traces back the evolution of the critical interpretations over Philippides
poetry since the publishing of his first volume, ,,Aur sterp. It places emphasis on the
features of his lyrism viewed through the eyes of several generations. Philippides work
encompasses a mixture of features which are characteristic to several cultural and literary
movements. Following this path, the study seeks to reveal and explain why Philippide has
been considered throughout time a romantic practitioner, a symbolist, and lately a modernist.
Keywords: Alexandru Philippide, lyrism, neo-romantism, symbolism, expressionism,
modernism
Scriitor, eseist i traductor de renume, Alexandru A. Philippide ncepe s-i traseze
destinul n anul 1900, aducnd cu sine un mare aport lingvistic i literar tezaurului cultural
romnesc.
Progenitur a unui filolog i lingvist de seam, Alexandru A. Philippide reuete s
cunoasc cuvntul scris la vrsta de numai patru ani. Ademenit n vrtejul lecturii la o vrst
att de fraged, Philippide devine fascinat de rodul hrtiei, din care nfloresc idei frumoase.
Poate c tocmai aceast ntlnire precoce cu cuvntul scris a fcut, ca mai trziu, scriitorul si focuseze interesul asupra formei i structurii cuvntului, precum i asupra expresiei
acestuia. Astfel se explic i diversitatea scrierilor lui Philippide, plasate fie in domeniul
limbii, fie in aria beletristicii.
Diada tiin-art a fost dintotdeauna actorul invizibil, jucnd pe scena contiinei
philippidiene. nsui tatl scriitorului, Alexandru Philippide, jongla att cu convingeri de
natur tiinific, ct i cu idealuri artistice reflectate n poezie. Acesta a ncercat, n repetate
rnduri, s se separe de poezie, pentru o uniune complet cu tiina. Era o separare mai mult
verbal decat factual, cci glasul poeziei l chema napoi mereu. Philippide i repet destinul,
consumat fiind de aceeai dihotomie. Abordarea-i pragmatic oscila cu apropierea de vis. Este
tocmai acest rzboi de idei, cel care i-a adus ulterior scriitorului, o activitate complet
nglobnd att studii lingvistice, ct i opere literare.
Pe vremea cnd inea cursuri ntr-un liceu din Iai, scriitorul obinuia s izoleze poezia
de raiune, exprimndu-si crezul c aceasta este doar o turburare a mintii1. nsi ntlnirea
sa cu poezia s-a realizat relativ trziu, n anii adolescenei, pe cnd visa s ajung un mare
romancier. Odata citit, poezia i s-a aezat n suflet, nscnd dorina de a crea. Philippide avea
s-i fac debutul n poezie doi ani mai trziu, n 1919.
Tot un moment din copilrie avea s-i guverneze mai trziu discursul liric. Dus la
oper de la patru ani, Philippide a simit si a trit muzica intens. Aceast experien avea s se
transpun n creaiile sale, Philippide devenind un soi de muzician poematic. Acesta chiar
alege nume pentru poeziile sale din repertoriul tematic muzical: Muzic, Melodie, Cntecul
ctorva, Cntecul nimnui, Cntec de amiaz, Cntec de noapte, Cntec de orologiu, Vox in
deserto, Lied, Od blestemat .a.
Paul Zarifopol, Alexandru Philippide- Adevrul literar i artistic, an. XII, nr. 633, 20 august 1933, p.1.
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Poetul Philippide traseaz evoluia poeziilor sale prin intermediul muzicii. ntocmai ca
atingerea unor corzi de chitar pn la rupere, versurile philippidiene sunt atinse la nceput de
o voce colectiv (Cntecul ctorva), continu cu o voce singular, neauzit de nimeni, pn la
o voce estompat, anulat (Cntecul nimnui/ Vox in deserto). Evoluia acestor voci
urmrete evoluia scrierilor lui Philippide, de la adolescen la maturitate.
Interpreii ideilor cuprinse-n stane sunt avataruri ale existenei philippidiene. Dac la
nceput, ntlnim un eu liric optimist, pe msur ce ne apropiem de poeziile trzii, ntlnim un
pesimism acut, cu un eu liric, ce privete ncrcat de regret spre trecut.
Trecerea de la o voce la alta, de la un stil la altul, este admis de Philippide, care
mrturisete: mai trziu vocea mea a devenit tot mai interioar, pn ce n exterior s-a
estompat2. Muzica, pereche aproape sinonimial cu bucuria, nu a mai rezonat la fel ca la
nceput pentru poet, lsnd n versuri urmele despririi sale de sunetul copilriei.
Alexandru Philippide crete sub lumina operelor unor scriitori strluciti. Acesta i
ncepe cltoria n lectur cu romanul aventurier al lui Defoe, Robinson Crusoe. Asemenea
eroului din carte, poetul pleac n cutarea aventurii, ns de data aceasta, pe trm scriptural.
n volumul de poezii Visuri n vuietul vremii, Philippide se arat ca un eu liric aventuros,
cutnd repere pe harta sufletului su: ,,i-acum destul! De-aici se-ntinde/ Trmul rilor
necercetate - / Terra incognita - / Mari spaii albe/ Pe harta sufletului meu din acest an.
(Promontoriu)
Lecturile din timpul adolescenei las impregnate urme adnci n memoria poetului.
Stphane Mallarm si Honor de Balzac i fac simit prezena n stilul i structura poeziilor
philippidiene. Dac de la Mallarm mprumut muzicalitatea cuvntului, pe care o cultiv
obsesiv, de la Balzac preia fondul psihologic i realismul, acesta din urm fiind observabil n
asocierile neobinuite, n care, de exemplu, elemente cosmice ori abstracte i gsesc locul
printre obiecte din realul imediat: ,,Boltit, tavanul scund e nspumat/ De stele moi ca picturi
de miere. (Decor vechi).
Philippide cuprinde n poeziile sale amintiri din itinerariile fcute n Germania i
Austria. n primul volum, n poezia Lied i face apariia zna Lorelai, a crei stnc o vzuse
pe malul Rinului cu civa ani mai inainte. Orologiul medieval din Munchen devine obiectul
poeziei Cntec de orologiu.
Prozodia l preocup pe Philippide nc din adolescen, acesta studiindu-i
manifestrile n creaiile lirice scrise pn atunci, meditnd n acelasi timp la restriciile
acesteia, dar i la posibilitatea de a le anula printr-o innoire a formei. Potrivit mrturisirilor
sale, normele prozodice pot fi nclcate ntr-o manier nou i autentic, doar dac sunt
cunoscute i studiate n avans.
Epoca n care poetul Philippide i face debutul este epoca posteminescian. Este
momentul n care clasicismul, romantismul se vor uitate n favoarea unei nnoiri la nivel
literar, o nnoire ce ia forma modernismului. ns opera philippidian pare a nu se aflilia
niciunui curent n mod exclusiv, ncapsulnd trsturi din mai multe trenduri literare.
n ciuda originalitii expresiei i formei poeziei, o originalitate mrturisit, Philippide
nu este receptat de criticii vremii aa cum s-ar fi ateptat. Volumul de debut, Aur Sterp, devine
centrul unor critici acute, simite din partea lui Ovid Densuianu, N. Davidescu, Camil
Petrescu ori din partea lui Eugen Lovinescu.
Ovid Densuianu vedea n originalitatea poetului o aparen voit aruncat ca un vl
peste poezie, el fiind mai degrab o masc a intelectualitii, dect un intelectual mascat. nc
de la apariia volumului de debut al lui Philippide, Densuianu pare s fi observat acest
element definitoriu al liricii sale. Titlul volumului, Aur Sterp, i-a trezit criticului sentimentul
George Muntean, Convorbiri neterminate, Romnia literar, an. XIII, nr. 13, 27 martie 1980, pp. 12-13.
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c acesta este doar o ,,alturare de cuvinte aa numai la ntmplare, vrnd s par original,
dar originalitatea poate da inspiraii mai potrivite pentru un titlu3.
Densuianu traduce obsesia discursului liric prin obsesia autorului de a prea mereu
nou. Criticul gsete ca not definitorie a poeziei philippidiene, imaginea. Discursul su liric
se arat ca o ram cu un corpus multi-imagistic. Acesta critic presupusa gndire a poetului,
potrivit creia ,,poezia se poate reduce la un sport de imagini4.
i N. Davidescu definete poezia lui Philippide ca ,,poezie de imagin, aceasta din
urm fiind ,,n poezie, aproape echivalent liniei de pictur5. Este tocmai aceast ntretiere a
artelor, a muzicii i a picturii, cea care red paletei sale poematice, senzaia contemplrii unui
tablou.
La debut, poetul nu este perceput ca o for revoluionar n poezie, dar substratul
emoional i sensibilitatea sa aparte reuesc s contureze n percepia criticului un poet cu
posibiliti creatoare mari.
Eugen Lovinescu l situeaz pe Philippide n centrul unei interpretri devenite pamflet.
Criticul nu numai c rezoneaz cu criticile de dinaintea sa, dar le amplific printr-un ton
acuzator. El gsete poezia limitat la imagine, la un peisaj din natur ori la vreo problem
existenial, anulnd orice form de comunicare: ,,lipsit n genere de emotivitate, poezia dlui Al. A. Philippide nu comunic.6
Dac Lovinescu acuz lipsa de lirism n poezia philippidian, Camil Petrescu i
exprim cu vehemen crezul c lirismul exist, fiind doar expresia unei atitudini din rndul
tinerilor vremii, i anume aceea de tnjire dup nou, atunci cnd vechiul cade n comun.
Clasndu-l pe Philippide ca poet romantic trziu, Camil Petrescu caracterizeaz
lirismul acestuia ca fiind pur expresie mimetic, sustras din miezul romantismului. Este, n
accepiunea sa, un lirism care trdeaz o pustiire sufleteasc, o dezndejde aproape absolut,
un suflu oniric, ce alimenteaz iluzii.
Dac Petrescu apr lirismul poeziilor lui Philippide, contracarndu-l pe
contemporanul su, Lovinescu, asta nu nseamn c l i vede pavoazat de calitile scriptice
ale creatorului su. Criticul admite lirismul poeziilor sale, ns i contest valoarea: ,,Poezia dlui Philippide nu numai c e lipsit de lirism, dar mpinge acest lirism de comun calitate
pn la caricatur. E de mediocr calitate acest lirism pentru c nu este dect ecoul unor stri
sufleteti superficiale i trectoare.7
Pind mai departe prin poeziile philippidiene, cobornd de la nveli spre miezul
semantic, criticul Petrescu noteaz o inconsecven n nlnuirea logic a ideisticii ascunse-n
versuri.
Strofele nu par a se succede tot timpul, nu se dezvolt una din cealalt, astfel lsnd
impresia unei poezii rupte. Poetul aprinde elemente cosmice ntr-o strof, reaprinzndu-le n
alta. Camil Petrescu trateaz aceast revenire n stane cu fenomene cosmice imposibil de
manipulat, ca pe o ignoran din partea poetului, dei acesta din urm pare doar s fi vrut a
crea impresia unui ciclu obsesiv.
n ciuda criticilor azvrlite peste opera philippidian, Camil Petrescu recunoate c
ambiia este o calitate de care poetul dispune i pe care o transmite n poeziile sale n drumul
spre glorie.
Primele interpretri ale poeziei lui Philippide au fost fie rezervate, fie negativ
proiectate. ns recepiile critice de mai trziu aveau s-l situeze pe poet n sfera valorilor
naionale.
Al. Philippide interpretat de..., n Biblioteca critic, Editura Eminescu, Bucureti, 1972, p. 1.
Ibidem, p.3.
5
Ibidem, p. 11.
6
Ibidem, p. 26.
7
Ibidem, p. 1.
3
4
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Lirica lui Philippide este elogiat de Ion Barbu n Salut n Novalis, unde acesta i
aclam stilul inovator. Astfel, potrivit criticului, Philippide reuete s se plaseze diacronic
prin versurile sale n rndul contemporanilor lui Eminescu. Primul volum al poetului, Aur
sterp, ,,a lucrat sterilizator asupra vulgaritii produselor literare ale urmailor lui Vlahu i
Cerna. Redevenirm contemporanii lui Eminescu.8
Barbu reclam la predecesorii si neputina de a recunoate frumuseea poeziei
philippidiene, acetia limitndu-se la o interpretare de suprafa, fr a percepe profunzimile
versurilor sale.
Interpretarea critic a celei de-a treia generaii postmaioresciene, i anume cea a lui
Perpessicius, Vladimir Streinu, Pompiliu Constantinescu, erban Cioculescu, George
Clinescu, l nal pe Philippide n ierarhia poeziei, cptnd acum dimensiunile unui poet
recunoscut i aplaudat pentru originalitate, diversitate i mbinare perfect a curentelor
literare.
Alexandru Piru l situeaz pe poet pe aceeai treapt a desvririi poeziei cu Arghezi
i Blaga, toi trei avnd acelai dialog cu existena, ducnd o lupt n versuri cu problemele de
care viaa nu ne lipsete nicicnd. Ca i spiritul arghezian i blagian, Philippide este preocupat
de cunoatere i autocunoatere, mulndu-se la rndul lui dup scheletul poematic eminescian.
Dac iniial Philippide nu a fost receptat la nlimea versurilor sale, ambiia i talentul
su fuseser totui enunate, iar viitorul prolific intuit.
Receptrile ulterioare aveau s recunoasc i s dezvluie maturitatea poeziei
philippidiene, o maturitate simit din primul volum, la a crui lansare poetul avea doar 20 de
ani.
Alexandru Piru i exprim uimirea produs de creaia lui Philippide i de activitatea
constant a acestuia pe parcursul apariiei de noi i noi volume, admind c ,,...rari sunt poeii
care, ca Al. Philippide, s vin de la nceput cu o creaie matur (la vrsta de nici 20 de ani
cnd debuta n nsemnri literare, sub ndemnul lui G. Ibrileanu) i s pstreze apoi [] o
tensiune niciodat slabit, o continu incandescen a meditaiei lirice i a expresiei adecvate.
9
Alexandru A. Philippide demonstreaz o putere creatoare mare, ce nu se diminueaz n
timp, devenind astfel un izvor nesecat de versuri originale.
Originalitatea poetului nu se rezum numai la asocieri surprinztoare ori la nnoiri
prozodice, filonul su regsindu-se n nsi personalitatea creatorului. Este aceasta cea care l
ndeamn pe Philippide s-i scrie poezia ntocmai cum o triete.
Opera philippidian nu st sub semnul unei singure micri ideatice i culturale, ea nu
dovedete apartenena la un curent literar n mod expres. Ea este un cumul de influene ce
acioneaz n sens diacronic.
Dei diferite i chiar antagonice, micrile literare ce au marcat trecutul i prezentul lui
Philippide, se gsesc aglutinate n jurul unui nucleu, i anume, poezia philippidian.
Opera poetului devine un tot unitar, n care curentele literare se mbin perfect, avnd
ca rezultat un produs unic. Aceast mbinare face ca micrile ideatice prezente n poezia lui
Philippide s-i piard identitatea unitar, n favoarea unei identiti colective, un curent
literar aparte ce s-ar putea numi philippidianismul.
ntrezrit la nceput ca oper de factur romantic, ulterior ca produs simbolist i ceva
mai trziu, ca i creaie neoromantic cu nuane expresioniste, poezia philippidian devine o
oglind cu mai multe fee, artnd interpreilor si de fiecare dat altceva, de fiecare dat alte
trsturi ce par s-i domine stanele. Criticile contemporanilor culmineaz cu o imagine clar,
incluznd toate trsturile enunate pn atunci, i anume, modernismul.
8
9
Ibidem, p. 31.
Alexandru Piru, Incandescena meditaiei lirice, Gazeta literar, 22 aprilie, 1965, p.1.
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Primele recepii critice plasau poezia philippidian sub semnul simbolismului.

Tristeea apstoare, lsat ca un vl peste versurile sale, singurtatea covritoare simit n
slove i glasul spleen-ului tradus prin imagini auditive, erau considerate definitorii lirismului
philippidian.
La Philippide, muzica este precum pana cu care scrie, iar imaginea este hrtia. Poezia
sa este sinonimial cu arta. Cuvintele se mperecheaz sinestezic, iar muzicalitatea versurilor
te face s simi vibraiile unui decor simbolist.
O mare parte din poeziile philippidiene stau sub zodia muzicii, aceasta devenind
titular n cele mai multe cazuri. Muzicalitatea este atribuit chiar i lucrurilor incapabile s
genereze vreun sunet. n Muzic, ,,tremurtoarea raz albstrie/ Melodios se-aterne pe covor/
Ca un fior. Poetul caut s nvluie ntreaga sa poezie n muzic, el simindu-i ritmul chiar i
n fenomene mute.
mbinrile sinestezice sunt depistabile n poeziile philippidiene, lund forma unor
personificri, metafore i epitete metaforice. n Roman, culoarea se mbin cu o not
muzical, amalgamul rezultat fiind sunetul vntului toamna, aa cum l percepe poetul: ,,S-l
azvrl n grl i s-i cnt pe mal/ n violet minor,/ Cum cnt vntul cnd aproape-i toamna.
Preferina poetului pentru culorile violet (sau vnt), alb, dar i pentru negru, albastru,
cenuiu i verde traduce o apeten pentru culorile simboliste.
Inserarea refrenului n poezie pentru o transpunere a gndurilor pe fond muzical ine
tot de curentul simbolist. i aceasta este o trstur, care se regsete printre versurile lui
Philippide. Regsim refrenul, ca not dominant, n poezia Preludiu de toamn, unde acesta
apare ca distih, ca versuri-ram pentru celelalte strofe. n poezia Cntec de orologiu, refrenul
se identific n ultimul vers al fiecrei strofe: ,,- Iar Capucinul serii cu glas nentrerupt/
Psalmodiaz.
Morbiditatea se nscrie n platoul tematic al poeziei lui Philippide, validnd nc o dat
interpretrile criticilor, potrivit crora Philippide ar fi un poet simbolist. Camil Petrescu
susinea c volumul poetului ieean aduce un nou argument celor care cred c o latur, cel
puin, a simbolismului este continuarea romantismului << rebours>>10.
Receptarea critic de mai trziu avea s transfere poezia philippidian din spaiul
simbolist n spaiul romantic, un spaiu ncrcat i de elemente expresioniste. Din punct de
vedere stilistic, ,,insolita evoluie philippidian de la simbolism spre romantismul cu
prelungiri expresioniste se traduce n nmnunchierea simbolurilor, a analogiilor sinestezice n
alegorii de viziune romantic, printr-o subtil conversiune imagistic11.
Romantismul se nfirip n ideistica poeziei lui Philippide, devenind palpabil prin
tematic i viziune.
Incursiunile repetate pe teritoriul german i-au pus amprenta asupra activitii poetului
ieean, acesta fcnd traduceri substaniale dup operele poeilor germani de notorietate ai
vremii: Hlderlin, Novalis, Morike .a.
Spaiul german avea s-i inculce poetului o dragoste nenchipuit pentru cultura sa,
pentru micarea ideatic, sub egida creia vieuia o epoc, epoca romantismului.
Plecnd de la crezul c romantismul este chintesenial spiritului uman, aa cum ying i
este chintesenial lui yang, Philippide a pit pe scena creaiei cu un ochi mereu ntors spre
romantism. Era tocmai acesta cel care depea barierele trupale pentru o ptrundere n spirit.
Proiectarea unei astfel de atitudini asupra animei avea s scoat la iveal cele mai adnci i
ascunse triri i gnduri ale poetului.
10
11
Al. Philippide interpretat de..., n Biblioteca critic, Editura Eminescu, Bucureti, 1972, p. 12.
Horia Avrmu, Alexandru Philippide, Cartea Romneasc, 1984, p. 27.
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Pompiliu Constantinescu nota c ,,Philippide ine mai mult de romantism, prin

tematica liricii sale i prin o anume grandilocven a expresiei12, respingnd prerile expuse
pn atunci de critici, potrivit crora poetul ar fi fost un reprezentant al simbolismului.
Pornind de la premiza c poezia philippidian este romantic, criticii i-au direcionat
analiza n planul romantismului european pentru a descoperi ce latur anume a acestuia o
reprezint cel mai bine. Astfel c poezia lui Philippide a fost asociat cu neoromantismul
german, graie influenelor direct rsfrnte n discursul liric al acestuia: ,,poezia lui Al.
Philippide, nutrit de mari avnturi cosmice i intuit de grele singurti, se nscrie pe linia
unui romantism ale crui particulariti, de viziune i de notaie, critica le-a asociat
neoromantismului german13.
Aspiraiile astrale, reiterarea mitologiei, slvirea naturii, demonia, moartea sunt teme
prevalente n opera lui Philippide, teme ce in de romantism.
Eul liric philippidian caut calea infinitului, dedicnd cntece soarelui, visnd la
nlarea printre astre, dezvluind prin versuri o nevoie profund de libertate.
nc de la prima poezie din volumul de debut, poetul suplic soarele s-i ofere un vis
nou, sau poate un alt suflet, un suflet mbrcat n haine astrale: i d-ne, Soare, suflet nou, alt
vis!/ Ne-am sturat de vechiul nostru vis/ Vzduhul tot tu f-l s intre-n noi!/ De tine pn-n
cretet s fim plini. (Cntecul ctorva)
Materia pare c rezoneaz cu fiecare apariie cosmic, tnjind i ea, la rndul ei s
accead spre culmi superioare: ,,O, vis, i draperiile snt pline/ De somnul mtsos al lunei
pline. (Muzic).
Dorina de vis se denatureaz n poeziile de mai trziu, transformndu-se ntr-o lupt
cu visul. Eul liric refuz orice dovad de astralitate, o dovad pe care el nsui o cerea printre
versurile primelor poeme. ,,Natur romantic, avnd, ca Eminescu, groaza surprii i intuiia
stihiilor cosmice, Philippide imagineaz o transcenden a soarelui pentru salvarea sufletului
asediat de forte malefice14.
Propensiunea de spiritul eminescian nu se realizeaz doar prin visare, ci i prin
contemplarea naturii. Natura devine personaj att pe scena eminescian, ct i pe scena
philippidian, jucnd rolul unui martor.
n contextul poeziei lui Philippide, natura este mai mult dect martor, ea este
complice, complicele eului liric n ncercrile sale de a cuceri soarele: Pe-aici pdurea s-a
urcat din vi /n vi,/Odinioar ctre soare. (Pdure).
Philippide personific natura, o personalizeaz. Natura ia aliura unui om, care simte i
percepe lucrurile din jurul su: ,,Snt buzele pmntului rsfrnte, /Care cer/ Srutul rodnic de
la cer! (Cmp)
n poezia lui Philippide se simte o prezen hyperionic, eul liric fiind realmente captat
de dimensiunile astrale. De foarte multe ori, criticile l-au adus n discuie pe Philippide n
ipostaza unui descendent al lui Eminescu.
n tabloul tematic al poeziei philippidiene se zresc i nuane ale expresionismului, ca
prelungire a romantismului.
Horia Avrmu noteaz prezena unor teme pur expresioniste n cadrul operei poetului,
dar nu-i reduce lirica la acest curent literar. La Philippide apar teme ce in de expresionism
precum: ,,sentimentul metafizic, esenializarea, subordonarea sensurilor cosmice unei
mitologii proprii, vizionarismul, cultul arhaicului i originarului, profetismul tragic15.
Al. Philippide interpretat de..., n Biblioteca critic, Editura Eminescu, Bucureti, 1972..., p. 99.
Ibidem, p. 113.
14
George Gibescu, Alexandru Philippide, Ed. Albatros, Bucureti, 1985, pp. 52-53.
15
12
13
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Acest amalgam de micri literare, aceste influene diferite rsfrnte n opera lui
Philippide pot fi compilate ntr-un tot literar, modernismul.
Reiterarea miturilor antice, jocul cu arhetipurile, dorul de simminte, utilizarea
simbolurilor ori corespondenelor constituie elementele din care poetul ieean i creeaz
propria matrice. El reperspectiveaz episoade literare din trecut i le modernizeaz, le
accesorizeaz cu instrumentele noului.
Construit din crmizile modernitii, eul liric triete o dram, luptnd cu visul i
totodat iubindu-l. El se gsete prins, ntocmai ca poetul, ntre refuzul raiunii i victoria ei.
,,Poetul, o contiin modern, ncearc s gseasc un sens lumii, dar eul risipit n attea
contradicii i agresat permanent simte apropierea satanismului16.
Philippide i-a croit poezia cu elemente tradiionale, expunndu-le cu ajutorul unor
tehnici noi att la nivelul formei, ct i expresiei. ,,<<Modernistul>> Ph. e mai curnd
moderat n aprecierea fenomenelor novatoare din spaiul poeziei, miznd pe ideea echilibrului
necesar dontre tradiie i schimbare17.
Modernismul se arat n poezia lui Philippide ca o balan, nclinndu-se cnd spre
noul autentic, cnd spre vechi, asupra cruia exercit o influen renovatoare. Modernismul
lui Philippide nu are o apartenen exclusiv la nici una dintre colile contemporane.
,,Structura sa clasic face din drumul prin modernism o ,<<ntoarcere>> la marea poezie de
totdeauna, o ntoarcere soldat cu un ctig expresiv i o mbogire spiritual18.
Poezia lui Philippide este echilibru, ea adunnd n stanele sale trsturi romantice,
expresioniste, simboliste i moderniste. Poezia philippidian nu e pur modernist, ci este un
amalgam modern de versuri.
Pe tot parcursul operei philippidiene ntlnim fie omul pierdut n pnzele visrii, fie
ancorat prea mult n raiune; ntlnim moartea, ca parte integrat a vieii, iar mai trziu, viaa,
ca parte integrat a morii. Poezia philippidian este plin de contradicii, plin de dileme,
reprezentnd chiar omul modern, prins n vrtejul ideilor, c|rezurilor, problemelor existeniale.
De-a lungul timpului, critica l-a plasat pe Philippide n relaie de echivalen cu poezia
practicat de Bacovia, Arghezi i Blaga.
Asemenea spiritului bacovian, Philippide i ncarc poezia cu sugestii, crend o
atmosfer a destrmrii, a angoasei, dar aceast stare specific simbolist el n-o triete prin
fiin, n-o filtreaz prin suflet, ci o plaseaz ntr-un plan raional, de unde culege cunoatere.
Dorina de cunoatere i autocunoatere l apropie i de Arghezi i Blaga. Apariia
primului volum de versuri philippidiene, Aur sterp, a uimit prin receptarea sa de ctre lectori
ca fiind primul volum revoluionar de dup Poemele Luminii ale lui Blaga.
ncorpornd n lirica sa decoruri simboliste, n care cunoaterea se caut n chip
romantic, iar omul se caut pe sine n vrtejul problemelor existeniale, Philippide reuete s
creeze un produs complex, diversificat i totodat unitar. Resuscitnd arhetipuri i
angrenndu-le n jocuri moderne, poetul pstreaz acea legtur indestructibil cu trecutul, pe
care l pavoazeaz cu tehnici noi, smulse din prezent.
Bibliografie:
Alexandru Philippide interpretat de..., Ediie ngrijit de George Gibescu, Editura
Eminescu, Bucureti, 1972.
Arion, George, Alexandru Philippide sau drama unicitii, Editura Eminescu,
Bucureti, 1982.
Avrmu, Horia, Alexandru Philippide, Editura Cartea Romneasc, 1984.
George Gibescu, Alexandru Philippide, Ed. Albatros, Bucureti, 1985, p. 48.
Dicionarul Scriitorilor Romni, vol. (M-Q), Ed. Albatros, Bucureti, 2001, p. 741.
18
16
17
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Balot, Nicolae, Introducere n opera lui Al. Philippide, Editura Minerva, Bucureti,
1974.
Dicionarul Scriitorilor Romni, vol. (M-Q), Editura Albatros, Bucureti, 2001.
Gibescu, George, Alexandru Philippide, Editura Albatros, Bucureti, 1985.
Muntean, George, Convorbiri neterminate, Romnia literar, an. XIII, nr. 13, 27
martie 1980.
Philippide, Alexandru, Scrieri, vol I, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1976.
Piru, Alexandru, Incandescena meditaiei lirice, Gazeta literar, 22 aprilie 1965.
Zarifopol, Paul, Alexandru Philippide, Adevrul literar i artistic, an. XII, nr. 633, 20
august 1933.
267
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POETIC TRANSYLVANISM IN THE CASE OF KNYDI SNDOR

Carmen HURUB (DUDIL)
Abstract: Knydi Sndor is an authentic Transylvanian poet. In the lines below you can
discover the essence of the traditionalism through the image of the poet's native village. This
article attempts to describe the three periods of the poet's work and the discovery of
characteristic elements of Transylvanian poetry.
Keywords: poetry, village, traditional, lyrism, Transylvania.
KNYDI SNDOR este un poet maghiar din Ardeal care a primit premiul Kossuth
i este una dintre cele mai importante personaliti din literatura maghiar contemporan care
continu tradiiile din satul natal.
n poeziile sale temele principale sunt:
soarta minoritilor din Ardeal;
importana limbii materne;
problemele eseniale ale societii.
S-a nscut la 1929 n satul Porumbenii Mari, Harghita, tatl su Miklos Knydi, ran
gospodar, iar mama sa a fost Laszlo Julianna pe care a pierdut-o foarte curnd. Primele cinci
clase le-a terminat n satul natal, apoi i-a continuat studiile la Colegiul reformat din
Odorheiul Secuiesc (19411944), apoi la Gimnaziul romano-catolic.
S-a nscris la Trgu-Mure la institutul de arte teatrale, dar urmeaz s obin pn la
urm diploma de profesor de limba maghiar n anul 1954 la Universitatea Bolyai din ClujNapoca. El obine diploma, dar niciodat nu lucreaz ca profesor. Paskandi Geza, un alt poet
transilvnean, este cel care i-a descoperit capacitile sale poetice i l-a ajutat ca n 1950 s-i
apar prima poezie. Ani de zile a lucrat ca redactor la ziarele Femeia muncitoare i Raza de
soare ziar pentru copii.1
n 1958 se cstorete cu doamna Tichy Maria Magdolna, care este profesoar i
redactor i vor avea doi copii.
n 1984 va lua parte la mai multe activiti culturale din America de Nord i America
de Sud unde a recitat poeziile sale.
n 1987 a fost invitat la Rotterdam la o conferin internaional a poeilor, dar nu a
obinut paaport i n semn de protest nu a mai vrut s fac parte din Asociaia Scriitorilor din
Romnia.
Pn n zilele noastre ia parte activ la viaa literar, face recitri la coli, biblioteci sau
cmine culturale din ar, din Ungaria precum i din celelalte ri unde triesc minoriti
maghiare.
Opera sa se mparte n trei perioade:
I.
din 1950 pn n 1965
Primele sale poezii s-au nscut sub influena lirei populare. Primul su volum a aprut
n 1955, iar al doilea n 1957, acesta din urm fiind distrus. Idolii lui sunt Petfi Sandor cu
poezia popular i Arany Janos. Tradiiile, obiceiurile, modul de via al oamenilor simpli i
1
Mohacsy Karoly, Vasy Geza Szines Irodalom, ed. Kronika, Budapesta, 2009.
268
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peisajele acelea pure sunt toate n traista lui, traist pe care a adus-o de pe meleagurile natale
i traista de care a avut grij n cursul vieii sale.
Knydi Sndor este una dintre prezenele impuntoare, dea lungul unei jumti de
veac, n peisajul liricii transilvnene. A debutat cu volumul nflorete cireul - Virgzik a
cseresznyefa, ntro perioad dominat de mari poei, precum: Tompa Lszl, Mliusz Jzsef,
Szemlr Ferenc, Szabdi Lszl, Horvth Imre, Horvth Istvn i alii. Primele volume, a
cror substan liric este dominat de sentimente nostalgice, de frustrrile pe care le triete
tnrul plecat dintro lume patriarhal n care rnduielile dinuie de la nceputul lumii parc,
de delicata evocare a acestui spaiu n care naturii i se atribuie nsemnele unei diviniti
protectoare, volume al cror discurs nc pare ovitor, nu reuesc sl impun n ochii criticii.
Abia cu volumul Deconectare - Kikapcsolds ncepe drumul puternic ascendent al
destinului su literar. Fraza se limpezete, se schimb radical i se lrgete aria tematic,
componenta nostalgic melancolic este mpins spre fundal, imaginile se ncarc cu
simboluri i semnificaii sugerate cu rafinament, construciile parabolice sunt tot mai
frecvente, aluziile de mare finee fac dovada c poetul ia aflat drumul propriu i a devenit
stpn pe mijloacele sale de expresie. Poezia nu mai are sincope, se ivete limpede, clar ca
astrul dimineii pe un cer marin. Limbajul frust, fr ncrcturi stilistice inutile, servete
ideea care este proiectat spre receptor pe un drum eliberat de orice obstacole care ar putea sta
n calea decodificrii sale inechivoce. Poezia cu acelai nume, Deconectare precum i n
seara aceea dau glas melancoliei lui Knydi: Un dangt deprtat de clopot simt/n
vine./Culcat pe spate, stau cu linitea/i rcoarea marilor catedrale/n creieri/De cnd?//De
dou minute? De cinci?/Oceanele. Pdurile/Domol se leagn suav ca luna globul/De
aluminiu-al soarelui,/Pe care daca l-a lovi/Ar suna ca un clopot./Sunt fericit.//Brusc sabia
lui Alexandru fulgera/i nodul se desface/Socrate ciocnete paharul,/Platon surde,/Ioan
nsui mi aduce capul lui pe tav,/Inchizitorii-mbrieaz ereticii/Ca pe nite prieteni
vechi,/Coul crematoriului zvrle-n slav ngeri,/Reactoare enorme lunec-n/ntmpinarea
lor;/Ciuperca pe care-adineauri o priveam la tulpina unui pom,/ncepe s se-nale ca o
rachet ce ia startul,/mpingnd de sub ea pmntul,/i, sus, plria ei mare-ascunde/Privirii
mele ngerii,/Curmnd n mine dangtul de clopot,/i nu mai ndrznesc s deschid ochii.
(DECONECTARE) 2
Citindul pe Knydi, sa instalat impresia c transilvanismul pe care lau conceput ca
program creatorii din jurul revistei Helikon abia acum ia aflat poetul care si dea o
concretizare artistic major. Knydi este transilvnean prin tot ce simte, gndete, creeaz i
sper. El este Transilvania n chip de om.3
n primele volume, poeziile sunt scrise ntr-un limbaj colocvial, cu puin umor, iar
ritmul poeziilor tipic unguresc sunt pline cu sentimentul dorului de cas. n permanen n
atenia lui s-a aflat nevoia de a fi neles de toat lumea. n aceast perioad scrie cteva
poezii despre era socialist, de care nu este prea mndru mai trziu.
n anul 1964 apare volumul Harmat a csillagon - Rou pe stea, volum care i va
aduce consacrarea. n prefaa volumului, A. E. Baconsky mrturisea am simit nc nainte de
a-l fi citit, c am n fa un poet autentic, prinzndu-l cu acele antene secrete prin care poeii i
tlharii se recunosc ntre ei de la prima ntlnire. Cititorul va recunoate n acest descendent al
tradiiei lui Attila Jozsef pe unul dintre asceii poeziei de azi - i dac aa cum e fatal s se
ntmple, trecnd dintr-un grai n altul, lirica lui i va modifica rezonana, va ti s-o asculte
mai presus de cuvinte. Cci poezia adevrata, dincolo de eforturile fie i ale celor mai
strlucii interprei, beneficiaz ntotdeauna i de un alfabet nevazut pe care vocaia cititorului
2
3
Sandor Knydi Cai verticali, ed. pt. literatur, 1969, pag. 113;
Efectul admiraiei. Poei maghiari din Transilvania - antologie de Kocsis Francisko,editura Ardealul, 2006;
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Issue no. 6/2015
tie sa-l descifreze.4 n aceste poezii, pe lng motivul naional, apar poezii despre muncitori
i despre viaa orenilor, inspirate din poezia lui Jozsef Attila (unul din cei mai nsemnai
poei maghiari din secolul al XX-lea). n volum apar i poezii despre peisajul ardelenesc
(Nyerges tet Acoperi de tractor). Una din cele mai importante poezii din acest volum este
Kobor kutya - Cinele vagabond. Animalul care apare n titlul poeziei este, de fapt, o alegorie
a minoritii maghiare, care triete fr speran. Poetul vede pentru minoritatea maghiar o
singur soluie: moartea. Poezia nu exprim peisajul extern ci pe cel intern, adic starea
sufleteasc a poetului. n aceast poezie se regsesc motive similare celor din poezia lui Petfi
Sandor: nti l-au izgonit din curte,/Apoi i din sat l-au gonit./Acum alearg printre
sate/ncolo-ncoace, nucit//Drz cine a fost, mai nainte/Sfrunta ciomagul cel mai gros/i
iat-l astzi/Un neputincios!//Chiar i de-o pasre tresare,/i tremur de spaima, i/Nici nu
mai are dini dect ca/S aib din ce clnni.//Cu limba-i vnt de sete,/Vrea ap, altfel ar
turba./Scrboase-n colurile gurii-i/Curg balele i lacrim.//De fric, n-are glas s urle/S
nu-l aud careva/i scap afar noim pielea,/Ct mai pot labele-ndura.//i scap afar noim
pielea./Doar piele-i, parc fr os/Unde ntrzii,/Vntor milos? (CINELE VAGABOND)5
II.
din 1960 pn n 1970
n anii 60, arta poetic a lui Knydi devine tot mai complex. Poezia se umple cu
disonane, dar se pstreaz limbajul colocvial. Deja au aprut compoziiile specifice lui
Knydi, n care gsim elemente ancestrale i elemente din poezia modern. Mai trziu, lirica
tradiional apare tot mai puin i poetul devine tot mai interesat de lirica modern. Poeziile
sale apar n revista Forras Izvorul, alturi de poeziile lui Szilgyi Domokos i Hervay
Gizella, fondatorii acestei reviste. Arta poetic a lui Knydi se primenete ca form i
coninut. Scrie poezii cu vers liber, folosete tehnica colajului, simultaneitatea, specifice
postmodernismului. Poezia devine tot mai impersonal, cptnd note tot mai triste. De
asemenea, poezia lui primete accente din poeziile poeilor maghiari de dup anul 1945 (Illys
Gyula, Nagy Lszl i Juhsz Ferenc). n aceste poezii, opinia lui despre via devine tot mai
complex dar i mai emotiv. El nu mai ine cont de iluzii. n cele mai multe poezii apare ca
un factor important timpul i amintirile. Reprezentativ pentru aceast perioad este poezia
Amurg orfan de primvar a crei versuri sugereaz scurgerea timpului:Straia goal
legnndu-se/ncolo i ncoace, ritmic/O bucat de orici/Rmas fr pine;/O jumtate de
ceap,sare;/Cu grij mpturite/ntr-un strai de cnep./Furnicar dospit,/Furnicar
miunnd.//Spre verdea semntur fuge un vtui,/Prin slvi zboar fum,/Pe jos zboar-o
pasre,/aureola nvluie culmea muntelui,/Iarba cucului la plria/Tras pe-o
ureche./Curtea goal, casa goal:/Jalea clopotelor fr/limb. (AMURG ORFAN DE
PRIMVAR)6
III. din 1970 pn n zilele noastre
n 1970 cnd i apare volumul selectiv Ftol fig (De la un copac la altul), Knydi
Sandor este un poet ajuns la maturitatea talentului su ca i a miestriei sale, un poet destul de
exigent ca s condamne unele din poeziile aprute ntre 1955-1965.
n aceast perioad, n literatura maghiar din Romnia poezia pierde din importan,
iar Knydi scrie despre acest lucru n volumul Szrklet Amurg (1978), n care versurile
poeziilor exprim dilema poetului. Volumul cuprinde poezii n care abund notaii laconice
ale unor triri episodice, impresii, amintiri. nelepciunile btrnilor poei i au n poeziile din
Amurg un ecou trziu. Ideaia poetic evit ns, elaborarea uneori greoaie a mai amplelor
Sandor Knydi Cai verticali, ed. pt. literatur, 1969, pag. 5.
6
4
5
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poeme dintr-o fraz anterioar. Mici ntmplri misterioase, reflecii enigmatice nu vor s
reveleze, ele aduc aburul incertitudinii, al indescifrabilului cu ele. Nici n aceste faze mai
trzii ale evoluiei sale Knydi nu-i uit sursele, solul poeziei sale: satul. Sfera din care se
alimenteaz imaginarul su este una nostalgic-rural. Lamentaii, peisaje, cntri i
jocuri,totul vine de acolo i trimite ntr-acolo. Imagini-matrice organizeaz scurtele
compoziii din aceast perioad. Peisajele i au peripeiile lor, ca nite imagini animate.
Nostalgicul este mbibat cu regret. Poetul intoneaz un admirabil Recviem pentru o pdure. Sar putea spune c poezia sa se nate tot mai mult dintr-un fel de recunotin rareori
mrturisit pentru deprtatele rdcini.
n anul 1979 apare n Ungaria volumul Poezii roiinegre - Feketepros versek. Cele
dou culori alctuiesc un contrast dramatic, n negru apare ntotdeauna i rou i n rou apare
ntotdeauna negru. Cele mai importante poezii din volum sunt Fekete - piros Negru rou
i Halottak napja Bcsben Ziua morilor la Viena, n care apar problemele istorice,
confesiuni despre problemele existeniale ale minoritilor naionale i a tuturor minoritilor
care de-a cursul istoriei au fost persecutate.
n anul 1989 apare un alt volum Srny s koponya Coam i cpn, n care pe
lng criticile aduse societii i culturii din acea epoc, poeziile au un aer tragic datorate
dictaturii lui Ceauescu i a politicii lui de a distruge satele. i n aceast perioad grea poetul
folosete umorul i gsim pe lng sonete, poezii cu form japonez, haiku (un gen de poezie
cu form fix, tradiional japonez, limba japonez fiind o limb silabic, alctuit din 17
silabe repartizate pe 3 versuri formate din 5, 7, 5 silabe), poezii similare baladelor lui Villon.
Cea mai important dintre poeziile din acest volum este poezia Dl keresztje alatt Sub
crucea Sudului. n acest ciclu apar poeziile inspirate de pe vremea cltoriei n America de
Nord i apar similitudini cu minoritile amerindiene. n ciclul Vannak vidkek Exist
inuturi, apare drept motiv distrugerea valorilor. n ciclul Histris nek odatra - Cntec
istoric pentru dincolo, dincolo este Ungaria, iar cntecul care a fost n sec. XVI XVII foarte
popular n Ungaria, a fost interpretat de un ir uman format din poeii vagabonzi.
Vagabonzii l-au folosit ca un fel de reportaj i letopise. n volum apare poezia Krniks nek
Cronica cntat, dedicat lui Illys Gyulnak, care se aseamn cu poezia lui Ady Endre
Krniks nek 1918-bl - Cronica cntat din 1918. Poezia vrea s descrie soarta
minoritilor din Ardeal folosind tradiiile poeilor maghiari. n descrierea confruntrilor i
aduce aminte de versurile lui Illys Gyula care l-a numit szekrtbornak liderul. n poezia
lui Knydi aceast adunare deja arde, ce era la Illys un fel de refugiu, Knydi nu vrea s
scrie despre vitejie n stil romantic i spune cu cuvintele lui Jzsef Attila c poezia trebuie s
zboare, nu trebuie s fii viteaz dac nu ai posibilitatea dar s nu te dai napoi, s nu renuni.
Apar i unele aspecte din poezia lui Tompa Mihly, A glyhoz Ctre barz, unde gsim o
construcie anaforic cu cele cinci verbe prin care sunt exprimate chinurile poporului maghiar.
n aceast poezie se desprinde ideea c acest szekrtbor poate fi mprit ntre aprtori i
mercenari. Mercenarii au o expresie peiorativ i i condamn pe cei care prsesc ara. n
strofele urmtoare, condamnarea moral este luat din Biblie, din scrisoarea I a apostolului
Ioan, c cei care au prsit ara s-au condamnat pe ei nii. Aceast condamnare are un efect
moral, i n paralel n ultimele trei rnduri apare, ca i apostolii aprtori ai lui Iisus n acea
noapte n care el a fost trdat. Pinea apare n credina apostolului ca i corpul lui Iisus, dar
poetul schimb ordinea i corpul lui Iisus este ultima pine. Ultima strof vrea s demonstreze
c cei care rmn nu triesc o iluzie, ci ei i urmeaz legile interioare ale sufletului, iar aici,
nc o dat, apar motivele poeziei lui Knydi, c pierderile sunt ntr-adevr foarte mari i c
nu acele pierderi duc mai departe poezia, ci cu distrugerea simului pierderii i a ndeplinirii.
Aceast distrugere ar fi un nimic dintr-un punct de vedere mai nalt, dar tim c ultimul
cuvnt al lui Petfi pe cmpul de lupt de la Sighioara a fost potomsg misiune uoar. A
strigat aceasta cnd nc nu tia c ei sunt ncercuii i dup aceea el nu a mai putut continua
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cronica i a fugit spre un lan de porumb s-i salveze viaa. Autorul poemului Krniks nek
Cronica cntat are n comun cu Petfi imaginea comunitii care se desparte sub presiunea
prea mare. Tragedia fr iluzii apare n aceast poezie cu motive care inspir poetul pe
deoparte, iar pe de alt parte este un raport foarte vizual despre starea sufleteasc a minoritii
maghiare din anii 80, dar chiar i despre starea poetului care vrea s rmn cu orice pre n
ara lui.
Poezia de nceput este tributar lui Petfi, prin disciplina prozodic i limba frumoas;
apoi poetul i gsete propriul drum, nu deprtndu-se de origini, ci valorificndu-le superior.
Caracteristica liricii sale este sinceritatea cu care ncearc o comunicare total i integratoare a
tririi interioare n funcie de o realitate destul de sumar pentru a avea atributele
universalitii. Fr a fi inedite, motivele poetice se singularizeaz prin extraordinara lor
consumare sentimental concret i concretizat prin obiecte. Poetul este uneori un elegiac
ntr-o natur nstrinat, peisajul este compus aproape exclusiv din elemente naturale,
vegetale i animale, sau din evenimente meteorologice, nu rareori prinse n registrul
sinistrului fantastic, afirmnd alteori grandoarea amestecului de spectacol astral i terestru;
lumea e, oricum reavn i zdravn, alternana de situaii catastrofice i dezvoltri fertile. Un
procedeu de particularizare l constituie manevrarea simbolic a unor evenimente naturale,
devenite imagini pivotante ntre concret i general semnificativ. Caracteristica este starea de
prpd care cuprinde fiina indiferent de cauze,ca n baladescul cunoscut prin Esenin i Lorca.
nscrise n aceast viziune sunt rememorrile autobiografice n cadre rustice, jalea prinilor
dui, atitudinea incert fa de civilizaia industrial. Mai sunt de reinut prelucrrile fanteziste
de legend i mituri; elementele folclorice sunt implicate pn la subtilizare. Burlescul i
apocalipticul, pitorescul i sarcasmul rece, epicul i argoul , familiaritatea omagial sau
discreia n indicarea inexprimabilului sublim sunt alte trsturi ale unei poezii cnd cantabile,
cnd prozaiznd n vers liber, oraliznd interjectiv, cu imagini violente i dinamice, abundente
n verbe.7
Ioan Mari, n lucrarea sa Poezia lui Knydi Sandor, observa c poetul este unul
dintre cei care schimb faa poeziei romneti. Tot acolo descoperim o frumoas i cald
descriere fcut de A. E. Baconski, care l vede ca pe un tnr student cu liniile aspre,
folclorice ale chipului pe care se graveaz parc relieful orizonturilor,dar adug mai apoi
completarea, c, tocmai contrastul dintre formele aspre ale chipului acestui tnr i melancolia
din expresia lui gnditoare,vor defini stilul liricii de tineree.8 Poezia sa va fi ca o infiltrare a
folclorului n poezia modern. Knydi reflecta n versurile sale i o frm din spiritualitatea
romneasc. Astfel descoperim n volumul Decantare dou poeme omagiale dedicate lui
Constantin Brncui, Masa tcerii i Legenda despre coloana fr sfrit. Versurile din
ultimul poem l descriu pe marele sculptor romn ca pe un Moise ce traseaz cu toiagul,
venicia, ridicnd stlpul pe care se sprijin cerul de pmnt, simbol al aducerii aminte a
eroilor neamului: Un stlp ce pn la Paris, pn la ocean s se poat/vedea asemenea
coloan infinit/s-ar cuveni-ntru pomenirea lor... /i cum mergea, desena cu toiagul un ir
lung de sicrie prin/pulbere. i cnd pe dealul bisericii, ridic deodat capul /pn i morii
se nfioar i-n amurgul/tot mai dens ncepus ciopleasc din ochi. (COLOANA) (trad. H.
Grmescu).
Masa tcerii este n viziunea lui Knydi o comuniune a oamenilor n meditaia asupra
sensurilor perene ale vieii i artei. Versurile de mai jos exprima imaginea lui Knydi cu
privire la opera lui Brncui pe care o vede ca pe o esenializare a unei idei: Dac vreodat
Marian Popa - Dicionarul de literatur romn contemporan, Editura Albatros, Bucureti, 1977, pag. 293294
8
Ioan Mari - Poezia lui Knydi Sandor http://www.revistatransilvania.ro/arhiva/2006/pdf/numarul2/p2527.pdf. - 12.02.2014
7
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oamenii ar uita s i ad,/cndva cnd vom fi prsit obiceiul de a edea, aa cum/prsitam, crescnd, mersul n patru labe, zic, dac vreodat/oamenii ar uita s i ad, i iscusina
deprinderii/de pn acum s-ar mai arta doar prin muzee,/iar pn la urm nici mcar
acolo; i dac totui/omenirea ce mbtrnete ispitit ar fi/de dorul de-a edea, ca de
vreun/atavic i nelmurit reflex ce ne face/s ne-aezm fr vorb n jurul unei mese,
doar pentru/a fi laolalt, care mai de care cu singurtatea ce-i are legile ei,/dar laolalt,
totui: atunci nu va trebui dect mers pe malul/Jiului, la Masa tcerii acolo ateapt
scaunele. (MASA I SCAUNELE)
Bibliografie:
Nicolae Balot Scriitori maghiari din Romnia, ed. Kriterion, Bucureti,
1981;
Kocsis Francisko - Efectul admiraiei. Poei maghiari din Transilvania, editura
Ardealul, 2006;
Kortrs Magyar Irk Kiss Lexicon 1959 1988, ed. Magveto, Budapesta,
1989;
Sandor Knydi Cai verticali, ed. pt. literatur, 1969;
Mohacsy Karoly, Vasy Geza Szines Irodalom, ed. Kronika, Budapesta, 2009;
Marian Popa - Dicionarul de literatur romn contemporan, Editura
Albatros, Bucureti, 1977;
Ioan Mari - Poezia lui Knydi Sandor
http://www.revistatransilvania.ro/arhiva/2006/pdf/numarul2/p25-27.pdf. - 12.02.2014
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UTILITARIANISM AND CREATIVITY IN PREHISTORY: THE SMALL ART OF

GUMELNIA CULTURE
Ioana-Iulia OLARU
G. Enescu University of Arts, Iai
Abstract: The present study refers to an ancient period from the History of Art on the territory
of Romania, that is the Eneolithic age. It is difficult (or, on the contrary?) to prove that,
during those times, utilitarianism was largely spread, art being subsumed to a purpose (in the
present case, the magic-religious one), and it is hard to decipher where the artistic quality of
objects started, objects that are for us, the nowadays people, undeniable works of art. Maybe
we could speak about Gumelnieni sculpture as more complex from a typological point of
view and more creative than the Cucuteni works of art, being representative for the artistic
manifestations of this culture, the accent falling on the figures expressiveness. We will see
the steps forward which make the transition from one type to another, in order to create
symbols which are specific to a new world which had known another lifestyle in Neolithic.
The small sculpture of this age will record a more visible qualitative change compared to
ceramics, from an artistic point of view.
Keywords: ryton, en violon, coefore, bec d'oiseau, removable
Elementul creativ este cel care a stat la baza evoluiei societii omeneti de-a lungul
timpului. Cultura1 Gumelnia2, una dintre cele mai cunoscute culturi neolitice, a ocupat prima
jum. a mil. al V-lea .Hr.3. Aparinnd etapei dezvoltate a eneoliticului (4 600/4 500 3 800
.Hr.)4, cultura Gumelnia5 se nscrie ntr-unul dintre grupurile6 caracteristice ale acestei etape
eneolitice: grupul de culturi cu ceramic pictat cu grafit (alturi de cultura Slcua).
Eneoliticul dezvoltat este perioada n care activitatea creativ a omului a cptat proporii
impresionante.
Reprezentanii culturii Gumelnia ne-au lsat o motenire artistic de necontestat. Pe
lng ceramica7 foarte evoluat decorativ i formal, bogat i strlucitoare este i plastica
1 n general, culturile sunt denumite dup aezrile bogate n descoperiri caracteristice.
2 Denumirea este dat dup staiunea de pe un deal cu acest nume de lng Oltenia (jud. Ilfov).
3 D. Monah, Organizarea social, religia i arta n epoca neo-eneolitic, in Mircea Petrescu-Dmbovia,
Alexandru Vulpe (coord.), Istoria romnilor, vol.I, Motenirea timpurilor ndeprtate, Bucureti, Academia
Romn, Ed. Enciclopedic, 2010, p.147
4 Perioad n care eneoliticul face pai nainte n utilizarea aramei: tehnica turnrii acesteia n tipare simple sau
bivalve, precum i n folosirea aurului pentru podoabe, chiar la Gumelnia descoperindu-se 5,5kg de aur n
morminte! i tehnica olritului adaug rsucirii sulurilor de lut i un proces de rotaie (disc, turnet sau roat).
Dar n tot Neoliticul olria va fi lucrat cu mna, roata orizontal fiind folosit doar n perioada geto-dacilor. Cf.
Vladimir Dumitrescu, Arta preistoric n Romnia, vol.I, Bucureti, Ed. Meridiane, 1974, p.23; D. Monah,
Organizarea social, religia i arta n epoca neo-eneolitic, in Mircea Petrescu-Dmbovia, Alexandru Vulpe
(coord.), op. cit., p.146-147
5 S-a dezvoltat ca o continuare fireasc a culturii Boian, treptat i la sud de Dunre, pn n Balcani,
pe fondul culturilor Boian i Hamangia; este rspndit n Muntenia, nord -estul Olteniei, Dobrogea,
sudul Moldovei i regiunile vecine ale Rep. Moldova i Ucraina, precum i pe teritoriul de est al
Bulgariei, elemente fiind semnalate pn n zona Mrii Egee (Grecia). Cf . Ion Miclea, Radu
Florescu, Preistoria Daciei, Bucureti, Ed. Meridiane, 1980, p.82; D. Monah, Organizarea social,
religia i arta n epoca neo-eneolitic, in Mircea Petrescu-Dmbovia, Alexandru Vulpe (coord.), op. cit., p.147
6 Pe lng grupul cu ceramic pictat policromat i cel cu ceramic nepictat.
7 Ceramica este cea care definete o cultur strveche Pentru Neolitic, epoc n care omul ncepe s aprecieze
frumosul, n general ceramica este cea care nregistreaz cel mai evident progresul, desprinderea de utilitarismul
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mic. ntreaga art a Eneoliticului este deschis spre nou, att n ceea ce privete tehnica de
obinere a artefactelor, instrumentele nou aprute, ct i n privina formei i a decoraiei.
Piesele gumelniene care modeleaz anatomia corpului uman, unele dintre ele atingnd
perfeciunea, sunt reprezentative n nregistrarea nivelului atins de realismul formelor i de
coerena decorului. Dar i de geometrizare. Dup cum vom vedea, abstractizarea, prezent
nc din Neolitic n activitatea artistic omeneasc, va constitui una dintre caracteristici:
abstragerea din realitatea figurativ a unor scheme grafice n vederea obinerii unor simboluri
ale lumii care cunoscuse un nou mod de via. Att n ceea ce privete forma, care stilizeaz
ntr-un grad i ntr-un mod diferit fa de epocile anterioare, ct i n privina decorului
geometric. Aadar, este vorba despre o dezvoltare a mijloacelor de expresie pe care omul le
gsete pentru a da glas vieii sale interioare, geometrizarea purificat i abstractizarea n
general reprezentnd, fa de realismul anterior, o lrgire a simului estetic.
Sculptura gumelinean are o gam larg de reprezentri: statuete i vase
antropomorfe i zoomorfe , reprezentri n relief pe diferite recipiente, reprezentri rondebosse combinate cu altare sau cu vase (n cadrul practicilor cultice). De altfel, plastica mic,
de o extraordinar varietate, este cea care predomin n ceea ce privete expresia artistic a
culturii Gumelnia, prin bogia impresionant a reprezentrilor figurative ea distingndu-se
de alte culturi (cu care se aseamn ns, n general, prin ceramica pictat, precum i prin
preferina pentru spiral ca motiv decorativ). Plastica n cultura Gumelnia are aceeai for
regsit n cultura Cucuteni n pictur. Expresivitatea figurinelor frapeaz, precum i marea
varietate tipologic a acestor statuete. n plus, exist o mai mare varietate de materiale
folosite: n afara lutului ars, gsim i statuete n os, dar i n marmur. Dar inventivitatea
realizatorilor nu se oprete aici: inedite sunt i figurinele cu cap amovibil, precum mare fa
de alte culturi este i numrul modelelor miniaturale de locuine sau de piese de mobilier.
Toate acestea reflect aspecte ale contiinei sociale ale oamenilor timpului. Probabil o
diferen de complexitate a cultului a existat ntre gumelnieni i cucutenieni , acest fapt
reflectndu-se i n creativitatea artistic sporit a primilor8. Ca i n plastica cucutenian, i
aici dimensiunile sunt n general mici (de la civa centimetri, la 25-30cm), dar s-au gsit, dei
prost pstrate, i framente ale unor statui care aveau aproape 1m9.
Cea mai veche faz gumelniean continu tradiia plasticii culturii Boian figurine
(ca cea de la Vidra) cu braele ntinse lateral, cu torsul aplatizat i cu poriunea central
modelat mai plastic, aveau decor incizat uneori chiar adnc, cu benzi meandrice i spiralate
pe prile bombate sau cu semicercuri de-o parte i de alta a liniei de demarcaie a picioarelor
i cu triunghiul sexual nscris ntr-un cerc 10..
Ulterior, aspectul statuetelor va duce mai departe acest tip, dar din pcate nu nspre o
creativitate sporit, ci nspre lipsa proporiilor corecte, ca i nspre o stilizare care respinge
firescul poziiilor i reduce corpul la un cilindru cu o baz evazat, mrete disproporionat
capul redat ca un disc, pe care se distinge doar creasta nasului i perforaiile laterale, iar
braele le red ca pe nite cioturi sau le ndreapt lateral, n sus, sau le aduce peste abdomen
(de exemplu, la cele gsite la Brilia).
Exist ns cteva exemple care se deprteaz nu de canonul acesta al figurinelorcoloan, ci de lipsa de nelegere a plasticitii corpului uman. O statuet de la Brilia
(7,3cm)11 dovedete aceeai stngcie a modelrii cu o siluet cilindric, dar zvelt, cu baza
lrgit i cu cap discoidal, cu cte o pereche de perforaii laterale, probabil coafura, cu braele
recipientului i manifestarea preocuprilor artistice pentru decorul vasului, dar i pentru armonia i elegana
formei, tot mai imaginativ prelucrat sub aspectul zoomorf sau antropomorf.
8 Ion Miclea, Radu Florescu, op. cit., p. 84
9 Vladimir Dumitrescu, op. cit., p.223
10 Ibidem, p.23
11 Manuela Wullschleger (ed.), Lart nolithique en Roumanie, Napoli, Artem, 2008
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individualizate dar la fel aduse la piept, n cruce (evident, un gest ritualic), nas en bec d'oiseau
, dar deosebit este discul orizontal ce ilustreaz probabil un element de acoperire a capului.
De acelai tip, dar neobinuit prin redarea unui grup statuar, este perechea de la
Gumelnia: figurina din teracot cu corp cilindric, cu braele n cruce, cu capul schematizat
canonic, apare acum n dublu exemplar o femeie i un brbat, la care sexele apar figurate,
fiind semnalat astfel hierogamia specific cultelor naturiste. Neateptat este i redarea unui
sentiment, cel de duioie, prin gestul de mbriare a femeii de ctre brbat, care i cuprinde
gtul cu braul stng, i al barbatului de femeie, care i nlnuie mijlocul.
O serie de figurine red personajul eznd, n atitudini destul de variate, stilizarea
simplificnd de asemenea formele anatomice: membrele tubulare sau chiar cu seciune
ptrat, chipul, cu creasta nasului i cu perforaiile lobilor sau ale coafurii (caracteristice
culturii Gumelnia). O statuet de la Cscioarele ine un copil n brae, iar la dou figurine, de
asemenea aezate (de la Gumelnia i de la Cscioarele), se remarc detaliile tronurilor. Toate
aceste figurine aezate au bine surprins poziia eznd, de un firesc care apare n contrast cu
modelajul grosier al volumelor.
Alt serie, trzie i care nu conine foarte multe exemplare, este cea a statuetelor cu
rochie-clopot12, goale n interior, cu abdomen bombat, cu cap schematizat dup canonul
cunoscut i cu decor la exterior, dar nu cel specific, meandric, ci sub form de simple dungi
paralele.
Fcnd parte din aceast serie, dar putndu-se regsi i n rndul vaselor antropomorfe
ca suport de vas , este i tipul de coefore: statuete ce poart un mic vas pe cap. Cele de la
Gumelnia i de la Glina au corp scund, figuri (uneori duble, ca n capetele Janus bifrons,
creativitatea artistului primitiv fiind prezent aici n privina originalitii) stilizate dup
canon, vopsite cu alb, gura marcat printr-un ir de perforaii, ca i lobii urechilor, minile
desprinse corp, ridicate n sus, sprijinind vasul. Rochiile-clopot sunt decorate cu striuri sau, la
statueta de la Glina (la care vasul lipsete) rochia are benzi late albe i roii, faa (unic) a
statuetei fiind expresiv detaliat, cu ochii rombici pictai cu rou i conturai cu negru, gura
desennd un surs; diferite motive decoreaz i braele i pieptul rochiei, probabil un colier de
mrgele lungi, albe.
O serie de statuete aparine tipului tesalian (imit pe cele din Tesalia), prin lipsa
capului, plasticii gumelniene fiindu-i specific de altfel existena statuetelor cu cap amovibil.
Pe teritoriul Romniei nu s-a gsit nici un cap detaabil, dar n Tesalia ele erau din piatr i
pictate, cu un modelaj geometrizat, de o esenializare aproape modern13. Exemplare de
statuete de pn n 20cm nlime au fost descoperite la Gumelnia i la Cscioarele, cu un
corp cilindric (ca cele din seria cu corp-coloan) sau tronconic (semnnd cu statuetele cu
rochie-clopot), fr picioare i fr brae sau cu braele ca nite tori. n locul gtului, un
orificiu primea capul modelat aparte, care se schimba probabil dup cerine. Unele au snii
accentuai.
Au fost gsite i cteva capete rupte ale unor figurine, modelate cu corectitudine
(Cscioarele), cu proporii reale ale fragmentelor feei (fruntea teit ar putea reflecta
dolicocefalia multor cranii ale timpului, gsite n morminte14), cu expresivitate a chipului (ca
la cel de la Grgu), la care se degajeaz ochii migdalai, urechile perforate, iar linia nasului
i a sprncenelor este comun i comun i cu cea a urechilor. Motive gravate decoreaz
gtul15.
12 Probabil o dat cu rspndirea unui nou tip de vemnt. Cf. Ion Miclea, Radu Florescu, op. cit., p. 84
14
Ibidem, p.227
15 Manuela Wullschleger (ed.), op. cit., p.146
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Statuetele gumelniene n piatr sunt puine; amintim una de la Gumelnia, care reia
una dintre tipologiile celor n os, i una de la Pietrele, fragmentar pstrat.
Ampla serie a figurinelor din os (gsite n diferite situri gumelniene: (Glina,
Gumelnia, Sultana, Cscioarele, Jilava, Vidra) este foarte stilizat, aproape stereotipic, fr
indicii de ordin anatomic. Se pot distinge 3 tipuri: unul ca o prism alungit, cu seciune
triunghiular, pstrnd aspectul osului din care este lucrat, la care se distinge nasul ascuit; al
doilea tip schematizeaz excesiv silueta, osul fiind aplatizat, cu o uoar bombare; se distinge
capul cu urechi lungi, gtul lung i corpul dreptunghiular, mrginit de perforaii. Cel mai
frecvent ntlnit este tipul al treilea, care repet schema cu braele n cruce a statuetelor n lut,
realizat ns din oase plate, foarte subiri (1-3mm)16, reproducnd conturul unei siluete umane.
Se cunosc dou variante. Prima are exemplare foarte simple, dreptunghiulare, cu cte dou
crestturi pe fiecare latur prin care se despart capul, trunchiul i partea de jos a corpului i se
nscrie n tipologia supranumit en violon (cu corpul n form de vioar), analogia cu piese
gsite n aezrile de la Troia fiind evident17. A doua variant (aproximativ 10cm) are piese
mai detaliate ca form (cu un cap pentagonal, pe care se disting gropiele ochilor, dar i
perforaiile laterale), cu guri pe laturile torsului (rombic), care semnific golurile rmase
ntre corp i braele ndoite, uneori picioarele fiind desprite; dar i ca decor incizat,
semnificnd tatuajul.
Dou pandantive gumelniene din aur i-ar putea gsi locul ntre reprezentrile
antropomorfe prin schematizarea de tip idoli en violon: un inel cu o prelungire trapezoidal,
alt pandativ avnd aceeai form, dar bombat, concavo-convex, iar partea circular nu mai
are gaura central. Decorul lipsete pe toate aceste piese din aur.
Seria vaselor modelate antropomorf, de o mare diversitate de decoruri i detalii
specifice care le unicizeaz i care particularizeaz cultura Gumelnia, ne pune la dispoziie
dou exemplare de o plasticitate inegalabil, care le situeaz printre cele mai valoroase piese
n care sculptura i d mna cu olria din ntregul Neolitic.
Zeia de la Vidra (jud. Ilfov) i justific supranumele pe de o parte prin rolul ei de
pies de cult (nu ca obiect ultilitar folosit n gospodrie) (pandantivul din aur care o
mpodobea ne confirm aceasta), dar i prin naltul grad n care este evideniat plasticitatea
formei umane. Masivitatea corpului este tradus i printr-o dimensiune considerabil a
artefactului (peste 40cm nlime)18. Dar lipsa zvelteei este compensat de atenia acordat
detaliilor (minile cu 5 degete aezate pe abdomen), de realismul neschematizat al corpului,
de registrele cu incizii cu rol doar de decor al suprafeei acestei adevrate statuete.
Dei ceva mai mic, Zeia de la Sultana (jud. Clrai) se ridic la aceeai valoare
artistic. Dac la vasul descris mai sus, cap nu exist (capacul care l alctuia nu s-a pstrat),
la acesta din urm, gura vasului (nici aici nu s-a pstrat capacul19, care probabil reprezenta
coafura20) se deschide deasupra feei, modelat stilizat, dar cu acuratee: ochi migdalai
(ntredeschii?), gura triunghiular, decorat cu un ir de adncituri, urechile perforate cu cte
4 guri, arcadele sprncenelor (ce alctuiesc, mpreun cu linia nasului, pragul gurii
vasului)21. Subirimea braelor accentueaz masivitatea corpului. Mna stng sprijin brbia,
n atitudinea gnditorului (probabil tot un gest ritualic, la care contribuie ochii ntredeschii).
Ornamentaia cu grafit, n vopsea alb pe fond crmiziu, folosete motivul meandro-spiralic,
17 O ipotez inedit ar fi c erau folosite ca piese componente din instrumente muzicale cu corzi. Cf. Eugen
Coma, Despre figurinele en violon din aria culturii Gumelnia, in Pontica, X, 1977, Constana, p.49 i urm.
20 Ion Miclea, Radu Florescu, op. cit., p.86
21 Anton Niu, Reprezentri antropomorfe pe ceramica de tip Gumelnia A, in Danubius, II-III, 1969, Galai,
p.23
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dar red i detalii de accesorii vestimentare: nclmintea cu sistemul de prindere vizibil. Ca

i n cazul figurinelor antropomorfe cucuteniene, decorul acestor corpuri nu red veminte
(care ar trebui s fie mult prea subiri, formele corpurilor fiind foarte evidente), ci tatuajul.
n schimb, la vasele mai mici, realismul i detalierea nu sunt urmrite, ci doar
respectarea canoanelor. Dou serii de vase antropomorfe au capetele preluate dup modelul
statuetelor, una dintre serii avnd corpul bombat, n forma de butelie, care preia tipul de
rochie-clopot de la figurine (probabil aici mbrcmintea fiind redat i prin decorul incizat) i
brae cilindrice22.
Cealalt serie are corp bitronconic i nu are brae, la aceste vase capacul ilustrnd
calota cranian. Vasul gsit la Sultana, probabil o divinitate, are faa cu dou perechi de ochi,
iar gura perforat cu gurele, decorul fiind realizat n vopsea alb; la al doilea, descoperit la
Mgura-Gumelnia, capacul nu s-a pstrat, iar faa are nasul, dar i ochii, n relief23.
O mare varietate de forme o au astfel i capacele gsite, modelate n form de cap
uman sau rednd o fa omeneasc. Cele mai bine realizate sunt cele gsite la CiolnetiTeleorman. Cu decor pictat cu grafit i cu alb i cu calota vopsit n rou, ori cu detaliile feei
atent redate (chiar pleoapele sunt redate i nrile, prin mici gurele), stilizate, adnc reliefate,
distingndu-se sursul, aceste fee au o nfiare foarte realist.
Cel de la Vidra (5cm)24 are expresivitate a profilului, cu nas i brbie puternice, gura
incizat adnc, ochi migdalai, coafura crlionat stilizat prin mici protuberane ascuite,
creativitatea i simul artistic al realizatorului fiind evidente n nota anecdotic urmrit.
i la Orbeasca de Sus s-a gsit un capac prosopomorf, cu perforaii ale gurii i ale
arcadelor puternice, care se ridic deasupra ochilor migdalai; iar la cel de la Grgu, gura
este groas, perforaii punctnd buza de jos i urechile, inciziile indicnd prul25.
i mnerele capacelor sunt decorate uneori cu capete un capac de la Ciolneti are
mnerul sub forma unei jumti superioare de trunchi uman, care face corp comun cu capul,
braele prelungind umerii26. De asemenea, suporturile vaselor pot avea nfiare uman,
precum cel de la Vidra, a crui funcie este deosebit, dar nfiarea este cea tipic
gumelniean: capul nu se detaeaz de corp, realismul feei are o valoare artistic aparte: faa
are detalii n relief, ochi, gur i urechi perforate, nas coroiat, corpul prelund forma rochieiclopot, fiind decorat cu striuri27. Braele cu care sprijinea vasul de pe cretet se
desprindeau de corp, dar acum sunt rupte.
O alt serie de vase au legtur cu reprezentrile antropomorfe doar prin aplicaii ale
feelor umane sau chiar ale unor ntregi siluete (n basorelief sau statuete). Din prima
categorie face parte un fragment de vas de la Gumelnia, chipul elipsoidal rednd schematic
nasul reliefat i ochii migdalai, aparte fiind prezena la baza gtului a celor dou brae cu
mnue cu 3 degete28. Tot de aici provine i un vas pstrat integral, cu faa rednd corect
modelate segmentele anatomice. Similitudini se pot gsi cu urnele cu figur uman din Troia,
crora ns se pare c piesele noastre le sunt anterioare29.
Celei de a doua categorii aparine un fragment de chiup gsit n aceeai aezare, pe
care au fost modelate dou siluete umane, n relief, cu braele ridicate. Dar i statuete ntregi
ornamenteaz vasele, ca cea de la Vidra, care fusese probabil aplicat pe un vas reuit
exemplu din seria gnditorilor, cu capul sprijinit de mna stng, susinut, la rndul ei, de
22 Vladimir Dumitrescu, op. cit., p.234-235
29 Ibidem, p.237
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mna dreapt , sau ca statuetele feminine de la Cscioarele, care ornamentau un mare vas,
avnd capul hexagonal, cu adncituri accentund gura i urechile, minile fiind aezate pe
abdomen. Un frumos exemplu este cel al unei cupe de la Sultana, pstrate integral, n
interiorul creia dou figurine aezate reprezint o femeie cu braele aezate pe abdomen,
mbriat de un brbat cu sexul vizibil. Rou i alb, un decor spiralat acoper corpul femeii,
dar i cupa aici, romburi diamantine30.
Aparinnd acestei categorii, menionm un exemplu care face not aparte prin
ncercarea de compoziie, singular31 pentru sculptura ntregului Neolitic. Este vorba despre
un capac de la Gumelnia, cu o siluet uman (rupt) aezat n centru, cu dou protome de
cornute lipite ntre ele, dispuse la marginea capacului, la care se adaug i alt cap de animal
cornut, cu spatele spre statuet.
Nici dimensiunile, de civa centimetri, nici modelajul foarte schematizat, nu ofer
posibilitatea figurinelor zoomorfe gumelniene, numeroase, de altfel, s aib un nalt nivel
artistic. n general, reprezint animale domestice cornute (berbeci, boi, api, modelate cu
abilitate i chiar for de sugestie) , dar i animale slbatice, psri. Cea mai reuit este o
figurin de vulpe de la Pietrele: expresiv prin surprinderea cu abilitate a poziiei de aparent
relaxare, n spatele creia se simte ncordarea ateptrii, remarcabil fiind simul de observaie
al artistului, care i red poziia arcuit a corpului, rsucirea capului, coada stufoas, cu att
mai mult cu ct reprezentarea nu msoar dect 6cm 32. Dar s-au gsit i realiste figurine de
arici, unde remarcabil este realizarea plastic a epilor. Psrile (de la Cscioarele sau de la
Vidra) sunt redate n poziie de zbor, cu aripile desfcute i gtul curbat, dar picioarele sunt
rezumate la un suport cu baza lit.
i vasele zoomorfe gumelniene sunt cunoscute n numr foarte mare, cum ar fi
cel de la Ulmeni, cu gt nalt, la care micile proeminene schematizeaz labele, botul,
urechile, dar decorul este puternic contrastant, spirale roii pe fond deschis. Sau ca cel de la
Calomfireti, care nfaieaz un bovideu, cu decor meandric pictat specific gumelniean, n
tehnica cu grafit. Forma este schematizat, cu corp bombat i cu patru picioare, capacul,
reprezentnd spinarea, nefiind pstrat. Dei similar, vasul de la Hrova este aparte prin
combinaia hibrid pe care o o ofer, ntre corpul de animal i capul uman pictat cu vopsea
alb, aplatizat, cu gura incizat adnc i cu cte un ir de perforaii laterale. O fiin fantastic
ilustreaz i rytonul de la Gumelnia.
Dei doar un fragment, vasul de la Cscioarele este o alt ncercare de compoziie
sculptural, dat fiind statueta uman (de la care au rmas doar picioarele) care se pare c era
sudat pe capul zoomorf din care s-a pstrat doar partea anterioar, cu botul i ciotul unei
urechi (corn?).
i capace gumelniene modelate zoomorf au fost gsite, reprezentnd n general
protome de animal ca cel de Vidra, al crui bot lung i arcuit n jos sugereaz un tapir, sau
ca cel de la Gumelnia sub forma unui porc realist modelat ca form, dar cu urechile perforate
i cu un ornament sub forma de dungi albe, care este un simplu decor (aici nemaifiind vorba
despre tatuaje sau accesorii vestimentare, ca n cazul reprezentrilor antropomorfe).
Un mic mner de capac descoperit la Vidra reprezentnd o protom de cerb, dei are
tocmai coarnele rupte, ncnt prin expresivitatea multitudinii de planuri ale botului prelung,
ale ochilor aproape umani datorit arcadei sprncenare puternic arcuite. O toart zoomorf (n
form de cap de pasre) are i cupa cu decor bicrom de la Sultana.

31 i la Sultana s-a descoperit un capac similar, despre care vom vorbi mai jos, cu trei protome de cornute, dar la
care statueta uman s-a pierdut. Cf. Vladimir Dumitrescu, op. cit., p.243
32 Ibidem, p.250
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Similar vaselor decorate cu reprezentri umane, s-au gsit vase gumelniene pe

care se afl animale redate n ntregime sau doar protomele, ca element ornamental (fr rol
de toart). Un vas de la Teiu (Muntenia) (25cm diametrul)33 este nconjurat de un relief de 4
benzi terminate cu capete rombice de serpi, ntre care sunt modelate, de-o parte i de alta a
vasului, cte un profil de bovideu, cu coarne arcuite i bot alungit. Tot de bovin este i mica
protom de pe un capac de la Gumelnia, a crei plasticitate este dat de elegana coanelor
mari, care, mpreun cu decorul policrom al capacului, ne asigur de destinaia ritualic a
vasului.
De amintit aici i reprezentrile animaliere gumelniene din aur. Una dintre acestea,
descoperit la Gumelnia, este cea mai veche ncercare n arta orfevreriei de pe teritoriul
Romniei34: un pandativ reprezentnd dou coarne de consacraie rsucite i decorate pe
margini cu iruri de proeminene au repousse.
Varietatea mare a sculpturii gumelniene cuprinde i modelele miniaturale ale unor
construcii i piese de mobilier. Din prima categorie face parte renumitul Sanctuar miniatural
de la Cscioarele (51x13x24,2cm)35. Nu reprezint o simpl locuin, ci un ansamblu
arhitectural unitar, probabil ritualic: o niruire de patru frontoane care surmonteaz o
platform strpuns de dou rnduri de perforaii circulare mari. Sinteza formelor este
completat ns de detaliile care aduc un plus de plasticitate: coarnele ce decoreaz partea de
sus a frontoanelor, uile de pe cele patru faade, decorul care ilustreaz asize ale terasei.
Decor incizat ornamenteaz i altarul rectangular cu picioare de la Licoteanca
8x33cm36. n schimb, alte modele miniaturale sunt nedecorate: n special, s-a descoperit o
serie de mici locuine (Aldeni, Izvoarele), situate pe platforme sau suspendate pe picioare.
Micile modele sunt geometrizate, au planuri patrulatere, perei nchii sau deschii, uneori
frontoanele mai elaborat realizate. Dar s-au gsit i mese o mas rotund, cu trei picioare ,
scaune37.
Indiferent de o tipologie sau alta, ori de faza creia aparin, aceste sculpturi respect
anumite canoane, care sunt prezente n toat sculptura gumelniean i care limiteaz
libertatea. Creativitatea intr ns n scen n unele cazuri particulare, care probabil se
datoreaz mai mult variaiilor miturilor. ...i aceasta pentru c scopul acestor statuete era cel
de obiecte de cult n cadrul practicilor magico-religioase. Cel mai posibil s fi fost idoli, dar
cel puin amulete apotropaice unele dintre ele erau: ne-o spune dimensiunea lor mic, dar i
schematizarea tipologic. Oricum, concepte ca fertilitatea, fecunditatea, maternitatea aveau
foarte larg rspndire n rndul populaiilor de agricultori i cresctori de vite ale
Neoliticului. Preponderena figurinelor feminine (n plus, i modelate dup canoane) ne
demonstreaz n primul rnd c ele nu sunt simple jucrii, ci simboluri ce ajut nelegerii
complexitii vieii religioase a timpului. ntruchipeaz pe Marea Zei creatoare a vieii,
redat n ipostaza Mamei Universale, asimilat cu glia roditoare38. Figurinele masculine sunt
mai rare i l reprezint pe acolitul necesar perpeturii vieii (principiul secund) (a crui
frecven uneori crete, fiind gsit n numr mai mare n unele aezri, n cazuri de schimbare
a mentalitilor); acesta are, n general, dimensiuni mai mici. (De altfel, i statuetele de
animale, cornute sau nu, au legtur tot cu practicile i cu superstiiile prin care se dorea
asigurarea sntii i nmulirii animalelor domestice sau, n cazul reprezentrilor animalelor
slbatice, succesul la vntoare).
33 Ibidem, p.256
35 Ibidem, p.87
36 Manuela Wullschleger (ed.), op. cit.
38 D. Monah, Organizarea social, religia i arta n epoca neo-eneolitic, in Mircea Petrescu-Dmbovia,
Alexandru Vulpe (coord.), op. cit., p.170
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De altfel, i multitudinea de gesturi n care sunt reprezentate personajele antropomorfe

(brae ntinse lateral sau ridicate n sus, n poziia orantei, brae n cruce pe piept sau pe
abdomen, ori cu o mn innd cotul celeilalte, care sprijin brbia, uneori chiar cu picioarele
ndoite n dansuri ritualice, ca la statueta din perioada de tranziie de la cultura Boian,
reprezentnd un personaj masculin, gsit la Ipoteti, n vestul Munteniei39) ridic o serie de
interogaii asupra existenei i complexitii sentimentelor religioase ale timpului. Mesajul
(meditaie, intermedieri orantele ntre oameni i zeitatea principal, dansuri ritualice,
cultul fertilitii) care transpare este cu att mai elocvent cu ct se folosete un minimum de
mijloace artistice, foarte puternice ns, nerecurgndu-se nici la realism, nici la o rigoare prea
mare, fapt ce ar fi diluat fora mesajului urmrit.
La fel de dificile sunt i ntrebrile asupra posibilitilor omului neolitic de a produce
arta n mod contient sau de a se cantona n limitele unui simplu meteug.
...Dar rezultatele sunt admirabile i ntr-un caz, i n altul. Pentru noi, cei de acum,
aceste piese sunt opere de art. Pentru realizatorul de atunci, probabil erau piese de cult,
obiecte pe care le utiliza n practicile ritualice, dar ceea ce e sigur este c de un sim estetic
primordial el se bucura, ceea ce l fcea s obin obiecte de o calitate artistic incontestabil,
chiar dac nu gndea aceste artefacte ca pe lucrri de art. n ciuda dimensiunilor reduse i a
hieratismului inerent scopului cultic, artistul a tiut s le surprind cu ndemnare, chiar dac
fr prea mare acuratee, unele detalii, s le redea micarea fireasc. Fie c e vorba despre
tipurile comune, fie c vorbim despre abaterile care denot libertate, artistul primitiv a dovedit
deprtare de la simpla i banala imitaie. Simul de observaie, capacitatea de memorare, dar i
imaginaia, abilitatea de a sintetiza i gradul superior de abstractizare a formei stilizate toate
acestea sunt dovezi ale inteligenei sale estetice, dar i ale nivelului i modului de gndire ale
omului acelor timpuri.
BIBLIOGRAFIE
Coma, Eugen, Despre figurinele en violon din aria culturii Gumelnia, in Pontica,
X, 1977, Constana, p.45-51
Coma, Eugen, Gesturi redate de figurinele neolitice din sudul Romniei, in Acta
Musei Napocensis, 33, 1996, Cluj-Napoca, p.191-208
Dumitrescu, Vladimir, Arta preistoric n Romnia, vol.I, Bucureti, Ed. Meridiane,
1974
Miclea, Ion, Florescu, Radu, Preistoria Daciei, Bucureti, Ed. Meridiane, 1980
Monah, D., Organizarea social, religia i arta n epoca neo-eneolitic, in Mircea
Petrescu-Dmbovia, Alexandru Vulpe (coord.), Istoria romnilor, vol.I, Motenirea
timpurilor ndeprtate, Bucureti, Academia Romn, Ed. Enciclopedic, 2010
Niu, Anton, Reprezentri antropomorfe pe ceramica de tip Gumelnia A, in
Danubius, II-III, 1969, Galai, p.21-42
Wullschleger, Manuela (ed.), Lart nolithique en Roumanie, Napoli, Artem, 2008
39 Eugen Coma, Gesturi redate de figurinele neolitice din sudul Romniei, in Acta Musei Napocensis, 33, 1996,
Cluj-Napoca, p.194
281
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THE RELIGIOUS LITERATURE FOR CHILDREN IN THE UNIQUE BOOK(1946)

Antonina Silvia FRANDE ANDONE
Abstract: The period between the two world wars is considered to be a fertile ground for
children literature. In their approaches, the creators of children literature, had in view the
fact that in preparing for life, literature was second after religion.
Religious literature was naturaly included in the textbooks of the time.The Unique Book for
the 6th grade of 1946 proves the selection of literary works on criterion of their moral and
religious substance. Many of the literary texts could be easily regarded as religious as long as
the religious symbols, the characters from the sacred area, the themes and faboulos events
are cores around which they wove stories, legends or poems. An important fact is the
presence of moralizing stories.
Keywords: children literature, interwar period, legends, moralizing stories, textbook
Perioada dintre cele dou rzboaie a constituit un teren fertil pentru literatura care se
adresa celor mici. n demersurile lor creatorii de literatur pentru copii porneau de la premisa
c n pregtirea pentru via, literatura era a doua n ordinea importanei, dup religie. S-a
ajuns la prerea majoritar c opera literar valoroas pentru copii i tineri avea aceleai
valene estetice ca i opera literar pentru aduli. O trstur esenial a operelor literare este
mbinarea valorilor etice cu cele estetice iar prin conflictul dual bine-ru, copiilor li se ofer
modele de via pozitive sau negative.
Numeroasele reviste pentru copii din perioada interbelic (Flueraul,1910-1912,
Revista copiilor i a tinerimii, 1913-1925, Lumea copiilor, 1922-1927, Dimineaa copiilor,
1924, Universul copiilor, 1926-1948) au stimulat att interesul pentru literatura de gen ct i
pentru creaia nsi reflectnd lumea celor mici.1
n afar de aceste publicaii literatura i-a gsit firesc locul n manualele destinate
colilor din acea vreme. Un exemplar al Crii unice pentru clasa a VI-a din anul 1946 face
dovada seleciei operelor literare pentru copii pe criteriul substratului lor moral-religios.
Partea literar propune colarilor spre lectur fragmente literare aparinnd unor autori
consacrai (Mihail Sadoveanu, Ion Creang, Vasile Alecsandri, George Cobuc, L.Tolstoi,
C.Negruzzi, Nestor Urechia) precum i literatur popular. Indiferent de origine, multe din
coninuturile literare prezente n acest manual pot fi cu uurin ncadrate n categoria
literaturii religioase atta vreme ct simbolurile religioase, personajele din sfera sacr,
tematica i evenimentele miraculoase sunt nuclee n jurul crora s-a esut o poveste, o
legend sau o poezie. Un fapt important de subliniat este prezena povestioarelor cu caracter
moralizator.
O specie literar predilect n Cartea unic este legenda. Autorii au preferat-o
deoarece este un text ncrcat de sensibilitate, de o inegalabil frumusee artistic i foarte
apropiat basmului, astfel nct puterea de receptare a copilului e mereu vie2. Receptivitatea
copiilor la legende se explic prin imaginaia lor bogat i acceptarea, n acelai timp, a
realitii i fanteziei.
Hristu Cndroveanu, Literatura romn pentru copii, Editura Albatros, Bucureti, 1988, pp.24-25
Olga Morar, Un deliciu literar: cartea i revista pentru copii n Luceafrul romnesc,nr.9/2011, revist online
de literatur i cultur romneasc, accesat 17.02.2015
1
2
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Legenda este o povestire, de obicei de dimensiuni reduse, avnd uneori elemente

fantastice i miraculoase, bazate pe fondul real al unei ntmplri sau pe miezul imaginar,
mitic al acesteia.
Dicionarul de terminologie literar definete astfel legenda: ... o specie a genului
epic, o naraiune n versuri sau n proz, amestec de adevr i ficiune cu privire la originea
unor fiine, lucruri, momente istorice, inut sau fapte aleunor eroi 3
tiina folcloristic definete legenda ca o creaie literar artistic la interferena
dintre basm i mit, n care explicaiile, cu elemente fantastice i miraculoase, pornesc de la un
fond real sau de la un adevr tiinific crora li se adauga uneori un nveli de glum, nct,
deseori, aciunea concentrat alunec nu numai spre basm, ci i spre snoav.
Valoarea legendei nu const att n coninut, ct n forma literar artistic de a
comunica adevruri i a nuana bogate valori morale.
Dintre legendele cuprinse n manualul din 1946 amintim: Albina i ariciul sau cum
sau fcut munii, Floarea reginei, Licuricii , Psrica i coroana de spini. Acestea se
nscriu n categoria legendelor etiologice ntruct aduc explicaii despre formaii geologice
(munii), precum i despre natura vegetalelor i insectelor.
Semnificativ e legenda Albina i ariciul sau cum sau fcut munii n care sunt
folosite modaliti artistice variate pentru a explica originea i trsturile vieuitoarelor
precum i a respectivei forme de relief.
Prologul cu determinarea spaial i temporal relev cnd a avut loc ntmplarea
excepional narat - n vremea genezei, n timpul fabulos al nceputurilor: Dup ce a urzit
Dumnezeu pmntul...
Legenda Albina i ariciul sau cum sau fcut munii este organizat ntr-un singur
episoad narativ. Este construit pe o opoziie care provoac traiectul naraiunii i justific
metamorfoza sau modificarea statutului iniial al eroului.
Naraiunea legendei ncepe aducnd n prim plan dialogul dintre Creator i albin,
care, este trimis a interoga toate vieuitoarele despre cum ar trebui Dumnezeu s
ntrebuineze un bulgra de hum rmas dup ce a croit pmntul. Negsind nici un
rspuns potrivit, albina se ndrept spre buricul pmntului unde se gsea bordeiaul ariciului.
ntlnirea cu ariciul cel nfoiat n epi conduce la rezolvarea dilemei iniale. Dei
ariciul de dovedete a fi un interlocutor dificil, albina, descurcrea, trage cu urechea i afl
gndurile ariciului recomandat de un vrjitor a fi nelept i sftos.
Deznodmntul legendei aduce asupra albinei att binecuvntare ct i blestem.
Strdaniile sale au fost rspltite cu darul de a face miere.Vzndu-se n graiile divine,ea i
cere lui Dumnezeu i o arm de aprare, iar Creatorul generos i d un ac. Dar ,impertinena
albinei de a cere ca victima nepturilor sale s moar, atrage blestemul divin asupra sa.
Pierderea acului va nsemna moartea albinelor.
n finalul legendei, cititorului i se explic cu maxim precizie i simplitate nu doar
metamorfoza albinei ci i originea munilor.Dumnezeu a folosit bulgraul de hum ca s-i
creeze. Ariciul i-a pstrat aceleai trsturi: tot mbufnat i epos se arat i n ziua de azi.
Aciunea unei alte legende, Floarea Reginei, este plasat tot n timpurile imemoriale
ale nceputului lumii: Ci-c dup ce a fcut lumea n ase zile, Dumnezeu sa odihnit n a
aptea zi.Ca s-i mai treac de urt, sa dus s se plimbe prin raiu.
Atmosfera evocat este cea de armonie deplin ca rezultat al dragostei divine
revrsate n creaie. Tabloul paradisiac zugrvete relaiile armonioase dintre animale , fapt
aproape neverosimil pentru cititorii contieni de realitile lumii, dar credibil pentru cei cu
inima curat precum a copiilor: leii se gudurau pe lng cprioare, lupii stau de vorb
C. Fierscu, Gh. Ghi, Dicionar de terminologie literar, Bucureti, Ed. Ion Creang, 1969, p. 301.
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frete cu oile, vulpile glumeau cu iepurii.ntrun col, un uliu ct toate zilele, scrpina n cap,
ca o mam bun, un puior de gin.4
Cadrul edenic este completat de Adam i Eva a cror prezen este pur formal cci
eroii legendei sunt de aceast dat atrii cerului. Jocul feeric al stelelor vegheate matern de
mama Lun aduce n prim plan adevrata eroin a legendei o stelu sfiicioas, strlucind
cumptat". n acest caz eroina sufer o dubl metamorfoz: una prin binecuvntarea divin ca
rsplat a cumineniei sale (neleas ca smerenie) iar cea de-a doua prin propria-i dorin de
a-i gsi un loc pe pmnt.
Prima misiune ncredinat de Dumnezeu o transform pe mica stea n steaua cea mare
i luminoas ca un soare, menit s-i cluzeasc pe cei trei Magi pentru a-L descoperi pe
Mntuitorul lumii. Odat menirea sa ncheiat, steaua, cltorete n cutarea unui loc de
repaos pe pmnt. Atrocitile vzute: rzboaie, nedrepti, cruzumi, omoruri, jafuri o
fcur s rtceasc ndelung, fr ndejde.
Finalul legendei aduce cu sine revelaia spaiului mirific plin de linite i pace
dumnezeiasc n care steaua este supus transformrii finale. Legenda capt o not
autohton prin alegerea munilor Bucegi ca spaiu al metamorfozei iar cititorii sunt lmurii
asupra originii Florii Reginei: i, desfcndu-se n mii de stelue, czu, de se ag de
steiurile frumoase i repezi de pe coastele, brnele i plaiurile Bucegilor.Fiecare stelu se
fcu o floare alb, n chip de stea, moale ca lna, care nu se vetejete niciodat, Floarea
Reginei.5
n cartea sa Gze, Nestor Urechia , nareaz o indit legend intitulat Licuricii,
care se nscrie alturi de cele menionate anterior n categoria legendelor cosmice
(etiologice).Titlul nu dezvluie adevratul erou al legendei dei insectele au i ele un rol n
derularea aciunii i asupra lor se revars harul divin n cele din urm.
Plasarea aciunii n vremea veche cnd lumea era mai bun i pmntul mai curat
ca acum evideniaz o predilecie a creatorilor de legende pentru dimensiunile temporale
originare, un timp mitic cnd orice fapt miraculos pare verosimil. n acest cadru purificat,
Dumnezeu i sfinii si triau asemenea ranilor din satele tradiionale, avnd de toate cte
trebuiesc la casa omului. Procesul autohtonizrii este absolut n ceea ce-l privete pe cel mai
nsemnat dintre sfinii lui Dumnezeu Sfntul Petru, care, ca tot Romnul, avea rostul lui,
casa i treburile n bun rnduial. Cea mai important avuie a sa era o herghelie de cai
asemenea celor din poveti.
Dualitatea bine ru este pus n eviden de includerea n planul aciunii a forelor
rului, hoii de codru. Ca un exponent al categoriei se remarc Cucul care va i svri furtul
n lipsa Sfntului de acas. Acesta din urm, nzestrat cu puteri supranaturale, descoperi houl
dar invoc ajutorul divin pentru a-l prinde . Dei nsoit de lupi, Sfntul Petru nu avu sori de
izbnd.Surprins noaptea n pdure, se vede nevoit a cere din nou ajutor de la divinitate pentru
a-i lumina calea. Licuricii l vor ajuta i drept urmare ei vor rmne venic fcliile pdurilor
i de temut pentru cuc care amuete la vederea lor.
Deznodmntul legendei aduce lmurire despre eroul transformat sub blestemul
Sfntului Petru. Houl se prefcu ntr-o pasre sur , singuratic , pedepsit s-i strige numele
de-a pururi- cucul.
Psrica i coroana de spini este una din legendele complexe, fapt rezultat din
mbinarea elementelor naturale cu cele religioase, biblice.
Nestor Urechia, Floarea Reginei n C.Cazan, N.Bzu, N.Brliba, P.Bosic, St. Stoicnescu, Cartea unic,
Editura Cartea romneasc , Bucureti,1946, p.81
5
ibidem, p.83
4
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Formula de nceput ncepe povestea din ziua cnd Dumnezeu fcnd psrile...
confer naraiunii un aer mitic. Explicaia trsturilor unei psri este motiv de ntoarcere la
origini.
Naraiunea urmrete gradual destinul psrii.Creatorul n atottiina sa a botezat o
psric Gu roie fr a-i conferi i penajul corespunztor. Nedumerit pasrea i ceru
lmurire Domnului dar acesta o ndemn s-i capete singur coloritul att de dorit.
ncercrile psrii rmaser fr rezultat sute i mii de ani. ns, cum orice cuvnt al divinitii
se mplinete, a venit i momentul mplinirii profeiei. Psrii i fusese rnduit a fi martor la
rstignirea Domnului. Transfigurat prin sentimentele umane (mil,dragoste pentru osnditul
cu coroana de spini, curaj nemsurat), pasrea simi imboldul de a face un gest mre pentru
cel care nelesese ea c ar ptimi pe nedrept. Fr a avea fora unui vultur, pasrea se avnt
i trase cu ciocul un ghimpe ce i se nfipse lui Iisus n frunte. n acest moment Dumnezeu Fiul
rosti binecuvntarea asupra psrii i a ntregului su neam vor avea guile nroite cu
sngele Su.
Lectura legendei pune micul cititor n faa unor informaii pe care le asimileaz pe
calea credinei cci miraculosul, fabulosul, nu caut s fie descifrate, ci acceptate aa cum
sunt.
Autorii populari au pstrat cteva arhaisme i regionalisme pentru a da culoare i
savoare textelor, contribuind prin stilul artistic la educaia estetic i la dezvoltarea limbajului
copiilor.
Valoarea educativ a legendelor rezid n nvturile pe care copiii le pot desprinde
din lecturarea acestora, nvturi n care preceptele morale se mpletesc cu cele etice,
educnd unele trsturi pozitive de voin i caracter: curaj, hotrre , perseveren, drzenie,
sinceritate, cinste.
ncercnd s explice, sub mantia feeric a legendei, unele nsuiri reale ale fiinelor i
fenomenelor din lumea nconjurtoare,legendele inspir interes i dragoste pentru natur, prin
aducerea ei n centrul ateniei copilului concluzioneaz autorii Manualului pentru liceele
pedagogice i institutele pedagogice de 2 ani.6
Cartea unic include n Partea sa literar povestiri aparinnd unor scriitori
consacrai, fragmente literare strbtute de fiorul dragostei cretine, menite s emoioneze , s
trezeasc n sufletul copiilor compasiunea i generozitatea pentru cei lipsii i necjii.
Mihail Sadoveanu evoc n povestirea Vestitorii o emoionant ntmplare din satul
romnesc, petrecut n Ajunul Crciunului. Eroii, doi biei numai de o chioap pornesc
spre satul vecin Viioara, noaptea la urat cu steaua.Drumul lor devine o adevrat aventur,
trit de cei doi protagoniti cu mult strngere de inim: Din cnd n cnd se opreau o
clip,cu sufletele nfricoate, cutnd s ptrund umbra, care-i mpresura.7
n seara de Ajun ,copiii, prin statutul inocenei i-al condiiei lor umile , devin
mesageri ai tainei divine a ntruprii, a credinei n zile mai bune: ...i ndejdea aceasta
mergeau so vesteasc cei doi copii, fr s-i dea seama; cu cntecele i cu steaua lor se
duceau s umple de voie bun inimile oamenilor.8 De fapt drumul lor este o refacere a
cltoriei Celor trei Magi spre staulul din Betleem.
Firul naraiunii este ntretiat de pasaje descriptive de cert valoare artistic, rednd
puternicul contrast ce se contureaz ntre cele dou spaii: anotimpul aspru, slbticia naturii
versus cminul cald al unei familii tinere, vegheat de icoane i candel.
Geogeta Munteanu,Elena Bolog, Vistian Goia, Literatura pentru copii, Manual pentru liceele pedagogice i
institutele pedagogice de 2 ani,Editura didactic i pedagogic, Bucureti, 1970, p.77
7
Mihail Sadoveanu, Vestitorii n C.Cazan, N.Bzu, N.Brliba, P.Bosic, St. Stoicnescu, Cartea unic, Editura
Cartea romneasc , Bucureti,1946, p.53
8
Mihail Sadoveanu,Vestitorii n C.Cazan, N.Bzu, N.Brliba, P.Bosic, St. Stoicnescu, Cartea unic,
Editura Cartea romneasc , Bucureti,1946, p.54
6
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Prezena divin se face simit de la un capt la un capt la altul al naraiunii.Contextul

nsui, Ajunul Naterii Domnului, tanspun cititorul ntr-o atmosfer aparte n care harul divin
se revars asupra oamenilor. Cuprini de vitregiile naturii, copiii se nsufleesc i capt
putere doar la simpla rostire a cuvntului Dumnezeu. Este momentul cnd realizeaz faptul
c rugciunile bolborosite repede seara i dimineaa capt un sens tainic pe care nu-l
neleg deplin, dar l simt n inimile lor mici dar puternice.
Comportamentul gospodarului este dovada unui profund umanism cretin.Faptul c
micii colindtori au ajuns la casa sa e privit ca un dar divin.Colindul devine liantul dintre
inimile lor : Strinii venii tremurnd prin frig i ntuneric, necunoscuii care le deschiser
ua gzduirii, acuma stteau nfrii, i cntecul simplu umplea sufletele de mngiere i de
lumin.9
Lumnric, proza lui Costache Negruzzi, este una din scrierile cu caracter religios
prin natura personajului evocat.Textul a aprut iniial n Almanahul de nvtur i petrecere
pe anul 1844, tiprit de Koglniceanu, potrivit informaiilor lui Nicolae Iorga.10
Portretul ceretorului Lumnric este portretul unui om moral, poate simbolic sau
idealist pentru publicul larg, ns nu i pentru contemporanii si care-i cunoscuser altruismul
absolut i opiunea de a tri pentru alii.
Catalogat de criticul Eugen Simion drept un fel de Gavroche al uliei moldave11
datorit nfirii sale, descul, ncins cu o funie i cu o traist atrnat la old, Lumnric
se dorete a fi perceput de copii ca un model de milostenie i sfinenie. S-a fcut de bun voie
ceretor, vieuind n smerenie i srcie. A miluit pe sraci i bolnavi, a aprat pe orfan,
vduv i pe nedreptit, a mpodobit i ctitorit biserici. Se spune c s-ar fi nscut n jurul
anului 1782, ntr-o familie de rani din inutul Tutova, Brladul de astzi. Orfan din pruncie,
este crescut de o ranc evlavioas care-i transmite dragostea de Hristos i de aproapele,
ndemnndu-l s mpart pe la biserici lumnri, lumina lui Hristos cel nviat. Acest om care a
iubit srcia, dar care a fost mult mai bogat dect boierii Iaului, a murit srac i a fost
nmormntat cu fast la Biserica Talpalari. A murit la poarta unei familii boiereti, ngheat n
luna decembrie a anului 1843. Doamna Marghioala (Maria) Miclescu, din natere Beldiman, a
fost cea care l-a nmormntat pe Lumnric.
Pecepia sa a rmas nealterat peste timp, n prezent Biserica Talpalari unde este
nmormntat dorind s iniieze demersuri pentru canonizarea sa.
Din punct de vedere artistic portretul umilului personaj din Lumnric se dezvolt
ntr-o mic i bun nuvel care anticipeaz pe Agrbiceanu12 i el aplecat spre lumea celor
umili dar virtuoi.
Valenele educative ale textului sunt sintetizate ntr-o estetic a duioiei13menit s-i
sensibilizeze pe cei mici pentru a nu rmne nepstori la durerile i nevoile celor din jur.
Analiznd coninutul Crii unice din 1946 constatm c unul dintre criteriile de
selecie a textelor literare este caracterul lor religios, fapt explicabil prin motenirea cultural
cldi pe fundamentele cretine i prin orizontul de ateptri n special al cititorilor
rurali.Cuprinsul manualului este foarte asemntor cu cel al calendarelor i almanahurilor
religioase interbelice, unele povestiri sau legende figurnd i n cuprinsul acestora. Manualul
nu duce lips de un bogat material paremiologic (proverbe, zictori, ghicitori, nvturi,
povee) att de util asimilrii normelor de comportament i regulilor de via cumptat.
Mihail Sadoveanu,Vestitorii n C.Cazan, N.Bzu, N.Brliba, P.Bosic, St. Stoicnescu, Cartea unic, Editura
Cartea romneasc , Bucureti,1946, p.56
10
N. Iorga, Istoria literaturii romneti n veacul al XIX-lea, de la 1821 nainte, Ed Minerva, Buc., 1983 p.165
11
Eugen Simion, C. Negruzzi (II) n Cultura nr. 204, Buc., 18 dec. 2008
12
I.Negoiescu ,Costache Negruzzi n I. Negoiescu Istoria Literaturii romne 1800-1945, Ed. Dacia, 2002, p.
36-37
13
V. Streinu ,C. Negruzzi, marele precursor n Luceafrul, nr. 52, 1966, p. 1- 7
9
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Cu siguran textele aparinnd literaturii religioase pentru copii prin concizia,

simplitatea i expresivitatea limbii i stilului, au contribuit la dezvoltarea capacitilor lor
intelectuale i verbale i a trsturilor de voin i de caracter.Dar mai presus de toate
literatura popular precum i operele literare inspirate de aceasta dau via i prospeime unor
adevruri transfigurate prin modaliti artisitice originale, bogate n resurse morale,
contribuind la conturarea profilului religios-moral al copiilor.
Bibliografie
Cazan,C., Bzu,N., Brliba,N., Bosic,P., Stoicnescu,St.,Cartea unic, Editura
Cartea romneasc , Bucureti,1946;
Cndroveanu, Hristu, Literatura romn pentru copii, Editura Albatros, Bucureti,
1988;
Fierscu, C., Ghi, Gh., Dicionar de terminologie literar, Bucureti, Ed. Ion
Creang, 1969;
Goia, Vistian, Literatura pentru copii i tineret, Editura Dacia, Cluj Napoca, 2003;
Iorga, N., Istoria literaturii romneti n veacul al XIX-lea, de la 1821 nainte, Ed.
Minerva, Buc., 1983;
Munteanu, Geogeta, Bolog, Elena, Goia, Vistian, Literatura pentru copii, Manual
pentru liceele pedagogice i institutele pedagogice de 2 ani, Editura didactic i
pedagogic, Bucureti, 1970;
Negoiescu, I., Istoria Literaturii romne 1800-1945, Ed. Dacia, Cluj Napoca, 2002;
Raiu Iuliu, O istorie a literaturii pentru copii i adolesceni,Editura Prut Internaional,
2006;
Vianu ,Tudor, Arta prozatorilor romni, Ed. Contemporan, Bucureti, 1941;
Articole:
Morar, Olga, Un deliciu literar: cartea i revista pentru copii n
romnesc, nr.9/2011;
Simion , Eugen, C. Negruzzi (II) n Cultura nr. 204, Buc., 18 dec. 2008;
Streinu, V. ,C. Negruzzi, marele precursor n Luceafrul, nr. 52, 1966.
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STUDY ON THE UTILITY OF CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS IN THE CONTEXT OF

AUTHENTIC TEXTS CORPUS DEVELOPMENT
Laris BULAI
Al. Ioan Cuza University of Ia;i
Abstract: Our paper analyses the condition of the contrastive linguistics in relation with the
development of the corpus of authentic texts, nowadays. While the contrastive analysis had
faced a real evolution at the beginning of the 20th century, it started to lose the interest of
linguists once it was associated to the teaching languages area of study. The lack of a strong
theoretical fundament as well as the unreliability of a made-up material used in the analyses
has generated a decline of the importance of contrastive studies. Anyway, the things have
changed up along with the forthcoming of the corpuses of authentic texts. The elaboration of
such authentic language corpuses has drawn the attention of the linguists and it has
generated a new evolution of the contrastive linguistics materialized in many corpus based
contrastive studies since 70s - 80s.
Keywords: contrastive linguistics, comparative linguistics, contrastive analysis, contrastive
study, authentic language corpus.
Preliminarii
Obiectivul principal al unui studiu contrastiv este de a pune n valoare trsturile
distinctive dintre dou sau mai multe limbi cu privire la particulariti ale anumitor categorii
gramaticale, lexicale etc, elementele analizate n cadrul acestor studii putnd fi diverse. O
reafirmare a lingvisticii contrastive are loc odat cu creterea semnificativ a numrului de
studii contrastive nregistrat ncepnd cu anii 70, dup ce, cteva decenii mai devreme
fusese asociat tehnicilor de predare a limbilor strine i astfel marginalizat i evaluat ca
lipsit de importan n cadrul cercetrii lingvistice. Aceast reinventare a domeniului a
generat apariia a numeroase lucrri apreciate att de ctre lingviti, ct i de ctre specialitii
din domeniul predrii limbilor strine, ca urmare a mbinrii metodei contrastive cu
beneficiile aduse de apariia corpusului de texte.
1. Lingvistic contrastiv, studiu contrastiv, analiz contrastiv
1.1. Delimitri conceptuale
Este necesar clarificarea distinciei dintre sintagmele studiu, analiz i lingvistic
contrastiv, sintagme folosite pentru a denumi domeniul, metoda i lucrrile cu caracter
contrastiv. Astfel, n literatura de specialitate, distingem trei sintagme diferite cu privire la
preocuprile cercetrii de tip contrastiv. Sintagma lingvistic contrastiv denumete ntreg
domeniul de cercetare (Krzeszowski 1990: 11), ca direcie distinct fa de lingvistica
istoric, lingvistica comparat etc. Sintagma analiz contrastiv ine de procesul propriu-zis
i de metoda folosit de ctre cercettor n studierea divergenelor dintre limbi (Krzeszowski
1990: 11). Cnd se utilizeaz sintagma studiu contrastiv, aceasta reprezint, de fapt, o
expresie generic (Krzeszowski 1990: 11) folosit pentru a denumi o lucrare realizat cu
ajutorul metodei de analiz contrastiv, fapt care o ncadreaz n domeniul larg al lingvisticii
contrastive.
1.2. Modaliti de definire
n 1968, Charles Ferguson vorbete despre analiza contrastiv ca fiind fundamental
n procesul de descriere a unei limbi (Ferguson 1968: 101). Ea este definit drept o modalitate
de investigare a limbii orientat n special nspre lingvistica aplicat, nspre domeniul tehnicii
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traducerii i a predrii limbilor strine, menit s identifice punctele de divergen dintre dou
limbi cu scopul de a facilita asimilarea limbii strine. Studiul contrastiv nu trebuie confundat
cu metoda comparativ de analiz a dou etape din istoria aceleiai limbi, metod utilizat n
lucrrile de lingvistic istoric (Crystal 2008: 112).
Routledge Dictionary (1998: 250) identific analiza contrastiv cu lingvistica
contrastiv1. Autorii definesc analiza contrastiv ca ramur a lingvisticii preocupat de
studiul comparativ sincronic al limbilor sau dialectelor, punndu-se accent pe identificarea
diferenelor dintre acestea i difereniindu-se clar de lingvistica comparat care are caracter
diacronic..
1.3. Tipuri de studii contrastive
n conferina de la Washington din 1968, lingvistul Charles Ferguson distinge, n
funcie de segmentul de limb care se cere a fi comparat contrastiv, fie cu acelai segment (din
punctul de vedere al plasrii n timp) dintr-o alt limb, fie cu alte segmente succesive din
aceeai limb, dou tipuri de analiz contrastiv: analiza a dou sau mai multe limbi surori
cu scopul identificrii punctelor de convergen i divergen dintre acestea i analiza
nivelurilor din interiorul aceleiai limbi cu scopul observrii schimbrilor i evoluiei
structurilor lexicale, gramaticale etc., din cadrul limbii respective (Ferguson 1968: 101).
Lingvistul identific astfel, lingvistica comparat cu o lingvistic contrastiv preocupat de
analizarea diverselor stadii din cadrul uneia i aceleiai limbi.
Distincia ntre mai multe tipuri de studii contrastive este fcut i n funcie de
caracterul acestora. Discuiile legate de specificul exclusiv teoretic sau exclusiv aplicat al
lingvisticii contrastive au sfrit prin identificarea, n cadrul domeniului, a dou tipuri de
studiu contrastiv. Astfel, lingvistul de origine polon, Jacek Fisiak elaboreaz o mprire a
studiilor contrastive n: studii contrastive teoretice generale i studii contrastive aplicate
generale (Fisiak 1970: 88-89). Ulterior, att Fisiak, ct i ali lingviti vor reveni asupra
acestei probleme i o vor dezvolta concentrndu-i atenia pe necesitatea distinciei ntre
scopurile celor dou tipuri identificate. Astfel ei disting ntre analiza contrastiv ca furnizor
de modele lingvistice obinute prin compararea i confruntarea limbilor i analiza contrastiv
ca instrument pedagogic n asimilarea limbilor strine (Fisiak 1990: 5).
1.4. Istoricul evoluiei metodei n studiile contrastive existente
Din punctul de vedere al preocuprilor, lingvistica contrastiv reprezint unul dintre
domeniile care studiaz limbile prin comparaie, cu accent pe diferenele dintre acestea.
Lingvistul polonez, Tomasz Krzeszowski (1990: 9), afirm c exist mai multe metode de
comparaie a limbilor, i anume lingvistica istoric, lingvistica tipologic, ns i mai
recenta lingvistic contrastiv care se refer la un alt tip de comparaie: prin observarea i
descrierea asemnrilor i deosebirilor dintre limbi n defavoarea gruprii acestora din punct
de vedere genealogic sau tipologic.
Cu privire la situarea lingvisticii contrastive n cadrul domeniului lingvisticii generale,
au existat o serie de controverse privind caracterul exclusiv aplicat al acesteia. Prerile au fost
diverse i numeroase, iar criticile s-au ndreptat n mare parte mpotriva acestui aspect aplicat
al domeniului, fr o fundaie teoretic pe care s se bazeze. A urmat astfel o serie de
conferine i dezbateri pe tema lingvisticii contrastive i a utilitii sale ca domeniu de
cercetare lingvistic n Washington, sub conducerea lui James Alatis, n Poznan, sub
conducerea lui Jacek Fisiak i n Zagreb, sub conducerea lui Rudolf Filipovic.
Din rndul lingvitilor polonezi care susin caracterul complex al lingvisticii
contrastive n cadrul conferinelor de la Poznan, remarcabil este, mai ales, contribuia lui
Jacek Fisiak, care ncearc clarificarea statutului acesteia, dup ce fusese definit superficial
Terminologia este preluat din Routledge Dictionary (1998: 250): contrastive analysis (also contrastive
linguistics).
1
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ca simpl ramur a lingvisticii preocupat de compararea limbilor. Fisiak subliniaz faptul c

scopul prioritar al unei analize contrastive este acela de a evidenia diferenele dintre
elementele comparate n defavoarea asemnrilor (Fisiak 1981: 1).
Cercettorul restabilete originea lingvisticii contrastive mult naintea momentului
anilor 50-60, moment ce era deja recunoscut i asumat de ctre cercettorii americani
(Fisiak 1981: 1)2. Fisiak ncearc s justifice neglijarea acestei arii de cercetare n lucrrile de
lingvistic teoretic prin tendina general a lingvitilor de a asocia a lingvistica contrastiv cu
domeniul didacticii (Fisiak 1981: 1-2).
El reproeaz ignorana cu care a fost tratat evoluia lingvisticii contrastive
nregistrat prin lucrrile realizate n Europa i, n special, n estul continentului, ignoran
care, mpreun cu scderea i chiar dispariia total a publicaiilor de pe teritoriul american n
perioada de dup anii 70, a dus la apariia criticilor adresate lingvisticii contrastive catalogat
drept o ramur ce aparine exclusiv lingvisticii aplicate (Fisiak 1981: 1). Cercettorul
subliniaz tocmai caracterul predominant teoretic al primelor lucrri de lingvistic contrastiv.
Chiar dac nici caracterul aplicativ nu a fost n totalitate neglijat, acesta a ocupat, ns, o
poziie de interes inferior n studiile sfritului de secol al XIX-lea i nceputului secolului al
XX-lea. Fisiak face o incursiune n istoricul lucrrilor cu caracter contrastiv teoretic i afirm:
Interestingly enough, the first published studies were predominantly theoretical in
orientation (Grandgent 1892; Vitor 1894; Passy 1912; Baudouin de Courtenay 1912;
Bogorodickij 1915). The applied aspect was not totally neglected (e. g., Vitor 1903) but was
accorded a more peripheral importance. Theoretically oriented contrastive studies were
continued from the late twenties throughout the interwar period by Prague School linguists.
(...) The second world war aroused great interest in foreign language teaching in the United
States where unlimited funds and enormous efforts were spent on the working out of most
effective and economical methods and techniques of teaching. Contrastive studies were
recognized as an important part of foreign language teaching methodology and, as a result,
more applied relevance was assigned to CL (Fries 1945). Nonetheless, interesting theoretical
proposals were still advanced (e. g., Trager 1949). Yet, as has been pointed out by Sajavaara
(1977: 10), the theoretical objectives were almost entirly forgotten in the wake of Weinrichs
(1953) and Lados (1957) work (Fisiak 1981: 1).
Conform lui Tomasz Krzeszowski (1990: 10), care sprijin ideea caracterului dual al
lingvisticii contrastive conform cruia orice studiu de lingvistic aplicat este dependent de un
fundament teoretic pe baza cruia se construiete, reuita unui astfel de studiu fiind rezultatul
unei teorii bine aplicate i al unor ipoteze i concepte nelese i utilizate adecvat de ctre
lingvistul contrastivist3 n cercetarea sa.
O alt contribuie european mai recent este cea a lui Carl James, lingvist britanic,
care pune problema apartenenei analizei contrastive la lingvistica pur sau la lingvistica
aplicat4. El admite o interdependen a celor dou tipuri, pe baza afirmaiilor lui Corder,
conform cruia, existena lingvisticii aplicate este condiionat de existena lingvisticii
pure. El catalogheaz lingvistica contrastiv drept o tehnologie bazat pe lingvistic pur
(James 1997: 5).
n spaiul american, despre lingvistica contrastiv s-a vorbit n general, n relaie cu
predarea i nvarea limbilor strine. n cadrul celei de-a 19-a Dezbateri anuale de lingvistic
i studii ale limbii de la Universitatea din Georgetown, Washington, desfurat pe tema
Contrastive Linguistics, however, has much longer roots than the fifties or even forties of the present century.
Although it was not called so until 1941 (Whorf), it goes back at least to the last decade of the 19th century and
the beginning of the 20th century.
3
Sintagma este preluat din Carl James (1997: 1): the book is concerned with a branch of linguistics called
Contrastive Analysis, the practitioners of which we shall call contrastivists.
4
Conform intitulrii capitolului 1.3. CA as Pure or Applied Linguistics din James 1997: 5.
2
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lingvisticii contrastive i a implicaiilor sale pedagogice, n anul 1968, Robert Lado, decanul
Universitii gazd i autorul primului manual de lingvistic contrastiv5 de pe teritoriul
Statelor Unite, Linguistics across Cultures, afirm c lingvistica contrastiv se preocupa de
compararea ineficient a structurilor de suprafa pn cnd gramatica generativtransformaional a oferit perspectiva asimilrii structurilor de adncime universale din limb
nainte de analizarea diferenelor dintre structurile de suprafa (Lado 1968: 123-125).
Astzi, lingvistica contrastiv cunoate un nou avnt n materie de studii publicate.
Vom vedea, n seciune destinat relaiei dintre lingvistica contrastiv i corpusul de text, cum
acesta din urm a influenat, ntr-un anumit grad, o reinventare i o reabordare a analizei
contrastiv bazat pe grupuri de texte preluate din limbile avute n vedere.
2. Corpusul de text
2.1. Modaliti de definire
Instrument de lucru utilizat n lingvistic, corpusul lingvistic este definit drept a
collection of texts or parts of texts upon which some general linguistic analysis can be
conducted (Meyer 2004: xi). Obiectivul principal al alctuirii i utilizrii corpusului de text
este acela de a susine teoria limbii cu exemple concrete i autentice (Stubbs 2004: 106).
Nefiind o ramur a lingvisticii sau o form a lingvisticii aplicate n sine, corpusul de
text a fost definit drept an empirical approach to studying language, which uses observations
of attested data in order to make generalizations about lexis, grammar, and semantics (Stubbs
2004: 107). Corpusul de texte poate servi ca resurs lingvistic sau ca instrument de
prelucrare a limbii, oferind avantajul folosirii de date de limb autentic.
2.2. Tipuri de corpus lingvistic
Tipurile de corpus lingvistic se stabilesc n funcie de urmtoarele criterii: cantitate,
temporalitate, modalitate, coninut i comparabilitate (cf. Cristea 2004: 4).
Dac ne raportm la factorul istoric, distingem dou tipuri de corpusuri, condiionate
de momentul apariiei i dezvoltrii lor: corpusuri pre-electronice i electronice (Meyer
2008: 1).
n strns legtur cu factorul istoric, menionm criteriul cantitii, dat fiind faptul c
numrul de elemente coninute de un corpus depinde radical de metoda de colectare i
ordonare a acestora. Astfel, dac n corpusurile de nceput numrul de cuvinte era adeseori
limitat, ca dimensiune, la un milion (Adolphs & Phoebe 2011: 598) din cauza posibilitilor
tehnologice ale epocii, corpusuri substaniale au nceput s se construiasc din 1980. Astfel,
astzi, pentru a fi reprezentativ pentru o limb, un corpus nu poate fi mai mic de 50 de
milioane de cuvinte (Cristea 2004: 4).
n funcie de modalitatea n care se realizeaz corpusul (criteriul modalitii), putem
vorbi despre colecii de texte scrise n opoziie cu nregistrri de vorbire (Sinclair, Ball 1995;
Teubert 1997 apud. Cristea 2004: 4), iar n funcie de tipul de text colectat (criteriul
coninutului), n cele mai multe lucrri de specialitate sunt recunoscute: corpusurile
specializate i corpusurile generale6. Corpusul specializat (special7) include texte
reprezentative pentru situaii particulare, pentru un anumit registru al limbii sau o anumit arie
lingvistic (Adolphs & Phoebe 2011: 597-598), n timp ce corpusul general (de referin8)
include o diversitate de texte de referin reprezentnd resurse n cadrul unei cercetri
(Adolphs & Phoebe 2011: 598).
n afar de aceste tipuri majore, se vorbete i despre subtipuri de corpus: n funcie de
criteriul temporalitii se vorbete despre corpusuri istorice, corpusuri de control (monitor) i
Subscriem afirmaiei lui Alatis 1968: 2.
Acesta din urm este denumit i multi-purpose corpora (Ludeling & Kyto 2008: x).
7
Cf. Cristea 2004: 4: corpusuri speciale (create pentru a satisface un anumit scop).
8
Cf. Cristea 2004: 4: corpusuri de referin (reprezentative pentru o limb, adun texte care exprim limbajul
scris ca i cel vorbit, limbajul formal i cel informal reprezentnd diverse straturi sociale i situaionale).
5
6
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corpusuri atemporale, iar n funcie de criteriul comparabilitii distingem ntre corpusuri

paralele (care aparin unei categorii mai mari de corpusuri multilingve aflat n opoziie cu
categoria corpusurilor monolingve9) i corpusuri de studiu (Adolphs & Phoebe 2011: 598;
Cristea 2004: 4).
2.3. Istoricul evoluiei i utilizrii corpusului de text
Metoda corpusului de text implic un volum masiv de uniti lexico-gramaticale, care
trebuie ordonate i reactualizate n vederea facilitrii unui acces constant i simplificat.
Simplificarea nseamn evoluie i se produce la nivelul modului de acces la aceste corpusuri.
Evoluia implic elemente de modernitate i tehnologizare, iar acest aspect asociaz corpusul
modern cu tehnologia computerizat10. Cristea (2004: 3) afirm c apariia corpusurilor
electronice, cu toat tehnologia aferent de adnotare i interpretare a lor, a constituit o
adevrat cotitur n tehnologia limbajului. Datorit faptului c milioane de cuvinte pot fi
cutate n cteva secunde pentru a obine o vast informare despre frecvena cuvintelor i
combinarea cuvintelor (Cook 2003: 73), corpusul lingvistic a generat o evoluie att de
extraordinar n ultimele decade (Cook 2003: 73). n ciuda acestui aspect, studiul corpusului
s-a dezvoltat mult naintea aportului adus de tehnologia computerizat11, ns corpusul
modern computerizat a aprut pentru prima dat n 1960, odat cu publicarea, de ctre
Universitatea Brown din SUA, a corpusului american Brown, bazat pe engleza american
scris (Stubbs 2004: 111), a corpusului de englez vorbit London-Lund i a corpusului bazat
pe engleza britanic scris Lancaster-Oslo/Bergen (Adolphs & Phoebe 2011: 598).
Corpusurile moderne au debutat prin dezvoltarea a dou proiecte de dimensiuni
nsemnate, n 1980 i 1990, i anume: The Collins and Birmingham University International
Language Database (COBUILD) and The British National Corpus (BNC)12 (Adolphs &
Phoebe 2011: 598). Necesitatea ntririi teoriei cu dovezi concrete i reale a dus la dezvoltarea
i creterea numrului de corpusuri13. Cteva exemple de corpusuri importante de dimensiuni
nsemnate includ: Cambridge International Corpus (CIC), Longman Corpus Network, Oxford
English Corpus, International Corpus of English (ICE), American National Corpus (ANC),
Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA)14, Das Deutsche Referenzkorpus
(DeReKo)15, Das Digitale Wrterbuch der deutschen Sprache (DWDS)16 i pot fi consultate
n format electronic gratuit sau taxat, pe internet17.
3. Relaia dintre corpusul de text i analiza contrastiv
Cf. Cristea 2004: 4

Conform afirmaiei lui Stubbs (2004: 107), since corpus study gives priority to observing millions of running
words, computer technology is essential.
11
Pentru o abordare detaliat a contribuiei corpusului la realizarea lucrrilor nsemnate precum Biblia,
dicionare, aprute de-a lungul timpului, se poate consulta Stubbs 2004: 109-111, Meyer 2008: 1 i Johansson
2008: 33 s. u.
12
Accesat la http://www.natcorp.ox.ac.uk/ .
13
Dan Cristea afirm c orice teorie lingvistic azi trebuie susinut de o evaluare care s se ancoreze ntr-un
corpus semnificativ de exemple. Corpusurile i metodele de evaluare au devenit att de esemnificative n
lingvistica contemporan nct au nceput s fie organizate importante conferine international specific orientate
pe aceast problematic. Astfel LREC (Language Resources and Evaluation Conference), seria de conferine
bianuale lansat n 1998 de Antonio Zampolli n ase ani a crescut att de mult n importan nct ediia din
2004 a avut peste 800 de participani, cele ase volume cu lucrri tiprite nsumnd 2240 de pagini, iar n parallel
cu conferina mare au mai fost organizate nc 18 ateliere de lucru (Cristea 2004: 3-4).
14
Cf. Adolphs & Phoebe 2011: 598-599, unde poate fi consultat o list complet a principalelor corpusuri
derulate dup 1980.
15
Poate fi accesat la adresa http://www1.ids-mannheim.de/kl/projekte/korpora/.
16
Poate fi accesat la adresa http://www.dwds.de.
17
Pentru accesul la o baz complet a corpusurilor de dimensiuni nsemnate, se poate consulta pagina web
http://corpus.byu.edu (accesat la 5.03.2014).
10
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Reactualizarea domeniului lingvisticii contrastive se realizeaz n jurul anilor 90 n

relaie direct cu dezvoltarea metodei de lucru cu corpus lingvistic, metod care ofer o nou
perspectiv asupra necesitii i a modalitii utilizrii analizei contrastive. n acest sens, Josef
Schmied afirm urmtoarele:
Comparing languages has a long tradition and although it played a major role in the
development of (historical) philology in the 19th century, it was largely neglected during the
first half of the 20th century. Contrastive linguistics had a short boom during the 1960s and
1970s, when it appeared attractive for applied purposes. (...) But the problem of finding a
tertium comparationis for translations and the lack of predictive power (of learners errors)
led to widespread disillusionment. Since the mid-1990s however, corpus-based contrastive
work has shed new light on old contrastive linguistic issues and generated new questions in
structural analysis as well as typological and stylistic perspectives (Schmied 2009: 1142).
Relaia dintre lingvistica contrastiv i metoda corpusului lingvistic nu duce la crearea
unei noi discipline, ci la reconsiderarea unei discipline deja existente, ns neexploatat
suficient la momentul constituirii. Josef Schmied (2009: 1142) afirm c prin combinarea
metodologiei corpusului cu lingvistica contrastiv s-a ajuns la afirmarea unei noi tendine n
materie de studii contrastive bazate pe corpusuri de texte.
Aducnd o chestiune de noutate n compararea limbilor, corpusurile bilingve
furnizeaz evidene ale asemnrilor i diferenelor dintre dou limbi. Ele fac posibil
realizarea studiilor contrastive bazate pe text, n timp ce studiile contrastive tradiionale se
concentrau frecvent pe o comparaie ntre sistemele abstracte ale limbii sau pe pri ale
sistemelor limbii, fr raportare la texte reale (Johansson & Hofland 1993: 25).
Fiind clasificate n dou categorii (originale din fiecare limb puse n paralel i
originale dintr-o limb puse n paralel cu traducerile lor n limba de contrast)18, corpusurile
paralele reprezint o surs nsemnat de informaii; de fapt, ele au reprezentat un motiv
principal pentru relansarea lingvisticii contrastive n anii 90 (Salkie 1999).
Ideea necesitii utilizrii corpusului n metodele de lucru ale lingvisticii contrastive
este exprimat nainte de momentul anilor 90. Necesitatea corpusurilor de texte autentice este
anticipat de ctre lingvistul Rudolf Filipovic, care justific neajunsurile metodei analizei
contrastive utilizate de o serie de studii contrastive aprute pn la acel moment prin absena
adoptrii unui corpus adecvat. Lingvistul enumer proiectele care nu evalueaz utilizarea
unui corpus (Filipovic 1984: 109), dup cum urmeaz: proiectul german-englez - PAKS
coordonat de profesorul Nickel, proiectul german-englez din Mainz coordonat de profesorul
Carstensen, proiectul polonez-englez coordonat de ctre profesorul Fisiak, proiectul maghiarenglez coordonat de profesorii Hegedus, Dezso i Stephanides i proiectul englez-romn
coordonat de profesorii Tatiana Slama-Cazacu i Dumitru Chioran19. Filipovic subliniaz c
proiectele amintite au folosit un fel de corpus, ns niciunul dintre ele nu a folosit un corpus
standard20.
Concluzii
Reafirmarea metodei de analiz contrastiv mbinat cu utilizarea de corpusuri de
texte autentice a dus la creterea numrului de lucrri cu caracter contrastiv aprute n ultima
Conform lui Johansson i Hofland (1993: 25), cnd vorbim despre un corpus bilingv sau multilingv, ne putem
referi la dou lucruri diferite: un corpus constituit din texte originale i traducerile lor; un corpus constituit din
texte originale paralele din dou sau mai multe limbi(t.n.).
19
Descrierea succint a proiectelor are scopul de a sublinia lipsa existenei unui corpus de baz n aplicarea
metodei analizei contrastive i se regsete n articolul lui Rudolf Filipovic, 1984: 109-110.
20
The corpus can be used in comparative studies in which it is necessary to have the same collection of data for
each language. Standard can mean that the corpus is suitable for further work preparing and presenting other data
in English and other languages (Filipovic 1984: 111).
18
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perioad, precum i la finalizarea unor proiecte contrastive ncepute. Pe teritoriul romnesc,

proiectul nceput i coordonat n anii 70 de ctre profesorii Dumitru Chioran i Tatiana
Slama-Cazacu la Universitatea din Bucureti fusese ntrerupt n perioada de declin a
lingvisticii contrastive. Lucrrile din cadrul proiectului The Romanian-English Contrastive
Analysis au fost reluate i completate i sunt publicate n volumul Contrastive Studies in
English and Romanian, aprut n 2013. Totodat, notabil este i creeterea nsemnat a
numrului tezelor de doctorat aprute att pe teritoriu romnesc, ct i la nivel mondial, teze
concretizate n forma studiilor contrastive ntre dou sau mai multe limbi.
Bibliografie
Adolphs & Phoebe 2011 = Svenja Adolphs and Phoebe M. S. Lin, Corpus
linguistics n James Simpson, The Routledge Handbook of Applied Linguistics, London:
Routledge Taylor & Francis Group, 2011.
Cook 2003 = Cook, Guy, Applied Linguistics, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
Cristea, 2004 = Cristea, Dan, Resurse lingvistice si tehnologia limbajului. Cazul
limbii romne, Conferin prezentat la Filiala Iai a Academiei Romne n cadrul
Prelegerilor Academiei, 28 februarie 2004.
Crystal 2008 = Crystal, David, A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics, Sixth
edition, Blackwell Publishing, 2008.
Ferguson 1968 = Ferguson, Charles A., Contrastive Linguistics and Language
Development n Alatis, 1968, p. 101-112.
Filipovic 1984 = Filipovic, Rudolf, The primary data for CA n Fisiak, 1984, p. 105118.
Fisiak 1970 = Fisiak, Jacek, The Poznan Polish - English Contrastive Project n
Zagreb Conference on English Contrastive Projects, 7-9 December 1970. Papers and
Discussion. Studies 4. The Yugoslav Serbo-Croatian-English Contrastive Project (p. 87-96),
editor Rudolf Filipovic.
Fisiak 1981 = Fisiak, Jacek, Theoretical Issues in Contrastive Linguistics, Amsterdam:
John Benjamins B. V., 1981.
Fisiak 1990 = Fisiak, Jacek, Further Insights into Contrastive Analysis, Amsterdam:
John Benjamins B. V., 1990.
James 1997 = James, Carl, Contrastive Analyses, Harlow: Longman, 1981, 14th
impression 1997.
Johansson & Hofland 1993 = Johansson, Stig; Hofland, Knut, Towards an EnglishNorwegian parallel corpus n Fries U., Tottie, G.; Schneider, P., Creating and using English
language corpora, Amsterdam i Atlanta, GA: Rodopi, 1993.
Krzeszowski 1990 = Krzeszowski, Tomasz P., Contrasting Languages: The Scope of
Contrastive Linguistics, Berlin: Mouton De Gruyter, 1990.
Lado 1968 = Lado, Robert, Contrastive Linguistics in a Mentalistic Theory of
Language Learning n Alatis, 1968, p. 123-135.
Ludeling & Kyto 2008 = Ldeling, Anke; Kyt, Merja, Corpus Linguistics: An
International Handbook, Volume 1, Walter de Gruyter, 2008.
Meyer 2004 = Meyer, Charles F., English Corpus Linguistics. An Introduction,
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004.
Meyer 2008 = Meyer, Charles F., Origin and history of corpus linguistics - corpus
linguistics vis--vis other disciplines n Ludeling & Kyto 2008, p. 1-14.
Routledge 1998 = Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics, London, 1998.
Salkie 1999 = Salkie, Raphael How can linguists profit from parallel corpora?:
http://stp.lingfil.uu.se/pks99/synopsis/Salkie.html (accesat 24.02.2014).
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Schmied 2009 = Schmied, Josef, Contrastive corpus studies n Corpus Linguistics:

An International Handbook, Volum 2, editat de Anke Ldeling, Merja Kyt, Walter de
Gruyter, 2009.
Stubbs 2004 = Stubbs, Michael, Language Corpora n Alan Davies, Catherine Elder,
The Handbook of Applied Linguistics, Blackwell Publishing, 2004.
Mulumiri / Acknowledgments
*Aceast lucrare a fost publicata cu sprijinul financiar al proiectului Sistem integrat
de mbuntire a calitii cercetrii doctorale i postdoctorale din Romnia i de promovare a
rolului tiinei n societate, POSDRU/159/1.5/S/133652, finanat prin Fondul Social
European, Programul Operaional Sectorial Dezvoltarea Resurselor Umane 2007-2013.
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POSTMEMORY IN JONATHAN SAFRAN FOER'S EVERYTHING IS ILLUMINATED

Sorin-Daniel FAUR, West Universitz of Timioara
Abstract: Postmemory represents the strong connection between Holocaust survivors and the
members of the second and the third generation post-trauma. The children or grandchildren
of Shoah survivors have a special connection with the past of their parents or grandparents
because they grew-up in families in which this traumatic event was considered a tabu subject.
Jonathan Safran Foer is a representative writer for what we may call the third generation
literature because Everything is Illuminated, his first novel, explores his travel in Ukraine
in order to find out details about his grandfather, a Holocaust survivor.
Keywords: postmemory, Shoah, trauma, prosthetic memory, empathy.
Postmemoria - scurt excurs teoretic

Postmemoria este un fenomen nc insuficient exploatat n domeniul de cercetare
denumit memory studies, fiind discutat pentru prima dat de ctre cercettoarea americanc de
origine romn, Marianne Hirsch. Aceasta, n studiile referitoare la modul n care se
raporteaz generaiile post-traum la evenimentele prin care au trecut predecesorii lor, ct i la
cunotinele pe care acetia le au despre respectivele evenimente, observ un interes sporit n
rndul celei de-a doua generaii post-traum pentru redescoperirea trecutului dureros la care
au luat parte prinii sau bunicii lor. Hirsch, nscut la Timioara n 1949, la rndul ei fiica
unor supravieuitori ai Holocaustului, teoretizeaz postmemoria, din mijlocul fenomenului i
consider c aceasta reprezint
relaia dintre copii supravieuitorilor unei traume culturale sau colective i
experienele prinilor lor, experiene pe care ei i le amintesc doar sub forma povetilor i a
imaginilor cu care au crescut, dar care au fost att de puternice nct s-au constituit ca amintiri
independente n mintea lor.1
Cercettoarea definete conceptul de postmemorie prin referire la romanul grafic
Maus, publicat ntre 1986 i 1991 de ctre scriitorul american de origine evreiasc Art
Spiegelman. Romanul n cauz este construit chiar pe relaia problematic dintre tatl nc
bntuit de traumele suferite n lagrele de concentrare i copilul mnat de curiozitate care
ncearc s neleag comportamentul contradictoriul, al printelui su i s umple lacunele
trecutului personal. Demersul lui Spiegelman, la fel ca oricare alt demers postmemorial, este
unul autobiografic deoarece el nsui aparine celei de-a doua generaii post-traum, prinii
si fiind supravieuitori ai lagrelor de concentrare de la Buchenwald i Auschwitz.
Spiegelman afirma ntr-un interviu c Maus nu este despre ceva ce s-a ntmplat n trecut, ci
este, mai degrab, despre ceea ce fiul nelege din povestea tatlui. [] Este o istorie
autobiografic a relaiei cu tatl meu, supravieuitor al lagrelor naziste...2 Astfel, obiectivul
principal al romanelor postmemoriei nu este tematizarea Holocaustului ca eveniment istoric
extrem, ci evidenierea modului n care cei care s-au nscut dup acest eveniment ncearc s
refac un context istoric familial pus pn atunci sub semnul tcerii. Romanul Maus aparine
postmemoriei literare deoarece implic sondarea trecutului celorlali, inaccesibil pentru ei, n
Marianne Hirsch, Surviving Images: Holocaust Photographs and the Work of Postmemory n Yale Journal of
Criticism, vol. 14, nr. 1, 2001, p. 9, [t.m.].
2
Art Spiegelman apud James E. Young, The Holocaust as Vicarious Past: Art Spiegelman's "Maus" and the
Afterimages of History, n Critical Inquiry, Vol. 24, No. 3. (Spring, 1998), p. 670, [t. m.].
1
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ncercarea de a face lumin n trecutul personal, acest aspect fiind caracteristic tuturor
scriitorilor din perioada post-Holocaust ai cror predecesori au avut de suferit de pe urma
atrocitilor naziste. n aceast categorie se ncadreaz autori de origine evreiasc precum
Jonathan Safran Foer, Daniel Mendelsohn, Nicole Krauss, Nava Semel sau Edmund de Waal.
Marianne Hirsch atrage atenia asupra faptului c memoria supravieuitorilor este
radical diferit fa de cea a succesorilor lor deoarece experiena celor din urm este mediat
prin intermediul unor resurse documentare cu ajutorul crora ei fac cunotin cu trecutul.
Astfel, membrii generaiilor post-Holocaust nu au avut contact direct cu trauma, deci proiecia
lor memorial referitoare la aceste evenimente nu poate fi acceai cu cea a unei persoane care
a suferit ororile din lagrele de concentrare. Hirsch completeaz afirmnd c postmemoria
este o form puternic de memorie deoarece [] ea este bazat mai mult pe tcere dect pe
cuvinte, pe absen mai mult dect pe prezen.3 n acest sens, legtura dintre memorie i
imaginaie, evideniat de numeroi specialiti4 este aplicabil i n cazul postmemoriei, doar
c fenomenologia postmemoriei este diferit fa de cea a memoriei n cteva privine. Astfel,
dac un supravieuitor al Shoah-ului poate s i recreeze n minte scenele la care a luat parte
n timpul prizonieratului tocmai datorit faptului c s-a aflat n mijlocul evenimentelor, un
reprezentant al celei de-a doua sau a treia generaii post-traum, n lipsa unor rspunsuri
concrete, este obligat s ntreprind un demers pur imaginativ de refacere memorial.
Experiena direct este nlocuit de mrturii, fotografii, arhive, imagini din muzee sau ecourile
din mass-media, toate acestea fcnd din reprezentanii generaiilor post-traum nite martori
virtuali.
Astfel, atunci cnd discutm despre postmemorie este relevant teoria lui Dominick
LaCapra despre empatie vzut ca un rspuns la experienele traumatizante ale altora.
Empatia presupune un schimb virtual de locuri ntre tine i cellalt i poate fi generat de
privirea unei fotografii, de lectura unei mrturii sau de parcurgerea unui film tematic. Pentru
generaiile post-traum, acesta este singura posibilitate de a lua contactul cu un trecut aproape
inaccesibil, acesta fiind modul n care va putea fi pstrat i transmis inter-generaional
memoria unor evenimente care nu mai pot fi autentificate de ctre martori. Referindu-se la
memoria cultural pe care cineva i-o poate forma frecventnd muzee, citind publicaii sau
urmrind filme sau emisiuni istorice, cercettoarea Allison Landsberg introducea conceptul de
memorie dobndit5, acesta fiind i titlul omonim al crii publicate n 2004. Cercettoarea
pornea de la producii literare sau mass-media cu caracter istoric capabile s genereze o form
de memorie cultural foarte asemntoare postmemoriei. n capitolul America, the
Holocaust, and the Mass Culture of Memory, Landsberg pleac de la ideea c, peste Ocean,
memoria Holocaustului se datoreaz, n mare parte, unor reprezentri artistice precum:
romanul grafic Maus al lui Spiegelman, filmul Lista lui Schindler al lui Spielberg, filmul
Pianistul al lui Polanski, dar i unei instituii precum Muzeul Memorial al Holocaustului.
Referindu-se la acest studiu, Landsberg afirma:
Memoria dobndit teoretizeaz producerea i diseminarea amintirilor care nu au o
legtur direct cu trecutul trit al unei persoane, dar sunt eseniale pentru producerea i
articularea subiectivitii. Eu le numesc amintiri dobndite din patru motive. n primul rnd,
ele nu sunt naturale, nu sunt produsul experienei trite [], ci deriv din implicarea ntr-o
Ibidem.
Vezi Paul Ricoeur, Memoria, istoria, uitarea, traducere de Ilie Gyurcsik i Margareta Gyurcsik, Timioara,
Amarcord, 2001, p. 72-73. n aceste pagini, Ricoeur i pornete argumentaia citndu-l Jean-Paul Sartre care
afirma: Actul de imaginaie [] este un act magic. E o incantaie menit s fac s apar obiectul la care ne
gndim, lucrul pe care l dorim, n aa fel nct s putem intra n posesia lui.
5
n original, prosthetic memory.
4
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reprezentare mediat (vizualizarea unui film, vizitarea unui muzeu, parcurgerea unei miniserii
TV).6
Romanul Totul este iluminat al lui Foer ilustreaz n totalitate ideea c postmemoria
implic un demers imaginativ. Tnrul Jonathan pleac spre Trachimbrod, shtetl-ul n care a
copilrit bunicul su, pentru a o gsi pe Augustine, femeia care l-a ajutat pe acesta s
supravieuiasc atacului nazist asupra micuei comuniti evreieti. Dup o expediie euat n
urma creia constat c memoria este imposibil de recuperat pentru cineva care nu a luat
parte la respectivele evenimente, tnrul recurge la imaginaie i recreaz n stil realist-magic
mrquezian istoria Trachimbrodului de la momentul mitic al fondrii pn la finalul
apocaliptic al invadrii shtetl-ului de ctre naziti. Explicaia care se impune aici este aceea
c de cele mai multe ori, dup cum se poate observa att n Maus, ct i n Totul este iluminat,
urmaii celor care au suferit traume n lagrele de concentrare sunt bntuii de o profund
curiozitate legat de viaa predecesorilor lor. S-a observat c n familiile care au fost marcate
de mari traume se menine tcerea cu privire la ororile prin care unii membri ai familiei au
trecut, aceasta fiind de fapt o msur de protecie pe care prinii (bunicii) o iau n sperana c
urmaii lor vor avea o viaa linitit, ferit pn i de amintirea sau imaginea Rului. Dar,
dup cum observa Dan Bar-On, un lucru tinuit, dar apstor prin natura sa va genera energii
mult mai mari dect o poveste mrturisit, generaia postmemoriei Holocaustului fiind
relevant n acest sens.
Nostos-ul lui Jonathan Safran Foer
Jonathan Safran Foer s-a nscut la Washington n anul 1977 ntr-o familie evreiasc.
Dup cum chiar el mrturisete n interviuri, copilria i-a fost marcat de figura misterioas a
bunicului su matern, pe care nu l-a cunoscut niciodat. Preocupat nc de la vrste fragede de
literatur i, de tiinele umaniste, Foer se nscrie la facultatea de filozofie din cadrul
Universitii Princeton, pe care o absolvete n anul 1999. n 1995, nc din primul an de
studenie, Foer se implic n viaa literar a facultii i se nscrie la un curs de creative
writing inut de ctre scriitoarea Joyce Carol Oates, aceasta fiind recunoscut mai trziu drept
una dintre cele mai importante influene asupra creaiei tnrului scriitor american. Celebra
scriitoare avea s fie, patru ani mai trziu, coordonatoarea lucrrii de diplom a lui Jonathan,
lucrare n care tnrul analiza detaliat viaa bunicului su, Louis Safran, supravieuitor al
Holocaustului. Dup absolvirea facultii de filozofie, tnrul pleac n Ucraina pentru a-i
intensifica cercetrile legate de viaa bunicului su i de modul n care acesta a reuit s
supravieuiasc masacrrii shtetl-ului n care acesta locuia. Lucrarea sa de diplom va
constitui scheletul romanului Totul este iluminat, ntrebat fiind despre geneza romanului,
Jonathan afirm:
Nu am intenionat s scriu Totul este iluminat. Am inteninat s scriu o cronic, n
termeni strict non-ficionali a unei cltorii pe care am fcut-o n Ucraina la vrsta de
douzeci de ani. narmat cu o fotografie a unei femei, despre care mi se spusese c mi salvase
bunicul de naziti, m-am mbarcat ntr-o cltorie spre Trachimbrod, shtetl-ul din care era
originar familia mea. Comedia ororilor a durat cinci zile. Nu am gsit nimic, absolut nimic i
n acel nimic-un peisaj covritor al absenei nu era nimic de gsit. Din cauz c nu-i spusesm
nimic bunicii mele n legtur cu cltoria n Ucraina pentru c nu m-ar fi lsat s plec, nu am
Alison Landsberg, Prosthetic memory. The Transformation of American Remembrance in the Age of Mass
Culture, New York, Columbia University Press, 2004, p. 20, [t. m.], italicele mi aparin.
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tiut ce s ntreb, pe cine s ntreb, ce nume de oameni, locuri sau lucruri. [...] M-am ntors la
Praga, unde mi-am propus s scriu despre ceea ce s-a ntmplat n aceast cltorie.7
Romanul, cu un evident substrat autobiografic, l are n centru pe tnrul Jonathan
Safran Foer care, la nici douzeci de ani, prsete elita Princeton-ului pentru a ajunge n
zonele srccioase ale Europei de Est, mai exact n Ucraina. narmat cu o fotografie care
avea o provenien discutabil, el spera s o gseasc pe Augustine, o femeie care putea
reprezenta legtura cu bunicul pe care nu l-a cunoscut niciodat. Pentru aceast expediie,
tntul Jonathan angajeaz o agenie cu un nume predestinat, Cltorii la origini, pentru a
ajunge ct mai rapide n shtetl-ul Trachimbrod n care se nscuse i trise bunicul su pn la
venirea nazitilor, n 1942. Din partea ageniei, acesta primete un ofer, Alexander Perchov i
un translator, nepotul oferului, Alex Perchov. Asemnarea dintre Alex i Jonathan i
misiunea lor comun de a dezgropa un trecut familial incert, asemnare care prea destul de
greu de intuit n debutul romanului, se concretizeaz pe msur ce naintm n lectur. Alex se
afl, la rndul lui, n cutarea unor rspunsuri referitoare la familia sa i la trecutul acesteia.
Dup ce depesc mai multe piedici, cei trei reuesc s ajung n Trachimbrod sau n
ceea ce mai rmses din el: un teren gol, n mijlocul cruia se afla o plachet comemorativ,
practic un loc deposedat de orice semnificaie memorial. Singura supravieuitoare a
masacrului nazist, Lista, i-a dedicat ntreaga via refacerii memoriei Holocaustului prin
intermediul colectrii i inventarierii oricrui obiect care avea puterea de a activa memoria, de
la fotografii, cri, jurnale, pn la obiectele personale ale celor ucii. Casa Listei devine o
imens arhiv a Holocaustului, n care piesele se aflau amestecate ca ntr-un puzzle, Foer
avansnd ideea c rolul membrilor generaiilor post-traum este de a reface aceast memorie:
,,[E]rau multe cutii, care debordau de obiecte. Acestea aveau nscrisuri pe laturi. O
pnz alb se revrsa din cutia marcat NUNI I ALTE SRBTORI. Cutia marcat
PERSONALE: JURNALE/ JURNALE INTIME/ CAIETE DE SCHIE/ LENJERIE
INTIM era aa de supraaglomerat, c aprea pregtit s se rup. Mai erau o cutie, marcat
ARGINT/ PARFUM/ MORITI, i una marcat IGIEN/ BOBINE/ LUMNRI, i una
marcat FIGURINE/ OCHELARI. Dac a fi fost o persoan deteapt, a fi nregistrat toate
denumirile pe o hrtie, aa cum fcea eroul n jurnalul su, dar n-am fost o persoan deteapt
i am uitat de-atunci multe dintre ele. Unele dintre denumiri n-am putut s mi le explic, cum
ar fi, de pild, cutia marcat NTUNERIC, sau aceea cu MOARTEA PRIMULUI NSCUT
scris cu creion pe capac. Am observat c era o cutie deasupra unuia dintre aceti zgrie-nori
de cutii, marcat rn.8
Lista este o reprezentant a memoriei exemplare, rolul ei fiind acela de a transmite
mai departe memoria Holocaustului pentru ca aceasta s nu fie pierdut i pentru ca ororile
prin care au trecut evreii n anii '30-'40 s nu se mai repete vreodat. Gestul femeii n
momentul n care i d lui Jonathan o cutie n care se afl amintiri din perioada n care
Trachimbrodul era o comunitate prosper este unul simbolic care trimite la faptul c
transmiterea memoriei de la supravieuitori la nepoi, membrii celei de-a treia generaii, este
un deziderat irealizabil deoarece memoria aparine exclusiv victimelor, supravieuitorilor, dar
i torionarilor. Acesta este motivul pentru care Jonathan nu apuc s deschid cutia de la
Lista, aceasta fiindu-i furat n tren, pe drumul de ntoarcere i, astfel, memoria este pierdut
pentru totdeauna i nu mai poate fi recuperat n adevrata ei integritate.
Romanul conine i pagini ntregi de mrturii n care este descris cu lux de detalii
intervenia nazist n Trachimbrod. Lista, singura supravieuitoare i narativizeaz memoria
traumatic i i povestete lui Jonathan episoadele cumplite prin care a trecut ea n timpul
7
A Conversation with Jonathan Safran Foer about Everything is Illuminated, disponibil online la:
http://www.hhsdrama.com/documents/BioJonathanSafranFoer.pdf
8
Jonathan Safran Foer, Totul este iluminat, traducere de Fraga Cusin, Bucureti, Humanitas, 2008, p. 194-195.
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masacrului, scond la iveal traumele fizice, dar mai ales psihice, la care au fost supui evreii
de ctre naziti:
,,Ne-au aezat pe rnduri, a zis ea. Aveau liste. Erau foarte logici. [] Au ars
sinagoga. Acesta a fost primul lucru pe care l-au fcut. Acesta a fost primul lucru. Apoi au
pus toi brbaii pe rnduri. [] Era n mijlocul oraului. Acolo, a zis ea, artnd cu degetul n
ntuneric. Au desfurat o Tora n faa lor. Un lucru ngrozitor. [] Generalul a mers de-a
lungul rndului i a spus fiecrui brbat s scuipe pe Tora, altfel i vor ucide familia.9
Alex, la fel ca Jonathan, ntreprinde o cutare personal a propriei familii. El se
ntreab n permanen de ce i gsete adesea bunicul plngnd atunci cnd este singur i de
ce nu i vorbete niciodat despre tinereea sa. n acest sens, cercettoarea Anna Hunter vine
cu ideea c Jonathan i Alex reprezint dou faete ale aceluiai personaj, simbiotic legate
de o absen a memoriei care caracterizeaz amnezia cultural10. Astfel, atunci cnd povestea
ajunge la punctul n care se descoper rmiele Trachimbrodului, destinele celor dou
personaje ncep s se despart. Jonathan se afund ntr-o bezn i mai mare dect cea resimit
pn atunci deoarece nu o gsete pe Augustine, singura femeie care i putea stabili o
conexiune cu bunicul su, iar din shtetl-ul din care era originar familia lui mai exist doar o
piatr memorial, totul fiind pierdut. De cealalt parte, Alex Perchov afl c bunicul su era
originar din Kolki, un shetl vecin cu Trachimbrodul i c pentru a-i salva familia de moarte
i-a turnat cel mai bun prieten, pe evreul Hershel.
Totul
este
iluminat,
romanul de debut al lui Jonathan Safran Foer este, poate, una dintre cele mai importante piese
din ceea ce numim literatura postmemoriei. Proiectat ca un demers de recuperare memorial,
cartea tnrului american ilustreaz modul n care membrii celei de-a treia generaii posttraum ncearc s refac un trecut familial traumatic pus sub semnul tcerii de ctre
predecesori.
Bibliografie selectiv
Hirsch, Marianne, The Generation of Postmemory, n ,,Poetics Today , vol. 29, nr. 1,
2008, pp. 103-128;
Hirsch, Marianne, Surviving Images: Holocaust Photographs and the Work of
Postmemory n Yale Journal of Criticism, vol. 14, nr. 1, 2001, pp.. 5-37;
Hunter, Anna, The Amnesiac Consciousness of the Contemporary Holocaust Novel:
Lily Brett's Too Many Men and Jonathan Safran Foers Everything Is Illuminated, n
Apostolos Lampropoulos i Vassiliki Markidou (ed.), Configurations of Cultural Amnesia.
Synthesis 2 (Fall 2010), pp. 38-47;
Landsberg, Alison, Prosthetic memory. The Transformation of American
Remembrance in the Age of Mass Culture, New York, Columbia University Press, 2004
Ricoeur, Paul, Memoria, istoria, uitarea, traducerea de Ilie Gyurcsik i Margareta
Gyurcsik, Amarcord, Timioara, 2001;
Safran Foer, Jonathan, Totul este iluminat, traducere din limba englez i note de
Fraga Cusin, Humanitas, Bucureti, 2008;
Young, James E., The Holocaust as Vicarious Past: Art Spiegelman's "Maus" and the
Afterimages of History, n Critical Inquiry, Vol. 24, No. 3. (Spring, 1998), p. 666-699;
http://www.hhsdrama.com/documents/BioJonathanSafranFoer.pdf
Ibidem, p. 244.
Anna Hunter, The Amnesiac Consciousness of the Contemporary Holocaust Novel: Lily Brett's Too Many
Men and Jonathan Safran Foers Everything Is Illuminated, n Apostolos Lampropoulos i Vassiliki Markidou
(ed.) , Configurations of Cultural Amnesia. Synthesis 2 (Fall 2010), p. 44, [t.m.].
10
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Mulumiri:
Aceast lucrare a fost cofinanat din Fondul Social European prin Programul
Operaional Sectorial pentru Dezvoltarea Resurselor Umane 2007 2013, Cod Contract:
POSDRU/159/1.5/S/140863, Cercettori competitivi pe plan european n domeniul tiinelor
umaniste i socio-economice. Reea de cercetare multiregional (CCPE).
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HUMAN CAPITAL A CENTRAL CONCEPT FOR SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT,

CONTEXTUALIZED TO THE PROCESS OF GLOBALIZATION
Gabriela-Violeta IORDCHI
Abstract: In this paper we make a theoretical analysis of the concept of human capital
considering new social changes due to globalization process. A strong human capital is
essential for the social development of a community, but mostly in former socialist countries
this is the first sacrificed on the altar of political and economic reforms. Human capital
development is essential to increase the quality of life of a community.
Keywords: human capital, globalization, education, health, community.
Dezvoltarea social se construiete n mod vdit cu oameni, iar de educaia, abilitile,
calitatea caracterial, raportarea valoric, capacitatea decizional i starea de sntate a
acestora depinde n mod esenial nsui ritmul i sensul n care se produce aceast dezvoltare,
fie c ne referim la o comunitate mic sau una extins, o naiune, o construcie politic
precum Uniunea European sau umanitatea n ansamblul diversitii ei. Ca orice alt proces
social, dezvoltarea poate avea i revers sub forma subdezvoltrii, srciei, regresului, al crizei
economice, sociale, politice, diplomatice, militare etc., situaii care i afecteaz n mod evident
sensul pozitiv de evoluie, aductor al bunstrii i prosperitii, urmare a implementrii unor
programe, planuri i strategii coerente.
Adesea politicienii pun n prim plan reformele cu orice pre i prea adesea interesele
proprii, factorul uman, cetenii, devenind n viziunea lor acel bun de sacrificat pe altarul
nobilei zeiti a dezvoltrii i salvarea n faa crizelor de tot felul, uitnd c nsi dezvoltarea
este n conexiune direct cu capitalul uman.
Nu putem avea dezvoltare real i durabil fr un capital uman puternic. O naiune cu
o sntate ubred a cetenilor ei, cu un sistem de educaie n mic msur valorizat, n care
se investete minimal i, mai mult chiar, care formeaz oameni cu abiliti practice puine,
ajungnd n acest fel s fac fa cu greu realitilor unei piei a muncii cu un nivel ridicat de
competitivitate din cauza rarefierii locurilor de munc ca rezultat al unui ciclu de slab
evoluie, o astfel de societate, dup cum spuneam, are ansa unei dezvoltri i a unei
acumulri de prosperitate ntr-un ritm sczut. Mutatis mutandis cu o situaie asemntoare,
dar n grade diferite, s-au confruntat i nc se mai confrunt unele dintre rile fostului bloc
socialist, aflate n chinuitoare procese de tranziie de la economiile centralizate spre altceva,
nu se tie totdeauna ce1, dar care se dorete a deveni economii capitaliste. Romnia, din
nefericire, nu face parte dintre excepii2. Considerm c nu este necesar s intrm aici n
Amintim aici cuvintele antropologului american, Katherine Verdery: Dup prerea mea, a presupune c
suntem martorii unei tranziii de la socialism la capitalism, democraie sau economie de pia, este greit. []
Dezvoltarea unor sisteme politice mai aproape de regimurile autoritare corporatiste dect de democraiile liberale
este o alt posibilitate, n mai multe ri (Romnia, de exemplu), n timp ce dictaturile militare nu ar trebui
excluse n cazul altora (poate Rusia). Cnd folosesc cuvntul tranziie l pun n ghilimele pentru a lua n
derdere naivitatea unei att de la mod tranzitologii.(Verdery, K., 2003, Socialismul ce a fost i ce urmeaz,
ed. Institutul European, Iai, p. 28).
2
Nivelul de trai al populaiei a sczut continuu, cu mici oscilaii, pe toat durata tranziiei postcomuniste. []
Tranziia care urmeaz va trebui s considere prosperitatea populaiei una dintre intele sale principale. Noul
deceniu de tranziie are dj primele semne c, la nivelul clasei politice, acest obiectiv inedit ncepe s-i fac
loc. (Pasti, V., 2006, Noul capitalism romnesc, ed. Polirom, Iai, p. 97).
1
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polemici legate de procesul de schimbri care se deruleaz chiar sub ochii notri, denumit
frecvent n literatura de specialitate sau n discursurile politicienilor de dup 1989, cu fiind
tranziie ctre o societate capitalist pe care ar traversa-o, ca pe o Golgota, rile
postcomuniste, ci ne vom limita la o discuie privind importana capitalului uman n
dezvoltarea social, contextualizat unui alt proces mai larg, cu rdcini adnci3 n istoria
umanitii, globalizarea. Acest proces datorit tehnologiei, economiei i politicii4 a atins n
secolul XXI o dinamic galopant, imposibil de a nu fi remarcat.
Poate tocmai ca urmare a globalizrii i a dezvoltrii tehnologiilor, n special a celor
comunicaionale, n ultimii ani a avut loc la nivel internaional o schimbare major n privina
paradigmei dezvoltrii sociale, revoluia administraiei5, n cadrul creia un rol major i este
rezervat descentralizrii ca nou mod de administrare. Prin descentralizare se face trecerea de
la administrarea propriu-zis a legislaiei de ctre instituii, la o administrare n urma
identificrii problemelor sociale ale comunitii i dezvoltarea unor programe specifice de
soluionare a lor. n acest fel, se deschide oportunitatea participrii comunitilor locale n
cadrul procesului decizional de administrare a fondurilor. Acest fapt are o importan major
n privina puterii pe care o poate exercita n prezent individul, mpreun cu comunitatea din
care face parte.
n acest loc vom face o scurt oprire de la discuia asupra conceptelor enunate pentru
a pune cteva ntrebri, n opinia noastr eseniale: ntr-o societate cu un capital uman ntr-o
anumit msur afectat de restructurare economic, srcie, corupie, care va mai fi
capacitatea oamenilor de a nelege, a procesa, a se adapta, de a avea capacitate fizic pentru a
face fa problematicilor implicate de mediul social tot mai complex n care i desfoar
viaa i pentru a produce venituri din propria munc?; poate fi considerat factorul politic
responsabil de subdezvoltarea comunitilor sau ordinea social care configureaz o societate
e cea care influeneaz dezvoltarea?; este adevrat premisa c procesul de globalizare face ca
zonele dezvoltate din punct de vedere economic s devin i mai dezvoltate, iar cele
neangrenate eficient n sistemul economiei globale s devin srace?; cum se coreleaz
capitalul uman cu cel instituional i social, sunt ele cumva independente?6
ntrebrile enunate mai sus necesit nu doar rspunsuri, ci mai nti de toate o analiz
aprofundat a modului n care este alctuit societatea prezent, considerat a fi una
aparinnd modernitii reflexive7. n acest sens, sociologia ca tiin reflexiv, mpreun cu
aparatul ei metodologic, ne permite prin studierea unor grupuri i instituii reprezentative s
analizm problematici de interes social care s ne ajute la o mai bun nelegere a societii n
care trim i totodat la gsirea unor soluii n vederea mbuntirii calitii vieii oamenilor.
Definirea i msurarea capitalului uman
Capitalul uman este un concept care a nceput s-i fac loc n economie ncepnd cu
anii '50 ai secolului XX, n cadrul Universitii din Chicago, sub impactul lucrrilor lui
Se poate spune c globalizarea este un proces care dureaz de secole. Primii Homo Sapiens erau nomazi,
cltorind dintr-un loc n altul; triburile de indieni au cltorit cu multe secole n urm din Mongolia spre
America de Nord. Roma antic stabilise legturi comerciale cu negustorii asiatici care se strngeau la o dat fix
n marea insul Ceylon, n ateptarea marii flote romane care venea dintr-un port de la Marea Roie; marile
descoperiri geografice din Evul Mediu au fost rezultatul unor cltorii continentale. Prin urmare, fluxurile
umane, de produse i simboluri exist de foarte mult timp. (Bari, I., 2001, Globalizare i probleme globale, ed.
Economic, Bucureti, p. 17).
4
Ibidem, p. 19.
5
Zamfir, C.; Stnescu, S. (coord.), 2007, Enciclopedia dezvoltrii sociale, ed. Polirom, Iai, p. 175.
6
Aceast ultim ntrebare a fost pus n lucrarea: Vlsceanu, L., 2007, Sociologie i modernitate. Tranziii spre
modernitatea reflexiv, Polirom, Iai, p. 64.
7
Astfel, modernitatea reflexiv este acea modernitate care se ia pe sine ca obiect al construciei [].
Vlsceanu, L., op. cit., p. 31.
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Theodore Schultz, n acel moment i preedinte al Asociaiei Americane de Economie, alturi

de Jacob Mincer i Gary Becker, care au iniiat teoria modern a capitalului uman.8 n cadrul
acestei teorii, autorii ei trateaz cheltuielile educaionale i de asigurare a sntii ca fiind
investiii care au drept rezultat mrirea productivitii muncii i, implicit, conduc la cretere
economic.
Ideea celor de la Universitatea din Chicago de a considera fiina uman drept capital,
nu este ns nou. Spre exemplu, Adam Smith n lucrarea An Inquiry into the Nature and
Causes of the Wealth of Nations9 (1776) a menionat ca fiind capital abilitile i cunotinele
folositoare ale fiinei umane, privit ca o main avnd asociate att costuri, ct i
capacitatea de a produce, n schimb, venituri care s genereze beneficii n procesul
economic10, crescnd n acest fel calitatea propriei viei, dar i a celorlali.
Dup definirea dat de sociologul Bogdan Voicu, capitalul uman desemneaz acele
caliti intrinsece individului, pe care acesta le poart cu el ntotdeauna, ce sunt valide n
orice fel de mediu social i pe care deintorul lor le poate utiliza pentru a obine beneficii de
tip material, astfel nct s se descurce n mediul respectiv11.
Conceptul de capital uman poate fi ilustrat prin intermediul unor indicatori specifici
care intr n componena sa, cu ajutorul schemei de mai jos:
CAPITALUL UMAN
Capital uman
educaional
Educaie formal
Capital uman
biologic
Educaie neformal
Starea de sntate
Capital uman de
migraie
Micarea migratorie
Figura 1. Conceptul de capital uman-operaionalizare

n componena capitalului uman se regsete capitalul uman educaional, sub ambele
sale forme: educaia formal i educaia neformal. Dac n privina educaiei formale i a
abilitilor obinute ntr-un cadru instituionalizat, (nivel de studii, competene la nivel
cognitiv, coli absolvite, diplome obinute, ponderea populaiei cu studii superioare etc.),
exist numeroase posibiliti de msurare i comparare12, nu acelai lucru se ntmpl n cazul
educaiei neformale care este mai greu de cuantificat. Ea e reprezentat de cunotine i
abiliti dobndite pe parcursul vieii profesionale, obinute prin efort propriu sau datorate
unor experi i care au un impact direct asupra posibilitilor de acumulare a unor venituri.
Astfel de informaii i influena lor asupra conceptului de capital uman ar putea fi obinute
Voicu, B. n Calitatea Vieii Revist de politici sociale, 2004, XV, nr. 12, Bucureti, p. 138.
O anchet privind natura i cauzele avuiei naiunilor [trad. n.], lucrare faimoas a acestui autor cunoscut sub
denumirea scurt de Avuia Naiunilor.
10
Apud Voicu, B, op. cit, p. 138.
11
Zamfir, C.; Stnescu, S. (coord.), op. cit., p. 97.
12
Amintim aici anchetele PISA, PIRLS, TIMSS, rapoarte i baze de date privind educaia formal ale OECD,
UNESCO, EUROSTAT, Banca Mondial.
8
9
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Issue no. 6/2015
prin intermediul unor cercetri calitative, fapt pe care ne propunem n subsidiar s-l realizm
prin intermediul cercetrii noastre.
O estimare a capitalului uman biologic, a strii de sntate a unei naiuni sau al unui
anumit areal geopolitic, se realizeaz la nivel internaional prin urmrirea indicatorilor legai
de sperana de via la natere, mortalitatea pe grupe de vrst i incidena anumitor boli care
sunt asociate cu srcia, cum ar fi, spre exemplu, tuberculoza. Exist cercetri care indic o
corelaie pozitiv ntre gradul de dezvoltare al unei societi, nivelul ridicat de educaie i
sntatea cetenilor acesteia. 13
n ceea ce privete capitalul uman de migraie se consider c cei care migreaz o fac
dinspre zonele srace spre zonele mai dezvoltate, fiind n acelai timp deintorii unui capital
uman mai ridicat dect media populaiei din care pleac, prin aceasta contribuind la
dezvoltarea zonelor de imigraie i la subdezvoltarea celor pe care le prsesc, lipsind aceste
zone de capitalul uman deinut de ei, atunci cnd numrul acestora devine statistic
semnificativ.
Aceast lucrare a fost realizat n cadrul proiectului POSDRU/159/1.5/133675
"Inovare i dezvoltare n structurarea i reprezentarea cunoaterii prin burse doctorale i
postdoctorale (IDSRC-doc postdoc)", cofinanat de Uniunea European i Guvernul
Romniei din Fondul Social European prin Programul Operaional Sectorial Dezvoltarea
Resurselor Umane 2007-2013.
BIBLIOGRAFIE
Bari, Ioan, Globalizare i probleme globale, ed. Economic, Bucureti, 2001.
Malia, Mircea, Zece mii de culturi, o singur civilizaie. Spre geomodernitatea
secolului XXI, ed. Nemira, Bucureti, 1998.
Pasti, Vladimir, Noul capitalism romnesc, ed. Polirom, Iai, 2006.
Verdery, Katherine, Socialismul ce a fost i ce urmeaz, ed. Institutul European, Iai,
2003.
Vlsceanu, Lazr, Sociologie i modernitate. Tranziii spre modernitatea reflexiv,
Polirom, Iai, 2007.
Zamfir, Ctlin; Stnescu, Simona, (coord.), Enciclopedia dezvoltrii sociale, ed.
Polirom, Iai, 2007.
***Calitatea Vieii Revist de politici sociale, 2004, XV, nr. 12, p. 137157,
Bucureti.
www.biography.com/people/adam-smith-9486480 (15.01.2014, h 18.47)
Societile mai bogate sunt mai educate i au ceteni mai sntoi, societile mai bine educate sunt mai
nstrite i prezint o stare de sntate mai bun. Voicu, B, op. cit., p. 152.
13
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THE FUNCTIONING OF THE CONSULATS IN GALAI DURING THE FIRST HALF OF

THE 19TH CENTURY
Ana-Maria CHECU
Abstract: Though the lawyers have writing, so many times, that between the eighteenth
century and nineteenth centuries the consuls they were considered as messengers officials or
were regarded as well as ambassadors of the Otoman Empire, we have to mention that the
difference between the consular ranks are large. Moreover, these differences they were and
between the legal capacity of consul and legal capacity of ambassador between the two
beings created a grade of subordination. Consequently, it was necessary a simple
presentation that clarifies which were the consular ranks, the way of organization,
paperwork, title and functions. Methodological legally we focus on the presentation of
theoretical and practical consular activity, as evidenced by analyzing consular reports and
consular historiography.
Keywords: patents, passport, dragoman, consul, commerce.
Dei n literatura de specialitate s-a spus, de foarte multe ori, c, ntre secolele XVIIIXIX, consulii1 au fost considerai ca trimii oficiali sau c au fost privii ca i ambasadorii din
Imperiul Otoman, trebuie s menionm c exist diferene ntre aceste ranguri, fapt ce rezult
i din capacitatea juridic a ambasadorului i capacitatea juridic a consulului, ntre cele dou
existnd un grad de subordonare.
In consecin, era necesar o prezentare simpl care s clarifice
care au fost rangurile consulare, modul de organizare, actele, titulaturile i principalele funcii
ale reprezentanilor consulari. Din punct de vedere metodolgic, ne axm pe prezentarea
teoretic i cronologic a activitii consulare, dup cum reiese din analizarea rapoartelor
consulare i a lucrrilor de drept consular2.
Numirea unui reprezentant consular3
Numirea i admiterea membrilor era un act de drept internaional i presupunea
raportul ntre dou state, denumit astzi n dreptul consular raport de misiune consular4.
Acesta presupune dou etape: numirea efului de oficiu consular (act de drept intern) i
admiterea efului de oficiu (act de drept internaional). Admiterea i numirea unui ef de
oficiu consular constituie un acord de voin cu caracter contractual, care se realizeaz prin
numirea de ctre statul trimitor, atestat de patent consular i admiterea de ctre statul de
reedin, atestat de exequatur5. Articolul 12 al Conveniei din anul 1963, prevede: eful de
post consular este admis s-i exercite funciile printr-o autorizaie a statului de reedin,
denumit exequatur6.
Termenul este folosit incorect, deoarece n dreptul consular diferenele de rang reies din titlurile consulare.
Astfel, un consul nu poate fi echivalat unui vice-consul.
2
O analiz complet regsim n Paul Cernovodeanu, An interesting account concerning the British Consulate in
Iassy (1841), n ,,Revue Roumanine dHistoire, t. XX, Bucureti, 1981
3
n urmtoarele pagini avem informaii preluate din Checu Ana-Maria, Date noi, p. 133, passim
4
Aurel Bonciog, Drept consular, Bucureti, Editura ,,Romnia de Mine, 1996, p. 110
5
Ibidem, p. 111
6
Ibidem
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Patenta consular
Legile fiecrui stat desemnau instituia care emitea i semna patenta consular 7.
Patenta consular era uninominal, deci nu putea fi acordat dect unei singure persoane i pe
perioada unui singur mandat. De regul, ministerul de externe se ocupa de aceast
formalitate8. Atunci cnd ntr-un stat existau consuli generali, consuli, vice-consuli i ageni
consulari, se foloseau i alte acte, precum brevet, licen, decret. La fiecare nou numire era
emis o nou patent. Acest lucru denot faptul c patenta avea un dublu caracter: pe de o
parte desemna persoana care ocupa funcia de ef al oficiului consular, iar pe de alt parte
atesta exercitarea de ctre acesta a activitii consulare n spaiul desemnat circumscripiei9.
Patenta consular trebuia s conin, n mod obligatoriu, numele i prenumele, funcia, locaia
oficiului, categoria consular (de carier sau onorific), clasa consular, sediul oficiului,
circumscripia. Aceasta era trimis de ctre guvernul statului trimitor, guvernului statului
unde eful de post consular trebuia s-i exercite funcia. Viitorul ef de post consular era
admis pe baza unui exequatur10.
Patenta de sntate
Patenta de sntate era actul eliberat de ctre administraia sanitar a unui port. Dac
aceast administraie sanitar nu exista deloc, consulul, n cazuri extreme, avea dreptul de a
elibera patente de sntate. Eliberarea acestor documente necesita pruden, deoarece
existena unei epidemii care fusese ignorat, teama unei epidemii care nu fusese dovedit,
putea avea pentru comerul din aceste porturi, dar i pentru statele care desfurau o activitate
comercial n aceste zone, consecine dezastruoase. Patentele de sntate puteau fi de dou
tipuri: patente brute i patente nete11. Consulul acorda patente nete, atunci cnd nici o
maladie endemic sau epidemic nu exista n locul n care navele acostau i patente brute,
atunci cnd exista suspiciunea sau chiar certitudinea unei epidemii, dar aceasta nu era fcut
public. Prezentarea unei patente de sntate la sosirea ntr-un port al Franei era obligatorie
pentru toate navele care soseau aici. n patenta de sntate trebuia s se menioneze, printr-o
formul precis, situaia sanitar a locului din care provenea posesorul patentei i s se
specifice prezena sau absena maladiei. n aceasta, trebuia s fie scris, numele cpitanului,
numele navei, informaii referitoare la tonaj, natura ncrcturii, numrul pasagerilor i starea
de sntate a acestora. Pentru navele franceze care se ntorceau din strintate cu destinaia
Frana, patenta de sntate putea fi eliberat de ctre consul, sau n absena acestuia, de ctre
autoritile locale din portul de plecare. Pentru navele strine care ajungeau n porturile
Franei, patenta de sntate putea fi eliberat de ctre autoritie locale i vizat de ctre
consulul francez. La 16 septembrie 1852, Cunningham aducea n discuie obligaia de a
elibera certificate de sntate pentru toate vasele strine care plecau de la Galai i Brila, spre
porturile britanice12 . La 22 noiembrie 1852, cpitanii a 15 vase britanice adresau o plngere
vice-consulului Cunningham, privind prezentarea unor certificate de sntate emise de ctre
7
Charles de Martens, Le guide diplomatique, Leipzig/Paris, 1851, p. 255. Fraud-Giraud, op. cit., p. 169.
La 26 iunie 1810, Martin afirma c, datorit funciei de vice-consul la Galai, i stabilise reedina n portul
dunrean, dar la ordinul autoritilor din Paris, fusese nevoit s se mute la Iai, pentru a rezolva situaia supuilor
ionieni, francezi, italieni, aflai sub jurisdicia consulatului francez. Dei acesta era la Iai, i pstra titlul de
vice-consul la Galai. Acesta nu putea fi anulat dect printr-un decret al mpratului Franei, Napoleon
Bonaparte. Numirea acestuia, att la Galai, ct i la Iai, trebuia, potrivit afirmaiilor lui Martin, s fie
recunoscut de ctre guvernul Moldovei i de ctre mpratul Rusiei, Alexandru, printr-un exequatur, sau mcar
printr-o lettre de crance. Vezi Checu Ana-Maria, Date noi, p. 135
9
Aurel Bonciog, op. cit., p. 114
10
Ibidem
11
Charles de Martens, op. cit., p. 291-293
12
Paul Cernovodeanu, Relaii comerciale romno-engleze n contextul politicii orientale a Marii Britanii (18031878), Cluj-Napoca, Editura Dacia, 1986, p. 139.
8
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Issue no. 6/2015
autoritile otomane. Dei nu tim clar verdictul, vice-consulul britanic informa, ntr-o
coresponden privat, din 22-24 ianuarie 1853, c fcuse tot posibilul ca problemele s fie
rezolvate13.
Exequaturul - scrisoarea de crean - paaportul
Era eliberat de ctre eful de stat, la cererea agenilor diplomatici, putnd fi retras dup
bunul plac al puterii care deinea suzeranitatea teritorial14. Dac statul n care consulul rezida
se afla sub suzeranitatea altui stat cu drept de autonomie, exequaturul trebuia eliberat de ctre
puterea suzeran15. Pe lng acest act, consulul trimis n statele aflate sub suzeranitatea
Imperiului Otoman trebuia s primeasc i un firman, act n virtutea cruia sultanul accepta
numirea unui consul n cele dou principate, state aflate sub suzeranitatea sa16. Scrisoarea de
crean era scrisoarea prin care un ef de stat acredita un reprezentant n alt stat 17. Dei n
teorie acest act acorda puteri depline ministrului sau consulului, n practic nu era dect un act
care arata rangul acestuia. Forma acestor scrisori de crean depindea de rangul suveranului
care emitea scrisoarea i rangul suveranului care primea scrisoarea. Scrisoarea de crean era
recunoscut ntr-o audien public sau privat, dup uzanele rii i rangul purttorului. Un
exemplu n acest sens, avem la 26 iunie 1810, Martin, vice-consul la Galai, era trimis de ctre
Champagny, ministrul de externe, s gireze afacerile supuilor francezi de aici 18. Potrivit
acestuia, Prinul Moldovei, n audiena pe care i-o acordase, i ceruse un exequatur de la
Alexandru, mpratul Rusiei sau o scrisoare de crean. Neavnd nici unul din aceste
documente, Martin invocase regulile nescrise ale ierarhiei consulare franceze, potrivit crora,
atunci cnd un post devenea vacant, cel care urma n grad ocupa postul19. Eliberat de ctre
autoritile competente, paaportul garanta cltorului libera trecere dintr-un loc n altul, dintrun stat n altul. Minitrii, ambasadorii i consulii, aveau dreptul de a elibera paapoarte
propriilor supui, cu scopul de a le asigura libera trecere20. Dac pe timp de pace cltorul
avea nevoie doar de paaport, pe timp de rzboi era necesar eliberarea unui salv-conduct
eliberat de ctre puterile beligerante. n anumite situaii, datorit contextului, salv-conductul
putea fi eliberat i de ctre comandanii armatei21. Paapoartele i salv-conductul erau
eliberate, att sudiilor, ct i protejailor22.
Vice-consulul britanic de la Galai, Charles Cunningham, putea elibera paapoarte
oricrui strin care nu era supus otoman, nu avea reedin n aceste regiuni, sau servise n
Legiunea Britanic. Aceste instruciuni veneau n contextul n care Cunnigham eliberase, n
13
Ibidem
Charles de Martens, op. cit., p. 255. R. Monnet, Manuel diplomatique et consulaire, Paris/Nancy, 1905, p.
169
15
Ibidem
16
Ancua Vlas, Consulatul francez de la Galai n secolul XIX, n ,,Diplomaie i destine diplomatice n lumea
romneasc, Trgovite, Editura Cetatea de Scaun, 2011, p. 82.
17
Ibidem.
18
Hurmuzaki, Vol. XVI, Coresponden diplomatic i rapoarte consulare franceze (1603-1824), publicate
dup copiile Academiei Romne i editate de ctre Nerva Hodo, Bucureti, 1912, p. 856
19
Ibidem, pp. 856-857
20
Charles de Martens, op. cit., p. 80
21
Ibidem, pp. 80-82
22
Prin sudii sau supui strini se nelegeau cetenii strini, aflai pe teritoriul moldo-valah sub protecia unui
consulat. Categoria sudiilor era alctuit din supui veritabili, adic ceteni strini provenii din ara lor de
origine i avnd naionalitatea statului respectiv i din protejai, persoane autonome, strecurai sub o protecie
strin, prin fraud sau abuz. Protejaii, la rndul lor, erau mprii n protejai strini, adic supuii diferitelor
state care nu aveau ncheiate capitulaii cu Poarta i, prin urmare, nu aveau n Principate un agent consular sau un
consul i n protejai supui otomani, provenii din rndurile pmntenilor, locuitori din moi strmoi n
Moldova, nscui i cstorii n Principatele Romne, cu femei pmntene, vechi contribuabili ai rii. Stela
Mrie, Situaia protejailor strini n Romnia n secolul al XIX-lea, n Anuarul Institutului de Istorie i
Arheologie, t. XXVI, 1983-1984, Bucureti, Editura Academiei Republicii Socialiste Romnia, p. 195.
14
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Issue no. 6/2015
mod eronat, dou paapoare unor supui rui, de aceea Foreign Office-ului i atrgea atenia,
c ,,v rog s nelegei c nu putei acorda aceste documente de protecie oricui..., nu putei
acorda protecie unei persoane, care nu este protejat britanic, sau supus britanic propriu-zis23.
Pe lng paapoarte, vice-consulul elibera i ,,fresh patentes la nceputul fiecrui an.
n instruciunile din data de 8 decembrie 1857, aflm c: ,,Odat cu nceperea Noului An este
de datoria tuturor britanicilor sau supuilor ionieni s se prezinte la oficiul consulatului
(exprimare greit, era vorba de vice-consulat), pentru a fi nregistrai i a primi certificate de
naionalitate. Dumneavoastr avei obligaia de a le da acest document, care le atest
naionalitatea24. La 21 aprilie 1835, C.A. Kuch, vice-consulul Prusiei la Iai, l informa pe
ambasadorul Prusiei de la Constantinopol c, la acel moment, agentul francez, Sacchetti, gira
interesele supuilor prusieni de la Galai25. Vice-consulul Prusiei de la Iai sugera ideea
numirii unui alt reprezentant la Galai, deoarece Sacchetti fusese acuzat de acordarea de
paapoarte false supuilor altor state, n schimbul unor sume de bani.
Etapele numirii unui reprezentant consular
nfiinarea, organizarea i funcionarea posturilor consulare la Galai au fost
reglementate pe baza regulilor de drept internaional, diplomatic i consular. Numirea unui
reprezentant consular n aceste zone, presupunnd un acord legal ntre dou state, n cazul de
fa, statele europene i Imperiul Otoman, datorit suzeranitii Imperiului Otoman asupra
Principatelor Romne, a atras dup sine o serie de practici care au stat la baza funcionrii
acestor posturi consulare.
Principalele etape n numirea unui consul erau: minstrul de externe propunea o
persoan pentru a ndeplini funcia de reprezentant consular26; regele aproba noua numire ntro edin extraordinar; actul n virutea cruia consulul era admis s-i exercite funciile se
numea exequatur27; dup aprobare, consulii generali sau consulii erau trimii n fruntea unei
circumscripii, prin scrisori de numire semnate de ctre suveran28; numirile consulare erau
trimise de ctre ministrul afacerilor strine ctre legaia acreditat de suveran n teritoriul unde
reprezentantul consular urma s-i ndeplineasc funciile; simultan, numirea era adus la
cunotina ambasadorului de la Constantinopol, care trebuia s obin acceptul din partea
sultanului29; n caz de accept, sultanul emitea un firman, decret prin care era aprobat numirea
unui reprezentant consular30. Dup ce consulul i lua n primire postul, reprezentantul
consular ddea autoritilor din provincia unde trebuia s-i ndeplineasc funciile, firmanul
i exequaturul31. Ultima etap era anunarea numirii n ziarele rii32. Arhivele consulatului i
erau nmnate i predate de ctre predecesorul su33. Dup ce verificarea acestor piese era
fcut, un proces verbal atesta aceast depunere. Dup ce aceast formalitate era ndeplinit,
23
PRO, FO 78/1399, f. 333-334

Ibidem, f. 335.
25
Vasile Docea, nfiinarea reprezentanei consulare a Prusiei la Galai (1837), n ,,Danubius, nr. XIII-XIV,
Galai, 1992, p. 146
26
Dimitrie Bodin, Contribuii la istoricul consulatelor Regatului celor dou Sicilii n Principatele Romne, n
,,Revista istoric romn, Vol.VIII, 1838, p. 69.
27
DANIC, rola 290, c. 4, c. 41
28
24
29
30
31
DANIC, rola 290, c. 28-29

Dimitrie Bodin, Contribuii la..., p. 72
32
DANIC, rola 290, c. 41

Albina Romneasc, 11 aprilie 1846, nr. 28, an XVIII, p. 109
33
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consulul convoca conaionalii pentru a le comunica, ntr-o reuniune de oficiu, intrarea sa n

funcie.
Izvoarele edite i inedite ntresc teoria prezentat mai sus34. Din analiza documentar,
reiese faptul c Martin, vice-consulul francez de la Galai, ntre anii 1807-1811, a ajuns la
Iai, pe 30 vendemaire, an 14, (vendemaire: 22 septembrie-21 octombrie); a intrat n audien
la prinul Moldovei, Alexandru Moruzi, pe 4 brumaire, acelai an (brumaire: 22 octombrie-20
noiembrie), cruia i-a prezentat beratul, firmanul i scrisoarea viziral de la sultan35.
Urmtorul reprezentant, Ange Timoni, expunea la 30 iunie 1813, ntr-o not,
oficialitilor de la Paris cheltuielile pe care fusese nevoit s le fac pentru vice-consulatul
francez de la Galai, cu prilejul ceremoniei de citire a firmanului de numire36. La 9 iulie 1813,
acelai A. Timoni, semna o not prin care i arta toat gratitudinea fa de ambasadorul
Franei de la Constantinopol care i aprobase numirea n postul de la Galai i dduse toate
ordinele necesare, pentru ca acesta s fie tratat conform funciei37.
La 2 iulie 1852, Gardera, consulul francez de la Galai ntre anii 1852-1855, ntiina
Direcia Consulatelor i a Afacerilor Comerciale de sosirea n postul de la Galai 38. Acesta
urma s-l nlocuiasc pe Duclos, care era trimis s gireze afacerile vice-consulatului de la
Brila. La 23 iulie 1852, consulul francez de la Iai, Castaing, informa Secretariatul de Stat al
Moldovei de decizia Preedintelui Republicii Franceze de a-l numi n postul de la Galai, pe
Gardera. Rspunsul Secretariatului, sosit la 29 iulie 1852, susinea imposibilitatea numirii lui
Gardera n funcia de consul la Galai, n lipsa unui berat de recunoatere al Porii. n ciuda
acestui fapt, la 3 august 1852, Gardera anuna autoritile de la Paris de numirea sa. La 16
august 1852, acesta trimitea un raport ctre Minstrul Afacerilor Externe de la Paris, prin care
ntiina c, pe 9 ale lunii, domnul ambasador al Franei la Constantinopol, i trimisese beratul
de executare emis de ctre sultan, berat care i ddea dreptul s-i exercite funciile consulare.
La acest document, consulul ataa un firman, destinat prinului Ghica Hospodarul Moldovei.
Titlurile
n funcie de destinatar, consulul redacta corespondena n diverse limbi. n stnga sus,
fiecare raport consular avea trecut rangul i titlul consulatului. La Galai, Mchain purta titlul
de ,,sub-comisar pentru relaii comerciale, ceea ce demonstreaz funcia comercial a acestui
sub-comisariat, dar i gradul de subordonare fa de agenia de la Iai 39. Corespondena
acestuia, prezent n documentele ruseti, traduse i publicate de ctre Andrei Oeea, denot o
activitate desfurat la nivelul comisariatului din Moldova. Aceste exemple ne fac s credem
c, n perioada respectiv, agenii francezi de la Galai nu aveau atribuii stabile. Acetia erau
nevoii s gireze, de nenumrate ori, att afacerile sub-comisariatului de la Galai, ct i pe
cele ale comisariatului de la Iai. Drept dovad, la 15 iunie 1803, Mchain trimitea un raport
ministrului de externe, Talleyrand, n care l informa c atepta s fie primit n audien la
prinul Moldovei, pentru a putea fi recunoscut drept ,,comisar general provizoriu pentru
relaiile comerciale ale Franei40. La nici ase zile, acelai Talleyrand, l nforma pe Antoine
Fornetty c va fi numit la Iai, n funcia de ,,sub-comisar cancelar41.
Pn la venirea sa, cel care a girat aceast funcie a fost ceteanul Mchain. Ceea ce
Checu Ana-Maria, Date noi, p. 139, passim
DANIC, Microfilme Frana, rola 290, c. 4
36
Ibidem, cc. 28-29
37
Ibidem, c. 30
38
Ibidem, c. 39-41. Ancua Vlas, op. cit., p. 82.
39
Vezi Cltori strini despre rile Romne n secolul al XIX-lea, Vol. I (1801-1821), Red. Resp. Paul
Cernovodeanu, Bucureti, Editura Academiei Romne, 2004, nota 25, p. 170. Paul Pltnea, Istoria oraului
Galai. De la origini pn la 1918, Vol.I, Galai, Editura Porto-Franco, 1994, pp. 176-177. Hurmuzaki, Vol. IV,
pp. 532-533, 547, Hurmuzaki, Vol. XVI, p. 553
40
Hurmuzaki, vol. XVI, p. 652
41
Ibidem, p. 653
34
35
310
Issue no. 6/2015
denot, iari, o instabilitate a funciilor consulare. Astfel, n decurs de un an, agenia de la

Iai a trecut, de la gradul de comisariat, la cel de sub-comisariat. Mai mult, din analiza
documentar nu reiese clar care a fost rangul reprezentanei franceze de la Galai, deoarece n
documente titlurile difer. Pn la proclamarea unitii statale, n martie 1861, titlul oficial al
Italiei a fost ,,Regatul Sardiniei. Astfel, reprezentana consular a Regatului Sardiniei a avut
titlul de ,,Consulatul Majestii Sale, Regele Sardiniei n Moldova i Valahia 42. Titlul
reprezentanei consulare britanice era ,,The British Vice-consulate43. Titlul reprezentanei
consulare sarde era ,,Consulatul Majestii Sale, Regele Sardiniei n Moldova i Valahia44
Personalul consular
Consulatele din Principatele Romne, inclusiv cel de la Galai, funcionau dup
modelul consulatelor din Imperiul Otoman, fiind formate dintr-un consul general, consul,
vice-consul, cancelar i dragoman45. Cancelarul era funcionarul care se ocupa de toate actele
din cancelaria consulatului. De cele mai multe ori, cancelarul ndeplinea i funcia de
dragoman. Existau dou categorii de cancelari: cei numii de ctre suveran i cei propui de
ctre consul i numii de ctre ministrul afacerilor strine. n nici unul din cazuri, cancelarul
nu nceta s fie omul guvernului pentru a deveni omul consulului, ci pstra fa de ultimul un
anumit statut de independen relativ, deoarece era supus unei responsabiliti personale n
exercitarea funciilor. Consulul nu putea s cear demisia cancelarului, ci doar s suspende
activitiatea acestuia i s cear demisia printr-o decizie ministerial.
Dragomanii46 (secretarii) ambsadorilor i consulilor din Levant formau un corp
special47. Ei erau numii de ctre suveran i subordonai ministrului afacerilor strine. Puteau
exista mai muli dragomani, unul dintre ei fiind dragoman-cancelar. n consulatele de clas
primar (consulatele generale) i secundar (consulatele), dragomanul ndeplinea i funcia de
cancelar. n mod normal, dragomanul trebuia s cunoasc limba rii de batin. Dragomanul
putea s viziteze autoritile strine, doar cu aprobarea ambasadorului i consulului, executa
ordinele date de ctre ambasador sau consul, superviza actele afacerilor desfurate de ctre
conaionalii si i le depunea n cancelaria consulatului. In anul 1803, Mchain gerantul
comisariatului general de la Iai i sub-comisarul pentru relaii comerciale de la Galai, afirma
c: pn cnd pacea va permite comerului nostru s nconjoare Marea Neagr, mi se pare
urgent s ntreinem aici un comisar, a crei stabilire necesit i prezena unui dragoman. Este
necesar ca acesta s cunoasc foarte bine limba i intrigile rii48. La 27 decembrie 1837,
consulul sard de la Galai, Bartolomeo Geymet, trimitea un raport ministrului de externe,
contele Clemente Solaro Della Margarita, n care propunea numirea unui dragoman la
Galai49. Persoana care trebuia s ocupe aceast funcie era Gaetano Truqui, dar cum acesta nu
cunotea limba rii, Geymet propunea gsirea unei alte persoane care s ndeplineasc
42
ANIC, Microfilme Italia, rola 4, c. 914-915. Secretariatul de Stat al Moldovei, dosar 554/1839, f. 48. Dimitrie
Bodin, Documente privitoare la legturile economice dintre Principatele Romne i Regatul Sardiniei,
Bucureti, 1941, p. 70 (aceiai, 7 ianuarie 1841)
43
PRO FO, 195/349, p. 149
44
ANIC, Microfilme Italia, rola 4, c. 914-915. Secretariatul de Stat al Moldovei, dosar 554/1839, f. 48. D.
Bodin, Documente sarde, p. 70 (aceiai, 7 ianuarie 1841)
45
Lcrmioara Iordchescu, Statutul reprezentanelor diplomatice franceze n Principate 1798-1859, n ,,Frana.
Model cultural i politic, Editura Junimea, Iai, 2003, p. 207
46
Cuvntul dragoman provine din cuvntul arab tirgiman i nseamn interpret. Vezi Stela Mrie, Situaia
protejailor strini n Romnia n secolul al XIX-lea, n Anuarul Institutului de Istorie i Arheologie, t. XXVI,
1983-1984, Bucureti, Editura Academiei Republicii Socialiste Romnia, p. 194.
47
48
Hurmuzaki, Serie Nou, Vol. IV (1796-1806), editate de ctre Andrei Oeea, Bucureti, 1964, pp. 532-533
49
Dimitrie Bodin, Documente sarde, pp. 18-20 (Bartolomeo Geymet c. Contele Clemente Solaro Della
Margarita, Galai, 27 decembrie 1837)
311
Issue no. 6/2015
aceast funcie.
Suspendarea i ncetarea funciilor consulare
n cazul n care consulul era n concediu, trebuia s desemneze un angajat s se ocupe
de gestiunea interimar a afacerilor i s dea dispoziii agenilor plasai sub ordinele sale 50.
Sub nici un pretext, chiar i n cazul n care exista certitudinea unui rzboi iminent, sau al unei
ostiliti deja ncepute, n statul su, sau cel n care rezida, consulul nu trebuia s-i suspende
funciile din propria sa iniiativ, ci trebuia s atepte pn cnd autoritile ddeau i ordinul
de a prsi postul sau i retrgeau exequaturul. nainte de a prsi postul, consulul prezenta
procesul-verbal al arhivelor consulatului. Dup ce aceste formaliti erau ndeplinite, consulul
anuna plecarea sa autoritilor locale superioare i agenilor din stabilimentul consular51.
Era interzis consulului s pstreze, fie n copie, fie n original, documente provenite
din arhiva consulatului, sau s publice rezultatele informaiilor pe care le-a transmis
guvernului n timpul gestiunii. n caz de deces al consulului, ofierii consulatului sigilau i
inventariau bunurile acestuia. In cazul n care un reprezentant prsea postul naintea
ncheierii mandatului, era numit un supleant. La 14 octombrie 1811, ministrul de externe,
Maret, trimitea instruciuni gerantului francez, Fornetty, cu privire la modul n care trebuia si desfoare mandatul, ct timp dura vacana (gerana) consulului general francez de la Iai 52.
n numrul Albinei Romneti, din 31 mai/12 iunie 1834, era anunat urmtorul eveniment:
,,Domnul Mimaut, care pn n prezent a fost Consul al Franei la Iai, prin nota sub numrul
937, a adus la cunotin Secretariatului de Stat al Moldovei, c guvernul Regelui Franei l-a
nsrcinat cu gestiunea Consulatului de la Bucureti, n absena domnului Lagan, care se gsea
n concediu la Paris; n urma acestei dispoziii, dl. Blanc-Duclos era desemnat s apere
interesele supuilor francezi din capitala Moldovei53. Potrivit Ancuei Vlas, un raport din anul
1834, informa c Jules Saccheti, agent al Franei la Galai, preluase n prezena consulului
francez de la Iai, Mimaut, i n prezena dragomanulului consulatului, M. Zelinski, arhiva de
la fostul agent, M. Ghimba54. Din cele dou rapoarte observm prezena a doi consuli francezi
la Iai n anul 1834, Mimaut i Blanc-Duclos. La 3 august 1853, Gardera, consulul francez de
la Galai, ntre anii 1852-1855, aducea la cunotin ministerului de externe c, datorit
imediatei plecri a domnului Duclos, dl. Poujade, consulul general francez de la Bucureti, l
propusese n postul de la Brila pe Castaing, cancelarul consulului francez de la Galai.
Gardera respingea aceast soluie, deoarece o absen, mai mult sau mai puin prelungit, a
cancelarului din portul dunrean, i crea dificulti n relaiile cu autoritile locale55. De
aceea, Gardera propunea numirea unui alt titular n postul de la Brila, n persoana lui Eugne
Nemethrice. Aceast propunere era agreat i de ctre consulul general al Franei la Bucureti,
Eugen Poujade. La 23 iulie 1853, acesta confirma primirea scrisorii din data de 18, a acestei
luni, de la Gardera. n aceasta, Gardera era informat de iminenta plecare a lui Duclos din
postul de la Brila i de intenia de a numi aici un nou titular, n persoana lui Eugen
Nemethice56
50
Charles de Martens, op. cit., pp. 328-329.

52
Hurmuzaki, Vol. XVI, pp. 926-927
53
Albina Romneasc, 31/12 mai/iunie, nr. 49, 1834, p. 198
54
Ancua Vlas, op. cit., p. 81. Cltori strini despre rile Romne n secolul XIX, Vol.III (1831-1840), Coord.
Daniela Bu, Bucureti, Editura Academiei Romne, 2006, p. 234. Vezi i tefan Stanciu, Marian Stroia,
Oraul Galai n relatrile cltorilor strini (De la nceputurile sale pn la 1848), Galai, Editura Biblioteca
Bucuretilor, 2004, pp. 76-77
55
56
Ancua Vlas, op. cit., p. 82
51
312
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Interdicia de a administra consulatele mai multor state

Aceast interdicie, pronunat prin regulamentele consulare, avea drept scop principal
prevenirea inconvenientelor care puteau aprea n situaia n care un consul, n anumite
circumstane, trebuia s reprezinte interesele supuilor altor state57. De regul, statele au
interzis consulilor s gireze un consulat strin, fr aprobarea guvernului. Din motive de
economie, unele state au refuzat s aplice aceast regul 58. La 18 aprilie 1838, consulul
francez de la Iai, Huber, i scria ministrului Mol c, dup ce se va ntlni cu confratele
Chateugiron de la Bucureti, se va duce la Galai, pentru a organiza definitiv agenia
consular a Franei, ncredinat n acest moment domnului Cunningham, vice-consul al
Angliei59.
Corespondena consular
Tribunalul de Comer se afla la Galai. Sediul Guvernului se afla la Iai, la fel ca i cel
al Tribunalelor Principale, mai exact dou Tribunale Principale, unul pentru Iai i altul pentru
provincie. Tot aici se afla un Divan Princiar sau o Curte Suprem de Apel, dar i un Tribunal
Penal, unicul din Moldova. Administraia consta ntr-o Mare Logofeie, unde toate plngerile
judiciare sau administrative erau auzite, Ministerul de Interne, care are sub supraveghere
forele de poliie, hatmanul, cu Htmnia, comandantul otirii, care, pentru un timp, a avut
supravegherea carantinii, Secretariatul pentru Afaceri Strine. Exceptnd aceste instituii,
avem Vornicia, ramura executiv a tribunalului i Agia sau Poliia, prezidat de ctre Ag.
Principalele limbi de coresponden ntre aceste instituii era moldoveneasca i franceza. ntre
consulate i oficialitile de origine limba folosit, era cea a statului respectiv. n
circumscripii, starotii sau agenii consulatului i asista pe sudii i protejai n faa
Tribunalelor Locale, n provincie i n capital, n faa Tribunalului Penal, singurul de acest
gen din Moldova60. Alt coresponden era ntre vice-consulul de la Galai i omologii si,
redactat, n francez, italian, englez, n funcie de reprezentana statului 61; corespondena
dintre consulul sard de la Galai i consulul general de la Odessa era redactat n limba
italian; corespondena dintre consulul sard de la Galai i Guvernul de la Torino era redactat
tot n limba italian;
Avantaje i tainuri
Vaillant cltorul francez ne ofer informaii despre avantajele obinute de ctre
Lascarev, numit n funcia de consul rus la Bucureti, n anul 1781. Acesta afirma c oricrui
consul i se acorda din momentul instalrii un tain proporional cu rangul. Tainul consta n
scutelnici, care urmau s ndeplineasc serviciile auxiliare neoficiale ale consulatului i
poslunici, care aprovizonau cmara consulatului cu cele necesare pentru consum. Pe lng
aceasta, se mai oferea i o gard format din 12 arnui narmai i 2 masalgii 62. Salarizarea
consulilor era inegal. De regul, consulii generali primeau un salariu de 1800-2000 de ruble,
consulii de 600-1500 de ruble. Dragomanul de gradul I primea 480-540 de ruble iar cel de
57
Fraud-Giraud, op. cit., p. 29

21 aprilie 1835, C.A. Kuch, vice-consulul Prusiei la Iai, l informa pe ambasadorul Prusiei de la
Constantinopol c, la acel moment, agentul francez, Sacchetti, gira interesele supuilor prusieni de la Galai. De
aceea, vice-consulul Prusiei de la Iai sugera ideea numirii unui alt reprezentant la Galai. Intenia acestuia se
datora faptului c Sacchetti fusese acuzat de acordarea de paapoarte false supuilor altor state, n schimbul unor
sume de bani. Vasile Docea, nfiinarea reprezentanei consulare a Prusiei la Galai (1837), n ,,Danubius, nr.
XIII-XIV, Galai, 1992, p. 146
59
Constantin Bue, Comerul exterior sub regimul de port-franc, Bucureti, Editura Academiei R. S. R., 1976, p.
42.
60
P. Cernovodeanu, An interesting, pp. 731-732
61
ANIC, Microfilme Italia, rola 4, c. 876.
62
J. A. Vaillant, La Roumanie, t. II, Paris, 1844, pp. 247-249
58
313
Issue no. 6/2015
gradul II 240-360 de ruble. Pe lng salariu, consulii mai primeau n Principatele Romne
240-600 de ruble pentru cheltuieli de coresponden i 450-600 de ruble pentru ntreinerea
casei63.
Sumele era alocate pentru a crea o imagine impuntoare, att asupra consulului, ct i
a consulatului64. n funcie de posibilitile financiare, fiecare stat aloca o suma
reprezentantului consular. Xavier Hommaire du Hell, cunoscutul inginer francez care a
ntreprins o cltorie n Principatele Romne, descria condiiile n care i desfura activitatea
vice-consulul francez de la Galai, Duclos. Potrivit acestuia, Duclos locuia ntr-o cocioab, nu
avea tlmaci, nici paz nu putea s ntrein, nici mcar o trsur. Salariul acestuia se ridica la
suma de 5000 de franci, dintre care 600 erau pentru cancelarul su 65. Alte dificulti ineau de
cheltuielile de coresponden. Pn atunci, corespondena consular fusese un serviciu gratuit,
consulii avnd dreptul de a trimite curierul cu pota moldoveneasc. De curnd, curieratul
fusese atribuit unui boier care refuzase s mai transporte gratis corespondena. Dup lungi
proteste ale consulilor Angliei, Rusiei, Austriei, boierul a fost obligat s renune la preteniile
financiare. Cu toate acestea, potrivit afirmaiilor lui Hell, vice-consulul Franei pltea
transportul corespondenei. La 7 ianuarie 1841, Bartolomeo Geymet trimitea ministerului de
externe un raport n care pleda pentru mrirea fondurilor alocate consulatului sard de la
Galai. Acesta i motiva cererea prin preurile mari care se practicau la Galai att pentru
chirii ct i pentru necesitile zilnice66. Geymet i motiva cererea prin chiriile mari pe care
era nevoit s le plteasc pentru a putea dispune de o locuin, dar i prin preurile mari de la
Galai. Pentru a-i justifica preteniile, acesta ddea drept exemplu veniturile vice-consulului
austriac de la Galai, Huber, care avea o subvenie n valoare de 2500 de florini, subvenie
care-i permitea s ntrein personalul i recuzita consulatului austriac de la Galai, dar i un
medic pentru angajaii i persoanele auxiliare ale consulatului. Datorit imposibilitii de a
nchiria o locuin personal, Bartolomeo Geymet locuia cu chirie la Hanul Ventura, cel mai
probabil o proprietate personal a lui Constantin Ventura, negustorul care fcea comer cu
casele din Marsilia67.
Asistena i protecia consular
n activitatea cotidian, consulul exercit anumite funcii consulare. Dintre aceste
funcii, cea mai important era funcia de protecie. Potrivit acesteia, consulul este mandatat
de ctre statul su s ntreprind demersuri oficiale pe lng autoritile statului de reedin,
cu scopul de a conserva i apra drepturile cetenilor si, fie persoane fizice, fie persoane
juridice sau pentru a obine reparaii legale, n cazul n care drepturile acestuia erau
nclcate68.
Dreptul de protecie este departe de a fi o intervenie n treburile interne ale unui stat.
Acesta nu poate fi acordat dect misiunilor diplomatice i misiunilor consulare. Temeiul
juridic al interveniilor consulului pentru aprarea drepturilor i intereselor cetenilor statului
trimitor, persoane fizice sau juridice, sunt normele dreptului intern din statul de reedin,
care asigur i garanteaz anumite drepturi pentru strini69.
Drepturile pot fi convenite i direct, ntre statul trimitor i statul de reedin, pe baz
Constantin erban, nfiinarea consulatelor ruse n ara Romneasc i Moldova, n ,,Studii i Cercetri de
Istorie Medie, anul II, nr. 1, Bucureti, 1951, p. 65.
64
Elias Regnault, Histoire politique et sociale des Principauts Danubiennes, Paris, 1855, p. 95
65
Cltori strini despre rile Romne n secolul al XIX-lea, Vol. IV, Bucureti, Editura Academiei Romne,
2007, p. 633
66
Dimitrie Bodin, Documente sarde, p. 67 (aceiai, Galai, 7 ianuarie 1841)
67
Paul Pltnea, op. cit., p. 315. Constantin Bue, op. cit., p. 73
68
69
Ibidem
63
314
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de reciprocitate, prin convenii bilaterale. Prin aceste convenii, consulul dobndete

competena de a prezenta autoritii statului de reedin cereri, n favoarea i pentru cetenii
statului trimitor, cu rugmintea de a li se asigura drepturile legitime sau de a li se stabili
reparaiile legale.
Asistena consular
Asistena consular este activitatea de sprijinire a cetenilor statului trimitor pentru
aprarea propriilor drepturi, n conformitate cu legea statului de reedin.
Ea cuprinde un dublu aspect: un raport ntre funcionarul consular i conaionalul su,
prin care acesta din urm este sprijinit i sftuit de ctre consul pentru a ntreprinde singur
acele aciuni care s duc la realizarea drepturilor sale (sfaturi, informri orale i scrise,
dovezi); un raport direct al consulului cu autoritile locale (consulul nsoete pe conaionalul
su la autoriti, face traducerea spuselor sale, solicit pentru el acte sau informaii utile).
Asistena consular este asigurat i n cazul n care o firm comercial sau o cas de comer a
statului pe care l reprezint se afla n litigiu cu o firm comercial sau cas de comer
strin70.
ntre protecia consular i asistena consular exista urmtoarea diferen: dac
asistena consular se acorda cetenilor pentru a facilita realizarea drepturilor i intereselor
lor naintea autoritilor statului de reedin, protecia consular se acorda dup ce autoritile
statului de reedin porniser o procedur n care era implicat acesta. Protecia se mai putea
realiza atunci cnd ceteanul trebuia s-i apere un drept, o valoare, un bun.
Circumscripia consular
Consulatele, instituite pe toat ntinderea unui stat strin, formau un stabiliment
consular. Acest stabiliment era divizat n mai multe circumscripii, aflate n strns legtur i
sub coordonarea efului de stabiliment consular71. Consulii, vice-consulii i agenii consulari,
trebuiau s-i limiteze aciunea doar n cadrul circumscripiei. La Galai, cel puin pentru
prima jumtate a secolului al XIX-lea, nu putem vorbi despre o delimitare a circumscripiei
consulare, deoarece nu au existat reprezentani consulari n fiecare ora. n anul 1803,
Mchain se afla lai, ca gerant al comisarului general avnd i titlul de sub-comisar pentru
relaii comerciale la Galai. La 26 iunie 1810, Martin afirma c, datorit funciei de viceconsul la Galai, i stabilise reedina n portul dunrean, dar la ordinul autoritilor din Paris,
fusese nevoit s se mute la Iai, pentru a rezolva situaia supuilor ionieni, francezi, italieni,
aflai sub jurisdicia consulatului francez72. Totui, acesta i pstra titlul de vice-consul la
Galai. ntr-un raport din 31 octombrie 1836, se preciza c dl. Pappasoglu, n absena
domnului Sacchetti, l informa pe omologul su de la Iai c negustorii englezi veneau la
Galai, pentru a cumpra lemn de catarge7374.
Din rndurile de mai sus reies principalele aspecte care au stat la baza funcionrii
reprezentanelor consulare, att de la Galai, ct i din Principate.
BIBLIOGRAFIE
Documente inedite
1. Direcia Judeean a Arhivelor Naionale Bucureti,
Microfilme Frana, rola 290.
70

Fraud-Giraud, op. cit., p. 29
72
Hurmuzaki, Vol. XVI, p. 856
73
Ibidem, Vol. XVII, Coresponden diplomatic i rapoarte consulare franceze (1847-1851), publicate dup
copiile Academiei Romne de ctre Nerva Hodo (1825-1846), Bucureti, 1913, p. 652
71
315
Issue no. 6/2015
Microfilme Italia, rola 4.

Documente edite
1. Hurmuzaki, Vol. XVI, Coresponden diplomatic i rapoarte consulare franceze
(1603-1824), publicate dup copiile Academiei Romne i editate de ctre Nerva
Hodo, Bucureti, 1912.
2. Hurmuzaki, Serie Nou, Vol. IV (1796-1806), editate de ctre Andrei Oeea,
Bucureti, 1964.
3. Bodin, Dimitrie Documente privitoare la legturile economice dintre Principatele
Romne i Regatul Sardiniei, Bucureti, 1941.
4. Cltori strini despre rile Romne n secolul al XIX-lea, Vol. I (1801-1821),
Red. Resp. Paul Cernovodeanu, Bucureti, Editura Academiei Romne, 2004,
5. Cltori strini despre rile Romne n secolul al XIX-lea, Vol. IV, Bucureti,
Editura Academiei Romne, 2007.
6. Cltori strini despre rile Romne n secolul XIX, Vol.III (1831-1840), Coord.
Daniela Bu, Bucureti, Editura Academiei Romne, 2006.
Lucrri generale
1. Ardeleanu, Constantin, Evoluia intereselor economice i politice la
Gurile Dunrii (1829-1914), Brila,
Editura Istros, 2008.
2. Bodin, Dimitrie, Contribuii la istoricul consulatelor Regatului celor
dou Sicilii n Principatele Romne, n ,,Revista istoric romn,
Vol.VIII, 1838
3. Bue, Constantin, Comerul exterior sub regimul de port-franc, Bucureti,
Editura Academiei R. S. R., 1976.
4. Cernovodeanu, Paul, Implicaiile de ordin politic ale falimentului casei de
comer Bell & Anderson, n ,,Studii i materiale de istorie modern, XII,
1998.
5. Ibidem, Relaii comerciale romno-engleze n contextul politicii orientale
a Marii Britanii (1803-1878), Cluj-Napoca, Editura Dacia, 1986.
6. Ibidem, Paul Cernovodeanu, An interesting account concerning the British
Consulate in Iassy (1841), n ,,Revue Roumanine dHistoire, t. XX,
Bucureti, 1981.
7. Checu Ana-Maria, Date noi privind activitatea consular francez de la
Galai, n prima jumtate a secolului al XIX-lea, Galai, Editura Muzeului
de Istorie, 2014.
8. Eadem, Consuli, viceconsuli i ageni la Galai. Aspecte juridico-istorice
privind funcionarea ageniei consulare franceze de la Galai, n
,,Philologica Jassyensia, nr. 1, an X, 2014, pp. 693-701.
9. Docea, Vasile, nfiinarea reprezentanei consulare a Prusiei la Galai
(1837), n ,,Danubius, nr. XIII-XIV, Galai, 1992.
10. Iordchescu, Iordchescu, Statutul reprezentanelor diplomatice franceze
n Principate 1798-1859, n ,,Frana. Model cultural i politic, Editura
Junimea, Iai, 2003.
11. Mrie, Stela, Situaia protejailor strini n Romnia n secolul al XIXlea, n Anuarul Institutului de Istorie i Arheologie, t. XXVI, 1983-1984,
Bucureti, Editura Academiei Republicii Socialiste Romnia.
12. Pacu, N. Moise, Cartea judeului Covurlui. Note geografice, istorice i
statistice, prile I-III, Bucureti, Stabilimentul grafic I.V. Soccu, 1891,
p. 392.
316
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13. Pltnea, Paul, Istoria oraului Galai. De la origini pn la 1918, Vol.I,

Galai, Editura Porto-Franco, 1994.
14. Regnault, Elias, Histoire politique et sociale des Principauts
Danubiennes, Paris, 1855.
15. erban, Constantin, nfiinarea consulatelor ruse n ara Romneasc i
Moldova, n ,,Studii i Cercetri de Istorie Medie, anul II, nr. 1,
Bucureti, 1951.
16. tefan Stanciu, Marian Stroia, Oraul Galai n relatrile cltorilor
strini (De la nceputurile sale pn la 1848), Galai, Editura Biblioteca
Bucuretilor, 2004.
17. Vlas, Ancua, Consulatul francez de la Galai n secolul XIX, n
,,Diplomaie i destine diplomatice n lumea romneasc, Trgovite,
Editura Cetatea de Scaun, 2011.
Drept consular
1. Bonciog, Aurel, Drept consular, Bucureti, Editura ,,Romnia de Mine, 1996.
2. Donnadieu, James, Les consuls de France, Paris, 1923.
3. L.J.D Fraud-Giraud, De la juridiction franaise dans les Echelles du Levant et de
Barbarie, t. II, Paris, 1866.
Charles de Martens, Le guide diplomatique, Leipzig/Paris, 1851.
Mulumiri: aceast lucrare a fost realizat n cadrul proiectului
POSDRU/159/1.5/133675 ,,Inovare i dezvoltare n structurarea i reprezentarea cunoaterii
prin burse doctorale i postdoctorale (IDSRC - doc postdoc), cofinanat de Uniunea
European i Guvernul Romniei din Fondul Social European prin Programul Operaional
Sectorial Dezvoltarea Resurselor Umane 2007-2013.
317
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THE ITINERARY OF THE ROMANIAN FAIRY-TALE

Maria MOVIL (POPA)
Abstract: The beginnings of Romanian folk tales date from the eighteenth century. For a long
time, the stories of the Romanian folk had circulated word of mouth between ara
Romneasc, Moldova and Transilvania, helping to maintain a unity of language. The first
collection of Romanian folk tales, Walachische Mrchen, appeared in 1845, in German, at
Stuttgart and its authors were Albert and Arthur Schott. The first folk tales in Romanian, from
Transilvania, are owed to the collectors Mircea Vasile Stnescu Ardanul, Demetriu Boer
and Stefan Cacoveanu, and from Muntenia, they are owed to Nicolae Filimon. Ispirescus
collection of folk tales appears in 1862. In the region of Banat we encounter the most wellknown collection specific to this area belonging to the schoolteacher George Ctan. At the
beginning of the twentieth century, in Muntenia, we encounter a wide collection of folk tales
belonging to the schoolteacher Constantin Rdulescu-Codin. Around the First World War a
considerable number of folk tales have appeared in periodicals, which we can find in folklore
magazines as well. After the Second World War this type of research became institutionalised
and for a period of time it has been supported by the Folklore Institute from Bucharest,
realised in 1949. The Brlea Anthology from 1966 has three volumes and comprises in 165
texts, representing a moment of major importance in Romanian folklore studies.
Keywords: folk tale, folk tale collections, collectors, storytellers, folkloristics.
nceputurile basmului romnesc dateaz din veacul al XVIII-lea. Cea dinti
consemnare, semnalat n manuscrisul 1480 al Bibliotecii Academiei Romne din Bucureti, a
unui basm romnesc, a fost fcut prin 1750 n Muntenia central (Prahova). Basmul a fost
reprodus schematic pentru comentarii didactico-teologice, noteaz Viorica Nicov.1 Primul
basm a fost notat pe larg n 1797. Istoria unui voinic nlept i nvat ntrebndu-se din
ponturi cu o fat de mprat e o redactare anonim i se ncadreaz naraiunilor n care eroul
primete mna fetei de mprat graie isteimii i nvturii sale. Basmul ine de categoria
naraiunilor care uzeaz tiparul ntrebare/rspuns, fie de factur magic, profan, religios
apocrif sau superstiioas. Rama basmului este tradiional i popular, n timp ce ntrebrile
pe care fata le pune voinicului trimit la istoriile biblice i apocrife, model utilizat n literatura
parateologic. Basmul Istoria unui voinic nlept i nvat ntrebndu-se din ponturi cu o
fat de mprat se situeaz n zona de tranziie de la folclorul pur, la clasa textelor
semifolclorice-semiculte de inspiraie bisericeasc.
Povetile populare au purtat pe cale oral, de la o generaie la alta, vechi tradiii
populare, apoi s-au adaptat gustului artistic i mentalitii grupului n care erau spuse, s-au
mbogit cu noi imagini poetice. Multe veacuri povetile poporului romn au circulat prin viu
grai, ntre ara Romneasc, Moldova i Transilvania, contribuind la pstrarea unitii de
limb.
Prima colecie de basme romneti, Walachische Mrchen, a aprut n 1845, n
german, la Stuttgart, autorii fiind Albert i Arthur Schott. Activitatea lor s-a desfurat sub
imboldul frailor Wilhem i Iacob Grimm, ntemeietorii colii mitologiei n interpretarea
basmelor. Arthur Schott, agronom de profesie, a petrecut ctva timp n Banat, ntre anii
1
Viorica Nicov, A fost de unde n-a fost. Basmul popular romnesc, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 1996, p.13.
318
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(1836-1841) i a adunat folclor romnesc. Rentors n Germania, va mpri cu fratele su,

Albert, filolog i istoric, redactarea coleciei, dup modelul frailor Grimm (Albert Schott n
Introducere la ed. 1845).2 Volumul cuprinde patruzeci i trei de naraiuni, urmate de descripii
de obiceiuri locale i de fiine fabuloase. Douzeci i trei de texte culese de Arthur Schott, cu
prilejul ederii ulterioare n Banat (1844-1850), vor aprea tot la Stuttgart n revista
Hausblter (1857-1859).3 Povestitorii de la care s-a cules sunt crturari (germani i romni),
iar textele vor fi repovestite dup note sumare de ascultare. Colecia Schott ofer multe
informaii privind basmele i poporul care le-a povestit. Astfel n Introducere la lucrare,
Albert Schott insereaz date istorice, lingvistice, etnografice, etnopsihologice referitoare la
romni. i mai mult dect att, specific Viorica Nicov, n comentariile textelor ncearc
situarea basmului romnesc n context indoeuropean, comparndu-l pe de o parte cu mitologia
nordic i greco-latin, pe de alt parte cu basmul german.4 Fiecare text din colecie este
rezumat i explicat. Colecia Schott rmne un moment important n istoria noastr cultural,
fiind prima colecie de folclor romneasc publicat, editat ntr-o limb de larg circulaie.
Colecia Schott nu este numai cea dinti culegere de basme romneti, ci i cea mai
cunoscut peste hotare.5 Cartea a avut ecou n epoc, comentat n reviste din Germania,
Austria, Transilvania. Prin aceast culegere s-a atras atenia asupra importanei fondului
romnesc de basme, avnd mari afiniti cu basmele europene. Scriitorii i filologii ai epocii,
precum Bogdan Petriceicu Hadeu, Ioan Slavici, aduc elogii coleciei. Dup anul 1850,
tipriturile se intensific, astfel nct Bibliografia general a etnografiei i folclorului
romnesc (1968), nregistreaz pn n 1891 peste 900 de poziii privind publicaiile de
basme.
Continuatorul direct al frailor Schott, este Franz Obert, profesor la Media. El public
35 de basme, n german, ntre 1856-1858, n revista Das Ausland. Va publica i alte basme
n periodice de limb german din Transilvania. Toate textele vor aprea n volum, postum, n
1925. Colecia Obert, ca i colecia Schott, este alctuit din basme fantastice, reprezentnd o
surs de cunoatere, important a naraiunii populare romneti. Prin bogia repertoriului
consemnat i prin fidelitatea notrii schemei epice, colecia Obert constituie unul din pilonii
cunoaterii repertoriului romnesc de poveti transilvnene.6, afirm Ovidiu Brlea, n Istoria
folcloristicii romneti.
Iohann Karl Schuller, profesor la gimnaziul din Sibiu, a cutat s mbrieze ntregul
domeniu al folclorului romnesc.7 Debuteaz n 1852 cu o traducere de poezii i proverbe
culese de el, Aus der Walachei. n antologia Romnische Volkslieder din 1859, Schuller
militeaz pentru o analiz complex a poeziei populare, o evaluare estetic, etnografic i
istoric a acesteia.
Teodor Stamati scoate la lumin prima poveste n romnete. Broura se intitula:
Pepelea seau tradiciuni nciunare romnesci, culese, nornduite i adogite de Doc. T.
Stamati (1851), considerat att o creaie cult ct i o oper folcloric. El are intenia de a
aduce povestea popular pe placul pturilor cultivate.
Primele basme, n limba romn, din Transilvania, le datorm culegtorilor Mircea
Vasile Stnescu Ardanul, Demetriu Boer i tefan Cacoveanu, publicate, n ansamblu, n
1975 de Ovidiu Brlea. O alt mare colecie de proz popular transilvnean se datoreaz
elevilor liceelor din Blaj, care la iniiativa i sub ndrumarea profesorului Ioan Micu
Viorica Nicov, op.cit., p.14.

Ibidem.
4
5
Ovidiu Brlea, Istoria folcloristicii romneti, Editura Enciclopedic romn, Bucureti, 1974, p.111.
6
Ovidiu Brlea, op.cit., p.114.
7
Ibidem.
2
3
319
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Moldovanu, adun ntre 1863-1878, numeroase naraiuni. Colecia va vedea lumina tiparului,
dup aproape un veac, n 1987.
Bucovineanul Ioan Gh. Sbiera este primul culegtor romn un deschiztor de drumuri
n prile sale.8 E preocupat de povetile romneti pe care ncepe s le culeag de pe cnd
era elev la liceul din Cernui. Culegerea sa va aprea n 1886 i cuprinde peste cincizeci de
naraiuni din Valea Siretului i a Sucevei, majoritatea fiind basme fantastice i nuvelistice.
Asemenea modelului lui Schott, culegerea cuprinde credine despre zmei, moroi i ghicitori.
Persoanele i ntmplrile - precizeaz culegtorul - sunt totdeauna aceleai precum le
spuneau povestitorii, dar descrierea lor n-a putut rmne tot aceeai, una pentru c pe timpul
cnd s-au cules nc nu era vorba de stenografie pe la noi, i alta, pentru c atuncea am cutat
s reproduc numai esena lucrului, nu i forma schimbtoare n care mi se nfia de diferii
povestitori.9 Sbiera reconstituie textual i unele caractere ale esteticii basmului oral, textele
sale sunt echilibrate, iar subiectivitatea culegtorului disimulat, fiind preocupat de categoria
variaiei: cnd dosebirile dintre variantele aceluiai tip i se par substaniale, public textele
integral; cnd i se par mai mici ori mai puin semnificative, le semnaleaz n note.10 Limba
povetilor lui Sbiera e cea popular din Bucovina, el repovestete rnete, cu o seam de
expresii dialectale.11
Un alt culegtor de basme, preotul i profesorul Simion Florea Marian, public opt
basme, n 1887, culese din jurul Sucevei i din bazinul Dornelor. Acestea sunt repovestite
fluent, iar manuscrisele conin nsemnri interesante.
Ion Pop-Reteganul adun o serie de basme, din nordul Transilvaniei, publicate ntre
1888 i 1903. Basmele lui Reteganu reprezint prima colecie ampl, de proz transilvnean,
publicat n limba romn, ntr-un limbaj accesibil. Laureniu Ciorbea public dou brouri ce
cuprind basme transilvnene, n 1895 i 1904. n aceeai perioad culege basme i Ioan
Slavici, publicate ncepnd cu 1872, n Convorbiri literare, apoi n volum n 1908, la
Bucureti.
Primele culegeri de basme populare din Muntenia i le datorm lui Nicolae Filimon,
care le public n ziarul bucuretean ranul romn, n 1862. Basmele sale sunt fantastice:
Roman nzdrvan, Omul de piatr, Omul cu barba de mtase. Ele se caracterizeaz prin
forma simpl, spontaneitatea verbal, fr abuzul descrierii. Cel care l urmeaz, fr zbav
este Petre Ispirescu, care impresionat fiind de lectura primului basm al lui Filimon, Roman
nzdrvan, mrturisete: m-am mirat c i basmele noastre s fie de ceva. i a fost destul s
scriu cel dinti basm c n-am mai scpat. Prima brour a lui Ispirescu apare n 1862 i este
reeditat i mbogit n cele trei volume care i urmeaz: 1872, 1874, 1876. Ediia mare este
cea din 1882. Colecia sa nsumeaz 73 de basme, culese, cele mai multe, din Muntenia,
cteva din Oltenia, Transilvania, i Moldova. Basmele sunt narate simplu, pe nelesul tuturor,
combinnd formulri ce in de expunerea scris i de literatura cult cu procedeele oralitii.
Colecia de basme a lui Ispirescu este ntia mare colecie de basme din Muntenia, scris n
graiul cel mai apopiat de limba literar.12 Cunoate pn astzi peste aizeci de reeditri,
comparabil fiind ca faim cu colecia Grimm din Germania. Pe urmele lui Ispirescu, dar cu
un stil mai ters13 scriitorul Ion C. Fundescu public n 1867 un volum de poveti
munteneti cu ghicitori i oraii, reluate n patru ediii mbogite, pn n 1896. Dintre
coleciile de basme munteneti se cuvine s fie menionate i cele ale lui G. Dem. Teodorescu
i Dumitru Stncescu.
Ibidem, p.18.
10
Ibidem.
11
Ovidiu Brlea, op.cit.,p.126.
12
Ovidiu Brlea, op.cit.,p.159.
13
Ibidem, p.165.
8
9
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G. Dem. Teodorescu este culegtor i teoretician, fiind un bun cunosctor al

folclorului nc de timpuriu. Teodorescu se numr printre primii discipoli ai lui Hadeu14,
afirm Ovidiu Brlea, s-a ocupat de credine, obiceiuri, colinde, proverbe. Contribuia sa
important la folclorul romnesc o constituie colecia de Poesii populare romne din 1885,
dar mai puin cunoscut este activitatea sa de cercettor al basmului. Nu au rmas de la el
dect dousprezece basme, editate abia n 1968. Doar trei dintre ele menioneaz proveniena,
restul doar locul i data redactrii. Teodorescu povestete basmele n stilul su, distanndu-se
de cel popular, chiar dac pe alocuri reproduce maniera abrupt a povestitorilor munteni de a
se exprima n propoziii scurte, sentenioase Nici cald, nici frig:potrivit15
Dumitru Stncescu e o personalitate aparte n folcloristica romneasc, cel care
anun o contribuie ce ar fi depit pe cea a lui Ispirescu dac moartea nu l-ar fi secerat att
de timpuriu.16 A rmas n memoria culturii noastre prin activitatea sa de publicist, editor,
folclorist i autor a apte volume de basme i snoave. Locul preponderent l ocup basmele
propriu-zise, colecia nsumnd circa 50 de basme.17 Basmele le tia din familie sau de la
povestitori munteni, cteva i din Transilvania, dar n esen, colecia lui Stncescu este
munteneasc ,,reprezentnd inima provinciei.18 De remarcat la aceste basme este
profunzimea i firescul dialogului, a repetiiei, vivacitatea relatrii19 Basmele lui Stncescu
au rmas, ns, n umbra celor ale lui Ispirescu, chiar dac aveau n comun o bun parte din
repertoriu, iar colecia sa o gsim doar la prima ediie pn n zilele noastre.
Povetile lui Ion Creang sunt considerate un reper folcloric atunci cnd vine vorba de
basm i apar n volum n anul 1890, postum. Popularitatea acestor Poveti, dar i numeroasele
reeditri a egalat, dac nu cumva a depit colecia Ispirescu. Stilul Povetilor lui Creang se
bazeaz pe cel popular, originalitatea scrierii rezid n felul n care mbin cuvintele i
expresiile, demonstrnd c n limite att de restrnse un scriitor se poate totui ridica la o
elaborare ntru totul personal, unic.20 Caracterul elaborat ce rezult din sinteza complex a
procedeelor curente n folclor, l desparte pe Creang de oralitate i i confer identitatea de
scriitor. Povetile au contribuit la cunoaterea folclorului romnesc peste hotare, fiind traduse
n alte limbi.
Interesul lui Mihai Eminescu pentru folclor se consider a fi fost selectiv. Era atras de
lirica popular i de basmele fantastice. Cu privire la culegerea folclorului, Eminescu pune n
relief necesitatea de a se respecta forma autentic. Eminescu a cules, dup dictat cinci basme,
din Moldova, ntre anii 1869-1876, basmele sunt: Clin nebunul, Frumoasa lumii, Borta
vntului, Vasilie finul lui Dumnezeu i Finul lui Dumnezeu. Cele cinci texte i deapn
fluent substana, concreteea actelor eseniale i a amnuntelor, e frapant.21 Mai bine de trei
decenii, performana lui Eminescu a rmas necunoscut, pn n 1902, cnd Ilarie Chendi
editeaz n volum culegerile de Literatur popular ale poetului.
Revenind la zona Banatului, aici ntlnim cea mai cunoscut i mai ntins colecie
bnean, a nvtorului George Ctan. Acesta a publicat n timpul vieii cinci volume,
cuprinznd basme fantastice: Povetile Bnatului, 3 volume (1893), Poveti poporale din
Banat (1908), Din lumea povetilor (1924) i volumul postum: Cele mai frumoase poveti din
Banat (1947). Textele sunt fie notate dup amintiri din copilrie, fie culese personal sau prin
coresponden.
14
Ibidem, p.250.
Ibidem, p.258.
16
17
Ibidem.
18
Ibidem.
19
20
21
15
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De o nsemntate notabil este monografia etnografic a lui Teofil Frncu i George

Candrea: Romnii din Munii Apuseni (Moii), din 1888. E cea dinti monografie
etnografico-folcloric de la noi i ntia care public un basm n grai dialectal, 22 confirm
Ovidiu Brlea, iar textele nu sunt notate dup dictat, ci repovestite. Viorica Nicov noteaz c:
din punct de vedere fonetic, lexical, sintagmatic naraiunile ilustreaz particulariti locale,
iar stilistic i sintactic ele sunt adaptate modalitii literare23
n Muntenia, cea mai vast colecie de basme, publicat la nceputul secolului al XXlea o constituie volumele nvtorului Constantin Rdulescu-Codin. Volumul ngerul
romnului. Poveti i legende din popor, a aprut n 1913 i cuprinde cincizeci i ase de
texte, aproape toate basme propriu-zise i cteva basme despre animale, din inutul
Muscelului. La nceputul anilor 1900, n Banat, se remarc activitatea lui Juliu Tr. Mera care
public, n 1906, un volum de basme, prealabil tiprite n periodice.
n Transilvania, n primul deceniu al secolului al XX-lea, cea mai important colecie
e cea a Paulinei Schullerus, din 1906. Aceast colecie de poveti romneti cuprinde 137 de
naraiuni din care nouzeci i nou, basme, notate n romnete dup dictat i transpuse apoi
n german. Viorica Nicov observ c basmele se deapn simplu, limpede, cu grij pentru
mrcile oralitii.24 Ovidiu Brlea constat c acest colecie a trecut neobservat printre
romni, cu excepia puinilor specialiti, dar peste hotare, ea a contribuit cel mai mult, alturi
de colecia frailor Schott, la cunoaterea povetilor romneti.25
n perioada urmtoare, predomin coleciile din Moldova. l amintim pe Tudor
Pamfile care prin lucrrile sale, ilustreaz inutul Tecuciului, pe profesorul Dumitru Furtun,
autor a patru volume ce nsumeaz peste dou sute de texte, dintre care cteva zeci de basme.
n preajma Primului Rzboi Mondial, au aprut n periodice un numr mare de basme,
pe care le regsim i n revistele de folclor, n presa cultural, literar i chiar politic a
vremii. Doar o parte din basmele publicate n periodice sunt reeditri i numai cteva dintre
ele vor fi adunate n volume.26
n perioada interbelic situaia se va modifica. Basmele vor aprea n presa pentru
copii i n mare msur vor fi reeditri. n Transilvania va publica basme nvtorul Ioan
Bota, n volumul Poveti btrneti, din 1923. Acesta cuprinde treisprezece basme i o
snoav, redate cu mult fidelitate. Din Banat, profesorul Lucian Costin, public culegerea
Mrgritarele Banatului, n 1925, care cuprinde printre alte naraiuni i zece basme.
Activitatea lui Nicolae Iorga nu putea s nu se reverse i asupra domeniului culturii
populare27, remarc Ovidiu Brlea. Iorga a cules i folclor, cele zece basme din volumul
Contes roumains transposs en franais, din 1924 sunt auzite de la o tnr din Iai, aflat
temporar la cole Roumaine en France. Al unsprezecelea basm Les voyages du prince
charmant, e luat din colecia Ispirescu (Tineree fr btrnee). Dup cel de-al Doilea
Rzboi Mondial cercetrile de profil au fost instituionalizate i o vreme au fost sprijinite de
Institutul de Folclor din Bucureti, nfiinat n 1949. Valorificarea fondului de naraiuni
constituit de ctre Institut a fost realizat prin Antologia alctuit de Ovidiu Brlea. Antologia
Brlea din 1966 are trei volume i cuprinde 165 de texte, find un moment de rscruce n
folcloristica romneasc. Pentru prima oar autenticitatea material a prozei narative orale
aprea respectat intransigent n spaiul unei ediii de proporii, accesibil marelui public28,
noteaz Viorica Nicov.
24
Ibidem, p.30.
25
26
27
28
Viorica Nicov, op. cit., p.33.
22
23
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O alt antologie de naraiuni romneti, este cea ntocmit n versiune german de Flix
Karlinger, n 1982. Colecia de proz popular din valea Timocului, printre care basme
fantastice, nuvelistice, animaliere, a fost publicat n 1988 de profesorul Sandu Cristea Timoc.
E important, fiind singura de acest fel i de asemenea proporii efectuat ntr-o zon
cunoscut numai pentru repertoriul liric i baladesc.29
Colecia profesorului Ion Nijloveanu, din 1982 se remarc prin rigoarea alctuirii,
basmele coleciei sunt variate i nfiseaz o imagine panoramic a speciei n faza sa
clasic i n timbrul stilistic distinct al sudului rii.30 Un alt volum de basme culese de
Gheorghe Vrabie, mpreun cu studenii si, nte 1962-1968, ilustreaz categoria antologie
zonal. Volumul conine peste cincizeci de naraiuni din Arge. De remarcat este i antologia
de 33 de basme fantastice, din Dmbovia, nregistrate ntre anii 1970-1975 de profesorul
Octav Pun i Silviu Angelescu. Aceast colecie surprinde basmul muntenesc, consemnat n
scriere curent tocmai pentru a-i marca apropierea de norma fonetic literar.31
Dup parcurgerea, n ansamblu, a teoriilor despre apariia basmelor, ideile generale se
pot sistematiza, dup cum afirm Viorica Nicov32. Astfel istoria accesibil a basmelor e n
primul rnd o istorie a culegerilor, a culegtorilor, a gustului cititorilor i n al doilea rnd o
istorie a basmului nsui, a povestitorilor i auditoriului lor.
Bibliografie
1. Brlea, Ovidiu, Istoria folcloristicii romneti, Editura Enciclopedic romn,
Bucureti, 1974
2. Nicov, Viorica, A fost de unde n-a fost. Basmul popular romnesc, Editura
Humanitas, Bucureti, 1996
3. Pop, Mihai, Ruxndoiu, Pavel, Folclor literar romnesc, Editura Didactic i
Pedagogic, 1990
4. Sndulescu, Al., (coord), Dicionar de termeni literari, Editura Academiei, Bucureti,
1976
29
Ibidem, p.36.
Ibidem, p.37.
31
32
30
323
Issue no.6/2015
ION HELIADE RDULESCU AND THE 1848 GENERATIONS LITERARY PHYSIOLOGY

Marta ALBU
Abstract: The present study aims to highlight the figure of Heliade I. Rdulescu as moralist.
Being formed in the spirit of classicism, I. Heliade Radulescus interest for the satire comes
directly from the thesis of the moralizing role of the literature, a central point of his ideology.
His work is clearly influenced by the thought of the moralist and the ideologue; it is
subordinated to the "moralistic theses", because he believed in the curative effect of the
satire. Considered the founder of the pamphlet in Romanian literature, a classic satirist,
observer of manners and human types, I.H. Radulescu was a great creater of "characters"
and " physiologies " of classical style.
Keywords: moralist, character, portrait, physiology, classicism
Dup 1840, cultura i literatura romn cunoate o perioad de progres notabil, vizibil
n toate domeniile. Este o epoc a schimbrilor, a evoluiei, literatura se extinde pe coordonate
noi, au loc schimburi culturale n Europa, iar scriitorii mbrieaz toate genurile i speciile.
Scriitorii romni se orienteaz mai ales spre spaiul francez, contactul cultural este facilitat de
cunoaterea limbii franceze; mai muli profesori francezi, venii n rile romneti ntre 18201840, particip efectiv la programul cultural, rspndind idei noi i mrind interesul pentru
cultura francez. Muli tineri romni sunt plecai n strintate, unii dintre ei chiar la Paris i
se ntorc cu idei progresiste franceze, ziare franceze sau gazete romneti n limba francez,
teatrul francez este n vog. Astfel, cultura francez ptrunde adnc n societatea romneasc.
Scriitorii vremii sunt marcai, influenai de acest val: Vasile Alecsandri va pleca la Paris i
primele lui versuri scrise n limba francez demonstreaz influena francez, M.
Koglniceanu, Costache Negruzzi, Alecu Russo i Grigore Alexandrescu se formeaz n
spiritul francez. Primele traduceri i prelucrri ale lui Ion Heliade Rdulescu sunt din francez
sau dovedesc aceast influen. Se creeaz afiniti care genereaz influene notabile n
operele tuturor scriitorilor epocii.
Gustul public, extrem de receptiv la satir, este cultivat de circulaia valorilor strine
n care literatura francez deine un rol primordial, mai nti n original, apoi, prin traducerile
fcute ntre anii 1830-1860. Are loc o mbinare de tendine i metode, spre o ideologie
paoptist care mbin elemente clasice, iluministe i romantice.
n aceast perioad, ia natere specia fiziologiei n literatura romn. Ea va cunoate
schimbri n denumire. Iniial, terminologia, impus repede prin traduceri, oscileaz ntre
caracter, figur, icoan, portret, caricatur, tablou. Autorii de fiziologii au contiina
zugrvirii dup un anumit sistem a unor realiti, atribut esenial al metodei.1 C.
Negruzzi mrturisea n Provinialul (1840), care abia n volumul Pcatele tinereilor, din
1857, primete titlul de fiziologie, c ar fi pcat a rmnea nezugrvit un portret att de
caracteristic. La nceput, fiziologia era denumit i prin articol, articol satiric n ziarele i
revistele vremii, n strns simbioz cu schia. Din cauza pluralitii termenilor i a
interferenei speciilor, au existat dificulti de ncadrare. Diveri critici literari ncadrau
anumite opere fie n cadrul schiei de moravuri, fie n cadrul fiziologiei, fie n cel al
Titus Moraru, Fiziologia literar, Editura Dacia, Cluj, 1972, p. 127.
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fizionomiei.2 Aici, se urmrea, destul de stngaci i naiv, descrierea caracterelor i

preocuprilor omeneti dup descifrarea gesturilor salutului, dup felul de a purta cravata,
mnuile, bastonul sau nclmintea: Omul care se gndete la viitor se uit n jos; dac se
uit nainte, s tii c are a face cu trebile lui de atunci, nu se gndete la nimic, dac se uit
n dreapta sau n stnga, ns de-l vei vedea c se uit des napoi, atunci s tii curat c se
uit la creditori. () Cel care poart lanuri de aur ca s se vaz de departe, ace late i
sperioase, inele multe i scumpe, s tii c este sau un bdran mbogit, sau un juctor de
cri, sau un negustor teleleic, sau vrun prin italian.3
T. Moraru4 remarc totui stabilizarea noiunii de tip, prezena termenului n
fiziologii, semn c principiile metodologice realiste se aflau ntr-o faz incipient, oferind ca
exemplu fiziologia lui D. Ralet, Provincialii i iaenii, n care n Introducie arat c va
prezenta cteva tipuri de iaeni i provinciali.
Fizio(g)nomia construia portretul pe baza trsturilor fizice. Astfel, caracterul, tipul
omului era descris n funcie de o trstur fizic. T. Moraru subliniaz faptul c de fiziologie,
s-a ocupat, n mod constant i dr. Pavel Vasici, prin a crui proz se poate verifica ptrunderea
tiinei fiziologice n literatur5. Doctorul Vasici realizeaz o proz umoristic, n care
opereaz o clasificare a brbailor, pornind de la elementele primordiale. Din prima clas, fac
parte brbaii aptoi, cei mai sentimentali oameni, mintea lor este de potopul simirilor
cufundat. Ei nu mai simesc i viaa lor se poate asemna cu surfaa apei unui lac acrea, de
cea mai mic a vntului aborare, se mic n nenumrate unde; ntre dame ei sunt izvorul
complimentelor i a vorbelor linguitoare n a crora ap nzhrit dnii neac mintea
acestora ca s poat unghia inima lor pentru sine. Iubirea lor e ca spuma de spun, ei noat
n marea sentimentelor de la o dam la alta, pn ce cad n mreaja unei pescrie cu minte.
()6 Apoi uuraticii o categorie format dintr-un popora uor, sngios, umflat, ns uor
de purtat care leapd oamenilor numai pulbere n ochi i sunt trectori ca spuma de spun.7
Orientarea general n epoc era fa de clasicism. Tudor Vianu vorbea de un
clasicism realist, nclinare spre ironie i umor8 , datorat spiritului ei echilibrat. Noua specie
literar se baza pe investigarea laturilor morale; fcea apel la proza caracterologic a
clasicismului prin mprumutul modalitilor de descriere a moralului prin fizic.
Cultivarea portretului labruyrian, n proz sau n versuri, ia amploare dup 1838,
pornindu-se de la investigarea laturilor morale, mprumutnd de la clasicism premisele etice i
aplicndu-le noilor condiii sociale, astfel, nct exist elemente comune ntre acest tip de
caracter i fiziologia literar propriu-zis. Periodicele vremii (Albina romneasc,
Curierul romnesc, Foaie pentru minte, inim i literatur, Vestitorul bisericesc)
promovau acest tip de proz caracterologic.
T. Moraru observ c exist o diferen ntre caracterele realizate n manier clasic i
o mare parte dintre cele cultivate dup 1840, diferen axat pe raportul general-individual,
iar pn la fiziologie nu exist dect un pas.9 Gustul pentru caracterologie este cultivat i prin
traduceri (din Teofrast, C. Negruzzi Moraliceti caracteruri, dup Dimitrie Darvari,
traductorul lui Teofrast; din La Rochefoucauld - I. H. Rdulescu, traduceri dup Augustin
Keller i August von Kotzebue) i prin aforismele care erau n vog n pres (din La Bruyre,
Vezi Fiziologia provincialului n Iai de M. Koglniceanu considerat schi de moravuri (N. Cartojan),
Provinialul lui Negruzzi considerat tot schi de moravuri (G. Clinescu).
3
Curier de ambe sexe, III (1840-1842), p. 239.
4
Op.cit., p. 128.
5
Ibidem, p. 132.
6
Dr. Vasici, Clasificaia brbailor, n Foaie pentru minte, inim i literatur, 1840, nr. 30 (21 iulie), p. 239.
7
Dr. Vasici, op.cit., p. 240.
8
n Asupra caracterelor specifice ale literaturii romne, n Steaua, an XI, 1960, nr. 1 (ianuarie), p. 54.
9
Op.cit., pp. 138-139.
2
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Beranger, Lesage, Diderot, Lavater, La Rochefoucauld, etc.). C. Bolliac susinea acest tip de
literatur moral: scriei, ludai, satirizai, punei n lucrare toate resorturile intelectuale i
morale i robia cade.10
Personalitatea lui Ion Heliade Rdulescu se definete, n egal msur, prin munca
neobosit n domeniul larg al culturii, prin opera sa literar i prin prezena, nu o dat
determinant, n desfurarea evenimentelor sociale i politice ale epocii sale. El este un
actant al istoriei acestei epoci, un personaj de la care pornesc sau ctre care se ndreapt
linii multiple ale micrii culturale, ideologice i literare, un scriitor cu suflet ardent, creator
pretutindeni, desfurat deopotriv n via i n art, nzestrat cu mari nsuiri i cu tot att
de mari cusururi11. Ca orice mare personalitate, activitatea lui ofer istoriei, n general, celei
culturale i literare, n special, un subiect, pe ct de generos, tot pe att de dificil.
Impunndu-se de tnr, ca o prestigioas personalitate cultural, I. H. Rdulescu, pe
care D. Popovici12 l considera un lupttor n mijlocul unei generaii de lupttori, pentru
mntuirea rii sale; un ziditor, n mijlocul unei generaii de ziditori, al unei civilizaii noi, se
nscrie n familia marilor spirite erudite i enciclopedice, creatoare, de mare anvergur, din
cultura romn.
n critica literar, Ion Heliade Rdulescu este apreciat, nainte de toate, drept o
personalitate cu o formaie enciclopedic, un poet cu o creaie original, un prozator favorizat
i de o epoc a schimbrilor. Secolul al XIX-lea a impus treptat i n spaiul romnesc
schimbri, a cror esen este democratizarea culturii n mai toate sensurile, i, n acest
proces, rolul lui Heliade este cu totul remarcabil.13 Preocuprile de teorie literar decurg la el
din propria experien creatoare, iar ca trstur definitorie a literaturii, vede misiunea ei
educativ, moralizatoare, situndu-se, n acest sens, ntr-o descenden clasic.14 n Echilibru
ntre antithesi, Heliade i definea stilul direct, polemic: Acest articol este extractul primului
volum al historiei universali. Materia fiind tiinific cere un stil didactic dup cum se tract
la locul su; () Romnul e din originea sa caustic. Caustic va s zic un ce care arde de
frige; i de ce este Romnul caustic, nu-l criticai, cititorilor, c prea l-au ars i l-au fript i
pe el strinii i pe ai si, i nsui aceia n care i-a pus toate speranele. Disperaia l-a fcut
a-i rde de toate. Cu focul i cu dorul n inim i cu lacrmele n ochi, este i cu sursul pe
buze, dulce cte o dat, amar de mai multe ori, i caustic sau arztor ca i focul ce arde n
inima lui.15
Fiind educat n spiritul clasicismului, la Heliade, interesul pentru satir decurge direct
din teza rolului moralizator al literaturii, considerat de Gr. ugui un punct nodal al ideologiei
lui I. Heliade Rdulescu16. n articolul Despre satir, el preia definiia satirei de la La Harpe i
Marmontel: Satira este o zugrveal sau descriere a viiului i a ridicolului prin vorbe i prin
acie. Sunt dou feluri de satir: una politic i alta moral, iar amndou se pot socoti ori
generale, ori personale, dup firea lor17. O aduce n discuie din nou, cu elemente noi, n
urma unor lecturi din V. Hugo, n studiul Satira n Echilibru ntre antithese sau spiritul i
materia (1859-1869).
n Ctre scriitorii notri, n Foaie pentru minte, inim i literatur, 1844, nr. 40 (2 octombrie), p. 213.
G. Clinescu, I. Eliade Rdulescu i coala sa, Editura Tineretului, Bucureti, 1966, p. 5.
12
Ideologia literar a lui I. Heliade Rdulescu, Editura Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 1935, p. 11.
13
Grigore ugui, Ion Heliade Rdulescu, ndrumtorul cultural i scriitorul, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1984,
p. 74.
14
Idem, p. 81.
15
I. Heliade Rdulescu, Echilibru ntre antithesi, Bucureti, 1859-1869, p. 17.
16
Idem, p. 87.
17
n Curier de ambe sexe, II, (1838-1840), ed. 1, nr. 23, pp. 352-356. Articolul apare i n Curierul
romnesc, 1840, nr. 7-8.
10
11
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D. Popovici18 descoperea izvorul printelui literaturii romne n Elementele de

literatur ale lui Marmontel, cuvnt cu cuvnt: Peinture du vice ou du ridicule, en simple
discours ou en action. Distinguons dabord deux espces de satires: lune politique et lautre
morale n Curs ntreg de poesie generale19. Heliade Rdulescu spunea cam aceleai lucruri:
Satira cere urr, dispreu, i s aib nainte cele n adevr dispreabili.
Proza eliadesc este vizibil influenat de gndirea moralistului i ideologului. Operele
sale sunt subordonate tezelor moraliste, deoarece credea n efectul curativ al satirei20. Chiar
dac, la prima vedere, sunt opere doctrinare, precum Biblicele sau Echilibru ntre antithesi,
ele conin anumite pasaje satirice, portrete sau schie. Heliade trece de la tonul grav la stilul
natural, sprinten, i de multe ori cu intenii satirice, pentru a ne nfia anumite aspecte, vicii
i tipuri care-i ddeau motive de ridiculizare. Dintre scrierile de dimensiuni restrnse, cteva
concentreaz discursul satiric n jurul unui personaj, realiznd astfel un portret de factur
clasic.
Proza lui Heliade izvorte din militantism, este creat pentru a ilustra o idee moral
sau social. Gr. ugui subliniaz trsturile generale ale prozei heliadeti: absena preocuprii
pentru compoziie, oralitatea stilului, teoriile presrate la tot pasul, puternicele accente
satirice, pamfletare, spontaneitatea, marea capacitate de mimare verbal i gesticulatorie, de
punere n scen, abundena cantitativ a portretului satiric21. Operele publicate n primii ani ai
exilului, Souvenirs set impressions dun proscrit (1850) i Mmoires sur lhistoire de la
rgnration roumaine (1851) au, de asemenea, un accent evocator, militantist, polemic i
satiric.
Considerat ctitorul pamfletului n literatura romn, un spirit satiric clasic, observator
de moravuri i tipuri umane, I. Heliade Rdulescu era un mare amator de caractere i
fiziologii de factur clasic: remarcabilele portrete realizate n Bat-te Dumnezeu!
(Coconia Drgana), Coconu Drgan, Domnul Sarsail autorul i n scrierile memorialistice
sunt puse n valoare mijloacele remarcabile ale autorului: caricatura rapid, umorul popular,
bogia vocabularului, spontaneitatea replicii. Fiziologistul are un fel de jubilaie
rutcioas n contemplarea tipului social, care, odat individualizat, este pus s susin un
adevrat recital pentru a-i dezvlui ridicolul. Scriitorul adopt ntotdeauna poziia omului de
rnd, plin de bun sim, care persifleaz cu umor aerele superioare ale parvenitului, obtuzitatea
unor demnitari, impostura autorilor nenelei. De la Marmontel (ale crui Elemente de
literatur le-a tradus i folosit n cursurile de poetic i stilistic), a preluat credina n
misiunea moralizatoare a artei i ndoiala asupra imuabilitii valorilor. n viziunea heliadesc,
romantic i utopic, poezia nsemna ncununarea tuturor virtuilor creatoare ale omului,
mijlocul prin care el se poate asemui cu creaia divinitii. La naltele eluri morale ale
poeziei, s-a adugat mesianismul lui Hugo, poezia devenind astfel arm de lupt, pentru
civilizare, emancipare naional i cultur.
Un tip a crui fizionomie a inut s o fixeze este Domnul Sarsail autorul. Aici,
Heliade satirizeaz autorlcul, grafomania. Portretul falsului artist este amnunit, zugrvit
pe mai multe pagini. V. Ene22 remarc faptul c este o tem nou n literatura romn a
secolului al XIX-lea, iar ndemnul Scrii, biei, numai scrii!23 fusese neles greit de unii
tineri nenzestrai, dar care se voiau scriitori. Referitor la Domnul Sarsail autorul, G.
Clinescu remarca: Eliade este un prozator excepional, un pamfletar ignorat sub aceast
18
Ibidem.
II, 1870, p. 36.
20
Gr. ugui, op.cit., p. 227.
21
Op.cit., p. 217.
22
n Satira n literatura romn, studiu i antologie, Editura Albatros, Bucureti, 1971, p. XXIII.
23
Ion Heliade Rdulescu i tineretul, n vol. Ethos i cultur, de Ion Dodu Blan, Editura Albatros, Bucureti,
1972, pp. 244-248.
19
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latur. Rutatea inventiv n vorbe e n linia lui Radu Popescu, la care se adaug o veselie
natural, sngeros violent, susinut de o retoric savant i de o incurabil observaie
ideologic (1966: 66). n preambulul explicativ, Despre autori24, autorul ncepe cu o
enumerare a calitilor cerute unui scriitor, urmat de o serie de invective la adresa celor care
nu sunt demni de a se numi scriitori. Satira aceasta are, desigur, nelesul ei. Heliade a scris-o
gndindu-se la autorii din vremea lui, care, dndu-se literai, se expuneau ridicolului prin
apucturile lor. S-a afirmat c, n aceast schi sunt vizai C. Bolliac i Gr. Alexandrescu.
Al. Piru25 intuiete o fiziologie26. Iat cum este descris tipul:
Domnului Sarsail i-a intrat n cap s-i fac numele nemuritor, cum am zice s
zboare la nemurire. Ce-i mai trebuie acum dect s se numeasc autor, i apoi s se fac
privigtoare? Dumnealui aa zice, dar hronica scandaloas vorbete altele. St acum i se
gndete, se gndete i iar se mai gndete. Apoi zice: Ca s m fac autor, trebuie s dau
cri la lumin, i fiindc autor nu e fitecine, eu dar trebuie s fiu deosebit din ceilali pe
cari n ali timpi dasclii mei i numea hidei, dar confraii mei de autori i numesc viulgheri.
Aa, mai nti de toate trebuie s fiu fr cpti, ca s zic c sunt slobod: n casa n care
voi lcui trebuie s am cteva cri, ct se va putea n limbi streine; n cmara mea cu ct va
fi mai nemturat, cu atta o s dau un ton c prea puin m gndesc la lucrurile acestea
trectoare ce n-au a face cu nemurirea; dac am musti, trebuie s le raz; dac nu am,
trebuie s le las s creasc dimpreun cu brbioara. Cnd ies afar, ca s m cunoasc de
departe, trebuie s-mi pui ochelari la nas; hainele s-mi fie deosebite, prul s-mi fie ceva
mai deosebit; fracul, o fa cam aa; mantaua aruncat ntr-un chip clasic ba
romantic; cravata mare, dezmat, sau nicidecum; pe pantaloni s am cteva picturi de
cerneal; cnd voi vorbi cu oamenii, s m roiesc, s-mi muc buzele, s pui ochii n
grind, ca s semn inspirat; s bnniesc din mini cnd vorbesc, cnd umblu; vorbele smi fie alese, adic cnd oi da bun dimineaa s n-o dau ca toi oamenii, ci s zic: s-i
zmbeasc aurora, amice, pntre buze rumeni cu dini albi. () S punem acum c d.
Sarsail este rumn. Dac voiete s-i mai mobileze capul cu ceva idei strine () alearg
atunci nval la limba franozeasc, -apoi l vezi c ncepe s ne arate c n franuzete e
nainte de m i n se pronun ca a, i, ca e i u ca iu; apoi l auzi enteres, labirent, semplu,
amblem, ochiuparisesc, Neptiun i alte asemenea. Cu astfel de idei, cu astfel de gndiri, cu
astfel de podoabe i dichise, acum d. Sarsail este autor ntreg ntregule, din cap pn-n
picioare; nu-i mai rmne dect s treac la snta nemurire i s ne lase pe noi tia
volgarii, pe care dumnealui i numete vulgheri, n pace i n repaus.
Viciile satirizate sunt impostura, falsitatea, lipsa de naturalee, nchipuirea (Sarsail
nu ascult nicio pova), extravagana (dorina de a se diferenia de ceilali printr-o via de
boem, att din punctul de vedere al vestimentaiei, ct i al limbajului). n final, satira se
transform n predic moral, profesoral27, avertizndu-i pe cei tentai s se dedice scrisului
s se fereasc ca de alt aia s nu cdei n boala autorlcului. nvai carte, cultivai artele
i meteugurile, scriei ct putei eu nu v zic s nu scriei -, dar scriei ca s v deprindei,
ca s v folosii voi, ca s folosii pe alii, dar nu ca s zburai aa de juni de timpuriu la
nemurire. () Pe urm s vedei i alta: a fi cineva autor n secolul nostru nu e o meserie cu
care s se hrneasc. () Scrisul este i el un talent cultivat cu educaia, ca i toate celelalte
talente; i daca natura nu m-a fcut muzicant, dnuitor, zugraf, nu mai este alt mijloc de a
tri i a fi om onest?
n Curier de ambe sexe, I, pp. 88-91.

n Introducere n opera lui I. Eliade Rdulescu, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1971, p. 88.
26
n sensul aceleia pe care Eliade nsui o va traduce n 1845 din Sylvius, Physiologie du pote.
27
24
25
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Al. Piru subliniaz aici c ironia, spiritul satiric mpins pn la pamflet sunt expresia
spiritului heliadesc care l prevestete pe Arghezi, iar V. Ene28 remarc faptul c aceast
caracterizare tipologic poate fi regsit, cu mijloace literare diferite la ali scriitori ai
secolului al XIX-lea sau al XX-lea: Matei Millo (Un poet romantic), Iacob Negruzzi (Artistul
dramatic), I. A. Bassarabescu (n schia satiric Fr plete).
O alt fiziologie este schia Bat-te Dumnezeu! sau Coconia Drgana (1839). Aici,
putem vorbi de un tip al vremii 29, de portretul unei Chirie bucuretene, soia unui boier,
unui cocon30. Portretul ei nfieaz tipul ciocoiului n variant feminin, parvenita
infatuat, vulgar. Este surprins astfel:
Coconia Drgana s-a crescut cu bun ducaioane la prinii dumneaei. Ninecu-sa,
pe lng celelalte, a nvat-o i meteugul zugrviei: tie de minune a-i ncondeia i
mbina sprncenele i, cnd voiete, se face alb ca peretele i roie ca racul (i nu tiu cum
se ntmpl, c dumneaei mai totdauna este astfel) i e frumoas de minune. Acum nu mai
este fat mare, e cu casa dumneaei, cu boierul dumneaei. Cnd a ieit din braele prinilor,
bbcu-su i-a dat o zestre bunicic, ntre care se cuprind i cteva suflete de igani
(pentru c bbcu-su e cretin bun i i-a dat Dumnezeu putere i peste sufletele iganilor;
cnd va le vinde, le d de zestre, le druiete, le face danie pentru iertarea sufletului su, ba
nc, cnd va voi, le poate da i dracului). Ninecu-sa iar i-a dichisit bisahteaua i i-a pus
nuntru, cu toat rnduiala i cu toat dragostea printeasc, felurimi de sculioar:
sticlulia cu stricat, pe care dumneaei l numete dres, pmtuful, alune arse ndestule,
fclee mititele de paie de mtur alese, firele de ibriim, hrtiuele cu stiubeci, pudr,
fioar, rumeneal .c.l., strnse, rnduite foarte binior; o, ce dragoste printeasc! nostim
i tineric o s mai fie coconia Drgana! ()
Cuconia Drgana are drept zestre cteva suflete de igani, care poart porecle precum
Cioroaica a btrn, Diavolul de buzat, mpeliata, Baraonul de rtan, fa de care are un
comportament tiranic, crora le adreseaz numai injurii.
Rtane, gata sunt bucatele? c-a venit coconul!
Piper i oet nu e, coconi, s fac perioarele.
Dar bat-te Dumnezeu, baraoane! afurisitule! acuma mi spui?
Vezi c aveai treab cu jidanii ia.
i mai rspunzi, bala dracului? unde e diavolu de Ioni?
Aci sunt, coconi.
Uite, pn nu s-o usca scuipatul s fii aci, diavole, c vai de pielea ta! Du-te
curnd, ia vin, oet, untdelemn i piper; i vino de pune masa.
D-i s ia i sare, coconi, c n-am ce pune n solnie.
Na, i nu mai csca gura... Uite, bat-l Dumnezeu, c mai ade! ce stai, buzatule, i
te uii la mine? Fa, mpeliato! Ce? i vine ru fr coarne? Dar las, Avestio, c nu te las
fr dnsele... Nu vezi c-a venit coconul? Mergi n cas, temenito!
Soro, dar ce nemturat e n cas!
Apoi s-o bat Dumnezeu pe cioroaica a btrn! D-o sut de ori i-am tot zis astzi,
i nu-' ce face!
Vezi c cu jidanii ia mai putea cineva s stropeasc ori s ia mtura n mn!
Auzi! auzi? baraonoaica dracului! i nc mai rspunzi, btu-te-ar Dumnezeu de
afurisit? Las c i-oi scutura eu praful de pe tine!
28
Op.cit., p. XXIV.
30
potrivit DEX, nsemn 1. (pop.) termen de politee care denumete un brbat; domn. 2. (nv.i pop.) fiu, fecior
aparinnd unor prini din clasele sociale nalte.
29
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Al. Piru observ n acest dialog autenticitate i stereotipie n maniera lui Caragiale31.
Coconia Drgana drcuiete n continuu (Dracu o s v ia!; bala dracului, baraonoaica
dracului!), cu predilecie pentru formula care d i titlul schiei, Bat-te Dumnezeu!. Lingvista
Rodica Zafiu subliniaz c efectul comic al respectivelor performane verbale le certific
devierea normal, mai apropiat de conveniile realismului dect de cele ale asocierii
absurde. Astfel, putem vorbi de o imagine mai arhaic a personajului feminin, apropiat de
prototipul mitic al femeii-vrjitoare, profernd blesteme. Astfel, toposul drcuielii feminine
poate fi interpretat n fel i chip, i se pot gsi cauze literare i extraliterare; dac ns
realitatea sociolingvist a fenomenului se cere mai nti investigat, cea ficional poate fi
deja descris.32
Ocupaia coconiei Drgana este gospodria (s vaz de cas), dar, n realitate, n
gospodrie nu face absolut nimic (Pe scar mai nu e niciodat mturat, ca s nu se toceasc
treptele; n pridvor, n sal lipsesc cteva crmizi de cnd tria rposatul socrul coconiei
() pentru economie, acoperiul i ervetele nu prea sunt curate, ca nu cumva cu deasa
spltur i frichinire s se rup curnd; tacmurile mesei nu prea seamn unul cu altul, i
furculiele, de la patru i trei dini, ajung cu adevrat furculie cu cte doi dini, i care
rmn numai cu unul, acelea se pun n coada mesei; i multe economii de acestea, ce ne aduc
aminte de veacul de aur n toat pulberea i murdalcul lui cel primitiv, amestecat i cu
argint-viu). n rest, nu-i rmne timp dect pentru meteugul zugrviei: tie de minune a-i
ncondeia i mbina sprncenele i, cnd voiete, se face alb ca peretele i roie ca racul (i
nu tiu cum se ntmpl, c dumneaei mai totdeauna este astfel) i e frumoas de minune.
n ceea ce o privete, de educaie i bune maniere nici nu poate fi vorba: scoate
lingura din gur, o bag iar n castronul cu ciorb, iar o bag n gur, iar o bag n castron,
i aa mai ncolo. De multe ori, cnd mnnc lapte, rumeneala de pe buze ncepe a-i da
culoarea roatic. Ioni biatul e un sufragiu dibaci: cnd schimb talerele are un talm
minunat, arunc tot dup u, unde ateapt pisica i celul, nvrtete otrepul o dat pe
taler, i-l face de sticlete i pe urm iar i-l pune pe mas, ca s-i fac poft de mncare. Ce
e drept nu e pcat, coconia Drgana are o regul minunat i n cas, i la mas. S vedei
ns de ce: s lsm c dumneaei, dup cum vzurm, este o femeie rar i vrednicu, apoi
nu tiu de unde pn unde, c a cptat i un drept mare s-i fac vtaf de curte pe nsui
Dumnezeu. Eu nu crez una ca aceasta, ns dumneaei pe tot ceasul ne-o spune; cci, cnd nare dumneaei chef de btaie, atunci pe toate slugile, pe toi oamenii din cas i trimite s-i
bat Dumnezeu.
Coconul Drgan, aprut n Curierul romnesc (1844), nfieaz portretul
scumpului jumtoi al coconiei Drgane, Frica. El ilustreaz tipul ciocoiului parvenit,
bestia neagr a lui Heliade, cum o numete Gr. ugui33: un fel de bdran boierit, care
fusese un neiculi de minune, om al trebii, scotea lapte din piatr, pupa pe romn n bot i-i
lua din pung tot; sau, dac nu vrea houl de romn s-i dea, atunci... atunci trnuit,
scuturat, cu prul vlvoi i-l bga (dup limba dumnealui) la obedeal, i da fum de ardei, i
las-l n pace apoi...
De cnd am scpat de acele vremi afurisite, dup care suspin toi Drganii din ar,
coconul Drgan se fcu un patriot grozav, nbdios, numai foc i inim albastr pentru
patrie (ns numai cnd nu e n slujb, ca s se tie).
Cnd ajunge slujba la stat, devine ngmfat, simuleaz patriotismul i datoria:
Coconul Drgan e n slujb acum i e numai foc, plin de activitate, un diplomat iscusit;
alearg n sus, n jos; cnd l caui, l vezi cu gazete n mn; cnd l caui, se face c e
31
Op.cit. (1971), p. 90.

n Imprecaia feminin, n Dilema Veche, 26 martie 2012.
33
Op.cit., p. 228.
32
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zpcit, capul i e ct o bani, tot cu duii dup lume are d-a face. Va fi fcnd vreo treab?
Dumnezeu tie, c noi nu vedem nimic, i nici dumnealui nu vede mai nimic, mai vrtos din
ale trebii. Are civa subalterni ce i-au pierdut cumptul de cnd a venit pe capul lor, pentru
c coconul Drgan e mndru, bdranul: ca Satan, ano, mojicos, nu-i ajunge nimeni nici
cu strmurarea la nas; mai vrtos cnd se gndete la evghenia dumisale, l apuc capul.
nfrunt, strig, ba nc (dup limba dumnealui) i ocrate, cnd nu e vremea nici de
nfruntat, nici de strigat i cnd bieii oameni nu s-ar lsa una cu capul (cu iertciune) s-i
ocrasc. Coconul Drgan zice c tie i carte: nemete, franuzete, psrete, afar de
romnete, pentru c, cnd era copil, cartea romneasc era cartea mojicilor, i dumnealui
bine vedei dumneavoastr c este evghenis ca aceia. Cnd te duci la dumnealui, sau acas,
sau la slujb, de se va ntmpla s fii ceva mai ipochimen, sau cel puin fecior de boier, l vezi
mai dezlegat la limb; cnd l caui e vorb mult, adic srcia omului; iar de vei fi d-alde
terchea-berchea, e posac ulubeasnea. Subalternilor si le msoar vrednicia cu un cot al su
deosebit de genealogie i de evghenie. Cnd a intrat n slujb, i-a fcut o list de toi
impiegaii si, ca s vaz cte nume se sfresc n an i n esc i cte nu; i iar cele n ani
esc cte au reputaie istoric i cte nu; i apoi cele cu reputaie istoric, cte sunt ciocoieti
i cte boiereti, i iar din cele boiereti cte se pot apropia oarecum de dumnealui i cte nu,
i felurimi de asemenea bgri de seam genealogice i tiinifice, pentru c este i versat
mult n tiine; ntr-o zi spunea unui prieten c tie i teologia, cci la carte curat este zis c
"nu este robul mai mare dect stpnul su".
n conturarea portretului su, prin situaii, momente din viaa de zi cu zi, gesturi,
replici, elemente de comportament, Heliade Rdulescu realizeaz o schi, un portret, n
manier clasic, asemntor caracterelor lui Teofrast n literatura greac, prin abilitatea de a
surprinde aceste tipuri n micare, notnd particularitile de limbaj i comportament, pe care
le evideniaz prin dialog, prin nararea scenelor n micare, prin limbajul direct, spontan,
colorat. Acest lucru poate fi observat i n alctuirea unei serii de astfel de portrete pe care
ns nu a definitivat-o. Ceea ce pare s-l diferenieze de autorul grec este abordarea portretului
feminin, care, n galeria de treizeci de tipuri umane teofrastice, nu se regsete.
Lng Domnul Sarsail autorul este pus acel Drgan, din care Heliade fcuse o
figur tipic la noi, iar alturi de acetia, s-ar putea aminti dasclul de geografie venit din
Ardeal care este nfiat cam n felul cum Caragiale avea s ironizeze pe pedagogul pedant
de peste muni. Deosebirea dintre Caragiale i scriitorul paoptist const n faptul c acesta
din urm este mai polemic i mai moralist. n schiarea portretelor, Gr. ugui observ absena
simpatiei autorului, tipurile alese de Heliade provenind dintr-o zon uman i social fa de
care autorul a manifestat o ostilitate declarat, aceste scrieri definind cel mai bine
temperamentul lui Heliade, caracterizat prin implicarea nedisimulat i se apropie de pamflet
prin tendeniozitatea descrierii i de schia caragialian prin folosirea dialogului.34
Acest tip al ciocoiului parvenit revine n centrul ateniei n Boierii i ciocoii i Lupta
ntre boieri i ciocoi din Echilibru ntre antithesi. Ca scriere n proz, aceasta reprezint opera
capital n care Heliade i expune sistemul filosofic. Are o mare bogie de idei, de probleme
i sentimente, un loc de ntlnire a mai multor stiluri, n care cel oral se detaeaz cu
pregnan, de mijloace de evocare i modaliti ale satirei. Valorificabil din perspectiva unei
judeci artistice, prin fragmentele fulminant pamfletare sau patetic lirice, ea nu este mai puin
valoroas ca document istoric i literar. Prin complexitatea structurii sale, aceast oper
reprezint oglinda cea mai revelatoare a spiritului heliadesc, veritabil satir la adresa falilor
patrioi, a demagogilor, a ciocoilor si pseudorevoluionarilor. Potrivit lui Gr. ugui, tipul
ciocoiului este definit din perspectiv moral, nu social, ntr-o manier pe ct de simpl pe
34
Op.cit., pp. 228-229.
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att de ambigu: este ciocoi cine nu e boier sau boieribil (adic nu are nicio virtute); ce
face ciocoiul nu face boierul i invers35.
n realizarea portretelor, Heliade este un scriitor deosebit de nzestrat. Ele izvorsc din
pornirea unui temperament coleric, sunt revrsri ale indignrii i mniei.36
Stigmatizai dac nu din natere, din educaie n coala particular ce i fac, se
cunosc de departe dup fizionomie, dup port, dup mblet, dup gesturi: de poart vesminte
largi i ilic, ei sunt mai gulerai dect toi, lor i ilicul le tremur i li se nvrtete n cap;
nimeni nu se roiete ca dnii n dan; nimeni ca dnii nu bosnfl buzele i nrele cnd
fum (). De salut, de i surd, te nfioar; de se nfieaz la cei mai mari sau la curte le
crap haina sa biniul n spate ()37
Potrivit aceluiai critic, tehnica pamfletului eliadesc rezid n enumerarea tuturor
mizeriilor morale, a gesturilor triviale i atitudinilor condamnabile, toate puse pe seama unui
individ simbol ce pierde atributele umane, transformndu-le n monstru.38
Teoreticianul i criticul literar preuia poezia ca art, ca factor social activ i credea n
puterea ei modelatoare. Ca toi scriitorii generaiei sale, Heliade nu separ poezia de
obiectivele sociale, politice i umanitare, morale n realizarea crora este angajat sau pe care
le urmrete cu atenie. Pentru el, poezia era implicat n viaa naional i n cea a umanitii
ntregi, menirea ei fiind aceea de a da expresie unor idealuri i de a chema la realizarea lor.
Att n teorie, ct i n practica scrisului, Heliade era adeptul poeziei angajate i nu a celei
ocazionale.
n poezie, autorul aduce un insistent efort de depire, o mai obstinat ambiie
novatoare i dorin de afirmare. Indiferent de direcia din care privim cultura sa, vom observa
c att componenta ei clasic, ct i cea romantic aezau poezia ntr-o poziie privilegiat. A
fost influenat de lecturile din scriitorii greci: Hristopulos determin prima manifestare a
spiritului critic: mi se taie tot cheful de a mai scrie versuri din capul meu 39. Heliade era
preocupat s asigure operei sale o unitate de ansamblu, ideologic mai nti, sub forma unei
sociogonii sui generis, ce aeza n centrul ei omul ca fiin social i individual. G. Clinescu
punea o asemenea viziune sub semnul romantismului: Din pornirea de a privi lucrurile
cosmic, comun romanticilor, a ieit la Eliade intenia de a-i grupa opera ciclic n patru
volume. () Opera lui Eliade ar fi fost astfel mai mult dect o Lgende des Sicles, o
adevrat Divin Comedie cu sens literar, didactic i anagogic.40
Dispunerea operelor dup criteriul tematic se realiza, dup cum observa D. Popovici
ntr-o serie descendent: de la viziunea cosmogonic a Vechiului Testament, la umanitatea
Noului Testament, la patrie i apoi la individ. n centrul universului su poetic st omul, n
dubl ipostaz de fiin social i individual. Maniera de a mbina individualul cu generalul
este expus cu destul claritate n 1836, n articolul Serafimul i Heruvimul i Visul41, unde se
afirm c finalitatea moral i social a scrisului se realizeaz pornind de la experiena i
sensibilitatea proprie. Gr. ugui42 observ c Heliade mascheaz accentele pamfletare (n
special, din Visul) n spatele unei satire morale mai generale, rspunznd contemporanilor:
Puin lucru este a scrie cineva numai ca s scrie i mpuns numai de ndemnul
momentului sau de pofta, ori capriul de a scrie ceva. A scri ns cu scop, a avea n scopul
35
Idem, p. 234.
Tudor Vianu, Arta prozatorilor romni, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1988, pp. 22-23.
37
Echilibru ntre antithesi, Bucureti, 1859-1869, p. 47.
38
39
I. Heliade Rdulescu, Dispoziiile i ncercrile mele de poezie.
40
I. Heliade Rdulescu i coala sa, text stabilit i adnotat de Al. Piru, Editura Tineretului, Bucureti, 1966, pp.
54-55.
41
Gazeta Teatrului Naional, 1836, nr. 4, pp. 38-43.
42
op.cit., p. 98.
36
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su o int moral, a alege din viaa omeneasc nite mprejurri comune prin care sujetul
su s se poat apleca la tot omul, n tot locul i n tot veacul; a face ca fiecare om s
gseasc cteva pasaje care s i se potriveasc i s afle mngierea i fiecare nrutit ca
de sgeata trznetului s fie izbit la tot rndul unde i se nfieaz nchipuirea; asta va s
zic c ntr-o scriere sau icoan domnete adevrul i c autorul sau zugravul a izbutit n
fapta sa.43
Lirica lui Eliade este o liric a extremelor44, trece de la aerul grav i sentenios al
meditaiilor, la rsul mucalit i acid al fabulelor. Nu este neaprat o liric a confesiunii intime,
ci o liric a eului, explicit, i n fabul, balad sau epopee, el caut echilibrul i calmul.
Aceast invazie a subiectului caracterizeaz opera lui I. Heliade Rdulescu mai mult dect pe
a oricrui alt contemporan al su.
Cele mai semnificative sunt poemele Serafimul i Heruvimul i Visul. n 1836, titlul
iniial era Serafimul i heruvimul sau mngierea contiinei i mustrarea cugetului sugernd
o meditaie asupra condiiei umane. I. Boldea l vede ca pe un poem simbolic, cu implicaii
morale, bazat pe antiteza pcat / ispire, mustrare / mpcare.45
Potrivit lui Gr. ugui46, sunt nfiate dou ipostaze ale spiritului uman prin
alegorizare, dou fpturi ce aparin mitologiei cretine. n ierarhia religioas, heruvimul este
situat pe o treapt din imediata apropiere a tronului divin i nzestrat cu virtuile primordiale
ale spiritului, iar serafimul este mai aproape de uman, un mesager ntre cer i pmnt. Unul
ntruchipeaz nsuirile divine n starea lor cea mai pur, fiind nvestit cu misiunea de a le
pstra ca atare, pe cnd cellalt, venind n contact cu fiina uman, este mai predispus s-i
neleag slbiciunile. Potrivit aceluiai critic, Heliade aaz astfel existena uman sub
semnul atitudinii duale a divinitii: serafimul este o alegorie a blndeii, pcii, bucuriei i
nelegerii ce cluzete pe om spre bucuriile vieii, chintesen a fericirii senine, iar
heruvimul, ntruchipare a mniei, nelinitii i implacabilitii, cu nfiarea lui sever ce
inspir team, vegheaz neierttor asupra conduitei morale, amintind c Dumnezeu n-a uitat i
n-a iertat pcatul originar. n nfiarea lor, talentul poetului a fost pus la grea ncercare.
Portretele celor dou fiine fantastice rmn convenionale, nchegndu-se din juxtapunerea
unor elemente din sfera expresiilor diafane (serafimul) sau a abstraciunilor morale
(heruvimul).
n poemul Visul, critica literar a observat tema calderonian viaa e vis, ct i
elemente de confesiune intim, de meditaie, dar i de satir. Acesta din urm a declanat
reacia lui Gr. Alexandrescu, simindu-se vizat de pamfletul heliadesc.
Vocaia satiric a lui Heliade a fost subliniat de majoritatea exegeilor, evident cu
unele obiecii critice. P. Dugneanu47 structureaz subiectele abordate de Heliade n dou
categorii, i anume: prima, format din cele cu caracter particular (rfuieli, polemici, vindicte
personale), prin subiect i pre-text arta lor nefiind alterat, n care include Ingratul,
Dulcamara, Cinci epigrame i una pe deasupra, Rspuns la satira lui Gr. Alexandrescu, O
fest n comemoraia zilei de 23 septembrie 1854 i Cobza lui Mrinic. Opera seria n dou
pri, Tralala, Trala, Trala, adic Etcetera; i cea de-a doua, format din cele de larg interes:
politic, social, etic sau cultural, care cuprinde Cntecul ursului, Figaro i don Pascuale,
Pcal i Tndal sau Cavalerul i Scutierul, arada progresiv, Danciul, Ginerele i socrul.
n cele ce urmeaz, analizm cteva satire reprezentative.
Articolul Serafimul i Heruvimul i Visul.

P. Cornea, Ion Heliade Rdulescu sau echilibrul ntre antiteze n teorie i practic, n Studii de literatur
romn modern, ESPLA, Bucureti, 1962, p. 201.
45
n Ion Heliade Rdulescu. Roluri i mti ale poeziei, n Limba romn, nr. 9-10, anul XIX, 2009.
46
Op.cit., p. 144.
47
n I. Heliade Rdulescu, un tlas al poeziei, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1995, p. 65.
43
44
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Cntecul ursului este o satir antiarist, scris de Heliade ca urmare a suprimrii

Curierului romnesc, n 27 mai 1848, de ctre domnitorul George Bibescu, la cererea
consulului rus la Bucureti, Duhamel. Satira mbrac atacul la adresa consulului, n haina vag
popular a textului declamat de un ursar, care, impulsionndu-i animalul, lanseaz sgei
usturtoare la adresa insolentului diplomat. Ni, ni, ni i na, na, na / Pui de pop satara, /
ursule neeslat, / Pui de codru-nverunat. Diuha! Diuha-mi! () Ursreasa te-a crescut, /
Mgdu mi te-a fcut, Te-a-nvat la diuhit, / Cu lulea te-a dichisit. Jocul de cuvinte
mizeaz pe asemnarea numelui personajului satirizat cu ndemnul ursarilor: Diuha! Diuhami!. Potrivit lui Gr. ugui48, limbajul amintete de folclorul periferic licenios, colorat cu
expresii igneti i cuvinte ruseti, de o obscenitate voit. Refrenul nltur orice echivoc n
ceea ce privete inta atacului: S te vd, fecior de lele, / F o tumb d-ale grele, / S ne ari
vreun marafet, / Alivanta! berechet! Tinde cracul, deh, skari! / Cu piciorul f pali! Diuha!
Diuaa-mi!
Potrivit lui P. Dugneanu49 (1995:69), satira Figaro i Don Pascale ilustreaz cel mai
bine spiritul tumultuos al vindicativului Jupiter tonans care a fost Eliade. Satira aceasta,
prin personaje preluate din operele muzicale ale lui Rossini sau Donizetti, are forma unui
monolog i recurge la parodierea unor arii celebre. Tipurile satirizate sunt semidoctul i
politicianul parvenit, demagog. Aluziile sunt foarte transparente, viznd discreditarea
adversarilor. Considerat de autor o fabul, textul se dovedete a fi o satir, o nscenare
burlesc, dezvluind i latura histrionic a talentului lui Heliade50. Chiar dac, n ansamblu,
este vizat politica liberal, scriitorul introduce o niruire parodic a atributelor caracteristice
adversarului (C. Bolliac). Compromiterea subiectului se realizeaz, potrivit aceluiai critic, nu
numai prin discursul propriu-zis, ci i prin evocarea mental cu ajutorul tehnicii dramatice a
ubicuitii i versatilitii personajelor bufe din opera comic:
Loc la martirul / i la poetul, / Autor mare / Al Rumniei, / Politic mare, / Arhipolitic,
/ Arheologic, / Mineralogic, / Diamantissim, / Arhiistoric, / Arhifilosof, / Ontologia, /
Ortografia, / Cosmologia / i poezia, / Zoologia, / Democraia, / i monarhia, / Toat
botanica, / Toat chimia, / Toat retorica, / Astronomia, / Le am pe deget / Ca nimeni altul.
Mceul i florile este o adaptare dup Les rosiers et les nglatiers, a francezului P.
Viennet. n critica literar, opera a fost vzut att pamflet politic antiarist, ct i fabul sau
satir. Asemntoare ca structur este i opera Mutele i albinele: o satir la adresa
impostorilor sau veleitarilor. Zbrniau / i se puneau / Avocailor pe nas. / Timpul mutelor
venise / Ca i timpul la ciocoi, / Cci natura se strpise, / Producea tot la muscoi. / i era-n
dispre laboarea, / Artele, tiina,- ardoarea / Ctre binele comun. / i cnd mutele se pun, /
Ele, tii, cu iertciune, / C ce fac nu se mai spune.
Ca fabulist, lui Heliade i lipsete originalitatea. El prelucreaz fabule mprumutate,
adaptndu-le la situaie, modificnd semnificaiile alegoriei. Satirele lui Heliade folosesc
uneori procedee din sfera de interferen cu fabula. Ion Rotaru remarc faptul c lui Heliade i
lipsete naivitatea i delicateea: fabulele lui sunt ptimae, lipsite total de senintatea
clasic51, alegoria devine satir ocazional, anuleaz semnificaia uman i moral, i uneori
ele devin pamflete.
Corbul i vulpea ar prea numai o nevinovat traducere-adaptare dup Le corbeau et
le renard a lui La Fontaine. Publicat ns cu titlul Ce a fost Corbul i vulpea, alturi de Ce
este Corbul i vulpea, ea devine parabola raporturilor lui Heliade cu reprezentanii stpnirii
ariste, n interpretare proprie. Corbul, care deschisese pliscul s cnte, fusese Heliade, care
48
Op.cit., p.163.
Op.cit., p. 69.
50
P. Dugneanu, ibidem.
51
I. Rotaru, Forme ale clasicismului n poezia romneasc pn la Vasile Alecsandri, Editura Minerva,
Bucureti, 1979, p. 359.
49
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compunea Od la campania ruseasc de la 1829, proslvind rzboiul ruilor cu turcii.

Vulpea, care nhase caul, era protectoratul arist asupra rilor romne, rpitorul
autonomiei. nvat minte acum, corbul rmne surd la linguirile vulpii, i mnnc n linite
caul i numai dup aceea vorbete: - Hei! A fost pe cnd a fost, / Pe cnd era tata prost, / C
vulpea c-o zictur / i tergea caul din gur; / Dar acum e alceva, / Gura nu mai pui pe
ca; / Hei, vulpoi de nciunal, / N-a fost bun st cacaval? (Corbul i vulpea).
Fabula - satir Un muieroi i o femeie este, de asemenea, inspirat de rivalitile dintre
Heliade i partidul liberalilor. Ne nfieaz antitetic dou portrete, dou tipuri umane:
muieroiul i femeia. Satirizarea tipului vizat se realizeaz prin descrierea caricatural, prin
parodiere de gesturi i fapte, compromitere din interior i dinamism.
Femeia este linitit, harnic, serioas i echilibrat, Ca albina laborioas / Femeia-i
cta de cas: / La intrigi pregettoare / i la vorbe ruinoas, La lucru cuteztoare / i la
certe prea fricoas, / Nu-i lipsea nici foc, nici mas.
Prin tipul negativ al muieroiului, femeia guraliv, lipsit de caracter, rea i pornit
mereu pe ceart sunt satirizai adversarii politici (C. A. Rosetti).
Muieruca nevstuic, / Ochi de linx, bot de curuic, / Nu sta locului nicicum: / O lua
papuc la drum, / Tot oraul colinda, / Treiera i vntura, / Loc, csu nu lsa, / Peste tot samesteca. / tia orice s-a fcut / i cte nu s-a-ntmplat: / Care cnd s-a fost nscut, / Cnd
cutare s-a-nsurat, / Cnd aia s-a mritat, / Cnd vro puic a ouat; / Purta vorba peste tot / o schimba cum i venea, / Soi, amicii dezbina. / Azi se sruta n bot / i piezi i da la coate,
/ Mine ocra pe toate. / nepa ca o lanet, / Era rea i veninoas / Ca o viespe costeliv, /
Vai de om!... ca o gazet / De limbut guraliv.
Monologul ei, aproape integral, realizeaz, cu ajutorul limbajului parodic, colorat, de
mahala, ceea ce erban Cioculescu numea uruiala de vorbe a aelor52, iar efectul se ntoarce
asupra ei.
Au ca mine eti tu, sluto? / Au ca mine eti tu, muto?/ Uscivo, / Costelivo, /
Exclusivo! () Taci, vezi bine, c eti toant! / i ce-ai s mai zici, m rog? / Furc strmb,
fus olog! Ac pocit i sul boant! tii tu ce se face-n lume? i-ai fcut i tu vreun nume? ()
Ai fost tu la soarea? / tii ce este libertatea?/ tii ce este egalitatea? / Ai fost tu la bal
masch? / Amur i fidelite / Ai simit tu vreodat, / Tistimel, paftal lat? /De la foc, de la
corlat, / Din argeaua de neveste, / tii politica ce este? / La princip ai fost constant, / Ca i
mine de galant
Al. Piru remarc limbajul verde, mahalagesc din aceste fabule/satire; n Muieroiul,
intuiete limbajul eroinelor lui Caragiale53.
Temperament tumultuos, solicitat n egal msur de ntrebri acute i nelinititoare
asupra destinului uman, ca i de ideea datoriei pe care artistul o are fa de societatea n care
triete, romanticul Heliade scrie o poezie a strilor tensionale, a nfruntrii cu lumea.
Viziunea sa este una antitetic. Sitund omul n centrul programului politic, el d uneori
expresie predispoziiilor meditative ale solitarului sau tnguirilor elegiace. n creaia sa, se pot
observa i aspecte ale formaiei sale clasice. Este un scriitor militant, pentru care artistul este
un lupttor n ordine social, un profet al poporului su i al umanitii.
Gr. ugui subliniaz talentul satiric al lui Heliade, ntrebndu-se dac scriitorul satiric
este cu adevrat superior poetului, i i se pare firesc un rspuns afirmativ, dar problema
trebuie abordat n ali termeni: n afara baladei Sburtorul, satirele sunt valorificabile, ca
texte integrale, n mai mare proporie dect oricare din celelalte laturi ale activitii sale de
poet. Potrivit aceluiai critic, Heliade are o real vocaie satiric, o adevrat chemare,
erban Cioculescu, Tudor Vianu, Vladimir Streinu, Istoria literaturii romne moderne, Editura Eminescu,
Bucureti, 1985, p. 36.
53
Op.cit., 1971, pp. 75-76.
52
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susinut de cultivarea genului de-a lungul ntregii sale creaii, de adversitile reale, care au
stimulat predispoziiile spre viziunea caricatural.54
Pcal i Tndal sau Cavalerul i scutierul, quasi-epopee eroi-comic, are personaje
caricaturale, personificri i alegorizri ale unor idei sociale i politice; invocarea muzei
convertete gravitatea stilului epopeic n accente burleti. Heliade mrturisete intenia satiric
n Introducie: Poetul Tantalidei rde prin poema sa comic, ia biciul satirei , scopul ei
fiind ridiculizarea antieroilor, a naionalismului anexionist al unora (Tndal polon) i
sprijinitorii si interni (Pcal romn). Ginerele i socrul este o satir de caracteruri i
moravuri politice. Fabulele i satirele se impun prin limbajul viguros i colorat, n care i
putea desfura n voie temperamentul su polemic.
n opinia lui P. Dugneanu55, Heliade Rdulescu nu caut s fac oper de moralist sub
specie clasic, fabulele sale necanonice nu au acea tietur aforistic i concizie
memorabil a lui Grigore Alexandrescu.
Considerm c prin verva pamfletar, tonul sftos, jovialitatea popular, prin faptul c
pune sub lup vicii, trsturi de caracter, nsuiri, defecte umane sau sociale, Heliade se afl n
postura de moralist, de pedagog al contemporanilor, deoarece definete tipurile din
perspectiv moral, nu social; viciile i virtuile sunt prezentate antitetic, tendina general
este de a moraliza la modul direct. Animator al teatrului naional, Heliade considera teatrul
una din prghiile eseniale ale vieii spirituale, tot de ordin educativ, o coal de moral, el
dezvluie o moral, un sens sau un scop etic.
n latura satiric, l anun pe Eminescu i Caragiale; n proza lui este anticipat
virulena pamfletului arghezian. Al. Piru remarc la Heliade Rdulescu maliia, sarcasmul
crud, rsul hohotitor, menit s nimiceasc pe adversar ntr-o satir necrutoare. () n
majoritatea cazurilor, Eliade caut i descoper o victim a instinctului su comic, a pornirii
nestpnite de a face haz. Veselia lui Eliade, bizuit pe observaia umanitii tipice,
caracterologice, este de origine clasic. Portretele sale, ca i anecdotele presrate de-a
lungul paginilor filosofice sau memorialistice, bufoneriile lingvistice, articolele de critic
sunt de orientare i de structur clasic, indiferent de modele.56 I. Boldea observ, la Heliade,
sanciunea etic drastic, satira nedisimulat, condamnarea prompt a unei carene morale,
nfind un spectacol al vanitilor i demagogiei politice 57.
E. Negrici remarc n pamfletele lui Heliade capacitatea integral de ur a
scriitorului romn, un stil iudaic, rzbuntor58. n articolul su, Eliade este numit fericitul,
creaia heliadesc este aceea a unui mistic, primul autor de laude din literatura noastr.
Potrivit lui Negrici, prin virulena pamfletului i fervoarea cutremurat n faa mreiei divine,
Eliade are atributele unui profet.
n Souvenirs set impressions dun proscrit (p. 276), Eliade noteaz: () si lon connat
un peuple quelconque, si lon tudie ses lois et ses murs, ses croyances rligieuses et
politiques, sa force matrielle, intellectuelle et morale; si lon observe ses relations
intrieures et extrieures, la qualit et la quantit de ses voisins et leurs relations, on peut
calculer, dduire et prvoir lavenir de ce peuple. Sistemul lui Eliade pleac de la o moral
de tip noocratic59, care consider c izvorul buntii, armoniei i al progresului este
cunoaterea. Omul, pe ct raza cunotinelor sale este mai ntins, cu atta cercul ideilor sale
Gr. ugui, op.cit., pp. 165-166.

Op.cit., p. 79.
56
Op.cit., 1971, p.117
57
Ibidem.
58
n Fericitul Heliade, n Ramuri, nr. 12/1970.
59
M. Anghelescu, Ion Heliade Rdulescu, o biografie a omului i a operei, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1986, p.
308.
54
55
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devine mai spaios, adic cu ct progreseaz totodat omul fizic i spiritual, cu atta omul
moral sau armonic devine mai mare.60
Ioana Em. Petrescu61 observ c tonul heliadesc alterneaz ntre epopeic i satiric,
ntre sublim i caricatural, iar satira nu este subsumabil realismului, nu mizeaz pe categoria
mediocritii. Heliade demonizeaz mediocritatea uman, nu concepe spiritul liber, ci doar
spiritul implicat; astfel ironia se convertete n satir. Adversarii personali devin drame
morale, politice sau metafizice. Apreciat de unii ca figur cultural, negndu-i-se talentul
poetic, Heliade apare ca o personalitate ilustrativ a totalitii fenomenului literar paoptist.
BIBLIOGRAFIE:
Anghelescu, M., Ion Heliade Rdulescu, o biografie a omului i a operei, Editura
Minerva, Bucureti, 1986.
Boldea, I., Ion Heliade Rdulescu. Roluri i mti ale poeziei, n Limba romn, nr.
9-10, anul XIX, 2009.
Clinescu, G., I. Eliade Rdulescu i coala sa, Editura Tineretului, Bucureti, 1966,
Cioculescu, .; Vianu, T.; Streinu, V., Istoria literaturii romne moderne, Editura
Eminescu, Bucureti, 1985,
Cornea, P., Studii de literatur romn modern, ESPLA, Bucureti, 1962.
Dugneanu, P., I. Heliade Rdulescu, un tlas al poeziei, Editura Minerva, Bucureti,
1995.
Ene, V., Satira n literatura romn, studiu i antologie, Editura Albatros, Bucureti,
1971.
Moraru, T., Fiziologia literar, Editura Dacia, Cluj, 1972
Negrici, E., Fericitul Heliade, n Ramuri, nr. 12/1970.
Piru, Al., Introducere n opera lui I. Eliade Rdulescu, Editura Minerva, Bucureti,
1971.
Popovici, D., Ideologia literar a lui I. Heliade Rdulescu, Editura Cartea
Romneasc, Bucureti, 1935,
Rotaru, I., Forme ale clasicismului n poezia romneasc pn la Vasile Alecsandri,
Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1979.
ugui, G., Ion Heliade Rdulescu, ndrumtorul cultural i scriitorul, Editura
Zafiu, Rodica, Imprecaia feminin, n Dilema Veche, 26 martie 2012.
Vianu, T., Asupra caracterelor specifice ale literaturii romne, n Steaua, an XI,
1960, nr. 1 (ianuarie), p. 54.
Vianu, T., Arta prozatorilor romni, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1988.
I. Heliade Rdulescu, Istoria critic universal, p. 49.

n Mic dictionar. Scriitori romni, coordonare i revizuire tiinific Mircea Zaciu n colaborare cu M.
Papahagi i A. Sasu, Editura tiinific i Enciclopedic, Bucureti, 1978, pp. 253-257.
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MYTH AND POETIC VISION IN CONVORBIRI CU DIAVOLUL AND NTOARCEREA

FIULUI RISIPITOR BY ION MUREAN
Vasile FEURDEAN
Abstract: Our presentation aims at investigating the function of mythological masks in order
to circumscribe the demonic vision in two emblematic poems of I. Mureans poetry:
Convorbiri cu diavolul and ntoarcerea fiului risipitor.
Convorbiri cu diavolul presents, in a colossal dramatic scenery, the soteriological project of
the poetic self, transposing the antinomic dynamics of interioritys spectra as tragic
representation of alienation. The visionary faces multiply and become objectified as lyrical
dual, but consubstantial faces, which strive with one another for the supremacy and the
authenticity within the poets being: the drunker, the alien, Tiresias - the blind, the fool,
Jesus, Ulysses, the daemon. The poem could be regarded as a dialog with the Faustus myth,
with Cartea lui Iosif, and also with Cntarea cntrilor. The poets being is melting with the
world in such a way that he becomes his own alterity where from he cannot escape any
longer, but through another scission. The demonic state of being remains the only way
towards redemption of the self, the only way to recuperate his own identity. The same
movement takes place also in ntoarcerea fiului risipitor, where the biblical myth serves as a
pretext for the resurrection of the visionary self, with the exception that now the redemption
becomes impossible, even supposing the supreme sacrifice. At this level of signification, the
visions slip hallucinatory one over the other in order to create a symphonic sense. The
individuality of the author is mouldering again and is being substituted by the pluriperspectival image of the visionary poet with his numberless masks, which in fact reveal to be
hideous distorted mirrors of the same segregated and spasmodic self, projected as a dual
being that polarises all contraries and loses his way through the labyrinth of his own
phantasma.
The appeal to the metaphysic imaginary from the pre-Christian textual tradition or to the
imaginary inspired from the Christian textual tradition (and not of Christian type!) in the two
poems herein investigated shows in fact the same fundamental concern of the author for the
rapport creator work of art as well as the same proliferating visionary poetic imagination,
which permeates all the interstices of I. Muresans poetry.
Keywords: myth, duality, creator, visionary imagination, world.
Concepute magistral, dup o regie alambicat, dar cu o rigoare impecabil n ceea ce
privete coeziunea i coerena semantic a prilor constituente, poemele Convorbiri cu
diavolul aparinnd volumului Poemul care nu poate fi neles i ntoarcerea fiului risipitor
inclus n cartea Alcool valorific numeroase elemente din tradiia textologic precretin,
parabole i/sau mituri biblice pe care I. Murean le amalgameaz sau le suprapune
palimpsestic, transgresndu-le semnificaiile originare i subordonndu-le finalitii intrinseci
artei sale poetice de factur neoexpresionist.
Chiar dac, n aparen, Convorbiri cu diavolul este construit pe tiparul mitului faustic,
iar ntoarcerea fiului risipitor, pe schema parabolei biblice a Fiului risipitor direcie de
interpretare spre care orienteaz, nc de la nceput, titlurile celor dou texte la care poetul
aglutineaz, pe parcurs, alte scenarii precretine sau mituri biblice , n esen, cele dou
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poeme sunt structurate pe dou modele mitice reluate constant n lirica lui I. Murean: mitul
jertfei creatoare i mitul orfic.
n aceast ordine de idei, mutaia operat de I. Murean este radical i certific
vizionarismul colosal al poetului optzecist. Ea vizeaz, pe de o parte, intertextualitatea i
echivalenele de semnificaie pe care stabilete poetul ntre textele-surs i arta sa poetic i se
refer, pe de alt parte, la un nivel mai profund, la resemantizarea acestor parabole i/sau
mituri n concordan exigenele semantice inerente transmiterii mesajului poetic i
configurrii nucleului vizionar care st la baza poemului. Apelul la imaginarul metafizic din
tradiia textologic precretin i/sau cretin servete, n ambele texte, doar ca pist de
lansare a fiinei lirice n sanctuarul propriilor fantasme ale interioritii care circumscriu
vizionarismul poetic proliferant ce traverseaz poezia lui I. Murean.
De altfel, tehnica de construcie a celor dou poeme este, la nivel macrotextual,
identic i mizeaz pe crearea unui liant textual forte care s asigure unitatea de semnificaie a
episoadelor, evident, destul de ample, n cazul fiecruia dintre cele dou texte. Acest liant este
reprezentat, i de aceast dat, de instana liric proiectat ca fiin dual, fundamental
scindat, tematizat n ambele texte n ipostaza fiinei creatoare care polarizeaz toate
antinomiile lumii. Nenumratele mti mitologice pe care le mprumut eul poetic confisc,
fptura vizionarului, pentru a configura, din nou, aceeai imagine fluid, pluriperspectival a
unei entiti dedublate care unific n sine toate contrariile i n care natura vizionar este
consubstanial condiiei sacrificiale.
ntlnirea poetului cu sine nsui este anunat nc din incipitul poemului Convorbiri
cu diavolul prin tonalitile din Cntarea cntrilor care acompaniaz vocea liric. Vocea
contiinei care dorete pstrarea echilibrului i a integritii fiinei, meninerea intact a
condiiei paradisiace formuleaz o interdicie i lanseaz, n acelai timp, un avertisment
mpotriva abaterilor de la conduita raional i a exceselor de orice fel: Nu ispiti rozalba
vreme a tinereii. (Convorbiri cu diavolul, p. 74). Nu strnii dragostea pn nu vine ea!1 ar
fi replica din poemul biblic. Nu ispiti, nu strni sunt forme negative ale unor verbe ce
exprim, ambele, interdicia de a tulbura o stare, un moment vzut in potentia. Exist aici
sugestia c declanarea forelor teribile ce dorm la adpostul nemanisfestrii lor, al strii lor
latente, ar fi nefast i ar produce tulburri cu consecine nebnuite asupra celui ce se-ncumet
s le disloce din fgaul lor. Dac n Cntarea cntrilor dragostea strnit ar putea produce
un cutremur analog apocalipsei ce ar genera sfritul sentimentului iubirii, n poemul lui I.
Murean, obiectul direct al verbului este vremea tinereii cu conotaia unei vrste plenare a
fiinei supuse tentaiei de a iei din matca ei pentru a experimenta un timp vizionar.
nconjurat de o realitate inconsistent, desacralizat, eului poetic nu-i mai rmne
dect alternativa proieciei propriei realiti, a construciei unei realiti interioare care s
umple golul existenial i s reconfigureze, la nivel ideatic, ordinea i valorile rsturnate, de
aceea sugestia evadrii din realitate i a plonjrii bahice n adncul insondabil al fiinei se
profileaz nc din debutul poemului: Marea-i uscat ca iasca (nfund-i capul n pern!) /
valuri cu trunchi scorburos, scorburi de sticl / din care mrgelele spumei lucesc sub /
mucegaiuri verzi, omizi i crtie, oareci i cini tlzuiesc / de colo-acolo / sub sunetele
metalice din larg. Salopetele roii ale / lucrtorilor / micndu-se pe lng vapoarele
nepenite pentru / vecie. / () / (nfund-i capul / n pern! / nfund-i capul n prul de
snge ce salt murmurnd / peste pietre, pe sub patul tu!) (Convorbiri cu diavolul, p. 75).
Imperativul fiinei poetice este mai mult dect evident: coborrea n luntrul sinelui, n
spaiul labirintic al fiinei i angajarea ntr-un proces dramatic de salvare a sinelui. nclcarea
Sintagma este reluat de mai multe ori n Cntarea cntrilor. Un exemplu n acest sens gsim n cap. 8, vs. 4,
p. 681: V rog fierbinte, fiice ale Ierusalimului: nu strnii, nu trezii dragostea pn nu vine ea., n Biblia sau
Sfnta Scriptur a Vechiului i a Noului Testament (trad. Dumitru Cornilescu), Oradea, Metanoia, 2006.
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interdiciei i cderea n pcat prin ispitirea forelor copleitoare ale imaginarului este
iminent i reprezint, de fapt, gestul titanic care pregtete saltul vizionar i prefigureaz
demonia. Gustarea din pomul cunoaterii binelui i a rului atrage dup sine alungarea fiinei
lirice din rai i pierderea definitiv a strii paradisiace. Odat cu asumarea ipostazei
demonic-vizionare are loc nclcarea i/sau negarea ordinii realitii prin instituirea unei
ordini de rang secund la nivelul imaginarului. Actul demonic structureaz poemul pe tiparul
mitului faustic, deoarece presupune acceptarea pactului cu diavolul: ntre timp pcatele
mele se nmuleau. (Convorbiri cu diavolul, p. 75)
Succesiunea de tablouri care urmeaz i tensiunea torturant a eului amintete de
structura dramelor expresioniste care configureaz stadiile unui traseu iniiatic a crui
finalitate este salvarea spiritual. Revelaia se produce, demonizatul are viziunea poeziei.
Ispita creatorului nu este ns de natur erotic dect n msura n care poezia este iubita pe
care o contempl n toat splendoarea ei: Danseaz!, se aude dinuntru ca tunetul glasul /
Domnului, / i tocurile tale ascuite prind a bate pe loc, / prind a se avnta n largi piruete, /
lsnd n urma lor gropi mici n care sngele bltete () (Convorbiri cu diavolul, p. 75)
aadar, poezia se manifest prin dans, aici, cu valoare profetic. Ea, fiica armoniei, nu
mprtete ns sacralitatea i puritatea muzicii lui David2: O, din tunelul gtlejului urc
ameitoare muzica / lui David / i te simt i pe tine urcnd, apropiindu-te, / orbecind,
chinuindu-te, / n rochia vaporoas, n rochia albastr (Convorbiri cu diavolul, p. 75). Poezia
profeete moartea, iar iubita-poezie este ngropat n limba poetului! Abandonat demoniei,
beat mort, poetul se scrie pe sine, se scrie cu carnea i cu sngele su. Trupul poetului
devine, prin organul vorbirii, mormntul propriilor sale cuvinte, iar legmntul cu poezia,
transfigurat n act erotic, este pecetluit de gesturi sacrificiale, thanatice: pn cnd te
dezbraci, pn cnd te lungeti / lng mine i / aruncate-s ct colo rochia i sutienul i
chiloeii / (ca dou coloane de lumin sunt coapsele tale, / eu nsumi lumin, a treia, ntre ele)
/ pn i muc umerii, pn i muc beregata, pn / te nvineeti / i cu briceagul i sap
groap n propria-mi limb, / n pajitea roie i unduitoare te nghesui i te ngrop / sub o
movil de carne, / i din dou lemne i din doi pari i fac cruce i / n propria-mi limb, la
cptiul tu o nfig i din / propria-mi gur / sar repede, n pielea goal, printre dini, ca / o
njurtur () / Dar abia de m ntorc pe partea cealalt, ct / s-i simt crucea / lovindu-mi
cerul gurii, / ct s vd cerul deasupra mea ca un cmp pietros / din care atrn tufe de urzici
uscate / Beat mort, marea-i uscat ca iasca, / iar pe marginea ei picur lumina lin
strecurat / prin ferestrele / crciumii Europa. (Convorbiri cu diavolul, p. 76).
Aadar, limbajul poeziei, n mod vdit, nu este acela pe care limba l-ar produce prin
cuvinte, de care poetul se i debaraseaz ieind din sine nsui, ci ceea ce se afl dincolo de
cuvinte, dansul, ca o abandonare a propriului eu, ca o stare dionisiac de euforie provocat de
ntlnirea cu transcendena. Dansul n sine este un semn al uniunii cu transcendena, iar cel ce
rostete logosul poetic i poate crea fiin sau poate nate poezia este demiurgul, Domnul.
Poetul i-a depit condiia de uman i i-a asumat-o, n starea bahic, pe cea de demiurg.
Plonjarea n sine nsui coroborat cu moartea corpului material asigur emergena dublului
su suprasensibil, vizionar. ngroparea n limb asigur nemurirea n limbaj. Limba este
organul care, n mod minunat, a rostit, a creat Verbul n stare s rein n el ideea de iubire, de
frumos, de poezie n stare pur, dezbrcat de orice estetisme facile asemenea nudului unei
femei. A fi ngropat n limb devine echivalent, aici, cu a fi confiscat n Fiin, n pajitea
Dup cum se tie deja, regele David era el nsui cntre i avea obiceiul, ca la srbtori sau cu prilejul unor
victorii obinute n lupte, s-i manifeste mulumirea i ataamentul fa de Dumnezeu chiar prin dans.
Credincios i plin de iubire i de recunotin pentru victoriile repurtate, David cnt puterea lui Dumnezeu n
Psalmii ce alctuiesc Psaltirea. O opinie corect asupra vieii personajului biblic se poate obine unind tradiia
iudaic cu cea cretin care l reprezint pe David att ca strmo, ct i ca prototip al lui Iisus, ca ntruchipare a
speranei pentru umanitate.
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roie, unduitoare a organului vorbirii, n sensul c ea se mic n ritmul vorbirii eterniznd n

limbaj ideea de iubit, de poezie. Fascinaia demonic se manifest concomitent cu spaima
terifiant de viziunea care-l acapareaz, urmat de nevoia imperioas de eliberare. Eul poetic
se dedubleaz din nou i ipostaza sa nonvizionar, raional o vizualizeaz pe cea demonicvizionar: Fugi! mi zic i m mpiedic de mine, / beat mort printre tufele de urzici uscate,
/ Scoal, m! dau cu pumnii i cu picioarele / n coastele mele i strig, / Scoal, m,
scoal, du-te acas, e trziu i e frig! (Convorbiri cu diavolul, p. 76).
De fapt, aceste ipostaze exist n limbajul poeziei, sunt creaii ale limbajului, limbajul
i creeaz att subiectul, ct i obiectul su. Poezia se zmislete greu, se zbate n infernul
gregar al unei lipse de idei, de inspiraie, deoarece a pierdut contactul cu sacrul i se hrnete
exclusiv din reziduurile existeniale. Ea trebuie s-i extrag subiectul, ideile dintr-un spaiu
lipsit de consisten ontologic, pe cale s-i epuizeze resursele de frumos. Consecina
imediat este c poezia tinde s se anchilozeze, s nepeneasc, fiind ameninat iminent
moarte: Beat mort, marea-i uscat ca iasca, / iar pe marginea ei picur lumina lin strecurat
/ prin ferestrele / crciumii Europa. (Convorbiri cu diavolul, p. 76). n partea I i partea a II-a
a poemului, toate coexist n creaie, n poezie. n marea ca iasca, totul clocotete, colcie
ntr-un vulcan a crui magm, nc n stare latent, nu a mprtiat nici focul, nici cenua, nici
pietrele n aer. E tensiunea care le ine pe toate mpreun: eul poetic, creaie, lume, contiin
de sine i alteritate. Eul poetic se privete pe sine la marginea lumii reale, la limita creia este
crciuma spaiu de trecere, de fapt, i se dedubleaz devenind cellalt, strinul.
La nceputul prii a III-a Cnticelul despre blndee i nelepciune3, ipostaza
nonvizionar, raional i revendic supremaia asupra fiinei lirice confirmat prin izgonirea
dublului demonic din casa fiinei. Cele dou dominante ireconciliabile ale sinelui sunt
conturate prin trsturile lor definitorii: instana nonvizionar, apolinic este caracterizat prin
atribute pozitive cum ar fi raiunea, luciditatea, nelepciunea, blndeea, echilibrul, msura
Strinul despre care se vorbete cu iubire, iar sinele vizionar, dionisiac este nfiat ca un
tarat iraional, un posedat mincinos, un viclean prefcut, un pribeag indezirabil, un nstrinat
care aduce lepra, ciuma, ria, pduchii Strinul despre care se vorbete cu dispre
(Convorbiri cu diavolul, p. 78).
Strinul4, ca ipostaz a eului creator-demonic, implic trirea alteritii ca boal, ca
stare premergtoare morii. Asumarea condiiei de creator nseamn i boala de a nu mai fi
Iulian Boldea (2008: 206-210): Acum se contureaz limpede cele dou personae ale individului: Strinul
despre care se vorbete cu iubire, o persona apolinic, sum a atributelor pozitive, dominat de nelepciune,
blndee, pruden, ordine, claritate, msur; Strinul despre care se vorbete cu dispre, o persona dionisiac,
aducnd dezastrul: e viclean, rtcitor (inclusiv rtcit de sine, nstrinat) i invadator (). Respingerea n real,
dar acceptarea n imaginar a strinului comunic un lucru esenial despre consubstanialitatea celor doi i despre
angoasa eului, incapabil de a mai deslui ntre real i imaginar, ntre bine i ru. Aa cum raiunea ngduie
imaginaia, la fel i demonia poate fi singura cale spre rentoarcerea n sine. Retrind Odiseea, Ion Murean pune
n practic un adevrat ritual de chemare a viziunilor pentru c numai n acest regim al imaginarului mai este
posibil regsirea identitii. Iniierea ritualului de aducere a fantasmelor marcheaz nceputul reconcilierii celor
dou componente ale sinelui ()
4
Conform Dicionarului de imagini i simboluri biblice (2011: 968-969), strinul, cltorul, peregrinul sau
necunoscutul este un arhetip biblic major, cu semnificaie ambivalent: pe de-o parte, este imaginea
vulnerabilitii ntr-o lume ostil ca urmare a pcatului svrit, a absenei unui statut social bine definit, a
existenei la limit, iar pe de alt parte, este beneficiarul providenei, graiei i ocrotirii divine. Imaginea
strinului se definete, n primul rnd, prin opusul ei, ceteanul sau localnicul, deoarece el triete cu
contiina dual a identitii pierdute, a dezrdcinrii i cu aceea de intrus care nu are sentimentul apartenenei
la grup, comunitate. Figura strinului are n Lucifer un precursor arhetipal care este obligat s prseasc cerul,
patria sa originar i s se exileze pe pmnt, primind, la un moment dat, chiar interdicia de a mai reveni n
proximitatea lui Dumnezeu. A fi un exilat, un pribeag n lume ca urmare a unui blestem este o condiie uman
universal, dup cum demonstreaz evenimentele i/sau miturile biblice: mitul izgonirii din paradis, al lui Cain,
al turnului Babel, exilul n Egipt etc. Condiia de strin poate fi ns i o consecin a legmntului cu divinitatea
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pentru sine, de a accepta disoluia sinelui n alteritate, de a-i asuma riscul pierderii propriei
identiti, de a deveni strinul, care, cerndu-i ceva, i cere, de fapt, s devii vulnerabil n
faa morii. Fiina liric, nstrinndu-se de sine, intr ntr-o comunicare direct cu rul, cu
zbaterea acestuia de a reintegra fiina scindat n pri ale ei pe care le respinge ca fiind
alteritate. Aceast ipostaz se insinueaz ca fiind tot ceea ce este repugnant, degenerat, tot
ceea ce tenebrele subcontientului rein: lepra, ciuma, ria, pduchii5. Toate acestea
paraziteaz contientul, contiina de sine, se hrnesc din fiina poetului, l nspimnt: Nu-l
primi pe strin n casa ta. / Nu face greeala aceasta. Nu-i da nici mcar pine mucegit. ()
/ mbrcmintea lui e murdar, unghiile negre, / tremuratul lui de piftie cu siguran te
indispune. / Nu-l primi! / Vicrelile lui sunt mincinoase, mintea tmp, / ochii splcii i
crucii. / Nu-l primi! / Nu te uita c plnge, se preface, vicleanul! / Arunc cu pietre n el, f-l
s schellie, asmute / cinele! / Nu-l lsa s bea ap din fntna ta, nu-l lsa / gura lui e plin
de bulboane necuviincioase. (Convorbiri cu diavolul, p. 77).
Poezia ncearc s se substituie poetului, l devoreaz i atunci vine ispita respingerii
ideii creatoare, iluzia c sacrificiul nu e necesar, c strinul care te face s vezi ceea ce nu
trebuia vzut, ceea ce era ascuns, poate fi ignorat: Dup ce eti sigur c l-ai ndeprtat,
nchide ua. / Aaz-te lng sob, bea un pahar cu vin i, n tihn, / nchipuie-i c l-ai primit
pe strin n cas: / nchipuie-i c bea i el cu tine un pahar cu vin, / c e un om agreabil, c
vine de departe, / c povestete minunat despre fabuloasele lui cltorii / Lampa abia mai
plpie. / Ca mierea picur vorba lui dulce n urechile tale. (Convorbiri cu diavolul, p. 77).
Exist alternativa respingerii ideii, se poate fabrica iluzia falsei ntlniri cu poezia. Aceast
latur paradisiac, dulceag a existenei e tentant, ea capt tonaliti blnde, mbietoare.
Prin intermediul nchipuirii, eul poetic i poate construi o iluzie care s-i aduc confortul
intelectual: Ca mierea picur vorba lui dulce n urechile tale. / Afar ninge, ninge ntruna.
Strinul e mulumit / i cuviincios laud noaptea, i laud blndeea / i nelepciunea: /
Pentru c altfel zice el nu poi scoate / nimic bun de la strinii tia! (Convorbiri cu
diavolul, p. 77). Pericolul ns vine tocmai de aici. Dac ratezi ntlnirea cu diavolul, ratezi
ntlnirea cu tine nsui ca fiin pregtit s-i nfrunte propriile temeri, limite i predispus
ca, n lipsa nfruntrii adevrate, s-i creeze iluzia unei asemenea nfruntri. Invitaia pe care
o lanseaz, de fapt, prin vocea eului liric, cel de-al treilea tablou al poemului, subintitulat
Cnticel despre blndee i nelepciune, este aceea de a accepta ntlnirea cu demonul
luntric, confruntarea cu diavolul, n ciuda ncercrilor obstinate ale fiinei poetice de a-l
repudia, pentru c aceasta pare a fi singura modalitate de acces la viziunea poetic, singura
neles ca act de supunere fa de voina lui Dumnezeu care implic rsplata divin: cltoria lui Avraam ctre
ara promis de Dumnezeu etc. O semnificaie cu totul nou dobndete imaginea strinului odat cu profeii,
cnd strinul este asimilat popoarelor din afara spaiului iudaic. n Noul Testament, noiunea de strin n accepia
sa naional, etnic sau rasial este eliminat i imaginea cltorului se concentreaz n jurul oamenilor lui
Dumnezeu ca pelerini i strini n lume, rtcitori pe pmnt, aflai n cltorie ctre patria celest, simbol
spiritual al vieii cretine. n acest context interpretativ, nsui Lucifer poate fi asociat figurii strinului, fiind
primul nger alungat din patria celest pe pmnt de Dumnezeu datorit pcatului rzvrtirii. Modelul strinului
att ca Dumnezeu, ct i ca om este ntruchipat de Iisus care se autodefinete, prin cuvintele pe care le rostete n
rugciunea sa, ca fiind strin de lume: Ei nu sunt din lume, dup cum nici Eu nu sunt din lume - Ioan,
Rugciunea lui Iisus, cap. 17, vs. 16, p. 1049. O alt referire la condiia de strin a Mntuitorului se face n Luca,
cap. 24, vs. 13-18, p. 1023: n aceeai zi, iat, doi ucenici se duceau la un sat, numit Emaus, care era la o
deprtare de aizeci de stadii de Ierusalim; i vorbeau ntre ei despre tot ce se ntmplase. Pe cnd vorbeau ei i
se ntrebau, Isus S-a apropiat i mergea pe drum mpreun cu ei. Dar ochii lor erau mpiedicai s-L cunoasc. El
le-a zis: Ce vorbe sunt acestea pe care le schimbai ntre voi pe drum? i ei s-au oprit, uitndu-se triti. Drept
rspuns, unul din ei, numit Cleopa, I-a zis: Tu eti singurul strin aici n Ierusalim, de nu tii ce s-a ntmplat n
el zilele acestea?, n Biblia sau Sfnta Scriptur a Vechiului i a Noului Testament (trad. Dumitru Cornilescu),
Oradea, Metanoia, 2006.
5
El poate mirosi urt, poate aduce lepra, / poate aduce ciuma, poate fi rios, poate fi pduchios. (Convorbiri
cu diavolul Poemul care nu poate fi neles, p. 76)
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cale de a deveni una cu poezia. nelepciunea poetului const, aadar, n asumarea ipostazei
demonic-vizionare ca urmare a acceptrii pactului cu diavolul: Aa cum el s-a ascuns n tine
i numele su n / numele tu s-a ascuns. / Iat, camera ntrebrilor este ca o poian nflorit! /
Ca un vierme rou numele su roade mruntaiele / numelui tu, / dar iat, camera ntrebrilor
este ca o poian / nflorit! (Convorbiri cu diavolul, p. 79). Identitatea poetului se confund,
n aceste condiii, cu identitatea celui care i locuiete fiina, numele celuilalt devine numele
su, ns aceast posesiune devoratoare nu este lipsit de finalitate, ntruct misterele sunt
revelate.
Rod al acestui pact, vizionarismul poetic este ilustrat n cel de-al patrulea tablou al
poemului prin trimiterile la mitul profetului orb. Referinele la mitul lui Tiresias 6 sunt de
natur s releve condiia dual a poetului i s defineasc, nc o dat, cuvntul poetic: Dac
ar zice Tiresias: Asta este puterea: arama s / aparin aramei / i arama ar aparine aramei, cea mai rde. / Cu o mn m-a lovi peste mn, cu mna mi-a / duce mna la buze / i,
srutnd-o, ce-a mai rde, ce-a mai rde. (Convorbiri cu diavolul, p. 78). Semnificantul sar semnifica pe el nsui, numele s-ar uni, n srutare, cu semnificatul, ns acest fapt nu
este de ajuns cuvntului poetic. Cuvntul poetic este acel logos originar, cuvntul sacru ce
aparine zeului. Asemenea lui Tiresias orbul, poetul este depozitarul cuvintelor sacre, ns
poetul intete mai sus, ctre un alt nivel de semnificaie, de aceea nu mai poate fi
intermediarul prin care zeul vorbete, ci i asum orfic actul vizionar: Eu am turnat orbirea
mea n locaul orbirii lui (Convorbiri cu diavolul, p. 78). Zeul vorbete prin profet i spune
ce are de spus, dar poetul, la rndul su, spune i se spune chiar n locul zeului pe care l
substituie. Vorbirea eului poetic este oracular, ns nu mai transmite mesajul zeului, ci
propriul su mesaj. Vaca slab din visul Faraonului7 a nghiit vaca gras, aa cum plsmuirea
poetic i va subordona realitatea: Vaca stearp a convins (). Poetul-demiurg anun i
dezvluie, n acelai timp, sensurile unei realiti create, mai puternice dect realitatea nsi.
Poezia viitoare i vizionar se nate din ntunericul orb al spaiului poetic ce se creeaz pe
msur ce poezia se face. Spaiul poetic devine un topos al oglindirii sinelui n sine. Poezia se
nate din ea nsi, aa cum imaginile din visul Faraonului nu se semnific pe ele nsele, ci cu
ele semnific altceva: restritea, foametea ce urma s se abat asupra mpriei Egiptului. Tot
astfel, poezia vorbete acolo unde limbajul comun sufer, fiind deert, lipsit de semnificaie
sacr. Berbecul negru a reconciliat cele dou ipostaze ale eului creator. El este ofranda care
aduce linitea i mpcarea. El este preul pltit pentru ca fora creatoare s subziste, e poetul
n ipostaza sa sacrificial. Acum poetul beneficiaz de graia divin asemenea preoilor care
Tiresias este cunoscut drept un profet vestit al lui Apollo, care a primit darul profeiei n urma ntlnirii cu zeii.
Exist mai multe versiuni ale acestui mit. ntr-una dintre ele cecitatea sa a survenit ca pedeaps pentru a o fi
privit pe Atena n timp ce se mbia goal n apele unui izvor. A doua variant a mitului explic metamorfoza lui
Tiresias n femeie pentru o perioad de apte ani, datorit faptului c a deranjat cu bastonul doi erpi n timpul
acuplrii. O alt versiune mitic despre Tiresias explic orbirea acestuia prin faptul c a inut partea zeului
Jupiter n disputa acestuia cu soia sa, Junona, pe tema intensitii plcerii resimite de femeie n raport cu
brbatul n actul erotic. Atitudinea sa a atras mnia zeiei Junona care l-a condamnata cecitate etern. Ca o
compensaie pentru pierderea vederii, Tiresias primete harul profeiei, a nelegerii limbajului animalelor i
psrilor i via lung de apte generaii. Exist, de asemenea, i alte versiuni ale acestui mit care susin c
Tiresias s-ar fi nscut femeie, cunoscnd de-a lungul vieii cel puin ase metamorfoze. n esen, toate versiunile
mitului se pun de acord asupra faptului c cecitatea lui Tiresias este tributul pltit de acesta pentru harul
profeiei, iar cunoaterea sa asupra lumii i a esenei umane este una profund i totalizatoare datorit
metamorfozelor sale succesive. Pe de alt parte, Plinius cel Btrn, supranumit i Chiorul, este autorul celebrei
enciclopedii Naturalis Historiae, de o inestimabil valoare prin informaiile aparinnd diverselor domenii pe
care le conine. Lui i se atribuie i dictonul: In vino veritas. n acest context, evocarea figurii sale face, iari,
trimitere la natura demonic a sinelui poetic.
7
Vezi visul Faraonului tlmcit de Iosif din Geneza, cap. 41, vs. 1-36, p. 45-47, n Biblia sau Sfnta Scriptur a
Vechiului i a Noului Testament (trad. Dumitru Cornilescu), Oradea, Metanoia, 2006.
6
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aduceau jertfe pe altar. Acum, totul se mpac n sine, deoarece berbecul negru este harul
poetic, iar vaca stearp e verbul poetic ce a suferit o transfigurare devenind viu, devenind
fora neagr ce aduce, n poezie, blndeea tmduitoare a ngerilor: Dar ntre aternuturile
regale, clrind pe inimi, / berbecul negru, / a vorbit i a fost elocvent. De acum nainte /
strinul despre care se vorbete cu dispre (adic eu) / poate sta la mas lng strinul despre
care se / vorbete cu iubire (adic eu) / cu ochii aintii pe sticla cu vin rou n care / crete
gheaa / ca un colac de srm subire de argint ce scrie / n vinul ieftin / un drum ntortocheat,
fr ndoial, drum de ntors / acas. (Convorbiri cu diavolul, p. 78-79). Odat ce setea de
cunoatere este satisfcut, iar procesul creator s-a ncheiat, este posibil reconcilierea celor
dou naturi ale fiinei lirice, regsirea de sine a poetului i ntoarcerea acas.
Recalibrarea sinelui prin instituirea unui echilibru fragil ntre cele dou naturi are drept
urmare diminuarea potenialului vizionar. Zeia cu pulpe de taur, un minotaur feminin, a
pierdut lupta, drumul de ntoarcere acas, ntortocheat, este cluzit de ngeri, ieirea din
labirint s-a produs, ns preul pltit este substanial. Ceva a murit n fiina liric, iar eul liric
trebuie s-i redescopere, s-i regseasc linitea. Forele tenebroase ale vrstei pgne a
nceputurilor s-au ascuns la loc n subcontient. n lupta sa cu inexprimabilul, poetul a nvins,
cuvntul poetic a rzbit, ns n patria lui trebuie repugnat latura i substana vizionar pentru
cunoate pacea: () Ca un steag negru / flfie n ceruri o voce mtsoas: / Ridic sabia
ruginit de pe groapa cu snge, Iisuse, / i ntoarce-te n Itaca! (Convorbiri cu diavolul, p.
79). Ambiguitatea mesajului poetic este mai mult dect evident n aceast structur textual.
Cu toate acestea secvena citat alturi de altele asemenea ei, numeroase n cele dou poeme
supuse analizei, indic un scenariu mitic invariant n arta poetic a lui Ion Murean care
mizeaz pe coincidena diverselor mituri cu scopul de a releva condiia dual a eului creator.
Punctual vorbind, se observ c dialogul cu mitul lui Ulise interfereaz cu trimiterile la
sacrificiul cristic pentru a desemna convergena ntre modelul mitic al eroului viril care
nfrunt fiara / monstrul / balaurul, reprezentat de Ulise i modelul biblic sacrificial
ntruchipat de Iisus. Figura lui Ulise i a lui Iisus sugereaz destinul creator dublat de
contiina sacrificiului de sine, ieirea din spaiul ignoranei i ntoarcerea n locul spiritual n
care domnete pacea, linitea, armonia guvernat pn atunci de dezordinea din afar. De
aceea Itaca devine cetatea artei i a poeziei, este toposul poetic, prin excelen, ctre care se
ndreapt n permanen nzuinele cele mai intime ale sinelui vizionar. Sabia ruginit a lui
Iisus instrument al luptei i al adevrului n aciune, al trezirii contiinei i al forei lucide a
Spiritului, simbol totalizator al conjunciei, al uniunii8, al solidaritii, al morii i al
resureciei , trebuie readus de ctre poet la funcia ei iniial, aceea de arm care cuteaz i
are menirea de a trana adevrul. Arma poetului nu e alta dect cuvntul, cuvntul este o
sabie9 care desparte profanul de sacru, poezia de falsa poezie: Nebunule, poeii neinspirai
aduc n ora difteria!10.
Cntecul exorcistului din partea a V-a a poemului aduce n centrul monologului liric
autoadresat schia n tue apocaliptice a confruntrii sinelui vizionar cu lumea, cu posteritatea
refractar la nelegerea condiiei creatoare a poetului i d prilej poetului s-i desfoare
simfonic ritualul de invocare a viziunilor. nfruntarea eului cu lumea este anticipat, de altfel,
n tabloul al IV-lea, prin imaginea convenionalizat a unui ef de coal care / strig isteric
prin fereastra zbrelit i-l alung pe poet din cetate: Nebunule, poeii neinspirai aduc n
Vezi, n acest sens, J. Chevalier i A. Gheerbrant 1993: 182-183.

Efeseni, cap. 6, vs. 17, p 1150: Luai i coiful mntuirii i sabia Duhului care este Cuvntul lui Dumnezeu, n
Biblia sau Sfnta Scriptur a Vechiului i a Noului Testament (trad. Dumitru Cornilescu), Oradea, Metanoia,
2006.
10
Efeseni, cap. 4, vs. 29, p. 1148: Niciun cuvnt stricat s nu v ias din gur. n Biblia sau Sfnta Scriptur a
8
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ora difteria! (Convorbiri cu diavolul, p. 79). Exorcizarea demonului vizionar Ebriesa11 de

ctre posteritatea epigonic are consecine devastatoare pentru fiina liric al cror punct
terminus pe axa cderii este moartea. Vizionarismul poetic i permite s-i anticipeze destinul
pe care i-l rezerv posteritatea i s-l fixeze n eternitatea artei sale din care se vede izgonit:
Bucuriile tale din lacul de ghea, mpreunarea cu dobitoacele / i c ai purtat prul morilor
toate le-am scris aici. / O, Ebriesa, Ebriesa, n posteritatea neguroas / se pregtete un
cntec care o s-i mnnce capul. / Dar i acela e scris aici. // Crede-m, albinuele astea ca
rugina sunt fiine spirituale, / nu auzi cum pocnesc ca dopurile cnd intr i ies din zidul de
fier? / Ca i copita despicat sunt cuvintele ce limba ta le despic: / partea mustoas, pentru
rostit, duc-se in intelectu! / partea rece, metalic, e scris aici. (Convorbiri cu diavolul, p.
79).
Ion Murean devine, astfel, poetul care-i profeete sfritul. Asumarea condiiei de
demiurg de ctre poet nseamn nclcarea Legii Marelui Demiurg i genereaz Apocalipsa ca
revelaie a Adevrului Ultim. Semnul Apocalipsei l aduce ngerul12 ras13 n cap, mesajer al
Divinitii, trimis s anune vizionarului urgiile sfritului. Este apocalipsa unei lumi pe care
poetul nsui a creat-o i care nu mai poate fi salvat de nimeni, cci ngerul nu mai poate fi
mpiedicat s fac acest lucru, chiar dac va suporta umilina. Ebriesa i declar neputina n
faa misterului absolut al creaiei divine i al morii care i rmn necuprinse, n ciuda tuturor
eforturilor i a sacrificiilor depuse pentru a le descoperi prin cunoaterea poetic. Este
apoteoza vizionarismului poetic n care Ebriesa nsui transcrie cntecul pe care i-l pregtete
posteritatea neiniiat suficient pentru a nelege mesajului sibilinic al artei sale i momentul
n care sinele vizionar, contient de clcarea interdiciei, i autodedic marul morii: O,
Ebriesa, substantiv propriu derivat, pesemne, din numele comun latinesc corespunztor lui, desemneaz
simbolic starea bahic a sinelui vizionar, dezavuat de textul sacru pentru neajunsurile pe care le aduce omului
ndeprtndu-l de Legea divin, dup cum sugereaz numeroase pasaje din Biblie: Levitic 10, vs. 8-11, pag. 115116: Domnul a vorbit lui Aaron i a zis: Tu i fiii ti mpreun cu tine s nu bei vin, nici butur ameitoare,
cnd vei intra n Cortul ntlnirii, ca s nu murii: aceasta va fi o lege venic printre urmaii votri, ca s putei
deosebi ce este sfnt de ce nu este sfnt, ce este necurat de ce este curat, i s putei nva pe copiii lui Israel
toate legile pe care li le-a dat Domnul prin Moise.; Proverbe cap. 31, vs 4-5, 6, p. 668: Nu se cade
mprailor, Lemuele, nu se cade mprailor s bea vin, nici voievozilor s umble dup buturi tari, ca nu cumva,
bnd, s uite Legea i s calce drepturile tuturor celor nenorocii.; Efeseni, cap. 5, vs. 18, p. 1149: Nu v
mbtai de vin, aceasta este destrblare. Dimpotriv, fii plini de Duh. n Biblia sau Sfnta Scriptur a
12
Imaginea ngerului, mesagerul divin care anun moartea vizionarului, se suprapune, n secvena final a
poemului, cu imaginea fiarei din Apocalips care poart semnul puterii, ns n poezia lui I. Murean, Dumnezeu
nsui scrie cifrul pe capul ngerului pentru a avertiza sinele vizionar n legtur cu pedeapsa ce i se cuvine
pentru nesocotinele sale.
13
Vezi, n acest sens, diverse secvene din Biblie care au n comun ideea de radere a prului capului sau a brbii
ca semn al smeririi, al durerii, al lipsei, al pedepsei sau, uneori, al purificrii, dintre care citm: Isaia, cap. 3, vs.
17: Domnul va pleuvi cretetul capului fiicelor Sionului, Domnul le va descoperi ruinea; Isaia, cap 22, vs.
12: i totui Domnul Dumnezeul otirilor v cheam n ziua aceea s plngei i s v batei n piept, s v
radei capul i s v ncingei cu sac.; Isaia, cap. 15, vs. 2: Poporul se suie la templu i la Dibon, pe nlimi, ca
s plng; Moabul se bocete: pe Nebo i pe Medeba toate capetele sunt rase, i toate brbile sunt tiate.; Isaia,
cap. 3, vs. 24: i atunci, n loc de miros plcut, va fi putoare; n loc de bru, o funie; n loc de pr ncreit, un
cap pleuv; n loc de mantie larg, un sac strmt; un semn de nfierare, n loc de frumusee. Cartea lui Isaia n
2006. Dicionarul de imagini i simboluri biblice (2011: 828) consemneaz detaliat originile i semnificaia
rasului i ale coafurii n diverse culturi: n Scripturi, prul bogat este simbol (aproape magic) al masculinitii i
un simbol al triei i virilitii (Samson, Jud. 16:17, 22; Absalom, 2 Sam. 14:25-27). Practicile raderii figureaz
ca semne ale puritii i curiei de ex., desclarea sau chiar goliciunea trupului pentru apropierea de cele
sacre, absena prului pentru a indica absena oricrei impuriti sau necurii a unei persoane. Rasul apare i ca
semn al umilinei i al supunerii, ca parte a ceremoniilor de soluionare a conflictelor fr violen sau chiar ca
ucidere ritual substituind crima real. O alt semnificaie simbolic a raderii capului este aceea a doliului sau a
goliciunii i a lipsei, semn al destituirii dintr-un anumit statut, al distrugerii i al devastrii totale.
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Ebriesa, Ebriesa, Domnul a chemat deja ngerul / i i-a ras prul capului, / cu mna Lui a scris
Cifrul, prul deja a crescut i el / se apropie trndu-se prin hiuri. / Aici va veni, aici l vom
rade din nou i pe easta lui / rozalie, aplecndu-ne vom citi / Atunci, nesfritul tunel de
buze din spatele / buzelor tale / i va nceta bolborositul. i cu distincie va rosti / numele
Morii. (Convorbiri cu diavolul, Poemul care nu poate fi neles, p. 80).
Aa cum se poate constata i din alte poeme Minunata plutire, Poemul pedagogic,
Odaia mortului, Eu i necatul, Orfeu, Lanurile peste ferestre, Cntec de primvar (3),
Opera unor oameni nendemnatici, Cntecul Arpentorului, Amantul btrn i tnra
doamn, Guleratul, Tunelul, Btaia etc. , condiia creatoare e proiectat ca demonie.
Demonia l transform pe poet n propria sa victim i i reveleaz supliciul reclamat de
travaliul creator. De altfel, demonia rmne singura posibilitate de salvare a eului i n
Convorbiri cu diavolul, singura cale de ntoarcere acas din aceast odisee ontologic,
unica modalitate de recuperare a propriei identiti i de reconciliere cu sine nsui: Bucuriile
tale din lacul de ghea, mpreunarea cu dobitoacele / i c ai purtat prul morilor toate leam scris aici. / O, Ebriesa, Ebriesa, n posteritatea neguroas / se pregtete un cntec care o
s-i mnnce capul. / Dar i acela e scris aici. (Convorbiri cu diavolul, p. 80).
Convorbiri cu diavolul repune, aadar, n scen ipostaza sacrificial a sinelui cu
traumele i reverberaiile ei thanatice, ceremonialul orfic la care particip cu rigurozitate
sinele vizionar transformndu-se ntr-un ritual cu valoare existenial. De altfel, nstrinarea
de derizoriul existenial i sacrificiul par a fi, n majoritatea poemelor lui I. Murean,
condiiile necesare i suficiente asumrii vocaiei vizionare. Imaginea poetului-nebun care
particip la acelai ritual orfic este reiterat i aici. Deposedarea de viziunea care i devine
intangibil este echivalent cu boala i/sau moartea, iar poetul se proiecteaz ntr-un dublu
strin, act semnificativ pentru desemnarea sacrificiului implicat de procesul creator.
Dialogul cu sacrul, interferena lumii concrete i a celei suprasensibile continu n
ntoarcerea fiului risipitor, amplul poem din volumul cartea Alcool14 n care I. Murean
trateaz, cu aceeai fervoare cu care i-a obinuit, deja, publicul iubitor de poezie,
problematica procesului de creaie i a condiiei creatoare, raportul creator-oper, utopia
originalitii i a creativitii, resurecia sinelui vizionar polarizat cu imposibilitatea
redempiunii lui. De fapt, ntregul poem st sub semnul acestei dualiti funciare care
traverseaz ntreaga oper a poetului.
ntoarcerea fiului risipitor debuteaz abrupt cu o meditaie n registru eclesiastic pe
tema deertciunii deertciunilor, a utopiei originalitii i a creativitii, a repetabilitii i
finitudinii tuturor lucrurilor: Totul a fost but. / Nici o butur nou nu a aprut sub Soare n
timpul viei mele. / Nisipul pustiurilor s-a fiert i s-a but. / Praf de argint s-a fiert n oal de
n cronica literar Stri de spirit, Cosmin Ciotlo menioneaz cteva infirmiti de construcie ale Crii
Alcool printre care numete apelul la metafora arbitrar, ineficient i palimpsestul strilor de spirit filtrate
printr-o lentil dramatizat i ultrasensibil care reduce considerabil coeziunea de ansamblu a pieselor din volum
i afecteaz, fr doar i poate, unul dintre poemele de for ale crii: La fel se ntmpl ntr-un poem fluvial,
ntoarcerea fiului risipitor, poem n opt pri, cu secvene extraordinare i, deopotriv, cu compromisuri de gust
de-a dreptul neateptate. Fr acestea din urm, ntoarcerea fiului risipitor ar fi stat pe acelai piedestal cu cele
mai puternice piese, unele deja amintite, altele pentru care n-am mai avut loc (Poemul alcoolicilor, Btaia,
Mesajul sau Ci eu singur sub pmnt). Nu suntem ntrutotul de aceeai prere, dimpotriv, ntmpinm cu mari
rezerve afirmaiile cronicarului, cu att mai mult cu ct consistena i coeziunea global a poemului, dei
obscurizat de multiplele glisri imagistice i semantice, ni se relev cu o pregnan extraordinar, mai ales
prin/de ctre subtitlurile prilor componente ale textului care au nu numai funcie coeziv, ci i de ghidaj
interpretativ i corijeaz eventualele erori ale unui posibil traseu reductiv de investigaie/interpretare. n privina
metaforei arbitrare, considerm c exist, ntr-adevr, anumite imperfeciuni stilistice, anumite
dezvoltri/proliferri textuale excentrice, inutile i/sau irelevante din punct de vedere semantico-stilistic care in,
n cele din urm, de atmosfera de ansamblu creat n poem, de recuzita expresionist sau au funcie pur
ornamental, descriptiv.
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argint i s-a but. / Praf de aur din cni de aur s-a but. / S-au but pietrele din pahare de
piatr i nc / din timp n timp aprea din cri cineva / care vedea ceva de but / n piatr
seac: / vedea i bea. / Apoi i crile s-au but. / Viermii negri i psrile albe s-au but. /
Petii albatri i caii roii s-au but. / S-au but aerul de sub unghii i mduva din oase i
sngele. / Pielea i prul s-au but. / S-au but geografia i pictura i sculptura i poezia, / s-au
amanetat, s-au amestecat, s-au dizolvat ca bumbuii sub limb / i s-au but. / i lemnul i
fierul i rugina s-au but. / Acoperiuri i fundaii / i casele clilor i casele regale i
bordeiele / i oarecii de sub casa mamei s-au but. / i comuna primitiv i comunismul i
sperma s-au pus la macerat i ca nite sucuri / s-au but. / Dumnezeule, totul a fost but! / i
tot mai trece noaptea pe drum un om cu o distilerie mic pe umr. (ntoarcerea fiului
risipitor, p. 57). Nu se mai poate scrie nimic original, nimic din ce nu s-a scris nc. Nimic
nou sub soare15, spune Eclesiastul. La fel afirm i Ion Murean n versurile citate, subliniind
repetabilitatea i finitudinea tuturor lucrurilor. i totui rzbate din aceste versuri sperana,
dac nu credina exprimat discret i aproape imperceptibil c, n ciuda epuizrii tuturor
subiectelor, a resurselor i a energiilor creatoare, n ciuda inutilitii oricrui efort, a
deertciunii tuturor lucrurilor i cu toate c nimic original nu mai poate fi nchipuit sau creat,
salvarea mai este posibil, ntruct, n aceast permanent schimbare i repetabilitate, rmne
mereu o constant: cineva care gsete ntotdeauna resurse chiar i acolo unde ele par a se fi
epuizat. Aceast instan a crei natur este definit prin potenialul ei creator este capabil s
re-creeze totul ntr-o manier inedit: () i nc / din timp n timp aprea din cri cineva
(subl. n.) / care vedea ceva de but / n piatr seac: / vedea i bea. (ntoarcerea fiului
risipitor, p. 57), cci prin distilare se ajunge la esene tari, se purific i se concentreaz fora
risipit n materie.
n acest context, cineva se identific cu vocea liric vizionar care, n finalul
primului episod al poemului, se metamorfozeaz ntr-un om cu o distilerie mic pe umr:
Apoi i crile s-au but. / () / Dumnezeule, totul a fost but! / i tot mai trece noaptea pe
drum un om cu o distilerie mic pe umr (p. 58). Glisarea ctre aceast imagine poart
sugestia sublimrii realitii i a existenei, a transfigurrii sentimentelor i a strilor sufleteti
n procesul creator. Pentru sinele vizionar, enrgeia creatoare este infinit, procesul creator
este perpetuu. Prin urmare, creaia este posibil, dei totul a fost but, iar motorul ei este
viziunea. Invocat ntr-un registru esenial bahic, viziunea devine omniprezent, invadeaz
poemul. Aceast secven poetic precede i prefigureaz plonjarea n miezul viziunii poetice
derulate ulterior, pe parcursul tuturor celorlalte episoade pn la finalul poemului.
nceputurile omenirii i sfritul ornduirilor omeneti sunt la fel. Aadar, tot ce a fost
va mai fi, cum afirm Eclesiastul sau ceea ce rmne, de fapt, este iluzia, ca o constant a
umanitii, sperana c efortul va duce undeva. Pe de alt parte ns, aa cum din multul slab
se obine puinul puternic prin distilare, tot astfel poezia reine doar cuvintele ce penetreaz
esena lucrurilor, cuvintele ce ptrund esena lumii. Poezia este singura ce poate vedea dincolo
de aparen, dincolo de ceea ce realitatea poate prezenta ca real. Pentru aceasta este nevoie de
omul cu distileria, de poetul care, prin alchimia artei sale, ajunge s obin ceea ce nainte
nu exista dect in pontentia. Poetul distileaz limbajul i, acolo unde nainte nu erau dect
cuvinte ce desemnau noiuni, el instituie limbajul poetic ce poate semnifica, dincolo de
aparen, o alt lume, cea a esenelor. n fond, poetul nelege c doar poezia poate accede la
adevrurile ultime ale lumii. Pentru aceasta este nevoie de acel limbaj care s poat revela
acest adevr. Limbajul acesta este chiar poezia, ns el nu poate fi gsit att de uor. Poetul l
caut, l construiete. Aceasta nseamn o credin nestrmutat n faptul c l va gsi, c va
Eclesiastul, cap. 1, vs. 9: Ce a fost va mai fi, i ce s-a fcut se va mai face; nu este nimic nou sub soare., n
2006.
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reui s exprime ceea ce nzuiete s exprime. El vede poezia aa cum profetul vede viitorul.
Doar ncercnd n mod obsedant s ptrund acolo unde este spaiul poeziei, poetul va putea
rzbate: Un fel de a percepe viitorul prin obsesii. (ntoarcerea fiului risipitor, p. 60).
nverunarea n a crea l va conduce, n cele din urm, acolo unde nu era dect ideea despre
poezia viitoare, o imagine subtil care va avea nevoie de limbajul poetului pentru a fi
perceput, pentru a se instania. Limbajul care sugereaz iese mult n afara sensului de baz,
n afara propriilor forme i coninuturi: Dac forma trupului ar fi fost stabilit prin lege, / el
ar fi fost mult n afara legii. (C.A. ntoarcerea fiului risipitor, p. 58). Posibilitatea de a
cunoate lumea este dat n aceeai msur att limbajului comun, ct i limbajului poetic, dar
acesta din urm beneficiaz de un privilegiu n plus: el are puterea de a institui lumea pe care
o semnific. De fapt, ambele limbaje tind s cunoasc lumea, s ajung la esena ei, ns, dac
cuvntul uzual rmne funciar acelai, cuvntul poetic sufer o transfigurare: el privete pe
geam asemenea cuvntului obinuit, dar vede altceva, vede dincolo de nivelul prim de
semnificaie.
Prile II-VIII aduc n prim-plan scenariul vizionar neoexpresionist transpus n imagini
biblice i evenimente sacre a cror simbolistic este, deseori, obscurizat de glisrile
proliferante i de mtile lirice suprapuse aparent haotic. Astfel, cele apte pri II
(Martorul), III - fr titlu, IV (Epifania), V (Predica de la Broasca Verde), VI (Splarea
picioarelor), VII (O viziune), VIII (Martorul) , ncadrate n rama Martorului circumscriu, n
fond, etapele devenirii creatoare a instanei lirice vizionare conturate n prima parte a
poemului. n structura discursiv a acestor pri se remarc suprapunerea parabolei Fiului
risipitor pe tiparul altor episoade mprumutate din Vechiul i Noul Testament naterea,
moartea i nvierea Mntuitorului, Predica de pe munte, Fericirile, Splarea picioarelor la
Cina cea de Tain, relevana legii divine, Judecata de apoi etc., ale cror semnificaii sunt ns
subsumate poetic mitului jertfei creatoare.
Dac n diferite secvene din Biblie, Dumnezeu se adreseaz neamului lui Israel
numindu-l martorul16 Lui sau mrturisete aceluiai neam c martorul Su este Fiul Lui, n
poem, martorul apare ca ipostaz vizionar a fiinei lirice. n consens cu exigenele semantictextuale, semnificaia poetic a martorului unific sinele etern, vizionar cu dublul su
sacrificial. Martorul din poezie este un notoriu al crciumii care devine contemporan cu ntreg
scenariul din Noul Testament i asist la naterea, crucificarea i nvierea lui Iisus a crui
masc o va prelua. El are contiina naturii sale duale pe care o i afirm explicit: i numai
ce-l vd c umbl prin omt ca limba unui clopoel / de aram () / Unul era, / cnd mai
tnr, cnd mai btrn / de aceea preau c sunt doi / i chiar de erau doi, / aveau un singur
nas / care umbla alb ca piciorul melcului pe geamul ngheat, / iar dac erau doi, tot unul era, /
cci nu aveau dect doi ochi, albatri, / pe care i avea / cnd unul, cnd altul. (II
[Martorul], p. 58).
In numeroase pasaje biblice, martorul este asimilat figurii Fiului lui Dumnezeu sau se identific poporului lui
Israel, dup cum se poate vedea din fragmentele care urmeaz: Isaia, cap. 42, vs. 1: Iat Robul Meu, pe care-L
sprijin, Alesul Meu, n care i gsete plcere sufletul Meu. Am pus Duhul Meu peste El; El va vesti neamurilor
judecata.; Isaia, cap. 43, vs. 10: Voi suntei martorii Mei zice Domnul voi i Robul Meu pe care L-am ales,
ca s tii, ca s M credei i s nelegei c Eu sunt: nainte de Mine n-a fost niciun dumnezeu, i dup Mine nu
va fi.; Isaia, cap. 55, vs. 4: Iat, l-am pus martor pe lng popoare, cap i stpnitor al popoarelor.;
Apocalipsa, cap. 1, vs. 4-5-6: Ioan, ctre cele apte biserici care sunt n Asia: Har i pace vou din partea Celui
ce este, Celui ce era i Celui ce vine, i din partea celor apte duhuri, care stau naintea scaunului Su de domnie,
i din partea lui Isus Hristos, Martorul credincios, Cel nti nscut din mori, Domnul mprailor pmntului! A
Lui, care ne iubete, care ne-a splat de pcatele noastre cu sngele Su., n Biblia sau Sfnta Scriptur a
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Martorul st lng fereastra ngheat pe care o rzuiete cu unghia, nclzind-o cu

suflul su. Fereastra motivul oglinzii17 devine interfaa vizionar din crciuma de pe
pmnt, spaiu al reflectrii sinelui n sine, al filtrrii imaginii i al transgresiunii, al reflectrii
Adevrului i al Fiinei absolute n sinele poetic i al sinelui cu adevrurile sale n absolut.
Este momentul emergenei viziunii poetice care-l face pe martor contemporan cu
evenimentele capitale ale umanitii cretine, conjugnd ipostaza profetic a fiinei lirice cu
ipostaza ei sacrificial: Aici rzuiesc, aici moi. / Rzuiesc i suflu repede i cald: bou la
iesle de sticl, / iar n iesle un om strin i un stlp de telegraf. / Suflu i frec n cercuri cu
batista nmuiat n votc, / i se la o vreme vd ce vreau s vd. / Ci eu rzuiesc cu moneda
florile de ghea de pe geamul crciumii, / ca s fac o copc ochiului spre stlpul de telegraf, /
pe care cu pleoape uguiate ca buza de maimu l sorb () (II [Martorul], p. 59). Eul poetic
devine totuna cu lumea, el nu mai este situat lng lume, alteritatea nu mai poate fi separat
de fiina liric, pentru c ea rezoneaz cu toate lucrurile, avnd, n acelai timp, contiina
propriei identiti. Tot ce se petrece n afara lui se petrece n el: iar omul de afar /
mbrieaz stlpul de afar i / odat cu stlpul trece prin ghea i mi intr n ochi: / iacum e-un stlp de telegraf n mine i un om strin. / i srme lungi mi ies din ochi pe geam /
i cabluri negre i roii, mi ies din ochi i strns / m leag de toi stlpii de telegraf din lume.
/ i-s mndru c sunt stlp de telegraf.; Deci stau aci, la mas, lng geam, / i simt o
lovitur ascuit ntre coaste: / e un copil / ce undeva, departe, pe un deal, / ia o piatr i
lovete ntr-un stlp, / pune apoi urechea pe lemnul lui i-aude / un vuiet ca venind din alt
lume. () Dar de la o vreme vd ce vreau s vd. (II [Martorul], p. 59). Eul poetic a ajuns la
esena lucrurilor, este parte din fluidul viu ce trece prin toate entitile. Acum, realitatea nu
mai este cea pe care i-o confer observaia fenomenologic, ci este acea empatie cu tot ceea ce
exist. Odat nlturat, depit prejudecata realitii, poetul vede dincolo de coaja lucrurilor,
poate auzi ntocmai copilului un vuiet (ca) venind din alt lume.
Arhetipul strinului18 este prezent i n aceste versuri, numai c el este invenie pur,
ceea ce nseamn c pentru a crea este nevoie de inventivitate, ns poezia care se abate de la
limbajul originar al fiinei i pierde calitatea de poezie, devine epic i spune i ea o poveste.
Imaginile poetice fac trimitere la scenariul sacru al naterii, al morii i al nvierii lui Iisus,
ipostaziat n figura strinului care se car pe stlpul de telegraf i care invadeaz treptat
fptura fiinei lirice, fcnd-o martor la toate minunile i supliciile omenirii din toate
timpurile: Acum strinul se car pe stlp / ca i telefonistul din copilrie cu mele de fier
prinse-n picioare, / cu basca-n cap i cu igara alb / aprins-n colul gurii, mutnd abil
centura tot mai sus, urc pe stlpul negru dat cu motorin, / i-ajuns la pipele de porelan ori
sticl, / scoate patentul i meterete ceva. / Acum el meterete ceva cu patentul n capul
meu. // Un fel de a percepe viitorul prin obsesii. / Un fel de a prinde victima ntre gene ca ntro mic menghin de lemn: / strngi urubul i te pregteti de atac, / victima suspin i
suspin dulce, / sufletul i sclipete pe buze, / scurt, / i trece n alt veac. / Dar sufletele nu-s
nici proaste, nici detepte, / ele doar dau lumin, / nu mult, ci atta / ct licuricii noaptea. / i
n Corinteni, cap. 13, vs. 12 apare acelai motiv al oglinzii ca spaiu care limiteaz cunoaterea: Acum,
vedem ca ntr-o oglind, n chip ntunecos; dar atunci, vom vedea fa n fa. Acum, cunosc n parte; dar atunci,
voi cunoate deplin, aa cum am fost i eu cunoscut pe deplin., n Biblia sau Sfnta Scriptur a Vechiului i a
Noului Testament (trad. Dumitru Cornilescu), Oradea, Metanoia, 2006.
Dicionarul de simboluri (1993: 369-371) nuaneaz foarte mult semnificaiile oglinzii pe care o aaz la baza
unui simbolism extrem de bogat n ordinea cunoaterii. Oglinda este pus n relaie direct cu reflectarea
adevrului, este instrumentul iluminrii, simbol al nelepciunii i al cunoaterii n opoziie cu oglinda prfuit
care reprezint spiritul ntunecat de ignoran. Ca suprafa care reflect, ea rsfrnge inteligena i cuvntul
divin, esena infinit, este un simbol solar, ns introduce i o anumit doz de iluzie fa de principiu i atunci
devine un simbol lunar. Oglinda ofer, de altfel, i o imagine inversat a realitii.
18
Vezi, n acest sens, nota 4.
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poate nici att. // Dar de la o vreme vd ce vreau s vd. // Geamul acoperit de praf i ghea.
// Si ninge, ninge. // Dar asta nu e treaba mea! (II [Martorul], p. 60-61).
n plan simbolic, semnificaiile acestor imagini poetice sunt destul de transparente.
Sinele vizionar se identific cu strinul din iesle a crui imagine trimite la naterea lui Iisus,
aluzia la instana sacr din Noul Testament fiind destul de direct. Actul vizionar este corelat
implicit cu ideea de sacrificiu. Consecina imediat a captrii viziunii este dedublarea fiinei
lirice urmat de apariia sinelui sacrificial corelat cu cratul strinului pe stlp, secven
textual care evoc att jertfa Mntuitorului, ct i deificarea Lui. La rndul su, stlpul de
telegraf este o imagine trucat a crucii cu ntreaga palet de semnificaii thanatice aferente
acesteia. Celelalte nsemne ale supliciului care preced ivirea viziunii, ale ochiului-flmnd
care reclam cunoaterea vizionar i adevrul poetic sunt figurate prin alte instrumente ale
torturii, precum patentul i menghina de lemn. n acest context, un verb precum
meterete devine sinonim cu reveleaz, iar substantivul victima desemneaz viziunea
captat de ochiul-menghin a crei esen inefabil se traduce prin sufletul ce-i sclipete
pe buze, / scurt, / i trece n alt veac. Poetul-vizionar mprtete un destin similar cu cel al
Mntuitorului, sacrificiul suprem este preul pltit pentru pcatul vederii Ideilor i singura cale
a izbvirii sale, a nvierii n Spirit, a renaterii n Idee. Bineneles c martiriul strinului, al
celui care-i asum destinul este urmat de apoteoza sa. Prin sacrificiu, el dobndete statutul
privilegiat al deintorului cunoaterii sacre care repet, n procesul de creaie, actul
primordial al Genezei. Redempiunea sa este posibil numai prin actul poetic vizionar care-l
face prta la eternitate. Cu toate c esenele revelate se obscurizeaz brusc ochiuluiflmnd, cunoaterea i adevrul pe care l dezvluie poetului actul vizionar sunt eseniale i
beneficiaz de atributul perenitii.
Un alt element de coeren textual se dovedete a fi vuietul ca venind din alt lume
care semnaleaz prezena lumii sacre a Ideilor, imersiunea ei n lumea real i care este,
concomitent, ecoul care pune mpreun crciuma de pe pmnt cu evenimentele sacre din
Crciuma din cer, care leag timpul profan al morii de eternitatea lui illo tempore.
Partea a III-a modific decorul n care este situat fiina liric, transpunnd-o n
orizontul ndeprtatei i legendarei Persii. ndeprtarea, fie i n spaiul imaginar, de universul
fiinei creatoare n poezie, de spaiul locuirii poetice devine un act de adulter, orict de
tentant ar fi o imagine falsificat despre lume: Curv, curv nenorocit vino s vezi ce se
ntmpl n ar! (ntoarcerea fiului risipitor, p. 61). Acesta poate fi strigtul fiinei lirice
aflate temporar n exil, separat de esena fiinrii poetice i de sine: Iar eu v-am scris zeci de
scrisori cu litere tremurate de dragoste: / Drag tat i buna mea mam, / aici n Persia
vremea e bun iar persanii-s oameni muncitori i cinstii, iar femeile lor / sunt curate,
gospodine i iubee / cam la fel cum sunt unguroaicele la noi / n Ardeal (ntoarcerea
fiului risipitor, p. 61-62). A fi pe un pmnt strin, spune David n Cartea lui Samuel, este ca
i cum te-ai nchina la idoli. Poetul nu poate s prseasc patria poeziei, dup cum prorocul
nu poate prsi pmntul sfnt.
Subtitlul Epifania din partea a IV-a a poemului indic limpede o apropiere de sacru.
Prin sensul su acest cuvnt sugereaz manifestarea sacrului i apariia lui. Primele cuvinte
din partea a V-a: Nu voim, frailor, s fii n necunotin, ca s nu v ntristai / ca ceilali,
cari n-au ndejde i se tem de paianjeni, trimit la Epistola lui Pavel ctre Corinteni19 cu
privire la rolul duhului, acela de a-i deosebi pe credincioi de necredincioi, ns continuarea
frazei surprinde prin trimiterea la pianjeni, element ce ine de disputa mitologic ntre
1 Corinteni, cap. 12, vs. 1-3, p.1122: n ce privete darurile duhovniceti, frailor, nu voiesc s fii n
necunotin. Cnd erai pgni, tii c v duceai la idolii cei mui, dup cum erai cluzii. De aceea v spun
c nimeni, dac vorbete prin Duhul lui Dumnezeu, nu zice: Isus s fie anatema! i nimeni nu poate zice:
Isus este Domnul dect prin Duhul Sfnt. Epistola lui Pavel ctre Corinteni n Biblia sau Sfnta Scriptur a
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aparen i esen. n orice caz, pnza pianjenului sugereaz estura realitii i fragilitatea
unei lumi ce poate fi cea real, i atunci esena este c dincolo de ceea ce se numete realitate,
fragil, trebuie s fie altceva, mai trainic, adevrata realitate sau pianjenul cu pnza lui nu
face dect s ascund realitatea de dincolo de ea perspective diferite, dar care, pn la urm,
se unesc n ideea existenei altei realiti, noumenale, dincolo de aparen sau de prima
realitate fragil care se vede doar dup ce nlturi acest vl. De-abia apoi se poate vedea cum
tot ceea ce este dincoace, adic n realitatea pnzei de pianjen se sublimeaz dincolo, ntr-o
lume purificat de materie, aa cum se insinueaz n partea a VII-a a poemului: i tot ce-i
mare aici, acolo-i mic, de aceea cei care beau acolo, beau ca-ntr-o iconi (ntoarcerea fiului
risipitor, p. 67). De altfel, epifania tatlui dup ndelungi ateptri i ntlnirea cu fiul se
petrece pe fundalul interferenei celor dou lumi. Intruziunea sacrului este anunat de peisajul
paradisiac al livezii cu meri ncrcai, cu iarb umed, cu maci roii i cicori albastre.
Imaginea tatlui care se ndreapt dinspre pdure spre crcium, n partea a IV-a, este
simetrizat cu aceea a revenirii n pdure de la crcium, ca ntr-o oglind, n partea a VI-a.
Comparaiile cu un ap20, respectiv cu un porc mistre au conotaii negative n contextul
religios iudeo-cretin, dar reflect camuflarea sacrului n aparenele lumii reale i, n acelai
timp, imposibilitatea fiinei lirice de a percepe, de la nceput, esena. Ulterior, transcendena ia
chipul att de cunoscut al tatlui care se prezint ca om altor oameni i numai un accident
minor l face s-i dezvluie natura suprasensibil. Tatl i aga pufoaica nveliul
material, grosier, opac n clana de la u i i dezvluie natura suprasensibil. Dar i
aceast natur suprasensibil este, la rndul ei, sugerat de oglind, de lentile. De-abia cnd
imaginea tatlui dispare (aluzie oare la drumul spre Emaus?), adevrata identitate a tatlui
este revelat fiului: () am tiut, cnd nu l-am mai vzut / c a fost un nger, / un Dumnezeu
fragil de care trebuie s am mare grij, / ca s nu mi-l strice cineva (ntoarcerea fiului
risipitor, p. 67).
n partea a VI-a, Splarea picioarelor, doar versurile 1 i 2 - Ay, am tiut c chipul
meu e talpa cu care calc descul n ochii Ti! / Ay, am tiut c n faa Ta faa mea ntng e
talpa dup care voi fi judecat (ntoarcerea fiului risipitor, p. 65) justific titlul. Ar trebui s
avem conform indicaiilor subtitlului scena care are loc cu ocazia euharistiei. Echivalena feei
cu talpa pare surprinztoare, ns nu i dac nelegem c faa, chipul este ceea ce reprezint
fiina uman n faa transcendenei. Aceast interpretare este ntregit de cea biblic n care
Iisus este considerat ntiprirea slavei lui Dumnezeu. Brbieritul vine ca o pedeaps divin
conform profetului Isaia21, dar i ca o purificare, ca o imagine a fiinei omeneti dezbrcat de
impuriti, splat de semnele aparenei i ale timpului. Este ncercarea fiinei superioare, a
poeziei de a pregti att creatorul, ct i cititorul pentru emergena unei lumi noi. Poezia este
dintr-o alt dimensiune, ea nu se las cunoscut dect de cel ce se deschide spre ea, marile ei
adevruri nu pot fi revelate de celui ce se pregtete pentru aceast iniiere. Fiina liric
Dicionarul de imagini i simboluri biblice (2011: 1061) aduce cteva precizri referitoare la semnificaia
acestui animal ritual: apul ispitor este menionat n Biblie doar o singur dat, n Lev. 16, ca parte a unui
ritual pentru anuala Zi a Ispirii. Preotul trebuia s trag la sori doi api. Unul dintre ei era sacrificat ca jertf
pentru pcat; iar cellalt, ales prin tragere la sori, era dus viu n afara taberei dup ce preotul i pusese minile
peste el i mrturisise peste acesta pcatele israeliilor. (Lev. 16:7-10; 20-22, 26). apul este aadar animalul
care preia pcatele omeneti i aduce izbvirea de pcat, fiind o ofrand pentru Azazel. El este simetrizat n Noul
Testament cu Iisus, mielul lui Dumnezeu dup cum l numete Ioan Boteztorul , dei imaginea apului
ispitor nu este aplicat niciodat direct la Iisus, Fiul lui Dumnezeu fiind jertfa pentru pcatele omenirii i o
ofrand pentru Dumnezeu. Unele aspecte ale justificrii ultime ale lui Christos sunt prefigurate de ritualul apului
ispitor. n spaiul semantic al poemului lui I. Murean semnificaiile converg ctre un sens unitar: fiina poetic
se ipostaziaz succesiv n entiti zoomorfe sau antropomorfe care au, n esen, aceeai valoare simbolic dual
ce coaguleaz att funcia sacrificial, ct i rolul creator al poetului.
21
Isaia, cap. 7, vs. 20: n ziua aceea, Domnul va rade, cu un brici luat cu chirie de dincolo de Ru, i anume cu
mpratul Asiriei, capul i prul de pe picioare; ba va rade chiar i barba.
20
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creatoare se afl n comuniune cu ideea poetic, ns dup ce a ieit din starea de inspiraie pe
care ea o confer, creatorul nelege c s-a ntlnit cu poezia. Se pare c, dup ntlnirea cu
dumnezeul poeziei, eul poetic a regsit, n sfrit, timpul pierdut, n manier proustian
vorbind, deoarece, n spaiul crciumii, spaiu al transcendenei acum, Acolo bea omul cot la
cot cu nchipuirile lui. Acolo beau nchipuirile cot la cot cu nchipuirile. Acolo cel ce noaptea
viseaz, bea dimineaa cot la cot cu cei pe care i-a visat () (ntoarcerea fiului risipitor, p.
68). Poezia devine un daimon ce se mic ntre dou lumi, aceea a crciumii de jos i aceea a
crciumii din cer. Odat revenite la starea lor pur, originar, cuvintele rostite se transform i
devin poezie. Trecute n dimensiunea artei, cuvintele sunt receptate altfel, aduc srbtoare a
spiritului, celebreaz fericirea: Iar fericirea? Fericirea este atunci cnd ies cu toii la ferestre
i-i pun paharele la ochi i vd pn acas, pe pmnt i-l vd pe Dumnezeu cum trece nalt
i majestuos, i-i ca un cocostrc cu lungi picioare ce calc de pe un acoperi de crcium pe
altul, de pe un horn de crcium pe altul. Iar fumu-i urc pe picioare ca iedera descrierii-n
poeme (ntoarcerea fiului risipitor, p. 69). Graia le aparine, astfel, tuturor vizionarilor. Ca
i la Proust, n Timpul regsit, cel care a neles c moartea i viaa devin relative, dac ai
biruit timpul, i cel cuprins de aburii alcoolului nelege c nemurirea e o stare ce poate fi
atins prin desprinderea de contingent, prin renunarea la iluzia pe care i-o confer
materialitatea, prin ieirea din nchisoarea trupului. Simbolic, desprinderea de materialitate
este redat prin imaginea picioroangelor menite s nale fiina aflat pe ele, mult mai sus fa
de orizontala pe care pete omul comun. Este sugerat aici trecerea la un alt nivel al
contiinei ce confer posibilitatea receptrii acelei realiti aflate la originea lumii superioare
care este modelul i sursa existenei materiale.
Poetul folosete n aceast secven o metafor, o echivalen chipul-talp care, pe
de-o parte, justific subtitlul Splarea picioarelor, iar, pe de alt parte, sugereaz raportarea la
divinitate n sensul c acest chip se nfieaz primul vederii lui Dumnezeu: Ay, am tiut c
chipul meu e talpa cu care calc descul n ochii Ti! , dar, n acelai timp, e o dovad a
umilitii fiinei descoperite n ntregime transcendentului i care, maculat fiind, trebuie
purificat. Cel care o va face, din nou, e nsui Dumnezeu, care l va brbieri pe eul poetic i
pe toi cei aflai n crcium, ntruct toi sunt chipul lui Dumnezeu. n final, viziunea lui
Dumnezeu i-l vedeam pe el cum se apleca grijuliu trecnd pe sub merii ncrcai, / i cum
ndeprtndu-se se apropie clcnd cu cizmele albastre de cauciuc prin / macii roii, / prin
cicori albastre, prin iarba ud, cu pufoaica neagr pe umeri i / srind peste anul npdit de
urzici i am tiut, cnd nu l-am mai vzut, / c a fost un nger, / un Dumnezeu fragil de care
trebuie s am mare grij, / ca s nu mi-l strice cineva. (p. 67) se suprapune cu imaginea lui
Iisus, avnd n vedere sugestia Cinei cele de Tain, dar i cu anumite reprezentri zooantropomorfe, precum crbuul, libelula, porcul mistre i apul: i stnd acolo, la mas, am
auzit dinspre Podul Hingherilor uieratul trenului / si am vzut prin fereastr cum tufele de
aluni se mic, / am vzut tufele de spini i porumbari din marginea pdurii c se mic, / am
vzut ppuriul negru c se mic, / de parc ar fi vrut s ias din ele un porc mistre. / Dar
noi l-am vzut pe el cum se apleca grijuliu trecnd pe sub merii ncrcai, / cum cobora
clcnd cu cizmele albastre de cauciuc printre maci / i cicori, prin iarba ud, cu pufoaica
neagr pe umeri i / srind peste anul npdit de urzici i / trecnd strada cum ar trece peste
o oglind neagr i vlurit. / Iar soarele sta ca un muuroi cu furnici roii deasupra livezii.
(p. 62-63); Iar cnd a vrut s plece, i-a plecat, / un buzunar i s-a agat uor n clana de la
u i i-a czut pufoaica / de pe umeri: / din spate prea crbu de sticl / i prea libelul de
cristal, / fiindc pe spate avea patru lentile, / avea dou perechi de ochelari, mari, prini cu
curelue negre peste piept / i l-am vzut prin geam cum trece strada, ca pe-o oglind neagr,
vlurit, / i, cum se-ndeprta nspre livad. / i-n ochelarii ce-i purta n spate, / vedeam cum
se mic tufele de spini i porumbarii din marginea pdurii, / de parc ar fi vrut s ias dintre
ele un ap, / i vedeam ppuriul negru c se mic, / de parc ar fi vrut s ias din el un porc
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mistre. / i-l vedeam pe el cum se apleca grijuliu trecnd pe sub merii ncrcai, / i cum
ndeprtndu-se se apropie clcnd cu cizmele albastre de cauciuc prin / macii roii, / prin
cicori albastre, prin iarba ud, cu pufoaica neagr pe umeri i / srind peste anul npdit de
urzici i am tiut, cnd nu l-am mai vzut, / c a fost un nger, / un Dumnezeu fragil de care
trebuie s am mare grij, / ca s nu mi-l strice cineva. (ntoarcerea fiului risipitor, p. 66- 67).
Se gliseaz, din nou, incontestabil, spre aceeai figur supralicitat, n ntreaga liric a
poetului, a demonului-vizionar, ntruct toate aceste ipostaze ale sinelui converg pentru a se
unifica i a se totaliza n nsi vocea creatorului de poezie.
Partea a VIII-a este simetrizat cu a II-a, purtnd acelai titlu: Martorul. Martorul este,
de fapt, poetul n care coexist att fiul risipitor cu natura sa demonic-vizionar, ct i Ilie,
ipostaza sacrificial a sinelui. Revenirea acas este echivalent cu moartea, dar moartea nu
are ce cuta n poezie, dup cum declar poetul care are contiina c actul vizionar
mprtete destinul eternitii, dovad fiind marile spirite vizionare care beau, n continuare,
la Crciuma din cer i Acesta este adevrul, dei e greu de crezut (ntoarcerea fiului
risipitor, p. 71). Aproape toate scenariile i imaginile biblice22 sunt deturnate de la sensul lor
originar n poem. Ca vrst spiritual, fiul este mai btrn dect prinii si i nici mcar nu se
tie dac el este cel ateptat. Mai mult, prinii si sunt mori, chiar dac vin s-i revad fiul
la crciuma de la Broasca Verde. Casa este simetrizat cu crciuma. Dac fiul risipitor din
pilda biblic i asum experienele de cunoatere, Ilie din textul lui I. Murean nu are aceast
posibilitate, iar ospul n cinstea ntoarcerii fiului se transform ntr-un ceremonial funebru.
Ofranda n textul sacru este vielul, iar n poezie este omul, pentru c fiul mort este nvelit
ntr-un viel mort. Fiul risipitor care moare n finalul poemului mprumut pe parcurs masca
unor personaje biblice care au biruit moartea sau nu au gustat-o, printre care se numr i
Ilie23 cel biblic. Dac, n textul sacru, Ilie, n timpul ridicrii la cer n carul de foc i arunc
mantaua peste Elisei, nvestindu-l, prin aceast nvelire ritualic, cu o putere profetic
ndoit n raport cu a sa, n poemul lui I. Murean, semnificaiile se rstoarn din nou: Ilie este
cel nvelit ritualic, de data aceasta, n vielul mort, iar nsemnele puterii sunt substituite cu
sigiliul morii. Astfel, ndoita putere profetic devine ndoita moarte Ilie moare, iar vielul
era proaspt tiat. nlarea se metamorfozeaz tragic n cdere, ascensiunea devine
descindere n moarte. n cele din urm, ntoarcerea a euat: cltoria fiului risipitor a fost
inutil, iertarea este inutil, cunoaterea este inutil24. Finalul parabolei fiului risipitor este,
spre deosebire, de istorisirea biblic, i el tragic, rsturnat, cu accente groteti, parodice.
n articolul Metafizica alcoolului, G. Neagoe remarc prezena a dou seciuni distincte ale Crii Alcool:
Poemul alcoolicilor trebuie citit n oglind cu dou seciuni ale crii Alcool. Una pstreaz problematica
religioas i se afl n episodul VII din ntoarcerea fiului risipitor. () Cea de-a doua ine de arta poetic, aflat
la baza ntregului volum (p. 17). Distincia ni se pare, mai degrab, inoperant, la fel ca aceea ntre lirismul
mistic i cel bahic, avansat de Horia Grbea, pentru c nu vizeaz substana ca atare a poeziei lui I. Murean.
Prin natura lor de arte poetice, majoritatea implicite, poemele lui I. Murean rmn, n esena lor, profund
vizionare i doar tangenial i accidental de inspiraie religioas, miturile care stau la baza volumelor fiind
resemantizate integral potrivit imperativelor poeticii neoexpresioniste.
23
Conform Dicionarului onomastic cretin (2009: 280-281), etimologia numelui propriu Ilie, n ebraic Elijahu,
trimite la cele dou nume date lui Dumnezeu El i Jahve traduse prin Domnul este adevratul Dumnezeu
ce reliefeaz credina monoteist n Dumnezeu biruitoare, dup artarea semnului ceresc, n faa aceleia n zeul
Baal. Dup cum ilustreaz izvoarele biblice si ale onomasticoanelor, Sfntul Ilie a luptat cu numeroi idolatri.
Sfntul este autorul unor minuni, iar ceea ce trebuie menionat este ridicarea acestuia la cer, ntr-un car de foc,
minune care are loc n faa ucenicului su, Elisei. Prezena Sfntului Ilie alturi marele proroc Moise pe Muntele
Taborului la Schimbarea la Fa este o descoperire a Tainei dumnezeieti, a lucrrii Tatlui prin Fiul, dar i un
indiciu c Sfntul Ilie este naintemergtorul la a doua venire a Mntuitorului.
24
G. Mocua (2011) vede n volumul Cartea Alcool o metafor a creaiei i sintetizeaz mesajul poemului astfel:
Viziunile sale profane din ciclul ntoarcerea fiului risipitor constituie o cumplit dovad a unei experiene de
aici i de dincolo. Iar finalul grotesc cu tierea vielului cel gras i a mpachetrii mortului n viel e o vesel
apocalips, ca i poemul final, Ci eu singur sub pmnt care reia motivul judecii de apoi ntr-o viziune ironic,
22
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Semnificaia nvierii este deturnat de la nelesul ei originar, suportnd modificri

sensibile. nvierea lui Iisus nu este numai argumentul c toi vor nvia, iar cei buni vor merge
n rai, ci este, n primul rnd, dovada c, dup moarte, toi vizionarii care au but n birtul
Broasca Verde vor nvia n spirit ca s revin n crciuma-rai: (Predica ttlui la Brosca
Verde subl. n.) i a vorbit cu spatele la noi: () S nu v fie fric de paianjeni! () /
pianjenii-s seifurile voastre. / Ay, n curnd vom adormi cu toii, / dar dac credem, cei din
Broasca Verde, c Iisus a murit i a nviat, / s credem i c cei ce-am adormit vom reveni
aici / n birtul acesta, i / o s gsim cu toii n paianjeni snge curat i proaspt / pentru o
lume nou / i a ridicat paharul i l-a lovit de bar i a zis Amin! i apoi a zis / Noroc! /
i s-a ntors spre noi i a scos briciul. (ntoarcerea fiului risipitor, p. 63-65). Aadar, pn la
urm, paradisul devine ceea ce i dorete fiecare, iar, pentru insul etilizat i vizionar, acesta
rmne crciuma: Crciumile de aici, de pe pmnt, nu-s dect umbre palide ale crciumii
unice din ceruri, crciuma aceea rezemat cu un perete de peretele Raiului. (ntoarcerea
fiului risipitor, p. 67). Textul poemului intr n dialog cu Epistola lui Pavel ctre evrei: n
adevr, Legea, care este umbra bunurilor viitoare, nu nfiarea adevrat a lucrurilor, nu
poate niciodat, prin aceleai jertfe care se aduc nencetat n fiecare an, s fac desvrii pe
cei ce se apropie.25 Raionamentul este acelai, ns efectul produs de aceast
intertextualitate este ducerea n derizoriu, dac nu cumva materializarea concepiei lui
Leibnitz conform creia morala rmne moral, chiar dac totul se petrece invers n raport cu
ceea ce omul este obinuit s accepte ca fiind etic i moral i n msura n care aceast moral
este acceptat de o societate. n aceast perspectiv, crciuma, dei este perceput de raiunea
omului comun ca loc al pierzaniei, este ridicat de eul creator care locuiete acest spaiu la
rang de paradis.
Cu toate c scenariul poemului interfereaz cu textul sacru, c se pot repera aici aluzii,
termeni, sintagme, evenimente sau personaje biblice, c referinele la scrierilor sacre 26 sunt
numeroase, ntoarcerea fiului risipitor nu poate fi interpretat n cheie religioas, ntruct
majoritatea simbolurilor sunt rsturnate i resemantizate.
Vzut i acest poem din perspectiva artei poetice, ni se pare legitim interpretarea
conform creia poetul nu mai are orgoliul de a crea semnificaii noi, ci ncearc doar s aduc
unele elemente complementare sau s inverseze polaritatea unor mituri n tentativa de a aduce
ceva nou, ns aceast ncercare este sortit eecului: i eu am scris poezii. / Dar asta o spun
cu ruine. C eram tnr i flmnd. / i aveam grij de porci, i i invidiam / cum mnnc ei
bostanul auriu i cartoful alb i tra cafenie, / i loboda catifelat i urzica fiart. Uitarea din
ruine se hrnete. / Dar eu nu sunt contabilul celor ce le-am uitat. (ntoarcerea fiului
risipitor, p. 69).
tioas. Cartea Alcool este metafora creaiei care te trezete la realitate i te provoac, o metafor care modific
aadar concepia tradiional a refugiului n alcool, irealitate, vis, delir. () Ion Murean este singurul poet care
renun la poezia sa, dar numai dup ce a scris-o. Iar ntoarcerea sa, ca i a fiului rtcitor e un nonsens, e
cunoaterea inutil: Acesta e adevrul, dei e greu de crezut.
25
Epistola lui Pavel ctre evrei, cap. 10, vs. 1, p.118, n Biblia sau Sfnta Scriptur a Vechiului i a Noului
Testament (trad. Dumitru Cornilescu), Oradea, Metanoia, 2006.
26
n articolul Murean colonizatorul, M. Iovnel i propune o abordare aproape didactic a dou poeme:
ntoarcerea fiului risipitor i Sentimentul mrii ntr-o crcium mic, ale cror simboluri le decripteaz treptat i
pertinent. Punctul de vedere al autorului cu privire la semnificaiile poemului ntoarcerea fiului risipitor, la care
aderm i noi n studiul de fa, este c intertextualitatea biblic nu e tema, ci doar unul dintre mijloacele unei
poezii a crei miz st ntr-o problematic uman, att de uman c ar putea descrie i basmul Tineree fr
btrnee i via fr de moarte: uitarea (la Murean, prin alcool), memoria, nostalgia, remucarea. (Iovnel:
2011).
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Apelul la imaginarul metafizic de inspiraie (nu de factur!) cretin din poemele

Rugciune, Colind, nviere, Ci eu singur sub pmnt27, ntoarcerea fiului risipitor i Pahar
traduce aceeai preocupare fundamental a poetului pentru raportul creator-oper, acelai
vizionarism poetic proliferant care strbate toate volumele, tnete din toate fibrele poetice i
umple toate interstiiile poeziei lui I. Murean. Nume proprii sau comune (Dumnezeu, Maria,
Ilie, Iisus, fiul risipitor, martorul, diavolul etc.) termeni, expresii, personaje i situaii
mprumutate din Vechiul i Noul Testament (ntoarcerea fiului risipitor, naterea, moartea i
nvierea Mntuitorului, Splarea picioarelor la Cina cea de Tain, relevana legii divine,
Judecata de apoi etc.), mituri extrase din tradiia textologic cretin (mitul fiului risipitor,
mitul resureciei, mitul eschatologic sau soteriologic etc.) invadeaz, pe alocuri, spaiul poetic,
figurnd cu semnificat modificat i cu titlu aproape egal alturi de ali termeni din limbajul
cotidian. Ele nu au pentru poet o semnificaie sau o valoare religioas pentru c I. Murean
nu este un poet de factur religioas i nu este adeptul unui lirism religios, pozitiv, angajat, de
tipul celui al lui Ioan Alexandru , ci, sunt, mai degrab, laice, cu conotaii mistice,
subsumndu-i o valoare metaforico-simbolic, ntruct poeziile n care apar sunt arte poetice
implicite a cror tematic camuflat este, din nou, creaia, relaia artist-oper.
De altfel, n numeroase poeme subiectul creator poart nsemnele demonizatului,
bolnavului, strinului, nebunului, agonicului care i proiecteaz un dublu. n toate aceste
circumstane, el pierde orice control al mtilor i asist neputincios i triumfal, totodat, la
multiplicarea lor haotic, halucinant, devenind un uria reflector al lumii, un simulacru de
fiin cu o identitate incert, mereu instabil. Contiina poetic vizionar capteaz i
asimileaz ontologicul n fiina sa, conferind subiectului creator identitatea unei holograme, a
unui puzzle uria al realitii sublimate care se constituie prin uitare, dup cum afirma,
odinioar, poetul. Proieciile vizionare aduc n prim-plan imaginea multiplicat a lui Orfeu28,
stpnul tenebrelor, trm locuit, n prezent, de acelai eu orfic care cnt, prin vocea
ngerailor, acelai cntec negru din capul su, pentru c a vzut esenele i i-a asumat
demonia.
Prizonier ntre arcadele derizoriului ontologic din care orice urm de sacralitate s-a
retras i ctre care toate semnele transcendenei s-a nchis, ncarcerat n cronopul infernal al
realitii cotidiene, poetul mrturisete constant starea de criz, revelaiile sale de damnat, dar,
prin cltoriile fantaste sau groteti ale sufletului i prin tentaia permanent a absolutului, el
particip, de fapt, la reconstrucia ideal (n Idee, n semnul poetic) a realitii, la resurecia ei
n plan poetic, pentru a deveni el nsui o epifanie a demiurgului, un geometru al lumilor i
revelaiilor poetice, nu numai un simplu receptacol al sacrului. Resurecia fiinei prin
Scenariul biblic este dejucat i n Ci eu singur sub pmnt n favoarea conturrii unuia tipic expresionist care
evindeiaz spaiul tenebral al esenelor locuit de eul vizionar. Mesajul transmis este acela c la vremea Judecii
de apoi fiecare va ajunge n paradisul pe care i l-a imaginat, iar ereticii etilizai au o singur opiune de izbvire
din supliciile bolgiilor: Poezia, dup care se vor rentlni toi n crciuma-paradis din cer.
28
Pe urmele altor critici i a unor fructuoase lecturi, G. Moarc (2008: 199-210) fixeaz asumarea integral
vizionarismului lui I. Murean odat cu poemul Orfeu figur mitologic reiterat aproape laitmotivic n lirica
poetului: Eu am ntors capul i asta ar fi trebuit s fac / de la bun nceput. Tentaia de a explora
extrasensibilul, de a transgresa, n actul poetic, barierele lumii fenomenale i de a accesa noumenalul apare i
aici mpreun cu consecinele ei: Prin aerul ca smntna eu singur am scobit i / am vzut: / pn departe
paravan dup paravan. / iar deasupra fiecruia zeci de capete ale ei inute / ntre mini / cu mnui negre. / Oh,
zecile ei de capete mici i / rotunde, capete ct bnuii de aram (Orfeu, Poemul care nu poate fi neles).
Poetul-Orfeu privete napoi avnd fora de a strbate cu privirea imperceptibilul, tenebrele, de a accesa esenele
divinitii i ale lumii subpmntene. Euridice, n ipostaza ei sacrificial, devine o imagine n oglind, un dublu
al poetului, al condiiei creatoare. Sacrificiul de sine este tributul pe care l implic actul vizionar. Autoarea
studiului puncteaz cu acribie ideea c mitul orfic se conjug, deseori, cu mitul jertfei creatoare. Consecina este
c ipostaza orfic a poetului se asociaz constant cu alte fee vizionare ale acestuia: dublul, strinul, bolnavul
sinele mort, demonul n poeme ca Minunata plutire, Poemul pedagogic, Odaia mortului, Eu i necatul,
Lanurile peste ferestre, Convorbiri cu diavolul din cel de-al doilea volum.
27
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translaia n domeniul att de impalpabil al fantasmelor poeticitii (I. Boldea) coincide cu

asumarea condiiei de fiin negativ, n sens hegelian, care nu accept lumea aa cum i se d
- a fost demult./ i o singur dat (Facerea lumii Cartea Alcool) peste care guverneaz n
tcere Zeul Trebuie tat s rmi ntre lucrurile utile (Autoportret la tineree Cartea de
iarn) , ci i construiete el propria lume adecvat finalitilor sale spirituale, o lume n care
salvarea devine posibil numai prin locuirea poetic.
Convorbiri cu diavolul i ntoarcerea fiului risipitor prezint, n dou scenarii
dramatice colosale, proiectele soteriologice al eului, transcriind dinamica antinomic a
spectrelor interioritii ca spectacol tragic al nstrinrii. n ambele texte poetice, dimensiunea
fiinei poetice se hipertrofiaz prin acumulare succesiv de identiti, imaginile sinelui
prolifereaz halucinant pentru a cristaliza diverse figuri lirice cu valoare escatologic i/sau
soteriologic care pun n lumin condiia dual a acestuia n raport cu propriile viziuni
poetice: demiurg i demon, clu i victim, privilegiat i damnat. Feele vizionare se
multiplic i se obiectiveaz n instane lirice duale, dar consubstaniale, care i disput
supremaia i autenticitatea n fiina poetului angajat lucid n procesul de recalibrare
permanent a sinelui: beivul, omul cu o distilerie mic pe umr, martorul, Strinul despre
care se vorbete cu iubire, Strinul despre care se vorbete cu dispre, Tiresias-orbul,
nebunul, Orfeu29, Iisus, Ulise, fiul risipitor, Ilie, demonul, ngerul etc. Vocea apolinic a
poetului fuzioneaz cu cea dionisiac, raiunea cu fantezia, realul cu imaginarul, viziunea
mitic cu concretul realitii nsei. Aceste proliferri ale imaginilor sinelui sunt generate, n
lirica lui I. Murean, de imperativul resurecional al interioritii poetice. Imersiunea n
fantasmele interioritii sau n revelaiile imaginarului (I. Boldea) coincide cu poeza
nsi, cu geneza lumilor poetice i este procesul recurent de asumare a destinului creator i
de redempiune a sinelui vizionar.
Orfeu este figura mitologic reiterat aproape laitmotivic n lirica poetului: Eu am ntors capul i asta ar fi
trebuit s fac / de la bun nceput. Tentaia de a explora extrasensibilul, de a transgresa, n actul poetic, barierele
lumii fenomenale i de a accesa noumenalul este omniprezent n poezia lui I. Murean mpreun cu consecinele
ei: Eu am ntors capul i asta ar fi trebuit s fac / de la bun nceput. / Prin aerul ca smntna eu singur am scobit
i / am vzut: / pn departe paravan dup paravan, / iar deasupra fiecruia zeci de capete ale ei inute / ntre
mini / cu mnui negre. / Oh, zecile ei de capete mici i / rotunde, capete ct bnuii de aram. (Orfeu
Poemul care nu poate fi neles). Pe urmele altor critici i a unor fructuoase lecturi, G. Moarc (2008: 199-210)
fixeaz asumarea integral vizionarismului lui I. Murean odat cu poemul Orfeu figur mitologic recurent
n lirica poetului. Poetul-Orfeu privete napoi avnd fora de a strbate cu privirea imperceptibilul, tenebrele, de
a accesa esenele divinitii i ale lumii subpmntene. Euridice, n ipostaza ei sacrificial, devine o imagine n
oglind, un dublu al poetului, al condiiei creatoare. Sacrificiul de sine este tributul pe care l implic actul
vizionar. Autoarea studiului puncteaz cu acribie ideea c mitul orfic se conjug, deseori, cu mitul jertfei
creatoare. Consecina este c ipostaza orfic, vizionar a poetului se asociaz constant cu feele sacrificiale ale
acestuia: dublul, strinul, nebunul, demonul, sinele mort ca n poemele Minunata plutire, Poemul pedagogic,
Odaia mortului, Eu i necatul, Lanurile peste ferestre, Convorbiri cu diavolul din cel de-al doilea volum.
29
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Bibliografie
I. Corpus de opere
Murean, Ion, Cartea de iarn, Bucureti, Editura Cartea Romneasc, 1981.
Murean, Ion, Poemul care nu poate fi neles, Trgu Mure, Editura Arhipelag, 1993.
Murean, Ion, Cartea Alcool, Bistria, Editura Charmides, 2010.
Murean, Ion, Cartea pierdut - o poetic a urmei (eseuri), Bistria, Editura Aletheia,
1998.
II. Referine critice generale. Critic i istorie literar, hermeneutic, poetic,
lingvistic etc.
Volume individuale
Boldea, Iulian (coord.), Ion Murean: Poetul for ever, Trgu-Mure, Editura Ardealul,
2008.
Boldea, Iulian, De la modernism la postmodernism, Trgu Mure, Editura Universitii
Petru Maior, 2011.
Boldea, Iulian, Poei romni postmoderni, Trgu-Mure, Editura Ardealul, 2006.
Boldea, Iulian, Scriitori romni contemporani, Trgu-Mure, Editura Ardealul, 2002.
Cistelecan, Al., Al doilea top, Braov, Editura Aula, 2004.
Culianu, Ioan P., Cltorii n lumea de dincolo, Bucureti, Editura Nemira, 1994.
Manolescu, Nicolae, Istoria critic a literaturii romne, Piteti, Editura Paralela 45,
2008.
Micu, Dumitru, Limbaje lirice contemporane, Bucureti, Editura Minerva, 1988;
Mincu, Marin, Eseu despre textul poetic, Bucureti, Editura Cartea Romneasc, 1988.
Oiteanu, Andrei, Narcotice n cultura romn, Iai, Editura Polirom, 2014.
Petrescu, Ioana Em., Configuraii, Cluj-Napoca, Editura Dacia, 1981.
Volume colective
Boldea, Iulian (coord.), Ion Murean: Poetul for ever, Trgu-Mure, Editura Ardealul,
2008.
III. Dicionare, enciclopedii, antologii etc.
Dicionare
Blan-Mihailovici, Aurelia, Dicionar onomastic cretin, Bucureti, Editura Sophia,
2009. Biedermann, Hans, Dicionar de simboluri, Bucureti, Editura Saeculum I. O., 2002.
Chevalier, J., Gheerbrant, A., Dicionar de simboluri, Bucureti, Editura Artemis,
1993.
Evseev, Ivan, Dicionar de simboluri i arhetipuri culturale, Timioara, Editura
Amarcord, 1994.
Reid, Daniel G., Dicionarul Noului Testament, Oradea, Casa Crii Oradea, 2008.
Ryken, Leland, Wilhoit, James C., Longman III, Tremper, Dicionar de imagini i
simboluri biblice, Oradea, Casa Crii Oradea, 2011.
Antologii
Crciun, Gheorghe (coord.), Competiia continu. Generaia 80 n texte teoretice,
Piteti, Editura Paralela 45, 1999.
Creu, Bogdan (pref.), Butorii de absint. Traian T. Coovei, Nichita Danilov, Ion
Murean, Ioan Es. Pop, Liviu Ioan Stoiciu, Piteti, Editura Paralela 45, 2007.
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IV. Publicistic. Studii, articole, cronici literare, recenzii, interviuri n periodice

etc.
Adamek, Diana, Ion Murean i puterile de departe, n Vatra nr. 4, 2008.
Alex Goldi, Teatrul interior al alcoolului, n revista Cutura, nr. 305, 24 decembrie
2010.
Antoanesei, Liviu, Poeii mei: Ion Murean, o revenire, n Observatorul cultural, nr.
561, februarie 2011.
Antonesei, Liviu, Poeii mei: Ion Murean, n Observatorul cultural, nr. 534, iulie
2010.
Bodiu, Andrei, Optzecism i postmodernism, n revista Sud-Est, nr. 4, Republica
Moldova, 2001.
Boldea, Iulian O carte-eveniment (Ion Murean, cartea Alcool. Bistria: Editura
Charmides, 2010), n Apostrof, anul XXII, nr. 4 (251), 2011.
Cernat, Paul, Chinta royal a optzecitilor nocturni, n Bucuretiul cultural, nr.3 /
12 februarie 2008;
Ciotlo, Cosmin, Stri de spirit, n Romnia literar, 03.12. 2010.
Cistelecan, Al., Logosul ca lacrimarium , n Cultura, 27.05.2010.
Cistelecan, Al., Scurt prospect n favoarea poeziei tinere, n Vatra, nr. 1-2, 2007.
Cistelecan, Al., Sinteza mureean, n Viaa Romneasc, nr. 3-4 / 2012.
Constantinescu, Radu, Am fi toi geniali de-am reui s facem cuvntul una cu gndul
- Interviu cu Ion Murean, n Ziarul de duminic, nr. 2, 18 ianuarie 2008.
Creu, Bogdan, ntre realitate i imaginaie nu mai exist nici o limit, ele comunic
firesc, se completeaz fericit, n Contemporanul, Nr. 1 (730), ianuarie 2013.
Cristea, Dan, Cartea de iarn, Luceafrul, nr. 46, 1981.
Cristea-Enache, Daniel, ntoarcerea poetului (I), n Ziarul de duminic, 10 martie
2011. Cristea-Enache, Daniel, ntoarcerea poetului (II),, n Ziarul de duminic, 16 martie
2011.
Cristea-Enache, Daniel, Tnrul Murean (I), n Romnia literar, nr. 25-26, 2013.
Cristea-Enache, Daniel, Tnrul Murean (II), n Romnia literar, nr. 31, 2013.
februarie, 2008.
Galaicu-Pun, Emilian, Paradisuri distilate (cartea Alcool de Ion Murean), cronic
literar n Contrafort, nr. 1-2 (195-196), ianuarie-februarie 2011.
George Neagoe, Metafizica alcoolului, n Caiete critice, nr. 1, 2011.
Gheorghe, Cezar, O nou dereglare a tuturor simurilor. Ion Murean, cartea
Alcool, n Observatorul cultural, nr. 558, ianuarie 2011.
Grigurcu, Gheorghe, Expresionism & avangard, n Romnia literar, nr. 9, 2005.
Grigurcu, Gheorghe, Expresionism & avangard, n Romnia literar, nr. 9, 2005.
Grigurcu, Gheorghe, O acuitate dureroas, n Romnia literar, nr. 15, 2008.
Grigurcu, Gheorghe, O acuitate dureroas, n Romnia literar, nr. 15, 2008.
Holban, Ioan, Cci nu toate sunt inexprimabile i nici toate exprimabile (Ion
Murean), n Dacia literar, nr. 112-113 (1-2), 2013.
Iovnel, Mihai, Murean colonizatorul, n Cultura, nr. 313, 3 martie 2011.
Manole, Cristina, Lecturi n vremuri de austeritate. Alcoolurile lui Ion Murean, n
Observatorul cultural, nr. 554, decembrie 2010.
Manolescu, Nicolae, Cei mai tineri scriitori, n Romnia literar, nr. 47, 1979.
Mincu, tefania, Risipitorul Ion Murean, n Contemporanul, anul XXII, nr. 8
(713), august 2011.
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Moarc, Georgeta, Expresioniti dup expresionism, n Romnia literar, nr. 3,

2008.
Mocua, Gheorghe, Ion Murean: ngerul czut, n Arca, nr. 4-5-6 / 2011.
Nicolau, Felix-Narcis, Marea evadare, n Ziarul de Duminic, nr. 3, 1 iulie 2011.
Pantea, Aurel, Un satyr convertit la orfism sau un Orfeu satyric, n Romnia
literar, nr. 11, seciunea Lecturi, anul 2011.
Petrescu, Ioana Em., Sub semnul principiului antropic, n ,,Steaua, 40, nr. 9/1989.
Pop, Ion, Noua poezie nou, n Echinox, nr. 8-9, 1979.
Rezan, Adela, Elemente suprarealiste n poezia optzecist (cap. Ion Murean o
poetic a epifaniei), tez de doctorat).
Zbrciog, Vlad, Ion Murean O nou dimensiune a gndirii poetice, n Hyperion,
Anul 31, numrul 4-5-6 (228-229-230), 2013.
POSDRU/159/1.5/S/133652.
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FROM WORD-MIRACLE TO WORD-WEAPON IN THE WORK OF NORMAN MANEA

Aurica STAN
University of Bucharest
Abstract: This work proposes a detailed analysis of the relationship that the writer Norman
Manea has with the Romanian language. The link is the more complex, the more the
contemporary author, one of the most translated Romanian writers outside the country, has
known the experience of Occidental exile, preceded by that of the concentration camp and of
communism. I have nevertheless opted to detach it from the purely linguistic area and project
it onto a plane of interiority. In this sense, we attempted to find the bottlenecks of this
relationship, activated and reactivated with each trauma that the character undergoes, as
well as the changes that occur at a linguistic level. The transition of the writer between two
different cultures the Romanian and the American one to which is added the Jewish
background circumscribes his work and writing vision into a complex poetic, coagulating
all elements decentralised from writings and from the identitary self-projection. In defining
this relationship, we will attempt to identify and analyse the modulations that the link between
Manea the writer and his original language suffers, depending on the socio-political and
ideological context.
Keywords: concentration camp, communism, trauma, Romanian language, outsider
n epoca totalitar, Norman Manea, conform propriilor sale afirmaii, a fost nevoit s
descopere, inevitabil, cuvntul ca arm, un logos n faa cruia eul i-a activat mecanismele
de precauie i de aprare. Tocmai din acest motiv voi analiza att cteva din scrierile
reprezentative din perioada 70-89 (care nu pot fi decupate din perimetrul literaturii exersate
sub comunismul naionalist-ceauist, marcate, de cele mai multe ori, de o form de cenzur
interioar a autorilor ei, practicani ai unui scris pe dedesubt), ct i cteva din cele scrise n
perioada exilului, testimonii ale unei dezrdcinri progresive. M voi concentra asupra
ultimelor menionate pentru c n acest punct al creaiei artistice este evident contaminarea
scrierilor din exil de noul cod lingvistic impus de mediu (americnismele, citatele n
englez), dar i de o viziune diferit asupra realitii.
Fidelitatea scriitorului Norman Manea fa de limba romn reprezint o modalitate
de supravieuire n exil sau, dimpotriv, ea acutizeaz toate implicaiile ce deriv din aceast
situaie?, este ntrebarea la care mi propun s rspund. Pe scurt, intenia mea rezid n
exploatarea valenelor pe care le-a implicat n cazul lui Norman Manea cuvntul-arm,
periculos, camuflat sub diverse mti textuale n perioada comunist. Interiorizat, devenit
miracol att la ntoarcerea din lagr, ct i n perioada exilului, cuvntul cu funcii
taumaturgice reconfigureaz la nivel simbolic geometria noului spaiu, circumscris exilului. n
consecin, acas se impregneaz de un relativism difuz, cci nu mai are corespondent ntr-un
loc anume, e aici i/ sau acolo, pretutindeni unde e posibil legtura cu limba nativ.
Cum i definete scriitorul Norman Manea relaia cu limba matern
n operele sale recente, autorul Norman Manea ncearc s ofere propria sa
variant la ntrebrile n legtur cu apartenena sa cultural, contient de numeroasele
interpretri ale criticii contemporane. ntrebat de zeci de ori dac se consider scriitor romn,
evreu sau american, autorul a rspuns de fiecare dat c limba interioritii sale rmne
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romna. Tocmai din acest motiv, a refuzat s scrie n german, englez sau iudaic. Cu toate
acestea, dialogul intern al autorului Norman Manea cu limba originar a suportat articulaii
majore cu fiecare experien capital de-a autorului: lagr comunism exil.
Problema lingvistic se grefeaz, n mod indubitabil, pe trauma repetitiv, cu cele trei
coordonate ale ei, i devine un instrument n procesul transcultural traversat de scriitor i
nceput, n mod involuntar, nc de la naterea sa Manea are origini evreieti. Epopeea
devenirii sale ncepe n anul huliganic 1941, la vrsta de cinci ani, continu cu anii de
comunism, n care lipsa reperelor i a opiunilor genereaz plecarea n Occident, o prelungire
a iniierii i o visceralizare a vechilor traume.
Raportul scriitorului cu background-ul lingvistic implic puternice inflexiuni
personale, prezumie ntrit i de mrturisirea recent a scriitorului din penultima sa carte
publicat n 2010.
,,Pentru mine, cuvntul de nceput a fost romnesc. Doctorul i cei care se
ngrijiser de dificila mea natere vorbeau romnete. [...] La cinci ani, cnd am fost deportat,
mpreun cu ntreaga populaie evreiasc a Bucovinei, n Transnistria, nu tiam dect
romnete. mpreun cu mine, n primul meu exod, dincolo de Nistru, s-a exilat i limba
romn1, se confeseaz scriitorul Norman Manea. Dup cum reiese i din acest text, primii
ani ai copilriei scriitorului, nainte de deportarea n Transnistria au stat sub semnul limbii
romne. Accesibilitatea la o gam variat de coduri (,,difuza potenialitate lingvistic cum o
numete memorialistul), adic copilria n snul unei comuniti n care idiul fuziona cu
germana, rusa i romna, nu faciliteaz o nbuire a fondului lingvistic primar, ci devine
sursa unei rtciri precoce, prelungit odat cu exilul. Ea apropie protagonistul i mai mult de
o limb interioar, iar spaiul constrngtor al exilului e redimensionat prin limbaj. n aceste
condiii, singurul acas recunoscut i asumat ca atare de protagonist a rmas limba romn.
n capitolul ,,Limba exilat din volumul Laptele negru, o culegere de texte
reprezentative privind evreitatea, condiia i misiunea scriitorului evreu n Cetate i n lume,
autorul susine c limba sa a devenit prta la toate experienele sale de via. n acest sens,
anii de lagr nu au marcat doar omul, ci i limba pe care acesta o vorbea, limb matern care a
nceput s fie complementat de alte idiomuri.
,,Limba n care m nscusem, exilat odat cu mine, fusese asediat n Transnistria
de cacafonia disperrii prigoniilor i a comenzilor ltrate ale sentinelelor. Fractura
calendarului care nsemnase lagrul nsemnase i invazia idiomurilor sale idi, german,
ucrainian, rus2, rememoreaz autorul. Practic, limba devine un tovar al vorbitorului,
martor al tuturor farselor pe care destinul i le pregtete acestuia.
Povestea furnizator de alternative la realitate, dar i de ameninri
Dup cum am menionat i anterior, n epoca totalitar scriitorul Norman Manea,,a
trebuit s descopere, inevitabil cuvntul ca arm, mpotriva sau n aprarea umanului3.
Manea expliciteaz transfigurarea cuvntului, n funcie de fundalul istoric, de
asumarea sau respingerea unor norme ideologice i, mai ales, de o filtrare prin sensibilitatea
proprie. Astfel, dac n copilrie, cuvntul-miracol guverneaz aparent ntreg universul
lingvistic i obiectual al subiectului, mai trziu acesta capt poleial metalic, precum tiul
armei. Trziul, asociat de Manea cu spaiul occidental, este reprezentat de ,,o societate deloc
Norman Manea, Laptele negru, Editura Hasefer, Bucureti, 2010, p. 412

Ibidem
3
Norman Manea, Nota autorului la Despre clovni: dictatorul i artistul, Biblioteca Apostrof, Cluj, 1997, p. 7
1
2
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monolitic [...], caracterizat de fapt, prin ambiguitate i duplicitate, mti i artificiu 4. n

fond, o reluare mecanic i constrngtoare a Romniei socialiste.
Nu de puine ori apare i o contaminare ntre cele dou determinante din titlu:
cuvintele din basme poart n sine primejdia (copilul din Octombrie, ora opt, o proiecie
narativ a autorului, redescoper cartea cu poveti la ntoarcerea din lagrul fascist. Lectura
nu mai are for taumaturgic, dezvluind micii fiine un univers amenintor, aidoma celui
experimentat), pe cnd cuvntul-arm se deconvenionalizeaz n timp, fie prin maturizarea
protagonistului (adolescentul generic din operele lui Manea de nceput recurge la un limbaj
violent form iluzorie de readaptare la mediu i de reconstruire neltoare a unei imagini
sociale), fie prin neconformarea la rigorismul lingvistic impus de cenzura ceauist. Astfel,
revelaia cuvntului-miracol e retrit prin lecturile maturitii i apoi prin scris.
Pentru a evidenia aceast transfigurare a cuvntului, vom analiza proza scurt
Povestea porcului, din volumul menionat anterior, Octombrie, ora opt5 (1981).
Revenit acas din lagr, copilul descoper cuvntul-miracol n crile de poveti
ale lui Ion Creang. El i proiecteaz un univers compensatoriu, inspirat din lumea basmelor.
Personajul-copil i exorcizeaz trecutul, aflat sub puterea unor cpcuni ai puterii, rescriindul pe textul povetii. Experiena lagrului devine trmul de dincolo, unul prsit. ntoarcerea
n casa natal echivaleaz cu o regsire a unui timp pierdut, al copilriei.
Asemeni protagonistului din basm, copilul redescoper toate minunile la care se
reconecteaz. Basmul e transpus n lumea real, ale crei reguli de funcionare nu se pliaz pe
schema narativ a povetii. Dac personajul din basm, la final, ,,cnd deschise ochii, regsi
ntr-adevr minunile palatului, n viaa personajului din realitatea imediat ,,revenise
spaima. Mai mult dect att, povestea, centrat pe un raport maniheist din care Binele iese
nvingtor, nu mai corespunde cu nimic realitii, ea devine chiar o matrice a unor sentimente
negative ,,povetile erau adevrate i conineau, toate, ameninarea. Orice putea deveni
orice, Povestea porcului. n acest univers postcarceral, unde lucrurile pot lua forme i chipuri
diferite, se pierd coordonatele normalitii. Binele, regsit la ntoarcere, capt aura
maleficului, traumele revin cu o putere ce dezechilibreaz verticalitatea fragil a copilului.
Trauma devine omniprezent n existena individului, coordonndu-i, n subsidiar, orice
aciune.
Comunismul, cu toate schimbrile pe care le angreneaz la nivel social i ideologic,
amplific efectele postraumatice. Individul nu mai poate de aceast dat supravieui
sistemului. Funciile imunitare ale organismului sunt slbite de prima experien, nicidecum
perfecionate. Care este soluia n acest context? Deprtarea, fuga, ndeprtarea de inima
ntunericului. Tentativele de evadare cu ct sunt exersate mai mult, cu att sunt sortite mai
mult eecului (Punctul de inflexiune). Revelatoare, este, n acest context, ncercarea de
trecere frauduloas a granielor prin not.6
n acest punct a creaiei, ne putem ntreba de ce autorul recurge la forme discursive
care ncifreaz substratul epic. Rspunsul nu e greu de gsit n 1981, anul n care este
publicat acest volum, mecanismele cenzurii erau vigilente. Preferina de a ficionaliza i,
4
Ibidem
Volumul menionat, aprut n 1981, se grefeaz pe o veche scriere, Primele pori (1975). Fa de volumul
Primele pori, lipsesc din sumarul acestei ediii prozele: Houl, Fierul de clcat dragostea, Dou
paturi, volumul de fa, admind pe de alt parte alte titluri distincte: Ghemele decolorate, Lipova,
Vara, Punctul de inflexiune, Portretul caisului galben, Peretele despritor i proza care d i titlul
volumului, Octombrie, ora opt
6
Apa, prin simbolistica sa trdeaz dorina de evaziune a fiinei din acest infern sartrian. Corin Braga
crede c ,,metafora obsedant care definete cel mai bine comunismul, aa cum este acesta perceput de
personaj, este cea a unui val uria care l izbete intermitent, n Ion Pop (coord.), Dicionar analitic de opere
literare romneti, vol. al II-lea, Editura Casa Crii de tiin, Cluj-Napoca, 2002, p. 195
5
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implicit, de a explota unui episod dureros din existen devine o alegere cu miz. n acest
context, scrierea, i nu lectura fie ea chiar i a basmelor devine singurul mod de
expiere a rului.
Prin aezarea discursului sub corolarul copilriei, autorul se rentoarce la ru i-l
destructureaz n structurile lui primare. Astfel, figura obsedant a copilului devine
anticipatorie pentru a maturului de mai trziu.
Marginalizat, figura copilului o anun pe cea a lui August Prostul, suprapus
visceral i definitiv pe structura interioar a scriitorului. Aceste dou alter-ego-uri narative
prin care destinul este atribuit altuia, devin singurele soluii de suportare i de depire a unei
traume repetitive.
Anecdota, alegoria, ironia ca depire a cenzurii n literatura lui Norman Manea
scris sub comunism
Referindu-se retrospectiv la acea perioad, Manea i reamintete cum ncerca s
se abat de la normele limbii de lemn, impuse de regimul comunism. ,,Limba nu mai era, nici
ea, aceeai. O aprasem, ct puteam, de presiunea limbii oficiale, trebuia s-o apr dup aceea
de suspiciunile i ostilitatea cenzurii, care mi masacra, la fiecare volum, fraze, sau paragrafe
sau capitole7, noteaz autorul n Laptele negru.
Pentru a pcli cenzura, Manea recurge la o serie de subterfugii lingvistice prin
care apr cuvntul de ameninarea normrii. Eforturile repetate au loc ntr-o epoc n care
mecanismele cenzurii inoculau scriitorului microbul precauiei i, deopotriv, lectorului
implicat, senzaia c devine prin lectur, coparticipant la un proces de revolt mpotriva
absurditii unui sistem ce urmrea serializarea produciei culturale.
Dup cum am precizat i anterior, Norman Manea ncepe s cultive n aceast
perioad anecdota, alegoria, ironia, strategii discursive dependente de context, presupunnd
intimitate cu discursurile dominante pe care le contest, avndu-i sursa i n ,,lehamitea de a
spori clieele suferinei deja clasificate i comercializate n repertoriul dizidenei esteuropene8. Mai mult, autorul manifest n aceast perioad un adevrat fetiism pentru mti,
bufoni, indivizi izolai, artiti, outsiders, n fond tot attea ipostaze auctoriale prin care
naratorul se obiectiveaz i se aaz n (dez)acord cu propria istorie personal n special, i cu
cea social, n general. Mai mult, acesta mizeaz pe dualiti conflictuale n esen (clovn i
dictator, cenzor i scriitor, copil-victim i clu, artist i muncitor) care se dovedesc
interanjabile identitar i discursiv.
Astfel, imediata instaurare a comunismului i a mecanismelor cenzurii
legitimeaz recurgerea la ironia subversiv9, izvort dintr-un ascuit sim al digerrii critice a
realitii n scrieri precum Captivi, 1970 (roman), Zilele i jocul, 1977, Fericirea obligatorie,
1999 (volume de povestiri). Sensibil la real, scriitorul gsete i n anecdot resursele unei
comunicri voalate, ale unui mesaj ambalat inteligent pe care, altfel, mecanismele cenzurii l
saboteaz programatic.
Anecdota, piesa de rezisten n eseul autobiografic Anii de
ucenicie ai lui August Prostul10, e accentuat de limbajul esopic i de opiunea pentru
Norman Manea, Laptele..., p. 415

Norman Manea, Despre clovni: dictatorul i artistul..., p. 7
9
Ironia este ,,figura retoric prin care se enun o apreciere pozitiv ori chiar o laud, simulat, pentru a
nelege c e vorba de o persiflare ori chiar de o batjocor la adresa unei persoane. [...] Ironia exprim contariul
a ceea ce vrea s comunice, n Gh. N. Dragomirescu, Mic Enciclopedie a figurilor de stil, Editura tiinific
i Enciclopedic, Bucureti, 1975, p. 96
10
Norman Manea, Anii de ucenicie ai lui August Prostul, Editura Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 1979
8
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metadiscurs. n aceast culegere, Norman Manea i perfecioneaz ceea ce el nsui numete

,,fora de a numi i de a ascunde11.
Scriitorul radiografiaz o epoc cu minuiozitatea unui clinician, avnd ca
instrumente ironia subversiv, fabula i anecdota (a furnicarului ca expresie a unei comuniti
nchise) i, prin urmare, limbajul esopic, tehnica colajului (autorul insereaz n cuprinsul
romanului fragmente din presa vremii, preponderent din Contemporanul), citate din scriitori
contemporani (Radu Cosau, Radu Petrescu).
n eseurile i recenziile cuprinse n prima parte a volumului despre scriitori romni
i strini, autorul rmne fidel esteticului, dezicndu-se de eticul vremii. Opiunea pentru
rezumat, centrarea exclusiv asupra textului vizat, jonglarea cu termeni mprumutai din teoria
literar, ignorarea i nemenionarea niciunui termen cu caracter politic vehiculat n epoc (de
tipul: spirit de partid, dihotomia erou pozitiv erou negativ, clasa muncitoare) dovedesc
erudiia eseistului, dublat de o atitudine estetic n faa literaturii, nicidecum etic-comunist.
Pe lng aceste caracteristici, consecvena stilului i a abordrii demasc trstura
programatic a comentariilor. Scriere de sertar i replic estetizant, detaat n faa
primitivismului intrinsec al unei epoci totalitare, culegerea de eseuri se dezice de orice
angajare de ordin politic, mai mult, proclamrii idiologiei comuniste prin literatura vehiculat
n epoc i rspunde printr-o investigaie de tip calofil, realizat pe un numr deloc neglijabil
de discursuri literare.
Titlurile eseurilor sunt refereniale, eseistul mizeaz i pe autorii autohtoni
contemporani, mai puin cunoscui publicului larg: Mihai Sin, Paul Georgescu, Liviu
Stncescu, Sonia Larian, Florin Mugur, George Bli. Astfel, culegerea de eseuri reprezint
o performan literar din cel puin dou motive: reacia autorului la presiunea istoriei
(ignorat total) i alegerea unei formule literare intermediare eseul, ,,un tip de discurs aezat
n marginea tuturor formelor discursive, forme alturi de care ntreine un dialog continuu i
sporitor12. Pe de alt parte, chiar i n construcii epice de mare ntindere, cum ar fi acest
romanul Plicul negru, publicat n 1986, scriitorul Norman Manea reuete s gseasc o
formur literar care s nele vigilena cenzorilor. n acest caz, cartea ntreag nu e nici mai
mult, nici mai puin dect o lucid alegorie a realitii socialiste13. Literatura de sub cenzur
devine vicleug de subminare a unei autoriti impuse i produsul unui joc scriitoricesc a crui
regul e producerea de sens prin cuvinte srace i puine. Miza rscumprrii estetice e atins
doar prin creativitate i triri subtile, chiar dac e scurtcircuitat de autocenzur.
ntr-un interviu acordat din 1994 scriitorului italian Marco Cugno, Manea
amintete att de aceast form de limitare autoimpus, ct i de strategii riscante, folosite de
scriitori n anii '80, cnd printr-un decret prezidenial, cenzura a fost desfiinat i nlocuit de
autorspundere, n fapt o variant mai diluat a primei menionate. n acest context, Manea a
fcut dezvluiri asupra modului n care scriitorii generaiei sale obinuiau s foreze nota n
volumele lor, pentru a le pregti aa cum se cuvine de filtrul cenzorilor.
Mtile narative ale autorului: jocuri de rol n care limba e pstrat n
parametrii esteticului
n eseul consacrat lui Marin Preda, referindu-se la aventura cuvntului n contiina rural, Norman
Manea utlizeaz aceast sintagm, definitorie pentru partea a doua a eseului su (sau cartea propriu- zis,
dac lum drept reper ediia din 2005), numit Anii de ucenicie ai lui August Prostul
11
Alina Pamfil, Eseul, o form a nelinitii, Editura Dacia, Cluj-Napoca, 2000, p. 209
Alegoria este ,,figura de stil care const n folosirea unei metafore n expunerea narativ sau a unei idei
abstracte, n Gh. N. Dragomirescu, Op. Cit., p. 96
12
13
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n scrierile de pn n 1989, un rol major n dejucarea cenzurii o reprezint opiunea

pentru mtile narative. Fie c este vorba de August Prostul receptorul/ destinatarul de
plicuri i furitorul de portrete, de copilul prins n nchiderea unui octombrie, ora opt sau de
clovnul-artist, scriitorul reuete s-i exprime atitudinea i crezul artistic prin intermediul
unor personaje corespondente.
Ion Negoiescu a remarcat incapacitatea autorului de a gestiona eficient multitudinea
de mti narative. ,,Opera lui Norman Manea abund n personaje i n fapte mrunte, ca i n
consideraii privind realul din care ele fac parte, cu ntreaga precaritate a lor i a lui, o
abunden de nume nesimnificative i de consideraii epuizante14, crede istoricul literar.
Individualitile creionate de Manea, debusolate i deformate spiritual din cauza unei realiti
contrafcute, n care fericirea devine obligatorie, se transform n roluri i mti, prin
intermediul crora scriitorul se exprim. De exemplu, o figur recurent n literatura
scriitorului, cu predilecie n opera scris naintea exilului occidental, e cea a clovnului,
cultivat mai ales n primele ediii ale volumelor de eseistic Anii de ucenicie ai lui August
Prostul i Despre clovni: Dictatorul i artistul, publicate n 1997. August Prostul, un ncurcLume modern, sancioneaz realitatea, o parodiaz prin autoproiectarea ntr-un spaiu al
libertii totale, ceea ce confirm, o dat n plus, empatizarea lui cu ironia.
Ne putem ntreba de ce autorul alege confesiunea intermediat de aceste personaje.
Mihail Bahtin, n Funciile picaroului, ale mscriciului i ale prostului n roman, extrage o
caracteristic comun a acestor figuri inadaptarea n societate i solitudinea. Snt strini n
aceast lume, nu se solidarizeaz cu nici una din situaiile de via existente n aceast lume,
nici una nu le convine, cci ei vd reversul i falsitatea fiecrei situaii15, scrie teoreticianul.
Referindu-se la figurile care populeaz universul livresc al romanelor lui Norman
Manea, criticul Corin Braga remarc faptul c acestea ,,se subordoneaz unei metatipologii,
pe care am putea-o numi, cu o expresie a lui Dostoievski, omul din subteran16. Exegetul
clujean sesizeaz abilitatea scriitorului de a intra n infraistoria fiecrui individ strivit de
sistem, i nu de a adopta punctul de vedere al unui autor omniscient, care-i permite s critice
din afar personaje sau situaii. Pe lng dedublarea prin mti i roluri, personajele lui Manea
sunt devitalizate i condamnate la un destin implacabil. ,,Toate personajele triesc ntr-o
atmosfer sufocant, iar sentimentul intim pe care l au asupra vieii i a sorii este
caracteristic pentru devitalizarea i demotivarea pe care ,,cetatea total o induce supuilor
si17. Acestea triesc cu senzaia c momentul de alegere a trecut, c destinul s-a consumat,
c nimic nu mai poate fi renceput sau schimbat. Practic, ,,generalizarea metafizic a
sentimentului de piedere a libertii sociale la conceptul de destin implacabil indic momentul
n care ideologia totalitar atac nsi fibra umanitii indivizilor18.
Dup aceast trecere n revist a scrierilor de pn n 1989 ale lui Norman Manea,
este evident c scriitorul a reuit s se sustrag cenzurii n acest prim etap de creaie i s
polarizeze eficient tensiunea etic-estetic.
Mai mult dect att, scriitorul occidental Norman Manea a ales s se ntoarc la
vechile scrieri (Cartea fiului, Captivi, Fericirea obligatorie, Anii de ucenicie ai lui August
Prostul, Atrium), ieite sub tipar nainte de 1986 anul plecrii n Occident i s le
revizuiasc. Ultimul tratament de acest fel a fost aplicat romanului Captivi, cenzurat la prima
Ion Negoiescu, Scriitori contemporani, Editura Dacia, Cluj, 1994, p. 254

Mihail Bahtin, Probleme de literatur i estetic, Traducere de Nicolae Iliescu, Editura Univers, Bucureti,
1982, p. 381
16
Apud Corin Braga, n Ion Pop (coord.), Op. Cit., p. 348
17
Ibidem
18
Ibidem
14
15
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Issue no. 6/2015
sa ediie, din 1970. Motivaia a fost oferit de autorul nsui, n cadrul unei dezbateri recente,
desfurate n luna mai 2012.
,,Mi-am asumat riscul c nu voi ajunge dect la puini interlocutori cu aceast carte
[Captivi] i am considerat c e nevoie s renuni la orice tip de dialectic, inclusiv la dialectica
eticului [...]. M-am ntrebat dac s republic aceast carte, dac s-i aplic un tratament
postcomunist i postiniiatic, s mai destind aceste codificri spre un public de astzi, am
fcut, ici-colo, intervenii minore, dar romanul cere un cititor care s intre n el cu
ndrtnicie, devenind el nsui un captiv19.
Revenirea autorului la scrierile de junee a avut loc sub imboldul unei nevoi de
autocorecie, de sorginte interioar, potenat i de necesitatea de racordare a mesajului de
atunci cu peste 30 de ani n urm la prezent. Relaia scriitorului Norman Manea cu limba
romn face abstracie de context i de limitele de orice fel, coloniznd un teritoriu mult mai
important, cel al interioritii. Definitorie pentru un background traumatic, limba romn
poate fi incomod n msura n care ntreine vii abuzurile memoriei formula e propus de
Todorov i viabil pentru supravieuirea lui Norman Manea n faa propriei biografii,
purificat prin ficionalizare. i cum altfel dect n limba matern ar fi posibil aceast
procedur de exorcizare a propriului trecut?
Toate avatarurile narative, de la August Prostul, n la receptorul/ destinatarul
de plicuri i furitorul de portrete, exilatul, nomadul, huliganul, copilul prins n nchiderea
unui octombrie, ora opt, clovnul-artist au i le revine misiunea de a decanta o istorie personal
ncrcat, fcnd posibil integrarea ntr-o nou cultur, fr ca originara s fie pe deplin
reprimat; o tranzitivitate de altfel definitorie pentru literatura lui Norman Manea. n urma
radiografierii unor opere reprezentative din prima i a doua etap de creaie, frontiera fiind
reprezentat de plecarea n exil, n anul 1986, am observat c indeterminarea lingvistic
(cultural) i formeaz scriitorului Norman Manea sensibilitatea, apartenena la lume i i
definete scriitura. Aflat mereu la grania dintre trecut i prezent/ memorie i uitare/ cultura
romn i cea american/ traum i exil, plasat ntre limburi, autorul permite migraia acestor
caracteristice extratextuale nspre text20, n ideea unei negocieri identitare. La o analiz n
retort, putem afirma fr prea multe ezitri c poetica dublei apartenene la cuvnt, a
interstiiului, e marca individualitii i a originalitii acestui scriitor, recunoscute i
controversate n acelai timp.
Aflat odat cu fiecare nou pagin scris n limba matern n faa unei provocri, a
unei noi autoevaluri, Manea a prelungit o ucenicie definit n 1979, odat cu publicarea
culegerii de eseuri Anii de ucenicie ai lui August Prostul, i reactualizat cu fiecare scriere n
parte, fie roman, proz scurt sau volum de interviuri.
n toat aceast ecuaie a eului, limba romn - despre care Norman Manea sublinieaz
ferm c ,,e doar una, restul fiind limbi nvate (Anex) a constituit de fiecare dat att un
refugiu al subiectului, ct i o posesie pe care nici un regim politic sau distan nu au reuit s
i-o nstrineze. Martor a dezrdcinrii i a dislocrilor interioare, limba romn reprezint
pentru scriitor un factor de coeziune i ordine interioar, caracteristici care ofer coeren i
operei sale. Fidelitatea autorului fa de limba matern se extinde i la nivelul viziunii
auctoriale, cci Manea nu a fcut vreodat rabat de la temele, obsesiile sau traumele sale pe
care a ncercat s le particularizeze prin jocul unor personaje puternic individualizate.
Norman Manea, n cadrul dezbaterii ,,Norman Manea, ntre Proust i Kafka, Librria Bastilia, 14 mai
2012
20
Theodor W. Adorno numete acest transfer al conflictelor i problemelor sociale/personale n configuraia
intern a operei, mediere. Teoreticianul esteticii generative elaboreaz n acest sens metoda mediaiunii, dup
investigarea sociologic a muzicii d.p.d.v. structural, n Philosophy of Modern Music, Translated by Anne G.
Mitchell and Wesley V. Blomster, New York, Seabury Press, 1973
19
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Ct despre apartenena cultural a autorului revendicat de dou literaturi, problema n

sine nate mai multe ntrebri dect rspunsuri. Cci scriitorul din exil are un statut
privilegiat. O recunoate i semnatarul cele mai noi lucrri academice dedicate acestui
fenomen, Florin Manolescu. n Introducerea crii Enciclopedia exilului literar romnesc
1945-1989, Manolescu definete scriitorul din exil ca fiind aproape ntotdeauna bilingv cnd e
vorba de alegerea formei de expresie, i scindat ntre identiti, cetenii i naionaliti
diferite, sau ntre ceea ce tiina dreptului numete ius sangvinis i ius soli, dac avem n
vedere legturile cu ara de origine i cu ara de exil. Este ntocmai o caracterizare a exilatului
Norman Manea, scriitor care a reuit s depeasc nu numai limitele unui destin aparent
proscris, ci i graniele receptrii critice autohtone.
Aceast lucrare a beneficiat de suport financiar prin proiectul Rute de excelen
academic n cercetarea doctoral i post-doctoral READ cofinanat din Fondul Social
European, prin Programul Operaional Sectorial Dezvoltarea Resurselor Umane 20072013, contract nr. POSDRU/159/1.5/S/137926.
BIBLIOGRAFIE:
A. Bibliografie primar:
1. MANEA, Norman, Anii de ucenicie ai lui August Prostul, Editura Cartea
Romneasc, Bucureti, 1979.
2. MANEA, Norman, Anii de ucenicie ai lui August Prostul, Editura Polirom, Iai, 2005.
3. MANEA, Norman, Octombrie, ora opt, Editura Dacia, Cluj-Napoca, 1981.
4. MANEA, Norman, Textul nomad (Casa Melcului II), Editura Hasefer, Bucureti,
1999.
5. MANEA, Norman, Despre clovni: dictatorul i artistul, Biblioteca Apostrof, Cluj,
1997.
6. MANEA, Norman, ntoarcerea huliganului, Editura Polirom, Iai, 2003.
7. MANEA, Norman Manea, Laptele negru, Editura Hasefer, Bucureti, 2010.
B. Bibliografie secundar:
1. ADAMETEANU, Gabriela, Cum suport individul ocurile Istoriei. Dialog cu
Norman MANEA, n Observator cultural, nr. 304, 2006.
2. DRAGOMIRESCU, Gh. N., Mic Enciclopedie a figurilor de stil, Editura
tiinific i Enciclopedic, Bucureti, 1975.
3. GRIGURCU, Gheorghe, ,,Cazul Norman Manea, n Familia, nr. 1, 1981.
4. MANOLESCU, Florin, Enciclopedia exilului literar romnesc 1945-1989,
Editura
Campania, Bucureti, 2003.
5. NEGOIESCU, Ion, Scriitori contemporani, Editura Dacia, Cluj, 1994.
6. ORWELL, George, Inside the Whale and Other Essays, Penguin Books, London,
1969.
7. POP, Ion (coord.), Dicionar analitic de opere literare romneti, vol. II, Editura
Casa Crii de tiin, Cluj-Napoca, 2002.
8. STAROBINSKI, Jean, Portrait de lartiste en saltimbanque, Gallimard, Paris,
2004.
9. TEFNESCU, Alex, Istoria literaturii romne contemporane 1941-2000, Editura
Maina de scris, Bucureti, 2005.
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LA LITTERATURE MAGHREBINE DEXPRESSION FRANAISE-UN ESPACE DE

QUESTIONNEMENT IDENTITAIRE
Otilia Maria AIOANEI
Alexandru-Ioan Cuza University of Iai
Paris-Est Crteil University of Paris 12
Abstract: By nature, we belong to multiculturalism and this is the reason why every literature
has its own way of claiming its identity and of expressing this particular issue through
writings. The investigation of identity and alterity with all the connotations these concepts
acquire in literature brings a remarkable intellectual gain for the francophone space, a space
which is noticeable marked by diversity and multiculturalism. A very representative
illustration is to be found in the Maghrebian French literature, as the authors, having written
their works directly in French, speak about the Berber and Arabian culture and identity,
bringing together influences from the French language and even culture. The present paper
aims to critically investigate the problem of identity and alterity as it is represented in the
Maghrebian French Literature.
Keywords: identity, alterity, hybridity, post-colonialism, postcolonial Maghrebian French
literature.
Introduction
La naissance et le dveloppement de la littrature postcoloniale francophone et
anglophone appartenant des ex-colonies, de mme quaux minorits ethniques prsentes
dans les civilisations occidentales, reprsente un dfi pour retracer et redfinir les notions
actuelles de lidentit au sein des traditions occidentales. Cet expos se propose de passer en
revue les plus importantes caractristiques de la littrature maghrbine dexpression franaise,
de comprendre le contexte historique, culturel et social qui a favoris son apparition et de
mettre laccent sur la problmatique de lidentit et de laltrit dans les ouvrages des
crivains maghrbins de langue franaise.
Comme Sathya Rao le dit, lcriture postcoloniale peut tre considre comme une
faon de traduire la culture, lidentit1, donc ce qui nous intresse cest de dcouvrir la
manire dont fonctionne lcriture postcoloniale. Les spcialistes ont observ que les textes
postcoloniaux qui sont, en fait, des critures de nature hybride, ont souvent des racines dans
plusieurs cultures et langues, ce qui alourdit la comprhension profonde du texte.2 Les
questions souleves proviennent le plus souvent du fait que la langue de lex-colonisateur est
adopte comme moyen dexpression et de cration littraire en mme temps.
Lun des plus importants espaces dexpression o la question de lidentit a t pose
avec acuit est reprsent par la littrature. Celle-ci en constitue souvent une des plus
signifiantes thmatiques qui hantent les crivains. Bien quelle soit seulement un produit
littraire, luvre de maints auteurs nous offre la possibilit de lire entre les lignes la qute
identitaire qui entrane des problmes inhrents au soi.
Rao, Sathya, 2006. Lcriture post-coloniale en traduction: entre rsistance et dplacement. Contribu- tion
une thorie post-coloniale du langage [en ligne] http://orees.concordia.ca/rao.html
2
Rousseau, Audrey, 2011. Mmoires et Identits Blses en Contexte Postcolonial: La Commission de Vrit et
de Rconciliation du Canada. Universit du Qubec Montral, 2011. [en ligne]
http://www.archipel.uqam.ca/4355/1/M12232.pdf
1
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Les travaux des philosophes et des thoriciens comme Paul Ricur dmontrent le fait
que luvre littraire est souvent un espace o lcrivain sinterroge sur son identit. Les
littratures francophones illustrent bien ce traitement spcial accord au fait identitaire. Cest
aussi le cas de la littrature postcoloniale maghrbine dexpression franaise qui a rserv
une place particulire aux questions du soi. Aprs lindpendance, le problme de lidentit a
reprsent la question essentielle qui mergeait dans la socit maghrbine, peine sortie de
loppression coloniale. Ce problme impliquait la fois lindividu et la collectivit.
Cest dans ce contexte que les crivains maghrbins ont mis au cur de leurs uvres
la question de lidentit, tout en exprimant, travers la littrature, leur attachement aux
traditions de leurs anctres, de leurs racines. Cest aussi dans ce contexte que la littrature
postcoloniale maghrbine dexpression franaise est devenue une criture riche en rfrences
sociales et en vocations historiques, en ayant la base langoisse de lidentit.
On considre donc que parler de la littrature postcoloniale maghrbine dexpression
franaise reprsente aussi une modalit de comprendre mieux le phnomne de la
francophonie. Cela nous offre, en mme temps, la possibilit de redcouvrir la diversit des
constructions imaginaires nes de la qute identitaire des crivains placs au carrefour de
plusieurs langues, cultures et ralits sociales.
Identit et altrit : une relation dinterdpendance
Est-il encore possible de revendiquer lidentit lpoque des mtissages, de la
globalisation, de la crolisation 3 du monde ? Paradoxalement, jamais auparavant na-t-on
discut plus de cette notion comme depuis la dcolonisation. Laffranchissement colonial a
donn naissance une vritable remise en question, une vraie explosion discursive et assez
radicale en ce qui concerne le concept de lidentit. La notion daltrit est aussi trs utilis
dans les milieux littraires contemporains, tant indissolublement li au concept de lidentit.
Aux dires de Freud, lidentit reprsente un fantasme dincorporation , le dsir de
sidentifier un certain espace, une certaine culture, socit. Daprs le renomm
sociologue Stuart Hall, ce dsir de sidentifier reprsente un processus darticulation, une
suture, une surdtermination et pas une subsomption. Il y en a toujours trop ou pas
assez; cest une surdtermination, un manque, jamais une totalit. Comme toutes les
pratiques signifiantes, elle est soumise au jeu de la diffrance4. Cest dans ce contexte que,
pour des raisons varies, allant de la reconnaissance ou de ladmiration jusqu' la haine et au
dpit, les auteurs maghrbins ont choisi de faire de la langue franaise leur foyer.
En ce qui concerne laltrit, cette notion sert diffrencier le moi de lautre,
sparer ce qui nous est familier de ce qui nous est tranger, souligner la non-appartenance de
lautre notre propre groupe. Cette sparation peut nous conduire consolider ou redfinir
notre propre identit 5. Cette dfinition suggre linterdpendance entre les deux conceptsidentit et altrit- dmontrant que le moi ne peut pas tre conu sans lautre. De plus, lautre
nest pas loppos du moi, mais plutt llment essentiel pour que le moi existe. On
dcouvre, en fait, que lidentit ne peut pas se dfinir que par rfrence laltrit et viceversa : Au commencement est la relation ().Toute relation implique une dualit de termes
saisis comme tels dans lunit qui les rapporte lun lautre (). La libert tient donc dans le
mouvement grce auquel laltrit de la diffrence en vient tre vcue comme altrit de
relation. 6.
Si de nos jours le discours sur lidentit est en vogue, cela ne signifie pas que cest
linvention du XXme sicle. Lidentit est un concept aussi vieux que le monde. Le fait que
Glissant, Edouard, 1990. Potique de la Relation. Paris : Gallimard, 1990.
Hall, Stuart, 2008. Identits et cultures. Politiques des Cultural Studies. Paris : Ed. Amsterdam, 2008, p. 269.
5
Yigb, Dots,1997. Fetichsimus als Alteritt : am Beispiel kolonialer Literatur ber Togo : Richard Kas,
Felix Couchoro und David Ananou. Frankfurt a. M. : IKO-Verlag fr Interkulturelle Kommunikation 1997, p. 1.
6
Labariere, Jean-Pierre. Le Discours de laltrit. Paris : PUF, 1983.
3
4
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ce dbat est de nouveau une question ardente illustre seulement le fait que le monde a une
nouvelle vision. Il sagit dune vision dtermine par le phnomne de la colonisation pendant
laquelle les tres humains taient classs en catgories opposes (infrieurs-suprieurs, Noirs
et Blancs, domins-dominants etc.). La vision du monde postcoloniale, en rupture avec
lidologie des colonisateurs, est illustre dans la littrature par le concept de postcolonialisme qui trouve son application dans lintertextualit. Le fait que la littrature a jou
un rle essentiel en ce qui concerne le discours sur lidentit est incontestable. Pour les
auteurs maghrbins, aussi que pour les autres qui appartiennent dautres ex-colonies, la
littrature a reprsent un instrument dexpression, un instrument de libralisation tandis que
la langue de lAutre7 a reprsent laccs luniversalit : Jcris en franais pour dire aux
Franais que je ne suis pas franais , avoue lcrivain maghrbin Yacine Kateb, en 1966.
Au cur du concept du post-colonialisme se trouvent les notions didentit, daltrit
et de diversit qui sont indispensables si on veut comprendre et analyser la littrature
postcoloniale. En tant que courant de pense, le post-colonialisme prne la thorie de
linterculturalit qui a la base une vision positive des diffrences culturelles ou
individuelles, en dconstruisant le mythe des cultures suprieures ou infrieures.
On peut ainsi observer que les concepts de post-colonialisme, daltrit et
dinterculturalit se placent dans la mme tendance intellectuelle par rapport la question de
lidentit. Toutes ces notions visent promouvoir une vision librale sur la culture et la
littrature, ayant la base lide que le refus du multiculturalisme se nourrit de peurs et de
mconnaissances de lautre 8
Le caractre hybride de la littrature maghrbine de langue franaise
La littrature maghrbine postcoloniale dexpression franaise est plutt une
littrature hybride, entre les genres et entre les langues 9. Cest une littrature o le franais
est galement utilis comme instrument dexpression et motif qui dclenche la rvolte
identitaire, est une langue de sang 10, comme le dit Assia Djebar et en mme temps une
langue libratrice qui a aid les indignes de remettre en cause le rapport des forces 11.
De ce point de vue, on doit souligner quelques dmarches littraires que les crivains
maghrbins dexpression franaise utilisent afin dillustrer limaginaire potique berbre et
arabe et de faire entendue la sonorit de leur langue maternelle (larabe).
Analysons premirement, la tendance de tricher la langue 12 ou de briser la langue
pour dire lautre de cette langue 13. En 1977, quand Roland Barthes fait linauguration de
son enseignement au Collge de France, il sinterroge sur le savoir et le pouvoir, en proposant
dune manire dlibre, une dfinition provocatrice de la langue qui est surnomme
fasciste . Barthes affirme quil faut tricher la langue pour entendre et comprendre la
langue hors pouvoir :
Djebar, Assia, 1999. Ces voix qui massigent. Paris : PUM, 1999, p. 41
Wieviorka, Michel, 1996. Entretien avec Thomas Ferenczi, Le Monde, le 8 octobre 1996, p. 15.
9
Geyss, Roswitha, 2009. La littrature maghrbine de langue franaise : entre deux critures, une criture de
lentre-deux. [en ligne] http://www.llcd.auf.org/IMG/pdf/GEYSS.pdf
10
11
12
Barthes, Roland, 1989. Leon inaugurale de la chaire de smiologie littraire au Collge de France,
prononce le 7 janvier 1977. Paris : Seuil. Points essais, 1989, p. 15
13
Robin, Rgine, 2003. Le Deuil de lorigine: une langue en trop, la langue en moins. Paris : Editions Kim,
2003, p. 46
7
8
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Cette tricherie salutaire, cette esquive, ce leurre magnifique, qui permet dentendre
la langue hors pouvoir, dans la splendeur dune rvolution permanente du langage, je
lappelle pour ma part : littrature 14
Dautre part, Rgine Robin, affirme, dans Deuil de lorigine (2003) quil faut briser
la langue pour dire lautre de cette langue :
Celan brise lallemand pour sy inscrire en creux. Il dsarticule la syntaxe, injecte
dans sa posie des mots trangers (franais, hbreux, yiddish, espagnols), utilise des
citations, une intertextualit potique quil remodle. Dfaisant toute la joliesse du style et de
lcriture artiste, il tente de se rapprocher du cri, du bredouillement, du balbutiement comme
pour mieux signifier que le sens est dfinitivement bless, que la langue est blesse et que le
sens ne peut plus faire irruption que dans les failles, les manques, le silence. 15
Afin dutiliser la terminologie de Barthes et Robin, les auteurs maghrbins
dexpression franaise trichent et brisent la langue franaise pour rendre visible et
pour entendre la langue hors-pouvoir 16, dont le sens est dfinitivement bless 17.
Daprs Kateb Yacine, crivain algrien dorigine berbre, les crivains maghrbins
violent la langue franaise et, en fin du compte, une langue appartient celui qui la
viole, et pas celui qui la caresse 18 :
Ces crivains () ouvrent le franais aux autres voix (polyphonie), aux voix de leurs
consurs et confrres analphabtes pour proposer, grce cette multitude dhistoires
coutes jadis dans la maison maternelle ou recueillies au hasard de leurs prgrinations,
une autre version de lHistoire (), inscrivent dans la chair mme de la langue franaise, le
rythme et les sonorits des autres langues (arabe classique et parl, tamazight), grce
lallitration et lassonance et aussi grce au rejet de la rgle classique de la sparation
des genres : ainsi, le recours la posie est un moyen frquemment utilis pour tricher, pour
briser la langue 19
Une autre caractristique tmoignant de lhybridit de la littrature maghrbine
postcoloniale dcriture franaise est la subversion de la langue, un procd utilis par le
conteur crole 20 pour crer un langage color et exotique en introduisant dans la langue
franaise des mots berbres ou arabes ou mme en inventant des mots franais partir des
termes croles. Le but est de crer un langage qui est illustratif pour limaginaire potique
maghrbin, en utilisant des procds qui ne sont pas propres au franais. Un des meilleurs
exemples est le titre mme dun roman appartenant Assia Djebar, Lamour, la fantasia ,
qui est un mlange entre un terme franais et un terme berbre, car fantasia reprsente une
15
Robin, Rgine, 2003. Le Deuil de lorigine: une langue en trop, la langue en moins. Paris : Editions Kim,
2003, pp. 18-19
16
17
18
Kateb, Yacine., citation de Geyss, Roswitha, 2009. La littrature maghrbine de langue franaise : entre deux
critures, une criture de lentre-deux. [en ligne] http://www.llcd.auf.org/IMG/pdf/GEYSS.pdf
19
20
Glissant, Edouard, Introduction une potique du divers. Paris : Gallimard, 1996, p. 113
14
371
Issue no. 6/2015
partie de la crmonie du mariage chez les Berbres. Pour elle, et en gnral, pour lcrivain
maghrbin, larabisation de la langue franaise et lintroduction des termes berbres sont
indispensables, le procd tant considr comme le seul permettant dillustrer les troubles
intrieurs et, en mme temps, limaginaire maghrbin dans une langue trangre.21
La littrature maghrbine postcoloniale de langue franaise- un espace de combat
identitaire
LAlgrie est le pays qui a le plus souffert les consquences de la colonisation, parmi
les trois pays du Maghreb. Pendant les 132 ans de la colonisation franaise, la culture et la
langue du colonisateur ont eu le temps de simposer comme normes, sur ce territoire. En
outre, le sicle de la conqute a reprsent une priode de violences interminables, car un tiers
de la population civile a t dcime au cours denfumades 22, de destruction des villages
entiers, de razzias, mais aussi pendant la guerre non dclare contre ce pays, partir de 1954 :
La gnralisation de la guerre fut lorigine dautres formes
de violence qui devraient tre ranges facilement aujourdhui
dans la catgorie des <crimes contre lhumanit >. Cest le cas
de la pratique des enfumades et des emmurements qui
provoquaient chaque
fois la mort de plusieurs centaines de personnes par asphyxie 23
Le fait que lcrivain colonis saccroche souvent au problme de lidentit comme
une modalit de faire rsistance au colonisateur est vident presque chez tous les auteurs
maghrbins de langue franaise. Roland Barthes, affirme, dans son ouvrage S/Z, qu
lorigine du rcit, le dsir . 24 Compte tenu de cette affirmation, on trouve pertinent de
sinterroger sur le dsir collectif qui est la base des rcits maghrbins dexpression franaise
portant sur la qute identitaire. Pour trouver la rponse cette question, il est ncessaire de
penser premirement au contexte historique de la colonisation franaise ; celui-ci nous aide
comprendre la douleur gnre par les cicatrices qui ne vont pas seffacer facilement de
limaginaire collectif du Maghreb et qui donnent aux crivains le droit de se rvolter travers
la littrature. Ils abordent le rcit identitaire par lintermdiaire des thmes comme le rapport
colonisateur-colonis, la revendication de la langue maternelle, ltre bilingue colonial, les
traditions religieuses et culturelles, le bilinguisme impos, la rsistance, lexil et la rvolte.
Tous ces thmes reprsentent diffrents dsirs du rcit, comme le dit Barthes, ou
diffrentes raisons pour crire, tout en formant la base de la qute identitaire.
On voit donc que le dsir qui est la base de la littrature maghrbine postcoloniale
dexpression franaise se transforme en dsir de rvolte, en inspirant et en crant des textes
insurgs et insoumis 25. Dans cette rvolte et qute identitaire, les femmes, quelles soient
rebelles ou victimes, jouent un rle extrmement important, car elles sont regardes comme
des protectrices de la mmoire identitaire maghrbine.
tirer donc cette mmoire fminine, lambeau aprs lambeau,
muscle aprs muscle, peut-tre aussi souffrance aprs
souffrance, en tous cas
lien aprs lien devoir drouler, pour ainsi donner vieen langue franaise ! 26
Geyss, Roswitha, 2009. Lcriture entre les-langues des auteurs maghrbins de langue franaise et des
auteurs de lentre-des , Alternative Francophone, 1 (2), 2009, pp. 63-93.
22
Sellam, Sadek et Albin, Michel, 1999. Parler des camps, penser les gnocides. Paris : Albin Michel, 1999. En
ligne : http://ldh-toulon.net/Conquete-de-l-Algerie-crimes-de.html
23
Ivantcheva-Merjanska, Irne, 2011. Assia Djebar et Julia Kristeva : choisir le franais comme langue
dcriture. Cincinnati : M.A Univ. De Cincinnati, 2011.
24
Barthes, Roland, 1976. S/Z. Paris: Points, 1976, p. 95
25
Memmi, Albert. 1973. Portrait du colonis prcd de Portrait du colonisateur et d'une prface de Jean-Paul
Sartre. Paris: Gallimard, 1973, p. 139-140.
26
Djebar, Assia, 1999. Ces voix qui massigent. Paris : PUM, 1999. P. 53
21
372
Issue no. 6/2015
Cette mmoire garde les traces dune oppression double, coloniale et masculine, et
cest pour cela que les crivaines, comme Malika Mokeddem, Assia Djebar, Lela Sebbar ou
Massa Bey, cherchent de se rvolter par lintermdiaire des voix littraires qui leur donnent
la possibilit de se librer, de sexprimer. Pour un crivain qui en tant que pied noir tait
troitement li lesprit du Maghreb 27, les efforts faits pour gagner la libert sont des
efforts de lhome rvolt 28, comme le nomme Albert Camus, un homme qui lutte
constamment contre toute forme doppression :
Quest-ce quun homme rvolt ? Un homme qui dit non. Lesclave, l instant o il
rejette lordre humiliant, rejette en mme temps ltat desclave lui-mme. Le mouvement de
rvolte le porte plus loin quil ntait dans le simple refus. Il dpasse mme la limite quil
fixait son adversaire, demandant maintenant tre en gal 29
Loppression exerce par le colonisateur, dans les rcits des auteurs comme
Abdelkbir Khatabi, Kateb Yacine, Tahar Benjelloun, Rachid Boudjedra, Cheikh Hamidou
Kane, Assia Djebar, Abdelwahab Meddeb, Lela Seibbar ou Malika Mokeddem parmi tant
dautres, est ressentie comme un abus venant galement de lordre patriarcal qui caractrisait
la socit maghrbine et du pouvoir colonial. Ces uvres partagent un dsir commun contre
loppression du pouvoir colonial, une idologie commune, une vraie potique du rvolt. 30
Un autre point commun de ces textes est le thme de la guerre qui est soit nationale,
soit personnelle, intrieure, une guerre qui dtermine lcrivain de chercher la vraie identit
nationale et intrinsque nimporte quel prix. Les hros de ces uvres sont reprsents par
toutes les minorits , comme le dit Driss Chrabi 31, la littrature maghrbine dexpression
franaise tant, en fait, une littrature des tres marginaliss, maltraits, et, particulirement,
des femmes colonises, surnommes les subalternes . 32 Surtout pour les femmes
maghrbines, la littrature a constitu le meilleur moyen pour prendre la parole, pour faire
entendre les voix subalternes fminines. Par lintermdiaire de la qute identitaire, la
littrature maghrbine a jou aussi un rle social, surtout pour les femmes. Luvre dune
crivaine comme Assia Djebar se trouve aussi dans ce paradigme idologico-littraire ayant
ses racines dans les qutes existentielles et dans les faits sociaux, dterminant la femme en
morceaux se rvolter afin de se rinventer. 33 Cest grce cette idologie commune pour la
rvolte que la littrature maghrbine postcoloniale de langue franaise abonde en un lyrisme
orageux, un lyrisme qui voque la qute identitaire :
Si la littrature vritable est remise en cause de toute littrature, elle ne peut tre
alors que sous la forme dune subversion la fois violente et contrle(.) Chaque culture a
sa littrature sauvage, marginale, en rupture, et il me semble que celle-ci a un accent
personnel, un lyrisme contrlant le vertige par une conscience aige des contradictions La
28
Camus, Albert, 1951. Lhomme rvolt. Gallimard, 1951, p. 27.
29 Camus, Albert, 1951. Lhomme rvolt. Gallimard, 1951, p. 27.
30
Universit Du Mirail, 2005. La Francophonie Arabe: Pour une approche de la littrature arabe francophone.
Presses Universitaires du Mirail, no. 52, 2005.
31
Chrabi, Driss, 1982. La mre du Printemps. Paris: Seuil, 1982, p. 89.
32
Bonn, Charles et Garnier, Xavier, Jacques, 1997. Littrature francophone. Paris : Hatier, 1997, p. 120.
33
Djebar, Assia, 1997 Femme en Morceaux nouvelle de la collection Oran, Langue Morte. Actes sud, 1997.
27
373
Issue no. 6/2015
grande contradiction.rside dans le refus de la culture franaise et dans la volont de

recrer la langue franaise. 34
La littrature maghrbine postcoloniale dexpression franaise est construite donc sur
un grand paradoxe, une grande contradiction entre la rvolte, la qute identitaire et
lexpression de ces faits dans la langue du colonisateur. Luvre dAssia Djebar reprsente un
des meilleurs exemples illustrant cette aporie galement dans ses textes et dans son parcours
biographique.
Dans sa nostalgie du paradis perdu, lcrivain maghrbin vit dune manire obsessive
le drame de ltre exil de sa langue maternelle se sentant priv de toute communication
vritable. Laventure de cet crivain colonis ressemble bien lhistoire de Sisyphe, car la
qute identitaire ne laide pas arriver son essence, ltre primordial quil tait une fois. Il
finit, donc, toujours () par un naufrage. Do limpossibilit de rejoindre la rive
sauvage selon le titre du roman de M. Dib 35
Ecartel entre diffrentes fidlits, appartenances et dterminations, lcrivain
maghrbin de langue franaise est oblig de choisir : se taire ou dire lindicible 36, un choix
qui est toujours douloureux. Il finit par crire dans la langue du colonis, qui, pour lui, signifie
la mort de ses racines ancestrales: il cre une littrature de la mort 37.
Le choc provoqu par la rencontre brutale avec lOccident a dtermin lcrivain de
dvelopper des passions plutt pathologiques ses racines, son identit. Les microidentits et les macro-identits 38 qui normalement fonctionnaient efficacement dans la
socit traditionnelle, deviennent impuissantes devant une modernit destructrice et cruelle
comme celle du systme colonisateur. La littrature algrienne en gnral, et celle dAssia
Djebar, en particulier, sont le produit de ce cataclysme qui a dtermin une vraie mystique de
lidentit. Le concept de lidentit, dans la littrature maghrbine dexpression franaise, est
construit sur une structure binaire, antagoniste, car lcrivain se dfinit par opposition au
colonisateur, ou lAutre 39 comme le dit Assia Djebar.40
La premire priode significative pour la littrature maghrbine, a t entre les annes
1950-1960, une poque marque par le dchirement caus par la dcolonisation, surtout en
Algrie. En fait, la littrature algrienne est la partie la plus reprsentative de la littrature
maghrbine dexpression franaise, car aprs plus de 100
annes sous la domination
franaise, lAlgrie a t fortement marque par la colonisation. Les auteurs qui ont dcid
dcrire dans la langue de lAutre, ont utilis le franais comme une arme de revendication de
leur existence, de leurs droits, de leur propre culture et langue. Cette chose a dclench,
paralllement, un fort trouble intrieur, portant sur la question de lidentit qui est une
Abdelkbir, Khatibi dans Dejeux, Jean, 1973. La littrature maghrbine de la langue franaise. Ottawa:
Editions Naman, 1973, p. 67-68.
35
Bouderbala, Tayeb , 2011. Identit et altrit dans le roman algrien de langue franaise. Algrie : Universit
de Batna, 2014.
36
Kateb, Yacine, 1956. Nedjma, Ed Seuil, Paris 1956.
37
Bouderbala, Tayeb, 2011. Identit et altrit dans le roman algrien de langue franaise. Algrie : Universit
de Batna, 2014.
38
de Batna, 2014.
39
40
de Batna, 2014.
34
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Issue no. 6/2015
obsession de lAutre, intrioris/extrioris 41, devenue dans le contexte post-colonial, un

phnomne de nvrose sociale et de fixit maladive 42.
En tout cas, en ce qui concerne la littrature postcoloniale algrienne il y a plusieurs
thmes dominants, tous ayant la base le combat identitaire. On remarque donc le thme de
lidentit, de lorigine et de laltrit, le thme de la langue maternelle et du public, le refus
de lidologie coloniale, laffirmation du soi, le conflit culturel, lexil, loralit, la socit
postcoloniale.
Le thme de la langue maternelle et du colonisateur reprsente un autre thme obsessif
pour tous les auteurs maghrbins de langue franaise, ds le dbut jusqu' nos jours. Autour
des annes 60, il y avait beaucoup danalphabtes au Maghreb. Leur culture tait plutt orale,
qucrite. Lcrivain colonis vit donc un double drame: il ne peut pas crire dans sa langue,
parce que, de toute faon, il ne la connat pas assez bien car cette poque-l on apprenait le
franais lcole ; en mme temps, il est toujours priv de son public naturel, autochtone. Par
consquent, il doit crire pour lAutre, pour un public europen qui a t une fois son
bourreau. Le drame linguistique de lcrivain maghrbin est construit sur deux univers qui
sopposent, car il possde deux langues qui nont pas un statut gal et qui reprsentent soit
lunivers du colonis, soit celui du colonisateur. Ce thme domine les uvres de nombreux
auteurs maghrbins, comme Assia Djebar qui dit Le franais est ma langue martre dans
son roman Lamour, la Fantasia (1985). Citons encore Malek Haddad, dans Je toffrirai une
Gazelle (1959) Je taime. En arabe, cest un verbe qui dpasse lide . Mais aussi : Il dit
Ah ! Bon ? quand il ny a rien dire ? Il admire les Franais parce quils savent parler. La
langue est peut-tre franaise 43. Mais, de toute
faon, pour lui, la langue franaise
symbolise lexil : Je suis moins spar de ma patrie par la Mditerrane que par la langue
franaise 44
Il est vident que pour chaque auteur la situation a t diffrente, car le passe
historique et la vie des Algriens, Marocains ou Tunisiens ont t diffrents. Ils ont t,
pourtant, runis dans leur textes, par des thmes communs, comme on a dj dmontr, afin
de revendiquer des objectifs et des valeurs culturels communs : le dsir de sexprimer
librement, de pratiquer leur culture et leur tradition et le dsir de retrouver la vraie identit.
Lcrivain, comme le disait Albert Memmi, avait et a encore, la responsabilit de reprsenter
la voix de son peuple :
Lcrivain est irremplaable dans son rle spcifique :il est lexpression des
inquitudes de la socit, de ses doutes, et mme de sa lutte contre ellemme, de sa
ngativit. [...].Il faut quune socit accepte et supporte une certaine dose de mise en
question, et cest l le travail des crivains 45
Cette responsabilit dtre la voix publique du peuple reprsente aussi un point
commun et spcifique chez tous les auteurs maghrbins, femmes ou hommes. A une poque
o les intellectuels taient marginaliss, ils ont eu le courage dexprimer le refus de lautorit
coloniale, de lutter dans le combat contre lexclusion sociale, de dvoiler les abus, les
discriminations des sexes ou de la couleur. Par dnoncer la misre sociale et galement
Bouderbala, Tayeb, , 2011. Identit et altrit dans le roman algrien de langue franaise. Algrie :
Universit de Batna, 2014., p. 8
42
Bouderbala, Tayeb, , 2011. Identit et altrit dans le roman algrien de langue franaise. Algrie :
Universit de Batna, 2014., p. 8
43
Haddad, Malek, ,2003 Je toffrirai une gazelle. Institut du Monde Arabe franais, 2003. p. 57.
44
Haddad, Malek, comme cit en Memmi, Albert, 1985. crivains francophones du Maghreb, Paris : Seghers,
1985, p.159
45
Memmi, Albert, 1968. Prsence du Maghreb, dc.1967janv.1968, p.2627.
41
375
Issue no. 6/2015
culturelle, les crivains ont rveill dans la conscience des foules le dsir dexprimer leur
identit, de montrer les particularits de leur culture et socit. Cest pour cela que la
littrature maghrbine postcoloniale de langue franaise est tout dabord une littrature du
combat identitaire, un espace de questionnement identitaire.
Conclusions
Cet expos sest propos dillustrer la littrature maghrbine postcoloniale
franaise comme un espace de questionnement identitaire, comme un imaginaire de laltrit
et de la qute identitaire en mme temps. Lanalyse est centre surtout sur les aspects
culturels, linguistiques et psychologiques caractrisant les uvres des crivains maghrbins
de langue franaise et vers la transformation de ces aspects en travail esthtique, symbolique
et potique.
Le plus important problme de la littrature maghrbine de langue franaise reste
lidentit des crivains maghrbins qui ont choisi le franais, une identit essentiellement
hybride, une identit qui sest construite et sest reconstruite sens cesse. On a essay de
dmontrer que cette identit hybride a donn naissance une hybridation intertextuelle 46,
par lintermdiaire de diverses stratgies de briser 47 la langue ou de tricher 48. La
littrature maghrbine postcoloniale dexpression franaise est devenue ainsi une littrature
qui est forcment un espace de questionnement identitaire, tout en illustrant les autres voix,
les autres langues, les autres identits qui entourent lcrivain maghrbin qui a fait le
compromis dcrire dans la langue de lAutre, comme le dit Assia Djebar.
En utilisant une bibliographie la fois littraire et critique, notre mmoire a pass en
revue les traits spcifiques de la littrature maghrbine de langue franaise afin de raliser un
aperu galement diachronique et synchronique portant sur lintgration de la culture et de la
langue franaise dans les uvres des auteurs maghrbins. On a prsent une perspective
densemble concernant linfluence et limpact de la langue franaise sur les crivains
maghrbins dexpression franaise et on a mis laccent surtout sur le contexte historique,
social et culturel qui a favoris lapparition et la multiculturalit de cette littrature. Notre
attention a t dirige dune manire particulire vers les raisons qui ont dict le choix de la
langue de lAutre et vers le conflit identitaire engendr par ce contexte afin de dvoiler les
traits spcifiques des textes littraires maghrbins de langue franaise.
Pour conclure, le rapport entre altrit et identit a engendr tout un imaginaire
potique et culturel o les images, les reprsentations, les mythes et lhistoire ont laiss des
empreintes dans toutes les crations littraires maghrbines postcoloniales de langue
franaise. Limaginaire colonis sest superpos limaginaire autochtone qui, aprs avoir
gagn lindpendance, a eu du mal se reconstituer dune manire souveraine et de se
dtacher du rapport lAutre. Ce processus lent de dcolonisation de limaginaire reprsente
lun des plus douloureux troubles intrieurs des crivains maghrbins qui cherchent par
lintermdiaire de la cration littraire les valeurs authentiques de leur culture, leur vraie
identit.
Finalement, grce son alchimie spcifique et par son comportement culturel et
linguistique, la littrature maghrbine postcoloniale de langue franaise a russi
transformer la qute identitaire en un manifeste littraire dintertextualit et interculturalit,
47
Robin, Rgine, 2003.. Le Deuil de lorigine: une langue en trop, la langue en moins. Paris : Editions Kim,
2003, p. 46
48
46
376
Issue no. 6/2015
connu dans tout le monde. Terre du Soleil couchant 49 qui se trouve au carrefour de trois
continents, le Maghreb a hrit de grandes civilisations qui ont produit une littrature
transculturelle de dimensions internationales : la littrature postcoloniale maghrbine
dexpression franaise.
Acknowledgements
This publication was financially supported by the PROGRAMUL
OPERAIONAL SECTORIAL DEZVOLTAREA RESURSELOR UMANE 2007-2013
AXA PRIORITAR 1 Educaia i formarea n sprijinul creterii economice i dezvoltrii
societii bazate pe cunoatere DOMENIUL MAJOR DE INTERVENIE 1.5
Programe doctorale i post-doctorale n sprijinul cercetrii through the project Sistem
integrat de mbuntire a calitii cercetrii doctorale i postdoctorale din Romnia i de
promovare a rolului tiinei n societate POSDRU/159/1.5/S/133652.
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lentre-deux.
[en
ligne]
http://www.llcd.auf.org/IMG/pdf/GEYSS.pdf
Rao, Sathya, 2006. Lcriture post-coloniale en traduction: entre rsistance et
dplacement. Contribution une thorie post-coloniale du langage [en ligne]
http://orees.concordia.ca/rao.html
Rousseau, Audrey, 2011. Mmoires et Identits Blses en Contexte Postcolonial: La
Commission de Vrit et de Rconciliation du Canada. Universit du Qubec Montral,
2011. [en ligne] http://www.archipel.uqam.ca/4355/1/M12232.pdf
Sellam, Sadek et Albin, Michel, Parler des camps, penser les gnocides. Paris : Albin
Michel, 1999. [en ligne] http://ldh-toulon.net/Conquete-de-l-Algerie-crimes-de.html
378
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CHILDHOOD-TIME OF FIRST RESOURCEFUL EXPERIENCES IN THE POETRY OF

ILEANA MALANCIOIU
Ioan GHEORGHIOR
Abstract: In Ileana Malancioiu memories of her childhood, the picturesqueness fades in front
of a severe dramatic nature. Her poems drawn upon the life in her native village reveal a
lyrical archetypal fund, not a monographic landscape like in Cosbuc or Gogas poems. The
poetess who formely used to manage with ability the familys oxcar, has lived in her youth
fundamental experiences, such as birth or death.
Keywords: childhood, dramatic, archetypal, fundamental, death
1. Un univers fr ppui
Amintirile din copilria unui sciitor, ntmplrile din timpul acesteia, de obicei,
edenic, au generat o ntreag literatur. Ionel Teodoreanu i ducea cititorii pe ulia
copilriei sale ori n casa bunicilor, iar nostalgicul Ion Creang vedea Humuletiul la
modul semntorist, cu toate c locuitorii satului su natal nu o duceau deloc bine pe vremea
aceea, aa cum ne las marele povestitor s nelegem.
Satul argeean Godeni, unde s-a nscut i a copilrit Ileana Mlncioiu, era populat de
oameni chinuii, nersfai de soart. Poeta nu are amintiri duioase despre ei i despre viaa
acestora. Pe un ton serios i grav, ea relateaz despre ndeletnicirile din mediul rural, cum ar fi
aratul sau mcinatul la moara satului. Ele sunt privite ritualic i transformate n experiene
subiective peste care apas marile nenelesuri ale fiinei.1 Tot astfel, jupuirea unui bou,
njunghierea mielului, de Pate sau tierea unei psri n gospodria natal las urme adnci n
sensibilitatea poetei. n vremea copilriei, curioasa feti cunoate suferinele animalelor,
destinul psrilor de curte sau al celor de cmp, limitele unei existene care are parte de
experiene fundamentale, cum ar fi naterea, pentru a sfri, inevitabil, cu moartea.
n primele volume de versuri ale Ilenei Mlncioiu (Pasrea tiat, i Ctre Ieronim),
abund amintirile dintr-o copilrie n care i-au lipsit ppuile sau crile cu poveti n casa
printeasc se gseau doar Biblia i Vieile sfinilor. Ea nu-i folosete amintirile despre
copilria petrecut la ar ca surs de pitoresc, ci pstrez din ele doar dramatismul auster al
existenei rneti.2
Viitoarea poet era atras mai degrab de colindatul prin mprejurimile satului, alturi
de bieii de seama ei. Pn i senzualitatea specific vrstei se exprim n primele ei poeme
printr-o cruzime de fat angrenat n jocuri bieeti, nu prin ntrzieri lascive n faa
oglinzii, mai spune acelai critic literar. 3 Puii din scorburi trebuiau aprai de erpi. Viaa,
n general, trebuia ajutat s se desfoare firesc, ntr-o natur plin de pericole:
Caut cuiburi cu bieii prin scorburi
ngropndu-mi mna pn la umr n putregaiul glbui,
nspimntat cnd o pasre ntrziat
se zbate ntre mine i pui.
i simt ciocul i ghearele umblndu-mi prin carne,
N. Manolescu, Literatura romn postbelic. Lista lui Manolescu. I. Poezia, Braov, Aula , 2001, p. 196.
Alex. tefnescu, La o nou lectur: Ileana Mlncioiu, Fundaia Romnia Literar,
no. 3, 2000, p.12
3
Ibidem.
1
2
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o prind de-o arip i-ncerc s-o scot

i-mi scap i m las cu penele n mn
cnd am ieit din scorbur pn la cot
(Puii din scorburi)
2. O capodoper: Pasrea tiat
Cea mai cunoscut i mai ndrgit poezie a Ilenei Mlncioiu, att de mult analizat
de critica literar, este Pasrea tiat. Poemul are o structur parabolic i descrie o
experien iniiatic esenial pentru om: aceea a intrrii pe pe trmul morii, n lumea de
dincolo, de unde nimeni nu se mai ntoarce. Poate acesta este i motivul care provoac eului
liric atta angoas i atta vin tragic, ntruct nu i s-a putut aduce psrii salvarea. Inseria
thanatosului n elementul viu induce ideea c viaa este tot timpul n apropierea morii,
oricnd contactul dintre ele putnd fi fatal:
M-au ascuns btrnii, dup obicei,
S nu uit de frica psrii tiate,
i ascult prin ua ncuiat
Cum se tvlete i se zbate.
Strmb zvorul ubrezit de vreme,
Ca s uit ce-am auzit, s scap
De aceast zbatere n care
Trupul mai alearg dup cap.
i tresar cnd ochii, mpietrind de groaz,
I se-ntorc pe dos ca s albeasc
i prnd c-s boabe de porumb
Alte psri vin s-i ciuguleasc.
Iau c-o mn capul, cu cealalt restul,
i le schimb cnd mi se pare greu,
Pn nu sunt moarte, s mai stea legate
Cel puin aa, prin trupul meu.
ns capul moare mai devreme,
Ca i cnd n-a fost tiat bine,
i s nu se zbat trupul singur
Stau s treac moartea-n el prin mine.
(Pasrea tiat)
Poemul ncepe, dup cum se vede, cu relatarea unui aspect banal dintr-o gospodrie
rneasc: tierea gtului unei psri de curte, pentru a fi gtit. De obicei, copiii nu privesc
acest spectacol trist; ei ntorc capul n alt parte. Btrnii au grij s nu se uite cei mici la
scena crimei, s nu uite de frica bietei zburtoare ce va rmne fr via, ca ntr-un ritual al
iniierii tanatice. Curiozitatea o face ns pe feti s ncalce interdicia (nu asta fac i
personajele din basme de cnd lumea?) i s priveasc scena ngrozit i revoltat. Dar, mai
nti, ascult cum se zbate pasrea. Dorina de a-i sri acesteia n ajutor o face s ias din
ascunztoare i s priveasc moartea n fa. Fetia tresare cnd celelalte psri,
nepstoare, vin s-i ciuguleasc suratei lor moarte ochii ntori pe dos, ca pe nite grune.
Pentru mica eroin a ntmplrii conteaz suferina psrii, nu faptul c ea reprezenta hrana
familiei sale. Nicolae Labi, n finalul celebrului su poem Moartea cprioarei, nu va
reaciona astfel, el acceptnd c tatl lui a avut dreptate cnd a ales salvarea familiei sale
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Issue no. 6/2015
printrun act de braconaj, mpucnd blndul animal la ceas oprit de lege i de datini. S ne
amintim c, n finalul poeziei, el spune: Ce-i inim? Mi-i foame! Vreau s triesc..., i,
plngnd, mannc inima cprioarei i rrunchii, alturi de tatl su. Pentru poetul de la
Mlini, viaa era mai presus de orice, pn la urm (din pcate, a avut parte doar de o frntur
din ea...).
Gestul fetei din poezia Ilenei Mlncioiu, prin care ncearc s prelungeasc viaa
necuvnttoarei muribunde, este pueril, dar denot o sensibilitate amplificat de spaima pe
care i-o d pierderea vieii. Copila practic, incontient, un ritual al iniierii n taina morii,
pe care poeta o va considera mai apoi rul absolut. Interpretarea metaforei psrii tiate
ca fiind simbolul unei societi care se zbate, n ciuda morii eminente, s-i triasc i ultima
pictur de via, chiar atunci cnd capul e ndeprtat de trup. ni se pare oarecum nepotrivit.
4
Nici considerarea poemului drept unul care descrie o iniiere erotic nu este - credem noi ndreptit. 5
Cunoaterea nseamn aici jertf i expiere. Este metafora ptrunderii ntr-un teritoriu
interzis, n care adast tainele mari, grele de sens i de miracol, ale existenei, observ Iulian
Boldea. 6
Ca i n alte poeme ale Ilenei Mlncioiu, i aici predomin vizualul, ceea ce face ca
dramatismul falsei naraiuni s poteneze. Verbele de micare ce abund n partea a doua a
poemului, n care se relateaz gesturile fetei, vin n contrast cu primele verbe ale textului (au
ascuns, s nu uit, ascult), care exprim expectativa, cuminenia copilului ce trebuia
protejat de senzaiile neplcute ale spectacolului morii.
n tulburtorul poem de tineree al autoarei, puritatea i inocena fac loc, n urma unei
revelaii a morii, a rului, a neantului, unei cunoateri vinovate, unei fisuri n armonia i
echilibrul lumii.7 Ileana Mlncioiu construiete cu mare ndemnare practici magice adhoc, consider Costin Tuchil. Se instaureaz, mai exact, un regim de receptare n spirit
magic. Faptul de la care pornete (...) e unul banal, rezolvarea lui nspimnt i vindec
totodat. 8
3. Un fond arhetipal liric
Ileana Mlncioiu nu realizeaz o monografie liric a satului Godeni, aa cum altdat
au fcut Goga sau Cobuc. Cei doi poei ardeleni au fost stpnii fie de jalea romnilor
privai de drepturi n propria lor ar (Goga), fie de sentimentul apartenenei la lumea unui sat
stratificat social, dar iubit necondiionat (Cobuc). n poezia celor doi apar multe figuri
emblematice din lumea rural. La Ileana Mlncioiu, lucrurile stau altfel: satul ei natal nu are
o identitate clar, precum Humuletiul, Hordoul, Rinarii ori satul Silitea-Gumeti al lui
Marin Preda. Poeta argeean nu are intenii monografice, chiar dac putem identifica i n
opera sa fapte, ntmplri, obiceiuri i figuri din satul argeean- potcovirea sau jupuirea
boilor, tierea mieilor sau a psrilor, dusul cu crua la moara dintre muni, cutarea puilor
de psri prin scorburi, vindecarea prin mijloace empirice, cu frunze de salcie i pmnt, cnd
te rneti, ori prin clcatul de ctre urs, cnd te dor alele. Apar i chipuri de oameni, precum
nebunul satului jucndu-se cu roata sau bunica fcnd dulcea de trandafiri. Dar,
considerarea poeziei Ilenei Mlncioiu o rememorare a unei copilrii luminoase este eronat;
Simona Lazr, Ileana Mlncioiu i metafora psrii tiate, jurnalul.ro/print-576805.html/ 27.7.2014.

Drd. Ioana Laslo (Neme), Erotismul maladiv n lirica feminin a anilor 70, (tez de doctorat), Universitatea
Petru Maior, Trgu- Mure, p. 272.
6
Iulian Boldea, De la modernism la postmonernism, Colecia STUDII, Editura Universitii Petru Maior,
Trgu-Mure, 2011, p. 164.
7
Ibidem.
8
Costin Tuchil, Cetile poeziei, eseuri, Cartea Romneasc, 1983, p. 326.
4
5
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personajul liric din Pasrea tiat triete n surparea acelui loc i a acelui timp.9
Universul liric al poetei prefigureaz un fond arhetipal din care se hrnete toat poezia
Ilenei Mlncioiu 10
Orice este interpretabil n poezia acesteia. Roata nebunului Gheorghe poate fi roata
vieii:
Stm speriai, vine Gheorghe cu roata,
O-nvrte pe mn i salt din cot,
Se uit la fierul pornit i se mir
i rde i geme i tremur tot.
Gheorghe cu roata, strig copiii
i-l ntrt dndu-i ocol
Ca s-i ia cercul care se-nal
i s-i opreasc mna n gol.
i nu e nimeni care s-l prind
Cci el i trage brau-napoi,
Dar golul nc se rsucete
i-mpinge roata mai ctre noi.
O lum la fug care-ncotro
Pn ne iese spaima din snge
i numai Gheorghe merge ncet
i nvrtete roata i plnge
(Gheorghe cu roata)
Poemul acesta mi se pare excepional; n el, poeta creioneaz un portret memorabil cu
ajutorul unor detalii care ar fi scpat ochiului omului obinuit i ncheie nesofisticat, fr
trimiteri filozofice, dar, aa cum se ntmpl deseori la Ileana Mlncioiu, lsndu-i cititorului
o imagine greu de uitat. Gheorghe plnge, n loc s se bucure c i-a speriat pe copii cu roata
lui, i i duce viaa mai departe, ntr-o rostogolire stereotip i implacabil.
Nu doar moartea este zrit de poet, n copilrie, de dup stlpul porii, ca n
Pasrea tiat, ci i nunta, la care se uit printe uluci. Fata pierde banii de hrtie, pe care
i ia vntul. Obiceiul cu gleata plin, n care se pun bani la nunt, o impresioneaz la fel de
mult ca i protagonitii alaiului nupial:
Mi-am lsat n drum gleata plin
S le poarte mirilor noroc,
Chiuitul lumii m-nfioar
De parc mi-a luat gleata foc.
Stau ascuns dup stlpul porii
i m uit printre uluci la nunt,
Mirele e blond, mireasa mic,
Soacra guraliv i crunt.
Lutarii, obosii i negri,
Zic un cntec nou de la ora
Ioan Holban, O lume cu ppui din cenu de mori, http.//convorbiriliterare.dntis.ro/HOLBAN (consultat la
data de 27.04.2014).
10
Ibidem.
9
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Issue no. 6/2015
i-i lipesc pe frunile-ncreite

Ultimul baci luat de la na
(Nunta)
4. Fata din carul cu boi
ntr-o cas plin doar de fete (erau patru surori), era inevitabil ca acestea s nu-i ajute
pe prini i la muncile mai brbteti. Dintre animale, greul cdea pe boii familiei. Poeta
rememoreaz liric ntmplri n care aceste animale puternice aveau nevoie de protecie i
strneau mil. Suferina lor a urmrit-o pe Ileana Mlncioiu mult vreme i ar fi fcut orice
n copilrie pentru a le-o diminua. i amintete de potcovarul btrn, cruia i-o ia nainte,
ncercnd s aline, la modul infantil, durerea bietelor animale: Le iau pe rnd n brae/ i le
aps cu palma pe copite/ S tiu pe care parte-au chioptat/ i le acopr oasele tocite.
(Drum)
Poemul La moar descrie un episod din copilrie n care fata merge-de data aceasta
nu singur, ci cu familia- la moara dintre muni, unde trebuie s fie atent s nu-i schimbe
cineva mlaiul:
Stm la rnd la moara dintre muni,
Unii sus pe boabe, alii pe proap
i din cnd n cnd ne schimbm locul
S nu amorim cu noaptea-n cap.
Muli suntem ci saci avem n snii,
Am trecut prin miezul nopii plaiul,
Fiecare dup sacul lui
S nu-i schimbe cineva mlaiul.
Urmeaz ns o comutare din logica realului n planul simbolic:
Roata morii st nepenit,
Rul ngheat trosnete-n vnt,
Boii i-am legat la stlpul porii
i atept s-i scoat din pmnt.
Gerul se asprete i le-ghea botul,
ntunericul e neclintit,
Parc-a mers i timpul dup roata morii
i la miezul nopii s-a oprit.
M ag de spiele-ngheate
S porneasc roata, s se fac zi,
i se subiaz i m tem c lemnul
Mcinat de ape va pieri.
Se produce, iat, o intrare ntr-un plan fantastic, dominat de ntuneric i de ger, n care
roata morii st nepenit, iar timpul se oprete n loc i el. Atunci intr n scen, ca i n
Pasrea tiat, eul poetic, care, exprimat i dramatizat prin eul liric, intervine n cadrul
dat, coagulnd i structurnd realitatea prin forarea semnificaiilor ei de adncime. 11 Fata se
aga de spiele-ngheate, pentru a o face s se nvrteasc, ca s se fac zi. ns, ntr-un
final demn de Bacovia cel din Lacustr, poeta se teme c lemnul va putrezi din pricina apei.
Mihail Daniel Cristea-Enache, Generaia '60: Discursul artistic i discursul critic. Neomodernismul,
Bucureti, Editura Muzeului Naional al Literaturii Romne, Colecia AULA MAGNA, 2013, p. 72.
11
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Fata care a forat timpul ce ncremenise a nvat c existena noastr, la fel ca i a lucrurilor
ce ne nconjoar, se afl sub o permanent ameninare.
*
Dar a venit inevitabil o zi n care poeta a trebuit s se despart de ptrelele
otronului, de rochia ce i-a rmas mic, o zi n care copilria i-a strns marginea de joc
ntre amintiri fugare, cci luna a ajuns a fi prea masiv pentru joc. O alt vrst, cu alte
jocuri i cu alte tentaii, ia locul copilriei; doar luna continud s rsar, chiar i de sub
pmnt, ca o piatr norocoas, veghind asupra fetei ca i pn acum:
De-a baba oarba ne jucm acum,
Sosete dragostea la ochi legat,
M prinde sprijinind al nopii zid,
C-o srutare ochii mi-i nchid,
i trec apoi cu braele deschise
Peste otron n joaca mea nebun
De parc am alunecat pe lun.
(Sfritul copilriei)
BIBLIOGRAFIE
1. Boldea, Iulian (2011). De la modernism la postmonernism. Colecia STUDII.
Trgu-Mure: Editura Universitii Petru Maior.
2. Cristea-Enache, Mihail Daniel (2013). Generaia '60: Discursul artistic i discursul
critic. Neomodernismul. Bucureti: Editura Muzeului Naional al Literaturii Romne. Colecia
AULA MAGNA.
3. Holban, Ioan. (2014). O lume cu ppui din cenu de mori. http://convorbiriliterare.dntis.ro/HOLBAN feb11.htm (accesat la data de 27.04.2014).
4. Manolescu, N. (2001). Literatura romn postbelic. Lista lui Manolescu. I.
Poezia, Braov: Aula.
5. tefnescu, Alex. (2000). La o nou lectur: Ileana Mlncioiu. Romnia
Literar, nr. 3: p. 12-13.
6. Tuchil, Costin. (1983). Cetile poeziei, eseuri, Bucureti: Cartea Romneasc.
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BENIAMIN FUNDOIANU BENJAMIN FONDANE AND ILARIE VORONCA: PORTRAITS

OF TWO ROMANIAN-FRENCH TRANSLATORS
Cosmin-Gheorghi PRGHIE
tefan cel Mare University of Suceava
Abstract: This article proposes to envisage the side of the translators Fundoianu-Fondane
and Ilarie Voronca, that was ignored by the specialists. As we know (or we should know),
Fundoianu-Fondane and Ilarie Voronca were the assiduous practitioners of translation,
especially of poetry (Fundoianu-Fondane translating from Yiddish dialect, German and
French and Ilarie Voronca translating from French and Romanian). Moreover, we tried to
establish the identity of the mysterious pseudonyms I. G. Ofir and I. G. Hasir, which
Fundoianu published a series of poems in the press of that time. Regarding Ilarie Voronca,
we showed the role of the auto-translation for him in his becoming as a poet of French
expression. In conclusion, we exposed the importance of translation for the two.
Keywords: translation, practitioner, poet, poem, the side of the translators.
1. Fundoianu-Fondane
tim c Fundoianu debuteaz n presa vremii, mai precis n 1912, cu trei poeme
semnate cu pseudonimul I. G. Ofir : [Noapte de var], Floare-albastr (Iasi), I, no. 1, 15 mai
1912, p. 3 ; [Peste ape], Floare-albastr (Iasi), I, 1, 15 mai 1912, p. 13 ; i [Creaie], Floarealbastr (Iasi), I, 2, 15 juin 1912, p. 21.).
Cine s-ar fi gndit c aceste poeme sunt, de fapt, traduceri ? Paul Daniel, cumnatul lui
Fundoianu afirma n postfaa semnat la ediia din 1978, c poemele acestea sunt : cteva
tlmciri din limba german n Floarea albast din Iai, sub pseudonimul I. G. Ofir.1 Civa
ani mai trziu, acelai Paul Daniel i George Zarafu susin c poemele semnate cu acest
pseudonim sunt, de fapt, traduceri din creaia lui Iacob Groper.
De problema identitii lor s-a ocupat mult mai aplicat Roxana Sorescu, susinnd
recent c : primele poezii publicate sunt traduceri fcute de tnrul Wechsler din creaia
poetului (nici el publicat pn atunci), Iacob Groper.2 Mai mult, n cadrul articolului B.
Fundoianu anii de ucenicie (I-II)3, publicat n revista Observator Cultural, Roxana Sorescu
scoate la lumin, pentru prima dat, varianta relucrat a poemului tradus cu titlulPeste ape
i publicat cu pseudonimul I. G. Ofir n 1912, variant aprut abia n 1916 n revista
Hatikvah, unde se precizeaz clar c este vorba de o traducere fcut de ctre tnrul B.
Wechsler din creaia poetul idi Iacob Groper.
n fapt, chiar Fundoianu mrturisea la un moment dat c a tradus din creaia lui Groper
: Lam cunoscut pe Groper la Toynbeehale din Iai ntro sear cu sal srccioas i cu
public puin, fugrit de ploaie. Era toamn, Groper citea versuri. [] I-am fcut propunerea
Paul Daniel, Destinul unui poet, postfat publicat n volumul B. Fundoianu, Peozii, Ediie, note i variante
de Paul Daniel i G. Zarafu. Studiu introductiv de Mircea Martin; postfa de Paul Daniel, Editura Minerva,
Bucuresti, 1978, p. 603.
2
Roxana Sorescu, B. Fundoianu Benjamin Fondane: Cronologia vietii i a operei, din volumul B.
Fundoianu: Opere I: Poezia antum, editura Art, 2011, p. 20.
3
Roxana Sorescu , B. Fundoianu Anii de ucenicie I-II, n Observator Cultural, no. 500 i 501, 18 i 26
noiembrie 2009.
1
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de a-i traduce n romnete versuri. Groper ma ajutat. Ma ajutat i cnd pentru Hatikwah
am tradus din Reisen, din Bialik si din Schneyer. Aa lam cunoscut pe Groper. 4
Aadar, avnd n vedere c prima creaie exclusiv personal apare n 1914, n
publicaia Valuri de la Iai, anume sonetul Dorm Florile, semnat B. Fondoianu, nume
apropriat de cel pe care l va adopta mai trziu, putem spune c anul 1912 fixeaz debutul lui
oficial ca traductor. Mai mult, se pare c, la vrsta aceasta de 14 ani, Fundoianu, cum ne
mrturisete Paul Daniel n introducerea la volumul Priveliti i inedite , tradusese mult,
din Baudelaire, Verlaine, Rimbaud, Mallarm, France, Musset, Goethe, Heine, Lenau,
Uhland, Petfi i alii. De asemenea, unele din tlmciri au fost publicate mai trziu,
numeroase alte aflndu-se nc n manuscris.5 Legat de acest lucru, cred c a venit timpul s
fie scoate la lumin acele traduceri ce au rmas n manuscris. n plus, cred c a sosit i timpul
sa ne preocupe niel mai mult i profilul traductorului, pentru c Fundoianu-Fondane este un
caz de-a dreptul interesant.
La doi ani de la publicarea n revista Floare-albastr cu pseudonimul I. G. Ofir, i
apare n revista ieean Absolutio, poemul Cntare, cu pseudonimul tot att de enigmatic, i
anume I. G. Hair. De fapt, potrivit Roxanei Sorescu6, acest poem este tot o traducere din
creaia poetul idi Iacob Groper. Totui, lucrurile nu sunt att de simple i de clare pe ct par.
Paul Daniel lsa s se neleag n postfaa volumului din 1978 c i acest pseudonim i
aparine traductorului, iar poemele aprute n Absolutio i semnate I. G. Hair ar fi tlmciri
din limba german. Nu se precizeaz c ar fi traduceri din Iacob Groper. Mai mult, n tabelul
cronologic publicat n cadrul volumului de poezii din 1983, acelai Paul Daniel i George
Zarafu afirm: n revista Absolutio isclete cu pseudonimul I. Hair.7
Ne punem ntrebarea urmtoare: oare ce l-a determinat pe Paul Daniel s se ndoiasc
ntr-un timp relativ scurt de ceea ce afirmase n 1978 i, acum s se retrag n impersonal,
devenind att de vag? S fie, oare, George Zarafu, cel care l-a fcut s-i schimbe prerea? n
fapt, i dac ar fi aa, argumentele prezentate nu au fost destul de convingtoare ca s impun
un adevr, de fapt, propriul lor adevr, ns, de vreme ce ele l-au fcut pe Paul Daniel s bat
n retragere, nseamn c n stigmatul lor intern exist (totui) un smbure de adevr.
Surpinztor, Monique Jutrin afirma n paginile crii sale din 89 c: Deux ans plus
tard, publiant ses premires traductions du pomes franais, il signe : I. Hasir, pseudonyme
nigmatique aux yeux de certains.8 De aceei prere fiind i Ana Marina Tomescu potrivit
creia: I. Hair este semntura sub care B. Fundoianu a publicat traduceri din limba
francez.9 De fapt, continu s spun tot ea c: Unii au considerat aceast alegere uor
enigmatic; dar ea poate fi explicat destul de uor dac ne gndim c heshir, n ebraic
nseamn cntec, poem.10
B. Fundoianu, Cuvinte despre un prieten, publicat la rubrica Idei i oameni, Lumea evree, an I, no. 19,
smbt 1 noembre 1919, p . 17.
5
B. Fundoianu, Priveliti i inedite , ediie ngrijit, introducere i note de Paul Daniel, Cartea Romneasc,
1974, p. II.
6
Primele poezii publicate sunt traduceri fcute de tnrul Wechsler din creaia poetului (nici el publicat pn
atunci), Iacob Groper: Noapte de var, Peste ape, n revista Floare-albastr, 15 mai 1912 (semnate cu
pseudonimul I. G. Ofir); Creaie, n Floare-albastr, 14 iunie 1912 (cu pseudonimul I. G. Ofir); Cntare, n
revista Absolutio, Iai, 25 ianuarie 1914, (cu pseudonimul I. Hair). Acest citat a fost extras din seria B.
Fundoianu Benjamin Fondane, Opere I, Poezie Antuma ; ed. ngrijit de Paul Daniel, George Zarafu, si Mircea
Martin; cuv. nainte i pref. de Mircea Martin; tab. cronologic i dosar critic de Roxana Sorescu; postf. de Ion
Pop; Editura Art, Bucureti, 2011, p. 20.
7
B. Fundoianu, Poezii, vol. I, prefa de Dumitru Micu; tabel cronologic de Paul Daniel i George Zarafu,
Biblioteca pentru toi, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1983, p. XXXIII.
8
Monique Jutrin, Benjamin Fondane ou Le periple dUlysse, Librairie A. G. Nizet, Paris, 1989, p. 25.
9
Ana-Marina Tomescu, B. Fundoianu-Benjamin Fondane: un scriitor ntre dou literaturi, Cartea Universitar,
10
Ibidem
4
386
Issue no. 6/2015
Ceea ce nu se explic este urmtorul fapt: de ce ar semna, de pild, Fundoianu

traduceri din creaie francez cu un pseudonim pn la urm ebraic? Dac e s parcurgem
atent Bibliographie des uvres publies de Benjamin Fondane, care se regsete pe site-ul
Association Benjamin Fondane, vom putea observa faptul c Fundoianu i-a isclit traducerile
fcute din creaia unor poei francezi cu pseudonimele B. Fundoianu, B. F., B. Fd., etc. n nici
un caz, spre exemplu, cu pseudonimul B. Wechsler, cu care semna traduceri n reviste
evreieti.
n fapt, pentru a arta c I. G. Hair este pseudonimul traductorului Fundoianu iar
traducerile sunt fcute din creaia lui Iacob Groper, ne-am oprit asupra primei strofe din
poemele In ertn Mai de Iacob Groper i cel care poart titlul I. G. Hair, din manuscris
(Caietul E-1914). S privim cu atenie:
Ghei of main lid, der friling iz ghekumen,
Fn berg, fn waite winkt oin frie naihait,
Hoib of dain kol, n wer a ir fn fraihait,
A loib dem naiem Lebens erte Blumen.11
Deteapt-te cntarea mea cci vine

Acuma primvara lin dumbrav.
i-un cnt de libertate naln slav
n cinstea nfloririi noi depline.12
Comparndu-le, ne putem da seama c nu este vorba de o traducere literal, fidel n

totalitate literei textului original, ci mai degrab o traducere literar, re-creativ n romnete
care pledeaz pentru virtuozitatea i tonul ritmat, specifice versurilor din idi. Mai mult,
Fundoianu acord o importan major acelor elemente dinti de poeticitate ale poeziei, de
fapt, cele care fac imposibil, aa cum susinea el n 194313, actul traducerii de poezie. i
probabil dac ar mai fi trit, cu siguran am fi avut, poate, primul romn care fundamenteaz
n spaiul european o teorie despre traducerea de poezie, sine qua non pentru orice demers
teoretic n acest domeniu. n parantez fie spus, i aa, refleciile lui teoretice despre
traducerea de poezie, sunt actualmente ct se poate de valabile. Poetica traducerii de poezie pe
care Fondane ne-a propus-o, a fost dezvoltat i aprofundat cu mare miestrie de ctre
poetul-traductorul-teoreticianul traducerii Henri Meschonnic n a lui Potique du traduire.
Fr s-l citeze, undeva aiurea, n studiile sale traductologice, pe Fondane, nu cred s greim
spunnd c l-a citit. ndrznim s spunem (chiar) c i-a cunoscut i refleciile lui despre
traducerea de poezie. n plus, s nu uitm c Meschonnic semneaz o prefa la volumul Le
mal des fantmes. nchid paranteza.
Prin urmare, revenind la identitatea lui I. G. Hair, exemplul dat de noi ntrete, dac
nu convinge deja c acest pseudonim i aparine, aa cum susinuse deja Roxana Sorescu,
traductorului Fundoianu.
Acestea fiind spuse, putem trece mai departe. Pe lng tlmcirile fcute din Groper,
Fundoianu traduce n 1914 din francez dou poeme din creaia lui Henri de Regnier :
[Invocare], Viaa nou (Bucarest), X, 8, 1 er octobre 1914, p. 261 : i din cea a lui
Dr. B. Iosif, Nostalgia ghetoului evreesc, Opera lui Iacob Groper, ca reflex al fiinei evreilor din Romnia,
Cultura Poporului, Bucureti, 1934, pp. 83-84; B. Iosif traduce aceast strof: Rsari o cntecul meu, primvara
a venit, Din muni ndeprtai face semne noua viaa, Ridic-i glasul i fi un cnt de libertate, de slav primelor
flori ale vieii noui.
12
Fundoianu, B., Cntece. Caietul E [manuscris tip carte] : [versuri], 1914 (19 file) ; Biblioteca Naional a
Romniei, Colecii Speciale, sala Manuscrise.
13
Monique Jutrin, Rflexions autour d'un panorama de la posie 1933-43, article qui peut tre visualis sur le
site :
http://www.benjaminfondane.com/un_article_cahierAutour_d%E2%80%99un_panorama_de_la_po%C3%A9sie_fran%C3%A7aise_1933_43-183-1-1-0-1.html
Fondane susinea c: la posie demeure essentiellement ce quon ne peut pas traduire. Et ce sont ces lments
intraduisibles qui sont les lments potiques premiers.
11
387
Issue no. 6/2015
Baudelaire : [Don Juan n infern], Versuri i proz (Iasi), III, 17-18, 1-5 novembre 1914, p.
525. Ambele traduceri fiind semnate B. Fundoianu.
n anii urmtori i dup plecarea lui Fundoianu n Frana, activitatea de traductor
rmne nentrerupt. Acesta traduce poeme din idi, de Abraham Reisen, Simon Frug14,
Zalman Shneur, Haim Nahman Bialik, Alehem Salom, Iacob Groper, Solomon An-sky etc.;
din autori francezi : Baudelaire, Henri de Regnier, Jean-Henri Fabre, Rmy de Gourmont,
Charles Mourras, Arthur Rimbaud ? (n revista Unu se precizeaz c: n numerele viitoare
vom publica Le bateau ivre tradus de B. Fundoianu i Ilarie Voronca. 15 Din pcate nu am
gsit aceast traducere. Este foarte posibil ca Fundoianu s fi tradus Le bateau ivre de
Rimbaud, iar traducerea s fi fost rtcit printre alte materiale ajunse la pota redaciei. S nu
uitm c ultumul vers din poemul Parad este traducerea unui vers din Le bateau ivre de
Rimbaud.) ; i din autori romni, fiind vorba de traducere fragmentar : Tudor Arghezi,
George Bacovia, Adrian Maniu, Ilarie Voronca, Al. A. Philippide, Ion Minulescu, Ion Vinea,
A. L. Zissu. Aceste traduceri au aprut n publicaiile vremii: cotidianul naional evreesc
Mntuirea, condus de A. L. Zissu, revista studenilor evrei Hatikvah, aprut la Galai, revista
Lumea evree, revista Cuvntul liber, revista Rampa, revista Hasmonaea, revista bucuretean
Adevarul literar i artistic, revista Spre ziu, revista Journal des Potes i alte reviste.
Aadar, putem spune c Fundoianu a tradus assidu poezie de la o vrst precoce, din
german, apoi din dialectul idi i din francez ncepnd cu 1914, ns fragmentar, cu excepia
romanului Spovedania unui candelabru de A. L. Zissu. De fapt, traducerea a fost pentru el,
dincolo de mediere interlingvistic, calea cea mai bun de a exersa limba spe care i din care a
tradus; de a exersa modele poetice care s-au impus i care au rennoit gndirea poetic pe
plan european, dar i pe plan romnesc ; de a reconsidera pe plan internaional, pentru c
traducerea are i aceast funcie, unele creaii poetice romneti i prin intermediul acestora
att ct se poate din identitile unor poei de expresie romneasc ; i nu n ultimul rnd de a
experimenta ca poet n devenire.
2. Ilarie Voronca
Latura traductorului Ilarie Voronca (caz similar cu cel al traductorului FundoianuFondane, cel puin n aceast privin) nu a fcut nici pn astzi obiectul unei cercetri, cu
toate c ea este parte integrant, ca dealtminteri cea poetic, din conformaia lui intelectual.
Mai mult, traducerea a avut un rol decisiv, ea fiind o punte putem spune, de legtur i de
trecere de la poetul de expresie romneasc la poetul de expresie francez.
Atenia criticilor s-a ndreptat (cum altfel dect n mod firesc) spre opera lui de poet i
spre cea de teoretician al avangardei. De fapt, sunt laturile care au atras atenia criticilor,
fcndu-se remarcate n ochii lor. Astfel c, latura traductorului Ilarie Voronca a trecut
cumva n subsidiar, fcndu-se la ea apel numai sporadic. i totui, n spaiul romnesc, nu
avem nc pe rol (cum ar fi dealtminteri firesc pentru cineva care i-a ctigat locul bine
meritat n celebrul dicionar Larousse, Dictionnaire mondial des Littratures (p. 1308), sub
direcia lui Pascal Maugin i Karen Haddad-Wotling, aprut n 2002) un proiect de
reconsiderare critic a intregii opere, la fel ca n cazul lui Fundoianu-Fondane.
Despre S. S. Frug, Fundoianu scrie: n deosebire de ali scriitori evrei-rui, poetul S. S. Frug este un fiu al
cmpurilor i holdelor bogate, muncite de agricultori evrei. [] Frug este alturi de Bialik i Moris Rosenfeld,
poetul redeteptrei noastre naionale. [] S. S. Frug a scris i n rusete. Toat puterea liric a talentului su se
vdete ns n poeziile scrise n idi, multe dintrnsele fiind adevrate capo dopere nu att prin coninutul, ct
prin perfeciunea, ai putea spune prin virtuozitatea, versurilor lor. (Lumea evree,anul I, no. 4, smbt, 2 martie
1919; articolul despre S. S. Frug este semnat b.
15
Unu, Bucureti, anul II, nr. 9, ianuarie 1929, p. 20.
14
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Apreciem studiul lui Ion Pop, publicat n 2007, n care ni se ofer o perspectiv
cuprinztoare a traseului voroncian de la un volum la altul. Totui, nu avem nc o biografie
complet a autorului. n fapt, ne intereseaz i viaa lui n aceeai msur ca opera.
Dar aceasta este o problem care, sperm noi, c ntr-un timp relativ scurt se va
rezolva. Ct despre un proiect grandios de reconsiderare critic a intregii lui opere suntem
oarecum sceptici n privina concretizrii. De ce spun acest lucru ? Pentru c dincolo de
munca enorm de cercetare, dincolo de consumul intelectual i fizic, factorul economic este
cel mai strnjenitor. Care editura s-ar angaja s sprijine i s publice un asemenea proiect ? Ce
foloase ar trage ? i iat, de pild, cazul editurii Art, care s-a angajat s publice seria
Fundoianu-Fondane, coordonat de ctre profesorul Mircea Martin, pentru foloase de ordin
spiritual. Aadar, dac exist voin i suflet exist i vedere peste folosul financiar. Acest
lucru ni-l dovedete editura Art.
Revenind la intenia noastr, ne propunem ca n cele ce urmeaz s reconstruim, att
ct ne st n putin, i profilul traductorului Ilarie Voronca. Aadar s purcedem la fapte.
Chiar dac Fundoianu-Fondane a fost un traductor mult mai asuduu dect Voronca,
traducnd din german, din dialectul idi fiind ajutat de ctre Iacob Groper, din romn n
francez, Voronca a tradus din francez n romn dar mai ales din romn n francez, cu
toate c n-a dus la bun sfrit toate proiectele ncepute.
De pild, n revista Unu se precizeaz c: n numerele viitoare vom publica Le
bateau ivre tradus de B. Fundoianu i Ilarie Voronca.16 Din pcate nu am gsit aceast
traducere n paginile revistei. Este foarte posibil ca Fundoianu si Voronca s fi tradus Le
bateau ivre de Rimbaud, iar traducerea s fi fost rtcit printre alte materiale ajunse la pota
redaciei. S nu uitm c ultumul vers din poemul Parad este traducerea unui vers din Le
bateau ivre de Rimbaud.
Tot un proiect nceput i neterminat este romanul Rusoaica de Gib. I. Mihescu, pe
care Voronca spera c : n toamna aceasta n care, voi duce, poate, la bun sfrit traducerea
n franuzete a misterioasei Rusoaice a lui Gib. I. Mihiescu.17
Un alt proiect grandios ar fi fost o antologie de poezie romneasc contemporan care
ar fi trebuit s apar la Grasset, dup spusele lui Voronca. Despre acesta antologie amintete
i Crina Bud n cel mai recent studiu al ei: Un alt proiect despre care arhivele diplomatice ale
MAE conin informaii i aparine lui Ilarie Voronca, poetul care, emigrat n Frana din 1933,
rmne referent la direcia Presei i Informaiilor din Ministerul Afacerilor Strine pn n
1938. Ca asistent al profesorului Mario Roques, el a inut o serie de prelegeri despre poezia
romn (George Bacovia, Adrian Maniu, Mateiu Caragiale, Al. Philippide...) la Paris i la
Marsillia. n lucrarea File de istorie cultural, Pavel ugui reconstituie pe baza documentelor
aciunile lui de propagand cultural la Paris. Probele muncii la o antologie de poezie romn
sunt oarecum indirecte: n 1937, Ilarie Voronca este vizitat la Paris de ctre Ion Pillat, iar la
revenirea n ar, acesta din urm expediaz o srisoare directorului presei i informaiilor din
MAS, publicistul Paul Anastasiu, n care, printre informaii despre colaborrile lui Voronca la
revistele pariziene, despre conferinele lui la Sorbona, pomenete i de munca la o antologie
n limba francez a poeziei noastre contemporane.18
Chiar i mai trziu, poetul pare s munceasc la presupusa antologie, aa cum ni se
confirm ntr-o scrisoare din august 1943 ctre doctorul Saul Axelrud, publicat de ctre
Carol Iancu n revista Apostrof: jai crit deux contes pour Suzette mais comme jai
16
Ibidem
Ilarie Voronca, A doua lumin, ediie ngrijit, note i comentarii de Ion Pop, editura Minerva, Bucureti,
1996, p. 275.
18
Crina Bud, Literatura romn n Frana. Configurri critice n context european, Editura Muzeului Naional
al Literaturii Romne, 2014, p. 98-99.
17
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Issue no. 6/2015
beaucoup de travail pour lAnthologie de la Posie Roumaine (qui doit paratre chez Grasset,
je crois), je nai pas eu le temps de les mettre au point.19
Dac s-ar fi concretizat, antologia ar fi fost un adevrat document cultural, servind
totodat drept o carte de vizit, la momentul respectiv, a poeziei romneti contemporane nu
numai pentru literatura francez ct i pentru ntreaga literatur european.
Acestea ar fi, pe de o parte, proiectele de traducere ale lui Voronca pe care, din
nefericire, nu a reuit s le finalizeze.
S notm pe de alt parte c Voronca a tradus fragmentar din Alecsandru Philippide20,
din Tudor Arghezi21, din Urmuz22 i din alti poei. Spre exemplu, va afirma c: Genul creat
de d. Ion Pillat a prut s intereseze att de mult, nct o recenzie pe care am trimis-o nsoit
de cteva traduceri, revistei Le Mois, a fost reprodus n ntregime de Mercure de France.23
De asemenea, n alt parte va ncerca versiunea ctorva strofe din Moartea ranului [...]
Sau aceste Vestminte srace de poetul Edmond Vandercammen.24
Totui, cele mai reprezentative proiecte de traducere pe care a reuit s le nfptuiasc
au fost traducerile n limba francez a urmtoarelor volume: Ulise (1928) care a fost tradus n
colaborare cu poetul Roger Vailland, n francez cu titlul Ulysse dans la cit (1933), ca s-i
salveze presupusa prietenie cu Fondane, care publicase si el un volum de poezie cu titul
Ulysse, n acelai an; Petre Schlemihl (1932) tradus n francez cu titlul Pomes parmi les
hommes (1934); i volumul Patmos i alte ase poeme (1933) care a devenit Patmos (1934).
n ceea ce privete versiunea francez a poemului romnesc Ulise, Jean Cassou saluta
pozitiv prezena acesteia: Voici un nouvel Ulysse, diffrement quoique galement roumain,
de celui de Benjamin Fondane, dont jai dit, lautre jour, les mrites. A ceux de cet Ulysse de
Voronca il faut joindre les qualits du traducteur, Roger Vailland, qui a russi donner
limpression de pomes directement crits en franais. Ce qui frappe en eux, cest leur
extraordinaire exubrence, une facilite engendrer des images qui risque mme de produire
une impression dblouissante monotonie. Ces images sont, dailleurs, presque toujours belles
et sduisantes. Ce petit recueil, par sa richesse, son abondance, son mouvante cordialit, ne
manquera pas, assurment, de se faire des amis parmi les potes. [] Sa posie est pleine de
choses et de suc.25
Nu la fel de ncntat de traducere va fi i Benjamin Fondane : lesprit qui a prsid
cette traduction me semble des plus navrants : il suppose que le vers moderne nest quune
prose frelate, et gure des rythmes obscurs, des similitudes savantes, des obstacles invisibles,
Carol Iancu, Ilarie Voronca. 12 scrisori inedite ctre Saul Axelrud, n Apostrof, nr.6/2011.
Pierre Brunel declara de pild c: En 1933, les Gardes de fer maintenaient la terreur dans le pays. la suite
de la rpression sanglante de latelier de Grivitza, au moins de fvrier, des intellectuels cherchrent refuge en
Occident , et en particulier en France. Ce fut le cas dIlarie Voronca qui a mis son talent de pote traduire ses
compatriotes, par exemple ce pome dAlessandru Philippide, son an de trois ans : Nous sommes faits en
grande partie de nuit, [] ou encore celui-ci : La vie d ct. (Pierre Brunel, Un crivain entre deux pays et
entre deux langues : Ilarie Voronca, In : Quaderns de Filologia. Estudis litteraris, vol. XII, 2007, p. 162-164)
21
n cartea lui Bogdan Ghi gsim o mrturisire fcut de ctre Eugne Ionesco: Ilarie Voronca a traduit pour
moi quatre-vingts pomes de Tudor Arghezi, avec un commentaire par moi-mme. Le manuscrit est prt et
accept par la maison ddition Kra ( Le Sagittaire ) Paris. Le Ministre franais des Affaires trangres ma
permis le papier (difficilement trouvable). (Bogdan Ghi, Eugne Ionesco un chemin entre deux langues, deux
littratures, prface de Irina Mavrodin, LHarmattan, 2011, p. 273)
22
Ilarie Voronca a tradus Plecare n strintate de Urmuz, n francez cu titlul Le dpart pour ltranger.
Aceast traducere poate fi consultat n volumul Urmuz, Pages Bizarres, traduit du roumain par Benjamin
Dolingher, Collection Le Bruit du Temps, dirige par Gerard Joulie, avec le concours du Revizor, 1993, ditions
Lge dHomme, Lausanne, pp. 57-59.
23
Ilarie Voronca, op. cit., p. 276.
24
Ibidem, p. 185.
25
Les Nouvelles Littraires, Artistiques et Scientifiques, Samedi 29 avril 1933, n. 550, p. 7.
19
20
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Issue no. 6/2015
bref toute une technique obscure qui, pour tre libre de toute domesticit, impose, nen nest
pas moins assujettie des ncessits internes. 26
n plus, aceast traducere i displace pentru c este strictement littrale, presse,
oublieuse de ses rythmes originels, sans le moindre quivalent lexique et musical des
trouvailles de loriginal. 27
Ct privete celelalte dou volume, Andr Fontainas gsea de cuviin: les rythmes
plus incertains, parfois forcs, du pote roumain Ilarie Voronca [].28
Cu toate acestea, nscrierea lor, prin traducere, n circuitul poeziei franceze a nsemnat
mult pentru Voronca. n primul rnd ele au asigurat o continuitate poetic, i nu o cezur (c
de ruptur29 nu poate fi vorba) ca n cazul lui Fundoianu-Fondane, care a lsat traducerea lui
pe seama altora. De fapt, Ulysse dans la cit, marchez debutul oficial n limba francez a
poetului de expresie francez Voronca. Celalte dou volume conlucreaz i ele la identitatea
poetic n formare a tnrului poet francez. n plus ele arat noua lui orientarea poetic pn
la totala devenire ca poet al umanitii.
Toate aceste trei volume pregtesc i prevestec oarecum ceea ce va deveni poetul de
expresie francez Ilarie Voronca.
3. Concluzie
Att pentru Fundoianu-Fondane ct i pentru Ilarie Voronca traducerea a avut, aa
cum se poate observa din paginile acestui articol, un rol esenial, chiar pan-general (cu
implicaii n toate laturile celor doi). Ea, traducerea, a nsemnat deschidere, difuzare,
cunoatere, asimilare, formarea i acutizarea gustului i a spiritului critic, practicarea
formulelor poetice printre cele mai novatoare i, pe aceasta cale, formarea lor ca poei i ca
intelectuali de prim mn. De asemena ea a fost o condiie a existenei (avnd n vedere c
cei doi au ales ca limb i cultur de elecie dar i de exil pe cea francez), pe care cei doi siau asumat-o chiar dac alegerea aceasta avea s-l conduc pe Fondane la o moarte tradic,
odioas, iar pe Ilarie Voronca la o moarte ca rspuns (totui) neateptat pentru cei apropiai la
Contre-solitude.
Prin urmare, astzi, orice demers ce privete traducerea n spaiul romnesc (fie el i
traductologic, cu toate c n Romnia e impropriu s se vorbeasc de traductologie), nu
poate s nu aib n vedere i laturile traductorilor Fundoianu-Fondane i Ilarie Voronca.
Bibliografie:
26
Moque Jutrin, op. cit.

Marlena Braester, Les mots se meurent de changer de bouche : Fondane et lcriture de traduction, articol
publicat n revista Les Cahiers Benjamin Fondane, no. 7/ 2004, p. 71.
28
Mercure de France, n. 873, 1er novembre 1934, p. 573.
29
Tocmai acea prefa la volumul Priveliti anuleaz ideea c ar fi vorba de o ruptur ntre perioada poetic
romneasc i cea francez. S notm aici c Fondane, poetul de expresie francez scrie prefaa s lmureasc
anumite aspecte ce in de Fundoianu, poetul de expresie romneasc. Gestul lui Fondane cnd pretindea c
volumul de fa aparine unui poet mort, nu este s se rup de experiena poetic anterioar. Dac vroia s se
rup atunci fcea acelai lucru pe care l-a fcut Rimbaud. Palingenezia pentru c de ea este vorba
marcheaz, n cazul de fa ncheierea primei etape i naterea altei etape. Nici dac vom compara poetica
romneasc a lui Fundoianu cu poetica francez a lui Fondane nu vom putea vorbi de o ruptur. Este evident c
influena filosofiei existeniale a lui estov s-a fcut marcat i n poezia lui Fondane. Astfel c s-a trecut la o
noua etap, unde poezia francez scris de el a acutizat experiena trit (mai ales ca evreu), a transformat-o n
poezie ntr-o condiie existenial, sine qua non pentru trirea dramatic. Chiar i n volumul publicat postum, i
anume Baudelaire i experiena abisului, gndirea lui Fondane a fost cum se spune n spiral. Pentru a putea
merge mai departe, Fondane a revenit ciclic la experiena lui anterioar etapei franceze. Nu este el cel care a
susinut c o revoluie n materia poemului cere banalitatea formei ? (p. 102) Oare nu acest lucru a fcut
Fundoianu n volumul Priveliti ? Mai mult, oare s negi o parte din tine nu nseamn s negi continuitatea ?
Chiar el a spus-o undeva aiurea.
27
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1. Braester, Marlena, Les mots se meurent de changer de bouche : Fondane et lcriture

de traduction, articol publicat n revista Les Cahiers Benjamin Fondane, no. 7/ 2004;
2. Brunel, Pierre, Un crivain entre deux pays et entre deux langues : Ilarie Voronca,
In : Quaderns de Filologia. Estudis litteraris, vol. XII, 2007;
3. Bud, Crina, Literatura romn n Frana. Configurri critice n context european,
Editura Muzeului Naional al Literaturii Romne, 2014;
4. Daniel, Paul, Destinul unui poet, postfat publicat n volumul B. Fundoianu,
Peozii, Ediie, note i variante de Paul Daniel i G. Zarafu. Studiu introductiv de
Mircea Martin; postfa de Paul Daniel, Editura Minerva, Bucuresti, 1978 ;
5. Fondane, B., Opere XIV. : Baudelaire i experiena abisului, trad. de Ion Pop i Ioan
Pop-Cureu ; ed. critic de Ion Pop, Ioan Pop-Cureu i Mircea Martin ; studiu introd.
i sinopsis al receptrii de Mircea Marti ; pref. de Monique Jutrin ; postf. de Ioan PopCureu i Dominique Guedj, Bucureti, Editura Art, 2013.
6. Fundoianu, B., Cntece. Caietul E [manuscris tip carte] : [versuri], 1914 (19 file);
Biblioteca Naional a Romniei, Colecii Speciale, sala Manuscrise;
7. Fundoianu, B., Cuvinte despre un prieten, publicat la rubrica Idei i oameni,
Lumea evree, an I, no. 19, smbt 1 noembre 1919;
8. Fundoianu, B., Priveliti i inedite , ediie ngrijit, introducere i note de Paul
Daniel, Cartea Romneasc, 1974;
9. Fundoianu, B., Poezii, vol. I, prefa de Dumitru Micu; tabel cronologic de Paul
Daniel i George Zarafu, Biblioteca pentru toi, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1983;
10. Fundoianu, B. Fondane, Benjamin, Opere I, Poezie Antuma ; ed. ngrijit de Paul
Daniel, George Zarafu, si Mircea Martin; cuv. nainte i pref. de Mircea Martin; tab.
cronologic i dosar critic de Roxana Sorescu; postf. de Ion Pop; Editura Art,
Bucureti, 2011;
11. Ghi, Bogdan, Eugne Ionesco un chemin entre deux langues, deux littratures,
prface de Irina Mavrodin, LHarmattan, 2011;
12. Iancu, Carol, Ilarie Voronca. 12 scrisori inedite ctre Saul Axelrud, n Apostrof,
nr.6/2011;
13. Iosif, B., Nostalgia ghetoului evreesc, Opera lui Iacob Groper, ca reflex al fiinei
evreilor din Romnia, Cultura Poporului, Bucureti, 1934;
14. Jutrin, Monique, Benjamin Fondane ou Le periple dUlysse, Librairie A. G. Nizet,
Paris, 1989;
15. Jutrin, Monique, Rflexions autour d'un panorama de la posie 1933-43, article qui
peut tre visualis sur le site :
http://www.benjaminfondane.com/un_article_cahierAutour_d%E2%80%99un_panorama_de_la_po%C3%A9sie_fran%C3%A7aise_1933_43183-1-1-0-1.html
16. Larousse, Dictionnaire mondial des Littratures, sub direcia lui Pascal Maugin i
Karen Haddad-Wotling, ditions Larousse, 2002;
17. Les Nouvelles Littraires, Artistiques et Scientifiques, Samedi 29 avril 1933, n. 550;
18. Lumea evree,anul I, no. 4, smbt, 2 martie 1919;
19. Mercure de France, n. 873, 1er novembre 1934;
20. Pop, Ion, A scrie i a fi: Ilarie Voronca i metamorfozele poeziei, Cartea Romneasc,
2007;
21. Sorescu, Roxana, B. Fundoianu Anii de ucenicie I-II, n Observator Cultural, no.
500 i 501, 18 i 26 noiembrie 2009;
22. Sorescu, Roxana, B. Fundoianu Benjamin Fondane: Cronologia vietii i a operei,
din volumul B. Fundoianu: Opere I: Poezia antum, editura Art, 2011;
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23. Tomescu, Ana-Marina, B. Fundoianu-Benjamin Fondane: un scriitor ntre dou

literaturi, Cartea Universitar, Bucureti, 2007;
24. Unu, Bucureti, anul II, nr. 9, ianuarie 1929;
25. Urmuz, Pages Bizarres, traduit du roumain par Benjamin Dolingher, Collection Le
Bruit du Temps, dirige par Gerard Joulie, avec le concours du Revizor, 1993,
ditions Lge dHomme, Lausanne;
26. Voronca, Ilarie, A doua lumin, ediie ngrijit, note i comentarii de Ion Pop, editura
Minerva, Bucureti, 1996;
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UN REGARD SUR LIMPOSSIBILITE DE LA TRADUCTION

Sperana DOBO
Abstract: There have been developments on the concept of the impossibility in translation in
the context of globalization. Translation Studies extended to other branches such as Cultural
Studies that are interested in the translation of cultural concepts from one language to
another. World views defining the members of a linguistic community proved to be hard to
translate from one culture or one language system into another. The moment of Saussures
discovery of the linguistic sign, an indestructible, arbitrary double face entity composed of the
signifier and signified, was a turning point that led to a dramatic change in the theory of
translation. New questions rose: what do we translate? The sense or the form? The letter or
the meaning? The impossibility of translation refers to the translators task to render these
non-opposable linguistic systems and world views. Yet, the concept of translation was coined
in immemorial times and there have always been translations and reflections on translations
before the rise of the discipline of Translation Studies in the second half of the 20th century.
The dichotomy of the possibility/ impossibility of translation can ultimately be reconfigured in
the apory of literal/ free translation. Nowadays, the paradigm of the new functionalist
approaches in Translation Studies succeeded in rendering possible any translation depending
on the role and the function of translation. Thus, the function the translation plays in the
target-culture can justify any betrayal in translation.
Keywords: source-oriented/ target-oriented translation, equivalence without appropriateness,
the apory of the possibility / impossibility of translation, literal/ free translation
La discussion autour de limpossibilit de la traduction parait dans les annes 70
quand en France on met les bases dune nouvelle science qui porte le nom de
traductologie . Le terme traductologie a t introduit en France par Georges Mounin et
Jean Ren Ladmiral, tant le correspondant de Translation Studies , terme impos en
Grande Bretagne en 1972 par James S. Holmes.
Limpossibilit de la traduction est un concept surtout thorique, car en pratique on
traduit et on a traduit depuis longtemps. Lhistoire de la traduction est plus ancienne que les
tudes traductologiques, et ses dbuts se confondent dans le mythe biblique de la Tour du
Babel. La dispersion des langues et des cultures savre une consquence de la punition du
Dieu pour larrogance des gens qui parlaient la mme langue et qui avait construit une tour
trs haute touchant les cieux.
Le mythe de la Tour Babel donne aussi la mesure de son anciennet : Tout le monde
se servait dune mme langue et des mmes mots. Comme les hommes se dplaaient
lOrient, ils trouvrent une valle au pays de Shinar et ils sy tablirent. Ils se dirent lun
lautre : Allons ! Faisons des briques et cuisons-les au feu ! La brique leur servit de
pierre et le bitume leur servit de mortier. Ils dirent : Allons ! Btissons-nous une ville et une
tour dont le sommet pntre les cieux ! Faisons-nous un nom et ne soyons pas disperss sur
toute la Terre ! . Or, Yahv descendit pour voir la ville et la tour que les hommes avaient
bties. Et Yahv dit: Voici que tous font un seul peuple et parlent une seule langue, et tel est
le dbut de leurs entreprises ! Maintenant, aucun dessein ne sera irralisable pour eux.
Allons ! Descendons ! Et l, confondons leur langage pour quils ne sentendent plus les uns
les autres. Yahv les dispersa de l sur toute la face de la Terre et ils cessrent de btir la
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ville. Aussi la nomma-t-on Babel, car cest l que Yahv confondit le langage de tous les
habitants de la Terre et cest de l quil les dispersa sur toute la face de la Terre. 1.
Le mythe de la Tour de Babel est troitement li celui de lArche de No et du
Dluge. Ce texte biblique raconte donc comment les descendants de No, qui parlaient une
seule langue, essayaient de construire une tour assez haute pour toucher le ciel. En punition de
leur vanit, les hommes perdirent la possibilit de se comprendre et furent disperss. Cest
donc l que se trouverait lorigine de la diversit des langues.
Tout le monde se servait dune mme langue et des mmes mots , cest--dire un
ensemble de signes bien mis au point pour dsigner la ralit, pour exprimer ce qui tient de la
nature, un langage qui transforme une promiscuit initiale en une union cratrice. Ils se
dirent lun lautre ... il y a donc des changes de mots, on cre une liaison entre les
intentions ; lobjet qui rsulte de cette communication est un projet audacieux, ncessaire et
en mme temps gratuit qui va attirer la punition divine.
Ds le dbut de son histoire, lhomme manifeste deux dsirs : garder son unit et se
faire un nom . La langue adamique leur permettait dtre unis et de se faire un nom , le
nom et les langues tant des aspects de la mme ralit. Lavenir se dtache de lindicible par
les formes verbales du futur propre aux nombreuses langues. Le langage affirme la fiction et
mme lirrel est dicible. Les animaux sont passs devant Adam et lui, comme un chamane,
leur a donn un nom pour les faire exister. Il les a fait sortir de lindicible, car, sans avoir un
nom, ils seraient rests dans linexistence. De la mme manire, les hommes de Babel
voulaient se nommer eux-mmes, sortir de linexistence, rester dans lHistoire, se substituer
Dieu. Au commencement tait la Parole, et la Parole tait avec Dieu, et la Parole tait
Dieu .2 Le mot fait ou dfait lespace et le temps.
confondons leur langage pour quils ne sentendent plus les uns les autres ; la
langue est trangre, diffrente, oppose la diversit des langues, mais en mme temps elle
survit dans toutes les langues, elle sactualise grce la diversit de ces langues. cause de la
tour dont le sommet pntre les cieux quils voulaient btir, - la connotation du verbe
pntrer est plus brutale, agressive, blasphmatrice ; elle dsigne une agression, une violation
de linterdit lhomme a perdu la langue de ses origines. Il va parler ds lors dautres langues
virtuellement dgrades et ncessairement en conflit avec les autres langues. Le texte biblique
constate la pluralit, la diversit des langues sous la forme du processus rel, actif, sous la
forme de laspect dynamique : confondons leur langage pour quils ne sentendent plus
les uns les autres . Dici le nom de la ville Babel - qui signifie confusion : Aussi la
nomma-t-on Babel, car cest l que Yahv confondit le langage de tous les habitants de la
Terre et cest de l quil les dispersa sur toute la face de la Terre. Ce qui reste cest la
mmoire, le souvenir dune langue oublie qui donne un sens particulier aux phrases de
Yahv.
La punition consiste dans la perte de la langue adamique qui tait le langage divin,
pur, perte qui peut se transformer dans la suppression des communications universelles et
donc dans un discours psychotique. La punition consiste aussi dans la dispersion des langues
et, par consquent, des visions du monde et qui permet au chaos linguistique et idatique
sinstaller. Dautre part, la punition se transforme, au fait, dans un don qui se traduit dans la
diversit des langues, un don empoisonn, bien sr, car la traduction ne peut pas saisir et
rendre toutes les nuances de loriginal. En bref, on assiste la naissance de la traduction,
traduction qui sera la fois blme, manipule, calomnie, adore ou controverse, mais
toujours ncessaire pour que le discours ne tombe dans le chaos du Babel.
1
2
Gense, XI, 1-9. Babel, la "porte" de Dieu: la perte de Dieu!

Jean 1:1-5.
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Cette mdiation linguistique entre communauts de langues diffrentes a donc toujours

exig en leur sein la prsence dindividus bilingues, assumant la fonction de traduction ou
dinterprtation.
On a traduit depuis des temps immmoriales et il y a eu aussi des rflexions sur la
traduction bien que le processus de dfinir la traductologie comme science soit de date plus
rcente. On rappelle que Cicron, Ier sicle avant J.-C., et Saint Jrme III-IVme sicle
aprs J.-C, considr comme le patron des traducteurs, ont laiss des rfections sur la
dmarche traductologique, sur le processus de la traduction.
La traduction peut tre dfinie comme un cas particulier de convergence
linguistique ; au sens le plus large, elle dsigne toute forme de mditation linguistique ,
permettant de transmettre des informations entre les locuteurs de langues diffrentes. La
traduction fait passer un message dune langue de dpart (LD) (ou langue-source) dans une
langue darrive (LA) (ou langue-cible).
La traduction dsigne la fois la pratique traduisante, lactivit du traducteur (au
sens dynamique) et le rsultat de cette activit, le texte-cible lui-mme (au sens statique). Le
mot prend aussi parfois le sens mtaphorique excessivement largi dexpression,
reprsentions, interprtation.
Edmond Cary propose la dfinition suivante : La traduction est une opration qui
cherche tablir des quivalences entre deux textes exprims en des langues diffrentes, ces
quivalences tant toujours et ncessairement en fonction de la nature des deux textes, de leur
destination, des rapports existant entre la culture des deux peuples, leur climat moral,
intellectuel, affectif, donc en fonction de toutes les contingences propres lpoque et au lieu
de dpart et darrive 3.
La thorie interprtative a tabli que le processus de traduction consistait
comprendre le texte original, dverbaliser sa forme linguistique et exprimer dans une
autre langue les ides comprises et les sentiments ressentis 4.
Ce constat, fait initialement sur la traduction orale ou linterprtation, sapplique aussi
la traduction crite. En crit, on ne peut pas traduire directement de langue langue sans
courir le risque de produire dans la langue darrive un texte maladroit, parfois peine lisible.
Dfini de faon sommaire, lacte de traduction consiste comprendre un texte, puis,
en une deuxime tape, rexprimer ce texte dans une autre langue. Chacune de ces
oprations est dune grande complexit : la comprhension fait intervenir les connaissances
linguistiques et extralinguistiques du traducteur et la rexpression dpend du degr de
connaissance de la langue darrive, du talent du traducteur, tant aussi tributaire de sa
connaissance du sujet.
En tout cas, les oprations de comprhension et de rexpression varient, certainement,
en fonction du contenu donn au mot texte .
Fondamentalement, pour le traducteur, un
texte est fait des connaissances linguistiques et extralinguistiques qui se greffent sur le texte
traduit. Le texte, tant lobjet et la raison dtre de la traduction, au sens courant du terme, il
faut, ds le dbut, faire la diffrence entre la langue, sa mise en phrase et le texte ; car si lon
peut traduire chacun de ces niveaux, lopration de traduction nest pas la mme selon que
lon traduit des mots, des phrases ou des textes.
Voil que ds le moment o lon essaie dfinir la traduction on se heurte aux
problmes lis ltymologie du terme traduction qui provient du latin traducere et qui
englobe aussi en soi la notion de trahison. La dfinition dEdmond Cary mentionne aussi
lide d quivalence , donc la traduction tablit une quivalence et non pas une identit
3
Edmond Cary, Comment faut-il traduire ? Presses Universitaires de Lille, Lille, 1993, p. 85.
Marianne Lederer, La traduction aujourdhui modle interprtatif, Lettres Modernes Minard, Caen, 2006,
p.7 ;
4
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entre le texte-source (TS) et le texte-cible (TC). Dailleurs, le rapport entre le texte-source et

le texte-cible este considr comme fondamental dans lacte traductologique et dici
apparaissent les apories fidlit/ trahison, possibilit/ impossibilit de la traduction.
Paul Ricur, philosophe du langage, traducteur, hermneute, phnomnologue et
interprte de la Bible affirme que la traduction est possible seulement aprs avoir accept le
paradoxe de l quivalence sans adquation : Nous retrouvons ainsi, lintrieur de notre
communaut langagire, la mme nigme du mme, de la signification mme, lintrouvable
sens identique, cens rendre quivalente les deux versions du mme propos5. Limperfection
de la traduction est inscrite, par dfinition, congnitalement, dans le processus mme de la
traduction. Leffort daccepter la traduction parfaite seulement comme un horizon
intouchable peut ddramatiser la dichotomie traductible/ intraductible. Pour dcrire cet effort,
Ricur recourt au langage freudien : lacceptation du traducteur propos de limperfection de
la traduction quivaut un deuil qui doit tre consomm et que Ricur appelle le travail du
deuil , formule qui appartient au lexique psychanalytique. Consommer le deuil pour la
traduction absolue suppose la capacit de sparer ladquation de lquivalence, de renoncer
lidal de la traduction parfaite, absolue. Cest la voie par laquelle le traducteur peut
dpasser ltat de frustration permanente et peut saccomplir au plan professionnel pour
exprimenter le plaisir, la promesse du bonheur , dans la terminologie de Ricur. Le
plaisir, cest- -dire le bonheur, signifie renoncer au projet utopique dannuler la distance
entre lquivalence et ladquation totale.
Si lon prtend la traduction dtre identique loriginal, si lon veut que le textesource et le texte-cible sencadrent dans lidentique, alors la traduction est impossible.
L quivalence sans adquation est un concept philosophique qui dfinit lapproximation
de la traduction, ladquation tant comme un miroir utopique o les deux textes devraient se
confondre jusqu lidentique. Ricur propose de quitter laporie spculative traductibilit/
intraductibilit et dplace le dbat vers la dichotomie fidlit/trahison qui savre plus
intressante dans la pratique de la traduction.
Schleiermacher parle dans son ouvrage On the Different Methods of Translation
(1813) de deux modalits de traduction : conduire le lecteur vers lauteur ou conduire lauteur
vers le lecteur. Ce sont les deux mthodes de traduction - exocentrique, cosmopolite,
foreignizing - celle qui conduit le lecteur vers lauteur - et ethnocentrique, annexionniste,
naturalisante - celle qui conduit lauteur vers le lecteur.
Franz Rosenzweig dfinit la traduction par un paradoxe : traduire signifie tre
serviteur deux seigneurs : il sert lauteur, ltranger, lAutre dans son uvre mais aussi le
lecteur dans son dsir de sapproprier luvre et la culture de lAutre. Pour Ricur traduire
cest pratiquer l hospitalit du langage , cest donner une rponse a la provocation de
ltranger .
La thse de lintraductible a t postule par les ethnolinguistes Whorf et Sapir qui
ont mis laccent sur le caractre non-superposable de diffrents dcoupages linguistiques sur
lesquels repose la multitude des systmes linguistiques. Ils donnent lexemple du terme
bois qui en franais signifie matriel de bois et fort , significations qui sont
spares et groupes en deux systmes smantiques diffrents en dautres langues - en
roumain par exemple, les deux significations sont spares en lemn et pdure . Si lon
ajoute lide que chaque dcoupage linguistique impose une diffrente vision du monde, alors
la traduction savre impossible. Les langues ne diffrent seulement par la manire de
dcouper la ralit mais aussi par la modalit de la o reconstruire au niveau du discours. La
preuve de cette hypothse se trouve dans les expressions idiomatiques et dans les locutions.
Quand mme, sous la diversit des langues il y a des structures caches qui, soit elles portent
5
Paul Ricur, Sur la traduction, Bayard, Paris, 2004, p.19
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lombre de la langue adamique perdue, soit elles contiennent des codes, des structures
universelles transcendantales qui doivent et peuvent tre reconstitues.
Invitablement, dans le processus de reconstituer la vision du monde dune langue
lautre, il y a des pertes qui seront partiellement compenses. Dans ce sens, Berman parle de
l isotopie dfective de la traduction, en soulignant que la traduction est un produit
secondaire et dfectif qui porte sur ses paules un verdict ngatif, un dfaut congnital, cest-dire le dfaut quil nest pas un texte original. Le texte, un texte : la suite des mots, des
phrases qui constitue un crit ou une uvre (crite ou orale). Le texte, oppos aux
commentaires, aux notes. Le texte oppos la traduction ou la paraphrase6.
Conformment cette dfinition, la traduction nest pas un texte au sens proprement
dit parce que la traduction nest pas une uvre, parce que la traduction est toujours
secondaire. Mais quest-ce que la traduction ? Le terme traduction , du latin traductio ,
date depuis 15307 signifiant livraison . Dans la mme sphre du mot sinscrivent les termes
calque, adaptation, paraphrase, interprtation, version, quivalent, expression, transposition.
Comment dfinir quand mme laction de traduire ? Traduire date depuis 1480, du latin
traducere : faire passer (1520)8.
Les deux concepts texte et traduction sentremlent dans leur substantialit,
dans leur matrialit mme. Le concept de traduction pose beaucoup plus de problmes et
sa dfinition est assez ambigu : Paradoxalement, le concept de traduction fait problme, en
tant que tel, et a plusieurs gards. Et pourtant il semblerait que tout le monde sache de quoi il
retourne 9.
Le problme de loriginalit de la traduction est discutable et difficile tablir si lon
tient compte du sens du grec poein, cest--dire faire, forger, passer du stade de non-texte
celui de texte au sens littraire, de la perception automatique et routinire une perception
nouvelle, lvidence potique.
Le texte, selon la vision des thoriciens du groupe Tel Quel , produit des sens , il
ne les re-produit pas, il prsente et il ne re-prsente pas les sens qui prexistent; il
sautodtermine, tant la fois son propre mta-texte10. Il se propose au lecteur par sa
structure et fonctionnalit, par sa matrialit, quelques fois dure et opaque dobjet textuel,
ouvert de multiples lectures. Il sollicite sans cesse des lectures justement par sa rsistance
objectuelle qui soppose lachvement de la lecture parfaite. On rencontre cette ide
rcurrente de la rflexivit du texte littraire, un texte qui scrit et qui se rcrit chaque
lecture, qui se compose et se dcompose sous les yeux du lecteur, un texte qui est son propre
objet de rflexion, un mta-texte.
Le texte, donc, se rvle comme original et difficile reproduire. Et la traduction ? De
ce point de vue, est-ce quon peut considrer la traduction un texte ? Oui, la traduction est un
texte parce quil a de la cohrence, il a sa propre fonctionnalit, sa propre identit. Le travail
du traducteur ne consiste pas seulement livrer , faire passer , un texte de la langue
source la langue cible, mais aussi forger , crer un autre texte bien dfini, qui coexiste
ct de loriginal mais qui peut exister aussi bien sans original, un texte qui a sa propre vie
qui se rflchit et que se rcrit sous les regards du lecteur.
Dans son essai sur la traduction intitul La Miseria y el splendor de la traduccion 11
Ortega y Gasset prsente le problme de loriginalit de la traduction versus loriginalit du
cf. Le Nouveau Petit Robert de la langue franaise, Dictionnaires Le Robert, Paris, 2007.
ibidem.
8
ibidem.
9
Jean Ren Ladmiral, Traduire, cest--direPhnomnologies dun concept pluriel , Revue Mta, XL, 3,
Les Presses de lUniversit de Montral, Montral, 1995, p. 409.
10
apud Magda Jeanrenaud, Introduction la potique, Ed. Universitii Al.I.Cuza , Iai, 1995, p. 240 - 243
11
Ortega y Gasset, La Miseria y el splendor de la traduccion La Nacion , Buenos Aires, mai- juin 1937
6
7
398
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texte original. En quoi consiste loriginalit de la traduction ? Dans ce cas, de ce point de vue,
la traduction serait un produit infrieur, une reproduction manque de loriginal, mme si le
traducteur gardera peut-tre le registre du texte traduit. Mais la traduction est-elle vraiment
une reproduction de loriginal ? Quel serait l'apport du traducteur ? Est-il possible quune
traduction soit originale ? Si la traduction nest quune humble et ple reproduction de
loriginal, analogue une copie sans valeur dune toile, loriginalit du texte original est
perdue par le processus de la traduction.
Une des tapes dans la traduction dun texte est, conformment Steiner, lagression.
Cette image du traducteur qui commet une agression envers le texte qui doit tre traduit a t
beaucoup critique par les linguistes et les traductologues. Heureusement, Steiner nonce
aussi une autre tape, celle de la compensation. Ce qui se perd ou ce qui est dtruit par lacte
dagression est rendu par le processus de la compensation.
Mais les grandes questions propos du processus et de la dmarche traductologique
persistent : Est-il ncessaire que la voix du traducteur soit visible dans une traduction ?
Et si la voix du traducteur est visible , si le traducteur se permet de couper le texte, de le
rendre difficile lire, de sinterposer dans le texte traduit, o se situe-t-il par rapport au
syntagme traduttore-traditore ? Serait-il prfrable de trahir le texte original pour que la
traduction soit originale ?
Si lon tient compte du rapport entre les deux textes - le texte-source et le texte-cible
-alors cest normal que la traduction ne soit pas un original. Le rapport entre les deux textes
doit tre le plus troit possible, le plus tributaire loriginal que possible.
Une fois que Saussure dcouvre le signe linguistique dfinit comme la plus petite unit
de sens form dun signifiant et dun signifi12, il apparait le drame de la traduction libre/
traduction littrale. On se pose la question : Quest-ce quon traduit ? La lettre ou le sens ?
La forme ou la signification ? Traduire aurait t dfini comme un acte de produire dans
la langue cible un signe quivalent qui serait produit par extraire un signifiant. Saussure
dfinit le signe linguistique comme une entit qui unit deux lments : une image acoustique
(dans le cas du langage oral) ou graphique (dans le cas du langage crit) appele signifiant et
sa reprsentation mentale, le concept, appel signifi. Les deux units sont unies par la
relation de signification, relation qui est arbitraire, c'est--dire que le signifiant ne reprsente
pas le signifi. Larbitraire se rvle dans le caractre non fond, immotiv, de la relation
entre le signifiant et le signifi. La motivation originaire du signe linguistique sest perdue au
moment de la confusion des langues, avec la perte de la langue divine. Babel ne comporte
plus une signification inhrente pour celui qui ne soccupe pas de ltude des langues ou de
ltymologie des noms propres. Le nom dEve, qui signifiait dans la langue
adamique femme , celle qui est vivante ou celui dAdam qui signifiait homme ne
nous dit rien aujourdhui.
Aujourdhui on ne saurait pas expliquer pourquoi on dit en franais livre, en roumain
carte et en anglais book, dsignant au fait la mme ralit. On constate que le signifiant nest
pas dict par le concept ; si le signe ntait pas arbitraire, nous parlerions la mme langue
sans quil existe la possibilit dune autre 13.
La relation entre signifiant et signifi se dtruit au moment o lon se pose la question
de la traduction, la traduction tant fonde sur lextraction dun signifi du signe
linguistique de la langue dorigine et son transfert dans la langue cible, sans tenir compte de
son signifiant dans la langue dorigine. Son signifiant ne pourra jamais tre rendu dans la
langue cible. La perte de la langue adamique est donc irrmdiable et lhumanit sera en deuil
mme si le traducteur sengage de transmettre le sens du mot, c'est--dire le signifi, de la
Ferdinand de Saussure, Cours de linguistique gnrale, Payot & Rivages. Paris, 1916, p.99
Magda Jeanrenaud, Introduction la potique, Ed. Universitii Al.I.Cuza Iai, 1995, p. 73
12
13
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Issue no. 6/2015
langue dorigine dans la langue cible : Je mengage, comme traducteur, de transmettre le

sens quil a dans la langue dorigine 14. Cet engagement du traducteur signifie le dsir de
perfection, la promesse de rendre le texte original dans la langue cible, mme sil est chaque
fois du par le rsultat en soi et la traduction elle-mme se dvoile un intangible horizon de
lidal. Lacte de la traduction acquiert une connotation mystique qui consiste dans la
rcupration de la langue pure , pr-bablique .
Au fait Schleiermacher met en thorie, avant Berman et Ricur la dichotomie
traduction fidele/traduction infidle par les deux modalits possibles en traduction quil
nonce -traduction annexionniste, ethnocentrique centre sur la culture-cible et exocentrique,
cosmopolite, centre sur la culture-source. Si dans la traduction exocentrique ltranger
transparait, dans la traduction ethnocentrique ou annexionniste ltranger set limin, et on
conduit tout vers la culture-cible, la rigueur on fait des adaptations ou on imite la forme du
texte-source. Pendant le XVIIme et XVIIIme sicle, en France, on a pratiqu intensivement
la traduction annexionniste, ctait la soi-disant poque des Belles Infidles pendant
laquelle on a produit des traductions considres comme belles mais infidles, o le rapport
entre le texte-source et le texte-cible est le plus dilu du point de vue de la fidlit de la
traduction. Par exemple Shakesperare qui pratiquait un vers libre, a t traduit en vers
alexandrin pour sencadrer dans le got du public qui tait concentr alors sur le canon
esthtique. lpoque, on privilgiait la forme au dtriment du sens et on a cre des
pastiches, des imitations considres dune grande beaut stylistique, rhtorique mais qui ne
peuvent pas tre considres comme traductions. Shakesperare ne pouvait pas tre rcept par
le public franais de lpoque comme un grand crivain parce que le got du public tait
diffrent et dictait la manire de traduire. To be or not to be devient
Demeure ; il faut choisir et passer linstant,
De la vie la mort, ou de ltre au nant dans la version de Voltaire.
Aujourdhui aucun diteur ne pourrait publier ces textes comme des traductions.
Les deux tendances en traduction annexionniste et cosmopolite - se superposent sur
la terminologie de Ladmiral sourcire - qui privilgie le texte et la culture-source, et
cibliste - qui privilgie le texte et la culture-cible.
Les thories fonctionnalistes en traductologie postulent la prvalence du rle et du but
de la traduction-les skoposthories. Katharina Reiss et Hans Vermeer distinguent trois
catgories de textes du point de vue de la fonction qui devrait accomplir le texte traduit. De
cette manire, les textes informatifs doivent privilgier le contenu dans la traduction, les
textes expressifs doivent privilgier la forme et dans les textes incitatifs doit prvaler la
fonction dappel adress au rcepteur.
Dans ce sens, Eugene Nida impose le concept d quivalence dynamique dans la
traduction de la Bible de type missionnaire ; celui-ci consiste capter lintrt du rcepteur
pour obtenir le mme effet que celui produit par loriginal sur le public-source. Par cette
position de type poststructuraliste le traducteur dpasse la dpression congnitale et il peut
justifier les infidlits par des stratgies de traduction qui nimposent pas la conformit au
texte-source. La position du rcepteur se fortifie la mesure o la fonction dun texte est
tablie aussi selon son effet sur celui-ci.
En ce sens, Umberto Eco relve un exemple dans son ouvrage Dire presque la mme
chose. Expriences de traduction , Grasset, 2003, quand il parle de la modernisation/
archasation dans la traduction. Il sagit de la version russe et anglaise de son roman Le nom
de la rose . Eco observe que la traduction en russe se trouve au ple oppos par rapport la
traduction anglaise parce que, si en anglais le traducteur Bill Weaver a choisi dliminer et de
paraphraser en anglais les passages-citations en latin, le traducteur russe a choisi demployer
14
Cf. http://www.fit-europe.org/vault/codeTEPIS.html
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le slave ancien ecclsiastique de lglise russe mdivale, au lieu du latin. Si le lecteur

anglais ou amricain qui na pas tudie le latin connait quand mme que le latin tait la langue
de manifestation du monde ecclsiastique mdival, pour le lecteur russe ces citations en latin
transposes en alphabte cyrillique ne suggrent rien parce que, pour le lecteur russe, le latin
nquivaut ni au Moyen Age, ni au climat ecclsiastique. La dcision du traducteur russe rend
possible pour le lecteur russe lide dloignement en temps et datmosphre de religiosit. Si
Weaver modernise pour familiariser, Koustioukovici archase pour familiariser, mais tous les
deux respectent un principe de fidlit profonde, la fidlit de leffet de la traduction sur le
rcepteur.
Les traducteurs font toujours une option et ils traduisent aprs avoir essay une
interprtation, dcidant dliminer les confusions ou les ambigits du texte-source. Cette
interprtation prcde toujours la traduction et Gadamer remarquait le fait que la traduction
suppose un dialogue hermneutique.
En conclusion, la fidlit nest pas synonyme la prcision, observe Eco, mais plutt
la sincrit et au respect vis--vis du rapport texte-source / texte-cible.
BIBLIOGRAFIE SELECTIV
1. Berman, Antoine, Lpreuve de ltranger. Culture et traduction dans
lAllemagne romantique, Paris, Gallimard, 1984.
2. Berman, Antoine, La traduction et la lettre ou lauberge du lointain, Seuil, ,
1999.
3. Cary, Edmond, Comment faut-il traduire ?, Presses Universitaires de Lille,
Lille, 1993.
4. Eco, Umberto, A spune cam acelai lucru. Experiene de traducere, n
romnete de Laszlo Alexandru, Editura Polirom, Iai, 2008
5. Ionescu, Gelu Orizontul traducerii, Editura Univers, Bucureti, 1981.
6. Jeanrenaud, Magda, Introduction la potique, Ed. Universitii Al.I.Cuza
Iai, 1995.
7. Jeanrenaud, Magda, Universaliile traducerii. Studii de traductologie, Editura
Polirom, Iai, 2006
8. Meschonnic, Henri, Poetique du traduire, Verdier, Normandie, 2012
9. Mounin, Georges, Les problmes thoriques de la traduction, Gallimard, Paris,
1963.
10. Oustinoff, Michael, La traduction, Presses Universitaires de France, Paris,
2003.
11. Ricoeur, Paul, Despre traducere, traducere i studiu introductiv de Magda
Jeanrenaud, postfa de Domenico Jervolino, Editura Polirom, Iai, 2006 .
12. Saussure, Ferdinand de, Cours de linguistique gnrale, Payot & Rivages.
Paris, 1916.
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THE CRITICAL RECEPTION OF MIRCEA IVNESCUS POETRY IN 2005

Diana DAN
Abstract: In the Romanian literature, framing Mircea Ivnescus poetry in a stream of
literature cannot be done accurately. Mircea Ivnescu is a complex poet, which offers a new
formula of writing poetry: the games of poetry. Therefore we looked over 2005 to see how is
seen his poetry trought critical eyes and to find out what is his place in the course of
literature.
Keywords: inner reality, reality, intertextualism, common tone, originality.
Anul 2005 aduce un numr redus de articole critice care s evidenieze figura poetului
Mircea Ivnescu. Acest lucru se poate observa dac facem o comparaie cu anul 2004.
Articolele aprute sunt ns dense, ample, aducnd puncte de vedere noi n interpretarea
fenomenului mirceaivnescian.
n cele ce urmeaz vom prezenta aspectele pe care le considerm a merita a fi
evideniate n acest an. Articolul Ioanei Laslo cu titlul Cltoria de-o sptmn readuce, n
prim-planul dezbaterilor, volumul Interviu transfinit realizat n stil publicistic. Acest articol
propune cteva teme diferite de meditaie fa de ceilali comentatori care au mai abordat
acest subiect. Ioana Laslo amintete de joaca de la care a pornit realizarea acestui interviu, de
faptul c nceputul i sfritul crii se ncadreaz simbolic ntr-o cltorie de o sptmn,
despre stilul ironicmetaforicparadoxal jucu, manier n care acest volum se desfoar.
Poetul, eseistul, traductorul i criticul Radu Vancu i prezint articolele scrise ntr-o
manier accesibil oricrui tip de cititor, articole care pornesc din frmntri interioare,
ntrebri la care singur ncearc s-i gseasc rspuns. ntrebrile pe care i le adreseaz
siei, n primul rnd, i n acest timp i cititorului, se refer la opera lui Mircea Ivnescu. n
primul rnd, vrea s-i rezolve problema legat de postmodernitatea poetului, vizavi de care sau produs multe interpretri, iar n al doilea rnd, este interesat a descoperi dac este sau nu
Mircea Ivnescu un poet discret.
Pentru Ioana Laslo, periplul prin structura Interviului transfinit pare a fi o
cltorie de o sptmn. Aceast cltorie ncepe din momentul ivirii pe lume a poetului,
moment marcat de ntrebarea pus de Vasile Avram lui Mircea Ivnescu: De ce v-ai
nscut? i se ncheie cu moartea, la nivel simbolic, produs de ncheierea acestui interviu.
Att momentul genezei, ct i cel al sfritului puncteaz teoria pe care se bazeaz
ntregul volum. nceputul i sfritul, minciuna i adevrul, realitatea i ficiunea sunt pri
ale aceluiai ntreg, fiecare cu definiia sa, pe care Vasile Avram a nvat-o de la Mircea
Ivnescu. Precum fiecare obiect i are umbra sa, precum fiecare provocare i are greutatea
sa, fiecare aspect literar i are amestecul lui de real i fantastic, de adevr i minciun, fiecare
fiind o umbr a celeilalte, alturi alctuind ntregul. Existena individual a fiecrui aspect
este doar o iluzie.
Interviul ia natere dintr-un joc i se desfoar asemenea unei cltorii, sub form de
joc. Att timp ct se pstreaz aceast not de inocen jocul pare un prilej interesant de
petrecere a timpului, n momentul cnd acest joc devine solemn, Mircea Ivnescu mizeaz pe
cartea retragerii, promind c va continua exerciiul.
Privit din aceast perspectiv, volumul propune un final deschis. Registrul n care se
ncheie acest volum este unul al regretului mpletit cu sperana. Regretul pentru faptul c
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Mircea Ivnescu a preferat tcerea, n locul rspunsurilor la care era solicitat, i sperana c va
reui s-i duc la bun sfrit acest proiect ntr-un timp viitor. Fapt care nu s-a concretizat nici
mai trziu. Exerciiul nceput de Vasile Avram ofer o perspectiv, un rspuns, o cheie de
interpretare a fenomenului mirceaivnescian, iar cea de a doua parte a ntregului, pe care o
cutm, o aflm n vocea tainic indirect transmis a scrierilor sale.
Dac Vasile Avram definete literatura ca realitate plus ficiune; adevr plus
minciun, din perspectiva Ioanei Laslo definim fenomenul mirceaivnescian drept cri
despre el plus romanul versurilor sale.
Ioana Laslo precizeaz c materialul din care este alctuit acest interviu este unul
specific stilului publicistic, cu ntrebri, unele clare, concise. ntrebrile sunt plasate de
Vasile Avram poetului, lsnd sentina n mna acestuia. Ceea ce rmne de precizat este
maniera n care percepe Mircea Ivnescu postarea rspunsului. Acest rspuns apare, din
perspectiva Ioanei Laslo, drept o dilatare a ntrebrii, nicidecum o rezolvare a ei; nu o
elucidare a misterului ci o potenare a lui1.
Radu Vancu, fcnd referire la opera lui Mircea Ivnescu, ncearc a-i explica de ce
exist o diferen aa de mare ntre critica de acum, referitoare la receptarea critic a poetului,
i cea din anii 60, 70, evideniind c interpretrile din ultimii ani l-au transformat ntr-un
scriitor adulat, fiind numit chiar i Doctor Honoris Causa al Universitii din Sibiu, ba l-au
transformat chiar ntr-un poet care se vinde bine, drept pentru care n anul 2004 au aprut trei
antologii, la trei edituri diferite.
Primul argument adus este legat de faptul c scriitori precum Nichita Stnescu, Marin
Sorescu, din generaia sa, abordeaz formula eu sunt x, o formul concentrat, centrat pe
eul liric, pe cnd poemele lui Mircea Ivnescu pornesc de la formula eu fac cutare lucru pe
care l-am fcut i alii, dac nu chiar toat lumea2. Astfel, poetica lui Mircea Ivnescu face
trecerea de la omul excepional spre omul obinuit, de la retorica eclatanei la retorica
discreiei, de la o fi spre a face, noteaz criticul
Astfel, prin intermediul personajului Mopete, poetul compune o poveste interioar
care se desfoar n spaiul i timpul sufletesc al amintirilor. Acest personaj rde de sine, i
enun defectele. Versurile sunt n aa fel realizate nct n poezia lui Mircea Ivnescu se
poate observa mpletirea celor trei genuri literare: liric, epic i dramatic.
Marca intertextului i a intertextualitii este evideniat de Mopete, care repet
gesturile omului obinuit, alturi de cuvinte, forme, structuri ntregi ale unor scriitori din
spaiul i timpul mai multor literaturi pe care de cele mai multe ori nu i numete pentru c nu
se simte ndreptit s stea cu ei la mas.
Pentru critica anilor 60, 70, Mircea Ivnescu aduce un personaj neoriginal i cu o
oper neoriginal, nevaloroas, de aceea nu este integrat n canonul oficial alturi de Nichita
Stnescu Marin Sorescu i Nicolae Labi.
Acest articol demonteaz aceast teorie, considernd c Mircea Ivnescu ntrunete
toate criteriile de care are nevoie un poet pentru a fi numit original. n demonstraia sa, Radu
Vancu pornete de la o definiie dat termenului de originalitate literar de ctre Alexandru
George, pe a crui construcie puncteaz elementele concrete ale credinei sale.
Radu Vancu consider c discreia i-a fcut n acest caz poetului un deserviciu:
opera liric a lui Mircea Ivnescu ndeplinea nc de la nceput cerinele n virtutea crora
congenerii lui au fost admii n canonul oficial. Duntoare i-a fost discreia de care s-a
nconjurat ntr-o vreme cnd se purta declarativismul i ostentaia [...]. Mircea Ivnescu a
scris de la nceput o adnc, original i existenial-intertextual poezie a discreiei3.
Ioana Laslo, Cltoria de-o sptmn, n Vatra, 2005, nr. 11-12, p. 186
Radu Vancu, Mircea Ivnescu, marea poezie a discreiei, n Transilvania, 2005, nr. 1-2, p. 40
3
Ibidem, p. 41
1
2
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Issue no. 6/2015
O alt ntrebare pe care Radu Vancu i-o pune se refer la integrarea lui Mircea
Ivnescu ntr-un curent literar: dac e sau nu postmodern?
n articolul publicat n revista Timpul, Mircea Ivnescu, poet postmodern? , Radu
Vancu demonteaz prin contraargumente concrete ipoteza lui Mircea Crtrescu referitoare la
postmodernitatea poetului.
Argumentele aduse de Mircea Crtrescu referitoare la faptul c Mircea Ivnescu i
pare n ntregime postmodern, definitoriu postmodern sunt luate n rspr de Radu Vancu:
Ce anume are ea postmodern? n ordinea n care sunt introduse n analiz, urmtoarele:
ntoarcerea dinspre tradiionalele zone ale influenei franceze i germane ctre cele anglosaxone; biografismul extrem; a tiraniei metaforei i a umanismului; biografismul i
personalismul structura lax i nedeterminat; visarea evanescent i meditaia la nimic4.
Despre ntoarcerea dinspre tradiionalele zone de influen francez i
german ctre cele anglo-saxone, Radu Vancu precizeaz c este doar parial adevrat,
pentru c la Mircea Ivnescu nu se poate vorbi doar de influen anglo-saxon socotit, cu
precdere, n traducerile din limba englez, ci se resimt influene i din i n alte limbi. Primul
volum tradus a fost cel al lui Henri Perruchot i nu a ncetat s traduc din i chiar s scrie
poeme-n franuzete. Limba francez e o constant de lectur i obiect al aluziilor culturale
din poemele sale, noteaz Radu Vancu. Citindu-l pe Rilke, a nvat tehnica de a rupe versul
n orice punct, fr a pierde din energia liric, consemneaz criticul. Tot acesta precizeaz c
n poeziile mirceaivnesciene se regsesc referine la Lichtenberg, Thomas Mann iar poetul
face traduceri din Kafka, Nietzsche, Musil, Broch, Rilke, din poeii germani, publicate n
revista Transilvania. Totodat i sunt cunoscui i ali scriitori dect cei englezi: Guy
Scarpetta, Jean Francois Lyotard, Umberto Eco, Gianni Vattimo.
Despre biografism extrem Radu Vancu consider c nu poate fi vorba, mai ales c
despre Mopete nu ne sunt precizate date eseniale, din viaa sa social. Nu tim nici cum este
el, cu ce se ocup, care e locul de munc, dac e cstorit sau dac are copii. Radu Vancu l
compar cu Henry din The Dream Song a lui John Berryman.
Ceea de a treia tez despre epurarea poeticitii lirice tradiionale, a tiraniei metaforei
i a umanismului, realizat prin renunarea la poeticitatea tradiional i abolirea metaforei,
este i ea demontat. Aduce contraargument opinia lui Nicolae Manolescu care precizeaz c
metaforele folosite de Mircea Ivnescu au o splendoare alexandrin, Radu Vancu adugnd:
se poate alctui o masiv antologie cu remarcabili tropi ivanescieni. Despre structura
versurilor mirceaivnesciene, Radu Vancu precizeaz faptul c arareori poetul alege a scrie
sonete, uneori respect, iar alteori nu ritmul strict determinat, considernd c urmeaz fidel,
de pild, metrica bine punctat a celebrei rapsodii a lui Toprceanu.
Ceea din urm ipotez demontat se refer la visarea evanescent i meditaia la
nimic. n acest sens, Radu Vancu observ c n galeria de poezii scrise de Mircea Ivnescu
exist i se poate observa i gravitatea problematic, n numeroase poeme ivnesciene, unde
vocea eului liric articuleaz mari ntrebri ale existenei. E vorba de acele puine poeme
despre care am spus c sunt ntr-adevr biografice5.
Consider c un atribut potrivit pentru lirica mirceaivnescian este luciditatea, care
face trecerea dinspre o imagine spre cealalt, aspect evideniat i de Matei Clinescu, care
afirm ntr-un interviu dat n anul 2003: Am cunoscut personal i ndeaproape doi mari poei:
pe Nichita Stnescu i pe Mircea Ivnescu. Luciditatea lor poetic este totdeauna uimitoare, n
ciuda strilor psihologice sau corporale prin care treceau.
Despre gndirea liric a lui Mircea Ivnescu, Radu Vancu precizeaz c se axeaz pe
valorile tari ale modernitii unde faptul c fiecare poem l continu pe cellalt nu nseamn
4
5
Radu Vancu, op. cit., p. 6

Ibidem, p. 6
404
Issue no. 6/2015
c toate sunt la fel de neimportante, ci invers - toate sunt importante, vorbind discret despre
nelesurile majore: moartea, iubirea, poezia, spaima, remucrile, alcoolul cu infernurile i
paradisurile lui, sufletul imponderabile ce dau, paradoxal, greutate vieii.
Demonstraia lui Radu Vancu este una veridic, credibil, bine argumentat, fcut din
perspectiva unui om profund ancorat n universul poetului i care nu se las dus de aparene.
De aceea singura sa dorin este de a prezenta i cealalt fa a lucrurilor, pentru a clarifica
situaia i a oferi un prilej de meditaie asupra acesteia.
Radu Vancu i ia rolul justiiarului n serios, pentru a pune lucrurile la locul lor,
fiecare unde i-l merit.
1. Bibliografie/References
Interviuri, convorbiri, confesiuni
Avram, Vasile (2004) Interviu transfinit. Mircea Ivnescu rspunde la 286 de
ntrebri ale lui Vasile Avram, Editura Ecclesia, Nicula, p. 31-32
Studii critice - n volume
Dicionarul esenial al scriitorilor romni (2000) Coord. Mircea Zaciu, Marian
Papahagi, Aurel Sasu, Editura Albatros, Bucureti.
Vancu, Radu, (2007), Mircea Ivnescu. Poezia discreiei absolute, Editura Vinea,
Bucureti
Bibliografia articolelor aprute n periodice
Laszlo, Ioana, Cltoria de-o sptmn. [Interviu transfinit: Mircea Ivnescu
raspunde la 286 de ntrebri ale lui Vasile Avram, Nicula: Ecclesia, 2004], n Vatra,
32, nr. 11-12, 2005, p. 186-187.
Vancu, Radu, Mircea Ivnescu, marea poezie a discreiei, n Transilvania, 34, nr. 12, 2005, p. 38-41.
tefnescu, Alex, Ali doi poei, n Convorbiri literare, 138, nr. 9, 2005, p. 16-17.
Vancu, Radu, Mircea Ivnescu, poet postmodern, n Timpul, 6, nr. 2, 2005, p. 6.
POSDRU/159/1.5/S/133652.
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NTOZAKE SHANGES HOLISTIC VISION OF ART

Amada MOCIOALC
Abstract: Ntozake Shanges Holistic Vision of Art deals with an African American writer of
entirely different nature a surprising combination between a professional dancer, a poet
and a playwright, and a novelist to which two other qualities should be added, those of a
mother and a black woman. Ntozake Shange explores lifes nappy edges, the metaphoric
terrain just beyond neatly fixed social definitions. There, the sweat of pursuing an intimate,
humane connection with the world as well as with ones innermost selves is manifested as a
dynamic, affirmative rawness. Hers is a holistic vision within which language, music,
movement, icon, and time and space are manipulated so that poetry becomes drama and
dance; the political is simultaneously the aesthetic and the personal; and spirituality offers
insights which ultimately empower one to grapple with a problematic social world.
Keywords: art, spirituality, nationalism, conservatism,non-comformism
With the 1976 production of for colored girls who have considered suicide/ when the
rainbow is enuf, Ntozake Shange exploded upon the American national consciousness,
claiming for black women a beauty and artistic validity previously denied them. Though her
subsequent theater texts have failed to garner the controversial public attention accorded to
the first play, Shange has nonetheless remained a significant voice in American theater.
Among the hallmarks of her distinctive style are a disregard for conventional, linear, dramatic
structure; a crafting of arresting, poetic imagery; shrewd manipulation of nonrational modes
of insight; and daring commitment to what are perceived as personal and public truths. In the
context of American theater, Shanges dramaturgy is most closely related to that of Adrienne
Kennedy and Amiri Baraka; within a larger Western tradition, her most immediate references
are the French playwright Antonin Artaud and the German Bertolt Brecht. Though these four
writers may appear quite different, particularly in relation to their interest in sociopolitical
issues, they are similar in their pursuit of dramatic forms that do not reside wholly within a
Euro-American framework. For Artaud and Brecht, inspiration was to be found in the
nonillusionist theaters of Asia; for Kennedy, Baraka, and Shange herself, the creative source
is African culture as lived in the diaspora.
Born Paulette Williams on October 1948 to surgeon Paul T. Williams and psychiatric
social worker Eloise Owens Williams, Shange was raised initially in Trenton, New Jersey.
The oldest of four children, she seems to have enjoyed a childhood blessed with material
security and loving parents who traveled widely, maintained an international set of friends,
and transmitted a pride in African and African American cultures. They exposed the
precocious girl to a variety of influences ranging from musicians Dizzy Gillespie and Chuck
Berry to writers like Paul Laurence Dunbar, Countee Cullen, and T. S. Eliot. Sundayafternoon family variety shows might consist of her mother offering selections from
Shakespeare, her father performing magic tricks or improvising on the congas, and the
children doing a soft-shoe or playing such instruments as the violin, cello, flute, and
saxophone. As she was later to reveal in a self-interview entitled i talk to myself, included
in her 1978 poetry collection Nappy Edges, family members voraciously pursued whichever
arts struck their fancy, so that any exploration of personal visions waz the focus of my
world.
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When Shange was eight, the family moved to St. Louis, Missouri, where they lived for
five years. There she was among the first black children to integrate the public school system.
As later fictionalized in the novel Betsey Brown (1985), that experience seemingly left a sense
of anger and betrayal at being thrust out of the security of the black community into the
known violence of the white world. But apparently it also strengthened Shanges fighting
spirit and pride in her own abilities, for in the poem nappy edges (a cross country sojourn)
she answers actual and would-be oppressors:
my dreams run to meet aunt marie
my dreams draw blood from ol sores
these stains & scars are mine
this is my space
i am not movin (Nappy Edges, p. 88)
Though her parents took a keen interest in events throughout the African diaspora, that
progressive perspective was nonetheless counterbalanced by a black, middle-class
conservatism. As a means of advancing in America, its adherents preached individual
initiative and a noblesse oblige understood through W. E. B. Du Boiss talented tenth model
of relating to the impoverished masses; repression of sexual impulses and other potentially
nonconformist instincts; and disavowal of unrefined aspects of African American culture, as
often defined by the white mainstream. As Shange admitted in a 1976 Village Voice interview
with Michelle Wallace, the vacuousness of that class perspective initially led her to rebel by
adopting the idioms of the live-in maids who had cared for her as a child. Indeed, only some
nine years later with the lush rite-of-passage novel Betsey Brown would she be able to
represent aspects of her middle-class background.
When Paulette Williams was thirteen, the family moved back to New Jersey, settling
this time in Lawrenceville. She had written short stories in elementary school but had been
deterred by racial insults. Similarly, at Morristown High School she wrote poetry, some of
which was published in the school magazine, but derogatory comments concerning her choice
of black subject matter caused her to again abandon this mode of self-expression. During
these years she became progressively more frustrated that young black girls had virtually no
appropriate models of success. As she confided in the Wallace interview, There was nothing
to aspire to, no one to honor. Sojourner Truth wasnt a big enough role model for me. I
couldnt go around abolishing slavery.
After earning a masters degree in 1973, Shange moved north to the San Francisco
Bay Area, where she taught humanities and womens studies courses. San Francisco, which
had nurtured an earlier generation of Beat poets, at that time offered a fertile environment in
which the talents of Third World and white women artists could particularly flourish. At this
time Shange was reciting poetry with the Third World Collective and was also dancing with
Raymond Sawyer and Ed Mock, whose class routines and formal choreography linked
specific folk traditions of West Africa and the Caribbean to the vaudeville and street dance
traditions of Afro-America. By discovering in movement some of the intricacies and strengths
of her identity as a black woman, Shange found that she was also discovering her voice as a
poet. Thus, as she was to write in describing the creative context of her San Francisco years,
The freedom to move in space, to demand of my own sweat a perfection that could
continually be approached, though never known, waz poem to me, my body & mind ellipsing,
probably for the first time in my life.
The theme of the body and dance as sites of a knowledge whose rhythms constitute
poetry is one to which Shange would return again and again. Its importance is related to her
likely exposure at this time to such New World African religions as Vodun, found in Haiti,
and Santria, practiced in Cuba. The production of for colored girls . . .was like nothing
America had previously experienced. Jettisoning the national preference for linearly
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structured, realistic plays, the text manipulated poetry and dance so as to create a swirl of
imagery, emotions, colors, and movement proclaiming a womans experience a fit subject for
dramatic representation. For many women and men, the performance became akin to a
consciousness-raising event. At the outset, seven women, distinguishable from each other
primarily by the color of their simple dresses, set forth in the image of a black girl [whos]
been dead so long / closed in silence so long / she doesnt know the sound / of her own voice /
her infinite beauty. They announce that what is to follow is a gift or a song calculated to
restore her to life. The subsequent collage of danced poems or choreopoem, as Shange
labeled the text traces a black girls eager transition from adolescence (high school
graduation and loss of virginity) into an adulthood of stormy relationships with men and
eventual self-recognition of a personhood whose legitimacy is divinely natural. Yet, because
the women play multiple unnamed characters, what emerges is not an individual protagonist
but an essential Everywoman.
Moments of transcendence intersect with what Shange was later to call a labored
breathing necessitated by the attempt to withstand racist and sexist social definitions. To the
exuberant 1960 sounds of the Motown rhythm-and-blues songs about love, the women
initially do the pony, the swim, and other popular dance steps. Sliding effortlessly into the
Afro-Latin beat of Willie Colon, they also execute the merengue and the bomba, all in
celebration of the wondrous vitality of their bodies and graduation from mama to what ever
waz out there. But a sudden lighting change pierces their joy, plunging them into a
misogynist, material realm.
One early poem is particularly remarkable, for it conjoins definitions of woman and of
theater treated separately throughout much of the play. Most simply expressed, sechita
concerns a down-on-her-luck tent dancer who performs for the country yokels in Natchez,
Tennessee, while dreaming of the bygone, elegant quadroon balls in St. Louis, Missouri. The
splendor of a Creole society insulated from the hostility of poor whites is fleetingly suggested
as a counterpoint to the dancers tawdry, patchwork circumstances in which female sexuality,
constructed so as to titillate male desire, is the currency for ensuring economic survival.
Accustomed to gin-stained, itchy black stockings and a mirror which made her forehead tilt
backwards/ her cheeks appear sunken/, Sechita cannot dispel the feeling that here in Natchez
humiliation is not merely societal but natural, for god seemed to be wiping his feet in her
face/. Thus, dissociating her soul from her person, she dances to reassert her primal
connections, seemingly ever more vigorously the more the drunken men aim gold coins
between her thighs.
Because Sechita is not simply an object of male fantasy, the actress must do more than
narrate a story of degradation. She must also exhort a powerful subject or agent to make her
presence known. For that reason, the actress utters the characters praise names: the full
moon/ sechita/ goddess/ of love/ egypt/ the 2nd millennium. Through sound, rhythm, and
repetition, through what the Yorubas of West Africa term , or the power to make things
happen (which resides in language), she strives to call into being that primordial spirit who
presides over the perpetuation of life. Similarly, the performer who dances Sechitas narrative
both retraces the ancestral history of female agony and partakes of divine potency. Her
experience potentially approximates that of a Vodun devotee who, in dancing and opening her
body to trance, serves as a medium of the gods and thereby reconnects herself and the
community to all history, past, present, and yet unlived. Through the dynamic of conjuring, as
manipulated by speaker, dancer, and musician, Sechita is presented victorious, kicking past
the coins thrown onto the makeshift stage to commune with the stars. The poem has thus
operated within an African conception of theatre, being simultaneously representational and
presentational, functioning both to construct a fictive event as though it were real and to
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constitute a moment of transcendence when, dependent on the performers skills and the
audiences beliefs, the human and the divine merge in the body of the dancer.
The initial production and subsequent national tour of for colored girls... garnered
praise throughout the media, vaulting Ntozake Shange overnight into a celebrity status from
which, as she would later acknowledge, it would take years to recover a sense of privacy and
focus. It provoked an avalanche of responses that seemingly became a barometer of audience
members identification with larger, feminist issues. As suggested earlier, for many women
and men the text was refreshingly honest in naming some of the tensions experienced in
heterosexual relationships. Feminism, heretofore represented primarily as the preserve of
middle-class white women, was seen to have tangible relevance to the lives of black women
and women of color.
But for some in the black community in particular, the text constituted a virulent
attack that left untouched the real power source, namely, white men. No positive male-female
interactions were presented, and the beau willie poem, coming at the end of a long catalog
of male insensitivities, functioned so as to accuse all black men of pathological behavior. For
that reason, argued proponents of this view, white male critics, whose positions with New
York newspapers gave them national influence, could celebrate a newly discovered humanity
with black women; they could publicly rejoice in feeling not the least bit threatened, as they
presumably had been by the earlier Black Arts plays of Amiri Baraka and others.
In this black community debate, two somewhat separable issues were conflated,
namely the audiences interpretation or production of meaning and the medias hegemonic
function in shaping individual responses to reinforce values espoused by the dominant power
structure. While there is a certain validity to the textual objections concerning Shanges
portrayal of black men, the animus behind some of the negative responses seems more related
to the latter issue of the medias function. That is, for colored girls. . . violated the unspoken
code of the 1960s by rejecting the equation of black liberation with male privilege. In
bringing certain family or intra-racial problems out of the proverbial closet, the text
appeared to validate existing negative stereotypes used to rationalize the oppression of black
men. Moreover, it did so in an arena that has historically denied black men and women
significant opportunities for projecting their own counter-narratives.
But ironically, were it not for a mass media controlled by white men, the text never
would have involved large numbers of black people in a much-needed reexamination of malefemale relationships. There is yet another irony about which virtually no critic has
commented. That is, most of the representations of Shange and the actresses in photographs,
posters, or interviews projected images of anger or extreme distress. Underneath all the
notoriety and praise was a subtext of aberrant behavior, an insinuation that the plays feminist
message could be attributed to suicidal impulses. From either standpoint, white patriarchy was
clearly the beneficiary. But as the foregoing discussion has demonstrated, it is nonetheless
possible to produce readings that resist these hegemonic designs and refigure the black
woman as a self-empowered subject.
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
ANDREWS, William L. Editor. African-American Autobiography: A Collection of
Critical Essays. (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1993).
BELL, Bernard W. The Afro-American Novel and Its Tradition. (Amherst: The
University of Massachusetts Press, 1987).
ELLIOT, Emory. Editor. The Columbia History of the American Novel. (New York:
Columbia University Press, 1992).
JAHNHEINZ, Jahn. Neo-African Literature: A History of Black Writing. (New York:
Evergreen, 1969).
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SRBULESCU, Emil. Cartea care vorbete: Introducere n romanul afro-american.

(Craiova: Fundaia Scrisul Romnesc, 1999).
WEIXLMANN, Joe and Houston A. Baker, Jr. Studies in Black American Literature.
3 vols. (Greenwood, Florida: The Pankevill Publishing Company, 1988).
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NARRATIVE STRUCTURES IN THE NOVELS OF RODICA OJOG-BRAOVEANU

SPECIALIZED STUDY
Dorina Nela TRIFU
Abstract: "Narrative structures in the novels of Rodica Ojog-Braoveanu specialized study"
is a study on how the writer of detective stories, Rodica Ojog Braoveanu, uses different
narrative techniques in her novels. The main features of her narrative technique will be
illustrated on a single literary work called "Crim prin mica publicitate". The study is an
analysis of the fictional world in her novels, with examples from the above mentioned book.
We considered, on the one hand, a classical analysis of diegesis, compositional structure and
narrative techniques in the novels of Rodica Ojog-Braoveanu and, on the other hand, a text
grammar and sentence structure as well as slang. All these issues tackled in this study are
intended to define the originality of crime fiction in Romanian literature, a branch which has
been neglected by literary critics. Rodica Ojog-Braoveanu and her novels set new directions
in literature: the detective novel and the resurrection of historical fiction.
Keywords: narrative structure, murder, study ,detective fiction, narratology.
1. Introducere
Lucrarea de fa este un studiu despre felul cum i concepe naraiunea scriitoarea de
romane poliiste Rodica Ojog-Braoveanu. Elemente de naratologie pe care scriitoarea le
adopt n operele sale vor fi evideniate pe o singur oper literar, numit Crim prin mica
publicitate. Studiul este o analiz a lumii ficionale n romanul poliist, cu exemplificri din
cartea mai sus menionat. Am avut n vedere att o analiz clasic despre diegez, structura
compoziional, structur i tehnici narative n opera menionat, dar i o gramatic a textului
ce expune structura frazei i argoul.
2. Lumea ficional n romanul poliist
Universul ficional n orice roman poliist, ca i n filmul de acest gen, are legtur
direct cu imaginarea unei crime. Producerea acesteia devine cauza aciunii. Conflictul se cere
descoperit i este diferit de la caz la caz, de la roman la roman: o boal psihic a unuia dintre
locatari s zicem sau dorina de navuire duce la crim sau adulterul, cci se spune c iubirea
este mai tare dect moartea, iar gelozia i mai mult, dorina de rzbunare, etc.
n proza poliist a Rodici Ojog Braoveanu figureaz dou planuri narative
principale dominate de fuziunea trecut- prezent, prin tehnica paralelismului epic privind viaa
personajelor cu puin nainte de crim i trecutul protagonistului. Aa se ntmpl i n
romanul succint, de dimensiunea unei nuvele mai ample Crim prin mica publicitate.
Universul fictiv seamn cu cel din lumea real pn la un punct. Valentina, gzduit de
familia Pavelescu se ntlnete cu pretendentul ei gsit prin mica publicitate la rubrica
Matrimoniale. Cele nou fire de liliac primate sunt chiar ca pentru nmormntarea ei.
Crimele sunt elemente romaneti banale, i tare neobinuite sunt obiectele crimei. n romanul
analizat, cele dou crime a Valentinei i cinele Cameliei, vara Valentinei- sunt nfptuite
cu un ac de cusut. Criminalul Coco ironizeaz poliia romn indirect, deoarece nu este
capabil s descopere adevraii criminali, se ocup cu lucruri nesemnificative ca butura i
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nu sunt nici capabili s decripteze corect un mesaj: M-ai priponit, bravo vou! Dar nu trece
anu i ne dm bun ziua pe Calea Victoriei. Eventual, bem o vodc pe Bulevard i ne
povestim amintirile. Maiorul Rdulescu ncerc s rd: -mi plac optimitii, matre Coco.
De fapt, ce vrei s zici? Nimic extraordinar Am urmrit la televizor nite procese.1
Dorina Valentinei de a primi pretendentul n condiii ct mai bune trdeaz firea ei
dezordonat, cu lucruri aruncate anapoda i firea ei economicoas. Prin flashback, este
rememorat evenimentul enigmatic al despririi de Zaharia, acesta disprnd din viaa ei fr
vreun motiv anume. Abia dup moartea acesteia, Zaharia, fostul so, declar c a divorat din
cauz c l plictisea o persoan cu aceleai replici, tabieturi, obiceiuri. nainte de ntlnirea cu
fermectorul din ziar, Valentina rememoreaz relaia cu enigmaticul i diabolicul Coco,
cellalt iubit. Asta dureaz doar ceva minute, n timpul de ateptare al iubitului gsit prin mica
publicitate, la rubrica matrimoniale, momentul fiind surprins prin monologurile sale interioare
i analiza psihologic, trdnd nerbdarea i nervozitatea: Proasto! Acum i veni s
inventariezi toi nemernicii din viaa ta? n aceeai clip inima ncepu s-i bat senzaie
din ce n ce mai frecvent asurzind-o. A sunat sau mi s-a prut? 2. Imediat intervine
senzaionalul cnd pretendentul de la matrimoniale este fostul iubit Coco, dar Valentina crede
c i se pare, c este doar o asemnare izbitoare ntre cei doi. Credul, i se pare o halucinaie i
are ncedere n cel ce se recomand: Ioan Mare.
3. Structuri i tehnici narative
n mai multe din romanele sale, Rodica Ojog- Braoveanu i ncepe opera cu o crim
ex abrupto, apoi urmeaz date despre victim, familie, mediul n care se nvrtea
personajul, o anchet ce aduce cu sine procedeul analepsei, o naraie retrospectiv. Principiul
cronlogic nu mai funcioneaz, ci sunt dispuse disparat fire narative, unele aparent fr nicio
legtur cu crima. La un moment dat nu numai agentul de poliie nu face legtura ntre idei,
cci suspecii au alibi, dar nici lectorul, prin strategema scriitoarei ce uzeaz de principiul
discontinuitii narative, ce semnific o dezordine voit a textului, pentru a crea mai apoi
surpriza. Romanul poliist pare un roman cu o cronologie invers: de la crim la evenimente
retrospective pentru nelegerea crimei, de la prezent ( crima) la investigaii n trecut pentru
nelegerea crimei ( plan retrospectiv). Crim prin mica publicitate este opera poate mai
sunt i altele n care nu se respect ntocmai aceast structur narativ, incipitul prezint
viaa unor ini banali, pensionari, gazde pentru o femeie sortit a fi singur. Cauza aciunii
captiveaz: un anun matrimonial, solicitant fiind femeia care nu mai vrea s sufere de
singurtate, care nu dorete a fi nefericit. Ce se va ntmpla n urma ntlnirii celor doi?
Fatalitate. O anun chiar semnele premonitorii, precum ghicitul n cri al gazdei ocupaie
diabolic care i arat c eroina e sortit a fi nefericit. De data aceasta, deabia n capitolul
al treilea se vorbete despre crim.
n privina timpului, exist un timp al universului narat i un timp al discursului.
Pornind de la aceast categorie, formalitii rui au distins fabula (nsemnnd ordinea
evenimentelor) de subiect ( nsemnnd ordinea discursului). Dac timpul fabulei i cel al
subiectului coincid sau fabula i subiectul sunt paralel organizate, ne aflm n faa unui epic
srac. De aceea paralelismul este distrus prin inversiuni, fie prin tehnica imbricrii sau
intruziunii unei povestiri n megaistorie. ( Al. Clinescu,Perspective critice, Iai, 1978, p. 7-
1
2
Rodica Ojog-Braoveanu, Crim prin mica publicitate, p.80

Rodica Ojog-Braoveanu, op.cit., p. 19
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29) .3 n opera analizat n acest studiu, epicul este bogat, captivant, prin tehnica revenirilor n
trecutul defunctei.
Aspectul, punctul de vedere sau viziunea, dup T. Todorov, indic felul n care e
perceput povestirea de ctre autor sau relaia dintre naratori i personaje ( viziune e termen
mprumutat din critica plastic echivalent cu raccourci-ul) 4. Perspectiva narativ este
omniscient, cu focalizare zero, viziunea dindrt, narator heterodiegetic, neimplicat n
evenimente, prin preferina pentru relatare la persoana a treia. Perspectiva personajelor asupra
Valentinei este diamentral opus. Domnul Pavelescu o crede o fat bun, n timp ce soiei
dumnealui i este antipatic, pe motiv c nu tie s se comporte n societate. Naratorul, dei
omniscient, are totui abilitatea s strecoare cu finee ndoiala pentru cititor, spunnd despre
pretendentul Valentinei c nu era genul de persoan care caut s se cstoreasc printr-un
anun. n privina protagonistei, perspectiva auctorial este dublat de punctul de vedere al
personajelor. Domnul Pavelescu o crede fat bun, n timp ce gazda ei vedea c e incapabil
s se descurce. Ce imagine i va face lectorul despre personaj, caci Valentina afieaz diferite
fee, naratorul omniscient dezvluind i o alt latur a ei, incredibil de crezut. n scrisoarea
primit, dar pe care nu are cum s o citeasc, Valentinei i se aduce la cunotin c lipsa ei la
o anumit adres ar avea consecine. De aici putem trage concluzia c i ea era o mic
spioan; sau poate nu.
Revenirea la trecutul Valentinei, rememorarea iubirilor periculoase trecute se face prin
tehnica inseriei. Prin tehnica flashback-ului, ce presupune o revenire n trecut, de data aceasta
cu funcie de iluminare asupra criminalului, este relatat i episodul aventurii sale cu Coco.
Anticiparea este unul dintre procedeele discursive care permet de projeter le lecteur
dans lavenir o de lui faire absorber laction prsente, en sachant davance lissue de
laction ou la destine dun personage.5. Nelinitea doamnei Pavelescu Lili cnd afl c a
fost publicat anunul matrimonial despre Valentina este un moment anticipativ al
evenimetului tragic: - Nu tiu, dragul meu Dar parc am aa, o strngere de inim Din
senin6 Alt secven anticipativ este redat prin monolog, cnd domnul care cumpr
liliac pentru ntlnirea amoroas cu Valentina se gndete la moartea acesteia: Un gnd
straniu strfulger mintea brbatului: Primele flori de pe mormntul ei 7
n plus, sunt n aceat naraiune i rsturnri de situaie: Valentina este asasinat
aflndu-se n braele pretendentului, cnd ea tocmai se pregtea de un moment dorit. Cine iar imagina un om venit s-o curteze s fie chiar criminalul? Sunt unele interogaii care struie
n mintea noastr i nu se poate da un rspuns concret nici dup terminarea crii. S fi avut
vreo legtur moartea Valentinei Climan cu scrisoarea pe care ea o primise cu cinci ani n
urm, dar pe care soii Pavelescu uitaser s i-o nmneze? Un element al epicului este
surpriza: lui Zaharia i se pare un anun extraordinar moartea lui Vali. S-i fi urt soia pn
s-i doreasc moartea?!. Prin bucuria trit la aflarea vetii c fosta soie e moart, el va
deveni suspect, pentru ca suspiciunile s cad n momentul prezentrii celuilalt iubit, Coco. n
mod tot surprinztor, alt personaj, probabil Coco, crede c Valentina este o victim a
Revoluiei, moartea ei avnd legtur cu politica.
4. Sintaxa frazei i argoul
Apud Elena, Drago, Structuri narative la Liviu Rebreanu, Editura tiinific i Enciclopedic, Bucureti,
1981, p. 27
4
ibidem
5
http://education.alberta.ca/media/6739783/annexes.pdf, p.295
6
7
3
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Sintaxa frazei e realizat n aa fel, nct mai peste tot autoarea urmrete s ne
destind. Miu Etc e porecla pe motiv c numele este prea lung. Personajul doarme n
ciorapi de ln din cauza caloriferului rece. Umorul este realizat prin diferite replici ca aceea
n care doamna Lili o nva pe Valentina s-i trateze pretendentul cu un coniac, nu cu sirop
de tuse.
Coninutul i expresia sunt n relaie de dependen. Doamna Lili povestete despre
fostul so al Valentinei c acesta nu suporta apropierea soiei. Coninutul pare o idee banal
despre familiile ameninate de destrmare, dar expresia este una n care se mpletete comicul
cu tragicul: - Cum nu nelegi? Rosti patetic: Nici mcar pijamalele nu suporta s li se
ating. Nu i se pare de ajuns?8 .
n estetica modern, limbajul nu mai transmite numai un coninut, ci ci
ncorporeaz, adic e coninut i form n acelai timp. 9(Op.cit., p. 11). Enunurile au figuri
de stil ce trdeaz comicul, cum ar fi hiperbola ce se mbin cu o exprimare licenioas: l
saluta jurnalistul, proastele de la pine i pot i zmbeau pn la cercei, artndu-I ce
dentist bun au 10. Repede, naratorul schimb registrul stilistic, de la registrul comic, la
tragic-comic, apoi cel argotic i nu n ultimul rnd registrul metaforic: Ce mai adesea ns
gndurile i se ntorceau pe uliele trecutului. 11
Pentru decriptarea limbajului estetic e nevoie de un cod artistic, care n concepia
aceleiai autoare, Elena Dragos, deine: a) dicionarul sau inventarul de semne; b) reguli
de combinare a semnelor; c) o structur ce determin ierarhia semnelor; ( ibidem)Exemple
de argou abund n fiecare scriere a autoarei, ca s exemplificm cteva: vnztoare
trznet, prosptur, piipoance.
5. Concluzii
Credem c romanul poliist este un nou tip de roman, nu neaprat gen minor, cu
tehnici narative ce depesc modernismul, cu subiect atractiv pentru unii, respingtor pentru
alii, datorit, respectiv din cauza aceluiai element recurent: crima sub toate formele ei.
Prin analiza structurii narative n opera scriitoarei, n acest studiu sperm c am reuit
s punctm rolul i specificul prozei poliiste n literatura romn, ramur trecut cu vederea
un timp de critica literar. Cu opera Rodici Ojog- Braoveanu se traseaz n literatura nostr
direcii noi: romanul poliist i resurecia prozei istorice.
Bibliografie:
Drago, Elena, Structuri narative la Liviu Rebreanu, Editura tiinific i
Enciclopedic, Bucureti, 1981
Ojog-Braoveanu, Rodica, Crim prin mica publicitate, Editura Universitar, 2009.
Sitografie:
http://education.alberta.ca/media/6739783/annexes.pdf

Elena, Drago, op.cit., p. 11
10
11
ibidem
8
9
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TRAIAN CHELARIU AND THE REWRITING OF THE MIORITIC MYTH

Dana-Alexandra DOLGU-URSULEANU
Abstract: The myth abnegation is the action of effeminacy says Traian Chelariu, an author
from Bukovina living in the ages of 1906 1966. According to him, the myth represents the
hypothesis where the logical and psychological functions from our human being are going to
mingle in a present stem. Thus, the author manages to revitalize the myth of Mioria through
the dramatic opera The Carpathian Ballad. A fairy tale in six tableaus, which presents the
same story of the murdered shepherd, but in a complex manner, with intrigue of miraculous
creatures.
Keywords: Traian Chelariu, Mioria, myth, dramatic opera, ballad.
The myth as an assumption

The abnegation of the myth is a devirilisation. The myth is not a mendacity but an
assumption, if we can speak about assumptions whither the logical and psychological
functions of ourselves/our being are identified within a base which is present in
paleoncephalon, in neoncephalon and in all the nerve substance layers. But the assumption is
the first great victory of a human being, more precisely, of a man, towards the unknown
adjacencies of the world.
The myth as an assumption, as the incipit of constructing your own world, as a
winning stratagem in the first fight of figuring out the mysteries represents the first step of
finding out the truth, of cultural incorporation of the mystery. (Traian Chelariu, 1989, p.
210)
Traian Chelariu, the Bucovina XX century writer vehemently argues this point of view
both theoretical, in his volume of philosophical reflections n cutarea Atlantidei, and
practical, through his play Balada carpatin. Raised in the spirit of the Cernauti prestigious
schools, educated in the academic environment of Paris and Berlin but stopped from his
ascension by the dictatorship imposed after the Second War, Chelariu is an author who
succeeded to write poetry, prose, plays and memoirs. His literary work contains 8 volumes
published during his life and five volumes published after his death; each of these volumes
has the power to convert the personality of the author in a symbol of Bucovina culture and of
the avatars of a Romanian inter-war writer. (Angela Furtun, discourse, July 2011) In an
intrigant manner, the volumes of reflections and memoirs establish the main theoretical basis
both for his writing as for the daily life of the author, containing surviving formulas in foster
social environments and the journals of his literary works. In this way, it can be seen that the
author is building the definition of the myth in a few pages of his volume n cutarea
Atlantidei and then he applies the theories for valorising the myth, using them as sources of
inspiration in his literary work.
The mioritic myth
But myths have neither time nor space. They are crystallizations as mathematicians
theorems. Or just like the Platonic ideas. If you do not meet them anywhere it is not their
fault. How can you meet them if your ways are permanent practical deviations from the ideal
form?(Traian Chelariu, 1989, p.8)
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The Romanian modern culture is also in a permanent deviation from the perfect form,
which offers texts and symbolic manifestations where we can find fragments, segments or
they send us to structures, representations with mythic valence. Therefore, the modern
Romanian texts show mythological information which can disclose mythical sequences
(characters, places, action outlines, objects, animals and plants) through resemnification,
decontextualization, releasing from the actual functions, being projected to a possible past in
which it could have had functions, meanings and mythical application. (Mihai Coman, 2008,
p. 309-310)
As a result, the myths return to modernity masked, desacralised. Contemporary
thinking approaches to the same aim: to know and to explain myths. Modern societies assume
from the structure of the myth only aspects which are in concordance with the expectations
and the imaginary of the contemporary man; therefore, the myth obtains new forms, which are
appropriate with the context in which it is found.
For example, we can speak in the same way about the mioritic image that represents
the Romanian myth of death, which becomes source of inspiration for many literary works.
Thereby, the Romanian mioritic myth which presents a wonder-working sheep which reveals
to her master, the shepherd, the conspiracy planned against him by two other shepherds,
assumes different cultural forms, the majority of them being literary works. The dissimulation
of the myth into the model of a folkloric poem is the most spreaded version, followed by epic
and dramatic rewritings.
Traian Chelariu subscribed to this process of creation under folkloric inspirationpastoral, giving life to the dramatic work entitled Balada Carpatin, which presents the same
story of the murdered shepherd but in a more complex manner, with the intrigues of some
miraculous beings. John Vreme is a young old man who has among his sheep a new kind of
sheep, Mioria, this race is also wanted by Cornea, an old man who owns 3000 sheep on many
fields and valleys. The ballad is completed by the presence of certain characters such as:
Vidra, sort of an earth sister of the iele which represents the reason of arguing between the
two old men; The White Hermit, a wise old man; The Old Mother, Johns mother and The old
witch, Viana. Yet, the action of this ballad does not resemble with the first version because it
revolves around the theme of love which takes shape through the story of a consecutive and
unconsummated relation. The old man Cornea loves Vidra in a telluric and proud way and
Vidra loves the innocent young boy John, who is not convinced of the feelings he has for the
woman because his dream is to find the beautiful iele. Traian Chelariu rewrites the mioritic
myth by adding the iele myth, ending with the death of the young old man and with the death
of Mioria: if John Vreme dies because of the game invented by the iele, the sheep dies
because of the old witch Viana who wants to destroy the dream of the young shepherd.
The Carpathian Ballad
Search in the myth the mystery and in the mystery the truth. This is the way to the
arise of the truth, the way, the life and the truth. (Traian Chelariu, 1989, p. 112)
The rewriting of the mioritic myth in the manner of Bucovina writer is conceived in a
Romanian fairytale manner, with elements specific to the Geto-dacian people, due to the wish
of revitalizing an archaic type of thinking and living.
From placing the action in a traditional time and space (The place and the time in
which the action from Mioria takes place Area bordered by woods and beautiful cliffs,
Traian Chelariu, 1976, p.155), to the characters which are specific to the Romanian frame
(Iele, the shepherds, The old mother), the author reconstructs the context specific to the myth.
Traian Chelariu also succeeds to revive the pastoral environment by using an archaic language
(drgnele, traist, devale, prsire, nouri, vdit) which leads the reader to the
atmosphere of the mentioned time. Humans connections with nature and animals are shaped
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by the writer through the appearance of some invisible characters, intrinsic echoes of the main
character, which contribute to the reconstruction of the Romanian mythic environment.
In this way, The Voices of the sky and of the earth, The voice of the iele, the voice of
the bird which doesnt sleep, replenish the dialogue between Ion Vreme and the nature,
forming a complete image of the well known unity between man and nature. In the matrix of
forming the Romanian old pure border we can also find the main character, the old young
man, who is characterised as a kind of Prince Charming, finder of the Good and of the
Beauty(Traian Chelariu, 1976, p.152). Ion Vreme is the carrier of the delicate romanian soul,
who hears the voice of the nature, he is reconcilead with the life of the mountains, he feels the
joy of simple things
( looking at some mountains, singing a doina) and he looks detached the idea of the
end of life (death comes when it has to come, How would I cherish the doine if they
didnt have an end, Traian Chelariu, 1976, p.183). This is the uninitiated finder of beauty, of
unknown, who tries to give a sense to his life through finding the iele. The iele represent a
romanian specific mark of myth, which are represented in the play through a choir which
appears only in the moments of loneliness of the old young man, murmuring a dizzy song :
Here we are! The iele! The good ones, the bad ones the murmuring of the fountains, the
shadow of the sink holes, the fog of the mountains, the murmur of the woodsthe noise of
the fallings, of the water and of the evenings The voice of the quietness, and of the
qiuietness! Of the good things and of the bad things, After the falling, we banish the madness,
We bring them madness! Here we are! The good ones and the bad ones. (Traian Chelariu,
1976, p.156) Their image depicted from Chelarius play remains as undefined as the image
from the Romanian mythology, becoming an appearance which predicts death.
The elements which bring change and escape from the schema of the ballad Mioria,
are represented by the construction of some antithetic figures which expand the number of
characters and knot a complex action. For example, the image of the iele in the mirror is
represented by Vidra, the terrestrial sister of these, who succeeds to become a reason of
building the plot. Then, the antithetic image of Ion Vreme is old Cornea, an old shepherd,
with telluric ideals and controlled by powerful instincts, therefore totally different, compared
with his younger opponent. Other two pair of characters are old Viana and the Old mother,
two embodiments of mothers. If the first one is a greedy and cunning old woman,
unprincipled who wishes to marry her daughter with the old shepherd in order to become the
mistress of the surroundings, the second is a fatless gentle small woman who is looking for
her son, anticipating the misfortune which will come.
The infidelity of the mioritic model is achieved especially by using the theme of love,
which represents the engine of displaying the action, the old Cornea wishes more the love of
Vidra, the girl who loves Ion Vreme, than the new kind of shep. Therefore, a love triangle is
produced, a triangle which remains opened because the young shepherd has his own utopian
ideals which concerns the iele. The mioritic rewriting of Traian Chelariu emphasizes two
types of experiences: the telluric one, dominated by instincts and felt by Cornea and Vidra
and the ideal one, intrinsical, felt in a simple way by the old young man.
In the end of the rewriting, the author gives back the balance of the universe through
Ion Vremes death because of the iele, the Mioria sheep and because of old Viana and of old
Cornea from Vidras revenge. The third scene of the last act, shows in a symphonic manner
all the voices of the nature, including that of the iele and the voice of the balancer character of
the White Hermit, which reproduce lyrics form the popular ballad Mioria, suggesting the
mythical character of this text.
Bibliography:
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1. Blteanu, Valeriu, Micionar de mitologie romneasc, Galai, Ed. Fundaiei

Universitare Dunrea de Jos, 2001;
2. Chelariu, Traian, n cutarea Atlantidei, editura Dacia,Cluj Napoca, 1989;
3. Chelariu, Traian, Teatru, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1976;
4. Coman, Mihai, Introducere n antropologia cultural. Mitul i ritul, Iai, Polirom,
2008 ;
5. Coman, Mihai, Studii de mitologie, Bucureti, Ed. Nemira, 2009;
6. Furtun, Angela, Traian Chelariu sau despre rostul crilor cnd un martir ne
vegheaz biblioteca, discourse at The Days of Bukovina Library, iulie 2011;
7. Marian, Florea Simion, Mitologie romneasc, Bucureti, Ed. Paideia, 2000.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This paper has been financially supported within the project entitled SOCERT.
Knowledge
society,
dynamism
through
research,
contract
number
POSDRU/159/1.5/S/132406. This project is co-financed by European Social Fund through
Sectoral Operational Programme for Human Resources Development 2007-2013. Investing
in people!
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MIHAI EMINESCU AND TEOPHIL GAUTIER - FROM THE AVATAR TO POOR

DIONIS- BETWEEN UNSLEEPING AND DREAM
Mihaela-Gabriela PUN
Abstract: The study Eminescu and Thophile Gautier-from the Avatar to Srmanul
Dionis- between unsleeping and dream constitutes an application on the literature field.
The thesis in which direction is argued is the following: The fantastic prose finds a new
beginning, both in Romanian literature and in the French one through Mihai Eminescu and
Thophie Gautier. In his cultural assimilation, Mihai Eminescu reads the works of Gautier
and even imitates a fragment from Avatar, at the end of the novel Srmanul Dionis. Both
of them have in common the passion for the Indian philosophy and for the fantastic, evidence
which can be noticed from the two works observed in the title. Conclusion: The influence of
Thophile Gautier upon Mihai Eminescu cannot be proved actually, but cant be excluded
either. A comparative look upon the novel Srmanul Dionis and Avatar, indicates
similes, but also a difference of construction of the narrative plan, a better knowledge of the
Indian philosophy by Mihai Eminescu and a bigger elegance in swinging among the real and
the imaginary plan, between reality and dream.
Keywords: fantastic, fantastic literature, real-imaginary, reality-dream, dream.
1. Introduction: The concept of fantastic in a romantic vision

The romantic writers are those who orientate upon the liberty of the spirit which
implies releasing the creative imagination in different forms, such as: the fabulous, the
miraculous, the unusual, the supernatural, the fairy, the metempsychosis, duality, life as a
dream, the androgen. These are just a few steps to enter into the other dimension formed by
another time and another imaginary space, tangential with the real space.
The concept of fantastic claims its origins in the Latin word phantasticus and in
the Greek word fantastikos, both meaning imaginary, unreal. Gilbert Durand in
Structurile antropologice ale imaginarului considers the fantastic as a unique dimension of
the human, creative emanation, from the incipient phase of a theoretical and practical
creation, considering that this has an important role in the transcendental structure of the
imaginary. In this sense, we can notice the remark of Roger Caillois, who considers the
fantastic as being a threatening, an innovative break in the world of the real, a situation
generated by the hesitation of the reader between understanding a rational solution and a
supernatural solution, considers Tzvetan Todorov (R. Caillois, 1971, T. Todorov, 1973). In
the essence, the fantastic affirms as an aesthetical category, present in different literary
species, swinging between real-unreal. Finite- indefinite, logic, illogic, object-sign, promoting
the strange, enigmatic, the miraculous, producing fear, restlessness, terror and communicating
through a dialogue literary-artistic between the creator and the reader.
Because the fantastic is a literary genre with many sub genres, many times
ambiguous in delimitation, its defining overcomes a certain difficulty which implies
overtaking the concept fantastic. Its beginning starts with presenting the notions real and
fantastic. In the preview of the book Elixirul de via lung, Irina Mavrodin offers a new
perspective in what concerns the fantastic, taking into account intertextuality, through an
implied category- the verisimilar, which breaks the coherence of the universe, through the
supernatural element, as a defining constant. While Ioan Vultur approaches the problem of the
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fantastic from the perspective of communication, processes of communication and textual

aspects, Irina Gregory establishes, like Sigmund Freud, an identification of the concept with
the strange element, generating restlessness, considering it a break in the order of the real
world, a disequilibrium characteristic to the modern conscience, but also a miraculous
history narrated in a realist manner (I. Gregori, 1996). Gheorghe Goldeanu in Mircea Eliade
- poetica fantasticului i morfologia romanului existenial, identifies another dimension of
the concept, by breaking up the sacred from the profane (G. Goldeanu,1997, p. 39). Also
George Bdru in his volume Fantasticul n literatur, identifies the roots of the Romanian
fantastic in folklore, the mythical-magical thinking, folklore-books, German romanticism and
the prose of E. A. Poe (George Bdru, 2003). Based on a hidden dimension of the soul, the
fantastic allows an approach by the greatest mysteries of the existence, love and death. If
death integrates us in nature, love, in the opinion of Ion Biberi takes us on the authentic line
of the biologic and vital, because through this we confess to each other, the loved one and
the world gets a new dimension (Ion Biberi, 1971, p.188). This new dimension is generated
by the feminine apostasy, because the human type we prefer into the other one, presents the
profile of our own heart, considers Jose Ortega y Gasset in 1995, in Not despre iubirea
curteneasc (Jose Ortega y Gasset, 1995, p. 62). Coming back to Ion Biberi, we can say that
the fantastic manifest the highest form of existence by presenting the spiritual attitude of the
man towards himself and the world, but also by adding the real near myth and symbol. In this
sense, the fantastic, through metaphoric speeches, mythical values and symbolics, offers us an
overview upon the world, realizing an important aesthetical and anthropological perspective.
In what concerns the fantastic prose and its reality, Ioan Dersidan, recognizes its value
through the capacity of assuming the imaginary and his referring to knowledge (I.
Dersidan, 2000, p. 18). Thats why, by denying and overcoming the real , the fantastic
manifest itself through imaginary and mood, which are organized in images-symbolic
constellations focused on the gliding towards the real and rational, into arbitrary signs,
proposing metamorphosis, recombination and getting over languages and moods (I.
Dersidan, 2000, p. 82).
In the Romanian literature, the folkloric fabulous, the magic and mythical miraculous,
forms the most important vein of the Romanian, fantastic prose, imprinting a uniqueness
which differentiates it from the other literatures. Mihai Eminescu offers to the Romanian
fantastic the most authentic romantic dimension. In the opinion of George Clinescu, in
Eminescus works we can identify forms of the romantic fantastic: the migration of the man
into a cosmic space, changing and combining worlds, representing sidereal spaces by
contemplating the plurality of the worlds, the music of the spheres, strange spirits belonging
to the underground world intervening in the human existence, demolishing the human being,
swinging the ego between real and imaginary, disgusting contrasts, the alive corpses; and not
lastly the imaginary reconstruction of primordial chaos in the poetic cosmogony.
In the French literature, T. Gautier is the representative of the romanticism, but
having ideas of an artist, as Albert Thibaudet says in Histoire de la literature francaise (A.
Thibaudet, 1936). In what concerns approaching the fantastic, he proves to be original
through his modality of revealing the phenomenology of this genre, in which the hesitation is
valorized in a certain manner by the oddity of the happenings the characters of Gautier get
through, always at the limit of natural. In what concerns the originality of its writings, L. Ulici
affirms in the preface of the book Avatar: The equation of the hesitation is developed in
different variants from a story to another, and the 5 imaginary stories create a unitary picture
of the fantastical characters and a particular case as well. Maybe their special charm comes
from the fact that presenting a theoretical principle, generalizing, of the fantastic, they manage
to dissolve the general characters into an epic multitude, having a strange particularity (L.
Ulici, 1973, p. 11). Both of them see in the dream a modality of existence of the fantastic.
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2. M. Eminescu and T. Gautier - between unsleeping and dream

For the romantics, the dream is the most important existential axis, defining for their
way of thinking and feeling, as a second life, an escape from an ordinary present, in an
universe of the endless freedom. In this sense, Zoe Dumitrescu-Buulenga says that the
dream was for the romantic writer the cure of the suffering, the condition of the knowledge,
the generator of the myths, the poetical mood by excellence []. Through the dream, the time
and space were abolished; through dream the hero could have adventures of the humanity or
spirit, touching the condition of the universality and reintegrating in the cosmic macrorhythms (Z. Dumitrescu-Buulenga, 1976, p. 129). In Dicionarul de simboluri Alex
Chevalier and Alain Gheerbrand considers the dream the best agent of information in what
concerns the mental mood of the one who dreams [...] it is for the one who dreams a image
upon himself, often unsuspected, it is a revelator of the ego and self (Alex Chevalier & Alain
Gheerbrand, 1995, p. 457).
For Eminescu, the dream represents the revealing pulsation of his genius in
transfiguring the reality through which he projects his ideals: So much have I dreamt, So
much have I dreamt, that I am not from here now, says Leon-Paul Fargue, motto-words of
the chapter Romantic sky, from Sufletul romatic i visul of Albert Bguin, which fit the
poet as a glove (A. Bguin, 1998, p. 206). In this context, the rality as we think about it,
configured by the creative-self from the demiurgical apostasy, derived idea from the
philosophy of Fiche, as H. Sanielevici says in Cercetri critice i filozofice: If the world is
a creation of the ego, if the phenomena are within us, then the space and time are in us too,
then individual means almighty and must sing the achievement of his desires in his deepest
soul (Sanielevici, 1986, p. 52). I think that the most beautiful definition of the dream at
Eminescu, can be encountered in Geniul pustiu: a sunny world for me, a world full of the
clear beams as a diamante, clean stars as gold, dark and perfumed green of the bay groves- the
dream opens his golden bars and let me in his poetical and forever young gardens (M.
Eminescu, 1972, p. 152). T. Gautier considers that the dream is not synthesized into a
definition, even if he wrote a poem called Dream (Rve).
The bond which connects Mihai Eminescu and Thophil Gautier is the final of the
novel Srmanul Dionis, which contains a quote from Gautier: Not always are we from the
country who saw us growing up, and thats why we are looking for our true country. Those
that are made in this way feel exiled in their city, strangers in their home and exhausted by an
inverse nostalgia.It would be easy to be only about the country, but it is also about the
century where there truly existence must have happened..I like that I once lived in the East
and when the during the carnival I disguise with some gabardine, I imagine to wear again my
true clothes. I was always surprised that I dont understand the Arabic language. I must have
forgotten it. It is interesting to be noticed that what I have already said is anticipated in a few
questions of the author: if it was a dream or not, that is the question. Isnt it that the offstages of life is actually a producer whose existence we cannot explain? Arent we like some
figurants who [...] come on stage, go around and appear again? [...]. Isnt it possible that
someone, living, can have moments of a retrospective lucidity which may seem to us like the
artifacts of a man form a long time ago, who no longer exists? (M. Eminescu, 2009, pp. 8485). These questions decode the philosophy of Eminescu about life and about the existence of
a long line of people, gathered in the existential matrices of an only God, expressed also in the
poem: But if all people died/Others would be born again []/ From the bosom eternal
yesterday, lives today everything that dies/ Because everyone is born to die/ And die to be
born again, where we can find the Indian influence (M. Eminescu, Luceafrul). I consider
that no one can certainly know the source of inspiration of Eminescu, even if the simile with
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the Indian philosophy is very obvious sometimes and the French literature can be a source of
inspiration, although some critics are against this idea. Between the novel Srmanul Dionis
of Mihai Eminescu and some paragraphs from Avatar, by Gautier, in the study Eminescu
i cultura francez, I. M. Racu establishes a few correspondences. Among these, I will note
the quotation where words of Visnu appear, and is above the gate through which we enter in
the serenity world in Srmanul Dionis (Racu, I. M, 1976, p. 216). In what concerns these
analogies realized by I. M. Racu, Amita Bhose, in the study The literary prose of Eminescu
and the Indian thinking points out:
Eminescu says clearly that the quotation was written with Arabic letters, while
Gautier speaks
about Indian hieroglyphs, an inexistent thing;
Eminescu is preoccupied by the successive transmigration of the same soul, and the
curer of
Gautier makes the transplantation of ones soul into another ones;
In Avatar, Gautier describes an Indian world, giving many insignificant details
(the
marble ladder from Benares), confused (Brahmin instead of priest or dwarf), and
wrong (Buddha was a great admirer of the great god Mahadevi etc.) and conjures an occult
India, full of fakir;
the doctor Balthazar from Avatar describes Indian scenes, often pronounces the
terms
eternal and infinite even if they dont have any connection with the subject, and in
the process of reciprocal transfer of the two souls, he uses alchemic solutions, unknown to
the Indian legends.He pretends to know the creative word of Visnu, which means only
another confusion; in the Hindus trinity, Brahma is the creative god and Visnu is the one who
keeps the balance of creation() the theories exposed by the characters of Eminescu in
Sarmanul Dionis adapt to the one in Upanisade;
The moral frame in Sarmanul Dionis is superior to the one in Avatar and closer
to the one
from the Legile lui Manu, because Dionis wants to defeat the time to reveal the
supreme truth of the world; he doesnt crave for someone elses faithful wife, as Octav de
Saville, because in every reincarnation he is bound to Marias soul, his unique love
(after Amita Bhose, Proza literar a lui Eminescu i gndirea indian).
With all these differences, the Indian critic doesnt exclude the possibility that the
French literature may be one of the sources of inspiration which, stirring his curiosity,
determined Eminescu to fathom the Indian philosophy. In this sense, Amita Bhose points out:
Both authors, Gautier and Eminescu, reveal an Indian world, the first one in an explicit way,
and the second one in a more subtle and suggestive way. At Gautier, there is a bizarre India,
like some nave movies from our century; In Eminescus work it is recreated an India of the
wise men, a spiritual India, to which many great thinkers like Goethe and Schopenhauer
aligned. Going towards India, Gautiers reaches the profane and Eminescu starts from the
sacred. The work of Gautier is written according to those times, and the work of Eminescu
addresses both to the readers after centuries and overseas (Amita Bhose, Proza literar a lui
Eminescu i gndirea indian).
3. Conclusion: Both Eminescu and Tophil Gautier are guiding marks. In what concerns
the role
of Gautier in the literary dynamics of his poque, he is the promoter of the impersonal
literature. In this sense, Gustave Lanson said: The importance of Gautier is great in our
literature: on one side, through his hatred towards everything that was bourgeois, he released
the eccentric romanticism, unhealthy, presented as ferocious and immoral; he generated
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Baudelaire. On the other side, the exactness of painter made him come out of romanticism; he
renounced to the subjective lyrics for the objective, the model. It is the beginning of the
impersonal literature.(G. Lanson, 1893, p. 954).
In what concerns Eminescu, presenting a fascinating universe, through originality and
the diversity of the approached problematic, he inaugurates a new direction in the Romanian
prose: the direction of the philosophical, metaphysic fantastic. He surprises in a romantic
manner the predisposition to the mysteries of the universe, of love- the only capable of
imposing a favorable solution to a diabolic pact, and of the death. Assimilating the
autochthon, archaic layer, of the faiths and pre-Christian thinking which imprinted his
thinking, on one side, but also the context of its manifestation in the universal literature,
which Eminescu knew in a certain manner and which imprints his thinking, he imposes as a
genial Romanian, authentic in the constellation of the great thinkers of the world.
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Lanson, G. 1893. Histoire de la litterature francaise, cinguime edition, revue,
corrige, Paris: Hachette.
Lefter, I. B, 93 de scrisori inedite ale lui Eminescu, recuperate dup 111 ani. Povestea
unei restituiri n Observator cultural, nr. 15.
Moraru, M. 1997. De nuptiis Mercurii et Philologiae. Bucureti: Editura Fundaiei
culturale
romne.
Sanielevici, H. 1986. Cercetri critice i filozofice. Bucureti: Editura pentru
literatur.
Racu, I.M. 1976. Eminescu i cultura francez, Bucureti.
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Thibaudet, A. 1936. La bataille dHernani passe pour lAustrelitz du romantisme, n

Histoire de la literature francaise. Paris: Stock.
Todorov, Tzvetan, 1973. Introducere n Literatura Fantastic. Traducere Virgil
Tnase. Bucureti: Editura Univers.
Ulici, L.1973. Prefa la Avatar i alte povestiri fantastice. Traducere de Andreea
Dobrescu-Warodin, ediie ilustrat de Damian Petrescu. Bucureti: Editura Univers.
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GEORGE BLIS CULTURAL AND HIS LITERARY ACTIVITY IN POST

COMMUNISM
Sabina MARCU
Abstract: The article reconstructs the last twenty five year of life of a contemporary writer
George Bli, from pieces of interviews, confessions and ideas of some other writers.
Keywords: George Bli, biography, communism, essayistic discourse, subjectivity.
Perioada de tranziie socio-politic va marca sine qua non i o schimbare de optic
profesional i artistic a lui George Bli, ntruct, imediat dup schimbarea regimului i
odat cu prefacerile istoriei, nuvelistul i romancierul vor ceda condeiul publicistului,
subiectelor literare le vor lua locul subiecte sociale contemporane, stilul devenind unul mai
incisiv i ofensiv. Dup 1990, scriitorul se lanseaz n proiecte culturale, dup ce, la nceputul
anului, i d demisia de la Cartea Romneasc, n cadrul Consiliului Uniunii Scriitorilor,
anunat deja din 21 decembrie 1989. Evenimentul este relatat n interviul acordat lui tefan
Agopian, ntr-unul dintre rspunsuri scriitorul ncercnd s clarifice contextul i motivaiile
acestei decizii: Consiliul mi-a cerut ferm s rmn la conducerea Editurii. S-a produs n
zilele urmtoare o micare iacobin n editur, dar fr consecine. Dinescu personal, ceva
mai trziu, m-a ntrebat ntre patru ochi dac vreau s preiau din nou editura. Nu, am spus.
Aventura mea la Cartea Romneasc s-a ncheiat. Tinerii grupai n lotul lui Nedelciu, prin
gura lui i nu numai, m-au rugat s rmn acolo. Demisia mea nainte de 1989? (...) Ar fi
nsemnat ngroparea de vie a Editurii. Nu puteam ngdui asta, m mplicasem n toat
povestea, eram dator.1
Scriitorul i propune s continue tradiia editorial prin iniierea unor iniiative
publicistice/reviste diferite de cele ale vremii, care se vor difuza pe parcursul a civa ani.
Perioada postdictatur nu l face s abandoneze literatura proprie (scriind cu aceeai fervoare
ca n trecut), dar nici parcimonia de a scoate la tipar tot ce scrie. Cu toate acestea, prezena pe
scena literar se face simit prin solicitrile crora le va da curs de reeditarea a vomumelor
publicate anterior.
Tranziia, termen-cheie n definirea ultimelor dou decenii, se rsfrnge i asupra
parcursului vieii scriitorului care definete perioada drept timp hibrid i instabil2. O
constant a subiectelor publicistice i a nsemnrilor zilnice devine reflectarea transformrilor
vieii sociale, pe toate aspectele sale (literar, politic, economic), scriitorul exprimndu-i n
articlria (cum adesea numete textele care compun unicul volum publicat n
postcomunism) sa, percepia despre societatea romneasc postdictatur. Pentru George
Bli, aceti ani vor marca pe lng rsritul timid al democraiei i un timp al acuzelor, al
nverunrii i emergena unei atitudini iconoclaste raportat la tot ce s-a realizat n cele patru
decenii de totalitarism. Din mrturisiri, precum i din publicistica sa, scriitorul contest
maniera tipic acelor ani de judecare a comunismului dintr-un singur punct de vedere
(poziiile afiate fiind n majoritate contestatare i, sporadic, panegirice comuniste) i pledeaz
pentru renunarea la judecile univoce, indiferent de ce parte ar fi, n favoarea unei atitudini
echilibrate.
tefan Agopian, Copilul e vrjitor i filosof n George Bli, Marocco (II), Cinele n les, Iai, Editura
Polirom, 2011, p.410.
2
George Bli, Marocco (II), Domino, Iai, Editura Polirom, 2011, p.64.
1
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Aceste reflecii se regsesc n interviuri i preponderent n volumul publicat n 1994,

Gulliver n ara Nimnui, n care regsim concepia scriitorului despre societatea totalitar cu
tarele i realizrile ei, viziunea asupra societii romneti n postcomunism, condiia
scriitorului i a literaturii n perioada postcomunist. Sintetiznd tabloul postcomunist la
cteva caracteristici, pentru George Bli, societatea romneasc dup 1990 se definea n
funcie de urmtoarele repere: atitudini obstinate acuzatoare (se latr mult i se muc pe
furi3), ncercri de deculpabilizare prin identificarea unui vinovat generic, judecarea din
afara sistemului (revolta tinerilor i a celor care au locuit n strintate crora Bli le
reproeaz ferm Nimeni din afar nu are dreptul s judece), instabilitate social, nesiguran
politic, tonul scriitorului fiind adesea incisiv (Prostule! Oare nu-i ajung marile victorii
asupra naturii, cum ar fi, de pild, jaful din Delta Dunrii?).
Conform spuselor scriitorului, statutul artistului i condiia literarurii, a artei, se
confrunt n mod paradoxal cu derizoriul artei (Nu, artistul nu a fost alungat din cetate. Mai
ru: este, se pare, de toi ignorat), lipsa de preocupare pentru susinerea i publicarea operelor
literare: Unui autor venit cu nite proze la o revist literar i se spune: ara arde i baba se
piaptn4, precum i diminuarea interesului pentru literatur din partea cititorului: Rd
(pn la ultima consecin) de cei (nechemai) care o alung acum din cetate (n.n. se refer la
literatur), dup ce aproape o jumtate de secol ea a rezistat prin miracol. Unde sunt oamenii
care fceau cozi interminabile la librrie numai ca s pescuiasc ntr-o sut de pagini cte
fraze incendiare att de bine ascunse, nct nici autorul nu le mai ddea de capt?5
Totodat condamn n repetate rnduri aa-zisul caracter de falsitate al disidenei
romneti ivite mai mult post-factum, dup cum regsim exemplificat n Interviuri, care au
favorizat dezvoltarea unor atitudini ce au schimbat componenta relaiilor umane ntre artiti n
peisajul cultural: Cavalerii nimicului dau nval, fiecare cu nsemnele i trecutul su, cu o
mn seamn vnt, culeg fanarioticete cu cealalt ce pot i dispar (...) De unde vin i unde
se duc aceti semeni ai notri? Cu unii dintre ei, pn mai ieri chiar azi diminea aveam ce
vorbi.6
n acest sens, o caracteristic a perioadei o reprezint deculpabilizarea fcut
manipulator de exponeni ai vieii culturale autohtone prin cosmetizarea propriului trecut i
lansarea de acuze denigratoare n ncercarea de aruncare a vinei: ar trebui totui, vorba
americneasc, o ans pentru fiecare. Ar fi mai potrivit groapa comun? Suntem n calea
marilor dejecii, creasta valului este purulent. Furunculoza e nc n erupie. Nu mai
funcioneaz nicio lege. Suntem ca nainte de Hammurabi, nainte de a fi spat n piatr la
ncrucitoare de drumuri: cel slab trebuie aprat mpotriva celui puternic, ton amplificat n
cadrul aceluiai text. Aceste atitudini reprobabile i provoc o critic virulent la adresa
acelei pturi sociale promotoare a democraiei, muli foti activiti de partid7, precum i
autovictimizarea nefondat expimat n acelai ton de jurnal: Foti activiti de profesie se
dau astzi victime ale dictaturii i o fac cu senintate, ba i cu acte n regul, capete de
acuzare constnd n caracterul, vai, nepartinic (?!) al activitii lor de partid. (...) Oameni
subiri i talentai, trecui prin coli nalte, cu gustul filosofiei i neavnd habar de politic (pe
care ns o fac cu convingerea c au n palm iarba fiarelor cea care face s sar din belciuge
orice lact) se poart astzi ca nite foti activiti de raionali, rigizi, dogmatici, intolerani, o
suficien ce poate singur ntreine bucurii secrete celui dispus s observe, dar nu s i
neleag natura omului.
3
Idem p.46.
George Bli, Marocco (II), Msura rsului, Iai, Editura Polirom, 2011, p.35.
5
George Bli, Marocco (II), Domino, Iai, Editura Polirom,2011, p.44.
6
Idem, p.49.
7
Idem, p.55.
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Corelat acestor tare care le-au nlocuit pe cele ale societii comuniste, George Bli
invoc i reproducerea denaturat, nerealist, n publicistica i crile de memorii ale multor
scriitori romni, a realitii sociale a propriei vieii comuniste, exagernd, dup caz,
abuzurile la care au fost supui de regimul opresiv fie eludnd propiile avantaje obinute n
respectiva perioad: tii foarte bine cum a trit acela i cum se d el acum. Exist persoane
care s-au bucurat de toate privilgiile, de toate nlesnirile, cltorii, burse etc., i care au
devenit feroci revoluionari postdecembriti. Oameni care practic un cult al memoriei i un
cult al moralei asemntor cultului personalitii. Oameni care nu-i asum ce au fcut. Sunt
oameni instruii, inteligeni, care tiu cum s te fac s-i crezi i care practic acest fel de a fi.
Nu-i asum propria via cu toate ale ei i astzi, dup cinsprezece ani, continu s susin un
fel de memorie nonstop (subl. text.).8
Pentru scriitor perioada postcomunist se definete n planul relaiilor umane prin
sindromul urii i al culpabilizrii continue a celor patru decenii totalitare in extenso, printr-un
act de deconstrucie la nivel mentalitar: ,,Plecai voi, s venim noi! Nu-i aa c sun bine,
convingtor i democratic? i mai cum? ntre timp s-a vzut c ntre noi i voi nu e chiar o
prpastie de netrecut! (...) Am cutat s evit toat ritualistica de splare a pcatelor, la noi,
pn la urm, i asta un caraghiozlc i o mistificare. Pedagogia urii va avea fr doar i poate
capitole separate ntr-o istorie a sfritului de mileniu. Istorie cu tot attea variante ci autori
importani sau numai n stare s te duc de nas se vor ivi. Aa cum, de altfel, se scrie istoria.9
Anii imediat urmtori sunt descrii de ctre Bli drept un nou nceput pentru
societatea romneasc (Suntem acum, pentru a cta oar, din nou asemenea cuplului prim n
grdina Edenului10). Toate aceste reflecii enumerate anterior, presupun nelegerea
comunismului din afara sistemului totalitar i i gsesc o sinteaz ntr-o exprimare moderniststoic din notiele din Breviar: ntr-o strof din Bacovia st viaa noastr, prietene...Lumea
ntoars pe dos. Provizoratul sub toate formele. Gluma care poate ucide, rsul care nu mai
vindec. Rzboiul. Cortina de Fier. Utopia comunist. Emoiile sufoc sentimentele.
Grotescul spurc tragedia. Comicul eueaz n bclie. Fars, comedie neagr. Resturi din
cum triser prinii notri, nimic din ce gndeam i avea s se ntmple. Imposibila alegere
de sine, coala supravieuirii. A-i asuma n scris i n tot ce faci viaa trit de tine. A nu te
motiva prin schele i alibiuri. A avea rezistena paznicului de far, care la o sut trei ani nc
urc scara din turn i schimb fetila lmpii i a nu te lsa pclit de confuzia i fandoselile
unei intelighenii snoabe i conformiste11.
Pe parcursul primului deceniu postcomunist, scriitorul se menine angrenat n viaa
cultural, ocupndu-se de nfiinarea i gestionarea unor reviste de cultur, ncercnd astfel s
continue tradiia de la Cartea Romneasc, dar de aceast dat i asum s ntemeieze o
revist literar dup propriile standarde, altfel dect erau la vremea respectiv. Motivaia
acestui gest de a se dedica constituirii i editrii unor noi publicaii, se regsete n constatarea
confiat lui Ion Simu ntr-un interviu c revistele literare din Romnia acelor ani sunt
ablonarde i ,,ncep s semene prea mult ntre ele i s pun n circulaie aceiai zece,
douzeci de autori (unii dintre ei au fost i ai mei la Arc!), cam acelea;i teme, idei, obsesii.
(...). Numitorul comun este un cocktail de resentimente, frustrri, abuzuri. Am ncercat s fac
altceva. Am cutat s evit ritualistica de splare a pcatelor.12
Florin Lzrescu, Ficiunea te apropie de adevrul necesar, n George Bli, Marocco (II), Cinele n
les, Iai, Editura Polirom, 2011, p.422.
9
Ion Simu, Fr harul de gndi pe cont propriu lumi imaginare, care includ, dar depesc cotidianul, te duci
numai la vale, nu urci nicieri n George Bli, Marocco (II), Cinele n les, Iai, Editura Polirom, 2011.
10
George Bli, Marocco (II), Domino, Iai, Editura Polirom, 2011, p.65.
11
George Bli, Marocco (II), Breviar, Iai, Editura Polirom, p.245.
12
Ion Simu, idem.
8
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Astfel, n primul an de dup comunism scoate sub egida editurii

Cartea Romneasc revista literar Litere care va nceta s existe dup doar dou numere. Cu
o mai mare proliferare i mai mult susinere a fost revista Arc. Litere. Arte, un magazin
literar trimestrial aprut sub egida Fundaiei Culturale Regale, condus de Augustin Buzura,
n 1991. Revista i propunea la momentul respectiv rolul de portavoce a literaturii romne n
plan european, utiliznd un canal de difuzare complementar: suplimentul de cultur The
Golden Bough (Creanga de aur), tiprit n mai multe limbi.
ntr-unul dintre intrviurile acordate, George Bli relateaz cum a luat fiin acest
proiect: Cnd mi-a venit ideea m-am dus la Buzura. Ne cunoteam destul de bine. Mi-a zis:
Joci. E revista ta. Nu m amestec. Faci tu singur. Am fcut ce se vede, primele 2-3 numere nu
sunt prea reuite13.
Publicaia la care a lucrat ca editor n primii doi ani mpreun cu B. Elvin i ulterior,
ca redactor-ef, s-a meninut pn n 1997, cumulnd 24 de numere, masive (totaliznd peste
o sut de pagini), care cuprind fel i fel de chestii trsnite i foarte faine. n aceelai interviu
acordat lui Simu, scriitorul afirm c revista a ncetat s mai funcioneze n urma unor
boicoturi din interiorul Fundaiei, iar ntr-un alt interviu, face mrturisirea c sistarea
publicrii a fost deterimat de detriorarea relaiilor cu directorul Institutului cultural.
n aceast perioad va intra n colectivul de redacie al revistei Lettre Internationale,
ediia n limba romn fiind coordonat de B. Elvin, iar din 1997, Bli va deveni directorul
Copyro Societate de gestiune a Drepturilor de Autor. Avnd n spate experiena
administrativ i managerial de la Editura Cartea Romneasc i fiind totodat paternul unei
generaii de scriitori din aceast poziie, scriitorul se implic din postul ocupat n consolidarea
i aplicarea legislaiei europene n domeniul drepturilor de autor i, astfel, n protecia crii
dup apariia ei, n cadrul unei societi care reunete reprezentani ai tuturor domeniilor ( de
la tiine umaniste, arte, pn la tiine exacte).
Dei a mai fost implicat n activiti tangente literaturii, precum cele amintite anterior,
George Bli a publicat un singur volum de proz, Gulliver n ara Nimnui, editat de
Cartea Romneasc, aprut n 1994, ce reunete articole publicistice dintre 1964-1994.
Volumul considerat de unii critici14, civa ani mai trziu, drept cartea care permite accesul
ctre figura spiritual a scriitorului, ieirea din goace dup cum numete scriitorul aceste
rnduri confesive, memorialistice. Cartea curpinde o serie de reportaje, reflecii personale,
preocupri existeniale, ntmplri i rememorri la persoana nti: Nu chiar ca strmoul
Adam, gol i fr s-mi fie ruine! Eh, nu sunt chiar n pielea goal n cartea asta, lumea nu e
chiar Grdina Edenului, anotimpurile i-au schimbat cursul, iar eu sunt un pctos, port blan
de lup, nite sandale, ba chiar, pe viscol, cciul, izmene i cmeoi de cnep15.
La puin timp dup publicare, ntr-o ncercare de legitimizare a crii, prozatorul va
invoca caracterul de noutate al lucrrii, care n ciuda faptului c este compus din articole
scrise n ultimii 30 de ani (,,dei jumtate din texte sunt scrise dup 1989) aport semnificaii
noi stilului fa de care rmne n esen consecvent: Este o carte nou Este de fapt un
exerciiu de consecven a stilului. Nimic altceva. Nu contez cantitatea (subl.text), dei
jumtate dintre texte sunt scrise dup 1989. Este o carte nou fiindc niciodat pn la textele
mai vechi nu marcasem s ies din goace. Cu toate acestea, cartea nu a fost ntmpinat de
critic cu interes, cronicile fiind tardive i reduse ca numr.
n aceast perioad a mai semnat Postfa la o nou traducere a romanului lui Knut
Hamsun, Foamea, precum i prefaa Antologiei de proz, teatru, eseu care a aprut la Editura
Hasefer, n 1998, sub titlul Scriitori israelieni de limb romn. n proiectul amplu de la
Mrturisire proprie confiat n cadrul unui interviu din 14 aprilie 2014.
Rzvan Voncu, Alex tefnescu, Roxana Sorescu.
15
Ion Simu, idem, p.383.
13
14
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Issue no. 6/2015
Polirom Seria de autor din 2009-2011 - include interviurile acordate de-a lungul timpului
mai multor scriitori sub titlul metaforic Cinele n les. Opt interviuri i un appendix.
Un alt demers literar rmas ns nematerializat a fost proiectul cinematografic,
prefigurat ca scenariu de film, pe tema relaiei personale cu diavolul pornind de la hipertextul
celor trei nuvele populare Soacra cu trei nurori, Dnil Prepelac i Stan Pitul. Scenariul
foarte apreciat de Nicolae Manolescu, dup spusele scriitorului, nu a atins gradul de realizare
ateptat de scriitor, dar se va regsi, aa cum mrturisete Bli, ca parte integrant n cartea
la care lucreaz.
Dei n primele dou decenii i jumtate de postcomunism, George Bli nu va lansa
dect acest volum, editurile vor da curs reeditrii operei publicate. Lumea n dou zile va
ajunge s cunoasc opt avataruri, astfel: n 1993, ediia a treia, la Editura Prietenii Crii i
ediia a patra la Editura Minerva; n 1998, ediia a cincea, Editura 100+1 Gramar, n 2003,
ediia a asea, la Cartea Romneasc; n 2004, ediia a aptea la Polirom, n 2009, ediia a opta
la n Seria de autor de la Polirom. ntmplri din Noaptea Soarelui de Lapte mai cunoate trei
ediii, la Universal Dalsi n 1999, Editura 100+1 Gramar n 2004, respectiv Polirom n 2011.
n cadrul seriei de autor de la Polirom (2009-2011) s-au republicat ntmplri din Noaptea
Soarelui de Lapte i Nopile unui provincial.
Singurul volum rmas nereeditat este Ucenicul neasculttor conceput nc de la
publicare (1977) drept parte a unui proiect editorial mai amplu, despre care ntr-un ultim
interviu acordat mrturisete c n prezent deruleaz un nou proiect la care lucrez de mai
muli ani care cuprinde n ntregime acest roman. Referindu-se la aceast carte aflat n pragul
tiparului, scriitorul din mrturisirile16 sale confiaz cteva dintre caracteristicile sale: S-ar
putea s introduc aici i o carte de poezie, Toat articlraia mea (referindu-se la articolele
publicistice) vine din cartea asta, O scriu cu mare plcere i e un moment dificil pentru c
montajul sta, ea e centrat pe o idee foarte clar, Cartea aceasta pe care o fac, pe ct de
geometric e Lumea, aceasta trebuie s fie ceva ca o alt lume, dar care s-a uitat, o lume
deschis din toate punctele de vedere, nu ncepe i nu se termin niciodat. (...) Ucenicul
neasculttor a fost deja un test din ce voiam eu, o parte din ce am proiectat. O mare parte l-am
scris, o alt parte ...s-au schimbat o mulime de lucruri, punctul de vedere nu s-a schimbat,
adic a rmas: e o carte gndit nainte de Lumea n dou zile. A fost un fond povestea asta.
Anii de aparent retragere din activitatea literar, vor fi marcai, pe de alt parte, de
recunoaterea meritelor scriitorului i valorizarea operei sale, fiind laureatul mai multor
premii: Premiul Asociaiei Scriitorilor din Bucureti (1994), Premiul Omnia al Fundaiei ,,G.
Clinescu din Oneti (2002), Marele Premiu ,,George Clinescu i Premiul Omnia al
Asociaiei Scriitorilor din Bucureti (2005). n 2008, i se decerneaz Premiul Naional al
Uniunii Scriitorilor pentru ntreaga oper literar.
O distincie de recunoatere a apartenenei locale este titlul conferit n 2002 de
Cetean de onoare al oraului Bacu, iar n 2000, Administraia Prezidenial i confer
Ordinul Naional Steaua Romniei n grad de Cavaler. Tot n aceast perioad va fi ales n
consilul director al Uniunii Scriitorilor.
Activitatea literar a scriitorului, nu att publicistic, ct i scrisul per se, activitate
zilnic la care nu a renunat, obstinaia n travaliul literar extins pe parcursul ctorva zeci de
ani, experimentul pe care l aplic n cele dou romane de pn n prezent, confirm
mrturisirea fcut de ctre acesta: Eu nu triesc dect pentru literatur.
Bibliografie.
George Bli, 2011, Marocco (II), Cinele n les, Iai, Editura Polirom.
Destinuiri fcute n cadrul aceluiai interviu din 14 aprilie 2014, referitor la proiectul actual de publicare a
unui volum n care este integrat i romanul Ucenicul neasculttor, care va aprea la Polirom.
16
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George Bli, 2011, Marocco (I), Iai, Editura Polirom.

Bli, George, 2001, ,,Aa mi trebuie n Conflicte n Observatorul cultural,
nr.83, p.25.
Antologia Ateneu, 1987. ,,Manifestare n cadrul Reuniunilor revistei Ateneu,
consacrat prozatorului George Bli n Ateneu, nr. 11, p.6.
Adam, Sergiu, 1999. ,,Pagini dintr-un jurnal posibil n Familia, nr. 5, pp. 63-65.
Adameteanu, Gabriela, ,,Starea i perspectivele culturii la nceput de mileniu /
,,Despre articolul lui George Bli Fotoliul Baroni aprut n Ziua literr, n 22, nr. 29,
p.14.
Clinescu, Al., 1987.,,George Bli premiul ,,George Bacovia pentru beletristic
n Ateneu, nr.11, p.6
Clin, Constantiniu, 1996. ,,Arc-ul lui George Bli n Ateneu, nr.6, p.2.
Cesereanu, Ruxandra, 1992. ,,Antiutopiile comuniste n Steaua nr.1, p.16.
Donea, Marilena, 2007. George Bli, Biobiliografie, Bacu, Editura Corgal Press,
2007.
Dimisianu, G., 1999. Adevrul literar i artistic, nr.456, pp.1-8.
Gafia, M., 1999. ,,Palladion n Adevrul literar i artistic, nr.456, pp.1-8.
Grigurcu, Gheorghe, 1999. Opiniile unui ucenic neasculttor n Convorbiri literare,
nr.8, p.9.
Grigurcu, Gheorghe, 2001. ,,Bilanul unei comemorri Mateiu Caragiale n
Convorbiri literare, nr. 3, p. 47.
Grsoiu, Liviu,2001. ,,Scriitori subevaluai n Luceafrul, nr.8, p.16.
Groan, Ioan, 1999. ,,Se poate glumi doar pn n proximitatea morii n Familia,
nr.5, p.74-75.
Lncrnjan, Ion, 1999. Referat ,,George Bli Palladion n Adevrul literar i
artistic, nr.456, pp.1-8.
Mincu, Marin, 2001. ,, Despre carierismul literar sau despre virusarea ireversibil a
statului de scriitor n Luceafrul, nr.10, p.10.
Naum, C.,1998. ,,Scurt excurs biografic, n George Bli. Lumea n dou zile,
Bucureti, Editura 100+1 Gramar, pp.IX-X.
Oprea, Al; 1999. ,,Palladion nuvel din volumul Conversnd despre Ionescu n
Adevrul literar i artistic, nr.456, pp.8-9.
Prisecaru, M, 2002. ,,Scriitorul George Bli i rectorul Marius Paraschivescu au
devenit ceteni de onoare ai Bacului, n Romnia literar, nr. 3812, Supl. Ediie de
Moldova, p.1
Sorescu, Constantin, 1988. ,,Scriitori romni contemporani: George Bli: Cerul
gurii i umbra bibliotecii, n Scnteia tineretului, nr.31, p. 9.
Stnescu, C., 1999. ,,Cenzura: Opere alese n Adevrul literar i artistic, nr.450,
pp.1-8.
Stnescu, C., 1999. ,,Ua cenzurii. n Adevrul literar i artistic, nr.456, pp.1-8.
Stoiciu, Liviu Ioan, 2001. ,,Absenteismul scriitoricesc n Cotidianul, nr. 86, p. 8.
Romnia literar, Consiliul Uniunii Scriitorilor, nr.22, p.3.
Scrisoarea adresat Martei Petru de George Bli, 2001. Apostrof, nr.2, p.2.
Ziua literar, ,,10 ntrebri (fr rspuns) pentru George Bli., nr. 2, p. 4.
Acknowledgement: Aceast lucrare a fost cofinanat din Fondul Social European
prin Programul Operaional Sectorial pentru Dezvoltarea Resurselor Umane 2007 2013,
Cod Contract: POSDRU/159/1.5/S/140863, Cercettori competitivi pe plan european n
domeniul tiinelor umaniste i socio-economice. Reea de cercetare multiregional (CCPE)
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PUPA RUSSA THE NOVEL AS THE EFFECT AND LIMIT OF A THEORETICAL FICTION
Florica PERSCEL (TEODORIUC)
Abstract: An investigation of the effects Craciuns key concepts body and letter have on
the narrative, as well as analyzing the relationship between them, prove to be extremely
profitable. Not only the authors intention, but also the text itself reveals the contradictory
profile of the female protagonist in Pupa russa, her dual structure caused by the utopian
embodiment of the androgynous being, as well as the multiple significations of the destiny the
author has in store for his heroine.
Keywords: body, letter, authenticity, bovarysm, androgynous.
Pornind chiar de la titlu simbol al asumrii unei explorri euate, cci dincolo de
ultima ipostaz a materiei (i ea, coaj, conintoare a golului), nu se afl altceva dect vidul,
neantul i pn la finalul romanului, care echivaleaz uciderea eroinei cu explozia materiei,
a viului n... cuvinte, romanul i exhib tema dar, mai ales, i anun finalul. Obsesia
scriitorului Gheorghe Crciun este autenticitatea, tem generic a poeticii sale, deziderat din
care deriv proiectul utopic al rezolvrii beligeranei dintre trup i liter, dintre senzaie i
intelecie. Omul obinuit nu resimte acest tip de conflict dect atunci cnd se afl n situaia de
a exprima n mod convingtor ceea ce simte. Este ipostaza n care afirm: cuvintele sunt
insuficiente. Or, acest statut l definete n form acut pe scriitor, cel care intete s fie
crezut, s fie autentic, dar deine ca singur instrument limbajul verbal; n cazul lui cuvintele
trebuie s fie suficiente. Pentru Gheorghe Crciun, autenticitatea are o semnificaie strict
subiectiv; ntr-un fel, ea aspir la exprimarea ntr-un dialect personal, un dialect impus de
senzaie, care s transgreseze nu doar limbajul convenional, ci chiar cuvntul. Utopia
proiectului se relev prin efectul lui: pentru lector, un astfel de limbaj ar fi neinteligibil.
Investigarea acestui raport pornete de la premisele sale, insuficient clarificate.
Gheorghe Crciun pare s-i fundamenteze teoria personal pe conceptul de liter cu sensul
de limbaj scris. Discriminarea vorbire scriere devine inoperant n acest context, atta
vreme ct ambele sunt tot o expresie verbal a limbajului. Rezultatul nu s-ar schimba
substanial dac autorul de literatur i-ar vorbi opera (exist deja opere nregistrate sonor).
Acest aspect esenial este remarcat ntr-o cercetare minuioas de ctre Cristina Popescu, cea
care ncearc o sistematizare a definiiilor celor doi termeni n opera autorului. Astfel, litera,
primete accepia major de limbaj scris, derivat din sensul etimologic. Aa cum
mrturisete o pagin important de manuscris, proiect al unei intenionate lucrri pe tema
Literatura i corpul, pentru Crciun: corp egal vorbire, liter egal scris, ceea ce
demonstreaz c autorul nu ia n calcul o accepie mai larg, precum cea explicat de Eugeniu
Coeriu, n care littera este att vox (voce), ct i figura (semn grafic)1. Ct privete trupul,
autoarea constat c definiiile acestuia sunt preponderent metonimice: atunci cnd este
identificat cu vocea, care conine fiina vorbitorului, el trebuie s devin n scris o voce
textual, o urm a autorului n text. Alteori, conceptul este extins, incluznd gndirea i
contiina (s.m., F.P.), sau ajungnd la situaia paradoxal de coinciden cu litera (s.m.,
F.P.). Maxima autenticitate a trupului ine ns de condiia sa prealfabetic, o condiie
edenic, de dinaintea cuvntului scris, cea care declaneaz condiia major a relaiei: trupul
Cristina Popescu, Gheorghe Crciun. Trupul i litera ca fee ale dublului, tez de doctorat, Universitatea
tefan cel Mare, Suceava, 2013, p. 333
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cel mai adevrat este acela care nu poate fi scris, n timp ce scopul ultim al scriitorului este
tocmai scrierea trupului. Utopia sa primete un nume: scrierea inscriptibilului2. n deplin
acord cu ultimul enun, se cer lmurite dou aspecte. Primul este legat de acea situaie
paradoxal a conceptului. A aduga trupului gndirea i contiina este o operaie logic, abia
n aceast accepiune trupul poart amprenta umanului. Trupul i relev abilitile sale
cognitive doar subiectului pe care l conine; altfel, contiina independent a trupului e
incapabil s comunice celorlali propriile experiene senzoriale. Al doilea aspect se refer
la acea condiie prealfabetic, de dinaintea cuvntului scris. Considerm c este vorba, de fapt
de acea condiie de dinaintea cuvntului (deci i a variantei vorbite), cnd senzaiile,
percepiile nu sunt convertite n cuvinte. Celelalte accepii ale trupului sunt metaforice.
Scriitorul, o tie prea bine autorul, este obligat s accepte compromisul pe care i-l
impune convenia limbajului verbal (indiferent dac e oral sau scris). El sper c va reui s
transfere n liter (lexic, sintax, retoric) trirea, mesajele corpului care citete pe cont
propriu realitatea (interioar sau exterioar). Presupunnd c i reuete acordul dintre ele,
scriitorul se lovete de obstacolul major: alteritatea cititorului, care va supune textul propriei
sale lecturi somatice. Senzaiile, percepiile scriptorului, transcrise chiar cu maxim fidelitate,
vor fi trdate de caracterul lor strict personal; incompatibilitatea dintre acestea i cele ale
receptorului, eroarea de percepie, deriv din experiena diferit care le genereaz.
Niciodat experienele existeniale ale celor dou instane nu se vor suprapune perfect. E ceea
ce autorul denumea prin temenii lui Gheorghe Iova, diferena de corp.
S ne amintim cteva exemple de cuvinte mitice (aparinnd aa-numitului dicionar
mentalo-somatic de uz privat), nsoite de cheia oferit de autor cu privire la semantica lor
ireductibil: Cpstru, oase galbene, poarta urii, ciucuri de ln, saliv cleioas i verde,
capul sus. Sobol, mou Gheorghe, muuroaie proaspete. Lubeni, ara Oltului, alb lemnos i
uscat3. Fcnd abstracie de faptul c fiecare explicaie d natere unei noi liste, dup
modelul reelei rizomatice propus de Deleuze i Guattari, este vorba aici despre acea reacie la
nivel afectiv pe care o produce asocierea mental dintre forma sonor a cuvntului i
imaginea realitii pe care o desemneaz celui n cauz. Senzaia este unic i ea nu poate fi
transmis ntocmai cititorului pentru c i are rdcinile n copilria autorului, fiind legat de
asimilarea simultan cuvnt-imagine, cnd lumea i limbajul se nasc mpreun ca doi frai
ntr-o tulpin4, iar relaia dintre ele e perceput ca nearbitrar. Drama scriitorului de aici
provine. Menit s scrie pentru ceilali, s se comunice autentic, el ncearc s confere textului
amprenta autobiografic i s o transmit fr rest la nivel senzorial, dar se lovete de acest
prag al alteritii, al diferenei de cod somatic. Inevitabil, cititorul va face apel la experiena sa
personal, la contextele proprii n care a dobndit-o: pentru fiecare cititor n parte, cpstru
sau lubeni vor actualiza senzaii diferite. Aceast enciclopedie a anamnezei (Adrian
Ooiu) reprezint un fel de membran osmotic, un dig poros ridicat n calea confiscrii prin
metafor a limbajului. Autorul are nostalgia limbajului denotativ, anti-mimetic i a-poetic al
copilriei, dar nu poate ncerca recuperarea lui dect ntr-un spaiu al unei scriituri fatalmente
vinovate de ambiguitate i proliferare rizomatic a sensurilor5.
Dac admitem c orice cuvnt are sensul pe care i-l d cineva, rezult c el deine un
numr infinit de sensuri, multiplicndu-se n cuvinte aparinnd trupurilor individuale.
Perspectiva este descurajant. Singura soluie a scriitorului este s transforme aceast
diferen de corp ntr-o marc a originalitii, cutnd ci n interiorul limbajului
2
Ibidem, p. 334
Gheorghe Crciun, Frumoasa fr corp, ediia a II-a revzut, nsoit de un dosar de receptare critic, prefa
de Carmen Muat, Grupul Editorial Art, Bucureti, 2007, p. 380
4
Ibidem, p. 351
5
Adrian Ooiu, Ochiul bifurcat, limba saie, Proza generaiei 80. Strategii transgresive, Paralela 45, Piteti,
2003, p. 66
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Issue no. 6/2015
convenional, ceea ce Gheorghe Crciun face din plin; dei provizoriu (ntr-un moment al
scrierii romanului Pupa russa), autorul se declar ncreztor: Cred n experiena de via, n
limbaj i n puterea interpretativ a celui care scrie (s.m., F.P.). Interpretarea devine
problematic nu prin faptul c propune dou variante, una susinut de trup, cealalt oferit de
liter, ci prin utilizarea drept criteriu a raportului dintre ele. Aa nct i se pretinde
interpretului talent de negociator ntre cele dou constrngeri de sens contrar: una reductiv
impus de selectarea din limbajul convenional a termenilor care s ilustreze ct mai eficient
ecuaia unic a colaborrii trup-liter, cealalt expansiv impus de diversitatea
insuportabil a realului i a experienelor.
Se cuvine lmurit i un alt aspect care a generat interpretri diferite pornind de la
exprimrile autorului, aparent contradictorii. Aspirant declarat al totalitii, Gheorghe Crciun
susine ntr-o pagin olograf, la sfritul romanului Pupa russa: Nu cred n viziunile cu
ambiii totalizante. Aspiraia spre totalitate, menionat adesea de comentatorii operei sale,
privete nu integralitatea lumii sau a unui fenomen, nu imaginea ei/ lui global, ci
integralitatea percepiei i a interpretrii fragmentelor decupate din realitatea nconjurtoare.
Aceast percepie totalizant urmrete, utopic, s includ toate lecturile posibile, s
cumuleze toate experienele perceptive ale lectorului. Amplele liste de cuvinte de conotaii
ale unui cuvnt, de secvene sonore libere de sens, inexistente n dicionar, de asociaii
lexicale ntmpltoare etc. sunt dovada unei irepresibile dorine de acoperire somatic
exhaustiv: diminutive onomastice pline de expresivitate: Leontina! Leontinua!... Nua,
Tinua, Tinoaica dracului! []. Leontinica, Tina, Leonica6; jocuri ale copilriei: otron,
Elastic, urc, Mingea la gaur, Pietricica, De-a uliu i ginile, Omu negru (26); liste de
cuvinte cu form spaial (cum ar fi cele rotunde), generate de cuvntul coco: COCOVIT,
CORCOLIT, SORCOV, CONI, COCOR, CORDON, CORIDOR, ICUSAR, MOGO,
GOGO, DODO, BOBOC, BOLOBOC, COC (31); copilretile invenii lexicale: Pi tu
ai o cocomrz, c eu am un ciupilopiscr!/ i eu am un piletancrop cu telescop, na!/ i
ce dac, nu-mi pas, c eu am o maracas i un muzipian chilipitan, i un ciociosiring! (82);
inventare ale regimului comunist, evocnd concentrat discursul puterii, grotescul cult al
personalitii, realitatea nchisorilor: puncte i numere, maruri i aplauze, cntece i ovaii,
trncoape, ciocane, baroase, nicovale i seceri, tractoare i buldozere, turntorii de font i
galerii, pucrii i combine... (55); cuvinte decupate aleatoriu din dicionar: SAT,
SATELIT, SATURAIE, SATANISM, SATRAP, SATURNISM, SATISFACIE (273);
sau minunata enciclopedie a ierbii, acoperind mai bine de o pagin, n care Micea A. Diaconu
desluea un veritabil imn nchinat vegetalului7: Iarb neagr cu frunza aspr, iarb ud din
care ies aburi, iarb ca nite cioburi albastre de ghea, iarb pioas, iarb de catifea, iarb de
ln... (263). A fost remarcat fascinaia postmodernilor pentru astfel de liste lexicoane,
glosare, dicionare, inventare, cataloage etc., funcionnd dup principiul enciclopediei
(Enciclopedia i se relev lui Eco ca fiind un model de gndire slab, deoarece este mereu
orientat ctre contexte i, n loc s ierarhizeze, ea contextualizeaz i interpreteaz, facilitnd
semioza ilimitat8). Frecvena lor n proza optzecist are semnificaii diverse, conotnd n
general: a. preferina pentru lumile neierarhizate, alctuite din elemente a cror dispunere este
arbitrar, i b. implicarea cititorului invitat s le citeasc liber, ordonndu-le ntr-o variant
proprie, adugndu-le predicatele care lipsesc. n proza lui Gheorghe Crciun aceste serigrafii
echivaleaz pe de o parte cu nostalgia unor vremuri revolute, semnificnd dorina de evadare,
Gheorghe Crciun, Pupa russa, ediia a II-a, augmentat, Studiu introductiv de Caius Dobrescu, Dosar de
receptare critic, Addenda cu desenele autorului, Postfa de Carmen Muat, Grupul Editorial Art, Bucureti,
2007, p. 23; toate citatele marcate n text prin numrul paginii aparin acestei ediii.
7
Mircea A. Diaconu, Cu Gheorghe Crciun, despre imnul nchinat deertciunii, n Trupul i litera, explorri
critice n biografia i opera lui Gheorghe Crciun, p. 174
8
Adrian Ooiu, op.cit., p. 57
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de ieire dintr-o istorie inconfortabil, iar pe de alt parte cu dorina de comunicare integral a
senzorialitii, marc a autenticitii. Exist la acest autor dou atitudini divergente fa de
polisemantism: una de revolt pentru trdarea sensului unic, originar, cealalt de nemulumire
pentru incapacitatea polisemantismului de a surprinde toate sensurile, n ciuda proliferrii
incontinente.
Dualitatea problematizat n ntreaga oper a lui Gheorghe Crciun poate fi observat
urmrind fie i numai simbolistica titlurilor. Actul original, echivalent al autenticitii
senzaiei (trupul), st alturi de copia legalizat cartea, opera (litera); fiina real poate fi
astfel ngheat n copia ei textual. Paralelele ingale ale compunerii relev dou viziuni
opuse asupra iubirii, a vieii i a literaturii: una optimist, ncreztoare dovad rescrierea
nostalgic a pastoralei, cealalt sceptic perspectiva asupra iubirii contemporanilor
(inautentic, pentru c e lipsit de idealism) i asupra operei literare, devenit palimpsest
(episodul ruperii tapetului este elocvent). Frumoasa fr corp traduce imposibila
materializare a idealului artistic n primul rnd.
S purcedem spre identificarea cele dou concepte cheie, trupul i litera, n Pupa
russa i s analizm soluia ultim la care recurge autorul n acest roman pentru mpcarea
lor: androginia (textual). Vom porni de la declaraiile de intenie ale prozatorului (trei citate
marcate cu a,b,c), evideniind n ele structura contradictorie a protagonistei.
a) O existen n deriv, dar i o via condamnat. Traverseaz lumea comunist
romneasc fr s-i pun problema unei morale individuale. E liber ntre nite limite
date9. Cuvintele aparin autorului. S precizm i c proiectul iniial, din 1993, avea n vedere
o Emma Bovary a provinciei romneti, b) prototipul feminin al pclitorului pclit pe
care l-a produs comunismul, idee reluat ntr-un interviu din 200110. n sfrit, ntr-un
fragment publicat n cea de-a doua ediie a romanului, Confessio (III), scriitorul afirma: c)
aa ar fi curs viaa ei n orice alt lume [] Iubete viaa i ncearc s profite de via, se
las dus de valuri, nu-i face scrupule, i caut plcerile, e curioas s ncerce, nu se d
btut, vrea s fie ea nsi. Ea crede n implicarea pn la paroxism n existena de moment
[] Savura tranzitoriul strilor de care avea parte, nu putea s se abandoneze simurilor,
rmnea mai departe o fiin reflexiv, dar tot ceea ce putea ea s gndeasc era substana
strict a ceea ce percepea n prezent. Gndirea nseamn viitor sau mcar o virtualitate
temporal11 (s.m., F.P.).
Fr ndoial, recunoatem personajul n toate aceste trsturi. Problema este ns c
abia analiznd cu atenie rndurile de mai sus, aparinnd acelei Intentio auctoris, resimim
ct de contradictoriu este profilul eroinei (sublinierile din text disociaz dou seturi de
trsturi). Prin urmare, cine este i cum este de fapt Leontina n proiectul auctorial? Este o
bovaric i este aceast trstur suficient pentru a o defini? Este o oportunist sau o
inocent? O nvingtoare sau o victim? O amoral sau o imoral? Ct este prefctorie, ct
patologie? Constatm cu surprindere c analiza pe text ne permite s demonstrm n egal
msur c Leontina este o fiin abulic, cu manifestri pasagere de autism, dar i o profitoare
contient de faptele sale, o desfrnat. Vom ncerca s descoperim dac i unde se ntlnesc
cele dou ipostaze antagonice, Leon-Tina autista i Leon-Tina libertina.
Primul citat, al limitelor date, induce o total ambiguitate: o structur psihologic n
afara a ceea de desemnm n mod curent prin normalitate condamn individul la o existen
Gheorghe Crciun, Pupa russa, ed. cit. o pagin de agend cu scrisul olograf al autorului, ultima pagin a
crii, nenumerotat
10
Romanul, am mai vorbit despre el, dorete s fie o replic a Doamnei Bovary al lui Flaubert i vrea s aduc
n prim plan un personaj feminin, un monstru de femeie, dar o femeie, cum s spun, care devine monstru nu prin
datele ei genetice, biologice, interioare, ci pentru c aa o face lumea n care triete ea Gheorghe Crciun, n
interviul acordat lui Mihail Vakulovski n 14.12.2001.
11
Gheorghe Crciun, Pupa russa, ed. cit, p. 421
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care nu mai depinde de el, curgnd implacabil n afara vreunei morale i ntre nite limite
fixate de maladie; n aceeai msur, o societate totalitar, cum este cea comunist,
condamn individul la o existen ablon, derulat mecanic ntre limitele fixate de legi
aberante, dezumanizante, ceea ce conduce la alterarea simului moral i la pierderea oricrui
sens al vieii. S reinem totui c cea de-a doua variant deine potenialul unei devieri spre
maladiv. Cu alte cuvinte, dac individul nu este aa ereditar, el poate deveni astfel sub
presiunea factorilor de mediu.
Observm, apoi, n cel de-al doilea citat o nou opoziie: cea dintre bovarism (Emma
Bovary) i pclitor (fie el i pclit ulterior); bovarismul presupune autoiluzionare,
inaderen la real, construirea unei personaliti fictive adecvate unor aspiraii nelmurite (i
irealizabile), derivat din acea putere acordat omului de a se concepe altul dect este (prin
care Jules de Gaultier definea bovarismul), n timp ce pclitorul, perfect contient de scop
un scop pragmatic , este un mincinos, un escroc, un viclean care acioneaz cu luciditate n
vederea obinerii unui profit.
n acest punct se impune o parantez, generat de privirea mai insistent asupra
bovarismului Leontinei. De regul, n literatur, aceast trstur este atribuit unei femei. Ca
i n romanul flaubertian care a dat natere termenului, n romanul lui Gheorghe Crciun,
bovarismul feminin este instrumentalizat din perspectiv masculin. Dei dorit, declarat,
asumarea auctorial a bovarismului (fcut tot n numele unei femei, cea n care brbatul s-a
metamorfozat) nu poate fi dect parial, ea rmne involuntar tributar unei perspective
culturale ndelung exersate. Renegate, prejudecile de gen se insinueaz prin viziunea de
ansamblu, una dominatoare, care-i refuz personajului o via sufleteasc mai complex. O
lectur feminin (fr a generaliza) poate resimi n personaj o not de artificialitate, fie din
cauza sexualitii exacerbate, fie din cauza unei carene de ordin psihologic. Un personaj att
de viu, de convingtor la nivel senzorial, este lipsit de nclinaia spre autoanaliz, att de
specific naturii feminine. Impresia noastr primete o confirmare prin interpretarea Sandei
Cordo, care remarcase acest aspect din compararea Leontinei cu eroina Gabrielei
Adameteanu din Provizorat, Letiia Branea; ultima, o nou ipostaz a Emmei Bovary este
creat n interiorul speciei i tocmai de aceea ea reuete s exprime sentimentele, tririle,
micrile i senzaiile feminine, nu o dat contradictorii, n detaliile lor infinitezimale pe care
numai o femeie (o scriitoare aadar) le poate cunoate. Antrennd nc o dat comparaia cu
figura creat de Gheorghe Crciun, a spune c acolo unde acesta reuete s intre n pielea
celeilate naturi (feminine) doar n dimensiunea senzorial i sexual, lsnd neacoperit
emoionalitatea (ocolit ingenios prin deficitul de suflet al eroinei), Gabriela Adameteanu are
meritul de a construi, pe lng experiena erotic, i zona complex a interioritii
feminine12. Am aduga aici faptul c prozatoarea invocat ilustreaz exemplar n acelai
roman o replic masculin a pclitorului pclit de regimul comunist, personajul Sorin
Olaru, dar i faptul c Gheorghe Crciun va propune el nsui n romanul Femei albastre o
ipostaz a bovarismului masculin. Biografia Leontinei i demonstreaz bovarismul/ autismul,
dar conine i episoade ale condiiei de pclitor.
Ultimul citat din proiectul auctorial conine trsturi ale eroinei, ce se mpart n dou
categorii, n funcie de compatibilitatea cu unul dintre cele dou modele propuse: a) se las
dus de val, i caut plcerile, e curioas s ncerce; paroxism n existena de moment,
percepere doar a prezentului; b) iubete viaa i ncearc s profite de via, nu se d btut,
vrea s fie ea nsi, nu se abandoneaz simurilor, rmne o fiin reflexiv. Polarizarea celor
Sanda Cordo, Lumi din cuvinte. Reprezentri i identiti n literatura romn postbelic, Cartea
Romneasc, Bucureti, 2012, p. 182.
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dou seturi de trsturi este evident: primele contureaz un profil abulic, o persoan lipsit
de voin, mulumindu-se cu ce-i ofer prezentul, trind la ntmplare, n afara oricrui plan
de viitor, abandonndu-se plcerilor singura raiune a existenei; celelalte configureaz o
fiin deschis, sociabil, puternic, ambiioas, dinamic, decis s nu accepte eecul, s
gseasc soluii de adaptare, s-i afirme personalitatea; n acelai timp prudent, atent la
orice pericol provocat de instincte, trecnd totul prin filtrul raiunii, al gndirii.
Exemplele din textul ficional confirm i ele polarizarea personajului n cele dou
ipostaze. Coexistena lor este evideniat ncepnd de la nivelul denominaiei: numele are o
structur dual: masculin (Leon) i feminin (Tina), cu trimitere explicit ctre tendinele
divergente care i disput psihologia i atitudinile personajului: intelect, raiune, pragmatism
(litera), respectiv simire, emoie, trire (trup). Considerndu-l iniial un nume tmpit,
Leontina ntr-o zi i-a dat seama c ea are de fapt nu un nume, ci dou [...]. Dou nume
ascunse i inverse, fiecare trgnd n alt parte, ca doi boi tineri care nu se mpac la jug [].
Nume cu care poi s te mbraci pe rnd, schimbndu-le ca pe nite cmi. Dou nume ca
dou mnui, una mai aspr i una mai moale (26). Dac n aceast perioad a copilriei,
inocent nc, diferena se circumscrie unei zone vestimentare, deci exterioare, aprnd ca
posibil alternarea la putere a celor dou identiti, ea se clarific treptat, dnd natere unor
comparaii mai sugestive: un cuvnt rupt n dou, ca ziua i noaptea, ca lumina i umbra,
fcnd loc unor investigaii mai profunde, nelinititoare prin presimirea pericolului: dou
suflete, dou respiraii i dou porniri []. Tina simte c Leon e acea parte din corp i din
creier de care ea se teme. [] Pentru c Leon-cuvntul e n realitate Leon-biatul-din-pieleaei pe care ea l recunoate imediat dup dorine i stri (48). Coabitarea mai beneficiaz un
timp de o relativ acalmie, n care localizarea poate fi fcut cu precizie (Leon se ascundea
n coridoarele reci ale minii), iar pornirile anarhice inute sub control.
Odat cu descoperirea sexualitii, sursa inteniilor, dorinelor i deciziilor se
estompeaz, mergnd pn la confuzie. Sentimentul c e condus de o for incontient,
ntr-un spaiu obscur, dizolvant (87) se va generaliza. Ambivalena sexual atracia pe care
o simte deopotriv fa de brbai i fa de femei este nc o marc a dualitii de sorginte
androgin. Sunt momente n care i afirm ambiia, i surprinde luciditatea, calculul rece n
atingerea scopurilor, sunt altele n care mrturisete c relaiile ei sexuale pasagere i rmn n
memorie ca nite lungi momente de halucinaie. Echivalarea lui Leon cu creierul este
formulat explicit odat cu noul criteriu de discriminare (pe vertical) a celor dou identiti:
Leontina e o femeie compus din dou jumti: cea de jos, vie, nnebunitor de vie i de
sexual, i cea de sus, ncremenit, rece, ironic (166). Leon este biat de treab, tenace i
rbdtor, orgolios i ndrtnic, tcut, dar foarte demn (186). Abilitile sportive, jocul ei
agresiv, agilitatea sunt puse de asemenea pe seama lui Leon: Bravo, TINA!, i Leon zmbea
scurt, i rnjea dinii, i muca orgolios buzele (287), iar ironia i analiza rece a lumii pe
care o slujete ca activist de partid, o lume fals care exista numai n vorbe i hrtii, sunt cu
siguran tot meritul lui. El e cel care o ceart pentru momentele de ndoial, cel care o
remonteaz n clipele de cdere. Textul abund n astfel de exemple care sugereaz
hegemonia masculinului: i-n tine rencepea aceeai lupt obscur, declanat fr nici o
somaie (un fel de hruial fratricid), dintre Leon i Tina: cine s pun stpnire pe teren,
mintea sau inima []? Dar Leon era peste tot (243-244). Discursul cinic i misogin al lui
Dan Iacomir E vorba pur i simplu c brbatul o are n afar i femeia nuntru Drama i
aparine femeii, pentru c existena nseamn, cum spuneau latinii, ieire n afar, ex-sistere
Or, femeia nu poate dect s se deschid i s primeasc [] Nu doar specia v pclete, ci
i psihismul vostru cldit pe gol, anatomia voastr necompensat (280-281) vine s
confirme dezechilibrul construciei. Masculinul deine intelectul, raiunea, fora fizic,
vigoarea, iar sexualitatea este ceea ce i se atribuie compensator femininului. Sentimentul
c este o ppu de crpe, contientizndu-i neputina, frica, apoi abandonul, dorina de
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Issue no. 6/2015
pierdere, cderea, depresia i resemnarea nu sunt altceva dect semne ale slbiciunii, ale
femeii care gndete cu inima. Fiina androgin devine un mutant, tendinele acaparatoare
ale masculinului fcnd imposibil viabilitatea proiectului unei comuniuni armonioase.
Am lsat la urm tranzitoriul strilor de care avea parte (s.m., F.P.), pentru c
tranzitoriul, aceast trecere nedefinibil dintre stri, acest loc al libertii totale n care nicio
lege nu mai guverneaz, acest teren neutru al lui att i/ ct i ofer cheia descifrrii
personajului, fcnd posibile ntlnirea i coexistena trsturilor contradictorii care l
definesc. Neaparinnd niciunei stri, momentul este vidat de orice simire, dar i de orice
gnd, el echivaleaz cu o pierdere a tuturor atributelor de gen ale personalitii. Putem asocia
aceast falie temporal cu acel no mans land, model teoretizat de Adrian Ooiu, frontiera,
spaiul care permitea mpcarea contradiciilor dintre conceptele poeticii optzeciste.
Folosindu-ne de acest concept, putem considera c Leontina i gsete unitatea (o unitate
paradoxal), se ntregete, ntruchipnd toate ipostazele posibile simultan, doar ntr-un astfel
de moment ngust dintre stri, doar n acea clip abstras temporalitii. n rest, ea rmne o
fiin fragmentat, dezarticulat, descentrat, tensionat, din cauza forelor centrifuge care io disput. n fond, unitatea personajului este una iluzorie, pentru c ea este sinonim cu
autoanularea.
Paradoxul dispare dac vedem n Leontina schema, constructul teoretic, menit s
faciliteze mpcarea conceptelor-cheie ale poeticii lui Gheorghe Crciun: litera i trupul.
Limitele, n acest caz, sunt cele pe care le stabilete autorul, n virtutea rolului pe care i l-a
rezervat. La nivelul personajului, reuita presupune coabitarea celor dou identiti sexuale.
Apelnd la o formul inedit a procedeului postmodern al metalepsei vertical-descendent
(A. Ooiu) , autorul coboar n universul ficional mbrcnd chiar pielea protagonistei (dei
o va face i n nume personal, n cele patru Nota auctoris). Aceast decizie auctorial tulbur
raportul dintre cele dou principii ale personalitii, cel contient i cel incontient (n termenii
lui Jung), care coexist n orice fiin. Astfel, intruziunea echivaleaz cu dezechilibrul, avnd
grave consecine la nivel comportamental; personajul devine monstruos i incoerent. ntr-un
asemenea context, e dificil de stabilit cui i aparin deciziile din viaa social/ sportiv/
profesional/ politic / familial i dac erotismul anarhic i este caracteristic Tinei sau este
impus de nchipuirea brbailor reprezentai prin Leon. Leontina pare mai degrab proiecia
imaginaiei sexuale a brbailor. Masculinul (supradimensionat sau doar exhibat)
destabilizeaz, iar autorul este cel care, din acest punct de vedere, i saboteaz propria
ntreprindere. Labilitatea personajului indic o contiin scindat permanent, porniri i
gesturi contradictorii ale unui hibrid care gndete i simte simultan lucruri opuse, o existen
marcat de confuzie, cu toat gama de tulburri pe care aceasta le presupune: de percepie,
orientare, raionament, memorie. Androginia capt un sens negativ, trdnd imposibilitatea
convieuirii adaptare personal i acceptare de ctre ceilali a fiinei androgine ntr-o lume
(de acum) divizat sexual i cultural.
Mesajul poate s fie ns i altul: armonia este imposibil pentru c n lumea care este
Textul, cele dou pri componente nu (mai) au drepturi egale la exprimare. Raiunea i
impune dominaia asupra trupului, trdnd ncrederea creatorului. Litera confisc discursul, n
detrimentul trupului subestimat. Androginia este compatibil doar cu umanitatea prealfabetic, altfel proiectul i exhib caracterul utopic, la fel ca i cel al mpcrii textuale a
trupului cu litera. Autenticitatea i gsete astfel calea de reprezentare prin efectul de
autenticitate. Prin urmare, Pupa russa devine povestea eecului unei ficiuni teoretice,
convertit n triumf artistic, pus n scen printr-o regie spectaculoas. Trupul i litera, aa cum
sunt ele definite de Gheorghe Crciun, nu se pot mpca dect parial i provizoriu, n
momente de graie.
Uciderea Leontinei este decizia auctorial prin care eecul dobndete n acest roman
semnificaii multiple. Din perspectiva teoriei literare, este infirmat reuita demersului de
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compatibilizare a corporalului cu scripturalul ntr-un model teoretic universal. Din perspectiv

mitologic, ea confirm fascinaia androginiei i utopia ei. Din perspectiv psihologic, gestul
echivaleaz cu ratarea existenial a structurilor bovarice, incapabile s se evalueze corect i
s se raporteze adecvat la realitate. Din perspectiv moral individual sau colectiv , este
sugerat imposibilitatea salvrii unei contiine marcate de laitate i duplicitate. n acest caz,
redempiunea este sinonim cu sacrificiul i renaterea. Nu n ultimul rnd, eecul existenial
al personajului i dispariia lui, privit din perspectiv istoric i politic, se traduce prin utopia
comunismului a doctrinei ce voia s mpace suprema libertate a cetenilor (la nivel
declarativ) cu subordonarea lor absolut (n fapt) i, finalmente, prin silirea unui regim
grotesc i absurd s-i accepte falimentul.
ntiinare: Lucrarea a beneficiat de suport financiar prin proiectul cu titlul
SOCERT. Societatea cunoaterii, dinamism prin cercetare", numr de identificare contract
POSDRU/159/1.5/S/132406. Proiectul este cofinanat din Fondul Social European prin
Programul Operaional Sectorial Dezvoltarea Resurselor Umane 2007-2013. Investete n
Oameni!
Bibliografie:
ADAMETEANU, Gabriela, Provizorat, ediia a II-a, Editura Polirom, Bucureti,
2011;
BODIU A., MOARCS G., (coord.), Trupul i litera, explorri critice n biografia i
opera lui Gheorghe Crciun, Casa Crii de tiin, Cluj-Napoca, 2012;
CORDO, Sanda, Lumi din cuvinte, Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 2012;
CRCIUN, Gheorghe, Frumoasa fr corp, ediia a II-a revzut, nsoit de un dosar
de receptare critic, prefa de Carmen Muat, Grupul Editorial Art, Bucureti, 2007;
CRCIUN, Gheorghe, Pupa russa, ediia a II-a, augmentat, Studiu introductiv de
Caius Dobrescu, Dosar de receptare critic, Addenda cu desenele autorului, Postfa de
Carmen Muat, Grupul Editorial Art, Bucureti, 2007;
CRCIUN, Gheorghe, Femei albastre, Prefa de Carmen Muat, Editura Polirom,
Iai, 2013;
CRCIUN, Gheorghe, Competiia continu. Generaia80 n texte teoretice, Paralela
45, 1999;
LEFTER, Ion Bogdan, 7 postmoderni: Nedelciu, Crciun, Mller, Petculescu, Gogea,
Danilov, Ghiu, Editura Paralela 45, Piteti, 2010;
OOIU, Adrian, Trafic de frontier. Proza generaiei 80. Strategii transgresive,
Editura Paralela 45, Piteti, Braov, Bucureti, Cluj-Napoca, 2000;
OOIU, Adrian, Ochiul bifurcat, limba saie. Proza generaiei 80. Strategii
transgresive, Paralela 45, Piteti, 2003;
POPESCU, Cristina, Gheorghe Crciun. Trupul i litera ca fee ale dublului, tez de
doctorat, Universitatea tefan cel Mare, Suceava, 2013;
VAKULOVSKI, Mihail, Portret de grup cu generaia optzeci (Interviuri), Editura
Tracus Arte, Bucureti, 2011.
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THE IMAGE OF COMMUNISM REFLECTED IN THE ARCHIVES

OF A FEW ORTHODOX PARISHES OF BUCHAREST
Claudiu COTAN
Ovidius University of Constana
Abstract: The Archives of the Orthodox parishes are a source not used yet because of the
disinterest manifested by clergy on one hand, and because of the chronological gaps most of
them have on the other hand, so that it is very difficult to make a clear cut history of the
parish life. Deposited in improper conditions most times, the parish documents were lost or
damaged, especially the old ones, so that today they can be still used only with great
difficulty. The most interesting documents of these archives are the reports drafted by the
parish councils where part of the faithful participated, namely those elected by the parochial
Assembly and by the servant priests. Most times they render the changes occurred in the life
of the parish, the decisions taken at certain times in regard to the assets of the church, the
renovations and changes the places of worship and their outbuildings passed through,
buildings that used to belong to them or are still in their possession. There is very few
information about the relationship between the Orthodox Church and the communist state in
these archives, because the priests avoided noting down their own opinions about the political
regime not to be accused of hostile attitude towards the communist order. Yet, some
precious information can be gathered from the parish documents which help us learn how a
series of decisions of the communist state influenced the religious life of the Orthodox
communities. Because some of the archives disappeared in the rush of the demolishment
during the last years of communism some information was lost which could have been useful
today.
I focused in my study on the archives of a few Orthodox parishes threatened by the urban
changes that seriously changed the image of Bucharest. Most of the historical data are
provided just from the period of these urban changes that focused on the demolishment of a
few churches or outbuildings that belonged to them. Because the number of these churches is
rather large and because I have already made some research on some of them, I focused on a
few archives still in the possession of the churches that used to be threatened with
demolishment, but which the political changes occurred two decades and a half ago saved. I
succeeded in examining the archives of the parishes of Delea Noua Calisit, Hagiu Hala
Traian, Calarasi Park and Mihai Bravu. The data found in these archives are scarce, but they
help us form an image of the way in which the decisions of the communist state changed the
life of the Orthodox priests and faithful.
Keywords: churches, demolishment, priests, communism, persecution
Communism unfolded not only a large programme of elimination of the intellectual

elite, but also a project of remodelling the localities according to plans that promoted the
construction of buildings which characterised the Romanian town-planning during the last
communist decade. The urbanism of Bucharest was deeply changed during the communist
years when a new Civic Centre was raised dominated by the Peoples House and by the great
thoroughfares bordered by blocks of flats that imitated the Asian communist architecture.
Unirea Boulevard is one of the most important boulevards of the capital city and most
crowded thoroughfares of the city, namely the longitudinal axis of the new Civic Centre
project launched at the initiative of the communist dictator Nicolae Ceausescu and begun after
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Issue no. 6/2015
the earthquake of 1977, under the pretext of reconstructing and repairing the damages caused
by the earthquake in Bucharest. The communist regime used the project of the new Civic
Centre to dissipate the influences that the old historical centre of Bucharest exerted over the
citys environment. Unirea Boulevard Victory of Socialism links Alba Iulia Square and
the Constitution Square, the most crowded area of Bucharest. Inspired by the architecture that
characterised the communist regimes of China and North Korea (which Nicolae Ceausescu
visited in 1970), the construction of the new Civic Centre was inaugurated in 1984, in the
presence of the party and state leadership. Thus, Calea Calarasilor and Victory of Socialism
boulevards passed through a series of Orthodox parishes most times made up of private
dwelling places, which they demolished to make room to the dull blocks of flats raised during
the last years of communism. Tens of churches of Bucharest and a large number of beautiful
houses that gave the great city a special aspect and beauty fell in the way of the bulldozers.1
Vacaresti Monastery, one of the most beautiful and biggest church constructions of our
country was destroyed.2 Mihai Voda Monastery did not escape the bulldozers close to the
Peoples House, the church hidden today behind the blocks of flats having been saved through
shifting.3 In fact, hiding the churches behind the new blocks of flats has become an ordinary
method, lest the communist authorities see them in case of field inspections.
A few churches situated between Decebal Boulevard and Calea Mosilor St which were
certainly to be removed escaped demolition due to the falling of communism. Their archives
still keep documents that seem to mention their future demolition. One of them is Delea Noua
church remained in the middle of Calea Calarasi St after the parish house and Calist old
peoples home close to it were demolished. There are two reports in the archives of Hagiu
parish drafted in November 1989 presenting the request of the communist authorities that the
parish should cede the plot of land around the church for expropriation where a block of flats
should have been built. Some of the members of the parish council and priest Gheorghe
Dragulin, who had been in the communist prisons, tried a weak opposition. Calarasi Park
Parish was set up by priest Constantin Sarbu persecuted by the communist regime which
sentenced him to over eight years of imprisonment. The last of the church archives examined
was that of Mihai Bravu parish of which church was raised during the communist period. On
the occasion of the festivities for the canonisation of the Romanian saints, a unique religious
gesture in the European communist space, the communist authorities took the delegations of
foreign guests to visit Mihai Bravu church which was being built, to show them the freedom
that the political regime of Romanian gave to the Orthodox Church and to her servant priests.
In 1981, Delea Noua church, the parish house and the belfry affected by the
earthquake of 1977 were consolidated through the financial and material efforts of the
faithful. The consolidation effort was a very serious one because the constructions dating
from the end of the 19th century had suffered big damages. Unfortunately, soon afterwards the
communist authorities started an extensive programme designed to demolish the houses
around this church, with the church to be removed in the end. The parish council noted on 30
June 1987: ... 700 houses within the parish were demolished and other ones will follow and
as we do not know what will be built instead of the houses demolished, the parish is seriously
financially affected, so that the Parish Council proposes to intervene to the Holy Archdiocese
1
See Lidia Anania, Cecilia Luminea, Livia Melinte, Ana-Nina Prosan, Lucia Stoica, Neculai Ionescu-Ghinea,
Biserici osndite de Ceauescu, 1977 1989, Anastasia Publishing House, Bucharest, 1995.
2
See Octavian-Dumitru Marinescu, Mnstirea Vcreti din Bucureti, de la origini pn astzi, Basilica
Publishing House, Bucharest, 2012; Vezi Gheorghe Leahu, Distrugerea mnstirii Vcreti, Bucharest, 1996.
3
See Claudia Tita-Mircea, Biserica Mnstirii Mihai Vod; monumentele Bucuretiului istoric, ASA Publishing
House, Bucharest, 2006; See Cristea Letiia Mirela, Relaiile Trii Romneti cu Muntele Athos n secolele XVIIXIX. Cazul Mnstirii Mihai Vod, (tez de doctorat), Bucharest, 2012.
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to restructure the salaries scheme with one temporary priest position till the re-establishment
of the parish with a singer job.4 The communist authorities decided to demolish the parish
house and the old peoples home of the church: ... one of these days, in the afternoon, the
representatives of the local state authorities visited the parish house of the church situated in
Delea Noua St and the former old peoples home asking for data on the number of persons
who were living in the building and the purpose of the rooms. This building hosts the parish
chancellery where there is the library with the books included in the inventory, as well as
precious furniture, the paintings of the founder of this church, also very precious, as well as
the belfry with two bells which are common part of the respective building. Given this state of
things, and not to be taken by surprise, we kindly ask you in case you have information on
the future state of the church and of the buildings belonging to it to let us know in due time
where to deposit the archives and the other assets included in the inventory.5
In 1987, in winter, the buildings around the church were demolished only the place of
worship escaping the scourge, as it was allowed to temporary operate till its future demolition.
The report of 7 December 1987, drafted by the parochial council presents the dramatic
situation: The parish house made up of ground floor and one floor including 4 flats, the
parish chancellery, parish library, belfry situated in the middle of the parish house, as well as
the former Calist old peoples home were demolished, so that only the holy church remained
surrounded by debris.
I. C. R. A. L. department, district 2, recuperated all the beams resulted after the
demolition both of the parish house, the wood of the belfry, and of Calist old peoples home,
because it was good wood useful for construction.
The parish recuperated the metallic part of the fence made of double wire and the
majority of the pillars deposited in the church. The two bells are also deposited in the church.
The rest of the inventory materials were recuperated and laid in the church. The state of
things will be communicated to the Holy Archdiocese. Following the information provided by
the parish priest, the parish council agrees to appeal to I. C. R. A. L. (Enterprise for
Constructions, Repairs and Locative Administration) department to make an estimating price
for providing the church with water and gas.6 As a result of the address of the Peoples
Council of Bucharest city, D. G. D. L. department, no 16323 of 14 January 1988, registered at
the Holy Archdiocese of Bucharest under no 530/1988, by which the approval of the parish
council was asked for demolishing a part of the parish buildings situated in Delea Noua St,
and ceding the surrounding plot of land, the council members approved it.7 Very interesting is
the fact that the approval of the parish council was asked after the buildings had already been
demolished. There were tenants in the parish buildings who left without paying their debts to
the parish.
The situation of the church after demolition has become dramatic, the parish council
asking the Archdiocese of Bucharest to appeal to the aid of some other parishes, taking into
account the fact the largest part of the parish had been demolished.8 The parish of Saint
Elijah-Pipera came to its aid providing it with an amount of 3000 lei. The communist
authorities asked the Archdiocese of Bucharest that the parish council of Delea Noua church
should approve the demolition of the building it owned in 154 Labirint St, district 3,
Bucharest. It is very interesting that the approval was asked in July, after the church house in
Labirint St had been demolished in January 1988.9 The parish council hoped that the state
Archives of Delea Nou Parish, Register of Official Reports, 1977-1989, official report of 30 June 1987.
Archives of Delea Nou Parish, Register of Official Reports, 1977-1989, official report of 9 Sept. 1987.
6
Archives of Delea Nou Parish, Register of Official Reports, 1977-1989, official report of 7 Dec. 1987.
7
Archives of Delea Nou Parish, Register of Official Reports, 1977-1989, official report of 25 Jan. 1988.
8
Archives of Delea Nou Parish, Register of Official Reports, 1977-1989, official report of 30 Dec. 1987.
9
Archives of Delea Nou Parish, File no. 8/1989.
4
5
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authorities would compensate the parish with the value of the building.10 On 5 October 1988,
the parish council thought it was high time to take steps for re-constructing the church belfry11
and asked the authorities to specify what plot of land would remain in the possession of the
church in order to know where to situate it.12
The report of 15 April 1989 shows us that the church was reconnected to the gas
system and temporary provided with electricity and water till the final works were finished. A
few faithful have also succeeded in setting a temporary fence around the church.13
According to an official report, Delea Noua parish was announced that I. C. R. A. L.
Foisor department estimated the value of the compensation for the demolition of the church
buildings to 80.000 lei. This is why in August 1989, the parish council asked the Archdiocese
of Bucharest to entitle it to get the rights of compensation. The parish priest has even tried to
get one of the flats built around the church to use it as depot for the parish archives: I applied
to the City Hall authorities so that the church should come into the possession of an
apartment where to deposit the inventory heaped up in the church together with the five years
old bells.14 The parish seems to have got only the amount of 100.000 lei used only to make
the fence that still surrounds the church today.
Very suggestive at the parish level is a report preserved at Delea Noua parish which
renders the missionary activity of an 80 years old priest and the difficulties he was faced with
only two years after the fall of communism. The report dated 11 June 1992, which priest
Teodor Stoica addressed to the deanery reads the following: From a religious point of view I
celebrate the Divine Liturgy every Sunday and at feast times. I deliver two speeches every
Sunday. After reading the Holy Gospel I briefly refer to the content of the fragment read and
then I develop the theme at the right time. I celebrate the Divine Liturgy for the dead every
Sunday and the remember services as well. Every Friday, at 18.00 hours I celebrate the
akathistos service followed by catechisations, when I debate various themes, such as those
related to the Church, what it is and what it means, as well as to the Resurrection of the Lord,
the Ecumenical Council, the division of the Church and the crumbling of the Western Church
into Calvinism and many sects, life of Saint Paul the Apostle, his journeys and activity.
Cultural. I distributed 25 Bibles, 30 copies of the Little Bible, special books for school
children and books of prayers.
Economic. I retired the cleaning woman of the church because I had no funds for
paying her, but she keeps on working with no salary.15 I personally got my salary till March
1992, because we engaged to execute the fence surrounding the church, which is situated now
in a field, where it is very hard for those who come to this church to reach it; we mention that
although 90% of the parish was demolished and the blocks of flats around us are not finished
and inhibited, we can declare that the attendance is exceptional. Taking into account the
compensation for demolition 124.000 lei, the surplus stock of the year 1991, we won
809.663 lei and spent 657.000 lei. We made progress with the construction of the fence, using
450.000 lei out of 1.200.000 lei. If we can cover its value we hope to finish the fence till the
end of the month, and then we shall try to set on improvised scaffolding the bells that have
been kept in the church for five years. We committed ourselves to finish these works although
we lack the necessary funds in order to try to improve the situation of the place of worship,
embarrassing for us, where it is hard to come walking in mud and wholes. Because of the high
Archives of Delea Nou Parish, Register of Official Reports, 1977-1989, official report of 11 June 1988.
Archives of Delea Nou Parish, Register of Official Reports, 1977-1989, official report of 5 Oct. 1988.
12
Archives of Delea Nou Parish, Register of Official Reports, 1977-1989, official report of 3 Jan. 1989.
13
Archives of Delea Nou Parish, Register of Official Reports, 1977-1989, official report of 15 April 1988.
14
Archives of Delea Nou Parish Report of 11 June 1992, f. 1, v.
15
Archives of Delea Nou Parish Report of 11 June 1992, f. 1, f.
10
11
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price of the materials we have to appeal to subscriptions and collections to end the work
begun.16
The demolition has also affected the geographic structure of the parishes. The priests
lost the old landmarks that showed the boundaries between parishes. This is why conflicts
between the priests of the adjacent parishes came up many times. Rev Teodor Stoica from
Delea Noua church related such a situation: It is very hard for us because the parish bodies
are no longer complete, many of them having been moved to other parishes so that it is
difficult to gather them together. The greatest hardships come from the adjacent parishes of
Calarasi Park and Mihai Bravu. Calarasi Parish seized 5 blocks of flats, each of them with
two stairways, because three of these blocks of flats are called Apostol Margarit after a small
street included in the big one. Rev Popescu H. Ioan, from Mihai Bravu church shamelessly
seized one third of the blocks built in the territory of Delea Noua parish, close to the
boundary with Mihai Bravu parish. It was hard for us to find the papers of the file for the
building license.17
The communist authorities have also pursued a permanent policy restricting the
human rights, especially the journey abroad. In 1985, father Teodor tried to go to his daughter
settled in Germany. He applied to the Department for Passports Release, which refused him.
Nevertheless, he insisted with the following appeal: My daughter, of Romanian origin, with
German citizenship, who lives in Hamburg, Federal Republic of Germany, who has been, in
fact, several times in the country, asks me to go to the Federal Republic of Germany on a
visit, possibly to have a surgery for coxal -femoral arthrosis.
I filled in the form for a passport release in September 1985, but I was informed
through address no 94867/1985 that it was not approved. This year I have also submitted an
application for a passport, but I received a negative answer too. I am 75 years old. From
1944 1947 I represented the country and Church in Bulgaria and Yugoslavia, I was young
and I came back to the country where I was born, where I have my brothers and parents, so
that I do not understand why I am refused to make this journey. Having briefly informed you
of the things mentioned above, and thinking it should be a mistake, I kindly ask you to think
twice over this state of things and give me a passport to travel to the Federal Republic of
Germany in the months of June - August this year, when I have my holiday.18 Priest Teodor
has not gone to Germany, but his daughter came to Romania after the fall of communism.
Not far from Delea Noua church it is Hagiu church which passed through a period
of renovation and consolidation together with the other buildings it owns, as a result of the
earthquake of 1977. The church was re-consecrated in 1980. The efforts made for
consolidating the church were coordinated by priest Vasile Diaconescu. The remarkable priest
wrote about his service: Priesthood was considered as a spiritual wedding, by which the
priests becomes the bridegroom of the parish entrusted to him and he is committed to serve
the Church with love able of sacrifice. He is the spiritual father who gives birth to his sons in
the bath of baptism, feeds him with the divine truth and grace and guides them on the way of
salvation. As servant of God and as intercessor between Him and people, as preacher of the
Gospel, which is the word and will of God and as shepherd of souls, as apostle and as father
of all people, as the light of the world and as salt of the earth, the priest must be adorned with
all virtues which make the beauty of Christianity and especially of priesthood. I do not know
if I succeeded in accomplishing this ideal of priesthood, but I tried to serve God and the
Archives of Delea Nou Parish Report of 11 June 1992, f. 1, f.
Archives of Delea Nou Parish Report of 11 June 1992, f. 1, v.
18
Archives of Delea Nou Parish, File of correspondence/1985; Claudiu Cotan, Preotul Teodor Stoica, un
slujitor pentru romnii din sudul Dunrii, in Simpozionul Mehedini, istorie, cultur i spiritualitate,
Universitaria Publishing House, Didahia Severin Publishing House, Drobeta Turnu Severin, 2012, p. 359.
16
17
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people and especially my parishioners with all my love and devotion both at the Holy Altar as
celebrant and at the pulpit, as preacher of the Gospel of Jesus Christ, our Lord.19
Unfortunately, the decisions of the communist authorities would affect Hagiu
church too, which was situated close to the blocks of flats that were being built in Calea
Calarasi St. The archives of Hagiu parish keeps a report dated November 1989 which shows
us how the communist authorities were acting to get various approvals for demolition and
expropriation from the church authorities: ... the following agenda was discussed 1. Letter
no 9816 of 31 October 1989 of the General Department for developing the construction of
social-cultural dwelling places and locative administration, and 2, letter no 13079 of 13
November 1989 of the Holy Archdiocese of Bucharest, Economical Department ... The parish
priest reads the letter by which D. G. D. A. L. informs the parish that the investment plan of
the C. P. M. B (House of Pensions of Bucharest) for 1990 stipulates to build blocks of flats in
the area of Calea Calarasi St zone III, decommissioning a surface of 1245 m2 and
surroundings of 88 m (that belonged to the parish) and asks for the written agreement of the
parish to be included in the decree project. The Archdiocese too asked the same documents
on behalf of the communist authorities, but asking that the block of flats that was to be built to
be no closer than seven metres, and the enclosure of the church courtyard to be remade. It is
very interesting that a series of counsellors explained that it was not up to them to agree with
such a request, and father Gheorghe Dragulin, who had been in the communist prisons from
1952 1954, asked that the issue should be presented to the parish assembly on Sunday, 26
November 1989. Father Dragulin had been in the communist prisons, but he was still strong
enough to oppose the abusive decisions taken by communists. The parish assembly approved
the decision of the Council, so that Hagiu parish was to cede the plot of land requested.20
The communist authorities wanted to open a new group of blocks of flats that was to be
parallel with that situated in Calea Calarasilor St.
The church of Calarasi Park dedicated to Saints Emperors Constantine and Helen is
situated in Eudoxiu Hurmuzachi Square Muncii Square, at the crossroads of streets Mihai
Bravu with Basarabia Boulevard and Calea Calarasi St, important boulevards bordered by
hundreds of blocks of flats. The church is still one of the biggest of Bucharest, having been
raised in the area that used to be Calarasi Park. The parish was set up in 1936, and the first
place of worship was an underground of Queen Elisabeth Settlement Childrens Hospital
headed during the war by one of the greatest physicians of our country, Victor Gomoiu. In the
small chapel organised by priest Constantin V. Sarbu (1905 1975),21 with the help of doctor
Victor Gomoiu, those who entered the hospital and the poor workers of the district 22 could
find their peace of mind. In order to get the plot of land where the slender church was raised
and which we easily notice in the area, Priest Sarbu waged a true battle against the City Hall
and a series of entrepreneurs who wanted to raise blocks of flats there. The church was built
due to the endeavours and work of a great servant of the Orthodox altars, father Constantin
Sarbu, one of the martyr priests of the communist period, and to the generosity of marshal Ion
Antonescu, its main founder. The efforts of the two founders were completed by the
contribution of certain donors and by the aids received from the parishioners of Bariera
Vergului district. The document laid at the foundation of the church reads: This holy place of
Archives of Hagiu Parish Register of the servant priests.
Archives of Hagiu Parish, File of correspondence official reports 1989, official report of 23 November
1989.
21
Gheorghe Vasilescu, Srbu, Constantin, in Martiri pentru Hristos, din Romnia, n perioada regimului
comunist, Institutul Biblic i de Misiune al Bisericii Ortodoxe Romne Publishing House, Bucharest, 2007, pp.
643-658.
22
comunist, pp. 656-658.
19
20
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worship begun in times of great hardship, but also of great national pride for our country is
built as an everlasting proof of the holy covenant that our Church has always had with our
nation and country. Marshal Ion Antonescu of Romania, 28 June 1943. Rev. Constantin
Sarbu attended the university courses of the Faculty of Theology of Bucharest and of the
Conservatoire of Music, having always been animated by the missionary spirit of the priestly
service. In order to maintain himself he worked both at the time when he was a pupil at the
seminary and when he was a student, because he came from a poor family. After marriage he
moved to Husi, where bishop Nifon Criveanu ordained him priest and assigned him head of
the School of singers. In 1938 he transferred himself to Bucharest, to the parish of Calarasi
Park which had no church, but where he succeeded to build a true cathedral. The parish was
made up especially of poor houses dwelled in by workers.23 Films were presented in the
underground of the church and concerts were given by one of the most important choruses of
Bucharest. The church chorus was conducted by a great musician for a time, Gheorghe
Bazavan, arrested by communists in 1949.
Having become a widower in 1941, father Constantin Sarbu succeeded in organising
one of the most active parishes of Bucharest, which fact did not escape the vigilance of the
communist authorities. The state of things worsened after a special event. On 1 June 1946, the
rumour spread that the Mother of God or a cross would have appeared at one of the windows
of the church. A spiritual euphoria spread as lightening all over the parish. The event has also
gotten a political significance because the same day, at Jilava, marshal Ion Antonescu, the
founder of the church, and those of his group, were executed by the order of the communists.
Although not painted, in 1949 the church was consecrated by metropolitan Nifon
Craioveanul, a hierarch persecuted by the communist regime who wanted him eliminated. The
hierarchs of Bucharest must have avoided participating in such an event given the fact that the
church remembered Ion Antonescu, enemy of the people, and his wife, as main founders. The
painting was executed from 1962 1964, by care of patriarch Justinian and of priest
Constantin Nichita, and the church was re-consecrated on 3 October 1976. In 1988, the
communist authorities tried to demolish the church, justifying that it was founded by a war
criminal, the same as they were planning to remove Delea Noua church too. The fall of
communism saved them both.
Father Constantin Sarbu did not take into account the interdictions imposed by the
communist regime to the clergy of Bucharest, and continued to preach courageously Christ to
the thousands of faithful who were coming into the church he and marshal Ion Antonescu
raised. At the beginning of 1954, the security forces arrested him, just like a reply to his
pastoral activity, accusing him of anti-communist activity, at the end of the year having been
sentenced to eight years and three months of imprisonment for having plotted against the
social order. On 10 December 1954, the fathers appeal was rejected. During the eight years
of imprisonment father Constantin Sarbu passed almost through all the communist prisons:
Jilava (1954 1955), Dej (1955), Poarta Alba (1955-1956), Salcia (1959), Gherla (19561962) and Aiud.24
Released in December 1961, he was sent with forced domicile to Viisoara village, in
Baragan field, where he remained for two years. In February 1964, when the political
prisoners were released, father Sarbu came back to Bucharest, but has always been followed
Gheorghe Parusi, Bariera Vergului sau viaa unui biat de Bucureti, Compania Publishing House, Bucharest,
2010, p. 87.
23
comunist, p. 658.
24
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by the agents of the security forces. He started serving in a small ruined church in Sapientei
St, not far from the future Peoples House. Patriarch Justinian urged him to serve in the
humble church fully aware that father Sarbu would turn the humble place of worship into a
cathedral of spirituality. A large number of faithful came to the little church under his nice
guidance, to the horror of the communist authorities who decided at last to eliminate him.
Father Sarbu was almost invited by the people of the Security forces to choose how to die,
namely in the hospital, or commit suicide. Suicide was impossible for a servant of the altar.
Arrested again, father Sarbu was hospitalised for a surgery, because he was suffering from
duodenal ulcer. At the middle of October 1975, he celebrated the Divine Liturgy for the last
time, and on 23 October father Sarbu died after a banal surgery at Elias Hospital, but not
without having been confessed and communicated by father Ilarion Argatu from Cernica
Monastery, another great father confessor followed by the Security. Unfortunately, the
archives of Calarasi Park church have not been preserved, having been burned in 1988, as the
communists wanted to wipe away any traces of the service of father Constantin Sarbu in this
church.
In 1955, the Romanian Orthodox Church canonised some of the best known
Romanian saints. The delegations of some sister Orthodox Churches attended the festivities
organised with the involvement of the communist authorities. On this occasion, the foreign
delegations were invited to visit a series of monasteries and churches to see the freedom the
Orthodox Church and her servants enjoyed in our country. Mihai Bravu Parish was visited
now, of which church was being built. The communist authorities sustained in front of the
foreign guests that churches were built and the freedom of conscience was observed under the
communist regime. The delegation who visited the church wrote a few lines in the book of
honour of the parish.
Having studied the various aspects of some of the churches of Bucharest during the
communist regime we can affirm that if this totalitarian regime had resisted several years
more in Romania, most of the churches of Bucharest which we see today would have no
longer existed, because the communist bulldozers would have erased any historical proof of
their existence.
Bibliography
Unpublished sources:
Archives of Delea Noua parish, Register of official reports, 1977-1989.
Archives of Hagiu parish, Correspondence file/Register of official reports 1989.
Works of speciality:
Anania, Lidia, Luminea, Cecilia, Melinte, Livia, Prosan, Ana-Nina, Stoica, Lucia,
Ionescu-Ghinea,Neculai, Biserici osndite de Ceauescu, 1977 1989, Anastasia Publishing
House, Bucharest, 1995.
Cotan, Claudiu, Preotul Teodor Stoica, un slujitor pentru romnii din sudul Dunrii,
in Simpozionul Mehedini, istorie, cultur i spiritualitate, Universitaria Publishing House,
Didahia Severin Publishing House, Drobeta Turnu Severin, 2012, p. 359.
Cristea, Letiia Mirela, Relaiile Trii Romneti cu Muntele Athos n secolele XVIIXIX. Cazul Mnstirii Mihai Vod, (tez de doctorat), Bucharest, 2012.
Leahu, Gheorghe, Distrugerea mnstirii Vcreti, Bucharest, 1996.
Marinescu, Octavian-Dumitru, Mnstirea Vcreti din Bucureti, de la origini pn
astzi, Basilica Publishing House, Bucharest, 2012.
446
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Tita-Mircea, Claudia, Biserica Mnstirii Mihai Vod; monumentele Bucuretiului

istoric, ASA Publishing House, Bucharest, 2006.
Parusi, Gheorghe, Bariera Vergului sau viaa unui biat de Bucureti, Compania
Publishing House, Bucharest, 2010.
Vasilescu, Gheorghe, Srbu, Constantin, in Martiri pentru Hristos, din Romnia, n
perioada regimului comunist, Institutul Biblic i de Misiune al Bisericii Ortodoxe Romne
Publishing House, Bucharest, 2007, pp. 643-658.
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ROMANIAN CULTURE, PATRIMONIAL HERITAGE AND POPULAR ART

Adela MARINCU
West University of Timioara
Abstract: The cultural patrimony, the national and regional cultural policies in other
words, the attention given to these constitute the identity of a nation, but also the moral
landmark on which the today and the tommorow society has to relate itself to.
The act of awareness of the liability a community is having towards the cultural patrimony
coveres a long and devious way. Mans ignorance or aggresive behaviour sacrificed
invaluable works of art, creations of a great beauty, thus cutting from the legacy of humanity
priceless parts of the spiritual realities and not only. Wars, revolutions, earthquakes, floods
and above all mans actions turned to ashes lots of wonders from antiquity, middle ages and
modern times. What had happened to countries with a richer cultural dowry than Romania,
happened to Romanias territory too, in regions like Banat, devastated by the imperial armies
or by the migratory hordes which ravaged our settlements. As such, the cultural patrimony
from Banat bears the mark of the historical evolution. It is also the creation of several
nations: Romanian, Serbian, Hungarians, Germans, Slovaks, Bulgarians, Croatians, Jews,
Czechs which were influenced each other in time.
The present work tackles aspects linked to the research, description and analisying of the
phenomena and the patrimonial values in order to protect and promote the cultural
patrimony of Banat.
Keywords: culture, cultural patrimony, cultural policies, popular (folk) art, values.
Cultura popular
n folcloristica romneasc din secolul al XIX-lea existau doi termeni popular i
poporan, cel dinti desemnnd ceea ce este agreat, iubit, gustat, nsuit de popor (fr ns a
fi creat de popor), iar poporan nsemna ceea ce aparine poporului (ca ceva al su).
Termenul poporan a disprut din uzul curent al folcloritilor i din limbajul comun pn spre
jumtatea secolului al XX-lea, iar cel de popular n limbajul comun a ajuns s nsemneze cam
acelai lucru ce nsemna i n vremurile de nceput ale folcloristicii noastre. Dincolo de
ambiguitatea i echivocul termenului popular (att n uzul su comun, ct i n folosirea
imprecis i prea larg perpetuat de unii folcloriti din secolul al XX-lea), termenul actual
de cultur popular n uzul su comun a ajuns s nsemne cam acelai lucru cu termenul
identic ca form (n limba romn) definit drept concept n antropologia cultural
contemporan astfel: Cultura popular este opus culturii folk, (culturii de tip folcloric,
culturii tradiionale orale) ce sugereaz, individualitatea, specificitatea unui grup relativ
restrns de oameni, i mai presus de orice, tradiia. Cultura popular, n contrast, implic o
mas de oameni, n principal dar nu exclusiv, situat n mediul urban i care adopt un mod
constant i abandoneaz rapid modurile de comportare aflate ntr-o schimbare nentrerupt,
modelele i capriciile culturii materiale i non-materiale. Cultura popular se substituie i
nlocuiete diferenele folk i etnice1 .
Cultura popular, prin rspndirea i efectele sale, contribuie la destructurarea i
denaturarea folclorului dar cultura popular nu i se poate, cel puin deocamdat, substitui
folclorului i culturii de tip folcloric, pentru simplul motiv c ea este cu totul altceva dect
1
Achim Mihu, Antropologie cultural, Editura Dacia, Cluj-Napoca, 2002, p.86.
448
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folclorul. Interpreii (i creatorii) din spaiul culturii populare (n acest neles al termenului)
pot fi mai mult sau mai puin talentai, inspirai sau educai (ca neprofesioniti) n privina
bunului-gust sau chiar a bunei-cuviine astfel nct nu ntreaga cultur popular din
oraele i satele de azi) merit dispreul nostru apreciaz Ioan Viorel Boldureanu n lucrarea
sa Cultur tradiional oral.
Patrimoniul cultural
Asemenea conceptului de cultur, i cel de patrimoniu cultural a cunoscut de-a lungul
timpului diverse definiri i interpretri. Centrul internaional pentru Studiul Prezervrii i
Restaurrii Proprietii Culturale prezint nu mai puin de 60 de definiii ale patrimoniului
cultural, respectiv ale proprietii culturale, cea mai veche dintre ele datnd din anul 6 d.Hr.2
UNESCO a definit parimoniul cultural ca reunind ntregul corpus de materiale, att artistice
ct i simbolice transmise din trecut fiecrei culturi i, prin urmare, ntregii umaniti. Ca
parte constituent a afirmrii i a mbogirii identitilor culturale, precum i ca motenire ce
aparine ntregii umniti, patrimoniul cultural confer fiecrui loc caractertistici specifice i
este depozitarul existenei umane. Analiznd evoluia conceptului de patrimoniu cultural n
statele vest-europene, Vecco observ c acest termen a suferit un proces de expansiune i
transfer semantic care a rezultat n generalizarea utilizrii sale. Sunt identificate trei etape
parcurse n extinderea conceptului de patrimoniu cultural, dup cum urmeaz: - o extindere
tipologic prin includerea n patrimoniu a elementelor care nu fceau n mod tradiional parte
din acesta, astfel formulndu-se o abordare integratoare a patrimoniului; - extinderea
criteriilor de selecie a patrimoniului cultural prin includerea, pe lng valorile istorice i
artistice, a valorilor de identitate i a capacitii de interacionare cu memoria; - trecerea de la
o abordare normativ-obiectiv la una bazat pe capacitatea unui obiect de a suscita valori i
semnificaii. Patrimoniul a ncetat s fie definit prin prisma aspectelor materiale, crendu-se
astfel premisele pentru recunoaterea patrimoniului cultural intangibil.3
Necesitatea protejrii patrimoniului cultural, artistic i ncurajarea a ceea ce urma s
devin patrimoniu, a aprut n Frana, n secolul al XVII-lea, odat cu ideea responsabilitii
politice a puterilor publice n domeniul artei i al creaiei, al crei susintor a fost nsui
Richelieu, care a nfiinat n anul 1936 Academia francez. Prelevndu-se de acest precedent,
regele Ludovic al XIV-lea a hotrt n 1680 crearea Comediei Franceye, prin fuzionarea a
dou trupe de teatru distincte i dispus conceperea unei instituii centralizate de administrare a
cldirilor din Frana, a artelor i a manufacturilor, prefigurndu-se ceea ce avea s devin
ulterior Ministerul Culturii4.
Pe plan internaional, necesitatea protejrii patrimoniului cultural a fost impus de
desfurarea, n principal pe teritoiul european, a celor dou rzboaie mondiale, care au
produs catastrofe i n privina punurilor de patrimoniu. Acestea au fost distruse n urma
bombardamentelor, a conflictelor armate, au fost supuse jafurilor, multe dintre ele disprnd
n condiii necunoscute. n acest context, pe plan mondial au fost luate o serie de msuri prin
ncheierea unor tratate care s protejeze patrimoniul cultural. Astfel, n 1954, a fost ncheiat
Convenia de la Haga privind protecia patrimoniului cultural n caz de conflict armat5.
Alte documente legislative internaionale sunt: Convenia UNESCO cu privire la
protejarea patrimoniului cultural, ncheiat la Paris n anul 1990, a crei necesitate, aa cum
2
http://cif.icomos.org/pdf_docs/Documents%20%line/Heritage%20definitions.pdf
Filip Iorgulescu, Felicia Alexandru, Georgiana Camelia Crean, Meral Kagitci, Mihaela Iacob, Abordri
privind evaluarea i valorificarea patrimoniului cultural n revista Economie teoretic i aplicat, Volumul
XVIII (2011), No. 12 (565), p. 14, ediie electronic accesat la http://store.ectap.ro
4
Jean-Michel Dijan, Op. cit., p. 7
5
Irina Oberlnder-Trnveanu, Un viitor pentru trecut. Ghid de bun pratic pentru pstrarea patrimoniului
cultural, Editura CIMEC, Bucureti, 2009, ediie electronic accesat la http://www.cimec.ro/
Arheologie/Oberlander-un-viitor-pentru-trecut/index.html.
3
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rezult din Preambul, o constituie ameninarea de distrugere nu numai datorit cauzelor

obinuite de distrugere, dar i prin evoluia vieii sociale i economice, care le agraveaz prin
fenomene de alterare i de distrugere i mai grave, iar degradarea sau dispariia unui bun de
patrimoniu cultural i natural constituie o diminuare nefasta a patrimoniului tuturor
popoarelor lumii6, convenia UNESCO cu privire la interzicerea i mpiedicarea
operaiunilor ilicite de import, export i transfer de proprietate asupra bunurilor culturale
(ratificat de Romnia prin Legea nr. 79/1993), Convenia UNIDROIT privind bunurile
culturale furate sau exportate ilegal, adoptat la Roma la 24 iunie 1995, Convenia european
privind protecia patrimoniului arheologic adoptat la Valetta la 16 ianuarie 1992, Convenia
European pentru protecia patrimoniului arhitectural al Europei, adoptat la Granada, la 3
octombrie 1985 i Convenia European asupra peisajului cultural (ratificat de Romnia prin
Legea nr. 451/2002).
Legislaia romneasc privind protecia patrimoniului cultural cuprinde o serie de legi
importante: Legea nr. 182/2000 (republicat), privind protejarea patrimoniului cultural mobil,
Legea nr. 422/2001 (republicat) privind protejarea monumentelor istorice i Legea nr.
26/2008 privind protejarea patrimoniului cultural imaterial.
Arta popular n spaiul romnesc
Arta popular reprezint o component de baz ale artei romneti, neleas ca form
a contiinei sociale a poporului nostru, capabil s oglindeasc ntr-o modalitate specific
realitatea lumii prin construirea de structuri expresive genernd i transmind emoii.7
Avnd rdcini n orizonturile vieii spirito-materiale din spaiul carpato-danubiano-pontic,
arta popular a reputat o evoluie istoric de durat, reflectnd modul de via i credina
despre lume a unui popor milenar, format din agricultori i pstori precum i alte meteuguri
i ocupaii. Arta popular a atras atenia oamenilor de tiin abia n secolul al.XIX-lea.ca un
domeniu de art istoric determinat n urma procesului de difereniere nceput n perioada
renascentist, accentuat n secolele al XVII-lea i al XVIII-lea dar mai ales n secolul al XIXlea i prima jumtate a secolului al XX-lea cnd, practic se poate spune c s-a ncheiat, odat
cu precizarea manifestrilor de art popular n forme ce nu mai pot fi continuate n condiiile
ultimei revoluii industriale, antrennd schimbri majore n producia material i spiritual,
precum i n relaiile sociale din ntreaga lume i, firete i din Romnia.
Arta popular constituie un domeniu de studiu interdisciplinar. Ea reprezint creaia
unei comuniti ntemeiate pe o lung tradiie, mpletind funcionalul cu esteticul n opere de
art n care forma i decorul sunt gndite ca ntreguri destinate s mpleteasc trebuinele
materiale i spirituale ale indivizilor i colectivitilor n materie de arhitectur, organizarea
interiorului, mobilier, esturi, ceramic, unelte, costum, prelucrarea metalelor, pictur pe
sticl etc.8
Arta popular romneasc a pstrat amprenta unor epoci care au contribuit la
mbogirea manifestrilor de art i a fondului autohton dominant. Vitalitatea artei populare
face ca n toate zonele istorice ale Romniei s persiste forme originale, arhaice, ale olritului,
esturilor, custuri, crestturi n lemn, sculptur, pielrie, cojocrie, prelucrarea metalelor,
ncondeierea oulor etc. Mircea Eliade, cnd se refer la popoarele care au statornicit
civilizaii agricole, constat c: Existena sedentar organizeaz altfel lumea dect o via
nou.9 Pentru agricultor, spaiul n care triete, casa, satul, ogorul constituie adevrata lume.
Centrul lumii este locul consacrat prin ritualuri i rugciuni, cci prin el are loc comunicarea
6
http://bucegipark.ro/ConventiaParis.htm
Georgeta Stoica, Paul Petrescu, Dicionar de art popular, Editura Enciclopedic, Bucureti, 1997, p. 40
8
Robert Wildhaber, Revista Antique, New York, 1950, apud, Georgeta Stoica, Paul Petrescu , Dicionar de
art popular, Editura enciclopedic, Bucureti, 1997, p. 40
9
Mircea Eliade, De la Zalmoxis la Genghis Han, Ed. Stiinific i Enciclopedic, Bucureti, 1980, p. 25
7
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Issue no. 6/2015
cu fiinele supranaturale. Aadar, gospodria, casa, interiorul, totul este pus sub semnul
statorniciei n timp i spaiu.10
Simboliznd unitatea de apartenen social, casa este prin excelen locul unde se afl
ilustrate mecanismele de alian i de filiaie; locuina i dependenele sunt, prin suprafaa i
forma lor, indicii, semne ale statutului socio-economic al celor care o locuiesc.
Casa este n acelai timp i un spaiu ritualic. Faptul de a se instala ntr-o cas devine
echivalent cu o participare contient la tainele i legile nescrise ale cosmosului. Casa este un
adpost consacrat prin practici magice de ntemeiere, unde vin prin natere copiii, nepoii i
strnepoii i pleac prin moarte prinii, moii i strmoii. Naterea i moartea n afara casei
erau fireti i, ca urmare, supuse unor rituri de separare: copilul nscut n arin era adus n
poal i aezat pe solul familial, lng vatr, acolo unde trebuia s vin.
Casa constituie, ntre microcosmosul trupului omenesc i Cosmos, un microcosmos
secundar, un termen cu configuraie iconografic. Simbolul casei este un dublu microcosmic
att al trupului material, ct i al corpusului mintal. Distribuirea ncperilor unei locuine,
ungherul n care se doarme, ncperea n care se pregtete mncarea, tinda, pivnia,
hambarul, podul, toate aceste elemente organice reclam, mai degrab, echivalentele
anatomice, dect reverii arhitecturale, casa n totalitatea ei este mai mult dect locul unde se
triete, e o fptur vie. Casa este un dublu, o supradeterminare a personalitii a celui ce
triete n ea.
Arta popular nu este o art elevat ci, o art consacrat. Ea izvorte din necesitatea
de a conferi obiectelor din jur: mobil, vase, port, etc, veselie i culoare. Oamenii o consider
o preocupare ndreptit prin ea nsi.
Arta popular demonstreaz vocaia pentru abstracia geometric (ca n broderia
romneasc) datorat materialelor i tehnicilor decorative aplicate i pentru stilizarea in
spiral a motivelor naturale (ca n sculpturile polineziene n lemn sau ceramica european). n
culturile multor ri tendinele se nfresc. Arta figurativ nu este cunoscut artei rneti,
deoarece ranul nu a contientizat faptul c ea poate influena lumea nconjurtoare.
Ignorantul prefer s mplineasc viaa, dect s joace rol de oglind a realitilor ei
cenuii.11
O alt caracteristic a artei populare o constituie conservatorismul, greu de datat cu
precizie. Motivele simple persist de secole. Mereu avid de nou, ranul confer obiectelor
veselie i efecte diferite cu ajutorul motivelor i culorilor. Universalitatea constituie o alt
caracteristic a artei populare. Aceleai motive, aceleai moduri de abstractizare, aceeai
form i aceleai tehnici par s izvorasc spontan din pmnt pe toate meridianele globului.12
Arta popular este din cnd n cnd expresia unei vocaii spirituale. n arta rneasc
exist obiecte, cum ar fi ulciorul pentru aghiazm sau icoanele decorate cu simboluri
religioase. Dar obiectivul urmrit prin furirea lucrrii de art nu este niciodat cel religios, de
invocare, de sacrificiu sau chiar de cult ci este n ntregime uman, este nzuina zilnic de a
nfrumusea puin lucrurile.
BIBLIOGRAFIE
10
idem
Herbert Read, Semnificaia artei, Editura Meridiane, Bucureti, 1969, p. 69
12
idem. p. 70
11
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*** Strategia cultural a judeului Timi 1999 2015.

*** Agenda cultural a judeului Timi.
*** Atlasul etnografic al Judeului Timi (Coord. Ioan Viorel Boldureanu) vol. I
(2013), vol II (2014), Timioara, Editura Eurostampa, 2013, 2014.
Bcil, Daniela, Istoria vieii folclorice din Banat de la nceputul secolului al XX-lea
pn n prezent, Timioara, Editura Eurostampa, 2013.
Brlea, Ovidiu, Folclorul romnesc, I, II, Bucureti, Editura Minerva, 1983.
Blaga, Lucian, Barocul etnografiei romneti (n vol.) Ceasornicul de nisip, Cluj,
Editura Dacia, 1973.
Boldureanu, Ioan, Viorel, Universul legendei. Eseu despre orizontul mental tradiional
II, Timioara, Editura Universitii de Vest, 2003.
Boldureanu, Ioan, Viorel, Cultur tradiional oral. Teme, conceptem categorii,
Timioara, Editura Marineasa, 2007.
Boldureanu, Ioan, Viorel, Cultur popular bnean, Timioara, Editura Mirton,
2004.
Boldureanu, Ioan, Viorel, Folcloristic i etnologie, Timioara, Editura Mirton, 2003.
Boldureanu, Ioan, Viorel, Cultura romneasc n Banat (secolul al XIX-lea),
Timioara, Editura Helicon, 1994.
Costin, Cornelia, Politicile culturale i calitatea vieii, Timioara, Editura de Vest,
1996.
Dinc, Melinda, Sociologia indetitii sau Despre identitate social i Socialul
identitii, Timioara, Editura Universitii de Vest, 2008.
Dinc, Melinda, Cine mi-s io? sau Despre identitate social n comunitile steti
bnene, Timioara, Editura Universitii de Vest, 2009.
Dragievi-ei, Milena, Stojkovi, Branimir, Cultura. Management, Mediere,
marketing, Timioara, Fundaia Interart TRIADE, 2002.
Gogolan, Aristida, Interioare rneti, Timioara, Editura Eurostampa, 2012.
Haegan, Ioan, Ghid pentru elaborarea monografiilor rurale, Academia Romn,
Filiala Timioara, Editura Banatul, 2006.
Hedean, Otilia, Lecii despre calendar, Timioara, Editura Universitii de Vest,
2005.
Mihu, Achim, Antropologie cultural, Cluj-Napoca, Editura Dacia, 2002.
Miu-Lerca, C., Consideraii asupra artei rneti din banat custuri i esturi,
Timioara, 1936.
Munteanu, Ioan, Munteanu, Rodica, Timi. Monografie, Timioara, Editura Marineasa,
1998.
Pop, Mihai, Obiceiuri tradiionale romneti, Bucureti, Editura Univers, 1999.
Reszohazy, Rudolf, Sociologia valorilor, traducere de Ioana Opai, Iai, Editura
Institutul European, 2008.
Secar, Nicolae, Studii de etnografie bnean, Timioara, Editura Excelsior art,
2005.
Turcu, Aurel, Catalogul obiceiurilor populare calendaristice din Banat, Timioara,
Editura Orizonturi Universitare, 2008.
Valade, Bernard, Cultura, n vol. Tratat de sociologie, (sub coord. Raymond Boudon)
Bucureti, Editura Humanitas, 1997.
Vianu, Tudor, Studii de filozofia culturii, Bucureti, Editura Eminescu, 1982.
Vulcnescu, Romulus, Dicionar de etnologie, Bucureti, Editura tiinific, 1970.
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Acknowledgement:
This paper was supported by European Social Funds - Project Competitive
Researchers in Europe
in the Field of Humanities and Socio-Economic Sciences. A Multi-regional Research
Network
POSDRU/159/1.5/S/140863
Cercetarea pentru aceast lucrare a fost finanat din Fondul Social European prin
Programul Operaional Sectorial Dezvoltarea Resurselor Umane 2007-2013 n cadrul
proiectului Cercettori competitivi pe plan european n domeniul tiinelor umaniste i
socioeconomice. Reea de cercetare multiregional (CCPE) - POSDRU/159/1.5/S/140863.
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THE POETICS OF THE FANTASTIC IN MIRCEA ELIADES PROSE

Nicoleta DUMITRACHE (HEN)
Abstract: This article is a brief presentation of the concept of fantastic poetics in Mircea
Eliades work. It emphasises the importance of fantastic poetics and the way this concept
influenced the authors way of thinking and writing. Eliades literature is one of different
mysteries and ambiguities, fact that makes it difficult to undrestand and to analyse. Eliade
was preocupied with the elements of sacred and profane, this two elements being a very
important key of his work.
Keywords: fantastic, poetics, esthetics, myths, mythology, ambiguity, sacred, profane.
Fantasticul este o categorie estetic care se manifest n literatura cult i care
nfieaz lumi, personaje i ntmplri neobinuite ce nu aparin realitii. Aceast estetic
este, n general, de factur anticlasicist, fiind orientat spre libertatea i eliberarea imaginaiei
creatoare de limitele ei raionale.
n literatura romn primul scriitor preocupat de fantastic a fost Mihai Eminescu; el ia manifestat interesul pentru mitologie i fabulos i a introdus n literatura romn anumite
teme i motive, dar i o dimensiune metafizic att prin proza sa, ct i prin poemele:
Luceafrul, Memento mori, Rugciunea unui dac, Scrisoarea I. Caragiale a avut i el
preocupri pentru fantastic, dar spre deosebire de Eminescu, care s-a axat pe meditaia
filosofic, el se va preocupa de fabulosul folcloric specific romnesc, miraculosul miticomagic i credinele populare filtrate printr-o perspectiv realist (La hanul lui Mnjoal, Calul
dracului, Kir Ianulea, Abu-Hassan, La conac).
Avnd ca precursori pe cei doi, Mircea Eliade va aborda n opera sa ambele direcii ale
fantasticului, reuind s mbine n mod original cele dou abordri anterioare: dimensiunea
metafizic i cea mitic care vor fuziona perfect n opera eliadesc. Fantasticul a devenit o
obsesie pentru Eliade nc din copilrie, cci evadarea din cotidian n imaginaie i creeaz o
nou zon de confort intelectual. ns ceea ce e interesant de remarcat este faptul c tentaia
fantasticului l va bntui ntreaga lui via. Imaginarul, lumea paralel n care putea evada
pentru a-i gsi adesea echilibrul n arta scrisului i confer autorului puterea de care avea
nevoie pentru a pune pe hrtie idei originale mbinate cu concepii filosofice i propria teorie
asupra fantasticului.
Admiraia lui pentru Eminescu rzbate din multe nuvele fantastice; adesea acestea au
fost interpretate ca replici la proza fantastic eminescian (nuvela arpele a fost interpretat
ca replic la Cezara, Domnioara Christina ca replic la Luceafrul) datorit numeroaselor
trimiteri din cele dou nuvele eliadeti la nuvelele eminesciene.
Teoria lui Eliade despre fantastic are la baz camuflarea sacrului n profan.
Semnificaiile ascunse sunt specifice prozei fantastice eliadeti; prin utilizarea semnificaiilor,
Eliade considera c cititorul modern i-ar putea gsi drumul spre literatur cizelndu-i gustul
pentru mister i, astfel, ar putea redobndi pasiunea pentru lectur.
Perspectiva eliadesc asupra literaturii fantastice este derivat din ideea c lumea a
fost desacralizat datorit evoluiei tiinelor pozitive i, prin acest aspect, sacrul a rmas
codificat n lumea real nemaipermind dect o decodificare parial, sau fcnd acest lucru
din ce n ce mai greu accesibil. El consider c omul este un prizonier al Timpului Istoric;
aceast obsesie va deveni o constant n romane precum ntoarcerea din Rai, Huliganii sau
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Issue no. 6/2015
unele nuvele. Concepia despre dialectica disimulrii sacrului n profan se reflect puternic n
scrierile sale accentund ideea c omul contemporan se prbuete sub imperiul faptelor
istorice deoarece triete ntr-un univers lipsit de semnificaii transistorice (care sunt
camuflate de istorie) i astfel devine incapabil s gseasc o semnificaie cznd sub incidena
timpului istoric. n lumea real istoricul e nlocuit de transistoric i, implicit, obinuina e
nlocuit de extraordinar. Astfel, realitatea nu e dect aparent banal i sensul ei ascuns se
dezvluie doar celor ce tiu s vad. Misterul se ntinde n jurul nostru, depinde doar de
fiecare dintre noi s avem capacitatea de a-l descoperi. E ca n Noaptea de Snziene cnd
cerurile se deschid, dar doar pentru cei ce tiu s vad. El crede cu toat convingerea c
fantasticul nu va pieri niciodat.
Eliade va relua de-a lungul existenei sale teoria despre camuflarea sacrului n profan.
El a fost preocupat de inserarea fantasticului n viaa real i, avnd ca scop evidenierea
acestui aspect, scrierile sale vor fi dezvoltate pe planuri multiple. Accentund ideea ieirii din
timp, Eliade concepe adesea universuri paralele n care timpul i spaiul se supun unor alte
coordonate. Astfel, n concepia sa, literatura fantastic, creatoare de universuri paralele,
reprezint un paaport pentru viitor. Prin toate personajele sale, Eliade va cuta noi
semnificaii, va ncerca s descifreze taine i coduri inaccesibile muritorilor care s-i conduc
spre descifrarea misterelor. Accesul la sacru este posibil doar pentru cei alei, ceilali
personaje care nu reprezint eroi rmn sub mantia mediocritii neavnd acces la
sacralitate.
n microromanul Pe stada Mntuleasa, sacrul este camuflat n profan, dar i n
cotidian; asistm la investigaii ale copiilor preocupai de descifrarea unor semne a cror
semnificaie e ascuns n realitate. Semnificaii ascunse ntlnim i n Noaptea de Snziene.
Dimensiunea filosofic i metafizic a romanului e evideniat prin intermediul personajelor
care filosofeaz adesea pe tema timpului i a existenei umane. De altfel, dimensiunea
filosofic este cea care d adncime operei lui Mircea Eliade, cci fenomenul ieirii din timp
i-a gsit n autor un adevrat teoretician (a se vedea Nopi la Serampole, Nousprezece
trandafiri, Secretul doctorului Honigberger, La tignci etc).
Naraiunea eliadesc abund n semnificaii i ambiguiti, dup cum autorul nsui
mrturisea n Jurnal: () s vezi semnele, sensul ascuns, simbolurile, n suferinele,
depresiunile, sectuirile de zi cu zi. S le vezi i s le citeti chiar dac nu sunt acolo, dac le
vezi, poi s construieti o structur i s citeti un mesaj n curgerea amorf a lucrurilor i n
fluxul monoton al faptelor istorice1. Hiul narativ este pavat cu venice labirinturi create cu
scopul de a-l deruta pe cititor, de a-l transforma ntr-un Ulise aflat mereu n cutarea
adevrului i de a spori i mai mult misterul. Cititorul devine astfel implicat n naraiune
100% i, prin aceast implicare, treptat se va transforma ntr-un erou care parcurge nu numai
literatura fantastic, ci i o ntreag dimensiune a cunoaterii, redescoperindu-se mereu i
mereu.
Eliade introduce n literatura romn pentru prima data misterul unei lumi noi i
necunoscute: India. El este cel care, intrnd n contact direct cu ara vedelor i upaniadelor, o
introduce n contiina poporului romn, i descifreaz sau ncifreaz tainele (dar ofer n
acelai timp i cheia descifrrii lor). Semnificaiile culturii i spiritualitii indiene ni se
dezvluie prin exerciii de imaginie i filosofie, cci Eliade a descoperit cheia pentru ieirea
din timp, deci nfruntarea timpului concret: prin yoga, el reuete s ptrund n alte
dimensiuni, necunoscute, evadnd din cotidian. El face distincia ntre filosofia european i
gndirea indian specificnd diferena uria dintre cele dou abordri ale fiinei: n cultura
european fiina triete sub incidena timpului istoric, n timp ce n gndirea indian omul nu
Mircea Eliade, Jurnal I, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti,1993, p. 359 360.
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este supus unei condiionri, ci este mai degrab lsat s tind ctre libertatea absolut,
spontaneitate i integrare n ierarhia cosmic lucru posibil de realizat doar prin meditaie i
prin practicarea tehnicilor yoga. El face referiri la aceste aspect i n studiile despre yoga, dar
i n Jurnal, afirmnd c scopul spiritualitii indiene este dat de atingerea libertii absolute;
n cultura indian aceast perfeciune poate fi atins de oricine, nefiind condiionat de ceva
anume.
Camuflarea sacrului n profan i imposibilitatea recunoaterii imediate a miracolului
vor deveni temele favorite ale lui Eliade n abordarea scrierilor sale. Fantezia se manifest n
imaginar att de concret nct lumea creat pare la fel de real ca nsi realitatea concret. La
Eliade sacrul este adesea camuflat n fantastic i elaborarea unei teorii a sacrului i este la
ndemn fiind adesea dezvoltat n opera sa. Att sacrul, ct i profanul reprezint dou faete
ale aceleiai monede, dou perspective paralele de a exista n acest univers. Pentru a putea
explica fenomenul de sacralitate, Eliade recurge la termenul de hierofanie (a se arta ceva
sacru). Hierofania se poate manifesta sub o form fundamental care presupune prezena
sacrului ntr-un obiect comun (o floare, o banc, o u etc.), sau sub forma suprem: prezena
lui Dumnezeu n fiul su, Isus, un mister care nu poate fi desluit. Paradoxul se nate atunci
cnd obiectul n care s-a manifestat sacrul se transform n altceva, ns, n acelai timp el
rmne exact la fel pentru mediul din care face parte. Hierofaniile se gsesc peste tot n opera
lui Eliade, iar personajele sale, care se vd nevoite a-i transcede condiia uman, au sarcina
de a descifra semnificaiile.
Eliade vorbete adesea despre omul nou, omul modern care nu triete n funcie de
religie, de sacru, ci n funcie de istorie, el fuge de Absolut, ocolete unitile pure i relaiile
dintre ele, neputnd gsi purul, care nu poate fi cutat, ci revelat, ca real sau adevr 2, spre
deosebire de omul religios, arhaic pentru care sacrul reprezenta realitatea absolut.
Ieirea de sub teroarea istoriei i intrarea n dimensiunea fantastic reprezint un fapt
cunoscut att de exegeii, ct i de cititorii lui Eliade. Acest aspect a fost valorificat la
maximum n opera eliadesc, din aceast perspectiv Eliade fiind un deschiztor de drumuri.
Eliade nu numai c a folosit miturile n crearea unor universuri fantastice, dar a creat ceea ce
se poate numi o prelungire a lor n literatura romn prin construirea acestor universuri
paralele. El considera c opera literar nu este altceva dect o modalitate de a accede la o
form de cunoatere a lumii i, de aceea, el credea cu toat fiina lui c literatura fantastic va
dinui peste timp. Convingerea lui n ceea ce privete deschiderea drumului spre literatur
viza tocmai ideea degradrii mitologiei. Eliade a luptat pentru repunerea n drepturi a
naraiunii viznd demnitatea metafizic a acesteia. A dat mitului o abordare original pe care
a modelat-o dup bunul su plac fundamentnd lumea pe baza sacrului. Pentru Eliade
literatura se transcrie n mitologia omului modern care, nemaiavnd contiina sacrului, se
refugiaz n imaginaie. n viziunea lui, literatura este urmaa mitologiei; ea are funcia de a
povesti ntmplri de o importan major a ceea ce a fost cndva. Poate cel mai gritor
fragment n acest sens a fost scris chiar de autorul nsui cnd ncerca s explice n Jurnal
punctul lui de vedere despre La ignci: Am impresia c nu s-a neles lucrul esenial:
povestirea aceasta nu simbolizeaz nimic, adic nu transform realitatea imediat ntr-un
cifru. Nuvela fondeaz o lume, un univers independent de geografia i sociologia
Bucuretiului de prin 1930 1940. Nu trebuie cutat la ce se refer n realitatea care ne este
accesibil nou, diferitele episoade, nici ce reprezint cutare sau cutare personaj. Este
prezentarea unui univers nou, inedit, cu legile lui proprii, i aceast prezentare constituie un
act de creaie, nu numai n nelesul estetic al expresiei. Ptrunznd n acest univers, nvnd
s-l cunoti, savurndu-l i se reveleaz ceva. Problema care se pune criticului nu este cum
Petre uea, Mircea Eliade, Editura Eikon, Cluj-Napoca, 2013, p. 75.
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s interpreteze mesajul pe care-l ascunde realitatea, ci, mai precis, aceast nou specie de
realitate care mi se dezvluie citind aventura lui Gavrilescu3.
Mitologia st la baza literaturii, iar naraiunea face parte din fiina uman. Aa cum
viaa este format din clipe, destinele oamenilor sunt formate din ntmplri. Mircea Eliade
consider c scrisul poteneaz creativitatea mitic, ns este dezamgit de lipsa
semnificaiilor din domeniul literaturii. C Eliade are la baza operei sale universul miturilor
tim, ns ceea ce tim mai puin este faptul c el a fost i creator de mituri: astfel, el a creat
mitul cetii i mitul patriei. Ioan Petru Culianu l consider pe Eliade ca fiind printre cei mai
mari creatori de mituri ai secolului al XX-lea.
Trebuie specificat faptul c Eliade i dorea s fie un scriitor autentic i autenticitatea
este una din trsturile de baz ale ale operei sale. mbinnd fantasticul cu tehnica narativ
bazat pe sugestie, Eliade transmite un mesaj cifrat pe care l supune rbdrii cititorului pentru
a fi decriptat.
Adesea operele sale au fost interpretate de exegei din diferite perspective; acetia au
ajuns uneori la concluzii mai puin avizate i Eliade nsui a oferit chei pentru decriptarea
mesajului textului (a se vedea viziunea lui despre La ignci!). De aceea putem considera
textele eliadeti ca adevrate provocri inaccesibile uneori chiar i publicului avizat. Ca i
Borges, Eliade a fost un creator de mister care a fascinat i continu s o fac micndu-se
ntre legend i mit, n folclor miticul i magicul mpletindu-se epic, indistinctul innd de
fantastic, care atrage prin fora nchipuirii concretul, fabulosul i misticul, omul, nu zeul,
stand n centrul plsmuirilor magice, ca-n tiina modern a naturii4.
Eliade folosete discursul fantastic ca pe o ans de creaie avnd contiina
importanei utilizrii semnificaiilor n naraiunea fantastic n ideea de a oferi o viziune nou
cititorului implicit i, prin acest aspect, determinndu-l pe lector s-i modifice el nsui
perspectiva de percepie asupra lumii5.
Gndirea estetic a lui Eliade are la baz gndirea lui Ananda K. Coomaraswamy
(mare istoric indian al artei) i a lui Rudolf Otto care au studiat prezena elementelor de
sacralitate n art. Eliade a cutat s valorifice aceast norm estetic a sacralitii artei
studiind aceste aspecte din interior, ns ea a fost detronat ulterior de fenomenul
desacralizrii i a afirmrii conceptului de autonomie a artei; totui, aceste aspecte l-au ajutat
pe Eliade s neleag i s ptrund spiritul artei moderne dintr-o perspectiv diferit. n
gndirea lui arta i frumosul vor cpta o dimensiune metafizic, spiritual specific
ndeosebi culturii orientale. Astfel, el a ncercat s integreze aceast estetic de tip oriental n
viziunile sale moderne.
Arhetipurile, miturile i simbolurile sunt concepte cu care Eliade opereaz n opera sa.
Universurile imaginare nu sunt altceva dect simboluri arhetipale eterne prin care ia natere
creaia literar. Scenariile arhetipice ca androginul sau zeia mam alctuiesc actul de
creaie, cci Eliade vede sensul esenial al arhetipului sub aspectul modelului exemplar. El
interpreteaz viaa i istoria n termeni de modele exemplare, adic patterns ce supravieuiesc
sub diferite camuflaje (concepie dezvoltat i de C. G. Jung).
Gndirea estetic a lui Eliade este, de asemenea, ancorat n ideea de rentoarcere la
originar (mitul eternei rentoarceri), iar literatura are o structur arhetipal, mitic, folcloric.
Spiritul su creator st sub auspiciile originalului, arhaicului i preistoriei culturale romneti,
iar valorile sale interioare au fost centrate pe creaie, pe opera literar i tiinific.
Eliade a reuit, oarecum, prin dimensiunea creaiei i a autobiografiei sale s se
concretizeze n propriul arhetip bazat pe modelul exemplar, aa cum aprecia Adrian Marino n
Mircea Eliade, Jurnal I, p. 585 (nsemnare din 5 martie 1968).
Petre uea, op. cit., p. 27.
5
Ioan Vultur, Semnificaia fantasticului la Mircea Eliade, n Orizont, an XXXIII, nr. 10, 732, 12 martie 1982, p. .3.
3
4
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Hermeneutica lui Mircea Eliade: fondul profund autobiografic, programul creaiei personale,
mesianismul mesajului spiritual transform pe Mircea Eliade n propriul su arhetip. Modelul
exemplar al noului tip de scriitor romn devine aadar el nsui, formulat la o nalt tensiune i
elevaie. Documentul cel mai tipic al acestei mentaliti constructiv-vizionare, critice i
patriotice, dominat de o mare voin de creaie i de recuperare a timpului pierdut, de a face
tot i ct mai repede posibil, este Anno Domini, unul dintre cele mai frumoase, dac nu cel
mai frumos manifest personal din ntreaga literatur romn6.
Bibliografie:
Eliade, Mircea, Jurnal I, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti,1993.
Handoca, Mircea, Cteva ipostaze ale unei personaliti proteice, Editura Minerva,
Bucureti,1992.
Handoca, Mircea, Viaa lui Mircea Eliade, Editura Dacia, Cluj-Napoca, 2002.
Manolescu, Nicolae, Literatura romn postbelic. Lista lui Manolescu. Critica.
Eseul, Editura Aula, Braov, [s. a.].
Marino, Adrian, Hermeneutica lui Mircea Eliade, Editura Dacia, Cluj-Napoca, 1980.
Micu, Dumitru, n cutarea autenticitii, Editura Minerva, Bucureti,1990.
Micu, Dumitru, Mircea Eliade. Viaa ca oper, opera ca via, Editura Constelaii,
Bucureti, 2003.
uea, Petre, Mircea Eliade, Editura Eikon, Cluj-Napoca, 2013.
Tomu, Mircea, Proza fantastic a lui Mircea Eliade, n Contemporanul, 1981, 11
iulie, nr. 28, p. 22.
Vultur, Ioan, Semnificaia fantasticului la Mircea Eliade, n Orizont, an XXXIII, nr.
10, 732, 12 martie 1982, p.3.
Adrian Marino, Hermeneutica lui Mircea Eliade, Editura Dacia, Cluj-Napoca, 1980, p. 414.
458
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UNDER THE SIGN OF MAGIC FANTASTIC SPACE IN VASILE VOICULESCUS AND ION
AGRBICEANUS PROSE
Ana Alexandra SANDULOVICIU
Abstract: The paper tries to describe the coordinates of fantastic space in short stories by two
Romanian writers from the last century, Vasile Voiculescu and Ion Agrbiceanu. In the shortstories that we have analised, the supernatural appears, quite frequently, because of the way
characters "see" the space in which they live. Thus, the archaic village, the forest, the lake,
the goldmine become elements of a strange geography, which is populated by unusual
occurrences and by the appearance of magical beings, of folklore origin, in which humans
strongly believe.
Keywords : supernatural, magical beings of folklore origin, literary space.
Tentaia redescoperirii unui spaiu al sacrului, una din coordonatele prozei lui Mircea
Eliade, este nlocuit n povestirile lui Vasile Voiculescu de redimensionarea arhaic i mitic
a lumii. Poate mai clar ca oriunde, n proza fantastic a lui Voiculescu, cititorul ncearc
senzaia ptrunderii ntr-un spaiu imaginar compact, foarte bine delimitat. Centrul acestei
lumi se gsete ntr-un loc izolat (sat, mnstire, munte), iar cei care l populeaz au o
mentalitate aflat, nc, sub semnul revelaiei magice.
Cu o structur oarecum uniform, putnd fi apropiat de a basmului fantastic,
povestirile scriitorului muntean propun confruntarea a dou mentaliti, una modern, actual,
cealalt arhaic, primitiv. Eroul, de cele mai multe ori venit din mijlocul lumii civilizate
(Sakuntala, Iubire magic, Misiune de ncredere, Cprioara din vis, n mijlocul lupilor), este
introdus de un personaj adjuvant/iniiator (vrjitoarea Sibila, Bujor, Amin, luparul) ntr-o alt
dimensiune a realului. Iar prsirea acesteia, ntoarcerea n lumea obinuit dup
consumarea evenimentului fantastic va antrena schimbri radicale n existena erouluinarator.
Reprezentativ, ns, pentru tipologia spaiului fantastic este povestirea Lacul ru. De
aceast dat, scriitorul nu a mai recurs la formula naraiunii n ram, relatat de un narator de
persoana I, precum n Iubire magic sau n Capul de zimbru. Cititorul este introdus brusc n
miezul aciunii, iar povestirea apeleaz la alte mijloace de punere n scen i acreditare a
supranaturalului. Avnd, n satele din jur, o reputaie nelinititoare i stranie, lacul dobndete
n text virtui de spaiu-personaj, declanator i vehicul al fantasticului1. Odat ptruns n
atmosfera textului, cititorul afl cu mirare c apele sale nu sunt obinuite, ci nzestrate cu
puteri extraordinare, magice, gata s pedepseasc necrutor intruii care nu i respect
rnduielile : Bntuit de duhuri i vrtejuri luntrice, lacul se tia c e fr fund, lac ru :
nha i ce apuc nu mai d drumul. La fa se arat curat i ademenitor. Dar numai la
cteva palme dedesupt miun o plas vie de brdi lacom, rsfirat ca o nesfrit caracati,
care te prinde i te nclcete fr putin de scpare. n cteva clipe, iezerul te trage ntr-unul
din nenumratele puuri i cotloane care-l cptuesc, unde te nchide ca ntr-o pung2.
Desigur, mai exist i alte spaii cu o conotaie fantastic n proza lui V. Voiculescu, n interiorul sau n jurul
satului arhaic unde se desfoar de cele mai multe ori aciunea n povestirile fantastice ale scriitorului ; oricum,
apa, elementul acvatic joac un rol semnificativ, n Lostria rul adpostete petele fantastic, de natur
demonic i Pescarul Amin.
2
Vasile Voiculescu, Integrala prozei literare, Bucureti, Editura Anastasia, 1998, p. 129.
1
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Issue no. 6/2015
Gheorghie, dei cunosctor al tainelor iezerului i pescar nentrecut, nscut de mama sa chiar
pe malurile lacului, devine victima acestuia, dar nu fr un motiv ntemeiat. Mult vreme
preferat i protejat al apelor, cci el sta cuminte sub oblduirile iezerului, supus la toate
rnduielile, ca un fecior nentinat i asculttor3, tnrul se ntoarce de la armat schimbat,
ngmfat, nbdios, nrvit la butur, i neruinat cu femeile. Nu mai inea datinile, clca
oprelitile4. Pentru o fat, Gheorghie pune prinsoare, duminica la hor, cu biatul preotului,
s treac lacul not. El ncalc astfel o interdicie strveche, uitnd c mai cu seam duminica
era cu asprime oprit s tulburi odihna lacului i s-l nfruni...i nc ncins de vin i aprins de
o muiere5. Este momentul n care iezerul capt aparenele unui spaiu fantastic,
metamorfozndu-se ntr-o entitate punitiv, din adncurile creia apariii supranaturale pun
sfrit ndrznelii fr de msur a tnrului : Acolo deodat a scos un rcnet, s-a dus la
fund, a sltat iar deasupra, luptnd cu ndrtnicie i cercnd s strige. Celor de pe mal li s-a
prut c vorbete cu cineva, c se roag, zbtndu-se ntre nite brae de ap ce se ridicau s-l
ncolceasc. i li se nzrir nluci i spaime cu plete de spum i brbi cree de valuri. Dar
repede, ca i cnd cineva l-ar fi tras de picioare n jos, Gheorghie s-a fcut nevzut, nghiit
n adnc6. ntreg satul particip la ncercrile disperate de cutare a trupului nghiit de apele
lacome. ns ele nu vor putea fi mbunate dect de btrna Savila, neleapta i totodat
vrjitoarea bun a satului. Doar ea tie cum iezerul, pe care stenii, n mentalitatea lor arhaic,
l privesc cu team, asimilndu-l unui spaiu fantastic guvernat de un zmeu, ar putea fi
mbunat. Elementul de supranatural se nate n povestire prin descrierea fcut lacului, ale
crui ape nu trebuie tulburate : lac ru, posomort, cu ape tragice, ncletat asupra przii, [...],
nu suferea urciunea sub nici un chip7. Cu siguran, fantasticul exist, pentru cititor, doar n
interiorul acestei lumi, tritoare nc ntr-o mentalitate mitico-magic. Dar, n alt ordine de
idei, ceea ce pentru lector pare extraordinar, de neacceptat i anume personificarea lacului i
transformarea lui ntr-un element ce pare s prind via, s se anime intr, pentru oamenii
din sat, n ordinea fireasc a lucrurilor, a ntmplrilor de zi cu zi. Astfel, supranaturalul nu
poate prinde contur n interiorul mentalitii mitico-magice, ci doar n afara ei, n lumea
noastr modern, desacralizat, cutnd explicaii raionale pentru orice eveniment existenial.
Poate mai mult dect alte povestiri ale lui V. Voiculescu, Lacul ru se apropie, prin
construcie i atmosfer, de categoria miraculosului fantastic de sorginte folcloric8.
Reprezentative pentru o posibil poetic a spaiului fantastic sunt i povestirile cu
tent fantastic ale scriitorului Ion Agrbiceanu, apropiate de universul imaginar voiculescian
prin faptul c descriu satul romnesc, cel ardelean de aceast dat, dar i prin modul de
abordare a supranaturalului. ns, spre deosebire de construcia textelor autorului muntean, n
care, de cele mai multe ori, un intrus descoper un univers nou, tritor dup alte reguli, la
Agrbiceanu eroii aparin aceleiai lumi n care acioneaz i tot aici i vor consuma destinul.
O lume nc aflat, precum la Voiculescu, sub semnul magicului, al credinei n fiine
fantastice i locuri ncrcate fie de energii sacre, fie de puteri malefice, care i ajut sau,
dimpotriv, i pedepsesc pe oameni atunci cnd nu respect rnduielile i semnele cunoscute
din btrni. Fantasticul, la Ion Agrbiceanu, este aproape ntotdeauna explicat spre finalul
povestirii, ns modul n care este condus aciunea, miznd n special pe gradaia suspensului, a misterului i, apoi, descrierea unor locuri care devin adevrate toposuri cu ncrctur
supranatural aaz proza scriitorului ardelean n direcia insolitului.
3
Idem, p. 130.
Ibidem.
5
Ibidem.
6
Ibidem.
7
Idem, p. 129.
8
Cf. Sergiu Pavel Dan, Proza fantastic romneasc, Bucureti, Editura Minerva, 1975, p. 49.
4
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Issue no. 6/2015
n fapt, textele care vor fi analizate n urmtoarele rnduri, Vlva-bilor i Valeadracului, mai puin Duhul bilor, conin un nucleu care ar fi putut s se dezvolte n direcia
fantasticului, dar se oprete, ns, pe teritoriul nvecinat al straniului sau al miraculosului de
sorginte popular. Astfel, n Vlva-bilor, misterul se ese n jurul eroului Vasile Mrza, un
ortac mbogit peste noapte, bnuit de steni c ar avea legturi tainice i c a plecat spre
drumul pierzrii. Oamenii cred c Mrzu ar fi protejat chiar de Vlva-bilor, varianta
feminin a duhului bilor, care se arat n interiorul minei n momentele de cumpn sau le
dezvluie minerilor locul unde s caute vna de aur. Mai mult, alii susin c n puterea
nopii, cnd se-ntorcea de la baie, l-ar fi vzut pe Mrzu trecnd peste Dealul-Bilor. Dar nu
mergea cum se merge, ci trecea zburnd, parc neatingnd pmntul9. i, totui, nu vreun
spirit tainic al bii l ndrum pe erou n gsirea aurului, ci o btrn crmri, Niuleasa, cu
colii ieii, cu brbia lat, zbrcit, cu nasul lung ct o piparc10, o ntrupare a rului, de a
crei fat acesta se ndrgostete. Lcomia btrnei pentru aur devine din ce n ce mai mare,
mai ales c ea cunoate, din btrni, locurile unde mai exist aur. Crma Niulesei, loc
ntunecat, anunnd, parc, sfritul tragic al eroului, gzduia n trecut toi hoii de baie, de
la care, de altfel, btrna vrjitoare a smuls secretele gsirii aurului. Vasile Mrza i afl
sfritul pe muntele Vlcoiu, la Vrtejul-Oanei, loc temut i necercetat de ceilali biei din
sat, prbuindu-se, din neatenie, n adncurile bii abandonate. Muntele capt, precum lacul
din povestirea lui Voiculescu, virtuile unui spaiu simbolic punitiv, care sancioneaz lcomia
fr de msur a oamenilor. Povestirea Valea-Dracului este construit dup o schem epic
asemntoare. Gherasm, protagonistul, a avut cutezana s coboare ntr-un loc interzis, n
Valea-Dracului, pentru a cuta, la fel ca Mrzu, banii necesari cstoriei cu fata iubit.
Stenii cred, ns, cu trie c nsui Necuratul l-a pedepsit pe tnr, gsit mort n acest spaiu
asupra cruia struie un vechi blestem. i de aceast dat, elementul de fantastic este
ndeprtat de naratorul heterodiegetic : viteazul i curajosul Gherasm este ucis de pdurarul
Pascu, cerberul vii misterioase, om urt cu ochii mici, surii, gelos pe isteimea, curajul i
tinereea lui Gherasm. Pdurarul vrea s se nsoare cu Crucia, iubita lui Gherasm, i este
preferat de tatl fetei pentru c tocmai a motenit o moie. Dac personajele i reliefarea
caracterelor se apropie de basm, prin simplitatea liniilor cu care sunt construite, n schimb
naratorul dovedete abiliti rar ntlnite pentru crearea atmosferei premergtoare
fantasticului, pentru gradarea i amplificarea misterului care ar fi putut duce la un
deznodmnt ieit din tiparele ntmplrilor obinuite. De mare efect se dovedesc, ns,
descrierea spaiului nchis, ru-famat al Vii-Dracului n pdurile btrne de pe hotarul
Brotenilor sunt multe huzdoape oarbe, multe vi adnci, multe prpstii care se deschid ca
nite guri de iad, sau mprejmuit de tufiul acesta, doarme, n adncimi neptrunse, ValeaDracului. Mirosul tare, pictor al buruienilor, al florilor slbatece [...] plutete peste toat
mprejurimea ca un abur de fosfor topit. De mult vreme picior de om n-a ptruns n ValeaDracului. Oamenii spun c, de bun sam, nu-i lucru curat, c acolo zac comori ngropate de
pe vremea turcilor, dar c sunt date n paza Necuratului11 i senzaiile puternice i
amestecate pe care eroul le triete n interiorul ei : Gherasm se trezi ameit, cutremurat de
team, n adncul Vii-Dracului. I se prea c, tot astfel cum alunecase, se va deschide acum
pmntul sub picioarele lui i-l va nghii. I se pru c sus, n tufiurile de pe Lrm, ar fi auzit
un rs ascuit, ca de drac [...]. Sudorile ncepuser s-i mbroboneze fruntea, nu de team, ci
de un sentiment nedesluit ; i venea aa, fr s cread, ca i cnd i-ar spa groapa12 .
Ion Agrbiceanu, Opere. Schie i povestiri, vol. II, Bucureti, Editura pentru literatur, 1962, p. 122.
Idem, p. 124.
11
Idem, p. 223.
12
Idem, p. 228, 230.
9
10
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Dac pn acum naratorul, n cele dou texte, refuza s i asume fantasticul, n

schimb Duhul bilor este singura povestire n care evenimentelor de necrezut nu li se mai d
o explicaie plauzibil. Instaurarea supranaturalului va fi sprijinit i de decuparea diferit, n
raport cu povestirile anterioare, a materiei epice, prin introducerea punctului de vedere al unui
narator reprezentat. Satul, rememoreaz acum, n prezent, domnul Ispas, era ntunecat, cuprins
de neguri lptoase, ceea ce l determin s se ndrepte spre crcium, unde trei bei, la un
pahar de must, i vor povesti trei istorisiri de necrezut, trite chiar de ei. Prezena celor trei
povestitori are i rolul de a certifica, de a ntri lucrurile mai mult dect stranii pe care ei le
relateaz. Domnul Ispas, om cu munc de birou i cu judecat limpede, se afl la polul opus
minerilor, pe care i privete ntru nceput foarte nencreztor : Da bine, oameni buni, zic eu,
dumneavoastr chiar credei n minunile astea ? Nu tii c n pmnt nu triete nici o fiin
omeneasc, c nu este Vlv, c nu-i duh al bilor i c toate povetile pe care le spunei sunt
numa-nchipuiri ?13 ns ei, oameni cu credin, susin c orice min are un duh al ei, care
apare arareori n faa minerilor, spre a-i ncuraja sau a le anuna o primejdie de moarte :
Domnule Ispas, mi zise, eu n-a vrea ca dumneata s peti ceva ru. Doamne, ferete !
Dumneata eti om bun i de-aceea te rog s nu-i bai joc de smne. Ne crezi dumneata pe noi
bei, ori muieri fricoase, s spunem poveti ? [...] Nu-i bine, mi zise el, s vorbeti cu
necredin de celea ce nu se vd, cci duhurile sunt venic lng noi, ne-aud, ne cunosc, i pe
urm i rzbun14. Naratorul afl astfel trei ntmplri oculte legate, toate, de spaiul
ntunecat, cu conotaii uneori malefice, al minei, att de pregnant n proza lui ; prima, a lui Ion
Vintil, despre nite sunete ciudate ieite din stnc, de parc n spatele peretelui ar fi bit ali
oameni; a doua, spus de Petre a Rarului, despre o apariie fantomatic pe muntele Vlcoiu, a
unui btrn nalt, cu barba mare, cu ochii ca de ghea, care i anun, cu voce omeneasc,
s nu mai sape acolo dup aur : i-n mijlocul acelei biserici sta btrnul pe care-l vzusem.
Sta cu ochii nchii, cu braul drept ridicat, i auzirm ca un uier de vnt, -apoi se auzi de
trei ori, cu glasul cel mai curat omenesc : Nu-i, i nu-i, i nu-i !15 . n acest moment, deja,
naratorul ncepe s se lase convins de adevrul celor auzite, cedeaz n faa povestitorului
autodiegetic i a martorilor si, fcndu-l pe cititor s i pun aceleai ntrebri : A Rarului
mi povesti toate acestea cu atta siguran, nct m convinse. i acum ncepu s m nvluie
o tain mare, o fric aproape copilreasc16. A treia ntmplare se refer la Patronul Nopii,
un fel de stpn al ntunericului vzut ntr-o noapte de iarn pe Dealu-Bilor, care trece ca un
fulger, i-ntr-o noapte cutreier ntreg pmntul. Are uniform de general, ns, tiu stenii,
este o artare, o himer de care este bine s-i fereti privirea, calul su nelsnd niciodat
urme n zpad. Povetile cu stafii i apariii zguduie puternic credinele domnului Ispas
despre lume i l provoac s mediteze adnc la cele ascultate i s accepte c multe lucruri
rele se pot abate asupra omului n unele locuri i n puterea nopii, la anumite ceasuri. Se
poate concluziona c exist o spaialitate predilect producerii fantasticului n povestirile
analizate, reprezentat concret prin mina sau baia de aur, prin munte i pdure, locuri stranii
care nlesnesc, ca i n basm, manifestarea supranaturalului atunci cnd omul transgreseaz
hotarele cunoscute i intr pe teritorii nepermise, care l conecteaz parc la o dimensiune
diferit, de cele mai multe ori abisal, mortal ; apoi mai este crciuma ntunecat, ce pare
moart, din Vlva-Bilor, care adpostea cndva hoii de aur, creia i cade victim naivul
Vasile Mrza, formnd mpreun cu satul i trgul o geografie literar pe ale crei coordonate
triesc personajele din proza lui Ion Agrbiceanu.
13
Idem, p. 284.
Idem, p. 285.
15
Idem, p. 286.
16
Idem, p. 286.
14
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Bibliografie
Agrbiceanu, Ion, Opere. Schie i povestiri, vol. II, Bucureti, Editura pentru
literatur, 1962.
Pavel Dan, Sergiu, Proza fantastic romneasc, Bucureti, Editura Minerva, 1975.
Voiculescu, Vasile, Integrala prozei literare, Bucureti, Editura Anastasia, 1998.
463
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THE MARQUEZIAN PATRIARCH: AN UN-MYTHISIZED MESSIA

Alina IEI
Abstract: In his much-praised novel The Autumn of the Patriarch, Gabriel Garca Mrquez
offers a compressed account of Latin Americas endless history of dictatorial regimes through
the archetypal image of the patriarch an inconceivably old dictator who ends up alone in a
palace full of cows. Concealed behind the masquerade that his entire life and government
represent, the patriarchs true identity is a conundrum waiting to be deciphered. Bearing in
mind the popular perspective that Garca Mrquez uses in order to achieve the distortion of
power, we embark on the quest of revealing the patriarchs real self and thus his human side.
The spatio-temporal coordinates, the extraordinary birth, or the recurrent obsessions that
symbolically characterize the patriarch are key elements which help us dismantle the
concentric closed circles that protect him and draw near an autumnal character who is finally
stripped of his everlasting mythical aura.
Keywords: patriarch, demythification, power, solitude, identity.
Dei abundena excentric de episoade neverosimile din Toamna patriarhului un
lung poem n proz despre singurtatea puterii cu accente suprarealiste nate dificulti n
revelarea identitii personajului, iar farsa reprezint particularitatea exclusiv a guvernrii
sale ntotdeauna mai exista alt adevr dincolo de adevr (Garca Mrquez, 2005: 43) , ne
propunem s pornim n cutarea adevratului patriarh.
Ca paradigm a textului, puterea este ntruchipat de figura patriarhului arhetip al
tiranului latinoamerican , a crui existen aparent interminabil simbolizeaz trista istorie a
regimurilor dictatoriale din America Latin, pe care Nobelul columbian decide s o abordeze
prin prisma vulgului, cu scopul vdit de a obine distorsionarea puterii: [...] arbitrarietatea
dictatorului absolut i imaginea sa popular extravagant se contopesc n carnavalizarea
puterii pe care textul o promoveaz (Ortega, 1991: 275, trad. n.). Patriarhul este nsi
personificarea puterii, dar puterea este abil disimulat atunci cnd personajul central se
transform n mit; pe scurt, textul descrie voina de putere trstur primordial a
patriarhului ce contribuie semnificativ la demitizarea sa.
Dictatura, neleas ca un chin nesfrit, devine n minile scriitorului aspectul
pivotant n jurul cruia se articuleaz naraiunea, n aa fel nct se creeaz sentimentul
inechivoc c puterea dictatorial este sempitern. Potrivit lui Palencia-Roth, viaa i n
special guvernarea patriarhului se msoar cu cuvntul din titlu: toamn (1983: 222-223,
trad. n.). Toamna patriarhului implic deziluzie i, n acelai timp, face aluzie la declinul
puterii sale. Ne vom concentra, prin urmare, atenia asupra decadenei btrnului despot,
pentru a reliefa, progresiv, demitificarea acestuia.
Dac dictatura constituie reperul tematic al crii, patriarhul ca manifestare concret
a acesteia este reperul structural n funcie de care se dezvolt concentric episoadele ce
alctuiesc universul narativ. Prima parte a romanului schieaz ceea ce restul trateaz n
profunzime. Tocmai din acest motiv, [...] acele cercuri concentrice, cu o raz din ce n ce mai
mare, dau cititorului impresia unei curgeri line dar in situ, fiindc vrtejul cuvintelor nu
conduce dect la o perpetu contemplare a cadavrului, ntr-un spaiu fix i ntr-un timp
suspendat unde prezentul i trecutul chiar i la timpurile verbale sunt unul singur,
fuzioneaz, coexist (Dellepiane, 1977: 73, trad. n.).
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Att perspectiva temporal, ct i cea spaial au o relevan deosebit n arhitectura

romanului, de aceea considerm oportun s zbovim asupra lor, ntruct coordonatele spaiotemporale nu trebuie separate, ele dobndind o importan vital n arta narativ. Statismul
spaial i timpul suspendat amplific cronologic figura patriarhului, o atemporalizeaz i,
n cele din urm, duc la transfigurarea i la mitizarea personajului i a lumii sale (74, trad.
n.). ns acestor dou elemente se impune s le adugm i alte nuane spaiale prezente n
roman, care ne poart ctre realitatea patriarhului i, implicit, ctre demitificarea acestuia.
Spaiul este subordonat patriarhului, care, aa cum am menionat, reprezint axul
paradigmatic al textului. De aceea, btrnul solitar se mic n spaii nchise, unde puterea lui
se afl la adpost. Evident, ara este izolat, fapt ce corespunde situaiei dictatoriale n care se
afl, dei patriarhul ncearc s justifice o atare circumstan:
[...] i se ntorsese din cltoria aceea exaltat de revelaia c nu-i nimic pe lume care s
se poat asemui cu mirosul acesta de fructe tropicale stricate, cu larma de trg i cu
simmntul adnc de tristee n fapt de sear al patriei noastre srmane, ale crei hotare n-avea
s le treac niciodat, i nu pentru c i-ar fi fost team s se mite din scaunul pe care sttea,
aa cum spuneau dumanii lui, ci fiindc omul e ca un copac de pdure, mam, ca
slbticiunile ce nu ies din brlog dect pentru a mnca [...]. (98)
Dac pornim de la izolarea impus de patriarh rii sale, putem ntrezri izolarea lui ca
persoan. De fapt, configurarea spaial din roman i gsete corespondent mai cu seam n
trei nuclee grafice: palatul prezidenial, conacul lui Bendicin Alvarado i casa Manuelei
Snchez. i oraul servete drept fundal, dar mereu este situat ntr-un plan secund, iar
imaginea care ni se livreaz este totdeauna fugitiv i ndeprtat.
Din aceast configurare spaial, deosebit de important se dovedete palatul
prezidenial, unicul loc prin care patriarhul umbl fr team. i totui, la cderea serii, se
refugiaz n dormitorul su centrul palatului , ncercnd s se protejeze de lumea
exterioar. Putem conchide, aadar, c dormitorul patriarhului este un soi de axis mundi al
romanului, cci, dac inem seama de cuvintele lui Mircea Eliade conform crora centrul este
[...] zona sacrului prin excelen, aceea a realitii absolute (1999: 23), atunci singura
persoan care poate avea acces la camera dictatorului este chiar el; mai mult dect att, dac
puterea pe care o deine l-a transformat n mit, nici accesul la centru nu mai constituie
pentru patriarh un obstacol.
ns centrul ca spaiu transcendent se consacr ca atare numai prin mijlocirea unui
ritual. Astfel, n derularea discursului narativ, observm c atunci cnd se retrage n camera
sa, patriarhul efectueaz de fiecare dat acelai ritual: [...] punea cele trei zvoare, cele trei
lacte, cei trei drugi, se trntea cu faa n jos pe podea, singur i mbrcat, [...] cum fcu [...]
pn n cea de pe urm noapte cu visele-i de necat singuratic... (176-177). La nivel simbolic,
acest ceremonial reiterativ corespunde izolrii i este menit a-l pune n legtur cu forele
misterioase ce i-au nlesnit acapararea puterii absolute.
Desigur, romanul este edificat n acord cu structurile mitice. Dar nu trebuie s uitm c
prozatorul recreeaz realitatea dictatorial, iar n acest nou context, patriarhul se izoleaz cu
scopul de a-i prezerva forma de guvernare la care poporul nu are acces. Aa cum remarc
Palencia-Roth, n modelul autoritar-conservator, poporul se poate face auzit n general numai
prin intermediul unei invazii progresive a cercurilor concentrice. Acesta este unul dintre
motivele pentru care patriarhul efectiv axul rii i centrul puterii triete ntr-o
permanent stare de asediu (1983: 240, trad. n.). Oricum, strdaniile cu care i apr puterea
meninndu-se n cercuri nchise care-l protejeaz se dovedesc zadarnice, fiindc nu poate
opri scurgerea timpului care-i invadeaz spaiul i n faa cruia, altminteri invincibil, va
sucomba.
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Se verific, deci, o ambivalen spaial care rspunde pe de o parte structurii mitice

cu care Garca Mrquez i-a elaborat artistic opera, iar pe de alt parte structurii cu care, n
genere, este identificat o guvernare autoritar. Este vorba, prin urmare, de o dubl
dimensiune spaial subiacent naraiunii.
Ne vom focaliza acum asupra realitii patriarhului i, n acest sens, vom lua drept
punct de plecare relatarea ce are drept subiect naterea sa extraordinar. i e chiar Bendicin
Alvarado, mama sa, cea care dezvluie misterul naterii i ne prezint versiunea real:
[...] Bendicin Alvarado i ddea seama c numai ea era pe moarte i ncerca s-i
dezvluie fiului secretele de familie pe care nu voia s le duc n mormnt, i povestea [...] cl nscuse cu greu n zorii unei zile de august ntr-un cotlon de mnstire, c l cercetase la
lumina harfelor melancolice ale mucatelor i vzuse c avea testiculul drept de mrimea unei
smochine care se dezumfla cu un uier ca de burduf cnd respira, [...] i numai o ghicitoare de
circ i ddu seama c nou-nscutul n-avea nici o linie n palm, i asta nsemna c i era
hrzit s ajung rege, i aa a i fost [...]. (124-125)
Din aceast optic demitizatoare, putem sesiza c autorul hiperbolizeaz n construirea
personajului o serie de obsesii ce l definesc pe patriarh. Dellepiane le delimiteaz schematic:
cea a sexului, care se ramific n niruirea femeilor pe care le-a iubit i n dependena
aparte fa de mam; cea a afirmrii puterii printr-o cruzime nemaipomenit, exercitat dup
bunul plac; cea a iubirii pentru mare ca peisaj (fapt ce nu-l mpiedic s o transforme ntr-o
adncitur pustie atunci cnd o vinde yankeilor) i, n cele din urm, obsesia lui pentru timp,
ce semnific teama de btrnee singura condiie n care l vedem mereu i de moarte, pe
lng un mod de a-i afirma mesianismul. (1977: 81, trad. n.)
n ciuda puterii nemrginite, patriarhul, ca ntrupare a unui Mesia inversat (Corrales
Pascual, 1975: 278, trad. n.), se ndreapt pe parcursul traiectoriei sale existeniale nspre o
constant frustrare a propriilor aspiraii.
Marea este una dintre obsesii i se cuvine s ne amintim c marea, surs a nelinitii a
ceea ce-a pierdut sau nu a obinut nicicnd, dar i a speranei de rennoire deopotriv
(Shivers, 1975: 43, trad. n.), este prezent n majoritatea povestirilor lui Garca Mrquez.
Evident, n aceast interpretare paradoxal subzist o angoas vital, iar n Toamna
patriarhului se exprim tocmai nsemntatea mrii i efortul ndrjit pe care l face patriarhul
pentru a nu se desprinde de ea odat ce a ajuns s o cunoasc:
[...] putea lua tot ce poftea n afar de marea din dreptul ferestrelor mele, nchipuii-v,
ce m-a face eu singur n casa asta uria dac n-a putea-o vedea acum [...] ca o mlatin n
flcri, [...] cum a putea s triesc fr clipirile verzi ale farului, eu, care mi-am prsit
podiurile nalte nvluite n cea i am intrat agoniznd de friguri n vltoarea rzboiului
federal, i s nu credei c-am fcut-o din patriotism cum scrie la carte, [...], nu, dragul meu
Wilson, am fcut toate astea ca s vd marea, aa c gndete-te la alt chestie n schimb [...].
(186-187)
Dac pornim de la premisa c patriarhul marquezian reprezint o sintez a dictatorilor
latinoamericani, remarcm c autorul trimite indirect la zbuciumata istorie a Americii Latine,
unde dependena nbu libertatea; iar n acest roman, scriitorul nu se sfiete s fac din
marea Caraibelor o hiperbol alegoric a dependenei politice a subcontinentului. Tocmai
pentru c a trit sub ocupaie, patriarhul refuz cu obstinaie s revin la starea sa anterioar
de servitute, fiindc, n plus, ar pierde o parte semnificativ din puterea pe care o deine;
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patriarhul este, fr doar i poate, atotputernic, ns doar pe teritoriul su, cci exist o putere
mai mare dect a sa, puterea extern.
Totui, confruntat cu ameninarea unei noi ocupaii, patriarhul renun la mare, dar de
aceast dat nu se mai bucur de sprijinul popular. La rndul su, poporul, victim a
represiunii, reacioneaz n spirit anti-patriotic: asist impasibil la jefuirea mrii, fr s
exercite nici un fel de presiune. Se confirm astfel frustrarea pe care pierderea mrii i-o
pricinuiete patriarhului, iar omnipotena sa de altdat apune, cci, la urma urmelor, depinde
de alii din exterior.
Dac odat cu cedarea mrii, puterea patriarhului s-a diminuat n ochii cititorului,
aducem n discuie alta dintre obsesii, pentru a contrabalansa importana imaginii sale.
Patriarhul i afirm i consolideaz puterea prin cruzime, aspect pe care Garca Mrquez l
subliniaz n repetate rnduri: lichidarea copiilor care scoteau numerele de loterie, reprimarea
insureciei conduse de Bonivento Barboza i, pe deasupra, sinistra pedeaps aplicat
generalului Rodrigo de Aguilar, pe care patriarhul se rzbun cu o atrocitate exacerbat.
Cadavrul generalului Rodrigo de Aguilar expus pe o tipsie de argint [...] ct era de
lung peste o garnitur de conopid i foi de dafin, dres cu mirodenii, rumenit la cuptor, [...]
umplut cu alune i ierburi aromate [...] (118) este un exemplu de batjocur a unui joc
suprarealist (Oviedo, 1981: 185, trad. n.), ba mai mult, scoate n eviden grotescul acestui
episod; grotescul este una dintre trsturile principale ale romanului, scopul su fiind acela de
a crea o tensiune n mintea cititorului prin intermediul opoziiei dintre comic i un element
incompatibil, n general oroarea, repugnana sau anormalitatea fizic (McMurray, 1978: 140,
trad. n.). Indubitabil, sentimentul pe care l strnete banchetul oferit n cinstea generalului
Rodrigo de Aguilar este de repulsie fa de truculena patriarhului. Afirmarea puterii prin
cruzime e un act vizibil i dovedit, dar n ciuda evidenei, dictatorul nu este att de puternic
precum pare, cci n el zac frustrri care l anihileaz din punct de vedere uman.
Dac ne ndreptm atenia ctre o alta dintre obsesii sexul , frustrarea patriarhului
se manifest o dat n plus. Copiii pe care i are cu numeroasele sale concubine, chiar i unicul
su fiu legitim, rod al relaiei cu Leticia Nazareno, sunt nscui la apte luni. Enigm ce ar
putea fi neleas ca un semn al decadenei umane: E vorba n mod cert de un blestem, de
obiectivizarea unei pedepse divine care semnaleaz o stirpe degradat. Obsesia trimite la o
lume obscur de superstiii i interpretri magico-populare, la premoniii, minuni, prohibiii,
plgi i spaime ancestrale prin care se explic mitic originea, istoria i destinul unui popor
(Oviedo, 1981: 186, trad. n.). Nesocotind codurile sexuale normative, despotul i construiete
propriul purgatoriu n care ptimete, n pofida puterii sale absolute, de singurtate.
Pe de alt parte, iubirea este cutat cu insisten, cci patriarhul vrea s ating
dragostea adevrat, cea care nvinge moartea i salveaz specia (187, trad. n.). O caut n
Manuela Snchez dar eueaz, cufundndu-se ntr-o solitudine total:
[...] i, pe msur ce umbrele nopii efemere se risipeau, i se aprindea n suflet lumina
adevrului i, n penumbra aurorei de la ase seara din casa pustie, se simi mai btrn, mai
trist, mai singur ca oricnd n deertciunea venic a acestei lumi fr tine, regina mea,
pierdut pentru totdeauna n enigma eclipsei, n vecii vecilor, [...] i dac atunci nu s-a lsat la
cheremul morii n-a fost pentru c i-ar fi lipsit furia turbat de a muri, ci fiindc tia c era
osndit fr scpare s nu moar din dragoste [...]. (79-80)
n cutarea-i disperat, are convingerea c a gsit n Leticia Nazareno iubirea dup
care tnjete. Uit de putere i se pune n slujba fostei novice. Cu ea patriarhul i pierde
ntreaga autoritate: [...] deoarece capii armatei ncepeau s se ridice mpotriva veneticei care
izbutise s adune n minile ei mai mult putere dect comandamentul suprem, dect guvernul,
i chiar dect el [...] (173). n aceast etap a decderii, patriarhul se las dominat de iluzia
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iubirii. Cu toate acestea, moartea Leticiei Nazareno i a fiului su legitim nu l afecteaz: [...]
vindecat cu desvrire de furia de a fi fost cel mai slab dintre militarii armatelor de ap, aer i
uscat din pricina unei clugrie fugare din care nu mai rmsese dect numele scris cu
creionul pe fii de hrtie, aa cum hotrse el [...] (188).
Dac de Leticia Nazareno depinde pn ntr-acolo nct pierde puterea, de Bendicin
Alvarado va depinde pn la sfritul zilelor, chiar i dup moartea acesteia. Dragostea
nermurit fa de mam se reflect n dorina lui de a o canoniza, iar n acest scop iniiaz un
lent proces la captul cruia descoper adevrul, pe care l nfrunt complet singur i fr
sprijinul matern. Pentru Garca Mrquez mama este un principiu cluzitor al stirpei, care o
organizeaz i i d sens un sens n mijlocul delirului (Oviedo, 1981: 185, trad. n.). Fr
mam i ntr-o lume imposibil de guvernat, dat fiind c totul n ea este o fars, patriarhul se
simte pierdut i singur:
[...] asta mai lipsea s nu m iubeasc nimeni acum cnd dumneata ai s te bucuri de
gloria nefericirii mele [...], pe cnd el rmnea cu povara nemeritat a adevrului fr o mam
grijulie, care s-l ajute s-o poarte, mai singur ca un sihastru n patria asta pe care nu eu am
ales-o de bunvoie, ci mi-au dat-o gata fcut, precum ai vzut-o i cum a fost dintotdeauna
cu sentimentul acesta de irealitate, cu mirosul acesta de rahat, cu oamenii acetia fr istorie
care nu cred n nimic dect n via [...]. (146)
Singurtatea i lipsa de protecie l apropie pe patriarh de cititor i l umanizeaz.
Autorul reuete s ne trezeasc necontenit compasiunea, deoarece existena dictatorului
nseamn incomprehensiune i resentiment. n Toamna patriarhului predomin, dup cum
afirma Carmen Martn Gaite, tragedia interioar a unui om aflat ntr-o cutare stupid,
agresiv i perpetuu euat a propriei identiti, a originii i a motivului traiectoriei sale
(1982: 211, trad. n.). ntr-adevr, n epoca cnd Senz de la Barra deine friele puterii,
patriarhul nu se mai recunoate pe sine, ntruct pierderea puterii atrage dup sine i pierderea
identitii:
[...] dormii fr grij, domnule general, i spunea, lumea-i a dumneavoastr, fcndu-l
s cread c totul era att de simplu i de limpede, i lsndu-l iar n bezna acelei case de
izbelite pe care el strbtea de la un cap la altul ntrebndu-se n gura mare cine naiba snt eu
de m simt ca i cnd m-a vedea n oglinzi tocmai cu susu-n jos, [...] nu mai snt altceva dect
o paia zugrvit pe peretele acestei case de groaz, unde i era cu neputin s dea un ordin
care s nu fie mplinit nc dinainte [...]. (217-218)
Supunerea fa de Senz de la Barra ia sfrit cu o crunt rzbunare, dar lucrul de care
nu se poate elibera nici rzbuna patriarhul este trecerea timpului: [...] nu exist pedeaps mai
umilitoare i mai nemeritat pentru un om dect s se vad trdat de propriul trup [...] (241).
Absolut uman, patriarhul este acum demitizat. Se dovedete, nc o dat, c sprijinul su
existenial a fost puterea: [...] i desluise neputina de a iubi n enigma din palmele minilor
sale mute i n cifrele nevzute de pe crile de joc, i se strduise s ndrepte destinul acela
ticlos prin cultul devastator al viciului solitar care este puterea [...] (250).
Cade astfel n propria-i capcan, fiindc dintotdeauna a fost subjugat de putere i a
trit adaptndu-se la circumstane, refugiat n minciun: [...] ns nv s triasc [...] i cu
toate mizeriile gloriei pe msur ce descoperea de-a lungul anilor si fr ir c minciuna e
mai comod dect ndoiala, mai folositoare dect dragostea, mai trainic dect adevrul,
ajunsese fr uimire la aceast prefctorie ruinoas de a conduce fr a avea putere, de a fi
preamrit fr glorie i ascultat fr autoritate [...] (251).
Din teama de a accepta viaa ca pe ceva efemer, se ascunde n farsa-i de eternitate fr
a ajunge vreodat s se cunoasc: [...] fiindc noi tiam cine sntem pe cnd el a rmas n veci
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n netiin cu uierul dulce al herniei lui de mort btrn secerat de lovitura morii, zburnd
mpresurat de fonetul tulbure al ultimelor frunze ngheate ale toamnei lui spre trmul
ntunecat al adevrului uitrii [...] (251).
Demascat realitatea patriarhului, am demonstrat astfel i demitizarea lui.
BIBLIOGRAFIE:
CORRALES PASCUAL, Manuel, El patriarca: un mesas trastocado, in: Lectura de
Gabriel Garca Mrquez (Doce Estudios), Quito: Centro de Publicaciones de la Pontificia
Universidad del Ecuador, 1975.
DELLEPIANE, ngela B., Tres novelas de la dictadura: El recurso del mtodo, El
otoo del patriarca, Yo, el Supremo, in: Caravelle, n 29, Toulouse, 1977.
ELIADE, Mircea, Mitul eternei rentoarceri. Arhetipuri i repetare, trad. de Maria
Ivnescu i Cezar Ivnescu, Bucureti: Editura Univers Enciclopedic, 1999.
GARCA MRQUEZ, Gabriel, Toamna patriarhului, trad. de Tudora andruMehedini, Bucureti: Rao, 2005.
MARTN GAITE, Carmen, El otoo del patriarca o la identidad irrecuperable, in
Peter EARLE (ed.), Gabriel Garca Mrquez, Madrid: Taurus, 1982.
McMURRAY, George R., Poder, soledad y decadencia: un retrato lrico, in: Gabriel
Garca Mrquez, Bogot: Carlos Valencia Editores, 1978.
ORTEGA, Julio, El otoo del patriarca: texto y cultura, in: Una potica del cambio,
Caracas: Biblioteca Ayacucho, 1991.
OVIEDO, Jos Miguel, Garca Mrquez: la novela como taumaturgia, in: Peter
EARLE (ed.), Gabriel Garca Mrquez, Madrid: Taurus, 1981.
PALENCIA-ROTH, Michael, Gabriel Garca Mrquez. La lnea, el crculo y la
metamorfosis del mito, Madrid: Gredos, 1983.
SHIVERS, George R., La visin mgico-mesinica en tres relatos de Gabriel Garca
Mrquez, in: Arbor, XCI, Madrid, 1975.
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EUROPEAN LITERARY DIRECTIONS AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON THE ROMANIAN

CULTURE (PRE-ROMANTICISM, ROMANTICISM, POST-ROMANTICISM, REALISM)
Ana-Elena COSTANDACHE
Dunrea de Jos University of Galai
Abstract: The XIXth century was definitive in terms of training artistic sensitivity and in
changing mentalities. The idea of dialogue with European models, but also to preserve the
Romanian originality was decisive in the political, social, cultural and especially in shaping
the literary space. Our approach highlights how the European cultural directions of that time
go along with trying to create the Romanian space of culture. As increasingly more directions
were a model, gradually renounced in favour of the original writings, the movement of
foreign models is highlighted and documented by the publications of that time.
Keywords: literary directions, esthetical currents, romanticism, realism, influences.
n ansamblul su, secolul al XIX-lea a reprezentat o epoc a modernizrii i a
modernitii manifestate printr-o juxtapunere de curente literare, direcii estetice i stiluri
artistice, ntr-un amestec de elemente neoclasice, iluministe, preromantice i romantice
afirmate n toate domeniile culturale. Dintre toate direciile, romantismul a dominat n epoc
i s-a afirmat ca un curent literar modern, n descendena celui francez, ca o izbucnire de
for neconinut, desfurat fr disciplin interioar.1
Termenul de romantism a fost recunoscut n contiina european n intervalul 18201830 iar n limba romn, n aceeai perioad, termenul desemna ideea de pitoresc.
Conceptualizarea romantismului2 a propus-o P. Cornea; acesta aprecia faptul c exist o
discrepan ntre numele i sensul termenului romantic. Dup 1830, romantismul implica
ideea de curent literar i a denumit o practic literar plin de confuzii i de ambiguiti.
Vrstele romantismului european sunt clasificate n trei categorii, iar potrivit opiniei
lui Virgil Nemoianu3 conceptul de romantism cuprindea romantismul nalt, sau High
Romanticism, manifestat doar n cteva ri europene (Frana, Anglia, Germania, ncepnd cu
anul 1815) i care propunea un proiect uman vast, centrat n jurul ideii de expansiune, n
sensul depirii tuturor limitelor omeneti, apoi romantismul de tip Biedermeier (ce definea
forma n care curentul s-a adaptat n Balcani i care era tradus printr-un romantism domestic,
idilic, conservator, caracterizat prin respingerea canoanelor clasicismului, prin adoptarea
cultului sensibilitii i al naturii i prin gustul pentru pitoresc, pentru elementele exotice) i
postromantismul (manifestat pn n 1870). P. Cornea se declara mpotriva ipotezei lui
Nemoianu i aprecia succesiunea invers a paradigmelor n cadrul romantismului romnesc,
unde aa-zisul Low Romanticism se manifesta nainte de High Romanticism iar autorul nu
accepta reducerea paoptismului sau a romantismului autohton la o mentalitate de tip
Biedermeier.4 n schimb, N. Iorga propunea, n capitolul Romantism francez pe subiecte
romneti, ideea existenei a dou curente n aceeai epoc: Influena apusean a
M. Ralea, ntre dou lumi, Editura Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 1943, p. 232.
P. Cornea, Originile romantismului romnesc. Spiritul public, micarea ideilor i literatura ntre 1780-1840,
Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1972, p. 467.
3
V. Nemoianu, mblnzirea romantismului, ediia a II-a, Editura Curtea Veche, Bucureti, 2004, p. 19.
4
P. Cornea, Delimitri i ipoteze. Comunicri i eseuri de teorie literar i studii culturale, recenzie disponibil
la pagina http://www.zf.ro/ziarul-de-duminica/cronica-literara-cearta-cu-relativismul-4461769/
1
2
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romantismului francez nu nseamn o alt epoc; n aceeai epoc, se deosebesc dou

curente.5
n cadrul universului literar romnesc, romantismul s-a detaat prezentnd
caracteristici proprii, specifice condiiilor sociale i politice ale epocii. De remarcat este faptul
c romantismul romnesc s-a manifestat alturi de clasicism i realism. n operele unor
scriitori precum Gr. Alexandrescu, C. Negruzzi sau V. Alecsandri dominau, alturi de
atmosfera romantic, elemente clasice sau realiste. De asemenea, romantismul a reprezentat i
un adevrat stimulator al luptei pentru eliberare i al deteptrii contiinei naionale.
Literatura romantic din perioada paoptist s-a evideniat ca o literatur angajat, aflat n
slujba idealului naional.
Romantismul romnesc a aprut ca o micare unitar, cu un program bine structurat.
La fel ca n literatura european, micarea romantic romneasc a cuprins mai multe etape.
ntr-o prim etap, preromantic, conturat pe modelul clasic6, scriitorii s-au aflat sub semnul
lui Anacreon: poeii Vcreti (Ienchi, Iancu, Nicolae, Alecu), A. Pann, C. Conachi au
compus o liric erotic, dar i balade pe teme folclorice, epistole, elegii, ode, idile, epigrame.
Poeii romantici (din romantismul paoptist) precum V. Crlova, I. Heliade-Rdulescu sau
Ghe. Asachi propuneau o liric a ruinelor, n care visul, fantasticul i meditaia primau, iar
trecutul eroic era dat ca exemplu n versuri ce preamreau lupta nltoare pentru libertate
naional.
Cea de-a doua etap, reprezentat de momentul paoptist propriu-zis, aducea n primplan o literatur militant, patriotic, de evocare istoric, dar i cu elemente folclorice i de
natur autohton, aa cum aprea n operele lui N. Blcescu, D. Bolintineanu, Gr.
Alexandrescu, A. Russo, M. Koglniceanu, V. Alecsandri, A. Mureanu. P. Cornea afirma c
n interiorul generaiei paoptiste existau dou serii de scriitori: paoptitii iluminiti
precum C. Stamati, Ghe. Asachi, I. Heliade-Rdulescu, C. Aristia i paoptitii
revoluionari7 V. Alecsandri, Gr. Alexandrescu, C. Negri, C. Bolliac, I. Ghica, M.
Koglniceanu, N. Blcescu. Scriitorii din prima categorie aveau formaie spiritual
aproximativ i proveneau din clasele sociale intermediare, ns promovau progresul social, n
relaie strns cu valorile tradiiei. Fiind deschii la tot ceea ce nsemna noutate, acetia au
contribuit n mod esenial la procesul regenerrii naionale, iar politica activ i sistematic pe
care au dus-o a vizat n acelai timp nvmntul, societile culturale, teatrul, presa i tiparul.
Astfel, datorit lor a nceput s se formeze publicul cititor i s-au pus bazele comerului cu
cartea.
Scriitorii din a doua categorie aveau o formaie spiritual solid, cizelat la Paris, fiind
astfel pe deplin acordai Europei. Ca urmare, lor li se datora politizarea romantismului i
punerea n circulaie a conceptului de naiune, bazat pe unitatea de limb, de origine i de
aspiraii a romnilor. Amestecul vrstelor i modelelor8 s-a corelat, n epoc, imperativelor
naionale iar genurile i speciile literare se cereau a fi experimentate indiferent dac se
subordonau poeticii clasice, romantice sau dac erau hibride. Elementele de neoclasicism
coexistau cu cele preromantice i realiste att nainte de 1830 ct i dup acel moment, cnd
romantismul a devenit curentul dominant. Astfel, atmosfera romantic a cuprins ntregul front
literar al vremii iar scriitorii s-au grupat n jurul doctrinei literare romantice, avnd aceleai
opiuni literare i culturale.
N. Iorga, Istoria literaturii romneti. Arta i literatura romnilor, Editura Fundaiei Culturale Romne,
Bucureti, 1999, p. 148.
6
Al. Piru, Istoria literaturii romne de la origini pn la 1830, Editura tiinific i Enciclopedic, Bucureti,
1977, p. 46.
7
Ibidem, p. 376.
8
P. Cornea, Influena francez asupra spiritului public n Romnia. Originile, Editura Univers, Bucureti, 1982,
p. 455.
5
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O a treia etap, postpaoptist sau postromantic a debutat dup 1848, cnd estetica
romantismului era bine conturat, ns filonul romantic s-a prelungit i mai trziu, ca manier
de creaie i atitudine fa de via, prin operele lui Al. Ododescu, B. P. Hasdeu, Al.
Macedonski, O. Goga, M. Sadoveanu.
Dei romantismul romnesc a urmat modele apusene i a definit o practic literar
dominant, totui doctrina literar a fost eclectic, plin de ambiguiti i de confuzii. I.
Heliade-Rdulescu i propusese, prin programul su de cultivare a maselor, s traduc i s
tipreasc o colecie de autori clasici n care se ncadrau Homer, Vergiliu, dar i Byron sau V.
Hugo. Punctul de plecare al traducerilor sale l-a reprezentat Arta poetic a lui Boileau. n
consecin, s-a ajuns chiar ca n traduceri s se evidenieze un proces de nlocuire a criteriului
poeticului, traducerile fiind puse pe primul plan, naintea poeziilor originale.
n ceea ce privete romantismul aprut n Frana, Paul Cornea observa: Adevrul e
totui c revolta romantic (ndeosebi n Frana, deci n versiunea cea mai bine cunoscut
romanticilor romni) n-a avut n vedere negarea oricrei reglementri n art, ci doar a celei
instituite de dogmatismul clasicizant. Dup rndurile fulminante... Hugo recunotea n aceeai
faimoas prefa la Cromwell existena unor legi generale i a unor legi speciale ale
artei, cele dinti interioare i permanente, innd de gramatic i prozodie, cele din urm
subordonate de fiecare dat tipului de oper creat. Geniul, care ghicete mai degrab dect s
nvee, le extrage, pentru fiecare oper, pe cele dinti din ordinea general a lucrurilor, pe cele
de-al doilea din ansamblul izolat al subiectului tratat.9
n comparaie cu romantismul francez, romantismul romnesc a fost mai puin capabil
s-i dea o teorie unitar i metodic. Inexistena unui clasicism al termenului, care s fi
impus un cod restrictiv i s fi nctuat iniiativele creatoare a permis romanticilor s ocupe
spaiul literar al epocii. S-ar putea spune c semnificaia atribuit n mod curent termenului de
clasic este aceea de model sau, de ce nu, tipar. Principiul romantic al creaiei, acela de
originalitate naional n producia de bunuri spirituale s-a bucurat de o imens popularitate,
reprezentnd platforma scriitorilor paoptiti. De altfel, meritul de a fi dat acestei idei valoarea
unei orientri bine nchegate i-a revenit lui M. Koglniceanu i revistei Dacia literar.
Pornind de la ideea lui P. Cornea potrivit cruia romantismul european se nutrete din
starea de dezamgire revoluionar, iar romantismul romnesc a coincis cu micarea de
eliberare naional asumndu-i ideea unitii naionale simultan cu voina de a democratiza
viaa public s-a pus problema elaborrii, prin literatur, a unui criteriu identitar naional, prin
care se urmrea realizarea unitii literare i culturale, nainte de cea politic, ntruct politicul
prea s ctige teren n universul creaiilor literare. Prin intermediul poeziei patriotice s-a
ncercat trasarea unui drum aparte, ntruct caracteristicile definitorii ale romantismului
romnesc paoptist au fost patriotismul i lupta pentru realizarea idealului naional, iar
specificitatea curentului literar se exprima n specii diverse precum doina i balada de
inspiraie popular, meditaia i elegia, drama, legenda istoric i poemul n versuri. Potrivit
lui P. Cornea, scriitorii romni au dovedit existena unui lamartinism romnesc avant la
lettre. Subordonarea elementelor literare fa de politic s-a realizat n scopul cutrii unor
imagini identitare bine definite i a revendicrilor politice; astfel a luat fiin o literatur a
patriotismului asumat, ale crei modele au fost poeii francezi. Pompiliu Eliade considera c,
dintre modelele strine, influena francez a fost decisiv, chiar un miracol iar gndirea i
limba literar romneasc vor purta amprenta unor influene franceze.10 n acest sens,
Lamartine a reprezentat un reper literar pentru I. Heliade-Rdulescu i V. Alecsandri, poeii
romni dedicndu-i numeroase ode: Poetul murind traducerea lui Heliade-Rdulescu a
P. Cornea, Regula jocului. Versantul colectiv al literaturii, ed. cit., p. 182.

P. Eliade, op. cit., p. 266.
10
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poemului lamartinian Le pote mourant, ca elegie-imitaie nchinat lui V. Crlova (La

moartea lui Crlova) sau Alecsandri Ctre d. De Lamartin (oda unui tnr moldovean).
Modelul lamartinian nu a fost unul singular. Operele lui V. Hugo sau ale lui A. de
Vigny au reprezentat o alt surs de scrieri romantice modele franceze de urmat pentru
romanticii paoptiti. De asemenea, tradus masiv n intervalul 1830-1840, Byron a reprezentat
modelul romantic de surs englez reper pentru generaia romantic a scriitorilor romni (I.
Heliade-Rdulescu a tradus Arpa lui David, Roman, iar C. Negruzzi poemul Oscar DAlva).
Evoluia literaturii romne a avut ntotdeauna legturi de continuitate de la un scriitor
la altul, de la o epoc la alta. Literatura paoptist a resimit n mod vizibil influenele i
continuitatea literaturilor europene, prelund i cizelnd discursuri i tematici, amplificndu-le
i transformndu-le ntr-un sistem de concepii social-politice i cultural-estetice bine
nchegat, sistemul literaturii romne moderne.
Romantismul romnesc i cel european au avut trsturi specifice datorate, n
principal, apariei, n Romnia, cu o ntrziere de un deceniu fa de Frana. Prima generaie
romantic (reprezentat de I. Heliade-Rdulescu, V. Crlova, Gr. Alexandrescu) s-a afirmat n
jurul anilor 1830-1840, ns romantismul propriu-zis s-a prelungit prin intermediul scriitorilor
paoptiti (V. Alecsandri, N. Blcescu, Al. Russo, D. Bolintineanu, M. Koglniceanu) pn la
M. Eminescu, considerat a fi cel mai mare poet romantic european. Alturi de numeroasele
influene occidentale, epoca romantic romneasc a perceput, n faz incipient, noua
estetic european sub forma unui melanj de elemente clasice i romantice. Specii literare
clasice (precum fabula sau oda) au coexistat cu specii romantice (meditaia sau pastelul), ns
romantismul i-a urmat destinul i n Romnia n plin epoc a luptei pentru eliberare
naional i social, colorndu-se cu nuane patriotice, avnd un caracter net militant i
echivalnd cu o redeteptare a spiritului naional.
La nceputul secolului al XIX-lea romantismul european capta atenia scriitorilor
romni, atrai din ce n ce mai mult de noutile tematice ale literaturilor de import. De o
importan deosebit a fost, n acest sens, receptarea nsi a tuturor direciilor (neoclasicim,
preromantism, romantism, realism, naturalism, simbolism) care au influenat scrierile
romneti. Astfel, s-au impus referiri la curentele artistice i filozofice care au ptruns i n
Principatele Romne nc de la sfritul secolului al XVIII-lea i care au dominat ntregul
secol al XIX-lea.
Fa de izvoarele lor, toate aceste curente nu s-au sincronizat, ci s-au nfiat ca
ntrziate n diferite feluri. Aceasta a fost situaia iluminismului, a neoclasicismului, a
preromantismului, mai puin a romantismului mai concordant cu apariia lui n Apus. De
asemenea, s-a observat c durata curentelor n cauz a fost mult mai lung n rile Romne
dect n Occident.11
Ca i n alte ri, n rile Romne romantismul a nchis n el aspecte realiste sub
diferite forme, ca cea critic i satiric, de exemplu, la I. Heliade-Rdulescu, Gr.
Alexandrescu, C. Negruzzi, V. Alecsandri, Al. Russo. Tendinele fantastice, caracterul
obsesiv i misticismul care caracterizau numeroase ipostaze ale romantismului european nu sau ntlnit, n general, n micarea romantic romneasc. Este evident c un anume spirit
clasic i realist se manifesta n epoc, nfrnnd excesele manifestrilor romantismului
european. P. Cornea observa c romantismul sud-est european nu a tradus reacia
aristocraiei zdrobite de revoluie, nici protestul amar al plebeilor nemulumii de ordinea
capitalist, ci a fost, nainte de toate, expresia unei intelectualiti de extracie social mijlocie
(mic boerime, burghezie incipient, profesiuni libere), angajat trup i suflet n lupta pentru
emanciparea naional i nfptuirea revoluiei burghezo-democrate. Romantismul, n
Istoria literaturii romne (De la coala Ardelean la Junimea), vol. II, coord. Al. Dima, I. C. Chiimia, P.
Cornea, E. Todoran, ed. cit., p. 14.
11
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concepia lui Cornea, a fost un fenomen post-revoluionar n Apus i prerevoluionar n

Rsrit, corespunznd unei structuri sociale predominant feudale. mbinarea ideii naionale cu
fervoarea romantic a dat culturii tuturor popoarelor din sud-estul Europei, n prima jumtate
a secolului al XIX-lea, un colorit specific: pretutindeni au fost dezgropate i valorificate
tradiiile folclorice (de tip rural) iar istoriografia a fost chemat s legitimeze preteniile
tuturor naiunilor sud-estului prin evocarea gloriei de odinioar i ntoarcerea spre origini;
trecutul a devenit o surs i un model, obiectul unui cult cruia poeii i erudiii i
configureaz ritualul, bazat pe convertirea mitic a realitilor mai mult ori mai puin
verificabile, i pe o retoric a persuasiunii, de o intens vibraie emotiv.12
n ceea ce privete realismul, aceast direcie trebuie legat nu numai de luminism i
de romantism, ci i de faptul c mprejurrile sociale i politice din Principatele Romne l
cereau n mod insistent. ncepnd cu Ion Budai-Deleanu, Gr. Alexandrescu i continund cu
C. Negruzzi i V. Alecsandri, autori de epopei, fabule, satire, epistole n versuri i proz,
realismul a nceput s aib manifestri nu numai n cadrul romatismului, ci s propun
manifestri proprii. Realismul a fost cel care a adus descrierea exact i tipic a strilor
sociale, concomitent cu o critic i o satir aprig, neierttoare, la care s-au adugat i
nceputurile teatrului. Modelele apusene, ndeosebi H. de Balzac, au fost utilizate n aa
numitele fiziologii la V. Alecsandri (ciclul Chirielor), I. Heliade-Rdulescu (Coconia
Drgana) i C. Negruzzi (Fiziologia provincialului) de exemplu, autori i ei de tipologii
sociale caracteristice vremii, n care descrierea se amesteca cu ironia i satira. Realismul a
fost, n acea etap (ntre 1830 i 1860), doar ntr-o faz incipient, afirmndu-se ndeosebi n a
doua jumtate a secolului al XIX-lea la N. Filimon (Ciocoii vechi i noi). Romancierul a
descris o fresc a societii timpului, o perioad de tranziie, parvenitismul social tipic epocii,
surprinznd, precum Stendhal n literatura francez, procesul de nnoire i de urcare n
societate, elemente condamnate, pe atunci, cu dispre. n acest fel, N. Filimon anticipa
desfurarea larg a realismului din epoca urmtoare.13
Curentele literare au contribuit, prin interferenele dintre ele, dar i fiecare n parte, la
amendarea societii anticulturale. Numeroasele forme artistice aprute n epoc au
ntregit repertoriul general al genurilor i al speciilor literare inexistente n literatura romn
veche.
n cuprinsul literaturii paoptiste, romantismul a predominat ca orientare literar, ns
nu n formele exclusiviste n care a aprut n rile occidentale. Faptul caracteristic a fost c,
n Romnia, romantismul s-a manifestat ca o coexisten de curente: uneori chiar pe parcursul
aceleiai opere, ca de exemplu n cazul lui Gr. Alexandrescu, C. Negruzi, V. Alecsandri, la
care se ntlnesc tendine romantice i preromantice, clasice i realiste, iar esteticile se
juxtapun i se ntreptrund. La fel, spiritul clasicismului se observ la I. Heliade-Rdulescu, n
timp ce la Bolliac se disting meditaii pe temele cultivate de preromantism ruine, morminte,
nestatornicia soartei. Aceleai elemente stau alturi de balade sepulcrale i gotice la D.
Bolintineanu i de fabule n felul lui La Fontaine la Gr. Alexandrescu. Nuvelistica de tipul
epicului obiectiv (Alexandru Lpuneanul) se nvecineaz cronologic cu proza istoric, n
timp ce romanul sentimental decurge din J. J. Rousseau i George Sand; n literatura romn
apare romanul social de observaie (la Nicolae Filimon). Aceste fapte se datoreaz mai ales
rapiditii evoluiei lucrurilor n epoc. n Istoria literaturii romne (Al. Philippide, D.
Panaitescu-Perpessicius) romantismul romnesc de pn la 1860 apare nfiat sub dou
ipostaze: una tumultoas, patetic, declamatorie n Muntenia, iar alta mai reinut, mai senin
i mai decorativ n Moldova. Dar i de o parte i de alta a Milcovului, caracteristice snt
angajarea n istorie. Voina de a mbrtia actualitatea i de a o servi. Romantismul romnesc
12
13
P. Cornea, Regula jocului. Versantul colectiv al literaturii, ed. cit., p. 205.

Istoria literaturii romne (De la coala Ardelean la Junimea), ed. cit., p. 16.
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nu cunoate nici anarhia sensibilitii, nici dereglarea simurilor, nu exploreaz zonele

tenebroase ale contiinei i pare prea puin tentat de metafizic. Aspectul oniric, teofizic,
magic, prezent n romantismul german, lipsete aproape cu desvrire. E astfel izbitor faptul
c paoptismul nu ntrezrete n folclor o realitate emblematic, nici mcar posibilitatea de a
constitui o mitologie. Un Alecsandri sau un Anton Pann i prelucreaz doar aspectele joviale,
luminoase i exaltante, ndeprtndu-se de interpretarea simbolic propus de Herder i, n
genere, de romantismul anglo-german.14
Pentru ca romantismul s devin un curent literar i n Romnia era nevoie de o
anumit evoluie a societii, care s permit generalizarea unor anumite stri sentimentale.
Aceast evoluie a societii nu s-a realizat simultan n diferite ri europene i de aceea nici
romantismul nu a aprut n acelai timp.
Afirmat mai nti n Anglia i mai trziu n Germania, romantismul s-a manifestat n
literatura francez n primii ani ai secolului al XIX-lea. Charles Nodier a deschis calea
romanticilor francezi, apoi s-a impus V. Hugo drept conductor al curentului. Alfred de Vigny
i s-a alturat, la fel i Alphonse de Lamartine, astfel nct toi au fost menionai ca lirici pn
cnd V. Hugo i-a ntrecut pe toi. Sainte-Beuve i Theophile Gautier au contribuit i ei la
lirismul francez al epocii iar Alfred de Musset a cucerit, n calitate de poet romatic, lumea
tinerilor cititori, devenind i rmnnd, pentru mult vreme, idolul tinerilor francezi.
Romantismul european a avut, nc de la nceput, o nclinaie ctre istorie. G. Brandes
observa c Al. de Vigny, V. Hugo, H. de Balzac, Prosper Mrime doreau s ofere Franei
romanul istoric de care Anglia era att de mndr; Mrime, Alexandre Dumas, Vigny, Hugo
tindeau s creeze o dram istoric n locul tragediei. Romanul istoric a fost repede nlocuit cu
romanul modern sub diferitele sale forme, de ctre George Sand, Balzac i Beyle; cci el
fusese n general fie prea arid, ca la Vitet i Mrime, sau prea liric exaltat, ca la Hugo.15
Apariia romantismului n literatura romn s-a realizat n decursul celui de-al treilea
deceniu al secolului al XIX-lea, iar aceast ntrziere i gsete explicaia n evoluia mai
lent a strilor economice, sociale i culturale romneti, dar i n preromantismul adoptat de
paoptiti. Contactul literaturii romne cu romantismul european a reprezentat o dubl
orientare. Acest fapt a vizat, n primul rnd, ndrumarea ctre romantismul occidental, spre
poezia lui Byron i a lui V. Hugo, sau spre versurile scrise n tonalitate minor ale lui
Lamartine.
n al doilea rnd, literatura romn i-a gsit puncte de sprijin n literatura rus: Krlov,
Pukin i Lermontov au contribuit la rndul lor la mbogirea coninutului literaturii romne.
n primele sale manifestri, romantismul romnesc a fost timid, concretizat n preromantism,
idealul poetic al romanticilor romni ndreptndu-se spre trecut. D. Popovici afirma c
apariia romantismului a depins de condiiile sociale i politice din Frana, astfel nct mai
trziu a aprut curentul romantic propriu-zis, n baza cruia idealul poetic era ancorat n viitor.
Linia de desprire a acestor dou atitudini este un fenomen social i politic: Revoluia
francez...16
Trecerea de la secolul al XVIII-lea la secolul al XIX-lea s-a petrecut n Frana n
condiiile izbucnirilor sociale i politice de o anvergur i de o violen fr precedent. G.
Brandes nota c noua revolt nsmnat de marile idei i evenimente ale Revoluiei
franceze nu a ncolit imediat n literatur.17
14
Ibidem, p. 255.
G. Brandes, Principalele curente literare din secolul al XIX-lea, traducere de Yvette Davidescu, prefa de
Romul Munteanu, Editura Univers, Bucureti, 1978, p. 623.
16
D. Popovici, Romantismul romnesc, Editura Tineretului, Bucureti, 1969, p. 37.
17
G. Brandes, op. cit., p. 21.
15
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n ceea ce privete coala romantic din Germania, aceasta a fost una extrem de
bogat, formndu-se prin dezvoltarea Eului romantic liber, iar spiritele cele mai mari ale
Germaniei au jucat un rol important la natrea sa.
Viaa spiritual modern german a fost ntemeiat de Lessing. nzestrat cu o minte
limpede, cu o voin puternic i cu o dorin vie pentru activitate, el a fost un reformator n
toate domeniile pe care le-a tratat. n deplin cunotin de cauz i-a asumat sarcina de a
lmuri i de a educa societatea german.18 De asemenea, Schiller i Goethe nu au deschis
calea romantismului numai n mod pozitiv, prin ideile eliberatoare referitoare la dragoste, ci i
n mod negativ, prin opoziia contient n care s-au situat fa de epoca lor.
Ct despre Novalis, acesta aparine epocii sale n pofida criticilor. El se gsete ntr-o
opoziie diametral fa de toate ideile optimiste ale vremii sale de al crei spirit este ptruns
mpotriva voinei sale. G. Brandes nota n studiul su despre romantismul secolului al XIXlea c Novalis era adnc ancorat n concepia romantic despre via, percepnd viaa i
moartea ca noiuni relative.
Privit din punct de vedere strict literar, coala romantic din Germania a prezentat
ntotdeauna un interes permanent. Impresia profund lsat de originalitatea i de
remarcabilele nsuiri ale reprezentanilor si au fcut din aceasta una din forele literare
occidentale.
n primele decenii ale secolului al XIX-lea, curentul romantic a strbtut spiritele n
aproape toate rile din Europa. ns n adevrata sa originalitate, romantismul nu a aprut
dect n Germania, Anglia i Frana. Numai n aceste ri el a constituit un curent principal
european. n rile slave, romantismul s-a manifestat n special ca un ecou al romantismului
englez iar n rile scandinave literatura romantic a fost puternic influenat de cea
german.19
n ceea ce privete romantismul englez din primele decenii ale secolului al XIX-lea,
acesta s-a dovedit a fi un curent purternic, profund motivat, cu multiple consecine ale vieii
spirituale i care, dup eliberarea de formele i de tradiiile clasice, a dat natere unui
naturalism ce a dominat ntreaga literatur.
n Anglia s-au regsit aceleai trsturi fundamentale care au caracterizat micarea
literar din toate celelalte ri europene. ntruct lumea elimina educaia francez care
dominase ntregul secol al XVIII-lea n clasele mai nalte ale societii, romantismul englez i
fcea loc printr-o serie de trsturi specific engleze. Acestea, fr s apar n alt parte, s-au
regsit la personalitile literare i au constituit elemente de baz pentru alte noi direcii.
n consecin se poate considera c, n pofida existenei numeroaselor direcii literare
care au circulat n paralel n secolul al XIX-lea, romantismul european s-a dovedit a fi cel mai
prolific iar influenele sale asupra literaturii romne s-au concretizat n opere dintre cele mai
reuite.
Bibliografie
BRANDES, Georg, Principalele curente literare din secolul al XIX-lea, traducere de
Yvette Davidescu, prefa de Romul Munteanu, Editura Univers, Bucureti, 1978
CORNEA, Paul, Influena francez asupra spiritului public n Romnia. Originile,
Editura Univers, Bucureti, 1982
CORNEA, Paul, Originile romantismului romnesc. Spiritul public, micarea ideilor
i literatura ntre 1780-1840, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1972
18
19
Ibidem, p. 79.
Ibidem, p. 223.
476
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IORGA, Nicolae, Istoria literaturii romneti. Arta i literatura romnilor, Editura

Fundaiei Culturale Romne, Bucureti, 1999
NEMOIANU, Virgil, mblnzirea romantismului, ediia a II-a, Editura Curtea Veche,
Bucureti, 2004
PIRU, Al., Istoria literaturii romne de la origini pn la 1830, Editura tiinific i
Enciclopedic, Bucureti, 1977
POPOVICI, Dumitru, Romantismul romnesc, Editura Tineretului, Bucureti, 1969
RALEA, Mihai, ntre dou lumi, Editura Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 1943
http://www.zf.ro/ziarul-de-duminica/cronica-literara-cearta-cu-relativismul-4461769/
477
Issue no.6/2015
PROMOTING SCHOOLS THROUGH SOCIAL MEDIA

Alexandru-Cosmin APOSTOL
POSDRU scholar POSDRU/159/1.5/S/133652
Abstract: Abstract: During the last years, the number of Internet and social media services
users has increased both in Romania and worldwide. In terms of socio-demographic
characteristics, the main category of population exposed to the new technological and digital
trends is represented by the young people between 16 and 24 years. Under these
circumstances, educational institutions are developing and promoting new communications
channels principally based on interactivity, which keep a close link with the youth. Through
social networking and social media services such as Facebook, Youtube, Twitter, Google+
and others, the schools are sharing informations of interest - from different fields, including
culture - for students, teachers and parents. The aim of this article is to briefly present some
general aspects regarding on ways in which schools may benefit from using social media. In
the final part is presented a brief exploratory study that reveals the ways in which rural high
schools in Iasi County have adapted their online communication channels into an era of
digital culture development and propagation of Web 2.0.
Keywords: social media, web 2.0, schools, young, digital culture
Introducere
Odat cu dezvoltarea i propagarea masiv din punct de vedere geografic a conexiunii
la Internet, sunt dezbtut tot mai des elementele pozitive i negative care caracterizeaz Web
2.0, concomitent cu progresul reelelor de socializare i a platformelor care permit furnizarea
de informaii sau creaii/ bunuri culturale realizate chiar de utilizatori. Noiunea, mai mult
simbolic de Web 2.0 a fost introdus de Tim O`Reilly i face referire la mutaiile pe care le-a
cunoscut Internetul odat cu apariia unor servicii digitale bazate n special pe interactivitate
(reele sociale, blogosfer, servicii multimedia, diverse softuri .a.)1. Angelina Russo i Jerry
Watkins2 vorbesc despre modalitile prin care se poate menine o interaciune optim ntre
audiene i instituiile culturale (inclusiv cele educaionale) prin intermediul Comunicrii
Culturale Digitale (Digital Cultural Communication - DCC).
Chiar dac odat cu aceast schimbare major se poate constata creterea
vulnerabilitii privind accesul abuziv la o serie de informaii personale (conturi bancare,
adrese sau numere de telefon) sau relativa disipare a graniei dintre viaa public i cea
privat, un numr mare de organizaii i manifest interesul pentru adoptarea i adaptarea
canalelor de comunicare la noile tendine digitale. n acest context, de remarcat este faptul c
exist manuale sau ghiduri de bune practici elaborate att n sprijinul instituiilor, ct i al
indivizilor prin intermediul crora sunt acordate sugestii privitoare la modalitile de cretere
Tim O`Reilly, What is Web 2.0 Design Patterns and Business Models fot the Next Generation of Software,
articol disponibil online la adresa http://www.oreilly.com/pub/a/web2/archive/what-is-web-20.html, accesat la
data de 14 februarie 2015.
2
Angelina Russo i Jerry Watkins, Digital Cultural Communication: Enabling new-media and co-creation in
South-East Asia, International Journal of Education and Development using Information and Communication
Technology (IJEDICT), 2005, Vol. 1, Issue 4, pp. 4 17.
1
478
Issue no. 6/2015
a securitii n mediul online i de diminuare a daunelor provocate de eventualele atacuri

informatice3.
Reelele de socializare, blogurile sau platformele de difuzare online a unui coninut
multimedia pot constitui instrumente interactive utile n realizarea unei comunicri
comprehensive i n timp real ntre unitatea educaional (reprezentat de cele mai multe ori
prin echipa de management) i stakeholderi4.
n cadrul unitilor de nvmnt sunt organizate activiti extracurriculare, printre
care se regsesc i cele din domeniul cultural-artistic. Cu ajutorul site-urilor proprii sau prin
social media acestea pot dobndi notorietate, extinzndu-se spre poteniale publicuri a priori
interesate de astfel de aciuni.n aceste circumstane, nu ar trebui omis componenta de
promovare efectiv n interiorul unei comuniti locale, regionale sau naionale a instituiilor
educaionale prin intermediul social media.
Astfel, utilizarea optim a social media poate ajuta instituia de nvmnt la sporirea
capitalului de imagine pe care l deine, iar meninerea unei legturi adecvate i constante cu
stakeholderii creeaz premisele pentru formularea unor activiti sau aciuni educativculturale de impact.
Tinerii i social media
Cea mai expus categorie de persoane la proliferarea noilor servicii digitale este
reprezentat, conform datelor statistice, de tinerii cu vrsta cuprins ntre 16 i 24 de ani. Din
numrul total al gospodriilor din Romnia, 54,4% beneficiaz, conform Institutului Naional
de Statistic de conexiune la Internet, iar dintre acestea numai 29,1% provin din mediul rural 5.
Conform Eurostat, organismul oficial al Uniunii Europene care se preocup de colectarea de
informaii de ordin statistic pe diverse domenii de activitate, regiunea Nord-Est, din care face
parte i judeul Iai se situa n 2013 pe unul din ultimele locuri n ceea ce privete rata de
utilizare sptmnal a Internetului n rndul populaiei (43%) depind la nivelul Uniunii
Europene doar alte dou regiuni din Romnia, Sud-Vest Oltenia (41%) i Centru (40%)6.
Acelai institut a relevat faptul c n 2013, 63% dintre tinerii din Romnia care au o vrst
cuprins ntre 16 i 24 de ani utilizau zilnic internetul, iar 36% distribuiau n mediul online
creaii sau bunuri cultural-creative proprii7.
Conform catalogului de pagini Facebrands.ro, n Romnia n ianuarie 2015 existau
aproximativ 7,8 milioane de utilizatori de Facebook, ceea ce s-ar putea traduce printr-o rat de
penetrare a reelei de socializare n rndul populaiei totale de 38,76%. Totodat, aceast rat
crete semnificativ n rndul utilizatorilor de Internet, 80,89% dintre acetia deinnd i un
cont de Facebook. La o analiz pe structuri de vrst, se observ c 11,7% dintre utilizatori au
ntre 13 i 17 ani, 25,6% au vrsta cuprins ntre 18 i 24 de ani, iar 29,9% au ntre 25 i 34 de
Un
exemplu
de
astfel
de
ghid
este
accesibil
la
adresa
https://www.bluecoat.com/sites/default/files/documents/files/bcs_tp_Web20_v3b.pdf, accesat la data de 13
februarie 2015. La acestea se adaug i alte laboratoare specializate n securitate informatic i care se ocup
preponderent de furnizarea de soluii antivirus.
4
Dan Cox i Scott McLeod, Social Media Strategies for School Principals, NASSP Bulletin, SAGE
Publications, 2014, Vol. 98 (I), pp. 5-25.
5
Cf. Comunicatului de Pres Nr. 283 din 28 noiembrie 2014 Accesul populaiei la tehnologia informaiilor i
comunicaiilor n anul 2014 Cercetare statistic privind accesul populaiei la tehnologia informaiilor i
comunicaiilor
n
gospodrii
(TIC),
accesat
online:
http://www.insse.ro/cms/files/statistici/comunicate/com_anuale/tic/tic_r2014.pdf, la data de 28 nov. 2014
6
http://appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/nui/submitViewTableAction.do?dvsc=3, accesat la data de 12 februarie
2015.
7
www.eurostat.ec.europa.eu
479
Issue no. 6/2015
ani8. ncepnd din 2011, an de an tendina a fost una de cretere a numrului de noi profile
create, acelai fenomen avnd loc i n ceea ce privete numrului de pagini romneti (create
special pentru diverse instituii, organizaii din sfera public sau privat, artiti .a.). Astfel, n
numai patru ani numrul de persoane care i-au construit un profil pe Facebook s-a triplat, de
la 2,4 milioane n ianuarie 2011, la 7,6 milioane n ianurie 20159.
Studii anterioare privind utilizarea social media n mediul educaional
Tehnologiile Web 2.0 (care includ i reelele de socializare) tind s devin
componente uzuale ale mediului educaional, cu att mai mult cu ct nativii digitali10 sau
Generaia Y (compus din indivizii nscui dup mijlocul anilor 1980) reprezint principala
categorie de populaie prezent activ n mediul virtual11.
Conform unui studiu desfurat n 2011 n Statele Unite ale Americii, pe un eantion
alctuit din 111 uniti de nvmnt, n 98% din cazuri existau pagini de Facebook special
create pentru promovarea activitilor din coal. Totodat, 9 din 10 coli aveau constituite
canale oficiale de Youtube12. Un alt studiu, desfurat de aceast dat n Republica Moldova
n anul 2013 a relevat faptul c doar aproximativ 17% dintre instituiile de educaie sau
nvmnt din aceast ar aveau un website propriu. Din cele 1447 de instituii
preuniversitare monitorizate, doar 14% deineau un cont pe o reea de socializare, preferat
fiind Facebook13.
Acestea ar fi doar dou exemple de studii relevante, fiind subliniat interesul de
cercetare legat de prezena n social media a instituiilor de nvmnt, indiferent dac
vorbim despre o superputere mondial ca Statele Unite ale Americii sau de un stat care se afl
ntr-o perioad dificil i ndelungat de tranziie socio-economic precum Republica
Moldova.
Analiz exploratorie
Scopul principal al analizei este aceea de a evidenia o serie de aspecte generice
privitoare la modalitile prin care unitile educaionale de tip liceal din zona rural a
judeului Iai, s-au adaptat la noile tendine digitale.
La nivelul mediului rural din judeul Iai, exist 26 de licee14, 24 dintre acestea fiind
orientate pe o filier tehnic (licee tehnologice, majoritatea fiind continuatoare a fostelor coli
8
Date preluate de pe site-ul http://www.facebrands.ro/demografice.html#evolutie, accesat la data de 12 februarie

2015.
9
https://www.facebrands.ro/blog/2015/01/7-6-m-conturi-utilizatori-facebook-romania/, accesat la data de 12
februarie 2015.
10
Marc Presnsky, Digital Natives, Digital Immigrants, On the Horizon, MCB University Press, Vol. 9, No. 5,
October 2001, pp.2 6.
11
Albert L. Harris i Alan Rea, Web 2.0 and Virtual World Technologies: A Growing Impact on IS Education,
Journal of Information Systems Education, Vol. 20 (2), pp. 137-144.
12
http://doteduguru.com/id6927-results-the-state-of-higher-ed-social media-2011.html, accesat la data de 13
februarie 2015.
13
Studiu realizat de Institutul de Dezvoltare a Societii Informaionale i prezentat pe site-ul
http://idsi.md/prezenta-web-institutii-invatamint, accesat la data de 11 februarie 2015.
14
Cele 26 de uniti educaionale din zona rural a judeului Iai sunt: Liceul Tehnologic Vldeni, Liceul
Tehnologic "Ionel Teodoreanu" Victoria, Liceul Tehnologic Valea Seac, Liceul Tehnologic "Petre P.Carp"
ibneti, Liceul Tehnologic de Industrie Alimentar ibana, Liceul Tehnologic Ttrui, Liceul Tehnologic
Stolniceni-Prjescu, Liceul Tehnologic "Nicolae Blu" cheia, Liceul Teoretic "Lascar Rosetti" Raducneni,
Liceul Tehnologic Plugari, Liceul Tehnologic "Dumitru Popa" Mogoeti, Liceul Tehnologic Agricol "Mihail
Kogalniceanu" Miroslava, Liceul Tehnologic Lungani, Liceul Tehnologic Lespezi, Liceul Tehnologic Holboca,
Liceul Teoretic "Bogdan Vod" Hluceti, Liceul Tehnologic Gropnia, Liceul Tehnologic Focuri, Liceul
Tehnologic Fntnele, Liceul Tehnologic Dumeti, Liceul Tehnologic Cristeti, Liceul Tehnologic Cozmeti,
Liceul Tehnologic "tefan Cel Mare" Cotnari, Liceul Tehnologic Coarnele Caprei, Liceul Tehnologic Breti,
480
Issue no. 6/2015
de Arte i Meserii), iar dou pe filier teoretic. Din cele 26 de uniti educaionale supuse
analizei, 18 dein site-uri proprii.
Uniti educaionale din zona rural a jud. Iai care dein un site
Din cele 18 instituii de nvmnt care au un website oficial, doar 5 sunt nfiinate pe
un domeniu .ro, restul fiind construite prin intermediul altor platforme sau domenii (domeniul
.info, serviciile i platformele wix, ucoz, scoli.didactic.ro, licee.edu.ro .a.).
La o analiz general a modului n care se prezint site-urile sub aspect vizual i
informaional, se constat c o mare parte a acestora sunt relativ slab optimizate i nu conin
suficiente date legate att de proiectele educaionale, civice sau culturale, ct i de activitile
extracurriculare ntreprinse n decursul anului colar. n numeroase situaii aceste tipuri de
aciuni sunt doar enumerate, fr a se pune un accent deosebit pe informaii comprehensive
care ar putea fi de interes pentru o potenial audien extern. Exist ns cazuri n care sunt
ataate fotografii de la diverse activiti culturale (piese de teatru, serbri), civice (n special
aciuni de salubrizare a unor arii) sau recreaionale (excursii, tabere, vizite la situri culturale).
Totui, n majoritatea situaiilor analizate exist informaii privitoare la anumite
elemente de baz ce vizeaz cultura organizaional a instituiei de nvmnt scurt istoric,
misiune, viziune, motto, resurse umane, organigram, regulamente interne etc.
Legat de activitile cultural-creative se remarc faptul c exist situaii n care sunt
promovate:
Reviste colare (Liceul Tehnologic "Ionel Teodoreanu", Victoria)
Cercuri sau trupe de teatru (Liceul Tehnologic "Ionel Teodoreanu", Victoria;
Liceul Tehnologic, Holboca).
Cluburi de lectur sau concursuri de creaie n domeniul literar (Liceul Teoretic
"Lascar Rosetti", Raducneni; Liceul Tehnologic, Focuri)
Muzee colare, cu specific etnografic (Liceul Tehnologic, Ttrui; Liceul
Tehnologic "Nicolae Blu", cheia)
Cerc de religie i pictur (Liceul Tehnologic, Focuri)
Din cele 26 de licee supuse analizei, n 12 cazuri au fost create pagini de Facebook 15.
Din rndul acestora, un numr ridicat de likeuri (aprecieri) sunt deinute de cele dou licee
teoretice - Liceul Teoretic "Lascar Rosetti" Raducneni (1298 de aprecieri) i Liceul Teoretic
Liceul Tehnologic "Victor Mihilescu Craiu" Belceti (conform Inspectoratului Judeean Iai www.isjiasi.ro,
accesat la data de 13 februarie 2015)
15
Datele privind numrul de aprecieri ale paginilor instituiilor de nvmnt analizate corespund datei de 13
februarie 2015.
481
Issue no. 6/2015
"Bogdan Vod" Hluceti (835 de aprecieri). Se mai remarc Liceul Tehnologic Ttrui
care deine o pagin normal, creat dup modelul profilelor individuale i care are 516
prieteni, Liceul Tehnologic Agricol "Mihail Kogalniceanu" Miroslava (2275 prieteni) precum
i Liceul Tehnologic "Ionel Teodoreanu" Victoria care i-a construit un grup alctuit din 400
de membri. n restul cazurilor, numrul de aprecieri este unul sczut, cu un numr mediu de
aproximativ 30 de aprecieri.
Pe parcursul analizei, au fost identificate apte uniti educaionale care dein video-uri
de prezentare pe Youtube, respectiv dou instituii de nvmnt care au bloguri.
Se evideniaz c exist un oarecare interes (care se situeaz ntre anumite limite) din
partea liceelor din mediul rural din judeul Iai pentru diverse servicii media precum
Facebook, Youtube, Blogspot .a, cu att mai mult cu ct prin intermediul lor ar putea fi
facilitat procesul comunicaional cu stakeholderii (elevi, prini, cadre didactice i alte
persoane interesate). Totodat, sunt distribuite informaii, fotografii sau materiale de interes
de la diverse activiti cultural-educative ce pot contribui la creterea notorietii respectivelor
instituii. Cu toate acestea, sunt observabile numeroase aspecte pentru care sunt necesare
mbuntiri, n special legate de frecvena cu care sunt actualizate informaiilor furnizate prin
intermediul reelelor de socializare i a altor servicii media.
Concluzii
Utilizarea unor reele de socializare ar putea nlesni comunicarea i colaborarea pe
diverse paliere educaionale ntre elevi, prini i cadre didactice. Totodat, social media poate
fi o bun surs de rspndire a unor materiale didactice sau a unor informaii relevante ce
vizeaz activitile extracurriculare. O parte din coninut poate fi produs chiar de tineri, fiind
dezirabil spre exemplu - organizarea de competiii sau concursuri de creaie (fotografii,
desene, eseuri etc.) prin care s fie ntreinut un grad ridicat de interactivitate.
ns, exist obstacole i provocri legate de gestionarea unor conturi n astfel de reele
ce in n principal de gradul de cunotine necesare pentru utilizarea la un nivel optim a tuturor
facilitilor oferite de social media. n numeroase situaii, chiar dac exist un cont, acesta ar
trebui actualizat regulat astfel nct persoanele abonate s nu-i piard interesul fa de
informaiile furnizate.
Aadar, social media deine o important caracteristic, aceea de a oferi instrumente i
resurse de furnizare a unor informaii valoroase din punct de vedere calitativ legate de
activitile i ofertele cultural-educaionale ale unitilor de nvmnt.
Mulumiri/ Aknowledgements
Aceast lucrare a fost publicat cu sprijinul financiar al proiectului Sistem integrat
de mbuntire a calitii cercetrii doctorale i postdoctorale din Romnia i de promovare
a rolului tiinei n societate, POSDRU/159/1.5/S/133652, finanat prin Fondul Social
European, Programul Operaional Sectorial Dezvoltarea Resurselor Umane 2007-2013. This
work was supported by the strategic grant POSDRU/159/1.5/S/133652, co-financed by the
European Social Fund within the Sectorial Operational Program Human Resources
Development 2007 2013.
Referine bibliografice
COX, Dan, MCLEOD, Scott, Social Media Strategies for School Principals, NASSP
Bulletin, SAGE Publications, 2014, Vol. 98 (I), pp. 5-25.
HARRIS, Albert L., REA, Alan, Web 2.0 and Virtual World Technologies: A
Growing Impact on IS Education, Journal of Information Systems Education, Vol. 20 (2),
pp. 137-144.
482
Issue no. 6/2015
O`REILLY, Tim, What is Web 2.0 Design Patterns and Business Models fot the
Next
Generation
of
Software,
articol
disponibil
online
la
adresa
http://www.oreilly.com/pub/a/web2/archive/what-is-web-20.html, accesat la data de 14
februarie 2015.
PRESNSKY, Marc, Digital Natives, Digital Immigrants, On the Horizon, MCB
University Press, Vol. 9, No. 5, October 2001, pp.2 6.
RUSSO, Angelina, WATKINS, Jerry, Digital Cultural Communication: Enabling
new-media and co-creation in South-East Asia, International Journal of Education and
Development using Information and Communication Technology (IJEDICT), 2005, Vol. 1,
Issue 4, pp. 4 17.
Prezena web a instituiilor din educaie i nvmnt din Republica Moldova, studiu
realizat de Institutul de Dezvoltare a Societii Informaionale din Republica Moldova i
prezentat pe site-ul http://idsi.md/prezenta-web-institutii-invatamint, accesat la data de 11
februarie 2015.
https://www.bluecoat.com/sites/default/files/documents/files/bcs_tp_Web20_v3b.pdf,
accesat la data de 13 februarie 2015.
Comunicatul de Pres Nr. 283 din 28 noiembrie 2014 Accesul populaiei la
tehnologia informaiilor i comunicaiilor n anul 2014 Cercetare statistic privind accesul
populaiei la tehnologia informaiilor i comunicaiilor n gospodrii (TIC), accesat online:
http://www.insse.ro/cms/files/statistici/comunicate/com_anuale/tic/tic_r2014.pdf, la data de
28 nov. 2014
http://doteduguru.com/id6927-results-the-state-of-higher-ed-social media-2011.html,
https://www.bluecoat.com/sites/default/files/documents/files/bcs_tp_Web20_v3b.pdf,
www.eurostat.ec.europa.eu
http://www.facebrands.ro/
Site-ul oficial al Inspectoratului colar Judeean Iai, www.isjiasi.ro .
Site-urile oficiale i paginile de Facebook ale instituiilor de nvmnt din zona
rural a judeului Iai
483
Issue no.6/2015
BESSARABIA IN MIHAI EMINESCUS JOURNALISTIC WORKS

Mihaela MOCANU
Abstract: As the predecessor of political journalism in Romania, Eminescu has, for over
seven years, an intensely notorious activity as a journalist, signing an impressive number of
articles in publications such as Familia (The Family), Federaiunea (The Federation),
Curierul de Iai (The Iasi Courier), Timpul (The Time), Romnia liber (Free
Romania) and Fntna Blanduziei (Blanduzias Fountain). The issue of Bessarabia is
among the themes Eminescu approached constantly, in close connection with the subject of
national unity. Deeply concerned with the destiny of Romanians in the provinces of
Bessarabia and Bukovina, Eminescu analyses their situation exhaustively, assuming some
very sensitive issues of the 19th century. In June-July 1878, following the Congress of Berlin,
Romania is forced, as a price for its independence, to turn over to the Russian empire three
counties of Southern Bessarabia: Cahul, Bolgrad and Ismail. These events determine
Eminescus involvement in an extremely active press campaign aimed at defending the
ancestral territory between Prut and Dniester. The journalist responds to the attacks against
our country by the Tsarist and pan-slavic press, criticizing the annexationist politics of the
neighbouring empire in the study entitled Bessarabia, published in Timpul (The Time), in
March 1878, and reproduced in Romnia liber (Free Romania) and Telegraful romn
(The Romanian Telegraph) of Sibiu.
Keywords: journalistic works, Mihai Eminescu, Bessarabia, journalistic discourse
1. Situaia Basarabiei n cea de-a doua jumtate a veacului al XIX-lea
Deceniul ase al veacului al XIX-lea circumscrie un moment semnificativ n istoria
romnilor, reprezentnd prima etap a drumului care se va sfri n 1918, odat cu crearea
Romniei Mari1, problema romneasc configurndu-se acum, ca problem de sine
stttoare, n cadrul mai larg al chestiunii orientale. Pe fondul izbucnirii unui nou conflict
ruso-otoman, Rusia amenina, la sfritul lunii mai 1853, cu ocuparea rilor Romne, iar la
nceputul lunii iulie trupele ruseti trec Prutul, fr o declaraie de rzboi n prealabil. La 12
martie 1854, Frana, Anglia i Imperiul Otoman semneaz un tratat de alian, adresnd
Rusiei ultimatumul de a evacua rile Romne. arul Nicolae I rspunde solicitrii printr-o
ampl ofensiv de-a lungul liniei Dunrii. n aceste condiii, Frana i Marea Britanie declar
rzboi Rusiei, importante trupe anglo-franceze fiind ndreptate de-a lungul coastei vestice a
Mrii Negre, ctre Varna i Dunrea de Jos.
ncercnd s medieze raporturile din politica european, Viena adreseaz Rusiei
cererea de a-i retrage trupele din Principate, iar n iunie 1854 semneaz convenia habsburgootoman prin care li se permitea trupelor austriece ocuparea rilor Romne pn la
terminarea rzboiului. Urmare a ultimatumului vienez, Imperiul arist decide s-i retrag
trupele peste Prut, n toamna anului 1854. ntr-o prim faz, aliaii plnuiau atacarea Rusiei
dinspre Principate, iar domnitorul Moldovei, Grigore Al. Ghica, i exprimase deja
disponibilitatea de a lupta alturi de aliai mpotriva Imperiului arist. Plednd pentru
meninerea neutralitii Principatelor, Viena s-a opus inteniei comandamentului anglofranco-otoman de a angaja lupta pe linia Prutului2. Condiiile pentru ncetarea ostilitilor
1
2
Ioan Scurtu, Istoria Basarabiei de la nceputuri pn n 2003, Tipo Moldova, Iai, 2010, p. 72.
Ioan Scurtu, Istoria Basarabiei de la nceputuri pn n 2003, Tipo Moldova, Iai, 2010, pp. 73-74.
484
Issue no. 6/2015
sunt create la nceputul primverii anului 1855, odat cu ncetarea din via a prinului
Nicolae I. Fiul acestuia, Alexandru al II-lea, preia puterea, dar nfrngerile suferite de
armatele ruseti i problemele interne cu care se confrunta imperiul arist l oblig s accepte
ncetarea conflictului.
ntruct interesele marilor puteri vizau ndeprtarea Imperiului arist de gurile
Dunrii, s-a adoptat ideea restituirii ctre Moldova doar a sudului Basarabiei, i nu a
ntregului teritoriu anexat de rui, n urma Pcii de la Bucureti, n 1812. Tratatul de pace de
la Paris, ncheiat n 30 martie 1856, stipula c pentru mai buna asigurare a libertii de
navigaie pe Dunre, arul Rusiei consimte la rectificarea frontierei sale n Basarabia [].
Teritoriul cedat de Rusia va fi anexat Principatului Moldova, sub suzeranitatea Sublimei Pori,
iar locuitorii vor avea aceleai drepturi i obligaii ca i concetenii lor3. Principatele
continuau astfel s rmn sub suzeranitatea Porii, dar protectoratul arist era nlocuit cu
garania colectiv a marilor puteri. Nemulumii de decizia marilor puteri, romnii din
Principate nainteaz scrisori i memorii diplomailor strini, solicitnd restituirea ntregii
Basarabii i nu doar a unei pri din teritoriul acesteia. n octombrie 1856, generalul Magheru
trimite mai multe memorii reprezentanilor principalelor cabinete europene, prin care cere
restabilirea graniei pe Nistru, ns demersurile sale rmn fr rspuns.
Teritoriul de la nord de gurile Dunrii, cuprinznd din punct de vedere administrativ
judeele Ismail, Cahul i Bolgrad, va fi din nou anexat Imperiului arist n 1878. Articolul 45
al Tratatului de pace de la Berlin, semnat n 13 iulie 1878, prevedea c Principatul Romniei
retrocedeaz M.S. mpratului Rusiei poriunea teritoriului Basarabiei, desprit de Rusia n
urma Tratatului de la Paris din 18564. Decizia Congresului de la Berlin va declana un nou
val de proteste i nemulumiri n ar, presa acestei perioade consemnnd dezaprobarea
opiniei publice cu privire la nstrinarea sudului Basarabiei. n ciuda protestelor, n toamna
anului 1878, administraia romneasc este nevoit s se retrag din sudul Basarabiei, locul ei
fiind luat de funcionarii rui, care, imediat dup anexare, transform cele trei judee ntr-unul
singur Ismail.
ncepnd cu sfritul anului 1878, sudul Basarabiei este supus unei ample campanii de
rusificare, viznd pierderea identitii naionale de ctre populaia din teritoriul anexat. O
ampl imagine asupra Basarabiei acestei perioade ofer colecia de Scrisori din Basarabia5,
editat de Aristia i Tiberiu Avramescu. Culegerea cuprinde un numr nsemnat de epistole,
publicate n rubrica Scrisori din Basarabia, n gazetele bucuretene Telegraful i
Telegraful Romn, n perioada 1880-1890. Scrisorile erau semnate cu pseudonimul Basarab
i fuseser trimise din Chiinu, sub forma unor corespondene de pres. n ce privete
paternitatea epistolelor, se bnuiete c acestea ar fi aparinut lui Gheorghe Gore, fost
funcionar la Consiliul gubernial al Basarabiei, notar public la Chiinu din 1878, consilier de
stat, judector de pace i deputat al nobilimii. Acesta avea acces la datele statistice ale
guberniei i era convins de necesitatea nfptuirii unitii naionale romneti6. Sub protecia
anonimatului, autorul corespondenelor dezvluie condiiile vitrege la care era supus
populaia din Basarabia, sub dominaia arist. Culegerea alctuit de Aristia i Tiberiu
Avramescu este cu att mai important cu ct, dup rzboiul de independen din 1877-1878,
cnd i sunt rpite rii noastre cele trei judee din sudul Basarabiei (Cahul, Ismail i Bolgrad),
vetile de dincolo de Prut erau din ce n ce mai srace.
Apud Ioan Scurtu, p. 90.
5
Culegerea de scrisori a fost editat n dou volume: primul volum apare n 1996, sub egida Fundaiei Culturale
Romne din Bucureti i a Editurii tiina din Chiinu, urmnd ca cel de-al doilea volum s apar doar la
Editura tiina.
6
Apud Tiberiu Avramescu, n Introducere la Scrisori din Basarabia 1880-1890, vol. 1, Editura Fundaiei
Culturale Romne, Bucureti, 1996, p. XIII.
3
4
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Nistru, sub ocupaie arist: Trist i nendurtoare e soarta romnilor din aceast parte a
vechii Moldove. Prigonii de nvingtor, suntem ameninai de a ne pierde fizionomia noastr
naional, de a ne uita limba, de a deveni un popor pocit, de care va rde lumea ntreag i de
care, n prima linie, va rde rusul7. Campania de rusificare a romnilor viza, printre altele,
scoaterea limbii romne din administraie, coal i biseric. Crile i ziarele romneti care
veneau fraudulos de dincolo de Prut erau confiscate de cenzura arist, iar nvmntul n
limba romn era interzis cu desvrire: Instruciunea public este ntr-o stare tnguibil, i
se poate zice c nici nu exist. Limba romn este izgonit i din coli, i din locurile publice.
n gubernia noastr ntreag, locuit de peste 1800000 de locuitori, nu fiineaz dect o
singur tipografie unde, precum tii, nu este nvoit a se tipri dect crile de rugciune
trebuincioase bisericilor - i nc aceste cri sunt tiprite rusete. Nici un ziar romn nu are
voie s treac Prutul, ba chiar abecedarul sau alt carte didactic n limba romn este riguros
poprit8. Dac n perioada 1856-1878, n sudul Basarabiei funcionau un liceu la Bolgrad, un
gimnaziu i un seminar la Ismail, apte coli primare i dou gimnazii de fete, dup 1878,
acestea sunt desfiinate, colile cu predare n limba romn fiind interzise cu desvrire.
O alt dimensiune a campaniei de rusificare a vizat colonizarea Basarabiei cu elemente
strine, acest lucru avnd consecine grave asupra situaiei ranilor romni, nevoii s
emigreze n inuturile ndeprtate ale Rusiei: Guvernul rus ine cu orice pre de a popula ct
mai curnd Basarabia cu elementul rus. Colonizarea sudului Basarabiei se face pe o scar
ntins, n inuturile de la nord, populate de mazili i rezei care, printr-un ir de msuri
represive, sunt mpini a emigra spre Caucaz i dincolo de Volga, unde guvernul rus promite
romnilor basarabeni muni de aur. n locul satelor romne se aeaz imediat coloniile slave,
expediate de la centrul Rusiei9. Autorul scrisorilor consider c, n ciuda suferinelor i
nedreptilor la care au fost supui, romnii din Basarabia i-au pstrat fiina naional:
Multe a mai ncercat Rusia spre rusificarea nenorocitei Basarabii i cu toate ncercrile n-a
izbutit a rpi de la poporul romn din aceast parte a vechii Romnii limba sa, moravurile
sale, fizionomia sa etnografic10. Afirmaia este susinut i de istoricul Ioan Scurtu, care
subliniaz c, n pofida colonizrilor efectuate de administraia arist, caracterul
preponderent romnesc al provinciei cuprinse ntre Prut i Nistru nu a putut fi modificat11.
2. Problematica Basarabiei n publicistica eminescian
Precursor al publicisticii politice n spaiul romnesc, Eminescu desfoar vreme de
peste apte ani o intens activitate gazetreasc, semnnd n publicaii ca Familia,
Federaiunea, Curierul de Iai, Timpul, Romnia liber i Fntna Blanduziei un
numr impresionant de articole. Individualizndu-se prin detenta tematic, prin amploarea
problematicii abordate, prin superioritatea construciei argumentative i prin deschiderile
enciclopedice, publicistica eminescian contribuie la modernizarea discursului jurnalistic
romnesc, prin diversificarea tematic i prin rafinarea mijloacelor de expresie specifice
acestuia. Manifestndu-se n direcii multiple, de la articole pe teme culturale la editoriale
politice, de la studii de economie la pamflete i comentarii ironice, Eminescu surprinde
problematica divers a veacului al XIX-lea, exprimnd n acelai timp opiunile personale n
privina unui program politic favorabil rii.
Telegraful, 13 decembrie 1884, apud Teodor Vrgolici, Ptimirea Basarabiei, n Adevrul literar i
artistic, 19 martie 2002, p. 4.
8
Ibidem.
9
Ibidem.
10
Ibidem.
11
7
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constante tematice definitorii, dincolo de variaiile de stil i de atitudine, nregistrate de-a
lungul carierei jurnalistice. n acest sens, problema naional, situaia rnimii, chestiunea
evreiasc, concepia despre stat i teoria pturii superpuse, viziunea asupra progresului,
viaa politic intern i politica extern se nscriu printre subiectele abordate cu predilecie de
Eminescu, n paginile de ziar. Printre constantele tematice ale publicisticii eminesciene i n
strns legtur cu problema unitii naionale, se numr i problematica Basarabiei, acest
subiect fiind atins de gazetar n peste 300 dintre articolele sale. Preocupat de unitatea
spiritual a romnilor i, implicit, de soarta romnilor din afara granielor rii, aflai n
provincii ca Basarabia i Bucovina, Eminescu dezbate pe larg situaia acestora, asumndu-i
abordarea unor subiecte nevralgice pentru secolul al XIX-lea. Eminescu respinge cu
vehemen concepia vehiculat de presa panslavist, potrivit creia statul romn este creaia
diplomaiei marilor puteri, demonstrnd c acesta este rezultatul unui proces istoric
ireversibil.
n urma Tratatului de la San-Stefano, Imperiul arist recunotea independena Serbiei,
Muntenegrului i Romniei, precum i autonomia Bulgariei, iar Imperiul Otoman ceda Rusiei
ariste Dobrogea, ca despgubire de rzboi. Nedorind s anexeze acest teritoriu, Rusia i
rezerv dreptul de a schimba Dobrogea cu partea Basarabiei pierdut n 1856. Cele dou
imperii negociau astfel teritorii anexate prin rapt din spaiul nostru geografic. Indignat,
Guvernul Romniei formuleaz un Protest mportiva Tratatului de la San Stefano, document
reprodus n Timpul din 1 aprilie 1878. Protestul evidenia faptul c Tratatul de la San
Stefano nclca flagrant integritatea teritorial i moral a rii noastre i cerea ca Romnia s
fie primit la lucrrile Congresului de la Berlin.
Diplomaia arist i presa panslavist desfoar n aceast perioad o ampl
campanie, n sprijinul retrocedrii sudului Basarabiei, ziarul Le Nord din Bruxelless fiind
unul dintre cei mai mari susintori ai politicii ariste. Pe acest fundal, Eminescu angajeaz
Timpul n aprarea integritii teritoriului rii noastre, iniiind o campanie de pres
mpotriva politicii anexioniste a Imperiului arist i a propagandei panslaviste. n viziunea
poetului, Basarabia era parte integrant a spaiului geografic i cultural al poporului romn
i, din aceast perspectiv, examineaz istoria n cursul veacurilor12.
Problema retrocedrii Basarabiei de sud formeaz obiectul dezbaterilor din
Parlamentul Romniei, n 26 ianuarie 1878. Liberalii i conservatorii adopt n unanimitate
Moiunea prin care se declar c Romnia este hotrt s-i conserve graniele teritoriale i
nu admite nstrinarea niciunui teritoriu din pmntul ei. Eminescu sprijin Moiunea ntr-o
serie de editoriale din gazeta conservatoare: Fr a prejudeca hotrrile Adunrilor...,
Cestiunea retrocedrii..., Fiindc noi suntem..., De cte ori s-a fcut n Parlamentul nostru...
.a. Tot n Timpul sunt redate o serie de articole din presa strin, pe tema moiunii. n
acest sens, este comentat un articol aprut n Gazette de St. Petersbourg, n 2/ 14 februarie
1878, n care este invocat onoarea Imperiului arist, lezat prin Tratatul de la Paris, din 1856.
Argumentul granielor naturale, adus n sprijinul raptului teritorial, este criticat de Eminescu,
care atrage atenia c sub pretextul de-a avea granii naturale s-ar putea cuceri universul
ntreg.
Campania de pres dus de Eminescu n paginile Timpului este deschis de
editorialul n sfrit vedem limpede, publicat n 25 ianuarie 1878. Jurnalistul comenteaz
cererea de retrocedare a sudului Basarabiei, adresat de generalul Nikolai Pavlovici Ignatiev
guvernului romn, ironiznd argumentele prezentate de acesta: Dar cu ce drept pretinde
Rusia bucata noastr de Basarabie, pe care am cptat-o napoi, drept din dreptul nostru i
pmnt din pmntul nostru. Pe cuvntul cum c onoarea Rusiei cere ca s se ia o bucat din
12
D. Vatamaniuc, Basarabia n viziunea lui Eminescu, n Literatorul, nr. 1-2/ 1997, p. 1.
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Romnia. Va s zic onoarea Rusiei cere ca s se ia pe nedrept o bucat din Romnia i

aceeai onoare nu cere respectarea conveniei isclit de ieri. Ciudat Onoare ntr-adevr!13.
Pretenia Rusiei trezete verbul virulent al gazetarului, care subliniaz c Drepturile noastre
asupra ntregei Basarabii sunt prea vechi i prea bine ntemeiate pentru a ni se putea vorbi cu
umbr de cuvnt de onoarea Rusiei angajat prin Tratatul de la Paris. [...] Basarabia ntreag
ni se cuvine, cci e pmnt drept al nostru i cucerit cu plugul, aprat cu arma a fost de la
nceputul veacului al patrusprezecelea nc i pn n veacul al nousprezecelea14.
Cteva zile mai trziu, ntr-un nou editorial - Fr a prejudeca hotrrile Adunrilor,
Eminescu respinge ideea oricrui aranjament cu Imperiul arist. ncepnd cu ianuarie 1878,
problema Basarabiei intr n atenia lui Eminescu, fiind dezbtut de jurnalist pe tot parcursul
lunii februarie. n vreme ce diplomaia arist i presa panslavist prezentau istoria Basarabiei
ncepnd cu 1812, cnd fusese anexat imperiului, Eminescu coboar pe firul istoriei pn n
veacul al XIV-lea, pentru a demonstra c provincia dintre Prut i Nistru este pmnt
romnesc. Jurnalistul intr n polemic cu gazete precum Le Nord i Gazette de
Petersburg, care susineau politica arist, plednd pentru rectigarea onoarei Imperiului
arist, pierdut prin Tratatul de la Paris din 1856, cnd cele trei judee din sudul Basarabiei
reveniser Romniei. n articolul Argumentul de cpetenie, publicat n Timpul, din 1 martie
1878, poetul rspunde articolelor din Le Nord i Viedomosti, cu privire la suzeranitatea
Imperiului Otoman i la dreptul acestuia de a dispune de teritoriul rii noastre dup bunul su
plac: Basarabie nu nseamn scrie Eminescu, dect ara Basarabilor, precum Rusia
nseamn ara ruilor. Romnia ara romnilor15.
Timpul public i o coresponden din Bucureti privind problema retrocedrii
celor trei judee din sudul Basarabiei, La retrocession de la Bessarabie. Bucarest, 14 fevrier,
aprut n cotidianul panslavist din Bruxelles, Le Nord, n 10/22 februarie 1878.
Corespondena este comentat de Eminescu ntr-o serie de editoriale din Timpul, n care,
invocnd mai multe documente istorice, respinge teza vasalitii Moldovei fa de Imperiul
Otoman, artnd c Moldova i Basarabia mpreun formau un stat deosebit, cu legile i
prinul su i se aflau supuse numai la ceea ce diplomaia a numit impropriu suzeranitatea
Porii Otomane. Gazetarul ntocmete, pe baza documentelor istorice, o schi cu privire la
unitatea statal a Moldovei dinainte de 1812, respingnd teza ziarelor strine privind
suzeranitatea Imperiului Otoman i dreptul acestuia de a dispune de teritoriul rii noastre
dup bunul plac.
Cutnd resorturile care stau la baza politicii expansioniste a Imperiului arist,
Eminescu noteaz n Tendine de cucerire, aprut n Timpul din 7 aprilie 1878: Rusia e n
mod egal muma mndriei i a lipsei de cultur, a fanatismului i a despotiei. Frumosul e
nlocuit prin mre, precum colinele undoiate i munii cu dumbrvi a rilor apusene sunt
acolo nlocuite prin esuri fr capt. n tendenele de cucerire n aa numitele misiuni istorice
care-i caut marginile naturale nu e nimic dedesupt dect pur i simplu netiina i gustul de
spoliere. n zdar cuta un popor n ntinderi teritoriale, n cuceriri, n rzboaie, ceea ce-i
lipsete chiar n sufletul lui [] ruii sunt sub dominarea unui gol sufletesc, a unui urt,
care-i face s caute n cuceriri ceea ce n-au nuntrul lor, i care, chiar de-ar stpni
pmntul, tot nu s-ar umple16.
3. Studiul Basarabia
Eminescu rspunde susintorilor politicii ariste i publicaiilor strine care pretindeau
c Romnia este doar o creaie a diplomaiei europene, prin studiul Basarabia, publicat n
Mihai Eminescu, Basarabia pmnt romnesc, samavolnic rpit, Editura Saeculum, Bucureti, 1997, p. 56.
Ibidem, p. 57.
15
Timpul, 1 martie 1878.
16
Timpul, 7 aprilie 1878.
13
14
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Timpul din martie 1878. Articolul este reprodus n Romnia liber i Telegraful romn
din Sibiu, bucurndu-se de un larg ecou n epoc. Textul cuprinde o prezentare diacronic a
istoriei Basarabiei, fiind structurat n ase capitole: I. Numele i ntinderea ei; II. Veacul al
cincisprezecelea; III. Veacul al aisprezecelea; IV. Veacul al aptesprezecelea; V. Veacul al
optsprezecelea; VI. Veacul al nousprezecelea. Izvoare. Jurnalistul recurge la cronici i texte
istorice vechi, la mrturiile unor cltori i istorici strini, dar i la documente ale cancelariilor
domneti, care atest apartenena Basarabiei la Moldova, ntr-o epoc n care Imperiul arist
nu-i ntinsese stpnirea pn la Nistru. Erudiia gazetarului este reflectat de uurina cu
care se mic printre sursele de documentare, de la tratate de istorie la lucrri de
memorialistic, ilustrnd istoria Basarabiei dinainte de 1812. Eminescu se angajeaz n
aprarea Basarabiei cu toat capacitatea intelectual a geniului su i face din situaia acestei
provincii romneti o problem naional17.
Dobndind profilul unei adevrate cercetri tiinifice, prin multitudinea surselor de
documentare i prin amploarea prezentrii, studiul Basarabia se distinge n presa romneasc
a vremii i prin solida argumentaie tiinific, oferind o imagine a realitilor istorice,
ncepnd cu veacul al XIV-lea pn la 1878. Redactat n perioada pregtirii Congresului de la
Berlin, textul cuprinde i o proiecie asupra evenimentelor istorice ulterioare, Eminescu
mrturisind urmtoarele: Am rsfoit cri, ne-am folosit de munca altora, am adunat dovezi
i am artat c poporul romn niciodat nu a renunat la drepturile sale asupra Basarabiei i c
prin urmare nici astzi nu are dreptul de a renuna18.
Plecnd de la realitile istorice, Eminescu redacteaz un studiu polemic, cu
documentele pe mas, demonstrnd originea romn a provinciei basarabene. Gazetarul
mut discuia de pe terenul demersurilor din cancelariile diplomaiei europene i al
revendicrilor oamenilor politici ariti pe cel al realitilor istorice19, avnd n atenie situaia
ntregii provincii dintre Prut i Nistru i nu doar a celor trei judee care fceau obiectul
raptului de la 1878. Construit pe o armtur tiinific solid i valorificnd surse
documentare dintre cele mai diverse, studiul Basarabia se distinge n publicistica romneasc
a epocii prin amploarea discursului critic. Textul are valoarea unui memoriu politic, menit s
serveasc diplomaiei romneti la Congresul de la Berlin din iunie-iulie 1878. Din pcate,
delegaia romn nu va fi ns primit la lucrrile Congresului.
Prima parte a studiului, intitulat Numele i ntinderea ei, ncepe n not polemic,
Eminescu rspunznd colegilor de breasl de la Le Nord i Viedomosti, care susineau c
Basarabia se numr printre provinciile cucerite de rui de la ttari i turci. Jurnalistul arat c
nc din veacul al paisprezecelea, provincia dintre Prut i Nistru a aparinut Moldovei, i c n
epoca respectiv Valahia ntreag, mpreun cu posesiunile ei, se numea n bulele papale, n
documentele cele scrise latinete ale domnilor, n scrieri contemporane: Basarabia20.
Celelalte cinci pri ale studiului, II. Veacul al cincisprezecelea; III. Veacul al aisprezecelea;
IV. Veacul al aptesprezecelea; V. Veacul al optsprezecelea; VI. Veacul al nousprezecelea.
Izvoare, prezint n perspectiv diacronic istoria provinciei basarabene. Gazetarul recurge la
surse documentare extrem de variate: cronici i tratate de istorie, lucrri de memorialistic i
documente ale cancelariilor domneti, zapise i nscrisuri clericale, pentru a demonstra
originea romn a Basarabiei i injusteea preteniilor anexioniste ale Imperiului arist. Miron
Costin, Dimitrie Cantemir sunt evocai prin nsemnrile pe care le fac cu referire la inutul
dintre Prut i Nistru: Cantemir (...) zice lmurit: Ismail Moldavis olium Smil Dictus...21.
Nici lucrrile tiinifice semnate de autori strini nu sunt omise: astfel, Eminescu recurge la
Apud D. Vatamaniuc, Basarabia n viziunea lui Eminescu, n Literatorul, nr. 1-2/ 1997, p. 15.
19
Ibidem.
20
Mihai Eminescu, Basarabia pmnt romnesc, samavolnic rpit, Editura Saeculum, Bucureti, 1997, p. 17.
21
Ibidem, p. 32.
17
18
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cartea lui W. Wilkinson, Tablou istoric, geografic i politic al Moldovei i Valahiei, pentru a
descrie condiiile raptului teritorial de la 1812.
La finalul studiului, gazetarul prezint cu onestitate sursele consultate: Pentru veacul
al XIV-lea i al XV-lea am cercetat cu mult folos Istoria critic a romnilor de B.P. HAJDEU
i Arhiva istoric a Romniei, editat de acelai, apoi Beitrge zur Geschichte der Romnen
V. Eudoxius, v. Hurmuzaki; pentru veacul al XVI-lea materialul cel mai preios sunt
capitulaiunile Domnilor moldoveni cu Poarta; pentru al XVII-lea, textul cronicelor editate de
Mihail Coglniceanu, iar, n privirea Eparhiei Proilaviei, Cronica Huilor de P.S.S. Printele
Melchisedec, episcopul Dunrei de Jos22.
Cu privire la ecoul studiului n presa strin, D. Vatamaniuc afirm: Presa din
strintate, consultat de noi, nu ia n discuie studiul lui Eminescu, nu fr motiv. Ne-am fi
ateptat ca mcar ziarul Le Nord, organul panslavist din Belgia, cu care polemizeaz
poetul, s-l reproduc i s-l comenteze. Nu am gsit ns nici o referire la el23. n schimb,
presa naional consemneaz studiul lui Eminescu: n vreme ce Romnia liber i
Telegraful romn din Sibiu reproduc n totalitate textul, Dorobanul apreciaz
demonstraia gazetarului i bogia argumentelor aduse de acesta n sprijinul afirmaiilor.
Referitor la studiul Basarabia, Eminescu nsui afirma: Tocmai noi am fost aceia care am
publicat o serie de articole asupra Basarabiei, dei ar fi fost alte persoane mai competente cari
s fac acest lucru cu mai mult tiin i mai mult succes. Nu pretindem a avea nici un merit
n privirea cuprinsului acelor articole, cci a culege rezultate ctigate de alii nu este un
merit. Dar pentru opinia noastr statornic n aceast chestiune seria noastr de articole e o
profesiune de credin24 .
4. Concluzii
Congresul de la Berlin, din iunie-iulie 1878, declaneaz o adevrat campanie de
pres n paginile Timpului. Retrocedarea celor trei judee din sudul Basarabiei: Cahul,
Bolgrad i Ismail, pregtit de diplomaia arist printr-o serie de materiale n presa strin, va
fi vehement criticat de jurnalitii de la Timpul. Eminescu, editorialist i responsabil cu
partea politic la gazeta conservatoare n perioada respectiv, dezbate pe larg problema
anexrii, ncepnd cu numrul din 25 ianuarie 1878, cnd comenteaz propunerea emisarului
arist, generalul Nikolai Pavlovici Ignatiev, privind retrocedarea celor trei judee n schimbul
unor teritorii peste Dunre. nc de la acest editorial, Eminescu plaseaz chestiunea
Basarabiei n perspectiv istoric: Iat, n fine, c sosi generalul Ignatiev pentru a ne spune
nou tuturor c Dumnezeu a fcut lumea la 1812 i c pentru Rusia numai aceea e drept, ce sa fcut de atunci ncoace25. n sprijinul argumentaiei, jurnalistul recurge la numeroase
documente istorice care atest apartenena provinciei la spaiul romnesc.
Situndu-se n centrul preocuprilor gazetarului de la Timpul, chestiunea Basarabiei
va fi dezbtut de Eminescu n mai multe editoriale din 1878. Jurnalistul ironizeaz
argumentele invocate de presa panslavist problema onoarei imperiale i argumentul
granielor naturale, constatnd cu amrciune c pentru unii, ignornd cu nonalan istoria,
Dumnezeu a fcut lumea la 1812!26. Cu documentele n fa i cu o bun stpnire a
tehnicilor discursive argumentative, gazetarul invoc dreptul istoric al romnilor n ce privete
Basarabia.
Mihai Eminescu, Basarabia pmnt romnesc, samavolnic rpit, Editura Saeculum, Bucureti, 1997, pp. 4445.
23
24
Apud D. Vatamaniuc, Basarabia n viziunea lui Eminescu, n Literatorul, nr. 1-2/ 1997, p. 15.
25
Mihai Eminescu, Basarabia pmnt romnesc, samavolnic rpit, Editura Saeculum, Bucureti, 1997, p.56.
26
Adrian Dinu Rachieru, Eminescu i Basarabia, n Convorbiri literare, nr 5/ 2000, p. 31.
22
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ngrijorat de angajarea Timpului n polemica cu diplomaia arist i cu presa

panslavist, conducerea ziarului hotrte s-l scoat pe Eminescu din redacie, trimindu-l la
moia lui N. Mandrea, sub pretextul traducerii primului volum din tratatul lui Eudoxiu
Hurmuzachi, Fragmente zur Geschichte der Rumanien. Dup plecarea lui Eminescu din
redacie, Slavici va continua campania de susinere a Basarabiei, prin studiul Bucovina i
Basarabia, care prezenta situaia celor dou provincii n contextul istoriei universale.
Referine bibliografice:
Baciu, Rodica-Magdalena, Contiin critic i viziune tragic n publicistica
eminescian, Editura Universitaria, Craiova, 2005.
Creia, Petru, Publicistica lui M. Eminescu, prefa la M. Eminescu, Opere IX, ediia
Perpessicius, Editura Academiei, Bucureti, 1980.
Eminescu, Mihai, Basarabia pmnt romnesc, samavolnic rpit, Editura Saeculum,
Bucureti, 1997.
Ilincan, Vasile, Mihai Eminescu publicist, Editura Universitii tefan cel Mare
din Suceava, 2006.
Nistor, Ion, Istoria Basarabiei, Humanitas, Bucureti, 1991.
Oprea, Al., n cutarea lui Eminescu gazetarul, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1983.
Rachieru, Adrian Dinu, Eminescu i Basarabia (I, II, III), n Convorbiri literare, nr.
5, 6, 7/ 2000, pp. 31, 44, 44.
Sndulescu, Al., Mrturii despre Basarabia anului 1918, n Adevrul literar i
artistic, anul XI, nr. 607, 5 martie 2002, p. 13.
Scurtu, Ioan, Istoria Basarabiei de la nceputuri pn n 2003, Tipo Moldova, Iai,
2010.
Spiridon, Monica, Eminescu. Proza jurnalistic, Editura Curtea Veche, Bucureti,
2003.
Spiridon, Monica, Eminescu sau despre convergen, Scrisul Romnesc, Craiova,
2009.
Storfa, Joachim-Peter, Scrierile politice ale lui Mihai Eminescu, Editura Paideia,
Bucureti, 2003.
Vatamaniuc, D., Publicistica lui Eminescu 1877-1883, 1888-1889, Editura Minerva,
Bucureti, 1996.
Vatamaniuc, D., Basarabia n viziunea lui Eminescu, n Literatorul, nr. 1-2, 3-17
ian. 1997, pp. 1-15.
Vrgolici, Teodor, Ptimirea Basarabiei, n Adevrul literar i artistic, 19 martie
2002, anul XI, nr. 609, p. 4.
Acknowledgement
This work was published with the support of the ERASMUS MUNDUS Project
EMERGE (Erasmus Mundus European Mobility with Neighbouring ReGion in the East),
Action 2 Strand 1 (2009-2013), Grant Agreement no. 2011-2576/001-001-EMA2, (Lot 8:
Moldova, Ukraine, Belarus), funded by the European Union.
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THE POETIC ODYSSEY-A THEORETICAL DESCENT INTO THE WHITMANESQUE

RENAISSANCE. PROLEGOMENA FOR WHITMANS UNIVERSE OF PERCEPTIONS
Ioana MUDURE-IACOB
Abstract: The canonization of Walt Whitman in the spectrum of the American Romantic
corpus represents an act of acceptance and tribute to the literary construct Leaves of
Grass, as well as an edifice in honor of the novelty brought to poetry by the daring bard.
Nevertheless, the Whitmanesque Romanticism is a slightly distinct entity in itself as it breaks
from the canonic compound and sets its own identity as a workforce that dismantles the
trademark of American Romanticism. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to discuss the
poetic level at which Whitman reunites Romanticism and Americanism, while, at the same
time, it disembarks from the literary mainstream. To parallel the Whitmanesque universe of
perceptions solely to the Romantic pillars of idealism and rebellion would be unfair and
insufficient, for which reason one significant aspect demands focus, namely, the depiction of
the poetical responsibility and purpose. The leading premise that serves for the interpretation
of this poetical structure is Roger Chartiers idea that works have no stable, fixed meaning,
for which reason a perpetual act of recontextualization and reiteration is a must.
Keywords: identity, Romantic literature, poet-seer, poetic democracy, linguistic innovation
Using F. O. Matthiessens term Renaissance to designate the epoch of Romanticism
in the United States requires a series of notes meant to set forth the premises of Whitmans
individualism. Namely, this Renaissance was definitely and defiantly American, in the sense
that the overall aim of writing was a struggle to understand the meanings of American and
attach labels to a literature that was not British, but American. The key feature that defines the
authorial individualism characteristic for this period stemmed from the writers difficulty to
disintegrate this struggle: in questioning the identity and status of the writer in the American
society, matters gained an intensely personal touch rather than resume to the apparent
nationalistic label.
Moreover, the intentness of Romanticism in America derived from the rhetoric of guilt
and salvation (as reminiscence of Puritanism) mixed with equalitarian freedom, so that
novelty and originality could be read as trademarks of Americanism and not borrowings from
British Romanticism. Consequently, the occurrence of the American brand of Romanticism
is a leap into individualism and self-fulfillment, rather than a mere copy of European forces
over literature. Naturally, the components of American Romanticism count numerous traits,
but, in order to resume to the Whitmanesque representation, the spectrum of reference shall be
restrained significantly, so as to allow interpretation.
The poet at crossroads: between Romantics trend and the ideology of
Americanism
If contemporary assertions that a poems subject can be a medley of anything and
everything and that the content is independent of any rigor or structure may suggest the allencompassing force of poetry, the tone of American Romanticism called for a different
perspective. Despite the loosened apparatus of subject matter that Romantics embraced, there
was, however, an imperious selection of material that governed the authors creativity and that
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impeded derailments towards democratic aesthetics. Whitmans understanding of this clash

between a dictatorial selection of topics and democracys liberties led, somehow, to a fair
literary representation of American diversity. But, more importantly, the salience of
Whitmans rupture from the mainstream in terms of choosing and representing the poetical
core resides in the meaning that he gives to the poet, as an arbiter of diversity and not as a
judge who conducts the selection trial for the benefit of causality.
Prior to presenting the vision of poetical destiny it is mandatory to drill into the
contextual foundations of Romantic tradition in America, and, namely, to place the
Whitmanesque niche of poetic embodiment in the larger mainstream. In this respect,
Emersons essay The Poet (1845) provides the framework of comparison between
Whitmans delineated account of the poet and that of the other American Romantics.
Depicting poets as men of genius and liberating gods whose gifts raised them above an
understanding of the ordinary perception of beauty, the Emersonian theory emphasizes the
poetic role in such a way as it allows him to elucidate both meaning and coherence of the
world, and to grasp the unity of real and ideal. Poets of Romantic nature were, to Emersons
idea, similar to visionaries of cultures, who could engage in a quest of intuition and freedom
for the benefit of unveiling universalism truths. The prospect of imagining the Romantic poet
as prophet/seer emerged from the specific contextualization of America, where the power of
sight functioned as an ideological conundrum.
Furthermore, in order to probe the validity of the poet-prophet/seer, a remote distance
from readers imposes: he is isolated among his contemporaries; to realize his art; he must
leave the world, and know the muse only.1 Apart from this imaginative isolation, the poet
also eluded the responsibility and pressure over conformity to expectations, which granted
him a certain dose of self-reliance and power of individualism. Nevertheless, one should not
read the rupture of the poet-seer with society as a complete one, but rather as a partial
dislocation, through which the communicational act is maintained as a social mission of the
poet. If this teaching act that poetry hereby proliferates is performed from a considerate
distance, the purpose is easily accounted for in favor of the poets duty to preserve the purity
of his conscience.
This concept of the poet as shaper of reality, a prerequisite of American Romanticism,
is not endorsed in Whitmans poetry, as the idea that the poet should present meaning from
either beneath or above reality doesnt comply with the Whitmanesque ideology. Instead, the
poet that Whitman draws is one who digs at soil-level reality, interested in the representation
of the world as it is, and not as it could be imagined by a venturous and over-imaginative
mind. The average, therefore, is not a misleading principle in the taxonomy of the
Whitmanesque poet, but rather a label that ensures the identity-formation cycle of the
Romantic.
The greatest poet has less a marked style and is more the channel of himself. He
swears to his art, I will not be meddlesome, I will not have in my writing any elegance or
effect or originality to hang in the way between me and the rest like curtains. What I tell I tell
for precisely what it is. Let who may exalte or startle or fascinate or sooth I will have
purposes as health or heat or snow has and be as regardless of observation. What I experience
or portray shall go from my composition without a shred of my composition. You shall stand
by my side and look in the mirrorThe poets of the kosmos possess the superiority of
genuineness over all fiction and romance.2
Ralph Waldo Emerson, Essays, Book Jungle, New York,2003 p. 47

Walt Whitman, The Preface to the first edition of Leaves of Grass in The Complete Poems of Walt Whitman,
Wordsworth Library, London, 2006, p. 501
2
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A coalescence with the audience-reader is the governing principle in Whitmans

portrayal of the Romantic poet, by which no walls could undermine the authority of an
authorial voice, nor could the artifice of composition alter the causality of creative
communication. In fact, Whitman dwells heavily on the omnipotence of genuineness as a
vehicle for authentic transcendence and invites towards a reading of the poet as patch-work
puzzle. That is, the poets force transgresses the border of poetry and reaches the realms of
readers interpretative valences only by means of thorough liberty, both in content, form and
distribution channel, respectively, in terms of message, structure and poetic oratory.
The emblem of poet-reader relationship that Whitman postulates through his
understanding of the poetic function is best represented by Roger Chartiers idea that works
are invested with plural and mobile significations that are constructed in the encounter
between a proposal and a reception. The meanings attributed to their forms and their themes
depend upon the areas of competence or the expectations of the various publics that take hold
of them. To be sure, the creators (or the power or the clerics) always aspire to pin down their
meaning and proclaim the correct interpretation, the interpretation that ought to constrain
reading( or viewing). But without fail reception invents, shifts about, distorts.3
Using this idea as guideline for the Whitmanesque definition of the poet, it becomes
obvious that the authors position is strongly biased by the reception party, and slightly
detached from the proposal scope. In the Romantic conceptual terminology, the proposal
stems from the poetic responsibility to inflect and constrain, through linguistic procedure and
metaphorical design, the communicative act and, therefore, to persuade the audience of the
poetical intentness. However, such an Emersonian play with poetry, in which the dialectical
encounter is mainly coordinated by the poet, leaves little space to the development of the
readers remodeling of the text.
It is at this point that the ideological vision of the American Romantics collides with
Whitmans view, which, by comparison, takes sides with the reception and willingly
accepts that readers are responsible and owe the author a continual remake of poetry.
Needless to say, construing the poetical text at a limitless pace is an idealistic stance, for
which reason Whitman seized the opportunity to transform the communicative act into an
active correspondence with readers. Whitman went even further in countermanding his
position as isolate by devising the multiple identities of Song of Myself and by reducing the
Romantic prophetic outsiders voice- the theme of fusion with readers, the honest address to
the working class, his renaming as poet-comrade during the Civil War, and his
transformation into the Good Gray Poet at the end of his life.
The depiction of the Emersonian Romantic poet as prophet/seer immersed a new
cultural effect in the canonic ideology: to affiliate poetry with the sacred and esoteric domain.
Whitman, however, distorted this image severely through his departure from a sacred
conception of poetry towards one that is more earthly-bound and more connected to the poets
responsibility to disseminate word rather than conceal meanings. A new tension occurred at
the level of interposing individualism and community, where Romanticism strived for the
self-expression as central object of their creed and viewed the civic responsibility as a remote,
even though necessary, stance. In exchange, Whitmans creed was to covey meaning to both:
his poetry would reach individualism through the civil respect and through the mechanism of
responsible communion.
Experiencing poetic democracy- a bilateral communication
Roger Chartier, The Order of Books:Readers, Authors, and Libraries in Europe between the Fourteenth
andEighteenth Centuries, Stanford University Press, Stanford,1994,p. ix
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In addition to the portrayal of the poetic responsibility and destiny, another crucial
element that reunites features of Americanism and Romantic tradition in Whitmans poetry is
the poetic experience as guiding principle for the creative act. Such a poetic experience is
centered on the creed in democracy, which Whitman emphasizes by a junction of time and
space, individual and community, past, present and future and respectively instances of the
material and immaterial. For a poet who sees the solid and beautiful forms of the future
where there are now no solid forms 4, the poetic experience doesnt resume only to the
transcendence of the everyday, but it engages in a revolution of supplementing and capturing
the novelty of the times for the sake of informing the public.
Furthermore, the poetic experience that Whitman creates is not an artifact of a unitary
entity as it is ambivalent or even plurifaceted. Particularly, in the direct self-proclamation I
celebrate myself/, And what I assume you shall assume/ For every atom belonging to me as
good belongs to you5 there is hardly a self-centered allusion, but a declared symbiosis
between the individual and the community. Democracy, as the universal level that allows this
communion postulates the premise of passing forward the visionary stance and sustains
Whitman undisclosed strategy to agglutinate the experience of the others.
Nonetheless, this process of inter-change allows the readers to reconceptualize poetry
within themselves; namely, by celebrating himself, Whitman suggests and invites towards
self-discovery of every individual, showing that the latent celebration demands unveiling.
Taking the poetic function further to a correlation with the democratic experience, Whitman
presents a bifocal perspective. On the one hand, in order for poetry to be equated with a form
of truth, universal acclamation is mandatory, while, on the other hand, it is the poets
responsibility to call forth the inner selves of the others. The effort must therefore come from
both sides: from the poet as democratic profiler of truth and from the community that must
mold the poetic format so as to suit their private needs. Particularly, the mission of
Whitmans poetry can be regarded as an attempt to put a Person, a human being (myself,
in the latter half of the 19th century, in America) freely, fully, and truly on record.6
Consequently, reaching the stage of a democratic poet is conditioned by the use of a common
language in view of building the bridge between experiences.
Following the pattern of the democratic poet the question that imposes is what,
according to the Whitmanesque ideology, would be the role of poetry in the American
Romanticism? To begin with, the iconic status of poetry as text genre fits perfectly with the
nineteenth century trend of publishers and editors to associate the use of reading with social
purposes of building ties in communities. Such a socialization of poetry in the benefit of
educating masses is a proper embodiment of what Joan Shelley Rubin in Songs of Ourselves
calls mediations- those culturally specific activities, personal and impersonal, that construct a
works physical characteristics and content, affect its marketing and accessibility, and color
the responses of readers.7 If individuals used poetry in the noble service of forming their
identities, with Whitmans poetry the scope was more focus-oriented towards the progressive
reform, building, therefore the role of poetry as mainly a public one and less a ceremonial
strategy.
4
Edwin Haviland Miller, Walt Whitman's Poetry: A Psychological Journey. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1968, p.
171
5
Whitman, Walt, op.cit., p. 24
Edwin Haviland Miller, op. cit. , p. 215
Joan Shelley Rubin, Songs of Ourselves: The Uses of Poetry in America, Cambridge, Harvard University Press,
2007, p. 57
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At another level, an accurate account of the status of the American poetic democracy
was drawn by Alexis de Tocqueville, with reference to the freedom of speech and the poets
role to promote a libertarian discourse.
I know of no country in which there is so little independence of mind and real
freedom of discussion as in America.for there is no country in Europe so subdued by any
single authority as not to protect the man who raises his voice in the cause of truth from the
consequences of his hardihood. [] In America the majority raises formidable barriers
around the liberty of opinion; within these barriers an author may write what he pleases, but
woe to him if he goes beyond them. Not that he is in danger of a blame, but he is exposed to
continued obloquy and persecution. []the ruling power in the United States is not to be
made game of. The smallest reproach irritates its sensibility, and the slightest joke that has
any foundation in truth renders it indignant, from the forms of its language up to the solid
virtues of its character, everything must be made the subject of encomium. No writer,
whatever be his eminence, can escape paying this tribute of adulation to his fellow citizens.8
Though acknowledging and praising the freedom of mind and speech that prevail in
the American society, Tocqueville notices a specific tendency in social expectations of
readers with reference to the literary content. Namely, the unanimous acceptance of creativity
in language and poetical device could appear to favor a complete poetic liberty, were it not for
the infringements upon the contextual and contents of the poetic schemes. The need for selfappraisal and eulogies was not, according to Tocqueville, a cry for the worldly recognition of
American value and competence, as it was an inner drive of the people to cherish the
democratic truth. Where, then, does the author stand in terms of speaking out his mind?
If America has not as yet had any great writers, the reason is given in these facts;
there can be no literary genius without freedom of opinion, and freedom of opinion does not
exist in America. In the United States no one is punished for this sort of books (licentious),
but no one is induced to write them; not because all the citizens are immaculate in conduct,
but because the majority of the community is decent and orderly.9 Whitman case, in this
respect, is hardly the suitable example for Tocquevilles study, due to the unbound language
and style that defined his Leaves of Grass. His poetic democracy is not to over-eulogize the
American people, but instead to dig into the underworld of the social profiles and to uncover
the commonality and mechanical features that, all in all, define all nations. For Whitman, the
matter of eloquent and abstract terminology was hardly a point of interest for the creative actas Tocqueville argued it should be- whereas the liberty to speak freely and to unclench
language from the pre-established patterns of European tradition was more important.
Consequently, through Tocquevilles critique of the Romantic democratically-biased writers,
one may easily notice the Whitmanesque detachment from the structural mainstream and
towards his personal exercise invention in language.
An expansion of the democratic faade of Whitmans poetry shifts the interpretation
cone towards the problem of poetic language. Perceived as a bizarre mechanism of expression
at the time when Leaves of Grass was published , the linguistic shell of poetry must be put
under the scrutiny of analysis in view of supporting the idea that Whitmans direction was
adjacent to American Romanticism. To do so, Tocqueville's point of view appears to be a
solid counter-argument for the Whitmanesque label of linguistic newness: poets here know
but little of the language which was spoken at Athens or Rome, and they do not care to dive
into the lore of Antiquity to find the expression which they want. If they have sometimes
recourse to learned etymologies, vanity will induce them to search for roots from the dead
8
9
Alexis de Tocqueville, , Democracy in America, Library of America, New York, 2004, p. 470
Ibidem, p. 473
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languages; but erudition does not naturally furnish them its resources. 10 Indeed Whitman
strives for an entirely different register than the one Europeans might have favored in praising
poets, especially because his direct interest is to build a literature of the American farmers,
traders, townsmen, in which the repertoire is never a chosen vocabulary, but a flow of slang
and bare formulas that make for an entire creative inventory. Whitmans Song for
occupations is an obvious step in the direction of using mechanical and unfiltered language
in view of representing all social segments
Strange and hard that paradox true I give,
Objects gross and the unseen soul are one.
The blast-furnace and the pudding-furnace, the loup-lump at the bottom of the melt at
last, the rolling-mill, the stumpy bars of pig-iron, the strong, clean-shaped T-rail for
railroads
Stone-cutting, shapely trimmings for facades or window or door-lintels, the mallet, the
tooth-chisel, the jib to protect the thumb.11
Nevertheless, the typology of language proliferated by Whitman can sometimes be
both in favor and in contradiction with his poetic philosophy. The main argument is that
democracy is not tantamount to sameness, for which reason each individual must strive for a
recognition of his/her uniqueness. Likewise, the difficulty that translates from Whitmans
language reflects that among individuals imperfection must be highly praised and
acknowledged, because a full understanding and equality is not real. This accounts perhaps
for the different registers at which the poet alludes in the discourse, crossing from slang and
list-enumeration of working terms to bizarre and invented words meant to designate
uniqueness. Moreover, even though Whitman proves an innovative mastering of traditional
poetic meter, the intention is to demonstrate that subservience to traditionalism is no longer
valid for the American poetry, just as democracy puts an end to the individuals
submissiveness.
If, on the one hand, Whitmans strategy is to depart from the Romantic stylistic
register of using imaginative vocabulary, on the other hand, one can observe that the poet
simultaneously sprinkles random words from other languages to make the discourse more
exotic and unstandardized. He took from the Italian chiefly the terms of the opera, also
viva, romanza and even ambulanza. From the Spanish he was pleased to borrow the
orotund way of naming his country-men Americanos, while the occasional circulation of
Mexican dollars in the States during the eighteen-forties may have given him his word
Libertad. His favorite camerado, an archaic English version of the Spanish camarada,
seems most likely to have come to him from the pages of Waverley novels. But the smattering
of French[]which constituted the most extensive knowledge that he ever was to have of
another tongue, furnished him with the majority of his borrowings. It allowed him to talk of
his Amour and his eleves, of a soiree or an Accoucheur, of trottoirs and feuillage
and delicatesse to say that his were not the songs of an ennuyeed person or to shout
Allons! From all formulas!....Allons! the road is before us! Frequently, he was speaking no
language, as when he proclaimed himself no dainty dolce affectuoso.12
Such a use of terminology, though severely modified so as to fit the poetic purposes of
language is the essence of Whitmans unstandardized discourse. This amalgamation of simple
usage speech with foreign incorrect words is the best portrayal of the Whitmanesque poetic
discourse, cast somewhere in between the Romantic and symbolic representation of America
and the democratic simplicity that was desired prior to the war. Furthermore, the key to
10
Tocqueville, op. cit., p. 581

Whitman, op. cit., p. 163
12
Warren, James Perrin, Walt Whitmans Langauge Experiment, Pennsylvania State University, 1990, p. 529
11
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Issue no. 6/2015
understanding the choice for such a colorful language resides in reading the erroneous foreign
terminology that Whitman tries to Americanize as a forceful pigment of multiculturalism. If
the faulty rendering of these words was specifically overlooked or simply unintentional is not
the point of interest. Instead, the result was Whitmans ideological success in drawing a
linguistic connection between Crevecoeurs melting of individuals into a new race of men
and Israel Zangwills later famous catch-phrase melting pot. Whitmans pot is the structure
of his poetic democracy, in which he melts the foreignness and exoticism of outward
representation with the Romantic typology of singing the national and innocent profile of
Americanism.
Eventually, Whitmans accomplishment with Leaves of Grass in terms of canon
positioning claims its implicit hegemony in the everlasting story of desired acceptance. It was,
indeed, Whitmans utmost desire both to gain supreme recognition of ideological novelty that
transgressed from the verse of his poems and to settle the poetic tone as the one that defines
America entirely. Nevertheless, the poets initial publishing of his poetry was a mere fairy tale
of great expectations, as Romanticism was hardly the terrain of all-inclusiveness, but rather a
filter that required molding and specific literary adaptability. Torn between representing
Americanism and becoming a ubiquitous representative of Romanticism, Whitmans
allegorical profile was involuntarily tied to the stigmata of outcasts. Probing the benefits of a
literature of exclusion in the interpretation of the American canon shows that fringes are
always disputable entities, even in a context that claims its hegemony in pluralism and
acceptance.
The odyssey that Whitmans poetry engages into is certainly not a Homeric one, given
the circumstantial stances that either promoted or rejected the creative weapons of the poet in
the battle with criticism. It might be, however, assimilated to a gesture of bravery and
unbound courage with respect to the generated profile of authorship and poetic responsibility.
The poet-prophet/seer was definitely not a complete breakthrough in the realm of literary
representation, but it bore its private marks of originality in as much as it encompassed the
potential to expand Romantic boundaries. Namely, however demeaning the representation of
self may appear, the prospect of building a genuine authorial stance that is active militant in
the readers net of mediation becomes Whitmans personal brand in poetic manifestation of
the nineteenth century.
Consequently, Whitmans secret is that of being held responsible for the visionary
attributes that attach to his poetic authority and literary creations: on the verge of succumbing
to traditionalist and suffocating patterns of acceptance/rejection, Whitmans daring project
was to challenge the authority of the nineteenth century canon by proposing a multiplicity of
methods, ideological representations and new thematic universe, all clad in an apparent
structureless format. Hence, the poetic odyssey follows unsure terrains, starting from failure
to adapt and stubbornness to transgress borders of the canon, moving forward to the
acceptance of previously rejected projects ( sexuality, homoeroticism) and plunging into a
pool of overall analysis that subdues the literary validity of the Whitmanesque territory.
Anchored in a pseudo-reality filled with Americanism, sexuality, altered linguistic devices,
democratic representation and structural novelty, Walt Whitmans poetry is still somehow at
crossroads in a no mans land, as it accepts pluralist forms of interpretation, yet no singular
valence of reference. If there is any correspondence between the cultural cleavages ( high and
low culture) and the social differences that occur between readers, on the one hand, and
distinct time-span criticism, on the other hand, remains a debatable issue. However, with
each new interpretation the legacy of Whitmans poetic testimony only grows richer and
richer, founding this way, an entire critical mechanism of reception.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Chartier, Roger , The Order of Books: Readers, Authors, and Libraries in Europe
between the Fourteenth and Eighteenth Centuries, Stanford University Press, Stanford
Eagleton, Terry, How to Read a poem, Blackwell Publishing, 2007
Emerson, Ralph Waldo, Essays, Book Jungle, New York,2003
Matthiessen, Francis Otto, American Renaissance: Art and Expression in the Age of
Emerson and Whitman, Oxford University Press, London, 1968
Miller, Edwin Haviland. Walt Whitman's Poetry: A Psychological Journey. Boston:
Houghton Mifflin, 1968.
Rubin, Joan Shelley, Songs of Ourselves: The Uses of Poetry in America, Cambridge,
Harvard University Press, 2007
Tocqueville, Alexis de, Democracy in America, Library of America, New York, 2004
Whitman, Walt. Leaves of Grass: Comprehensive Reader's Edition. Ed. Harold W.
Blodgett and Scully Bradley. New York: Norton, 1965
The complete poems of Walt Whitman, Wordsworth Poetry Library, Hertfordshire,
1995
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OBSERVATIONS REGARDING THE STATUS OF THE PREPOSITION A IN ROMANIAN

Cristina CORLA (HAN)
Abstract: The aim of this study is to analyze the behaviour of the preposition a in the
Romanian language. Having a reduced phonetic body, it is one of the most frequently used
prepositions; we will emphasize the fact that the analyzed preposition can be: lexical
(situation in which it imposes a thematic role, case and articulation restrictions on the
dominated term), functional (in case of marking the idea of genitive or dative), without a
meaning when it accompanies the prepositions used as genitive for the certain syntactical
situations. It is used as morpheme for the infinitive (mark of this non-finite form), situations in
which it has a low functionality.
Keywords: preposition, case, prepositional group, synthetic expression of the case, analytic
expression of the case
Trsturi definitorii ale clasei prepoziiei. Dihotomia prepoziii lexicale
prepoziii funcionale
n viziunea gramaticii actuale, prepoziia reprezint o clas neomogen de cuvinte, dat
fiind faptul c reunete att elemente lexicale, ct i elemente funcionale. Distincia are la
baz mai multe criterii etimologice, morfologice, sintactice, semantice (Mardale 2007a,
Mardale 2007b, Mardale 2007c, GALR I 2008, GBLR 2010, Dragomirescu et alii 2010).
Prepoziiile lexicale prezint urmtoarele particulariti: au coninut lexical plin, ndeplinesc
rolul de centru de grup sintactic prin impunerea de restricii termenului dominat, atribuie rol
tematic determinantului, admit mbogirea paradigmei cu noi termeni, schimb categoria
constituentului pe care l introduc, alterneaz cu alte prepoziii (intr n relaie de sinonimie
sau de antonimie) i permit tergerea argumentului. n contrast, prepoziiile funcionale nu au
coninut lexical (sunt abstracte/exprim relaii cazuale), nu au capacitatea de a atribui rol
tematic termenului dominat, paradigma lor are caracter nchis (numrul membrilor se
restrnge la patru elemente n limba romn), nu pot fi nlocuite prin alte prepoziii,
constituentul introdus este, n general, de factur nominal i nu pot fi utilizate singure prin
tergerea constituentului. La prima vedere, aceast clasificare a prepoziiei permite trasarea
unei frontiere ntre elementele lexicale i cele funcionale. Una dintre problemele care intervin
este ns faptul c acelai item poate avea valori diferite. Mai exact, aceeai prepoziie poate fi
lexical sau funcional, n funcie de context. Ne vom referi n acest studiu la prepoziia a
care manifest aceast omonimie.
2. A prepoziie lexical
n aceast calitate, prepoziia a, provenit din latinescul ad, se conserv mai ales n
exprimarea curent, pentru a reda ideea de asemnnare: Miroase a trandafiri. Bate vnt a
primvar. Calc a pop. Semantismul este, evident, unul slab, dar prepoziia suport
nlocuirea cu ali termeni: Miroase ca trandafirii. Bate vnt de primvar, Calc la fel ca un
pop. Vom analiza, n cele ce urmeaz, particularitile structurii. Prepoziia regizeaz numai
substantive crora le impune restricii de caz (acuzativ), de topic (* Miroase trandafiri a.
*Bate vnt primvar a. *Calc a pop a.) i de articulare. Ultima restricie merit o analiz
mai amnunit prepoziia se asociaz cu substantive nearticulate i nu permite articularea
(definit sau nedefinit): *Miroase a trandafirii. (?) Miroase a nite trandafiri. *Bate vnt a
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primvara. *Bate vnt a o primvar. *Calc a popa. *Calc a un pop. De asemenea,

asocierea cu un determinant nu duce la articularea substantivului regizat de prepoziie:
Miroase a trandafiri proaspei/a trandafiri din Olanda. Bate vnt a primvar cald. Calc
a pop de sat. Regentul grupului este fie un verb, fie un substantiv. Tot cu valoare lexical se
ntlnete n structurile cu numeral, atunci cnd arat distribuia (sensul este neologic): A adus
dou pachete a zece kg. Structurile de acest gen sunt calchiate dup limba francez.
Nota 1: desemnnd locul sau scopul, prepoziia a se regsete numai regional, situaie
n care se conserv unele utilizri arhaice: Cnd a fost badea a munte. C i dracul mi-o
bocete cnd pornete, n vale-a pete.
Nota 2: n limba romn, prepoziia nu fuzioneaz cu termenul dominat, ci se
concretizeaz ntotdeauna ca element distinct. Cazurile de fuzionare a componentelor grupului
prepoziional s-au produs n timp i const fie n transformare unor locuiuni n cuvinte
compuse prin aglutinare, fie n alipirea unor prepoziii: acas (ad+casa), alene (ad+lene),
afund (ad+ fund), alturi (ad+lature), amurg (ad+murg), adesea (ad+des), alipi (ad+lipi),
asfini (ad+sfnt), amna (ad+mne) etc.
3. A prepoziie funcional
3.1. Marc a relaiei de genitiv
Calitatea de prepoziie a acestui termen este pus sub semnul ntrebrii n literatura de
specialitate. n general, se sesizeaz comportamentul diferit de prepoziia prototipic a
servete fie la exprimarea relaiei cazuale de genitiv (n condiii sintactice clar delimitate), fie
se constituie ca marc a infinitivului. De aceea, lectura lui este diferit: n GLR (vol. 1, 1966)
este considerat prepoziie, dar este tratat n cadrul mijloacelor analitice de exprimare a
cazurilor:
Dintre prepoziii, se apropie de elementele flexionare urmtoarele: a n construciile cu
valoare de genitiv (legate de prezena unui numeral sau a altui cuvnt cu sens cantitativ) i ca
marc a modului infinitiv, la n construcii cu valoare de dativ, pe la acuzativ cu rol de
complement direct. (p. 51)
Exist i alte receptri: cuvnt auxiliar (Graur 1973), element purttor al raportului
cazual (Constantinescu-Dobridor 1974), morfem de genitiv (Irimia 1977, Iordan i Robu
1978), afix cazual proclitic (Neamu 2006-2007), marc a categoriei gramaticale a cazului
(Iordan i Robu 1978), prepoziie-morfem (Irimia 1997), prepoziie desemantizat (GALR I
2008).
Funcionarea ca prepoziie ce marcheaz relaia de genitiv este condiionat, n
general, de caracterul non-flexibil al termenului imediat urmtor. Acesta se poate concretiza
prin:
a.
numeral cu valoare substantival/adjectival: Este vecinul a trei dintre ei. Este
vecinul a trei locatari.
b.
pronume/adjective pronominale care prezint flexiune defectiv la cazul genitiv: Nea mirat adunarea a tot poporul. Interpretarea a ceea ce a spus nu i-a convenit. Nu
ne supr schimbarea a ce e de schimbat. Nu ne deranjeaz achiziionarea a ceva
nou.1
c.
adjectiv invariabil, provenit din adverb, antepus substantivului determinat: Trebuie
evitat ncurajarea a aa oameni. Ne uimete promovarea a asemenea angajai.
Uneori, este posibil exprimarea sintetic a genitivului, dar construcia analitic pare s se extind i s fie
preferat n limbajul cotidian: Suprarea ctorva dintre ei/a civa dintre ei, rezolvarea multor probleme/a multe
probleme. Sunt greite construciile de utilizare mixt a celor dou modaliti de exprimare a genitivului:
*Adunarea a ctorva dintre ei a dus la revolt.
1
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locuiuni adjectivale antepuse substantivului determinat: i copleea povestirea a fel

de fel de minuni. Adunarea a astfel de oameni nu ne reprezint.
e.
mrci graduale ale adjectivului ce nsoete substantivul: Acumularea a foarte multe
necazuri a determinat izbucnirea lui. l obosea rezolvarea a nespus de multe
probleme. Publicarea a nemaipomenit de multe lucrri a atras atenia.
f.
adjectivul numeros: Am hotrt convocarea a numeroi membri. S-a impus prin
nregistrarea a numeroase melodii.2
Problemele de interpretare pe care le ridic aceste structuri vizeaz, din perspectiva
teoriilor moderne, att calitatea de centru de grup sintactic a prepoziiei funcionale a, ct i
natura grupului nsoit de prepoziie. Exist dou poziii distincte n acest sens. Unii
gramaticieni (Mardale 2007a, 2007b) susin c prepoziiile funcionale nu pot genera grupuri
sintactice, prin urmare nu pot schimba natura constituentului, care va rmne de factur
nominal. Schematic, situaia arat astfel: Ne-a mirat adunarea [GN a tot satul]. n alte lucrri
(GALR I 2008, GBLR 2010) se admite faptul c prepoziiile funcionale pot fi centre (slabe)
de grup i pot schimba natura constituentului dominat, genernd grupuri prepoziionale: Ne-a
mirat adunarea [GPrep a [GN tot satul]]. Este evident c prepoziia funcional impune restricii
gramaticale de form termenului dominat, n ciuda faptului c ea nsi nu are sens propriu-zis
altfel spus, nominalul are form de acuzativ, dei relaia exprimat este una de genitiv: a tot
satul; a civa, a trei dintre ei. Din acest punct de vedere, exist o discrepan ntre forma
construciei (nominal cu form de acuzativ) i sensul ei (relaie de genitiv). Totodat, dac
nominalul este un substantiv, acesta apare cu form nearticulat considerm ns c acest
comportament nu se datoreaz prepoziiei, ci existenei unui determinant antepus
substantivului: a civa oameni, a trei colegi3; Excepie face structura n care determinantul
antepus este adjectivul pronominal nehotrt tot, toat, toi, toate care impune articularea
substantivului: I-a marcat protestul a tot poporul.
Mai complicat este asocierea dintre prepoziiile/locuiunile prepoziionale lexicale cu
regim de genitiv i prepoziia funcional a, n aceleai condiii sintactice pe care le-am
relevat anterior. Tradiional, structurile de genul contra a, mpotriva a, n ciuda a, dedesubtul
a, deasupra a, de-a dreapta a, asupra a etc., sunt receptate drept prepoziii compuse.
Gramatica actual propune reconsiderarea acestor construcii prin prisma centrelor de grup
adic, o prepoziie poate s aib drept constituent obligatoriu un alt grup prepoziional. Astfel,
enunul Va trebui s meditm asupra a dou dintre punctele de pe ordinea de zi. are n
componen un grup prepoziional dominat de prepoziia lexical cu regim de genitiv asupra,
grup care integreaz un alt grup prepoziional care are drept centru prepoziia funcional a:
Va trebui s meditm [ GPrep asupra [GPrep a dou ]] dintre punctele de pe ordinea de zi.
Pentru exprimarea relaiei gramaticale de dativ, prepoziia a se regsete numai n
construcii echivalente cu atributul substantival datival (Este mam copiilor. A ajuns cpitan
norodului.), situaie n care centrul extern al grupului prepoziional este un nominal
nearticulat: Este mam a trei copii. A ajuns cpitan a tot norodul.4
d.
3.2. A - morfem al infinitivului
i n acest caz este posibil exprimarea sintetic: convocarea numeroilor membri, nregistrarea numeroaselor
melodii.
3
n absena determinantului antepus care blocheaz articularea, substantivul se flexioneaz, iar prepoziia
funcional nu mai este necesar: Protestul oamenilor era de ateptat. Nu ne intereseaz prerea colegilor.
Acelai comportament are nominalul n prezena determinantului postpus: Protestul oamenilor acelora era de
ateptat. Nu ne intereseaz prerea colegilor votri.
4
Dac centrul extern de grup este un substantiv articulat, relaia exprimat este una de genitiv: Este mama a doi
copii. (echivalent cu Este mama copiilor.).
2
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Prepoziia a desemantizat apare n structura verbului cu form non-finit, la infinitiv.

Multe dintre lucrrile de gramatic pun sub semnul ntrebrii calitatea de prepoziie a acestui
element, recunoscndu-se faptul c valoarea de jonctiv a slbit n timp: a devenit semn al
infinitivului, mijloc morfologic special (GLR I, 1964: 331), morfem segmental de origine
prepoziional (Constantinescu-Dobridor 1974), marc a infinitivului (Iordan i Robu,
1978, Mihu 1995), semn-morfem al infinitivului (Bejan, 1995: 201), afix mobil (Ciompec
et alii, 1985: 172), morfem constitutiv al infinitivului (Irimia 1997: 314), instrument de
relaie (de legare) i afix morfologic (DL 1997). Aceeai receptare se revsete n GALR
(vol. 1, p. 487): Morfemul mobil a, la origine prepoziional, are un statut gramatical
ambiguu, cumulnd rolul unei mrci morfologice i al unei mrci sintactice.. Este evident c
aceast prepoziie nu i mai pstreaz rolul relaional din moment ce verbul la infinitiv ocup
poziii sintactice atipice pentru prepoziie: subiect (E greu a nelege aa ceva.), obiect direct
(tie a atrage atenia.). De obicei, n aceast situaie, prepoziia se combin cu alte prepoziii
de tip lexical: Dorina de a reuit era puternic. (atribut verbal), Ideea lui era de a cltori
mult. (nume predicativ), Vine pentru a ctiga. (circumstanial de scop), A plecat fr a
saluta. (circumstanial de mod). Subscriem interpretrilor din gramaticile academice actuale
(GALR 2008, GBLR 2010), conform crora, n acest context, prepoziia funcional nu
genereaz grup sintactic iar constituentul pe care l nsoete i pstreaz statutul de grup
verbal infinitival.
Consideraii finale
Analiza realizat a relevat faptul c prepoziia a poate avea n limba romn valori
distincte: ea funcioneaz att cu valoare lexical, ct i cu valoare funcional. Diferena
dintre contextele de utilizare se concretizeaz n raport cu restriciile gramaticale impuse
termenului dominat prepoziia lexical a poate guverna numai nominale pe care le
condiioneaz la nivelul formei (caz i articulare) i la cel al topicii (poziia fix a
elementului), n timp ce prepoziia funcional a se asociaz att cu nominale (pentru
exprimarea relaiei de genitiv/dativ), ct i cu verbul la infinitiv (prepoziia funcioneaz ca
marc a formei non-finite).
BIBLIOGRAFIE:
Bejan, Dumitru (1995), Gramatica limbii romne. Compendiu, Editura Echinox, ClujNapoca.
Ciompec, Georgeta, Dominte, Constantin, Forscu, Narcisa, Guu Romalo, Valeria,
Vasiliu, Emanuel (1985), Limba romn contemporan. Fonetica. Fonologia. Morfologia.
(sub coordonarea acad. Ion Coteanu), Ediie revizuit i adugit, Editura Didactic i
Pedagogic, Bucureti.
Dragomirescu, Adina, Nedelcu, Isabela, Pan Dindelegan, Gabriela (2010),
Morfosintaxa limbii romne. Sinteze teoretice i exerciii, Editura Universitii din Bucureti.
DL = Bidu-Vrnceanu, Angela, Clrau, Cristina, Ionescu-Ruxndoiu, Liliana,
Manca, Mihaela, Pan Dindelegan, Gabriela (1997), Dicionar general de tiine ale limbii,
Editura tiinific, Bucureti.
GALR = Pan Dindelegan, Gabriela (coord.) (2008), Gramatica limbii romne, vol. III, Editura Academiei Romne, Bucureti.
GBLR = Pan Dindelegan, Gabriela (2010) (coord.), Gramatica de baz a limbii
romne, Editura Univers enciclopedic gold, Bucureti.
GLR I = *** (1966), Gramatica limbii romne, vol. I, Editura Academiei Republicii
Socialiste Romnia, Ediia a II-a revzut i adugit, Bucureti.
Graur, Al. (1973), Gramatica azi, Editura Editura Academiei Republicii Socialiste
Romnia, Bucureti.
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Iordan, Iorgu, Robu, Vladimir (1978), Limba romn contemporan, Editura

Didactic i Pedagogic, Bucureti.
Irimia, Dumitru (1997), Gramatica limbii romne, Editura Polirom, Iai.
Mardale, Alexandru (2007a), La prposition: une classe htrogne n Studii
lingvistice. Omagiu Profesoarei Gabriela Pan Dindelegan, la aniversare, Editura
Universitii din Bucureti, Bucureti, p. 165-177.
Mardale, Alexandru (2007b), Les prpositions fonctionnelles du roumain: tude
comparative, Thse de doctorat, Universit Paris 7 & Bucarest.
Mardale, Alexandru (2007c), Categorii lexicale versus categorii funcionale via
categorii semilexicale n Studii de gramatic i de formare a cuvintelor. In memoriam
Mioara Avram, Editura Academiei Romne, Bucureti, p. 254-267.
Mihu, Lizica (1995), Limba Romn Contemporan. Morfologia. Sinteze
Universitatea Aurel Vlaicu din Arad, Facultatea de Teologie, Seria Cursuri Universitare.
Neamu, G.G. (2006-2007), O clasificare categorial-relaional a atributului n limba
romn. Cu adnotri, n Dacoromania, p. 111-145.
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OVIDIUS EXILE POETRY SOURCE FOR ESTABLISHING THE TRUTH REGARDING

THE PLACES, CLIMATE AND VEGETATION IN TOMIS
Coca DORICA
Abstract: Ovidian exile opera offers numerous pretious informations about Scythia Minor,
Dobrogea today that historians have not capitalized only from the late XIX century and early
XX century, after digs in the territory of Dobrogea, when archaeologists and historians have
realized that the ovidian source deserve more attention.
Although seen with the eye of the poet and not with the historian one, at a careful reading of
operas Tristia and Epistulae ex Ponto, informations about placing Tomis, about
population, about climate and vegetation comes to light, and their comparison with literary
sources of the time, with the historical and archaeological ones helps us find out how much of
the information left by Ovidius can be capitalized in establishing historical truth.
Keywords: Ovidius, exile, the documentary value, Tristia, Epistulae ex Ponto.
Poet al epocii principatului augustan, al veacului de aur al poeziei

latine, Ovidius este preuit i gustat n sferele distinse i stilate ale Romei,
dar alungat la Tomis n anul 8 p. Chr. i inut departe, de ctre mpratul
Augustus.
n momentul sosirii la Tomis, Ovidius nu tia prea multe despre
acest vechi focar de civilizaie elenic, despre populaiile existente aici,
despre clim. Dovad stau aluziile din cartea I a Tristelor, scris pe drum
nainte de sosirea la locul de destinaie, unde spune: nescioquo positos in
orbe Tomitas1.
Alexandrin prin formaie, adic fin observator, cu predilecie pentru
amnunt, erudiie, precizie, Ovidius noteaz n opera sa tot ceea ce ine de
aceti oameni i de aceste locuri: obiceiuri, vestimentaie, clim, vegetaie.
De bun seam, nu trebuie s uitm c n opera sa sunt prezentate lucrurile
cu ochiul poetului i nu orice poet, poetul exilat, poetul pedepsit prea aspru,
pe nedrept, poate, poetul care se lamenteaz uneori, poetul care cere
ndurare, care exagereaz deseori cu intenii foarte exacte i nu cu ochiul
istoricului.
Totui, trebuie s tim cu exactitate, ct din informaiile lsate de
Ovidius poate fi valorificat n stabilirea adevrului istoric asupra teritoriilor,
populaiilor, climei i vegetaiei din aceast parte a rii noastre. Pentru
aceasta se cuvine o analiz minuioas asupra tirilor din Tristia i Epistulae
ex Ponto, comparativ cu alte surse literare i istorice despre locurile, clima
i vegetaia Tomisului i chiar cu surse arheologice.
Referiri la aceste date avem chiar de la Miron Costin i Dimitrie Cantemir,
dar un studiu de valorificare istoric a tuturor informaiilor date de Ovidius
1
Tristia, I, 2, v. 85.
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s-a fcut abia la sfritul secolului al XIX-lea i nceputul secolului al XXlea, dup spturi arheologice pe teritoriul Dobrogei, cnd arheologii i
istoricii au realizat c sursa ovidian merit o mai mare atenie.
1.
Aezarea Tomisului
Dac atunci cnd vorbete de populaii, este obsedat de nfiarea
lor hidoas, dar mai ales de caracterul lor de nvlitori, dac atunci cnd
vorbete de clim, este urmrit de frigul permanent, atunci cnd vorbete de
locul exilului, este chinuit de deprtarea de Roma. Pentru Ovidius, Tomis e
undeva la captul pmntului, in extremis ignoti partibus orbis (Tristia, II,
3,3), ntre cele dou lumi, Stygias detrusus in oras (Epistulae ex Ponto, I,
8,27), ntre cele dou trmuri A Styge nec longe Pontica distrat humus
(Epistulae ex Ponto, III, 5, 56).
Se spune c numele Tomisului a fost dat atunci cnd Pontul Euxin a
fost strbtut pentru ntia oar de corabia Argo, "ntia trecu pe neumblatul
talaz", per non temptatas prima concurrit aquas, de Iason i Medeea. Prin
fapta ei criminal, i-a legat numele de al cetii unde poetul se afl exilat:
Dar locul are-un nume mai vechi dect oraul:
I-l dete(- aa se zice) Absirt, cnd fu ucis.2
Cnd impia Medee fugi de-al su printe,
Pe vasul dup sfatul Minervei furit
i care-atunci pe valuri, pluti ntia oar.3
Medeea, ne amintete Ovidius, a fost cea dinti care "Spre vadurileaceste se zice c-a vslit", dicitur his remos applicuisse vadis.4 A vslit,
vznd c tatl su, pe care-l prsise ca s-l urmeze pe Iason, o ajungea din
urm. Pentru a-i ntrzia sosirea i a scpa de furia lui, Medeea, cu obrajii ca
de cear, mpietrii de team, tulburat de zgomotele valurilor i de ipetele
disperate ale pescruilor, nesfrite ecouri ale pcatelor muritorilor,
strpunge cu sabia pieptul nevinovat al fratelui ce o nsoea, i-i pune pe o
stnc capul sngernd i minile palide. mprtie apoi bucile tiate,
pentru ca Aetes, tatl su, s le gseasc pe rnd i s-i ncetineasc mersul,
iar Medeea s ajung ct mai departe. Amintirea acestui trup plutete, ca un
zbor de pescrui, peste cetatea Tomisului.
Inde Tomis dictus locus hic, quia fertur in illo
Membra soror fratris consecuisse sui5.
Dobrogea a primit numele de Scythia Minor chiar n vremea lui
Augustus, ne spune acest lucru i Strabo, nume pstrat apoi cteva secole. E
clar c, folosind epitetul de scitic, se refer la teritoriul din sudul Dunrii i
nu la teritoriul locuit de marea mas a sciilor, Scythia Maior, adugnd,
Numele inutului Tomis, spune Ovidius, ar fi de la fapta Medeei, aceea de a-l tia n buci pe fratele ei, Absirt;
aadar, de la grecescul bucat, tietur, amputaie.
3
Tristia, III, 9, v. 5-9.
4
Ibidem, III, 9, v. 10.
5
2
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pentru convingere, prin gura unui btrn, povestea Ifigeniei n Taurida, care
este o parte a Sciiei.
n Tristia, V, 13, 1 i trimite unui prieten salutri e Getico, de pe
meleagurile getice, teritoriu al crui nume este cuprins n expresia in
Geticos fines (Epistulae ex Ponto, III,7,19). Despre colonitii din Milet
spune c i-au ntemeiat colonia Tomis n Getis (Tristia, III, 9,3-4). Cnd
vorbete de Pont, chiar i atunci cnd i intituleaz opera Epistulae ex
Ponto, el nu se gndete la mare, ci la uscat, n accepiunea de mare fiind
pomenit o singur dat (Epistulae ex Ponto, III, 2, 44). Marea este numit
Euxini mendax cognomine litus (Tristia, V, 10, 14).
Despre Dunre Plinius afirm c primete aizeci de aflueni i c se
vars prin ase brae. Din primul bra, al Peucei (denumit de Strabon Hieron
Stoma sau Gura Sacr, denumire pe care o atribuim astzi braului Sf.
Gheorghe) mai sus de Histropolis (Histria), se formeaz un lac cu o
circumferin de aizeci i trei de mii de pai, numit Halmyris, pe care astzi
l identificm cu Lacul Razim.
Rezumnd informaiile rmase de la autorii antici, referitoare la
gurile de vrsare ale Dunrii, reinem c, la Herodot, Dunrea avea cinci
brae, la Strabon apte brae, la Pliniu i Ptolemeu ase brae. Cert este c
Delta Dunarii era deja format, ns de dimensiuni mai reduse i se vrsa
printr-un numr mai mare de brae dect azi.
Pentru a-i convinge cititorii de distana fa de Roma, Ovidiu ne
spune c rareori vin din Italia corbii spre aceste rmuri lipsite de porturi,
iar unei scrisori i trebuie timp ndelungat, un an, pentru a ajunge:
Dum tua peruenit, dum littera nostra recurrens
tot maria ac terras permeat, annus abit.
Scrisoarea pn vine, rspunsul pnajunge
La tine, peste ape i ri, se duce-un an 6.
2. Clima, vegetaia
Ovidius, din motive deja tiute, struie asupra anotimpului iarna,
asupra asprimii ei n inuturile tomitane, ignornd aproape celelalte
anotimpuri. Pentru a vedea ct de autentice sunt aceste informaii ar trebui
s cercetm poziia geografic a inutului exilului.
Dei n celelalte cri din Tristia frigul este obsedant i chinuitor, n
prima carte nu apare deloc, ca dovad c, nainte de a veni la Tomis nu tia
despre frigul de aici i c a devenit dumanul lui n momentul n care l-a
simit pe propria piele: frigore perpetuo Sarmatis ora riget.
De-un frig etern nghea sarmaticul inut7.
Dar frigul veritabil, descris cu simul celui care l triete pe viu, este
n Tristia, III, 10, elegia prin excelen dedicat gerului groaznic tomitan:
6
7
Epistulae ex Ponto, IV, 11, v. 15-16.

Epistulae ex Ponto, II, 7, v. 72.
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Saepe sonant moti glacie pendente capilli,

et nitet inducto candida barba gelu;
nudaque consistunt, formam seruantia testae,
uina, nec hausta meri, sed data frusta bibunt.
Iar ururii de ghea le zuruie n plete,

De alba promoroac scnteie barba lor.
Aice vinu-nghea i el pstreaz chipul
Ulciorului, i nu-l bei, ci-l farmi n buci!8
Este contrariat de faptul c poate s mearg pe apa ngheat fr s
se ude i c petii, prini n ghea, sunt vii:
Vidimus in glacie pisces haerere ligatos,
sed pars ex illis tum quoque uiua fuit.
Marea nghea pentru c este poziionat sub constelaiile Carului,
regiuni de frig de la care pleac i vntul specific acestei regiuni, crivul.
Acest criv, face una cu pmntul acel zid de incint (vezi supra) aezat pe
un promontoriu (tumullus), prevzut cu turnuri (altas turres) i pori9. Se
pare c este o exagerare a poetului aici, deoarece atunci cnd e vorba de
venirea dumanilor, zidul cu turnurile este ubred, iar cnd descrie rigorile
iernii, turnurile lui sunt nalte10. Exagerarea este n privina zidului, pentru
c n ceea ce privete iarna avem i alte dovezi, de nainte de Ovidius.
Filozoful Aristotel spune despre Dunre c n timpul iernii nghea i e
strbtut clare ca o cmpie11.
Despre grindin, Ovidius amintete o singur data: grandine pugnet
12
hiems .
Avem totui i descrierea altui anotimp, primvara, n Tristia, III, 12
care e, de fapt, una din cele mai reuite poezii din literatura latin, un tablou
fermector al primverii: toporai, livezi cu flori de diferite culori, cntece
de psrele, ieirea colului ierbii.
Vara i toamna sunt nfiate prin activitile caracteristice.
Acelai ton negativ ne ntmpin i cnd vorbete despre vegetaia
Tomisului. Astfel, se plnge de lipsa arborilor, a viei-de-vie, detaliu cu care
este de acord i V. Prvan13, probabil doar n anumite zone, nu n ntreaga
regiune a Dobrogei, deoarece cultul lui Dionysos era destul de rspndit,
dup cum reiese din inscripii i monumente epigrafice14. Apare totui n
descrierea primverii: nam procul a Getico litore uitis abest; - Pe unde
crete via, d mugurul pe curpen. Lipsa pomilor fructiferi n Dobrogea
8
Ibidem, V, 10.
10
Livia Buzoianu, Maria Brbulescu, Tomis, Comentariu istoric i arheologic, n Ex Ponto, Constana, 2012,
p. 41.
11
Aristotel, Despre minuni auzite (Mirabilibus Auscultationibus), 168, 182.
12
Epistulae ex Ponto, I, 7, v. 12.
13
Vasile Prvan, Getica, O protoistorie a Daciei, Meridiane, Bucureti, 1982, p. 137.
14
R. Vulpe, Histoire ancienne de la Dobroudja, Bucureti, 1938, p. 111.
9
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este artat i de statistici n comparaie cu celelalte regiuni ale rii.

Agricultura este o ndeletnicire rspndit n Dobrogea, btinaii se
strduiesc s nu-i lase ogoarele n paragin, dar nu pot fi cultivate din
cauza incursiunilor neateptate ale barbarilor care distrug totul n cale;
localnicii sunt nevoii s in cu o mn plugul i cu alta arma:
Est igitur rarus, rus qui colere audeat, isque
hac arat infelix, hac tenet arma manu.
n schimb solul dobrogean era favorabil culturii cerealelor, zeia
agricuturii, Demetra, aprnd pe monedele oraelor greceti din Dobrogea,
dar nu grecii se ocupau cu agricultura, ei rmn cu ndeletnicirile lor
comerciale15.
Pliniu cel Btrn, cel mai ilustru apostol al tiinei romane, este autorul
lucrrii Naturalis historia n care spune despre fauna mrii: n Pont nu
ptrunde nici un animal vtmtor pentru peti, n afar de foci i delfini
mici.
Cu toate exagerrile fcute de exilat, informaiile lsate de Ovidius
sunt de o incontestabil valoare, pentru unele dintre ele fiind unica surs.
Ovidius a fost poetul naional al Daciei Pontice, primul care a scris
n limba strmoilor notri geto-daci. Poezia lui a fost prima contopire a
sufletului latin cu cel dac, scrie n revista Pontica, Grigore Slceanu, autorul
constnean al piesei de teatru Ovidius.
Bibliografie:
Ovidius Naso, Publius, Tristia, Epistulae ex Ponto, Teubner, Leipzig, 1922.
Ovidiu, Opere, Editura Gunivas, Heroide, Amoruri, Arta iubirii, Remediile iubirii,
Cosmetice. Traducere de Maria-Valeria Petrescu, Bucureti, Minerva, 1977.
Metamorfoze, traducere de Ion Florescu. Revizuirea traducerii i note de Petru Creia,
Bucureti, Editura Academiei RPR, 1959. Fastele, Traducere de Ion Florescu i Traian
Costa. Note de Traian Costa, Bucureti, Editura Academiei RPR, 1965. Tristele,
Ponticle, Traducere de Theodor Naum, Bucureti, Univers, 1972, Colecia Aetra,
Chiinu, 2001.
Buzoianu, Livia, Brbulescu, Maria, Tomis, Comentariu istoric i arheologic, n Ex
Ponto, Constana, 2012.
Prvan, Vasile, Getica, O protoistorie a Daciei, Meridiane, Bucureti, 1982.
Vulpe, Radu, Histoire ancienne de la Dobroudja, Bucureti, 1938.
Vulpe, Radu, Barnea, Ion, Din istoria Dobrogei, Romnii la Dunrea de jos, vol. II,
Editura Academiei RSR, Bucureti, 1968.
Acest articol a fost realizat prin proiectul:
15
Ibidem, p. 227.
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Sistem integrat de mbuntire a calitii cercetrii doctorale i

postdoctorale din Romnia i de promovare a rolului tiinei n societate.
Cod Contract: POSDRU/159/1.5/S/133652
Beneficiar: Universitatea Alexandru Ioan Cuza, Iai.
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PARNASIAN FEATURES OF ROMANIAN SYMBOLIST POETRY

Andreea Iuliana DAMIAN
Abstract: The paper deals with the parnasian aspects that the romanian symbolist poetry has
developed. These manifestations made the beginning of the romanian modern poetry, being
ilustrated by several examples from the writings of the romanian poets, who were influenced
by the parnasian features present during their prolific period of writing.
Keywords: parnasian, symbolist, modernity, aspect, lyrical.
Simbolismul pornete ca o reacie mpotriva parnasianismului ncercnd s
ndeprteze simul obiectivitii i descrierile artificiale impersonale, de tip fresc,
introducnd n poezie muzicalitatea i lirismul. ns, prezena simbolurilor n ambele curente
literare reprezint un punct important de intersecie, care a generat adesea ideea c ar fi un
singur curent poetic.
n ceea ce privete liricul, simbolismul nu se intersecteaz cu naturalismul, ns
continu s dezvolte temele propuse de romantism i are puncte comune cu parnasianismul.
n Romnia, simbolismul reprezint atingerea unei simultaneiti ntre literatura
occidental i cea romneasc.
Se manifest numai n poezie, devenind punctul de debut al poeziei moderne.
Sincronizarea dintre poezia romneasc i cea francez este o necesitate pentru
scriitorii romni dobndit prin admiraia scrierilor, dar i prin legturile personale pe care le
aveau cu Frana.
Simbolismul n ara noatr reprezint nceputul teoretizrii liricului, prin anumite
articole publicate n reviste precum Literatorul de ctre Macedonski, t. Petric. n aceast
perioad apar scrieri simboliste prin dorina de a scrie aa cum cere moda, dar care nu se
pliaz pe retorica acestui curent literar.
Aceti poei sunt considerai precursori ai simbolismului mprindu-se n mai multe
etape: etapa boem (Alexandru Obedenaru; Mircea Demetriade); etapa mimetic unde poeii
fac apel la registrul neologic i ncearc s impresioneze prin obscuritate i lugubru (Iuliu C.
Svescu, Traian demetrescu).
Poezia simbolist capt valoarea sa adevrat odat cu scrierile lui tefan Petic, care
este primul simbolist complet, veritabil att din punct de vedere al temelor abordate, ct i din
punct de vedere retoric.
Direciile simboliste de la nceputurile acestui curent literar i au ca iniiatori pe Al.
Macedonski, n cercul cruia debuteaz i T. Arghezi i pe Ovid Densuianu care este
preocupat de teoretizarea curentului, ntruct scrierile proprii nu sunt semnificative pentru
impunerea acestei direcii n literatur
Poetul simbolist se detaeaz de tririle romanticului, dar i de rigoarea scrierilor
clasice, astfel la fel ca n Occident simbolismul capt originalitate i autenticitatea trecnd
dincolo de simbol i expresie, devenind un mod de a tri.
Tipologia poetului simbolist nsumeaz mai multe ipostaze ale acestuia: poetul
nonconformist, dezordonat (Mircea Demetriade); poetul revistelor din oraul de origine, care
ndeplinete funcii administrative n slujba statului (G. Bacovia); poetul-lector avid al
scrierilor de factur modernist (tefan Petic); poetul din provincie care vine la Bucureti
pentru studii, ns le abandoneaz trind mediocru, ascuns n fumul cafenelelor i n spatele
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publicaiilor de revist (Iuliu C. Svescu); poetul-funcionar public care ader la doctrina

liberal (I. Minulescu); poetul cu o carier puternic, dar care scrie n manier simbolist din
plcere (Ovid Densuianu, Eugeniu tefnescu-Est).
Poezia pentru ei reprezint un refugiu, care se pstreaz intact, neatins de
evenimentele cotidiene sau de poziia lor social sau profesional, acest lucru este dovedit
prin operele lor care sugereaz caracterul estetic autonom al curentului literar.
Apropierea simbolismului de curentele ezoterice se face mai ales n scrierile poeilor
minori, care realizeaz trimiteri ctre ezoterism prin trsturile estetice ale liricii lor:
obscuritate, stil aglomerat, manierism, utilizarea jargoanelor ciudate.
Simbolismul susine noutatea, schimbarea, apropierea scrierilor de mediul urban,
prsind lumea satului i aduce pe prima pagin modelele de scriere occidental care strnesc
revolt n rndul conservatorilor i contribuie la intensificarea conflictelor dintre cele dou
puteri culturale, Frana i Germania, pe teritoriul rii noastre.
n teritoriul Romniei, simbolismul a fost vzut ca un curent literar controversat, mai
ales din cauza surselor de inspiraie care, conform adepilor tradiionalismului ar fi devenit
copii imperfecte acre imitau temele i motivele, formele de scriere punnd la ndoial
adaptarea original ca tiparelor occidentale. Poezia simbolist prea s apar forat n
graniele unei literaturi sensibile, care i ddea o not de artificialitate.
Totui, criticii literari observ faptul c nevoile unei literaturi n plin dezvoltare
sugereaz c dei pornise ca un curent de imitaie simbolismul i demonstreaz originalitatea
prin acumularea detaliilor ntr-un mod autentic, creator.
Simbolismul a avut un caracter cosmopolit tocmai de aceea chiar i n Frana, ara de
origine, au existat discuii n ceea ce privete absena conservrii unui spirit naional. ns,
cosmopolitismul simbolist a fcut posibil apariia unui sincron al micrilor literare, astfel
discuiile legate de principiile estetice ale vremii sunt accesibile oricui.
Reacia antisimbolist n Romnia nu face referire la curentul n sine, ci la prelucrarea
acestuia de ctre scritorii minori, care ncercau s-i ascund lipsa de valoare n spatele
poeticii simboliste: ,,Nu este ironizat poetica simbolist, ci sunt judecai, din perspectiva
teoriei formelor fr fond, autorii banali, sentimentali care ncearc s minimizeze
complexitatea sufleteasc i la care vagul ascunde nu profunzime, ci confuzie1.
Poeii dornici de promovarea acestui curent ncep s organizeze conferine i s scrie
articole de tip manifest literar.
La nceput simbolismul reuete s mreasc universul liric, depind limitele impuse
pn atunci de M. Eminescu, acest fapt reprezint una dintre dorinele simbolitilor.
Ecourile romantismului eminescian sunt simite n poeziile simbolitilor, ns lirica
simbolist modific spaiul rural ntr-unul urban, escapadele romantice n codru, devin voiaje
pe trmuri exotice, iar parcul ia locul pdurii fiind noul loc de meditaie pentru poet.
Aceste schimbri se petrec la nceputul perioadei simboliste cnd poeii ncearc s se
adapteze la modelul occidental initnd simbolismul francez i pe cel flmnd.
Poezia romneasc de la sfritul secolului al XIX-lea i nceputul secolului al XX-lea
este o poezie aflat ntr-un plin avnt de modernizare unde se poate distinge amprenta
precedentelor scrieri de factur romantic i clasic, care confer unicitate i n acelai timp
originalitate simbolismului romnesc.
Discursul liric simbolist i s-a reproat n epoc faptul c nu este corelat cu tematica
ntruct pare s lrgeasc posibilitile expresiei poetice, fcnd apel ntr-o mare msur la
receptivitatea emotiv a lectorului.
Zafiu 1996, pp. 27-28.
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Dei, forma discursului liric nu este o trstur puternic pentru caracterizarea

simbolismului nu au existat manifestri mpotriva acestuia, poate c i datorit faptului c
expresia liric pstreaz forma asemntoare cu cea specific scriitorilor clasici.
Temele exotice de tip simbolist nu vor mai fi prea des abordate deoarece scriitorii
simboliti i parnasieni vor prelua teme autohtone cum ar fi: pmntul, recolta etc pentru a
adapta atitudinea occidental, asimilnd-o pe un fond romnesc.
Autorii nu pot fi catalogai ca drept aparinnd unei grupri literare nainte de a analiza
trsturi exterioare operei sale: tema preponderent i poeticitatea discursului liric.
Parnasianismul de cele mai multe ori nu s-a deosebit de simbolism datorit
influenelor comune majore, Frana va fi singurul spaiu cultural n care cele dou micri
literare exist n mod independent.
Totui, parnasianismul se distinge printr-o raionalizare a poeziei, ncercnd s
formeze o punte de legtur ntre poezie i tiin. Poezia scris n stil parnasianist este
imobil, descriptiv, pe cnd poezia simbolist este atras de senzaii i stri trectoare, care
pot atinge un apogeu, stingndu-se mai apoi.
Spre deosebire de simboliti, care de dragul creaiei pot depi limitele impuse de
forma poetic, parnasienii respect versificaia, ducnd poezia aproape de perfeciunea
formei.
Trsturile comune ale celor dou direcii literare sunt legate de poezia pur care
respect toate cerinele morale impuse de o art autonom.
n ceea ce privete operele, scrierile parnasiene se dovedesc a fi de fapt simboluri
ncifrate i nu descrieri minuioase aa cum s-ar fi ateptat publicul lector.
Misteriozitatea acestor simboluri o depete pe cea simbolist, deoarece analiza
atent i descrierea exact a obiectelor estetice le transform pe acestea n adevrate simboluri
ale artei.
Celelalte trsturi apropiate ale curentelor literare privesc nivelul lexical al scrierilor
(folosirea neologismelor) ct i cel ideatic, promovnd o poezie imobil n ceea ce privete
forma.
n spaiul cultural romnesc termenul de parnasianism permite a fi nlocuit cu cel de
simbolism ntruct majoritatea poeilor sunt numii pe rnd cnd parnasianiti, cnd simboliti.
(M. Demetriade, Al. Macedonski, t. Petic, M. Caragiale, Duliu Zamfirescu).
Nu doar simbolismul este asociat cu parnasianismul: n cazul lui Duliu Zamfirescu
stilul parnasian se mpletete cu cel clasicist, la Mateiu Caragiale apar influene tradiionaliste
n ceea ce privete temele abordate de acesta, lirica lui Ion Barbu poate fi caracterizat drept
una de tip expresionist, ns la baz st simbolul i descrierea fastuoas a parnasianismului.
Simbolismul reprezint reperul de la care pornete modernizarea poeziei romneti i a
limbajului poetic de la nceputul secolului al XX-lea.
Se poate identifica i dezinteresul manifestat de creatorii noii poezii fa de lectorii lor,
aceast atitudine este convenabil pentru acetia deoarece nu au restricii, limitndu-se doar la
criteriile estetice din cadrul ntlnirilor literare. Aceste rupturi dintre materialul scris i lector,
nu fac dect s distaneze poezia de lumea social, real.
Vicisitudinile inovative, continu prin tatonrile fiecrui poet de a-l ntrece pe cel
dinaintea sa explornd acelai univers liric limitat, fr a ndrzni s exploreze trmuri noi:
,,Fiecare poet nou i d parc silina de a abunda n acelai i de a ntrece pe cellalt n
aceeai senzaie2.
Legtura dintre simbolism i parnasianism este destul de strns, elemente parnasiene
sunt prezente mai ales n continuarea peisajelor autumnale simboliste.
Ibrileanu 1979, p. 209.
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Parnasianismul scoate n eviden conceptul de art pentru art, despre care criticii
literari afirmau c nu este dect un rspuns al activitilor de natur estetic provenite din
scrierile lui Kant.
Thophile Gautier este cel care teoretizeaz acest nou curent literar, delimitnd n
aceast scriere perioada creaiilor tranzitorii ntre romantism i parnasianism.
Scrierile parnasiene au ca scop arta n sine, iar n acest context arta simbolizeaz
mplinirea sensibilitilor i idealurilor, deoarece parnasienii vd n art independen i
nonconformism, ei nu pot accepta necesitatea artei pentru c odat cu apariia acesteia creaia
artistic i pierde valoarea.
Pe teritoriul Romniei nu se face remarcat ca un curent literar n sine, dar acest lucru
nu dovedete c parnasianismul nu s-a dezvoltat i n creaiile autohtone.
Influene ale acestuia se pot sesiza nc din perioada romantic, contopindu-se n
simbolism i avnd prelungiri pn la poezia interbelic. Se pune problema unei contopiri a
parnasianismului romnesc n simbolism, deoarece el nu se constituie printr-o teoretizare i o
critic aparte. Totui, N. Davidescu, n anul 1943 face o selecie a creaiilor aparinnd
parnasianismului n antologia sa Din poezia noastr parnasian, aici i menioneaz pe
simbolitii, odinioar cunoscui aa: M. Demetriade, Iuliu Cezar Svescu, Alex. Petrofil,
Gabriela Donna, Alex. Obedeanu .a.
Mircea Demetriade se caracterizeaz prin abilitatea sa de versificaie, se adapteaz i
transfigureaz versurile foarte agil devenind un tipic poeta versifex.
ncadrarea sa ntre simboliti are la baz sinesteziile sale construite dup tiparul lui
Arthur Rimbaud: ,,A, verbul peste ape nscnd eterne fire/ E, gndul meu sceptic, simbol
saturnian/ snge i incedii. Fii nvpiate,/ Din trmbie vestind-o virila libertate/ O,
freamtul de coarde, un mit din/ Ossian,/ Ciocnire de pietre scumpe, murmur eolian/ Pe
harpele albastre de ngeri nstrunate (Sonuri i culori).
Respectnd ntocmai principiul parnasian ars gratia artis creaiile lirice ale lui
Demetriade justific dorina sa de a promova un anumit tip de poezie, aadar foarma
genereaz esena sesibil i nu invers, ceea ce creeaz imposibilitatea unei atingeri afective
sau emoionale. Poemele sale dovedesc nvingerea absolut a formalului dovedind n acelai
timp o inerie sentimental care afecteaz esena poeziei.
Lirica sa nu aduce emoie lectorului, dar nfieaz bucuria poetului de le crea:
,,Mircea Demetriade se exprim n tipare preexistente inspiraiei3.
Precursor al simbolismului, parnasianismul are civa reprezentani de seam a cror
creaie literar este acceptat de anumii critici literari ca fiind o scriere de tip simbolist.
Alexandru Obedeanu devine dup primul rzboi mondial un poet uitat, deoarece
renun la viaa literar dup acest eveniment istoric.
Se remarc decorul poeziilor sale care mprumut trsturi simboliste: De-ocean de
snge i venin,/ Vaporul sumbru i fatal/ Dansnd vrjit din val n val/ Pieri n orizont
carmin. (Al. Obedeanu- Yahtul negru).
Temele sale marine i fundalul ncrcat de culori mov-roiatice l apropie de I.
Minulescu i de simbolismul acestuia, totui la Al. Obedeanu se observ macabrul i sumbrul
artificial, forat i ale crei elemente se construiesc lng tema fundamental a iubirii: Mai sus
de-al existenei slbatic carnaval,/ Fantastic rsare fascintoarea vil, n parcul de-arome
tresare o copil,/ zrind un mag ecvestru, n orizont de-opal. (Anxietas)
Respectnd principiul parnasian asemenea lui M. Demetriade reuete s creeze teme
literare legate de orice aspect al vieii, doar de dragul de a prospera arta.
La nivel tematic se observ o preferin a sa pentru istorie i mitologie, nsoite de
decoruri exotice i presrate cu sumbrul i euforia.
3
D. Micu 1970, p. 424.
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Parnasianismul romnesc i are originea n scrierile precursorilor, ncepnd cu M.

Eminescu, continund cu D. Bolintineanu sau V. Alecsandri: ,,Neavnd puterea s se
realizeze prin simpla degajare din noianul banal al formulelor literare la mod, eminescian i
cu derivatele ei semntoristo-naionaliste-poporaniste, s-a nmolit adesea4.
Iuliu C. Svescu i scrie poeziile ntr-o manier pur parnasian, dar cu trimiteri clare
ctre poeziile lui Alecsandri, Bolintineanu sau ale frailor Vcreti: Simt o mic psric/ Cu
glas blnd armonios/ Ciripind n al meu suflet/ Un cnt dulce i frumos (I. C. Svescu- Simt o
mic psric).
Scrierile sale sunt asemuite de ctre criticii literari cu pictura naiv, ncercrile sale
sunt adesea lipsite de profunzime, ncrcate de elemente retorice i foarte uoare n ceea ce
privete structura liric.
N. Davidescu, cel care va publica i singurul volum de poezii al lui I. C. Svulescu
recunoate superficialul i facilul din versurile sale declarnd: ,,Naivitile poetice nu
contenesc dect pentru a face loc celor mai purile stngcii. Simul compoziiei, de asemenea
se vdete aproape pentru pretutindeni absent, i lipsa unui ideal artistic a rmas fr leac, un
pmnt necunoscut pentru acest poet5.
i sunt apreciate peisajele construite deschis, prin detalii precise al unor locuri exotice,
surprinznd momente cheie ale acestor priveliti dinamizate: De mult, de mult mi se-artase,
n vis, un lac cu pant lin/ Creteau i florile de lotus i albe flori de hiacint/ i lin de tot
plutea o barc, mai mult n umbr ca-n lumin/ i-n barc trist cnta poetul, picnd din
strune de argint (I. C. Svescu- Cntarea lui Walmiki).
Dinamismul peisajelor devine o trstur definitoare a sa, cu putere de via, trire,
ritm i voin.
Depind poezia naiv-parnasian, I. C. Svescu are o serie de creaii extraordinare n
stilul epocii: ,,Alturi de compunerile stngace, att de stngace nct nu par ale sale, stau ns
piese de execuie impecabil, moderne n compoziie i limbaj, noi n materialul de
inspiraie6.
Scrierile peisagiste sunt continuate de Gh. Orleanu ns exotismul svescian capt
forme ntunecoase pline de cea, mutndu-se la aezrile ngheate scandinave: Coboar
seara mohort n linitea provincial./ Exil nostalgic, n odaie nfrigurat rmn sub lamp.
(Gh. Orleanu- Ceaa).
Apreciat ca cel mai simbolist dintre parnasieni Gh. Orleanu l are la cellalt pol pe Al.
Petroff care este considerat cel mai complet parnasian.
Creaiile lui Al. Petroff sunt reci i tioase, caut forme perfect parnasiene prin care s
elogieze Teba, Corintul, Atena, Roma, rile indiene sau zei greci: ,, Dimitrie Theodorescu (pe
numele su adevrat), reuise sm i conceap un suflet de nelept atenian, stoic pentru
bucuriile din afar, dar plin de entuziasm fa de cele izvorte din adncul propiilor sale
gndiri sau simminte7
La sfritul secolului al XIX-lea peisajul liric romnesc traversa o perioad de criz
avnd la baz lipsa de entuziasm atmosfera nceoat, imitaiile eminesciene sau ale poeziilor
lui Alecsandri poeii parnasieni reuesc s fac schimbrile cerute de literatur: ,,Pe deasupra,
se relev ndemnul direct i constructiv al poetului Macedonski, activ i interesant intermediar
n ptrunderea parnasianismului la noi8.
N. Davidescu 1975, p. 225.

N. Davidescu 1975, p. 221-222.
6
D. Micu 1970, p. 426.
7
N. Davidescu 1943, p. 101.
8
M. Dolinescu 1979, p. 190.
5
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Creaiile poeilor parnasieni aduc literatura romn pe aceeai linie cu cea european,
fapt ce permite inter-relaionarea curentelor literare asemntoare din alte ri cu
parnasianismul romnesc.
Literatura universal scoate n eviden atitudinea parnasian antiromantic, dar pe
teritoriul romnesc nu a existat un romantism att de bine conturat de aceea parnasianismul
romnesc creeaz replici doar mpotriva retoricii romantice i a melancoliei epigonice.
A. Macedonski reuete s i cuprind pe toi scriitorii parnasieni romni n jurul
revistei Literatorul i dezvolt resursele autohtone poetice dup modelul celor franceze.
Macedonski, nsui, transform tiparele parnasiene n poezii proprii innd cont de acestea la
nivel formal, semantic i stilistic: ,,Plcerea de a contempla imagini pur stilistice, cu ochi de
pictor care a fcut studii de istoria artei, inclusiv arheologie determin la Macedonski o
real apropiere de parnasieni, stimulat nu numai de lectura lui Leconte de Lisle, dar i a
discipolului su Jose-Maria de Heredia9.
Parnasianismul din Romnia este asimilat de ctre simbolism, aadar critica literar
nu face o delimitare clar a poeilor celor dou curente literare. Astfel, Ion Barbu debuteaz ca
poet parnasian, iar Ion Minulescu n manier semntorist.
Scrierile parnasiene ale lui I. Minulescu nu pot fi selectate n mod precis, deoarece
trsturile parnasiene se amestec cu cele simboliste. Stilul parnasian al lui Minulescu se
aseamn cu cel al lui I. C. Svescu: Miezul nopii-nainteaz/ Dealurile au adormit/ Luna
palid viseaz/ n azurul aurit (I. C. Svescu-Miezul nopii-nainteaz)- Tu pari a fi venit
dintr-un regat strin/ Pustiu ca discul rece i blond al lunii pline,/ Pervers ca parodia
anticului mslin/ i straniu ca sursul defunctelor regine!... (I. Minulescu- Odelet (celei mai
blonde))
Este vdit valoarea poeziilor parnasiene nu doar ca exerciiu de scriere cu scop
documentar, ci nuannd lirica romneasc a epocii.
Dorind o detaare de poezia parnasian simbolitii au concentrat creativitatea liric
modelnd valenele expresive prin intermediul conotaiilor textuale, al dirijrii ctre sugestie
i ambiguitate genernd senzaii lirice asemntoare cenesteziilor descrise.
Bibliografie :
Bote, L., Simbolismul romnesc, Bucureti, Editura pentru Literatur, 1966.
Clinescu, M., Ion Minulescu poetul sau Resursele umorului liric, in Ion Minulescu,
Versuri, Bucureti, Editura pentru Literatur, 1964.
Clinescu, G., Istoria literaturii romne de la origini pn n prezent, Bucuresti,
Minerva, 1982.
Davidescu N., Aspecte i direcii literare, Bucureti, Minerva, 1975.
Davidescu N., Din poezia noastr parnasian. Antologie critic, Bucureti, Fundaia
regal pentru literatur i art, 1943.
Dimitriu, D., Introducere n opera lui Ion Minulescu, Bucureti, Minerva, 1984.
Dolinescu, M., Parnasianismul, Bucureti, Univers, 1979.
Ibrileanu, G., Studii literare, I-II, Bucureti, Minerva, 1979.
Marino, A., Opera lui Al. Macedonski, Bucureti, Editura pentru literatur, 1967.
Micu D., nceput de secol. 1900-1916. Curente i scriitori, Bucureti, Minerva, 1970.
Pop, I., Avangarda n literatura romn, Bucureti, Minerva, 1990.
Scarlat, M., G. Bacovia. Nuanri, Bucureti, Editura Casa Romneasca, 1987.
Streinu, V., Versificaie modern, Bucureti, Editura Pentru Literatur, 1966.
A. Marino 1967, p. 97.
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Trandafir, C., Introducere n opera lui tefan Petic, Bucureti, Editura Minerva,
1984.
Zafiu, R., Poezia simbolist romneasc, Bucureti, Editura Humanitas, 1996.
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FEATURES OF LIFE IN THE WEST, REFLECTED IN IOAN SLAVICIS WRITINGS

Adela Cristiana GORCEA
Abstract: Specialized literature states that the Transylvanian village, as presented by Slavici,
reveals a different world as compared with other Romanian regions. Distinguishing features
are: rituals, spotlight on folklore, an economic thinking oriented to prosperity and a positive
attitude towards lands works.
The present paper focuses on the documentary value of Slavici literature, selecting images of
traditional clothing, peoples economical way of thinking, agriculture, as well as of playing
as a traditional leisure activity. Moreover, the paper refers to the specificity of Slavici
expression.
Traditional costumes are presented as peoples usual way of dressing for feasts and
celebrations. Slavici mentions specific dressing objects which are also confirmed by the
monographers.
As regards the economical aspects of life, Slavici speaks about loan sharking, about day
work, about the unfavorable conjunctions which for some people become opportunities for
gain and enriching. Affected by daily hardships, people confront even contagion for a good
price.
Harvesting develops in a few steps, in a relaxing atmosphere: harvesters are selected, each
one having its role in the group. Then, the joyful ritual before leaving to the fields begins. The
harvesting is described in details, using numerous terms specific for these works. The
component of the harvesting crew is confirmed by the studies of Ovidiu Brlea.
Playing seems the appropriate mean to spend free time. Romanian and German dances are
mentioned as prove for unity and interethnic tolerance. Ioan T. Florea also wrote about these
aspects.
The writers masterpiece brings to light elements of spoken language, having a rather
popular character than regional, which facilitates public understanding. Thus, Slavici
addresses all Romanian speakers.
Keywords: traditional costumes, economic thinking, agriculture, dances, spoken language.
Introducere
A scrie despre Slavici n prezent reprezint o provocare. De ce? Bogata bibliografie
critic, distana n timp i, mpreun cu aceasta, schimbarea mentalitii cititorilor, doritori, n
vremurile noastre, de mister i de spectaculos, ar putea fi tot attea argumente. Totui, citirea
operei din perspectiva legturii sale cu specificul existenei transilvnene n secolul al XIXlea pune n lumin, alturi de incontestabila valoare estetic, i dimensiunea ei documentar.
Cititorul zilelor noastre poate descoperi n lumea ficional a lui Slavici un document, o
oglind a satului romnesc care i-a desfurat viaa purtnd amprenta benefic a
comunitilor maghiare i germane. Acestea au imprimat existenei n Transilvania un caracter
ritualizat, mult diferit fa de existena rural din celelalte provincii romneti.
n acest context, n prezentul studiu am urmrit doar cteva aspecte ale vieii din
perioada amintit, aa cum apar n cteva scrieri ale lui Slavici portul popular, aspectele
economice ale vieii, desfurarea seceriului, jocul n comunitate , i despre care am cutat
confirmri n lucrri de specialitate, pentru a le demonstra autenticitatea. De asemenea, am
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urmrit limbajul prozei scriitorului, care reflect n mai mic msur limba vorbit regional, el
dorind a se adresa tuturor romnilor, i dovedind prin aceasta contiina sa lingvistic.
Portul popular
Vestimentaia este definitorie pentru specificul existenei ntr-o anumit zon. Bun
cunosctor al obiectelor vestimentare din zona iriei, Slavici le menioneaz n scrierile sale.
De exemplu, n basmul Ileana cea ireat, el amintete de mneca esut cu altie. (S1,
Ileana cea ireat, p. 66)
Portul popular era un motiv de mndrie pentru oameni, mai ales n zilele de srbtoare,
dar el reprezenta, n plus, i un mijloc de a-i distinge dup locul de provenien, i totodat un
element definitoriu care d sentimentul apartenenei la locurile natale: El cunotea portul,
portul satului n care petrecuse cele mai frumoase zile ale vieii sale; (). (S1, GS, p. 394).
Aceeai idee se regsete n Pdureanca:
- Pe cine caui, cmpene? l ntreb un flcu. ()
Dar de unde-l cunotea pdureanul?
De unde? De pe port! ()
Fietecare sat are portul lui ().(S2, P, p. 171)
n nuvela Gura satului, Slavici prezint fetele i nevestele tinere, gtite ca de nunt.
(S1, GS, p. 391) Insist apoi asupra mbrcminii brbteti. Redau mai jos descrierea fcut
de Slavici, n paralel cu un fragment de monografie:
Descrierea lui Slavici
Cioareci strmi de
aba, cmaa lung pn
aproape de genunchi,
cusut pe margine cu fire
de mtase galben i
ncheiat la bru cu
chimirul ngust, din care
ieeau prselele groase ale
unui
cuit,
pieptarul
albastru, cu cinci bumbi
ltrei, mnecile largi,
tivite tot cu mtase galben,
plria lat, ce-i sta ndrt,
nct acoperea tot prul tuns
i lsa dezvluit ntreaga
frunte rotund i neted,
(). (S1,GS, p. 392)
Prezentarea n monografie
Brbaii poart n picioare: opinci din pele dubit ori fcute din
tureci de cisme, nfurate cu curele pe pulpea dela picioare, de multe
ori ns n loc de curele e aa, iar unii cu cisme (clciuni) de pele groas,
cu tureac pn la genunchi. Vara umbl n ismene i cma, care sunt
fcute din pnz de cnep i de in ori de bumbac. Ismenele se leag
sub genunchi iar unii le poart nelegate. Iarna poart cioareci esui din
ln de cas, iar alii din ln neagr fabricat.
Peste cmaa care e lucrat cu slbnas i coli pe la margini i
e slobozit deasupra cioarecilor pn ctr genunchi poart un
erpar sau curea lat de 3 degete mai demult era de o palm i peptar,
unii i cojoace din piele de oaie, lucrate cu fleri frumoase. Peptarele
de comun ajung pn la bru, iar cojoacele sunt mai lungi.
Vara cei mai muli poart peptare nemeti ce au forma
cojoacelor dar sunt fcute din postav negru, unele lucrate cu inoare
vnte ori negre.
Att vara ct i earna poart suman lung pn la genunchi
sut din ln de oaie (). Dup-ce pnza e gata se trimite la dubit sau
nlbit, unde cu ajutorul apei i a ciocanelor s nlbesc i se ndeas
ntro form i astfel se d gata ca pnura de ln.
Din pnur se croete, de atare om priceput, forma ubei, apoi
se coas ctr olalt, pe margini jur mprejur cu postav negru. La
mneci, la margini i nainte pe amndou laturile la mijloc, e cusut cu
forme de postav negru i vnt presrat cu custura de a galben.
Pe cap poart plrie de pnur de psl sau de pr cu margini
mici, iar iarna poart cciuli negre de oaie de diferite forme. n vremile
btrne era cu totul deosebit portul de cel de acum. () Pe cap purtau
plrii mari, cu margini late de 4 degete i mpodobite cu ciucuri (sau
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gitane) (). n locul curelei de azi, toi purtau erpare late, n care i
pstrau banii, iar fumtorii cremenea i amnarul.1
Comparnd fragmentul literar cu prezentarea din monografie, se observ asemnri:

cmaa lung pn la genunchi, cusut cu galben, chimirul ngust, cioarecii, plria. De
reinut este c plria lat este menionat n monografie ca fiind obiect purtat n vremile
btrne, aadar, nainte de 1905, cnd a fost publicat lucrarea. Putem afirma, aadar, c
vremile btrne reprezint vremea lui Slavici, sfritul secolului al XIX-lea. Rezult astfel
c el cunotea n amnunt portul din zona de vest.
Cojocul este un element de mbrcminte cu tradiie n Podgoria Aradului. n romanul
Mara, acesta este descris frumos mpodobit cu flori tiate din crmjin ori cusute-n fire de
ibriin. Nu-i cojocul, ci podoaba de pe el ceea ce-i aduce ctig cojocarului. (S4, M, p. 89)
Frumuseea acestui obiect vestimentar este subliniat n acelai roman: cojoace frumoase ca
la Arad niciri nu se gsesc. (S4, M, p. 89) Aceste cojoace sunt descrise mai sus i de Petru
Vancu drept obiecte de mbrcminte.
n lucrarea Studii de etnografie i folclor, Romulus Vuia numete cteva piese
vestimentare pstrate pe teritoriul romnesc din timpurile cele mai ndeprtate: cciula,
cojocul, gluga, sarica, brul, cioarecii, iarii. El afirm c, n afar de cojoc, care a fost
probabil purtat n forma primitiv a pieilor de animale, celelalte obiecte nu au suferit n timp
modificri majore, aadar acest aspect confirm vechimea lor, precum i faptul c reprezint o
motenire preioas pentru poporul romn. Ocupaie veche, strns legat de creterea oilor,
cojocria a asigurat i asigur nc n zilele noastre venituri substaniale celor care o practic.
Aspecte economice ale vieii
n romanul Mara, Slavici face referire la starea material a oamenilor din secolul al
XIX-lea: cojoace frumoase ca la Arad niciri nu se gsesc, fiindc mai rar gseti aiurea
oameni care pot s le plteasc. (S4, M, p. 89) El subliniaz bunstarea locuitorilor, precum
i gndirea de tip economic creia i se datoreaz aceast bunstare. De asemenea, Slavici
arat c oamenii sunt nelepi i pricepui n a gsi metode de a-i ctiga traiul prin afaceri
proprii: Fiindc nu prea aveam bani, ca s intru ntr-o negutorie att de mare, m-am
mprumutat de la el, cu zece la sut pe trei luni de zile. (S4, M, p. 120) Se reflect n acest
fragment i practicarea cmtritului, ndeletnicire care nu era repudiat, ci reprezenta un trg
asumat, n care fiecare dintre pri respecta nelegerea iniial. Dac ar fi fost repudiat
aceast ocupaie, scriitorul ar fi intervenit cu un comentariu sau cu un calificativ. Se regsesc
n roman i consideraii cu privire la ziua de lucru. n luna mai, oamenii n-au de lucru nici n
cmp nici la vii, i ziua de lucru e mai ieftin dect alte di. (S4, M, p. 172)
Nuvela Pdureanca prezint modul n care locuitorii satelor dinspre pduri, pdurenii,
cum i numete Slavici, i ctig existena. Bunstarea nu este atotstpnitoare: i de la
muli mult (gru n. n.) s-ar scutura n fietecare an i nc mult ani n ani de-a rndul dac nar fi braul pdurenilor flmnzi. (S2, P, p. 163) Problemele traiului zilnic, cu care se
confrunt pdurenii, reprezint o soluie convenabil pentru deintorii de pmnt cu recolt
bogat, care pot gsi mn de lucru ieftin. n aceeai nuvel se subliniaz i spiritul
economic al pdurenilor: Nici nu voiau pdurenii s steie de vorb cu dnsul (cu ofron n.
n.). Cei mai muli ziceau c nu rmn pe aici, ci trec n Bnat, unde ziua se pltete mai bine.
Alii l amnau, pe mine, pe poimine, zicnd c nu tiu nc cum se vor hotr preurile. Iar
puinii care erau gata de a merge chiar de pe acum la lucru cereau nite preuri de te speriai de
ele. Trebuia s le plteti zilele pierdute pe drum i osteneala drumului. Apoi anul era bun, i
dar din dar se face. Apoi veniser mai puini dect ntr-ali ani. Apoi i mai ales era holer,
1
Petru Vancu, Mderat (Magyard), Arad, Tiparul tipografiei diecesane gr.-orientale romne, 1905, p. 56-59;
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i degeaba omul n gura morii nu intr. (S2, P, p. 173-174) Slavici ofer astfel i informaii
medicale, aducnd n atenie holera. Apare n acest fragment un aspect care direcioneaz
aciunile oamenilor dintotdeauna: conjunctura nefavorabil pentru unii devine prilej de ctig
i chiar de mbogire pentru alii. Se observ c, determinai de problemele traiului zilnic,
oamenii nfrunt, pentru un pre bun, chiar i molimele.
n teza de doctorat Imaginea Transilvaniei n viaa public din Romnia n anii 18661876, profesorul Iulian-Liviu Prnac realizeaz o prezentare a vieii economice din
Transilvania, n perioada menionat, care vine n sprijinul ideii c Slavici a cunoscut acest
domeniu al vieii din Transilvania i l-a valorificat n literatura sa. Am regsit n tez
informaii legate de criza economic de aici, fr referire la cauza principal a acesteia,
epidemia de holer. Se arat c aceast criz a afectat agricultura, care nu s-a redresat dect
dup 1882. n contextul amintit, n spatele problemelor ntmpinate de Iorgovan lipsa de
secertori se identific dificultile economiei din Transilvania, devenit o ramur axat pe
cultura cerealelor, n cadrul creia oamenii nu reuesc s obin performane. Prerea mea este
c, dei Slavici explic lipsa de secertori prin apariia holerei, aceasta este determinat i de
faptul c suprafeele cultivate cu cereale erau n exces, aadar, culegtorii erau insuficieni. De
altfel, n epoc se practica trocul: ce era n exces la gru se schimba cu alte produse, aprnd
astfel un nceput de migraie a muncii.
Plecarea oamenilor n Bnat, aa cum este amintit de Slavici, poate fi, n lumina
studiului amintit, i deplasarea populaiei spre mediul urban, n cutarea unui trai mai bun,
deoarece lucrarea precizeaz c n perioada 1870-1880, populaia rural a sczut.
n direct legtur cu extinderea suprafeelor pe care se cultiv cereale, se impune i
modernizarea uneltelor de prelucrare a recoltei. Nuvela Pdureanca menioneaz maina de
treierat grul, numit locomobil, care funcioneaz cu aburi. Acest aspect este confirmat de
studiul profesorului Prnac, care arat c, la 1873, n Transilvania erau 237 de maini de
treierat, dintre care cele mai multe se aflau n comitatele Bihor, Timi, Arad i Satu-Mare,
numr care a crescut la 1565 spre sfritul secolului. De asemenea, se face precizarea c
mainile cu abur aparineau marilor proprietari. Se confirm astfel c Slavici transmite i
informaii legate de epoca pe care a trit-o, referitoare la modernizarea utilajelor agricole,
precum i la economia bazat pe agricultur, n care cel mai mult se cultiv cereale. Civa ani
mai trziu, modernizarea o reprezenta i tramvaiul Pncota-Arad-Radna, care traversa iria,
oprind n patru staii, despre care Slavici aflase n 1906, cnd trenul erat tras de cai. Acesta a
fost dotat cu motor electric doar n 1912.
Seceriul este una dintre muncile agricole privite n zona de vest ca o srbtoare.
Nuvela Pdureanca l prezint amnunit, cu referire la alegerea secertorilor, la dansurile i
cntecele dinaintea plecrii la cmp, apoi la modul n care se desfoar seceratul.
Activitatea propriu-zis este precedat de alegerea secertorilor, care trebuie fcut
atent: Seceriul este o srbtoare, i Iorgovan voia ca pentru aceast srbtoare el s-i aleag
pe oameni, i cosai, i legtori, i fete ce trec de-a lungul brazdei s-adune n urma cosaului
mnunchii sub secere.
An, lucrul fusese minunat: erau flci sprinteni i la vorb, i la lucruri, un cimpoie i
doi lutari, era i-o gur spart, erau i fetele tot una i una, nct iarna toat Iorgovan numai
la seceri a visat. (S2, P, p. 166)
Este punctat atmosfera de srbtoare din preajma seceriului, apoi scriitorul face
precizri n legtur cu organizarea pentru aceast activitate rural: Busuioc i fcuse
socoteala ci cosai, ci legtori i ci mnunchei i trebuiau pentru ca s-i poat aduna
rodul timp de trei zile. Pdurenii aveau ns alte socoteli. Voind a pleca la seceri, ei se adun
n cete de cte cinci pn la o sut de ini. Fiecare din aceste cete are apoi un om al ei, care se
nvoiete pentru ceata lui; oameni rzlei nu se gsesc, deoarece pdureanul odat cu capul nu
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se desparte de ceata cu care a plecat. Degeaba se cznea dar ofron s adune numrul poruncit
de Busuioc: o dat erau prea muli legtori; alt dat prea puini cosai. Dar, ceea ce era mai
ru, se nimereau totdeauna prea muli care nu fac nicio treab. Fietecare ceat de cel puin
opt ini are cte un cimpoie ori lutar i cte un biat care poart fedeleul cu ap n urma
secertorilor, iar lutarul e socotit drept cosa i bietul drept mnunche. Busuioc hotrse un
cimpoie, un lutar i doi biei, iar lui ofron i se nimereau cte patru lutari, doi, trei
cimpoiei i cte cinci, ase biei. (S2, P, p. 174)
Slavici prezint amnunit problemele de organizare ale celor bogai n vederea
pregtirii seceriului, precum i componena grupului de secertori i rolurile oamenilor n
acest grup.
O alt etap este plecarea la cmp, precedat de un adevrat ritual:
Pe la cntatul cocoilor casa lui Busuioc era-n picioare, lutarul i strunea coardele,
cimpoieul i potrivea piscoiul, iar oamenii se gteau de srbtoare lundu-i flcii coasele
pe umr, iar fetele secera la bru. Ziua nu era nc dezvluit de tot din noapte cnd ei erau
strni cu toii n faa casei, ateptnd s ias gazda, ca s-i ureze de secertoare.
ndat apoi ce cheia rsun n broasca uii de la cas, cimpoieul i umfl cimpoile i
lutarul ncepe s trag cu arcuul. (S2, P, p. 191-192) Flcii prinser fetele-n joc i
ncepur s chiuiasc, apoi iei Vica, stpna casei, iei Filip cu puca-n spinare, ieir i
copiii mai mici, i dup ce se ntrem veselia, fetele ncepur s cnte i secertorii plecar
cntnd i jucnd la cmp. (S2, P, p. 195) Se observ s Slavici pomenete de instrumentele
muzicale ale locului i ale vremii, ca cimpoiul, sau piscoiul, azi aproape disprute.
Seceratul propriu-zis este prezentat cu aceeai minuiozitate: Cosaii mergeau nainte,
pas cu pas, culcnd lanul greu n brazde lungi i groase i oprindu-se din cnd n cnd, ca s-i
scoat cutea din teac i s trag cu ea de-a lungul coasei ce rsun departe sub btaia pietrii.
n urma lor fetele sprintene adun cu secera harnic brazdele n mnunchi. Vin apoi flcii cu
braele vnjoase, ntind legtoarea, adun mnunchii pe ea i o strng n genunchile lor greu,
ca eapn s fie snopul. Tocmai n coad sunt cimpoieul, lutarul, bieii cu fedeleul i
ofron cu furca-n trei coarne de fier.
i merg mereu nainte, i precum merg, lanul se culc-n calea lor i crucile li se ridic
pe urm. (S2, P, p. 195-196)
Slavici cuprinde n fragment i cuvintele ce denumesc obiecte ale muncii la cmp:
coasa, cutea, teaca, furca. Astzi, acestea sunt disprute, ele fiind nlocuite treptat, n timp, de
combinele germane KLAAS.
Cu privire la cntecele de seceri, cercettorul Ovidiu Brlea face un studiu amnunit
n lucrarea Folclorul romnesc, artnd c, n Transilvania, acestea apar pentru prima dat cel
mai probabil n epoca feudal, dar sunt legate de ncheierea seceriului cu un moment ritualic,
care const n aducerea unei cununi de spice, n alai i nsoit de cntec. Ovidiu Brlea
menioneaz c acest moment are loc doar cnd seceratul se face n form colectiv, ceea ce la
Slavici se sugereaz discret, prin termenul ceat. Tot n studiul cercettorului sunt amintii
brbaii i femeile care cnt pn la ntoarcerea n gospodrie, precum i lutarii care
acompaniau jocul n timpul seceriului i la sfritul acestuia.
Comparnd fragmentele extrase din nuvela lui Slavici cu studiul realizat de Ovidiu
Brlea asupra seceriului, se observ diferene cu privire la momentul n care se desfoar
cntecele i jocul. n timp ce Slavici menioneaz c acestea se interpretau la nceput, apoi n
timpul muncii la cmp, Ovidiu Brlea a descoperit c acestea se leag de finalul seceriului,
punndu-se accent pe cntecul cununii. Este de reinut ns caracterul ritualic pe care l d
Slavici i care se confirm prin studiul de folclor al lui Brlea, precum i buna dispoziie care
nsoete secertorii n aceast activitate agricol de importan major pentru transilvneni.
Cercettorul explic acest caracter ritualic prin vecintatea sailor, care a condus spre astfel de
manifestri ample.
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Citind nuvela, descoperim i atitudinea oamenilor fa de munca la secerat: e zi de

seceri. i omul care muncete zi cu zi tot anul i muncete cu drag n ziua seceriului nu se
mai trguiete. La nunt tot mai poi sta pe gnduri i la cumetrie, pentru c nunta i cumetria
sunt nceputuri; dar la secertoare niciodat. (S2, P, p. 192) Se observ n aceste cuvinte c
Slavici cunotea implicarea oamenilor n muncile cmpului, pe care acetia le priveau ca pe o
plcere i nu ca pe o activitate apstoare i obositoare. Astfel, n Ardeal, munca, orict de
obositoare, nu a fost simit ca o corvoad, pentru c era aductoare de prosperitate. Reflex
natural al unei mentaliti ce ine de valorile morale occidentale, grofii, latifundiarii romni,
precum i chiaburii se comportau mult mai uman cu cei care le lucrau pmntul.
Jocul este o srbtoare a comunitii, care nsoete alte activiti ale oamenilor sau
este doar o modalitate de petrecere a timpului liber, ca hor, duminica. Nuvela Scormon
amintete de jocul de la Pati, fr ns a-l detalia. Gura satului prezint jocul ca o modalitate
de destindere n fiecare duminic i la srbtori, cnd, alturi de dansul propriu-zis, se spun
poveti, glume i se cnt, uneori i cu fluierul. n acelai timp, jocul este momentul n care
ochii stenilor sunt ndreptai asupra celor care danseaz, acetia fiind judecai de aa-zisa
gura satului. (S1, GS, p. 352)
n romanul Mara, cu prilejul culesului viilor, se amintete de valsul nemesc i de
mruneaua, ca dansuri definitorii pentru dou naionaliti diferite. Valsul este specific
naionalitii germane: El juca att de frumos, iar ea nu tia s joace valsul. (Nal i Persida
n. n.) Nu era fcut bttura din faa cramei pentru vals i nici juctorii deprini a juca
nemete, dar la cules de vii joac lumea i pe iarb verde, i cele opt perechi zburau cum da
Dumnezeu, ca pe podele lucii. (S4, M, p. 98) Mruneaua este un dans specific romnesc,
este jocul pentru care podgorenii au o deosebit slbiciune. (S4, M, p. 101) Ceea ce valsul
este pentru Nal, este i Mruneaua pentru Persida: parc Mruneaua aceasta nici nu e
joc, ci un fel de opial; din ce n ce juctorii se nfierbntaser. () Era minunat i jocul
acesta, i el ncepu s mite din ce n ce mai neastmprat din picioare. (S4, M, p. 101) n
contextul dat, ele sunt un factor de unificare i o dovad de toleran, atitudine generat de
bucuria culesului viilor. Dansul Ardeleana este amintit i n nuvela Pdureanca.
n lucrarea sa Scrieri etnomuzicologice, cercettorul Ioan T. Florea menioneaz o
clasificare a jocurilor populare tradiionale de la hora satului, care cuprinde grupa ardelenelor,
cu dansuri n ritm linitit, grupa mrunelelor, cu dansuri n ritm alert, i grupa jocurilor pe
picior, care presupun pai srii. Aadar, Mruneaua i Ardeleana, pe care le amintete
Slavici, sunt dansuri locale, cunoscute de scriitor i dansate n zona de vest.
Elemente de limb vorbit
n acest subcapitol mi-am propus s ofer cteva exemple de limb vorbit n zona de
vest, aa cum reies din scrierile lui Slavici. Pentru aceasta, am pornit de la un fragment din
lucrarea monografic Mderat (Magyard), care ofer cteva exemple de limb vorbit n
zon la 1905 i cu mult nainte. Deoarece nsui autorul, Petru Vancu, redacteaz aceast
lucrare utiliznd tocmai specificul local, cred s este important s ofer un fragment
demonstrativ, cu caracter metatextual:
Referitor la graiul poporului romn din Mderat se poate susinea cu drept cuvnt c
vorbesc curat romnete, dac se escepioneaz expresiunea moale care se folosete n
prile de rsrit ale Criului ncepnd cu Mderatul a sunetelor ci, ce, gi, ge, t, precum i
folosirea ctor-va cuvinte ungureti.
Ca particularitate s noteaz urmtoarele: Mi George (n loc de Gheorghe)! Ciinie o
fost n grgin, ge-o adunat pruniile gi p gios? () Gi ingie esc m fracie? ()
Se folosesc vorbele maghiare romanisate: meseleu (perie de vruit) colop (plrie)
obloc (fereastr) uliia (strad), megis (totui), cios (jitar ori pzitor). ()
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Verbul mergem s esprim merem i mem s. ex. Noi mem (uneori merem) la
plug.
Verbul a fi cnd e n modul doritor i e n legtur au alt verb activ, s schimb n
vut s. ex. A vut veni la voi ect.
Cnd s esprim o cugetare dubioas n care s se foloseasc pronum: barem s
nlocuete cu incatele s. ex. Incate (sau ncatele cte odat i ncalete) s fi mers i ea la
fntn.
Generaiunea btrn, care e representat prin ci-va monegi, mai folosete nc
vorbirea veche, care poate va fi fost folosit pretutindeni ori numai n comunele din jur
aceasta se va ti cnd vor fi fcute istoriile comunelor romneti.
Btrnii converseav n modul urmtor: Cnd eraserm noi prunci, ne-am fost dusu-ne
pn n Arad i nime nu ne ddut nmica s gustam.
Sci ortace (pretene) gie cnd so msurat hotarul, cum ne dusesere-ne i pe noi p
prunci ca s ne artie mezuina hotarului.2
Mai demult se foloseau i vorbele: Bogdaproste, blagoslovit i alte vorbe rmase de pe
timpul stpnirei srbeti.3
Studiind nsi exprimarea la care apeleaz Petru Vancu n 1905, precum i
conversaia oferit ca exemplu de acesta, se observ cteva fenomene lingvistice care n
scrierile lui Slavici nu se regsesc.
n opera sa, Slavici apeleaz la un limbaj literar, care respect la modul general
caracteristicile generale ale stilului: claritatea, proprietatea, precizia, corectitudinea, puritatea.
Slavici renun la exprimarea regional n favoarea celei obinuite, puinele regionalisme
avnd doar rolul limbajului de caracterizare. Cu privire la fenomenele fonetice manifestate n
zona de vest n vremea sa, el le folosete doar tangenial n scrierile literare, sau modificat,
ntre pronunarea obinuit sau cea regional.
Pentru a ilustra aceste idei, am selectat exemple din romanul Mara i din basme,
identificnd cteva aspecte de ordin morfologic. n primul rnd, am identificat verbe la modul
conjunctiv, n cazul crora Slavici apeleaz la formele: s vie, s ie, s rmie, s deie, s-o
ieie, pe care le preia din zona iria. Atlasul lingvistic confirm o astfel de form a
conjunctivului, exemplificnd prin cuvntul s bi.4
n legtur cu pluralul substantivelor, se observ inconsecvena n folosirea acestuia,
de exemplu: pluralul substantivului fereastr este uneori ferestri, alteori fereti. Menionez c,
n zona iriei, pentru termenul fereastr se folosete cel de obloc, cu pluralul obl.5 Slavici
se orienteaz la o form mai apropiat de cea literar, folosind un termen mai aproape de zona
Puliului. De asemenea, substantivul spic apare cu pluralul vechi spicuri, iar pluralul
articulat pentru substantivul mn este la Slavici mnile. Substantivul genunchi devine la
plural articulat genunchile, form popular, dar nu regional, deoarece la iria acest cuvnt
are forma jenunt, cu pluralul jenun.6
Genitivul se formeaz la Slavici cu prepoziia de la, aadar, n locul formei ua casei,
el folosete broasca uii de la cas. La iria, aceast form este nlocuit de ua la cas, iar
la Svrin, ua di la cas. Slavici recurge la o form intermediar, apropiat de cea literar a
prepoziiei de la.
Conversaie auzit de Petru Vancu, n 1896, ntre nvtorul George Deac, de 76 de ani, i Ioan Galde, de 82
de ani;
3
Petru Vancu, op. cit., p. 35-36;
4
Ionel Stan, Dorin Uritescu, Noul atlas lingvistic romn. Criana, vol. II, Bucureti, Editura Academiei
Romne, Cluj-Napoca, Editura Clusium, 2003, p. 70;
5
ibidem, p. 130;
6
idem, p. 192;
2
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Pronumele nehotrte formate prin compunere sunt de tipul: fietecare, oareceva,

acestea nlocuiesc formele obinuite fiecare i ceva.
Acelai fenomen se observ n cadrul adverbului nehotrt oarecum, pe care Slavici l
utilizeaz n forma oarecum. Tot o form proprie limbajului scriitorului este i adverbul
propriu-zis, folosit ca amiazzi, dup amiazzi, sau n form substantivizat toat amiazziua.
Prepoziiile sunt folosite n forma lor arhaic, de exemplu, prepoziia despre apare cu
sensul lui dinspre : dealul despre Puli, rmurele despre Lipova.
Conjuncia dar, care de obicei este conjuncie adversativ, apare cu rol conclusiv,
avnd sensul aadar: lumea alearg dar, mai erau dar, sri dar, serile dar, creteau
dar i ciorapii (p. 15), acum dar, pn-n Rusalii. (p. 46)
Pentru substantivele urmate de adjectiv pronominal posesiv, de exemplu sora mea,
Slavici recurge la forma: soru-mea i soru-sii, forme confirmate pentru iria n atlasul
lingvistic.7
Am oferit aceste exemple cu scopul de a susine ideea c n opera scriitorului se pot
identifica elemente de limb vorbit, cu caracter popular i nu regional, ceea ce faciliteaz
nelegerea ei de un public cititor larg. Astfel, Slavici nu se adreseaz doar unei categorii
restrnse de cititori din regiunea sa, ci tuturor vorbitorilor de limb romn. Pentru scriitorul
ardelean, contiina lingvistic este important. Studiind corespondena lui Slavici cu Iacob
Negruzzi, din perspectiva limbii vorbite de scriitor, se observ o imens diferen ntre limba
scrisorilor i cea a literaturii sale. Redau un fragment din aceast coresponden: i scriu
numai ca s-i spun, cumc nu pot s-i scriu nimic, - deci numai pentru ca s te rog s nu te
superi pe mine pentruc nici dup-o vreme att de ndelungat nu am respuns la scrisoarea, ce
mi-ai trimis. Te rog dar i i promit cumc, dac se vor schimba vremile, voi respunde.
Am ntrziat pn acum pentr-c credeam, cum-c, mi va fi cu putinia s trimit i nefericitele
de Studii asupra maghiarilor. Dar acum ved cumc nainte de serbtorile pastilor ori doar
i ale crciunului nu va fi cu puthintia. N-am vreme pentru ca s me ocup i de lucruri, ce nu
duc nici o para in pung. Sperez nse cumc acum pe Crciun voi avea cte-va zile libere
().8
Observnd textul de mai sus, diferenele sunt evidente. Alturi de celelalte fenomene
lingvistice, am observat adverbul relativ cum i conjuncia subordonatoare c, pe care Slavici
le contopete, obinnd cuvntul cu valoare conjuncional subordonatoare cumc. Aceast
form apare de mai multe ori n basme, imprimndu-le o nuan popular. De exemplu, n
basmul Floria din codru, se regsesc numeroase enunuri formate cu acest cuvnt, recurent
de aisprezece ori n basm: i se prea cumc vinul e mai tare i mai nfocat, i se prea
cumc vinul e mai dulce i mai moale, a mers dar vestea () cumc la crma din codru
se bea vinul cel mai bun, (), i cumc Floarea Codrilor e cea mai frumoas fat din lume,
trece vestea cumc peste ziu are s treac i mpratul pe aici (S1, p. 44), sosi vestea
cumc mpratul era s treac cu voinicii (S1, p. 45), simeai cumc acui va s fie aici,
vzur cumcde aici nainte nu e glum i rs (S1, p. 47), i se prea cumcnu e precum ar
trebui s fie: cumc vinul nu e ca lauda, cumc crmria nu e ca vestea, i prea cumc
n-o vede (S1, p. 48), s spuie crciumriei cumc i-a scos de la Floria din cap, vzu
cumc vede ceva(S1, p. 49), ghebosul spuse Floriei cumc s-i spuie lui (S1, p. 51), li se
prea cumc a venit pedeapsa lui Dumnezeu. (S1, p. 54). Concluzia este c Slavici a
imprimat n mod discret scrierilor sale i elemente ale limbii populare. Comparnd exprimarea
sa n literatur i n coresponden, topica frazei, apartenena unor cuvinte la registrul
regional, se poate observa c, n literatur, facem cunotin cu un alt Slavici ca stil, ca
7
idem, p. 216;
A VIII-a scrisoare ctre I. Negruzzi, Convorbiri literare, ianuarie-februarie 1926, n Administraie romneasc
ardean, vol. I, p. 58;
8
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vocabular, ca exprimare. Textul pare filtrat, controlat, lefuit, orientat ctre exactitatea i
corectitudinea comunicrii. Este probabil i intervenia lui Eminescu, cel care a fost alturi de
scriitor n corectarea exprimrii, n mbuntirea topicii, n nuanarea i obinerea proprietii
limbajului.
Concluzii. Studiul creaiei slaviciene, din perspectiva aspectului documentar, se
dovedete o activitate pe ct de interesant, pe att de laborioas. Cu privire la aspectele
studiate, formulez cteva concluzii:
Portul popular este prezentat n amnunt, scriitorul amintind piesele de
mbrcminte specifice zonei de vest. Ele sunt menionate n monografii ale
vremii.
Problemele economice ale vieii dificultile financiare, criza economic,
modernizarea utilajelor agricole, cutarea unor soluii de ctigare a traiului
zilnic sunt integrate de Slavici n creaii care par adevrate poveti de via.
Ele sunt confirmate de studiile privind imaginea Transilvaniei spre sfritul
secolului al XIX-lea.
Obiceiurile laice din comunitate, i totodat ocupaii ale oamenilor jocul,
seceriul sunt prezentate ca srbtori rurale, fiind momente de veselie, bun
dispoziie, n care oamenii mbin utilul cu plcutul. De asemenea, ele se
desfoar asemenea unui ritual. Ele se confirm prin tradiia oral i prin
lucrrile de specialitate.
Limbajul este pentru Slavici o modalitate de a educa prin literatur i nu o
modalitate de a obine efecte expresive n primul rnd. Astfel, funcia poetic
a limbajului trece n plan secund. Scriitorul opteaz pentru forme ale
cuvintelor care se apropie mai mult de cele literare, spre deosebire de propria
exprimare, care este ancorat n vorbirea regional. Contiina lingvistic a lui
Slavici este aceea care direcioneaz opera sa.
Lucrnd cu textul i scriind despre text, citind despre contextul social-istoric al
perioadei sfritului secolului al XIX-lea i nceputului secolului al XX-lea, am constatat c
scrierile lui Slavici reprezint un material de studiu extrem de bogat, i c orice aspect pe care
scriitorul l pune n relaie cu epoca n care a trit i a scris este generator de idei i permite
ramificaii spre domenii conexe ale tiinei, dar i ale vieii: filosofia, geografia, istoria,
economia, politica, sociologia, etnologia, folclorul. ntr-un cuvnt, scrierile lui Slavici
definesc viaa nsi. n acest context, studiul de fa reprezint doar o mic parte din ceea ce
se poate scrie pe tema dimensiunii documentare a operei scriitorului irian.
Bibliografie:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Academia Republicii Populare Romne, Micul atlas lingvistic romn, vol. I, Bucureti,
Editura Academiei Republicii Populare Romne;
Academia Romn, Dicionarul general al literaturii romne, Bucureti, Editura
Univers Enciclopedic, 2007;
Brlea, Ovidiu, Folclorul romnesc, volumele I i II, Bucureti, Editura Minerva, 1981;
Florea, Ioan T., Scrieri etnomuzicologice, Arad, Editura Mirador, 1997;
Manolescu, Nicolae, Istoria critic a literaturii romne, Piteti, Editura Paralela 45,
2008;
Prnac, Iulian-Liviu, Imaginea Transilvaniei n viaa public din Romnia n anii 18661876, Bucureti, tez de doctorat ;
Pop, Mihai, Obiceiuri tradiionale romneti, Bucureti, Consiliul Culturii i Educaiei
Socialiste, Institutul de Cercetri Etnologice i Dialectologice, 1976;
Stan, Ionel; Uritescu, Dorin, Noul atlas lingvistic romn. Criana, vol. II, Bucureti,
Editura Academiei Romne, Cluj-Napoca, Editura Clusium, 2003;
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Vancu, Petru, Mderat (Magyard), Arad, Tiparul tipografiei diecesane gr.-orientale

romne, 1905;
10.
Vuia, Romulus, Studii de etnografie i folclor, Bucureti, Editura Minerva, 1975;
11.
Zaciu, Mircea; Papahagi, Marian; Sasu, Aurel (coordonatori), Dicionarul esenial al
scriitorilor romni, Bucureti, Editura Albatros, 2000.
9.
SIGLRI
Slavici, Ioan, Opere, vol. I, Bucureti, Editura Naional, 2001: S1
Slavici, Ioan, Opere, vol. II, Bucureti, Editura Naional, 2001: S2
Slavici, Ioan, Opere, vol. IV, Bucureti, Editura Naional, 2001: S4
PRESCURTRI:
Mara: M
Pdureanca: P
Gura satului: GS
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MARGARET ATWOOD AND SUZANNE COLLINS: PERSPECTIVES ON SPACE, WAR

AND SURVIVAL
Adela Livia CTAN
Abstract: The purpose of this article is to offer a compared analysis of the ways in which
Canadian author, Margaret Atwood and American novelist, Suzanne Collins, perceive and
transpose into literature a series of important issues such as space, war and survival. It
uncovers different events from their lives and emphasis their impact over the works of these
writers showing above all their extraordinary ability of processing and readjusting reality
and fiction.
Keywords: city, nationalism, nature, survival, war
Numerous scholars, journalists or simple readers have recently brought together the
names of two famous writers Margaret Atwood and Suzanne Collins. Their bestselling
dystopian trilogies, MaddAddam and The Hunger Games, published simultaneously between
2003 and 2013, have fascinated but also intrigued the public due to their resemblance. As a
result, several books, articles, essays and blog comments have blossomed and celebrated or
criticized the connection between their novels. The present article tries to take the association
of Atwood and Collins to a deeper level of analysis focusing on particular issues such as
space, war and survival. It does not offer solely a comparison between the biographies of
these authors or their literary topics. Its main goal is to reveal the similar but also the different
manners in which they have preserved and reinvented certain images taking them out of the
autobiographical realm and submitting them to the vagaries of literature.
Margaret Atwood and Suzanne Collins are regarded as some of the most important
literary celebrities, who have received numerous awards and whose books have been
translated and sold in thousands of copies all over the world, inspiring movies and trends.
However, their paths to glory have been quite different. Margaret Atwood developed as a
writer during a difficult historical context, when people were sceptical regarding the
construction of a Canadian literature, and full of prejudices about the efforts of young talented
women. Yet, just like other female authors including Marian Engel, Margaret Laurence and
Alice Munro, she knew exactly what her goal was and worked extensively although it took
her almost sixteen years to make her name known and gain her existence from writing.
Furthermore, she has always tried to overpass her creative boundaries and approaching
various genres from poetry, prose, theatre, to non-fiction, critical essays and even comics.
Suzanne Collins, on the other hand, started her career at childrens television writing
scripts for cartoons and TV serials. As she turned her attention on young adult fiction, she
found herself, almost all of the sudden in the Time Magazines Top 100 People of the 2010.
Unlike Atwood, who before MaddAddam, had written a long list of critically acclaimed
books, including the canonical dystopia The Handmaids Tale, for Collins it was enough to
publish The Hunger Games and trigger a worldwide frenzy. Needless to say that just like
Margaret Peterson Haddix, Stephenie Meyer or Veronica Roth, she was one of the
beneficiaries of the American publishing and cinematographic systems as well as that of a
new boom regarding science fiction and dystopias. In other words, Atwoods efforts can be
compared to those of a newcomer who faced the known of Canada and courageously
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struggled to find a place of her own, while Collins resembles very well to the American
farmer, who one day discovered oil in her backyard.
Still, the two of them understand and use their fame in totally opposite ways. Atwood
charms her audience with her electrifying presence, blue sparkling eyes, wiry, unruly hair
and birdlike, almost Magpiesh complexion (Sullivan 1, 61). Her speeches are clever, full of
subtle humour and almost always bringing forward important contemporary issues. Thus,
Atwood can be seen not only as a writer but also as a Canadian star who promotes her
national identity or helps fellow artists by founding the Writers Trust of Canada or the
Griffin Poetry Prize. Moreover, she is a socio-political satirist and human rights
spokeswoman, an active environmentalist who associates her name with organic coffee and
recycled products, as well as the brilliant inventor of the LongPen, a device which facilitates
the remote writing of documents. Her extraordinary ability to combine high seriousness and
a witty image has fascinated the public of all ages and become a hallmark of her entire
activity (Howells 1). Time and space seem to be no obstacle in the way of this writer as she
continues to be prolific, to reinvent herself and spread her messages overpassing both physical
and virtual boundaries via Tweeter, Facebook and other sites.
By contrast, Collins remains a media-shy figure, who seldom gives interviews and
when she does, they are carefully packaged. Just like Katniss, her protagonist, Collins tries
to stay as far as possible from the cameras which make her anxious, and feels that celebrity
can become an empty, even dangerous contrivance (qted. in Dominus). Despite her
distinctive fine features and long, flowing hair she still hopes no one would recognize her in
the street (Dominus). She does not like to talk too much about herself or her activity and as a
result has a really modest low-teck website and has never been known to use Twitter or other
sites. She remains full of mysteries and only time may show what other surprises she will
make to her public and how much she will evolve as a writer.
Despite the fact that these two authors represent different countries, generations and
literary traditions the three elements we are analysing in this article, space, war and survival
seem to unite them at a deeper existential as well as artistic level sometimes, making us
making us wonder in Baudrillards style how much of their writing is Simulacra or
Simulation; what is real or just a reflection of a profound reality (6).
Margaret Eleonore Atwood was born on November 18, 1939 in Ottowa as the second
child of a family with modest financial possibilities but with a deep love for knowledge. Her
parents, Carl Edmund Atwood, a biologist, and Margaret Doroty (ne Killam), a former
dietician, had an older son Harold, born in 1937, and a second daughter, Ruth, in 1951. Due to
her fathers career, the family had to alternate the time spent in the city with that in the bush
and the writer recollects that she did not spend a full year in school until she was in grade
eight (qted. in Ingersoll 38). This was above all a definite advantage as she was exempt
from the constraints of the city and the prudery and snobbery of other little girls, their
Byzantine social life based on whispering and vicious gossip, and an inability to pick up
earthworms without wriggling all over and making mewing noises like a kitten (Atwood,
Negotiating 10). Suzanne Collins was born much later, on August 11, 1962 in Hartford,
Connecticut as the youngest child of Michael and Jane Collins and had three older siblings
Kath, Joanie, and Drew. Because of her fathers career, who worked as an Air Force officer
and military historian, her family also had to move quite frequently and live on or near
military bases in the United States or in Europe. Consequently, from an early age, Atwood
and Collins had to accept the idea that moving and adjusting to new places was part of their
lives. This might also explain the fact that many of their characters know, as Collins says,
what it feels to be a stranger somewhere (Henthorne 13).
Both of them have also a special relation with nature. Living in the middle of the bush,
little Margaret grew up with the images of stacks of fresh-cut lumber, the huge mountain
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of sawdust, the tar smell of heavy canvas tents and the smoke from campfire or rancid smell
of fish (Sullivan 27-28). She admired her familys skills and courage confronting the
wilderness and engaged in numerous activities such as swimming, canoeing, scaling fish,
shooting bows, arrows and rifles (Sullivan 29-30). Later on she would sarcastically say that:
Americans usually find this account of my childhood- woody, isolated, nomadic less
surprising than do Canadians: after all, its what the glossy magazine ads say Canada is
supposed to be like (qted in Staines 12). However, Suzanne Collins used to live near a forest
too and usually go there to play with her siblings and friends. In addition, her father taught her
about hunting and finding food in the wilderness. Suzanne remembers him bringing home
mushrooms and cooking them to the dismay of her mother, who would not let the kids go near
them, fearing they were poisonous. (qted. in Henthorne 73).
It is interesting to underline the fact that the two writers perceive the woods and
recreated them in a slightly different manner, function of their relation to them. For Atwood
the bush brought a sense of terror caused by lightning, bears, forest fire, rivers or the
permanent sensation of being watched. Still she was able to feel its potent magic that made
time seem alive, almost like an animistic presence (Sullivan 29). Looking back , she would
describe that the vast region as it fallows: Lake, lake, lake, swamp, sprinkle of low hills,
twists of river; ice creeping out from the shores, a place you could find yourself lost in easy as
pie, and walk around in circles and die of exposure. It was a place of desolation and
instant panic. But, Atwood was somehow able to feel comfortable there. (qted. in
Sullivan 29). Wilderness could become a home for someone who was trained to live in
communion with it. Likewise, many of her characters such as the Gods Gardeners and other
survivors of the virulent pandemic in MaddAddam, find refuge within the woods and have the
chance to build a better community.
On the other hand, Collins sees the woods above all as a source of food and materials.
In her novels, Katniss, her friend, Gale, and many others face the dangers present there, in
order to assure the survival of their families and members of their district. Initially, the woods
may live the impression that they could be a place of freedom, spiritual quests and
recollections but they are soon filled up with microphones and cameras and even transformed
into a battle place where the hunters became the game.
Nonetheless, both authors condemn the brutal intervention of man over nature, his
pleasure to play God and sound a warning signal regarding the end of resources,
environmental degradation and pollution, nuclear and biologic experiments. They see that
nature suffers as trees are cut down or changed with artificial ones; animals are hunted to
extinction and genetically engineered in order to become rakunks, wolvogs, pigoons
(Atwood, Oryx and Crake 42) or mockingjays (Collins, The Hunger Games 212); humans are
replaced by the placid Children of Crake or the feral wolf-mutts (Collins, The Hunger
Games 331).
The city appears in Atwoods and Collinss descriptions a lab a labyrinth as well as a
laboratory. The city appears for Atwood and Collins as a lab a labyrinth as well as a
laboratory. While growing up, Toronto, might have seemed in Margarets eyes an unruly
patchwork: certain resonant landscapes, buildings (Sullivan 44). Built on six rivers, from
Rouge River in east to Etobicoke Creek in its west side, the city has an intricate network of
wooded ravines Margaret loved to adventure into. As she confessed: To go down into them
is to go down into sleep, away from the conscious electrified life of the houses (qted. in
Sullivan 44). The girl entered this world in defiance of the parental prescription, breaking the
rules, just like Elaine in Cats Eye (1988). The Royal Ontario Museum was also a fascinating
place where a child, like Margaret Atwood, who enjoyed spending her time and transformed it
into a character in her 1979 novel, Life Before Man:
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The space seemed endless, labyrinthine, empty of living people, populated by statues
and gods and clothing worn by invisible people, and strewn with the kinds of things I
otherwise encountered only in adventure stories: crossbows, blowpipes, necklaces dug up
from tombs, cave bears, skulls. Our favourites were, of course, the Egyptian mummies, which
we approached with a queasy and delicious fear would they start to move? (qted. in
Sullivan 46)
For Suzanne Collins, New York City made a great impact over her life and books.
This is huge urban agglomerations, that never sleeps, fascinates its visitors who go there
can find themselves in the middle of a steel and concrete jungle, with plenty of historic
monuments, big museums, countless dazzling skyscrapers, trendy neighbourhoods, shopping
streets and big parks. This can be an extraordinary but also a dangerous experience. Collins
attention, though, was much more captivated by the hidden world which lies right beneath this
metropolis. Far from sight, there is an underworld formed out of 700 miles of tunnels,
occasionally lighted by a naked bulb and covered in a grimy steel dust. This can be a
terrifying place as speeding trains and the 600-volt third rails could make any misstep fatal,
and as it is usually populated by the New York City's homeless and numerous insects and rats.
Yet, Collins chose to see this world more like in a Lewis Carol style and sent Gregor, the
protagonist of The Underland Chronicles, there. She explained her decision to Jen Rees in an
interview at Scholastic Press:
I liked the fact that this world was teeming under New York City and nobody was
aware of it. That you could be going along preoccupied with your own problems and then
whoosh! You take a wrong turn in your laundry room and suddenly a giant cockroach is right
in your face. No magic, no space or time travel, theres just a ticket to another world behind
your clothes dryer. (qted. in Lusted 30)
The way in which these two authors perceive their own countries seems to be
embedded into a typical Canadian or American tradition. Away from Canada and enrolled in a
master programme at Harvard University, USA, Margaret Atwood discovered, just like many
other fellow writers and artists, that the distance from home offered her a more serious
perspective over it:
it [Harvard University] was the place where I started thinking seriously about Canada
as having a shape and a culture of its own. Partly because I was studying the literature of the
American Puritans, which was not notable for its purely literary values if one can study this
in a university, I thought, why not Canadian literature? (you must understand that at the time
Canadian literature was simply not taught in high schools and universities in Canada) and
partly because Boston was, in certain ways, so similar, in climate and landscape, to part of
Canada. One began to look for differences. (qted. in Oates 9)
Later on, her novels, such as The Edible Woman (1969), Surfacing (1972), Lady
Oracle (1976) Life before Man (1979), Cat's Eye (1988), The Robber Bride (1993) as well as
many of her other writings would be set in Canada and would reveal some of problems faced
by the women living there and their limited chances to achieve professional and personal
happiness. Moreover, they would underline the gradual Canadian independence from British
dominance but also that from American cultural infiltration.
However, Atwood would also remove her characters from Canada in an attempt to
create a safe distance and criticize Canadas passivity to social issues that plague the world.
For instance, in Bodily Harm (1981), the Canadian heroine, Rennie, finds herself imprisoned
on the fictional Caribbean island St. Antoine, on the brink of a revolution. Likewise, The
Handmaids Tale (1985) positions Offred, the protagonist-narrator, within the Republic of
Gilead, a dystopian version of the United States. Americans being more extreme in
everything (qted. in Bloom 14), created a patriarchal society combined with Puritan precepts
and Nazi ideology. There women were deprived of all rights, garment regimented, tortured
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and executed. As many other fertile women, Offered has to wear a red robe and become a
handmaid and breeder children for the governing elite. In short, she is basically a two-legged
womb (Atwood 136), frequently tortured by the Aunts, a par-military female cadre, and
raped by the Commander and his wife Serena Joy. Atwood sees her as an ordinary, more-orless cowardly woman (rather than heroine), who breaks free and flees to Canada to tell her
story (qted in Bloom 16). Yet, Canada does not seem to be a place of salvation as the readers
find nothing more about the fate of poor Offred. Finally, Atwoods latest trilogy,
MaddAddam, is set also within the former boundaries of the United States, Canada being
barely mention. Nevertheless, the authors choice proves once again Canadas lack of action
on the international stage as well as victimising complex, while its big neighbour seems to
decide the fate of the whole world. This also proves her statement that everyone watches the
States to see what the country is doing and might be doing ten or fifteen years from now
(qted. in Bloom 14).
Meanwhile, Suzanne Collins felt no need to compare her country with others, even
though she had lived many years abroad, in Belgium, or to explore the role of the United
States as a superpower. However, The Hunger Games trilogy contains plenty of American
symbols and focuses more on the inner problems of the country such as economic
discrepancy, punitive laws and aggressive mass media, technological and ecological disasters.
Additionally, Collins books reveal a frequently used metaphor that defines American identity
the salad bowl. The citizens of Panem, living in the thirteen districts or in the Capitol, are
not separated only by electrified walls, terrifying punishments and guards but they have
different life styles, traditions and customs, as well as skin colours and appearances. However,
they can learn to overpass these differences and problems, even the mutual hate and desire of
revenge and direct all their energy towards common goals: freedom and democracy. They are
able to endure great difficulties and go on fire creating an inferno, just like their modern
Jeanne d'Arc, Katniss Everdeen (Collins, Mokingjay 6).
War and its terrifying consequences have played an important role in the lives and
works of both Margaret Atwood and Suzanne Collins. During Atwoods childhood, Canada,
as a member of the Allies was ravaged by the losses and social transformations of the Second
World War (1940-1945). Ottawa, the capital was still a small provincial city and people faced
numerous deprivations as economy was restricted to military necessities. Gas and food were
rationed and relocation from one place to another was forbidden unless it had specific causes.
Carl Atwood as an employee of the federal Department of Lands and Forests participated to
the war effort by conducting his research in northwest Quebec, where he selected the healthy
trees that were used in shipbuilding industry. Living in the middle of nature, little Margaret
and her parents did not experience war directly. The news they were able to get on the radio,
on the days it worked, seemed very far almost unreal (Sullivan 26).Over time, Atwood
studied and read avidly many history books especially those about war and important figures
such as Napoleon Bonaparte, Erwin Rommel or Winston Churchill, maybe in an attempt to
compensate this lack of information.
During the Vietnam War (1954-1975), Atwood was a student in Harvard and
witnessed her colleagues protests against it. But she was not a political activist and stood
away from all the manifestations, being absorbed by her writing (Sullivan 170-171). Her 1968
poem, It is Dangerous to Read Newspapers, shows nonetheless that she was deeply moved by
the tragedies around. She revealed the fact that war had haunted her early years and that as a
little child, she could easily liv being unaware of the atrocities taking place: While I was
building neat/ castles in the sandbox,/ the hasty pits were/ filling with bulldozed corpses/ and
as I walked to the school/ washed and combed, my feet/ stepping on the cracks in the cement/
detonated red bombs. However, now, as a literate grownup she felt guilty for sitting in her
chair as quietly as a fuse while the jungles are flaming, the under-/brush is charged with
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soldiers, / the names on the difficult/ maps go up in smoke. She condemns herself: I am the
cause,/ I am a stockpile of chemical/ toys, my body is a deadly gadget,/ I reach out in love, my
hands are guns,/ my good intentions are completely lethal. But the personal pronoun I does
not represent a single person; it embodies all the people who stay way, who do not get
involved although they all want peace. Their unspoken wish and unfinished actions of love
become explosives. Their lack of action is lethal. Staying away from the newspaper and the
black and white of a war photo, seems an absurd thing to do. There is no escape from the
feelings of guilt because as the poet confesses: Each time I hit a key/ on my electric
typewriter,/speaking of peaceful trees/ another village explodes (Atwood, Selected Poems
59).
By contrast, the Collins family have been deeply affected by war for several
generations. Suzannes grandfather was a soldier in the First World War (1914-1918), her
uncle died of gas poisoning in the trenches of the Second World War (1940-1945) and her
father served in the Vietnam War (1954-1975). In 1968, when she was only six year old, the
Air Force sent Michael Collins to fight in the war between U.S.-backed anti-Communist
forces and the North Vietnamese Communist army. Jane Collins tried to prevent their
children from seeing photos from the action field on television and in the newspapers.
Sometimes, however, Suzanne saw them by accident and got frightened as she knew her
father was working in such a dangerous place. She missed him greatly during that period and
as a grownup woman, she confessed in an interview for the New York Times magazine: If
your parent is deployed and you are that young, you spend the whole time wondering where
they are and waiting for them to come home (Lusted 13). When her father came back from
Vietnam a year later, he suffered extreme anxiety resulting from intensely traumatic
experiences. Anxiety disorders, such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), are common
among soldiers returning from war. For the rest of his life, Michael Collins had nightmares
and sometimes Suzanne would wake up during the night to hear him crying out in his sleep.
That is why there is no wonder that most of her characters are traumatized and suffer from
different anxieties after surviving the Hunger Games or the battles against the Panem.
Suzanne continued to learn many things about war from her father who got a doctorate
in political science and taught history at West Point, a prestigious U.S. Army military college
in New York. His goal was to educate his children about war and lectured them in graphic
detail about battles, weapons, and military strategy. As the writer remembers, It wasnt
enough to visit a battle field, we needed to know why the battle occurred, how it played out,
and the consequences (Margolis 2008). But, Michael was a talented storyteller and knew
how to talk about historical events in ways that captivated his audience. Suzanne would also
have more opportunities to learn about wars, while living in Brussels, Belgium, between 1974
and 1977; a period during which her father held a position with NATO. There, a field of
poppy flowers near their home turned into a lesson about the horrors of the World War I and
its lethal weapons. It also exposed her to a literary perspective on war as her father recited
John McCraes In Flanders Fields, a poem in which a recently killed soldier buried beneath
poppies entreats the living to continue to fight so that he and the other dead fellows could rest
in peace. Likewise, a trip to a castle, which Suzanne imagined would be as magical as a fairy
tale, became a lecture about historical military fortresses. Her dad showed her arrow slits in
the walls and the places where the castles medieval defenders would have poured boiling oil
on their enemies although it all that was not exactly what Suzanne had expected. These events
were later described by Collins as being transformative since she realized that behind many
beautiful things there was usually something dark such as war and crime (Dominus).
Moreover, her fathers trauma, nightmares, and obsession with military battle history would
make her understand that war does not affect only the person who fights on the field but also
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his family life. They would also make her want to educate readers and teach children from an
early age about war.
The fact that Margaret Atwood and Suzanne Collins experienced war in a different
way can also be seen within their novels. For instance, Atwoods novels, especially
MaddAddam, The Handmaids Tale, mention a war or even several wars taking place
somewhere in the background and becoming a source of real terror for the characters who are
isolated and have almost no access to information. There can be an apocalypse, the whole
world might collapse, and the protagonists find themselves prisoners in a micro universe
whether it is a Commanders house, a cubicle, a laboratory, a prison or a forest. Meanwhile, in
The Hunger Games, the citizens of Panem preserve the memory of a great war and continue to
face its tragic consequences through restrictions, torture and public executions. As they catch
fire and rebel against the totalitarian regime lead by President Snow, they try to establish a
New World Order (in a typical American way) despite the fact that their families and friends,
all the things they care about, die or are destroyed.
Death and its effects are depicted by Atwood and Collins in a gothic style, deeply
influenced by their passion for Edgar Allan Poes writings. During the long winters spent in
Toronto, Margaret Atwood used to retreat herself in the basement of her house and read the
Raven and other short stories feeling her heart bumping out of her chest (Sullivan 61).
Likewise, Collins recalls her great interest in Poes tales and credits Miss Vance, her
secondary school English teacher, for it: On rainy days, she would take whoever was
interested over to the side and read us Edgar Allan Poe stories. She didnt think we were too
young to hear it. And we were riveted. That made a huge impression on me (qted in
Lusted16).
Their books, especially their dystopias, display some of Poes ideas about good
writing mentioned in The Philosophy of Composition (1846). Though, they do not fit Poes
rule regarding the short dimensions of the literary works as they form big trilogies, their plots
and structures combine spontaneity and intuition with a methodical analysis. Both Atwood
and Collins allow the public, as Poe advices, to take a peep behind the scenes... at the fully
matured fancies discarded in despair... at the cautious selections and rejections (Poe 19).
They plan carefully their works and decide right from the beginning how they are going to
end and what kind of emotional response, or "effect" they would like to obtain. All the
elements such as the tone, theme, setting, characters, conflict, and plot have to be specially
chosen in order to create a unity of effect. Poe decides to write on the death... of a
beautiful woman" as it "is unquestionably the most poetical topic in the world, and equally is
it beyond doubt that the lips best suited for such topic are those of a bereaved lover (20).
Such a private and painful situation can deeply tough the readers. Atwood and Collins also
talk a lot about death and overlap the murder of beautiful Oryx or that of the young Ruth with
the destruction of big communities and even the erase of the whole human race. However,
while the deaths of those girls ravage the public who grows fond of them, the mass crimes
seem to have a less powerful effect. As the magnitude of the disaster rises, the characters of
the books as well as the readers become immune to all the obscene and horrifying events. This
discrepancy of attitudes and feelings revealed by the two trilogies, can be very well expressed
by Joseph Stalins words A single death is a tragedy; a million deaths is a statistic.
The idea of surviving in difficult conditions has also preoccupied the two authors. The
first one has been obsessed by it from a very young age when she almost memorized
Ellsworth Jaegers five hundred pages long Wildwood Wisdom (Sullivan 51). This book
offered precise instructions and illustrations on how to become an expert in woods. Thus,
Margaret learned numerous practical things like building a tent in proper places, skinning a
deer, making fire, building differed hand-made instruments, fighting against starvation using a
list of forest edibles. She was interested in the authors advice such as: Remember, youre
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not lost. Its your camp that is lost or Dont panic. Look around you. Use what youve got
and transposed them in her following books, more obviously in the MaddAddam trilogy
(Sullivan 51). Her protagonists such as Snowman, Toby, Ren or Zeb survive a pandemic
created by Crake, a modern Frankenstein, who plans to end the whole mankind and replace it
with a species of genetically engineered humanoids. The characters, who except Snowman,
have been trained by the Gods Gardeners, apply different rules regarding food, finding
shelter, and ensuring their own protection. They do everything that is necessary in order to
save their lives, fight their enemies, the Painballers, and compete against numerous mutated
creatures.
However, the idea of survival overpasses in Atwoods views its concrete meaning and
becomes a unifying symbol for Canadians resembling the American Frontier or the British
Island. In her controversial study, Survival: A Thematic Guide to Canadian Literature (1972),
Atwood also argued that Canadian literature and culture exists only because ambitious and
hardworking writers and artists are fighting to survive and to ensure the survival of their
works.
Collins, on the other hand, became interested in survival during her extensive research
for The Hunger Games. Asked what the three things she would take with her on a deserted
island she answered with humour: matches, a limitless supply of drinking water and a really
amazing surviving book (Scholastic). Katniss, her protagonist, also focuses on these things
and finds herself in a permanent search for supplies, tools, medicine. She does her best to
survive the violent attracts of the other tributes or of the Gamemakers and to protect Ruth and
Peeta. Soon, she would become the Mokingjay, the symbol of the revolution and learn that:
We have to stop viewing one another as enemies. At this point, unity is essential for our
survival (Collins, Mockingjay 831). There is no doubt that the idea of survival through
national unity promoted by Collinss novels has its roots in the American history and the
creation of the United States. Obviously, just like in Atwoods case, the idea of survival
overpasses initial apprehension, defining not only the fate of a single individual or of a group
but that of a whole nation.
In the end, we underline the fact that nothing happens by chance when it comes to
Margaret Atwood and Suzanne Collins and that the association between the two of them can
be taken to a deeper level of analysis. Although they represent different generations and
countries, and have been influenced by different historical contexts and literary traditions, the
ways in which they chose to understand and transfer into literature three problematic issues
such as space, war and survival can bring them on a common ground. Finally, we stress that
their dystopian trilogies, MaddAddam and The Hunger Games seem to provide a spark that
properly attended by curious researchers may lead to a new range of unexpected connections
between these two authors and their works.
This work was cofinaced from the European Social Fund through Sectoral
Operational Programme Human Resources Development 2007-2013, project number
POSDRU/159/1.5/S/140863, Competitive Researchers in Europe in the Field of Humanities
and Socio-Economic Sciences. A Multi-regional Research Network.
Cited Works
Atwood, Margaret. Selected Poems, 1965-1975. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1976.
-----------------------. Oryx and Crake. Random House, New York, 2003.
-----------------------.The Handmaids Tale. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, 1986.
-----------------------.MaddAddam. Random House, New York. 2013.
-----------------------. Negotiating with the Dead: A Writer on Writing. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2002.
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Baudrillard, Jean. Simulacra and Simulation. Ann Arbor: U of Michigan, 1994.

Bloom, Harold. Blooms Guides: Margaret Atwoods The Handmaids Tale. eds. Jenn
McKee and Frank Diamond. New York: Infobase Publishing, 2004.
Collins, Suzanne. The Hunger Games. Scholastic Press. New York. 2008.
-----------------------. Mockingjay, Scholastic Press. New York. 2010.
Dominus, Susan. Suzanne Collinss War Stories for Kids. The New York Times
magazine, April 8, 2011.
Henthorne, Tom. Approaching the Hunger Games Trilogy: A Literary and Cultural
Analysis. NC: McFarland, Jefferson, 2012.
Howells, Coral Ann (ed). The Cambridge Companion to Margaret Atwood.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006.
Ingersoll, Earl G. (ed). Waltzing Again: New and Selected Conversations with
Margaret Atwood. Ontario Review Press: Princeton, 2006.
Joyce Carol Oates, A Conversation with Margaret Atwood, in The Ontario Review 9
(FallWinter 197879): p. 9.
Lusted, Marcia Amidon. USA Today: Suzanne Collins: Words on Fire, Lerner
Publishing Group, Minneapolis, 2013.
Margolis, Rick. A Killer Story: An Interview with Suzanne Collins, Author of The
Hunger Games, School Library Journal, September 1, 2008.
Poe, Edgar Allan. The Raven; The Philosophy of Composition. Northeastern UP,
Boston, 1986.
Staines, David. Margaret Atwood in her Canadian context in The Cambridge
Companion to Margaret Atwood. Howells, Coral Ann (ed). Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 2006. pp 12-27.
Sullivan, Rosemary. The Red Shoes: Margaret Atwood Starting Out. Toronto: Harper
Flamingo Canada. 1998.
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THE APPRECIATIVE MODE IN OLD ROMANIAN LANGUAGE

Iuliana-Valentina BOBOAC
Abstract: The analysis of appreciative modality in Old Romanian language, in terms of

linguistics, seeks a description of the phenomenon under the literary norms of the time, with
a reference to the current situation in the Romanian language.
Keywords: modality, subjective, context, discourse, language.
Limba nare niciun caracter regional, ci e vdit adaptat dup aceia din crile
bisericeti: nu arare ori se ntlnesc i arhaismele din acestea, precum i condiionalul cu s,
ntrebuinarea unor perfecte simple nvechite, c feaciu, i a unor cuvinte anticvate, precum
sunt mesereare, crtulariu, .a.
N. Iorga1
Modalitatea apreciativ implic un numr mare de marcatori evaluativi prin care
locutorul, ca instan emitoare, sau colectivitatea (evaluatorul generic) i exprim atitudinea
subiectiv fa de coninutul propoziional, considerat n raport cu situaia extralingvistic ce a
generat enunarea. De aceea acest tip de modalizare a fost considerat ca cel mai subiectiv n
raport cu toate celelalte.
Filosoful german Kant afirm despre judecat, n distincia pe care acesta o face ntre
judecata de determinare i judecata de reflexie, c este posibil s fie i de natur estetic:
atunci cnd predicatul judecii nu poate fi de fel concept al unui obiect, ntruct nu aparine
nicidecum facultii de cunoatere: vinul e plcut2. n cazul dat, predicatul exprim
nemijlocit relaia unei reprezentri cu sentimentul de plcere, nu cu facultatea de cunoatere.3
n acest tip de judecat, factorul determinant este senzaia, una singur, care nu poate
s fie niciodat semnificaia unui obiect: de plcere sau neplcere, fiind singura senzaie doar
de natur subiectiv, deoarece restul pot fi asociate facultii cunoaterii.
1.1. Important este c aceti marcatori evaluativi se ntlnesc n toate sectoarele limbii
(n rndul tuturor prilor de vorbire cu coninut lexematic, de la substantiv pn la
interjecie). De asemenea, se afl i la nivel suprasegmental, n diferitele forme ale conturului
intonaional. Acest lucru poate fi detectat la nivelul textelor scrise, mai ales la actele de
vorbire interogative i exclamative. Se poate ntlni ns la aproape toate tipurile de texte,
chiar la cele enuniative. Astfel, sensul propoziiei Ea este foarte deteapt se poate schimba
n funcie de intonaie i context.
1.2. n limba romn veche, se ntlnesc toate tipurile de marcatori evaluativi, mai
puin elemente neologice din cadrul fiecrui tip, care au fost adugate n procesul de
modernizare a limbii romne literare i de extindere a seriilor sinonimice: verbe i expresii
apreciative, interjecii i particule exclamative.
2. Subiectivitatea aprecierii se exprim n limba veche, cel mai frecvent, prin expresii
de tipul e bine, e ru. Acestea sunt urmate, de regul, de propoziii care transmit ce anume
este apreciat: Sufletului iaste bine s-lu ferimu de troate pcatele ceale necuvioasele i s-lu
aducemu spre rodurile buntiloru (C: 359).
1
Iorga, N., 1925: 237

Kant, 1981: 121
3
Ibidem.
2
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Uneori se simte nevoia unei aprecieri duble sau a unui argument de autoritate n
apreciere: Ci mai bine iaste i mai cu socoteal s se zic c de ctr rsrit se hotrate cu
Niprul (ITR: 160); Zice Domnul Dumnezeu: Nu e bine cum omul s fie singur... face lui, cine
s fie pre lng el (CLR: 196).
O marc deosebit de important n modalizarea apreciativ este intonaia, dar aceasta
se poate observa mai ales n discursurile ce conin exclamaii, interjecii, cnd sunt nsoite,
aadar, de componente afective: O, ftul mieu i voi frailor, ct iaste de bine s mngiai
pre boiari i pre slugile voastre n toat vremea i s v sftuii cu dnii n tot ceasul i s
luai sfat i de la cei mari i de la cei ai doilea i de la cei mai de jos, c aa se cade (NB:
196); Vedei, frailor, ct iaste de bine s nu fac cineva ru pentru ru? (NB: 254).
Multe dintre aceste tipuri de construcii se ntlnesc cu infinitivul n locul
conjunctivului, dar, din punct de vedere semantic, mesajul este acelai: i deca-lu strinser
elu cu oajde, dzise ctr cela ce sta... binre easte voao a-l bate? (CV: 272); O, iubitul mieu
fiiu ct iaste de bine a lcui omul tot cu Dumnezeu i a petrece cu Dnsul i a fi cu El n veci
(NB: 128); Bine e a te inea ntru aceasta i nc de aceasta s nu pngreti mna ta, cci
temtorilor de Dumnezu iei-vor toate (BB: 449); Mai bine e a mearge la casa plngerii
dect a mearge la casa de butur... mai bine e a auzi certarea neleptului dect omul ce
aude cntrile celor fr minte (BB; 449); Pentru aceaia adevr zic voao c bogatului e greu
a ntra n mpria ceriului (CTE: 69); Au mai bine iaste s umblm dup cuvintele lui
Hristos i s dobndim viaa de veci, carea nu trece niciodat n veci (NB: 179).
Uneori, se ntlnete i supinul, avnd ca i infinitivul, n astfel de construcii, valoare
verbal preponderent: ...zice Gopeltin i alii c mai mult snt de rs dect de crezut, pentru
c aceale trei neamuri de oameni... lesne acei varvari limba lor strica, vrnd mai mult cu a
romanilor a o amesteca (ITR: 171).
Alteori, construciile recurg la aprecieri obiectuale fr s presupun prezena unei
propoziii: Bine-i, zu, Domnul cu voi! (PO: 157); Nu-i bine aceaea ce tu faci (PO: 176); Mai
bun e vedearea ochilor dect cel ce mearge cu sufletul... mai bun iaste numele dect
undelemn bun i ziua morii dect ziua naterii (BB: 449); S hie de nvtur ce ieste bine
i ce ieste ru i de ce-i s s fereasc i ce va urma hiecine (LTM: 236).
Cu aceeai valoare evaluativ se ntlnesc i alte expresii, n mare parte sinonime (e
greu, e lesne, a-i prea): Pentru aceaia adevr zic voao c bogatului e greu a ntra n
mpria ceriului (CTE: 69); Dereptu grescu voao c nu e lesne a ntra bogatulu in
mpriia ceriului (C: 288); Mai n toate limbile vedem c au acest izvod, de scriu cu
stihuri, pentru c foarte-i lesne a gsi ndegrab ce vei vrea s caui (NTB: 115); Mie-mi
pare s fie mai bun numele cel bun dect avuiia cea mult (NB: 193-194); Iar nelepciunea
i vitejia de la beie s nu o crezi, chiar de e-ar prea c snt ct de bine tocmite (NB: 200).
De acest amu cuvnt iaste adeverit c altul iaste de seamn i altul iaste de secer (CTE:
47); i-i era drag a ceti la scripturi, deci afla cuvinte scumpe i nu se afla nime s i le spue
(MO: 179).
Aprecierea poate fi uneori nuanat i polarizat antonimic (a-i prea a-i prea
bine/a-i prea ru): i Iuda Iscariot, fiind fur, prutu-i-au lui ru -au murguit pre muiare
prentru vrsatul mirului pre trupul lu Iisus (CTE: 156); i l pru bine de Alexandru c pesti
mult (A: 201).
n cele mai multe dintre aceste enunuri se poate vedea c n structura argumental a
verbului apare Experimentatorul realizat prin nume n Dativ, ceea ce se ntmpl i cu verbul
a plcea: Ce nu plcu acesta pizmeei cumu-i griate (MO: 152).
Valoare apreciativ cu o marcare destul de evident a subiectivitii au i verbele i
expresiile: a se bucura, a fi bucuros, a se mira: Bucur-te suflete, c i eu m bucur de tine c
ai fcut voia lu Dumnedzeu (CS: 247); De elu bucurai-v puinu acmu se frumosu easte (CV:
367); i aa viindu tefanvod... era bucuros s s tulbure rle aceste n vrun chip (LTM:
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Issue no. 6/2015
235); Iar Alexandru s spmnt i s mir mult i zise: O, drag mprteas, aa n-am
vzut (A: 196); ... cndu vzu scara el se mir i zise: C iaste Dumnezeu spre loculu acesta
eu n-am tiutu. C n moia lui numai prea-i c va fi Dumnezeu, nu pretutindenea (C: 243).
Marcatori forte pot fi i interjeciile, n absena verbelor, mai ales datorit coninutului
afectiv pe care-l vehiculeaz, semnalat intonaional n discurs: Amar celora ce, deaca se
scoal dimineaa ei caut rachiul... Amar i ie, ticloase suflete c tu totdeauna faci lucruri
de ocar i de batjocur, ca aceasta i nu-i iaste nici ruine, nici fric! (NB: 191); Atuncea
va fi ferice de cela ce va afla i va ctiga ndrzneal... i vai de cela ce s va afla c au
lcuit n traiu i n via spurcat n lumea aceasta (NB: 124). De multe ori, acestea sunt
nsoite de vocative: O, vai de mine, Alexandre, amrita-m de mine, dragul meu Alexandre
(A: 226); O, amar mie, Alexandre, astzi ntunec lume i s m plng soarele i luna i
stelele... O, dragul mieu Alexandre, dulce mprat prespe toi mpraii... (A: 227); Vai ie,
cetate care mpratul tu iaste tnr i boierii ti dimineaa mnnc! (BB: 451); Vai eu,
cci se sfrate sufletul pre cei omori (BB: 495).
3. Modalitatea apreciativ este cea mai subiectiv dintre toate tipurile de modaliti,
chiar dac se poate reflecta n forme obiective sau impersonale (opinia curent, adic tot
atitudine subiectiv). Dac la celelalte tipuri de modaliti, atitudinea se poate raporta la stri
de lucruri, modalitatea apreciativ se centreaz nu numai pe acestea din urm, ct i pe
obiecte, entiti izolate: E frumos s fii bun. Buntatea e frumoas. Bunul e frumos.
Acest tip de modalizare raporteaz coninutul enunului la vorbitor i la momentul
enunrii: M bucur c afar ninge, dar i la mijloace lingvistice care se pot folosi descriptiv
(nonmodal): Ieri m-am bucurat de soare. El s-a ntristat c a plouat ieri.
Sunt folosite conjunciile subordonatoare c/s i, n funcie de alegere, ele preced
modurile indicativ: E bine c a plecat fericit, respectiv conjunctiv: E ru s plece suprat.
Tot de folosirea acestor dou conjuncii se impune i sensul propoziiei modalizate, cnd se
folosete conjuncia subordonatoare c tratm cu un sens referenial, iar cnd e ocurent
conjuncia s, sensul devine generic. Prin sensul generic, modalitatea apreciativ se aseamn
cu modalitatatea deontic, diferena dintre aceste tipuri de modaliti const n faptul c prima
pune accentul pe evaluare, implicnd o recomandare, iar cea de-a doua, dei bazat pe
evaluare, pune pe primul loc consecina normativ a acesteia.
Modalitatea apreciativ poate fi: explicit subiectiv emotiv (verbul este la
persoana 1: apreciez, mi place etc.) sau formal obiectiv non-emotiv sau evaluativ (e
frumos, e corect).
Mijloacele exprimrii acestei modalizri sunt: verbele cu sens lexical
apreciativ, anumite construcii cu adverbe i locuiuni adverbiale, cu adjective sau substantive
specializate, interjecii i particule exclamative i intonaia.
Verbele cu sens lexical apreciativ se mpart n: verbe impersonale (a-i plcea
c.../s..., a merita s..., a-l durea c..., a-l deprima c.../ s...) i verbe personale (a aprecia
c..., a detesta s..., a ur s..., a regreta c..., a se bucura c.../s..., a-l uimi c..., a-l
surprinde c...).
Adverbe i locuiuni adverbiale apreciative, de tipul: (e) ciudat/bine/ru/de
mirare c... sunt urmate de adjective cu utilizare adverbial care au ca valori genericul,
importana, utilitatea, efectul, emoia .a.: curios, minunat, superb, surprinztor, paradoxal,
regretabil, trist, util, cinstit, important, semnificativ, caracteristic, esenial...; expresiile: mi
pare bine/ru c.../s..., locuiunile adverbiale: din fericire/nefericire/pcate/nenorocire: Din
pcate, gestul rmne fr nicio finalitate. O parte dintre adjective intr n construcii
modalizante, subiective, putnd primi i mrci ale gradrii (bucuros, suprat, trist .a.): Sunt
foarte bucuroas c te vd/s vd c eti bine.
Un numr mare de substantive pot exprima lexical evaluarea pozitiv/negativ
intrnd n construcii de tipul: noroc/pcat c...; e pcat c..., e (o) (mare) nenorocire c...,
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Issue no. 6/2015
problema e c..., lucru interesant c..., a avea bucuria/plcerea s.../de a...; a-i fi
fric/team/jale.
Anumite cuvinte exclamative devin modalizatori apreciativi: ce/ce mai..., ct
de..., expresii exclamative: Slav Domnului!; Doamne ferete!; Of, Doamne!; interjecii: vai,
ah, ei mpreun cu intonaia de apreciere sau respingere.
4. Din multitudinea de exemple oferite, se poate observa c modalitatea apreciativ a
fost i este o categorie bogat n mijloace de realizare. Este considerat cea mai subiectiv
form de modalitate, prin care emitentul exprim gradul pozitiv, negativ sau afectiv al unui
fapt. Se realizeaz n mod lexical, prin exclamative, prin construcii impersonale, cu ajutorul
unor verbe i locuiuni adverbiale apreciative.
5. Bibliografie:
1. A Alexandria (Ediie Fl. Zgraon), Bucureti, Fundaia Naional pentru tiin i
Art, 2006.
2. BB Biblia adic dumnezeiasca scriptur a Vechiului i Noului Testament tiprit
ntia oar la 1688, Bucureti, Editura Institutului Biblic, 1988.
3. C Coresi, Carte cu nvtur, (Ediie S. Pucariu, Al. Procopovici), Bucureti,
1914.
4. CLR Crestomaia limbii romne vechi, (Ediie Al. Mare), Bucureti, Editura
Academiei Romne, 1994.
5. CS Codicele Sturzan, (Ediie Gh. Chivu), Bucureti, Editura Academiei Romne,
1993.
6. CTE Coresi, Tlcul Evangheliilor i Molitvelnic romnesc (Ediie Vl. Drmba i I.
Gheie), Bucureti, Editura Academiei Romne, 1998.
7. CV Codicele voroneean (Ediie. M. Costinescu), Bucureti, Editura Minerva,
1981.
8. Iorga, N., 1925 Istoria literaturii romneti, Ediia a II-a revzut i larg ntregit,
Bucureti, Editura librriei Pavel Suru, Calea Victoriei 73.
9. NB nvturile Sfntului Voievod Neagoe Basarab ctre fiul su Theodosie
(Ediie D. Zamfirescu i Gh. Mihil), Bucureti, Editura Roza Vnturilor, 2010.
10. Kant, 1981 Immanuel Kant, Despre frumos i bine, Bucureti, Editura Minerva.
11. LTM Letopiseul rii Moldovei (Ediie Tatiana Celac), Chiinu, Editura
Hyperion, 1990.
12. MO Moxalie, Cronica universal, (Ediie G. Mihil), Bucureti, Editura Minerva,
1989.
13. NTB Noul Testament, tiprit pentru prima oar n limba romn la 1648, Alba
Iulia, Editura Episcopiei Ortodoxe Romne, 1988.
14. PO Palia de la Ortie (Ediie V. Arvinte, I. Caprou i Al. Gafton), Iai, Editura
Universitii Al. I. Cuza, 2005.
NOT:
Aceast cercetare a fost efectuat prin
Proiectul POSDRU/159/1.5/S/138963
Performan sustenabil n cercetarea
doctoral i post doctoral - PERFORM,
cofinanat de Fondul Social European.
540
Issue no.6/2015
THE ROMANIAN POSTMODERNISM: DICHOTOMIES UNDER DEBATE

Bogdan RAIU
Bolyai Farkas Theoretic Highschool, Trgu-Mure
Abstract: In this study we propose to debate some problems raised by the volume Romanian
Postmodernism written by Mircea Crtrescu: which is the motivation behind the binary
approach of the critical text, a reproach brought by the majority of essayists; what are the
dominants of the critical consciousness of the author; and, last but not least, how much of the
postmodernism theorized in the volume can be applied in his creation, through the rationalimaginary dichotomy. We will bring into discussion the critical reception of the volume, but
also some associations and differences with the other theories of postmodernism analysed in
specialized literature.
Keywords: Romanian Postmodernism, romanticism, modernism , critical discourse, sociocultural context .
Postmodernismul romnesc1 este un curent literar aprut n literatura romn n anii
80. Bibliografia dedicat acestei paradigme cuprinde numeroase definiri, observaii, asocieri,
diferenieri, abordri transdisciplinare, fiecare teoretician ncercnd s dea tonul unui curent
paradoxal prin definire i manifestare. n acest context, a mai aduce ceva nou n legtura cu
definirea postmodernismului e aproape imposibil. Ne propunem, ns, s dezbatem cteva
probleme care se ridic asupra volumului Postmodernismul romnesc, realizat de Mircea
Crtrescu: (1) care este motivaia ce st n spatele abordrii binare a textului critic, fapt
reproat de majoritatea eseitilor; (2) care sunt dominantele contiinei critice a autorului; i,
nu n ultimul rnd, (3) ct de aplicabil e postmodernismul teoretizat de autor n creaia sa, prin
dihotomia raional-imaginar.
Matei Clinescu, Mihai I. Spriosu, Cristian Moraru, ca s-i numim doar pe romnii
din universitile occidentale care resimt specificul literaturii noastre, apoi Gheorghe Crciun
cu volumul colectiv din 1994 sau majoritatea criticilor perioadei doumiiste, dedic o serie de
studii, analize, eseuri prin care postmodernismul devine unul dintre cele mai teoretizate
concepte culturale.
Volum de istorie i critic literar, Postmodernismul romnesc, este un metadiscurs,
un proiect dedublant fa de literatura postmodern romneasc. La rndul su, acest volum
completeaz mimetic atitudinalul optzecist, devenind, acum, propriul nostru discurs-obiect. E
un lan analogic interpretativ care mijlocete cunoaterea punctelor fundamentale ale
postmodernismului.
Volumul luat n discuie este produsul unui act al narcisismului, al dorinei de
acaparare a ct mai mult din ceea ce tinde s fie sub propria semntur. n cazul autorului,
cutarea i definirea postmodernismului romnesc conduce la o identificare a certitudinii.
Jocul dublului poate fi determinat i de afirmaia: postmodernismul nseamn aproape totul (o variant
antifrastic a lui nimic) n Magdalena Bedrosian et alii (coord), Dicionarul general al literaturii romne,
Editura Univers Enciclopedic, Bucureti, 2006, p. 412. Eugen Negrici consider c postmodernismul ca i
concept este n declin din cauza impreciziei termenului, a confuziei gnoseologice i proliferrii sensurilor
devenind totul i nimic i a incapacitii sale de a rspunde nevoii perioadei comuniste i postrevoluionare, cf.
Iluziile literaturii romne, Editura Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 2008, p. 169.
1
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Mircea Crtrescu e un scriitor profesionist, contient de schimbarea de paradigm din

Occident, realiznd seminarii i pregtire n domeniul postmodernismului2.
Mircea Crtrescu, prin volumul Postmodernismul romnesc, ncearc poziionarea
caracteristicilor, formelor i discursurilor literaturii postmoderne romneti n memoria
colectivitii. Contient fiind, c face parte din primul grup de studeni care ncearc s
concretizeze postmodernismul n literatura noastr, autorul dedic acestei paradigme culturale
o definire ampl, o exegez capabil s ofere stabilitate generaiei.
n anii 80, conservatorismului cultural, promovat de discipolii lui Constantin Noica, i
se opune postmodernismul romnesc3, devenit un concept mai mult teoretizat dect acceptat i
utilizat de marea mas. Este un termen polimorf, neles fie n sensul de contemporaneitate
(Andrei Pleu), fie ca mit cultural (Monica Spiridon), un concept literar fr suport ideologic
i social (Mircea Martin) sau ca manifestare a unui decalaj ntre literatur i societate (Sorin
Alexandrescu) sau imaginea unui modern alienat (Horia Roman Patapievici). Termenul de
postmodernism este utilizat pentru prima dat n revista Secolul 20, nr. 4 din 1978, n care
sunt publicate texte din Donald Barthelme cu un studiu de Andrei Brezianu Post-modernii
americani, o traiectorie spre viitor. Apoi este folosit n 1986 de Nicolae Manolescu, n cercul
de critic literar de la Universitatea din Bucureti, iar un moment definitoriu este apariia
numrului din Caiete critice din 1986, editat de Eugen Simion, Mircea Iorgulescu, Ion
Bogdan Lefter, Damian Necula. Contextul definirii postmodernismului este unul ce are
nrdcinat dorina de vehiculare a conceptelor din Vest, dar, n acelai timp, o situaie
social-cultural specific zonei de Est, definit de Caius Dobrescu prin duplicitate.
Mircea Crtrescu i prezint punctul de vedere i consideraiile rezultate din
cercetarea ntreprins n trei pri: Postmodernitatea ca experien ontologic, epistemologic
i istoric slab, cuprinznd ase capitole, Postmodernismul: sfritul artelor sau un nou
nceput?, dezvoltat n apte capitole, cu o ultim parte direcionat Ctre un postmodernism
romnesc, alctuit din paisprezece capitole. Capitolele sunt organizate deductiv, oferind un
demers logic i sigur, iar prin nlnuirea teoreticienilor, se creeaz un metadiscurs al cutrii,
Mircea Crtrescu devenind personajul propriei nfptuiri. Nelinitea autorului se observ din
metadiscursul critic; orict ar prea de sigur pe sine, cristalizarea postmodernismului se face
ritmic; dorina de lmurire i de supravieuire a acestei literaturi este realizat n tandem cu
ritmul cunoaterii i al dezvoltrii modalitilor scripturale.
Criticul Mircea Crtrescu pare la prima vedere modern, folosindu-se de un model de
gndire binar4, ncercnd s surprind nuane, complexiti, organizri multistratificate i,
pn la urm, s justifice existene5 opunndu-se viziunii lui Ang Ien din 1996, care consider
c paradigma postmodernismului nu susine caracterul binar specific unui discurs modern
(modern - premodern, occidental - nonoccidental, prezent - trecut, emitor - receptor, sine -
A se vedea Mircea Crtrescu, Postmodernity as a weak ontological, epistemological and historical

experience, n tefan Borbly, Mircea Crtrescu et alii., New Europe College Yearbook 1996-1997, Bucureti,
2000, pp. 93-128.
3
Pentru mai multe detalii a se vedea Caius Dobrescu, Revoluia radial: o critic a conceptului de
postmodernism dinspre nelegerea plural i deschis a culturii burgheze, Editura Universitii Transilvania,
Braov, 2008, pp. 250-253.
4
Virgil Nemoianu, Postmodernismul i identitile culturale: conflicte i coexisten, trad. de Laura Carmen
Cuitaru, postfa de Codrin Liviu Cuitaru, Editura Universitii Alexandru Ioan Cuza, Iai, 2011, p. 303; a se
vedea i Linda Hucheon, Poetica postmodernismului, trad. de Dan Popescu, Editura Univers, Bucuresti, 2002, p.
43: totui opoziiile binare, care sunt de obicei etalate atunci cnd se scrie despre postmodernism ntre trecut
i prezent, modern i postmodern... ar trebui probabil aduse n discuie i numai pentru c postmodernismul, ca
i retorica rupturii, numete i constituie literalmente prpria-i identitate paradoxal .
5
Virgil Nemoianu, op. cit., pp. 303-304.
2
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Issue no. 6/2015
altul).6 Totui, prin aceast dualitate a eseului, autorul i anun caracterul postmodern, dac
e s ne alturm opiniei lui Virgil Nemoianu, i analiznd din perspectiva teoriei temperate, a
unui curent clasicizat n Occident. ns, din aceast dihotomie, se observ o dominant a
principiului intern de supravieuire: ntoarcerea spre ceea ce e o certitudine, spre ceea ce se
poate cunoate comparativ sau prin balansul general - particular, abstract - concret, teorii texte literare.
n primul rnd, discursul critic urmrete un model bine organizat al principiilor
argumentrii, fiind un demers de validare i argumentare a postmodernismului. Este un
discurs ce se vrea dialogic, viznd apariia i experiena postmodernismului:
n literatura romn chiar i n condiiile nefavorabile ale lumii comuniste, literatura
postmodern a luptat pentru legitimitate i, dup o experien underground de literatur
alternativ, s-a impus, ctre 1980, ca literatur normal a vremii, destul de permisiv teoretic
ca s nglobeze alterndu-le ns definitiv semnificaia ideologic, pentru c
postmodernismul nu este un eclectism toate experienele artistice ale modernitii i, in
extremis, ale literaturii clasice de asemenea. Prin aceasta, sensul nsui al culturii i al
literaturii ca profesii paradigmatice s-a modificat profund ctre un concept extensiv, de
simultaneitate i coplanaritate. Prin conceptul postmodern literatura romn s-a re-sincronizat
cu pulsul spiritual al lumii occidentale, democratice i liberale, id est al lumii civilizate.7
Am extras ntreg fragmentul final al tezei lui Mircea Crtrescu pentru a sublinia
coordonatele n jurul crora s-a construit treptat edificiul teoretic al curentului. Structurile
binare estetic - ideologic, anii 80 - anii 90, modernitate - postmodernitate, modernism postmodernism, poezie - proz, diacronie - sincronie, individ - grup, cercetare - experien
conduc spre cutarea cunoaterii i spre constituirea discursului. Lucid, reflexiv, sigur pe actul
experimentrii i al exprimrii, criticul Mircea Crtrescu poziioneaz destul de n fa
importana noului curent8, rednd prin fora conceptului de sincronizare, certificarea unei
paradigme literare recuperatoare, salvatoare, care relativizeaz prin ironie i, totodat,
provoac, i determin la simultaneitate fa de restul literaturilor.
n cadrul volumului, autorul realizeaz o prim analiz a postmodernitii, ncercnd
s surprind cmpul cultural al ideilor postmodernitii n funcie de trei axe centrale
(ontologic, epistemologic, istoric), iar apoi problemele modernitii prin triada modern
modernitate modernism. ntr-o prezentare diacronic, pe urmele lui Matei Clinescu, criticul
reface succint istoria modernismelor, definind modernitatea, n spiritul criticului menionat,
ca fiind o mutaie cultural major care s-a produs o dat cu trecerea de la estetic a
permanenei, bazat pe credina ntr-un ideal de frumusee neschimbtor i transcendent, la o
estetic a tranzitoriului i a imanenei, ale crei principale valori sunt schimbarea i noul 9.
Descrierea evoluiei conceptului ncepe din Evul Mediu (modernus/ antiqus), apoi n
Renatere prin opoziia modern/ cretin, cu certurile dintre antici i moderni din secolul al
XVII-lea, iar apoi cu distincia clasic/ gotic; clasic/ romantic, accentund n perioada
burghez confruntarea dintre modernitatea burghez, a progresului tiinific, social i cea
artistic, elistic, conservatoare. Ideea de modernitate o leag i de imaginea lui Charles
6
Ang Ien, Living Room Wars. Rethinking Media Audiences for a Postmodern World, London and New York,
Routledge, 1996, apud. Mihaela Constantinescu, Forme n micare. Postmodernismul, Editura Univers
7
Mircea Crtrescu, Postmodernismul romnesc, ediia a II-a, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 2010, pp. 479-480.
8
Eugen Negrici, op. cit., p. 169 consider c postmodernismul ca i concept este n declin din cauza impreciziei
termenului, a confuziei gnoseologicie i proliferrii sensurilor devenind totul i nimic i a incapacitii sale de
a raspunde nevoii perioadei comuniste i postrevoluionare.
9
Mircea Crtrescu, Postmodernismul romnesc, ed. cit., p. 71.
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Baudelaire, pentru care devine sinonim cu tranzitoriul, fugitivul, contingentul, dar i de etapa
romantismului, cnd modern i cretin sunt termeni echivaleni, umanitatea intrnd treptat
ntr-o religie a crizei.
Este semnificativ faptul c omul modernist are o puternic nostalgie a sensului, a
transparenei fiind adeptul pansemantismului, iar la baza postmodernitii stau toate
modernismele, oferind complexitate perioadei. Prin raportul individului la grup, a lumii
noastre la lumea Cealalt, Mircea Crtrescu contureaz contextul democraiei din anii 60
cnd se produc schimbri la toate nivelurile, dominnd caracterul informaional/
transparentizarea lumii (Gianni Vattimo); liberalismul, economia de pia, tehnologia
informaional, ceea ce va conduce la sentimentul de depeizare, de dez-inserie a omului din
lume prin pierderea treptat a simului realitii10. Cnd vine vorba de Romnia exact aceast
apariie a ideilor postmodenitii n societate sunt problematice. n acest sens, n studiul su, i
Caius Dobrescu11 prezint diferena dintre postmodernism i postindustrialism, considernd
c sensibilitatea i mentalitatea romneasc nu era pregtit pentru o astfel de apariie. De
asemenea, aducnd o serie de obiecii la adresa postmodernismului romnesc, Eugen Negrici
consider inoportun tradiiei culturale romneti aliana definitorie a acestui curent
postmodernism - postindustrialism. Datorit izolrii rii noastre, se pierd etape din
dezvoltarea normal a lumii, iar timiditatea i ntrzierea cultural ne fac s accedem destul de
greu n practic la ideea globalizrii, a pluralismului cultural, a toleranei, a democratizrii i
globalizrii. Dar inclusiv pe baza acestor concepte se poate discuta asupra caracterului lor
postmodern. Pn la urm, suntem i noi de prere c, n cazul nostru, cultura i societatea se
comport duplicitar, cu un ochi spre modernitate i cu cellalt spre postmodernitate, avnd o
manifestare fluctuant. Ele se regsesc simultan, n armonie i tensiune, dup cum subliniaz
i Sorin Alexandrescu sau Carmen Muat. Pn la urm, modernitatea nu i-a ncheiat
proiectul, aflndu-ne ntr-o paradigm definit n termenii lui Giddens, ca double-edged
phenomenon fiind n opoziie i complementaritate. 12
Aceast discuie de la nceputul volumului rspunde uneia dintre valorile actului critic,
pe care Mircea Martin o amintete n cartea sa critica literar constituie, sub toate formele
ei, o prezen indispensabil n spaiul nostru i pentru c i asum sarcini mai ample, se
implic prin nsi presiunea istoriei i responsabilitatea contiinelor n devenirea culturii
i societii romneti13. Crtrescu radiografiaz formele fluctuante ale postmodernitii, cu
teorii destul de abstracte pentru societatea i cultura noastr, i care se afl ntr-un decalaj de
adncime fa de ceea ce se prezint n partea aplicativ a tezei 14. Pn la urm, textul
romnesc contemporan nu nglobeaz profunzimea autentic a postmodernismului.
O alt dihotomie analizat n detaliu este cea produs de modernism i
postmodernism15, dou curente din care va prezenta condiiile social-istorice ale scriitorilor,
Mircea Crtrescu, op. cit., p.13.
Caius Dobrescu, op. cit., p. 162.
12
Cf. Carmen Muat, Modernitate i postmodernitate, n Liviu Papadima (coord.), Cercetarea literar azi.
Studii dedicate profesorului Paul Cornea, Editura Polirom, Iai, pp. 170-183.
13
Mircea Martin, Singura critic, ediia a II-a, revzut, Editura Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 2006, p. 66.
14
Cf. Dan Patroc, Abnormal Theories. The Case of Romanian Postmodernism, n Annales Philosophici, nr. 4,
2012, pp. 23-28. (studiul e la origine un fragment dintr-o cercetare doctoral n care se insist pe controversa pe
care o propune Mircea Crtrescu prin acest text critic. Urmnd prefaa lui Paul Cornea, cronica lui George
Pruteanu, Alex tefnescu, Cristian Tudor Popescu, Ion Simu, critical concluzioneaz c Mircea Crtrescu nu
reuete s adopte o metodologie unitar de lucru, existnd o puternic dihotomie ntre pri, susinnd n final c
Postmodernismul romnesc cel mai ambiios proiect romnesc de teoretizare a postmodernismului eueaz ntro carte care strnete discuii referitoare mai curnd la autorul ei: adulat sau constatat, Mircea Crtrescu rateaz
tocmai ceea ce ar fi trebuit s fie inta sa iniial, ntoarcerea spre postmodernism n sine i nu spre persoan.
15
Aceast dualitate are un caracter temporal i a fost deseori folosit n critica literar datorit definirii unui
concept prin comparaie. A se vedea n acest sens Barthes, Roland, Placerea textului, trad. de Marian Papahagi,
10
11
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crezul artistic i toposurile recurente, urmrind existena lor ca n cazul unor organisme vii ce
oscileaz n diferite cicluri existeniale. Pe de o parte, artitii moderni propuneau i realizau
sincronizarea specific timpului lor, accentund autonomia esteticului, dar cei postmoderni
acord importan cotidianului cu toate implicaiile de ordin etic, politic, religios, astfel
esteticul nu mai rspunde suficient n judecarea artei. Mircea Crtrescu recunoate c la nivel
colectiv modernismul a ajuns s nsemne ceva desuet i demodat, iar postmodernismul
devine un act revoluionar pe care l definete ca fiind epifenomenul cultural, artistic i, n
cele din urm, literar al postmodernitii16. Din punctul su de vedere cuprinde
perspectivismul nietzschean, pierde simul realitii, estetizeaz existena i se asociaz cu
societatea democratic, tehnologic, informatizat, mediatic de azi.
Pe de alt parte, prin analiza prefixului post se creeaz un demers paradoxal ntre
continuitate i ruptur ca reprezentri semantice ale unui curent ce presupune concomitent
ntoarcere i recuperare, transpuse prin parodie i ironie. Aceast dihotomie continu i la
nivelul raportului dintre text i lume, i la cel fiinial, fiind considerat esenial i benefic.
Definirea prefixului se realizeaz n continuare prin deferenierea dintre dispreuirea trecutului
de ctre moderni i recuperarea n spirit ludic, ironic i parodic, cu un iz nostalgic a trecutului
de ctre postmoderni. Contient de demersul bifurcat realizat, n concordan cu statutul celor
dou curente, ntr-o demonstraie ce aduce aminte de discursul clinescian romantic vs clasic,
Mircea Crtrescu aduce n discuie conceptul de tcere de la Ihab Hassan care poate fi
neles diferit: n modernism cu pagina alb, cu albul mistic, epuizare, stingere, meditaie
intens, intelectualist, exteriorizare violent, ideea morii artei odat cu omul; i
postmodernismul cu ansa regsit n linite i moarte, de creare i de construire din moarte.
Modern i postmodern ajung s nsemne stri de spirit complementare, aflate n relaii
de ruptur, continuitate i ntreptrundere. Pe lng trsturile identificate pe urmele lui Ihab
Hassan (indeterminare, fragmentare, lips de sine, lips de adncime, neprezentabil i
nereprezentabil, ironie, hibridizare, carnavalizare, performan, construcionism), criticul
include i cteva concepte moderniste precum urbanismul, tehnologismul, alienarea,
primitivismul, erotismul, antinomianismul i experimentalismul. Pn la urm,
postmodernismul i are originea n avangard dobndind i o atitudine recuperatoare prin
ironie, parodie i pasti, astfel opera de art se neag n nsi actul producerii. Acest curent
recupereaz tradiia modernitii pentru a pune bazele unei noi convenii artistice. Grania
dinte modernism i postmodernism, i tot ce implic acestea (monism-pluralism, exhaustivparial, transcenden-imanen, idealism-pragmatism), se deplaseaz spre zone de interes
ignorate de critic literar, introducndu-se paraliteratura, literatura minoritarilor, cea pentru
copii i tineret etc. Concluzia la care ajunge autorul este aceea c traversm o perioad n care
literatura se apropie mai mult de o cultur popular, specific asianismului, fa de ceea ce
presupunea modernismul, ce implic aticismul i literatura elitist. Prin excursul diacronic i
sincronic realizat, prin definirea i utilizarea conceptelor de modern/ modernitate/ modernism
i, pe de alt parte, de postmodern/postmodernitate/ postmodernism, des ntlnite i n teoriile
strine, autorul produce o sistematizare a fenomenelor culturale din spaiul nostru,
contextualiznd postmodernismul.
Ulterior, pentru o analiz ct mai clar i mai nuanat, n ultimele capitole, autorul
mparte literatura postmodern romneasc n doi poli reprezentai de poei i prozatori,
subliniind specificul fiecrui scriitor reprezentativ. Se instituie aici o diferen de cercetare,
postfa de Ion Pop, Editura Echinox, Cluj, 1994, p. 65; Habermas Jrgen, Modernity versus Postmodernity n
New German Critique, 22, 1981, pp. 3-14, Matei Clinescu, Cinci fee ale modernitii: modernism, avangard,
decaden, kitsch, postmodernism, Editura Polirom, Iai, 2005, pp. 303-318, Ioana Em. Petrescu, Modernism/
Postmodernism O ipotez, Editura Casa Crii de tiin, Cluj-Napoca, 2003, p. 34, Nicolae Manolescu,
Despre poezie, Editura Aula, Braov, 2002, pp. 184-186.
16
Mircea Crtrescu, op. cit., p. 79.
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consemnat aproape unanim de critica literar17. Fa de discursul socio-cultural din primele

capitole, stilul se modific alturi de tehnica de lucru, de cercetare, de diciunea ideii i de
personalizarea textului critic, care se nfptuiete prin apropierea de textul viu i prin referirea
la alte discursuri18.
Demersul interpretativ al poeziei debuteaz cu o prezentare diacronic i detaliat a
cenaclurilor din care au rmas doar cteva individualiti puternice, cu evoluie divergent i
cu o puternic voin de individualizare i afirmare personal19. Autorii (Traian T. Coovei,
Florin Iaru, Ion Stratan) sunt analizai ntr-o expresie critic echilibrat ntre coninutul i
expresia poemelor. Spre exemplu, originalitatea operei lui Traian T. Coovei este sugerat
prin selectarea imaginilor recurente i a laitmotivelor n citate din real, prelucrate prin
savante manipulri stilistice. Facultatea sentimental a spiritului este precizat cu strictee
ntr-o fraz esenializat sentimentul dominant este de irealitate i melancolie. Metoda
interpretativ este i una comparativ, accentundu-se relaia cu literatura britanic sau
american care a avut timp suficient pentru a configura spaiul poetic postmodern. Mai mult,
Mircea Crtrescu continu analiza urmtorului volum 1,2,3, sau ... pe care l caracterizeaz
ca fiind roman de dragoste [...] o melancolic poveste pentru copii i continu evolutiv
imaginarul lui Traian T. Coovei observnd n nuane subtile, schimbrile spre modernism a
poeziei din etapa maturitii.
Acelai model interpretativ propune i pentru opera colegului Florin Iaru (care
descompune i recompune sintetic realitatea n poeme contorsionate sau Ion Stratan (un poet
Receptarea critic a volumului e vast, vom extrage doar cteva afirmaii critice pe care le-am considerat
elocvente demersului nostru. De la diferena amintit i de la hiatusul receptrii contiinei critice i a celei
artistice a autorului, unii critici precum Dumitru epeneag n Postul modernismului i tunul lui Mircea
Crtrescu, n Contemporanul ideea european, nr 22, 1999, p. 4, consider volumul un complot [...] o
lovitur de stat cosiderndu-l ca o impunere a dictaturii crtresciene, un act narcisic sub imaginea unei maini
de rzboi. Nici Bogdan Creu n Arpegii critice, Editura Timpul, Iai, 2005, p. 16, l consider cel mai mare
manifest literar cunoscut, avnd un iz propagandistic n care tradiia este inventat, iar trecutul mistificat;
Privit din prisma lui Mircea Crtrescu, ntreaga evoluie a literaturii romne nu d semne a fi avut vreun alt
rost dect s pregteasc apariia i provideniala impunere a postmodernismului, chiar dac, evident, au existat
condiii neprielnice, ba chiar potrivnice, iar Ioan Buduc, Postmodernismul dup Crtrescu, n rev.
Contemporanul. Ideea european, nr. 34, 1999, p. 6, l reintituleaz Postmodernismul literar romnesc din
cauza diferenei dintre social i literar n abordarea acestei paradigme culturale (sau literare). n aceeai idee
Mircea uglea, Postmodernismul romnesc n rev. Contemporanul ideea european, nr. 34, 1999, p. 6 l
numete Istoria romanat a postmodernismulu romnesc. Dar mai dur e Daniel Cristea Enache afirmnd c
este un roman, nvemntat n hainele unei critifiction i catalogndu-l ca un eec rsuntor Pisica lui
Heisenberg n rev. Adevrul literar artistic, nr. 488, 5 oct. 1999, reluat n vol. Timpuri noi (Secvene de
literatur romn), Editura Cartea Romneasc, 2009, p. 336. n schimb, Alex tefnescu recomand citirea
crii ca pe o ficiune critic pentru a avea parte de o delectare intelectual (Istoria literaturii romne
contemporane, 1941-2000, Editura Maina de scris, Bucureti, 2005, p. 913), Paul Cornea, Acreditarea
postmodernismului romnesc (postfa), n vol. Mircea Crtrescu, Postmodernismul romnesc, Editura
Humanitas, Bucureti, 1999, pp. 505-537; Ion Blu, Concepte i noiuni teoretice n micare, n Apostrof, 10,
nr. 5, 1999, pp. 10-11; Ioan Buduca, Postmodernismul dup Crtrescu, n Contemporanul, 9, nr. 34, 1999, p.
6. Mircea Martin, Schimbarea de canon, n Romnia literar, nr. 32, 1999, pp. 14-15; Mircea Mihie,
Frenezie i rceal, n Cuvntul, 5(10), nr. 5, 1999, p. 13; Andrei Bodiu, Mircea Crtrescu. Postmodernismul
fr frontier n Andrei Bodiu, Direcia optzeci n poezia romn, vol. 1. Editura Paralela 45, Piteti, 2000, pp.
41-90; dar i Al. Cistelecan n Mircea Crtrescu eseist n Familia, nr. 2, (543), feb. 2011, pp. 15-23, o vede ca
fiind cea dinti sintez romneasc despre postmodernism, cartea lui Crtrescu are, vrnd-nevrnd i
oarecum neputnd altfel o puternic amprent autodefinitorie. Postmodernismul romnesc rezult un fel
decrtrescianism extins i hegemonic; asta ns numai deoarece Crtrescu ntrupeaz i nsumeaz toate
caracteristicile postmodernismului i le reprezint cu cea mai mare strlucire la romni. Oricine ar fi scris
cartea, tot pe Crtrescu l-ar fi aezat n poziie central (i n aciune iradiant);mcar el nsui vorbete despre
sine n subtext., a se vedea i vol. Magna cum laude (Diacritice II), Editura Tracus Arte, Bucureti, 2013.
18
Cf. La critique littraire: mtadiscours et thorie de lexplication n A.J. Greimas, E. Landowski et allii.,
Introduction lanalyse du discours en sciences sociales. ditions dHachette, Paris, 1979, pp. 208-237.
19
Mircea Crtrescu, Postmodernismul romnesc, ed. cit., p. 369
17
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modernist, care torsioneaz limbajul la toate nivelurile sale). Prin apelul dominant la volumul
Aer cu diamante, Mircea Crtrescu reuete s defineasc lumea poetic din anii 80, ce se
afl sub imaginea dublului fluctuant ntr-o lume veche i una nou, avnd ca dominante:
performana lingvistic, ironia, umorul inteligent i emoia adevrat. Recunoate c literatura
noastr are cteva particulariti structurale postmoderne precum intertextualismul,
autoreferenialitatea ludic, gustul parodiei, al rescrierii, ironia, senzualitatea sofisticat, un
nou realism, biografism, oralitate, contactul cu retorica i universul imaginar al mass-media.
For de impact are i dimensiunea neoexpresionist a generaiei, receptat ca o
insul reacionar care d voce morii, nebuniei i suferinei: Ion Murean, Ioan Liviu
Stoiciu, Mariana Marin, Nichita Danilov. Privindu-i n general pe aceti autori, Mircea
Crtrescu exprim att aprobarea prin noutatea modelului realizat, a spiritului critic cu simul
relativitii valorilor pe care o impune generaia, ct i nemulumirea fa de calitatea
intelectual a unora. n cellalt plan, al biografismului cu spontaneitate, cu stil plebeu i
exprimare colocvial, l analizeaz pe Romulus Bucur ale crui texte le caracterizeaz prin
simplitatea nsi i inexpresivitatea ntruchipat, iar dup o analiz comparativ (poei
romni/ germani) afirm conclusiv:
Marea valoare teoretic a poeziei optzeciste const n
descoperirea
postmodernismului ca lume artistic relevant i central, ceea ce a echivalat cu deschiderea
unui continent estetic, explorat doar sporadic pn atunci i fr contiina gsirii unei lumi
noi. Fr aceast revelaie, nelegerea modernitii (n sens de postmodernitate) literaturii
romne de dup rzboi este imposibil. Pattern-ul postmodern este astzi singurul n stare s
genereze imagini alternative coerente i credibile ale scrisului romnesc, care s termine cu
ticitele istorii tradiionale20
Analiza prozei are acelai traseu care ncepe cu prezentarea vieii din interior; de la
cenaclul condus de Ov. S. Crohmlniceanu menionnd i diferenele interne, relaionale, la
Junimea cu legturile de prietenie i respectul profesional care, aici, erau mai adnci i mai
adevrate. n general, seriozitatea discuiilor, care mergeau pn la detalii tehnice aproape
impalpabile, rbdarea neverosimil cu care erau ascultate puteau dura i cte o or ntreag i
mai ales sistemul de roluri la care participau membrii cenaclului 21. Avnd ca punct de
plecare definiia criticului literar conductor al cenaclului, Mircea Crtrescu abordeaz
fiecare trstur printr-un corpus de texte relevante: indeterminarea ca urmare a pulverizrii
naraiunii, modul de dislocare a figurativului prin manevre auctoriale la vedere,
fragmentarismul, autoreferenialitatea textelor, oralitatea n priz direct, grotescul i kitschul (categorii estetice carnavaleti), parodia, umorul [] stilul rafinat-plebeu22. n schimb,
le reproeaz totui c nu au cteva dintre cele mai importante trsturi ale curentului precum
imanena actului artistic sau mediile sociale marginale.
Criticul analizeaz produsul celor de la coala de la Trgovite n care textul i realul
se contopesc, apoi proza scurt a lui Mircea Nedelciu, Sorin Preda, Alexandru Vlad, Cristian
Teodorescu, ficionarii tefan Agopian, Ioan Groan, George Cunarencu, Ioan Mihai
Cochinescu i romancierii Mircea Nedelciu (Zmeura de cmpie, Tratament fabulatoriu),
Sorin Preda (Parial color, Plus minus o zi), Cristian Teodorescu (Tainele inimei), Ioan Mihai
Cochinescu (Ambasadorul), Bedros Horasangian (Sala de ateptare), tefan Agopian (Sara),
Alexandru Vlad (Frigul verii), George Cunarencu (Tangoul Memoriei) i Gheorghe Crciun
(Frumoasa fr corp).
20
Ibidem, p. 400.
Ibidem, p. 403.
22
Ibidem, p. 412.
21
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Fa de generaia 80, cea nouzecist este vzut rapid n umbra primei generaii
postmoderne, dar care are parte de schimbri sociale i de mentalitate, care disimeneaz fora
i importana scriitorilor i a cititorilor. Tabloul nouzecist se rezum la grupul braovean,
grupul din jurul revistei ArtPanorama, i cel care a editat volumul Tablou de familie.
n linii mari, acesta ar fi traseul teoretico-aplicativ prin care ncearc Mircea
Crtrescu s impun n literatura romn curentul (su) literar. Dei teoretizat i n volume
precedente precum Poetica postmodernismului de Liviu Petrescu (1996), Modernitatea
ultim. Eseuri de Caius Dobrescu (1998), Mircea Crtrescu pornete de la experien spre
abstractizare, spre un postmodernism decomplexat, eruptiv i generativ. El are o anumit
familiaritate, vocaia autoidentificrii, i nu n ultimul rnd se las prins n joc.23 Discursul su
critic presupune n acelai timp documentare, raportare existenial i etic. n schimb, Liviu
Petrescu analizeaz din perspectiv teoretic i filosofic, fiind detaat psihologic de acest
curent. Criticul judec logic lucrurile construind un postmodernism mai crispat, normativ,
conceptual, taxonomic, avnd o perspectiv catedratic, aulic, distant, marcat de
structuralismul modern. Dac unul are un limbaj critic ce dubleaz fora expresiv a
scriitorului, avnd un stil empatic, expresiv, cellalt scrie avizat, doct i extrem de nuanat.
Mircea Crtrescu observ conceptul n evoluia sa arborescent de la o oper la alta, de la o
epoc la alta, analiznd cu atenie Ion Budai Deleanu, Ion Neculce, Dimitrie Cantemir,
Antonn Pan, Alexandru Macedonski i muli alii. n schimb, Liviu Petrescu se raporteaz la
romane apropiate anilor 80 precum Galeria cu vi slbatic de Constantin oiu, sau opera
lui Paul Georgescu, Corn de vntoare de Al. Ivasiuc i Huliganii de Mircea Eliade.
Din paralela realizat se pot observa cteva dominante ale contiinei lui Mircea
Crtrescu. El, autorul postmodern, se recepteaz pe sine prin ceilali postmoderni24, colegi de
generaie. E un joc al autodefinirii, o ars poetica dup cum bine sublinia Andrei Bodiu25
n care structura dual a fiinei, completeaz imaginarul autorului. Dac imaginarul operei st
sub semnul animei, de data aceasta volumul de critic literar e n mare parte unul raional,
conturnd un imaginar critic26 care poate mbina diurnul i nocturnul, totalitatea i
profunzimea, obiectivitatea i empatia subiectiv.
n sensul lui Georges Poulet27, actul critic presupune fluidizarea diferenelor dintre
subiectul critic i obiectele sale, discursul critic putnd fi vzut ca o compatibilizare a
contiinei postmoderne. De aici, putem deduce c identificarea cu formele
postmodernismului se concretizeaz ultima dat, dup o trecere i o ampatizare cu alte
paradigme sau tipologii culturale. mblnzirea postmodernismului se face cu siguran prin
aceast carte, ce vorbete despre el, prin alii. De exemplu, s citim n tandem urmtoarele
dou fragmente:
Noiunea inventat de el [Ion Manolescu n.n.], textualismul mediatic , are cum se
vede, puin de-a face cu textualismul optzecitilor (textualism scriptural). El exprim
nevoia naraiunii contemporane de a mima creative artele mediatice, produse ale unei
tehnologii avansate, specific postmoderne28.
vs.
Cf. tefan Borbly, Cercul de graie, Editura Paralela 45, Piteti-Bucureti, 2003, pp. 113-117.
Actul lecturii la care se reduce orice adevrat critic implic coincidena a doua contiinte: aceea a unui
cititor i aceea a unui autor n Georges Poulet, Constiina critic, traducere i prefa de Ion Pop, Editura
Univers, Bucureti, 1979, p. 23.
25
Andrei Bodiu, Mircea Crtrescu. Monografie, Editura Aula, Braov, 2000, p. 13.
26
Andrei Terian, Despre imaginarul critic. Cteva ipoteze de lucru, n Studia Universitatis Petru Maior,
Tg.-Mure, vol. 11, 2011, pp. 34-42.
27
Georges Poulet, op. cit., p. 292.
28
Mircea Crtrescu, op. cit., p. 191.
23
24
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Textualismul mediatic sau virtual propune o deplasare a accentului narativ ctre

mijloacele, procedeele i viziunea artei cibernetice. Imagerie virtual, universuri interactice,
ilustraie fractal etc [...] Doi dintre repezentanii noii direcii sunt Mircea Crtrescu [...] i
Sebastian A Corn29.
Dei nu se numete, implicit, Mircea Crtrescu ncearc s se descopere, s se
autoconstruiasc. Teoria general, devine o teorie personalizat, semntura sa punndu-se pe
ceea ce ofer mai clar i mai coerent postmodernismul romnesc. Deci, termenii prin care se
poate caracteriza acest volum sunt: autodefinire, regsire, oglindire n cellalt i luarea de
contiin de sine a scriitorului30.
n viziunea noastr, Mircea Crtrescu i construiete opera pe baza principiului
romantic al dublului, dezvoltat printr-un atitudinal modern, iar expresia este una de factur
postmodern. Acel du-te-vino dintre cele trei paradigme enunate31, suprapunerea lor,
convertirea sau concentrarea lor n diverse genuri literare, determin apariia unui
postmodernism dublu articulat, suprinznd relaii dintre texte, contexte, grupri i atitudini.
Structural, Crtrescu este el nsui un postmodernist prin intertextualism, autoreferenialitate
ludic, prin gustul parodiei, al rescrierii, prin ironie, senzualitate sofisticat, un nou realism,
biografism, oralitate, contactul cu retorica i universul imaginar al mass-mediei. Dar, n
acelai timp, explicaia orfic a lumii pe care o amintete Eugen Simion, modul specific de a
percepe i de a tri realitatea, viziunea cosmogin tipic modern (observat de Nicolae
Manolescu), expansiunea literei care confirm ficiunea, explorarea limbajului i a senzaiilor,
contopirea poeilor artiti i vizionari, memoria involuntar ce ne trimite la Marcel Proust
(amintit de Ion Manolescu), simbolicul i figuralul ca limite ale limbajului, proiecia n
personajul ca alter-ego, sunt expresii ale modernitii. Poate mai convenabil ca teorie a
postmodernismului, pentru opera lui Mircea Crtrescu este cea a lui Radu G. eposu, n
principal, pentru c opera sa e un efort de recuperare a unei anumite spiritualiti, pe baza
acelorai modele eseniale (ontologice, existeniale, epistemologice).
Abordnd o viziunea asemntoare cu cea a lui Gianni Vattimo, Radu G. eposu
consider c exist dou teme mari care definesc postmodernismul o dat problematica
eternei rentoarceri i, pe de alt parte, depirea metafizicii ambele n sensul ntoarcerii
spre inaugural i concomitent se descoper ceea ce a fost uitat, ocultat sau disimulat.
Criza i carena afectiv, identitar, pe care o presupune dublul, determin la aparene,
la mti, la formulri ce redau arogan sau narcisism, n schimb, confer tensiunii ideatice
fragilitatea specific. Asumarea n subtext a cutrii dublului, reprezint exact acea depire
heideggerian, avnd rolul de a vindeca, de a lecui i de a deschide drumul adevrat spre sine.
Ion Manolescu, Benzile desenate si canonul postmodern, Editura Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 2011, p. 104.
Georges Poulet, op. cit., p. 318.
31
Intersectarea curentelor literare o prezint i Mircea Crtrescu, afirmnd c postmodernismul fa de
romantism nu are naivitate i efuziuni romantice, n schimb se aseamn n carnavalesc, n apropierea de cultura
joas, popular. Comparndu-l cu barocul, ambele dein bogia formelor, dar disctincia se face n absena
sentimentului metafizic al timpului devorator. Postmodernismul pstreaz din manierism luciditatea, iregularul,
abstrusul, intrigarea, enigma, ns se deosebete prin caracterul democratic, ambiental, prin mezalian i kitsch,
ntr-un cuvnt, n cadrul formelor asianice postmodernismul are un profil disctinct fa de alte curente cu care
a fost adesea comparat, dei exist i nimeroase interferene, dar se deosebete total de formele aticiste ale
spiritului, cum se manifest ele n clasicism sau modernism cf. Mircea Crtrescu, Postmodernismul
romnesc, ed. cit., p. 229; (aticism: realism, concizie, rigoare, proprietate a termenilor/asianism: ficiune,
fabulaia, ornament, elocven). Postmodernul se refer deopotriv la modernism i la avangardism, i nu prin
negare, ci prin recuperare: el nu este nici antimodernist, nici antiavangardist. Nicolae Manolescu, Despre
poezie, ed. cit., pp. 185 postmodernismul desemneaz n spaiul literar romnesc: curent poetic lansat n
Cenaclu de luni, generaie de creaie distinct, un moment poetoc postbelic cacarcterizat de re-scriere i un
anume mod de a face proz care consun cu cel al lui Barthe sau Pynchon n Alexandru Muina, Poezia: teze,
ipoteze, explorari, Editura Aula, 2008, cap. IV. Paradisul din tomberon, Editura Aula, Braov, p. 193.
29
30
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De aceea, postmodernismul operelor sale este unul care se definete n termenii dublului, ai
repetiiei recuperare, renatere i rentoarcere. Dar nu doar sentimentul este unul de
cuprindere a Totului, ci i retorica este una totalizatoare prin utilizarea unei strategii a
seduciei, a supralicitrii prin care se menine paradoxul i contradicia intern, utilizarea unei
scriituri fragmentare, nlocuirea legilor realitii cu cele ale jocului, dezvoltarea strategiilor
ambivalente ce conduce la polarizarea i tensionarea conceptelor, apoi a strategiei jocului i a
simulrii, a violenei poetice dornic de demascare, i ntr-un final utilizarea tehnicii mise-enabyme ce conduce spre autoreflectare. Pn la urm toate acestea in de o fatalitate
postmodern, prin care autorul ncearc s identifice o form specific de joc i de destin prin
care s contracareze aceast evoluie implacabil a sistemului32
Autorul rvnete la integralitate i ntreg, iar acest act se poate ndeplini printr-o
micare de flux-reflux fa de ficiunile primare: romantismul i modernismul. n concepia lui
Radu G eposu, postmodernismul va reui s reconcilieze ideea de totalitate, dobndit prin
vis, magie, mistic i mimesis superior, specific romantismului, cu ideea de transcende
goal a lui Friedrich Hugo, eclectism i confuzie n sensul modernitii:
ceea ce a ctigat n plan estetic de la moderni, postmodernii ambiioneaz s grafeze
pe un fond spiritual motenit de la romantici. Obsesia postmodernismului fiind una
recuperatoare, bizuit pe tolerana ironic i pe complicitatea subneleas, idealul su este
refacerea totalitii prin acumulare, prin aglomerare sumativ. O totalitate de hortie ns, cci
noua coeren se nal pe un artificiu contient, ludic i histrionic. Cartea a luat locul lumii
(sau lumea a sfrit n carte, cum zicea Mallarm) ficiunea deliberat locul visului.
Transcendena s-a mutat n retoric. De aici ncolo, totul e luciditate [...] Postmodernismul e
un romantism ntors33.
Contient, lucid, i totodat ambiguu, postmodernul folosete ironia i livrescul,
ludicul i parodicul, pastia i cotidianul, oferind prezena trecutului i dialogul
temporalitilor i al culturii.
Aadar, diferena dintre ficiunea postmodernului, cea a romanticului i a modernului,
const n micarea de flux i reflux, de agreare i ntoarcere, de ofensiv i retragere. Deine
un ritm alert, ciclic, n care fragmentele se afl n secvene fluctuante, ondulatorii, n maree.
Ecourile trecutului ntresc, iar prin experiena postmodernismului dualitatea se poteneaz ca
model dinamic i poate ngloba i construi nondiferena, unitatea.
Trind n utopia sincronizrii i a acaparrii contemporaneitii, Mircea Crtrescu i
devoaleaz dorina de a fi primul dintre postmoderni, ca scriitor i teoretician.
Caracterizndu-se ca neofit n momentul scrierii ei, autorul, treptat, putem subnelege, c i
nelege oscilaiile, iar nevoia de a scrie nu mai reprezint obligatoriu un act estetic, integrat
unei perioade, unor structuri, ci mai degrab este o viziune unic, o optic, sensibilitate i
contiin artistic individualizat ntr-un context social i cultural care i las inerent
amprenta asupra literaturii.
Cartea lui Mircea Crtrescu pstreaz n rezerv, dar nu n subtext, tensiunea unei
dezbateri privind realitatea postmodernismului su. Autor al unor volume de referin pentru
postmodernismul romnesc, dar i profesor, ndrumtor cultural, Mircea Crtrescu se
impune, nainte de orice, drept promotor al postmodernismului romnesc, care mizeaz
concomitent pe deschiderea teoretic i pe fibra creatoare.
32
Jean Baudrillard, Paroxistul indiferent. Convorbiri cu Philippe Petit, traducere de Bogdan Ghiu, Editura Idea
Design &Print, Cluj-Napoca, 2001, p. 40.
33
Radu G. eposu, op. cit., p. 58.
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Bibliografie selectiv:
1. Baudrillard, Jean, Paroxistul indiferent. Convorbiri cu Philippe Petit, traducere de
Bogdan Ghiu, Editura Idea Design &Print, Cluj-Napoca, 2001.
2. Bedrosian, Magdalena, et alii (coord), Dicionarul general al literaturii romne,
Editura Univers Enciclopedic, Bucureti, 2006.
3. Bodiu, Andrei, Mircea Crtrescu. Monografie, Editura Aula, Braov, 2000.
4. Boldea, Iulian, Istoria didactic a poeziei romneti, Editura Aula, Braov, 2005.
5. Borbly, tefan, Mircea Crtrescu et alii., New Europe College Yearbook 1996-1997,
Bucureti, 2000.
6. Borbly, tefan, Cercul de graie, Editura Paralela 45, Piteti-Bucureti, 2003.
7. Braga, Corin, 10 studii de arhetipologie, Editura Dacia, Cluj-Napoca, 2008.
8. Crtrescu, Mircea, Postmodernismul romnesc, ediia a II-a, Editura Humanitas,
Bucureti, 2010.
9. Constantinescu, Mihaela, Forme n micare. Postmodernismul, Editura Univers
Enciclopedic, Bucureti, 1999.
10. Dobrescu, Caius, Revoluia radial: o critic a conceptului de postmodernism
dinspre nelegerea plural i deschis a culturii burgheze, Editura Universitii
Transilvania, Braov, 2008.
11. Manolescu, Ion, Benzile desenate si canonul postmodern, Editura Cartea Romneasc,
Bucureti, 2011.
12. Martin, Mircea, Singura critic, ediia a II-a, revzut, Editura Cartea Romneasc,
Bucureti, 2006.
13. Muat, Carmen, Modernitate i postmodernitate, n Papadima, Liviu (coord.),
Cercetarea literar azi. Studii dedicate profesorului Paul Cornea, Editura Polirom,
Iai, 2000.
14. Muina, Alexandru, Poezia: teze, ipoteze, explorari, Editura Aula, 2008.
15. Negrici, Eugen, Iluziile literaturii romne, Editura Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti,
2008.
16. Nemoianu, Virgil, Postmodernismul i identitile culturale: conflicte i coexisten,
trad. de Laura Carmen Cuitaru, postfa de Codrin Liviu Cuitaru, Editura
Universitii Alexandru Ioan Cuza, Iai, 2011.
17. Patroc, Dan, Abnormal Theories. The Case of Romanian Postmodernism, n
Annales Philosophici, nr. 4, 2012.
18. Terian, Andrei, Despre imaginarul critic. Cteva ipoteze de lucru, n Studia
Universitatis Petru Maior, Tg.-Mure, vol. 11, 2011.
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TRANSLATING OTHERNESS: CROSS-CULTURAL DIALOGUE IN MONICA ALIS

BRICK LANE
Susana BUCIUMEANU
Abstract: In a world of interconnectedness, the dominant cultural relativistic discourse has

placed the concept of the Other at the heart of postmodern culture. Since the aim of mutual
understanding is paramount, the only reasonable strategy for knowing the Other is through
an un-normative frame of reference. Translatability- the translation of Otherness through
mutual cultural mirroring- has become a key concept in cultural studies because it can
account for interactions both within and between cultures. It is the condition that allows for
genuine cross-cultural dialogue. This paper analyses the issue of translatability and the
emergence of cross-cultural dialogue in Monica Ali's novel, Brick Lane (2004).
Keywords: the Other, translatability, cross-cultural dialogue, translation, cultural
transmissibility.
The touch of the unknown

The mechanisms of globalisation have brought about profound social and cultural
transformations. Global flows of people, commodities and ideas defy national borders. While
the nation-state paradigm has been challenged, the concept of network society has gained
currency. People have become aware of the presence of the Other in a way which is
fundamentally different from the past. The Other is no longer the distant stranger, the
barbarian. Under the circumstances of time-space compression, the Other (in its various
manifestations: cultural, religious, sexual etc) has broadened people's practical and conceptual
horizons. The presence of the Other has effects "in real time". The nation state is no longer
able to limit individual perceptions about self and others. Tradition has become horizontal and
people have gained access to a great variety of cultural models.
The notion of cultural relativity has become dominant in postmodern thinking.
Anthropologists assert that cultures are unique and equal in status. Postmodernism denies the
existence of "culture", but speaks of "cultures" instead. Consequently, the aim of crosscultural understanding is vital. Moreover, postmodern discourse is constituted from the
viewpoint of the margins. The concept of the Other has been placed at the heart of
postmodern culture. Form a disconcerting reality generating fear and anxiety it has become
"the central value" of postmodernism. However, this "process of fundamentalizing plurality
may create uniformitarian biases" (Budick 1996: 5). This is why, the only reasonable strategy
for knowing the Other is through a method of un-normative interpretation.
Step inside the black box
Questions of cultural transmissibility and translatability have become central in
cultural studies. Transmissibility can occur at a diachronic level or when people experience
interruptions to life's pattern, such as migration. Enculturation refers to the process of cultural
transmission inside the family. This model emphasizes the trans-generational character of
culture. Its opposite is acculturation: exposure to a new culture and its appropriation as a
result of migration. There are three stages of acculturation: adaptation (applies to first
generation migrants), integration (second generation migrants), and assimilation (total
identification to the host culture). Culture shock can result in either acculturation or resistance
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to the foreign culture (manifested in denunciations of ethnical discrimination and stereotypes).

In the spirit of multiculturalism, strong ethnic minority communities resist acculturation. This
runs the danger of ghettoisation, or even balkanisation (the outbreak of multiple local
conflicts).
When the concept of diachronic cultural transmissibility is challenged, translatability
becomes an issue. As Wolfgang Iser (1996: 246) explains:
[As long as] the interconnection of traditions whether in terms of receiving an
inheritance or of recasting a heritagewas taken for granted, the relationship of cultures did
not pose a problem. Tradition was either reinterpreted or appropriated in accordance with
prevailing standards or needs.
Translatability- the mutual translation of cultures- has become a key concept in
cultural studies. It can be employed to account for encounters between cultures and
interactions between the different layers of cultures.
Wolfgang Iser (2001) gives an account of the concept of translatability, offering a type
of critique related to the phenomenological school of Husserl and Heidegger. He investigates
how a certain text is reflected in the reader's mind and defines translatability as "a translation
of Otherness" through an "un-normative frame of reference" with the aim of mutual
understanding, most importantly in terms of what is specific to the foreign culture. In the
process of trying to understand the specificity of the Other, one's frame of reference alters (56).
Translatability operates through cross-cultural dialogue, which creates the conditions
for "transposing a foreign culture into one's own." Iser (2001) speaks of the space between
two cultures, between what is foreign and what is familiar as "the black box", a notion taken
from anthropologist Bateson. The central idea is that in any demonstration the explanation has
to stop at some point, as there are partially inexplicable aspects: the forever foreign element of
the Other (5-6).
Translatability works both inside and between cultures and it does not imply
comparison. Since cultures are not monoliths, their different layers "turn into mirrors for one
another, and their mutual refraction translates each level as a figure into the ground of the
other one." (Iser 2001: 5-6). The concept of cultural hierarchy no longer applies.
Translatability is relevant in multicultural societies, countering the political power of different
cultural segments who seek to impose their heritage upon other cultures.
Cross-cultural dialogue can be understood a mode of translation, while "translatability
makes us focus on the space between cultures." The space between cultures allows for "a
mutual mirroring of different cultures", because it belongs to neither culture. This space
allows for self-reflexivity, "which can only result in a heightened self-awareness of a culture
that sees itself refracted in the mirror of the one encountered", and "opens up the experience
of otherness". This condition brings the opportunity of distancing oneself from one's culture
(Iser 2001: 9). Cross-cultural discourse can also be understood as "the telescoping of different
cultures" (Iser 1996: 249).
Iser (2001) develops a method to achieve cross-cultural understanding: "recursive
looping", a concept based on the theory of systems. The basic assumption behind it is that
culture generates itself through a network of interconnected processes. Understanding
Otherness "requires a continual looping from the known to the unknown in order to make the
unknown fold back upon what is familiar." Cross-cultural dialogue operates through a mode
of "recursive looping": "an interchange between output and input, in the course of which a
familiar projection is corrected insofar as it failed to square with what it has targeted." The
result is "a dual correction: the feed forward returns as an altered feedback loop which, in
turn, feeds into a revised output. Future projections are altered as a result of past
performances." Feedback loops can be either negative or positive. Negative feedback loops
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implies that the difference between the information in the output and input is minimal, "thus
serves to stabilize the system which initiated the recursion. A positive feedback loop acts to
destabilise the system that triggered the recursion, which becomes unable to process the
received information" (9).
Recursive looping works either to manage the foreign culture or to understand it. In
the first case, a significant part of the information received "will be screened off". If the latter
result is sought, operations will be informed by positive feedback looping. "Whatever the
direction will be, recursive looping as the mechanics of a cross-cultural discourse allows for a
mutual translatability of cultures." Recursive looping aims at comprehension, which arises out
of performance. Therefore, it is a process that works inside culture (Iser 2001: 12).
The cross-cultural paradigm is useful for the study of authors who relate to more than
one culture. Cross-cultural studies address problems such as cultural shock, acculturation and
resistance to acculturation, ethnic discrimination, and stereotypes attached to certain ethnic
groups.
Living on the edge
This paper analyses the issue of translatability -the translation of Otherness through
mutual cultural mirroring- and the emergence of a cross-cultural dialogue in Monica Ali'
novel, Brick Lane (2004). Monica Ali is a British writer born in Dhaka to an English mother
and a Bangladeshi father. At the age of three she lived the experience of migration, as the
family moved to England. She was listed as one of the best young British novelists by Granta
in 2003 on the basis of a manuscript version of her first novel, Brick Lane. The book has
enjoyed success on both sides of the Atlantic, being translated into more than twenty-five
languages.
Monica Ali perceives herself as living on the edge of two cultures: "you know that
you're working to fit in, discarding certain things. It does give you a different feeling, a
different perspective" (Ali as cited in Lane: 2003). This is precisely what she explores in
Brick Lane: cross-cultural intersections, writing about first generation immigrants, people on
the egde of cultures.
Brick Lane is written in the realist tradition of the 19th century novel and can be read
as a bildungsroman. The protagonist is Nazneen, a young woman from rural Bangladesh who
comes to Tower Hamlets for an arranged marriage. The story traces her internal journey over
a time span of seventeen years, her transformation from "an unspoilt girl from the village"(Ali
2004: 30) into a submissive housewife and, later on, a mother who becomes financially
independent. She is caught in a loveless marriage to Chanu: a "futile" man twice her age,
physically repulsive- "he had a face like a frog"(13), "oily hair"- educated but pompous. In the
beginning, Nazneen spends most of her time in the crowded council apartment performing
endless household chores. Her life up to this point has been a story of fatalism, starting with
the survival of her own birth when her mother decided not to take her to the hospital in spite
of her life threatening condition: "As Nazneen grew she heard many times this story of How
You Were Left To Your Fate....not once did Nazneen question the logic of the story....Indeed,
she was grateful for her mother's quiet courage, her tearful stoicism"(11). Nazneen accepts
the principle that it is pointless "to kick against fate" (14).
The story unfolds on two temporal planes: the narration of Nazneen's life in London is
interrupted by flashbacks and dreams of her childhood in rural Bangladesh. The new space
Nazneen inhabits opens up an opportunity to revise aspects of her past. She begins to question
the idea of a fate governing her life. Nazneen comes to understand the power of agency and
decides "to kick against fate":
What could not be changed must be borne. And since nothing could be changed,
everything had to be borne. This principle ruled her life. It was mantra, fettle and challenge.
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So that when, at the age of thirty-four, after she had been given three children and had one
taken away, when she had a futile husband and had been fated a young and demanding lover,
when for the first time she could not wait for the future to be revealed but had to make it for
herself, she was as startled by her own agency as an infant who waves a clenched fist and
strikes itself upon the eye. (Ali 2004: 12)
The above passage summarizes the main plot of the novel and gives an early
indication that it is not a story of fate written in the romantic tradition, but realist fiction with
an emphasis on natural causality.
The reader gains access to Nazneen's consciousness through third person narration.
Aspects of contemporary multicultural Britain are revealed through Nazneen's subjectivity.
Monica Ali explores the present and dilemmatic realities of multiculturalism and immigration
in Great Britain. The novel focuses on the Bangladeshi community in Tower Hamlets,
depicting the squalor of the council estates, inter-ethnic tensions inside the Muslim
communities, political activism, Bengali youth sub-culture, the waves of Islamophobia
generated by the terrorist attacks of 9/11 etc. These representations of life in contemporary
London are contraposed to descriptions of social realities in another capital, Dhaka, where
Hasina, Nazneen's younger sister, lives. Ali exposes the realities of life in contemporary
Bangladesh: corruption and poverty, women's access on the labour market, protests from the
local mullahs against women's independence, abusive husbands, social and religious taboos
imposed on women.
Monica Ali reminds her readers of the difficulties encountered by Muslim women on
the labour market, as they experience a double oppression: from their community (women are
treated as commodities at men's disposal) and from the society (restrictive on women's
workforce). The two sisters are temporarily engaged in the textile industry. In London,
Nazneen sews jeans before starting a small business. In Dhaka, Hasina works at the sewing
machine in a textile factory before becoming a prostitute and then a baby sitter. Both Nazneen
and Hasina find their "place in the world" through work.
Hasina's thoughts are conveyed through the epistolary narrative voice. Hasina's letters,
written in illiterate language, are translations into English from Bengali that the narrator
performs. Hasina's letters are introduced into the narration and they cover the plot for a period
of twelve years, from 1989 to 2001. Hasina's letters are unplanned and "full of life"(Ali 2004:
58), unlike her sister's replies. Unlike Nazneen, Hasina chooses to break all the norms
imposed by her culture. She makes daring choices and never gives up hope for a better future.
She is finally reported to have eloped with the cook, an act Nazneen interprets as proof that
"she isn't going to give up"(Ali 2004: 430).
The turning point of the story is when Nazneen's defeated husband decides to return to
Bangladesh and she chooses not to follow him because she realizes her daughters relate more
to the English culture.
Strategies of relating to Otherness
In order to explore instances of cross-cultural dialogue in Brick Lane, I shall focus on
three characters: Nazneen, Chanu and Mrs. Azad (the wife of Chanu's friend, Dr. Azad). They
epitomize three different models of relating to Otherness. According to Iser (2001: 8), the
encounter with the Other brings about a heightened awareness of difference, which can result
in: (1) "bracketing" the Other- allows for an exploration of difference; (2) assimilating the
Other- leads to a politics of cultural relations; (3) appropriating the Other- aims at correcting
existing deficiencies; (4) "reflecting oneself in the Other - entails heightened self-awareness,
which leads to self-confrontation"; (5) elevating the other to a superior level results in an
ethics of immemorial, atemporal responsibility towards the Other.
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In the case of Chanu and Mrs. Azad, the encounter with a different culture generates
extreme attitudes: exclusion and assimilation, respectively.
Chanu, a first generation immigrant, exemplifies the deliberate bracketing and
exclusion of the Other and the exacerbation of cultural differences. He relates to an outmoded
19th century Leavisite notion of English "high culture": the culture of the educated elite which
can discern between what is valuable and not. A graduate from the English literature
department at the University of Dhaka, Chanu professes English literature to be his "first
love". He quotes at length from Shakespeare and reads Victorian novels. The Bengali culture
he identifies with is also an institutionalized version. He speaks with great pride of his
national history prior to colonisation.
While he understands English "high culture" has
been replaced by the middle class mass-culture, he refuses to accept the realities of
contemporary Bangladesh as described in Hasina's letters. In an attempt to explain the causes
of racism and discrimination that he perceives in British society, Chanu concludes: "You see,
they feel so threatenedBecause our own culture is so strong. And what is their culture?
Television, pub, throwing darts, kicking a ball. That is the white working-class culture" (Ali
2004: 209). He believes his own culture to be superior.
Chanu recognizes the tension between what he thought an intellectual immigrant's
experience would be and what he perceives as the realities of racism and discrimination found
upon arrival. As he explains in a conversation to his guest, Dr. Azad:
'I am forty years old,' said Chanu. He spoke quietly like the doctor, with none of his
assurance. 'I have been in this country for sixteen years. Nearly half my life.' He gave a drythroated gargle. 'When I came I was a young man. I had ambitions. Big dreams. When I got
off the aeroplane I had my degree certificate in my suitcase and a few pounds in my pocket. I
thought there would be a red carpet laid out for me. I was going to join the Civil Service and
become Private Secretary to the Prime Minister.' As he told his story, his voice grew. It filled
the room. 'That was my plan. And then I found things were a bit different. These people here
didn't know the difference between me, who stepped off an aeroplane with a degree
certificate, and the peasants who jumped off the boat possessing only the lice on their heads.
What can you do?' He rolled a ball of rice and meat in his fingers and teased it. (Ali 2004: 31)
Paradoxically, Chanu complains of the racism prevalent in British society, yet he
employs ethnic and racist stereotypes. "The peasants" he refers to are his Sylhetis conationals. Upon seeing an African bus driver, he comments on the inferiority of the black
race: "the conductor was an African. 'Look how fit he is,' whispered Chanu. 'So big. So
strong. You see ... 'They were bred for it. Slavery.' (Ali 2004: 98)
As the plot unravels, Chanu begins to realize his failure in the host society:
Here I am only a small man, but there . . .' The smile vanished. 'I could be big. Big
Man. That's how it happened.' He sighed and placed his hands atop his stomach. 'So when the
begging letters come and I blame left and I blame right, what I should be blaming is this, right
here.' He moved his hands up over his chest, to show how his heart, his pride, had betrayed
him. (Ali 2004: 137)
Chanu makes a deliberate distinction between intellectuals like himself and Dr. Azad,
who stand all the chances of becoming "success stories", and the uneducated peasants who
experience what he calls "the immigrant tragedy":
This is the tragedy, Chanu had said. Man works like a donkey. Working like a donkey
here, but never made a go. In his heart, he never left the village. Here, Chanu began to project
his voice. What can you do? An uneducated man like that. This is the immigrant tragedy. (Ali
2004: 172)
Chanu believes the peasants' failure to succeed is an indication of their lack of
adaptation to the host society, their alienation: "They don't ever leave home. Their bodies are
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here but their hearts are back there. And anyway, look how they live: just recreating the
villages here" (Ali 2004: 172). In fact, Chanu is describing his own condition.
Chanu's framed certificates stand testimony to his educational achievements.
However, they do not guarantee his success in the host society:
I did this and that. Whatever I could. So much hard work, so little rewardI made two
promises to myself. I will be a success, come what may. That's promise number one. Number
two, I will go back home. When I am a success. And I will honour these promises.' Chanu,
who had grown taller and taller in his chair, sank back down. (Ali 2004: 31)
When he becomes a taxi-driver at Kempton Kars, he describes his colleagues as
"ignorant types". He conceives himself as a colonizer, exploiting the foreign country:
But he was philosophical. 'You see, all my life I have struggled. And for what? What
good has it done? I have finished with all that. Now, I just take the money. I say thank you. I
count it.''You see, when the English went to our country, they did not go to stay. They went
to make money, and the money they made, they took it out of the country. They never left
home. Mentally. Just taking money out. And that is what I am doing now. What else can you
do?' (Ali 2004: 209)
Chanu's version of success translates in material terms. He fails to engage in a crosscultural dialogue. His encounter with the Other- as lived experience- leads to an exacerbation
of cultural differences. Integrating in the host society is not an option for him: he fears losing
his cultural identity, and most importantly his children's. Chanu's insists on enculturation: he
forces his two daughters to speak Bengali at home, teaches them the history and literature of
Bengal, and discourages them from eating English food. His daughters find no identification
to this culture. Shahana is the rebel teenager whose standard reply is "I did not ask to be born
here!":
For five days he had been teaching his daughters to recite 'Golden Bengal'. This
evening they were to perform the entire poem. Chanu was taking his family back home and
Tagore was the first step of the journey. Bibi continued.
'As if it were a flute /In spring, oh mother mine, the fragrance from /Your mango
groves makes me wild with joy / Ah what thrill.' (Ali 2004: 405)
Her voice gave no hint of joy or of thrill. It plodded nervously along, afraid that a
sudden burst of intonation would derail the train of recall. Chanu ceased his kneading. 'Ah,' he
said loudly, and looked around the room. 'What thrill!' (Ali 2004: 208)
Shahana relates more to the English pop-culture: "As soon as he stopped speaking she
would rush to the television and switch it on, and he would either smile an indulgence or
pump out a stream of invective that sent both girls to the safe shoreline of their beds" (Ali
2004: 208). Chanu creates what Salman Rushdie (1991) calls "imaginary homelands", fictions
of the past, idealized versions of one's country of origin. "It's my present that is foreign, and
the past is home, albeit a lost home in a lost city in the mists of lost time,"(9) Rushdie
wrote. Chanu refuses to engage with the foreign element of the Other. The idealized version
of Bengali culture and the realities of contemporary English middle class culture seem
incompatible to him. He perceives cultures as closed monolithic systems and speaks about the
clash of civilizations. The experience of immigration generates in Chanu a struggle for
cultural authenticity, there is a constant fear of the so called "occidentoxification"(Huntington
1996). When Dr. Azad discusses the problem of drug abuse by Muslim teenagers, Chanu
concludes: "But for my part, I don't plan to risk these things happening to my children. We
will go back before they get spoiled." The doctor diagnoses this attitude as a "disease": "I call
it Going Home Syndrome" (Ali 2004: 38).
Chanu feels the English history texts perform a gross misrepresentation of Bengal's
glorious past:
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'You see,' said Chanu, still supine, holding his book above his face, 'all these people
here who look down at us as peasants know nothing of history.' He sat up a little and cleared
his throat. 'In the sixteenth century, Bengal was called the Paradise of Nations. These are our
roots. Do they teach these things in the school here? Does Shahana know about the Paradise
of Nations? All she knows about is flood and famine. Whole bloody country is just a bloody
basket case to her'(Ali 2004: 179)
Pierre Nora (1989: 8) speaks of the fundamental opposition between memory and
history. He distinguishes between "dictatorial memory" (history) and the "real memory" ("our
memory"- "nothing more in fact than sifted and sorted historical traces."). Chanu adopts the
dictatorial discourse of history when speaking about Bengal's past and rejects the opposite
dictatorial discourse of the British Empire.
Chanu becomes a lamentable person, physically deformed and morally defeated.
Ironically, at an unconscious level, Chanu relates to the shared cultural attitudes of the
English culture: he starts using English proverbs. At the beginning his speech is sprinkled
with Bengali proverbs: "A blind uncle is better than no uncle", "I chased after buffaloes and
ate my own rice". Towards the end, he has incorporated English proverbs: "He is the salt of
the earth", "The English have a saying: you can't step into the same river twice."
Chanu is both unable and unwilling to engage in cross-cultural dialogue. He speaks of
"the immigrant tragedy", "the clash of civilizations" and generational conflict. Through him,
Monica Ali conveys the image of the immigrant unwilling to adapt to the host society. A
genuine cross-cultural dialogue cannot occur, since Chanu conceives cultures as closed,
monolithic systems. The main plot's denouement- Chanu's return to Bangladesh on money
borrowed from Dr. Azad- is an effect of what the doctor called "Going Home Syndrome": his
unwillingness to perform a conscious act of cross-cultural dialogue. In turn, Nazneen refuses
to return to Bangladesh because her experience has been successful. Her encounter with the
Other has triggered a genuine act of cultural translation which has resulted in a process of
self-transformation. Translatability, the condition of the mutual mirroring of cultures, does not
occur in Chanu's case.
Salman Rushdie (1991: 19) warns against the danger of adopting "a ghetto mentality":
To forget that there is a world beyond the community to which we belong, to confine
ourselves within narrowly defined cultural frontiers, would be, I believe, to go voluntarily into
that form of internal exile which in South Africa is called the 'homeland'.
Mrs. Azad, another first generation immigrant, is only a secondary character, but she
is important to the story because she represents a type: the assimilated immigrant.
Assimilating the Other leads to a politics of cultural relations based on the concept of cultural
hierarchy. Cultures interact in a political way: as dominating and subaltern. Mrs. Azad's
confrontation with Chanu points to their extreme orientation towards difference. She discards
her cultural past. As Iser (1996) explains, when difference is totally eliminated, "the encounter
between cultures turns into a selective assimilation, guided by what is relevant for the culture
concerned. In such instances no interaction between cultures occurs, and the incorporation of
alien features is at best pragmatically justified (249)". In this case, translatability does not
occur and cross-cultural dialogue cannot be established.
Mrs. Azad performs an act of selective assimilation, discarding her past and adopting
values from the host society which she associates with personal freedom. The fact that she has
a grotesque body can be read as a critique of the type of relation she has established with the
foreign element. There is an extensive description of her appearance: she wears a short tight
skirt ("her thighs tested the fabric") she has "a fat nose and eyes that were looking for a fight",
"large brown thighs "(Ali 2004: 103). She makes inappropriate gestures like "adjusting her
underwear with a thumb", drinking two glasses of beer and "belching with satisfaction"(Ali
2004: 105). She is impolite to her husband and guests, turning on the TV as they speak. Mrs.
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Azad is a consumer of pop-culture: she "kept her eyes fixed on the screen" watching "a scene
of violent kissing"(Ali 2004: 105). Every aspect of her personality is exacerbated. Her
assimilation has resulted in a loss of physical decorum and a ruined marriage.
Mrs. Azad's physical degradation, as well as Chanu and Dr. Azad's clothing style and
bodily posture point towards a failure to engage in a creative way with the foreign culture:
The doctor was neat as a tailor's dummy. He held his arms smartly to his sides. White
cuffs peeped out of his dark suit. His collar and tie held up his precise chin and his hair was
brushed to an ebony sheen. He looked as if he had seen a ghost. Nazneen looked at Chanu. He
made a poor ghost, in his broken-down shoes and oversized green anorak. (Ali 2004: 105)
Upon seeing Azad's teenage daughter, a younger replica of her mother, Chanu engages
in a polemic with Mrs. Azad regarding the immigrant's condition in the host society:
'This is the tragedy of our lives. To be an immigrant is to live out a tragedy.'
'What are you talking about?'
'I'm talking about the clash between Western values and our own. I'm talking about
the struggle to assimilate and the need to preserve one's identity and heritage. I'm talking
about children who don't know what their identity is. I'm talking about the feelings of
alienation engendered by a society where racism is prevalent. I'm talking about the terrific
struggle to preserve one's sanity while striving to achieve the best for one's family. I'm
talking'
'Crap!'
'Why do you make it so complicated?' said the doctor's wife. 'Assimilation this,
alienation that! Let me tell you a few simple facts. Fact: we live in a Western society. Fact:
our children will act more and more like Westerners. Fact: that's no bad thing. My daughter is
free to come and go. Do I wish I had enjoyed myself like her when I was young? Yes!'
Mrs Azad continued. 'Listen, when I'm in Bangladesh I put on a sari and cover my
head and all that. But here I go out to work. I work with white girls and I'm just one of them.
If I want to come home and eat curry, that's my business. Some women spend ten, twenty
years here and they sit in the kitchen grinding spices all day and learn only two words of
English.' She looked at Nazneen who focused on Raqib. 'They go around covered from head
to toe, in their little walking prisons, and when someone calls to them in the street they are
upset. The society is racist. The society is all wrong. Everything should change for them.
They don't have to change one thing. That,' she said, stabbing the air, 'is the tragedy.'(Ali
2004: 106-108)
Mrs Azad performs what Iser calls selective assimilation. She dismisses Chanu's
argument as "Crap!". She displays the opposite view, pleading in favour of assimilationincorporating the customs and attitudes of the prevailing culture. She, too, is unwilling to
engage in a cross-cultural dialogue because she adopts the western values indiscriminately
and speaks of the tragedy of non-integration. The result is the disintegration of her family life.
Nazneen is the character whose frame of reference alters as she encounters a foreign
culture. The condition of translatability occurs, generating a genuine cross-cultural dialogue.
As Iser (1996: 238) explains, "moments of crisis generate critiques of one's own culture which
are meant to balance out the deficiencies diagnosed" and "recourse to other cultures proves to
be a means of therapy for a growing awareness of cultural pathology." The solution lies not
only in "taking over features and attitudes from different cultures", but most importantly "by
instilling a self-reflexivity into the stricken culture, thus providing scope for self-monitoring.
Moreover,
Translatability is motivated by the need to cope with a crisis that can no longer be
alleviated by the mere assimilation or appropriation of other cultures. At such a historic
juncture, a cross-cultural discourse begins to emerge. A discourse of this kind is not to be
mistaken for a translation, as translatability is to be conceived as a set of conditions that are
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able to bring about a mutual mirroring of cultures. It is therefore a pertinent feature of such a
discourse that it establishes a network of interpenetrating relationships. These, in turn, allow
for a mutual impacting of cultures upon one another, and simultaneously channel the impact.
(Iser 1996: 238)
A recurring theme in the novel is ice-skating. The first instance is when Nazneen
watches a performance on the television:
The television was on. Chanu liked to keep it glowing in the evenings, like a fire in the
corner of the room. Sometimes he went over and stirred it by pressing the buttons so that the
light flared and changed colours. Mostly he ignored it. Nazneen held a pile of the last dirty
dishes to take to the kitchen, but the screen held her. A man in a very tight suit (so tight that it
made his private parts stand out on display) and a woman in a skirt that did not even cover her
bottom gripped each other as an invisible force hurtled them across an oval arena. The people
in the audience clapped their hands together and then stopped. By some magic they all
stopped at exactly the same time. The couple broke apart. They fled from each other and no
sooner had they fled than they sought each other out. Every move they made was urgent,
intense, a declaration. The woman raised one leg and rested her boot (Nazneen saw the thin
blade for the first time) on the other thigh, making a triangular flag of her legs, and spun
around until she would surely fall but didn't. She did not slow down. She stopped dead and
flung her arms above her head with a look so triumphant that you knew she had conquered
everything: her body, the laws of nature, and the heart of the tight-suited man who slid over
on his knees, vowing to lay down his life for her. What is this called?' said Nazneen.
Chanu glanced at the screen. 'Ice skating,' he said, in English.
'Ice e-skating,' said Nazneen. (Ali 2004: 32)
The scene can be discussed as an act of cultural translation. She is trying to translate a
performance. Emotions and psychological states "are based on cultural conventions, while a
performance is bound to its cultural setting. The action, the performance aspect, is rich in
meaning in search of a translation (Rosman & Rubel 2003: 18).
Nazneen is unable to translate the performance she sees because she does not
understand the cultural context. This is her first incursion into the foreign culture. To use
Iser's theory of recursive looping (2001) her feed-forward returns as a positive feed-back that
starts to destabilize the system that initiated the operation. She interprets the performance as a
kind of magic, a tender scene between two lovers and she admires the woman's mobility
and control over nature, her own body and the opposite sex. At this point, a heightened selfawareness begins to emerge and also a desire to correct existing deficiencies. The foreign
element of the Other has started to impact on her own culture.
Nazneen cannot perform the translation because she does not have access to the
cultural codes operating inside the host society. Translation depends on the interpreter's
cultural context: "when we translate, it is not simply propositional knowledge ascribed to the
individual mind which is involved, but translation is the communication of cultural
knowledge"(Silverstein as cited in Rosman & Rubel 2003: 18).
At a later point, Nazneen sees a picture of ice-skaters in an English magazine and she
associates the female skater to "a fairy-tale creature, a Hindu goddess" and she imagines
herself on the ice-rink, dreaming of personal freedom: "the man let go of her hand but she was
not afraid. She lowered her leg and she skated on"(Ali 2004: 140). Elements of the two
cultures meet and Nazneen can now relate to the foreign culture, even though only at the level
of imagination, not yet through actions.
Years after, when she watches another ice-skating performance she interprets it
through the lens of the western culture, adopting specific themes and language: "Nazneen
looked at the couple on the television screen, the false smiles, the made-up faces, the
demented illusion of freedom chasing around their enclosure. Turn it off, she said" (Ali 2004:
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355). The performance has lost any trace of the initial interpretation. Each act of translation
sets the meaning only provisionally.
The novel ends with a scene at the skating rink. Nazneen is about to skate in a sari, her
daughter has prepared English sandwiches, and her friend expresses the idea that in England
you can do whatever you want. Nazneen preserves the dress-code of her culture, yet engages
in a foreign cultural practice. Moreover, "in her mind, she is already there"(Ali 2004: 435),
implying that her actions that far had made possible this act of genuine cross-cultural
dialogue.
Nazneen's first act of independence is to wander through the streets of London on her
own. She investigates the surroundings and observes the passers-by, performing an act of
cultural translation. She sees the world through her own cultural framework which acts like a
filter on reality. The figures of speech she employs, mostly similes and metaphors, reflect the
act of constant comparison and negotiation of meanings. The lexicon pertains to the
conceptual framework of her rural past in Bangladesh. The idea that language is crucial in the
interpretation of reality is reinforced. Crossing the street "was like walking out in the
monsoon and hoping to dodge the raindrops", "a horn blared like an ancient muezzin", a
skyscraper was "a building without an end", "dark as a night pond" and "above, somewhere, it
crushed the cloud"(Ali 2004: 51). Other buildings were "white stone palaces." Men "barked at
each other", women "had strange hairpumped up like a snake's hood". At some point, the
act of cultural mirroring occurs: "Nazneen began to be aware of herself: Without a
coat, without a suit, without a white face, without a destination. A leafshake of fear or was it
excitement? passed through her legs." She exchanges glances with a woman in "rich",
"solid" clothes: "her armor and her ringed fingers weapons" and Nazneen realizes she is "no
longer invisible" (Ali 2004: 51).
Iser (1996) notes that the density of metaphors and similes points to the "black box"
between cultures, the situation when the foreign element of the Other can no longer be
explained. While metaphors represent a struggle for at the meaning, "their density and
dispersal cancel out the very representativeness they appear to have achieved." (250)
There are many instances in the novel where translatability, the mutual mirroring of
cultures, can be analysed For instance, Nazneen observes Otherness through "the clothing
paradigm"(Boia 2000: 138). She notices that "[the white women's] shoulders were padded up
and out. They could balance a bucket on each side and not spill a drop of water." (Ali 2004:
39). A sense of heightened self-awareness emerges at the encounter with the Other.
Nazneen begins to suspect that changing the clothing style can alter one's identity. An
interesting scene in the novel is when Nazneen is looking at herself in the mirror and sees her
reflection through cultural lens:
The sari, which seconds ago had felt light as air, became heavy chainsshe stood at
the back, next to the pillows, she could see herself in the dressing-table mirror. Suddenly, she
was gripped by the idea that if she changed her clothes her entire life would change as well
For a glorious moment it was clear that clothes, not fate, made her life. (Ali 2004: 273)
Nazneen's engagement with the foreign culture leads to a transformation of her
identity. She accepts the core values of western civilization, the components of modern
liberalism: the primacy of the individual versus the collective self (she refuses to join Bengal
Tigers-a Muslim political faction), utilitarianism (les affairs, the value of the money- Nazneen
starts a clothing company with Razia), civil liberties and urban cultures. Nazneen does not
reject her cultural past, but chooses to negotiate aspects of the two cultures, acting like a
merchant. She neither assimilates nor rejects the values of the host country. She engages in
cross-cultural dialogue. From this cultural exchange and negotiation, she emerges as an
independent woman, able to exert her own agency. Islamic fatalism is no longer the ruling
principle of her life. Her encounter with the Other has led to a creative process of self561
Issue no. 6/2015
formation. Nazneen finally finds "a place in the world". Monica Ali pleads for cross-cultural
dialogue and understanding which can only be established if cultural encounters are open
towards translatability: a mutual mirroring of cultures.
References
Ali, M. (2004). Brick Lane. London: Black Swan.
Anderson, B. (1991). Imagined communities: reflections on the origin and spread of
nationalism London: Verso.
Boia, L. (2000). Pentru o istorie a imaginarului. Bucureti: Humanitas, 2000.
Budick, S. (1996). Crises of alterity: Cultural untranslatability and the experience of
secondary otherness. In S. Budick & W. Iser (Eds.), The translatability of cultures:
figurations of the space between (pp. 1-24). California: Stanford University Press.
Geertz, C. (1973). The interpretation of cultures: selected essays. New York: Basic
Books.
Hiebert, P. G. (1985). Anthropological insights for missionaries. Grand Rapids: Baker
Book House.
Huntington, S. P. (1996). The clash of civilizations and the remaking of world order.
New York: Touchstone.
Iser, W. (1996). The emergence of a cross-cultural discourse: Thomas Carlyle's Sartor
Resartus.
In S. Budick & W. Iser (Eds.), The translatability of cultures: figurations of the space
between (pp. 245-264). California: Stanford University Press.
Iser, W. (2001). On translatability. Surfaces, 4. Retrieved from
http://www.pum.umontreal.ca/revues/surfaces/vol4/iser.html
Lane, H. (2003, June 1). Ali's in wonderland. The Observer. Retrieved from
http://www.theguardian.com/books/2003/jun/01/fiction.features1
Lotman, Y. (1990). Universe of the mind: a semiotic theory of culture (the second
world). Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press.
Martin, W. (1986). Recent theories of the novel. New York: Cornell University.
Nora, P. (1989, Spring). Between memory and history: les lieux de mmoire.
Representations, 26 [Special Issue: Memory and Counter-Memory], pp. 8-15.
Rosman, A. & Rubel, P. (Eds.). (2003). Translating cultures: perspectives on
translation and anthropology. New York: Berg Publishers.
Rushdie, S. (1991). Imaginary homelands. London: Granta.
Vaknin, S. (2001, January 22). The classification of cultures. Retrieved from
http://groups.yahoo.com/neo/groups/narcissisticabuse/conversations/messages/6421
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THE EXPERIENCE OF THE INTERVAL. NOTES REGARDING ANDREI BODIUS

POETRY
Catrinel POPA
Abstract: Starting from the ascertainment that the concern with such topics as the
interrelation between reality and fiction, between our world and its imaginary projections,
represents one of the central issues of contemporary literary theory and practice, this article
intends to analyse Andrei Bodius volume published in 2014, Firul alb [The White Thread],
focusing on those strategies used by the author in order to underline the complicity between
text and reality. The misleading transparency his poems actually dissimulates their
fundamental ambiguity and indeterminancy. In this context, such concepts as interval and
in-between become key-words, helping us to map out an unusual poetical universe.
Keywords: Andrei Bodiu; in-between; interval; transitivity; simulacra
Cteva paradoxuri ale tranzitivitii poetice
Ultimul volum de versuri al lui Andrei Bodiu1 poate fi plasat sub semnul unui
principiu mimetic sui-generis: tranzitiv, vidat de orice emoie (cel puin la prima vedere),
aceast poezie ne surprinde nu numai prin simplitatea (premeditat) a limbajului, ci i prin
inversarea sensului oglindirii. Mimesis al crui sens a fost schimbat (n consonan, am
spune, cu paradoxul enunat undeva de Cortzar cu o strdanie minim, orice petic de
realitate poate aminti de un vers ilustru2), metoda poetic a lui Bodiu, departe de a se reduce
la simpla pendulare ntre priza la real i seducia livrescului (definitorie pentru mai toi
poeii optzeciti), se dovedete o modalitate ingenioas de a atrage atenia asupra multiplelor
ipostaze n care ni se nfieaz realul. Nu poate trece neobservat, desigur, infuzia de
livresc, de referine culturale dintre cele mai diverse (de la Moartea cprioarei la American
Beauty), dar toate acestea sunt, ntr-un fel, parte constitutiv a realului, tot aa cum sunt i
clieele, conveniile literare sau cinematografice, obiectele derizorii, gesturile previzibile sau
conversaiile banale.
Fr ndoial anumite mutaii de adncime s-au produs n poezia lui Andrei Bodiu fa
de precedentele volume (mprejurarea ar putea fi pus i n legtur cu distana destul de mare
de ase-apte ani dintre crile de poezie ale autorului). Dar acesta nu este nicidecum
singurul sau cel mai solid argument. n plus, nici firele subterane ce asigur continuitatea nu
sunt cu totul de neglijat. nc din volumul precedent3, de pild, referinele, mai mult sau mai
puin ilustre, erau prezente n numr mare i cptau adesea o funcie ambigu, n sensul c
vag ironice, fr a opaciza discursul atrgeau, indirect, atenia apsupra precaritii oricror
tentative de a accede la Sens. Pe bun dreptate, Mircea A. Diaconu vorbea despre o
privilegiere a substanei n defavoarea semnificaiei: Nuvelele lui Eliade sau Cluza lui
Tarkovski sunt, de fapt, texte elocvente pentru ontologia modern: n spatele experienei
sttea sensul. Or, invocndu-le, Andrei Bodiu le i plaseaz n zona reperelor de semnificaie.
Numai c acum totul este n umbra (i n urma) acelor semnificaii. Mai mult, realitatea nsi
se afl n spatele creaiei, dublnd-o parc. Prin urmare, realitatea ca dublur i copie a
ficiunii, a artificiului (subl. mea, C.P.) cu att mai mult deci desubstanializat, dar i cu
Andrei Bodiu, Firul alb, Editura Tracus Arte, Bucureti, 2014
Julio Cortzar, otron, trad. i postfa de Tudora andru Mehedini, Iai, Polirom, 2005, p. 525
3
Andrei Bodiu, Oameni obosii, Piteti, Paralela 45, 2008
1
2
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att mai mult miznd pe nregistrarea nu a conceptului, nu a semnificaiei, ci a substanei, a

fenomenului n stare pur.4
Jocul acesta de simulacre devine i mai evident n noul volum, unde fidelitatea fa de
biografic i referenial reprezint adeseori un pretext pentru montarea unor stranii spectacole,
cu recuzit minimalist i personaje surprinse n ipostaze (pseudo)prozaice. Una dintre piesele
de rezisten ale volumului (care poate oferi i o cheie adecvat de lectur a ansamblului) este
cea intitulat Firul alb: Un om tnr/ Vorbind singur pe strad/ Gesticulnd gata s/ Te
ating din greeal.// O femeie ntre dou vrste fardat/ Uor nedormit vorbind/ singur la
casa de bilete/ apoi n metrou// O fat care spune tare/ Unui perete: uimete-m// Un fir alb
subire desparte lumea n dou.5 Asistm, fr o pregtire prealabil, la propagarea unei unde
seismice, nregistrat, parc, de senzorii unui dispozitiv exersat n cuantificarea alienrii. ntro realitate n care toate se amestec i se ntretaie, lucruri n aparen nensemnate capt o
nfiare halucinant. Firul alb (invizibil?) este nu numai semnul unei fisuri ce amenin
coerena lumilor (interioare i exterioare), ci i agent al unui neant obiectual 6 care, tocmai
el, face posibil apariia poeziei.
Lsnd deoparte formulele poetice brevetate de predecesori, Andrei Bodiu nu pare s
aspire nici acum la orientarea semnificaiei ntr-o direcie anume (mitic, simbolic,
metafizic etc.) n schimb valorific, asemenea poeilor obiectiviti de peste Ocean, resursele
expresive ale eantionului, ale decupajului fotografic, n crochiuri ce trdeaz nclinaia
poetului ctre subminarea consecvent a mrcilor poeticitii tradiionale. Pe bun dreptate,
referindu-se la volumul din 2000, Studii pe via i pe moarte, Simona Popescu vorbea despre
punerea n funciune a mecanismelor deziluzionrii: Dac poetul lucreaz cu mecanisme
de iluzionare, Bodiu pune n micare mecanismele deziluzionrii7. Observaie just, cu
precizarea c oricum ar fi tot cu un iluzionist avem de-a face, de ast dat unul dintre
aceia contieni de paradoxul c de la tehnica baroc a trompe lil-ului, pn la
experimentele obiectivitilor fidelitatea fa de referent i-a verificat constant potenialul
ambiguizant i halucinatoriu.
Flashback optzecist
De altfel, dintotdeauna resureciile literare s-au fcut n numele realului (observaia are
deja o vechime respectabil), actul literar fiind gndit sau intuit mcar ca o tentativ de
instituire a unei relaii de adecvare la ceea ce Grard Genette numea undeva transcenden
extratextual. Fiecare nou generaie a pretins a fi descoperit formula infailibil a
autenticitii, mijloacele nimerite de sincronizare cu pulsul viu al lumii i nu n ultimul rnd,
cu modelele preluate din acele literaturi ce au beneficiat de o dezvoltare organic i de o
succesiune fireasc a paradigmelor estetice (n cazul optzecitilor, cu precdere literatura
englez i american).
Din aceast perspectiv, generaia 80 nu a reprezentat nicidecum o excepie. Muli
dintre reprezentanii si cei mai de seam au pledat insistent pentru o poezie (i o poetic)
orientate spre real, spre valorile eului biografic (din poemele unui modernist, chiar
remarcabile estetic nota undeva Mircea Crtrescu nu putem ti cine este, de fapt, acel
poet, cum triete, ce gndete despre via8) Resurecia respectiv a echivalat, aadar, cu
repunerea n drepturi a umanului, cu ntoarcerea la comunicare, la plcerea lecturii, la cldura
i catifelarea vocii.
Mircea A. Diaconu, Ironia unui sceptic, n Romnia literar, nr. 6/ 2009
Andrei Bodiu, Firul alb, ed. cit., p.5
6
Roland Barthes, Camera luminoas. nsemnri despre fotografie, trad. de Virgil Mleni, Cluj Napoca, Idea
Design & Print, 2005, p.101
7
Simona Popescu, Despre urmele care se destram n alte geometrii, n Observator cultural, 18/ 2000
8
Mircea Crtrescu, Cuvinte mpotriva mainii de scris, n Gh. Crciun (ed.), Competiia continu.Generaia
80 n texte teoretice, Piteti, Paralela 45, p.116
4
5
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Recunoatem aici, dup cum a demonstrat Gheorghe Crciun n consistentul su studiu

Aisbergul poeziei moderne, publicat n 20029, o tentativ (creia el nsui i s-a raliat), de
reabilitare a unui continent ascuns al poeziei ultimelor decenii, orientare ignorat sau
minimalizat de majoritatea teoreticienilor domeniului: poezia aa-zicnd tranzitiv,
interesat (n contrast cu discursul autoreferenial, metaforic i purist), de concretul prozaic,
imediat, lipsit de transcenden, de experiena individual cotidian i de comunicarea cu
cititorul. Pe scurt, o reacie n faa acelui proces de dezumanizare a artei (ale crui riscuri au
fost semnalate, printre cei dinti, de Ortega Y Gasset n celebrul su eseu). Dup cum se tie,
prin Rimbaud sau Mallarm poezia modernist accentuase cart-ul dintre eul empiric i cel
poetic. La cei mai muli dintre poeii antologai de Hugo Friedrich n Structura liricii moderne
se remarc forme (mai mult sau mai puin radicale) de distanare a discursului liric n raport
cu umanul. n contrast, poezia fidel fa de referent, fa de lumea real, ar trda un reflex al
intensificrii nevoii de comunicare i de autenticitate (cu tot ceea ce presupune aceasta,
inclusiv abolirea unui set de convenii i instituirea, n mod fatal, a altora).
Dup unii exegei, apariia n literatura romn a acestui tip de poezie, care nu
coincide strict cu intrarea n aren a optzecitilor, dar ncepe s se impun o dat cu ei, ar
putea fi socotit surprinztoare, n msura n care discursul solipsist al modernismului nalt nu
avusese vreme s se erodeze, n spaiul nostru cultural. n fond, este foarte probabil ca la
apariia fenomenului s fi contribuit o dubl reacie polemic: pe de o parte, n plan
extraliterar, oroarea fa de tot ceea ce presupunea ncercarea (venit din partea puterii), de a
mistifica i falsifica realul (experiena traumatizant a realismului socialist nu fusese cu totul
uitat), iar pe de alt parte n plan estetic oboseala provocat de supralicitarea formulei
modernismului aizecist (cu tot ceea ce implica ea, de la ncrederea n capacitatea subiectului,
fenomenologic activ, de a transcende realitatea, pn la mecanica destul de previzibil a
proliferrii metaforelor i simbolurilor)
Nu de foarte mult subtilitate este ns nevoie pentru a constata c pretenia stabilirii
unei puni ntre text i referent rmne, n fond, o utopie, chiar dac poezia face acum loc
naraiunii, descrierii, enumerrii, iar notaia neutr i proliferarea neostoit a obiectelor
contribuie la inducerea impresiei de desvrit adecvare la real (de altfel, adecvatio rei
survine ori de cte ori voina subiectului se diminueaz sub presiunea factorilor externi)
Andrei Bodiu mprtete, n linii mari, o atare viziune n privina raporturilor dintre
poezie i realitate, dei intrarea lui n scen a avut loc ceva mai trziu, cnd, alturi de colegii
din grupul literar de la Braov (Simona Popescu, Marius Oprea i Caius Dobrescu), a debutat
editorial cu volumul Pauz de respiraie. Pe tot parcursul creaiei sale poetul va rmne fidel
principiilor pe care le mbrieaz nc din aceast etap (simplitatea i naturaleea
limbajului, priza direct la real, privilegierea eului biografic), fr ca versurile sale s eueze
n monotonie.
O tendin pare s se cristalizeze ns tot mai limpede de la un volum la altul:
obiectivismul fotografic devine, treptat, un obiectivism al profunzimilor, mutaie ntructva
surprinztoare n cazul unei poezii ce prea ncartiruit mai degrab n experien, dect n
momente de intuiie absolut sau de emoie cristalizat n tipare atemporale. Mutaia se
produce nu numai n sensul deschiderii ctre ceea ce este vag, contingent, neformat, n limbaj
i experien (Francis Ponge anticipa, ntr-un fel, aceast tendin, atunci cnd invoca divina
necesitate de imperfeciune, divina prezen a nedesvritului, a viciului i a morii n
paginile scrise), ci i n acela al confruntrii (i nu de puine ori, al scurtcircuitrii) mai multor
niveluri ontologice.
ntre Infern i Purgatoriu
Gheorghe Crciun, Aisbergul poeziei moderne, Piteti, Paralela 45, 2002
565
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Amintind, deopotriv, de poezia optzecist autohton i de experimentele

obiectivitilor americani, de Louis Zukofsky, dar i de Petre Stoica din volumul Un potop de
simpatii (1978), Firul alb cuprinde poeme memorabile ce nregistreaz egal, aidoma unei
pelicule alb-negru secvene, adesea deconcertante, dintr-o lume globalizat, dar care nu se
deosebete, n esen, prea mult de aceea din ultimele decenii ale regimului comunist.
Zugrvite cu o cruzime pozitivist, scenele acestea ar putea fi socotite tot attea instantanee
dintr-o reprezentare neconvenional a infernului (de altfel, analiznd volumele precedente ale
autorului, att Al. Cistelecan, ct i Mircea A. Diaconu au invocat categoria infernalului). El
e poetul unei lumi scrie Cistelecan ce nu numai c i-a pierdut sperana ntr-un sens
salvator, dar a pierdut pn i amintirea acestei sperane i a acestui sens. E un poet al
infernului, al asfixiei cotidiene.10
S-ar prea c ultima parte a afirmaiei criticului vine s o ntreasc pe cea dinti. ns,
n fapt ea deschide o posibil pist de interpretare tocmai n sensul neutralizrii categoriei
infernalului, pe care o confirm i volumul aprut n 2014 (n aceast privin elementul de
continuitate prevaleaz asupra mutaiilor).
Mai exact, lumea Firului alb ni se nfieaz ca o lume amnezic, cu totul absorbit
de reflectarea propriei absene, dar tocmai prin aceasta absolvit i de obligaia de a-i pune
ntrebri cu privire la sens. Pare mai degrab un no mans land, un spaiu de trecere de unde
se poate porni n orice direcie i unde chiar grania dintre via i moarte se dovedete
relativ. Cei vii i cei mori comunic firesc (ceea ce ne-ar duce cu gndul la versurile lui
Edgar Lee Masters, din Antologia orelului Spoon River, dac la poetul romn n-ar fi
disprut orice urm de afectivitate manifest): L-am visat spre diminea pe socru-meu/
Eram ntr-o main nu tiu dac/ Skoda lui mergea ntr-o direcie greit ncercam / Toi s-l
convingem s ntoarc m-am trezit/ Era ora 4 eram la Timioara/ Era 23 aprilie.11 (23 aprilie
2010)
Frnturi de vise sau de amintiri, instantanee din trenuri, din aeroporturi, gri sau
staii de autobuz, fragmente desprinse din conversaii banale, mici spectacole anodine, se
articuleaz ntr-un continuum ce reuete s-i induc cititorului senzaia c n pofida
aparentului prozaism particip la revelarea unei taine: Trei nopi la rnd am visat aceeai/
Femeie. Semna i nu semna cu/ Cineva din trecut.Venea/ Spre mine de undeva de la//
Captul unui coridor care semna/ Cu etajul trei de la Universitatea/ De Vest. Purta o fust
scurt/ i verde.// Avea picioare superbe bronzate poate/ Mergea pe tocuri cert e c purta
plrie/ O plrie imens de pai.// De fiecare dat m-a uimit/ Plria i de fiecare dat am
ncercat s-i spun12 (Trei nopi la rnd). Dincolo de caracterul pregnant vizual al poemului
o vizualitate cinematografic, obinut printr-o privire literal asupra obiectului ceea ce ne
atrage atenia aici este indeterminarea derutant a tabloului. Sintagma semna i nu semna
ar putea fi explicat prin invocarea logicii particulare a visului (guvernat de principiul
terului acceptat), dar chiar i aa prin intersectrile multiple de planuri (att pe orizontala
spaiului, ct i pe verticala timpului) secvena rmne ambigu, fixnd, sub pecetea tainei
sale, firele ntreesute ale timpului pierdut i visului de fericire (nu suntem departe de
subtila definiie pe care Mircea Ivnescu o ddea, mai demult, poeziei:lumea de basm a
aceluia care ncearc mereu n zadar s se ntoarc/ s fie i el fericit13). Dei nu sunt
strfulgerate prea des de splendoarea dens-fulgurant14 (poemul Trei nopi la rnd
constituie mai degrab o excepie), versurile lui Andrei Bodiu se situeaz i ele, n mod
evident, sub semnul intervalului, al anamnezei euate i al nclcrilor de granie.
Al. Cistelecan, Noul poem, n Luceafrul, nr. 6/ 1994
Andrei Bodiu, Firul alb, ed.cit., p. 6
12
Ibid., p.55
13
Mircea Ivnescu, Biografii imaginare, Bucureti, Editura Casa Radio, 2012, p.70
14
Ibid.
10
11
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Tocmai n msura n care sunt guvernate de un principiu al intervalului, populate de

entiti mai mult sau mai puin false n fond simulacre ale unor simulacre lumile
nchipuite de Andrei Bodiu reuesc s surprind acel moment privilegiat al intersectrilor, al
trecerilor dintr-un plan ntr-altul (mai sus-pomenita obsesie a spaiilor de tranzit nu este nici
ea strin de aceast nclinaie). Nu de puine ori realul pare s comunice cu teritorii
misterioase, ca n poemul intitulat, ironic, Happy New Year: Staia-i aproape goal. Doar el/
nalt i aproape albit/ Merge la treab.// Dm mna. Zmbetul/ Jumtate ironic i-a pierit//
Vorbim despre mamele noastre bolnave./ A lui mai bolnav ca a mea traversnd/ Sfritul de
an ntr-un spital.// n deprtare maina trndu-se/ Pe fundal muzic: artificii i pocnitori.15
Alteori renunarea la orice marc a poeticitii este mpins pn la ultimele
consecine, ca i cum plasat el nsui ntr-un spaiu al incertitudinii discursul ar aspira
permanent la propria-i destrmare. Multe poeme au micarea sincopat i sintaxa abrupt16
a lui Frank OHara. Iar din literatura romn cel mai mult de apropie de stilul abulic al lui
Bacovia (din Stane burgheze). Nu ntmpltor cel din urm este chiar amintit ntr-unul din
poemele incluse n Firul alb: Drag Madi oraul sta/ Nu e loc de murit e chiar/ De trit.//
Chiar btrnul Bacovia s-ar fi uitat altfel/ Aici pe fereastr// Metroul merge la fix/ Nu miroase
a mortciune// Dac ai ceva bani/ Poi s sari.(Viena copiilor VI)
Sunt i cteva poeme n care consemnarea neutr, indiferent, a datelor existentului
face loc aluziilor intertextuale, notaiilor sarcastice sau doar ironice stimulate de lecturi, filme
sau litere desprinse din afie, toate prnd s anune, melancolic, repetarea aceluiai
spectacol:Privete intens din afiul alb-negru/ E Jean Louis Trintignant brbatul/ ndrgostit
de o btrn pe/ Moarte din ultimul film// Al lui Haneke. Afiul e/ Imens acoper un stlp din/
Sebastian Platz privirea lui/ Trintignant e trist nelinitit disperat// Ca s m poat vedea
bine/ Am dat dou ture n jurul stlpului/ Ultimul e din Liebe/ Era aproape rupt.17
Chiar i atunci cnd mprumut numele unor metropole ilustre (Viena, Praga, Braov,
Berlin sau Bucureti), cadrul nu se schimb n datele lui eseniale: rmne un spaiu al
trecerii, un fel de Purgatoriu sui-generis (mai multe titluri aduc, chiar la o privire superficial,
argumente edificatoare n acest sens: Spre Baia Mare; Seara pe podul Carol; Lng gara
Predeal; Gri mijlocii; Spre captul lui 6 .a.m.d.)
Vag individualizat (asfel nct s putem recunoate, de pild, un col de Bucureti
matinal: Melancolia i resemnarea./ Dimineaa la 7 navignd printre cinii/ Din fa de la
Ibis/ Pe o strad nsorit/ i aproape pustie), cadrul reuete s imprime o atmosfer
particular, de cele mai multe ori propice conjurrii amintirilor (fie ele adevrate sau false,
autobiografice sau intertextuale). Un poem care se intituleaz Philip Seymour Hoffman
combin foarte ingenios termenii celor dou serii: Ai luat un gt de ampanie./ i s-a prut
proast i-ai privit pe ceilali/ Fiecare era ntruchiparea singurtii tale./ N-avea rost nici s
deschizi gura./ nuntru huruiau roi metalice te-ai gndit/ c e instalaia de cldur/ Ai mai
luat un gt de ampanie ai rs/ glasul lui Truman Capote s-a auzit din/ ncperea alturat.18
Modul n care e strecurat, n final, aluzia la romanul Alte glasuri, alte ncperi al lui Capote
vine s ntreasc presupunurea c, pentru autorul nostru grania dintre via i cri, dintre
experien i proieciile ei ficionale este adeseori permeabil, dovad c personaje i
decoruri se mut frecvent dincolo sau dincoace de firul alb, subire, ce desparte lumea n
dou.
Concluzie
15
Andrei Bodiu, Firul alb, ed.cit., p.63

Romulus Bucur, Poei optzeciti (i nu numai) n anii90, Piteti, Paralela 45, 2000, p.30
17
Andrei Bodiu, Firul alb, ed.cit., p.7
18
Ibid., p.46
16
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Issue no. 6/2015
Aadar, n ciuda simplitii lor, a transparenei evidente, menite parc cel

puin la prima vedere s destrame orice mister, poemele din ultimul volum al lui Andrei
Bodiu rmn, n esena lor, vizionare i enigmatice. Articulate n jurul unei enigme, aceea a
prezenei absentului, enigm comun imaginaiei i memoriei, ele oscileaz permanent ntre
tentaia nregistrrii realului prezent i aceea a resuscitrii realului trecut. Apelnd la ceea ce
s-ar putea numi convenia tranzitivitii absolute poezia aceasta reuete, cu mijloace srace
s dea o nou via fie ea i una fantomatic inflexiunilor unor voci pierdute i urmelor
unor viei lipsite de strlucire. Cele mai izbutite dintre poeme provoac vibraii ascunse care
in nu att de form, ct de intensitate, de Timp (barthesianul acest-lucru-a-existat-cndva),
de pura sa reprezentare, situndu-se n acel no mans land n care referentul nsui se
transform ntr-un soi de spectrum, un mic simulacru ce pstreaz, prin chiar rdcina sa, un
raport cu spectacolul, deci cu iluzia, adugndu-i totodat acel ceva niel nspimnttor care
rzbate i din fotografiile vechi: ntoarcerea a ceea ce este mort.
Nota definitorie a poeziei lui Andrei Bodiu trebuie cutat, n consecin, tocmai n
acele poeme care lsnd impresia c recupereaz eentioane de via ne dezvluie
(inter)faa lumii aa cum se vede ea prin seciunea firului alb. Nu doar denunare a celei mai
rele incoerene i alienri, ct i apologie implicit a intervalului, conciliere provizorie cu o
lume perceput ca aleatorie i multipl, deseori ostil i mai totdeauna absurd.
Bibliografie:
Barthes, Roland, Camera luminoas. nsemnri despre fotografie, trad. de Virgil
Mleni, Cluj Napoca, Idea Design & Print, 2005
Bodiu, Andrei, Oameni obosii, Piteti, Paralela 45, 2008
Bodiu, Andrei, Firul alb, Bucureti, Editura Tracus Arte, 2014
Bucur, Romulus, Poei optzeciti (i nu numai) n anii90, Piteti, Paralela 45, 2000
Crtrescu, Mircea, Cuvinte mpotriva mainii de scris, n Gh. Crciun (ed.),
Competiia continu.Generaia 80 n texte teoretice, Piteti, Paralela 45, p.116
Cistelecan, Al., Noul poem, n Luceafrul, nr. 6/ 1994
Cortzar, Julio, otron, trad. i postfa de Tudora andru Mehedini, Iai, Polirom,
2005
Crciun, Gheorghe, Aisbergul poeziei moderne, Piteti, Paralela 45, 2002
Diaconu, Mircea A., Ironia unui sceptic, n Romnia literar, nr. 6/ 2009
Ivnescu, Mircea, Biografii imaginare, Bucureti, Editura Casa Radio, 2012
Popescu, Simona, Despre urmele care se destram n alte geometrii, n Observator
cultural, 18/ 2000
568
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CHARACTER ENLIGHTENMENT IN IRIS MURDOCHS RETROSPECTIVE FICTION

Aura PANDELE
Abstract: My paper focuses on whether three representative first-person narrators from

British author Iris Murdochs fiction reach a degree of enlightenment. The narrating selves
move between a past experience and a present experience in an attempt to build a clearer
sense of identity. The more the narrating I distances itself from the experiencing I, claiming a
different stand to his past behaviour, the more dissonant the relationship between the two is.
The narrating selfs disproval of past conduct produces a regenerative effect on the character
healing his to a certain extent from moral ailments as egoism, pride and tyrany. The more
alike the narrating I is to the experiencing self, the more their relationship is one of
consonance. Iris Murdochs reminiscing first-person characters illustrate a mix of consonant
and disonant relationships reaching enlightenment only half-way. Having overcome moral
struggles, they become more modest in their demands of themselfves and of others, but they
still glimpse back at a semi-obscure past which they cant fully comprehend.
Keywords: experiencing I, narrating I, enlightenment, healing time, identity
The passaging of time and the self reflecting upon it as literary device has become a
net of enchantment for readers and writers alike since Prousts In Search of Lost Time.
Postmodernisms playfulness in conveying several truths according to context and perspective
instead of the classical idea of objective truth also has implications on devices like time
which clings to a characters realm of experience and space as map of self rather than mirror
of the real world. Experienced time and narrating time are two coordinates within Murdochs
retrospective novels intermingling in a way that tries to embed a pattern in the narrative: that
of the self moving between experiences in an attempt to build a clearer sense of identity.
Prousts lost time has a double meaning: at one level, it includes experienced time,
time the narrator has already lived, imposing heavy alterations on the characters, and which
comes back to life through remembering, and, at a secondary level, simply time wasted in
unimportant pursuits. Life in Combray and its surrounding gardens seems to gently blossom
and grow out of the narrators teacup, reshaping itself with each of the selfs revisiting of the
past. But whereas in the final volume of In Search of Lost Time the result is that there are
truths comprised within our lost time1, we gather from Murdochs work that truth is actually
variable and no one person holds supremacy over it. Closely linked to lost time is time found,
what we save from lost time offering us an image of eternity but also a real eternity confined
within the realm of art.2 On the one hand, time found is a strip of eternity hidden in a work of
art, but what I find noteworthy for our thesis is the curative aspect of time, or rather the
curative aspect of the process of going through fictive time which is directly linked to the
degree of enlightenment a character achieves.
N. Bran brilliantly points out that The Sea, the Sea, like Under the Net and The Black
Prince are novels which portray the heros gradual progression to a certain degree of
enlightenment. Central to this process is the gradual acknowledgement of this internal
dialogue.3 When the narrating self intervenes into the experiencing selfs discourse from a
1
Deleuze, Gilles, Proust et les Signes, p. 30

Deleuze, Gilles, Proust et les Signes, p. 26
3
Bran, Nicol, Iris Murdoch: The Retrospective Fiction, p.72
2
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Issue no. 6/2015
vantage point, i.e. time having passed between the moment of action and that of retelling, it
endows him with the possibility to interpret the events, his position becomes similar to that of
the third-person omniscient narrator towards the hero. The Sea and The Brack Prince closely
follow this pattern where the experiencing self moves towards a sort of enlightenment
deciphered by the narrating I which represents, in fact, the goal in all of Iris Murdochs
novels: the search for truth. In Metaphysics as a Guide to Morals, her last book concerned
with philosophical matters she writes: We must indeed preserve and cherish a strong truthbearing everyday language, not marred or corrupted by technical discourse or scientific codes;
and thereby promote the clarified objective knowledge of man and society of which we are in
need ad citizens, and as moral agents.4 The search for what is real and meaningful in our
lives assumed as moral duty flows through her the novels and finds an answer when the
stories come to an end, although, it is never definite. It follows that as truth is something we
aspire to, it is forever elusive, and one cannot reason towards a complete enlightenment of
ones lived experiences and neither to a complete understanding of the people that surround
us. Fickleness, the central discussion around which Jane Austens Persuasion revolves is an
important character trait of most Murdochian characters.
According to D. Cohn5, there are two opposing attitudes the narrating self has towards
his past actions, either condemning them in a way that creates a dichotomy between present I
and past I which implies dissonant self-narration as is the case with Proust, or an overlapping
of past and present I which implies consonant self-narration. If the Proustian narrating self is
in dissonance with the experiencing self, the entailment is that the mature self no longer
shares the same convictions as his younger self and by reinserting himself into the
experiencing selfs narration he detaches himself from previously professed views. The more
dissonant the two voices are, the stronger one feels the healing aspect of time is through the
narrating selfs efforts to understand his position by analogy with past wishes and beliefs
which the reader perceives as no longer valid. Murdochs novels, however, illustrate a mixt
condition of consonant and dissonant self-narrations because the narrative self cannot throw
light on the past nor can it tolerate living in total darkness regarding it. The assumption that
the process of revisiting time offers a cure implies that there is an ailment of some sort from
which the characters suffer. Most characters suffer from one or several moral illnesses
egoism, selfishness, inability to act, envy, pride. The long emotional journeys the characters
undertake in Murdochs retrospective fiction finally end in an open manner by adopting a
more humble attitude. Moral regeneration comes out of the characters realization of their
own faults. In this respect, time as lived experience heals Murdochs characters because they
learn to accept the limited human understanding of their peers and the tribulations of human
relationships, although their metamorphosis is never complete.
The Italian Girl, one of the first of the British authors retrospective novels, makes a
clear case for the dissonance of the narrating Is which bring about the healing nature of
time. Considered one of her least accomplished novels6, The Italian Girls revolves around
Edmund Narraway and his return to his home where he had grown up for his mothers
funeral. He is a middle-aged engraver who had never actually developed into a fully-fledged
adult because of his mothers domineering personality. His return to his home town is a quest
to find an agreement with his troubled past and also help the other members of his family who
had suffered the same fate. His twin brother, Otto, is a stonemason leading a life of
depravation, a victim of alcoholism and blind to the affairs both his wife Isabel and his
daughter Flora were having with his apprentice Levkin. Smothered by Lydias personality, all
4
Murdoch, Iris, Metaphysics as a Guide to Morals, p. 164

Cohn, Dorrit, Transparent Minds
6
Bove, Cheryl K., Understanding Iris Murdoch, p. 175
5
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Issue no. 6/2015
the members of the household await Edmund and beseech him to set things right. Otto pleads
that he should speak to Isabel on his behalf and calm her: You would do good, good.
Someone like you cant help doing good (IG 78). Teenager Flora asks that he helps her with
money for an abortion: I expect Ill do whatever you say. Only for Gods sake look after
me. (IG 54). Isabels statement encompasses all their expectations of Edmund: You are a
good man. You are a sort of doctor. You are the assessor, the judge, the inspector, the
liberator. You will clear us all up. You will set us in order. You will set us free. (IG 36). At
first, Edmund declines, well aware that he is in no position to bring peace to others when his
own life is as much a muddle as the others characters. However, he starts meddling in their
lives, but only manages to complicate things further until the climax is reached with the tragic
death of Ottos Russian half-mad lover. Elsas death seems to put all things in a sort of
balance again: her brother Levkin, with whom Isabel and Flora were having affairs, leaves for
Russia, Otto and Isabel divorce in a civil manner and Edmund enters a romantic relationship
with his former nurse, Maria Magistretti, in a sort of Oedipian ending to the novel. The
narrating self asks himself in a puzzled manner what the fruits of his long meditation were,
his incursion into these past experiences and the answer follows: I had had no power to heal
the ills of others, I had merely discovered my own. I had thought to have passed beyond life,
but now it seemed to me that I had simply evaded it. I had not passed beyond anything; I was
a false religious, a frightened man. (IG 170). The narrating self looks back with surprise to
his past selfs pretenses and disqualifies them as false. The element of time found brings
about a sense of closure and healing of old wounds. Edmund realizes that both his power to
influence others and his ability to understand them is poor and limited by his own selfish
designs. It is only when he understands this that he can perceive other people for their own
selves and start loving them.
The Sea, the sea (1978) is Murdochs last first-person novel and it seems to illustrate
her preoccupation with the exploration of human nature as mentioned in an interview with M.
Bellamey7 from the previous year where she stated that people are odder that they would care
to admit and how the novel can somehow mediate between what they think they are and how
individual identity is created in relation to how we enact ourselves around others.
This is the story of an ageing playwright Charles Arrowby who, tired of the acting
world and under the sway of a moral change, retires from the spotlight to lead a more quiet
life in a remote house by the sea. His life which he documents under a series of literary genres
diary, memoir, philosophical journal does not settle within the boundaries of the Romantic
clichs he lays out in the beginning of the novel. Having undergone a moral change of which
we are not given further details, he vouches to renounce his dealings with the theatre world
akin to Shakespeares Prospero and abjure all magic. He moves to a rather rundown house
called Shruff End where he is in permanent contact with the sea and the marine flora and
fauna. This Romantic idea of communion with nature alongside his wish to cut all relation to
society goes completely wayward when many of his past friends start showing up at Shruff
End. Charles himself strives to keep in contact with all of them through letters and governs
them from afar.
The story spans roughly around one month from Charles Arrowbys settling in at
Shruff End to his return to London. The chapter sequencing indicates on the one hand the
attempt to structure recollections in a logical way and, on the other, an implied desire to order
and give sense to past experiences in the light of the present self. N. Bran points out that The
Sea, the Sea is concerned with the deliberate quest into the past8 as opposed to involuntary
7
Michael Bellamy interviews Iris Murdoch in Contemporary Literature, vol 18, no. 2, , University of Wisconsin
Press, 1977, pp. 129-140
8
Bran, Nicol, Iris Murdoch: The Retrospective Fiction, p.141
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memory - both ways of confronting time in Prousts In Search of Lost Time. The most
important moment around which all other events gravitate is Hartleys imprisonment. Time is
also ordered around this event in a manner that transforms it into before (pre-history), during
(history) and after (life goes on) the encounter with Hartley which gives the narrating self a
sense of identity. The narrating I has become more humble, gradually distancing himself from
the egotistical experiencing I, and allows that his knowledge is limited to his own perspective.
When Hartleys imprisonment cause her gradual psychological down spiraling contrary to
Charles expectations for her to become free and independent, the experiencing I begins to
question his disinterested motives for wanting to help Hartley. His eager willingness to reenact and change the outcome of their failed relationship leads to the dissemination of
confusion in their minds. Although unclear in her intentions, Hartley has a clearer sense of
identity: I live in long-times, not in sudden present moments Im married, Ive got to go
back to where I am. (SS 384) and it is this sense of identity built in relation to the Other that
Charles cant understand. The flow of time does not bring enlightenment to the ontological
question who am I?, but rather deepens the mystery. Not being able to answer this question
could have caused dramatic consequences but such an ending is averted through the
intimation that Charles has come to terms with the idea that no person alive is the vessel of
truth.
These two novels are the most expressive in their dealing with the healing nature of
time which sets the characters inner world in balance, helping them renounce an egotistical
view of human relationships. The two timelines of the retrospective novels story time and
narrative time9 create a pattern interwoven by the narrating voices that position themselves
at different points of reference. The experienced self is often impatient to impart his later
reflections with the reader, flashforwarding to enlighten puzzling events while it uses
analepsis to shed some light on occurrences the experiencing I finds baffling and, in this way,
reiterate the healing nature of time found. There is never complete healing in the sense of the
narrating I completely denouncing the past self which might lead to an overtly assumed sense
of self. Murdoch makes this idea clear in an interview ()the achievement of coherence is
itself ambiguous. Coherence is not necessarily good and one must question its cost. Better
sometimes to remain confused9. Haziness in coherence implies that the agent can always
revisit the past and reinterpret it, speculating over it in much the same way as one does in real
life.
In the second paragraph of The Sea, the narrating I intimates that he has had a horrible
experience which he doesnt dwell on, only mentioning it and building suspense up to the
point in the story where the narrating I reveals the mystery of the extraordinary and horrible
event. The voice points back in time through what Genette calls completing analepsis10
completing an earlier gap in time which, in the case of The Sea, the Sea - has been omitted to
increase suspense. Charles recalls the image of the sea monster rising from the waves, a
terrifying appearance coiling itself above the water level and creating a loophole through
which Charles could see the sky. The horrible experience displayed in the recalling of the
complex picture of the frightening green-eyed sea monster is interpreted in the key of a
hallucination at this point in the story but it is implied that Charles would perceive it in a
different manner later on. The second completing analepsis related to the same event
underlines the untrustworthiness of memory: the memory of that hallucination, or whatever
it was, was suddenly more disquieting than it had ever been. Seeing the painting of Perseus
and Andromeda brings back the haunting image of the sea monster which Charles however
finds difficult to attribute a meaning to, the only certain quality relating to it being that is
9
Murdoch, Iris, Metaphysics as a Guide to Morals, p. 147

Genette, G., Narrative Discourse: An Essay in Method, chapter. Order
10
572
Issue no. 6/2015
more troubling than before. The reiterative image of the monster is a symbol of jealousy,
destructive in its unabashed surfacing, coiling itself around Charles minds and clouding his
judgment. The vision of the wide-gapped sea-monster playing among the waves unveils a
Shakespearean perspective to the text: the monster is a projection of mans darkest feelings:
In men, as in a rough-grown grove, remain /Cave-keeping evils that obscurely sleep11.
However, towards the close of the story, the disquieting monster is replaced with the calming
sea and Charles sights sea lions frolicking in the water and interprets them as beneficent
beings (SS 476) having come to bless him. To a certain extent, he changes after having come
face to face with real people and failing in his attempt to run his life and that of others as he
had directed his plays in London. His less malignant attitude after his return to London is
mirrored by the healing sea: Time, like the sea, unties all knots. (SS.556)
Charles Arrowby states at the beginning of The Sea, The Sea Now, I shall abjure
magic and become a hermit: put myself in a situation where I can honestly say that I have
nothing else to do but to learn to be good.(SS 2) Yet by the end of his rcit he says: Yes, I
go to parties now. I go about in London, I eat and drink and gossip just as if I were an
ordinary person. Well, am I not one? (SS 562) The two passages reflect antithetic intentions,
passing from complete monastic renouncement to the reclaiming of former glamorous life and
they illustrate a radical distancing of the narrating voice from the enthusiastic and idealistic
experiencing self. The two voices are in dissonance and Charless illumination comes from
his conclusion that the only truth to be discovered from his passing in Shruff End is that the
nature of man is fickle. The situation does not become less muddled a key adjective that
describes opaque relations between people and that surfaces in several novels: in A fairly
Honourable Defeat, The Bell as well as in her retrospective novels but rather the narrator
relapses into a state of agreement with the limit to which we can understand other people.
Charles never found out the truth of the matter and the final pages are filled with puzzling
question that set the reader into a meditative frame of mind: Hartley said that she had lied
about Bens violence, but perhaps that was a lie uttered out of loyalty, out of irrational fear.
Can one not recognize the smell of fear? (SS 582), Perhaps in a way James and I had the
same problem? (SS 583), Am I after all alone now, as I intended to be and without
attachments? Is history over (SS.583) and the very last sentences of the novel: Upon the
demon-ridden pilgrimage of human life, what next, I wonder?. Suggestively, no clear
answers are given, in this respect, the narrating self hasnt found convincing answers in a way
that would close the novel in a traditional sense. Charles had imprisoned Hartley convinced
that he was saving her from an abusive husband yet in their conversations are always failed
dialogues as the message usually travels one way. The narrating voice implies in a rather
Socratic way that what it knows with certainty is that it cannot understand peoples deep
desires and thoughts and, in extenso, a person cant reach some holistic truth.
Completing analepses are instruments the narrating I uses to both expand and explain
an occurrence which the experiencing I fails to comprehend at the moment of his narration.
Although there is no complete state of enlightenment in Murdochian fiction, there is a sequel
of incomplete states of enlightenment when the narrating I sheds light on an event the
experiencing self had found obscure only to reinterpret it later and rob it of its previously
ascribed meaning.
It would not be farfetched to affirm that Murdochian retrospective fiction, although
less constant in its themes and narrative techniques than Prousts opus, is an apprenticeship to
truth as G. Delleuze claims about the world of In search of Lost Time, an apprenticeship that
in Murdochs case is never completed, but continues even after the story has ended. Memory
11
Shakespeare, William, The Rape of Lucrece
573
Issue no. 6/2015
plays the part of the ungracious instrument of the narrating self, always changing the first
interpretation given to an occurrence endowed with a meaning and never revealing an allencompassing truth. Passing time regenerates the characters only partially, building the
interpretative openness of events. Perhaps the most suggestive in this respect is the evoked
image of Hartley: Oh, my darling, how clearly I see you now. () Perhaps it is the only true
light in my life, the light that reveals the truth. (SS 91) which evolves into unquestionable
certainty regarding her feelings: I reviewed the evidence and I had little doubt about what it
pointed to. Hartley loved me and had long regretted losing me. (SS 184) and ends in
tormenting uncertainty I had deluded myself throughout by the ides of reviving a secret love
which did not exist at all. (.) But these speculations are too nightmarish. Better to feel I
shall never know. (SS 580)
The irresolvable conflict at the core of A Word Child is Hilary Burdes inability to
come to terms with his past. Orphaned as an infant and separated from his sister, Crystal,
Hilary grew up with the feeling of being unwanted and unlovable. His talent for languages
gets him out of the sordid world of the orphanage and into that of Oxford, becoming the
protg of Gunnar Jopling and his wife, Anne. Hilary and Anne have an affair which ends
tragically with her death and that of her unborn child in a car accident. The story happens
twenty years later when Gunnar reappears in his life an event which marks Hilarys
breakdown. Having felt guilty and traumatized for Annes death all those years, Hilary falls in
love with Gunners second wife, Lady Kitty. Hilary revives the past projecting the image of
his former lover onto Lady Kitty, however history repeats itself because their affair ends with
her death as well. Throughout the novel, Hilary shows some glimpses of a future reformed
self, the narrating experiencing and narrating Is converging in both consonant and dissonant
degrees. The tyrannical nature of Hilary expressed especially in his relationship to women
becomes constrained, perhaps dulled by Kittys death. After a lifetime of governing Crystals
life, keeping men away from her and preventing her from marrying, he finally gives in to
Crystals decision to marry unimportant Arthur. His relationship with Tommy, a failed actress
and his lover, over whom he also exerts an inflexible authority, censuring any public effusions
and hints at their intimate involvement, changes to a small extent towards the end of the story.
The question of marriage, so appalling to him before, instigates less hate in him after Lady
Kittys death, the reader is even led to believe that he might actually be contemplating it in an
ambiguous half-ironic, half-pensive manner as gathered from the final dialogue with Tommy:
Im going to marry you, Hilary. Are you, Thomas? Yes, Im going to marry you. Are
you, Thomasina? (WC 391) Hilarys repetitive question proves disbelief of her earnest
declaration but, at the same time, naming her with her real name and not the domesticizing
endearing Thomas is a momentous turn towards her real essence and an attempt to
distinguish between the real and the phantasy he had constructed. Some discrepancies
between the narrative voices could support the idea that the narrating I might wish to distance
himself from his previous actions, although he paradoxically reinforces the idea that his
behavior has not changed and admits to having been a monster of egoism, attributes he does
not relinquish in the narrating Is voice and warns the reader through a prolepsis to expect
there will be no improvement (WC 68). Even when he speaks in terms of now and then,
the narrating I hints that he might have become wiser than he had been in his youth, seeing
more clearly the accidental dimension of the two events over which he had no control. His old
fear of having been the author of the two deaths is less present, collapsed under the weight of
the sheer accident which these things contained (WC 382).His transformation starts with
shielding Crystal, his closest confidant who had borne much of the weight of his affair with
Anne, from imparting the story of his dealings with Lady Kitty. He has not yet come to terms
with the past but he is less inclined to take on the full responsibility of two deaths. In this
sense, he is less the monster of egoism he made himself out to be because these events do not
574
Issue no. 6/2015
have him as a gravitational center. Hilary Burde is the most constant first-person character in
Murdochs retrospective novels in his unaltered attachment to a traumatic past that he finds no
way to interpret. N. Brans psychoanalytical approach to the novel suggests that it illustrates
the uncanny capacity of the past trauma to return. The process of transfer between analysand
and analyst aims to bring to surface recollections and, by interpreting them and giving them
meaning, release the sufferer from the trauma.12 Hilary fails to tell the full story of Annes
death to anyone he tells Crystal, but leaves out the fact that she was pregnant when she died,
possibly with his child; he also tells Arthur but omits some aspects which might have made
him look less sympathetic in the listeners eyes. Lady Kittys death imposes on him the desire
to talk about it and externalize his anguishing thoughts, but there is no listener left. The
ordered compartments of the novel tagged into the days of the week turn into Christmas Eve
and Christmas Day and close the novel showing the shattering of his previously wellcompartmentalized life and only at this moment do we notice that Hilary has told his own
story to the reader but without appeasing his guilt-ridden conscience: he could at least see
that much now (WC 380).
The most frontal comparison the narrating I makes with the past self is set after Lady
Kittys death towards the close of the novel, postulating the characters possible reformation.
The temporal adverbs then and now appear repetitively throughout this confrontational
page. The narrating I wonders whether the present moment offers enough clarity to dispel the
rage and darkness of the past and, ultimately, whether he has adopted a more modest stand
towards events which were beyond his control. Hilary wavers between the oppressive moment
of then and the promising moment of now, yet wishing to move forward and to relinquish
the old chains of his past burdened self.
In the case of Charles Arrowby, time has proved an ally, making it even clearer than in
the case of Hilary Burde, that man driven and blinded by his passions becomes an easy prey
to his own egoism, disguised in the persons desire to manipulate and govern the people
around him. The experiencing self is wrapped in his own egotistical desires and never reflects
on the truth value of his recollections until he faces the adversity of other characters. Charles
devises ways to visit Hartley and her husband, but he takes action after having become
convinced that he is saving her from a tyrannical husband and eventually kidnaps her,
becoming himself the tyrant he loathed. The narrating selfs current need is an attempt to
bring the character face to face with his own follies (I had deluded myself throughout by the
idea of reviving a secret love which did not exist at all. (SS 580). However, he sees that this
statement could lead to the same illusion that one a persons recollections can be the source of
truth, so he carefully steers away by adding But these speculations are too nightmarish.
Better to feel I shall never know. If it is one thing that the narrating self has learned it is
that no one knows the absolute truth of what he has experienced nor can he presume to know
with certainty another persons thoughts and feelings. Individual and cultural memory offer an
insight into the past but its truth value is subjective. Hilary, wrapped in his own phantasies of
recreating the past, experiences the same events as the ones that traumatized him. Although
not openly affirming to have found a way out of his emotional labyrinth, it is precisely the
ambiguity of the endings that claim on their part a degree of enlightenment because, in
Murdochs unmistakable style, life is, unlike art, forever open to reinterpretations of the past.
Bibliography
Bran, Nicol, Iris Murdoch: The Retrospective Fiction, 2nd edition, Palgrave
Macmillan, 2004
12
Bran, Nicol, Iris Murdoch: The Retrospective Fiction, chap. Narrative exchange: A World Child
575
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Bellamy, Michael and Murdoch, Iris interview in Contemporary Literature, vol 18, no.
2, University of Wisconsin Press, 1977
Bove, Cheryl K., Understanding Iris Murdoch, University of South Carolina Press,
1993
Cohn, Dorrit, Transparent Minds: Narrative Modes for Presenting Consciousness in
Fiction, Princeton University Press, New Jersey, 1978
Delleuse, Gilles, Proust et les signes, Quadrige, 2003
Genette, Gerard, Narrative Discourse: An Essay in Method, Cornell University press,
Ithaca, New York
Murdoch, I. Metaphysics as a Guide to Morals. New York: Allen Lane, The Penguin
Press, 1992
Murdoch, Iris, The Sea, the Sea, Vintage Books, London, 2012
Murdoch, Iris, The Black Prince, Penguin Classics, New York, 2003
Murdoch, Iris, A Word Child, Vintage Books, London, 2002
Murdoch, Iris, The Italian Girl, Vintage Books, London, 2000
Shakespeare, William, The Rape of Lucrece, ebook
576
Issue no.6/2015
CHRISTIANITY CREATED EUROPEAN CULTURE

Clin ROU
Abstract: Europe has been the center of European culture.But what made Europe great was
the Christian religion that united Antiquity and Middle Ages and opened the gates of the Age
of Exploration.Christianity has survived the roman persecution,the barbarian invasions,the
fall of Rome,the turks and the vikings.Against all odds it has become the Mark of Gods Will
on Earth.Europe and its feudal age have been kept strong by the religious fervor that swept
aside the poverty and horror following the invasions.But from goths to slavs,from huns to
normans ,they all became Christians,Europeans.
The Catholic and Orthodox Church have opened the gates of The new World and Asia,setting
the stage for the confrontations that would shake the Europeand turn regional powers into
global players.Religion has created european culture!
Keywords:Christianity,Culture,european,feudal,religion.
Europe has been the focal point of the worlds cultural evolutions ,the world has
spinned in the exact direction of the european compass. Christian Europe has been the leading
force behind global transforations and cultural breakthroughs.
The greeks invented medicine,phylosophy,political sciences.The romans had spread
the values of Europe to the far corners of the known world.But the most important revolution,
the real Evolution came from the Eastern Mediteranean zone,a region colsely tied to Europe
by history and culture.1Jesus Christ,our Lord,gave hope to those who had none,the hope of
eternal life,of freedom and equality.The lands of Palestine had always been considered a part
of Europe,even since the days of Macedon,hellenic culture had spread all the way to
Mesopotamia.Christianity,although originary from Judea,spread as fast as only Gods Will
could through Roman Europe to the far ends of Spain and the British lands.2Very fast ,it
replaced the false,politheistic religions of the Antiquty.The continent appeared to enter a new
era of brotherhood and peace,unparalleled in history with the ascension of the Roman
Emperor Constantine to the throne,and the recognition of Christianity as the only true
Religion of the Empire.3
But greed split the realms of the roman in half ,one with Rome at its center and
another whit its heart at Constantinople.
In terms of politics,the two empires became fierce competitors , both struggling for
power.On many occasions the only unity between them,was given by religion.Three
continents ,united by the same faith ,were the envy of the known world.And soon,the
unknown world would come to take over the old.
From the steppes of Mongolia,the huns began a reign of terror that set in motion all
the peoples between the Volga and the Rhine,One by one ,barbarian tribes started to flee from
1
"Abrahamic Faiths, Ethnicity and Ethnic Conflicts" (Cultural Heritage and Contemporary Change. Series I,
Culture and Values, Vol. 7) by Paul Peachey, George F. McLean and John Kromkowski (Jun 1997) ISBN
1565181042
France, R. T. (2005). "Kingdom of God". In Vanhoozer, Kevin J.; Bartholomew
2
idem
3
Gonzlez, Justo L. (1984). The Story of Christianity: Vol. 1: The Early Church to the Reformation. San
Francisco: Harper
577
Issue no. 6/2015
the approaching hoardes into the roman world.At first,they were few,easily absorbed into the
latin world,but then came a germanic onslaught:the visigoths,ostrogoths,the longobards,the
franks,the slavic tribes invaded the Western Empire.While the East was cowering behind the
walls,the romans became victims of their own policy of conquest.
Province after province was abandoned to the barbarians,casualities mounted and,at
once, proud romans became slaves themselves.The barbarians had come to settle,to
colonise,and their rule was fierce,not based upon Christian morality ,but the primary instincts
and tribal laws.While the fall of Rome itself ,the dark ages had begun.Culture
plummited,cities were abandoned, as more and more peole fled in terror ,to distant
shores.Christianity was once again forced to hide from the animist ruling elite ,and Europe
turned into a feudal collection of petty states ruled by clansmen.
The social classes were split in two:on one side the nobility ,governing through brutal
force,and on the other ,the poor peasantry,forced into service ,and treated almost like slaves
by their feudal masters.This created a climate of inequity and tension between different parts
of the population.On the other hand,the new germanic masters were incapable of establishing
cultural supremacy over the conquered romans,and thus remained separated ,into their own
class,incapable of correctly managing a cultural diverse society.
However,in the East ,Christianity survived ,and shadowed the animist religions of the
migratory slavs.The Orthodox Church of Constantinople, ruled over a greek speaking
majority rather than a latin one.An empire with different customs ,that would, in their own
way shape the way that people woul percieve Gods rule.By the sixth century,the slavs had
converted to Christianity and had embraced the byzantine way of life.The West had kept its
Roman Church intact under the authority of the Pope.Christianity had survived the barbarians
and had emerged strengthened ,even in a polithical way4.Here ,the rulers felt their right to the
throne is Gods Law and sought support from the Church.The True Faith had prevailed over
the animist religions brought by germans,who soon converted to Christianity ,thus becoming
integrated in a firm way within the european society.They had, by the seventh century,
embraced latin customs and traditions.
This became the setting stone for the new peoples of Europe.Powerfull rulers came to
power to unite the lands they considered rightfully theirs,and thus sought legitimity within the
glorious past of the Roman Empire.The latin language became once more the language of the
elite,but it was a different type of latin in every part of Europe.The early
spanish,portuguese,italian,french and romanian peoples were formed.They each represented a
successor of the Roman Empire,a different branch which ,over time grew,developed its own
identity,a factor that would soon come to surpass local feudal loyality.Above all,the
Allmighty Church reigned supreme,every european lord becoming the iron fist of the social
stratification.5
For many ,like the Emperor Charlemagne,Christianity unfortunately became the
mean of asserting his God given right to rule,a right that on ocassions came into contest with
the will of others,wars were a thing of every day life.But ,with the help of the Church social
unrest became a thing of the past.Monasteries became centers of study for the sons and
daughters of the ruling elites.A different Church began to take form in the West ,built by the
hearts of a multiethnic society,a society that began to trade intenslya society that was,deep
inside,beginning to seek its laicity.
As the feudal states gained power in the nineth century Europe,the differences
became apparent between East and West.In the West,the ruler was legitimised by the Pope,but
often,the Pope would be put into office by polithical reasons rather than religious fervor.In the
4
5
idem
Woods, How the Church Built Western Civilization(2005)
578
Issue no. 6/2015
Byzantine Empire,the Patriarch was put into office by powerfull assemblies of high prelates
,and the Emperor had only to accept their choice.
The presence of the muslims on European soil,focused the efforts of the Western
europeans on freeing Provence ,Spain and Portugal from the grasps of the moors,so a war of
conquest began.After initial succeses the moors were beaten back,and western kings financed
more and more campaigns to free Europe from what they percieved as the muslim mennace.
The byzantines had been under siege from the arabs ,fighting to retain its asian
posession.But this Empire was a cultural diverse one,and many of its asian subjects found
they had more in common with the arab invaders, rather than with their greek speaking
monarch.National conscience was not as present as in Western Europe where ethnicity tilt the
balance .The only thing that held the Empire together was Eastern Christianity,following the
original teaching of Christ and the Apostoles.6
By the eleventh century the Western states were already on their way to monarchic
centralised rule ,but new invasions came from the viking north.These newcomers brought
about savage traditions and customs that terrified Britain France and even southern Italy.Their
descendants,the normans,founded a new dinastic line in the British Isles and conquered
extensive lands in France.
With the rise of the Holy Roman Empire,the last pagan enclaves, in the Baltic Region
and Hungary converted to ChristianityBut by the middle of the century ,the Chruch split
,according to geographic and cultural needs,setting into motion a wrong that would hurt
Europes destinies for centuries to come.7
From the East,the turkish mennace began to loom ,countless muslim turanic tribes
began to pour into Anatolia and Cappadocia.The Byzantine Empire had been weakened by
decades of corruption and attacks ,and ith had to yeald ground to the invaders.Orthodox
culture suffered in the conquered lands where Islam was imposed by force.The greek culture
that had flourished under byzantine rule was now under threat by a very different way of life.
Another Champion was on the rise in the West ,and it was Spain.Strengthened,after
succesfully defeating the moors of Andalusia,the kingdoms of Castilla and Aragon begun
what is known as the Reconquista.With the blessing of the Pope and the iron fist of the
Inquisition ,they began to push the moors all the way to Granada ,where they made their last
stand on Continental Europe.Spanish culture and the Catholic faith were imposed throught the
conquered lands and powerfull landlords took over the cities once inhabited by the moors.
In the East, the Golden Horde that had ravaged Asia and Eastern Europe had split
into petty successor kingdoms,that became easy prey for the Kievan Rus and the Russian
Kingdoms.Both slavic branches had converted to the Orthodox faith and stood firm against
the invasion of Islam.
Crusades were launched by the Catholic nations to conquer Jerusalem and the rest of
the Holy Land.They were initially succesfull into establishing crusader kingdoms on the
Eastern Shores of the Mediteranean.But one crusade attacked and deposed the byzantine
emperor and severely weakened byzantine power .With the rise of Salladin,crusader states
were destroyed by muslim attacks ,and soon enough, muslim turks and arabs arrived at the
gates of Constantinople.
Meanwhile the portuguese began journeyng to the ends of the Earth,to China,South
Africa,India,Indonesia.The spanish kingdoms accomplished the total reconquista of the
Peninsula and by 1492,spanish caravels had set sail for the New World.
6
7
idem
Padberg, Lutz v., (1998): Die Christianisierung Europas im Mittelalter, Stuttgart, Reclam
579
Issue no. 6/2015
But Constantinople had fallen to the turks and the byzantine East quickly
followed.The restless hoarde of Mehmet the second, then turned their sights to Catholic
Europe.For the first time,Christianity united under the same banner against the common
mennace.
The Russian Tzar had all but eradicated tatar presence on slavic soil and was on his
way to unifying all russian speaking kingdoms .Now Russia was the Orthodox ruler of
Eastern Europe.
The Habsburg dinasty that ruled Spain and Austria became the most poerefull dinasty
in Western Europe.Spanish ships opened the new World to european conquest and
colonisation.Dauntless explorers conquered the Aztec Empire sending countless treasures to
Madrid.Thousands of europeans set sail to the Americas in search of wealth, glory,and in
some cases,adepts for conversion.Portuguese colonists established Brazil,Goa and
Indonesia,bringing home precious silk and spices.Christianity became a world religion,thus
reaching the far corners of the Globe,setting the stage for the clash of the Enlightment.8
Throught the ages,Christianity and Culture coexisted and coincided in a successful
cooperation ,that to a large extent made Europe the uncontested ruler of the
World.Christianity has influenced the way we live and has become the fabric of our of our
power ,our existance.Religion has been and will forever remain the key factor in the existance
of humanity in general and Europe in particular.
Aceast lucrare a fost realizat in cadrul proiectului Cultura romna i modele
culturale europene: cercetare, sincronizare, durabilitate, cofinanat de Uniunea
Europeana i Guvernul Romniei din Fondul Social European prin Programul
Operaional Sectorial Dezvoltarea Resurselor Umane 2007-2013, contractul de finanare
nr. POSDRU/159/1.5/S/136077 sau This paper is suported by the Sectorial Operational
Programme Human Resources Development (SOP HRD), financed from the European
Social Fund and by the Romanian Government under the contract number SOP
HRD/159/1.5/S/136077
Bibliography:
1. Harent Stephane,Original Sin ,Catholic Encyclopedia,vol 11,New York,Robert
Appleton Company,1911
2. "Abrahamic Faiths, Ethnicity and Ethnic Conflicts" (Cultural Heritage and
Contemporary Change. Series I, Culture and Values, Vol. 7) by Paul Peachey, George
F. McLean and John Kromkowski (Jun 1997) ISBN 1565181042
3. France, R. T. (2005). "Kingdom of God". In Vanhoozer, Kevin J.; Bartholomew, Craig
G.; Treier, Daniel J. et al. Dictionary for Theological Interpretation of the Bible.
Grand Rapids: Baker Book House. pp. 4202. ISBN 978-0-8010-2694-2
4. Gonzlez, Justo L. (1984). The Story of Christianity: Vol. 1: The Early Church to the
Reformation. San Francisco: Harper
5. Woods, How the Church Built Western Civilization(2005)
6. Dussel, Enrique, A History of the Church in Latin America, Wm B Eerdmans
Publishing, 1981
7. Padberg, Lutz v., (1998): Die Christianisierung Europas im Mittelalter, Stuttgart,
Reclam
Dussel, Enrique, A History of the Church in Latin America, Wm B Eerdmans Publishing, 1981
580
Issue no.6/2015
(INTER)DISCIPLINARY FRONTEERS AND METHODOLOGIC ALTERNATIVES IN

COMPARED LITERATURE: INTERCULTURALITY AND INTERSEMIOTIC
TRANSPOSITION
Nicoleta POPA BLNARIU
V. Alecsandri University of Bacu
Abstract: The evolution of comparative literature has been revealing, for more than a
century, a sinuous process of self-definition: as of the beginning of the 20th century, it has
been emerging like a diverse set of research, with studies covering "international literary
relations", from a historical perspective in line with the established tradition of founders and
eventually building a comparative poetics, whose necessity and legitimacy are nowadays
acknowledged. As far as its specific field is a "tertium comparationis, that does not belong to
any of the studied texts" or, we may add, to none of the domains to which it is associated in
an interdisciplinary way but "maintains relations with each of these", general and
comparative literature is being mistaken for a "methodological utopia" (Pageaux 2000: 35).
This (also) involves a relatively unrestrictive delimitation of the object and working methods
(Wellek 1965: 282-295; tiemble 1963), with all the positive connotations or the opposite
ones associated with this state of fact. At the "crossroads of certain sets", each with its
particularities, comparative literature beneficially feeds on these very "interferences",
"meetings, exchanges" (Pageaux 2000: 34 35) between literatures and between domains of
study. However, its very flexibility available for constant assimilation and adaptation
determines the problem of a rigorous comparatist "methodology", founded on a coherent
theory (Greimas & Courts 1979: 49), to remain yet unsolved. The contributions of tiemble
(1958; 1963), Munteano (1967) or Marino (1988; 1998), among others, built around the
concepts of "invariant" and literary "constant" have thus shaped, as of the middle of the 20 th
century, a completely up-to-date research programme yet unfinished able to associate
literary and intercultural studies, comparative literature and (inter)cultural anthropology.
Resurfacing, at about the same time, the "intersemiotic" relations between literature and arts,
Jakobson (1963) foreshadowed, in turn, todays multi- and intermedial studies, even the
latters crossing with the wide domain of comparative literature, as it is now globally
understood: like an eminently interdisciplinary and how else if not intercultural domain.
Keywords: comparative literature, invariant, literary constant, intermedial, interdisciplinary,
dependence, influence, translation, intersemiotic transposition.
Direcii de cercetare comparatist: puriti i reformiti
Ca principii generale i metode de lucru, comparatistul e liber s aleag astzi ntre o
manier tradiional, purist" s-i spunem (vom vedea de ce), iar pe de alt parte, o alta ceva
mai nou i epistemologic mai tolerant, chiar mai cuprinztoare i poate mai oportun n
acest moment. Cea de-a doua nu o anuleaz pe prima, ci o completeaz i ajut s defineasc
literatura i tiina ei ntr-un context social i intelectual mai larg. Aflat ntr-o criz
autoproclamat acum cteva decenii (tiemble 1963: 9- 23), un impas de identitate
epistemologic de legitimare tiinific a obiectului su i a metodelor de a-l aborda ,
tiina literaturii i, n cadrul ei, demersul comparatist, se confrunt astzi n egal (dac nu
mai mare) msur cu o problem care nu mai este att aceea a comparatitilor i a know howului lor specific, ct una a umanioarelor n general i a interesului publicului fa de acestea.
ntr-un astfel de context, cea de-a doua opiune, pe care o vom detalia ndat, are avantajul de
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a scoate literatura i tiina ei dintr-o perspectiv autocentrat, intraliterar, nlocuind vechiul

spirit de cast epistemologic prin sentimentul unei solidariti umaniste, chiar
transdisciplinare. Aceasta din urm este benefic att pentru profesionitii breslei (n msura
n care le ofer noi perspective de situare i interpretare a literaturii), ct i pentru publicul
mai larg, ndrumat astfel ctre un mod de receptare a literaturii ceva mai apropiat de mixajul
domeniilor, formelor i mediilor de expresie, cu care el se confrunt tot mai des n viaa
social, profesional, cultural sau entertainment.
Potrivit primei opiuni amintite, n domeniul comparatismului ar intra studierea
relaiilor exclusiv literare, adic a legturilor i influenelor manifestate prin contacte
directe, pozitivist demonstrabile, ntre literaturi. Cu ceea ce aduce bun (i mai puin) aceast
alternativ eventual, riscul de a ubrezi vechea, clasica rigoare disciplinar , reformitii1
lrgesc ns domeniul comparatismului literar pn la a-l asimila cu studiul relaiilor dintre
literatur, pe de o parte, i alte arii ale cunoaterii i creaiei, precum artele, filosofia, istoria
i tiinele sociale, tiinele exacte, religia, etc., pe de alt parte (Remak 1961 apud
Grigorescu 1997: 31). Astfel, literatura comparat poate viza astzi att compararea unei
literaturi cu o alta sau altele, ct i compararea literaturii cu alte sfere ale expresiei umane
(Remak 1961). Fr a ine s aduc n actualitate modelul, dificil de transpus acum n
practic, al unui uomo universale dup moda Renaterii, o astfel de alternativ comparatist
continu vechiul ideal cosmopolit ntr-o anumit msur, intercultural avant la lettre al
iluminitilor, acela al unei Republici a Literelor care traverseaz barierele geografice i
sociale i din care se va nate, prin Goethe i predecesorii si, ideea unei Weltliteratur.
Dezideratului luminist alternativa comparatist i adaug astzi unul de tovrie regsit a
umanioarelor, chiar de conlucrare transdisciplinar a acestora cu artele i tiinele exacte.
Un asemenea demers rspunde obinuinelor i ateptrilor publicului contemporan,
pentru care experiena estetic, n mod particular aceea a lecturii, s-a modificat o dat cu
lumea n care triete. Relevant n acest sens este, n planul creaiei literare, abordarea
realmente transdisciplinar nu doar multi sau inter a lui Vintil Horia, premiatul
Goncourt al anului 1960 pentru romanul Dieu est n en exil. Astfel, n Perscutez Boce!
(1987), roman tradus n romnete (nu discutm aici din ce motive i ct de inspirat) cu titlul
Salvarea de ostrogoi (1993), Vintil Horia aplic paradigma imaginarului gnostic-alchimic
i, mpletit cu aceasta, pe aceea a fizicii cuantice, la interpretarea unor fenomene sociale i
ideologice imediat postbelice, simptomatice, la momentul respectiv, pentru rsritul Europei
i, n mod particular, pentru spaiul romnesc (Popa Blanariu 2014).
Invariantul, un concept-cheie n comparatismul literar i studiile interculturale
nceputurile antropologiei se sprijin pe dou idei corelate i controversate, cu originea
n secolul al XVIII-lea (Gean 2005: 30-31): natur uman (J.F. Blumenbach) i unitate
psihic a omenirii (Adolf Bastian), ntemeiate pe ipoteza existenei unor idei elementare,
din care ar decurge tocmai unitatea cultural a umanitii, manifestat pe o arie foarte larg, n
timp i spaiu. Pe acest fundal de teze premergtoare, va fi documentat, n veacurile XIXXX, existena unor categorii universale ale culturii, a unei matrici universale a culturii
(universal patterns of culture) (Wissler 1965: 47-98; Gean 2005: 120-137). La o astfel de
concluzie se va ajunge n cursul unei ample investigaii desfurate de comunitatea
antropologilor, ncepnd cu Notes and Queries on Anthropology (1874, prima ediie) lucrare
colectiv, elaborat de Institutul Regal de Antropologie din Marea Britanie pn la Man and
Culture de Clark Wissler (1923), Ouline of World Cultures (1963, ediia a treia) de George P.
Murdock i Outline of Cultural Materials, proiect coordonat de acelai Murdock (1971, ediia
a cincea). Pe bun dreptate, Gheorghi Gean (2005: 138) subliniaz importana conceptului
1
Termenul apare, ncadrat , de asemenea, de ghilimele, la Adrian Marino (1998: 7).
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de matrice universal a culturii n care vede un concept sinoptic (2005: 135) pentru
fundamentarea i desfurarea studiilor interculturale. Postulnd prezena unor invariani
ai imaginarului i discursului literar ceea ce ar confirma ipoteze anterioare, referitoare la
existena constantelor literare (Munteano 1967; Marino 1998), iar n opinia sa, ar explica
nite similitudini frapante ntre preromantismul european i poeii chinezi ai epocii precretine
i ai perioadei Song Ren tiemble pare s confirme, la mijlocul secolului XX, tocmai
aceste principii fondatoare ale antropologiei. Reputatul su discipol, Adrian Marino (1982;
1988 ; 1998), i Basil Munteano (1967), unul dintre crturarii emineni ai exilului romnesc
postbelic, vin s ntreasc i s dezvolte, ntr-o direcie accentuat teoretic, observaiile lui
tiemble (Marino 1998 ; Ursa 2014).
Ca tip de demers practicat n tiina literaturii, comparatismul se integreaz, cum bine
se tie, unui cmp de cercetare mai larg epistemologia comparat , cu care interfereaz, de
asemenea, alte discipline, precum istoria religiilor i mitologia, istoria ideilor (Hajime
Nakamura 1997), filosofia (Paul Masson-Oursel 1923), antropologia cultural (Ruth Benedict
1959), mitologia comparat (Georges Dumzil) etc. Metoda comparativ fiind
indispensabil pentru construcia teoriei antropologice, una dintre mizele ei este aceea de a
decide dac unele elemente culturale sau complexe de elemente culturale sunt ori nu
universale. S-a dovedit astfel, prin comparaii interculturale (cross-cultural comparisons),
universalitatea tabuului incestual, a familiei, a gramaticalitii limbajului etc. (Gean 2005:
119). Dintr-o perspectiv semiotic, Algirdas-Julien Greimas i Joseph Courts (1979: 49)
vd n comparatism un ansamblu de procedee cognitive, care au rolul de a stabili, la nivelul
formei, nite corelaii ntre doi sau mai muli termeni cu statut de obiecte semiotice.
Aspiraia la formalizare a comparatismului pur et dur ar fi satisfcut atunci cnd, aplicnd
nite procedee cognitive adecvate, s-ar ajunge la un adevrat model tipologic, constituit
din invariani (Greimas & Courts 1979: 49). Fa de un astfel de model formal, termenii
comparai sunt nite variabile, ipostaze particulare ale funciilor generale, tipice. O
ncercare notabil de acest fel a ntreprins Adrian Marino (1988; 1998), dezvoltnd, n sensul
unei preconizate poetici comparatiste, observaiile mentorului su francez, Ren tiemble
(1958; 1963).
n pofida unor asemenea demersuri de formalizare ntru totul promitoare i
meritorii, dar mai degrab izolate, neasumate ca un program prioritar de cercetare de ctre
comunitatea literailor comparatiti, din ar sau de aiurea identificarea i valorificarea unei
metodologii comparatiste riguroase, bazate pe o teorie coerent, se las nc ateptat
(Greimas & Courts 1979: 49). Totui, conceptul de intertextualitate ar putea fi sugereaz
cei doi semioticieni, semnalnd totodat, asemenea lui Marino (1988; 1998), limitele acestei
alternative una din soluiile pentru ieirea comparatismului literar din impas2. Conceptul
respectiv ar putea servi relansrii metodologice a teoriei influenelor, pe care se bazeaz,
n esen, cercetrile de literatur comparat. ns imprecizia acestui concept a dus la diferite
extrapolri, mergnd uneori pn la descoperirea unei anumite intertextualiti chiar n
interiorul aceluiai text (lund n considerare transformrile de coninut ce se produc), iar
alteori, mbrcnd ntr-un vocabular rennoit, vechile influene (de pild, n studierea
citatelor, marcate sau nu prin ghilimele) (Greimas i Courts 1979 :194) . Cum bine se tie,
citatul, aluzia i plagiatul, ca fenomene de coprezen altminteri spus, de prezen efectiv
a unui text n alt text, semnalat sau nu prin ghilimele constituie, n taxinomia lui Genette
(1982), forme propriu-zise de intertextualitate, ntr-o accepie mult mai restrns i mai
precis dect aceea pe care o confer anterior termenului Kristeva (1969) sau Rifaterre (1979;
1981) i, n plus, bine distinct de ceea ce Genette (1982) desemneaz prin hipertextualitate,
Dezvoltm mai mult aceast idee, ilustrnd-o prin trimiteri la opere literare care se dezvolt intertextual
sau, n acepia lui Genette (1982), transtextual, n Popa Blanariu (2014).
2
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ca o alt categorie a transtextualitii. Aceasta din urm constituie sau mai degrab se
integreaz n obiectul poeticii (Genette 1982), ceea ce, aeznd concluzia lui Genette ntr-o
perspectiv comparatist, o recomand, de asemenea, ca pe o component a obiectului unei
nc ateptate (Greimas i Courts 1979) poetici comparat(ist)e o cross-cultural
poetics (Marino 1998: 22), deja prefigurat, ntre alii, de tiemble (1958; 1963), Munteano
(1967), Marino (1988).
Ren tiemble (1958; 1963) i apoi Adrian Marino (1988; 1998) identific la nivelul
invariantului, dup cum aminteam, un (alt) concept-cheie al comparatismului teoretic
(Marino 1998), ntr-o accepie impus de tiemble i teoretizat insistent, cu aspiraii ctre un
sistem taxinomic i o metodologie bine definite, de ctre discipolul su romn, Marino.
Definiia n (meta)limbaj semiotic pe care o dau invariantului, n Dicionarul lor, Greimas
i Courts, ntlnete, ntr-o anumit msur, accepia pe care i-o confer tiemble i Marino.
Potrivit lui Greimas i Courts, un termen se va numi invariant dac prezena sa este condiia
necesar prezenei unui alt termen cu care el este n relaie i care se numete variabil. Este
vorba, aici, de reformularea conceptului de presupoziie: invariantul este termenul presupus n
relaia de presupoziie (Greimas & Courts 1979 :195). Continund cteva observaii din
cursul inaugural inut la Sorbona, n 1957 i reluate, un an mai trziu, n Hygine des lettres,
tiemble formuleaz o apreciere cumva surprinztoare: Dac pot explica toate temele
preromantismului european din secolul al XVIII-lea apelnd la citate din poezia chinez
dinaintea cretinismului i din primele dousprezece secole ale erei cretine nseamn c, ntradevr, exist forme, genuri, invariani, pe scurt, exist omul, literatura. Exist ()
literatura, adic ntr-o posibil interpretare a concluziei lui tiemble un corpus universal
de texte, analizabile pe baza unui ansamblu de criterii i trsturi comune i perene, ce pot fi
numite invariani. Acetia din urm pot fi de ordin tematic (coninutistic, s spunem) ori
morfo-structural (precum structura actanial a epicului i dramaticului ori formalizarea
aciunii narative, cf. Propp 1970; Tesnire 1959; Greimas 1973; Greimas 1986; Todorov
1975; Souriau 1950).
Semnalarea invariantului ca (arhe)tip universal i transistoric a subminat ntructva
autoritatea pe care, pn atunci, o avuseser principiul istoric al genezei formelor literare
(potrivit cruia o anumit structur discursiv sau tematic este produsul prin excelen iar
uneori, monopolul sau rezultatul simptomatic al unei anumite epoci, al unor circumstane
cultural-istorice) i, respectiv, principiul raporturilor de fapt (al contactelor directe ntre
literaturi, ceea ce nseamn c anume literatur, oper sau autor influeneaz, la un moment
dat, alt() literatur, oper sau autor) (Marino 1998). Atta vreme ct apar similitudini i
coincidene ntre fenomene literare ce n-au avut niciodat legturi sau contacte, nu se
poate vorbi de influene explicabile n manier pozitivist, pe baza unor raporturi de fapt
(tiemble 1958; tiemble 1963; Marino 1998). O ipotez plauzibil ar fi, n acest caz,
existena unor constante (Munteano 1967) ale discursului i imaginaiei literare, altfel spus,
existena invarianilor de diferite tipuri (tiemble 1963; Marino 1998: 63-66). De aceea, ntr-o
perioad n care studierea comparatist a literaturilor era dominat de istorism, tiemble
propunea, ca alternativ, studiul similitudinilor independente de contactele directe. Proba
pertinenei conceptului de invariant a adecvrii lui la specificul fenomenelor literare este,
n opinia lui tiemble i Marino, tocmai existena acestor coincidene, similitudini, ntlniri
i corespondene literare, n timp i spaiu, adic a unor elemente comune, ntr-un grup de
fenomene (opere, curente, direcii i tendine de creaie, literaturi ntregi), n lipsa unor
raporturi de fapt care s le justifice (Marino 1998: 63-64).
n consecin, Adrian Marino definete invariantul ca fiind o constant deopotriv
temporal i geo-cultural, un element universal al literaturii, o trstur comun a
discursului literar sau a gndirii literare (1998: 63-66). Astfel, prin nsi natura lui,
invariantul funcioneaz ca un factor de stabilitate, de permanen i ca un element-cheie
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al comparatismului teoretic (Marino 1998: 66). n pofida distanelor istorice i geografice

dintre operele particulare i a diferenelor care decurg de aici, luarea n considerare a
invarianilor permite studiul sistematic i comparativ al literaturilor, pe baza raportului dintre
invariant i variabil, dintre un nucleu formal stabil i o serie de elemente particulare asociate
acestuia, contextual dependente. Distana dintre termenii acestei dihotomii corespunde aceleia
dintre abordarea esenialmente teoretic i cea istoric, altfel spus, dintre poetica de tip
comparatist i comparatismul tradiional. Ultimul se intereseaz, dintr-o perspectiv
particularizant, de legturile singulare, empirice, de coincidenele n sine. Cea dinti
vizeaz, pe ct posibil, principiile generale ce duc la i/ sau explic, dincolo de eventuale
raporturi de fapt, respectivele coincidene ori similitudini (Marino 1998).
Valorificarea conceptului de invariant permite, ntr-o anumit msur, reconcilierea a
dou tipuri de demers comparatist: istoric (preocupat de fenomenal, adic de imediat i
concret) i, respectiv, teoretic (viznd esena care se manifest n istorie, dar o transgreseaz,
ridicndu-se la generalitatea principiilor transistorice) (Marino 1998). Cu dubla lui natur
istoric i teoretic , invariantul semnalat de tiemble i teoretizat de Marino se apropie de
ceea ce Viktor klovski numea topi (gr. topos) sau locuri comune: acestea se repet
tocmai pentru c motivul exprim o anume esen, chiar dac prin repetiie, el i schimb
esena (1974: 48). De fapt, esena nu se schimb, nu se altereaz, ci se realizeaz, se
actualizeaz n aspecte particulare, istorice ale materiei literare. Esena o abstracie
teoretic, transistoric i invariabil capt corpul concret i perceptibil al fenomenului
literar (oper sau grup de opere), desfurat n spaiu i timp. Esena, general, se coloreaz cu
savoarea particular a unui loc, a unei epoci, a unei personaliti creatoare. Astfel ni se
lmurete mai bine de ce tiemble vede n invarianii literari condiiile fr de care oricnd,
oriunde, nu exist form frumoas (tiemble 1958: 166-167). Marino distinge mai multe
clase de invariani: antropologici, teoretico-ideologici, teoretico-literari i, n fine, literari.
Dintre acetia, ne vom opri ndeosebi asupra ultimei categorii, aceea a invarianilor literari,
care dovedesc existena unor experiene umane universale, exprimate asemntor n literaturi
diferite.
Pe urmele lui tiemble, Marino (1988; 1998) exemplific aceast categorie prin cteva
asemnri ntre literatura european i cea extrem-oriental. Astfel de similitudini sunt dificil,
dac nu imposibil de explicat pe baza unor legturi i raporturi de fapt care ar face
probabil exercitarea unor influene, ntr-un sens ori n altul. Astfel, poezia chinez din
epoca Song (sec. X-XIII) i (pre)romantismul european mpart un inventar comun de teme i
motive, bine cunoscute ca mrci ale imaginarului romantic: peisajul ca stare de suflet
ecou al sentimentelor eului liric , iubirea, prevalena sensibilitii ca facult matresse,
trecerea timpului, ruinele (tiemble 1958). La observaia iniial, tocmai amintit, a lui
tiemble, Marino (1988; 1998: 87) adaug nite asemnri ntre poezia epocii Tang (sec.
VIII-IX) i cea baroc englez din secolul al XVII-lea, elegia chinez i cea european,
tematica romanelor chinezeti i a celor europene. Marino semnaleaz, pe bun dreptate,
aceste similitudini, dar fr a le documenta n detaliu ct vreme intenia sa este de a
identifica un tipar general, un pattern (type), iar nu de a analiza manifestrile particulare
(token) ale acestuia, contextual dependente.
Tocmai de aceea, pe baza trimiterilor la un corpus literar pe care l impune chiar
demonstraia noastr, vom argumenta n continuare existena unor astfel de paralelisme ntre
poezia Tang (sec. VII-IX) reprezentat n mod special, de Li Tai Pe, Van Vei, Du Fu i
lirica baroc european din secolul al XVII-lea. ntlnim astfel, n poezia T'ang, sensibilitatea
barocului european la timp, presimirea sfritului care amenin totul i a fragilitii
implacabile a vieii, manifestate prin aceleai motive poetice: memento mori, fugit
irreparabile tempus, vanitas vanitatum, iar uneori, ca replic a vieii la nsi efemeritatea ei,
consolarea unui carpe diem. De fapt, lrgind sfera paralelismului dincolo de graniele
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geoliterare trasate de Marino, dar continundu-i i ntrindu-i ideea, aceleai motive constituie
deja nuclee ale refleciei asupra condiiei umane n cea de-a doua parte a Epopeii lui
Ghilgame. Elaborat ctre sfritul mileniului al treilea i nceputul celui de-al doilea,
aceasta este, aadar, cu mult anterioar poeziei T'ang i barocului european; mai mult, n
calitatea ei de sintez mitologic i sapienial-narativ a tradiiilor culturale coexistente n
spaiul vechii Mesopotamii, ea este profund relevant pentru un Weltanschauung specific
Orientului Apropiat antic (Antonescu & Cizek 1971: 18-19). Urmele acestui Weltanschauung
sunt nc detectabile n tradiia iudeo-cretin i n literatura inspirat de aceasta, de ast dat
n virtutea unor explicabile contacte culturale, altminteri spus, a unor raporturi de fapt
petrecute n creuzetul intercultural al vechii Mesopotamii, ntre multitudinea de seminii i
matrici stilistice (Blaga 1969 1935: 8-115) care s-au ntlnit, confruntat i mpletit acolo
de-a lungul unei istorii milenare. Fr a ne propune s dezvoltm aici acest aspect, s
semnalm totui c el permite o apropiere, poate chiar o convergen, ntre teoria
invarianilor, formulat de tiemble i Marino, i respectiv, filosofia stilului, n accepia pe
care i-o confer Blaga. Mai exact, putem constata c n afara oricror raporturi de fapt,
factorii constitutivi ai matricii stilistice fie ei primari (orizontul spaial i temporal al
incontientului, accentul axiologic, atitudinea anabasic, catabasic adic neutr i
nzuina formativ) sau secundari (Blaga 1969: 105-115) pot conduce la forme similare
de expresie cultural, reductibile la categoria invarianilor, fie acetia antropologici sau de
alt natur, potrivit taxinomiei lui Marino (1988; 1998). Astfel, arta chinez seamn cu arta
impresionismului francez, prin dragostea de nuan i inefabil completeaz Blaga (1969:
105) tabloul paralelismelor dintre Extremul Orient i Europa, independente de legturile
culturale directe i eventual explicabile pe baza conceptelor corelate de invariant (tiemble
1958; tiemble 1963; Marino 1988; Marino 1998) i matrice stilistic (Blaga 1969 [1935]).
Revenind la paralelismul propriu-zis literar, constatm c deopotriv n epopeea
sumero-babilonian, la Van Vei i, mult mai trziu, la John Donne i poeii metafizici
englezi, apare o idee comun, formulat n afara oricrei eventuale influene ntre
literaturile respective: ideea singurei revane ngduite omului n faa timpului i a morii, una
posibil doar n planul spiritului i al creaiei; e o idee pe care n sec. I .e.n., Horatiu o va
exprima de-o manier devenit clasic, non omnis moriar, exegi monumentum aere
perennius, iar Malraux, multe secole mai trziu, o va relua cumva, descoperind n art un
anti-destin. Izvorte din aceeai presimire a trecerii i nefiinei, o constant a naturii
umane, aceste poeme, n afara oricrei influene pozitivist databile, exprim similar ceea
ce valideaz teza invarianilor o experien uman fundamental, aceea a contientizrii
propriei vremelnicii i a exorcizrii poetice a angoasei pe care o poate crea aceasta. Epopeea
lui Ghilgame i poezia european fiind mai cunoscute cititorului de pe btrnul continent,
dat fiind structura programelor de literatur universal, universitare sau preuniversitare, vom
ilustra n continuare motivele comune deja amintite (memento mori, fugit irreparabile tempus,
vanitas vanitatum, carpe diem) prin trimiteri ndeosebi la poezia epocii 'Tang: Zilele zboar./
E firesc, vei spune./ Dar lunec i veacul n genune!/ Alctuind/ ale triei sfere,/ se mistur-n
haos/ mii de ere./ Brumele timpului/ pe ndelete/ vai, cotropir/ i-ale znei plete./ Stpnul/
ochii i-i opri pe-o fat/ i hohotete venicia toat/ (...)/ Averi? Mrire? - / ci ctre niciunde!/
Pe voi a vrea s v opresc,/ secunde (Li Tai-pe, Stihuri despre scurta trecere a vieii, in Li
Tai-pe et alii: 36-37). Era chiparosul a obtei/ mndrie,/ coroana lui prea/ un baldachin,/ iar
el/ ca un dragon domnea-n cmpie,/ stpn pe vnturi,/ neclintit, deplin./ La umbra lui cea
grea, n miez de var, se adunau din jur la sfat/ monegi./ Cum s ghiceti/ c el trgea s
moar,/ supus unor/ necrutoare legi?/ Cum fremta,/ puternic n amiaz,/ tristeii nepltindui bir/ nicicnd!/ i iat,/ rdcinile cedeaz,/ cad crengile,/ ca poamele, pe rnd./ ()/ Un
cltor/ venit din lumea larg/ privete gnditor/ copacu-nfrnt,/ vrnd sa cunoasc/ i s
neleag/ ce legi domnesc n cer/ i pe pmnt (Du Fu, Chiparosul bolnav, in Li Tai-pe et
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alii: 95-96). Un argument n plus pentru pertinena conceptelor de invariant i constant

literar, oimul cu pliscul larg deschis al lui Du Fu (in Li Tai-pe et alii: 98-99) amintete
cumva de Albatrosul baudelairian; precum a celui din urm, Cumplit-i soarta/ oimului
bolnav!/ Batjocura-l pndete/ oriiunde:/ Noaptea,/ pe malul rului gngav,/ un arbore/
durerea i-o ascunde./ ()/ naripatul/ cerului cuit/ silit e umilina/ s-o nvee./ Penetul/ ntratt i s-a rrit,/ c nu-l mai poi privi/ fr tristee./ Iat-l/ pe zi ce trece mai sfrit:/ i-un uliui poate/ cuta glceav./ Odinioar,/ cel acum smerit/ cu vulturii se ntrecea/ n slav./ (...)/ Ca
piatra/ peste prad-ar fi czut,/ de nu i-ar fi/ aripa dreapt rupt: eroul boltei piere/ abtut,/
ucis/ de via fr lupt.
n maniera umanismului european de peste ase secole, transpare, n cteva versuri de
Van Vei, afirmarea orgolioas a gndirii umane. Ca n lirica panspiritualist a lui John Donne
i a poeilor metafizici englezi, ca n sonetele lui Shakespeare, ntr-o anumit msur, Van
Vei elogiaz fora spiritului prin care omul i poate rscumpra slbiciunea trupului: Soarele
purpuriu, nemilos/ prjolete i pmnt, i cer,/ Norii, n flcri,/ ca nite muni se-mbulzesc
n trie./ Frunze i ierburi/ se rsucesc dezndjduite i pier,/ ruri se sting,/ din lac a rmas
doar un fel de leie./ (...)/ Gndul meu ns nicio putere lumeasc nu-l poate-nrobi,/ el
cutreier/ spaiul fr hotare./ (...)/ Am neles dintr-odat/ c suferinele doar bicisnicul trup
ni-l ucid./ Spiritul/ nu contenete s zboare./ Porile spre roua cea dulce/ sfios le deschid/
puritate/ din ele sorbind i rcoare (Van Vei, Ari, in Li Tai-pe et alii: 59-60). De altfel,
Van Vei, mpreun cu confraii lui de generaie, Li Tai-pe i Du Fu, prefaeaz n secolul al
VIII-lea, un moment de cotitur n Evul Mediu chinez, nceputul unei Renateri,
substanial asemntoare cu cea care s-a produs mai trziu n Europa. ntocmai ca aici, ea a
constituit o uria schimbare de optic sub semnul umanismului, ntocmai ca aici a fost
neleas ca o ntoarcere la antichitate i ntocmai ca aici a fost presimit de un mare poet.
Dac n Italia, vestitorul ei a fost Dante, n China el s-a numit Li Tai-pe (Li Bo) (Covaci
1980: 5). n opinia noastr, o astfel de similitudine n evoluia paralel a celor dou literaturi,
chinez i european, ar putea ilustra, n afara oricrei suspiciuni de influen, existena a
ceea ce Marino (1988; 1998) consider a fi alte dou tipuri distincte de invariani, anume cei
ideologici (nite idei-for, topoi comune diferitelor viziuni colective asupra lumii i
vieii) i respectiv, teoretico-ideologici, identificabili la nivelul refleciei teoretice a i
asupra literaturii, ca baz a unei eventuale retorici sau poetici universale (implicite sau
explicite) a literaturii, precum i a unei prezumtive estetici universale (Marino 1998: 75-76)
.
Exemplele pot, firete, continua. Dintre multele ce s-ar putea nc da, mai amintim
dou. De-a lungul istoriei culturii, n diferite locuri, precum India i Grecia, tipare de expresie
ritual se laicizeaz treptat; numeroase forme de expresie artistic se desprind din ansamblul
sincretic al ritului; iar o sumedenie de form(ul)e literare deriv, n toat lumea, din vechi
istorii sacre (mituri, genealogii supranaturale, scenarii de iniiere, imnuri de glorificare
divin) (Marino 1973: 564). Astfel, tragedia greac s-a dezvoltat, potrivit celei mai
rspndite, dar nu unice ipoteze, din cultul lui Dionysos (zeu arhaic al vegetaiei, precum bine
se tie, devenit, n perioada clasic a Greciei, zeu al teatrului, metamorfozei i iluziei teatrale)
(Rachet 1980). Similar, dansul clasic indian reprezint i astzi povestea sacr a zeilor
tradiionali, iar transpunerea scenic a dramei sanscrite era, ca tragedia greac la nceputurile
ei, inseparabil de dans (Vatsyayan 1974). (Dansurile greceti care nsoeau reprezentarea
tragediei se numeau emmelia i hyporchem, cf. Urseanu et alii, 1967). O dovad n plus a
originii cultice a dansului clasic indian este aceea c, pn la interdicia britanic din secolul
al XIX-lea, el se practica n temple (Vatsyayan 1974). Poezia epic parcurge, n bun msur,
acelai proces, de la mit la istoria desacralizat, de la arhetip spre schema epic
particularizat (Marino 1973: 565). Aadar, trecerea de la sacru la profan de la ludus sacer
(jocul religios) la ludus aestheticus (jocul estetic) este nc un invariant, un topos universal,
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identificabil n decantarea secular a mijloacelor de expresie specifice diferitelor coduri i

limbaje artistice: teatrale, literare, muzicale, coregrafice etc.
Exist, de asemenea, invariani ai epopeii, elemente ce o definesc esenialmente:
tematica obligatoriu eroic, relatare a unor fapte extraordinare, subiecte faimoase,
aventuroase, n stilul mitologiei eroice tradiionale (Marino 1973: 567) i tipologia
idealizat, aa nct eroul epic apare, de obicei, ca un cumul al virtuilor apreciate de
colectivitatea care i-l asum. Personarum illustrium, illustres actiones sintetizeaz
Renaterea european specificul epopeii, ca o specie considerat exemplar, la acea vreme,
pentru genul epic (Scaliger, Poetica, 1561, apud Marino 1973: 567). Exist, deopotriv, nite
invariani ai romanului, care conduc, n afara oricror raporturi de fapt, tocmai la acele
asemnri ntre romanul extrem-oriental i cel realist european, pe care le subliniaz Marino,
continundu-l pe tiemble.
Pe urmele lui Propp (1970), semiotica naraiunii i aceea a teatrului au ncercat s
formalizeze n fel i chip personajele i situaiile epice sau dramatice, identificnd astfel o
sum de invariani ai acestora (Tesnire 1959; Greimas 1973; Greimas 1986; Todorov 1975;
Souriau 1950). Fr a relua n detaliu aceste modele semiotice, ndeajuns de cunoscute, s
remarcm totui c schema todorovian a arhi-nuvelei lui Boccaccio (Todorov 1975) poate
fi aplicat, n opinia noastr, i altor opere epice. De pild, nuvelei mileziene, ca structur
narativ inclus n romanul antic latin precum episodul Matroana din Efes sau Biatul
din Pergam (n Petronius, Satyricon) ori povestea morarului i povestea despre Filesiterus,
Barbarus, Areta (din Apuleius, Mgarul de aur). Nuvela antic milezian i aceea
renascentist a lui Boccaccio ultima formalizat de Todorov (1975) printr-un model
generativ pe care-l numete arhi-nuvel au, de altfel, dincolo de invarianii constitutivi ai
arhi-nuvelei, alte cteva trsturi comune: tematica (observarea moravurilor realist, fr
tendine de idealizare); atitudinea naratorului (critic, astfel nct aceste nuvele constituie
fragmente dintr-o fresc a moravurilor, evocnd mustos-satiric antichitatea greco-latin i,
respectiv, Italia Renaterii); umorul (popular, frust, nu o dat licenios). Dei provin din
culturi i epoci istorice diferite, cele dou tipuri de nuvel pot fi descrise pe baza acelorai
categorii narative nite invariani semio-naratologici, pn la urm identificate de
Todorov. Prin urmare, ele sunt reductibile, n opinia noastr, la aceeai schem narativ, la
acelai model tipologic. La o astfel de concluzie poate conduce analiza verbelor (aciunilor)
narative, a numelor proprii (agenilor) i a adjectivelor (stri, proprieti, statute)
implicate, potrivit lui Todorov (1975), n manifestarea verbal-acional a agenilor narativi
respectivi.
Raporturi de dependen3 sau influen4. Traducere, adaptare, transpunere
intersemiotic5
Din raiuni didactice i sub rezerva c o atare schematizare nu epuizeaz complexitatea
faptelor supuse analizei, Dan Grigorescu (1997: 196-197) sistematizeaz astfel principalele
fenomene ce fac obiectul cercetrii comparatiste: mprumuturi elementare (citate, pastie);
traduceri; adaptri; imitaii serioase (inclusiv stilizri) sau umoristice, critice (parodii);
influene (raporturi de fapt); paralele sugernd existena unei influene; paralele sincronice
(n cuprinsul unei zone culturale determinate); analogii istorice, inclusiv apropieri tipologice
(n cuprinsul sau n afara unei zone culturale comune); analogii anistorice (sistemice) pe
temeiul constantelor literare sau implicnd constante antropologice; analogii anistorice i
3
Termenul apare la Baldensperger (1921); v. Claudon & Haddad-Wotling (1997: 23).

Ren Wellek (1971 1942) folosete termenul influen n cadrul polemicii sale cu comparatitii
francezi; v. Claudon & Haddad-Wotling (1997: 23).
5
Cf. Jakobson (1963).
4
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nesistematice n literatur (retorice, stilistice) sau depind hotarele literaturii (stabilite

ntre diverse arte).
Raporturile de dependen sau de influen sunt relaii binare (Claudon &
Haddad-Wotling 1997: 23): o oper (sau un grup de opere) influeneaz elaborarea alteia
sau altora. Un caz particular al acestor raporturi binare l reprezint traducerile i adaptrile.
Sunt celebre traducerile lui Baudelaire din Poe, ale lui Rilke din Valry sau ale lui Stefan
George din Baudelaire etc. (Claudon & Haddad-Wotling 1997: 23; Grigorescu 1997: 77-78).
Cum bine se tie, cele mai reuite traduceri nu sunt transpuneri servile, mot--mot, ale
originalului, ci, totodat, expresia personalitii traductorului. Acesta poate lsa s se
manifeste, n traducere, virtualiti ale textului iniial ori suprima, prin echivalenele alese,
trsturi semantice ale originalului. De pild, un celebru sonet de Ronsard Cnd vei fi
foarte btrn, din Amours dHlne este tradus de Yeats, n The Rose, sub titlul When you
are old and grey and full of sleep (Claudon & Haddad-Wotling 1997: 23). Se confirm astfel
un cunoscut calambur italian: traduttore, traditore. Dar tocmai trdarea pe care o svrete
el face din traductor un creator (Grigorescu 1997: 77-78). Altminteri spus, traducerea
dispune de o anume inevitabil limitat autonomie estetic i semantic.
Pentru c poezia, n esena ei, este intraductibil, Roman Jakobson consider c
singura posibil este transpunerea creatoare. Aceasta poate fi transpunere n interiorul
unei limbi de la o form poetic la alta , transpunere dintr-o limb n alta sau, n cele din
urm, transpunere intersemiotic. Ultima amintit nseamn convertire dintr-un sistem de
semne (ori, mai simplu, mijloace expresive) n altul. De pild, literatura e transpus n muzic,
dans, cinematografie, pictur (Jakobson 1963: 86). Acesta constituie, de fapt, enunat in nuce,
nc din anii '60, temeiul studiilor multi- i intermediale de astzi, care au luat amploare cu
precdere din anii '90 ncoace. Relaiile intersemiotice pot face obiectul unui comparatism n
sens larg: acolo unde nu se mai stabilete nicio relaie ntre om i text, ntre oper i receptor,
ntre inut i cltor, se termin i domeniul literaturii comparate (Guyard 1978: 5). Astfel,
Charles Gounod (1818 1893) este autorul unui Faust romantic (1859) oper n cinci acte
pe un libret de Michel Carr i Jules Barbier, dup versiunea Goethe a mitului faustic.
Construcia discursului muzical urmeaz destul de sugestiv, cel puin pe anumite poriuni,
trama narativ din versiunea goethean. De pild, nceputul celei din urm este transpus
muzical de ctre Gounod prin sonoriti tumultuoase, sunet de clopot (referire la clopotele
nvierii care l opresc pe Faust s se sinucid), adagio. Acest termen se ntlnete nu numai n
metalimbajul muzicii, ci i n acela al baletului, unde desemneaz secvenele de duet. n
transpunerea lui Gounod, adagio, ca acompaniament al dansului de perechi, evoc episodul
Faust Margareta, care, n varianta goethean, e o mpletire a temei faustice cu mitul
donjuanesc.
Pe de alt parte, preferinele muzicale ale coregrafilor, n acord cu aciunea scenic pe
care o imagineaz, sunt nu o dat eclectice, mergnd, aa cum procedeaz Maurice Bjart,
pn la amestecul ocant al unor extreme stilistice, considerate de obicei incompatibile:
Creez un balet pe muzic de Beethoven, apoi de Pink Floyd, apoi pe muzic indian sau pe
muzica lui Bach, dar amestec Bach cu tango argentian, aa cum am fcut n Faustus (Bjart
2002 : 190). Aparent gratuit extravagan (diagnostic pe care, nu o dat, i l-au pus cronicarii
de spectacol lui Bjart), a amesteca Bach cu tango argentinian este, de fapt, o ingenioas
transpunere muzical a aptitudinii pentru cunoaterea total, ca marc a personalitii faustice.
E un mod de a sugera, prin temele muzicale alese, extremele ce o definesc. Tangoul evoc
pasionalitate, senzualitate. La cealalt extrem, muzica lui Bach conoteaz serenitate,
abstragere contemplativ. Credem c alegnd aceast surprinztoare mixtur, Bjart
concentreaz, ntr-un discurs muzical intenionat eterogen, dualitatea fiinei faustice, mprite
ntre Cer i Pmnt, ntre mntuire i (de)cdere, aflate poate chiar dincolo de Bine i de
Ru. Aparent aleatorie i gratuit eclectic, muzica spectacolului susine, n realitate, logica
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organizrii lui actaniale : subiectul i anti-subiectul se confrunt astfel n spaiul

individualitii aceluiai actor (eroul faustic). Temele muzicale ale spectacolului lui Bjart
(aceea a subiectului i, respectiv, anti-subiectului) reflect asumarea acestei scheme actaniale.
S reamintim c n afar de disjunciile sintagmatice (subiect obiect, destinator
destinatar), Greimas identific nite disjuncii paradigmatice: subiect pozitiv/ negativ (sau
anti-subiect), obiect pozitiv/ negativ, destinator pozitiv/ negativ (anti-destinator), destinatar
pozitiv/ negativ (anti-destinatar) (Greimas 1973: 162-163). Astfel, ntre actani i actori,
raportul poate fi, potrivit lui Greimas, unul de non-adecvare, ceea ce nseamn c un actant
se poate manifesta prin mai muli actori, dup cum un actor poate reprezenta mai muli
actani. De pild, destinatarul poate fi propriul su destinator, precum eroul cornelian, care
i datoreaz. Deopotriv, subiectul i anti-subiectul pot duce, n acelai actor, o lupt
interioar (Greimas 1973: 166-167), ceea ce i se ntmpl lui Faust (Popa Blanariu 2008;
2013).
Exegei ai piesei shakespeariene Furtuna consider c tema ei fundamental este
biruina spiritului asupra materiei, a melos-ului asupra haosului, a omului asupra lui nsui
(Fluchre apud Levichi 1990: 431). Prospero, care nrobete spiritul bestial i eteric, nu are
odihn pn cnd nu efectueaz regenerarea dumanilor si. Este victoria suprem, victoria
spiritului asupra materiei, a dragostei asupra urii, a omului asupra lui nsui (Fluchre
apud Levichi 1990: 431). Adaptarea propus de Sergiu Anghel, ntr-o formul de teatru-dans
(producie a Teatrului de balet Oleg Danovski din Constana, cu premiera pe 25 iunie
2001), subliniaz opoziia fundamental dintre melos i haos. Melos nseamn armonie i
ordine, impuse de puterea spiritului demiurgic al lui Prospero i pstrate cu ajutorul lui Ariel
i al celorlalte duhuri eterice. Haosul corespunde, n piesa lui Shakespeare, naturii brute,
instinctuale, personificate de Caliban, duhul greoiului. n adaptarea coregrafic a lui Sergiu
Anghel, opoziia melos/ haos, izotopie fundamental a piesei shakespeariene, e subliniat prin
contrastul a dou tipuri de micri: pe de o parte, figuri ascendente, ritmice, sincronizate,
specifice adjuvantului Ariel i spiritelor eterice salturi, agitarea bastoanelor, inuta
consecvent dreapt a capului, gtului, spatelui. (n dansurile rituale strvechi, expunerea
armelor avea o funcie apotropaic, protejnd mpotriva forelor ce ameninau ordinea lumii).
Pe de alt parte, figuri evocnd declinul, specifice lui Caliban: pai descumpnii n lateral i
napoi, balans greoi, tremur, mers i trre n patru labe, prbuire. Ne-am ocupat n al parte
(Popa Blanariu 2013) de alte asemenea transpuneri intersemiotice ale textului literar n
tridimensionalitatea i multi/ intermedialitatea organizrii scenice; de aceea, nu le vom relua
aici.
Traducerea ca transpunere creatoare. nsemnri pe marginea unei traduceri
de C.D. Zeletin: Baudelaire, LHorloge
Exist, n traductologie, un loc comun girat, n prima jumtate a secolului al XX-lea,
de autoritatea intelectual a lui Benedetto Croce, anume intraductibilitatea poeziei. Dei
uneori insuficient precizate, alteori nuanate pn la evanescen, conceptele cu care opereaz
Croce nu sunt ntru totul inoperante, chiar dac ele se cer, nu o dat, reevaluate. n funcie de
conformitatea (n liter sau spirit) cu originalul, traducerile pot fi apreciaz Croce (1972:
112), raliindu-se astfel unei vechi tradiii umaniste fie urte fidele, fie frumoase
infidele, fie (tip insuportabil, gloseaz estetul) urte infidele. n opinia aceluiai, trebuie
fcut distincia ntre tlmcirea modest mijlocitoare i cea desvrit n sine (Croce
1972: 112), care corespunde, pn la urm, aceleia dintre traducere i recreare. Dac
traducerile sunt echivalene de semne, utilizate pentru a nltura echivocul, recrearea
poeziei i a prozei literare (sau estetice) vizeaz s i renvieze, n intraductibilul lor ton
personal (Croce 1972: 112), pe autorii tlmcii.
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O analiz interesant a potenialului de intraductibilitate i recreare (n sens crocean)

pe care l posed lirismul baudelairian a ntreprins, ntre alii, Gilbert Durand (1998: 82-115),
comparnd originalul poemului Les Chats (Pisicile) cu traducerea/ recrearea sa n limba
japonez, sub titlul Neko. Concluzia hermeneutului francez era ntructva previzibil: dei
simbolul pisicii este clar integrat n sensibilitatea japonez (unde felinitatea se asociaz cu
feminitatea, diabolicul, moartea i farmecul decadent al metropolei moderne), totui
transcrierea (iat, Durand cel puin n versiunea Irinei Bdescu opteaz pentru aceast
echivalen contextual) lui Baudelaire n limba japonez este nsoit de numeroase
deplasri de sens (Durand 1998: 94). Antoine Adam (1961: XX) e de prere c poemele
baudelairiene cele mai frumoase nu sunt cele mai disperate, ci acelea blnd evocatoare,
respirnd luxe, calme et volupt. Cu toate acestea, am ales din Les Fleurs du Mal, pentru un
minimal studiu de caz, un poem de o alt factur mai grav, mai sumbru, saturnian i-a spune
LHorloge. Ne-am oprit asupra lui, n primul rnd, pentru c traducerea ne intereseaz, aici,
mai mult dect originalul i, n al doilea rnd, pentru destul de multele i totui inspiratele
infideliti ale traducerii semnate de C.D. Zeletin, cel care, n 1991, la Editura Univers,
ddea prima versiune integral n limba romn a Florilor Rului. Evident c nu aspirm aici
la exhaustivitate, ci numai la a semnala cteva aspecte dintr-o problematic mult mai bogat.
(Fragmentele din poem sunt citate dup ediiile: Les Fleurs du Mal, Paris: Garnier, 1961 i,
respectiv, Florile Rului, traducere de C.D. Zeletin, Bucureti: Univers, 1991).
Exist, n originalul baudelairian al poemului LHorloge, nite expresii ultimative,
jalonnd, repetat i poliglot, un traseu ce duce negreit spre fundtura existenial prefigurat
n ultimul vers: (...) tout le dira: Meurs, vieux lche! il est trop tard! Ca hrca mscriciului n
mna lui Hamlet, se iete aici, baudelairian, une charogne. nfipte ca acele (nu neaprat de
ceasornic) n carnea poemului, formule-avertisment precum Remember, Esto memor,
Memento, Souviens-toi sunt risipite, aparent aleatoriu, pretutindeni de-a lungul poemului la
nceput, la mijloc sau la sfrit de vers. C.D. Zeletin aduce, la nivelul sintaxei ansamblului, o
inovaie notabil, att n raport cu alte versiuni romneti ale aceluiai text, ct i fa de
originalul francez: grupeaz, fr excepie, formulele-avertisment n cap de vers. Atrage,
astfel, mai struitor atenia asupra lor i ritmeaz la nceput alarmant, apoi paroxistic
expresia angoasei.
Secvena baudelairian Les vibrantes Douleurs dans ton coeur plein deffroi/ Se
planteront bientt comme dans une cible. devine, n romnete, n versiunea lui C.D.
Zeletin, Prin inima-ngrozit, Durerea n curnd/ Va sgeta ca glonul prin inta lui cnd
trece. Printr-un fel de sinecdoc n raport cu originalul, pluralul devine singular:
multitudinea se mpuineaz, amplitudinea se adncete i se esenializeaz. Se produce,
astfel, o decantare pn la esena ucigtoare a Durerii, mai tare dect toate Durerile
ndurate vreodat. n francez, semantismul lui se planter este oarecum monofazic: aciunea
verbal se consum ntr-un singur timp. ns romnescul a sgeta acoper, sub aspect
semantic, att direcia (mai exact, unidirecionalitatea) i fora pe care le regsim n
structura semantic a lui se planter , ct i, n plus, vibraia (corzii, zborului, sgeii) ce
prelungete aciunea verbal printr-un timp suplimentar. Astfel, ceea ce, n originalul francez,
se comunic prin vibrantes plus se planter este recuperat n romn prin semantismul
complex, concentrat, sincretic al lui a sgeta.
Chaque instant te dvore un morceau du dlice/ chaque homme accord par toute
sa saison. C.D. Zeletin recreeaz acest fragment baudelairian sub forma: Cu fiecare clip
cltorit i se/ Rpete din averea sortitei desftri. Se remarc aspectul abrupt al
ingambamentului, mai abrupt dect n francez, subliniind, prin chiar destructurarea expresiei,
destrmarea luntric, violena crizei. Trece cu greu neobservat ineditul adjectivizrii
participiului din sintagma clip cltorit mai expresiv dect posibilele echivalene din
seria clip trit/ trecut/ petrecut/ dus etc. Curajoas dar deplin justificat n context ne
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apare traducerea lui dlice prin averea sortitei desftri. Atare opiune respect logica
intern a imaginarului poetic baudelairian, unde, precum n LInvitation au voyage, se implic
reciproc luxe, calme et volupt. Astfel, dlice/volupt preia, prin contiguitate, ceva din ecoul
semantic al lui trsor(avere)/luxe. Dei ndrznea, asemenea opiune de tlmcire nu e,
nicicum, hazardat. Se pot face nc multe adnotri, comparnd originalul i recrearea sa.
ns aa cum anticipam, intenia ne-a fost nu de a epuiza problema, ci doar de a atrage atenia
asupra ei. Versiunea lui C.D. Zeletin confirm vechiul adagiu: traduttore/traditore. Altminteri
spus, o traducere bun e neaprat o trdare reuit.
Concluzii
Evoluia literaturii comparate pune, aadar, n eviden, de mai bine de un veac, un
sinuos proces de autodefinire: nc de la nceputul secolului al XX-lea, ea se profileaz ca un
ansamblu variat de cercetri, de la studierea relaiilor literare internaionale, aezate, n buna
tradiie a fondatorilor, ntr-o perspectiv istoric, pn la constituirea unei poetici comparate,
a crei necesitate i legitimitate sunt clamate astzi. n msura n care terenul ei specific este
un tertium comparationis, care nu aparine niciunuia dintre textele studiate sau, putem
aduga, niciunuia dintre domeniile pe care ea le asociaz interdisciplinar , dar ntreine
raporturi cu fiecare, literatura comparat se confund cu o utopie metodologic (Pageaux
2000: 35). Aceasta implic (i) o delimitare relativ nerestrictiv a obiectului i metodelor de
lucru (Wellek 1965: 282-295; tiemble 1963), cu toate conotaiile pozitive sau dimpotriv,
asociate acestei stri de fapt. Aflat la intersecia unor ansambluri, fiecare cu specificul lui,
comparatismul se alimenteaz, n mod benefic, tocmai din aceste interferene, ntlniri,
schimburi (Pageaux 2000: 34 35) ntre literaturi i ntre domenii de studiu. Totui, chiar
flexibilitatea sa disponibilitatea de continu asimilare i adaptare face ca problema unei
metodologii comparatiste riguroase, ntemeiate pe o teorie coerent (Greimas & Courts
1979: 49), s rmn nc deschis. Contribuiile lui tiemble (1958; 1963), Munteano
(1967), Marino (1988; 1998), ntre alii, dezvoltate n jurul conceptelor de invariant i
constant literar, contureaz astfel, nc de la mijlocul secolului trecut, un program de
cercetare ntru totul actual nc nefinalizat , apt s asocieze studiile literare i cele
interculturale, literatura comparat i antropologia (inter)cultural. Readucnd n atenie, cam
n aceeai perioad, relaiile intersemiotice ale literaturii cu artele, Jakobson (1963)
prefigura, la rndul lui, studiile multi- i intermediale de astzi, chiar intersectarea acestora
din urm cu domeniul extins al literaturii comparate, aa cum este ea neleas n lume, la ora
actual, ca un domeniu eminamente interdisciplinar i cum altfel intercultural.
*
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[1923].
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THE COMPLEXITY OF ALEXANDRU ODOBESCUS PERSONALITY

Elena Lavinia DIACONESCU
Abstract: The purpose of this study is to prove Alexandru Odobescus complex personality.
He was a dual writer interested in both literature and science. The critics found it difficult to
establish the gender of his writings. Besides being an author, Odobescu was also a patriot
and a man who protected the culture of his country. He remains in the history of the 19th
century literature as the writer who fought for a literary Romanian language.
Keywords: writer, archaeologist, historian, geographer, folklorist, teacher, member of the
Romanian Academy, Minister of Culture.
Lumea nu a dus niciodat lips de scriitori. Au existat mereu acei oameni cu idei i cu
o capacitate aparte de a mnui cuvintele, astfel nct mesajul lor s ajung i s rmn n
sufletul asculttorilor sau al cititorilor. ntrebnd un licean romn, imediat dup promovarea
probei de limba i literatura romn de la bacalaureat, ce autori a studiat n liceu, i va
rspunde c a nvat despre: Eminescu, Creang, Caragiale, Slavici, Sadoveanu, Rebreanu,
Petrescu, Preda, Bacovia, Blaga, Arghezi, Barbu, Stnescu. Poate i va mai aduce aminte c
n clasa a XI-a s-a familiarizat cu autorii perioadei vechi, apoi a fcut un salt n timp pn la
perioada modern, pentru a afla ce direcii a luat literatura noastr n secolul al XIX-lea. Aici
a luat contact cu formele hibride ale civilizaiei romneti de la mijlocul secolului n cauz i
a studiat la alegere (la alegerea autorilor manualului mai exact) un text de baz din epoca
respectiv pe aceast tem scriitori: Alecu Russo, Vasile Alecsandri sau Ion Ghica. Elevul
cel studios a descoperit apoi literatura popular, avnd de ales ntre Mioria sau Meterul
Manole. Curnd a trecut la studiul curentelor literare aferente secolului n cauz,
familiarizndu-se, pe rnd, cu opera unor scriitori emblematici aparinnd romantismului (
Eminescu i Grigore Alexandrescu/Ion Heliade Rdulescu/ Costache Negruzzi), realismului
(I. L. Caragiale/ Ioan Slavici) i simbolismului ( Alexandru Macedonski/ tefan
Petic/Dimitrie Anghel/ Ion Minulescu).
Lsnd la o parte pura observaie a faptului c liceenii romni studiaz de aproape 13
ani (conform indicaiilor Programei de limba i literatura romn din 2002, clasele IX-XII)
doar operele unor scriitori autohtoni, i doar n treact, prin studiile de caz, se fac comparaii
i asocieri cu textele din literatura universal, nu putem s nu ne ntrebm cum au ajuns ei s
fie cunoscui societii actuale, ce criterii au stat la baza selectrii acestor autori, n
detrimentul altora. Oare doar cei mai talentai n ale scrisului au fost implantai n memoria
colectiv? i pn la urm talentul este de ajuns? Ci oameni talentai (din orice domeniu) nu
se irosesc, fr a avea ansa de a arta lumii de ce sunt n stare? Ci autori nu i pstreaz
operele n sertar, din lipsa curajului de a da publicului rodul muncii lor sau pentru c edituriile
nu i public? Se tie faptul c unii dintre cei mai mari scriitori nu au avut susinere i succes
de la nceput. Alexandru Odobescu este de prere c, pentru a stabili talentul unui scriitor, s
ne ferim de a-l scoate din cercul n care s-au dezvoltat i s-au exercitat facultile sale; spre a-i
nelege mrimea, spre a-i cntri puterile, spre a-i preui ideile, limba i stilul trebuie s nu
pierdem din vedere nici ara, nici epoca n care el a scris; trebuie s ne gndim mai nti cum
simeau i cugetau, cu vorbeau i scriau oamenii din timpul lui, cci silinele-i au fost negreit
mai vrtos pentru contimporanii si. Viitorimea motenete numai ceea ce a rmas bun i
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glorios dintr-nsele1. Cu alte cuvinte, pentru a rmne n posterioritate ca un scriitor mare,

trebuie s ai talent, curaj, idei creative, puin noroc i s te nati la momentul potrivit. Citatul
nu a fost ales la ntmplare, ci cu scopul de a introduce n scen pe Alexandru Odobescu, cel a
cruri oper nu este studiat n liceele din Romnia, dup cum am artat mai sus, dar care a
contribuit la evoluia cultural-istorico-tiintific din epoca sa, dominat de schimbrile impuse
de Cuza i apoi de regele Carol I. Nu a fost el un scriitor suficient de talentat pentru
viitorime? Vom vedea...
Lsnd n urm divagaia pe tema autorilor studiai n coli, divagaie mprumutat din
specificul stilului odobescian, ne vom orienta acum doar asupra realizrilor lui Alexandru
Odobescu pentru a demonstra complexitatea personalitii sale. Muli dintre criticii si au
considerat necesar prezentarea arborelui genealogic, poate pentru a arta c s-a nscut ntr-o
familie bogat, asigurndu-i-se astfel, o educaie aleas i o via lipsit de griji financiare.
George Clinescu, spre exemplu, descrie mai mult viaa lui Odobescu, insistnd pe greelile
sale de administrare a banilor, dect face analiza operei acestuia n Istoria Literaturii romne
de la origini pn n prezent, dovedindu-se a fi cel mai sever critic al lui Odobescu.
Nscut n 1834, copilul Odobescu a avut parte de o educaie aleas, mai nti acas cu
un profesor particular, apoi la Colegiul Sf. Sava, familiarizndu-se cu scrierile greceti,
latineti i franceze. De pe la 13 ani a nceput s redacteze scrisori, la nceput mamei, atunci
cnd era plecat de lng ea, i mai trziu, soiei i celorlalte rude i prieteni. Florentin
Popescu, autorul lucrrii Romanul vieii i operei lui Alexandru Odobescu, consider
relevant pentru evoluia ulterioar a scrisului odobescian scrisoarea trimis de tnr mamei
n vacana de var (1847) de la Balta Alb, scrisoare ce conine elemente beletristice ce vor
defini mai trziu stilul acestuia de expunere a ideilor. Lacul e foarte ntins. Dar n jurul lui nu
sunt adposturi trainice, aa nct bolnavii i cei sntoi (care sunt mai muli dect ceilali) au
fost silii s-i nale pe mal csue de scnduri ori s-i ntind corturi. E foarte ciudat s vezi
acest ir lung de astfel de locuine, aa de hazliu alctuite2. n aceeai scrisoare va descrie n
stil romantic satul pzit de luna aflat pe un cer albastru stropit de nori fini i de stelele care
aveau strlucirea lor slbit de a lunii. Biatul avea de atunci veleiti de peisagist, fiind un
observator precoce al naturii. i va perfeciona tehnica pe parcursul ntregii viei de scriitor.
Capacitile sale descriptive au fost alimentate i de ansa de a cltori n locuri unde
nu mult lume a timpului su ar fi putut vreodat ajunge. i ncepe studiile la Paris i sub
ndrumarea unor profesori de elit, ale cror cri le adaug bibliotecii sale n formare,
particip la cursurile de limb greac, latin, sanscrit, literatur oriental, limb german,
francez, arheologie, drept. Demonstreaz, astfel, c era un elev silitor, dornic s nvee i s
acumuleze ct mai multe informaii din domenii diverse, informaii care i vor fi utile n
viitoarele scrieri.
nfiinarea asociaiei Junimea Romn la 3 ani de la revoluia din 1848, care avea ca
idealuri promovarea egalitii i dreptii n organizarea democratic a rii, suveranitatea
naional precum i solidaritatea cu popoarele asuprite, a atras o muline de tineri romni care
studiau la Paris, printre care i pe Odobescu, ce s-a dovedit a fi un membru activ. Implicarea
sa demonstreaz c era un om energic, pasionat de ceea ce nva i fcea. Acesta este doar
nceputul manifestrilor pro-naionale odobesciene, el dovedind de mai multe ori pe parcursul
vieii dragostea pentru ar. Ca membru al Junimii Romne a inut prima sa expunere n faa
unui auditoriu Viitorul artelor n Romnia, n care a folosit un ton degajat, a avut o
atitudine pozitiv i i-a exprimat ncrederea n capacitile artei (muzic, pictur, sculptur i
Alexandru Odobescu, Poeii Vcreti n Opere, II, Ed. Academiei Republicii Socialiste Romnia, bucureti,
1967, p. 42
1
Alexandru Odobescu, Note de cltorie, Ed. Sport-Turism, Bucureti, 1981, p. 14
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arhitectur laolalt) de a regenera politic i moral poporul. Sub convingerea c ptura de jos a
societii poate fi ridicat prin cultur, Odobescu a publicat n primul numr al Junimii
Romne articolul Muncitorul romn, care coninea, pe lng descrierea peisajului rii i a
locuitorilor, i solicitrile de factur paoptist: unirea romnilor i mproprietrirea ranilor.
Articolul, scris la 17 ani, este o pagin de o rar calitate, una dintre cele mai frumoase ale
momentului literar din 1848 i una dintre cele mai expresive pentru tendinele care-l
nsufleeau pe autorul lor nfrit [...] cu nzuinele cele mai nalte ale exilailor politici, n
primul rnd ale lui Blcescu, care susinea idei asemntoare.3.
Tot n timpul studeniei a publicat Ioana DArc, fecioara din Orleans, lucrare adaptat
i tradus dup Jules Michelet. Criticii nu au apreciat pozitiv aceast ncercare, considernd-o
fr substan i doar un exerciiu de traducere. De fapt, n perioada tinereii, el i-a exersat
abilitile de traductor n proz a unor fragmente din Odiseea lui Homer, Teogonia lui
Hesiod, cteva ode din Horaiu, Georgicele lui Virgiliu, Mimii lui Herondas (ultimele dou
neregsindu-se n cuprinsul primului volum de scrieri odobesciene dintre anii 1848-1860,
editat de Academia Romn n 1965). Odobescu a ales s traduc din opera scriitorilor
moderni poemul lui Branger, Nebunii, dar a acordat suficient atenie i romanului istoric
Cinci martie al lui Vigny, pe care l considera o surs de inspiraie pentru elaborarea unei
creaii dramatice proprii, Urbain Grandier. Din acest proiect a realizat doar planul aciunii (un
pastor, naionalist i om cu idei mari, intr n conflict cu cardinalul Richelieu, conductor
temut al Franei, i sfrete condamnat la moarte prin uneltirile unor clerici farnici) i
cteva pagini de dialog. Urbain Grandier nu este singurul proiect pe care tnrul scriitor nu l
duce la capt.
Odobescu a visat toat viaa s scrie teatru. Avea planuri mari: traduceri din
Shakespeare i Schiller, piese de teatru ( trilogia dramatic Mihaiu Viteazu; dramele n 5 acte:
Antigona, Virginia, i Decebal; drama n 3 acte Ruth, tragedia Ioniiu, craiul romnilor),
toate ncepute, dar neterminate. Prietenilor le citise localizarea Nea Fril i Radicalele
(dup La Grammaire de Labiche), precum i dou acte dintr-o dram (Doamna Clara), dar
mai plnuia: comediile Claca,
Apa trece pietrele rmn, legenda Fior-Fiorel, vitejel de
la Muscel, dramele Veneticul, Pribegitul, Rafaila, Vintil din Slatina. Din acest punct de
vedere, Odobescu nu a fost consecvent, demonstrnd c dei idei avea destule, felul su de a
se implica n activiti multiple, altele dect cele literare, precum i mprejurrile vieii l-au
mpiedicat s i finalizeze proiectele. Nu degeaba George Clinescu l numete leneul
scriitor, care i fcuse nite placarde cu titlurile pieselor ce avea s scrie, pe care le atrna
de pereii odii de lucru, drept memento4.
Odobescu nu s-a visat numai dramaturg, ci i poet. n anii tinereii, pe lng exerciiile
de traducere a fragmentelor din operele greceti i latineti prezentate mai sus, a cochetat i cu
poezia. Od Romniei i ntoarcerea n ar au fost publicate n 1855 n revista Romnia
Literar. Versurile sunt scrise sub influena aspiraiilor de factur paoptist, autorul
nereinndu-se s demonstreze nc o dat (aa cum a fcut i prin intermediul unor articole
patriotice) dragostea pentru ar i sperana c poporul romn se va emancipa. D. Pcurariu
remarc cu acest prilej cursivitatea versului i acurateea limbii, caliti care au reinut de la
nceput atenia lui Alecsandri cu prilejul publicrii poeziilor n revista sa.5
Activitatea de poet a lui Odobescu se ncheie destul de rapid, odat cu cele ase poezii
erotice scrise ntre 1850 i 1853 (deci tot n anii tinereii, ani caracterizai de tatonri i de
experimente pe terenul literar): C..., A..., trei fr titlu i Moartea unei amante, dintre care
doar trei sunt redate n primul volum dedicat operelor scriitorului (Editura Academiei
T. Vianu, Odobescu, n Scriitori romni, vol. I, Ed. Minerva, Bucureti, 1970, p. 67
G. Clinescu, Istoria literaturii romne de la origini pn n prezent, Ed. Vlad &Vlad, Craiova, 1993, p. 358.
5
D. Pcurariu, A. I. Odobescu, Ed. Tineretului, Bucureti, 1966, p. 30
3
4
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Romne, 1965). D. Pcurariu, cel care menioneaz cele ase poezii n cartea sa despre
Odobescu, ne invit s le analizm la Biblioteca Academiei Romne (Ms. 4935, f. 1-23), c
doar alt ans nu avem, ele nefiind publicate n nicio ediie a scrierilor odobesciene. Cu
aceast problem ntmpinat de publicul cititor, aceea de a nu avea acces la opera complet a
autorului n cauz, ne vom mai ntlni. Deocamdat este de remarcat faptul c ncercrile
poetice ale lui Odobescu nu au impresionat i nu au atras atenia criticilor n niciun fel. Dei
scrierile literare din tineree nu au rmas n memoria posterioritii ca lucrri importante, ele
au reprezentat totui un punct de plecare n formarea ulterioar a artistului Odobescu, un
antrenament prin care el i-a exersat abilitatea de a jongla cu cele mai potrivite cuvinte, de a
folosi o limb clar, pur romneasc. Prin traducerile lui clasice, [...] scriitorul ncepe s
valorifice o alt latur, umanist, a formaiei i structurii sale, afirmat larg mai trziu, n anii
maturitii depline, paralel cu cealalt tendin, naional i patriotic, care se va menine tot
timpul, ca o permanen a ntregii sale activiti.6
Stilul su specific scrierilor de maturitate (fie literare, fie tiinifice) este dominat de
abundena de descrieri ale unor peisaje i obiecte (vestimentare, arheologice, ambientale,
etc.), fiind influenat nu doar de crile citite, ci i de cele observate la faa locului. Odobescu
era scriitorul-turist, care se folosea de lucruri concrete, palpabile, descoperite n desele
cltorii. Peste tot i lua notie, pe care le insera apoi n redactrile sale. Spre exemplu,
Scenele istorice conin o serie de elemente realiste, cum este cazul turnului ntrit de la
Bujoreni (jud. Vlcea), care i-a dat ideea chindiei lui Socol, descris n Doamna Chiajna.
Oprindu-ne asupra celor dou nuvele istorice: Mihnea Vod cel Ru i Doamna
Chiajna, reunite sub denumirea de Scene istorice, trebuie menionat din capul locului c
acestea sunt cele mai cunoscute scrieri odobesciene (poate chiar mai cunoscute dect Pseudocinegeticos, cartea de maturitate a lui Odobescu, dat fiind faptul c sunt accesibile unui public
mai larg, inclusiv elevii) i au fost de-a lungul timpului cele mai editate. Prerile criticilor sunt
mprite privind valoarea i autenticul Scenelor, avnd n vedere c nsui Odobescu
recunoate n prefaa volumaului din 1860 c a folosit ca surse de inspiraie nuvela lui
Costache Negruzzi, Alexandru Lpuneanul, ct i limba Letopiseelor. Se autodiminueaz ca
scriitor, negndu-i talentul, admind c cei cu mai slabe mijloace, fac, ca mine, ncercri
i mrturisete c a elaborat cele dou nuvele cu scop informativ. Deci, ceea ce i dorea
Odobescu era s arate cititorilor cum triau predecesorii notri, cum vorbeau i ce obiceiuri
aveau, cu alte cuvinte s redea culoarea local.
Tudor Vianu a observat un aspect inedit legat de felul n care scriitorul Scenelor
istorice a preluat ntmplri i datini descrise n cronicele muntene, dar personajele au primit
grai specific letopiseelor moldoveneti7. Combinaia munteano-moldoveneasc a dovedit-o
Odobescu i cu alte ocazii: a colaborat cu publicaii att la Romnia literar de la Iai, ct i
la Romnul lui C.A. Rosetti, a mbriat idealurile de transformare a rii i de emancipare a
locuitorilor si, dar s-a opus criticilor de la Junimea, considernd n mod exagerat c Frana a
contribuit la civilizarea romnilor. A pendulat astfel, ntre dou credine naionale, aspect ce a
influenat scrierile sale. Dualitatea l-a fcut pe Odobescu, care avea n sine un junimist, s nu
se alipeasc de Junimea de care-l deprta patruzecioptismul su, specific spiritelor din
Muntenia.8. Ceea ce afirm Garabet Ibrileanu ne face s contientizm mai bine n ce
perioad istoric a trit Odobescu i s nelegem c scrisul su a fost puternic afectat de
epoca de tranziie n care i-a derulat activitatea, cnd statul romn abia se forma, mai nti
sub conducerea lui Cuza, apoi a regelui Carol I. Tot pe aceeai tem a dualismului munteano6
Op.cit., p. 35
Vezi T. Vianu, Alexandu Odobescu, Editura de stat pentru literatur i art, Bucureti, 1960, p. 37
G. Ibrileanu, Spiritul critic n cultura romneasc, Viaa Romneasc, Iai, 1909, reprodus din volumul Al.
Odobescu interpretat de..., Ed. Eminescu, Bucureti, 1976, p. 44
7
8
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moldovenesc, Nicolae Manolescu afirma c: Ideologia odobescian reprezint trecerea de la

paoptism la junimism, n care o parte dintre caracteristicile celui dinti sunt corectate de
presimirea celui de al doilea i n care cel de-al doilea i mai recunoate rdcinile n cel
dinti9. Dac cei doi critici mai sus menionai merg pe ideea c autorul Scenelor istorice
reprezenta doar dou generaii, Vladimir Streinu consider c adevratul Odobescu este
unica sintez deplin a tuturor aspiraiilor romneti din secolul al XIX-lea. Simpla artare a
felurimii operei sale ne ncredineaz despre aceasta10. Din aceste comentarii critice se
contureaz o nou prticic a personalitii lui Odobescu, el fiind cel care a ncercat de toate,
att sub aspectul scrisului, ct i al meseriilor pe care le-a tot schimbat de-a lungul vieii.
Revenind la cele dou nuvele istorice i trecnd peste mrturisirea scriitorului nsui c
a fcut doar nite ncercri artistice informative, lsnd la o parte i acuzaiile unora dintre
critici c a copiat nu doar ideea de structur a unei nuvele, ci i titlul volumului n care au fost
reunite cele dou scrieri (preluat se pare dup Scnes historiques ale lui Vitet), trebuie
specificat c ele nu sunt pure imitaii. ntr-adevr, Mihnea Vod cel Ru i Doamna Chiajna
sunt structurate dup Alexandru Lpuneanul n cte patru episoare, fiecare ncepnd cu cte
un motto, dar ntmplrile, limba i obiceiurile rii sunt exemple autentice extrase din
cronicile timpului i prelucrate de autor. Aadar, aa cum s-a mai afirmat, lui Odobescu i
lipsea creativitatea, curajul de a realiza ceva cu totul nou, fr a se mai raporta la opera
altcuiva. Parc s-ar fi dorit ca el s inventeze un alt gen literar, ceea ce a i fcut mai trziu cu
Pseudo-cinegeticos, genul nou eseistic, dar care a fost considerat de criticii vremii drept un
ghiveci, un mozaic, o amestectur artistic pe tematica vntorii. De asemenea, s-a spus
c trsturile personajelor sale sunt ngroate pn la un negativism, care n alte opere nu mai
apare, dar acest aspect poate fi pus pe seama nclinaiei lui romantice i a preocuprii, n
general, de a reda ct mai fidel atmosfera din perioada descris.
Cu toate neajunsurile lor, cele dou nuvele istorice i-au atins scopul dorit acela de a
informa cititorii despre o lume apus. Totodat nu se poate nega c Odobescu i-a luat rolul
de istoric n serios i a compus o baz documentar vast nainte de a se apuca s scrie. A fost
metodic, ordonat, a comparat mai multe cronici pentru a pune cap la cap informaiile, a
inventat conflicte, replici, a descris oameni, locuri, veminte, i cel mai important, a avut grij
s foloseasc o limb frumoas, clar, accesibil publicului cititor. Autorul Scenelor istorice
avea nclinaii artistice i o cultur vast, altfel nu ar fi putut mbina ntr-o form plcut
evenimente i date istorice rigide. Prin aceste aspecte se evideniaz originalitatea lui
Odobescu n domeniul literar.
Scriitorul a continuat s cltoreasc chiar i n interes de serviciu, notnd minuios
informaiile arheologice, geografice i istorice. Aa au aprut Despre unele manuscripte i
cri tiprite aflate n mnstirea Bistria (Districtul Vlcea n Romnia), Psaltirea tradus
romnete de diaconul Coresi, nsemnri despre monumentele istorice din judeele Arge i
Vlcea. i-a exersat astfel abilitile de observare a detaliilor, ceea ce l-a ajutat n pregtirea
ulterioar a unor cursuri de arheologie. Cercetrile n sfera vieii monahale l-au determinat s
militeze pentru protejarea patrimoniului naional, cernd autoritilor s nfiineze un muzeu
naional de antichiti i o bibliotec naional unde s fie pstrate manuscrisele i tipriturile
ce riscau s se distrug n mnstiri. Influena sa n viaa politic a societii de atunci a fcut
posibil apariia celor dou instituii.
Cteva ore la Snagov este, dup afirmaia lui N. Manolescu, prima oper pe deplin
odobescian11, n care autorul descrie o plimbare arheologic folosind tehnica de punere n
N. Manolescu, Introducere n opera lui Alexandru Odobescu, Ed. Minerva, Bucureti, 1976, p. 60
Vladimir Streinu, Recitind pe clasicii notri, reprodus din volumul Al. Odobescu interpretat de..., Ed.
Eminescu, Bucureti, 1976, p. 58
9
10
11
N. Manolescu, Istoria critic a literaturii romne, Editura Paralela 45, Piteti, 2005, p. 316.
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valoare a unor banaliti printr-un exces de erudiie (difficiles nugae), tehnic ce avea s l
deosebeasc de ceilali scriitori romni i care prevestea Pseudo-cinegeticos.
Dac Scenele istorice au fost, aa cum am mai spus, cele mai publicate scrieri,
Pseudo-cinegeticos (1874) a fost cea mai analizat oper odobescian. Este considerat
lucrarea sa de maturitate, obinut ca urmare a studiilor, cltoriilor, cercetrilor istoricoculturalo-tiinifice, dar i a responsabilitilor legate de locurile unde a lucrat. n sfrit
aceast scriere i confer lui Odobescu unicitate n sfera literaturii romne. Nimeni la noi nu a
mai ncercat s ncropeasc din petice i surcele o oper n cuprinsul creia s convoace
poei, pictori, muzicieni, sculptori, vntori, rani i s eas ca un pianjen cea mai artistic
pnz, ridicnd conceptul de vntoare la rang intelectual. nc o dat se remarc tendina lui
Odobescu de a-i scuza ncercarea literar, unii critici spunnd c probabil face acest lucru din
modestie sau poate, am crede noi, din nesigurana i din teama de a nu grei i de a nu fi
apreciat pe msura efortului su. Pe lng scuzele obinuite, el anun de la nceput scopul
scrierii sale: i dorete ca Pseudo-cinegeticos s fie cu mult mai folositor celor cari vor s
nvee ceva cu temei. Unicitatea stilului odobescian vine din capacitatea scriitorului de a
asambla, ca un puzzle, bucele de informaii, aluzii, ntmplri despre vntoare i vntori,
despre folclor i tradiii, despre natur i oameni. Este un om meticulos, atent la detalii,
perfecionist (uneori cuta n dicionare cele mai potrivite sinonime contextuale). Apreciem
abilitatea scriitorului de a aranja ideile ntr-o form logic, armonioas, din care se desprinde
un mesaj clar. Este interesant cum fiecare informaie aleas i gsete locul potrivit n
Pseudo-cinegeticos. Printre calitile lui Odobescu se afl i rbdarea, acea capacitate de a
valorifica, aeznd n ordine, notie luate n diverse situaii. Rbdtori trebuie s fie i cititorii
cnd citesc paragrafe ntregi cu informaii: despre tipuri de psri i mncruri, despre arme
de foc, despre cini, bolile lor i modalitile de dresaj, despre opere muzicale i de sculptur,
picturi i gravuri (toate pe tema vntorii). Basmul bisoceanului este inserat n text aproape de
final, ca o ultim form de acaparare a interesului cititorului. Prezena acestuia n lucrare
demonstreaz pasiunea lui Odobescu i pentru aria folcloric. Nu putem s nu observm cte
domenii diverse l preocupau pe scriitor.
Pe lng interesul artat ariei artistice, autorul Pseudo-cinegeticos-ului a avut mai
multe locuri de munc i ndatoriri, toate avnd legtur cu interesele sale culturale, tiinifice
i patriotice: membru n Comisia pentru adunarea materialelor i formarea unei istorii
naionale, ministru al Cultelor i Instruciunii publice, ministru al Treburilor Strine, delegat
al Consiliului de Stat, responsabil cu organizarea Expoziiei Universale de la Paris (1867),
diplomat. i-a ndeplinit sarcinile cu responsabilitate i s-a implicat energic, avnd n vedere
c i fcea plcere s contribuie la schimbarea n bine a rii pe cale cultural. Poate cel mai
mult i-a dat silina n organizarea Expoziiei de la Paris, unde a prezentat, printre altele, i
Tezaurul de la Pietroasa, pentru care fcuse o obsesie, concretizat n anii urmtori prin
elaborarea lucrrii de arheologie purtnd numele vestitului tezaur. Ca membru al Societii
Academice Romne s-a remarcat nu doar prin ideile de valorificare a literaturii romne, care
au fost acceptate i puse n practic, ci i prin comunicrile tiinifice organizate, dar i prin
donaiile de bani ctre Academie, pentru a organiza concursuri i pentru a premia cele mai
bune lucrri pe o anumit tematic. Este necesar s menionm i duelul tiinific dintre
Odobescu i autorii vestitului dicionar latinizat, Massim i Laurian, dicionar ce coninea
multe cuvinte din latin, neconcordante cu realitatea de atunci a limbii romne literare. Se
nfieaz astfel, o alt dimensiune a personalitii lui Odobescu, care nu poate fi descoperit
doar la o simpl citire a scrierilor sale.
Pasiunea pentru arheologie i istorie ns poate fi identificat uor n lucrrile lui:
eseurile din reviste, nuvelele istorice, articolele susinute la conferine. Cel mai mult a muncit
la culegerea datelor pentru scrierea operei Tezaurul de la Pietroasa. S-ar putea spune c
pentru Cloca cu puii de aur s-a documentat i a fcut investigaii pe teren toat viaa, att
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n ar, ct i n afara ei. Tehnica de lucru utilizat n studiul tezaurului este bazat pe
comparaii, pe trimiteri la alte tezaure din lume, la ali filologi, scriitori i arheologi. Cu alte
cuvinte, Odobescu a lucrat tot n stilul su caracteristic, reconstituindu-i istoria ca pe un
puzzle din surse diverse. Nu pot rmne neobservate minuiozitatea cu care a manevrat
informaiile i rbdarea cu care le-a asamblat ntr-o oper unic n literatura romn. Tocmai
de aceea Vladimir Streinu i exprim nemulumirea n Revista fundaiilor regale din 1938
fa de izolarea operei Tezaurul de la Pietroasa, fiind considerat de contemporani depit.
Deja remarcat de lumea intelectualilor romni i fiindu-i cunoscut pasiunea pentru
arheologie, Odobescu a fost rugat s in cursul de istoria arheologiei la Universitate,
prelegeri ce au fost reunite ntr-un volum intitulat Istoria arheologiei. Mai trziu a ocupat
funciile de profesor, apoi de director al colii normale superioare, venind cu idei inovatoare,
aa cum fcuse i n celelalte domenii n care lucrase. Trebuie amintit i activitatea sa de
colaborator la elaborarea de manuale colare. Aadar, Odobescu a contribuit i la dezvoltarea
nvmntului romnesc, care abia atunci era pus pe picioare. Scriitorul a avut ntr-adevr o
via profesional activ. La fiecare loc de munc a fost responsabil, energic, ordonat,
disciplinat, contiincios i pasionat de ceea ce avea de realizat, dar mplicarea sa n attea
activiti i-a diminuat probabil puterea creatoare. Nu a fost doar scriitor i oricum nu a scris
doar literatur; Odobescu s-a mprit ntre attea domenii artistice, nct se poate afirma c i
el era un puzzle, exact ca opera sa.
De-a lungul timpului, clasificarea lucrrilor odobesciene, precum i aezarea autorului
n sfera unui anumit gen de scriitori, a fost o treab dificil. Muli critici nu au putut decide
dac Odobescu a fost mai mult un om de litere sau unul de tiine, deoarece aceste trsturi se
mpletesc att de mult n personalitatea scrisului su, nct ntre ele nu se poate trage o linie
clar. Uneori a fost prea poet, alteori prea academic sau prea om de tiin. Urmnd sfatul lui
Odobescu despre scriitorul care poate fi neles doar dac este analizat n contextul istoric al
epocii n care a trit, putem s remarcm aportul pe care l-a adus la formarea limbii romne
literare, att prin ceea ce a scris (i aici nu conteaz c a fost literatur sau oper tiinific),
ct i prin funciile de conducere n domeniul culturii i nvmntului din acea perioad.
Dac printr-un exerciiu de imaginaie l-am terge pe Alexandru Odobescu din istoria vremii,
cu siguran ar rmne un spaiu neumplut, chiar dac secolul al XIX-lea nu a dus lips de
oameni mari (Eminescu, Creang, Caragiale, Slavici etc.). Orice scriitor, ntr-un fel sau altul,
a contribuit la formarea gustului pentru cultur, la alimentarea patriotismului, la promovarea
tradiiilor i a unui grai autentic. Autorul Scenelor istorice a ncercat s fie cte puin din
fiecare: Ca toi din veacul su, Odobescu se nsufleete, se inimeaz - cum spunea el,
pentru promovarea culturii noastre napoiate; ca Asachi i Eliad arat perspective necercetate,
dnd exemplu dinti; ca Blcescu i Koglniceanu este patriot, istoric i tradiionalist; ca
Maiorescu, disociativ, criticist i spirit tiinific; iar, n sfrit, liber s fie ca el nsui, dup
cum vom vedea. De aceea opera sa pare mai neunitar dect a oricruia dintre marii notri
scriitori12.
Desigur c pentru creionarea personalitii odobesciene, trebuie s adugm nsuirilor
deja menionate i altele care nu reies din operele deja supuse analizei noastre, ci din
corespondena sa uria. Doar prin intermediul acestora putem cunoate gndurile cele mai
intime ale eruditului aristocrat. Acesta a avut n ultima parte a vieii numai ncurcturi
financiare, mprumutndu-se mai tot timpul de la rude i prieteni i vnznd moii. Atta timp
ct prinii si au trit, situaia nu a scpat de sub control, tnrul intelectual ducnd o via de
huzur, comparativ cu a multor altor scriitori ai vremii. Din nou iese la suprafa dualismul
personalitii sale, dovedindu-se c i-a trit viaa ntre extreme. Cum se face c tnrul
colecionar de cri rare, pozitiv, extravertit, patriot, erudit, se transform n ultima parte a
12
Vladimir Streinu, op. cit., p. 57
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vieii ntr-un colecionar de datorii, ntr-un negativist, introvertit i ntr-un om decis s

prseasc ara natal din cauza nenelegerilor cum oamenii care l nconjurau? Viaa i-a fost
ca o scar care l-a dus n vrf i de acolo a urmat coborrea, vrful fiind atins n plan simbolic
la 40 de ani cnd a scris Pseudo-cinegeticos. Odobescu a ales cnd s-i pun capt vieii, el,
scriitorul rsfat al secolului al XIX-lea, cel care a militat pentru o limb romn pur.
BIBLIOGRAFIE:
- *** Al. Odobescu interpretat de..., Ed. Eminescu, Bucureti, 1976;
- Clinescu, G., Istoria literaturii romne de la origini pn n prezent, Ed. Vlad
&Vlad, Craiova, 1993;
- Manolescu, Nicolae, Istoria critic a literaturii romne, Editura Paralela 45, Piteti,
2005;
- Manolescu,Nicolae, Introducere n opera lui Alexandru Odobescu, Ed. Minerva,
Bucureti, 1976;
- Odobescu, Alexandru, Note de cltorie, Ed. Sport-Turism, Bucureti, 1981;
- Odobescu, Alexandru, Opere, vol. I, Ed. Academiei Republicii Socialiste Romnia,
Bucureti, 1965;
- Odobescu, Alexandru, Opere, vol. II, Ed. Academiei Republicii Socialiste Romnia,
Bucureti, 1967;
- Odobescu, Alexandru, Opere complete, vol I, ediia a II-a, Ed. Minerva, Bucureti,
1915;
- Pcurariu, Dimitrie, A. I. Odobescu, Ed. Tineretului, Bucureti, 1966;
- Popescu, Florentin, Romanul vieii i operei lui Alexandru Odobescu, ediia a II-a,
Ed. Tipo Moldova, Iai, 2013;
- Vianu, Tudor, Odobescu, n Scriitori romni, vol. I, Ed. Minerva, Bucureti, 1970;
- Vianu, Tudor, Alexandu Odobescu, Editura de stat pentru literatur i art,
Bucureti, 1960.
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THE COMPLEX OF THE EXTERNAL HELP: BETWEEN PARASITISM AND FAKE

MESSIANISM
Lucian D. BICEANU
Abstract: This paper is based on making a parallel between the ideas presented by Emil
Cioran about Romania of his day and how these ideas are or are no longer current. In
addition to the old inferiority complex, our country has developed another one, more
controversial and parasite, which we called: the complex of the external help. We will also
take into account the current report established between nationalism, internationalism and
universalism. Last but not least, we will discuss about the place occupied by Rumania in the
parallel between minor culture-major culture or collectivistic culture and individualistic
culture.
Keywords: inferiority complex; the complex of the external help; nationalism;
internationalism; universalism,
1. Parabola vscului
Considerat n vremurile de demult plant miraculoas a druizilor celtici, vscul este
un parazit care se dezvolt pe partea de sus a coroanei unui copac, tulburnd creterea
copacilor-gazd pentru c se hrnete cu apa i nutrienii acestuia. Dei plant otrvitoare
pentru mediul nconjurtor, vscul este deseori utilizat n tratarea unor boli sau afeciuni.
Ajutorul extern pe care l primete o cultur minor din partea uneia majore este, mutatis
mutandis, similar efectului pe care l are vscul asupra corpului gazd.
Ne-am dorit s devenim o ar membr NATO i am reuit. Am nzuit la posibilitatea
de a adera la Uniunea European i am reuit. Care a fost efectul? Unul pozitiv, desigur, ar
spune muli: o deschidere a granielor, o lrgire a perspectivei, posibilitatea unei dezvoltri
glorioase etc. Cel puin n teorie! Parazii din exterior au venit i au investit n Romnia, au
cumprat teritoriu romnesc sau idei romneti pe care, mai apoi le-au transformat n brand
internaional, dar nu romnesc, ci strin. Noi am fost captivai de arborescena luxuriant a
vscului numit ajutor exterior, un parazit care se hrnete cu resursele rilor slab
dezvoltate, amgindu-le cu posibilitatea oferiri unor locuri de munc, cu dezvoltarea
economiei rii i alte vorbe goale care prind bine la public i in de strategii de marketing i
PR. Dar ce a fcut romnul? El, asemenea copacului din poveste vscului, a muncit n
continuare, iar nutrienii muncii sale s-au dus ctre exterior, ctre investitorul strin. Nu
negm i nu suntem mpotriva integrrii UE sau apartenenei NATO, dar militm pentru o
spulberare a mitului bunul samaritean: ajutorul exterior.
Boala de care sufer Romnia n ziua de astzi este cea a necesitii de a primi ajutor
din exterior, de a se simi protejat i integrat european. Complexul ajutorului exterior este
o ncrengtur a complexului de inferioritate1 i a vechii dar, se pare, permanentei incapaciti
a romnilor de a se realiza singuri ca naiune. Aa cum observa Emil Cioran n eseul ntre
contiina european i cea naional, cheia incertitudinii romneti st n faptul c nu avem
sigurana c naiunea noastr se poate realiza. Aceasta, spune Cioran, este tragedia
individului n culturile mici, atunci cnd faci parte dintr-o cultur care se mpletete
majestuos, i poi permite luxul s nu le nelegi pe celelalte(Cioran, 1990: 180). Exemplul
1
Atent discutat de ctre Mircea Martin n lucrarea sa G. Clinescu i complexele literaturii romne.
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pe care l d eseistul este cel al ruilor care nu au priceput niciodat Occidentul dintr-un motiv
simplu: au fost totdeauna prea plini de ei nii; i asta spune multe despre devenirea unui
neam(Cioran, 1990: 180). Problema uurinei cu care romnul nelege alte forme de cultur,
n loc s i focuseze atenia asupra propriei culturi, este dublat astzi de una nou: nevoia
ajutorului exterior. O contiin naional nu trebuie s cunoasc nimic din superstiiile unei
contiine universale (sau, mai limitat, a unei contiine europene)(Cioran, 1990: 176), dar,
cu att mai mult, nu trebuie s permit unei contiine strine s se hrneasc cu seva
naional.
n Reflexiuni asupra mizeriei, Emil Cioran punea n paralel mizeria material cu
mizeria cultural, cea de-a doua fiind o mbtrnire timpurie, un spirit de plictiseal fa de
formele vechi de via, o gravitate melancolic, toate resimite de ctre tinerime. A spune c
mizeria de astzi nu e cu mult diferit, ba chiar e mucegit tocmai de parazitul extern care
altereaz orice form de naionalism. Pretenia de universalitate n cultur, pe care o observa
Cioran, rmne i astzi, sub impactul globalizrii, o manifestare a ecletismului care ncearc
o mbinare (artificial) ntre diverse sisteme de valori, pentru c ele nu pot fi trite
simultan(Cioran, 1990: 65).
Este interesant de dezbtut poziia actual a Romniei n raport cu cele trei concepte
(naionalism, internaionalism i universalism) mereu dezbtute i invocate de ctre Emil
Cioran. Discutnd conceptul de naionalism, eseistul identific dou forme, naionalism
teluric i naionalism mesianic, considernd c ceea ce le difereniaz este faptul c ntiul
este un refuz permanent de a participa la valori n afar de cele nchise de substratul lui
biologic i de aceea protesteaz mpotriva a tot ce nu e el, dar nu ncearc s impun lumii
stilul lui de via, pe cnd ultimul e deschis i orizontul lui se ntinde pn la limitele
umanitii(Cioran, 1990: 157). Din naionalism teluric se nate universalitatea, iar exemplul
cel mai potrivit este, aa cum am mai amintit, Rusia. Internaionalizarea convertete totul n
raporturi funcionale, oferind posibilitatea de a ne bucura de valorile internaionale fr a
adera organic la ele(Cioran, 1990: 158). America este internaional, pentru c ea produce,
nu creeaz. Astfel, diferena dintre universalitate i internaionalism st n diferena dintre
valori i bunuri: prima creeaz valori, cea de-a doua produce bunuri. Ne ntrebm dac
Romnia astzi mai creeaz valori. Ahtiat dup permanentul ajutor exterior, cotropit de
parazii i secat de energie, ea produce bunuri, dar din nefericire, nici mcar acest proces
nu e unul personal: produce pentru alii i prin alii. Nu putem vorbi despre universalism, nu
putem vorbi despre internaionalism, nu putem, cu siguran, vorbi de naionalism. Dar atunci
ce mai rmne caracteristic Romniei de astzi? Trecutul i tradiia. Dar aceste elemente nu
ne vor ajuta cu nimic niciodat. Trebuie s ne eliberm de noul jug parazitar i s facem! Nu
s demonstrm, nu s ncercm, ci s realizm. Rmne vechea ntrebare: Cum?. Rspunsul?
Devenind o cultur major. Dar acest rspuns e insuficient, pentru c ne ntoarce la acelai
Cum?.
2. ntre cultur minor i cultur major
Fcnd apel la filosofia lui Hegel, Emil Cioran consider c progresul n istorie este
un progres n contiin(Cioran, 1993: 7). S fie acesta i rspunsul la ntrebarea noastr? Cu
siguran c da. Dar acest progres nu se va realiza niciodat, ct vreme suntem secai de
energie n mod permanent de elementul extern, de acest parazit, cum l-am numit metaforic.
Nu negm faptul c este bine s primim ajutor din exterior, dar nu trebuie s devenim
dependeni de acesta i nu trebuie s ne vindem sufletul pentru el i s ajungem s srutm
marile culturi precum sfinii srut ngerii (parafraznd o spunere cioranian).
Dou mari bariere stau n calea realizrii i formrii unei culturi majore: nctuarea n
legile proprii i lipsa instinctului care s le mne spre destinaia lor esenial(Cioran, 1992:
10). Ideea pentru care lupt culturile mari este nchegarea lumii ntregi n jurul su(Cioran,
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1992: 12), pe cnd, noi lsm lumea s profite de bunurile noastre. Singura salvare a culturilor
mici, crede eseistul, st n saltul istoric, doar c acesta nu e uor de realizat. Cu att mai mult,
acest salt nu se va putea realiza ct vreme resursele ne sunt secate de ctre parazii externi.
Emil Cioran atrage atenia asupra falsei impresii a adamismului romnesc, a
credinei c tot ce se nate n cultura romneasc nu are precedent. Eseistul este de prere c
adamismul n cultur nu nseamn altceva dect c fiecare problem de via spiritual,
istoric i politic se pune pentru prima oar, c tot ceea ce trim se determin ntr-o lume de
valori nou, ntr-o ordine i un stil incomparabil(Cioran, 1992: 43). Cu toate acestea,
naionalismul romnesc nu a fost dect patriotism, sentimentalism, fr orientare dinamic,
fr mesianism, fr voin de realizare(Cioran, 1992:44). Dar cum se manifest
naionalismul astzi? Printr-o permanent nevoie de sprijin exterior i prin aa-numita
interculturalitate. Sunt foarte multe elemente pozitive de invocat atunci cnd vorbim despre
intercultural, dar nu putem discuta despre evoluie i despre conturarea unui culturi majore.
Ea ntreine conexiuni i catalizeaz un alt tip de dezvoltare: unul n care saltul istoric nu mai
apare, n care arderea etapelor nu mai exist; avem doar un model exterior de la care i alturi
de care nvm, pas cu pas, ce e bine i ce nu, cum trebuie i cum nu trebuie etc.
S crezi c Romnia numai atunci va avea un sens n lume cnd ultimul romn i va
da seama de specificul i unicul condiiei romneti(Cioran, 1992: 49) este, suntem de
prere, o viziune iluzorie i imposibil. Dar pus n legtur cu ideea exaltrii pn la
fanatism(Cioran, 1992:49), care ar putea caracteriza o Romnie schimbat la fa, devine
mult mai credibil sau, cel puin, mult mai uor de acceptat. Cu toate acestea, avnd n vedere
situaia n care ne aflm n ziua de astzi, posibilitatea unei realizrii a acestui deziderat este
pus sub semnul incertitudinii. n momentul de fa Romnia este geografie i nu istorie, iar
o ar are valoare doar atunci cnd devine o problem pentru alii, cnd numele ei nseamn
o atitudine(Cioran, 1992: 57). Din contra, noi nu suntem o problem, ci un cumul de resurse
pentru elementul exterior. Nu suntem nicio atitudine, pentru c noi ateptm s primim ajutor
i nu ncercm s ne rezolvm singuri situaiile problematice. Mai mult, cerem ajutor i n
schimbul acestuia oferim mai mult dect e nevoie. Pe lng acestea, trebuie s aducem n
discuie i scepticismul teluric i subteran al Romniei(Cioran, 1992: 70) pe care l
identifica eseistul romn n substratul culturii noastre, caracterizat printr-o serie de trsturi
nc prezente: abandonarea pasiv soartei i morii; necredina n eficiena individualitii i
a forei; distana minor de toate aspectele lumii(Cioran, 1992: 70).
Criticnd acid spiritul naional, Emil Cioran este de prere c lipsa unui sim
ascensional al devenirii, al unui elan constructiv n procesul firii, a fcut cultura romneasc o
cultur a imediatului; toate lucrurile se ntmpl aici i acum(Cioran, 1992: 90). Poate
tocmai din aceast cauz acceptm indifereni ocuparea parazitar, fr a ncerca s tiem de
la rdcin elementul negativ l-am lsat s creasc i s devin parte din noi. Riscul la care ne
supunem este ca vscul s creasc att de mult nct s ne sufoce.
Scepticismul nociv romnesc, umilina i umanitatea exacerbat ne-au condus la
dezastru: parc de secole n-am fi opus mizeriilor ce ne veneau de la alte popoare dect
rspunsul nelepciunii pasive a ranului S treac de la noi!(Cioran, 1992:94) i la orice
monstruozitatea, ranul i va rspunde invariabil ntre oameni se ntmpl toate(Cioran,
1992: 94). Tocmai n aceast pasivitate i incontien ne complacem i astzi, lsnd
parazii exteriori s se bucure de bunul romnesc, s l foloseasc pn la uzur i s ne
distrug orice frm posibil de naionalism.
Este adevrat c am suferit i suferim de un complex de inferioritate care s-a
manifestat printr-o continu imitare a formelor exterioare, dar ceea ce a fost greit n acest
fenomen a fost faptul c nu am avut o direcie determinat i nu am asimilat valori specifice
crora s le dm o configuraie coerent, alta dect caricatura(Cioran, 1992: 114). Ei bine,
astzi, pe lng vechiul complex, am dezvoltat unul i mai periculos de calibrat: complexul
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ajutorului exter, n faa cruia ne-am lsat prad i de care ajungem, din ce n ce mai mult, s
fim devorai.
3. ntre individualism i colectivism
ntr-un studiu privind relaia cultur-limb, Emiko i Yoshihisa Kashima (1998) au
analizat felul cum este noiunea de persoan privit n individualism i n colectivism: n
culturile individualiste, persoana este conceptualizat ca un agent decontextualizant fiind
singura responsabil de aciunile sale. n opoziie, n culturile colective, persoana este
considerat ca fiind gestionat de un colectiv i implicat n reeaua de relaii sociale cu alte
persoane2. Emiko i Yoshihisa Kashima constat, de asemenea, c n unele limbi (inclusiv
engleza) utilizarea subiectului pronume este obligatorie, spre deosebire de alte limbi n care
aceast regul nu este obligatorie (de exemplu, n limba romn). Concluzia cercettorilor
este c n culturile n care lipsa pronumelui este rar ansa ca acestea s fie mai individualiste
dect colectiviste este mai mare i viceversa.
Cu toate c nu putem generaliza teoria cercettorilor coreeni, observm nc o dat
importana contiinei n evoluia culturii unui popor. Romnia este, fr ndoial o cultur
colectivist i tocmai pentru c nu a fost niciodat o cultur individualist nu a putut s
devin, totodat, o cultur major. Emil Cioran e de prere c att individualismul ct i
colectivismul au contribuit la naterea fenomenului de mas(Cioran, 1992: 128). Factorul
negativ al individualismului st ntr-o exagerare a contiinei unicitii i ntr-o ncercare de
a-l face pe individ mai creator n izolare, dar dezintegrndu-l din societate. Amorfismul
interior al masei, absen de form luntric, duce la mecanicism i automatism, conturnd
internaionalismul. n aceast cultur important este funciunea i nu substana(Cioran,
1992: 129), fiind antispiritual, antilibertar i antiindividualist(Cioran, 1992: 130). Cam
aceasta e forma pe care o ia cultura romneasc actual. Supus globalizrii, secat cantitativ
i calitativ de parazii exteriori, ansa spre supravieuire este o integrare internaional.
Modul n care ne descurcm cu i n monumentalul dramatic al societii moderne va contura
viitorul nostru. Emil Cioran este de prere c, dac Romnia va refuza inseria n modernitate
de dragul perfeciunii mediocritii sale, atunci nseamn c nu are nicio chemare printre
naiunile moderne(Cioran, 1992: 134). Dar, totodat, dac ne vom lsa sufocai de vscul
exterior, nu vom mai exista printre naiunile moderne. Trebuie s nu mai fim dependeni de
ajutorul extern i, cel mai important, s nu ne mai vindem acestuia. Salvarea noastr st ntr-o
revoluie mpotriva acestei boli, spre a scpa de complexul parazitar al ajutorul exter i
pentru a se ti c nu numai Romnia este n lume, ci i lumea este n Romnia(Cioran,
1992: 222).
Bibliografie
Cioran, Emil, 1990: Revelaiile durerii Eseuri, prefa de Dan C. Mihilescu, Editura
Echinociu, Cluj.
Cioran, Emil, 1993: Schimbarea la fa a Romniei, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti,
1993.
Kashima, Emiko S. i Yoshihisa Kashima, 1998: Culture and Language: the Case of
Cultural Dimensions and Personal Pronoun Use, Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 29
(3): 461-87.
2
In individualist cultures, the person is conceptualised as a decontextualised agent who is solely responsible for
his or her own actions. By contrast, in collectivist cultures, the person is considered to be enveloped by a
collective and suspended in the network of social relationships with other persons.(Kashima and Kashima,
1998: 463)
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Martin, Mircea, 2002: G. Clinescu i complexele literaturii romne, ed. a II-a,

Editura Paralela 45.
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SPATIO-TEMPORAL CONFIGURATIONS IN MIRCEA NEDELCIUS PROSE

Ana-Valeria GORCEA (STOICA)
Abstract: The current paper analyses the spatial and temporal configurations in Mircea
Nedelciu`s prose. Our objective is to show that there is a postmodern space in Nedelciu`s
work, more prevalent than time, as a narrative formula, and that it`s symbolic values
interpreted through recent anthropological and cultural theories concerning the concepts of
space, heterotopia and utopia has major implications in the identity constructions of the
characters.
Keywords: time, space, place, geocriticism, utopia, heterotopia, non-place.
Opera prozatorului Mircea Nedelciu are profunzime i implicaii existeniale
stringente care se preteaz, nc de la primele scrieri, teoriilor celor mai recente din domeniul
studiilor literare, filozofice, antropologice, a studiilor culturale sau a geografiilor literare.
Acest fapt nu arat dect superpozabilitatea noiunilor de actualitate, n cazul de fa,
corespondena celor dou toposuri indisolubile, timpul i spaiul, asupra prozei lui Mircea
Nedelciu i valoarea scrierilor acestuia ntr-un spaiu extins al literaturii universale.
n acest sens, intenia noastr de scoate n eviden o parte dintre dezbaterile
academice europene i de peste ocean i discutarea termenilor ce analizeaz problematica
timpului i a spaiului o considerm de un real folos. Fr trufia epuizrii subiectului, vom
aduce n discuie direcii importante i de actualitate ale temelor amintite, analiznd, printr-un
demers tematic i hermeneutic, implicaiile i sensurile fecunde ale unor secvene
reprezentative din proza lui Mircea Nedelciu. Momentul/ timpul, respectiv spaiul geografic
cartografiat de prozator au o dubl reprezentare. Mai nti, cea biografic, ncepnd cu anul
naterii sale, 1950, an simbolic n economia operei, i continund cu ntreaga perioad n care
se desfoar experiena scriptural. Pe de alt parte, regsim un timp i un spaiu n textele
narative ce corespund, n general, celor biografice, fapt ce relev apetena prozatorului nspre
raportarea la realitatea din jur. Cele dou concepte, spaiul i timpul, sunt parte integrant din
universul pe care l construiete prozatorul n vederea reprezentrii lumii reale, cu
dimensiunile sale sociologice, antropologice, psihologice sau politice n spaiul ficional.
ncercarea unei explicri, mai degrab, dect a unei definiri a termenilor, se datoreaz
sensurilor multiple pe care le-au asimilat timpul i spaiul, iar studiul de fa i propune ca
obiectiv s demonstreze c n proza lui Mircea Nedelciu vorbim despre un spaiu postmodern,
care este nvestit cu o prevalen mai mare asupra timpului ca formul narativ, iar
semnificaiile simbolice ale acestuia au implicaii majore n construcia identitar a
personajelor. Mutaiile produse n proza postmodern ce nu mai au drept caracteristic
predominant curgerea cronologic i desfurarea succesiv a evenimentelor, ci, mai
degrab, apeleaz la o relatare simultan a evenimentelor, la juxtapunere, la vecintatea
aproapelui cu departele, a dispersatului i a alturatului1 par a impune ideea preponderenei
spaialitii. Dac n proza modern am asistat la desfurarea unei naraiuni n timp prin
operele unor autori precum Virginia Woolf sau James Joyce, de exemplu, n proza
postmodern, prevalena este nspre edificarea prozei ntr-un spaiu. Impresia de creare a
Cf. Michel Foucault, Altfel de spaii, n Theatrum philosophicum. Studii, eseuri, interviuri. 1963-1984, ediie
ngrijit de Ciprian Mihali, traduceri de Bogdan Ghiu, Ciprian Mihali i Sebastian Blaga, Casa Crii de tiin,
Cluj-Napoca, 2001, p. 251.
1
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prozei ntr-un anumit spaiu ca o reea ce leag puncte i i urzete labirintul2 o produce
i lectura i aprofundarea operei lui Mircea Nedelciu, exerciiu ce st la baza acestui demers.
Se cuvine s remarcm c nu exist intenia diminurii importanei legturii dintre
timp i spaiu, raportul spaiu-timp, fiind forma de baz a oricrei existene. Conform
dicionarului de filosofie3, spaiul reflect raporturile de coexisten dintre obiectele sau
fenomenele sau dintre prile lor, respectiv ntinderea, distana i poziia lor, n vreme ce,
categoria de timp reflect durata de existen a obiectelor i fenomenelor, simultaneitatea sau
succesiunea lor. Aadar, fr timp materia ar fi pur i simplu imobil, iar fr de spaiu am
exista doar sub forma unei entiti asemenea divinitii pe care o preamrim; de aici rezult
indispensabilitatea raportului spaiu-timp i necesitatea acestora ca fiind la baza universului
existenial.
Raportul spaiu-timp a provocat i a dezvoltat de-a lungul timpului o mulime de teorii
ce par a lsa acest subiect deschis tatonrilor i interpretrilor. Astfel, n idealismul obiectiv i
transcedental kantian, spaiul i timpul sunt independente de voina noastr, existnd n mod
obiectiv. Cele dou categorii apriorice nu pot fi nelese empiric, ci numai prin intuiie. ns,
n idealismul subiectiv i voluntarist schopenhauerian, spaiul i timpul sunt categorii
subiective ale sensibilitii noastre.
n opera sa vast, ce cuprinde analize fundamentale pentru reflecia asupra existenei
umane, imagologul Gaston Bachelard trateaz i problema timpului i a spaiului. n lucrarea
Poetica spaiului, pune accentul pe spaiu ce conine timpul:
Uneori credem c ne cunoatem n timp, dar nu cunoatem dect o suit de fixri n
spaii de stabilitate a fiinei, a unei fiine care nu vrea s se scurg, care, chiar cnd se ntoarce
n trecut n cutarea timpului pierdut, vrea s suspende zborul timpului. n miile sale de
alveole, spaiul conine timp comprimat. La asta servete spaiul.4
Atunci cnd Gaston Bachelard i construiete dialectica centrat pe analiza la nivel
spaial a raporturilor dintre interior i exterior, vorbete despre starea de fixitate. Astfel,
potrivit acestuia, primul nostru loc i univers este casa, ca spaiu interior, care ne asigur unul
din elementele eseniale ale existenei umane, starea de fixitate. Fundamentul teoretic enunat
de acesta sugereaz faptul c spaiul domestic casa, trebuie s ofere att suport psihologic
ct i un mediu protectiv menit s asigure un echilibru ntre rspunsul emoional pe care
individul l manifest n raport cu casa n care acesta locuiete. Acest spaiu interior, despre
care vorbete Gaston Bachelard, nu este unul omogen i vid, ci plin de caliti, un spaiu al
reveriilor, al pasiunilor, al contrastelor, al percepiei noastre primare, un spaiu al
antagonismelor.
Un alt concept teoretic important al secolului XX este cel de cronotop, dezbtut de
Mikhail Bakhtin. Acest concept structuralist nseamn, traducndu-l efectiv, timp-spaiu i
este definit de Bahtin ca o conectare intrinsec a relaiilor temporale i spaiale care sunt
exprimate artistic n literatur. Cronotopul angajeaz realitatea, deoarece autorul nu poate face
abstracie de organizarea lumii reale pentru a crea, n scris, o ntreag lume ficional.
Alturi de dimensiunea temporal a literaturii dat de Bakhtin, de natur structural, se
nscriu i cercetri recente cu lucrri aplicate pe problematica timpului, iar unul dintre cei care
analizeaz implicaiile timpului n literatur este Mark Currie, teoretician al
postmodernismului. n lucrarea About Time, susine c toate romanele sunt romane despre
2
Ibidem.
Teodor N. rdea, Petru V. Berlinschi, Anatol I. Eanu, Didina U. Nistreanu, Vitalie I. Ojovanu, Dicionar de
Filosofie i Bioetic, A-Z, Chiinu, 2003, pp. 275, 297-298.
4
Gaston Bachelard, Poetica spaiului, Seria Studii socio-umane, trad. Irina Bdescu, pref. Mircea Martin
Gaston Bachelard ca educator, Editura Paralela 45, Piteti, 2003, p. 40.
3
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timp5, stabilind trei concepte ale timpului6: comprimarea timp-spaiu, recontextualizarea

accelerat sau febra arhivei i, trei, o abordare filozofic din perspectiva lui Husserl,
Heidegger i Derrida.
Fa de dimensiunea temporal a literaturii, o serie de teoreticieni trateaz implicaiile
spaiului n literatur. Alturi de opera lui Gaston Bachelard se cuvine s amintim i alte
lucrri relevante pentru studiul nostru precum cele ale lui Marc Aug care face distincia ntre
non-loc i loc antropologic; Yi-Fu Tuan ce insist pe diferenele dintre spaiu i loc; sau
studii dedicate problemelor postmodernismului ale lui Michael Toolan sau Marie-Laure Ryan,
care, n lucrarea Space, place and story7, vorbete despre corespondena cu locul real, ca
relaie elementar dintre naraiune i spaiul actual, specific textelor non-ficionale. Insist, n
schimb, pe abilitatea textelor ficionale s anexeze pri din lumea real, aceast hart
narativ, fiind o surs important de recurs literar. Completnd interpretarea cu o perspectiv
specific geocriticii enunat de Bertrand Westphal, acesta vorbete despre labirintele
spaiale ale celor trei tipuri de orae surprinse n literatur, pn prin anii `50, `60. Aadar,
dac la nceput aprea oraul tablou, n care spaiul acestui topos era descris, cel de-al
doilea tip este este reprezentat de oraul sculptur, care are calitile perspectivei
pluridimensionale. n cele din urm, stabilete acesta, dup ce am pictat oraul, apoi l-am
modelat, de acum l citim, sub forma oraului carte, datorit trimiterii spre spaii concrete,
oraul devenind un simbol n literatur8. Dac facem referire la proza scriitorului Mircea
Nedelciu, la prima vedere, avem de a face cu oraul sculptur, fiindc l apreciem din
punctul de vedere n care l vedem suprins de prozator, reliefat pluridimensional. ns, dac ne
referim la ncrctura unor structuri spaiale din opera literar cu caliti de palimpsest ce fac
trimitere la spaii concrete, Nedelciu creeaz oraul carte, pe care, de acum, l citim.
Apoi, alturi de loc antropologic vs. non-locuri ncadrate de Marc Aug sau
diferenele dintre space and place discutate de Yi-Fu Tuan, respectiv topophilia i
topofobia, se impune a aminti despre interveniile teoretice ale lui Michel Foucault pentru
care secolul XX ncepe sub patronarea epocii spaiului i a simultaneitii9.
Fenomenologul francez antologheaz i dezbate implicaiile aa numitelor spaii heterotopice,
pe care le vom analiza i la care ne vom raporta n majoritatea analizelor ulterioare ale
studiului. Conceptele i viziunile enumerate pn acum sunt teorii importante ce dau prozei
lui Mircea Nedelciu o anumit dimensiune i se arat ca nite repere care merit luate n
considerare tocmai pentru decriptarea universului ficional al prozatorului, ce dezvluie i
influena pe filier francez asupra acestuia.
Dintre cele mai recente studii dedicate lui Mircea Nedelciu, amintim dou lucrri care
trateaz tema spaiului i fa de a cror viziune nu ne putem distana. Mai nti, n moderna
sa carte, Geografii semnificative. Spaiul n proza scurt a lui Mircea Nedelciu (cu o prefa
de Sanda Cordo, Un debut semnificativ, Colecia Paradigme, Editura Limes, ClujNapoca, 2011), Ionu Miloi trateaz problematica spaiului n prozele scurte ale lui Mircea
Nedelciu, pe baza unei bibliografii cu influene americane. Acesta analizeaz, printr-un
5
Mark Currie, About Time. Fiction and the Philosophy of Time, The Frontiers of Theory, Edinburg University
Press, 2007, p. 3.
6
Ibidem, p. 5. ... it takes three concepts of time in the contemporary cultural theory, which it names as timespace compression, accelerated recontextualisation and archive fever, and three philosophical approaches to time
which have some relevance for a future-orientated theory of narrative and which are derived from Husserl,
Heidegger and Derrida.
7
Marie-Laure Ryan, Space, place and story, pp. 107-125. http://users.frii.com/mlryan/spaceplace.pdf [accesat n
29.01.2015]
8
Cf. Bertrand Westphal, Pour un approche gocritique des textes, n La Gocritique mode demploi, PULIM,
Limoges, coll. Espaces Humains, nr. 0, 2000, pp.9-40. http://www.vox-poetica.org/sflgc/biblio/gcr.html
[accesat n 5 ianuarie 2015]
9
Cf. Michel Foucault, op. cit.
611
Issue no. 6/2015
demers tematic, spaiul ficional i scriptural, att ca implicaii ale configurrii locurilor de
desfurare i a mijloacelor de transport, ct i al semnificaiilor acestora, cu efecte majore n
construcia identitii personajelor (I.M., p. 17). Autorul scoate n eviden fragilitatea
personajelor i arat cum personajele i construiesc identitatea on the road, aflate n continu
micare, de parc nu se doresc introspectate. n acelai timp, se insist pe imaginea oraului ca
spaiu claustrant/ nchis/ apstor, precum la simboliti, n contrast cu deschiderea i forma de
eliberare/ libertate oferit de mediul rural. n acest punct, suntem de acord cu afirmaiile
Adinei Dinioiu cum c diferena dintre lumea rural i cea urban, cum spune Ionu Miloi
mi (ni, n.n.) se pare o chestiune mult mai complex la Nedelciu, i e legat tot de presiunea
sufocant i de ideologia manipulatoare a comunismului10, n sensul c amndou spaiile
sunt transformate i afectate asemeni oamenilor ce sufer crize identitare i de dezrdcinare
, ntr-o msur mai mare sau mai mic, de industrializarea comunist, de acea modernizare a
statului prin care se urmrete uniformizarea celor dou spaii. De asemenea, remarcm i
demersul n care e evideniat aspectul formal al prozelor: spaiul, perspectivele multiple,
calitile cinematografice ale textelor prim-planuri, panoramare/ lipsa acesteia, focalizri,
etc. , prezena persoanei a II-a, etc. Aceste trsturi formale ale textelor sunt exemple prin
care metaliteratura capt spaialitate.
Cel de-al doilea studiu, actual i bine argumentat, la care ne vom referi este cel al
Ramonei Hran, Heterotopie i ficionalizare a spaiului la Mircea Nedelciu (publicat n vol.
Dilemele identitii. Forme de legitimare a literaturii n discursul cultural european al
secolului XX, Editura Universitii Transilvania din Braov, 2011). Aceasta, lund o
atitudine critic fa de afirmaia lui Nicolae Manolescu potrivit cruia romanul Tratament
fabulatoriu are o latur fantastic11, ncearc s demonstreze complexitatea conceptual i
plurivalenele scrierilor lui Mircea Nedelciu, contestnd vechea formul psihologicrealist12 i insistnd pe evidenierea unor teritorii semnificative, (re)ncrcate
simbolic13. Pe baza teoriilor lui Marc Aug, a spectralitii definite de Jacques Derrida i a
spaiilor heterotopice delimitate de Michel Foucault, Ramona Hran delimiteaz spaiile
semnificative n trei categorii: galeria non-locurilor n direcia stabilit de Marc Aug n
care include toposuri predilecte prozei lui Mircea Nedelciu precum: drumuri, gri,
aeroporturi, hoteluri, parcri, spitale, sli de edine, cine-cluburi, restaurante, staiuni
turistice, locuri virane etc.14. A doua categorie de spaii inventariate sunt toposuri ale
dispariiei sau vanishing points, aici, fcnd referire la Parngul din Cltorie n vederea
negaiei, la Muntele Mare din Tratament fabulatoriu sau zpezile mictoare din Zodia
scafandrului sau O cutare n zpad; spaii ce provoac dispariii inexplicabile ale
personajelor sau declaneaz rupturi identitare ireversibile. n cele din urm, spaiile la care se
oprete atenia critic sunt cele heterotopice definite de Foucault, ncrcate de spectralitatea
spaiului antropologic, n termenii lui Derrida. Aceast ultim categorie sufer alte trei
delimitri: mai nti, este analizat toposul coloniei, apoi, fitotronul i n cele din urm
cazrmile, internatele, nchisorile i casele de copii. n decursul studiului, se exemplific i se
insist asupra toposului din Tratament fabulatoriu, ncrcat de o suprapunere de semnificaii
ca spaiu alternativ concret al realitii spaiului socio-politic i cultural, cu amendamentul c
Adina Dinioiu, Proz i spaialitate, n rev. Romnia literar, Anul 2012, nr. 46.
http://www.romlit.ro/roz_i_spaialitate [accesat n 20.01.2015]
11
Nicolae Manolescu, Istoria critic a literaturii romne, Editura Paralela 45, Piteti, 2008, p. 1365. Apud.
Ramona Hran, Heterotopie i ficionalizare a spaiului la Mircea Nedelciu, n vol. Dilemele identitii. Forme
de legitimare a literaturii n discursul cultural european al secolului XX, Editura Universitii Transilvania din
Braov, 2011, pp. 160-170.
12
Ramona Hran, art. cit.
13
Ibidem, p. 161.
14
Ibidem.
10
612
Issue no. 6/2015
acest amplasament, ca, de altfel, toate heterotopiile, genereaz iluzii, ofer compensaii,
comport sau deconstruiesc realitatea ficional din care fac parte, i implicit, pe cea real,
dinafara cosmosului romanesc15. n concluzie, heterotopiile literare imaginate de Mircea
Nedelciu sunt lipsite de latura metafizic a weltanschaaungului, specific concepiei
tradiionale a fantasticului i pot fi ncadrate, susine Ramona Hran, asemeni non-locurilor
i toposurilor dispariiei, unui filon recent, postmodern-deconstructivist, prin modul n care
raionalitatea teoretic i sensibilitatea estetic sunt aici interrelaionate, formnd mpreun
substana i metoda discursului romanesc16.
Faptul c ideea de spaiu17 a exercitat asupra scriitorilor o fascinaie aparte, a instituit
ntre spaiu i literatur o relaie complex ce se desfoar pe mai multe nivele, plecnd de la
spaiul efectiv al oraului, al satului, al naturii etc. sau de la spaiul imaginar i interpretativ ce
este proiectat n mintea cititorului i, ncheind cu spaiul pe care l parcurg personajele, de
tipul de scriitur i chiar de subiect18. Spaiul prozei lui Mircea Nedelciu se contureaz o dat
cu deplasarea personajelor metod privilegiat a creaiei care se afl ntr-o continu
micare, fie c fac naveta de la ora la sat sau invers, de la sat la ora, ori cltoresc n interes
de serviciu aviz ghizilor, angajai ONT , fie fac taximetrie clandestin, fie sunt n drumul
lor spre distracii facile, nspre i dinspre mare/ staiuni turistice, fie cltoresc n vederea
negaiei, sau n cutarea prinilor, ori se afl ntr-un continuu vagabondaj, fr o int anume.
Astfel, mobilitatea personajelor i tendina acestora de a se afla n continu micare este
regsit de la primele proze ale lui Mircea Nedelciu, iar cele din romanul Zmeura de cmpie
nu sunt lipsite de acelai nomadism specific. Cei trei protagoniti, Zare, Grinu i Gelu, sunt
surprini n continu micare: Zare ofer pe camion n diferite zone ale rii, de regul, de
cmpie; Grinu pedagog, ghid turistic, profesor; Gelu cel care cltorete cu scopul de a
rezolva puzzel-ul condiiei lor de orfani n cutarea identitii. De asemenea, personajele
circul dintr-o proz/ volum n alta/ altul cei trei orfani sunt anticipai de proza inaugural
15
Ibidem., p. 167.
Ibidem., p. 169.
17
Proza lui Mircea Nedelciu nu rmne fr efectele ordonatoare ale spaiului, inclusiv la nivel vizibil al paginii,
metaliteratura ca spaialitate. n acest punct, se cuvine s remarcm intervenia lui Chatman care pune n
paralel distincia dintre timpul povestirii i timpul discursului, analizate de Bakhtin, cu distincia dintre
spaiul povestirii i spaiul dicursului. Conform teoriei acestuia, story space nseamn: The spatial
environment or setting of any of the story's action episodes; or more globally, the ensemble or range of these
environments; pe cnd, discourse space: The narrator's current spatial environment; more globally, the whole
range of environments in which the narrative situation is located. For instance, hospitals and psychiatric wards
are popular modern discourse spaces (J.D. Salinger's The Catcher in the Rye, Gnter Grass's The Tin Drum). Cf.
Seymour Chatman, Story and Discourse: Narrative Structure in Fiction and Film, Cornell UP, Ithaca and
London, 1978, pp. 96-106 and 138-145. http://www.uni-koeln.de/~ame02/pppn.htm#N5.5.2 [accesat n
29.01.2015]
Aadar, spaiul discursului este la fel de important/ relevant/ inovator n proza romneasc optzecist precum
spaiul povestirii. Pentru a arta complexitatea spaiului discursiv sau ingeniozitatea prozatorului, amintim
doar de romanul Zmeura de cmpie, care, fr a respecta o ordine cronologic a firelor epice, este sistematizat
respectnd pricipiul listei (Sanda Cordo, Prefaa Cine snt fiii acelor tai?, la Mircea Nedelciu, Zmeura de
cmpie (roman mpotriva memoriei), Editura Compania, Bucureti, 2005.), de la A la Z; capitolele sunt de
ntindere diferit, de la cteva pagini, la cteva rnduri capitolul S. Alte scenarii de pace, 5 rnduri i
ncheind cu punctele de suspensie cum e cazul capitolelor X i Y. Surprinztoare spaial sunt i capitolele n care
se mbin diferite stiluri funcionale. Stilul oficial e reprezentat, spre exemplu, de procesul verbal ntocmit de
Gelu n capitolul T prin care elucideaz ncrengtura de relaii i dezvluie posibilele origini ale celor doi
prieteni, Zare i Radu, i poteneaz misterul n jurul originii sale. Prin stilul colocvial de tip epistolar se face
apel la credine, idei, preri, respectiv, se actualizeaz situarea personajelor n spaiu i timp, iar cel de tip
memorialistic se definete prin amintirile difuze ale protagonitilor despre perioada copilriei. Nu n ultimul
rnd, stilul tiinific corespunde teoriilor inedite ale lui Zare. Orict de ofertant i interesant ar fi o abordare a
spaiului scriptural, revenim la interesul prezentului studiu ce se axeaz pe identificarea spaiilor heterotopice i
pe evidenierea semnificaiei acestora ca amplasamente altfel, ce au impact asupra protagonitilor.
18
Ionu Miloi, op. cit., pp. 15-16.
16
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Issue no. 6/2015
Aventuri...; Zare e prezent n ultimul roman al prozatorului, Zodia scafandrului; Gelu

Popescu, cu iniialele G.P., traverseaz alte proze scurte din cele patru volume. Destinele sau
traseele celor trei, ca i intersectarea acestora pe parcursul romanului Zmeura de cmpie sunt
surprinse n intervalul 1973-1977, cinci ani n care acetia schimb mai multe locuri de
munc, se mut dintr-o parte n alta a rii, respectiv, sunt n cutarea punctului zero fie a
locului natal, al originilor, fie a spaiului surogat al celui natal.
Spaiul cartografiat de tineri, n tot acest timp, este unul ce ofer diversitate i
varietate, iar parcurgerea lui este marcat de apariia unor amplasamente altfel. Aceste
amplasamente sunt analizate i dezbtute de Michel Foucault. Argumentele teoretice elaborate
de Foucault privesc noiunile de spaiu i loc, acesta fiind interesat de spaii exterioare
corelate cu sfera public i introducnd conceptul de heterotopie19 n contrast cu utopia.
Heterotopia desemneaz un spaiu existent n realitate care altur simultan mai multe
configurri sociale i chiar culturale, fa de spaiul utopic/ distopic ce prevede un
amplasament inexistent n realitate i creeaz o variant ideal/ negativ a societii. Exemplul
concret dat de Foucault al unui amplasament ce poate desemna ambele reprezentri este cel al
oglinzii, ce poate fi i spaiu utopic prin calitatea sa de loc fr loc 20, ct i spaiu
heterotopic pentru c exist cu adevrat i are, asupra locului pe care-l ocup, un fel de efect
retroactiv21. n acest sens, un exemplu concludent din proza lui Mircea Nedelciu, ar fi,
asemeni oglinzii, colonia de la Temenia din romanul Tratament fabulatoriu22 ce poate fi un
amplasament/ o existen mixt. Colonia este o utopie, dat fiind lumea creat ca o variant
mbuntit/ perfecionat a societii, o lume ideal n care rosturile individului se
desfoar ntr-o total comuniune cu natura i cu ceilali semeni; n care deschiderea fa de
aproapele tu este una total, fie c e vorba de munci agricole, de organizare a spaiului
mprit de membrii acelei comuniti, fie de legturile de natur sexual; cu alte cuvinte, o
libertate hipiot-fourrierist23 nspre care personajul Luca este atras i pe care o descoper/
imagineaz. n acelai timp, acest spaiu este nvluit ntr-o aur misterioas, accentuat i de
atra de igani ntlnit de Luca n cutarea coloniei ce-l bntuie, i, n special, de figura
btrnului din atr ce-i arat calea precum un clar-vztor. Aceast latur a spaiului este
dublat de calitatea de palimpsest a locului ce are un corespondet real n construciile
comuniste, ncepute i nefinalizate; dac la nceput acest spaiu era unul pentru a desemna
clasa social privilegiat a boierului fa de supui, mai apoi, acest spaiu devine unul al
heterotopiei de deviaie delimitat de Foucault n care este izolat individul ce nu se ncadreaz
normelor sociale, precum mama ce are un copil din flori sau bunicul Marcu ce i
reinventeaz descendena i se auto-izoleaz n acest spaiu; n final, acest spaiu heterotopic
de deviaie capt caracterul unei nchisori politice prin ncarcerarea lui Fiston Gulianu. Astfel
de spaii heterotopice ce-i schimb nfiarea i se rescriu o dat cu schimbrile din sistem
sunt i Fitotronul de la Fuica/ Institutul de cercetare de lng Fundulea; conacul La Cocoane/
conacul lui Mateiu Caragiale, interesant analizate i surprinse de Ramona Hran n studiul
amintit.
Spaiul heterotopic este neles ca unul ce se afl ntr-un raport de divergen cu
continuitatea i normalitatea spaiilor uzuale. n viziunea lui Foucault, spaii precum
internatul, azilul, muzeul, biblioteca, librria, trenul, cimitirul, cazarma, teatrul,
cinematograful i oglinda de care am amintit mai sus , sunt doar cteva dintre
19
Cf. Michel Foucault, op. cit.

Ibidem., p. 254.
21
Ibidem.
22
Mircea Nedelciu, Tratament fabulatoriu roman cu o prefa a autorului, ediia a III-a, Cuvnt nainte de
Sanda Cordo (Un obiect util), Avertisment la ediia a II-a 1996 (Mircea Nedelciu), Editura Compania,
Bucureti, 2006.
23
Cf. Ramona Hran, art. cit., p. 168.
20
614
Issue no. 6/2015
reprezentrile conceptului de heterotopie elaborat de acesta, datorit capacitii spaiilor

indicate de a fi amplasamente altfel, ce dau iluzia accesibilitii. Pentru a ajunge la definirea
i stabilirea celor ase principii ale spaiilor heterotopice, Foucault stabilete graniele/
limitele teoriei sale, i anume: interesul pe spaiul exterior; inventarierea unor amplasamente,
fie de trecere, sau de oprire provizorie, fie de amplasarea adpostului nchis sau semi-nchis
pe care l constituie casa, camera, patul, etc. Spaiile heterotopice efective sunt de dou
feluri: de criz sunt acele locuri privilegiate sau sacre, sau rezervate n exclusivitate
indivizilor grupului uman n care-i duc viaa, n stare de criz. Adolescenii, femeile pe
perioada menstruaiei, femeile care stau s nasc, btrnii etc.24. Spaiile specifice acestor
heterotopii de criz sunt: colegiul, serviciul militar, trenul sau hotelul ultimele dou, ca
locuri de nicieri n care avea loc, spre exemplu, deflorarea tinerei fete n voiajul de
nunt. Aceste heterotopii de criz, o dat cu secolul XX, sunt nlocuite de heterotopiile de
deviaie, stabilete Foucault, fiindc sunt cele n care sunt plasai indivizii al cror
comportament este deviant n raport cu media sau norma impus25. Dintre acestea amintim
casele de odihn, clinicile psihiatrice, nchisorile sau cminele de pensionari.
Termenul propus de Michel Foucault, heterotopia, poate fi aplicabil prozelor lui
Mircea Nedelciu mai nti, pentru c majoritatea spaiilor heterotopice delimitate de
fenomenolog exist n prozele sale, apoi, este relevant att relaia protagonitilor cu astfel de
spaii, ct i reflectarea spaiilor asupra personajelor ce dezvluie dislocri i grave probleme
identitare. De asemenea, amplasamentele de trecere, ce faciliteaz deplasarea trenul,
autobuzul, maina, strada i care determin apariia unor spaii tranzitorii precum gara, staia
de autobuz, cafeneaua sau alte spaii ale ederii provizorii, considerm c sunt nvestite n
proza lui Mircea Nedelciu att cu calitile non-locurilor, dup cum sunt ncadrate de Ionu
Miloi i Ramona Hran n lucrrile amintite, ct i cu cele ale spaiilor heterotopice datorit
calitilor acestora i a capacitii lor de a interveni n mentalul colectiv prin deviaiile
produse. Vom ncerca s dm cteva exemple care s fie relevante acestui transfer n partea a
doua a studiului dedicat acestei teme, prin aprofundarea semnificaiilor mijloacelor de
transport, ca heterotopii de deviaie, sau non-locuri ce au impact asupra identitii
personajelor.
n concluzie, n aceast prim parte a studiului, am amintit, prezentat sau analizat
studii i teorii ce pun n discuie problematica timpului i a spaiului, n ncercarea de a
argumenta pn la final obiectivul propus, i anume, c spaiul din proza lui Mircea Nedelciu
este unul postmodern ce are o prevalen mai mare asupra timpului ca formul narativ, iar
semnificaiile simbolice ale acestuia au implicaii majore n construcia identitar a
personajelor.
Acknowledgement: Aceast lucrare a fost publicat cu sprijinul financiar al
proiectului Sistem integrat de mbuntire a calitii cercetrii doctorale i postdoctorale
din Romnia i de promovare a rolului tiinei n societate, POSDRU/159/1.5/S/133652,
finanat prin Fondul Social European, Programul Operaional Sectorial Dezvoltarea
Resurselor Umane 2007-2013.
Bibliografia operei:
NEDELCIU, Mircea, Zmeura de cmpie (roman mpotriva memoriei), Editura
Militar, Bucureti, 1984; ediia a II-a, Prefa de Sanda Cordo (Cine snt fiii acelor tai?),
Editura Compania, Bucureti, 2005.
24
25
Michel Foucault, op. cit., p. 255.

Ibidem., p. 255-256.
615
Issue no. 6/2015
NEDELCIU, Mircea, Tratament fabulatoriu roman cu o prefa a autorului, Editura

Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 1986; ediia a II-a, Editura ALL, Bucureti, 1996; ediia a IIIa, Cuvnt nainte de Sanda Cordo (Un obiect util), Avertisment la ediia a II-a 1996
(Mircea Nedelciu), Editura Compania, Bucureti, 2006.
NEDELCIU, Mircea, Proz scurt - Aventuri ntr-o curte interioar, Efectul de ecou
controlat, Amendament la instinctul proprietii, i ieri va fi o zi, prefaa de Sanda Cordo
(Mircea Nedelciu i proba clasicismului), Editura Compania, Bucureti, 2003.
NEDELCIU, Mircea, Opere 1. Aventuri ntr-o curte interioar; Efectul de ecou
controlat, vol 1, Seria Opere, Ediie ngrijit i prefaat de Ion Bogdan Lefter, Editura
Paralela 45, Piteti, 2014.
Bibliografie critic selectiv:
AUG, Marc, Non-Places: Introduction to An Anthropology of Supermodernity,
Trans. John Howe, Verso, London, 1995. (1st edition published in French as Non-lieux.
Introduction Une Anthropologie de la Surmodernit, 1992).
BACHELARD, Gaston, Poetica spaiului, Seria Studii socio-umane, trad. Irina
Bdescu, pref. Mircea Martin Gaston Bachelard ca educator, Editura Paralela 45, Piteti,
2003.
BACHELARD, Gaston, Poetica reveriei, Traducere de Luminia Brileanu, Editura
Paralela 45, Piteti, 2005.
CHATMAN, Seymour, Story and Discourse: Narrative Structure in Fiction and Film,
Cornell UP, Ithaca and London, 1978, pp. 96-106 and 138-145.
http://www.uni-koeln.de/~ame02/pppn.htm#N5.5.2 [accesat n 29.01.2015]
CHEVALIER, Jean, GHEERBRANT, Alain, Dicionar de simboluri. Mituri, vise,
obiceiuri, gesturi, forme, figuri, culori, numere, Vol I-III, Traducere de Daniel Nicolescu,
Doina Uricariu, Olga Zaicik, Laureniu Zoica, Irina Bojin, Victor Dinu Vldulescu, Ileana
Cantuniari, Liana Repeeanu, Agnes Davidovici, Sanda Oprescu, Editura Artemis, Bucureti,
1993.
CURRIE, Mark, About Time. Narrative, Fiction and the Philosophy of Time, The
Frontiers of Theory, Edinburg University Press, 2007.
http://books.google.ro/books?id=8cJvAAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&hl=ro&sour
ce=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false
DINIOIU, Adina, Proz i spaialitate, n rev. Romnia literar, Anul 2012, nr. 46.
http://www.romlit.ro/roz_i_spaialitate [accesat n 20.01.2015]
FOUCAULT, Michel, Altfel de spaii, n Theatrum philosophicum. Studii, eseuri,
interviuri. 1963-1984, ediie ngrijit de Ciprian Mihali, traduceri de Bogdan Ghiu, Ciprian
Mihali i Sebastian Blaga, Casa Crii de tiin, Cluj-Napoca, 2001.
HRAN, Ramona, Heterotopie i ficionalizare a spaiului la Mircea Nedelciu, n
vol. Dilemele identitii. Forme de legitimare a literaturii n discursul cultural european al
secolului XX, Editura Universitii Transilvania din Braov, 2011.
MILOI, Ionu, Geografii semnificative. Spaiul n proza scurt a lui Mircea Nedelciu,
cu o prefa de Sanda Cordo, Un debut semnificativ, Colecia Paradigme, Editura Limes,
2011.
RUTI, Doina, Dicionar de teme i simboluri din literatura romn, Ediia a II-a
revzut i adugit, Editura Polirom, Bucureti, 2009.
TUAN, Yi-Fu, Topophilia: A Study of Environmental Perception, Attitudes, and
Values, Columbia University Press, New York, 1990.
TUAN, Yi-Fu, Space and Place: The Perspective of Experience, University of
Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, 1977.
616
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RDEA, Teodor N., BERLINSCHI, Petru V., EANU, Anatol I., NISTREANU,
Didina U., OJOVANU, Vitalie I., Dicionar de Filosofie i Bioetic, A-Z, Chiinu, 2003.
WESTPHAL, Bertrand, Pour un approche gocritique des textes, n La Gocritique
mode demploi, PULIM, Limoges, coll. Espaces Humains, nr. 0, 2000, pp.9-40.
http://www.vox-poetica.org/sflgc/biblio/gcr.html [accesat n 5 ianuarie 2015]
617
Issue no.6/2015
THE BOOK OF AUCTORIAL SINCERITY. OCTAVIAN PALERS NOVEL LIFE ON A

PLATFORM AND THE CONTINUOUS NECESITY OF PROBLEMATIZING THE
EXISTENCE
Mariana Simona VRTAN (PLEA)
1 decembrie 1918 University of Alba-Iulia
Abstract: This essay aims to concentrate a brave entrance into the palerian novels
subsidiary, Viaa pe un peron, a novel about the human existence, seen in perhaps the most
tensioned of its own images. Its numerous tensions the literary scenario is filled with are
being shown, as a paradox or maybe not, we might say through the ,,adamic couple,
represented by a history teacher and a woman, Eleonora. Its no need for other characters.
Those two replace, in all their actions, the gestures, the winces, the lamentations or the
unrests of HUMAN BEING, from anywhere and anytime. Their way of acting seems to be
reduced, constantly, to the same common point: life into the solitude, but not any kind of
solitude, that solitude of the double, concequently named through the angle of waiting. This
must be the foundation of the book and probably its theme. Into the wilderness of a train
station named ERO, those two characters bring, eachone, as a justification of their autoexile,
the fear The fear of being required to submit themselves to the ,,cobras tamers and to the
,,dogs tamers allows them to occur, as a single way of rescue, either the withdrawal or the
uniformisation. Ration carrying spirits, the two characters cannot accept the pact with those
wich are already being submitted. In this way, they choose to punish the ruined society wich
has been rhinocerizated. So they find the way of overtaking, by the withdrawal into this world
deposed of whats not right. The novel represents, in the same time, a fresco of the social
reality before 89 period. A whole world opens in front of us, a world wich has lost its values,
kept under the sign of two of the most powerful weapons: the fear and the terror. In front of
them people have lost any chance of fighting. The novel propose a solution to fight with those
horrible weapons: the acceptation of the destiny is far more important then the destiny itself.
Keywords: dogs and cobra tamers, fear, uniformisation, train station, terror
Romanele paleriene refac traseul nesfritelor evadri ntru existen, prin vacarmul
unei societi puternic vrjite de mirajul oglinzii duplicitii. n fa se desfoar o lume a
,,nimnui i a ,,tuturor, a lui ,,tot sau ,,nimic, orientarea fiind supus liberului arbitru,
pentru fiecare dintre cititori. Aprut n 1981, romanul, Viaa pe un peron, se dezvolt ca un
spaiu al confesiunii, aproape un jurnal n care recunoatem drept protagonist OMUL, drept
narator OMUL, drept existen, UMANITATEA, aflat sub semnul unei realiti n care
tensiunea dramatic dicteaz i formuleaz valori sau nonvalori pe care le oblig a se duela,
transmind ,,seriozitatea dac nu gravitatea fiecrui demers i proces intelectual.1
Fr a-i fi propus s dea lecii de etic sau moral, fr s transmit nvturi sau
pilde, romanul Viaa pe un peron pune, pe tapetul existenial, imaginea frmntat i
tensioant a umanului. Realitile declarate nu sunt noi, subiectele atinse nici att Ceea ce
impresioneaz, n mod real ns, n abordarea palerian a acestora, este simplitatea scenei
Daniel Cristea-Enache, Prefa la volumul Octavian Paler, Viaa pe un peron, Ediia a V-a, Iai, Editura
Polirom, 2011, p. 9.
1
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Issue no. 6/2015
existeniale pe care se succed, rnd pe rnd, aceste realiti. Cnd vorbim despre simplitate, ne
referim nu la uurina cu care strbat, spre public, multele i nesfritele frmntri, ct
identitatea numeric a celor care le enun, peronajele romanului. Ironic sau nu, romanul nu
abund n personaje. Toat galeria de personaje se reduce la numrul doi: un profesor de
istorie i o femeie, Eleonora. Iat cum i propune autorul ca cele dou personaje s ne
reprezinte. Mergnd pe firul istoriei, nc de la nceputul lumii, aceleai dou personaje:
brbatul i femeia au purtat, prin aciunile lor, ntreaga responsabilitate a umanului. Adam i
Eva au primit, n stpnire, grdina Raiului i accesul la toate posibilitile de a-i purta, n cel
mai ferict mod, propria lor existent, fr a ti c, de fapt, i vor duce cu sine, la nesfrit,
propria povar, aceea a luptei nesfrite dintre valorile umane i nonvalorile acesteia. Tot sub
semnul cifrei doi se compune i atmosfera romanesc a crii Viaa pe un peron. Suntem
departe de frescele romanului tradiional romnesc sau strin n care societatea era zugrvit
prin prisma unui arbore genealogic ntins pe cteva generaii, structura epic ncorpornd
adevrate fenomene i specimene umane creatoare de tipologii i caracterologii; Aici pot fi
ncadrai, fr greeal: Balzac, Victor Hugo, George Clinescu, Hotensia Papadat-Bengescu,
etc.
Prima numit, i singura purttoare de nume, de altfel, este Eleonora. Despre aceast
prezen feminin, aflm, nc din primele rnduri ale romanului care ncepe cu o cutare; i
nu este orice cutare: este cutarea dublului sau, poate, a jumtii gata s ntregeasc cercul:
,,De cteva sptmni ncerc s zresc n direcia mlatinei silueta Eleonorei, aa cum a
plecat, cu trenciul pe umeri. 2 Cu toate c nu i leag nicio relaie, de natur sentimental,
parcurgem cu ei ntreg romanul i aflm, prin prisma lor, ce ne propune autorul.
Dac cei de la nceputul lumii, Adam i Eva, primesc, n dar, grdina Raiului,
personajele romanului cad, am putea spune, ntr-un fel de pustiu - o gar - depopulate, din
care nu mai vin i nu mai pleac trenuri, nu mai miun cltorii, n care s-a oprit pn i
timpul: ,,Pustiul e o gar prsit despre care nu tiu dect ceea ce vd. Uneori mi se pare c
au trecut foarte muli ani de cnd pe peronul prfuit n-a mai cobort nimeni i c aerul s-a lipit
de ziduri ca o rugin strvezie. Alteori, dimpotriv, am impresia c gara a fost prsit nu
mult nainte de venirea mea i a Eleonorei, i c tcerea ascunde o tain. [] Ceasul de pe
peron, care n prima clip mi s-a prut un ceas obinuit, cum exist n toate grile, arat
limpede c timpul nsui a ncetat aici s curg normal.3
Timpul rupt, linitea i singurtatea nasc, n contiinele celor dou personaje, singurul
concret pe care l duc, cu stoicism, dar i cu abnegaie, precum Sisif propria-i stnc:
ateptarea. Aceasta pare a fi miza fundamental a crii i poate i tema ei; Mai nti
profesorul deapn, cu seriozitate, existena proprie, pn n momentul n care devine
locuitor, pe termen nelimitat, al grii i apoi ea, Eleonora, ajuns ,la rndu-i, ,,chiria a
pustiului, din motive aproximativ asemntoare, dac nu identice. De
la
aceste
dou
confesiuni grave, i oarecum asumate, pornete romanul ateptrii: ,,Cele dou personaje nu
au biografii, n accepie tradiional, pe care s le rememoreze, cum ne-am atepta. Ele sunt
Octavian Paler, Viaa pe un peron, Prefa de Daniel Cristea- Enache, Ediia a V-a, Iai, Editura Polirom, 2011,
p. 15.
3
Ibidem, p. 17.
2
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Issue no. 6/2015
rezumatul a ceea ce gndesc. Prin urmare, meditaia sfrete n eseu. Rezultatul e un roman
abstract-filosofic, nu concret-social care mbin tematic un process kafkian al condiiei umane
cu absurdul beckettian al unei ateptri fr sens. 4
n persoana naratorului iese n fa un fost profesor de istorie care mrturisete
confesiv: ,, Ursitoarele erau bete, probabil, cnd au venit la captul meu sau, plictisite, au vrut
s se amuze. Au fcut din mine un fel de acrobat fr plas. Mi-au dat o nverunare greoaie i
o exaltare care, amestecate, au devenit destin.5Acesta nir, rnd pe rnd, ncercrile sale,
soldate de fiecare dat cu eec, de a-i furi o ,,meserie: ,,Mai nti am vrut s m fac
pustnic. 6Apoi i justific renunarea: ,,De altfel ca s te retragi de bunvoie ntr-un pustiu
trebuie s ndeplineti, probabil, mimimum trei condiii: 1. S crezi n Dumnezeu sau n ceva
asemntor mai mult dect n tine. 2. S tii s renuni. 3. S nu vrei s vorbeti cu nimeni
despre sihstria ta. Or eu nu ndeplineam niciuna dintre aceste condiii. Eram prea egoist i
prea tnr ca s renun la ceea ce nu avusesem nc i pe deasupra mi se prea plictisitor s nu
pot comunica nimnui impresiile mele din pustiu7 Dup aceea i-a dorit s devin
judector, pasiune ucis, fr vreme, de ,,destinul meu sucit.8 i acest vis se rentoarce n
renunare, deoarece mrturisete naratorul, oarecum justificativ dar i simbolic: ,,eu m-am
nscut n zodiac Racului, dar, ca s ncurce de tot lucrurile, ursitoarele mi-au dat pasiuni
puternice, rstignindu-m ntre ele i tendina racilor de a da napoi. Ceea ce a fost un
adevrat blestem pe capul meu.9
Dup acest nou eec se succed alte pasiuni euate, mrturisite, paradoxal, cu o
acceptare senin i departe de regret, de narator: ,,Aa am ajuns la istorie. Nu cu gndul s fiu
un magistrat care n loc s judece pricini imediate judec dosarele istoriei. [] Aa c, dup
ce am studiat istoria, am devenit profesor de istorie. Era forma mea de ratare, dar m
consolam cu ideea asta. Mi-am zis c dreptatea e imposibil i c de fapt nimeni n-are nevoie
de ea. ntr-o lume n care chiar dreptatea e ratat, mi puteam ngdui i eu s fiu ratat.10
Nici perioada copilriei nu pare a fi departe de linia predestinat eecului cci nici ciclismul,
nici ahul sau muzica nu-i ofer evadarea mult dorit ci l afund n eec. Contient de acest fapt, i
organizeaz propria-i biografie: ,, N-am fost niciodat de un optimism prea robust. Dimpotriv, am
fost mereu vulnerabil. Clciul lui Ahile, la mine, s-a extins, aa cam pe trei sferturi de trup.11 Cu
aceste ratri n CV pornete acest profesor de istorie drept ,,cltor, pe peronul din gara ce nu
poart nume fr a avea ,,pasiunea grandorii12.
Personajul feminin, Eleonora, nu pare a fi
departe de dublul ei masculin. Ambii abandoneaz lupta nainte ca aceasta s nceap.
Aceleai orgolii mistuitoare puternic mrturisite confesiv, unul celuilalt, le guverneaz
existenele ntlnite pe peron. Dei afieaz comportamente ciudate afiliate, fr cusur, unei
Ion Simu, Decalogul ateptrii, n ,,Romnia literar, Revista Uniunii Scriitorilor din Romnia, Seciunea
Critic literar, Nr. 37, anul 2006, accesat la data de 20 februarie 2014.
5
Octavian Paler, Viaa pe un peron, p. 25
6
Ibidem, p. 25.
7
Ibidem, p. 26.
8
Ibidem, p. 26.
9
Ibidem, p. 27.
10
Ibidem, p. 28.
11
Ibidem, p. 36.
12
Eugen Simion, Scriitori romni de azi, vol. IV, Editura David. Litera, Bucureti, Chiinu, 1998, p. 201
4
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Issue no. 6/2015
nebunii masive, ajung s ne conving, n final, c pentru a se salva sunt nevoii s se retrag n
gar, s evadeze de fapt din realitatea mtii care poart nebunia.
Pentru c sunt purttori de raiune, cei doi sunt capabili s perceap pericolul iminent
de a purta masca uniformizrii dac prsesc gara, pustiul, autorul nsui justificnd evadarea
n acest spaiu: ,,am impresia c neleg de ce s-au dus atia nelepi n pustiu: pentru a-i
limpezi convingerile. Cele care rezist la proba pustiului sunt cele mai profunde. 13 Dei
aflat undeva la marginea lumii, fr coordonate precise, aceast gar unde se izoleaz pare a
fi salvarea din faa ,,mblnzitorilor de cobre sau ai ,,dresorilor de cini. Lumea n care
vieuiser pn atunci devine de nelocuit i de nerecunoscut. Scparea poart numele unei gri
fr nume. Tributul pltit refuzului de a accepta: ,,masificarea, supunerea, uniformizarea14,
este retragerea.
Personajul palerian pare s-o aleag pe cea din urm. i se pare c i
ego-ul su feminin va urma aceeai cale.
Se retrag din calea rului pentru a nu fi obligai s pactizeze cu acesta. Apoi privesc,
de pe margine, spre cercul viciat n care s-au prins, ca ntr-un dans, mblnzitorii de cobre i
dresorii de cini. Aceast retragere poate purta dou pecei: una a victoriei, aceea de a pstra,
cu preul retragerii n singurtate i ateptare, moralitatea uman sau cea a nfrngerii dat de
lipsa curajului de a nfrunta teama, rul, supunerea, uniformizarea: ,,Ei sunt nite evazioniti
care mediteaz de pe margine, fr a fi implicai n conflictul cu mblnzitorii sau dresorii.
Mediteaz despre fric, evitnd frica. Fug de ru, n loc s lupte cu el. Se autocondamn la
evazionism, cznd ntr-un pcat i mai mare, pasivitatea. 15
Aceast retragere este cu
att mai grav cu ct pare s fie definitiv. Un semn c societatea n care cele dou identiti
i duceau existena, pn n momentul evadrii, cci putem vorbi aici de o evadare, este
aproape sau definitiv ntoars spre autodistrugere. Cei doi realizeaz acest fapt la timp pentru
a se salva. Gravitatea ruperii de lumea real este semnalizat de personajul narator, dramatic
prin reformularea decalogului dat de Moise pe Muntele Mslinilor. Este aici, mai evident ca
oriunde n roman, c lumea, ,,acum de dincolo, a pierdut sacralitatea, l-a pierdut pe nsui
Dumnezeu. Avem n fa un act puternic de arogan, aceea de a echivala un set de ndemnuri
pe care sanctitatea le-a impus muritorilor pentru a-i asigura viaa eternal: ,,Iat pe scurt, tot
ceea ce ai auzit aceasta este: teme-te de Dumnezeu i pzete poruncile Lui. Acesta lucru e
cuvenit fiecrui om. 16
Am putea crede c profesorul se rzvrtete mpotriva acestuia. El creeaz un set
propriu de porunci, anulndu-le automat pe celelalte: ,,Am i un decalog aici. Eu l-am scris i
tot eu l-am atrnat pe peretele slii de ateptare. Cum ridic ochii, l vd. i de fiecare data mi
repet una din cele zece prounci. De fiecare data una singur, ca s m conving s-o urmez.
Iat-le cum sun: Prima porunc: S atepi orict.
A doua porunc: S atepi orice.
A treia porunc: S nu-i aminteti, n schimb, orice. Nu sunt bune dect amintirile care te
Viorel Cacoveanu, Interviuri literare, colecia Opera Omnia, publicistic i eseu contemporan, Editura Tipo
Moldova, Iai. 2014, p. 71
14
Ion Simu, Decalogul ateptrii
13
15
16
Ibidem,
Ecclesiastul, cap. 12
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Issue no. 6/2015
ajut s trieti n prezent.

A patra porunc: S nu numeri zilele.
A cincea porunc: S nu uii c orice ateptare e provizorie, chiar dac dureaz toat viaa.
A asea porunc: Repet c nu exist pustiu. Exist doar incapacitatea noastr de a umple
golul n care trim.
A aptea porunc: Nu pune n aceeai oal i rugciunea i pe Dumnezeu. Rugciunea este
uneori o form de a spera a celui ce nu ndrznete s spere singur.
A opta porunc: Dac gndul sta te ajut, nu cuta s recunoti c speri neavnd altceva mai
bun de fcut sau chiar pentru a te feri de urmrile faptului c nu faci nimic.
A noua porunc: Binecuvnteaz ocazia de a-i aparine n ntregime. Singurtatea e o trf
care nu te nvinuiete c eti egoist.
A zecea porunc: Amintete-i c paradisul a fost, aproape sigur ntr-o grot. 17
Apoi afirm, mai grav: ,,Ce bun idee am avut cu decalogul sta. De cte ori sunt n
dificultate, apelez la el. M uit i caut porunca de care am avut nevoie n clipa respectiv. i
imediat mi revin. Nu tiu ce m-a fi fcut fr asta. Poate c omul s-a obiniut s i se
porunceasc. El i permite s fie surd la rugmini, dar devine atent cnd i se poruncete. Nai vzut c i Dumnezeu a folosit aceeai metod? n loc s ne ilumineze, a descoperit c e
mult mai comod s ne porunceasc. n zece porunci a rezolvat totul. Dup aceea s-a putut
retrage linitit. Poruncile aveau s mbrnceasc pe cel ce trebuia mbrncit, s ucid pe cel ce
trebuia ucis, pentru ca lumea s vad c nu e de glumit cu mpria cerurilor i c, la nevoie,
pctoii vor fi mnai cu biciul spre mntuire. 18
Abia aici reuim s trecem dincolo de a-i atribui negarea lui Dumnezeu i s nu-i
judecm ndrzneala. Lumea din care fcea parte omorse toate perceptele morale prin
transformarea sa. Rmas fr acestea naratorul caut, n lipsa ateniei lui Dumnezeu, s le
gseasc un nlocuitor, semn c simte, n continuare, nevoia s cread n ceva. Decalogul su
devine astfel o carte sfnt a ateptrii. Nu poate tri fr a se supune unor reguli, n timp ce
n lumea real acestea au fost abolite. Dac analizm atent cele 10 porunci, se observ
repetabilitatea ,,ateptrii, devenite leitmotiv al existenei sale; Trebuie s atepte orict,
orice; El nsui i impune i o limit a ateptrii n porunca a V-a: ,,S nu uii c orice
ateptare e provizorie, chiar dac dureaz toat viaa.19
Acest provizorat despre care amintete aici se ntinde, paradoxal, pn la
sfritul vieii. Autorul decalogului nu transform acest fapt nici n dram nici n dezolare. O
aprob senin i cu resemnare. Motivul este explicat n urmtoarele porunci: ,,Dac gndul sta
te ajut, nu cuta s recunoti c speri neavnd altceva mai bun de fcut sau chiar pentru a te
feri de urmrile faptului c nu faci nimic. 20
De aici ateptarea se transform n
speran apoi n acceptare i consolare. Cercul se-nchide cu ultima porunc n care
sintetizeaz, pur i simplu: ,,paradisul a fost, aproape sigur ntr-o grot. 21 De ce n-ar fi acest
paradis posibil i-n gara unde domnete ateptarea. Ce dac teama de a pactiza cu un sistem
17
Octavian Paler, Op. cit., p. 20

Ibidem, p. 21.
19
Ibidem, p. 20.
20
Ibidem, p. 20.
21
Ibidem, p. 20.
18
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Issue no. 6/2015
bolnav, care i-a pierdut, rnd pe rnd, virtuiile devine un motiv al evadrii? Cci evadare se
poate numi fuga lor din cotidianul anost spre gara pustie. Sau autoexil i e, practic, totuna.
Fiindc nu se pot supune strii de fapt care contravine principiilor nealterate n care cred i le
guverneaz viaa, cele dou personaje se vd puse n faa unei alegeri duble: revolta sau
renunarea.
Prima dintre acestea ar nsemna nesupunere la ordine i echilibrul social, or cele dou
personaje nu menioneaz nicieri, n dialogurile sau monologurile lor acest fapt. Cealalt,
renunarea, retragerea, mpins pn la a atepta orict i orice, devine nltoare pentru c
scoate din uniformizare cele dou personaje; acestea devin, prin urmare, mesageri ai unei
modaliti de a pstra vii convingerile proprii fr a nclca regulile socialului. Plecarea tacit
din faa pericolului de rinocerizare i salveaz de acuzele lectorilor fini. Nu nfrunt direct
pericolul pentru c sunt contieni de imposibiliatea izbndei imediate. Aleg ns s
pedepseasc socialul prin retragerea din spaiul acestuia ntr-o lume uor deposedat de ru.
Cu toate c prima dat am fi tentai s blamm teama i lipsa curajului de a nfrunta ordinea
greit a strii de fapt, pe mblnzitori i dresori, ajungem s accepetm decizia celor dou
personaje
de
a
se
autodefini
prin
ateptare.
Aceasta devine, prin urmare, un fel de condiie a umanului de a se autodepi:
,,Ateptarea celor dou personaje e ambigu, impins pn la absurd, pn la pierderea
speranei. Nu are obiect precis. Brbatul i femeia se clesc n singurtate, pentru a deveni
profesioniti ai ateptrii. n fond, acesta este i mesajul universal al romanului, insistent
subliniat de narator, ateptarea, definete condiia uman. Omul este fiina uman care
ateapt ntreaga via. Iar aceast ateptare poate fi disperat sau chiar fr sens. 22
Cu toate acestea, marea retragere ntru ateptare, pune n faa noastr, a lectorilor,
cititori printre rnduri, dou personaje, gata pregtite pentru un destin tragic. Fuga din faa lui
nu poate fi judecat ca gest de laitate ci de team a sfritului, n faa cruia nu au de ales
dect supunerea. Scparea este imposibil i ei tiu acest lucru. i astfel se deschide cel mai
complex dintre procesele la care profesorul de istorie ajunge s participe, direct sau indirect.
El nsui mrturisete Eleonorei preferina pentru procese n cutarea adevrului care trebuie,
mai nti, aspru cercetat, nti negat apoi acceptat. Sigur c nainte de a-i realiza propriul
proces, i face ucenicia judecnd altele. Este de amintit aici procesul n care vine n aprarea
femeii din frizerie pe care o gsete drept victim a celor din jur care nu-i neleg i-i
dezaprob gestul de a veni mereu n frizerie dei i pierduse locul de munc, n sperana c va
mai ctiga un ban din baciul primit.
Gesturile i chiar ntmplarea n sine este cutremurtor de dramatic: ,,A stat cteva
clipe fr s spun nimic, privind fix spre partea din fund a frizeriei. Apoi deodat s-a
congestionat i a nceput s strige. i pe msur ce striga, vocea ei se subia, devenea ipt
pn cnd iptul s-a sfrmat. [] Nu mai era un ipt omenesc. Era un ipt animalic plin de
disperare i de neputin. 23
22
23

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Issue no. 6/2015
Tratarea acesteia, cu nepsare, de ctre cei din frizerie i chiar de narator este
mrturisit cu un soi de indignare, dar i de laitate cci dei dezaprob purtarea celor din jur,
el nsui o ntrete ferindu-se s fac vreun gest: ,,iptul ei nu exista. n zadar ipa, nimeni
nu vroia s-o aud. Inclusiv eu, de fapt. Cci n tot acest timp nu m-am sculat de pe scaun ca s
m ntorc. 24 Aceste procese devin, prin urmare, prelungiri ale proceselor pe care le
organizeaz asupra contiinei sale. Apoi toate acestea devin ample spaii ale rechizitoriului
general, transformate ntr-un ,,proces de rinocerizare.25
Suntem aruncai, aadar, n plin
atmosfer ionescian. Absurdul situaiilor la care personajul ia sau nu parte, restaureaz un
spaiu ,,securizant i consolator26 n care posibilul devine imposibil i invers. Un spaiu n
care omul se vede pus n incapacitatea de a-i nelege sensul existenei dominat fiind de
,,sentimental ratrii27. Nu tim dac mrturisirile profesorului sunt ancorate n realitate dar
tim, cu siguran, c se afl la grania fragil dintre a fi i a nu fi. Nu am putea afirma, cu
certitudine, c relatrile sale nu sunt obiect al imaginaiei unui om care rateaz lupta cu
nenumratele pasiuni pe care le nir, cu abnegare. Cum, de altfel, nici nu putem nega
probabilitatea ca zbaterile sale s fac obiect al concretului cotidian. Ne vedem astfel obligai
s poposim n zona parabolei cu condiia s ,,acceptm, de la nceput c omul care se
confeseaz poate fabula, dar c n fabulaii el continu s existe cu nelinitile sale. 28
Fabulaii sau nu, temerile sale se gsesc ntr-o zon limit a limitelor. Modalitatea prin care
caut s rzbat este aceea de a fabrica sau nu nite ntmplri prin care s-i justifice
alegerile. Firete c toate acestea sunt, mai nti, trecute prin sita rar a procesului n
ncercarea de a ,,trage toate faptele spre adevr. 29
n fiecare din acestea se d o lupt accerb pentru adevr, moral i eticism.
Cu toate acestea, este destul de dificil ncercarea de a separa plsmuirea de realitate. Nu tim
sigur dac nu cumva aceasta a fost chiar dorina scriitorului. S-i trimit lectorii, i aici
vorbim de cei avizai, n spaiul unei parabole care s lase libere toate palierele de cercetare i
nelegere a simbolurilor i actelor ce le enun. Nu tim cnd ncepe realitatea unde se
termin i cnd intervine fabulaia. Ne vedem pui n faa unor fapte i relatri care ar putea,
la fel de bine, s depeasc realul i s intre n ambiguitate sau invenie. Sau invers Sigur
c ne punem ntrebarea dac nu cumva toate evenimentele din viaa profesorului sunt esute
de imaginaia sa: exist, cu adevrat, gara, pustiul, mblnzitorii de cobre, Eleonora?
Dac ar fi s cercetm realitatea anilor n care se nate romanul, rspunsul la aceste
ntrebri ni se ofer pozitiv. Un profesor de istorie, puternic activant n spaiul juridicului se
retrage, din faa pericolului reprezentat de mblnzitorii de cobre, ntr-o gar pustie, aflat la
marginea unei mlatini. Sigur c locul i timpul sunt neprecizate, tocmai pentru a divaga de la
realitatea social a anilor 80. Sub haina ambigu a parabolei se nate o adevrat dram. Se
disociaz aici, deja, o lupt a individului cu starea inuman a unor evenimente ce-l foreaz s
24
Ibidem, p. 41.
Eugen Simion, Op. cit., p. 203
26
Alina, Crihan, Naraiuni identitare n proza lui Octavian Paler: de la romanul parabolic la scriitura
autobiografic
postotalitar, [n] ,,Revista Transilvania, nr. 3/2013, revist editat de Centrul Cultural
Interetnic Transilvan, serie nou, Anul XLI (CXLV)
27
Gusdorf, Georges, Auto-bio-graphie, Lignes de vie 2, Odile Jacob, Paris, 1991
28
Eugen Simion, Op. cit., p. 202.
29
Ibidem, p. 204.
25
624
Issue no. 6/2015
ia o decizie disperat. S fug din faa fricii pentru a nu fi forat s dea ochii cu ea. Istoria
care-l include i pe el declaneaz mecanismele.
n contiina personajului se compune astfel spargerea echilibrului existenial, locul
su fiind luat de ,,dominaia despotic30 dat de mblnzitorii de cobre. Declanarea acestor
realiti este declanat de momentul din frizerie, cnd femeia rmas fr locul de munc, i
fr alt posibilitate de a se ntreine scoate un ipt dramatic. Tresrind surd la auzul lui,
profesorul va fi dominat apoi de acest sunet pe care l aude nencetat. Atunci realizeaz c nu
mai coabiteaz cu universal su, c i va deveni un spaiu strin din care se expulzeaz singur,
izbindu-se, precum un sfnt, dup cum mrturisete, cu sinceritate, n pustiu dar se lovete de
o nou euare. Revoltat mpotriva rului impus de mblnzitorii de cobre, se revolt, de fapt,
mpotriva realitii sociale care aplic nite principii eronate, aezate sub pecetea terorii i a
fricii.
Raportat la realitatea social de dinainte de 89, romanul aduce, n faa cititorilor,
imaginea perimat i distrus de team a unei societi care i-a pierdut valorile. Citit,
urmnd acest palier al interpretrii, cartea red radiografia regimului totalitar al ultimului
deceniu ceauist. Transpar, dintre rndurile lui, modalitile de funcionare a sistemului aflat
sub semnul a dou dintre cele mai puternice arme, n faa crora omul i-a pierdut orice ans
de a lupta: teama i teroarea.
n timp ce acest sistem totalitar caut s submineze valorile i s reduc puterea
contiinei colective la supunere, romanul palerian propune un mod pe care l gsete, prin
profesorul de istorie, de a lupta cu sistemul. Se retrage n pustiu, mpreun cu valorile sale, de
teama de a nu fi forat s renune la ele. Undeva, spre finalul romanului, el nsui mrturisete
c era pe punctul de a renuna la acestea i de a se transforma n mblnzitor de cobre. Ajuns
n mlatin, pentru a doua oar, folosete fluierul cu care adoarme cobra, de teama de a nu-i
pune viaa n pericol.
Important este nu att acest fapt ct contientizarea greelii pe care o face i pe care o
justific, mai apoi: ,,Abia atunci mi-am dat seama ce semnificaie avusese ntmplarea de la
colib. Va s zic putusem s joc rolul mblnzitorului; <<Ce uor e s treci dintre victime
ntre mblnzitori>> mi-am spus i n clipa aceea, mi-a fost scrb de mine. Parc eram
murdar tot. Melodia pe care-o cntasem m murdrise. Poate c tocmai de aceea m lsaser
acolo, lng colib, singur ca s zdruncine ultimul rest de ncredere n mine. <<Ce simplu e,
la urma urmei, s te degradezi, m gndeam>>.31
Viaa pe un peron reformuleaz, la acest nivel, o modalitate subversiv de a lovi ntrun sistem perimat, ucigtor de contiine i creator de uniformizare, un mod ,,de adresare
30
31
Ibidem, p. 564.
Octavian Paler, Op. cit., p. 227.
625
Issue no. 6/2015
direct unui confesor, resimit ca absolut necesar32. Neputnd denuna, direct, aceast form
de alienare a libertii individuale i colective, autorul alege calea scrierii pentru a denuna
modul abrupt i terifiant al dictaturii comuniste de a-i impune propriile principii, prin orice
mijloace, chiar dac acestea au periclitat dreptul la liber opinie i chiar cel la via, apelnd
la o ,,analiz angajat, printr-o implicare disociativ.33. Individul sau colectivitatea, devenii
unul i acelai lucru sub reprezentarea profesorului au de ales ntre uniformizare i libertate.
Fiind un spirit intransigent dar temtor, alege s se revolte, dar tacit, mpotriva sistemului,
prin exilul n spaiul pustiu al grii, ferit oarecum de pericolul de a fi surprins de cobre i de
mblnzitorii lor. Autorului i rmne astfel, la fel ca personajului su, s refuze
uniformizarea: ,,individul are de ales ntre anonimat i singurtate34. Ca ,,rzbunare d
natere acestui roman. Aici deplnge inechitile sistemului, modul barbar de a domina
contiina indivizilor, reducndu-i la tcere, prin apel la cobre. Veninul lor este letal i
oamenilor din roman, sau din afara lui, li se amintete acest fapt de fiecare dat.
Poate c fineea cu care a pus n scen jocul personajului i metaforele folosite, pentru
a justifica realitile imposibil de numit, n mod direct, fr a se supune unor consecine
punitive, a fcut ca acest roman s nu rmn blocat n sertarele Securitii. Nu s-a aflat
niciun moment sub arma nemiloas a cenzurii dar au fost interzise orice analize sau
interpretri ale acestuia: ,,Ar nsemna asta oare c e un roman perimat, din moment ce a
exercitat un rol subversive n anii 80 i, prin urmare, era <<valabil>> numai atunci, n acel
context politic? E ndreptit s ne ntrebm: cum trec, dac trec subversivitile conjuncturale
dincolo de epocile n care i-au ndeplinit funcia critic i provocatoare? Rspunsul e simplu,
pentru romanul lui Octavian Paler: prin universalitatea parabolei.35
Acest roman trece dincolo de deceniul pe care-l reprezint venind pn n actualitate.
i depete rolul strict subversiv, aprtor al unor principii pe care regimul comunist a
ncercat s le anuleze pentru a-i subordona indivizii, fr drept de apel. O dat redobndit
libertatea, dup momentul 89, romaul nu s-a diluat n negura uitrii. A pstrat, i pstreaz, n
continuare, varii imagini i idei sau realiti cu care omul oricrui deceniu sau secol se
intersecteaz, de neumrate ori, de-a lungul existenei.
Pe peronul ateptrii, n gara fr nume, sau numit generic ,,via, se poate situa i
astzi, oricare dintre noi. Omul este fiina nscut ntru ateptare, ntreaga sa via. Oricare ar
fi scopul acesteia: social, politic, moral, estetic, economic, ea devine definitorie pentru
condiia uman. Romanul poate fi cartea oricui, dup cum nsui autorul mrturisete: ,,n loc
s m adresez pianjenilor din sala de ateptare ori vntului care sufla dinspre pdure spre
mlatin, m adresez unor oameni pe care nu-i vd, nu-i cunosc i unii, poate nc nici nu s-au
nscut.36 i el evit, cu subneles, localizarea existenei: tim c personajele sale se retrag
ntr-un spaiu - o gar pustie - lng o mlatin, dar nu tim exact unde. Nici gara nu poart un
Ion Simu ,,Variante la un autoportret, Prefa la Octavian Paler, Autoportret ntr-o oglind spart, Polirom,
Iai, 2010, p. 8
33
Mircea Iorgulescu, Ceara i sigiliul, Editura Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 1982, p. 208
34
Maria Toma-Dama, Amprente Octavian Paler i gndirea filosofic, Editura Casa Crii de tiin, ClujNapoca, 2009, p. 32
35
36
32
626
Issue no. 6/2015
nume; pe portalul intrrii zac, ntr-o aceeai ateptare, cteva litere, trei la numr, ,,albe, pe un
fond albastru, splcit.37
tim doar att ct ni se precizeaz, c aezarea lor d natere unui cuvnt, incomplet i
el: ERO - aflat parc n aceeai ateptare. Sau dup cum mrturisete autorul ,,dup toate
aparenele, numele grii a fost scris de la nceput astfel, incomplet i misterios, ca i cum
cineva ar fi vrut s lase fiecrui cltor posibilitatea de a-i da ce nume vroia.38 S fie oare
aceasta o posibilitate de evadare n libertate? Nu suntem pui n faa a ceva dinainte stabilit
doar aici, n gara pustie. n rest, nu avem nicieri tangen cu libertatea. n afara acestui
,,topos, paradoxal pustiu i respingtor, miun pericolul iminent: la orice pas, dresorii i
mblnzitorii de cobre rspndesc teama i instaureaz teroarea. Aici totul se desfoar altfel:
poi s numeti gara cum vrei, mrturisete, surprins personajul. i i chiar permite
reformularea unor posibile nume: ,,ntr-o zi am luat o bucat de cret i m-am jucat ncercnd
s compun un cuvnt adugnd o liter: EROS, EROU, ZERO. i numele pe care le obine,
prin jocul de cuvinte, sunt ncrcrcate de simbol. Dac stm s analizm ordinea lor, am
putea conchide c iubirea i curajul devin neant, nruindu-se, n acelai spaiu al nimicului i
incertului.
Bnuiala ne este confirmat tot de personaj: ,,Ceasul de pe peron, care n prima clip
mi s-a prut un ceas obinuit, cum exist n toate grile, arat limpede c timpul nsui a
ncetat aici s curg normal. Numai minutarul se nvrtete. Cealalt limb st nemicat; s-a
mpotmolit parc n mlul unei ore i nu mai poate nainta. De aceea v dai seama i mersul
minutarului a devenit zadarnic.39 Pendulnd ntre teama de cobre i cini, cu ai lor
imblnzitori, i un timp care i-a pierdut durata, cele dou personaje, profesorul i Eleonora,
ar putea deveni exponeni ai individului aflat n cutarea certitudinii c exist izbnd n lupta
cu destinul. n plus, tot autorul menioneaz c situaia lor nu poate fi aezat n singularitate,
tensiunile moral-existeniale ale eului luat sub observaie40 raportndu-se la ntreaga umanitate.
Pustiul devine universal: ,,chiar dac dumneavoastr vei declara n sfrit c nici gara nu
exist, c ea nu e dect nlucirea unei mini rtcite v nelai, domnilor, dai-mi voie s
v spun de acum. Asemenea gri exist. E plin lumea de ele.41
nseamn atunci c destinul celor doi nu e singular. Poate din acest motiv romanul nici
nu mai are nevoie de alte personaje. Epicul se desfoar, la fel de bine prin aciunile celor
doi, cci ne reprezint, cu suficien, n planul prezentului, aa cum ne-a reprezentat, cu
siguran, n cel al trecutului,,rednd nevoia de comunicare42. Nici numele lor nu conteaz,
unul ales la ntmplare, iar cellalt nenominalizat, subscriu acelorai idei. Aici poate fi orice
individ, i pustiul acesta apare n universal, la fel ca ateptarea. Doar c era nevoie de cineva
s-o aminteasc. i aici intervin cei doi. Pustiul anim singurtatea. i este totui o singurtate
37
Ibidem, p. 19
Ibidem, p. 19
39
Ibidem, p. 17
40
Daniel
Cristea-Enache
,
Ultimul
Paler,
[n]
,,Romnia
Literar
Nr.
http://www.romlit.ro/ultimul_paler
41
Ibidem, p. 19
42
Daniel Cristea-Enache, Convorbiri cu Octavian Paler, Editura Corint, Bucureti, 2007, p. 5.
38
627
48,
2007,
Issue no. 6/2015
n preajma cuiva. Este singurtatea n doi. Un el i o ea aflai n nevoia suprem de a

comunica i de a se comunica.
Pustiul i singurtatea devin suportabile cci cele dou personaje se refugiaz n
confesiunea care ,,red sens experienei existeniale43. Vorbesc, prin urmare sunt reale,
exist. Nu apar ca plsmuire a eului ci, mai degrab, ca reprezentani ai acestuia. Prin prisma
lor, omul i poate regsi propriul destin, propria-i identitate: cutarea sinelui, disperarea,
fuga, singurtatea, frica de pustiu i de exteriorul lui: necesitatea confesrii. Oare nu sunt
acestea atributele oricrei fiine? Ceea ce ateapt ei nu ateapt oricine?
Eliberndu-se de identitatea primit n spatial social, se strecoar astfel n universal.
Chiar dac nimic din ceea ce triesc acestea nu devine obiect al realitii cotidianului, a
preajmei, oricine e liber s se regseasc pe sine n omul ce caut, necontenit, n ateptare,
sensurile existenei sale, dincolo i dincoace de moarte - salvarea. Jocul existential pe care-l
desfoar autorul aici, finalizeaz dramatic cu aceeai imagine cu care se deschide romanul.
Acceptarea destinului este mai important dect destinul nsui.
Nu ne rmne dect s cutm, n paginile crii, soluia potrivit de acceptare a
destinului, aa cum o soluioneaz, n cele din urm, personajele sale sau ntr-un mod cu totul
diferit: ,,Modul n care un om i accept destinul este mai important dect nsui destinul
su.44
BIBLIOGRAFIE:
1. Viorel Cracoveanu, Interviuri literare, colecia Opera Omnia, publicistic i eseu

contemporan, Editura Tipo Moldova, Iai. 2014
2. Crihan, Alina, Naraiuni identitare n proza lui Octavian Paler: de la romanul
parabolic la scriitura autobiografic postotalitar, [n] ,,Revista Transilvania, nr.
3/2013, revist editat de Centrul Cultural Interetnic Transilvan, serie nou, Anul
XLI (CXLV)
3. Cristea-Enache, Daniel, Convorbiri cu Octavian Paler, Editura Corint, Bucureti,
2007
4. Cristea-Enache, Daniel, Ultimul Paler, [n] ,,Romnia Literar Nr. 48, 2007,
http://www.romlit.ro/ultimul_paler
5. Cristea-Enache, Daniel, Prefa la volumul Octavian Paler, Viaa pe un peron,
Ediia a V-a, Iai, Editura Polirom, 2011
6. Gusdorf, Georges, Auto-bio-graphie, Lignes de vie 2, Odile Jacob, Paris, 1991
43
44
Alina Crihan, Op. cit., p. 58

Wilhelm von Humboldt, n Octavian Paler, Viaa pe un peron, p. 13.
628
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7. Micu, Dumitru,
Istoria Literaturii romne, De la creaia literar la
postmodernism, Editura Saeculum. I. O., Bucureti, 2000
8. Paler, Octavian, Un om norocos, Prefa de Mircea Iorgulescu, Ediia a II-a, Editura
Polirom, Iai, 2008.
9. Piru, Alexandru, Istoria literaturii romne de la nceput pn astzi, Editura
10. Pruteanu, George, Octavian Paler, [n] revista ,,Dilema, nr. 182, 5 iul. 1996,
http://www.pruteanu.ro/ CroniciLiterare/182paler-jum.htm
11. Simion, Eugen, Scriitori romni de azi, vol. IV, Editura David. Litera, Bucureti,
Chiinu, 1998
12. Simu, Ion, ,,Variante la un autoportret, Prefa la Octavian Paler, Autoportret
ntr-o oglind spart, Polirom, Iai, 2010
13. Simu, Ion, Decalogul ateptrii, n ,,Romnia literar, Revista Uniunii Scriitorilor
din Romnia, Seciunea Critic literar, nr. 37, anul 2006, accesat la data de 20
februarie 2014
14. Toma-Dama, Maria, Amprente Octavian Paler i gndirea filosofic, Editura
Casa Crii de tiin, Cluj-Napoca, 2009
15. Zaciu, Mircea, Papahagi, Marian, Sasu, Aurel, Dicionarul scriitorilor romni (MQ), Editura Fundaiei Culturale Romne, Editura Albatros, 2005
16. Iorgulescu, Mircea, Ceara i sigiliul, Editura Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 1982
629
Issue no.6/2015
ON THE AUCTORIAL SUBJECTIVITY IN SPECIALIZED LITERATURE

Ioana-Crina COROI
Abstract: This article aims to describe some marks of authorial subjectivity in the literature,
especially the scientific discourse in the field of botany and forestry. We believe that any text
in the literature bears the subjective mark of the specialist, reality that is obvious in the
choice and in the construction of discursive investigation approach.
Keywords: literature, authorial subjectivity, botany, discursive investigation, literary
approach.
I. Re-prezentare n literatura de specialitate
n anul 2004, Daniela Rovena-Frumuani afirma c orice discurs, a fortiori discursul
tiinific, este n egal msur reprezentare (e realului, a discursului despre real socialmente
construit) i prezentare (discurs emis de un locutor anume pentru un interlocutor i el bine
circumscris) (2004: 169). Avnd ca punct de reper aceast perspectiv, ne propunem s
abordm literatura de specialitate cu caracter tiinific i s ilustrm o serie de aspecte legate
de modalitatea de a investiga discursiv un discurs tiinific.
Reprezentarea i prezentarea realului din literatura de specialitate se realizeaz prin
construcii discursive bine determinate, prin vehicularea unor limbaje care nu permit o
elasticitate lexical prea ampl, prin folosirea accentelor argumentative n descrierea unor
realiti n care neutralitatea i obiectivitatea ar trebui s dein un loc de seam. ns
literatura de specialitate nu este ntotdeauna un domeniu rigid, uniform i lipsit de dinamic
sau de influene discursive ale vocii auctoriale, ci este purttoarea unor mrci subiective care,
nu de puine ori, i confer textului un farmec deosebit.
II. Mrci ale subiectivitii auctoriale n literatura de specialitate
n demersul nostru ne vom opri atenia asupra ilustrrii unor aspecte discursive inedite
pe care le-am putut observa treptat n etapa de documentare i de constituire a unor corpusuri
de analiz discursiv din literatura de specialitate romneasc pentru a scoate la lumin
elemente ale subiectivitii auctoriale din sfera discursului tiinific. n pofida faptului c acest
tip de discurs tinde mai cu seam s contureze o serie de perspective bine delimitate asupra
cunoaterii tiinifice, ca reflectare fidel a unor realiti pragmatice, am abordat aceast
investigare discursiv plecnd de la premisa c orice creator de literatur de specialitate
opereaz cu tipuri de texte n care se regsete sau n care vizeaz s-i iniieze pe
interlocutorii si. Astfel, orice text din literatura de specialitate poart amprenta direct a celui
care l-a creat, originalitatea abordrii discursive fiind evident din alegerea i construirea
demersului de investigare discursiv.
Ca exemplificare a unor realiti discursive, mrturie a existenei acestei amprente
personale n literatura de specialitate, ne-am ales ca eantioane de analiz discursiv o serie de
fragmente de texte din literatura de specialitate cu caracter botanic i forestier, respectiv
volumul semnat de profesorul Ion Simionescu, Flora Romniei, ediia a III-a, aprut n 1961,
cele dou ediii anterioare fiind publicate n 1939 i 1947. Profesorul Ion Simionescu (18731944) a fost unul dintre cei mai remarcabili oameni de tiin i de cultur, un mare profesor
630
Issue no. 6/2015
romn care a predat att la Universitatea din Iai, ct i la Universitatea din Bucureti. Ca
model de cultur i de profesionalism pentru o ntreag generaie de cercettori care s-au
dedicat studieriii disciplinelor tiinifice precum botanica, geologia i paleontologia.
Studiile publicate de Ion Simionescu au constituit vreme ndelungat un punct de reper
pentru aceste discipline, oferind corpusuri de analiz generoase pentru o pluralitate de
domenii de activitate, att datorit frumuseii scriiturii, ct i acurateei informaiilor furnizate.
n scrierile sale, Simionescu a reuit cu miestrie s mpleteasc armonios aspectele reale,
obiective, abstracte ale noiunilor prezentate cu un soi de umanism care a depit, deseori,
sfera literaturii de specialitate, ancornd-o ntr-un prezent al istoriei, culturii, civilizaiei,
folclorului etc.
Capacitatea discursiv auctorial de a construi informaii n care s pun laolalt
elemente ale obiectivitii i ale subiectivitii n discurs tiinific ne-a determinat s
constituim anumite piste comune de analiz pentru diferite abordri discursive. Pentru o mai
bun lectur a eantioanelor de corpus selectate, am optat pentru folosirea normelor
ortografice actuale, fr s intervenim asupra coninuturilor discursive.
Din punct de vedere al unei prime abordri globale a textului lui Simionescu, am
observat c este interesant alegerea auctorial pentru demersul de structurare a coninuturilor
cu caracter tiinific. Astfel, prefaa semnat de prof. Miltiade Filipescu, membru
corespondent al Academiei R.P.R., este urmat de o serie de capitole i subcapitole construite
coerent i progresiv din punct de vedere al abordrii tematice: Prin pduri (Stejriul, Fget,
Brdet), Locuri deschise (Pe vrf de munte, Prin fnee, Ogoare, haturi i miriti, Stepa,
Drumuri i locuri virane, n lungul i latul Dobrogei), Pe lng ape dulci (De-a lungul unui
curs de ap, n jurul unui lac, Turbrii, Prin srturi), Terenuri cultivate (Ogoare, Prin
livezi, vii i grdini cu zarzavat, Prin parcuri i grdini, Grdinile din sat) i Plante din cas.
Aadar, o incursiune clar i bine structurat n sfere concrete ale cunoaterii de tip
botanic i forestier. nc de la bun nceput, construirea perspectivei auctoriale asupra
demersului de prezentare a coninuturilor informaionale s-a concentrat pe o alturare inedit
de obiectivitate i de subiectivitate, prin imagini n care latura umanist a cercettorului
tiinific i atribuie un loc aparte n carte. De pild, nu putem trece cu vederea c profesorul
Simionescu face apel la scrieri din literatura romn pentru a-i ncepe demersul tiinific.
Remarcm c, n capitolul Primvara a sosit, deschis printr-o strof a Otiliei Cazimir - Azi
am vzut ntia rndunic/O slov ascuit, subiric,/Cu care mna nu-tiu-cui/nseamn pe
albastrul vntului/C jos e primvar (p.6) elementele de poeticitate par s introduc
cititorul ntr-o lume de basm, cu veleiti romaneti, nicidecum ntr-o lucrare integrat n sfera
literaturii de specialitate. nc din primele rnduri, discursul pare impregnat cu imagini
vizuale i sonore, olfactive, dar i cromatice, o poart deschis ctre un context discursiv
aparte. Astfel, Simionescu scrie: Mantaua de zpad ce acoperea cmpurile prinde a se
subia, de rmn de sub ea dmburile ca nite spinri nnegrite. Se topete vznd cu ochii,
pstrndu-se mai ndelung n umbra ndoiturilor de teren, pn ce ploile de primvar cur
cmpurile i de spuma omtului. Pe cerul senin iraguri de cocori, ca nite crlige, n treact
spre rile nordice, anun primvara: Cra-cra-cra. n limba lor cheam la munc pe oameni ca
i lumea ntreag de fiine. (idem)
Aceast alegere locutorial este susinut i continuat n capitolul intitulat Prin
pduricare, la rndul su, este deschis de alt o poezie, semnat de Mihai Eminescu:
mprat slvit e codrul,/Neamuri mii i cresc sub poale,/Toate nflorind din mila/Codrului,
Mriei Sale (p.33). De altfel, att Otilia Cazimir, ct i Mihai Eminescu vor constitui figuri
poetice la care se va face referire i n alte rnduri, atunci cnd autorul va ilustra denumiri ale
unor plante sau ale unor specii de arbori, de-a lungul paginilor volumului care reprezint sursa
noastr de exemplificare a elementelor de natur subiectiv n discursul tiinific: Otilia
Cazimir rna verii pe sfrit/Prin crngul gol, n fiecare an,/ntinde-n soare plnii
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otrvite,/Brndue, flori subiri de porelan. (p.63) i M. Eminescu O, privii-i cum

viseaz/Visul codrilor de fagi (p.46) sau Eu pe-un fir de romani/Voi cerca de m
iubete. (p.122)
Este interesant alegerea profesorului Simionescu de a apela la nenumrate figuri de
stil n descrierile tiinifice operate n volumul menionat anterior, la imagini de o poeticitate
aparte. Vom reda numai cteva dintre fragmentele de text decupate care abund n asemenea
elemente:
T1 - Arborii sunt prudeni, nite btrni cu experien. Nu le-ar folosi s-i crape
mugurii prea devreme, ca s scoat la iveal plpndele frunzulie, cci toanele Crivului,
mnios c i se sfrete domnia, ar nimici n cteva ore sperana de un an. Aprilie e neltor,
iar bruma nu rar cade i acum degernd florile pripite, nnegrind frunza de fag. n schimb, sub
scutul lor aprtor, arbutii ori plantele mai mrunte se grbesc s-i ncerce norocul i din
alt pricin. (p.12)
T2 - E frumoas i plin de farmec pdurea de fag vara. E tablou nentrecut de bogat
n culori, nspre toamn. Codrii de fag par nori mpurpurai lsai pe coasta dealurilor. De cum
le pic bruma, frunzele, foarte simitoare la frig (de aceea fagul nfrunzete relativ trziu), se
schimb la fa: devin glbui, apoi ca bronzul, cu tot soiul de nuane. Codrii ruginesc, pn
cnd gerul mut foile de aram pe pmnt, aterne un covor ce ine cald plantelor de
primvar. (p.47)
T3 - Flacra ce plpie se vede din deprtare chiar n lumina zilei. Multe plante au
florile roii ca s fie zrite de insecte. Este ns rou i rou, de la culoarea sngelui nchegat
btnd n negru i culoarea rsurii btnd n alb. Natura pe toate le mbin, adesea pe o petal
din floare, mai meteugit dect pictorul cel mai iscusit. (p.127)
Cele trei texte prezentate mai sus reprezint o mic incursiune n discursul lui
Simionescu, fiecare pagin a volumului putnd constitui un teren generos pentru analiza
subiectivitii i a poeticitii n discurs. Autorul nu se limiteaz la o simpl descriere poetic
a realitilor aparinnd sferei botanicii i silviculturii, ci strecoar cu dibcie elemente care
aduc mrturie direct asupra personalitii sale ca om de cultur, prin referiri la diferite spaii
culturale. Diverse pasaje din volum amintesc de figuri mitologice, prezint anumite
interferene culturale i istorice care vin s susin i s valideze legitimitatea discursului
prezentat. Figuri precum Medeea, Ludovic, Napoleon, .a. intervin n text ca exemple menite
s asigure pertinen i semnificaie realitilor enunate:
T4 - Tot otrvitor este omagul (Aconitum toxicum). St nesuprat de nimeni, cci
toat planta e otrvit cu aconitin, care chiar ca medicament nu poate fi luat dect un sfert
de miligram de mai multe ori n 24 de ceasuri. Medeea, se zice, din aceast buruian i-a
preparat otrava. Mieii netiutori, primvara, n zburdlnicia lor, dac pun gura pe o frunz de
omag, repede-repede mor. (p.85)
T5 - Adus de spanioli n Europa prin 1550, mult vreme n-a fost crescut dect ca o
curiozitate, prin grdini, fiind socotit ca otrvitor, apoi bun numai pentru vite. Abia din 1770,
n Germania, a fost plantat pentru hrana oamenilor, iar n Frana, sub domnia lui Ludovic al
XVI-lea, ntr-un an de foamete, a fost folosit printr-un iretlic imaginat de Parmentier. Un lan
plantat cu cartofi era pzit ziua de soldai. Sub ndemnul curiozitii i al foamei, locuitorii
furau noaptea cartofi. Aa s-a vzut c sunt hrnitori i neotrvitori. (p.279)
T6 - Sfecla de zahr este o varietate de sfecl de nutre (Beta vulgaris). Ea a fost
cptat de om din nevoie. Pe vremea lui Napoleon, cnd porturile au fost blocate de englezi
i astfel nu s-a mai putut aduce zahr de trestie, s-a revenit la observarea chimistului german
Markgraff, din 1747, c sfecla conine zahr. Astfel a luat fiin prima fabric de zahr (1801)
din sfecl, n Silezia inferioar. (p.280)
Demn de remarcat este interesul direct al autorului pentru ca interlocutorul s se simt
parte a realitilor descrise cu atta minuiozitate, ca el s devin un personaj n lectura pe
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care o realizeaz. Astfel, folosirea adresabilitii directe, a fenomenului de polifonie

discursiv, precum i construirea discursului cu elemente specifice modului de organizare
discursiv enuniativ, toate aceste mrci ale subiectivitii auctoriale pot fi observate, cu
uurin, n eantioane discursive de tipul urmtor:
T7 - Orict te-ai osteni culegnd flori de pdure, ntr-o zi de primvar, nu termini
aa uor. Una te cheam prin culoare, alta prin frumuseea ori gingia ei total. Poama-vulpii
(Paris quadrifolia) te ademenete prin originalitatea nfirii. E una dintre cele mai
rspndite de la noi, aflndu-se la es, ca i pe vrful Ceahlului (p.20)
T8 - La munte piatra e la fa. Te minunezi de unde-i scoate hrana voinicul ce poate
crete nalt i de 40 m. Semnul trudei de a nvinge piatra l arat rdcinile zvrcolite ca nite
erpi ce-i caut ascunzi. Nu se adncesc, cci n-au cum. Se vr printre crpturile pietrelor,
le cuprind s nu se nruie. i fac impresia unor brae vnjoase cu care se ine de stnci. Ai
zice c piatra i arborele sunt una. (p.74)
T9 - Nimic nu poate fi mai atrgtor i mai mulumitor sufletete dect o fnea
nflorit, n toiul dezvoltrii ei. Abia ai pit sfios spre marginea cmpului cu flori i uii de
vreme, pierzi noiunea de timp i distan. O floare te cheam spre ea prin culoare ori miros.
Alturi alta i se pare mai boghioas, mai frumoas, ori te ademenete una de mai ncolo prin
mirosul ei delicat (p.114)
n egal msur, acest tip de adresabilitate direct pare s devin uneori o form de
adresare cu caracter retoric: Se stric vremea? Grija cea dinti a plantei e s-i crue munca.
Foile albe se strng; nchid gura florii s nu se verse polenul degeaba. (p.15); Se poate o
minunie mai mare? Totul e cu socoteal. Rodul-pmntului ademenete insecta, o ine
prizonier ct trebuie s-i deschid drumul spre lumin dup ce i-a atins inta. (p.25); Ce a
fcut-o pe albin s tie unde e deschiderea gurii, cnd totul e zvort, ca i cnd planta ar
vrea s serbeze nunta n taina florii nchise? Buza de jos, tocmai la intrarea n gura florii, este
colorat cu o pat purpurie, socotit ca semnul neles de insect c pe acolo se trece la
nectar (p.168)
Frumuseea textului scris de Ion Simionescu este susinut i de mici intervenii de tip
folcloric n paragrafele n care descrie anumite specii de plante. Dup cum am putut constata
existena unor referiri de ordin intercultural, trebuie s amintim i despre ilustrrile folclorice
pe care autorul le opereaz la nivel discursiv, aducnd textului un plus de savoare i de
farmec: Foaie verde de pe fag,/Am un drgu ca un brad (p.48), Foaie verde tulipin,/Dup
nor i i senin,/Dup dragoste-i suspin (p.56), Arz-te focul, pdure,/S nu creasc attea
mure,/C toate murele tele/Parc-s ochii puicii mele (p.68), Maic, cnd m-ai
legnat,/Maic, ru m-ai blestemat:/n leagn mi-ai pus neghin/S nu am n veci hodin
(p.148), Frunz verde foi de nalb,/Rsai lun mai degrab (p.189), Frunz verde
troscoel,/Mi-a trimis badea inel/ S-mi stmpr dorul cu el sau Frunz verde lobod/Gura
lume-i slobod (p.191), Frunz verde odolean,/Cte zile-s ntr-un an/Toate le petrec cualean (p.247), Frunz verde busuioc,/F-m mam cu noroc/i m-arunc-n foc (p.343),
Am un drgu de Vlean,/Cu pean de mgheran sau Mndr, cnd oi muri eu,/Vino la
mormntul meu/i-mi seamn mgheran (p.345)
Dincolo de ilustrarea acestor aspecte care reflect n mod direct prezena constant a
mrcilor subiective din discursul profesorului Ion Simionescu, am remarcat i existena unei
abordri diferite n aceast ediie a volumului aprut n anul 1961. Ne referim la observaiile
care apar n notele de subsol ale textului, care, la rndul lor, ar putea constitui o nou abordare
discursiv a textului iniial. Implicarea colectivului redacional care s-a preocupat de aceast
ediie este evident n diferite momente discursive, prin completri de natur obiectiv, prin
mobilizarea funciei metalingvistice a discursului i prin intervenii care raporteaz anumite
eantioane de text la autor sau la Ion Simionescu:
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T10 - Marcotajul de care amintete autorul este un tip de nmulire vegetativ a

plantelor. Metoda const n nrdcinarea ramurilor unei plante, care nu au fost detaate de
planta-mam (p.68) / Cum se vede ns n continuare, autorul arat c din spor nu rezult
direct feriga, ci protalul, feriga formndu-se din oul rezultat din unirea gameilor [] (p.69) /
Imaginea descris de autor se refer la ogoarele micilor gospodrii individuale din trecut
(p.138)
T11 - Cele afirmate de I. Simionescu sunt adevrate pentru perioada de dinaintea
celui de-al doilea rzboi mondial (p.37) / n trecut haturile despre care amintete I.
Simionescu n acest capitol simbolizau proprietatea individual asupra pmntului, mica
gospodrie rneasc (p.137) / Cele artate de I. Simionescu reflect situaia agriculturii
din Romnia burghezo-moiereasc (p.304) / Afirmaia lui I. Simionescu este astzi mai
actual ca oricnd (p.262)
Aceste intervenii la nivel discursiv aparin unor specialiti care nu contest
veridicitatea afirmaiilor auctoriale, ci aduc un plus de informaie necesar pentru a sublinia
obiectivitatea descrierilor realizate de Simionescu, obiectivitate care, deseori, se ascunde
printre figuri de stil i trimite la folclor sau la alte realiti socioculturale.
III. Concluzii
Demersul nostru de cercetare pe care l-am ilustrat punctual prin decuparea i
construirea unor eantioanele de corpus discursiv aparinnd literaturii de specialitate,
respectiv domeniului botanic i forestier, a vizat abordarea discursului tiinific dintr-o
perspectiv discursiv care s reflecte faptul c orice creator de literatur, fie ea i tehnic, i
pune amprenta asupra textelor create i opereaz cu o serie de alegeri discursive care l
definesc ca personalitate.
Am investigat cteva fragmente de text selectate dintr-o lucrare de specialitate
perceput i validat ca reper n cercetarea aferent domeniilor amintite, ncercnd s
exemplificm anumite caracteristici ale subiectivitii auctoriale n manifestarea discursiv.
Am constatat c literatura de specialitate nu se definete strict ca o sfer rigid i lipsit de
mrci subiective, limitndu-se la descrierea obiectiv a unor realiti, ci se ofer cercetrii i
ca un cmp de investigare discursiv cu totul aparte. Realitile tiinifice pot fi prezentate i
ntr-o form subiectiv, mobiliznd n discurs referenialul i emotivitatea, depind
parametrii standardizai ai uniformizrii i uniformitii specifici discursului tiinific.
Fr ndoial, aceast sumar incursiune discursiv n textele scrise de profesorul Ion
Simionescu nu reprezint altceva dect o invitaie adresat, deopotriv, cercettorilor din
domeniile tehnic i umanist de a ptrunde ntr-un macrounivers cognitiv generos i pasionant
n care fiecare i poate folosi instrumentarul conceptual de care dispune pentru a oferi i altor
interlocutori noi viziuni asupra unor realiti care nu trebuie nchise ntre paginile unei cri, ci
exploatate cu interes.
Not: Lucrarea a beneficiat de suport financiar prin proiectul cu titlul SOCERT.
Societatea cunoaterii, dinamism prin cercetare, numr de identificare contract
Oameni!
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Repere bibliografice
1. Charaudeau, P., Maingueneau, D. (coord.), Dictionnaire danalyse du discours, Seuil,
Paris, 2002.
2. Rovena-Frumuani, D., Analiza discursului - ipoteze i ipostaze, Editura Tritonic,
Bucureti, 2005.
3. Simionescu, I., Flora Romniei, Editura Tineretului, Bucureti, 1961.
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LITTERATURE ET MARKETING : LE CAS DE ZOLA

Daniela-Ionela COVRIG
Abstract: The novel entitled Au bonheur des dames, written by Emile Zola and integrated in
the remarkable cycle Les Rougon-Macquart which is built around the theme of heredity
through five generations, can also be considered a mirror of 19th century commerce and
advertising. Being inspired by the realities of that period, Zola offers us a genuine lesson of
French economy. Within the 19th century context important changes took place as a
consequence of the economic boom and of the development of the bourgeoisie. We are witness
to the transition from little specialized stores to department stores. This aspect also leads to a
change of mentality regarding commerce and sales but also regarding advertising which is
seen differently in comparison with previous centuries. Zola meticulously records all this
changes in his novel.
Keywords : Zola, Au Bonheur des dames, 19th century, advertising, new commerce.
1. Le spectacle du nouveau commerce dans Au bonheur des dames

Paul Guimard, dans Rue du Havre, affirmait que Les grands magasins sont des lieux
magiques. Chacun peut y trouver de quoi donner une ralit ses songes 1. Cette phrase
illustre trs bien limage du commerce du XIXe sicle qui se voit envahi par lapparition des
magasins de nouveauts et ensuite par les grands magasins :
[] cest le triomphe de lpoque [].Cette exprience est particulirement
intressante, aussi bien sur le plan conomique, o elle nous montre une nouvelle forme de la
concentration des affaires, que sur le plan social, o elle nous montre comment une nouvelle
classe sociale arrive faire fortune et comment cette priode a permis de trs rapides
ascensions social.2
Les consquences de la rvolution industrielle ont facilit le dveloppement du
commerce et qui a donn naissance un nouveau type de commerce orient vers les besoins
du client dans un monde de plus en plus exigeant. Le XIXe sicle reprsente le miroir du
nouveau commerce o les petits commerants se confrontent la faillite cause de
lapparition des grands magasins. Lart de vendre cher utilis par les petits commerants a t
remplac par lart de vendre beaucoup et des prix acceptables. En France, le Second Empire,
connu pour sa prosprit financire, constitue le milieu propice pour le dveloppement des
nouvelles tendances en matire commerciale.
Le roman de Zola, Au bonheur des dames, prsente la dualit du commerce de
lpoque, une dualit entre tradition et modernit. Laccent est surtout mis sur la naissance des
grands magasins et aussi sur lvolution conomique et sociale de la ville de Paris. Les petits
commerants, les reprsentants de la tradition, continuent de survivre paralllement avec aux
nouvelles formes du commerce, tout en luttant contre les changements imposs par la socit
tout au long du XIXe sicle. Pourtant leur dcadence et ensuite faillite sont invitables. Cette
mort est prsente dune manire symbolique vers la fin du roman. Lenterrement de
Genevive, la fille de Baudu, marque la fin du commerce spcialis : Nous devrions tous
1
Paul Guimard, Rue du Havre, Ed. Gallimard, Paris, 1982, p. 45

Andr GARRIGOU-LAGRANGE et Marc PENOUIL, Histoire des faits conomiques de l'poque
contemporaine, 2nd d., Paris, Dalloz, coll. Prcis Dalloz, 1986. p. 451.
2
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Issue no. 6/2015
nous coller dans ce trou, dit Bourras Denise, qui tait reste prs de lui. Cette petite, cest le
quartier quon enterreOh ! je me comprends, lancien commerce peut aller rejoindre ces
roses blanches quon jette avec elle .3
Bien que le magasin Au bonheur des dames soit prsent comme un magasin de
nouveauts, il est en ralit ce que lon appelait alors, pour le diffrencier, un grand magasin,
lment fondamental de la modernit. En ce sens-l, Angela Gosman dans sa thse Zola a
business historian explique que les modles de Zola (fonds en 1852 et 1855) appartenaient
sans aucun doute la nouvelle gnration des grands magasins produits d'une France
moderne, dynamique 4 et non pas aux magasins de nouveauts qui ont bloui Balzac dans
les annes trente [et qui] n'ont pas survcu aux secousses conomiques et sociales qu'ont
marques la rvolution de 1848 et le rtablissement de l'Empire 5. En outre, Piedade da
Silveira, dans son article Les magasins de nouveauts6, parle de lvolution des magasins de
nouveauts dans la premire moiti du XIXe sicle. Tous ces magasins sont devenus les
grands magasins de la deuxime moiti du sicle.
Lhistoire de lconomie franaise telle quelle ressort de luvre de Zola est un
miroir plus ou moins fidle de la ralit de lpoque. Dans la seconde moiti du XIX e sicle,
Paris deux grands noms se distinguent Le Bon March et Les Grands Magasins du Louvre qui
jouissent dun grand succs et dont la supriorit se fait remarquer sur le march. Le Bon
March considr comme le premier grand magasin au monde a t fond par Aristide
Boucicaut en 1854. Celui-ci est suivi par louverture des Grands Magasins du Louvre en
1860 et par le Printemps et la Samaritaine en 1865.7Mme Zola fait rfrence aux magasins
rels de lpoque Le Bon March la rive gauche ; le Louvre tient le centre ; nous
accaparons, au Bonheur, les quartiers riches de louest .8
Le magasin qui figure dans ce roman a t fond en 1822 par les frres Deleuze. Aprs
la mort de lan, la fille de celui-ci pouse le fils dun producteur de tissus, Charles Hedoiun.
Plus tard, la femme reste veuve et pouse Mouret, un garon du sud de la France. Trois mois
aprs le mariage lautre frre Deleuze meurt et aussi Caroline, la femme de Mouret. La chance
sourit Mouret qui reste le seul hritier du magasin et qui russit donner un autre visage au
commerce de ce temps-l.
Dans Au bonheur des dames, la dualit tradition-modernit est reprsente par Baudu,
loncle de Denise et le propritaire du magasin Au Vieil Elbeuf et Mouret, le visionnaire du
nouveau commerce qui fait les premiers pas vers la modernit.
Si on se livrait une petite radiographie du commerce spcialis, on pourrait voir chez
Zola lexistence dun grand nombre de commerants qui vendent le mme type de produits
depuis toujours. Ils se connaissent entre eux, ils se respectent, chacun satisfait un certain
besoin des consommateurs, ils nont pas de stratgies de vente trs bien mises en place, ils
nont pas de vision commerciale long terme. Ils prnent la qualit de leurs produits et les
prix pratiqus par eux sont assez levs, car selon eux lart ntait pas de vendre beaucoup,
mais de vendre cher 9. Leur gloire est ombrage par llan des nouvelles formes de
commerce et leur disparition est progressive, mais invitable Chaque fois que le Bonheur
3
Emile Zola, Au bonheur des dames, Lausanne, Editions Rencontre, 1961, p. 429
Angela Gosmann, Zola, a business historian, Literature, Universit de la Sorbonne nouvelle - Paris III, 2010, p.
261-262
5
Idem apud, H. Mitterand, tudes, notes et variantes , p. 1673
6
Silveira (da), Piedade, Les magasins de nouveauts , dans Ttart-Vittu, Franoise, Silveira (da), Piedade,
Join-Diterle, Catherine, (prf.), et al., Au paradis des dames : nouveauts, modes et confections, 1810-1870,
Paris, Paris-Muses, 1992, p.16.
7
Claudine Chevrel, Une histoire des grands magasins, paru dans la revue SABF (St des Amis de la
Bibliothque Forney), 2012 - Bulletin n 193, article sans pages
8
Emile Zola, op.cit. p. 358
9
Ibid., p. 51
4
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des Dames crait des rayons nouveaux, ctaient de nouveaux croulements, chez les
boutiquiers des alentours. Le dsastre slargissait, on entendait craquer les plus vieilles
maisons.10
lantipode se trouvent les grands magasins qui proposent une autre manire de faire
le commerce. Premirement, Mouret prvoit le besoin de construire un magasin aux grandes
dimensions il la dcide acheter la maison de gauche, puis la maison de droite ; et luimme, quand il a t seul, en a achet deux autres ; de sorte que le magasin grandi, toujours
grandi, au point quil menace de nous manger tous, maintenant 11. Cet agrandissement lui
permet de vendre de tout dans le mme endroit, de runir toutes les boutiques spcialises
sous le mme toit. Cest une autre manire de distribution nouvelle qui est complte aussi
par la vente par correspondance et la livraison chez le client. Ce sont des signes certains de
modernit. On retrouve cet aspect aussi dans la ralit de lpoque, car dans les grands
magasins parisiens ces ventes reprsentaient 30 40 % du volume total dans les annes
1880 et 1890, avec prs de 4000 commandes journalires par poste .12
Les principaux points de sductions sont les prix accessibles pratiqus par les grands
magasins. La politique des prix est trs bien pense par Mouret qui part les produits bon
march offre beaucoup de promotions la fin de chaque saison. Le nouveau commerce
imposait le changement du stock plusieurs fois par an, ce qui impliquait aussi un grand
capital. Mouret explique ce principe au baron Hartmann ce commerce tait bas maintenant
sur le renouvellement continu et rapide du capital, quil sagissait de faire passer en
marchandises le plus de fois possibles, dans la mme anne 13. Cette pratique est trs utilise
aussi de nos jours. Denise, comprend les changements apports dans lconomie et soutient le
nouveau commerce en apportant des arguments solides :
les intermdiaires disparaissaient, agents de fabrique, reprsentants, commissionnaires,
ce qui entrait pour beaucoup dans le bon march ; du reste, les fabriques ne pouvaient mme
plus vivre sans les grands magasins, car ds quun dentre eux perdait leur clientle, la faillite
devenait fatale ; enfin, il y avait l une volution naturelle du commerce, on nempcherait
pas les choses daller comme elles devaient aller, quand tout le monde y travaillait, bon gr,
mal gr.14
Llment qui fait vraiment la diffrence entre les deux types de commerce est
lexprience offerte par les grands magasins lors des achats. Les clients et spcialement les
clientes - parce que, ce quon peut voir dans Au bonheur des dames, les femmes sont le
public cible du magasin et par consquent aussi celles qui apportent de largent - sont sduits
par les grandes vitrines aux tissus multicolores, par la marchandise soigneusement arrange
dans le magasin, par la manire insolite de prsentation, par la diversit des produits offerts.
Une autre manire de faire le shopping nat partir de maintenant car les clients ont la
possibilit de se promener parmi les produits, dy toucher, de les examiner, mme de les
rendre dans quelques jours sils changent davis. En outre, les clients ne se sentent plus
obligs dacheter quelque chose, ce quil prouve que cette activit est plus quun acte dachat.
La libert accorde, change les habitudes des clientes qui deviennent plus informes et plus
exigeantes. Tous ces lments empchent les femmes davoir envie de quitter vite le magasin.
Une autre trouvaille qui date de cette poque est reprsent par les endroits de
rcration au milieu du magasin, les magasins franais ayant t les premiers imaginer des
10
Ibid., p. 264
Ibid., p. 50
12
Claudine Chevrel, article paru dans la revue SABF (St des Amis de la Bibliothque Forney) 2012 - Bulletin n
193
13
Emile Zola, op. cit. 107
14
Ibid., p.237.
11
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lieux spcialement conus pour distraire et rafrachir leur clientle .15 Les salles de lecture
proposes par Mouret jouissent dun trs grand succs. Ce nest pourtant pas lide de Zola,
car ds 1870, le Bon March propose un salon de lecture pour ses clientes. Le but est en fait
doffrir aux femmes un endroit o elles pouvaient se rencontrer, parler des articles achets ou
recherchs, un endroit o se reposer et ensuite continuer leurs achats. Pour les hommes ctait
un endroit parfait pour attendre leurs femmes en lisant les journaux et en discutant entre
temps. Ces coins destins dautres activits que les achats se retrouvent dans une diversit
plus grande dans les centres commerciaux de nos jours.
Le nouveau commerce comporte une volution aussi du point de vue de larchitecture.
Il blouit les passants par ses constructions imposantes, par ses faades stupfiantes, par la
surface des magasins. Le Bon March, par exemple, occupe en 1880, 46 451 m, ce qui en
faisait le plus grand magasin du monde.16 Au bonheur des dames suit cette tendance. Il
est devenu :
Le plus vaste magasin du monde, comme disaient les rclames. cette heure, la
grande galerie centrale allait de bout en bout, ouvrait sur la rue du Dix-Dcembre et sur la rue
Neuve-Saint-Augustin; tandis que, droite et gauche, pareilles aux bas-cts dune glise, la
galerie Monsigny et la galerie Michodire, plus troites, filaient elles aussi le long des deux
rues, sans une interruption.17
2. La femme est sans force contre la rclame
A. Questions de terminologie
Le phnomne publicitaire trouve ses racines trs loin dans lhistoire. Selon Johnn
Vivian18 le premier annonce publicitaire date de 1468 et appartient un imprimeur
britannique qui voulait faire connatre un livre imprim par lui laide de quelques messages
imprims sur des petites feuilles de papiers. Les changements et lvolution de la publicit ont
t invitables. Le dveloppement de limprimerie et la naissance de la presse, ensuite, plus
tard la naissance du commerce de nouveaut qui impose une autre manire daborder le client
facilitent au XIXe sicle le dveloppement du phnomne publicitaire. Cependant, jusquau
XIXe sicle on parlait essentiellement dannonce ou de rclame. Le terme de publicit a t
attest pour la premire fois en 1689, ayant le sens d action de porter la connaissance du
public puis de notorit et partir du 1829 il connat son acception technique moderne
fait dexercer une action sur le public des fins commerciales 19.
En ce qui concerne les textes publicitaires, jusquau milieu du XIX e sicle, ceux-ci
adoptent essentiellement un type de mise en texte conforme au modle livresque et
lcriture littraire : typographie compacte, indiffrencie, linaire et rgulire, avec
seulement quelques titres pour agrmenter lensemble 20 A cet gard, on peut prendre
lexemple du roman Csar Birotteau de Balzac et la publicit pour la double pte des sultanes
et eau carminative.
Il simpose ici de faire une distinction entre les termes publicit et rclame , car
dans lusage quotidien on se confronte une confusion dans leur emploi. Entre les deux
concepts il y a plus quune diffrence : la publicit dsigne surtout le domaine, le
Claudine Chevrel, article paru dans la revue SABF (St des Amis de la Bibibliothque Forney) 2012 - Bulletin
n 193
16
Idem.
17
Emile Zola, op. cit. p. 456
18
John Vivian, The media of mass communication, Allyn and Bacon, 5th edition, 1999
19
Jean-Michel Adam, Marc Bonhomme, Largumentation publicitaire Rhtorique de lloge et de la
persuasion, Paris, Armand Colin, 2007 p. 11
.20 Idem
15
639
Issue no. 6/2015
processus, la science de dissminer des rclames, tandis que la rclame reprsente le produit
de ce processus (maquette, spot etc.) .21
Le Petit Robert dfinit la publicit comme le fait, lart dexercer une action
psychologique sur le public des fins commerciales 22 et la rclame comme 1.article
logieux prsentant et recommandant quelque chose ou quelquun, insr dans un journal
pour remplacer ou complter une annonce publicitaire; 2. La rclame, la publicit . 23 Bien
que les deux concepts soient presque synonymes, le mot rclame est plus ancien et il y a
une tendance en franais de le remplacer par le mot publicit .
Il est important de clarifier aussi la distinction entre la publicit, le marketing et les
relations publiques. Bien que les trois aient des traits communs du point de vue de leur
modalit de travail et de manifestation, chaque domaine a son spcifique.
Le marketing est une philosophie des affaires qui voit la cl du succs dans la
satisfaction des clients et qui recommande lutilisation de pratiques managriales aptes aider
identifier et trouver la solution pour les exigences des clients .24 La publicit est le
processus de placer des rclames identifiables, dans le mdia, bien dfinies, en change de
cots connus pour les espaces et le temps utiliss en ce sens .25La dfinition donne par
lAssociation Amricaine de Marketing (AMA), considre par les spcialistes la plus
complte est la suivante : la publicit est toute forme non-personnelle, paye, de prsenter et
de promouvoir les ides, les biens et les services, par un sponsor identifi 26
Dans la littrature de spcialit roumaine, la publicit et la rclame sont aussi
considres parfois synonymes. Conformment au Dictionnaire explicatif de la langue
roumaine, la publicit est le fait de faire connatre au public une certaine chose par la
dissmination dinformations ; modalit de rendre connu un produit, une entreprise, etc. Par
linformation du consommateur sur sa qualit, son prix et son utilit 27. Le mme
dictionnaire dfinit ainsi la rclame :
1. Lactivit commerciale par laquelle on vise, laide de la publicit (par des articles
imprims, la radio, la tlvision, le cinma etc.) de susciter, de gagner lintrt du
consommateur pour certaines marchandises, certains livres, un spectacle, lutilisation de
certains services, etc. Propager des informations logieuses (vis--vis de quelquun ou de
quelque chose) pour crer de la rputation ou de la popularit.
2. Article (dans une publication), affiche, pancarte, panneau, etc. laide desquels on
fait de la rclame.28
Rex Harlow aprs avoir tudi plus de 472 dfinitions, a tabli que les relations
publiques reprsentent :
la fonction managriale de gestion distinctive qui aide ltablissement et la
maintenance de certaines limites rciproques de communication, lacceptation rciproque et
la coopration entre une organisation et son public ; elles impliquent le management des
problmes tout en aidant les managers tre informs sur lopinion publique ; elles
Rodica Mihaela Crnu, Publicitatea sau arta de a convinge, Bucureti Ed. Didactic i Pedagogic, , 2004, p.
36 (notre traduction)
22
Le Petit Robert 1, Dictionnaire de langue franaise, Paris 1988, p. 1563
23
Ibid., p. 1625
24
E. Hill, T. O Sullivan, Marketing, Bucureti, Ed. Antet, 1997, p. 9 (n.t.)
25
Michael J. Baker, Manual de marketing, Bucureti, Ed. Codex, 1998, p. 6 (n.t.)
26
Mihaela Nicola, Dan Petre, Introducere n publicitate, ediia a 2-a, Bucureti, Ed. Comunicare.ro, 2009, p.19,
apud Wright Winter, Zeigler 1982 (n.t.) http://www.scribd.com/doc/28442382/Introducere-in-publicitate-DanPetre-Mihaela-Nicola, consult le 19 janvier 2015
27
Dicionarul explicativ al limbii romne, http://dexonline.ro/definitie/publicitate, access le 19 janvier 2015
(n.t.)
28
Ibid., http://dexonline.ro/definitie/reclama, access le 19 janvier 2015 (n.t.)
21
640
Issue no. 6/2015
dfinissent et accentuent les obligations managriales de savoir lintrt public ; elles servent
un systme davertissement qui aide les managers anticiper les tendances de
lenvironnement, elles utilisent comme principaux instruments de travail la recherche et la
communication qui ont la base des principes thiques.29
Les dfinitions ci-dessus, permettent de remarquer les diffrences entre les trois
concepts. Les relations publiques ont le rle de construire limage dun produit, dune marque
ou dune entreprise, tandis que la publicit et le marketing ont comme but direct la vente. En
plus, la publicit est subjective, mais les relations publiques prsentent les faits
objectivement, sans les interprter, les deux ayant la base les thories pragmatiques de la
communication de masse .30 La plus importante distinction entre les trois domaines est le
dialogue. Les relations publiques impliquent un dialogue permanent avec le public, pendant
que la publicit et le marketing en sont le rsultat.
B. Moyens de publicit dans Au bonheur des dames
Dans la deuxime moiti du XIXe sicle, Zola montre dans Au bonheur des dames
une facette de la publicit qui ne se limite pas seulement aux annonces publies dans la
presse, mais qui fait appel aussi dautre mcanismes, quon retrouve aussi de nos jours, tels
les catalogues, les affiches, la publicit bouche bouche, la publicit laide de limage du
magasin, la publicit laide du design des vitrines, la publicit vive.
Bien que pendant le XIXe sicle la publicit soit considre comme une escroquerie,
une ruse, opinion partage aussi par les reprsentants de lancien commerce dans Au bonheur
des dames Foi dhonnte homme ! je rougirais demployer de tels moyens. Depuis prs de
cent ans, le Veil Elbeuf est connu, et il na pas besoin la porte de pareils attrape-nigauds 31.
Mouret, le patron du fameux magasin, a une vision trs moderne, comprenant trs bien le
pouvoir de la publicit :
La grande puissance tait surtout la publicit. Mouret en avait dpenser par an trois
cent mille francs de catalogues, dannonces et daffiches. Pour sa mise en vente des
nouveauts dt, il avait lanc deux cent mille catalogues, dont cinquante milles ltranger,
traduit dans toutes les langues. [] Il professait que la femme est sans force contre la
rclame, quil finit fatalement par aller au bruit32.
Cette attitude ouverte, prvisionnelle, lui apporte de la gloire. Pourtant, on ne peut pas
ignorer les effets ngatifs de la publicit sur le consommateur comme lencouragement du
matrialisme, la manipulation des consommateurs acheter des produits et des services dont
ils nont pas besoin; la perptuation des strotypes . 33 Mouret, lui aussi est conscient que la
publicit attire les femmes dans son magasin, et la possibilit de trouver la marchandise de
toutes les anciennes boutiques dans un seul endroit facilite les achats inutiles ; il explique
ce mcanisme trs simple au baron Hartmann et, de comptoir en comptoir, la cliente se
trouvait prise, achetait ici ltoffe, plus loin le fil, ailleurs le manteau, shabillait, puis tombait
dans des rencontres imprvues, cdait au besoin de linutile et du joli . 34De lautre ct on
peut voir la publicit, implicitement celle faite pour le magasin Au bonheur des dames comme
un moyen dinformation du public, car
la plupart des messages ont un but informatif ; il est difficile de faire une dlimitation
entre la publicit informative et la persuasive ; les consommateurs ont la libert de prendre en
Cristina Coman, Relaii publice principii i strategii, Bucureti, Ed. Polirom, 2001, p. 14 apud J.E. Grunig, T.
Hunt, 1984, p.7 (n.t.)
30
Crnu Rodica Mihaela, op.cit., p.30 (n.t.)
31
Emile Zola, op.cit. p. 53-54.
32
Ibid., p. 281
33
Cristinel Dobre, op.cit.,p. 156
34
29
641
Issue no. 6/2015
considration les messages auxquels ils sont exposs, quand ils dcident dacheter quelque
chose ; ils ne peuvent pas tre dtermins acheter des produits qui ne leur offrent pas de
satisfactions ou de bnfices personnels.35
On peut dire avec Bernard Cathelat que la publicit est une production de la socit
qui fournit sa finalit et son langage. 36 Mais en mme temps elle est aussi gnratrice de
culture par sa ncessaire promotion de linnovation et par sa qute permanente de
loriginalit 37. Selon le mme auteur il serait naf de ne voir en la rclame que roublardise
commerciale et boniments aguicheurs. Toute annonce, pour qui veut la dcoder, propose un
modle culturel dont lobjet commercial est le support et le symbole durable. 38
Un aspect remarquable pour cette poque est la capacit des commerants de
comprendre limportance de limage, la force dattirer la clientle par laspect du magasin et
par son nom. Les petits commerants naccordent pas beaucoup dimportance cet aspect. On
peut voir limage du Vieil Elbeuf, le magasin de loncle de Denise, qui a un air dpass,
dlabr qui nattire pas de regards dadmiration, qui nexcite pas le dsir dy entrer, bien quil
renvoie la tradition : ils aperurent une enseigne verte, dont les lettres jaunes dteignaient
sous la pluie : Au Vieil Elbeuf, draps et flanelle, Baudu, successeur de Hauchecorne . 39 Cette
image est particulirement frappante parce que place en face du gigantesque magasin de
nouveaut elle tonne tous les passants. Ses dimensions, le savoir de sa composition, les
ornements dors, la sensibilit des figures fminines, qui y figurent ont un impact sur celui
qui regarde : Dans le pan coup donnant sur la place Gaillon, la haute porte, toute en glace,
montait jusqu lentresol, au milieu dune complication dornements, chargs de dorures.
Deux figures allgoriques, deux femmes riantes, la gorge nue et renverse, droulaient
lenseigne: Au Bonheur des Dames 40.
Lamnagement des vitrines y est pour beaucoup un dans la sduction exerce sur le
public, voire la clientle. La vitrine comporte la stratgie la plus proche, la porte des
commerants qui dsirent faire de la publicit de leurs produits. La manire darranger la
marchandise dans la vitrine a son importance, car cela reprsente le premier contact entre le
magasin et lacheteur. La vitrine peut fournir des informations sur : le type de la marchandise
vendue, la position du magasin sur le march (magasin aux produits haut ou bas de gamme),
lhistoire du magasin, la marque des produits, leur qualit et des services. La conception des
vitrines dans Au bonheur des dames tmoignent dune vritable mise en abyme de
lexprience romanesque naturaliste. Lobservation directe des objets, des choses est double
dun rarrangement, une recomposition dont lordre ou lemplacement est mme de produire
une signification nouvelle.
Au dbut du roman, Denise qui arrive de province sattarde devant la vitrine du Au
bonheur des dames, tonne par larrangement des objets et des couleurs, ce quelle navait
jamais vu dans le petit magasin de nouveauts o elle avait travaill. La disposition des objets
commence par le toit de cabane en trompe-lil qui joue sur la confusion de la perception de
celui qui regarde. Ensuite cest la prsentation des gants et des bas ou le tissu et la couleur
pouse le corps dans une vision toute sensuelle:
un arrangement compliqu: en haut, des parapluies, poses obliquement, semblaient
mettre un toit de cabane rustique; dessous, des bas de soie, pendus des tringles, montraient
des profils arrondis de mollets, les uns sems de bouquets de roses, les autres de toutes
nuances, les noirs jour, les rouges coins brods, les chairs dont le grain satin avait la
35
Cristinel Dobre op.cit.,p. 158

Cathelat Bernard, Publicit et socit, Paris, dition Payot, 1992, p. 235
37
Idem.
38
Idem.
39
40
Ibid., p. 30
36
642
Issue no. 6/2015
douceur dune peau de blonde; enfin, sur le drap de ltagre, des gants taient jets
symtriquement, avec leurs doigts allongs, leur paume troite de vierge byzantine, cette
grce raidie et comme adolescente des chiffons de femme qui nont pas t ports.41
Cest un espace en quelque sorte satur dobjets tals, pour que le regardeur aille
de surprise en surprise jusqu lpuisement de cette offre abondante. La phrase semble
mimer un merveillement progressif de celui qui regarde. Dabord cest la couleur qui
lemporte. Cest une symphonie de couleurs et de lumire : le rouge et le bleu vifs, le noir
profond contrastant avec le blanc, sajoutent aux couleurs plus sobres, aux pleurs, au crme.
La grande surprise est rvle la fin, un point doriginalit de la maison, mme de faire
sensation, de capter lattention de ceux qui dsirent lexclusivit de leurs achats. Il sagit de
soies dont le magasin Au bonheur des dames tait le seul avoir la proprit : les soies
Paris Bonheur et Cuir dor.
Mais la dernire vitrine surtout les retint. Une exposition de soies, de satins et de
velours, y panouissait, dans une gamme souple et vibrante, les tons les plus dlicats des
fleurs: au sommet, les velours, dun noir profond, dun blanc de lait caill; plus bas, les satins,
les roses, les bleus, aux cassures vives, se dcolorant en pleurs dune tendresse infinie; plus
bas encore, les soies, toute lcharpe de larc-en-ciel, des pices retrousses encoques, plisses
comme autour dune taille qui se cambre, devenues vivantes sous les doigts savants des
commis; et, entre chaque motif, entre chaque phrase colore de ltalage, courait un
accompagnement discret, un lger cordon bouillonn de foulard crme. Ctait l, aux deux
bouts, que se trouvaient, en piles colossales, les deux soies dont la maison avait la proprit
exclusive, le Paris-Bonheur et le Cuir-dor, des articles exceptionnels, qui allaient
rvolutionner le commerce des nouveauts.42
Dans le soin de raliser ces vitrines aucun dtail nest laiss au hasard. Ltalagiste
fantasme sur les foules dacheteurs obstruant les trottoirs. Rien dtonnant ce que lon fasse
lloge de ce talent dtalagiste du patron qui joue sur un vritable choc du client :
le premier talagiste de Paris un talagiste rvolutionnaire la vrit, qui avait fond
lcole du brutal et du colossal dans la science de ltalage. Il voulait des croulements,
comme tombs au hasard des casiers ventrs, et il les voulait flambants des couleurs les plus
ardentes, savivant lun par lautre. En sortant du magasin, disait-il, les clientes devaient avoir
mal aux yeux.43
Latmosphre du magasin est complte par les mannequins placs stratgiquement
pour attirer lattention et mettre en vidence les tenues :
A chaque marche, un mannequin, solidement fix, plantait un vtement immobile,
costumes, paletots, robes de chambre ; et lon et dit une double haie de soldats pour quelque
dfil triomphal, avec le petit marche de bois pareil au manche dun poignard, enfonc dans le
molleton rouge, qui saignait la section frache du cou.44
Lattrait dun prix rduit nest pas une composante ngligeable pour lacheteur. Le
patron dcide de vendre des produits au prix quil a achet au fournisseur Alors, cest
dcid, reprit-il, nous la marquons cinq francs soixante Vous savez que cest peine le prix
dachat 45. Cest une stratgie trs intelligente et intonative prsente au XIXe sicle comme
ainsi de nos jours. Mais cela implique un problme de lgalit, ntant applicable que pour les
produits prissables si le terme de validit est trs proche ou pour les produits vestimentaires
qui ne sont plus la mode afin de pouvoir puiser le stock.
41
Ibid., p. 31
Idem.
43
Ibid., p. 79
44
Ibid., p. 300
45
Ibid., p. 68
42
643
Issue no. 6/2015
Un moyen de fidliser les clientes est reprsent par les petits cadeaux offerts lors
dun achat. Mouret offre ses clientes par exemple des bouquets de fleurs une ide de
Mouret (...) de petits bouquets de violettes blanches 46ou aux enfants des images et des
ballons 47, portant le nom du magasin et promens en ville comme une rclame vivante
! 48.
Le nom du magasin se retrouvait aussi sur les faces des voitures que Mouret lances
dans Paris fond vert, rchampies de jaune et de rouge, et dont les panneaux fortement
vernis prenaient au soleil des clats dor et de pourpre 49. Cest une publicit mobile qui,
balade dans la ville, annonait sur des pancartes la mise en vente du jour .
Grce au dveloppement de la presse, la publicit devient plus accessible au grand
public et les produits vendus Au bonheur des dames deviennent connus par tout le monde
Votre soie, votre Paris-Bonheur, dont tous les journaux parlent 50. La force inimaginable de
la publicit et ses effets sont visibles dans lattitude des femmes Cette soie, depuis que les
rclames taient lances, occupait dans leur vie quotidienne une place considrable. Elles en
causaient, elles se la promettaient, travailles de dsir et de doute 51.
Les nouvelles circulent encore plus vite laide de la publicit bouche bouche lors
de leurs rencontre une tasse de th ou un bal. Discuter de leurs tenues, de la qualit des
matriels, du prix pay et du magasin do elles font leurs achats cest toujours une forme de
publicit.
Le magasin offre ses clients aussi des expriences indites. Denise prend son rle de
chef au srieux et organise un spectacle, un concert et un bal, pour prsenter cette occasion
la musique du magasin. Il faut capter non seulement lil, mais aussi loreille du client. Les
journaux sen occuprent 52 et le magasin devient le principal sujet de discussions.
Il nest pas surprenant que Mouret ait pens employer dix commis ne soccuper
que de la publicit. Les efforts communs de tous les employs, la responsabilit personnelle,
les ides indites de Mouret, les investissements massifs dans la publicit trois cent mille
francs par an 53 transforment Au bonheur des dames dans une lgende vivante qui
envahit dfinitivement les journaux, les murs, les oreilles du public, comme une
monstrueuse trompette dairain, qui, sans relche ; soufflait aux quatre coins de la terre le
vacarme des grandes mises en vente 54.
La femme est sans force contre la rclame 55 voil une phrase qui pourrait figurer
en exergue du roman.
Conclusion
La crativit sans stratgie, cela s'appelle de l'Art. La crativit avec de la stratgie,
cela s'appelle de la "publicit . (Jef Richards) Dans Au bonheur des dames les deux, et la
crativit et la stratgie sont prsentes. Observateur scrupuleux de lpoque, Zola nous offre
par son roman un petit manuel de marketing. Son criture fait voir en filigrane des
informations sur les quatre lments que comporte le marketing-mix pour les grands
magasins. Il nous fournit des informations sur la politique de produits, de prix, de distribution
46
Ibid., p. 459
Ibid., p. 281
48
Ibid., p. 281
49
Ibid., p.122
50
Ibid., p.112
51
Ibid., p. 112
52
Ibid., p. 411
53
Ibid., p. 281
54
Ibid., p. 451
55
Ibid., p. 281
47
644
Issue no. 6/2015
et de communication. Nous sommes renseigns sur la gamme de produits propose aux

consommateurs, une gamme de plus en plus varie et sur les prix toujours plus accessibles.
Les moyens de distribution classiques connaissent un progrs aussi, les magasins tant plus
raffins et plus ouverts vers les consommateurs. La distribution vers des magasins est
complte par celle par correspondance. On assiste un changement dans les habitudes et les
mentalits des gens. On insiste sur la publicit, moyen de communication trs pratiqu par les
grands magasins du sicle. De l la lutte entre les magasins et le choix plus inform des
consommateurs.
Une tude comparative entre la publicit prsente par Zola dans Au bonheur des
dames, la publicit envisage par Balzac dans Csar Birotteau et la publicit moderne tudie
par Roland Barthes dans son Systme de la Mode et non seulement pourrait apporter des ides
importantes sur le spcifique et lvolution de cette problmatique.
Bibliographie
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Cathelat Bernard, Publicit et socit, Paris, dition Payot, 1992.
Charpy Manuel, Formes et chelles du commerce doccasion au XIXe sicle.
Lexemple du vtement Paris, Revue dhistoire du XIXe sicle, en ligne, 24/2002,
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Chevrel, Claudine, Une histoire des grands magasins, paru dans la revue SABF (St
des Amis de la Bibibliothque Forney) 2012 - Bulletin n 193.
Crnu, Rodica Mihaela, Publicitatea sau arta de a convinge, Bucureti Ed. Didactic
i Pedagogic, 2004.
Coman, Cristina, Relaii publice principii i strategii, Bucureti, Ed. Polirom, 2001.
Dicionarul explicativ al limbii romne, http://dexonline.ro/definitie/publicitate,
access le 19 janvier 2015(n.t.)
Garrigou-Lagrange, Andr et Penouil, Marc, Histoire des faits conomiques de
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Gosmann, Angela, Zola, a business historian, Literature, Universit de la Sorbonne
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Le Petit Robert 1, Dictionnaire de langue franaise, Paris 1988.
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magasin : opportunits et risqu au dbut du XIXe sicle (1), Responsabili et
environnement N 55 JUILLET 2009.
Mihaela Nicola, Dan Petre, Introducere n publicitate, ediia a 2-a, Bucureti, Ed.
Comunicare.ro,
2009,
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jours. In: Romantisme, 1990, n67.
Silveira (da), Piedade, Les magasins de nouveauts , dans Ttart-Vittu, Franoise,
Silveira (da), Piedade, Join-Diterle, Catherine, (prf.), et al., Au paradis des dames :
nouveauts, modes et confections, 1810-1870, Paris, Paris-Muses, 1992.
Vivian, John, The media of mass communication, Allyn and Bacon, 5th dition, 1999.
Zola, Emile, Au bonheur des dames, Lausanne, Editions Rencontre, 1961.
645
Issue no.6/2015
ABOUT THE LABYRINTH OF SELF-KNOWLEDGE AND THE MYTH OF INTERNAL

HAPPINESS
Adrian IANCU
Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu
Abstract: Life as a maze of self-knowledge is the basis of narrative fiction novel that acquires
voltage autobiographical confession that alter ego through storytelling. Character biography
is punctuated by moments that character is destiny into the irrational. Convicted, based on
ambiguous charges, Petrini's destiny is to probe his own interiority in search of truth,
landscape marked by two lines of force: the myth of happiness through love and death as a
unique phenomenon, irepetabil.The destiny of the individual is a maze, then out of this
labyrinth, in other words, freedom, escape, is the enigma of happiness. Saving solution is
love, love with all ethical connotations that it generates. The sequence of the end of the novel
is eloquent.
Keywords: maze knowledge, inner happiness, inner dialogue, self-consciousness, narrative
discourse
Odat cu apariia personajului Victor Petrini n peisajul romanului romnesc,
itinerariul cristalizrii contiinei de sine atinge, cu siguran, dac ne raportm la tot ce s-a
scris pn n momentul apariiei romanului, apogeul. Scriind despre Petrini, personajul central
din Cel mai iubit dintre pmnteni de Marin Preda (vol.I-III, 1980), critica literar l
consider un "erou care crede n puterea spiritului i n mitul fericirii prin dragoste"1. Dac
la acestea adugm i ideea c geometria interioar a lui Petrini rezult dintr-o "experien
ntr-o contiin prin intermediul aventurii"2, avem deja punctul de pornire pentru sondarea
peisajului interior al personajului.
Viaa ca labirint al cunoaterii de sine constituie suportul narativ al romanului n care
ficiunea dobndete tensiune autobiografic prin confesiunea acelui alter ego povestitor.
Biografia lui Petrini este jalonat de cteva momente n care destinul personajului se afl sub
semnul iraionalului. Condamnat, pe baza unei acuzaii ambigue, destinul lui Petrini este acela
de a-i sonda propria interioritate n cutarea adevrului, peisaj marcat de dou linii de for:
mitul fericirii prin iubire i moartea ca fenomen unic, irepetabil.
"Moartea e un fenomen simplu n natur, numai oamenii l fac nspimnttor.
Vorbesc de moartea natural, care adesea e o dulce ispit. nainte de a fi depus aici n
aceast celul, din care nu voi mai iei dect pentru a intra ntr-o captivitate perpetu, n
plimbrile mele solitare pe la marginea oraului, pe poteci, uitndu-m n jos i privind
pmntul, un sentiment senin se insinua n sufletul meu, la nceput de dragoste pentru el,
Eugen Simion, Prefa, n Marin Preda, Cel mai iubit dintre pmnteni, Editura Cartea Romneasc, ediia a
II-a, Bucureti, 1984: "Marin Preda a scris, n fond, un roman pe care n-a putea s-l numesc dect romanul
unei mari contiine. Contiina, nti a unui mare prozator care judec fr prtinire, fr mistificaie (nici
mcar aceea ce se bizuie pe un titanic sentiment al justiiei!) o istorie n care forele se confrunt n chip
dramatic; contiina, apoi, a unui erou care crede n puterea spiritului i n mitul fericirii prin dragoste.
Destinul l lovete de mai multe ori, ns nfrngerile nu-l mping spre negaia valorilor i nu-i slbticesc
sufletul! Victor Petrini atinge, ntr-o lume confuz, condiia tragicului, pentru c nu se ndoiete de puterea
spiritului de a rmne demn i necrutor n suferin. Iubirile i ntmplrile absurde l arunc n braele
dezndejdii i ale onoarei, spiritul i d ns for s treac prin ele, nu netulburat (mit nvechit al omului
clasic) ci nelinitit i lucid, luciditatea fiind forma demnitii sale". (p.30).
1
Op.,cit: p.7.
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pmntul negru, tcut, linitit, apoi de atracie, de dorin, un fel de melancolie, de nostalgie
blnd, de a m culca pe el i a rmne ntins pentru totdeauna.
(Marin Preda, Cel mai iubit dintre pmnteni, I, p.33)
Rodul unei contiine nu trebuie s dispar, ci trebuie s mrturiseasc despre
frmntatul destin al personajului. De altfel, textul romanului se structureaz din dorina de a
mrturisi, din necesitatea de a face cunoscut celuilalt/celorlali aspecte relevante din
arhipelagul individualitii.
"Prietenul meu, fostul judector, m-a sftui s scriu pe larg cum s-au petrecut
lucrurile i s-i dau lui, care mi-e avocat mrturisirea, s-o aib pentru ultima nfiare la
proces []
(Marin Preda, Cel mai iubit dintre pmnteni, I, p.34-35)
Dac admitem c destinul personajului este un labirint, atunci ieirea din acest labirint
sau, altfel spus, libertatea, evadarea, este enigma fericirii. Pentru Petrini soluia salvatoare este
dragostea, iubirea cu toate conotaiile etice pe care aceasta le genereaz. Secvena din finalul
romanului este elocvent n acest sens.
"Mi-am recitit acest lung manuscris i dincolo de ceea ce el conine, m-a uimit
barbaria concretului, pe larg etalat, i cu plcere vizibil, i pe care nu l-am putut ocoli fiind
ncredinat c altfel m-ai fi chinuit ndelung, fr s obin spiritualmente, eliberarea total a
contiinei mele de ceea ce am trit. Am fost ispitit, o clip, s-l arunc pe foc. i totui, mi-am
spus, trebuie s-i dau drumul s mearg."
(Marin Preda, Cel mai iubit dintre pmnteni, III, p.316-317)
Exist mai multe moduri de a citi aceast carte, mai multe posibile trasee de lectur
prin labirintul narativ al textului ei. Putem deslui n ea un roman filozofic sau un roman, de
ce nu, politic sau unul psihologic, dar dac focalizm atenia noastr asupra personajului
central Victor Petrini, putem vorbi despre sondarea adevrului despre sine, adevr care nu se
las descoperit, n cazul acesta, nici prin sondarea interioritii, nici a exterioritii acestuia, ci
prin proiecia/raportarea personajului referenial, la cellalt/ceilali.Discursul narativ se
constituie ntr-un dialog interior n cutarea adevrului, al propriului adevr al personajului, n
acea cdere liber n care acesta d impresia c se afl. Petrini triete, pe parcursul destinului
su, drama pierderii de sine i dramatismul regsirii n alte ipostaze3.
Uitarea de sine ia forma contopirii cu pmntul ("[] i privind pmntul, un
sentiment senin se insinua n sufletul meu", Marin Preda, Cel mai iubit dintre pmnteni, I,
p.33), sursa vegetalului, a existenei primare. Personajul depete, ns, starea de cdere, de
uitare de sine, prin implicarea n derularea existenei sale, secvenial, prin proiecii ale eului
asupra celorlalte personaje. Exceptnd secvena iniial i cea final, substana narativ a
romanului este constituit de progresiva "mrturisire" ntru existen. Romanul devine un
jurnal, n sensul cel mai bun al cuvntului, al fiinrii unei contiine, iar modalitatea de
realizare artistic este una aparte: sondarea profunzimii reliefului interior al unei contiine.
Drama, tragicul existenei personajului Petrini vine din faptul c acesta se strduiete s
gseasc legturi de cauzalitate ntre situaii i triri aflate n dou planuri diferite: situaii
exterioare i independente de contiina de sine i triri ale eului de profunzime. Din acest
Mihai ora, Despre dialogul interior, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 1995: "Vorbind despre CDERE, vorbim
despre ultima condiie a dialogului, cea care umplnd, prin adugarea la celelalte, poriunea rmas pn la
ea neocupat n cmpul condiiilor i este i condiia suficient: cea care, odat scoas la lumin, d n sfrit
seama exhaustiv de drama dialogicitii, care nu e altceva dect drama pierderii de sine: cci cea mai sigur
cale de a te pierde este de a ncepe s te preferi i nu exist anse s te gseti dect dac ncepi prin a te uita
(s cutm, de pild, adevrul: dac l vom gsi cu adevrat, ceea ce vom fi gsit va fi propriul nostru adevr;
dar dac ne propunem n mod deliberat s cutm ceea ce numim adevrul nostru, niciodat, niciodat nu vom
ntlni adevrul)". (p.96).
3
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Issue no. 6/2015
moment, istoria unei contiine marcheaz destinul personajului al crui relief interior ni se
dezvluie pe parcursul discursului narativ. Ni se dezvluie relaia tat-fiu.
"Simeam c n alctuirea intim a fiinei mele exista o lege i n a lui nu, i
cum putea tri fr aceast lege, sau ce lege l cluzea?"
De fapt, nu e vorba aici, n mod direct, de vreo lege interioar, a contiinei de sine, ci,
pur i simplu,de moduri de via i scri de valori diferite, dup care, fiecare din cei doi, n
parte, msoar importana i liniile de for ale destinelor lor, de altfel, att de
diferite.Transparena portretului de adolescen a lui Petrini dezvluie repere interioare de o
simplitate genuin, amplificate, mai trziu, prin triri, i de o complexitate i unicitate ieite
din comun.
"Am fost un adolescent dur i turbulent, dar ru contient nu i-am fcut pe
atunci dect mamei, fiindc pentru duritatea mea am fost pedepsit (fr s mai spun c
violena gndirii mi era respins, nu totdeauna uor, e adevrat, dar ptrundea greu n
suflete i cnd ptrundea aprea ura mpotriva mea, aversiunea instinctiv de aprare).
Analizat retrospectiv, "tinereea e o trufie, rareori o valoare", iar la polul opus
tinereii, moartea, care aduce indivizii la acelai numitor comun, nu reprezint deloc o soluie
care s corespund principiilor eticii.
"Tinereea e o trufie, rareori o valoare. Cel puin n cazul meu, trufia mi-a
aprut n contiin ntr-o zi cnd am citit n Platon urmtoarea afirmaie: <<Dac moartea
ar fi sfritul a tot, cei mai n ctig ar fi ticloii, moartea i-ar elibera i de timp i de suflet
i de pcate i tcerea care s-ar lsa peste mormintele lor ar fi egal cu a celor care au
fost virtuoi>>".
Luciditatea precoce este dobndit i asumat ca urmare a pierderii credinei n
Dumnezeu i va fi recuperat mai cu seam ca eliberare dect ca debulosare i pierdere a
reperelor existeniale.
"Aici e cazul s adaug c dei aveam pe atunci abia aisprezece ani, mi
pierdusem de mult credina n Dumnezeu i n viaa viitoare nu prin vreun proces dramatic, ci
pe nesimite, prin lipsa simpl de credin a altora, care spuneau, de pild, la un pahar, cu
veselie, sau fr vreo zguduire: ai murit, te mnnc viermii sau: sufletul nu se duce nici n
rai, nici n iad, fiindc nu s-a ntors nimeni de acolo s ne spun cum e"
Nici din categoria eroilor dostoievskieni nu face parte Petrini, pentru c nu acioneaz
conform schemei asumrii libertii ca urmare a lipsei unui arbitru ori judector absolut, de
unde i conceptul de a tri "sentimentul fr religie, fr evaziune mistic".
"n loc s fiu nelinitit, turmentat ca un erou dostoievskian c dac Dumnezeu
nu exist totul ne este permis, dimpotriv, simeam o jubilaiune linitit c sunt liber de
credin i nici un imbold de a rvi ceva nepermis nu m ispitea. ".
Raionamentul duce nspre punerea n discuie a ideii de pcat, idee care l va urmri
pe Victor Petrini i care va contribui la constituirea unei interioriti puternic conturat a
acestuia.
"<<Care pcate, mam, i-am strigat n fa, ce pcate ai fcut tu? Ce nelegi
tu prin pcat? Trebuie s-mi spui, fiindc trebuie s tii, altfel nu i-ar fi att de fric s-l
faci! Ai omort pe cineva, sau ai vrut s-l omori? i-ai omort brbatul ca s trieti cu
altul? >>"
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ntrebarea revine, obsesiv, ceva mai trziu cptnd o alt form, n opoziie cu ideea
de virtute. Pcatul, sub cele apte forme "capitale", capt nuane diferite de la un individ la
altul.
"Ce era pcatul? Ea trebuia s tie, s cunoasc aceast temere subteran,
care fcea s existe pe lume virtuoi sau doritori de virtute. <<Ei, am repetat, mi spui i mie
ce este pcatul? neleg c nu poi s-l spui pe al tu, dar ce nseamn n general, a
pctui?!>>. <<Eti copil, zise ea, o s afli singur ce e>>.
Contientizarea nelesului noiunii de pcat apare la Petrini destul de devreme, dar
ntr-o alt accepiune dect a celor din preajma sa. El face apel la exemplul biblic cu femia
desfrnat pentru a ajunge, n cele din urm, la concluzia c triete ntr-o lume "impur".
"<<Ce e, mam, am spus eu cnd tata s-a oprit. M adresasem ei, care
suferea cu adevrat, i nu lui, care era doar jignit i nspimntat c lumea o s m arate cu
degetul, ca i cnd n-a fi fost brbat ci fat mare.
Petrini descoper rspunsul la ntrebarea pus mamei i, odat cu acesta, i lipsa de
linearitate a destinului uman. Discontinuitatea aprut n relaia dintre prini produce efecte.
"Crezi mam, c nu i-am ghicit pcatul? Te-ai mritat fr s iubeti i nici
pe urm nu l-ai iubit pe tata, i nu fiindc i-ar fi plcut altul, ci aa. Dar de mritat te-ai
mritat, n loc s te fi dus ntr-o mnstire.
(Marin Preda, Cel mai iubit dintre pmnteni,I, p.72)
n cutarea adevrului despre sine, n sondarea contiinei de sine, Petrini se descoper
pe sine analiznd actele i aciunile celorlalte personaje. Proiecia capt forma punerii
personajului n situaia celuilalt.
"[] era clar, Nineta nu ezitase s curme o via care <<nu mai mergea>>.
Acum am o iluminare: nici a mea nu mai merge, adic n-ar mai merge chiar
dac printr-un miracol ai evada i reui s fug din ar.
Interioritatea indisolubil legat de exterioritate, de "ataamentul fa de via", viaa
ca speran, ca form a libertii contiinei de sine este dominat de ideea de "nctuare", ca
gest ultim al pierderii speranei de a mai exista.
"Astfel voi nltura printr-un act de violen supliciul care m ateapt, cci
nu pierderea total a libertii m sperie, ci ataamentul meu fa de via, care m-ar
tortura: eti nctuat, vei muri fr speran.
Mai bine s-o sfrim nainte!"
nchiderea n sine, n peiajul su interior este, pentru Petrini, mai puternic dect
tumultul vieii.
"[] contiina noastr este adesea att de blindat nct poi s tragi i cu
tunul n ea i nu se clintete i asta nu pentru c suntem atunci ticloi, montri sau pur i
simplu canalii (e un fenomen natural i misterios)".
Interioritatea este stpnit de "lumea pur a ideilor", atunci cnd "experiena de
adolescent" este marcat de liniile de for ale eului.
"Trebuie s spun c din experiena de adolescent trsesem concluzia c
trebuie s stau linitit, nici o fat nu se va ndrgosti de mine i c lucrul cel mai bun pe care
l aveam de fcut era s-mi vd de treab, s-mi urmresc elul meu, adic s ajung cineva n
filozofie []"
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Transgresia n lumea ideilor accentueaz reperele interioritii n contrast cu cotidianul

banal, lucru oarecum firesc, pentru un student le filozofie.
"[] simeam cum gndurile mi zburau din nou cu elan spre lumea pur a
ideilor i uitam mult vreme c pe lume exist i o altfel de dragoste.
Petrini i sondeaz interioritatea n raport cu exterioritatea, cci, de altfel, cele dou
laturi ale eului nu pot fi niciodat privite, analizate separat, ntr-o ncercare de autodefinire a
lui.
"M uitam totui, adesea, n oglind, ndelung, s descopr de ce nu inspiram
mcar simpatie. Hm! Aveam figura frumoas fizic, dar urt n expresie. Frumuseea era a
trsturilor, urenia consta n ceva inefabil.
Avem, n rndurile de mai sus, prin intermediul autoportretului, "imaginea sufletului"
(C.G.Jung) personajului, imagine n care interioritatea i exterioritatea se ngemneaz;
trsturi ale interioritii transpar i prind contur pe suprafaa exterioar a eului4. Imaginea
sufletului este proiectat n oglind ("M uitam, totui, adesea, n oglind, ndelung, s
descopr de ce nu inspiram mcar simpatia", Marin Preda, Cel mai iubit dintre pmnteni,
p.80)5. Proiecia imaginii despre sine se produce mai nti n oglind, mai apoi locul oglinzii
va fi luat de cellalt ca persoan/personaj aflat n preajma lui Petrini. Cu alte cuvinte, exilul
interior ca form a proieciei interioritii/exterioritii personajului, pe fundalul imaginii
peisajului interior al celuilalt, salveaz personajul de cderea n patologic i l direcioneaz
nspre cutarea adevrului despre sine, fapt care poate lua forma sondrii eului moral,
psihologic, etic, proces n plin dezvoltare, n context existenial6. Calea cutrii adevrului
despre sine presupune definirea cu strictee a unui "ntreg complex de reprezentri care
constituie centrul cmpului contiinei7, ci proiecia acestui "complex de reprezentri" pe
fundalul "imaginii sufletului" celuilalt, exilarea n cellalt prin "a tri prin" cellalt, etap
superioar lui "a tri din" fapte i evenimente aflate n exterioritate i reflectate n
interioritatea personajului.
Cutarea adevrului despre sine nseamn via, existen, asumarea destinului,
nsuirea unui itinerar posibil, unul din multele i "halucinantele" itinerarii posibile ale vieii.
"Un filozof francez, de origine romn i care i-a trit tinereea n ar,
influenat de Kierkegaard, se ntreba ntr-unul din aforismele lui, cu dispre la adresa
C.G.Jung, Tipuri psihologice, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 1997: "Imaginea sufletului reprezint un caz
special de imagini psihice, produse de incontient. Dup cum persoana, atitudinea exterioar, apare n vise n
general sub chipul anumitor persoane posednd ntr-un grad foarte marcat calitile corespunztoare, tot astfel
incontientul figureaz sufletul, atitudinea interioar, prin persoane reprezentnd caliti corespunztoare
sufletului. O astfel de imagine se numete imagine a sufletului" (p.481).
4
Op.,cit.: "Dac imaginea sufletului este proiectat, apare o legtur afectiv necondiionat cu obiectul. Dac
nu este proiectat, apare o stare de relativ neadaptare, numit de Freud narcisism. Proiectarea imaginii
sufletului dispenseaz de preocuparea legat de procesele luntrice atta vreme ct comportamentul obiectului
concord cu imaginea sufletului. Subiectul este pus astfel n situaia de a-i tri i dezvolta persoana proprie"
(p.483).
5
Op.,cit.: "Dac imaginea sufletului nu este proiectat, apare cu timpul o difereniere de-a dreptul patologic n
relaiile cu incontientul. Subiectul este inundat n msur crescnd de coninuturile incontiente pe care nu le
poate nici utiliza i nici prelucra n vreun fel, din cauza relaiei sale defectuoase cu obiectul. E de la sine neles
c astfel de coninuturi prejudiciaz n bun msur raportul cu obiectul" (p.483).
6
Op.,cit.: "Eu. Prin "eu" neleg un complex de reprezentri care constituie cmpul contiinei mele i care mi
pare a poseda un grad nalt de continuitate i de identitate cu el nsui" (p.460).
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romancierilor i a preteniei lor c spun ceva descriind vieile oamenilor: ce este o via? Iar
eu ntreb: ce este altceva? O via este totul i felul cum se desfoar ea este adesea
halucinant.
Coagularea contiinei de sine a personajului literar, cunoate la Petrini, punctul
maxim, prin replierea, nchiderea n sine ("brlogul n care s zicem c am fi reuit s ne
retragem", Marin Preda, Cel mai iubit dintre pmnteni, p.106) i desvrirea prin proiecia
interioritii asupra celuilalt n cutarea adevrului despre sine.
"Dac am rmne la aceast senintate care ne atinge ca o arip dulce
sufletul! E cel dinti adevr, cel adnc, care nu doare.
Aflarea adevrului despre sine ("curiozitatea" aflrii adevrului despre sine) prin
"aa-zisa luciditate" l definete i substanializeaz personajul Victor Petrini8. Drumul pe
care l parcurge l plaseaz ntr-un continuu "proces de difereniere" (C.G.Jung)9 fa de i n
confruntarea cu cellalt, care este semenul su. A gndi nseamn a se afirma pe sine, mai
mult sau mai puin n opoziie cu o aa-zis norm colectiv, a se constitui prin liniile de for
ale gndirii ca particularitate, nu neaprat contrar normei colective, ci mai degrab ca
eliberare prin "nflorirea fiinei"10).
"Ce nseamn ns a gndi, adic a te gndi? n actualul stadiu n care se afl
gndirea uman, a te gndi nseamn n realitate a ntri de fapt un gnd deja format. De
aceea, de pild, rar se ntmpl ca sfaturile s fie urmate. Individul merge orb nainte sub
puterea gndului su, devenit obsesie.
Petrini distinge ntre noiunea de fericire, care nu este un dat, ci o stare care trebuie
dobndit, i "nflorirea" interioritii, mbogirea n elemente i repere ca urmare a actului
de a gndi, ca reflectare n sine a unui "gnd deja format", de dezvoltare a acestuia cu riscul
de a nainta pn n punctul n care dilatarea gndului, nflorind n interioritatea sa, risc s se
transforme n obsesia actului reflexiv. n cutarea adevrului despre propria interioritate, n
sondarea unor zone care s aduc elemente stabile, capabile s o consolideze, prietenia,
legtura, relaia cu cellalt reprezint o ans pentru individ. Proiecia eului n cellalt, prin
relaia care se stabilete ntr-o prietenie, poate s aduc, chiar i numai temporar, secvenial,
starea de linite i de siguran de sine.
Op.,cit.: "Individ. Individul este fiina n singularitatea ei; individul psihologic este caracterizat de psihologia
particular i, n anume privin, unic ce i este proprie" (p.486).
8
Op.,cit.: "Individuaie. Noiunea joac un rol nu lipsit de importan n psihologia noastr. Individuaia este, n
genere, un proces de formare i particularizare a individului, n special de dezvoltare a individului psihologic ca
fiin distinct de ansamblu, de psihologia colectiv. Individuaia este deci un proces de difereniere, al crei el
st n dezvoltarea personalitii individuale" (p.487).
9
Op.,cit.: "Individuaia se afl mai mult sau mai puim n opoziie cu norma colectiv, cci ea este separare i
difereniere de general i constituire a particularului, dar nu o particularitate cutat, ci una ntemeiat
aprioric n dispoziia subiectului. Opoziia cu norma colectiv este ns doar aparent, cci la o examinare mai
atent, punctul de vedere individual nu este contrar normei colective, ci este doar altfel orientat. Calea
individual nici nu poate fi n opoziie cu norma colectiv, deoarece opoziia cu aceasta din urm nu ar putea fi
dect o norm contrar. Calea individual nu este niciodat o norm. O norm apare pe baza totalitii cilor
individuale i nu are legitimitate existenial i efect vitalizant dect atunci cnd exist, n genere, ci
individuale care tind s se orienteze din cnd n cnd dup norm. Cnd are valoare absolut, o norm nu
slujete la nimic. Un conflict adevrat cu norma colectiv apare doar atunci cnd calea individual este ridicat
la rangul de norm, ceea ce constituie intenia individualismului extrem" (p.488).
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"Se ntmpl rar astfel de conjuncii cu soarele prieteniei, fiindc oamenii ori
alearg dup fericire cu o femeie i nu mai e loc n contiina lor pentru alte bucurii, ori sunt
obsedai de probleme de existen, o carier pe care o urmresc sau lupta acerb s nu
decad dup ce i-au atins un scop".
Trecerea n revist, actualizarea n contiina de sine a prieteniilor care i-au jalonat
existena sunt, pentru Petrini, tot attea prilejuri de proiecia a eului pe un fundal pe care i-l
dorete sigur i linititor.
"La facultate am avut prilejul s m mprietenesc cu doi colegi, dar repede
acest nceput de prietenie s-a degradat din pricina unui alt treilea, un ins nensemnat Da,
nensemnat azi, dar poi s tii ce devine mine
Personajul analizeaz relaia cu cellalt/ceilali n cadrul legturii de prietenie, n care
intervenia unui individ lipsit de reale caliti umane poate deregla echilibrul n sensul etic,
moral al cuvntului, nu ns i n nelesul lui practic, pragmatic.
"Aceti doi virtuali prieteni ai mei au crezut c pot da i ei lovitura petrecnd
mii de ore lng un astfel de ins Tocmai ei, care se delectau acas cu Rimbaud, Verlaine i
Samain De la o vreme ori de cte ori ne ddeam o ntlnire, era prezent i omul
nensemnat, prezen inexplicabil la nceput pentru mine"
Ambiana generat de sentimentul de prietenie deschide calea de ptrundere n lumea
ideilor pe baza principiului verificabilitii: adevrat fals, valoare non-valoare, din
perspectiva convingerilor personajului11.
"<<Ce gsii voi la idiotu-sta?>> <<De ce, mi-au rspuns ei, nu e idiot
deloc, are mult intuiie. Idioenia e o arm, a adugat cel la care ineam eu cel mai mult. i
el tie s-o foloseasc. [] Inteligena afiat e orgoliul prostului, a renceput cel pe care l
preuiam eu cel mai mult i ai fi vrut s fim prieteni>>"
Simpla dorin de regsire de sine, prin proiecie n cellalt, sub forma prieteniei, se
transform n pasiunea de a cuta prietenia. Dorina n sine, la nceput stingher, strin i
izolat, "se filtreaz ntr-un numr tot mai mare de elemente psihice"12). Evoluia destinului
lui Petrini se situeaz ntre sperana "ca multitudine de forme egal posibile i
mbucurtoare"13 i problema "fericirii interioare" ca "orientare spre viitor a strilor de
Stelian Blnescu, Pe Urmele Adevrului, Editura Excelsior, Cluj-Napoca, 2001: "Putem astfel imediat vedea
c lumea ideilor se separ din capul locului n dou mari teritorii: de o parte domeniul ideilor, care se supun
principiului verificabilitii (adic opoziiei adevrat-fals), de cealalt parte domeniul convingerilor, cu genez
i valoare epistemologic diferit" (p.127).
11
Henri Bergson, Eseu asupra datelor imediate ale contiinei, Institutul European, Iai, 1998: "De exemplu, o
dorin obscur se transform, ncetul cu ncetul, ntr-o pasiune profund. Vei vedea c intensitatea redus a
acestei dorine se datora faptului c iniial ea aprea strin i izolat de restul vieii interne. Puin cte puin,
dorina, la nceput stingher, se filtreaz ntr-un numr tot mai mare de elemente psihice, inducndu-le propria
sa nuan; astfel, imaginea individului asupra unui ansamblu de factori se schimb"(p.34).
12
Op.,cit.: "Sperana este o plcere att de intens pentru c viitorul, de care dispunem dup bunul nostru plac,
ne apare sub o multitudine de forme egal posibile i mbucurtoare. Chiar dac din aceast constelaie de
posibiliti se va obiectiva cea mai dorit, celelalte vor trebui totui sacrificate, iar noi vom fi pierdut deja mult.
Ideea de viitor, avnd n sine o infinitate de posibiliti, este incomparabil mai fecund dect viitorul nsui; de
aceea, sperana este mai plcut dect posesia, visul dect realitatea" (p.35).
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contiin"14).Fericirea interioar, ca rezultat al proiectrii n viitor a strilor de contiin,

eueaz ns. Interioritatea e dominat de sentimentul deziluziei, al stupefaciei, al ridicolului
situaiei care anuleaz identificarea cu cellalt.Viitorul ca proiecie a multitudinii de forme
"egal posibile i mbucurtoare" ine de ideea de libertate sau mai bine spus de eliberare, fr
de care nici n-ar putea exista. Prietenia, ca form de proiecie ntr-o zon a relaiilor
echilibrate ale contiinei de sine, debuteaz cu simpatia pentru cellalt aflat n situaie limit
echivalent cu a personajului.
"Simpatia a trecut de la unul la cellalt fr nici o pruden i cred [e vorba
aici de judectorul tefan Pop, n.n.] c acest lucru a fost posibil fiindc eram amndoi, n
acele clipe, doi brbai liberi, eu de Matilda, el de un lucru pe care aveam s-l aflu chiar
atuci, o situaie limit care l silea deodat s rspund la o ntrebare neateptat: ce era el,
judector care aplica legea, sau funcionar subaltern, i nc dintre cei umili, al unor efi ai
regiunii?"
Sentimentul de simpatie se transform ntr-unul de prietenie, atunci cnd cei doi se
ntlnesc cu regularitate, comunic, trec n revist fapte i personaje, lucru care constituie, de
altfel, o surs inepuizabil de uimire, surpriz i reflecie.Fericirea ca fapt psihologic e
definit de Petrini n opoziie cu nefericirea ca surs a amintirilor dezagreabile, ca
rememorare a eecului, a faptului c, fr fericire, totul este ntructva pierdut cci lumea
ideilor nu poate suplini fericirea ca trire psihologic.
"Dac n-ar exista fericirea altora, nu ne-am sinchisi de nefericirea noastr.
Amintirile, bombardate zilnic i sistematic de ctre cea pe care am iubit-o altdat, sfresc
prin a se terge. Dar apare regretul sfietor cnd i vedem pe alii trind n armonie i
sufletul parc ni se zbate ca ntr-un sac tolstoian n care e vrt Ivan Ilici nainte de a muri.
Proiecia eului pe fundalul peisajului interior al celuilalt, prin prietenie, n sperana
gsirii fericirii interioare, rmne act nemplinit. Astfel, n cutrile sale, Petrini ajunge s
realizeze proiecia, ca form a exilului interior, nu n cellalt ca subiect/personaj, ci n cellalt
ca discurs narativ . Proiecia n discurs narativ, n text, prin actul scrisului, genereaz, de fapt,
un discurs dilatat n care contiina de sine, i existena se regsesc ca linii de for capabile s
direcioneze conturarea interioritii i procesul proieciei n discurs narativ a personajului
literar.
Bibliografie
Marin Preda, Cel mai iubit dintre pmnteni, vol.I-III, Ediia a II-a, Prefa de Eugen
Simion, Editura Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 1984;
*
Mihai ora, Despre dialogul interior, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 1995 ;
C.G.Jung, Tipuri psihologice, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 1997 ;
Stelian Blnescu, Pe Urmele Adevrului, Editura Excelsior, Cluj-Napoca, 2001 ;
Henri Bergson, Eseu asupra datelor imediate ale contiinei, Institutul European, Iai,
1998.
Op.,cit.: "Fericirea interioar este, ca i pasiunea, un fapt psihologic izolat ce va ocupa iniial un pliu al
sufletului, ctignd puin cte puin, teren. La un nivel inferior, ea poate fi adus n imediata apropiere a
orientrii spre viitor a strilor de contiin. Ulterior, ca i cum atracia viitorului le-ar diminua greutatea,
ideile i senzaiile noastre se succed cu rapiditate sporit; gesturile pe care le facem ncep s nu ne mai coste
acelai efort. Atingnd punctul culminant, n stare de fericire extrem, percepiile i amintirile noastre se
mbogesc cu o calitate inexplicabil, comparabil unei clduri sau lumini stranii, care ne este att de
necunoscut nct, n anumite momente, ntorcndu-ne asupra noastr nine, ne ncearc uimirea de a fi"
(p.35).
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PLACE APPELLATIVES AND PLACE NAMES IN ROMANIAN. SPECIAL ATTENTION

PAID TO THE TOPONYMS OF BISTRA AND SEBE VALLEYS (CARA-SEVERIN
COUNTY)
Diana BOC-SNMRGHIAN
Victor Babe University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Timioara
Abstract: Even if the opinions of experts do not unanimously agree on the relation between
the place names and the place appellatives, they agree to the idea that they fulfill the same
communicative function in the Romanian language. The place names of the area of Bistra and
Sebe valleys represent an integral part of the Romanian toponymy and they do not differ
much of the toponymic structures existing on the entire territory where Romanians lived and
are living now. They are the living proof of the life continuity on these lands. This article
wishes to emphasize once more the importance of a semantic classification in the toponymy
study. For that, aspects connected to the meaning of place appellatives, toponymy metaphor,
issues of conversion or tautologies in the toponymy, as well as the single or polisemantics of
place appellatives will be discussed. All such issues are connected to the concern micro-area,
the beautiful realm of my childhood.
Keywords: place appellatives, classification, semantics, toponymy, Bistra and Sebe valleys.
Introducere
Importana termenilor entopici1 i mai ales relaia dintre entopic i toponim au suscitat
interesul a numeroi toponomati2, lucrrile lor devenind indispensabile oricrui lingvist
preocupat de studiul toponimiei.
ncepem demersul nostru cu un citat, raportndu-ne la unul dintre marii onomati pe
care lingvistica romneasc l-a avut de-a lungul timpurilor, Iorgu Iordan: Foarte multe
toponimice exist ori au existat ca nume apelative n limba de toate zilele. Este clar c izvorul
lor trebuie cutat totdeauna i fr nicio ovire n lexicul vorbirii curente. Prin urmare,
indiferent de originea lingvistic, aceste numiri trebuie tratate la fel ca elementele lexicale
propriu-zise, aadar, ca nite cuvinte romneti cu sens strict. Cci numai dup ce au ajuns s
le ntrebuineze cu valoare de nume apelative, au putut romnii s le extind uzul, folosindule, n aceeai vreme, cu ambele valori, de cuvinte obinuite i de toponimice. Singura
interpretare just care trebuie dat acestui fapt este c transformarea n toponimice a unor
asemenea cuvinte este opera populaiei majoritare din partea locului, aa cum o cunoatem din
timpuri mai mult ori mai puin apropiate de cele actuale (Iordan 1963, p. 7). Articolul de fa
i propune s sublinieze o data n plus importana unei clasificri semantice n studiul
nelegnd prin termeni entopici acele cuvinte care sunt n legtur cu situaia tipografic, cu hidrografia
local, cu expunerea ctre soare, cu aezrile omeneti i cu alte fenomene geografice ale solului (Anton
Oprescu, Observaii asupra toponimiei populare, n Geopolitica i geoistoria, II, 1942, p. 80-81. Termenul
entopic a fost impus de T. Porucic n Lexiconul termenilor entopici din limba romn (este vorba despre
Basarabia), Chiinu, 1931. Gh. Bolocan, n Dicionarul entopic al limbii romne, p. 67-68, face o clasificare a
termenilor entopici n: termeni generali, ntlnii n limba literar i n majoritatea graiurilor romne precum:
ap, coast, deal, lunc, munte, poian , vale etc.; termeni folosii n limba literar i n unele graiuri, cu sens
diferit, ns; termeni dialectali, care sunt cunoscui doar local.
2
Sextil Pucariu, Nicolae Drganu, Emil Petrovici, G. Giuglea, V. Bogrea, I-A Candrea, Ovid Densusianu, Iorgu
Iordan, Mircea Homorodean, Dumitru Looni, t. Paca, Vasile, Fril, Vasile Ioni, Gheorghe Bolocan,
Vasile ra, Viorica Goicu, Rodica Sufleel, Teodor Oanc, Ion Toma etc., v. Introducere la DTRO, vol. I, p. 562 care citeaz numele a numeroi lingviti care au fost i sunt preocupai de toponimie.
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toponimiei. In acest sens se vor avea n vedere aspecte legate de sensul apelativelor topice,
metafora ca mijloc lingvistic i stilistic n toponimie, probleme legate de aspectul conversiei
sau a tautologiilor n toponimie, precum i a mono- sau polisemantismului apelativelor topice
ce stau la baza numelor de locuri dintre zona depresionar Caransebe i depresiunea
Haegului, de o parte i de alta a vilor Bistra i Sebe, principali aflueni ai Timiului.
Clasificarea semantic n studiul toponimiei
Raportul dintre nelesul numelui propriu i cel al numelui comun a suscitat interesul a
numeroi specialiti3, lucrrile lor devenind puncte de referin pentru orice cercettor n
domeniu. Varietatea formelor de relief ce se desfoar de o parte i de alta a rurilor Bistra i
Sebe, a dus la o terminologie entopic deosebit de bogat, n mare parte comun cu celelalte
zone geografice, putndu-se remarca faptul c superioritatea numeric o dein apelativele
topice4 care fac trimitere la relieful accidentat specific zonei de interes (deal, muchie, pru,
izvor, vale). Aa cum se va putea observa din cele ce urmeaz, toponimele noastre se
caracterizeaz prin diversitate, astfel nct o analiz diacronic a lor ar scoate n relief
diferitele etape ale toponimizrii, iar o analiz tipologic a acestora ar releva limba vorbit
permanent de romni. O importan sporit trebuie acordat ns clasificrii semantice5.
Coninutul semantic al toponimului ajut la o mai bun cunoatere, cu un cuvnt, n
toponimie se oglindete ntregul fel tradiional de via al unui popor, inclusiv cultura sa
material i spiritual ine s sublinieze M. Homorodean, atrgnd atenia asupra caracterului
motivat local al toponimelor care, spune el, departe de a fi create la ntmplare, descriu,
ntr-un fel sau altul, locurile pe care le desemneaz (Homorodean 1980, p. 20, 30). Sigur c
prerile toponomatilor nu pot fi n unanimitate aceleai, iar dac pentru unii principalul
element coordonator care determin locul cuvntului n vocabular este sensul lexical (Buc,
Evseev 1974, 66) pentru alii aceast premis nu poate fi aplicat n domeniul toponimiei
pentru c, spun ei, numele proprii, unde includem i toponimele, nu au sens lexical, deoarece
ele nu exprim noiuni, ci ndeplinesc doar funcia de identificare6. Prere greit, susine V.
Ioni, care vede n toponim un cuvnt nscut din lexicul limbii romne i care, prin urmare,
aparinnd limbii, nu ar putea fi analizat altfel dect aa cum este analizat oricare element de
lexic, chiar dac uneori evoluia numelor proprii este diferit de cea a numelor comune
(Ioni 1982, p. 88). Ali lingviti care s-au aplecat asupra acestor probleme nu neag aportul
unui astfel de criteriu semantic, dar nici nu-i acord o atenie prea mare pentru c, spun ei,
din punctul de vedere al analizei lingvistice, ceea ce intereseaz n mod deosebit ar fi nu
Vezi Viorica Rileanu. 2014. Sensul numelui propriu n raport cu cel al numelui comun corespunztor, n LR,
Nr. 2, anul XXIV, I. Toma. 1995. Formula semantic a numelui propriu, n SO, I, p. 103-110; Graur Bogdan.
1991. Nume de locuri i apelative topice din Ardeu-Geoagiu, jud. Hunedoara, n AUT, 29, p. 77-86, A. Rezeanu.
1987. Motivaie i arbitrariu n toponimie, n Orizont, nr. 7, p. 2-3, Viorica Goicu. 1983. Despre raportul
dintre apelativ i toponim n Banat, n CCS, nr. 1, p. 47-54; Emilian N. Bureea. 1975. Unele aspecte ale relaiei
dintre toponimic i apelativ n toponimia din Oltenia, n LR, nr. 3, p. 207-214, Viorica Florea. 1975. Raportul
dintre nelesul numelor de locuri i cel al numelor comune corespunztoare, n LR, XXIV, nr. 3, p. 215-220,
idem 1974. Contribuii la nelesul numelor proprii, n LR, nr. 5, p. 403-408. ncercrile acestor toponomati de
a demonstra existena unor relaii semantice, fie c e vorba de sinonimie, omonimie sau antonimie sunt
numeroase, iar soluiile privind compatibilitatea ntre determinat i determinant sunt multiple de la negarea
total a sensului numelor proprii, considerate etichete mentale, pn la atribuirea unui sens infinit, vorbindu-se
chiar de aa-zisa deonimizare sau trecerea numelui propriu n categoria celui comun.
4
n literatura de specialitate sunt folosii diferii termeni pentru a desemna numele ce stau la baza formrii
toponimelor: termeni entopici, termeni geografici, termeni geografici populari, termeni geografici locali,
apelative topice etc., sinonimia dintre acetia nefiind ntotdeauna perfect (cf. Bolocan 1975, Eremia 2006).
5
Problema clasificrii toponimelor a fcut obiectul de studiu a numeroi toponomati, modele i sugestii
nencetnd s apar. Cf. n acest sens articolul lui Ionel Boamf. 2003. The historical stratification of the
toponymy, n The reconsideration of the geographic approach in the context of globalization. The 5th Edition of
the Regional Conference of Geography, Timioara, Ed. Mirton, p. 457-475.
6
Vezi Viorica Florea. 1972. Despre nelesul numelor proprii, n CL, XVII, nr. 1, p. 169-171.
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particularitile lexico-semantice, care ar avea o importan secundar, ci formanii

toponimici7. Iorgu Iordan n Toponimia romneasc, mrturisete c o clasificare semantic
le-ar ntrece cu siguran, sub raportul cantitativ, pe toate celelalte socotite mpreun,
atrgnd totodat atenia asupra importanei acestui criteriu, semantic: Ceea ce la om
constituie trstura exterioar predominant, menit s atrag atenia semenilor si i s-i
defineasc oarecum n ochii acestora, este, n domeniul care ne preocup aici, natura fizic a
locului (Iordan 1963, p. 18-20).
Apelative topice versus toponime n microzona de interes
Reprezentnd o parte integrant a toponimiei romneti, numele de locuri din zona
vilor Bistra i Sebe nu se difereniaz prea mult de structurile toponimice existente pe ntreg
teritoriul unde au trit i triesc romnii.
Analiznd structura numelor de locuri vom observa c, ntr-o majoritate covritoare,
acestea au la baz un apelativ pe care l numesc fie direct, fie prin intermediul unui nume de
persoan, transferul de elemente8 dintr-un domeniu n cellalt fiind unul permanent.
Explicaia este simpl, dac ne gndim c multe nume de locuri au fost date dup cel al
proprietarului9, al crui nume, n timp, i-a pierdut funcionalitatea, continundu-i existena
la un alt nivel, cel al toponimiei. Acest procedeu este cunoscut n literatura de specialitate sub
numele de conversie toponimic10. Toponimizarea antroponimelor reprezint o modalitate
fundamental cu precdere n toponimia minor, toponime precum: Baca (Var), Baieru (Bor),
Cuntu (Bor), Malingea (Bcv), Malia (Bor) etc. au devenit prin transonimizare nume de
locuri. ntre antroponimele intrate n toponimie se numr i cele provenite din apelative,
astfel nct ne este foarte greu s stabilim dac toponime ca: Mlin (Bor), Corcanu (Glb),
Gina (Bor), Mnzu (M) etc. trebuie raportate la un apelativ sau la un antroponim, realitatea
local coroborat cu documentele istorice, precum i abordarea unor perspective diverse
(istorico-sociale, geografice, etnografice etc.) vor conduce spre emiterea unei ipoteze concrete
cu ct o cercetare coboar spre obria faptelor istorice, cu att analiza numelor de persoane
i de locuri are ansa a se apropia de adevr, deoarece fiecare nume este produsul istoriei, dar
n acelai timp, i numele are o istorie care i este proprie (Goicu 2001, p. 6). Cea mai mare
parte a antroponimelor care stau la baza toponimelor din localitile noastre provin din
supranume11 i porecle12, devenite ulterior nume de familie.
De multe ori relaia dintre entopic i determinant (este vorba despre toponimele
compuse13) est ilogic, astfel, n Faa Velica, deal n localitatea Cirea, apelativul fa a ajuns,
prin conversie toponimic, s preia funcia entopicului deal, nlocuindu-l. Presupunem c
iniial numele locului a fost Faa (Dealului) Velica, iar mai apoi, din dorina de simplificare,
localnicii l-au numit simplu Faa Velica. Astfel de exemple sunt numeroase n zona
anchetat: Dosu Borlovii (Bor) pdure de foioase, Dosu Jurmii (Bor) fa de deal cu
Vezi Rodica Sufleel, Structura numelor de locuri n zona munilor Cernei, n SO, p. 267, apud Ioni,
Structur i sistem n toponimie, n Ioni 1982, p. 88.
8
Cf. articolul lui Gh. Bolocan. 1967. Transferul de nume n toponimie, n SCL, XXVIII, nr. 2, p. 171-180.
9
n Romnia ntlnim la tot pasul sate numite dup moul sau cneazul ntemeietor sau dup proprietarul feudal.
La fel i munii i cursurile de ap au nu arareori un nume format dintr-un nume de persoan" (Petrovici 1970, p.
300).
10
Cf. I. Toma. 1999. Etimologia toponimic. 1. Elemente romneti, n SCO, nr. 4, p. 16.
11
Teodor Oanc, ntr-una din lucrrile sale fundamentale, definete supranumele ca fiind numele complementar
atribuit unei persoane care, prin prelucrarea lui de ctre colateralii acestuia sau descendeni funcioneaz ca
nume de familie neoficializat (Oanc 1996, p. 11-12).
12
nelegnd prin porecl codificarea printr-un nume comun a unei particulariti fizice, psihice, morale sau de
comportament care caracterizeaz o persoan, creia i se atribuie acest nume (Oanc 1999, p. 44).
13
Gh. Bolocan le numete toponime analitice, cele compuse fiind n numr mic referindu-se la modele strine,
Ibidem, p. 25.
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pdure de foioase, Faa lu Blaci (Bor) fa de deal cu pdure de foioase, La Gura

Porcului (RusM) deal etc.
Raportul dintre determinant i entopic se face n funcie de natura determinantului,
care poate s fie:
a) apelativ, caz n care va exprima o caracteristic a locului: coninut, situare,
dimensiune, culoare etc.: Cracu cu Gorunu (Glb) deal pe Valea Ponorna, Ieruga de la
Moar (Mg) canal ce duce la moar, Hucu Mare (Mr) cascad pe rul ucu, Dealu
Negru (M) deal cu pdure de brad pe valea rului Nerme, cu o pant mare i neguroas,
Pietrele Albe (Bor) gol alpin i izvor, izvorte din Pietrele Albe etc.;
b) toponim, iar n acest caz va exprima apartenena sau poziionarea: Fntna de la
Biseric (Cir) fntn, Izvorul de la Mijlocu Plaiului (Bor) izvorte de la locul numit
Mijlocu Plaiului i se vars n Sebeel etc.;
c) antroponim i atunci va exprima un raport de proprietate: Feele lu But (M)
fnee pe valea rului Slatina, Poiana lu Drglin (Bor) proprietate privat, fneeetc..
Toponime ca Deal, n Deal, Pe Deal, sunt toponime simple14 a cror funcie este de
individualizare a locului respectiv, existnd un singur deal este normal ca el s se numeasc
simplu: Deal (Dlc) (TRu) deal cu teren arabil, La Deal (Ciut) teren n pant sau n
Deal (Vos) coast cu fnee i grdini. Dac n perimetrul aceleiai localiti se mai afl i
alte realiti geografice desemnate prin acelai entopic, acesta va fi derivat cu un sufix
diminutival (n cazul n care dealul este mai mic): Delu (TRu) deal cu teren arabil. n
cazul n care dealul este mai mare se va apela la un augmentativ (astfel de situaii
nenregistrndu-se n perimetrul localitii n discuie aici) sau i se va aduga un alt toponim
(Dealu Turnului (TRu) deal), apelativ, nume de grup (Dealu lu Turneni (TRu) deal)
sau antroponim (Dealu Pleii (TRu) deal). De multe ori ideea de minor respectiv
major pe care derivatele diminutivale/augmentative toponimice ar trebui s o exprime nu
corespunde realitii geografice. Este cazul numelor de locuri diminutivale/augmentative al
cror nume topic de baz nu exist n nomenclatura geografic. n astfel de situaii, fie
toponimul primar a existat cndva, dar a disprut cu timpul, fie, din motive uneori greu de
stabilit, apelativul a circulat sub aspectul lui diminutival, aceste diminutive fiind considerate
diminutive autentice15. Un loc aparte n derivarea toponimic o constituie categoria numelui
de grup16, care poate fi folosit pentru orice grup social unitar, indiferent de criteriul dup care
este stabilit acel grup, dup apartenena la o anumit aezare omeneasc, la o persoan sau la
organizaii politice sau culturale. Toponime precum: Pru Cengillor (Bcv) afluent al
Bistrei Stna Drghicionilor (Mg) stn, Crpini (B) teren n pant cu tufe de
carpen sau Socetu (Mg) munte au n componena lor nume de grup.
Despre semantismul apelativelor topice
Problema mono- sau polisemantismului termenilor entopici ridic numeroase semne
de ntrebare. Este sau nu polisemantic un termen (referindu-ne aici la formanii toponimici) cu
mai multe sensuri foarte apropiate? Vom lua spre exemplificare apelativul cioac, termen
folosit n toat ara, care intr n componena mai multor nume topice ce desemneaz realiti
Dup A. Eremia, sunt simple toponimele formate dintr-un singur morfem toponimic, fie c sunt alctuite
numai din tema cuvntului etimon, fie din tema lui i o terminaie sau un afix toponimic sau netoponimic, apud.
Fril 2002, p. 183.
15
V. Adela Stancu. 2002. Toponime diminutivale, n SCO, nr. 7, p. 197, cf. n acest sens i Fril 2002, p. 189190.
16
Termenul a fost introdus n literatura de specialitate de Gh. Bolocan. 1976. Categoria nume de grup n
toponimie, n LR, XXV, nr. 1, p. 89-98, discuia fiind lrgit de autor n Introducere la DTRO, I, 27-45:
Termenul nume de grup, fa de ali termeni ntlnii n literatura de specialitate (nume de locuri, supranume
colective) este mult mai larg, putnd fi folosit pentru desemnarea oricrui grup social stabilit dup apartenena la
un anumit loc, persoan organizaie politic, cultural, curente culturale sau filozofice etc. (v. DTRO, I, p. 27).
14
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Issue no. 6/2015
diferite. DA d urmtoarele definiii acestui apelativ: deal, nlime, vrf de deal, vrf
de munte, deal mare rotat la vrf care ntrece n nlime toate dealurile dimprejurul lui,
deal mic cu coama rotund deasupra altui deal, vrf de munte de unde s-a tiat pdurea,
deal sterp. Analiznd toponimele vilor Bistra i Sebe care au n componena lor acest
apelativ, vom regsi aceste definiii:
deal: Cioaca Mare (Glb), Cioaca cu Gardu (Bcv), Cioaca Varnielor (Obr), Cioaca
rii (OR);
deal ascuit : Cioaca (Mal).
vrf de deal: Cioaca cu Mesteceni (B), Cioaca Moduului (Bcv), Cioaca nalt
(Bcv);
deal mare rotat la vrf care ntrece n nlime toate dealurile dimprejurul lui: Cioaca
Mare (Dlc).
culme de deal: Cioaca cu Piatr (M);
cunun de deal: Cioaca Popii (B);
vrf de munte: Cioaca Pietrii (RusM), Cioaca Hotarului (Mr);
pune montan: Cioacele (M);
ntr-adevr exist diferene semantice cu privire la sensurile apelativului cioac, dar
ele sunt minore, localnicii nelegnd n mod diferit noiunile de deal i de munte. Neputnd
face o distincie net ntre cele dou realiti geografice, la fel de bine Cioaca nalt (Bcv)
poate fi vrf de munte, iar Cioaca Hotarului (Mr) vrf de deal, excluznd astfel posibilitatea
polisemantismului apelativelor topice.
De multe ori ntlnim n toponimie anumii termeni entopici al cror sens nu mai este
cunoscut de ctre locuitori, acetia au existat cndva n limba literar, dar nu au fost
conservai dect n toponimie. Problema tautologiilor n toponimie, care a suscitat puncte
diferite de vedere pentru mai muli lingviti17, poate fi explicat prin acest fapt. nainte de a
vorbi despre existena unei tautologii la nivelul toponimiei, trebuie s ne asigurm c att
sensul, ct i etimologia sunt corecte. n Introducre la DTRO, vol. I, Gh. Bolocan18 conchide
c n toponime ca Dealu Tlva, Dealu Piscu Corbului, Dealu Cucuiu cel Mare, Dealu Piatra
Mare, nu poate fi vorba despre tautologie pentru c, cel de-al doilea termen al toponimului
compus este un toponim preexistent formrii actualului toponim19. Criteriul de baz n
alegerea numelor de locuri l constituie semantica, care joac un rol deosebit de important n
momentul formrii acestora: Instabilitatea sensului duce la distrugerea monosemantismului
toponimelor, avnd drept efect slbirea legturii semantice dintre nume i obiect (Fril
2002, p. 185). Cu timpul sensul se perimeaz, toponimului rmnndu-i doar funcia de
individualizare. Acest fapt demonstreaz c tautologiile toponimice nu pot fi explicate n plan
semantic, ci doar formal.
Este cunoscut faptul c limba literar se afl ntr-o micare continu, fiind deschis
mereu inovaiilor astfel c anumii termeni, uzuali cndva, au ajuns s fie secundai de ali
termeni care s desemneze aceeai realitate i care, pn la urm, i-au i nlocuit. Toponimia
joac un rol important i n acest sens, devenind arhiva-tezaur a unor cuvinte disprute din
limba literar care au putut fi pstrate doar prin intermediul numelui de loc. Raportndu-ne la
toponimele din microzona anchetat, respectiv la relaia dintre acestea i sistemul entopic al
limbii romne am conchide c exist:
Cf. Iorgu Iordan. 1951. Tautologiile toponimice, n Buletin tiinific, I, p. 99 i 492; M. Homorodean. 1969.
Cu privire la tautologiile toponimice, n SMO, p. 69-74; idem. 1970. Tautologii toponimice propriu-zise sau
aparente? (cu privire special la toponimia romneasc), n ACILFR XII, vol I, p. 1143-1147; C. Steanu, M.
Homorodean. 1976. Cmpuri semantice n sistemul denominativ al formelor de relief, n SO, I, p. 17-38; Florica
Dimitrescu. 1958. Locuiunile verbale n limba romn, Bucureti: EA, p. 57, V. Ion 1982, p. 88-98 etc.
18
Gh. Bolocan mprtete prerea lui M. Homorodeanu i nu este de acord cu Iorgu Iordan.
19
Gh. Bolocan, Introducere la DTRO, I, p. 5-61.
17
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Issue no. 6/2015
a) cuvinte productive n limba literar: deal, munte, vrf, poian, culme, izvor, muchie
etc.;
b) cuvinte care se mai pstreaz doar n grai: aglic, bord, cotarc, gldu, imal,
merez, obra, peleg, piv, progade, umar, uiag etc.;
c) cuvinte al cror sens nu mai este cunoscut n prezent, ele fiind conservate doar n
toponimie: handr, princ, potoc, prav, stur etc.
Apelativele topice i mijloacele de expresie stilistic
Intrat mai nou i la nivelul limbajului tiinific pentru a acoperi lacunele unui sistem
lingvistic n criz de termeni pentru noile realiti (Rovena-Frumuani 2000, p. 126),
metafora, ca mijloc lingvistic i stilistic, i permite omului s-i exprime percepia fa de
natura exterioar. Problema metaforei n toponimie20 a fost i ea dezbtut i uneori inexact
explicat, genernd de-a lungul timpului o serie de dezbateri. Dup unii cercettori acest
fenomen al metaforizrii s-ar produce doar la nivelul lexicului nu i la nivel toponimic, adic
n momentul denominaiei propriu-zise, n timp ce alii prezint aceast chestiune n mod
contradictoriu21.
Numeroi sunt ns n toponimie termenii entopici care desemneaz pri ale corpului
omenesc i care, prin intermediul metaforei (v. Fril 2002, p. 185) sau a metonimiei, au
ajuns s desemneze denumirea unor forme de relief. n arealul supus cercetrii noastre astfel
de apelative s-au dovedit a fi recurente: cap, cput, coad, cot, covei, cur, dos, fa, frunte,
fund, glezn, mijloc, vrf. Entopicul fa, spre exemplu, se gsete n nume de locuri ca: Faa
Albinii (Bor) fa cu pdure de foioase, Faa Bisericuei (M) fa cu pdure de fag i
brad pe dealul Prodanei, n apropiere de Culmea Bisricuei, Faa Bordului (Bor) fa de
deal cu pdure de foioase i conifere, Faa Borlovii Mari (Bor) fa cu pdure de
foioase, Faa Borloviei (Bor) fa cu pdure de foioase etc. Rolul folosirii acestui
termen la nivelul toponimiei noastre este acela de a reda poziia fa de soare, des folosit fiind
i opusul su, dos, care denumete locurile aflate la umbr: Calea Dosului (Mal) drum,
Dmbu la Din Dos (Var) parte de deal cu fnee, Dos (TRu) teren arabil, Dosu (Var)
fnee, Dosu Alunului (RusM) dos de deal, Dosu Beichii (B) fa de deal cu
stn, Dosu Borlovii (Bor) pdure de foioase, Dosu Borloviei (Bor) pdure de
foioase, Dosu Bradului (RusM) fa de deal pe Loznioara, Dosu de la Gura Vii (Mg)
fa de deal, Dosu de la Valea Mare (Mg) fa de deal, Dosu Dealului Mare (B)
dos de deal, Dosu din Pietroasa (Mg) fa de deal, Dosu din Valea Lupului (Mg)
fa de deal, Dosu Jghiabului (Cir) dos de deal, Dosu Jurmii (Bor) fa cu pdure de
foioase, Dosu la Culmea Ursului (Bor) pdure de foioase, Dosu lu Jgorieti (Bor)
fa cu pdure de foioase, Dosu Mgznii (Bor) pdure de foiase pe Valea de Rug,
Dosu Mriacului (Bor) pdure de foioase, Dosu Mrgnesc (Vos) teren n pant cu
pune, Dosu Muntelui (Mg) fa de deal, Dosu Padinii (VB) fa de deal spre
Mgura, Dosu Popii (B) fa de deal, Dosu Rpilor (B) dos de deal, Dosu
opotului (Dlc) fa de deal, Dosu Vezii (Bor) fa cu pdure de foioase, n Dos
(Mal) (TRu) (Vos) fa de deal, Mlatina din Dos (Var) fnee, Pe Dosu opotului
(Dlc) drum, Pdurea Dosu Rului (Bor) pdure de foioase, Sub Dos (Var) fa cu
fnee, Sub Dos la Balota (Mr) poale de deal.
Astfel de toponime redau poziia fa de soare, fa de anumite repere, fa de alte
toponime sau fa de casa proprietarului, fiind create pe baza comparaiei dintre obiectele
V. articolul Iustinei Burici, Metafora n toponimie, aprut n 2012 n Anuarul Institutului de Cercetri SocioUmane S. S. Nicolescu-Plopor, nr. XIII, Craiova, p. 251-260.
21
Anatol Eremia, de pild, subliniaz c toponimele metaforice ar reprezenta formaii lexicale din limba
comun, dar n acelai timp precizeaz c toponime ca Berbecii movile, Burduhanul deal, Calul deal,
Cldrua vale etc. ar fi luat fiin prin metaforizare. Originea acestor apelative se regsete n graiul viu al
vorbitorilor i ine de limbajul afectiv sau expresiv (Eremia 2006, p. 9).
20
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Issue no. 6/2015
geografice i cele care au ca punct de plecare termeni referitori la pri ale corpului omenesc.
Originea acestor apelative trebuie cutat n graiul viu al vorbitorilor i ine de limbajul
afectiv sau expresiv (Eremia 2006, p. 9) al acestora, devoalnd atitudinea subiectiv a
poporului fa de lumea fizic nconjurtoare, cum vede el lucrurile n mijlocul crora triete
i cum reacioneaz lingvistic atunci cnd nevoia de a le distinge unele de altele i cere s le
dea un nume (Iordan 1963, p. 312).
Concluzii
Majoritatea toponimelor vilor Bistra i Sebe au la baz un apelativ, iar superioritatea
numeric o dein entopicele care fac trimitere spre relieful accidentat, conturnd astfel tabloul
concret al acestui mediu natural i dnd totodat expresie modului de via al acestei aezri.
Diversitatea reliefului face ca superioritatea numeric n compunerea numelor de loc s o
dein entopicele: izvor (aproximativ 5, 17% din ntreaga mas toponimic), pru (cu
aproximativ 4,56%), deal (cu aproximativ 3, 57%), vale (2, 40%) i muchie (1, 57%). Cele
mai multe apelative topice compun subcategoria fitonimelor, cu 65 de entopice. Odat intrate
n toponimie, aceste apelative vor ndeplini funcia de individualizare a locului, legtura
semantic dintre nume i obiect slbindu-se. n noua lor funcie, ele nu vor mai intra n relaii
semantice obinuite ca i cuvintele comune i, dei vor lsa impresia de polisemantism, aceste
apelative topice sunt monosemantice, iar tautologiile toponimice nu pot fi explicate n plan
semantic, ci doar formal.
Raportndu-ne la ele ca la o adevrat arhiv a lexicului specific subdialectului
bnean, ele pot confirma productivitatea unor mijloace de formare a cuvintelor, completnd
astfel imaginea acestui procedeu. S-a putut observa c toponimele noastre au selectat din grai
doar anumite mijloace, crora le-a conferit o mai mare varietate, n timp ce altele sunt folosite
doar sporadic, printr-un numr redus de formani. ntrebuinarea frecvent a sufixelor
diminutivale n denominaia locurilor se datoreaz tendinei vorbitorilor de a diferenia un
nume de loc fa de altul, precum i influenei pe care o exercit un toponim asupra altuia, mai
ales cnd locurile respective sunt foarte apropiate. Toponimele simple (primare sau
secundare) prezint cel mai nalt grad de toponimizare. Pentru o ct mai bun orientare n
spaiu, localnicii au simit nevoia s aduc informaii suplimentare unui anumit loc, informaii
care cu timpul s-au concretizat devenind parte component a numelui topic. Astfel au luat
natere toponimele compuse, care se formeaz n cea mai mare parte pe baza toponimelor
simple. ntr-o asemenea structur (a toponimelor compuse) determinantul poate fi un toponim,
un antroponim sau un cuvnt comun. Astfel toponimele cunosc, din acest punct de vedere, o
istorie comun cu aceea a limbii, de la care mprumut i creia i mprumut o serie de
elemente, ntre mijloacele de exprimare stilistic, remarcndu-se, spre exemplu, metafora, ca
mijloc lingvistic n producerea acestor nume.
Toponimele din zona vilor Bistra i Sebe s-au format n decursul unui timp
ndelungat i sunt capabile s reflecte nu doar particularitile de limb, natura spaiului pe
care l definesc sau condiiile social-culturale ale dezvoltrii societii noastre, ci ntreaga
cultur a oamenilor care le-au dat natere i care au scris i rescris prin ele istoria poporului i
a limbii romne.
Bolocan, Gheorghe, Sodolescu-Silvestru, Elena. 1995. Dicionarul entopic al limbii
romne, n
SCO, Craiova, anul I, nr. 1, p. 67-185.
Buc, M., Evseev, I. 1976. Probleme de semasiologie, Timioara: Ed. Facla.
Bureea, Emilian N. 1975. Unele aspecte ale relaiei dintre toponimic i apelativ n
toponimia din Oltenia, n LR, nr. 3, p. 207-214.
Eremia, Anatol. 2006. Dicionar explicativ i etimologic de termeni geografici,
Chiinu: tiina.
660
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Florea, Viorica. 1972. Despre nelesul numelor proprii, n CL, XVII, nr. 1, p. 169171.
Florea, Viorica. 1974. Contribuii la nelesul numelor proprii, n LR, nr. 5, p. 403408.
Florea, Viorica. 1975. Raportul dintre nelesul numelor de locuri i cel al numelor
comune
corespunztoare, n LR, XXIV, nr. 3, p. 215-220.
Fril, Vasile. 2002. Studii de toponimie i dialectologie, Timioara: Ed. Excelsior
Art.
Goicu, Viorica. 2001. Contribuii de onomastic istoric, Timioara: Ed. Augusta.
Graur, Bogdan. 1991. Nume de locuri i apelative topice din Ardeu-Geoagiu, jud.
Hunedoara, n
AUT, 29, p. 77-86.
Homorodean, Mircea. 1980. Vechea vatr a Sarmizegetusei n lumina toponimiei,
Cluj-Napoca: Ed.
Dacia.
Ioni, Vasile. 1982. Nume de locuri din Banat, Timioara: Ed. Facla.
Iordan, Iorgu. 1963. Toponimia romneasc, Bucureti: EA.
Oanc, Teodor. 1996. Probleme controversate n cercetarea onomastic romneasc:
Craiova, Ed. Scrisul Romnesc.
Oanc, Teodor. 1999. Onomastic i dialectologie, Craiova: Fundaia Scrisul
Romnesc.
Petrovici, Emil. 1970. Studii de dialectologie i toponimie, Bucureti: EA (volum
ngrijit de I. Ptru, B. Kelemen i I. Mrii).
Rileanu, Viorica. 2014. Sensul numelui propriu n raport cu cel al numelui comun
corespunztor,
n LR, Nr. 2, anul XXIV.
Rovena-Frumuani, Daniela. 2000. Argumentarea. Modele i strategii, Bucureti: All.
Toma, I. 1999. Etimologia toponimic. I. Elemente romneti, n SCO, nr. 4, p. 15-26.
Sigle pentru localitile anchetate
Buar = (B)
Borlova = (Bor)
Bucova = (Bcv)
Caransebe = (Car)
Cicleni = (Cic)
Cirea = (Cir)
Ciuta = (Ciut)
Cornioru = (Crn)
Dalci = (Dlc)
Glimboca = (Glb)
Iaz = (Iaz)
Mgura = (Mg)
Mal = (Mal)
Marga = (M)
Mru = (Mr)
Obreja = (Obr)
Ohaba = (O)
Oelu Rou = (OR)
Poiana Mrului = (PoiMr)
Preveciori = (Prev)
Rusca Montan = (RusM)
Ruschia = (Rus)
Turnu Ruieni = (TRu)
Valea Bistrei = (VB)
Vama Marga = (VMg)
Var = (Var)
Voislova = (Vos)
Zvoi = (Zv)
Zerveti = (Zer)
Zlagna = (Zg)
661
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DIVERSITE MULTICULTURELLE ET FRANCOPHONIE DANS LA LITTERATURE DE

L'ESPACE EUROPEEN ET CANADIEN
Mdlina Camelia INGRAM (INTEIA)
Abstract: The Lady authors I have chosen for this study are : Amlie Nothomb, Anais Nin,
Abla Farhoud, Ying Chen, Nelly Arcan. They have all represent a different demographic from
territory through to culture, with a different real life experiences. There focus is in
multiculturalism that characterizes the twentieth century, with an emphasis on a certain type
of literature to include women's literature. The literature includes distinctive features that
have accents of an exaggerated sentimentality, quiet, sensitivity but also shocking at times,
especially in the case of the female persona and character and the erotic literature at
times. The trait that unites them is the writing. These women writers show their desire to
overcome the status of women, wife or mother, mistress sometimes. The realities of these
women, often unrealisesd realities are more noticeable than the realities revealed by men.
The twentieth century has heard a distinctive voice and many strong female writers, with the
creation of the individual in relation to the cultural alteration and integration with another
culture.
Keywords:women writing, cultures, cultural alteration, integration, multiculturalism.
Ayant comme prmisse lide que lcriture fminine est diffrente de lcriture
masculine, Virginia Woolf a abord dans ses uvres la mentalit androgyne plutt parce
quelle est naturellement une intellectuelle cratrice, de mme on peut affirmer quelle
utilisait le syntagme criture fminine, en mettant laccent sur laspect sensible et mystrieux.
Le mystre qui caractrise par ailleurs lcriture fminine est apparemment ce qui
manque dans lcriture des hommes. La qute quelle mne est un argument pour
lauthenticit, pour lhonntet de lcriture, pour linconvnient d'tre rduite en tant que
femme - quelques rles qu'elle aurait jous dans la socit. Les femmes crivent: mais le
fait qu'elles sont, pour la plupart, plus sensibles que les hommes, grce leur personnalit et
leur vie intrieure, fait la preuve de leur vrit. La manire dont elles crivent nous intresse
plus que les autres aspects, et aussi les messages qu'elles transmettent par leurs crits. 1
J 'ai choisi pour cette analyse les crits de cinq femmes crivains (Amlie
Nothomb, Anais Nin, Abla Farhoud, Ying Chen, Nelly Arcan) qui viennent d' espaces
diffrents, qui proviennent de cultures diffrentes, avec un pass diffrent et ayant des
formations diffrentes, cinq femmes crivains qui mettent laccent, dans le contexte du
multiculturalisme qui caractrise le XXe sicle, sur lappartenance un certain type de
littrature, notamment, la littrature fminine, ayant des traits distinctifs, avec des accents qui
viennent d'un sentimentalisme exacerb, calme, sensible et choquant en mme temps, dans le
cas de ltre fminin, auteur et personnage de la littrature rotique. Le trait qui les unit sur
laxe imaginaire du temps, cest lcriture. Ces crivains femmes montrent leur dsir de
surmonter la condition de la femme, pouse ou mre, matresse parfois. Les ralits de ces
femmes, le plus souvent des ralits funestes, sont mieux perceptibles que les ralits rvles
par les hommes.
Liana Cozea- Prozatoare ale literaturii romane moderne , Editions Biblioteca revistei Familia, Oradea, 1994
662
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Dans leurs critures se cre lempathie comme caractristique rvlatrice et dfinitoire

de luvre de ces femmes crivains, grce laquelle le lecteur peut facilement pntrer dans
lunivers intrieur de leurs personnages fminins.
Soulignons-en quelques caractristiques: uvre littraire qui prend la forme d' un
journal intime, fminin, faite de penses, sentiments, frustrations personnelles ; une analyse
psychologique et une manire honnte et abusive la fois de chercher, par lintermdiaire de
l'introspection, une ralit personnelle, qui gre finalement une vrit universellement valable:
en cherchant l 'tre intrieur, l' criture fminine est un glossaire dune architecture de lme
avec tous ses secrets, trs adaptable, susceptible de prendre plusieurs formes.
Vivant dans des socits diffrentes, ayant diffrents modles, cinq femmes crivains
diffrentes comme typologie de lcriture utilisent une mme langue, celle de la vie solitaire,
du mariage, de ladultre, de la souffrance et du bonheur. Ce sont de grands thmes, runis
dans leurs uvres.
Ds les premires tentatives des annes '20, '30, l'criture fminine est dans un ternel
processus de changement, comme Liana Cozea dans Romancires de la littrature roumaine
modernes lcrivait:
o lintrospection, lenqute de la vie souterraine, lexcs danalyse psychologique
deviennent la qualit et le dfaut principal de lpique fminine. De la mme manire
qui rpond loges dclenchera aussi des reproches, conduisant finalement aux
tiquettes dfinitives, valeur axiomatique, sans avoir la possibilit de faire des
corrections, ou d'une dernire amlioration. 2
Le XXe sicle fait entendre une voix plus particulire et bien forte des femmes
crivains, laide de la cration de lindividuel par rapport laltration culturelle au cours de
lintgration une autre culture.
Dans ce mmoire, je me propose de faire une extension de mon plan de recherche la
littrature francophone, de mettre laccent sur la nouveaut dune telle recherche, en
dmontrant que, dans le contexte du changement culturel et de ladoption des modles
multiculturels, lcriture fminine essaie de peindre une image qui, le plus souvent, mme au
XXe sicle, peut tomber trs facilement en dsutude. Ces cinq femmes crivains sont unies
par la langue utilise (le franais) et par le modle culturel emprunt. La base du modle
culturel est toujours diffrente, car elles viennent de cadres/ socits diffrents. Laissant en
arrire le modle culturel originaire, leurs personnages se trouvent souvent dans des
hypostases d'inquitude, dtranget, des situations pas ncessairement faciles, pour s'adapter
un nouveau modle culturel et pour essayer de survivre dans de nouvelles conditions.
Jessaierai didentifier les particularits de cinq environnements diffrents, dans une
tude comparative.
Dans ce mmoire jessaierai d'analyser les diffrences du point de vue socioculturel,
mais aussi psychologique, conomique, politique.
Francophonie, multiculturalisme francophone - sources de diversit
Dans le Dictionnaire de francophonie canadienne, coordonn par Corina DimitriuPanaitescu et Maria Pavel, Cristina Petras, Dana Nica de l 'Universit " Alexandru Ioan Cuza
" Iasi, dans la Prface signe par Henriette Walter on trouve des informations sur la
francophonie et sur la langue franaise parle lintrieur du Canada, qui est "place dans le
cadre institutionnel de la Francophonie", grce auxquelles le public sera mme de connatre
les traits fondamentaux d'une varit de langue franaise, qui est trs spcifique au-del de l
'Atlantique. La langue franaise utilise et parle au Canada est sensiblement diffrente de
2
notre traduction, Liana Cozea- Prozatoare ale literaturii romane moderne , Editions Biblioteca revistei
Familia, Oradea, 1994
663
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celle parle en France, car elle a conserv quelques formes anciennes de langue parle qui ne
s'y utilisent plus, mais dautre part, le franais canadien offre de nouvelles formes, de
nouvelles expressions, grce aussi une certaine influence de langlais, la deuxime langue
utilise au Canada. 3
Dix provinces et trois territoires constituent la Fdration canadienne. Le nom de la
Nouvelle France, donn par Giovanni Verrazzano, qui a explor la cte oriental de
l'Amrique du Nord, date de 1524 et est plus vieux que celui de Canada, donn par Jacques
Cartier en 1535. Jacques Cartier est celui qui a dvelopp lactuelle ville de Qubec. Au
dbut, le Qubec tait appel le Canada, distinct de lAcadie o fonctionnait un noyau de
colonisation francophone parallle. Comme c'tait trs difficile de peupler la colonie avec des
Franais, la Grande Bretagne a russi peupler La Nouvelle Angleterre, la nouvelle colonie
de lest du Canada. Quand la guerre de sept ans est finie, La Nouvelle France, qui a perdu
l'Acadie, avait 55.000 habitants, pendant que la Nouvelle Angleterre en avait 1.500.000. Au
dbut, seuls les Franais taient appels Canadiens, puis ils ont reu des appellations
diffrentes comme Franais - Canadiens et Anglais - Canadiens. Aprs la constitution de la
confdration, n'importe qui a vcu sur le territoire du Canada est appel Canadien. On na
que la distinction anglophone et francophone.
Lors de linstallation du rgime britannique, on n'a plus fait la diffrence entre la
Nouvelle France et le Canada, se contentant du nom de Canada. Le territoire est divis en
deux provinces, le Canada anglophone et le Canada francophone. Le nom de qubcois
apparat plus tard, aprs la Rvolution tranquille, dans la seconde moiti du XXe sicle. 4
o La francophonie dsigne l'ensemble des personnes et des institutions qui utilisent
le franais franais comme langue maternelle, langue d'usage, langue administrative,
langue d'enseignement ou langue choisie. La francophonie peut renvoyer tant
l'ensemble des pays francophones qu' l'ensemble des pays ou rgions membres de
l'Organisation internationale de la francophonie (OIF), qui ne sont pas forcment ceux
o le franais est le plus frquemment utilis ou reconnu officiellement 5
En nous rapportant la diffrence entre lEurope et le Canada, on constate lexistence
d'un espace o les femmes auteurs choisies utilisent leur propre langage comme moyen
dexpression de leur message.
Pour ce qui est du Canada, la langue franaise y connat un statut diffrent selon les
priodes o elle a t utilise : dans la colonie La Nouvelle France, le franais a un statut
royal, tandis que sous le rgime britannique elle manque de statut. La colonisation massive
des territoires de louest a entran aussi le dplacement des personnes francophones la
recherche du travail. La langue franaise a subi de grandes modifications, aprs l'interruption
des contacts avec la patrie mre, parce que les Canadiens ont t forcs de crer une langue
commune pour lentier territoire. De mme, la langue franaise a souffert des modifications
cause du bilinguisme, qui a gnr des emprunts lexicaux, et qui a donn naissance des
identits diffrentes. Cest pourquoi le franais utilis par les Canadiens prsente des
particularits, l'intrieur du Canada la langue tant caractrise comme une diversit de
langages, sur le plan international elle est mise en altrit. 6
Le terme espace francophone est reprsent par une ralit non
exclusivement gographique ni mme linguistique, mais culturelle aussi, car lespace
3
Corina Dimitriu- Panaitescu et Maria Pavel, Cristina Petras, Dana Nica- Dictionnaire de francophonie
canadienne, Editions de l 'universit" Alexandru Ioan Cuza " Iasi,2011, p.11
4
canadienne, Editions de l 'universit" Alexandru Ioan Cuza " Iasi,2011, p.13-14
5
http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francophonie
6
canadienne, Editions de l 'universit" Alexandru Ioan Cuza " Iasi,2011, p.14-15
664
Issue no. 6/2015
francophone runit et reprsente en mme temps tous ceux qui expriment et manifestent une
certaine appartenance la langue franaise ou aux cultures francophones, d'o quils viennent.
On doit faire la diffrence entre deux espaces francophones nettement diffrents. Il
faut distinguer les pays o le franais est une langue officielle langue officielle (unique ou
non), ceux o le franais est la langue maternelle d'une grande partie de la population, ceux
o il est une langue de culture, ceux o il est utilis par certaines classes sociales de la
population, etc. Or, ces catgories ne se recoupent pas. Dans certains pays, par exemple, bien
qu'tant langue officielle, le franais n'est pas la langue maternelle de la population, ni celle
couramment utilise par celle-ci.
Pour certains pays, le franais est la langue maternelle de la grande majorit de la
population, ( la France avec ses dpartements et territoires d'outre-mer, le Qubec, la partie
acadienne du Nouveau-Brunswick, la zone francophone de l'Ontario au Canada, la Rgion
wallonne et la majorit des Bruxellois en Belgique, la Suisse romande, la minorit de Jersey,
du Val d'Aoste, du Principaut de Monaco) .7
C'est assez important de montrer cette diffrence parce que nous voyons que les
diffrences de mentalit et d'attitude, de comportement, drivent aussi de cette partie
linguistique ou, pour mieux dire, dappartenance linguistique.
Au Qubec, aprs 1977 et la Loi 101, fonctionne deux institutions pour dfendre la
langue: Le Conseil suprieur de la langue franaise et l'Office qubcois de la langue
franaise, des organismes qui doivent diriger la politique du Qubec. Au Qubec cest la
seule langue parle et aussi la langue officielle, et dans le Nouvel Brunswick, lune des deux
langues officielles de la province, pareillement qu'en Yukon et le territoire du Nord -Ouest.
Au Canada, on a organis trois Sommets gnraux de la Francophonie: au Qubec, en 1987,
quand on a tabli les structures les plus importantes de la Francophonie, Moncton, en 1999,
quand on a formul les propositions concrtes sur les pratiques dmocratiques lintrieur de
la Francophonie, et au Qubec, en 2008, plus rcemment, lors de lanniversaire de 400 ans de
Qubec, ayant comme thmes principaux la situation de la langue franaise tout comme la
dmocratie et la solidarit conomique.8
Parce que les personnages des romans qu'on analyse proviennent tous d'espaces
diffrents, on doit aussi voir la Francophonie dans une approche de diversit multiculturelle.
Voil pourquoi les femmes crivains qu'on a choisies pour l'analyse proviennent toutes
despaces diffrents, de cultures diffrentes, au fait, on aura la possibilit de voir ces dtails
dans une autre sous-section. Cette ncessit de la diversit a t maintes fois exprime. En
voil un exemple :
o La dclaration de Cotonou en 2001 et puis le IXe Sommet de la Francophonie
de Beyrouth en 2002 taient consacrs au dialogue des cultures. Les biens
culturels n'chappent pas la mondialisation acclre des changes
marchands. Dans ce cadre, la Francophonie apparat comme le fer de lance de
la bataille pour la diversit des expressions culturelles 9
La prsente recherche essaie de relever le modle fminin propos par les cinq
femmes crivains: Amlie Nothomb, Anas Nin, Abla Farhoud, Ying Chen, Nelly Arcan,
mettant laccent sur lidentification de la perspective culturelle, et met au premier plan la
comparaison de lenvironnement par rapport lanalyse de lespace francophone. La langue
(dans ce cas le franais) peut tre lien, mais en mme temps la limite linguistique la plus
importante. Lidentit fminine est nettement diffrente de lidentit masculine et lon
7
9
8
665
Issue no. 6/2015
constate que dans toute la littrature fminine des annes '20, '30, dans toute la littrature du
XXe sicle, lidentit fminine passe par un processus de changement. Ayant comme base les
tudes de genre, on essaiera de retrouver les caractristiques de lcriture fminine, par
rapport ou en opposition avec lcriture masculine.
Le concept de multiculturalisme (en mme temps concept daltrit - n.n.- culturelle)
sera analys en fonction de la relation diachronie/synchronie, essayant de raliser une
dlimitation dans le temps et une distinction entre les deux espaces temporels.
En mme temps, cette recherche propose une analyse non pas ncessairement
exhaustive, de lcriture francophone, dont les particularits des uvres europennes doivent
tre compares celles du Canada. Les espaces culturels diffrents, unis seulement par la
langue utilise seraient aussi ceux qui vont gnrer des modles culturels diffrents, comme
rponse aux recherches intrieures et aux modles intrioriss dans lespace francophone.
Le multiculturalisme offre aussi des informations sur lorigine politique d'un pays, il
ne cible pas seulement la langue ni uniquement les aspects d'ordre administratif.
o Le multiculturalisme nous donne- t- il une rponse? Un multiculturalisme qui
pourrait donner un statut d'galit et qui pourra donner une nouvelle forme
d'organisation politique ou un multiculturalisme o les diffrentes identits
territoriales et culturelles apparatraient comme des marqueurs politiques? Le
multiculturalisme comprend la multitude de cultures mais aussi le pluralisme
culturel et, bien sr, un multiculturalisme territorial. Ainsi, peut- on penser
qu'un multiculturalisme n de la diversit, qui au dpart nest qu'un fait, puisse
devenir aussi une thorie explicite de l'identit europenne ? 10
Les questions sur le multiculturalisme sont ncessaires et on en trouve les rponses
dans l'analyse d'un climat qui est toujours source d'autres questions:
o Pour certains, le multiculturalisme correspond au respect des identits
culturelles, l'galit des droits et lgalit des chances, et constitue le
fondement de la dmocratie. Pour d'autres, au contraire, il s'apparente au
tribalisme et, de ce fait, remet en cause lintgrit et l'unit nationale
assures, jusque-l, par l 'Etat. Pour certains, il sert contrecarrer le
nationalisme et pour dautres, linverse il est lorigine des sentiments et
des expressions nationalistes11
Si lon parle de multiculturalisme en France ou en Belgique c'est une chose, mais au
Canada la situation est diffrente. La partie dite " franaise" est souvent l'espace gographique
o les gens parlent le franais, tandis que la partie dite "anglaise" est souvent le territoire o
les gens utilisent langlais. Les diffrences sont nettement acceptables, mme si les deux
parties narrivent pas avoir des choses en commun, sinon dans le pays appel le Canada. Les
diffrences de mentalit sont assez difficiles comprendre et il y a de mme celles
conomiques, culturelles, sociales.
o Au Canada, laffrontement entre les langues franaise et anglaise et les
dbats autour d'une socit bilingue et biculturelle, dfinie comme telle par la
Commission royale sur le multiculturalisme, aboutissent donner une
lgitimit politique au concept grce au multiculturalisme constitutionnel port
par la Charte des droits et liberts et officiellement admis comme la
caractristique fondamentale de l 'Etat canadien12
Quelle identit pour lEurope? - Le multiculturalisme lpreuve - sous la direction de Riva Kastoryano,
Editions Presse de Sciences Po, Paris, 1998
11
12
10
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Issue no. 6/2015
Chaque pays nous montre un modle; modle de citoyennet, modle d'une socit,
modle des valeurs et modle des typologies culturelles, personnelles, des gens, etc. La
diversit en multiculturalisme nous donne la dfinition de lchange perptuel en essayant de
communiquer et aussi de comprendre les diffrences qui nous apportent une richesse
extraordinaire.
Conformment au site du Ministre de la Justice du Canada, le multiculturalisme
reprsente, au Canada, un aspect de la politique propre la partie nomme franaise .
Aprs avoir t annonce pour la premire fois en 1971, la Loi fdrale de
multiculturalisme a modifi le statut des personnes qui vivent au Canada (Li, 1999). Elle tait
impose pour complter la politique de bilinguisme, parce que, du point de vue du
bilinguisme, l'anglais et le franais sont les seules langues officielles du Canada et, partir de
cette constatation, toutes les cultures se retrouvant au Canada doivent tre traites sans aucune
discrimination.
o La politique de multiculturalisme a t lance en partie pour contrebalancer le
nationalisme qubcois et en partie pour apaiser la troisime force compose
surtout d' autres Europens dans les annes 1960. Ainsi, tout au long des annes
1970, la Direction du multiculturalisme a promu de nombreux programmes visant
aider les groupes ethniques conserver leurs traditions, leurs coutumes, leur folklore
et leurs langues, afin de renforcer l'image multiculturelle de la socit canadienne (Li,
1999) . 13
A partir de 1983, le Comit spcial de la Chambre signale lampleur de la
discrimination raciale dans la socit canadienne et aussi l'absence d'une loi exacte qui devrait
montrer les changements institutionnels administratifs et lgislatif dans la socit canadienne
cause de ce problme de racisme et de discrimination. (Canada, Chambre des communes,
1983). 14
Le Comit a not, dans son rapport la Chambre, lurgence de modifier la politique
concernant l'intgration des minorits visibles aux principales institutions publiques (Canada,
Chambre des communes, 1984, p. 50). Le Comit a qualifi la socit canadienne comme
socit multiculturelle et multiraciale et a fait la recommandation la Direction de prendre
d'autres initiatives pour promouvoir le multiculturalisme et pour promouvoir aussi les
relations raciales, malgr lintention de certains groupes de prserver leurs cultures sur le
territoire du Canada (Canada, Chambre des communes, 1984, p. 55). 15
Le comit permanent de la Chambre des communes sur le multiculturalisme (1987) a
dclar qu'il n'tait pas toujours justifi de supposer que l'orientation culturelle de la politique
de multiculturalisme tait nonce par des communauts ethnoculturelles tablies
d'origine europenne (Canada, Chambre des communes, 1987, p. 22-24).16
Une nouvelle ralit dmographique a t cre dans les annes 1980, notamment, la
ralit de la socit canadienne o se rencontre toutes ses nations mlanges au sein de la
socit canadienne, qui ont forc les changements au niveau de cette politique de
multiculturalisme. Le ministre d'tat au Multiculturalisme, dans les annes 1980, a insist
alors sur la manire de promouvoir aussi l'galit entre cultures, et a mis laccent sur
l'harmonie raciale au sein de la socit canadienne.
Au dbut des annes 1980, le gouvernement fdral cherchait obtenir l'accord des
provinces et des groupes de pression pour incorporer la Charte des droits et des liberts dans
la Constitution et aussi rapatrier la Constitution du Royaume-Uni. Il tait ncessaire d'avoir
Ministre de la Justice du Canada
15
16
13
14
667
Issue no. 6/2015
un public sensibilis aux valeurs sociales comme l'galit, la justice et la libert et en faire
usage dans leur existence quotidienne. L'chec de l'Accord du Lac Meech en 1990 et le rejet
subsquent de l'Accord de Charlottetown ont chang la confiance du public envers le
gouvernement, et la politique de multiculturalisme a perdu de son image envers les gens,
comme on peut le constater dans ce qui suit :
o Les proccupations politiques relatives au rapatriement de la Constitution et
l'mergence des minorits visibles comme ralit dmographique pourraient
expliquer la plus grande importance accorde par la politique l'galit et
l'radication du racisme dans les annes 1980. L'volution de la politique lie
aux modifications de la Constitution et l'appui de plus en plus faible du public
envers le gouvernement pourraient expliquer pourquoi on a assist un repli
apparent de la politique du multiculturalisme dans les annes 1990. 17
Ce qui nous dmontre que la politique de lgalit, malgr lexistence du
multiculturalisme, est bien prsente lintrieur du Canada.
Mais une question reste valable : Le Qubec est-il un pays imaginaire? La rponse
qui sy impose est : Oui. C 'est pour cela qu'il existe intensment . 18
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Rfrences critiques:
Carrire, Marie - La pense postcoloniale: considrations critiques, esthtiques et
thiques, en ligne
Cozea, Liana - Prozatoare ale literaturii romane moderne / Prosateurs de la
littrature roumaine moderne , Editions Biblioteca revistei Familia, Oradea, 1994
Fisher, Herv- Qubec imaginaire et Canada rel. L 'avenir en suspens.VLB Editeur,
Bibliothque et archives nationales du Qubec, 2008
Kastoryano, Riva- Quelle identit pour l 'Europe? - Le multiculturalisme l 'preuve
Editions Presse de Sciences Po, Paris, 1998/ Article 2 de la proposition de la
convention de 1991, cit par F. Sudre, Droit international et europen des droits de l
'homme, Paris, 1995, p.156
Kastoryano, Riva - Quelle identit pour l 'Europe? - Le multiculturalisme l 'preuve
- sous la direction de Riva Kastoryano, Editions Presse de Sciences Po, Paris, 1998
Laillou Savona, Jeannette - Le fminisme et les tudes littraires en France et en
Amrique du Nord, dans Littrature, N69, 1988. Intertextualit et rvolution. pp.
113-127;
Olivero- Alvarez, Alexandra- Les formes contemporaines de lidentit fminine, entre
dboires et utopies, dans la revue Sciences Croises, Numro 2-3: L 'identit
Oprea, Denisa - Adriana - Du fminisme (de la troisime vague) et du postmoderne
dans Estelle Lebel- Le fminisme: une question de valeur(s), Volume 2, numro 2,
2008,p.5-28, Editeur: Revue Recherches fministes , en ligne
Revue Roumaine d' Etudes Francophones No.1/ 2009, Publication annuelle de
l'Association Roumaine des Dpartements d' Etudes Francophones ( ARDUF ): "
Identit et multiculturalisme"
des Rivires, Marie- Jos - Recherches fministes, vol.11, no.1, 1998, p.333-335,
parlant de Lori Saint- Martin, Contre- voix. Essais de critique au fminin, Nuit
blanche diteur, 1997, en ligne
Saint-Martin, Lori Critique littraire et fminisme : par o commencer? dans
Qubec franais, n 56, 1984,
17
idem p. 10
Herv Fisher- Qubec imaginaire et Canada rel. Lavenir en suspens. VLB Editeur, Bibliothque et archives
nationales du Qubec, 2008
18
668
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o Saint-Martin, Lori- Universit du Qubec Montral- Le mtafminisme et la nouvelle

prose fminine au Qubec, en ligne
o
o
o
o
o
o
Dictionnaires
Dimitriu- Panaitescu, Corina et Pavel Maria, Petras, Cristina, Nica, Dana Dictionnaire de francophonie canadienne, Editions de l 'universit" Alexandru Ioan
Cuza " Iasi, 2011
Encyclopedia Universalis, Paris : Encyclopedia Universalis, 1993
Le Nouveau Petit Robert de la langue franaise, 2010. Nouvelle dition du Petit
Robert de Paul Robert, texte remani et amplifi sous la direction de Josette ReyDebove et Alain Rey. Paris : Le Robert, 2010.
Le Petit Larousse Grand Format, Paris: Larousse Bordas, 1998.
Le Robert Mthodique : dictionnaire mthodique du franais actuel, rdaction dirige
par Josette Rey-Debove, Paris : Le Robert, 1984.
Volumes collectifs
Avatars du fminin dans l 'imaginaire francophone , Editions Junimea, Iasi, 2008
Rfrences Sites/ Internet
Ministre de la Justice du Canada http://www.justice.gc.ca/fra/
http://www.justice.gc.ca/fra/pr-rp/sjc-csj/sjp-jsp/dr02_8-rp02_8/p5.html
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DO ASSERTIONS, QUESTIONS OR WISHES MAKE A THICK TRANSLATION?

Anca-Mariana PEGULESCU
Romanian Ministry of Education and Scientific Research
Abstract: Linguists and linguistic theories conveyed the idea that utterance meanings are the
ones associated with the conventions that rule our daily existence. The meaning which has to
do with understanding is subjected to another mechanism where metaphors in proverbs may
mean something else.
Beginning with the literal meaning of words, phrases or sentences, proverbs can offer a
perfect image of a literary translation. I have adopted a pragmatic functional approach
within the analysis I have undertaken and I targeted the ethnofields of joy and life.
Keywords: contextualization, meaning, intention, language pattern, transfer.
1.Between literal and literary translation, the theory of meaning can lead to
philosophical semantics: words and phrases or simple sentences which convey in one
language a certain message that can be the same as what has been conveyed in the other
language. A different situation is also possible: the message is conveyed but the words,
phrases or the simple sentence do not display the same terms in the two languages.
In the case of proverbs the approach can be even more challenging. As proverbs
are considered utterances, they hide in their deep structure, actions. Actions are said to be
undertaken for reasons and they are meant to express a certain attitude or a specific thought. I
have focused on assertions, even if proverbs offer a much richer display of language patterns
(conditionals, imperatives, wishes). Assertions may be differently displayed, the message is
nevertheless understood as a conclusion, a life lesson:
E: Art is long, life is short.
R: Viaa-i scurt, nvtura-i lung.
(the above paremic pair is, in fact, a comparison between life as human
existence and
art which can include learning and craft. The two languages, English and
Romanian do
not keep the same word order and the language transfer is not operated between
the same
terms)
Romanian paremiology flourished during the last two decades of the 20th
century, when modern ideas were published both in Romania and abroad. Names like I.C.
Chiimia, G. Muntean, Cezar Tabarcea or. C. Negreanu (to mention only some of the devoted
researchers of this domain) proved the multidisciplinary character of the Romanian proverbs
analysis. I do agree to I.V. Dedus conclusion [Dedu: 2014:497] that proverbs can be
approached from various angles but I strongly believe that C. Negreanus concept of the
ethnofield is still prevailing. Such a working technique is not only meant to bring more order
in everything that is empirical research, but gives also the opportunity to make comparisons
and draw conclusions taken from the examples displayed.
I have chosen the ethnofields life and joy and their Romanian counterparts
via and
bucurie (with double versions in Romanian and English) as they match in their
epistemiological content and vary in their expression.
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2. According to Grice the speakers thoughts are communicated with a very clear
aim: to encourage others to draw inferences that go beyond the meaning of the words they
hear or utter.
In proverbs, which have a special statute as independent texts, the message should be
understood according to the conventions associated with the intentions included in the literal
meanings of words and phrases. The literal meanings are doubled by literal intentions. There
is, on the other hand, the difference between utterance meaning and speaker-meaning or
between what is directly conveyed and what is indirectly suggested.
When the speaker utters:
E: Bread is the staff of life.
R: Pinea nseamn via.
he knows that the hearer knows the truth of his uttering but he can also infer that the
hearer is aware of the stuff which is not translated as such in Romanian.
If we deal with a different pattern I would call it hidden conditional in the
following example:
E: An ill life, an ill end.
R:Via rea, moarte rea.
the literal intentions are more active than a simple assertion.
The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis regarding the influence of the mother tongue when
translating, is perhaps too much illustrated in proverbs where an element of the whole can
replace that entity:
E: There is one way to enter this life but gates of death without number.
R: n via intri pe o singur u, dar exist zeci de ci cate te duc la moarte.
2.1 If translation is an exercise of finding in a language something that means the
same of what has been said in another:
E: Such a life, such a death.
R: Cum ai trit, aa mori.
(almost word by word translation, except the fact that English uses nouns and
Romanian
verbs of the same word family)
Change can occur in the terms that are used:
a) different patterns and antonyms in the two languages:
E: Take away my good name and take away my life.
(imperative)
R:Dect s-i ias nume ru, mai bine ochii din cap.
(concession)
b) different terms and inclusion:
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E: A handful of good life is better than a bushel of learning.

R: Mintea e bun dac e sor cu norocul.
(a bushel of learning is the equivalent of the Romanian mintea, while
Romanian sees
life as luck)
c) different literal intentions:

R: Pe om n via paniile-l nva.
E: Experience is the mother of wisdom.
(while Romanian focuses on man as a central term, English underlines the
term
experience and makes possible the comparison between experience and
possible life
Adventures rendered in Romanian by the word paniile)
2.2 Grices four maxims{Grice,H.P:1975:45-47] quantity, quality, relevance and
manner can be applied to proverbs, regarding, again, the specificity of Romanian paremic
pattern as compared to the English one:
a) quantity:
E: A cat has nine lives.
R: Pisica are apte viei.
(the difference between nine and seven is obviously connected with the Romanian
popular saying that seven is a lucky number and makes possible an identity marker, linking
individuals to their native language)
b) quality:
E: Life is not all beer and skittles.
R: Viaa nu e numai praznici i plceri
(English makes use of very common and well known everyday life ingredients
drinks and sweets Romanian uses general words implying life past time)
c) relevance:
E: In life you loved me not, in death you bewail me.
R: Pe cel ce nu l-ai iubit n via, l preuieti dup ce moare.
Omul dup ce moare atunci darul i se cunoate.
(Romanian is richer in versions as it stresses the idea of a late recognition and of how
important competence may be darul i se cunoate)
d) manner:
E:Two things doth prolong thy life: a quiet heart and a loving wife
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R: Dou lucruri lungesc viaa brbatului: inima uoar i nevasta iubitoare.

(almost identical as structures, the English version addresses a universal thy which is
explained in the second part of the paremic unit, while the Romanian version addresses the
specific noun gender - brbatului, that is to man)
3. When analyzing proverbs the concept of thick translation due to
contectualization appears as a consequence of cancelled intentions.
The same idea can be expressed by different versions within the same target
language:
(i) the classical pattern where the word by word translation renderd very clearly the
desired message:
R: Dup ntristare vine bucurie.
E :After sorrow comes some joy.
while the:
(ii) the pattern changes the order of the terms in Romanian which is the source language
SL:
R: Dup bucurie vine ntristare.
and the English version develops the contrast between the laughing and weeping
which in fact leads to the difference between joy and sorrow:
E: He that laughs in the morning, weeps at night.
The literary translation has, even in the case of such texts as proverbs, the goal of
producing a set of parallels preserving the cultural conventions. The following proverb
preserves the meaning as message but the pattern is reversed in English as compared to
Romanian:
E: The life of the wolf, the death of the lamb.
R: Moartea lupului e sntatea oilor.
Meeting all the constraints of the Gricean meaning seems to be in very many
proverbs versions the image of the perfect translation.Still, there are, on the other hand, new
texts:
R: Schimbarea domnuilor, bucuria nebunilor.
E: Only fools exault when Governments change.
(the idea of change is preserved but fools are not always mad and the
possible
upper-class is not always represented by the Government)
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4. Conclusions
Whether I do agree or not to the idea of a thick translation [Appiak,
K.A:2002:417-429]
made possible by certain English proverbs and their Romanian
versions, I have to admit that:
contextualization plays a very important role in any proverb analysis;

translation mechanisms can turn the expressions of one language(the source language
SL)- into the expressions of another language (the target language TL) but
sometimes the translator has to choose between the literal expression and the literary
one;
any paremiological meta-commentary cannot ignore language attitudes, language
identity as group identity or universal language;
assertions seem to be predominant in proverbs structures both in English and
Romanian but there are here and there questions and wishes that can be felt as such:
E: [Who doth spend more than he is worth?] he makes a rope his life to end
R: [I wish] There is aye life for a living man.
Studying proverbs from a pragmatic perspective and applying Grices mechanism,

what is really important is understanding the message. That can be done through a thick
translation as well, if we really believe that:
R: Lucru lungete viaa, iar lenea o scurteaz.
E: Better to wear out than to rust out.
REFERENCES
Appiah, K.A, 2002,
Reader 2002
Dedu, I.V 2014,
Scientific
Thick Translation in Venuti, L (ed) The Translation Studies

Routledge, ond & New York pp. 417-429
Romanian Paremiology Thesaurus for Multidisciplinary
Research in Journal of Romanian Literary Studies no4/2014,
pp. 491Grice, H.P, 1975,
499
Logic and Conversation in Cole,P and Morgan,J (eds) Syntax
and
Semantics, Vol. 3, New York, Academic Press, pp.41-58
Negreanu, C, 1983, Structua proverbelor romneti, Bucureti, Ed. tiiinific i
Enciclopedic
Ruxndoiu, P, 2004 Proverb i context, Bucureti, Editura Universitii din Bucureti
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MIRCEA CRTRESCU: THE PUBLICISTIC PROSE BETWEEN AUTOBIOGRAPHY

AND FICTION
Sofian DIANA
Abstract: Portmanteau word, the autofiction suggests the synthesis between autobiography
and fiction. The debatable nature of this synthesis has given birth to a large number of
definitions trying to theorize this supposedly new literary genre. The moment the concept has
gone out of his authors control, two directions were distinguished: on the one hand, the
critics who submitted to Doubrovskys term, but enlarged its meaning; on the other hand, the
critics who changed Doubrovskys meaning. The point of view the critics unanimously agree
with is the absolutely fascinating character of autofictions, which unfold an astonishing
interplay between the real and the fictional, truth and falsity. This interplay is generated by a
contradictory reading pact.
Literary critics have noticed the autobiographical character of Cartarescus novels that
surrounds the trilogy, but only in a few cases the problem of autofiction has been raised. It is,
on the one hand, because of the different theoretical approaches, and on the other hand
because of the existing discrepancies between the identification and the evaluation criteria.
Based on recent theoretical studies, the present paper aims both at systematizing and
applying these criteria on the texts included in volumes of publicistic prose, on a few short
stories and on the novel Orbitor.
Keywords: autofiction, referentiality, fiction, reading pact, auctorial identity.
Autoficiunea. Delimitri conceptuale
Problemele pe care le ridic acest concept sunt legate n primul rnd de definirea sa,
apoi de legitimarea generic i, concomitent cu acestea, de analiza operelor literare prin grila
propus. nsui autorul conceptului, Serge Doubrovsky, revine repetat asupra definiiei,
oscilnd ntre caracterul autobiografic i cel ficional al scrierilor (sale, singurele crora le
ataeaz eticheta inventat). O a treia a sa definiie apare n 1982, n urma publicrii celui deal doilea roman, Un amour de soi. Dei rezistnd pe poziia apropierii demersului psihanalitic
de procedeele autoficionale, se vdete la Doubrovsky virarea spre autobiografic, cu nuana
ncrcturii postmoderniste a acestui gen: orice autobiografie este o form de autoficiune i
orice autoficiune este o variant a autobiografiei. Nu exist separaie absolut.
Autoficiunea e forma romanesc n care vorbesc despre ei scriitorii de la mijlocul
secolului al XX-lea pn la nceputul secolului al XXI-lea.
Vincent Colonna, autorul primei teze de doctorat pe acest subiect, se distaneaz de
Doubrovsky, practic aducnd o nou definiie conceptului. Pentru el, autoficiunea joac ntre
aparena autobiografic i coninutul imaginar: o oper literar prin care un scriitor i
inventeaz o personalitate i o existen, pstrndu-i, n tot acest timp, identitatea real.
Condiia cerut este ca scriitorul s nu dea acestei invenii o valoare figural sau metaforic,
i nici s ncurajeze o lectur referenial care s descifreze n text nite mrturisiri indirecte
[COLONNA, 1989:10], teoria lui nefiind girat pn la capt de Genette, care pune problema
motivaiei i literaritii. Denumind-o gen neserios1, prozatoarea i cercettoarea Marie
Articolul cercettoarei, publicat n numrul 107 din 1996 al revistei Potique, vine nc din titlu n
ntmpinarea acuzelor aduse de Genette: Autofiction - un genre pas srieux. De asemenea, neserios
1
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Darrieussecq are n vedere diferena ntre actul vorbirii implicat n autobiografie i cel
implicat n autoficiune: dac autobiografia declar afirmarea unui adevr i solicit buna
credin i adeziunea lectorului, autoficiunea se declar n acelai timp adevrat, dar
avertizeaz lectorul n privina adeziunii la aceast credin, punndu-l n imposibilitatea de a
alege ntre valoarea factual i valoarea fictiv.
n 2007, Serge Doubrovsky nsui ine s pun punctul pe i, clarificnd problemele de
definire i de legitimare generic ale autoficiunii. Observnd c, n Pactul autobiografic,
Lejeune produce o separare ntre eul subsemnat criteriu esenial al omonimatului i actul
de referin/copia conform, Doubrovsky sesizeaz o prim opoziie, ntre autobiografie,
conceput n acest fel, i roman, care se sprijin pe un pact de fictivitate, chiar i dac vorbim,
de exemplu, de roman autobiografic. Referindu-se la evoluia scrierilor despre sine,
Doubrovsky observ c schimbrile s-au produs la nivel de concepere a subiectului, de
concepere a raportrii la sine-nsui a scriitorului care se percepe fragmentat i nu ca un ntreg
generator de sens. Ceea ce trebuie s redea o autoficiune este gustul intim al existenei mele
i nu imposibila mea istorie[] Altfel spus, ceea ce un scriitor inventeaz este reconfigurarea
fragmentelor existenei pe care o renscrie n text. Este primatul absolut al textului i al
scriiturii asupra tritului.[] Autoficiunea este modul de a ncerca s recuperezi, s recreezi,
s refasonezi ntr-un text, ntr-o scriitur, experiene trite ale propriei viei care nu sunt deloc
o reproducere, o fotografie. E literal i literar o reinvenie [DOUBROVSKY, 2007: 78].
Sistematizarea criteriilor de identificare
Atrgnd atenia asupra faptului c trsturile descrise i clasificate de el se potrivesc,
n fapt, doar operei doubrovskyene, cercettorul Philippe Gasparini observ c autoficiunea
se desparte de autobiografie n trei puncte eseniale: pe de o parte, bulversarea cronologiei i,
de aici, abandonul cauzalitii explicative: fragmentarea povetii, capriciile memoriei []
abolesc orice pretenie de adevr unic, interzic vizarea global a referinei[GASPARINI,
2008:210]. Pe de alt parte, un comentariu interior, care trdeaz constant ndoielile autorului
privind validitatea demersului memoriei sale, rezultnd un text lacunar, nesigur, incoerent. n
fine, crearea unui autoportret lipsit de complezen. Practic, autorul a formulat un soi de
decalog al criteriilor de recunoatere a autoficiunii, bazat pe definiiile lui Doubrovsky,
dispunndu-le pe trei trepte categoriale: n primul rnd, discerne indicii de referenialitate
1.identitatea onomastic a autorului i a eroului narator; 2. angajamentul de a nu relata dect
fapte i evenimente strict reale; 3.dorina de a descrie adevrul propriu , de a se dezvlui
cu adevrat . n al doilea rnd, situeaz indicii romaneti: 1.subtitlul roman; 2.primatul
naraiunii; 3.predilecia pentru prezentul naraiunii; 4.o strategie de influenare a cititorului. n
al treilea rnd, distinge munca asupra textului: 1. cutarea unei forme originale; 2.o scriitur
care s vizeze verbalizarea imediat; 3.reconfigurarea timpului linear (prin selecie,
intensificare, fragmentare, bruiere)[GASPARINI, 2008: 214].
n momentul n care conceptul a ieit de sub controlul autorului su, s-au distins dou
axe: de o parte, criticii care i-au nsuit termenul lui Doubrovsky, dar i-au lrgit accepia, de
cealalt, criticii care au schimbat accepia doubrovskyan. Ca urmare, criteriile de
recunoatere a autoficionalului s-au modificat: Pentru unii, au rmas valabile doar eticheta de
roman si omonimatul autor-narator-personaj, aa cum procedeaz Jacques Lecarme, cu
observaia c, totui, n lista pe care o produce, insereaz i opere n care omonimatul nu este
respectat, precum i texte n care referenialul alterneaz cu ficionalul de o manier uor
recognoscibil de ctre cititor, texte pe care Doubrovsky le va numi quasi-autoficiuni, ca
replic la denumirea dat de Philippe Vilain: autoficiuni anominale.[Vilain, 2005: 229]
Elemente autoficionale n proza publicistic a lui Mircea Crtrescu
nseamn c atrage atenia asupra indecidabilului la nivel de adevr, punnd la ndoial adevrul naiv al
autobiografiilor.
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nainte de a-i susine la Universitatea din Bucureti, n 2010, teza de doctorat cu titlul
Recuperarea autobiograficului n proza de dup 1989, cercettoarea Florina Prjol a avut, n
paginile Observatorului cultural, cinci intervenii critice n domeniul autoficiunii, ntinse pe
perioada 2004-2007. M voi referi doar la articolul din 2005, deoarece l are n vedere pe
scriitorul Mircea Crtrescu, i anume cartea recent aprut la acea dat, De ce iubim
femeile. Cercettoarea afirm, pe bun dreptate, c nu se poate vorbi dect de un miez
autoficional, de autobiografic autentic pn la un punct. Textele selectate pentru a fi
rspuns, mai mult sau mai puin, la criteriile de identificare a autoficionalului sunt
caracterizate drept mici escapade n memorie, evocri tandre n care se amestec viaa
(biograficul consemnat) i literatura (ficiune), ntr-un melanj n care e imposibil de calculat
proporiile uneia sau alteia.
n general, critica de ntmpinare a remarcat caracterul eterogen al celor trei volume de
proz scurt i ncrctura de elemente autobiografice, ns abia la al doilea dintre ele, n
ordinea apariiei, s-a pus, textual, problema autoficiunii.
Pururi tnr, nfurat n pixeli, volum aprut la Humanitas n 2003, a fost
caracterizat global de ctre Mircea Iorgulescu drept o culegere de publicistic eterogen
tematic, discontinu n atitudini i preponderent confesiv, motiv pentru care i poate fi
socotit, n bun parte, o addenda la Jurnalul tiprit de Mircea Crtrescu n 2001 []
texte [] neabtut poematice [] Mircea Crtrescu preface n literatur tot ce scrie. Daniel
Cristea-Enache l numete volum compus din texte ocazionale de tot felul, de la mici articole
de gazet la comunicri i intervenii cu aspect eseistic, avnd n prima parte o suit de texte
nostalgic-autobiografice, literaturizate [] conin preioase indicii pentru nelegerea operei
propriu-zise, publicistic tras nspre literatur i secvene prozastice decodate biografic,
iar Cristian Moraru l-a perceput n totalitate ca fiind un volum de eseuri autobiografice.
Dou dintre notaiile epitextuale de mai sus ne pun n gard n legtur cu distana sau
imbricarea dintre autobiografia pur i ficionalizarea realului: ambele vorbesc de
literaturizare, ceea ce ne determin s cutm indicii refereniali i pe cei de ficionalizare care
scot textul de sub eticheta autobiograficului.
La nivel paratextual, exist dou elemente care ar putea da seama de natura textelor:
pagina de titlu a volumului conine, n parantez i cu italice, subtitlul (din periodice), Am
avea de-a face, astfel, cu texte scurte, destinate publicisticii. ns prezena lor n diverse astfel
de locaii nu este un indiciu pentru a stabili tipul de pact pe care l ncheie autorul cu cititorul.
Nimic nu ne mpiedic s credem c, de exemplu, publicarea n Evenimentul zilei a unui
text semnat Mircea Crtrescu ar fi o condiie necesar i suficient care s-i asigure
caracterul absolut referenial. Ambiguitatea este ntreinut i de prezena unei Introduceri la
persoana I, n care autorul se prezint pe sine n calitate de poet devenit autor, i, n aceast
calitate, stabilete raportul dintre noiunile de adevr, experien i valoare estetic
caracteristic literaturii sale: Cci aceste pagini norocoase sunt, cum se ntmpl mereu,
necate n foarte mult literatur. i, cu ct literatura e mai bun, cu atta sunt mai puine
anse s gseti i pagini mai mult dect reuite artistic: pagini adevrate. Ele sunt tot ce e
preios n cri, cci nu sunt experiment, ci experien, i nu sunt reuite de autor, ci daruri
fcute autorului. E motivul pentru care orgoliul scriitoricesc e att de stupid
[CRTRESCU, 2007: 5].
Textele sunt scrieri confesive la persoana I, marcate prin distana dintre timpul tririi i
cel al mrturisirii unor evenimente care nu respect, totui, o linie cronologic: amintiri din
diverse perioade ale copilriei alterneaz cu observaii asupra suprapunerii perfecte a timpului
relatrii evenimentelor cu timpul petrecerii acestora, texte care debuteaz cu prezentul tririi
alunec n mrturisiri despre trecut. Relativizarea aceasta sporete i prin distanarea timpului
lecturii volumului de timpul scrierii i publicrii acestor texte n periodice, prezentul imediat
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fiind astfel anulat, caracterul transpunerii imediate i urgente estompndu-se prin

recontextualizare.
Identitatea onomastic este marcat n dou dintre texte. n primul dintre ele, Cum mam trezit pe lume, autorul aduce n pagin propriul nume, identificnd prin el persoana sa la
vrsta adolescenei, ntr-un moment capital, acela al contientizrii existenei sale ca fiin n
permanent devenire, niciodat identic cu sine: Se afla pe lume, din clipa aceea i nu mai de
demult, cineva numit Mircea Crtrescu, cineva la fel de strin ca biatul care citise din
Camus cu zece minute nainte ca fluturele de omid [CRTRESCU, 2007:11]. Al doilea
text, Tahitoscop, pstreaz numai numele de familie, ntruct, dei discursul i pstreaz
caracterul confesiv, la persoana I, atitudinea redat este ce a colegilor de clas, prezentai i cu
alte ocazii de autor ca fiind destul de rezervai fa de micul pui care se viseaz invidiat ntr-o
zi pentru capacitatea sa inimitabil: M imaginam citind ca Omicron, devenind o legend vie
printre colegii mei: Crtrescu dintr-a aptea C, care a citit toate crile! [CRTRESCU,
2007:42].
Identitatea onomastic este ntrit de cea social: ntr-un text care aduce cititorul ntrun cndva prezent al scrierii, Colea,-n tin, autorul i declin att profesia, ct i raportul cu
vecinii de bloc: Sunt ntr-o antiutopie [] Noi nu cunoatem pe nimeni, nici mcar pe cei cu
care suntem u-n u. []Mi se mai zicea ntr-o vreme domprofesor, dar cam cu ndoial:
prea sunt pletos, prea sunt numai n blugi. Acum nu mi se mai zice n nici un fel.
[CRTRESCU, 2007:31].
Statutul de scriitor este mai des afirmat, ntruct volumul de fa are (i) acest scop, de
creare a imaginii de sine auctoriale. Exist dou modaliti intertextuale de a configura sinele
i de a ntri contururile trasate: autocitarea operelor i notaiile metadiscursive despre statutul
scriitorului, raportul lui cu actul scrierii, totul pe un fond confesiv care ntrete credina
cititorului c se afl n spaiul autobiografic, perfect creditabil. Astfel, autorul face
mrturisiri, unele uor ironice, punctnd ca n treact situaia de partener mereu manipulabil a
cititorului, cu privire la preschimbarea unor persoane din biografia sa n personaje din
literatura sa (tanti Sica devenit Tanti Aura n REM, D., pe care ntr-una din povestirile
mele am numit-o Gina, Mira i Altamira (credeai c nu exist n realitate? Uite c exist i
triesc i azi mpreun); alteori, ca n textul Pentru D., vingt ans aprs pare s vrea s
denune, recunosctor, aportul personajelor reale la crearea imaginarului specific: Mai trziu,
povestind vise n crile mele, am profitat de nenumrate ori, mielete, de o fisur n legea
proprietii intelectuale absena copyrightului pe vise ca s-i fur cele mai fermectoare i
mai articulate viziuni [] Al ei a fost visul cu palatul de marmur invadat de fluturi din
Orbitor [CRTRESCU, 2007: 59]. n Cum m-am trezit pe lume, leag starea de spirit
adolescentin descris n romanul Travesti de atmosfera tocmai descris n textul prezent:
Cnd m-am ntors acas, am intrat n starea aceea de nelinite pe care am ncercat s-o descriu
n Travesti [CRTRESCU, 2007:13].
Mrturisirile accentuat direcionate spre cititor alterneaz, pe parcursul textelor i chiar
n interiorul aceluiai text, cu confesiuni de tip jurnalier, n care autorul pare a fi singur cu
angoasele sale de scriitor. Exist, ns, cteva aspecte care arunc umbra suspiciunii asupra
bunei credine a celui care construiete, aparent, un discurs autobiografic, semnnd, prin toate
aceste autobiografeme, cum le numete Roland Barthes, pactul sinceritii. Textele sunt
presrate cu indici de ficionalitate, n mod uneori subtil, alteori evident: n textul cel mai
marcat autobiografic, Cum m-am trezit pe lume, care d seama de naterea contiinei de
sine, exist o parantez care include un verb cu o semantic ambigu: (despre asta o s
povestesc ns n alt parte) (s.m., D.S.). Un cititor atent, sau unul care a parcurs i alte opere
ale autorului, se poate trezi din magia adevrului servit ca atare i i poate aminti brusc c
vocea care i se mrturisete este aceea a unui povesta! Rmne la voia domniei sale, cititorul,
s se lase, n continuare, vrjit de adevr sau de ficiune. Reconfigurarea timpului linear,
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salturile de la o vrst la alta, ntoarcerile, i mai ales aducerea cititorului n prezent prin
pasajele metadiscursive ar fi un alt indiciu al abaterii de la mecanismul discursiv autobiografic
spre cel al ficiunii.
De ce iubim femeile, aprut la Humanitas n 2004, volum construit pe acelai tipar
al reunirii unor texte aprute iniial n periodice, reia aceleai procedee. Aceast carte
beneficiaz i ea de suportul epitextual care ar lmuri, nainte sau dup actul lecturii, asupra
relaiei dintre factual i ficional: am s refer, de data aceasta, nu la cronici, ci la interviurile
acordate de autor n care s-a discutat i despre acest volum. Primul dintre ele, acordat revistei
Formula AS, n 2005, atrage atenia asupra a dou aspecte: caracterul ficional al crii: E o
carte de literatur ca oricare alta i, nc o dat, transpunerea n imaginaie a referenialului Crtrescu se distaneaz de consecinele recunoaterii fr rest a naturii autobiografice a
povestirilor sale (toate scrierile dumneavoastr autobiografice): Bucuretiul din scrierile
mele e un ora n ntregime fictiv, amalgam de vise adevrate si de false amintiri. De peste
zece ani reconstruiesc cu migal, din asemenea fragmente de origine incontrolabil i
dubioas, un ora identificabil cu o carte si cu un creier: Bucuretiul, "Orbitor", al meu.
Publicului iniial cruia i-au fost dedicate aceste texte, cititoarelor revistei Elle, nu i s-au
mpuiat urechile prea mult cu vocaia auctorial, ns i-a fost amintit statutul social al celui
care le vorbea, pentru cititorii avizai, cunosctori ai persoanelor, personalitilor i
contextelor din viaa autorului, urmele de reviste sau de scriitori sunt ns repere clare ale
aspectului autobiografic al textelor. Indicii de ficionalitate sunt ascuni, de data aceasta, n
miezul confesiunilor i interogaiilor n manier de jurnal: n Seara care cade, autorul
dezvluie modul cum i-a transformat amintirile reale n substana ficiunilor sale. Jucnd
cartea sinceritii, se insereaz subtil n mintea cititorului i i dezvluie exact principiul
autoficionalizrii: Viaa mea nu e bogat n evenimente, iar pe cele cteva mai expresive pe
care mi le amintesc le-am stors la maximum n crile mele. Totui, sunt cteva despre care,
din diferite motive, n-am putut scrie, cci doar teoretic totul e de vnzare cnd eti scriitor.
n realitate, mii de scrupule i reineri te fac s omii cte un fapt n aparen nensemnat, dar
care (i dovad sunt tocmai scrupulele tale) poate fi un tunel ctre straturile vulnerabile ale
sinelui tu. Noi nu suntem interfaa social pe care o numim persoana noastr: cineva
dindrtul ei, o fiin incomparabil mai vast, ne controleaz, modeleaz, cenzureaz de multe
ori gndurile i aciunile. Interogaiile par a corespunde frmntrilor introspective feminine
specifice cititoarelor de reviste de profil, ns btaia lor este mai lung, viznd, de fapt,
raportul autorului cu sinele i cu ntreaga lui oper.
Jocul acesta n care cititoarea este invitat s i pun aparent aceleai ntrebri (Cine
sunt eu? Care este eul meu adevrat? etc.) este , de fapt, ca n orice autoficiune, un joc de
seducie, subliniat pn la efecte comice de autor ntr-o interpelare de tipul celei din ntlnire
la Torino: Spune i tu, drag cititoare, cum ar trebui s reacionez eu la ce mi s-a ntmplat
numai n curs de o sptmn de la scrierea povestirii precedente? [CRTRESCU,
2004:100]. Prezena, nc o dat, a cuvntului-avertisment povestire ne situeaz n cmpul
ficiunii.
Despre volumul din 2012, Ochiul cprui al dragostei noastre, recenzenii s-au
exprimat cu mai mult curaj n a folosi direct termenul de autoficiune. Asta i pentru c, poate,
volumul conine cteva povestiri cu tent autobiografic pline de motive transpuse literar n
Orbitor i pentru c indicii de ficionalitate sunt mai muli. Marius Chivu le-a calificat drept
texte destul de personale: rememorri, confesiuni mascate, evocri, proze sau mici eseuri.
Subliniind scopul adunrii sub volum a unui nou set de texte diverse, Marius Mihe observ
c dei la prima vedere textele [] sunt simple apendice la jurnale i volumele de proz, ele
trec dincolo de micile mele mitologii personale, cum spune n Epoca nesului i apoi face
consideraii despre autoficiunea crtrescian care trece, ns, i dincolo de fuziunile
tiinei cu literatura, trecnd la mrturisiri despre condiia intelectualului i a crii. tefan
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Baghiu eticheteaz volumul ca fiind o antologie de eseistic, memorialistic i mici poveti

de via, cu aspectul unui jurnal. La rndul ei, Andreea Rsuceanu observa, la momentul
apariiei crii, c mpletirea dintre elementul documentar i ficiune e att de natural, nct
trecerile dintr-un plan n cellalt sunt aproape imperceptibile.
Identitatea onomastic i cea profesional joac pe tema dublului, ntre receptarea din
afar i perceperea interioar: pe de o parte a oglinzii, eul scriptor se vede conturat astfel, n
atmosfera tios de real a trgului de vechituri descris n Anii furai: mi-am aternut i eu,
scriitor cu mai multe cri deja publicate i asistent universitar, ziarul de obte. De cealalt
parte, contururile sunt altfel trasate n Ada Kaleh, Ada Kaleh: De-aici i meseria mea:
constructor de ruine. Vocaia mea: arhitect al ruinelor.
Dac Anii furai, Epoca nesului, Despre onoarea actului de a scrie i O,
Levant, Levant ferice sunt texte marcat autobiografice, alte trei, care conin i ele un numr
semnificativ de repere refereniale, gliseaz spre autoficional. Nu am putea spune, n cazul
acestui volum, c ele ar duce cu sine ntregul, pentru c nu mai exist un proiect tematic unitar
care s genereze o interdependen n economia volumului.
Ada kaleh, Ada kaleh este construit ca o estur continu ntre prezent i trecut,
unde insula se afl n miezul amintirilor i al textului. Jocul dintre real i imaginar vizeaz att
spaiul, ct i timpul: insula, pmnt ce ar trebui s fie ferm, e astzi sub ape. Mai exist un
strat, i mai puin ancorabil pe axa temporal, aducnd parc de nicieri i aruncnd
referenialul cuprins n text n abisul permanenei scriiturii i al aneantizrii acesteia,
deopotriv: Ca i cum, scriind, fiecare dr trasat cu pixul pe pagin s-ar umple de
mucegai i fiecare pagin lsat n urm, acoperit cu scrisul meu, s-ar scoroji, s-ar nglbeni
i s-ar rsuci ca o frunz btrn. Iar eu a scrie tot mai repede, ca s nu fiu ajuns din urm de
dezastru i de nenorocire.. Cuibarul de ape se nchide n jurul insulei scufundate: Nu mntrebai pe mine despre locuri uitate i prsite din Europa. Mama nsi a fost un astfel de
loc. eu nsumi sunt un astfel de loc. Adunai-v-n jurul meu, deschidei-mi easta i
contemplai-mi creierul: se va sfrma sub ochii votri ca un mulaj de ghips. Iar praful lui se
va amesteca indiscernabil cu praful ruinelor ntre care-am trit toat viaa, amant al unui
harem de ruine. [CRTRESCU, 2012:32].
Nu ntmpltor, cred, se afl n centrul crii textul care i d titlul: Ochiul cprui al
dragostei noastre este unul din acele texte despre care vorbea autorul n Introducerea la
Pururi tnr: cuprinznd experiena sa cea mai intim, cea care d sens i poart cu sine
spre un final cuprins n sine haosul aluvionar al Orbitorului: unitatea iniial dintre mam i
cei doi gemeni i spargerea acesteia pn la pierderea identitii i permanenta ei interogare n
apele tuturor oglinzilor posibile.
Exist un amnunt care poate scpa unui cititor la primul volum al lui Crtrescu, dar
nu i unuia care a ntlnit n diverse locaii amnuntul biografic la care face aluzie autorul.
Lectura epitextual (jurnalul, interviurile) dau seama de o situare pe axa cronologiei reale
crtresciene: fratele su, Victor, a murit la vrsta de un an i jumtate: Acei primi ani ai
vieii mele sunt perioada care m preocup cel mai mult din tot ce am trit. Am avut un frate
geamn, Victor, de care nu-mi aduc aminte, pentru c el a disprut la vrsta de un an i
jumtate. Amndoi am fost internai cu dubl pneumonie ntr-un spital. Eu am scpat, iar el
nu. Moartea lui nc nelmurit bine (ca i pura lui existen, de altfel) este trauma vieii mele,
cam tot ce-am scris se leag de asta, l-am simit mereu ca pe un alter-ego al meu. ntotdeauna
am simit c-mi lipsete ceva, ca i cnd, privindu-m-n oglind, n-a vedea pe nimeni. Ce s-a
ntmplat a fost din cauza condiiilor ngrozitoare n care triam. Prinii mei erau venii de la
ar, mama era estoare, tata lctu, i locuiam ntr-o cmru nchiriat, undeva n
Colentina, ce semna cu o celul de nchisoare.2. Aceeai informaie temporal este pstrat
2
Mircea Crtrescu, interviu cu Roxana Lupu, Adevrul, 23 iulie 2011
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n Orbitor: Coca-l rpise, n toamna lui 57, pe Victor din casa lui Maam Catana
[CRTRESCU, 2008: 483].. Or, n textul de fa, referina este cu totul alta: Eu i Victor
sttuserm ochi n ochi timp de cinci ani [CRTRESCU, 2012: 42]. Este de necrezut c un
eveniment de o asemenea importan n viaa i n opera lui Crtrescu ar fi beneficiat aici de
o simpl scpare a memoriei, de tipul celei despre care Doubrovsky spunea c fac ca
autobiografiile s fie mincinoase n coninut, nu i n intenia autorului de a spune adevrul i
n nici un caz n angajamentul pe care i-l ia n faa lectorului. i atunci, dac amnuntul nu
este o simpl eroare a memoriei, el nu rmne s fie dect un important indice ficional, care,
alturi de povestea mamei spus sub form de basm popular (motiv i procedeu reluat i n
Orbitor), atenioneaz lectorul asupra puternicei aure ficionale care, n jocul de lumini al
amintirilor dintr-o perioad de fapt imposibil de amintit, sau mult prea greu, ascunde miezul
autobiografic mult prea intim i l expune, n acelai timp, ateniei i sensibilitii cititorului.
Ultimul text, Pontus Axeinos, este i el un joc de-a spaiul, timpul i memoria, ca
toat opera crtrescian. Debutnd cu o notaie spaio-temporal imediat: Am doisprezece
ani i merg n tabr la Constana, textul sugereaz un coninut jurnalier preadolescentin,
deci avnd toate ansele receptrii refereiale, ntruct e destul de greu s intervii stilistic ntrun discurs de acest fel, fr ca grefele s nu fie vizibile. Reperele credibile se succed cu
vitez, culminnd ntr-o demonstraie seductoare (dar suspect prin perfeciunea ei!), cea a
enumerrii termenilor maritimi din Toate pnzele sus!. Impresia de autentic este susinut de
natura gndurilor copilului care se ndrepta spre mare(amintiri despre ai si, impresii despre
peisaj, toate redate la prezent), ns pus i ea sub semnul suspiciunii prin slaba posibilitate,
ntrezrit dup ntoarcerea paginii de ctre cititor, ca aceste observaii s fi fost notate
imediat, pe loc, de ctre un copil care nu mai fcuse acel drum niciodat, nu mai zrise marea
pn atunci i despre care devine dintr-o dat imposibil de crezut c ori nota la firul faptei, ori
i propusese i ne pune sub ochi dovada reuitei de a construi un jurnal cu aceast miz
stilistic. Dup care vine ntrebarea i mai distanat de farmecul seductor al primei pagini, al
primei notaii: de unde informaia c acela care vorbete este n acelai timp i inscriptor, la
timpul redat de prima notaie? E la fel de posibil ca autorul s se transpun imaginar n acea
vrst, retrind, cu ajutorul memoriei, un fapt redat la prezent pentru impresia de stric
autenticitate. Ceea ce nu i-ar tirbi evenimenialului cu nimic din valoarea de adevr.
Surpriza vine pe pagina a doua, unde halucinaia produs de raza lunii pe ape trece din
realitate n relatare, transformnd, i prin glisarea dinspre perfectul compus spre imperfect,
discursul n ficiune: Mergeam n echilibru, pn foarte adnc n mare, pe linia de foc ce
izvora din lun. Ne ntorceam doar cnd abia mai zream lumina farului de la captul digului
ncrcat de stabilopozi. Unul dintre noi plecase joi noaptea pe crarea de foc i se-ntorsese
abia lunea cealalt [CRTRESCU, 2012:162].
Capitolul al doilea transpune vocea auctorial cu care cititorul se obinuise pe
parcursul volumului. n lipsa declaraiei fie a omonimatului, avem un surogat de
autenticitate, destul de convingtor: vocea la persoana I face trimitere la un alt scriitor, pe care
ne invit, n calitate de cititori, s-l imaginm ntr-o situaie similar i s gustm grotescul
ei: Trimitei-l pe Kafka la o nunt, punei-l pe Kafka pe un scaun ntre o contabil mbrcat
n paiete verzi i un coleg poliist al celui ce se-nsoar[CRTRESCU, 2012:163]. Al
treilea capitol deruteaz asupra identitii auctoriale: conine o list a rspunsurilor date de
motorul de cutare pe Internet, la fel de abracadabrant ca i cel mai ingenios capitol
pynchonian cu putin. Cu ce scop a fost fcut aceast cutare i cnd? i de ctre cine? De
ctre narator, dup ntoarcerea din plimbarea de a doua zi de dup nunt? De ctre autorul
care se oglindete astfel n text, dezvluind modalitatea de cutare a datelor cu care s
mbrace povetile pe care tocmai ni le spune?
Textul nu se d de gol, dar e de ajuns ruptura aceasta halucinant n estura povetii
ca s genereze un maximum de suspiciune. Astfel c textul i-a pregtit lectorul pentru al
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treilea capitol, cel evident ficional, al povetii lui Ovidiu, redat la persoana a treia, pe dou
capitole succesive, ntrerupt de o ntoarcere brusc n autobiograficul deja cu totul suspect n
pretenia sa de susinere a adevrului. ns procedeul acumulrii de amnunte bine cunoscute
cititorului din viaa de zi cu zi (descrierea cartierelor Constanei) creeaz din nou efectul de
via i pe acest fundal apare informaia, devenit credibil prin repetare, referitoare la
codiele aurii din ifonier. Mai mult, redarea ei n alt form dect cea prezent n Orbitor
determin cititorul s mizeze pe caracterul confesiv al acestor pagini, n opoziie cu gradul de
ficional specific romanului: Cndva am gsit n ifonier, ntr-o pung nglbenit de hrtie,
bucle din prul mei cnd eram copil i civa diniori de lapte[CRTRESCU, 2012:178].
Ultimul capitol este ca un joc de Lego unde cuburi de diferite forme i culori se mbin
pentru o construcie final coerent. Faptele reinute de istorie i elementele fictive sunt
amestecate i redate ntr-un proustian carusel al timpurilor verbale, la care se adaug
elementele intertextuale: trimiterile la Lautramont i, n final, amestecul de inter- i
metatextual: Cci, dup cuvintele lui Mallarm, lumea ntreag exist doar ca s se ajung la
o carte frumoas.[CRTRESCU, 2012:186]
Teza de doctorat a Florinei Prjol, publicat n 2014 la Editura Cartea Romneasc, cu
titlul Carte de identiti, rmne i ea prudent n etichetarea radical a textelor romneti,
autoarea prefernd, att n capitolele teoretice, ct i n cele de analiz pe text, o atitudine
relativist. Capitolul dedicat lui Crtrescu analizeaz elementele autoficioale cuprinse n
dou din nuvele, REM i Mendebilul, motiv petru care nu m-am oprit aici asupra lor, iar
n partea dedicat romanului Orbitor, cercettoarea subliniaz n mod repetat o idee la care
subscriu, i anume c adevrata miz nu e cea autobiografic, acesta nefiind dect o realitate
secundar, dominanta fiind ontologicul i obsesia spunerii totului despre o multitudine de euri
nglobante.
Bibliografie:
Crtrescu, Mircea,2003, Pururi tnr, nfurat n pixeli, Bucureti, Humanitas.
Crtrescu, Mircea, 2004, De ce iubim femeile, Bucureti, Humanitas.
Crtrescu, Mircea, 2012, Ochiul cprui al dragostei noastre, Bucureti, Humanitas.
Colonna, Vincent, 1989, LAutofiction. Essai sur la fictionnalisation du soi en
littrature, dirige par Grard Genette, thse indite, EHESS.
Doubrovsky,
Serge,
1988,
Aubiographie/Vrit/Psychanalise,
n
Autobiographiques, de Corneille Sartre, Presses Universitaires de France, coll.
Perspectives critiques, Paris, p.66, accesat pe www.autofiction.org. la 15.11.2012.
Doubrovsky, Serge, 2007, Les points sur les i, n Actes du Colloque Gense et
Autofiction sous la direction de Catherine Violett et Isabelle Grell, Academia-Bruylant, ,
accesat pe www.autofiction.org. la 15.11.2012
Gasparini, Philippe, 2008, Autofiction Une aventure du langage, Editions du Seuil,
coll. Potique, Paris.
Prjol, Florina, 2014, Carte de identiti, Editura Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti.
Prjol, Florina, Mircea Crtrescu: tablete literare unisex, n Observator cultural, Nr.
263/aprilie 2005, accesat n 24.03.2013
Vilain, Philippe, 2005, Dfense de Narcisse, ditions Bernard Grasset.
This work was cofinanced from the European Social Fond through Sectoral
Operational Programme Human Resources Development 2007-2013, project number
POSDRU/159/S/140863, Competitive Researchers in Europe in the Field of Humanities ad
Social-Economic Sciences, a Multiregional Research Network.
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DU-TE VREME, VINO VREME! AND THE MYTH OF PARADISE

Doina POLOGEA
Abstract: Valeriu Ananias dramatic poem Du-te vreme, vino vreme! aproaches the
universal theme of human natures imposibility to escape the contraints of time, although a
yearning for the ideal of everlasting youth withouth old age and life withouth death
consumes the main character. The hypotext for this dramatic poem is the popular fairy tale
entitled Youth withouth old age and life withouth death, but the myth of paradise also
constitues an important reference, while borrowing certain formulas pertaining to the theatre
of the absurd or surrealist.
Keywords: myth, paradise, fairy tale, time, roots.
Dup cum mrturisea Valeriu Anania, poemul dramatic Du-te vreme, vino vreme! a
avut nevoie de o ndelung gestaie pentru a iei la lumin, facerea lui ntinzndu-se pe o
durat de aproape treizeci de ani (1942-1971). Rezultatul? Cel mai original poem dramatic al
autorului, dup cum a fost considerat i un cod etic ntocmit prin valorificarea nelepciunii
multiseculare a poporului romn.1 A pornit de la o ntrebare simpl, pe care autorul i-a puso ntr-o var, pe cnd se afla la schitul Ciocanu i privea un cel, un viel i civa pui de
gin, zbenguindu-se n joaca lor: Ce s-ar ntmpla dac ntreaga fptur ar reveni n starea
de copilrie? Am fi cumva mai fericii sau, n durat, ne-am resimi de nemplinire?.2
Tema imposibilitii naturii umane de a iei din coordonata temporal, precum i
cadrul de feerie, cu personaje de basm n care ea a fost dezvoltat duce cu gndul la o reluare ,
n formula poemului dramatic, a basmului Tineree fr btrnee i via fr de moarte,
despre care Constantin Noica spunea c este singurul care exprim, nu indirect, ca orice
basm, ci direct, plintatea, adevrul i msura a ceea ce se poate numi: fiin. 3 Scrierea lui
Valeriu Anania este ns mult mai mult dect o transpunere a basmului. Il las n urm,
fluturndu-i batista din zare. Basmul este ntors pe dos ca o mnu, pus s fac o detent,
una-dou exerciii de scurt-circuitare cu sursa, urmate de revenirea n prezentul distopic, nu
fr scuturtura de rigoare, apoi culcat-sculat, drepi i stnga-mprejur, nct nimic din basm
nu mai este cum a fost. El este druit cu un cearcn de sensuri filosofice, cu un ochi n plus,
deschis spre imaginarul fantastic, dar i cu o pleoap, cu gene lungi, de poezie. Apar aspecte
ale teatrului absurd sau chiar ale celui suprarealist, n construcii arborescente, iar versificaia
dobndete adeseori aspectul unui labirint semnificant(LucianVasile Bgiu.).4
Anania sugereaz ca la temelia operei sale s nu fie vzut att folclorul, ct ceea
ce este n spatele, la rdcina lui, mitul. Folclorul este o modalitate literar, mitul este un
nucleu existenial5 i atunci, abandonnd punctul de referin care ar fi putut fi basmul
Tineree fr btrnee, s privim spre rdcina sa, spre metafora germinal, cum i plcea
s spun lui Valeriu Anania, mitul paradisului. Cum se raporteaz Maria-Sa Omul (numele
Constantin Deaconu, Impresii de lectur, Editura Conphys, Rmnicu Vlcea, 1996, p.42.
Valeriu Anania, Memorii, Editura Polirom, 2008, p.198.
3
Constantin Noica, Sentimentul romnesc al fiinei, Editura Eminescu, Bucureti,1978, p.113.
4
Lucian-Vasile Bgiu, Valeriu Anania.Scriitorul, Editura Limes, Cluj-Napoca, 2006, p.270.
5
Valeriu Anania, Din spumele mrii. Pagini despre religie i cultur, Ediie ngrijit i postfa de
Sandu Frunz, Editura Dacia, Cluj-Napoca, 1995, p.237.
1
2
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Issue no. 6/2015
cu care este redenumit Ft-Frumos) la visul sempitern, acela aflare/regsire a paradisului- n

viziunea lui Anania?
Dup cum arta Mircea Eliade, mitul paradisiac prezint omul primordial
bucurndu-se de beatitudine, spontaneitate i libertate, pe care cu atta amrciune le-a
pierdut n urma unei cderi, care a provocat ruptura ntre Cer i Pmnt. In illo tempore, n
acel timp paradisiac, oamenii puteau urca la Cer escaladnd un munte, un arbore, o lian sau o
scar.6 In Noul Testament, raiul apare sub denumirea de Snul lui Avraam. La Valeriu
Anania, aflm aceast frumoas descriere a raiului: ,,vzduh de aur, pururi nou n vechi
icoane.
Poemul dramatic Du-te vreme, vino vreme! ncepe chiar cu descrierea hotarului
care desparte spaiul raiului de cel pmntesc, a peisajului de grani: O perdea de ceuri,
groas (...).Un stei cu trepte aspre, ca o scar de piatr, coboar domol dinspre trmul
cellalt, alegndu-se din ceuri. Se presupune i un izvor lit in oglind. Privelitea
trmului de dincolo este primvratic, senin, luminoas, cu vzduh de aur i mri din
cioburi de oglind. Ea se poate infiripa vederii doar pentru o clip, la cntarea cornului, mai
spun didascalile autorului (cornul va fi un dublu al eroului, o prezen de felul celei a
ngerului pzitor; uneori l va pierde sau nstrina, sau nu-l va putea folosi, ca semn c i
ngerul l-a prsit). De acolo, de pe o coam de stei, anunat de glasul cornului, coboar pe
Pmnt Ft-Frumos, alturi de Ileana Cosnzeana. Coborrea e un parcurs ontologic, e
descinderea omului din rai. Din rai, dar i din inocen, fiindc de ndat ceva ca un dor, un
ghimp, o nestare ncepe s-i mpung inima lui Ft- Frumos. Devine trist, cu umbre pe
chip. Intlnete pe Juma de Om (personaj cules i el din basmele romnilor) i-l provoac la
lupt. Dar Juma de Om nu poate fi biruit, el e trup i nc ceva, imponderabil: trecnd prin
visele omeneti, visul nici nu bnuie c prin el a trecut o umbr. O fiin ciudat, grotesc,
hilar, dar care n irul ntmplrilor este singura creatur ce exprim sanitatea ntr-o lume
destructurat poliedric (Lucian Vasile Bgiu)7. El practic un ritual ce nu sufer derogare:
cere fiecrui om ntlnit un fir de pr. i tot aa, smulgnd omului azi un fir, mine un fir,
viaa lui se scurge, toars pe caierul lui Juma de Om: azi ceva, mine ceva/cnd pe fa,
cnd furi/vieii-i face mcini. E un fel de spiridu, Ariel i Caliban la un loc, semizeu
mutilat i om njumtit, dup cum scrie Mircea Ghiulescu. El este timpul, nici bun, nici
ru, nici agresiv, nici interiorizat8.
Mai sunt i alte personaje care ntmpin cuplul Ft- Frumos-Cosnzeana la
descinderea lor. Frtat, bunicul su, paznic la hotarul lumilor, apoi Cei apte tineri, n frunte
cu Dionis, trimiii mpratului Fulger, tatl su. Acetia nu coboar din basm, ci din Vieile
sfinilor,9 fiindc ar putea fi identificai sau pui alturi cu Cei apte Tineri din Efes,
martirizai pe vremea mpratului Deciu, care au fost nchii de vii intr-o peter i au ieit
ntregi, dup 200 de ani de somn sau moarte, pe vremea mpratului Teodosie cel Mic. In
povestea lui Valeriu Anania, ei intr curajoi n ceaa care acoper un trm i-o tain, dar
se ntorc de acolo cu sbiile frnte. In finalul poemului dramatic, peste ani sau sute de ani, nu
tim, renviind i ieind din petera n care au fost nchii de ctre FtFrumos, ei vor depune
mrturie despre ce este Mria Sa Omul.
Odat cobort pe Pmnt, Ft- Frumos se comport discreionar. Ii schimb firea
i numele n Mria Sa Omul, cum i spune Argintarul, sau n Cel ce devine, cum i spune
personajul Dionisie, ori n Ft-Urt, cum i spune Juma de Om, crezndu-se n stare s
Mircea Eliade, Eseuri, Capitolul Mituri, vise, mistere,Editura tiinific, Bucureti,1991, p.167.
Lucian Vasile Bgiu, Op.Cit., p.272.
8
MirceaGhiulescu, Istoria dramaturgiei romneti contemporane, Editura Albatros, Bucureti,
2000, p.130.
9
***Proloagele.Vieile sfinilor i cuvinte de nvtur pe luna octombrie, Editura Mitropoliei
Olteniei, Craiova, an neprecizat, p.67.
6
7
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reconfigureze, conform capriciilor sale, lumea. Este un fel de Ivan Turbinc, euat n
derizoriu i grotesc, cum l descrie Lucian-Vasile Bgiu.10Dorete s intre n mpria
tatlui su, Fulger Imprat, ca mprat cu putere i mai mare dect acesta, stpnind peste
toate ale firii, drept pentru care transmite celor de la curte dorina sa: cireii s nfloreasc n
plin toamn! (cer arvuna-asupra vremii viitoare:/cnd voi poposi la curte vreau s stea
cireii-n floare!). Cireul n floare evoc grdina paradisiac, conform lui Jean Delumeau,
este un arbor mundi, fcut s in timpul pe loc; e un fel de surogat al trmului de dincolo,
dup cum scrie Nicoleta Plimaru.11 Supuii bat un cire pn cnd acesta nflorete, n rspr
cu timpul, iar ceilali cirei i iau exemplul.
Dup ce amenin s rstoarne cursul firesc al lucrurilor, Ft-Frumos i face intrarea
n mprie. Ar vrea s sune din corn, dar nu mai izbutete. El se afl ntr-o zbuciumat
cutare a sinelui, asemeni personajelor din romanul Strinii din Kipukua, care nu ostenesc
s se ntrebe polifonic :Cine sunt eu? Amploarea zbaterii sufleteti este impresionant:
Vino, cntec al furtunii!...Prea mi-i sufletul pustiu!...
Simt c-a fi ceva pe lume ...Ce-a putea sa fiu? Nu tiu...(...)
F-m, Doamne, ce m-ai face, f-m roat de vultur,
F-m geamt de lut pe frmnturile vieii,
F-m ghear de jratic, s sparg geana dimineii,
F-m val cu coama-n spulber, s joc marea-n herghelii,
Ori vrtej de ciocrlie, s tai cerul n felii (p.220)
Ajuns n palatul mpratului Fulger, tatl su, Ft-Frumos, scrbit de decrepitudinea
acestuia, l ucide, lundu-i locul. Ii inchide apoi pe Cei apte tineri, de vii, ntr-o peter i d
porunc s fie omori o multime de supui. Un lan al crimelor demn de un Macbeth, doar
c acela nu a ndrznit s-i porunceasc i codrului, pe cnd FtFrumos face s
nnebuneasc pn i cireii. Prin aceasta el se recomand ca un personaj din galeria
absurdului. (De alfel, Anania mrturisete c au avut influen asupra sa piesele lui Beckett i
Eugen Ionescu).
Nu doar absurdul, ci i grotescul i face loc n nveliul poemului dramatic, ca o
excrescen care prolifereaz. In loc de ciree n pomi apar un soi de dovleci, care mustesc,
zemuiesc i cad cu plesnete fetide, iar din ele iese o viemuial de larve bloase i cleioase,
invadnd mpria. Ca n Grdina Deliciilor a lui Hieronymus Bosh, stranii fiine colcie
n fructe. Viemii sunt la nceput ct guterii, apoi ct broatele estoase, apoi ct erpii: fr
oase/i fr ochi i gturi/miun ca orbii i dau din rturi/i-i colcie inelele.Mai mult, ei
ntunec soarele i strnesc vntul. Un copil cuteaz s mute dintr-o astfel de ...bzdganie i
moare pe loc. Ceva de genul mutelor lui Sartre sau psrilor lui Hitchoch flaneaz,
infesteaz, invadeaz, umplu totul de scrb, spaim i oroare. Se petrece o hipertrofiere i
o alterare imund, sufocant, att a roadelor, ct i a faunei(Al. Paleologu).12 Basmul se
altoiete cu materia grotescului pentru a sugera vicierea ordinii naturale, succednd cderii
din har a omului.
Dramaturgul ofer expresie literar unei accepiuni picturale sau sculpturale a
grotescului, dup cum noteaz LucianVasile Bgiu, ns nu este vorba de accepiunea
comun a grotescului, aceea de comic exagerat, cu evidente accente vulgare, ci de
semnificaiile secunde: nenatural, ciudat, bizar. Se configureaz astfel o ocant pseudofeerie13
Lucian Vasile- Bgiu, Op.cit., p.271.
Nicoleta Plimaru, Valeriu Anania-Opera literar, Editura Limes/Renaterea, Cluj-Napoca,
2011, p.155.
12
Al Paleologu, Prefaa la Du-te vreme, vino vreme!, n Valeriu Anania-Opera literar VI, Teatru,
vol.2, Editura Limes, Cluj-Napoca, 2007, p.170.
13
Lucian Vasile Bgiu, Op.cit.,p. 286.
10
11
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O nou falie n ordinea natural a lucrurilor provoac Ft-Frumos atunci cnd,

oprind moara lui Juma de Om (unde se biciuie viaa omului cu biciul-ornic), determin
regresiunea anormal a vrstelor. De data asta i poruncete timpului. Intorcnd pe dos
formula basmului, el cere :via fr btrnee/tineree fr moarte. Devine copil ntr-o lume
de copii, n care se va numi Ft Mucos sau Coie- Vnt sau Trie-mae.. care d la rae.
Limbajul adulilor de la moara lui Juma de Om transformai n copii se destructureaz, se
simplific, plonjnd n stereotipii i sunete onomatopeice, dup tipicul limbajului
copiilor:Dudumina/Treorop/Siticopsau:Pumnareta/Pumnati/Tapi/Tapi/Reuji/Triaruga/uu
ruga/Unilica/Sotilica/Porumbana/Enchi/Penchi/Poc!. Dar la ce s mai fie bune cuvintele, cnd
nu mai e nimic de transmis?
Aceasta lume a copiilor este lipsit de miezul ei vital-candoarea, fiind dominat,
pn la degradare, de instincte. Lumea creat de acest ucenic vrjitor face saltul de la
grotesc la parodie buf. Un infantilism dubios, caracterizat prin reducie mental i printr-un
cinism deuchiat(Al.Paleologu)14 poate fi descifrat n reaciile personajelor. In dialogul su
cu copiii, Ft-Frumos apare ca un fanfaron, practicnd o limb de lemn, care mai pstreaz
cliee ale gndirii sale de dinainte:Eu colind cu lumile-n brae(...)Visul, doar el mi alege
rscrucile. La care copiii i rspund cu aplombul poeilor postmoderni doumiiti
(descoperit avant la lettre!):H, h, cnd sparge nucile cu bucile!
Totul a ncremenit, ca-n basmul cu frumoasa din pdurea adormit: luna , vntul,
apele, norii. Ne aflm la un sfrit de lume, sau un apus de zeitate i-o asfinire de
idei(Eminescu). In lumea copiilor domin dezordinea, rsful i isteria,pe care un personaj
matur ivit dinafar ( Dor) ncearc zadarnic s le tempereze. Salvatorul va fi pn la urm
Juma de Om, care, smulgndu-i biciul lui Ft- Frumos, pornete roata morii i reaaz timpul
n cursul lui firesc. Aducnd mbtrnire i moarte, el face necesara oper de salubrizare. i
nici mcar nu este un cinic: el nete din miezul lucrurilor firesc, ca un Hopa-Mitic,
nfurat n zmbetul subire al Pisicii de Chesire din Alice n ara minunilor.
Ultimul tablou al poemului dramatic se desfoar sub semnul unui pendul uria,
care pare suspendat undeva, de un turn.Timpul i-a reintrat n drepturi. i, ntr-o oarecare
msur i basmulcadru Tineree fr btrnee, la al crui model se revine, odat cu
ntoarcerea acas a lui Ft- Frumos. Dar aici afl alte glasuri, alte ncperi...Civa tineri, fete
i biei sunt adunai n jurul cireului, acum sterp i rsucit i nfptuiesc un fel de dans
ritualic cu o panglic nfurat pe trunchiul pomului, rostind un descntec prin care i cer
iertare de la el, nchipuind o nunt a rdcinilor, ca s dea din nou rod.(Nunt aternut/
Seminelor nopii/ La tin, la rdcin/ La foame de lumin/ La setea pomului/ De izvoarele
omului). Apare Ft-Frumos btrn, ntrebnd de Impraia lui Frtat, bunicul su, pe care-l
lsase n locul lui pe tron. Din mprie doar cireul a mai rmas, ca mrturie a vechii
siluiri. Nimeni nu mai poate recunoate n persoana moneagului pe Ft-Frumos, nici mcar
cornul prins la pieptul su. O stnc prvlit i aduce la lumin pe Cei apte tineri ngropai
ntr-o peter ntr-o vineri, la pocnetul unei ciree nebune. Ei sunt vii,dar au micri
desprinse din vis i dau mrturie despre cel cruia i spun Mria -Sa Omul. Dar cine s-l mai
recunoasc pe Ft-Frumos, cnd nici el nsui nu se recunoate?,,Ipostazele varii pe care le
traverseaz n cursul iniierii sale i destram eul luntric, noteaz Ion Vartic.15
Ft-Frumos se regsete singur i piezi, la captul tuturor experienelor,
dezastrelor. Este supus unui supliciu: s se confrunte, cum se ntmpl la sfrit de via, cu
trecutul, cu rul pe care l-a svrit: revede cireul pe care l-a siluit i pe tinerii pe care i-a
14
Al. Paleologu, Op.cit., p.171.

Ion Vartic, Hermeneutica poemului dramatic, n Valeriu Anania-Opera literar VI, Teatru vol.2,
Editura Limes, Cluj-Napoca, 2007, p.345.
15
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nchis n peter. O punere fa n fa, ca la marea judecat. Urmat instantaneu de o pace a

sufletului, un catharsis. Semnul su: cireul nflorete, aducnd lumin i surs.
Eroul nu primete o palm de la Moartea lui, ca n basmul Tineree fr btrnee
(ar fi aprut ca semn al mniei divine i Anania a evitat o astfel de sugestie, ci, dimpotriv,
imagineaz un recurs la blndeea divinitii). Ft- Frumos se transform ntr-o pulbere care
cade dimpreun cu pulberea florilor de cire, albind resorbit n ea. Este o ncheiere a unui
ciclu, o altfel de atingere i rememorare, fie i pentru o clip, a raiului visat. O gean de
vzduh de aur, pururi nou n vechi icoane este ctimea din paradis la care a putut avea
acces eroul. Fiorul catafatic trece ca o und: Dumnezeu este atotputernic, atotobun.
Moartea, spune Constantin Noica analiznd basmul Tineree fr btrnee i via
fr de moarte, este individual, nu generic; este a fiecruia. Ea nu cosete vieile n netire,
ci o curm pe a fiecruia dup msura vieii lui. Pe unul l plmuiete, pe altul l mngie i pe
cte un altul l transfigureaz16. Poemul lui Valeriu Anania despre Ft- Frumos, cel care a
vrut s redimensioneze lumea dup calapodul netimpului, este povestea unui Gulliver care se
pomenete pitic ntre uriai, aflndu-i nimicnicia- cu finalul nchis n acolada c uriaii sunt
nelegtori.
Bibliografie:
Deaconu, Constantin, Impresii de lectur, Editura Conphis, Rmnicu Vlcea, 1996,
p.42
Bgiu, Lucian Vasile, Valeriu Anania. Scriitorul, Editura Limes, Cluj-Napoca, 2006
Anania,Valeriu, Memorii, Editura Polirom, 2008
Noica, Constantin-Sentimentul romnesc al fiinei, Editura Eminescu, Bucureti,1978
Anania,Valeriu, Din spumele mrii. Pagini despre religie i cultur, Ediie ngrijit i
postfa de Sandu Frunz, Editura Dacia, Cluj-Napoca, 1995
Eliade, Mircea, Eseuri, Capitolul Mituri, vise, mistere, Editura tiinific,
Bucureti,1991
Ghiulescu, Mircea, Istoria dramaturgiei romneti contemporane, EdituraAlbatros,
Bucureti, 2000
***Proloagele. Vieile sfinilor i cuvinte de nvtur pe luna octombrie, Editura
Mitropoliei Olteniei, Craiova, an neprecizat
Plimaru, Nicoleta, Valeriu Anania. Opera literar, Editura Limes/Renaterea, ClujNapoca, 2011
Paleologu, Al., Prefaa la Du-te vreme, vino vreme!, n Valeriu Anania-Opera literar
VI, Teatru, vol.2, Editura Limes, Cluj-Napoca, 2007
Vartic, Ion, Hermeneutica poemului dramatic, n Valeriu Anania-Opera literar VI,
Teatru,vol.2, Editura Limes, Cluj-Napoca, 2007
16
Constantin Noica, Op.cit.,p.142.
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TEACHING FOREIGN LANGUAGES TO THE NEW GENERATION

Edith-Hilde KAITER
Mircea cel Btrn Naval Academy of Constana
Abstract: Being quite different from the past generations, youngsters nowadays have different
needs of learning, which are almost totally based on practice. Daily assisted by virtual sites,
games and virtual friends all over the world, intrigued by the life styles of famous people and
permanently looking for opportunities, our students are very selective these days. They are
interested more in the basic knowledge, which they are sure they can get online day and
night. So probably most of them ask themselves about the real purpose of a teacher in front of
them.
Thus, teachers nowadays should be extremely aware of this fact. Starting from their
appearance, which should be accepted by the individuals of the classroom, to the way they
attract the students in the learning process, teachers should come up all the time with various
and interesting ways of teaching languages, which are the basis of communication worldwide.
Therefore, the hereby article seeks to provide efficient ideas of teaching foreign languages to
the new generation. Are the school manuals enough in this computerised era? Does team
teaching still attract our students? Which would be the specific tips on how to function
effectively as equal partners working together in the same classroom? Do our students still
need our presence or do they find everything online? Some step-by-step tips are a basic guide
to help us establish a dynamic team together so we can experiment and find the right
approach which works best for youngsters.
Keywords: team-teaching, e-mail, team, communication, feedback
There are several tips seen as a basic guide to help teachers establishing a dynamic
atmosphere in order to achieve the objectives set and to experiment and find the approach that
works best for each type of lesson:
1. Team Teaching Tips for Foreign Language Teachers
For teachers who have never had a chance to team teach, or have perhaps avoided
doing it for a variety of reasons, perhaps this idea will help allay fears and give teachers a
sense of what exactly team teaching looks like within the class.
Team teaching, in the most general sense, encompasses a wide variety of
arrangements. One specific form, which has become quite prevalent in recent years, is having
two teachers in the classroom teaching simultaneously. This is becoming more and more
common throughout Japan and in other Asian countries.
In foreign language teaching, particularly teaching English as a foreign language,
usually one in the pair is a native speaking assistant of the target language. The main teacher
is usually more experienced and not a native speaker of the target language (hence the desire
for a native speaking target language assistant).1
One of the advantages of team teaching is that it ostensibly produces a lower teacherstudent ratio, but having two teachers in the class sharing turns speaking does not accomplish
this. Only by running separate activities, dividing the class into groups - having both teachers
1
Jeff Horwich, Cracks Widen in Team Teaching of English, Asahi Evening News 24 October 1999: Life
Section, pp. 15-50.
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circulate and interact with students is the ratio effectively lowered. Ideally, both teachers
should constantly be actively involved in managing and teaching the class.
Team teaching is most common in the domain of foreign language education, but is
also starting to be used in a variety of other subject areas. It is a pedagogical approach rapidly
gaining in popularity.
Successful team teaching has the potential to benefit all concerned. Teachers stand to
gain in terms of their professional development. Team teaching provides teachers with a
partner to help them set objectives, make plans, implement lessons and evaluate the results.
They have someone from whom they can draw inspiration and who can provide them with
constructive feedback on their teaching.
It is though weird that many teachers refuse to team teach because in a sense, teachers
are by definition solitary creatures reluctant to share the limelight or be observed by a
colleague.2 However, in a successful team you should not feel judged or upstaged by your
partner. Furthermore, in some situations teachers may not have been given a choice to work
together and may not see the benefits of team teaching, or worse, not respect or get along well
with their assigned partner.
Horwich states that using two teachers in the same classroom simultaneously is a
relatively new educational phenomenon and it is not easy to find practical advice from senior
teachers or professional publications.
Clear communication on the part of both members of the teaching team is essential to
the success of the relationship and the realization of the teaching objectives. 3 Communication
is perhaps rendered more difficult for teams made up of teachers from different cultural
backgrounds which value radically different communication styles.4
Talking things through at every stage will help the teachers define their individual
roles within the team. This is essential in developing a better understanding of one another's
teaching philosophy along with the personal and cultural factors that have shaped it and affect
its practical applications. Honest discussion also clears up any potential misunderstandings
before they have the chance to hamper the flow of a lesson and ensure that they are taking
equal responsibility for staying on course towards the established objectives. These meetings
will help ensure that the teachers are both feeling comfortable and productive within the
team.5
Firstly, the teachers need to work together to analyze their individual strengths and
abilities and determine how these can be used within their team context. They should
remember to consider what skills each of them bring to the classroom.
The teachers should also work out how they complement one another and how they
can facilitate improving their partners skills in various areas (voice projection and
articulation/diction, pacing, giving instructions, teacher-student interaction etc.). Ideally, both
partners will take an active part, to a greater or lesser extent, in all aspects of the teaching and
not fall into a rigid pattern of acting/teaching only within partner 1s domain and partner
2s domain. Once they have explored the skill-set as a team, they can begin to set goals for
the term and the year. Theyll need to consider what goals they want the students to achieve
so that they can plan lessons according to a timetable.
Maintaining eye contact with each other is very important in the team teaching
classroom. Theyll often need to signal each other for transitions to new activities,
communicate when to bring activities to a close or modify an activity. They should also try to
2
Ibid.
Ibid.
4
Junko Kobayashi, Overcoming Obstacles to Intercultural Communication: AETs and JTEs. Studies in Team
Teaching, Ed. Minoru Wada and Antony Cominos. Tokyo: Kenkyusha Publishing Co. Ltd., 1994, pp. 162-177.
5
Ibid.
3
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keep an eye on each other at least every few minutes. One of the benefits of having two
teachers in the classroom is that one can increase the teachers physical proximity to a greater
number of students and thus, hopefully, keep a greater number of students more actively
engaged in the lesson more of the time. It may be necessary for both of the teachers to stand at
the front to address the class for various activities.6
Echoing is also very useful during choral pronunciation to provide students with an
alternative form of pronunciation, in addition to making it easier for students in another part
of the class to hear more easily (as the supporting teacher is located at another part of the
classroom). Echoing is also useful where some translation from L1 to L2 is required for
student comprehension. Echoing can be done at varying speeds (natural speed or slow speed).
The supporting teacher is often in a good position to determine what speed/amount of
echoing students may require.
To keep the pace of the class going smoothly, teachers should always keep an eye on
each other, and the clock. Having two teachers in the class can be a real advantage with time
keeping. While Teacher A leads an activity or gives instructions, Teacher B watches the clock
and makes sure that the lesson proceeds in a timely fashion.
It is useful to develop a subtle system of signalling each other (hand-signals, eye
contact, and verbal cues) to make transitions between activities smooth. Explicit discussion of
what is to be done next in the classroom is extremely disruptive to the flow of the lesson and
gives off the impression that one of them is ill prepared to teach the class.
Ideally, both teachers will share in giving directions, taking the initiative to move on
to the next activity, and in adapting or curtailing an activity that is not working. They should
remember to have mutually agreed upon back-up activities, so that they will be able to work
together in guiding the class from an unsuccessful activity to the back-up plan.7
Each teacher has a different threshold of tolerance for student misbehaviour. Before
the students become disruptive, they'll both need to establish a set of guidelines and agree on
what type of behaviour is not acceptable in the class, and consequences for students who
disrupt the class. Without a common consensus as team teachers on what is permissible and
what is unacceptable, theyll invariably find themselves in disagreement and have potentially
inconsistent reactions by teachers to student misbehaviour in the class.
If inside the team there is a non-native speaking language teacher and a native
speaking assistant, considerable cultural differences in classroom management between the
two of them may occur. Many non-native speaking language teachers find themselves in the
frustrating position of being the sole enforcer in the classroom simply because they havent
discussed what kind of behaviour is unacceptable.
The first consideration when it comes to evaluation is that it should be meaningful and
fair. Too often, teachers create tests or assignments with little regard to practical time
restrictions or pedagogical considerations (not matching the test to material covered in class
or making a test or assignment simply to fill the grading book).
Once there is a one-year plan for student evaluation, they can determine how their inclass evaluation will work. Some teachers like to assign participation grades, or make notes of
which students answered questions. While Teacher A asks a student to answer a question,
Teacher B records the student participation in a grading book.
There are also a few other key points about evaluation to keep in mind:
Work together to make tests and assignments based on what and how you have been
teaching to ensure consistency and fairness to students.
Evaluate students based on a mutually agreed up system.
6
7
Ibid.
Ibid.
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Keep up the communication with frequent checks of how you are progressing,
always keeping in mind the objectives you set out together.
Work together to change things that are not working as you go along.8
Team teaching can be an extremely beneficial and professionally rewarding
experience if all goes well. In order to accomplish this however, both teachers need to
maintain respect for each other both inside and outside the classroom. By following the few
simple tips provided above, we hope that your team teaching experience will be a true success
and not simply a tolerable compromise.
2. Using E-mail in Foreign Language Teaching
E-mail, a form of asynchronous computer-mediated communication, has been called
the mother of all Internet applications.9 Since the evolution of networks, computers can
offer foreign language learners more than drills: they can be a medium of real
communication in the target language, including composing and exchanging messages with
other students in the classroom or around the world.10
In a single decade, many new ideas for the use of e-mail in the foreign language
classroom appeared. Because there are so many, it is often difficult to keep track of what
these ideas are and how they might benefit the language learner.
3. Pedagogical Benefits of E-mail
As many researchers have noted, e-mail extends what one can do in the classroom,
since it provides a venue for meeting and communicating in the foreign language outside of
class. Because of the nature of e-mail, foreign language learners do not have to be in a
specific classroom at a particular time of day in order to communicate with others in the
foreign language. They can log in and write e-mail from the comfort of their own room, from
a public library or from a cyber-cafe, and these spatial possibilities increase the amount of
time they can spend both composing and reading in the foreign language in a communicative
context. Rankin notes that the additional interaction in the foreign language provides foreign
language learners with more input than they would be able to expect from class time, which
typically amounts to not more than four hours per week in most high school or college
settings.11
The e-mail provides a context for real-world communication and authentic
interactions. By connecting foreign language speakers outside of the classroom, e-mail also
provides a context for communicating with other speakers in authentic communicative
situations. Interaction via e-mail lends a feeling of reality to students communicative efforts
that may seem artificial in a classroom setting. This communicative interaction is much like
spoken language because of its informal and interactive nature.
E-mail allows for communication between students in a context where the teachers
role is no longer at the center.12 In e-mail communication, foreign language learners can
experience increased control over their own learning, since they can choose the topic and
change the direction of the discussion. The end goal is to communicate with another person in
8
Jeff Horwich, Cracks Widen in Team Teaching of English, Asahi Evening News 24 October 1999: Life
Section, pp. 15-50.
9
C. Meloni, The cities project in M. Warschauer (Ed.), Virtual connections: Online activities & projects for
networking language learners, Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 1995, pp. 211-215.
10
R. Oxford, Language learning strategies, New York: Newbury House, 1990, p.79.
11
W. Rankin, Increasing the communicative competence of foreign language students through the FL chat
room, in Foreign Language Annals 30(4), 1997, pp. 542-546.
12
P. Patrikis, Where is computer technology taking us, ADFL Bulletin, 26, 1995, 2: 36-39.
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the foreign language rather than to produce a mistake-free composition. Beauvois reported
that computer-mediated communication increased total class participation to 100%. Others
have noted that students reticent to speak in face-to-face contexts are more willing to
participate in the electronic context.13 E-mail allows students to communicate with native
speakers of the target language without the high cost of travelling abroad. 14 Before the advent
of the Internet, it was not possible to communicate so immediately and so frequently with
native speakers or with other learners.15
4. Suggestions for Incorporating E-mail into Foreign Language Classes
E-mail offers students a practical opportunity to interact with others in the target
language. Students can create their own mailing lists or the teacher can set up a class e-mail
list or listserv. Allowing interested outsiders to subscribe to a class e-mail list can create
additional opportunities for authentic communication with other target language speakers
beyond one's own familiar classmates.16
Activities can be planned for use within a class or between two or more classes in
different locations. Students can also join discussion forums outside of their regularly planned
course. E-mail has been described as a conversational writing medium, a crossbreed language
with elements of both written and spoken language.17 Because it is separated from face-toface contact, the high pressure of such immediate demand for production is lessened, and
learners can take their time formulating their thoughts, much like they might do in written
composition. As decelerated conversation, e-mail communication provides an excellent first
step to help students prepare for the face-to-face classroom discussions as well as the more
carefully conceived and polished written compositions instructors ultimately expect from their
students.18
When e-mail communication is kept within one class, the teacher can easily connect
communicative tasks to the topic currently being covered in class and thereby extend the
learners communicative time and involvement with that topic. Instructors can design e-mail
assignments as pre-class, post-class, or supplementary activities.
Frequently it is difficult for students to engage in an activity in a foreign language
class without preparation ahead of time. A pre-class e-mail assignment can take care of the
groundwork and save valuable class time. Examples are given of ways in which the teacher
might prepare students for writing, listening, and speaking activities.
E-mail can provide a context to prepare students for longer written assignments. The
teacher can tell the students, for example, that their next writing assignment will be to write a
brief biography of a famous person of their choice. Through e-mail exchanges the students
can collaborate on a list of potential subjects for this assignment in order to save valuable
class time.
M. H. Beauvois, E-Talk: Attitudes and Motivation in Computer-Assisted Classroom Discussion in
Computers and the Humanities 28, 1995, pp. 177-190.
14
N. Hedderich, Peer tutoring via electronic mail in Die Unterrichtspraxis / Teaching German, 2, 1997, pp.
141-147.
15
S. Roakes, The Internet: A goldmine for foreign language resources, 1998, retrieved from the World Wide
Web on February 2, 2001, at http://www.call.gov/resource/essays/internet.htm
16
M. Gonglewski, Linking the Internet to the National Standards for Foreign Language Learning in Foreign
Language Annals, 32(3), 1999, pp. 348-362.
17
C. Moran, & G. Hawisher, The rhetorics and languages of electronic mail in I. Snyder, (Ed.), Page to
screen. Taking literacy into the electronic era, London: Routledge, 1998, pp. 80-101.
13
D.C. Van Handle, & K.A. Corl, Extending the dialogue: Using electronic mail and the Internet to promote
conversation and writing in intermediate level German language courses, CALICO Journal 15(1-3), 1998, pp.
129-143.
18
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Another way in which learners can use e-mail for pre-class preparation is to share
background knowledge on a topic before a listening comprehension exercise. The teacher can
provide students ahead of time with the subject of a listening comprehension lecture, e.g. the
celebration of Thanksgiving in the United States. Before listening to the lecture in class,
students can share via e-mail what they know about this traditional holiday, including their
own personal experience or their questions about it.
E-mail is ideal for preparing ahead of time for class discussions. Ramazani tells of an
activity called The Weekly Essay. A few days before the class meets, his students e-mail
each other essays that they have written about a particular reading. In this way the students are
better prepared for the class discussion of the essays.19
Similarly, the teacher can assign a debate topic and ask the students to begin to discuss
it via e-mail. When the time comes to form debate teams in class, the students will already
have a satisfactory understanding of both sides of the issue and will be able to make a more
informed decision about where they stand.
Teachers can create e-mail assignments to reinforce or extend what students have done
in the classroom. This encourages students to revisit class discussions, giving them the
opportunity to reiterate or clarify opinions expressed in class or to offer an opinion they were
not prepared to express in class. In post-class e-mail activities, students can also utilize new
vocabulary or structures that they were exposed to in class.
An exchange with the teacher may serve as a transition toward the use of foreign
language in a real-cybernetic-world context.20 Gonzales-Bueno points out that in addition to
building up learners confidence in their language skills, [t]he initial opportunities to interact
in the foreign language via electronic communication, as offered to students by their foreign
language teachers, may provide the necessary first steps to render the learner capable of
navigating the Internet autonomously in a foreign language.21 Thus, the secure environment
through one-on-one e-mail exchange with the teacher helps learners gain self-assurance as
well as experience using electronic media in the foreign language.
A teacher/student e-mail exchange can be simple and unstructured. Teachers can
require that their students send them periodic e-mail messages. They must first decide on the
frequency (e.g., once a week, once per chapter, twice a semester) and the content of the
messages (e.g., course- or chapter-related, open). Linking the e-mail messages to course
content encourages integration of new vocabulary and forms and also discourages overuse of
the dictionary which can lead to frustration and discouragement. As teachers should respond
promptly to the student messages, they should keep in mind how much time they would like
to spend on the exchange and design the assignment accordingly.
Since e-mail makes time and space/place immaterial for fast and easy communication,
teachers have also explored its use for communicative interaction between learners outside of
the immediate language learning context, for example at another university, in another city, or
even in another country. Such a context makes it possible to exchange ideas with a new
audience and focus on communication.
Teachers can offer their students the opportunity to confer with them electronically
about their writing. This possibility is very useful, especially when a class meets only once or
twice a week. Students can e-mail their questions to the teacher, without having to wait for the
next class session.
J. Ramazani, Student writing by e-mail: Connecting classmates, texts, instructors, 1994, retrieved from the
World Wide Web on February 2, 2001 at http://www.virginia.edu/~trc/tcemail.htm
19
M. Gonzlez-Bueno, The effects of electronic mail on Spanish L2 discourse, in Language Learning &
Technology 1(2), 1998, pp. 55-70.
21
Ibid.
20
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Students can also utilize e-mail to submit their composition assignments as soon as
they are finished. Then the teacher can make comments and return the assignments to the
students electronically. The teacher's comments may have a more notable effect on students'
revising process when the feedback is received shortly after the writing is completed.
Writing only to the teacher through an e-mail journal provides a communicative outlet
while keeping the language private. Gonzales-Bueno notes that students benefit from the
advantages of a safe writing environment to communicate their messages while maintaining a
conversational format.22 Another advantage to intensive communicating individually with
the teacher at the early stages of language acquisition is the extent of authentic input and
corrective feedback learners receive in this context as contrasted with the type of input
learners would receive from the language and content their peers might send.23
While the benefits of individual e-mail exchange with the teacher are obvious, the
potential problems with such intensive e-mail communication must also be acknowledged. To
begin with, student-teacher e-mail interaction might give the teacher a nearly impossible
amount of work.24 While the student has one partner with whom to correspond, a single
teacher could have as many as one hundred, and the responsibility to answer each e-mail or
even one per student per semester would quickly become a formidable task.
Furthermore, the type of communication between teacher and student is likely to be
different from that between peers. As evaluator, the teacher holds an authority that may skew
the relationship and arguably also the communicative interaction. Students may pay more
attention to form than content, knowing that the teachers role is often to correct form.
There are, however, other alternatives that preserve the high level of feedback and
input on an individual basis. The e-mail exchange can be very closely integrated into the
course by basing the topics for discussion on the content of the curriculum. The partners
would engage then in discussions that would further their understanding of course materials
as well as improve their language ability. The exchanges can also be structured so that
students have specific tasks to carry out with their partners that are not specifically tied to
course content but that assist the language learning process and are enjoyable and challenging.
Being involved in an e-mail exchange with a native speaker may be the most
advantageous type of exchange for a language learner, since, while maintaining the
unrehearsed communicative context, learners receive plenty of authentic target language input
from their exchange partner. In this context, the learner's comprehension can soar. In addition,
teachers have reported that language learners writing to native speakers are more eager to
self-correct their own grammar because the communicative aspect motivates them to make
themselves understood.25
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BEAUVOIS, M. H., E-Talk: Attitudes and Motivation in Computer-Assisted
Classroom Discussion in Computers and the Humanities 28, 1995, pp. 177-190.
GONGLEWSKI, M., Linking the Internet to the National Standards for Foreign
Language Learning in Foreign Language Annals, 32(3), 1999, pp. 348-362.
22
Ibid.
Ibid.
24
C. Meloni, The cities project in M. Warschauer (Ed.), Virtual connections: Online activities & projects for
networking language learners, Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 1995, pp. 211-215.
25
C. Kendall, Individual electronic mail with native speakers in M. Warschauer (Ed.), Virtual connections:
Online activities & projects for networking language learners, Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 1995, pp.
109-115.
23
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GONZLEZ-BUENO, M., The effects of electronic mail on Spanish L2 discourse

in Language Learning & Technology 1(2), 1998, pp. 55-70.
HEDDERICH, N., Peer tutoring via electronic mail in Die Unterrichtspraxis /
Teaching German, 2, 1997, pp. 141-147.
HORWICH, Jeff, Cracks Widen in Team Teaching of English in Asahi Evening
News 24 October 1999: Life Section, pp. 15-50.
KENDALL, C., Individual electronic mail with native speakers in M. Warschauer
(Ed.), Virtual connections: Online activities & projects for networking language learners,
Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 1995, pp. 109-115.
KOBAYASHI, Junko, Overcoming Obstacles to Intercultural Communication: AETs
and JTEs. Studies in Team Teaching, Ed. Minoru Wada and Antony Cominos. Tokyo:
Kenkyusha Publishing Co. Ltd., 1994, pp. 162-177.
MELONI, C., The cities project in M. Warschauer (Ed.), Virtual connections:
Online activities & projects for networking language learners, Honolulu: University of
Hawai'i Press, 1995, pp. 211-215.
MORAN, C., & HAWISHER, G., The rhetorics and languages of electronic mail in
I. Snyder, (Ed.), Page to screen. Taking literacy into the electronic era, London: Routledge,
1998, pp. 80-101.
OXFORD, R., Language learning strategies, New York: Newbury House, 1990, p.79.
PATRIKIS, P., Where is computer technology taking us in ADFL Bulletin, 26,
1995, 2: 36-39.
RAMAZANI, J., Student writing by e-mail: Connecting classmates, texts,
instructors, 1994, retrieved from the World Wide Web on February 2, 2001 at
http://www.virginia.edu/~trc/tcemail.htm
RANKIN, W., Increasing the communicative competence of foreign language
students through the FL chat room in Foreign Language Annals 30(4), 1997, pp. 542-546.
ROAKES, S., The Internet: A goldmine for foreign language resources, 1998,
retrieved
from
the
World
Wide
Web
on
February
2,
2001,
at
http://www.call.gov/resource/essays/internet.htm
VAN HANDLE, D.C., & CORL, K.A., Extending the dialogue: Using electronic
mail and the Internet to promote conversation and writing in intermediate level German
language courses in CALICO Journal 15(1-3), 1998, pp. 129-143.
695
Issue no.6/2015
EDWARD GORDON CRAIG ET LART DU SPECTACLE

Cristina SCARLAT
Abstract: Edward Gordon Craigs art vision is an original, holistic one that significantly
contributed to the world of performance both in theory and practice. The theorist aimed at
innovating theatre, changing it totally so as to reduce it to its essence. His idea of SurMarionnette is the one of a visionary.
Keywords: theatre, theory, performance, Sur-Marionnette
Edward Gordon Craig est lun des plus importants et originaux thoriciens de lart du
spectacle, ct dAppia, Antoine, Stanislawski, Brook ou Artaud. Dans le thtre, il veut
briser les frontires et aspire au dpassement des limites, comme Claudel pour lcriture ou
Artaud pour la scne. 1
Craig est un hrtique (Monique Borie) qui veut incendier le thtre pour le refaire, il veut le re-mettre dans ses essences, trouver ses normes justes.
De lArt du Thtre reprsente un recueil darticles clbres de Craig, parus dans des
revues diverses et diffrents moments de son activit concernant le thtre et son exprience
sur la scne aussi.
Ses ides/articles/termes sont clbres et devenu(e)s dj classiques: Les Artistes du
Thtre de lavenir ( De lacteur, Du rgisseur , Du dcor et du mouvement ),
LActeur et la sur-marionnette , les deux textes formuls dans la manire des dialogues
platoniciens, De lArt du Thtre , Du thtre de Shakespeare , Le ralisme et
lacteur, propos du symbolisme etc. Tous ces articles reprsentent la projection
personnelle du rve de Craig sur le thtre idal, une pluralit de textes caractriss par
lhtrognit, parce que le recueil est un assemblage de textes ayant dorigines diverses.
Le premier texte de ce recueil, Les artistes du thtre de lavenir , publi pour la
premire fois dans la revue The Mask, vol. I, 1908- essai ddi la jeune race de
combattants qui travaillent dans tous les thtres 2, est crit comme un conseil pour un jeune
homme qui veut devenir acteur: cherchez par vous-mme et dcouvrez ce quil ne vous aura
point dit. Allez voir peindre les dcors, allez voir ajuster les fils des lampes lectriques.
Promenez-vous dans les dessous, voyez comme ils sont construits. Mentez au cintre et faitesvous expliquer lemploi des cordages et des treuils. 3 Ce que Craig veut affirmer par ces
ides, cest quun homme de thtre (rgisseur) doit faire corps commun, doit sentir tout ce
qui se passe dans un thtre, doit connatre tout lassemblage qui constitue le thtre. Craig
parle ainsi de lArtiste total, lArtiste dun Thtre de lAvenir, qui devra connatre tous les
artisanats : dcorations, costumes, clairages, acteurs, il doit avoir des connaissances dans
tous les domaines, en synthtisant les diffrents mtiers du thtre. Et cela, parce que lart du
thtre est n du geste, du mouvement, de la danse 4, et non pas de la posie dramatique.
Prface de Monique Borie et Georges Banu, Edward Gordon Craig, De lArt du thtre; Suivi de Souvenirs
de Craig , entretiens avec Peter Brook et Natasha Parry, Circ, Collection Penser le thtre , 1999.
2
Edward Gordon Craig, Les artistes du thtre de lavenir , dans De lArt du thtre, prface de Monique
Borie et Georges Banu; Suivi de Souvenirs de Craig , entretiens avec Peter Brook et Natasha Parry, Circ,
Collection Penser le thtre , 1999, p. 39.
3
Ibidem, p. 42.
4
Ibidem, p. 23, Monique Borie et Georges Banu.
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En ayant une vision densemble, runissant toutes ces choses, lArtiste de Craig peut
redonner, ainsi, la vue aux aveugles enferms dans lobscurit du ralisme 5, leur ouvrant
laccs la Rvelation dune vrit de lordre de linvisible 6, leur faisant entrevoir le
spirituel par lintermdiaire de lart. 7 Donc, lArtiste est, pour Craig, une sorte dhermneute
qui peut rendre linvisible visible par lintermdiaire de lart. Pour cela, il faut modifier les
principes dlaboration du dcor et redfinir le statut de lacteur.
Dans le mme essai, on a quatre sous-chapitres o lauteur parle De lacteur 8, Du
rgisseur 9, Du dcor et du mouvement 10, Le thtre de lavenir: une esprance.11 Pour
Craig, lacteur est un homme dlite, une nature gnreuse, anime dun vritable esprit de
camaraderie () 12 qui en sait peu prs autant de son Art quun coucou stend btir un
nid (); sa bonhomie lui suggre quil nest pas seul en scne et quil faut un certain lien
dunit entre les penses des autres et les siennes.13 Mais lacteur idal sera celui qui unit
une nature gnreuse une haute intelligence.14 Il faut ainsi liminer la dictature du metteur
en scne 15, considrant lacteur comme un instrument au service de lunit densemble.
On soutient son jeu sur la scne avec les dcors, les costumes, la lumire (artificielle), en les
harmonisant dans un mme tout: le dcor - crer un site qui sharmonise avec la pense du
pote. 16 Puis: exercez-vous dessiner vos maquettes en petit et en grand; brossez-vous sur
la toile () 17; par la disposition de vos dcors, vous dirigerez les mouvements de vos
foules et vous donnerez limpression quelles grandissent, sans cependant y ajouter un
figurant de plus (). 18
Lessence du thtre pour Craig est daccueillir la rvlation de lInvisible et, dans le
Thtre de lAvenir, le rle principal est jou par le masque et par la Sur-Marionnette, que
lacteur soffre pour horizon.
LActeur et la Sur-Marionnette , publi pour la premire fois dans la revue The
Mask, vol. I, 190819, est le texte le plus connu de Craig. Par le terme Sur-Marionnette
Craig a essay de dfinir lacteur de lAvenir ; il est parti du fait que lacteur, pour
prsenter ou fabriquer un rle/un personnage dans une identit originelle, pertinente, doit
faire abstraction de son propre tre - physique, motionnel etc. chose, dans la conception de
Craig, impossible. Par consquent, il invente la Sur-Marionnette, qui exprime le fait que, dans
lopinion de Craig, lacteur est un instrument la disposition du metteur en scne.
Dans lessai De certains tendences fcheuses du thtre moderne , premire
parution dans The Mask, vol. I, 1908,20 Craig parle de la restauration de notre Art antique
et honorable ,21 proposition bien inoffensive, puisque je ne me dclare nullement
Ibidem.
Ibidem.
7
Ibidem.
8
Ibidem, p. 45.
9
Ibidem, p. 49.
10
Ibidem, p. 54.
11
Ibidem, p. 70.
12
Ibidem, p. 45.
13
Ibidem, p. 46.
14
Ibidem.
15
Ibidem, p. 55.
16
Ibidem.
17
Ibidem, 56.
18
Ibidem, p. 57.
19
Edward Gordon Craig, De lArt du thtre, d. cit., p. 79.
20
Ibidem, p. 119.
21
Ibidem, p. 127.
6
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ladversaire des potes ou des auteurs dramatiques, et que mon sentiment ninfluencera gure
le thtre moderne - dit-il.22
Dans les deux lettres ouvertes John Semar, premire parution dans The Mask, vol.
I, 1908, publies dans ce recueil avec le titre Le thtre en Allemagne et en Angleterre , 23
Craig parle des diffrentes formules thtrales (allemande, russe, anglaise), en concluant que
lArt du Thtre demeure toujours inconnu. Ce gant sommeille toujours.24; cependant, il
affirme que la conscience et la personnalit sont les deux qualits dominantes qui assurent le
triomphe du Thtre dArt de Moscou en Europe, et ailleurs.25 Les deux lettres sont
adresses M. John Semar, pseudonyme de Craig! Cest la manire par laquelle lauteur veut
donner un plus doriginalit ses interventions concernant lart thtral.
Les autres textes de Craig, De lArt du Thtre - qui donnent le titre du recueil
sont crits en 1905 (I) et 1910 (II). Le premier dialogue, entre un homme de mtier et un
amateur de thtre , a t publi Londres (T. N. Foulis) et Berlin/Lepzig (Seemann) en
1905 et le deuxime dialogue, entre lamateur de thtre et le rgisseur , a t publi dans
The Mask, vol. II, 1909.
Les deux dialogues sur lart du spectacle sont composs dans la manire des dialogues
platoniciens: deux personnages fictifs (Le Rgisseur et LAmateur de thtre) (I, II) parlent
(matre et lve) de la problmatique du spectacle. De cette manire, tout comme dans les
deux lettres prcdentes, Craig dveloppe ses thories concernant le spectacle et la
problmatique du metteur en scne. Sa thorie est que le metteur en scne doit savoir tout ce
qui concerne non seulement la mise en scne, mais les activits dveloppes par les autres
personnes impliques pour faire/prsenter un spectacle: clairage, dcor, scnographie,
musique, costumes, etc. Pour lui, lart du thtre nest ni le jeu des acteurs, ni la pice, ni la
mise en scne, ni la danse; il est form des lments qui le composent: du geste (), des
mots (); des lignes et des couleurs (); du rythme () 26 et lun nimporte pas plus que
lautre. 27 Le thtre est la somme de toutes ces choses; il est n du geste, du mouvement, de
la danse. Le rgisseur, alter ego de Craig, fait aprs la diffrence entre le pome
dramatique et le drame . Dans sa conception, le drame est fait pour tre jou, donc le
drame nest pas seulement un texte qui sadresse la lecture, mais au public dun thtre. Le
dramaturge doit avoir une vue densemble de ce que son texte doit reprsenter. Craig pose, en
sous-texte, la problmatique des didascalies. On envisage le mouvement scnique des acteurs,
les mots, la ligne, la couleur et le rythme dun futur spectacle qui a la base son texte.
On met, par la suite, en discussion la problmatique de luvre shakespearienne
(Hamlet, spcialement), question reprise dans les textes Des spectres dans les tragdies de
Shakespeare (1910) et Du thtre de Shakespeare (1912), dont Craig dit: Hamlet et
les autres pices shakespeariennes sont la lecture des uvres si vastes et si compltes
quelles ne peuvent que perdre beaucoup tre interprtes la scne. 28 Craig considre que
() la pice de Hamlet tait acheve lorsque Shakespeare en eut trac le dernier vers.
Vouloir y joindre le geste, le dcor, les costumes et la danse, cest suggrer quelle est
incomplte et a besoin dtre perfectionne. 29 Donc la pice de Shakespeare demande la
perfection, la plnitude , qui doit se faire par le concours du/dun metteur en scne (et,
comme parenthse, le spectacle de Craig, Moscou - Hamlet - pour lequel il a collabor
22
Ibidem.
Edward Cordon Craig, De lart, d. cit., p. 128.
24
Ibidem, p. 133.
25
Ibidem.p. 134.
26
Ibidem, p. 138.
27
Ibidem.
28
Ibidem, p. 139.
29
Ibidem.
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Issue no. 6/2015
avec Stanislawski, vient prouver la conception thorique de Craig et sa modernit en

vivant, en ralit aussi).
Dans ce premier dialogue, Craig parle galement du thtre de lAvenir - un
thtre plus neuf, plus parfait () , au jour qui vient aprs demain , parce que ce jour-l
nous connatrons la Sur-Marionnette et le drame mim dont il a t question plus haut. 30
Dans le deuxime dialogue, Craig tente de sexpliquer () avec ceux qui () ne
comprenaient pas les raisons de sa collaboration avec le Thtre dArt de Stanislawski, qui
militait ouvertement pour un thtre raliste. (Monique Borie)31
Dans Le ralisme de lacteur (premire parution: The Mask, vol. I, 1908), 32
Craig dfinit le ralisme comme un mode dexpression grossier, bon aux aveugles33 et
lartiste (lArtiste) est un dieu qui par son savoir, complte ce quil est incomplet. 34 Il
gurit les infirmes et les malades, ranime le courage des accabls et arrive mme donner la
vue aux aveugles. 35 LArtiste est, donc, le matre du monde. 36
Dans un autre texte, propos du symbolisme (premire parution: The Mask,
vol. III, 1910), il affirme que le symbolisme est la dlicatesse mme , 37 quil est
lorigine de tout art, mais il est la source mme de toute vie; ce nest qu laide de symboles
que la vie nous est possible, nous ne cessons den faire usage. 38 Parce que le symbole est
aussi accessible au garon de charrue et au matelot quaux rois et aux personnages haut placs
().39 Donc, laide du symbole, qui doit tre accessible tous, on peut, par le langage du
spectacle/de lart thtral re-dimensionner le monde, en le mettant dans ses propres valeurs,
essences, notes spcifiques.
Tous les textes runis dans ce livre concentrent lessence des ides de Craig sur lart
du spectacle, en le faisant mythique, parce que ce livre est mythique et tout au long du
sicle, il a servi de rfrence au-del mme de sa lecture attentive et de lexercice quotidien
du thtre. 40
De lArt du thtre reste le livre dun rebelle , un livre fondateur 41, parce
que cest un crit marqu par le quotidien de la scne et le plaisir ambigu de la communaut
thtrale. 42 Un livre dans lequel on sent la vie du thtre, sa pulsion, son essence.
Bibliographie:
Craig, Edward Gordon, De lArt du thtre, prface de Monique Borie et Georges
Banu; Suivi de Souvenirs de Craig , entretiens avec Peter Brook et Natasha Parry, Circ,
Collection Penser le thtre , 1999.
Cette tude a t finance par le contrat POSDRU/159/1.5/S/140863, projet
stratgique ID 140863 (2014), co-financ par le Fond Social Europen, le Programme
Sectoriel de Dveloppement des Ressources Humaines 2007-2013.
30
Ibidem, p. 137.
Edward Gordon Craig, De lArt, d. cit., p. 159.
32
Ibidem, p. 219.
33
Ibidem, p. 220.
34
Ibidem.
35
Ibidem.
36
Ibidem.
37
Ibidem, p. 225.
38
Ibidem.
39
Ibidem
40
Monique Borie, Georges Banu, LHorizon du thtre , dans Edward Gordon Craig, De lArt, d. cit., p.
7.
41
Ibidem.
42
Ibidem, p. 8.
31
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A DISTINCT PROFILE: AUTOFICTION WOMEN-AUTHORS OF EGO.PROZA

COLLECTION
Violeta Teodora LUNGEANU
Abstract: Polirom collection entitled Ego.Proza, has published since 2004 young author's
texts, representing a necessary form of valorizing the literature belonging to an eclectic
generation. An important part of this collection is represented by women-authors who
adopted in writing an attitude perceived as revolutionary, reforming, which would soon turn
into a specific discourse. Their autofictional pattern became a special category of feminine
literature, identified with a literature of intimacy, a narcissistic, du petit moi one. Womenauthors published in Ego.Proza collection, such as Ioana Baetica, Cecilia tefnescu,
Claudia Golea or Ana Maria Sandu tend to render an especially womens intimacy, which is
beyond the generation labelling, the experimentalism of the autofictional formula, or the
fracturing credo of the multiplied identities. From this point of view, the analysis of the
thematic and discursive field of the women-authors novels shows the way in which feminine
identity constructs itself as a special individuality.
Keywords: autofiction, Ego.Proza, identity, feminine, women-authors.
Fracturista, minimalista i autenticista generaie doumiist se sprijin, n mare parte,
pe o campanie editorial fr precedent pe piaa literar romneasc, iniiat de Editura
Polirom n 2004 i apoi susinut i de alte edituri precum Nemira, Cartea Romneasc sau
Humanitas. Sub sloganul Votai literatura tnr! sunt publicai o serie de autori, n mare
parte debutani, care, n opinia criticii de ntmpinare, alctuiesc un tablou compozit, greu de
surprins n note comune: Ioana Baetica, Dan Lungu, Lucian Dan Teodorovici, Radu Pavel
Gheo, Adrian chiop, T.O. Bobe, Cosmin Manolache. Ulterior, micarea s-a transformat n
colecia Ego.Proza a Editurii Polirom o colecie cu caracter deschis, eterogen i
democratic.
Meritul campaniei poliromiste const att n asigurarea unei promovri
corespunztoare a literaturii tinere de factur recent, ct i n revalorizarea unor autori crora
contextul nouzecist le fusese potrivnic: Un punct de inflexiune l-a reprezentat campania
lansat, n primvara anului 2004, de ctre Editura Polirom, campanie intitulat Voteaz
literatura tnr!, care i-a propus s arate cititorilor i criticii de specialitate c se poate
miza pe literatura romn, c nu ne putem mulumi numai cu traduceri, indiferent de
notorietatea scriitorilor tradui. Acea campanie a artat c sunt scriitori care pot avea impact
att la publicul din Romnia, ct i la publicul occidental. Prin acea campanie, au aprut
scriitori debutani sau au fost altfel valorizai scriitori lansai fie la edituri obscure, n tiraje
confideniale, fie publicai n condiii de cvasianonimat, cu muli ani n urm, cnd
promovarea i atenia pentru literatura romn erau minore. O ncercare de captare a
interesului pentru literatura romn desfurase prin 1996-1997 Editura Nemira, care mizase,
printre alii, pe Rzvan Rdulescu i Radu Jrgensen. Radu Aldulescu, tefan Agopian i
Petru Cimpoeu au cptat un relief dup ce crile lor au fost reeditate n acest siaj al
campaniei din 2004.1
imonca, Ovidiu, Revistele culturale ntre trecutul totalitar i prezentul politizat, n (coord. Daniel andru i
Sorin Bocancea), Mass-media i democraia n Romnia postcomunist, Editura Institutul European, seria Polis,
Iai, 2013, pp. 500-501.
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Aa cum explica directorul editurii, Silviu Lupescu, demersul editorial era gndit ca o
strategie de promovare a unei proze de extracie autobiografist, pe care critica o etichetase
deja drept autobiografie minimalist. n catalogul campaniei, Silviu Lupescu i amintete i
pe cei care l-au sprijinit n iniiativ: pe de o parte, noi voci ale criticii, Luminia Marcu i
Costi Rogozanu, pe de alt parte, deja consacraii Matei Clinescu, Gabriela Adameteanu,
tefan Agopian, Ion Bogdan Lefter, Nicolae Prelipceanu, Ioan T. Morar, Daniela Zeca,
Mircea Vasilescu, care au susinut din plin campania.
ntreaga expunere mediatic a campaniei le-a asigurat autorilor de ficiuni identitare
sau de proze ale imediatului insignifiant vizibilitatea pe piaa produciilor literare. Astfel,
autorii tineri au putut primi un vot de ncredere din partea publicului pus fa n fa cu o
literatur non-conformist i a neinstituionalizat, iar critica, destul de mefient fa de acest
val att de proaspt, fr un pattern reducionist, a validat prin degustare discret noul buchet
literar de proze valoroase prin eclectismul lor: Colecia aceasta nu este important neaprat
n sine, prin autorii i crile pe care le propune, nu e n niciun caz o pepinier de scriitori de
talent, ea e important n primul i n primul rnd ca ferment. Perceput la nceput, dup
lansarea primelor titluri, ca un proiect subsumabil unei singure formule aceea a unui nou
autenticism decomplexat i detabuizant, obsedat de un cotidian cenuiu i fr orizont i de
experiene ocante Ego. Proza este, de fapt, o colecie eterogen, democratic am
putea zice, deschis unei diversiti de formule, de la autoficiune la ficiunea pur a genului
fantasy, de la proza minimalist la proza istoric .a.m.d. se vars n acest concept editorial
cluboptiti, cenacliti de la Literele bucuretene, fracturiti etc. Sigur c, dintre cele
aproape cincizeci de cri aprute pn acum aici, mai puine merit s fie neaprat citite, i
nc i mai puine recitite.2
Un efect secundar indezirabil a aprut ns n urma acestei iniiative: promovarea
susinut a dus la formarea unei imagini prototip pentru noul val de ego-proze, la naterea
unui tipar al autobiografismului minimalist, al revoltei de limbaj, al violenei tematice i
lingvistice care a planat asupra ntregii colecii ca ansamblu i asupra celorlalte cri care au
fost publicate ulterior, indiferent dac au aderat la acest tipar sau nu.
Descrierea campaniei poliromiste i are rolul ei nu numai n discuia despre generaia
milenarist, ci i n aceea despre genul autoficional. Dei colecia nu conine numai
autoficiuni, gen discursiv cu miz identitar, dar lipsit oarecum de legitimare teoretic,
acestea reprezint o parte consistent a coleciei, aparinnd mai ales autoarelor. Dintre
numele feminine prezente, cea mai mare parte pot fi reinute ca practicante de autoficiune Ioana Baetica, Cecilia tefnescu, Claudia Golea, Ana Maria Sandu. Le vom discuta pe
fiecare pentru a identifica constantele tematice i discursive care ar putea s conduc la o
imagine a autoficiunii feminine din colecia poliromist.
Ioana Baetica este considerat, alturi de Ionu Chiva, copilul teribilist al generaiei
doumiiste: Ionu Chiva e unul din numele pe care, dac ai urmrit zbuciumata via a
Fracturilor, n-ai cum s nu-l cunoti. Ca si Ioana Baetica, Chiva e poet, ca structur, iar
reconvertirea la genul romanesc e un ambiios pariu al tinereii ce trebuia negreit ctigat.
Am citit romanele celor doi cu senzaia ca nu m recunosc deloc n lumea descris ori n
scriitura abordat. Asta m-a nelinitit, pentru c am purces la lectur cu ideea (preconceput)
c citesc ceva tnr, proaspt, actual, altceva. Daca n cazul Ioanei Baetica am conchis ca
autoarei nu-i lipsete talentul, dar cu siguran i lipsete rbdarea de a-i finisa opera, citind
romanul lui Chiva, n-am avut aproape nici un moment de curiozitate sau de interes.3
Bura-Cernat, Bianca, Cum mai stm cu proza romneasc? (I), n Observator cultural, numrul 360, februarie,
2007,
disponibil
la
http://www.observatorcultural.ro/Cum-mai-stam-cu-proza-romaneasca%28I%29*articleID_17085-articles_details.html
3
Prjol, Florina, Mult zgomot pentru nimic, n Observator cultural, numrul 237, septembrie, 2004, disponibil
la http://www.observatorcultural.ro/Mult-zgomot-pentru-nimic*articleID_11691-articles_details.html
2
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Ca muli dintre colegii si fracuriti, Ioana Baetica vine dintr-o lume n care perioada
comunist reprezint doar experien de lectur i nu trire nemijlocit. Perceput ca fcnd
parte dintr-o generaie fr memorie, a fost ateptat, i ea, ca i ceilali tineri autori, s
schimbe complet faa literaturii, ns printr-un program estetic solid, care s depeasc
reflectarea intim n oglinda discursiv. Derapajele narcisiste, sexualitatea violent,
paradisurile confecionate din lumile false ale alcoolului sau drogurilor nu pot constitui o
literatur care s reziste comparaiei cu adevratul canon. Ea reuete ns s aduc i aspecte
pozitive: modul de raportare la literatur, n favoarea povetii, lsnd la o parte scrisul cu
pretenii, schimbrile la nivel tematic, ntoarcerea ctre cititor (i nu ctre critic) etc.
Fi de nregistrare (2004) este un volum alctuit din dou pri: romanul la
persoana I, Pulsul lui Pan, i cteva nuvele care pastieaz diverse formule narative
consacrate. Dac nuvele rmn n perimetrul unei proze cumini, cu fir epic i personaje,
romanul propune o partitur confesiv feminin ntr-un sens apropiat de cel devenit celebru
dup 1980 n spaiul literar francez. Cu ntregul su aer de exerciiu de scriitur singular,
romanul reuete s smulg curiozitatea publicului, nregistrnd cele mai bune vnzri la
Trgul Bookarest 2004. Critica recepteaz ns precaut, ca n cazul lui Dan C. Mihilescu:
Ioana Baetica vine perfect pe valul tinereii ultragiate, dezabuzate i cinic provocatoare, la
mod acum. O tineree obsedat de marginalizare, de senzaia propriei inutiliti i a
strigtului n pustiu, evadnd n argou, vicii i inginerii textuale. O tineree copleit de
ambiia autoexpunerii, cu fond agresiv i cruzimi de limbaj, cu mult sarcasm cultural, cu
insurgen, dar mai ales cu un pansexualism fie natural, fie prefabricat, ns invariabil afiat
cu ostentaie.4
Romanul ar fi putut ctiga ns mai mult n ochii criticii dac ar fi mizat pe
confesiunea feminin i nu neaprat n reproducerea unei reete autenticiste depite, asociate
unui excedent cultural insuficient asimilat: Pulsul lui Pan mimeaz cabotin formula
autenticista. E un roman n interiorul cruia eroina, Vlada, ea nsi scriitoare, compune un
roman si ine un jurnal unde i noteaz experienele erotice, dar si intenia de a le transforma
n experiene literare. O mise en abime care, n epoca lui Gide sau a lui Eliade, reprezenta o
inovaie textuala, dar care acum nu mai reprezint dect o pasti facil. Unde mai pui c, n
romanul Ioanei Baetica, analitism, luciditate, trire sunt cuvinte fr acoperire. Digresiuni
teoretice fastidioase in locul introspeciei. Romanul ncepe sentenios, cu o teorie a divorului
dintre teorie i realitate n eros, exemplificat n paragrafele urmtoare prin scene tari,
menite s-i epateze pe burghezii pudibonzi, inhibai, ipocrii. ns nu intram neaprat n
regiunea scabrosului senzaional, a oribilului estetic, atractiv literar, ci, pur i simplu,
asistm la o reprezentaie banal constnd n exhibiii inabil regizate. Despre ngurgitri de
urin, spermatografii ori alte detalii picante ale spectacolului sexual la manire de Pascal
Bruckner sau Henry Miller poi citi ntr-o sumedenie de alte romane, izbutite sau ratate.5
Tratnd o tem nc inedit pentru literatura romn cea a unei iubiri lesbiene
romanul Ceciliei tefnescu, reeditat n colecia Ego.Proz, Legturi bolnvicioase (2005)
deschide un cmp de analiz care trezete interes att prin tematic, ct i prin construcie, dar
care rmne nc obstrucionat de prejudecat i pudoare. Povestea de dragoste dintre
naratoare i Alex (iubita) constituie, de fapt, pretextul pentru o scriitur feminin prin
specificitatea limbajului i a imaginarului. Revendicndu-se de la modelul autoficional n
cheie feminin, romanul intr ntr-un dialog intertextual cu o serie de texte ale canonului
(masculin) n materie de literatur erotic. Dac titlul trimite la un roman al educaiei
Mihilescu, Dan C., Proba panspermiei, n Literatura romn n postceauism, II. Proza. Prezentul ca
dezumanizare, Ed. Polirom, Iai, 2006 (publicat ntia oar n Ziarul de duminic, nr. 27/9, iul.2004).
5
Bura-Cernat, Bianca, Vlada scrie un roman fracturist, n Observator cultural, nr. 230, iulie 2004, disponibil
la http://www.observatorcultural.ro/Vlada-scrie-un-roman-fracturist*articleID_11352-articles_details.html
4
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Issue no. 6/2015
sentimentale, amintind de capodopera lui Laclos, Les Liaisons dangereuses ou lettres

recueillies dans une socit et publies pour linstruction de quelques autres, discursul
romanesc afieaz un joc intertextual n regim autoficional care submineaz pe alocuri
modelul masculin.
ntr-un articol6 a crui intenie este de a oferi o imagine de ansamblu a prozei
romneti nouzeciste i doumiiste, dar i de a motiva istoric, social i editorial schimbarea
peisajului prozastic romnesc, Bianca Bura - Cernat nscrie cu precauie ntr-o gril care
variaz de la catastrofal la excepional cartea Ceciliei tefnescu la categoria
bun/interesant/bine scris, alturi de romanele lui Radu Pavel Gheo, Dan Lungu, Cezar Paul
Bdescu, Lucian Dan Teodorovici i Ana Maria Sandu toate romane ale coleciei Ego.
Proza de la editura Polirom. Debutul n materie de roman al autoarei a fost considerat
momentul care ar fi putut inaugura o ntreag serie asemntoare pe linia subiectului i a
scriiturii. Astfel, n articolul Erotism de atmosfer, din Romna literar, Marius Chivu
observ rapiditatea cu care romanul a intrat pe piaa literar i pe cea a critic, considernd-o
ca deschiztoare de drumuri pentru un nou tip de literatur: Puine romane de debut,
postdecembriste, i-au ctigat o notorietate a lor aa cum s-a ntmplat cu romanul Ceciliei
tefnescu, Legturi bolnvicioase: comentat favorabil, epuizat din librrii (chiar dac
tirajul relativ mic face irelevant acest aspect) i intrat destul de repede n bibliografia unor
cursuri opionale sau chiar fcnd subiectul dizertaiilor universitare, cu o traducere n
francez (n cadrul proiectului Les Belles Etrangres) i o ecranizare (n regia lui Tudor
Giurgiu) aproape gata. Acum trei ani, cnd a aprut prima ediie, subiectul crii i-a
entuziasmat pe comentatori prin noutate i i-a fcut s cread c romanul inaugura o serie.
Acum, dup debutul unei generaii ntregi de tineri prozatori, putem trage o surprinztoare
concluzie: de fapt, cartea Ceciliei tefnescu n-a fost urmat, n plan literar, de nimeni.7
Pe de alt parte, romanul este vzut ca form de continuare a unei tradiii a literaturii
erotice masculine, aezndu-se n mod ireverenios (prin inadvertene stilistice sau de subiect)
n spatele unor nume mari precum D. H. Lawrence sau Henry Miller. Daniel Cristea-Enache i
reproeaz Ceciliei tefnescu i colegelor sale de generaie artificialitatea unei reete
mprumutate: Diferena dintre D.H. Lawrence i Henry Miller, pe de o parte, i nchipuitele
bacante dmboviene Claudia Golea, Ioana Baetica i Cecilia tefnescu, pe de alta, vine nu
numai din izbitoarea denivelare artistic; ci i din modul radical deosebit n care bucuriile
crnii se amestec n cele ale scriiturii. La cei doi maetri, proza respir erotic i atracia
sexual mpinge lumea nainte. Universul crii e organic la propriu i la figurat, membrele
anatomice realiznd o dubl copulaie, stilistic i biologic. Romanele pulseaz dup ritmul
interior al personajelor, inspir i expir aerul acestora, devin febrile odat cu ele. La
studentele noastre contiincioase, sexul - ca i drogul - reprezint o tem pentru acas,
executat cu rvn colreasc. Scenele ncinse, lungi i redundante, aproape plicticoase
prin mecanica lor, sunt aezate la rnd ca psrelele pe firul de telegraf. 8 Suntem ns pe un
cmp de analiz (contextualizat postfeminist) n care literatura celei mai mari pri a
minoritii nu mai practic raportarea la marea literatura i raportarea la canonul masculin.
Gsirea unor modaliti de transformare a marginalului n central nu a reprezentat un obiectiv
n articolul su, Bianca Bura-Cernat, are n vedere coleciile Fiction Ltd., Ego.Proza (Polirom), Debut
(Humanitas),
Cum mai stm cu proza romneasc? (I), n Observator cultural, nr. 360, februarie, 2007,
disponibil la http://www.observatorcultural.ro/Cum-mai-stam-cu-proza-romaneasca-%28I%29*articleID_17085articles_details.html
7
Chivu, Marius, Erotism de atmosfer, n Romnia literar, nr. 39, octombrie, 2005, disponibil la
http://www.romlit.ro/erotism_de_atmosfer
8
Daniel Cristea-Enache, Intimituri, n Romnia Literar, nr. 48, decembrie, 2005, disponibil la
http://www.romlit.ro/intimituri
6
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prioritar, cu toate acestea, vocea unei femei i revendic cu o mai mare greutate teritorii
literare.
Relaia complicat, cu adnci complicaii senzuale, dintre cele dou tinere care se
nscrie n sfera atraciilor interzise pare s fie pretextul potrivit pentru o scriere cu caracter
pornografic. Dar imaginea pornografic este nlocuit n exerciiul scriiturii cu imaginea
erotic ca mod specific feminin de utilizare a codului obinut prin supralicitarea funciei
poetice printr-o gam larg de procedee (metafore, metonimii, repetiii, elipse, sugestie,
ambiguitate etc.), i apoi o anume tensiune ntre nud i veminte, arta seduciei, satisfacerea
dorinei prin contemplare, insistena asupra preludiului toate acestea alctuiesc o proz
poetic care respir estetism i rafinament.
Claudia Golea a urmat cursurile Facultii de Litere (secia japonez-englez) din
cadrul Universitii Bucureti. A studiat timp de un an literatura japonez la Universitatea
Tokyo. Din 1992 pn n 1997 a locuit n Tokyo, apoi, pn n 1998, n Cairo. ntre 2002 i
2003 a lucrat n Bangkok, Tailanda, experien ce st la baza scrierii romanului Var n Siam,
aprut la Editura Polirom, n 2004. Romanele sale ar putea fi ncadrate n genul autoficiunii,
i poart cititorii prin zona barurilor de noapte i a lumii interlope din capitala Japoniei, unde
Claudia Golea a locuit i a lucrat o vreme.
Autoarea este asimilat autoficiunii comerciale, fr echivalent la noi, scriind o serie
de romane care pun iar problema mai veche a literaturii noastre: inflexibilitatea,
imposibilitatea de a face fa compromisului cu demonul consumerismului. Claudia Golea
reprezint ns cel mai frapant caz de confundare a autorului cu naratorul-personaj al propriei
(auto)ficiuni. Romanele sale, Tokyo by night (Nemira, 2000, apoi Polirom, 2005), Var n
Siam (Polirom, 2004), French Coca-Cola(Polirom, 2005), Flower-Power Tantra (ed. Pandora
M, 2007) i n numele cinelui (2012) ilustreaz o autoare mai puin ncrncenat n lupta cu
modele, fr a adera neaprat la o ideologie sau la un program: Asimilat rapid cu noul val
autoficionar dei nu a debutat la Editura Polirom, iar vrsta biologic Editura Polirom, iar
vrsta biologic nu o apropie de membrii generaiei milenariste , Claudia Golea joac ns pe
cu totul alt scen dect Chiva, chiop sau Ioana Baetica. Spre deosebire de promoia
doumiist n mare parte dezabuzat, cu false puseuri de revolt, mcinat de creeze
interioare, pigmentate de inserturi cultural-livreti Golea scrie o literatur dezideologizat,
neproblematizant, cu mult epic schematizat i cu un umor savuros. 9
Miznd pe o tematic specific (trauma, nebunia, experienele limit ale incestului,
violului etc.), dar i pe un pact nominal pe care autoarea i-l asum pn la capt, romanele
sale pot merge spre scriitur autoficionar, chiar dac le lipsete urgena scriiturii, reducerea
la minim a epicului, discursul la prezent i afirmarea obsesiv a eului. Rmne ns asumarea
faptelor autobiografice de ctre o eroin-naratoare care se numete Claudia n Planeta Tokyo,
iar n Tokyo by night, naratoarea este, fr nici un menajament, Claudia Golea. Dac n cel
din urm roman discursul autoficiunii este abandonat n favoarea unei poveti cu iz de roman
poliist i cu final predictibil, n Var n Siam, autoarea prefer o scriitur eteroclit, explicit
i fr raportare la abloanele calofiliei. Autoexpunerea extrem, prin numirea personajului
povestitor cu numele real, de pe copert, e prezent i aici, subliniind ns o dat statutul
autoficional al crii. Formula ns se dilueaz destul de mult n romanele ce vor urma,
Flower-Power Tantra i n numele cinelui fiind calificate de receptarea critic mult mai
slabe dect primele trei.
Ana Maria Sandu i traseaz liniile de baz ale profilului su literar la cenaclul de la
Facultatea de Litere din Bucureti, sub ndrumarea lui Mircea Crtrescu. Ca i congenerele
Prjol, Florina, Carte de identiti. Mutaii ale autobiograficului n proza romneasc de dup 1989, Cartea
romneasc, Bucureti, 2014
9
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sale, Ana Maria Sandu se afirm ca o continuatoare a imageriilor crtresciene, dar i a

prozei feminine de analiz practicate de Simona Popescu. Jurnalista i face debutul n
literatura cu poezie, Din amintirile unui Chelbasan (2003), trecnd apoi la romane cu o
construcie narativ original, n care palierul autoficional i cel psihanalitic se dizolv n
arabescuri narative: Fata din casa vagon (2006), Omoar-m! (2010), Alearg (2013
Poeziei de factur realist i autentic din concentrata biografie poetic i-au luat
foarte repede locul romanele de o construcie savant, care afirm deja un tipar observat de
critic. Dac Mircea Crtrescu, cel care prefaeaz romanul Fata din casa vagon, vede n
construcie marele ctig al crii, arabescul narativ fiind cel care manevreaz abil lectorul, o
alt direcie de receptare critic a romanului se ndreapt spre proza poematic rezultat din
diverse procedee cu efect de acumulare constelaii de imagini, simboluri i metafore
repetitive din irupiile lirice i din supralicitarea imaginilor onirice i suprarealiste: E foarte
greu de rezumat cartea, construcia ei e mai degrab organizata n profunzime, pe cercuri
concentrice, pe grupuri de imagini poetice i simboluri obsesive (inelul cu rubin, apa n
diversele ipostaze, de la rul uia, n care Ileana ncearc s se sinucid, precum n reveria
Inei n faa vitrinei cu fotografii, pn la robinetul de la du, pe care Ileana l las s curg la
nesfrit), iar personajele i schimb vocile (de la copilrie la maturitate), aa cum fac schimb
de identiti, migreaz nomad (nlturnd cronologiile): Ina mprumut identitatea mamei, se
cuibrete nti n ifonier, n raftul cu lenjerie intim (ca la Simona Popescu), apoi sub pielea
mamei i n burta ei, n starea de dinainte de a se nate.10
Pe aceeai direcie a prozei infuzat de lirism se sprijin i Bianca Bura-Cernat atunci
cnd calific proza drept una de analiz a subteranelor: O poezie stranie, angoasant
nconjoar romanul Anei Maria Sandu ca un halou. Un roman cu contururi fluide, neltoare,
n armonie cu fluiditatea fantasmelor care bntuie mentalul chinuit al personajelor. Temerara
coborre n subteranele mloase ale sufletului, Fata din casa vagon este o partitur
remarcabil n care se ntlnesc condeiul de poet al Anei Maria Sandu i reala sa vocaie
pentru ficiunea psihologizant.11
Fata din casa vagon se compune din suprapunerea a trei poveti i a trei discursuri
marcate de situaii repetitive, corelaii i corespondene care rezult din destinele ngemnate
ale celor trei. Ina, personajul cruia i revine funcia de narare, este fetia care ncearc la
nceputul romanului s ptrund n tcerea absolut a mamei sale, Ileana. Alturi de cele dou
triete o a treia femeie, mama Ilenei, Viorica captiv i ea n casa vagon i responsabil de
crizele tinerei femei. Cu destine aproape identice, cele trei femei vor alctui de-a lungul
romanului imaginea unei feminiti care triete un ir de fataliti ca ntr-un joc al ppuilor
ruseti.
Ca i n literatura francez, n spaiul literar romnesc jalonarea practicii autoficionale
feminine de astzi devine o operaiune necesar, singura care ar putea s evidenieze
legturile dintre (re)poziionarea autoficional a eului i condiia feminin. Proiectndu-se n
universuri ficionale multiple, autoarea contemporan gsete n autoficiune o form de
analizare a angoaselor n raport cu sine i cu realul, de eliberare a personalitii reprimate, o
form de autocunoatere. Autoficiunea reprezint astzi o opiune convenabil pentru femeile
care nu s-au putut bucura de privilegiul textului autobiografic, cci, aa cum observa
Doubrovsky, autobiografia clasic rmne rezervat importanilor zilei. Dar ca s putem
rspunde la ntrebarea de ce reprezint autoficiunea o form predilect de ficionalizare a
Dinioiu, Adina, Casa cu femei, n Observator cultural, nr.352-353, decembrie, 2006, disponibil la
http://www.observatorcultural.ro/Casa-cu-femei*articleID_16738-articles_details.html
11
Bura-Cernat, Bianca, Fantasme, nevroze, ape adnci, n Observator cultural, nr.352-353, iunie, 2006,
disponibil
la
http://www.observatorcultural.ro/Fantasme-nevroze-ape-adinci*articleID_16735articles_details.html
10
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sinelui feminin e necesar o analiz care s coroboreze datele istorice, sociologice, studiile de
gen i literatura. Privirea de ansamblu a acestor variabile, ct i analiza diferitelor modele
autoficionale feminine dezvluie un aspect comun: esena genului se leag, mai ntotdeauna,
de o cutare identitar.
Bibliografie:
Bura-Cernat, Bianca, Vlada scrie un roman fracturist, n Observator cultural, nr.
230, iulie 2004, disponibil la http://www.observatorcultural.ro/Vlada-scrie-un-romanfracturist*articleID_11352-articles_details.html
Bura-Cernat, Bianca, Fantasme, nevroze, ape adnci, n Observator cultural,
nr.352-353, iunie, 2006, disponibil la http://www.observatorcultural.ro/Fantasme-nevrozeape-adinci*articleID_16735-articles_details.html
Bura-Cernat, Bianca, Cum mai stm cu proza romneasc? (I), n Observator
cultural, numrul 360, februarie, 2007, disponibil la http://www.observatorcultural.ro/Cummai-stam-cu-proza-romaneasca-%28I%29*articleID_17085-articles_details.html
Cheverean, Cristina, Apocalipse vesele i triste, Ed. Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti,
2006.
Chivu, Marius, Erotism de atmosfer, n Romnia literar, nr. 39, octombrie, 2005,
disponibil la http://www.romlit.ro/erotism_de_atmosfer
Cristea-Enache, Daniel, Intimituri, n Romnia Literar, nr. 48, decembrie, 2005,
disponibil la http://www.romlit.ro/intimituri
Dinioiu, Adina, Casa cu femei, n Observator cultural, nr.352-353, decembrie,
2006, disponibil la http://www.observatorcultural.ro/Casa-cu-femei*articleID_16738articles_details.html
Mihilescu, Dan C., Literatura romn n postceauism, II. Proza. Prezentul ca
dezumanizare, Ed. Polirom, Iai, 2006.
Petra, Irina, Oglinda i drumul. Prozatori contemporani, Cartea romneasc,
Bucureti, 2013
Prjol, Florina, Mult zgomot pentru nimic, n Observator cultural, numrul 237,
septembrie, 2004, disponibil la http://www.observatorcultural.ro/Mult-zgomot-pentrunimic*articleID_11691-articles_details.html
Prjol, Florina, Carte de identiti. Mutaii ale autobiograficului n proza romneasc
de dup 1989, Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 2014
imonca, Ovidiu, Revistele culturale ntre trecutul totalitar i prezentul politizat, n
(coord. Daniel andru i Sorin Bocancea), Mass-media i democraia n Romnia
postcomunist, Editura Institutul European, seria Polis, Iai, 2013, pp. 500-501.
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THE PANORAMA OF A POLYPHONIC REALITY, THE ANALYSIS OF AN ADDENDA IN

LIVIUS CIOCRLIES DIARY CU DINII DE LN. JURNAL 1978-1983
Elena MATEIU ( MANOLE)
Abstract: The reality of our literary world is that a considerable number of Romanian writers
read and analyzed the tracking from their surveillance files made by the communist Security.
Acceptance of this case and the consequent impact on the life and work of this writers is still a
very interesting case. Regarding the case of Livius Ciocrlie, the experience as a reader of
his own surveillance files, lead him to a double reaction: first he published a (self) analysis
newspaper article and then he attached some document-filles in a published diary. We are
interested in what are the criteria used for choosing only 13 pages out of 1000 found in those
three documents held at CNSAS. Also, through this strategy of putting an Addenda at the end
of the diary Cu dinii de ln, we identified a new strategy: giving multiple voices to the
same reality, making a panorama from the real life documented by strangers.
Keywords: CNSAS, diary, Livius Ciocrlie, the communist Security, reality.
Impactul lecturii dosarului de urmrire de la Securitate asupra persoanelor urmrite
este o tem de cercetare cu date recente, care nc suscit interes. n cazul lui Livius Ciocrlie,
scriitor romn supravegheat n perioada 1966-1989, dosarul a fost deschis datorit relaiei
apropiate cu lectorul francez Pierre Morel, suspect de a fi folosit de ambasada francez n
culegerea de informaii(ACNSAS:1).
Ne intereaz n primul rnd motivaia acestuia de a-i cere dosarul i a-l citi, pentru a
compara astfel, orizontul de ateptare cu experiena n sine. n al doilea rnd, urmrim filele
din dosare anexate n jurnalul publicat n 2008 i mai ales motivaia autorului de a le prezenta
cititorilor, precum i criteriul de selecie.
Pentru cea dinti, motivaia, exist o justificare a autorului. A cerut CNSAS-ului
accesul la dosare ncurajat de Bujor Nedelcovici, cel care a jucat mai mult rolul unui stimul, al
unui factor de convingere prin apelul la principii de ordin moral (afirmaia scriitorului: dac
romnii nu vor s-i cunoasc trecutul ascuns, au ceea ce merit n revista 22, nr.906, 2007).
Ciocrlie mrturisete c a plecat de la nceput cu gndul c nu va gsi ceva important n
dosare i c va face o mai mare tevatur dect ar fi trebuit. Imediat dup primirea acceptului
de vizionare, dup contactul cu documentele, efectul a fost altul. Scriitorul a trecut printr-un
proces complex, de la stri de confuzie, nedumerire, jen, la uimire naiv datorat contrastului
dintre aciunile intreprinse, n viaa pe care el i-o trise conform viziunii proprii, i ceea ce
sistemul bnuise c el ar fi putut face. Aadar, Livius Ciocrlie decide s nu lase o parte din
propriul trecut ascuns, s-i ndeplineasc poate i o ndatorire civic, consult documentele i
constat c acestea au denaturat, au reordonat pri ale vieii sale, acordndu-i-se o mai mare
importan dect ar fi fost cazul.
Lectura dosarului a avut urmri n plan cultural. Scriitorul bnean va publica o
reacie la cald, n vara lui 2007, un articol numit Dosarul care nu doar reuete s rezume
cele 1000 de file, dar ofer i interpretri sau face comentarii pertinente, paradoxal pentru
gradul de implicare afectiv ce l-ar fi putut influena n a-i schimba tonul, n a fi un
moralizator, un judector. Rezumatul lecturrii documentelor ni-l ofer cu fin ironie i
autoironie: Am intrat n atenia lor n 1966. Se efectueaz investigaii pentru a se stabili ce
legturi am. Ei bine, sunt un om cu mult energie(!), nestpnit de vicii, cam retras i cam
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meditator. Nu m intereseaz dect studiul. Nu sunt membru de partid i nici UTM-ist n-am
fost.(...)n apatia asta, anul urmtor, dup ce m mutasem la Universitate, brusc se ia hotrrea
s se instaleze mijlocul "T" acas i n cabinetul de la facultate, unde se adaug i mijlocul
"video" i unde urma s se efectueze o percheziie, ocazie cu care s se ia i probe de scris.
Bineneles, aveam s fiu filat. i, pentru c trebuia s port un nume, aveam s fiu "Filologul",
nainte de a deveni "Textualistul" i, n sfrit, "Scriitorul.( Ciocrlie: 2007)
n continuare scriitorul se decide s anexeze ntr-un jurnal intim din perioada 19781983 documente din dosarele de urmrire, carte aprut n 2008. Ne vom opri asupra
iniiativei scriitorului de a aduga o Addenda la Cu dinii de ln. Jurnal 1978-1983
intitulat: Fragmente din DOSAR i vom ncerca s stabilim criteriul folosit pentru a alege
doar acele pagini-document. Din cele aproximativ 1000 de file de dosar el a selectat doar 13.
Ceea ce surprinde de la nceput e c autorul nu alege s le ordoneze nici cronologic i nici
tematic. Concluzia ar fi aceea c el anexeaz aceste copii ale materialelor primite de la
CNSAS pe criteriul diversitii aciunilor intreprinse de Securitate. n final, scopul este
panoramarea vieii cotidiene i culturale de-a lungul a dou decenii, surprinse n mod
subiectiv de scriitor n pagini de jurnal, i tot astfel i de informatorii sau supraveghetorii
scriitorului.
Addenda la ,,Cu dinii de ln cuprinde file extrase ntocmai din dosar, fie c sunt
nregistrri ale unor discuii, convorbiri telefonice, interceptri, note informative ori de
analiz. Subtitlul acestei pri finale a jurnalului face referire la cele trei nume stabilite la filaj
pentru identitatea scriitorului: ,,Filologul, ,,Textualistul, ,,Scriitorul. Ciocrlie nu explic
nici n jurnalul de mai trziu i nici n articolul de analiz motivul alegerii acestora i, mai
ales, de ce ele se schimb n dosar. Primul, ,,Filologul, l primete la deschiderea dosarului,
stabilit probabil dup domeniul n care se ncadreaz ,,problema cauzat de scriitor i
anturajul su, cel de ,,Art cultur. Pe msur ce inerea sub observaie continu,
Securitatea i schimb numele n ,,Textualistul. Justificarea poate fi extras din notele
informative i de analiz care l prezint pe Ciocrlie ca un autor preocupat de literatur,
preuind foarte mult noua literatur francez(nouveau roman, onirism), o literatur
gratuat, nerealist, estetizant i fr substrat social(ACNSAS: 59). Ultimul nume de cod,
Scriitorul, apare o dat cu publicarea succesiv a romanelor nonficionale Un burgtheater
provincial i Clopotul scufundat care primesc att de multe recenzii pozitive nct devine
evident fixarea definitiv a profesorului universitar nu doar ca autor de studii critice ci i de
literatur (un argument s-ar afla n corespondena scriitorului din dosar, de exemplu,
scrisoarea trimis lui Costache Olreanu n 10.06.1984 n care mrturisete deschis pasiunea
pentru creaie i pentru experimentul nonficionalitii: m atrage i m intereseaz mult
literatura care face incert limita dintre ficiune i autobiografie (Ibidem, 2015).
Anunam aadar selectarea a treisprezece documente din dosarul de urmrire. Primul
reprezint nota unui informator, Arbore N., o prezentare din 23.04.1966, favorabil.
Ciocrlie menioneaz doar cteva trsturi proprii surprinse n nota informativ: sunt un om
cu mult energie(!), nestpnit de vicii, cam retras i cam "meditator". Nu m intereseaz
dect studiul. (Ciocrlie: 2007) ns din documentul citat reinem urmtoarea prezentare: e
un element sociabil i serios i srguincios. Are o nalt cunotin a rspunderii fa de
munca pe care trebuia s o ndeplineasc.(...) Unele observaii se pot face cu privire la firea
lui L.C., este n general retras i meditator. Dei este cstorit i are i un copil, pare c nu-l
intereseaz nimic altceva dect studiul. Urmtorul document, o not de la Inspectoratul
judeean Timi, din 22 Apr.1986, ctre Serviciul VII Timioara, conine indicaii de luare a
unor msuri n privina scriitorului. Documentul este citat ca atare, fr interpretri sau
comentarii: ne intereseaz comportamentul acestuia la domiciliu, relaii i legturi.
Investigaiile s fie extinse i asupra prinilor acestuia.
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Fila a treia este o not din 18.06.1989 i face referire att la prietenia cu Nicolae
Manolescu ct i la scrisoarea de protest pregtit mpreun. Observaiile sunt acelea c
scriitorul Livius Ciocrlie din Timioara continu s se menin pe o poziie ostil fa de
politica cultural promovat n ara noastr; intenioneaz, sub influena criticului literar
Manolescu, Nicolae, s ntreprind aciuni ostile, contestatare, fiind de acord cu scrisorile de
protest, semnate de scriitorii Mircea Dinescu, Dan Deliu din Capital i cu scrisoarea celor
7 scriitori n aprarea susnumiilor. (Ciocrlie, 2008: 390). Comentariul scriitorului despre
aceast problem, de altfel una dintre cele mai importante din dosarul su, se oprete la relaia
cu Nicolae Manolescu de care s-ar prea c securitilor le-ar fi fost foarte fric. El i
amintete c, n calitate de coordonator al cenaclului studenesc Pavel Dan, obinuia s
invite diverse personaliti la Casa Universitarilor cum ar fi Alexandru Paleologu, Petru
Creia, Marian Papahagi, Ion Pop .a. Noteaz scriitorul: cnd l-am invitat pe Nicolae
Manolescu, au luat foc. Pentru ca suspectul s fie bine ,,ncadrat oriunde s-ar duce, i se
consacra un ntreg plan de msuri. Ultima, scris de alt mn, rezolv problema n felul cel
mai simplu: aciunea (conferina) se suspend. Ceea ce s-a i ntmplat. Iar pentru a se
prentmpina alte asemenea nzbtii, se ia hotrrea s fiu brfit n aa fel, nct Manolescu
s-i piard ncrederea n mine. (Idem, 2007). Un element important pe care ni-l ofer
relectura i apoi interpretarea documentelor prin confruntarea cu propriile amintiri ori note din
jurnal relev omisiunea unor discuii relevante pentru soarta regimului comunist de mai trziu.
De exemplu, discuia purtat cu Nicolae Manolescu, la el acas, despre cum vor proceda n
privina scrisorii iniiate de Mircea Dinescu a fost nregistrat, la fel i o alt discuie, purtat
la dou zile diferen, n casa scriitorului, ,,cu un tovar venit special de la Bucureti dar
lipsete din dosar fraza rostit de acea persoan : ,,ne vom mai ntlni tovare profesor peste
cteva luni i vei recunoate c nu era nevoie de astfel de aciuni. Observaia lui Livius
Ciocrlie este just, nu se poate ca la cteva luni naintea cderii regimului s fii avertizat c
aciunea ta de protest mpotriva regimului va fi fost inutil i s deduci c ar fi doar o
coinciden: ,,Cum a rostit-o la sfritul lui 1988, n perspectiva celor ce aveau s urmeze,
fraza nu pare lipsit de interes. Asta, cu att mai mult cu ct i spusesem lui Nicolae
Manolescu - iar aceast previziune n-a fost omis din transcrierea nregistrrii - c, probabil,
securitii se gndeau la ce s-ar fi ntmplat cu ei dac Ceauescu ar fi disprut (c-avea s le
mearg i mai bine n-am prevzut).Alt vizit trecut cu vederea de notele din dosarul de
urmrire este cea a adjunctului Securitii locale care, n ziua urmtoare, s-a prezentat la
scriitor acas i i-a cerut s nu mai spun c nu cunoate proiectul lui Dinescu, fiindc ei tiu
ceea ce discutase cu Manolescu. Cum pot fi interpretate i justificate aceste omisiuni? Au fost
ele fcute cu vdit intenie?
Un alt moment important din dosar este acela al primirii unor epigrame considerate
subversive (n epigrame se fac referiri nefavorabile de natur politic). Conform raportului
informativ din 10 noiembrie 1988 scriitorului i s-a cerut o declaraie despre o serie de
epigrame primite n perioada 1987-1988 de la o persoan care s-a semnat sub pseudonimul
D.Ivan. S-ar prea, din nota informativ anexat, din 9.05.1988, conform sursei AD, c
Ciocrlie le-a vzut (...) dar autorul nu-l cunoate i nici nu bnuiete cine este.
Urmtoarele dou documente sunte note ale surselor erbu i Alf Dorian care se
refer la prezentarea favorabil a lui Ciocrlie ntr-o emisiune la Europa liber. De asemenea,
ele amintesc de discuiile purtate despre curentul postmodernist, n care s-ar prea c scriitorul
se ncadreaz, ca un promotor al acesteia. Alte dou note informative ofer detalii despre
conferina lui Al.Paleologu despre Memorie i memorii la cenaclul Pavel Dan condus de
Ciocrlie la Casa Universitarilor.
Fila a noua revine la pregtirea scrisorii de protest. Discuia telefonic purtat cu
N.Manolescu din 14 noiembrie 1988 este jumtate transcris, jumtate parafrazat.
Rezumnd, acetia discut despre cine ar trebui s fie autorul scrisorii, Paler sau Dinescu, dar
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i despre posibilii semnatari precum i unde va fi trimis documentul pentru a avea impactul
scontat.
Urmtoarea not este i una dintre cea mai ocant pentru scriitor, dovedind numrul
mare de oameni din sistem implicai. Securitatea s-a mobilizat se pare astfel nct i n
vacana de la Herculane, Ciocrlie i familia s fie supravegheai. Se informeaz c
obiectivul a fost ncadrat informativ i a fost lucrat i prin intermediul mijloacelor TO
portabile cu intermiten, ns caracterul discuiilor purtate a fost numai de natur familial,
iar cea mai mare parte a orelor din zi numitul l-a petrecut n camera 801 unde au fost cazate
cele dou fiice ale sale, Corina-Ioana i Alexandra. (Ciocrlie, 2008: 405)
Se remarc de asemenea nota de analiz din 20.01.1989 care argumenteaz urmrirea
lui Ciocrlie : prevenirea activitii ostile. Un alt document inserat, nemenionat n articolul
critic din revista 22, este interviul acordat unui student cu titlul Omul nu i-a pierdut
niciodat inocena pentru c n-a avut-o nicicnd.
Fila 13 din Addenda dateaz din 25 martie 1989, i este o not care reia problema
scrisorii pregtite cu Nicolae Manolescu. ns prezint i aspecte ale arestrii poetului Mircea
Dinescu. Discuia celor doi se ndreapt, n final, ctre slbiciunile i teama angajailor
Securitii, dup cum observ Manolescu: Un flfit, aa, ameninri fr consecin! Dup
cum s-ar putea s fie realmente proti! Pentru c cei care fac aceste anchete, uite dovada pe
linie de partid, sunt de fapt nite proti, adic ei nu mai oameni de mare nivel la partid!
(Ibidem, 422)
Parcurgerea celor trei dosare aflate n arhiva CNSAS ne ofer poate repere asupra
realitii vieii unui scriitor n perioada comunist, detalii despre mediul ce poate influena, de
ce nu, i actul scriiturii. Poate de aceea scriitorul alege polifonia ca strategie de construcie a
acestui jurnal. Prin notele informatorilor, corespondena transcris sau discuiile telefonice
stenografiate, descoperim informaii din interior, date suplimentare despre procesul de
creaie sau despre prietenii (un exemplu doar, schimbul de scrisori cu membrii colii de la
Trgovite: Radu Petrescu, Mircea Horia Simionescu i Costache Olreanu ori cu oameni
importani ai criticii literare: Eugen Simion, Nicolae Manolescu, Mircea Zaciu .a.) Livius
Ciocrlie, un scriitor care i-a citit dosarele de urmrire, la fel ca muli alii, opteaz s-i
exprime un punct de vedere mai nti ntr-un articol analitic, n care enumer succint faptele
sale de bravur, explicnd motivul pentru care, n final, el se consider o parte component
a rezistenei anticomuniste ntr-o form pasiv: Mai nti ce am ndrznit: am refuzat
repetatele propuneri de a intra n Partid, mi-am retras n dou rnduri cte o carte de la editur
ca s nu fiu nevoit s-l citez pe Ceauescu (barem de dou ori, ca glumele n conferinele
Junimii: una la nceput i una spre sfrit), n-am acceptat s fiu informator i nici s cer
Europei Libere s nu-mi mai pomeneasc numele. Att. Rezisten pasiv, cum ar
veni.(Ciocrlie, 2007). Apoi concepe o anex panoramic pentru un jurnal intim ce surprinde
perioada comunist n ultimele decenii, atrgnd atenia cititorului de existena mai multor
realiti pe care le-am putea tri, iat, simultan!
BIBLIOGRAFIE:
ACNASAS(Arhiva Consiliului Naional pentru Studierea Arhivelor Securitii), Dosar
de Urmrire Informativ nr.3548, cota I 143048/ 1-3, vol.1-3
CIOCRLIE, Livius, Dosarul n revista 22, nr.906, 2007
CIOCRLIE, Livius,Cu dinii de ln. Jurnal 19781983, Editura Humanitas,
Bucureti, 2008
RU,VIRGIL, coord., nvnd istoria prin experienele trecutului: Ceteni
obinuii supravegheai de Securitate n anii 70-80, Editura CNSAS, Bucureti, 2009
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Acknowledgement: Aceast lucrare a fost cofinanat din Fondul Social

European prin Programul Operaional Sectorial pentru Dezvoltarea Resurselor Umane
20072013, Cod Contract: POSDRU/159/1.5/S/140863, Cercettori competitivi pe plan
european n domeniul tiinelor umaniste i socio-economice. Reea de cercetare
multiregional (CCPE).
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ELIADIAN HERMENEUTICS IN POLAND: STANISLAW TOKARSKI ELIADE AND THE

WEST
Magdalena FILARY
Abstract: Stanisaw Tokarski, Polish professor at The Institute of Middle and Far Eastern
Studies of the Jagiellonian University in Cracow, wrote a book entitled Eliade and Orient,
published in 1984 by Ossolineum Publishing House in Wrocaw, and received with a great
interest by the part of the specialist audience.
In his work, Tokarski focuses mainly on Eliade's philosophical side that tends to Orient,
analysing Trait d'histoire des religions - a source of inspiration for many foreign
philosophers and historians of religion, including those from Poland. This book is also a kind
of monograph dedicated to this scientist, it constitutes the general reflection from
anthropological and religious perspective, the analysis of Eliade's studies on shamanism and
yoga. Presenting his biographical details to the Polish public, as well as the most significant
scientific works of the great Romanian philosopher and writer, Tokarski mentions the Polish
scientists who collaborated with Eliade, who applied his conceptions in their research and
those who wrote about his essays.
In our paper, we present the structure of this book, its analysis, thus showing the different
ways of Mircea Eliades perception in Poland.
Keywords: yoga, shamanism, history of religions, myth, Orient
Stanisaw Tokarski profesor la Institutul Orientului Apropiat i ndeprtat din
cadrul Universitii Jagiellone din Cracovia, a absolvit Facultatea de Orientalistic i
Facultatea de Filozofie i Sociologie la Universitatea din Varovia. A scris teza de abilitare
din filozofie n 1993 cu titlul: Yoghini i comuniti. Receptarea modern a hinduismului.
n anul 2002 a obinut titlul de profesor universitar. Printre preocuprile lui, n afar de
filozofie, se enumer tradiiile Indiei i studii culturale de comparatistic. Lucreaz la
Universitatea Jagiellon din Cracovia i la Institutul Culturilor Mediteraneene i Orientale din
cadrul Academiei Naionale de tiin (PAN). Este autor al multor cri despre cultura i
filozofia Orientului ndeprtat, printre altele:
Orientul i contraculturi, Varovia, Ed. Wiedza Powszechna, 1984;
Eliade i Orentul, Wrocaw, Ed. Zakad Narodowy im. Ossoliskich, 1984;
Yoghini i comuniti, Wrocaw, Ed. Zakad Narodowy im. Ossoliskich; 1987;
Budo. Arte de lupt japoneze (coautor W. Sikorski), Szczecin, Ed. Glob, 1988;
Arte de lupt. Forme mobile de expresie a filozofiei orientale, Szczecin, Ed. Glob,
1989;
Cltoria zeilor, Varovia, Ed. Semper, 1993;
coala Chicago o disput despre dialogul intercultural, Varovia, Ed.
Wydawnictwo Naujowe Askon, 2001;
India modern: provocrile dezvoltrii (coautor S. Bhutani), Varovia, Ed.
Wydawnictwo Naukowe Askon, 2007;
S. Tokarski este i traductor al unor lucrri tiinifice eliadeti, ca de exemplu:
Mircea Eliade, Istoria credinelor i ideilor rligioase, vol. 1, Varovia, Ed. Instytut
Wydawniczy PAX, 1988;
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Mircea Eliade, Istoria credinelor i ideilor religioase, vol. 2, Varovia, Ed. Instytut
Wydawniczy PAX, 1994.
Una dintre cele mai ample lucrri care au aprut despre Eliade n Polonia este cartea
lui Tokarski Eliade i Orientul. Cartea are 176 pagini, este alctuit din cuvnt nainte al
autorului, not explicativ, ase capitole, incheiere i bibliografie.
Cuvnt nainte
Tokarski ncepe cartea citndu-l pe Eliade: Nu tiu cum s-ar fi petrecut viaa mea
dac n pragul tinereii mele nu aprea India (Fragmente de Jurnal, 1973, p. 102) i
prezentndu-ni-l ca savant, filozof i artist apreciat nu numai n cercurile specialitilor din
diferite domenii ale tiinelor umaniste, ci cunoscut i ca autor al unor bestsellers, propagator
al cercetrilor asupra religiei i miturilor care, prin dialogul su cu Orientul, ne arat modul de
abordare a culturilor moderne.
Apoi Tokarski trece la observaia c Eliade pleda pentru o a doua Renatere, ceea ce
a constituit baza orientrii sale. Conform lui Tokarski, Eliade face parte din generaia
perioadei de revolt care resimea aproprierea renaterii culturii, avnd ca scop unirea
raselor, poparelor i religiilor. n acest context trebuie creat o disciplin nou care s
coordoneze rennoirea culturii, i anume o antropologie nou al crei centru ar trebui s
devin istoria sensului religiei. Tokarski scrie c Eliade, deschiznd o astfel de perspectiv, a
adus o contribuie original att la tiina religiilor, ct i la tiinele umaniste. Datorit
cltorilor sale n diferite epoci i culturi, Eliade a creat statutul de venic cltor. Att
biografia lui Eliade, ct i opera lui literar vorbesc despre iubire, yoga i eterna cltorie,
ceea ce poate fi un fel de indicator pentru generaiile care fug nicieri, un model de bard. n
acest sens, Tokarski constat c acestea au constituit pentru vremea contraculturii o valoare la
fel de important ca i opera lui tiinific. Totodat, se poate constata c savantul indolog
merit porecla guru al Americii, care i-a fost dat de ctre studeni care au trit marele
happening Festivalul Vieii de la Chicago n timpul Conveniei Democratice din 1968.
Eliade a propagat ntr-un fel o privire distant asupra culturii occidentale. Tokarski l compar
cu marele antropolog James George Frazer, care, prin cartea sa Creanga de aur, i-a influenat
pe marii scriitori i poei, precum T.S. Eliot, D.H. Lawrence, J. Joyce. Cam aceeai dorin de
a deschide Occidentului ferestrele ctre alte lumi ale imaginaiei orientale, observ
Tokarski, o are i Eliade.
Capitolul I
Mircea Eliade viaa i opera
Tokarski ncepe prezentarea lui Eliade, menionnd lucrarea cu titlul: Mircea Eliade,
care a aprut la colecia Cahirs de lHerne, Paris, 1978, cu ocazia mplinirii vrstei de 70
de ani ai savantului, i care este un fel de enciclopedie eliadian. La apariia acestei cri au
participat specialiti din diverse domenii, deoarece Eliade a contribuit cu studii aproape n
orice domeniu al tiinelor umaniste moderne.
Operele lui Eliade au fost traduse i citate n multe limbi, inclusiv n polonez. Totui,
Eliade un savant cu o faim mondial este apreciat n Romnia mai ales ca reprezentant al
avangardei literare din a doua jumtate a sec. XX, pe cnd n Occident este aproape
necunoscut ca scriitor din cauza barierelor lingvistice i culturale, precum i a caracterului
diferit al operelor lui i a balansrii ntre tiint i literatur.
Tokarski consider c fr a cunoate operele tiinifice i filozofice ale lui Eliade,
romanele lui i pierd sensul de baz. Aceasta se ntmpl din cauza mpletirii timpului
fantastic, psihologic i istoric. Profesorul polonez subliniaz i importana cunoaterii
biografiei lui Eliade pentru a ntelege mai bine opera lui. Aici se refer la jurnale care conin
comentarii mai ales la lucrrile tiinifice, dar i explicaii la construcii artistice. Eliade
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creeaz sinteze ndrznee, compar fapte surprinztoare, face o construcie tiinific proprie
i original, care i permite s introduc noua dimensiune i tematic n multe discipline
tiinifice.
Apoi, Tokarski trece la prezentarea datelor biografice ale lui Eliade. Scrie despre
debutul lui la Ziarul tiinelor Populare, unde a ctigat un premiu cu nuvela Cum am gsit
piatra filozofal, despre activitatea lui publicistic la diverse reviste, unde publica relatri din
cltorii, recenziile lucrrilor tiinifice din strintate, nuvele i eseuri i despre primele
ncercri ale lui Eliade ca scriitor, despre primul su roman: Romanul adolescentului miop, pe
care l-a trimis la concurs i a suferit o nfrngere, deoarece i-a fost napoiat, iar premiul l-a
luat Eugne Ionesco, care nu era cunoscut la acea vreme. Aceast nfrngere a creat totui
nceputul prieteniei dintre cei doi autori. Tokarski scrie i despre prietenia lui Eliade cu
Giovanni Papini care i-a lrgit orizontul cultural. Despre studiile sale asupra filozofiei lui
Giordano Bruno, pentru care a nvat limbile persan, ebraic, sansricrit, a cules date despre
folclorul romnesc, despre amanism i religii orientale. Se orienta bine i n sfera filozofiei
Occidentului, tia german, francez, englez. Eliade i-a ntrit poziia n cultura romn prin
cltoria sa exotic n India. Aventura lui cu Orientul a pus amprent asupra operei literare,
asupra felului de a aborda cultura modern i asupra antropologiei eliadiene. Tokarski
ncearc s explice fascinaia lui Eliade pentru India. Pe de o parte, se consider c se
datoreaz scriitorului i filozofului indian Surendranath Dasgupta - autor al crii A History of
Indian Philosophy - , datorit cruia Eliade a primit o burs de studii n Calcutta, pe de alt
parte, interesul lui Eliade pentru cultura indian a trezit venirea n Bucureti a primului laureat
indian al premiului Nobel pentru Literatur (1913) Rabindranath Tagore i vizita lui Eliade
la coala lui din Shantiniketan. Se poate spune c filozofia lui Elaide este continuarea
filozofiei lui Tagore. Interesul pentru mit, folclor, accentuarea rolului creativ al imaginaiei
pot fi deduse din gndirea lui Tagore.
Mai departe, Tokarski readuce perioada bucuretean a lui Eliade, legat de nfiinarea
Grupului Criterion, impreun cu E. Ionesco i E. Cioran. Spune i despre importantul
succes editorial al lui Eliade, i anume nfiinarea revistei Zamolxis, dedicat istoriei
religiilor. Aici trebuie menionat faptul c la Nr. 1 al revistei din 1938 Eliade a colaborat
printre altele cu J. Przyluski istoric polonez al religiilor care a contribuit cu articolul Cultul
stindardului la scii i n India. Sunt amintite, de asemenea, plecarea lui la Paris i nfiinarea
revistei Luceafrul, grupul Eranos i colaborarea lui Eliade cu Jung, precum i plecarea n
America i preluarea catedrei de istoria religiilor la Universitatea din Chicago.
Eliade a unit experienele renaterii indiene a sec. XX cu o prezen vie a Indiei n
contracultura Occidentului. Eliade formuleaz teoria celei de a doua renateri care se
apropie, legnd-o astfel cu vechiul postulat de a crea o antropologie nou datorit revistei
Antaios, editat la Stuttgart cu ajutorul financiar al lui Jung. Tokarski menioneaz i faptul
c Eliade devine un eminent propagator al ideii de a rennoi rolul religiei i mitului. n acest
scop, nfiineaz la Chicago, n 1961, revista History of Religion, mpreun cu Kitigawa i
Long.
Ca orice personalitate eminent a culturii sec. XX, Eliade a fost de multe ori un
subiect al unor critici. Cutnd un numitor comun pentru religiile vechi i noi ale
Occidentului i Orientului, deseori se abatea de la modelele tiinifice. Totui, nelegerea
unor probleme i metode n tiinele umaniste occidentale nu ar fi posibil fr eliadism.
Capitolul II
Metodologia eliadian a cercetrii religiilor
n acest capitol Tokarski descrie cea mai semnificativ lucrare a lui Eliade - Tratat
despre istoria religiilor, precum i receptarea lui n strintate, subliniind c aceasta a fost
diferit n funcie de ara i limba n care a fost tradus. n Polonia, Tratatul a aprut n
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traducerea lui Jan Wierusz-Kowalski, la Editura Ksika i Wiedza din Varovia, prima ediie
n 1966 cu prefaa lui Leszek Koakowski1 i postfaa lui Stanisaw Tokarski; a doua ediie:
d, 1993, Ed. Opus; a treia revzut i adugit: Varovia, 2000, Ed. KR. Tokarski scrie
despre nenelegeri i deformri n interpretarea Tratatului (mai ales n Frana i America),
explicnd c aceasta este o lectur grea din mai multe puncte de vedere. Textul are foarte
multe detalii factuale, este plin de digresiuni i repetri. Eliade este n creaia sa tiinific n
acelai timp artist i scriitor care apreciaz la fel de mult modul expresiei, ct i coninutul
textului, compoziia i originalitatea lucrrilor. Are pretenii artistice mari fa de crile
tiinifice, lansnd stilul cu care nu au fost obinuii cercettorii tipici. Precum spunea i
Emil Cioran, Eliade aprecia mai mult crile dect zeii... (Kitagawa, 1969, p. 408). Tratatul
are urmele acestui cult al crii, att din punct de vedere lingvistic, ct i din punctul de vedere
al modului de a construi ntregul text. Dup cum spune Tokarski, Eliade este maestru al
formelor mici. Orice fragment constituie un eseu frumos. Stratul literar distrage deseori
atenia de la refleciile tiinifice. La fel se poate spune despre caracterul dramatic al
Tratatului Eliade cuta soluii pentru dezvluirea misterelor omenirii contemporane i a
secretelor existenei umane. Tratatul este deci o carte de secrete, de aceea se trage din
inspiraia lui Frazer i este comparat cu Creanga de aur. Eliade se situeaz printre
fenomenologii religiei, fiind continuator al modului de a cerceta indicat de R. Otto sau J.
Wach. Sinteza gndirii Occidentului cu metodologia filozofiei orientale este specific
cercetrii eliadiene.
n continuare, Tokarski explic noiunea de sacru i profan, precum i termenii:
dialectica hierofaniei (dialectica sacru-profan) i simbol religios. Menioneaz i criticii lui
Eliade, printre care G. Durand, care i-a reproat inconsecvena construciei Tratatului. n
schimb, pentru F. Sullivan aceast inconsecven este o realizare remarcabil a lui Eliade prin
construirea operei ce arat dialectica sacrum i profanum2.
n articolul Homo religiosus and Historical Faith, Hamilton l numete pe Eliade un
mistic care cerceteaz prezentul cu mijloacele tradiiei3.
T. Altizer a neles altfel metodologia lui Eliade. Ca cea mai important tez a
Tratatului a considerat a fi separarea radical a sferelor sacrum i profanum. Altizer se
folosete de dialectica eliadian a sacruului i a profanului ca s propage teologia morii lui
Dumnezeu ca o continuare a ideii Tratatului.
J. Saliba ncearc s ia aprarea operei eliadiene n lucrarea sa Homo Religiosus in
Mircea Eliade. An Anthrophological Evaluation (Leida, 1976). Saliba spune c Eliade a
adunat un material extrem de bogat i diversificat ca s exemplifice concepia sa, inspirnduse din diferite domenii, precum: orientalistic, etnografie, tiina religiilor, antropologie,
istoria artei, critica literar, filmologie, psihologie, politic etc. S-a folosit i de realizrile
cercettorilor tiintifici din Asia, Europa, Africa, America, Australia, ceea ce a fost posiblil
datorit cltoriilor, contactelor i competenelor lingvistice ale lui Eliade.
Apoi Tokarski l menioneaz pe savantul rus S.A. Tocarev care a fcut o critic
general a metodologiei lui Eliade din perspectiva istorico-sociologic n lucrarea sa Early
Forms of Religion and Their Development (1964).
Urmtoarea parte a capitolului este consacrat analizei tematicii legat direct sau
indirect cu Orientul. Tokarski i concentreaz atenia mai ales asupra modului lui Eliade de a
Leszek Koakowski (1927-2009) filozof polonez, se ocupa mai ales de istoria filozofiei, istoria ideilor,
filozofia religiei, precum i de eseistic i publicistic. Profesor la mai multe universiti, printre care Oxford
University, Yale University, Chicago University. Primul laureat al Premiului John Kluge pentru ntreaga
activitate n domeniul tinelor umaniste, acordat de Biblioteca Congresului SUA.
2
G. Durand, citatul conform lucrrii F. Sullivan, Imagination and Understanding of Sacred Real in the Thought
of M. Eliade, Paris, 1971, p. 280)
3
The Journal of Bible and Religion, 1965, pp. 213-222.
1
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vedea yoga, enumer principalele subiecte i categorii n operele lui Eliade, precum: simbolul,
ritualul i timpul.
Capitolul III
Rolul mitului n teoria religiei lui Eliade
n acest capitol, Tokarski subliniaz importana concepiei mitului la Eliade, referinduse la cele trei culegeri ale eseurilor lui: Le Mythe de lEternel Retour; Aspects du mythe;
Mythes, rves et mystres. Filozoful i sociologul polonez, prof. Jzef Ninik, n cartea sa Mit
jako kategoria metodologiczna (Varovia, 1978) se apropie de categoria mitului la Eliade,
deoarece permite urmrirea sensului miturilor arhaice, cltoriei lor i variantelor n culturi cu
mitologie scris, dar, n acelai timp, permite cercetrile pe teren printre civilizaii primitive.
Tokarski scrie despre analiza mitului lui Eliade n culturi arhaice, care const n cele dou
metode opuse de cercetare a mitului: antropoligic i fenomenologic, despre care scria
Robert Luyster n articolul su The Study of Myth: Two Approaches.4 Apoi l citeaz pe Eliade
ncercnd s explice semnificaia mitului: A cunoate mitul inseamn a nva secretul
originii lucrurilor. Scrie i despre aspecte ale mitului n lumea modern i despre diferena
ntre concepia mitului la Eliade i tradiia Orientului.
La sfritul capitolului, Tokarski face cteva observaii critice, spunnd c Eliade
leag mitul cu categoria sacrum, iar culturile primitive cu spiritualitatea arhaic. Totodat, i
acord mitului un rol foarte important nu doar n culturi tradiionale. Totui, nu precizeaz
clar o metod de cercetare a miturilor, ceea ce ar ajuta la omiterea dificultilor legate de
analiza lor. n culturile primitive nu este uor s gsim o diferen clar ntre mit (sacrum) i
folclor (profanum). Acordnd miturilor rolul creativ n orice sfer a vieii societilor
tradiionale, Eliade nu ia n considerare faptul c exist i civilizaii primitive cu o mitologie
redus. I se reproeaz accentul prea puternic asupra orientrii mitului ctre trecut. Totui,
observaiile lui Eliade constituie o inspiraie valoroas pentru interpretarea mitului de ctre
ali filozofi i antropologi.
n volum se mai arat c, n Polonia, de analiza critic a eseurilor lui Eliade despre
mitologie s-au ocupat, printre alii: E. Mieletiski (Poetyka mitu); M. Czerwiski (Mit, magia,
fikcja); J. Wierusz-Kowalski (Dramat a kult), dar i J. Grotowski n filozofia teatrului, astfel
nct concepia mitului lui Eliade este prezent i n tiinele umaniste poloneze.
Capitolul IV
amanism
Tokarski consider c amanismul este cea mai original concepie n lucrrile lui
Eliade. n cartea amanismul i tehnicile arhaice ale extazului, amanismul constituie o
confruntare ntre dou lumi diferite: arhaic i european. Tokarski vorbete despre receptarea
acestei concepii n strintate, enumernd printre altele recenziile lui C. G. Jung, G.
Bachelard, Lienhardt etc. n Polonia, aceast carte a aprut n traducerea lui Krzysztof
Kocjan, la Editura Aletheia n 2011. Demonstrnd o bun cunoatere a temei, Tokarski face i
o scurt prezentare a publicaiilor despre amanism care au aprut naintea lucrrii lui Eliade.
Dup aceea d definiia amanismului conform lui Eliade, prezentndu-l ca fiind un fenomen
religios legat printre altele de toate culturile popoarelor din Siberia i Asia Central, precum i
etimologia termenului de aman. Mai departe, trece la explicarea termenului de zbor
magic. l citeaz pe Eliade spunnd c o prima definiie a acestui fenomen complex, i
poate cel mai puin hazardant, ar fi amanism = tehnica extazului.5 Numai ea constituie un
element comun ntre mitologiile diferite, credine i ritualuri. n continuare, Tokarski scrie c
4
5
The Journal of Bible and Religion, 1996, pp. 235-246.

M. Eliade, amanismul i tehnicile arhaice ale extazului, 2014, p. 20.
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de pe vremea antropologilor V. Bogoraz, M. Witaszewski6 i M.A. Czaplicka7, amanismul

siberian este legat de diferite forme ale isteriei sau ale altei boli psihice, dup care o prezint
pe cea mai cunoscut concepie psihopatologic a amanismului conform lui Eliade , i
anume cea a lui A. Ohlmarks. Este menionat apoi continuarea ei de ctre Wilken, Loelo,
Layard etc.
Tokarski vorbete despre caracteristica fenomenului amanismului care este lipsit de
elasticitate din cauza unor motive att teoretice, ct i practice. Eliade consider extazul
amanist ca o stare unic i proporional intensiv, deoarece o astfel de experien a venit din
yoga. Concepia eliadist este total opus concepiei lui Findensein, acesta identificnd
extazul amanist cu posedarea de ctre fantome.
n lucrarea sa, Tokarski subliniaz opinia lui Eliade, care spune c amanismul, n cel
mai arhaic strat, este o urm a culturii preistorice a vntorilor siberieni, o mrturie a structurii
bazate pe credina n Fiina Suprem Dumnezeu8. Mai departe scrie despre persoana de
aman, care lupt mpotriva demonilor ce tulbur echilibrul psihicului uman. Cercetnd
structura edinei de amanism, Eliade subliniaz coincidena ei cu dramaturgia i funciile
primelor spectacole, care, n viziuni extatice, cutau nceputurile teatrului mondial. Eliade
atrage atenia asupra caracterului dramatic al zborului magic, apropiat dramaturgiei scenice.
Teatrul de avangard din a doua jumtate a sec. XX s-a inspirat de la Eliade, promovnd
ntoarcerea la sursele teatrului. Printre proclamatorii acestei idei a fost i eminentul regizor
polonez i teoretician al teatrului Jerzy Grotowski, care, mpreun cu Richard Schehner i
alii, aspira la aceast idee n grupul Drama Review.
Capitolul V
Interpretarea eliadian a practicilor yoga
La nceputul acestui capitol autorul ncearc s defineasc termenul yoga, ale crui
rdcini provin din India. Eliade a consacrat muli ani cercetrii fenomenului, finaliznd-o cu
o tez de doctorat, Yoga. Essai sur les origines de la mystique indienne. Totodat, Tokarski
scrie c teoria lui Eliade despre yoga l pune n opoziie cu muli cercettori ai Orientului din
Occident, care trateaz yoga ca un fenomen restrns temporal i spaial, legat de o perioad
anume i un teren anume din istoria Indiei, limitndu-l pn la filozofie i psihologie, pe cnd
Eliade vede urmele lui i n etica contemporan a Indiei (Gandhi, V. Bhave), n estetica ei
(Tagore), n politic, economie, religie, viaa de zi cu zi, subliniind importana practiciilor
yoga n popor.
Tokarski menioneaz de asemenea i celelalte lucrri ale lui Eliade despre yoga, i
anume: Techniques du Yoga (Paris, 1954); Immoralit et libert (Paris, 1954); Patanjali et le
Yoga (Paris, 1962), care au fost traduse n cteva limbi strine, constituind astfel o poziie
esenial n literatura mondial yoghin. n Polonia, cele trei lucrri au aprut traduse n anii
urmtori, dup cum urmeaz:
Joga. Niemiertelno i wolno, trad. de Bolesaw Baranowski, red. Tomasz
Ruciski, Varovia 1984, 1997, Ed. PWN;
Techniki jogi, Varovia 2009, Ed. Aletheia, trad. din lb. francez de Beata Biay;
Patadali i joga, red. Jerzy Prokopiuk, Varovia 1994, Ed. Pegaz, Varovia 2004,
Ed. KR, trad. de Ireneusz Kania
Tokarski menioneaz i cele patru concepte fundamentale n spiritualitatea indian:
Karman, maya, nirvana, yoga. Apoi scrie despre tehniciile dobndirii autonomiei prin
Mikoaj Witaszewski (1857-1918) etnolog polonez, se ocupa mai ales de amanism la Iacui.
Maria Antonina Czaplicka (1886-1921) etnograf i geograf polonez. A studiat la Catedra de Antropologie din
cadrul London School of Economics. Autoare a crii Aboriginal Siberia: a study in social anthropology.
8
M.M.Davy, Encyclopdie des mystiques, Paris, 1997, p. 85.
6
7
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concentrarea contiinei asupra unui punct ce poart numele de ekagrata, dup care enumr
cei opt pai n calea practic de a atinge desvrirea. Toate acestea - pe baza Tratatului lui
Patanjali, Yoga Sutra. Apoi, scrie despre geneza i structurile yoga, prezentnd concepiile lui
Patanjali. Conform lui Eliade, tehniciile yoga sunt caracteristice pentru spiritualitatea indian
i se regsesc n hinduism i budism. Cele mai vechi urme de yoga Eliade le vede n Rig
Veda.9 nsui termenul yoga apare pentru prima dat n textele sanscrite Taittiriya Upanishad
i Katha Upanishad. Upanishadele fac parte din Vede (o culegere de texte originare din
vechea Indie) i formeaz scripturile hinduse. O baz de informaii despre yoga este
Mohabharata una dintre cele mai importante dou epopei ale Indiei antice din sec. VII/ V
.H. i Bhagavad Gita. Tokarski dezbate i teoria despre legtura ntre yoga i budism, ce
constituie obiectul capitolului V din cartea lui Eliade Le Yoga. Immoralit et libert, precum
i despre Tantra. Autorul polonez incheie capitolul spunnd c Eliade, cercetnd yoga indian,
a introdus o nou metod de cercetare metapsihoanaliza ncercnd astfel s poarte un
dialog intercultural n mijlocul tiinelor umaniste occidentale.
Capitolul VI
Omul integral
n ultimul capitol, Tokarski scrie despre spectacolul Il sole splende a mezzanotte,
despre tradiia teatral a Orientului, care ne arat imaginile pline de expresivitate ale
folclorului din Asia, amintindu-ne ct de important este simbolul n imaginile artistice. Mai
departe, abordeaz urmtoarele subiecte: cele dou feluri de a vedea lumea: arhaic i modern,
concepia omului arhaic i modern, ciclul circular al timpului, conflictul ntre Istorie i
Cosmos ca o opoziie ntre modernitate i tradiie, teoria omului integral pe deplin
contient de patrimoniul omenirii. Reflectnd asupra timpului sacru, Eliade ne amintete c
timpul laic este i el diversificat, eterogen n sfera sentimentelor. Ca dovad a acestui lucru,
citeaz rezultatele cercetrilor lui Lvy-Brhl. nceputul timpului cutat n tehnicile
religioase i magice este totodat i mijlocul lumii. n Aspects du myth, legnd modul
circular al timpului cu miturile despre nceputul Raiului i despre descompunerea treptat a
lumii, Eliade vorbete despre cosmogoniile greceti.
La finalul capitolului, Tokarski menioneaz sensul propunerii eliadiene de a cuta un
numitor comun al imaginilor arhaice i moderne ale lumii religie i filozofie ilustrnd
povestea rabinului din Cracovia despre care vorbete Eliade n The Quest. History and
Meaning in Religion. Rabinul Eisik din Cracovia s-a dus la Praga n urma unui vis n care i sa spus c va gsi o comoar ascuns sub marele pod din Praga. Cnd a ajuns acolo, i-a dat
seama c podul este pzit zi i noapte. S-a dus la santinel i i-a spus de ce a venit pn aici.
Acesta a bagatelizat problema i, la rndul lui, i-a povestit rabinului despre visul su profetic.
A zis c a visat despre o comoar care se afl n pivnia unui rabin din Cracovia. Rabinul s-a
ntors repede acas, a spat n pivnia lui i a gsit comoara, punnd astfel capt srciei i a
trit fericit pn la adnci btrnei, binecuvntnd santinela din Praga. Sensul povetii este c
adevrata comoar nu se afl niciodat prea departe, ea zace ngropat n ascunziurile cele
mai intime ale propriei noastre fiine.
Incheiere
La finalul volumului su, Tokarski face referire la cartea LEpreuve du Labirynthe:
Entretiens avec Claude-Henri Rocquet (1972), care constituie un fel de ghid n opera
filozofic i artistic a lui Eliade. n Polonia, aceast carte a aprut n traducerea lui Krzysztof
roda, la Editura Sen, Varovia 1992. Motivul labirintului care se repet n aceast oper ne
arat drumul complicat al autorului n cltorile sale de via, dar i cele intelectuale. Tokarski
9
Rig Veda o colecie de imnuri vedice din India antic, dedicat zeitilor rigvedice.
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enumer cele trei lecii pe care i le-a dat India lui Eliade. Prima a gsit-o n Tantra, a doua n
simbol, a treia lecie o numete Eliade descoperirea anului din neolitic. n dialogul cu
Rocquet, Eliade se uit prin aproape o mie de lucrri spre sursele formrii sale spirituale,
merge n pelerinaj spre Himalaya. Tokarski spune c Eliade, oferind ajutor n labirintul
culturii sec. XX, se situeaz contient n rolul Marelui aman. Istoria religiilor la Eliade se
constituie ntr-un fel de iniiere, care s ne ajute n gsirea Firului Ariadnei n labirintul
tiinei computerizate.
Bibliografie
Altizer Th. J. J., 1962, Eliade and Redecovery of the Sacred, Editura The Christian
Scholar.
Czerwiski M., 1973, Varovia, Magia, mit i fikcja, Editura Wiedza Powszechna.
Davy M.M., 1977, Paris, Encyclopdie des mystiques, Editura Seghers.
Eliade M., 2014, Bucureti, amanismul i tehnicile arhaice ale extazului, Editura
Humanitas.
Eliade M., 1993, Varovia, Sacrum, mit, historia, Editura Pastwowy Instytut
Wydawniczy.
Eliade M., 1966, Varovia, Traktat o historii religii, Editura Ksika i Wiedza.
Frazer J., 1980, Bucureti, Creanga de aur, Editura Minerva.
Hamilton K., 1965, Homo Religiosus and Historical Faith, The Journal of Bible of
Religion.
Koakowski L., Religia jako parali czasu, Introducere [n:] Traktat o historii religii,
Editura Ksika i Wiedza.
Luyster R., 1966, The Study of Myth: Two Approaches, The Journal of Bible of
Religion.
Ninik J., 1978, Mit jako kategoria metodologiczna, Kultura i Spoeczestwo.
Tokarski S., 2002, Varovia, Postfa [n:] M. Eliade, Traktat o historii religii, Editura
Ksika i Wiedza.
Tokarski S., 1984, Wrocaw, Eliade i Orient, Editura zakad Narodowy im.
Ossoliskich.
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RELIGIOUS FORMS GENERATED BY THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EROS AND

THANATOS IN CEZAR IVNESCUS POETRY
Valeria CIOAT
Abstract: This paper investigates the way Cezar Ivanescu combines, in his poetic work, eros
and thanatos: love and death. As the poet deciphers the life, he understands the complex way
in which the two terms intertwine. His perspective is a unique set of values that contains
paradoxical trends of thought such as: Buddhism, Christianity, reincarnation, enstasis,
byzantine extasis, medieval courtship rituals, maidens, and knights, all these things coexist in
an imaginary city called Baaad. The central symbol of Cezar Ivanescu`s creation is the fruit
of matter. This fruit is seen as a spiralled out of control way in which matter reproduces
perpetuating the cycle of reincarnation. The image of the sacred is complex. One of the
images of the sacred in Cezar Ivanescu`s poems is that of the Virgin Mary. Her image
contains elements of sanctity and elements of sensuality. She is seen as a proud maiden and
capricious lover. The poet places himself at her feet in a gesture of adoration, worship
combined with sensual love. He is completely dependent on her gestures. In other texts the
poet creates the image of his wife compared with Rachel from the Book of Genesis in the
Bible. This image overlaps the image created by the Christian poet Tertullian in the poem Ad
uxorem (To my wife). The poet`s desire is to capture the complexity of life in all its glory
mixing love with life and death and with many belief systems.
Keywords: Eros, thanathos, reincarnation, Christianity, worship.
Lirica lui Cezar Ivnescu mbin ntr-un mod unic elementele religiilor orientale, cum
ar fi credina n rencarnare, relaia enstaz/ extaz, cu cele ale cretinismului alturi de
elemente ale tradiiilor romneti. Perspectiva operei poetice a lui Cezar Ivnescu este aceea a
erosului urmat dendat de thanatos. Trstur particularizant: poemele sale reprezentative
invit prompt la lectur, dup cum se i las ascultate; concomitent, acioneaz la el (ca la ali
moldoveni) dedemultul i departele, de unde o scenografie plasticizant (turnuri, cavaleri,
castelane), reverberaii, ceremonii i simbolisme, invariante i ecouri cu tente patetice
nlesnind nscrierea n trans-temporal. Frapeaz indicatori ai misterului, vibraii introducnd
n hinduism, n apocalips ori n diverse medievaliti; un extatism de tip bizantin coexist cu
tumultul modern al privelitilor luntrice. Privirile evocatorului n trans merg admirativ spre
cte un grande hispanic, spre vreun principe toscan ori spre vreun nelept oriental; el nsui
devine Don Cezar ca ntr-un lamento cu acest titlu (la moartea unei fetie de unsprezece
ani). Smerenie i iactan difereniaz un personaj complicat, cu zeci de mti, anxios,
afectuos i lucid, asediat de dubii. Poetul, n totul, este imaginea fidel a omului.1 Dup cum
se poate vedea din citatul redat mai sus, omul Cezar Ivnescu este alctuit dintr-o serie de
paradoxuri combinate ca ntr-un colaj. Toate aceste paradoxuri se oglindesc n lirica sa
alctuind un fel singular de a percepe, nelege i interpreta lumea.
Mai multe texte din prolificul volum La Baaad se preteaz la interpretri care au n
vedere interferena dintre culturi. Copilria lui Ario Paradis ! ca s-mi descopr faa din
tristeea/ din groaza de-a o fi pierdut pe-aceea/ numit Nenumita// tu, du aceast cruce cu
Constantin Ciopraga, Cezar Ivnescu neliniti i mitologii, n Daniel Corbu, Cezar Ivnescu n amintirile
contemporanilor, Ed. Pinceps Edit, Iai, 2012, p. 48 49;
1
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trupul tu cel alb/ (ce drag mi-a fost, ce drag mi-e nc, Doamne!)// cum ai lua un lucru de
nimica/ un vas lipsit de trebuin/ ori cum i-ai strnge pru-n agrafe// fr s bagi de seam/
ia-mi viaa/ i mi-o poart// vorbind cu ea de mine/ cu gura ta f iar/ de frgezimea gurii
tale// s atrne viaa mea/ Maria, / c-s un mort!
n acest text se mbin senzualismul cu religiozitatea. Adresarea direct are un destinatar precis: Maria. Din aluziile hieratice putem ghici c Maria din poemul lui Cezar Ivnescu
este cea din Biblie. Crucea se refer la un destin care trebuie mplinit, aa cum Iisus a avut
nevoie de ajutor pentru a-i duce crucea pe Golgota, aa are nevoie i poetul. Aluziile corporale fac trimitere la senzualitatea feminin. Poetul se cere a fi dezlegat de purtarea crucii proprii i i cere iubitei sale s o preia ea, asumndu-i destinul poetului. Preluarea, n mod
contient, a acestui destin, a acestei cruci, nu pare a presupune vreun efort: cum ai lua un
lucru de nimic/ un vas lipsit de trebuin/ ori cum i-ai strnge pru-n agrafe// fr s bagi de
seam/ ia-mi viaa/ i mi-o poart// vorbind cu ea de mine. Ideea central poate fi interpretat
n felul urmtor: mntuirea nu se poate obine dect dac cineva (adic o persoan) din
transcenden ia asupr-i destinul uman. (Aa a fcut Iisus Hristos, din acest motiv s-a
ntrupat). Acceptarea firii omeneti de ctre Iisus Hristos este simbolizat n icoanele
bizantine de tip Iisus Pantocrator prin cromatica vestimentaiei: haina de dedesubt care
simbolizeaz firea dumnezeiasc are culoarea roie, n timp ce haina de deasupra, care
simbolizeaz firea uman, are culoarea albastr. n schimb, n icoanele Maicii Domnului
cromatica este inversat deoarece Fecioara Maria are fire omeneasc peste care mbrac firea
dumnezeiasc odat cu mutarea sa la cer. Imaginea prelucrat n poezia lui Cezar Ivnescu
prezint un soi de rugciune a omului ctre Maica Domnului pentru ca aceasta s preia de la
fiina uman firea ca i cum ar lua un lucru de nimica. Omul se situeaz fa de Maica
Domnului pe poziia unui ndrgostit care depinde de orice cuvnt al iubitei sale: f iar/ de
frgezimea gurii tale// s-atrne viaa mea/ Maria, / c-s un mort!. Condiia uman este
moartea, de aceea poetul este un mort. Izbvirea de moarte este scopul rugciunii. Moartea
este Nenumita, o tem recurent la Cezar Ivnescu. Desprirea de moarte duce la tristee
deoarece moartea e singura condiie cunoscut de fiina uman. Adevrata fa a omului se
ntrevede doar dup eliberarea de tristeea cauzat de absena morii. Absena thanatosului
trebuie neleas ca lipsa repaosului etern la care se gndea Mihai Eminescu. Aceast absen
e o reinterpretare a rencarnrii.
O alt interpretare are n vedere iubirea erotic lipsit de hieratizare. ndrgostitul i
leag destinul de cel al femeii adorate pentru care nu presupune niciun efort s-i acorde puin
atenie adoratorului su. Pentru el, acest mic gest al ei este aductor de mntuire. Singura
posibilitate de a accede la fericire pentru acest ndrgostit este s atrne de fiecare cuvnt al
iubitei sale, cnd aceast dependen nceteaz poetul se acoper cu tristee i groaz. Iubita
este moartea care i preia destinul fiecrei fiine umane. n acest ritual de curtare a domniei
poetul se situeaz n ipostaza unui cavaler care i curteaz iubita de sub balconul turnului.
Sunseri ! Sunt seri, doar tii, Doamne/ d-mi i mie-acea pace-a trupurilor/ tinere pe
drumuri/ n cupola fraged-a imensitii/ cluzii de acele nimicuri enorme/ n acea durat
care singur se srut/ de-atta mulumire/ d-mi i mie-acea siguran criminal/ cu care sngele mi curge val pe gur!
Forma textului e aceea a unei rugciuni, implorarea divin are drept scop gsirea pcii
interioare. Trupurile tinere aflate pe drumuri par s aib acea pace mult cutat de poet. Tinereea este o vrst a marilor proiecte i a tuturor posibilitilor. Planurile tinereii sunt puse n
practic datorit unei sigurane (i a unei incontiene) specifice vrstei. Cltoria este un
simbol al vieii (al marii treceri). Lipsa de ndoial, specific tinereii, se pierde odat cu
trecerea timpului. Timpul care macin oasele aduce i o alt viziune asupra existenei.
Nuanele devin mai evidente i certitudinea se estompeaz. Sngele curgnd val pe gur este
un semn al bolii, prin urmare, poetul se situeaz pe sine n opoziie cu aceste trupuri tinere,
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Issue no. 6/2015
pline de pace i ncredere n propriile fore. Curgerea sngelui poate fi neleas i ca o

scurgere a vieii din trupul care rmne, astfel, vlguit. Dac sngele este vzut ca spirit,
scurgerea sa semnaleaz instalarea morii i intrarea n acelai cerc vicios al rencarnrii.
Tinerii se las cluzii de nimicuri enorme deoarece, datorit lipsei de experien, cad n
plasa unor credine false. Odat cu instalarea maturitii, trupul se debilizeaz, n schimb,
apare discernmntul care ajut la separarea macului de nisip adic, separarea adevrului de
minciun. Cupola fraged-a imensitii sugereaz fragilitatea vieii, n general, i a tinereii,
n special. Doar trupurile sunt tinere, sufletele sunt btrne, tinereea trupurilor determin
alegerea unor ci greite.
Rodul este un simbol central al poeziei lui Cezar Ivnescu. Pentru poet rodul, adic,
materia care se propag mai departe crescnd, devine un fel de a descifra lumea perisabil
fr ncercarea de a se refugia din aceast perisabilitate a materiei. n alctuirea materiei el
vede att viaa ct i moartea, viziune care nu l sperie deoarece se simte prezena unui
amestec de putreziciune i divin. Viaa i moartea se conin una pe cealalt i se subneleg. n
poezia baladesc se gsesc i elemente religioase care apar i n poezia popular. n plus,
Nicolae Manolescu sesizeaz o asemnare ntre volumul Muzeon i Fratele Nostru Soarele a
lui Francesco dÀsisi.2 Imaginea femeii e una ambigu: avem pe de o parte femeia-lume care
pngrete inocena i pe de alt parte imaginea fecioarei, cele dou imagini suprapunndu-se
n crearea unei singure fiine.
Pe de alt parte, rodul poate fi interpretat drept o ciudat ngemnare ntre eros i
thanatos aa cum observ Marie Bonaparte: Una din trsturile cele mai constante ale lui
Eros e c l trte dup sine pe fratele su Thanatos.3 Rodul este propagarea necontrolat a
materiei cu ajutorul senzualismului i al rencarnrii. ntr-att iubirea cheam necontenit
moartea, nct departajarea devine cvasi-imposibil. Acionnd ntr-un simultaneism
inextricabil, radical, cu antecedene n straturile ascunse ale Eului nsingurat, fora lor de
contrasens deconcerteaz, devasteaz i marcheaz. Angelicele frumusei dantescopetrarchiste licresc n deprtri; sunt nite idealiti pan-umane. Enigmaticele fete de la
Baaad, cu nume neobinuite (ca la Dimitrie Stelaru) Stribii, Mii, Magnoline, Briene,
Rimaya, Ilen, Lo (lita), Dora, Sakti - , apariii vibratile, hieratice, nu atenueaz contiina
finitudinii; ca atare, discursul liric se clatin sub arcul luciditii n alert. Pe scurt,
contemplatorul de la Baaad, nereinut ncorporeaz ipostaze ale iubirii din toate timpurile i
din toate spaiile, punnd n pagin, spiritul lui Denis de Rougement (din Les mythes de
lamour), afeciune dezinteresat (agap), iubire ginga (storge), dar i dorin (pathos).
Psihanalizabil, erosul acesta agitat, motiv de confesiune zigzagat, sfrete ntr-un miraj
romantic plurifuncional, miraj rezumabil n ideea de demonic carnal-spiritual.4
Da capo ! tu care nu crezi n existena etern a morii/ fiindc nu ai destul via ca s
poi muri/ tu care nu crezi n existena poemului/ ca unic revoluie a sngelui/ pregtete-te
s-i tai beregata/ i vei simi/ cum intri n acel val glgitor/ a crui tineree-i/ btrneea fr
de moarte/ scrie-i cu sngele-i/ i vei nelege/ c sngele-i spirit! Existena etern a
morii este o referire la rencarnare, iar moartea din versul al doilea este extincia final,
ieirea din ciclul rencarnrilor. Numai intensitatea tririi poate duce la o rupere a cercului
morii i al vieii. Poemul este o cale de izbvire: unic revoluie a sngelui. Sngele este
simbolul spiritului i al vieii deoarece este dinamic i se pune n micare mai bine odat cu
tririle intense. Prin sinucidere se declaneaz seria nesfrit a rencarnrilor. Abordarea
invocaiei e conceput n scopul de a sublinia profunzimea convingerilor celui care vorbete.
Manolescu, Nicolae, Istoria critic a literaturii romne, Ed. Paralela 45, Piteti, 2008;
Marie Bonaparte, Chronos, Eros, Thanatos, 1953, apud Theodor Codreanu Cezar Ivnescu - transmodernul,
Ed. Princeps Edit, Iai, 2012, p. 81;
4
Constantin Ciopraga, op. cit., p. 52
2
3
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Issue no. 6/2015
Imperativul are rol persuasiv, un fel de dac nu m crezi, ncearc pe pielea ta i vei vedea c
am dreptate. Tinereea i btrneea se confund nemaiputnd fi desprite. Tinereea trupului
nu mai este tineree deoarece este btrnee a sufletului. Imortalitatea este o condiie primar a
sufletului. Acel val glgitor se vrea a fi, fr ndoial, nesfritul lan al rencarnrilor.
Apocalipsis cum figuris ! nu pot s spun c-am fost/ nemulumit de legtura noastr,/
era perfect n attea privine/ dar ncepea cu gustul sfritului./ memoria o ine i o
expulzeaz/ cu acea spaim fatal/ de lucrurile ultime i definitive./ bezmetici ca-ntr-un
ciclotron/ nu aveam vreme s numim/ iubirea moartea dect iubi-oarte/ eram ntru att fr
speran/ fr urmare fr niciun rost/ c totu-ncremeni-n-afara vremii/ ntr-un adagio fr
capt/ plnsoare zugrumat lent/ dintr-o bucat care-i zice/ Apocalipsis cum figuris!
Sfritul unei relaii amoroase este nfiat sub forma unei apocalipse. Titlul face
aluzie la lucrarea lui Albrecht Drer, dar schimb subiectul. Iubirea ncepe cu gustul
sfritului, deci este un amor sortit eecului, dei nu pot s spun c-am fost nemulumit de
legtura noastr. n acest text (ca n multe altele scrise de Cezar Ivnescu) iubirea se
contopete cu moartea. Poetul inventeaz un cuvnt nou pentru acest sentiment iubi-oarte.
Poemul este asemnat cu o bucat muzical (mai exact termenul adagio se refer la prima
parte dintr-un balet care const ntr-un duet i este executat pe o muzic lent). Folosirea
termenului adagio are dublu sens: are n vedere att tempoul lent, ct i cuplul care danseaz.
Relaia de iubire este vzut ca un pas de deux. Moartea i iubirea se succed ntr-un mod
rapid, ca n spiralele unui ciclotron. i cei doi pot fi vzui unul simboliznd iubirea cellalt,
moartea i din legtura lor reiese noul sentiment iubi-oarte. Acest tumult al tririi las fiina
cu un gust al inutilitii i al lipsei de speran: eram ntru att fr speran/ fr urmare
fr niciun rost. Timpul nceteaz a-i mai exercita influena asupra cuplului i cei doi rmn
suspendai ntr-un adagio fr capt.
ntr-o interpretare secundar, iubita poetului poate fi nsi moartea de care se desparte
prin ruperea cercului nencetatelor rencarnri. n toat opera sa este prezent moartea,
legtura cu ea este pn la un punct de nenlturat. Gndul la moarte l nsoete pe Cezar
Ivnescu la fel cum l nsoete pe monahul ortodox. n loc s priveasc la snul iubitei, poetul
se preocup de moarte. Acest gnd nu este unul suicidar, ci meditaia asupra morii ncearc
s duc la depirea acesteia, ns n opera lui Cezar Ivnescu (cel puin n aceast faz a
creaiei sale) moartea nu poate fi depit, ea constituie doar un adagio fr capt ncremenit
n afara vremii. Moartea e pentru poet o iubit de care vrea s se despart, dar nu prea
reuete.
Ad uxorem ! dormi tnr carne/ n suflet dect carnea mai tnr/ suflet al Rahilii
mele/ ce mna nu i-l poate atinge/ somnul tu e mai lin/ ca al morilor ce ne-au prsit/ (i
acei care ne prsesc arat/ c nu au simit pentru noi/ ndestul iubire)/ somnul tu e mai
curat/ i mai adevrat ca al lor/ cci n el poi visa-ntreg/ visul morii./ creti, crinul meu,/
atta duhoare/ i singurtate a morii/ s aib un sens!
Referina la filosoful cretin Tertulian (care a compus dou scrisori dedicate soiei sale
n care descrie frumuseea vieii conjugale n concepia cretin) este transparent nc din
titlu; alte referine la cretinism apar i n text: Rahila este soia cea iubit a lui Iacov. Iubirea
este, deci prezent n relaia amintit. Carnea e vzut, n timp ce sufletul nu poate fi atins.
Remarca din parantez este un semn de extrem egoism n viziunea lui Friedrich Michael 5, pe
bun dreptate a vedea n dispariia de pe lume a rudelor drept un semn de ne-iubire fa de
noi nine e dovada suprem de egoism. Somnul devine un alt simbol al morii, el conine n
visul su ntreaga putere a acesteia.
Michael,
Friedrich
Experierea
enstazei
n
poezia
http://tiuk.reea.net/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=2847
5
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Se poate foarte uor observa c de-a lungul operei sale, poetul manifest o predilecie
pentru cteva teme: via moarte iubire. crend un univers din cteva teme i obsesii
generale ale liricii, poetul l aprofundeaz continuu, i extrage structura de adncime innd
cumpn dreapt ntre sentiment i idee, ntre abstract i concret. Pornind ori lsnd impresia
c pornete de la o situaie concret, poezia este susinut permanent de o tensiune ctre
categorial. Antifraza ascunde frecvent concepte, simboluri mitice, aluzii la situaii i figuri
arhetipale. Referinele livreti se pot detecta la tot pasul, o elegie poate fi, de pild, o
consacrare a unui topos binecunoscut6
Rod ! i aceast biseric sub care/ pmntul e rou ca o ar de raci/ nimeni n-o
poate rupe ca pe/ un mr, dei-n ea-i/ mai mult linite ca-n/ miezul mrului:/ dar numai linitea-i oare/ mprti n absoluta/ rotunjime?
Biserica e rotund ca un simbol al perfeciunii, dar nu poate fi divizat aa cum un mr
poate fi rupt n jumti. Acest spaiu sacru nu se afl undeva pe pmnt, ci n adncul
sufletului, un topos ireductibil i indivizibil. Mrul e o referin abstract la interdicia
originar din paradis. Rotunjimea e un simbol al perfeciunii (sfera). Pmntul este rou din
cauza sngelui care e spirit, dar i ciclu nesfrit de rencarnri. ara de raci este o metafor
care are n vedere rencarnarea, aceasta fiind neleas ca o etern rentoarcere pe acest
pmnt, sufletele regreseaz n permanen, naintarea n timp nu duce la o nelegere mai
profund a existenei i nici la gsirea unei soluii n ceea ce privete moartea. Biserica e un
simbol al nirvanei (ruperea cercului ncarnrilor) sau biserica sugereaz i spaiul intim din
inima omului care i triete enstaza n deplin linite, rupndu-se de restul lumii
reprezentat de lumea de raci. Aceast biseric de pe acest pmnt nu poate fi scizionat
pentru c trebuie s aib o legtur direct un fir rou cu transcendena. Linitea din biseric
poate fi legat de isihie care nseamn o linitire a sufletului sau de pustietate. ntrebarea
retoric din final arat c linitea e mprti adic, e absolut, domnete, iar absoluta
rotunjime sugereaz perfeciunea i feminitatea. (biserica e vzut ca mireasa lui Hristos).
ntrebarea poate sugera c, n afar de linite, n rotunjimea absolut poate domni i alt
sentiment n afar de linite. (Parc poetul ar spune c trebuie s mai fie i altceva!). n spaiul
din adncul inimii se gsete moartea: n miezul mrului se afl seminele care sunt sortite
germinrii, se tie c n lirica lui Cezar Ivnescu cea care rodete este moartea (moartea care
se reproduce la nesfrit prin natere i rencarnare). Nesigurana exprimat de interogaia
retoric trimite spre experierea linitii absolute.
Enstaza este semnalat, chiar dac nu e numit cu acest termen i de Marin Mincu:
La Cezar Ivnescu interiorizarea strii de durere apare purificat de orice urme retorice.
Cezar Ivnescu i autocontempl condiia uman individual cu exultan. Poemele lui par
rentoarceri ale lucrurilor spre sinele lor, dezvluindu-le n stare genuin, umezite de
afectivitate. Intuitiv, odat cu sentimentul trecerii, poetul simte palpitul vital, i-l triete
intens. Aspiraia erotic e permanentizat ca o cale de rezisten n faa morii.7
Copilria lui Ario Paradis ! s se topeasc trupul rvnit ca untdelemnul/ s curgncet spre mine s-mi scalde carnea-n el/ ca sex matern s m redea acum i-n ceasul morii
mele// tiu, acest trup schimbat ca untdelemnul/ e doar srutul Morii ori al lui Dumnezeu/ cel
care zilnic carnea ne-o suge spre-a fi singur// cci carne-n carnea noastr a fost i l-am gonit/
ca pe-un copil din pntec spre-a fi n lume singur/ acum i-n ceasul morii mele!
Trupul galben ca untdelemnul este un leit motiv al liricii lui Cezar Ivnescu. Corpul
este interanjabil datorit ciclului rencarnrilor, prin acest proces, arheul poate ajunge s aib
trupul dorit. n sensul comun prin trupul dorit se nelege fiina iubit. n acest caz trupul
dorit nu nseamn altceva dect asumarea altei viei dintr-un ir infinit. Cele dou sensuri
6
7
Alexiu, Lucian, Ideografii lirice contemporane, Ed. Facla, Timioara, 1977, p. 108
Mincu, Marin, Poezie i generaie, Ed. Eminescu, Bucureti, 1975, p. 150;
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menionate mai sus ne se exclud reciproc, dovad stau versurile s se topeasc trupul rvnit
ca untdelemnul/ s curg-ncet spre mine s-mi scalde carnea-n el. Aluzia ultim e aproape
sexual. Angajarea n reproducerea irului ncarnrilor aduce dup sine o plcere senzual.
Apropierea de moarte este semnalat prin culoarea galben, pe msur ce nainteaz n timp,
trupurile se apropie de divinitate, se hieratizeaz. Acest proces este simbolizat prin culoare
(galbenul este culoarea cerii din care se fac lumnrile i a untdelemnului ambele fiind
folosite n biseric/ galbenul este i culoarea sfintelor moate). mbtrnirea e vzut ca o
topire a trupului pentru ca sufletul s poat deveni mai uor vizibil. La fel cum lumnarea se
consum spre a lumina i trupul curge spre moarte. Odat cu venirea morii sufletul se nate
din nou ntr-o alt via, astfel moartea devine un sex matern. Moartea (cu majuscul) este
cauzat de izgonirea lui Dumnezeu din noi, din carnea omului. Odat cu pcatul originar
Dumnezeu a fost izgonit din trupul omului, iar alungarea omului din paradis nu a fost dect o
consecin logic a refuzului omului de a-l avea pe Dumnezeu n sine. Dumnezeu zilnic
carnea ne-o suge pentru a ne re-integra n fiina sa, pentru a realiza unirea dintre om i divin
de dinainte de cderea n pcat. Momentul ultim al vieii este pomenit de mai multe ori cu
formula din rugciunea Nsctoare de Dumnezeu: acum i-n ceasul morii mele. Aceast
formul are rolul de a-l plasa pe om n eternitatea relaiei cu Dumnezeu. Exprimarea spre-a fi
n lume singur se refer la om deoarece este urmat de acum i-n ceasul morii mele.
Dumnezeu nu poate fi singur pentru c el e o trinitate. Dumnezeu este singur n sensul c este
unic Iisus Hristos este numit cel unul nscut, dar i datorit faptului c omul nu vrea s-i
urmeze calea spre paradis. Untdelemnul este un simbol, acesta ajut n slujba Sf. Maslu la
ungerea bolnavilor cu scop tmduitor. Un trup ca untdelemnul este sublimat, eliberat de
elementul perisabil.
Lirica lui Cezar Ivnescu suprapune sensurile, ambiguiznd aa-zisul mesaj al textului
poetic iubirea este moarte, moartea este via, iubirea apare n toate accepiunile termenului,
astfel nct opera se vrea complex n ncercarea sa de a captura sensurile existenei.
Bibliografie:
Ivnescu, Cezar, Muzeon, Ed. Eminescu, Bucureti, 1979;
Ivnescu, Cezar, Fragmente din Muzeon, Ed. Cartea romneasc, Bucureti, 1982;
Ivnescu, Cezar, La Baaad, Ed. Cartea romneasc, Bucureti, 1979;
Ivnescu, Cezar, Cele mai frumoase poezii, Ed. Albatros, Bucureti, 1985;
Codreanu, Theodor, Cezar Ivnescu transmodernul, Ed. Princeps Edit, Iai, 2012;
Corbu, Daniel, Cezar Ivnescu n amintirile contemporanilor, Ed. Princeps Edit, Iai,
2012;
7. Michael, Friedrich Experierea enstazei n poezia lui Cezar Ivnescu,
http://tiuk.reea.net/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=2847
8. Mincu, Marin, Poezie i generaie, Ed. Eminescu, Bucureti, 1975.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
POSDRU/159/1.5/S/133652.
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Issue no.6/2015
THE EVOLUTION OF THE CONCEPT OF LITERARY HISTORY. THEORETICAL

DELIMITATIONS
Roxana-Oana MNDRU
Abstract: History of literature, as a concept, has known a complex evolution since its
inception. From being just a list of authors and their works, to being considered the same
thing as cultural history, to having been separated completely from literary criticism and
hermeneutics, it has now reached a stage where it is impossible to perceive it as a standalone
concept, its very core being undeniably connected to all the other disciplines that apply to
literature. This studys object is to observe the evolution of the very concept of literary
history, how it evolved both in the western culture and in the Romanian one and to bring
examples of how different literary and cultural movements have shaped the wayin which we
perceive this concept today. Last but not least, through a number of Romanian literary
historians and critics, this study is proposing to offer some insight in the evolution of the
concept of literary history in the Romanian literary world and not only.
Keywords: literature, positivism, history, concept, evolution
Potrivit lui Adrian Marino, noiunea de istorie a literaturii st sub semnul unui
echivoc fundamental: obiectul este de multe ori confundat cu disciplina i cu metoda de
studiu. n primul sens, istoria literaturii nseamn totalitatea operelor literare aprute de-a
lungul istoriei, n succesiune, pe o perioad determinat. n cel de-al doilea sens, istoria
literaturii sau istoria literar definete o disciplin, o metod, o tiin a spiritului a crei
tehnic urmeaz a fi definit. Planurile sunt radical diferite, chiar contradictorii: istoria
literaturii nu este istorie n timp ce istoria literaturii nu este literatur. Cum se explic
acest paradox?
Adrian Marino l explic n dou puncte. n primul rnd, obiectul istoriei literare e n
mod necesar opera literar ca fenomen estetic. nti au aprut operele, abia apoi nevoia de
istorici. Exist opere literare care se succed n timp, care se cer recunoscute i studiate ca
atare. De unde i necesitatea fundamental a istoriei literare de a se fundamenta pe un concept
estetic, pe o definiie a literaturii. Fr clarificarea prealabil a specificului cultural literar,
nu poate fi precizat nici obiectul, i, n funcie de el, nici metoda istoriei literaturii ca istorie a
artei literare1.
Este o situaie analogic cu critica literar, disciplin de aceeai substan. n esen,
istoria literar este fie estetic, fie nu exist. Indiferent dac privim concepia mai veche a
istoriei literare, ca istorie a aa-numitelor Beaux Lettres, a poezie (nu i a literaturii), n sensul
lui Croce i al altor puriti, al capodoperelor (cum susinea i Mihail Dragomirescu) sau pur i
simplu al operelor care realizeaz frumosul literar, concluzia rmne la Adrian Marino una
singur i anume: istoria literar se ocup n mod esenial de fenomenele estetico-literare.
Altfel n-ar avea nici un sens s se proclame ca fiind o istorie literar. Obiectul i impune
exigene proprii2.
n al doilea rnd, Adrian Marino susine c obiectul istoriei literare, opera literar,
consituie n acelai timp un fenomen estetic i istoric sau mai precis, un obiect estetic, cu un
1
2
Adrian Marino, Istoria literar, n Anuar de lingvistic i istorie literar, XX, Cluj, 1969, pp. 2-3.
Ibidem, pp. 3-4.
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anumit orizont istoric, ntr-o anume situaie istoric. Crile, fr excepie, sunt integrale
unei deveniri, unui flux istoric (de unde i ideea evoluiei), au un miez istoric. ntr-un
moment istoric, ntotdeauna unic, apare o oper care rspunde cu mijloace literare unei
singure situaii. Mai nti, prin nsi existena sa, de oper conceput i ivit la un moment
dat. Este ea i numai ea, acum i nu alt dat3.
n terminologia german este personalitatea literar ca Zeitpunkt, trit i transfigurat
literar, mod de a concilia particularul i generalul n literatur. Prin urmare, istoria literar se
va ocupa de aceast dubl realitate estetico-istoric, n cadrul creia elementul estetic se
istoricizeaz, iar cel istoric se estetizeaz4.
De unde necesitatea unei duble investigaii: ca realitate estetic individual, opera
literar presupune examenul critico-estetic, n timp ce ca realitate istoric, impune analiza
istoric. Din aceast condiie profund ambigu, istoria literar nu poate iei. Situaia este att
de grav nct unii se ndoiesc de nsi posibilitatea existenei istoriei literare. n timp ce alii
doresc construirea a dou tipuri de istorie literar, perfect distincte.
Istoria literaturii ca fenomen estetic nu este unul i acelai lucru cu istoria operelor
literare concrete, n succesiunea i raporturile lor istorice. Planurile se ntreptrund dar
direcia rmne divergent: istoria artei literaturii duce spre studiul istoric al tipurilor,
normelor i procedurilor estetice, n timp ce istoria operelor literare tinde spre rezolvarea
problemei de genez, interdependen i necesitate literar sub toate aspectele. Numai c n
acest mod se ajunge la o contradicie teribil: ca s studiezi elementul istoric al operei trebuie
s l izolezi pe cel estetic, apoi s l integrezi unei serii, s-l raportezi unui antecedent. n felul
acesta, unitatea indisolubil, estetic-istoric a operei literare primete o dubl lovitur:
extragerea elementului istoric rupe sau ignor coeziunea structurii literare, ceea ce
echivaleaz cu negarea ei. n timp ce raportarea la unul sau mai multe antecedente ignor sau
neglijeaz evenimentul capital al operei ca unicat irepetabil. De unde rezult c a face istorie
literar nseamn a distruge opera literar. Ceea ce, n termeni paradoxali, duce la concluzia
c istoria literar neag istoria literaturii. Metoda i anuleaz obiectul 5.
Definim, firete, o situaie-limit. Termenul de istorie literar apare abia n secolul al
XVII-lea, n 1659, cu Prodromus historiae litterariae a lui Peter Lambek i mult timp aceasta
constituie un simplu i minor capitol al istoriei propriu-zise, precum la Voltaire, n Sicle de
Louis XIV, n capitolul XXXIII, Des Beaux Arts. Dar i aceast faz n evoluia sa, cu
nceputurile mult mai rudimentare, cu simple niruiri de autori i cri sub form de anale,
reprezentri biografice, de viei ilustrate, inventare, cataloage, dicionare, enciclopedii
culegeri de documente i bibliografii sau apologii de diferite tipuri. Toate afirm ideea c
operele literare aparin trecutului din a crui uitare trebuiesc salvate prin istorie6.
Opera literar este un fenomen istoric, un eveniment, o dat nscris n istorie. n
rezumat, opera literar este deci: capitol de istorie, obiect de istorie, metod istoric.
Pozitivismul secolului al XIX-lea definete istoria literar ca tiin a faptelor literare
i a cauzalitii lor, cu excluderea sau ignorarea evalurii estetice. Istoria literar trebuie s
descopere i s adune doar fapte literare, s culeag despre ele toate documentele posibile, s
cunoasc i s reconstituie aceste fapte, s le restituie aa cum au fost, s le claseze
cronologic, n diferite perioade, coli, curente, generaii i s ridice pe baza acestora explicaia
lor cauzal, le comment et le pourquoi, s descopere legile i direcia evoluiei literare. n
toate aceste operaii, textul literar rmne obiectul unui act de cunoatere, simplu document
istoric, considerat i analizat ca atare. Exemplul romnesc tipic al acestei istoriografii literare
3
Ibidem, pp. 3-4.

Ibidem, p. 5.
5
Ibidem, pp. 5-6.
6
Ibidem, p. 7.
4
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este oferit de factologiile lui G. Bogdan-Duic. Este cazul s amintim c i Mihail

Dragomirescu, prin Critica tiinific i Eminescu din 1906, se numr printre primii critici
romni pozitiviti7.
Greelile abordrii pozitiviste n istoria literaturii sunt mai multe, dup cum le
identific Adrian Marino. Pe deoparte avem documentarismul i transformarea mijlocului n
scop i a erudiiei n simpl acumulare de date. Progresul i raiunea istoriei literare n
pozitivism echivaleaz cu strngerea empiric de date i documente. Pe de alt parte avem
fragmentarismul, analiza opus sintezei, faptul izolat opus viziunii totalitare, detaliul opus
generalizrii. Lipsa unei singure tiri ar anula ntreaga construcie. n masa documentelor n-ar
fi ngduit nici selecia, nici structura. Totul rmne steril, pulverizat. Cu aceast mentalitate,
monografia unui scriitor devine aproape imposibil. n al treilea rnd, scientismul promoveaz
cultivarea iluziei aplicrii metodelor tiinelor naturii la literatur, parodia ideei de
cauzalitate, legitate, exactitate. Opera literar ar fi efectul necesar al unui ascendent
constant. Descoperirea unei influene explic opera. Literatura, n toate aceste mprejurri,
rmne simplu reflex, epifenomen, instituie sau funcie social (producie, comunicare,
consumaie), de unde i anexarea criticii i a istoriei literare la sociologie. Este o idee
recurent n secolul al XIX-lea i n primele decenii ale secolului XX, ea aprnd rnd pe rnd
la Gaston Bachelard, Lucien Goldman i Roland Bhartes. n pozitivism nu exist dect tiina
generalului, iar opera literar este particular prin definiie: fenomen estetic unic, irepetabil8.
A patra caren a metodei pozitiviste n ceea ce privete istoria literar o reprezint,
potrivit lui Adrian Marino, evoluionismul, iluzia dezvoltrii literare n cadrul unei istorii
naturale a spiritului. Rene Welleck merge n lucrarea sa Conceptul evoluiei n istoria literar
pn la a face o analogie a evoluiei literare la evoluiile biologice, de la embrion la organism.
n realitate ns, n opinia lui Marino, literatura nu cunoate una, ci multiple evoluii, iar
procesul istoric nu este uniform. Nu numai c istoria literaturii nu verific legea evoluiei a lui
Spencer, de la omogen la heterogen, ci pare chiar contrar acesteia. La suprafa se contureaz
o linie oarecare, prin fenomen de repetiie, analoag verigilor unui lan. n interior ns,
spiritul creator este mereu inedit, realizat prin momente de discontinuitate, de ruptur9.
Alte dou carene ale pozitivismului susinute de Adrian Marino, mai minore de
aceast dat, sunt obiectivismul i indiferena estetic. n cazul obiectivismului, dac acesta ar
fi aplicat, ar nsemna c istoria literar i propune doar s informeze, s documenteze, nu s
aprecieze, s orienteze didactic sau s creeze. Cea mai grav insuficien ar fi ns indiferena
estetic, care decurge logic din toate aceste carene menionate mai sus. Pozitivismul istoric
ignor elementele particulare, originale ale literaturii. Obiectul studiului nu este realitatea
literar a textelor ci doar aspectul lor heterogen. Preocuparea de valoare fiind absent, ierarhia
lipsete. Operele minore vor fi aezate pe acelai plan cu operele majore10.
Nesatisfctoarea este ns, n opinia lui Marino, i nelegera istoriei literare ca istorie
a culturii, dei mult vreme ea a constituit un real progres. Ct de dificil este automatizarea
nu contextual ci esenial a literaturii rezult i din problema istoriei literare anterioare, care
vorbete n continuare de o istorie a literaturii religioase, a tiparului, a focarului de cultur11.
La noi, cel care face din istoria literaturii apanajul istoriei culturii este chiar subiectul
principal al acestei lucrri de sintez, Nicolae Iorga. Istoria literar pe care o scrie acesta
ncepe cronologic cu istoria literaturii vechi, incluzndu-i n aceast categorie pe cronicarii
moldoveni i pe cei munteni, dei, n afara culegerii intitulate O sam de cuvinte... i aezat
nainte cronicii lui Ion Neculce, toate aceste scrieri au caracter strict istoric i evenimenial,
7
Ibidem, pp. 7-8.

Ibidem, p. 9.
9
Ibidem, pp. 10-11.
10
Ibidem, pp. 10-12.
11
Ibidem, p. 10.
8
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fr valoare estetic sau literar. Iorga se ocup i de istoria primelor cri publicate la noi, la
nceput n limba slavon i mai apoi n limba latin i mult mai trziu n cea romn, fcnd
practic o istorie a tiparului la noi12.
Continu mai apoi cu o istorie a literaturii religioase, dedicnd capitole ntregi nu
numai lucrrilor n sine, ci i ierahilor Bisericii care au nlesnit publicarea acestor volume,
care, crede Iorga, sunt indispensabile n reconstituirea istoriei literaturii romneti. Pe lng
aceste capitole mai avem volume ntregi dedicate literaturii religioase precum i focarelor
de cultur reprezentate de mnstiri. Acestora li se adaug importana pe care Iorga o d
traducerilor din alte limbi. Nicolae Iorga este cazul tipic de instaurator al unei noi direcii n
istoria literaturii. Pentru el, istoria literaturii unei epoci nseamn istoria tuturor celor scrise n
acea epoc. El nu face deci o delimitare pe criterii estetice, ci mai degrab pe criterii sociale si
culturale. Fiind el nsui, nu numai un istoric al culturii, ci i un creator al acesteia n
societatea romneasc a acelor vremuri, Iorga nu face simple liste de scriitori i opere literare
cum fceau pozitivitii dinaintea lui. El nu face nici o istorie estetic a literaturii, ci de-a
dreptul o istorie a culturii, ncepnd de la literatura popular rural, continund cu o istorie a
scrisului, a tiparului, a limbii, a folcorului, a traducerilor, a literaturii religioase i aa mai
departe. O critic pe care nu i-o putem aduce lui Iorga este lipsa de profunzime. n ncercarea
sa de a face o istorie complet el a mers peste tot i a adunat toate datele care i se preau
importante i le-a compilat ntr-o sintez de dimensiuni uriae13.
Ceea ce i lipsete ns cu adevrat istoriei literare a lui Iorga este o component
estetic clar. Dei emite anumite judeci de valoare, n special n volumele de istorie a
literaturii dedicate sfritului de secol XIX i nceputului de secol XX, ele nu au profunzimea
analitic sau miestria critic a unui Lovinescu sau Clinescu. Iorga analizeaz pur i simplu
scriitorii i opera lor din trei ipostaze: contribuia acestora la istoria cultural a rilor
Romne, modul n care realitile sociale i politice ale epocilor n care au trit i scris le-au
influenat opera i, nu n ultimul rnd, dac cele scrise de ei au influenat n vreun fel pe
contemporanii lor sau generaiile care vor urma, adic impactul social i cultural al operei
lor14.
Primul care ncearc s se rup de aceast tradiie purtat de Iorga, cnd acesta mai era
nc n via dar devenise mai puin activ n domeniul literar, este Ovid Densusianu cu a sa
Literatur romn modern din 1921.
Apele se despart, ns definitiv odat cu Istoria literaturii romne a lui George
Clinescu din 1941. Fr ndoial c literatura aparine culturii. Ea se dezvolt n cadrul i pe
fundalul su. i trage o parte din sev din substana sa. Dar n acelai timp, n aceast sev,
literatura introduce specificitate i valoarea sa esenial, distinct de celelalte forme de
cultur. Nu este totui adevrat c istoria literar urmeaz soarta ideii de literatur.
Avem o dualitate: istorie literar sau istorie a literaturii. ntr-o prima ipostaz, istoria
literar devine, n mod necesar, depozitara artei literare, a procedeelor i a formelor specifice
literare, a modului de expresie literar, analizat n totalitatea conceptelor sale. Este o istorie
literar fr autor, limitat la migraia procedeelor tehnice, a formelor, temelor, a genurilor
literare, analoag cercetrii lui Wolffin din istoria artelor plastice, unde eroii sunt stilurile:
Goticul, Renaterea, Barocul. Momentul de mare strlucire a acestei istorii literare aparine
colii Formale Ruse. Originalitatea concepiei din perspectiva istoriei literare st n explicare
mecanismului formelor, trecerea de la static la dinamic, de la descriptiv la istoric. Cauzalitatea
profund e surprins n mecanismul ideilor, dinamismul interior al sistemelor literare i n
conexiunea acestor elemente. Formalismul istoric, dei excelent n teorie i recomandat de
12
Ibidem, p. 17.
Dan Zamfirescu, N. Iorga- Etape ctre o monografie, Editura Eminescu, Bucureti, 1981, pp. 70-77.
14
Ibidem, pp. 77-78.
13
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Issue no. 6/2015
numrai adepi ai acestuia din rndul criticilor, istoricilor i eseitilor literari, are ns puini
adepi efectivi n practic15.
n a doua ipotez, istoria literaturii ca obiect, operele literare n succesiune constituie
aceast istorie a operelor literare. Obiectul ambelor discipline e opera literar individual,
opera original, capodopera n limbajul lui Mihail Dragomirescu16.
Se cuvine s facem o delimitare terminologic a unui numr de termeni cu care vom
lucra comparativ i coplementar, n ceea ce privete conceptul de istorie literar, nainte s ne
avntm n analiza acestei ramuri i n interpretarea particular a istoriei literare. Pe deoparte,
teoria literar primete o dubl definiie fie ca fiind o disciplin teoretic asupra literaturii n
sens larg, fie o disciplin special ce reia vechea denumire de poetic17.
Pe de alt parte, estetica literar are ca obiect modul difereniat n care anumite
probleme generale se pun n literatur, fie c vorbim de compoziia operei literare, curentele
literare, procesul de creaie n literatur sau probleme receptrii, dar i de fapte proprii
literaturii ca i art a cuvntului. Teoria literar se difereniaz de estetica literar pe criteriul
opoziiei dintre sistematic i simultan, pe deoparte, i necesar i istoric pe de alt parte. n
acelai timp, teoria literar devine o cercetare a principiilor, categoriilor, criteriilor literare, n
timp ce istoria i critica literar lucreaz cu opere consacrate, n succesiune i procesualitate n
cazul istoriei literare sau static i separat n cazul criticii literare. Revenind, i critica i istoria
literar recunosc astzi existena valorii18.
Deci explicit i implicit ele recunosc necesitatea valorificrii, selectrii i ierarhizarii
operelor literare. Dificultatea nu este teoretic ci pur practic, ntruct cei mai muli istorici
literari, lipsii de sensibilitate literar, incapabili s formuleze judeci critice, sunt tentai s
escamoteze dimensiunea estetic a ecuaiei limitndu-se la o simpl descriere a operei. Din
aceast cauz, perspectiva critico-estetic a istoriei literare tinde s fie uneori ignorat.
George Clinescu formuleaz o opinie mpotriva acestei atitudini: Istoria literar este o
istorie de valori i ca atare cercettorul trebuie s fie capabil nainte de toate s stabileasc
valori, adic s fie critic (...) O istorie literar fr o scar de valori este numai o istorie
social arbitrar.19.
Clinescu mai afirm: Critica i istoria literar sunt dou momente ale aceluiai
proces. Nu poi fi critic fr perspectiv istoric i nu poi face istorie literar fr critic
estetic, deci fr a fi critic.20.
Fr purgatoriul istoriei ns, actul de transpunere n situaia istoric a operei literare,
urmat de judecat i de re-creaia critic, nu ar fi posibil.
Nicolae Manolescu face o analiz a conceptului de istorie a literaturii ntr-un editorial
din Romnia Literar din numrul zece din 1999 al acesteia. Spre deosebire de abordarea lui
Adrian Marino, el se refer strict la realitile romneti ale conceptului de istorie a literaturii.
El vorbete despre o evoluie masiv a acestui concept, de la primele noastre istorii literare
care erau totodat i istorii ale limbii, cu lucrrile lui Aron Densusianu din 1885, cea lui I.
Ndejde din 1886 i cea a lui Alexandru Philippide din 1889. La nceputuri, spune Nicolae
Manolescu, nici mcar conceptul de literatur nu era bine fixat, cuprinznd deopotriv
domeniul literelor, tiinelor, artelor sau pe cel al istoriei. Difuz, conceptul de istorie literar
15
Adrian Marino, op.cit., p. 22.

Ibidem, pp.23-24.
17
Iulian Boldea, Tendine actuale n teoria literar, Editura Universitii Petru Maior, Trgu Mure, 2009, pp18-19.
18
Ibidem, pp.19-20.
19
George Clinescu, Tehnica criticii i a istoriei literare n Principii de estetic, Editura pentru Literatur,
20
Idem, Istoria literaturii romne, n Prefa, Editura pentru Literatur, Bucureti, 1941, p. 12.
16
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Issue no. 6/2015
prea s aib obiect cnd viaa intelectual n genere, cnd cultura noastr naional n
totalitate21.
Aron Densusianu spune: Dac am zice c istoria literaturii romne e n fond istoria
culturii romne i a deteptrii noaste, de aici nu urmeaz s nu putem dispensa de a aplica
asupra produciei noii literaturi msura sever a criticei.22.
Toate generaiile maioresciene de critici, a acelora care s-au succedat n prima parte a
secolului XX, vor gndi diferit, separnd contiincios istoria de critica literar. Lsndu-l la o
parte pe Mihail Dragomirescu, care era perfect convins c istoria literar nu poate pretinde s
fie o tiin avnd n vedere impredictibilitatea personalitii omeneti i pe omul practic,
tritor ntr-un anumit mediu i nelund n seam personalitatea artistic, adic pe omul care
creeaz, istoria situndu-se deci n afara sferei literaturii23.
Citndu-l pe Ovid Densusianu, autor al unei Istorii a literaturii romne moderne, el
spune: n accepiunea ei larg, critica cuprinde dou preocupaiuni, dup scopul pe care l
urmrete: preocupaiuni estetice i preocupaiuni istorice. Ideea articolului acestuia din
1906, citat de Manolescu n editorialul su, e c cele dou preocupaiuni se cade s nu se
amestece24.
Douzeci de ani mai trziu, Garabet Ibrileanu va afirma i el c una e critica estetic
si alta e istoria literar. n acelai timp, tnrul Eugen Lovinescu, n 1910, n pragul unei
cariere universitare nerelizate, fcea abisala distanare dintre una i cealalt, de vreme ce
critica, singur, se apleac asupra unor opere cu adevrat vii, care contemporane fiind ne
mic, ne nduioeaz, lovindu-ne slbiciunile noatre, nvluindu-ne ntr-o atmosfer de
simpatie, n timp ce istoriei literare i revine misunea de a studia acele opere indiferente din
trecut i care nu mai rezoneaz cu noi. E lesne deci de neles c pentru Eugen Lovinescu,
ntre critic i istoria literar nu poate exista aproape nici o punte. Emulii lui Lovinescu, din
perioada interbelic i preiau acestuia ideile despre separaia absolut dintre critica i istoria
literar pe baza momentului operei, dac aceasta este mai veche sau contemporan cu cel care
se apleac asupra ei. Dintre aceti emuli, Tudor Vianu spune n 1962 c istoria literar se
ocup doar de autorii trecutului mai mult sau mai puin ndeprtat, adic ntr-o alt epoc,
fcnd astfel s supravieuiasc distincia fcut de maestrul su, Eugen Lovinescu, timp de
dou rzboaie mondiale i dou decenii de comunism. Nici erban Cioculescu, P.
Constantinescu sau Vladimir Streianu, cu toii admiratori i discipoli ideologici ai lui
Lovinescu, nu au gndit altfel25.
Abia n 1939, o propoziie a lui George Clinescu pune capt acestei interpretri a
lucrurilor: n realitate, critica i istoria sunt dou nfiri ale criticii n nelesul cel mai
larg. Clinescu mai spune c adevrata critic de valoare conine implicit o determinare
istoric, dup cum nu e cu putin s faci istorie literar fr examen critic. Din acest moment,
conceptul de istorie literar capt plentitudinea pe care o avem azi. i odat prolecultismul
apus, critica postbelic revine la principii clinesciene ca la o Biblie a domeniului su. Nici
structuralismul, nici celelalte curente anti-istoriciste din anii 60-70 nu-i pot clinti pe criticii,
devenii istorici literari de pe poziia clinescian26.
Paradoxal, potrivit lui Manolescu, astzi nu se mai scrie aproape deloc istorie literar,
iar cea a lui Clineascu s-a re-editat doar o singur dat din 1984 ncoace. Nicolae Manolescu
Nicolae Manolescu, Conceptul de istorie literar n Romnia Literar, nr. 10 /1999.

Aron Densusianu, Istoria limbei i literaturii romne, Editura Tipo-Litografia Il Godner, Iai, 1894 n
seciunea electronic a Bibliotecii Robarts din cadrul Universitii din Toronto, Canada, p. 23.
23
Nicolae Manolescu, op. cit..
24
Ibidem.
25
Ibidem.
26
Ibidem.
21
22
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Issue no. 6/2015
ncheie acest editorial prin a declara despre concepte c ele, ca i crile, au soarta lor, toate
mor, dispar, se disipeaz n neant.
Trecnd n revist cele dou viziuni asupra evoluia conceptului de istorie literar, cea
universal a lui Adrian Marino i cea centrat pe societatea romneasc a lui Nicolae
Manolescu, observm c exist o serie de momente cheie n delimitarea i definirea acestui
vast concept.
De la apariia sa n secolul al XVII-lea i pn n zilele noastre, el a suferit o serie de
modificri de ordin ontologic i metodologic. Astfel, n prim instan a reprezentat doar o
trecere n revist a tuturor lucrrilor publicate i a autorilor acestora, o serie de liste care nu
conineau nici un fel de informaii despre calitatea operei sau despre talentul autorului, erau
doar o simpl confirmare a faptului c existau drept texte scrise. Urmeaz apoi modelul
pozitivist care aduce cu el o concentrare exclusiv pe documentaie, pe reconstituirea
contextului istoric, n continuare fr s fac vreo apreciere critic a operei. Aceast analiz
aproape clinic durez aproape tot secolul al XIX-lea27.
n post-pozitivism principala modificare este introducerea istoriei literare ca parte
component a istoriei culturii. Pe deoparte, aceasta aciune are un efect pozitiv, scond istoria
literar din anonimant, dar pe de alt parte are efectul negativ de a generaliza, deorece nu se
face strict o istorie literar ci o istorie a scrisului, a limbii, a tiparului, a literaturii religioase, a
focarelor de cultur, a traducerilor i aa mai departe.
Modificarea de atitudine vine la nceputul secolului XX, cu noua generaie care ncepe
s asocieze conceptului de istorie a literaturii pe cel de critic literar sau viceversa28.
n aceast direcie de evoluie a conceptului de istorie literar, exist trei etape pe care
le voi exemplifica cu ajutorul unor personaliti din istoria i critica literar romneasc a
cror contribuii teoretice sau de conceptualizare au marcat momente de cotitur n evoluia
acestui concept.
O prim etap este cea a separrii totale a criticii de istoria literar, reprezentat de
Mihail Dragomirescu. Acesta se ndoia chiar de consacrarea istoriei literare n rndul
disciplinelor tiinifice. El este adeptul imanent al criticii de orientare tiinific i este i un
pionier al acesteia n critica literar romneasc29.
A doua etap a continuat s fie marcat de o separaie i delimitare clar a conceptelor
de critic i istorie literar, nu att pe baza metodelor, care erau considerate identice, ci pe
baza obiectului acestora. Ambele se aplecau ns asupra operei liteare n singularitatea i
unicitatea acesteia. Diferena obiectual vine din faptul c dei ambele se ocup de opera
literar ca fapt unic i original, pe deoparte critica se ocup de operele contemporane cu cel
care se apleac asupra lor, n timp ce istoria literar are n vizor operele mai vechi, care nu
mai rezoneaz att de puternic cu criticul literar. Personalitile care marcheaz aceast etap
sunt Eugen Lovinescu i discipolii si: Tudor Vianu, P. Constantinescu i Vladimir Streianu.
Prin acetia, concepia privind linia de demarcaie clar existent ntre critica i istoria literar
a durat pn n deceniul al aselea al veacului trecut. n principiu, potrivit lui Lovinescu i
adepilor acestuia, critica literar ar avea aceleai metode de analiz i, pn la un punct,
acelai obiect, diferena fiind doar una de temporalitate. Critica e ancorat n contemporan, n
timp ce istoria literar se ocup de trecut. Critica literar nu este deci retroactiv, iar istoria
literar nu poate n nici un caz s avanseze pn n prezent30.
A treia etap este reprezentat de contopirea nu a conceptelor ci a metodelor i
obiectului precum i a temporalitii criticii i esteticii literare cu cele ale istoriei literare.
27
Adrian Marino, op. cit., pp. 2-16.

Ibidem, pp. 10-21.
29
Nicolae Manolescu, op. cit..
30
Ibidem.
28
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Reprezentatul cel mai de seam al acestei etape este George Clinescu, care enun ideea c o
istorie a literaturii nu este posibil fr un element critic i o apreciere estetic, dar, n acelai
timp, o critic literar sau o estetic a literaturii nu este posibil fr elementul istoricitii.
Atitudinea lui Clinescu n aceast privin este clar nc din primul su volum de Istorie a
literaturii romneti, publicat n 1941 i continu s existe n paralel i n contradicie cu
principiul separrii absolute a criticii de istoria literar, enunat de Eugen Lovinescu i purtat
mai departe de discipolii si, Tudor Vianu i Vladimir Streianu. Doar n jurul deceniului al
aptelea al veacului trecut, conceptul de separaie complet a lui Lovinescu este nlocuit n
totalitate de formularea lui Clinescu. Timp de decenii se scriu n continuare istorii literare
cuprinznd analize critice ale scriitorilor i analize estetice ale operelor acestora. Se mai scriu
i antologii critice care respect principii istorice i cronologice31.
Putem deci s spunem c acest concept al lui Clinescu privind istoria literaturii este
cel mai potrivit doar pentru c a rezistat pn n zilele noastre? S fim de acord ar nsemna s
fim de acord i cu teoriile evoluioniste privind literatura i istoria acesteia, teorii care au
devenit parte integrant a pozitivismului i care au fost profund criticate de post-pozitiviti ca
fiind imposibil de aplicat i improprii literaturii sau istoriei literare. Urmrind realitile
zilelor noastre, vom observa la fel cu observ i Manolescu, c se scrie din ce n ce mai puin
istorie a literaturii iar re-editrile ediiilor mai vechi sunt o raritate. Acesta nu este ns semnul
dispariiei conceptului de istorie literar sau ci doar o regndire i readaptare a modelului
clineascian. Este adevrat c istorii ale literaturii romne apar mai rar, dar se scriu, n
schimb, o multitudine de eseuri, culegeri, monografii, antologii critice, articole, cronici i
studii, toate cuprinznd reale i vizibile elemente de istorie literar. De aceea, epoca noastr a
nregistrat, de fapt, o lrgire i o adaptare a conceptului clinescian de istorie a literaturii. De
la o specializare a conceptului ne-a ntors acum spre o regeneralizare i amalgamare.
tiina literaturii, teoria literar, estetica, semiotica, hermeneutica i nu n ultimul rnd
istoria literar, dei continu s existe drept concepte cu definiii diferite, nregistreaz din ce
n ce mai frecvent accese de transdisciplinaritate sau chiar de interdisciplinaritate. Fr s se
contopeasc, aceste concepte se combin i se recombin permanent, totul pentru a oferi
metode ct mai complete de analiz a operelor literare n special i a literaturii n general.
BIBLIOGRAFIE
1. Boldea, Iulian, Estetic general, Editura Universitii Petru Maior, Trgu Mure, 2007.
2. Idem, Poetic i critic literar, Editura Universitii Petru Maior, Trgu Mure, 2008.
3. Idem, Tendine actuale n teoria literar, Editura Universitii Petru Maior, Trgu
Mure, 2009.
4. Densusianu, Aron; Istoria limbei i literaturii romne, Editura Tipo-Litografia Il
Godner, Iai, 1894 n seciunea electronic a Bibliotecii Robarts din cadrul
Universitii din Toronto, Canada.
5. Clinescu, George, Istoria literaturii romne, Editura pentru Literatur, Bucureti, 1941.
6. Idem, Literatur i contemporaneitate, Editura pentru Literatur, Bucureti, 1964.
7. Idem, Tehnica criticii i a istoriei literare n Principii de estetic, Editura pentru
Literatur, Bucureti, 1968.
8. Manolescu, Nicolae, Conceptul de istorie literar n Romnia Literar, nr. 10 /1999.
9. Marino, Adrian, Istoria literar, n Anuar de lingvistic i istorie literar, XX, Cluj, 1969.
10. Nagy-Talavera, Nicholas M., N. Iorga-o biografie, Institutul European, Bucureti, 1999.
11. Zamfirescu, Dan, N. Iorga- Etape ctre o monografie, Editura Eminescu, Bucureti, 1981.
31
Ibidem.
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GOETHES FAUST IN ROMANIAN CLOTHING

Emilia TEFAN
Abstract: Same space shared by the two literatures (Romanian and German) starting with the
nineteenth century as well as the linguistic evolution have only made us get closer with an
increasingly extent to the fundamental work of the universal literature, Faust. Cultural
effervescence also directs its interest to the translation area. In this way, this cultural side
becomes more and more visible. The effort to essentialise lyrical substance in Faust, to
highlight not only the text melody but also the clarity of meaning brings to the forefront a few
names like Vasile Pogor, Nicolae Skelitti, Ion Gorun, t. O. Iosif, Lucian Blaga, tefan
Augustin Doina.
Keywords: same space shared by the two literatures (Romanian and German), language
development, significant versions, literary critics echoes
Titlul acestei teme dezvolt o lucrare de istoria literaturii, traductologie i critic
literar, astfel ncercnd s atragem atenia asupra performanei literare a titanului de la
Weimar recunoscut n spaiul romnesc.
Totui, nainte de a ne aminti de rezonana operei Faust la noi, avem n vedere
contextul apartenenei la acelai spaiu a celor dou literaturi ncepnd din secolul al XIX-lea.
Aa cum am artat n Influene germane n opera lui Lucian Blaga (capitolul I Anii de
formaie), afinitile intelectualilor romni ai epocii erau mai puternice cu spaiul romanic, cu
literatura francez, italian, dar i n acea vreme au existat tentative de a lega literatura
romn de cea german. De exemplu, n Moldova, Gheorghe Asachi, n suplimentul literar al
revistei Albina romneasc, tiprete versuri din Hermann i Dorothea (1832), cea mai veche
traducere romneasc din Goethe, traducerile lui Klmm (Koglniceanu) din Schiller, n Aluta
romneasc. Trebuie amintit c ncercri similare au existat i n Muntenia i, mai ales, n
Ardeal: n coloanele revistei braovene cu caracter cultural Foaie pentru minte, inim i
literatur se dezvolt cultul pentru poeii germani (Schiller, Pfeffel, Klopstock, Uhland,
Herder), mai devreme marii precursori din coala ardelean de formaie exclusiv german,
dar cu vdit simpatie pentru italian, incai i Micul [,]nainte de a ajunge la Roma,
poposesc la Viena1. Dar venirea pe tron a lui Carol I (1866) i a soiei sale, Carmen Sylva, a
reprezentat momentul decisiv n care s-a produs o apropiere mai puternic de cultura
german, mai cu seam n literatur i filosofie.
De asemenea, marile personaliti ale culturii noastre, Mihail Koglniceanu
(universitatea la Berlin) i Titu Maiorescu (liceul la Viena, universitatea la Berlin, doctoratul
la Giessen), nu ezit s-i afirme dubla preocupare: sublinierea rolului determinant al
mediului formativ i ndrumarea spre modelul german n stabilirea structurii nvmntului
superior romnesc. Astfel, Mihail Koglniceanu, n discursul la Academia Romn, din 1891,
la aniversarea a 25 de ani de la fondarea acestei instituii, a accentuat amprenta culturii
germane n descoperirea patriotismului su: Toat viaa mea, i tnr i vrst coapt, am
mrturisit n mai multe rnduri c culturii germane, c Universitii din Berlin, c societii
germane, brbailor i marilor patrioi care au operat renlarea i unitatea Germaniei,
datoresc n mare parte tot ce am devenit n ara mea i c la focul patriotismului german s-a
Ion Gherghel, Goethe n literatura romn cu o privire general asupra ntregei nruriri germane , vol. I,
Bucureti, Monitorul Oficial i Imprimeriile Statului, Imprimeria Naional, 1931, p. 7.
1
734
Issue no. 6/2015
aprins fclia patriotismului meu2. Titu Maiorescu a nlesnit multor tineri, viitoare
personaliti ale culturii noastre, precum C. Rdulescu-Motru, P. P. Negulescu, Teohari
Antonescu, D. Evolceanu, C. Litzica, C. Al. Philippide, I. Al. Rdulescu-Pogoneanu, S.
Mehedini, cltorii de studii n Germania i, totodat, ca Ministru al Educaiei sau ca Rector
al Universitii din Bucureti, a contribuit la orientarea diverselor brane de studii spre
modelul german, pn n preajma celui de-al doilea rzboi mondial. Un alt exemplu este cel al
micrii junimiste: majoritatea membrilor aveau o formaie francez, cu toate acestea tonul
i direcia ideologic erau date de o relativ minoritate care privea cu mare admiraie spre
cultura german, considerat prin disciplina i rigoarea ei, drept singurul model ce ar servi
intereselor societii romneti, n vreme ce modelul francez era acuzat de prea mult
superficialitate i spirit revoluionar.3 (Ion Bogdan, junimistul, a fost nsrcinat s studieze la
faa locului principiile i modul de organizare a colilor germane, elabornd la ntoarcere, n
1866, un raport cuprinztor.4)
ncepnd cu deceniul cuprins ntre 1867-1876, activitatea de la Convorbiri literare,
Familia i Albina Pindului reflect influena literaturii germane. n 1868 apar, n Albina
Pindului, n afar de Goethe, poeii Schiller, Klopstock, Brger i Heine tradui n proz 5,
interesul pentru literatura poetic german fiind ntreinut i prin articolele traduse din Grard
de Nerval n aceste articole se trateaz despre originea poeziei germane, despre
Nibelungiada, apoi despre un lung ir de poei: Klopstock, Wieland, Herder, Brger, Schiller,
Goethe, Uhland, Krner, Heine, Rckert, Chamisso, Anastasius Grn, Lenau, Carol Beck,
Freiligrath, Dingelstdt, Grenzenach, Saphir, Zedlitz i regele Ludovic al Bavariei. Mai mult
se insist dup cum e i firesc asupra lui Goethe.6 n acelai an, n Convorbiri literare,
apar traduceri din Schiller (Pruncucigaa), Uhland (Blestemul cntreului), Lessing, Heine i
Geibel. Apoi, n urmtorii ani ai acelui deceniu, traductorul cel mai activ, N. Schelitti, va mai
publica din Schiller (Dorul i Copilul la izvor, Idealele), Hervigh (A vrea s pier din lume...),
Heine (12 poezii), M. Claudius (Phidile), Negruzzi, tot din Schiller (fragmente din Hoii i
Fiesco, Cabal i amor) i M. Pompiliu, din Uhland, Lenau i Heine, T. V. tefaniu traduce
patru cntece din Heine, T. Maiorescu public aforisme din Schopenhauer i traduce Istoria
suferinei, I. Slavici traduce Immensee a lui Th. Storm, iar Eminescu public prelegerea
Influena austriac asupra Romnilor din Principate. n Familia, este de menionat
traducerea lui D. Onciu din Schiller.
Cel mai vrednic reprezentant al literaturii germane grupeaz, n secolul XX, n jurul
su pe cei mai numeroi tlmcitori, prezentndu-se cititorilor cu profund originalitate i
real valoare sub diferite nfiri: ca poet, inspirator al lui Eminescu; ca biolog i naturist;
ca autorul lui Faust; ca personalitate poetic n devenire, privit n cadrul vieii germane, ca
creator al gndirii mitice prin gndul demonicului.7
Ion Gherghel remarca faptul c, ncepnd din primii ani ai acestui veac, evoluia
lingvistic (pregtit n timp de generaii de scriitori i literai) este o condiie ndeplinit
pentru traductibilitatea operei lui Goethe: Problemele de maturitate literar pe terenul
tlmcirii se nmulesc mai ales dup ce trecem pragul veacului al XX-lea.8
nc din 1861, cnd Maiorescu i-a exprimat pentru prima dat la noi prerea profund
referitoare la opera de o incontestabil maturitate literar, Faust, afirmnd (n lucrarea
2
3
Cf. Al. Zub, Mihail Koglniceanu, Iai, Editura Junimea, 1974, p. 67.
Ion Bogdan, Raport asupra coalelor secundare din Germania, Bucureti, Editura C. Gbl, 1886, VIII , p. 260.
Omagiu lui Ion I. Nistor, 1912-1937, Cernui, Tip. Glasul Bucovinei, 1937, p. 121-125.
Ion Gherghel, op. cit., p. 27.
6
Idem, p. 28.
7
Ion Gherghel, op. cit, p. 169.
8
Idem, p. 100.
4
5
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Issue no. 6/2015
Consideraii filosofice pe nelesul tuturor) c este cea mai grandioas tragedie a omenirii i
exercit mereu asupra noastr o aciune magic tocmai pentru c ntruchipeaz fericirea i
npasta, mreia i njosirea noastr: perpetua i zadarnica noastr cutare. Ca i noi, Faust
caut i tot caut, iar cnd a gsit i d sfritul; dar ceea ce a gsit nu este dect necesitatea
cutrii fr rgaz9, lumea literar romneasc este cuprins de elanul cunoaterii operelor
reprezentative ale lui Goethe. Dar pentru tlmcirea celei mai mari opere poetice a timpurilor
moderne a fost nevoie de mai multe ncercri.
Trebuie amintit c Titu Maiorescu contribuie la propagarea interesului fa de
valoarea produselor literare germane10, n cadrul Junimii i la Convorbiri literare, la
integrarea operei lui Goethe n spiritualitatea romneasc i, totodat, este cel care,
ptrunznd n universul goethean, descoper trsturile psihologice definitorii n evoluia sa
spiritual.
Datele furnizate de bibliografia spiritual a lui Titu Maiorescu (Jurnal i epistolar,
ediie ngrijit de Georgeta-Dulgheru i Domnica Filimon, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1975,
1978) comparate cu cele din Poezie i adevr ale lui Goethe nlesnesc recunoaterea c
existena afinitilor elective ntre aceti olimpieni este de netgduit.
n Afiniti elective: Titu Maiorescu i Goethe (din Revista Fundaiilor Regale, nr. 9,
1940), autorul, Alexandru Dima, argumenteaz rezonana ecourilor goetheene definitoare n
parcursul formrii lui Maiorescu, examinnd similitudinile dintre acetia, aadar, opernd prin
raporturi comparatiste: Demonstraia converge spre factorii principali goetheeni ce
definesc formula existenei lui Maiorescu: dinamismul metodic, preocuparea de
personalitate, iubirea de sine (ca punct de plecare n formarea de fiecare zi n lupt cu
puterile instinctive ale tinereii i cu rezistenele mediului social), conceptul de armonie i
ideea de umanitate.11
Dac pentru omul Maiorescu, autorul lui Faust devine marele su model n propria-i
formare ca personalitate uman12, cititorul Maiorescu devine interesat de opera lui Goethe
spre sfritul anului 1856 cnd traduce poezia Mormntul lui Anacreonte (Anacreons Grab),
pentru ca n 1858, lectura romanului Afiniti elective (Die Wahlverwandtschaften) s
declaneze obsesia pentru Goethe i, mai trziu, n primul su studiu O cercetare critic
asupra poeziei romne de la 1867, puterea de iradiaie a unora din ideile goetheene s
ptrund n gndirea criticului i esteticianului. Introducerea criteriului estetic n judecarea
valorii poetice presupune analiza diferitelor mijloace prin care se realizeaz limbajul poetic,
stabilind contrastul dintre valoare (propunnd exemple din Goethe i din ali trei mari scriitori
din literatura universal) i plsmuiri mediocre. Nu trebuie pierdut din vedere c apropierea
de limba german, mai ales a romnilor din Transilvania, este accentuat mai ales prin
contextul vecintii cu comunitile germane, apoi prin sistemul de nvmnt local i prin
relaiile culturale dezvoltate ntre aceast provincie i Viena, astfel nct se putea citi n limba
lui Goethe.
Preocuparea efervescent pentru opera lui Goethe este izvort din certitudinea c
acesta nu mai este al Germanilor13, ci, fiind un geniu universal, este al tuturor popoarelor
din univers, pentru c a ptruns la toate unde a gsit mcar un nceput de literatur14.
nc din 1861, cnd Maiorescu i-a exprimat pentru prima dat la noi prerea profund
referitoare la opera de o incontestabil maturitate literar, Faust, afirmnd (n lucrarea
Titu Maiorescu, Consideraii filosofice pe nelesul tuturor, Scrieri din tineree 1858-1862, ediie ngrijit, prefa i
note Simion Ghi, Editura Dacia, Cluj-Napoca, 1981, p. 125.
10
Ion Roman, Ecouri goetheene n cultura romn, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1980, p. 63.
11
Idem, p. 65.
12
Idem, p. 63.
13
Idem, p. 100.
14
Ibidem
9
736
Issue no. 6/2015
Consideraii filosofice pe nelesul tuturor) c este cea mai grandioas tragedie a omenirii i
exercit mereu asupra noastr o aciune magic tocmai pentru c ntruchipeaz fericirea i
npasta, mreia i njosirea noastr: perpetua i zadarnica noastr cutare. Ca i noi, Faust
caut i tot caut, iar cnd a gsit i d sfritul; dar ceea ce a gsit nu este dect necesitatea
cutrii fr rgaz15, lumea literar romneasc este cuprins de elanul cunoaterii operelor
reprezentative ale lui Goethe.
Efortul de esenializare a substanei lirice din poemul Faust, aadar de a pune n
valoare nu doar melodia textului, ci i claritatea sensului aduce n prim-plan cteva nume.
Pentru tlmcirea celei mai mari opere poetice a timpurilor moderne a fost nevoie
de mai multe ncercri. Cea mai veche traducere romneasc fragmentar din Faust aparine
lui Ioan Vcrescu (Tipografia lui K. H. Rosetti i Vinterhalder, Bucureti, 1848). Aceast
ncercare, ne atrage atenia Bogdan Duic, este amprentat de naivitatea interpretrii indus
de onelegere foarte fraged a lui Faust: Cuprinde cuvintele simbolice ale spiritului
pmntului pe care V. l identificase, greit, cu diavolul16.
Urmtoarea traducere semnificativ i se datoreaz lui Vasile Pogor, un interpret cu
tonul robust i convingtor, care cultiv tradiia n pstrarea cultului pentru literatura
german i, mai cu seam, pentru opera titanului de la Weimar, n paginile revistei Convorbiri
literare. ntre anii 1879-1880 public fragmente versificate din Faust. Este vorba despre
nceputul tragediei din care nu lipsesc monologul filosofic, scena cu spiritul pmntului i cea
cu Wagner i, de asemenea, de despre scena ce se desfoar afar de poarta oraului.
Trebuie s amintim c o simpl ncercare (mai ales cu valoare documentar) aparine
lui Vasile Pogor i Nicolae Skelitti - traducerea primei pri, aprut n tipografia lui Adolf
Bermann, n 1862. Autorii, referindu-se la calitatea versiunii, conchid orict (de) desfigurat
s-ar putea nchipui o traducere, totui concepia lui Goethe se ridic att de vie i de puternic,
nct nu poate a nu captiva pe toate spiritele17.
nfiarea unei noi traduceri a lui Faust i se datoreaz lui Ion Gorun (Al. Holdo),
care se face remarcat nu att sub aspectul cantitii, ct prin valoarea transpunerilor cu
nchinare i Faust la Margareta, n Revista noastr, 1905, continuat cu nc ase fragmente
(n Viaa literar), apoi cu publicarea acestora n volum, ceea ce a presupus o minuioas
revizuire att n ceea ce privete partea pur stilistic, ct i cu privire la fondul ideologic18.
Volumul de tlmciri din lirica lui Goethe constituie o prezen remarcabil n cultura
noastr, care aduce ecouri n presa romneasc. De exemplu, Gh. Pop afirm c I. Gorun este
destul de stpn pe vers i, n completare, c respect forma i ritmul originalului19.
Atenia ne este atras de traducerea lui t. O. Iosif - cu Prolog n cer, n Convorbiri
literare, 1906 i Cntarea Arhanghelilor, n Flacra, 1914 care, dac ar mai fi trit, ar fi
reuit Faust-ul cel mai credincios, cel mai poetic i cel mai romnesc: t. O. Iosif era mereu
preocupat de ndreptarea i punerea la punct a amnuntelor. Dup ce ptrundea n nelesul
operei strine, se frmnta ndelung so dobndeasc, n strlucirea-i ntreag, pe seama
neamului su, neuitnd ns s salveze simplitatea nobil i frgezimea natural a limbii sale
materne20.
Titu Maiorescu, Consideraii filosofice pe nelesul tuturor, Scrieri din tineree 1858-1862, ediie ngrijit, prefa i
note Simion Ghi, Editura Dacia, Cluj-Napoca, 1981, p. 125.
16
Ion Gherghel, Goethe n literatura romn cu o privire general asupra ntregei nruriri
germane , vol. I, Bucureti, Monitorul Oficial i Imprimeriile Statului, Imprimeria
Naional, 1931, p. 69.
17
Idem, p. 81.
18
Idem, p. 130.
19
Idem, p. 133.
20
Idem, p.132.
15
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Issue no. 6/2015
Bineneles, am amintit numele interpreilor operei lui Goethe, care rmn n preajma
textului german i, n egal msur, ofer o traducere natural care, aadar, ofer tlmciri
semnificative.
Dar pe lng aceast apropiere ntre cele dou literaturi, cultivat n decursul a cteva
decenii, la Blaga, influena mediului germanic, tradiia de cultur german pstrat n curs de
dou-trei generaii n care acesta se formeaz nc din copilrie devin ghid n asimilarea
tiparelor limbii lui Goethe pregtite nc de la nceput, parc nainte de venirea lui pe lume, i
ateapt n timp s-i modeleze vocaia filosofic speculativ. Chiar dac i la el atracia fa
de spiritul francez exist, i nu sunt uitai n Fenomenul originar (1925) i n Feele unui veac
(1926) marii creatori francezi (Zola, Balzac, Hugo, Verlaine, Mallarm, Huysmans, Valry,
Bergson, Maeterlinck), iar prima apropiere are loc la Braov cnd citete Eseul despre datele
imediate ale contiinei (Les donns immdiates de la conscience) n traducerea lui P. Fohr i
editat la Jena sub titlul Zeit und Freiheit, aadar prin filier german, putem spune c
adevrata for constant de receptare a unei culturi este dat de cunoaterea acestei limbi
aspre i reci21.
Efervescena cultural n acei ani i ndreapt interesul i spre zona traducerilor. Tot
mai muli cititori i critici literari sunt interesai de marea oper de transpunere n limba
romn a capodoperelor literaturii lumii, ne amintete Alexandru Balaci22.
Muli scriitori zugrveau o nou faet cultural a rii noastre tocmai prin tlmcirea
n limba romn a multor capodopere din literatura universal: Tudor Arghezi, Ion Barbu,
Tudor Vianu, Marin Sadoveanu, Victor Eftimiu, Lucia Demetrius, Gellu Naum, Remulus
Vulpescu, Nina Cassian etc.
Lucian Blaga, considernd c traducerile existente au izbutit ctui de puin s recreeze n graiul romnesc opera marelui poet, i-a strns puterea creativ pentru a ptrunde
n universul poetic goetheean: Cunotinele de limb german, pregtirea filosofic ce-o am
i experiena poetic, ce mi-am nsuit-o, n curs de peste trei decenii de activitate literar, mi
dau ndrzneala s cred c a putea s ntreprind o asemenea lucrare23.
Preocuparea pentru opera lui Goethe a poetului i filosofului romn este ncununat de
traducerea lui Faust. Fragmente din versiunea sa apar n Steaua, numrul 2/ 05. 1954, pp. 6877 i numrul 4/ 06. 1954, pp. 56-71, pentru ca, n 1955, s fie publicat ntreaga traducere
(25.000 exemplare) n colecia Clasicii Literaturii Universle.
Prerile contradictorii nu au ntrziat s fie exprimate: unele presrate cu obiecii,
imperfeciunile traducerii fiind evideniate i, credem noi, hiperbolizate ntrebarea
cititorului este cum s-a putut admite de ctre o editur asortat cu un mare contingent de
specialiti, un text att de sczut n nivel ca s-i justifice marile nzuine? Traducerea e pur i
simplu, i m simt mhnit, execrabil. (Tudor Arghezi, Edituri i tlmciri, n Veac nou,
numrul 33, 2 iulie 1954, p. 2)Traducerea lui Blaga nu este evaluat cu pondere de ctre poet,
acestuia neputndu-i-se atribui calitile unui critic literar.
Desigur, cititorii ateni, luminai de spiritul deplinei nelegeri a sensului din original
24
, nzestrai cu sim poetic au tiut ce s aleag. O examinare minuioas a textului blagian
implic admiraia transpunerii n haine romneti a literaturii universale: n opera sa de
traductor, ne spune criticul i istoricul literar Alexandru Balaci, Lucian Blaga a demonstrat,
ca mare artist al verbului, o cunoatere adnc a operei literare n profunzimile i n straturile
Emilia tefan, Influene germane n opera lui Lucian Blaga, Editura Universitaria, Craiova, 2013, p. 17.
22
I. Oprian, Lucian Blaga printre contemporani, Ediia a II-a, revizuit, augmentat,
necenzurat, Editura Saeculum, Editura Vestala, Bucureti, 1995, p. 37.
23
Idem, p. 40.
24
Ion Gherghel, Goethe n literatura romn cu o privire general asupra ntregei nruriri
germane , vol. I, Bucureti, Monitorul Oficial i Imprimeriile Statului, Imprimeria
Naional, 1931, p. 128.
21
738
Issue no. 6/2015
ei de art, acordnd cititorului facultatea de a ptrunde textul literar att sub raportul
emoional ct i al posibilitilor de cunoatere. Traducerile lui Blaga emoioneaz ca i
originalul. El s-a dovedit a fi, i n aria traducerilor un creator de mari valori expresive25.
Chiar dac Blaga pierde lupta cu numrul de versuri i, uneori, cu lungimea lor
Versuri de 8 silabe se dilat pn la 12, 13 silabe i chiar 16 silabe26, ctig n claritatea
exprimrii nuanelor i, deopotriv, a sensurilor: Infidelitatea acestei traduceri fa de
original, remarca tefan Augustin-Doina, e de ordinul artei poetice pe de o parte (Blaga e
prea puin atent la formele lirice utilizate de Goethe, iar alteori explic n traducere
obscuritatea din original), i de ordin pur formal, pe de alta (traductorul romn a sporit,
cum nsui recunoate, numrul de versuri27.
Poetul original de tulburtoare profunzime, maestru al limbii romneti i subtil
cunosctor al celei germane28, a reuit, n problema limbii, s-i dea o coloratur romneasc
de origine popular, evitnd ns abuzul de expresii regionale, ct i neologismul, pe care,
pentru a nltura impresia prozaic s-l combine cu o expresie autohton, plastic, sau plin
de sev29.
Dei avem varianta strlucit a lui tefan Augustin Doina (la aproape treizeci de ani
de la traducerea datorat lui Blaga), pentru c era nevoie de o alta, nou, ntr-un limbaj care
s oglindeasc ce s-a petrecut n limba noastr n acest rstimp (...)30, versiunea blagian
rmne nu numai nfiarea unei noi traduceri a poetului, ci o luare de contact mai
hotrtoare cu una din cele mai mari cri ale lumii31.
Bibliografie:
Lucian Blaga, Studiu, antologie, tabel cronologic i bibliografie de Emil Vasilescu,
Editura Eminescu, Bucureti, 1981.
Ion Bogdan, Raport asupra coalelor secundare din Germania, Bucureti, Editura C.
Gbl, 1886, VIII.
Ion Gherghel, Goethe n literatura romn cu o privire general asupra ntregei
nruriri germane , vol. I, Bucureti, Monitorul Oficial i Imprimeriile Statului, Imprimeria
Naional, 1931.
Johann Wolfgang Goethe, Faust. n romnete de Lucian Blaga. Editura de Stat
pentru Literatur i Art, Bucureti, 1955.
Titu Maiorescu, Consideraii filosofice pe nelesul tuturor, Scrieri din tineree 18581862, ediie ngrijit, prefa i note Simion Ghi, Editura Dacia, Cluj-Napoca, 1981.
Titu Maiorescu, Din Critice, Bucureti, Editura Tineretului, 1967.
Omagiu lui Ion I. Nistor, 1912-1937, Cernui, Tip. Glasul Bucovinei, 1937.
necenzurat, Editura Saeculum, Editura Vestala, Bucureti, 1995.
Ion Roman, Ecouri goetheene n cultura romn, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1980.
Emilia tefan, Influene germane n opera lui Lucian Blaga, Editura Universitaria,
Craiova, 2013.
25
Idem, p. 37.
26
Ion Roman, Ecouri goetheene n cultura romn, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1980, p. 387.
27
Idem, p. 265.
28
Idem, p. 385.
29
Idem, p. 384.
30
necenzurat, Editura Saeculum, Editura Vestala, Bucureti, 1995, p. 265.
31
Lucian Blaga, Studiu, antologie, tabel cronologic i bibliografie de Emil Vasilescu, Editura
Eminescu, Bucureti, 1981, p. 307.
739
Issue no.6/2015
LE DERNIER FONDANE
Bianca-Livia BARTO
Abstract: The late poems of Benjamin Fundoianu keep the stigma imprints of being Jewish.
Just like his character Odysseus, the poet composes a song of sorrow caused by the suffering
of being oppressed. Losing his way in a foreign world and the curse of not living in his own
country reappear like a stronger burden, reaching extreme once he moves to Paris. He lives
in a permanent exile from which only writing can save him. Thus, this paper delves into
Benjamin Fundoianus last poems with the purpose of researching the recurrent themes in his
works through the eye of his socio-literary past.
Keywords: stigma, exile, recurrent themes, wandering, literary testament
Benjamin Fondane, alias B. Fundoianu est n Benjamin Wechsler le 14 novembre
1898 Iai en Roumanie. Il meurt dans le contexte de lextermination des juifs, le 3 octobre
1944 dans une chambre gaz d'Auschwitz-Birkenau. Pendant sa vie, il sest remarqu en tant
que philosophe, pote, dramaturge, essayiste, critique littraire, ralisateur de cinma et
traducteur juif roumain1.
Il commence crire ds lge de 8 ans, lorsquil se remarque par la multitude de ses
lectures. Il prend, vers 1913, le nom de plume B. Fundoianu, du toponyme roumain Fundoaia
(Fundu-Herii) du dpartement Dorohoi, o son grand-pre vivait et o lenfant Benjamin
avait pass son enfance.2 Questionn plus tard pourquoi est-ce quil crit, il va rpondre, en
conformit avec son esprit polmique, que la question devrait tre Pourquoi ncrivezvous ? et, de plus, elle devrait tre adresse aux autres, tous ceux qui ncrivent pas. Il
continue, en disant qucrire ne constitue pas une exception la normalit et que cet tat
devrait tre ltat naturel de tout homme. Cest--dire, lindice dune anormalit est constitu
prcisment par labsence de lcriture dans la vie humaine.3
Le chemin littraire de Benjamin Fondane commence dans la revue de Iai Valuri, et
continue publier dans des revues comme Vieaa nou, Contimporanul, Unu, Integral, revues
davant-garde, pour terminer avec des vers plutt testamentaires dans son Exode.
Le but que je me suis propose atteindre dans cette recherche est prcisment
lanalyse de ses derniers pomes travers le pass socio - littraire du pote. Les pomes sur
lesquels je me suis arrte sont Ulysse et LExode, avec quelques squences dtailles de La
prface en prose. Et comme tout art commence par le pastiche 4 (Andr Malraux),
Benjamin Fondane ne pouvait pas en faire exception. ses 14 ans, le jeune Benjamin rve
comme tout autre lycen. Un premier accord potique peut tre reconnu ds limitation de
Octavian Goga dans son Sonet de 1914, o il voque avec une rptition infinie le syntagme
mon pays 5. Des thmes comme la gloire des anctres et la fiert nationale exaltent le pote
et dautres grands auteurs comme Mihai Eminescu, Vasile Alecsandri ou mme Grigore
Article Benjamin Fondane, consult sur le site http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Fondane le 11 janvier
2015.
2
Ion Murgeanu, article Benjamin Fundoianu-un destin tragic consult sur le site http://reteaualiterara.ning.com,
le 12 janvier 2015
3
Rponse donne en 1940 dans Le journal des potes belge.
4
Mircea Martin, Introducere in opera lui B.Fundoianu, Bucureti, Editura Minerva, 1984, p. 147.
5
Mircea Martin, Introducere in opera lui B.Fundoianu, o.c, p. 152
1
740
Issue no. 6/2015
Alecsandrescu peuvent tre reconnus dans les pomes du dbut de Fondane. Ce dernier ne
pouvait pas laisser dun cot Ion Minulescu, Macedonski ou Paul Verlaine, laide desquels il
sapproche du courant symboliste, mais sans y pntrer de toutes ses forces. Le pote roumain
na aucune liaison avec le surralisme, son inspiration tant, tout au contraire, traditionnelle,
rurale, avec des boeufs et de la fiente, inspiration bucolique sans tre idyllique, avec des
paysages dorigine roumaine dont seulement laccent est moderniste. 6
En 1923, le pote quitte la Roumanie cause des raisons politiques ddies ses
racines juives. Mais Fondane garde de nombreux liens affectifs avec son pays, menant une
douloureuse vie double 7. Il publie le volume Privelitile (Paysages) en 1930, aprs lequel
il se sentira toujours loign de son paradis imaginaire. Ce quil publiera en franais aprs son
tablissement dfinitif Paris, ne sont que des pomes ns dun sentiment de disconfort
ressenti pendant lexode ; par exemple, dans le recueil Ulysse, le pote incarne la figure du
personnage mythologique errant qui enterre, un par un, tous ses idals :
Ulysse fut mri entre 1929 et 1933, pour tre ensuite profondment remani durant la
guerre. Dans la premire version, celle de 1933, le pote se dcrit comme un tre divis :
Juif, naturellement, et cependant Ulysse. Cette scission disparat dans la dernire version:
Juif, naturellement, tu tais juif, Ulysse. Dans cette identification Ulysse, se confondent
son destin dhomme, de juif, de pote. 8
Ulysse raconte ses aventures la recherche de labsolu, mais il ne trouve que de la
douleur dans son chemin. Tout comme le pote, il abandonne la terre natale, terre de la
pauvret humaine et se lance dans un monde des cruauts dont toute chose existe, mais rien ne
tappartient. Lmigrant moderne vit dans un espace empoisonn par la perscution :
migrants, diamants de terre [...] je suis de ceux qui nont rien, qui veulent tout / je ne saurai
jamais me rsigner 9
Les mots sont directs, les vers proviennent dun cur charg de douleur.
[] tout comme vous, mortels de ce jour-l,
javais eu, moi aussi, un visage marqu
par la colre, par la piti et la joie,
un visage dhomme, tout simplement!
(Lexode, 1942) 10
Il y a dans ce pome des traces philosophiques hrites du russe exil Paris, Lev
Sestov, ou bien de Nietzsche. Le motif du personnage mythologique apparat dans lcriture
fondaninne ds lge de son adolescence. Entre temps, il a pu entrer dans un dialogue dcisif
pour dfinir sa personnalit, tout en suivant les rgles de la philosophie existentialiste. En
plus, il a assimil les expriences de la modernit potique europenne dApollinaire, de
Rimbaud, de Valery Larbaud ou de Blaise Cendrars.11
Ibid, p. 145-159
Les cahiers de Tristan Tzara, Revue Internationale pour ltude des avant-gardes, fonde et dite par Vasile
Robciuc, prsident de lAssociation culturelle et littraire Tristan Tzara Moineti, Roumanie, Moineti,
Editura Priftis, vols. 5-6 ; 2006, article Fondane ou le JE errant, crit par Simona Modreanu, p. 38.
8
Monique Justrin, Article Benjamin Fondane : un Ulysse juif, consult sur le site
http://fondane.com/ulysse.htm, le 11 janvier 2014.
9
Marin Bucur, B. Fundoianu - contemporanul nostru, Bucureti, Editura Albatros, 1985, p. 140
10
Ibid. p. 171.
11
Ibid. p. 156
7
741
Issue no. 6/2015
Le pote a une conscience tragique de lchec, cest--dire, du sacrifice. Un autre

pome intitul de manire obsessive Lexode- Super flumina Babylonism, paru titre
posthume, en 1946, se constitue comme un psaume de lchec. Le titre suggre toute la
tension qui habite non seulement le pome, mais galement luvre entire de Fondane. En
effet, par ce titre, il inscrit son pome entre des extrmes, en renvoyant deux textes
diffrents de la Bible : dun part cest lexode, qui renvoie lexprience de la sortie dEgypte
sous la conduite de Mose, la rvlation du Mont Sina et la traverse du dsert. Pour
Fondane, ce texte voque assurment le passage de lesclavage la libert, la naissance dun
peuple, ainsi que lespoir que celle-ci suscite. De lautre part, lexpression Super flumina
Babylonism qui sinspire directement du psaume 137, rappelle lpisode tragique de lhistoire
juive : lexil du peuple dIsral dports en Babylonie au VIe sicle.12
Ainsi, le pote runit dans un mme souffle la libration et la captivit, lespoir et
langoisse. Le texte tout entier est anim de ce double mouvement antinomique. Lexil voqu
par le pote est celui de tout homme, tranger cette terre, tranger lui-mme. Mais
lhomme juif, qui si souvent la subi a son corps dfendant, sait mieux que tout autre y
reconnatre une condition existentielle.13
Les psaumes qui inspirent le pote crire LExode portent les numros 119 et 137.
Dans le cas du premier psaume comme source dinspiration, Fondane reprend un procd
formel qui est de premire importance dans ce pome. Le psaume 119, connu sous le nom de
psaume de la loi est, avec ses 176 versets, la plus longue composition du psautier. Il sagit
dun pome alphabtique structur selon les 22 lettres de lalphabet hbreu. Le psaume
137 est galement un de ceux qui a le plus inspir Fondane. Ce psaume se prsente
essentiellement comme le chant de limpossibilit de tout chant ou le pome de limpossibilit
du pome. Limpossibilit des Isralites adresser des chants Dieu dans lexile sur les rives
de Babylone. En mme temps, le pome de Fondane reprend constamment ce thme ; il fait,
par exemple, dire en chur : Et quelle chanson chanterais-je sur une terre trangre ? / Et
chanterais-je ici la chanson de Sion parmi des hommes trangers ? . Ou encore : Un coq
chante ; cest laube ! / Y a-t-il donc encore / un tre libre dans le monde / et qui chante ? /
Comment sy est-il pris ? 14
Le pome a de grandes dimensions, il est crit en vers libres, parsem de vers rguliers
et il est loin de se prsenter selon un dveloppement linaire. Il est compos de sept parties :
La prface en prose, inspire du Livre des Psaumes, continue par le pome proprement dit,
puis un intermde intitul Colre de la vision , ensuite un reprise du pome, pour finir avec
une Postface . Tout le pome se construit sur une immense action liturgique et sur ce point,
la Postface donne une cl importante de lecture. Il y caractrise LExode comme un
pome dramatique plusieurs voix , mais donne galement des prcisions sur la forme
potique :
Cest un pome dramatique plusieurs voix. Cela implique lemploi, ici et l, de
formes et dintentions tenues pour primes en potique sonnets, ballades, odes, pastiches,
voire des formes remontant certains psaumes davidiens (alphabet sacr). La posie
dramatique exige des caractres, elle se doit de revtir chaque personnage de lexpression o,
le mieux, clate sa manire dtre. Les formes fixes, par opposition aux formes libres,
instituent un dialogue o celui qui parle dcline son identit tout de suite.15
G. Eisenberg, Fondane, Juif tmoin, dans Cahiers Benjamin Fondane, no.2, 1998, p. 19
Monique Justrin, Article Benjamin Fondane : un Ulysse juif, consult
http://fondane.com/ulysse.htm, le 11 janvier 2015.
14
Benjamin Fondane, Le Mal des fantmes, Paris, Editions Verdier, 1996, p. 295
12
13
15
Benjamin Fondane, Le Mal des fantmes, Paris, Editions Verdier, 1996, p. 323.
742
sur
le
site
Issue no. 6/2015
Le pome prend la forme dun testament littraire et reste un livre ouvert au mot
homme :
C'est
vous
que
je
parle,
homme
des
je
parle
d'homme
avec
le
peu
en
moi
qui
demeure
de
avec
le
peu
de
voix
qui
me
reste
au
mon
sang
est
sur
les
routes,
puisse-t-il,
ne pas crier vengeance... 16
antipodes,
homme
l'homme,
gosier
;
puisse-t-il
Qui pourraient tre ces hommes des antipodes , sinon les lecteurs dj trangers au
temps de lcriture, aux antipodes de lhistoire ? Mais le pote ajoute immdiatement quil
parle aussi dhomme homme et la diachronie historique est efface par une communaut
existentielle.
Lexode revient de son subconscient, de lexprience tragique latente de la dernire
guerre mondiale et des tyrannies du rgime totalitaire. Tous ces mauvais souvenirs reviennent
dans la pense de ceux qui les ont vcues. Avant le dernier exode, B. Fondane rvait
lerrance mythique et celle historique ; en vivant le dernier exode, qui lemportait vers les
champs dextermination, le pote entre dans le milieu de ceux qui taient les victimes du
rgime. Il nabandonne pas ceux qui taient comme lui et on trouve dans ses pomes la
lumire de sa disposition humaine :
Oui,
j'ai
nourri
de
j'ai
aim,
j'ai
achet
pay mon terme. 17
t
pain,
j'ai
des
un
de
homme
rve,
pleur,
fleurs
et
comme
les
autres
hommes,
de
dsespoir.
Eh
oui,
j'ai
ha,
j'ai
souffert,
je
n'ai
pas
toujours
Le pote passe en revue toutes les choses matrielles qui le rapprochent des autres
mortels, mais la faute napparat aucune part. Lexode cest pour les innocents, pour ceux qui
ont t toujours les opprims seulement parce quils ne pouvaient pas se dfendre avec les
armes qui les avaient attaqus.
Je veux attirer lattention sur les vers qui rapprochent le pote de tout autre homme, en
se considrant un homme comme les autres hommes . Le visage testamentaire de la
Prface en prose apparat dans les derniers vers, o le pote sadresse directement aux
lecteurs. Il emploie la deuxime personne du pluriel :
Un jour viendra, sans doute, quand le pome lu
Se trouvera devant vos yeux
A laide de ces derniers vers, le pome sinscrit dans une temporalit indite, comme
pour reconstruire le monde, car cette prface nentend pas fournir les lments dune
explication, elle cherche plutt prdire, assumer une fonction prophtique, dont toute force
rside dans son caractre invocatoire. Cest de cette faon que la parole de Fondane veut se
situer au-del de la mort et que, davance, elle tmoigne pour un temps o le pote ne sera
plus. Mais elle insiste aussi sur le ncessaire mmorial : souvenez-vous seulement que
16
17
Marin Bucur, B. Fundoianu - contemporanul nostru, o.c., p. 156.

Ibid, p. 157
743
Issue no. 6/2015
jtais innocent , qui est renforc par son contraire oublier - cit deux fois. En ce sens,
Fondane adresse ceux qui liront le pome une double demande : celle de loubli du pome et
de son imperfection de principe, ainsi que celle du souvenir dun pass dinnocent et de
mortel. 18 Le testament est rdig dans les derniers moments de vie, une vie tragique, dont le
sang qui coule dans les veines crie vengeance . Les forces paraissent steindre et la voix
mme se perd le peu de voix qui me reste au gosier .
Mais il nous reste le doute si le pronom vous remplace le lecteur commun, un
lecteur qui ait vcu les mmes perscutions ou bien le perscuteur mme ?
Ce quil frappe encore aux yeux cest le changement rapide davis, car aprs avoir
numr toutes les choses quil a en commun avec les autres hommes, le pote continue en
disant :
Et pourtant, non!
Je ntais pas un homme comme vous.
Vous ntes pas ns sur les routes : personne na jet lgout vos petits
vous navez pas err de cit en cit
traqus par les polices
vous navez pas connu les dsastres laube,
les wagons de bestiaux
et le sanglot amer de lhumiliation,
accuss dun dlit que vous navez pas fait,
dun meurtre dont il manque encore le cadavre19
Et alors il nous reste le doute: le pote se considrait ou non comme les autres?...
Avant de conclure, il fallait prciser le fait que mme pour les critiques, Benjamin
Fondane na pas russi tre encadr dans un courant littraire : ds son dbut, il a t
considr par Eugen Lovinescu un traditionaliste, puis, tout comme Blaga ou Arghezi, il a t
vu en tant que pote moderne, mais sans tre pote davant-garde. En dpit de la collaboration
avec ses revues, Fondane nappartient pas ce courant, opine Mircea Marin, car personne na
considr Blaga un pote davant-garde cause de ses affinits expressionnistes. 20
En conclusion, les pomes tardifs, ou plutt mrs de Benjamin Fondane reposent sur
le stigmate dtre juif. Tout comme son personnage Ulysse, le pote fait connatre au monde
un chant de douleur provoqu par la souffrance dtre opprim. Le leitmotiv de lerrance et de
la maldiction de ne pas avoir un pays rapparat avec une force qui augmente avec le temps.
Le pote se sentira toujours perscut et son dmnagement Paris ne fera quaugmenter tous
ces sentiments; il vivra dans un exile permanent dont seulement lcriture sera son point de
secours.
Bibliographie :
1. BUCUR, Marin, B. Fundoianu, contemporanul nostru, Bucureti, Editura Albatros,
1985.
2. EISENBERG, G. Fondane, Juif tmoin, dans Cahiers Benjamin Fondane, no.2,
1998, p.19
3. FONDANE, Benjamin, Le Mal des fantmes, Paris, Ed. Verdier, 1996
Nicolas Monseu, Article De la raison la posie, dans la revue Euresis-cahiers roumains dtudes littraires
et culturelles, no. 3-4, 2008, p. 261.
19
Monique Justrin, Article Benjamin Fondane : un Ulysse juif, consult sur le site
http://fondane.com/ulysse.htm le 11 janvier 2015.
20
Mircea Martin, Introducere in opera lui B. Fundoianu, o.c., p.248.
18
744
Issue no. 6/2015
4. GYURCSIK, Margareta, GHEORGHIU Andreea et OCHIANA Florin, Ecrivains

roumains dexpression franaise, Timioara, Editura Universitii de Vest, 2003.
5. Les cahiers de Tristan Tzara, Revue Internationale pour ltude des avant-gardes,
fonde et dite par Vasile Robciuc, prsident de lAssociation culturelle et littraire
Tristan Tzara Moineti, Roumanie, Moineti, Editura Priftis, vols. 5-6/no/issues
13-20, 2006.
6. MARTIN, Mircea, Introducere n opera lui B. Fundoianu, Bucureti, Editura
Minerva, 1984.
7. MONSEU, Nicolas, Article De la raison la posie, dans la revue Euresis-cahiers
roumains dtudes littraires et culturelles, no. 3-4, 2008
8. PETRESCU, Radu I., Privirea Medusei. Poezia lui B. Fundoianu/Benjamin Fondane,
Iasi, Editura Universitii Alexandru Ioan Cuza, 2003.
Sites Internet:
9. www.fondane.com
10. www.fondane.net
11. www.reteaualiterara.ning.com
745
Issue no.6/2015
THE FRACTALS OF VASILE LOVINESCUS VISION

Elena Alina BRBU
Abstract: n its traditional sense, hermeneutics has been understood as being the theory of
rules which govern the interpretation of text and wich should permit us to establish their
possibly original or objective meaning. This paper tries to identify those structures of fractals
hermeneutics through Vasile Lovinescu claims his literary attitude.
Keywords: fractals, hermeneutics, interpretation, literary attitude, Vasile Lovinescu.
Hermeneutica lui Vasile Lovinescu poate primi calificativul de fractalic, dac prin
aceasta nelegem o disociere a prilor de ntreg, cu condiia ca fiecare parte s reitereze
proprietile ntregului, acionnd independent fa de acesta i avnd autonomie proprie. n
acest sens, fiecare demers hermeneutic ntreprins de Lovinescu despre oricare din textele lui
Ion Creang poteneaz la fel de bine convingerile estetice i viziunea despre lume a
simpatizantului gunonist. Vom alctui o diagram complet a metodelor hermeneutice,
plecnd de la un singur text interpretat oricare ar fi el , dup cum vom obine o perspectiv
holistic asupra reperelor exegetice utilizate de V. Lovinescu, dup ce le vom relaiona cu
crezul su artistic, mprumutat de la gnditorul francez. Aa ia natere un nou sistem critic,
numit hermeneutic fractalic. n cazul operatorului flticinean, acesta se refer la
valorificarea principiilor estetice care i guverneaz modul de via i care sunt confirmate
prin diferite opere literare, care, dei diferite la o prim vedere, trateaz, n realitate, aceleai
aspecte echivoce, orientate, de regul, spre un public cititor specializat.
Dac prin fractalic nelegem ceva spart sau fracturat1, atunci prin hermeneutic
fractalic ne vom referi, n cazul eseistului flticinean, la o metod digresiv de inventariere a
simbolurilor i a nelesurilor degajate de ctre acestea, astfel nct traseul interpretativ se face
att de la centru ctre periferie, ct i invers. De exemplu, dac mai nti lum cunotin de
convingerile artistice i estetice ale lui Vasile Lovinescu, pe urm le vom identifica n oricare
din creaiile sale exegetice, astfel nct, cu ajutorul fractalilor, vom reui s reconstituim
ntregul. Adic, pornind de la teoriile eseistului cu vocaie de simbololog, vom nelege cu
uurin demonstraiile sale critice cu aplicabilitate pe opere ce aparin literaturii populare,
cum ar fi baladele i basmele. n sens invers, plecnd de la o interpretare exegetic a unui text
oarecare, ajungem s intuim viziunea ontic a autorului, ceea ce nseamn c exist un raport
mutual de cauzalitate ntre parte i ntreg, adic, n termeni lovinescieni, ntre Esen i
Substan. Cele dou principii creatoare ale Universului sunt ocurente sistemului de gndire,
scrisului i aparatului critic ce fac din Vasile Lovinescu un veritabil hermeneut. i, pentru c
propria-i doctrin interpretativ are la baz nite silogisme implacabile cu pretenii
axiomatice, recurena acestora n oricare din fragmentele analizate anun ntreaga viziune a
operatorului cultural. n acest fel, fiecare ncercare analitic a unei opere din literatura
popular sau din repertoriul lui Ion Creang devine pentru pasionatul de folclor un prilej
pentru a-i valorifica stilul exegetic, cu impregnaii eseistice, dar de o mare for meditativ i
persuasiv, totodat.
Se poate spune c densitatea ideatic este aceeai, n cazul scrierilor lui Vasile
Lovinescu, indiferent c ne raportm unor digresiuni eseistice,cu tent filosific, sau unor
1
Conform www. wikipedia.ro, cuvntul fractal provine din limba latin: fractus=spart, fracturat.
746
Issue no. 6/2015
tentative critice, al cror rol este, ns, acela de a proba valabilitatea formulelor estetice.
Astfel, din marele tot ideatic, se desprinde, n variant fractalic, o aseriune suficient siei
prin plurimorfismul semantic i semiotic. Aa iau natere imagini miniaturale ale unui univers
ce conine n sine propria cauzalitate, fiecare dintre acestea funcionnd autonom, dar dup
legi impuse de entitatea regent. Faptul este explicabil prin aceea c fiecare idee criticoreflexiv are acelai ADN cu teza de cpti pe care o formuleaz Vasile Lovinescu, i anume
Cnd este prezent n lumea noastr, deci imanent, mitul se nvluie ntr-o indefinitate de coji
(cojas) ocrotitoare a miezului central. Fiecare coaj exprim Adevrul adaptat la un anumit
nivel de realitate i este un zid aprtor pentru adevrurile cele mai adci. Cel mai exterior
dintre nveliuri este sensul literal i n el i rup dinii imensa majoritate a cercettorilor.2
Fidel crezului su estetic, Lovinescu ncearc o explicitare a unor texte literare din
perspectiva simbolurilor i miturilor valorificate. Astfel, cu fiecare mit sau simbol investigate
din punct de vedere critic, ne apropiem de viziunea de hermeneut a lui Vasile Lovinescu,
indiferent dac o mprtim sau nu. Putem fi de partea lui, acceptnd teoriile gunoniste,
crora ncearc s le stabileasc validitatea prin raportarea la nite opere literare care s
conin urme ale Tradiiei primordiale, sau putem s citim neimplicai emoional toate
scrierile flticineanului, arbornd o atitudine circumspect, iar, n final, chiar de negare.
Ctigul destinatarului este net n ambele cazuri, acesta fiind pus n situaia de a asista la o
demonstraie insolit de a descifra nite texte consacrate din literatura romn. De asemenea,
acestuia i se ofer ansa de a afla anumite principii estetice care nu sunt chiar la ndemna
oricui.
Aadar, unul din marile merite lovinesciene const n faptul c stabilete o dubl
relaionare cu cititorul: pe de o parte, din perspectiva eseistului ce-i argumenteaz propriul
punct de vedere, iar pe de alt parte, din perspectiva criticului literar, ce expune un mod nou
de investigare literar prin mit i simbol. Interesant rmne faptul c se ajunge la o
cunoatere a viziunii despre lume a lui Lovinescu, att dintr-o direcie, ct i din alta, precum
i faptul c ntregul este diseminat n pri argumentative, iar partea anticipeaz ntregul,
coninndu-i fenomenologia. Acest lucru se datoreaz hermeneuticii fractalice, a crei
misiune, n principal, este aceea de a reconstrui o lume singular, unde fenomenele nu sunt
precis reperate, unde timpul nu pune ntre evenimente i existene, o ordine riguroas de
succesiune, unde ceea ce a ncetat s fie poate exista nc, unde moartea nu mpiedic o fiin
s mai existe i s se retrag n alte fiine, cu condiia s prezinte anumite similitudini3. Acest
lucru se ntmpl i n cazul operei critice semnate de Vasile Lovinescu, cel n cazul cruia,
cititorul poate reconstitui imaginea holistic a sistemului su interpretativ, dup cum acesta
din urm este mult mai uor de asimilat, dup ce se vor fi receptat corespunztor conceptele
sale meditativ-eseistice. De exemplu, pornind de la concepia hindus pe care elevul lui
Gunon o mprtete cu privire la perechea de protoprini Purua i Prakriti, avem ocazia
s aflm diseminri ale acestora n personajele basmice, unde sunt reprezentate, nc din
uvertura textului, de un mo i o bab. i ntlnim n Pungua cu doi bani, Povestea porcului
i n Fata moului i fata babei, de Ion Creang, ca substitueni ai perechii primordiale,
alctuite din Principiu i Manifestare sau Esen i Substan. Despre acetia, realizatorul
analizei face urmtoarea observaie: Acest cuplu e prezent n planul hominal nu numai ca
elementul cauzal i productiv al perpetuitii speciei, prezent n ea prin continuitate, ca martor
oarecum n lumea noastr, al perechii primordiale, Purua-Prakriti, polarizare a principiului
namanifestat, la rndul ei i ea nemanifestat, rmnnd n afara Cosmosului pe care-l
Vasile Lovinescu, Interpretarea ezoteric a unor basme i balade populare romneti, Bucureti, Editura
Cartea Romneasc, 1993, p.12.
3
Lucien Febvre, apud David Le Breton, Antropologia corpului i modernitatea, Timioara, Editura Amarcord,
2012, pp. 61-62.
2
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Issue no. 6/2015
produce, deasupra i dedesubtul lui. Pe cnd n spe perechea este efectiv, cuplul PuruaPrakriti, pentru motivele spuse mai sus, nu poate fi prezent n planul nostru de existen dect
ca simbol, infiltrare a planului cauzal, cuplu fr de moarte, martor perpetuu al ciclului, dar
neafectat de el4.
n acest fel, arhetipala pereche mo-bab, recurent n majoritatea creaiilor de
sorginte popular, capt conotaii simbolice, fiind o propagare a viziunii esoterice generale
pe care o mprtete Vasile Lovinescu i n virtutea creia, putem vorbi de o hermeneutic
fractalic. Schematic, aceasta poate fi demonstrat prin densitatea invariabil a oricrei
componente a gndirii lovinesciene, care pleac de la zona general a Marii Tradiii
Primordiale, din care proeminente sunt miturile, din care se desprind simbolurile, cu ajutorul
crora ni se relev misterele ontologice. Aadar, fractalii operei de interpretare a discipolului
lui Gunon sunt: Tradiia Primordial, Mitul, Simbolul i Misterul. Cu ajutorul acestora, se
dezoculteaz o realitate anagogic, pe care Vasile Lovinescu a descoperit-o n scrierile lui
Creang. De aceea, cocoul din Pungua cu doi bani este, n viziunea interpretului, cocoul
solar, ce reprezint autoritatea sacerdotal, boierul, nobilimea rzvrtit5, n timp ce
Pungua zvrlit n drum, creia nimeni nu-i d nicio atenie, este echivalentul cu ceea ce se
numete n simbolul masonic Piatra din vrful Unghiului sau cheia din bolt6. Despre
aceeai pungu, dezocultnd un aspect esoteric transmis prin mit sub forma simbolului
recurent n textul humuleteanului, se mai spune c este i Athanorul alchimic, ce conine
cele dou principii complementare i fundamentale, prealabile oricrui nceput de
transmutaiune7, pentru ca, n final, hermeneutul fractalic s ajung, folosindu-se tot de
simbolul punguei, la perechea primodial Purua-Prakriti, deoarece n ea erau dou monede:
una de aur i alta de argint.
n aceeai ordine de idei, n studiul nchinat explicitrii povetii Capra cu trei iezi,
numrul trei l duce pe operatorul interpretativ la cele trei iele, n calitatea lor de gune, care
imprim n acelai timp, un caracter de unicitate i de diversitate Universului, determinnd
Exaltarea, Amploarea i cufundarea n Abis8, ceea ce duce la concluzia urmtoare: E firesc
ca ternarul gunelor s caracerizeze i pe cei trei iezi, care, orict de astral le-ar fi fiina,
aparin nc manifestrii informale9.
ns, pentru ca lucrurile acestea s nu fie ocante pentru cititorul nefamiliarizat cu
tiina simbolurilor i, deci, cu adevrurile coninute de Tradiia Primordial, Vasile
Lovinescu, merge cu explicaiile pn n obriile sistemului su ideatic, explicndu-i
propriile convingeri prin trimiteri la textele maestrului su spiritual, precum i la miturile
fundamentale ale omenirii. Aa se ncheag imaginea unui hermeneut total, care nu numai
observ i analizeaz nite aspecte dintr-o opera literar, ci ncearc s conving lectorul de
valabilitatea principiilor sale estetice, n care el crede cu sfinenie. Astfel, pornind, de
exemplu de la un basm ca Povestea porcului, interpretul acestuia ajunge s pomeneasc de
teoriile lui Ren Gunon, oferind scrierii o explicaie ce face apel la mitologia hindus. n
acest sens, protagonistul basmului, respectiv entitatea al crei nume apare i n titlu, este
considerat varianta Mistreului Alb, adic cel de-al treilea Avatar al lui Vinu (cel care s-a
cobort pe pmnt sub nfiarea Mistreului Alb). Dar, nelegerea acestor aspecte presupune
acceptarea de ctre cititor a influenelor hinduse, fr de care tematica abordat ar rmne
cantonat n spaiul esteticii, transformnd creaia lui Creang ntr-o oper adresat exlusiv
copiilor: Cetitorul neobinuit cu disciplinele tradiionale nu poate realiza importana capital
Vasile Lovinescu, Creang i creanga de aur, op. cit., pp. 92-93.
Ibidem, p. 101.
6
Idem.
7
Ibidem, p.99.
8
Ibidem, p.69.
9
Idem.
4
5
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Issue no. 6/2015
a faptului c un povesta moldovean ran pomenete de aceste lucruri fundamentale, cnd de

o influen hindus nu poate fi vorba10.
ns, dincolo de interpretrile uneori n cheie simbolologic, alteori prea
fantasmagorice, n critica pe care nsui autorul ei a numit-o n zig-zag transpar i puncte de
vedere ale exegezei unanim recunoscute a operei lui Ion Creang, prin care aceasta este
vzut ca o expresie a geniului popular sau ca o prelucrare a eresurilor sau credinelor
populare. Astfel, Vasile Lovinescu pare s fie de acord cu faptul c Lucrarea lui Ovidiu
Brlea Povetile lui Creang este nepreuit pentru studierea rdcinilor basmelor lui Creang
n glia noastr11, precum i cu ideea potrivit creia n Creang triesc credinele, eresurile,
datinile, obiceiurile, limba, poezia, morala, filosofia popular, cum s-au format n mii de ani
de adaptare la mprejurrile pmntului dacic, dedesuptul fluctuaiunilor de la suprafaa vieii
naionale12. Aceasta pare s fie, de altfel, ipoteza de lucru a observatorului critic flticinean,
care, dincolo de ptura de simboluri nesate n creaia lui Creang, se ambiioneaz s
gseasc reminiscene ale unei lumi i ale unei gndiri de altdat. Aa cum folclorul se
transform ntr-un depozitar al tiinelor sacre primordiale, tot astfel opera povestitorului
moldovean adpostete rmiele unui univers de mult destrmat. n plus, acestea nu se
adreseaz tuturor, iar cei care au iniierea necesar descifrrii lor trebuie s respecte nite
convenii, prin care schema spiritualizat ajunge s fie normat, fiind aliniat unor principii
estetice de ordin social. nelegnd aceste lucruri, interpretul de adevruri sacre i, implicit, de
texte n care acestea sunt camuflate, devine un aprtor i un militant al regulilor astfel ivite.
De aceea, Romul Munteanu era de prere c Exercitarea actului critic are la baz numai un
aparent dar nnscut, ea nu poate fi susinut n exclusivitate doar de un talent precoce, care,
n alte arte poate s dea rezultate notabile13. i, n aceeai ordine de idei, definiia actului
critic, respectiv a criticului literar militant, suna n felul urmtor: Actul critic nu poate fi pur
explicativ. Un critic de vocaie este n acelai timp un spirit militant. Militantismul criticului
nu presupune doar o ideologie general foarte limpede, ci i o motivaie prob a unor opiuni
estetice14.
A milita pentru o idee critic, n termenii lui Vasile Lovinescu, nseamn a gsi
corespondent ntre doctrina estetic mprumutat de la maestrul su spiritual, Ren Gunon, i
formulele convenionale identificate n opera literar ce pot fi vzute ca un vehicul, cu
ajutorul cruia sunt aduse n timpul prezent mrturii ale unei lumi autotelice. Dac filosoful
francez consider c Marea Tradiie a lumii nu este altceva dect o sum a tradiiilor tuturor
rilor de pe acest pmnt, Vasile Lovinescu, aderent al acestui tip de gndire, vede n
anumite aspecte naionale dovezi incontestabile ale Tradiiei Primordiale. Aa ajunge s
considere c scrierile lui Creang, nnobilate de elementele mitico-esoterice cu reverberaii
multiple pentru cei iniiai, pot fi nelese drept ci de dezocultare a simbolurilor, prin care ni
se relev o nou dimensiune ontic, dominat de aspecte tributare primordialului. n acest
sens, Mircea Braga explic n studiul su exegetic Pe pragul criticii sintagma simunul
simbolurilor: Nimic nu se mai consum n gol pentru cel ce tie: de la gestul norei mici din
Soacra cu trei nurori la expediia cocoului din Pungua cu doi bani, de la momentul
Sfintei Duminici din Fata babei i fata moneagului la probele din Dnil Prepeleac, de la
peripeiile tinerei soii din Povestea porcului la cltoria iniiatic a lui Harap-Alb. Enorm
este dilatarea analizei, fiindc registrul simbolurilor nseamn, de fapt, o continu explozie15.
10
Ibidem, p. 220.
Vasile Lovinescu, Creang i creanga de aur, op. cit., p.8.
12
Garabet Ibrileanu, Povestirile lui Creang, Viaa romneasc, nr. 6, 1910; reprodus n Note i impresii,
Iai, 1920, pp. 78-79.
13
Romul Munteanu, Lecturi i sisteme, Editura Eminescu, Bucureti, 1977, p. 194.
14
Ibidem, p. 195.
15
MirceaBraga, Pe pragul criticii, Editura Transpres, Sibiu, 1992, p. 102.
11
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Issue no. 6/2015
Convins de proprietile entelehiale ale mitului, ocultat prin simbolurile mai uor de accesat
de ctre profani, autorul studiului critic pstreaz fa de regimul de interpretare al lui Vasile
Lovinescu o atitudine neutr. Nu pare s fie nici n acord, nici n dezacord cu acesta.
Observaiile sale finale capt statut conclusiv doar n maniera n care acestea l provoac pe
cititor la problematizare: sunt sau nu scrierile lui Creang expresii ncifrate ale unui cod
esoteric dezocultat doar cu ajutorul interpretrii corecte a simbolurilor? Enorm este
dilatarea analizei, fiindc registrul simbolurilor nseamn, de fapt, o continu explozie. Dac o
cltorie, cum este de pild cea a lui Harap-Alb, se circumscrie unei iniieri, atunci totul se
cuvine citit n regimul simbolurilor, orice gest, orice cuvnt, orice element al locurilor sau al
ntmplrilor se prezint ca un semn. Textul apare nu ca o suit, dar ca o erupie de simboluri,
lectura-interpretare fiind drumul obsedant aglomerat al unor acumulri simbolice. i, ca n
attea alte cazuri, important e nu att captul drumului, ct parcursul su, svrit cu o
neistovit voluptate a explorrii tuturor posibilitilor sale, cnd fiecare pas nainte nu poate fi
fcut dect dup investigarea n lateral pn la ultima lizier a anselor16.
Se poate vorbi, aadar, n cazul lui Vasile Lovinescu, despre o critic simbolic sau
despre o critic a simbolurilor, iar din acest unghi, opera lui Creang nu este dect materia
prim pentru demonstraia sa. O demonstraie care-i probeaz crezul artistic i estetic, n aa
manier nct valideaz convingerile sale culturale i spirituale. Deci, ncercarea exegetic
lovinescian are la baz experimentarea propriei convingeri estetice, aceasta fiind, de altfel, i
cea care legitimeaz scrisul gnditorului flticinean, prin intermediul cruia, iese la iveal o
erudiie distilat de sensibilitate i placere estetic, prin care se confer axele unei dispoziii
luntrice riguroase i controversate, fr a fi, ns, rigid sau total inaccesibil.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Bibliografie:
Braga, Mircea, Pe pragul criticii, Editura Transpres, Sibiu, 1992.
Febvre, Lucien, apud David Le Breton, Antropologia corpului i modernitatea,
Timioara, Editura Amarcord, 2012.
Ibrileanu, Garabet, Povestirile lui Creang, Viaa romneasc, nr. 6, 1910;
reprodus n Note i impresii, Iai, 1920.
Lovinescu, Vasile, Creang i creanga de aur, Editura Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti,
1981.
Lovinescu, Vasile, Interpretarea ezoteric a unor basme i balade populare
romneti, Bucureti, Editura Cartea Romneasc, 1993.
Munteanu, Romul, Lecturi i sisteme, Editura Eminescu, Bucureti, 1977.
www. wikipedia.ro.
Lucrarea a beneficiat de suport financiar prin proiectul cu titlul SOCERT.

Societatea cunoaterii, dinamism prin cercetare", numr de identificare contract
Oameni!
16
Idem.
750
Issue no.6/2015
FROM MYTHS TO ARCHETYPES: BRANCUIS ENDLESS COLUMN

Minerva-Teresa LCTUU
Abstract: The aim of this paper is to define the concept of myth, in order toanalyse the
boundbetween myths and archetypes, more specific to identify the archetypes which
influenced Brancusi in creating the well-known and appreciated Endless Column, which
symbolize the infinite sacrifice of the Romanian soldiers, being considered the top point of the
modern art.
Keywords: myths, archetypes, the Endless Column, axis mundi, the Cosmic tree
Pentru mult timp,mitul a fost definit ca fiind o pur invenie. La rspndirea acestei
regretabile idei au contribuit sistemele educaionale prin intermediul manualelor propuse, dar
i a jurnalismului, fapt ce a dus la interpretarea noiunii de mit cu o nscocire sau o minciun,
dei rdcina erorii se afla nc n conotaiile greceti ale cuvntului mythos. 1
Cu toate acestea, istoria cultural, fie ea oral sau scris, atest faptul c miturile duc
mai departe realiti transcendente, fiind purttoare de adevruri. n Mit. Mitogenez.
Mitosfer, Victor Kernbach ne atrage atenia asupra nelesului lexemului mit, care este
tradus, de regul, prin poveste. ns cuvntul grecesc mythos nu nseamn propriu-zis poveste
n nelesul nostru curent, ct mai degrab saga, dar deopotriv i tradiie.2
ncercrile pentru a gsi o definiie pertinent a acestui termen nu s-au ncheiat. Cert
este c omul, n momentele sale de cumpn, caut ntotdeauna s se adreseze miturilor,
implicit arhetipurilor, fapt ce i confer o oarecare siguran spiritual i echilibru psihic:
mprejurrile istoriei l oblig din cnd n cnd s-i caute arheii, s se reoglindeasc n
modelele sale arhetipale.3
Numeroase surse aduc n lumin un aspect esenial dat de faptul c arhetipurile mitice
sunt rechemate din memoria colectiv ori de cte ori istoria i regleaz mecanismele de
funcionare.4 Dac cercetm ndeaproape mecanismul de funcionare al mitului n conexiune
cu nevoile omeneti, ajungem la concluzia c mitul are un mecanism polifuncional, fiind un
mod de a tri, un mijloc care confer omului sentimentul c poate rezista la agresiunile
realitii. Legat de aceast idee, reamintim faptul c Mircea Eliade numea mitul teroarea
istoriei, ns nu trebuie s cdem prad confuziei i s identificm mitologia ca fiind o anex
a istoriei; este evident c mitologia nu este echivalent istoriei, mai ales pentru c nu apeleaz
la atestri documentare. Miturile nu completeaz istoria, dar sunt recunoscute ca fiind
transmitoare consecvente ale tradiiilor.
n lucrarea Dicionar de mitologie general, tot Victor Kernbach, cunoscut prin
erudiia i rigoarea destinate mitologiei, definete mitul ca o:
naraiune tradiional complex, nscut n unghiul de inciden ntre planul cosmic
i planul uman, al crei coninut specific, emannd n forme sacralizate de la o societate
primitiv (uneori de la o societate numai ntrziat cultural sau regresat prin alienare),
imagineaz explicarea concret a fenomenelor i evenimentelor enigmatice de caracter spaial
sau temporal, petrecute n existena psihofizic a omului, n natura ambiant i n univers, n
Victor Kernbach, Mit. Mitogenez. Mitosfer, Editura Casa coalelor, Bucureti, 1995, p. 7.
Victor Kernbach, op.cit.,p. 8.
3
ibid., p. 10.
4
ibid., p. 11.
1
2
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Issue no. 6/2015
legtur cu destinul condiiei cosmice i umane, i care le atribuie tuturor acestora origini
supranaturale din vremea creaiei primordiale i le consider sacre i revelate de fiine
supraumane.5
Observm din aceast definiie care se vrea a fi exhaustiv, c mitul nu e o doctrin ori
teorie, ci mai degrab o viziune despre cum este omul n realitate, o viziune a lucrurilor, a
fiinelor, care cuprinde comportamente i atitudini.
Autorul ne avertizeazprivitor la dificultatea clasificrii mitului, astfel nct propune o
ierarhizare a miturilor n: mituri memoriale, mituri fenomenologice, mituri cosmografice i
mituri transcendentale.
Interesul nostru se rsfrnge, desigur, asupra miturilor transcendentale, consacrate de
omul primitiv elucidrii contradiciilor existeniale aparente, pe care el nu le accept dect
ideal6, n care este inclus arhetipul, adic modelul din care izvorte irul, considerat a fi
absolut i inegalabil.
n filosofia lui Platon, nelesul originar al arhetipurilor este cel de modele primitive,
ns, psihanalitii, dintre care l reamintim pe C. G. Jung, acord arhetipurilor semnificaia de
imagini arhaice care aparin tezaurului comun al umanitii. Victor Kernbach adaug acestor
dou sensuri nc un sens, conform cruia toate fiinele i lucrurile sunt copiile unor modele
arhetipale cereti.7n mitologie, ca subalterni ai panteonului, apar eroii arhetipali, adic eroii
care au ajutat civilizaia prin descoperirile lor (astfel amintim despre foc, navigaie, trasul cu
arcul, agricultur, medicin sau scris etc.) i care, de fapt, erau dependeni de zeiti.
Dac judecm omul dup modelul primordial, arhetipurile ne sunt prezentate ca
modele de fiine umane Adam i Eva care nu au nicio calitate special, dar nfiarea lor
este lucrat dup modelul divinitii. i acetia, la fel, au descoperit mbrcmintea, au dat
nume animalelor, plantelor i lucrurilor, darlinia dominant de personificare a eroilor
civilizatori arhetipali a strbtut mai cu seam, cum era i firesc, zona intereselor omeneti
directe, acestea viznd aadar pe zeii sau eroii de tip prometeic, ale cror aciuni au protejat
omenirea independent de fora divin, sau chiar mpotriva acestei fore.8
n Imagini i simboluri, Eliade ne reamintete de filozofia culturii i de faptul c
imaginile, arhetipurile, precum i simbolurile sunt puse n valoare n diferite moduri, se
actualizeaz i redefinesc stilurile culturii. n aceast situaie putem lua ca exemplu
simbolismul Arborelui Lumii, simbolism pe care cretinismul nu a fcut altceva dect s l
interpreteze i s l extind: crucea a fost asimilat cu Arborele Lumii.9 Astfel c, orice
nou form de a valoriza o imagine arhetipal nu anuleaz pe cele vechi, ci se altur
celorlalte valene ori semnificaii. n viziunea lui Eliade, arhetipul de sorginte arhaic
continu s fie creator, chiar atunci cnd el e degradat pe niveluri de valorificare din ce n ce
mai joase.10
Dar, naintea lui Eliade a fost Carl Gustav Jung, medic, psiholog i psihiatru, cunoscut
pentru cercetrile saledespre isterie i vise, aducea n discuie pentru prima dat sensul
reflectat de imaginile arhetipale pe care le descria ca fiind att de ncrcate de sens, nct
niciodat nu ne ntrebm care le e sensul. Zeii mor din timp n timp pentru c descoperim
Victor Kernbach, Dicionar de mitologie general[ed. a II-a], Ed. tiinific i Enciclopedic, Bucureti, 1989,
p. 346.
6
Victor Kernbach, Miturile eseniale. Antologie de texte mitologice, cu o introducere n mitologia general,
comentarii critice i note istorice, Editura Univers Enciclopedic, Bucureti, 1996, p. 12.
7
Victor Kernbach, op. cit., p. 183.
8
ibid., p. 184.
9
Mircea Eliade, Imagini i simboluri. Eseu despre simbolismul magico-religios, prefa de GerogesDumzil,
traducere de Alexandra Beldescu, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 1994, p.202.
10
Mircea Eliade, Meterul Manole. Studii de etnologie i mitologie, Ediie i note de Magda Ursache i Petru
Ursache. Studiu introductiv de Petru Ursache, Editura Junimea, Iai, 1992, p. 136.
5
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Issue no. 6/2015
brusc c ei nu nseamn nimic altceva dect obiecte inutile fcute din lemn i piatr de mna
omului. Iar cnd omul ncepe s gndeasc asupra lor, o face cu ajutorul a ceea ce el numete
raiune, dar care de fapt nu este altceva dect suma prejudecilor i limitrilor sale.11
Concretiznd, privitor la estetica brncuian, Sabina Fnaru consider c arhetipul
sacru este extins, dar i conservat, prin imaginea dat de Coloana fr sfrit, a crei ax
vertical conchide cu circumferina unui cerc infinit reprezentat de expansiunea diferitelor
sisteme i mijloace de ntruchipare ale sacrului.12 Mai mult dect att, referindu-se strict la
opera brncuian i la felul n care acesta a reuit s mbine cunotinele sale despre mituri cu
talentul i ideile sale, Horia Muntenu spune c sculptura lui Brncui este i se ofer ca
mithos13. Coloana fr sfrit este considerat a fi una dintre cele mai importante opere care
reflect nceputurile sculpturii moderne, fiind parte din AnsamblularhitectonicdelaTrgu-Jiu,
care mai cuprinde i Poartasrutului, Masatcerii i Aleeascaunelor. Referitor la
originalitatea operei brncuiene i la impactul pe care aceasta l-a avut, tot Horia Muntenu
spune c originalul lui Brncui, ARHETIPUL, penetra Lumea Modern aflat n febrilitatea
cutrilor avangardiste n care toat lumea i dorea noutatea, originalitatea expresiei.14
Unul dintre cele mai relevante exemple care vizeaz dimensiunea arhetipal a operei
brncuiene este dat de mult-apreciata Coloan fr sfrit. Dumitru Daba meniona ntr-unul
dintre studiile sale dedicate lui Brncui c dimensiunea Ansamblului din care face parte i
Coloana fr sfrit este impresionant, el nemaifiind, ntr-adevr, doar o sculptur, ci i
arhitectur i deci, - arhisculptur.15
Dintr-o mrturisire redat de Petru Comarnescu aflm c Brncui s-a gndit la
generaiile care se succed pe lume, la datoria lor de a crea tot mai nalt i mai mre16 De
o semnificaie deosebit pentru cultura romneasc este faptul c n Coloana lui Brncui se
regsesc motive folclorice romneti: Coloana cerului, simbol al culturii arhaice, care face
legtura dintre cer i pmnt, dar i Arborele sacru, despre care se spune c ar fi fost situat n
mijlocul aezrilor i care, n lumea arhaic, era asociat cu centrul universului, locul unde se
petreceau ntlnirile nelepilor i cele mai importante ritualuri. De altfel, nelepii aveau
convingerea c, de fapt, cosmosul era nfiat sub forma unui copac de dimensiuni gigantice,
care fcea legtura dintre infern, purgatoriu i paradis, un axis mundicare conecteaz toate
nivelurile lumii.n plus, despre arborele cosmic se mai credea c avea puteri benefice pentru
pmntul divin, atrgea binele i respingea rul. Aceeai semnificaie este regsit i n
VechiulTestament, unde arborele cosmic este nfiat de PomulVieii, poziionat n mijlocul
grdinii Raiului, alturi de pomul cunotinei binelui i rului.
Concentrndu-ne asupra formei pe care o are Coloana fr sfrit, tradiional asociat
cu cea a unui stlp de poart din zona Olteniei, Ion Pogorilovschi ne atrage atenia asupra
faptului c modulele romboidale brncuiene sunt sculptate astfel nct forma s vorbeasc
din orice unghi ar fi privit: parc pstrnd memoria stlpului brut, n patru fee, n masa
cruia au fost ncrustate, notoriile module nfieaz i transmit invariabil aceeai unic
imagine pe toate cele patru direcii cardinale, de unde i concluzia c aceast oper
arhitectural unic prin forma i simbolistica pe care o are, centreaz din punct de vedere
cosmic ambiana n care este amplasat.
De altfel, nu putem s nu remarcm faptul c, i n cazul lui Constantin Brncui,
motivele arhaice alese n acest context au o semnificaie personal, fiind verificate i
Carl Gustav Jung, Arhetipurile i incontientul colectiv, Editura Trei, Bucureti, 2014, p. 3.
Sabina Fnaru, Eliade prin Eliade, Editura Univers, Bucureti, 2006, pp. 6-9.
13
Horia Muntenu, Dincolo de Brncui, Editura Limes, Cluj-Napoca, 2002, p. 16.
14
Horia Muntenu, op.cit., p. 17.
15
Dumitru Daba, Brncui, Editura de Vest, Timioara, 1995, p. 132.
16
Dumitru Daba, op.cit., p. 133 apud Petru Comarnescu, Brncui. Mit i metamorfoz, Ed. Meridiane,
Bucureti, 1972, p. 171.
11
12
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influenate de experiena individual din timpul vieii, precum i de epoca n care a trit
acesta, de cultura mai ales cultura popular n care a crescut i s-a dezvoltat profesional i
personal, finalitatea fiind tocmai una dintre mult apreciatele sale opere de art: Coloana fr
sfrit.
BIBLIOGRAFIE
1. COMARNESCU, Petru, Brncui. Mit i metamorfoz, Ed. Meridiane, Bucureti,
1972.
2. DABA, Dumitru,Brncui, Editura de Vest, Timioara, 1995.
3. ELIADE, Mircea,Imagini i simboluri. Eseu despre simbolismul magico-religios,
prefa de GerogesDumzil, traducere de Alexandra Beldescu, Editura Humanitas,
Bucureti, 1994.
4. ELIADE, Mircea Meterul Manole. Studii de etnologie i mitologie, Ediie i note de
Magda Ursache i Petru Ursache. Studiu introductiv de Petru Ursache, Editura
Junimea, Iai, 1992.
5. FNARU, Sabina, Eliade prin Eliade, Editura Univers, Bucureti, 2006.
6. KERNBACH, Victor,Dicionar de mitologie general[ed. a II-a], Ed. tiinific i
7. KERNBACH, Victor,Miturile eseniale. Antologie de texte mitologice, cu o
introducere n mitologia general, comentarii critice i note istorice, Editura Univers
8. KERNBACH, Victor,Mit. Mitogenez. Mitosfer, Editura Casa coalelor,
Bucureti, 1995.
9. JUNG, Carl Gustav Arhetipurile i incontientul colectiv, Editura Trei, Bucureti,
2014.
10. MUNTENU, Horia, Dincolo de Brncui, Editura Limes, Cluj-Napoca, 2002.
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ARS POETICA IN THE POETRY OF DETENTION

Lavinia-Ileana GEAMBEI
Abstract: Although arisen from the suffering in prisons and camps for anti-communist
political prisoners, dominated by terror and injustice, the poetry of detention is not evidence
of despair or abandoning of struggle, on the contrary, it stands for human victory which
requires a value in an evil and absurd world.
"Imprisoned poets", such as Radu Gyr or Nichifor Crainic did not only become those already
well-known in the Romanian literature at the time of their arrest, but also others, who there in
seclusion, encountered Poetry, and discovered their creative vocation. Among the
representatives of detention poetry, there is a tendency specific to the poets of the 20th century
to describe their conception about art, artist and their relation with those for whom they
write, about balance between content and form of poetry. Since this is poetry with specific
features and status, the imprisoned poet is mainly concerned to illustrate its genesis and
functions.
Starting from this premise, the present paper aims to analyse some of the detention creations
which can be considered true ars poetica, to highlight the role and specificity of this poetry,
as expressed in its lyrics.
Keywords: ars poetica, poetry of detention, genesis, functions, metaphor.
Cu toate c s-au nscut din suferinele ndurate n nchisorile i lagrele pentru
deinuii politici anticomuniti, unde teroarea i nedreptatea dominau, poeziile care alctuiesc
capitolul numit lirica deteniei nu sunt dovezi ale disperrii, ale renunrii la lupt, ci,
dimpotriv, ele reprezint victoria fiinei umane, care impune un sens ntr-o lume demonizat
i absurd.
Tragismul vieii poeilor-deinui, anii ndelungai de recluziune, cu permanenta
ameninare a exterminrii, ni se reveleaz n versuri impresionante, cu dimensiunile imediate
ale terorii, omenete simite i nfruntate. Dialog tcut al poetului cu sine i cu universul,
versurile deteniei s-au nscut din suferin i durere i au ancorat n meditaie, de aceea
poemele depesc condiia circumstanialului i dobndesc valene ale general-umanului,
devenind dovada rezistenei omului, cci din toat aceast intuire pe Cruce a nit sngele
sfnt care a fcut posibil poesia din acest nou Graal (Vintil Horia, 1982: VII).
Dei ,,poei dup gratii nu au devenit doar cei care erau deja consacrai n literatura
romn n momentul arestrii lor, ca Radu Gyr sau Nichifor Crainic, ci i alii care, acolo, n
recluziune, s-au ntlnit cu Poezia, descoperindu-i vocaia creatoare, se observ la toi
reprezentanii liricii deteniei tendina specific poeilor secolului al XX-lea, aceea de a-i
autodefini, n versuri proprii, concepia despre art, artist i raportul pe care l stabilete acesta
cu cei pentru care scrie, despre echilibrul dintre coninutul i forma poeziei. Fiind vorba
despre o poezie cu o fizionomie i un statut aparte, poetul-deinut e preocupat mai ales de
ilustrarea genezei acesteia, de exprimarea funciilor cu care e nvestit.
Pornind de la aceast premis, prezenta lucrare i propune s analizeze cteva dintre
creaiile deteniei care pot fi considerate adevrate arte poetice, pentru a evidenia rolul i
specificul acestei lirici, aa cum sunt ele exprimate n versuri.
Volumul postum al lui Radu Gyr, Sngele temniei. Stigmate, se deschide cu o
adevrat ars poetica, intitulat sugestiv Prefa la cntece din temni. Poetul a simit nevoia
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unei ,,introduceri lirice. Poezia este construit armonios din patru catrene ce alctuiesc dou
secvene lirice. Prima secven liric, cuprinznd primele dou catrene, ntr-un limbaj
impregnat de termeni din sfera semantic a urtului i a recluziunii, un limbaj simbolic, este o
confesiune liric a celui claustrat, care simte c aceast condiie l copleete i, pe zi ce trece,
l anihileaz, l apropie de moarte: ,,n aprigele mele belciuge,/ piatra m-nfulec, fierul m
suge./ n bezne m-afund, zi de zi, i-n urt,/ nti pn la glezne, apoi pn la gt.// Curnd, o
s-mi treac de gur, de frunte,/ lespedea temniei, cu gngnii mrunte,/ i-am s dispar n
grozava ei gu,/ n mugetul ei subteran i-n cenu. Metafora ,,cenuii trimite la ideea de
moarte, accentuat i prin cele trei puncte de suspensie, cu rol stilistic, care ncheie aceast
secven liric.
A doua secven debuteaz, semnificativ, cu conjuncia adversativ ,,dar, care
transform acea neputin fizic exprimat n versurile anterioare ntr-o victorie a spiritului.
Este vorba aici de biruina prin creaie n detenia politic din comunism: ,,Dar, hmesit, sub
lacte, chei i zvoare,/ de tine, slbatice, viule soare,/ din carne mi rup, din dogorta mea
smoal,/ aceste cntece n pielea goal,// i-n tine le-arunc, n nprasnice-amieze,/ s-alerge, s
tropie i s necheze,/ slobode, aspre, neeslate deloc,/ ca nite crlane fugare n stepe de
foc. Se remarc antiteza ntre ntuneric/smoal i lumin/soare, simboliznd antiteza ntre
condiia de claustrat a poetului/lipsa libertii fizice i dobndirea total a libertii interioare,
n urma unui traseu iniiatic, consecin a angajrii pe calea tainic a coborrii n sine. Prin
cele dou secvene lirice coordonate adversativ, poetul exprim o idee poetic extrem de
profund. Descoperindu-se ca fiin nzestrat cu vocaia creaiei, poetul nelege c, prizonier
al unui univers fizic plin de teroare, a greit drumul, trebuind s ncerce o alt cale, ,,invers,
gsind astfel nu n afar, ci n sine deplina libertate. Iat un adevr general-valabil exprimat n
aceste versuri: superioritatea omului asupra destinului potrivnic st n cunoatere. n
asemenea condiii, poetul, un fel de salvator al tuturor celor aflai n aceeai situaie,
descoper un nou leac tmduitor: fora purificatoare a spiritului.
Astfel, nchisoarea devine expresie a paradoxului, ea este i loc al suferinei, dar i al
bucuriei, ,,imagine de iad decolorat, dar i loc al mplinirii, ,,coal de adevr (N.
Steinhardt, Jurnalul fericirii).
Epitetele ,,(cntece) aspre, neeslate deloc, ca i metafora ,,cntece n pielea goal
au n vedere caracterul frust al acestor versuri i ideea c, sub aspect artistic, ele se pot
caracteriza uneori prin asperiti, pentru c, victorie a spiritului, poeziile respective sunt
emanaii spontane, ele poart amprenta condiiilor n care au fost create, fr a se bucura de
privilegiul unei operaii de lefuire, de cizelare, n vederea desvririi lor.
Enumeraia verbelor de micare ,,s-alerge, s tropie i s necheze, ca i epitetul
,,slobode (cntece), demonstreaz c aceste versuri sunt expresia vieii n libertate, dup care
tnjete poetul.
i poezia Cntecele mele, a lui Dumitru Oniga, este o adevrat art poetic pentru
lirica deteniei, ilustrnd geneza acestor versuri i funciile lor. Creat n condiii nefireti, sub
presiunea realitilor dramatice din nchisoare, aceast liric se constituie ntr-un important
document de via i de istorie furat, denunnd adevruri greu de imaginat pentru cei ce nau stat cu noi n celule (trimitere la versurile lui Radu Gyr).
Lipsii de orice instrument de scris, poeii deinui au apelat la altfel de obiecte care
s-i ajute s se exprime liric, aa cum mrturisesc versurile lui Dumitru Oniga: Condei mi-a
fost un ac, un b, un cui./ Cu asemenea scule cte nu poi s spui?!/ Am scris pe spun, pe
geam, pe-un col dosit de perete/ Ori pe alte ciudate suprafee. Modul n care au luat natere
poeziile este mrturisit liric de muli poei ai deteniei: Fr creion, fr hrtie,/ Doar cu
speran i credin,/ n cea mai neagr suferin,/ Aa fcut-am poezie (Costin Dacus
Florescu, Fr creion, fr hrtie).
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Varietatea sentimentelor exprimate n aceste versuri este sugerat de Dumitru Oniga

prin tripla metafor ,,lacrimi, picturi de snge, dureri. Poezia este astfel suferin
transfigurat, sublimarea acesteia, metafora sngelui fiind expresia faptului trit.
Poetul nu-i plnge propriile dureri, ci pe ale tuturor. De aceea, aceste cntece
susineau, n acelai timp, atitudini ale tuturor acelora care, unii n convingeri, n idealuri, se
identificau unii cu alii, ntre zidurile celulelor sau n barcile coloniilor de munc forat. Cei
care ascultau poeziile create de poetul-deinut le considerau o expresie a propriilor triri : i
ndat se gsea cineva s le-nvee:/ Schingiuii, flmnzii, ntemniaii./ Dornici de lumin, de
spaii,/ Le murmurau dup zvoare, obloane,/ dup pereii obscuri,/ S le aline dorul de cas,
de soare, de pduri./ Unii se regseau n versuri, n cuvinte/ i muli le-au luat cu ei n
morminte. Regsindu-se n tririle eului liric, receptarea i transmiterea lor mai departe, n
mediul nchisorilor i coloniilor, devenea o obligaie moral, unanim nsuit. De aceea, aa
cum am artat n lucrarea noastr Ipostaze ale metaforei n lirica deteniei (Piteti, 2007),
ntre versurile deteniei i lirica popular exist apropieri, ambele avnd caracter oral i
colectiv. Poeziile nchisorilor sunt majoritatea orale, cci, odat elaborate, au fost transmise,
mai ales prin perete, prin alfabetul Morse. Nicolae Steinhardt, trecut prin nchisoarea
comunist, autorul Jurnalului fericirii, aprecia n mod deosebit acest efort de compunere a
versurilor n minte: ntocmirea de versuri pe cale mintal este, oricum, o performan
(Steinhardt, 2000 : 65).
Ultimele versuri din poezia lui Dumitru Oniga ilustreaz caracterul mesianic al acestei
lirici, cu o puternic funcie social, cci ea exprim o total i convingtoare ncredere c mai
devreme sau mai trziu regimul comunist din Romnia se va prbui, c cenzura din literatur
va disprea i c versurile acestea vor putea fi recuperate i adunate ntr-o carte: Poate cnd
vor buciuma vremile de-apoi,/ Au s vin prigoniii veacului cte unul, cte doi,/ S mi le
aduc napoi./ Atunci cred c voi avea i eu parte/ S-mi adun cntecele i s le pun ntr-o
carte.
Aa cum am afirmat mai sus, pentru muli, ntlnirea cu Poezia, descoperirea vocaiei,
a avut loc acolo, n detenie: n nchisoare s-a nscut poetul/ Mai gol ca apa limpede-n
fntn (Vasile Tacu, n nchisoare s-a nscut poetul). Metafora fntnii este gritoare,
fiindc ea are o simbolistic bogat, nsemnnd fntna vieii sau a nemuririi, sau a tinereii
venice, sau fntna nvturii (Chevalier, Gheerbrant, vol. 2, 1993: 53). ntlnirea poetului
neofit cu Poezia este exprimat prin dou comparaii ce conin termeni din lumea vegetal:
Cum firul ierbii iese prin zpad,/ Cum prima frunz nate n livad/ E poezia lui n
nchisoare. Dei El nu cunoate drum n poezie, va face eforturi, va cizela versul, pentru
a fi art, fiindc arta i d putere, i d ncredere: Cldete cu migal,-apoi drm,/ Din toate
i va rmne o frm/ De cer albastru i un strop de soare. n concepia lui Vasile Tacu,
poezia este un amestec de lumin i culoare, de prospeime i infinit, aa cum demonstreaz
metaforele cer albastru i soare. Pentru Vasile Tacu arat poezia presupune efort,
meteug, ea este expresie, nu doar coninut: Pe neted cmp se poticnete bietul,/ Din mii de
forme dibui sonetul/ Drept vas ca s-i pstreze apa vie. Puterea i farmecul poeziei sunt
sugerate de metafora apa vie.
Despre necesitatea i rolul poeziei n detenia politic din comunism se exprim
Gabriel epelea n Argument la nite poeme ntrziate: Dac e adevrat c romnul e nscut
poet, pucriaul romn a devenit poet sau n cele mai multe cazuri, cum se spune azi,
consumator de poezie i aici termenul e ntr-adevr adecvat cci poezia, prin virtuile ei
mnemotehnice, a populat celulele cu draperia ei de vis i uitare, s-a transmis din gur n gur
ca n baladele populare i a devenit supliment mirific cu care muli i-au amgit poriile de
arpaca (epelea, 1992: 5). Gabriel epelea nsui, filolog renumit, a creat versuri doar n
detenie, devenind astfel ,,poet dup gratii.
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Tot Gabriel epelea descrie felul n care se ntea poezia n detenia comunist,
momentul sacru al inspiraiei fiind mai ales noaptea, cnd poetul se simea liber i putea s
dialogheze cu muza pn cnd frigul i neputina l cuprindeau: Dup o imagine, o strof,
dup intense cutri, arma soldatului ntru cuvinte cdea alturi, iar temerarul explorator
simea o surpare luntric, o scufundare n marea neputinei i se aduga sleit la acel cor
dodecafonic nocturn al celulei. A doua zi, a treia zi, peste o sptmn, mbarcarea spre vise
era reluat, abandonat i tot aa, pn cnd poetul neofit ori consacrat era convins c i-a
gsit drumul (epelea, 1992: 6).
n poezia nchisorii, se ntrevede o nverunat lupt cu sine a omului privat de
libertate. Un crez strnit de violena durerii i ia o rbdtoare revan, ca soluie posibil a
realitii absurde: Mai am o scpare: refugierea n poezie (Stnescu, 2000:19), mrturisea
Gheorghe Stnescu, i el trecut prin nchisorile comuniste. Aadar, revana se regsete n
nobleea scrisului. Lirica deteniei ilustreaz calea de la starea de osnd la nlarea prin
creaie. Meritul poetului-deinut este de a aduce la lumin o realitate nou prin puterea
imaginii artistice.
Creatorul triete dramatismul conflictului dintre teluric i ceresc, dou intensiti
aflate la distane polare, iradiind cu aceeai putere, figurate, n unele poezii, prin erpi, ngeri
i rai, care sunt cele trei etaje ale cunoaterii biblice. Lupta cu timpul i cu suferina este
ctigat de sufletul poet: i-n preajma celui dezbrcat de vreme/ vei nelege-abia ca printrun fum/ c-n sngele din tmpla mea de-acum/ s-a prefcut materia-n poeme (Andrei
Ciurunga, n casa voastr). Aadar, poezia nseamn transfigurare artistic a realitii. Poetul
caut un mod al nvingerii lutului (ipostaza venicei nempliniri) prin avntarea spre stele.
Dei ascuns ntre soboli i rdcini, sufletul nu este biruit, mai flfie cte-o arip de dor,
gref metaforic ce sugereaz puterea spiritului creator. Inima s-a hrnit cu visuri, a strns un
univers/ de calde bucurii care vor fi, deci nu i-a pierdut sperana n viitor.
Alteori, poezia este mesagerul poetului ctre lumea de afar: trimit n lume cte-un
sol de vers/ s-i dea de veste c mocnesc aici (Andrei Ciurunga, n casa voastr). Metafora
verbal mocnesc subliniaz zbuciumul interior, lupta cu sine a poetului, cu propriile
slbiciuni, cu suferina, dar i cu dorurile, cu patimile de care este cuprins aici, departe de
lume. ns poetul ajunge s accepte totul ca pe un dat ceresc, fiindc din aceast suferin i
durere s-a nscut Poezia, care va fi nvingtoare, aa cum sugereaz comparaia final: Aa
au fost pesemne anii mei/ sortii n ngropatele-nchisori,/ s joace poezia peste ei/ ca flacra
pe vechile comori (Andrei Curunga, De profundis).
n lirica deteniei, poetul este alesul al crui har trebuie s rodeasc un fruct rar.
Talentul de a crea versuri n asemenea condiii este dar de la Dumnezeu. Rvnele poetului se
ndreapt spre altare, ochii osndii, adnci i simpli ca o rug l caut pe Dumnezeu i
neleg c a fi poet, n asemenea condiii, nseamn acceptarea destinului lui Iisus: La nceput
a fost Cuvntul,/ osnda mea, pierzania mea // Doamne, de cnd mi l-ai dat, / m perpelesc
pe sute de plite,/ m tai n neliniti ca n cuite,/ m urc pe cruce necontenit.// Sunt, Doamne,
ca Tine, nefericit, Snger, Doamne, semn cu Tine (Radu Gyr, Osnda). Actul creator
nseamn suferin, sacrificiu de sine. nelegerea vocaiei de a fi poet drept o ,,osnd poate
trimite i la cruntul eveniment din viaa lui Radu Gyr, condamnarea la moarte pentru poezia
Ridic-te, Gheorghe, ridic-te, Ioane!. Creaia are, n acest caz, tristul privilegiu de a-i
osndi creatorul.
Poetul damnat poate fi apropiat de legendarul Manole, pe amndoi unindu-i ideea
jertfei de sine, pus la temelia operei pentru a zidi la modul demiurgic, pentru a da expresie
artistic existenei.
Prin puterea de creaie, sufletul are ceva divin, reuind s nving vremelnicia: Teascult duduind peste mine,/ cu pas de cumplit dumnezeu,/ cu tlpi de milenii senine,/ deasupra
molozului meu (Radu Gyr, Ce mare eti, suflete). Poezia devine un pas spre
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ndumnezeire, aa cum mrturisesc i alte versuri ale lui Dumitru Oniga: i tot efortuacesta/ Marcat de neputini i poticniri,/ Mai pui o piatr pe un piedestal,/ Mai faci un pas spre
ndumnezeire (Dumitru Oniga, Sonet 9). Legtura dintre Art i Divinitate este ilustrat, n
mod desvrit, de unul dintre ,,cei mai populari poei ai deteniei, Nichifor Crainic, dar n
eseurile sale, n care arat c arta este o schimbare la fa pe muntele Taborului []. Arta
este salvarea particularului n universal, a vremelniciei n etern frumuseea artistic aspir
spre acel climat superior din ale crui grdini paradisiace s-a frmiat cndva. Cu rdcini n
spaiu i n timp, ea nzuie s nfrng spaiul i timpul (Crainic, 1931 : 261). i poezia de
dup gratii a nvins timpul, ieind la lumin dup cteva decenii de inere n umbr total, n
ascunzi.
Ca i Tudor Arghezi, Virgil Mateia, alt poet al deteniei politice din comunism,
ncearc s defineasc poezia tot ca o mpletire a talentului, a harului cu munca, cu migala:
Cntecul e-o nscocire vie/ cu daruri, cu pcate i noroc./ l poi desvri prin ngrijire/ Cum
lesne-l poi zvrli uscat pe foc. Pentru elaborarea poeziei, poetul ar avea nevoie de condiii
fireti: Dar pentru asta ar trebui s strig/ Cu glasul Celui ce strig-n pustie:/ Gtii cile
Domnului iar mie/ Dai-mi creion i puin hrtie (Cntecul). ns, n lipsa hrtiei i a
cernelii, Am scris cu snge-n Cer i pe pmnt (Ne-am ridicat). Metafora sngelui, din nou
ntlnit, subliniaz duritatea, grotescul, absurditatea realitii transfigurate n versuri.
Lumea n care se ncheag poezia este o lume aparte, o lume ascuns, bogat n
nelesuri, este lumea imaginaiei, a interioritii, lumea libertii depline: Exist o lume/
Unde nimeni nu ptrunde/ Dei-i imens cum e Universul/ Cu mii de constelaii, Mii de stele./
O lume-n care se-nfirip versul,/ E lumea mea a gndurilor mele (Simion Lefter, Cntec
din Aiud). Puterea de detaare i de ascensiune n imaginar are efecte terapeutice n patologia
sufleteasc a poetului-deinut. Pentru el, poezia este o sprtur n zidul de piatr, o libertate
asumat, tragic, ea devine o form de rezisten moral i psihic, un mod de a rmne n
via. n detenie, poetul a trit i a cunoscut viaa ntemniailor, frai de pcat (Radu Gyr),
i-a umplut inima de durerile i de spaimele lor, a ngenuncheat naintea idealurilor lor i a
crezut n ele: Da, noaptea trziu, plngei i voi la zbrele./ Atunci, din celula-mi lumeasc
scot palmele-afar/ lacrima voastr de flcri s-mi cad n ele/ i s fac inel ori brar
(Radu Gyr, i-acolo sus, n vzduh). Inelul i brara, prin forma rotund, sunt simbol al
cunoaterii i al puterii, al desvririi.
Pentru a rezista, deinutul i creeaz o filozofie a deteniei, care s nlocuiasc
universul din afar, pierdut, poate, pentru totdeauna. Nefericirea mpreun cu revolta
determin, de multe ori, urzeala textului, ordoneaz materialul poetic i-i dau o not
particular. Aadar, poezia din detenie reprezint i rzbunare, are funcie vindicativ,
ntorcndu-se ca un bici, sub forma artei, a cuvintelor, izbvind de suferin destinul unui
popor, al unei colectiviti: mi-am pus n ele chin, disperare/ i toat npasta i sngele tot/ i
toat drceasca mea rzbunare,/ din iadul meu cnd o scot (Radu Gyr, Pe unde-au clcat
cuvintele mele). Stihurile din nchisoare se doresc a avea rol social, de revolt, a fi cntece
lupttoare. Radu Gyr, suflet revoltat, rebel, Cntreul rzvrtit (cum este chiar titlul uneia
dintre poeziile lui), n Poei, climara-i bolnav, schimb registrul meditaiei poetice i-i
ndeamn pe creatorii de versuri s pun n ele clocotul omului, snge, lav, furtun,
mrile-n fierberi supreme/ s se zvrcoleasc-n poeme, metafore covritoare pentru
tragismul vieii din temni. E rscolitor poemul Cntec de ur, n care poetul nal ctre
Dumnezeu rugciunea: ,,Printe-Sfnt, blagoslovete,/ zmbind, i holda urii mele. Printr-un
limbaj foarte plastic, prin asocieri verbale surprinztoare, ce se mpletesc n metafore, Cntec
de ur transmite mai multe idei poetice: poezia, pentru care folosete metafora ,,spicului,
este forma cea mai nalt i mai rezistent de oglindire a vieii interioare, poezia este un
fenomen de ,,distilare, este esen de cuvinte extras din limbajul comun, avnd i rolul de a
rzbuna, de a ntoarce prin art un destin, izbvindu-l prin suferin; poezia poate fi i o
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,,floare a rului, o metamorfoz estetic a suferinei, pentru c frumosul i urtul coexist:

,,Aud, inndu-mi rsuflarea,/ cum prind, mugind, s se ridice/ Amarul, Jalea, Disperarea,/ n
lungi, nsngerate spice.// E-un clocot surd i-o grea fonire/ de lanuri aspre i barbare./ D-i
suferinei unduire,/ d-i, Doamne, urii mele soare!// Vreau o recolt-nveninat,/ suflat-n
lacrimi i-n aram. Poemul se ncheie ntr-o manier deja tipic lui Radu Gyr, cu o
imprecaie cu iz popular: ,,S-i ard mna cu pucioas/ cui spicul crncen mi l-o frnge/
Din orice pai catran s ias,/ din orice bob s curg snge.
Poezia din detenie a reprezentat haina celor osndii la ani grei de suferin, aa
cum exprim versurile altei arte poetice: Cu tine, cntec lupttor, m-mbrac (Andrei
Ciurunga, Cntec lupttor), pentru c n detenie viaa se afl sub dominaia irepresibil a
celor patru semne sinistre: foamea, frica, fierul, frigul. Lirica devine, astfel, ecoul vieii n
tortur, al frmntrilor existeniale.
Poezia concentraionar trebuie s se inunde de autenticitatea simirii, s exprime cel
mai bine revolta, mpotrivirea, ura, chinul ndurerat, dar i credina c va urma totui o fil
din istoria nescris cu snge, ca aceea pe care ei nii o scriau: Iar dac strofa-n zale mi-o
prefa / alturnd metafore cu ur,/ e ca vrjmaa sabie obscur/ s nu se mai ntoarc din atac
(Andrei Ciurunga, Cntec lupttor). Creaia liric se dorete o mrturie peste timp despre
adevruri nfricotoare, de aceea n poemul lui Radu Gyr sunt folosite pentru versuri
metafore n care se mbin elemente ale mineralului cu cele ale vegetalului: Fost-a ca vorbele
mele s fie/ gresii amare i crngi cu zimi./ Ah, lume, frunziul meu te sfie,/ pietrele mele
te rup n dini / Au s rmn grozave, de pomin,/ bolovani ndrjii, turburate pduri/
cetini cu izul ca uica de comin,/ stnci ncruntate de uri (Radu Gyr, Pe unde-au clcat
cuvintele mele).
Andrei Ciurunga, adresndu-se surorii poezii, ilustreaz diferena dintre poezia
scris nainte de a ncepe anotimpul negativ al temniei i cea creat acolo, nuntru, aceast
diferen nscndu-se din realitile total diferite care au inspirat fiecare etap artistic n
parte: Fost-ai lamp, licurici,/ i-ai ajuns acum furtun (Sor poezie). Poezia de dinainte
exprima, n primul rnd, sentimentul frumos al dragostei: cnd mi nfloreai aleea/ primei
ntlniri cu ea. Pe cnd acum, ea devine o arm, o for, exprimnd sentimente de revolt,
de ndrjire: Iat-te acum: vuind,/ vii de jos, de nu tiu unde,/ lave rscolind afunde,/ dini de
cremene scrnind. Poezia nu mai nseamn o voce liric individual, ci colectiv, fiindc io nsuesc toi cei care se regsesc n mesajul ei: Ochi ce nu te-au ntlnit/ niciodat,
nicierea,/ dac i-au vzut privirea, lng tine-au poposit.
Lirica deteniei ilustreaz ,,fapte ce aparin istoriei individuale i, deopotriv, istoriei
colective. Aceast istorie este transfigurat ntr-un spaiu poetic, care convertete viaa n
oper.
Ca n poezia Testament, a lui Arghezi, unde poetul nu las drept bunuri dup moarte,/
Dect un nume adunat pe-o carte, i aceti poei las viitorimii bunul cel mai de pre al lor,
opera literar, o oper cu un anumit specific, creat ntr-un anumit context: Eu n-am
viitorimii niciun surs s-i las./ Isclitura pus pe fiecare carte/ va aminti de neguri, primejdie
i moarte.// Un lan ori o ctu la fiecare pas/ vor tresri sub versuri trezite de departe,/ din
ara fr soare, cu umbre fr glas.// Mereu hoinarul nume, cnd eu voi fi popas,/ va povesti
de setea fntnilor dearte,/ sortit, n universul atemporalei arte,/ s-arate miezul nopii ca
limbile pe ceas (Andrei Ciurunga, Miezul nopii). Opera artistic se adreseaz posteritii,
pentru care se vrea un ,,dar: A vrea s fie versul meu un dar/ Ca lacrima pmntului, pe
care/ n muni silhui cu cretetul de var/ O bea o ciut seara din izvoare (Virgil Mateia,
Dorina).
n acelai timp, act autentic, ncrcat de fora tririi i consistena refleciei, poezia
nchisorilor comuniste are rol educativ, este o lecie pentru generaiile viitoare: Cuvintele ard
cu vpaie n noaptea de zgur,/ c-am pus n amara, cumplita scriptur,// tot sngele nostru din
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ran fierbinte,/ tot aurul strns de pe scumpe-oseminte./ S-aternem n stihuri rstritile toate,/
neamul s le cunoasc i s le-nvee pe de rost./ Cu toi laolalt vom izbuti, poate,/ s-artm a
mia parte din ce-a fost (Constantin Aurel Dragodan, Cenaclu n nchisoare). Fa de aceast
istorie a durerii, creaia poetic reprezint clipa ateptat a mplinirii.
Intregul univers poetic este strbtut de tensiunea unei bipolariti spirituale, fiindc
tensiunea major a poeziei acesteia se nate la intersecia spaiului nchis al celulei cu spaiul
nedeterminat al imaginarului. Tririle antinomiilor i depirea lor n nzuina continu ctre
Unitate organizeaz imaginarul acestei lirici, aa cum exprim i poemul lui Radu Gyr Ce tare
sunt, Doamne, adevrat art poetic: ,,Ar trebui s urlu sub lav,/ s pier n nemernicie./ i,
totui, viaa mea tie/ s rabde mocirla grozav;/ nimeni ca mine nu-nvie/ din scrb, din
viermi, din otrav,/ nimeni nu trece asemenea mie/ prin iad i prin slav.
Esena poeziei din nchisori i puterea cuvntului creator sunt bine ilustrate n crezul
liric carceral al lui Radu Gyr: ,,Trim i suferim aici n nchisoare. Poezia noastr trebuie s se
ridice deasupra oricrei grupri politice i s fie mai mult dect naional. Suferina noastr
trebuie s ajung s fie neleas i s sensibilizeze ntreaga lume cu puritatea ei. Morii,
suferinele au creat eroi, martiri. Toate aceste crude realiti trebuie transfigurate pentru a fi
poezie, i miracolul transfigurrii vine prin taina Cuvntului. mbrac totul n metafor i ai
spart tiparele normale, spre universul spiritual al infinitului (Apud Cistelecan, 2000 : 85).
n concluzie, tragismul vieii din nchisoare a fost sublimat n elanul i miestria
artistului. Lirica deteniei absoarbe simbolic destinul unei ntregi colectiviti, ea este realitate
a realitii, putere n faa suferinei: Am smuls din mine/ POEZIA:/ gol n faa suferinei
(Mihai Rdulescu, Haiku-urile putrezirii de viu). n asemenea condiii, gndul concretizat n
cuvnt creator este singurul liber, nvestit cu o mare putere, este calea de comunicare cu sine,
cu ceilali, cu trecutul i cu viitorul. De aceea, aa cum exprim artele poetice, lirica deteniei
i revendic mai multe funcii, printre care pe cea terapeutic, pe cea de rezisten, dar i pe
cea social. Versurile artelor poetice subliniaz rolul acestei lirici, puterea cuvntului creator
pentru insul claustrat, nevoia de poezie, intensitatea tririlor exprimate liric, printr-un limbaj
uneori dur, coluros, ndrzne chiar, cci sunt aduse n poezie i cuvinte ce ar putea fi
considerate apoetice, inclusiv termeni triviali, argotici.
Bibliografie
Chevalier, Jean, Alain Gheerbrant, Dicionar de simboluri, vol. 2, E-O, Bucureti,
Editura Artemis, 1993.
Cistelecan, Ioana, Poezia carceral, Piteti, Editura Paralela 45, 2000.
Crainic, Nichifor, Sensul tradiiei, n Gndirea, anul IX, decembrie 1931.
Geambei, Lavinia-Ileana, Ipostaze ale metaforei n lirica deteniei, Piteti, Editura
Universitii din Piteti, 2007.
Horia, Vintil, Contra naturam, n Poezii din nchisori, culegere de Zahu Pan, [f. l.],
Editura Cuvntul Romnesc, 1982.
Stnescu, Gheorghe, Jurnal din prigoan, Bucureti, Editura Venus, 2000.
Steinhardt, Nicolae, Jurnalul fericirii, Cluj-Napoca, Editura Dacia, 2000.
epelea, Gabriel, Anii nimnui, Bucureti, Casa Editorial ,,Cuget, Simire i
Credin, 1992.
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GEORGE BARIIU REFLECTIONS UPON THE HOME INDUSTRY REFLECTED IN THE

TRANSILVANIA MAGAZINE
Gherghina BODA
The Museum of Dacian and Roman Civilization, Deva
Abstract: The dramatic political situation of the Romanians in Transylvania, especially after
the year 1867, imposed on them finding new ways and means to promote the national values.
One of these ways was impelling the development of the household industry, therefore of the
Romanian national costume. The articles published in Transylvania magazine, the press
corps of ASTRA written by George Bariiu, insisted on the necessity of maintaining this
industry within the context of the major economy. Through this, they are preserved both the
pure Romanian values and the national consciousness. Preserving the national identity is
connected to the developing and the promoting of the household industry.
Keywords: economy, household industry, Romanians from Transylvania, women ,national
costume, national identity.
Personalitate marcant a secolului al XIX-lea, George Bariiu s-a impus n contiina
colectiv a vremii sale prin ideile sale novatoare i progresiste n cadrul istoriei, politicii,
economiei, folclorului, filologiei, lingvisticii, literaturii, culturii, pedagogiei1, chiar i
muzeografiei2. n cei 60 de ani de activitate a scris sute de articole i studii n care i-a expus
ideile, opera sa ziaristic i tiinific formnd o arhiv uria, adevrat radiografie e epocii.
Concepiile sale economice sunt dominate de ideile liberalismului lui Adam Smith i
Fr. Liszt, fapt relevat de soluiile oferite economiei romneti, soluii de ordin practic care
urmreau satisfacerea necesitilor proprii i impunerea elementului romnesc, att n
agricultur, ct i n industrie, comer, transporturi, comunicaii, finane, att n Transilvania,
ct i n Principatele Romne, pe care Bariiu le vedea indisolubil legate3.
Dezvoltarea micii industrii de cas este perceput ca parte a marii industrii, dar a celei
romneti i nu a celei strine care domina viaa economic din Transilvania.
Avntul deosebit al economiei n general i al industriei n mod special din secolul al
XIX-lea, a ridicat probleme att de natur material, ct i moral industriei de cas
romneti. Conjunctura politic nefavorabil romnilor din Transilvania a avut repercusiuni i
n plan economic. Pentru romni accesul n clasa marilor industriai era dificil i restrictiv
deoarece romnii, n marea lor majoritate, nu aveau putere financiar i nici o legislaie
permisiv, ceea ce i mpiedica s obin putere economic pe pia. De aceea, romnii din
clasa de mijloc, avndu-i ca purttori de cuvnt pe intelectuali, i-au ndreptat atenia i
energia spre domenii care le permiteau exprimarea identitii naionale fr prea multe
restricii. Unul dintre acestea a fost mica industrie de cas, specific cu predilecie mediului
rural.
Istoria ne arat rolul deosebit de important al acestei industrii casnice, att pentru
familia, ct i pentru naiunea romn. Timp de sute de ani ranul romn i-a satisfcut
necesitile cotidiene prin produsele realizate n cas. Att mbrcmintea, ct i obiectele
casnice erau rodul muncii n gospodrie.
Vasile Netea, George Bariiu. Viaa i opera, Bucureti, Ed. tiinific, 1966, p. 16
Gherghina Boda, G. Bari precursor al muzeografiei romneti din Transilvania, n Anuarul Institutului de
Istorie G. Bari Cluj-Napoca, nr. XLIV/2005, p. 213-221.
3
Vasile Netea, op. cit., p. 149.
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Contieni de importana meninerii tradiiilor ntr-o perioad n care naiunea romn

era tolerat n propria ar i exclus de la aproape toate drepturile de care se bucurau celelalte
naionaliti din cadrul Imperiului Habsburgic apoi, dup 1867, Austro-Ungar, intelectualii
romni au ncearcat s contientizeze populaia romneasc de averea imens pe care o aveau
la ndemn, i anume mica industrie de cas. George Bariiu, unul dintre cei mai aprigi
susintori ai industriei de cas i ai portului naional romnesc, spunea c industria
domestic la romni pe atta pe ct o au, este ereditatea lor milenar, transpus prin toate
generaiile iar capitalul acesteia este capitalul braelor4.
Contient de importana micii industrii de cas pentru poporul romn, att din punct de
vedere economic, ct i naional, George Bariiu, i prin intermediul articolelor aprute n
revista Transilvania, ncearc s demonstreze avantajele enorme pe care le-ar avea aceasta
pentru fiecare individ n parte, dar i pentru avuia naional. El ncearc s demonstreze
avantajele practicrii acestor meteuguri de cas fcnd calcule simple pe nelesul tuturor,
ncercnd astfel s-i mobilizeze i s-i motiveze pe romni s nu renune la aceast zestre
ancestral primit i transmis din generaie n generaie.
n aceast microproducie familial, Bariiu ncearc s releve att locul brbatului, ct
i al femeii. Aceasta din urm ns are un loc de cinste n transmiterea i meninerea tradiiilor
casnice milenare. Femeia, asemenea zeielor antice, este nnobilat cu toate virtuile casnice
pe care are datoria sacr de a le transmite mai departe fiicelor. n zilele lungi de iarn, cnd
muncile agricole sunt stopate, femeii i revine sarcina de a satisface necesitile casei. Ea,
mpreun cu fiicele familiei, trebuie s in fusul ca s toarc lna, inul sau cnepa, s eas
pnza necesar mbrcmintei, cearceafurilor, feelor de mas, merindarilor, s eas
covoarele, ctrinele, desagii, sumanele i multe altele cerute de traiul de zi cu zi. Apoi, cu
geniul ei artistic, s mpodobeasc toate acestea cu custuri meteugite, att de fine i de
elaborate nct, vzndu-i minile bttorite de munca aspr din gospodrie, nu ai crede c pot
mnui minusculul ac cu atta gingie i delicatee.
n demersul su demonstrativ, George Bariiu face o distincie net ntre popoarele
agricole i popoarele cu industria mare dezvoltat. El d exemplu ara noastr, o parte a
Panoniei sau Imperiul Otoman, state eminamente agricole, n care marea industrie nu are mari
anse de reuit din lipsa capitalului financiar. Chiar dac aceste ri erau bogate n materii
prime, animale, cereale, vinuri i multe altele, lipsa banilor lichizi constituia un impediment n
calea deschiderii de fabrici sau manufacturi mari care s produc mult i divers.
Mica industrie de cas este caracteristic tuturor popoarelor nc din antichitate, omul
avnd privilegiul natural de a-i folosi mintea i braele n procesul muncii, reuind s produc
lucruri care s-i satisfac necesitile de via. Apariia tiinei i utilizarea acesteia n
procesul muncii, alturi de marele capital, a dus la apariia i dezvoltarea marii industrii, de
acum un concurent al micii industrii de cas.
Dup Bariiu, apariia marii industrii strine n Transilvania a fost perceput ca un real
pericol pentru mica industrie de cas romneasc deoarece produsele fabricate erau mult mai
atractive din punct de vedere estetic, mai facil de procurat i mai ieftine. Ptrunderea acestor
produse de fabric i n lumea satelor era considerat un flagel care urma s duc la falimentul
industriei de cas romneti, ndemnnd ranul la lux i lenevie.
Bariiu consider industria de fabric o mare devoratoare de materii prime, multe
dintre acestea fiind produse de rani (cnep, in, lemn de lucru de diverse esene, piatr, var,
papur, crmid etc.). Dezvoltarea marii industrii ar atrage dup sine mpuinarea resurselor
materiale rmase la dispoziia ranilor, ceea ce ar avea n timp consecine negative asupra
micii industrii de cas, dei, pe de alt parte, ar avea un efect benefic pentru muli romni
George Bariiu, Idei fugitive despre industria de cas i industria mic, n rev. Transilvania, nr. 19/1 oct.
1877, p. 226.
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sraci care, intrnd n rndul muncitorilor salariai din fabrici, i-ar putea asigura astfel traiul
lui i al familiei5. ns George Bariiu consider c acest fapt nu ar trebui s se reflecte negativ
n activitatea ranului romn deoarece munca agricol i clima rii noastre i las mult timp
liber, cam 100 de zile pe an dac se adun duminicile i srbtorile. Acestea sunt zile fr
ocupaie, timp liber pe care l poate folosi confecionnd ceea ce tie din moi strmoi.
Romnului i lipsete ns iniiativa i educaia de a-i ocupa mereu timpul cu ceva util, de a
tii s-i foloseasc cu cea mai mare eficien capitalul braelor i timpul. Bariiu i d de
exemplu pe englezi pentru care timpul nseamn bani i care ar trebui s ne serveasc de
exemplu6. El ndeamn tinerii la nvarea meseriilor care le-ar aduce mai multe ctiguri,
cum ar fi confecionarea uneltelor i obiectelor gospodreti, a plpumilor, nclmintei i a
multor altor lucruri pe care le cumpr de la orae sau de la meseriaii sai sau unguri.
Tineretul trebuie ndrumat spre meserii care s satisfac necesitile cotidiene i care s le
ridice statutul social, meserii practicate pn atunci de alte etnii din Transilvania.
Bariiu remarc faptul c unii romni consider c preul acestor obiecte confecionate
n gospodrie este destul de mic, ceea ce ar face nerentabil producerea i comercializarea lor,
dar el le demonstreaz printr-un calcul simplu c dac un individ ar lucra n cele 100 de zile
numai obiecte n valoare de 20 criari, tot ar ctiga cte 20 de florini n acea perioad liber,
iar dac ar fi ajutat i de un fiu, ctigul ar ajunge la 40 florini, ceea ce ar fi un capital serios
pentru o familie srac7. Zilele i orele pierdute fr pic de ocupaie pentru milioane de brae
cost att individul, ct i naiunea, care astfel ar avea pierderi foarte mari n bugetul rii.
O alt consecin nefast a marii industrii, n cea mai mare proporie strin, ar fi
ruinarea moral a populaiei prin nvarea acesteia cu luxul i desfrul, ndeprtarea de
munc i obinerea de ctre alii a profiturilor uriae, pe care ar putea s le obin ara noastr
i nu strinii.
George Bariiu constat ndeprtarea ranului romn de cultivarea plantelor
industriale tradiionale, materia prim necesar meteugurilor casnice. Nu cu mult timp n
urm, toate comunele i orelele aveau n hotar cnepiti, unde fiecare cap de familie semna
cnep de var i de toamn pentru familia sa, femeia urmnd a o smulge, topi, usca, melia,
peptena, hecela, peria, toarce, tortul a-l opri, a-l navadi, a-l ese, pnza a o nlbi, a croi i
coase dup calitile ei pentru scopurile casei, a-i pune n rezerv, apoi din surplus s i
vnd8. Se cultiva i inul, care la aceea vreme era foarte preuit pentru pnza deosebit care
rezulta dup esut. De obicei preotesele se ocupau cu esutul i vopsitul pnzei de in din care
i croiau rochii foarte frumoase. Ele, ca toate femeile romne, erau att estoare, ct i
croitorese i artiste n custuri. Cci de la soia celui din urm plugar pn la doamnele din
saloane, era o cinste pentru femeia romn s produc att costumele, ct i lucrurile din
interiorul caselor. Din minile lor au ieit adevratele minuni care au fcut obiectul
expoziiilor etnografice organizate de ASTRA la Braov n 1862 i la Sibiu n 1881, la
expoziiile universale de la Paris sau Viena, care au uimit lumea prin diversitatea i unicitatea
modelelor expuse, a calitii, delicateii i fineii custurilor. Tot acestea au format
patrimoniul primului muzeu romnesc inaugurat la Sibiu n anul 1905. Dar schimbrile
survenite n plan social i economic au afectat i lumea satelor, ranii renunnd n proporie
tot mai mare la cultivarea i prelucrarea acestor plante industriale.
Bariiu afirma c n cadrul gospodriilor, munca femeilor este poate cea mai
important. Dac femeile romne ar produce pe zi lucruri de mn fcute n cas n valoare
1877, p. 227.
6
Ibidem, nr. 20/15 oct. 1877, p. 229.
7
Ibidem, nr. 19/1 oct. 1877, p. 227.
8
George Bariiu, Portulu naionale la poporulu nostru romnu, n rev. Transilvania, nr. 11-12 / 1-15 iunie,
1889, p.84.
5
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de numai 10 cruceri (25 centime), un milion de femei ar produce 10 milioane de cruceri, adic
100.000 de mii de florini sau 250.000 de franci9. Iar dac ar lucra numai 30 de zile pe an,
acestea ar ctiga pentru ele 3 milioane.
Prin aceste calcule simple, Bariiu ncerca s demonstreze ce avantaje economice ar
avea familiile care ar practica meteugurile casnice, fapt care ar duce implicit la
mbuntirea condiiilor de trai i la ridicarea calitii vieii. De aceea, el ndemna femeile
romne s continue confecionarea pieselor de mbrcminte popular i a lucrurilor de
interior, care pe piaa oraelor aveau o mare valoare, acestea fiind achiziionate de unii
comerciani de la rani i apoi vndute pe preuri uriae n prvliile de la orae. Dar dincolo
de aspectul pur financiar, aceste obiecte aveau o uria ncrctur naional i istoric,
modelele acestora fiind transmise din generaie n generaie cu sfinenie, constituind o
motenire cultural i artistic cu rdcini antice, chiar de la strmoii notri daci. De aceea,
producerea lor i transmiterea generaiilor tinerea tainelor meteugului esutului, croitului i
cusutului era nu numai o obligaie familial, ci i o datorie naional. Femeile romne, aidoma
preoteselor antice, aveau sarcina i menirea sacr de a transmite peste timp i dincolo de timp
modelele ancestrale n care se regseau adevratele rdcini ale poporului romn.
ndemnurile lui George Bariiu pentru practicarea n continuare a meteugurilor
casnice au i o mare ncrctur naional i identitar. El afirma c Nu atept ca s ne
preparm n familie toate lucrurile necesare n via; doresc numai ca s nvm a ne folosi
de tot timpul pus nou de Dumnezeu la dispoziie, a-l capitaliza pentru noi i pentru
descendenii notri n decursul tuturor secolelor10.
Bibliografie
Cri
NETEA, Vasile, George Bariiu. Viaa i opera, Bucureti, Ed. tiinific, 1966
BODA, Gherghina, G. Bari precursor al muzeografiei romneti din Transilvania,
n Anuarul Institutului de Istorie G. Bari Cluj-Napoca, nr. XLIV/2005
Periodice
Transilvania, nr. 19/1 oct. 1877
Transilvania, nr. 20/15 oct. 1877
Transilvania, nr. 11-12 / 1-15 iunie, 1889
Ibidem.
1877, p. 230.
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A GENDER-NEUTRAL LANGUAGE: MYTH OR REALITY?

Giulia SUCIU
Abstract: We construct and represent ourselves to others through language, therefore

language plays a crucial role in displaying ourselves as gendered persons. The present article
tackles the topic of gender-neutral language, trying to answer the questions: Does society
have to change before language can? or Can language bring about changes in society? Is
a gender-neutral language a myth or a reality?
Keywords: objective language, gender, sexism, connotation, society.
I cant live with you
But I cant live without you.
I cant let you stay
But I cant live if you go away..
Queen
In a society in which gender is deeply rooted, in which everything is classified
according to gender (among others), gender is not likely to disappear. Like it or not,
apparently gender is here to stay. We construct reality and represent ourselves to others
through language; language plays a crucial role in displaying ourselves as gendered persons
and it often reflects the sexist nature of a society.
Gender is a burden for both men and women. To have to maintain connection with the
others, while displaying your expertise, to always fight to establish your status in a
hierarchical society can be very exhausting for men. To strive to maintain status while
avoiding conflict, and avoid appearing better than the rest can be a burden for women.
William Satire (alias Douglas Hofstadter) 1 summarizes his feelings about non-sexist
English as follows My feeling about non-sexist English is that it is like a foreign language
that I am learning. I find that even after years of practice, I still have to translate something
from my native language, which is sexist English. I know of no human being who speaks nonsexist as their native tongue. But if men complain about learning a foreign language, what
should women say about talking for centuries in a man-made English?
But even though gender is here to stay, there are a few changes than can be made so
that living with gender would be a bit easier for women, since the way gender is reflected in
language affects them in the first place. But this brings us to an essential question: Does
society have to change first before language can? or Can language bring about changes in
society?
Some researchers embraced the former scenario, claiming that language should be left
alone, because in a society where women are equal to men language will take care of itself
and will eventually reflect the changes that occur in society.
Others are for the language reform, mainly feminists, claiming that as long as women
use a man-made language, changes in society will not take place. A man-made language
encodes not only mens view of the world, but also the conviction that they are superior to
women. They achieve this at the semantic level by suggesting that everything that is
1
Cameron Deborah (1990) The Feminist Critique of Language: A Reader. London: Routledge p.195
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connected with women has a negative connotation. Thus women are forced to perceive
language not only through the lens of maleness but also through the lens of misogyny.
Another aspect has to be taken into account when proposing linguistic reforms: such reforms
depend on the type of language in question. For instance in English, such reforms aim at
neutralization or de-gendering, while languages such as French, which is more gender-marked
than English, aims at visibility in what gender is concerned, that is re-gendering. Therefore
feminists are determined to replace sexist words with gender-neutral words, to re-spell words
that contain the words man or his like mankind, history, woman etc., to eliminate the
pejorative meaning of words like lady, spinster etc., to eliminate titles such as Miss and Mrs.(
which openly express a womans availability due to ownership by a male) in favour of Ms.
They underline the idea that such changes must take place at discourse level, because simply
changing words in language would not serve their purpose.
Since women have so far used a man-made language, they havent been able to
transmit, to encode in the language their own experiences and attitudes. That is why feminists
have aimed at writing feminist dictionaries which would illustrate womens linguistic
contributions and their reflection of the world around them. Chris Kramarae and Paula
Treichler2 set out to write such a dictionary that would recognize womens contributions to
the language as creative speakers. They claim that so far dictionaries have been written
mainly by men (that is man-made dictionaries), who obliterated womens linguistic
achievements through their constructions of definitions. In their dictionaries women are
rendered invisible, reduced to stereotypes, ridiculed or trivialized. In their point of view a
dictionary does not only reflect sexist social attitudes but it also preserves and recreates
stereotypes. Lets take for instance the word nerves; two online English dictionaries 3 provide
the following sentences to illustrate the meaning of the words:
She was a bundle of nerves (= very nervous) before the audition.
The journey tested her nerves to the full.
The above examples clearly point out that nerves are a feminine feature; only women
are entitled to have a fit, only women have nerves etc. A non-sexist language is a language
that doesnt eliminate either women or men, that doesnt discriminate against either women or
men. It presupposes a re-consideration of words, so that they become sexually neutral. Thus
mankind becomes humanity, policeman, police officer, forefathers ancestors etc. They
should be used as a singular pronoun, instead of he etc.
A variety of feminist perspectives appear in this popular dictionary4, whose entries use
definitions as a way of showing how women have contributed to the development of language
and the ways in which many of them perceive it now.
"CRAFT: A term used by men to demote, from fine art, the work of women who use
fabric and stitches rather than paint."
"STRANGERS: Unknowns who, if male, are not to be trusted. Knowns are not to be
trusted either."
In writing this dictionary, Chris Kramarae and Paula Treichler do not claim objectivity
and are under no illusions that by simply writing a dictionary of womens words they will
solve the inequalities present in language and society. Their dictionary is simply a critique of
current and past practices, commenting on how some forms of language are privileged over
others.
Kramarae, C. and Paula A. Treichler. 1996. A Feminist Dictionary. Chicago: University of Illinois Press.
http://www.askoxford.com/?view=uk
http://dictionary.cambridge.org/results.asp?searchword=nerves
4
http://www.press.uillinois.edu/s97/kramarae.html
3
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However, it is not possible to change or eliminate all sexist words in a language and
what is more, sexism arises not in the very words, but in the way they are used by the
speakers. They used them in such a way that betrays societys stereotypes where men and
women are concerned. It goes without saying that societys perception of men and women
should change so that a linguistic reform might be possible.
This is clear in peoples attempt to use politically correct words. It has been noticed
that words such as chairperson, instead as chairman are much more likely to be used when
referring to women. The fact that people tend to use politically correct words only when
referring to women, makes us wonder how efficient feminist reforms of the language really
are. As Deborah Cameron5 pointed out In the mouths of sexists, language can always be
sexist. Although men try to use politically correct words, to express equality between men
and women, the way they use such words is proof enough that their attitude towards language
change, towards women does not match language usage. Language reforms are still filtered
through the lens of the dominant social values and attitudes that is why new theorists warn
that a non-sexist language is an illusion because language is pervaded by sexism and women
are alienated from it because it is controlled by men.6
Critics have labeled womens attempts to reform the language as ridiculous and they
did not miss a chance to make fun of their attempts, suggesting for example that from now on,
Manchester should be named Personchaster. Their attitude suggests that womens attempts to
reform the language, are like women in general: trivial and ridiculous. Simon7 claims that
attempts to reform language are nonsense that produce linguistic absurdities leading to a
bastardizing of language. In his view, the proposal to change the spelling of women in wimin,
reveals anti-male fanaticism.
Men feel threatened by womens re-assessment of values; it clearly poses a threat to a
patriarchal moral order in which mans natural right is to dominate women and they blame it
all on feminists.
What is important is the fact that all this research in the field of language and gender
has led to the concepts of masculinity and femininity being challenged. People are reevaluating what is right and good in practical terms of what is realFor the human race to
survive, males will have to define themselves as less aggressive, and in order for womenkind
to lift themselves out of their depression, females will have to define themselves as more
aggressive.8
REFERENCES:
Baron, Dennis. 1986.Grammar and Gender. New York: Yale University Press
Bolinger, Dwight. 1980. Language: the Loaded Weapon. Longman Publishing Group
Cameron, Deborah 1985. What has gender have to do with sex Language and
Communication, 5
Cameron, Deborah 1987. Feminism and Linguistic Theory. London : Macmillan
Cameron, Deborah. 1990. The Feminist Critique of Language : A Reader. London :
Routledge
Coates, Jennifer. 1986. Women, Men and Language, London: Longman.
Cameron, Deborah (1985). What has gender have to do with sex Language and Communication, 5 p.90
Cameron, Deborah (1987) Feminism and Linguistic Theory. London : Macmillan p.4
7
cited in Romaine, Suzanne. Communicating Gender. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1999 p.298
8
Key, Mary Ritchie. Male/Female Language: With a Comprehensive Bibliography. Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow
Press, 1975 p.28.
5
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Coates, Jennifer and Beryl Madoc-Jones. 1997. An Introduction to Womens Studies,

UK: Blackwell Publishers
Key, Mary Ritchie. 1975. Male/Female Language: With a Comprehensive
Bibliography. Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press.
Kramarae, C. and Paula A. Treichler. 1996. A Feminist Dictionary. Chicago:
University of Illinois Press.
Kimmel, Michael. 2000. The Gendered Society. New York: Oxford University Press
Lakoff, Robin. 1975. Language and Womans Place. New York, Harper and Row
Mills, Sarah ed. 1995. Language and Gender ( Interdisciplinary Perspectives)
London: Longman
Romaine, Suzanne. 1999. Communicating Gender. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates,.
Spender, Dale. 1980. Man Made Language. London: Pandora Press.Harper Collins
Publishers
ELECTRONIC SOURCES
http://www.askoxford.com/?view=uk, retrieved on December 2014
http://dictionary.cambridge.org/results.asp?searchword=nerves,
retrieved
December 2014
http://www.press.uillinois.edu/s97/kramarae.html, retrieved on November 2014
769
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Issue no.6/2015
INDIVIDUAL AGENCY IN HISTORY? GOETHE AND TOLSTOY ON NAPOLEON

BONAPARTE CASE
Mdlin ONU
Abstract: The question we aim to answer in the present paper is the fallowing: it is possible
for a single individual to change the course of universal history? We want to provide a
comparative approach following the writings of two great authors from different cultural
areas (Goethe and Tolstoy), concerning what we might call the "Napoleon Bonaparte" case.
In this purpose we will discuss the particular meaning in which Goethe employ the term
Daimonic for describing the French emperor personality. In parallel we will study the
opposed explanation provided by Tolstoy his the novel "War and Peace", regarding the war
leaded by Napoleon against the Russians. Finally, we wish to suggest a resolution to this
dilemma based on the principles of Hegelian philosophy of history, which appears to
reconcile the two opposing viewpoints.
Keywords: Napoleon, Goethe, Tolstoy, Agency, Philosophy of History
I. Daimonicul Napoleon (Johann Wolfgang von Goethe)

Refleciile filosofice ale marelui poet german se articuleaz n jurul dorinei de a
depi limitrile intelectuale ale iluminismului i de a gsi o cale veritabil de cunoatere,
nesupus contingenei i incertitudinii sentimentului1, aa cum era promovat de unii autori
romantici. El se strduiete s surprind, distanndu-se de acetia din urm, lumea spiritual
n unitatea i coerena ei, iar asta promovnd rolul inteleciei, fr ns a reduce totul la ea aa
cum procedau primii. Din contra, el solicit mai curnd un travaliu metodic eficace,
asemntor celui lui Faust sau al lui Wilhelm Meister n ultima parte a romanului. Mai mult,
n ochii poetului de la Weimar, nu putem ajungem la o cunoatere a spiritului unei epoci dect
urmrindu-i manifestrile exterioare, dezvoltarea i activitatea concret. Cci acestea sunt cele
care i confer semnificaie si doar prin intermediul lor este posibil comprehensiunea ei. Prin
urmare, ceea ce trebuie cutat de-a lungul istoriei sunt operele mree i personalitile
superioare2. Sunt binecunoscute refleciile lui Goethe despre geniu i despre daimon n cazul
creaiei artistice sau atunci cnd este avut n vedere aciunea politic a conductorilor. i ele
fac ca, la ntrebarea dac aciunea personal liber asemenea celei lui Napoleon Bonaparte
poate influena direct cursul istoriei, rspunsul sau s fie unul afirmativ.
Fascinaia poetului german pentru Napoleon este deseori afirmat. n convorbirea cu
Eckermann din 17 ianuarie 1827, de exemplu, el spune c, dac am vrea s decorm o camer
cu picturi nfind faptele mpratului, ea ar trebui s fie una foarte mare pentru a le putea
cuprinde pe toate3. Mai trziu, pe 11 martie 1828, Goethe compara viaa lui Bonaparte cu cea
a unui semi-zeu: energic, neobosit, trit din btlie n btlie i din victorie n victorie.
Hegel, de pild, este mult mai radical n acest sens. Cci el nu adamite sub nici o form o sintagm asemenea
celei lui Faust Gefhl ist alles (Sentimentul este totul) referitoare la religie. Cf. Nicolai von Bubnoff,
Goethe und die Philosophie seiner Zeit, n Zeitschrift fr philosophische Forschung, Vol. 1, Nr. 4, 1947, p.
556.
2
Ren Berthelot, Goethe et Hegel, n Revue de Mtaphysique et de Morale, Vol. 38, Nr. 3, 1931, p. 397.
3
J. W. Goethe, Gesprche, Band 6, Herausgegeben von Woldemar Freiherr von Biedermann, Leipzig, 1889
1896, p. 15.
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Destinul su, spunea atunci autorul lui Faust, a fost mai strlucitor dect tot ceea ce a vzut
lumea naintea lui i probabil dect ceea ce va mai vedea4.
Ceea ce ne atrage atenia n acest moment este ns felul n care Goethe explic
posibilitatea acestui tip de aciune individual. Nucleul viziunii sale trebuie cutat n discuia
pe care o purta cu Eckermann cu un an nainte s moar. Iat ce spunea el n martie 1831:
[Napoleon] a fost n mod complet [de natur daimonic]. Iar asta n cel mai nalt
grad nct este greu s l comparm pe altcineva cu el. () Creaturi daimonice de acest tip
au socoti grecii c sunt printre semizei.5
naintea enunului citat, Goethe indicase deja sensul n care acest conceptul-cheie
trebuie neles, anume ce ceva ce se sustrage explicaiilor raionale. De asemenea, dup ce i
atribuie mpratului francez caracterul daimonic, aduce o precizare esenial: daimonicul nu
trebuie atribuit unei fiine supranaturale negative, aa cum este Mefisto:
Daimonicul () este ceea ce nu poate fi declanat prin raiune i prin intelect. () El
nu rezid n natura mea ci eu sunt supus lui. () Mefisto este o creatur prea negativ.
Daimonicul se manifest pe sine ntr-o for cu totul pozitiv. Printre artiti () el este
ntlnit mai mult printre muzicieni, mai puin printre pictori. La Paganini el se arat n cel
mai nalt grad ().6
Conceptul daimonicului nu trebuie neles, aadar, nici n sensul n care apare n
scrierile teologice: demonul ngerul czut. Semnificaia corect este, mai degrab, cea pe
care o folosesc anticii, ndeosebi, Platon. Se cuvine s insistm cteva clipe asupra sa pentru a
putea apoi elucida sensul n care Goethe justific posibilitatea efectelor decisive ale aciunii
conductorului Napoleon n cursul derulrii istoriei.
Daimonicul, n maniera n care era privit de antichitatea greac, este acel ceva care
faciliteaz dezvluirea misterioas (diferit de cea discursiv i ivit destul de rar) a ideilor i
dorinelor divine. Prin el, mai exact, este aruncat o punte de legtur de natura transcendent
(de care are parte, uneori, artistul, geniul) ntre lumea sensibil i cea inteligibil7.
Acest neles a fost preluat i adus n cultura german n timpul micrii Sturm und
Drang. Hamann, de pild, vorbind despre daimonul lui Socrate, insist asupra caracterului su
anti-raional. Daimonul se ivete asemenea unei manifestri religioase i ntrerupe cursul
logico-dialectic al gndirii. Mai mult, Herder l pune n legtur cu forele ascunse ale naturii.
Pentru Herder, Dmon reprezint acel aspect al umanitii prin care panteisticele Krfte ale
naturii ajung la expresie8. Balana poate fi echilibrat de om. Prin travaliul formrii
(Bildung), tensiunea dintre natur i individul istoric poate fi depit.
Imaginile celor doi se regsesc n sensul conferit de Goethe conceptului. Din capul
locului trebuie ns observat ambivalena9 folosirii termenului daimon n scrierile poetul
4
Ibidem, p. 273.
Napoleon, sagte ich [Eckermann], scheint dmonischer Art gewesen zu sein. Er war es durchaus, sagte
Goethe, im hchsten Grade, soda kaum ein anderer ihm zu vergleichen ist. ()Dmonische Wesen solcher Art
rechneten die Griechen unter die Halbgtter (Eckermann, 2 martie 1831) J. W. Goethe, Gesprche, Band 8,
ed. cit., p. 36.
6
Das Dmonische () ist dasjenige, was durch Verstand und Vernunft nicht auszulsen ist. In meiner Natur
liegt es nicht, aber ich bin ihm unterworfen. ()Mephistopheles ist ein viel zu negatives Wesen, das
Dmonische aber uert sich in einer durchaus positiven Thatkraft. Unter den Knstlern () findet es sich mehr
bei Musikern, weniger bei Malern. Bei Paganini zeigt es sich im hohen Grade () Ibidem, p. 37 38.
7
Angus Nicholls, Goethes concept of the daemonic, Camden House, New York, 2006, p. 37.
8
Ibidem, p. 98.
9
Cf. Ibidem p. 228.
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german. Pe de-o parte, prin el este desemnat, n Poezie i adevr, capacitatea sau puterea
artistului de a mijloci legtura dintre terestru i divin, dintre individul istoric i forele naturii.
Dar acelai daimon iraional este i cel care i obstrucioneaz scopurile, proiectele i i
ascunde misterul. El blocheaz sinteza scond la iveal contradicii ce depesc capacitatea
raional de explicaie. n ceea ce privete relaia omului cu absolutul, Goethe vorbete despre
un tip particular de contemplaie provocat de daimon. n domeniul creaiei artistice, cum am
vzut deja, daimonul ghideaz desvrirea adevratei opere, n sensul hegelian al termenului
(o oper veritabil care, am spune noi pe urmele autorului Fenomenologiei spiritului,
ntruchipeaz conceptul ei). Datorit lui poetul d natere unor imagini (Bilden) ce au
capacitatea de a descoperi i nfia privirii ceea ce nu poate fi explicat pe cale raional 10.
Un caz particular este mitul, naterea lui fiind traversat de la un capt la altul de suflul
daimonului. O a treia conotaie a conceptului goethean vizeaz domeniul eroticului. Aa se
ntmpl n cazul lui Werther cnd daimonul iraionalul care guverneaz acest afect l mpinge
la sinucidere. La cellalt pol, omul de tiin nsui, omul raional par excellence, interfereaz
cu misteriosul daimon n efortul lui de a cuprinde i explica natura. Cci acesta i insufl acea
intuiie euristic, acea inspiraie genial care l face s descopere ceea ce, n faa minii
obinuite, ar rmne ascuns. Dar tot el este i cel care ascunde tainele naturii. Obstrucionarea
o resimte din plin Faust n timpul cercetrilor sale. n sfrit, conceptul este transpus de
Goethe asupra domeniului politic. Daimonic este acea capacitate extraordinar a omului de
aciune. ntruchiparea sa este Napoleon Bonaparte, ale crui decizii i fapte fac istorie.
Acestea fiind spuse suntem n msur s detaliem sensul ideii enunate mai sus.
Napoleon este, pentru poetul german, agentul istoric liber. Iar asta n virtutea personalitii
sale extraordinare, daimonice. mpratul posed acea for non-raional a geniului. Ea i
permite sa acioneze i i ghideaz deciziile, dar tot ea este i cea care l ndeamn la
nelepciunea i la moderaia de care d uneori dovad11. n virtutea genialitii sale politice el
poate controla destinul producnd o opera social, ntocmai cum artistul i produce opera
mrea. De aici i atracia lui Goethe pentru personalitatea sa puternic, pentru energia sa
nestvilit dar i pentru felul n care ntruchipeaz un mod necondiionat reprezentativ al
puterii autocratice n acele timpuri n care autoritatea monarhiei devenise necugetat 12. Iat
cum l caracterizeaz poetul n conversaie cu Eckermann din 11 martie 1828:
[Napoleon era] mereu iluminat, ntotdeauna clar i nzestrat la orice or cu suficient
energie pentru a nfptui orice considera a fi avantajos i necesar. Viaa lui este asemenea
cele unui semizeu, purtat din btlie n btlie i din victorie n victorie. Putem spune foarte
bine despre el c era ntr-o stare de continu iluminaie. De aceea destinul su a fost att de
strlucitor cum nu a mai vzut lumea naintea lui i cum probabil nu va mai vedea dup el.13
Fora sa nu este una de tip moral ci una natural, ce se manifest n aciunii i care,
deci, nu poate fi judecat dect prin prisma efectelor sale, nu prin intermediul normelor
10
Angus Nicholls, op. cit, p. 234.

Goethe spune, n convorbirea cu Eckermann din 6 decembrie 1829, c, asemenea ruilor care nu s-au dus la
Constantinopol, Napoleon a fost moderat fiindc nu s-a dus la Roma J. W. Goethe, Gesprche, Band 7, ed.
cit., p. 163.
12
W. Daniel Wilson, Goethe and the political world, n Lesley Sharpe (ed.), The Cambridge companion to
Goethe, Cambridge University Press, 2002, p. 215.
13
Immer erleuchtet, immer klar und entschieden, und zu jeder Stunde mit der hinreichenden Energie begabt,
um das, was er als vortheilhaft und nothwendig erkannt hatte, sogleich ins Werk zu setzen. Sein Leben war das
Schreiten eines Halbgottes von Schlacht zu Schlacht und von Sieg zu Sieg. Von ihm knnte man sehr wohl
sagen, da er sich in dem Zustande einer fortwhrenden Erleuchtung befunden; weshalb auch sein Geschick ein
so glnzendes war, wie es die Welt vor ihm nicht sah und vielleicht auch nach ihm nicht sehen wird. - J. W.
Goethe, Gesprche, Band 4, ed. cit., p. 273.
11
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sociale ale simului comun. La fel cum Socrate era condus, pe planul gndirii, de daimon, aa
i Bonaparte n planul aciunii concrete.
II. Napoleon - pion al destinului universal (Lev Tolstoi)
Din estul Europei rsun ns, cu ecou poate la fel de puternic, un rspuns total opus.
El vine din partea marelui scriitor rus Lev Tolstoi. La antipodul concepiei filosofico-istorice
a lui Goethe se situeaz Napoleon - mpratul supus destinului, din romanul Rzboi i pace.
Tezele lui Tolstoi sunt urmtoarele: Prima: n istorie nu exist personaje strict negative sau
pozitive. Aceste atribute nu pot fi dect, cel mult, unele prin care pot fi caracterizate etapele
formrii lor. A doua: viaa social real, cea din care se dezvolt firul istoriei, este diferit de
irumpiile extraordinare asemenea celor ale eroilor. n sfrit, ultima tez, i cea mai
important, susine c istoria este nfptuit de actani mnai de anumite fore, diferite de cele
ale naturii sau de acea putere demoniac ncarnat ntr-un agent particular:
E destul s ptrundem n esena fiecrui eveniment istoric, adic n aciunea ntregii
mase de oameni care a luat parte la eveniment, pentru ca s ne convingem c voina eroilor
istoriei nu numai c nu conduce aciunile maselor, ci este, dimpotriv, condus tot timpul de
acestea.14
Istoria nceputului secolului al XIX-lea i are cursul ei propriu i nu este opera voinei
individuale a lui Bonaparte15. Faptele sale nu sunt, n realitate, dect rezultatele forelor i
nclinaiilor societii16. ntmplarea i geniul, spune Tolstoi, nu indic nimic cu adevrat
existent i, de aceea, ele nu pot fi definite. Aceste cuvinte indic doar un anumit grad de
nelegere a fenomenelor () Vd o for care produce un efect disproporionat fa de
nsuirile general umane; nu neleg cum de se produce un efect i spun: geniu17. n
consecin, atunci cnd ele se ntorc mpotriva lui Bonaparte, mpratul este nfrnt. n
viziunea lui Tolstoi cel care a neles acest lucru este generalul Kutuzov. El nu a salvat Rusia
printr-o aciune zbuciumat de cuceritor, ci ateptnd i acionnd numai dup ce destinul i-a
schimbat cursul. nelepciunea l-a determinat s nu asculte de generalii si (care nu au neles
c deciziile militare radicale nu pot schimba cursul evenimentului), fapt ce a salvat poporul
pentru care lupta. Firete, Tolstoi uit se menioneze c aa a procedat i mpratul francez n
anumite situaii. Dar aceast omisiune nu i infirm teza ci, mai curnd, o susine.
Pentru scriitorul rus istoria nu este nici pe departe obiectizare a planului fcut de un
anumit om mare, la fel cum o btlie nu poate fi controlat strategic de general. Acest lucru
reiese din monumentala descrie pe care o face, n romanul su, luptelor de la Borodino, lupte
ce au atras dup sine ocuparea Moscovei i, mai trziu, fuga francezilor, fr a mai fi dat nici
o alt mare btlie18. Acolo s-a vzut cu destul claritate fora colectiv sub imboldul creia
lupt soldaii precum i faptul c orice strategie i tiin militar este departe de a fi una de
Lev Tolstoi, Rzboi i pace, Vol. II, Editura Art, Bucureti, 2006, p. 427. Din aceast cauz el adaug:
Descoperirea acestor legi [ale istoriei] este cu putin numai atunci cnd renunm cu desvrire s cutm
cauzele n voina unui singur om
15
Providena a fcut ca toi aceti oameni, nzuind la atingerea scopurilor personale, s contribuie la realizarea
unui rezultat uria de care nici un om (nici Napoleon, nici Alexandru i cu att mai puin vreunul din cei care au
luat parte la acest rzboi) n-a avut nici cea mai nensemnat idee Lev Tolstoi, Rzboi i pace, Vol. II, ed. cit.,
p. 95.
16
Faptele mrturisesc de la sine c nici Napoleon n-a prevzut vreun pericol n marul ctre Moscova i nici
Alexandru i comandanii armatei ruse nu s-au gndit pe atunci la o ademenire a lui Napoleon, ci au avut tocmai
gndul potrivnic Ibidem, p. 97.
17
Ibidem, p. 592.
18
Ibidem, p. 477.
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tipul celor naturale, aadar una care s poat genera concluzii exacte i predictibilitate. n
consecin, Tolstoi susine c adevrata puterea care mic istoria este diferit de raiunea
individului uman. Istoria se ntmpl exact acolo unde pare mai anistoric. Nu oamenii mari
sunt cei care nfptuiesc progresul conform planului lor, ci dorina colectiv prin complexul ei
de fore psihologice. Dup 1800 acestea au generat o micare de la vest spre est urmat, apoi,
de una n sensul opus19. Explicaia poate fi pus, n opinia autorului rus, pe seama ideii lui
Pascal: nefericirea const n faptul c oamenii nu pot sta linitii n camerele lor.
Consideraiile menionate l conduc pe Lev Tolstoi la urmtoarele concluzii: istoria
poate fi descris avnd o latur vertical i una orizontal. Pe vertical avem o sum infinit
de evenimente legate cauzal. Dar multitudinea i complexitatea conexiunilor duce la
imposibilitatea predictibilitii.
E de neles c acestea i multe altele nc, grmezi nenumrate i nesfrite de cauze
n cantiti ce depind de nesfrita varietate a punctelor de vedere s li se fi prezentat
contemporanilor drept cauze ale rzboiului. Dar pentru noi posteritatea pentru noi cei
care avem n ntreaga lui imensitate viziunea evenimentului i-i ptrundem nelesul simplu i
nfricotor, aceste cauze apar nendestultoare. Pentru noi e de neneles ca milioane de
cretini s se ucid i s se tortureze unii pe alii, doar pentru c Napoleon era dornic de
putere, Alexandru drz, politica Angliei viclean i ducele de Oldenburg jignit.20
De asemenea, nlnuirea lor stric minimizeaz rolul agentului liber. El
acioneaz fiind supus mediului, incontientului i epocii istorice. Destinul, pentru Tolstoi,
este un concept care subsumeaz aceast tripl influen.
Latura orizontal a istoriei, pe cealalt parte, este constituit de acele fore misterioase
care acioneaz ntr-un anumit moment i schimb cursul devenirii, aa cum s-a ntmplat n
timpul btliei de la Austerlitz din 1805 cnd tabra mai numeroas i cu anse mai mari de
izbnd a pierdut (fapt cauzat de morala trupelor i de o serie de alte elemente asemenea)21.
Acest aspect este avut n vedere de Tolstoi atunci cnd vorbete despre forele sociale libere
ce nu pot fi surprinse cu ajutorul logicii. Printre ele autorul include valorile, contravalorile,
strile transmise nonverbal .a.. Cel ce face istorie este cel care le nelege i care se supune
direciei lor provideniale. Din acest punct de vedere Kutuzov nu este subordonat istoriei ci
absolutului. Napoleon, n schimb, nu este liber. Este supus primeia i, din aceast cauz, este
mai mult victim dect lider al devenirii istoriei universale.
Contradicia cu care avem de-a face n acest moment este urmtoarea: pe de-o parte,
pentru Goethe, Napoleon ncarneaz agentul care, acionnd liber, are capacitatea de a
schimb cursul istoriei. Aciunea sa este posibil n virtutea personalitii sale daimonice (n
sensul particular pe care poetul german l confer conceptului). Pe cealalt parte Napoleon, n
viziunea lui Tolstoi, nu poate modifica istoria universal prin propria voin ci acioneaz
supus destinului (concept folosit, de asemenea, ntr-un sens particular de scriitor).
Ca soluie a acestei diferene radicale de perspectiv propunem rspunsul ce poate fi
extras din scrierile lui Hegel. La prima vedere el pare s susin teza lui Goethe. Napoleon
este - conform binecunoscutului fragment din scrisoarea redactat n 13 octombrie 1806 (ziua
n care Jena, ora n care locuia n acea perioad, a fost ocupat de trupele franceze) i
adresat teologului i fostului su coleg Friedrich Niethammer - sufletul lumii clare.
19
Ibidem, p. 646.
Ibidem, p. 8.
21
Pentru studierea legilor istoriei trebuie s ne schimbm n ntregime obiectul cercetrilor: s-i lsm n pace
pe mprai, pe minitri i pe generali, i s studiem elementele infinitezimale () care conduc masele - Ibidem,
p. 249.
20
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Bonaparte schimb cursul istoriei datorit personalitii sale extraordinare. Hegel este de
acord cu Goethe asupra acestui aspect. ns posibilitatea aciunii sale nu se datoreaz, n
viziunea sa, unei trsturi daimonice misterioase, la limit mistice, ci unei fore puternice
asemenea celor ale naturii. Mai mult, aceast aciune nu este una nengrdit, cum pare s
sugereze Goethe, ci se nscrie n traseul logico-dialectic al istoriei.
Am vzut c Tolstoi insista cu vehemen asupra importanei forelor sociale a
maselor. n viziunea sa acestea, alturi de celelalte elemente care sunt subsumate sub noiunea
de destin, sunt cele care schimb cursul lumii22. Datorit multitudinii conexiunilor verticale i
orizontale pe care le implic, tiina istoriei nu se poate folosi, n demersul ei, de cauzalitate.
n consecin contemporanii sau actanii evenimentului nu pot formula concluzii predictibile
asupra cursului evenimentelor. Ei pot doar aciona, efectele fiind ns guvernate de destin
(noiune folosit de Tolstoi n sensul particular, identificat mai sus).
Teoria lui Hegel, considerm noi, dei susine existena agentului Napoleon nu
contrazice observaiile scriitorului rus. Filosoful este de acord cu imposibilitatea explicaiei
cauzale i a predictibiliti punctuale. ns, pentru el, acest tip de comprehensiune nu este
dect una parial. Istoria neleas cu ajutorul intelectului nu poate surprinde cursul devenirii
i este zdruncinat la fiecare pas de contingena i ilogicul evenimentelor. Comprehensiunea
trecutului trebuie iniiat dintr-un moment gnoseologic superior, asupra posibilitii cruia
Tolstoi trece cu vederea. El este cel al raiunii speculative. nelegerea istoriei prin intermediul
ei nu apeleaz nici la ceva de tipul unui spirit mistic, nici nu trimite la un destin cruia i este
supus cel care acioneaz, pierzndu-i astfel libertatea i nici nu are forma unei scheme
abstracte prin prisma ireal a creia s fie interpretat istoria. Din contra, istoria se nate din
reportarea continu cu realul i include, n componena sa, motenirea tradiiei. Astfel,
devenirii istoriei i este descoperit logica profund - o logic a nsui ilogicului. Spiritul,
pentru a-i atinge desvrirea, trebuie s fie contient de propria spiritualitate. Din acest
motiv cunoaterea absolut este acea cunoaterea care a internalizat etapele parcurse i le
poate renelege, acum, prin prisma nivelului gnoseologic superior. Cci acesta este punctul n
care ea tie c cea ce a internalizat n urma experienelor ghidate logic, nu sunt altceva dect
externalizri ale Ideii absolute. i, tiind asta, devine liber: n urma contientizri, voina
contiinei, pe aceast ultim treapt, nu poate fi alta dect de a aciunea n virtutea cunoaterii
adevratului sens al aciunii proprii, nu al aparenelor de moment. Iat ce spune Hegel n
Principiile filosofiei dreptului:
ntruct spiritul nu este real dect ca tiindu-se pe sine, iar statul, ca spirit al unui
popor, este n acelai timp legea care strbate toate raporturile sale, datina social i
contiina indivizilor si, ornduirea politic a unui popor anumit atrn n genere de felul i
de maturitatea contiinei lui de sine; n aceasta rezid libertatea lui subiectiv i prin
urmare realitatea ornduirii.23
Enunm: Napoleon poate aciona (i deci modifica cursul istoriei) n virtutea libertii
astfel nelese. Dac Napoleon, n virtutea acestei liberti, ntruchipeaz agentul istoric, nu
putem s nu ne ntrebm ce se ntmpl cu generalul Kutuzov? Cci, susine Tolstoi, el nu
este supus destinului ci absolutului, graie nelegerii superioare celei a lui Napoleon. Suntem
de prere c nici aceast ultim remarc nu contrazice viziunea hegelian.
Desigur, nici Goethe nu trece cu vedere importana tradiiei istorice n cadrul aciunii individuale. n discuia
cu Eckermann din 2 mai 1824 el afirm c, pentru a face epoc, sunt necesare dou condiii: inim puternic i
motenirea. n cazul lui Napoleon motenirea a fost cea Revoluiei Franceze Cf. J. W. Goethe, Gesprche,
Band 5, ed. cit., p. 74. Dar acest lucru el l nelege ca sol din care se ridic agentul liber, nu ca factor ce i
determin aciunile lui.
23
G. W. F. Hegel, Principiile filosofiei dreptului, Editura IRI, Bucureti, 1996, p. 273.
22
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Efectele aciunilor lui Napoleon au scris istoria universal ntruct cele mai multe
dintre ele au coincis orientrii spiritului lumii. Au fost ns i situaii cnd ele s-au ndreptat
mpotriv-i (argument ce susine caracterul liber al deciziilor), dar efectele lor au fost repede
anulate de trecerea timpului. Aa s-a ntmplat n cazul ncercrii lui Bonaparte de a impune,
din exterior, o constituie spaniolilor, lucru bine observat de Hegel: A voi s dai unui popor a
priori o constituie, fie ea chiar mai mult sau mai puin raional n ceea ce privete coninutul
ei,fantezia aceasta ar nesocoti tocmai momentul prin care constituia ar fi mai mult dect o
nscocire a gndirii. Statul trebuie s ptrund, n constituia lui, toate raporturile. Napoleon,
de exemplu, a voi s dea spaniolilor o constituie a priori, ceea ce ns a mers destul de ru24.
De cealalt parte Kutuzov nelege. ns, aa cum povestete Tolstoi, nu acioneaz.
Ca agent, generalul rus nu schimb cursul istoriei ci istoria se schimb, datorit contradiciilor
ce apar n etapa respectiv de dezvoltare, prin el. Istoria nainteaz prin omul de aciune a
crui fapt concret i relev posibilitatea creatoare. El nu schimb cursul lumii pentru c tie,
ci tie pentru c nfptuiete conform spiritului lumii. ns nu este, spre deosebire de Kutuzov,
subordonat nici acestuia i nici destinului.
Bibliografie:
1. Berthelot, Ren, Goethe et Hegel, n Revue de Mtaphysique et de Morale, Vol. 38,
Nr. 3, 1931.
2. Bubnoff, Nicolai von, Goethe und die Philosophie seiner Zeit, n Zeitschrift fr
philosophische Forschung, Vol. 1, Nr. 4, 1947.
3. Goethe, J. W., Gesprche, Band 1-10, Herausgegeben von Woldemar Freiherr von
Biedermann, Leipzig, 18891896.
4. Goethe, J. W., Poezie i adevr, Editura pentru Literatur, Bucureti, 1967.
5. Hegel, G. W. F., Principiile filosofiei dreptului, Editura IRI, Bucureti, 1996
6. Lev Tolstoi, Rzboi i pace, Vol. I & II, Editura Art, Bucureti, 2006
7. Nicholls, Angus, Goethes concept of the daemonic, Camden House, New York, 2006
8. Wilson, W. Daniel, Goethe and the political world, n Lesley Sharpe (ed.), The
Cambridge companion to Goethe, Cambridge University Press, 2002.
*Aceast lucrare a fost publicata cu sprijinul financiar al proiectului Sistem integrat
de mbuntire a calitii cercetrii doctorale i postdoctorale din Romnia i de promovare a
rolului tiinei n societate, POSDRU/159/1.5/S/133652, finanat prin Fondul Social
European, Programul Operaional Sectorial Dezvoltarea Resurselor Umane 2007 - 2013.
Ibidem. De asemenea, n alt loc, el completeaz: O supraputere extern nu poate impune nimic de durat:
Napoleon a putut tot aa de puin s constrng Spania la libertate precum Filip al II-lea Olanda la sclavie
Ibidem, p. 418.
24
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THE LYRICAL LANGUAGE OF POST-COMMUNIST ROMANIAN WRITERS

Irina GRIGORE
Abstract: This paper aims to emphasize on the style of writing Post-Communist poets had in
their literary works, the escape of traditionalism and the adaptations to postmodernism, the
freedom of expression the self and rebuilding identity.
Keywords: Communism, Nationalism, Post- Communism, Postmodernism, freedom of
expression
Characterized by a dependence on narrative techniques such as fragmentation,

paradox, hyper-reality, pastiche, the uncertain narrator, intertextuality, the contradictory voice
of the lyrical eye, postmodernism in literature represents a symbol of multiple meanings, or
the complete lack of meaning, representing the worlds absurdities and flaws.
First of all, Postmodernism is a term used in the Romanian literature to describe a
paradigm which was foreshadowed by writers outside of the mainstream belonging to the late
1960's and late 1970's. In other words, English or American Postmodernism tends to be a bit
different from the East European one. In Romania it appeared later and the writing style had
other connotations, it was meant to express a new rebirth of individuality. The Romanian
postmodernists have proposed a canon that contains writers belonging to the postwar period,
such as Nichita Stnescu (the promotor of neomodernism), Mircea Crtrescu, Leonid Dimov,
Mircea Ivnescu, Mircea Horia Simionescu and other writers that were considered more or
less marginal and who used a lot of irony and intertextuality in their literary works.
Secondly, Postmodernism appeared rather late in Romania, due to the political
oppression and censorship, which limited the freedom to create works of art. The communist
European and American ideas of postmodernism were depicted as some acts of barbarism, or
even a threat to the principles of statehood, which is why the communist party had control
over cultural acts and manifestations, secret services that were intended to censure or promote
certain values.
From a historical point of view, the National Communism in Romania was the state
ideology of Communist Romania between the early 1960s and 1989. Having its origins in
Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej's political emancipation from the Soviet Union, it was developed by
Nicolae Ceauescu, whose cult of personality and the idealization of Romania's main
historical figures lead to the rise of Protochronism. Nationalism became so ubiquitous, that
Romanians were depicted as being united throughout their history around the Leader, the
mighty God- like figure, the President.
Nationalism used to inflict its philosophy and propaganda by manipulating the young
masses. It happened so that school poetry was turned into a propaganda tool, in order to
achieve ideological goals. The poetry predominant in the Romanian textbooks reflected the
intention of the Communist regime to replace reality according to its ideological claims and
false utopian world ruled by the mighty leader- the President. Some of the propaganda
objectives pursued through poems were that of strengthening the class consciousness, as it
happened in Dan Delius Lazr from Rusca in the Romanian textbook for 6th grade, edited
in 1959, as well as the promotion of nationalism in Ioan Neniescus My Country, 5th grade
textbook, edited in 1975.
In order to promote such mischievous manners of manipulation the masses in
Romania, the Communist period formed a culture of resistance the real and true culture, that
was the free manifestation of art young students and scholars were adopting, while trying to
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preserve and develop. Students wanted to speak after years of oppression and obeying in
silence under censorship.
Due to the political pressure, the upcoming change under Revolution was a need to be
expressed in folk songs, in poetry, art in general. The Revolution was not only a coup detat
for writers and intellectuals. It was the opportunity to speak to the world the
truth.
According to Romanian Communist studies, the cultural resistance amplified the
collapse of the libraries, subtracted the symbol of reading and limited the participation of
cultural events. In response to such exploitation, literary clubs were formed, especially by
students who revealed their art in the underground, since they were not allowed to speak in
public. Also, the Romanian intellectuals who were imprisoned under communist rules, poetry
became a form of personal resistance against the system. In such circumstances, literature
from communist prisons developed steadily. In other words, one might suggest that the
Romanian communist ideology imposed the refusal of reliable history, of the main figures
throughout Romanian history in order to adopt the Soviet philosophy and history.
After the revolution in December 1989, creating a new culture did not only mean
ones own individual original discoveries. It also meant the diffusion of truths already
discovered, truths that needed to be shown and revealed in public, to a whole nation to
understand the vital need for freedom. In such circumstances, a new era of postmodernist and
postcommunist poets arose.
As A. Gramsci suggest, Postmodernism in the Post-Communist period represented a
current of seduction. Each poet seduces everyone, in his/her attempt to speak to people.
Reality can also be seduced, so that it is written on itself, not described1. Artists were the
first ones to react to political oppression and to vocalize a protest. For instance, recent
Romanian contemporary art questions the way Communism is remembered or forgotten in the
publics eye and the way in which the Post-Communist society was organized.
The Romanian intellectuals created an autobiographic discourse in which memory and
personal history are intertwined so as to project the traces of a prominent identity. The PostCommunist poets, such as Mircea Crtrescu, Ana Blandiana, Mircea Dinescu, Adrian
Punescu, so as the ones after 2000 era- Dumitru Delc, George Budoi, Iurie Osoianu, Girel
Barbu expressed the need to reveal their communist experience as victims and partisans of a
new democracy.
As the poet Ana Blandiana sustains, the one who is able to understand what happened
during the communist period becomes a victim of what he or she experienced, Because I am
able to understand, I am guilty for all that I understand2. In 1985 Ana Blandiana became
known, not only in the entire Romania but also outside her country for her controversial anticommunist poetry. At the insistence of the student editors of the Bucharest magazine
Amfiteatru (Amphitheater), Blandiana conceded a group of four anti-communist poems.
One of them was Eu Cred (I Believe), in which she reinvents her nature theme:
I believe that we are a botanic nation
Otherwise, where do we get this calmness
In which we await the shedding of our leaves?3
http://www.erstestiftung.org/publication/romanian-revolution-televised-contributions-to-the-cultural-history-ofmedia/
2
http://www.iwm.at/publications/5-junior-visiting-fellows-conferences/andreea-maierean/
3
http://www.romanianvoice.com/poezii/poezii/eucred.php
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As expected in a Communist state, Ana Blandiana was banned from publishing her
literary works after Ceauescu became aware of the poems anarchistic content. In 1985 she
sent the poem Totul (All), which was a reflection on everyday Romanian life, abroad to
be published in different western newspapers and later, it was broadcasted on Radio Free
Europe.
Among the most predominant lyrical voices eager to speak about sacrifice as an
aftermath of communism is also Mircea Dinescu. Among pshilosophers, including Gabriel
Liiceanu, Alexandru Paleologu and Andrei Pleu, he wrote a protest against Ceauescu's
policies that were destroying the Romanian culture. His works of art either depict the images
of a distressing world after the revolution in December 1898, or mock the Communist system
under the rule of the Romanian Communist president at that time, Nicolae Ceauescu. His
poem Door with a dead (U cu mort), for instance, might be viewed as a sacrificial
testimony of the Romanian commnism:
Between God and Genesis
The bones,
My bones hurt.
In trams, on roofs- a sudden illogical pain
Gets hold of my bones,
That sort of pain the pithecanthrope,
Which
is
hidden
in
Is responsible for4.
the
genealogical
jungle,
In terms of creating a new identity after chaos, postcommunist poetry reshaped the
lyrical I and empowered it to express grief, torment, limitation, the loss of identity and
uniqueness, the right to be written and read, the denial of censorship and political repression.
The lyrics from Door with a dead portray a decayed society, as a result of communist
inquisition, the inability to reborn from a wasteland.
One might reach the conclusion that spontaneity in arts was a natural consequences of
major social changes after 1989. The freedom regained in those years allowed artists and
writers to deliberate a sort of an overflow and stream of consciousness over all the will of
expression - an expression of the self, the release from dictatorship, from "collectivism" 5,
from the programmatic restrictions imposed in literary discourse.
After the Romanian Revolution, artists had a more flexible access to public and were
free to speak or sing freely about the previous communist repression. As an example, folk
writer and singer, Ada Milea signals the partnership between the nationalist and Socialist
oratory by recalling the style of the heroic epic ballads, she later on intensifies it by having the
lyrics of her song Ceauescu hasnt died reproducing the diction of patriotic Communist
poetry with which most Romanians are familiar, especially those from the 80s generation.
The opening lines of the song, Ceauescu hasnt died/ he watches over us relentless,
invokes the celebration of the presidents paternal attitude towards the people, librating
between paternal protection and general surveillance and manipulation the masses.
Poetry written after the 1989 is merely characterized by natural elements and emotion
as pure expressions of life itself. Analyzing the predominant theme and style, one might
consider that it represents a form of Romanian Neo-romanticism. It depicts the themes of
love, self discovery and romanticism in a cultural desert that endured oppression and lack of
4
5
http://www.romanianvoice.com/poezii/poezii/usacumort.php (own translation from Romanian)

Maria Todorova, Zsuzsa Gille. Post-communist Nostalgia. Berghahn Books, New York, Oxford, 2012, p. 163.
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freedom of speech. Rain Chant from Ana Blandiana is a significant example of celebrating
youth and sexuality compared with nature:
I am the most beautiful woman because its raining
And I look good with rains locks in my hair.
I am the most beautiful woman because its windy,
And the dress desperately struggles to cover my knees6
As well as displaying an intense awareness of life, her poetry has several predominant
dominant themes, such as morality, religion and spirituality. Linked to Romanian Orthodox
Christianity, Ana Blandianas poem Pieta, published in 1969, reflects on the confusion of
Jesus Christs mother at his death. Being written under Communist period, her poem had
harsh critics, not only because religion was a sensitive topic to discuss upon, but it didnt
respect the Communist style of writing and it questioned some aspects of Christianity:
Clear pain, death returned me,
To your breast subdued, almost a child.
You do not know if you should thank
Or cry
For this happiness,
Mother.
The need of authenticity and spontaneity in writing was later on continued in the 90s
and 2000 generations. The uncensored sincerity, with its inevitable hectic outburst, the daily
torments of the common people, the sort of realism of the universe, the brutal imaginary of
the daily lives and its verbal expression in poetry needed to be accepted and viewed as a
repression of the self, belonging to everyone who survived, more or less, the Communist
oppression.
From a more or less subjective point of view, one can observe that after the Romanian
Revolution, in December 1989, the Romanian literature was no longer a tool for the
Communist Party. The literary works of young poets was written under the challenge of
changing the system, mentality, style, under the freedom of expression. Their poems testify to
a new resurgence of talent in the freer conditions of postmodernism.
Bibliography
Bertens Johannes, Willem, Bertens
Hans, Fokkema
Douwe. International
Postmodernism: Theory and Literary Practice. Amsterdm, Philadelphia: Comparative History
of Literatures in European Languages, 1997.
Crtrescu, M. Postmodernismul romnesc (The Romanian Postmodernism).
Bucharest: Humanitas, 1999.
Denise, Roman. Fragmented Identities: Popular Culture, Sex, and Everyday Life in
Post- Communist Romania. Plymouth: Rowan & Littlefield Publishers, 2007.
Mincu tefania. Doumismul Poetic Romnesc. Despre starea poeziei II. Constana:
Pontica, 2007.
Negrici, Eugen.Romanian Literature under Communism. Poetry (I), Bucharest:
Editura Fundaiei Pro, 2006.
http://dariaflorea.com.au/darias-poetry/mascara-published-poems/
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Stoica, Ion. Young Poets of a New Romania: An Anthology. Translated by Brenda

Walker and Michaela Celea-Leach. London, Boston: Forest Books, 1991.
Todorova Maria, Gille Zsuzsa. Post-communist Nostalgia. New York, Oxford:
Berghahn Books, 2012.
Limba romn. Manual pentru clasa a VI-a, Editura de Stat Didactic i Pedagogic,
Bucureti, 1953.
Limba romn. Manual unic pentru clasa a V-a elementar, Editura de Stat, Bucureti,
1950.
URL- http:// www.romanianvoice.com
www.dariaflorea.com
www.iwm.at
www.erstestiftung.org
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THE LIFE AND POWER OF STORIES: HANS CHRISTIAN ANDERSEN AND ION
CREANG (CASE-STUDY)
Luiza MARINESCU
Spiru Haret University of Bucharest
Abstract: Telling stories is the best way to teach, to persuade, and even to understand the
culture of peoples, very similar and different in their tradition. The story of childhood is
written by two national symbols of Danish and Romanian literature. The power of reading a
story change the way in which life could be understood. The present study about The life and
the power of stories: Hans Christian Andersen and Ion Creang (A case study) underline the
fact that the magic of great literature has the power to transform the meaning. Defining the
childhood universe from the inside part of its knowledge, through the fairy tales and the
subjectivity of their memories, Ion Creang and Hans Christian Andersen are two reference
authors for the knowledge of the classical literature from their country. In the history of
Romanian and Danish culture, the two writers who lived in the nineteenth century remained
famous grace to the fact that they are the creators of the childhoods fairy tales from
everywhere. Although they never met, Hans Christian Andersen and Ion Creang have
experienced the grace of writing and of reliving childhood years through writing, recounting
with talent that all their experiences happened really in their time of wonderful world stories,
"in the great, wonderful, time of fairy-tale." (Andersen, The Dryad). This study is a
comparative approach which focuses on their personal mythology of the birthplace, of their
family and teachers, of their first readings and their passion for theater and writing.
Keywords: Hans Christian Andersen, Ion Creang, Amintiri din copilrie, The story of my
life, autobiography, monographs.
1. Afiniti biografice
n veacul al XIX-lea, n care puterea povetilor provenea din miracolul cuvintelor ce erau
ascultate i prindeau via deopotriv n faa copiilor i a oamenilor maturi, ntr-o lume n care
povetile scrise, culese i adaptate de ctre Fraii Grimm din folclorul german i scandinav au deschis
gustul romantic pentru folclor, viaa i puterea povetilor lui Hans Christian Andersen i ale lui Ion
Creang izvorte din talentul cu care au fost nzestrai i din harul lor de a filtra n scris prin
sensibilitatea lor sensurile magice ale existenei.
Definind copilria din interiorul cunoaterii universului ei, prin intermediul basmelor i al
subiectivitii Amintirilor, Ion Creang i Hans Christian Andersen sunt doi autori de referin pentru
cunoaterea literaturii clasice din ara lor. n istoria culturii romne i a celei daneze, doi scriitori care
au trit n cel de al XIX-lea veac au rmas celebri graiei faptului c ei sunt creatorii basmelor
copilriei de pretutindeni. Dei nu s-au cunoscut, Hans Christian Andersen i Ion Creang au avut
parte de harul scrisului i al retririi prin scris a anilor copilriei, povestind cu talent toate cele ce s-au
ntmplat cu adevrat la vremea lor, ntr-o minunat lume a povetilor, n vremea noastr, n marele
i minunatul timp al povetilor (Andersen, The Dryad).
Ion Creang s-a nscut la Humuleti, n apropiere de Trgu-Neam, la 10 iunie 1839, dat pe
care o indic actul su de natere aflat n arhiva mitropoliei din Iai. ntr-un fragment autobiografic
Creang d ca dat a naterii sale anul 1837, 1 martie. Sunt nscut la 1 martie 1837 n satul
Humuleti, judetul Neamului, Plasa de Sus, din prini romni: tefan a lui Petrea Ciubotariul din
Humuleti i soia sa, Smaranda, nscut David Creang, din satul Pipirig, judeul Neamului.
Cercetnd documentele vremii reiese c strmoii dinspre mam ai lui Ion Creang s-au tras pe partea
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moldoveneasc a munilor de prin Maramure pe la sfritul veacului al XVIII-lea cam ntre 17841788 (Clinescu, 1978: 9). Familia dinspre mam a fost de origine ardelean, bunicul lui Ion
Creang, David venind din Maramure mpreun cu familia. Strbunicii lui Ion Creang s-au aezat n
satul Pipirig, un sat smrcos, inundabil, pe apa Neamului aproape de valea Bistriei. Bunicul David
tia s citeasc i i-a dat fiii s nvee carte, iar fiica sa, Smaranda, mama lui Ion Creang a nvat
singur s citeasc, alturi de fiul ei. Soul Smarandei, zis tefan a Petrei Ciubotariul, pentru c cineva
din neamul lui fcuse ciubote, se presupune c i avea familia tot de origine ardelean. n casa
rneasc din Humuleti, n familia lui tefan i a Smarandei se nasc opt copii: Ion, Zahei, Maria,
Ecaterina, Ileana,Teodor, Vasile, Petre, ultimii biei murind de copii. Ecaterina va tri pn n 1893,
iar Zahei, Maria i Ileana se vor stinge, toi trei, n anul 1919.
Autobiografia are valoare monografic i documentar n ambele cazuri, cci i scriitorul danez
i cel romn au surprins specificul naional al locurilor descrise. Dac Hans Christian Andersen
surprinde evoluia autobiografic pn la vremea deplinei maturiti i a afirmrii ambiiilor literare
ntr-o lume a oamenilor bogai i puternici, aparent toi binevoitori, Ion Creang pstreaz vie n
evocarea sa lumea satului tradiional, pe care silit de mprejurri a fost nevoit s o prseasc pentru a
merge la coal la ora la vrsta adolescenei. Pentru ambii scriitori plecarea de acas la vrsta
adolescenei rmne un moment de maturizare, ntr-o lume n care vor deveni scriitori cunoscui. Orice
ncercare de rentoarcere n acel moment al despririi de locurile natale va deveni posibil numai prin
intermediul scrisului, destinul lor mplinit.
Avnd o voce frumoas i cu un ambitus vocal remarcabil Hans Christian Andersen visa s se
fac cntre de oper sau cel puin actor. Venic ndrgostit de lumea teatrului liric, plecnd de acas
cu gndul de a se afirma pe scena Teatrului Regal din Copenhaga, autorul noteaz: din nenorocire
pentru mine dup opt sau zece luni mi-am pierdut glasul. Umblasem toat iarna i toat primvara cu
nite ghete att de rupte, nct picioarele mi fuseser tot timpul ude. Ndejdea de a fi ntr-o zi cntre
se nrui. (Andersen, 1983:39) Glasul deosebit de frumos l-a fcut pe Nic din Amintiri din copilrie,
dup ntmplarea cu casa i caprele Irinuci, s fie remarcat de ctre toi stenii cnd n ziua de Pati
am tras un ngerul a strigat la biseric, de au rmas toi oamenii cu gurile cscate la mine. i mamei i
venea s m nghit de bucurie. i printele Ioan m-a pus la mas cu dnsul, i Smrndia a ciocnit o
mulime de ou roii cu mine. (Creang, 1981: 87).
Plcerea de a cnta, de a dansa i de a merge la teatru face parte dintre nclinaiile comune ale
tinereii celor doi scriitori. Dac Creang povestete despre petrecerile i dansurile populare pe care le
interpreta n compania tovarilor si de coal catihetic, Hans Christian Andersen, care avusese
norocul s se afle n compania unor artiti, care i-au apreciat i ndrumat talentul povestete cum
domnul Dahlen (un dansator danez, care s-a ocupat de educaia sa coregrafic) compusese un balet,
Armida n care figuram i eu ca spiridu. Doamna J.L. Heiberg, (Johanne Luise Heiberg, 1812-1890,
mare actri danez), pe atunci feti, juca i ea. Amintirea pe care i-o pstrez din acele timpuri
dateaz. Pentru prima dat numele meu a fost tiprit alturi de al ei, pe afiul Armidei. (Andersen,
1983: 44).
Pasiunea de a merge la teatru s-a dovedit n cazul lui Creang motivul caterisirii sale. n cazul
lui Andersen, pasiunea sa pentru teatru l-a fcut s propun Teatrului Regal din Copenhaga s i se
pun n scen tragedia Alfsol. Cu acest prilej avea s l ntlneasc pe Jonas Collin, directorul
Teatrului Regal i primul dintre cei care au recunoscut geniul lui Andersen, susinndu-l cu mult
interes i bunvoin pe lng regele Frederik al VI-lea pentru o burs, cas i mas, pe mai muli
ani. n acelai timp, Collin, protectorul meu, obinuse i gratuitatea studiilor mele la Colegiul din
Slagelse. (Andersen, 1983:53)
Dup civa ani de diaconie, ntre Ion Creang i autoritile bisericeti izbucnesc conflicte, care
sfresc prin alungarea scriitorului din rndul tagmei preoeti. n 1868 ziarul Convieuirea atrgea
atenia mitropolitului s fie mai sever cu subalternii si care frecventeaz teatrul. Acuzaiile aduse
diaconului, i-au pricinuit mult amrciune, cci au dezlnuit asupra sa o adevrat persecuie. Sigur
pe cariera didactic, Creang care voias mearg la teatru, ncepu s ntind coarda. (Clinescu,
1978: 85) I se reproa faptul c trgea cu puca n ciorile de pe turla bisericii, c i-a tiat prul - pe
care preoii erau obligai s-l poarte lung i mpletit - c mergea la teatru. Hotrrii de a fi scos din
rndurile clerului, Creang i-a rspuns printr-o ntmpinare plin de indignare, unde expune
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adevratele motive care au dus la destituirea sa. Aceast atitudine a nfuriat i mai tare autoritile
ecleziastice.
2. Mitologia personal n Povestea vieii mele de Hans Christian Andersen i Amintiri din
copilrie de Ion Creang.
Autobiografia sau povestirea propriei viei la persoana I
reprezint o convenie, n care cel care scrie i semneaz rndurile
crilor sale, cel care povestete i cel a crui via este povestit
sunt una i aceeai persoan. Autobiografia este deci o povestire, n
care exist identitatea dintre autor, narator i personajul principal, n
care autorul nu este numai starul propriului scenariu, ci i maestrul
propriei spirale vitale, capabil s aleag sensul evoluiei, s
diversifice nelesurile ntmplrilor i perspectivele lor. n Amintiri
din copilrie, Ion Creang nu folosete un pseudonim literar pentru semnarea paginilor sale precum
Stendhal n Viaa lui Henry Brulard. Creang folosete un prenume diminutivat pentru desemnarea
personajului operei autobiografice. Acest lucru nu numai c nu schimb identitatea autor, narator, personaj,
ci permite jocul cu mtile, substituirea vocilor n momentele de vraj narativ, care au fost deseori
analizate de istoriile literare sub forma clasic a surselor umorului i ale oralitii stilului.
Convins de puterea destinului, Hans Christian Andersen mrturisea c: Viaa mea e
o poveste frumoas..
Dac biet copil srman i singur, a fi ntlnit n cale o zn
atotputernic ce mi-ar fi spus: Alege-i drumul Ce vrei s ajungi? Te
voi sftui i te voi cluzi!, soarta mea n-ar fi putut s fie mai fericit i
nici mai cu nelepciune rnduit.
Povestea vieii mele va arta ceea ce mi-a artat i mie - c exist
o soart pentru fiecare. (Andersen, 1983: 9)
Pe de alt parte, naraiunea autobiografic este n
general cronologic i conine o parte important
consacrat introspeciei reflexive. Exist din punctul acesta
de vedere o excepie notabil n literatura romn. Creang
utilizeaz o cronologie aleatorie. El nu-i dateaz cu
exactitate faptele descrise. El i le amintete n funcie de
ncrctura lor emoional i le grupeaz tematic, gradnd relatarea i innd seama de ceea ce s-ar putea
numi densitatea narativ. n cazul lucrrii lui Hans Christian Andersen,
naraiunea autobiografic are repere cronologice bine stabilite, evideniind
conexiuni cu oameni i evenimente artistice contemporane scriitorului. Tema
autobiografiei spirituale proiectat pe fundal monografic s-a concretizat sub
forma unui Bildungsroman n cazul operei lui Ion Creang.
Autobiografia este o form de literatur personal, aa cum se ntmpl
cu scrisorile sau cu jurnalul intim. Dar, spre deosebire de acestea, n scrierea
autobiografic raportarea la evenimente este una retrospectiv, paseist,
Magia decuprii personajelor
detaat. Autorul i amintete evenimentele din viaa sa, care s-au ntmplat
Muzeul H. Chr. Andersen Hus, Odense
demult i pe care le-a reinut, tocmai pentru c nu i s-au prut ntmpltoare
n devenirea sa spiritual. Faptele sunt actualizate n urma unui proces mai mult sau
mai puin riguros de selecie, care uneori poate nsemna renunarea total la
cronologie de dragul arhitecturii narative. Pe de alt parte, spre deosebire de scrisori
sau de jurnalul intim, autobiografia este realizat pentru a satisface nevoile de lectur
ale unui public, fie c este vorba despre cei apropiai, fie c este vorba despre urmai
sau pur i simplu despre posteritate. Hans Christian
Andersen ndrgise de mic copil decuparea
personajelor povestirilor sale din eantioane de hrtie
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i mtase colorat, costumate, pregtite ntocmai pentru teatrul literaturii din scenele cruia urmau s fac
parte. n Muzeul Andersen de la Odense exist un fragment dintr-o scrisoare a lui Andersen din 21 iulie
1867 adresat domnului Melchior i n care vorbind despre scrierea creativ explic: Prima dat trebuie s
nvee s taie - acesta este nceputul creativitii; dar trebuie spus c nu trebuie s decupeze niciodat
eliminnd prile, cu o foarfece care are vrfurile prea ascuite. n paginile cii Povestea vieii mele
aceast tehnic a decupajului are numeroase valene, ce amintesc de teatrul de ppui al lui Goethe din
Suferinele tnrului Werther i din Anii de ucenicie ai lui Wilhelm Meister, de semnificaia personajelor
fr chip nchise n cutia scenei de jucrie, lipsite de replicile care fceau parte din rolurile lor de parteneri
sau de nverunai rivali, de pierderea magiei perspectivei pe care
ambiana scenei o ofer rolului.
Jocul cu personajele decupate din hrtie colorat ale teatrului de
ppui va sta la baza inspiraiei creatoare a scriitorului care i-a pstrat
obiceiul de a-i decupa personajele de hrtie nainte de a le aterne
povestea n scris: Rmas singur acas, m distram cu micul teatru pe
care mi-l furise tata, coseam rochii ppuilor sau citeam piese
dramatice. (Andersen, 1983: 25) Da, cci n ciuda celor 16 ani ai
mei, eram nc un copil netiutor care se mai juca cu
Magia decuprii personajelor, Muzeul H. Chr.
ppuile. n fiecare zi le fceam haine noi i pentru a-mi
Andersen Hus , Odense
procura bucele de stof de care aveam nevoie, m
duceam s cer eantioane de mtase n magazinele din
Kmagegarde i Ostergade. (Andersen, 1983: 43) Cltoriile sale n Orient i n Europa fuseser
reprezentate de autor sub forma unui colaj de cri potale ilustrate i ziare, care au inspirat promovarea
original de ctre regina Margareta a II-a a Danemarcei a operei scriitorului, realiznd decupaje ale
personajelor din basmele lui Andersen. Aceast uimitoare art a decupajelor de hrtie ale lui Andersen
(Wagner Brust, 1994) a constituit una dintre preocuprile sale favorite nc din copilrie i pn n ultimii
ani de via. Astzi se pstreaz aproximativ 250 de decupaje coninnd toate temele povetilor sale, ca
ntr-o efemer dantel de hrtie, care vorbete prin delicateea imaginilor despre dragoste i moarte, despre
frumuseea naturii i a buntii oamenilor.
n opera lui Ion Creang, elementele autobiografice folosite pentru crearea mrcii monografice
constituie un prilej de a demonstra credibilitatea mrturiei adresate publicului. Autorul Amintirilor din
copilrie fusese, pn n momentul publicrii acestei lucrri, cunoscut drept scriitorul Povetilor, al
Povestirilor i al Abecedarului. Amintirile din copilrie ofer indicii referitoare la momentele-cheie ale
evoluiei spirituale a scriitorului. Caracterul de Bildungsroman al operei exprim i el aceast idee.
Alteori, aceste elemente autobiografice constituie pentru
posteritate o mrturie asupra epocii i mai ales asupra
evenimentelor la care autorul a participat direct. Hans
Christian Andersen a cltorit i a cunoscut direct o mulime
de spirite luminate ale epocii sale din ntreaga Europ. Alteori,
elementele autobiografice proiectate n naraiune au rolul de a
ndrepta faptele, de a dezmini judecile nepotrivite, de a-l
justifica pe autor n faa celui care citete. Eul poetic este o
mrturie a ncercrii de realizare a opoziiei ntre poet, ca
individ
martor al faptelor zugrvite, i lumea contemporan,
Andersen i contemporanii si ntlnii n
timpul cltoriilor prin Europa
marcat de superficialitate, nverunat invidie i de degradare.
Muzeul H. Chr. Andersen Hus, Odense
Antiteza romantic ntre trecutul glorios i prezentul deczut ia
natere din atitudinea paseist a poetului, care gsete n imaginarul timp revolut un refugiu privilegiat de
unde poate comenta, compara, sintetiza i concluziona n privina direciei i nelesurilor lumii
contemporane.
3. Locului naterii i al predestinrii
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Hans Christian Andersen scria n Ruca cea urt c dac te nati ntr-un cuib de ra, la o ferm,
asta nu are nici un fel de importan pentru o pasre dac aceasta iese dintr-un ou de lebd. Acest lucru
este valabil i n cazul oamenilor, care se nasc cu darul frumuseii i al graiei, chiar i ntr-un mediu n care
nu lebda, ci ruca emite judeci. Prin intermediul tehnicilor literare ce conin elemente autobiografice
proiectate pe un fundal monografic, ce reprezint un fel de oglind n care autorul se privete, Hans
Christian Andersen se descrie precum i nchipuie c l vedeau ceilali: un copil iste, talentat, cuteztor din
prea mult auto-cenzurare, firav i deirat. Aceast imagine are darul de a rmne pe retina lectorului ei,
chiar i dup ce autorul s-a ndeprtat de suprafaa reflectant, ca o etern ntoarcere ctre sinele autorului,
ca o contemplare i ca o meditaie privilegiat. Cititorul nelege plcerea pe care aceste amintiri i-o
furnizeaz autorului, n special prin rememorarea mai mult sau mai puin nostalgic a perioadei copilriei,
care la modul simbolic nseamn o regsire a Edenului. Nostalgia Paradisului copilriei este ideea-cheie
prezent i n cazul lui Ion Creang, n ale crui Amintiri din copilrie frazele dezvluie plcerea refugiului
n fluxul amintirilor primei vrste, denumit adesea vrsta cea fericit. Primele fraze ale fiecrui capitol
din cuprinsul Amintirilor din copilrie sunt un exemplu de scufundare n marea amintirilor:
1 Stau cteodat i-mi aduc aminte ce vremi i ce oameni mai erau n prile noastre pe cnd
ncepusem i eu, drgli - Doamne, a m ridica biea la casa prinilor mei, n satul Humuletii, din trg
drept peste apa Neamului. (Creang, 1981)
2 Nu tiu alii cum sunt, dar eu, cnd m gndesc la locul naterii mele, la casa printeasc din
Humuleti, la stlpul hornului unde lega mama o far cu motocei la capt, de crpau mele jucndu-se cu
ei, la prichiciul vetrei cel humuit, de care m ineam cnd ncepusem a merge copcel, la cuptiorul pe care
m ascundem, cnd ne jucam noi, bieii, de-a mijoarca, i la alte jocuri i jucrii pline de hazul i farmecul
copilresc, parc-mi salt i acum inima de bucurie! i, Doamne, frumos era pe atunci, cci i prinii, i
fraii, i surorile mi erau sntoi, i casa ni era ndestulat, i copiii i copilele megieilor erau de-a
pururea n petrecere cu noi, i toate mi mergeau dup plac, fr leac de suprare, de parc era toat lumea a
mea!
i eu eram vesel ca vremea cea bun i turlubatic i copilros ca vntul n tulburarea sa. (Creang,
1981)
3. Nu mi-ar fi ciud, ncaltea, cnd ai fi i tu ceva i de te miri unde, mi zice cugetul meu, dar aa,
un bo cu ochi ce te gseti, o bucat de hum nsufleit n sat de la noi, i nu te las inima s taci; asurzeti
lumea cu rniile tale!
Nu m las, vezi bine cugete, cci i eu sunt om din
doi oameni; i satul Humuletii, n care m-am trezit, nu-i un
sat lturalnic, mocnit i lipsit de privelitea lumii, ca alte sate;
i locurile care ncunjur satul nostru nc-s vrednice de
amintire. (Creang, 1981)
4. Cum nu se d scos ursul din brlog, ranul de la
munte, stmutat la cmp, i pruncul, dezlipit de la snul
mamei sale, aa nu m dam eu dus din Humuleti n toamna
anului 1855, cnd veni vremea s plec la Socola, dup
Camera cu unelte de lucru ale tatlui lui Hans
struina mamei..... Dragu-mi era satul nostru cu Ozana
Chrstian Andersen, Muzeul H. Chr. Andersen Hus,
cea frumos curgtoare i limpede ca cristalul, n care se
Odense
oglindete cu mhnire Cetatea-Neamului de attea
veacuri! Dragi-mi erau tata i mama, fraii i surorile, i bieii satului, tovarii mei din copilrie, cu cari,
n zile geroase de iarn, m desftam pe ghia i la sniu, iar vara, n zile frumoase de srbtori, cntnd i
chiuind, cutrieram dumbrvile i luncile umbroase, prundul cu tioalnele, arinile cu holdele, cmpul cu
florile i mndrele dealuri, de dup cari-mi zmbeau zorile n zburdalnica vrst a tinereei! (Creang,
1981)
n Povestea vieii mele, Hans Christian Andersen i amintete cu emoie anii copilriei: n
1805 tria la Odense, ntr-o modest cmru, o pereche de tineri cstorii, care se iubeau tare mult.
El, n vrst de vreo 22 de ani, cizmar, era un om nzestrat i avea o fire de poet. Ea, cu civa ani mai
mare, femeie simpl i necunosctoare n ale vieii, avea o inim minunat. Ajuns de curnd lucrtor,
brbatul i meterise singur msua de cizmrie, ca i patul de nunt. Patul i-l fcuse din lemnul unui
catafalc pe care zcuse un oarecare conte de Trampe. Fiile de postav negru, care mai rmseser
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prinse de scndurile patului, aminteau de prima lui destinaie. n locul rmielor contelui, la 2 aprilie
1805, pe patul acesta i fcu apariia un nou-nscut: eu, Hans Christian Andersen.
[] O singur cmru plin cu scule de cizmrie, patul i lavia unde dormeam eu, iat casa
copilriei mele!
[] Copil singur la prini, am fost foarte rsfat. Mama mi repeta adesea c sunt cu mult mai
fericit dect fusese ea la vrsta mea. Prinii o obligaser pn s i cereasc! Cum nu era n stare s
fac una ca asta, rmsese odat o zi ntreag plngnd, sub un pod, pe malul rului care trecea prin
Odense. Cu imaginaia mea de copil mi nchipuiam cu atta intensitate aceast scen, nct lcrimam
ori de cte ori mi venea n minte.
Tatl meu, Hans Andersen, m lsa s fac tot ce-mi plcea. Eu era marea lui pasiune. Pentru
mine tria. Mai toate clipele sale libere, i mai ales duminicile, i le pierdea fcndu-mi jucrii i
desenndu-mi diferite chipuri. Deseori, seara, ne citea din operele scriitorilor Lafontaine i Holberg i
din O mie i una de nopi.
Niciodat nu l-am vzut surznd dect atunci cnd citea. fuseser rani nstrii, dar
nenorocirile se abtuser asupra lor: le-au pierit vitele, le-a ars ferma, iar bunicul i-a pierdut minile.
Veniser atunci s se stabileasc la Odense i aici i dduser biatul, n ciuda faptului c era att de
ascuit la minte, s nvee meserie la un cizmar. Din nenorocire nu putuser s fac altfel, cu toate c
dorina cea mai fierbinte a biatului era s intre la Colegiu. Bietul tata! A pstrat toat viaa n inima
lui amrciunea c nu putuse s nvee. (Andersen, 1983: 12)
Copilria nefericit a prinilor, n ambele cazuri rani foarte muncitori dar sraci, dragostea de
carte a acestora a mamei lui Creang i a tatlui lui Andersen - i dorina lor de a-i ajuta copii cu
orice pre s nvee carte i s triasc mai bine dect au putut ei s o fac, reprezint un alt element
definitoriu al biografiei celor doi scriitori i darul cel mai de pre al mediului din care provin.
4. colile copilriei, ale adolescenei i ale maturitii
De ce au fugit de la coal n primele zile cnd au pit pragul, ne povestesc ambii scriitori. Nic
a nceput coala, cam pe la unsprezece ani, prin 1848, cu bdia Vasile daclul bisericii din sat, un om
tnr voinic i frumos (Creang, 1981: 218) care umbla din cas n cas pentru a-i aduce pe copii la
coal. coala era ntr-o cldire fcut de steni, la ndemnul parohului Ion Humulescu. La coal se
foloseau ca metode de educaie calul blan, Sfntul Nicolai i colacii. Acetia din urm erau
folosii drept premii. Dup vreun an, n ziua de Sfntul Foca, dasclul este prins cu arcanul de vornic
i trimis, cetluit, ca tlharii la oaste. coala se redeschide dup un alt an, dar noul dascl, Iordache
era mai btrn i folosea metode dure, astfel nct Ion a
fugit
ct a vzut cu ochii de procitania de la coal. Dac nu ar
fi
insistat Smaranda, care inea mori ca fiul ei s fac carte,
Nic ar
fi rmas cu puinele cunotine de scriscitit, pe care i le
nsuise
pn atunci, mai ales ca tatl su nu punea mare pre pe
nvtur.
Hans Christian Andersen i amintea c fusese
nvat
s citeasc de ctre o btrn nvtoare care Se aeza
ntr-un
fotoliu, cu sptar nalt aproape de orologiu. Cnd btea
orele,
ceasul declana un mecanism ciudat, fcnd s defileze prin faa noastr o serie de personaje mici,
grozav de amuzante. nvtoarea avea la ndemn
o
Casa lui Hans Christian Andersen, Odense
nuia cu care croia n dreapta i-n stnga i mai ales
pe
fetiele care alctuiau majoritatea clasei noastre. Metoda ei consta n a ne pune s silabisim mpreun
i s repetm silabele ct ne inea gura. Dndu-m la aceast profesoar, mama o rugase insistent s
nu m bat. Iat ns c ntr-o zi mi-am primit i eu poria. ntr-o clip am fost n picioare, mi-am
strns crile i am alergat ca un nuc acas. Am cerut i am obinut s fiu trimis la o alt coal. Am
nimerit la una de biei, condus de domnul Carstens (Fedder Carstens, primul nvtor al lui
Andersen, care avea o coal de biei chiar pe strada Munkemllestroede din Odense, strad pe care
scriitorul de mai trziu locuia). Nu se afla printre noi dect o singur feti care prea tare mic, dei
era mai mare de ani ca mine. n curnd ntre noi se leg o prietenie strns. Cu ea vorbeam ntotdeauna
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numai despre lucruri practice i folositoare. mi mrturisi c dac venea la coal, o fcea numai i
numai ca s nvee s socoteasc bine, fiindc avea de gnd s devin lptreas undeva, la o ferm
mare. (Andersen, 1983: 18)
n 1848, datorit struinelor mamei, Nic a fost trimis la bunicul su, David Creang din
Pipirig, care l-a nscris pe cheltuiala sa la o coal din Broteni. Nic mpreun cu Dumitru, fiul mai
mic al bunicului sunt aezai n gazd la o femeie, pe nume Irinuca, urmnd ca acolo s primeasc
provizii cu mncare la cteva sptmni. coala aparinea lui Alecu Balo, iar profesor era Niculai
Nanu om nelept i iscusit. Cei doi colari nu au stat mult vreme aici. O ntmplare nefericit a
grbit deznodmntul. Jucndu-se, bieii au prvlit de pe coasta muntelui un bolovan, care a drmat
coliba Irinuci i s-au grbit, pe urm s fug.
n anul 1852, Nic este nscris sub numele de Ion tefnescu, la coala Domneasc din TrgulNeam. Pentru c Smaranda se ambiiona s-i fac biatul preot, ideal dorit de multe femei de la ar
n acele timpuri, Ion intr la coala de catihei din Flticeni, numit i fabrica de popi i l are aici
profesor pe Nicolae Conta, fratele filosofului Vasile Conta. Dup desfiinarea acesteia, n 1855 se
nscrie la seminarul de la Socola din Iai. Ion pleac din locurile copilriei cu inima strns, prndu-i
ru dup satul natal, dup Ozana cea frumos curgtoare, dup frai, dup prini i dup locurile de
joac. Un Luca Moneagu ncarc pe Creang i pe Zaharia lui Gtlan, cu care fusese coleg i la
catihet i i duce cu crua lui tras de zmei (Clinescu, 1978:47) spre Iai. Cu descrierea drumului,
care ncheie Amintirile din copilrie se sfrete copilria viitorului scriitor.
Dup trei ani de studiu, Creang a primit un certificat de absolvire a cursului inferior de patru
ani. La seminar erau predate materii teologice, cu profesori clerici, dar i materii laice. n vacane
mergea acas n Humuleti, dar n-auzea lucruri prea mbucurtoare. Prinii i erau bolnavi.
n vara anului 1858, tefan a Petrei Cibotariul moare, n inutul Iailor, pe moia
Fcui(Clinescu, 1978: 55) unde fusese nevoit s munceasc. Rmas fr niciun sprijin i fiind frate
mai mare al orfanilor, Creang ntrerupe studiile, hotrndu-se s renune la cel de-al doilea an de
cursuri i s se fac diacon. n acest scop nainteaz comitetului seminarului o cerere n care
menioneaz moartea tatlui su, dar i faptul c mama sa era bolnav i cu datorii. Cererea i se aprob
i Ion Creang se cstorete n 1859 cu Ileana Grigoriu; e hirotonisit n acelai an diacon definitiv
i numit la o biseric din Trgu-Frumos. Socrul su era printele Grigoriu de la biserica Patruzeci de
Sfini. La 19 decembrie 1860, soia lui d natere unui biat, Constantin. Postul de diacon de la
Brboiu i se desfiineaz, dar i se va aproba postul de diacon de la Golia, biserica ridicat de Vasile
Lupu. Ion Creang se va nscrie la coala Normal.
ntre 1861-1862 Creang este printre cei paisprezece studeni care frecventeaz cursurile,
mpreun cu Gh. Ienchescu, Gh. Posa, C. Erbiceanu i alii. n 1864 elev nc, n anul al II-lea, la
coala Normal Vasilian, ocup prin concurs, postul de nvtor la coala primar de la Trei Ierarhi.
Decretul de numire n nvmnt este semnat de domnitorul Alexandru Ioan Cuza. La 10 iunie 1865,
Creang d examen, i va iei, iari, cel dinti. Diaconul a fost gsit eminent i tot eminente i-au fost
socotite aptitudinea pedagogic i purtarea. Cam prin 1867, n timpul ederii la Golia, Ion Creang
este prsit de soia sa, Ileana. Rmas o perioad fr nicio funcie, Creang este nevoit s-i ctige
existena, innd un debit de tutun.
n 1874 este reintegrat n nvmnt, lucrnd pn la sfritul vieii sale la coala nr.2 din
Pcurari, Iai. Ca institutor Ion Creang s-a bucurat de preuirea elevilor si. Din primul an de
nvmnt, Creang a strns material pentru a alctui un manual pe care s-l fac n unire cu alii, ca
s-l poat rspndi mai bine. (Clinescu, 1978: 106) A strns diferite abecedare ardeleneti i strine,
studiind mult crile, adaptndu-le mereu, interesul su fiind s realizeze o carte de citire i de scriere
romneasc pe nelesul tuturor. Manualul s-a numit: Metod nou de scriere i cetire. Creang i
aduce aminte de bdia Vasile a Ilioaei, dasclul bisericei, un holteiu zdravn, frumos i voinic, de
metoda lui Bell i Lancaster folosit de pedagogia romneasc de atunci, care se referea la sistemul
monitorial. nvtorul era ajutat la sfritul sptmnii s i asculte pe toi elevii si de copiii mai mari,
monitorii. Acetia numrau greelile la procitania de smbt i n funcie de rezultatele la nvtur,
colacii sau sfntul ierarh Neculai i mngiau pe nvcei. Pcatul cdea pe cuvioasele mute i pe
cuvioii bondari, care trgeau la ceaslovul deschis cu filele cam unse. Creang i amintete: n lipsa
printelui i a dasclului intram n intirim, ineam ceaslovul deschis, i cum erau filele cam unse, trgeau
mutele i bondarii la ele, i cnd clmpneam ceaslovul, cte zece-douzeci de suflete prpdeam de-
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odat; potop era pe capul mutelor! ntru una din zile, ce-i vine printelui, ne caut ceasloavele i, cnd le
vede aa sngerate cum erau, i pune minile n cap de necaz! (Creang, 1981: 157). Pe vremea lui
Creang, copiii nvau nti s citeasc. Scrisul era o etap ulterioar a acestei iniieri, la care nu ajungeau toi
cei chemai s nvee de ctre preotul satului. Creang ironizeaz metodele de nvare a gramaticii romneti
pe dinafar i Trsnea este cel mai citat dintre personajele autorului pentru felul su de a nelege mecanic
gramatica lui Mcrescu, cumplit meteug de tmpenie. n manualele pe care le alctuiete n
colaborare cu ali nvtori, Creang introduce cteva povestioare cu caracter didactic, n care sunt
inserate i imagini sugestive: Inul i cmea, Acul i barosul, Cinci pini, Ursul pclit de vulpe. Pe
un astfel de manual a nvat i Mihai Sadoveanu, descoperind cheia de aur a nelegerii celor scrise de
marele su nvtor.
Rentoarcerea la Paradisul copilriei este o idee pe care o simim prezent i n opera lui Ion Creang,
care tocmai fusese destituit din nvmnt cnd ncepuse s-i scrie Amintirile. La 1 ianuarie 1881 public
n Convorbiri literare prima parte din Amintiri din copilrie. n acest caz, amnuntul biografic se
dizolv n atmosfera genezei operei. Hans Christian Andersen i scrie Povestea vieii mele n 1846 n
timpul unei cltorii la Roma i la Napoli. Cu ceva vreme nainte trecuse prin Romnia de la
Constantinopol n 1841 i itinerariul pe Dunre pn la Porile de Fier reprezint o inspirat descriere a
Valahiei din Bazarul unui poet. n 1847 va cltori n Anglia pentru a-l cunoate pe Charles Dickens.
Nu n ultimul rnd trebuie spus c utilizarea elementelor auto-biografice proiectate pe fundal
monografic n opera ambilor scriitori este un privilegiu pentru cel care citete i care descoper mai clar
legtura dintre literatur i viaa real. Inteligena care particip la modelarea i dominarea destinului,
aspiraia omului ctre fericire, nostalgia Paradisului ntotdeauna pierdut, ntotdeauna redescoperit n
paginile de literatur ale acestor doi scriitori sunt doar cteva dintre sugestiile pe care le ofer lectura.
Rentorcndu-se n lumea privilegiat a literaturii, scriitorul i ndeplinete ambiia de a-i fi putut nvinge
teama generat de timpul care terge amintirea trecerii umane i i demonstreaz capacitatea de a schimba
cursul destinului spiritual, de a compensa prozaismul existenei cu miracolul creaiei artistice.
5. Trsturile scrierilor autobiografice ale lui Ion Creang i Hans Christian Andersen
Sinceritatea este ea, oare, caracteristica de baz referitoare la introducerea elementelor de
autobiografie n literatur i la transformarea autobiografiei ntr-un gen aparte? Uneori, aceast convenie
nu este ntru totul respectat. Fie c din motive de decen sau de pudoare autorul oculteaz anumite scene;
fie c din dorina de a fi deceni, autorii nu dezvluie celuilalt, adic cititorului, detalii ocante care ar pta
memoria celor apropiai. Exist n acest sens o diferen ntre simpla minciun, minciuna nevinovat,
tcerea deliberat, alibiul uitrii tipic funcionrii memoriei sau uitarea inocent. n antitez cu diferenierea
acestor aspecte trebuie remarcat, ca o trstur stilistic a scrierilor lui Ion Creang, francheea lucid
prezent n amintirile copilriei i mrturisirea nostalgic n cazul paginilor lui Hans Christian Andersen.
Exactitatea este subiectul unei alte probleme aflate n direct conexiune cu aceea a sinceritii. Poate
lectorul model s se ncread n exactitatea faptelor relatate n scrierile ce conin elemente autobiografice
proiectate pe fundal monografic? S-ar putea spune, pe de o parte, c scrierile autobiografice sunt un
inventar al lucrurilor pe care le tim deja despre autorul respectiv din celelalte scrieri ale sale. Pe de alt
parte, introducnd elemente autobiografice pe fundalul scrierilor lor cu caracter monografic, scriitorul
romn i cel danez se afl n cutarea propriilor identiti, care apar ca o revelaie n urma unui efort mai
mult sau mai puin ascetic. Aceasta este cauza numeroaselor ezitri, a incertitudinilor din scrierile lor.
Aceste inexactiti pot avea cauze psihologice: capriciile memoriei, iluziile despre sine care micoreaz sau
mresc imaginea interioritii, confuziile sau uitrile incontiente. Dar e foarte posibil ca aceste
inexactiti, s fie rezultatul unor alegeri estetice contiente, adic s fie rezultatul sublimrii tririi n
art. Aglomerarea scenelor pline de veselia i farmecul copilresc, recompunerea cronologiei faptelor
ntr-o ordine discontinu, care sacrific detaliul n favoarea armoniei ansamblului, iat cteva aspecte pe
care le vom regsi cu precizie i n Amintiri din copilrie i n Povestea vieii mele de Hans Christian
Andersen.
Uneori, biograful poate retracta cu exactitate elementele de autobiografie, pe care autorul le
introduce n opera sa, proiectndu-le monografic. Dar elementele autobiografice sunt cele care dau
adevrata valoare creaiei i reprezint un rspuns evident n sens estetic, nu documentar.
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Problema raportului dintre timpul faptelor i cel al scriiturii este un aspect asupra cruia ar trebui s
struim n cele ce urmeaz. Exist o diferen ntre jurnal, n care timpul evenimentelor coincide cu cel al
redactrii (de dragul conveniei autenticitii i al sinceritii) i elementele de autobiografie incluse n
oper, n care apare diferena de timp dintre trire i redactare, diferen de timp ce influeneaz idealizarea
trecutului prin compensaie antitetic cu percepia decderii prezente. Scriitorul resimte aceast deosebire
dintre culorile i temperatura epocilor descrise prin intermediul mecanismelor memoriei.
Acest lucru explic de ce elementele de autobiografie prezente n proieciile monografice din opera
celor doi scriitori dau o valoare deosebit elementelor care declaneaz avalana amintirilor, ce se
rostogolesc ntr-un paradoxal cosmos estetic. Digresiunile, refleciile asupra trecutului sau asupra
prezentului, meandrele memoriei sau capriciile ei sunt i ele tehnici folosite de Hans Christian Andersen i
de Ion Creang, care realizeaz confruntarea eului de odinioar cu cel prezent. Aceast relaionare se face
n mod obinuit fie prin suprapunerea imaginilor, fie prin alturarea acestora.
Suprapunerea imaginilor (procedeu prezent la Creang, care aeaz imaginea trecutului deasupra
imaginii, pe care o intuim dezolant, a prezentului) este o tehnic folosit pentru a schia contururile
imaginilor personalitii din copilrie la maturitate. n periplul vital, aceste sugestii autobiografice pe care
scriitorul le d au rolul de a lumina i celelalte fragmente ale operei sale.
Alturarea imaginilor (procedeu pe care l putem descoperi la Hans Christian Andersen i la Ion
Creang) const n aezarea acestora la o anumit distan, care permite detaarea ironic , implicarea n
analiza critic lucid (Hans Christian Andersen) sau justificarea mai mult sau mai puin autocritic,
didactic i umoristic (Ion Creang).
De ce este interesat publicul de un destin individual al unui scriitor considerat clasic fie n
Danemarca, fie n Romnia? Fr ndoial pentru c studiul elementelor autobiografice proiectate
monografic are n comun cteva teme cu valoare universal uman adic: familia, rdcinile, copilria,
relaia cu cellalt, experiena i formarea, dragostea. La fel ca Montaigne, am putea spune c ceilali
formeaz eul scriitorului. El este doar acela care povestete. i dac povestete bine, dac opera lui
realizeaz o reform a moravurilor i a temelor contemporane, o sintez a mentalitii neamului su i a
obiceiurilor acestuia, atunci de bun seam c putem vorbi despre scriitorii clasici ca despre creatori
naionali cu valoare universal.
n abordarea motivelor-cheie ale autobiografiei ca tem a scrierilor lui Ion Creang i Hans Christian
Anderse, confuziile ntre speciile memorialisticii impun descoperirea unor criterii care s le diferenieze i
care s le clarifice. Aceste criterii sunt:
a. Amploarea sau lungimea speciilor n care se abordeaz aceste elemente autobiografice
Deosebim astfel specii memorialistice ample (amintirile realizate sub form de Bildungsroman,
jurnalul, biografiile romanate, memoriile) i specii memorialistice reduse din punct de vedere al
dimensiunii (articole retrospective, medalioane literare, interviuri, confesiuni literare, prefee, studii
critice, scrisori, pseudo-scrisori). Din acest punct de vedere Povestea vieii mele de Hans Christian
Andersen este o auto-biografie romanat, dens n privina referinelor culturale i a informaiilor cu
privire la evoluia creaiei scriitorului.
b. Proporia dintre elementele de autobiografie, cele de evocare i cele de monografie
Aceasta poate fi considerat marca stilului fiecrui autor. Att Hans Christian Andersen ct i Ion
Creang plecnd de la folclor, au reuit s ridice proza memorialistic pe culmi nebnuite. Valorificnd limba omului simplu, ei o ridic la un nivel artistic neegalat, dovedindu-se artiti profund
originali. Din Prefa la Povetile mele rzbate subtextul raportului dialectic dintre individ i
colectivitate pe care l conine creaia lui Ion Creang: Iubite cetitoriu, Multe prostii i fi cetit, de
cnd eti. Cetete rogu-te i ceste i unde-i ved c nu-i vin la socoteal, i pana n mn i d i tu
altceva mai bun la ival cci eu atta m-am priceput i atta am fcut. Autoriul". (Creang, 1981)
c. Apropierea sau deprtarea fa de momentul la care se face referire n relatare
Unele specii ale memorialisticii fac ca momentul redactrii textului s fie unul apropiat de cel n care
s-au petrecut faptele (jurnalul, uneori scrisorile, parial interviurile). Alte specii ale memorialisticii dau
senzaia c faptele relatate se afl la o distan mare fa de momentul redactrii (amintirile, confesiunile,
medalioanele literare, evocrile, elegiile, prefeele, necroloagele, unele scrisori i interviuri). n acest caz,
diferena de vrst dintre narator, autor i personaj face imposibil suprapunerea perfect din punct de
vedere temporal. Autorul acestor din urm specii enumerate este un om ajuns la vrsta senectuii, trecut
bine de mijlocul vieii sale i care aterne pe hrtie un tezaur de informaii, care altfel ar trece pe trmul
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uitrii odat cu dispariia lui fizic. Nu toi marii clasici romni au avut rgazul ca la vrsta senectuii s i
scrie memoriile sau s i redacteze amintirile. Ca narator memorialist, autorul poate mprumuta rnd pe
rnd vocile diverselor momente ale existenei sale, iar ca personaj el reprezint ipostazele mai tinere ale
propriei existene. De exemplu, Creang nu era un om n vrst cnd a nceput s-i redacteze Amintirile. El
se simea mbtrnit de evenimentele ultime ale existenei sale. Nic este ipostaza cea mai tnr a
existenei sale metamorfozat n personaj. Pe parcursul evocrii, vocea naratorului se schimb, devine cnd
sftoas, cnd ghidu sau glumea, cnd mbibat de melancolia evocrii. Acest lucru ne poate face s
credem c vocea naratorului reprezint ipostazele memorabile ale vrstelor sufletului su, venic n
cutarea puritii, a inocenei. Spre deosebire de momentul n care Creang i redactase Amintirile, cnd
ncepe s-i scrie memoriile, Hans Christian Andersen era un om trecut de mijlocul existenei sale, care
vzuse multe i cunoscuse diverse situaii care i-au marcat felul de a gndi. Tonul amintirilor i al
memoriilor sale este de cele mai multe ori unul echilibrat, modelat ntr-un andante cantabile ale povestirii.
Informaiile pe care el le ofer despre sine i despre ceilali sunt de o valoare inestimabil pentru
cercettorul pasionat.
d. Persoana care relateaz i despre care se relateaz
Din acest punct de vedere, multe dintre speciile memorialisticii enumerate de noi se difereniaz prin
intermediul persoanei utilizate n relatare. Ceea ce Camil Petrescu va scrie muli ani mai trziu despre
utilizarea persoanei I n naraiune, referindu-se la problema sinceritii i la cea a autenticitii, poate fi
observat n multe dintre paginile scrierilor analizate. n Amintirile lui Creang, aceast tehnic are rolul de a
fi un privilegiu pentru posteritate pentru a intra n intimitatea unui scriitor de geniu. La Hans Christian
Andersen este o mrturie a modestiei tnrului poet i a exigenei scriitorului fa de propriul talent. Ni-l
imaginm n aceast situaie, cu o min melancolic, cu un ton dramatic n momentul confesiunilor.
Andersen tia bine din educaia i experiena lui teatral c persoana I este cea n funcie de care se alege
masca personajului, c ea dezvluie zcmintele sufleteti constante ale personalitii sale. Interesant este
de observat c aceti scriitori rein printre evenimentele memorabile ale propriei copilrii jocurile vrstei
fericite, imaginea primului dascl adevrat, alturi de cele ale prinilor, cele dinti lecturi, naterea
sentimentelor i, n special, fiorii primei iubiri. Aceste evenimente-cheie ale modelrii propriei personaliti
se regsesc transfigurate n oper.
6. Concepia despre oper i misiunea scriitorului, sau despre viaa i puterea povetilor
Aflat la grania dintre fantezie i realitate, poate i pentru c viitorul poate fi cucerit numai prin
intermediul visului, magia povetilor autobiografice lui Ion Creang i ale lui Hans Christian Andersen are
capacitatea de a fi perpetuu actual. Aceast caracteristic a operei lor deriv din cumularea unor trsturi
majore ale cuvntului scris, pentru care fiecare dintre ei a avut un deosebit respect. Ei au fcut s vibreze n
coarda creaiilor lor i originalitatea folcloric, i naturaleea limbii vorbite de majoritatea semenilor. Dup
moartea lor, aureola cuvntului scris a fost semnul unor opere de excepie. Respectul fa de arta scrisului
pornete n cazul lui Ion Creang de la mrturisirea pe care n Amintiri o face bunicul, David Creang,
personaj care nvase s citeasc, dar care nu tia s scrie i care avea o prere deosebit despre feciorii si
mai mari, cei care nvaser s scrie i s socoteasc la coala lui Alecu Balo: Dar cartea i aduce i
oarecare mngiere. Eu, s nu fi tiut a ceti, de mult a fi nnebunit, cte am avut pe capul meu. Savoarea
folcloric o vom rentlni valorificat original n creaia lui Ion Creang, a crui concepie anecdotic
despre lume este influenat de formaia sa intelectual. Destin literar singular prin genialitatea reuitei sale,
creia peste moarte i timp i s-a adugat exegeza laudativ, Creang modeleaz povestea tradiional
romneasc pstrnd schema basmului i adugndu-i interpretarea personal a tipurilor, culoarea local,
limba savuroas i observaia social realist a lumii strmb ornduite. Lumea pe dos este o tem
recunoscut a basmelor lui Creang derivat dintr-un topos medieval universal. La adpostul prostiei
simulate, al dedublrii autor-personaj, critica acestei lumi devine evident. ntre umoritii lumii, Creang
este un artist incomparabil n privina alctuirii unui univers literar n care exist deopotriv duioia
evocrii, jovialitatea umorului, talentul fabulistic i anecdotic, precum i cascadele de exprimri autentic
populare aforistice.
Hans Christian Andersen scria, referindu-se la rostul i norocul de a tri pentru a crea, n povestea sa
intitulat Fluturele c n via nu e suficient doar s trieti. Mai ai nevoie i de soare, i de libertate i de o
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mic floricic. n Romnia traducerea operei sale a nceput din 1895 i pn la nceputul secolului XX
existau deja mai multe ediii: (Andersen, 1895; Andersen, 1896, Andersen, 1903; Andersen, 1911).
Dac altul le-ar fi fost destinul, dac numele lor nu ar fi fost ridicat pe scut, asemenea trupurilor
eroilor czui pe cmpul de onoare i datorie, i dac opera lor ar fi fost dezgropat dup mult timp,
asemenea amforelor antice, cititorul din orice timp ar fi remarcat truda de artizani ai emoiilor, care are
darul de a nsuflei aceste creaii, rod al unor biografii spirituale n care pledoaria pentru frumusee i adevr
este o constant. Lutul ars al amforelor dezgropate rmne mut, cci ecourile trecutului au fost ngropate de
vreme. Rndurile din laboratorul de manuscrise ale acestor autori justific prin ele nsele jertfa vieii pentru
eternitatea operei, cci pentru ei cuvntul scris are nu numai o valoare personal, ci i una social.
Bibliografie:
Andersen, 1895: H. Chr. Andersen, Povestiri alese. Ed. Librriei Carol Mller (Tip. Nou", Gr.
9-108. 30 bani. (Biblioteca pentru toi, 1) Ambele ediii au aprut n acelai an.
Bibliografie; Stncescu, p. 479). 821.113.4 Ed. II cu portretul autorului. Bucureti, Edit.
Panaitescu), [1895]. (14,5 x 10). 1f. p. (Uni, 5(1895), nr. 21, mai 25, p. 168: (1111138)
Andersen, 1895: H. Chr. Andersen, Povestiri alese [de] Andersen. Traducie de Dumitru
Stncescu. Bucureti, Edit. Librriei Carol Mller (Tip. Nou" Gr. Panaitescu), [1895].
(15 x 10). V-107[409]. p. 30 bani. (Biblioteca pentru toi, 1). 821.113.4 (1111129)
Andersen, 1896: H. Chr. Andersen, Carte de chipuri Far chipuri [de] Andersen. traducie de dra X. Z. i Dumitru Stncescu. Bucureti, Edit. Librriei Carol Mler (Tip. Noud Gr.
Panaitescu), [1896]. (15 x 10). 79 p. 30 bani. (Biblioteca pentru toti, 100). Datat dup:
Uni, 6(1896), nr. 51, dec. 19, p. 408: Bibliografie; Stncescu, p. 483. Pe coperta, In loc de
titlu apare numai 100", nr. de ordine al coleciei. 821.113.4 (1111134)
Andersen, 1903: H. Ch. Andersen, Carte de chipuri Fr chipuri Ed. II. Bucuresti, Edit.
Librriei Leon Alcalay (Stab. de arte grafice Universala), [1903]. (15 x 10). 76 P. 30 banr.
(Biblioteca pentru tog, 100). Datat dupg: RB, 1(1903), nr. 4, iul.-aug., p. 93. 821.113.4
Andersen, 1911: H. Chr. Andersen, Grdina raiului i alte povestiri [de] Andersen. Traduse de
B. Nemeanu. Bucureti, Edit. Librriei Leon Alcalay (Tip. Fortuna"), [1911]. (14,5 x 10).
192 p. 60 bani. (Biblioteca pentru toi, 657-658). 821.113.4 (I 24753)
Andersen, 1969: H. Chr. Andersen, Mrgritare. Povestiri de H. C. Andersen. Ilustrate de V.
Pederesen. Traducere de Ruxandra Vlahu. Bucureti, Libr. Editurii Socec & Cie
(Atelierele grafice Socec & CO.), 1969. (19 x 12). 256 p. cu ilustr. 2,50 lei. Cuprinde i:
Din viaa lui Andersen", notit biografic de X. Marmier, p. 5-14. cu un portret. 821.113.4
(114096)
Andersen, 1983: Hans Christian Andersen Povestea vieii mele, ediia a doua revzut,
Traducere, cronologie i note de Teodora Popa-Mazilu, Editura Ion Creang.
Clinescu, 1978: George Clinescu, Ion Creang, (Viaa i opera), Editura Minerva, Bucureti.
Creang, 1981: Ion Creang, Poveti, Povestiri, Amintiri, Biblioteca pentru toi, Bucureti.
Wagner Brust, 1994: Beth Wagner Brust The Amazing Paper Cuttings of Hans Christian Andersen
Hardcover March 28, 1994 Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, Ticknor & Fields.
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IMAGINARY SYMBOLISM IN FNU NEAGUS PLAYS

Ana-Maria OLARU (TICU)
Abstract: Echipa de zgomote is a two parts drama, approaching the theme of the family,
which is seen as a conglomerate of beings. These beings become astray from their own ideals
and from the human condition also, manifesting themselves in a small cinematography studio,
where the members of the same family group are hired in order to artificially produce movie
sounds. The humiliation and the personal bankruptcy they have to face in this small space
define the spiritual and moral chaos. There are some symbolical similarities to the writings of
Ionescu or Voiculescu and these resemblances highlight the dramas artistic features. The
profile of the characters is shaped in quasi-negative shades; in what regards the linguistic
area, the clichs reveal an obsession with the fight against depersonalization which
unfortunately fails. The symbolism of the drama also reveals the obsession with the idea of
paternity. The frustrations of a mundane existence are being realistically dealt with, Nil being
pursued by the idea of the old bison, his father, an idolatrized pater familias, whose ancestral
force he genetically invokes. The end symbolically represents a certain kind of closure by
means of Nils death, proving an attempt to revive the ancestors decayed spirit, but this
proves to be partially achieved. The retrograde bestiary justifies the idea of a de-spiritualized
context: the bison family is made of chamber horses, then they turn into howling wolves on
various tapes, and they end up being dogs symbols of the dominated ones. Therefore, the
play is a parable, as shown by the symbolical and mythical analysis.
Keywords: symbol, sounds, family, animal, death
Valoarea incontestabil a povestirilor i nuvelelor lui Fnu Neagu a fcut ca
majoritatea criticilor literari s considere proza scurt ca fiind cea mai important parte a
creaiei sale. Cum era i firesc, apariia romanelor, unele dintre ele foarte bine primite de
public, a fost justificat prin seva extras artistic din acestea, dar au fost i voci care au
considerat c prozele scurte au fost doar exerciii de creaie, desvrite prin apariia
romanelor. Important este complementaritatea celor dou tipuri de scrieri, att cele 90 de
povestiri, ct i cele 5 romane alctuind un corpus unitar, bine echilibrat epic i tematic, cu
tendine moderne, fr a fi anacronice, plsmuind stilul propriu al scriitorului brilean,
inconfundabil, numit de Eugen Simion fnuian. Pariul literar al lui Fnu Neagu nu ar fi
fost pe deplin ctigat fr operele sale dramatice, realizate n baza aceleiai paradigme
simbolice a modernitii, anulnd principiile tradiionale ale teatrului, deschiznd noi
orizonturi de interpretare, din pcate prea puin exploatate, avnd parte doar de cronicile
premierelor teatrale, publicate n periodice, dar i de cteva pagini critice ataate pieselor la
publicare. Teatrul lui Fnu Neagu cuprinde trei drame realizate individual, Echipa de
zgomote (1970), Scoica de lemn (1978) i Casa de la miezul nopii sau Paiaa sosete la timp
(1993); n colaborare cu Vintil Ornaru public piesa Apostolii (1966), iar mpreun cu
Lucian Chiu i Dan Micu scrie Nluca (1997). Cu un numr mai mare de interpretri scenice
i reeditri se distinge Echipa de zgomote, concentrnd esene de antirealism, mutnd artistic
valenele dramatice mai mult spre sfera imaginarului simbolic, deprtndu-se de magicul
prozelor. Cu siguran, unele simboluri i idei vehiculate apropie teatrul fnuian de teatrul lui
Marin Sorescu sau chiar de cel al lui Eugen Ionescu. Regsim i motive i imagini din
povestirile i romanele publicate pn atunci, pe alocuri putnd identifica termeni de
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comparaie i cu Panait Istrati sau Vasile Voiculescu, cu care, de altfel, Fnu Neagu s-a
identificat adesea n plan literar.
Echipa de zgomote este o dram n dou pri, abordnd tema familiei, vzut ca un
conglomerat de fiine ce se nstrineaz de propriile idealuri i de condiia uman,
manifestndu-se ntr-un mic studio de cinematografie, unde membrii aceluiai grup familial
sunt angajai pentru a produce artificial zgomote utilizate n filme. Umilina i falimentul
personal, pe care sunt nevoii s le triasc n acest spaiu redus ca dimensiune, sunt definitorii
pentru degringolada spiritual i moral. Discuiile pe care le genereaz claustrarea
angoasant dezvluie hiul relaiilor nepotrivite dintre rude, ascunse cu dibcie i viclenie,
dar justificabile prin atitudinile i mentalitile personajelor. nsui Fnu Neagu avertiza nc
de la nceputul piesei despre greutatea sentimentelor vehiculate, ntr-un fragment programatic,
intitulat Mrturisire ndoielnic: Echipa de zgomote [] e bntuit de puin ntuneric, de
puin durere i de zbucium. Ea nu cere biruin. Nu se vrea dect o ruptur de fulger peste
nite viei nbuite. [NEAGU, 1981:106] ntunericul despre care vorbete autorul poate fi
ncadrat n simbolistica durandian aplicat mai sus n cadrul prozei scurte, ns, n aceast
situaie, este vdit sensul psihologic al suferinei, al unei abrutizri agravate de fenomenul
tabu. Simbolic, personajelor, simpli generatori de zgomote, le este interzis orice gest sau gnd
care ar trda o autonomie. Nici Muat Rmniceanu, nici fratele su Nil, ntors dintr-o pribegie
pe care abia acum o va dezvlui ca fiind forat conjunctural, nici Alexandru, fiul lui Muat,
nu reuesc o reintegrare n stirpea aleas a bizonilor totemici, din care pretind cu mndrie c
descind. Cele dou femei din dram sunt asimilate aceleiai familii prin aliana cu membrii
legai sanguin, Maria, a doua soie a lui Muat, i Ioana, logodnica lui Alexandru. Tabloul
personajelor este completat de vnztoarea de evantaie i de inginerul de sunet, exteriori
clanului, dar care, antagonici fiind, ntruchipeaz axele n jurul crora graviteaz destinele
productorilor de zgomote, iluzia i tirania.
Nil iese din tiparul celorlali. ntors de la Paris (unde se pare c fusese simbolic
clu), dorete s-i reconstruiasc fundamentul sufletesc prin regsirea familiei, de fapt o
regsire a eului. Forat de mprejurri s se apere, acuzat fiind c furase banii familiei nainte
de a fugi, recunoate c se iubise cu Monica-Sofia, prima soie a fratelui su, Alexandru fiind,
de fapt, fiul su. Constatm, tot n plan simbolic, obsesia paternitii. Frustrrile unei existene
banale sunt gestionate realist, Nil fiind obsedat de ideea btrnului bizon, tatl su, un pater
familias idolatrizat, a crui for ancestral o invoc genetic. El nsui pozeaz ntr-un printe
rtcitor, clamndu-i nedreptatea fr a se victimiza. Conflictele ce se multiplic i se
proiecteaz gradual n delirul suferinei pot fi explicate i prin fobia suprapunerii identitare
ntr-un spaiu nchis, izolat, deci declanator al defulrilor purgatoare. Acest fapt l identific
i Andrei Grigor n toate cele trei scrieri dramatice ale lui Fnu Neagu: fiecare personaj
poart n sine numeroase elemente conflictuale aflate n stare de laten i uor activabile n
mprejurri prielnice. Nu ntmpltor, toate cele trei drame au ca loc de desfurare spaii
nchise, izolate [GRIGOR, 2001:52]. Dorind o reabilitare a bizonului ancestral i prin el a
ntregii familii, Nil este singurul care ncearc s se opun acestei mancurtizri de care este
vinovat inginerul de sunet, materializarea unui comandant suprem, a unui stpn al unei lumi
creia i se limiteaz pn la anulare posibilitatea de a evada din colivia degradrii.
Depersonalizarea este tragic. Ceea ce se ntmpl cu familia Rmniceanu nu este altceva
dect gregarizarea admonestat simbolic n teatrul modern, Rmnicenii/ Rmnicerii ducndune cu gndul la Rinocerii lui Ionescu. Automatismele zgomotoase, clieizarea existenei
celor care nici nu vor s tie pentru ce film produc efecte sonore, supuenia i cecitatea moral
a depersonalizailor ne ndreptesc s afirmm c noroiul n care tropie i copitele pe care le
ncal la ordin sunt componentele lor organice. Nil nu vrea s poarte copitele, nu ascult
ordinele ferme ale inginerului de sunet, vrea s afle mai multe, se revolt. Muat, fratele su,
cruia i se mai spunea din cnd n cnd Iisus Corbul (o posibil negare oximoronic a
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divinitii) i a doua soie a acestuia, numit Bunavestire Maria, afirm imuabilitatea

destinului lor: Ce rost are s tii?! Trim producnd zgomote. [NEAGU, 1981:142] Acest
zgomot al existenei obsesive este ntlnit i n nuvela Zgomotul, din volumul Var buimac,
vzut acolo ca o negare, o neacceptare zadarnic a fracturrii destinului. Copilul care trebuie
s fac zgomot pentru a suplini plecarea celor dragi din viaa lui este renviat prin intermediul
piesei Echipa de zgomote, n persoana bizonului ce bntuie contiinele epigonilor si.
Orice reabilitare este imposibil, n condiiile n care se amputeaz moralitatea
persoanelor. Nil avusese o relaie cu propria cumnat, Muat este suspectat c i-a ucis soia
infidel, iar Maria, succesoarea ei, se refugiaz n alcool. Finalul, nchiznd cercul simbolic
prin moartea lui Nil, demonstreaz o ncercare de revigorare a spiritului strmoilor, evident
deczut, o reabilitare parial. Bestiarul retrograd justific aceast plasare ntr-un context
apter: familia de bizoni devine una alctuit din cai de salon, apoi se metamorfozeaz n
lupi urltori pe benzile de sunet, ca n final s sfreasc drept nite cini, simboluri ale firii
supuse: V credei bizoni, dar ai euat de mult ntr-o hait de cini ltrnd la lun.
[NEAGU, 1981:161] Cinii flmnzi scpai de la coala de dresaj din apropiere acapareaz
acustic finalul dramei, ltratul lor suprapunndu-se peste zgomotul fiinial al personajelor.
Cineva trebuia s se sacrifice pentru a le potoli fiarelor foamea de oameni (sau de cai), de
lumin: cinii ne mnnc felinarele. Sunt flmnzi de carne i de felinare. [NEAGU,
1981:164] Ioana, neavnd sngele nvolburat al familiei Rmniceanu, puncteaz lucid
iminena alienrii, simbolizat de cine, aa cum am notat n prima parte a lucrrii: Cineva
trebuie s ncerce s ias. Ca s nu nnebunim cu toii. [NEAGU, 1981:165] Se puncteaz,
aadar, esena obsesiei, de fapt o stare psiho-somatic etichet n scrierile fnuiene, ce apare
sub diverse nume: nuceal, buimceal, zpceal, aiureal, nebunie, alienare. n cazul de
fa, Muat este cel care traseaz, obsesiv, aceast coordonat a dereglrii psihice, pe care
ncearc s o evite fr succes. Aproape toate replicile sale cuprind imperativul Nu m/ne
zpci1, adresat lui Nil, cel care a revenit n viaa lor i le tulbur existena linear. Astfel,
zpcirea pentru Muat nu nseamn nefiresc, ci tocmai firesc. Este inversat scara valoric
prin directa proporionalitate cu dezumanizarea dramatic a indivizilor. Cu ct ncearc s
revin la uman, cu att se consider mai zpcii. Nil se arunc n colii cinilor (nu nainte de
a-i murdri cu noroi pe fa pe ceilali) ntr-un recviem pentru contiin, pentru umanitate,
pentru spiritul marelui bizon. Este nucleul magmatic al unei lumi ce se zbate s revin la
suprafa prin stratul gros de bolovni uman, de noroi i de fapte ce nu pot fi terse n timp.
Aa cum era de ateptat n contextul anacronic n care se afl, gestul su nu este neles de
ceilali, Muat trntind ua n urma fratelui su i ironiznd dorina Mariei de a ngropa cinii
sub pragul bisericii (eternizarea sacrificiului este negat). Automatismul existenei se reia la
ordinul inginerului de sunet, executat de Rmniceni cu obedien oarb, absurd.
Nu putem trece peste suprapunerea simbolic a personajului Nil, ultimul bizon al
neamului su, cu vraciul voiculescian din Ultimul Berevoi, fixnd ideea unei stingeri lente,
dar sigure, a scnteii magice, a spiritualitii din omul modern, supus clieelor i uniformizrii
decrepite. Dac la Voiculescu putem vorbi despre o asumare a sacrificiului de ctre ceilali
membri ai comunitii, plonjnd spre un prometeism al gestului, la Fnu Neagu este exclus
tangena acestui mit, deoarece jertfa nu cunoate efecte benefice, nici mcar cicatrizante.
Trebuie punctat, ns, raportarea la toposul campestru pe care se altoiesc aceste valene
mitice, ambii scriitori adaptnd spaiului Brganului fragmente de imaginar mitic. Nicolae
Balot constata faptul c operele dramatice fnuiene pot fi abordate din perspectiv mitic,
creia i se anexeaz o modernitate simbolic: A dramatiza miturile Cmpiei, fascinant
ntreprindere ce-i poate gsi realizarea doar ntr-o specie de mister modern. [BALOT,
Neagu, Fnu, Scoica de lemn. Echipa de zgomote, Bucureti, Editura Eminescu, 1981, pp. 119, 122, 123, 125,
127, 131, 133, 134, 140, 143, 150, 155,160,162,164,166.
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1971:18] n acest tablou de mituri i simboluri ce stigmatizeaz ruptura de trecutul vzut ca

nsumare a unor valori umane nc vii, oamenii care dau natere unor furtuni i uragane n
lighean reprezint paiaa ideal, scheletul unei umaniti sectuite de spirit. ntr-o astfel de
lume, conflictele sunt generate de limbaj, justificndu-se fora usturtoare a verbului, care
invoc fapte i chipuri ce se doreau uitate i pierdute, simpla lor amintire fiind condamnat,
sancionndu-se trecutul: De la o vrst ncolo, dac nu vrei s-nnebuneti, trebuie s scoi
ochii amintirilor. [NEAGU, 1981:146] Aceste amintiri care bntuie contiinele le ntlnim
nu doar n cmrua unde se fabric sunetele, ci strbat ntreg spaiul matrice al sud-estului,
aa cum constatase i Panait Istrati n Ciulinii Brganului. Acolo amintirile erau nite ciulini
aprini, care i urmresc venic protagonitii, independent de voina acestora sau de contextul
n care sunt situai. Nil evadeaz din amintiri, izbvindu-i prin absen i pe membrii familiei
sale, dup ce le dezvluie adevrul. Acesta, ns, a produs schimbri n structura lor interioar,
Alexandru fiind cel mai afectat, sondnd n eul su cel nou descoperit, pentru a regsi
reminiscenele bizonului: Sunt fiul bizonului. Pune mna pe frunte i ai s simi c mi-au dat
coarnele. [] Adevrul schimb carnea pe om. [NEAGU, 1981:158]
Totui, simbolul familiei ca celul unitar nu se pierde, indivizii fiind solidari i n
zpceala de care nu au putut scpa. Titlul piesei sugereaz faptul c, dei dezumanizai, ei
formeaz un grup, o echip, care, paradoxal, poate fi mai uor condus de vocea autoritar a
inginerului de sunet. El este cel care comand zgomotele pe care trebuie s le fac, dar i cel
care le traseaz cercul strmt n care trebuie s-i poarte copitele. Aceste maini de
zgomot i-au pierdut umanitatea n favoarea unui automatism funcional comod, nefiind
frustrai de limitarea orizonturilor, atta timp ct li se spunea ce s fac, n ce condiii i
trebuiau aprai de orice potenial pericol, aa cum prevedea, probabil, contractul lor de
munc. Aa se explic reacia lipsit de vitalism i responsabilitate a lui Muat n momentul
apariiei cinilor: Trebuie s-l strigm pe domnul inginer. El rspunde de noi i e dator s ne
apere. [NEAGU, 1981:162]
Dovada faptului c n cazul familiei Rmniceanu este vorba despre o dezumanizare
gradual, c n trecutul ndeprtat spiritul lor nu era viciat, ba chiar i proiecta oniric
ascensiunea, este replica lui Muat, care i amintete lui Nil despre copilria lor, cnd erau doi
pui de bizon i se identificau prin idealuri comune, unele chiar utopice: Care dintre noi visa
s atearn un pod uria peste mare i s se odihneasc pe el psrile rnite n zbor?
[NEAGU, 1981:123] Acest pod, aezat deasupra mrii, poate fi ncadrat n categoria
simbolic din care face parte i banca de lemn pe care vrea s o proiecteze Iona, personajul lui
Marin Sorescu, tot peste imensitatea unei mri, neantizare a tririlor. Cu ajutorul acestor
simboluri i se creioneaz limite unei ntinderi vaste, aparent fr vocaia marginii. n cazul
frailor Rmniceanu, visul pueril se destram, ca urmare a unei evoluii ce dezintegreaz
iluzia. Nici atunci cnd, peste ani, aceast iluzie se contureaz n persoana vistoarei
vnztoare de evantaie, ea nu este asimilat, fiind ignorat i respins.
Evitat n conversaii i declanator de neliniti este i fenomenul tanatic, orice
menionare a morii fiind admonestat, scuzat. Personajele pomenesc despre moarte
ntmpltor, asociind ca ntr-un veritabil teatru al absurdului moartea cu alcoolul sau nebunia:
Numai nebunii discut mereu despre moarte. [NEAGU, 1981:153] Excluznd inerena
morii, se exclude normalitatea, drept dovad prsirea umanului i escaladarea alienrii
organice. Bizonul, simbol al unei mitologii a puterii, a forei i a somptuozitii, moare brutal,
aa cum crede Nil c ar trebui s moar orice bizon, odat cu el pierind i sperana, dar nu i
zgomotul. Aadar, ultimul bizon nu poate face s dispar zgomotul dezumanizrii, al
dezintegrrii spirituale, al cderii omului n neant, acestea fiind de fapt ideile ce se desprind
din replicile i din comportamentele personajelor. Echipa de zgomote poate fi un cntec de
lebd, care, ns, nu este ascultat de nimeni, tcerea fiind prea periculoas pentru contiin,
preferndu-se gravitaia vacarmului existenial.
796
Issue no. 6/2015
Drama este parabolic, Nil oferind o viziune modern a unui mit totemic, o defulare
de excepie a detractorului unor realiti i a unor angoase contagioase, perturbatoare ale
simplitii. Prin tipologia sa insolit, prin atitudine, disimulare, mimic i limbaj, dar mai ales
prin luciditatea cu care i contientizeaz rolul n economia dramei, personajul a fost
considerat o proiecie ideal a ceea ce a intenionat Fnu Neagu s transmit prin intermediul
dramei sale, i anume alarmarea tuturor cu privire la pericolul uria care pate lumea aflat pe
o pant moral i spiritual descendent.
Bibliografie
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Balot, Nicolae, 1971. Mult zgomot i mult furie (Echipa de zgomote), n

Romnia literar, nr. 15, 8 mai 1971, p. 18.
Chevalier, Jean; Gheerbrant, Alain, 1993. Dicionar de simboluri, Bucureti,
Editura Artemis.
Durand, Gilbert, 1977. Structurile antropologice ale Imaginarului, Bucureti,
Editura Univers.
Evseev, Ivan, 2001. Dicionar de simboluri i arhetipuri culturale, ediia a II-a
revzut i adugit, Timioara, Editura Amarcord.
Grigor, Andrei, 2001. Fnu Neagu monografie, antologie comentat,
receptare critic, Braov, Editura Aula.
Neagu, Fnu, 1994. Partida de pocher, Bucureti, Editura Eminescu.
Neagu, Fnu, 1994. Scoica de lemn. Echipa de zgomote, Bucureti, Editura
Eminescu.
Neagu, Fnu, 1997. Zeul ploii, Chiinu, Editura Litera.
797
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CLASSIC INTERTEXTUALITY VS. RIZOMATIC GENOTEXTUAL PHENOMENA

Igor URSENCO
Abstract: The following paper proposes to bring additional evidence concerning hipertextual
national/planetary awareness, beyond any alleged preexistent fixed cultural body as al
intertextual corpus. However, as persuaded below there is a huge non-genetical component of
the worlwide literary process. Accordingly, the Transgenerational Romanian Poetics may
reveal unespectedly a rhizomatic nature yet to be discovered
Keywords: Intertextual Paradigm, Genotext, Rizoma, Trautonium, Raster, Transgenerational
Romanian Poetics
Se vorbete nc suficient de mult despre valenele grilei intertextuale ca o
predestinare exclusiv mnemotic, n care opiunile tehnicii scrierii i interpretrii sunt puse n
direct relaie cu cele ale capriciului estetic selectiv. De altfel, n cartea sa dedicat
intertextului eminescian romantic, Marina Mureanu Ionescu susine chiar valabilitatea
construirii unui dicionar de coincidene, menit s contabilizeze fenomenele de inspiraie
coincident a poeilor care nu s-au cunoscut i nici influenat1. n timp ce similitudinea
situaiilor2 dintre Eminescu i Nerval este redus la asocierea frecvent a nsingurrii cu
ntunecarea i disperarea, motivul penei rupte sau intuiia anticipativ a pierderii
luciditii, ni se pare util s invocm o experien inedit legat de aa-zisele concordane
literare3 sau invariante4 care urmresc reconstituirea nucleelor semantice fr a fi n mod
necesar fidele hipogramei riffateriene5. Doar c spre deosebire de registrele metatextuale
consacrate rizoma6 neleas ca principiu heterogenic (opus celor evoluionist, ierarhic,
structural, dihotomic etc.) asigur multiplicitatea conexiunilor lexicale n gndirea uman
nonlinear.
Studiul de fa i propune s aduc evidene suplimentare privind presupusa contiina
hipertextual planetar pe care o anticipa sistematic filosoful romn Constantin Noica: n
bun parte totui cultura noastr e de tip matematic i tipul acesta se opune culturii de tip
istoric. Ni se pare, aadar, c surprindem acest dualism: geometrie-istorie, a crui polemic,
transpus pe planul culturii, e opoziia celor dou tipuri de cultur 7. i dac, n mare parte,
idealul culturii noastre e unificaia8, se pare c anume conceptul de intertextualitate asigur
firesc trecerea de la local la universal, saltul sufletesc de la locul unic la locul comun. Marile
locuri comune ale spiritului9.
Marina Mureanu Ionescu, Eminescu i intertextul romantic, Iai, Editura Junimea, 1990, p. 270-271
Deci nu a motivelor i temelor comune
3
Solomon Marcus, Invenie i descoperire, Bucureti, Cartea Romneasc, 1989, p.120
4
.. ., , http://philologos.narod.ru/classics/zholk2.htm
5
Johanne Prudhomme and Nelson Guilbert, Text Derivation, http://www.signosemio.com/riffaterre/textderivation.asp
6
Gilles Deleuze i Flix Guattari, Capitalism i schizofrenie (II). Mii de platorui, Bucureti, Editura Art, 2013
7
Constantin Noica, Despre culturile de tip geometric / Mathesis sau bucuriile simple, Bucureti, Editura
Humanitas, 1992, p. 7
8
Ibidem, p. 8
9
Ididem, p. 14
1
2
798
Issue no. 6/2015
Poate c, dincolo de micile ezitri de acceptare unanim a fondului su general-uman,

paradigma intertextual (dialogismul intrinsec al cuvntului strin propus de Mihail
Bahtin, n varianta sa originar, ca ) este chiar materializarea consensului
multrvnit dintre cultura de tip geometric (oamenii care au o singur lume comun sau
particip la aceeai realitate) i cea de tip istoric (fiecare cu lumea sa personal, o
realitate autentic strict individual)10 la care se referea anticul Heraclit i luministul Goethe:
acum literatura naional puin ce nseamn, la rnd st s vin epoca literaturii lumii11.
De exemplu, n poemul su Triunghiul Ocniei poetul basarabean aizecist Victor
Teleuc venea cu o replic intertextual limpezit de obscuritatea de cancan a
binecunoscutului fenomen al Triunghiului Bermudelor12:
Cnd ninge,
oamenii parc se coboar din nori,
ori parc ies din fntni,
prin care se-ntorc dintr-o lume de basme
cu cte o cldare de ap albastr acas (...)
Din Triunghiul Ocniei niciodat nu iei.
n Triunghiul Ocniei niciodat nu mori.
n acest context, ultimile dou versuri intr ntr-un soi de dialog imposibil peste ani
dar cu realitate estetic imposibil de negat cu textul Ieudul fr ieire (I) semnat de
nouzecitul maramureean Ioan Es. Pop:
La ieudul fr ieire i noi am, i noi am fost cndva (...),
ci tu fii cu luare aminte: dac aluneci acolo
nici o hart n-are s-i mai fie de folos
zadarnic te vei zbate s afli ieirea intrarea ieirea
zadarnic vei zori s rupi linoliul spaiului
n care-ai lunecat. dincolo n-o s dai dect
de urma piciorului tu de dincoace.
fr margini este ieudul i fr ieire.
nici o geografie n-a reuit nc s-l aproximeze.
Raportate la binecunoscuta dihotomie ntre teologia afirmativ i negativ, aceste
dou poetici catafatic versus apofatic desprite ani buni de srma ghimpat i ideologii
politice diferite, vin s ilustreze perfect observaia din eseul mandeltamian Dimineaa
akmeizmului, conform creia semnificaia cuvntului de departe nu reprezint propria sa
traducere13. Prelund din opera lui Dante Alighieri noiunea de timp neles ca act
Mircea Eliade, Meterul Manole (Studii de etnologie i mitologie. Antologie), Selecie de texte i note de
Magda Ursache i Petru Ursache, Cluj-Napoca, Editura Eikon, 2007, p. 292-294
10
, , , ,
1981, . 219
11
Este vorba despre zona atlantic localizat geometric ntre Insulele Bermude, Porto Rico i Fort Lauderdale
(Florida). n aceast regiune, cunoscut i sub numele de Triunghiul Diavolului", se ntmpl foarte
des fenomene paranormale, cum ar fi: dispariii de vase i aparate de zbor, activiti neobinuite n care legile
fizicii sunt date peste cap, puse inclusiv pe seama fiinelor extraterestre.
12
O.
,
http://web.stanford.edu/class/slavic272/materials/declarations/mandelstam_utro1913.pdf
13
799
a,
Issue no. 6/2015
sincronic, poetul evreu de expresie rus merge mai departe pentru a afirma c poezia nu
este parte a naturii, fie i cea mai bun, selectat metodic ci cu o uimitoare autonomie se
strmut ntr-un cmp de aciune nou, extradimensional14.
Aa cum e lesne de observat, cele dou poeme semnate de poei romni absolut diferii
ca factur i tipologie uman15 i care nu par s fi avut ansa de a se fi cunoscut reciproc
nici mcar din lecturi sporadice ilustreaz foarte bine mecanismul genotextului kristevian ca
proces cultural metameric 16. Vom considera acest fenomen drept trautonium17ontologic
divergent, fiind pe deplin contieni c se poate ntmpla ca acelai vers s apar la doi poei
diferii, nu ns i ntre un poem18. Aa cum este cazul altui exemplu de trautonium, de data
aceasta convergent. S lum cazul celor dou texte confruntate maia jos.
Arcadie Suceveanu, Miracolul zilei de miercuri:
Las s-mi nvleasc-n odaie
numai lucruri banale,
lucruri umilite, uitate,
lipsite de glorie
cu faa mncat de sod,
mirosinde-a siloz i a hamuri.
Venii, venii
s v scot din nou n lumin,
s v ncarc, pe rnd
cu electricitatea iluziei
s v potolesc foamea
de transcedental
i aventur!
ntr-o genotextualizare contrapunctic cu poemul de mai sus, textul poetului clujean
Ion Murean cunoscut sub numele de Constituirea realului prin uitare devine
complementaritatea sa estetic virtual:
Tot ceea ce am uitat, molozul, zgura, resturile
constituie ntr-adevr realitatea.
Lucrurile i faptele pe care dinii nu le-au putut roade,
cuitele nu le-au putut njumti, din aceste
produse ale uitrii
pe care ghearele obosite le scot mereu din baia
de acid a memoriei
14
O. , , http://rvb.ru/mandelstam/slovo_i_kultura/01text/01text/13.htm
15
Am beneficiat de ansa istoric de a-i cunoate pe ambii
Proces de divizare celular repetat a corpului unor organisme non-umane; metod de reproducere asexuat
prin strobilaie (segmentare corporal trasnversal spontan)
16
Trautnium (germ.) instrument electronic care red din punct de vedere electroacustic (semi)tonurile
instrumentelor musicale cunoscute, dar produce i sunete strine acestora
17
18
Solomon Marcus, Invenie i descoperire, Cartea Romneasc, 1989, p.12
800
Issue no. 6/2015
i le arunc cu scrb afar, numai din acestea

se poate constitui o lume nou...
n alt ordine de idei, e de remarcat c referinele din finalul poemului lui Ion Murean
(trupul meu mbtrnit ntr-o neagr dantel l nfor / i uitndu-l pe vecie, l renasc)
trimit intertextual la eminesciana Od n metru antic (Nu credeam s-nv a muri vrodat; /
Pururi tnr, nfurat n manta-mi), n timp ce la Arcadie Suceveanu avestea se revendic
din pretextul poeticii lui Blaga. Probabil aa se explic c de cte ori un scriitor autentic
ncearc s revoluioneze literatura epocii sale, ajuns, prin cristalizarea epigonilor, la un
punct mort al vieii i al creaiei artistice, acest novator nu face, de fapt, dect s revin de la o
tradiie vie, s deblocheze firul apei de sloiurile de ghea care, aglomerndu-se, i opresc
mersul nainte i s reia, mpins de toat puterea rului, nsui marele drum al naintailor,
sporindu-l cu aportul unor aflueni noi19.
Aceast anticipare perfect valabil a poetului Ion Pillat din eseul su culturologic ne
permite s observm cum se autodisemineaz n toat largheea sa disponibil din punct de
vedere estetic trecnd cronologic prin Premodernism > Avangardism > Neomodernism >
Neoexpresionism > Neopostmodernism discursul poetic romnesc n varii cronotopuri
culturale sincronice.
Odat cu observaia de rigoare am ajuns la o alt tipologie rizomatic din categoria
fenomenului genotextual. Propunem aadar s fie numit raster20 ontologic fiecare exemplu de
metamerism cultural care pstreaz i semnificaia de nomadism semantic, exact ca n alt
eseu notoriu al aceluiai Mandeltam, Cuvntul i cultura: Oare obiectul este proprietarul
cuvntului? Cuvntul este chiar Psyche. Cuvntul viu nu reprezint un obiect, dar i alege n
mod liber, ca i pentru locuin, o anume semnificaie, o anume corporalitate, un corp
confortabil. Iar n jurul lucrurilor cuvntul hlduiete liber, precum sufletul n jurul unui corp
abandonat dar pe care nu preget s l uite21.
n cele ce urmeaz ne vom putea convinge cum, n calitate de ageni ai unei formaiuni
metamerice transgeneraioniste, apar poei adesea incompatibili ca ideolologie estetic i
formule poetice: Tudor Arghezi > Ilarie Voronca > Grigore Vieru > Mircea Dinescu >
Arcadie Suceveanu > Ioan Es. Pop > Adrian Suciu > Claudiu Komartin > Dan Ciupureanu
> Ion Buzu.
Tudor Arghezi, Har
mbrcai n straie de iasc / Sunt gata cartofii s nasc. / S-au pregtit o iarn, de
soroc, / Cu crtiele launloc, / Cu ntunericul, cu coropijnia i rmele, / i din toate frmele /
Au rmas grei ca mele, / Umflndu-li-se tele. / Auzi ? / Cartofii snt lehuzi. / Ascult,
harul a trecut prin ei / Virginal, candid i holtei. / Dumnezeiete. / Cel-de-Sus i din veac
binevoiete / S-i scoboare sfintele scule / Pn la tubercule. / i pentru negul cartofilor cald
/ Face descntece, ca pentru zmarald. / ntr-o noapte / Li s-au umplut straiele cu lapte / Ca si hrneasca un pui / n fiecare vrf de cucui
Ion Pillat, Spre un nou clasicism german: Stefan George i Hugo Fon Hofmannsthal / Portrete lirice,
Bucureti, Editura pentru literatur universal, 1969, p. 299
19
Rster (germ.) (n tipografie) plac din sticl cu o reea fin de linii, compuse din puncte; (n muzic)
instrument pentru liniat portative, permind trasarea simultan a mai multor linii paralele; (n televiziune)
ansamblul liniilor din puncte de lumin n care este descompus o imagine
20
21
O. , , http://rvb.ru/mandelstam/slovo_i_kultura/01text/01text/02.htm
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Issue no. 6/2015
Ilarie Voronca, *** nchini un imn cartofului (fragment nr. 5 din poemul epic
Ulise)
() vreau s am limpezimea tcerea ta / fruct al rnei asemeni cu rna / din
pntecul ntunericului nu ne uita / ntrete-ne cu uleiul nopilor mna // tu tii subterane
abecedare / te-au hrnit dumnezeu i ploile / virtuile i le tragi din pmnt ca din staul oile /
cerurile te primesc n orice cldare // cartof icoana umilinii a rbdrii / tu te mulumeti cu
puin i ne dai tot / iat i triunghiul zborului n metalul nserrii / cerul atrn ca limba
cinilor de un cot // cartof ca minile plugarului aspre / cu rcoare de tunel de dup-amiaz /
tu eti al gliei glas pre / tine ochiul ngerilor fr haraci te vegheaz // tu i lipeti urechea de
pmnt / lingi zgomotele mruntaiele toate / attea vrji ca etichete de drogherie n tine sunt /
tu eti un pahar cu vitalitate // mi place coaja miezul tu umezindu-se / cum i faci loc cu
umerii ca s creti / te atept te ascult i bti de inim ivindu-se / n negreal i noroiul tu
culori cereti // strngi i apoi ne dai pe limb amidon / tu primeti binecuvntarea vntului /
norii i cldesc pe sub zare un tron / i numai poetul tie c tu eti cinele pmntului ()
Grigore Vieru, ntregul cer
Ferice de tine, cartofule, / de-ntregul pmnt / eti mbriat! (...) // Rm-ne-va
cerul / ntreg, / ca s fim fericii, / aproape ca tine, / cartofule, / ca tine, roule mr!
Arcadie Suceveanu, Litanie
Duminica bulbii bisericii cresc nspre cer / n fertile litanii / iar la rdcina cartofului
fat crtia
Mircea Dinescu, Cntec n ateptarea recoltei
(...) i fiindc s-au cam terminat cartofii / plantm calugrii i filosofii (...) / cartoful
putred zvrlit pe maidan / scoate i el puica lui verde / ca un semn de democraie a naturii
(...)
Mircea Dinescu, Evadatul
(...) vezi peste tot doar pepeni vrgati i ploi lampante / pru-n uniform cartofii n
tranei / parc s-ar stinge gale elveia din plante / nimic nu e neutru deci totul e cu ei (...)
Mircea Dinescu, ncurajarea morilor
(...) Lsai-mi totui ansa s cnt din disperare / pe cmpul de btaie rmn coji de
cartofi/ eroilor sub ploaie li s-au promis pantofi / s uite c-au avut cndva picioare (...)
Mircea Dinescu, Exil
Au inflorit cartofii in Marmaia / i voi tocmai acum plecai spre sud / cnd ceru-i
aiurit i descusut / cnd se confund bocetul cu naia ? // Vei inventa durerea ca o ar / poate
vei da peste-un mormnt mai cald... / Scobim scobim cartofii de smarald, / sracii mei cartofi
de piatra rar (...)
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Ioan Es. Pop, ***cnd eram mic, visam s fiu i mai mic
cnd eram mic, visam s fiu i mai mic./ mai mic dect masa, mai mic dect scaunul,/
mai mic dect cizmele mari ale tatlui./ ct un cartof, atta m visam./ pentru c primvara pe
cartofi i puneau n pmnt i gata,/ pn toamna nu-i mai necjeau.// m visam n cuib, printre
ei,/ dormind cu dulcea-n ntuneric,/ ntorcndu-m pe-o parte i pe alta vara/ iar apoi cznd
din nou n somn.// i toamna s m trezesc tot nedormit / i tot nesplat ca fraii mei/ i cnd s
dea cu sapa-n noi, s sar deasupra/ i s le strig: nu mai spai, nu mai spai,/ cci vin acas
de bunvoie,/ dac-n primvar m punei la loc,// i primvara s fiu primul pe care/ l arunc
napoi n cuib/ i tot aa, s rmn s dorm mereu,/ din cuib n pivni i din pivni n cuib,/
ani muli, nentors i uitat
Adrian Suciu, Sufletul, ca un ir de cartofi mplntai n pmnt
Amintirea picioarelor epene n pantofi inutili / nu e de povestit. Cu att mai mult
cepul din ira / spinrii prin care sufletul, ca un ir de cartofi / mplntai n pmnt de o mn
aspr se scurge (...) / De-ar putea vreunul s scrie poezia propriei nmormntri, / ea ar fi att
de vie, nct pmntul ar scupa afar toate mamele / din lume i-am rstigni ceracne pe
umerii lor!
Claudiu Komartin, cartofi putrezi (din caietele lui Eugen Gruber)
nu avem timp anul sta zilele se-ndesesc / ngra afacerea coropiniei (...) / nici nu
mai tiu cnd spun o minciun / arunc un cartof putred pe o grmad de cartofi putrezi / dorm
n cearafuri mirosind a cartof putred / exist (...) / pe cine ncerc s mint sunt un ins
responsabil / molfi cartofi putrezi / i-mi scuip n sn cnd scriu propoziii exacte
Dan Ciupureanu, deasupra patului
n camer sunt saci cu pmnt azi-noapte au nit cu presiune din tavan
un amestec de tencuial i rn vino deasupra patului s dai la lopat mam
s-mi vezi faa ca un cartof proaspt cules
Ion Buzu, Ostatic
n timp ce-mi nfund minile n pmnt / s scormonesc dup cartofi / i picturile de
transpiraie mi cad de pe frunte / mi amintesc o fraz zen care spune ceva de genul: / iadul
nu este o sentin, este un antrenament. (...) / Lotul de pmnt pe care l muncesc e nconjurat
cu srm ghimpat. / E terenul meu de antrenament timp de zece ani. / Pentru orice
nchisoare, csnicie, regim politic / sau orice alt munc malign sunt pregtit.
Chiar dac zona coincidenelor e suficient de vast ca i cea a imitaiilor ori a
prelurilor22, simpla rnduire a metamerismului poetic nchegat n jurul celor cteva exemple
din istoria literaturii romne contemporane configureaz o zon de interes nc nedefriat.
Or, filtrul morfologic de mai sus asupra cruia trebuie s cdem de acord n mare parte ne
apare de departe non-genetic din punctul de vedere al intertextualitii clasice: geneza
fenomenului literar se afl n zona accidental a trecerii din zona limbii n cea a limbii, a
literaturii n cea a literaturii, pe cnd domeniul tradiiilor e validat de coerena logic, fiind
22
, , (19401965)
803
Issue no. 6/2015
limitat de cercul literaturii naionale23. n ciuda faptului c este imposibil constituirea unei
istorii genetice a literaturii, cel puin se rezolv problema tradiiilor, influenelor doar n
calitatea lor de pretext24 n care vocea originar a poetului e cea care conteaz decisiv.
REFERINE BIBLIOGRAFICE
a) n romn i englez
Deleuze, Gilles i Guattari, Flix, Capitalism i schizofrenie (II). Mii de platorui,
Bucureti, Editura Art, 2013
Eliade, Mircea, Meterul Manole (Studii de etnologie i mitologie. Antologie),
Selecie de texte i note de Magda Ursache i Petru Ursache, Cluj-Napoca, Editura Eikon,
2007
Marcus, Solomon, Invenie i descoperire, Bucureti, Cartea Romneasc, 1989
Mureanu Ionescu, Marina, Eminescu i intertextul romantic, Iai, Editura Junimea,
1990
Noica, Constantin, Despre culturile de tip geometric / Mathesis sau bucuriile simple,
Bucureti, Editura Humanitas, 1992
Prudhomme,
Johanne
and
Guilbert,
Nelson
,
Text
Derivation,
http://www.signosemio.com/riffaterre/text-derivation.asp
Pillat, Ion, Spre un nou clasicism german: Stefan George i Hugo Fon Hofmannsthal /
Portrete lirice, Bucureti, Editura pentru literatur universal, 1969
b) n limba rus
,
..,
,
http://philologos.narod.ru/classics/zholk2.htm
, .., // , . 1. , 1992
, , , ,
, 1981
,
O.,
,
http://rvb.ru/mandelstam/slovo_i_kultura/01text/01text/13.htm
, O., ,
http://rvb.ru/mandelstam/slovo_i_kultura/01text/01text/02.htm
,
O.,
a,
http://web.stanford.edu/class/slavic272/materials/declarations/mandelstam_utro1913.pdf
- // ..
- , , 1994
, .., , : , 1977
, .., , //
. . , : 1977
, .-., //
, 1994, 12
, ., , :1993
23
. , , : , 1977, . 33-35
24
Ibidem, . 37
804
Issue no. 6/2015
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT. The research presented in this paper was supported by

the European Social Fund under the responsibility of the Managing Authority for the Sectoral
Operational Programme for Human Resources Development, as part of the grant
POSDRU/159/1.5/S/133652
805
Issue no.6/2015
IOANICHIE OLTEAN, THE THIRD BALLAD-AUTHOR OF THE SIBIU LITERARY

CIRCLE
Delia Natalia TRIF (ANCA)
Abstract: The Literature Circle from Sibiu was initiated by the young group of students
coming from Cluj to Sibiu. The magazine of The Literature Circle contains six numbers. The
Circle has reached the apogee moment in 1945, some months before the end of the second
world war.
The editor of the publication was I.Negoitescu.
Who speaks about The Literature Circle from Sibiu is represented himself mainly by
his balladist: Radu Stanca, tefan Augustin Doinas , Ioanichie Olteanu.
Ioanichie Olteanu is the third balladist of the Literature Circle. He signs in the first
issue of the publication two compositions: The ballad of the cheated husband and The
mishap of the theologian with the tree.
Ioanichie Olteanus ballads were published in magazines and newspapers. Although
few in number, these have a strong originality. Among these, we remember: The ballad of the
cheated husband, The ballad of the drowned, The ballad of the suicide, The sunflower, The
mishap of the theologian with the tree. representative poems: The poet room and The tower.
Through his poems, Ioanichie Olteanu proves a worthy representative of poetic
orientation generated by The Literature Circle from Sibiu.
Keywords: Ioanichie, ballad, originality, immortality, magazine.
Despre Cercul Literar de la Sibiu, ca mijloc, ca micare, manifest, ideologie artistic,

obiective i rezultate, i despre revista iniiat de gruparea tinerilor studeni venii, o dat cu
Facultatea de Litere i Filozofie, de la Cluj la Sibiu, s-au scris pn n prezent cteva studii
printre care i o monografie de tip clasic-universitar. Toate acestea, trei la numr, au aprut n
ultimii ani: Cartea lui Ilie Gutan, Cercul literar de la Sibiu, 1995, cea a lui Petru Ponta,
intitulat identic, Cercul literar de la Sibiu, (dar cu subtitlul: Introducere n fenomenul
originar), n 1997 iar cea semnat de Ovidiu Crohmnilceanu i Klaus Heitmann, Cercul
literar de la Sibiu i influena catolic a culturii germane, n 2000. Despre micarea
cerchist s-a vorbit i s-a scris i nainte de 1989, dar nu n aceast form, mai organizat i
mai sistematic.
Cercul literar de la Sibiu a reprezentat ambiana literar de la sfritul celui de-al
doilea rzboi mondial, momentul resureciei eticului i al cultivrii valorilor umane i
culturale extrase din descendena critic maiorescian.
Sub forma unei grupri constituite, cu o experien proprie, cercul i-a atins momentul
de akm prin scoaterea unei publicaii. Faptul s-a petrecut la nceputul anului 1945, cu cteva
luni nainte de sfritul rzboiului. Este vorba de Revista Cercului Literar, lunar care a izbutit
806
Issue no. 6/2015
s triasc opt numere (n realitate ase, fiindc ultimul e triplu, cuprinzndu-le i pe cele
dou urmtoare).
Redactorul publicaiei a fost I. Negoiescu. Subintitulat Revist lunar de literatur,
filozofie i art a aprut graie sprijinului financiar al fraciunii George Brtianu. n aprilie
1944, cu ocazia vizitei acestuia la Sibiu cerchitii alctuiser, sub regimul antonescian, o
organizaie clandestin a tineretului liberal. Banii pentru aceast revist i obinuser prin
Mihai Frcanu, asistentul profesorului i omului politic, iubitor al literaturii, scriitor i el,
tnrul ef liberal va semna cu pseudonimul Mihail Villara un fin roman huxley-an, Frunzele
nu mai sunt aceleai (1946)1.
Perspectiv, articolul program din fruntea primului numr amintea c Manifestul
Cercului Literar, spre deosebire de cele care l-au precedat, ca expresii ale orientrii
generaiilor noi romneti, n-a tins la iniierea unui curent nou, la revoluionarea tiparelor
literare, la formulri ndrznee i la invenii fantaste. Mai ncolo, dup ce expir ncrederea
n forele tinere ale vieii e mrturisit dorina de a asigura continuitatea faclei valorilor
eterne.2
Cine vorbete de Cercul Literar de la Sibiu i-l reprezint n primul rnd prin
baladitii si.
Chiar primul numr al revistei, dup articolul program, Perspectiv, se deschide cu
trei piese din aceast specie, nemaipracticat de lung vreme. i aparin lui Radu Stanca i
poart titlurile: Tristee nainte de lupt, Lamentaia poetului pentru iubita sa, Lamentaia
Ioanei dÀrc pe rug. tefan Augustin Doina semneaz Forma ngerului i Elegie.
Ioanichie Olteanu semneaz la rndul su dou asemenea compuneri, Balada soului
nelat i Pania teologului cu arborele.
Pe msur ce ies alte numere ale revistei, producia se nmulete.
Articolul Resurecia baladei, din numrul 5 al Revistei Cercului Literar, nu rmne
doar o simpl speculaie critic. Se dovedete a fi o pornire natural a unor tineri poei foarte
nzestrai, care vor nscrie, prin producia lor, o pagin inedit n istoria liricii romneti.
Ciudat este declar tefan Augustin Doina - c n-a existat o pregtire
programatic a baladescului nostru: pur i simplu ne-am trezit c scriem cu toii - eu, Radu,
Ioanichie balade.3
Tinerii poei sibieni au devenit baladiti ca s salveze lirica de la o anemie mortal.
Revista s-a bucurat i de cteva colaborri beletristice preioase din afara grupului: E.
Lovinescu i-a ncredinat un fragment al romanului su inedit la acea dat, Mlurenii
(Gzuca, nr.2), Lucian Blaga, aforisme i nsemnri (Discipolul, nr.2) i Constant Tonegaru,
versuri (Inundaie albastr, Novembrie patetic, Ultimul de la 1200, nr.2).
Odat cu ntoarcerea Universitii la Cluj, n toamna anului 1945, cerchitiiprsesc
Sibiul, ca s-i termine studiile. Pleac i profesorii. Revista i nceteaz apariia, ultimul
numr cuprinznd un patetic rmas bun de la Sibiu. Alctuitorii Cercului Literar fgduiesc
s nu uite niciodat vechiul burg care le gzduise nceputurile cu atta ospitalitate.
Ioanichie Olteanu este al treilea baladist al Cercului Literar de la Sibiu (n. 1923 n
Comuna Vaidei, lng Tg. Mure, m.1997, la Bucureti). n necrologul pe care i l-a consacrat,
tefan Augustin Doina i amintea cum acesta devenise, prin anii rzboiului, unul dintre
membrii grupului lor. Fuse descoperit de I. Negoiescu, neobositul managerul artistic al
cerchitilor.
Mihail Villara: Frunzele nu mai sunt aceleai, Editura Cultura Naional, Bucureti, 1946
Perspectiv: editorial nesemnat (redactat de I. Negoiescu i reprodus n Scriitorii moderni, Editura pentru
literatur, Bucureti, 1966)
3
tefan Augustin Doina: Scrisoare ctre Ovid. S. Crohmlniceanu, Bucureti, 17 aug,1995
1
2
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Ioanichie Olteanu li se ataase apoi printr-o integrare fireasc n grup, colaborator la

Revista Cercului Literar, a rmas legat de amicii si pn la moarte.
Totui, n pofida faptului c a fost un element constitutiv de seam al gruprii sibiene,
Ioanichie Olteanu subliniaz Doina - a reprezentat din capul locului o prezen singular n
mijlocul ei. Se distingea de orice prin natura foarte aparte a poeziilor sale. Scria i el balade,
dar n cu totul alt manier dect dnsul sau Radu Stanca. Nici o und de umor sau joc verbal
nu exista la noi, n timp ce la el de la tem pn la rezolvarea ei, luciditatea ironic amuzant a
autorului se simea imediat.4 Diferit ar fi fost i descendena literar a acestui alb. Pe cnd
produciile lui Radu Stanca i ale sale afirm Doina - plteau un tribut evident tradiiei
baladeti germane, Ioanichie Olteanu scria nite poezii care aparineau i ele genului, dar se
impuneau prin modernitatea lor.5 i confereau apoi o poziie diferit n rndurile
cerchitilor convingerile politice. ntre ei, Ioanichie Olteanu era unicul care, dup 23 august
1944, s-a aliat forelor de stnga.
De aceea, amicii si l porecliser comunistul grupului. Cnd membrii acestuia se
risipiser prin ar, ieind din viaa literar el a rmas la Cluj i semna n paginile presei
locale, susintoare a noului regim. Curnd, a intrat n redacia sptmnalului bucuretean
Contemporanul i peste un timp a ajuns secretar al Uniunii Scriitorilor.
n sfrit, pe taciturnul i modestul Ioanichie Olteanu, noteaz nsi Doina, l
deosebea de ceilali membrii ai Cercului Literar, cam glgioi, firea nchis. Era un om
ciudat i persoana sa a pstrat mereu o umbr de mister. Vrul su, poetul Ion Horea,
lansase n privina aceasta o vorb teribil, declarnd: Cunosc mai bine biografia lui Iosif
Vissarinovici Stalin, dect viaa intim a lui Ioanichie.6
E de ajuns s amintim c, dei Balada soului nelat i Pania teologului cu arborele
strniser senzaie n Cercul Literar i autorul lor fusese premiat de Fundaiile regale,
acesta a abandonat inexplicabil orice activitate poetic original, consacrndu-se exclusiv
traducerii versurilor strine.
Ioanichie Olteanu a devenit, datorit refuzului de a-i aduna n volum versurile
rspndite cu un sfert de veac n urm prin reviste i ziare, o legend care de fapt ascunde un
adevr istoric. Legenda unui autor i adevrul unei opere.7
Baladele straniului cerchist, cte au vzut lumina tiparului, prin ziare i reviste, sunt
puine la numr, dar posed ntr-adevr o puternic originalitate.
Cnd tefan Augustin Doina sublinia modernitatea lor, nu greea. Adopta ns o
perspectiv limitativ, lsnd s se neleag c prsesc prin factura lor nou tradiia
baladeasc german. Reduce de fapt astfel genul de tipul su aa-zis nordic, n spiritul lui
Brris von Mnchausen. Ca poeii sibieni, acesta, mpreun cu Agnes Miogel, Lulu von
Strauss und Torney, Sevin Ludwing, grupai n jurul Almanahului Muzelor din Gtingen, n
propuser ctre nceputul secolului XX o resurecie a baladei, de preferin, carnavaleasc,
eroic, a crei ambiie era s fie continuatoarea vechiului Heldenlied german8.
Baladele acestea foarte gustate la vremea lor, s-au aflat n multe ranie soldeti din
primul rzboi mondial i au revenit pe timpul celui de-al doilea. Au circulat i printre
cerchiti, dup cte i amintea tefan Augustin Doina. Paradoxal e c el a pstrat aceast
repartizare nordic a baladei, dei a practicat genul tocmai spre a fugi de tematica literar a
vremii care glorifica rzboiul sfnt din rsrit i-l prezenta drept continuarea gestei
Nibelungilor.
tefan Augustin Doina: Amintirea lui Ioanichie Olteanu, n Romnia literar, nr.14, 9-15 aprilie 1997
Ibid.
6
Ibid
7
I. Negoiescu, Lirismul puritii i al eecului, n Lampa lui Aladin, Bucureti, Editura Eminescu, 1970, p.51
8
Briess Freicherr v. Mnchhusen: Die Ballade in Gttingen um 1900, n Balladenforschung, op. cit
4
5
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De la Moritat i mprumutase temele preferate i poeii primului Hain baladesc din

Gttingen, ca i amicul lor Gleim.
Prezent mai n toate antologiile Clugria din Hlty istorisete o crim pasional: un
cavaler seduce o logodnic a lui Hristor i apoi o prsete. Ea tocmete nite ucigai care-i
fac de petrecanie infidelului. Nemulumit cu att, eroina vine la capela unde zace
nmormntat cavalerul, deschide cripta i smulge cavalerului inima necredincioas din piept,
ca s o calce fr mil n picioare. Scena atroce poate fi vzut apoi mereu, cnd bate miezul
nopii i fantoma clugriei repet actul vindicativ.
Ca n Moritat, se ine la asigurarea asculttorilor asupra autenticitii faptelor
povestite.
Nu mai puin popular, Marianne, a lui Gleim are drept subiect o dram de familie,
iari cu un deznodmnt sngeros.
Eroina e determinat s ia de so un brbat mai n vrst, dar bogat, aa cum doresc
prinii, acetia furniznd-i fiicei lor, o scrisoare falsificat, prin care iubitul o informeaz c
s-a cstorit cu alt fat. Ulterior el apare n locuina nou a Marianei, deghizat n negustor de
bijuterii i dornic s o revad. Minciuna iese la iveal datorit unui medalion. Mariana, care
lein de emoie aflnd adevrul, nu dorete s-i nele soul i-l implor pe fostul iubit s o
lase n pace i s jure c se va feri s-i mai calce vreodat pragul casei. Exact cnd rotete
aceste rugmini fierbini, virtuoase, brbatul eroinei se ntoarce acas de la vntoare, i
interpretnd greit gesturile ei de cerere fierbinte, descarc puca n inimile ambilor
protagoniti.
Spiritul Moritat-elor dicteaz baladei titlul pilduitor.
n sfrit, modernii speculeaz efecte estetice de colaj, ncrustnd mprumuturi directe
din Moritat-e, sentine morale naive, cliee stilistice gazetreti, lozinci politice i refrene ale
lagrelor la mod, n carnea poeziei. Totul cu o art rafinat de reabilitare artistic, cu o art
rafinat de reabilitare artistic, nemaiurmrindu-se satisfacerea gusturilor unui public credul,
necultivat, ci cucerirea altuia suprainstruit i excitabil prin grosolnie, tocmai din cauza
blazrii la finee.9
Exist prin urmare i o linie baladeasc german modern, care face amendabil
diferena atribuit de Doina lui Ioanichie Olteanu, n privina ascendenei lor literare.
Nici mcar turnura comic, pe care o iau, am vzut c nu e absolut singular. Dac
sclipirile ironice lipsesc ntr-adevr la Doina (i nc)10, ele i plac lui Radu Stanca uneori, s
ne amintim astfel de Trubadurul mincinos, Regele vistor, Corydon.
Nota cu adevrat aparte a baladelor lui Ioanichie Olteanu vine din modernitatea lor
pronunat, dar aceasta nu le-o d o ascenden negerman, ci direcia vdit inovatoare n care
se mic. Ioanichie face cronica unor fapte senzaionale sinistre. Balada soului nelat11
trateaz o crim din gelozie. Pania teologului cu arborele12, moartea suspect a tnrului
Victor, care e gsit spnzurat de craca unui stejar, n pdure.
Alte balade anun din titlu subiectele lor macabre: Balada necailor13, Balada
sinucigaului.14
Mihai Ralea surprinde foarte bine mecanismul psihologic i fiziologic, prin care gusturile neprerafinate ajung
s fie atrase de lucruri vulgare, aa cum, remarc el, sltuul aristocratic, paralizat de volupti alimentare prea
alese, nu mai reacioneaz dect n contact cu mutar i sosuri picante, iar fumtorii de bectimis savureaz igri
ardinare Caporal. (P. Zarifopol, n Interpretare, Editura Casa coalelor, Bucureti 1927)
10
tefan Augustin Doina are i el accente de umor, chiar dac nu vrea s recunoasc: n Five - o`clock,
Miercuri, Ah, zise Cummings sau Moartea n zmeuri , cel puin.
11
I. Olteanu: Balada soului nelat, n Revista Cercului Literar, op cit.
12
I. Olteanu: Pania teologului cu arborele, ibid
13
I. Olteanu: Balada necailor, ibid
14
I. Olteanu: Balada sinucigaului, ibid
9
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n Balada necailor, capodoper de ironie metafizic, impresionant e vizionara

rsturnare de perspectiv care face posibil ntlnirea dintre via i moarte, precum i
celebrele epitafuri ale lui Edgar Lee Masters din Antologia orelului Spoon River. Ca i
acolo, din povestea necailor lui Ioanichie Olteanu rzbate un tragism detaat, aproape senin,
transfigurat parc de nsi trecerea lui n balad. Dar care rmne, nu mai puin, tragism, n
ciuda tonalitii sale resemnat ironic, la limita parodiei.
Unele balade ale autorului poart i amprenta simpatiilor sale politice de stnga.
Filosofia programatic, realist, cu picioarele pe pmnt, dintre ele, trdeaz natura lor.
Autorul le gsete o justificare natural n Floarea soarelui15. Aceasta i ntoarce faa
dup astrul strlucitor de pe cer, dar nu se mic din pmnt. E refrenul i talcul baladei.
Maestru al ambiguitii duse pn la detaliu, poetul scoate din ea maximum de efecte
i n Balada solului nelat care, publicat mpreun cu Pania teologului cu arborele n
primul numr al Revistei Cercului Literar fcuse senzaie n rndul gruprii sibiene. i n
acest caz, izbitoare e ntreptrunderea ntre tragismul ntmplrii i luciditatea rece, cu sclipiri
de ironie necrutoare, a celui ce o povestete.
Obiectivat i mai mult, vocea narativ aparine acum protagonistului, soul nelat,
un moier rnit nu n orgoliul su masculin sau n simul su de posesiune ci n idealul su de
a tri n acord cu firea i cu strmoii: Cnd a pit nti pragul/ n casa prinilor mei/
lsai vntoarea i amicii de dragul/ sursului, ochilor ei. / Stam ceasuri ntregi lng mna/
care-mi tergea de pe frunte rna. / Printre holde i codri am purtat-o s guste/ mireasma
sngelui greu de strmoi.
Nu e greu de observat c peste ntreaga balad, foarte romneasc de altfel,
plutete un aer de decen pe care l-am ntlnit i n alte locuri la Ioanichie Olteanu.
Alte poeme antologice ale lui Ioanichie Olteanu sunt: Camera poetului, Turnul.
n Camera poetului const n evocarea, n notaii cotidianiste, a strii de abulic
nsingurare a celui ce a visat cele mai imposibile visuri: Aceasta e camera poetului,/
camer fr ferestre, / suspendat n aer ca o nacel. / n fiecare sear, ncrcat de praful
trotuarelor/ i de pulberea a reclamelor luminoase, intru n camer ca ntr-o cma de for.
Geamne ca i sens i la fel de puternic, poemul Turnul socotit de Ioanichie Olteanu
demn de a da titlul volumului su de poezii, nepublicat n timpul vieii, dar publicat astzi n
volumul Turnul i alte poeme16, care adun pentru prima dat laolalt, ntr-un singur
mnunchi, versurile lui Ioanichie Olteanu.
Prin poemele sale Ioanichie Olteanu se dovedete un demn reprezentant al orientrii
poetice generate de Cercul Literar de la Sibiu, prin recursul la specia literar a baladei, prin
inuta spectaculoas a viziunii lirice, prin imagistica de o tulburtoare concretee i, nu n
ultimul rnd, prin rafinamentul versului su, marcat deopotriv de suavitate i de materialitate
grea, de mimetism i de transfigurare.
I.
15
16
Bibliografie
Opera
Poezie: n periodice:
1. Balada necailor, n Vremea, XV, 1943, nr. 713, pg. 6
2. Camera poetului, n Vremea, XVI, 1944, nr. 738, pg. 13; reluat n Tribuna,
2006, nr.88, pg.15
I. Olteanu: Floarea soarelui, n Lupta Ardealului, 1948

I. Olteanu: Turnul i alte poeme, Cluj, Editura Eikon, 2012
810
Issue no. 6/2015
3. Balada sinucigaului, Vremea, XVI, 1944, nr. 741, pg. 10; reluat n Naiunea
Romn, I, 1944, nr.9, pg.2 i n Tribuna, 2006, nr. 87, pg.16
4. Balada soului nelat, n Revista Cercului Literar, I, 1945, nr.1, pg.25-27
5. Pania teologului cu arborele, n Revista Cercului Literar, I, 1945, nr.1,
pg.27-28
6. Turnul, n Tribuna nou, II, 1946, nr.58. pg.2, reluat n Tribuna, 2006, nr. 87,
pg. 16
7. Floarea soarelui, n Lupta Ardealului, IV, 1948, nr. 714, supliment cultural,
pg.3
II.
Referine critice
n volume:
8. BOLDEA, Iulian, Ioanichie Olteanu i Cercul Literar de la Sibiu, n Izvoare
filozofice, tom 4, Trgu-Mure, Editura Ardealul, 2009, pg. 139-149
9. COSMA, Ana, Scriitori romni mureeni. Dicionar bibliografic, TrguMure, Biblioteca Judeean Mure, 2000
10. CROHMLNICEANU, Ovid. S.; HEITMANN, Klaus, Baladele lui Ioanichie
Olteanu, n Cercul literar de la Sibiu, Bucureti, Editura Universalia, 2000,
pg. 152-166
11. Dicionarul general al literaturii romne, IV, (L-O), Bucureti, Editura
Univers enciclopedic, 2006
12. POANT, Petre, Baladescul, Ioanichie Olteanu, n Modaliti lirice
contemporane, Cluj-Napoca, Editura Dacia, 1973, pg. 56-60
13. REGMAN, Cornel, Despre civa cerchiti, azi n Dinspre cercul Literar
spre optzecite, Bucureti, Editura Cartea Romneasc, 1997, pg. 85 Interviu
de Florin Muscalu
14. SASU, Aurel, Dicionarul biografic al literaturii romne, II, Piteti, Editura
Paralela 45, 2006, pg. 253
POSDRU/159/1.5/S/133652.
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ROMANIAN PRESS IN TIMISOARA AT THE BEGINNING OF THE XXTH CENTURY

Ionela Simona SCRIDON
Abstract: Written press from Timisoara has been carried out in the course of years of a
prolific journalistic activity, concretized in appearance of a number of newspapers and
magazines, with very rich and varied themes. Through all of its components, the society from
Timisoara was extremely fertile for carrying out an intense journalistic activity. Cultural level
and, in particular, the wide variety of professional activities, some which were imposing
inherently a current and professional information, have created the most favorable conditions
for asserting the journalism as a true profession.
Keywords: Timisoara, Newspapers, Banat, Romanian Language, Social.
Presa din Timioara la cumpna secolelor XIX i XX s-a caracterizat printr-o fecund
precupare n afirmarea micrii culturale. Pe fondul dezvoltrii economice, a apariiei
manufacturilor i a tipografiilor - extinderea tiinei de carte la toate categoriile sociale, au
fost elementele care au facilitat editarea unui numr impresionant de ziare i reviste n limbile
locuitorilor din Banatul istoric: german, romn, srb, bulgar, bi sau trilingve1.
Datorit vremurilor, a stpnirii, dar nu n ultimul rnd i sub aspectul procentului
sczut de romni din Timioara la nceputul secolului al XX-lea, numrul ziarelor n limba
romn era inferior celor de limb maghiar sau german. Astfel, la sfritul secolului al
XIX-lea i nceputul secolului al XX-lea au aprut cu regularitate 18 periodice n limba
romn2.
Dezvoltarea presei a imulsionat apariia tipografiilor n capitala Banatului. Vom aminti
Tipografia Banatul care a funcionat ntre anii 1898 - 1916. Tot la sfritul secolului al XIXlea i-a deschis porile Tipografia Samuil Vere (1896-1902), iar din anul 1902 este
cumprat de Lud. Rosenberg.
O alt tipografie important din Timioara - Trauttner Gheorghe, i-a desfurat
activitatea ntre anii 1898 i 1902.
Tipografia coordonat de Alexandru Mangold a funcionat ntre anii 1898 i 1903.
Apoi, tipografia timioreanului Iuliu Freund i-a desfurat activitatea ntre anii 1898 i 1904,
iar din anul 1904 este vndut lui Armin Weintraub.
Tot la cumpna celor dou secole s-au remarcat tipografiile: Lechenmayer I.Carol
(1898-1901); Alex. Messinger (1900-1916); Csatari i Adam Patria (1900-1916); Gutenberg
(1900-1903); Heim Antonie (1905-1916); Dimitrie Mureanu (1907-1913); Engel Eugen
(1910-1914); Klauber (1912-1913) i Constantin Alexandru (1912-1913).3
Prin urmare, oraul de pe Bega la nceputul secolului al XX-lea gzduia numeroase
tipografii, menite s satisfac cererea tot mai mare a ziarelor de diferite nuane. De aceea, au
existat publicaii care au aprut de 3 ori pe sptmn, altele lunare, altele sptmnale sau
unele care nu menioneaz data apariiei.
Ioan Munteanu, Rodica Munteanu, Timioara. Monografie, Editura Mirton, Timioara, 2002, p. 473.
Vezi Ioan David, Presa romneasc din Banat. Preocupri de cultivare a limbii. De la nceputuri pn n
1918, Editura Press Print, Timioara, 2012, 175 p.
3
Nicolae Ilieiu, Timioara monografie istoric, vol. I, Timioara 1943, p. 271.
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Printre organele de pres care au aprut de trei ori pe sptmn s-a remarcat
Revista Preoilor4, editat de printele girocean David Voniga, ajutat de un comitet de
preoi: I. Gherga, I. Balta, Iuliu Crainic, N. Miclua, C. Micu, I. Mo, Al. Nic, Virgil i I.
Popovici. n deceniul apariiei sale (1910-1919), Revista Preoilor a contribuit semnificativ
la susinerea activitilor culturale i manifestrilor spirituale, la aprarea identitii naionale
a romnilor bneni5.
Publicaia bilunar/lunar Baba satului6 era o Foaie umoristic, poporal, literar,
glumea. De aceea, membrii comitetului redacional au diferite pseudonime: director, dr.
Pagub, redactor, dr. Dobnd, director i redactor, Nepotul Babei, dr. Avere, iar ca redactori
responsabili semneaz Mo Noia-Oardin i Moul Babei. Revista era un supliment al
periodicul timiorean Plugarul romn. Baba Satului a aprut n anii 1908-1912.
Baba Satului a fost fr ndoial un reper pentru Literatura dialectal din Banat. n
paginile ziarului au fost inserate numeroase poezii cu particulariti ale dialectului bnean:
Nepoata Babei cnt:
Orb am fost, ori am fost bat

Cnd pornisem la 'nsurat.
Frunz verde n codru des
Toat lumea i a ales
Ce-a fost dulce i frumos
Ce-a fost bun i drgstos.
n grdin m ntlnii
Puin vorb vorbii
Cu drguul meu iubit,
Din deprtare venit.
Dar ceaua de vecina
M vzu dela fntn,
Dar eu, Doamne, ce-am luat

Dou fire de neghin
So mndru
Cam prostu.
Socotind c-i gazd mare
O luai de peste vale,
M nbulzii i eu la sut
i luai nevat slut.
Bat-te Christos, nna,
C bine m cununa,
Cu urta satului,
i spaima tot natului,
C-i lenoas, somnoroas,
Ca o ciuh sprioas.
ntruna-i nepieptnat
Ca o buh mpiat.7
Merse la taica, m spuse.

Taica voi s m bat,
Dar sri fratele ndat,
Zicndu-i din graiu aa:
Stai, ticu, i nu da
C nu-i de vin sora,
Ci-i de vin maica mea,
Ca fcut-o drgstoas,
i la fa aa frumoas,
Sa scldat-o n lptior,
De e drag tuturor
Vino, taic, s jucm,
C fata ne-o mritm.
Ferice de noi, cam dat-o,
Vai amar de l de-a luat-o.
Revista Preoilor, Timioara, I-X, 1910-1919.

Alin Cristian Scridon, David Voniga omul vieii spirituale i culturale timiorene. Revista Preoilor n
Istorie i cultur n Banat, Coordonatori: Alin Cristian Scridon i Viorel Dorel Cherciu, Editura Brumar,
Timioara, 2013, p. 240.
6
Baba Satului, Timioara, I, III, V, 1908, 1910, 1912.
7
Baba Satului, Timioara, III, 1910, nr. 1 din 3/16 ianuarie, p. 1.
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Periodicul timiorean Advocatul poporal8 a fost o publicaie cu caracter juridic i

administrativ. Revista editat de Pavel Rotariu9 a fost diseminat n Banat ntre 1 februarie
1886-15 februarie 1887 i de la 1 iulie 1903 pn la 1906.
nc din primele numere din seria a II-a, editorul i fixeaz obiectivele periodicului,
adic s suplineasc o lacun n jurnalistica resp. literatura periodic romn, o lacun care a
fost constatat i din prile cele mai competente ale nostre10.
Revista Controla11 era un periodic sptmnal, editat la tipografia timiorean
Sudungar, de dou ori pe sptmn (joia i duminica) i a avut ca redactor responsabil pe
Ion V. Barcian. A aprut ntre 31 martie 1895 29 decembrie 1904 i 25 decembrie 1905 13
ianuarie 1907.
Controla era una dintre cele mai populare ziare de la sfritul secolului al XIX-lea
i nceputul secolului al XX-lea. Editorul i-a exprimat de la nceputul culoarul jurnalistic
abordat:
n lupta de desvoltare i naintare a poporului nostru romn n-a fost aa de mare lips
de control ca tocmai n timpurile noastre... Trebuina scoaterii la iveal a organului
Controla a fost aici mai cu seam pentru acea nencojurat, pentru c ziarul, plmdit n
mod pocit deja la nceput n anul trecut n acest centru al Banatului, i a artat deja n scurtul
timp de vreo cteva luni de zile toat arama sa ruginit... Stnd pe baza programului naional
Controla va combate radical i neatrntoriu, la deal i la vale nu numai toate greelile,
rtcirile i nedreptile, iveasc-se ele pe orice teren i vin ele din orice parte ci va tinde i la
nlturarea tuturor pedecilor ce stau n calea prosperrii poporului i fac cu neputin
apropierea i nelelgerea sincer i cinstit ntre popoarele rii i ndeosebi ntre poporul
romnesc i ntre aceia, cari azi au inriurin deciztoare asupra conducerii destinelor patriei
noastre comune.12.
Controla a publicat numeroase articole politice, iar majoritatea rubricilor s-au
pstrat n fiecare numr de a lungul timpului. ntre acestea amintim: Din dieceza i comitatul
Aradului; Din orae i sate; ciri i varieti; Economia, comerciu, industria; Higiena;
Foioara; Schintei; Literatura, arta, tiina; Bibliografie.
De la nceputul anului 1904 i pn la sfritul anului 1905 redactor a fost Emanuil
Mglasiu, ca apoi ncepnd cu luna ianuarie a anului 1906 Controla a fost editat sub
semntura lui Toma Cirovici.
Revista Votul poporului i cu subtitlul organ pentru poporul muncitor romn al
Ungariei cu principiu social-democratic a aprut la Timioara i a fost redactat de
At.Voichescu i Petru Ponta. Era un periodic sptmnal tiprit la tipografia Sudungar Toma
D. Csirovics, iar din 1904 la tipografia lui Alexandru Messinger din Cetate. Debuteaz n luna
ianuarie a anului 1903, iar ultimul numr va vedea lumina zile n luna aprilie 1904 cu o
ntrerupere de trei luni (din 14 noiembrie 13 februarie)13. Din 22 martie 1905 Votul
poporului reapare la Budapesta avnd ca redactor pe M. Cristea, ns doar pentru o lun i
jumtate.
Votul poporului s-a adresat n mod special muncitorilor i ranilor, amintindu-le
c:
Advocatul Poporal, Timioara, I-IV, 1903-1906.
Ionela Simona Scridon, Personaliti timiorene n viaa cultural (1867-1918) n coal i societate n Banat
XI. Lucrrile sesiunii internaionale de comunicri tiinifice, Editura Eurostampa, Timioara, 2014, p. 378.
10
Advocatul Poporal,Timioara, I, 1903, nr. 1 din 1 iulie, p. 2.
11
Controla, Timioara, VI-XII, 1900-1907.
12
Ion Valeriu Barcian, Editorial n Controla, Timioara, VI, 1900, p. 1.
13
Vezi Votul Poporului, Timioara, I, 1903.
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Principiul nostru este a lupta pentru interesul poporului nostru muncitoriu fr

deosebire de limb i lege contra capitalismului. Noi recunoatem programul socialdemocratic al Ungariei, tot i pe deplin, i luptm pentru nedreptatea ce ni se comite zilnic i
nu vom nceta pn nu vom dbndi dreptatea ce ne compete14.
Dup ncetarea apariiei ziarului Votul poporului, Petru Ponta, care fusese
redactorul acestei gazete, mpreun cu tipograful Ioan Rodina i cu secretarul Partidului
Social Democrat Ioan Pescaru au fondat o nou revist denumit Muncitorul romn.
Periodicul a aprut ntre anii 1905 i 1907 la tipografia Muncitorul din Timioara-Josefin
strada Iancu Vcrescu 15.
Periodicul Dreptatea i Lumina poporului a aprut la Timioara ntre 3 octombrie
1904 i 15 decembrie 1918. S-a remarcat ca o publicaie cultural, social i economic
coordonat de N. Mitru. nc din din primul numr este inserat programul ziarului:
Programul foaiei noastre Dreptatea i Lumina poporului va fi: ca s lucre pentru
binele iubitului nostru popor, s-i apere interesele lui, s-i spun totdeauna nuai adevrul, s-i
apere dreptul ce l garanteaz legile rii noastre, s combat lirea socialismului ntre romni
i s-i lumineze calea pe carea are s-o urmeze att pe terenul social ct i pe cel economic. n
interesul progresului i a naintrii noastre pe toate terenele, rugm respectuos pe on. domini,
cari se intereseaz de cauzele poporului nostru, a ne da mn de ajutor i a ne sprijini, lucrnd
mnn mn unii cu alii16.
La 9/22 ianuarie 1905 periodicul i-a schimbat titlul n Dreptatea poporului i a
avut ca subtitlu Foae naional poporal, cultural, social i economic. Din pcate a avut
o scurt apariie (pn n aprilie 1906) i aceasta datorit articolelor naionaliste publicate de
Nicolae Mitru. Autoritile au condamnat acest tip de jurnalism, trimindu-l la nchisoare pe
redactorul responsabil. Acesta a fost motivul pentru care Nicolae Mitru a schimbat titlul
gazetei n Plugarul Romn, n care va insera mai puine articole politice i axndu-se mai
degrab pe un caracter mai mult economic, cultural i social17.
Aadar, revista editat de Nicolae Mitru Plugarul Romn18 a aprut la Timioara,
Lugoj i Jimbolia ntre 2 aprilie 1906 i 15 decembrie 1918. Gazeta a fost tiprit la nceput
sptmnal, apoi n timpul rzboiului mondial s vad lumina zilei de trei ori pe sptmn,
iar dup unire s fie editat doar de dou ori pe lun. ncepnd cu anul 1919 redactor
responsabil va deveni preotul din Chioda, Victor Aga19.
Revista a fost editat la tipografiile: Friedrich Klein, Husveth i Hoffer, A. Heim,
Deutsce Wacht, Minerva, Gurgo i Klein, Sonntagsblatt i Unirea Romn. n cadrul
periodicului erau inserate articole culturale, sociale i economice semnate de intelectualii
vremii: dr. Petru Pipo, dr. Aurel Cosma, Emilia Lungu Puhallo, Moise Babescu, Nicolae
Iancovici, Timotei Radi, Simeon Bura, Petru Ugli, Iosif Bogdan, Constantin Ardelean
.a.m.d.
Organul de pres Zorile20 a fost o publicaie cultural i social-economic. A aprut
sptmnal la Timioara-Cetate ntre ianuarie 1910 i ianuarie 1911, apoi la Caransebe din
14
Idem, nr. 2, 31 ianuarie, p. 1.

Vezi Muncitorul Romn, Timioara, I, 1905.
16
Controla, Timioara, 1904, nr. 74, 20 octombrie, p. 3.
17
Dreptatea Poporului, Timioara, III, 1906, nr. 13, 26 martie/8 aprilie, p. 1.
18
Plugarul Romn, Timioara, V, VII-XIII, 1908, 1910-1918.
19
Alin Cristian Scridon, Repere bibliografice pentru o posibil istorie a Studiului Biblic Noutestamentar n
Banat. 1867-1918 n volumul din cadrul Conferinei internaionale cretine Puterea de a fi altfel, coordonatori,
Patricia RUNCAN, Remus RUNCAN; Ediia I, Timioara, 30-31 octombrie, 2014, Editura Didactic i
Pedagogic, R. A., Bucureti, p. 378.
20
Georgeta Rduic, Nicolin Rduic, Dicionarul presei romneti, Editura tiinific, Bucureti, 1995, p. 457.
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27 februarie/12 martie pn n 1/14 aprilie 1911. Redactorul Avram Indreica fcea parte din
intelectualii caransebeeni, aa cum ne mrturisete nvtorul Pavel Jumanca21. Din martie
1911, responsabilitatea editrii revistei este preluat de Gheorghe Dona22.
Soacra s-a remarcat n Timioara ca o revist umoristic sptmnal. Ea a fost
redactat de Petru Ponta, Ioan Rodina i Ioan Pescaru ca supliment al ziarului Muncitorul
romn (1905-1907). Ziarul era editat la tipografia Muncitorul din Timioara. A fost
ntocmit n dialect bnean Soacra a inserat n primul su numr:
Stai! Ca abunamintie io cotoluiesc p 1 an ct dje lung: numai 2 cor. 50 b. i doi
fileri de duhan la redaptori. Io din cap pn-n ppui m djivnesc dincolo23.
n urma prezentrii revistelor de mai sus, conchidem c presa romneasc din
Timioara la nceputul secolului al XX-lea a fost dinamic i a exprimat necesarul unei
societi moderne. Editorii s-au preocupat s prezinte profesionist informaiile inedite ale
vremii. Pe lng tirile politice, presa romneasc a publicat teme pentru diferite categorii
sociale i profesionale. Nu au lipsit articole bine documentate legate de cultura i
spiritualitatea bnean. Aadar, prin aceste realiti, intelectualitatea bnean romneasc
a pus bazele unei prese scrise n estul Imperiului Austro-Ungar.
BIBLIOGRAFIE
A. Periodice timiorene de la nceputul secolului al XX-lea
Advocatul Poporal, 1903-1906.
Baba Satului, 1908, 1910, 1912.
Controla, 1904.
Dreptatea Poporului, 1906.
Muncitorul Romn, 1905.
Plugarul Romn, 1908, 1910-1918.
Revista Preoilor, 1910-1919.
Votul Poporului, Timioara, I, 1903.
B. Lucrri generale
Cosma, Aurel jr.,
Istoria presei romneti din Banat, Editura Unirea, Timioara, 1932.
David, Ioan,
Munuteanu, Ioan,,;
Munteanu, Rodica,
Jumanca, Pavel,
Rduic,
Georgeta,
Rduic, Nicolin
Presa romneasc din Banat. Preocupri de cultivare a limbii. De la

nceputuri pn n 1918, Editura Press Print, Timioara, 2012.
Timioara. Monografie, Editura Mirton, Timioara, 2002.
Amintiri. Anii tinereii, Editura David Press Print, Timioara, 2011.
Dicionarul presei romneti, Editura tiinific, Bucureti, 1995.
Pavel Jumanca, Amintiri. Anii tinereii, Editura David Press Print, Timioara, 2011, p. 376.
Ibidem, p. 370.
23
Aurel Cosma jr., Istoria presei romneti din Banat, Editura Unirea, Timioara, 1932, p. 67.
21
22
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THE HISTORY AND TRADITION OF THE ROMANI

Ana NICULESCU
Arts University of Trgu-Mure
Abstract: During the nomadic period of the gypsies, Romanys settled at the margin of the
locality, being very skilled with the knowledge of medicinal plants and witchcraft, with a
strange lifestyle. Thats the reason why they were named atinganoi, in old Greek meaning
"hard to reach, sinner", thinking that they belonged to a particular sect.The word "atigan",
later on "tigan" derived from the word atinganoi through history transition. According to
Miklosich, he himself a Romany, the great Romany migration occured in a trifurcation: with
three branches: lom, dom, rrom. Their laws are combined in Romanipen. In
Romania they were slaves for a long period of time.
Keywords: romany, history, tradition, slave, language.
n istoria i originea rromilor, se amintete faptul c, atunci cnd au ajuns la marginea
Greciei Antice, n timpul marelui nomadism ignesc, rromii s-au aezat la marginea
localitilor, fiind foarte pricepui n cunoaterea plantelor de leac, la vrjitorie, avnd un
model de via ciudat. Grecii privindu-i s-au ferit de ei i le-au spus c sunt atinganoi, n
vechea greac nsemnnd greu de atins, pctos, creznd c fac parte dintr-o sect eretic
bizantin, n Grecia atunci dezvoltndu-se cultul cretinismului. Din cuvntul atinganoi
datorit trecerii prin istorie, a luat natere cuvntul aigan, iar apoi igan.
Meninerea unor trsturi arhaice din limbile indiene vechi, vorbite prin mileniul 1 .
H., si pn nspre secolul al V lea . H., ndreptesc rromologii s conchid faptul c
plecarea rromilor din India s-a produs prin secolul II . H., prin anii 300 900 d. H., conform
teoriei lui Kannauj, susinut de romologul Marcel Cortiade din Frana.1
Cercettorul rromolog Donald Kenrik, a cules prin anii 1960, prin surse orale, de la
romul coniar Ali Ceauev din umen Bulgaria, care la rndul su avea dese contacte cu
specialitii rromologi Chaman Lal India, Donald Kenrik Anglia, Milena Hubshamanova
Cehia, dovezi care au oferit un material publicat de Donald Kenrik, intitulat Destinele
rromilor din Europa, publicat n anul 1994, n care aflm c ahul Persan Bahram Ghur, a
cerut maharadjahilor indieni s-i trimit o ceat de muzicani, numii iuri pentru a nveseli
populaia, oferindu-le posibilitatea stabiliri n Persia aproximativ 10.000 de iuri.2 Acetia
au venit n Persia, au consumat ceea ce le-a oferit ahul, au distrus i au fost alungai de pe
pmntul Persiei.
Marcel Cortiade leag plecarea rromilor din India, de nvlirea rzboinicului afgan
Mahmud Ghanzi, cel care a cucerit n 21 decembrie 1018 oraul indian Kannauj, ora atestat
n Cartea Yaminilor, scris de nvatul arab Al Utbi.
n poemul epic naional persan ah Cartea regilor se spune c iurii fceau parte
dintr-un clan rzboinic al Rajpuilor care, dup ce au fost nfrni n btlia de la Tararori
din nord vestul Indiei, au fost izgonii de ahul persan Bahram Ghur, migrnd ctre
inuturile arabe, turce i apoi ctre Europa.3 Marea migraie a rromilor s-a produs, dup
rromologul Miklosich, ntr-o trifurcaie:
Saru, Gh., Istorie i tradiii rrome, Editura Organizaia Salvai Copiii, Bucureti, 2003, pag. 97
Nstase, L., Varga, A., Minoritile etnoculturale / Mrturii documentare, iganii din Romnia (1919 1944),
Centrul de resurse pentru diversitate etnocultural, Cluj, 2001, pag. 126
3
Op. Cit, , pag. 127
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ramura LOM de nord, care s-a deplasat spre Armenia i Gruzia, prin Caucaz,
ajungnd n Balcani, apoi n Europa de est, central i de vest;
ramura DOM sau de sud, care s-a deplasat pe direcia Siria, Palestina, Egipt
traversnd Mediterana, ajungnd n Spania, unde s-au ntlnit cu nomazii rromi
venii prin Pirinei;
ramura RROM sau de vest, a continuat migraia prin Imperiul Bizantin
Asia mic i Balcani, de aici n Europa Central i de vest.
Prima atestare documentar apare ntr-un manuscris, n limba gruzin, datat n anul
1054, n timpul domniei lui Constantin al IX lea Monohamul 1042 1055 scris de un
clugr gregorian, aflat la Mnstirea Iviron Muntele Athos, prin care afirm c la
Constantinopol a sosit, din Asia Mic, o grupare nomad care fcea parte dintr-o sect
eretic Bizantin, numit atinghanoi de neatins, foarte pricepui n vrjitorii i arta
ghicitului.4 Cercettorii n antropologia lingvistic spun c atinghanoi nseamn impur,
pgn, de neatins, este un cuvnt atestat pentru prima oar, in anul 1068 la o mnstire din
Georgia. Termenul a suferit modificri fonetice, astfel:
Cikani n Cehia;
Ciganos n Portugalia;
Ciganyok n Ungaria;
Zigeuner n Germania;
Zingari n Italia;
Conform recomandrilor Comisiei Europene pentru Drepturile Omului i ale
Minoritilor, pentru eliminarea oricror forme de discriminare i a sensurilor peiorative,
denominarea i heteroidentificarea naiei i a individului va fi rrom / igan.5
Prima atestare dateaz din 3 octombrie 1385, cnd Domnitorul Dan Vod, meniona
printre daniile fcute de unchiul su Vladislav Vod, ctre Mnstirea Sfntului
Antonie din Vodia - ara Romneasc, existena a 40 de slae de Aigani.
n anul 1387, Domnitorul Mircea cel Btrn, fratele lui Dan Vod, druiete
Mnstirii Cozia un numr de 300 de slae cu Aigani. Rromii / iganii / Aiganii sunt
atestai documentar n Braov n anul 1388.
n scurt timp de la poposirea lor n spaiul geografic Romnesc, rromii au devenit robi
n ara Romneasc i n Moldova. n Transilvania, n afar de ara Fgraului datorit
stpnirii Domnilor Munteni, care i-au robit pe rromi, nu gsim robi n rndul rromilor, doar
slugi cu imbrie pe moiile grofilor, moierilor i mnstirilor.
Au existat iniiative de emancipare i dezrobire a rromilor, ncepnd cu anul 1856. n
anul 1766, Domnitorul Grigore al III lea Ghica, emite o anafor pentru eliberarea rromilor.
La data de 31 ianuarie 1844, Domnitorul Mihai Gheorghe Sturza, aprob Legea prin care
rrobii domneti ai statului erau liberi. La fel se produce i n Moldova n anul 1855, ara
Romneasc n anul 1856.
n anul 1767, n Transilvania, Maria Tereza, prin unul dintre cele patru decrete ale
sale, desfiineaz jurisdicia asupra rromilor, care depind de sistemul administrativ fiscal,
cunoscndu-se trei categorii de rromi:
- fiscalii spltori de aur care culegeau aurul din ruri;
- fiscalii taxaliti sunt nomazii condui de un voievod sau buliba;
- rromii care ineau de moiile nobiliare;6
-
erban, D. A., Cronici igneti, Editura Ager, 1994, pag. 86

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Dup provincia istoric n care se gseau, cunoatem rromii: moldoveni, ardeleni,

bucovineni, basarabeni, dobrogeni, olteni, etc.
Dup criteriul lingvistic rromii se clasific astfel: vtrai, de mtase, cldrari, ursari,
spoitori, carpatici.
Teoria sociologic, bazat pe analiza socio inductiv, apreciaz c toi rromii
ajuni n Romnia, din primul val, au intrat ca oameni liberi prin sudul Dunrii, venind din
Bulgaria i Serbia, n timp ce al doilea val de migraii au adus rromii n Romnia pe dou
ci: Sudul Dunrii i nord vestul Moldovei, ca robi ttreti. Aadar, dup grecii antici,
aezai pe malurile Pontului Euxin, Evreii din falanga romn Ebraic i Maghiarii aezai n
inuturile Romneti, cu puin nainte de anul 1000, rromii proto rromii au fost cea de a
patra minoritate etnic aezat pe teritoriul Romniei, urmai ndeaproape de Armeni n anul
1061 i de Germani n anul 1200.7
Rromanipen-ul este arhetipul identitii culturale a rromilor. Exist o ntreag filozofie
de via care se bazeaz pe opoziia dintre pur impur, reprezentnd puritatea ritualic,
ordinea i armonia universal, prin confirmarea unui model al puritii n opoziie cu
impuritatea, a cror valabilitate a fost confirmat i verificat prin experiena de via.
Rromii au obligaia de a respecta regulile puritii nite norme care in de
responsabilitatea individual i cea colectiv, n comunitile tradiionale ale rromilor,
educndu-i copii, tinerii i adolescenii n simul ruinii.8 Foarte multe asemenea reguli
stricte se refer la corpul uman i igiena ritualic corporal, pornindu-se de la ideea conform
creia corpul uman este considerat pur de la bru n sus i impur de la bru n jos. Ochii,
capul, gura sunt considerate ca fiind curate, n timp ce srutul pe gur, semnific un gest de
ncredere i fraternitate, iar srutul pe ochi, semnific un gest de subordonare sau de mare
consideraie, de aceea, de cele mai multe ori se evit. Capul este rezidena norocului, al
ncrederii, al respectului, al nelepciunii fiind o expresie a maximei consideraii. Partea de la
bru n jos trebuie s fie n permanen acoperit, att la femei ct i la brbai. De aceea
femeia poart fuste lungi i brbaii pantaloni lungi, niciodat scuri, genunchii i laba
piciorului fiind considerate cele mai indecente pri ale corpului. Valoarea fundamental a
unei familii de rromi este aceea de sacralitate, familia fiind, de fapt comunitatea rromilor,
prin sistemul de relaii de nrudire cultural numit i familie comunitar prin consensul
cstoriilor tradiionale, obinndu-se ncruciarea prin care noua familie intr n rndul
comunitii ca rrom om de-al nostru i rromni femeie de-a noastr. Aa numitul pre al
femeii nu face referire la cumprare ci la preuire, nalt consideraie prin ntrirea
statutului i reputaiei cuplului, al virginitii fetei i al garaniei soliditii i durabilitii
csniciei, prin ajutorul financiar druit de prinii mirelui, tinerei mirese.9 Greeala de
traducere face parte dintr-un concept profund ancorat n mentalul cultural propriu, care nu
poate accepta o traducere denotativ ci una conotativ etnocultural.
n cadrul gruprilor tradiionale de rromi, majoritatea conflictelor se rezolv n interior
prin adunarea i judecata de pace a rromilor stabor, precedat de dezbaterea cazului
ntre rude. Conform unui obicei practicat de rromii tradiionali, nainte de nceperea
judecii propriu zise, se depunde un jurmnt n faa judectorilor de pace, al bulibaului
i al comunitii locale. n faa celui care depunne jurmntul se afl o bucat de slnin, un
ciot de lemn ars, o lumnare i un bnu de aram. Textul jurmntului este urmtorul: Eu,
......(numele), depun jurmnt n faa rromilor, a Staborului, s rmn ca un ciot ars, carnea
8
Crian, N., iganii mit i realitate, Editura Albatros, Bucureti, 1999, pag. 77
9
Op. cit., pag. 84
7
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s mi se topeasc ca lumnarea i s curg ca slnina topit de soare, alungat i bntuit s

umblu prin lume ca banul din mn n mn dac nu-mi voi ine jurmntul.10
Religia laic a rromilor Drahma, n sensul similar religiei Hinduse se supune
Romanipenului Legea Rromilor, un sistem de legi i concepte comunitare care graviteaz
n jurul modelului de comunitate tradiional. Comunitatea coexist i se bazeaz pe trei tipuri
de rudenie: cosangvin, prin alian, afinitate i nrudire spiritual, autoidentificndu-se cadrul
neamului. Avnd n vedere complexitatea universului spiritual al rromilor, ne aflm n faa
unui model bine nchegat, n cadrul cruia individul se afl ntr-o relaie direct i
indivizibil cu spaiul transcendental. Practicani ai cultelor cretine protestante, dar i
adepi practicani ai diverselor culte neo protestante, rromii servesc permanent scopul
echilibrului comunitar ct i normele consacrate ale cutumelor religioase. nrudirea
cultural care definete apartenena asumat la comunitatea tradiional rrom, nu permite
amestecul de snge, asemntor alteritii, similar cu factura religioas.11
Bibliografie
1. Constantinescu, B., Probe de limba i literatura rromilor din Romnia, Editura
Kriteron, 2000;
2. Crian, N., iganii mit i realitate, Editura Albatros, Bucureti, 1999;
3. Grigore, D., Rromanipen-ul (rromani dharma) i mistica familiei. Familia tradiional
n comunitiile de rromi din arealul romnesc, Editura Salvai copii, Bucureti, 2001;
4. Grigore, D., Sandu, M., Istoria i tradiiile minoritii rromani Manual pentru clasele
a VI a i a VII a, Editura Sigma, Bucureti, 2005;
5. Heinrich von Wlislocki, Asupra vieii i obiceiurilor iganilor transilvneni, Traducere
din german de Sorin Georgescu, Editrua Kriterion, Bucureti, 1998;
6. Nstase, L., Varga, A., Minoritile etnoculturale / Mrturii documentare, iganii din
Romnia (1919 1944), Centrul de resurse pentru diversitate etnocultural, Cluj,
2001;
7. Potra, G., Contribuiuni la istoricul iganilor din Romnia, Mihai Dascl Editor,
Bucureti, 2002;
8. Saru, Gh., Istorie i tradiii rrome, Editura Organizaia Salvai Copiii, Bucureti,
2003;
9. erban, D. A., Cronici igneti, Editura Ager, 1994;
Potra, G., Contribuiuni la istoricul iganilor din Romnia, Mihai Dascl Editor, Bucureti, 2002, pag. 203
Grigore, D., Rromanipen-ul (rromani dharma) i mistica familiei. Familia tradiional n comunitiile de
rromi din arealul romnesc, Editura Salvai copii, Bucureti, 2001, pag. 174
10
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IN TWO SUITCASES AND THREE BUNDLES OR BASARABIA - BUFFER LAND. NONPLACE REPRESENTATION IN THE NOVEL BESSARABIA BY PAUL GOMA
Veronica NANU
Alecu Russo State University of Bli
Abstract: In the study In two suitcases and three bundles or Basarabia - buffer land are
highlighted the main theoretical ideas related to Heidegger's concept of open place which
became the sine qua non condition of existence. At the same time, the emphasis is on the
interpretation of the correlative couple of existential significance "here-there" as a brand for
locus/non-locus relationship. It is studied the impact of the phenomenon of exile on Romanian
writings after 1945. The reason for interpreting the work of Paul Goma is the fact that his
destiny is an emblematic case of an exile from the Romanian culture. In this context, the study
of the novel describing the picture of a journey in two suitcases and three bundles of the
uprooted and landless Basarabian, will outline the image of a split personality, undermined
by the passion of writing, caught in its path crossing from a contagious unhappiness
towards a possible paradise which remains always suspended. Beyond the theoretical
components, the emphasis will be on the text analysis of the novel Basarabia, where, with the
aid of narrative and logic of the included middle, it reveals the idea of irreversible destruction
of identity. The refuge draws a parabolic path, determined by the need of unmasking, the
return of the character physically absent, however present through the history to which it
belongs.
Keywords: open-place, resistance through culture, unmasking, buffer.
Impasul dilematic al exilului din spaiul postbelic romnesc ine de reprezentarea lui
ca fenomen ce apare n diferite cadre politice, att temporale ct i spaiale, dictnd o list de
diverse constrngeri sau posibiliti accesibile pentru fiecare spirit protestatar. n plus,
relevarea condiiei intelectualului n Romnia din perioada comunist presupune o reflecie
asupra trecutului apropiat, ntru recuperarea i reconstituirea valorilor etice din sfera politic,
ntruct rezistena prin cultur este inseparabil de regimul totalitar, devenind replica
asumrii etico-politice a unor gesturi fa de sistem. Cu alte cuvinte, interpretarea
fenomenului de rezisten prin cultur necesit dezlegarea mai multor dileme care in de
ncrctura eterogen a sintagmei. Termenul de rezisten, neavnd origine autohton, n
contextul luptei anticomuniste de dup cel de-al doilea rzboi mondial capt un contur tipic
romnesc, devenind o form de rezisten fizic: la arestri, torturi, anchete sau psihic: la
despicare, lipsire de personalitate, dezrdcinare, reeducare, deznaionalizare. n aceste sens,
menioneaz Hannah Arendt, locuitorii unei ri totalitariste sunt aruncai ntr-un proces al
naturii sau istoriei i angrenai n el pentru a-i accelera micarea; ca atare, ei nu pot fi dect
executanii sau victimele legilor inerente acestui proces (Arendt 2006: 577). Aceast
mpotrivire, opoziie manifestat pe trm intelectual adaug rspunsului la violen,
netcerii ca revolt (Cesereanu 199: 166) o component spiritual. Adrian Marino, care,
fiind preocupat de acest concept, nu-i ofer o formul definitiv, utiliznd succesiv pentru
interpretarea fenomenului termenii de rezisten intelectual (1990), rezisten i cultur
sau rezisten literar cu varianta de rezistent cultural, (1991), pentru a ajunge n 1995 la
formula rezisten cultural(Marino 1996: 126). Opernd cu termenul de rezistent literar,
autorul vorbete despre dou tipuri de rezisten: cea pasiv i cea activ. n prima categorie,
pentru caracterizarea fenomenului n sine, este introdus sintagma rezisten spontan sau
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rezisten inocent (subl. aut.), cu meniunea c se manifest printr-un refuz de a se implica

i care este specific scriitorilor apolitici. n aceeai categorie de rezisten pasiv, autorul
delimiteaz o alt form de refuz cel contient i asumat (subl. aut.), caracterizat prin scrieri
conjuncturale, la comand. Trecerea de la rezisten pur literar, pasiv, la cea activ:
politic-literar i, n cele din urm, la rezistena politic prin literatur, reprezint pragul
hotrtor al aciunii de rezisten (Marino 1996: 127). Necesitatea de a-i exprima refuzul
explicit pentru trirea sentimentului de dezrdcinare, inutilitate (Coza 2011: 15) ca form
de protest, devine colaborarea cu Europa Liber i este definit de ctre Marino cu termenul
de rezisten activ.
Condiionat de experiena dramatic, aproape njositoare a torturii totalitariste,
literatura romn a pstrat relativ puine documente referitoare la portretul personalitii
mutilate i deznaionalizate. Trebuie de menionat, ns faptul c rezistena prin cultur n
Romnia s-a manifestat mai bine la modul individual, [] dect prin aciuni de grup,
susine A., Marino.
Totui, n ciuda controverselor iscate n jurul persoanei sale, Paul Goma rmne o
personalitate accentuat. Generaia lui Paul Goma, lansat prin celebra fabric de scriitori de
la Bucureti, condus de muncitorul Petre Iosif, nu era croit dect cu scopul de a fi nrolat n
armata culturnicilor, scrie Petru Ursache, adugnd: Pentru c de-a curmeziul viiturii
nprasnice, existena lui Paul Goma s-a constituit ntr-o succesiune de momente nefaste.
(Ursache 2012: 44). Devenind un personaj incomod, Goma, are experiena de a nu mai
aparine unei lumi, unui topos (Coza 2011: 15), care intr ntr-o curs febril de cutare a
umanului, adevrului, a libertii supreme, anunnd n i prin romanul su formele revoltei
interioare, care transcend dincolo de drumul exilului i spaiului nchis al penitenciarului,
zdruncinnd sentimentul de dezrdcinare i inutilitate (ibidem). Adevrata valoare de
document al unei epoci de mrturie artistic a scrisului lui Paul Goma este patima de a pune
pe hrtie tot ce a vzut, tot ce a simit (Goma 1990: 264), relevnd, n opinia Anei Banto,
condiia intelectualului de rnd cruia i se refuz mplinirea destinului su ce se suprapune
peste condiia omului de rnd cruia i se mutileaz mentalitatea (Banto 2011: 185). n
studiul Este Paul Goma un Soljenin Romn?, Theodor Codreanu invoc ideea c Paul Goma
este acuzat de mistificarea disidenei, iar adevrul notelor i comentariilor lui sunt contestate,
ca fiind produsul execrabil al obsesiilor, frustrrilor unei mini alunecate n rtcire i
vulgaritate (Codreanu 2010). n acest sens, Paul Goma devine un produs al marginii
romnismului, cu durere de Basarabia (P., Goma) locul de unde vin i pleac toate,
toposul privilegiat al matricei organice, pe care istoria a mpins-o att de la margine, nct na putut supravieui Marii Uniri (idem). Replica pe care o d scriitorul prizonierilor
oportuniti ai regimului comunist, devenii subit revoluionari, anticomuniti, rezisteni
prin cultur devine romanul Basarabia, unde Paul Goma surprinde fenomenul n cauz,
propunnd pentru acesta termenul de autocronism, menit s pun n valoare elementele de
prioritate n afirmarea comunismului n cultura politic a intereselor individuale sau de grup.
n acest sens, romanul Basarabia, axat pe mrturia Afgan-ului basarabean descrie un destin
autobiografic al lui Paul Goma, care la ntrebarea: Poate un povestitor s povesteasc
povestea-vieii-unui-om, altul dect sine, povestind (pentru a cta oar?) povestea vieii sale
(Goma 2003: 14), ofer un rspuns n numele personajului, devenind concepia la care ader:
Fr ndoial. Autorul se povestete pe sine. Altul, cellalt, adevratul erou al crii este un
pretext, un agent transportator (idem).
Scris n forma unui jurnal care cuprinde perioada 11 iunie 2001- 29 iunie 2001,
romanul nareaz istoria personajului nghiit de istorie n general. Refrenul att frecvent
ntlnit n scrierile lui Paul Goma, n Basarabia se transform ntr-un laitmotiv al romanului
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de a scrie la propunerea lui Victor: O Zi din Viaa unui Afgan din Basarabia1 (subl. aut.),
ce transform cartea n ceva mai mult dect o povestire a unei singure zile, ci ntr-o reflecie
intelectual proiectat pe fondalul dramei Basarabiei i a basarabenilor. Naratorul creioneaz
imaginea celui care mrturisete ca, fiind despicat pe dou planuri simultane: al romnului
basarabean aflat n continuu raport cu romnii din vestul rii:
Sub unguri, vreme de un mileniu, Romnii din Transilvania au avut parte de suferine
cumplite, printre nedrepti fiind nerecunoaterea lor, autohtoni ca naiune, alturi de ocupani
(ungurii, Secuii) i de coloniti (Saii, vabii). ns n 1918, cnd s-au unit cu Patria-Mam,
Romnii transilvneni puteau s scrie i s citeasc, aveau o identitate, tiau cine sunt i de
unde se trag, ba i nvaser carte i contiin de sine pe Romnii din Principatele totui
libere. Prin comparaie: sub rui, numai n 106 ani, Basarabenii au fost strivii, analfabetizai,
deznaionalizai, dezidentai. (Goma 2003: 61).
i cel al scriitorului: un [] duman al literaturii bune, ins asocial, veleitar,
scandalagiu (ibidem: 5), care la rndul su este determinat de condiia de refugiat izolat,
evitat i interzis: [] le-ar fi fcut o nesfrit plcere s dea de neles c, n ciuda
linititoarelor mele asigurri, i uitasem cu tot cunume, ori niciodat nu li-l tiusem (ibidem:
8). Paul Goma, construiete n paginile romanului Basarabia o axis mundi (Banto 2011:
192), iar apartenena acestei lumi, potrivit studiului realizat de Martin Heidegger, Fiin i
timp - se determin, pornind de la semnificativitatea constitutiv a lumii, i ea realizeaz
nuntrul acelui posibil unde, o articulare a unui aici i acolo (Heidegger 2003: 153).
Acest cuplu corelativ existenial denot transferul de accent de la personalitatea eului narator
spre imaginea poporului romn, de la el, spre ei, i de la un aici (acas), la un acolo
(adverb de loc, cu o semnificaie deloc ambigu pentru cazul scriiturii lui Paul Goma), prin
care se nelege: spaiul pruto-nistrean: M ntorc acolo de unde nu am plecat niciodat, la
Basarabia (Goma 2003: 158). Wilhelm von Humboldt fixeaz atenia asupra limbilor care
exprim pronumele personale eu i tu printr-un aici, iar pe el printr-un acolo
(Humboldt 1829: 304 apud Heidegger 2003: 164). Cu alte cuvinte, adverbele: aici i
acolo adaug semnificaiei sale primordiale de pure determinri locale, caracteristici ale
spaialitii originare, devenind aa zisele determinative ale eului (ibidem). Imaginea lui
aici, care echivaleaz cu o [] identitate, o cultur, chiar o limb care nu exist:
limb moldoveneasc (Goma 2003: 59), contopit cu lumea proprie eului , ce surprinde
tabloul Basarabiei ca pmnt de cumpn, nu se mai adreseaz siei, ci devine un vector cu
sens opus, orientat fiind de la sine, ctre un acolo, avnd totui n vedere pe sine n
spaialitatea existenial (Humboldt 1829: 304 apud Heidegger 2003: 164), unde eul narator
al lui Paul Goma fiineaz graie propriilor sale legi ontice:
Din Basarabia am fugit de rul Ruilor, din Romnia am fost silit s plec de rul
Romnilor aadar m mulumesc cu ceea ce am i cu ce ceea ce nu-mi mai poate nimeni lua
- limba romn (Goma 2003: 82).
Aici-ul eului gomian, sau n sensul existenial locul, trebuie perceput printr-o
raportare la un acolo, care din punct de vedere antropologic denot conceptul de non-loc,
vidat de orice personalizare. n acest sens, negaia non-, perceput n termeni existeniali,
transform locul ntr-o cavitate goal, pe care putem s-o atingem numai pe dinafar,
deoarece nu dispune de un coninut pe care s i-l descoperim nuntru (Cornea 2010: 10).
Spaialitatea existenial care determin locul personajului naratorului se ntemeiaz ea nsi
pe condiia sui generis a faptului-a-fi-n-lume, care n cazul eului narator al lui Paul Goma
Victor mi-a sugerat s scriu O Zi din Viaa unui Afgan din Basarabia.
Nu. Altfel: Cnd Victor mi-a propus
Nici aa: Aa: Cnd Victor a rostit un nume i m-a ntrebat dac mi spune ceva, am rspuns c nu. (Paul Goma,
Basarabia)
1
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este echivalent cu patima scrisului, ca unica modalitate de reconstituire a locului: [] eu nu

mai alt ar dect Basarabia cea care nu mai exist dect n crile mele (Goma 2003: 82).
Graie acestei scrieri, autorul reuete s-i creeze o lume stabil: [] fac cu minile mele
Basarabenii mei (ibidem: 83). Reprezentarea tabloului Basarabiei devine echivalent cu
regsirea locului originar, n momentul mrturisirii eului a faptului c [] am lsat totul
totul, am pierdut cas, coal, biseric, fabric, i pmnt (ibidem: 81).
Paul Goma aduce n faa lui nsui, aflarea de sine, nu printr-o accepie de ordin
perceptiv i printr-o regsire de sine deloc afectiv, care, ns, creeaz condiii pentru
refacerea mintal-sentimental a locului:
[] solidaritate n interiorul unui grup [] nu se mai poate [] nu am cedat
nesolidarizrii (ba chiar am ieit n fa, i-am provocat pe gardieni, pe politruci, pe directori),
ns o fceam doar s-mi dovedesc mie c sunt altfel (ibidem: 175).
n acest sens, menioneaz Ana Banto, Paul Goma i convertete destinul de
transfug n cel de artist al re-fugii [], ieind din banalitatea literaturii (Banto 2011: 192).
Condiia de deznaionalizat al eului narator este surprins de ctre Paul Goma, tocmai n
momentul refuzului de a se conforma cu noua schem inventat de ctre sistemul
totalitarist: sunt cel care nu accept dect un singur nume, ntiul, cel care i-l faci tu,
purttor i-l ajustezi, potriveti dup chipul asemnarea ta (Goma 2003: 10). Dei drama
intelectualului basarabean favorizeaz o extensiune a contiinei prin trirea simultan pe mai
multe planuri ale sale, eul narator o resimte n primul rnd ca o traum, cu att mai dureroas
cu ct pare de nedepit:
[] durere (special) de Basarabia [] Oamenii au dureri de cap, de spate, de
pntece, de inim. [] Eu - printr-e alii - am durere de Basarabie. Durerea de Basarabie era
oarecum altfel. Aici era bucuria - c scpasem de Rui; Dincoace ne-bucuria - c tata nu
scpase de Rui.
Aceast extensiune, este pigmentat, n termeni antropologici, de imaginea excesului
de spaiu (Aug 1992: 45), cruia, Marc Aug n studiul Introduction une anthropologie de
la surmodernit, i imprim caracteristica de baz a non-locului. Paul Goma descrie imaginea
unui spaiu psihologic, ce poate fi definit drept o entitate rezultat prin reflectarea subiectiv a
lumii externe, lumii creia nu-i mai aparine: [] sfritul lumii intrarea obligatorie n
colhozuri, nchiderea de biserici, impunerea limbii ruse [] arderea crilor tiprite cu litere
burgheze, arestri,mpucri pe loc, deportri (Goma 2003: 12). Imaginea non-locului este
determinat i de excesul de timp, susine Marc Aug (1992: 46). Operei lui Paul Goma i
este caracteristic disjuncia valorilor temporale, n paginile romanului se concentreaz pagini
ntregi din istoria Basarabiei din care nu a plecat niciodat. Preocuparea de non-loc este destul
de evident la Goma, ntruct scriitorul introduce n paginile romanului su o definiie clasic
a acestuia, cea despre care vorbea Marc Aug n studiu su antropologic cu meniunea c
locul ce nu poate fi definit nici din punct de vedere identitar, nici relaional, i nici istoric, va
fi denumit non-loc. Goma merge mult mai departe n descrierea dramei Basarabiei i
basarabenilor, contientiznd ideea c imaginea acestui pmnt devine pigmentat de culorile
non-locului:
Ruii au atentat la identitatea Romnilor din Basarabia. n 1828 a fost lichidat
autonomia, acel animal care nu existase n promisiuni []comunitii ne-au luat trecutul []
dovada faptului: istoricii vorbeau de Moldova sovietic fr nici o referire la statutul
feudal romnesc, Moldova, din care Ruii zmulser partea rsritean, boteznd-o abuziv:
Bessarabia (Goma: 78, 99, 122).
Fiind tentat s redea fluxul de intensitate al sentimentului non-locului, autorul aduce n
prim plan nefirescul situaiei eului, al crui sistem de relaii inter-umane, devine un simbol
al inutilitii i al dezrdcinrii, orice tentativ de a ntreine relaii n spaiu, precum i apelul
la identitate i cel la personalizarea locului su se niveleaz: [] nici ei nu tiu de unde s
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m ia i unde s m situeze [] (ibidem: 10). n acest sens unicul loc securizat limba
romn devine poluat de limba ocupantului, care se vrse cu de-a sila n urechi, n ochi,
n suflet (ibidem: 14). Pentru a justifica mutilarea sensului cuvintelor n contiina poporului,
eul narator enumer cteva exemple n acest sens: palatalizarea toponimelor (Chiinu Kiiniov); rusificarea numelor de persoan (Paul Goma - Pavel Homa); introducerea
patronimului. Prozatorul vine cu o explicaie a motivului acestor aciuni de dez(n)cercuire:
s fac s dispar identitatea locului i locuitorilor (ibidem: 45).
Cea de-a treia marc a reprezentrii imaginii non-locului din punct de vedere
existenialist, dar i antropologic, devine sublinierea de ctre Goma a lipsei dialogului: []
nici dialogul romno-romn nu e posibil (Goma 2003: 123), precum i imposibilitatea de a
ntreine rapoarte n spaiu: [] ncercau s m evite (ibidem: 8)
Suferina personajului gomian pe care orice ntmplare basarabean l face s intre n
rezonan (ibidem: 22) este provocat tocmai de aceast necesitate de a se reiniia n loculde-deschidere al fiinrii aparent fictive, unde jertfa torturii nencarcerat trupete, rmne cu
sufletul dezolat de regimul schizoid de falsificare (Cesereanu 1998: 12), cci omul nou nu
are nevoie de adevrul concret, ci doar de unul ideal teoretic, corespunztor moralei
comuniste (ibidem). Paul Goma transcrie aceast stare n felul urmtor: ai fi suferit, fiindc
nu ai fost nici deinut, nici liber (Goma 1990: 244). Cu alte cuvinte, traseul personajului lui
Goma nu este deloc unul al mntuirii, odat scufundat n infernul torturii totalitariste va simi
necesitatea reconstruirii tabloului utopic al matricei originare ca loc-de-deschidere. Pentru
Goma, subliniaz Ana Banto, problema despririide batin echivaleaz cu ruperea de
rdcini (Banto 2011: 193). Etapa salvrii de aceast dezrdcinare nu va avea loc dect
parial, prin revenire la imaginea Calidorului i casei din Mana.
Concluzii
Riscnd s fie negat i marginalizat pn la evitare i inutilitate, Paul Goma
desfiineaz sintagma deja intrat n uz de rezisten prin cultur. Scriitorul denot n i prin
textul su semnificaia toposului la cumpna deznaionalizrii sovietice i ocuprii romneti.
Specificul operei, prin subiectivitate i imperativul dezvluirii, care pornete de la propunerea
de a descrie O Zi din Viaa unui Afgan din Basarabia devine un jurnal al realitii dureroase
a Basarabiei i basarabenilor, ca nucleu al fiinrii sale. n lucrarea de fa s-a insistat asupra
revelrii imaginii eului deznaionalizat a romnului basarabean pe de o parte i intelectualului
lucid, surprins n postura de actant al torturii comuniste, pe de alt parte. Unicitatea
romanului Basarabia, este n a prezenta, n debut, imaginea absenei locului-de-deschidere
autentic, precum i suprimarea liberei expresii a gndirii prin mutilarea sensului cuvntului
glastnosti, sfidnd, n acest sens, teoria kantian a fiinrii: ego sum cogito sum. Faptul
de a fi n lume, dac e s vorbim n termeni heideggerieni, este minat de patima scrisului. n
acest context, lumea din afar este substituit cu o revolt interioar, unde eul gomian
descoper spirala interioritii, construind imaginea mental a matricei sale organice. Goma
apeleaz la aceast idee existenialist, introducnd n textul su cuplul corelativ aici acolo. Plsmuirea utopic a unei axis mundi devine echivalent cu trirea de ctre eul
narator ntr-un timp psihologic: comprimat i dilatat deopotriv. n acest context, subliniem
ideea, c eul narator nu enun o trire imaginar, ci una de ordin afectiv perceptibil, fiind
conservat prin scriere. Durerea de Basarabia a lui Paul Goma nu se termin odat cu
ultimele pagini ale romanului, ntruct el nsui menioneaz c aceast carte nu este
terminat: Cartea rmne aa neterminat.
Bibiliografie
Arendt 2006: Hannah Arendt, Originile totalitarismului, traducere de Ion Dur i
Mircea Ivnescu, Bucureti, Editura Humanitas.
825
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Aug 1992: Marc Aug, Introduction une anthropologie de la surmodernit, Paris,

Seuil.
Banto 2011: Ana Banto, Deschidere spre universalism. Literatura romn din
Basarabia postbelic, Chiinu, Tipografia Serebia.
Cesereanu 1998: Ruxanda Cesereanu, O cltorie spre centrul infernului. Gulagul n
contiina romneasc, Bucureti, Editura Fundaiei Culturale Romne.
Codreanu 2010: Theodor Codreanu, Este Paul Goma un Soljenin romn, n AXA,
anul III, nr 44, http://axa.info.ro/istorie/este-paul-goma-un-soljenitin-roman/, (accesat: 28. 08.
2014).
Coza 2011: Ancua Maria Coza, Paul Goma. Destinul unui disident, Iai, Editura Tipo
Moldova.
Goma 2003: Paul Goma, Basarabia, Chiinu, Editura Flux.
Goma 1990: Paul Goma, Gherla-Lteti, Bucureti, Editura Humanitas.
Heidegger 1996: Martin Heidegger, Being and time, translated by Joan Stambaugh,
Published by State University of New York Press, Albany.
Heidegger 2003: Martin Heidegger, Fiin i timp, traducere din german de Gabriel
Liiceanu i Ctlin Cioab, Bucureti, Editura Humanitas.
Marino 1996: Adrian Marino, Politic i cultur romn, Iai, Editura Polirom.
Ursache 2012: Petru Ursache, Omul din Calidor, Cluj-Napoca, Editura Eikon.
826
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JEDEDIAH BERRY, INHERITANCE: AN APPROACH FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF THE

NEW CRITICISM
Ofelia TOFAN (married AL-GAREEB)
Abstract: This paper approaches Jedediah Berrys short novel, Inheritance, a piece of
magical realism novelizing the eternal matter of oppressive parental authority in a
metaphoric story about the beast in the basement from the perspective of New Criticism.
Keywords: magical realism, symbolism, human psyche, modernism, New Criticism.
New Critics favoured poetry, and yet prose can be very well approached in terms of
New Criticism, many short texts lending themselves to be interpreted and explicated, so much
the more a literary work such as Jedediah Berrys Inheritance, a piece of magic(al) realism,
overflowing with symbolism, one of the articles of faith asserted by Cleanth Brooks in The
Formalist Critics being that literature is ultimately metaphorical and symbolic.1
In this short novel, Berry novelizes the eternal matter of an oppressive parental
authority in a metaphor full of mystery, by showing (as showing is artistic, whereas telling is
not, accordingly to Wayne Booth2) the beast in Gregs life, the beast in each and every
ones basement, namely humans deep hidden secrets, their id, and that constitutes the
specific moral problem, the subject matter of literature, although the aim of literature is not
to point a moral3, this feature being another tenet of the New Criticism.
As concerns showing, for a modern writer story is present without comment, leaving
the reader without the guidance of explicit evaluation4, separating technique, the authors
means of controlling his reader, from all of the social and psychological forces that affect
authors and readers5, and thus the very essence of New Criticism being fulfilled, as Brooks
put it, that literary study should be concerned primarily with the work itself6. Focusing on
the problem of unity, the whole made up by the literary work, as well the relationship between
its parts (ten in this case) in building the story, is also a part of the New Criticism creed.
Each part has its own importance, adding to the structure of Inheritance, connecting
characters and events to form a successful unitary literary work, making the format and
content inseparable.
In spite of the fact that there is a beast in all humans psyche, the existence of a
dark, inaccessible part of our personality being a general and universal truth, Berry drives us
to this conclusion by a concrete and particular case, be it a fictional one, by showing the beast
Greg has inherited from his recently deceased father, whom he had not seen in thirty years.
The beast, it, as most of the characters name the creature, or him, as Lilith, Gregs wife
calls the animal, a worrisome beast, its snout long and searching, head furry with woolly
Apud Vincent B. Leitch, The Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism (W. W. Norton, 2001),
< http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleanth_Brooks>.
2
Wayne C. Booth, The Rhetoric of Fiction. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1961. 2nd Ed. 1983
< http://www.rlwclarke.net/courses/lits2306/2009-2010/12BBoothTheRhetoricofFiction.pdf>.
3
Cf. Allen Tate,Miss Emily and the Bibliographers in volume Reason in Madness, G.B. Putnam, New York,
1941, p. 121 < https://www.questia.com/library/1664434/reason-in-madness-critical-essays-by-allen-tate >.
4
Wayne C. Booth, op.cit.
5
Idem.
6
Apud Vincent B. Leitch, op. cit.
827
Issue no. 6/2015
clumps around the ears, cloven hooves at the ends of its lean legs7, the mysterious, unreal,
fairy tale element refers to religion, as well as to mythology, especially in connection with
Lilith, who tries to humanize him. In religious terms, the beast could be the devil if the cloven
hooves are to be taken into consideration; in a mythological approach, judging by the human
parts, the navel visible through wiry hair, the hairless brown nipples, eyes with something
like a soul behind them8, it could be the goat-god.
On the other hand, Lilith, too has at least two possible references: one to the queen of
the demons, the other female to the prior woman in the life of Adam, from whom she fled
away for not wanting to submit him, as long as they both had been created equals, from the
same dust, reason why she could not have accepted to lay under her man; Lilith as a demon
who destroys newborns, and Lilith as a rebellious wife.9 Therefore, as the queen of demons,
she could have recognized and saved one of her babies, the beast itself (she washed him with
warm water and a shampoo, dressed it with a blue overalls and allowed some of the children
to touch its fur, as if she was proudly presenting her child, saying comforting words similar to
a lullaby reference to Lilith, the murderer of infants10 , takes it home saying: come to
Mommy11) ; as a wife, unwilling to submit her husband, she is the one who initiates the
sexual intercourse, she straddles him, occupying a superior position in the economy of the
couple; her hair smelling of faint rotting leaves12 exactly the same scent as the beasts, and
letting him see that there is no room for three (in the bathroom, where she takes care of the
wound on the beasts head). To these two instances of Lilith, there are more symbols to be
added: as the demons queen the black and white movie, the black and white living room,
the black and white wife, whose nightgown seemed made of bluish light, as she was a spectre
from the underworld; as the rebellious wife Greg takes the beast to Abes because he
thought it would be good for her13, as if she was not entitled to an opinion; sending the
beast away from the bed, and locking it in the garage, in spite of his wifes telling him that the
beast was not feeling well, and moreover, she would have liked to take a photo, a family
portrait (again, the maternal reference).
The imagery is very rich starting with the very beginning, in Abes basement, which
was his sanctum and in the description of the place there is an irony, because according to
its name, it was supposed to be perfect, and yet it contained all sort of imperfections: a leaking
cooler, stale pretzels, a Phil folding all the hands, though he was always a risk-taker, but even
so, this is another kind of an id, an orderly one in spite of the loss affecting his life, one with
all the model ships, having suggestive names, such as Bonne Homme Richard (again an irony
as long as Abe would ask Greg to shot the beast and give him the weapon; also a reference to
the ship that victoriously fought against the British vessel during the American Revolution, as
so does Greg against his dark inheritance); one model ship for each month passed since
Corey, Abes wife left him (the name Corey might as well refer to core, the basic, the essence,
the ego).
Then again, the meddlesome Mrs. Heck (heck an euphemism for hell; also, the name
is derived from the Greek Hektor meaning to hold, to possess14), the one who triggers the
Jedediah Berry, Inheritance, Fairy Tale Review, editor Kate Bernheimer, Department of English, University
of Alabama Tuscaloosa, AL 35487 p. 27 < www.fairytalereview.com>.
8
Idem.
9
http:/www.lilitu.com/lilith.
10
To guard against Lilith, superstitious Jews would hang four amulets, one on the wall of each room of a
newborn babe, with the inscription Lilith - abi! ("Lilith - begone!") which some think is the origin, much later,
of the English word
lullaby. < http://rkangel.tripod.com/lilith.html>.
11
Jedediah Berry, op. cit., p. 30
12
Ibidem.
13
Idem.
14
http://www.behindthename.com.
7
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Issue no. 6/2015
death of the beast with her insistency in knowing everything concerning her neighbours, who
used to seat in a corner in Greg and his fathers house and cut coupons from their newspapers
(allusion to intrusiveness) with a pair of scissors (allusion to the three divinities from the
Inferno, Clotho, Lachesis and Atropos who spins, reels and cut the thread of life,
respectively).
Not only the movie on the TV was in white and black as to suggest oppositeness,
extremeness, or maybe Liliths firm position, but it was about a pair of cops stepping in front
of a house, which looked like his fathers (foretelling what would happen), while the music
reached a crescendo as if to announce the peak of the action, both in film and in Gregs life.
Greg, a history teacher seems to spend too much time on the Holocaust (causing the
parents concern), as if to try to understand better his long-estranged father, whom he refers to
as Lyle, and not as his father, in his memories of the scene at the hospital, and who was
muttering commandments15 the term having a triple referentiality as military command,
law, and religious bidding all the meanings of the word having its well defined place in the
structure of the story, each intertwining with the others, complementing reciprocally, giving
hints to Lyles nature. In order to complete the portrait, Berry offers us Lyles photographs,
all from the war, found by Greg in the his fathers dresser. In all he was grinning (not smiling,
grinning encompassing also the negative connotation), in some he was pointing straight at
the camera as if to say, Hey, you there!16, and this pose, this superior attitude betraying a
powerful and fearless, determined and imperative nature, as well as his unuttered threat are
proofs of his domineering and authoritative attitude. As concerns the last photo, Greg flipped
it quickly because it showed Lyle behind the controls of his bomber plane and probably the
latter was one of the pilots who launched bombs during the World War Two (hence Gregs
insistence on teaching longer about the war in his attempt not only to understand his father,
but also to find the way of easing somehow the guilt he felt for his fathers past mistakes and
guilt, part of his inheritance).
Furthermore, it was Lyles basement the beast was found in, chained and half-starved
and although Lyle is dead, and even if they have not been visiting each other for thirty years,
(the name of Lyle stands for solitude, for isolation17), Greg feels his presence around, and the
moment when he feels it the most intensely of all is when they went to take back the beast
from Mrs. Connorss and Lilith sat with it on the back seat of the car, holding its right arm
and gently squeezing it, while Greg couldnt see its face, but smelled the earthy breath, felt it
hot on the back of his neck18 as if he cannot still cope with the reality, since he has not
fully understood his past and did not unburden hid heart. Besides, the name of Greg stands for
alertness, guard, and he eventually decides to put an end to the past and the connection to it, to
cast away his inheritance by accepting to shot the beast and thus guarding everybody against
the trouble it represented.
Gordon, the son of Phil and Elise, is another character with a devious behaviour,
showing a tendency of being domineering entering on a run in Gregs house, with his arms
raised, he makes the beast inch from him, blinking, and says, Now it knows whos boss19 ;
he is the vector of all the unpleasant situations (stealing the key, he unleashes the beast which
goes to Mrs. Connor, who calls the police, namely Abe; he bruises the beasts nipple; he hurts
the beast and gets hurt too).
15
Jedediah Berry, op. cit., p. 31.

Idem, p. 33
17
18
19
Idem, p. 31.
16
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Issue no. 6/2015
Abe, the policeman, friend of both Greg and Lyle, acts like a real patriarch (Abraham
meaning father of many20), not only advising Greg, for instance that the beast should not be
taught to speak, Nobody wants to know what it would have to say21 (alluding to the fact that
id is repressed and so it should remain), but also giving him the weapon to cut out the ties to
his burdening and troublesome legacy.
But it seems that Greg himself took a resolution. He mistakes the days of the week,
and so he wakes up early, prepares breakfast and asks the beast to do more than rolling
oranges, to rip one apart and to just tear into it22, thus recognizing not only the force of the
unconscious, but the fastness it takes to destroy if the dark side could take over. Somehow
relieved, as he made a decision, he goes to school, and fills the blackboard with notes as his
lesson plan was the best hed ever written23 that is the best resolution ever taken. In the
evening, he is awaken by Gordons screaming, and after Elise, Phil and Abe have arrived too,
Abe taking over and telling everybody what is to be done, Greg puts on the clothes hed
worn to school24 to maintain his resolution and goes together with Abe to Lyles place
and shots the beast in the same clearing where he used to play when he was a boy.
Paradoxically, Greg who could not stand the idea of killing an innocent beast when it was
suggested by his father in his childhood in order to cover his fort with a skin taken off from a
deer (implying that he should have killed the deer first), who did not know how to fire a gun,
succeeds in firing it, bringing everything to a close, thus silencing his dark, deep hidden innerself.
Returned back from there, Greg faces day-to-day reality, discovering that the world
remained unchanged, that life goes on as usual, while Abe, silencing the radio, concludes that
they could use some quiet. This quietness seems ambiguous it could be a well deserved one,
a time to ponder upon and to relax, but on the other hand, it could be the silence before the
storm, the pause before what is to come.
As a conclusion, quoting the critic Raoul R. Ibarguen, it is obvious that Inheritance
with its narrative structure, in a very close relationship to its meaning, with its third person
narrator, with its specific moral problem, not to mention the artistic skillfulness of Jedediah
Berry the rich imagery, the heavy symbolism, which assigns him a meritorious place among
the most gifted postmodernist writers , meets the requirements of the New Criticism:
First, the text has a structure because it is something made, something assembled
from or discovered from an assembly of language. This is the sense in which T. S. Eliot spoke
of technical excellence, and of the artist surrendering himself to the work to be done.
Second, the text has a structure because its tensions and discords may be experienced-readas a unified whole. As something made, the structure of the text is alienated from the artist's
consciousness. Eliot speaks of the impersonality of great art: it is not the expression of
personality, but an escape from personality. But as something experienced, the structure of
the text constitutes consciousness. Richards asserts that this experience unifies the personality
such that the mind does not shy away from anything, it does not protect itself with any
illusion, it stands uncomforted, unintimidated, alone and self-reliant. []The use of
symbolism, rather than plot, to structure the text is the proverbial hallmark of high
modernism.25
20
22
Idem, p. 37.
23
24
Ibidem.
25
Raoul R. Ibarguen, Narrative Detour: Henry Miller and the Rise of New Critical Modernism
<http://www.henry-miller.com/narrative-literature/new-criticisms-modernist-canon.html>
21
830
Issue no. 6/2015
Bibliography
Berry, Jedediah, Inheritance, Fairy Tale Review, editor Kate Bernheimer,
Department of English, University of Alabama Tuscaloosa, AL 35487 <
www.fairytalereview.com>.
Wayne C. Booth, Wayne C., The Rhetoric of Fiction. Chicago:
U of Chicago P,
1961.
2nd
Ed.1983<http://www.rlwclarke.net/courses/lits2306/20092010/12BBoothTheRhetoricofFictio
n.pdf>.
Ibarguen, Raoul R., Narrative Detour: Henry Miller and the Rise of New Critical
Modernism
<http://www.henry-miller.com/narrative-literature/new-criticisms-modernistcanon.html>.
Leitch, Vincent B., The Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism (W. W. Norton,
2001), < http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleanth_Brooks>.
Tate, Allen,Miss Emily and the Bibliographers in volume Reason in Madness, G.B.
Putnam, New York, 1941, p. 121 < https://www.questia.com/library/1664434/reason-inmadness-critical-essays-by-allen-tate >.
http:/www.lilitu.com/lilith.
http://rkangel.tripod.com/lilith.html.
831
Issue no.6/2015
THE ROLE OF STEAUA MAGAZINE IN PROLTETCULT

SZAB Zsolt
Abstract: About proletarian literature were written many books, there flowed rivers of ink and
then used hundreds of toners to give the reader a clearer picture of what it meant literature
and culture in general, after the Second World War. The Steaua Magazine from Cluj played a
key role in the release under the cupola of proletcultism literature because, in a time when
there were widespread mystification ideas such as reading and brochures promoting Leninist
principles, Steaua had the merit to sense the dangers which threatened the normal movement
literature, suffocated by official propaganda and struggle to overcome the nightmare.
Keywords: proletcultism, propaganda, literature, principles, movement.
Despre literatura din perioada proletcultist s-au scris numeroase cri, au curs ruri de
cerneal i mai apoi s-au folosit sute de tonere pentru a oferi cititorului o imagine ct mai
clar despre ce nsemna literatura i cultura n general, dup al doilea Rzboi Mondial. O
delimitare a perioadelor literaturii n comunism am gsit n cartea lui Eugen Negrici,
Literatura romn n comunism iar aceast delimitare este urmtoarea: perioada
proletcultismului (1948-1964), perioada liberalizrii i a deschiderii (1964-1971) i o period
de degradare, cnd Ceauescu ncearca s imprime o not naionalist comunismului.
Eliberarea literaturii din perioada proletcultist era de fapt o dorin a oamenilor de cultur ai
vremii respective pentru c graniele n ale scrisului erau clar delimitate de la centru iar cei ce
nesocoteau indicaiile i asumau consecinele. Prima perioad la care fac referire a fost o
perioad a holocaustului cultural, cnd tonul n cultur se ddea de ideologia marxist, in
varianta ei ruseasc. Pentru o imagine mai clar a proletcultismului, adic a cultului proletar
implementat de sovietici, am extras definiia din Dicionarul explicativ al limbii romne:
PROLETCULTSM s. n. Curent cultural (aprut n Uniunea Sovietic dup Revoluia
din Octombrie) ale crui principii estetice se reduceau la ideea formrii unei culturi pur
proletare i care respingea ntreaga motenire cultural a trecutului.
Dup rus. proletkultovcina. 1
Instalarea regimului comunist n 1944 nu a nsemnat transormarea imediat a ntregii
societi romneti. nstpnirea societii s-a realizat gradat pentru c, mai ales la nceput,
puterea politic avea alte prioriti cum ar fi nlturarea adversarilor politici i consolidarea
puterii. n aceste condiii, pentru o scurt perioad de timp nu putem vorbi despre o ingerin
n domeniul literaturii dar aceasta nu ntrzie s apar. Imixtiunea n breasla scriitoriceasc nu
s-a fcut neaprat de ctre cei aflai la Putere. Perturbrile politice din spaiul literar au fost
iniiate chiar de ctre deintorii de condeie dornici de a reaeza pe scara axiologic valorile
deja consacrate n literatur i n cultur, la modul general. Aceast reaezare a scrii
axiologice era specific domeniului artelor, la fiecare schimbare politic major, trebuia s
existe i una de ordin cultural. Criteriile conform crora se stabilea locul valoric a fiecruia n
cultur erau de cele mai multe ori de ordin politic i etico-moral. Denunurile, demascrile i
chemrile n faa unor ,,instane morale erau principalele moduri sistematice utilizate de
obicei de ctre scriitori obscuri, nesemnificativi n domeniul literaturii i care i doreau
formarea unui prestigiu prin aceste operaii pentru eliberarea complexului insignifianei.
, Institutul de Lingvistic Iorgu Iordan, Dicionarul explicativ al limbii romne, ediia a II-a revzut i
adugit, Academia Romn, Editura Academiei Romne, 2009
1
832
Issue no. 6/2015
n anul 1944, apare o revist cu denumirea ridicol, Dreptatea, la iniiativa unui

oficios al opoziiei Partidului rnesc, numit Oscar Lemnaru. Este dovada clar a faptului c
incursiunile n viaa literar nu sunt cauzate, la nceput, de instalarea proaspetei Puteri. Odat
cu desfiinarea instituiei monarhice n decembrie 1947, cnd principalii adversari politici
fuseser nlturai, regimul comunist ncepe s pun stpnire i pe domeniul creaiilor
literare. Viaa politic romneasc ncepe s graviteze doar n jurul unui singur partid dornic
s strmute ntreaga societate romneasc din temeiurile sale democratice. Urmeaz o serie de
reformri: a economiei, a nvmntului i chiar a ortografiei. Este de la sine neles faptul c
nici literatura nu putea fi exclus din aceast taxologie reformatoare. Literatura pentru mase
era n accepia ideologilor vremii o literatur pe nelesul tuturor ceea ce nsemna respectarea
exigenelor dogmatismului politic i sancionarea pentru orice abatere de la aa numita ,,linie
a partidului. Era clar c din astfel de directive nu avea cum s rezulte o literatur de calitate,
cnd esteticul devenea o noiune ilegal iar literatura avea un singur rol i anume de
propagandare a Puterii.
Poezia ncepe s ias din matca ei, urmnd o promovare a epicului n care temele
principale erau satul, colectivizarea, antierele, uzinele, adic un ansamblu de idei menite s
rstoarne structurile sociale ale vremii. Dup proclamarea republicii populare, n existena
tuturor revistelor ndrumate de ,, Partidul clasei muncitoare, apare o schimbare brusc n
acest peisaj al jurnalismului literar: revista Viaa romneasc reaprut n 1947, i modific
formatul n 1948 i devine revist lunar central a Uniunii Scriitorilor, la Cluj ia fiin
Almanahul literar n 1949 , devenit Steaua din 1954, Convorbiri literare la Iai, n 1970 iar
n 1971 Vatra din Trgu Mure. Revistele romneti acord spaiu scriitorilor aparinnd
naionalitilor conlocuitoare care scriu direct n limba romn sau sunt tradui de colegii lor,
dup cum n revistele de limb maghiar, german i srb din Romnia se dau n traducere
opere ale scriitorilor romni. Din 1946 apare la Cluj revista Utunk , din 1959 n redacia
poetului cu care a colaborat i Aurel Gurghianu, Ltay Lajos.
Revista clujean Steaua a a vut un rol esenial n eliberarea literaturii de sub cupola
proletcultismului pentru c, ntr-o perioad n care erau rspndite idei cum ar fi mistificarea
lecturii i promovarea brourilor leniniste, stelitii au avut meritul de a sesiza pericolele care
ameninau evoluia normal a literaturii sufocate de propaganda oficial i de a lupta pentru
ieirea din comar2. Steaua a avut prin toat activitatea sa un rol esenial n aprarea poeziei
romneti, n resurecia lirismului, ntr-un moment n care acesta suferea grave involuii
dirijate sistematic. Student pe atunci la Iai, Marin Sorescu, n cartea sa Uor cu pianul pe
scri, ne mrturisete respectul su fa de clujenii de la Steaua i mai aflm din aceeai carte
faptul c era atent la lupta i succesele clujenilor din acea perioad de restrite literar: ,,prima
ploaie binefctoare pentru lirismul romnesc a venit atunci de la Cluj3.
Aurel Gurghianu, la rndul su, ne dezvluie respectul pentru Octavian Goga,
scriitorul n a cror creaii se regsete. l numete cntre i consider c s-a nscut parc
dintr-o necesitate istoric, neles i adoptat de mulimi ca i spiritele cele mai alese ale
neamului su4. Referitor la Goga, Aurel Gurghianu mai spune c acesta mprtie peste noi o
mare lumin, pe care o cptm odat cu luminile celorlali atri ai literaturii, n vecintatea
crora st, strjuind pmntul i apele rii. Criticul literar Eugen Simion l numete pe
Nicolae Labi ,,buduganul unei generaii pentru c rentoarce poezia la rosturile ei, ntr-o
perioad n care o resuscitare a valorilor literare era destul de anevoioas. Alturi de Labi, i
construiesc o identitate liric precis, ulterior, poei cu un talent energic n ale condeiului
printre care se numr A.E. Baconsky, Ion Horea, Gheorghe Tomozei i Aurel Gurghianu.
2
Ioan Nistor, Poezia cotidianului, Editura Eikon, Cluj-Napoca, 2014 p.8

Marin Sorescu, Uor cu pianul pe scri, Editura Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 1985, p.65
4
Aurel Gurghianu, Anotimpurile cetii, Editura Dacia, Cluj-Napoca, 1988, p.129
3
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Exist chiar i dovezi n deceniul al aselea din domeniului romanescului referitoare la faptul
c atunci cnd talentul este puternic, opera triumf. Printre aceste dovezi clare de talent
neatins de influenele politice sau etnic-morale ale acelor vremuri se numr romanul
Moromeii (1955; 1967) a lui Marin Preda sau Cronic de familie (1956), Groapa (1957).
Aceste creaii de excepie ne dovedesc faptul c nici acestui interval de timp nu i se poate
atribui eticheta de holocaust al literaturii.
Tot n aceast perioad a proletcultismului, mari scriitori cum ar fi Tudor Aghezi,
Camil Petrescu, Lucian Blaga sunt pui pe linie moart, absentnd din publicaii i din lumea
literar un important numr de ani, motiv pentru care unii dintre ei iau calea exilului. Ali
sciitori, nu n numr foarte mic, se supun noilor reguli care constau din ideologizarea noilor
criterii de promovare a proletcultismului. Criticul literar Ion Simu nu face o mare deosebire
ntre proletcultism i realism socialist: ,, - ce mi-i unul, ce mi-i cellalt! - dar trebuie s explic
mai pe ndelete de ce. Proletcultismul anilor 1948-1950 de la noi nu avea nimic de a face cu
proletcultismul iniial moscovit, al anilor 1918-1920, n sensul originar de art avangardist,
rupnd cu orice tradiie, adoptnd viziunea i stilul proletar la modul insurgent-anarhic,
ignornd orice disciplin i ideologie de partid. Proletcultismul de la noi avea nelesul
remaniat, adaptat, cuminit, de cultur proletar, partinic i patriotic, reprezentnd
ideologia unei clase care a svrit victorioas revoluia antiburghez. 5
Este binetiut faptul c propaganda idealurilor comuniste constituia principala arm, a
sistemului de trist amintire, iar principalul scop era anihilarea voinei maselor i redresarea
lor ntr-o direcie bine stabilit n strategii fundamentale fixate la congrese care se
materializau prin planuri i programe impuse mai ales n zona revuistic de atunci. Pentru ca
ideologia partidului s fie ct mai bine promovat, strategia de marketing, am zice azi, era de
rezervare a unui anumit numr de pagini, obligatoriu, dintr-o revist, n care propaganda
comunist putea fi ridicat la demnitatea dorit de Putere. n restul paginilor, ideologia
partidului era introdus prin abloane, pentru obinerea bunului de tipar. Cu ct problemele la
nivelul rii deveneau mai acute, cum ar fi criza energetic, exportul excesiv sau diminuarea
produciilor uzinelor, cu att numrul de pagini rezervate propagandei proletcultiste era mai
mare. Revistele literare au aprut att atunci ct i dintotdeauna ntr-un cadru social concret.
n perioada proletcultist, fiecare numr era supus unui eveniment important cum ar fi
Congresul sau aniversarea Zilei Republicii, aniversarea PCR, vizitele tovarului Ceauescu
n ar i n strintate precum i reuitele acestor peregrinri diplomatice n interesul
republicii, adic evenimente care se doreau scoase n eviden cu scopul de manipulare a
maselor.
Departe de celebrele Cabinete unu i doi i mai puin presate de ideologii erau
revistele ardelene Steaua, Vatra i Echinox. Teoretic, n aceste redacii laul din jurul libertii
de exprimare nu era att de strns i i puteau desfura activitatea mult mai lejer dect n alte
redacii mai aproape de Capital. Documentele existente n Arhivele Romniei, la fondul
Comitetului de Pres i Tiprituri dezvluie controlul atent, lecturile succesive ale
materialelor care urmau s apar n reviste, apar anulri, interziceri, sau amnri ale unor texte
nepliate peste ideologia vremii. Acest Comitet de Pres i Tiprituri a fost creat dup modelul
sovietic iar principala activitate a acestuia o constituia controlul a tot ce nsemna publicare de
texte, aici fiind inclus att revuistica, cu cea mai mare rspndire, ct i alte tiprituri de
orice fel. Prin urmare, n interiorul structurii acestui Comitet existau mai multe departamente,
bineneles i un departament pentru literatur, numit Direcia Literatur, printre altele. Din
cataloagele i dosarele pstrate n Arhivele statului reiese concret linia trasat de Partid i
ideologiile care trebuiau promovate obligatoriu de fiecare publicaie. Notele rmase i
arhivate sunt dovada clar a celei mai cenzurate perioade culturale din istoria Romniei.
5
Ion Simu n Romnia literar nr. 31/ 08.08.2008-15.08.2008 p.16
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Dar totui, cine interzicea publicarea articolelor n reviste? ne-am putea ntreba retoric.
Rspunsul l gsim n aceleai Arhive ale statului din care am concluzionat urmtoarele:
existau n fiecare jude al rii aa-numiii ,,lectori , angajai ai Comitetului de Pres i
Tiprituri care aveau dificila sarcin de a spiona redaciile publicaiilor vremii i de a ntocmi
procese-verbale despre tot ce urma s apar n presa scris. Raportul ,,lectorilor era naintat
spre Comitetul judeean PCR care decidea, n funcie de referinele din procesele-verbale,
dac un articol apare sau nu n pres.
Un exemplu concludent n acest sens este ,,denunarea tnrului scriitor Bucur incu,
intrat n vizorul ,,lectorilor din cauza faptului c la rubrica Cronica ideilor din revista Steaua
nr. 47/1968 era inclus un articol despre Eseurile lui Emil Cioran. Articolul lui Bucur incu
era considerat agitator i neconform cu ideologiile promovate la vremea respectiv, iar
concluzia Comitetului judeean PCR a fost de a interzice publicarea articolului: ,,(...) scrie
ntr-o limb pe care civilizaii o ignor sau o dispreuiesc. n ultima parte a articolului
autorul explica ideile greite cuprinse n cartea lui Cioran ,,La tentation dexister, scris
acum 10 ani, prin aceea c fiind izolat timp ndelungat de ara noastr nu a cunoscut
realitile romneti. Referindu-se la lucrarea lui Cioran Schimbarea la fa a Romniei
scris n 1934, autorul afirma: Dac Cioran ar cunote Romnia de astzi ar constata c
schimbarea la fa preeconizat de el n mod real, ca destin colectiv se poate realiza doar n
socialism.6 Astfel de denunuri au fost din pcate n toate marile orae n care exista activitate
cultural, la nivelul rii. Creaiile literare nu puteau exista fr menionarea partidului cruia
i erau atribuite n mod obligatoriu adjective superlative de tipul ,,atottiutor, ,,omniprezent,
,,revelaia.
Nici scriitorul Aurel Gurghianu nu a fost ocolit de procesele-verbale ale cenzorilor dar
creaiile acestuia nu nsemnau ameninri la adresa proletcultului, prin urmare, recenziile
creaiilor sale au o not de indiferen din partea ,,lectorilor: A. Gurghianu a publicat de
pild o poezie intitulat 7 Decembrie, n care e vorba c la aceast dat poetul s-a
desprit de iubita lui, la care se mai gndete i astzi cu regret. Azi, cnd ntregul popor
este n lupta pentru ndeplinirea celui de al II-lea cincinal, poetul vorbete despre problemele
lui mrunte7.
ntr-o antologie de versuri, ngrijit de Aurel Ru i Adrian Popescu, publicat n 2004
putem fi martorii unor nostalgii referitoare la revista Steaua din perioada proletcultist: ,,Ce-a
fost Steaua, nu se mai vzuse. Ca la nceputurile ,,Gndirii din 1921, spre Cluj se revars
iar energii de peste muni,ajunse acum la apogeu8. n aceeai carte sunt enumerai scriitorii
numii ,,voci care migrau spre Ardeal, componenii unei generaii literare pe care am putea-o
numi aizecist adic acei scriitori crora nodul cravatei proletcultismului nu le era foarte
strns n jurul gtului i care i puteau exprima liber sentimentele sau gndurile, cu ajutorul
peniei, n redacia revistei Steaua. Printre acetia se afl: Al. Phillipide, Mihai Beniuc,
Andrei Condrescu, Marius Robescu, Francis Pcurariu, Cezar Ivnescu, Leonid Dimov,
Florin Mugur, Simion Stolnicu, Florena Albu, Gellu Naum, Gheorghe Grigurucu, Ion
Mircea, Vasile Igna, Ion Horea, Mircea Crtrescu, Geo Bogza, Ileana Mlncioiu, Virgil
Carianopol, Doina Sljan etc.9 Cert este c Steaua relanseaz n anii 60 civa scriitori
interbelici neagreeai de regim, cum ar fi Adrian Maniu, Vasile Voiculescu, Ion Vinea sau
Lucian Blaga, cel propus, cam n aceeai perioad la privaiuni sociale. Dintr-un capitol al
memoriilor profesorului Dumitru Micu, publicat n revista Arc din 1996, am aflat c revista
clujean Steaua a produs nemulumire nc din primele sale apariii, chiar de pe vremea cnd
3 Not la Steaua, Nr.4/1968, Arhivele Naionale ale Romniei, fond Comitetul pentru pres i Tiprituri,
Dosar Nr.89/1968;
7
Arh.St.Bucureti, CC al PCR.Cancelarie, dos.40/1956, f.71-72.p. 101.
8
Aurel Ru i Adrian Popescu, Cntecul Stelelor, versuri, Steaua 50 Editura Limes, Cluj-Napoca, 2004, p.6
9
idem
6
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se numea Almanahul literar. Aceste insatisfacii erau semnalate de presa bucuretean care o
denuna c este ,,bntuit de filosofia lui Blagac public scrieri necompatibile cu noul
climat din literatur, practicnd astfel un obiectivism ,,nesntos .10
n redacia revistei Steaua nu este implicate nicio teorie a geografismului literar ci este
vorba despre o alt teorie mult mai autentic i anume realitatea. O realitate a valorilor care
aspir, care se nasc i cresc de jos n sus, fr s in seama de forme de relief sau de mpriri
administrativ-teritoriale mai noi sau de pe vremurile lui Litovoi sau Dobroti i care au doar
o singur pretenie: starea fireasc a lucrurilor, stare care exista n intervalul interbelic i care
nu putea fi uitat n anii dictaturii.11
BIBLIOGRAFIE
1. Negrici, Eugen, Iluziile literaturii romne, Editura Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti,
2008
2. Negrici, Eugen, Introducere n poezia contemporan, Editura Cartea Romneasc,
Bucureti, 1985
3. Negrici, Eugen, Literatura romn sub comunism, Editura Fundaiei PRO,
Bucureti, 2003
4. Negrici, Eugen, Figura spiritului creator, Editura Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti,
1978
5. Selejan, Ana, Trdarea intelectualilor, Editura Transpres, Sibiu,1992
6. Simion, Eugen, Scriitori romni de azi, I, Editura Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti,
1978
7. Simion, Eugen, Rogalski Florina, Grigor Andrei, Analize i sinteze literare, Editura
Corint, Bucureti, 2006
10
11
Eugen Negrici, Literatura romn sub Comunism, Editura Polirom, Bucureti, 2010, p.186
Ioan Nistor, Aurel Gurghianu poezia cotidianului, Editura Eikon, Cluj-Napoca, 2014, p.7
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THE GAME OF ANTINOMIES IN CAMIL PETRESCUS THEATRE

Cosmina Andreea ROU
University of Ploieti
Abstract: Camil Petrescus play is relevant for the fervor thinking of the author under the
sign of an ideational absolute in thought and in act. He substantiated the theory of necessary
noocracy according to which the intelligence never mistakes, all the mistakes are historical.
The characters portrait and evolution through life is presented by means of family, affective,
ethical and itself antinomies. Ruscanus drama grows from the interior; it manifests in his
consciousness and represents the consequence of the antinomy between the idea of absolute
justice and its possibilities of concrete application in social real life. He, thus, dramatically
understands that he is an inadequate from a historical, social and moral point of view
because of his beliefs that will bring him to his moral dissolution. He finds suicide as a lucid
act of consciousness, the strength to stay alone in front of the thought of death and not as an
act of surrender in front of the society.
Keywords: antinomies, consciousness, ideas, lucidity, drama.
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NARCISSISM AND EROTISM IN MARIANA MARINS POETRY

Angelica BEAN (STOICA)
Abstract: Our study focuses on the critical reception of the poetic imagery of Mariana
Marins poetry. Refering to the theoreticians (Gaston Bachelard, Jean Burgos, Clin
Teutian, Eugen Negrici) we shall explore the structure of the imagery in correlation with the
narcissism-erotism corespondence (in its self-directed form). Thus we will create the
possibility of analysing some symbols, strains and ideatic contents peculiar to her poetry.
Keywords: narcissism, erotism, imaginary, convention, neoexpressionism.
n procesul de metamorfozare a poeziei feminine contemporane, mai ales dup 1965,
lirismul Marianei Marin se interiorizeaz, coboar n strfundurile eului i redescoper
tragismul existenial. Poeta manifest o dubl frond: fa de sistem i fa de generaiile
anterioare. Ca i Tudor Arghezi, Mariana Marin scrie pe ,,dedesupt raportndu-se la
prezentul concentraionar. Astfel, se impune o cercetare a imaginarului poeziei aa cum el se
structureaz n opera poetei.
Imaginarul poetic a avut muli teoreticieni. n poezia Marianei Marin pe care Eugen
Simion o descrie ca fiind ,,comunicativ, biografic, realist, care desolemnizeaz discursul
liric i refuz sistematic stilul nalt, abstract, ermetizant, impersonal, propriu
modernismului1, trebuie receptate devenirile eului care, conjugate cu erosul (n forma lui
orientat ctre sine) construiete profilul complex al poetei.
O gril de receptare a liricii sale poate avea punctul de plecare prin raportare la
perspectiva critic a lui Clin Teutian.2 O direcie critic a acestuia este amintita
,,deconstrucie integratoare a conveniei materializat prin reprezentanii generaiei 80, de la
Mircea Crtrescu i Florin Iaru, poei cu afiniti pentru ,,textualism i practica nscenrii a
conveniilor, la ,,neoexpresioniti, precum Mariana Marin, Marta Petreu sau Ion Murean.
La Mariana Marin, lianii constitutivi ai imaginarului organizeaz un joc al sinelui, o
camuflare a propriei identiti, finalizat cu regsirea ei. Multe poeme au o structur
asemntoare: debuteaz, din punct de vedere stilistic, cu o formul impersonal, mai ales la
persoana a III-a, pentru ca n alt secven referentul s se schimbe, eul liric intrnd n scen
la persoana I. n acest sens, Ion Pop sesizeaz c imaginarul poetei pulseaz de realitatea, care
devine poezie ca i elementul biografic. Formula de debut a poemului poate fi corelat cu
viziunea ,,dinspre concretul imediat, iar schimbarea planului referenial cu propriile gesturi
Eugen Simion, Scriitori romni de azi, IV, Editura Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, p. 472.
Clin Teutian, Eros i reprezentare:convenii ale poeziei erotice romneti, Editura Paralela 45, Piteti, 2005;
autorul crii propune trei direcii mari, din momentul n care poate configura eul liric n poziie central,
,,eliberat de convenionalismul discursului pre-romantic.Prima direcie a liricii cu tematic erotic este pus sub
semnul vizionarismului romantic, mai ales c ,,poetul naional a rmas pn n prezent termenul de referin.Ca
atare, continuarea va fi urmrit sub titlul secvenial Persistena conveniei. A doua direcie, universul erosului
liric va sta sub semnul ,,negrii. Atitudinea de respingere a vizionarismului de esen romantic este interpretat
nuanat, deoarece, alturi de ,,fronda avangardist apar aici i,,infrarealismul lui Ion Barbu, i aa-numita de
autor- ,,erotica metalingvistic a lui Nichita Stnescu sau discursul ironic-demitizant al lui Marin Sorescu. n
final, avem momentul deconstruciei integratoare a conveniei. Clin Teutian mrturisete n Argument c
aceast istorie a poeziei erotice este de fapt o istorie a POEZIEI.
1
2
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ontologice ale eului, reflectate prin gesturi poetice de o natur existenial3 Astfel, Clin
Teutian conchide c se poate surprinde ,,o form a erosului orientat ctre sine ca alter, unde
memoria ontologic joac un rol primordial4. Ion Pop surprinde textura complex a
poemului: ,,expresia nud a strii de spirit care ,,i aliaz metafora insolit, reflecia cu
turnur aforistic, aluzia cultural, sugestia paarabolic ntr-un joc al interferenelor i
contrastelor5.
n primul rnd, erosul (forma lui orientat ctre sine) se aliaz cu definirea poetic.
Clin Teutian consider c gesturile poetice ale Marianei Marin sunt ,,reflexul n oglind a
gesturilor ontologice ale eului6. n multe poeme, se configureaz definiii ontologice ale
poeziei, ,,ca un corpus de aproximri succesive att ale artei ct i ale fiinei ce-o
produce.7,,Acesta e un unic poem de dragoste, spun./ Acesta e un poem de dragoste, urlu./ cu
gura plin de un verde pmnt.// (ncerc s fac o reconstituire panic a vieii mele) se
relateaz n Unic poem de dragoste. Poeta se refugiaz mereu din existena mediocr n poem;
probabil c intenia aceasta a fost speculat de Marin Mincu, considernd-o textualist.
Alunecarea din existen n ,,texisten echivaleaz cu transferul strilor eroticelor Marianei
Marin, n care are loc o cunoatere de sine. Este o plonjare intermediat de poemul n sine,
spre structurile adnci ale sufletului. Acest vertij este ntrit, la nivel stilistic de o sintax
repetitiv: ,,Fac un gest scurt cu mna dreapt(...)Nu mai fac nici un gest cu mna stng./
Privesc camera alb(privesc camera alb)/ i tiu:nglbenitele texte au gustul ierbii...
Spaima definete starea eului, de sine nsui i de propria corporalitate, de ,,noaptea
friguroas a naterii, de poemul nsui, ,,tandrul, sfietorul i repedele poem. Aceast
cdere n drumul spre moarte se construiete treptat: la nceput, sentimentul morii este
construit cu timiditate, apoi cu indiferen, iar, n final, ca un spectacol al ,,unui trup care
moare. Acest traseu este surprin de Georgeta Adam8, ncepnd cu ,,feminizarea
simbolismului nefast , pentru ca, n final, ziua morii s nu aib nimic nfricotor, s fie
banal. Micarea nseamn moarte, iar poemul ncearc s blocheze curgerea, s nege
dinamica lumii i a vieii.
n al doilea rnd, narcisismul poetei se nate din contactul nfrigurat cu propria fiin,
vzut ca un dublu corporal. Cunoaterea se metamorfozeaz, implicnd un model subiectiv
al interpretrii lucrurilor i fenomenelor lumii. ,,Rul existenial, vecin cu nebunia, ni-l
readuce pe Baudelaire. Radu G. eposu accentueaz limita extrem a poetei, de extirpare a
afectivitii, viziunea fiind marcat de ,,un spectacol al exorcismului demonic9; ,,rul este
tradus cu ,,precizie diabolic printr-o imagine a ,,pleoapei (a ochiului) care crete pe vrful
unghiei: ,,La rdcina fireasc a rului/ eu pun o irezistibil poft de a-mi sruta/ n voie
minile./ Ah, prietene/- nebunia de a gusta trandafiri/ atrnai cu o ureche de rozul bun
sim)/La 17 ani,/ La 23 i la iarn,/ voi continua s-mi amintesc de mine cu aceeai precizie
diabolic./ Ca i cum pleoapele mi-ar crete pe vrful unghiei/- la btrnee mi-a rotunji
buzele/ pentru cuvntul acela croncnitor...(Nebunia de a gusta un trandafir ). Impresia este
cea a unei existene blestemate.
Clin Teutian, Eros i reprezentare.Convenii ale poeziei erotice romneti, Editura Paralela 45, Piteti, 2005,
p. 308.
4
Idem.
5
Ion Pop(coordinator), Dicionar analitic de opera literare romneti, vol. !-2, Editura Casa Crii de tiin,
Cluj-Napoca, 2007, pp. 60-61.
6
Clin Teutian, op.cit., p. 308.
7
Ibidem, p. 308.
8
Georgeta Adam, Imaginarul poeziei feminine. O seciune de aur, Editura Niculescu, Bucureti, 2010, p. 165.
9
Radu G. eposu, Isoria tragic & grotesc a ntunecatului deceniu literar nou, Editura Dacia, Cluj-Napoca,
2002, p. 140.
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Raportndu-ne la aceast ipostaz a dublului, putem urmri i ideile pe care Eugen

Negrici le propune ntr-o carte de ,,sistematic a poeziei10 ce se revendic de la Roland
Barthes, Umberto Eco, R. Jakobson i mai ales de la Hugo Friedrich. Dup legtura care se
stabilete ntre eul productor (sintagma este variant a unui termen larg folosit azi- eul liric)
i existent (materia mundi), criticul disociaz cu finee ,,poei care structureaz, poei care
transfigureaz (destructureaz, deformeaz), poei care metamorfozeaz (substituie).11 Textele
pot fi astfel clasificate, prin prisma triadei semnalate nainte: ,,Eul structureaz n grade i
moduri diferite existentul;acioneaz n deplin luciditate i din afara obiectului. Eul
transfigureaz simptomatic- elementele existentului sunt transformate n simptome ale strii
eului [...] Eul, implicndu-se total, preschimb, metamorfozeaz existentul, nlocuindu-l,
reproiectndu-l.12
n multe dintre poeme, Mariana Marin pornete de la o conjunctur banal, apoi
discursul liric construiete un scenariu deformat al realitii, de factur expresionist, cu
accente suprarealiste. Se reconstituie o lume ,,sucit, halucinant. n toate cele trei tipuri de
,,poezire, poeticianul relev funcia primordial a vzului (,,regimul atotputernic al vzului),
remarc noua ordine a ,,spaiului nou creat prin ,,calitatea imaginilor. n cutarea
permanent a expresiei de sine i a lumii poeta ofer aceast nou ordine oferind cititorului
,,corporalitatea discursului.13 Poezia sa produce o percepie rsturnat a lumii. Poeta este
nsi vzul, auzul, mirosul, pipitul: - ,,un orb i amintete gustul ierbii (Fericit) Aceast
viziune asupra cuvntului creeaz afiniti cu lirica stnescian, poeta miznd adesea pe
dematerializarea concretului i materializarea abstractului. Astfel, la Mariana Marin cuvintelenoiuni din sfera abstractului, devin agresive, ,,i arat colii, sau invers - o masc de gaze
are ,,memoria crpat; moartea este reprezentat i ea n chip hidos: ,,Vrei s treci mai
departe/ dar posibila ta moarte i sare n fa cu un pntec greoi.(Apel n sala de disecie)
Culminnd cu cel de-al treilea tip de producere (prin metamorfozare i substituie), Eugen
Negrici ajunge la o concluzie ce impune prin exactitate: ,,n general ns, fiind emanaii ale
eului creator, aceste texte- chiar fr a primi ulterior o perspectiv-sunt, ntr-un fel
imperceptibil, orientate; ele au un sens, sensul n care se orienteaz n imaginar dominantele
psihice i obsesiile eului.14 Prin acest tip de ,,poezire devine adevrat ceea ce este subiectiv
adevrat; poeta nu mai reuete s identifice repere fixe i e inundat de presentimente. Chiar
dac se neag aceast spaim, corpul poemului depune mrturie n favoarea ei. Viziunea este
marcat de semne rsturnate, de multiple negaii. Lumea nsi este vzut ca un teatru de
mti n care subiectul liric nu are loc, un teatru absurd: ,,Nimic nu m mai sperie./ Familia
nebun a fost aruncat n strad./ Lentila se ntoarce mpotriva ochiului/ -privirea se acoper
cu pagini nescrise.../ Gura mea ronie un cuvnt lene, de iarn. / Nimeni nu va spune ntr-o
zi:/-i s-a dat o masc de gaze cu memoria crpat(...)iar ea avea o bun prere despre mersul
nainte al lumii(Ppua spnzurat).
n aceast poezie a ,,cotidianului15 scris de Mariana Marin, memoria ontologic a
subiectului joac un rol important, consider Clin Teutian. Motivul mtii este prezent n
poemele sale, iar semnificaiile ei multiple se desprind mai cu seam prin imaginea ,,mtii cu
memoria crpat16. Reminiscenele interpretative conduc spre o problematic existenial,
care circumscriu sensul unui ,,deficit de existen sau chiar a unei existene mprumutate. Eul
Eugen Negrici, Sistematica poeziei, Editura Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 1988.
Ibidem, p. 20.
12
Ibidem, p. 26.
13
Mircea Zaciu, Marian Papahagi, Aurel Sasu (coordonatori), Dicionarul scriitorilor romni(M-Q), Editura
Albatros, Bucureti, 2001, p.48.
14
Eugen Negrici, op.cit., p. 171.
15
Alexandru Muina, Antologia poeziei generaiei 80, ed. a II-a, Editura Aula, Braov, 2002, p. 17.
16
C[lin Teuti;an, op. cit. ,p. 309.
10
11
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Issue no. 6/2015
i asum aceast ipostaz din dorina de a face fa exigenelor lumii sau din teama de a nu-i
fi invadat spaiul psihic: ,,Mulimea beat de tiri va ptrunde degeaba n cas:/ ha, la rochia
de bal a bunicii/ ha, la testamentul rutcios, /La istoria secret a capriciului/ pstrat cu grij
printre textele verzi. Fisurile confirm prezena acestei identiti mprumutate, dincolo de
care fiina rmne lipsit de memorie. Dac masca preia funciile eului, ar urma pierderea de
sine. Soluia pentru aceast criz a poemului se gsete n poem. n spatele mtii, subiectul se
toarn pe sine i fora sa vital n text. Textul devine fiina nsi, printr-un pact faustic menit
a restaura ,,memoria. ,,Iubirea de sine ca ,,salvare de sine trebuie tradus ,,prin iubirea de
sine ca cellalt, unde ,,cellalt e fiina de hrtie, umbra, geamnul supravieuitor: ,,la captul
acestei repede stri de spaim/peste care soarele va continua s rsar/va continua s s
rsar/ va continua sngele/ sngele meu/ pat limpede pe inteligena hrtiei....
n al treilea rnd, vom zbovi asupra unor simboluri prezente n poezia Marianei
Marin pentru a surprinde imaginarul poetic, structurat n jurul corespondenei narcisismerotism. Oglinda reprezint un cuvnt-cheie, implicnd att ideea de reflectare, ct i ideea de
cunoatere. Conotaiile acestui obiect reverbereaz i spre mitul lui Narcis, cu origini
misterioase i adnci, mai ales c, n poemele Marianei Marin se pot surprinde metamorfoze
ale eului, culminnd cu orientarea erosului ctre sine, ntr-o art poetic anticonfesiv: ,,Att
m iubesc, /cum stau de cuminte i dulce/ ntr-bltoac de cuvinte...(Colecionara). Se poate
da un exemplu care apeleaz la simbolul oglinzii, valorificat n noile accepiuni ale viziunii
sale. Indicnd latinescul speculum drept rdcina etimologic a cuvntului speculatio, Jean
Chevalier i Alain Gheerbrant artau c la origine acesta nsemna ,,a observa cerul i micarea
relativ a stelelor cu ajutorul unei oglinzi(...) De aici provine faptul c oglinda, ca suprafa
care reflect, st la baza unui simbolism extrem de bogat n ordinea cunoaterii. Ce reflect
oglinda?Adevrul, sinceritatea, coninutul inimii i al contiinei.17
Dintre multiplele conotaii ale acestui obiect18 reinem ,,aspectul numinos al oglinzii,
adic spaima pe care o inspir cunoaterea de sine. Oglinda este instrumentul lui Psyche, iar
psihanaliza a pus accentul pe latura tenebroas a sufletului. n poemele Marianei Marin,
oglinda implic de fiecare dat ,,o demonie, o frenetic poft de autodistrugere 19. De
exemplu, n Poem de dragoste eueaz ntr-un ,,narcisism devarator: ,,Vechea fust nflorat
roete n camere albe i verzi / iar eu mbtrnesc ntr-o palid furie.../ ncerc o construcie
sensibil n faa oglinzii/ De apte zile vorbesc n faa oglinzii./ De apte zile stau vopsit ca o
mireas i vorbesc/ n faa oglinzii:/ Hei-hei, ceteni ai Castaliei!/ Am mbtrnit fr s
tim mai nimic/ despre corbiile n care bunul dumnezeu / ne-a numrat oasele/i parc tot
sunt puine!...Uite, eu:femeie tnr1/Eu am o rotul frumoas / i dinii mei albi nu se mai
satur privind-o! / Dar creierul meu frumos?.
Din acest glosar al motivului oglinzii, Georgeta Adam dezvolt efectele miturilor
asupra imaginarului poetic. Astfel Castalia, fntna de la poalele Parnasului n care se scldau
i se oglindeau odinioar Muzele, are acum ape otrvite. ,,Demonetizarea conveniei
respective, proces nceput cndva de N. Davidescu n La fntna Castaliei(1910), e dus
pn n ultimele consecine: singura, adevrata oglind rmne sinele20, de care poeta se simte
tot mai aproape. De aceea ,,sala de disecie este o ,,cas fr oglinzi i din aceeai cauz
gestul su este radical n Colecionara: ,,femeia i contempla tinereea/ A deschis dulapurile;
/ a spart oglinzile; a hotrt de una singur. Din semantismul imaginarului poetic fac parte i
alte cuvinte-cheie:grdina de trandafiri, spitalul, utopiile, atelierele, elegiile negre. Evoluia
eului liric nregistreaz un traiect al cderii, al prbuirii.
17
Mircea Zaciu, et alii, op.cit., p. 369.

Jean Chevalier, Alain Gheerbrant, Dicionar de simboluri, Vol. 2 (E-O), traducerea a fost fcut dup ediia
1969 revzut i adugit, aprut n colecia ,,Bouquins, Editura Artemis, Bucureti, 1994,1995., pp. 369-373.
19
Georgeta Adam, op. cit., p. 258.
20
Ibidem, p. 259
18
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Bachelard este teoreticianul care insist asupra conotaiilor profunde ale narcisismului,
mai ales c oglinda lui Narcis este deschis spre profunzimile eului, iar reflectarea acestuia
trdeaz ,,o tendin spre idealizare.21Ne-am putea imagina c amintirea copilriei ar putea
aduce lumin, alinare n aventura proiectrii sinelui. n volumul ,,Aripa secret poeta
transmite un anumit echilibru, o oarecare mpcare ce transpare din lirismul cristalin. n alte
volume ns, subiectul liric se transform pe sine n personaj, i contempl viaa n episoade
succesive, printr-un efort al memoriei care alterneaz episoade disparate cu fisuri
angoasante:,,Copilul sta, spun prinii/ mbtrnete ca o broasc estoas(...)Femeia i
contempla tinereea./ A deschis dulapurile;/a spart oglinzile;/ a hotrt de una singur.//n
disperarea unei diminei/mi lovesc uor degetele de sticla ferestrei./ Nu mai atept venirea
iernii n acest an(...)Palid, m aez pe locul unde am fost vzut femeie plngnd./Asta ar
trebui acum! S-mi amintesc sub o masc.
Poezia Marianei Marin are, n universul tematic individual motive sau lait-motive
care se pliaz pe structuri metaforice surprinztoare, mai ales c autoarea se refugiaz mereu
n ,,realitatea poemului sau realitatea nsi devine personaj al poemului su. Bachelard
concluziona n legtur cu metaforele poetice: ,,metaforele se cheam ntre ele i se
coordoneaz mai mult dect senzaiile, astfel nct un spirit poetic este pur i simplu o sintax
a metaforelor.Fiecare poet ar trebui atunci s dea natere unei diagrame, care ar indica sensul
i simetria coordonrilor sale metaforice, ntocmai cum diagrama unei flori fixeaz sensul i
simurile aciunii sale florale.22 Poemele moderne nu ofer cititorului o lectur relaxant,
semnalndu-se dramatismul tririlor, sentimentul de anormalitate. Uneori i se par devorante,
traumatizante i nu pot fi asimilate de ctre cititori. La Mariana Marin pot fi surprinse
asemenea figuri ale imaginarului poetic, autoarea fiind contient de noul saeculum; poezia ei
nregistreaz spaime, tulburri, obscuritate, imagini tioase, nstrinare etc. Spaima este
generat probabil i de presiunea regimului totalitar care-i ngrdete libertatea expresiei.
Pentru aceasta, poeta caut unele subterfugii. Bunoar, prin subtitlul dat primului volum,
utopia, se sugereaz desprinderea de contingent, triumful imaginarului. Este o manier subtil
de a se sustrage cenzurii, i, n acelai timp, de a descongestiona spaiul prea ncrcat
emoional.
Personalitatea lui Jean Burgos este important n constituirea unei poetici moderne a
imaginarului. Noua critic consider c textul poetic cuprinde n el datele necesare
interpretrii lui. Este teoreticianul care a beneficiat de tezaurul adunat de Bachelard, Durand,
Eliade, a citit i lingviti ca Roman Jakobson, ajungnd s dea coeren poeticii imaginarului:
,,Semnificaiei cuvntului-imagine, n ordinea discursului, i se suprapune pn la obliterare o
pluralitate, dac nu de sensuri, cel puin de valene ce l fac s rsune, lsnd totodat s apar
n jurul lui o realitate care, fr el, nu ar fi ajuns niciodat s existe; realitate pornind de la
limbaj, dar nefiind probabil numai limbaj, realitate a crei actualizare se confund cu actul
poetic, fie el de scriitur sau lectur.23 Jean Burgos definete termeni ca imagine, imaginar
sau text poetic. Astfel poemul este o conjuncie a realului cu posibilul, a actualului cu
virtualul, ceea ce l va determina pe teoretician s vorbeasc despre ,,spaiul umplut i
dinamizat de forele imaginarului.24
Un important postulat al poeticii Imaginarului pe care l formuleaz se refer la lectura
textului poetic. Aceasta nu se reduce la cunoatere, ci i co-natere(co-naissance), nu
traducere, deci reducere la raional, la deja cunoscut, ci ,,imersiune deplin n oper, o
21
Jean Chevalier, Alain Gheerbrant, op. cit., p. 330.

Gaston Bachelard, Psihanaliza focului, n romnete de Lucia ruxandra Munteanu, Prefa: Romul Munteanu,
Col. Eseuri. Bucureti: Editura Univers, 1989, p. 104.
23
Jean Burgos, Pentru o poetic a imaginarului. Traducere de Gabriela Duda i Micaela Gulea. Prefa de
Gabriela Duda, Editura Univers, Bucureti, 1988, p. 28.
24
Ibidem, p. 121.
22
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descoperire pe cont propriu a sensurilor lattente i contradictorii, fr a-i sfia corola de

taine. Cercettorii imaginarului poetic ofer un fir al Ariadnei n labirintul poeziei moderne.
n conexiune se afl poetul i cititorul (sau criticul). Poetul este cel care regenereaz lumea
prin Cnt i are un rol eroic. ,,[...] poetul se poate defini ca cel ce ia cunotin de gloria i de
sensul lumii n care i afl Cntul, dar i cel care, prin scriitura sa, face cunoscut aceast
glorie i acest sens; ca el care i afl plcerea n lume i o red prin cuvintele sale, rennoind
astfel lumea. Prin scrierea lumii, prin poezia sa, unde lumea se face scriitur, poetul este, deci,
cel ce mpac pe om cu Cosmosul, surs de via, i cel ce ngduie trirea- mai bine i mai
adnc a acestei mpcri.25 Acest rol i l-a asumat i l-a ndeplinit cu mult siguran n
stpnirea textului i Mariana Marin.
Bibliografia operei
1. Marin, Mariana, Un rzboi de o sut de ani(utopia i alte poeme de dragoste),
Editura Albatros, Bucureti, 1981.
2. Marin, Mariana, Aripa secret, Editura Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 1986.
3. Marin, Mariana, Atelierele, Editura Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 1991.
4. Marin, Mariana, Mutilarea artistului n tineree, Editura Muzeului Literaturii
Romne, Bucureti, 1999.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
25
Bibliografie critic
Adam, Georgeta, Imaginarul poeziei feminine(o secine de aur), Editura Niculescu,
Bucureti, 2010.
Bachelard, Gaston, Aerul i visele, Eseu despre imaginaia micrii. Traducere de
Irina Mavrodin, traducere de Angela Martin, Col. Studii, Editura Univers, Bucureti,
1997.
Burgos, Jean, Pentru o poetic a imaginarului, Traducere de Gabriela Duda i
Micaela Gulea, Prefa de Gabriela Duda, Editura Univers, Bucureti, 1988.
Chevalier, Jean, Gheerbrant, Alain, Dicionar de simboluri, vol. 1-3, editura Artemis,
Bucureti,1994-1995.
Muina, Alexandru, Antologia generaiei 80, Editura Aula, ed. a II-a, Braov, 2002.
Negrici, Eugen, Sistematica poeziei, Editura Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 1988.
Pop, Ion, Jocul poeziei, Editura Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 1985.
Teutian, Clin, Eros i reprezentare. Convenii ale poeziei erotice romneti,
Prefa de Ion pop, Editura Paralela 45, Piteti, 2005.
eposu, Radu G., Istoria tragic & grotesc a ntunecatului deceniu literar nou,
Ediia a II-a, Prefa de Alexandru Cistelecan, Editura Dacia, Cluj-Napoca, 2002.
Ibidem, p. 459.
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Issue no.6/2015
DUNREA REVRSAT: RADU TUDORANS CUSTOMISED VERSION OF SOCIALIST

REALISM
Jeanina Simona CACUCI
Abstract: At the beginning of the 1960s, Romanian literature was under the influence of the
Communist Party. In order to be accepted, a literary work would have to choose its theme,
characters and language from the working or rural environment. This was a literature for
and about workers and peasants. Thus, novels were, at that time, inspired by such elements
and Radu Tudorans Dunrea revrsat is not an exception. However, he does try to offer his
readers a customized version of socialist realism, in a novel that combines the ideological
demands of that time and the literary style that he was known for: a typical tudoranian female
character will get entangled in a timid love story, mingled with sensational episodes, all on
the background of the socialist construction at which she takes part. The result, although of
no artistical value, is still a notable example of a writers efforts to keep his artistic integrity
in difficult times.
Keywords: communism, socialist realism, love, female character, sensational
Dac Toate pnzele sus! este un excelent roman evazionist, una dintre cele mai bune
producii literare ale deceniului al aselea, enumerat de Eugen Negrici printre cele cinciase cri de proz adevrat1, Dunrea revrsat are toate premisele unui roman al
realismului socialist.
Revoluia maghiar din 1956 a determinat, n Romnia, o revenire la climatul iniial al
instaurrii unui regim dictatorial, un nghe peste dezghe, cum spune Eugen Negrici 2, astfel
c, n 1961, cnd aprea Dunrea revrsat, produciile literare de valoare artistic real erau
puine. Procesul de mistificare a literaturii, nceput la finalul deceniului al cincilea, continu i
nu puini sunt scriitorii care fac concesii literaturii oficiale: G. Clinescu, Titus Popovici,
Petru Dumitriu, Eugen Barbu, Ion Marin Sadoveanu etc. n aceste condiii, dei cu Toate
pnzele sus!, n 1954, Radu Tudoran d un frumos exemplu de evadare prin literatur, nu se
mai poate sustrage presiunii oficiale i este nevoit s introduc n Dunrea revrsat elemente
ale realismului socialist. Concesiile nu sunt flagrante i exist numeroase indicii care
demonstreaz c romanul din 1961 reprezint, n primul rnd, efortul scriitorului de a se
pstra pe sine n literatura sa, n ciuda conjuncturii improprii.
Romanul, bazat pe o experien de via personal, este o enclav bizar n opera
prozatorului. Straniul interludiu, cum l numete Cristina Gabriela Dinu, ntre bine
cunoscutul Toate pnzele sus!, roman cu numeroase merite artistice i literare, att n cadrul
literaturii pentru copii i tineret, ct i ca roman evazionist, i ciclul epic Sfrit de mileniu,
expresia artistic a maturitii scriitorului, Dunrea revrsat, aceast manifestare literar
ndoielnic, neconvingtoare, este o formul hibrid rezultat din dorina scriitorului de a-i
pstra stilul propriu i cerina de a fi n concordan cu estetica de partid. Romanul, aprut n
cinstea aniversrii Partidului i premiat cu Premiul Academiei RPR, prezint istoria unui
antier naval, denumit iniial Nstura (dup numele proprietarului), rebotezat Victoria
dup naionalizare; scriitorul ncearc s surprind atmosfera anilor 1948-1949, cu toate
1
2
Eugen Negrici, Literatura romn sub comunism, Editura Fundaiei Pro, Bucureti, 2002, p. 32.
Idem, Ibidem, Editura Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 2010, p. 25.
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Issue no. 6/2015
schimbrile aduse de noua guvernare. Avnd ca model un antier naval din Brila, unde
scriitorul a locuit n acei ani, antierul Victoria traverseaz o serie de modificri i
mbuntiri i, ntr-un spirit triumfalist, reuete s i onoreze comenzile n ciuda sabotorilor
i chiar a naturii potrivnice, nu fr ajutorul muncitorilor cuprini de frenezia timpurilor noi.
Dac n Flcrile, roman din 1945, natura nu poate fi subjugat, n Dunrea revrsat este
nfiat triumful omului (comunist) asupra acesteia. Radu Tudoran recunoate c titlul este
simbolic - simbolul fertilitii i al energiei desctuate, al luptei oamenilor cu natura i al
biruinelor asupra ei3.
Intenionalitatea romanului este explicat n acelai interviu, ntr-o declaraie aproape
lozincard, nelipsit de obinuitele formule elogioase la adresa ideologiei comuniste: M-a
preocupat s art delimitndu-m la relaiile din jurul nostru mersul nainte al lumii sub
imboldul comunitilor, a acelei gigantice energii umane care fertilizeaz, nnoiete i
nnobileaz pmntul i fptura oamenilor. Totdeodat cu aceasta, am ncercat s redau
evoluia acelei pri cinstite, dar dezorientate a lumii vechi care, sub influena binefctoare a
comunitilor, se integreaz mersului nainte al societii4. Radu Tudoran nu poate fi, ns,
catalogat ca scriitor oportunist dect, eventual, dac prelum formula oportunism explicabil
a lui Bujor Nedelcovici. Conform acestuia, severitatea constrngerilor din anii 1950-1964 face
ca oportunismul s fie scuzabil. Etichetarea lui Radu Tudoran ca oportunist sau pro-comunist
ar fi, cel puin parial, injust. Dunrea revrsat este mai degrab o variant personal, sau,
mai bine spus, personalizat, a realismului socialist. Mai trziu, ntr-un interviu din 1969,
Tudoran face o mrturisire din care transpare compromisul fcut pentru a-i pstra formula
proprie, n ciuda concesiilor fcute regimului: Odat gndirea dus pn la capt, Dunrea
revrsat este cartea care mi-a cerut cele mai grele eforturi, cel mai mare consum de pasiune,
ca s-i dau spontaneitatea, s nu se vad ct a fost judecat5.
Cu toate acestea, perenitatea romanului este afectat de compromisul fcut, astfel c
ecoul apariiei ei se stinge foarte repede. Receptarea critic este, desigur, lacunar i se
bazeaz n cea mai mare parte pe articolele care au ntmpinat publicarea crii.
Dicionarele literare aprute n post-comunism (cele care nu ignor activitatea literar
a lui Radu Tudoran) fie evit comentariile despre acest roman, fie doar l inregistreaz n
opera tudoranian, cu minime comentarii. Vasile Popovici, de pild, privete cartea din 1961
ca repercusiune a sustragerii de la vocaia real a scriitorului cltoria: Cnd ns epicul s-a
lipsit de ceea ce constituia o vocaie, cltoria, rezultatul a fost modest: Dunrea revrsat
(1961), roman marcat pe deasupra i de comandamentele timpului n care a fost scris, anii
cincizeci6. Consideraiile la adresa romanului se rezum la aceste cteva rnduri. La fel de
sumar este i descrierea din Dicionarul general al literaturii romne, unde este citat S.
Damian cu privire la varianta de compromis la care recurge Tudoran, la care adaug o
explicaie succint a romanului.
O analiz mai temeinic poate fi gsit n monografia Radu Tudoran ntre biografie i
destin, a Cristinei Gabriela Dinu. Aceasta identific o serie de neajunsuri n arhitectura
romanului, cum ar fi lipsa vizionarismului, intriga neconvingtoare sau episoadele lungite
excesiv. Opinia autoarei este justificat. Dunrea revrsat, fr ndoial una dintre cele mai
Radu Tudoran, Suflul actualitii. De vorb cu Radu Tudoran, interviu acordat lui Boris Buzil, publicat n
Romnia liber, nr. 5121, 1961, p. 2.
4
Ibidem.
5
Radu Tudoran, Cu Radu Tudoran despre nostalgia crrilor pierdute, interviu acordat Ilenei Corbea, publicat
n Astra, nr. 1, 1969, p.1, reprodus n Ileana Corbea, Nicolae Florescu, Biografii posibile, Editura Eminescu,
1975, p. 250.
6
Vasile Popovici, n Mircea Zaciu, Marian Papahagi, Aurel Sasu (coord.), Dicionarul scriitorilor romni,
Editura Albatros, Bucureti, 2002, p. 603.
3
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Issue no. 6/2015
slabe scrieri ale lui Radu Tudoran, concurat doar de Maria i marea, abund n detalii
superflue care dilueaz substana epic (numeroase specificaii tehnice sau informaii
documentariste, spre exemplu). Gndite probabil cu rol n redarea coloritului epocii, acestea
duneaz i datorit faptului c nu sunt suficient prelucrate artistic i ngreuneaz lectura i
aa discreditat de subiectul abordat. Cartea se salveaz prin povestea de dragoste dintre Ana
Odeta i Matei, latur a romanului n care Radu Tudoran este el nsui, dar, din pcate, nici
aceasta nu este scutit de inserii pro-comuniste.
Receptarea mai apropiat n timp de apariia crii se face din prisma literaturii
oficiale, judecile de valoare fiind astfel compromise. Imputrile aduse scriitorului de S.
Damian n volumul Direcii i tendine n proza nou sunt, n orice caz, o dovad c Radu
Tudoran a ncercat s i pstreze integritatea artistic: Scriitorul pstreaz nc o oarecare
ncredere n alte resorturi ale creaiei, care, dup cum am vzut, nu mai aduc n cadrul nou
efectul scontat7.
Mai puin critic dect colegul su, Ion Lungu, sesiznd i el aceleai aspecte
considerate duntoare, numete romanul din 1961 una din creaiile cele mai izbutite despre
industria noastr socialist8. Nu se poate s nu remarcm n studiul lui Ion Lungu o prere
care, azi, pare cel puin ironic: Dunrea revrsat, poate cel mai slab roman al prozatorului,
este considerat dovada unei evoluii ascendente de la Toate pnzele sus!, cea mai cunoscut
oper a acestuia i, probabil, cea care l-a fixat pe Radu Tudoran n contiina posteritii.
Dunrea revrsat este nesat de fapte i episoade, relevante, sau nu, pentru cele dou
planuri narative care pot fi distinse cu uurin i care intesc s mpace att premisele
realismului socialist, ct i nclinaiile scriitoriceti ale lui Radu Tudoran. Un prim plan al
romanului se bazeaz pe ilustrarea vieii pe antierul naval Victoria, cu eforturile
muncitorilor i ale tnrului director, Matei, de a-l salva i de a nvinge dumanii poporului, o
ilustrare a optimismului comunist. Al doilea plan poart semntura caracteristic lui Tudoran:
istoria de dragoste dintre Ana Odeta, fost burghez reintegrat social prin munc, i Matei.
Cele dou nivele epice se ntreptrund i rezult o naraiune uor dezechilibrat
structural, datorit excesului de inserii redundante. Ana Odeta, tnr de o frumusee
extraordinar superlativele la adresa fetei sunt att de numeroase nct devin obositoare, se
ntoarce n oraul natal, n 1948, imediat dup naionalizare, dup ce fusese amanta unui
afacerist bogat, Miltiade. Speriat de gndul c nu va mai vedea Dunrea niciodat, cnd
brbatul o informeaz despre prsirea iminent a rii, Ana Odeta decide s fug. Intriga
romanului i faptul care o va lega pe Ana Odeta de aciunea principal de pe fostul antier
Nstura este dorina fetei de a-i reface viaa, fr Miltiade, i de a scpa de presiunile
mtuii Didona, pentru care frumuseea fetei este cea mai bun modalitate de parvenire.
Angajat iniial la magazia antierului, Ana Odeta trece printr-un proces de re-educare i reintegrare social prin asimilarea spiritului de partid i prin munca socialist. Tot aici i
rentlnete dragostea din copilrie, pe Matei, alturi de care, dup ce iniial brbatul nu o
recunoate pe fata alturi de care a locuit timp de o var, triete o sfioas poveste de iubire,
patronat i ea de morala i de spiritul comunist.
Arhitectura romanului este susinut de un suspans continuu; naraiunea se
concentreaz n episoade, de cele mai multe ori diluate i inutil prelungite, care s rspund la
ntrebri precum: Va scpa Ana Odeta de spectrul trecutul ei degradant? O va recunoate
Matei? Va supravieui antierul? Vor reui muncitorii s finalizele lucrrile? etc. Suspansul se
menine pn la final, ntr-o desfurare epic de multe ori antrenant, altfel lipsit de virtui
literare notabile. Curiozitatea cititorului este rspltit cu un deznodmnt n spiritul doctrinei
comuniste: clasa muncitoare este biruitoare, dumanii poporului sunt demascai i pedepsii.
7
8
S. Damian, Direcii i tendine n proza nou, Editura Pentru Literatur, Bucureti, 1093, p. 208.
Ion Lungu, Itinerar critic, Editura Pentru Literatur, Bucureti, 1965, p. 240.
854
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Pentru cititorul contemporan, n lumina societii actuale, romanul pare o reprezentare vetust
a unei literaturi devalorizate i depite, imaginea unei perioade a manifestrilor patriotarde i
a limbajului de lemn. Cu toate acestea, Dunrea revrsat, fr a-i depi limitele, pstreaz
meritul unui document al epocii, zugrvind atmosfera i schimbrile impuse de climatul
epocii, fiind n acelai timp un exemplu de scriere realist socialist, cu mrcile unei literaturi
mistificate i utilizate ca unealt propagandistic.
Literatura acelor ani, pentru a rspunde comenzii ideologice, este puternic alterat i
limitat, din punctul de vedere al surselor de inspiraie, la mediul muncitoresc sau rural.
Produciile literare nu mai sunt inspirate, ci dictate de acest mediu, de unde i vor prelua att
temele i personajele, ct i limbajul. Trsturile definitorii ale literaturii propagandistice
cuprind aspecte precum: atitudinea pro-comunist i anti-burghez, triumfalismul, elogiul
muncitorului comunist i al omului nou, optimismul obligatoriu, separarea personajelor n
bune (ranii, muncitorii) i rele (burghezia, intelectualii), promovarea urii de clas, mpotriva
burghezo-moierimii etc.
La o lectur, chiar i superficial, a romanului Dunrea revrsat, mrcile literaturii
pro-comuniste sunt uor sesizabile. Dihotomia maniheist clasa muncitoare clasa
exploatatoare este piatra de temelie n construcia romanului: muncitorii antierului (personaj
colectiv, cu puine individualizri pe parcursul romanului cte un Mirea, Rogoz, Topor,
Arici), Ilie Conu, Matei, Donos, Coco, Staicu i Ana Odeta, care a parcurs un drum cathartic
de la femeie la tovar, depun mari eforturi pentru a salva antierul, ameninat de dumani ai
poporului: un oarecare Vizante sau Petcu, implicai ntr-un furt, Golgota, Marchidan, Uic
partizani ai vechiului regim reprezentat de unii precum Nstura, Baciu sau Miltiade, ale cror
nume sunt frecvent amintite pentru a blama patronii i burghezia.
Tot de aceast dihotomie aparine i opoziia anafalbetism intelectualitate. Cele mai
meritorii personaje sunt luate din rndul muncitorilor fr carte, lipsa educaiei formale fiind
chiar o calitate Ana Odeta, muncitoare apreciat, are doar trei clase la coala profesional,
n timp ce directorul antierului are doar cinci, dar primare!. La antipodul lor este inginerul
Dutchievici, personaj din clasa intelectualilor, cu studii n strintate i cu obiceiuri pstrate
din vechiul regim. Inginerul devenit inutil, depit, este o ipostaz a intelectualitii n
comunism, o referire ironic la marginalizarea oamenilor educai.
Sunt nelipsite critica i autocritica, apanajul unui bun comunist: maistrul Golgota
convoac o edin pentru a-l critica pe Ilie Conu, eful serviciul administrativ, c folosete
maina antierului n scopuri personale, pe Coco c poart mnui de piele, asemenea
burghezilor, pe Donos, secretarul de Partid, c a inhibat critica constructiv la adresa lui
Coco, poruncind s fie dat jos caricatura acestuia de pe panou sau pe Dutchievici c are aere
de boier. Aa de tare fu mustrarea i-att de convingtoare, nct Ilie Conu, ncredinat c
purta toate vinile, se urc spsit la tribun i i fcu o autocritic usturtoare, fgduind la
urm c de azi nainte se va strdui s mearg treburile bine9, explic naratorul urmarea
criticii, ntr-o formulare din care transpare puterea de manipulare a discursului comunist.
Tudoran prezint o imagine pastelat a socialismului i a schimbrilor benefice
populaiei, o imagine ce face apologia regimului i creaz iluzia unei lumi utopice: Uneori
franzelua era alb numai pe deasupra, scldat n fin curat nainte de a fi bgat la cuptor;
nuntru gseai o amestectur ticloas de gru mucegit, tre i orz Azi se ddea pine,
cu socoteal, s aib fiecare, stabilizarea de anul trecut curmase jocul demenial al
milioanelor, fcuse un echilibru ntre ctigul omului i nevoile lui, i banul avea un temei 10.
Apologia continu cu versurile scrise (din propriu ndemn!) de un muncitor netiutor de carte,
fiind un exemplu elocvent de literatur aservit, de opere acceptate i promovate de Partid n
9
Radu Tudoran, Dunrea revrsat, Editura Pentru Literatur, Bucureti, 1961, pp. 350-351.
Ibidem, p. 52.
10
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acea perioad, dei coninutul nu este doar lipsit de orice valoare estetic, ci este de domeniul
rizibilului: Cu ase boi la car ne pleac moartea/ Iar ceaunul o salut majestuos11.
Divinitatea este depit de puterea Partidului. Credina religioas se dovedete
inutil, iar ajutorul divin fals n faa posibilitilor comunitilor: Pe vremea cnd mergeau la
biseric, n viaa lor nu fusese nicio minune, dect cei doi copii, dar acetia veneau la oricine,
i la oameni cu credin i la pctoi! Minunea se petrecea abia astzi, dar altfel dect
minunile din scripturi12. n conformitate cu ideologia comunist, scriitorul dezavueaz ideea
de divinitate nu doar prin asemenea relatri sau prin scrierea cu liter mic, ci i prin
expansiunea puterii comunitilor la dimensiuni biblice.
ntr-un articol din Romnia literar, Ion Simu nota cu referire la literatura procomunist: Optimismul obligatoriu rzbate n lozinci versificate, ndemnuri mobilizatoare,
ncrederea n viitorul mre, confirmarea politicii partidului13. Romanul lui Tudoran nu este o
excepie: limbajul de lemn se manifest plenar n discursurile i replicile propagandistice care
mpnzesc romanul. Iluzia proprietii comune a poporului i a supremaiei clasei muncitoare
este reactualizat prin inseriile lozincarde din dialogurile personajelor ipostaze ale omului
nou: Ai grij, tovrico, s nu greeti, c nu-i averea mea, e a poporului!14 sau Nu mai
muncim pentru patron, muncim pentru noi15. Servilismul i nuanele propagandistice ale
discursurilor sunt accentuate de atitudinea excesiv optimist i de ura violent de clas: O s
muncim din toat inima (). Iar dac or mai fi ntre noi secturi i lenei, ori alte soiuri i
spee de lichele i de dumani ai poporului, o s le rupem picioarele i o s le astupm gura.
Hai, mi tovari, batei din palme i strigai s triasc Partidul Muncitoresc Romn, triasc
Republica noastr, ura!16.
Limbajul, cum se poate uor observa i din citatele de mai sus, este clieizat, srac i
lipsit de componenta estetic aproape n totalitate. Mijloacele de exprimare simpliste i
preluarea unor expresii din mediul muncitoresc respect cu fidelitate comandamentele oficiale
i afecteaz negativ valoarea artistic a romanului. Aceleai cliee se pot observa i la nivelul
personajelor, nindividualizate, mai degrab abloane ale unor categorii sociale: muncitorii
dornici de munc, lipsii de educaie, liderii comuniti entuziati, ambiioi, luai din
rndurile muncitorilor i rmiele burgheziei depii, ruvoitori, urmrindu-i propriile
interese.
Din masa de personaje, sunt singularizai Matei i Ana Odeta, angajai n primul rnd
n construirea socialismului i abia n plan secundar, ntr-o poveste de dragoste. Portretul lui
Matei, la fel ca portretul Anei Odeta, este alctuit din superlative i hiberbole. Chipul, de
pild, i este mbrcat ntr-o lumin fantastic de ochii verzi i limpezi, cum nu-i nevoie i
nu-i drept s aib brbaii17. Noul director al antierului este un om impetuos, ambiios peste
msur i plin de un optimism contagios. Ales din rndul muncitorilor, fusese vopsitor
nainte, Matei condenseaz toate trsturile unui bun comunist i ale omului nou: cu origini
sntoase, muncitor, fr prea mult carte, dedicat trup i suflet antierului, fa de care orice
alt nevoie uman cade n plan secund. Sarcinile care i sunt atribuite tovarului Matei ating
dimensiuni biblice: El se afla n faa unei moteniri primejduite i deficitare - i de o
11
Radu Tudoran, op. cit., p. 52.

Ibidem, p. 103.
13
Ion
Simu,
Literatura
oportunist
n
Romnia
http://www.romlit.ro/literatura_oportunist, accesat la 13.02.2015.
14
15
Ibidem, p. 49.
16
Ibidem, p. 90.
17
Ibidem, p. 159.
12
856
literar,
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Issue no. 6/2015
sptmn se strduia s gseasc un drum n acest haos, s despart pmntul de ape, ca la

nceputul creaiunii18.
Implicarea lui Matei n idila cu Ana Odeta, analizat din prisma literaturii oficiale, i
altereaz credibilitatea i interfereaz cu imaginea de bun comunist. De la un director activ,
cu prestigiu n faa oamenilor ct timp se afl pe antier, Matei ajunge un searbd amorez,
melancoliznd n barc pe Dunre, purtnd conversaii emfatice19 , noteaz criticul S.
Damian, reprondu-i scriitorului ecourile altor resorturi creatoare, n afara socialismului.
La modul abstract, att Matei, ct i Ana Odeta, sunt caractere puternice care lupt
pentru un scop superior. Puse n slujba comunismului, devin exponenii culturii de mas. Ana
Odeta, eroin alctuit dup tiparul specific lui Tudoran, nu este nici ea scutit de infuzia de
elan socialist.
Rigiditii planului social (i socialist) al romanului, scriitorul i opune poezia iubirii,
ntr-o formul narativ care, din pcate, nu reuete s mpace armonios, cum fusese
intenionat, lupta de clas i inefabilul erotic. Indubitabil, exist mult poezie n Dunrea
revrsat, ncepnd cu alctuirea Anei Odeta, unde Tudoran i dovedete nc o dat vocaia
n crearea personajului feminin, i pn la sensibilitatea iubirii pe care aceasta i-o poart lui
Matei (i care se va materializa ntr-o relaie la fel de sfioas i sensibil), sau la stihialul
acvatic i poezia Dunrii, investit cu o serie de semnificaii. Dar cnd n simbolistica Dunrii
autorul include fora naturii, acoperit de triumfalismul i eroismul de parad al comunitilor,
iar planul erotic este n totalitate subjugat de estetica realismului socialist, rezultatul nu poate
fi dect o naraiune srac din punct de vedere artistic i estetic, iar romanul este, n cel mai
bun caz, mediocru.
Potenator i, n acelai timp, cel mai puternic aliat al frumuseii (hiperbolizate) a
protagonistei este aici, pe lng cadrul natural, munca i abilitile de trasatoare: Era o
munc i un miracol ochiul ei se arta ager i mna dibace, iar felul cum se mica pe podele
putea s te ameeasc. Ajungnd la capul ipcii se ridic, mbujorat micarea n genunchi
fusese anevoioas. O uvi de pr i ieise din basma, atrnnd pe ceaf, i aa cum ncerca s
i-o pun la loc, cu braele ridicate, frumuseea ei prea abuziv i intolerabil20. Exacerbarea
calitilor personajului, galvanizate de statutul de tovar, este cu att mai duntoare cu ct
imaginea Anei Odeta devine artificial. Fr ndoial c eroina, chiar i n aceast ipostaz a
senzualitii comuniste, manifest un oarecare magnetism, tributar fineii i talentului lui Radu
Tudoran, dar efectul subjugrii acestui talent comenzii ideologice este resimit.
Aceeai artificialitate persist i n una din scenele finale: cnd este atacat de maistrul
Golgota (demascat, ncearc s fug, nu fr a-i ndeplini o ultim satisfacie) i este pe
punctul de a se neca n Dunre, datoria socialist devine o for salvatoare, capabil s o
mobilizeze pe Ana Odeta dintr-o moarte care i prea fireasc. Iar deznodmntul episodului,
cu Ana Odeta, goal, trgndu-l pe Golgota din ap, i, n pragul delirului, ajungnd exact la
timp pentru a anuna oamenii de revrsarea Dunrii, este att de nereuit, nct explicaiile
naratorului devin caduce: n lumina reflectoarelor, n vuietul surd al Dunrii, inert,
goliciunea ei, ca a unui lupttor purtat pe scut la sfritul btliei, era nobil i incredibil de
pur21.
Dac n cazul altor protagoniste sunt urmrite cu preeminen tribulaiile erotice ale
personajului feminin, n cazul Anei Odeta esenial este transformarea i re-integrarea social
sub influena benefic a regimului comunist, a muncii i a atmosferei de pe antierul naval.
Tudoran pare s i sacrifice intenionat eroina, atribuindu-i un trecut promiscuu (Ana Odeta
18

S. Damian, op. cit., p. 209.
20
21
Ibidem, p. 687.
19
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Issue no. 6/2015
avusese legturi cu diveri brbai n timp ce era amanta lui Miltiade), pentru a putea accentua
rolul izbvitor al activitii n cmpul muncii. Evoluia personajului de la o femeie burghez la
o muncitoare apreciat se vrea cu att mai evident, cu ct traseul Anei Odeta este punctat n
momente definitorii care modeleaz personalitatea tovarei: dei vechiul stil de via este
mai atractiv, mai confortabil, Ana Odeta merge n fiecare zi la munc dintr-un impuls aproape
mecanic, singura dorin a ei devine s fie apreciat ca muncitoare, nevoile antierului sunt
puse deasupra oricrei alte dorine.
O marc a scriiturii lui Radu Tudoran, nelipsit nici n Dunrea revrsat, este
senzaionalul. Prozatorul dinamizeaz naraiunea tern a romanului cu elemente care s
uimeasc i s impresioneze citiorul, apelnd, nu o dat, la rsturnri de situaie. Marieta,
soia lui Costea, descris iniial ca o femeie dumnoas i excesiv de geloas pe colegele
soului ei, devine blnd i plcut dup ce descoper i ea virtuile muncii. Tranformarea este
nregistrat n primul rnd la nivel fizic. Femeia care i strngea buzele ca un dos de gin
cu rutate este descris n cu totul alte cuvinte dup ce se desparte de Costea i se angajeaz
la Societatea de Telefoane, subliniindu-se o tristee reinut: Slbise, avea faa subiat, n
schimb gura cptase o blndee molcom, care se transmitea obrazului, brbiei, dndu-le
cldur i chiar gingie22.
O alt istorie senzaional este cea a maistrului Golgota, liderul de sindicat.
Personajul, o glorificare a limbajului de lemn i a discursurilor emfatice, mobilizatoare, este
nemulumit de numirea lui Matei ca director i urmrete, prin adunrile convocate, s fie ales
n locul lui acestuia. Arivismul lui Golgota este camuflat de respectul pe care i-l poart
muncitorii, iar rsturnarea de situaie din final ar putea fi prevzut doar prin pocnitul din
msele al maistrului, tic ce demonstrez nervozitate, i i gradeaz nemulumirea ntr-o
tensiune crescnd ce va culmina cu lovitura de teatru din final: Golgota nu doar zdrnicete
reuita muncitorilor, ci o atac i pe Ana Odeta, fiind n cele din urm salvat de aceasta de la
nec.
Tot de senzaional aparine i acest deznodmnt n care, aa cum am artat mai sus,
Ana Odeta l salveaz pe maistrul Golgota i se salveaz i pe sine, dintr-un impuls de
solidaritate comunist, dup o lupt pe via i pe moarte n decorul stihial al Dunrii.
Din orice perspectiv ar fi analizat, romanul Dunrea revrsat este n pierdere. Chiar
i cu pstrarea esenei stitlului tudoranian, coroborat cu elemente ale realismului socialist,
alterarea este evident. Prea puine aspecte ale romanului sunt meritorii. Rezist, din aceast
versiune personal a realismului socialist, o istorie de dragoste timid i conturul celor doi
protagoniti, extrai din contextul politic: Matei, ca imagine a demnitii, ambiiei i druirii
i, mai mult dect personajul masculin, Ana Odeta, prin perseverena erotic i farmecul
inefabil, la fel ca al tuturor eroinelor tudoraniene.
Bibliografie:
1. Tudoran, Radu, Dunrea revrsat, Editura Pentru Literatur, Bucureti, 1961.
Referine critice:
1. Buzil, Boris, Suflul actualitii. De vorb cu Radu Tudoran, n Romnia
liber, nr. 5121, 1961, p. 2.
2. Corbea, Ileana, Florescu, Nicolae, Biografii posibile, Editura Eminescu, 1975.
3. Damian, S., Direcii i tendine n proza nou, Editura Pentru literatur,
Bucureti, 1963.
22
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4. Dinu, Cristina Gabriela, Radu Tudoran ntre biografie i destin, Editura Premier,
Ploieti, 2012.
5. Lungu, Ion, Itinerar critic, Editura Pentru Literatur, Bucureti, 1965.
6. Negrici, Eugen, Literatura romn sub comunism, Editura Fundaiei Pro,
Bucureti, 2002.
7. Idem, Ibidem, Editura Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 2010.
8. Simu, Ion, Literatura oportunist n Romnia literar, nr. 25, 2008,
http://www.romlit.ro/literatura_oportunist, accesat la 13.02.2015.
9. Zaciu, Mircea, Papahagi, Marian, Sasu, Aurel (coord.), Dicionarul scriitorilor
romni, Editura Albatros, Bucureti, 2002.
859
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ISLAMIC METAPHYSICAL ELEMENTS

Adriana Claudia CTEIA
Ovidius University of Constana
Abstract: The study analyze the fundamental concepts of Islamic metaphysics, besed on
literary sources (Najm al-Din Kubra, Adab al Suluk, Abunaser, Al- Madinah al-fadilah, Al
Halladj, Muhyi ad-Din Ibn Arabi). The real or imaginary borders were the result of defining
a political and religious structure with identity valences. The Islamic Metaphysics has
combined the constant overpassing of the own political limits with a spiritual evolution,
mandatory from the religious perspective.The meaning of some concepts in antique and
medieval islamic philosophy indicate the directions of a type of thinking, the modalities of
self-defining in dependence with mistical thinking.
Keywords: haqq, marifa, sudur, batin, lhut, nsut.
Delimitarea politico-religioas a lumii musulmane, n secolul al VII-lea ntre adepii lui
Al, ginerele Profetului i gruparea lui Mu wiyah, primul dintre Ommayazi, a condus dup
moartea lui Al la apariia a trei micri paralele: sectele iite i micarea Futuwwat- legate
de Al, i casa muhammadian, avnd ca reper Sunna, i micarea mistic1.
n aceeai perioad, micarea ascetic a produs teoria mistic mu tazillit, (secolul al VIIlea) i misticismul tarkat calea, care promoveaz naintarea treptat suluk ctre Dumnezeu.
Mutaziliii i qadariii, adepi ai teoriei liberului arbitru s-au confruntat cu djabriiii adepi
ai predestinrii (ncurajai de ommayazi) i cu micarea fatalist murdji t2.
Gndirea mistic islamic are aadar, profunde implicaii politice: mu tazilismul a fost o
form de ascez, dar i de opoziie la doctrina fatalist djabriit, ncurajat de ommayazi.
Rezistena antiommayad s-a grupat n trei coli:
a. coala de la Basra- realiti i ortodoci (sunnii) premutazilii,
b. coala de la Kufa idealiti de tendin iit
c. coala de la Khorassan restaurarea doctrinelor iraniene preislamice dualiste. colii
dela Khorassan i se revendic i Malmatyahii- care atrgeau intenionat dispreul
oamenilor (ca saloi i exeuchemenoi cretini).3
Rezistena la politica ommayazilor a fost legat i de tradiionaliti- Muhaddithni puternic
ataai de legea canonic i de cuvintele Profetului; misticii din Irak combteau propaganda
oficial.
M.M. Davy, Enciclopedia doctrinelor mistice, II, Editura Amarcord, Timioara, 1998,p. 291-293.
Ibidem, p. 296-297.
3
Ibidem, 298-299
1
2
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Issue no. 6/2015
n secolul al VII-lea, lucrarea lui Najm al-Din Kubra, aparinnd gndirii mistice tarikat,
Adab al Suluk4 definete demersul apropierii de divin prin verbele sinonime liya budun- a
sluji i liya rijun- a cunoate. Apropierea de Dumnezeu Haqq se face gradual, i presupune
abolirea sinelui (hujubal-nafs), transformarea personalitii (batin) prin rugciune, iluminarea
(yaqin), asumarea tezei unitii i unicitii lui Allah (tawhid), negarea politeismului
(mushrikun). Desvrirea spiritual presupune cunoaterea numelor i atributelor divine (alasma al-husna), fiecare nume divin aparinnd unui domeniu spiritual (iqlim) patronat de o
autoritate (sultan)5.
Adab al-Suluk cuprinde regulile necesare desprinderii de lumea exterioar (fizic)- zahir i
orientarea ctre sinele devenit lca al divinului (anal Haq), lume ascuns- alam al-ghayb.
Tratatul explic, n limitele vocabularului coranic relaia dintre jihad akbar, marea lupt
interioar, jihadul major, i jihad asghar, rzboiul minor, exterior, cu necredincioii. Eul
uman este perceput prin intermediul sinelui divin.
Gnoseologia profetic ofer instrumentele conceptuale necesare unei hierognoze i
definete contiina imaginativ i percepia imaginativ care permit accesul la mundus
imaginallis- lam al- mithl6. Gndirea profetic face diferena ntre istorie i hieroistorie ca
succesiune de fapte spirituale care condiioneaz evenimentele din lumea trectoare7. Istoria
este definit ntre dou limite: metaistoria celest8 care confer istoriei propriu-zise un anumit
sens i eshatologia ca mplinire a acestui sens, prin walyat- venirea imm-ului ascuns.
Metaistoria shit difer profund de contiina istoric a cretinismului, ale crei limite sunt
ntruparea i parousia.
Ismaelitismul fatimid definete conceptul de hodd, grad, delimitare a ierarhiilor esoterice
celeste i terestre care alctuiesc pleroma i procesul de reintegrare continu n Divin.
Pleroma -lam al-Amr, lumea fiinei la imperativ se afl n opoziie cu lam al-khalk lumea
creatural. Limita dintre ele este constituit din pleroma emanaiilor succesive din Inteligena
universal- Aql koll n ipostaza sa de Cuvnt divin Creator- Kalm Allh, Limit Prim- hadd.
Emanatismul gnozei ismaelitene se ntemeiaz pe conceptul de hadd- limit, dincolo de care
se afl alt limit, care msoar distana dintre creat i increat, dintre divin i uman9.
4
Shaykh Najm al-din Kubra, Adab al Suluk: A Treatise on spiritual Wayfaring, http: //www.al-islam.org/altawhid/adab_al_suluk
5
Ibidem.
6
Henry Corbin, Istoria filosofiei islamice, Editura Herald, Bucureti, 2005, p. 75.
7
Hieroistoria include perioadele profetice, ciclul Immatului i walyat-ei n aceepiunea sa de parousie a immului ascuns; H. Corbin, op. cit, p. 81.
8
Ziua legmntului lui Dumnezeu cu umanitatea adamic, zi antecedent genezei; ibidem, p. 83.
9
Ibidem, p. 105.
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Hieroistoria umanitii ncepe cu opoziia Adamului spiritual- Adam ruhn fa de limita,

hadd-ul care l precede i care i ngrdete accesul la principiul prim. Urmeaz un scenariu al
cderii pn la a zecea limit, i regsirii de sine. Drama celest este prologul tuturor
dramelor umane.
Aadar, gradele ierarhiilor celeste i terestre sunt desemnate prin termenul hadd- limit,
sinonimul substantivului grec horos; conceptul de hadd organizeaz scalar distana dintre
hieroistorie i istorie, definete procesul de anogenez, de creare a pleromei divine, dar i de
anagenez, de structurare continu a contiinei de sine i de delimitare- mahdd a lumii
create.
n secolele IX-X, filosofia islamic elenizant10 (falsafa) mparte universul n lumea
creatural (universul vizibil) i lumea nevzut, (cu trmul ceresc i trmul ideilor).
Abunaser utilizeaz simultan elemente din filosofia platonician i neoplatonician (curentul
filosofic Ishrak), mbinnd coerent dou tradiii filosofice, ntr-un comentariu destinat s
demonstreze existena i necesitatea unui Principiu Prim. Metafizica lui Abunaser oscileaz
ntre un holism cu evidente influene din gnoza hermetic i un catenoteism care suport
comparaii att cu Plotin (Enneade-le) ct i cu Pseudo Dionisie Areopagitul (Ierarhiile
divine).
n lucrarea Al- Madinah al-fadilah (Cetatea ideal) Abunaser analizeaz n spirit katafatic
(prin afirmaii succesive) atributele Fiinei Necesare, opernd cu sinonimia esen-unitate.
Sintagma totul este n unitate11 (care a fost interpretat n spirit panteist) este probabil mai
aproape de gndirea holist hermetic- dect de panteismul indian. Cetatea
perfect vizeaz ntreaga lume cunoscut i nu este rezultatul unui program politic, ci al unei
filosofii profetice.
n gndirea falsafa, lumea este o unitate, iar esena unitii este Fiina Necesar. n spiritul
filosofiei Ishrak (de influen neoplatonician), Abunaser argumenteaz n favoarea creaiei
(ibda) prin praxis divin. Imperativul cretin s fie se regsete i n tradiia falsafa ( verbul
KUN!), dar cu un scenariu profund diferit de cel ktisiologic cretin.Teoriile emanaioniste din
secolele IX-X au ca punct zero o cauz prim din care totul purcede (ekporeusis n greaca
neoplatonic, fayd, sudur n araba falsafa12) fr a diminua esena divin. Emanaia decurge
10
Abu Nasr Muhammad Ibn Muhammad ibn Tarkhan ibn Uzalagh al- Farabi, Fusus al Hikham (Nestematele
nelepciunii), apud Remus Rus, Istoria filosofiei islamice, Editura Enciclopedic, Bucureti, 1994, p. 111-118.
11
Ibidem, p. 116.
12
H. Corbin, op. cit, p. 183-184.
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Issue no. 6/2015
triadic (ca n mistica cretin dionisian), rezultatul fiind o succesiune de inteligene

separate, ngeri (la Ibn Sina), energii divine de tipul eonilor gnostici13 sau sefirelor iudaice14.
Sistemul emanaionist al lui Abunaser are att valene noetice (aql) ct i valene ontice.
Motorul emanaiilor este cunoaterea (marifa), scopul fiind acela de a armoniza societatea
uman cu structura ierarhic a universului. Cetatea Ideal descrie cele nou sfere
supralunare, fiecare fiind dominat de un intelect transcendent, care prin autogndire d
natere intelectelor separate15.
Limita dintre sferele supralunare i lumea uman este un intelect (aql) intermediar,
asemntor logos-ului16; (n gndirea religioas a Frailor Puritii- secolul al VIII-lea,
trecerea de la neexistent (adam) la existent (wujud) se face prin intermediul intelectului
universal activ-aql17 care cuprinde arhetipurile tuturor fiinelor (aql este similar cu logos
spermatikos din gndirea cretin).
Gndirea eshatologic iit (termenul grec eshaton este sinonim cu raj ah) condiioneaz
cunoaterea, de relaia cu ngerii mediatori. ngerul mesager- ruh transform cunoaterea- ilm
ntr-un act epifanic, al crui organ de percepere se afl n inim. n cretinism, mistica inimii
are un rol fundamental n redefinirea capacitilor cognitive prin unio mistica. n iism,
cunoaterea mistic (ma arifat qalbiya) este intermediat de Qalam- ngerul mediator.18
Gndirea eshatologic a lui Abunaser are i influene aristotelice, n comentariul asupra
distinciei ntre ceea ce este (esena, mahiyyah) i ceea ce exist (huwiyyah, fiina ca stare a
realitii). Aadar, ousia aristotelic este sinonim cu mahiyyah19.
Abolirea limitelor ontologice i ideea unicitii existenei- wahdat wudjud este respins
de islamul ortodox. Tawhid- unio mistica n sufism este exprimat n secolul al X-lea, prin
formula lui Al Halladj- ana-l-Haqq (Eul meu este Dumnezeu). Abolirea limitelor ontologicetashbh a fost ns respins sub acuzaia c ar contesta monoteismul islamic20 .
Asemnri cu doctrina lui Al Halladj prezint i gndirea mistic a lui Muhyi ad-Din Ibn
Arabi. Unirea transcendenei divine lhut, cu natura nedivin- nsut este modalitatea prin
Ioan Petru Culianu, Experiene ale extazului, Editura Nemira, Bucureti, 1998, p. 48-67.
Moshe Idel, Perfeciuni care absorb. Cabala i interpretare, Editura Polirom, Iai, 2004, p. 266-271.
15
R. Rus, op. cit., p. 118-125.
16
Ioan Damaschin, Dogmatica, Editura institutului Biblic i de Misiune al BOR, Bucureti, 2001, p. 23-24.
17
R.Rus, op. cit, p. 188-189.
18
H. Corbin, Histoire de la philosophie islamique, Paris, 1964, p. 79.
19
Aristotel, Metafizica, Editura Iri, Bucureti, 1996, cap. V, 7.
20
R. Rus, op. cit.,p.309.
13
14
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Issue no. 6/2015
care misticul afirm existena unei realiti unice, care coincide cu existena Creatorului =
monism existenialist- wahdat al-wudjud, fuzionism- ahl al- Ittihd21.
Termenul fan este utilizat pentru a defini depirea limitei dintre efemer i venic,
sfritul drumului mistic22.
Teoria avicennian despre cunoatere se prezint ca o angelologie. Actul ktisiologic este
rezultatul gndirii divine de sine, gndire echivalent cu prima emanaie i cu seria celor zece
inteligene heruvimice- karbyun i a sufletelor celeste posesoare ale Imaginaiei n stare
pur23. Din a zecea Inteligen- Ingerul cunoaterii, eman sufletele umane. Orice act de
cunoatere uman este rezultatul interveniei acestei inteligene active- Aql fal, nous
poietikos24.
n secolul al XII-lea, filozofia Ishrk propune o schem a lumii bazat pe un numr
nelimitat de ipostaze angelice, lumini pure, rezultat al influenei zoroastriene. Ele sunt
mprite ierarhic n dou ordine: ngerii supremi i sufletele Seniorilor speciilor- arbb alanw.
Sub influena gnozei zoroastriene, filozofia Ishrk combate peripatetismul i
neoplatonismul care limitau numrul intelectelor sau ipostazelor divine la 10, pleroma
zoroastrian fiind mult mai complex.25
Universul luminilor primordiale este ordonat ntr-o ierarhie descendent din Nur alanwr-Lumina luminilor. Sohravard (1155-1191) o numete Ordinul longitudinal -tabaqat
al- Tl. Emanatismul de tip ishrk prezint sinilitudini cu teoria arhetipurilor platoniciene i
cu angelologia zoroastrian. Ingerii-Izad i Arhanghelii-arhetipuri sunt desemnai cu
substantivul iranian Espahbad- hegemon.26 ntre universul angelic al luminilor-Rhbd i
universul material- barzakh se afl cerul stelelor fixe. Schema universului are patru trepte:
1. lumea inteligenelor heruvimice -tabaqat altul;
2. lumea sufletelor celeste i omeneti- Malakt;
3. lumea sferelor celeste i elementelor sublunare- Molk ;
4. mundus imaginalis- lam al-mithl, care face trecerea ctre lumea sensibil, i n care
se afl cetile mistice Jabalq, Jbars i Hrqaly27.
21
Ibidem, p. 312-313.
Ibidem, p. 323.
23
H. Corbin, op. cit, p. 203.
24
Ibidem, p. 204-205.
25
Ibidem, p. 326.
26
Ibidem, p. 247.
27
Ibidem, p. 249.
22
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Reacia la emanatismul falsafa a fost doctrina tawhid-despre unitatea i unicitatea lui

Dumnezeu care propune o concepie static despre Fiina Divin . Gndirea apocaliptic
tawhid are fundamente politice clare: mntuirea este rezervat exclusiv celor ce respect
shariah28.
n cretinismul bizantin relaia luntric cu divinul este exprimat prin termenul grec
.29. Mistica cretin accentueaz contrastul dintre puterea divin i sentimentul strii
de creatur, dar este o mistic a unitii.
ar putea fi neleas ca dorina continu de unire mistic cu Dumnezeu. Ea
presupune infinitul preludiu al epectazei. Termenul, aparinnd Sfntului Grigorie de Nyssa
desemneaz depirea continu a naturii umane, ascensiunea spiritual fr sfrit. Epectaza
este sinteza interiorizrii i extazului nencetat. n acest efort, Dumnezeu este interior omului
n unire- , i exterior, transcendent n fiina sa. Termenii i
definesc relaia dintre infinitul n micare (natura uman), i infinitul n fiin (Dumnezeu).
, dorina de unire este n termeni capadoccieni soluia transformrii sentimentului
de creatur n sentimentul de participare la divin, care dilat natura uman i crete dorul de
Dumnezeu.
Aadar, epectaza presupune un aspect de stabilitate, de participare a sufletului la divin,
dar i un aspect de micare infinit, de orientare continu ctre Dumnezeu, care depete
timpul, viznd eternitatea30. Acest paradox al micrii stabile transform dependena de
Dumnezeu ntr-un raport de reciprocitate ntre Dumnezeu i om, de disponibilitate reciproc,
n care ns sunt respectate limitele ontologice i gnoseologice.
Ambele sisteme de gndire, att cel cretin bizantin ct i cel arab islamic
demonstreaz existena a dou modaliti de construcie a imaginalului, determinate de dou
niveluri ale contiinei colective: nivelul alegoric i nivelul tautogoric. Dac la nivelul
alegoric se pot produce mprumuturi, influene rezultate din ntlnirea ntre paradigme
religioase diferite, gndirea tautogoric reprezint dovada originalitii n elaborarea unor
modele de spaializare metafizic. Ea se caracterizeaz printr-o schematizare de tip mitologic,
necesar pentru a atenua teama legat de itinerariul anodic al sufletului, dup moarte31.
n doctrina islamic tawhid, conceptul tanzih definete ndeprtarea extrem a lui Allah de
realitatea contingent, care devine un reflex al Divinitii. Principiul axiomatic al unitii i
28
R.Rus, op. cit., p. 66-67.

Hb 5,7;12,28; Luca 2,25; Act. 2,5; 22,12.
30
Marius Telea, Antropologia Sfinilor Prini capadoccieni, Deva, 2005, p. 68-72.
31
Georges Gusdorf, Mit i metafizic, Editura Amarcord, Timioara, 1996, p. 22.
29
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Issue no. 6/2015
unicitii divine a determinat crearea a doi poli filosofici n tawhid: Tashbh, conform cruia
lumea poate fi reintegrat n realitatea divin i Tanzh, doctrina transcendenei divine32.
Atributul unitii divine implic indivizibilitatea acesteia- ahadiya. Termenul ahadyia este
cvasisinonim cu termenii cretini nicaeo-calchedonieni achoristos i asughytos (nemprit i
nedesprit) referitori la perihoreza divin. Atributul unicitii funcioneaz ca un coninut
pozitiv al oricrei distincii33, nlocuind astfel speculaiile filosofice privind limitarea,
circumscrierea n materie, scindarea esenei divine (adh-dhat).
Creaia ex nihilo echivaleaz n doctrina tawhid cu croirea lumii din neant- udum.
Udum este conceptul care definete non-manifestarea divin, virtualitatea. Khalaka, aciunea
de a creea ( n varianta greac cretin34) este sinonim cu a msura, (skhoinon
geometrikon din metafora veterotestamentar35, verbul hemetereo din Isaia 40, 12) a delimita
(a determina ta ayyun Khalq (ktisis) se refer la transformarea virtualului n
real.
n ktisiologia sufit, lumina (an- Nr37) i spaiul (al- urd38) simbolizeaz Fiina i
Posibilitatea (al-haba39). Impulsul proodic divin, definit cu termenii al-fayd, tajall (iradiere),
afada40 nu diminueaz posibilitile esenei divine de a se determina pe ea nsi, doctrina
fiind similar cu cea neoplatonician41. Termenul sufit kamal- infinit divin este sinonim cu
aforismenos- infinitul pozitiv dionisian, n care conceptul de limit (peras, al-hadd)42 este
anulat.
n Islam, creaia este rennnoit n fiecare clip, deoarece fluxul fiinei divine (fayd,43
sinonim cu hyma44 neoplatonic i apechema cretin45) este nencetat. Creaia continu este
consecina supraabundenei fiinei divine, care se manifest n esenele limitate. Fluxul divin
continuu este exprimat de imperativul kun (s fie!), porunca creatoare46.
Titus Burckhard, Doctrinele esoterice ale Islamului, Editura Herald, Bucureti, 2008, p. 75-78.
Ibidem, p. 79.
34
Matei 19, 4; Marcu 13, 19; Rom 1, 25, etc.
35
A. Bailly, Abrg du dictionnaire grec-franais, Paris, 1928, p. 848.
36
Luca 5, 9.
37
Coran XXIV, 35; Titus Burckhard, op. cit., p. 178.
38
Ibidem, p. 123.
39
Ibidem, p. 103.
40
Titus Burckhard, op. cit., p. 86, 95.
41
Peter S. Groff, Oliver Leaman, Islamic Philosophy, Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, 2007, p. 33.
42
Ibidem, p. 99, 100, 131.
43
Ibidem, p. 33.
44
A. Bailly, op. cit., p. 969.
45
Ibidem, p. 92.
46
Coran XXXVI, 81. Titus Burckhardt, op. cit., p. 96.
32
33
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Issue no. 6/2015
Universul (al-Kawn), spaiul divin infinit (al-Jabarut) este ierarhizat n trei niveluri:
lumea spiritual (alam al- arwah, al- Malakut), lumea imaginaiei (alam al- mithal, alam alkhiyal47), care include paradisul i infernul, i lumea fizic (alam al- ajsam)48.
Ibn Arabi utilizeaz metafora centurii de smarald, (stereoma cretin49) pentru a sugera
ideea de grani ntre lumea fizic i lumea arhetipurilor. Cetatea perfect- Hurqalya este un
spaiu al cunoaterii imaginative- lam al- mithl50. n persan, termenul care numete acest
metaspaiu este N-Koj-Abd- un teritoriu imposibil de localizat, aflat la limita universului
sensibil51.
BIBLIOGRAFIE:
Aristotel, Metafizica, Editura Iri, Bucureti, 1996
Bailly, Auguste, Abrg du dictionnaire grec-franais, Paris, 1928
Burckhard, Titus, Doctrinele esoterice ale Islamului, Editura Herald, Bucureti, 2008
Groff, Peter, S., Leaman, Oliver, Islamic Philosophy, Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh,
2007
Corbin, Henry, Histoire de la philosophie islamique, Paris, 1964
Corbin, Henry, Istoria filosofiei islamice, Editura Herald, Bucureti, 2005
Culianu, Ioan, Petru Experiene ale extazului, Editura Nemira, Bucureti, 1998
Davy, M. M., Enciclopedia doctrinelor mistice, II, Editura Amarcord, Timioara, 1998
Florenski, Pavel, Stlpul i temelia adevrului, Editura Polirom, Iai, 1999
Gusdorf, Georges, Mit i metafizic, Editura Amarcord, Timioara, 1996
Idel, Moshe, Perfeciuni care absorb. Cabala i interpretare, Editura Polirom, Iai, 2004
Rus, Remus, Istoria filosofiei islamice, Editura Enciclopedic, Bucureti, 1994,
Telea, Marius, Antropologia Sfinilor Prini capadoccieni, Deva, 2005.
47
Peter S. Groff, Oliver Leaman, op. cit., p. 69.

Ibidem, p. 93.
49
Ezekiel, 1,23.
50
Ibidem, p. 60.
51
Termenul sinonim n gndirea cretin este Empireea; P. Florenski, Stlpul i temelia adevrului, Editura
Polirom, Iai, 1999, p. 13-51.
48
867
Issue no.6/2015
THE SUPPORT GROUP FOR AUTIST CHILDREN PARENTS

Loredana BNIC
Spiru Haret Unviversity of Bucharest
Abstract: In this study we aimed to highlight the concrete conditions of initiation and
organization of a support group dedicated to the parents of children with autism. Also we
aimed to investigate the effects of the support group over the parental anxiety and stress.
The intervention we refer to in the present study combines the principles of support group
organization and psycho-education techniques, with the tools of psychodrama techniques .
The combination of therapeutic techniques, psycho-education and psychodrama had positive
effects on parents of children with autism, the downside levels of anxiety and stress. The size
of these effects were conditioned parent involvement beyond the therapeutic approach, the
child's chronological age and period when it makes specific therapy, ie , the period when the
parent lives in autism issues. The therapeutic intervention and support for the parent are
early (reported at the time of the child diagnosis), the best results are expected in managing
anxiety and parental stress .
Keywords: Autistic spectrum disorders, anxiety, stress, support group, psycho-education.
Fundamente teoretice
Literatura de specialitate se refer la evidenierea corelaiilor posibile ntre
caracteristicile copilului cu TSA, pe de o parte, i simptomatologia de stres, depresie sau
anxietate a printelui, pe de alt parte (Estes A., Munson J., 2009, Tomakin S., Harris G.E.,
Hawkins J., 2004, Lecavalier L., Leone S., Wiltz J. 2006, Green S., Carter A., 2011, Jeans L.,
Santos R.M. et al. 2013). Toate aceste studii evideniaz problematici intense de anxietate i
stres n rndul prinilor copiilor cu TSA, ceea ce, implicit, afecteaz calitatea vieii acestora,
a copiilor i a ntregii familii.
Aceast problematic ne-a condus la iniierea unui grup de suport destinat prinilor
copiilor cu tulburri din spectrul autist, n care am asociat principiile i tipul de organizare a
intervenei de grup cu tehnicile de psihoeducaie, avnd ca instrumente de lucru tehnicile
psihodramatice
Interveniile de grup se bazeaz pe instinctul gregar, pe tendina individului de a se
reuni n mulime, graie sentimentelor primare de confort i cldur uman pe care acesta le
triete n atare condiii. Datorit dinamicii de grup, se petrec fenomene psihice
supraindividuale, avnd ca efect transferul, condensarea, ricoeul sau rezonana (Blatner,
2000). Ca proces de grup, transferul (de sentimente i atitudini) se produce n cadrul
interaciunilor de grup i face posibil investirea afectiv a diferiilor membri ai grupului i,
mai ales, a terapeutului. Condensarea este un alt proces de grup care implic acumularea
sentimentelor (de multe ori, nerecunoscut la nivel contient) comune multora dintre membrii
grupului, urmat de descrcare i reacie n lan. Alte procese de grup frecvente sunt rezonana
(coninuturile particulare exprimate de ctre unul dintre participani i afecteaz, n egal
msur, i pe ali membri ai grupului) i carambolajul sau ricoeul (o interpretare realizat
asupra unuia dintre participani i atinge scopul i asupra altor membri, n acelai timp).
Yalom i Leszcz (2008) realizeaz o trecere n revist a factorilor terapeutici care
acioneaz n cazul terapiilor de grup. Dintre aceti factori terapeutici enumerai de Yalom i
Leszcz (2008), ne atrag atenia mai ales civa. n cazul factorului terapeutic inocularea
speranei, ateptrile mari legate de ajutorul care urmeaz a fi primit n cadrul terapiei de grup
868
Issue no. 6/2015
coreleaz semnificativ cu rezultatele pozitive; de altfel, aa cum menioneaz autorii citai,

studiile de imagistic cerebral relev faptul c tratamentul placebo poate avea efect direct
asupra creierului, iar credina n tratament poate fi un factor terapeutic n sine. n ceea ce
privete universalitatea, multe persoane ncep terapia cu gndul nelinititor c sunt unici n
nenorocirea lor, doar ele au asemenea probleme; sentimentul unicitii este frecvent la debutul
terapiei de grup deoarece, urmare a izolrii sociale, oamenii nu afl despre sentimentele i
experienele celorlali, nici nu i ofer oportunitatea de a avea ncredere n ceilali sau de a fi
acceptai i validai de ei. Astfel, n fazele de nceput ale grupului, infirmarea sentimentelor de
unicitate reprezint o puternic surs de uurare pentru muli participani. Transmiterea
informaiilor reprezint o instruire didactic cu privire la sntatea mintal, boala mintal,
explicaii psihodinamice generale, sfaturi, sugestii, ghidare (oferite de terapeut sau ceilali
membri). Grupurile specializate pentru persoane cu o anumit tulburare sau care se confrunt
cu o criz de via au o pronunat component psihoeducaional (factorul terapeutic
transmiterea informaiilor Yalom, Leszcz, 2008) i ofer instruciuni explicite cu privire la
natura tulburrii/situaiei de via, examinnd concepiile eronate ale clienilor i reaciile de
autonfrngere. Acest factor terapeutic funcioneaz ca factor de legare iniial, nainte ca ali
factori terapeutici s devin operativi. Transmiterea informaiilor sub form de sfaturi venite
din partea celorlali membri ai grupului face parte viaa iniial a grupului (Yalom, Leszcz,
2008). Chiar dac n aceast faz nu determin un beneficiu real i poate reflecta o rezisten
la implicarea mai intim, transmiterea sfaturilor ntre membrii grupului exprim, n mod
indirect, grij i interes reciproc. Acceptarea de ctre grup duce la acceptare de sine i,
implicit, la valorizare. Factorii existeniali, ca factori terapeutici, transmit idei de tipul: viaa
este uneori incorect, moartea i alte dureri nu pot fi evitate, indiferent ct sunt de apropiat
de ali oameni, viaa trebuie s-o nfrunt singur, trebuie s-mi asum responsabilitatea pentru
felul n care triesc, indiferent ct ghidare i suport primesc (Yalom, Leszcz, 2008) sunt
foarte importani, considerm noi, pentru procesele individuale ale membrilor de grup, mai
ales n cazul grupurilor care reunesc persoane care se confrunt cu aceleai situaii-limit de
via.
Psihodrama este una dintre abordrile terapeutice care utilizeaz major grupul i fora
sa terapeutic. Tehnicile de psihodram invit participanii la munca de grup s pun n scen,
prin intermediului jocului de rol, ca tehnic principal, situaii de via trecute, prezente sau
viitoare, pentru a depi / ameliora dificultile personale i interpersonale. Principiul de baz
(Blatner, 2000) const n nvarea prin aciune i exersarea rolurilor ca parte a personalitii.
Rolul reprezint o form de funcionare pe care i-o asum individul n momentul specific n
care reacioneaz la o situaie specific, n care sunt implicate i alte persoane sau obiecte
(Moreno, 2009). Performana individului n rol depinde de perceperea corect a rolului i de
punerea n scen, n sensul de selectare corect din repertoriul de roluri i trecerea mobilde la
un rolla altul.
Etapele de lucru n psihodram sunt nclzirea, punerea n scen i mprtirea.
Scopul etapei de nclzire este acela de a dezvolta interelaionarea, de a dinamiza
coninuturile individuale i de a crea un cadru de emergen i rezonan interpersonal
(Leventon, 2001). Are loc sub forma exerciiilor corporale, jocurilor distractive sau
exerciiilor structurate pe anumite teme. Punerea n scen sau "jocul efectiv" presupune fie
pregtirea i derularea temei propuse de protagonist, fie desfurarea unor exerciii structurate
de identificare (cu persoane, personaje, obiecte, stri, situaii), jocuri colective libere,
structurate sau semistructurate, exprimare grafic, corporal (gesturi, posturi, micri) sau
muzical (Blatner, 2000). Etapa de prelucrare i integrare a coninuturilor "puse n scen"
conine feed-back-uri suportive adresate protagonistului, identificri de rol, nelegerea
simbolismului propriilor aciuni n rol i integrarea acestora ntr-un nivel superior de
contientizare (Moreno, 2009). Factorii terapeutici ai psihodramei (Kellerman, 1996) sunt
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Issue no. 6/2015
descrii
ca
fiind
catharsis-ul
(declanarea
emoional),
fenomenul
"tele"
(atragerea/respingerea interpersonal legat de experiena "aici-i-acum" i necontaminat de
elemente din trecut, Moreno, 2009), insight-ul aciune (descoperiri n plan cognitiv, cu
procesri la nivel corporal, perceptual-motor i intuitiv), factorul "ca-i-cum" (contribuia i
mbogirea imaginarului ca resurs de creativitate), traducerea n act (comportamente vizibile
n viaa de zi cu zi).
Psihoeducaia este un alt tip de intervenie utilizat n grupul de suport organizat
pentru prinii copiilor cu TSA. Prezentat iniial n 1999 i revizuit n 2010, metoda "Eu
sunt special" (Vermeulen, 2011) este utilizat pentru a investiga i descifra autismul.
Cunoscut i ca metod de psihoeducaie, se adreseaz n egal msur persoanelor cu autism,
aparintorilor acestora i specialitilor. Metoda permite cunoaterea n profunzime a
caracteristicilor tulburrilor din spectrul autismului, evoluia, formele de intervenie,
consecinele pe plan personal i social, precum i posibilitile de gestionare a tulburrii i de
susinere a persoanei afectate. Conceput iniial ca o colecie de fie de lucru care au drept
scop autocunoaterea persoanei cu TSA, metoda psihoeducaiei "Eu sunt special" poate fi
aplicat pentru a nfia omul din spatele autismului, cu personalitatea, talentele, interesele,
competenele i diferenele sale fa de ceilali oameni.
Psihoeducaia reprezint o formare n "aptitudinile necesare vieii" (Vermeulen, 2011)
i include att predarea cunotinelor despre autism, ct i formarea de atitudini i competene.
nrudit fiind cu tiinele educaiei i cu psihologia, psihoeducaia implic o evaluare a
situaiei iniiale prin ansamblul caracteristicilor persoanei (nivelul de nelegere, motivaia) i
a mediului nconjurtor (fizic i, mai ales, social), precum i stabilirea obiectivelor de
intervenie, planificarea aciunilor specifice necesare i evaluarea final a rezultatelor. Etapele
de lucru se refer la corpul i creierul persoanei cu autism, talentele pe care aceasta le are i le
poate valorifica, posibilitile de comunicare, capacitatea de iniiere i meninere a relaiilor,
imaginea de sine, blocajele de gndire i aciune.
n psihoeducaie, pot fi utilizate diferite suporturi de lucru (Vermeulen, 2011): ntlniri
individualizate i/sau de grup, cursuri scrise sau on-line, suporturi video, joc de rol, interviuri,
exerciii.
Dificultile transpunerii n practic a competenelor pentru viaa cotidian necesit
implicarea anturajului persoanei cu autism. "Un program de psihoeducaie izolat duce la
efecte izolate" (Vermeulen, 2011), astfel nct colaborarea apropiat cu prinii i profesorii
este o condiie important a reuitei. Lucrul n grup, i n cazul psihoeducaiei, construiete o
reea structurat care susine emoional persoanele implicate. Impactul emoional al
informaiilor despre TSA se face simit dup edinele de psihoeducaie, iar lucrul n grup
funcioneaz ca o "plas de siguran" emoional. Mai mult, mediul fizic i social este
important pentru aplicarea i consolidarea cunotinelor i competenelor achiziionate. Cei
din jurul persoanei cu autism trebuie s se adapteze, la rndul lor, la caracteristicile i
manifestrile tipice pentru TSA. Gradul de acceptare exercit, n acest caz, o mare influen
(Vermeulen, 2011).
Design-ul cercetrii
n prezentul studiu ne-am propus reliefarea condiiilor concrete de iniiere i
organizare a grupului de suport adresat prinilor copiilor cu autism, precum i investigarea
efectelor grupului de suport asupra anxietii i stresului prinilor copiilor cu autism.
Ipotezele formulate au fost urmtoarele:
- Suportul specializat adresat prinilor cu autism poate reduce nivelul de anxietate al
prinilor copiilor cu autism.
- Suportul specializat adresat prinilor cu autism poate reduce nivelul de stres al
prinilor copiilor cu autism.
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- Psihoeducaia, adaptat pentru problematica prinilor copiilor cu autism,

funcioneaz ca un factor de detensionare a acestora.
La grupul de suport au participat 15 prini ai cror copii au fost diagnosticai cu TSA.
Prinii participani la grup au fost 12 mame i 3 tai, cu niveluri ridicate de stres i anxietate,
evaluate ntr-un studiu anterior al autoarei (Bnic L. 2014).
Intervenia utilizat n cercetarea de fa asociaz principiile i tipul de organizare a
grupului de suport cu tehnicile de psihoeducaie, avnd ca instrumente de lucru tehnicile
psihodramatice. Grupul propus participanilor este un grup constant, care are drept obiective,
pe de o parte, informarea corect a participanilor asupra autismului i, pe de alt parte,
scderea nivelului de anxietate i stres al participanilor (prini ai unor copii cu autism),
deculpabilizarea i formarea/dezvoltarea abilitilor de gestionare a propriilor triri raportate
la particularitile copilului. Motivul pentru care am asociat aceste principii i tehnici reiese
din experiena n lucrul cu copiii cu TSA i prinii lor, precum i din mrturii ale unor prini
care au copii cu TSA sau ale unor specialiti n domeniu. Din aceste surse a reieit faptul c
doar informarea asupra autismului, n lipsa mprtirii emoionale, are un impact relativ
sczut asupra prinilor copiilor cu TSA i a calitii vieii lor.
Am intitulat acest grup "Grup de ntlnire pentru prinii copiilor cu autism". Grupul
are o durat total de 90 de ore, cu o regularitate a ntlnirilor sptmnal, cte 6 ore. Grupul
a debutat n luna aprilie 2014.
n cursul desfurrii ntlnirilor de grup, au fost utilizate urmtoarele metode i
tehnici de cercetare:
Observaia participativ;
nregistrarea n scris a ntlnirilor de grup, sub forma protocoalelor scrise;
Tehnici de psihoeducaie (adaptate dup Metoda "Eu sunt special", Vermeulen, 2011),
centrate pe categorii de problematici ale copilului cu TSA, precum:
modul de funcionare al creierului persoanei cu autism,
sensibilitile senzoriale,
relaionarea,
atingerea,
somnul i alimentaia,
deprinderile de via cotidian,
stereotipiile,
crizele de tantrum.
Tehnici de psihodram: jocul de rol, oglindirea, identificarea, lucrul n diad,
exprimarea grafic, jocuri colective structurate i semi-structurate;
Evaluarea intermediar a nivelurilor de stres i anxietate. Dup primele 7
ntlniri de grup, a fost evaluat nivelul de anxietate i stres al participanilor,
utliznd aceleai probe ca la evaluarea iniial (desfurat n studiul anterior).
Chestionarul de anxietate Leahy (Leahy, E., Holland Z., 2010) (Anexa 1). Este
o scal care permite subiecilor s relateze simptomele de anxietate specifice
pe care le resimt. Scala nu include doar simptomele specifice ale anxietii
generalizate (aa cum sunt specificate n DSM-IV), ci i alte simptome (de
exemplu, senzaie de scurtare a respiraiei, ameeala, palpitaii).
Chestionarul pentru evaluarea anxietii ASQ (Scholling, L.P., Emmelkamp P.,
1992) (Anexa 2). ASQ surprinde dimensiunile cognitive, somatice i
comportamentale ale anxietii. Cei 36 de itemi ai scalei au fost construii i
validai de Lehrer si Woolfolk (1982). Rspunsurile se dau pe o scala cu 8
trepte, 0 indicnd performana minim i 8 maxim. Se calculeaz un scor
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pentru fiecare dimensiune (cognitiv, somatic i comportamental) i un scor

global pentru anxietate prin sumarea scorurilor pariale.
Scala de impact a situaiilor critice (Keane T., 1997)(Anexa 3.). Aceast scal
msoar impactul situaiilor critice i evalueaz nivelul de tulburare subiectiv
asociat unui nivel de via traumatizant (Horowitz, Wilner, Alvarez, 1979).
Am ales acest instrument pornind de la premisa c, pentru prinii copiilor cu
TSA, aflarea diagnosticului de autism este un eveniment cu impact
trumatizant. n aceast scal subiectul alege dintre evenimentele de via
recente pe cel mai strsant. Astfel, se evalueaz, pe o scal de la 0 la 3,
frecvena cu care simptomele descrise de itemi sau manifestat pe parcursul
sptmnii precedente, pstrnd ca punct de referin evenimentul ales.
Scorurile fiecrui item pot fi adunate pentru a obine un scor total al gradului
de tulburare subiectiv. Itemii pot fi utilizai n calculul celor dou componente
ale tulburrii: a) prezena de gnduri sau imagini intruzive legate de eveniment,
i b) evitarea sau negarea unor elemente ale situaiei traumatice.
Rezultate. Discuii i interpretri
Din cei 15 participani, au fost prezeni la toate ntlnirile 12, ceilali trei participani
find abseni la dou dintre ntlniri. Am ales desfurarea ntlnirilor sub forma unui grup
constant, nchis, pentru a stimula coeziunea grupului, intimitatea relaiilor i profunzimea
mprtirilor, ca factori terapeutici.
De la prima ntlnire de grup, am cerut participanilor s amne deciziile legate de
participarea/neparticiparea la grup, pn dup a treia ntlnire, pentru a da posibilitatea
factorilor terapeutici (n special universalitatea, inocularea speranei i transmiterea
informaiilor) s devin operaionali. Aceast "strategie" a funcionat,
s-au depit
"comportamentele de faad", participanii s-au angajat n interaciuni autentice i s-au
ascultat reciproc, manifestnd interes i respect unul fa de cellalt. Astfel, nici unul dintre
participanii selectai iniial nu a renunat prematur la ntlnirile de grup.
n privina punctualitii (ca indicator al implicrii i responsabilitii asumate),
participanii au respectat programul stabilit. ntrzierile produse la unii dintre participani au
fost de fiecare dat legate de situaii neprevzute, legate de copii (reamintim faptul c
participanii sunt principalii ngrijitori ai unui copil cu autism i pot aprea frecvent diverse
probleme). ns, aceste ntrzieri nu au perturbat procesul de grup sau procesele individuale
ale participanilor. Membrii de grup respectivi s-au integrat cu uurin n activitatea i
dinamica grupului, iar grupul a acceptat i tolerat aceste aceste situaii. Considerm aceasta ca
un alt indicator al modului n care a funcionat interesul i respectul reciproc, ca forme ale
acceptrii i valorizrii de ctre grup a fiecrui membru.
La prima ntlnire s-au discutat regulile de comunicare n grup (fiecare are timpul su,
exprimrile au ca adresabilitate propria persoan, nu sunt permise judecile de valoare) i s-a
stabilit importana confidenialitii. Fiecare dintre membrii grupului i-a dat acordul n ceea
ce privete "secretul de grup".
Motivaiile participrii la grup (dincolo de "invitaia" autoarei, ca moderator al
grupului), prezentate de fiecare membru al grupului n cursul primei ntlniri (ca "ateptri")
au fost legate de:
- gestionarea mai uoar / mai corect a comportamentelor copilului;
- nevoia de a mprti cu ali prini care au copii cu autism;
- sperana de a afla informaii noi pentru a-i ajuta copilul;
- ndoieli privind propria persoan (n aceast categorie am decelat ulterior, n procesele
individuale ale participanilor / temele personale, stri de frustrare, furie, culp,
"revolt" mpotriva diagnosticului copilului, temeri legate de viitorul copilului).
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Fiecare ntlnire de 6 ore a fost structurat n 2 module (de cte 3 ore), cu o pauz
intermediar de 30 de minute i a urmat tipul de organizare psihodramatic: blitz de venire
(evenimente petrecute de la ultima ntlnire, starea fizic i psihic "aici-i-acum", teme
personale, disponibilitatea pentru implicare), nclzire, exerciii / joc / aciune, prelucrare,
blitz de plecare (cum a fost ntlnirea, ce las, ce iau).
n faza de debut a grupului s-a pus accent pe intervenia de tip psihoeducativ i pe
exerciii de intercunoatere i coeziune a grupului. n primul modul al primelor 3 edine s-au
prezentat participanilor informaii despre:
- funcionarea creierului copilului cu TSA (observarea fragmentat i atenia excesiv la
detalii, cu pierderea imaginii de ansamblu, gndirea n imagini, procesarea de
profunzime, gndirea uniderecional, nelegerea literal, rigiditatea);
- sensibilitile senzoriale (sensibilitatea la zgomote care pentru ceilali par
neimportante, sensibilitatea "bizar" la anumite mirosuri, gusturi i texturi, n sensul
unei hipersensibiliti sau, dimpotriv, hiposensibiliti, dificultatea de adaptare la
diferene de temperatur a mediului);
- dificultile de relaionare i comunicare (dificultatea sau incapacitatea de a iniia /
menine contact vizual, incapacitatea de a iniia relaionarea, ntrzieri n apariia i
dezvoltarea limbajului verbal, incapacitatea de a nelege scopul i rolul exprimrii
verbale, ecolalia, limbajul disfuncional);
- specificul alimentaiei i somnului (preferina obsesiv doar pentru un tip de aliment,
uneori n funcie de culoare, somn agitat, treziri dese n timpul nopii);
- posibile co-morbiditi (ADHD, hiperactivitate, retard);
- dificulti n imitarea comportamentelor motorii sau verbale sau absena total a
tendinei de a imita;
- gesturi stereotipe i utilizarea obiectelor n scopuri disfuncionale;
- absena jocului;
- dificultile sau incapacitatea de a decodifica expresiile emoionale ale ccelorlali;
- crizele de tantrum (i identificarea comportamentelor demonstrative versus manifestri
reale ale frustrrii sau stresului copilului, de exemplu expunerea la zgomote, situaii
sociale, incapacitatea de exprimare a nevoilor).
Fiecare dintre participani a mprtit din experiena personal legat de propriul
copil, la fiecare tem n parte.
n cellalt modul de 3 ore al primelor 3 ntlniri de grup, participanii au avut
posibilitatea s i expun dificultile majore cu care se confrunt i li s-au propus exerciii
psihodramatice de intercunoatere: sociometrie pe diverse criterii (locul naterii, anotimpul n
care a fost nscut, dac au un copil sau mai muli, profesie, vrst, statutul marital, dificulti
cu care se confrunt n viaa de zi cu zi i n relaionarea cu propriul copil), exerciiin diad,
exerciii non-verbale, oglindirea n diad.
Urmtoarele ntlniri au continuat demersurile de psihoeducaie (pe temele deja
enumerate), dar formulate ntr-o manier psihodramatic i, de asemenea, s-au concentrat
asupra coninuturilor aduse de participani din experiena i tririle personale.
Unul dintre primele exerciii structurate propuse participanilor a fost "Trecerea prin
poarta autismului". Participanii au fost invitai s treac printr-o poart simbolic care separ
lumea "celorlali" de lumea autismului, s exploreze emoional i cognitiv aceast trecere i
apoi s exprime grafic, ntr-un desen, aceast experien. n prelucrare, participanii au
mprtit sentimente de ireal, bizar, marginalizare, tendina de a se "confunda" cu propriul
copil (ntr-o form de co-dependen) i de a se ndeprta de realitatea social. Acest exerciiu
a prilejuit apropierea de ceea ce triete propriul copil (mai ales pentru prinii care nu
reueau s-i neleag propriul copil), precum i identificarea unor teme personale
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(sentimentul de "zid" ntre printe i copil, tendina de a modifica realitatea n funcie de

propriul copil, tendina de negare a diagnosticului).
Pentru gestionarea frustrrilor legate de statutul "special" al propriului copil cu autism,
am propus jocul colectiv semi-structurat "Elefantul Elmer" (adaptat dup Metoda "Eu sunt
special", Vermeulen, 2011). Elmer este un elefant cu multe culori, care triete printre
semenii si, elefanii care, fiecare, au o unic alt culoare. Participanii s-au implicat n joc i
au experimentat ce nseamn "a fi special", ntr-un schimb de rol cu copilul cu autism.
Prelucrarea n urma jocului a adus, n rndul participanilor, integrri emoionale legate de
sentimente de frustrare legate de manifestrile i statutul propriului copil i integrri cognitive
privind ateptrile de la propiul copil.
S-au desfurat i jocuri de protagonist, cu teme personale ale participanilor. De
exemplu, jocul de protagonist cu tema "Cum gestionez crizele copilului meu". Protagonistul a
expus o situaie concret, n care copilul face o criz de tantrum ntr-un loc public. Ceilali
participani au fost invitai n rol (alter-ego, copilul cu autism, persoanele care asist la
situaie) i fiecare dintre ei a experimentat n situaia securizant a grupului tririle n rol.
Prelucrarea a adus multe mprtiri de tipul "i eu, ca i tine, am simit, am trit...", precum i
prelucrri cognitive de tipul "cum a face altfel". Protagonistul a primit din partea celorlali
membri feed-back-uri legate de gestionarea situaiei, diferenierea situaiilor n care criza de
tantrum a copilului este rezultatul unei frustrri reale sau o modalitate de a atrage atenia.
Acest joc de protagonist a provocat fenomene de rezonan i ricoeu n rndul participanilor.
Cei care au preluat roluri, dar i "spectatorii" au realizat integrri emoionale, cognitive i
acionale.
Un alt joc de protagonist care a provocat fenomene extinse de rezonan i ricoeu a
fost "Eu fa-n-fa cu diagnosticul copilului meu". Protagonistul a retrit, alturi de membrii
grupului, situaia n care i s-a comunicat daignosticul copilului, sentimentele trite i
scenariile elaborate n acel moment n realitateaq interioar. Jocul a prilejiut protagonistului
rencadrarea situaiei de referin i remodelarea scenariilor.
Evaluarea intermediar dup primele 7 ntlniri de grup a relevat urmtoarele:
Toi cei 5 participani care au copii cu vrsta cronologic ntre 2 i 6 ani
(perioada de terapie a copilului: 6 luni-4 ani) au nregistrat scderi ale
nivelului de anxietate, msurat cu Chestionarul de anxietate Leahy. La
evaluarea iniial a nivelului de anxietate (desfurat n studiul anterior i
pe baza creia au fost selectai pentru grup) aceti participani au nregistrat
anxietate sever, iar la evaluarea intermediar anxietate moderat. De
asemenea, aceti participani au nregistrat scderi ale dimensiunii somatice
(manifestat prin probleme de respiraie, transpiraii, migrene) i ale celei
cognitive (gnduri negative, catastrofice) ale anxietii, msurate prin
Chestionarul pentru evaluarea anxietii, evolund de la scoruri ridicate (la
evaluarea iniial) ctre scoruri medii sau mici (n cazul unuia dintre
participanii din aceast categorie, s-a nregistrat scderea pn la un scor
mic la dimensiunea somatic a anxietii). Nici unul dintre participani nu a
nregistrat evoluii n ceea ce privete dimensiunea coportamental a
anxietii, msurat cu Chestionarul pentru evalauarea anxietii. La
evaluarea intermediar cu Scala de imapact a situaiilor critice, participanii
din aceast categorie au nregistrat scderi ale nivelului de stres n ceea ce
privete dimensiunea legat de gnduri i imagini intruzive legate de
situaia confruntrii cu diagnosticul copilului. Doar unul dintre participanii
din aceast categorie a nregistrat e evoluie, dar nesemnificativ, n ceea ce
privete nivelul de stres legat de negarea i evitarea stresorului (legat de
problematica copilului).
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n ceea ce privete participanii care au copii cu vrsta cronologic ntre 7

i 10 ani (perioada de terapie a copilului: 5 ani- 7/8 ani), 3 din 5 au
nregistrat scderi ale nivelului de anxietate la evaluarea intermediar cu
Chestionarul de anxietate Leahy, evolund de la anxietate sever la
anxietate moderat. Unul dintre participani a nregistrat la evaluarea
intermediar cu Chestionarul de anxietate Leahy o evoluie de la nivel
sever al anxietii la nivel redus. Este de menionat faptul c acest
participant a avut joc de protagonist, cu tema "Copilul meu nu vorbete. Ce
m fac cu asta?". La evaluarea intermediar cu Chestionarul pentru
evalauarea anxietii, participanii din aceast categorie au nregistrat
scoruri medii pentru dimensiunea cognitiv i cea comportamental
(comparativ cu evaluarea iniial, la care nregistraser scoruri ridicate). La
aceast categorie de participani, dimensiunea somatic a anxietii nu a
nregistrat dect scoruri sczute sau moderate la evaluarea iniial, scoruri
care nu au nregistrat evoluii la evaluarea intermediar. La evaluarea
intermediar a stresului, aceast categorie de participani a nregistrat
scderi, de la scoruri ridicate la scoruri medii, n ceea ce privete negarea i
evitarea situaiilor stresante. Considerm c aceast evoluie este legat i
de implicarea participanilor n jocurile structurate propuse n ntlnirile de
grup (de exemplu, Elefantul Elmer) i, n cazul a doi dintre participani,
jocurile de protagonist desfurate, pe teme personale legate de ateptrile
fa de propriul copil i gestionarea crizelor de tantrum ale copilului.
Doar doi dintre participanii cu copii cu vrsta cronologic peste 12 ani
(perioada de terapie a copilului ntre 8-10 ani i mai mult) au nregistrat
scderi ale nivelului de anxietate, msurat prin Chestionarul de anxietate
Leahy, de la nivel sever la moderat, respectiv sczut, comparativ cu
evalauarea iniial. De asemenea, un alt participant a nregistrat
mbuntiri ale nivelului de anxietate, msurat prin Chestionarul pentru
evaluarea anxietii, pe dimensiunea cognitiv (de la nivel mediu la nvel
sczut). n ceea ce privete nivelul de stres, trei dintre participanii din
aceast categorie au nregistrat scderi (de la ridicat la mediu, respectiv
sczut, n cazul unui participant) n ceea ce privete att dimensiunea
gndurilor i imaginilor intruzive, ct i dimensiunea de evitare / negare a
situaiei stresante. La aceast categorie de participani s-au nregistrat cele
mai reduse mbuntiri, comparativ cu celelalte categorii de participani.
De altfel, din aceast categorie au fost i participanii care au nregistrat i
cele mai numeroase absene sau ntrzieri la ntlnirile de grup.
Concluzii
Ipotezele formulate au fost confirmate parial.
Prinii copiilor cu autism (de diferite vrste cronologice) s-au implicat n ntlnirile
de grup i au tratat cu responsabilitate implicarea lor n discuiile i exerciiile propuse.
Evoluiile n nivelurile de anxietate i stres ale participanilor la grup (evaluate ntr-o
etap intermediar a desfurrii grupului) le apreciem ca fiind pariale. Considerm c aceste
evoluii, n sensul scderii pe anumite dimensiuni ale anxietii i stresului, se datoreaz
factorilor terapeutici care acioneaz n grup, coroborai cu metodele de psihoeducaie.
Categoria de participani la care factorii terapeutici coroborai cu psihoeducaia au
acionat cu cele mai bune rezultatele este cea a prinilor a cror copii au vrsta cuprins ntre
2 i 6 ani (perioada de terapie a copilului ntre 6 luni i 4 ani). n cazul acestor participani,
problematica anxietii i stresul legat de situaia i manifestrile propriului copil sunt relativ
recente i restructurarea coninuturilor interioare este mai accesibil. Categoria de participani
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Issue no. 6/2015
la care s-au nregistrat cele mai puin relevante evoluii la evaluarea intermediar a nivelurilor
de anxietate i stres este cea a prinilor cu copii avnd vrsta cronologic peste 12 ani
(perioada de terapie a copilului ntre 8 i 10 ani i mai mult). n cazul acestei categorii de
participani, considerm c estenecesar o perioad mult mai ndelungat de intervenie
terapeutic, cu accent pe probleme de psihoeducaie legate de perioada adolescenei propriilor
copii i specificitile acesteia, precum i pe teme personale legate de viitorul propriului copil.
n concluzie, considerm c asocierea tehnicilor de psihoeducaie cu cele terapeutice
de grup au efecte pozitive asupra prinilor copiilor cu autism, n sensul scderii nivelurilor de
anxietate i stres. Dimensiunile acestor efecte sunt condiionate, dincolo de implicarea
printelui n demersul terapeutic, de vrsta cronologic a copilului i de perioada de cnd
acesta face terapie specific, cu alte cuvinte, de perioada de cnd printele triete n
problematica autismului propriului copil. Cu ct intervenia terapeutic i suportul acordate
printelui sunt mai precoce (raportate la momentul disgnosticrii copilului), cu att sunt de
ateptat rezultate mai bune n gestionarea anxietii i stresului parental.
Vom continua intervenia terapeutic de grup, asociat cu psihoeducaia i vom
reevalua nivelurile de anxietate i stres ale participanilor prini ai copiilor cu autism,
pentru a testa eficiena demersului terapeutic propus.
Not
Aceast lucrare a beneficiat de suport financiar prin proiectul Tineri cercettori de
succes dezvoltare profesional n context interdisciplinar i internaional:
POSDRU/159/1.5/S/132400, proiect cofinanat din Fondul Social European prin Programul
Operaional Sectorial Dezvoltarea Resurselor Umane 2007-2013
Note bibliografice
Abidin, R. (1995), Parenting Stress Index, 3rd Edition: Profesional Manual, Odessa,
Psychological Assessement Resources Inc.
Bnic Loredana (2014), Parental stress and anxiety in autism spectrum disorders, in
Identities in metamorphosis: Literature, Discourse and Multicultural Dialogue, Section
Psychology and Educational Science, Arhipelag XXI Press, Trgu Mure, pp. 168-175
Blatner, A. (2000), Foundations of Psychodrama. History, Theory and Practice, NY,
Springer
Dobrescu, Iuliana (2010), Manual de psihiatrie a copilului i adolescentului, Editura
Infomedica, Bucureti
Dumas, J.E., Wolf, L.C., Fisman, S.N., Culligan, A. (1991), Parenting stress, child
behavior problems, and dysphoria in parents of children with autism, Down syndrome,
behavior disorders, and normal development, Exceptionality, Vol. 2, 97-110
Estes, A., Munson, J. (2009), Parenting stress and psychological functioning among
mothers of pre-school children with autism and develompental delay, Autism, Vol. 13, 375387
Exhorn, Karen Siff (2010), S nelegem autismul, Editura Aramis, Bucureti
Green, S., Carter, A. (2011), Predictors and Course of Daily Living Skills
Developmental in toddlers with Autistic Spectrum Disorders, Journal of Autism and
Developmental Disorders, Vol. 19, 201-2012
Guimon, J., Webwer-Rouget, B. (2006), Terapii scurte de grup, Iai, Polirom
Harris, S.l., Handlerman, J.S. (2000), Age and IQ as predictors of placement for young
childern with autism: A four to six year follow up. Journal of Autism and Developmental
Disorders, 30 (2), 137-142
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Jeans, L., Santos, R.M., Laxman, D., McBride, B., Dyer, W.J. (2013), Examining
ECLS-B: Maternal Stress and Deppresive Symptoms when Raising Children with Autistic
Spectrum Disorders, Topic in Early Childhood Special Education, Vol. 33, 162-171
Keane, T.M. (eds.) (1997), Assessing psychological trauma, NY, Guilford
Kellerman, P.F. (1996), Focus on Psychodrama:The Therapeutic Aspects of
Psychodrama, London, Jessica Kingsley Publishers
Kieffer, C. (2002), Phases of group development, Group, 25, 91-105
Leahy, R., Holland, St. (2010), Planuri de tratament i intervenie pentru depresie i
anixietate, Cluj, Editura ASCR
Lecavalier, L., Leone, S., Wilty J. (2006), The impact of behaviour problems on
caregiver stress in young people with autism spectrum disorders, Journal of Intellectual
Disability Research, Vol. 50, Issue 3, 172-183
Ledoux, J., Gorma, J. (2001), A call to action: Overcoming anxiety through active
coping, American Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 1953-55
Leventon, E. (2001), A clinicians's Guide to Psychodrama, NY, Springer
Mitrofan, Iolanda (2006), Psihoterapie. Repere teoretice, metodologice i aplicative,
Bucureti, Editura SPER
Moreno, J.L. (2009), Scrieri fundamentale. Despre psihodram, metoda de grup i
spontaneitatei, Bucureti, Editura Trei
Tomakin, S., Harris G.E., Hawkins, J. (2004), The relationship between behaviours
exhibited by children with autism and maternal stress, Journal of Clinical Child Adolescent
Psychology, Vol. 29, 16-23
Scholling A., Emmelkamp, P. (1992), Self report assessment of anxiety. Across
validation of the Leher-Woolfolk anxiety symptom questionnaire in three population,
Behavioral Research and Therapy, 167-180
Vermeulen, P. (2011), Eu sunt special. Manual de psihoeducaie pentru persoanele cu
autism, aparintori i specialiti, ANCAAR, Prest Group Interbational
Yalom, I., Leszcz, M. (2008), Tratat de psihoterapie de grup. Teorie i practic,
Bucureti, Editura Trei
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AVANT-GARDE VERSUS MODERNITY

Mirela RADU, Titu Maiorescu University of Bucharest
Cristina Veronica ANDREESCU, Carol Davila University of Medicine and
Pharmacy, Bucharest
Abstract: Modernism, emerged in the twentieth century literature includes all those artistic
movements trying a detachment from tradition, denying, sometimes in extreme forms, the
previous literary movements or periods. Occurred from the symbolism, as a reaction against
"semanatorism" that characterized the late nineteenth century, modernism seeks to align the
artistic expression with modern life, with the periods sensitivity thereby contributing to the
enrichment of artistic creation. In Romanian literature, the person who theorized the
modernist movement was Eugen Lovinescu who, through the circle around "Sburtorul "
contributed to the alignment of the Romanian literature to a new phase of evolution. The
principles of "Sburtorul" are connecting to the spirit of the century; synchronization with
European literature in cultural and literary forms by imitation, but by differentiation as well;
mutation of aesthetic values (under the influence of history); assertion of aesthetic autonomy,
objectifying prose; preference for the urban theme for complex psychologies and analytical
spirit; promoting new talent and "revision" of the classics; trust in progress and refusing
excessive autochthonous literature.
Keywords: traditionalism, anachronism, radicality, dogmatism, rebellion
Tradiionalismul romnesc are dou perioade: la nceputul sec. XIX (smntorismul)
i cea de dup primul rzboi mondial urmat de poporanismul postbelic la care se adaug
diverse orientri ideologice i politice ce reitereaz problematica tradiiei i a specificului
romnesc. Sburtorul a aprut n dou serii (1919-1922 i 1926-1927), propunndu-i
stimularea dezvoltrii moderne a literaturii romne n context european. Programul susinut de
Lovinescu poart numele de modernism. Nucleul redacional al revistei era alctuit, n 1919,
din Lovinescu, Liviu Rebreanu, Victor Eftimiu, Ion Minulescu, Cathon Teodorian i Dimitrie
Nanu. La acetia se adaug Ion Barbu, Camil Petrescu, Hortensia Papadat-Bengescu, Ilarie
Voronca, B. Fundoianu etc. Programul revistei capt contur n 1922, cnd revista se numea
Sburtorul literar i cuprindea urmtoarele principii: respectarea valorilor estetice, acceptarea
i promovarea de tinere talente, sincronizarea cu literatura de la nivel european, promovarea
inovaiei, modernizarea limbajului. Au fost ncurajate poezia abscons, ermetia i simbolic,
lirica incantatorie, proza obiectiv, citadin i analitic, cu surs de inspiraie n universul
urban, crearea de personaje complexe. Este ncurajat individualitatea i critica negativ, de
orientare.
Eugen Lovinescu, n accepiunea Prof. Valentinei Curticeanu, a dat dovad de dou
tendine aparent contradictorii: pe de o parte o nclinaie spre msur, echilibru, raiune,
ordine i sistematizare (datorate formaiei lui clasiciste), iar pe de alt parte o aspiraie spre
noutate, inovaie i modernitate "situaie neateptat pentru un temperament tradiionalist de
cultur clasic."1 "Cea de a doua nclinaie va fi cea definitorie, emblematia pentru locul lui
Lovinescu n critica romneasc, iar semne ale ei se ntrevd nc din foiletoanele scrise la
Epoca, adunate n volumul de debut Pai pe nisip (I,II,1906). Se afl aici germenii viitorului
Eugen Lovinescu, Rspunsul d-lui E. Lovinescu la scrisoarea Cercului literar din Sibiu n Revista Viaa, 23
mai 1943
1
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antismntorism al criticului () deranjat de anacronismul obstinaiilor ruraliste, etnice i

etice din creaia unor scriitori ai gruprii respective."2
Lovinescu "sesizeaz foarte corect sensul avangardismului, caracterizndu-l n linii
eseniale."3 Sistemul lovinescian se caracterizeaz prin "relativism estetic i critic"4 din care
rzbate vocaia spre clasicism (Lovinescu preuia clasicismul pentru ordinea i claritatea
acestuia), ceea ce l-a ndemnat pe mare critic s pun accent pe "adevr i echilibru ca idealuri
morale generale."5Att cenaclul ct i revista conduse de Lovinescu pledeaz activ pentru
sincronizarea literaturii i culturii romne interbelice cu cele de la nivel european. Dei cele
dou caracteristici ale sistemului lovinescian sunt aparent divergente (pe de o parte aspiraia
spre ordine, rigoare i adevr i, pe de alt parte, acceptarea i promovarea modernitii) ele se
vor mpleti armonios crend un sistem eterogen i inedit. Pivotul central al teoriei
sincronismului susinut de Lovinescu l reprezint principiul imitaiei: societile
subdezvoltate le copiaz pe cele mai avansate iar imitaia nu se oprete doar la cultur, ci
acioneaz i n plan social, economic i politic. Alturi de conceptul imitaiei, Lovinescu
trateaz i pe cel al originalitii i diferenierii.
n proz, Lovinescu pledeaz pentru ndepartarea de smntorism, de lirismul
dulceag al acestei micri literare i ndreptarea spre o proz obiectiv, cu subiecte plasate n
mediul citadin, ncrcat de psihologii autentice. Adevratul modernism n proz, potrivit
criticului, se sprijin pe aciuni veridice, autentice cu conflicte puternice n care se ncleteaz
prihologii individuale. Fcnd o comparaie ntre simbolism i modernism, criticul nota sfera
mult mai larg a celui de-al doilea, deoarece modernismul poate include simbolismul,
expresionismul, suprarealismul i chiar unele forme mai revolute, avangardiste. Amendnd
smntorismul i poporanismul, Lovinescu nu respinge total formele vechi, ci doar pe acelea
sclerozate, epuizate, incapabile s depeasc unele stereotipuri.
n ceea ce privete micarea avangardist, departe de a o respinge, criticul observ
caraterul radical, de frond, de "violare a conceptului estetic de pn acum a limbii, a sintaxei,
a punctuaiei, n care vedem punctul extrem al principiului individualism adus de simbolism i
de modernism n genere"6 i, totodat, caracterul internaional al acestei micri. Deci, n ceea
ce privete avangardismul, observndu-i originalitatea, caraterul individualist i noutatea (care
reprezentau trei din cele mai importante principii lovinesciene), Lovinescu l sprijin cu drag
inima. Referitor la poezie, singura modalitate de sincronizare cu restul Europei o constituie
stimularea individualitii poetice i autenticitatea tririlor artistice.
Vorbind despre avangarda i modernism, Adrian Marino refuz o supraordonare sau
subordonare a celor dou concepte afirmnd "avangarda constituie, de fapt, extremismul
modernismului." De fapt, n cadrul modernismului exist, n fiecare stadiu, o avangard ce
promoveaz o ruptur cu tradiia, o lupt cu formele sclerozate sau nvechite. Din acest punct
de vedere, Marino consider avangarda drept o " reaciune anticlasic a spiritului literar
modern"7 iar acest ruptur a avangardei mbrac forme dintre cele mai diverse. Criticul
merge i mai departe, afirmnd c acest opziie noutate-tradiie, clasic-modern, fac din
avangard, largo sensu, o micare etern "o adevarat sistol i diastol a istoriei literaturii."
Matei Clinescu face diferena ntre modernism i avangard descoperind totui
diferene notabile ntre cele dou micri:"n toate privinele, avangarda este mai radical
dect modernitatea, mai puin flexibil i mai puin tolerant la nuane, ceea ce o face,
Valentina Marin Curticeanu, Eugen Lovinescu, Editura Excellens Univers, Bucureti, 1998, p. 10
Idem, p. 118
4
Idem, p. 11
5
Idem, p. 12
6
Eugen Lovinescu, Istoria literaturii romne contemporane 1900-1937, Editura Minerva. Bucureti, 1975, p.
226
7
Adrian Marino, Dicionar de idei literare, vol. I, Editura Eminescu, Bucureti, 1973, p. 198
2
3
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bineneles, mai dogmatic-att n sensul autoafirmrii ct i al autodistrugerii."8Diferene

notabile apar, potrivit lui Matei Calinescu, ntre avangarda artistic i cea politic. Astfel, cea
artistic proclama caracterul independent, revoluionar al artei pe cnd micarea politic cerea
supunerea artei cercurilor revoluionarilor politici.
Sainte-Beuve era primul critic ce folosea termenul de avangard n Conversaiile de
luni pentru ca, n 1856, s fac referire la Hippolyte Rigault numindu-l "zeul avangardist" n
recenzia Istoria Certei ntre Antici i Moderni. n 1860 Baudelaire i afirma fis
dezaprobarea fa de autorii de avangarda, care la momentul respectiv i desemna pe cei
angajati politic.
Abia in 1870, termenul i desemneze pe artitii ce transpuneau inovaia n domeniul
artei. n 1912, cu ocazia primei expoziii futuriste, Guillaume Apollinaire folosea termenul de
avangard n sensul de art extremist. Despre acelai Apollinaire se spune c a fost primul ce
a folosit termenul de cubism (n 1913) dar, la momentul respectiv, el se referea la noua
pictur. Abia dup 1913 Apollinaire public Manifest-sintez. Anti-tradiia futurist n care,
referindu-se la avangard, vedea n acesta "spiritul nou" n art. n al doilea deceniu al
secolului trecut, termenul desemna toate micrile novatoare iar la nceput (dup cum observa
Renato Poggioli) el se aplica rilor neolatine, pentru ca ulterior s se rspndeasc i n rile
germanice i anglofone.
Matei Clinescu consider c nu se poate discuta cronologic de avangard nainte de
1875 "avangarda propriu zis nu a existat mai nainte de ultimul sfert al secolului 19 dei
fiecare epoc i are rebelii i contestatarii si" 9 iar "avangarda, privit ca un vrf de lance al
modernitii estetice n general, reprezint o realitate recent." Acelai lucu il reitereaz i
Roland Barthes n Eseuri critice, publicat n 1956: "noiunea este foarte recent ()
avangarda a fost ntotdeauna un mijloc de a rezolva o contradicie istoric specific: aceea a
unei burghezii demascate, ce nu i mai putea afirma universalismul originar dect n forma
unui protest violent ndreptat mpotriva ei nsi; mai nti printr-o violen estetic () apoi
printr-o violen etic () dar niciodat printr-o violen politic."10
Se poate distinge o asemnare ntre avangardism i decadentism: avangarda
implicndu-se n mod contient n favoarea declinului formelor tradiionale, intensificnd
decadenta si epuizarea.Vorbind despre moartea avangardei, criticul considera ca prin insasi
natura sa nihilisat, avangarda este damnat s se autodistrug, s se autoreinventeze i s se
sinucid ciclic.
n ceea ce privete modernismul, cu care avangarda a mers n paralel, Mircea
Crtrescu, citndu-l pe Matei Clinescu, face conexiunea, ca i Gianni Vattimo, ntre idea de
modernitate i cea de prezent ca valoare suprem: "pentru artistul modern trecutul imit
prezentul i nu prezentul trecutul"11 iar modernitatea este o trecere de la estetica permanenei
la cea a tranzitoriului i imaginarului, schimbrii i inovaiei. Germenii modernismului i
constituie, dup prerea lui Mircea Crtrescu, impresionismul (n pictura) i simbolismul (n
poezie), la rndul lor aceste micri trgndu-i seva din concepia baudelairian conform
creia arta are o latur etern (clasic) i una trectoare (modernist).
"Marea art a secolului nostru", scria Mircea Crtrescu, "este, n mod straniu, pe de-o
parte utopic, derivndu-i nevoia de ordine i coerena din proiectul iluminist, iar pe de alt
parte obscur, rtcit n ceturile imaginarului i scufundat n propria agonie, protestnd
mpotriva aceluiai umanism iluminist, vinovat de falsificarea omului i de pustiirea lumii
actuale."12
Matei Clinescu, Cinci fee ale modernitii, Editura Univers, Bucureti, 1995, p. 89
Idem, p. 106
10
Ibidem
11
Idem, p. 15
12
Idem, p. 60
8
9
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Artitii se nveruneaz mportiva trecutului cu disperare, contieni de

paradoxul esenial al modernitii: "distrugerea tradiiei pentru a face loc unei noi tradiii."13
Cu privire la avangarda propriu zis, ca versiune radicalizat a modernismului, Mircea
Crtrescu o consider echivalentul cultului progresului tehnic, al vitezei, al "unui nou stil de
via, pentru care operele trecutului i muzeele devin inutile i lipsite de valoare."14
Revenind pe meleaguri naionale, modernismul i are originea, pe trm romnesc, n
ultima jumtate a sec. XIX, continuat i cptnd vigoare n perioada interbelic iar avangarda
i suprarealismul sincrone cu cele de pe plan european vor prelungi: "perioada de europenism
real al culturii romneti pn dup rzboi."15
Dup cel de-al doilea rzboi mondial, izolarea ideologic i informaional n spaiul
romnesc dau natere celui de-al doilea generaii moderniste: generaia 60 caracterizat prin
resurecia lirismului i triumful metaforei.
Al treilea val al modernismului l constituie, dup prerea lui Mircea Crtrescu,
generaia 80 "pentru ca de existena i de aciunea acestor autori se leag implantarea n
spaiul romnesc a conceptului de postmodernism sub aspect teoretic i pragmatic."16
Cu privire la modern, Adrian Marino identific cteva faze eseiale apariia ideii de
noutate (nota dominant a modernitii fiind dat de "noutatea temporal, definit, ca atare,
prin raportare la o etap veche, depit, antic"17), odat aparut noiunea acesta se consacr,
o alt etap important, o adevrat "plac turnant" este deplasarea de la cronologie la
calitate (modernul se autodefinete prin antiteza cu realitatea literar clasic) i o ultim faz
este reprezentat de faptul c modernitatea are nti o subordonare istoric ("contiina literar
modern devenind beneficiar unei polemici extraliterare"18). n opinia lui Marino, centrul
orientrii moderne n literatur l constituie eliberarea de inhibiii, complexe i prejudeci
conservatoare, respingndu-se conformismul i imitaia. Anticanonicul, antinormativul i
antidogmaticul sunt caracteristici eseniale ale modernitii. Negaia pe care modernismul
istoriei o poate mbrca sunt formele superficiale i absurde, dar numai gestul n sine, de a
nega, este important."Tendina negrii rmne ns nu mai puin eminamente modern. Este
cazul avangardelor din toate epocile, fenomene universale de negaie, fundamental
anticlasice."19 Abordnd problematica mitului n literatura modern, Adrian Marino, ca i
Harvey, observa o supravieuire a acestuia, autorul dnd spre exemplu n cazul lui Mircea
Eliade. De fapt, criticul, observnd caracterul temporar al oricrei micri literare afirm:
"modernii de azi sunt clasicii de mine" iar noiunea de modern, n opinia autorului, respinge
o cronologie fix. Disoluia normei face loc dezordinii, cinismului i nelinitii iar omul
modern devine alienat, frustrat, victim, fr certitudinea salvrii.
Citndu-l pe Petre Pandrea (Portrete i controverse, I, 1945), Adrian Marino considera
Oltenia (care i-a dat culturii pe Macedonski, Arghezi, Minulescu i Brancusi) ca fiind
leagnul modernismului artistic romnesc. Principiul propagat de revistele Integral i Unu
este acela de a se crea valori estetice n spiritul timpului dar superioare celor din epocile
anterioare. Noutatea, implicnd antagonism, implic totodat i agresivitate. Revista de art
modern De Stilj (1917) proclama caracterul lucid i critic al creatorilor de literatur modern,
finisarea textului nu este prioritar, subtextul este cel esenial, neinteresnd produsul, mai
degrab procesul de creaie. Abolirea timpului ia forma fie a nonexprimrii ("sinuciderii
Mircea Crtrescu, Postmodernismul romnesc, Editura Humanirtas, Bucureti, 1999, p. 74
Idem, pag. 77
15
Idem, pag. 127
16
Idem, p. 144
17
Adrian Marino, Modern, modernism, modernitate-Eseuri, Editura pentru Literatur Universal, Bucureti,
1969, p. 16
18
Idem, p. 19
19
Idem, p. 27
13
14
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Issue no. 6/2015
limbajului" proclamate de Roland Barthes), fie a limbajului plural i simultan, opera modern
exprimnd totul sau nimic prin cultivarea aluziei, paradoxului, ambiguitii.
Exemplul tipic de suprapunere, dup prerea lui Marino, a modernitii i noului este
Apollinaire iniiatorul "spiritului nou", cci modernul este "condiia esenial a regenerrii i
nnoirii artistice. "20 n legtur cu articolele publicate ntre 1913 i 1933, Marino crede c
acestea ntrunesc toate caracteristicile moderne: luciditate, tendina teoretic, spirit
antitradiionalist.
Noul "este ntotdeauna insurecional () exprim un sentiment de indiferen,
oboseal, saturaie, rupere, chiar revolt. Modernul este emancipat, exclusivist, intolerant,
polemic, negator prin esen"21 i, dup cum afirma i Eugen Lovinescu: "ura mpotriva
naitailor este adesea singura trsatur de unire a soldailor idealurilor noi, pe care, dupa
victorie, totul i desparte" (Istoria literaturii romne contemporane, III). Spiritul
antitradiionalist se opune dogmelor, regulilor, canoanelor literare, valorilor i ierarhiilor
oficiale, aa cum declara Geo Bogza n revista Unu: "Suntem moderniti numai ntruct ne
meninem n permanen agitai, numai ntruct nu presupunem nici o anchiloz."22 Dar
avangarditii nu refuz ideea de continuitate (Ilarie Voronca scria n A doua lumin n
1930: "o art de revoluie, lipsit de suportul continuitii n timp. Inexact"). Aceast
continuitate temporal mbrac forma descoperirii predecesorilor, recuperrii selective,
persistena ideilor vechi n straie noi, reluarea ideilor vechi mbrac forma pastiei, clieelor i
tropilor, asimilarea nentrerupt i prin acordarea de sensuri reciproce (ntre valorile clasice i
cele moderne). Marino considera c manifestele curentelor avangardiste sunt superioare
operelor acelorai autori (aici citndu-i pe Breton i Tzara) "avangardele mai interesante i
mai creatoare sub raport teoretic dect pur literar"23 iar "programul teoretic apare mai
revoluionar, mai radical, mai precis, mai pur dect opera programat."24
Vorbind despre modernism, Lovinescu face distincia ntre modernismul promovat de
el ca fiind unul "teoretic, bazat pe o lege de psihologie social" i cel promovat de
avangarditi ca fiind unul teoretizat a priori. Toate manifestele moderniste prin intermediul
revistelor Unu, Revista celorlali, Punct afirmau ceea ce a exprimat succint i Al.
Philippide: "Ruperea sistematic a legturilor cu trecutul, nesocotirea naintailor i goana
dup noutate."25
Potrivit lui Marino, modernismul se caracterizeaz prin: trecere de la poteialitate la
aciune, prin asimilarea i cultivarea valorilor moderne, reprezentnd un fapt de contiin i
de voin, necesitatea de a fi modern transpunndu-se ntr-un program teoretic de aciune,
avnd un pronunat spirit de manifest, dar acest impuls radical este corectat (n practica
literar) prin diverse forme de recuperare ale tradiiei. Adrian Marino se ntreaba dac exist
un curent literar permanent. Constantele ce se suprapun se contituie din: nivelul de baz al
invariabilelor fundamentale, constantele nominalizate i teoretizarea. Prin constant, Marino
nelege similitudini, echivalente, paralelisme i analogii i, astfel, criticul ajunge la concluzia
c modernul, prin extrapolare, este o categorie universal, verificabil n toate epocile.
O serie de idei anti-art apar concomitent dar independent la dadaiti i la A. Soffici
(cel care a publicat n jurnale simboliste i a pictat arta pe care Marinetti a declarat-o ca fiind
futurist) ceea ce demostreaza teoria constantelor artistice. Aceste constante literare sunt,
potrivit lui Marino, "recurente" iar "modernul i avangarda prin reformulrile lor succesive,
20
Idem, p. 66
Idem, p. 69
22
Geo Bogza, Exasperarea creatoare, Revista Unu nr. 33/1931
23
Adrian Marino, Critica ideilor literare, Editura Dacia, Cluj, 1974, p. 32
24
Idem, p. 183
25
Al. Philippide, Modernismul i traditia, n Adevrul literar, nr. 859/1937
21
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neo-moderniste, neo-avangardiste, demostreaz n acelai timp constan i recuren"26,

criticul continund prin a afirma c "Se poate afirma ntr-un prim stadiu, grosso modo, fr
paradox, c estetica literar i teoria artei n genere nainteaz, progreseaz, dar nu se
schimb."27 n sprijinul acestei idei, Marino l citeaz pe Eugen Ionescu, care reia idei din
Plutarh. Principiul circularitii consolideaz cele mai radicale orintri avangardiste iar
antiliteratura repet ciclicitatea ideilor literare revenind la poziia ideal, revenind la o alt
form de literatur, dar tot literatur cci originalitatea nu const n a gsi idei inedite ci a le
gsi singur. Etapele modernizrii poeziei romneti nu coincid strict cu momentele de apogeu
sau de maxim influen a creaiei celor prin care s-a nfptuit procesul de modernizare."28
n Statele Unite, totui, termenul de modernitate are alt acceptiune. David Harvey,
ncercnd s realizeze o periodizare a modernismului, i ncepe cronologia de la "gndirea
iluminist", care spunea autorul, "a mbriat ideea de progres i a cutat activ ruptura cu
istoria i cu tradiia."29 Referindu-se la autorii de avangard, autorul consider c dadaitii i
suprarealitii de nceput "au ncercat s-i mobilizeze capacitile estetice n scopuri
revoluionare realiznd o fuziune ntre arta lor i cultura popular."30 Condiia artistului, n
acea perioad, rolul su politic i social sunt modificate de diseminarea tehnilogiei, apariia
fotografiei i a cinematografului.
Tuturor operelor moderniste (n accepiunea harveyan nsemnnd avangardist) le
este comun sentimentul schimbrii, fascinaia pentru tehnic, vitez, micare, maini i
industrializare. Harvey consider modernismul aprut pn n primul rzboi mondial ca fiind
o reacie la noile condiii de producie, circulaie i consum mai degrab i nu un declanator
al acestor schimbrii. Citndu-i pe Bradbury i McFarlane, Havey achieseaz la convingerea
acestora, conform creia o component important a micrilor avangardiste era "o acceptare
gritoare a credinei c vechile regimuri culturale erau de domeniul trecutului i o disperare
cumplit n faa acestor temeri; un amalgam de convingeri c noile forme reprezentau un
refugiu n calea istoricismului i a presiunii timpului cu convingeri c acestea contituiau nsi
expresia vie a lucrurilor."31Fcnd o paralel ntre modernismul european i cel american,
Harvey constata c "micrile estetice i intelectuale ale modernismului capt o importan
cu att mai mare cu ct constituiau vrful de lance al schimbrii sociale, conferind avangardei
un rol politic i social care i fusese n mare parte refuzat Statelor Unite pn dup 1945."32
n timpul modernitii, cutarea unor mituri care s le nlocuiasc pe cele din trecut, a
continuat. Astfel, Louis Aragon n aranul parizian, ncerca identificarea unei mitologii a
modernului. Se arunc poduri ntre miturile clasice i cele moderne precum Ulise al lui James
Joyce, iar Picasso exploreaz lumea primitiv (african n special). Abordnd futurismul
italian, Harvey i vede pe reprezentanii acestuia ca fiind fascinai de vitez i putere adoptnd
"distrugerea creativ i militarismul violent pn la punctul n care Mussolini a devenit eroul
lor naional." Pierzndu-i interesul pentru experimentarea modernist, dup primul rzboi
mondial, De Chirico adopta arta comercializat. Miscarea din 1968 este considerat
"mesagerul cultural i politic al trecerii la postmodernism. "33
BIBLIOGRAFIE
Adrian Marino, Dicionar de idei literare, Bucureti, 1973, p. 223-224

Adrian Marino, Critica ideilor literare, Editura Dacia, Cluj, 1974, p. 81
28
Dumitru Micu, Modernismul romnesc, Vol. II, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1985, p. 136
29
David Harvey, Condiia postmodernitii, Editura Amarcord, Timioara, 2002, p. 20
30
Idem, p. 29
31
M. Bradbury i J. McFarlane, Modernism. 1890-1930, Editura Hardmondsworth, p. 46
32
David Harvey, Condiia postmodernitii, Editura Amarcord, Timioara, 2002, p. 34
33
Idem, p. 46
26
27
883
Issue no. 6/2015
Bogza, Geo Exasperarea creatoare, Revista Unu nr. 33/1931

Bradbury Malcom i McFarlane James, Modernism. 1890-1930,
Editura
Hardmondsworth
Clinescu, Matei Cinci fee ale modernitii, Editura Univers, Bucureti, 1995
Crtrescu, Mircea Postmodernismul romnesc, Editura Humanirtas, Bucureti, 1999
Curticeanu, Valentina Marin Eugen Lovinescu, Editura Excellens Univers, Bucureti,
1998
Harvey, David Condiia postmodernitii, Editura Amarcord, Timioara, 2002
Lovinescu, Eugen Rspunsul d-lui E. Lovinescu la scrisoarea Cercului literar din
Sibiu n Revista Viaa, 23 mai 1943
Lovinescu, Eugen Istoria literaturii romne contemporane 1900-1937, Editura
Minerva. Bucureti, 1975
Marino, Adrian Modern, modernism, modernitate-Eseuri, Editura pentru Literatur
Universal, Bucureti, 1969
Marino, Adrian Dicionar de idei literare, vol. I, Editura Eminescu, Bucureti, 1973
Marino, Adrian Critica ideilor literare, Editura Dacia, Cluj, 1974
Micu, Dumitru Modernismul romnesc, Vol. II, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1985
Philippide, Al. Modernismul i traditia, n Adevrul literar, nr. 859/1937
884
Issue no.6/2015
WRITING AS EXISTENTIAL SOLUTION REGARDING ANA BLANDIANAS FALS

TRATAT DE MANIPULARE
Anamaria DOBRESCU (POPA)
Abstract: False Treaty of Manipulation by Ana Blandiana, is a reflexive autobiographical

essay that tackles many themes from a subjective analytical perspective, like: liberty of
expression, political manipulation, morality, loneliness, the artists condition. This study
engages in an analysis of the main aspects of the writing as an existential solution, as they
appear in this book. It will focus on the authors opinions on writing, on its revealing virtues,
on the artists social role in an ideologically abused society, on transformation, on personal
becoming. It will also highlight the strong, invisible relationship between the individual
conscience and the collective conscience through writing in times of a declining history.
Keywords: Ana Blandiana, manipulation, writing, solution
La aproape cincizeci de ani de la apariia primului su volum de poezii, Ana Blandiana
public cea de-a 44-a carte a sa Fals tratat de manipulare. Cartea trateaz, sub forma
eseului reflexiv i a analizei autobiografice, tema manipulrii individuale aa cum a fost trit
de scriitoare de-a lungul ntregii sale viei. Aflat existenial n punctul n care i poate
permite o perspectiv retrospectiv suficient de dataat asupra evoluiei propriului destin,
autoarea simte ca iminent ncercarea de a nelege msura n care viaa reprezint rezultatul
propriilor alegeri sau rezultatul influenelor celorlali asupra sa. Reducnd la esen, este
vorba de tema libertii de a fi, perceput complementar, raportat la cele dou perioade
istorice pe care scriitoarea le-a parcurs existenial i artistic: deficitul de libertate, n cea
comunist (din 1942 pn n 1989) i excesul de libertate, n cea postcomunist (din 1989
pn n 2013, cnd apare aceast carte).
Lund n considerare faptul c bogata i tulburtoarea activitate literar a autoarei
dintre 1964-1898 a fost o continu i acerb lupt mpotriva cenzurii comuniste (pe care nu a
putut-o evita ntre anii 1959-1964, 1985, 1988-1989, avnd interdicii de publicare), o posibil
problematic hermeneutic s-a ivit odat cu apariia acestei ultime cri: cea a scrisului ca
soluie existenial, ntr-o perioad nefast libertii culturale i artistice. Prin urmare,
parcurgnd cele 478 de pagini ale crii, am ncercat s surprindem principalele idei ale Anei
Blandiana despre scris, scriitor i cri, aa cum apar ele percepute de ctre scriitoare, pe
parcursul devenirii sale artistice i umane.
nc dintru nceput, autoarea mrturisete c aceast carte ,,nu este o carte de memorii
[...], nu este o ncercare de a-mi povesti viaa, ci o ncercare de a o nelege.1 ntr-un
interviu acordat Cristinei Hermeziu, n februarie 2013, Ana Blandiana denumete Fals tratat
de manipulare ,,un eseu cu exemplificri autobiografice, i l consider a fi ,,o carte pe care
am scris-o greu i fr de care nu pot trece spre crile urmtoare.2 Volumul reprezint,
aadar, o colecie de reflexii nscute ntr-un moment de introspecie i dintr-o nevoie de
decantare interioar necesar trecerii spre o alt etap existenial i artistic. n acest volum,
,,Ana Blandiana surprinde nu att prin rememorrile din aceste pagini de memorialistic
de mare interes, i ele, ca documente istorice i psihologice , ct prin tonalitatea
1
2
Blandiana, Ana Fals tratat de manipulare, Ed. Humanitas, Bucureti, 2013, pg. 5
Hermeziu, Cristina Ce mai facei, Ana Blandiana?
885
Issue no. 6/2015
ntregului3, afirma Ovidiu Pecican, dar i prin profunzimea reflexiilor i sinceritatea

mrturisilor, am putea aduga. Caracterul eseistic i reflexiv al textului este susinut, aa cum
observa Iulian Boldea, de ,,interogaia de sine, care ia locul confesiunii directe, [ce] are rolul
de a articula n mod coerent ntreaga carte, cu suita sa de portrete, ntmplri, fapte, cu
sedimentele de via i de triri ce se strvd, ca n filigranul unui palimpsest cu striaii
paradoxale n care existena i textul se ntreptrund.4,,La vrsta recapitulrilor, poeta se
alege pe sine ca subiect al contemplrii, chemnd cititorul la evaluri. Ea se aaz benevol
sub necrutoarea lumin a reflectoarelor5, permind astfel nu doar o surprinztoare
radiografie a sinelui su, ct mai ales a unei epoci, a unei societi, a unui popor, din
perspectiva unui om i a unui scriitor de o intransigen moral, ce, chiar dac uneori
contestat, a reuit sa ofere repere si modele atitudinale ferme n momente cheie din istoria
recenta a romnilor. ,,Am fost ntotdeauna convins c nu sunt fcut s conduc oamenii, ci
s-i emoionez, s-i conving6, afirm autoarea. Destinul ei de scriitor i de om al cetii se
regsete n aceste cuvinte din care reies rolul i capacitatea acestuia de a schimba lumea, dar
nu ntr-un altceva, ci n ceea ce ar trebui firesc s fie, contribuind astfel la procesul de
devenire a sinelui unui ntreg popor, din punct de vedere civic, naional i spiritual.
Cartea este, deci, o estur de idei i o mpletire de obsesii, dintre care cea mai
reprezentativ ar putea fi definit prin ntrebarea ,, ct din ceea ce am trit este un rezultat al
voinei mele i ct se datoreaz influenelor i manipulrilor?7 Contient c a fost
manipulat nu numai de alii, ci chiar i de propriile iluzii, scriitoarea pstreaz totui
confortul sufletesc moral de a fi fost mcar ,,ntotdeauna liber n sensul revoltei mpotriva
rului.8 Aceast lupt mpotriva rului, cu tot ce implic el, dar mai ales cu ceea ce se refer
la obstrucionarea libertii de exprimare i a celorlalte drepturi de baz ale omului, constituie
sensul de a fi al omului ce se afl n spatele scriitorului Ana Blandiana. De aici continua sa
ncercare de a schimba realitatea, convins fiind c ea nici nu vrea i nici nu poate s se
schimbe, s se adapteze la aceast realitate absurd, ale crei valori sunt complet rsturnate.
Aceast carte este scris din nevoia de a nelege ,,unde greeam, din moment ce tot ce fceam
pentru a schimba ceva n jurul meu era n zadar. Sau poate c greeala era chiar
ncpnarea de a ncerca s schimb?9 se ntreab retoric scriitoarea.
Acest motiv al schimbrii devine recurent pe parcursul crii, dovedind c nsi
percepia autoarei fa de aceast problem s-a schimbat enorm de-a lungul timpului. nainte
de 89, ntreaga sa oper a fost un NU la adresa regimului comunist opresiv, fr a spera c
astfel va schimba lumea, ci refuznd doar s se schimbe ea nsi la cererea ei. Apoi, dup
89, intensa sa activitate din cadrul Alianei Civice i al Memorialului Victimelor
Comunismului de la Sighet, a fost fcut cu sperana i convingerea c schimbarea
mentalitii romneti nu e doar oportun, dar i posibil. De aici i implicarea ei efectiv n
campania electoral a d-lui Emil Constantinescu, ce s-a dorit o form de construcie a
alternanei la putere, fr de care integrarea euroatlantic nu ar fi fost posibil. De asemenea,
activitatea la Memorial a fost o incercare de reconstrucie a memoriei colective, pe care
comunitii au ncercat s o distrug pentru a manipula mai uor i pentru a distruge adevrul.
n schimb, acum, n prezent, toate aceste ncercri de schimbare, toate acele eforturi
ncpnate ce erau cndva percepute ca eroice, i se par autoarei acum ridicole. 10
Pecican, Ovidiu - Adevrul de care e nevoie, n rev. Apostrof, Anul XXV, 2014, nr.12 (295)
Boldea, Iulian Adevr i manipulare, n rev. Alpha, nr. 1-2-3, 2014, pg. 8
5
Pecican, Ovidiu - Adevrul de care e nevoie, n rev. Apostrof, Anul XXV, 2014, nr.12 (295)
6
7
8
Ibidem, pg.6
9
Ibidem, pg.6
10
3
4
886
Issue no. 6/2015
ntrebrile retorice formulate la nceputul crii sugereaz, de fapt, schimbarea de

perspectiv spre care e deschis acum scriitoarea i pe care i-o dorete cu toat fiina ei:
,,Ceea ce ncerc s fac acum nu este, deci, descrierea unei istorii tiute, ci investigarea unei
ntmplri din punctul de vedere al ntrebrii de la care am pornit i care poate s schimbe
nu numai perspectiva, ci i coninutul povetii. [...] NU am scris aceast carte pentru a
transmite un adevr pe care eu l dein, ci pentru a gsi un adevr de care am nevoie. Sensul
ei nu este s acopere, ci s descopere ceva. i anume, rspunsul meu la ntrebrile pe care
singur mi le pun n legtur cu propria mea condiie i propria mea evoluie 11 Aceast
funcie de autocunoatere i autodefinire a scriiturii este cu att mai important n cazul
scriitorilor din perioada comunist, cu ct formele reprimrii i ncercrile de dizolvare a
identitii au atins cote paroxistice, zdruncinnd identitatea individual i colectiv, la toate
nivelurile contiinei. Iar cum cei mai afectai au fost intelectualii, este de neles ce intens a
suferit un intelectual dotat cu o sensibilitate feminin i o contiin moral intransigent
cume este Ana Blandiana. Pentru ea, pentru muli dintre ei, singur form de supravieuire a
fost scrisul. ,,Este destul s ne gndim la literatur, nu ca experien de via, ci ca
experien de supravieuire, pentru ca att de dumnos contestata idee a rezistenei prin
cultur s capete sens.12 Desigur, opera sa este o dovad vie a acestei rezistene.
De mai multe ori pe parcursul crii, Ana Blandiana recunoate cu oarecare modestie
faptul c universul a nzestrat-o cu unele daruri pentru care se simte datoare s plteasc,
servindu-i pe ceilali. ,,N-am trit niciodat la hotarul dintre politic i literatur, ci la
hotarul dintre implicarea n viaa cetii i abstragerea n lumea propriei pagini. Hotarul
despre care vorbesc eu este mult mai dramatic, este, de fapt, o linie ntre sacrificiul dureros
pe altarul celorlali i sacrifciul pe propriul altar. Din pcate, nu exist art pur. 13 Se
poate afirma ca scriitoarea le-a trit pe amndou. Dar n ceea ce privete druirea sa
celorlali, prin scris, se poate observa c scrisul a funcionat ca o soluie existenial de
gradul doi, colectiv, deoarece odat cu salvarea de sine, s-a realizat i salvarea celorlali,
prin lectur. Puterea de reverberare a scriiturii sale asupra celorlai a impresionat-o ntr-att
nct de cel puin ase ori face referire n text la momentele ntlnirii inopinate cu diveri
oameni - inclusiv ofieri de poliie - care i mrturiseau n oapt c-i poart poeziile nterzise,
scrise de mn, ntr-un buzunar secret la piept. Sensibilitatea fa de aceste momente se
datoreaz sentimentului de solidaritate care i-a nsufleit mereu speranele i pe care l-a
considerat baza i garania democraiei autentice. Din pcate, ea constat c, n Romnia,
speranele ei nc mai au de ateptat.
O frumoas declaraie referitoare la rostul scriitorului se regsete n citatul urmtor:
,,n msura n care evanghelie nseamn veste bun, ne-am putea dori s scriem altceva?
n ceea ce spun exist doar dorina de a gsi o soluie, ct de nensemnat de aductoare de
bucurie, pe care s o pot spune i altora. Sau dac asta e imposibil, atunci, cel puin, felul n
care o fac (chiar i atunci cnd nu fac dect s-mi transmit i altora durerea) s
rspndeasc lumin, deci bucurie.14 Aceast raz de lumin, de speran pe care o poate
reflecta prin opera sa este motorul existenei sale de om i scriitor. Bine-eles, au fost i
momente de cumpn n care ntrebri de genul merit s continui acest savant efort de
supravieuire15 apreau. Sau dileme principiale, ca cea mprtit unui coleg (descoperit
ulterior ca i colaborator al Securitii), referitoare la faptul c n lupta cu cenzura, o carte care
reuea s fie publicat, se dovedea a fi inofensiv politic i, deci, inutil social, iar publicarea
dup succesive modificri i trunchieri era, de fapt, o confirmare a lipsei de libertate, a
11
Ibidem, pg. 6-7

Ibidem, pg. 269
13
Ibidem, pg. 268
14
15
Ibidem, pg. 308
12
887
Issue no. 6/2015
supunerii fa de sistem. Prin urmare, ntrebarea care se ntea logic era dac nu ar fi fost mai
onest i fidel libertii, n numele creia scriai, s nu mai lupi, s nu mai publici. ,,Dar asta
nu nsemna a opta pentru ntunericul pur, pentru moartea culturii?16 Ce era preferabil? Ce
era corect? Toate aceste frmntri scot la iveal continua cutare de sine i de soluii
existeniale. Iar aceast carte se dovedete a fi o confirmare a unei soluii viabile.
De fapt, secretul rezid tot n acea lumin i bucurie pomenite anterior. Iar lumina
se nate din iubirea autoarei fa de oameni, fa de via, cu ale sale bune i rele. Din punctul
ei de vedere, crile lumii se mpart n doar dou categorii: cele care au fost scrise din
dragoste i cele care au fost scrise din ur. Ca exemple sunt date Jurnalul fericirii lui
Steinhardt i comentariile unui persone pe marginea propriului dosar de Securitate, care nu
pise nimic deosebit, dar care a ales s prezinte totul ca pe o lume apocaliptic n care toi
oamenii erau josnici, perveri, turntori, mravi. Prin comparaie, scriitoarea mrturisete c
atunci ,,cnd m uit n trecut, m vd urcnd dintr-o lume joas, plin de umiline, mizerii,
dureri i compliciti n care singura speran era descoperirea smburelui orict de
minuscul i de terfelit de lumin din cellalt. O lumin care, dac nu exist, trebuia
inventat, oglindindu-i propria flacar n aproapele mai nefericit dect tine.17 Iat, deci,
dubla funcie a scriitorului, de a reflecta i de a revela lumina acolo unde ea plpie aproape
s se sting. De altfel, Ana Blandiana consider c exist dou feluri de artiti: cei care prin
opera lor ncearc s neleag lumea i s-i dea sens, astfel, iar alii care prefer s
construiasc alta n loc. Aparinnd celei dinti categorii, ea crede c n-a ncercat niciodat s
adauge ceva naturii, ci, dimpotriv, a avut ,,sentimentul c trebuie s renune la ceva pentru a
ajunge la esen, aa cum sculptorul renun la o parte din stnc pentru ca s descopere
statuia.18 Arta este deci o cale o cale de ptrundere a misterelor i de mprtire a
miracolelor, un drum spre perfecionare, asemeni ascezei, suferinei asumate i iubirii
necondiionate. ,,Pe acest drum, dincolo de marele artist, nu nainteaz dect sfntul19
Viziunea, de sorginte blagian, las la iveal un misticism nscut din experiena frumosului
artistic ridicat la nivel ontologic. Scriitoarea completeaz aceast taxonomie literar cu
afirmaia: ,,Exist mai ales dou feluri de poei. Cei pentru care poezia este potrivirea
cuvintelor, o form de art i cei pentru care poezia este o form de a gndi existena i chiar
o form de a exista.20 Ar fi chiar arta de a exista, am putea aduga, aa cum reiese din traseul
artistic al poetului Ana Blandiana, parcurs cu o graie i o demnitate demne de invidiat.
n finalul crii, scriitoarea reia o mrturisire surprinztoare enunat nc de la
nceput, aceea c aceast carte a fost prima ei carte scris fr bucurie, chiar cu un resentiment
nscut din obligaia de a o scrie, pentru a se investiga i a se nelege. ,,Este o carte despre
mine i timpul pe care l-am strbtut: un timp n ebuliie, bulversat de vntul btnd mereu
din alt direcie a istoriei, spulbernd sensurile, dar nu i ncpnarea mea de a le
nelege.21 Tonul melancolic al finalului ridic ntrebarea dac autoarea a reuit s neleag
ceea ce avea de neles... Dar rspunsul este irelevant pentru noi, relevant este c scrisul este
ntotdeauna revelator i ordonator de sensuri, al acelor sensuri pe care suntem noi pregtii s
le descoperim. Versurile din final ascund ipostaza poetului n imaginea cucului ce anun
,,sfritul unei lumi cntnd; cntnd, bine-neles, cci ce alt cuvnt ar putea mai bine
16
Ibidem, pg. 71
17
Ibidem, pg. 285
18
Ibidem, pg. 286
19
Ibidem, pg. 288
20
Ibidem, pg. 478
17
21
Ibidem, pg 478
888
Issue no. 6/2015
sugera atitudinea poetic propus ca soluie existenial n faa misterelor propriilor noastre
viei.
Aadar, literatura rmne o form de supravieuire n faa nenumratelor sfrituri
pe care omul le cunoate pe parcursul vieii. Sfrituri ale unor iluzii, ale unor sperane, ale
unor manipulri, pentru a putea ajunge la esen. Asemeni candorii ce o eman scrierile Anei
Blandiana i naivitii mrturisite de autoare, ce au funcionat ca ,,o resurs a rezistenei n
faa rului i a ameninrilor unei istorii declinante22, scrisul se dovedete a fi cea mai
fiabil formul existenial, ce ajut fiin s transgreseze att propriile limitele, ct i
limitrile sociale. ntr-un interviu acordat n anul 2012, Ana Blandiana mrturisea: ,,Scrisul
este forma mea de existen, singura posibil (mi-e imposibil s-mi imaginez o situaie sau o
for care s m mpiedice s scriu i creia s-i supravieuiesc). Au fost perioade n viaa
mea n care mi-a fost rpit libertatea de comunicare, niciodat, nimeni nu m-a putut
mpiedica s scriu.23
Criticul Alex tefnescu a vzut n volumul Fals tratat de manipulare o carte n care
un om ncearc s neleag dac a reuit de-a lungul vieii s fie el nsui i a admirat
felul autoarei de a-i pstra demnitatea i de a fi onest i implicat n acelai timp,
considernd-o un clasic n via24.
BIBLIOGRAFIE
1. Blandiana, Ana Fals tratat de manipulare, Ed. Humanitas, Bucureti, 2013
2. Boldea, Iulian Adevr i manipulare, n rev. Alpha, nr. 1-2-3, 2014,
http://www.scribd.com/doc/232068438/Revista-ALPHA-nr-1-2-3-2014#scribd ,
accesat la 15.02.2015
3. Boldea, Iulian - ANA BLANDIANA - Scrisul este forma mea de existen, singura
posibil - dialog cu Iulian Boldea, n rev. Romnia literar, nr.34/2012,
http://www.romlit.ro/ana_blandiana__scrisul_este_forma_mea_de_existen_singura_posibil_-_dialog_cu_iulian_boldea
accesat la 15.02.2015
4. Pecican, Ovidiu - Adevrul de care e nevoie, n rev. Apostrof, Anul XXV, 2014,
nr.12 (295) http://www.revista-apostrof.ro/articole.php?id=2261, accesat la
03.01.2015
5. Hermeziu,
Cristina
Ce
mai
facei,
Ana
Blandiana?
http://adevarul.ro/news/societate/ce-maifaceti-ana-blandianaa1_510ed2d24b62ed5875d11319/index.html, accesat la 03.01.2015
6. Marcu, Andreea - Ana Blandiana i-a lansat cea mai nou carte ,,Fals tratat de
manipularela Gaudeamus, articol n Revista 22, din 24.11.2013, ediie online,
http://www.revista22.ro/ana-blandiana-sia-lansat-cea-mai-noua-carte-fals-tratat-demanipulare-la-gaudeamus-34176.html, accesat la 04.01.2015
Boldea, Iulian Adevr i manipulare, n rev. Alpha, nr. 1-2-3, 2014, pg. 9
Boldea, Iulian - ANA BLANDIANA - Scrisul este forma mea de existen, singura posibil - dialog cu Iulian
Boldea, n rev. Romnia literar, nr.34/2012
24
tefnescu, Alex n Ana Blandiana i-a lansat cea mai nou carte ,,Fals tratat de manipularela
Gaudeamus, articol n Revista 22, din 24.11.2013, de Andreea Marcu
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LITERARY HISTORY GOES FURTHER

tefan VLDUESCU
Abstract: The study investigates the current status of literary history; it focuses on the
possibility, the status and the development potential of the literary history. This is seen, on the
one hand, as discursive practice of aesthetic evaluation and as decoding speech,
interpretation, hermeneutics decryption. On the other hand, the literary history is retained as
fundamental concept of the theory of literature.
It starts from the axioms of some of the fixed stars of the domain (George Clinescu, Rene
Wellek, Augustin Warren), taking into account the positions already accredited of some
distinguished contemporary literary critic (Nicolae Manolescu, Eugen Simion, Eugen
Negrici), taking into account the assertions of some critics, historians and committed literary
theorists (Mircea A. Diaconu, Iulian Boldea, Al. Cistelecan, Gheorghe Crciun) and also are
considered the opinions expressed by personalities in the making of the investigated field
(Nicoleta Ifrim, Gabriel Cooveanu, Ion Buzera, Ioana Andreea Mircea, Ctlin Ghi,
Sorina Sorescu).
To clarify the issue, it proceeds to a triangulation, it appeals to a research methodology
consists of three methods convergent used: the meta-analytic method, the historical method
and the comparative method.
The reached conclusion is that literary history is an actuality domain with great evolution
perspectives. There are four arguments in the support of the conclusion, and therewith
constitute factors that ensures the continuity and development potential of literary history: 1)
the infinity of human aesthetic sense, 2) irrepressible improving of the critical spirit, 3)
optimizing of reading standards and 4) functioning need and the canon reviewing.
Keyword: literary history, critical spirit, aesthetic sense, canon
1. Introduction
Actuality of literary history is a derivative of the aporetic issue of the literary history
possibility. The terms, under which by default the theme of a possible not topicality is
formulated today, are precisely those in which George Clinescu and Rene Wellek enunciated
their interrogation in decades 4, 5 and 6 of the last century. Data that must give account today
the project of an effective literary history are however others. "The reality, shows George
Clinescu in The criticism and literary history technology, critics and historian are two
sides of criticism in the widest understanding. Is it possible to perform clear critical without
historical projection, although the true value criticism implicitly contains a historical
determination, but it's not possible to perform literary history without critical examination.
(...) Who excludes the aesthetic criterion from literary history does not perform literary
history, but cultural history". George Clinescu, like Rene Wellek, links deconstructive the
criticism and literary history in a single destiny. Beyond of their common trunk axiom,
standing evolutionary in the coordinates of a temperate relativism, Rene Wellek formulates a
set of aporia; of which that with modeling value for the further investigative approach it has
the axiom that "the historical process must be judged according to certain values, but the scale
of values is itself taken from history".
Moreover, in "Theory of literature" (written with Augustin Warren), Rene Wellek will
emphasize the existence of three disciplines: a "study of literature, of its categories, of its
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criteria" (literary theory), a study "regarding concrete literary works" (literary criticism,
essentially static") and a diachronic study of works (literary history). These three disciplines
"overlap" and are unthinkable separately. Later, in "Criticism concepts", Rene Wellek will
discuss how criticism tends to literary theory (when performs a "conceptual knowledge" of
the literature) and towards literary history (when describes the "historical achievements" and
individualizes the "great classics" that "forms the main canon of literature").
2. The actuality or not actuality of literary history
From this perspective, the actuality or not actuality of literary history is also criticism
actuality/not actuality. Through their mutual destiny, criticism and literary history live unitary
and consubstantial in a single existential formula.
About Romanian criticism and literary history, the three great critics / literary
historians of the current period, Nicolae Manolescu, Eugen Simion and Eugen Negrici,
express points of view, generally, convergent: especially regarding in the critical spirit, taste
change, literature evolution, standards, systems of expectations, revisions, values mutation,
etc.
There is a consensus that the object of criticism and literary history is the literary
work. Rene Wellek states that "the subject" is "the literary work". In the same vein, George
Clinescu states: "The starting point of the critic and literary historian is the work , as artistic
reality". In "The Themes" (Manolescu, 2011, p. 5), Nicolae Manolescu notes that "writers
works" constitute the "raw material" for criticism and literary history. With the same object,
the two are, how he will conceive them also in "The Critical History of Romanian Literature"
(Manolescu, 2008, p. 1455) "inseparable". However, after 1989 it is visible the temptation of
an objectual segregation and "general tendency" "leaving of the actual literary history for
multicultural studies". On the other hand, throughout the twentieth century and early twentyfirst century, Professor Nicolae Manolescu senses three aggression against criticism and
literary history: "violation of literary facts by the Marxism-Leninism doctrine " (with effects
in "abandoning much of the aesthetic valid tradition of literature" and in fixing a new and
false hierarchy) diachronic rejection by structuralists (it was "vitiated criticism" and was
"annihilated literary history") and, after 1989, while the literature (after the guidanceascertaining intervention of Allan Bloom) occupy a secondary place in people's lives, history
would come to be "an ineffectual action". The first two aggressions belongs of the past and
are taken under the benefit of inventory. The third is removed as follows: "No literature has
given rise to criticism and literary history, but literary history and criticism gave birth
literature, by the very fact that they made it aware of her new nature: the sacred and high
literature became profane and common".
3. Developing after principles
Criticism and literary history remain actual because they develop after principles.
The first of these aesthetic principle. For Nicolae Manolescu criticism remains "a primarily
aesthetic reading" critic being "a man endowed with aesthetic sense", a man whose natural
tastes are not discussed, but whose cultural tastes are questionable (Manolescu, 2008, p.
1454). The principle of aesthetic criticism shows that literary reading occurs for "literary
beauty and value." Aesthetic criticism reveals "the essence of literature works" and literary
history - "the essence of national literature". The history of literature is "based on aesthetic
criticism". According to Eugen Simon, literary criticism (and by default literary history)
cannot function without accepting the "principle of aesthetic autonomy" and the "principle of
review" ("Death of Mercutio") (Simon, 2002, p. 249 and 289).
4. Aesthetic value
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An actuality component of literary history is the aesthetic value.

For Professor Manolescu the main issue of criticism and literary history since 1989 is the
tendency that "the success and no value" to form "the main criterion of literature publishing"
and the value to be judged "according to trade rules", following the way of "canonical battle"
of American type. In any case, the aesthetic value must be the standard by which to enter the
canon. And since "literary values are not assessed by themselves", they will be installed by
criticism and literary history. The literary historian certainty is that "there are absolute values"
(Manolescu, 2008, p. 1456) among them counting also the aesthetics one.
Staking on pronounced relativity of aesthetic value, Eugen Negrici admits that "being
determined by a rate and being the product of a change of perspective also the consequence of
an assignment (by recipient), it, the value, has no the attribute of the permanence and there is
only potential in a text" and when the artistic value "faded in enough ways" "remained to
speak us incomparable of insightful the expressiveness values"("Illusions of Romanian
literature ") (Negrici, 2008, p. 76). Eugen Simon senses that some values may expire and then
intervenes "revision of values"; he adds that at us, "the values are almost systematically
challenged" and "hierarchies are regularly demolished": " polemical spirit is excessively"
("Critical fragments") (Simion, 1998, p. 330).
5. Evolution
Another dimension of literary history is the evolution. Nicolae Manolescu believes
that "to give an account of the whole evolution of literature, is necessary its periodization"
(Manolescu, 2008, p. 7). It has to be reminded that Hans Robert Jauss found that a literary
history renovated by reception aesthetics must be based on relevance of an evolutionary
understanding", on "critical of tradition" and on "selective forgetting." Going in this direction,
Professor Manolescu is stimulated also by the taking into account the fact that "an outline of
the canonical evolution of Romanian literature meantime is missing" and the fact that in
Romanian culture have to do with "evolutions always not clear". Nicolae Manolescu assumes
the fixing a canonical evolution after he notes that here, to us, were written especially
panoramas and metamorphosis, "carefully avoiding the context evolution". In turn, Professor
Eugen Simion talks about our literature of "an evolution by leaps" (Critical fragments")
(Simon, 1998, p. 330), to "quickly recover the disabilities and delays, because it was
prevented "to develop normal". Eugen Negrici falls into the same conceptual when he holds
that Romanian literature "does not just rarely known a natural evolution" (Negrici, 2008, p.
23), registering only "two periods of relative stability (1860-1914, 1919-1927 ) "which have
reached a natural "normality level".
6. Entrance in normality
In addition, Romanian literary history, after 1989, occurred, as opined Nicolae
Manolescu ("Literary Romania" no. 2, 1990) "entrance in normality": was restored aesthetic
tradition and war released the canon of ideological and political pressures. The fact was found
also by Professor Eugen Simion who recognized that one who "launched in early 1990 (...) the
idea of returning to normality is N. Manolescu" ("Death of Mercutio") (Simon, 2002, p. 231).
In turn, the teacher Eugen Negrici published in "Literary Romania" a long set of articles under
the heading "Simulacrums of normality" that apparently made to be seen appearances and to
become determinable "erroneous views of literary history". Convergence to normality made
possible to question some of the elements of normality.
a. The first element of normality is the critical spirit. Nicolae Manolescu observes that
is not for approval "the abolition of the critical spirit", that sometimes can be ascertained "the
absence of critical spirit" and that it is not natural "diminishing of the critical spirit"
(Manolescu, 2008, p. 1454); finally, in his plea for " critics aestheticism" concludes that, in
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the knowledge of ourselves, "the chance of difference is that calls us to appreciate, to separate
and to exercise our critical spirit".
Eugen Simion notes that it should not be abandoned "the critical thinking" ("Death of
Mercutio") (Simon, 2002, p. 232), that "critical spirit is adapting to the expectation horizon"
and that "the critical spirit has not abdicated from his aesthetic and moral principles"
("Critical fragments") (Simon, 1998, p. 281).
Eugen Negrici (in "Illusions of Romanian literature", 2008) shows that the
abnormality of Romanian literature is based essentially on a scarce critically spirit , even more
retarded than literature itself. It let to be manipulated "by his own conscience, altered and
halting." Romanian Literature (delayed, out of sync and out of phase) is largely the creation of
a critical spirit blind and feeble. It is also, the creation of a critical spirit belonging sometimes
"under drugs", or "anesthesia". Criticism recorded also "agony of critical spirit", and
"defection of critical spirit", and the case of a critical spirit "suspended himself" or was not
"awake, not concessive", and "reducing the critical spirit" and "anemia of the critical spirit"
and "after the Revolution, the agony of critical spirit in the last decades turned into his death"
(Negrici, 2008, p. 178). Illusions constitute, largely a disease of the critical spirit.
b. Another review of normality is revision, seen as intervention in canon, as a change
in hierarchies and as mutation of values. Nicolae Manolescu holds notes that "also after 1989
was drafted a first revision of the canon" (Manolescu, 2008, p. 1097). Eugen Simion
considers that the revision is "a normal and necessary critical principle", being inevitable and
necessary (...). It is needed a "radical revision" ("Critical fragments ") (Simon, 1998, p. 124).
But when it "exceeds the edges of normality", "it risks to become a disease of the critical
spirit". Eugen Negrici who expected a radical revision notes: "Announced in all literary
journals, the revision campaign in the early 90s threatened to be a refresh hurricane. It arrived,
amazingly quickly, a breeze to break some poor dry branches long time ago "(Negrici, 2008,
p. 125).
c. The third element of normality was envisioned to be the system of expectations and
representations, the horizon of expectations, the standard of reading.
Nicolae Manolescu ascertains that Eugen Lovinescu and his generation "had different
standards of reading" than we have: "mutation implies a mismatch of critic standards with
those of the writer", because "the expressiveness is neither voluntary, nor involuntary: it is
confirming (of a system of expectations, of standards, of habits) or frustrating". Eugen
Negrici explains the mutation values by the idea of novelty and states: "the novelty is new
only to a certain set of expectations", avoiding "the naturalized term of horizon, which seems
laden with connotations". Eugen Simion concludes that, in generally, "critical spirit adapts to
the horizon of expectations of the epoch" (Simon, 1998, p. 6).
7. Conclusions
The survival of the aesthetic sense and the critical spirit, the literature evolution
(processuality, continuity and organicity), functioning of the canon and of its revisions,
remaining with consistently in axes of the autonomy aesthetic and in coordinates of some
standards of reading (systems-horizons of expectation), same as that there is sensitivity to
literature and is aware that it is the product of criticism and literary history constitutes the
arguments for the topicality of literary history.
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Universitii Petru Maior.
Boldea, I. (2011). Romanian Literary Perspectives and European Confluences. d.
Asymetria.
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Buzera, I. (2000). Reinventarea lecturii. Aius.

Clin, Rzvan Alexandru (2014). Psychology of the Archetype Symbol in Orthodox
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Clinescu, G. (1968). Principii de estetic. Bucuresti: Editura pentru literatur a.
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Ifrim, N. (2013). Identitate cultural i integrare european: perspective critice
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discursului
identitar romnesc n perioada postdecembrist. Editura
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Romne (MNLR).
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Manolescu, Nicolae (1999). Conceptul de istorie literar. Romnia Literar, 10.
Manolescu, N. (2008). Istoria critic a literaturii romne: 5 secole de literatur. Ed.
Paralela 45.
Manolescu, N. (2011). Teme. MintRight Inc.
Mndru, Oana-Roxana (2014). Comparative study of the concepts regarding the
literary history
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the role of the literary historian in the cases of Nicolae Iorga,
Eugen Lovinescu and George Clinescu. Journal of Romanian Literary Studies, 5, 673-682.
Mircea, I. A. (2013). Istorii literare pariale versus istorii literare integrale. Annales
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Negrici, E. (2008). Iluziile literaturii romne. Bucureti: Cartea Romneasc.
Negrici, E. (2011). Simulacrele normalitii. Paralela 45.
Pun, Mihaela Gabriela, & Teodorescu, Mirela (2014). Hermeneutics can make beauty
and ugly
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neutral (as neutrosophic). Social Sciences and Education Research
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Popescu, Gabriel (2001). Metamorfozele hermeneuticii. Bucureti: Paideia.
Popescu, R. (2014). Creativitatea lexical ca mijloc de persuasiune n textul
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Creativity,
Imaginary, Language. Craiova: Sitech.
Sandu, Antonio (2014). Elemente de sociologie. Bucureti: Editura Tritonic.
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THE SPIRITUAL BODY AND THE THEME OF THE MIRROR IN HORTENSIA

PAPADAT-BENGESCUS SHORT PROSE
Mihaela STANCIU (VRAJA)
Technical Construction University of Bucharest
Abstract: From the first texts she publishes, Hortensia Papadat-Bengescu inserts fragments
about the theory of the spiritual body, a topic she developped in her later prose, which
highlights the materiality of the soul. Also in her early prose, one of the key-elements by
which the character comes into contact with the soul, as if it were a revealing meeting, is the
mirror. The theme of the mirror represents meditation, introspection, means of reflection and
it derives from the glance, which most of the times doesnt assign women a favorable role, but
it interestedly captures her mentality as a round topic.
Keywords: spiritual body, glance, the theme of the mirror, short prose, introspection.
Dupa cum menioneaz Elena Zaharia-Filipa, expresia trup sufletesc apare la
Arghezi ntr-un articol din Seara, 1914, scris cu ocazia comemorrii a 25 de ani de la moartea
lui Mihai Eminescu. E foarte probabil ca Arghezi s-o fi luat din textele religioase, cci el
atribuie aurei sacre a marelui poet o mireasm asemnatoare a celei emanate de sfini:
Eminescu, al carui trup sufletesc mblsmeaz toat arta ntre Aldebaran i Terra i la
Hortensia Ppadat-Bengescu ideea de trup sufletesc traduce un impuls spiritualist, dar ntr-o
accepie laic.1 Conceptul pune n lumin materialitatea sufletului care n viziunea
scriitoarei capat forma si trup; n acest sens n proza scurt, Hortensia Papadat-Bengescu
face adevrate pledoarii atunci cnd vorbete despre moartea sufletului pentru c, n fond: Ce
e oribil de urmrit i de privit [] e chipul sufletului, zbaterea lui, arderea, usturimea si
vaietul lui, pn a murit, plns de chiar acel care-l purta, acel care, dup ce vasul e gol i sec,
l sparge, cum aruncm sticla din care s-a isprvit parfumul sau licoarea. E o moarte ca
celelalte, cu boala i agonie lung, dar n loc s fie a vreunui organ, e a sufletului. Aa cum
agonia stinge pn la ultima picatur viaa, pn sfrie n apa untdelemnul din candela
trupului, aa palpit i flfie lumina sufletului, pn ce ultima licrire se stinge.
Dac n proza din prima etap senzaiile trupului i ale sufletului fuzioneaz, observm
c n cea obiectiv se instaleaz disocierea acestora. Aadar, doctorul Rim avea un trup
sufletesc care contrazicea pe cellalt. Araraori cele dou trupuri se suprapuneau desvrit,
dar un aa de mare contrast era totui ceva rar. (Concert din muzic de Bach)
Personajele feminine din proza scurt a Hortensiei Papadat-Bengescu sunt foarte
aproape de ego-ul auctorial, sau chiar coinciznd cu acesta. Bianca, Adriana, Alisia, Manuela
sunt ipostaze feminine derivate din structura sufleteasc a autoarei i se nscriu n acelai
tipar: femeia singuratic, contemplativ (lunatic), narcisist, excesiv n reacii. Personajul
are o consisten epic minim, semiplasmatic, desfurndu-se numai ca existent luntric,
pe o palet foarte larg de triri, de la exaltarea vitalitii i a dorinei de dragoste, pn la
mortificare.2 Hortensia Papadat-Bengescu este cea care se ascunde n spatele acestui
personaj sau se transpune n pielea lui; n definitiv, femeile din proza scurta a ei nu sunt dect
forme de rencarnare perpetu ale aceleiai autoare n cazul creia scrisul capt funcie
terapeutic. ntr-un fel sau altul, naratoarea i caut salvarea n cititor i apeleaz la diferite
1
2
Elena Zaharia-Filipa: Studii de literatur feminin, Editura Paideia, Bucureti, 2004,p. 48.
Ibidem, p. 51.
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instrumente care canalizeaz atenia lectorului ctre profunzimea sufleteasc. Chiar i la

personajele din romane, mai importante dect figurile sunt strile sufleteti, procesele
morale, sentimentele umane, nevrozele, a cror monografie autoarea o face.3
Atunci cnd are ocazia s in n mn oglinda Manuelei cea cu mner de os,
uitndu-se n ea nu-i vede chipul, ci doar o balt de plictiseal; atunci, Alina i amintete c
Manuela avea obicei s repete c poart cu ea nencetat o oglind n care se privete .
(Femeia n faa oglinzii) In definitiv, oglinda trce personajul prin toate vmile, pentru c
oglinda nu flateaz, dimpotriv! Mrturisindu-te, te vezi i te doreti altul de ct te vezi.
Pe msura ce-i privea propriul chip n oglind, acesta ncepe s-i par strain: cu ct
fixa mai mult oglinda, cu ct se recunotea mai putin [] Strina aceea ciudat, cu o expresie
de via moart cine era? Atunci cnd i privete prul i aduce aminte de viaa de la
pension, de copilrie i adncit n trecut nu mai bag de seam c-i e somn, fiindc chiar
adormise pe scaun n faa oglinzii, cu ochii nluntrul ei, cu ochi care nu vedeau, cu ochi care
dormeau deschisi. (Femeia n faa oglinzii)
Manuela este personajul care poart cu sine o lup i se recunoate ca fiind o altfel,
de aceea i fu team s nu o vada cineva n faa oglinzii. n timpurile care erau, oamenii ar fi
socotit poate c e o crima s stai cu tine de vorb n oglind, dar spre deosebire de alte femei
care se ngrijesc, ea priveste durerosul adevar pentru c n realitate fiecruia dintre noi i s-a
pus n mini o mic oglind n care s se priveasc pe el i viaa lui, apoi lumea i viaa ei,
apoi timpurile n care s-au perindat.
Motivul oglinzii este la fel ca i cel al apelor adnci - miza autocunoaterii, a
meditaiei i introspeciei; dup cum sesiza Constantin Ciopraga, uneori privirea aceasta n
interior risc s devin obositoare prin insisten.4 Motivul oglinzii ca mijloc de reflecie este,
de fapt, un pretext pentru discursuri ample, uneori criptice, care pornesc de la contemplarea
trupului gol: Se uita acum iar la cei doi boboci din oglind, deopotriv de albi, de crescui, de
satinai, i ochiul ei dezmierda mereu nemulumit miezul celui plit i sfresc cu meditaii
asupra lumii dimprejur: prin ce mister al dezordinei cineva vede cu acceai privire n aceeai
oglind sau numai reflectarea lucrurilor exterioare, sau numai chipul su, i uneori pe
amndou. (Femeia n faa oglinzii). Aceast privire mprit se datoreaz unui sistem de
reflectare complicat, alctuit dintr-o oglind static (cea cu mner de os) i una mobil (cea de
buzunar). Altfel spus, o lup destinat autoscopiei i un reflector plimbat prin cenuiul
evenimentelor dinafar.5
Eliberarea de sub jugul privirii n oglind cu alunecri n timp i n spaiu se produce
atunci cnd acest obiect i cade Manuelei de pe genunchi. ,,O ridic. Era spart. Fr ciocnire,
fr stridene. Fr glas, dintr-un punct adnc n marginea ei, porneau, nenumrate, dungile
mute care i stricau ovalul pur i clar. Prin masca asta Manuela privi. Privi cu ochii deschii
tare, cu toat voina vederii adncit n sticl i nu vzu nuntru nimic, nici faa ei, nici
reflexul altor lucruri, numai un gol adnc care trgea ochii ei dup dnsul, un pustiu care
ntorcea privirei ei nimicul lui [] Atunci femeia fr de oglind, cu o privire stngace, nou,
pienjenit, strin, se uita mprejur.
Motivul oglinzii ne duce cu gndul la o posibil alian cu batista pe care Herta Mller
o invoc n discursul rostit la primirea Premiului Nobel pentru Literatur. Acest accesoriu
aproape banal devine elementul simbolic ce o urmrete de-a lungul vieii i i asigur n
copilrie protecia necesar, iar mai trziu refugiul n faa vicisitudinilor vieii. Ai o batist?
M-ntreba mama n fiecare diminea la poarta casei mele nainte s ies n strad. N-aveam. i
Ovid. S. Crohmlniceanu: Literatura ntre cele dou rzboaie mondiale, vol. I, Editura Universalia, Bucureti,
2003, p. 253.
4
Hortensia Papadat-Bengescu: Opere, vol. I, ediie critic i note de Eugenia Tudor, prefa de Constantin
Ciopraga, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1972, p. XXX.
5
Corina Ciocrlie: Femei n faa oglinzii, Editura Echinox, Cluj-Napoca, 1998, p. 28.
3
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pentru c n-o aveam la mine, m ntorceam iar n camer i-mi luam una. Dimineaa n-aveam
niciodat batista la mine, fiindc n fiecare dimine ateptam aceast ntrebare a ei [] n
fiecare diminnea eram la poart, o dat fr batist i-o a doua oar cu batist. Abia apoi
ieeam n strad, ca i cum, odat cu batista, a fi avut-o cu mine i pe mama. n aceeai
cuvntare scriitoarea rememoreaz momentul critic din perioada comunist n care este
alungat de la locul de munc: Cum nu puteam lipsi n nici un caz de la lucru, dar n-aveam
un birou al meu, iar prietena mea n-avea voie s m mai lase s intru n biroul ei, stteam
nehort pe casa scrilor. Am urcat i cobort treptele de cteva ori i dintr-odat am fost
iar copilul mamei mele, cci aveam o batist. Pe care-am ntins-o pe-o treapt undeva ntre
etajele unu i doi, netezind-o cu palma s stea cum trebuie, i m-am aezat pe ea. Discursul
Hertei Mller se ncheie cu o ntrebare
Hortensia Papadat-Bengescu aduce o not de franc senzualitateCnd nu se exalt
pe sine, scriitoarea se apleac asupra misterului feminin pentru a-l sfia. Nimeni n-a proiectat
n literaratura noastr o lumin retorica: Ar fi oare cu putin ca dintodeauna ntrebarea
despre batist sa fi avut n vedere nu batista, ci acuta singuratate a omului?6
n alt ordine de idei i pentru personajul Manuela oglinda este cheia de bolta: Cnd
luase deunzi un an aproape de atunci oglinda n mini, lumea era aprins de rzboaie
uriae, care luminau tot Apusul, i la flacra lor, mereu mai mpresurtoare, Manuela privise
mereu nainte n cristalul mic al oglinzii, icoana ei nensemnat. Acum focul i mpresurase.
Manuela i druia i ea sufletul frmntrilor patriei, dar fr s lase din mini oglinda ei
mic.
Nu putem s nu amintim oglinda fr s vedem n aceasta i conlocutorul lui Narcis;
n mod firesc se nate ntrebarea: Se las personajele feminine ale Hortensiei PapadatBengescu conduse de autofilie, sau nu? Freud consider c narcisismul reprezint o trastur
comun a tuturor oamenilor, o forma necesar de dragoste pentru c oamenii se nasc prea
devreme; unii psihologi sunt de prere c narcisismul este o trstur definitorie a oricarei
femei; problematica singurtii pe care o lanseaz Herta Mller n finalul discursului su,
este pertinent n cazul eroinelor Hortensiei Papadat-Bengescu; atunci cnd femeia din proza
Marea declar degeaba strigi nevoia ta celor ce nu vor s aud o face dintr-o acut
singurtate, deci privirea n oglind i iubirea de sine deriv i din aceast trire. Pe de alt
parte iubirea propriei fiine este elogiat i pentru c nu poart vina fa de nimeni aa cum
remarcm n Vis de femeie iubirea de mine nu doare inima nimnui! Ea e esena curat de
suflet!
Observm cum privirea din care deriv motivul oglinzii, boala, singurtatea, cutarea
fericirii, condiia femeii n societate, devin criterii sine qua non pentru autoare. Atunci cnd i
diagnosticheaz stilul, E. Lovinescu admite c autoarea este singura care a reuit s dea noi
valene sufletului feminin: n mijlocul unei literaturi oarecum rituale, mai mult suspinat
dect afirmat, literatura doamnei mai orbitoare asupra sufletului feminin ca aceast
scriitoare7
n proza de nceput se profileaz imaginea personajului desanguizat i descarnat din
care se desprinde cu uurin trupul sufletesc dup cum remarca Dana Dumitriu: Personajul
descris minuios n micrile lui sufleteti nu are carnaie, este transparent, trecem cu privirea
prin el, fr s-i vedem chipul, aa cum trecem cu privirea prin noi nine fr s ne vedem
chipul.8
Citatul a fost preluat din caietul Herta Mller la Bucureti (27-28 septembrie 2010), editat de Editura
Humanitas Fiction i Centrul de carte german, 2010, p. 5, 20.
7
E. Lovinescu: Istoria literaturii romne contemporane, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1973, p. 239.
8
Dana Dumitriu: Ambasadorii sau despre realismul psihologic, Editura Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 1976,
pp. 194-195.
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Femeia din proza de nceput a autoarei rmne purttoarea unei trairi, a unei idei, iar
povetile pe care le destinuie nu reprezint dect pivotul care permite descrierea strii care le
traverseaz.9 n fond, n primele volume asistam la imaginea pseudopersonajului creat i
recreat n imaginaia autoarei pentru a se regsi pe sine; Bianca, Adriana, Alisia, Sephora,
chiar i Manuela, Mamina sau d-na Ledru, nu reprezint dect pretextul de la care se pleac n
discursul narativ, dup cum remarca Nicolae Manolescu: Ele sunt variante ale unui singur
prototip. Fr biografie, fr individualitate: simple nume [] i cum ar putea fi altfel, ct
vreme nici una dintre aceste eroine nu traiete n lume: pentru toate lumea nu este dect
proiecia fiinei lor. Singura realitate de care au cunotin este sufletul lor fcut sensibil,
corporalizat.10. Conflictele lor sunt intrinseci i sunt devoalate sub forma monologului sau a
dialogului. Pe acest fundal de spovedanie se creeaz un mic inventar de situaii care vor fi pe
deplin exploatate n proza de mare ntindere.
Bibliografie:
Ciocrlie, Corina, Femei n faa oglinzii, Editura Echinox, Cluj-Napoca, 1998.
Cristescu, Maria-Luiza, Hortensia Papadat-Bengescu, portret de romancier, Editura
Albatros, Bucureti, 1976.
Crohmlniceanu, Ovid. S., Literatura ntre cele dou rzboaie mondiale, vol. I,
Editura Universalia, Bucureti, 2003.
Dumitriu, Dana, Ambasadorii sau despre realismul psihologic, Editura Cartea
Romneasc, Bucureti, 1976.
Herta Mller la Bucureti (27-28 septembrie 2010), caiet editat de Editura Humanitas
Fiction i Centrul de carte german, 2010.
Lovinescu, E., Istoria literaturii romne contemporane, Editura Minerva, Bucureti,
1973.
Manolescu, Nicolae, Arca lui Noe, vol. II, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1981.
Papadat-Bengescu, Hortensia, Opere, vol. I, ediie critic i note de Eugenia Tudor,
prefa de Constantin Ciopraga, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1972.
Zaharia-Filipa, Elena, Studii de literatur feminin, Editura Paideia, Bucureti, 2004.
Maria-Luiza Cristescu: Hortensia Papadat-Bengescu, portret de romancier, Editura Albatros, Bucureti, 1976,
p. 29, 31.
10
Nicolae Manolescu: Arca lui Noe, vol. II, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1981, p. 11.
9
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THE SPACE IN ALEXANDRU VONA`S NOVEL

Lucian-Nicu RDAN
Abstract: The space influences the character in the same manner as the character influences
the space, the place in which the character is placed shapes it for that later, this place will
exercise a presure over the individual. In their composition, the novels realise a detailed
description of the nieghborhoods, the streets, the institutions and more than that, of the
residences and the key elements in the determination of the category and social structure.
Equally important is the bond between the geographical structure and the social structure.
The analysis of the character is made, most of the time, from the perspective of space that it
occupies, assuring it an identitary look, driven out of this space it becomes empty,
meaningless, emptied from it's content. Each space produces a moral atmosphere that coveres
the landscape, the neighborhoods, the residence. In the contemporan era, the writers five an
important role to space, from a simple decor it becomes a character of itself.
Keywords: space, influences, the character influences, meaningless.
Spaiul i timpul vzute ca i concepte filosofice universale reprezint pentru literatur
o dimensiune esenial n ceea ce privete realitatea, fapt ce poate merge i mai departe n
textul literar. Cele dou elemente constituie cadrul n care este implicat ntreaga realitatea,1
sunt realiti ce angajeaz fiina ntr-o cutare permanent de rspunsuri la eternele
probleme2, romanul devenind astfel spaial att prin fond, ct i n formele sale3.
Mihail Bahtin folosete n teoria romanului termenul de cronotop pentru a scoate n
eviden conexiunea esenial a relaiilor spaiale i temporale valorificate artistic, iar pentru
legtura dintre spaiul narativ i personaj termenul cel mai potrivit este de proxemic, acesta
din urm incluznd i manifestrile de ordin psihologic i comportamental.
Din perspectiva antropologului american E. T. Hall, proxematica reprezint studiul
percepiei i utilizrii spaiului de ctre om4. Anterior era perceput ca topologie uman, ca
microspaiu al ntlnirilor interpersonale, proxemica tratnd relaia individului n viaa
cotidian. Definirea spaiului ca experien fundamental, cmp de comunicare i spaiu
simbolic5 face referire la contientizarea, din perspectiva personajului, a relaiei sale cu spaiul
social. E. T. Hall analizeaz comportamentul personajului n funcie de spaiul n care i
desfoar activitile cotidiene i concluzioneaz c putem vorbi despre un cod secret i
complex, nescris nicieri, necunoscut de nimeni, dar neles de toi6, modul n care culturi
diferite percep i structureaz spaiul.
Viziunea criticilor i cercettorilor ia prea puin n considerare faptul c fiecare
personalitate are i o dominant spaial, o dimensiune care i este proprie7, avnd ca
Cassirer, Ernst, Eseu despre om, Bucureti, 1994, p. 66.

Cimpoi, Mihai, Esena fiinei. (Mi)teme i simboluri existeniale eminesciene, Chiinu, Ed. Gunivas, 2003, p.
95.
3
Zraffa, Michel, La Rvolution romanesque, Paris, U.G.E., 1972, p. 429.
4
Hall, E.T., Proxmique, n Bateson, Birdwhistel, Goffman, Hall, Jakson, Scheflen, Watzlwicck (eds) La
Nouvelle Communication, Paris, Seuil, 1981, p. 191.
5
Roventa-Frumuani, Daniela. Semiotic, societate, cultur, Iai, Institutul European, 1999, p. 206.
6
Ibidem, p. 209.
7
Roventa-Frumuani, Daniela. Semiotic, societate, cultur, Iai, Institutul European, 1999, p. 206
1
2
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rezultat o personalizare a spaiului8. Proxemica are ca punct de plecare amplasarea

personajului n spaiul imaginar al literaturii i reaciile de ordin comunicaional care reies din
aceast integrare, iar concluzia este c se condenseaz o serie de spaii strict codificate de
gramatica comunitii creia i aparine individul.9
Spaiul influeneaz personajul la fel cum i personajul influeneaz spaiul, locul n
care este plasat personajul l modeleaz pentru ca mai trziu acest loc s-i exercite presiunea
asupra individului.
n compoziia lor romanele realizeaz o descriere detaliat a cartierelor, a strzilor, a
instituiilor i mai mult dect att a locuinelor i a elementelor eseniale n determinarea
categoriei sau a clasei sociale. La fel de important este i legtura dintre structura geografic
i structura social. Analiza personajului se face de cele mai multe ori din perspectiva
spaiului pe care l ocup, asigurndu-i o privire identitar, scos din acest spaiu devine gol,
nensemnat, golit de coninut.
Fiecare spaiu eman o atmosfer moral care acoper peisajul, cartierul, locuina. n
epoca contemporan scriitorii acord un rol important spaiului, din simplu decor acesta
devine un personaj n sine.
Acest mod de percepie a spaiului relev o nou concepie a raportului ntre om i
mediul su.10 Cele dou entiti formeaz un cuplu semnificativ. Locul nu mai posed
caracteristica de decor,e conceput n strns legtur cu personajele ce le populeaz; altfel
spus, personajele se ntregesc prin locul, prin mediul n care sunt amplasate. Philippe Hamon
definete teritoriul personajului ntr-un mod aparte, refuz interpretarea de spaiu ca decor i
arat c spaiul este consubstanial cu personajul, este construit, la rndul lui, de personaj.11
Dei problematica este uzat considerm c modalitatea de abordare a lui Philippe Hamon
este una inovativ.
Influena spaiului asupra personajului duce la perspectiva unui personaj teritorializat,
un spaiu care i influeneaz caracterul. Toate aceste influene au ca rezultat imediat destinul
personajului. Putem constata o modificare a destinului personajului dac acesta este mutat
ntr-un alt spaiu.
Pierderea identitii e o caracteristic a conturrii omului nou, totul se transform
ntr-o mas organizat ce-i duce existena ntr-un spaiu care seamn mai mult cu un lagr12
Relaionarea dintre personaje, ntlnirile, pasiunile se identific cu termenii spaiali.
Arnaud Sompairac susine c oraul este o proiecie a conflictelor de clas n conflictele
teritoriilor. Lumea muncii acord fiecrui loc destinaia sa. Astfel, oraul stabilete o relaie
simpl ntre necesitate i localizare.13 Orice prsire a spaiului trebuie s se ncheie cu o
Ibidem, p. 207.
Ibidem, p. 208.
10
A. de Lattre Le realisme selon Zola. Archeologie dun intelligence, Paris, P.U.F. 1975, p. 108
11
Hamon, Philippe, Le Personnel du roman. Le systme des personnages dans les Rougon-Macquart dEmile
Zola, Genve, Droz, 1997.
12
Uniformizarea reprezint pierderea identitii iar sentimental c te afli ntr-un lagr i d senzaia c cel de
lng tine nu reprezint dect o imagine n oglind. Prima grij a lagrului este de a-i deposeda de tot ce au.
Inclusiv de identitate. Ca orice sistem, lagarul a impus uniformizarea. Deinutii au devenit o mas organizat,
uniform. Capete rase, lasate n jos, venic ateptindu-i rndul, la supa, la haine zdrenuite, la bocanci cu talpa
de lemn: Cnd am sfirit, am rmas fiecare n colul nostru fr s ndrznim a ridica ochii unii la alii. Navem oglind s ne privim, dar nfiarea noastr ne sttea naintea ochilor, reflectat ntr-o sut de fete livide,
pe chipul a o sut de marionete mizere i sordide ( Levi, Primo, Mai este oare acesta un om? Traducere si
postfa de Doina Condrea Derer, Editura Polirom, Iasi, 2004, p. 33. )
13
Sompairac, Arnaud, Le hros dans le labyrinthe, n La ville nest pas un lieu, n Revue dEsthtique, nr. 34,1977, p. 163-171.
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ntoarcere, totul se bazeaz pe o interzicere spaial14, nentoarcerea n spaiul iniial duce la

un dezechilibru i inevitabil la drame.
Textele- suport folosesc sistematic spaiul ca element constitutiv n construcia
personajului bazat pe corespondene i conotaii, activiznd spaiul i transformndu-l ntr-un
atu al scrierii.
Vorbind despre spaiu trebuie adus n discuie romanul lui Vona care n titlu
concentreaz o mare parte din semnificaie: Ferestrele zidite. Pluralul substantivului d o
serie de sensuri. De-a lungul naraiunii observm apariia diverselor sensuri ale cuvntului:
deschiderea unei ferestre aduce un zmbet pe figura unei fete, fereastra cafenelei este limita,
grania ntre ora i linitea interioar a naratorului, pe fata croitorului o gsete ntotdeauna
lng fereastr. Visul i frica nsoesc imaginea ferestrei care nu-i confer personajului
siguran: n vis, de cte ori m uit pe fereastr i vd jos persoana care m urmrete nu mai
am nicio speran, cu toate c uile sunt ncuiate; omul de care fug e ntotdeauna lng mine
15
. Pentru psihologi fereastra constituie relaia cu mediul exterior, simbolizeaz deschiderea
sau starea de receptivitate a Eului i permite accesul spre nou, spre cunoatere. Zidind
aceast deschidere refuzm comunicarea i Eul se concentreaz spre interior, nereuind s se
regseasc n societate l obligm s caute prin interiorul su eliberarea.
Vona zidete din start spaiul n care personajele sale se mic. Prin fereastr
personajul avea deja o vedere limitat de marginile acesteia, o dat zidit opacizeaz
ramele naraiunii n care este creat povestirea.
Privit ca roman psihologic, Ferestrele zidite, red interioarele personajelor care sunt
plasate ntr-un mediu citadin, probabil un ora de munte, dup unii critici fiind vorba de
Braov. Spaiul i joac propriul rol, de a ne introduce n lumea personajului narator. Este
necesar ca legat de spaiul din roman s vorbim i despre temporalitate, pentru c cele dou
elemente sunt n conexiune direct. Spaiul i timpul determin singurtatea i tririle: eram
trist, dar nu ca n toate zilele, mai precis ca n fiecare nceput de zi, cnd m desprind att de
greu de fragilele, supusele fiine cu care mi petrec nopile, de lumea dinainte, mereu alta, n
care cel mai mic amnunt modific totul[]16
Literatura poate fi privit ca o modalitate de aproximare a unui spaiu ce comport fie
o realitate constant, fie un ansamblu proteiform, supus unor reguli de organizare
iraional17. Potrivit definiiei spaiul este cel ce confer personajului un anumit statut i
trsturi de baz, iar opera devine un intermediu pentru atribuirea unui nucleu comun
spaiului local i spaiului global potrivit reprezentrii pe care omul o are despre situarea lui
n spaiu18. Spaiul este un factor determinant pentru identitatea personajului care se
construiete din perspectiv social, etic sau politic.
Bibliografie
Bournef, Roland, Ouellet R., LUnivers du roman, Paris, P.U.F., 1972.
Cassirer, Ernst, Eseu despre om, Bucureti, 1994.
Cimpoi, Mihai, Esena fiinei. (Mi)teme i simboluri existeniale eminesciene,
Chiinu, Gunivas, 2003.
Szakcs, Lszl, Le sens de lespace dans la Fortune des Rougon dEmile Zola, Debrecen, Kossutii Lajoss
Tudomnyegyetem, 1990, p. 61.
15
Vona, Alexandru, Ferestrele zidite, EST-Samuel Tastet diteur, 2001, p. 55.
16
Ibidem, p. 9.
17
Dictionnaire historique, thmatique et technique des littratures
18
Prus, Elena, Proxemica literar ca personalizare a spaiului n revista Limba Romn
Nr. 12, anul XIV, 2004.
14
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Dictionnaire historique, thmatique et technique des littratures. Littratures

franaises et trangres, ancienne et modernes. Sous la direction de J. Demougin.
Hall, E.T., Proxmique, n Bateson, Birdwhistel, Goffman, Hall, Jakson, Scheflen,
Watzlwicck (eds) La Nouvelle Communication, Paris, Seuil, 1981.
HAMON, Philippe, Imageries. Littrature et image au XIX-ime sicle, Paris, Jos
Corti, 2001.
Hamon, Philippe, Le Personnel du roman. Le systme des personnages dans les
Rougon-Macquart dEmile Zola, Genve, Droz, 1997.
Lattre, Alain de, Le realisme selon Zola. Archeologie dun intelligence, Paris, P.U.F.,
1975.
mitTerand, Henri, Le regard et le signe. Potique du roman raliste et naturaliste,
Paris, P.U.F., 1987.
MITTERAND, Henri, Chronotopies romanesques: Germinal, n Potique, 1990, n.
81.
Roventa-Frumuani, Daniela. Semiotic, societate, cultur, Iai, Institutul European,
1999.
Srbu, Anca, Timp i spaiu n literatura francez din secolul al XIX-lea, Iai, Editura
Universitii Al. I. Cuza, 1999.
Sompairac, Arnaud, Le hros dans le labyrinthe, n La ville nest pas un lieu, n Revue
dEsthtique, nr. 3-4,1977, p. 163-171.
SZAKCS, Lszl, Le sens de lespace dans la Fortune des Rougon dEmile Zola,
Debrecen, Kossutii Lajoss Tudomnyegyetem, 1990.
TONARD, Jean-Franois. Thmatique et symbolique de lespace clos dans le cycle
des Rougon-Macquart dEmile Zola. In seria Publication Universitaires Europennes. Srie
Langue et littrature franaise. Series XIII, vol. 190, Peter Lang, 1994.
Zraffa, Michel, La Rvolution romanesque, Paris, U.G.E., 1972.
POSDRU/159/1.5/S/133652.
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LA TRADUCTION DU DISCOURS DRAMATIQUE

Violeta LUPACU CRISTESCU
Universit tefan cel Mare de Suceava
Abstract: Lately, translation was stated as an autonomous discipline, leading experts to

approach different research directions, of which the most numerous relates, generally, to the
translation of literary texts. In this case, the translator of the dramatic texts is disadvantaged
compared to a translator of poetry or narrative fiction. On the one hand, the translation of
plays is different from other translations; on the other hand, because theorists are questioning
whether the same theory can be applied to both theater translations and the translation of
other genres, especially what may be this theory. Dramaturgy and translation are practices
that have in themselves the image of their interpretation, developed in the silence of a
practice, of identical types of affinities, of a history. In the 60s it was remarked the first
theoretic interest for the theatrical translation, but we cannot speak about a real concern for
the theatrical translation theory before the 80s. It was only in 1985, when the first studies and
seminars devoted to theatrical translation appeared. Our proposal aims at an overview of the
theoretical debates, focusing on the difference, when it refers to theater, text translation for
reading and the text translation for stage.
Keywords : translation, dramatic text, text for reading, text for the stage, theatricality
I.
En guise dintroduction
Ce dernier temps, la traductologie sest affirme en tant que discipline autonome,
dterminant les spcialistes daborder de diffrentes directions de recherche, dont les plus
nombreuses se rapportent, en gnral, la traduction des textes littraires. Dans cette
situation, le traducteur de textes dramatiques se trouve dsavantag par rapport au traducteur
de la posie ou de la fiction narrative, dabord, parce que la traduction des pices de thtre
est diffrente des autres traductions, ensuite, parce quon se demande si une mme thorie
pourrait sappliquer la traduction thtrale et la traduction dautres genres et, surtout,
quelle est cette thorie.
La dramaturgie comme la traduction sont des pratiques qui portent en elles limage
de leur excution, forme, lune et lautre, dans le silence dune pratique, dun partage
daffinits, dune histoire. Ce nest que dans les annes 60 que lon observe les premiers
intrts thoriques pour la traduction thtrale (cest Mounin qui, en 1965, consacre un
chapitre la traduction thtrale dans louvrage Teoria e Storia della Traduzione). Mais il
faut attendre les annes 80, pour une vraie rflexion thorique sur ce sujet (nous nommons ici
: Ortrun Zuver-Skerritt, 1980, The Languages of Theatre. Problems in Translation and
Transposition of Drama, un recueil collectif portant sur la traduction thtrale; Susan
Bassnett, 1980, Translation Studies, un ouvrage dont un chapitre aborde le sujet; George
Wellwarth, 1981, Special Considerations in Drama Translation ; Laurie Anderson, 1984,
Pragmatica e traduzione teatrale ), et 1985, pour des tudes et des colloques consacrs la
traduction thtrale.
II.Thtre et traduction : un aperu du dbat thorique
Si lon part de lide que le thtre est un art paradoxal (Ubersfeld, 1996 : 11), on
peut mme y voir lart du paradoxe : la fois production littraire et reprsentation
concrte . Nous prenons aussi en considration la spcificit du texte de thtre , qui reste
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Issue no. 6/2015
une question essentielle, car le produit conu pour la reprsentation thtrale est diffrent des
textes pour la lecture.
Un texte dramatique est ralis pour tre reprsent par des comdiens sur scne, donc
il nest pas crit comme dautres textes. Il utilise un langage la fois oral et gestuel, appelle
la collaboration les autres moyens dexpression que la scne fournit et il est ainsi thtral. Par
consquent, il faut analyser la pratique textuelle particulire et montrer les liens qui runissent
cette pratique et la pratique de la reprsentation. Lauteur dramatique sexprime par
personnages interposs, ce qui limite ses possibilits dexpression. Au moment de la
conception de son uvre, lauteur doit aussi penser aux acteurs, au metteur en scne, ainsi
quau public, tout en tenant compte des conditions matrielles de lespace thtral. Il est
certain que toute rflexion sur le texte thtral ne peut manquer de parler de la problmatique
de la reprsentation.
La complexit de la pratique thtrale met la smiologie du thtre (Idem : 9) au
carrefour des grandes querelles modernes qui traversent lanthropologie, la psychanalyse, la
linguistique, la smantique, lhistoire. Certes, la linguistique reste privilgie dans ltude de
la pratique thtrale, autant pour le texte que pour la reprsentation, vu le rapport existant
entre les signes textuels et les signes de la reprsentation (Ibidem). Le smiologue tablit
(le ou) les systmes de signes textuels qui peuvent permettre au metteur en scne et aux
comdiens de construire un systme signifiant, o le spectateur concret trouve sa place. Les
metteurs en scne ont comme tche de faire du texte une lecture qui se projette sur une
reprsentation ventuelle, tandis que les comdiens peuvent opposer la tyrannie relle ou
suppose du metteur en scne la libert du savoir, servant une cration par la contribution
dune lecture nouvelle. Quant aux passionns du thtre, ils peuvent ou ils cherchent faire
une mdiation, ncessaire et difficile, entre ce quils lisent et ce quils aiment voir sur scne.
Sauf certains travaux rcents (il sagit des crits dAnnie Brisset et des chercheurs
qubcois : Louise Ladouceur, Michle Lalibert, Glen Nichols, Sirkku Aaltonen, qui
proposent des approches novatrices, moins normatives ) (Regattin, 2004 : 156), il ny a pas
des thories spcifiques pour la traduction thtrale. Cest Keir Douglas Elam qui fait une
classification de ces approches, sur la distinction entre performance text et dramatic
text (Elam, 1980 : 158). Il parle de : thories littraires, thories bases sur le texte
dramatique , thories bases sur le texte spectaculaire , thories no-littraires ,
classification que nous nacceptons que partiellement, pour une raison assez simple : le
traducteur dramatique utilise, en gnral, les mmes stratgies que la traduction littraire a
adoptes.
III.La traduction du discours dramatique entre la traduction pour la lecture et la
traduction pour la scne
Le rapport entre texte et thtre dpend videmment des acceptations du mot
thtre . Ce mot dsigne un art du spectacle , un genre dramatique , la qualit
quon reconnat la reprsentation ou au texte , un espace architectural et il couvre un
vaste rseau mtaphorique qui retient du sens propre les aspects spectaculaires,
architecturaux et / ou fictionnels. On parle mme dune dichotomie dramatique versus
thtral . Mieux vaudrait de parler de texte dramatique et rserver ladjectif thtral
la scne proprement dite, conformment ltimologie du mot thtre , (issu de la
famille du verbe voir : tre spectateur ) (Eigenmann, 2003).
Il est utile de savoir si, au moment o lauteur crit une pice, il envisage la lecture ou
la mise en scne. Nous croyons que chaque auteur aimerait voir que les choses quil crit
peuvent prendre forme. Vlad Zografi, traducteur, romancier et dramaturge, considre que
jouer des pices de thtre est une horreur magnifique . Et il ajoute : Quand jcris du
thtre les personnages jouent une pice imaginaire dans ma tte et jcris la pice que les
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personnages me dictent. Le premier spectacle se passe dans ma tte et javoue que cest le
plus important pour moi (Zografi, 2011).
Mais la traduction du discours dramatique est un combat. Elle doit rester ouverte,
permettre le jeu sans en dicter un, tre anime par un rythme sans en imposer un. Traduire le
thtre, cest vaincre toutes les rsistances sourdes, inavoues, quune culture offre sa
pntration par une autre (Mounin, 1963 : 163). Traduire une uvre dramatique, cest
traduire pour la scne. travers les mots du texte original, le traducteur doit pouvoir voir
lexpression du visage des personnages, la manire dont ils bougent ; il doit aussi pouvoir
entendre leurs intonations, leur respiration, leur accent et connatre leur caractre, leur
intention par rapport aux autres personnages, etc. Ce nest quaprs avoir saisi le jeu thtral
que le texte suppose que le traducteur peut commencer son travail pour recrer le texte
dramatique dans une autre langue et il peut aussi montrer le jeu par son texte. Le jeu ou le
verbo-corps - cest--dire un ensemble de laspect auditif et de la reprsentation visuelle
et une alliance du texte prononc et des gestes accompagnants (vocaux et physiques) - nest
pas rgl de la mme faon dans diffrentes langues et cultures (Pavis, 1990 : 151). Cest
pourquoi, montrer le jeu dans une autre culture, cest trouver un verbo-corps quivalent.
Plus concrtement, comme le soutiennent les praticiens de la traduction thtrale, le
traducteur doit avoir prsent lesprit tout le spectacle, la fois dans son contexte original et
dans son futur contexte de reprsentation.
III.1. Texte et reprsentation
Lorsquon parle du thtre, on doit faire la distinction texte-reprsentation , pour
carter les confusions, sachant bien que ce ne sont pas les mmes outils conceptuels qui sont
requis pour lanalyse de lun et de lautre (Ubersfeld, Op. cit. : 13). On peut faire thtre
de tout , disait quelque part Vitez. Il y a une spcificit non tant du texte que de lecture quon
doit prendre en compte. Le texte de thtre se compose de deux parties distinctes et
indissociables (Idem : 17), le dialogue et les didascalies. Le rapport textuel dialoguedidascalies est variable, selon les poques de lhistoire du thtre : les didascalies peuvent tre
nulles ou quasi nulles ou occuper une place norme (Ibidem). Nous pensons au texte de la
pice Acte sans paroles de Beckett, qui est uniquement compos dune immense didascalie.
Elles rpondent aux questions Qui ? et O ? et dsignent le contexte de la
communication. Lcriture de thtre nest jamais subjective, car lauteur refuse de parler en
son nom propre, la part textuelle dont il est sujet est seulement constitue par les didascalies.
Malgr les voix qui soutiennent qu il ny a pas proprement parler de langage
thtral (Ubersfeld, Op.cit. : 20), nous avons remarqu que le texte thtral est analysable
selon les rgles de la linguistique et selon le procs de communication, tandis que la
reprsentation thtrale est considre un ensemble (ou un systme) de signes de nature
diverse, relevant sinon totalement, du moins partiellement, dun procs de communication. Il
est possible danalyser le rapport texte-reprsentation , en partant de lhypothse du fait
thtral comme un rapport entre deux ensembles de signes, verbaux et nonverbaux. Mais la
difficult principale quon rencontre dans lanalyse du signe au thtre est dabord lie sa
polysmie (Idem : 26). Cette polysmie sexplique par la prsence dun mme signe dans
des ensembles ressortissant des codes diffrents. Elle est surtout lie un processus de
constitution de sens ( ct du sens principal, dit dnotatif, tout signe, verbal ou nonverbal,
emporte avec lui des significations secondes).
Si nous admettons lide que lactivit thtrale est un procs de communication, nous
pouvons en dduire que les six fonctions du langage, distingues par Jakobson, sont
pertinentes autant pour les signes du texte que pour ceux de la reprsentation. Ainsi pouvonsnous nous rallier lide que lensemble du processus de communication peut clairer la
reprsentation en tant que pratique concrte. Il faut aussi admettre la double nonciation, la
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double rception, le double destinataire et le double sens dune pice de thtre. Le langage
thtral sadresse la fois un personnage et au public, donc il a un double destinataire, la
parole pouvant recouvrir un double sens (lun pour le personnage, lautre pour le public).
Cest le cas, en particulier, du quiproquo, o seul le spectateur comprend la ralit de la
situation de confusion dans laquelle sont plongs les personnages. De plus, derrire chaque
parole, il y a le dramaturge qui sadresse son public.
III.2. Traduire la thtralit
Comme nous avons dj vu, la caractristique essentielle de luvre dramatique est
quelle est destine la reprsentation par des comdiens, devant des tmoins qui sont les
spectateurs. Il sagit donc, ds le dbut, dun texte fait pour accompagner une action qui sera
reprsente.
Cest Roland Barthes (1964) qui a donn une premire rponse la question Questce que la thtralit ? . Pour lui, la thtralit, cest le thtre moins le texte, cest une
paisseur de signes et de sensations qui sdifie sur la scne partir de largument crit. Mais
la question demeure actuelle et lon continue de se demander sil faut expulser la thtralit
du texte ou la rserver la reprsentation. Une uvre est considre thtrale quand son
auteur lcrit pour lacteur, qui parle et joue devant un public, donc elle ne vise pas forcment
le lecteur. Dans cette situation, un bon dramaturge recourt des procds qui permettent
son texte de rpondre aux critres spcifiques la scne. Il cre une langue gestuelle
(Brecht, 1963 : 462), qui indique quelles attitudes la personne qui parle adopte envers dautres
personnes. Cela veut dire que le dramaturge sait introduire du visuel et du charnel dans ses
textes. Une uvre est encore thtrale quand, pour sa ralisation, elle implique la
collaboration quilibre darts diffrents. Il sagit de lart de jouer, des costumes, du dcor, de
larchitecture, mme de la musique et de la danse. Dans cette situation, chaque art doit dire ce
que le mot ne sait pas (ou narrive pas ) exprimer, raison pour laquelle il sera complt par
une intonation, un geste, un regard. Une entreprise thtrale ncessite donc la participation de
nombreux artistes, le metteur en scne jouant le rle primordial. Une uvre est encore
considre thtrale quand elle russit susciter le plaisir chez le public, car faire du thtre,
cest provoquer une effusion unanime par un sentiment exclusif et commun (Jouvet,
2002 : 85). Cette effusion sera possible grce la volont de mtamorphose, qui unit lauteur,
le comdien et le public.
Il est bien connu que le monde reprsent sur scne ressemble au monde rel et le
spectateur sy sent plus concern et smeut facilement, mme sil est conscient du fait que ce
qui se passe sur la scne est imagin, invent, fabriqu. Cest toujours la thtralit dune
uvre qui rend compte de cette distance entre le rel (la vie) et limaginaire (le jeu), car le
personnage pourrait nous ressembler, mais il ne sera jamais nous-mmes. Il faut prciser que
la traduction du dialogue est une forme dcriture qui suppose la rencontre des difficults
matresses du traduire (Bensimon, 1999 : II). Si les dialogues dun roman ou dune nouvelle
donnent limpression dune parfaite mimsis par rapport la conversation courante, il ne
sagit que dune illusion. En ralit, lefficacit des meilleurs dialogues littraires tient un
travail profond sur la langue, et une restructuration partielle ou totale des noncs parls. Il
est bien vident que le non dit dun dialogue a le mme poids que le dit et quil ne se
prte pas facilement au passage dans la langue de lAutre. Cela se passe tout comme loralit
du dialogue, qui rsiste, elle aussi, la traduction, dans ses rapports avec la langue familire
ou populaire ou encore avec largot. Pour avoir une ide claire sur ce qui permet une uvre
dramatique dtre thtrale, il reste souligner les deux aspects suivants : le texte dramatique
recourt souvent des nombreux moyens dexpression que fournit la scne ; le langage
dramatique utilis dans le texte rpond aux exigences de la reprsentation.
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Rflchissant aux particularits dune traduction thtrale (ou plutt aux exigences
auxquelles la traduction franaise dun texte dramatique doit rpondre pour permettre la
pratique thtrale), Jean-Michel Dprats (1999 : 54) dit que le traducteur doit avoir le souci
du style oral, car un texte dramatique est dabord un texte crit pour les bouches, pour des
poitrines, pour des souffles : Le traduire pour la scne invite donc crire une langue orale
et gestuelle, muscle et vive, susceptible doffrir au comdien un instrument de jeux
vigoureux et prcis . Cela veut dire quil faut prendre en compte la demande concrte de
lacteur, faire en sorte que la texture des mots puisse tre soutenue par le geste du corps et
linflexion de la voix. Rpondre la nature spcifique dun texte thtral, sa destination
particulire, cest rester fidle au texte. Une traduction pourrait tre exacte, inventive, crite
dans une belle langue, mais si elle ne permet pas la pratique thtrale, elle reste
essentiellement infidle. Il faut prciser quil ny a pas contradiction entre la fidlit au texte
original et ltablissement dune traduction pour la scne. Prendre en compte la demande
concrte de lacteur, cest imaginer des corps en action, entendre des voix qui disent lil
qui coute (lequel nest pas celui de la lecture) (Idem : 62), car la traduction dun texte des
fins de thtre doit tre aussi orale et gestuelle que possible.
Par consquent, pour la traduction du discours dramatique, il sagit de prserver la
thtralit et le rythme inscrits dans le texte original, car lobjectif premier dune
reprsentation scnique est de prserver la thtralit - entendue ici au sens dnergie
vocale - du texte (Dprats, 1999 : 57). La voie la plus propice la prservation de la
thtralit est celle dune littralit bien tempre, soucieuse de lordre des mots, du nombre
des mots, de la densit des images : il sagit de prserver lconomie rhtorique et
imaginaire du texte, son systme, et de rester proche de la physique de la langue (Idem : 63).
Le problme de base qui se prsente tous les traducteurs, et en particulier aux
traducteurs des textes de thtre, cest sil faut traduire lesprit ou la lettre, le sens ou les mots.
Pour le spectateur, il nest pas question de relire ou de rflchir sur le texte, il faut que cela
porte. Leffet doit tre instantan (Watson, 1999 : 115). Un texte de thtre appelle un dire,
une inscription dans le corps, la voix, le jeu du comdien. La question qui sy pose est lie la
prservation de cette thtralit et aux modalits de faire passer dans une langue trangre
linflux de jeu (Dprats, 1999 : 60). Le traducteur doit transposer la dialectique des
questions et des rponses, mais aussi laboutement, la juxtaposition des rpliques, en
conservant la plus grande ouverture de sens possible. Il doit mettre au jour le texte cach ,
les significations enfouies dans le texte de thtre.
IV. Traduction et adaptation thtrale
Si jusquau XVIIe-XVIIIe sicles, on a observ une grande expansion de ladaptation,
lthique traductive tant fonde sur le droit dadapter le texte tranger aux gots et aux
habitudes de la culture cible, au prix de la dilution des rapports entre le texte original et le
texte traduit, au XIXe sicle, ladaptation est associe linfidlit et la trahison du texte
original.
partir du XXe sicle, on assiste la valorisation de lefficacit de la
communication (Jeanrenaud, 2012 : 118) et lapparition de nouvelles thories de pense en
traductologie. Ces thories soutiennent la ncessit dadapter les techniques de traduction au
type du texte traduire et leffet quil doit produire auprs du public cible, comme cest la
thorie du skopos . Tandis que la traduction est dfinie (Meschonnic, 1999 : 233) comme
la version qui privilgie le texte traduire, ladaptation est considre celle qui privilgie tout
ce hors-texte, fait des ides du traducteur sur le langage et sur la littrature, sur le possible et
limpossible (par quoi il se situe) et dont il fait le sous-texte, qui envahit le texte traduire.
Ladaptation (nomme aussi tradaptation ) est parfois juge (Lungu-Badea, 2012 :15) en
tant que stratgie ou mme technique de traduction. Ces dfinitions tracent une frontire nette
entre la traduction et ladaptation : la traduction traite les significations, tandis que
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ladaptation les laisse de ct. Cela conduirait presque lide didentifier ladaptation la
traduction, selon le modle interprtatif, ce que nous considrons assez loign de notre but.
Nous nous prononons plutt pour lide que les deux pratiques sont diffrentes, mme si,
pour des spcialistes du thtre et des praticiens de la traduction thtrale, les choses ne sont
pas claires : dune part, on dit que toute traduction qui ne vise et natteint que le sens est
dj une adaptation (Recoing, 2010 : 103) et, dautre part, on considre que toute
traduction et surtout celle pour le thtre qui doit tre comprise immdiatement et
clairement par le public est une adaptation et une appropriation notre prsent (Pavis, Op.
cit. : 140)
Dans le domaine du thtre, ladaptation, que nous choisissons dappeler adaptation
thtrale , est une activit courante et elle nest pas systmatiquement lie la traduction
interlinguistique. Nous pensons des pices qui trouvent leur source dans les autres genres
littraires, les gens de thtre prenant assez souvent librement lintrigue de romans, de
textes dramatiques ou mme de scnarios de cinma trangers, pour en faire de nouvelles
pices. Il y a des spcialistes de thtre qui considrent que ladaptation doit retrouver
lefficacit thtrale du texte original, alors que la traduction ne vise que la fidlit
purement littraire (Corvin, 1998). Ladaptation thtrale est une traduction, mais une
traduction conforme lusage de la scne. Il sagit ici de faire la diffrence entre la traduction
dramatique, conue comme recration, et ladaptation thtrale, commande par une mise en
scne spcifique. Dans toute traduction, on peut rencontrer des parties de texte qui perdraient
leur sens, si le traducteur nintervenait pas ponctuellement. De plus, dans le cas du thtre, o
la scne exige du texte des caractristiques spcifiques, le changement de langue et de
situation de reprsentation entrane frquemment des ruptures dquilibre, autant lintrieur
du texte quentre le texte et son nouvel environnement : le comdien, le public, etc. Dans
cette situation, le traducteur a le devoir de recrer lquilibre. Le recours aux notes de bas de
page est impossible et lexplicitation lintrieur du texte nest pas toujours permise, compte
tenu du rythme et de la concision du texte dramatique. Ainsi le traducteur est-il sans cesse
incit trouver des moyens pour rendre possible le jeu et la rception. Il est confront en
permanence prendre une dcision concernant lune multitude de questions (Faut-il adapter ?
Est-ce ncessaire ?, etc.). Nous croyons que son jugement est finalement fond sur la parfaite
comprhension de luvre originale, sur la matrise du langage dramatique, tant dans la
langue de dpart que dans la langue darrive, et sur la connaissance du public cible.
Faire la diffrence entre traduction et adaptation thtrale dpend des pices
(Kahane, 1999 : 139). Embrassant la vieille formule traduttore, traditore , certains
traducteurs ont refus de passer pour des tratres et ils ont dcid quils ntaient pas des
traducteurs, mais des adaptateurs. Ce changement dappellation ne se justifiait pas dans la
mesure o ils navaient fait quune traduction pure et simple et souvent platement
littrale (Ibidem). Mme sil y a des moments o il y a adaptation, cest--dire des
changements rendus ncessaires par le passage dune langue lautre, en soi, la diffrence
nest pas trs sensible sinon que a fait plus chic dtre adaptateur : on a limpression
dtre un peu plus crateur (Ibidem).
V.
En guise de conclusion
Lorsque nous parlons duvre dramatique, nous dsignons soit une ralit scnique,
soit un objet littraire. Le texte prdetermine la ralisation thtrale et constitue une uvre
littraire autonome, qui existe pleinement en absence de toute incarnation scnique
(Ducrot, 1995 : 612).
Il y a deux visions divergentes de luvre dramatique : lune qui appartient aux
textocentristes (qui se prononcent pour la primaut du texte) et lautre qui appartient aux
scenocentristes (qui donnent la primaut la reprsentation). Ces visions se centrent autour de
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la nature du langage utilis : verbal, nonverbal, paraverbal. Cest ici quon trouve
lexplication de la difficult de lnonciation thtrale. Considrs lments seconds, qui
servent la conversation et lchange verbal, les lments nonverbaux et paraverbaux se
greffent sur les lments verbaux pour crer plus de vivacit et deffet rel. Difficile tre
reprs, ces lments sont introduits dans le texte par les didascalies, mais ils trouvent toute
leur splendeur dans la rprsentation orale. La communication paraverbale (quon appelle
aussi kinsique ) se sert des signes dexpression faits par le corps en gnral (de mains, du
visage, etc.), qui peuvent tre exploits comme source de signification et gnrateurs de sens.
Dans la communication dite nonverbale (o lon rencontre le concept de kinsique des
mimiques ), nous trouvons un ensemble de gestes, postures et mouvements corporels, qui
aide comprendre le sens de luvre.
La traduction thtrale est un exercice la fois contraignant et cratif, qui appelle
rigueur, connaissance, imagination. Lanalyse des traductions des pices de notre corpus
(Ionesco, Beckett, Viniec), nous permet de dire quil existe mme un traducteur idal pour le
discours dramatique : cest celui qui a un rapport intime avec le thtre. Il est bien clair
aujourdhui que le contact troit avec le monde thtral permet au traducteur dacqurir une
profonde connaissance de la scne et que la collaboration avec des gens de thtre facilite le
travail du traducteur. Cette ide se retrouve aussi dans les interviews de Vlad Zografi : il parle
de lapport norme que Vlad Russo, qui a t comdien, a eu dans leur traduction de
lintgrale ionescienne.
Si nous pensons au modle interprtatif, nous pouvons dire quun traducteur littraire
peut, sans doute, traduire une uvre dramatique dans la mesure o la d-verbalisation (la mise
en jeu) sera base sur la pense intgrale du spectacle. Il sagit dune collaboration, voire une
sorte de complicit, avec le metteur en scne, qui converge mme avec le rapport temporel
entre la traduction et le public. Nous trouvons ici lexplication la demande du
renouvellement de traductions thtrales, car les versions qui existent ont t conues pour
une certaine gnration de spectateurs et ne conviennent plus prsent : lintrt, le got, les
critres de jugement changent et la langue volue. En mme temps, faute de nouvelles
traductions, nous pourrions trouver une explication au fait que des pices qui avaient du
succs dans le pass ne sont plus mises en scne aujourdhui. Cest le cas de la pice En
attendant Godot (pour ne donner quun exemple), qui nest que trs rarement retrouve sur la
liste de reprsentations des grands thtres de chez nous, et pour laquelle nous navons trouv
quune seule traduction (celle de Gellu Naum, datant de 1970).
Nous pensons, pour notre part, quau thtre, la posie et la science sidentifient, cest
quon y trouve une magie de vivre (Artaud, 1964 : 224), un monde charg de symboles.
On a mme parl dune ressemblance entre le thtre et lalchimie : cest que lalchimie
comme le thtre sont des arts pour ainsi dire virtuels (Idem : 71) et lopration thtrale
de faire de lor voque lesprit une puret absolue. Cest pour cela que le spectateur
continue daller au thtre.
Pour ce qui tient de la thorie de la traduction, elle doit caractriser le transfert de la
langue source la langue cible dans sa porte et dans ses limites (Cristea, 2000 : 193).
Malgr ses spcificits, la traduction des uvres dramatiques est de mme nature que toute
autre traduction. Certainement, elle nest pas ladaptation. Celle-ci signifie une opration qui
est la fois stratgique et globale, ayant comme but de crer une nouvelle pice. Pour cela,
ladaptation se base sur une uvre trangre ou mme sur dautres genres artistiques, tandis
que la traduction vise restituer une uvre trangre. Nous tenons dire que la traduction
joue un rle important dans lvolution dune langue et offre une ouverture vers le patrimoine
linguistique et culturel universel.
Toute traduction est marque par son temps, mais la traduction du discours dramatique
a besoin dtre actuelle, pour maintenir le lien vivant avec les comdiens et le public. tre
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proche du public signifie aussi le toucher, le faire rflchir, linfluencer, cest pourquoi la
traduction du discours dramatique est toujours refaire. Le thtre a toujours t, en mme
temps quun texte, un spectacle. Les plus jeunes auteurs ou metteurs en scne, cest tout un
(Picon, 1976 : 316), sont depuis tout le temps la recherche dune jonction entre le thtre
et la vie qui devrait abolir la sparation entre la scne et le public. Nous pourrions dire quon
y trouve la nostalgie pour un tat primitif, quand le thtre reprsentait une fte collective,
dionysiaque, le dsir mme dune libration totale, dun anantissement de lindividu au profit
dune commune extase.
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Pavis, Patrice, 1990, Le thtre au croisement des cultures, Paris, d. Jos Corti.
Picon, Gatan, 1976, Panorama de la nouvelle littrature franaise. Nouvelle dition
revue et corrige, Paris, Gallimard.
Recoing, loi, 2010, Potique de la traduction thtrale , in Traduire, revue
franaise de la traduction, No 222, Traduire pour le thtre , juin 2010, Paris, SFT.
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Regattin, Fabio, 2004, Thtre et traduction : un aperu du dbat thorique , in

LAnnuaire thtral : revue qubcoise dtudes thtrales, No 36 / 2004, Montral, SQET.
Ubersfeld, Anne, 1996, Lire le thtre I, Paris, ditions BELIN. .
Watson, Donald, 1999, Bon esprit, bon sens ou bons mots ? , in Palimpsestes, No
1, fvrier 1999, Traduire le dialogue. Traduire les textes de thtre , Presses Sorbonne
Nouvelle.
Zografi, Vlad, 2011, Je connais le prix de la libert , interview ralise par Zeina
Antonios loccasion de la XVIIIe dition du Salon du Livre Francophone de Beyrouth,
consulte le 14. 01. 2014, sur le site : www.icr.ro/files/items/8978_2_zografi.pdf.
Note : Cet article a t financ par le projet SOCERT. Socit de la connaissance,
dynamisme par la recherche , no du contrat POSDRU/159/1.5/S/132406, cofinanc par le
Fonds Social Europen, par le Programme Oprationnel Sectoriel pour le Dveloppement des
Ressources Humaines 2007-2013. Investir dans les Gens!
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KAFKA'S METAMORPHOSIS APPROACHED VIA AN INTERDISCIPLINARY

PERSPECTIVE
Clementina Alexandra MIHILESCU
Abstract: The paper expands upon Kafka's Metamorphosis as the extreme representation of
alienation neurosis caused by the arbitrary character of the infinite and by existential
absurdity (Chira, 183). From a methodological point of view, we will turn to good account
the concept of time's thermodynamical arrow which reveals the sense of time where
disorder or entropy increases (Hawking, 113). In order to properly approach the individual
disorder and the mental and spiritual dislocation of Kafka's character, Jung's psychoanalytical theory, Bachelard's aesthetics and Chira's interdisciplinary studies will be also
taken into account and closely observed in our analysis of the dramatic effects of the extreme
form of alienation described in Metamorphosis.
Keywords: metamorphosis, alienation, time's thermodynamic arrow, interdisciplinarity,
Franz Kafka.
The aim of the paper is to analyse the relation between anthropology and health in
Franz Kafka's Metamorphosis. For our approach to be properly constructed, a short
presentation of the author's biographical background is extremely relevant in this respect.
Franz Kafka was born in a Jewish family in Prague. The pragmatic paternal descent
intermingles with the bizarre and romantic maternal component giving birth to a complex and
highly controversial personality. Kafka took his doctor degree in judicial science which
offered him the possibility to be employed as jurist in an insurance agency. He was equally
interested in philosophy and literature. Kierkegaard, Heinrich von Kleich, Martin Buber,
Maimonides together with Pascal, Thomas Mann, Hesse, Flaubert, Strindberg, Dostoievski,
Cehov and Goethe, are the stellar personalities who have extensively and intensively
influenced him. He died of tuberculosis in 1924, at the age of 41, being buried in the new
graveyard from Prague.
Ever since 1908, he started contributing to Hyperion, the German review from
Mnchen, where he published eight texts from Contemplation. The fertile period of his
literary creation began in 1912 when he wrote The Verdict and Metamorphosis followed
by The Penitenciary Colony and The Process, the last being only posthumously
published. This background is extremely relevant because his characters are nothing else but
the author's alter egos (Chira, 58). The frequent use of the anagram derives precisely from
the identification of the author with his characters, claims Chira. As concerns the name of the
main character, Gregor Samsa, from Metamorphosis, the presence of the vowel u,
repeated twice in the same position as in Kafka, is a further proof of the author's identification
with his character (Chira, 58).
The body of analysis consists in the story itself. Simple as it is, it reveals a limiting
condition (Hawking, 104), because Gregor Samsa, after graduating the Faculty of Economic
Sciences and becoming a conscientious salesman, wakes up one morning changed into a
monstruous cockroach (5).
The methodology employed by us in order to find a reasonable entry to decoding this
unusual metamorphosis consists of Stephen Hawking's book entitled The Universal Theory
which offers interesting explanations regarding the increase of general and individual disorder
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and entropy. Hawking claims that the gradual increase of disorder is an example of time's
arrow (113). The same Hawking opines that the thermodynamic time arrow reflects the
pattern of time where disorder or entropy increases (112). It is precisely the thermodynamic
time arrow that will be turned to account in order to explain the character's dislocation from
the family and professional background, his absurd metamorphosis into a myriapod and his
profound alienation.
Chira opines that alienation always occurs in a familiar habitat when the individual
has plenty of time to face his selfhood (61). The familiar locus of his metamorphosis is his
little normal human room (89). The adjective human associated with the noun room
suggests the writer's profound anthropological concern. This room seems to have gathered
the universe within an object (Bachelard, 113). The adjective little, on the other hand,
makes us contemplate what Bachelard called the dimension of intimacy (115). This concept
is also extremely relevant in terms of the Jungian psycho-analytical theory focused on the
explanation of human vulnerability. Jung claims that alienation appears when the ego has got
out of the ego-self equation and experiences frustrated expectations symbolically rendered as:
fall, exile, an unhealed wound, a perpetual torture. In the case of Gregor Samsa, his torture
can be put in relation with the distorted relation between ego and self which has paradoxically
materialized itself in his transformation into a myriapod, the supreme form of alienation.
We cannot read this metamorphosis as a simple product of imagination (Bachelard,
115), but as some sort of alienation neurosis. Jung claims that alienation neurosis affects
people to such an extent that they lose their right to live as normal beings. The same Jung
states that when an individual surpasses the ordinary forms of anxiety, depression, suicidal
impulses, he might reach the phase of living the self in projection (12), projection which, in
Kafkas case, turns into reality. The maximum alienation occurs when the individual
identifies himself with his representation projection and lives it in an authentic manner.
As concerns the causes which might generate the alienation neurosis, Chira claims
that it is to be found in the unusual Kafkaian background which is strange, absurd,
deterministic generating perpetual torture (63). We identify all these Kafkaian features in
the first person narrative. It best renders the limiting condition characteristic for the main
characters life.
His damnation is also caused by his own spiritual chemistry (Chira, 63). His
perceiving himself in a state of social alienation occurs when he assumes his exhausting
profession: on the road, day in, day out and theres the additional ordeal of travelling,
worries about train connections, the irregular bad meals, new people all the time, no
continuity, no affection (88).
This sort of repression resembles what Bachelard called the unskillful dynamism,
because Metamorphosis does not reproduce life, it denies it, opposing a delusion which
pretends to replace it (50)
The delusion experienced by Gregor Samsa is related to the dimension of intimacy
(61) which is usually infinite. In the case of Kafkas character, through his transformation into
a myriapod, the dimension of intimacy becomes finite. And yet, it is experienced so
intensively that he confronts himself with inverted reflexes.
Joe Bousquet, quoted by Bachelard, states that Any intimacy hides itself Nobody
can see me while I am changing / I change myself. But who could see me? I am my own
hiding place. His inverted reflexes can be interpreted both from a medical and
anthropological perspective as the superlative of secretiveness (Bachelard, 153). And yet,
Gregor Samsa moves in the opposite direction, in the sense that he wants his transformation to
be noticed and understood by the others.
Getting back to self-deception, to delusion, Kafkas character still hopes that he might
recover, catch the train, and, through a terrible effort, return to the former life pattern. His
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delusion is related to his wish to help his parents pay back their debt to the one who actually
employed him as salesman. This assumed duty generates a triple stress: for Gregor, for his
family and even for his employee. The employee sends the chief clerk to investigate
Gregors delinquency (94) of having lost the early morning train. His metamorphosis is
totally alien to Gregor. He makes desperate efforts to get up; he understands his parents
discomfort. He gets scared when he hears his voice an impressible squeaking that left the
words only briefly recognizable at the first instant of their sounding (90). The semiotics of
sound plays an important part in this story. Every member of the family addresses him in a
more or less insistent manner. His mother's voice is mild (30), while his father's sounds
aggressive and impatient.
As concerns his physical condition he is anxious to see how the hallucinations (10)
will come to an end. He feels pains all over the body, the incapacity to coordinate his
movements. He interprets the change of his voice as the expression of a severe cold the
professional disease of salesman (92).
The incertitude of the members of his family regarding his present condition makes
him excuse them for their insistent behaviour. However, he cannot excuse the chief clerk who
keeps accusing him that he worries his parents and neglects his professional duties.
The moment of complete objectivity, perfectly postponed by Kafka, is assured by the
polarity voice-appearance. The distinctive signs of this polarity are extremely profound ones,
opening two distinctive axes. Kafka opposes the rationality of the family members, of the
chief clerk, to the irrationality of the character. Being all rational people, they are prepared to
admonish him. The irrational erupts when they hear his voice it was an animal's squeaking
(110), claims the chief clerk, while mother and sister start screaming.
The readers become familiar with his appearance as early as the first page his brown
belly sectioned off by little crescent -shaped ridges into segments. His numerous legs,
pathetically frail by contrast to the rest of him (87).
Later, on page 99, we learn that his little legs secreted some sort of sticky substance
and that he got strong mandible. They are all scared when he gets out of the room. Mother
faints, father looks first aggressive, but then he starts crying. The chief clerk leaves in a hurry,
before his father hits Samsa with a stick, making him return to his room.
From a phenomenological perspective, Bachelard claims that the phenomenologist has
to reach the extreme limit of images (51). Bachelard continues and says that the
phenomenologist, instead of explaining, reducing, comparing, will exaggerate and will refresh
the primitiveness and peculiarity of fears, of extreme situations (51).
To a certain extent, Kafka is concerned with demonstrating the primitiveness of his
character in order to turn to account a centre of loneliness (Bachelard, 160) concentrated
within an obscure room. The true value of such experiments arises from the intensity of the
experience rendered through the verb to metamorphose, in Kafka's case.
The primitive nature of Gregor Samsa derives from his way of moving on his little
hairy legs which are secreting a sticky substance, from his way of being fed in a bowl, from
his withdrawing under the bed whenever his sister Greta enters the room.
His primitiveness lived in simple images can be put in relation with the concept of
sound symbolism. Bachelard turns to account one of the theorems regarding the imaginary
character of light, saying that Whatever shines, sees (69). Paraphrasing this quotation we
might say that Whatever hears, feels. Consequently, alone in his room, Gregor Samsa hears
about the precarious financial condition of his family, now that he is no longer able to support
them.
Under the circumstances, only Greta, his sister, continues to be closely attached to
him. Samsa's plan is to send her to the Academy of Music and to financially support her. He
wants to inform his family about his intention on Christmas Eve. No matter how strong his
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desire to protect his family is, he senses their hostility. Even his sister can hardly prevent
herself from showing out her disgust whenever she enters his room. Besides family hostility
and repudiation, he also senses the hostility coming from the new tenants and the
chairwoman.
Dirty, wounded, abandoned, weak, Samsa becomes the simple emblematic image for a
particular spiritual condition. Another revelatory image is that of his sister playing the violin.
Samsa tries to establish a certain spiritual community with his sister when he hears her
playing the violin. Moreover, he intends to draw her attention upon his being present and to
suggest her to join him to his room because no one appreciates her as much as he does. He
also intends to talk to her about his intention to send her to the Academy of Music. He is
suddenly noticed by the tenants and everybody is contaminated by fear and disgust. Even his
sister refers to him as the animal that hounds up, drives away the tenants, evidently wants
to take over the whole flat, and throws us out on to the street. She vehemently concludes we
must try and get rid of it (138). Back to his room, he notices pains all over his body and
makes the discovery that he can no longer move. He is convinced that he needs to disappear.
He is overwhelmed by devotion and love for his family. The last thing he saw was the sky
gradually lightening outside his window. Then his head involuntarily dropped, and his final
breath passed feebly from his nostrils (141)
This last image impresses through the double transcendence of what can be seen and
of what can be heard. Paraphrasing Loys Massons Icarus or the Traveller which says I
heard him / closing his eyes and opening them, we may come across I heard him closing his
eyes and feebly passing away. Such paraphrasing places the story under the sign of the verb
to hear. This last image, the most fragile and insubstantial reveals profound vibrations.
In terms of conclusions and results, our approach has been intended to move beyond
the surface of things, to become familiar with sounds, images and to grant them a
psychological charge. The paradoxical metaphor of transforming the character into a
myriapod has been intended to reveal a peculiar psychological reality. Such metamorphosis
helps us become aware of the most fragile aspects of life. When the story ends, it actually
rises again in our consciousness.
The story entitled Metamorphosis can be ultimately interpreted as a
phenomenological document. It is the phenomenology of the verb not to be able to get out of
the condition of non-being and return to the condition of human being (243). Bachelard also
states that for someone to truly experience an image, one has to become familiar with the
becoming of the human being, who represents a new image in terms of its non-being (243).
Jung claims that under some terrible stress, peoples life transforms itself,
metamorphoses. No matter how exaggerated the image of Samsa metamorphosed into a
myriapod might appear, through this extreme state of mental deviation, of alienation, Kafka
has positioned himself on what Bachelard called the axis of an autonomous imagination
(18). Samsas partial primitiveness which still allows him to think, to feel, to have temporal
explosions (167) of his being, to desperately attempt to interrelate with his family, is
symptomatic.
Chira claims that Samsas loneliness, his anxiety, his monstrous metamorphosis, is
closely related to the arbitral character of the infinite and of the existential absurdity. Such
features contaminate the relation between anthropology and health and the effects of this
contamination have led to an exaggerated situation. They have been employed in order to
describe the suffering of a character, even if they have been dictated by an imaginary
anatomy (Bachelard, 252).
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bachelard, Gaston. Dreptul de a visa. Editura Univers, Bucureti, 2009
Chira, Vasile, Studii de pluri-, inter- i transdisciplinaritate, Editura Universitii
Lucian Blaga, Sibiu, 2012
Jung, Carl Gustav. Memories, Dreams, Reflections (ED. Anelia Jaffe, Richard and
Clara Winston, Trans.). London: Flamingo, 1983
Kafka, Franz. The Metamorphosis and Other Stories (Barnes and Noble Classics
Series), New York, 2003,
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LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS IN A COMPARATIVE CLASSIFICATION OF INTERJECTIONS.

POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO THEIR TRANSLATION
Olivia-Cristina RUSU
Abstract: The functions of linguistic units labelled as interjections are both to express
affection, to share emotive or will emphasis between the participants at the conversation,
and/or to monitor and organize the discourse. Folding traditional interjection classifications
on language functions, this paper proposes a taxonomy that tries to maintain both idiomatic
shades offered by Romanian grammars and discursive, spoken-performance features
emphasized by English grammars classifications. The most important characteristic that
makes a word an interjection is considered its inner referential source, the fact that through
an interjection the speaker transmits something of the idiomatic inner self. Due to
phonological resemblance, to frequent pragmatic gains of expressivity, the open-class of
onomatopoeia is also included within the area of research of this paper, together with those
discourse markers that are not conventionalized, with an inner referential source. This
classification proves useful in conveying as precisely as possible the overall message of an
utterance in translations.
Keywords: interjection, comparative classification, language functions, translation,
childrens literature
1. Introduction
The more the context contributes to the communicative force of an utterance, the less
need there is for the utterance to be grammatically explicit. In view of that, directives and
exclamations are to be considered from a pragmatic point of view rather than from a
grammatical one, as their particularities are strongly related to their pragmatic roles as
utterances which relate specifically to the hearer's and the speaker's participation in the act of
communication: a directive is 'hearer oriented', whereas an exclamation is 'speaker-oriented'
(Quirk, 1985:88). LGSWE resumes the same idea of minimal grammaticality of utterances
that do not affect the propositional meaning of a clause, having purely pragmatic - particularly
illocutionary - functions (1999:140, 1069-82). Romanian standard grammar, GALR I 2005,
concurs to this opinion, stating that the understanding of meaning and of referential sources of
interjections (non-conceptualised elements without a logical semantic configuration) implies a
description of their contextual uses and values.
Nonetheless, on the one hand, for the meaning to be fully articulated, the interaction
between all linguistic levels of the communication needs to be considered, as there are
numerous interconnections between linguistic elements on the semantic and discourse levels.
On the other hand, the literature seems to be clear on the fact that in terms of classification,
the boundaries between these pragmatic categories are fluid in conversation, and most of
these words prove discursive multi-functionality.
2. Contextual values : communicative functions of interjections
Interjections have been described by English and Romanian traditional standard
grammars in terms of the emotion they expressed and of their imperative force. However,
establishing the semantic meaning of interjections all by itself proves to be insufficient. For
these reasons, but still on a semantic basis of classification, interjections should be
differentiated according to the language functions they perform (Ameka, 1992: 259). In the
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same line of thought, Croitor Balaciu differentiates between the referential sources of the
interjections (GALR I 2005:657). Thus, referential sources may be internal to the speaker for
the following types of interjections: expressive, conative, phatic and metalinguistic, and
exterior to the speaker, for onomatopoeia and informative interjections. Consequently,
considering Jakobson's taxonomy of language functions, and the specificity of verbal
communication acts described by interjections, this paper proposes the following holistic
classification, for both English and Romanian:
2.1.
Referential interjections that relate to the communication factor context and
describe a situation, object or mental state. These include onomatopoeia and
informative interjections.
With a referential source external to the speaker, and seldom internal, onomatopoeia
are sounds imitating noises produced by animals, birds, insects, sounds produced by the
contact between objects, tools or movements, sounds that accompany various physiological
processes, or sound effects of different actions. English grammars and dictionaries seem to
include onomatopoetic words within the categories of nouns and verbs. For example, in
CCAD (2009:206) for the word boom there are six detailed entries that treat it either as a
countable noun, or as a verb. As for the case of atishoo, no word class is mentioned: / tiu: /
Atishoo is used, especially in writing, to represent the sound that you make when you sneeze
(ib.:85, bold as in original). Romanian grammars are more detailed concerning onomatopoeias
and usually place their description after the account on all other types of interjections. The
classification here is made according to the referential source and is linked to the [+ / animate] and [+ / - human] characteristics:
i. The class [+animate], [+ human] includes onomatopoeic words
which mimic physiological sounds, as in:
(1) Dont be frightened, Teddy, said his father. Thats his
way of making friends.
Ouch! Hes tickling under my chin, said Teddy. (Kipling)
(2) Iar Setil, dnd fundurile afar la cte o bute, horp! i-o
sugea dintr-o singur sorbitur () (Creang)
ii. The class [+animate], [- human] includes onomatopoeic words which
mimic sounds of animals, birds or insects, as in:
(1) () and the moon shone into the mouth of the cave where they all lived. Augrh!
said Father Wolf. It is time to hunt again. (Kipling)
(2) i numai ce-o auzeai vara: Pu-pu-pup! Pu-pu-pup! dis-diminea, n toate zilele,
de vuia satul. (Creang). Pu-pu-pp and its variant pu-pp is a sound imitating the
song of a hoopoe.
iii. The class [+ / -animate] includes onomatopoeic words which mimic
noises from nature or environment, sounds produced by the contact
between varied objects, or sounds effects of some action, as in:
(1) And still holding her hands he drew her right out of the street, away from the
iron railings and the lamp-posts, into the very middle of the picture. Pff! There
they were, right inside it! (Travers)
(2) btea pmntul, sau peretele, sau vrun lemn, de care m pleam la cap, la mn
sau la picior, zicnd: Na, na!, i ndat-mi trecea durerea. (Creang).
(3) "Na! satur-te de ciree!" (Creang)
(4) i, na! printele Duhu i Teofan i-au prpdit papucii, fugind mai mult pe brnci
dect n picioare; chiar dup tipic! (Creang)
Na, from the familiar register and with a verbal value, means to offer / take
something, equivalent to Poftim! ia! ine!, as in (3); if repeated, na-na accompanies the
gesture of a hit, a scrap, usual in child language, with a nominal value, as in (2). The same
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meaning appears in (3), but with a violent connotation. Na can also express an exclamation
that implies annoyance, surprise, deception, or marks the lack of agreement with the words of
someone, as in (4). Na can also suggest a cheerful shout in games or (folk) songs.
2.2.
Informative interjections
Described as referential due to their informative value that lacks emotional content,
informative interjections are used in precise situations, therefore they are rather few in
number (GALR I). For instance, some international examples that belong to religious LSP
comprise the international words amen / amin, alleluia / alleluia, and hosanna / osana. These
items used to have strong affective religious connotations, but in time only their informative
value was kept.
(1) "Amin, bletesc eu cu jumtate de gur." (Creang)
The interjections aleluia and amin are used in religious texts or practices of the
Christian Church as fixed formulas. Amin concludes prayers, meaning true!, So be it!. In a
familiar register amin means farewell! it's over.
2.1. Expressive / emotive interjections orient the message towards the listener and convey
some inner (positive or negative) emotion of the speaker. These items can also function
as discourse markers. Theoretically, all emotional reactions can be externalized using
interjections. According to their emotional meaning, they can be divided into: 1.
Interjections with one meaning; 2. Interjections with at least two meanings; 3.
Ambiguous interjections; 4. Interjections with multiple meanings impossible to decode
outside an explanatory context. For instance:
He and hei used repeatedly in Romanian are exclamations which give the impression
that things are more complicated than they seem or than someone thinks, as in:
(1)
"- He, he! s fie sntos dumnealui, om bun; d-apoi chiteti dumneata c nu ne
cunoatem noi cu tefan a Petrei? zise moneagul; (Creang)
The same is expressed in English by means of ha!:
(2)
Ha! said Mr Banks, drawing in his head very quickly. Admirals telescope
says East Wind. I thought as much. (Travers)
There is a multitude of feelings conveyed by interjections, but a detailed consideration
of all exceeds the purpose of this paper. Examples, therefore, will include only expressions of
pain, regret and threat, as in:
(1)
() Baloo, gravely shaking one leg after the other. Wow! I am sore. Kaa, we
owe thee, I think, our livesBagheera and I. (Kipling)
(2)
He knew he could never be a real human again, and scarcely wanted to be one,
but oh! how he longed to play as other children play, and of course there is no such lovely
place to play in as the Gardens. (Barrie)
(3)
"ns vai de omul care se ia pe gnduri!" (Creang)
(4)
"Vai! osndi-v-ar Dumnezeu s v osndeasc, soiuri ticloase ce suntei!"
(Creang)
The Romanian interjection vai outwards intense feelings, such as: a) pain, depression,
despair, as in (3) and (4); b) sympathy, pity, regret, grief and vexation, as in (3); c) joy,
pleasure, admiration, enthusiasm; d) impatience; e) surprise. The phrase (ca) vai de (lume)
suggests a very bad condition, as in (3).
2.2. Conative interjections (alternatively called imperative interjections) focus on the
addressee (receiver) directly and share several features common to the imperative and
vocative. It is possible for them to appear isolated in the phrase. They are spoken with a
special intonation, and used to address someone, either asking him to perform
something (injunctive interjections), or simply to address a call (appellative
interjections).
2.3.1. Injunctive
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Different categories of orders or incentives, from orders to offers and requests are
expressed or intensified by means of injunctive interjections. These may be addressed to
different categories of [+/- human] receptors. Often these interjections can play both
emotional and volitional mental states, for example the Romanian bre! can express both
surprise and appeal, and the Romanian nani! conveys both an affectionate incentive and a
tender caressing. These interjections may express desire or will, i.e. a command: Behold!
Never mind! Now then! Sh!, an incentive: Come on! Wo! Gee!, or a request: oh! Sh ! hush !
tsst ! (GALR I, 1966:426, Gheorgioiu, 2011:128). Nonetheless this is inconclusive as often
mere voice tonality shifts a usual enjoyable request into a harsh order. Therefore, in this paper
the general term used will be incentives. Incentives are also grouped according to whether
they are used to a) start an action, e.g. (1), (2); b) stop an action, e.g. (3), (4); c) address [humans] [+ animated] in order to express calls, urges, casts away or out, e.g. (5), (6):
(1) Gata suntei? Haidem! c eu v atept cu caii nhmai. (Creang)
(2) Ne ntovrim cu dnii, de frica lieilor din Ruginoasa, i hai-hai, hai-hai, pn-n
ziu, iac-t-ne n Trgul-Frumos, (). (Creang)
Haide - and its variant hai - is a Romanian word that expresses an urge to action, as in
(1). With an imperative function, it corresponds to movement verbs: Vino! Venii! (Come!).
Used repeatedly, with the stress on the second element, it conveys the idea of a slow,
cumbersome movement, as in (2). With a particular intonation, it may also convey regret,
admiration.
(3) Hush! said Jane, as Mary Poppins took out a large bottle labelled One Teaspoon to
be Taken at Bedtime. (Travers)
(4) - Ho, m! ce v este? zise Zaharia srind ca un vultur ntre dnii." (Creang)
Hush resumes an English request for silence, while ho is a Romanian shout used to
stop cattle and horses; used for [+human], hush means enough, stop!. In the following
example, the Romanian hi is a shout that urges horsed to move, and shoo denotes a cast away
in English.
(5) Hi, cluii tatei, s ne ntoarcem ct mai degrab acas! (Creang).
(6) That dreadful dog! said Miss Lark, looking at Andrews companion. Shoo! Shoo!
Go home! she cried.(Travers)
2.3.2. Appellative interjections (+ / - emotive) express an appeal, a call. Items referred to as
attention signals or attention seekers in standard English grammars are included here.
Appellatives can be divided according to their [+ / - human] characteristics.
(1) Hey! called Mary Poppins softly. (Travers)
(2) Nu, bre, rspunse Zaharia i mai ncet; i, Doamne, ce bine-ar fi s trntim una lui
Mogorogea! (Creang)
English hey! and Romanian bre belong to the familiar register and are used to address
someone in order to draw his attention. These words establish a relation of informal equality
between speakers.
2.3. Phatic interjections are associated with the contact factor, with opening, maintaining,
verifying or closing the communication channel between utterer and auditor. GALR I
2005 mentions that interjections with phatic value show the speakers emotional
involvement and are few in number: alo, aha, h; mmm, Doamne!, ei. Therefore, all
categories of discursive markers - politeness markers, response forms, response elicitors,
euphonic fillers, ostensive markers - that fulfil these functions are included within the
class of phatic interjections.
2.4.1. Politeness markers
Expressions used as forms of politeness are mainly borrowings or loans and refer to
greetings and farewells, thanks, apologies, congratulations. In this paper only the most
familiar and non-conventional ones are considered interjections. Although standard courtesy
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formula are close to secondary interjections, they are not involuntary speech acts and most
importantly their referential source is external to the speaker, therefore, it does not include
the interjectional inner component. Interjections used as politeness markers have different
degrees of familiarity and can be divided into: greetings, as in (2), farewells, as in (1);
thanking formula; apologizing, offering formula, congratulations, wishes, etc.
(1) He darted up to the windowpane, brushed down his breast feathers with his
beak and then, Cheerio! he said perkily, and spread his wings and was gone.
. . (Travers)
(2) Muni diminea, mo Nichifor! (Creang)
(3) "Gtit, cinstite printe; poftim de ne blagoslovii casa i masa i poftim de mai
edei." (Creang)
Cheerios are used in English for greeting or parting. The Romanian poftim is a
politeness formula used to: a) offer something to somebody, similar to ia, na (take); b) invite
somebody action; c) preceded by the interjection ei, poftim expresses indignation, resentment,
criticism, dissatisfaction, distress, revolt.
2.4.2. Interjectional response forms are used as short responses to a previous remark made
by a different speaker. These consist of affirmative and negative responses familiar
variants of yes and no, as in (1) -, and backchannels or cognitive interjections, as in
(2), 3), (4) that offer feedback to the speaker that his message has been understood
and accepted. By means of backchannels the speaker attests his knowledge of what
has been previously said, as in (3).
(1) Where was I? Oh, yep. (Travers)
(2) am s-l cinstesc, zu aa, cnd l-oi ntlni; c ezi lipc unde te duci i scoi
sufletul din om cu obrzniciile tale, uernic ce eti! (Creang)
Sometimes accompanied by aa, zu strengthens an affirmation or negation.
(3) Oh! But I didnt see you in the picture, said Mary Poppins.
Ah, I was behind the tree, explained the Waiter.
(4) Ei, ei! ce-i de fcut, Ioane? (Creang)
The Romanian interjection ei introduces, accompanies, backchannels the utterance, as
in (4).
2.4.3. Generalized question tags, response elicitors have a speaker-centred role, seeking
not a proper answer, but rather a signal that the message has been understood and
accepted. Accordingly, normally they do not seek for a verbal response from the
speaker (LGSWE: 1089).
(1) I call this really friendly of you bless my soul, I do! To come up to me since I
couldnt come down to you eh? (Travers)
(2) Why dont we go there right now this very day? Both together, into the picture.
Eh, Mary? (Travers)
The Romanian Ei can also express a question, asking for an opinion, eliciting a
response, as in:
(3) Ei, apoi?! tiutu-v-am eu c i voi mi-ai fost de-acetia? zise mo Luca, mergnd pe
lng cai, plin de nduh; nu m facei, c ia acu v ard cteva jordii prin olul cela, de
v-a trece spurcatul! (Creang)
(4) Ei, amu, ce-i de fcut? Hai s intrm ici, n ograda asta (Creang)
2.4.4. Euphonic fillers alternatively called hesitators - refer to a period of silence in
which the speaker seems to plan what to say next, indicating hesitation. Pauses can be
silent or filled. Filled pauses consist of a chain of vowel sounds [+/- nasalisation] with
idiomatic transcription in both English and Romanian.
(1) Very well, then. We wont bother about them. I only asked, of course, in case you
er required it. The nursery is upstairs (Travers)
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2.4.5. Ostensive interjections

This category, also called presentative or prefatory expressions, appear in deictic or
discursive contexts, and draw attention of a person over a thing or over a fact, orienting thus
the listener towards the utterance. Deictic ostensive interjections are utterance launchers that
present objects or situations from the situational context.
(1) Well, thats all settled, then. A sigh of relief came from the childrens Mother.
(Travers)
(2) "Iaca de ce nu: drgli Doamne, eram i eu acum holtei, din pcate! Mort-copt,
trebui s fac pe cheful mamei, s plec fr voin i s las ce-mi era drag!"
(Creang)
By using Uite, Io(i)te, and Ia and its variants Ian, Iat! Iaca, Iac a speaker draws the
listeners attention on a directive addressed to him. Ia also introduces an answer or shows
indifference to what follows.
Discursive ostensive interjections introduce a fragment of an utterance. Included in
standard English grammars among other discourse / pragmatic markers, these elements are
also called prefaces, utterance launchers and / or hedges, and consist of more than one
orthographic word. Usually these are similar in form to comment clauses (LGSWE: 1073-5,
my bold, my italics). These expressions might as well be qualified as verbal tics. One-word
expressions include well, now, look, listen, oh for English, and ai, a, d, de, deh, ei, hm, iat,
h, n, pi, uite, zu for Romanian. Multi-word expressions comprise I mean, look (here),
mind (you), see, you know, you see for English, and zu aa, ei a, ei na, for Romanian.
(1) But if it were me I mean I well, I should get somebody to put in the Morning
Paper the news. (Travers)
(2) Apoi dar, d! cu bine s dea Dumnezeu, jupne Strul! (Creang)
(3) Ei, biei, de-acum linitii-v! (Creang)
2.4. The poetic function considers the message, the code itself, and how it is used. Although
it has been stated that interjections can make explicit any of the linguistic functions
defined by Jakobson, except for the poetic function (Cuenca, 2000:29), it is considered
in this paper that euphonic refrains are examples of language that focus on the message
for its own sake. Similar to fillers, the meaning of poetic interjections is highly
attenuated or inexistent (GALR I 1966:426). Usually used in songs, these are fixed
formulas by means of which joy is expressed and attention attracted. In Romanian poetic
interjections usually appear in carols: ler de mr or in folk songs. In English, these
tend to appear in nonsense poetry, nursery rhymes included.
(1) Isnt it funny / How a bear likes honey? Buzz! Buzz! Buzz! / I wonder why he
does? (Milne)
(1) Ur tu, mi Chiriece, zic eu lui Goian; i noi, mi Zaharie, s pufnim din gur ca
buhaiul; iar itialali s strige: hi, hi! i-odat i ncepem. (Creang)
2.5. Metalinguistic interjections are oriented towards the code of the language. For
example, Romanian onomatopoeias such as tura-vura (to chatter), treanca-fleanca (to
prate), tronca-tronca (to tattle), suggest chit-chatting, useless talk, acquiring therefore
a metalinguistic function (GALR 1 2005:671). Similarly, the English blah-blah, lexical
equivalent to the Romanian bla-bla-bla, is both an actual interjection and an
onomatopoeia. Cuenca includes within metalinguistic interjections discourse markers
such as right, huh, eh, etc., which sometimes can also have a conative or a phatic
component (2000:38).
(1) Of course Peter should have kept quiet, but of course he
did not. He immediately answered in Hook's voice: Odds,
bobs, hammer and tongs, I hear you. (Barrie)
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(2) De inima cruei atrnau pcornia cu feletiocul i

posteuca, care se izbeau una de alta, cnd mergea crua, i
fceau: tronca, tranca! tronca, tranca! (Creang)
Of course, odds, bobs, hammer and tongs is an unusual expletive of surprise, usually
used in Barrie by a pirate character. Ironically paraphrased by the pirates most fearful enemy,
the phrase acquires here a metalinguistic function. The Romanian example fulfils a
metalinguistic function regardless of its characteristics [-animate] and [-human].
3.
Conclusions and preliminary considerations to the translation of interjections
The attempt of a comparative classifications of interjections according to language
functions that they perform emphasises semantic instability, peripheral syntax and protean
pragmatics of interjections, in both English and Romanian. The following translation
examples try to illustrate the importance of a correct lexical understanding and of an accurate
contextual integration in transferring functional meaning in childrens literature. It is obvious
that the same semantic reference, either exterior or interior to the speaker, is to be conveyed
for all classes of interjections in translation. Therefore, in most cases, a lexical literal
translation seems optimal, as in:
(1) Winnie-the-Pooh hadn't thought about this. If he let go of the string, he would fallbump-and he didn't like the idea of that. (Milne)
Ursuleul Winnie nu se gndise la asta. Dac ar fi dat drumul sforii, ar fi czut buf
i aceast perspectiv nu-l ncnta. (Milne, translation in Romanian)
In this case direct word correspondence prevails, as bump and buf belong, indeed, to
the same class of referential interjections (more specifically, onomatopoeia) in both English
and Romanian.
However, of various reasons, it is also possible for the translator to use in the
transferring process an interjection with a different meaning, and from a different class of
interjections, as in:
(2) (), and one bee sat down on the nose of the cloud for a moment, and then got up
again.
Christopher - ow! Robin, called out the cloud. (Milne)
O albin s-a aezat pe nasul norului o clip, dup care s-a ridicat din nou.
- Christopher hei! Robin, a strigat norul. (Milne, translation in Ro.:30)
If it were to consider the meaning of the interjection ow, CCAD (2009:1119) resumes
that it is usually used in response to sudden or intense pain. The ST suggests, indeed, an inner
negative emotion by means of the affective interjection, ow. The Romanian appellative hei!
primarily directs towards the receptor, aiming at drawing somebodys attention on something.
Changing in translation the emotive ow into an appellative interjection hei! - is not a case of
transposition, and the translation loses part of the intensity of Pooh the clouds fear that of
being stung by a bee. Classifying interjections according to the language functions they
perform turns therefore to be promising in capturing the overall message of an utterance.
References:
Primary sources:
Barrie, J. M. (1906) Peter Pan in Kensington Gardens. London: Hodder & Stoughton;
Barrie, J. M. (2005) Peter Pan n grdina Kensington. Translation by de Nina
Stnculescu. Bucureti: Rao;
Creang, I. (1978) Childhood Memories from Memories of My Boyhood, Stories and
Tales. Translated by Ana Cartianu and R.C. Johnston, Bucharest: Minerva Publishing House,
[online] http://www.tkinter.smig.net/romania/Creanga/index.htm;
Creang, I. (1989) Poveti, amintiri, povestiri. Bucureti: Cartea Romneasc;
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Kipling, R. ([1894], 2012) The Jungle Book. Free eBooks at Planet eBook.com,
http://www.planetebook.com/;
Kipling, R. (2007) Cartea Junglei. Bucureti: Editura Universitar;
Milne, A. Al. (1926) Winnie-the-Pooh, London: Methuen & Co. Ltd.;
Milne, A. Al. (2013) Ursuleul Winnie Puh. Translation by din limba englez de Luiza
Vasiliu, versuri de Florin Bican. Bucureti: Arthur;
Travers, P.L. (1994) Mary Poppins. The complete collection. London: Harper Collins
Childrens Books;
Travers, P.L. (1994) Mary Poppins. Romanian version by Silvia Kerim. Bucureti:
Editura Ion Creang;
Secondary sources:
Ameka, F. (ed.) (1992a) The meaning of phatic and conative interjections. Journal of
Pragmatics (Special issue on Interjection), 18, 2-3, p. 245-271;
Biber, D. et al. (1999) Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English. London:
Pearson, pp. 56, 93, 140, 1071-1074, 1082-5, 1104, 1046-1048, 1071, 1097, abbreviated as
LGSWE;
Collins COBUILD Advanced Dictionary (2009) 6th edition, Glasgow and Boston:
HarperCollins and Heinle Cengage, abbreviated as CCAD;
Contra E. (1966) Interjecia". In: Gramatica limbii romne, I. Bucureti: Ed.
Academiei RSR, pp. 421-429, abbreviated as GALR I 1966;
Croitor Balaciu, B. (2005) Interjecia". In: Gramatica limbii romne, I, Cuvntul.
Academia Romn, Institutul de Lingvistic Iorgu Iordan Al. Rosetti, Bucureti: Editura
Academiei Romne, pp. 657-687, abbreviated as GALR I 2005;
Cuenca, M.J. (2000) Defining the Indefinable? Interjections in Syntaxis 3, pp. 29-44,
www2.uhu.es/syntaxis
[online],
http://rabida.uhu.es/dspace/bitstream/handle/10272/3204/b15127369.pdf?sequence=1;
Gheorghioiu, A. ([1962] 2011) Interjecia. In Sndulescu (ed.) (2011) Gramatica
limbii engleze - Adverbul. Prepoziia. Conjuncia. Interjecia. Afixaia. Vol. 7, Bucureti:
Editura pentru Literatur Contemporan, pp. 123-129 ;
Quirk, R. et al. (1985) A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London
and New York: Longman, pp. 67, 73-4, 87, 441, 853, 1115, 1414, 1434
Acknowledgments: This work was supported by the strategic grant
POSDRU/159/1.5/S/133652, cofinanced by the European Social Fund within the Sectorial
Operational Program Human Resources Development 2007-2013.
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NERVALS VISIONARISM. AURELIA

KOZAK Larisa
Transilvania University of Braov
Abstract: Gerard de Nervals whole work, and especially Aurelia, is the result of two forces,
the unconscious and conscious, but the manifestation space, too, for two types of imaginary:
mythic and mystic. The entire text of the part intitled Aurelia is a repetead pass from dream to
reality and reverse. The dream, the visions have an important role in the epic threads
economy and in the initial path, on which the nervelian hero goes over. The nervelian
visionary is remarked through the narrative techniques used, and this is the automatic
dictation method specific to surrealism, which Nerval anticipates.
Keywords: visionarism, mythic, mystic, dream, reality
Lucra mergnd i, din timp n timp, se oprea brusc, cutnd n buzunarele lui adnci
vreun carneel cu foile cusute; nota n el vreun gnd, vreo fraz, vreun cuvnt, vreun rapel,
vreun semn numai de el neles, nchidea caietul i i relua drumul cu un i mai mare elan.
Era felul lui de a compune.1 Acest citat este ilustrativ pentru metoda de creaie a lui Grard
de Nerval, aceea a dicteului automat specific suprarealismului, curent pe care Nerval l
anticipeaz prin faptul c, aa cum reiese din citatul de mai sus, el nota orice gnd i trecea
prin minte. Se difereniaz ns de cei care vor fi adepii lui Andr Breton prin faptul c
noteaz doar ideile care i se par importante (vreun semn numai de el neles), astfel nct
demersul su rmne unul raional.
Thophile Gautier face o mrturisire din care reiese foarte bine faptul c Nerval era un
spirit vizionar n adevratul sens al cuvntului, cci, pe lng latura raional a demersului su
creator, el era caracterizat i de latura oniric, iraional: Uneori l vedeam n colul vreunei
strzi cu plria n mn, czut ntr-un fel de extaz, absent la cele ce-l nconjurau, cu ochii
nstelai de luciri albastre, [] suind spiralele vreunui Babel interior. Cnd l ntlneam
absorbit astfel, ne feream s-i vorbim dintr-o dat, de team s nu-l facem s cad din naltul
visului su ().2 Acelai lucru l remarc i Irina Bdescu, n Prefaa sa la Fiicele focului,
atunci cnd afirm c autoironia merge pn la dedublarea, adnc dramatic, din Aurelia, de
exemplu, unde luciditatea asist la pantomima nebuniei.3
Faptul c ntreaga oper a lui Nerval, i mai ales Aurelia, este rezultatul a dou fore,
incontientul i contientul, dar i spaiul de manifestare pentru dou tipuri de imaginar, mitic
i mistic a fost observat i de Gaston Bachelard care afirma: Grard de Nerval, n Aurelia, a
tradus aceast voin intim de a fi modelat prin echilibrul dintre un impuls luntric i
aciunea modelatorului.4
ntregul text al prii intitulate Aurelia este o trecere repetat de la vis la realitate i
invers. Visul, viziunile au un rol foarte important n economia firului epic i n traseul iniiatic
pe care l parcurge eroul nervalian. Importana visului reiese nc de la nceputul acestei pri,
cnd personajul afirm: VISUL este o a doua via. N-am putut, fr nfiorare, s strpung
acele pori de filde ori de os ce ne despart de lumea nevzut. Primele momente ale somnului
sunt imaginea morii; o amoreal neguroas ne cuprinde mintea i nu putem stabili clipa
Thophile Gautier, Istoria romantismului, Editura Alfa, Bucureti, 1998, p. 49
Ibidem, p. 50
3
Grard de Nerval, Fiicele focului, Editura Univers, Bucureti, 1974, p. 10
4
Gaston Bachelard, op. cit., p. 243
1
2
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anume n care eul, sub o alt form, continu opera existenei.5 Citind acest fragment, putem
evidenia motivele pentru care visul este att de important n creaia lui Nerval, dar i a
celorlali romantici. Astfel, pentru scriitorul francez visul este o a doua via, n vis
individul continu existena contient, a eului treaz, sub o alt form 6, putnd tri
evenimente care n viaa de zi cu zi ar fi puin probabile. De asemenea, starea de somn de
dinainte de vis este important prin faptul c ea este asemenea strii de trecere n moarte,
caracterizat prin imposibilitatea de a stabili cu certitudine unde ne aflm: n realitate sau n
vis, n via sau n moarte. Amestecul celor dou lumi este favorizat i de faptul c totul
ncepe seara, pe cnd ora fatal prea c se apropie,7 moment specific imaginarului de tip
romantic.
Un alt element ce ine de imaginarul specific vizionarismului romantic, element de
natur mistic, este metempsihoza. Eroul nervalian pare a urma un traseu al rencarnrilor:
M-am gndit foarte adesea la faptul c, n anume momente importante ale vieii, cutare Spirit
din lumea exterioar se ntrupeaz dintr-o dat ntr-o persoan obinuit i acioneaz ()8
Chiar personajul nervalian mrturisete faptul c se simte rentrupat dintr-o via anterioar:
Mergnd, cntam un imn misterios de care mi se prea c-mi amintesc ca de unul ce-l
auzisem n vreo alt via ().9
Motivului mistic al metempsihozei i se adaug motivul mitic al dublului: mi se prea
c acel glas se auzea n pieptul meu i c sufletul, ca s spun aa, mi se dedubla mprinduse foarte limpede ntre viziune i realitate.10 Acest motiv vine s accentueze ideea oscilaiei
ntre vis i realitate, oscilaie ce caracterizeaz boala eroului nervalian i care l face s nu mai
poat deosebi realul de ireal, astfel nct totul pare verosimil, aa cum reiese din mrturisirea
sa: ntr-o sear, am crezut cu toat tria c m aflu transportat pe malurile Rinului.11
Incertitudinea este alimentat i de faptul c viziunile i visele au loc seara i noaptea. Unele
dintre acestea sunt reale, fiind rezultatul unor amintiri, altele sunt pure nluciri.
Amintirea are un rol important n construcia textului i n traseul iniiatic pe care l
parcurge personajul nervalian. Ea este fulgertoare i instantanee12 anulnd limitele spaiotemporale, astfel nct se ajunge la momente de indeterminism aa cum sunt ele definite de
Georges Poulet. n numeroase pasaje din Aurelia avem de-a face cu timpul i spaiul amintirii,
ale memoriei, cnd trecutul, prezentul i viitorul sunt toate ntr-un punct.
Una dintre nluciri este aceea a coborrii n subteran, motiv des ntlnit la romantici:
mi s-a prut c m prbuesc ntr-un hu care traverseaz pmntul.13 Coborrea n subteran
simbolizeaz coborrea n moarte i constituie o etap a unui traseu iniiatic ce ncepe prin
cunoaterea strmoilor: Pretutindeni regseam figuri cunoscute. [] Prea c se adunaser
aici pentru un banchet de familie. Unul dintre aceste neamuri a venit spre mine i m-a
mbriat cu dragoste.14 Este reamintit motivul metempsihozei i cel al indeterminismului,
ambele sugernd ideea nemuririi: Trecutul este una cu viitorul. Trim n spia noastr, i
spia noastr triete n noi.15
Un alt element al imaginarului romantic, de factur folcloric, ezoteric, este folosirea
cifrei apte, ca cifr a perfeciunii, cci este numrul caracteristic pentru fiecare familie
Grard de Nerval, op. cit., p. 209
Ibidem, p. 213
7
Ibidem, p. 214
8
Idem
9
Idem
10
Ibidem, p. 14
11
Ibidem, p. 217
12
Ibidem, p. 218
13
Ibidem, p. 219
14
Idem
15
Ibidem, p. 220
5
6
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omeneasc, i prin extindere, de apte ori apte, i aa mai departe. [] Metafizica nu-mi
ofer termeni potrivii pentru perceperea ce am avut-o atunci a raportului dintre acest numr i
armonia general.16
Viziunea se continu cu o metamorfozare a spaiului subpmntean i o alunecare spre
o alt dimensiune, Totul n jurul meu i schimba forma,17 spre un teritoriu n mijlocul
cruia se afla ca o axis mundi un munte. Este vorba de un ora tainic, spaiul necunoscut al
iniierii. Astfel, dup coborrea n strfundurile pmntului, urmeaz ascensiunea muntelui
spre un spaiu paradiziac, interzis neiniiailor. Se reitereaz astfel mitul Vrstei de Aur, mit
ntlnit la toi romanticii: M-am vzut rtcind pe strzile unui ora foarte aglomerat i
necunoscut mie. [] Un neam binecuvntat i furise acest loca, plcut psrilor, florilor,
aerului curat i luminii [] cu obiceiuri simple, iubitori i drepi, pstrtori ai virtuilor
naturale de al nceputurile lumii.18 Este redat aici un paradox ce contest mitul biblic al
cunoaterii, cci locuitorii acestui munte triau nici corupi, nici distrui, nici robi; rmai
puri, dei nvinseser ignorana.19
Ideea unei viziuni iniiatice este sugerat de prezena luminii totul era aerisit, plin
de via, strbtut de mii de jocuri de lumin20 i de iluzia c hainele acelor oameni erau
albe. Lumina i albul aparent al hainelor reprezint punctul de plecare al unei resensibilizri a
vederii i nceputul unui drum al cunoaterii ce ncepe cu regsirea paradisului pierdut, n care
totul este iubire i puritate: inspirau un soi de iubire lipsit de preferine i dorine. [] Am
nceput s plng cu lacrimi fierbini, ca de amintirea unui paradis pierdut.21
Treptat, ns, intervine raiunea i viziunea se stinge. Eroul nervalian contientizeaz
faptul c totul a fost o etap a unei cltorii iniiatice: Aici am simit, cu amrciune, c sunt
doar un cltor n trecere prin aceast lume deopotriv strin i ndrgit (). 22 Ceea ce a
nvat el din aceast viziune este faptul c Dumnezeu exist Nu-i aa c exist cu
adevrat un Dumnezeu? Da! i-am rspuns cu nflcrare.23 - i c nu exist moarte i deci
nici spaima de a muri: Nu mai este moarte, nu mai este mhnire, nu mai este nelinite.24
Acest moment constituie una dintre cele mai importante revelaii ale eroului nervalian care se
convinge de existena lui Dumnezeu.
Urmtorul vis al personajului evideniaz ideea mitic a arhetipului femeii pe care
eroul nervalian ncearc s-l descopere. Astfel trsturile a trei femei (o alt cifr simbolic)
par s se reuneasc pentru a ntruchipa Femeia: zmbetul, glasul, culoarea ochilor, a prului,
statura, gesturile familiare se schimbau de la una la alta de parc ar fi avut toate trei o singur
via, i astfel fiecare era un amestec din toate [] spre a realiza o frumusee desvrit.25
Este i acesta un vis iniiatic cci, din nou, totul e scldat n lumin, simbol al cunoaterii.
ns sfritul visului este unul sumbru, petrecndu-se ntr-un cimitir, n care se aud voci
zicnd c Universul e adncit n ntuneric..26 ntunericul din cimitir sugereaz moartea
Aureliei de care personajul va afla ulterior.
Odat cu nsntoirea eroului nervalian, visul pare s se transpun n realitate n urma
demersului raional al personajului de a desena imaginile din viziunile sale: Am vrut s-mi
fixez mai bine gndurile preferate, i [] am acoperit curnd pereii cu o serie de desene n
16
Ibidem, p. 221
Idem
18
Idem
19
Ibidem, p. 222
20
Idem
21
Idem
22
Idem
23
Ibidem, p. 224
24
Ibidem, p. 225
25
Ibidem, p. 226
26
Idem
17
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care impresiile mele prindeau form.27 Dintre toate aceste imagini, cea care revine mereu
este aceea a Aureliei ce i se arat asemenea zeiei Isis: Printre toate figurile, una era mereu
dominant: aceea a Aureliei, zugrvit cu trsturile unei diviniti (). O roat se nvrtea
sub tlpile ei i zeii ii alctuiau suita.28
Prin aceast practic a desenului, eroul nervalian recreeaz lumea, alunecnd, treptat,
din realitate ntr-un vis cosmogonic: n timpul nopii care a precedat aceast munc a mea,
m-am crezut purtat pe o planet ntunecat unde se frmntau primii germeni ai creaiunii.29
Apare aici un mit specific romantismului, mitul cosmogonic, prin care lumea este adus din
haos n armonie sub aciunea unei muzici a sferelor: Deodat, o armonie stranie a rsunat n
pustietile n care ne aflam, i prea c strigtele, rgetele i uierturile nedesluite ale
fiinelor primitive aveau de aici nainte s se mldieze dup aceast melodie divin.30
Nerval rescrie n continuare evoluia omenirii mbinnd elemente ce in de mitologia
pgn cu elemente ce in de mitologia cretin i de realitatea istoric. n viziune nervalian,
omenirea are dou mame: Isis-Demeter i Fecioara Maria. Ceea ce caracterizeaz aceast
istorie a omenirii este o mereu rennoit [] scen de orgie i mcel. 31 Influene pgne de
origine oriental reies din imaginea arpelui care nconjoar lumea [] ntr-o hidoas
mpreunare, pecetluit cu snge ().32 arpele sugereaz timpul ciclic specific oriental, dar
specific i romantismului mitic.
O alt tem specific romantismului i care apare i la Nerval este iubirea, mai precis,
dragostea pentru iubita moart, prin care se reitereaz mitul lui Orfeu. Astfel, Aurelia este, la
fel ca Beatrice a lui Dante, cea care duce la mplinirea autorului att pe plan spiritual, prin
iubire, ct i pe plan artistic, prin opera creat, ea reprezint coincidena iubirii cu
cunoaterea.33
Eroul neravlian resimte mustrri de contiin pentru c ntinase iubirea pentru Aurelia
prin numeroase escapade amoroase: prin iubirile mele uuratice adusesem o jignire memoriei
ei.34 ncercnd s redescopere imaginea iubitei, el se cufund din nou n vis, dar chipul ei nui mai apare. i amintete, ns, de episodul n care a simit c n el sunt doi oameni, dndu-i
seama c nu poate explica aceast experien, ci o poate doar retri: Nu tiu cum s explic
faptul c, n mintea mea, evenimentele pmnteti puteau coincide cu cele din lumea
supranatural, acest lucru e mai uor de simit dect de descris limpede.35 Retrirea senzaiei
dublului este prilejul de a face trimitere spre o alt teorie oriental, i anume teoria maniheist
a dublei naturi a spiritului uman: n fiecare om exist un spectator i un actor, cel ce vorbete
i cel ce rspunde. Orientalii au vzut n acetia, doi dumani: geniul bun i geniul ru.
Pentru a lupta mpotriva spiritului aductor de moarte36 eroul nervalian se narmeaz cu
armele tradiiei i ale tiinei.37 El mbin elementele folclorice - ezoterice cu cele iluministe
raionale n demersul cunoaterii totale.
O alt viziune l poart pe eroul nervalian ntr-un inut aflat pe un munte, n care nu
exista soare. Din nou apare ideea suiului i a coborului specific traseului iniiatic. Este
inutul focului dintru nceputuri38 cu ajutorul cruia meteugarii prelucrau metalele pentru
27
Idem
Ibidem, p. 227
29
Ibidem, p. 229
30
Ibidem p. 230
31
Ibidem, p. 15
32
Ibidem, p. 231
33
Idem
34
Ovidiu Moceanu, Visul i literatura, Editura Paralela 45, Piteti, 2002, p. 10
35
36
Idem
37
Ibidem, p. 234
38
Idem
28
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Issue no. 6/2015
a crea diferite obiecte. ntrebndu-l pe unul dintre meteugari dac se pot crea i oameni din
metale, acesta i rspunde: Oamenii se trag de sus, iar nu de jos: cum am putea oare s ne
creem pe noi nine?39 Este sugerat aici existena unei fore transcendente, surs a vieii pe
pmnt.
Mergnd pe uliele acelui ora al focului, personajul asist la pregtirea unei nuni i
are impresia c nunta care se pregtea era a Aureliei i a dublului su, de aceea el ncearc
printr-un semn ezoteric s-l nlture. Este sugerat aici ideea limbajului motivat de la
nceputuri, a forei ezoterice a cuvntului magic, idee des ntlnit la romantici, cci, aa cum
remarca i Ovidiu Moceanu, Romanticii au recurs la fora visului pentru a reface unitatea
originar a cuvntului, singurul n stare s desfiineze graniele dintre veghe i somn, realitate
i vis.40 Acest demers al romanticilor va fi continuat n modernitate i n avangard, n
ncercarea de a rezolva criza limbajului care a marcat aceste perioade.
Tentativa de a se folosi de puterea originar a cuvntului este oprit de un strigt de
femeie care l readuce pe eroul nervalian n planul realitii. ncercnd s-i dea seama ce s-a
ntmplat, el este convins c strigtul a fost real i c a rsunat n atmosfera celor vii, c
ntmplrile de pe pmnt sunt legat de cele din lumea invizibil.41 De asemenea el crede c
prin semnul fcut a atras mnia i blestemul divinitii, pierznd-o iar pe Aurelia, la fel cum
Orfeu o pierduse pe Euridice prin nerespectarea interdiciei impuse de zei.
Acest episod prilejuiete o meditaie asupra morii, o alt tem de factur romantic,
concluzionnd c n urma voinei divine moartea nu este neant: Dar ce este moartea? Dac e
neantul De-ar vrea Dumnezeu! Dar Dumnezeu nsui nu poate face ca moartea s fie
neant.42
Gndindu-se la zbuciumul sufletesc provocat de scindarea eului ntre vis i realitate,
personajul ajunge la concluzia c n gndirea religioas trebuie s-i caui scparea43 ns i
d seama c pentru el acest lucru nu e posibil, deoarece mintea sa e nsetat de cunoatere, de
tiin. Or, tiina nu a putut niciodat explica raional existena divinitii. Pentru eroul
nervalian tiina este foarte important i prin faptul c ea poate prevedea viitorul: tiina,
dup ce-i va fi mplinit cercul sintezelor i analizelor, al credinelor i negrilor, se va putea
purifica pe sine i face s rsar din dezordine i ruine cetatea minunat a viitorului (). 44
Toate aceste gnduri legate de setea de cunoatere, l determin s se acuze de erezie, cci un
ndemn biblic spune Crede i nu cerceta. Or, eroul nervalian tocmai asta face: cerceteaz,
studiaz pentru a afla Adevrul despre lumea real i cea a spiritelor. Acest Adevr l va afla
de la un prieten ce scpase miraculos de moarte i care, n timpul unui vis triete o experien
mistic n timpul creia aude o voce spunndu-i c Dumnezeu este pretutindeni []; este n
tine i n noi toi ().45 Auzind mrturisirea prietenului su, eroul nervalian exclam
dezndjduit: Dumnezeu este cu el! [] cu mine ns nu mai este! Nenorocire! L-am izgonit
din mine, L-am ameninat, L-am blestemat!46
ncercnd s neleag motivul pentru care a fost prsit de Dumnezeu, personajul lui
Nerval i d seama c, din nou, s-a fcut vinovat de erezie prin faptul c a pus dragostea
pentru Aurelia mai presus de dragostea pentru divinitate: neleg, mi spuneam, am preferat
creatura creatorului; mi-am divinizat dragostea i am adorat dup riturile pgne, pe cea a
39
Idem
Ovidiu Moceanu, op. cit., p. 13
41
42
Idem
43
Idem
44
Ibidem, p. 237
45
Idem
46
Ibidem, p. 239
40
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Issue no. 6/2015
crei ultim suflare a fost nchinat lui Christos.47 Totui, el pstreaz sperana c
Dumnezeu l va ierta, poate chiar la rugminile iubitei moarte.
Sunt descrise i alte vise pe care personajul le ateapt cu nfrigurare n sperana c va
putea s o revad pe Aurelia, fiind convins c visul era un mod de a comunica cu ea
Datorit felului n care gndeam acum visul, ca unul ce deschide omului o comunicare cu
lumea spiritelor, ndjduiam ()48 -, dar n acelai timp un mod de a accede la cunoatere:
Toate acestea erau fcute ca s te nvee taina vieii [] pentru a deslui enigma morii, 49
tain pe care el nu a reuit s-o descopere, fapt ce-i pricinuiete o mare durere n suflet, durere
care-i afecteaz att viaa din vis, ct i viaa din realitate.
Treptat, eroul nervalian ncepe s revin la credina n Dumnezeu i i d seama c
acest lucru se datoreaz dragostei pentru femeia iubit: fiind ndelung vreme departe de
calea cea adevrat, m-am simit readus pe ea datorit amintirii ndrgite a unei moarte.50
ns nu reuete s scape cu totul de zbuciumul din sufletul su, zbucium alimentat de
numeroasele sale vise i viziuni. Dezndjduit, el cade la picioarele unui altar al Fecioarei
spre a-i cere iertare pentru viaa pe care a dus-o, dar nu gsete pacea sufleteasc i chiar se
gndete s se sinucid. l oprete ns o viziune a apocalipsei, a instaurrii nopii eterne
ncepe noaptea venic, i va fi cumplit.51 - i a haosului cosmic: Printre norii care
alergau, gonii de vnt, am vzut mai multe luni ce treceau cu mare iueal. M gndeam c
pmntul scpase din orbita lui i c rtcea prin univers ca o corabie fr catarg ().52
ntr-o alt zi el are impresia c potopul biblic, inundaia universal, 53 s-a abtut
asupra lumii i, ncercnd s-l opreasc, a aruncat un inel de argint n ap. Ca prin minune,
ploaia s-a oprit i a ieit soarele, fapt ce a aprins sperana n sufletul su. Adormind la un
prieten, eroul nervalian are un nou vis n care i apare zeia Isis spunndu-i: Eu sunt aceeai
cu Maria, aceeai cu maica ta, aceeai de asemenea pe care, sub toate nfirile ei, ai iubit-o
ntotdeauna. La fiecare ncercare la care erai supus, am lepdat una dintre mtile care-mi
ascund chipul, i n curnd m vei vedea aa cum sunt (). 54 Apare aici, din nou, imaginea
Femeii arhetipale, sum a tuturor femeilor. Acest vis este urmat de viziuni delirante, n care
personajul are impresia c devenise asemenea unui zeu55 cu puteri vindectoare, fapt ce
determin internarea sa ntr-un ospiciu. Aici, i se pare c toate persoanele au o misiune
mistic, aceea de a restabili ordinea lumii care ar fi fost cuprins de nenorociri dup ce se
strecurase o greeal n combinaia universal a numerelor.56 El este convins c un rol
important l are i el n restabilirea armoniei, misiune pe care o vede ca pe o etap iniiatic,
aa cum reiese din urmtoarea mrturisire a sa: m-am ncredinat de faptul c sunt supus unor
probe de iniiere sacr.57 Un factor esenial n salvarea ordinii universale l are restabilirea
legturilor cu natura, de mult timp pierdute Cum oare, mi spuneam, am putut s exist
atta vreme n afara naturii i fr s fiu una cu ea?58 -, o alt idee specific romantic.
ntr-o alt noapte, aflat la sanatoriu, are un nou vis n care se vede aflat ntr-o ncpere
octogonal, de tip oriental, pe ai crei perei ar fi fost scris istoria omenirii, a crimelor sale
47
Idem
Ibidem, p. 240
49
Ibidem, p. 243
50
Ibidem, p. 244
51
Ibidem, p. 245
52
Ibidem, p. 249
53
Idem
54
Ibidem, p. 251
55
Idem
56
Ibidem, p. 253
57
Ibidem, p. 254
58
Ibidem, p. 255
48
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Era istoria tuturor crimelor59 -, crime ce par s se continue i n generaia tot mai njosit a
seminiilor viitorului.60
Revenind la realitate, personajul nervalian este impresionat de imaginea unui tnr,
fost soldat, ce refuza de mult vreme s mnnce i care se afla la captul puterilor. Aceast
scen l rupe de necazurile propriei sale existene i l face s se preocupe de soarta
bolnavului, fapt care i aduce, treptat, linitea sufleteasc. Un nou vis, n care i apare zna
viselor,61 pare s-i confirme sfritul suferinelor sale: ncercarea la care ai fost supus a
luat sfrit ()62
Urmeaz cteva pagini grupate sub titlul Memorabile, constituind un fel de epilog prin
care se redau impresiile mai multor vise63 ulterioare. Textul este dominat de sentimentul de
bucurie trit in mijlocul naturii, ca urmare a dobndirii iertrii. Bucuria e determinat i de
nelegerea tainei morii, astfel nct eroul nervalian nu se mai teme de ea cci i-a recptat
credina n Mesia: O, Moarte! Care i-e izbnda, cnd Mesia nvingtor gonete clare ntre
noi doi?64 Faptul c a fost iertat i este confirmat de un nou vis: M trezesc dintr-un vis
neasemuit de dulce: am revzut-o pe aceea pe care am iubit-o, transfigurat, ncununat de
raze. Cerul s-a deschis n toat mreia lui i am citit n el cuvntul iertare, pecetluit cu
sngele lui Christos.65
Amintirea iubitei rmne vie n sufletul personajului, idee sugerat prin relatarea unui
mit de origine ce red apariia florii Nu m uita, fcndu-se astfel trimitere la izvoarele de
influen folcloric: Pe vrful unui munte albastru s-a nscut o floricic. Nu m uita! Privirea
plpind a unei stele s-a oprit o clip asupra ei, i s-a auzit un rspuns, rostit ntr-o dulce
vorbire strin: Miozotis!66
Iertarea christic se rsfrnge asupra ntregii lumi, nu numai asupra credincioilor, ci i
asupra pgnilor: Fii deci i tu binecuvntat, o, Thor uriee cel mai puternic dintre fii lui
Odin. [] arpele care nconjoar pmntul este i el binecuvtat ().67 ntr-un alt vis
mntuirea pare s cuprind toate statele din Europa, pn n Orient, n sperana unei pci
eterne: Visul mi s-a ncheiat n sperana mngietoare c, n sfrit, pacea ne va fi redat.68
Marcat de toate aceste vise, eroul nervalian i propune, ca o ultim etap a iniierii
sale, s cunoasc i s stpneasc legile visului pentru a putea, astfel, s-i controleze tririle
din somn, triri care afecteaz i viaa realitii cotidiene, cci el mrturisete: Mi s-a prut a
nelege c exist o legtur ntre lumea exterioar i cea interioar.69
Toat aceast experien iniiatic a fcut ca personajul lui Nerval s ajung la o
certitudine: certitudinea nemuririi i a co-existrii tuturor celor pe care i-am iubit mi fusese
dat,70 certitudine care i-a redat linitea sufleteasc, linite pe care i-a dobndit-o i
ngrijindu-l pe tnrul soldat care-i era ca un frate. ns pacea spiritual i este zdruncinat de
o mrturisire a tnrului care afirm c e mort i c se afl n purgatoriu. Ascultndu-l, eroul
nervalian i d seama c i el a trecut prin aceeai stare de nebunie, dar c ea l-a ajutat s
neleag mai bine lumea, att lumea iluziilor, ct i lumea realitii, totul fiind asemnat cu
59
Idem
Ibidem, p. 259
61
Idem
62
Ibidem, p. 260
63
Idem
64
Ibidem, p. 261
65
Ibidem, p. 262
66
Idem
67
Ibidem, p. 236
68
Idem
69
Idem
70
Ibidem, p. 265
60
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ceea ce anticii numeau descensus ad inferos: asemuiesc aceast serie de ncercri pe care leam strbtut cu ceea ce nfia pentru antici ideea coborrii n infern.71
Dac eroul nervalian a putut s se desprind de iluzii i s revin n realitate mbogit
spiritual, nu acelai lucru s-a ntmplat cu autorul Grard de Nerval, care nu a reuit niciodat
s mpace visul cu realitatea, aa cum reiese dintr-o mrturisire a lui Thophile Gautier:
Aurelia, sau Visul i viaa nchipuie raiunea rece stnd la cptiul febrei, halucinaia
studiindu-se pe ea nsi printr-un suprem efort fiziologic. Am gsit ultimele foi din aceast
ciudat lucrare, fr asemuire, poate, n buzunarul celui mort. O purta cu el, socotind c va
putea termina fraza ntrerupt Dar mna a lsat s-i cad creionul, i visul a omort viaa;
echilibrul meninut pn atunci, s-a rupt; acest spirit att de fermector, de naripat, de
luminos, de tandru a disprut pentru totdeauna; i-a scuturat nveliul terestru ca pe o zdrean
pe care nu o mai dorea, i a intrat ntr-o lume de elohimi, de ngeri, de silfi, n acel paradis de
umbre i de viziuni celeste, care i era, nc din via, familiar.72
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: This paper is supported by the Sectoral Operational
Programme Human Resources Development (SOP HRD), ID134378 financed from the
European Social Fund and by the Romanian Government
Bibliografie:
Gaston Bachelard, Pmntul i reveriile voinei, Editura Univers, Bucureti, 1998
Thophile Gautier, Istoria romantismului, Editura Alfa, Bucureti, 1998
Ovidiu Moceanu, Visul i literatura, Editura Paralela 45, Piteti, 2002
Grard de Nerval, Fiicele focului, Editura Univers, Bucureti, 1974
71
72
Idem
Thophile Gautier, op. cit., p. 101
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EKPHRASIS AND REVERSED EKPHRASIS AS ADAPTATION PROCESSES

Lavinia HULEA
University of Petroani
Abstract: Whether theorists call them translations, adaptations, ekphrases or reversed

ekphrases, transpositions or interpretations (and the enumeration is far from exhausted), such
processes, implying comparisons between media,
are considered to represent a
transgenerational phenomenon and to rely on the source texts cultural continuity and,
implicitly, on its susceptibility of being further replicated in target texts. It has also been
noticed that most adaptations appear to perform a shift either from a literary source towards
a visual target text or vice-versa, an operation that, nonetheless, does not impose boundaries
as to transpositions from and towards other media. When such adaptations are carried out
from the telling mode to the showing mode, the insistence on imagination is assumed to
be replaced by the attention given to ocular perception, and the symbolical and conventional
signs of literature are superseded by the indexical and iconic visual signs.
Keywords: ekphrasis, reversed ekphrasis, adaptation, intertextuality, relation.
Comparisons between media as well as ekphrastic impulses appear to have often

been regarded as forms of adaptation and, although not always asserted as such, they were
largely discussed by modern theorists, who attempted at setting forth the characteristics of the
relations accordingly established. Envisaged as transposition processes, the inter-media
comparisons often operate a distinction between the stuff that can be transferred from one
medium to the other (the narrative) and the stuff that resents transfer owing to its belonging to
different signifying systems. In the opinion of Brian McFarlane, who, in his 1996 book
entitled Novel to Film: An Introduction to the Theory of Adaptation, focused upon the
possible common grounds of literature and film, discussion of adaptation has been bedeviled
by the fidelity issue, no doubt ascribable in part to the novels coming first, in part to the
ingrained sense of literatures greater respectability in traditional critical circles. Fidelity
criticism depends on a notion of the text as having and rendering a single, correct
meaning which the film-maker has either adhered to or in some sense violated or tampered
with. (McFarlane, 1996: 8)
It has been stressed that most adaptation criticism that embraced the fidelity issue
has failed in highlighting the relationship between the literary original and the adaptation
itself, which led to a suppression of potentially more rewarding approaches to the
phenomenon of adaptation. It tends to ignore the idea of adaptation as an example of
convergence among the arts, perhaps a desirable even inevitable process in a rich culture;
(McFarlane, 1996: 10). Accordingly, while the success of the process of transposition has
largely been considered as being provided by the fidelity of adaptation to its literary source,
the enlargement of the theory of adaptation seem to justify two opportunities, allowing the
evaluation of the resulting text: either relying upon an analysis of the intrinsic characteristics
of the new artistic production or focusing on it as upon an adaptation that accurately renders
the letters and spirit of its literary source.
Modern criticism, in its intertextual approaches of the literary and visual fields, has
gone even further in assuming that the original literary text, upon which adaptations rely,
should be rather considered as a resource being attributed a series of relations with the target
text, depending on the extent according to which the latter one is or is not an accurate
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development of the source text. Yet, the interference between the literary and the visual
involves a multi-level relational typology displaying various connections, among which
fidelity is only one and rarely the most exciting. (McFarlane, 1996: 11)
The sets of terms employed with a view of asserting such intertextual pursuits
display a worth-mentioning variety centered upon the differentiation between a series of
events sequentially and consequentially arranged and the modes (more easily distinguishable
in literary terms) of their presentation. (McFarlane, 1996: 19) From narrative and
narration to enunciated and enunciation via story and discourse or story-matter and
manner of delivery, all these distinctions appear to operate a fundamental separation
between those elements that can be assumed to represent a transferable stuff from the
literary source text to the visual target text and those requiring adaptation owing to their
being intimately determined by the semiotic system of the source text.
Although the literary source text plays a relevant part in the designing of the target
text, it is, nonetheless, considered not to be the sole determiner of the latter one; accordingly,
intertextuality brings about the analysis of those non-literary factors the cultural milieu or
the social context capable of shaping the identity of the target text.
As, according to the fidelity approach, the resulting target text mainly performs a
sort of copying of the source text, adaptations that explicitly deviate from the original should
be reconsidered in terms of offering a commentary on or, in more extreme cases, a
deconstruction of the original. (McFarlane, 1996: 22)
More recent theories, such as the one displayed by Linda Hutcheons book, A
Theory of Adaptation, assert that an adaptation may be regarded as a creative and
interpretative transposition of a recognizable other work or works, which comes to be
perceived as a kind of extended palimpsest requiring a transcoding into a different set of
conventions (Hutcheon, 2006: 33). Such considerations set forth a series of factors that
might bring their contribution to the process, both separately and collectively; consequently,
adaptations may generally be viewed as a rewriting of an existing work that involves the
reinterpretation of that work; nonetheless, the change of method or style determines certain
modifications, while the new medium engenders other differences that come out of the
specific material of the two media that ultimately regards non-identical narrative modes
(Hutcheon, 2006: 34).
While both MacFarlane and Hutcheon agree that a target text relying on a literary
source text must reinterpret the source text and not only reproduce it, their theoretical
approach differs in terms of alteration of the source text: where McFarlane sees the target text
as entirely different, Hutcheon implies that the source text continues to be recognizable within
the target text.
Despite the fact that such ekphrastic processes have become largely familiar within
the cultural context of the twenty-first century, transpositions were, at times, regarded as
inferior and criticized for their having degraded the literary source. Hutcheon, for instance,
citing Virginia comfort and Woolfs references to cinematographic art, observes the
simplification of the literary work that inevitably occurred in its transposition to the new
visual medium (Hutcheon, 2006: 3), but insists that adaptations strive to explicitly assert
their connection to the literary sources they refer to. And she goes further in noticing the
omnipresence of adaptations, which is attributed to the enjoyment deriving from the comfort
of ritual combined with the piquancy of surprise. Recognition and remembrance are part of
the pleasure (and risk) of experiencing an adaptation; so too is change. (Hutcheon, 2006: 4).
Dealing with adaptations as products, theoretical approaches (Hutcheon, 2006: 7)
set forth the concept according to which adaptations represent declared and wide-ranging
transpositions of a certain work, determining a change of medium, genre or context.
Meanwhile, its perception as a process of creation turns adaptation into a two-fold
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development relying on (re-)interpretation and (re-)creation, while necessarily referring

to the source texts and preserving the narratives.
Finally, adaptations as processes of reception become a form of intertextuality:
we experience adaptations (as adaptations) as palimpsests through or memory of other works
that resonate through repetition with variation. (Hutcheon, 2006: 8) While a widened
definition of adaptation induces the perception according to which all past works belonging to
the cultural heritage can bear transformation and recreation, defining adaptation as process
and product comes closer to the general acceptance and engenders considerations upon a wide
range of source and target texts, including visual art transpositions of literary works.
It is interesting to notice that transpositions may be assumed to allow a variety of
forms or expressions (congruent with specific media); yet, the content to be transposed
from a medium to another is identified, by the majority of theorists, as a denominator that
transcends media and genres as well and comes to include the various elements of the story:
its themes, events, world, characters, motivations, points of view, consequences, contexts,
symbols, imagery, and so on. (Hutcheon, 2006: 10)
While practice seems to infer that themes appear as the most easily adaptable
elements, the story, at its turn, may determine double-sided transpositions, which either
follow truthfully the original source text or alter dramatically plot, time, point of view, initial
assertions or conclusions, etc. As far as the source texts capability of being adapted is
concerned, theorists (Hutcheon, 2006: 15) assume that the degree of adaptability differ from
text to text, and while realist novels, for instance, are most effortlessly subject of
transpositions (at least, for cinematographic adaptations), other literary sources (Joyce,
Becket) are simply reluctant to media trans-crossing.
Characters frequently come to represent essential elements of transpositions owing
to their central status in the source texts and to the specific interest audience manifests
towards them. Murray Smith, in his book Engaging Characters: Fiction, Emotion and the
Cinema, develops a concept focusing on the spectators attention toward the film characters
that basically develops according to three levels: recognition, which regards the spectators
outlining of characters grounded upon the hints in the text; perceptual alignment,
emphasizing the mechanism owing to which the spectators relate to the characters; and
allegiance, which gives an insight of the spectators engagement with the characters values
and ethical standpoints. Smiths approach sets forth a significant assertion that appears to
explain the particular relation between audience and characters: while, on the one hand, the
first two levels of the audiences commitment require the understanding of the characters
traits and modes of being, the third level involves a compulsory assessment of those
characteristics, which determines the emotional reaction of the spectator. (Smith, 1995: 81-6)
Although the analysis has been undertaken in relation with film characters,
implying that audiences sympathy for or rejection of a character relies on a realistic
development grounded on the judgment and possible matching between the characters
actions and its moral and ideological principles, it may clear up the response certain literary
characters determine in the artists, who choose to turn them into visual art icons.
Transpositions from one medium to another have often been compared with
translations, prioritizing the supremacy of the source text over the target text together with the
latter ones impulse towards strict observance of and similarity with the transposed text.
Nonetheless, twenty-first century theorists of translation theory, such as Susan Bassnett or
Edwin Gentzler, propose a redefinition of the relational terms between texts and languages,
which emphasizes the perception of translation as mediating between cultures owing to its
being the equivalent of a rewriting of an original. Accordingly, the two most important
shifts in theoretical developments in translation theory over the past two decades have been
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(1) the shift from source-oriented theories to target-text-oriented theories and (2) the shift to
include cultural factors in the translation training models. (Bassnett, 2007: 14-5)
It may then be inferred that process of translating involves the forging of a new
original in another language and is turned into an act of both inter-cultural and intertemporal communication (Bassnett, 2002: 9) able to expose the relationship between the
cultural systems in which those texts are embedded. (Bassnett, 2007: 19) In doing this,
translation may be regarded as manifesting attributes in common with adaptation, ekphrasis,
and reversed ekphrasis processes. While translations cease to be regarded as mere
reproductions, adaptations and ekphrastic processes may be understood as a particular type of
translation, which imply a change of medium and signs.
While perceiving adaptation as a process, theorists also pinpoint that such a
conditioning determines in fact two fundamental operations, interpretation and creation that
rely upon a process of appropriation, of taking possession of anothers story, and filtering it,
, through ones own sensibility, interests, and talents. (Hutcheon, 2006: 18) The
connection with ekphrasis and reversed ekphrasis processes may easily follow as both
processes demand a reading of the source text.
Accordingly, adaptations or ekphrastic processes, which rely on transposers
creativity in order to be successful, may develop, in the opinion of Andre Bazin, along two
central principles: they should represent the story of the literary source text and also add
something new, which might engender a new understanding of the source text: More
important than faithfulness is knowing whether the cinema can integrate the powers of
the novel and whether it can, beyond the spectacle, interest us less through the
representation of events than through the comprehension of them. (Bazin, 2002: 7)
According to the film critic and theorist, adaptations rely upon the literary source texts in that
they consider their narrative elements which they transfer to a different medium while
attempting at giving the audience a new understanding of the initial source text.
At this point, it is perhaps worth-mentioning Linda Hutcheons considerations on
the manner audience engages with the various media, which derives the three modes of
engagement (telling, showing, and interacting) that also enables a better focusing upon the
possible connections between source and target texts. Such modes of engagement are
acknowledged to be the result of a particular time and space delimited within a certain type of
society and cultural milieu, while both creation and reception (and through extrapolation, all
adaptation) are tangible, material, public, and economic to the same extent to which they
belong to culture, aesthetics, and private sphere.
In the telling mode in narrative literature, for example our engagement begins
in the realm of imagination, which is simultaneously controlled by the selected, directing
words of the text and liberated that is, unconstrained by the limits of the visual .We can
stop at any point; we can re-read or skip ahead; we hold the book in our hands and feel, as
well as see, how much of the story remains to be read. But with the move to the mode of
showing, ., we have moved from the imagination to the realm of direct perception with its
mix of both detail and broad focus. A consideration of the differences between the modes
of engagement of telling and showing, however, suggests quite the contrary: each mode, like
each medium, has its own specificity, if not its own essence. In other words, no one mode is
inherently good at doing one thing and not another; but each has at its disposal different
means of expression media and genres and so can aim at and achieve certain things better
than others. (Hutcheon, 2006: 22-4)
Whether theorists call them translations, adaptations, ekphrases or reversed
ekphrases, transpositions or interpretations and the enumeration is far from exhausted
such processes are considered to represent a transgenerational phenomenon relying on the
source texts cultural continuity and, implicitly, on its susceptibility of being further replicated
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in target texts. It has also been noticed that most transpositions appear to perform the shift
either from a literary source towards a visual target text or vice-versa, an operation that,
nonetheless, does not impose boundaries as to transpositions from and towards other media.
When such transpositions are carried out from the telling mode to the showing mode, the
insistence on imagination is assumed to be replaced by the attention given to ocular
perception, and the symbolical and conventional signs of literature are superseded by the
indexical and iconic visual signs.
Theoretical approaches of adaptation consider that an analysis of both source texts
and target texts should observe the relevance of the context: while there are no context-free
texts (owing to conditioning parameters, such as being incorporated within a certain culture or
having been created during a certain period of time), value systems (upon which reception
theories rely) are also part of the same context-dependent equation:
Just as a painting changes when it is moved from the Eastern end of a church and
placed in an art gallery, so a play by Shakespeare, or an opera by Mozart, changes its
character according to the physical format in which it is presented. A play that started the
theatrical life on an unfurnished platform at the Globe and then went on to be pictorially
represented in the Victorian theater, with further alterations in physical format when thrust on
to the apron stages that developed after the 1950s, has undergone changes that are just as far
reaching as the ones that result from reinterpretations of the spoken lines. (Miller, 1986: 60)
Media, time, and space are three of the most representative contexts relating to
adaptations: when, for instance, a story is told, shown, or interacted with, it concomitantly
develops within a definite time and space that are part of a larger cultural context, which, at its
turn, bears the imprint of a particular social environment. Further, the transcultural shift,
operating when adapting from one culture to another, may involve changes of meaning,
which, at times are intended to eliminate the breach determined by cross-cultural perception
differences or by time-shaped incompatibilities originated in the temporal gap between the
creation of the source text and the creation of the target texts. It has also been pointed out that,
while adapters are always appointed a precise context within which their work becomes
meaningful, nonetheless, meaning may change over time. Under such circumstances, it is
important to notice that temporal relevance not only regards the context of adaptations but
also the context of their reception, which, at their turn, are related with the adapted source
text.
Shaped as they are by cultural contexts, adaptations are, nonetheless, considered to
come out of what we might, , call the adaptive faculty, which is the ability to repeat
without copying, to embed difference in similarity, to be at once both self and Other.
(Hutcheon, 2006: 174) In the end, the repetition of adaptation seems to be related with our
perception of the narrative, whose definition identifies it both as a particular cultural portrayal
of a fundamental ideology and as a common human characteristic.
Despite the emphasis on adaptations capacity of repeating without copying,
other theories having approached either the verbal transpositions of visual representations or
the visual transpositions of verbal representations appear to set forth the paragonal
characteristic of both literary and visual ekphrasis. It has also been emphasized the fact that
the two sister arts determine a so-called representational friction that comes out whenever
specific art media are supposed to overcome their intrinsic limitations.
The analyses of adaptation, ekphrasis, reversed ekphrasis, transposition, etc. are too
often centred upon a relation between the two arts seen as a competition (originated in the
century-old notion of mimesis) and dominating most approaches that regard the hereby
processes. Such a contest usually results in a hierarchy that grants superiority either to the
realm of the art word or to that of the visual art.
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The examination of the numerous theories approaching the possible connection

between literature and arts clearly shows a continual determination to declare the superiority
of either the verbal art or of the visual art. Nonetheless, a far more important and lucrative
evidence appears to be the fact that reversed ekphrastic processes are similar with ekphrastic
ones, and ultimately with adaptations, and all of them depend upon a relation developing
either between a visual art source text and a literary art target text or between a literary source
text and a visual target text. In consequence, the construction of a hierarchy involving the two
types of texts exhibiting relational terms seems to be less suitable for the examination and
significance of the dual condition (as works of art and as conversions of visual source texts or
of literary source texts) of the literary or visual target texts. On the contrary, in spite of the
countless definitions, innumerable terms, and controversial hierarchies, it should be stressed
that reversed ekphrastic processes are equivalent with ekphrastic processes, emphasizing a
distinctive relation between the word art and the visual art.
Bibliography
Bassnett, Susan. 2007. Culture and Translation in The Companion to Translation
Studies, edited by Piotr Kuhiwczak and Karin Littau, Multilingual Matters Ltd., Clevedon,
Buffalo.
Bassnett, Susan. 2002. Translation Studies. Routledge, New York.
Bazin, Andre. 2002. M. Ripois, with or without nemesis, trans. Bert Cardullo, in
Literature/ Film Quarterly, vol. XXX, No. 1, Salisbury University, Salisbury,
http://www.salisbury.edu/lfq.
McFarlane, Brian. 1996. Novel to Film: An Introduction to the Theory of
Adaptation. Clarendon Press, Oxford, http://isites.harvard.edu/fs/docs/icb.topic84566.files/).
Hutcheon, Linda. 2006. A Theory of Adaptation. Routledge, Taylor and Francis
Group, New York, London.
Miller, Jonathan. 1986. Subsequent Performances. Faber and Faber, London.
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LE PROBLEME DE LART DANS RUE DU HAVRE DE PAUL GUIMARD

Emanuel TURC
Abstract: Art is one of the main themes of Paul Guimards novel. His characters are the
ambassadors of a society defined by a crisis of values. They use art painting, directing,
acting in a pragmatic, commercial way. Art and artist are only objects used to get financial
benefits. Its a job like any other job. It has to attract and it has to sale. A distinction has to be
made between art and mass culture. The characters in question are: Franois, The Master,
Catherine and Zingel. All these artists submit their talent to consumerism.
Keywords: art, crisis, attract, sale, mass culture.
Rue du Havre est un roman de Paul Guimard, paru en 1957 aux ditions Denol,
couronn par le Prix Interalli la mme anne. Le rcit tourne autour de trois personnes :
Julien, Franois et Catherine. Chaque jour, Julien Legris vend des billets de loterie, Paris,
dans la rue du Havre, prs de la gare Saint-Lazare. Pour briser la monotonie quotidienne, il
imagine des scnarios en observant les passants presss. Cest ainsi quil trouve que Franois
et Catherine sont faits lun pour lautre. Le problme cest que leurs trains arrivent onze
minutes dintervalle, ce qui fait que les deux ne se rencontrent pas, malgr lintervention de
Julien.
Implicitement ou explicitement, le roman de Paul Guimard se prte un jeu interartistique dans la mesure o certains pisodes convoquent chez le lecteur des rfrences de
personnages thtrales, cinmatographiques ou picturales. Dailleurs, le titre-mme du roman
voque des reprsentations plastiques clbres de cet espace-symbole quest la rue du Havre.
En voici quelques unes.1
Jean Braud, Rue du Havre (huile)
Alexandre Trauner, dessein de la rue du Havre
ce point prcis, le problme de la peinture en tant que sous-thme du roman est dj

pos, ne fut-ce que par extrapolation. Cest Franois qui nous conduit vers les beaux-arts ,
malgr le caractre superficiel, trop commercial, de son mtier. Il fait de lart publicitaire
1
Les images sont tires du site www.google.ro/images, consult le 3 janvier 2010.
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pour de grands magasins et, par ceci, il subordonne son talent lesprit de consommation,
pour ainsi le nommer. Lart nest plus un but atteindre, mais un artifice dont se sert le
commerce, un simple ajout esthtique qui a pour but dattirer lattention, de surprendre lil.
Franois le dit lui-mme, cest un travail quelconque qui doit assurer le pain quotidien de
l artiste :
Notre mtier consiste enrichir des ressources de lart les talages et les rayons. Hier les calicots au
double sens du mot suffisaient cet office ; mais aujourdhui la cliente exige que son choix soit
sollicit par de multiples artifices. La robe de printemps ne tentera lacheteuse que si le printemps est
prsent avec la robe. On ne saurait lancer sur le march une nouvelle marque de tampon priodique si
lobjet nest assorti dun emballage voquant le ski nautique ou les Nuits de Musset. 2
Pourtant, il se pose un bon nombre de questions sur son travail, sur la somme de
talent dpens en dix ans pour vanter par limage lexcellence des marchandises
htroclites 3. Sil avait investi tout ce talent dans la peinture pure 4, il aurait eu une belle
carrire dans les arts plastiques. Dailleurs, Irne aussi lui reproche ce mtier, qui, dit-elle, le
dgrade. Elle se ft mieux accommode dune austrit portant la promesse de chefsduvre 5. Pour Franois, cest le terrible conflit entre le matriel et limmatriel, entre les
chques de la publicit et laustrit exaltante de lart 6. Les asprits de la vie quotidienne
lont fait perdre lenthousiasme de sa premire anne aux Beaux-Arts , quand il avait
commenc illustrer lApocalypse selon saint Jean. Et cela cest un drame rien que raliste.
Au-del de limage bohme et sur-charnelle que lon a de lartiste, au-del de lhomme qui se
nourrit de sa cration, cest l animal social , lhomme dpendent, soumis aux mmes lois
et aux mmes ncessits que tout le monde. Pour quon puisse se donner ce cadeau quest le
plaisir de lart, il vaut mieux que les autres besoins, ceux qui tiennent de lexistence
matrielle, soient satisfaits. Cest ce que le personnage de Guimard semble nous dire.
partir de cette discussion, ce serait intressant dentraner une autre, sur la mode,
notamment : Est-elle un art ? En quoi est-elle dtermine par limage est par le langage ? Le
dictionnaire Larousse dfinit le terme mode comme 1.Manire de vivre, de se
comporter, propre une poque, un pays. 2. Manire passagre de se conduire, de penser,
considre comme de bon ton dans un milieu, un moment donn. 7 Ces dfinitions
surprennent le principe essentiel de ce phnomne social : la seule dimension constante de la
mode est, paradoxalement, le changement. Cela tant, nous sommes censs parler dune
actualisation annuelle du code vestimentaire. Alors, comment tre la page ? La rponse
vient de Roland Barthes. Ce sont les journaux de mode qui remplissent la fonction
didactique 8 dans notre ducation vestimentaire. Limage et le texte sont consubstantiels
lide de reprsentation, lune ne peut pas communiquer indpendamment de lautre. Cest
Paul Guimard, Rue du Havre, Paris, ditions Denol, 1957, p. 65.

Ibid., p. 70.
4
Ibid.
5
Ibid., p. 65.
6
Ibid., p. 66.
7
www.larousse.fr, consult le 13 janvier 2011.
8
Roland Barthes, Systme de la mode in uvres compltes II, Paris, ditions du Seuil, 2002, p. 914.
2
3
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maintenant quil convient doprer avec le vtement-image 9 et le vtement crit 10. En

voici un exemple.
Cette robe est sans manches. Le haut se termine par un dcollet droit finit par quatre bretelles fines.
Sur le bas de la doublure, il y a un volant de tulle qui donne de lampleur celle-ci. La couche
lextrieur est en organza brillant avec des broderies et des fleurs resplendissantes. Dans le dos, la robe
une fermeture clair ce qui permet un habillage plus facile. Pour ajuster parfaitement la taille, il y a
une ceinture en organza. Allant avec la robe une tole en organza assortie.11
Comme le dirait Barthes, on a affaire ici deux vtements diffrents. Le premier, celui
quon nous prsente photographi, cest le vtement-image. Le second, cest le mme
vtement, mais dcrit, converti en expression langagire. La robe est doublement reprsente,
celle den haut devient celle den bas : La couche lextrieur est en organza brillant avec
des broderies et des fleurs resplendissantes. Ce dernier, cest un vtement crit. Tous les
deux renvoient la mme ralit et, pourtant, ils nont pas la mme structure. Pourquoi cette
reprise du contenu ? La mme robe photographie, pourrait-elle tre perue de faons
diffrentes ? Peut-tre. Ce qui est sr, cest que la parole facilite la comprhension du
message vestimentaire. Elle immobilise la perception 12 et dote limage dun sens plus
complexe. Le pastique et le verbal, ensemble, transmettent un message rien que persuasif :
Achte cette robe ! , ou, au moins, Dsire-la ! . Cest l le rle de Franois, en tant
quagent publicitaire, et de son art visuel. Il doit attirer la clientle en ajoutant des
informations visuelles et textuelles aux produits en vente, aux vtements, dans ce cas.
En plus, le langage vient le plus souvent avec un ajout dinformation par rapport
limage. Cest ce que Roland Barthes appelle la fonction de connaissance 13 de la parole. Il
donne comme exemple la description dun tissu color lorsque la photographie est grise, ou
celle dun dtail inaccessible la vue. Une image comme la notre ne peut pas livrer toutes les
informations sur la robe. Il y a des lments cachs derrire le caractre plane de limage et
l omniscience du langage vient lappui de son autorit, car toute apparence confuse ou
imprcise des formes visibles est supprime : Dans le dos, la robe une fermeture clair ce
qui permet un habillage plus facile. Voici encore une fois le caractre persuasif de la
Ibid., p. 903.
Ibid.
11
Limage et le texte sont tirs du magazine Elle, section Mode, disponible en ligne sur www.elle.fr (le 13
janvier 2011). Dsormais, les citations sans rfrence auront comme source ce journal de mode.
12
Roland Barthes, Systme de la mode, op. cit., p. 913.
13
Ibid., p. 914.
10
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description qui exploite chaque dtail en vertu de lesprit commercial. Alors, comment se
contenter dafficher une photographie quand il y a tant dinformations transmettre ?
Le texte qui accompagne la reprsentation plastique de la robe fixe le niveau de
lecture son tissu, sa ceinture, laccessoire dont elle est orne. Cest la parole qui choisit
la place de lil et qui donne au lecteur limpression de toucher le matriau textile, la
perception du palpable : Sur le bas de la doublure, il y a un volant de tulle qui donne de
lampleur celle-ci. La couche lextrieur est en organza brillant avec des broderies et des
fleurs resplendissantes. ceci sajoutent la ceinture en organza et une tole en
organza assortie . Sans ces mentions, certains lments peuvent passer inaperus.
Cest toujours le langage qui, par son caractre abstrait, permet de dgager certaines
fonctions (au sens mathmatique du terme), il dote le vtement dun systme doppositions
fonctionnels (par exemple, fantaisie/classique), que le vtement rel ou photographi ne peut
manifester dune faon aussi claire. 14 En effet, la robe en tant que telle nest pas tout fait
capable exprimer les tendances vestimentaires dune saison, par exemple. Il faut faire plus
que montrer, il faut noncer.
Jusquici nous avons discut sur le savoir 15 que le langage ajoute limage. Mais
il arrive aussi que la parole recre limage sans pour autant apporter de la nouveaut. Il sagit
dans ce cas de doubler ce qui est bien visible dans la photographie : Cette robe est sans
manches. Le haut se termine par un dcollet droit finit par quatre bretelles fines. Sur le bas
de la doublure, il y a un volant de tulle etc. Pourquoi faire cela ? Parce que, selon Barthes, la
parole a aussi une fonction demphase 16. La photographie met devant nous le vtement en
tant quunit substantielle, pour ainsi dire. Aucune partie ny est privilgie. Cest un
ensemble qui se consomme au moment ou lon regarde. Le commentaire, par contre, lance des
coups de projecteur sur certains lments pour en affirmer limportance. On aurait tout aussi
bien pu passer en revue les dtails plus ou moins indits, comme les broderies ou les fleurs
resplendissantes, sans mentionner ce que limage montre bien : le fait que la robe est sans
manches, que le haut se termine par un dcollet droit etc. Dans ce cas-l, on aurait eu affaire
une emphase, une srie de choix, damputations 17. Cest slecter certaines parties (la
substance, la ceinture, lornement, par exemple) et oublier dautres (la couleur ou la forme),
comme si la porteuse de la robe allait seulement vtue des fleurs et de souplesse18, dit Barthes.
Lisons-le infra.
Cest quen effet les limites du vtement crit ne sont plus celles de la matire, mais celles de la valeur ;
si le journal nous dit que cette ceinture est en cuir, cest que son cuir vaut absolument (et non sa forme,
par exemple) ; sil nous parle dune rose sur une robe, cest que la rose vaut autant que la robe ; une
encolure, une fronce, si elles sont dites, deviennent vtement de plein statut, au mme titre que tout un
manteau. 19
14
Ibid., p. 915.
Ibid., p. 914. Ici, prcise Barthes, le terme a emprunt le sens donn par J.-P. Sartre. De la photographie au
dessin, du dessin au schma, du schma au langage, il y a investissement progressif de savoir. , apud J.-P.
Sartre, Limaginaire, Paris, Gallimard, 1948, p. 274.
16
Ibid., p. 915.
17
Ibid.
18
Cf. Roland Barthes, Systme de la mode, op. cit., p. 916.
19
Ibid., p. 916.
15
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Cest ainsi que, par antiphrase, laccessoire devient lessentiel, il recharge le message contenu
par lensemble du vtement.20
Cette emphase que la langue met sur certains traits vestimentaires ne vise pas les
isoler pour en mettre en lumire la valeur esthtique, mais simplement organiser la
description. La robe photographie en tant que telle ne commence ni ne finit nulle part. Elle
une simple robe quon consomme en un clin dil. Mais, lorsquon la dcrit, la robe
commence aux quatre bretelles fines , continue par un dcollet droit et finit par des
broderies et des fleurs resplendissantes . Ainsi, en utilisant une structure, on arrive un
protocole de dvoilement 21, le vtement nous est prsent selon un certain ordre.
Cest un rapport trs troit qui stablit entre les deux types de vtement et cela
devient encore plus vident lorsque Barthes fait appel la distinction opre par Saussure,
celle entre langue et parole . Ces sont l deux termes lis par une relation de
hyperonimisation/hyponymisation, osons-nous dire, en ce que le dernier est un lment
particulier, une sous-classe du premier. Plus prcisment, la langue est la totalit des normes
grammaticales et la parole nest quune expression momentane et slective de la langue,
adapte une situation de communication. Idem pour la mode : par sa complexit, le
vtement crit fait partie dun schma gnral que le vtement image veut diviser, pour en
extraire les particularits. Tel quon nous dcrit, le vtement nappartient personne, il est
seulement une cration de la mode. Mais photographi, il est individualis, port par un
individu. Les traits physiques de celui-ci peuvent renforcer ou diriger le message de
larticle vestimentaire. Cest ce que Roland Barthes explique en opposant vtement (du
cot de la langue comme institution) et habillement 22 (du cot de la parole comme forme
individualise).
Il est possible mme que la verbalisation de limage stimule la fantaisie et favorise la
substitution du porteur. La vrit cest que la photographie impose un certain modle
physique, masculin ou fminin et, par ceci, limpression dinaccessibilit. La description,
quant elle, limine ces barrires mentales et invite le lecteur vrifier les qualits du
vtement. Par qualits nous voulons dire beaut, lgance, adaptabilit, tout ce qui
amliore laspect physique. De l, la consommation de mode et lindustrie qui sest
dvelopp autour du vtement-tentation, pour ainsi le nommer, oppos en quelque sorte au
vtement-besoin.
Cest, en effet, un systme de la mode dont il faut parler et aucun facteur impliqu
nchappe lanalyse de lauteur. La dimension commerciale de la mode, telle que louvrage
laisse entrevoir, nous a paru suffisamment lisible pour tre commente ici. La conclusion est
bien vidente : la mode impose limage le langage et vice-versa. Le travail de Franois fait
donc partie de ce systme de la mode. Il se sert de son talent pour renforcer limpact du
produit en vente sur celui qui le regarde. Quil sagisse de texte, dimage, ou des deux la
fois, comme cest le cas ici, les mcanismes mentaux dont se sert le commerce sont trs
ressemblants. Cest pour cela que lanalyse de Roland Barthes sur ce sujet nous a paru trs
opportune. Alors, pour rpondre la question lance plus haut, oui, la mode est un art. Et
Cf. Roland Barthes, Systme de la mode, op. cit., p. 916.
Ibid., p.917.
22
Ibid., p. 919.
20
21
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comme tout art, il peut tre soumis une approche pragmatique, il peut tre exploit pour des
objectifs concrets ou financiers. Le plaisir de lart est subordonn aux besoins matriels,
immdiats. Comme nous lavons dj dit, le cas de Franois est un argument en ce sens.
Le problme est mme plus vident chez Le Matre qui enseigne Catherine lart
dramatique. Vraiment passionn du thtre, fervent admirateur de Molire, il se tue pour de
jeunes gens qui ne paient pas toujours leurs cours la fin du mois 23. Non quil soit trop
intress par largent, dailleurs Molire le mprisait 24. Mais il ignorait les notes
dlectricit. Car on me fait payer des notes dlectricit, mes enfants ! Comme si jtais
picier !... 25. Il mne sa vie la limite de laustrit et le vaste studio hrit aprs la mort
dune vieille tante est, peut-tre, la seule scurit matrielle dont il a vraiment besoin. Cest
dans cet endroit quil donne ses cours, quil est applaudi avec extase par ses lves aprs les
scnes dmonstratives quil joue devant une dizaine de Marlon Brando, un bataillon de
Grard Philippe, des Ingrid Bergman et des Brigitte Bardot 26. Il sefforce enseigner la
complexit et la vrit du thtre de Molire, car Molire, cest le sel du thtre, le seul
qui vous mentendez, le seul pas vos Anouilh et vos Sartre Mais vous, naturellement,
vous prfrez les modernes ! [] Sil ny avait pas de Molire, dit le Matre, imaginez-vous
que je continuerais cette puisante vie ? 27
Cette premire idole des temps modernes suscite encore des passions parmi les
consommateurs dart. Parce que Molire, cest un monde, vous comprenez ? 28, un
monde habit par des personnages immortels : Don Juan, Harpagon, Tartuffe ou Alceste.
Provocateur, acide, il a peint les vices de ses contemporains, tout en faisant une fresque
caricaturale de la socit contraignante de son temps. Impossible de le mettre cot de vos
Anouilh et vos Sartre .
Lantiralisme du thtre du XXe sicle, avec sa recherche dun nouveau souffle et
dun nouveau sens, ne trouve pas grce aux yeux du Matre. Linventivit, le rythme
frntique des mutations, lindit de lnergie cratrice sont critiques tacitement par celui-ci.
Il ny voit pas une rgnration du thtre, mais une dgradation des valeurs artistiques. Ses
lves, dailleurs, sattachent aux mmes principes. Ils nient leur prfrence pour les
modernes : Non, crirent les lves, oh non ! avec indignation. 29
Dpassons maintenant les frontires du thtre pour gagner les terrains du monde
cinmatographique. Le septime art, un art impur selon Alain Badiou30, est amplement discut
dans le roman de Guimard travers lvolution de Catherine. Elle renonce la petite estrade
de lappartement du Matre au moment o Zingel, le metteur en scne, le choisit comme
protagoniste de son film, une adaptation du roman Les Amants de Saint-Germain. La lumire
des projecteurs offre de nouvelles perspectives Catherine. En fait, partir de l, nous faisons
la connaissance de la nouvelle Catherine. Sa vie entire gravite autour de cette occasion
23
Ibid., p. 97
Ibid.
25
Ibid.
26
Ibid., p. 95.
27
Ibid., p. 96, 97.
28
Ibid., p. 96.
29
Ibid., p. 97.
30
Alain Badiou est philosophe, romancier et dramaturge franais. Il a crit des articles sur lart du cinma. Voir
le compte-rendu de Denis Lvy, Badiou, lart et le cinma, disponible sur http://revues.mshparisnord.org.
24
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Issue no. 6/2015
inespre, un rve qui prend des contours rels : Tu te rends compte, dit une maigre Danile
Delorme, dbuter dans un film de Zingel !... avec Boyer comme partenaire !... Et le groupe se
mit songer que les miracles taient encore de ce monde. 31
Elle commence une exploration o elle est la fois la dcouvreuse et la dcouverte.
En entrant au studio pour tourner le bout dessai dcisif, son premier sentiment avait t
quelle cessait dexister. 32 Ce monde prend entirement possession delle jusqu' la
dsincarner, car le talent ne suffit pas pour tre actrice, il faut se laisser transformer. Catherine
est recre selon la vision artistique du metteur en scne qui jouit dune docilit de
zombie 33 de la part de celle-ci. Dans cet tat de matire premire 34 elle devient Amalia,
avec tous les changements physiques et motionnels que cela suppose. Aprs avoir perdu sa
virginit devant la camra, la mtamorphose de son corps commence : teinture des cheveux,
nez retaill, opration de la denture. chacune de ces changements, les journalistes piaient
chez Catherine les signes dune hrdit artistique et la consacraient successivement comme
une nouvelle Garbo, une nouvelle Bergman, une nouvelle Une Telle. Catherine prouvait
effectivement limpression dtre un nouveau personnage, mais lequel ? 35
Pure ou impure, cela sappelle art. Mais qui est lartiste ? Catherine ? Zingel ? Les
deux ? Quant la premire, existe-t-elle encore en tant que personne, en tant
quindividualit ? Surtout pas. On ne veut rien delle, ni son corps, ni son esprit, seulement sa
capacit dimiter, de se modeler, sa disponibilit de se laisser faire. ce point, elle change
son statut dartiste contre celui dobjet de lartiste. Elle est dpourvue de toute possibilit
dexpression personnelle, ntant plus que de la chair. Et le plan personnel nchappe lui non
plus comment le pourrait-il ? linfluence destructive du monde cinmatographique. La
fille accepte les avances de M. Delamotte-Vaillard, le producteur, et devient sa matresse.
Cest lui qui satisfait la soif de clbrit de Catherine et qui facilite son accs aux hauts lieux
du cinma.
Dailleurs, Catherine ne stait jamais interroge sur la mtaphysique de son mtier.
En dcidant de se consacrer lart dramatique, elle obissait moins une vocation qu cette
mode qui, depuis la guerre, fait des filles de la petite bourgeoisie des comdiennes, des
assistantes ou des htesses. 36 Voici encore une fois la superficialit et le caractre
commercial que revte la notion d art dans le roman. Elle est rduite un spectacle
incitant, populaire, et aux ovations du grand public. Art et clbrit se confondent ici, et cela
donne une addiction du succs impossible satisfaire sans le compromis. Pour Catherine, la
question de coucher avec nimporte qui pour devenir une actrice connue ne se pose pas en
termes de morale, mais elle et souhait mieux connatre les rgles du jeu pour en respecter
lesthtique. 37 Ce qui suit est prvisible car, aprs toute ascension vertigineuse, vient la
chute. On na plus besoin delle. Pour des raisons conomiques, le producteur dcide que le
film soit tourn en Afrique, ce qui ne va pas sans des modifications esthtiques. Le type
31
Paul Guimard, Rue du Havre, op. cit., p. 106.

Ibid., p. 114.
33
Ibid., p. 128.
34
Ibid., p. 125.
35
Ibid., p. 131.
36
Ibid., p. 116.
37
Ibid., p. 118.
32
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Issue no. 6/2015
physique de Catherine cesse dtre utilisable 38, elle tait le seul pion qui net pas de
place sur le nouvel chiquier. 39
Zingel, quant lui, ne peut rien contre la dcision du producteur, ce qui fait que sa
libert artistique ne soit plus absolue. De nouveau, lart est soumis largent et le crateur
est oblig de trouver un autre objet de travail, qui corresponde aux intrts financiers de
celui qui dtient le vrai pouvoir.
Art, artiste, artistique, tout est mis en question dans le roman de Guimard. Ses
personnages ne sont que les ambassadeurs dune socit en pleine crise des valeurs
spirituelles qui renverse le rapport corps-esprit selon les prfrences de la clientle mal
instruite. Une distinction doit tre opre comme solution de compromis : celle entre lart
comme culture de masse et lessence de lart.
BIBLIOGRAPHIE
Barthes, Roland, Systme de la mode in uvres compltes II, Paris, ditions du Seuil, 2002.
Guimard, Paul, Rue du Havre, Paris, ditions Denol, 1957.
Jouve, Vincent, Potique du roman, Paris, ditions Armand Colin, coll. Cursus , 3e
dition, 2010.
Mannoni, Octave, Clefs pour lImaginaire ou lAutre Scne, Paris, ditions du Seuil, coll.
Points , 1969.
Menger, Pierre-Michel, Portrait de lartiste en travailleur. Mtamorphoses du capitalisme,
Paris,
ditions du Seuil et La Rpublique des Ides, 2002.
Menger, Pierre-Michel, Le travail crateur. Saccomplir dans lincertain, Paris, ditions du
Seuil, coll.
Points , 2009.
***Paul Guimard, entre ironie et lucidit, Actes du Colloque International de Cluj-Napoca,
Roumanie,
7-9 octobre 2011, sous la direction dYvonne Goga et Simona Jia, ClujNapoca, ditions Casa
Crii de tiin, coll. Romanul francez actual , 2011.
38
39
Ibid., p. 138.
Ibid.
946
SITOGRAPHIE
http://www.google.ro/images, consult le 3 janvier 2010.
http://revues.mshparisnord.org, consult le 3 janvier 2010.
http://www.larousse.fr, consult le 13 janvier 2011.
http://www.elle.fr, consult le 13 janvier 2011.
947
Issue no. 6/2015
Issue no.6/2015
LE SUJET EN TANT QUALTER EGO DANS LE ROMAN AUTO-SPECULAIRE1

Leontina COPACIU
Abstract: The Subject as Alter in the autospecular novel. In this study we analyze the
construction of the Subject as an Alter in the autospecular novel De dou mii de ani...
(For two thousand years...), published in the Romanian space in 1934 and written by Mihail
Sebastian. Using inductive and deductive methods of text analysis, we demonstrate that
fictional diary as a narrative tool, the actions and emotions of the character, the
relationship with Others, the processes of consciousness are means of knowing the Self
and means of construction, also of definition of the self Identity.
Keywords: Identity, Origin, Introspection, Narrative reflex.
Le roman De dou mii de ani... (For two thousand years...), rdig sous la forme dun
journal-fictionnel et publi dans le paysage romain littraire en 1934, provoque des grandes
controverses cause de lorigine juive du personnage et implicitement de Mihail Sebastian
(Iosef Hechter) lauteur. Les critiques ont dfinit le volume en tant un essai polmique
(Clinescu, 1986: 963), un roman trs peu roman (Crohmlniceanu, 1967: 106) ou un
vritable roman journal (Lovinescu, 1989:268). Ces caractrisations sont dtermines tant
par larchitecture du volume et par lcriture la premire personne et autant par lintrigue du
roman, savoir les souffrances des Hbreux dans lespace roumain en pleine priode de
controverses politiques, conomiques et sociales. Lauteur-personnage essaie de comprendre
le motif des supplices du peuple hbreu, mais, conformment Nae Ionescu, dans lAvantpropos, il reste seulement au stage de constatation (le peuple hbreu souffreet cest tout !),
tant impossible de trouver une rponse pertinente et beaucoup moins une solution au drame
du judasme.
Toutefois nous considrons que lorigine juive du personnage et le drame du judasme
sont des prtextes pour toute autre chose, cest--dire pour la constitution du Sujet en tant
quAlter et pour la cration dun nouveau monde le roman. Apparemment fragmentaire,
construit par des notations successives ou disparates, pareil un dossier contenant des
informations, le roman-journal est unitaire par son trajet initiatique parcourut par lauteurpersonnage anonyme qui note les vnements de sa vie, les ides, les penses et les
sentiments, les processus de conscience, en essayant de les analyser avec lucidit, ayant
comme but la connaissance de soi, respectivement la constitution et la caractrisation de sa
propre Identit.
Acest studiu a fost finanat de ctre Fondul Social European prin Programul Operaional Sectorial Dezvoltarea
Resurselor Umane 20072013, Axa prioritar 1 Educaia i formarea profesional n sprijinul creterii
economice i dezvoltrii societii bazate pe cunoatere, Domeniul major de intervenie 1.5 Programe doctorale
i postdoctorale n sprijinul cercetrii, n cadrul proiectului Cercettori competitivi pe plan european n domeniul
tiinelor umaniste i socio-economice. Reea de cercetare multiregional (CCPE),
Contract nr.:
POSDRU/159/1.5/S/140863.
(Cette tude a t finance par le Fonds Social Europen par lintermdiaire du Programme Oprationnel
Sectoriel de Dveloppement des Ressources Humaines 2007-2013, Axe prioritaire 1 Lducation et la formation
professionnelle pour la croissance conomique et le dveloppement de la socit par la connaissance. Domaine
majeur dintervention 1.5 Programme doctorale et postdoctorale pour la recherche, dans le cadre du projet
Chercheurs comptitifs dans le domaine des sciences humaines et socio-conomiques. Rseau de recherche
multirgionale (CCPE), Contrat no: POSDRU/159/1.5/S/140863), t.n.
1
948
Issue no. 6/2015
*
Les premires deux parties du roman prsentent les agressions antismites contre les
tudiants juifs de Bucarest dont lauteur-personnage dorigine juive, tudiant la Facult de
Droit a t tmoin ou les a subi. Suivant le conseil du professeur dconomie politique, Ghi
Blidaru, celui renonce aux tudes de Droit et sinscrit lArchitecture. Dans la troisime
partie le personnage-auteur simplique, en qualit darchitecte, dans le projet concernant la
construction de la raffinerie dUioara dont il est investisseur lAmricain Rice. travers les
suivantes parties le personnage analyse ses expriences lies lespace franais qui sont
dfinies par sa relation avec Maurice Buret et il analyse ses visites au Central dans lespace
de Bucarest; galement il prsente les tensions violentes de la raffinerie dUioara. Dans la
dernire partie du roman lauteur-personnage finalise la construction de la maison de Ghi
Blidaru en caractrisant aussi ses rapports avec lidentit juive et celle roumaine.
Le roman suivi la constitution du Sujet en tant quAlter par la relation avec lautre ou
par lanalyse des objets et des situations avec lesquelles il prend contact, tablit des relations.
Lauteur-personnage est larchitecte du Soi-mme par lintermdiaire de la narration qui est:
confesiunea unei contiine excedat de o teribil dilem: <<de a fi tot sau parte. De
a fi solitar sau solidar. Individual-critic sau ncadrat>> (Grsoiu, 1986: 170).
Les modalits de constitution du Sujet comme Alter sont: lvolution, le monologue
intrieur, la scission, lautocritique. Au dbut de la narration le personnage est indiffrent face
aux problmes de la vie:
Dar am umblat cu capul gol pe strzile dearte ale oraului ocupat de nemi [...] Dar
am privit netulburat, cu o rece curiozitate de copil, carele cu turci ngheai, trecnd n
decembrie prin faa porii, i niciodat [...] nu m-a cutremurat prezena morii (ibid., 29).
Pendant la discussion avec Marcel Winder il a reconnu quil sest soustrait au danger
des violences antismites, en se soumettant aux dispositions impratives de quitter les salles
de cours. Pas dernirement, tant frapper, il observe la beaut dune matine de dcembre, en
sabstenant de toute lamentation. Il sanalyse par lintermdiaire du monologue intrieur, en
reconnaissant quil est un homme battu, mais il sencourage, en dialoguant avec soi-mme:
Dac plng sunt pierdut. [...] crede-te erou, roag-te lui D-zeu, spune-i c eti fiul
unui neam de martiri, [...] dar dac vrei s te mai poi privi n ochi i dac vrei s nu-i crape
obrazul de ruine, nu plnge. i cer atta: nu plnge! (ibid., 32-33).
Lauteur-personnage sefforce de dvelopper une conscience lucide afin de crer un
Soi objectif, pur de toute affection pour lui-mme. En ce qui concerne les violences
antismites contre lui et ses collgues juifs, le personnage en qualit dtudiant rejette la
rvolte sociale et se soumet aux ordres antismites: il montre son carnet ou il quitte les
cours selon les demandes, il schappe des bagarres, il senorgueillit du blmant antismite,
en tant fier dtre sale - qualificatif attribu aux Hbreux par les antismites.
Paradoxalement, le Sujet exprime son profond mpris pour son peuple:
Mi-e un necaz imens pe tine fiindc nu te pot ur suficient i fiindc snt, odat cu
tine, dintr-un neam care nu tie s accepte i s tac (ibid., 52).
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En mprisant la souffrance collective, la communion avec ses frres devient

impossible dans le cadre dune cordialit juive:
M tenteaz gndul de a repezi un cuvnt brutal la ntiul prilej, pentru ca s se tie
c aa cum snt aici ntre zece oameni care m cred fratele lor de suferin, eu snt singur,
absolut singur, definitiv singur (ibid., 38).
Le Sujet exprime clairement le dsir de connaitre quest-ce qui se passe avec lui, ainsi
pendant la lecture nous observons lvolution de sa propre introspection: partir de
lignorance des faits graves et la soustraction de ceux-ci jusqu leur reconnaissance et la lutte
contre eux, en aspirant une connaissance essentielle et une comprhension juste, fonde
sur lanalyse lucide des causes de ces faits, comprhension qui suppose lloignement.
galement le journal reprsente le miroir du Sujet dont il se regarde pour se connaitre et se
comprendre:
Dac a ti c asta rezolv ceva, a rupe pagina scris alaltieri. nc o asemenea
izbucnire patetic i renun la jurnal. ntrebarea este dac pot s neleg linitit, critic ceea ce
se ntmpl acum cu mine i cu ceilali. ncolo... (ibid., 33).
En ralit, lvolution du Soi-mme se fait de la subjectivit de lintriorit vers
lobjectivit ainsi que le personnage sent le fort dsir de la scission:
Uneori a vrea s m pot deprta de mine fizic i s m pot privi dintr-un col al odii
cum vorbesc, cum m agit, cum snt vesel, cum snt trist, tiind c nu sunt nimic din toate
acestea ibid., 35).
Si travers les premires deux parties du roman le Sujet sapprofondit dans sa propre
intriorit, dans la troisime partie il scarte des penses du pass, signe que
laccomplissement du rle darchitecte lui a affaibli la vision lie aux craintes
existentielles:
M simt ns liber, mpcat, gata s primesc lucrurile ce vin i trec, s atept
dezlegarea lor cu supunere, s le privesc fr spaim, s le pierd fr dezndejde. M gndesc
la marile mele probleme personale de pe vremuri i nu le pricep. (ibid., 129).
Dans le cadre du monde romanesque devient vidente la relation du Sujet avec
lAltrit et la communion ou limpossibilit de la communion avec lautre. Lauteurpersonnage se reflte dans lautre, comme dans un miroir, et il sobserve en continuant le
processus intrieur de dfinir le Soi-mme:
zbtndu-se ntre tezele expuse de nelinitiii S.T. Haim, Sami Winkler, Abraham
Sulitzer, profesorul Blidaru, raionalistul Vieru, instinctivul Prlea sau terestrul amic Dronu
(Crohmlniceanu, 1967: 108).
Le roman met en scne quelques types de personnages, bien individualiss (Ghi
Blidaru, Mircea Vieru, tefan Prlea), ayant un trs important rle dans la caractrisation du
personnage principale qui se rapproche trs bien du professeur Ghi Blidaru, en confessant le
motif qui dtermine cette proximit du matre:
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Issue no. 6/2015
Ce m apropia mai mult atunci de maistru era, cred, orgoliul lui rnit. Eu nsumi
aveam attea umiliri intime de vindecat, nct vecintatea acestui om lovit din toate prile mi
se prea stimulatoare (ibid., 135).
Paris, en observant la finesse phycologique de Maurice Buret, lauteur-personnage
se rend compte de son incapacit de comprendre la profondeur intrieure dautrui. galement,
en face dun tableau de Chagall, aprs sa discussion avec Maurice, larchitecte reconnat sa
propre intriorit scinde:
Este n mine un personaj care iubete tensiunea, vltoarea, tumultul, marile vnturi
dezlnuite. i este un altul care iubete ideile reci, distinciile precise, rezerva, ateptarea.
ntre aceti doi oameni, acordul e dificil, dar toate eforturile mele personale snt n cutarea
acestui acord, care trebuie ncheiat i meninut. (ibid., 180).
Dans certaines situations la communion avec lautrui permet au narrateur dobserver
ses comportements inadquats et de les critiquer:
Nu sunt un caraghios eu, care am aici, ntre ei, scrupule critice i mi controlez
inuta? Un estet. Asta snt. Decen, discreie, singurtate - valori de cinci parale, n
numele crora i cer durerii s fie o persoan politicoas (ibid., 39).
De cette manire, la souffrance des Hbreux nest pas la mise du roman, mais
seulement un prtexte pour la construction du Sujet en tant quAlter car sur le fond dune
histoire politique domine par des violences antismites (les annes 1923 et les annes 1933)
le Soi doit devenir absolu par lintermdiaire des processus de conscience.
*
Dans les premires deux partie du roman-journal lauteur-personnage note des faits,
des ides disparates sans date et apparemment sans aucune connexion. Les vnements de son
enfance, la famille, les attaques antismites, les processus de conscience, les discussions
avec le professeur Ghi Blidaru sont nots dans le cahier vert et celui bleu. Par cette
technique lauteur-personnage vit par lintermdiaire de lcriture le journal, et la vie vcu
gale la vie raconte, en existant ainsi deux temps: celui du vcu et celui du rcit. Par
exemple, aprs quil a travers une rue o une rvolte sociale a eu lieu, entranant la
dfiguration des gens, le Sujet mdite mcontent son tat dintellectuel misanthrope, retir
dans son tour divoire et domin par une trange perversion:
s stai alturi de drum, s te uii la cine trece i la ce se ntmpl i s scoi din drama
asta, care te elimin, fiindc ea n-are ce face cu spectatorii, s scoi idei, trecute pe curat, la
catastif. (ibid., 85).
Une exception de la narration spontane est mise en vidence explicitement par le
narrateur; du journal manquent les notes concernant son amour pour Magda Stern:
Observ anume c aproape toate pauzele mari ale jurnalului coincid cu momentele
acute ale iubirii noastre. De cte ori exist o ntrerupere de cteva sptmni n notele mele,
caut bine i gsesc sub aceast tcere ceva care o privete pe Marga (ibid., 79).
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Issue no. 6/2015
Si travers les premires deux parties apparaissent des notes disparates, la troisime
partie un trajet pique soutenu par la continuit temporelle des faits, les notations tant lies
par des rfrences temporelles comme hier, aujourdhui, ce soir, jeudi dernier.
*
Lauteur prsente le drame intrieur de son personnage, en situant les vnements dans
un contexte historique tendu du point de vue politico-social, fait qui soutient le rflexe narratif
dans le journal fictionnel. Le sujet contrle sa propre fiction par lintermdiaire du journal
fictionnel et le rsultat est un roman auto-spculaire par lequel le Sujet sobserve et sanalyse
dans le but de se connaitre et de se constituer, respectivement de caractriser sa propre
Identit qui, en fait, reste un problme tragique et insoluble.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Clinescu, George, 1986, History of Romanian Literature from its Origins until Today
(Istoria literaturii romne de la origini pn n prezent), Second edition revised and
expanded, Edition Minerva, Bucharest.
Crohmlniceanu, Ovidiu, 1967, Romanian Literature between the two World Wars
(Literatura romn ntre cele dou rzboaie mondiale), Edition for literature, Bucharest.
Grsoiu, Dorina, 1986, Mihail Sebastian or the Irony of a Destiny (Mihail Sebastian
sau ironia unui destin), Edition Minerva, Bucharest.
Lovinescu, Eugen, 1989, History of Contemporary Romanian Literature. 1900-1937
(Istoria literaturii romne contemporane. 1900-1937), Edition Minerva, Bucharest.
Sebastian, Mihail, 1990, For two thousand years... (De dou mii de ani...), Preface de
Nae Ionescu, Edition Humanitas, Bucharest.
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LES FESTINS FEERIQUES DE PERRAULT : SYMBOLES DANS LA TRADUCTION

Iulia CORDU
"tefan cel Mare" University of Suceava
Abstract: In this article we aim to analyze the translation of two tales by French author
Charles Perrault into Romanian. Our premises will be the theory that children's literature is
aimed towards a double recipient: the child (or the main reader) and the adult (or the
intermediary reader). We will try to see in what measure the translation process succeeds to
send symbols and significations of cultural and gastronomic relevance to a young audience.
Our study will identify two stages of gastronomic terms relevance within two stories, while
identifying the strategies used to achieve the equivalence of terms and symbols.
Keywords: literary translation, terminology, gastronomy, specialized translation, children's
literature.
Introduction
La traduction littraire, intgre dans le jeu de la cration du traducteur, s'identifie
souvent avec la traduction spcialise de certains termes qui sont insrs dans l'uvre
littraire d'origine. Le traducteur littraire se confronte avec la ncessit dtre le
documentariste, le rdacteur, le rviseur, mais aussi le terminologue. ct dune bonne
connaissance des langues et des cultures impliques, le traducteur de littrature arrive
matriser aussi les terminologies spcialises utilises par lauteur. Selon la chercheuse
roumaine Irina Mavrodin, sur de tous ces aspects pratiques du mtier de passeur de mots reste
une srie de rgles runies sous le concept de pratico-thorie de la traduction, forme
individuellement par chaque praticien sur la base de sa propre exprience (Mavrodin, 2006 :
11). Cette pratico-thorie est vritable quand les participants au jeu le prennent au srieux et
tiennent la rigueur, tout en gardant linventivit et la crativit propres lauthenticit du
texte traduit. Ce sont les caractristiques de cette activit paradoxale, o le traducteur est libre
et nest pas libre en mme temps, autonome dans la dfinition des rgles et, cependant,
prisonnier de ces conventions.
Lindividualit de chaque pratico-thorie traductive est gnre par les multiples
modalits de lire une uvre, par la lecture plurielle que tout texte permet et par lambigut
dchiffre diffremment par chaque lecteur (le traducteur tant aussi, dans une premire
phase, un simple lecteur). Le paradoxe mentionn ci-dessus se manifeste au niveau de
lambigut textuelle : mme si le traducteur dcode le message, il doit le faire passer en
maintenant le mme appareil textuel plurismantique qui continue de permettre la lecture
plurielle.
Le dilemme du traducteur de littrature sinscrit dans deux options principales : le
choix damener le texte traduit vers le lecteur ou damener le lecteur vers le texte traduit. La
premire option implique une sorte de modulation du texte pour le rendre plus familier et pour
viter le dpaysement du lecteur, tandis que la deuxime ignore le confort du lecteur et garde
ltrangit du texte original. Les deux stratgies peuvent donner des textes traduits viables,
mais selon dautres critres, Irina Mavrodin soutient comme dautres traductologuesque toute
traduction est reprsentative pour la priode de sa publication, donc elle est soumise au
vieillissement. Lactualit dune uvre littraire est entretenue par sa retraduction priodique,
ce qui cre une essentielle srie ouverte de traductions cause par le statut de la traduction
d uvre crite sur les sables mouvants de lvolution des langues, des cultures et des
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civilisations (Mavrodin, 2006 : 31). La perspective densemble de la relation uvre-variante

traduite est compare par la traductrice roumaine avec le parallle faite par Proust entre la
construction dune cathdrale et la couture dune robe, avec leurs implications de durabilit
dans le temps.
Selon Christian Balliu, spcialiste de la traductologie, mais aussi praticien de la
traduction mdicale, les termes spcialiss cachent parfois les vrais enjeux des textes
mdicaux. Il observe que le traducteur de spcialit doit tre attentif au discours latent, plus
subjectif (Balliu, 2002: 65) des textes scientifiques. Le spcialiste franais soutient que,
depuis toujours, lhomme a traduit surtout les ouvrages dont il avait besoin, ce qui prouve que
la traduction utilitaire a une proportion plus grande que la traduction littraire. Les textes
pragmatiques ont perdu ds le dbut leur composante stylistique, en devenant de simples
supports matriaux de linformation. Balliu considre que cest ainsi que les textes spcialiss
ont acquis leur terminologisation, cause du besoin dune langue algbrique, formate, qui
exclurait toute question de style de ses proccupations (Balliu, 2002: 66). Il sinterroge sur
cette sparation de la langue en deux composantes qui semblent totalement opposs :
Dune part, la langue luvre, noble, dans tous ses tats, celle qui cre le texte et lui
donne vie et richesse, la langue littraire. De lautre, la langue fige, arithmtique et
rptitive, peu encline la cration, vhicule neutre dun contenu scientifique, technique,
juridique ou autre. De la sorte, on aurait deux types de textes, les textes littraires (incluant les
textes philosophiques et religieux) et les textes pragmatiques. (Balliu, 2002: 66)
Balliu affirme quaccepter cette dichotomie des textes signifie oublier que tout texte
contient une esthtique et une dimension littraire, bien quil sagisse des faits scientifiques,
des hypothses striles ou des rsultats analyss. Dautres spcialistes caractrisent le texte
spcialis par le recours aux termes dnots et ils bannissent la polysmie et la synonymie de
ce champ dtude pour crer une photocopie lexicale translinguistique, sans apport
personnel du traducteur (Balliu, 2002: 67). Balliu dmontre que, mme dans les textes
mdicaux, les synonymes peuvent exister, soit au mme niveau de technicit, soit un niveau
rduit, adress aux non-spcialistes.
Le traductologue prcise que le domaine de spcialit nest pas important, lide
suivante pouvant sappliquer tous les textes scientifiques : cest lutilisation centripte ou
centrifuge du concept qui maintient ou dlaisse lopacit du signifiant (Balliu, 2002: 67). Il
rejette aussi lide que si un concept sadresse un non-spcialiste, il est subi la
dterminologisation (ou une transparence du signifiant).
En se basant sur des exemples de termes mdicaux, Balliu observe que la terminologie
simplement constate le dcalage entre les entres des dictionnaires et leur usage pratique. Ce
phnomne arrive cause des tudes ralises par des spcialistes qui ne font pas partie du
domaine analys, ce qui confine la rflexion seulement laxe linguistique. Il soutient que de
telles analyses se concentrent sur la langue et non sur le discours ou le sociolecte.
Au sujet de la stratgie de traduction choisie par un traducteur au dbut de son travail,
Christian Balliu affirme que le changement de quelques mots au parcours du processus de
traduction ne change pas lhistoire, plus encore - il est encourag, car la fidlit passe
souvent par le changement ou lloignement (Balliu, 2002 : 40). Le respect de la pense de
lauteur ne signifie pour le chercheur franais respecter tous ses paroles, car le traducteur ne
doit pas seffacer devant lauteur (Balliu, 2002 : 40). Il rcrit le texte sans prendre la place
de lauteur, car la pense originale ne lui appartient pas, mais la formulation est personnelle.
Balliu fait une observation trs pertinente, qui surprend le caractre dynamique du mtier de
traducteur, qui a beaucoup chang rcemment. Quand on lui demande de mettre un texte assez
long dans un nombre plus rduit de pages, il choisit ce qui lui parait essentiel, en devenant
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la fois traducteur, rsumeur et adaptateur (Balliu, 2002 : 41). Essentiellement cibliste, Balliu
affirme quon doit penser au lecteur en premier lieu, pour lui donner un confort de lecture. Il
soutient aussi que le public ne compare jamais la traduction avec son original ; quand mme,
nous ne sommes pas daccord avec cette ide ponctuelle, car notre propre exprience de
lecteur nous dmontre souvent le contraire, soit que nous connaissons les deux langues ou
non. Une manire de sexprimer non-naturelle frappe le lecteur ds la premire lecture.
2. La traduction de la littrature d'enfance
La littrature d'enfance est cense apporter de multiples bnfices son jeune lecteur :
elle doit lui faire apprcier son ct esthtique, lui faire apprendre des leons morales et
ducatives et le divertir. Par ce dernier bnfice, le jeune lecteur trouve derrire le
divertissement une entire vise pdagogique, nonce ds le XVIe sicle par Charles
Perrault, dans la quatrime dition de ses contes :
[Nos aeuls]... ont toujours eu un trs grand soin que leurs contes renfermassent une
moralit louable et instructive. Partout la vertu y est rcompense, et partout le vice y est puni.
Ils tendent tous faire voir l'avantage qu'il y a d'tre honnte, patient, avis, laborieux,
obissant, et le mal qui arrive ceux qui ne le sont pas. [...] Quelque frivoles et bizarres que
soient toutes ces fables dans leurs aventures, il est certain qu'elles excitent dans les enfants le
dsir ressembler ceux qu'ils voient devenir heureux, et en mme temps la crainte des
malheurs o les mchants sont tombs par leur mchancet. (Perrault, 1964 : 13)
La connaissance limite des lecteurs de la littrature pour les enfants pose des
problmes importants lors de la traduction des rfrents culturels. Roberta Pederzoli aborde la
problmatique de la mdiation culturelle, en affirmant que laspect culturel de la traduction
soulve dimportantes questions comme linterculturalit et la globalisation. La chercheuse
italienne trouve que les modifications effectues sur le style ou sur l'intgralit du texte,
l'autocensure ou le changement de la voix narrative sont quelques-unes des modalits de
manipuler le texte pour l'adapter au public source de la traduction. Ces distorsions, qui
peuvent avoir des justifications ducatives les opinions des adultes lies ladquation et les
attitudes enfantines sont parfois critiques par les spcialistes qui prfrent une approche
plus respectueuse du texte de dpart.
Limportance de la notion relativement nouvelle de lisibilit de la traduction drive du
fait quelle garantit une communication russie entre lmetteur et le destinataire du texte
traduit. Pederzoli rvle dans quelle mesure il est difficile de traduire pour les enfants si on
prend en considration les besoins et les attentes du destinataire-enfant. Un aspect essentiel en
est le risque de satisfaire seulement les attentes de ladulte qui achte et lit le livre son
enfant, mais de dcevoir le lecteur et le destinataire rel du texte. La restitution de luvre
originale dans une langue cible est cense respecter une certaine thique et en gardant son
esthtique , ce qui respecte lenfant non seulement dans le souci de ses attentes et de ses
comptences de lecture, mais aussi dans son droit dtre initi la beaut et une littrature
digne de ce nom , soutient la chercheuse (Pederzoli, 2012 : 282).
Pour important que ce soit la composante ducative des contes pour enfants, le
message est mieux reu quand il est dissimul dans le texte original et qu'il garde le
camouflage dans la traduction. Ana Maria Machado, auteure brsilienne pour enfants, soutient
dans une interview accorde Mugura Constantinescu qu'elle ne valorise par les uvres qui
ont un fort souci pdagogique : Je crois que la littrature doit faire face des questions
littraires, de langage, de stratgies narratives, pas aux intentions pdagogiques. Les ventuels
"messages" viennent naturellement, comme manifestations de la vision de monde de l'auteur.
Il ne faut pas s'occuper de ses soucis, mon avis. (Machado in Constantinescu, 2013 : 202).
3. Termes gastronomiques dans les contes de Perrault
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Les trois traductions que nous analyserons appartiennent trois traducteurs roumains,
grce qui, depuis les annes 1960 jusqu' prsent, les contes de Charles Perrault ont t
rdits chaque dcennie, dans des formes diverses. Les deux traductrices roumaines
prsentes dans notre analyse sont Sarina Cassvan (V1) et Teodora Popa-Mazilu (V2) (elles
ont sign plusieurs rditions depuis 1975), tandis que la traduction de Dan Faur (V3) a t
publi plus rcemment, en 2000. Les volumes publis par Popa-Mazilu sont accompagns par
un appareil textuel scientifique qui offre des informations sur lauteur, sur luvre sous la
forme des prfaces et des tableaux chronologiques. Les autres volumes semblent plus cibls
sur le destinataire enfant, en contenant seulement les contes et, parfois, des illustrations.
3.1 Le Petit Chaperon Rouge
Lhistoire du Petit Chaperon Rouge nest pas unique dans lespace franais, car il
connat aussi quelques variantes trangres, en ayant des analogies avec la lgende des Trois
petits cochons de lAngleterre et une grande partie commune avec le conte des frres Grimm,
Rotkppchen. La variante allemande propose une fin diffrente lhistoire, en sauvant les
personnages de leur destin sombre : aprs avoir dvor le Chaperon rouge et sa grandmre,
le loup sest endormi ; un chasseur survient, dcoud le ventre de la bte et dlivre la petite
fille et la grandmre encore vivantes (Perrault, 1966 : 46).
Au commencement de lhistoire, dans ldition scientifique franaise de 1966 que
nous avons consult, nous trouvons une note explicative aprs le fragment Un jour, sa mre
ayant cuit et fait des galettes (p. 46). Pour clairer la nature du complment dobjet direct
du verbe cuire, lditeur explique : Cuire se dit quelquefois absolument, du pain en
particulier. Ce boulanger cuit deux ou trois fois par jour. A la campagne tous les bourgeois
cuisent la maison. Il est dfendu de cuire les jours de ftes solennelles (Furetire). Il faut
donc entendre : ayant cuit du pain et cette occasion fait des galettes. [] (p. 46). Il semble
que seulement Teodora Popa-Mazilu a retenu cette nuance lexicale, en gardant les deux
verbes qui ont des complments distincts : ntr-o zi, mama ei, dup ce frmnt i coapse
nite plcinte [] (V2). Le sens nest pas totalement rendu pour quivaloir le sens de la
note explicative (cuire du pain et cette occasion faire des galettes), mais le lecteur peut
quand mme comprendre cette ide : a frmnta aluat pentru pine i a coace i nite
plcinte1. Un dictionnaire gastronomique explicatif roumain mentionne le fait que le langage
commun associe le verbe a coace (cuire) avec les aliments faits de pte2.Les autres versions
roumaines ignorent totalement le sens implicite du premier verbe et proposent les traductions
suivantes : Mama ei fcuse ntr-o zi nite plcinte i nu se ndur s nu-i trimit i bunicii
cteva (V1) et ntr-o zi maic-sa puse la cuptor nite plcinte i dup ce fur gata
rumenite, i spuse fetiei [] (V3), ce qui fait ressortir seulement lactivit de cuire des
galettes.
La problmatique de la traduction des expressions se manifeste trs vivement dans le
cas des textes qui ont une composante gastronomique ou simplement lie lacte de manger.
Ainsi, le loup mange la grand-mre trs rapidement, car il tait trs affam : Il se jeta sur la
bonne femme, & la dvora en moins de rien; car il y avait plus de trois jours quil navait
mang. (p. 3) La V2 se rvle de nouveau la plus fidle, en traduisant presque mot--mot et
en crant un texte lisible et naturel : Se arunc asupra bunicii i o nghii ct ai clipi din
ochi, cci trecuser mai bine de trei zile de cnd nu mai pusese nimic n gur (V2). Les
versions 1 et 3 interviennent dans le texte et expliquent pourquoi laction de manger la grandmre se passe si vite : era tare flmnd ou era grozav de flmnd (il tait trs affam).
Ptrir de la pte pour faire du pain et cuire aussi des galettes.
Coce vb. III. [] n limbaj comun se aplic, mai ales, la alimentele fcute din aluat: a coace pine, prjituri,
cozonac etc. [] (Dicionar Gastronomic Explicativ, 2003 - http://dexonline.ro/definitie/a%20coace, date de
la consultation le 18 fvrier 2015).
1
2
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3.3 La Belle au Bois Dormant

Contenant le thme du sommeil magique comme lieu commun de la ferie, La Belle
au Bois Dormant est rattache plusieurs lgendes rencontres dans les espaces culturels
grec, allemand, italien, et aussi dans une lgende chrtienne. Une premire version du conte a
t publie en 1696, dans le Mercure galant ; les versions ultrieures contiennent de diverses
variations (cf. Perrault, 1966 : 35).
Les termes spcifiques la gastronomie ne sont pas trs nombreux dans ce conte, au
moins du point de vue de leur degr de technicit. Quand mme, nous analyserons aussi les
expressions et les formulations lies lacte de manger (la plupart des occurrences font
rfrence aux enfants, le souper prfr de lOgresse). Le premier festin du conte, donn pour
les (six ou) sept marraines de la princesse3, trouve des expressions distinctes en roumain.
Ainsi, le grand festin pour les fes est traduit par un osp att de mbelugat cum nu se
mai pomenise (V1), un osp grozav (V2) et un mare praznic n cinstea znelor (V3).
Si le terme osp semble adquat cette situation, la solution praznic de la V3 contient
comme sens secondaire vieilli lide de fte ou clbration dun anniversaire, mais le sens
actuel renvoie une occasion plutt triste, de commmoration dun dfunt.
Quand les fes dcident de faire endormir toutes les personnes du palais, leffet de
cette magie affecte aussi les broches mmes, qui taient au feu, toutes pleines de perdrix &
de faisans, s'endormirent, & le feu aussi . La description des plats du dner royal diffre dans
les versions des traducteurs roumains, tant au niveau des termes quau niveau des
expressions : Pn i frigrile n care erau nfipi fazanii i prepeliele rmaser
ncremenite. Focul se stinse i el [] (V1), Adormir pn i frigrile de pe foc, doldora
de potrnichi i de fazani, i focul de asemeni. (V2), i ce crezi: pn i frigrile care
erau pe foc i se ndoiau sub greutatea potrnichilor i a fazanilor adormir, ba adormi el i
focul cel jucu! (V3). Si les faisans ne posent pas de problme dans la traduction, la
traductrice Sarina Cassvan choisit une solution diffrente : prepeliele, la diffrence des
autres versions qui proposent le terme potrnichi. Les deux types doiseaux sont migratoires,
de petite taille, mais la dnomination officielle du deuxime terme est perdix perdix4, ce qui
montre lorigine commune latine du terme.
La crativit du traducteur, ajoute au dsir de rendre le texte plus attrayant pour le
destinataire enfant, donne naissance des solutions plus labores, plus ludiques, sans que
cela soit considr ncessairement une infidlit. Le jeune prince qui sauve le palais du
sommeil de cent ans dcouvre que des personnes taient encore assises la table & leurs
tasses, o il y avait encore quelques gouttes de vin montraient assez qu'ils s'taient endormis
en buvant (p.24-25). La traduction du verbe boire est diffrente dans chaque traduction,
mais aucune n'utilise l'quivalent direct a bea : Iar cupele care mai pstrau nc urme de vin
dovedeau c adormiser ndat, pe cnd se cinsteau cu cte un phru. (V1), de
altfel, cnile n care se mai aflau cteva picturi de vin artau destul de limpede c
adormiser cu toii. (V2) et De altfel, cnile lor de lut, n care se mai gseau cteva
picturi de vin, te fceau s juri c adormiser n timp ce ddeau de duc (V3). Les
expressions colloquiales soulignes par nous contiennent des connotations qui n'existent pas
dans le texte original, qui suggrent une inclinaison vers les ftes et la consommation du vin.
Toutefois, la reprsentation zro de la V2 n'est pas une solution plus inspire, car cet
effacement rend le sens moins clair dans la phrase.
Les deux expressions de la citation suivante rendent diffrents degrs le style
original, en fonction de l'importance que chaque traducteur voit dans la sensation terrible de
La version de Teodora Popa-Mazilu mentionne quon a trouv seulement six fes pour marraines la petite
princesse. (p.11)
4
http://dexonline.ro/definitie/pot%C3%A2rniche, date de la consultation le 16 fvrier 2015.
3
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faim (aprs ne pas avoir mang depuis cent ans) ou dans l'acte de servir le repas : ... &
comme ils n'taient pas tous amoureux, ils mouraient de faim. La dame d'honneur ... dit tout
haut la Princesse que la viande tait servie (p. 26). Les trois traducteurs roumains
proposent les solutions suivantes : Dar nefiind cu toii prini de nflcrare, curtenilor le era
foame i prima doamn de onoare o ntiin pe prines cu glas tare c friptura era servit
(V1), i cum nu toi erau ndrgostii, mureau pur i simplu de foame. Doamna de
onoare, grbit ca i ceilali, i pierdu rbdarea i-i spuse cu glas tare prinesei c masa era
servit (V2), i cum nu erau toi ndrgostii, pn una alta mureau de foame
Doamna de onoare era la fel de grbit s mnnce ca i ceilali. Dar vezi c ea i pierdu
rbdarea s mai atepte i-i spuse cu voce tare prinesei c masa e servit (V3). Les
solutions pour l'expression mourir de faim nuancent dans une certaine mesure le sens, en
mentionnant que les invits mouraient de faim purement et simplement (V2) ou qu'ils le
faisaient entre temps (V3). Si dans la V1 on observe une sous-traduction (les courtisans
avaient faim), nous remarquons cependant la solution friptura era servit, qui prcise que le
moment du repas, interrompu par une pause de cent ans, continue avec la dernire tape : la
prsentation de la viande. Les autres traductions offrent la solution masa e/era servit, qui
omet l'ide de pause dans le droulement du repas.
Oppos aux festins du palais royal, la signification des aliments suivants renvoie la
pnurie, aux ressources limites : Le prince lui dit qu'en chassant il s'tait perdu dans la fort
& qu'il avait couch dans la hutte d'un charbonnier, qui lui avait fait manger du pain noir &
du fromage (p. 26). Les termes correspondants sont parfois accompagns par des
explicitations ou mme par moins d'information, selon l'option traductive des passeurs de
mots : n coliba unui crbunar care i-a dat s mnnce pine neagr i brnz, cci mai
mult n-avea (V1), n coliba unui crbunar care-i dduse s mnnce pine i brnz
(V2), n coliba unui vntor care, dup toate, i potolise i foamea, dndu-i s mnnce
pine neagr cu brnz (V3). Les insertions traductives qui imitent la voix de l'auteur
apportent des informations supplmentaires qui finissent par allonger le texte cible : cci mai
mult n-avea (car il n'en avait pas davantage) et i potolise i foamea, dndu-i s mnnce (il
lui avait apais la faim, en lui donnant manger). De ce point de vue, la solution de la V2
semble plus simple et concise, en dpit de l'omission du terme noir (neagr).
Depuis ce moment dans le conte, toutes les rfrences la cuisine et lacte de
manger portent aux prfrences gastronomiques de la reine ogresse. La premire
manifestation de son dsir de manger un enfant regarde Aurore, la fille de la princesse
devenue reine : Je veux manger demain mon dner la petite Aurore (p. 28). Les trois
versions oprent des diffrences au niveau du moment du repas (djeuner/dner), de la
manire de cuisiner la petite princesse (telle quelle ou au four) et de son nom : Mine, la
cin, s mi-o pui la cuptor pe mica Aurora, i s mi-o serveti la mas! (V1), Mine la
prnz vreau s-o mnnc pe micua Aurora! (V2), Auzi tu, buctarule, vreau s mnnc
mine la prnz pe mica Zori-de-zi. (V3). Dans la V1, Sarina Cassvan choisit de placer le
repas la mi-journe et de faire un ajout quant la modalit de prparer le repas (au four),
solution avec laquelle Teodora Popa-Mazilu semble ne pas tre daccord dans la V2, en
liminant lajout inutile dinformation et changeant le repas dans le dernier du jour. Le
polysmantisme du terme dner en franais conduit, en fait, cette confusion, car ce repas
peut tre le premier de la journe, celui de la mi-journe ou du soir5. De ce point de vue, nous
considrons que la solution la plus simple et adquate serait Vreau s o mnnc mine la
mas pe micua Aurora . Dan Faur considre aussi, dans la V3, que la reine dsire prendre le
repas pendant la soire, mais il effectue une traduction totalement diffrente du nom de la
petite princesse Aurore : Zori-de-zi.
5
http://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/diner, date de la consultation le 17 fvrier 2015.
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Lanalyse du traductologue franais Michel Ballard (Ballard, 1998) sur la nature du

nom propre conduit la dcouverte de deux fonctions principales : le nom propre est un
identificateur social, accompagn ou non dun nom de famille et dun surnom, et un
identificateur ethnique, qui par la sonorit et la graphie dvoile lappartenance ethnique. Si
gnralement, le report est la stratgie la plus commune pour la traduction du nom propre, en
rsistant la traduction-assimilation, la traduction totale du nom arrive dans le cas des
personnages historiques trs connus (Richard Cur de Lion = Richard the Lion-Hearted).
Mais le traductologue nous fait remarquer que les tentations de traduction sont arrtes par la
non-concidence globale des systmes de dsignation, au nom de lhomognit du rseau
onomastique dans le texte cible.
Ce cas particulier permet la traduction du nom propre, car sa signification est
Moment qui suit l'aube et prcde immdiatement le lever du soleil, o l'horizon prsente
des lueurs brillantes et roses 6. Le mme terme a la mme dfinition en roumain, donc la
solution de traduction semble simple : Aurora, comme le montrent les versions 1 et 2. Dan
Faur traduit par un synonyme roumain, Zori-de-zi, qui dcrit le mme moment du jour, mais
sans les connotations lies la lumire et sa couleur. La V2 utilise ce nom propre pour
nommer le frre de la princesse, le petit Jour, tandis que les autres versions l'appellent micul
Soare (le petit soleil) et micuul Zi (le petit jour).
L'envie de la reine ogresse de manger de la chair frache est complte par sa
demande particulire de la manger la sausse Robert 7. C'est la premire occurrence d'un
terme spcialise gastronomique, dont le sens est Sauce Robert, ou Sauce-Robert, Une
sauce faite avec de la moutarde, de l'oignon & du vinaigre 8. La traduction de ce terme a
pos certainement des problmes aux traducteurs, qui ont trouv les solutions suivantes : o
vreau servit cu sos alb (V1), vreau s-o mnnc cu sos Robert (V2), vreau s-o mnnc
n sos Robert (V3).
Le choix traductif de la V1 est un exemple de traduction ethnocentrique, qui dirige
lensemble du texte vers sa propre culture laide de lhypronymisation, en considrant tout
lment extrieur comme ngatif ou assimilable. Traduire par la classe dobjets dont le terme
spcialis fait partie limine le spcifique culturel et gastronomique de lhistoire. Antoine
Berman considre cet gard que Toute culture doit savoir sapproprier les productions de
sens trangres. Mais cela ne concerne pas les uvres. Certes, les uvres font sens et
veulent la transmission de leur sens 9 (Berman, 1999 : 40). C'est dans la mme ligne de
pense que les traducteurs des versions 2 et 3 traduisent en utilisant le report, procd qui
"importe" le terme tel quel. Les deux traducteurs introduisent des notes en bas de page pour
expliciter le sens du terme spcialis : Celebru buctar de pe vremea lui Ludovic al XIV-lea
care a pregtit un sos deosebit de gustos ce-i poart numele. (V2) et Celebru buctar pe
timpul domniei lui Ludovic al XIV-lea (V3).
Les trois repas que le cuisinier prpare pour l'Ogresse sont trs apprcis, ce qui donne
forme des expressions de contentement diverses : sa matresse l'assura qu'elle n'avait
jamais rien mang de si bon [...] un petit chevreau fort tendre, que l'Ogresse trouva
admirablement bon [...] une biche, que la reine mangea son souper, avec le mme apptit
que si c'et t la jeune reine (p. 28-30). Ces expressions sont rendues en roumain l'aide
des modulations, ce qui fait que la forme d'arrive du texte varie de nouveau en fonction de la
subjectivit du traducteur. Sarina Cassvan et Teodora Popa-Mazilu offrent des solutions
adquates, presque terme par terme : nu mai mncase nicicnd ceva mai bun [...]o friptur
http://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/aurore, date de la consultation le 17 fvrier 2015.
C'est une forme ancienne d'crire le mot sauce, c'est nous qui soulignons.
8
http://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/academie4/sauce//0, date de la consultation le 17 fvrier 2015.
9
Cest nous qui soulignons.
6
7
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de ied, pe care aceasta de asemenea o gsi excelent [...] o ciut, pe care regina-mam o
mnc la cin cu aceeai poft cu care ar fi mncat-o pe regin (V1), stpn-sa l
ncredin ca niciodat nu mncase ceva mai gustos [...] un ied pe care zmeoaica l gsi cum
nu se poate mai bun [...] o cprioar pe care regina o mnc la cin cu aceeai poft cu care
ar fi mncat-o pe nor-sa (V2). Si lide de ne jamais avoir mang quelque chose de si bon
est rendue par la mme forme ngative en roumain (nu, nicicnd, niciodat), la version
affirmative de lapprciation positive du plat trouver quelque chose admirablement bon
est traduite aussi par la forme ngative dans la V2 : cum nu se poate mai bun. Cette unit de
traduction est traite diffremment par le traducteur Dan Faur, en oprant une explicitation
qui ntait pas ncessaire et dont le contenu informatif ne se retrouve pas dans le texte
original : zmeoaica gsi c-avea o carne fraged i delicioas (V3).
4. Conclusion
Nous avons dcouvert que dans les deux textes de Charles Perrault sont prsents des
termes spcialiss gastronomiques spars dans deux catgories : termes trs spcialiss, qui
ne sont pas connus par le grand public, et termes lexicaliss, introduits dans la langue
commune. Nos conclusions aprs lanalyse comparative des trois versions roumaines sont que
le dsir de manifester sa crativit influence chaque traducteur, dans des mesures diffrentes.
Sarina Cassvan se situe mi-chemin entre le texte source et sa version personnalise , en
choisissant parfois dy introduire des structures et expressions l ou loriginal ne lexige pas.
Teodora Popa-Mazilu produit la version roumaine la plus respectueuse du texte de dpart, qui
ne change presque rien et najoute rien, mais qui se soucie aussi de la forme harmonieuse du
produit de la traduction. Dan Faur manifeste le plus haut degr de libert dans ses traductions,
qui deviennent plus longues et changent beaucoup de style. Cependant, si nous prenons en
considration ce que la littrature denfance se propose daccomplir, nous ralisons que les
trois traductions analyses transmettent sous des formes diffrentes le message moralisateur et
crent dans le jeune public le plaisir de lire.
Bibliographie
Corpus
PERRAULT, Charles (1968): Frumoasa din pdurea adormit, Poveti. Memorii.
Traducere i tabel cronologic de Teodora Popa. Prefa de Anca Georgescu-Fuerea, Editura
pentru literatur, 313 p.
PERRAULT, Charles (1975): Uriaul Periferigerilerimini, Traducere de Sarina
Cassvan, Ediia a II-a, Editura Ion Creang, Bucureti, 87 p.
PERRAULT, Charles (1964): Contes, Notice biographique, Notice historique et
littraire, Notes explicatives, Jugements, Questionnaire, Sujet de devoirs par ROUGER,
Gilbert, Librairie Larousse, Paris VI, 104 p.
PERRAULT, Charles (1966): Contes, ditions Baudelaire, Paris, 249 p.
PERRAULT, Charles (2000): Poveti, Traducere de Dan Faur, Editura Allfa, 88 p.
PERRAULT, Charles (1981): Poveti cu zne, Traducere de Sarina Cassvan, Copert
i ilustraii de Val Munteanu, Editura Ion Creang, Bucureti, 104 p.
PERRAULT, Charles (1777): Histoires ou Contes du Temps Pass avec des
Moralits, Nouvelle dition, augmente dune Nouvelle & dune Fable, A La Haye, (& se
trouve) A Liege, chez Bassompierre, Libraire & Imprimeur, MDCCLXXVII, 120 p.
(1997): Frumoasa cu plete de aur. Basme clasice franceze, Traducere, prezentri i
note de Teodora Popa-Mazilu, Biblioteca pentru toi, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 276 p.
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Bibliographie secondaire
BALLARD, Michel (1998) : La traduction du nom propre comme ngociation in
Palimpsestes, (sous la direction de) Paul Bensimon et Didier Coupaye, no11, Presses de la
Sorbonne Nouvelle, ISBN 2-87854-137-5, pp. 199-223.
BALLIU Christian, (2002) : La traduction serait-elle de la rcriture ? Christian
Balliu interview par Katia Baroudy in Al-Kimia. La magie des mots, no.8, Crea Cel ETIB,
pp. 39-46.
BERMAN, Antoine (1999) : La traduction et la lettre ou Lauberge du lointain,
Editions du Seuil, Paris, ISBN 978-2-02-038056-0, 144 p.
CONSTANTINESCU, Mugura (2013) : Lire et traduire la littrature de jeunesse:
Des contes de Perrault aux textes ludiques contemporains, P.I.E.-Peter Lang S.A, 218 p.
MAVRODIN, Irina (2006) : Despre traducere: literal i n toate sensurile, Editura
Scrisul Romnesc, Craiova.
PEDERZOLI, Roberta (2012) : La traduction de la littrature de jeunesse et le
dilemme du destinataire, Peter Lang, Bruxelles, 313 p.
Note: Cet article a t financ par le projet SOCERT. Socit de la connaissance,
dynamisme par la recherche , n du contrat POSDRU/159/1.5/S/132406, cofinanc par le
Fonds Social Europen, par le Programme Oprationnel Sectoriel pour le Dveloppement des
Ressources Humaines 2007-2013. Investir dans les Gens!
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UPON SOME LEXICALIZATIONS OF CHRISTIAN SPIRITUALITY IN THE 1648

CALVINIST CATECHISM
PL Enik
Sapientia University of Miercurea Ciuc
Abstract: Christianity not only brought about essential calitative transformations in the
conceptualization of the world but it also determined a radical renewal of the national
languages vocabulary. The present paper focuses on the Romanian lexicalizations of some of
the main notions of Christian spirituality, such as believer, fellow, consolation, piety,
communion, redemption and resurrection, which are to be found in the Calvinist
Catechism printed in 1648. Apart from continuing a relatively established tradition regarding
the designation of these concepts, in certain cases, the Romanian translator himself creates
new lexemes by means of lexical borrowing and loan translation.
Keywords: lexicalization, Christianity, loanword, calque, semantic transfer
Apariia i rspndirea cretinismului nu numai c au determinat transformri
calitative eseniale n modul de conceptualizare a lumii / divinitii, dar ele au atras dup sine
i o nnoire radical a limbilor naionale, ndeosebi n ceea ce privete domeniul lexical. n
acest sens, se poate spune c ,,odat cu popoarele s-au cretinat i limbile (Gafton 2005, p.
7).
Noile noiuni indispensabile cultului religios au impus, implicit, i crearea unui lexic
specializat, modalitile de lexicalizare urmnd ci diverse de la o limb la alta, dar i n
cadrul aceleiai limbi1. n cazul limbilor originare ale Bibliei, una dintre modalitile de
lexicalizare a noilor concepte o putea constitui revitalizarea fondului lexical vechi prin
resemantizarea unor lexeme existente (unele prin excelen ,,pgne), ncrcndu-le cu
semnificaii noi, corespunztoare existenei cretine2. O alt modalitate de a crea terminologia
necesar o reprezenta creaia lexical, prin derivare, compunere etc., de la baze uzuale,
nsoit, de cele mai multe ori, i de schimbri semantico-noionale. Noii semnificani,
consacrai mai nti prin uzul vorbit, au fost apoi instituionalizai prin scris, canonizai n i
prin textele bilbice. n cazul limbilor ai cror vorbitori se familiarizeaz cu terminologia
biblic ndeosebi prin intermediul unor traduceri ale Sfintei Scripturi, alturi de modalitile
de lexicalizare amintite, se poate meniona i mprumutul din ,,limbile clasice 3, respectiv
calchierea.
Pe de o parte, fiecare limb dispune de un fond lingvistic propriu, de resurse proprii i de particulariti de
structurare i de organizare a materialului lingvistic care o difereniaz de altele. Pe de alt parte, lexicalizarea
conceptelor fundamentale ale dogmei cretine se produce n chip relativ diferit la popoarele n ale cror limbi s-a
scris originar Biblia, fa de acele popoare la care Sfnta Scriptur a ajuns n urma unor traduceri. Apoi, n cel
din urm caz, lucrurile se deosebesc i n funcie de natura traducerilor, cele primare, adic traducerile directe
din limba ebraic, ntrebuinnd (i) alte mijloace dect cele secundare, mediate de versiunile latineti, slavone
etc., care au servit, la rndul lor, drept surs a unor traduceri ulterioare.
2
De altminteri, o asemenea adaptare a fondului vechi (a existenei ,,pgne) la noile nevoi se poate observa i
n planul practicilor, ritualurilor, ceremoniilor, dar i al simbolurilor precretine care, odat cu adoptarea noii
religii, n urma unor ajustri, transferuri de sens, se ncarc cu semnificaii noi, ajungnd s denote realiti
cretine.
3
Denumirea ,,limb clasic este folosit aici n accepia dat de E. Munteanu: ,,o limb scris, cultivat ca atare
ntr-un mediu cultural aloglot, din raiuni diverse (liturgice, religioase, educaionale etc.), n mod exclusiv sau n
paralel cu o limb naional (popular). n aceast accepie, funcia unor limbi clasice au ndeplinit-o, n cultura
romneasc a secolului al XVII-lea, limbile greac i slavon i, parial, limba latin (Munteanu 2008, p. 5).
1
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Cu toate c, ncepnd cu Reforma, are loc o nou reinterpretare a fundamentelor

dogmei cretine i, astfel, a noiunilor spiritualitii cretine care, la rndul ei, atrage dup sine
o anumit resemantizare a unor lexeme n funcie de diferitele orientri confesionale,
numeroi termeni, precum pocin, mntuire, ispit etc., rmn ecumenici i lipsii de
orice conotaie distinctiv-confesional (Munteanu 2008, p. 504), din moment ce acetia
izvorsc dintr-o ,,comunitate conceptual european, din structuri conceptuale identice,
lexicalizate pe baza unei paradigme semantice primare, existente n originalul ebraic sau n
versiunile greac, latin sau slavon a textelor sacre.
2. Lexicalizarea noiunilor eseniale ale doctrinei calviniste a putut constitui, pe
alocuri, o grea ncercare pentru traductorul Catehismului tiprit la Alba Iulia n 1648. O
dificultate o putea reprezenta lipsa unei limbi de cult romneti unitare i oficializate, a unui
lexic bisericesc, liturgic canonizat. Cu toate c autorul catehismului dispunea de un vocabular
mai mult sau mai puin consfinit prin uzul relativ consecvent n graiuri i/sau n traducerile
romneti premergtoare, textul fundamental i cu cea mai mare autoritate, Biblia, cunoatea,
pn la acel moment, doar o traducere parial (po), o alt traducere parial era efectuat
concomitent cu catehismul lui Fogarasi (ntb), iar prima traducere integral (bb) se lsa nc
ateptat.
n aceste condiii, un interes deosebit prezint opiunile4 traductorului romn al
Catehismului pentru a ntrebuina sau, dup caz, pentru a crea forme lingvistice care s redea
concepte ce in de spiritualitatea cretineasc, n general, respectiv de interpretarea ei
calvineasc, n special. De asemenea, trebuie remarcat i faptul c situaia limbii romne este
specific i datorit faptului c ea mbin, n proporii diferite, elemente ale unor limbi care se
nscriu n circuite culturale deosebite5. Astfel, se tie c, vreme ndelungat, oficierea
slujbelor se fcea ntr-o limb strin (slavon, eventual, parial i n anumite zone, n latin),
astfel nct terminologia bisericeasc era preponderent de origine strin. n acest sens, este
interesant de urmrit felul n care autorul alterneaz termenii de origine slav cu cele de
origine latineasc pentru a reda acelai concept. Lucrurile se prezint nc i mai complexe
dac lum n considerare faptul c, datorit unor condiii istorico-politice specifice epocii,
zona creia i aparine traducerea intr n zona de influen maghiar i, n plus, traducerea
romneasc se servete i de o surs maghiar6. Astfel, pe lng cazurile n care autorul
continu o oarecare tradiie n lexicalizarea preceptelor cretine, exist i situaii n care
traductorul se vede nevoit de a introduce un lexem inedit (fie sub forma unui mprumut cult,
fie a unui calc de semnificat sau de expresie, fie a unui derivat nemantlnit)7. Ba mai mult,
n mod firesc, ne referim la situaiile n care traductorul ntr-adevr avea posibilitatea de a opta pentru anumii
termeni n defavoarea altora, limba romn (veche) dispunnd de diveri termeni, inclusiv de origini diferite,
pentru a denumi acelai coninut. Fr ndoial c, de cele mai multe ori, opiunile traductorului erau limitate
din moment ce limba romn avea deja un lexic bisericesc mai mult sau mai puin instituit. De bun seam c, n
etapele ulterioare, acesta a suferit anumite restructurri, unele chiar majore, ndeosebi ncepnd cu difuzarea
traducerilor Noului Testament de la Blgrad i a Bibliei de la Bucureti, care au mbogit vocabularul
preexistent, sporind, implicit, i opiunile de lexicalizare a unor noiuni.
5
Prin influena culturii i a limbii slavone, romnii au intrat n sfera de cultur (inclusiv de cult) rsritean. Iar
influena versiunilor latine, mediate i de maghiarimea din regiunile ardeleneti, le-a deschis romnilor drumul
ctre cultura de tip occidental.
6
Catehismul calvinesc din1648 s-a tradus dup versiunea latino-maghiar Catechismus Religionis Christianae
care a cunoscut mai multe ediii (1636, 1639, 1643, 1647). Textul lui Fogarasi se bazeaz, cel mai probabil, pe
ediiile din 1643 i 1647, eventual pe cea din 1639 (Tams 1942, p. 11, 129). De altminteri, ediiile din 1939,
1943 i 1947 sunt aproape identice, astfel nct stabilirea exact a ediiei-surs a textului lui Fogarasi este greu de
fcut (Tams 1942, p. 11).
7
De cele mai multe ori, creaiile lexicale se pot pune pe seama unui vorbitor care stpnete foarte bine limba n
cauz i care, astfel, i asum unele liberti, extinznd, uneori chiar fornd limitele sistemului / normei. ns,
forme inedite i se pot datora i unui vorbitor care are cunotine modeste i, drept urmare, este lipsit de ,,simul
4
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lucrul acesta se observ i n cazuri n care limba romn dispunea de termeni pentru a
desemna noiunea respectiv.
3. n cele ce urmeaz, ne-am propus urmrirea lexicalizrii unor noiuni, concepte
fundamentale ale doctrinei calviniste prezente n acest catehism, respectiv ale credinei
cretineti, n general. Dintre acestea, ne vom referi ndeosebi la urmtoarele sfere noionale:
credincios, aproapele (subst.), consolare, evlavie, comuniune, mntuire i nviere.
3.1. Noiunea credincios (subst.) cunoate lexicalizarea printr-un cuvnt de origine
slav, vernic (< sl. vrnik), n: Cum toi vernicii s chiuz i partnici a lu Hristos (23), cf.
mgh. hivek, cf. lat. credentes; i pecetluiasc tuturor vernicilor iertarea pcatelor (27), cf.
mgh. hivknek, cf. lat. credentibus; au poruncit toi vernicii a mnca (28-29), cf. mgh. hiveket,
cf. lat. fideles. Termenul se ntrebuineaz i adjectival, cu nelesul credincios, loial, n: cu
trup cu suflet au voi via au voi muri, eu snt a Domnului vernic al mieu (9), cf. mgh. hsges,
cf. lat. fidissimi. Alegerea cuvntului de origine slav este interesant, cu att mai mult cu ct,
n catehismul din 16568, peste tot ntlnim corespondentul su latinesc credincios (Bariiu
1879, p. 40, 41, 42). De altminteri, mprumutul slav vernic se atest i n alte texte calvinoromneti (n frag. tod., la Agyagfalvi i la Viski, cf. Tams 1942, p. 120; cf. i O.
Densusianu, ilr, ii, p. 340).
n Catehismul lui Fogarasi, se pot meniona i ali termeni care se nscriu n sfera
noiunii credincios, cel care aparine comunitii cretineti, cel puin n cadrul unor
secvene mai reduse, n cel al contextelor n care acetia apar. Cuvintele care ajung s
desemneze (i) acest concept sunt termeni uzuali care nu aparin, n mod necesar, discursului
religios. ntrebuinarea acestora cu nelesul la care ne referim se datoreaz unor schimbri
semantice, rezultate, de regul, n urma unui transfer metaforic. Astfel, termenul de rudenie
ft fiu, copil (< lat. ftus) denot raportul dintre om i divinitate, n: Mai mult nu sntei slugi
ce fei (15), cf. mgh. fiak, cf. lat. filii; feii a lu Dumnedzeu (41), cf. mgh. fiaihoz, cf. lat.
filiis9, aa cum, de altfel, se ntmpl i n versiunile-surs ale textului biblic.
Unei alte sfere de ntrebuinare i aparine, la origine, i lexemul dihanie popor (< sl.
dyhanije), care se ncarc cu nuana teologic care aparine comunitii cretineti, n:
Chema-l vei pre el Isus, c el va slobozi dihania sa din pcatele lor (16), cf. mgh. az npt,
cf. lat. populum suum10.
Domeniului, mai degrab administrativ, i aparine cuvntul de origine maghiar
urica motenitor (der. rom. < mgh. rk + suf. a, cf. i mgh. rks), care, n contextul:
i dac sntei fei, uricaii nc sntei a lui Dumnedzeu (15), cf. mgh. rksi, cf. lat.
haeredes11, poart i nuana aparintor al comunitii cretineti. Termenul urica
caracterizeaz textele calvino-romneti, cunoscnd o repartiie n Banat, Criana i n
Transilvania de sud-vest (cf. dlrlv, s.v.).
limbii care s-i asigure controlul uzului, creaiile sale plasndu-se n afara sistemului, cu anse minime de a se
impune.
8
Catehismul calvinesc din1656, tiprit la Alba Iulia i nsoit de Scutul Catichizmuulu cu rspunsu den
scrptura svnt. npotriva rspunsului a doao ri, fr scriptur svnt (n ediia Bariiu 1879), constituie o
retiprire a celui din 1642. Att catehismul din 1642, ct i cel din 1648 s-au tradus dup versiunea latinomaghiar Catechismus Religionis Christianae. Pentru stabilirea textului de baz, se pot meniona dou puncte de
sprijin: unul formal, textele n discuie coninnd 77 de ntrebri i rspunsuri, i unul stilistic, acestea prezentnd
numeroase maghiarisme i calcuri dup maghiar (vezi i Tams 1942, p. 129).
9
n cellalt catehism (1656): fii (Bariiu 1879, p. 48), fiu (p. 37).
10
n cellalt catehism (1656): pre oamenii si (Bariiu 1879, p. 37).
11
n cellalt catehism (1656): motian (Bariiu 1879, p. 37).
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Iniial aparinnd sferei noionale militreti, pe care o poart etimonul, termenul irag
mulime, rnd (de oameni) (< mgh. sereg)12, la rndul lui, se nscrie n sfera semantic mai
larg a conceptului adept al religiei cretine, n: dintre tot neamul omenesc iragul au ales....
eu nc acelui irag snt o parte vie (22), cf. mgh. sereg, cf. lat. coetus.
3.2. O noiune central a gndirii de sorginte biblic o constituie cea de seamn 13.
Pentru desemnarea acestui concept, ncepnd cu secolul al XIX-lea, lexemul aproapele se
impune definitiv ca norm literar n toate variantele stilului bisericesc. ns, n secolele al
XVI-lea - al XVII-lea, el a fost concurat de sinonime contextuale vecin, priiatin, so etc.
Catehismul lui Fogarasi consemneaz, pentru acest sens, termenul prietnic aproape (subst.)
(< sl. prijetinik), n: ndrgete prietnicul tu ca i nsui tine (10), nu gri...n aleanul
prietnicului tu (35), ne inem prietnicului nostru (35), cf. mgh. felebart, cf. lat. proximus14.
Derivatul prietnic/priatnic caracterizeaz ndeosebi textele calvino-romneti, indicnd o
exersare funcional anterioar a termenului. Sensul aproape (subst.) se atest n cp, n mo,
n po (Ex. 20); protector n cc2 (cf. O. Densusianu, ilr, ii, p. 334); n secolul al XVII-lea,
prieten cunoate o repartiie n ara Romneasc i n Banat, iar semen n Transilvania de
sud-vest i n Criana (cf. dlrlv, s.v.).
Cu un neles asemntor este ntrebuinat i cuvntul frate frate prin credin, semen
(< lat. frater, fratrem), n: Oricine urte fratele su vrjma este (38), Nime s nu supere,
sau nu dosdeasc, nici s-l celuiasc pre fratele su (39), cf. mgh. attyafia (cuvnt compus:
attya (al) printe(lui) fia fiu), cf. lat. fratrem.
3.3. n religia cretin, ideea de consolare constituie o doctrin fundamental.
Aceasta este lexicalizat, n Catehism, prin derivatul veselitur consolare. Termenul este o
creaie lexical a lui Fogarasi, acesta nefiind regsit n alte texte romneti vechi. Nu este
exclus ca lexemul s fi fost format dup modelul maghiar (cf. mgh. vigasztal-15 a veseli -s
suf.
-itur), termenul romnesc corespunznd, n text, formaiei lexicale ungureti,
prelund i sensul acesteia. Astfel, acesta se noteaz n: Ce veselituri ai tu n vieaa ta i n
moartea ta? (9/5), cf. mgh. vigasztaltats(od) id., cf. lat. consolatio; cu aceast veselitur
(9/20), cf. mgh. vigasztals(sal), cf. lat. consolatione; cu aceast veselitur (20); pre ce
veselitur este (25); ce veselitur iei (26). n cellalt catehism calvinesc (1656), acesta este
redat prin alte corespondente: veselie (Bariiu 1879, p. 34, 41), mngare (p. 34) i bucurie
(p. 39).
Legat de aceast sfer noional este i conceptul satisfacie, redat prin compusul
fctur de destul, care, la rndul lui, urmrete modelul maghiar, fiind notat n: prentru
fctur de destul a lu Hristos (23), fctura de destul cu plin (24), cf. mgh. elgttel
satisfacie (elg destul ttel facere), cf. lat. satisfactio(nem)16.
3.4. Ideea de providen reprezint o noiune originar filosofic care s-a specializat n
sens cretin. Expresiile care redau acest concept n limba romn (veche) difer de finalitatea
n ceea ce privete termenul ir(e)ag, acesta poate proveni din mgh. sereg mulime, armat sau poate fi
derivat pe terenul limbii romne de la ir + -(e)ag (cf. DER, s.v.). Asupra etimologiei acestui cuvnt vezi i Pl
2014, p. 488-489.
13
Detalii asupra lexicalizrii acestui concept, n diferite limbi i n diverse texte biblice, vezi i n Munteanu
2008, p. 381-391.
14
Cellalt catehism (1656) ntrebuineaz, de regul, cuvntul priatin (Bariiu 1879, p. 34, 35, 45, 47).
15
Originea cuvntului maghiar trebuie cutat n forma arhaic (azi disprut) vigaszik a se vindeca. Forma
vigasztal este una derivat de la cuvntul de baz vig vesel, la care se ataeaz trei sufixe verbale: suf. iterativ
sz, suf. factitiv t (rezultnd forma arhaic vigaszt, cf. i mgh. marad- a rmne + -t: maraszt a face s
rmn), respectiv, n cele din urm, suf. iterativ al (cf. i mgh. marasztal). Forma vigasz consolare este
rezultatul unei derivri regresive ulterioare (cf. Totfalusi, s.v.).
16
Pentru acest neles vezi i a face destul a satisface (12, 19), cf. mgh. tegynk eleget (expr. eleget destul
tenni a face), cf. lat. satisfaciamus (cf. i Tams 1942, p. 87). n cellalt catehism (1656), formaiei fctur de
destul i corespunde faptele (cele destoinice) (Bariiu 1879, p. 40).
12
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i de specificul orizontului de adresare ale fiecrui text, de disponibilitatea creatoare a fiecrui

traductor, ca i de limitele inventarelor morfematic i semantic ale limbii scrise din secolele
al XVI-lea al XVII-lea. Dintre modalitile de lexicalizare disponibile17, Fogarasi opteaz
pentru sintagma explicativ purttur de grij ngrijire, providen, n: Ce este purttura de
grij a lu Dumnedzeu? (15), cf. mgh. gondvisels ngrijire (gond grij visels purtare)18,
cf. lat. providentia (cf. i Tams 1942, p. 108). De altfel, aceast formaie lexical se
ntlnete i n po, unde sfera de aplicabilitate a noiunii este ns una laic, fiind restrns la
ideea cel care poart grija unei case, n: purttoriul(ui) de grija caseei (Gen., 43, 16, 19,
dup mgh. Hza gondgyaviselienec, respectiv haza Gondgya viselyiehz).
3.5. Noiunile care circumscriu codul etico-religios, conduita prin excelen cretin, la
rndul lor, cunosc diverse lexicalizri care valorific diferite nuane comportamentale i
afective ale existenei cretine, n general. n aceast sfer pot fi ncadrate cuvintele care
denot raportarea credinciosului la divinitate, respectiv la semenii, precum i raportarea
divinitii la om.
3.5.1. n conduita cretin, un loc central l ocup ideea de slav. Aceasta este redat,
la Fogarasi, prin diferite lexeme, printre care derivatul fericciune slav, glorie (der. rom. <
a ferica < lat. *flcre), n: n fericciune de vecie s ne treac (21), fericciune sau lauda
(45), cf. mgh. dicssg, cf. lat. gloria(m). n locul corespunztor din textul Catehismului din
1656, ntlnim termenul slav (Bariiu 1879, p. 39, 48). n textul lui Fogarasi, substantivul se
noteaz i cu sensul fericire, n: Cum dup aceast via voi avea fericciune deplin (26).
Derivatul fericciune este frecvent ntlnit n limba liturgic veche (cf. dlr, s.v.), cunoscnd o
repartiie n Banat, Criana i Transilvania de sud-vest (cf. dlrlv, s.v.). Termenul se regsete
i adjectival, n forma fericat() glorios, n: trupul fericat a lu Hristos (25), cf. mgh.
dicssges, cf. lat. glorioso. n locul corespunztor, cellalt catehism (1656) noteaz termenul
slvit (Bariiu 1879, p. 41). Asemenea derivatului substantival, adjectivul, la rndul lui, se
ntrebuineaz i cu sensul fericit (9). Termenul este frecvent ntlnit n limba romn veche
bisericeasc. Cu sensul fericit, acesta cunoate o repartiie n Banat, Criana i Transilvania
de sud-vest (cf. dlrlv, s.v.). Verbul a fereca (a ferica) i derivatele sale au fost notate, n
secolul al XVI-lea, n tipriturile coresiene (cf. da), n manuscrise rotacizante (cf. da; Rosetti
1931, p. 38; O. Densusianu, ilr, ii, p. 489, 574) i n unele traduceri copiate n BanatHunedoara (cf. Gheie & Mare 1974, p. 282). Atestrile din secolul al XVII-lea provin din
texte bnene i ardeleneti (cf. i Gheie 1974, p. 129)19.
n aceeai sfer semantic se nscrie i lexemul nmritur nlare, slvire, n: n
mna ta este nmritura a tuturora (46), cf. mgh. felmagasztals, cf. lat. magnificatio20. Cu
acest sens, verbul a nmri apare doar sporadic n textele romneti vechi, mai frecvent fiind
sensul a face s creasc, a mri (cf. O. Densusianu, ilr, ii, p. 224).
Tot aici putem meniona i termenul laud glorie, preamrire (der. rom. < a luda <
lat. laudare), n: s facem lauda ta mai nainte de toate lucrurile (42), lauda Numelui tu s
tocmim naintea noastr (42), cf. mgh. dicssge, cf. lat. gloriam. n pasajul corespunztor
din cellalt catehism (1656), se noteaz slava (ta), (numele tu) cel slvit (Bariiu 1879, p.
48).
O alt lexicalizare a aceleiai sfere noionale o reprezint maghiarismul biciluial
apreciere, veneraie (<rom. a bicilui <mgh. becsl-ni), notat n: cu mare cinste i biciluial
(36), cf. mgh. bcslettel, cf. lat. veneratione21. n secolul al XVI-lea, verbul de baz a
bicilui/a biciului cunoate o repartiie n Moldova i n unele zone mai restrnse din nordul
Asupra modalitilor de lexicalizare a acestei noiuni vezi Munteanu 2008, p. 391-407.
n pasajul corespunztor din Catehismul din 1656, ntlnim: socotinta (Bariiu 1879, p. 37).
19
Pentru repartizarea sa actual vezi Gheie & Mare 1974, p. 282-283.
20
n cellalt catehism (1656): mrire (Bariiu 1879, p. 50).
21
n cellalt catehism (1656): cu mare cinste i laud (Bariiu 1879, p. 46).
17
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rii. Cu toate c acesta cunoate relativ puine atestri, nu se poate exclude circulaia lui (i)
anterioar n graiurile populare ardeleneti, unde se nregistreaz n secolul urmtor, fiind
notat n Banat i n Trans. sud-vest, la Agyagfalvi i Viski, avnd i sensul a onora, a
respecta, a venera, precum i n Dictionarium valachico-latinum (cf. dlrlv, s.v.). De
asemenea, el se noteaz, n secolul al XVII-lea, i n acte moldoveneti (drb, 118/5)22.
Derivatul substantival este mai puin frecvent, fiind ntlnit, mai cu seam, n texte calvinoromneti.
3.5.2. O alt coordonat definitorie a conduitei cretineti o constituie conceptul
credin care, n textul lui Fogarasi, alturi de termenul latinesc credin, cunoate
lexicalizarea prin usbial ncredere, credin (der. rom. < a usbi, cu etimol. necun.), n: ce
usbial nc adevrit am (24), cinste destoinic i usbial s porneasc (41), cf. mgh.
bizodalom, cf. lat. fiducia. n pasajele corespunztoare din cellalt catehism (1656), apare
termenul ndejde (Bariiu, 1879, p. 40, 48). Verbul de baz a usbi / a uzbi a (se) (n)crede
se atest n texte vechi ardeleneti, n care acesta alterneaz cu maghiarismul a (se) bizui id..
Acelai concept este redat i printr-un alt lexem, vernicie fidelitate, credin (der.
rom. < vernic < sl. vrnik), n: cu dragoste i cu vernicie (37), cf. mgh. hsggel, cf. lat.
fidem.
3.5.3. Un alt aspect esenial al credinei cretineti l reprezint conceptul
recunotin care, la Fogarasi, cunoate diverse realizri lexicale, printre care prin derivatul
harnic plin de har (recunotin) (< sl. harn) n: s ne artm ctre Dumnedzeu a fi
harnici (31), cf. mgh. hlaad, cf. lat. gratos23. Termenul este consemnat i la Viski, n
contextul: harnici i destoinici (cf. Tams 1942, p. 90), iar, cu sensul demn, vrednic, acesta
se atest n Moldova, unde se noteaz i nelesul capabil (cf. dlrlv, s.v.). Acelai termen
intr i n structura compusului, care red modelul maghiar, ddtur de har mulumire,
recunotin, n: cu ce ddtur de har m in lu Dumnedzeu (9), ddtur de har dup
mncare (47), cf. mgh. hlaads recunotin (hla mulumire, recunotin, har ads
dare), cf. lat. gratiam, gratiarum actio. n pasajele corespunztoare din Catehismul din
1656, ntlnim: mulmit, mulamire (Bariiu 1879, p. 34, 43). Formaia lexical ddtur
de har se consemneaz i la Agyagfalvi (cf. Tams 1942, p. 82).
3.5.4. Un alt concept important din terminologia teologico-sapienial este cel de
umilin, supunere care este lexicalizat prin diveri termeni, precum: ascultmnt ascultare,
supunere (der. rom. < a asculta < lat. ascultare), n: Credina este din ascultmnt,
ascultmntul iar prin cuvntul a lu Dumnedzeu (26), cf. mgh. halls(bl), cf. lat. auditu(s).
Termenul corespondent din cellalt catehism (1656) este auzit(l) (Bariiu 1879, p. 41).
Derivatul ascultmnt caracterizeaz limba romn (liturgic) veche, n general.
Cu neles asemntor este ntrebuinat i derivatul ngduitur obedien (der. rom.
< a ngdui < mgh. enged-ni), n: ctre voia ta s fim gata, cu ngduitur (43), cf. mgh.
engedelmessggel, cf. lat. tuae voluntati prompte pareamus. n segmentul corespunztor din
cellalt catehism (1656), formularea include un alt termen, n: s fim gata spre plecare voe
tale (Bariiu 1879, p. 49). Derivatul ngduitur apare doar sporadic n textele romneti
vechi, fiind notat n cteva texte calvino-romneti (cf. Tams 1942, p. 93).
Tot aici putem meniona i termenul smerime smerenie (der. rom. < a se smeri < sl.
smriti), n: cu smerime i cu curciune (38), cf. mgh. szemrmetesen, cf. lat. modeste24. n
limba romn (veche), mai frecvent ntrebuinat este derivatul smerenie (vezi i smirenie, n
Bariiu 1879, p. 41). Derivatul smerime se ntlnete i la Agyagfalvi (vezi zmirimiae) i la
Viski (vezi zmirime) (cf. Tams 1942, p. 112).
Rspndirea actual cuprinde Transilvania i Banatul.
n cellalt catehism (1656): mulmitori (Bariiu 1879, p. 46).
24
n cellalt catehism (1656): n blnzie (Bariiu 1879, p. 47).
22
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De altminteri, nuanele umilin, supunere se regsesc i n semantica verbului a

(se) milcui a (se) ruga, a implora (< vsl. milkovati, bg. milkam), notat n: Hristos de-adereapta a lu Dumnedzeu milcuiete-se prentru noi (16), cf. mgh. esedezik, cf. lat. interpellat.
Tot astfel, ideea de umilin este implicit prezent i n noiunea cin pentru
pcatele svrite, lexicalizat, n textul lui Fogarasi, prin substantivul pocanie (< sl.
pokajanije), n: Botejunea a pocaniei pre iertciunea pcatelor (27), cf. mgh. meg trsnek,
cf. lat. resipiscentiae. n cellalt catehism (1656), termenul corespunztor este pociniei
(Bariiu 1879, p. 42). Aceeai nuan este cuprins i n forma de participiu pocit, notat n:
mpria cerului Pociilor se deschide, nepociilor iar se ncuie (31), cf. mgh. meg
trknek, cf. lat. resipiscentibus.
3.5.5. n sfera semantic care descrie latura afectiv a existenei cretine se nscriu
termenii care denot mil. Printre acetia figureaz meserere ndurare, mil, mizericordie
(< lat. msrre < miser), n: fac meserere (33), curat numai din meserere a lu Dumnedzeu mi
se destoinicete mie (23-24), numai din meserere a lu Dumnedzeu prentru Hristos (31), cf.
mgh. irgalmassg, cf. lat. misericordia. n pasajele corespunztoare din Catehismul din 1656,
ntlnim, de fiecare dat, termenul mil (Bariiu 1879, p. 40, 43, 44). De altminteri, mil
ndurare, milostenie (< sl. mil, fem. mila) se nregistreaz i la Fogarasi, n contextele: din
mila a lu Dumnedzeu (24), S cerem mila nc a Duhului Sfnt (40), mpria a puterii i a
milei (42), cf. mgh. kegyelem, kegyelmt, cf. lat. gratia(m), gratiae. Un coninut asemntor
poart i adjectivul milostivnic milos (< sl. milostivnik), n: haru-i dm noi nliei Sfnte
a tale ca unui milostivnic (47).
3.5.6. Printre cuvintele care desemneaz nsuiri morale ideale ale credinciosului sau
atribute ale vieii religioase putem aminti derivatul adjectival smerit() evlavios, notat n: eu
snt blnd i cu inima smerit (10), Care (Hristos) schimba va trupurile smerite a noastre
(26), cf. mgh. alzatos, cf. lat. humile.
Un alt atribut este redat prin lexemul destoinic() potrivit, cuviincios (< sl. dostoin),
n: s fim cu cinste destoinic (41), cf. mgh. illend, cf. lat. convenientem. ntr-un alt context,
termenul denot sensul demn de (pedeaps), n: destoinici sntem spre bti (12). n limba
romn veche, cuvntul se atest cu sensurile care merit ceva, care este demn (de) (cv, ct,
cp, cc1, cc2, po) i oportun, potrivit (cb) (cf. i O. Densusianu, ilr, ii, p. 275)25.
Tot aici putem include i termeni care descriu atributul integritate etico-religioas26
care se lexicalizeaz, n textul lui Fogarasi, prin formaii cu prefixe negative. Astfel, termenul
nevinovat fr de pcat (der. rom. < vinovat < sl. vinovat) este notat n: Cum el fiind
nevinovat naintea dregtorului de afar (18), cf. mgh. rtatlan, cf. lat. innocens27. Un neles
asemntor are i derivatul necerttoare neprihnit (der. rom. < a certa < lat. certare), n
sintagma: via necerttoare (30, 31). n pasajul corespunztor din cellalt catehism (1656),
ntlnim: neprepus (Bariiu 1879, p. 43). Formaia necerttoare fr vin/pcat calchiaz
derivatul maghiar feddhetetlen id. (< meg-feddni a certa + suf. privativ -etlen), cf. lat.
integritate. Derivatul se atest numai la Fogarasi (cf. i Tams 1942, p. 99).
Vezi i substantivul destoinicie merit, n: fr de toat destoinicia a mea (23), destoinicia a lu Hristos (24),
nu ni se d din destoinicie ce din mil (25), cf. mgh. rdem, cf. lat. meritum. n limba romn veche, termenul
este atestat i cu nelesurile: aciune considerat ca demn de... ( CT), fel demn de comportare, de trai ( CP,
CC2) i motenire (PS, CP, CV) (cf. i O. Densusianu, ILR, II, p. 275).
26
Vezi i termenul curciune puritate n: cu smerime i cu curciune (38), cf. mgh. tisztn, cf. lat. caste. n
Catehismul calvinesc din 1656, ntlnim: n curie (Bariiu 1879, p. 47). Acesta din urm este notat cu sensul
cinste, nevinovie n Prefaa Paliei (1582). Derivatul curciune este atestat n DVL cu nelesul puritas,
castitas, munditia (cf. i Tams 1942, p. 81).
27
Vezi i der. subst. nevinovciune nevinovie, n: Dumnedzeu va ntri pre voi pn n sfrit n
nevinovciune (22) , cf. mgh. rtatlansg, cf. lat. inculpatos. Acesta este redat, n cellalt catehism (1656), prin
termenul nevinovie (Bariiu 1879, p. 40).
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3.6. Dac fiina cretin se definete prin slvire (a Domnului), loialitate, recunotin,
umilin, practicarea unor sentimente de cucernicie etc., cu alte cuvinte printr-o conduit
moral guvernat de asemenea valori, la polul opus se afl acei termeni care desemneaz
noiunile care ncalc acest set de valori cretine. n textul lui Fogarasi, din aceast sfer
semantic face parte lexemul urciune ur (der. rom. < ur < a ur < lat. *horrire, horrere,
horrescere), n: din nrav snt plecat spre urciunea lu Dumnedzeu (11), cf. mgh.
gyllsre, cf. lat. odium. Termenul este folosit mai nti cu accepia general de aciune
nedemn, neomeneasc (cc2), apoi cu nelesurile speciale de ur (ps, cp, cc1, cc2, po),
invidie, gelozie (cp), dispre (ph, cp), grozvie (ps, ct) (cf. O. Densusianu, ilr, ii, p. 309).
n forma cu -n- rotacizat, urriciunre/urreciunre cunoate i sensul batjocur, ocar,
defimare (ph).
Pentru acelai coninut Fogarasi noteaz i derivatul nevedenie ur, invidie (der. rom.
< vedenie < sl. vidnije), n: ardatul nc a vrjmiei, a ti mnia, nevedenia (38), cf. mgh.
irigysget invidie, cf. lat. odium. n pasajul corespunztor din Catehismul din 1656,
ntlnim: mnia i urcune (Bariiu 1879, p. 46)28. Tot aici se ncadreaz i termenul
vrjmie ur, dumnie (der. rom. < vrjma < *vrjbna < sl. vra(d)bin), n:
Contenind vrjmia... rdcina i ardatul nc a vrjmiei (38), cf. mgh. ldkls, cf. lat.
caedem(-is).
n aceeai sfer noional putem include i termenul spurcciune pngrire,
profanare (der. rom. a spurca < lat. spurcare), notat n: Cum toat spurcciunea nou
trebuiete s urm (38), cf. mgh. fertelmessg, cf. lat. turpitudo. Termenul este notat ndeosebi
n textele calvino-romneti din secolul al XVII-lea (vezi i n cellalt catehism din 1656, n
dvl, s.v. Spurkecsune Pollutio. Sordities).
Cu aceeai nuan semantic se noteaz i derivatul sdrobitur depravare (der. rom.
< a sdrobi < sl. s()drobiti), n: Oare de unde este nravului omenesc atare mare sdrobitur
(11), cf. mgh. romlotsg, cf. lat. pravitas. n pasajul corespunztor din cellalt catehism
(1656), se noteaz rsipitura (Bariiu 1879, p. 35). Termenul zdrobitur se atest cu nelesul
sfrmtur n ph (49v/24), iar cu cel de desfru se ntlnete la Agyagfalvi i la Viski (cf.
Tams 1942, p. 110).
Tot un comportament nedorit desemneaz i maghiarismul alnicie viclenie (<rom.
alnic < mgh. lnok), n: Iac n alnicie m-am prins i muma mea n pcat m-a inclzitu-m n
sgul su (11), cf. mgh. lnoksg, cf. lat. iniquitate29. n secolul al XVI-lea, termenul este
notat n po, iar, n secolul urmtor, acesta se ntlnete numai n texte romneti de inspiraie
calvin (Gheie & Mare 1974, p. 266), cunoscnd o repartiie n Banat, Criana i
Transilvania de sud-vest (cf. dlrlv, s.v.). Apropiat acestuia este i un al maghiarism, hiclenie
necinste, necredin, trdare (<rom. hiclean <mgh. hitlen), consemnat n: El (Mesia) au
rbdat dureri prentru hicleniile noastre (20), cf. mgh. lnoksgainkrt, cf. lat. iniquitatibus.
O alt trstur condamnabil este cea lexicalizat prin termenul scumpete avariie,
lcomie (der. rom. < scump < sl. skomp), n: ,,toate meteugurile rele, cu carile apucm ce
este altuia i toat scumpetea i vietura rea (38), cf. mgh. fsvnysget, cf. lat. avaritiam.
Acelai neles se noteaz i n cellalt catehism din 1656 (Bariiu 1879, p. 47).
De asemenea, prin extindere, se poate ncadra aici i termenul furtuag furt, tlhrie
(der. rom. furt < lat. furtum), n: Subt numele furtuagului cuprinde toate meteugurile rele
(38), cf. mgh. lopsnak, cf. lat. furti. Termenul este derivat cu un sufix substantival de origine
maghiar (rom. -ag < mgh. sg) i nu este exclus ca acesta s fi fost format, eventual, dup
Vezi i verbul a se nevedea a ur n CT, iar nevedenie Invidia n DVL (cf. Tams 1942, p. 100).
n cellalt catehism (1656): n strmbtate smt nceput, i n pcate m nascu maica me (Bariiu 1879, p.
35).
28
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Issue no. 6/2015
modelul maghiar tolvaj-sg furt. De altfel, derivatul este ntlnit relativ frecvent n textele
romneti vechi care consemneaz i varianta furtiag.
Tot aici putem meniona i substantivul mnie suprare, furie (< lat. mania < gr. ), n:
Din nrav eram fei ai mniei (11), ce mai tare n vremea morii au pit-o mnia a lu
Dumnedzeu (18), cf. mgh. haragnak, haragjt, cf. lat. irae, iram.
O realitate reprobabil denot i termenul blesteam nenoricire, maledicie (der. rom.
< a blestema < lat. blastimare, blasphemare), n: Cum blesteama ce era pre mine s ia sine
(19), cf. mgh. tkot, cf. lat. maledictionem.
O noiune esenial, cu conotaii negative n doctrina cretin, este i cea de tentaie,
lexicalizat prin cuvntul ispit (der. regresiv < rom. a ispiti < sl. ispytati), n: Nu ne duce pre
noi n ispit (44), n ispit s nu cdei (45), cf. mgh. kisrts-ben(-tl), cf. lat. tentationem. n
pasajele corespunztoare, cellalt catehism (1656) ntrebuineaz, n mod consecvent,
termenul npast (Bariiu 1879, p. 49). De altfel, cuvntul ispit este unul dintre acei termeni
bisericeti care au fost preluai de romn din slavon nainte de secolul al XI-lea (Munteanu
2008, p. 496) i care este uzual i astzi. Mai puin frecvent este derivatul ispittur tentaie,
notat, la Fogarasi, n: Cum eu n ispitturile grele a mele pre mine... s m hrnesc (20).
Derivatul red aceiai termeni ungureti i latineti din textele-surs ca i cuvntul su de
baz. n cellalt catehism (1656), ns, acesta i corespunde termenului amrciune (Bariiu
1879, p. 39). Forma ispittur este consemnat, sporadic, i n dvl (cf. Tams 1942, p. 95).
3.7. Indiferent de confesiune, ideea comuniune constituie unul dintre fundamentele
dogmei cretine. n textul lui Fogarasi, aceast noiune este redat, printre altele, printr-un
mprumut maghiar preluat direct din textul-surs: chiuz(). Lexemul apare n diverse contexte,
avnd semnificaii mai mult sau mai puin nrudite. Astfel, maghiarismul este notat cu
sensurile: 1. comun (cf. mgh. kzs care aparine comunitii), n: toi vernicii s chiuz i
partnici a lu Hristos (23), cf. lat. communionem; 2. comunitate, comuniune (cf. mgh.
kzssg), n: vou nc chiuz s fie cu noi, i chiuz a noastr s fie cu Tatl i cu Fiul su
(23), cf. lat. communio (cf. i Tams 1942, p. 79). Termenul denot i un alt neles, acela de
obinuit (cf. mgh. kznsges) n: apte cri chiuze (8), Biserica chiuz, cretineasc (13),
chiuz Biseric Sfnt a lu Hristos (22), cf. lat. catholica. De la aceast baz lexical s-a
format i derivatul chiuzluitur comuniune (<rom. chiuz <mgh. kz)30, consemnat de
Fogarasi n: pharul iar chiuzluitura a sngelui lui cu noi (29), cf. mgh. kzltets, cf. lat.
communionem. n pasajul corespunztor din cellalt catehism (1656), ntlnim: npreunare
(Bariiu 1879, p. 42).
n aceeai sfer semantic se nscrie i lexemul unciune unitate (der. rom. < uni- +
-ciune), n: unciunea Sfinilor (13, 22), cf. mgh. egygyessg (egy unu/una), cf. lat.
communio(nem). Vezi i var. uniciune n cellalt catehism calvinesc (Bariiu 1879, p. 40). n
secolul al XVII-lea, termenul cunoate o repartiie n Moldova, Criana i Transilvania de
sud-vest (cf. dlrlv, s.v. uniciune).
Prin extindere, putem aminti aici i verbul a mpreuna a (se) uni, n contextul: Cum
trupul meu cu putere a lui Hristos sculndu-se, iarite cu sufletul meu mpreuna-se-va (25),
cf. mgh. egygyeslni, cf. lat. unietur. Tot astfel, n virtutea contextelor n care acesta apare, se
poate ncadra aici i adjectivul partnic prta, participant (der. rom. parte < lat. pars,
partis), n: s ne poat face partnici n dereptatea cutat (20), din tot binele lui m face
partnic (22), Cum toi vernicii s chiuz i partnici a lu Hristos (23), credina singur ne face
pre noi partnici n Hristos (26), cf. mgh. rszes, cf. lat. participe (facit), communionem
30
Derivatul chiuzluitur s-a putut forma dup mgh. kzssg comuniune.
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(habeant)31. n secolul al XVII-lea, derivatul cunoate i sensurile prta (n Moldova i

Banat) i adept, partizan (n Moldova) (cf. dlrlv, s.v.).
3.8. Lexicalizarea noiunii mntuire, indispensabil cultului religios, a cunoscut, n
limba romn, o evoluie interesant. Se observ, de pild, faptul c, de-a lungul veacurilor,
diverse mprumuturi se aflau n rivalitate ba chiar i simultan n aceeai epoc. Astfel, n
secolul al XVI-lea, mprumutul slav a spsi a fost concurat de cel maghiar a mntui, care i ia
treptat locul. Pe de alt parte, a mntui, la rndul lui, a fost concurat, chiar n cadrul aceleiai
epoci, de sl. a izbvi. Astfel, de exemplu, n unele versiuni ale rugciunii Tatl nostru se
ntrebuineaz sl. a izbvi (n cat.c., 1560), iar n altele mgh. a mntui (n Catehismul lui Luca
Stroici, 1593), primul nvingnd, n cele din urm, n varianta canonic modern. n mod
interesant, ns, fa de aceast situaie, pentru Isus Hristos, termenul cu un caracter oarecum
,,normativ n limbajul bisericesc actual este cel de origine maghiar, Mntuitorul, i nu
Izbvitorul (sau Salvatorul etc.).
n cazul Catehismului lui Fogarasi, ni se pare destul de interesant faptul c, dei
traducerea romneasc se efectueaz ntr-o zon puternic influenat de maghiar, autorul nu
opteaz nicieri n textul su pentru termenul de origine maghiar a mntui32, cum ne-am fi
ateptat, i cum, de altfel, acesta se regsete n cellalt catehism (1656)33. La Fogarasi,
conceptul mntuire este lexicalizat prin alte cuvinte, precum verbele a ispsi, a slobozi, a
descumpra i derivatele lor.
Verbul a ispsi (< sl. ispasti, ispao, ispasati) este notat n: alt nume prin care ar
trebui a ne ine sau ne ispsi (16), cf. mgh. megtartatnunk, cf. lat. servati; Care va crede i se
va boteza ispsi-se va (28), cf. mgh. dvzl, cf. lat. servabitur; din toate pcatele noastre ne
slobozete i ne ispsete (15-16), cf. mgh. dvzt, cf. lat. salvat. Derivatul substantival
ispsenie izbvire, mntuire (< sl. spasenije) este consemnat n: cum toate s-mi slujeasc
spre ispsenie-mi (9), cf. mgh. idvssgemre, cf. lat. saluti; armele ispseniei (32), cf. mgh.
az idvssgnek fegyvert, cf. lat. gladium spiritus; i cum daruri au luat de la Dumnedzeu
acele tuturora trebuete s ntoarc pre ispsenie (23), cf. mgh. idvssgekre fordtaniok
(fordtani a ntoarce, valamire fordtani a consacra, a atribui), cf. lat. salutem conferre;
ispsenia de vecie (42), cf. mgh. idvssget, cf. lat. gloriae. Textul lui Fogarasi consemneaz
i der. subst. Ispsitor Mntuitor(ul), n: Fiul lu Dumnedzeu Isus aceea-i aceea Ispsitor sau
slobozitor (15), cf. mgh. dvztnek, cf. lat. Salvator, i adj. ispsitoare care mntuiete, n:
Ce-i credina ispsitoare (24), cf. mgh. dvzt, cf. lat. salvifica. Termenul caracterizeaz
limba romn (liturgic) veche, fiind notat i n forma etimologic spsenie (vezi i O.
Densusianu, ilr, ii, p. 282)34.
n aceeai sfer noional se nscrie i termenul a slobozi (der. rom. < slobod < sl.
svobod, bg. sloboden) i derivatele sale. Astfel, verbul se noteaz n: den toat puterea
Dracului m-a slobozitu-m (9), cf. mgh. meg szabaditott, cf. lat. liberavit; ne slobozete i ne
ispsete (16), cf. mgh. meg szabadit, cf. lat. salvat. Derivatul substantival slobozitur
ispire, mntuire se consemneaz n: m in lui Dumnedzeu pentru aceast slobozitur (9),
n poriunile corespunztoare, cellalt catehism (1656) noteaz expresia a avea parte (Bariiu 1879, p. 39, 40),
respectiv termenul prta (p. 39).
32
Lucrul acesta i se poate datora, ntr-o oarecare msur, i faptului c nici sursa maghiar nu nregistreaz
etimonul mprumutului, noiunea mntuire fiind redat prin alte cuvinte ungureti. ns, pe cnd, n cazul limbii
maghiare, lucrul acesta este perfect de neles, din moment ce termenul maghiar menteni nu constituie neaprat o
ntrebuinare ,,normal, n sensul c acesta nu corespunde uzului religios consacrat prin norm (aceasta
impunnd cuvntul megvltani, eventual dvzteni), n cazul limbii romne, omiterea termenului a mntui din
textul lui Fogarasi prezint o curiozitate, ntruct acesta aparinea normei (regionale) a limbii romne (liturgice)
vechi.
33
Vezi n: se cade noao a ne mntui (Bariiu 1879, p. 37).
34
Sub aceast form este consemnat i n cellalt catehism (1656), corespunznd pasajelor din textul lui
Fogarasi. Astfel, se noteaz se va spsi (Bariiu 1879, p. 42), spseniia (p. 48), spsitoare (p. 40).
31
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A doua parte. De pre slobozitura omului (12), cf. mgh. meg szabadits(rt), cf. lat.
liberatione; iar der. subst. slobozitor mntuitor n contextul sinonimic: Ispsitor sau
slobozitor (15), cf. mgh. szabaditnak, cf. lat. Salvator. n Catehismul din 1656, n locul
acestui termen se noteaz alternativ (a) rscumpra(re), a descumpra (Bariiu 1879, p. 34,
35). Termenul slobodziture Liberatio se atest i n dvl, iar derivatul se consemneaz cu
sensul ispire la Agyagfalvi i la Viski (cf. Tams 1942, p. 112).
Tot aici se poate meniona i verbul a descumpra a rscumpra35, consemnat n:
Hristos ne-au descumprat pre noi (19) (cf. mgh. meg vltott, cf. lat. redemit), precum i
derivatele acestuia. Astfel, subst. descumprciune rscumprare este notat n: parte de
prima este... de pre descumprciune a noastr (14), mndrie i descumprciune (16), prin
descumprciunea fcut n Isus Hristos (24), cf. mgh. megvltats, vltsg, cf. lat.
redemtio(ne). n pasajele corespunztoare din cellalt catehism calvinesc (1656), se noteaz
rscumprtura (Bariiu 1879, p. 36), rscumprare (p. 37, 40). De altfel, termenul
descumprciune este specific textelor calvino-romneti vechi. Sporadic, acesta este atestat
i ntr-un act diplomatic din Transilvania (d, XXXVI, 251v/2). Fogarasi l nregistreaz i n
forma de participiu, descumprat rscumprat, izbvit, mntuit, n: descumprai sntem cu
sngele scump a lu Hristos (9), cf. mgh. meg vltattok, cf. lat. redemtiestis. De asemenea,
Fogarasi noteaz i der. subst. descumprtor rscumprtor, mntuitor, n:
descumprtorului mieu, a lu Isus Hristos (9), cf. mgh. megvlto, cf. lat. servator. Cu acest
sens, derivatul se noteaz i n mo (cf. O. Densusianu, ilr, ii, p. 204).
Ideea de mntuire se regsete i n semnificaia cu care este ntrebuinat adjectivul
domolitor ispitor (der. rom. < domoli < sl. domoliti), n sintagma jertf domolitoare (24),
cf. mgh. engesztel (ldozat), cf. lat. placamentum. n acest sens, este interesant i utilizarea
verbului a domoli n: Dumnedzeu era n Hristos domolind ie aceast lume nu bgnd lor
vine prentru pcat (23), cf. mgh. megengesztelvn, cf. lat. reconcilians. n pasajele
corespunztoare din cellalt catehism (1656), ntlnim (jertf) mpctoare i mpcnd
(Bariiu 1879, p. 40).
Prin extindere, n aceast sfer semantic ar putea fi introdus, cel puin n virtutea
contextului n care acesta apare, i verbul a vindica (< lat. vindicare), notat n: cu a cui
vnti sntei vindicai (18), cf. mgh. meg gyogyittattatok, cf. lat. sanati estis. Cu sens
asemntor este ntrebuinat i verbul a curi (der. rom. curat < a cura a cura < lat.
curare), consemnat n: curete pre noi den toate pcatele noastre (17), cf. mgh. tisztits meg,
cf. lat. purificat; cu sufletul a lu Hristos tocmai aa cu adevr m-am curitu-m, ca cnd n
chip de afar cu ap de Sluga Bisericii Sfnte m-am splatu-m (27), cf. mgh. meg
tisztittatom, cf. lat. lavari.
3.9. Un alt fundament doctrinar al spiritualitii cretine l constituie noiunea
nviere. Pe lng termenul uzual, ntrebuinat i astzi acela de a nvia, notat n: Domnul
omoar i iarite nvie (20), cf. mgh. meg elevent, cf. lat. deducit in inferno, et reducit
textul lui Fogarasi consemneaz i un alt termen cu acest neles. Este vorba despre derivatul
scultur ridicare, resurecie (der. rom. < a (se) scula < lat. *excubulare)36, notat n:
scultura trupurilor (13, 25), cf. mgh. feltmads(a/-t), cf. lat. resurrectio(nem). n
Catehismul din 1656, acesta se red prin sculara, sculare (Bariiu 1879, p. 36, 41). Derivatul
scultur se atest cu sensul ridicare n cc1 i cu cel de nviere n cp, cc1, frag. tod., la
Agyagfalvi i la Viski (cf. O. Densusianu, ilr, ii, p. 221; cf. i Tams 1942, p. 109).
Cu acest sens, verbul cunoate o repartiie n Banat i n sud-vestul Transilvaniei (vezi i n CC1, MO, PO,
cf. O. Densusianu, ILR, II, p. 224), iar nelesurile a mntui, a absolvi se nregistreaz n Criana
s.v.).
36
Cu acest sens este ntrebuinat i verbul a (se) scula, n: de la mori se scul (13), cf. mgh. fel tmada, cf. lat.
resurrexit.
35
FRAG.TOD.,
(cf. DLRLV,
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4. Concluzii. Cu toate c traduceri romneti premergtoare ale textului biblic au

existat deja n momentul efecturii traducerii Catehismului din 1648, lucrul acesta, n sine, nu
nltura toate dificultile pe care le avea de nfruntat Fogarasi. n ceea ce privete traducerea
noiunilor desemnate de cuvintele latineti i/sau maghiare, regsite n textele-surs, i care
circumscriu sferele spiritualitii cretineti supuse analizei, autorul opteaz pentru diverse
procedee pentru a iei din impasul n care se gsea. De cele mai multe ori, cum era i firesc,
traductorul apeleaz la termeni de origine latineasc (ex. fericciune, meserere, urciune,
spurcciune, scultur etc.) sau la mprumuturi slave (ex. vernic, prietnic, smerime, mil,
milostivnic, destoinic, ispittur, a ispsi, a slobozi etc.) ori maghiare (ex. alnicie, hiclenie,
biciluial, urica, irag), ptrunse, n etapele anterioare, n limba romn i devenite uzuale n
lexicul bisericesc. n unele cazuri, soluia adoptat const n mprumutarea chiar din sursa
maghiar ntrebuinat (vezi chiuz, chiuzluitur). n alte cazuri, autorul se servete de termeni
din alte domenii ale vieii care, n contextele date, n urma unor transferuri de sens, se ncarc
cu nuane teologico-sapieniale specifice universului cretin (ex. ft, dihanie, frate, a curi
etc.). n mod firesc, majoritatea acestor transferuri s-au petrecut deja (i) n limbile originare
n care s-a scris Biblia, respectiv n ,,limbile clasice prin care aceasta s-a rspndit sub forma
traducerilor. Exist ns i situaii n care traductorul nsui devine creator de terminologie,
firete, n limita textului pe care l produce, introducnd derivate i compuse noi, rezultate, de
cele mai multe ori, n urma calchierii (vezi veselitur, fctur de destul, purttur de grij,
ddtur de har, necerttoare). Unii dintre termenii nregistrai n Catehismul lui Fogarasi
sunt specifici limbii romne bisericeti vechi, n general, sau limbii textelor romneti vechi
de inspiraie calvin, n special, care ulterior au fost nlocuii cu termenii consacrai prin
traducerile ulterioare ale Sfintei Scripturi. Alii s-au pstrat n decursul veacurilor, fcnd
parte din lexicul limbii romne liturgice i astzi.
Sigle i bibliografie
A. Ediii de texte
Bariiu, Georgiu. (1879). Catechismulu calvinescu impusu clerului i poporului
romanescu sub domnia
principiloru Georgiu Rkoczy I. i II., transcrisu cu litere latine dup ediiunea II
tiprit n anulu
1656, insocitu de una escursiune istorica i de unu glosariu de Georgiu Baritiu, Sibiu.
bb = Biblia 1688, ediie ntocmit de V. Arvinte, I. Caprou, Al. Gafton, Laura Manea,
N. A. Ursu, 2.
vol., Iai, 2001, 2002.
cat.c. = Catehismul lui Coresi, text stabilit, studiu filologic, studio lingvistic i indice
de Alexandra Roman
Moraru, n texte rom., p. 19-128.
cb = Codicele Bratul, ediie de text de Alexandru Gafton, Editura Universitii
Alexandru Ioan Cuza, Iai,
2003.
cc1 = Coresi, Cazania I, cca 1567; ed. Vladimir Drimba, Bucureti, Editura Academiei
Romne, 1998.
cc2= Coresi, Cazania a II-a, Braov, 1581; ed. Sextil Pucariu i Alexe Procopovici,
Bucureti, 1914.
cp = Texte de limb din secolul XVI reproduse n facsimile ngrijite de I. Bianu,
membru al Academiei Romne.
IV. Lucrul Apostolesc. Apostolul tiprit de diaconul Coresi la Braov n anul 1563,
Bucureti, 1930.
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ct = Coresi, Tetraevanghelul, Braov, 1561; ed. Florica Dimitrescu, Bucureti, Editura

Academiei, 1963.
cv = Codicele Voroneean, ediie critic, studiu filologic i studiu lingvistic de
Mariana Costinescu, Editura
d = Documente i nsemnri romneti din secolul al XVI-lea, text stabilit i indice de
Gheorghe Chivu,
Magdalena Georgescu, Magdalena Ioni, Alexandru Mare i Alexandra RomanMoraru, cu o Introducere de Alexandru Mare, Bucureti, 1979.
drb = Documente romneti reproduse dup originale sau dup fotografii sub
supravegherea bibliotecarului
Academiei Romne Ioan Bianu, partea 1, Epoca dinainte de Mateiu Basarab (1632) i
Vasile Lupu (1634), tomul I, fasc. 1, Bucureti, 1907.
dvl = Dictionarium valachico-latinum. Primul dicionar al limbii romne, studiu
introductiv, ediie, indici i
glosar de Gh. Chivu, Bucureti, Editura Academiei Romne, 2008.
frag. tod. = Fragmentul Todorescu, text stabilit, studiu filologic, studiu lingvistic i
indice de Ion Gheie, n
Texte romneti din secolul al XVI-lea. I. Catehismul lui Coresi. II. Pravila lui Coresi.
III. Fragmentul Todorescu. IV. Glosele Bogdan. V. Prefee i epiloguri, de Gheie, Ion
(coord.), Editura Academiei, Bucureti, 1982.
mo = Coresi, Molitvenic rumnesc, cca 1567; ed. Vladimir Drimba, Bucureti, Editura
Academiei Romne,
1998.
ntb = Noul Testament, tiprit pentru prima dat n limba romn la 1648 de ctre
Simion tefan, Mitropolitul
Transilvaniei, reeditat dup 350 de ani cu binecuvntarea nalt prea sfinitului Andrei,
arhiepiscopul Alba Iuliei, Alba Iulia, 1998.
ph = Psaltirea Hurmuzaki I, Studiu filologic, studiu lingvistic i ediie de Ion Gheie i
Mirela Teodorescu, II,
Indice de cuvinte de Rovena enchi, Bucureti, 2005.
po = Palia de la Ortie (1582), I., Textul, Text stabilit i ngrijire editorial de Vasile
Arvinte, Ioan Caprou
i Alexandru Gafton, Editura Universitii Alexandru Ioan Cuza, Iai, 2005.
ps = Psaltirea scheian comparat cu celelalte Psaltiri din sec. XVI i XVII traduse
din slavonete, ediiune
critic de I.-A. Candrea, Bucureti, 1916.
Tams, Lajos. (1942). Fogarasi Istvn ktja. Fejezet a bnsgi s hunyadmegyei
rumnsg
mveldstrtnetbl, Minerva Irodalmi s Nyomdai Mintzet, Kolozsvr.
B. Dicionare
da = Dicionarul limbii romne, Bucureti, 19131949.
dlr = Dicionarul limbii romne, (serie nou), Bucureti, 1965 .urm.
dlrlv = Mariana Costinescu, Magdalena Georgescu, Florentina Zgraon, Dicionarul
limbii romne literare
vechi (16401780). Termeni regionali, Bucureti, Editura tiinific i Enciclopedic,
1987.
Ttfalusi,
Istvn,
Magyar
etimolgiai
nagysztr
[Online:
http://www.szokincshalo.hu/szotar/ - ianuarie 2015].
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C. Lucrri de referin
Gafton, Alexandru. (2005). Dup Luther. Traducerea vechilor texte biblice, Editura
Universitii
Alexandru Ioan Cuza, Iai.
Gheie, Ion. (1974). nceputurile scrisului n limba romn. Contribuii filologice i
lingvistice, Editura
Academiei Romne, Bucureti.
Gheie, Ion & Mare, Alexandru. (1974). Graiurile dacoromne n secolul al XVI-lea,
Editura Academiei,
Bucureti.
ilr, ii = O. Densusianu, Istoria limbii romne, ediie ngrijit i traducere n limba
romn de J. Byck,
vol. II, Secolul al XVI-lea, Editura tiinific, Bucureti, 1961.
Munteanu, Eugen. (2008). Lexicologie biblic romneasc, Humanitas, Bucureti
[Online:
http://www.philippide.ro/persoane/Volume/E.%20Munteanu_
Lexicologie%20Biblica.pdf 10 decembrie 2012].
Pl, Enik. (2014). Influena limbii maghiare asupra limbii romne. Perioada veche,
Editura Universitii
,,Alexandru Ioan Cuza, Iai.
Rosetti, Al. (1931).
Limba romn n secolul al XVI-lea, Editura Cartea
romneasc, Bucureti.
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ROMANIAN LANGUAGE IN THE FIRST HALF OF THE 19TH CENTURY

Elena Andreea POPA
Abstract: This work tries to emphasize the importance of the XIXth century with regard to the
Romanian literature and its process of modernization. There are various definitions of the
literary language as well as many theories of its evolution process. The first part of the XIX th
century plays a significant place in the process of modernization because during this period
are published important works in order to establish the rules of a unique literary language.
Keywords: Modernization, theories, rules, literature, language.
Literatura romn a secolului al XIX-lea a cunoscut o evoluie dificil, afirmndu-se
destul de trziu n comparaie cu cea european, fiind la grania dintre dou orizonturi, dou
modele culturale, cel Oriental, bizantin, static i dogmatic i cel Occidental, creativ i
dinamic, lipsit de constrngeri. (Florea , Iacob, 2006:11).
Odat cu secolul XIX apar anumite evenimente de ordin istoric, social i cultural care
cer sincronizarea literaturii romne cu cea european. Prin intermediul erudiiilor ce studiaz
n strintate i aduc idei inovatoare are loc un adevrat proces de emancipare al poporului
romn pe toate planurile. Se dorete unirea Principatelor Romne, autonomie i rspndirea
culturii n rndul poporului romn, ncercndu-se astfel o sincronizare pe toate planurile cu
Occidentul, a crui evoluie era model pentru oamenii de cultur din ara noastr.
Pornind chiar de la noiunea de limb literar au existat numeroase teorii dezvoltate de
a lungul timpului, astfel Ion Budai-Deleanu ncerca n Dasclul pentru temeiurile gramaticii
romneti s redea o prim definiie a limbii literare, susinnd c:vorba sau limba
muselor nu este alt fr limba ntru care se nva tiinele. Aceast limb se afl la toate
neamurile politice la care folosesc nvturile i este n sine tot aceeai limb a norodului de
obte, numai ct este mai curat de toate smintelile ce se afl in limba lmurit i adus la
regulile gramaticeti, apoi i nmulit cu cuvinte obicinuite de nvturi, care nu se afl in
vorba de obte. ( Budai-Deleanu, 1970:132.)
Iorgu Iordan consider limba literar drept aspectul cel mai desvrit al limbii
ntregii naiuni, consecin a unei continue evoluii pe toate planurile culturale, fiind unitar
fa de limba naional, ntruct: Faptul se datorete caracterului normativ al acesteia din
urm i contiinei vorbitorilor despre necesitatea de a-i respecta cu cea mai mare strictee
normele.(Iordan, 1954:56)
O alt definiie sumar este redat de tefan Munteanu i V. D. ra care afirm cu
privire la limba literar c:,, este acea variant a limbii naionale caracterizat printr-un sistem
de norme, fixate n scris, care i asigur o anumit unitate i stabilitate, precum i prin
caracterul ei prelucrat, ngrijit. Ea are o sfer larg, ntruct cuprinde produciile i
manifestrile culturale, n sensul larg al cuvntului: este limba scrierilor tiinifice, filozofice,
beletristice, a presei, a vieii politice, precum i limba folosit n diferite instituii:
administraie, coal, teatru etc.( t. Munteanu, V. D. ra,1983:16).
Meritul oamenilor de cultur ai secolului XIX-lea este acela de a lupta pentru
unificarea nu doar a Principatelor Romne prin lupta antifeudal i intelectual ntreprins de
micarea paoptist, ct i lupta de unificare i normare a limbii romne literare.
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Aceast lupt - nceput de la sfritul secolului XVIII-lea prin intermediul colii

Ardelene - se va finaliza odat cu stabilirea normelor limbii romne literare, spre sfritul
secolului XIX-lea.
n aceast privin au existat variate opinii care au ncercat s ncadreze din punct de
vedere istoric etapele de evoluie ale limbii romne literare.
Al. Rosetti, B. Cazacu i L. Onu n lucrarea Istoria limbii romne literare prefer
mprirea pe secole a limbii romne literare fr a avea o anume motivare teoretic i
metodologic.
De cu totul alt opinie este Paula Diaconescu ce mparte istoria limbii romne literare
moderne n trei perioade semnificative demersului fixrii normelor limbii literare; prima
perioad este cea paoptist cuprins ntre anii 1830-1860, avnd la baz date istorice
importante Pacea de la Adrianopol( 1829) i Unirea Principatelor( 1859). Intelectualii acestei
perioade se preocup de unificarea modernizarea limbii literare. Cea de a doua perioad,
dup Unire( 1860-1867-1875) se remarc prin impunerea latinismului, fcndu-se remarcat
revista Convorbiri literare. Ultima etap, cea a marilor clasici cuprinde anii de sfrit ai
secolului XIX, remarcndu-se prin individualitatea stilurilor scriitorilor.
tefan Munteanu i V. D. ra mpart evoluia limbii literare n dou etape eseniale:
romna literar veche, care ncepe din secolul XV pn la finele secolului XVIII-lea; cea de a
doua perioad, a limbii romne literare moderne se mparte n : perioada premodern
cuprins ntre anii 1780 i 1840 se caracterizeaz prin laicizarea culturii, n defavoarea
aciunilor ntreprinse de Biseric, accentundu-se diferenele de dialect din scrierile literare,
cu toate acestea exist preocupri pentru unitatea limbii ntreprinse de coala Ardelean;
urmeaz etapa cuprins ntre 1840 i 1880, marcat de lupta pentru normarea limbii, iar
ultima perioad( 1880- 1900) are rolul de a consolida stilurile funcionale ale limbii literare.
Secolul al XIX-lea prezint importan i cnd este vorba de originea limbii romne
literare, ntruct au existat lingviti ce au legat apariia limbii literare de acest secol.
Un exemplu este teoria susinut de coala ieean conform creia limba literar
romn s-a format dup Unirea Principatelor, n a doua jumtate a secolului XIX, ei fiind de
prere c acest fapt istoric unete i limba romn care pn atunci folosea diverse dialecte, n
funcie de zona de provenien a romnilor.
G. Ivnescu reia aceast teorie argumentnd c:Formarea unei aristocraii romneti,
distincte de popor, uneori cu origini n alte regiuni ale rii, a dus la formarea unor graiuri
specifice ei, deosebite parial de graiurile populare, i, n cele din urm, la formarea unei limbi
literare. (Ivnescu, 1980:499).
Lupta pentru constituirea normelor limbii romne literare a fost declanat nc de la
sfritul secolului al XVIII-lea de ctre coala Ardelean, care dorea modernizarea limbii prin
rentoarcerea la limba- mam, latina. S-a ncercat astfel regsirea latinitii i modernizarea
limbii romne literare utiliznd mijloace specifice limbii latine, astfel lund natere micarea
latinist care, n cazul poporului nostru,va cunoate trei faze: prima este faza latinismului
rezonant, de nceput ntlnit la Dosoftei, Dimitrie Cantemir i cronicari; faza urmtoare este
cea a latinismului doctrinar ntlnit n perioada premodern, iar faza latinismului extrem apare
dup 1840. Superioritatea limbii latine fa de celelalte influene n procesul de modernizarea
a limbii romne a condus la acceptarea doar a anumitor influene dintre care limbile latine au
fost principalele surse de mprumuturi.
n lucrarea Literatura romn n a doua jumtate a secolului al XIX-lea autorii
rezum n cteva fraze trsturile definitorii ale literaturii secolului XIX-lea, afirmnd c:,,
Literatura romn a secolului al XIX-lea, fr a ntrerupe continuitatea fireasc a unei culturi
care a vibrat prin timp la destinele neamului, marcheaz un moment de rscruce, o etap
calitativ nou, de o mare varietate prin deschiderea spre sincronizarea cu spiritul dinamic i
modern al marilor literaturi europene. Evoluia i structura ei au fost determinate de
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schimbrile revoluionare profunde care au traversat acest secol viforos i care au transfigurat
resorturile adnci ale ntregii alctuiri sociale i, mai ales, ale mentalitii i idealurilor
spirituale ale noilor generaii. Literatura acestor ani, avnd la baz un program naional statuat
prin Dacia literar, reprezint hotarul dintre dou zone de influene, dintre vechea cultur
oriental, cu formele ei specific medievale, i cultura occidental, mai dinamic i mai
deschis evoluiei spre valoare artistic.( Florea, Iacob, 2006:7).
Astfel reiese c la baza micrii paoptiste din prima jumtate a secolului XIX-lea st
programul susinut n filele revistei Dacia literar de Mihail Koglniceanu i ceilali
reprezentani paoptiti. n Introducie, Mihail Koglniceanu i arat dorina de a avea o
literatur i o limb unit ,,Literatura noastr are trebuin de unire, iar nu de dezbinare; ct
pentru noi, dar, vom cuta s nu dm cea mai mic pricin din care s-ar putea isca o urat i
neplcut neunire. n sfrit, elul nostru este realizarea dorinei ca romnii s aib o limb i
o literatur comun pentru toi. ( Dacia literar, 2012:5).
Tot n filele revistei se ndeamn la cultivarea unei literaturi autentice, contientiznd
pericolul imitaiei despre care autorul afirma c : ,, omoar n noi duhul naional. Aceast
manie este mai ales covritoare n literatur. Mai n toate zilele ies de sub teasc cri n limba
romneasc. Dar ce folos! c sunt numai traducii din alte limbi i nc i acele de-ar fi bune.
Traduciile ns nu fac o literatur. Noi vom prigoni ct vom putea aceast manie ucigtoare a
gustului original, nsuirea cea mai preioas a unei literaturi. ( Dacia literar, 2012: 5)
Koglniceanu ndeamn scriitorii s aib ca surs de inspiraie istoria naional care,,
are destule fapte eroice, frumoasele noastre ri sunt destul de mari,obiceiurile noastre sunt
destul de pitoreti i de poetice, pentru ca s putem gsi i la noi sujeturi de scris, fr s avem
pentru aceasta trebuin s ne mprumutm de la alte naii. Foaia noastr va primi cat se poate
mai rar traduceri din alte limbi; compuneri originale ii vor umple mai toate coloanele.( Dacia
literar, 2012:5).
Critica ocup un loc deosebit ntruct va aprecia obiectiv valoarea operei: ,, Critica
noastr va fi neprtinitoare; vom critica cartea, iar nu persoana. Vrjmai ai arbitrarului, nu
vom fi arbitrari n judecile noastre literare. Iubitori ai pcii, nu vom primi nici n foaia
noastr discuii ce ar putea s se schimbe in vrajbe. ( Dacia literar, 2012: 5)
Revista militeaz de asemenea pentru unitatea limbii i a literaturii, fapt ce reiese din
urmtoarele afirmaii: ,, Aadar, foaia noastr va fi un repertoriu general al literaturii
romneti, n care, ca ntr-o oglind, se vor vedea scriitori moldoveni, munteni, ardeleni,
bneni, bucovineni, fietecare cu ideile sale, cu limba sa, cu tipul su. Urmnd unui asemene
plan, Dacia nu poate dect s fie bine primit de publicul cititor. Ct pentru ceea ce se atinge
de datoriile redaciei, noi ne vom sili ca moralul s fie pururea pentru noi o tabl de legi i
scandalul o urciune izgonit(). Literatura noastr are trebuin de unire, iar nu de
dezbinare; ct pentru noi, dar, vom cuta s nu dm cea mai mic pricin din care s-ar putea
isca o urt i neplcut neunire. n sfrit, elul nostru este realizarea dorinei ca romnii s
aib o limb i o literatur comun pentru toi. ( Dacia literar, 2012:5).
Toate aceste idealuri ajut la apropierea literaturii romne de valorile celei universale;
iar n ceea ce privete stadiul limbii romne literare, o schimbare major are loc odat cu
publicarea Gramaticii Romneti, n 1828 de ctre un important reprezentant al micrii
paoptiste,
Ion Heliade - Rdulescu.
Prin aceast publicaie autorul aduce schimbri majore la nivelul limbii. Combate
principiul etimologic, susinndu-l pe cel fonetic, iar n cazul lexicului propune derivarea i
mprumutul ca surse de mbogire. Totui sunt condamnate mprumuturile exagerate ca de
altfel exagerrile colii latiniste.
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Reputaia cultural a lui Ion Heliade-Rdulescu n rndul intelectualilor din prima

jumtate a secolului XIX-lea a garantat succesul reformelor limbii romne literare, ajutnd la
asimilarea normelor de unificare a limbii romne literare.
Epoca modern a limbii romne literare ncepe cu anul 1830, iar pn n 1860
corespunde perioadei paoptiste, caracterizat drept o perioad de tranziie n care elementele
vechi coexist cu cele intrate recent n limb.
Se realizeaz traduceri din literatura european , se public manuale, apar periodic
reviste, iar activitatea oamenilor de cultur se caracterizeaz fie prin orientarea latinist n
modernizarea limbii romne literare, fie prin orientarea raionalist. Aceast perioad este
caracterizat de asemenea de inexistena unor norme stabilite, astfel c limba nu se manifest
unitar.
Lexicul se mbogete considerabil, existnd uneori mai multe cuvinte pentru redarea
unei noiuni, lucru ce complic adesea procesul de modernizare.
De asemenea sintaxa cunoate nc inadecvri datorate influenei slavone, ns apar
reorganizri n ceea ce privete anumite paradigme gramaticale, precum cea a verbului sau a
pronumelui demonstrativ, dei anumite diferene locale se pstreaz deocamdat n scris.
Un alt aspect abordat n lupta pentru o limb literar unic const n adoptarea unui
singur dialect comun tuturor romnilor; n aceast privin au existat o serie de teorii care au
susinut fie graiul muntenesc, maramureean, moldovenesc sau toate graiurile dacoromne,
din aceast ultim categorie fcnd parte Ion Gheie i George Ivnescu , conform crora pn
n secolul XIX au existat mai multe dialecte dacoromne, George Ivnescu exprimndu-i
teoria astfel: Dup prerea mea, a existat... o baz dialectal munteneasc oricnd, dar numai
pentru Muntenia. i a existat oricnd i o baz dialectal maramureean, cci limba literar
romneasc de astzi tot a mai pstrat cte ceva din vechile maramureenisme; ntre altele,
pronumele acest(a); i a existat oricnd i o baz dialectal ardeleneasc, moldoveneasc i
bnean; dar, pn la secolul al XIX-lea, fiecare din dialectele pomenite constituia o baz
numai pentru limba scris n raza lui; pe cnd, ncepnd din acest secol, elementele din aceste
dialecte, care au ptruns n limba literar unitar a romnilor, sunt mai puine, dar se
utilizeaz pretutindeni....( G. Ivnescu, Bazele dialectale ale limbii literare romne, I, n
Convorbiri literare, 1972, nr. 3, p. 10, apud t. Munteanu, V. D. ra,1983: 4647).
Cu toate acestea se adopt dialectul muntenesc ca baz pentru limba romn literare, i
chiar dac apar opozani, argumentele alegerii acestui dialect sunt puternice.
n aceast privin, George Bariiu afirma: ,, voi s scriu cum i vorbesc, dar nu dup
dialectul unde m- am nscut, nici n cel ce la Bucureti, nici n acela de la Iai, ci singur n
acela care place mai mult urechilor mele, care ns se apropie foarte mult de limba crilor
bisericeti, ( Netea, 1957:32).
Acestea au constituit doar cteva dintre premisele care au stat la baza instituirii
normelor limbii romne literare, norme ce odat adoptate au materializat idealul oamenilor de
cultur i anume unitatea limbii romne literare, deschiznd orizontul marilor scriitori din cea
de a doua jumtate, perioada marilor clasici.
BIBLIOGRAFIE
Budai-Deleanu, Ion, Scrieri lingvistice, ediie de Mirela Teodorescu, I. Gheie,
Bucureti, Editura tiinific, 1970.
Dacia literar, Nr. 1-2 (100-101) anul XXIII (serie nou din 1990),Iai, 2012.
Diaconescu, Paula, Elemente de istorie a limbii romne literare moderne. Partea I.
Probleme de normare a limbii romne literare moderne (18301880), Bucureti, CMUB,
1974.
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Florea,Ghi;Iacob, Simona, Literatura romn n a doua jumtate a secolului al

XIX-lea. Ediia a 3-a, Bucureti, Editura Fundaiei Romnia de Mine, 2006.
Gheie Ion, Seche Mircea, Discuii despre limba romn literar ntre anii 1830-1860,
n Studii de istoria limbii romne literare, I, Secolul XIX, Bucureti, Editura pentru literatur,
1969.
Iordan, Iorgu, Limba literar. Privire general, n LR, III, nr. 6, 1954.
Ivnescu, George, Istoria limbii romne, Iai, Editura Junimea, 1980.
Munteanu, t., ra,V. D., Istoria limbii romne literare, Bucureti,E.D.P., 1983.
Netea V., Ideile despre limb ale lui George Bariiu, pn la 1848, n LR, nr5, 1957.
Rosetti, Al., Cazacu, B., Onu, L., Istoria limbii romne literare. Vol. I. De la origini
pn la nceputul secolului al XIX-lea, ediia a II-a, Bucureti, Editura Minerva, 1971.
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THE LITERALITY OF THE JUXTAPOSITION OF BLANCHOT, MAGRITTEM DE

CHIRICO
Patricia APOSTOL
Abstract: The irruption of resemblance is independent from the ressemblances inventory.

Resemblance, as we propose here with the pretexts Blanchot, Magritte, de Chirico, is a a
mode of action, not of passivity, of presence and not of representation. The literal operation
of putting together heterogeneous, distant elements, becomes a mise en ressemblance.
Keywords: litterality, resemblance, enumeration, silence, Blanchot
Blanchot, pe de o parte, Magritte i de Chirico, pe de alt parte, ca spaii intermediare
conectate ntr-un raport de interaciune, sunt pretextele noastre pentru o abordare a asemnrii
indiferente asemnrilor, o asemnare antrenat de imperativul conexiunii i antrennd o reea
de conexiuni n interiorul creia Blanchot, Magritte i de Chirico ca noduri devin asemntori.
De la literalitatea ca eveniment al iruperii sensului la fiecare dintre cei trei, ne deplasm spre
literalitatea ca mod de manifestare al asemnrii lor.
1. Blanchot, Magritte, de Chirico o enumeraie literal
Formula literal, spaial a juxapunerii lui Blanchot, Magritte i de Chirico este
enumerarea lor. Sensul acestei formule nu este anterior ei, ci vine direct din experimentarea ei
prin punerea n relaie a elementelor Blanchot, Magritte, de Chirico. Aceast experien, care
ia forma enumeraiei, produce recunoaterea non-mimetic, ludic a literalitii, aliaj
tulburtor i stimulant de termeni ai cror refereni sunt totui fr legtur 1. Enumeraia
nu este o simpl operaie retoric de marcare a coliziunii Blanchot - Magritte, de Chirico. Ea
marcheaz coliziunea fr a fi ns expresia ei, un gest decorativ i static posterior acesteia, ci
unul productiv, dinamic: enumeraia este nsi formula conceptual a coliziunii, simultan
acesteia.
Prin enumeraie alturm elemente deja alturate: Blanchot, prin arja vizual, prin
intensitatea pe care o cuvintelor, i-i apropie pe Magritte i de Chirico. A altura prin
enumeraie elemente deja alturate n afara enumeraiei nu este un gest tautologic, ci o
cartografiere, o punere n pagin a elementelor a cror apropiere, odat marcat, ncepe s se
transforme n asemnare. Asemnarea pe care o avem n vedere este spaiul de ecouri la care
trimite apropierea dintre cei trei marcat prin enumerare. Aceast apropiere vine din
asemnri inventariabile n jurul temei linitii (Blanchot, Magritte i de Chirico produc o
tcere logoreic.)2 i se dirijeaz spre asemnare: asemnri -> apropiere -> asemnare.
Povestirile lui Maurice Blanchot produc un tip special de imagine, complet diferit, n
mecanismul ei de producere i de meninere, de imaginea literar, dei are loc n spaiul
literar. Posibilitatea enumerrii celor trei creatori este declanat tocmai de absena, n
povestirile sale, a unei restricii: aceea de a nu putea vorbi despre imagine n literatur dect
metaforic. Dac ntr-un text realist aceasta restricie este fireasc, organic descrierii (nu este
nimic revolttor n a califica metaforic drept imagine interiorul unei camere, nfiarea
unui personaj), n povestirile lui Blanchot ea este pus sub semnul intrebarii.
Anne Sauvagnargues, n prefaa la Franois Zourabichvili, La Littralit et autres essais sur lart , Paris, PUF,
2011, p. 27
2
Nu ne vom ocupa aici de problema asemnrilor lor, ci urmrim problema asemnrii.
1
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Intr-un text realist si chiar hiperrealist, obiectele sunt evocate i, astfel, ndeprtate de
cuvintele care le poart. Aceast ndeprtare a obiectului de cuvntul su provoac
ndeprtarea cititorului de imagine. n spaiul gol (al indeprtrii) dintre cuvant i obiect se
deschide o ncercare de pstrare a apropierii lor: cititorul indepartat de imagine nu mai poate
dect s-i imagineze obiectele. Imaginaia vine tocmai s remedieze absenei imaginii, ns
nu poate recupera imaginea, cci intervine ntre cititor i text tocmai ca o recunoatere i o
consolidare a pierderii imaginii. Cititorul ndeprtat (mai nti, de imaginea literar, adic de
textul evocator de obiect, iar apoi de obiectul nsui, absenteificat prin textul evocator) nu
poate s citeasc i s priveasc fr s-i imagineze; el pierde pasivitatea sa de cititorprivitor, o pasivitate activ, ncercnd s readuc imaginea, printr-o activitate pasiv.
n povestirile lui Blanchot, obiectele sunt, dimpotriv, invocate, ceea ce le
prezentific, n configurarea unor imagini ca la Magritte i de Chirico.3 Disponibilitatea de a
nara i a figura a acestor texte este deja orientat spre eec (un eec rvnit) ; ele reuesc s
eueze n a arta cu adevrat, rmnnd abstracte. Literal ar fi, aadar, tocmai un text a crui
tcere ca exigen ultim nu este urmarit pentru ea nsi, ci ignorat i recuperat tocmai
prin deturnare, prin logoree. Povestirile lui Blanchot nu dau nimic de imaginat, tocmai pentru
c, invocnd obiectele, le aduc deja n vizualitatea i vizibilitatea lor.
2. Blanchot - Magritte, de Chirico: o asemnare literal
ntrebndu-ne asupra statutului special al imaginii n povestirile i romanele lui
Maurice Blanchot, am putea urmri schimburile dintre Blanchot, pe de o parte, i Magritte i
de Chirico, pe de alta parte, ecouri care nu apar ca manifestri ale asemnrilor, ci ale
asemnarii produse prin nsi punerea lor laolat, adic ale punerii lor n asemnare. Studiul
acesta nu i vizez pe Blanchot, pe Magritte i pe de Chirico, nu vizez operele lor n
importana lor intrinsec, ntr-o logic a descoperirii literalitii fiecreia i a demonstraiei
asemnarilor lor, ci propune conexiuni ale singularitilor, ntr-o logic productiv, fiind
orientat spre relaiile lor, spre fluxul care-i cupleaz pe acetia ntr-un raport de interaciune.
Avem n vedere, aadar, nu trei elemente (B M C), ci cu dou raporturi ntre aceste trei
elemente: B (M C).
Sub violena ntlnirii cartografiate prin enumeraie are loc asemnarea lor.
Enumeraia marcheaz acea recunoatere aristotelic, surpriza fascina(n)t a unei
recunoateri non-mimetice4, a unei recunoateri inaugurale, construite: nu recunoaterea
unui coninut prealabil, ca ntoarcere spre un deja-vzut care ar fi reflectat, ci un gest care
survine, evenimentul unui raport de asemnare care se instaureaz indiferent de prezena sau
absena asemnarilor.
Operaia de producere semantic - pe care Ricoeur o numete metafor! - redistribuie
aceste predicate fr legtur dar puse n legtur: acestea nu-i schimb doar proprietile, ci
se transform ele nsele, observ Anne Sauvagnargues5. Deplasndu-ne spre operaia pe care
o presupune asemnarea, am putea spune c asemnarea nu este rezultanta inventarului
asemnrilor elementelor (comunicarea ntre proprietile lor), ci se instaureaz prin nsi
metamorfoza unui element n cellalt. Asemnarea este deci o operaie care se constituie nu
prin ceea ce posed elementele ei, ci prin ceea ce ele devin; altfel spus, urmnd-o pe Anne
Sauvagnargues n definirea literalitatea la Zourabichvili, asemnarea ar fi o operaie care nu
Asemnarea este o consacrare a distantei, a categoriilor ireconciliabile: calificand doua lucruri drept
asemanatoare le pastram in implicitul diferentelor lor. Nu ne vom ocupa ns aici de diferena pe care o produce
asemnarea.
3
Franois Zourabichvili insist asupra acestei recunoateri non-mimetice, ca operaie de devenire, un joc
constituant ntre predicate care capt sens n chiar cursul acestei operaii.
5
n prefaa la Franois Zourabichvili, op. cit., p. 27.
4
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ine de contaminarea proprietilor, ci de imanena producerii sensului ca eveniment: sensul

nu este anterior actului de gndire, ci, dimpotriv, este rezultatul lui. Aceast distribuie a
sensului ca eveniment n care ar consta, dup Zourabichvili, literalitatea, este totodat nucleul
asemnrii, dar nu pentru c asemnarea i literalitatea ar fi dou cmpuri tangente sau
secante, ci n calitatea lor de cmpuri concentrice.
Mai nti, evenimentul trebuie neles nu ca fapt real care se petrece, ci, aa cum
spune Anne Sauvagnargues, n calitatea lui de putere problematic de reconfigurare a
cmpului; apoi, nu trebuie vzut fenomenologic n unicitatea lui, n perpetuul nceput al lui
acelai, n schimbarea decisiv, ci n multiplicitatea lui, n vertijul rupturii, ca pentru
Deleuze i Foucault, n imposibilitatea lui de a schimba ceva, din moment ce el este
schimbarea absolut.6
Blanchot, Magritte si de Chirico literali

Ne vom deplasa atenia de la formula binar a raportului dintre Blanchot, pe de o
parte, i Magritte i de Chirico, pe de alt parte, la o formul ternar, prin care vom urmri
literalitatea la fiecare dintre cei trei. Odat ajuni n punct - al descrierii modului de
funcionare a elementului comun ne vom confrunta cu evidena de a citi elementul comun n
invaliditatea lui, ntr-o teorie a asemnrii.
3.1 Blanchot literal
Literalitatea este un concept pe care textele lui Blanchot nsele ne oblig s-l
regndim, detandu-l de abordrile lingvistice, pragmatice si stilistice care asimileaz
literalul denotaiei, sensului propriu (opus celui figurat). Ne vom apropia aadar de abordrile
deleuziene din Mii de platouri, Kafka. Pentru o literatur minor, din postfaa (intitulat
"Bartleby ou la formule" ) crii Bartleby de Melville, din cursul su din 27 mai 1980, unde
insista mpotriva interpretrii delirului preedintelui Schreber. Dac Fontanier, Max Black, I.
A. Richards, Barthes, Ricur, Todorov, Kristeva nu au n vedere un literal autonom, ci numai
un literal ca anticamer a conotaiei, Deleuze renun la cuplul sens propriu - sens figurat,
interesat de un literal pe care l plaseaz dincoace de distribuia dual a sensului. Aceast
abordare este important pentru c scoate literalul de sub incidena ne-literarului.
Cmpul literalitii nu are o definiie, ci mai multe definiii care conlucreaz,
acumulndu-se pe msur ce l investigm. Ne vom ocupa aici doar de una dintre acestea : n
linia lui Franois Zourabichvili din Litteralit et autres essais sur l'art (dar i din cteva
articole), putem s definim provizoriu literalitatea ca fiind proximitatea cuvinte-lucruri i s
o circumscriem prin conceptul de mots-choses: cuvintele instaureaz direct, violent i naiv o
lume.
Dac Blanchot scrie nchidere, trebuie s citim deschidere, dac el scrie
schimbare, ne face s citim nici cea mai mic schimbare, dac scrie natural sau
familiar, ne face s citim ciudat, chiar monstruos, dac scrie opacitate, citim lumin
orbitoare, dac scrie a nu vorbi, citim a vorbi sau mai puin dect a nu vorbi, dac
scrie linite, avem de citit angoas, dac scrie apropiere, naintare, acem de citit
ndeprtare, recul. Ce se ntmpl? Avem de-a face cu o scriitur consacrat lecturii, dar
nu n sensul lui a scrie pentru a fi citit, ci : Blanchot, scriind un cuvnt care-i convoac
contrariul pentru ca cititorul s aib de-a face cu acest contrariu este tocmai un autor ce
renun la autoritatea sa pentru a autoriza cititorul. Un cuvnt scris este un cuvnt cruia
6
Ibidem, p. 35
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Blanchot i epuizeaz tot spectrul de intensiti semantice prin simplul gest de a-l arta, este
un cuvnt epuizat, violat, care nu mai poate funciona pentru el nsui, ci numai ca un cuvntinstrument declanndu-i contrariul. De fapt, Blanchot nu atribuie cuvntului un alt sens, un
sens pe care cuvntul nu l are deja ci, exploatndu-l, i gsete dualitatea semantic i se
instaleaz pe prag. Dinspre acest prag, un cuvnt scris (ales, vizibil), n loc s se refere la o
lume, i cheam/atrage imediat contrariul rezonant. (Avem de-a face cu un raport de la
cuvnt la cuvnt n interiorul aceluiai cuvnt.) Acest contrariu este cel care invoc lumea,
referentul:
cuvnt scris (vizibil) -> contrariul su -> lume
Cum reuete Blanchot s-l fac pe cititor s citeasc deschidere n nchidere (n,
nu n loc de) ? Cuvntul scris de Blanchot este un cuvnt declanat, la rndul lui, prin
parcurgerea ntregului spectru semantic al unui cuvnt anterior acestuia, al un contrariu iniial;
acest cuvnt scris este contrariul cuvntului care l-a convocat s apar n pagin, este cellalt
vizibilizat. A da de citit deschidere n cuvntul nchidere este a se ntoare spre dejacontrariu, spre acel cuvnt care, odat parcurs spectrul su semantic, a antrenat cuvntul scris
nchidere i pe care cititorul l recupereaz n procesul su de investire semantic pe dos,
proces iniiat de Blanchot nsui i cruia cititorul nu-i poate scpa:
deja-contrariu (invizibil) cuvnt scris contrariu (invizibil) - lume
Cum putem afirma literalitatea unui text ale crui cuvinte le considerm ca declanate
de i declanndu-i contrariul ? Cum rmne cu literalitatea dac avem de citit nchidere
acolo unde este scris deschidere ? Aa cum artam mai sus, contrariul nu nlocuiete
cuvntul scris, venind din alt parte, ci, venind din cuvntul scris, l dubleaz. Deocamdat
vom spune c literalitatea acestui text scriitur-lectur st n capacitatea cuvntului-contrariu
de a anima imediat lumea (capacitate auctorial-lectorial) : autorul este cel care l provoac
pe cititor s anime lumea n sensul a ceea ce am afirmat mai sus. Cuvntul scris pentru a fi
citit drept contrariu, odat citit n dualitatea lui, convoac imediat lumea.
3.2 Magritte literal
Parti pris-ul figurativ al lui Magritte, restituindu-ne fidel aparenele obiectelor,
produce o explozie a obiectului, n timp ce acesta se opacizeaz (tace). Violarea raporturilor
de mrime, poziie, perspectiva, lumina, alternanta ne introduce, aa cum spune Breton, ntr-o
figurare secund7, care permite s conjugi dintr-o aceeai privire sensurile propriu si
figurat. Operaia de re-obiectivare a obiectelor, prin exploatarea obiectului familiar,
antreneaz o dezgolire a acestuia: sensul figurat ii devine natural, propriu, plasndu-ne in
literalitatea textelor lui Blanchot. De altfel, funcia acestor obiecte familiare este de a produce
ceea ce Magritte numete imagini poetice vizibile.
3.3 De Chirico literal
De Chirico recupereaz, de asemenea, statutul original al obiectului. Att
apariia manechinelor lui de Chirico ct i irumperea statuar, rece, a figurilor blanchotiene, se
nscriu in tema pietrificarii i a dimensiunii evenimentiale a spaiului: a avea loc. Ca la
Blanchot, tablourile lui de Chirico in de o spectralitate pictural, adic efectul de stupoare
produs prin logica discursului narativ si figurativ, spune Pierre Barucco, caracteriznd
aceasta tergere a referinelor obinuite drept un avnement plutot qu'un vnement. 8
Discontinuitatea sintagmatic a spaiului literar blanchotian, privilegierea raporturilor
7
Andre Breton, Le surralisme et la peinture, Paris, Gallimard, 1965, p. 347
8
Giorgio de Chirico, Valori plastici, aprilie-mai 1919, apud Pierre Barucco, Le Fracas et le silence. Du
Futurisme la Mtaphysique de De Chirico, Marseille, Via Valeriano, 1993, p. 129
984
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paradigmatice corespund, la de Chirico, dislocrii peisagiste n care discreia dezechilibrrii

spatiului (provenit, printre nefireascul compoziiei n planuri nclinate) antreneaza un vertij
topografic lejer i radical n acelai timp. De asemenea, suprafata nu este rezistent, ci moale,
confundndu-se cu nuntrul, ca n textele lui Blanchot, care au o substan a suprafeei, o
substan/ superficial.
Concluzie : de la elementele literale juxtapuse la elementele juxtapuse devenind

literale
n seciunea precedent am vzut c literalitatea este elementul comun care i face pe
Blanchot, Magritte i de Chirico s semene i, astfel, s se apropie. Acest drum firesc dinspre
asemnare (privind un anume tip de linite la cei trei o linite logoreic care ar fi
conceptualizat prin literalitatea) spre apropiere este ns bulversat, ntrerupt de ceva: Blanchot
d cuvintelor o intensitate vizual artnd brusc o imagine care nu este alteritatea obiectului ci
un alt obiect, ceea ce-i cheam brusc pe Magritte i pe de Chirico. Cu alte cuvinte, Blanchot
i-i aprop(r)ie pe Magritte i de Chirico nainte de orice asemnare, n afara oricror
asemnri inventariabile : Blanchot, Magritte et de Chirico pui mpreun ncep s semene,
adic s devin literali. Desigur, aceast literalitate devenit, sinonim al asemnrii produse
prin juxtapunere, este complet diferit de cea iniial care provoac juxtapunerea. (Nu vom
insista aici asupra ipostazelor literalitii)
Aadar, Blanchot nu seamn cu Magritte i de Chirico, ci trimite brusc la ei, ncepe
s semene cu ei, deschiznd liniile de conexiune, ceea ce creeaz asemnare. Punerea n
asemnare i-ar plasa pe acetia ntr-un raport de interaciune contin care ar dubla raportul de
reprezentare n care i-ar situa asemnrile; astfel, putem urmri asemnarea dincolo de
asemnrile care, odat inventariate, o opresc.
De la o literalitate ca nume sub care aezm problema sensului ca irupie, a linitii
antrenate de logoree, n evidena unei afirmaii zgomotoase (opuse linitii care oculteaz
ermetice i ezoterice) i situm astfel asemnrile, ne ndreptm spre o literalitate ca mod de
manifestare al asemnrii (indiferente fa de asemnri, declanatoare a diferenelor).
Trecem, de fapt, de la literalitatea lui Blanchot, a lui Magritte i a lui de Chirico, prin
literalitatea formulei spaiale care-i apropie enumeraia spre literalitatea juxtapunerii, sub
aciunea creia elementele juxtapuse devin literale.
Bibliografie
BARUCCO, Pierre, Le Fracas et le silence. Du Futurisme la Mtaphysique de De
Chirico, Marseille, Via Valeriano, 1993
BRETON, Andr, Le surralisme et la peinture, Paris, Gallimard, 1965
DELEUZE, Gilles, et GUATTARI, Flix, 1975, Kafka. Pour une littrature mineure,
Paris, ditions du Minuit.
..., 1980, Mille plateaux, Paris, ditions du
Minuit.
MELVILLE, Herman, Bartleby, Paris, Flammarion, 1989, postface de Gilles Deleuze
ZOURABICHVILI, Franois, La Littralit et autres essais sur lart , Paris, PUF,
2011
985
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Lucrri electronice i site-uri Internet

http://www.revue-klesis.org/pdf/F-Zourabichvili.pdf
www.2.univ-paris8.fr, - , La voix de Gilles Deleuze en ligne [en ligne] (Cours de
Gilles Deleuze Vincennes Anti-dipe et autres rflexions , du 27/05/1980 1,
transcription
de
Frdric
Astier :
3733) ;
disponible
sur
www.2.univparis8.fr/deleuze/article.php3?id_article=68 (consultat pe 13 februarie 2015)
*Acest articol a beneficiat de suport financiar prin proiectul Rute de excelen
academic n cercetarea doctoral i post-doctoral READ, contract nr.
POSDRU/159/1.5/S/137926, proiect cofinanat din Fondul Social European prin programul
Operational Sectorial Dezvoltarea Resurselor Umane 2007-2013
986
Issue no.6/2015
FEMININE CONFESSION LITERATURE. HORTENSIA PAPADAT-BENGESCU,

ARABESCUL AMINTIRII
Elena FILOTE (PANAIT)
Abstract: The confessional texts of the novelists come to complement their fictional works,
acting as deeds of life and creation. The autobiographic pact is, nonetheless, frequently
transgressed in such writings, as the author does not always present the truth, but rather a
remoulding of his/ her life. Traditionally associated with the feminine literary paradigm, the
confessional writing functions as compensation in rapport with reality, and it is characterised
by intimism, openness towards eroticism, acute sensitivity and an infinitesimal dilution of the
sensations.
With the posthumous publication in 1986 of the texts comprised in Arabescul amintirii, an
epic project of Hortensia Papadat Bengescu aiming at the publication of an
autobiographically-inspired book was finally made possible. These disguised memories
under the mask of an ordinary character, the Little Girl (Fetia), the authors alter ego, may
be also read as a meta-writing, feminine par excellence, since they employ the main axes
specific to Bengescus prose discourse.
Keywords: confessional literature, feminine writing, autobiography, autofiction, abysmal
psychology
Literatura confesiv se ncadreaz n categoria mai general a scrierilor
memorialistice, cercetate n ultimii ani pentru relevana lor estetic, ontologic, ideologic etc.
asupra biografiei i, mai ales, asupra operei unei personaliti. Textele confesive (jurnal
intim, autobiografie, memorii, amintiri, coresponden, dar i anumite declaraii sau
mrturisiri cu miz personal-artistic fcute n pres, cu ocazia unor anchete etc.) motenite de
la un scriitor, autor al unei opere literare, devin complementare textelor sale de ficiune,
interesnd prin valoarea documentar, ca dosare de existen, dar i de creaie. Scrierile
autobiografice devin astfel ,,() O punere n criz a propriului scris, a propriei biografii.
Marea capcan, la grania dintre real i fictiv, ca orice via, ca orice literatur, ca orice via
mrturisit, n scris1. O micare invers, dinspre oper spre biografie (spre datele
incontientului autorului artist, mai ales), propune psihocritica de tipul celei practicate de
Charles Mauron, n scopul unei lecturi a vieii la lumina operei ficionale a scriitorului.
Pe lng autobiografiile i confesiunile celebre, precum cele ale Sf. Augustin,
Montaigne, Pascal sau J.J. Rousseau, istoria universal a genului a reinut numeroase alte
texte prin care modelul de scriitur intim canonic este subversiv deconstruit, ,,pactul
autobiografic este uneori nclcat cu perfidie i autorul prezint nu adevrul despre viaa sa,
ci o remaniere a acesteia. E practicat la nivelul unor astfel de texte un dozaj subtil de ipocrizie
i sinceritate, biografia este recreat, rafinat prin subiectivitatea memorialistului. Prezentat ca
alteritate, eul este remodelat, redefinit. De aici, de la textele care sunt declarate de autorii
nii drept diferite forme de biografie (autobiografie, memorii, amintiri, jurnal), dei abaterile
de la realitatea biografic sunt evidente, i pn la scrierile artistice puternic amprentate de
biografic, dar etichetate ca ipostaze ale ficiunii (roman, nuvel etc.) nu a fost dect un pas,
Mihie, Mircea, De veghe n oglind, Ediia a II-a, revzut, Editura Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 2005, p.
23.
1
987
Issue no. 6/2015
astfel nct, la sfritul anilor 70, Serge Doubrovsky a legitimat existena autoficiunii, ultim
avatar al practicii confesive, definind-o ca punere n ficiune a vieii personale. nvestit cu
funcie de (auto)cunoatere, literatura reine dramele interioare ale scriitorilor, sondate cu
eecuri sau cu momente de iluminare. Prin romanul care evoc un univers particular, autorul
se comunic i genereaz, n acelai timp, un acut sentiment al efemeritii, ce ncalc
dinamica universului real, coerent, afirmndu-l pe cel asimetric, felia de via, ciobul de
existen care, descriind intimitatea, induce sentimentul autenticitii. ,,Nota comun ntre
cele dou specii literare romanul i autobiografia const n construcia i ierarhizarea
lucid a lumii morale n cadrul creia Personajul este pus s acioneze ca un argument
auctorial, ceea ce permite efectuarea unor adnci sondaje analitice. A te analiza n profunzime
nseamn a te reconstitui pn la ultimul detaliu2.
Finalitile scriiturii confesive (cu miz autobiografic) pot fi multiple, de la caracterul
documentar, testamentar, pn la vizionarism i didacticism, dup cum observ Eugen
Simion: ,,Dar scriitura autobiografic? Prin ce se deosebete, n definitiv, de celelalte? Prin
caracterul ei testamentar, cum s-a spus de attea ori, i nc prin ceva: prin caracterul ei nchis,
i () profetic.
I-a spune, mai adecvat, cred, naturii ei: prin caracterul ei didactic, prin voina de a se
oferi ca model de existen3. n treact, s reinem i explicaiile retorice pe care Mircea
Iorgulescu le ddea interesului frenetic pentru lectura scrierilor memorialistice, nc nainte de
cderea regimului totalitarist: ,,() S fie pentru c omul contemporan are un viu sentiment
teatral al vieii, ceea ce implic o contiin a existenei culiselor, de unde, natural,
curiozitatea de a afla ce s-a petrecut, ce se petrece i chiar cum se petrece acolo, n spatele
uilor nchise? ()S fie pentru c, ntr-o lume standardizat i masificat, toate aceste
conserve de via trit, care sunt memoriile, confesiunile, amintirile, autobiografiile, i
compenseaz, i revitaminizeaz deficitul de trire personal?4. Interesant este i punctul de
vedere al unei cercettoare contemporane, care justific febrilitatea cu care este receptat
literatura confesiv n urmtorii termeni: ,,Apetena pentru scrierile care recupereaz autorul,
cu tot cu biografie i context, genereaz scurtcircuitarea momentan a scrierilor evazioniste i
oroarea de ficiuni/utopii, care jucau un rol compensator n ordinea distopiei realului5.
Literatura memorialistic romneasc i are originile, dup unii cercettori i istorici
literari, n scrierile medievale ale cronicarilor moldoveni i munteni, cunoscnd o nflorire
spectaculoas n secolul al XIX-lea, dat fiind primatul subiectivitii i al sensibilitii postulat
de romantici, precum i moda cltoriilor i a corespondenei particulare specific epocii. Dar
abia n secolul al XX-lea, scriitura memorialistic va cpta contiin de sine, acum aprnd
la noi i primele studii de analiz a poeticii genului. Opiunea pentru autenticitate, ca principiu
guvernator al unei opere literare, a unei ntregi generaii de scriitori din perioada interbelic a
favorizat dezvoltarea unei literaturi a intimitii, a experienei directe i a intransigenei
existeniale: ,,() Sinceritatea devine n felul acesta principiul moral i cultural al unei ntregi
generaii de dreapta6. La nceputul secolului al XX-lea, n urma marilor descoperiri tiinifice
(descoperirea razelor X, teoria cuantic, relativitatea, descoperirea atomului etc.), ,,() omul
Vrabie, Diana, Descifrri n poetica eului, n ,,Limba Romn, Nr. 4-6, anul XVII, Chiinu, 2007, disponibil
pe http://www.limbaromana.md.
3
Simion, Eugen, Genurile biograficului, volumul I, Fundaia Naional pentru tiin i Art, Bucureti, 2008, p.
72.
4
Iorgulescu, Mircea, Ispita memorialistic, n ,,Caiete critice, nr. 1-2, 1987, Literatur i confesiune, pp. 7-8;
articolul n ntregime se afl la pp. 7-11.
5
Dinu, Adela, Diaristica feminin romneasc, Editura Eikon, Cluj-Napoca, 2012, p. 44.
6
Manolescu, Ion, Literatura memorialistic. Radu Petrescu, Ion D. Srbu, N. Steinhardt, Antologie, prefa,
dosare critice, comentarii, note i bibliografie adnotat de Ion Manolescu, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 1996, p.
6.
2
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Issue no. 6/2015
trebuie s se resemneze cu ideea c triete ntr-un univers al probabilitilor, supus

hazardului i fr ansa de a se mai raporta la un adevr unic i imuabil. Dac i-a asumat,
ncepnd cu Renaterea, un univers infinit, dar stabil, fiina uman se vede acum confruntat
cu fore nelinititoare i e obligat s-i caute alt fel de repere. Nici eul nu se poate sustrage
acestei relativizri. El mprumut de la romantism forarea limitelor subiectivitii unde
risipirea de sine era practicat cu scopul de a se ntoarce mbogit spre miezul neabandonat al
fiinei sale. Dar n modernism direcia centriped e dominant, fiind refuzat orice principiu
integrator7.
Prin excelen, scriitura confesiv a fost asociat de cercettori8, att din perspectiva
patriarhal, ct i din cea a ginocriticii, paradigmei artistice feminine, din cauza unor ,,puncte
slabe imputate unor astfel de texte, precum intimismul, deschiderea spre erotism, acuitatea
sensibilitii, diluarea infinitezimal a senzaiilor. Permanent ,,de veghe n oglinda cu o
singur imagine9, scriitura intim feminin este expresia unui ,,cult solitar fa de sine10.
Scrierile confesive feminine joac un rol compensatoriu n raport cu realitatea, la nivelul
creia sfera lor de aciune i de influen a fost de-a lungul unei ntregi istorii destul de
limitat; personalitatea refulat i gsete n dinamica scriiturii intime o adevrat ,,pia de
desfacere. Date fiind destinul su istoric i social marcat de marginalizare i condamnarea
sistematic la anonimat, femeia i scrie viaa (,,cu propriul trup, dup formula criticii literare
feministe) pentru a-i da acesteia un sens, bios-grafia i permite ,,() s se sustrag unei viei
trite n banalitate sau uitrii i s se insereze n Istorie, s-i salveze prticica sa de
istorie11. Femeia se complace n jocul narcisiac al demersului confesiv n sperana depirii
unei crize ontologice, alimentate de contiina scindrii sinelui: scrisul la persoana I,
egografia, se prezint n cazul femeilor ca o confruntare cu imaginea specular a Celuilalt.
Femeia-scriitor a perioadei interbelice cultiv, n spiritul vremii, o proz autocentrat,
psihologizant, deci intimist, dnd natere unei direcii de interpretare ce consider n epoc
drept feminin tot ceea ce sondeaz abisurile psihicului uman, tot ceea ce valorific tehnica
detaliului (ne)semnificativ. Dintre scriitoarele interbelice, puine sunt cele care au dorit i au
reuit s publice scrieri autoconfesive, cele mai importante jurnale feminine interbelice
aparinnd, paradoxal, unor autoare care nu i-au ncercat condeiul i n spaiul literaturii de
ficiune (Alice Voinescu, Jeni Acterian, Alice Botez, Pia Alimnetianu .a.). Scriitoarele care
au reuit s se impun n peisajul literar al epocii interbelice au scris, unele, memorii sau
amintiri pe care le-au publicat la vrsta senectuii, sau, dat fiind respingerea oricrei
manifestri estetice a intimismului de ctre corifeii ,,realismului socialist din perioada
comunist, le-au ncredinat spre pstrare i eventual publicare postum unor cunotine,
prieteni de ndejde, rude etc. Din pcate, nicio autoare interbelic nu i-a publicat jurnalul,
dei ,,Perioada cea mai favorabil pentru evoluia jurnalului n Romnia a fost n jurul anilor
Ursa, Anca, Metamorfozele oglinzii. Imaginarul jurnalului literar romnesc, Editura Limes, Cluj-Napoca,
2006, p. 29.
8
,, Dans le cas particulier de lautobiographie, il ntait pas toujours ais de faire concider le geste
autobiographique des femmes avec les dfinitions usuelles de lautobiographie. Reprer des spcificits revenait
souvent lgitimer des carts. - ,,n cazul particular al autobiografiei, nu e ntotdeauna uor s suprapunem
actul autobiografic al femeilor cu definiiile obinuite ale autobiografiei. A-i identifica specificitile presupune
adesea a-i legitima distanrile. (trad. n.) Lecarme-Tabone, Eliane, Lautobiographie des femmes, n ,,FabulaLhT, n 7, Y a-t-il une histoire littraire des femmes?, aprilie 2010, URL : http://www.fabula.org/lht/7/lecarmetabone.html.
9
Dup fericita exprimare a lui Mircea Mihie din De veghe n oglind, ed. cit., p. 19.
10
Beauvoir, Simone de, Al doilea sex, vol. II, Ediia a II-a, Trad. De Diana Crupeschi, Editura Univers,
11
Kristeva, Julia, Geniul feminin, Vol. I, Viaa. Hannah Arendt sau aciunea ca natere i ca stranietate,
Traducere de Beatrice Stanciu, Postfa de Caius Dobrescu, Editura Paralela 45, Piteti, 2004, p. 70.
7
989
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30 ai secolului al XX-lea. Att scriitori, ct i oameni politici, intelectuali de formaii diverse,

artiti, i asum funcia de diariti12.
Este cunoscut faptul c ,,marea european13 a anilor 30, Hortensia PapadatBengescu, a inut un jurnal, din care au fost publicate ns pn acum numai fragmente 14.
Faptul c nu a consimit publicarea acestuia e explicat prin ,,primejdia s dea peste el cei ce
sunt zugrvii15. ,,Jurnalul acestei femei aproape btrne care s-a impus n lumea tinerilor
brbai interbelici ar trebui s fie un document pasionant. Din pcate, dei a fost scris
dezordonat, cu mari ntreruperi, cu notaii cnd lungi, cnd aproape stenografice, cum am aflat
de la domnul Dimitrie Stamatiadi el nu s-a publicat nc. Munca de transcriere ar cere un
efort analog celui care s-a fcut pentru apariia Agendelor lui Lovinescu. () Ceea ce izbete,
comparativ cu jurnalele de creaie ale domnilor din epoc, este lipsa total de interes pentru
cancanurile literare i luptele literailor. Universul interior al autoarei pare aproape fr ci de
acces ctre exterior. Este incredibil c dup mai bine de un secol i un sfert de la naterea
singurei noastre scriitoare clasice, adic intrat deplin n contiina cititorilor, jurnalul ei nu
este nc publicat, dei exist., constat cu ndreptit amrciune Ioana Prvulescu 16. La
solicitarea lui George Clinescu, Hortensia Papadat-Bengescu a scris n 1937, pentru
,,Adevrul literar i artistic, o scurt autobiografie, n care i sintetizeaz destinul uman i
artistic ,,cu simirea cuvioas a cuminecturii, dezgolire i sfial de sine17. nc de la nceput,
scriitoarea i declar aici neputina de a disocia biograficul de propria oper: ,,()
autobiografia mea literar cu cea personal se confund inextricabil. Unitate i dedublare: cu
fiece moment de via mi triesc existena artistic totui nimeni nu i-a izolat mai absolut
eul artistic de existena cursiv. n chiar momentul de total identificare, un instinct
adpostete n mine, cu grij, cele dou conflicte inseparabile18.
n 1986, n colecia ,,Capricorn a Revistei de Istorie i Teorie Literar a aprut, ca
supliment anual, volumul Arabescul amintirii, etichetat pe pagina de titlu drept ,,roman
memorialistic19, o ediie ngrijit, prefaat i adnotat de nepotul autoarei, Dimitrie
Stamatiadi (1943-2004). Volumul reunete 20 de texte disparate, unele publicate de Hortensia
Papadat-Bengescu de-a lungul vremii, ntre 1933 i 1946, n diferite reviste (Sburtorul, Viaa
romneasc, Revista scriitoarelor i scriitorilor romni, Democraia, Revista romn,
Romnia literar, Vremea), altele aprute postum n reviste precum Manuscriptum sau
Cronica, iar 10 dintre ele, texte inedite, sunt redate dup manuscrise, prin efortul comparativ
Anca, Elena-Claudia, Incursiuni n femininul interbelic, Editura Ecou Transilvan, 2013, p. 30.
A se vedea articolul Mrturie pentru marea european, Hortensia Papadat-Bengescu, n ,,Tiparnia literar,
anul I, nr. 2-3, ianuarie-februarie 1930, pp. 23-30; depun aici mrturii elogioase: Ticu Archip, Liviu Rebreanu,
Camil Petrescu,
F. Aderca, A. Dominic, I. Peltz, Mihail Sebastian.
14
n Baltazar, Camil, Contemporan cu ei. Amintiri i portrete, Editura pentru Literatur, Bucureti, 1962, cap.
Geneza unora dintre lucrrile Hortensiei Papadat-Bengescu, pp. 41-78.
15
Ibidem, p. 70.
16
n articolul n lumea brbailor jurnalul Hortensiei Papadat-Bengescu, n ,,Romnia literar, anul XXXV,
nr. 7, 20-26 februarie 2002, disponibil pe http://www.romlit.ro.
17
Papadat-Bengescu, Hortensia, Autobiografie, n ,,Adevrul literar i artistic, anul XVIII, seria a III-a, nr. 366367, 11-18 iulie 1937, pp. 5-6, apud Vancea, Viola, n Hortensia Papadat-Bengescu, Antologie, studiu
introductiv, tabel cronologic i bibliografie de Viola Vancea, Editura Eminescu, Bucureti, 1976.
18
Apud Vancea, Viola, op. cit., p. 34.
19
Eugen Simion descrie astfel proza memorialistic, deosebind-o de autobiografia tradiional: ,,() Planurile
temporale i existeniale se amestec n chip voluntar i, consecin fireasc, se confund. Rezult la urm o
ficiune care nu ine dect foarte vag i intermitent de biografia real a autorului, n fine, o literatur care nu mai
pleac de la ideea de a fabrica un personaj exemplar, ci de a reconstitui existena mrunt n care s-a format omul
care scrie. () Autobiografia nu-i, n aceast situaie, dect un fragment mai redus sau mai amplu dintr-un
virtual roman cu punct de plecare ntr-o ficiune autobiografic. n Genurile biograficului, volumul I, ed. cit.,
pp. 48-49.
12
13
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i recuperator, de o considerabil acribie, al editorului. Prin publicarea acestora s-a

concretizat, n aceast manier artificial, dar imperios necesar configurrii unei viziuni de
ansamblu asupra operei Hortensiei Papadat-Bengescu, un proiect epic al scriitoarei, avnd ca
miz apariia unei cri de inspiraie autobiografic. n textele din Arabescul amintirii, dei
biografia scriitoarei reprezint principalul ferment al diegezei, Hortensia Papadat-Bengescu
nu practic ns formula discursiv specific genului memorialistic (persoana I), ci apeleaz la
neutralitatea perspectivei narative a unui personaj, Fetia, sub a crui masc poate fi uor
depistat profilul scriptural i uman al autoarei: ,,() Nu ncape ndoial c ne aflm naintea
unei autobiografii deghizate20. Aceast opiune de organizare a scriiturii poate fi un simptom
al incapacitii de a separa net viaa, trirea concret a evenimentelor, de literatur, de
transfigurarea lor sensibil. Intersectarea discursului ficional cu cel nonficional din
Arabescul amintirii relev artificialitatea granielor dintre literatur i biografie. ,,() Acest
qui pro quo al ficiunii cu non-ficiunea duce spre un inedit, niciodat riscat sau riscant,
deschide un orizont larg tuturor opiniilor, nelimitat diverselor atitudini i unor triri
deconcertante ()21.
De altfel, n proza scurt Femei, ntre ele (publicat iniial n foileton, n Viaa
romneasc, 1915-1916), Hortensia Papadat-Bengescu folosete o expresie metaforic
asemntoare celei din titlul volumului memorialistic n discuie: ,,alambicul suvenirii,
memoria fiind definit aici drept ,,mic patrimoniu impalpabil care fuge de sub lama
neputincioas a scalpelului, o dat cu problema vieii22. ,,Scalpelul e desigur, n viziunea
scriitoarei, un echivalent al condeiului, incapabil s recupereze memoria unei biografii
confiscate de literatur. n acest sens, relevant este comentariul unei mrturisiri din jurnalul
scriitoarei: ,,Sunt impresionante rndurile despre roman n care Hortensia Papadat-Bengescu
mrturisete c, de-ar putea scrie romanul ei (subl. aut.), i-ar fi mai uor. Dar cnd a ncercat
realmente, i-a dat seama c ar fi durut-o prea mult s-i istoriseasc biografia. A neles, de
asemeni, c nu ar fi putut fi destul de obiectiv. Atunci a cutezat a comunica drama ei doar n
jurnalul ei de zi. Drama a nsemnat pentru ea faptul c prinii n-au lsat-o s-i continue
studiile. O dram mai intens aceea de a nu fi fost neleas de soul ei i c acesta n-a stimat
n ea ce era mai de valoare aspiraia intelectual23.
Textele din Arabescul amintirii urmeaz liniar cronologia biografiei autoarei,
nfind primele vrste biologice ale Fetiei: copilria i adolescena. Finalitatea ascuns a
acestor mrturisiri piezie despre propria evoluie pare s fie ns transbiografic, din moment
ce episoadele evocate intereseaz mai mult ca evideniere a germenilor traseului artistic al
protagonistei, dect ca ntmplri propriu-zise. Se configureaz astfel, de-a lungul celor 20 de
texte de lungimi inegale, o poetic a realizrii ca Scriitoare a unui destin de femeie, iar Fetiei
i se acord rolul de model ontologic al Artistei n devenire. Totodat, textele scurte din
Arabescul amintirii pot fi considerate i o metascriitur, prin excelen feminin, din moment
ce recruteaz axele de generare specifice discursului prozastic bengescian: multiplicarea
vocilor narative, retorica mtilor, teoria trupului sufletesc, transcrierea sensoriumului
abundent i corporalizarea scriiturii, respingerea cuvntului impudic, interesul pentru
,,montrii sufleteti.
Manolescu, Nicolae, Hortensia Papadat-Bengescu: un ,,roman inedit, n ,,Romnia literar, Anul XX, nr.
27, 2 iulie 1987, p. 9; criticul explic detaarea scriitoarei fa de confesiune i jurnal, modelele narative
preferate ale anilor 30, prin convingerea ei c romanul trebuie s fie obiectiv, n numele creia a respins
procedeele literaturii experienei directe.
21
Cozea, Liana, Confesiuni ale eului feminin, Editura Paralela 45, Piteti, 2005, p. 129.
22
Papadat-Bengescu, Hortensia, Femei, ntre ele, n Opere, I, Ediie i note de Eugenia Tudor, Prefa de Const.
Ciopraga, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1972, p. 88.
23
Baltazar, Camil, op.cit., p. 58.
20
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Issue no. 6/2015
Numele eroinei, Fetia, exprim o nostalgie identitar fa de un timp i spaiu

arcadiene: copilria24 i cminul printesc, devenite veritabile toposuri ale unui univers
edenic, cruia scriitoarea i-a aparinut ntr-un mod privilegiat, discreionar, i pe care ncearc
s-l recreeze accesnd acest ,,arabesc al amintirii, oferind ,,versiunea subiectiv a experienei
trite25. Memoria este ns selectiv, nu o dat blamat pentru deziluziile pe care le
provoac; n plus, memoria se combin cu uitarea i devine, n aceste pagini, un complice al
sensibilitii artistice, al instinctului creator al scriitoarei, pentru c imaginile scoase la
suprafaa ei sunt alunecoase, imprecise, redimensionate. n acest sens, metafora apei i cea a
oglinzii devin emblematice: ,,() prin oglinzile ncruciate ale amintirilor, ale uitrilor, se
turburau mai mult apele. Imagini lunecoase ca algele i suprapuneau nchipuirile nclcite n
pnze subiri, subt care, ca ntr-un iaz speriat de vnt, se scufundau contururile26. Capriciile
memoriei pot fi astfel controlate, coordonate de un vector al sensibilitii, completate prin
imaginaie pentru generarea unui anumit sens al evenimentelor evocate: ,, Acea plac
dintre cele dinti ale memoriei Fetia nu o supusese nici unui alt control mai trziu. O
pstrase aa cum era, pe clieul delicat pe care fusese prins, slab dezvoltat din pricina
luminii nevrstnice, aburit oarect de distan. Dar cnd uneori o cerceta atent, ca, prin
intensitatea privirei, aburul ei s se clarifice, vedea i acum puterea, violena acelei ntmplri
n aparen mic, vedea pozitivul puternic al energiei, antagonismul micrilor sufleteti i
trupeti proiectate n goliciunea aerului ()27. ,,Binoclul amintirii28 poate fi setat ca
direcie i profunzime a focalizrii imaginilor din trecut, astfel nct acestea s capete
claritatea i semnificaia impus de sensul general al crii: Fetia va deveni o artist a
condeiului, ceea ce se putea intui nc din copilria i adolescena acesteia. Amintirile
individuale ale Fetiei se completeaz cu ,,amintirile n colaborare29, puse la dispoziie de cei
apropiai: Mama, Tata, Mama Tica, ,,cresctoarea Fetiei, i ordonanele lor, numite
invariabil Ion. Acetia alctuiesc ,,orizontul fix al memoriei naratoarei, n timp ce n
,,orizontul mobil30 se gsesc oraele i casele n care au locuit de-a lungul deselor mutri cu
garnizoana Tatlui, cadru militar. Fetia triete mai mult n nchipuire dect n planul
realitii, i cldete prin evaziuni ale imaginaiei o geografie fabuloas, ,,viziunea unor orae
de basm sau de vis, de fabul nc misterioas31, pstrat n memoria afectiv cu mai mult
pruden dect imaginea oraelor reale. Situat n ,,() continuitatea inalterabil a timpului,
cel fr nici o ovire, fr nici o sprtur, irevocabil32, viaa Fetiei e amestecat cu
povestea, ca mod de rezisten n faa acestuia.
Portretul Fetiei e creat n cheie autoficional, cci amintete de profilul identitar al
Hortensiei Papadat-Bengescu: ,,() nu era un copil trist, dar nici un copil vesel, era un copil
bine dispus, dar recules, ca tot ce era n jur ()33; ,,Copila era din fire meditativ, prin
,,() Le retour lenfance () participe la qute didentit: lenfance est pour les femmes le moment de
lintgrit. - ,,() ntoarcerea la copilrie () contribuie la cutarea iniiatic a identitii: copilria reprezint
pentru femei momentul integritii. (trad. n.) Milea, Doinia, Rcit et construction de lidentit fminine, n
,,Communication interculturelle et littrature, nr. 1 / ianuarie-februarie-martie 2009, Editura Europlus, Galai,
2009, pp. 57-63.
25
Lejeune, Philippe, Pactul autobiografic, Traducere de Margareta Nistor, Editura Univers, Bucureti, 2000, p.
399.
26
Papadat-Bengescu, Hortensia, Arabescul amintirii, Editura Revistei de Istorie i Teorie Literar, supliment
anual, nr. 3, colecia Capricorn, ediie ngrijit, prefa i note de Dimitrie Stamatiadi, [Bucureti], 1986, p.
224.
27
Ibidem, p. 54-55.
28
Ibidem, p. 108.
29
Ibidem, p. 261.
30
Ibidem, p. 108.
31
Ibidem.
32
Ibidem, p. 72.
33
Ibidem, p. 67.
24
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Issue no. 6/2015
izolarea de ali copii singuratec, prin sntatea ei perfect exuberant, impetuoas () 34.
Alteori, imaginea narcisiac a Fetiei e intenionat voalat, prin practicarea unei scriituri
corporalizate ce respect ,,pactul somatografic35 propriu discursului epic bengescian: ,,()
trupul Fetiii, privirea, vocea, rmneau calme, cu toate apele adunate nuntru, cu toate
sgeile fulgerului strnse n fascie luntric; i era o copil foarte blan, cu trup de salcie
tnr, de pui de salcie, oglindit n ochiul pur al apelor verzui i albastre dintr-un dublu reflex
de cer i de vegetaie primvratec trup locuit de o divinitate mrunt a pdurilor, a apelor
i a pmntului, o past translucid, n devenire, nainte de a fi trecut prin foc, ceea ce e
lichidul dens care, clit, va furi mica cup din cristal de Murano, pe care o mn mai apsat
o sfarm ntre degete, dar care, lovit cu o baghet de ciparos, scoate sunete de voci pe o
gam delicat, dar cu nenumrate tonuri dar pe care o pun n primejdie orice atingeri
materiale, de la pictura de ploaie la greul old omenesc care lovete prin mulime pentru a-i
face loc prin silnicie sau ponder, sau prin puterea ineriei36. Corpul feminin triete o
muzic senzorial i textul se prezint ca n-corporare a acesteia, devenind literatur: ,,()
imagini pe care fiecare zi le trimitea pe un fundal al memoriei unde se ncorporau unui aluat
impalpabil, vieuiau ntr-un suc secret, alimentau un cmp senzorial pe care punctau ici acolo
amnunte limpezi, dar mai ales cari se transformau, compuneau un spaiu al cunoaterii ce se
ntindea dincolo de cortul patriarhal ntindere cu privelite nelimitat, dar cu semne, cu
puncte de reper, un univers, o patrie37. Mai trziu, la pensionul de fete unde este trimis
s-i nsueasc ,,sacra slov a nvturii38, Fetia devine una dintre cele mai contiincioase
eleve, dei nu renun la jocurile compensatorii ale nchipuirii; o atrage, de exemplu, studiul
mitologiei, pentru c se potrivete interesului ei pentru ,,o lume abstract pe care vrea s-o
explice nu att pentru a convinge, ct pentru a tri n poveste, n ceea ce pare imposibil, n
ceva care nu poate exista i pentru c i satisfcea ,,o foame i o sete de pe atunci existente
n ea, nebnuit: evaziunea39. Descrierea ,,sensibilitii interioare40 a Fetiei se configureaz
ca o ars poetica; discursul se ntoarce asupra lui nsui pentru a-i revela mecanismele
interioare, legitimnd principiul tutelar al evaziunii care precede realitatea i o supune unei
veritabile alchimii: ,,() va povesti de-a lungul piesa de teatru vzut, sau forma unui
mobilier, sau expresia unui portret, sau emoia vreunei melodii totul abundent, excesiv,
mrit de o mie de ori de prospeimea plcerii sau de dilatarea pn la maxim a opticei, de
freamtul impresiilor prime fie chiar numai frumuseea unei rochii, a unui inel, a unui chip,
scoase toate din realitatea lor ce-i era necunoscut, purtate prin nchipuire, prin rai sau iad, cu
o nespus putere de evocare, situate n hri nchipuite, pe care nici o realitate nu le putea
nlocui fiindc un triumf final, ct de trziu, le aeza n raiul, n iadul, n purgatoriul n care
presimirea ei le nchipuise41. Imaginaia, cultivat prin literatur, devanseaz pentru Fetia
viaa nsi, astfel nct ,,() fiece fiin ntruchipa un erou citit sau nchipuit, fiecare chip
avea pe el semne deosebite, astrale, ale unor destine imaginare, fiece sunet de glas avea ecouri
ce nfiripau sau maruri triumfale, sau melodii felurite ()42. ntr-o recenzie a volumului n
discuie, Dumitru Micu a comparat aceast tehnic de transfigurare artistic a realitii cu
formula lui Max Blecher de a transcrie ,,ntmplri din irealitatea imediat: ,,() Tot ce e
34
Ibidem, p. 101.
,,Temele, numele, psihologiile, cuvintele primesc n tiparele lor abstracte fluidul sensibilitii auctoriale,
precum esutul de carne palpitul sngelui n organism. - Crciun, Gheorghe, Pactul somatografic, ediie ngrijit
i pref. de Ion Bogdan Lefter, Editura Paralela 45, Piteti, 2009, p. 38.
36
Papadat-Bengescu, Hortensia, Arabescul amintirii, ed. cit., p. 124.
37
Ibidem, p. 86.
38
39
Ibidem, pp. 116-117.
40
Ibidem, p. 123.
41
Ibidem, p. 120.
42
Ibidem, p. 125.
35
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Issue no. 6/2015
fixat n estura Arabescului: spaii ambiante, peisaje, situaii, oameni a existat odat aevea
cu certitudine, ns ceea ce exist actualmente n planul imaginarului, ceea ce se creeaz n
durata lecturii este produsul activitii restructurante a spiritului Fetiei, activitate reconstituit
de romancier cu un sim al veracitii psihologice desvrit43.
Sensoriumul evocat este abundent, atomizat ntr-o manier impresionist care l
determin pe Nicolae Manolescu s-o compare pe Hortensia Papadat-Bengescu cu Virginia
Woolf44. Epifania senzaiilor care nsoesc trirea anumitor evenimente este recreat
infinitezimal, prin scriitura unei memorii sensibile, capabil s sondeze propria natur
senzorial a Fetiei, exersat i la nivelul discursului epic din prozele scurte ale Hortensiei
Papadat-Bengescu. De exemplu, n primul text al volumului, intitulat Viermele, este
rememorat un episod petrecut n prima copilrie a Fetiei: ncercarea acesteia de a escalada
nite trepte pentru a ajunge la mama sa, care se afla cu alte dou femei pe cerdacul unei case.
n timpul urcuului, Fetia are acces la imaginea celor trei femei i aude, fr s neleag prea
multe, ceea ce povestete ,,cucoana de gazd. La un anumit moment, cnd nelege c aceasta
relateaz ,,o poveste scabroas, dup roeaa din obrajii Mamei, Fetia ncepe s presimt
prezena nevzut a unui vierme, ca o ,,ciudat concretizare a dezgustului provocat de
istorioara picant. Imaginea viermelui se asociaz cu repulsia i refuzul ,,cuvntului
necuvenit, licenios, ca principiu de scriitur dictat ulterior de ,,un glas ntors din sfnta
vreme a copilriei45.
O alt povestire, Fetia ntre lupi, a atras atenia exegetului Ov. S. Crohmlniceanu
pentru o lectur critic din perspectiv psihanalitic, raportnd observaiile la persoana
scriitoarei nsei. Aplicnd grila psihocritic propus de Charles Mauron, mbinat cu teoria
freudian conform creia produsele artistice provin din zonele psihice guvernate de principiul
fanteziei compensatoare ale autorilor lor, Crohmlniceanu invoc pentru interpretarea prozei
Hortensiei Papadat-Bengescu ,,() o estetic nerealist, bazat pe concentrare, deplasare i
simbolizare, metoda de lucru a incontientului. Textul se cere citit aa cum psihanalistul
interpreteaz visele sau simptomele nevrotice, cutnd coninutul latent sub cel manifest
(subl. aut.)46. Rmnnd atent la particularitile artistice ale textului, Crohmlniceanu
ncearc s ptrund n incontientul scriitoarei, pentru a identifica ,,figura mitic a acesteia.
Astfel, descoper la nivelul romanelor bengesciene (Fecioarele despletite, Concert din muzic
de Bach, Drumul ascuns, Logodnicul, Rdcini) o schem epic mereu reluat cu mici
variaiuni, corespunznd unei reele de asociaii tipice pentru scrisul artistic bengescian, n
termenii lui Mauron. Acest cmp de fore conflictuale: cuplul a dou surori un brbat sedus
o mam o cstorie destrmat e cutat apoi i n texte mai vechi (Sephora), fiind
decretat de critic o fantasm, adic o imagine ncrcat de afecte care i pstreaz de-a
lungul textelor structura intern neschimbat i divulg ceea ce Charles Mauron numete
,,mitul personal47 al autorului. Lund n consideraie unele date biografice ale Hortensiei
Papadat-Bengescu, Ov. S. Crohmlniceanu identific n Fetia ntre lupi o concretizare a
complexului oedipian antimatern, expresie a culpabilizrii simptomatice pentru scandalizarea
,,eului ideal al scriitoarei (autocenzura moral). n aceast proz, naratorul relateaz o
ntmplare redus ca amploare epic din trecutul Fetiei: ntorcndu-se acas pentru vacana
Micu, Dumitru, ,,Crudul sim al realului, n ,,Romnia literar, Anul XXI, nr. 2, 7 ianuarie 1988, p. 2.
Manolescu, Nicolae, art. cit.
45
Papadat-Bengescu, Hortensia, Arabescul amintirii, ed. cit., pp. 40-41.
46
Crohmlniceanu, Ov. S., Hortensia Papadat-Bengescu la psihanalist, n Cinci prozatori n cinci feluri de
lectur, Editura Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 1984, p. 130.
47
La autorul precizat, mitul personal este interpretat ca ,,() expresie a personalitii incontiente i dubla sa
relaie cu eul creator i cu eul social. Mauron, Charles, De la metaforele obsedante la mitul personal,
Traducere din limba francez de Ioana Bot, Aparat critic, bibliografie i note pentru ediia romneasc de Ioana
Bot i Raluca Lupu, Editura Dacia, Cluj-Napoca, 2001, p. 35.
43
44
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de Crciun, Fetia, elev de pension, rmne nzpezit cu trenul n gara de la Roiorii de

Vede. Cel care o recupereaz cu mari riscuri este Tata, aprut pe peron cu ,,statura lui
frumoas, cu fptura lui mndr, cu chipul lui sever48. Pe drumul pn acas, fcut cu o sanie
prin cmpul plin de nmei, Fetiei i se pare c sunt atacai de lupi, ceea ce se dovedete o
iluzie parial, deoarece n primul sat ntlnesc un grup de steni care tocmai capturaser un
lup. Pe parcursul ntregului text, atenia Fetiei graviteaz n jurul figurii paterne,
supradimensionat pn la mit i legend: Tata este ,,marele ei iubit49. n tot acest timp,
Fetia uit s se gndeasc la mama ei, amnezie sugestiv pentru secreta aversiune
antimatern resimit incontient de scriitoare fa de propria mam o ,,fecioar despletit,
cci, la natere, a condamnat-o la condiia de bastard, refulat n toat proza bengescian
printr-o serie bogat de personaje feminine demoniace (Mika-L, Sia, Nory, Hilda, din ciclul
Hallipilor, Ana, din romanul Logodnicul): ,,Nu este exclus ca pe acest fond oedipian primar s
se fi grefat i anumite leziuni psihice ale vieii mature50, conchide Ov. S. Crohmlniceanu,
transfernd observaiile obinute din lectura operei scriitoarei n planul biografiei acesteia,
printr-o inversare a datelor.
A murit tanti Iulia este o alt pies a volumului ce se preteaz unei lecturi
psihanalitice, ca exemplu de scriitur i de psihologie abisal. Nicolae Manolescu apreciaz la
superlativ consistena psihologic i modernitatea acestui text, pe care l consider o nuvel, i
se arat mirat c, dei cunoscut nc din 1940, n-a strnit atenia niciunui critic: ,,() N-am
citit nimic mai extraordinar i mai modern de Hortensia Papadat-Bengescu dect aceast
proz psihologic51. Fetia afl de la directoarea pensionului c a murit tanti Iulia, mtua sa
din partea tatlui, o femeie celibatar, foarte inteligent, cu studii la Dresda i la Viena,
cunosctoare a trei limbi strine. Copila, n vrst de doisprezece ani, ajunge la casa unei alte
mtui (numit Cea Rea, pentru caracterul su agresiv), n care se presupunea a se afla trupul
nensufleit al tantei Iulia, dup ce parcurge ntr-un cupeu un drum presrat de remucri: abia
dup ce afl de moartea ei, Fetia o reconsider pe tanti Iulia n adevrata sa condiie uman,
regret atitudinea ostil cu care o tratase mereu i dispreul resimit (i afiat cu rutate
incontient) fa de urenia femeii. Portretul mtuii Iulia e realizat prin apelul la estetica
urtului: ,,Avea un chip urt tanti Iulia, dar o simire fin ca broderiile cu mtsuri, cu aur,
cu argint, pe care le lucra neobosit. Iubirea ei, Fetia o respingea, nu-i primea darurile
deoarece i le ntindea mna slab, cu falange ce sunau, mna ncheiat pe trupul cu omoplaii
rotunji care-i fceau, subt rochia neagr sau cafenie, o fals cocoa De ce ochii mici ai
tantei Iulia erau mereu roii i pupila lor mic dibuia ca s vad? De ce obrajii se
scufundau, prelungi, n rama neregulat a feii, apoi deodat azvrleau prognatismul gurii?
Buzele erau mereu preocupate s acopere maxilara cea cu dini lungi ce porneau strmbi n
afar, brbia lung cerca a fugi de spuma salivei ce se prelingea printre cuvintele umezite, iar
capul se aezase pe un gt lung i slab, pentru a fi mai departe de bustul dizgraiat52.
Remucrile resimite de Fetia n drum spre ultima ntlnire cu tanti Iulia, retrite cu
maxim fidelitate dup atia ani, prin scris, pot fi interpretate, aplicnd grila psihanalitic, o
form de redempiune catharctic a unei deziluzii personale a scriitoarei, i anume drama de a
nu-i fi putut continua studiile. Pe durata drumului n ,,cutia ngust, asfixiant, ,,neagr53 a
cupeului, trimind la imaginea unui sicriu, Fetia st timid ntre cei doi prini i suport cu
dificultate o criz de contiin prea profund pentru a fi revendicat de un copil; cea care a
murit nu este tanti Iulia (de altfel, cnd ajung la destinaie, e constatat neostentativ absena
48

Ibidem, p. 165.
50
Crohmlniceanu, Ov. S., op. cit., p. 153.
51
Manolescu, Nicolae, art. cit.
52
53
Ibidem, p. 198.
49
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catafalcului), ci, metaforic, libertatea de instruire a scriitoarei, rpit de autoritatea prinilor,

factorii care au decis suprimarea traseului ei intelectual dup anii de pension.
Autoculpabilizarea este transferat asupra identitii acestei mtui foarte inteligente care i-a
cultivat pasiunea pentru studiu ntr-o epoc n care femeii i era interzis acest lux, suportnd
stigmatul social (rmne fat btrn, rateaz maternitatea, e considerat foarte urt), statut
pe care Hortensia Papadat-Bengescu nu a reuit s i-l asume, renunare regretat toat viaa
i defulat astfel n text. Emergen a ,,eului detestabil al scriitoarei, tanti Iulia e o imagine
de sine, in negativo, developat n camera obscur a scriiturii, o masc identitar sub a crei
retoric se afl o obsesie existenial latent.
Relaia abisal cu figura acestei mtui i impune scriitoarei, n plan artistic, asumarea
autopunitiv a unei viziuni asupra veii deschise la formele urtului: ,,i impunea acum o
pedeaps, cea de a privi n fa urenia chipurilor i trupurilor pn atunci pentru ea nu
fusese demn de privit i nici nu putuse privi dect frumosul.54.
Mrturiile autobiografice din Arabescul amintirii, ficionalizate prin subiectivitatea
memoriei i sensibilitii autoarei, dezvolt multe dintre principiile de scriitur i de viziune
artistic ale Hortensiei Papadat-Bengescu. Textele confesive feminine capt, prin urmare, i
valoare programatic, formulnd i exersnd crezul artistic al scriitoarei.
Bibliografie:
1. Corpus:
Papadat-Bengescu, Hortensia, Arabescul amintirii, Editura Revistei de Istorie i Teorie
Literar, supliment anual, nr. 3, colecia Capricorn, ediie ngrijit, prefa i note de
Dimitrie Stamatiadi, [Bucureti], 1986
Papadat-Bengescu, Hortensia, Femei, ntre ele, n Opere, I, Ediie i note de Eugenia
Tudor, Prefa de Const. Ciopraga, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1972
2. Referine critice (studii, articole, sitografie):
Anca, Elena-Claudia, Incursiuni n femininul interbelic, Editura Ecou Transilvan,
2013
Baltazar, Camil, Contemporan cu ei. Amintiri i portrete, Editura pentru Literatur,
Bucureti, 1962
Beauvoir, Simone de, Al doilea sex, vol. II, Ediia a II-a, Trad. De Diana Crupeschi,
Editura Univers, Bucureti, 2004
Cozea, Liana, Confesiuni ale eului feminin, Editura Paralela 45, Piteti, 2005
Crciun, Gheorghe, Pactul somatografic, ediie ngrijit i pref. de Ion Bogdan Lefter,
Editura Paralela 45, Piteti, 2009
Crohmlniceanu, Ov. S., Hortensia Papadat-Bengescu la psihanalist, n Cinci
prozatori n cinci feluri de lectur, Editura Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 1984
Dinu, Adela, Diaristica feminin romneasc, Editura Eikon, Cluj-Napoca, 2012
Iorgulescu, Mircea, Ispita memorialistic, n ,,Caiete critice, nr. 1-2, 1987, Literatur
i confesiune, pp. 7-11
Kristeva, Julia, Geniul feminin, Vol. I, Viaa. Hannah Arendt sau aciunea ca natere
i ca stranietate, Traducere de Beatrice Stanciu, Postfa de Caius Dobrescu, Editura Paralela
45, Piteti, 2004
54
Ibidem, p. 223.
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Lecarme-Tabone, Eliane, Lautobiographie des femmes, n ,,Fabula-LhT, n 7, Y a-til

une
histoire
littraire
des
femmes?,
aprilie
2010,
disponibil
pe:
http://www.fabula.org/lht/7/lecarme-tabone.html
Lejeune, Philippe, Pactul autobiografic, Traducere de Margareta Nistor, Editura
Manolescu, Ion, Literatura memorialistic. Radu Petrescu, Ion D. Srbu, N.
Steinhardt, Antologie, prefa, dosare critice, comentarii, note i bibliografie adnotat de Ion
Manolescu, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 1996
Manolescu, Nicolae, Hortensia Papadat-Bengescu: un ,,roman inedit, n ,,Romnia
literar, Anul XX, nr. 27, 2 iulie 1987, p. 9
Mauron, Charles, De la metaforele obsedante la mitul personal, Traducere din limba
francez de Ioana Bot, Aparat critic, bibliografie i note pentru ediia romneasc de Ioana
Bot i Raluca Lupu, Editura Dacia, Cluj-Napoca, 2001
Mrturie pentru marea european, Hortensia Papadat-Bengescu, n ,,Tiparnia
literar, anul I, nr. 2-3, ianuarie-februarie 1930, pp. 23-30
Micu, Dumitru, ,,Crudul sim al realului, n ,,Romnia literar, Anul XXI, nr. 2, 7
ianuarie 1988, p. 2
Mihie, Mircea, De veghe n oglind, Ediia a II-a, revzut, Editura Cartea
Romneasc, Bucureti, 2005
Milea, Doinia, Rcit et construction de lidentit fminine, n ,,Communication
interculturelle et littrature, nr. 1 / ianuarie-februarie-martie 2009, Editura Europlus, Galai,
2009, pp. 57-63
Prvulescu, Ioana, n lumea brbailor jurnalul Hortensiei Papadat-Bengescu, n
,,Romnia literar, anul XXXV, nr. 7, 20-26 februarie 2002, disponibil pe
http://www.romlit.ro
Simion, Eugen, Genurile biograficului, volumul I, Fundaia Naional pentru tiin i
Art, Bucureti, 2008
Ursa, Anca, Metamorfozele oglinzii. Imaginarul jurnalului literar romnesc, Editura
Limes, Cluj-Napoca, 2006
Vancea, Viola, n Hortensia Papadat-Bengescu, Antologie, studiu introductiv, tabel
cronologic i bibliografie de Viola Vancea, Editura Eminescu, Bucureti, 1976
Vrabie, Diana, Descifrri n poetica eului, n ,,Limba Romn, Nr. 4-6, anul XVII,
Chiinu, 2007, disponibil pe http://www.limbaromana.md
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AN ANTHROPOLOGY OF THE LUDIC EXPRESSION CONSIDERING THE QUESTION

WHAT HAPPENS WHEN IRONY IS (NOT) TAKEN SERIOUSLY?
Liviu Iulian COCEI
Abstract: In the current study, regarding the analysis of the more or less obvious opposition
between playing and seriousness, I will focus my attention on a ludic expression specific to
humans. I am referring to irony, the edgy figure of speech and derision of matters often
considered the most serious. Beyond the sense of everyday understanding, I will especially be
referring to Socratic irony and the way in which it was interpreted. As a matter of fact, I will
delve in the ambiguous game of irony, where we will discover that, inevitably, we are faced
with a choice: to take or not to take seriously what is communicated to us. Whether it`s about
commonplace irony or philosophical irony, we always oscillate between ignoring and
believing the statements that reach our ears or meet our eyes. Regarding this, among other
ludic elements, I will also analyze writing as a part of the ironic spirit, with special reference
to Friedrich Nietzsche, a philosopher who developed the art of aphoristic essay. On the other
hand, the entire matter will orbit these issues: What are the consequences of interpreting
irony? In other words: When should irony be taken seriously, and in which way, but more
importantly, when should not be taken seriously at all?
Keywords: serious game, irony, ludic expression, socratism, philosophical anthropology
n general, orice animal este jucu. ns, pe msur ce se maturizeaz nu mai e att de
dispus s execute micri dezinteresate, devenind chiar irascibil cu puii care l provoac
insistent s se joace. ntr-un mod nu foarte diferit, omul tinde s fie tot mai sobru pe msur
ce nainteaz n vrst, dar, spre deosebire de animale, i creeaz noi forme de joac chiar
pn la adnci btrnee: de la sporturi extreme i pn la cele ale minii, el ntreprinde tot
felul de activiti cu caracter ludic. ns acestea, n pofida aparenei lor jucue, de cele mai
multe ori, sunt cel puin la fel de serioase ca i munca. Care e atunci diferena dintre a te juca
i a fi serios?! Potrivit lui Johan Huizinga, jocul este un domeniu complex care include nu
numai ceea ce este rizibil, ci i ceea ce considerm ca fiind extrem de serios. Orice fenomen
care are anumite reguli de funcionare intr n sfera ludicului, rzboiul fiind doar un exemplu.
Totui, n cadrul acestei lucrri, pentru a nu strni confuzii sau a ne pierde n detalii, vom
ncerca s gsim rspunsuri mai exacte la aceast ntrebare.
Aadar, n ncercarea de a deslui n ce const natura jocului, avem dou posibiliti de
nelegere. n primul rnd, jocul vzut ca activitate dezinteresat, care relaxeaz, amuz,
binedispune, ntr-un cuvnt ine de distracie, fiind astfel ncadrat n categoria
divertismentului. Esena acestuia const n faptul c nu are un el bine determinat dect doar
acela de a strni rsul, binevoitor sau, dup caz, sardonic. n al doilea rnd, jocul ca activitate
interesat, adic, care are o miz clar definit: ctigul, fie n bani, fie n diferite bunuri
materiale sau spirituale. Apropiindu-ne de scopul pragmatic al lucrrii de fa, vom numi joc
numai ceea ce ntreprindem atunci cnd nu exist pericole sau n condiii de risc minim. Altfel
spus, jocul e ndeletnicirea care nu ne pune viaa n joc; nici integritatea corporal, nici pe cea
psihic.1
1
Din aceast perspectiv, jocul de cri, de exemplu, nu mai poate fi numit joc dac prin miza sa creeaz
circumstane care pun n pericol contul din banc, maina personal sau chiar propria nevast.
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Sub aceste aspecte, putem spune c jocul nu e dect o propedeutic, o form prealabil
de manifestare a unor intenii viitoare, mai mult sau mai puin contientizate de ctre subiectul
n cauz. n legtur cu aceast idee, Jonathan Swift, autorul celebrelor Cltorii ale lui
Gulliver, opina astfel: Mai toate felurile de joac, la brbat ca la copil, precum i la alte
vieuitoare, sunt n fapt imitaii ale luptei2. Aceast interpretare este valabil i astzi printre
etologi i antropologi, dup cum reiese i din analiza unui cercettor contemporan:
Numeroase primate, precum i copiii din toate societile, se angajeaz n jocuri serioase,
fcnd tumbe i ciocnindu-se, aceste ncierri pregtindu-i pentru luptele de mai trziu3. La
fel de aproape de sensul jocului ca activitate provizorie era i Blaise Pascal care,
parafrazndu-l pe Tertulian, remarca: Scrisorile [provinciale] pe care le-am scris pn acum
sunt numai un joc dinaintea unei lupte adevrate. N-am fcut nc dect s m amuz i s v
art numai rnile ce vi s-ar putea face dar pe care nu vi le-am fcut. Am expus, pur i simplu,
textele Dv. aproape fr nicio reflecie asupra lor. Iar dac cuiva i-a venit s rd, a fcut-o
fiindc faptele nsei au dus la aceasta4. Iat, deci, c n spatele inocent al jocului,
descoperim latura sa agresiv, care, dei de obicei se afl n stare latent, se poate manifesta
aproape oricnd i n condiii ce nu pot fi ntotdeauna anticipate. i, referindu-ne la aspectul
ludic al Provincialelor, respectiv la punctul de vedere susinut chiar de Pascal, putem spune
c acesta reprezint, de fapt, acel tip de desctuare blnd, de eliberare non-violent a
nemulumirilor omului, specific ironiei.5
Ironia intr n categoria jocului, fiind unul din privilegiile ludice exclusiv umane. ntrun fragment din Homo ludens, Huizinga creioneaz o imagine interesant a joc-ului, descriere
n cadrul creia, dac am nlocui cuvntul joc cu cel de ironie, nu s-ar pierde nimic din sensul
propriu-zis al textului: Coninutul semantic al cuvntului joc, [...], nu este ctui de puin
definit sau epuizat prin ne-seriozitate. Jocul este ceva specific. Noiunea de joc ca atare este
de un ordin superior celei de seriozitate. Pentru c seriozitatea ncearc s exclud jocul, dar
jocul poate foarte bine s includ n el seriozitatea6. Cu toate c ironia e ludic, prin
intermediul ei contradicia dintre joc i seriozitate se estompeaz. Iar acest fapt se reflect
implicit i n scrierea fragmentar, nesistematizat, ntruct, aforismul, expresie ironic par
excellence, reprezint, dup cum scrie Sarah Kofman referindu-se n mod special la Friedrich
Nietzsche, nsi scriitura voinei de putere, afirmativ, lejer, inocent. Ea anuleaz opoziia
dintre joc i seriozitate, dintre suprafa i profunzime, form i coninut, spontaneitate i ceea
ce este reflectat, divertisment i munc7. Altfel spus, stilul ludic al operei nietzscheene
reprezint un bun exemplu pentru ceea ce numim ca fiind seriozitatea jocului, adic punctul
de ntlnire dintre experiena concret i nemijlocit a vieii i exprimarea sa pur teoretic. n
2
Jonathan Swift, Cugetri, n Cltoriile lui Gulliver; Povestea unui poloboc i alte satire, Editura
Univers, Bucureti, 1985, p. 638
3
Steven Pinker, Cum funcioneaz mintea, Editura ALLFA, Bucureti, 2009, p. 619
4
Blaise Pascal, Scrisori provinciale, Editura tiinific, Bucureti, 1973, p. 207
5
Aceast interpretare asupra naturii jocului se apropie de conceptul psihologic de agresivitate pasiv,
caracteristic persoanelor care reuesc s-i ascund foarte bine frustrrile sau pornirile agresive. Chiar i jocul
ironic al lui Socrate, potrivit interpretrii lui Nietzsche, nu ar fi dect o agresivitate mascat: Oare ironia lui
Socrate este o expresie a revoltei? un resentiment al plebeului? i savureaz el ca oprimat propria ferocitate n
loviturile de cuit ale silogismului? se rzbun el pe oamenii nobili pe care-i fascineaz? Ca dialectician ai n
mn o unealt necrutoare: poi s faci pe tiranul cu ea, compromii repurtnd victoria. Dialecticianul las
adversarului su grija de a dovedi c el nu este un idiot: el te nfurie i n acelai timp te face neputincios.
Dialecticianul depoteneaz intelectul adversarului su. Cum? dialectica e numai o form de rzbunare a lui
Socrate? (Friedrich Nietzsche, Amurgul idolilor sau cum se face filosofie cu ciocanul, Editura ETA, ClujNapoca, 1993, p. 15)
6
Johan Huizinga, Homo ludens. ncercare de determinare a elementului ludic al culturii, Humanitas,
Bucureti, 2002, p. 95
7
Sarah Kofman, Nietzsche et la mtaphore, Payot, Paris, 1972, p. 167 apud George Bondor, Dansul
mtilor. Nietzsche i filosofia interpretrii, Humanitas, Bucureti, 2008, p. 227
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virtutea acestei construcii paradoxale, exerciiul critic al filosofului german nu se dorea a fi o

cercetare exhaustiv, riguroas, ci o form artistic de filosofare care ignor distincia comun
dintre a fi serios i a fi sprinar. Iat cum comenteaz, n sensul acesta, nsui Nietzsche: A
lua n serios. Intelectul este la cei mai muli o mainrie greoaie, ntunecat i huruitoare,
greu de pornit; ei zic a lua n serios cnd vor s lucreze i s gndeasc adnc cu aceast
mainrie vai, ct de obositor trebuie s le fie s gndeasc adnc! Drglaa bestie-om i
pierde, se pare, ntotdeauna buna dispoziie cnd gndete adnc; devine serioas! Or,
acolo unde sunt rsete i voioie, gndirea nu mai valoreaz nimic aa sun prejudecata
acestei bestii serioase mpotriva oricrei tiine voioase. Ei bine! S dovedim c este o
prejudecat!8 Deci, anticipnd cu civa ani amoralismul din Dincolo de bine i de ru,
Nietzsche propunea n tiina voioas s gndim dincolo de seriozitate i de joc.
n mod evident, cazul Nietzsche nu e primul i nici singurul la care descoperim
virtuile artei deriziunii. Socrate, filosoful care lsa impresia c glumete cu interlocutorii,
dovedea, cel puin n accepiunea lor, c e lipsit de seriozitate. De altfel, la captul discuiei
din Phaidros, nsui Socrate spune, demonstrnd c e contient de natura jucu a metodei
sale interogative, ne-am amuzat destul vorbind despre oratorie9. De aceea, interlocutorii
filosofului sunt mereu confruntai cu urmtoarea dilem: a lua sau a nu lua n serios ceea ce
spune Socrate.
Dar nainte de orice alegere, ar trebui s nelegem ce nseamn, de fapt, a lua sau a
nu lua o anumit afirmaie n serios. Pentru c, indiferent de hotrrea asumat, nu nseamn
c am i priceput foarte clar mesajul transmis. tiu c nu tiu nimic, de exemplu, celebra
afirmaie prin care Socrate i susinea netiina, nu poate fi neleas n mod corect, nici dac
ne situm de partea celor o iau pur i simplu n serios, nici dac ne numrm printre cei care
nu o iau deloc n serios. Totul depinde din ce punct de vedere (nu) lum n serios afirmaia
respectiv. Kierkegaard, susine n sensul acesta, c afirmaia socratic nu trebuie luat n
serios din punct de vedere tiinific, dar trebuie luat n serios din punct de vedere filosofic:
ntr-adevr aceast ignoran nu era deloc empiric; dimpotriv, Socrate poseda numeroase
cunotine, era foarte cultivat, i citise pe poei ca i pe filosofi, avea o mare experien de
via, deci nu era din punct de vedere empiric un netiutor. n schimb era netiutor din punct
de vedere filosofic. Nu tia principiul a tot ce exist, al eternului, al divinului; desigur, tia c
toate acestea exist, dar nu tia de ce natur erau; era contient de toate acestea i totui nu era
contient, ntruct singurul lucru despre care putea spune ceva era c nu tia nimic despre
toate acestea10. Prin urmare, fcnd un joc de cuvinte, se poate spune c ironia socratic e
mai serioas dect seriozitatea n sine. Iar atunci cnd ne confruntm cu o afirmaie ironic de
tipul celei a lui Socrate, trebuie s avem grij la nuane, la ceea ce nu se spune n mod
explicit, dar se sugereaz.11 i, ntruct nu folosete cuvintele n sensul lor comun, se-nelege
de ce Socrate, jucndu-se cu accepiunile obinuite ale unor termeni precum tiin sau
netiin, a strnit attea dispute hermeneutice.
Fiindc, dac ironia nu e luat n serios cnd i, mai ales, cum trebuie (fiind pur i
simplu dezaprobat), dincolo de rsetele pe care le provoac, se poate ajunge la idei absurde,
8
Friedrich Nietzsche, tiina voioas, Humanitas, Bucureti, 2006, pp. 204-205
9
Platon, Phaidros 278 b, n Opere, vol. IV, Editura tiinific i Enciclopedic, Bucureti, 1983, p. 490
10
Sren Kierkegaard, Despre conceptul de ironie, cu permanent referire la Socrate, n Opere, vol. I,
Humanitas, Bucureti, 2006, p. 276
11
O explicaie similar cu cea a filosofului danez ne este oferit de cercettorul Gregory Vlastos, care
difereniaz ironia ca trop de ironia socratic: n ironia simpl, ceea ce se spune nu este i ceea ce trebuie
neles; n sens obinuit, comun, afirmaia respectiv este pur i simplu fals. n ironia complex, ceea ce se
spune este i nu este, n acelai timp, ceea ce trebuie neles; semnificaia sa de suprafa trebuie vzut ca
adevrat ntr-un sens i fals n cellalt. Astfel, atunci cnd Socrate spune c este un mijlocitor, el nu
vorbete, i totui vorbete serios. (Gregory Vlastos, Socrate. Ironist i filozof moral, Humanitas, Bucureti,
2002, p. 33)
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chiar abuzive. Ca s dm un exemplu mai potrivit de interpretare eronat a ironiei, m voi

referi la motto-ul pe care-l avea la un moment dat un post de televiziune cunoscut, despre care
s-a zis c ar fi chiar anticretin. Patapievici, de exemplu, consider c filosofia popularului
canal TV Animal Planet este succint i definitiv exprimat prin sloganul care nsoete una din
numeroaselor sale reclame ideologice n favoarea panteismului, politeismului, rencarnrii,
sincretismului religios asiatic etc. reclame care fac parte din agenda sa militant anticretin
animals are better than humans12. El consider aceast filosofie ca fiind o ideologie
naturalist neopgn, care nu are de fapt niciun Dumnezeu; iar potrivit acesteia, continu
scriitorul romn, omul este rul naturii n acelai fel n care Susan Sontag considera c
civilizaia cretin a Occidentului este cancerul umanitii13. Iat ct de departe poate merge
interpretarea unui simplu slogan, dac e luat literalmente n serios, cnd, de fapt, nu trebuie
luat n considerare dect ca simplu joc al ironiei la adresa anumitor oameni. Aa-zisa
ideologie naturalist neopgn, cum o numete Patapievici, poate fi numit, ntr-un sens
mai adecvat, drept filosofie neocinic. Ceea ce nseamn c sloganul animals are better
than humans trebuie tratat cu acelai gen de seriozitate pe care atenienii i-o acordau lui
Diogene din Sinope atunci cnd acesta rspundea n stilu-i ironic cunoscut.14 De exemplu,
atunci cnd vedea pe crmaci, pe medici, pe filosofi la ocupaiile lor, [Diogene Cinicul]
socotea c omul este cel mai inteligent dintre animale; dar iari, cnd vedea pe tlcuitorii de
vise, pe prezictori i pe cei ce i ascult sau pe aceia care se umfl din cauza faimei sau a
bogiei lor, socotea c nu exist animal mai de nimic dect omul 15. Deci, confruntai fiind
cu astfel de maxime, cugetri sau aforisme, trebuie s distingem cu nelepciune ntre
seriozitatea literal (sau de suprafa) a afirmaiei i seriozitatea n sine a acesteia. Astfel de
afirmaii nu pot fi nelese dect dincolo de ceea ce ele transmit n mod direct. 16 Altfel spus,
trebuie s difereniem rigiditatea seriozitii de seriozitatea ironiei. Conchiznd, dincolo de
faptul c interpretarea ironiei necesit totui cunotine destul de vaste i de variate, inclusiv o
anumit experien de via, nelegerea jocului acesteia ine i de dispoziia (fenomenologic
vorbind, de intenionalitatea) fiecruia pentru deriziune. n cele din urm, ns, stpnirea
tiinei ironiei e strns legat de hermeneutic, adic de subtila art a interpretrii.
Bibliografie:
Bondor, George, Dansul mtilor. Nietzsche i filosofia interpretrii, Humanitas,
Bucureti, 2008
Huizinga, Johan, Homo ludens. ncercare de determinare a elementului ludic al
culturii, Humanitas, Bucureti, 2002
Kierkegaard, Sren, Despre conceptul de ironie, cu permanent referire la Socrate, n
Opere, vol. I, Humanitas, Bucureti, 2006
Laertios, Diogenes, Despre vieile i doctrinele filosofilor, Polirom, Iai, 1997
12
Horia Roman Patapievici, Omul Recent. O critic a modernitii din perspectiva ntrebrii Ce se
pierde atunci cnd ceva se ctig?, Humanitas, Bucureti, 2001, p. 134
13
Ibidem, p. 135
14
Ca dovad a respectului de care se bucura Diogene Cinicul n Antichitate, n pofida atitudinii sale
sfidtoare la adresa omului n general (de fapt, mpotriva metehnelor omului), iat ce ne transmite Diogenes
Laertios: Era, totui, iubit de atenieni. Ceea ce-i sigur e c, atunci cnd un tnr i-a sfrmat butoiul, atenienii iau dat acestuia o btaie, iar lui Diogene i-au druit un alt butoi. Dionysios stoicul spune c, dup btlia de la
Cheronea, a fost prins i dus naintea lui Filip i, ntrebat cine este, el rspunde: Un cercettor al nemsuratei
tale lcomii. Pentru acest rspuns a fost admirat i lsat n libertate. (Diogenes Laertios, Despre vieile i
doctrinele filosofilor, Polirom, Iai, 1997, p. 203)
15
Ibidem, p. 199
16
O vorb de duh de inspiraie cinic, asemntoare cu cea a postului TV Animal Planet, e i urmtoarea
maxim a lui Mark Twain: cu ct cunosc mai bine oamenii, cu att mi iubesc mai mult cinele.
1001
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Nietzsche, Friedrich, tiina voioas, Humanitas, Bucureti, 2006

Nietzsche, Friedrich, Amurgul idolilor sau cum se face filosofie cu ciocanul, Editura
ETA, Cluj-Napoca, 1993
Pascal, Blaise, Scrisori provinciale, Editura tiinific, Bucureti, 1973
Patapievici, Horia Roman, Omul Recent. O critic a modernitii din perspectiva
ntrebrii Ce se pierde atunci cnd ceva se ctig?, Humanitas, Bucureti, 2001
Pinker, Steven, Cum funcioneaz mintea, Editura ALLFA, Bucureti, 2009
Platon, Phaidros, n Opere, vol. IV, Editura tiinific i Enciclopedic, Bucureti,
1983
Swift, Jonathan, Cugetri, n Cltoriile lui Gulliver; Povestea unui poloboc i alte
satire, Editura Univers, Bucureti, 1985
Vlastos, Gregory, Socrate. Ironist i filozof moral, Humanitas, Bucureti, 2002
Mulumiri: Aceast lucrare a fost finanat din contractul Cercettori competitivi pe
plan european n domeniul tiinelor umaniste i socio-economice. Reea de cercetare
multiregional (CCPE) POSDRU/159/1.5/S/140863 proiect strategic Programe doctorale
i postdoctorale suport pentru creterea competitivitii cercetrii n domeniul tiinelor
umaniste i socio-economice cofinanat din Fondul Social European, prin Programul
Operaional Sectorial pentru Dezvoltarea Resurselor Umane 2007-2013.
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COSTACHE OLREANU MOMENTS OF ADOLESCENCE

Elena LAZR (BURLACU)
Abstract: Formed to admiration school for ancients, Olreanu writer compares childhood up
to school with pre-Socratic philosophy period, when people just began the research of
surrounding world, trying to find primordial elements, indivisible, which made the Universe.
Very good and fully justified this comparison !
The paradox of the situations, the paradox of human behavior, the paradox of the feelings is
constantly present in the paper of Costache Olreanu.
Keywords: school, U.T.M. , society, death, paradox.
Format la coala admiraiei pentru antici, scriitorul Olreanu compar perioada
copilriei pn la coal cu perioada filozofiei presocratice cnd oamenii de abia ncepeau
cercetarea lumii nconjurtoare, ncercnd s gseasc elementele primordiale, indivizibile
din care este alctuit universul. Foarte bun i pe deplin justificat aceast comparaie! i
aa cum pentru acei presocratici, apa, focul, aerul i pmntul erau elemente primordiale,
pentru copilul ce abia deschidea ochii asupra lumii, naul tatei, acest cuvnt care este scris
cu caractere diferite semnific pentru el tot un element primordial ca i scrnciobul, element
avansat prin care copilul ajunge s vad universul unit, (...)de la cer la pmnt1.
coala cea primar nu-i aduce copilului nici mcar o ncntare momentan cci nu
nsemna dect pierderea timpului cnd toti erau generali i desfurau btlii minunate. Cu
nceperea colii, din generali i bringanzi vestii, deveneau leinai copii asculttori2. i
dac mai toi oamenii se laud c au fost buni la coal, autorul nostru ne spune pe leau am
fost un elev foarte prost, ncpnat i ru3. Credem ns c aceast recunoatere, foarte
puin mgulitoare la adresa propriei persoane este i mai mult percepia, opinia asupra acelei
perioade, emoional vorbind, transferat siei. Copilul Olreanu a fost desigur ca orice
copil din epoca sa i poate din orice epoc: mult mai mult dornic de joac, de evadare ntr-o
lume eroic, de plceri copilreti. i acum a fi tocilar nu e tocmai visul unui copil.
Superman, Spiderman i poate puin Robin Hood, sunt cei ce ar dori copii s devin.
Bibliografia nu poate explica opera... Ea trebuie s explice altceva i anume (...) coerena
unui destin, structura unei existene.4 n paginile scriitorului Costache Olreanu nimic
psihologic ori moral nu ne reine5
Perioada primelor clase de liceu nu a fost prea agreat. Autorul nsui o caracterizeaz
ca fiind perioada marilor filme, cei care i rmn n memorie i n suflet fiind Gary
Cooper i Marlene Dietrich, nicidecum Nedioglu i Tafrali.
Viaa tnrului licean se desfoar sub stpnirea filmului, a iluziei deci. i cine
poate spune c licean fiind, iluzia-filmele, televiziunea, crile, nu i stpnete viaa?
Pn i frica oricrui copil de cel ru, viclean, pare s fie n legtur cu filmul. Acest viclean,
Costache Olreanu. Frica. Editura: Paralela 45, Piteti, 2002, p. 20
Idem, p. 20
3
Ibidem, p. 21
4
Eugen Simion. ntoarcerea autorului, volumul I : Eseuri despre relaia creator-oper, ediia a II-a. Editura:
Minerva. Bucureti, 1993, p. 173
5
Nicolae Manolescu. Istoria critic a literaturii romne, 5 secole de literatur. Editura: Paralela 45. Piteti,
2008, p.1174
1
2
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de care se teme oricine, desigur i tnrul Olreanu, este sigur materializat din lumea
personajelor de film. Rul, are nfiare uman: vrst, plriile borsalino fulgarin cu
guler ridicat6, aa cum filmele vzute de adolescentul Olreanu consacraser ablonul
personajelor rilor.
Imediat descrierii personajului ce ntruchipa rul, urmeaz paginile ce evoc rzboiul.
De la sine apare legtura dintre ru i rzboi. i ce ne spune Olreanu despre rzboi nu se
refer absolut deloc la rzboi, cci el nu a putut avea amintiri despre rzboiul real, luptele
reale cu arme i soldai, aductoare de moarte, de distrugeri, de tragedii cci el era doar un
adolescent n locuri unde nu s-au dat btlii. A vzut doar soldai n trecere, coloanele lor
motorizate i ca elev trebuia doar s sune alarma n caz de nevoie i s porneasc sirena.
i nc o dat vedem copilul care ne spune c tare i mai plcea s dea alarma i s trag
sirena.
Terminarea rzboiului i-a dat curajul s-o srute pe Sofica, fata pe care o iubea pe
atunci, i s rosteasc singurele versuri n francez pe care le memorase: O, Temps
suspends ton vol et, vous, heures propices, suspendez votre cours!7 i ca n toate filmele ce
respect reeta, cnd tensiunea sporete, apare i un moment comic ce sparge monotonia
dramei, cci spectatorul merge la cinema nu pentru suferin ci pentru destindere. Conform
acestei reete, e cuprins i scena vizitrii unui spital de ctre rege i generali. Un soldat,
ntrebat unde a fost rnit, cu ochi pierdui rspunde la...la boae. De abia medicul-ef,
citind fia rnitului d rspunsul ce ne-ar fi rpit picul de umor: Gavrilu Ion, rnit la
Cotul Domnului, 3 februarie 1943.8 Scena aceasta a vizitei i discuiei cu rnitul este
povestit de sora Sofici, infirmier la un spital militar. i suntem din nou ncredinai c tot
ce scrie autorul e adevarul pur, fiind i un umorist.9
Din clasa a asea a nceput i tnrul nostru s se schimbe. Citea Cronin10 i nu
Brtescu-Voineti ori Bolintineanu. Ba aborda i pe Blaga, dei recunoate c nu-l prea
ntelegea. Despre Blaga, autorul nota: Ceea ce m-a frapat mai nti a fost asemnarea cu
Goethe: aceeai frunte nalt, ochi mari, nas ferm i o lumin alb ce-i desena trsturile11
Primete un 10 la romn i crete, crete. Iat c i gustul pentru elegan se dezvolt. i
edific singur un du, se spal intens, are grij de fa, chiar se pudreaz. Pantalonii sunt
bine clcai, apare chiar si parfumul n viaa biatului, grija pentru inut, vorbit, mers, aezat
pe scaun. Dar iat c vremurile fiind schimbate si grija pentru nfiarea exterioar a devenit
suspect. l trda c era fiu de fost. Chiar nota la un examen se diminua drastic de te
bnuia profesorul c vii din clase foste, avute.
Drumul acesta al iniierii n viaa adulilor aduce tnrului Costache i succesul la
fete, explicat de autor
prin cldura i bunatatea sa, explicaie aprut desigur n
conversaiile cu fetele. De la evocarea Ninei, o fat cu perfeciunea volumelor, suntem
martorii ntmplrii n care oraul ia drept american un proaspt sosit n ora, domnul
Simionescu, noul profesor de englez, de la liceul de biei. A fantaza este de fapt
ndeletnicirea preferat cam a tuturor celor din ora: fantezia ntmplrii cu unul ce sperai
s fie american, fantezia tnrului de a se face cnd clugr, cnd cioban. Sigur nu un
cioban oarecare, ci unul metafizic, ori muzical, ori unul viril-la-culme, ori unul cult.
n aceast zbenguial de tnr nu puteai s scapi de zbenguielile epocii, tulburrile,
rsturnarea vieii aezate de dinainte de rzboi. A ieit la lumina zilei U.T.M.-ul n care
Costache Olreanu, op. cit., p. 22
Ibidem, p. 25
8
Ibidem, p. 27
9
Ion Rotaru. O istorie a literaturii romne de la origini pn n prezent. Editura: Dacoromana. Bucureti, 2009,
p. 855
10
Costache Olreanu. Poezie si autobiografie; Micul Paris. Editura: Cartea Romneasc. Bucureti, 1994, p. 46
11
Costache Olreanu. Lupul i Chitana. Editura: Albatros. Bucureti, 1995, p. 77
6
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trebuia neaprat s te nscrii de voiai s ai un oarecare loc n lume. Cuvntul tovar intr
n vocabularul activ al oamenilor. Fata care trise momentul suprem de plcere cu biatul pe
care-l dusese s semneze cererea de intrare n U.T.M. exclam: Mi-a plcut, tovare!12,
bineneles nu n legtur cu intrarea n U.T.M.
Scena intrrii n U.T.M., n alt parte, se producea n timp ce oraul suferea atacul
tifosului exantematic. apte decese cauzase cumplita epidemie. i cnd prea c autoritile
au nvins, factorul potal Costic fu rpus de cumplita epidemie. i aa cum cimitirul vesel
de la Spna ne prilejuiete o privire nu mohort, nu nciudat, c viaa aceasta se
termin, aa i filmul epidemiei, morii i ngroprii lui Costic ne ofer comedia perfect
a acestor momente
ale vieii omeneti.
Ar fi subiectul excepional al unei comedii
excepionale. Un regizor exact astfel ar povesti subiectul comediei sale i ca s o i fac i
pentru ecran, sigur ar avea nevoie de celelalte profesii ce dezvolt i fac posibil filmul,
scenaristul care face dialogurile si gag-urile, cel ce rspunde de imagine, de tehnic etc.
Poate s ne par o mare ndrzneal s tratezi subiectul moarte n registrul comic. i
este o ndrzneal, dar pe deplin justificat de via, de realitate. Omul se nate i moare.
Sunt dou momente ale continuu-mului via. Odat ce te-ai nscut tii c trebuie s i
mori. Omul ntelept privete cu detaare i naterea i moartea. Mai ales c amndou
momentele prilejuiesc oamenilor cele mai diferite abordri, desfurarea lor obligndu-i pe
acetia la cele mai neobinuite reacii, la cele mai nebuneti aciuni. Cnd potaul
Costic muri tot oraul particip la nmormntarea solemn ce prea a unui episcop i
nu a unui funcionar de rnd. Primarul inu o cuvntare, toti suspinau i gemeau. Cnd
dirigintele Potei, urcat pe marginea movilei de pmnt reavn scos de la spatul gropii
declar pe decedat un erou mort la datorie, se produse faptul absolut de neprevzut, n
groapa spat czu chiar dirigintele. Decedatul fu pe loc uitat. Cu uimire ntrziat,
nevznd i nemaiauzind pe vorbitorul cel nflcrat, mulimea se trezi aruncat ntr-o
imens harababur. Se strig dup o frnghie, dup o scar. Manevrele recuperrii dirigintelui
din groap produser suferine mai multor ini pocnii n micarea scrii salvatoare. i
aa cum Creang rezum o ntmplare cu un proverb-concluzie, aa i o btrn rezum
astfel simmntul general Ptiu, maic! Parc-i Lazr nviat din mori!13 Pagin de umor
negru? Nicidecum! Relatarea ce pare perfect plauzibil a unei ntmplri, tot aa de
plauzibile, relatare facut cu cldur uman, ine de spiritul nostru al romnilor, ce a facut
posibil cimitirul vesel de la Spna.
nmormntarea cu final neateptat n care mortul este uitat i n groap cade unul
viu, scos apoi cu greutate ntr-o stare ndeprtat de fervoarea cretin iniial este doar
un paradox printre multe altele cultivate n Frica. Figura aspr, de printe ce-i
pedeapsea crunt copilul, btndu-l pn ce oboseala el, tatl, la ridicarea, arestarea sa,
din pricina opoziiei fa de regimul comunist determin n sufletul fiului un sentiment de
uurare. Paradoxul acesta l uimete chiar pe fiu, care e perfect contient de aceast trire
i se simte ruinat. Fiul arestatului triete pe moment un sentiment de eliberare n stratul
cel mai profund al sufletului su, un timp extrem de scurt cnd pare c-i vede clul
plecnd.
Romanul trdeaz zbuciumul su luntric, pentru c dincolo de toi i de toate e
scriitorul Costache Olreanu, autoportretul autorului nsui.14
Portretul tatlui este ns extrem de complex i tim din tot ce autorul ne povestete
c el, fiul a devenit ceea ce a devenit pentru c tatl su a fost aa cum a fost. i acest fiu
Costache Olreanu. Frica. Editura: Paralela 45, Piteti, 2002, p. 40
Ibidem, p. 43
14
Mihai Dragolea, n exercitiul ficiunii: eseuri despre coala de la Trgovite. Editura Dacia, Cluj-Napoca,
1992, p. 160
12
13
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i iubete tatl i sfrete prin a-l nelege, prin a nelege epoca i caracterul omului,
caractere ce poart ceea ce-i nnscut (numit acum de noi motenirea genetic) ca i ceea
ce-i dobndit voit sau imediat, fr ca mcar s fim contieni , prin societate i de la
societate.
Paradoxul situaiilor, paradoxul comportamentului uman , paradoxul simmintelor
omeneti e n mod constant prezent n scriitura lui Costache Olreanu.
Oricum planul naraiunii gliseaz, mereu
ntlnindu -se faptele din viaa
povestitorului cu cel cruia trebuie sa-i prezinte autobiografia i care spune c nu ateapt
romane, c trebuie s-i prezinte funcionresc adevrul.
i adevrul este c tnrul, pentru a-i putea croi un drum , contaminat desigur i de
atmosfera creat, de entuziasm fa de noii stpni comuniti se nroleaz i el de bunvoie
aciunilor de propagand, rostind discursuri i btut fiind din cauz c n-o lsa n pace pe
Lenua, declar c l-au btut reacionarii. Merge i la pucrie s -i viziteze tatl i-i
face gardianului educaie, nvndu-l s vorbeasc frumos, doar se adreseaz oamenilor, nu
animalelor. Cuvntul de rspuns al gardianului la un multumesc spus de cel venit la
vorbitor ne ncredineaz c puin lecia s-a prins de satrap.
Vizita la tatl nchis n pucria comunist este relatat ntr-o naraiune sobr, fr
ngrori din care s neasc tragedia. Evocarea vizitatorilor cu fee albe, ncercnate
slbie, cu bagaje grele, mncare i igri, aduse prin sacrificiul ntregii familii ne arunc ns
ntr-o durere mut, profund. Oamenii rostesc cuvinte neutre, comune, optite n rceala
nopii i a zilei pe care trebuie s le strbat ca s ajung s stea cinci minute cu cei dragi de
o parte i de alta a unor plase de srm ce formau un culoar cu doi metri distan pe mijloc.
Ateptarea n faa acestei plase de srm i-a prut fiului o venicie n care totul tremura, se
dizolva , disprea , o nluc, un vrtej ilogic ce-l arunca nicieri, o us nevopsit. i cnd ua
nu s-a mai lsat vzut, fiul s-a aflat n faa printelui su. i n negura i urciunea pucriei
dragostea fiului pentru tatl su l face s nu mai perceap aceast negur i urciune ci vede
albul i puritatea zpezii. Negrul devine alb. Fiul l vede pe tat cum venea deseori ncrcat
de zpad i l atrgea ca un magnet, azvrlindu-se la pieptul lui, scufundndu-se ca ntr-un
fiord n senzaia de bine i fericire indus de tat. Dar cel mai grozav era mirosul omului
alb. Doamne, ce miros! A cer i a crmid ud, a creion chimic i a ocean, a vrf de copac
i a lumin, a eternitate mirosea tatl meu, omul acela alb al copilriei15. n urciunea
pucriei, iat cum apare tatl, fiului su. Se poate face oare un portret mai frumos pentru un
tat? Faptul c altdat tatl prea fiului un tiran i-i detesta comportarea nu ne arat dect
complexitatea i profunzimea acestui portret fcut celui ce a druit via de cel care a primit
viaa.
BIBLIOGRAFIE
1. Dragolea, Mihai. (1992). n exerciiul ficiunii : eseuri despre coala de la Trgovite.
Cluj-Napoca: Editura Dacia.
2. Olreanu, Costache. (1978). Confesiuni paralele. Bucureti: Editura Cartea
Romneasc.
3. Olreanu, Costache. (2002). Frica. Piteti: Editura Paralela 45.
4. Olreanu, Costache. (1995). Lupul i Chitana. Bucureti: Editura Albatros.
5. Olreanu, Costache. (1994). Poezie si autobiografie; Micul Paris. Bucureti: Editura
Cartea Romneasc.
6. Manolescu, Nicolae. (2008). Istoria critic a literaturii romne, 5 secole de literatur.
Piteti: Editura Paralela 45
15
Costache Olreanu, op. cit., p. 68
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7. Rotaru, Ion. (2009). O istorie a literaturii romne de la origini pn n prezent.

Bucureti: Editura Dacoromana.
8. Simion, Eugen. (1993). ntoarcerea autorului, volumul I : Eseuri despre relaia
creator-oper, ediia a II-a. Bucureti: Editura Minerva.
POSDRU/159/1.5/S/133652.
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ONEIRIC SYMBOLS IN MIRCEA CARTARESCUS TRAVESTI

Silvia-Maria COMANAC (MUNTEANU)
Abstract: This article aims to reveal the main symbols which come into notice when we are
reading Mircea Cartarescus novel, entitled Travesti. The character himself tries to
understand the meaning of his dreams or, better said, nightmairs, which seem to be like signs
stemmed from unconscious. Transcribing every detail of his dreams, Victor has the belief that
can find the real cause of his mental imbalance. The anguish of the character translates
bizzare images, crystalized around some obsessive symbols. These symbols connote disguised
expressions of inner sexual desire. Obscure emotions invade Victors oneiric existence, so
that the character manages to escape his interior traps.
Keywords: dream, door, stairs, toilet, water
Ca un adevrat arhitect, autorul Mircea Crtrescu, prelund parc modelul freudian,
proiecteaz i construiete vise conform logicii onirice instituite de psihanaliz. Fiind copleii
de attea vise, ne punem o ntrebare fireasc: cel mai puternic dintre determinismele umane
nu este oare determinismul oniric? n proza crtrescian, visul i-a asumat rolul de cluz n
procesul de iniiere a cititorului n incontientul personajelor i de descifrare a tainelor
existenei luntrice. A utilizat o tehnic inedit de interferen a planurilor, a creat un labirint
de poveti i reverii, oglinzi i revelaii, arhetipuri i halucinaii, n care visul se convertete n
fir al Ariadnei, cluzitor spre lumea esenial a spiritului abisal. Asemenea personajului su,
Mircea Crtrescu devine autorul-arhitect, specializat n proiectarea viselor/fabricilor de vise,
nsemnnd o provocare i o ncercare a scriitorului de autodepire, de cuprindere a Totului.
Romanul Travesti nu face excepie de la tehnica narativ a viselor tipice i este
conceput pe ideea scrisului ca terapie, ce-i permite personajului-narator s-i exhibe tririle
refulate ca astfel s poat ptrunde tot mai adnc n incontient i s descopere adevrul
despre propria fiin. Vrsta adolescenei este nfiat ca o etap dificil, zbuciumat, ca un
proces de degradare a fiinei, deoarece tnrul este invadat de senzaii multiple, ispite i
activiti ademenitoare. Personajul-narator din romanul Travesti, Victor, un adolescent de
aptesprezece ani, introvertit, nchistat n refuzul de a se comporta la fel cu cei de-o vrst cu
el, este subordonat principiului realitate halucinaie vis, experimentnd senzaia visului n
vis, viziunea dublului i tentaia fiinei androgine. Retragerea departe de lume (ntr-o caban,
la munte simbol al evoluiei spirituale) pare a-i nlesni drumul spre sine.
Cartea ncepe cu o ntrebare retoric a naratorului, referitoare la modul cum ar putea
scpa de himera-obsesie ce-l bntuie, i continu cu o regresiune n timp, care-i permite s
relateze aventura brutal de la Budila, petrecut cu aptesprezece ani n urm. Atunci,
personajul narator avea aptesprezece ani, adic jumtatea vrstei de acum, cnd
rememoreaz i rescrie cu scopul de a-i exorciza himera: acest numr considerat drept
canonul echilibrului fiecrui lucru1 marcheaz, n fapt, dezechilibrul provocat de Lulu,
brbatul-femeie, configurat de imaginaia halucinatorie a adolescentului, care ncearc din
rsputeri s se opun devenirii, s-i nfrneze sexualitatea, sublimat ns n visele nocturne.
Prin reverie, cititorul comunic cu naratorul-personaj la modul firesc, deoarece acesta
din urm nu descrie succint i inert visele, ci cu lux de amnunte, ca pe o experien nou
Jean Chevalier, Alain Gheerbrant, vol. III (trad. rom. a fost fcut dup ediia 1969 revzut i adugit,
aprut n colecia Bouquins), Bucureti, Editura Artemis, 1993, p. 296.
1
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izvort din fora imaginarului i a incontientului, ceea ce creeaz proiecia visului n vis. De
aici, iau natere i cele dou drame: pe de o parte, drama personajului-narator, care este drama
uman a adolescentului frustrat i chinuit de singurtate, iar pe de alt parte, regsim drama
vistorului sau a dublului su luntric, o dram care irupe din incontient i-l foreaz pe
acesta s stea fa n fa cu adevrul refulat: s-au desfcut deodat sub easta mea, cnd
abia aipisem, ntr-o rbufnire insuportabil. Reacia minii i a viscerelor mele a fost atroce.
[...] dar ele m-au sleit cu totul, i cu att mai puin mai puin o s reuesc s le descriu aici n
indescriptibilul lor2. Astfel, aventurile lui Victor sunt dublate de aventurile vistorului, n
care se ntrevede incontientul. Aceast tehnic de creaie permite autorului s configureze
portretul unui adolescent ncadrat perfect n tiparul postmodern: lipsit de ingenuitate, cu
spiritul i sufletul mcinate de suspiciune i labilitate, cramponndu-se de rivalitatea ntre
tririle contiente i cele incontiente.
n lumea viselor transcrise pe parcursul romanului, personajul-narator ncearc s
gseasc o cauz a dezechilibrului su psihic, pe care s o poat remedia prin terapia
scrisului-autoanaliz: ntruct memoria, permind revenirea asupra trecutului, autorizeaz n
parte repararea vitregiilor timpului. Memoria e realmente de domeniul fantasticului, deoarece
ornduiete estetic amintirea3. Fiind ateni la continuitatea oniric, vom recunoate starea de
ru nfiortor care-l acompaniaz pe vistor i leag comarurile sale cu teama de propriul
dublu i de acceptarea animei.
La grania dintre vis, comar i halucinaie, stri experimentate de personajul-narator
confuz i, totodat, lucid, putem distinge cteva simboluri recurente, cum sunt: closetul, scara,
ua i apa. Avnd n centru unul dintre aceste simboluri-cheie, fiecare vis pune n lumin i
alte imagini obsesive n jurul crora graviteaz planul oniric supus analizei, asemenea unei
pnze de pianjen, ntregul labirint al reveriilor. Primul vis pe care Victor l transcrie cu
fervoare respect tehnica cu care ne-a obinuit autorul: aspectul comaresc ascunde n subtext
un stimul declanator, de sorginte psihanalitic, ceea ce-i prilejuiete cititorului posibilitatea
cutarea sensurilor. E ca i cum acest vis-comar ar continua scena din subteran evocat n
Mendebilul, deoarece aceast cmru de culcare hipernclzit amintete de cmrua
fochistului, spaiu ce a deschis o nou perspectiv asupra lumii. n planul visului, cteva
cuvinte-simbol sunt de remarcat: cafeniu, marmur, closet, mijloc, frig, faian
(murdar), atrna. Nu lipsesc simbolurile scrii i uii, dar aici ua are o nlime de cinci
metri. Este o u neobinuit de mare, gigantic, ce simbolizeaz, n corelaie cu cifra cinci
(axa vertical i orizontal), intersecia dintre incontient i contient.
Dac la nceput avem impresia c personajul evadeaz n vis ntr-un spaiu nelimitat,
uria, sugestie a libertii interioare, treptat acesta se ngusteaz la perimetrul unui closet, ntro atmosfer ntunecat, rece i silenioas. Poziia personajului reflect o situaie incomod,
care se va accentua odat cu deschiderea uii, moment n care locul va fi practic invadat de
lume. Dincolo de lipsa de intimitate, personajul se simte radiografiat sau batjocorit sub
privirile scruttoare ale mulimii de necunoscui i ncearc cu disperare s-i ascund ruinea.
Percepia exteriorului se traduce n interior prin gemete, semne ale durerii fizice i obrajii
roii, sugestie a ruinii i combustiei luntrice. n deplin acord cu starea sufleteasc a
personajului este proiectat fenomenul cromatic: culoarea cafenie a holului se manifest ca o
for propulsat din interior, reflectnd senzaia de apsare i cldur. Cafeniul imprimat n
spaiul oniric provine din experiena subiectiv ce creeaz viziunea personajului, care percepe
contururile la nivel hiperbolic. Expresie tactil a rcelii, marmura semnific incapacitatea
exteriorizrii emoiilor trite de personaj atunci cnd este descoperit de privirile celorlali.
Mircea Crtrescu, Travesti, Bucureti, Humanitas, 1994, p. 38.
Gilbert Durand, Structurile antropologice ale imaginarului, (traducere de Marcel Aderca, postfa de Cornel
Mihai Ionescu), Bucureti, Editura Univers enciclopedic, 1998, p. 401.
2
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Mijlocul sau centrul unde se afl poziionat devine inconfortabil odat cu deschiderea
uii, centrul fiind Sinele vistorului care acum se afl n pericol de a fi invadat de alii.
Strfundul fiinei sale nu mai este ascuns, ci dezgolit, expus vederii i, de aici, sentimentul de
neputin i ruine ce-l cotropete, precum i gestul reflex de aprare, de ascundere a ruinii.
Valorizat negativ, goliciunea sugereaz sentimentul de inferioritate, dificultatea de a se
integra n mediul nconjurtor, ceea ce-i accentueaz starea de ruine. Devine susceptibil sub
privirile celorlali, temndu-se c-i va fi surprins interioritatea, pudoarea, dar i umilina
cauzat de frustrrile sale. Nu trebuie exclus nici interpretarea cu tent erotic a goliciunii
din vis, care vine s compenseze frustrrile sexual-afective4. Frigul din vis este asociat
lipsei de afeciune i chiar frigiditii, traducnd singurtatea i izolarea adolescentului.
Closetul face trimitere la excreiile fiziologice, care, n plan oniric, nseamn eliminarea unor
toxine psihice, cum ar fi inhibiia, conflictele interioare, complexele de care sufer individul,
sentimentul de inferioritate, unele amintiri refulate ce-i tulbur existena: Dar, uneori, aceste
excreii au loc [...] n condiii dificile sau foarte neplcute5, cum se poate vedea n acest vis.
Apare i imaginea falusului (de obicei simbol al energiei creatoare la nivel spiritual i fizic,
activat n incontient) legat de ideea ruinii i goliciunii prin determinantul atrna, care
suprim parc fora vital sau fecunditatea. Prin extensie a exteriorului, rceala este dat de
faiana closetului, iar murdria evoc deeurile evacuate, cauzatoare de tulburri severe n
cazul reinerii lor n interior.
Aadar, acest vis produce impresia unei eliberri psihice comparabil cu senzaia de
uurare resimit dup o eliminare fiziologic. Ceea ce a fost inutil i duntor a fost nlturat,
dar persist angoasa personajului de a fi surprins dezbrcat, dezgolit de masca protectoare, de
a-i fi citite adevratele triri. Pare a fi teama oricrui adolescent, ce traverseaz o perioad
agitat, cu multiple transformri fizice i psihice, lundu-l pe nepregtite i zdruncinndu-i
ntregul univers luntric.
n ncercarea de a o gsi dorina refulat i ptruns n contiin prin intermediul celui
de-al doilea vis, am selectat cteva cuvinte-simbol: closet, baston, sora, gheare,
amenina, am fugit, mic hol, ap, scar, lemn, spiral, extrem de ngust,
stacojie, smuls, degete, urin, zvor. nceputul visului sugereaz, n aparen, o
amintire din familie care are n centru imaginea celor doi frai retrind imagini trecute. Brusc,
scenariul se schimb att la nivel formal (utilizarea verbelor de micare alert), ct i-n plan
ideatic, cci sora se ipostaziaz ntr-un personaj ce amenin existena Eului. Ne vine n minte,
datorit agresiunii, cuvntul incest, care nseamn legtur sexual [...] dintre frate i
sor [...] un pcat dintre cele mai grave, egal doar cu omuciderea 6. Misterul visului pare
acum elucidat: pcatul de moarte, pedepsit de biseric i de lege, a provocat comarul. S
cercetm totui i celelalte simboluri. n termeni freudieni, bastonul reprezint imaginea
falusului erect, senzaie perceput ca lucru revolttor de ctre copil. Sora relev nu rudenia de
snge, ci desemneaz nfrirea copiilor la vrsta sacr a copilriei, cnd sunt animai doar de
dorina de a se juca. Sacralitatea copilriei este ameninat de devenirea profan, sugestie
realizat prin simbolul ghearelor, instrument al rnirii fizice, sfierea epidermei urmat de
izbucnirea sngelui. De aceea, personajul ncepe s fug, ncercnd s se salveze n micul hol
al copilriei. Dar holul conduce ntotdeauna spre ncperea principal, n acest caz spre
maturizare. Aceast nou ncpere i displace total: pereii cocovii indic semnele degradrii
fiinei dup ce i-a pierdut virginitatea, idee substanializat prin simbolul apei, care se
preteaz la trei accepiuni contextuale: nostalgia dup spaiul protector intrauterin, geneza
Jacques de la Rocheterie, Simbologia viselor (traducere de Iulian Dragomir), Bucureti, Editura Artemis, 2006,
p. 98.
5
Ibidem, p. 82.
6
Ivan Evseev, Dicionar de simboluri i arhetipuri culturale, Timioara, Editura Amarcord, 2001, p. 84.
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primordial i, antitetic, element ce favorizeaz descompunerea materiei, deci degradarea

fiinei dup deflorare.
Este de remarcat simbolul scrii, nsoit de trei determinani: lemn, spiral, extrem de
ngust, care-i poteneaz semnificaia primar a ascensiunii. Lemnul, materie plin de
cldur i personalitate7, sugereaz faptul c omul accept Erosul, n sensul mplinirii umane,
considerndu-l o cale spre fericire, greu ns de atins spirala devenind imagine a labirintului
extrem de ngust, adic accesibil numai celor iniiai. Iniierea se realizeaz pe cale erotic i
este un pas decisiv care desparte dou lumi: inocena i maturitatea. Trecerea este resimit de
Eul analizat n manier vulgar, brutal, mpotriva propriei voine, avnd n vedere verbul
folosit: smuls. Simte n permanen nevoia de a se apra, nevoie simbolizat de zvor. ns
nimic nu-l ajut s evadeze din noua lume, n care se simte ca ntr-un closet. Asociat cu urina,
closetul semnific mizeria, dejecia, urenia, favoriznd repulsia i respingerea. Sexualitatea
se ntrevede n simbolul degetelor, imagine tactil ce conduce spre ideea de pipire, de cutare
a zonelor erogene, preludiu al actului sexual. Iat, deci, stimulul declanator al visului: dorina
sexual, refulat n incontient. Eul i-a reprimat propriile triri, refuznd trirea profan a
instinctului sexual. Adolescentul este trdat de incontient, cci dorina sexual revine n
contiin datorit viselor, repetate obsesiv n timpul somnului. Dac n mod contient se
poate controla, cenzurndu-i orice pornire instinctual, n plan oniric ns dorinele refulate
devin manifeste prin intermediul visului.
Chiar dac interpretarea psihanalitic a scrii expresie deghizat a dorinei sexuale
este considerat simplist i unilateral, trebuie s reamintim concepia lui Mircea Eliade, care
afirma c actul sexual este i el un ritual de trecere 8. Astfel, scara devine simbolul
ascensiunii temporale, trecerea de la o vrst la alta, de la un mod de a fi la altul, de la
inocen la maturitate: Cu alte cuvinte, interpretarea freudian a imaginii scrii ca cifru al
unei dorine sexuale incontiente i are locul perfect printre multiplele semnificaii ale
trecerii ilustrate de scar n ritualuri i n mituri9.
Labirintul oniric trebuie perceput ca o cutare a Sinelui, la care personajul tinde s
ajung prin intermediul limbajului simbolic i al visului. Sinele reprezint deopotriv un
centru ordonator al structurilor psihice i un furnizor de viziuni onirice. n acest context,
Victor relateaz c am trecut n vis fr s-mi dau seama. Coboram ntr-o vale mltinoas,
acoperit cu linti, mtasea-broatei, stnjenei vetezi, aproape putrezi, i sclipitoare rouacerului. O construcie ptrat, cenuie, se afla n mijlocul vii, la captul unei crri de
crmizi sparte i ncrustate cu licheni. Cnd am ajuns n faa micii construcii mi-am dat
seama c era un WC public, cu dou intrri i cteva ferestre jegoase sub acoperi. [...] O
ui ngust, stacojie, cu geam pe care parc aruncase cineva un lichid suspect, alburiu i
vscos, se deschidea n peretele mbrcat n faian de lng cad. Am intrat acolo i m-am
regsit n aceeai mizer cabin de closet, strmt de abia mi ncpeau umerii, din visul
anterior.10
Este evident, pe parcursul lecturii, senzaia unui continuum oniric, cu aspect
comaresc, din care vistorul nu poate iei sau se trezete pentru o clip doar, rmnnd captiv
n spaiul angoasant al closetului, aa cum se simte i-n realitate dac avem n vedere numele
Budila toposul n care i-a petrecut o vacan de licean. S selectm cteva cuvinte-simbol,
care-i produc vistorului o groaz inexprimabil: vale mltinoas, ptrat, cenuiu,
crmid, WC (public) closet, ferestre, ui, stacojiu, lichid suspect, alburiu i
vscos, cra, piele, bra, old, prbuit. Conotaiile negative ale vii sunt
7
Ibidem, p. 99.
Mircea Eliade, Mituri, vise i mistere (traducere de Maria Ivnescu i Cezar Ivnescu), Bucureti, Editura
Univers Enciclopedic gold, 2010, p. 123..
9
Ibidem.
10
Mircea Crtrescu, Travesti, op. cit., pp. 63 64.
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insuflate de atributul mltinoas, ce creeaz senzaia mpotmolirii i neputina de a putea

nainta spre liman. Din aceast perspectiv, valea ntruchipeaz un simbol al izolrii sau al
nchisorii, de aceea Victor caut o posibilitate de salvare. Construcia spre care se ndreapt
are form ptrat; conotaia acestei figuri geometrice este aceea de ciocnire, tensiune, de oc,
de incompatibilitate11, indicnd dificultatea n care se gsete vistorul: aceea de a cuta un
sprijin pe care s se bazeze, esena fiinei sale. O importan deosebit n exprimarea tririlor
subiective o are culoarea cenuie, cea care apare la nceputul acestui vis: ea exprim o durere
profund i semnaleaz prezena incontientului, care tinde a se ilumina prin ptrunderea n
contient, a materializa dezechilibrul ce-l tulbur. Crmida simbolizeaz obstacolul pe care
vistorul trebuie s-l identifice personajul sau, cu sens negativ, ideea de izolare, deja
identificat i la alte simboluri. Drumul spre centrul vii l conduce spre un alt closet public,
un loc abject i dezgusttor. Cele dou intrri i uile de aici l deruteaz, n ciuda accesului
facil de a putea intra sau iei oricnd vrea. Fiecare intrare nseamn trecerea ntr-alt spaiu
care devine tot mai mic, de aici i utilizarea diminutivelor ui, gemule. Minimalizarea
este accentuat prin prezena geamului, sporindu-se astfel impresia de sufocare i scrb
provocate de jegul care domnea acolo.
Contrastul cromatic dintre ua stacojie i geamul murdar de lichidul alburiu i vscos
sugereaz sexualitatea i scoate la iveal stimulul declanator al visului: culoarea rou-aprins
ofer ochiului efectul senzorial al satisfaciei date de cldur i desftare, dar i de spaim
pricinuit de sngele care nete n urma unei rniri. Datorit lichidului mprocat pe geam,
care nu era altceva dect sperm, rnirea fizic a fost deflorarea. n vis, sora reprezint
imaginea dublului interior, care face s apar n mintea noastr conflictul personajului cu el
nsui, un conflict refulat n incontient i readus la nivel contient prin vis pentru a putea fi
rezolvat. Este vorba despre contiina maturizrii i acceptarea trecerii de la un stadiu la altul
conform dezvoltrii normale fizice i psihice. Verbul cra semnific ascensiunea n lipsa
scrii din acest vis, avnd de asemenea conotaii sexuale. Prile corpului afectate (julirea
epidermei i sngerarea) menionate de vistor sunt braul i oldul: sfierea braului este
simbol al castrrii12, team adnc ascuns n incontient, iar oldul este simbol falic, legat
aici de consumarea actului sexual. Prbuirea din finalul visului marcheaz faptul c
personajul a trit o stare care l-a dezechilibrat n ntregime, fiind acum incapabil s mai
acioneze n vreun fel.
Aadar, potrivit acestui vis, personajul-narator se afl ntr-o zon cenuie a existenei
sale, deoarece a descoperit dizarmonia culorilor perfecte cunoscute n perioada copilriei,
concretizat prin cunoaterea sexualitii. Se poate vorbi i de lupta cu dublul interior (sora),
care se manifest pentru ntietatea lui animus sau anima. Prin acest vis, adolescentul devine
contient de dispariia lumii ideale odat cu apariia impulsurilor sexuale.
Cum vedem, toate visele sunt n legtur cu psihologia abisal a personajului, aducnd
la suprafa dorinele i tririle obscure ale adolescentului care trebuie s lupte cu dublul su
pentru a se cunoate pe deplin i a ti cine este: Galeria coboar constant i cldura crete.
E traseul magic din visul meu, traiectul obsesiei mele, i nu e cu putin s ies din el, aa cum
nu poi prsi firul propriei viei...13 Reveriile sale aduc n prim plan tristeea i
nesiguranaa, autoironia i negativismul, bucuria i disperarea, izolarea i confuzia, care
domnesc n anti-lumea adolescentin pe care o urte i-o iubete cu aceeai pasiune.
Descoperirea sexualitii a determinat angoasa, suspiciunea, neiubirea, ncrncenarea,
neputina i resemnarea personajului, care i concentreaz tririle ntr-o reflecie eliberatoare:
Poate c aveam dreptate n reveriile mele: brbaii nu pot ajunge supraoameni i zei pentru
Hlne Renard, Dicionar de vise (traducere de Catrinel Auneanu), Piteti, Editura Paralela 45, 2006, p. 376.
Jacques de la Rocheterie, op. cit., p. 42.
13
Mircea Crtrescu, Travesti, op. cit., p. 88.
11
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c sunt supi, golii de tot ce ncepe a se-ntrupa n ei de ctre femelele pntecoase14.

Ignornd tririle comune, umane va putea vieui ntr-un spaiu superior, n care fertilitatea
creatoare nu va fi risipit, ci canalizat spre mplinirea unui ideal supra-uman.
Planul oniric continu i experimentm impresia unui vis-n-vis, structurat n jurul
acelorai imagini-simbol, aparent fr legtur unele cu altele sau cu incontientul
personajului grea, poarta (ferecat), sora, piept, gri, cuit, alturi de simbolurile
repetate obsesiv: u, geam, stacojiu, scar. Senzaia de grea este provocat de tot ceea cel nconjoar att n realitate (universul Budila), ct i n planul visului (closetul infect, ambele
spaii simboliznd acel loc al transformrii fiinelor [...] se opereaz o metamorfoz
material, moral, intelectual, ignorana cednd locul cunoaterii15.
Parcurgerea traseului iniierii este necesar i-n acest spaiu: iniiatul trebuie s renune
la orice frm de materialism, adic s nu manifeste nicio repulsie fa de tririle pe care
acum le contientizeaz, admindu-le normalitatea. Prima cale de acces este poarta, pe care o
traverseaz chiar dac este ferecat, ceea ce nseamn c incontientul a depit bariera
contiinei i refulatul poate fi confruntat, n ciuda persistenei sentimentului de groaz
perceput n tot corpul, vizibil parc la nivelul epidermei. Este frica teribil a individului de a
privi n fa adevrul incontientului. n vis, personajul are acum de urcat o scar mnjit de
snge (trepte stacojii), semn al cderii din paradis, i, ajuns cu mari eforturi la captul ei
(sugestia sexual), are de deschis o u cu belciug (ncuiat), ceea ce presupune n nou
obstacol. Deschiderea uii, fr efort, i readuce n fa, asemenea unei oglinzi, dublul luntric
(sora), ntlnire neateptat care-i va cauza deopotriv durere (adevrul) i plcere (acceptarea
propriilor temeri). Spre deosebire de visele anterioare, acum personajul resimte durerea rnirii
n piept, sediul manifestrilor emoionale, dar i al angoasei sub form de gfial, nbuire,
sufocare16. Aluzia la actul sexual este aproape explicit, mai ales c arma rnirii este cuitul
simbol freudian al sexului masculin. Un sens mai profund al interpretrii dezvluie
inteligena capabil s discearn binele de ru17, implicnd personajul n procesul
autocunoaterii i al discernerii sentimentelor.
Acesta este nelesul purificator al visului analizat, care subliniaz confruntarea
personajului cu tenebrele incontiente i dublul luntric. Redus pn la nevroz, fiina
contient ia act de tririle obscure i-n acest proces are loc transformarea succesiv a lui
Victor de la adolescentul nctuat de propriile-i complexe la maturul liber a-i cunoate i
accepta calitile i defectele, ntr-un cuvnt propria identitate masculin.
Fiind ateni la continuitatea oniric a personajului, vom recunoate c visele se produc
numai ntr-un anumit spaiu de care este atras n mod irezistibil, asemenea Mendebilului: un
loc strmt i foarte nclzit, sugestie a combustiei interioare: M-ndrept pe bjbite spre
cmrua mea, unde lumina albastr, vuitoare, a focului, din sob arunc raze pe perei.
Intru n pat, trag ptura peste cap i m prbuesc, abrupt, n vis. De ce mereu aceleai reele
subterane? Aceleai cabine verzui n grote cu apa pn la glezne... Aceleai receptacule de
faian n care picur stropi strlucitori din stalactitele tavanului18. Lumina prin care este
nfiat camera este albastr, asigurndu-ne de privaiune, umbr, nchidere, slbiciune,
rceal, ndeprtare i atracie, toate acestea fiind reflectate de eul profund al vistorului.
Ducnd cu ea ceva ntunecat i purtnd o energie negativ19, culoarea albastr semnific
incontientul, sla al dorinelor ascunse i revelate de vis. ntruct lumina albastr provine de
14
Ibidem.
Jean Chevalier, Alain Gheerbrant, op. cit., vol. 2, p. 113.
16
17
Hlne Renard, op. cit.,p. 158.
18
Ibidem, p. 109.
19
Cf. Goethe, Contribuii la teoria culorilor (n romnete de Val. Panaitescu), Iai, Editura Princeps, 1995, pp.
215 216.
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la flcrile focului, am putea deduce o nuan de rou-albstrui ce tapeteaz pereii cmruei,

de aceea Victor i trage ptura peste cap, percepnd-o ca insuportabil. Grania dintre
realitate i vis este aproape imperceptibil, cci tensiunea celui care viseaz se mrete cnd
ajunge n reeaua labirintic subteran, unde ntlnete acelai closet (cabine) murdar i umed,
dar i grota, care ar putea fi interpretat ca un regresssus ad uterum, o surs nesfrit de
energie. Aici, raiunea cedeaz locul simurilor i instinctelor, iar intuiia primeaz, din
aceast perspectiv grota fiind simbol al incontientului. Echivalent grotei, visul devine
aidoma unui spaiu ritual n care personajul se retrage cu scopul de a se examina i a-i
interoga dublul.
Dup o revenire la realitate, personajul alunec din nou n vis, ca i cum ar continua
aventura oniric urmnd un itinerariu prestabilit. La nivelul imaginilor, reveriile sale au, aa
cum ne-am obinuit, aspect de comar prin senzaiile apstoare i nbuitoare descrise:
ncuiat, closet, tavan, vruite, pianjeni (sferici), bec chior, pmnt, ua cu
zvor, noaptea (fr capt). Putem suprapune acest vis cu unul precedent: e povestea
aceluiai cu alte cuvinte? sau aceeai experien ntr-un spaiu asemntor? Aici predomin
senzaia de claustrare, datorat ncuietorilor i lumina slab, difuz, glbuie, sugestie a unui
adevr elementar pe care l descoper vistorul. Tavanul se ivete amenintor prin faptul c
sugereaz o limit. Se simte prins ca ntr-o curs (simbolul pianjenului) de ctre dublul
devorator i crede c nu mai are scpare. Noaptea este sinonimul ntunericului i al
obscuritii, ce-l mpiedic pe vistor s se orienteze. Luciditatea din vis i permite s
contientizeze c trece printr-o perioad sumbr pe care nu o va putea depi dac nu va
nfrunta toate temerile.
Se explic astfel incontientul care-i etaleaz gnduri nspimnttoare, generatoare de
ndoial, angoas i dezorientare, gata s ptrund n contiin. Captiv n plasa iluziei
realitii, personajul se trezete n aceeai ipostaz i-n plan oniric, distingnd cu greutate
fluxul contient de cel incontient.
Despre un alt vis tipic, n care personajul descrie un puternic sentiment de anxietate,
chiar teroare, vom vorbi n continuare: Am apsat clana ngust i rece, pe jumtate
acoperit de vopsea, i am deschis. Pe scaunul de faian, dreapt, supradimensionat,
hieratic asemenea unei regine pe tron, sttea sora mea. Pereii nguti ai cabinei erau
nencptori pentru teribila statuie vie. [...] M-a privit ngheat i a-nfipt n pieptul meu
bastonul lucios de pe arttorul minii drepte. Filmul s-a strns complet, pn cnd vrful
degetului ei mi-a atins pieptul, n dreptul inimii. Am urlat de parc bastonul mi-ar fi ptruns
cu adevrat n piept20. Cine ar putea fi sora, care i bntuie visele i-l amenin? Avem
motive s considerm c n coninutul manifest al acestui vis nu este vorba numai de dublul
luntric, ca atare este necesar s gsim sursa lui. Am identificat cteva imagini diferite de
visele precedente: regin, tron, baston (lucios), inim, urla, scria spiral.
Regina, ca nsemn al autoritii, simbolizeaz mama castratoare a crei for i violen l
amenin i nfioar. Pe de alt parte, regina este imagine a animei21, o ntruchipare a laturii
energetice feminine22, pe care personajul nu reuete s o integreze n armonie cu polaritatea
sa masculin. Cum regina st pe tron, semn al puterii i autoritii, putem deduce tendina
acaparatoare a animei de a obine puterea suprem n detrimentul lui animus n planul
incontientului. n relaie cu regina, bastonul nseamn instrumentul autoritii regale i
devine arma cu care este agresat vistorul. S nu uitm ns c interpretarea freudian calific
Ibidem, p. 152 153.

Hlne Renard, op. cit., p. 427.
22
Cf. C.G. Jung, Jung, C.G., Opere complete, 1. Arhetipurile i incontientul colectiv (traducere din limba
german Dana Verescu, Vasile Dem. Zamfirescu), Bucureti, Editura Trei, 2003
20
21
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bastonul ca simbol al libidoului i, totodat, un simbol falic. Observm astfel c personajul a

refulat libidoul, inhibndu-i pornirile instinctuale.
n acest context, determinantul lucios ar putea conduce spre ideea de virilitate i
masturbare. Atacatoarea intete inima, sediu al emoiilor i al vieii, de unde intuim c
personajul se va salva doar dac va recunoate i va accepta contradiciile existente ntre
voina contient i cea incontient. Spaima teribil i nelinitea interioar sunt exprimate
prin urletul care denot angoasa pe care nu reuete s o mai stpneasc aa cum se ntmpl
n stare contient. Evadarea, de aceast dat, o va efectua cobornd o scri, nu urcnd-o ca
n majoritatea viselor. Este o scri spiralat, imagine ce reprezint evoluia vistorului prin
ideea considerrii unei alte dimensiuni dect cea a vieii imediate23, respectiv incontientul.
Considerm c acest vis apropie personajul de adevrul ultim pe care vrea s-l scoat la
lumin pentru a se putea elibera de obsesiile sale. Contientizarea animei i acceptarea
dublului ar putea reprezenta evoluia infinit, sugerat de spiral, i restabilirea ordinii psihice
n contient.
Nu putem prsi labirintul viselor din acest roman pn nu vedem dac Victor va
izbuti s scape de Himera sa. Extragem un nou vis absurd la prima vedere, cci se ntrerupe
continuitatea cu visele anterioare: Cuprins de leinul dulce al locului vid de micare i sunet,
surpat interior de amintirea cu neputin de localizat, m-am ridicat i am apsat clana
primei ui. Dar ua nu s-a deschis, pentru c atunci am observat un lact moale, de
carne, obscen, pulsnd de o evident via, un lact cu vinioare albstrui i purpurii, cu
pliuri de piele, atrna puin deasupra clanei, innd mpreun dou inele de metal. Pe toate
uile atrnau asemenea lacte brune-glbui, pn n captul nfundat n umbr, invizibil, al
culoarului. Cnd l-am atins cu vrful degetului, lactul i-a retras carnea lent, prin micri
ciudate de acomodare. O ur intens, dement, mi-a suit n creier. Sufocat de valurile de
furie i scrb, am apucat lactul i l-am smuls din vergele. Sngele cafeniu a nit n toate
prile, stropind ua pn jos i udndu-mi minile. Am simit satisfacia vinovat i ngrozit
pe care o aveam n copilrie, cnd apucam corniele melcilor i le smulgeam din carnea
perlat24. La prima lectur ne ntmpin intensitatea senzorial-tactil a imaginilor onirice, pe
care se va spriji interpretarea: leinul, lact moale, carne, pulsnd, pliuri de piele,
am atins cu degetul, ur, creier, smuls, melc.
Datorit faptului c aceste imagini au evidente conotaii sexuale, vom cuta s stabilim
elementele refulate. Leinul, resimit ca senzaie plcut n vis, nseamn ptrunderea n
incontient pentru a detecta un complex negativ, ce pare a-i diminua puterea. ntmpin ns
rezisten, ceea ce demonstreaz slbiciunea psihic cauzatoare de angoas. Lactul
simbolizeaz ncuierea, iar n opoziie cu cheia, posed un simbolism feminin25 i, datorit
atributelor de carne, moale, obscen, pulsnd de o evident via, cu pliuri de piele, devine
explicit semnul organului genital feminin, care se deschide la atingere i permite accesul.
Repulsia actului sexual se subnelege din reaciile descrise ur intens, dement, sufocat de
valurile de furie i scrb, care vin n contradicie cu senzaia de satisfacie vinovat i
ngrozit experimentat i-n copilrie la svrirea unui act de cruzime: emascularea
melcului, vietate hermafrodit a crui alctuire seamn cu o vulv umed26. Asocierea
dintre cele dou aciuni ce determin rnirea i izvorrea sngelui pare a favoriza refularea i
ispita androginului.
Conform asocierilor ntre coninutul manifest i cel latent al visului, tragem concluzia
c intensitatea tririlor visului a fost determinat de ctre doi factori: impulsul sexual i
25
Ivan Evseev, Enciclopedia semnelor i simbolurilor culturale, (traducere de Boris Nikolaevici Sergumencov),
Timioara, Editura Amarcord, 1999, p. 236.
26
23
24
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credina c perfeciunea se atinge numai prin androginie, n acest fel nefiind necesar risipa
energiei libidinale.
ntr-o form similar poate fi interpretat i urmtorul vis povestit de personaj: Ceva
m oprea s ptrund dincolo de ui [...]. Cu ct coboram mai mult, adncindu-m tot mai
mult n penumbr, scenele deveneau mai penibile, mai apstoare. Dup ce-am cobort alte
zeci de paliere, m-am pomenit pe-un culoar ca toate celelalte, n faa unei ui identice cu
oricare alta, dar care a refuzat s cedeze (s. a.) chiar i dup smulgerea molutei bloase
care-i servea drept lact. [...] Am tiut deodat c gsisem camera interzis, c eram la
civa centimetri de enigm, de revelaie, de mntuire, i c, totui, poate n-aveam s ajung
la ele niciodat. Am tiut c nu voi putea nicicnd tri cu adevrat, eliberat de chinul
nesfrit al vieii mele, dac nu voi ptrunde odat n camera secret27. Impresia de claritate
rezult din prezena imaginilor repetitive ui (identice), smulgerea molutei bloase,
lact, n timp ce impresia de neclaritate reiese din neputina de a intra dincolo de o anumit
u, n spatele creia veghea un ochi albastru. Ce nseamn aceast senzaie de neputin,
aprut obsesiv n vis, care duce la apariia angoasei? Subliniind ideea de contiin ncrcat,
ochiul de care este supravegheat vistorul pare a trimite i la ochiul unic28, simbol al
nelepciunii absolute ce confer adevrul eliberator al fiinei. Este interesant s precizm i
sensurile culorii albastre: ea a fost atribuit zeilor29 (valorizare pozitiv n acord cu
unicitatea nelepciunii), dar traducerea german30 a sintagmei a fi albastru (este a-i pierde
cunotina) ne-ar indica reprezentarea incontientului.
Vistorul tie c nu poate ptrunde n cel mai adnc palier al incontientului, unde este
ascuns adevrul, care l-ar putea ajuta s se neleag pe deplin i s-l elibereze de obsesia
chinuitoare. Scara din visul acesta este simbol descensiv, dublat de conotaii sexuale, ea
folosind drept mijloc de deplasare n jos, adic n strfundurile incontientului. Rezumnd
sensul visului, ajungem la ideea de coborre n incontient i la existena unei ultime
rezistene, pe care personajul nu o poate depi. El tie c acea camer interzis pstreaz un
element refulat i numai cunoaterea lui i va reda libertatea psihic.
Am ajuns la ultimul vis povestit de narator i se pare c suntem aproape de centrul
labirintului: n acea prim noapte de explorare a adncurilor minii mele m-am smuls, cu un
efort de voin pe care nu-l poi face deci o dat n via, din faa uii magice ca s dobor
mai departe, dar am revenit acolo, nopi dup nopi, la captul altor i altor rtciri. M-am
aruncat pe scri n jos, srind mai multe trepte deodat, silindu-m s nu privesc napoi...31
Vistorul continu traseul descensiv cu o voin controlat, pentru c dorete cu orice pre s
domine incontientul i s accepte contient toate temerile i dorinele refulate. Aciunea
visului manifest este ntrerupt prin punctele de suspensie i cititorul rmne n suspans,
netiind dac personajul a reuit sau nu s deschid ua celei mai ndeprtate cmrue din
sfera abisal. Victor va rmne n contiina lectorilor drept Un tip uman ameninat mereu de
propriile fore interioare care l-au constituit. Iar dac echilibrul i negociaz permanent
poziia, discordia concors rmne supus forelor centrifuge care o alctuiesc32.
Cu explicaiile de mai sus, am surprins modul n care personajul-narator din romanul
Travesti ncearc, prin intermediul viselor i al transcrierii acestora, s-i explice obsesiile ca
astfel s ias din capcana lor. Fiecare frntur de vis se leag de cte o amintire din trecut,
care se ivete n straturile mai profunde ale visului i-l orienteaz spre semnificaii
(auto)erotice, n consecin infantile. Este nfiat o recunoatere, posibil numai n vis, a
Vezi Jacques de la Rocheterie, op. cit., pp. 149 157.
29
30
Cf. Jean Chevalier, Alain Gheerbrant, op. cit., vol. II.
31
Mircea Crtrescu, Travesti, op. cit., p. 159.
32
Gheorghe Manolache, Regula lui doi, Sibiu, Editura Universitii Lucian Blaga din Sibiu, 2004, p. 54.
27
28
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pulsiunilor sexuale refulate. Visul expune gnduri pe care personajul nu le cunoate n stare
de trezie, la nivel contient i de care se teme; senzualitatea reprimat n realitate de ctre
adolescent este manifestat n vis, n mod deghizat, sub form de simboluri.
Vom socoti, fr ndoial, c personajul se supune unei analize psihanalitice, n care
rolul psihanalistului este luat de foaia alb de hrtie pe care i aterne tririle constituite din
amintiri i vise. Cititorului i revine sarcina de a descifra simbolurile i de a face asociaii
libere, n manier freudian, pentru a nelege aceast scriere, care, pentru lectorul inocent,
pare ilizibil. Dup visele lungi (sau scurte) i numeroase povestite pe parcursul terapiei,
personajul se declar, n final, vindecat. A aflat c fetia cu codie blonde era el (nu avusese
nicio sor), purtat astfel de mama sa la vrsta primei copilrii. Reconcilierea animus-anima,
urmat de separarea lor definitiv, confer libertate spiritului contient i puterea de asumare a
individualitii masculine.
Ceea ce am remarcat este c autorul alege ca simbol principal closetul (ntlnit i
sub denumirile de W. C. sau toalet) pentru a ilustra piedicile ntmpinate n procesul de
cunoatere abisal. Dificultatea este sugerat de imaginea degrada(n)t a closetului: faiana
murdar, pereii mnjii, lipsa de intimitate, ce-l plaseaz pe narator ntr-o poziie incomod i
inferioar. Numrul mare de persoane care invadeaz acest spaiu i-l privesc pe vistor
semnific multiplele dimensiuni psihologice dezordonate pe care le resimte ca pe o
ameninare. Se desprinde ideea fundamental c, la finele procesului de eliminare a
reziduurilor incontiente, personajul se va simi uurat, respectiv vindecat de obsesiile care-i
altereaz starea de luciditate i integritatea personalitii contiente.
Analiznd toate aceste vise i particularitile de construcie ale onirismului lui Mircea
Crtrescu, am descoperit c scriitorul, n ipostaza unui Meter Manole postmodern, cldete
i re-cldete visele ntr-o organigram psihanalitic, orientndu-ne atenia spre lectura
intertextual i spre o atitudine detaat-ironic, proprie lectorului competent, care tie c
autorul se joac cu el i are plcerea de a intra n acest joc. Se lrgete astfel tagma tiutorilor,
la care face referire i autorul: noutatea nu mai apare n scriitura postmodern din
verosimilitate sau invenii fabuloase, ci din re-inventarea a tot ce s-a spus i scris ntr-o lume
ce interfereaz elemente subcontiente cu elemente contiente i creeaz o nou linie de for.
Autorul se topete n textul su i renun la ceea ce se numea alt dat Idee33.
Oameni!
Bibliografie
Bomhr, Nomi, Dicionar de vise. Cheia de aur i de argint a viselor, Iai, Editura
Moldova, 1994
Crtrescu, Mircea, Travesti, Bucureti, Humanitas, 1994
Chevalier, Jean; Gheerbrant, Alain, Dicionar de simboluri, vol. I III (trad. rom. a
fost fcut dup ediia 1969 revzut i adugit, aprut n colecia Bouquins), Bucureti,
Editura Artemis, 1993
Durand, Gilbert, Structurile antropologice ale imaginarului. Introducere n
arhetipologia general (traducere de Marcel Aderca, postfa de Cornel Mihai Ionescu),
Bucureti, Editura Univers enciclopedic, 1998
33
Nomi Bomhr, Dicionar de vise. Cheia de aur i de argint a viselor, Iai, Editura Moldova, 1994, p. 82.
1017
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Eliade, Mircea, Mituri, vise i mistere (traducere de Maria Ivnescu i Cezar

Ivnescu), Bucureti, Editura Univers Enciclopedic gold, 2010
Evseev, Ivan, Enciclopedia semnelor i simbolurilor culturale (traducere de Boris
Nikolaevici Sergumencov), Timioara, Editura Amarcord, 1999
Amarcord, 2001
Goethe, Contribuii la teoria culorilor (n romnete de Val. Panaitescu), Iai, Editura
Princeps, 1995
Jung, C.G., Opere complete, 1. Arhetipurile i incontientul colectiv (traducere din
limba german Dana Verescu, Vasile Dem. Zamfirescu), Bucureti, Editura Trei, 2003
Manolache, Gheorghe, Regula lui doi, Sibiu, Editura Universitii Lucian Blaga din
Sibiu, 2004
Renard, Hlne, Dicionar de vise (traducere de Catrinel Auneanu), Piteti, Editura
Paralela 45, 2006
Rocheterie, Jacques de la, Simbologia viselor (traducere de Iulian Dragomir),
Bucureti, Editura Artemis, 2006
1018
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SEPTIMIU BUCUR THE TOPOLOGY OF A PERSONALITYS DEVELOPMENT

Dumitria Florina TODORAN (POP)
Abstract: Septimiu Bucur is a name not listed to appear on the cover of any book or study
literary and philosophical essays in the 49 years he lived. It's a foreign name to many, which
arose in the minds of researchers publishing fleeting echoes wars and warm memories in the
hearts of those who knew him. His profile can be deduced both from its individual behavior
and socio-cultural existential and feverish litter of manuscripts in watershed moments of life.
You might consider that his personality matrix is a neo-renaissance humanism that incited to
succeed himself, for himself and for others, as a new "universal uomo". He managed to keep
the turn between some maximum and introvertiri extravertiri and knew how to harmonize
those passions for intellectual exercises for physical ones.
As a literary critic, has highlighted showing the attributes of objectivity, discernment, ethical
and aesthetic mastery values, language relevant, pertinent respect of professional ethics
practicing an idea of mediation, as demonstrated in the eleven studies finished on Eminescu
and one study of Caragiale, Blaga, Goga, Rebreanu.
Keywords: Septimiu Bucur, profile, personality, reviewer, correspondence, literary activities
Aspecte inedite din perioada tinereii
Omul de carte, omul de bibliotec Septimiu Bucur ( pseudonim Horia Ursu) s-a
nscut n localitatea Gmbu, o mic localitate cu oameni de omenie, la 28 martie 1915, i a
murit la 7 mai 1964 n Trgu-Mure. A fcut parte dintr-o familie numeroas cu 8 copii.
Prinii erau intelectuali cu tradiie, tatl su Iuliu Bucur, a fost preot n sat, apoi profesor
titular de latin la liceul Alexandru Papiu Ilarian din Trgu-Mure, liceu unde a studiat i
Septimiu Bucur. Mama, Veturia, a fost o femeie energic i i-a strunit bine copiii. In Gmbu
s-a sdit n ei dragostea i preuirea pentru folclor, pentru ranul cu suflet i cuget limpede.
Septimiu Bucur petrece puin timp n satul natal deoarece se mut mpreun cu familia n
Trgu-Mure, unde urmeaz, ca i fraii si, cursuri liceale i superioare. In copilrie, trstura
dominant de caracter a lui Septimiu Bucur a fost timiditatea, nsui autorul afirmnd: cred
c cele mai multe din tristeile copilriei mele i au rdcina n sentimentul de timiditate care,
psihologic vorbind nu era altceva dect expresia denaturat a unui extraordinar orgoliu,
congenital firii mele.1
Clasele primare i Liceul Alexandru Papiu Ilarian le urmeaz la Trgu-Mure,
finalizndu-le n 1932. Pe parcursul anilor colari obine burse i premii pentru progresul n
studiu i diligen, este scutit de taxe, fiind admis la toate examene cu calificative exemplare.
Dei era pasionat de literatur, obine diverse premii la desen i sport. Se nscrie n
Organizaia Soimii Carpailor unde, n 1932 csig locul I la concursul naional de pingpong, ce s-a desfurat la Bucureti, a obinut patru diplome, fiind clasificat al zecelea juctor
Septimiu Bucur, Banchetul lui Lucullus, Ediie ngrijit, prefa i not asupra ediiei de Serafim Duicu,
Editura Dacia, Cluj- Napoca, 1978, p. 5
1
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pe ar, jucnd alturi de adversari germani, austrieci, maghiari etc.2 In ultimul an de studiu
liceal, obine primul loc la un concurs pe ar de literatur romn, organizat de Societatea
Tinerimea Romn cu eseul Satul n proza lui Liviu Rebreanu care va fi publicat apoi n
revista Societii, cunoscndu-l cu aceast ocazie pe Nicolae Iorga, despre care se vorbise de
attea ori n cas. Il premiaz i coala pentru rezultatul obinut, lund parte, alturi de colegii
lui, deasemenea premiai, Butean Fulviu, Nicolau Gheorghe, Sulica Marius, la o excursie pe
traseul Bucureti- Constana- Bazargic- Balcic.3 Printre activitile literare i publicistice din
clasele superioare de liceu amintim: colaborator, preedinte al Societii de lectur a Liceului.
Public n Indemnul, o revist de prestigiu naional a liceului i n Anuarul Liceului n 19301931. Printre aceste publicaii se numr i cuvntarea ocazional rostit la comemorarea
patronului liceului, Al. Papiu Ilarian, pe atunci fiind doar elev de clasa a VII-a.4 Profesorul de
limba i literatur romn D. Martina, care i-a fost i diriginte, i insufl dragostea pentru
literatur, i mprumut diverse cri, prima fiind La vie de lespace scris de M.
Maeterlinck, carte care-i trezete multe semne de ntrebare despre problema timpului.
Aprofundnd aceast chestiune a timpului, Bucur se ndreapt cu ardoare ctre nuvela
fantastic a lui Mihai Eminescu Srmanul Dionis, nuvela ce se contureaz n jurul
supratemei timpului. Eminescu se inspir la rndul lui din ideile lui Schopenhauer care
prezint timpul ca un prezent etern, trecutul i viitorul fiind posibile doar prin prisma
prezentului. Dup studiul asupra operei lui Eminescu acesta se ancoreaz n rsfoirea lui
Dostoievski, Baudelaire, Goethe, Sully Proudhomme etc. n urma creia d dovad de o
gndire matur remarcabil i un stil destul de curgtor.5
Cariolan Bucur, fratele lui Septimiu Bucur, urmeaz Facultatea de medicin, i frate
mai mare fiind, l ndeamn pe Septimiu s fac la fel, ncercnd s-i arate frumuseea,
nobleea i avatanjajele acestei profesii. Dar Septimiu Bucur, alintat Timi, era atras de
literatur i se opunea cu vehemen: Ce frumusee vezi tu n a fi belitor de oameni? Si
i-a urmat chemarea. Urmeaz cursurile Facultii de Litere i Filosofie a Universitii din
Bucureti, frecventnd cu asiduidate cursurile lui N. Iorga, D. Caracostea, C. RdulescuMotru. Inc de pe bncile facultii, pe care o termin n 1936, obinnd diploma de licen
doi ani mai trziu, ncepe s colaboreze la revistele acelei perioade, cum ar fi: Gndirea,
Romnia literar, Romnia, Gnd romnesc, Azi etc, publicnd cronici literare, recenzii,
scurte eseuri. In timpul studeniei lucreaz ca bibliotecar la biblioteca facultii iar din anul III
este numit asistent al lui D. Caracostea, avnd aceast funcie timp de 5 ani.
Desfoar activitate de cronicar, critic, eseist literar i filosofic, redactor sau
colaborator la numeroase reviste din perioada interbelic ntre 1940-1943. A fost colaborator
constant la Romnia literar opunndu-se sistematic fa de atacurile mpotriva creaiei lui
Lucian Blaga de ctre I.N Soricu i a altor detractori, simpatiza cu ideologia literar a lui
Octavian Goga. Este foarte apreciat n cercurile intelectuale pentru adncimea gndirii sale i
pentru rafinamentul intelectualului.
Grigore Ciortea, Anuarul liceului de biei Alexandru Papiu Ilarian din Trgu-Mure, 1929-1931, Tipografia
Ardeleana, Trgu-Mure, p. 188
3
Grigore Ciortea, idem, p.60
4
Grigore Ciortea, idem, p. 100-104
5
Serafim Duicu, n prefaa Septimiu Bucur . Banchetul lui Lucullus- Pagini de critic literar, Editura Dacia,
Cluj-Napoca, 1978, p. 5
2
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Lucian Blaga, de exemplu, l ndrgete aa de tare c i trimite mai toate crile sale
cu autografe. Pe o carte numit Diferenele divine, aprut n 1940, Blaga scrie: Lui Timi
Bucur, bunului i strlucitului meu prieten. L. Blaga. Dei e ndrgit de Lucian Blaga i scrie
foarte mult despre acesta, sora scriitorului, doamna Maria Bucur Graur, spune c fratele ei
figureaz pe listele de securitate ce aveau legtur cu Lucian Blaga ns nu a fost mare prieten
cu acesta, era mai mult o amiciie existnd i o diferen de vrst ntre Septimiu Bucur i
Lucian Blaga.
Constantin Noica, n cteva din rndurile datate din 5. IV. 1937, i scria din Sinaia:
Mult stimate Domnule Bucur, v datorez nc de la o lucrare mai veche de-a mea, un semn de
recunotiin pentru cuvintele d-voastr, att de nelegtoare, n legtur cu activitatea ce-o
desfor (...) Felul exact i adnc n care m nelegei constituie pentru mine, o rar
satisfacie de autor i (...) dac m puteam atepta s fiu priceput n ce afirm, cu greu a fi
crezut s fiu priceput chiar i n cele ce subneleg n chip att de ters..
Vasile Bncil, unul dintre primii exegei ai lui Blaga, i scria i el n 2 iunie 1937 din
Brila: Stimate Domnule Septimiu Bucur, prin aceasta mi ngdui s trimit expresia celor
mai bune felicitri pentru admirabilele d-voastr articole despre Lucian Blaga...
Intre 1943-1944 devine consilier la Legaia Romn la Budapesta, al crei Prim consul
general era criticul Ion Chinezu, cumnatul su. La 23 august 1944, mpreun cu soia sa i cu
ceilali funcionari ai Legaiei, e deportat guvernului hitlerist i internat n lagrele din
Oerschreiberheau, Eisenstein, Hochbruch i Teisnach, fiind eliberat de ctre trupele aliate i
revenind n ar n octombrie 1945. Tot aici, n lagr se nate i fiul scriitorului. In aceast
perioad este animat de idealuri democratice i umanitariste. In posesia familiei se afl o
declaraie-document semnat de o oarecare Viorica Filip, nscut Strul, evreic din Bucureti
aflat la Budapesta, care-i cere n iulie 1944 lui Septimiu Bucur un act de plecare n Romnia
pentru a scpa de lagrul de exterminare nazist. Septimiu Bucur obine acest act, salvndu-i
viaa. Ea mrturisete, c acolo, Septimiu Bucur a mai dat un asemenea act i unei alte
persoane din Timioara. Somat de americani s aleag, se hotrte s se ntoarc n ar.
Este funcionar la Bucureti cteva luni dar fiind incapabil de compromisuri se
ntoarce n Trgu-Mure unde funcioneaz ca profesor suplinitor de romn la Liceul
Unirea, Liceul Alexandru Papiu Ilarian i la diferite coli generale, ntre anii 1947-1950.
Este trimis s munceasc la un trust de construcii la Copa Mic, pentru vina de a fi colaborat
la reviste de dreapta, fiind maistru, ntre anii 1950-1959, locuind ntr-o gheret, aceast munc
avnd repercursiuni asupra sntii sale, mai ales innd cont de faptul c oraul Copa Mic
era cel mai poluat ora din ar.
Contribuie ca mentor spiritual la ntemeierea Cenaclului Literar Liviu Rebreanu din
Trgu-Mure n 1957. Se ocup de traduceri, fiind numit traductor pentru limbile maghiar,
german i francez la revista Orvosiszemle a Institutului Farmaceutic din Trgu-Mure, ntre
anii 1960-1964.
Sub interdicie de semntur, a scris eseuri i comentarii despre Eminescu, Caragiale,
Goga, Rebreanu, Blaga rmnnd peste 3000 de pagini de manuscris. A fost restituit i
publicat postum, n 1968 i 1976, n revista Arge din Piteti i n volum. Moare de cancer
pulmonar la numai 49 de ani. Un destin tragic, scriitorul, care i-a dedicat viaa literaturii, nu
a reuit s se afirme pe msura capacitilor, meritelor.
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Pe parcursul vieii sale literare, Septimiu Bucur public diverse comentarii la cri de
literatur, teorie literar, filosofie, att romneti ct i strine ncepnd cu 1934 n revistele
Vitrina literar, Gnd romnesc, Naionalul nou, Progres i cultur, Viaa literar,
Romnia literar, Azi, Eu i Europa etc. Dei i las amprenta n revistele mai sus
enumerate, numele lui Septimiu Bucur este ignorat n critica i eseistica literar interbelic.
Cauza? Autorul nu reuete s alctuiasc pe parcursul vieii un volum de cronici i eseuri
literare, prin urmare, posteritatea l-a cam pierdut din vedere. Pe lng acest lucru n-a fost
genul de persoan care s atrag atenia asupra sa nedeclannd polemici. Ins, textele sale
critice, att cele pe care a reuit s le publice ct i cele care au rmas n manuscris i confer
statutul distinct de critic. Se ocup de critica prozei discutnd valabilitatea subiectelor i a
temelor fiind un bun observator i analizator apreciind operele diverilor autori,
desconsidernd operele altora.
Unele texte critice ale lui Septimiu Bucur au fost adunate prima data, n volum, de
ctre Serafim Duicu, n 1978, atribuindu-i titlul Banchetul lui Lucullus i semnnd prefaa
i nota asupra ediiei, n colecia Restituiri. Prima zi de difuzare a lucrrii Banchetul lui
Lucullus, aprut sub ngrijirea lui Serafim Duicu, a avut loc ntr-o zi de vineri, 12 mai 1978,
la ora 18:00, la Librria Mihai Eminescu din Piaa Teatrului din Trgu-Mure, sub egida
Centrului de librrii. Cuvntul introductiv a fost rostit de Romulus Guga, redactor ef al
revistei Vatra.6 Este o ediie selectiv deoarece o ediie complet ar include i alte texte
inedite despre Mihai Eminescu, Tudor Arghezi, Mihail Sadoveanu i cronici literare la
volume semnate de George Clinescu, Mircea Eliade, Lucian Blaga i muli alii, texte rmase
necunoscute pn astzi.
Textele reunite n volumul Banchetul lui Lucullus dedicate clasicilor sunt nfptuite
ntre anii 1955 i 1963 n aceast perioad Septimiu Bucur fiind preocupat de orice altceva
doar de literatur nu. Ins, dei avea alte preocupri n viaa diurn, i dorete s fac parte
din tradiia criticii interbelice avnd idei polemice astfel se confrunt cu marile valori clasice.
1.2 Profil psiho-moral
Septimiu Bucur e un nume nemenit s figureze pe coperta vreunui volum de studii sau
eseuri literare i filosofice, n cei 49 de ani pe care i-a trit. E un nume strain pentru muli,
care a iscat ecouri fugare n mintea cercettorilor publicisticii interbelice i amintiri placate i
calde n sufletele celor care l-au cunoscut. Un nume care, a smuls la vremea sa, nc din
tineree, aprecieri favorabile din partea lui Constantin Noica, Lucian Blaga, Ion Chinezu,
Vasile Bncil, Horia Vintil i alii.
Dar cine era pe plan psiho-moral Septimiu Bucur? Profilul lui poate fi dedus att din
comportamentul su individual existenial i socio-cultural ct i din manuscrisele aternute
febril n momentele de cumpn ale vieii. Septimiu. S-ar putea considera c matricea
personalitii sale este un umanism neorenascentist care l-a incitat s se realizeze pe sine,
pentru sine i pentru alii, ca un nou uomo universale. A reuit s in cumpna ntre nite
extravertiri i introvertiri maxime i a tiut s-i armonizeze pasiunile pentru exerciiile
intelectuale cu acelea pentru cele fizice.
6
Steaua roie, Prima zi de difuzare, nr.110, 11 mai 1978, p.4
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In plan sentimental, a nutrit patimi pentru cteva femei dar a iubit o singur femeie
nc din clasele primare, cu care i-a cldit cminul, a zmilit doi copii frumoi pe care i-a
crescut n dragoste i respect, neridicnd vocea la ei i nebtndu-i nici mcar o data. Printre
prietenii lui cei mai apropiai se numr Mircea Vulcnescu, V. Horia, Emil Cioran. Din
pcate, nu a pstrat nimic din corespondenele cu acetia, perioada cumplit a epocii
comuniste l-a determinat s distrug tot i s se ntlneasc direct cu prietenii lui. Septimiu
Bucur a fost perpetuu deschis ctre toi semenii, copiiilor le vorbea grav, ca de la egal la egal,
cnd discuta cu adulii nu ridica niciodat glasul, pomenindu-i blnd-ironic, pe cei care l
lezaser ocazional, iar pe btrni i trata deferent-filial.
Pe parcursul vieii a dat dovad de un comportament blnd, cald, calm att cu ranii,
muncitorii ct i cu elitele reprezentative ale societii sau intelectualii. S-a purtat amabil cu
toate naiile cu care a intrat n contact: romni, germani, sai, maghiari, secui care l
considerau un ins de tip european iar n timpul activitii lui diplomatice a sustras lagrelor
de concentrare mai multe evreice. A dat dovad de o generozitate plenar pentru oameni,
discreie fa de propriile triri, tineree sufleteasc, o clit ncredere n valorile perene, o
neatins foame de idei, toate acestea fiind trsturi caracteriale ale unui om al crui destin a
fost, aparent, frnt.7
Dup ntoarcerea din ar din prizonierat i destituirea abuziv de la Ministerul de
Externe, Septimiu Bucur a decis s se retrag, intuind nefastele schimbri ce se pregteau i
realiznd c nu era versatile, c nu era capabil de compromisuri. Astfel, dup nceputuri mai
mult dect promitoare n liceu i facultate, n critic i eseistic, n diplomaie, el i-a semnat
singur, la numai 30 de ani, actul de demisie din viaa socio-intelectual a arenei publice. Dup
o perioad de omaj i profesorat intermitent este trimis s munceasc la un trust de
construcii din Copa Mic. Dei a fost detaat pe antierul acestuia, n 1957, neputnd lsa la
o parte ntru-totul viaa literar, contribuie activ la nfiinarea cenaclului trgumureean Liviu
Rebreanu, menit s revigoreze valorile culturale romneti, iar seara, pe antier, unde
condiiile de via erau subumane, el le citea muncitorilor poezii goetheene, din Mica
cronic a Annei-Magdalena Bach, fie din studiul su despre Dictatul de la Viena semnat cu
pseudonimul Horia Ursu, adic cu numele de familie al criorului Horia.
Cea mai voluminoas sfer a scrierilor lui Septimiu Bucur este reprezentat de
manuscrise pe care le-a redactat ntre anii 1945- 1963 nsumnd peste 3000 de pagini tratnd
teme diverse. Compuse n circumstane de mortificare psiho-moral i socio-intelectual, ele
demonstreaz edificator c Septimiu Bucur a neles s se detaeze demn de contingentul
devastator i de frustranta munc noncultural cotidian i s se refugieze ntr-o lume a
ideilor, a culturii, a umanismului paradigmatic. Prin fora lucrurilor, multe nu sunt nici
finisate, nici terminate, carene ce ne suscit tristeile contemplrii gtuirii proiectelor de o
moarte premature, ne conving de precaritatea finite umane ca trestie gnditoare i ne aduc
aminte de faimosul proverb Lhomme propose et Dieu dispose. 8 Aceste manuscrise, din
care un numr infim a fost deja publicat, pot fi clasificate dup tradiionale criterii tematice
care se regsesc n ipostazele personalitii lui Septimiu Bucur: poezii- create n linie
tradiional- ardelean, creionri ale lui Nichifor Crainic, Nicolae Iorga, P. Tuea etc. Ca om al
7
8
Doina Graur, Septimiu Bucur- un destin frnt? , Trnava, an.6, nr.1, p. 8

Doina Graur, idem
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societii, el i consemneaz convingerile judicioase despre dictatura regal, totalitarism,

studii ample, solid documentate, despre rscoala lui Horia, Cloca i Crian, Scoala
Ardelean, Revoluia transilvan de la 1848, despre puterea de creaie a poporului romn,
rnism, despre geniile poporului romn: Brncui, Eminescu, Enescu etc. Pe lng toate
aceste consemnri, printre meditaiile lui disperate, reiese i un relevant gnd rzle:
Daca toat istoria omenirii e lipsit de sens, dac absurdul i ntmplarea sunt singurele
principia care guverneaz desfurarea evenimentelor, dac inegalitatea e un bluestem de sub
care nu se poate smulge nici o societate existent sau posibil, dac, n sfrit, finalitatea e o
cumplit iluzie pentru fanatici i naivi- atunci ce rost mai ai pe pmnt i de ce mai trieti?
care este, care poate fi, care trebuie s fie scopul existenei tale. () Vreau sa te sftuiesc
prietenete c, pentru a-i afla rostul n societate, trebuie s crezi n anumite idei
fundamentale, trebuie s fi adeptul uneia sau alteia dintre concepiile religioase sau filosofice,
trebuie cu alte cuvinte s lupi pentru realizarea unui scop, a unui ideal care s dea sens
constructive vieii tale.() pentru minte demnitatea moral este contiina spiritului de
umanitate, contiin care, mplinindu-se pe sine, te oblig s fi solidar cu toate valorile
menite s imprime existenei individuale un sens activ, creator.
1.3 O via n beneficiul culturii
Ca intelectual ardelean, Septimiu Bucur elaboreaz, pe de o parte, studii ample,
revelatorii, solid documentate, referitoare la rscoala lui Horia, Cloca i Crian, la Scoala
Ardelean, la revoluia transilvan din 1848, la Memorandum, la Mileniul maghiar i
ndeosebi la Dictatul de la Viena, n care dezvluie, cu date precise, bestialitatea turanica
honvezilor horthyti fa de populaia romneasc, propaganda minuios finisat, antrennd
absolut toate disciplinele, pentru a adeveri c Romnia e o umil colonie spiritual a
Ungariei, iar pe linie politic, revigorarea strategiei planului lui Bethlen Istvan din 1917
pentru deznaionalizarea romnilor din cele 42000 km2 smulse Ardealului. Ins, pe de alt
parte, este generos, dedicnd studii lui Attila Joysef i lui Ady Endre, cruia i traduce i
multe poezii.
Ca intelectual romn, n afara definitivrii unui studiu al tuturor rscoalelor noastre
rneti i a conturrii antinomice a unui profil de intellectual paradigmatic i a unui portretpamflet de parvenit intelectual, Septimiu Bucur scrie un studio cuprinztor, Sufletul
romnesc, prin care ncearc s reconstituie tipul nostru spiritual i s evidenieze puterea
de creaie a poporului romn, n consonan cu tezele istoriei mentalitilor, ocolind i
balastul pozitivismului i exultarea apologetic, precum i un eseu, Geniul popular
romnesc, stabilindu-i acestuia datele cardinal i corelrile lui cu personalitile lui Creang,
Enescu, Brncui, despre rnismul crora emite preri sesizante; prin aseriuni i inut ,
eseul poate fi relaionat cu ultimul capitol, Un phenomene dorientation sznthetique:
universalisme et autochtonie, al magistralei lucrri a lui B. Munteanu, Constantes
dialectiques en literature et en histoire.9
Ca intelectual neo-umanist de sorginte renascentist, Septimiu Bucur realizeaz un
extins aa-zis Proces-verbal al unui colocviu imaginar despre art i cultur, purtat ntre
9
Doina Graur, idem, p. 9
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Issue no. 6/2015
personificrile poeziei, muzicii, culturii i filosofiei, care denot o cunoatere aprofundat a

istoricului fiecrui domeniu, o informaie la zi i aptitudini de abordri plenare.
In calitate de critic literar, i-a evideniat atributele dnd dovad de obiectivitate,
discernmnt, stpnirea valorilor etico-estetice, limbaj pertinent, respect pertinent despre
deontologia profesional, practicarea unei ideocritici de mediere, dup cum demonstreaz n
cele unsprezece studii finisate despre Eminescu i cte un studiu despre Caragiale, Blaga,
Goga, Rebreanu.
In calitate de eseist, pe plan filosofic, i vdete confluene cu existenialismul, iar n
calitate de hermeneut i exegete, elaboreaz ase studii privitoare la filosofia lui Blaga,
punctnd aportul gnditorului romn la problematica filosofiei europene a veacului nostru.
Familiaritatea criticului cu universul abstract al filosofiei nu a tocit ascuimea intuiiei critice,
sensibilitatea fa de opera liric i i-a influenat stilul n sensul unei sporite precizii i rigori
analitice.10 Studiile despre clasici vdesc receptivitatea sa la critica sociologic, tematic.
Aa cum observ Serafim Duicu, n prefaa volumului Banchetul lui Lucullus, criticul
promova dup 1944, o critic sociologic polemic nealiniindu-se celor care l reduceau pe
Eminescu la Imprat i proletar i-i fceau procese de intenie pentru pesimismul su. Modul
n care concepe Septimiu Bucur critica se deosebete de impresionismul lui Eugen Lovinescu
i George Clinescu.
Toate aceste ipostaze ale lui Septimiu Bucur se manifest, conjugat i plenar, n
atitudinea pe care el se simte obligat s o ia, naintea contiinei sale, fa de Emil Cioran.
Viaa, activitatea i lucrrile lui Cioran au fost ndeajuns relevate publicului romnesc dup
1989. Dar, pentru o mai deplin edificare, e necesar rememorarea evidenei c, atunci cnd
se abordeaz mitul Cioran, trebuie luat n calcul i atitudinea sa a-romneasc i chiar
antiromneasc, explicit n volumele la Tentation dexister i Histoire et utopie, ele
cuprinznd nite alegaii depreciative i infamate la adresa poporului su, precum i ruinea,
perfid mrturisit public de a aparine unui neam dintr-un nceput nvins i pururi
somnolent. Septimiu Bucur i notific lui Cioran c Toat nervura limbii noastre e latin i
toate sevele ei urc din rdcini latine i c trei mari creaii poetice , Mioria, Luceafrul i
Meterul Manole, deloc apreciate de el, sunt suficiente pentru a ne salva, spiritual, pe noi
romnii. Bucur, exilat n propria sa ar, i arat indignarea contra exilatului voluntar: Cnd
ai scris aceste rnduri, n-ai simit oare cum te nghite neantul vanitii tale bolnvicioase? N-ai
simit n adncul contiinei tale mustrarea ndurerat a milioane de strmoi ai ti, stini n
noaptea iobgiei seculare? () i nici suspinele martirilor i strigtele de mnie rzbuntoare
ale lupttorilor care s-au jertfit ca s-i dea ie putina de a ajunge scriitor? () Fost-a Horia
Nicolae Ursu din Albac o simpl piatr? () Ce-ai putea s rspunzi ntru aprarea sinistrei
tale opinii? Astfel, concluziile lui Septimiu Bucur sunt premonitorii: Prea puin ai obinut
n schimbul a ceea ce ai dat. M doare s i-o spun i ar trebui s te doar i pe tine: tu te-ai
eliminate singur din cultura romn, iar n alt cultur , adic n cea francez, vei rmne ca
un intrus ciudat () vei rmne tu singur, fa n fa cu nesfritul tu gol luntric. De-abia
atunci disperarea ta exhibiionist va deveni o realitate, iar iadurile tale interioare se vor
preschimba ntr-o pedeaps cel puin tot att de dureroas ca ofensele pe care le-ai revrsat
asupra poporului romn. Epistola-pamflet lui Septimiu Bucur conine, pe alocuri, anumite
10
Silvia Udrea, Septimiu Bucur-restituit, Vatra, an.9, nr.2, p.3
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exagerri explicabil izvorte dintr-un prea plin sufletesc, dar esena ei trebuie luat n
considerare, att ca ilustrare concludent a personalitii lui Cioran, ct i ca dat al cumpnirii
profilului moral al acestuia.11
Aadar, Septimiu Bucur reprezint un destin reprezentativ pentru efectele nemsluite
ale totalitarismului. Dei a fcut cinste instituiilor de nvmnt absolvite i revistelor la care
a colaborat, demonstrnd c deinea plenar toate atributele necesare unui eseist i critic literar
i filosofic, a renunat, la vrsta de 30 de ani s-i consulte propria contiin, i n momentul
ascensiunii funeste a comunismului, s se pun de acord cu ea, adic s abdice, aidoma
tuturor intelectualilor romni incoruptibili, de la orice afirmare public. Bucur nu s-a lsat
mcinat de mprejurrile nefaste, ci a continuat s se realizeze solitar, la masa de lucru, prin
scrisul ce i-a fost deopotriv flagelaie i consolare, fr vreo minim speran de a se vedea
publicat.
BIBLIOGRAFIE
OPERA
Septimiu Bucur, Banchetul lui Lucullus, Ediie ngrijit, prefa i not asupra ediiei de
Serafim Duicu, Editura Dacia, Cluj- Napoca, 1978
LUCRARI AUTORI
Grigore Ciortea, Anuarul liceului de biei Alexandru Papiu Ilarian din Trgu-Mure, 19291931, Tipografia Ardeleana, Trgu-Mure
REFERINTE CRITICE
A. IN VOLUME
Bucur Septimiu/ L.Pp. (Liviu Papadima), Dicionarul scriitorilor romni: A-C, Bucureti,
Editura Fundaiei Culturale Romne. 1995, p. 388-389
Bucur, Septimiu= Gndirea. 1921-1994: indice bibliografic adnotat/ Emil Pintea, ClujNapoca, Echinox, 1998.- p.88, 98, 119, 125, 128, 133, 150, 179, 190, 196, 244, 271, 303, 310,
319, 320, 330, 331, 413, 427, 428, 444, 457, 559.
Bucur, Septimiu= Gndirea i gndirismul/ D. Micu, Bucureti, Editura Minerva, 1975. p. 31,
364, 904, 969, 978, 1027
Profilurile unor absolveni sau foti elevi;...Septimiu Bucur...= Liceul Al. Papiu Ilarian, la
75 ani, Trgu-Mure, 1994. p. 91-92, 135
B. IN PERIODICE
Prima zi de difuzare= Steaua roie.- An.30, nr 110 ( 11 mai 1978), p.4; nr. 113 ( 14 mai
1978). p. 2: 1 foto;
Banchetul lui Lucullus / Serban Cioculescu= Flacra.- An. 27, nr.30 ( 27 iulie 1978).- p. 17 (
Rubrica mea);
11
Doina Graur, idem, p.9
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Septimiu Bucur: Banchetul lui Lucullus/ Doina Graur= Revista de istorie i teorie literar.Tom. 27, nr.4 ( oct/ dec. 1978).-p. 621-623;
Septimiu Bucur restituit/ Silvia Udrea= Vatra.- An.9, nr.2 ( 20 februarie 1979), p.3;
In memoriam Septimiu Bucur. 1915-1964: caiet documentar ntocmit de Doina Graur pentru
Simpozionul tiinific omonim organizat de Inspectoratul pentru Cultur al Judeului Mure i
Bblioteca Judeean Mure, prilejuit de mplinirea a 80 de ani de la naterea lui. Trgu-Mure,
1995.- 16p;
Septimiu Bucur, un destin frnt?/ dr. Doina Graur= Trnava. An.6, nr.1 (1996).- p. 8-9: 1
foto;
Septimiu Bucur/ Ana Cosma= Cuvntul liber.- An.11, nr.100 (25 mai 1999).- p.4- ( oOchean
ntors: Dicionar de scriitori mureeni);
Literatura romn trgumureean postbelic/ Iulian Boldea= Trnava.- An.9, nr.1-2-3/ 2000
(54-55-56).-p.49.
Revista Romnia literar, Nae Antonescu, Romnia literar, nr.35, 5-11 septembrie, 2001
Investete n oameni !
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ALIMAN AND THE MEPHISTOFELIAN PACT

Nicoleta Doina POP (POCAN)
Abstract: Vasile Voiculescu's fantastic prose was a revelation, like the series of "Sonnets ...",
revealing once more the polymorphic talent of this writer. Combining folk vision with the
modern intellectualism, the writer creates a unique fictional universe. The short-story
"Lostria" is based on popular beliefs about aquatic demons. The pact with the devil is
accepted by Aliman as a sacrifice made in the name love and is officiated under the power of
an occult moon.
Keywords : short-story, magic, fantastic, love, myth.
Proza fantastic a lui Vasile Voiculescu a constituit o revelaie, ca i ciclul "Sonetelor...", dezvluind nc o dat talentul proteiform al scriitorului. mbinnd viziunea
folcloric cu intelectualismul modern prozatorul creeaz un univers fantastic ce are drept
limite fabulosul feeric i miraculosul pgn.
Acest univers fiineaz n orizontul mitului i al sincretismului popular, ntr-o
atmosfer fabuloas, slbatic de o extraordinar vitalitate n care realul i imaginarul se
interfereaz sub fora unei magii narative remarcabile.
Temele i motivele predilecte sunt: nrurirea magic, vntoarea ca act iniiatic,
animalul totemic, arhetipul, dedublarea om-totem, regresia temporal. Eroii sunt nite
existene arhetipale care realizeaz magic ntoarcerea ntr-un timp originar, ntr-un spaiu
arhaic. Ei sunt n cutarea unui tipar esenial care s-i redea esenei lor primordiale (Pescarul
Amin, Lacul ru, Lipitoarea, Cprioara din vis, Ultimul Berevoi, Iubire magic, n mijlocul
lupilor, Lostrita).
Nuvela Lostria se inspir din credinele populare legate de demonii acvatici. Titlul
fixeaz n centrul toposului fantastic o fiin fabuloas ce revalorizeaz mitul folcloric al
timei apelor (al Ondinei, al sirenei). Opiunea scriitorului care se oprete asupra lostriei
(pete rpitor din apele repezi de munte, nrudit cu pstrvul) are o relevan incontestabil:
prinderea acestui pete rar reprezint o prob suprem pentru un pescar.
Criticul Vladimir Streinu ncadreaz textul n categoria "nuvelelor care semnific
realiti primordiale", n timp ce Sergiu Pavel Dan consider c "tema fundamental, fatal, a
prozei lui Voiculescu este magia".
Compoziia tradiional (cele cinci secvene corespund celor cinci momente ale
subiectului) este complicat prin prezena unei "rame" (prologul i epilogul ncadreaz
epicul) i prin formula "povestirii n povestire" (povestea fetei din alt veac). Compoziia
realizeaz nivelul sintactic al operei (Tzvetan Todorov)
Structura este caracteristic epicului fantastic: cele dou planuri - cel al realului i cel
al imaginarului - se ambiguizeaz i se suprapun, conferind povestirii o aur de mister
romantic.
Planul fantastic se instituie nc de la nceput, n secvena-prolog. Aceasta are o dubl
funcie estetic: proiecteaz ntmplrile n sfera fabulosului folcloric (genernd atmosfera
stranie care incit imaginaia cititorului) i formuleaz un avertisment asupra primejdiei
sporite ce-i pndete pe cei ce triesc n preajma apelor: "Nicieri diavolul cu toat puia i
nagodele lui nu se ascunde mai bine ca n ape. Dracul de balt, se tie, este nelipsit dintre
oameni i cel mai amgitor. Ia felurite chipuri: de la luminiele care plpie n beznele nopii
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i trage pe cltorul rtcit, la adnc, pn la fata uie care se scald n vuitori i nu-i dect
o tim viclean, curs pus flcilor netiutori, s-i nece"1.
Planul realului se instituie ntr-un spaiu precis situat geografic, (inutul Bistriei, de la
Piatra i Toance pn la Neagra) n care triete o comunitate statornicit ntr-un tipar de via
social i spiritual de mare vechime. Oamenii acestor locuri sunt pescari, plutai, crui cei transmit meteugul din tat n fiu, ce au o mentalitate arhaic i o gndire magic. Ei cred
n "cele vzute i nevzute", cred n existena timelor i a strigoilor, cred n Dumnezeu i se
feresc de ispitirile diavolului care se materializeaz n lumea real. Hotarul dintre real i
irealitate este astfel suprimat, favoriznd ambiguizarea raportului dintre cele dou planuri: "Pe
Bistria Necuratul rnduise de mult vreme o nagod i nfiare de lostri".
Spaiul real are acum conotaii ale locului nefast. Recunoatem, ca i n alte nuvele
fantastice voiculesciene, un topos specific: spaiul izolat de influena civilizaiei, greu
accesibil, cu o natur slbatic manifestndu-se stihial, cu deschidere spre arhaic i spre o
anti-lume a magicului demonic. Aceast lume fiineaz ntr-un timp primordial ("de mult
vreme") n care se poate produce invazia supranaturalului. Apariia i manifestrile lostriei
reediteaz mitul ispitirii biblice ntr-o variant folcloric. Lostria e o prezen malefic,
metamorfozele ei nentrerupte (ea totalizeaz atribute ale unor specii diferite: "cu cap buclat
ca de somn, trup ui de alu i pierea pestriat auriu, cu bobite roii-ruginii, ca a
pstrvului") slujesc ideea ispitirii. Descrierea fiinei fabuloase prefigureaz evenimentele:
comparaia cu "o domni lungit la soare" anticipeaz metamorfoza lostri-femeie, iar structura contrastiv frumusee exterioar/caracter malefic ("hulpav de pete", "nestul de carne
de om") anticipeaz seriile de antinomii pe care se ntemeiaz epicul.
Secvena expozitiv prezint i cel de-al doilea personaj principal din aceeai perspectiv auctorial omniscient, dar i din perspectiva comunitii, devenite n text instan
narativ. Aliman, erou cu nume de balad, aparine castei iniiailor care au nvat s
descifreze semnele tainice ale naturii i care mai pstreaz ceva din puterea spiritual a strmoilor.
Aliman se iniiaz n tainele naturii i ale meteugului su alergnd cu undia pe
urmele lostriei miraculoase. Astfel el "a deprins toate vicleugurile slbticiunilor". Pornit
ca o aciune justiiar, goana pescarului dup lostria vrjit n care vedea un "pete adevrat"
ia n curnd dimensiuni simbolice, traducnd aspiraia personajului la un absolut imposibil de
atins. Momentul-intrig fixeaz clipa cnd, mbrind lostria ce-i scap din brae "ca o
zvrlug de fat, duminica, la hor", Aliman triete nfiorarea unui dor fr sa. Iubirea
magic este surprins din perspectiva credinelor populare ca har i blestem, ca boal ce surp
fiina.
Pentru temerarul voinic confruntarea cu petele minunat fusese mai nti o provocare
i o prob de virtuozitate n tiina meteugului su. Acum ea devine dureroas cutare,
disperat ncercare de a fi iari fericit, devine patim ce-l mbolnvete de dor. Peste iarn
flcul zace, lipsit parc de orice frntur de voin, de orice elan vital. Cnd, primvara,
Bistria i sparge cmaa de ghea, Aliman revine parc la via. Se sugereaz astfel un
straniu acord ntre om i natur ce fiineaz parc n aceleai cicluri cosmice. Trezii
deopotriv din "somnul iernii" omul i rul se manifest n dezlnuiri de energii nefireti ce
las s se ntrevad ieirea din marginile legitilor realului.
Universul acvatic, demonizat, se manifest stihial: "Apele veneau nboi, tot mai negre
i mai umflate [...] i lumea privea ngrozit". Apa neagr, apa ostil materializeaz n
substan fluid, agresiv, tenebrele anti-lumii din "genuni". Prezena obsesiv a acestui
substantiv n relaie cu toponimicul Bistria submineaz realitatea spaiului ce se configureaz
tot mai accentuat ca spaiu thanatic,
1
Vasile Voiculescu, Capul de zimbru, Ed. Pentru Literatur, Bucureti, 1966, p.45
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ncredinat c "nu este lucru curat" eroul apeleaz la practici magice: "A plecat n sus,
la un sat slbatec de pe Neagra. Auzise el c acolo e un vraci btrn, mare descnttor de
peti: un fel de stpn al apelor". Micarea ascensional a eroului ("A urcat cale de o zi i a
ajuns noaptea trziu") figureaz plastic ruptura de nivel ontologic: ieirea din "lumea lui
Dumnezeu" i intrarea ntr-un simbolic spaiu al magiei, eresului, practicii vrjitoreti.
Retragerea n "noaptea timpului ancestral" i ntr-o lume arhaic-geologic n care fondul
pgn de rituri i credine mai poate influena duhuri primordiale, declaneaz evenimentul
fantastic. n lumea numit simbolic "Neagra" stpn al apelor este un solomonar care-l
iniiaz pe Aliman n magia neagr.
Pactul cu diavolul pe care Aliman l svrete ca suprem sacrificiu n numele iubirii
se oficiaz sub puterea ocult a lunii "n ptrar", n miez de noapte, n mijlocul apelor n care
eroul intr "despuiat de veminte", ca ntr-o matrice originar. El rostete descntecul i d
drumul n valuri lostriei de lemn vrjite "dup strvechi noime i ndreptare ale magiei
pierdute i uitate de ceilali". mplinirea ritualului ngduie invazia supranaturalului n lumea
oamenilor. A doua zi "volbura apelor" se revars paroxistic, venind "sodom" "ca nlucile
sfrmnd case, oameni i vite" n "uriae miezuri de sorb".
Descrierea "plin de folclorul fricii" anticipeaz ieirea timei din adncuri,
metamorfoza ei n fptur omeneasc. Aceast metamorfoz genereaz definitiva suprapunere
a celor dou planuri. Fata cu pr despletit "ca nite uvoaie", cu ochi verzi-aurii, mari "dar
reci ca de sticl", cu dini albi "dar ascuii ca la fiare", cu chip "cam buclat", "uie, cu trup
lung, mldios", fata pe care Aliman a "salvat-o" din ape seamn izbitor cu lostrita,
reprezentnd o umanitate nedifereniat nc deplin de lumea slbticiunilor. Portretul feteilostri (ca i cel al pescarului Amin ce se trage din Marele Morun) se alctuiete prin
determinaii din sfera semantic a acvaticului, sugernd paralelismul om/pete; epitetele
cromatice, comparaiile i adjective ca "uie, buclat, mldios" trimit direct la descrierea
lostriei. Translaia dinspre planul fantastic spre cel real nu este ns dect sugerat, scriitorul
ntreinnd i sporind echivocul (tehnica ambiguizrii raportului real/imaginar este
caracteristic naraiunii fantastice).
Ambiguitatea este amplificat prin notaia privind reapariia lostriei n apele
Bistriei, fr precizarea c vietatea este petele adevrat ori substitutul lui magic. Atmosfera
de tain i vraj a povestirii este sporit prin episodul iubirii nepmntene, suprafireti a celor
doi eroi. Venii din lumi diferite, unii prin ritual pgn, Aliman i fata druit lui de ape
triesc magia ameitoare a erosului. Ei refac, sub regim nocturn i demoniac ns, mitul
cuplului originar. Fiina misterioas numit de pescarul ndrgosti Ileana (nume de zn din
basmele romneti) este perceput de mentalitatea colectivitii ca o prezen malefic,
"strigoaic" ce "ar suge sngele flcului".
Povestea de iubire sfrete ns brusc prin intervenia brutal a Bistricencei, mama
fetei. Recurgnd i ea la vraj, i-o rpete pe Ileana "pe la mijlocul verii". Sintagma temporal
folosit i pentru a fixa momentul de nceput al povetii de dragoste situeaz iubirea ntr-un
timp "stttor" ori ntr-un ciclu (un "cronotop") nchis.
Dispariia iubitei provoac surparea luntric a eroului. El cutreier disperat un spaiu
ce parc i-a pierdut reperele fireti, prolifernd haotic, dup modelul labirintului: "Pn
trziu, toamna, Aliman a btut izvoarele tuturor Bistrielor: neagr, alb, aurie, precum i a
tuturor Bistricioarelor, fr folos"2. Magia i este acum interzis, cci "vraciul care-i
descntase, plecase peste munte". Desacralizarea tot mai accentuat a lumii golete de sens nu
numai spaiul, ci i timpul. Aliman afl de la "un moneag trecut de suta de ani" c
Bistriceanca i fata ei, robite Satanei, fuseser alungate din sat, devenind time de-un veac.
ntors acas, eroul devine umbra celui care a fost cndva.
2
Ibidem, p.48
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Lipsit de voin, accept ca-n trans cstoria cu o fat oarecare din sat. Asistnd inert
la ospul propriei nuni, Aliman i amintete nunta din visul cu valoare premonitorie cununia sa cu lostria, oficiat de btrnul vraci. Visul are o funcie magic, fiindc vestea
apariiei lostriei i red energia, mpingndu-l nvalnic spre apele din nou nvolburate ale
Bistriei. Trezit ca din somn, ndrgostitul ce-i trdase iubirea strig "cu chipul luminat de o
bucurie nefireasc": "Iat, vin!" Strigtul confer valene dramatice punctului culminant.
Finalul este apoteotic, sugernd atingerea idealului. Dup efemera fericire terestr,
nunta magic a celor doi eroi ce aparin unor lumi diferite se mplinete n moarte (motivul
folcloric al morii ca nuntire mitic).
Gestul ultim al lui Aliman care "se cznea s-o apere ca pe un copil cu braele"
vorbete lumii despre iubire ca pasiune i suferin, ca sacrificiu de sine i tragic izbvire,
ieire "pentru totdeauna" dintr-o lume care a "uitat" ritul sacrificial. Acest deznodmnt
tulburtor prin semnificaii este urmat de un epilog, o poveste despre naterea povetii.
Moartea eroului genereaz naterea povetii, ntmplarea neobinuit e amplificat de imaginaia colectiv, devenind legend: "Dar povestea lui Aliman a rmas vie i mereu
mldioas. Crete i se mpodobete an de an...". Textul nchide n el un crez artistic, credina
n puterea mitului, a creaiei artistice de a cuprinde chemarea vrjit a absolutului pe care
mintea oamenilor "jinduii de ntmplri dincolo de fire" nu poate s-l dezlege. E, n acelai
timp, o definiie a mitului, vzut ca poveste exemplar cu funcie magic, putnd fi mereu
actualizat ca arhetip (poveste "vie i mereu mldioas"). Identificarea, n final, a povetii cu
lostria nsi adaug descrierii iniiale un comentariu moral: "Ea colind n sus i-n jos
malurile Bistriei [...] se mic necontenit alturi i n rnd cu lostria fabuloas care nu-i
gsete astmpr, cnd fulgernd ca o sabie bulboanele, cnd odihnindu-se pe plavii, cu trup
de ibovnic ntins la soare n calea flcilor aprini i fr minte."3.
Temele regsite aici sunt cele ale interaciunii fantastice:
a) nrurirea magic: - solomonia
- omul obiect al magiei naturii personificate
b) Anticipaia fantastic: - visul prevestitor
c) Consensul magic: - instrumentul miraculos
- pactul cu diavolul
Atmosfera magic, purttoare de sensuri majore, este creat mai ales prin tehnica
ambiguizrii (bogata serie sinonimic prin care este numit lostria, de pild) i prin prezena
"vocii colectivitii".
ntr-un limbaj firesc i viu, dar de o intens magie verbal, V. Voiculescu reconstituie
o lume nvluit ntr-un aer de legend, lumea "satului mitic, ce conserv, nc, n plin
modernitate, riturile magice motenite din strmoi." (E. Simion)
"Materia povestirilor lui Vasile Voiculescu, nelegnd prin aceasta suma de motive
din proza sa, e foarte bogat. Cultivnd situaia rar, el o afl n mediile cele mai felurite
(...). El este scriitorul care a dat povestirii romneti o alt vrst literar, i nu e nici o
ndoial c proza lui narativ, ntr-o bun traducere, i-ar croi un drum n literatura
universal"4.
BIBLIOGRAFIE
1.
Alexandrescu, Sorin, Dialectica fantasticului, (studiu introductiv la volumul
La ignci), Editura pentru Literatura, Bucureti, 1969.
2.
Biberi, Ion, Eseuri, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1971.
3
4
Ibidem, p.55
Vladimir Streinu, prefa la volumul Capul de zimbru, Ed. Pentru Literatur, Bucurei, 1966
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3.
Brion, Marcel, Arta fantastic, traducere i postfa de Modest Morariu,
Editura Meridiane, Bucureti, 1975.
4.
Caillois, Roger, n inima fantasticului, Editura Meridiane, Bucureti, 1988.
5.
Chevalier, Jean; Gheerbrant, Alain, Dicionar de simboluri, Editura Artemis,
1995.
6.
Heidegger, Martin, Timp i Fiin, Traducere de Dorin Tilinca i Mircea
Arman, Editura Jurnalul Literar, Bucureti, 1995.
7.
Marino, Adrian, Dicionar de idei literare, Editura Eminescu, Bucureti, 1973.
8.
Ocinic, Mirela, Structuri ale imaginarului n proza scurt romneasc din
secolul XX, Editura Imago, Sibiu, 2002.
9.
Pavel Dan, Sergiu, Proza fantastic romneasc, Editura Minerva, Bucureti,
1975.
10.
Popescu, Ileana Ruxandra, Proza fantastic romneasc. Structuri narative i
conversaionale, Editura Paralela 45, Piteti, 2005.
11.
Ren de Solier, Arta i imaginarul, traducere de Marina i Leonid Dimov,
Editura Meridiane, Bucureti, 1978.
12.
Todorov, Tzvetan, Introducere n literatura fantastic, Editura Univers,
Bucureti, 1983.
33.
Toma, Pavel, Lumi ficionale, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1992.
14.
Voiculescu, Vasile, Capul de zimbru, Editura pentru Literatur, Bucureti,
1966.
15.
*** Masca. Proz fantastic romneasc, prefa i antologie de Alexandru
George, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1982.
16.
*** Vasile Voiculescu interpretat de ..., Editura Eminescu, Bucureti, 1980.
under the responsibility of the Managing Authority for the Sectoral Operational Programme
for Human Resources Development, as part of the grant POSDRU/159/1.5/S/133652.
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THE METAMORPHOSIS OF WINE WITHIN IAGOS VILLAINY - SHAKESPEARE IN

VERDIS OTHELLO
Letiia GOIA, Babe-Bolyai University of Cluj-Napoca
Cornelia CUTEANU, Gheorghe Dima Music Academy of Cluj-Napoca
Abstract: The drinking scene in the second act of the Shakespearean play Othello and the
corresponding passage in Verdis opera Otello illustrate one of Iagos cunning ways of
directing people his own way. In this case, wine, which has spiritual dimensions, becomes an
agent of the devil leading to Cassios ruin. In a mock-religious Mass, Iago, the anti-priest,
serves Cassio the wine which is no longer a sacred source of life, but a means of destruction.
Keywords: Othello, Otello, Iago, wine, metamorphosis
Tragedia Othello a cunoscut un numr impresionant de lecturi i interpretri de-a
lungul secolelor i continu s fie cercetat i analizat dintr-o varietate de perspective i n
ziua de azi. Fascinant ns, la Shakespeare, este faptul c piesele sale pot fi studiate i ntr-o
cheie mai puin evident, o lectur avizat, accesibil doar cititorilor iniiai. Sensuri ascunse
i mesaje ezoterice se relev celor capabili s peasc dincolo de primul strat al unei celebre
tragedii domestice.
Verdi se numr printre cei care au ptruns nelesul profund al temelor
shakespeariene i, mai mult, el l-a concretizat ntr-o oglind sonor a celor mai subtile nuane.
ntreaga oper Otello este nu doar o manifestare a geniului marelui compozitor, ci un adevrat
demers hermeneutic rezultat ntr-un subtext muzical shakespearian prin excelen. Dincolo de
libretul adaptat dup pies i acompaniamentul orchestral ce-l slujete cu fidelitate,
nzestrarea spiritual l-a condus pe Verdi la crearea unei capodopere muzicale ce poteneaz
extraordinar textul tragediei, aceasta regsindu-se n limbajul sonor ntr-o manier nebnuit.
Pasajul din actul II, scena 3 al piesei scena beiei reprodus n primul act din oper
este extrem de sugestiv n acest sens. Libretul preia ideea de baz i unele fragmente mai
importante, iar subtextul muzical completeaz expresiile din pies lsate deoparte. Att la
Shakespeare, ct i la Verdi, cheia acestui episod este vinul care, prin uneltirea lui Iago, se
transform din surs de via n mijloc de pierzanie. Textul tragediei ofer toate premisele
unei abordri din perspectiv sacr a vinului, pentru ca Iago s-i schimbe n totalitate
conotaia cu cea mai diabolic intenie. n stpnirea lui, vinul devine o unealt a intrigii sale,
iar aceast metamorfoz este determinat n mare msur de cantitate: n doze mici, vinul e
benefic, ns volumul mare duce la nenorocire. Verdi red acest cumul prin succesiunea celor
cinci ndemnuri ale lui Iago beva con me (bea cu mine) exprimate ntr-un cromatism
descendent i prin rostirea repetat i insistent beva, beva bea, bea.
n tradiia cretin, la Cina cea de Tain, Mntuitorul instituie Taina Sfintei Euharistii
(mprtania): pinea i vinul sunt prefcute de Duhul Sfnt, n timpul rugciunii preotului,
n trupul i sngele lui Cristos (Iar pe cnd mncau ei, Isus, lund pine i binecuvntnd, a
frnt i, dnd ucenicilor, a zis: Luai, mncai, acesta este trupul Meu. i lund paharul i
mulumind, le-a dat zicnd: bei dintru acesta toi, c acesta este Sngele Meu, al Legii celei
noi, care pentru muli se vars spre iertarea pcatelor (Matei 26.26-28). n Dicionarul
Noului Testament, Ioan Mircea explic: Vinul este folosit i ca element de cult de la Cina cea
de Tain, cnd Mnuitorul Hristos a instituit sfnta Euharistie ca anticipare a jerfei Lui pe
Cruce, Sfnta Euharistie reproducnd tainic i nesngeros jertfa Lui sngeroas (cf. Matei
26,26-28; Marcu 14,22-23; Luca 22,19-21; Ioan 6,54-56; 1Cor 10,16, 11,23-25). De aceea,
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alturi de pine, vinul este nelipsit din cultul liturgic, prefcndu-se n timpul Sfintei Liturghii
prin Sfntul Duh, invocat de preot: pinea, n trupul iar vinul, n sngele Domnului. Cu ele
se mprtesc preoii i mirenii dup ce i-au mrturisit pcatele la duhovnic, pentru a nu se
mprti cu nevrednicie i spre osnd (Mircea 1995:564).
n Dicionarul de simboluri, vinul este n general asociat cu sngele, att din cauza
culorii sale, ct i a caracterului de esen a plantei: este, n consecin, butura vieii sau a
nemuririi (Chevalier, Gheerbrant 1994:449). Biederman crede c vinul reprezint de fapt o
butur spiritual n adevratul sens al cuvntului, un lichid ncrcat cu focul vieii
(Biederman 2002:484).
Scena beiei, cum este denumit n oper, i de altfel primul exemplu al versatilitii
maleficului Iago, se deschide cu o fascinant descriere sonor a vinului ce ncepe imediat
dup chemarea lui Iago Biei, aducei vinul!: trei portative orchestrale ilustreaz foarte
sugestiv din punct de vedere muzical licoarea, care capt mai apoi conotaii neateptate n
primul act al operei. Almurile predominante i dau culoarea rubinie, iar timbrul metalic i
confer tria. Accentele extrem de puternice anticip fora distructiv pe care vinul o poate
avea dac este pus n slujba rului. Acordurile micorate induc o stare conflictual i
sentimentul unei tensiuni iminente.
Fiind un bun cunosctor al valenelor pe care le posed vinul i n acelai timp
urmrindu-i scopul cu o fantastic stpnire de sine, Iago l pune n slujba sa i l folosete
spre a-i servi propriilor interese. Cu un cinism ieit din comun, Iago i cunoate foarte bine
planul i l urmrete cu precizie i detaare: Lucrm cu mintea, tii tu, vrji nu facem. Iar eai supus timpului zbavnic.
Marea calitate a lui Iago este s apar mereu ca cinstitul Iago, prieten iubitor i tovar
de ndejde, ns unul din marile talente pe care le posed este capacitatea de a-i schimba
personalitatea n funcie de persoanele cu care st de vorb, fie pentru a le amgi, fie pentru a
le supune voinei sale. ngduitor i agreabil cu Cassio, ironic cu Roderigo, aparent amabil,
respectuos i devotat cu umilin lui Otello, brutal i amenintor cu Emilia, slugarnic cu
Desdemona i Lodovico. Acestea sunt calitile de baz, manifestarea i diferitele faete ale
acestui om (Ricordi, Dispositione scenica, n Budden, 1992, p.328 n.t.).
n pasajul shakespearian din actul al II-lea, Iago l citete foarte bine pe Cassio i,
pentru a-i atinge scopul, exploateaz punctul su cel mai slab: Haidem, locotenente, am o
caraf cu vin i aci afar ne ateapt o ceat de flci din Cipru care ar ciocni bucuros un
pahar n sntatea negrului Othello. Cassio, ns, i cunoate slbiciunea: Nu ast-sear,
drag Iago. Am un cap nenorocit, care nu duce la butur. A vrea ca lumea s nscoceasc
alt mijloc de petrecere. Cu toate acestea, Iago are un scop precis de atins: Bine, dar sunt
prietenii notri. Numai un pahar! Am s-l beau eu pentru dumneata. Cu toat opoziia - Am
mai but unul ast-sear, i inc il botezasem bine, i uite in ce hal m-a adus. Am meteahna
asta nenorocit i nu cutez s-mi incerc slbiciunea inc o dat - Cassio nu se poate
mpotrivi: Dei nu-mi place, fie cum vrei tu. Prin atitudinea de bun sim i veselie, cinstitul
Iago alung orice suspiciune ar putea izvor n mintea lui Cassio (cf. Sternfeld 2005:145 n.t.)
Iago i mbrac insistenele ntr-un cntec ademenitor care nu doar c l atrage pe
Cassio, ci l i face s treac cu vederea posibilul pericol dat de prea mult butur. Sternfeld
consider c dei funcia primar a acestui cntec este de a-l tr pe Cassio n dizgraie, n
timpul acestui proces se reveleaz aspecte ale personalitilor lui Iago i Cassio. Pentru a-i
atinge scopul, Iago simuleaz o bonomie care amestec zeflemeaua, butura i cntecul.
Asemenea lui Mefistofele cu Goethe n pivnia lui Auerbach, agentul ru trebuie s se
deghizeze n clovn pentru a-i ademeni victima (Sternfeld 2005:147 n.t.). Peter Seng, pe de
alt parte, admite c funcia dramaturgic a acestui episod const n oferirea unui cadru
temporal suficient de lung pentru ca butura s-i poat face efectul asupra lui Cassio. Dac
nu ar fi fost introduse aceste cntece, timpul necesar ca vinul s aib consecina scontat de
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Iago nu ar fi fost verosimil (cf. Seng 1967:143 n.t.). Acelai autor face o scurt trecere n
revist a unor comentarii referitoare la cntecul de beie al lui Iago. Printre altele, se remarc
faptul c Shakespeare folosete adesea cntecele ca instigare la aciune, iar Iago cnt pentru
a-l mbta pe Cassio nainte de confruntarea cu Roderigo. De asemenea, n cntecele de beie
la Shakespeare se ntrevede pericolul, majoritatea pasajelor bahice prevestind dezastrul. Tot
aici se amintete c Iago este extrem de versat n slbiciunile oamenilor i tie mai bine ca
oricine cum s le exploateze sentimentele (cf. Seng 1967:185 n.t.).
Dincolo de aspectele de ordin dramaturgic ale introducerii unui fragment muzical ntro pies de teatru, ntregul pasaj poate fi citit n sens contrar unei liturghii: Iago joac rolul
preotului care l mprtete pe Cassio cu vin, ntr-o pseudo-slujb liturgic. Astfel are loc
metamorfoza vinului care nu mai este dttor de via, ci duce la nenorocire. Este
mprtania de la diavol. Cntecele de pahar cu care l ademenete Iago pe Cassio sunt
corespondentele imnelor liturgice. Pentru a susine aceast idee, n atmosfera cntecelor, sub
influena buturii i aparent fr vreo legtur cu ce s-a discutat anterior, Cassio ridic
problema mntuirii: Mare e Dumnezeu! Unele suflete or s fie mntuite, i altele n-o s fie
mntuite. [...] Cit despre mine, fie zis fr s-1 supr pe general, sau alt om de seam: eu
trag ndejde c o s fiu mntuit. [...] Mntuirea, respectiv rectigarea strii de sfinenie, de
desvrire a omului, [care] este darul lui Dumnezeu, prin Isus Hristos, Care S-a jertfit pentru
rscumprarea noastr, i urmeaz a fi nsuit de noi prin ndeplinirea poruncilor i sfaturilor
nvturii cretine (Mircea 1995:325), este scopul suprem al oricrui cretin, dorina
profund a sufletului omenesc. Verbalizarea lui Cassio transpune scena ntr-un plan sacru. El
i ncheie momentul de efuziune spiritual cu fraza: Iart-ne, Doamne, pcatele! Rugciunea
lui ultim este un act de pocin, de prere de ru pentru pcatele sale, calea ce duce la
mntuire, un gest interior frecvent ntlnit n ceremoniile religioase.
Prin urmare, sunt prezente premisele punerii n scen a unei pseudo-liturghii: ntregul
cadru creat de Iago pentru a reda atmosfera necesar ademenirii lui Cassio
cntecele/imnurile liturgice, vinul folosit nu pentru a-l mprti cu Sngele Domnului, ci
pentru a-l duce la pierzanie; penitena lui Cassio i problema mntuirii, care reprezint esena
vieii cretine. Ce l mpinge de fapt pe Cassio s insiste att de mult? Mntuirea apare de
trei ori n dou fraze, ca un fel de nelinite, o premoniie, care se adeverete n momentul n
care acesta contientizeaz amploarea a ce s-a petrecut: O, duh nevzut al vinului, dac n-ai
nume, ca s te cunoasc lumea am s te botez eu: eti Satana! Metamorfoza vinului din
Cristos-Viaa n Satana-moarte vine ca o revelaie asupra lui Cassio, ns doar cnd e prea
trziu: Un pahar mai mult e un blestem i in el e amestecat un duh necurat. Iago, pseudopreotul, este cel care a uneltit cu dibcie transformarea vinului, tocmai n opoziie cu sfatului
biblic: Nu v mbtai de vin n care este pierzare, ci v umplei de duhul sfnt (Efeseni 5,18).
Verdi a intuit extrem de bine aceast maleabilitate demonic a lui Iago i a indicat-o
chiar n Disposizione scenica, unde, printre altele, sunt schiate personajele i ce se ateapt de
la ele. Pentru a ctiga ncrederea oamenilor i a-i ndeplini misiunea, diavolul trebuie s
capete trsturi umane i s prezinte un comportament ct mai plcut. Iago e contient de
aceste detalii, aa c se comport n consecin fa de celelalte personaje. Toate aceste
aspecte sunt redate nu doar prin discurs sau limbaj corporal, ci i prin mijloace specifice artei
sunetelor. Verdi a pstrat mereu fraza shakespearian, indiferent de prezena sau absena
cuvintelor. Mai mult, referirile sale cu privire la acest personaj sunt foarte clare: Cea mai
mare greeal, cea mai vulgar eroare pe care orice artist care personific acest rol poate s o
fac este s-l joace ca pe un soi de demon uman; s recurg la o expresie batjocoritoare
mefistofelic i s-l pun s arunce priviri satanice n toate direciile. Un astfel de artist ar
dovedi fr echivoc faptul c nu l-a neles nici pe Shakespeare, nici piesa pe care o discutm.
Fiecare cuvnt rostit de Iago se afl la nivel uman o umanitate ticloas dac vrei, dar, cu
toate acestea, uman (Ricordi, Dispositione scenica, n Budden, 1992, p.328 n.t.). Duplicitatea
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care i este caracteristic poate fi remarcat nc de la lecturarea iniial a textului i a

partiturii, ns cu ct se aprofundeaz descifrarea acestora, cu att ea capt noi valene, pe
planul literar i pe cel muzical.
Pasajul din oper corespondent scenei 3 din actul al II-lea ncepe imediat dup scurtul
intermezzo orchestral ce descrie vinul. Dac acesta este redat ntr-o msur de 4/4, Verdi
alege pentru interveniile lui Iago o msur de 6/8. Prima impresie este cea de atmosfer
jucu, vesel, mai ales c cele dinti msuri ncep ntr-un ritm ce sugereaz mersul
mpiedicat tipic beiei:
Aceste formule ritmice se preteaz la o decriptare de alt manier: prin msura de ase
optimi, cu ritmul punctat, muzica amintete de stilul pastoral. Structurile simbolico-artistice
de tip pastoral le regsim n muzica sacr, n special n cantate i oratorii, care au la baz texte
biblice.
Elementul pastoral, prin valoarea sa metaforic i prin multitudinea de simboluri pe
care le conine, reprezint unul din componentele unitii om-natur foarte des regsit n art.
nc din primele veacuri, limbajul simbolic este foarte rspndit i joac un rol important n
Biseric. Acest limbaj se explic prin nevoia de a exprima prin art o realitate care nu poate fi
neleas nemijlocit. Pe lng simbolurile preluate din arta pgn, al cror sens l-au schimbat,
cretinii creeaz noi simboluri, mai ales ncepnd cu secolul al doilea. Astfel, pstorul, turma,
mielul, ieslea, noiuni care n ultima instan contureaz un cadru pastoral, reprezint metafore
utilizate att n Vechiul ct i n Noul Testament, devenind elemente des ntrebuinate n arta
sacr. Pornind de la cuvintele Sfntului Ioan Boteztorul: Iat Mielul lui Dumnezeu cel ce
ridic pcatul lumii (Ioan 1,29) prin care acesta l indic pe Mntuitor, n catacombele
primelor veacuri era foarte rspndit simbolul mielului. Acesta era n primul rnd simbolul lui
Cristos, dar n acelai timp i desemneaz i pe cretini n general, i chiar pe apostoli. Mieii
care se adpau la praie erau de fapt cretinii care beau apa vie a nvturii evanghelice.
Reprezentarea de tipul Bunul Pstor, apare i ea din veacul al II-lea. Aceast imagine este
strns legat de cea a mielului i este inspirat de texte biblice.
Privite n lumina versurilor shakespeariene, aceste mijloace muzicale capt un nou
sens: Verdi creeaz atmosfera necesar pentru ca planul lui Iago s funcioneze, iar Cassio si cad n capcan. Ambiana creat trebuie s fie nu doar primitoare, seren, dttoare de
confort i siguran, ci i un spaiu sacru, spiritual. Cassio nu are voie s simt, sub niciun
chip, pericolul, iar cnd totui acest lucru se ntmpl, este prea trziu. Diavolul ncearc
mereu s-i mbrace ispita n haine sfinte Iago este foarte explicit: Teologia iadului eaceasta! Cind diavolul la negre rele-ndeamn, sub chip de inger mai intii se-arat; la fel i
eu - prin urmare, muzica induce aceast atmosfer de ncredere deplin.
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Ud-i gtlejul! Bea dintr-o sorbitur! nainte s dispar cntecul i paharul! Sunt
cuvintele care deschid discursul muzical al lui Iago i care culmineaz n Re major, o
tonalitate ce indic adesea un rezultat obinut pe calea voinei i n pofida unui fapt. Nu a fost
necesar ca Verdi s preia cuvintele shakesperiene n totalitate; le-a transpus doar n tonalitatea
aleas pentru acest moment, o sugestie extrem de subtil a puterii lui Iago: el deine clipa i pe
Cassio. Muzica lui Verdi are o putere de descriere i caracterizare fantastic, iar n
reprezentarea acestui personaj exist o strfulgerare de geniu. Compozitorul folosete diferite
mijloace muzicale pentru a ilustra natura personajelor sale, iar printre astea se numr i
liniile melodice specifice. Un exemplu tipic de astfel de structur este cromatismul
descendent, sau passus duriusculus. Cristalizat n perioada baroc, acest mers cromatic, mai
aspru, a fost asociat cel mai adesea cu suferina, durerea, rul. n Otello, acesta apare pe tot
parcursul operei, asociat lui Iago, ncepnd cu furtuna ce deschide aciunea i culminnd cu
moartea Desdemonei. Printre altele, el sugereaz natura diabolic a lui Iago i apare nu doar
odat cu eroul, ci i n lipsa lui, indicnd viclenia i perfidia acestuia, precum i influena lui
nefast asupra minilor i sufletelor celorlalte personaje, pe care le conduce n jos, nspre
infern. La Verdi, cuvintele rostite de Iago Satana l posed! vin ca o concluzie a victoriei sale
malefice i sunt corespondentul frazei shakespeariene rostite de Cassio.
O alt construcie muzical ce amintete de slujbele liturgice o reprezint dialogul
dintre Iago i cor, asemeni celui dintre preot i credincioi: corul fie repet dup el ndemnul
adresat lui Cassio beva con me fie l ngn atunci cnd rde de cderea acestuia n
mrejele sale, sau cnt alturi de el Chi all'esca ha morso del ditirambo spavaldo e strambo
beva con me! beva con me, beva, beva, beva con me!( Cine a mucat momeala ditirambului
seme i trsnit, s bea cu mine).
Pentru a dovedi nc o dat ct de subtil este abordarea lui Verdi i ce valene poate
primi subtextul su muzical, ndemnul de a bea vin, adresat lui Cassio Beva, beva, beva con
me este cntat de Iago, alternativ, fie pe cromatismul descendent desfurat pe un ambitus
considerabil, fie pe o succesiune de note, ambele variante imitnd imaginea auditiv pe care o
las turmele de miei n urma lor. Dup cum s-a vzut mai sus, n tradiia cretin, noiunea de
miel este asociat lui Cristos: n afar de Evanghelii, mielul mai apare i n Faptele
Apostolilor 8,32 i n 1 Petru 1,19 cu referire la Cristos, iar Apocalipsa utilizeaz din belug
(de 28 de ori) termenul de miel spre a-l desemna pe Cristos. Imaginea sonor pastoral este
strns legat de msura aleas pentru ntregul pasaj, respectiv cea de ase optimi.
Compozitorul creeaz practic o ambian pastoral asociat elementelor sacre menionate
anterior, construind astfel edificiul liturgic n care Iago i servete vinul lui Cassio sub forma
unei pseudo-mprtanii. Cele dou planuri cel muzical i cel al textului se mbin perfect
i slujesc aceluiai scop: dac n pies Iago se folosete exclusiv de cuvinte i gesturi, la Verdi
muzica face ca toat aceast ncrctur s ajung direct n subcontientul publicului, fr ca
acesta s intuiasc mcar de ce simte un anumit lucru sau triete o anume stare.
Bibliografie:
Biblia sau Sfnta Scriptur, Editura Institutului Biblic i de Misiune al Bisericii
Ortodoxe
Romne
Biedermann, Hans (2002) Dicionar de simboluri, Saeculum I.O., Bucureti
Budden, J. (1992) The Operas of Verdi, OUP, USA
Chevalier, J. i Alain Gheerbrant (1994), Dicionar de simboluri, vol. 3, Bucureti
Mircea, Ioan (1995) Dicionar al Noului Testament, Editura Institutului Biblic i de
Misiune al Bisericii Ortodoxe Romne, Bucureti
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Seng, Peter J. (1967) The Vocal Songs in the Plays of Shakespeare. A Critical
History, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts
Shakespeare, W. (1996) Complete Works, Wordsworth Editions, Hertfordshire
Sternfeld, F.W. (2005) Music in Shakespearean Tragedy, Routledge, Oxon
Verdi, G. (1964) Otello, Ricordi
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DAS MOTIV DES WAHNSINNS IN DER DEUTSCHEN LITERATUR VON GEORG

BCHNER BIS PATRICK SSKIND (THE MOTIF OF MADNESS IN GERMAN
LITERATURE- FROM GEORG BCHNER TO PATRICK SSKIND)
Simona OLARU-POIAR
Medizinische und Pharmazeutische Universitt Victor Babe, Temeswar
Abstract: The relationship between medicine and literature can be observed from more than
one perspective and is sustained by a long tradition. Illness, physical or mental, pain, birth
and death shall always be present in medical texts. Writers are doctors and doctors who were
writers, the artist is a sufferer, he is ailing, and illness brings art to the light. However, we
must not forget that literature is not medicine and can become only an instrument of therapy.
An obsessive idea can be lived with a subjective certainty and can be struggled against very
hard.
A long list of doctors or men that have studied medicine, have, in time, also confirmed their
literary value. A few examples from the world literature would be Archibald Jonathan
Cronin (1896), Jonathan Keats (1795-1821), Francois Rabelais (1494-1553), Anton
Tschechov (1860-1904), from the Romanian literature Aurel Baranga (1913), George Ulieru
(1884-1943), Ion Cantacuzino (1863-1934), tefan Stinca (1865-1897).
German literature proves to be nonetheless gifted in examples of doctors and men that have
studied medicine and have later become known in the field of literature. We must remember to
speak about Albrecht Haller (1708-1777), Friedrich Schiller (1759-1805), Georg Bchner
(1813-1837), and nonetheless in the twentieth century - Arthur Schnitzler(1862-1931),
Gottfried Benn(1886-1956), Friedrich Wolf(1888-1953), that have first and foremost
distinguished themselves as writers and later on as doctors. One must not forget Bertolt
Brecht (1898-1956) and Johannes Becher (1891-1958), who have studied medicine while
writing literature.
There are many examples of the conflict between the medical profession and the literarywriters vocation, illustrated in the works of the writers that were also doctors. Moreover
these aspects are to be found in the works of Hans Carossa (1878-1956), as follows: Das
Jahr der schnen Tuschungen (The Year of beautiful Illusions); Das leidende Welt (The
world that suffers); Fhrung und Geleit (Behavior and Manner); Die Schicksale Doktor
Brgers (The Destiny of Doctor Brger); novels in which one portrays mostly the hardships
of the medical profession. Who would become a doctor could he foresee the difficulties he
were to face? Goethe used to ask himself, as the critics of the time noted.
There are many different perspectives and definitions for the mental disorder or madness, as
it was in Middle Age referred to. From possession of the soul to the medical scientific
definition, the illness of the soul and the wretchedness of the mind labyrinth have always been
the key interests for doctors and moreover doctors that were also in the literary field.
Naturalism offers us the best rendering of reality of the mad and all behavioural misconducts,
the mental illnesses are roughly portrayed and no emotions are spared. Characters are
scripted as patients are, all illnesses are described just like in a medical treaty and feelings
are kept alive by vivid imagery.
Keywords: motif of madness, mental illness, German doctors/writers, Sebastian Brant, Georg
Bchner, Gerhart Hauptmann, naturalism, Unica Zrn, Mann im Jasmin (Jasmine Man),
Patrick Sskind
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Von der Antike bis ins Mittelalter und sogar bis zur Frhen Neuzeit wurde der Wahn
mit der Schwarzgalligkeit, der Melancholie, in Verbindung gebracht. Noch in der Mitte des
17. Jahrhunderts betrachtete man den Wahn eher als ungegrndete Meinung ohne
unmittelbares Krankheitsbild. Erst in der Aufklrung sind nderungen in der Begriffsdeutung
zu registrieren. Einerseits wurde erkannt, dass Wahn und Wahnsinn nahe beieinander liegen
und sogar ineinander bergehen, was schon Johann Gottfried Herder vermutet hatte;
andererseits deutete Immanuel Kant den Wahn als nachhaltige Strung der Urteilskraft. Von
dieser Definition ist es nur ein kurzer Schritt dahin, den Wahn, wie in der Mitte des 19.
Jahrhunderts, als krankhaftes Phnomen zu deuten.
Da der Begriff des Wahnsinns in der Fachsprache der Psychopathologie im 19.
Jahrhundert durch den Terminus Geisteskrankheit ersetzt wurde, welcher unterschiedliche
Krankheiten zusammenfasste wie Psychose und Schizophrenie, bercksichtigt die Arbeit auch
diese beiden Krankheitsbilder sowohl aus medizinischer als auch aus tiefenpsychologischer
Perspektive.
Zum Zweck der literarischen Analysen im Hauptteil der Arbeit wurden die im
Rahmen der Medizin festgelegten Krankheitssymptome der Schizophrenie aufgezhlt sowie
auch die allgemeinen Symptome des Wahnsinns.
Das einleitende Kapitel der Dissertation schliet mit der Zusammenfassung der
wichtigsten literarischen Funktionen des Wahnsinns als Leitbild fr das Verfassen des
zweiten Arbeitsteils, sowie mit der Klrung der Begriffe Thema und Motiv und der Analyse
ihres Verhltnisses zueinander.
Die Untersuchung des Wahnsinnsmotivs in der Weltliteratur im zweiten Kapitel der
Arbeit hat es ermglicht, die unterschiedlichen Funktionen des Wahnsinns in den
verschiedenen Epochen der Weltliteratur herauszuarbeiten. Diese sollen im Folgenden
aufgezhlt werden.
In der Antike werden mehrere Formen des Wahnsinns unterschieden. Als positive
Formen des Wahnsinns gelten dichterische Inspiration und Sehertum. Als negative Formen
des Wahnsinns werden in der Antike die Krankheit der Melancholie beschrieben sowie auch
die Mania oder Raserei, insbesondere die dionysische Raserei. Whrend sich die Melancholie
oder Schwarzgalligkeit als eine Folge des Ungleichgewichts der Krpersfte erweist, ist die
Raserei im Unterschied zur Melancholie durch Wildheit, Aufgeregtheit und Hitzigkeit
gekennzeichnet.
In den Texten der Antike dient der Wahnsinn hauptschlich dazu, den Kontrast
zwischen apollinischer Klarheit und dionysischer Besessenheit, d. h. zwischen Vernunft und
Unvernunft zu gestalten. Er kann jedoch auch als Strafe der Gtter fr Verbrechen oder
Snden verstanden werden. Der Wahnsinn ermglicht darber hinaus auch das Erreichen
einer hheren Stufe der Erkenntnisfhigkeit. Auch der erotische Wahnsinn bleibt in der
Literatur der Antike nicht unbercksichtigt.
In der Literatur der Renaissance werden einige Aspekte der antiken
Wahnsinnsvorstellung aufgenommen und neu ausgebaut. So kommt dem Liebeswahnsinn
eine wichtige Rolle zu. Die Krankheit der Melancholie wird zu einem regelrechten
Melancholie-Kult ausgebaut, dem die Vorstellung einer engen Verbindung zwischen Genie
und Wahnsinn innewohnt. Neu ist hingegen, dass die Metapher der Welt als Tollhaus mit der
Funktion eingefhrt wird, scharfe Kritik an dem Zustand der Gesellschaft zu ben. Einzelne
Autoren erfassen sogar besondere Symptome individueller, seelischer und geistiger Strungen
und spiegeln darin die Erkrankung einer ganzen Gesellschaft. Desgleichen greift in der
Renaissance auch die Auffassung um sich, dass jede bermig einseitige Konzentration auf
Ideen zur geistigen Verirrung fhren kann.
Als Hhepunkt des neuerwachten Interesses am Subjekt in der Renaissance gilt die
Auseinandersetzung mit dem Wahn als spezielle Form des individuellen Menschseins bei
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dem englischen Dramatiker der Elisabethanischen Epoche William Shakespeare. Ihm gelingt
es vornehmlich in seiner Dramatik, die menschliche Seele bis in ihre tiefsten Abgrnde, bis
zum Ausbrechen des Wahnsinns auszuloten. Jedoch geht er auch in seinen Gedichten auf
einen Aspekt des Wahnsinns ein, indem er die wahnhaften Verstrickungen der Liebe, in all
ihren Aspekten und Schattierungen schildert.
Im von der Vernunft geprgten Weltbild der Aufklrung erscheint der Wahnsinn als
letzte Konsequenz ungezgelter Leidenschaften. Er ist Provokation des rationalistischen
Denkens und Prfstein der Vernunft schlechthin. Die allgemeine Angst vor Geistesgestrten,
ihre Absonderung und Berichte ber menschenunwrdige Zustnde in Pflegeanstalten gaben
Anlass zu gesellschaftskritischen Darstellungen. Erst in der zweiten Hlfte des 18.
Jahrhunderts kommt es zu einer Humanisierung der Behandlung psychisch Kranker durch den
franzsischen Arzt Philippe Pinel in Paris und etwas spter durch den britischen Arzt John
Conoly in England.
Im 19. Jahrhundert setzt allgemein eine Aufwertung des Wahnsinnsmotivs in der
Literatur ein, das hufig mit jenem der knstlerischen Genialitt verbunden wird. Der
Wahnsinn dient der Entfaltung neuer Erkenntnis- und Entfaltungsmglichkeiten und der
Steigerung von Kraft und Handlungsdrang. Demgegenber nehmen aber auch die
Beschreibungen von Figuren zu, die sich in bestndiger Realittsverweigerung in eine
imaginre Welt des Wahns einspinnen. Der Wahnsinn wird mit dem Motiv des
Doppelgngers verbunden, sowie mit jenem des wahnsinnigen Weltenschpfers, der eine
bsartige Weltverfassung geschaffen hat. Viele literarische Texte sind von dem Erleben
eigener psychischen Krankheit geprgt.
Ende des 19. Jahrhunderts greift die Tendenz zur Studie eines Krankheitsbildes um
sich. Beispielhaft erweisen sich dabei die Darstellungen von Emile Zola und August
Strindberg, die das Zusammenwirken von Krankheit und anderen Faktoren wie Veranlagung
und Milieu, die zum Zusammenbruch einer Figur fhren, beleuchten. Der Wechsel im
Spektrum der Geisteskrankheit wird daher durch die Aufnahme der Erblichkeit in die
Pathopsychogenese herbeigefhrt.
In der Literatur der Moderne werden vielfltige Aspekte des Wahnsinns verarbeitet.
Zu Beginn des 20. Jahrhunderts gelten die psychotischen Phnomene als Erfahrungen des
modernen Subjekts schlechthin. Einige Autoren bemhen sich um realittsnahe Simulierung
des Wahnsinns in ihren Texten. Andere sehen den Wahnsinn als Folge von sozialer Misere
oder sogar als Auswirkung der kapitalistischen Konsumgesellschaft. Im absurden Theater
fungiert der Wahnsinn als Metapher fr eine sinnentleerte Welt.
In der amerikanischen Literatur der 1960er Jahre treten Autorinnen hervor, die ihre
eigenen Krankheitserfahrungen literarisch verarbeiten. In der Nachfolge dieser Texte werden
auch in der deutschsprachigen Literatur der 1970er Jahre eine Flle so genannter EgoDokumente, fast auschlielich von Frauen, verzeichnet, in denen ehemalige Patientinnen ihre
psychotischen Krankheits- und Psychiatrieerfahrungen niederlegen.
Darber hinaus entsteht im Rahmen der Antipsychiatriebewegung eine Vielfalt von
Texten, in welcher die Psychotiker als kritische Instanz gegenber der nur vermeintlich
gesunden Normalitt auftreten. Dabei wird der Wahnsinn deutlich aufgewertet. Er wird mit
dem Motiv der Reise verbunden, indem er eine Reise ins Innere der Seele verkrpert, die zu
bereichernden Grenzerfahrungen fhren kann. Der Wahnsinn kann aber auch mit dem
Schema des Abenteuerromans oder sogar des Kriminalromans in Verbindung gebracht
werden. Vermehrt wird der Wahnsinn, vor allem in der Frauenliteratur, zum Zweck der
Gesellschaftskritik eingesetzt. Dabei weiten einige Texte, die schizophrene Symptome
beschreiben, den Aspekt der Kritik sogar auf die nationalsozialistische Vergangenheit aus
oder stellen Zusammenhnge zu der kologiebewegung und der Atomenergie her.
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In der deutschsprachigen Literatur der 1980er Jahre ist eine Stilisierung und
sthetisierung des Wahnsinns zu verzeichnen.
Whrend sich das zweite Kapitel der Arbeit darum bemht hat, die literarischen
Funktionen des Wahnsinnsmotivs in den verschiedenen Epochen der Weltliteratur zu
beleuchten, geht es im dritten Kapitel der Dissertation darum, anhand von literarischen
Texten, die als typisch fr eine literarische Bewegung oder Strmung betrachtet werden
knnen, den Umgang mit dem Wahnsinn aufzuzeigen.
Die Untersuchung des Wahnsinnsmotiv in der deutschen Literatur hat ergeben, dass
die lteste Darstellung des Wahnsinns in einem Abschnitt des Iwein von Hartmann von Aue
zu finden ist. Dabei wurde in der Arbeit aufgezeigt, dass der Wahnsinn im Kontext der
gesamten Romanhandlung in der einschlgigen Forschungsliteratur unterschiedliche
Deutungen erfahren hat. Aus der Perspektive der Tiefenpsychologie kann er als
Emanzipationsvorgang gedeutet werden, aus religiser Perspektive als eine Form der
Gotteserkenntis, quellenhistorisch als Liebeskrankheit. Ordnet man Iweins Wahnsinn jedoch
in den Kontext der mittelalterlichen Medizin ein, so wird deutlich, dass das scholastische
Konzept der Melancholie auf den Text bertragen wird. Iweins Wahnsinn ist daher als ein
durch eine Strung der Affekte hervorgerufenes Ungleichgewicht der Krpersfte, das zu
einer Hirnerkrankung fhrt, zu verstehen. Geht man hingegen von dem Thema aus, das die
Artusromane des Mittelalters bestimmte, nmlich die Auseinandersetzung der hfischen
Gesellschaft als einer exklusiven und allgemeingltigen Kultur mit anderen, unzivilisierten
Lebensformen, so kommt der Wahnsinnsepisode Iweins die Funktion zu, aufzuzeigen, dass
durch die Bewltigung der Krankheit bzw. der Natur Ordnung und Sinn der Artuskultur
wiederhergestellt werden knnen.
Das einflussreichste Werk der Narrenliteratur der frhen Neuzeit, Sebastian Brants
Das Narrenschiff fhrt die Metapher der Welt als Tollhaus in die deutsche Literatur ein mit
der Funktion, scharfe Kritik an dem Zustand der Gesellschaft zu ben.
Das Unterkapitel zur Bewegung des Sturm und Drang und zur Klassik stellt Johann
Wolfgang Goethe und Friedrich Schiller in den Mittelpunkt.
Es konnte aufgezeigt werden, dass der Wahnsinn in Goethes Werk eine wichtige
Stellung einnimmt, sei es als Leidenschaft, Ekstase und ungebndigtes Liebesgefhl in den
Leiden des jungen Werthers, als Tragik des Knstlerdaseins im Drama Torquato Tasso, als
geistige Verwirrtheit Gretchens in der Schlussszene des Faust I oder als komplexe
Krankheitsbeschreibung, der auch ein Therapievorschlag folgt, am Beispiel der Figur des
Harfners in Wilhelm Meisters Lehrjahre. Angesichts dieses Stellenwertes, der dem
Wahnsinn in Goethes Schaffen zukommt, kann der Behauptung Peter K. Schneiders, dass das
Dichtergenie der Bedrohung des Wahnsinns durch sein Werk entronnen sei, eine gewisse
Berechtigung nicht abgesprochen werden.
Am Beispiel eines Exkurses ber den Einfluss der Medizin auf den Regimentsmedikus
und Dramatiker Schiller wurde die enge Wechselbeziehung zwischen Medzinwissenschaft
und Literatur aufgezeigt. Schillers Abschlussarbeit, die er in der von dem Prinzen Karl-Eugen
begrndeten Karlschule unter dem Titel Versuch ber den Zusammenhang der tierischen
Natur des Menschen mit seiner geistigen (Despre legtura dintre natura animalic a omului i
natura lui spiritual) vorlegt, verweist schon frh auf die Bedeutung der Psychosomatik in der
Medizinwissenschaft, d. h. auf die enge Wechselwirkung zwischen Krper und Geist. Als
erste und wichtigste literarische Frucht des Medizinstudiums gilt Schillers Erstlingsdrama Die
Ruber, in welches die Thesen der Abschlussarbeit eingegangen sind. So wird das Drama im
Grunde zu einer anthropologischen Studie mit literarischen Mitteln, zu einer Studie, in
welcher der Arzt und der Dichter gleichermaen den Menschen sezieren und als Ergebnis
ihrer Dissektion die monstrsen Charaktere der beiden feindlichen Brder Karl und Franz
Moor offen legen.
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Der ungeahnte Aufschwung der romantischen Wahnsinns-Literatur wird am Beispiel

Ludwig Tiecks, eines wichtigen Vertreters der deutschen Frhromantik sowie am Beispiel des
Vertreters der zweiten romantischen Generation, Ernst Theodor Amadeus Hoffmanns,
vorgefhrt. Whrend Tieck den Wahnsinn seiner Protagonisten typisch fr die
frhromantische Generation vornehmlich zur Verwischung der Grenzen zwischen Auen- und
Innenwelt einsetzt, z. B. in dem ersten Kunstmrchen der Romantik Der blonde Eckbert,
thematisiert E. T. A. Hoffmann in seinem Werk den Wahnsinn als Nachtseite der Existenz
und verbindet ihn mit dem Motiv des Doppelgngers oder des Knstlers als Verbrecher.
Mit dem vierten Kapitel der Dissertation beginnt der Hauptteil der Arbeit, in welchem
das Wahnsinnsmotiv in der Literatur aus der Perspektive der rzte Georg Bchner und Alfred
Dblin, jener der Schriftsteller Gerhart Hauptmann, Carl Einstein, Georg Heym und Patrick
Sskind, sowie aus der Perspektive einer an Schizophrenie erkrankten Schriftstellerin und
Knstlerin Unica Zrn dargestellt wird.
Das vierte Kapitel der Dissertation untersucht den Umgang Bchners mit dem
Wahnsinn am Beispiel seiner Novelle Lenz und seines Fragment gebliebenen Dramas
Woyzeck. Mit dieser Novelle beginnt die literarische Introspektive des psychisch Kranken in
der deutschen Literatur. Bchner stellt die Krankheit aus der Perspektive des Protagonisten
dar und begrndet damit eine Vorgehensweise, die spter nicht nur von Gerhart Hauptmann
sondern auch von Alfred Dblin und Georg Heym aufgegriffen wird. So wird der Wahnsinn
des Protagonisten fr den Leser durch die Gedanken der Hautpfigur, ihr Innenleben sowie
ihrer auergewhnlichen Handlungen nachvollziehbar. Bchner geht es in seiner Novelle vor
allem um den Versuch, die Krankheitssymptome Lenzens literarisch zu gestalten. Dies
erfordert den Einsatz neuer literarischer Techniken, durch die der Schriftsteller bahnbrechend
fr die Literatur der Moderne wird. Dazu gehrt nicht nur die zuvor erwhnte Schilderung der
Krankheit aus der Perspektive des Protagonisten, sondern auch das Bemhen, die
Sprachstrungen des vom Wahnsinn Befallenen zu beschreiben. Die Krankheitssymptome des
Sturm und Drang Schriftstellers, denen Bchner auf allen Gebieten des mentalen Lebens
nachgeht, nmlich auf der Ebene der Wahrnehmung, des Denkens, des Fhlens, des
Fantasierens und des Handelns, werden heute im Rahmen der Psychiatrie unter der
Bezeichnung Schizophrenie zusammengefasst. Zur Zeit Bchners gab es in der Psychiatrie
weder die Bezeichnung Schizophrenie, da man damals noch nicht zwischen den
verschiedenen Psychosen unterschied, noch war das Krankheitsbild dieses Leidens zureichend
beschrieben. So kann Bchner als der erste betrachtet werden, der die Symptome und den
Verlauf der Krankheit mit ihren pltzlichen Schben, denen Momente geistiger Klarheit
folgen, und ihrer Progression zum finalen Stupor medizinisch richtig und vollstndig
beschrieben hat.
Als Arzt stellt sich Bchner gegen die damalige gngige Auffassung, der Wahnsinn
sei als Strafe fr ein sndiges Leben zu betrachten. Diese Einstellung der Krankheit
gegenber bringt der Bericht Oberlins zum Ausdruck, den Bchner als direkte Vorlage
bentzte. Ein Vergleich der Novelle mit ihrer Vorlage weist Bchners Prosastck jedoch als
geniale literarische Dichtung aus. Der Schriftsteller stellt keine Vermutungen ber die
Ursachen der Krankheit Lenzens an und bernimmt auch nicht die berlegungen Oberlins zur
Krankheitsgenese. Vielmehr zeigt er am Beispiel seines Protagonisten auf, wie der moralische
Diskurs ber die Ursache des Wahnsinns die Krankheit selbst verstrkt.
Bchner bringt den Wahnsinn des Sturm und Drang Schriftstellers Lenz auch mit
seiner Genialitt in Verbindung, indem dieser sich entschieden weigert, ein Leben zu fhren,
das in brgerlichen Bahnen verluft und den gltigen Normen des brgerlichen Pragmatismus
entspricht. Daher wird ersichtlich, dass Bchner in Lenz nicht nur den psychisch kranken
Menschen vorstellt, sondern gleichzeitig auch die Ausnahmeexistenz, das Genie, das sich
weder an das brgerliche Leben anpassen kann noch will. Der Wahnsinn wird in Bchners
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Novelle nicht als Gegenberstellung zur Normalitt sondern als Grenzwert jeden
menschlichen Erlebens erfasst. Die psychische Krankheit ermglicht jedoch auch
Augenblicke des Glckes.
Bemerkenswert erweist sich die Tatsache, dass der Bchnersche Text auch ohne
Rckgriff auf die Geisteskrankheit des Sturm und Drang Schriftstellers Lenz interpretiert
werden kann. In diesem Fall wird die konkrete Leidensgeschichte des Protagonisten zur
Metapher fr die Problematik der Angst, der Entfremdung des Menschen und der
Sprachproblematik im 20. Jahrhundert.
Mit dem Drama Woyzeck schaltet sich der Arzt und Schriftsteller Bchner in die
Diskussion um den realen Fall Woyzeck ein. Dem rztlichen Urteil gem hatte dieser den
Mord an seiner Geliebten bei normalem Geisteszustand als Folge seiner ethischen Indifferenz
vollzogen. Die Zweifel an dieser Diagnose bringt Bchner anhand seines Dramas zum
Ausdruck, in welchem er mehrere Erklrungen fr den Mord Woyzecks liefert, wobei diese
erst zusammengenommen das Tatmotiv abgeben. Dabei erweist sich die psychische
Zerrttung des Protagonisten, der sich infolge seiner Armut dem naturwissenschaftlichen
Experiment eines zynischen Arztes unterzieht, als Hauptmotiv der Tat. Die einseitige
Ernhrung im Rahmen dieses Experiments fhrt zu Gehrshalluzinationen, in welchen der
Protagonist eine imperative Stimme vernimmt, die ihm den Mordbefehl erteilt. So wird der
Mord an seiner Geliebten als Folge eines inneren Zwanges fassbar. Einen betrchtlichen
Einfluss auf die Psyche des Tters haben jedoch auch die Demtigungen durch den Arzt und
den Hauptmann, die ihn verspotten, als auch der Hass und die Eifersucht auf den
Tambourmajor. Bchner stellt dar, wie sein Protagonist die Tat im entscheidenden
Augenblick unter vlliger Ausschaltung des Verstandes gleichsam unter einem inneren
Zwang ausfhrt. Aus der Perspektive des Arztes ist er an der Psychopathologie des Tters
interessiert und beschreibt, wie sich die seelischen Qualen seines Protagonisten auch auf der
Ebene des Krperlichen spiegeln. Dabei lsst er sich auf das feinste Mienenspiel seines
Protagonisten ein. Durch dieses Drama, in welchem Bchner die sozialen Umstnde fr den
Wahnsinn seiner Figur verantwortlich macht, wird der Autor zum Vorlufer des Naturalismus
in Deutschland. Der Mensch erscheint als vllig entmachtet. Er ist eine gequlte Kreatur, der
von der Last der inneren und ueren Umstnde erdrckt wird.
Hauptmanns novellistische Studie Bahnwrter Thiel steht unmittelbar in der
Nachfolge der Bchnerschen Novelle Lenz. hnlich wie Bchner verfolgt Hauptmann die
allmhliche Entwicklung des Wahnsinns durch die Vermehrung der Krankheitssymptome
seines Protagonisten. Dabei wird der Wahnsinn als geistiger Zusammenbruch einer Figur
aufgrund unertrglicher psychischer Belastungen erfahrbar. Desgleichen setzt Hauptmann
auch wie Bchner majesttische Naturschilderungen zur Spiegelung der seelischen Lage des
Bahnwrters ein. Im Sinne des Naturalismus erscheint Thiel hnlich wie Woyzeck als ein
Getriebener, ein hilflos seinen inneren und auch den ueren Umstnden Ausgelieferter. Er
kann die Entwicklung des Wahnsinns, das Voranschreiten der Wahnsymptome nicht
beherrschen, auch wenn er sich versucht, dem Ausbruch des Wahnsinns zu widersetzen. Der
Bahnwrter wird als primitiver, von seinen sexuellen Trieben bestimmter Mensch von
niederem sozialen Stand dargestellt, dessen mystische Neigungen durch die Abgelegenheit
des Ortes, an welchem er arbeitet, gefrdert werden. Seine enge seelische Beziehung zu seiner
ersten Frau fhrt in Verbindung mit seinen mystischen Neigungen und seinen
Schuldgefhlen, die daraus entstehen, dass er seinen Sohn nicht gegen die Angriffe seiner
zweiten Frau verteidigt hat, zu der Entstehung eines Erklrungswahns. Diesem Wahn gem
glaubt er, dass das Verunglcken von Tobias eine Strafe fr seine Passivitt sei, derzufolge
Minna ihm das geliebte Kind weggenommen habe. Gleichzeitig findet die Auflsung der
Person des Bahnwrters im Wahnsinn eine Spiegelung in dem unheimlichen Eisenbahnnetz.
Dadurch wird das Wahnsinnsmotiv in einen umfassenderen Kontext eingebettet, nmlich in
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jenen der Technikentwicklung der Moderne und ihren auf den Menschen bedrohlichen
Auswirkungen. Es wird daher ersichtlich, dass es Hauptmann nicht primr wie dem rztlich
geschulten Bchner, um die Vermittlung der Gedanken und Gefhle eines Geisteskranken
geht, sondern vielmehr um die psychologisch schlssige Entwicklung seines primitiven,
triebbestimmten und von Schuldgefhlen geplagten Protagonisten in den Wahnsinn hinein.
Das sechste Kapitel der Arbeit zeigt anhand der drei gewhlten Beispiele auf, dass das
Wahnsinnsmotiv und der Irre fr die expressionistischen Schriftsteller eine provokante
Mglichkeit bot, ihre Gegenpositionen zu den herrschenden Normen und Werten der
wilhelminischen patriarchalischen Gesellschaft zu artikulieren.
So stellt Dblin in seiner frhen, whrend seines Neurologie- und PsychiatrieStudiums entstandenen Erzhlung Die Ermordung einer Butterblume die Verhaltensweise
einer Persnlichkeit vor, die unter einer Zwangsstrung leidet. Die Wahl einer doppelten
Erzhlperspektive, nmlich die Kombination einer Auen- und Innenperspektive auf den
Protagonisten und seinen Handlungen, ermglicht es Dblin, den Widerspruch zwischen dem
Inneren und dem ueren eines Brgers der wilhelminischen Gesellschaft offenzulegen und
dadurch auch gleichsam die Diskrepanz zwischen Sein und Schein in der wilhelminischen
Gesellschaft deutlich werden zu lassen. Hinter dem Schein der Wohlanstndigkeit und einer
geordneten und gesicherten Existenz verbirgt sich im Zeitalter der Industrialisierung und
Verstdterung die Existenzangst, die zu Aggression, Kriminalitt und Wahnsinn fhrt. ber
die gegenwrtige Gesellschaftskritik hinaus, weist die Erzhlung jedoch auch auf die Zukunft
voraus, indem sie mit erschreckender Klarsicht jene psychologischen Mechanismen aufdeckt,
welche zwanzig Jahre spter den Aufstieg des Faschismus begnstigt haben.
Dem Schriftsteller Carl Einstein bietet der Wahnsinn die Mglichkeit, in seinem
experimentellen Roman Bebuquin eine Gegenwelt zur brgerlichen Vernunft zu
konstruieren. Der Roman opponiert in vielfltiger Weise gegen die von den Expressionisten
verhasste Welt der brgerlichen Odnung und Konvention. In erster Linie spiegelt sich
Einsteins Absage an den Normen und Konventionen der brgerlichen Gesellschaft in der
tabuzerstrenden Atmosphre des Romans, dessen Handlung in der Welt der Bohme, in den
Bezirken von Bar und Zirkus, von Knstler- und Hurentum, von Rausch und Sexualitt, von
Massenwahn, Wahnsinn und Tod spielt. In zweiter Linie steht der Roman auch den bis dahin
gltigen erzhlerischen Konventionen entgegen, so dass er in seinem Generalangriff an die
Vernunft zu einem Prosastck wird, der den literarischen Wahnsinn begrndet. Einstein legt
seinem Roman den Gedanken zugrunde, dass der Wahnsinn der Vernunft innewohne und
setzt diesen sogar mit Originalitt gleich. Mit Hilfe des Wahnsinns setzt er die Logik des
konventionellen Denkens auer Kraft. Doch neben diesem positiven Wahnsinn, der das
Ausbrechen aus den offiziell gltigen Denkformen und Konventionen der rationalen Welt
gewhrleistet, gestaltet der Roman auch einen negativen Wahnsinn, der durch Ausschaltung
der Vernunft und Regression in archaische Verhaltensmuster entsteht. Dieser ist in der
Massenhysterie zu erkennen. Die Darstellung des Massenwahns kann als Warnung vor den
entsetzlichen Mglichkeiten, die im Menschen ruhen, verstanden werden und daher hnlich
wie Dblins Text auch als Vorausdeutung auf den Faschismus.
Auch wenn am Ende des Romans der Protagonist daran scheitert, mittels Negierung
der Vernunft zu einer vllig neuen und originellen Welt vorzustoen, ist es dem Autor
gelungen, durch die Absage an die Welt der brgerlichen Logik einen bahnbrechenden
literarischen Text zu schaffen.
hnlich wie Bchners Novelle Lenz und Dblins Die Ermordung einer
Butterblume arbeitet auch Georg Heyms Novelle Der Irre mit dem Wechsel der
Erzhlperspektive von personalem Erzhlerbericht zu einer in erlebter Rede dargestellten
Innenschau. Aus der Perspektive des Irren gestaltet sich das Irrenhaus zu dem Ort, an dem der
Wahnsinn erst eigentlich entsteht und der daher die von den Expressionisten als Gefngnis
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empfundene brgerliche Welt verkrpert. Folglich kann der Irre, dessen Individualitt durch
das Zwangssystem der Irrenanstalt unterdrckt wird, als Opfer der brgerlichen Gesellschaft
betrachtet werden.
Im Laufe der Novelle lotet Heym die gegenstzlichen Bedeutungsvarianten des
Wahnsinns im Expressionismus aus durch die rauschhaften Glckserfahrungen des Irren
sowie durch seine Tobsuchtsanflle, in welchen er sich zu einem blutrnstigen Mrder
verwandelt. Mit seiner Fhigkeit, inmitten der Natur oder infolge seiner Visionen, Glck zu
empfinden, erscheint der Irre als positiver Gegenpol zu den normalen Brgern. Gleichzeitig
ist er jedoch auch seinen animalischen Trieben ausgeliefert, die unbezwingbar aus seinem
Unbewussten hervorbrechen. Diese zeigen die erschreckenden Abgrnde des menschlichen
Unbewussten auf, im Gegensatz zu der Rationalitt des von den Expressionisten gehassten
wilhelminischen Brgers, der seine Leidenschaften gewaltsam unterdrckt.
Das siebte Kapitel der Arbeit widmet sich dem Wahnsinn aus der Perspektive einer
Patientin, der es in einem ergreifenden Augenzeugenbericht gelungen ist, ihre psychotischen
Krankheitserfahrungen und ihre Aufenthalte in verschiedenen psychiatrischen Anstalten
literarisch niederzulegen. Dabei wirkt Kunst vornehmlich als Vermittlerin unsagbaren
Leidens. Unica Zrn beschreibt in ihren Aufzeichnungen Der Mann im Jasmin. Eindrcke
aus einer Geisteskrankheit sowohl die einzigartigen Glckserfahrungen, welche ihr mittels
ihrer Halluzinationen whrend ihrer schizophrenen Schbe zukommen, als auch die
medikamentse Behandlungen in den verschiedenen psychiatrischen Anstalten, welche sie
wieder zurck auf den Boden der Realitt bringen und damit auch in eine tiefe monatelang
dauernde Depression hinabstrzen. Dabei erweist sich die Geisteskrankheit auch als
Fluchtraum der weiblichen Gestalt aus der Wirklichkeit, deren Anforderungen sie nicht
entsprechen kann.
Zentral ist in diesem im Umkreis des Surrealismus entstandenen Textes die Frage nach
der Berechtigung weiblicher Produktivitt verankert. In ihrem Wahnsinn inszeniert sich die
namenlose Protagonistin als Medium des Mannes im Jasmin, des weien Mannes der sich
durch sie hindurch knstlerisch artikuliert. Sie zeichnet unter seinem Diktat und schreibt
Anagramme nieder, die er aus ihrem Krper heraus spricht. Weibliche Produktivitt erweist
sich daher als nichts Anderes als Reproduktion der mnnlichen Schaffenskraft. So vollzieht
Zrn auch eine Umdeutung des surrealistischen Verfahrens der criture automatique, im
Rahmen dessen das Bewusstsein durch Traum, Schlaf oder Rauschmittel ausgeschaltet
werden sollte, um das Unbewusste in einem automatischen nicht gesteuerten
Schaffensprozess zum Ausdruck kommen zu lassen. Der Wahnsinn lsst der weiblichen
Protagonistin poetische Bilder zukommen, deren Aufzeichnung zu einem literarischen Text
fhrt.
Ein Vergleich zwischen Bchners Lenz und Zrns Der Mann im Jasmin weist
jedoch auf die wesentlichen Unterschiede in der Beschaffenheit der beiden Texte hin.
Whrend Bchners Novelle den Wahnsinn als Grenzwert jeden menschlichen Erlebens erfasst
und sich daher dem Leser in erschtternder Weise das existentielle Angstgefhl, das zur
Entfernung von Gott und letztlich zu Selbst- und Weltentfremdung fhrt, offenbart, artikuliert
sich bei Zrn der Wahnsinn als Gegensatz zur banalen Alltagswirklichkeit und kommt in
Halluzinationen zum Ausdruck, die im Leser trotz Faszination auch Befremden und Distanz
erzeugen.
Patrick Sskind legt in seinem Roman Das Parfm. Die Geschichte eines Mrders
die Charaktereigenschaften seines Protagonisten so an, dass in diesem geniales Duftgenie und
Psychopath eine originelle Verbindung eingehen. Auf die Merkmale des Psychopathen
verweisen der parasitre Lebensstil Jean Baptiste Grenouilles, der im Laufe des Romans
immer wieder mit einer Zecke verglichen wird, seine Gefhlsklte als Folge einer lieblosen
Kindheit, sein erheblich bersteigertes Selbstwertgefhl, seine moralische Indifferenz,
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aufgrund welcher er keine Gewissensbisse und kein Schuldbewusstsein bezogen auf seine
Morde hat, aber auch sein betrgerisch-manipulatives Verhalten, durch welches er sich selbst
Duftmasken schafft, um die Menschen ber seine Geruchlosigkeit hinwegzutuschen.
Gleichzeitig leidet er an Megalomanie und Beeintrchtigungswahn sowie an einer
narzisstischen Persnlichkeitsstruktur, die in seiner lieblosen Kindheit begrndet liegt. Durch
diese enge Verbindung zwischen Wahnsinn und Genie gelingt es Sskind, sowohl seine
Kunstkritik als auch seine Geniekritik zu artikulieren. Grenouilles Kunst erweist sich als
amoralisch, asozial und destruktiv, ihr kommt kein Erkenntniswert zu, indem sie weder einen
Beitrag zur Verstndigung mit den Menschen noch zur Selbstfindung des Knstlers leistet.
Sie wird letzten Endes zur Tuschung und Manipulation eingesetzt. Das Duftgenie Grenouille
setzt seine auerordentliche Begabung zur Verwirklichung seines Lebenszieles ein, nmlich
zur Schaffung eines absoluten Parfums, das ihm nicht nur die nie erfahrene Liebe der
Menschen sichern, sondern ihm vielmehr Macht ber sie verschaffen soll, sie zu manipulieren
und zu beherrschen. Im Grasser Massenwahn, in welchem man hnlichkeiten zur
Massenpsychose in Carl Einsteins Bebuquin erkennen kann, und im Kannibalismus treibt
Sskind seine Kritik an der Kunst durch ihre extreme Pervertierung auf ihren absoluten
Hhepunkt.
BIBLIOGRAPHIE:
1. Anz, Thomas, Literatur des Expressionismus, Stuttgart/Weimar, Editura Metzler,
2002.
2. Bark, Joachim/Steinbach, Dietrich/Wittenberg, Hildegard (coord.), Epochen der
deutschen Literatur, Stuttgart, Editura Ernst Klett, 1989..
3. Freud, Sigmund, Das Unheimliche. n: Gesammelte Werke chronologisch geordnet,
14. Bd. Werke aus den Jahren 1925-1931, vol. XII, Frankfurt am Main, Editura
Fischer Taschenbuch, 1999, p. 227 - 268.
4. Frhlich, Werner D. , Wrterbuch. Psychologie, Mnchen, Editura Deutscher
Taschenbuch Verlag, ediia a 24-a, 2002.
5. Hauptmann, Gerhart, Bahnwrter Thiel. Novellistische Studie, Stuttgart, Editura
Reclam, 2001.
6. Irle, Gerhard, Rausch und Wahnsinn bei Gottfried Benn und Georg Heym. Zum
psychiatrischen Roman. n: Kudszus, Winfried (coord.), Literatur und Schizophrenie.
Theorie und Interpretation eines Grenzgebiets, Tbingen, Editura Max Niemeyer,
1977, p. 104-112.
7. Jagow, Bettina von/Steger, Florian (coord.), Literatur und Medizin. Ein Lexikon,
Gttingen, Editura Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2005.
8. Wahrig, Gerhard, Deutsches Wrterbuch, neu herausgegeben von Dr. Renate WahrigBurfeind, Gtersloh, Editura Bertelsmann Lexikon, 1997.
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THE (PRE)ROMANTIC MACABRE IN VASILE AARONS WORK: REPORTA DIN VIS

Oana POP
Abstract: This article is centered around the aesthetics of decay, the aesthetic category of the
macabre as it was represented in the Romanian poetry at the beginning of the 1800s by the
writer Vasile Aaron. The macabre is, in this case, rendered between the Enlightment and
Romatic approaches of the term. Therefore, we will be able to see how Romantic elements are
melted with the Enlightment ideology and how they contribute to the manisfestation of the
macabre in the literary work of the Romanian poet.
Keywords: Vasile Aaron, aesthetics of the macabre, poetry, death, dream.
Reporta din vis de Vasile Aaron este un poem epico-didactic, dup cum a fost
etichetat, n care au fost inserate numeroase scene cinegetice i ample descrieri de natur,
decupate prin intermediul observaiei directe, fr reminescene livreti sau expuse cu vreun
scop moralizator. Dei autorul, familiarizat cu decorul convenional i imaginea esenializat,
nu e desprins s vad realitatea sub aspectele ei schimbtoare i difereniale, totui nevoia de a
evoca materialitatea obiectual a lumii, detaliul concret al vntorii sau aspecte particulare ale
peisajului l ajut s-i nfrng ineriile clasicizante.1
Macabrul este o categorie estetic dezvoltat n cadrul unui curent literar, n cazul de
fa avem de-a face cu o tematic macabr de tranziie, ntre preromantism i romantism.
Macabrul a devenit n timp att un cod cultural, ct i un sistem de stereotipuri i judeci care
au dat natere unor serii de mituri ale trecerii care au influenat literatura. Prin urmare,
macabrul se manifest prin teme i motive literare caracteristice, iar lucrarea i propune
observarea modului de reflectare a macabrului n ultima creaie poetic a lui Vasile Aaron. n
Reporta din vis macabrul se manifest att sub aspect oniric, ct i sub aspect teosofic sau
magic. La Aaron macabrul pornete de la vis i ajunge s se materializeze prin dezvoltarea
condiiei de muritor, putnd astfel s identificm nuane avnd drept caracteristici ale
literaturii monastice evidenierea nimicniciei umane i pn la macabrul funest cimitirul.
n Reporta din vis, macabrul este activat prin intermediul visului i al unui mentor
providenial care i ofer tnrului Reporta spectacolul unei vizite n lumea trupurilor moarte.
Dup cum afirm i Nicolae Manolescu: cel mai interesant lucru din poem l constituie
viziunea macabr din cimitirul pe care btrna clauz l face transparent2, aa nct tnrul
s poat observa ce se ntmpl cu trupul omului dup ce acesta moare, o moarte
desacralizat.
nceputul poemului se deschide prin intermediul unei invocaii a muzelor pentru a
nzestra scriptorul cu cele necesare transcrierii visului n versuri. ntoarcere la somn e o
ntoarcere la starea primordial asemntoare vieii vegetale 3, aa nct recuperarea sintezei,
a unei armonii universale este redat prin realizarea unei cltorii n propriul eu pentru a
descifra scopul vieii i a se omogeniza cu materia. Motivul ruinelor este explicit n text prin
amintirea cetii Sarmis. Fragilitatea materiei biologice fa de timp este de surs biblic.
Scrieri literare inedite, documente literare alese, publicate, adnotate i comentate de Paul Cornea, Andrei
Nestorescu i Petre Costinescu, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1981, p. 15.
2
Nicolae Manolescu, Istoria cristic a literaturii romne, Editura Paralela 45, Piteti, 2008, p. 119.
3
Albert Beguin, Sufletul romantic i visul, Editura Univers, Bucureti, 1970, p. 15.
1
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Motivul triumfului morii a avut o circulaie extraordinar.4 Dup depirea momentului

ruinelor, este prezentat un moment cinegetic, pentru ca apoi, obosit fiind tnrul cade ntr-un
somn adnc, urmnd ca eroul poemului s fie botezat de un btrn cu barba crunt, cu albe
veminte, la cuttur blnd, i la cuvinte5, noul su nume fiind Reporta din vis. Tnrul l
accept pe btrn drept mentor, acesta de pe urm, propunndu-i o incursiune prin al vieii
vis. Astfel, tnrul se vede nevoit s rspund unor serii de ntrebri venite din partea
btrnul care dorete s ncerce credina tnrului. Modelele negative enumerate de btrn, n
sprijinul convingerilor sale, sunt: Absalon, Samson, Salamon i un rege asirian numit
Navohodonosor. Se poate observa cum intenia autorului transpare prin alegerea acestor
nume, singurul care face not discordant fiind cazul regelui asirian.
Firul narativ al poemului se mbin cu motivul romantic al fortunei labilis6, pentru ca
apoi prin intermediul alegoriei s fie prezentat discuia dintre Omenire i Lume. Suprapus
alegoriei, macabrul romantic intervine n economia imaginarului n finalul cntecului Lumii
enumernd etapele prin care trece omul pn moare i ce se ntmpl cu trupul dup ce se
separ de suflet: Aici trupul aezndu-l/ i cu pmnt astupndu-l/ De mistuire-i grijesc;/
Trimit mute muctoare,/ De vermi pricinuitoare./ Vermii n scurt s presc. / Sug sugele cu
cumplire,/ Mnc carnea cu rptire./ De vreo mil-i trecut/ Cnd sngele se frete/ i
carnea se mistuiete/ i vermele e perdut./ Eu trimit broate rioase/ i rpi reci fr de oase/
i-i aez linituii/ n locurile golite/ i de carne lzuite/ S petreac odihnii.7. Spre
deosebire de tipologia macabrului existent n epoc, Vasile Aaron face un pas nainte,
trimind la estetica urtului agreat de Tudor Arghezi. Este foarte greu de analizat un astfel
de decor recurgnd la comparaia cu alte opere contemporane lui Aaron, deoarece n nici o
alt scriitur a acelei perioade, moartea, perisabilitatea materiei umane nu este la fel de
strident. n lucrarea sa Amurgul Evului Mediu, Huizinga consider c trei teme oglindesc
n mod deosebit obsesia morii: dispariia celor a cror strlucire au cucerit ntreaga lume,
putreziciunea frumuseii omeneti i perenitatea dansului macabru, unde moartea atrage n
suita sa oameni de toate clasele sociale i de toate vrstele.8
Descrierea procesului de descompunere al cadavrului poate, nu ar fi fost att de
caustic dac nu ar fi fost urmat de o evaluare direct a pagubelor, Reporta din vis fiind
dus de ctre btrn ntr-un cimitir. Acolo tnrul este ncurajat s descifreze inscripii funerare
ce subscriau avertismentelor enunate de btrn n ceea ce privete un trai care nu respect
nvturile cretine. Cele treizeci de inscripii funebre se centrez pe motivele fortuna
labilis9, fugit irreparabile tempus i ubi sunt mozaicul compus din aceste fragmente de via
reprezentnd un fel de oglind, oglind care lumineaz egalitatea din lumea aceasta10, n
care este surprins foarte amnunit deertciunea lumii. intirimul vechi11 pare a fi un fel
Mihai Vornicu, Despre poezia ruinelor, n Structuri tematice i retorico stilistice n romantismul romnesc,
Editura Academiei, Bucureti, 1976, p. 32.
5
Vasile Aaron, Reporta din vis, n Scrieri literare inedite, documente literare alese, publicate, adnotate i
comentate de Paul Cornea, Andrei Nestorescu i Petre Costinescu, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1981, p. 20.
6
Acum Cres vede c zisul noroc/ Cu statornicie nu st ntr-un loc,/ Pe cine l are lesne-l prsete,/ Cu pai
ndoii la altul grbete n Vasile Aaron, Reporta din vis, n Scrieri literare inedite, documente literare alese,
publicate, adnotate i comentate de Paul Cornea, Andrei Nestorescu i Petre Costinescu, Editura Minerva,
7
8
Johann Huizinga, Amurgul Evului Mediu, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1970, p. 226.
9
Huizinga constat c ideea dansului macabru este adesea nsoit de cea a roii norocului unde se manifest n
chip evident aceeai indiferen fa de categoriile sociale omeneti.
10
Pavel Chihaia, Sfrit i nceput de ev, Editura Eminescu, Bucureti, 1977, p. 26.
11
4
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de necropol a tuturor timpurilor n care au fost aruncai la grmad eroi ai Eladei, regi,
strategi, eroi semi-zei, poei chiar sau frumoasele femei pentru care s-au distrus ceti i s-au
pornit rzboaie12. Analiznd cele treizeci de antroponime se poate realiza o clasificare a
acestora n funcie de etimologia numelor i regiunea geografic unde era rspndit. Selecia
pe care autorul o face n ceea ce privete antroponimele este esenial n ilustrarea primei
teme enunat de Huizinga, dispariia celor a cror strlucire a cucerit ntreaga lume: Pompei,
Priam sau Ahiles. Notabil este i faptul c, jumtate din antroponimele enumerate au drept
nceput litera p, artnd astfel nclinarea scriitorului spre a oferi poemului un caracter muzical
prin aliteraii i asonane. Decorul nu este lipsit de grandoare, dimpotriv, aceasta se afl sub
ncrctura pietrelor funerare i a elementelor de factur macabr.
Urmtorul tablou se nscrie n seria elementelor funeste, reprezentnd drumul care
trebuie parcurs de rubedeniile mortului pentru a-i putea depunde sicriul n groap. Notabil
este participarea bocitoarelor element de factur popular. Reporta, fiind foarte impresionat
de cele ce vzuse, este supus unei noi ncercri din cauza curiozitii sale nestpnite. Printrun fel de incantaie magic, btrnul povuitor transform intirimul ntr-un deal de cristal,
aa nct eroul putea s vad n pmnt. mbrcnd haina macabrului romantic, decorul se
schimb total: Cum intrm nti n intirim, iat/ Vro trei ngropai demult deodat:/ Aa
putrezise i carne i toate/ Cte le avus cu sine-ngropate,/ Ct mai nu puteai cunoate
mormntul./ Singur sta din carne, pufios, pmntul.13 Lanson consider c reprezentarea
condiiei corupte a trupului este un memento mori adresat oamenilor care au cedat tentaiei
placerilor vieii: Moartea, ideea central a dogmei cretine, se detaeaz din ce n ce mai
mult de toate credinele care i confereau nalta sa moralitate i virtutea sa constant pentru a
deveni un sfrit care marcheaz captul unor volupti egoiste14. Elementele constitutive
ale imaginii morbide la care apeleaz poetul sunt: broatele rioase i erpii sau oarecii
cmpului. Prin urmare, consider c se poate discuta despre macabrul romantic la nivel de
macro i micro reflexivitate.
Nivelul macro al macabrului este reprezentat de lumea exterioar Reportei din vis, de
modul n care acesta percepe imaginile i tablourile descriptive contemptus mundi, n timp
ce nivelul micro este constituit de lumea interioar a cadavrului, mpreun cu toate reaciile
adverse sau diverse care au loc n cadrul procesului de descompunere al trupului. Sub aceast
nou perspectiv a macabrului n opera lui Vasile Aaron se recomand delimitarea ntre cele
dou cosmos-uri care nu sunt paralele, ci se ntlnesc ntr-un receptor comun, n persoana
Reportei din vis.
Nivelul macro al dimensiunii estetice a macabrului este alctuit prin urmare de
inscripii funerare, fugitive momente cinegetice i episodul din finalul capitolului al doilea:
Criasa cu mare pomp s ivete/ ... / Pe mna direapt pe lng crias,/ Merjea o fmeie cu
totul frumoas,/ Cu un prunc n bra, cu capul dirept,/ Lsat spre curatul zisei fmei pept./
Avea acest prunc n mni o sgeat/ Foarte lucioas, tins i armat./ Pruncul era gol, orb fr
vedere/ i cu aripi multe, pline de putere/ ns macar orb, totu cu sgeata,/ Cltind arcul tare
ntins, rnea ceata./ Sgeata din ran venea napoi, Spre a prelunga marile nevoi./ Aa
sgetatul s purta, ct nime/ N-ar fi rmas viu din acea mulime,/ De nu o fmeie bun,
oarecare, / S-ar fi trimis doftor lor spre vindecare15. Acest episod relev o nou fa a
macabrului, a ndrzni s-i spun tocmai schia unui profil grotesc surprins n imaginea unui
Printre acetia enumrm pe: Pompei, Priam, Brut, Magdalena, Rumi, Elena, Iudit, Hesiod, Ahile, Petronelo.
14
Gustave Lanson, Histoire illustre de la litrature franaise, Librairie Hachette, Paris, 1923, p. 130.
15
comentate de Paul Cornea, Andrei Nestorescu i Petre Costinescu, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1981, pp. 107
108.
12
13
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prunc orb, dar cu aripi puternice, prunc ce rnea oamenii cu sgeata. Macabrul se coloreaz
prin efectele pe care pruncul element al grotescului le are asupra oamenilor: Iar ranele
cele cu tot veninate/ Rmnea nestrns i nevindecate16, aa nct se face c mulimea
oamenilor ce o nsoea pe Criasa Dezmerdrii era alctuit din trupuri n stare de putrefacie.
Un alt episod care poate fi pus pe seama grotescului este prezentarea femeii din partea stng
a Criesii : Sta lng aceasta iari un pruncor,/ Ca i cel dinti, ntocma odor./ Nu putea
deschide ochii, sta smolit,/ Tot cltinndu-i capul ca un ameit/ ... / Nu tiu cu ce ap
mproca n ea17. Ironia de care d dovad scriitorul prin sublinierea substantivului odor
reprezint o alt caracteristic definitorie pentru stilul lui Aaron. Lucrnd cu imaginile, cu
puterea de reprezentare a visului, am putea spune c tabloul celor trei femei ncadrate de cei
doi prunci, este unul de factur suprarealist. O imagine static receptat ca fiind drept o poz
dintr-un album, este, ns, n cazul scriiturii lui Aaron fluid, un amalgam de elemente care au
puls, care vibreaz exact la momentul potrivit.
Nivelul micro al universului macabru surprins n poem se reflect cu ajutorul
fragmentelor n care este descris imaginea cadavrelor sub dealul de cristal. n completarea
observaiilor fcute dup analizarea primului cadavru, Aaron red prin versuri urmtoarea
ntlnire cu macabrul: Pnd mai ncolo, alt mort am aflat,/ Numai de vro zece zile
ngropat./ Acest trup de mort nc n-au fost putrezit,/ Numai vineis i s-au fost negrit./
Mute mititele pe el s prsis,/ Carii spre a crnii mncare rptesc.18 Impactul acestor
descrieri este destul de mare, dintr-o oarecare perspetiv, poemul trebuie citit cu toate
simurile alerte. Ultimul flux al categoriei macabrului se regsete transcris n imaginea
ultimului cadavru ntlnit: Fiind ngropat de mult, putrezis,/ i vermii n toate pri l
sfridilis,/ Sugea cu rptire carnea putrezit/ Ca o hran dulce i nepreuit.19 dup cum se
poate observa autorul urmrete o regul textual prin care este surprins totul, ncepnd cu
suspendarea temporalului prin care se ncearc reprezentarea celor trei delimitri temporale:
trecut prezent viitor. Corespondentul simbolic al morii conceptuale nu poate prezenta
dect o form fix un schelet i nu una n devenire. Prin urmare, a confunda un mort cu
nsi moartea ar fi s confundm particularul cu generalul i efectul cu cauza. 20. Liantul
ntre cele dou niveluri de materializare a macabrului l reprezint Reporta.
Cadrul rigid al literaturii definitului era spart, depit, n acest moment i principal literatura nu va mai accepta de acum canoane limitative. Nu este puin lucru c literatura
noastr va cpta certificatul su de maturitate sub auspiciile unei asemenea etape de
deschidere, de mbogire, pentru c amprenta acestei cutri a eliberrii se va traduce prin
dou consecine concrete i importante : o perspectiv grav, esenial, matur asupra vieii n
sine, lipsit ns de lestul unei tradiii nchistate i retrograde i apoi o disponibilitate deplin
fa de temele cele mai noi.21
n ceea ce privete estetica macabrului romantic, mai ales specificiatea ei n cadrul
operei lui Vasile Aaron, trebuie menionat c prin ineditul imaginilor, impactul sinesteziilor,
puterea de asamblare a criptogramelor macabre, raportarea la o macro i o micro necropol,
impulsul grotesc al vibraiilor, sudarea elementelor baroce de tipul: lumea ca vis i viaa ca vis
cu elemente onirice prin aportul pe care visarea l are n cadrul operei, Reporta din vis este
ntr-adevr o oper cu totul i cu totul original, putnd fi considerat precursor a multor alte
asemenea reprezentri.
16
Ibidem, p. 108.
Ibidem.
18
Ibidem, p. 44.
19
Ibidem.
20
Pavel Chihaia, Sfrit i nceput de ev, Editura Eminescu, Bucureti, 1977, p. 25.
21
Mircea Anghelescu, Preromantismul romnesc, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1971, p. 259.
17
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n concluzie, a dori s reamintesc premisele acestei lucrri: enunarea unor judeci

de valoare n legtur cu reprezentarea categoriei estetice a macabrului n operele litarare de
la nceputul secolului al XIX - lea . Consider c aceast analiz ar fi fost mult mai ofertant
dac ar fi existat o modalitate de recuperare a ntregului poem, ns cele 4088 de versuri ale
variantei existente sunt ofertante n ceea ce privete reprezentarea macabrului ntr-un mod
original i marcant. Cert este faptul c cea de pe urm oper a lui Vasile Aaron reuete s
schimbe imaginea literaturii de dinainte de 1830 prin scriitura inovatoare pe care acesta o
promoveaz. Prin latura original a Reportei din vis Aaron contribuie la desctuarea
lirismului de sub tirania tiparului clasic. Meritele sale nu se reduc la prelucrarea mai mult ori
mai puin izbutit a unui complex motivic tradiional; nici nu se msoar prin importana
efortului depus ntr-o epoc de respiraie creatoare mai degrab astmatic, ci se situeaz n
direcia construirii obiectului beletristic, cu alte cuvinte a trecerii de la scris la scriitur, de la
catehizare i parabol la literatura propriu zis.22
Bibliografie:
Bibliografie primar
1. Aaron, Vasile, Reporta din vis, n Scrieri literare inedite, documente
literare alese, publicate, adnotate i comentate de Paul Cornea, Andrei
Nestorescu i Petre Costinescu, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1981.
Bibliografie secundar
1. Manolescu, Nicolae, Istoria critic a literaturii romne, Editura Paralela
45, Piteti, 2008.
2. Beguin, Albert, Sufletul romantic i visul, Editura Univers, Bucureti,
1970.
3. Vornicu, Mihai, Despre poezia ruinelor, n Structuri tematice i retorico
stilistice n romantismul romnesc, Editura Academiei, Bucureti, 1976.
4. Scrieri literare inedite, documente literare alese, publicate, adnotate i
comentate de Paul Cornea, Andrei Nestorescu i Petre Costinescu, Editura
5. Huizinga, Johann, Amurgul Evului Mediu, Editura Minerva, Bucureti,
1970.
6. Chihaia, Pavel, Sfrit i nceput de ev, Editura Eminescu, Bucureti, 1977.
7. Lanson, Gustave, Histoire illustre de la litrature franaise, Librairie
Hachette, Paris, 1923.
8. Anghelescu, Mircea, Preromantismul romnesc, Editura Minerva,
Bucureti, 1971.
22
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THE GREAT WAR AND THE GREAT DEPRESSION: THE LOST LINK
Cristian Alexandru BOGHIAN
Abstract: The Great Depression of 1929-1933 determined, besides its economic effects, a
number of political, social and collective thought changes. Hence, the economic crisis issue is
of great importance because a better understanding of this phenomenon could lead to a more
efficient management and control of it. The Great Depression occurred during a certain
historical, political and economic context, which is the interwar period. However, in addition
to the immediate causes of its manifestation, discussed by historiography, we can pull focus to
one major and singular cause from which all the others could evolve, namely the First World
War. The military conflagration brought about changes in economic thought such as
economic nationalism and state intervention at the expense of the traditional liberal
principles of laissez-faire and free trade, changes which continued to be obvious even after
the war, all the way through the 1920s. In a European background still generally liberaldemocratic albeit in an evident fast decline, exacerbated statism and economic nationalism
disrupted the proper functioning of the free market mechanisms which acted as
regulatory factor for the economic processes. Therefore, this paper explores the Great
Depressions causes, regarding them as a trend and consequence of the First World War.
Keywords: causes for the outbreak of the Great Depression, the First World War, economic
nationalism, state intervention, the Great Depression of 1929-1933
Problematica fenomenului de criz este una deosebit de important n istoriografie, ea
lund mai multe forme, printre care politic, instituional, social, demografic, economic i
altele. Adeseori, crizele de o anumit natur influeneaz sau genereaz i schimbri de alt
form. Spre exemplu, marea criz economic n Europa, chiar i n Romnia, a determinat i o
pleiad de schimbri politice, sociale i de mental colectiv. Mai buna nelegere a acestui
fenomen ar putea ajuta la o gestiune i control mai eficient a acesteia, dar nicidecum la
eradicarea lui. Criza ar putea avea i o funcie de reechilibrare a unor dezechilibre acumulate
de-a lungul timpului, fiind aadar un proces natural, ciclic i chiar cu rol reglator.
Marea criz economic din 1929-1933, denumit aa ulterior prin prisma efectelor ei
pe plan mondial, s-a petrecut ntr-un anumit context istoric, politic i economic, i anume cel
interbelic. Istoriografia marii depresiuni economice este cel mai adesea regsit n cadrul
studiilor legate de economia interbelic i n monografii, chiar dac mai rar 1. Concret, aceast
lucrare dorete formularea unor rspunsuri la ntrebarea: Care au fost cauzele izbucnirii crizei
economice n din 1929-1933 i care este legtura dintre Primul Rzboi Mondial i apariia
marii crize?
Vezi Rondo Cameron, A Concise Economic History of the World from Paleolithic Times to the Present, Oxford
University Press, New York, 1993; Patricia Clavin, The Great Depression in Europe, 1929-1939, Macmillan
Press LTD, London, 2000; Dan Diner, Cataclysms, A history of the twentieth century from Europes Edge, The
University of Wisconsin Press, London, 2008; Barbara Jelavich, Istoria Balcanilor, Secolul al XX-lea, vol. II,
Institutul European, Iai, 2000; Charles & Barbara Jelavich, (coord.), The Balkans in Transition. Essays on the
development of Balkan life and politics since the Eighteenth century, Archon Books, Hamden, Connecticut,
SUA, 1974; Corneliu, Olaru, Echilibre monetare europene, (1918-1939), Editura ISIS, Bucureti, 1995; J. M.
Roberts, Europe 1880-1945, Longman Group Limited, London, 1972; I. Saizu, Al. Tacu, Europa economic
interbelic, Institutul European, Iai, 1997.
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n Europa, nainte de 1914, crizele economice veneau i plecau, existnd totui per
total un trend ascendent al economiilor europene2. n ceea ce privete rile din Sud-Estul
Europei, lucrurile au evoluat n aceeai manier, chiar dac la un nivel mai sczut comparat cu
Vestul Europei. nainte de Primul Rzboi Mondial, n timp ce n Bulgaria i Serbia cea mai
des ntlnit era mica proprietate, n Romnia i Grecia marile proprieti dominau peisajul.
Astfel, spre deosebire de vecinii si captivi n ferme mici de subzisten, Romnia a putut s
exporte mult mai mult din producia sa agricol. Chiar i aa productivitatea general n zon
era sczut3.
Totui, din 1890 i pn n 1913 creterea economic a fost una mare n zona sudestic a Europei. Astfel fa de 1890, la finalul lui 1913, ncasrile bugetare ale Romniei s-au
mrit cu 158,36%, ale Serbiei cu 91,95%, ale Bulgariei cu 37,3% i ale Greciei cu 30,21%. n
privina datoriei externe, fa de 1890, la finalul lui 1913, cea a Romniei a crescut cu
92,74%, a Serbiei cu 192,44%, a Bulgariei cu 690,49% i a Greciei cu 77,19%. n ceea ce
privete cifra de afaceri a comerului exterior (importuri i exporturi), cea a Romniei a
crescut cu 91,69%, a Serbiei cu 126,25%, cea a Bulgariei cu 103.14%, i a Greciei cu 36,16%.
Aceste evoluii au avut loc pe fundalul acaparrii pieelor vestice de ctre exporturile agricole
americane, reorientarea rilor de mai sus ctre pieele central-europene i instaurarea unor
msuri protecioniste i de ncurajare a industriei proprii4.
De altfel, pn la Primul Rzboi Mondial, dezvoltarea industriei a luat cel mai mult
avnt n ara noastr comparativ cu celelalte ri menionate. Astfel, n 1915 stocul de capital
al industriei romneti era de 130.000.000 dolari, din care 100.000.000 era de provenien
strin5. De asemenea, penetrarea relaiilor de tip capitalist era mai accentuat (n ordine
descresctoare) n pri al Imperiului Austro-Ungar, n Vechiul Regat al Romniei, i mai
puin n Serbia, Bulgaria, i Grecia de Sud6.
Consecinele economice ale Primului Rzboi Mondial au constat n pierderi de viei
omeneti de cteva zeci de milioane, costuri directe de 230 de miliarde de dolari i costuri
indirecte de 150 de miliarde de dolari. Pn la Primul Rzboi Mondial, schimburile
internaionale au funcionat liber, devenind tot mai integrate i sensibile att la evoluii
pozitive ct i negative. n timpul rzboiului s-a nceput controlul (chiar i n rile
nebeligerante) asupra preurilor, produciei i diviziunii muncii, aciune dei ncheiat la
finalul rzboiului a lsat legturile comerciale antebelice ntr-o stare greu de restabilit7.
Schimbri n gndirea economic precum creterea intervenionismului i rolului
utilitii publice n economie, protejarea industriei, principiul individualismului n folosul
statului, au aprut ca necesitate n urma efectelor devastatoare ale Primului Rzboi Mondial.
Dei aceast necesitate s-a dezvoltat iniial pe un fundament temporar, ea a cptat treptat
un caracter permanent8. De altfel, nevoile i cheltuielile din timpul rzboiului au ntrit
protecionismul i intervenionismul statal n vederea dezvoltrii industriilor i agriculturilor
naionale deoarece piaa ca mecanism reglator al liber-schimbismului nu ar fi generat
niciodat nevoile aduse n prim-plan de rzboi9.
2
J. M. Roberts, Europe 1880-1945, Longman Group Limited, London, 1972, p. 343

Changes in the economic structures of the Balkans de Nicolas Spulber, n Charles & Barbara Jelavich (coord.),
The Balkans in Transition. Essays on the development of Balkan life and politics since the Eighteenth century,
Archon Books, Hamden, Connecticut, SUA, 1974, pp. 347-348
4
Ibidem, pp. 348-349
5
Ibidem, p. 350
6
Ibidem, p. 353
7
Rondo Cameron, A Concise Economic History of the World from Paleolithic Times to the Present, Oxford
University Press, New York, 1993, pp. 339-340
8
I. Saizu, Al. Tacu, Europa economic interbelic, Institutul European, Iai, 1997, p. 61, 64
9
J. M. Roberts, op. cit., p. 344
3
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Etalonul aur a reprezentat pn la debutul Primului Rzboi Mondial, un regulator

monetar al creterii economiei, fiind reduse posibilitile intervenionismului statal. n
condiiile rzboiului i la finalul acestuia, rolul regulator i de stabilizare monetar al
etalonului aur devine perimat sau chiar ignorat n condiiile emisiunii de valut i contractrii
de mprumuturi pentru susinerea efortului i datoriilor de rzboi, astfel generndu-se
inflaie10.
Dup ncheierea primei conflagraii mondiale, asistm la scderea veniturilor din
investiii strine (i chiar investiiile propriu-zise) ale Franei (cu 50%) i Marii Britanii
(15%), i transformarea SUA dintr-un debitor ntr-un creditor net ca urmare a exporturilor i
mprumuturilor uriae fcute Aliailor11. n privina produciei manufacturiere, se constat o
cretere i expansiunea a comerului rilor transoceanice n piee care aparineau Europei,
inclusiv pe btrnul continent. Producia agricol a rilor transoceanice a fost puternic
stimulat n timpul rzboiului pentru a compensa lipsurile europene12. Europa i pierde astfel
statutul economic frunta i locul central ocupat n influenarea economiei mondiale13. Rolul
Marii Britanii de creditor i investitor mondial, client fr restricii pentru bunuri produse de
piee mai puin dezvoltate i promotoare a liber-schimbismului unul chiar de reglare a
mecanismelor pieei mondiale nu a mai fost preluat de SUA ca urmare a declinului britanic.
Americanii au preferat o politic izolaionist i nu de cooperare sau liber-schimbist14.
Tratatele de pace de la Paris au urmrit rezolvarea chestiunilor politice, ignornd
adresarea problemelor macro-economice, o parte restante de dinaintea rzboiului, altele
manifestndu-se ca o consecin a schimbrii status-quo-ului economic n urma conflictului
armat15. Potrivit lui Rondo Cameron, aceste tratate, n loc s adreseze i s rezolve probleme
economice survenite, le-au exacerbat neintenionat (cu excepia Germaniei) genernd dou
mari categorii de dificulti: naionalism economic i probleme monetare i financiare16.
n Europa central i de Est, sfritul primului rzboi mondial a nsemnat producie
agricol sczut ce a dus la foamete17. Mai mult, guvernele balcanice acumulaser datorii
mari nainte de rzboi, care s-au mrit considerabil la finalul lui. De asemenea, partenerii
comerciali antebelici ai Serbiei i Romniei, i anume Germania, Austria i Ungaria nu mai
prezentau debuee viabile pentru exporturile lor18. n plus, Rusia a disprut din sfera
schimburilor internaionale, iar URSS-ul aprut n loc prezenta un comportament comercial
mult diferit n sensul c doar statul reprezenta singurul cumprtor i vnztor n relaiile
economice internaionale19.
La finalul rzboiului, aproximativ 80% din populaia Romniei, Iugoslaviei i
Bulgariei se ocupa cu agricultura, procentul fiind mai ridicat n Albania, i doar de 50% n
Grecia datorit ocupaiilor tradiionale orientate spre schimb i comer naval 20. Pentru noile
state (srace i predominant agrare), nencreztoare unele n celelalte era firesc ca acestea s
impun prohibiii i controale la export i import21, adic politici comerciale protecioniste
care au inhibat comerul n zon, prioritare fiind atingerea obiectivelor economice individuale
Corneliu Olaru, Echilibre monetare europene, (1918-1939), Editura ISIS, Bucureti, 1995, p. 6
Rondo Cameron, op. cit., p. 342
12
Ibidem, p. 341
13
I. Saizu, Al. Tacu, op. cit., pp. 26-28
14
15
16
17
Ibidem, pp. 339-340
18
Barbara Jelavich, Istoria Balcanilor, Secolul al XX-lea, vol. II, Institutul European, Iai, 2000, pp. 129-130
19
20
Changes in the economic structures of the Balkans de Nicolas Spulber n Charles & Barbara Jelavich
(coord.), pp. 354-355
21
10
11
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ale rilor22. Acestea au cutat, odat cu afirmarea identitii naionale, promovarea unui
naionalism economic aproape autarhic care s le dezvolte23 i s le valorifice potenialul
propriu24 prin stimularea creterii industriilor naionale i a capitalului autohton25 i nu o
colaborare regional care n contextul de atunci era oarecum anacronic26. n acelai timp
aceste state au neglijat ncurajarea energic a dezvoltrii relaiilor de tip capitalist n
agriculturile lor27. De altfel, n unele state, mprumuturile externe s-au dublat sau triplat
comparativ cu nivelul antebelic28.
n Romnia, Iugoslavia i Bulgaria suprafeele cerealiere cresc cu 10-20% i cu
aproximativ 70% n Grecia unde doar un sfert din suprafaa rii este cultivabil. Fa de
nivelul antebelic, producia agricol a sporit n unele ri balcanice, dar nu ajuns dect la 90%
n Romnia, n general n aceast zon productivitatea fiind sczut29. n timp ce n Romnia
avea loc cea mai radical reform agrar european, Iugoslavia demara i ea o redistribuire a
proprietii funciare, slaba sa industrie fiind n general compromis de rzboi, tot atunci
intensificndu-se penetraia capitalului strin. Bulgaria cunotea i ea o frmiare a
proprietilor agricole i randamente sczute. Chiar dac reforma agrar a fost de mici
dimensiuni n Grecia, dezvoltarea sa era datorat capitalului strin, prezent n proporie de
50% n industrie i agricultur30. n timp ce rile din Centrul i Sud-Estul Europei au ncercat
s urmeze modelul economic antebelic neoliberal al democraiilor occidentale, cele din urm
au ales o dezvoltare de tip american al propriilor economii31.
n privina datoriilor aliailor ctre SUA, americanii nu au acceptat reducerea ci doar
ealonarea i reducerea dobnzilor acestora. n acest context, rile occidentale aliate puteau
achita doar ct primeau i din reparaiile de la germani. Nemii trebuiau aadar s exporte
mult mai mult dect importau pentru a putea plti reparaiile, lucru aproape imposibil32. rile
din Vestul Europei a introdus prohibiii, cote i taxe ridicate la import precum i subvenii la
export, iar SUA, nefiind strine de tarifele vamale ridicate antebelice, le-au mrit dup rzboi.
Protecionismul economic exagerat a avut ns efecte opuse celor dorite, i anume producie i
venituri mai reduse33. Astfel, fa de 1913, n 1925 producia industrial european a crescut
cu 3,5% n Europa, 21,6% n SUA, 38% n restul lumii, scznd n URSS cu 29,9%34. n
comparaie cu avansul industrial, agricultura a crescut modest din cauza mecanizrii
insuficiente, creterea impozitelor i preurilor n general mici35.
Spre 1927-1928, majoritatea rilor se refcuser dup pierderile din rzboi,
stabilizndu-i monedele naionale, existnd chiar un avnt economic36. Primul deceniu
interbelic european s-a caracterizat printr-o cretere mai mic dect cea premergtoare
Primului Rzboi Mondial, i mult mai mic comparat cu cea a S.U.A. Chiar i aceast
cretere nu a fost vzut ca una sustenabil, ci doar ca un boom euforic pe fundalul unei
22
Barbara Jelavich, op. cit., pp. 129-130

Changes in the economic structures of the Balkans de Nicolas Spulber n Charles & Barbara Jelavich (coord.), p. 357
24
I. Saizu, Al. Tacu, op. cit., p. 28
25
26
27
Ibidem, p. 28
28
29
Ibidem, pp. 354-355
30
31
Ibidem, p. 41
32
33
Ibidem, p. 344
34
I. Saizu, Al. Tacu, op. cit., p. 74
35
Ibidem, pp. 74-75
36
23
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false stabiliti37. De altfel, Europa a ajuns s importe aproximativ 46% din necesarul de
produse agricole din SUA38.
Deoarece a primat expansiunea economic prin fore proprii i nu colaborare,
economia mondial, ndeosebi cea european s-a nscris pe cale de destrmare. Astfel, piaa,
ca mijloc tradiional liberal de reglare i stimulare a activitii i progresului economic a fost
treptat neglijat39.
n 1928, n SUA, devenea tot mai dificil accesarea fondurilor pe termen scurt, fapt
care a dus la rechemarea multor mprumuturi europene i suspendarea acordrii altora.
Totodat asistm i la o scdere a cererii n general n America, coroborat cu o diminuare a
preurilor40.
Investiiile strine n Europa au sczut de la 1,7 miliarde de dolari n 1927 i 1928 la 1
miliard de dolari n 1929, i la mai puin de jumtate de miliard n 1930. La aceste retrageri de
capital a contribuit i nencrederea crescnd a investitorilor fa de economia european care
nu ddea semne de rezolvare a problemelor n agricultur i de slaba dezvoltare a industriei41.
n vara lui 1929 n SUA preurile la produsele agricole precum i consumul ncep s
scad, la fel i producia industrial, cu 2,5%. De precizat c din 1925 pn n 1929 are loc un
boom fenomenal al bursei de la New York unde n aceast perioad valorile aciunilor cresc
cu 250%, astfel devenind mai atractiv s investeti la burs dect n Europa un alt motiv
pentru retragerea capitalurilor de pe btrnul continent42. Astfel, cauza timpurie a izbucnirii
Marii Crize n Europa rezid n deplasarea capitalurilor pe termen scurt, evaluate la 60 de
miliarde franci elveieni, n timp ce rezervele bncilor centrale atingeau 11,7 miliarde de
franci elveieni43.
n ajunul crahului bursier din New York, americanii sperau ntr-o revenire a
mprumuturilor americane n Europa odat cu Planul Young care prevedea o nou reducere a
reparaiilor care trebuiau pltite de Germania. Deziluzia american a venit n momentul n
care fotii aliai, mpreun cu nemii au hotrt c accept o reducere a reparaiilor germane
doar dac i americanii accept diminuarea sumelor datorate de europeni lor44.
Retragerea capitalurilor i ncrederii investitorilor americani n Europa nu a determinat
renunarea europenilor la etalonul aur care se credea ca avea rolul de menine stabilitatea
monetar i economic i a limita inflaia (avnd n vedere flagelul hiper-inflaionist de dup
rzboi) dar care cu siguran juca un rol n limitarea creditrii, att de necesare n acest
context. Paradoxal, se credea c mprumuturile pentru cheltuieli ce ncurajau angajarea i
consumul ar fi pus presiune suplimentar pe bugete, astfel nct nu s-au redus nici dobnzile
pentru creditele acordate ntreprinztorilor i fermierilor45.
Patricia Clavin este de prere c procese comune, chiar simbiotice Europei ct i SUA
au dus la izbucnirea marii crize. Crahul bursier new-yorkez din 1929 a contribuit n mod
direct destul de puin la rspndirea crizei economice, pierderile imediate n urma lui fiind
reduse i relativ locale. ns, reflectat puternic n pres i grupaje de tiri cinematografice n
SUA i Europa, n mod indirect, simbolic, crahul bursier nsemna de fapt o deziluzie general,
37

Ibidem, p. 92
39
Ibidem, p. 59
40
41
Patricia Clavin, op. cit., p. 94
42
Ibidem, p. 95
43
Corneliu Olaru, Echilibre monetare europene, p. 20
44
Patricia Clavin, op. cit., p. 93
45
Ibidem, pp. 98-99
38
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Issue no. 6/2015
determina o scdere dramatic a ncrederii n economia american, strnind o panic

psihologic colectiv ce s-a generalizat rapid46.
n timpul crizei fiecare ar s-a afundat tot mai mult n protecionism, autarhie,
intervenionism economic, piaa liber a schimburilor internaionale limitndu-se la doar
nelegeri bilaterale. O cauz a colapsului din 1929-1933 ar fi comerul sczut sau la preuri
prea mici al produselor primare. Astfel, rile industrializate nu au mai putut s-i vnd
produsele de consum, fiindc au cumprat prea puine materii prime i produse agricole la
preuri prea mici de la rile agrare47.
Alte cauze pentru izbucnirii crizei constau n: supraproducia agricol n condiiile
unei cereri n restrngere, agrarizarea statelor industriale i industrializarea statelor agricole,
datoriile de rzboi, inflaia i stabilizarea monetar ce au stnjenit schimburile internaionale.
Criza a accentuat izolaionismul economic, genernd ostilitate fa de colaborare economic,
sporind astfel intervenionismul etatist i penetrarea capitalului statului n marea industrie48.
Una din cauzele crizei din 1929-1933 cel puin pentru statele mici i mijlocii predominant
agrare ar putea consta n repercusiunea crizei mondiale pe fondul propriilor neajunsuri, n
timp ce criza din statele puternic industrializate a fost una, pe lng economico-social i
moral, de psihologie colectiv49.
De altfel, mai exist o serie de ipoteze: un declin al cantitii de bani n economiile
industriale, ndeosebi n SUA; o cdere a consumului i a cheltuielilor cu investiiile, criza
agrar existent, dependena rilor sub-dezvoltate de piee instabile pentru desfacerea
produselor lor agrare50, precum i o excesiv raionalizare economic51. De asemenea, Primul
Rzboi Mondial cu ale sale consecine economice imediate, dezagregarea raporturilor
comerciale internaionale antebelice52, precaritatea pcii de la Versailles53 precum i
naionalismul economic joac un rol important54.
Aadar, n privina cauzelor ce au influenat i condus la apariia i dezvoltarea crizei,
nodul central de concentrare i explozie al acestora pare s fie Primul Rzboi Mondial. n
secolul XIX i spre sfritul acestuia, economia a funcionat dup principiile liber-schimbiste
clasice, fiind afectat de o ciclicitate normal, reglatoare. Astfel, tendina general economic
pn la prima mare conflagraie mondial, dar mai ales n primii 10 ani din secolul XX, a fost
una de puternic expansiune economic i industrial, poate chiar exagerat fa de
evoluiile anterioare. Cert este c dei s-ar putea spune c Primul Rzboi Mondial a
echilibrat o serie de dezechilibre economice i politice existente, a creat o serie de alte
dezechilibre, mult mai mari. Printre ele se numr comportamentul de tip protecionist numit
naionalism economic i intervenionismul etatist ca modalitate de nfptuire al acestuia.
Piaa ca mijloc reglator al schimburilor libere a fost puternic zguduit de acest comportament
din timpul rzboiului ce a continuat, ntr-o form sau alta, n anii 1920. Marea criz
economic din 1929-1933 reprezint aadar ncercarea de echilibrare a pieei ca rspuns la
exacerbarea naionalismului economic i intervenionismului etatist ntr-un context nc
liberal economic i politic. Dou direcii se puteau alege pentru ieirea din criz. Prima: o
curajoas, dar periculoas (cu multe sacrificii) i de lung durat revenire la modelul laissezfaire, clasic liberal, ns cu reglementri clare i echitabile fr intervenionism statal major i
46
Ibidem, p. 99
48
49
Ibidem, p. 120
50
51
52
53
54
47
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bineneles, ntr-un context politic de pace ndelungat. A doua variant, i anume cea aleas
pn la urm, a abordare de tip keynesist55 ce ncurajeaz puternic intervenionismul economic
pentru rezolvarea pe termen scurt a dezechilibrelor, a dus inevitabil la eradicarea aproape
complet a pieei libere, a liberal-democraiei, pavnd drumul pentru Al Doilea Rzboi
Mondial.
Bibliografie
CAMERON, R., A Concise Economic History of the World from Paleolithic Times to
the Present, Oxford University Press, New York, 1993
CLAVIN, Patricia. The Great Depression in Europe, 1929-1939, Macmillan Press
LTD, London, 2000
DINER, Dan, Cataclysms, A history of the twentieth century from Europes Edge, The
University of Wisconsin Press, London, 2008
JELAVICH, Barbara, Istoria Balcanilor, Secolul al XX-lea, vol. II, Institutul
European, Iai, 2000
JELAVICH, Charles & Barbara (coord.), The Balkans in Transition. Essays on the
development of Balkan life and politics since the Eighteenth century, Archon Books,
Hamden, Connecticut, SUA, 1974
KEYNES, John Maynard, Teoria general a folosirii minii de lucru,a dobnzii i a
banilor, Editura tiinific, Bucureti, 1970
OLARU, Corneliu, Echilibre monetare europene, (1918-1939), Editura ISIS,
Bucureti, 1995
RILEY, Dylan, J., The civic foundations of fascism in Europe: Italy, Spain and
Romania, 1870-1945, The John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 2010
ROBERTS, J. M., Europe 1880-1945, Longman Group Limited, London, 1972
SAIZU, I., TACU, Al. Europa economic interbelic, Institutul European, Iai, 1997

Societatea cunoaterii, dinamism prin cercetare, numr de identificare contract
Oameni!
Vezi John Maynard Keynes, Teoria general a folosirii minii de lucru,a dobnzii i a banilor, Editura
tiinific, Bucureti, 1970
55
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LE LANGAGE SPECIALISE DE LA PUBLICITE. DIFFICULTES DE LA TRADUCTION DU

TEXTE PUBLICITAIRE
Maria Ctlina RADU
Technical Construction University of Bucharest
Abstract: This article aims at explaining to what extent the advertising nowadays influences
the language and imposes itself in the culture and the collective memory of our society. An
important aspect approached in this article is the way in which the advertising language is
designed in order to create the feeling of spontaneity, being at the same time persuasive and
assuring the communication between the seller and the public. The first part of the article
focuses on the issue regarding the existence of a specialised language of the advertisement,
while the second part of the article approaches the difficulties of translating the
advertisement text from one language into another and from one culture into another.
Keywords: advertising, language, creativity, transposition, adaptation challenge.
1. Le monde de la publicit entre mercantilisme et crativit
Le domaine de la publicit et du marketing devient de plus en plus attractif pour les
linguistes grce la complexit que le phnomne de la publicit a gagne pendant ces
dernires annes. Loin de pouvoir tre limit une activit dont le seul objectif soit vendre
des produits ou des services, la publicit pendule entre le statut de science exacte et celui
dart. Les frontires sont difficile dlimiter, car malgr ses traits artistiques, la publicit reste
dune manire indniable un reflet de marketing, o rien nest laiss au hasard.
Une image vaut mille mots ! dit lune des lois essentielles de la publicit. Le
pouvoir de limage est incontestable dans le domaine de marketing et surtout dans la publicit.
Limage communique plus rapidement que tout autre moyen, elle a la force dattirer
lattention et elle ne ncessite pas plus dune seconde pour tre observe et reconnue. En
publicit, le rle de limage dpasse gnralement la simple fonction dcorative pour
sintgrer pleinement dans la construction de la signification. Pourtant, ni mme dans ce
domaine limage nest pas suffisante ; la publicit a besoin de mots et ne peut pas exister en
dehors des paroles. Lexemple le plus suggestif est que toute marque porte un nom.
La publicit constitue un sujet dtude captivant puisque, malgr une apparente
superficialit, elle fait partie de la culture et de la mmoire collective dans la socit de nos
jours. On constate souvent que certains slogans ou campagnes publicitaires sont rests dans
les mmoires, certaines expressions et jeux de mots utiliss dans la publicit ont t assimils
dans le langage quotidien et, bien quon puisse critiquer ou mme sopposer aux intentions
mercantiles de la publicit, on doit admettre quelle est dsormais partie prenante de notre
socit.
La publicit est perue comme un processus de communication entre le vendeur et son
public cible. La communication publicitaire est dfinie comme impersonnelle cause de sa
diffusion massive qui suppose une rception anonyme par un public indtermin. La finalit
de ce processus de communication est dinformer et de promouvoir dans le but de pousser les
rcepteurs lachat dun produit, dune ide ou dune institution. Par consquence, le but du
discours publicitaire et de convaincre, de persuader. Dans cette qualit de pratique discursive
oriente des fins commerciales, la publicit doit tre aborde comme un type de discours qui
exploite sciemment les possibilits communicatives de la langue de manire persuader le
public cible.
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Les rcepteurs de la publicit ne sont pas considrs comme des consommateurs

ragissant un message qui les pousse lachat mais comme des membres dune
communaut linguistique susceptibles de se laisser influencer par certaines formulations
rhtoriques de la langue. En consquences, le texte publicitaire doit tre attractif, suggestif,
persuasif et dans ce but il profite de tous les lments rhtoriques et extra-rhtoriques qui le
composent, quils soient linguistiques, visuels ou sonores.
Au-del du rle que le discours publicitaire joue dans le monde daujourdhui, ses
caractristiques linguistiques sont galement dignes dintrt car analyser la publicit, cest
sattacher un domaine o rgne la pure communication. Un aspect intressant du discours
publicitaire est constitu par le fait quon utilise une langue conue pour paratre naturelle et
spontane mais qui est en ralit le rsultat dun processus sur lequel de nombreux crateurs,
rdacteurs et traducteurs-adaptateurs ont uvr.
Caroline Larminaux dans son trait Traduction-adaptation du discours publicitaire :
analyse compare des sites Internet du groupe Danone, versions pour la France et pour
lEspagne dfinit la publicit en tant que discours, en soulignant en mme temps la relation
qui stablit entre le langage publicitaire et le langage quotidien : La publicit est un
discours aux tournures souvent extravagantes, pleines de doubles sens et dambigits. Cest
une langue vivante, avide de nouveauts, crative et qui influence parfois la langue
gnrale. (Caroline Larminaux, 2010 : 18)
2. Le langage de la publicit un langage spcialis ?
Le prsent article est n dune interrogation sur lexistence dune rhtorique
publicitaire et plus spcifiquement sur lexistence dun discours publicitaire en tant que
langage spcialis. Une premire question qui simpose cet gard est : peut-on parler de
discours, de langue, ou bien de genre publicitaire? Le langage de la publicit est un langage
mixte, compos de diffrents codes, spcifiques aux mdias utiliss pour diffuser le message
publicitaire - soit la presse et laffichage, la radio, la tlvision et le cinma, ainsi que
lInternet. Partant dune introduction trs large de la communication, dont le sens
tymologique suggre lide mme de mettre en commun , on doit observer les liens qui se
tissent entre la communication et la publicit et entre la publicit et le langage.
Afin de dcrire la langue de la publicit, objet de recherche de cet article, deux
grandes acceptions du terme publicit se dgagent : la publicit en tant quactivit
conomique, et la publicit en tant que produit de cette activit, autrement dit le texte, limage
ou le spot publicitaire, ce qui revient la dcrire comme une pratique discursive. La publicit
est donc une activit commerciale qui est replacer dans le cadre plus ample du marketing.
Parmi toutes ces activits qui composent la discipline du marketing, la publicit se situe par
consquent au niveau de la stimulation des besoins des consommateurs lgard du produit
propos. (Cf. Caroline Larminaux, 2010 : 33).
En premier lieu, on peut signaler que le discours publicitaire est bas sur une un
processus de communication de masse, cest dire quil est destine un public gnral et
anonyme. Le rcepteur du texte publicitaire ne la donc gnralement pas recherch
volontairement ce qui explique quon ne lui accorde en gnral quune moyenne de deux
secondes dattention. Dans ces circonstances de rception, on comprend bien pourquoi la
publicit a de plus en plus recours aux images ainsi quaux formules brves et frappantes. Par
consquence, pour atteindre ses objectifs, le texte publicitaire doit tre caractris par
simplicit, ordre, brivet, objectivit, cohsion et fluidit.
Ces caractristiques peuvent tre rsumes en deux traites essentielles du texte
publicitaire : la simplicit et la concision. En tenant compte du fait que le discours publicitaire
est le plus souvent destin un public anonyme et doit, par consquence, sadapter au plus
large public cible possible, la simplicit devient une caractristique essentielle de ce type de
texte. En ce qui concerne la concision, elle est lie au facteur temps. Le destinataire du
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message publicitaire naccorde quun temps trs limit lcoute dun spot publicitaire et
mme moins la lecture dun texte ; dans ces circonstances, le temps constitue un facteur
essentiel pour le succs du message publicitaire. Pour atteindre son but, la syntaxe publicitaire
doit tre caractrise par des phrases brves, directes et concises qui permettent une lecture
rapide et efficace.
La concision du langage publicitaire trouve sa meilleure expression dans le slogan. Le
slogan est la figure rhtorique par excellence du discours publicitaire est peut tre dfini
comme une formule concise et frappante, facilement rptable, polmique et le plus souvent
anonyme, destine faire agir les masses tant par son style que par llment
dautojustification, passionnelle ou rationnelle, quelle comporte. (Cf. Caroline Larminaux,
2010 : 46). La finalit du slogan consiste dans son impact sur le public cible. La
caractristique essentielle de cette formule typique du domaine de la publicit est la brivet
qui se ralise, le plus souvent, par llimination des prpositions, conjonctions, articles etc. au
profit des verbes et des substantives. Etant une formule spcialement conue en fonction du
facteur rception, le slogan sappuie sur la simplicit pour assurer son efficacit.
Pour atteindre son objectif de persuasion, le discours publicitaire doit contenir une
forte composante argumentative. Lobjectif du discours argumentatif se mlange parfaitement
avec celles du discours publicitaire de persuader en sadressant aux sentiments, ou de
convaincre en dadressant la raison. Sa fonction est essentiellement conative. Le discours
argumentatif propose ou contredis une thse en sappuyant sur des arguments eux-mmes
tay par des exemples. Lensemble constitue un circuit argumentatif. La thse peut tre
clairement nonce, explicite, ou rester implicite.
Pendant que la publicit en tant quactivit est relativement facile dcrire, il est
difficile de dfinir la langue publicitaire comme pratique discursive tenant compte de la
varit de ses caractristiques linguistiques en fonction du produit, du canal de diffusion, du
public cibl ou en fonction dune culture ou dune autre. En raison des caractristiques
propres au genre publicitaire le caractre persuasif, labsence de feedback, formules
typiques de ce genre comme le slogan, nature double pendulant entre science exacte et art, on
peut conclure que le discours publicitaire existe en tant que langage spcialis. La langue
publicitaire doit rpondre des critres defficacit et de persuasion, c'est--dire quelle doit
avoir un rsultat de la part du public cible lachat du produit. En consquence la
caractristique majeure de la langue publicitaire reste son objectif : persuader le
consommateur.
3. Problmatiques dans la traduction du texte publicitaire
En mme temps avec le dveloppement du march, la diversification des produits et
des services sur le plan international, ainsi quen vue dconomiser les ressources pour la
promotion de produits, il est apparu la ncessit de traduire les textes publicitaires. Ce type de
traduction est l'un des plus dynamiques, qui se dveloppe rapidement dans le domaine
indpendant des traductions. Dans ce cas, on doit attirer lattention sur l'adaptation du texte en
langue trangre un auditoire particulier et sa culture.
Les traductions des textes publicitaires sont en gnral moins volumineuses que les
autres types de traductions. En mme temps, celles-ci peuvent tre les traductions les plus
cratives et ncessitent une prcaution particulire. Lune des difficults principales dans ce
cas consiste dans la capacit de rendre les significations smantiques et motionnelles du
texte. Cest une tche difficile tenant compte que les gens provenant des cultures diffrentes
ont des valeurs diffrentes et videmment de perceptions diffrentes sur les mmes phrases ou
gestes.
Les dernires annes on a assist une vritable explosion de la globalisation
conomique, dont la consquence naturelle a t lintensification de la communication
commerciale qui a entran un dveloppement de la traduction du discours publicitaire.
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Issue no. 6/2015
partir de cette remarque, deux principales stratgies de traduction dans le domaine de la

publicit ont t abordes : ladaptation et la localisation. Ces stratgies de traduction peuvent
aller de la simple traduction du slogan, ladaptation ou encore la localisation du site
Internet dune entreprise.
Mais quest-ce que se passe effectivement quand on veut traduire un message
publicitaire? Comment peut-on conjuguer la discipline de la traduction et le domaine de
marketing, la structure linguistique du slogan et sa finalit objective? La difficult de la
traduction dans le domaine publicitaire drive de la complexit des fonctions de la publicit.
La publicit nest pas uniquement conue comme une activit commerciale, mais galement
comme le produit de cette mme activit : une pratique communicationnelle. Lactivit
publicitaire consiste par consquence promouvoir en communiquant. Etudier le langage
publicitaire et la traduction publicitaire suppose des recherches en traductologie, en
linguistique, en rhtorique, en communication publicitaire et en marketing. On peut parler
alors dune approche interdisciplinaire qui vise une perspective traductologique, linguistique
et interculturelle.
Dans ces circonstances, comment peut-on transposer le discours publicitaire dautres
langues et cultures? Pendant quun argument de vente fait recette dans une culture, il peut
chouer dans une autre ; telle marque ne se commercialise pas sous le mme nom de lautre
ct de la frontire. Localiser un outil de communication, c'est--dire l'adapter la culture
et aux normes technologiques d'un march tranger requiert non seulement de possder les
comptences techniques et linguistiques ncessaires mais galement de connatre parfaitement
le public cible.
Les stratgies langagires de commercialisation et leur ventuelle traduction se
rvlent un sujet dtude la fois pragmatique et enrichissant qui combine lobservation de la
langue sous ces diffrentes facettes et lanalyse des diverses techniques argumentatives
employes dans le domaine de la commercialisation et de la publicit. En effet, de nos jours,
la traduction, et la traduction publicitaire encore plus, est directement lie au phnomne de la
globalisation, ce qui force ses thoriciens rflchir sur ladaptation culturelle du message
publicitaire. Lultime objectif de la publicit est celui de faire vendre, et cest le mme but
que doit poursuivre une production publicitaire, quelle soit traduite ou adapte.
Dans ce contexte, si un traducteur est recherch pour traduire une publicit, il devra
sefforcer de retranscrire leffet persuasif du texte source plutt que de chercher reproduire
son sens littral. En consquence, les procds persuasifs quil utilise dans le texte cible
peuvent diffrer des stratgies communicatives employes en langue source, la difficult tant
de savoir jusqu quel point on peut modifier le message source tout en gardant la cohrence
de limage et de lesprit de la marque. Cette adaptation au public cible du point de vue
linguistique et culturel exige une rflexion approfondie sur de nombreux concepts
linguistiques et traductologiques. Lorsquon sinterroge sur la question de la traduction
publicitaire, on est forcment contraint de parler en termes dadaptation, voire de recration.
En ce qui concerne le processus de traduction proprement dit, les entreprises
multinationales et les agences de publicit prfrent avoir recours des services linguistiques
externes (pour des raisons de cots) plutt que demployer des traducteurs au sein de leur
groupe. Lorsque lon sintresse plus prcisment au fonctionnement des agences de services
linguistiques multilingues, on remarque que les tches qui y sont ralises se fondent moins
sur le processus de traduction que sur le principe de la rdaction parallle : en effet, on y offre
la fois des services de marketing publicitaire et des services linguistiques adapts au
contexte actuel de globalisation, telles que la localisation de sites Internet divers marchs,
ladaptation linguistique et culturelle de publicits, ou encore la rdaction de textes dans
diffrentes langues. Dans le domaine de la publicit, le traducteur de demain sera donc
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Issue no. 6/2015
souvent amen raliser des tches qui sapparentent plus la rdaction dans sa propre
langue qu la traduction.
La publicit constitue donc un domaine complexe et attractif de point de vue
linguistique par son mlange de crativit et de techniques strictement labores ayant de fins
commerciales et qui ncessitent des rsultats mesurables. La traduction d ans le domaine de
la publicit semble plutt tre un domaine en plein processus de cristallisation dont les
frontires et les lois sont difficile tracer. Par son pouvoir cratif et par ses connections avec
le marketing et la communication, le discours publicitaire en tant que langage spcialis, et les
techniques utilises pour son traduction constituent un point dintrt pour les traducteurs, qui
voient dans la traduction publicitaire un domaine attractif, avec un potentiel norme.
Bibliographie
Adam, Jean-Michele, Marc Bonhomme. (2005). Argumentare pubicitar. Iai: Editura
Institutului European.
Brandt, Stefanie. (2007). Le langage publicitaire: une approche smiologique et
didactico-linguistique
[en
ligne].
Accessible
ladresse
:
http://www.youscribe.com/catalogue/rapports-et-theses/ressourcesprofessionnelles/marketing-et-communication/le-langage-publicitaire-une-approchesemiologique-et-1416573 (consult le 06.02.2015).
Burger, Harold. (1993). Mediensprache. Eine Einfhrung in Sprache und
Kommunikationsformen der Massenmedien, Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.
Janich, Nina. (1999). Werbesprache. Ein Arbeitsbuch. Tbingen: Niemeyer Verlag.
Larminaux, Caroline. (2010). Traduction-adaptation du discours publicitaire :
analyse compare des sites Internet du groupe Danone, versions pour la France et pour
lEspagne.
[en
ligne].
Accessible
ladresse
:
gredos.usal.es/jspui/.../1/DTI_LarminauxC_Traduction-adaption.pdf
(consult
le
12.12.2014).
Lipovetscky, Gilles, Jean Serroy. (2008). Ecranul global. Iai: Editura Polirom.
Popa, Dorin. (2005) Comunicare i publicitate. Bucureti : Editura Tritonic, Bucuresti.
Zurstiege, Guido. (2005). Zwischen Kritik und Faszination. Was wir beobachten, wenn
wir Werbung beobachten, wie sie die Gesellschaft beobachtet. Kln : Herbert von Halem
Verlag.
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Issue no.6/2015
THE ETNOGRAPHIC WRITING AND THE DISCURSIVE TECHNIQUES OF THE

POSITIVIST PARADIGM
Maria GROSU
Iuliu Haieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Cluj-Napoca
Abstract: This study carries out an analysis, from a reflexive perspective, of the folklore
archives established in Romania over the course of the twentieth century,archived documents
representing the object of research. This approach interrogates the intended objective
characterof the information collected in the field and archived thereafter. The research shows
that the archived fieldnotes are subjective constructions, shaped by the epistemological
context in which they were drafted. The cultural memory built through the archival project in
Romania, in the second half of the twentieth century, was referential, as it attempted a literal
representation of the cultural reality. This manner of constructing cultural identity is based
on the theoretical premises of the positivist paradigm.
Keywords: folklore archive, archived document, positivist paradigm, discursive techniques,
identity.
Studiul propune o analiz a unor documente manuscrise indexate n Arhiva Cercului
de Folclor Cluj, de la Facultatea de Litere a Universitii Babe-Bolyai. Acest demers
ilustreaz relaia dintre scriere i lectur: coninutul notelor de teren i tehnicile discursive
utilizate (scrierea) sunt determinate de premisele teoretice i epistemologice din perioada n
care se face cercetarea (lectura). Vom analiza comparativ fie de teren realizate n diferite
perioade din a doua jumtate a secolului al XX-lea. Aceast comparaie n plan diacronic
evideniaz simulitudini: refigurarea realului prin tehnici discursive de obiectivare i
diferene: mutaii n ceea ce privete procesul de transferare de la oral la scriptural, de la
evenimentul observat de cercettor la textul fiei de teren. Mutaiile vizeaz coninutul notelor
de teren i retorica textual i sunt determinate de schimbarea contextului tiinific la care se
raporteaz cercettorii.
Arhiva Cercului de Folclor Cluj a fost nfiinat n 1958, la Facultatea de Litere a
Universitii Babe-Bolyai din Cluj. Conine aproximativ 12000 de fie manuscrise,
realizate din 1958 pn n 1993, de ctre studeni i de ctre profesorii care i-au coordonat pe
acetia n activitatea de cercetare. Fiele de teren sunt realizate conform metodologiei de
cercetare din a doua jumtatea a secolului al XX-lea i au fost indexate n cataloagele arhivei,
n dou fonduri. Fondul A conine fie realizate de ctre studenii de la secia cu frecven i
care au fost coordonai, n cercetarea lor, de profesori. Fondul B conine materiale realizate de
studenii de la secia fr frecven, care au fcut cercetri n mod individual, conform
instruciunilor din cursul litografiat al profesorului Dumitru Pop, titularul cursului de folclor
literar. Eleonora Sava face o analiz cantitativ a notelor de teren din Arhiv i ajunge la
urmtoarele rezultate: cercetri intensive s-au desfurat n judeele Satu Mare (3953 fie,
30,99% din fondul documentar), Slaj (2062 de manuscrise, 16,17% din totalul arhivat) i
Cluj (2002 fie, 15,70% din materialul arhivistic). Aceste anchete s-au desfurat pe parcursul
a 12 ani i au antrenat peste o sut de cercettori, care au realizat 8017 fie arhivate, adic
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62,86% din Arhiva Cercului de Foclor Cluj. Materialele din celelate judee sunt n numr de
4736 de fie, reprezentnd 37,14% din fondul arhivat.1
Vom face o comparaie ntre dou fie manuscrise din Arhiva Cercului de Folclor.
Fiele au dou puncte de convergen: sunt ncadrate aceleiai teme, nmormntarea, i sunt
realizate ca urmare a utilizrii aceleiai metode de cercetare, observaia. Manuscrisele au fost
redactate n campanii de cercetare care s-au desfurat la distan de aproape dou decenii:
1958, n localitatea Sfra, judeul Slaj2, fia nregistrat n Arhiv cu cota ACFC 1117 i
1975, n localitatea Moieni, judeul Satu Mare, fia cu cota ACFC 7390. Analiza noastr va
urmri strategiile discursive de redare a realitii. Vom analiza comparativ ipostaza
cercettorului (cine scrie?) i coninutul fiei de teren (ce scrie?).
Strategiile discursive utilizate n textualizarea fielor, prin trecerea de la oral la
scriptural, corespund etnografiei realiste. ntre evenimentul sau conversaia la care ia parte
cercettorul, n vederea acumulrii datelor de teren, i fiele de teren arhivate, se interpun o
serie de traduceri/ transformri/ redimensionri n codul cultural i tiinific al cercettorului.
Trecerea de la oralitate la scripturalitate, scrierea notelor de teren, este un proces interpretativ
care implic: selecia din continuumul evenimenial i conversaional i textualizarea
aspectelor selectate, conform codului metodologic i epistemologic al cercettorului. Aadar,
ntre realitatea evenimenial sau conversaional la care particip cercettorul i fia de teren
arhivat, se interpune un prim moment major de traducere n codul tiinific: scrierea. Un alt
moment de redimensionare este arhivarea. n acest articol, vom avea n prim-plan scrierea.
I.
PREMISE TEORETICE
1) Exist o strns relaie ntre premisele cercetrii i rezultatele acesteia.n anii 80, n
perioada impunerii antropologiei postmoderne, James Clifford3 argumenteaz faptul
c textele etnografice sunt alegorice: dimensiunea ideologic/ politic este mereu
prezent. Mutaia n domeniul antropologiei este argumentat de James Clifford astfel:
n secolul al XIX-lea i n secolul al XX-lea, pozitivismul a respins retorica, pentru
artificialitatea ei. Renaterea retoricii n domeniul literaturii i al teoriilor culturale
(Roland Barthes, Kenneth Burke, Gerard Genette, Michel de Certeau, Hayden White,
Paul De Man, Michel Beaujour etc.) genereaz o critic a principiilor pozitiviste:
descrierea cultural nu re-prezint o cultur, ci este o istorie (ncrcat cu judeci de
valoare) despre aceasta4.
The quantitative analysis of the documents indicates that intensive research was carried out in Satu-Mare
County (3,953 field notes, representing 30.99% of the documentary fund), Slaj County (2,062 manuscripts, the
equivalent of 16.17% of the total archived) and Cluj County (2,002 field notes, i.e. 15.70% of the archived data).
The fieldwork lasted for a period of 12 years and involved over 100 researchers, with a total of 8,017 archived
field notes, i.e. 62.86% of the archival fund., Eleonora Sava, The Cluj Archive of the Folklore Society:
Ethnological Practices in Communist Romania, n Eleonora Sava (coordonator), The Ethnological Archive.
Paradigms and Dialogues, Morlacchi University Press, Perugia, Italia, 2011, p. 17.
2
Conform mpririi administrativ-teritoriale din 1958, localitatea Sfra aparinea raionului Huedin, din
regiunea Cluj.
3
James Clifford, On Ethnographic Allegory, n James Clifford, George E. Marcus, Writing Culture. The Poetics
and Politics of Ethnography, A School of American Research, Advanced Seminar, Berkeley Los Angeles,
London, University of California Press, 1984, pp. 98-121.
4
Positivism, realism, and romanticismnineteenth-century ingredients of twentieth-century anthropologyall
rejected the false artifice of rhetoric along with allegory's supposed abstractness. Allegory violated the canons
both of empirical science and of artistic spontaneity. It was too deductive, too much an open imposition of
meaning on sensible evidence. The recent revival of rhetoric by a diverse group of literary and cultural
theorists (Roland Barthes, Kenneth Burke, Gerard Genette, Michel de Certeau, Hayden White, Paul De Man, and
Michel Beaujour among others) has thrown serious doubt on the positivist-romantic-realist consensus. In
ethnography the current turn to rhetoric coincides with a period of political and epistemological rvaluation in
1
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2) Eleonora Sava arat c cercetarea de teren ale crei fie de teren sunt indexate n
Arhiva Cercului de Folclor Cluj, a parcurs trei etape de cercetare. Acestea sunt n
relaie cu contextul politic, tiinific i academic5: Etapa folcloristic (1958 1973)6
Perioada e caracterizat de ruptura cu practica i bibliografia intrebelic. Pentru
cercettorii acestei perioade, munca de teren nseamn culegere de texte folclorice, n
afara contextelor de manifestare/ performare; De la culegerea folclorului, la
cercetarea culturii tradiionale (1973 1992)7 n munca de teren, cercettorii se
intereseaz nu doar de texte, ci i de contextele performrii lor. Folclorul devine fapt
cultural sau element de comunicare social.; Etapa etnologic (dup 1992)8
Interesul cercettorilor nu este ndreptat spre literatura popular, ci spre viaa
particular a indivizilor ce compun colectivitatea i spre istoriile acestora. Se propune
o etnologie a cotidianului, a faptului divers i efemer. Cercettorii utilizeaz interviul
non-directiv i povestirea vieii ca metode de cercetare; astfel, n prim-plan sunt puse
elemente individuale i nu colective, experiena personal i nu cea reglementat de
colectivitate, memoria afectiv i subiectivitatea.
Cum se reflect, n textul etnografic, unghiul teoretic, paradigma epistemologic n
care se nscriu cercettorii romni din a doua jumtate a secolului al XX-lea? Cum se schimb
scriitura etnografic, prin coninut i retorica folosit de cercettori, n trecerea de la o etap
de cercetare la alta?
2) ANALIZ COMPARATIV N PLAN DIACRONIC
Cine scrie? Instana discursiv
1. O prim diferen ntre fiele din anii 50 i cele din anii70 poate fi identificat la
nivel paratextual, respectiv la nivelul metalimbajului care nsoete coninutul fiei de teren.
Dac n fiele redactate n anii 50, metalimbajul aproape c lipsete, n anii 70 studenii
opereaz cu conceptele metodologice (chestionar, observaie etc.). Studenii din 70 au un
cadru conceptual mai bine articulat sau cel puin unul pe care l utilizeaz cu mai mare
siguran i adecvare. Astfel, e evident o profesionalizare a cercetrilor realizate de studeni.
ACFC 1117 1958
ACFC 7390 1975

nmormntare. Ioan Moi, 20 de
ani. Fi de observaii
Obicei la mort
(din cele vzute la
moartea Nchitoaiei, 86
ani)
2. O caracteristic a fielor de observaie redactate n prima perioad de culegere este

faptul c, n discursul acestora, putem identifica o unic voce, cea a cercettorului. Acesta nu
i difereniaz vocea de a celorlali, noteaz credinele/ informaiile oferite de interlocutori,
ca i cum ar fi propriul discurs, chiar dac adopt, n limbaj, termeni locali utilizai de
interlocutori. Textul fiei indic faptul c nu interlocutorul vorbete, ci cercettorul, n numele
which the constructed, imposed nature of representational authority has become unusually visible and contested.
Allegory prompts us to say of any cultural description not this represents, or symbolizes, that but rather, this
is a (morally charged) story about that., Ibidem, p. 100.
5
Eleonora Sava, Patrimoine culturel local: Les archives du Cercle de Folklore de l'Universit Babe-Bolyai, n
x x x, Antropologie i studii culturale. Perspective actuale, Editori: Alina Branda, Ion Cuceu, Cosmina TimoceMocanu, Cluj-Napoca, Editura Mega, 2012.
6
Ibidem, pp. 22-25.
7
Ibidem, pp. 25-28.
8
Ibidem, pp. 28-31.
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celui dinti. Ignorarea polifoniei poate fi o strategie de obiectivare a discursului, de creare a

iluziei c fiele conin realiti. Premisa teoretic a demersului este c fia de teren ilusteaz o
realitate pe care cercettorul o gsete ntr-un spaiu determinat, c realitatea preexist
textului scris dup norme tiinifice. Strategia de obiectivare presupune neglijarea vocii
interlocutorului i nlocuirea ei cu cea a cercettorului, care adopt o voce apropiat de cea a
insiderului, prin utilizarea termenilor locali: norocu, mortu, oluri, vase pomanace, uneori
chiar reproducnd o explicaie a acestuia: Ca s nu duc mortu norocu de la cas. De
asemenea, aceast substituie accentueaz anonimatul interlocutorului, coninutul fiei fiind
asociat mai degrab unui cadru spaio-temporal, dect unei persoane individuale. n schimb,
majoritatea fielor de observaie din etapa de trecere de la etapa folcloristic la etapa
etnologic, fac diferena ntre vocea cercettorului i cea a interlocutorului.
ACFC 1117 1958
nainte de a o bga n sicriu, o
msoar cu o a i aa o pune n
grind, ca s nu duc mortu
norocu de la cas. [] Mortu
nu miroas dac-i pui un pic
de crp cu plinc pe la
guri nas, s nu se rsufle.
ACFC 7390 1975

O femeie, care a venit s vad mortul, se uit
cum fac drutele steagul i zice:
Aiesta steag nu-i frumos/ C i tare
lcrmos.
Apoi se ntoarce n cas. []
Dup ce termin steagul, mama mortului i
cinstete pe cei care l-au fcut. []
Rudele mai apropiate (cei ai casei) rmn
nuntru i dau cu spatele de u (ca s nu le
fie fric).
3. O alt diferen se refer la autodefinirea cercettorului. n fia ACFC 1117,

cercettorul nu precizeaz momentul n care face observaia. Prezint, ntr-o singur fi,
datat 31.XI.1958, aspecte corespunztoare unor zile diferite: pregtirea trupului decedatei i
punerea lui n sicriu, pomana, curarea casei, dup nmormntare, prin zugrvire, vinderea
lucrurilor decedatei etc. Astfel, fia este o reconstiuire a scenariului, din date observate i din
date oferite de interlocutori. Textul fiei nu precizeaz la care dintre etapele nmormntrii a
asistat cercettorul i care sunt reconstituiri din discursul interlocutorilor. Cercettorul nu se
autodefinete, prin determinri temporale, nu precizeaz momentul n care face observaia.
n schimb, n urmtoarea etap de cercetare, care face tranziia spre etnologia
modern, cercettorul noteaz cu precizie ora i minutul la care ncepe fiecare moment ritual
din cadrul nmormntrii. n etapa anterioar, discursul cercettorului nu conine indici
spaiali referitori la locul unde se afl cel care observ, locul unde are loc evenimentul, ci doar
referiri la plasarea spaial a obiectelor considerate semnificative pentru universul folcloric
descris: n sicriu, de o parte a sicriului, deasupra sicriului, pe perete. Lipsa determinrii
spaio-temporale induce ideea c fia prezint o realitate cultural general valabil. Unele
(puine) dintre materialele din anii 70 conin i anumite forme de subiectivitate, de
interiorizare i interpretare a datelor. Sunt prezente remarci care pun n eviden interiorizarea
experienei i discursivizarea n relaie cu un pre-text dat de experiena cultural individual,
mirarea autorului fa de nite comportamente contrare celor din orizontul lui de ateptare,
caracterul interpretativ al descrierii: Durerea pierderii fratelui face ca plnsul nbuit al
brbailor s devin bocet. E ceva rar ntlnit (ACFC 7390).
ACFC 1117 1958
ACFC 7390 1975

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nainte de a o bga n sicriu, o

msoar cu o a, aa o pune n
grind, ca s nu duc mortu
norocu de la cas. Se pune n
copreu o creang, un piaptn,
un colac, i un bnu. I se scoate
orul moartei de o parte a
sicriului i rochia de cealalt
parte. n sicriu i pune doctoriile,
reetele, bunurile i tot ce a avut. I
se puneo maram neagr pe fa,
apoi un linoi i se punecapacul.
Deasupra se pune o acoperitoare
i o farfurie cu o lumnare pe care
au aprins-o cnd ncep s sune
clopotele.
Ce scrie? Coninutul fielor arhivate
6 iulie 1975 []
7 iulie 1975 []
Ora 12.10: trag clopotele; se bocete.
Ora 19.45: trag clopotele; se bocete. []
Durerea pierderii fratelui face ca plnsul nbuit
al brbailor s devin bocet. E ceva rar ntlnit.
[]
Cnd se termin prohodul, trag clopotele i
femeile (chiar i brbaii) bocesc!
8 iulie 1975 []
Ora 21.30: parasta la casa mortului: popa, diecii.
Dou sfenice puse: unul la cap, altul la picioare.
Rmn n cas. n plus, la prohod, se mai aduc
dou. Dou farfurii care sunt mai apropiate de
col sunt ntoarse. Steagul e pus pe pat n aceeai
camer cu mortul. La sfrit se d pausul = un
colac pus ntr-o sticl cu vin. Pe colac e aprins o
lumnare i e pus i o floare.
1. Att fiele din anii 50, ct i cele din anii 70, conin elemente care intr n grila de
cutare propus de cadrul teoretic, respectiv ceea ce este simbolic, iterativ i semnificativ
pentru cultura unui spaiu. Cercettorul selecteaz doar amnunte referitoare la gesturi/obiecte
simbolice, noteaz doar ceea ce este diferit fa de comportamentul cotidian.
ACFC 1117 1958
Se pune n copreu o creang, un
piaptn, un colac i un bnu. I se
scoate orul moartei de o parte a
sicriului i rochia de cealalt parte.
n sicriu i pune i doctoriile,
reetele, bunurile i tot ce-a avut. I
se pune o maram pe fa, apoi un
linoliu i se pune capacul.
ACFC 7390 1975

ncep pregtirile la casa mortului. Se
pregtesc cocui de ctre vduve. Se
pregtesc i colaci. Struii de pe colaci i
pot face i rude (femei), chiar dac nu sunt
vduve.
Se fac aproximativ 32 de colaci.
Colacii se ung cu ulei pe deasupra.
n fiele din anii 70, studenii insist i pe amnunte care particularizeaz i dau
autenticitate evenimentelor prezentate. Remarcm dezideratul nelegerii relaiei dintre
aspectele observate.
Pleac o femeie cu o feti. Unul din cei care lucreaz la sicriu cheam fetia ha,
bag-te aici-ni (n sicriu). Lucreaz cu rindea, secure, firez lat (spat), clete, sfredel.
Sicriul se poate face din orice fel de lemn.
Oamenii povestesc despre locurile n care au umblat i spun c n-ar sta n casele pe
coast cum sunt la Rogna Veche Ortie, n Carpai, unde este loc drept numa
ct i casa.
1069
La ora 12.23 vin dou neveste cu plcint. O aaz pe un scaun jos, peste care s-a
pus un ziar. Aduc scaune mici. Fiica nchin un pahar cu plinc. ndeamn pe
toi, zicnd c femeile au fcut-o, nu dnsa care a stat cu moarta. (ACFC 11165).
Issue no. 6/2015
2. Att n fiele din 1958, ct i n cele din 1975, accentul este pus pe aciune i pe
obiectele cu valoare simbolic, iar actanii sunt ntr-un con de umbr. Important pentru
cercettori este ce se face, nu cine, cnd i cum. Persoanele sunt numite doar dup statutul de
gen: brbaii, femeile. Oamenii sunt vzui ca instane generice care acioneaz n virtutea
unor legi, ale cror aciuni sunt generate de o realitate cultural invariabil i care i preced.
Cercettorul nu insist pe elemente particulare, ci pe cele considerate reprezentative,
caracteristice nmormntrii.
n anii 70, sunt mai frecvente particularizrile privitoare la actani, cercettorul este
mai atent la definirea celui care face o anumit aciune. Criteriile de identificare a acestuia
vizeaz, pe lng gen, i relaia cu decedatul i categoria de vrst. Notaiile corespund unei
priviri care se apropie mai mult de situaia concret observat, unei priviri care caut relaiile
dintre elementele observate, care ncearc s neleag semnificaia acestora.
ACFC 1117 1958
ACFC 7390 1975
La mas sunt invitai numai

brbai, femeile nu. La copii se
mpart colcei. Femeile servesc
la mas, dar numai cele care
sunt rude cu moarta.
Ora 7.00 vin fetele s fac steagul acum i fac

stru cu flori i verdea. Fetele vin mpreun cu
stegarul care e verior primar cu mortul. Mai e un
stegar care-l schimb cnd obosete. La
mpodobirea steagului, vine i cel de-al doilea
stegar, care e i el neam cu mortul.
ACFC 7390 1975
Mama mortuluii mtui de-ale lui repartizeaz
praporii n timp ce preotul i diecii cnt, iar
lumea e ngenuncheat. []
Convoiul: cetera, stegar; prini, frai (n
imediata apropiere a sicriului); rudenii, steni.
[]
La marginea gropii, acompaniat de vioar,
ofatpurete. []
Dup ce s-a ncheiat ceremonia nmormntrii,
rudele apropiate (prinii, fraii) invit la mas
pe toat lumea. []
CONCLUZII
Demersul comparativ relev, pe de o parte, un punct major de convergen ntre cele
dou etape de cercetare: obiectivitatea este un deziderat al cercettorilor din ambele perioade
de cercetare, iar pe de alt parte, un punct de divergen: activitatea cercettorului din anii 50
este mai mult una de recunoatere, n timp ce n etapa urmtoare, cercetarea presupune
descoperire i nelegere a sensurilor. Analiza manuscriselor din arhiv ilustreaz deosebirile
metodologice dintre fiele de teren din anii 50 i cele din anii 70: grade diferite de autoritate
a etnografului. n etapa folcloristic, cercettorii selecteaz i compar date similare, ntr-un
sistem sintagmatic: tipologiile i corpusurile folclorice sunt constituite prin cumularea
textelor/ obiceiurilor/ secvenelor rituale dintr-o categorie focloric. Principiul de lucru este
compararea elementelor similare. n consecin, datele de teren au caracter generic. Mai
trziu, cercettorii i asum un rol n plus: asociaz datele diferite, n vederea stabilirii relaiei
dintre ele, ntr-un sistem paradigmatic. Finalitatea cercetrilor este nelegerea ntregului
sistem socio-cultural; tocmai de aceea, datele cu caracter particular intr de acum n aria de
interes a cercettorilor.
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Issue no. 6/2015
Aadar, fiele nu conin date obiective, aa cum s-a considerat mult timp. Miza acestei
analize este aceea de a arta c manuscrisele din arhivele de folclor sunt produse ale
contextului epistemologic n care au fost realizate. n secolul al XX-lea, contextul tiinific
este dominat de paradigma pozitivist. Metodologia de cercetare, respectiv de scriere a
notelor de teren din aceast perioad este n direct relaie cu finalitile disciplinei, aa cum
au fost definite n perioada constituirii fondurilor documentare. Scrierea fiei de teren i
arhivarea ei reprezint etape majore prin care se realizeaz o traducere n codul tiinific al
perioadei n care se face cercetarea. Scrierea etnografic este o form de redimensionare
subiectiv, chiar dac miza explicit a cercetrii este aceea de a reda obiectiv realitatea
observat. Inevitabil, textul ofer o imagine a contextului, vocea autorului i proveniena lui
epistemologic sunt imposibil de ignorat.
n Romnia secolului al XX-lea, la fel ca n ntreaga Europ a primei jumti de
secol, preocuparea major pentru realizarea fondurilor arhivistice este declarat explicit n
termeni de salvare a patrimoniului naional i de definire a identitii naionale, prin
tipologiile i atlasele folclorice ce se vor realiza pe baza acestor documente arhivate 9. Fiind o
construcie generat de premisele paradigmei pozitiviste, discursul tiinific care normeaz
metodologia de lucru pentru arhivele de folclor este similar cu cel din tiinele exacte.
Memoria cultural construit de sistemul arhivistic din Romnia, n a doua jumtatea a
secolului al XX-lea, este referenial, ncercnd o reprezentare literal a realitii culturale.
Acest mod de construire a identitii culturale vine n direct relaie cu paradigma etnologiilor
naionale. Proiectul arhivelor de folclor constituie un macro-sistem, care cuprinde etapele:
cercetare, arhivare i analiz a fielor, n vederea cartografierii datelor i a realizrii
tipologiilor. Eforturile realizate n aceste trei etape, de ctre mai multe generaii de cercettori,
converg spre crearea unei imagini dorit reprezentative i obiectivea culturii tradiionale
naionale.
BIBLIOGRAFIE
ATKINSON, Paul, The Ethnographic Imagination. Textual constructions of reality
[Imaginaia etnografic. Construcii textuale ale realitii], London New York, Routledge,
1994.
ATKINSON, Paul, Understanding Ethnographic Texts [nelegerea textului
etnografic], Newbury Park, London New Dehli, Sage Publications, 1992.
CLIFFORD, James, On Ethnographic Allegory, n James Clifford, George E. Marcus,
Writing Culture. The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography, A School of American Research,
Advanced Seminar, Berkeley Los Angeles, London, University of California Press, 1984, pp.
98-121.
CUCEU Ion, CUCEU Maria (ed.), Arhiva de Folclor a Academiei Romne. Studii,
memorii ale ntemeierii, rapoarte de activitate, chestionare 1930-1948, Editura Fundaiei
pentru Studii Europene, Cluj-Napoca, 2003.
HAMMERSLEY, Martyn, ATKINSON, Paul, Ethnography. Principles in practice
[Etnografia. Principii n practic], Third edition, London and New York, Routledge, 2007.
LAPLANTINE, Franois, Descrierea etnografic, Iai, Polirom, 2000.
LUCAS-LECLIN, milie, Comparatisme et pluralisme pistmologique: pour une
approche anthropologique de lcriture la premire personne [Comparatism i pluralism:
pentru o apropiere a antropologiei de scrierea la persoana I], Trans [En ligne], 1 | 2005,
Ion Mulea, nvtorii i folclorul, Memoriu adresat Academiei Romne (1929), in Arhiva de Folclor a
Academiei Romne. Studii, memorii ale ntemeierii, rapoarte de activitate, chestionare 1930-1948, ed. Ion
Cuceu, Maria Cuceu, Editura Fundaiei pentru Studii Europene, Cluj, 2003.
9
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postat on-line n 27 decembrie 2005, consultat n 06 februarie 2013, articol disponibil pe

interenet: http://trans.revues.org/116.
SAVA, Eleonora, Patrimoine culturel local: Les archives du Cercle de Folklore de
l'Universit Babe-Bolyai [Patrimoniul cultural local: Arhiva Cercului de Folclor a
Universitii Babe-Bolyai], n x x x, Antropologie i studii culturale. Perspective actuale,
Editori: Alina Branda, Ion Cuceu, Cosmina Timoce-Mocanu, Cluj-Napoca, Editura Mega,
2012.
SAVA, Eleonora, The Cluj Archive of the Folklore Society: Ethnological Practices in
Communist Romania, n Eleonora Sava (coordonator), The Ethnological Archive. Paradigms
and Dialogues, Perugia, Italia, Morlacchi University Press, 2011.
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THE MYTH OF ORPHEUS. PARALLEL BETWEEN THE ANCIENT POETRY OF OVID

AND VERGIL AND THE MUSIC FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE 17TH CENTURY
COMPOSED BY CLAUDIO MONTEVERDI
Maria Virginia ONIA
Abstract: Through time, some were impressed by the power of which Orpheuss poetry and
song subjugated surrounding beings; others were inspired by the love-story of Orpheus and
his wife, Eurydice, or by Orpheuss journey in the Underworld. Also, there were some
attempts to explain from a psychological perspective, why Orpheus made that reckless
gesture of gazing at his beloved wife before it was time. The dramatic double loss of his
loved-one is another topic that evolved over time. The complexity of the character and his
enchanted life story are two major reasons why this episode of Hellenic mythology has
survived throughout the centuries, remaining an inexhaustible source of inspiration for the
humanitys creative mind.
The central topic of this study is the myth of Orpheus viewed as the foundation of the first
operas. This character was not a random choice by the initiators of this musical genre. His
connection with music and poetry (the two elements that represented the foundation of the
first operas) was most suitable to exploit new forms of harmony, orchestration and vocal
melody. These searches have found their answer in the first musical drama masterpiece, La
favola dÒrfeo (music: Claudio Monteverdi, libretto: Alessandro Striggio).
Keywords: myth, music, poetry, Orpheus, antiquity
ntr-o analiz a mitului lui Orfeu, Mircea Eliade atrgea atenia asupra unor trsturi
eseniale ale acestuia: dei numele i anumite iluzii din mit sunt atestate abia din secolul al
VI-lea, Orfeu este un personaj religios de tip arhaic. Se poate uor nelege c el a trit nainte
de Homer, nelegnd aceast expresie fie cronologic, fie geografic (adic ntr-o regiune
barbar, nc neatins de valorile spirituale homerice); 2) [...] se bucur de atribute magicoreligioase preelenice (stpnirea asupra animalelor, catabasa de tip amanic); 3) Orfeu este
prezentat ca ntemeietorul iniierilor prin excelen1.
LOrfeo (favola in musica) de Claudio Monteverdi este prima creaie consemnat n
istoria muzicii care aparine genului operei. Libretul acesteia este semnat de Alessandro
Striggio, care a utilizat ca baz pentru scenariul su Crile X i XI (parial) din Metamorfoze
de Ovidiu i Cartea a IV-a din Georgicele lui Vergiliu.
n timpul lui Augustus, perioad n care Ovidiu a realizat marile sale scrieri, artele i
literatura nfloresc. Arhitectura este reprezentat de numeroasele cldiri impuntoare
temple, teatre, portice. n literatur se disting valoroasele scrieri ale lui Vergiliu, Horaiu,
Ovidiu sau Titus Livius, avndu-i deja ca precursori pe poei precum Lucreiu sau Catullus.
Acum este momentul n care apar primele poeme cu subiect erotic, de o deosebit valoare
literar, ns respinse de ctre conducerea roman a acelor timpuri. Carmen este un termen ce
desemneaz, n primul rnd Arta iubirii, dar e posibil s fac aluzie i la celelalte opere
erotice care, prin coninutul lor imoral, se opuneau politicii lui Augustus2. Augustus l-a exilat
pe Ovidiu la Tomis, probabil ca urmare a scrierilor sale. n colecia Oameni de seam, Ovidiu
Mircea Eliade, Istoria credinelor i ideilor religioase, vol. II, trad. Cezar Baltag, Editura tiinific i
2
Ioan Maxim, Orfeu, bucuria cunoaterii, Editura Univers, Bucureti, 1976, p. 81.
1
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Drmba i dedic un volum lui Ovidiu. Aici ne este adus n atenie frustrarea poetului cu
privire la pedeapsa nedreapt venit din partea lui Augustus. Iat: prima nvinuire era adus
imoralitii scrierilor sale. [...] ntr-adevr, i fusese mai fluturatic talentul pe vremea cnd
scria versuri de dragoste. Dar s se spun c prin versurile lui, cele din Arta iubirii mai ales, iar fi mpins pe cititori la desfrnare, era cu totul nedrept.3
n Metamorfoze, n cartea a X-a Ovidiu realizeaz o descriere plin de farmec a
povetii de dragoste dintre Orfeu i Euridice: Cntreul/ Rodopian, dup ce pe pmnt
ndeajuns a jelit-o,/ Cearc s-o caute chiar pe-ale morii meleaguri, cuteaz/ S se coboare
prin poarta Tenarului pn la Stix; i/ Face loc printre duhuri uoare, ce-avut-au de groap/
Parte i-ajunge la Persefona i la stpnul/ rii mhnite, al umbrelor domn; i-atingnd ale
lirei/ [...] doamna regeasc i domnul adncului nu pot/ Rugii s-i stea mpotriv; pe
Euridice o cheam.4
n cartea a XI-a Vergiliu ne prezint sfritul terifiant al lui Orfeu (n care este sfiat
tinere ciconiene) i viaa acestuia dup moarte, scene prezentate n versurile 1-66. Umbra lui
coboar n Infern, o ntlnete pe Euridice i rmne alturi de ea, putnd acum s o priveasc
n voie: Umbra lui Orfeu sub pmnt se coboar i acolo/ Vede iar locuri pe care le mai
vzuse. Prin cmpul/ Celor pioi cutnd, o gsete pe Euridice,/ i o cuprinde cu dor.5 La
Vergiliu, n cntul IV din Georgice, povestea lui Orfeu apare pentru prima dat n forma ei
complet: moartea Euridicei urmat de coborrea lui Orfeu n Hades, i dezndejdea acestuia
dup pierderea pentru a doua oar a iubitei sale soii. Vergiliu l folosete pe Proteu pentru a
explica pieirea albinelor lui Aristeu ca fiind drept o pedeaps a zeilor pentru urmrirea
Euridicei. n fuga sa, aceasta a fost mucat de un arpe, fapt ce a dus la moartea ei. Toate
elementele naturii, fiinele care au aflat de aceast tragedie empatizeaz cu ndureratul so,
ns nimic nu-i poate alina suferina. Mai apoi ne este prezentat cltoria lui Orfeu n Infern
i descrierea Infernului. n acest fragment este foarte bine pictat efectul dezarmant al poeziei
cntate a lui Orfeu asupra creaturilor lumii umbrelor: Slaele subpmntene nsei/ La cntul
lui Orfeu ncremenir;/ i Tartarul, iatac de tain-al Morii,/ i Furiile, ce-i nnoad prul/
Cu vipere verzui. Pn i Cerber,/ Gtlejul ntreit, dei-l cscase,/ i-l stpni. Iar venicanvrtire/ A roii lui Ixon, dintr-o dat/ Opritu-s-a i ea, lipsindu-i vntul.6 n final versurile
vorbesc despre miraculoasa ntlnire a celor doi soi i pierderea din nou a Euridicei, de
aceast dat pe vecie.
Quintilian vorbea despre opera lui Vergiliu ca avnd mai mult ngrijire i mai mult
contiinciozitate artistic [...] Toi ceilali sunt cu mult n urma lui.7 Dante vorbete de Ovidiu
i Vergiliu n contextul enumerrii celor mai importani poei ai antichitii, n cntul IV din
Infernul (Divina comedie): Omer e el, poetul suveran/ satiricul Horaiu-n urm vine,/ Ovidiuapoi, iar ultimu-i Lucan./ [...] Iar dup ce-ntre ei puin vorbir,/ spre mine-ntori c-un semn
m-au salutat,/ iar de-asta ochii lui Virgil zmbir.8
O analiz a personajului mitologic Orfeu nu poate fi complet dac nu este realizat
din perspectiva celor dou ipostaze ale sale: Orfeu poetul i Orfeu cntreul. Orfeu este
un simbol att al poeziei ct i al muzicii. Nu ntmpltor prima oper, n adevratul neles
care-l presupune acest gen muzical (form, structur, construcie), este opera LOrfeo a lui
Claudio Monteverdi, care are ca personaj principal un poet-cntre: Orfeu.
Ovidiu Drmba, Ovidiu, Editura Tineretului, Bucureti, 1960, pp. 253, 255.
Ovidiu, Metamorfoze, n Opere, coord. Andrei urcanu, trad. Ion Florescu, Editura Gunivas SRL, Chiinu,
2001, cartea a X-a, pp. 497-498.
5
Idem, ibidem, cartea a XI-a, p. 522.
6
Vergiliu Bucolice. Georgice, traducerea Sebastian Lascr, Editura Mondero, Bucureti, 2008, p. 244-245.
7
Quintilian, Despre formarea oratoriului, cartea a X-a: Despre abundena vocabularului n Arte poetice.
Antichitatea, culegere ngrijit de D. M. Pippidi, Editura Univers, Bucureti, 1970, p. 384.
8
Dante Alighieri, Divina comedie. Infernul, trad. George Cobuc, Editura Polirom, Bucureti, 2000, p.89.
3
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Orfeu este un erou al mitologiei eline, un poet nzestrat cu o deosebit miestrie n arta
cntului, muzica lui avnd puteri supranaturale: mblnzea fiarele, muta stncile din loc,
linitea furtunile pe mare, [...] n timp ce legendarul bard fcea s rsune corzile lirei, piatra
lui Sisif a ncremenit n vrful stncii, roata lui Ixion s-a oprit, butoaiele Danaidelor n-au mai
lsat s curg prin guri licoarea, crengile cu fructe nu s-au mai retras de la gura srmanului
Tantal9. Eminescu vorbea despre Glasu-i, ce-nviase stnca10. Muzica i poezia lui Orfeu
aveau puteri att asupra naturii i a oamenilor ct i asupra zeitilor: Pe cnd acestea spunea,
atingnd ale lirei lui coarde,/ Umbrele fr de snge-l plngeau; a lui Ixion roat se-oprise;/
Psri nu mai rupeau din ficatul celui suspus la/ Chinul acesta; iar Danaidele urna-i
lsar,/ Iar tu Sisif, ai rmas aezat pe-a ta stnc. Micate,/ Eumenidele lacrimi atunci au
vrsat, prima oar 11.
Cu timpul Orfeu devine ntruchiparea artistului desvrit, fiind considerat drept
inventatorul sunetului muzical i al muzicii. n antichitate orice epopee se deschide cu
invocarea zeilor, care devine un clieu poetic. Cei dinti poei au fost convini de natura
tainic a inspiraiei, Homer, Hesiod, aflndu-se sub puterea muzelor.12 Orfeu este considerat
sursa generatoare a misterelor iniiatice care includeau diferite drame cu caracter sacru;
atenienii i confereau un rol principal n aceste spectacole teatrale. n acea perioad istoric
poezia i filosofia se completau reciproc. Filosofia era un stil de via ce cuta echilibrul
sufletesc, exprimndu-i ideile prin poezie. Acest personaj al mitologiei greceti este deseori
prezent i n literatura antichitii romane.
Din totdeauna a existat o legtur strns ntre poezie i muzic. Un exemplu
covritor n acest sens este cuvntul de origine latin carmen care nsemna cntec i poezie,
n acelai timp13. n The Routledge Dictionary or Latin Quotations alctuit de Jon R. Stone
ntlnim expresii precum camen triumphale un cntec triumfal; carmen perpetuum
primaque origine mundi ad tempora nostra un cntec pentru toate timpurile, de la
nceputurile lumii i pn n vremea noastr (adaptare dup Ovidiu); tale tuum carmen nobis,
divine pota, quale sopor fessis in gramine cntecul tu este pentru noi, o, poet divin,
precum somnul pe iarba moale pentru cei obosii [tr.n.]14. nc din antichitate poezia era
cntat, linia melodic folosit fiind aleas n funcie de mesajul care se dorea a fi transmis.
Efectul obinut prin contopirea ntr-un tot unitar a muzicii i a versurilor este mult amplificat,
mesajul ajungnd cu mult mai uor la receptor, afectnd nu doar latura intelectual a acestuia
ci i pe cea afectiv. Recitarea n sine, n antichitate, avea la baz o anumit melodicitate ce
ajuta la o transmitere mai eficient a discursului, dndu-i for i avnd un impact mult mai
direct i mai puternic asupra auditoriului. De aici se poate vedea deja o strns legtur ntre
literatur (poezie) i muzic, iar Orfeu ntruchipeaz nsui simbolul acestei legturi. Oratoria
era o disciplin atent studiat n colile romane i constituia un element cheie n ctigarea
unei cauze privind nevoile sociale sau politice ale Imperiului. De-a lungul secolelor retorica
a cunoscut diferite modificri. n Evul Mediu a fost cultivat n cadrul celor apte arte
liberale, ea devenind o tiin rigid ale crei reguli i percepte erau asimilate mecanic.15
Aceste artes liberales au fost repartizate n Trivium care cuprindea gramatica, retorica,
tefan Augustin Doina, Orfeu i tentaia realului, Editura Eminescu, Bucureti, 1974, p. 8.
Mihai Eminescu, Memento mori n Opere vol. I, Poezii (1), ediie critic de Doru Murrau, Editura Grai i
Suflet Cultura Naional, Bucureti, 1995, p. 185.
11
Ovidiu, op.cit., cartea a X-a, versurile 40-46, trad. Ion Florescu, p. 498.
12
Dan Negrescu, Invariante clasice n literatura romn, Universitatea de Vest, Timioara, 1995, p. 89.
13
Vezi Dan Negrescu, Cultur i civilizaie latin n cuvinte, Editura Paideia, Bucureti, 1996.
14
Jon R. Stone, The Routledge Dictionary of Latin Quotations: the illiterati's guide to Latin maxims, mottoes,
proverbs and sayings, Editura Routledge, New York, 2005, pp. 142, 235, 324.
15
Dan Negrescu, Invariante clasice n literatura romn, p. 151.
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dialectica i n Quadrivium ce cuprindea geometria, aritmetica, astronomia i teoria

muzical16.
n cartea sa, Melopoetica, Grete Tartler observ i analizeaz evidenta nrudire a
poeziei cu muzica. Unul din elementele de baz prezente la cele dou arte l constituie ritmul,
cruia i se altur armonia i polifonia. Ea spunea: Totui, renunnd la sltreele dactile,
nici un poet al zilelor noastre nu a renunat de fapt la ritm (nelegndu-l ns ca pe o
periodicitate perceput la alte nivele: periodicitatea metaforelor, simbolurilor, miturilor,
tipurilor de personaje etc.) nici la armonie (consonana sau disonana scontat a acordurilor
verbale) sau la polifonie (mpletirea mai multor voci) .a.m.d.17
Efectul pe care poezia i muzica l exercit asupra psihicului uman este unul
asemntor. Proporiile spaiale ntre anumite cuvinte recontextualizate, tainele repetiiei, sau
pur i simplu aezarea cuvintelor, [...] dinamica frazelor, [...] ca s nu mai vorbim de
construcie, form, [...] toate acesta demonstreaz c orice text (poetic) ar putea fi citit printr-o
gril muzical.18 Att ordinea cuvintelor, ct i a sunetelor muzicale nu este aleatorie atunci
cnd acestea fac parte dintr-o creaie poetic sau muzical. Alegerile fcute de poet sau
muzician au un scop unic: de impresionare a afectului, psihicului i intelectului uman. Dei,
evident, ntre poezie i muzic nu poate exista fuziune complet, ele sunt n continuare i n
cele mai moderne creaii bune surori, iar scriitorii i muzicienii au aproape aceleai idealuri,
sunt bntuii de aceleai temeri, experimenteaz tehnici nu mult diferite.19
Poezia i muzica sunt elemente ce relaioneaz n mod direct cu tririle afective, dar i
cu cele intelectuale, pentru c nelegerea (intelectual) i percepia senzorial merg
mpreun20.
Ce este poezia dac nu laud, preamrire a lumii, iar poetul ... un glas slvitor/ ivit
precum metalul pur din zgura / tcerii...? (Rilke, Sonete ctre Orfeu, I, 7. Traducere de
Arginescu - Amza). A cnta nseamn a slvi devenirea misterioas a universului crescnd din
adncuri i revelndu-se plenar n lumin. Muzica, fericirea unic a lirei, poate da via unei
Euridice necunoscute, fptur de vis, ieind din ntuneric, ca s dispar odat cu ea n aceleai
umbre ale trmului misterios de unde s-a ivit.21 Orfeu este considerat ca fiind punctul de
plecare n ceea ce privete nfiinarea misterelor iniiatice n cadrul crora era prezentat o
dram sacr cu un subiect necunoscut cu exactitate. El era cel cruia atenienii i dedicau
ceremonia de intrare n Mistere22. n antichitate poezia i filosofia se completau reciproc.
Filosofia era un stil de via ce cuta echilibrul sufletesc, exprimndu-i ideile prin poezie.
Plutarh face o analiz amnunit a legturii dintre muzic i poezie, pornind chiar cu
nceputurile muzicii i ale poeziei. El susine afirmaia lui Heraclide din Catalogul inveniilor
conform creia cel care a dat natere citarediei i poeziei citaredice este Amfion, fiul lui Zeus,
de unde putem deduce c muzica i poezia sunt n strns legtur cu divinitatea. Acestuia i
urmeaz Linos din Eubeea cu primele threnos-uri, Anthes din Anthedonuk Beoiei cu primele
imnuri, Pieros din Pieria cu primele poeme despre muze, Filammon din Delfi, Thamyris din
Tracia, Demodocos din Corcira. Alctuirea cuvintelor din aceste poeme, [...] nu era
desprins de msurile ritmului, fr metri, ci se asemna, dimpotriv, cu formele vorbirii
proprii lui Stesihor i poeilor melici din vechime, cei care fceau versuri epice pentru a le
aduga mai apoi tratarea muzical.23 n acest context, el afirm: Ct despre Orfeu, s-ar
16
Idem, ibidem, p. 119.

Grete Tartler, Melopoetica, Editura Eminescu, Bucureti, 1984, p. 9.
18
Idem, ibidem, p. 8.
19
20
Plutarh, Despre muzic, n Arte poetice. Antichitatea, Editura Univers, Bucureti, 1970, p. 439.
21
Cornel Cpuan, Orfeu: motivul permanenei n lirica Renaterii, Editura Dacia, Cluj-Napoca, 1978, p. 5.
22
Guy Rachet, Tragedia greac, trad. Cristian Munteanu, Editura Univers, Bucureti, 1980, p. 26.
23
Plutarh, op.cit., p. 430.
17
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prea c el nu imitase pe nimeni, fiindc mai nainte de el nu se ivise nici un nainta, n afar
de compozitorii de aulodii, iar opera lui nu seamn ct de puin cu nfptuirile acestora24.
ntr-o not a acestui text se precizeaz c Orfeu, marele poet iniiator singurul care i-a
putut nla lira i n lumea umbrelor primise harul muzicii direct de la Apolo. Nu putea
deci s deprind meteugul su ca o simpl imitaie. Arta citadelei orfice valora din plin
resursele celor dou tetracorduri i se deosebea de interpretarea mult mai simplist a
rapsozilor epici25. Putem observa c Orfeu este numit mare poet dup care se face referire la
abilitile lui muzicale, fr a fractura n vreun fel legtura dintre cele dou arte: poezia i
muzica. De asemenea, n nota anterioar se vorbete despre o filiaie sau succesiune a
poeilor-cntrei, n care dup numele semi-divine Orfeu, Linos, Pamfos (eventual i Olen)
veneau Terpandru, Filammon i ceilali compozitori-poei26. De aici se poate extrage ideea
conform creia Orfeu avea o natur semi-divin, o posibil explicaie pentru fora pe care o
exercita, prin muzic, chiar i asupra lumii nemuritoare. De altfel, muzica i cuvntul formau
o for pe care cei nzestrai trebuiau s o foloseasc cu mare atenie, dup reguli stricte: nu
era permis n vechime s interpretezi aceast art, cum se face astzi, cu schimbri i tranziii
de tonalitate i ritm27.
Orfeu este privit ca un mag ntr-un sens aparte al cuvntului: Accepiunea vulgar a
magiei nu e admis de Apuleius: cel care, fiind n legtur cu zeii nemuritori, are putere de-a
face tot ce vrea prin tria misterioas a anumitor descntece; prin urmare, el combate
prejudecata ignoranei a cror victime au fost atia filozofi, cum ar fi Anaxagoras,
Leukippos, Democrit i Epicur. El i invoc mai ales pe cei numii magi n sensul comun al
cuvntului care se disting prin faptul c venereaz providena care guverneaz lumea i i
onoreaz n mod pios pe zei , precum Epimenide, Orfeu, Pitagora, Ostanes.28
Orfeu este cel ce a sesizat toate nevoile interioare ale omului, toate aspiraiile, zonele
luminoase i umbrite ale contiinei, cutnd i cntnd n acelai timp i toate cile posibile
pentru satisfacerea lor.29 Importana lui Orfeu se manifest i n istoria mitologiei:
Nemaipomenitele isprvi [ale argonauilor] s-ar fi pierdut n negura uitrii dac n-ar fi fost
trite de Orfeu, care le-a i cntat ntr-un poem al su.30
Printre cele 900 de raionamente sau teze ale lui Pico della Mirandola se numr 31 de
raionamente despre modul de a nelege imnurile lui Orfeu prin prisma Magiei. n acest caz
autorul se refer la magia natural, divin sinonim cu nelepciunea secret a lucrurilor
naturale. Despre Orfeu i muzica sa se vorbete n raionamentul 2: Nimic mai eficient
pentru Magie natural din imnurile lui Orfeu dect acceptarea muzicii necesare, a inteniei
sufletului i a celorlalte circumstane pe care nelepii le cunosc. 31 n cel de-al treilea
raionament ni se spune c numele zeilor pe care le cnt Orfeu [...] sunt ale virtuilor
naturale i divine, de la adevratul Dumnezeu, spre folosul omului n cea mai mare msur,
iar raionamentul 4 spune c imnurile lui Orfeu slujesc cu adevrat Magiei naturale
ngduite.32 Despre numrul imnurilor lui Orfeu ne vorbete n raionamentul 5, afirmnd c
acesta este egal cu numrul cu care ntreitul Dumnezeu a creat veacul. Cine dorete s
neleag corect imnurile lui Orfeu trebuie s introduc n intelect n mod perfect
24

Arte poetice. Antichitatea, p. 444.
26
Idem, ibidem.
27
Plutarh, op.cit., pp. 431-432.
28
Dan Dana, Zalmoxis de la Herodot la Mircea Eliade: istorii despre un zeu al pretextului, Editura Polirom,
Iai, 2008, p. 97.
29
Ioan Maxim, op.cit., p. 41.
30
Ion Acsan, Constelaia corifeilor, Editura Cartea romneasc, Bucureti, 1984, p. 16.
31
G. Pico della Mirandola, Raionamente sau 900 de teze. Despre demnitatea omului, trad. Dan Negrescu,
Editura tiinific, Bucureti, 1991, p.89.
32
Idem, ibidem.
25
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proprietile sensibile, pe calea analogiei secrete.33 Imnurile lui Orfeu sunt asemnate, din
perspectiva ntrebuinrii lor, cu cele ale lui David; Cureii lui Orfeu sunt asemenea puterilor
lui Dionysos; Typhon de la Orfeu este considerat corespondentul lui Zemael din Cabala;
noaptea la Orfeu este identificat cu Ensoph n Cabala.34
Claudio Monteverdi avea ideea realizrii unui spectacol de amploare, complex att n
ceea ce privete alctuirea literar, ct i n ceea ce privete miestria construciei muzicale.
Ocazia a survenit atunci cnd curtea de Mantua, reprezentat de Vincenzo Gonzaga, i-a
ncredinat compunerea operei LOrfeo, dup libretul lui Alessandro Striggio, pentru
carnavalul din 1607. Opera LOrfeo de Monteverdi este de o importan crucial pentru
istoria muzicii deoarece n aceast compoziie timpurie sunt prefigurate majoritatea
caracteristicilor popularului gen al operei de mai trziu [tr.n.]35.
George Sbrcea, n prefaa crii lui Lszl Passuth (o biografie romanat a
compozitorului), spune: Claudio Monteverdi [...] este artistul care nfptuiete idealul de
dramma per musica al generaiei baroce italiene, crend o nou form de expresie la o stare
proprie de sensibilitate [... iar] eroii operelor sale [...] nu mai sunt doar biete fantoe care
cnt, ci oameni animai de patimile vieii, mhnii i nelinitii de tragica, rapida ei ofilire, de
nermuita solitudine a fiecrui sunet, dar i nsufleii nencetat de venicul avnt spre
nemurire, spre continuitate, spre victoria spiritului asupra materiei36.
Premiera are loc n luna februarie, ntr-o atmosfer intim, n faa unui public restrns
i distins, invitat de Accademia degli Invaghiti37 (Academia Iubitorilor de Arte Frumoase)
cunoscut i sub numele de Accademia degli Incogniti (termen mai des ntlnit). Succesul
operei a dus la repetarea spectacolului n faa unui public mult mai numeros, la teatrul curii,
apoi la Torino i Florena. Succesul din seara premierei l-a ndemnat pe Vincenzo Gonzaga s
comande o a doua reprezentaie, chiar i o a trei-a care, ns, nu a mai avut loc. n anul 1607,
cu ocazia primei audiii a operei, a fost tiprit libretul lui Alessandro Striggio. Abia n anul
1609 a ieit pentru prima dat de la lumina tiparului i partitura lui Monteverdi, avnd o
dedicaie adresat motenitorului tronului, Francesco Gonzaga. Cele dou ediii au fost
tiprite de acelai editor veneian, Ricciardo Amadino, ns difer n ceea ce privete detaliile
textuale, aa cum era de ateptat.38 [tr.n.] Diferena major dintre acestea st n finalul operei.
n varianta libretului lui Striggio, mitul este respectat n ntregime, Orfeu fiind prins de
bachante. n partitura aprut dup doi ani, aduce un final fericit bazat pe Astronomia lui
Hyginus: prin intervenia deux ex machina, Apolo coboar din vzduh pentru a-l salva pe
Orfeu. Iain Fenlon ne prezint n studiul su cteva impoteze care ar justifica schimbarea
finalului. Unul dintre motive ar putea fi spaiul restrns n care s-a prezentat pentru prima dat
opera. O alt posibilitate ce argumenteaz schimbarea finalului ntr-unul fericit este
componena publicului prezent la cea de-a doua reprezentaie a operei: la premier au
participat doar membrii Academiei degli Invaghiti, n totalitate brbai, pe cnd la a doua
punere n scen au fost prezente i doamnele din nalta societate, care nu ar fi suportat un final
tragic. Poate cea mai plauzibil explicaie ar fi ocazia cu care s-a cerut o a doua reprezentaie
a operei LOrfeo, lucru nemaintlnit pn atunci: vizita Ducelui Carlo Emanuele de Savoia n
33
Idem, ibidem.
Vezi idem, ibidem, pp. 89-90.
35
Dieter Zchling, Die Oper farbiger Fhrer durch Oper, Operette, Musical, Editura Harenberg, 1988, p.
339: Monteverdi's Orfeo ist deshalb von grter musikgeschichter Bedeutung, weil in diesem frhen Werk
die meisten Merkmale der spteren landlufigen Kunstgattung de Oper bereits vorgebildet erscheinen.
36
Lszl Passuth, Muzicantul ducelui de Mantaua, trad. Alexandru Molnar, Editura Muzical, Bucureti, 1968,
p. 7.
37
Marianne Pndi, Claudio Monteverdi, trad. Constantin Olariu, Editura Muzical, Bucureti, 1963, p. 61.
38
Iain Fenlon, The Mantuan Orfeo in John Whenham, Claudio Monteverdi: Orfeo, New York, Cambridge
University Press, 1986, p. 3: The two editions were brought out by the same Venetian publisher, Ricciardo
Amadino, but they differ in matters of textual detail as one might expect.
34
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Issue no. 6/2015
contextul pregtirilor nupiale ale fiicei acestuia, Margherita i ale lui Francesco, fiul lui
Vincenzo Gonzaga. Este de neles faptul c o asemenea ocazie nu putea fi srbtorit prin
prezentarea unei tragedii muzicale.
Compunerea muzicii pentru opera LOrfeo se pare c a durat aproape un an, lund n
considerare scrisorile lui Monteverdi i faptul c un madrigal pentru cinci voci vedea varianta
final dup o sptmn de lucru. Dup finalizarea lucrului la oper, pare-se n luna
noiembrie a anului 1606, a urmat copierea timelor pentru fiecare instrument i voce n parte,
apoi repetiiile.39 Indicaiile compozitorului cu privire la distribuirea instrumentelor i a
vocilor sunt foarte clare, spre deosebire de alte opere ale timpului.40
Povestirea libretului este prezentat ntr-o mprire variat: n unele cazuri libretul i
implicit opera sunt structurate n trei acte care cuprind cinci tablouri, iar n alte surse ntlnim
o mprire n cinci acte41, care reprezint, de fapt, tablourile variantei precedente, ambele
variante avnd n introducere Prologul. n continuare voi prezenta varianta mpririi n cinci
acte a libretului, o variant ntlnit i n primul exemplar tiprit al partiturii acestei opere.
Prologul Prima apariie pe scen este cea a Muzei muzicii. Muzica se adreseaz
spectatorilor aducnd laude familiei protectoare (Gonzaga). Dup ce le povestete pe scurt
aciunea pe care vor urma s o urmreasc, Muzica cere auditoriului s fac linite pentru a
lsa ca puterea minunat a sunetelor s-i fac efectul asupra sufletului. Actul I Aciunea din
tabloul 1 se desfoar n preajma unui mic templu, n mijlocul pdurilor i pajitilor. Aici, un
pstor povestete despre fericita cstorie dintre Orfeu i Euridice, invitnd nimfele i pstorii
s srbtoreasc evenimentul. Orfeu i cnt bucuria, iar Euridice i rspunde, amndoi
aducnd mulumiri zeilor. Actul al II-lea ni-l prezint pe Orfeu n cadrul spaiului n care i-a
petrecut tinereea, evocnd istoria dragostei sale. n acest timp, apare nimfa mesager Sylvia,
care aduce vestea ngrozitoare a morii prea-iubitei Euridice. Aceasta a fost mucat de un
arpe n timp ce culegea flori pentru cununa nupial. Distrus, Orfeu este de neconsolat de
orice vorb bun a celor din jur. El se hotrte s coboare n lumea umbrelor pentru a o
recuceri pe Euridice. Actul III n tabloul I Orfeu se afl deja n Infern, narmat doar cu lira
sa. Sperana, care l-a nsoit pn la malurile Styxului, trebuie s-l prseasc, neavnd voie s
intre n lumea umbrelor. Orfeu este ntmpinat de Caron, paznicul Infernului, care refuz s-l
treac rul, dei este nduioat de cntul su. n ajutorul lui Orfeu vin chiar zeii, care l
ademenesc pe Caron. Orfeu cnt la harpa lui pn cnd Caron cade ntr-un somn adnc.
Actul IV ncepe cu rugmintea Proserpinei (adnc impresionat de muzica lui Orfeu) ctre
Pluton, regele tenebrelor, de a-i ngdui Euridicei s revin n lumea celor vii. Pluton accept
n final, ns numai cu ndeplinirea unei condiii: Orfeu va trebui s o conduc pe pmnt fr
s o priveasc nici mcar pentru o clip. Fericit, Orfeu pornete urmat de Euridice spre a-i
mplini visul. Pe drum, ns, temndu-se c a fost nelat de Pluton, nu se poate stpni i
ncalc fgduina, privind napoi ctre iubita lui soie. Euridice dispare din nou din viaa lui
Orfeu, de aceast dat pentru totdeauna, ntorcndu-se n lumea umbrelor, acum de neclintit la
invocaiilor acestuia. n actul V Orfeu se gsete din nou n pdurile Traciei, unde plnge
pierderea soiei sale. Singurul rspuns consolator este cel al nimfei Echo. Zeul Apollo, tatl
su, coboar din cer pe un nor, oferindu-i drept consolare, nemurirea. Ei pornesc mpreun
spre nlimi, unde Orfeu va suspina venic, evocnd-o pe prea-iubita sa Euridice. El va privi
pentru eternitate strlucirea acesteia care a fost transformat ntr-o constelaie.42 Striggio i
39
Denis Stevens, The letters of Claudio Monteverdi, Editura The Press Syndicate of the University of
Cambridge, New York, 1980, p. 49.
40
Vezi Arthur Jacobs i Stanley Sadie, Book of Opera, Editura Wordsworth, Londra, 1996, p. 21.
41
Vezi Stanley Sadie, Enciclopedia Ilustrata dell'Opera, ediie italian, trad. Roberta Bargellesi, Editura Logos,
Modena, 2006, p. 26.
42
Vezi George Constantinescu, Splendorile operei Dicionar de teatru liric, Editura Didactic i Pedagogic,
Bucureti, 2008, p. 263 i Stanley Sadie, op.cit., p.29.
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Monteverdi evit finalul tragic al vieii lui Orfeu n care acesta este ucis i decapitat, oferindune, n schimb, un sfrit ntr-o lumin optimist.
Orfeu: Si non vedro pi mai
de l'amata Euridice i dolci rai?
Apollo: Nel sole e ne le stelle
veggherai le sue sembianze belle.43
Libretistul Alessandro Striggio a fost fiul celebrului autor de comedii-madrigal
Alessandro Striggio, aducndu-i serviciile curii Gonzaga. Fcnd parte dintr-o familie de
muzicieni (mama sa, Virginia Vagnoli, era solist i cnta la alut) i-a petrecut copilria n
societatea nalt a curii de la Mantua. Chiar dac muzica era o parte important a vieii sale,
el a urmat dreptul, pregtindu-se pentru a intra n slujba curii de Mantua, pe care a servit-o
timp de douzeci de ani. I-a fost oferit titlul de nobil de ctre ducele Vincezo Gonzaga,
Alessandro fiind secretar al ducelui, ambasador al curii de Mantua la Milano i cancelar
(pn n anul 1628). n cele din urm a fost ridicat la titlul de marchiz. Tnrul avocat
Alessandro Striggio, diplomat de carier, i face prima apariie public ntr-un cadru artistic
ca i interpret la viol ntr-un ansamblu orchestral cu miestrie ales pentru festivitile
nupiale ale ducelui Ferdinand al Toscaniei, din anul 1589. Cele mai cunoscute creaii literare
ale sale sunt legate de numele lui Claudio Monteverdi: este libretistul operei LOrfeo i
textierul baletului Tirsi e Clori.
Interesul su pentru muzic se manifest pe tot parcursul vieii sale. n anul 1590 a
contactat mai muli editori pentru a publica postum ultima culegere de madrigaluri a tatlui
su. Pe lng colaborrile cu Monteverdi, Striggio i manifesta interesul pentru muzic n
cadrul organizaiei Accademia degli Invaghiti (Academia ndrgostiilor de arte frumoase).
Chiar i dup ce Monteverdi a prsit Mantua pentru a primi postul de capel-maestru la San
Marco, Veneia, Striggio a continuat s pstreze legtura cu acesta. Se pare c Alessandro a
fost autorul unei alte compoziii ale lui Monteverdi: cantata Apollo, a crei partitur, din
nefericire, s-a pierdut. Victim a ciumei, i ncheie viaa n anul 1630, aflndu-se n timpul
unei misiuni diplomatice la Veneia.
Monteverdi i Striggio au avut o relaie destul de apropiat, ambii fiind prezeni la cele
mai importante evenimente muzicale. ntr-o astfel de ocazie s-a nscut i ideea celor doi de a
compune o favola in musica. Evenimentul declanator l-a constituit reprezentaia, la Florena,
a unui teatru muzical, fructul colaborrii dintre Jacopo Peri i a lui Ottavio Rinuccini, intitulat
Euridice. Este o form incipient a ceea ce urma s devin un gen muzical grandios opera.
Iat cum este prezentat relaia celor doi (Striggio i Monteverdi) n varianta romanat a
biografiei compozitorului: Alessandro Striggio, fiu de muzicant, nobil curtean i secretar cu
mare influen la Curte, nutrea simpatie pentru Claudio nc de cnd tnrul violonist
cremonez venise la Reggia.44 Atunci cnd Monteverdi a preluat acest subiect n vog n
perioada respectiv, pus pe libretul lui Striggio, a adus pentru prima dat n oper o miestrie
care este pstrat cu toat convingerea de ctre creatorii de oper pn n zilele de astzi.45 n
scrisorile sale, Monteverdi i se adresa totdeauna lui Striggio prin urmtoarea succesiune de
apelative: Illustrissimo mio Signore e Padrone Colendissimo46 (Ilustrului meu Domn i
Prea-respectatului meu Maestru [tr.n.]).
Claudio Monteverdi; Alessandro Striggio, L'Orfeo, favola in musica, Apprello Ricciardo Amadino, Veneia,
1609 (fotocopie), p. 94.
44
Lszl Passuth, op.cit., p. 224.
45
Vezi Robert Donington, Opera & its Symbols: the Unity of Words, Music and Staging, Editura Yale
University Press, New Haven & Londra, 1990, p. 30.
46
Vezi Denis Stevens, op.cit.
43
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Libretul se concentreaz asupra imaginii prototipale neoplatonice a soarelui ce

simbolizeaz iluminare mental i spiritual47. Tiprit i distribuit n slile de teatru ale
acelor timpuri, libretul permite publicului s urmreasc versurile unei opere, sau traducerea
lui n cazul reprezentaiilor ntr-o limb strin. [...] De obicei libretul debuta cu o prefa
dedicat angajatorului libretistului, urmat de un prolog care prezenta contextul n care avea
s se desfoare aciunea operei. Urma apoi enumerarea personajelor, detaliile privitoare la
schimbrile de scen [tablourile operei], dansurile ce urmau a fi vizionate uneori, unele
observaii asupra efectelor scenografice. n Italia, unde Biserica revizuia atent textele
operelor baroce n cutarea eventualelor pasaje blasfematoare, libretistul avea o obligaie n
plus: trebuia s-i declare devotamentul fa de religia catolic a Romei. [tr.n.]48
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Alighieri, Dante Divina Comedie, trad. George Cobuc, Editura Polirom,
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Cpuan, Cornel Orfeu: motivul permanenei n lirica Renaterii, Editura Dacia,
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Constantinescu, George Splendorile operei Dicionar de teatru liric, Editura
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Drmba, Ovidiu Ovidiu, Editura Tineretului, Bucureti, 1960
Doina, tefan Augustin Orfeu i tentaia realului, Editura Eminescu, Bucureti,
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Donington, Robert Opera & its Symbols: the Unity of Words, Music and Staging,
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Eliade, Mircea Mituri, vise i mistere, trad. Maria Ivnescu i Cezar Ivnescu,
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Maxim, Ioan Orfeu, bucuria cunoaterii, Editura Univers, Bucureti, 1976
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Negrescu, Dan Cultur i civilizaie latin n cuvinte, Editura Paideia, Bucureti,
1996
Ovidiu Metamorfoze, n Opere, coord. Andrei urcanu, trad. Ion Florescu,
Editura Gunivas SRL, Chiinu, 2001
Passuth, Lszl Muzicantul ducelui de Mantaua, trad. Alexandru Molnar,
Editura Muzical, Bucureti, 1968
Pndi, Marianne Claudio Monteverdi, trad. Constantin Olariu, Editura Muzical,
Bucureti, 1963
Plutarh, Despre muzic, n Arte poetice. Antichitatea, Editura Univers, Bucureti,
1970
47

Stanley Sadie, op.cit., p. 27: Il libretto permetteva al publico di seguire i versi di un'opera o, per le
rappresentazioni in lingua straniera, la sua traduzione. [...] Solitamente, un libretto cominciava con una
prefazione dedicata al mecenate del librettista, proseguendo con un prologo che illustrava il contesto in cui si
svolgeva l'azione dell'opera. Seguivano l'elenco dei personaggi, i detagli sui cambi di scena, le danze che
sarebbero state eseguite e, tavolta, alcune osservazioni sugli effetti scenografici. In Italia, dove la Chiesa
controllava attentamente i testi delle opere barocche in cerca di eventuali passaggi blasfemi, il libretista aveva un
obbligo in pi: doveva affermarsi devoto alla religione cattolica di Roma.
48
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Stevens, Denis The Letters of Claudio Monteverdi, Editura The Press Syndicate
of the University of Cambridge, New York, 1980
Tartler, Grete Melopoetica, Editura Eminescu, Bucureti, 1984
Whenham, John, Claudio Monteverdi: Orfeo, New York, Cambridge University
Press, 1986
Vergiliu Bucolice. Georgice, traducerea Sebastian Lascr, Editura Mondero,
Bucureti, 2008
Aceast lucrare a fost parial finanat din contractul (CCPE) European Cercettori
competitivi pe plan european n domeniul tiinelor umaniste i socio-economice. Reea de
cercetare multiregional.
This work was partially supported by the strategic grant (CCPE)
POSDRU/159/1.5/S/140863, proiect ID 12125 (2014) co-financed by the European Social
Fund Researchers competitive at European level in the field of humanities and socioeconomic. Multiregional research network.
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LE TOPOS DE LA MATER DOLOROSA DANS UN RECIT DE SYLVIE GERMAIN

Serenela GHIEANU
Petroleum-Gas University of Ploieti
Abstract: The articles analyses La Pleurante des rues de Prague by Sylvie Germain by taking
into account the use of a famous topos in Christian culture, mater dolorosa. This example of
poetic prose describes the twelve appearances of a fabulous female character dwelling in
Prague. Immaterial, but visible, huge, with a limping left foot, the heroine bears the suffering
of the whole humanity and tries to console it. As the eternal Mother of human sorrow, she
suggests and at the same time surpasses Virgin Mary through the concept of personal and
collective memory. In this text, the duty people do by commemorating the victims of History
and the anonymous people who remain disconsolate blends with the heroines vocation for
being the intercessor between two worlds which do not communicate much: Gods world and
peoples world.
Keywords: poetic prose, Christian imaginary, personal and collective memory
La Pleurante des rues de Prague (1992) reprsente un cas particulier dans loeuvre
littraire de Sylvie Germain: un rcit assez court de prose potique, sans intrigue et
dveloppement pique. La perception du monde et du personnage dsign ds le titre
appartient un moi qui se refuse presque toute donne rfrentielle. Le je soi-disant
narrateur, car il ny a pas de narration, renvoie une femme qui a perdu son pre et ensuite a
t abandonne, un moment donn de sa vie, par son bien-aim. Aucune autre rfrence
sociale, sauf une, topographique, de la ville de Prague.
Sylvie Germain a vcu pendant sept ans Prague, dans les annes 80, et le souvenir de
ce sjour se retrouve dans deux autres livres crits par elle, les romans Immensits et Eclats de
sel, qui puisent dans lhistoire de cette ville, avec un regard comprhensif et mme amoureux.
Dans cette trilogie pragoise, Sylvie Germain voque ce pays tranger, travers ses
vnements cruciaux et personnages mythiques, tout comme travers ses artistes, encore plus
quelle nvoque la France dans le reste de ses romans.
Le rcit La Pleurante. est focalis sur un personnage fantastique, la Gante
claudicante, qui habite en mme temps lespace de la ralit- Prague, lespace mtaphysique
de linvisible, dun au-del, et lespace de la fiction (du livre). Elle fait ses apparitions
(douze au total) dans les rues de Prague limproviste et elle disparat ainsi quelle apparat.
La description physique de cette femme est donne au lecteur en bribes, parsems au
long de descriptions plus gnreuses de lendroit et du moment de ses apparitions. Elle surgit
sous la brume ou la neige, dans une lumire vague ou dans lair limpide, des paysages urbains
dont Sylvie Germain offre des moments anthologiques de posie. La Gante qui boite na ni
nom, ni ge, ni visage (Germain: 16), son corps est majestueux mais aussi massif,
disgrcieux (ibid: 17). Elle boite fortement (idem) mais ne fait aucun bruit en marchant
(ibid: 18). Elle fait son apparition surtout dans des rues dsertes, longeant des maisons
anciennes, traversant le brouillard mais elle na rien dun spectre pour autant car le je
narrateur se dclare saisi, sa premire vue, dun tonnement qui relevait du mystre de
lenchantement(ibid: 23).
Il ny a pas de traces de ses pas mais la narratrice peroit, nanmoins, un trs lger
bruissement(ibid: 30), dans lequel elle identifie un pleurement trs bas, un sanglot trs
retenu dune infinie douceur(idem). La Gante qui boite de son pied gauche ne pleure pas
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pour elle-mme car elle est un tre immatriel (ibid: 32). Son corps est un lieu de
confluence dinnombrables souffles, larmes et chuchotements chapps dautres corps ()
Ctait la terre, des vivants et des morts (ibid: 31).
Bien que visible, la Gante est impossible toucher car elle porte la douleur de tous
et de toutes (ibid: 32). Dans ce poids trop lourd de la souffrance humaine nous pouvons
trouver une explication pour sa claudication, mais la fin, la narratrice nous en donnera
encore une.
La Gante incarne donc les sentiments de tous les inconsols de la terre et de tous les
temps. Sont voques quelques figures de victimes de lHistoire, comme Bruno Schultz,
artiste juif pragois tu dans la rue parce quil ne portait pas ltoile jaune. Ou un garon de
sept ans qui mourut dans le camp de Trzin. Ou le sort de Jean Nepomucene, martyre
pragois qui na pas voulu renier sa foi, chrtienne, et dont la langue reste intacte aprs sa mort
tragique.
Le trs long convoi de victimes de lHistoire est travers aussi par deux figures de
lhistoire plus rduite, personnelle, de la narratrice. La mort de son pre, aprs une maladie
qui lavait fait bien souffrir, et labandon de son bien-aim sont deux pisodes qui mergent
du pass grce la mme Gante. Le visage du pre agonisant sarracha soudain des plis de
la robe de la gante claudicante(ibid:53). Au-del de sa disparition physique, limage du pre
fait surface dune manire suprenante et cest en cela que la figue de la Gante est vraiment
extraordinaire. Non seulement elle garde la souffrance des disparus mais en plus elle les fait
se ranimer, elle les enlve loubli total:lorsquelle sme sur son passage telle ou telle
vision de visage, tel ou tel cho de voix, cest pour le faire battre comme un coeur
nouveau-n(ibid:55). Elle a mme un comportement maternel envers cette inconsolation, sur
lequel nous reviendrons: elle le reprend [le visage du pre- n.a.], le renfouit dans les plis
de sa robe, et le berce avec plus de tendresse encore au rythme de sa marche(idem).
Comme dans ses romans, dans La Pleurante des rues de Prague Sylvie Germain ne
prche pas une thse religieuse. Dans sa littrature il y a un souci permanent en faveur de la
ncessit dune croyance, dune vie charge de spiritualit, surtout chrtienne. Elle
laccomplit travers des allusions potiques, travers la revisitation de personnages et
pisodes bibliques, travers linsertion et le commentaire de textes de divers potes ou
travers de fables. Dans La Pleurante, elle ne se pose plus la question pourquoi Dieu permet
la souffrance des innocents, notamment des enfants, elle propose cette figure fabuleuse de la
Gante qui incarne la souffrance des morts et des vivants, qui essaie de les caresser, elle est
nomme la peau du coeur humain(Germain:58). Cette figure de femme rappelle assez vite
la figure de la Vierge qui est prsente dans la culture chrtienne depuis le Moyen Age sous le
nom de mater dolorosa. La Mre de douleur est reprsente dans des peintures, des
sculptures et des textes comme la Mre divine qui pleure la mort de son Fils, inconsolable
dans sa souffrance humaine. Aucune rvolte et aucune colre chez elle, la Mre de douleur
devient la Mre de tous les chrtiens, Mre qui exprime seulement de lamour.
La Gante imagine par Sylvie Germain a des points communs essentiels avec la
mater dolorosa: elle porte la souffrance de tous, morts ou vivants, elle est immatrielle mais
visible pourtant pour ceux qui la (re)connaissent, ne serait-ce que dans ses rares Apparitions
devant des moines et des enfants, elle est ternelle, et surtout elle est intermdiaire entre Dieu
et les humains.
Le rle de mre est soulign par la narratrice dans lpisode o elle regarde la Gante
embrasser pour quelques moments toute la ville de Prague: Et elle souleva la ville, tout
doucement. Elle la souleva comme une mre son enfant, et la posa sur ses genoux pour la
bercer(ibid:60).
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Une suggestion qui renvoie clairement limaginaire chrtien est le rapprochement

fait entre les vtements de la Gante et le voile qui a envelopp le corps du Christ: Tous les
tissus qui vtent son grand corps immatriel sont comme autant de suaires(ibid:58).
Une autre suggestion est la question que se pose la narratrice si la Gante ne serait pas
lcho lointain de la piti de Dieu. Cette piti immense, immense et incessante, qui parcourt
le monde en suppliant quon la reoive, quon coute sa plainte(ibid: 58-59).
Le pouvoir hors du commun de la Gante, qui vient de la substance divine quelle
suggre, ce pouvoir cach derrire une apparence physique dconcertante, se rvle dans un
moment de pure Grce, o un cygne qui prend son vol traverse le corpsimmmatriel de la
Gante. Aprs cette interpntration, loiseau se met danser au ras des eaux dun lac une
danse qui exprime lmoi davoir senti sirradier en lui le mystre de la piti, - de la piti
pour toute chair de vivant, quelle soit dhomme ou danimal(ibid:77).
La force spirituelle de la Gante est mise en vidence encore lors du paysage dsolant
de banlieue pauvre qui est transfigur aprs son passage :L o passe la Gante, la terre
sexhausse de loubli o nous la tenons, les choses sarrachent lindiffrence o nous les
relguons, la matire se montre, grenue, rugueuse, massive, poreuse, ptrie de temps, et tout
prend une odeur, un got, une prsence(ibid: 95-96). Il reste lhomme de faire attention
ces signes et dy rpondre: Nous nous tenons debout au coeur errant du monde, au seuil de la
secrte gloire du monde(Germain:96).
La Gante est avant tout faite damour et, en dehors de lide de la douleur du monde
qui est porte et berce par elle, cest en cela que le personnage de Sylvie Germain se
rapproche le plus de la mater dolorosa: Lamour le plus profond, le plus patient et gnreux,
- celui de la tendresse, de la piti qui fait misricorde(ibid:105).
Llment moderne que Sylvie Germain ajoute limage de mater dolorosa est la
capacit de la Gante dincarner une mmoire collective: Son corps de larmes et de
mmoire(ibid:47). Dans son ouvrage La mmoire collective, Maurice Halbwachs remarque
le fait que Pour que la mmoire des autres vienne ainsi renforcer et complter la ntre, il
faut aussi, disions-nous, que les souvenirs de ces groupes ne soient point sans rapport avec les
vnements qui constituent mon pass. Chacun de nous, en effet, est membre la fois de
plusieurs groupes, plus ou moins larges (Halbwachs: 46). La littrature de Sylvie Germain
est pleine de rfrences et dhistoires sur la Shoah, vnement quelle na pas vcu, ni ses
proches, puisquelle nest pas Juive, mais qui reste une obsession de la conscience occidentale
du XX-e. s. Les personnages que lcrivaine franaise tente de sortir de loubli dans ses
romans et rcits sont le plus souvent des Juifs victimes de lHolocauste. Ainsi, dans La
Pleurante des rues de Prague, deux des trois disparus voqus sont-ils des Juifs qui ont pri
lors de lOccupation en France un dans un camp dextermination.
LHistoire officielle, aussi correcte soit-elle, ne travaille pas au niveau des motions et
des tragdies personnelles, capables de sensibiliser les gnrations qui sont nes aprs la
Deuxime Guerre mondiale ou la Shoah. Dans le mme ouvrage, Halbwachs prcise le rle
des historiens: L'histoire, qui se place hors des groupes et au-dessus d'eux, n'hsite pas
introduire dans le courant des faits des divisions simples, et dont la place est fixe une fois
pour toutes. Elle n'obit pas, ce faisant, qu' un besoin didactique de schmatisation. Il semble
qu'elle envisage chaque priode comme un tout, indpendant en grande partie de celle qui
prcde et de celle qui suit, parce qu'elle a une oeuvre, bonne, mauvaise, ou indiffrente,
accomplir(Halbwachs:49-50). En ce sens, le besoin de remmoration des victimes et des
rescaps aussi, en prononant de plus en plus des noms concrets et des dtails sur leur vie, est
une dmarche qui est devenue obligatoire pour la modernit.
Loeuvre de Sylvie Germain plaide pour ce devoir de mmoire dans presque chacun
de ses textes. Elle cr des personnages apparemment banals (ou rappelle des figures ayant
exist rellement) qui, selon elle, font vraiment lHistoire :quoi quen pensent les matres
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et les puissants du monde, ce sont moins eux qui font lHistoire que tous les petits, tous ces
Trs-Bas anonymes qui ont endur, pti lHistoire, et en sont morts comme meurent les
noys, tout la fois arrachs leur sjour sur terre(Germain:69).
La Gante qui boite est soucieuse de la mmoire de ces victimes et laisse de ct les
figures des hros officiels et les actes de bravoure :Elle est la mmoire de la ville, - la
mmoire ct ombre, celle des pauvres et des petits, de ceux et celles dont lHistoire ne retient
pas les noms et oublie les souffrances () Elle est la mmoire en guenilles, au ventre creux,
aux yeux cerns,- mais au regard merveillant dhumilit et de tendresse(Germain: 114-115).
La seconde explication pour la claudication de la Gante est encore plus significative
que la premire, celle qui veut que la Gante boite cause de la souffrance humaine quelle
porte. La narratrice avance, la fin, une ide qui revient au niveau spirituel notamment
religieux: elle boite dautant plus quelle ne parvient jamais quilibrer le poids crasant
des crimes et des douleurs, du mal et malheurs, avec la piti sans mesure qui mane de
Dieu(ibid: 125).
Nous revenons ainsi lemploi de la figure de la mater dolorosa sous la figure de la
Gante. Comme la Vierge, qui est intermdiaire entre le Christ et les chrtiens, la Gante est
vue galement comme un personage intercesseur entre Dieu et les humains. Tout comme dans
dautres romans antrieurs, Sylvie Germain prsente la figure de Dieu comme la divinit qui a
besoin de lamour de lhomme au moins autant que lhomme a besoin dElle et qui, en plus,
serait la premire demander cette attention et de lamour: Le mot Dieu a la sonorit dun
tombeau vide vers lequel on se penche; le vide nous renvoie lcho de nos appels () Cet
cho ne provient pas de nous () car en amont de notre appel, (...), de la grande nuit du
monde, dj la voix de Dieu a retenti. Notre appel, que lon croit initial, est en vrit toujours
second(ibid: 123-124).
La narratrice avait commenc par dcrire le surgissement de la Gante dans le
livre:elle sest glisse, elle sest faufile (ibid: 13). Aprs douze apparitions, - douze
comme le nombre des Aptres du Christ- elle quitte le livre: Elle a rejoint son lment:
linvisible qui nimbe toutes choses., limmensit qui stend au revers de notre
finitude(ibid: 116). Intermdiaire entre Dieu et les hommes, la Gante se trouve entre deux
univers, appartenant chacun deux, et essayant de mieux les relier.
La dmarche dcriture de Sylvie Germain nest jamais seulement un beau fruit de
limagination mais aussi un acte damour, de don envers ses semblables. Se souvenir et
recrer la pass rcent travers lcrit relve de la magie de la fable raconte mais aussi de la
ncessit de prendre partie active lHistoire: Tant qu'un souvenir subsiste, il est inutile de le
fixer par crit, ni mme de le fixer purement et simplement. Aussi le besoin d'crire l'histoire
d'une priode, d'une socit, et mme d'une personne ne s'veille-t-il que lorsqu'elles sont dj
trop loignes dans le pass pour qu'on ait chance de trouver longtemps encore autour de soi
beaucoup de tmoins qui en conservent quelque souvenir(Halbwachs: 48).
Ouvrage analys
Germain, Sylvie- La Pleurante des rues de Prague, Paris, Gallimard, Coll. LUn et
lAutre, 1992
Bibliographie critique
Association Europenne Franois Mauriac, Sylvie Germain. Rose des vents et de
lailleurs. Textes runis par Toby Garfitt, Paris, LHarmattan, 2003
Goulet, Alain, Sylvie Germain: oeuvre romanesque. Un monde de cryptes et de
fantmes, Paris, LHarmattan, 2006
Halbwachs, Maurice, La Mmoire collective, Paris, PUF, 1950
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Koopman-Thurlings, Mariska, Sylvie Germain. La Hantise du mal, Paris, LHarmatan,

2007
***Sylvie Germain et son oeuvre. Textes runis et prsents par Jacqueline Michel et
Isabelle Dotan, EST Samuel Tastet Editeur, 2006
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THE MYTH AND LITERATURE: THE LEGEND

Alina Luciana OLTEAN
Abstract: The man has always felt the need to provide a sense of natural phenomns that have
conditioned existence. Interpreted them, gave them a name and found an explanation. The
myths, legends and fairy tales, which formed a link between man, nature and its relationship
with unexplained phenomens its been often considered magical. Our history has plenty of
heroic deeds, our beautiful country are large, our habits are quite picturesque and poetic, so
that we can find in ouri writing ".
Keyword: myth, legend,history, literature, magical
Omul a simit mereu nevoia s ofere un sens fenomenelor naturale care i-au
condiionat existenta. Le-a interpretat, le-a dat un nume si le-a gsit o explicaie. Astfel au luat
natere miturile, legendele si basmele, care au format o legtura ntre om, relaiile sale cu
natura si fenomenele inexplicabile, considerate deseori magice. Traduciile nu fac o
literatur. Noi vom progoni ct vom putea aceast manie ucigtoare a gustului original,
nsuirea cea mai preioas a unei literaturi. Istoria noastr are destule fapte eroice, frumoasele
noastre ri sunt destul de mari, obiceiurile noastre sunt destul de pitoreti i de poetice, pentru
ca s putem gsi i la noi sujeturi de scris.1
Problema anterioritii relative a povetii, a legendei sau miturilor este una din cele
mai discutate n cursul secolului al XIX-lea. Mult timp, s-a admis c la origine a fost mitul, c
legenda a fost o deformare a acestuia, confirmat prin poveste. Este evident c povestirea
nseamn mai degrab o recreare popular, iar literatura scris, una a minoritii cultivate. Or,
de multe ori, de exemplu la greci, persani sau hindui, literatura conine i mitologia, n sens
de culegere de mituri i de legende transmise prin scris.2
Termenul de mit provine din cuvntul francez mythe i din cuvntul neogrecesc
mythos, care nseamn povestire sau legend. Este un concept polisemantic. Mircea Eliade
a analizat variate nfiri ale acestuia Mitul povestete o istorie sacr; el relateaz un
eveniment care a avut loc n timpul primordial, timpul nceputurilor. Mitul relateaz o
ntmplare sacr, adic un eveniment primordial care s-a petrecut la nceputurile Timpului.
Relatarea unei ntmplri sacre echivaleaz ns cu dezvluirea unui mister, pentru c
personajele mitului nu sunt fiine umane, ci zei sau Eroi civilizatori, aa c gestele lor sunt
asemenea unor taine, pe care omul nu le-ar fi putut cunoate dac nu i-ar fi fost dezvluite.
Mitul este deci povestea a ceea ce s-a petrecut in illo tempore, relatarea a ceea ce zeii sau
fiinele divine au fcut la nceputurile Timpului.3 Altfel zis, mitul povestete cum, mulumit
isprvilor fiinelor supranaturale, o realitate s-a nscut, fie c e vorba de realitatea total,
Cosmosul, sau numai de un fragment: o insul, o specie vegetal, o comportare uman, o
instituie. E aadar ntotdeauna povestea unei faceri: ni se povestete cum ceva a fost produs, a
nceput s fie. Fiind considerat adevrat mitul avea cu precdere o funcie iniiatic,
coninutul su fiind sacru, exemplar i semnificativ. Basmul, n schimb este o degradare a
sacrului sau poate un dublet facil al mitului i al ritualului de iniiere. El repet pe un alt plan
Mihail, Koglniceanu, Introducie la Dacia literar, 1840
Arnold van Gennep,Formarea legendelor, trad. Lucia Berdan, Crina Ioana Berdan, Editura Polirom, Iai, 1997,
p.44
3
Mircea Eliade, Sacrul i profanul, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 2007,p.73
1
2
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i cu alte mijloace scenariul exemplar de iniiere, prelungete iniierea la nivelul imaginarului.

Aceast degradare nu a fost ns ireversibil. n Evul Mediu, se poate vorbi chiar de o
constant nostalgie a ntoarcerii la origini, toate grupurile sociale adoptnd un mit al
originii, al condiiei sau vocaiei, n fond, un model exemplar considerat demn de a fi
cunoscut i urmat. Acesta este i momentul genezei baladei despre Meterul Manole. De
altfel, multe simboluri i mituri vor fi redescoperite prin intermediul operelor literare. Mitul
nu vorbete dect despre ceea ce s-a ntmplat realmente, despre ceea ce s-a ntmplat pe
deplin. Personajele miturilor sunt fiine supranaturale.4 n accepia lui Mircea Eliade, mitul
povestete o istorie sacr; el relateaz un eveniment care a avut loc n timpul primordial, n
timpul fabulos al nceputurilor. general miturile s-au transmis diferitelor popoare prin
tradiie oral sau fragmentar ca pri ale unor opere literare culte. Putem aminti Epopeea lui
Ghilgame la asiro-babilonieni, Mahabharata i Ramayana la indieni, Iliada i Odiseea de
Homer, Teogonia lui Hesion la greci, Eneida lui Vergiliu la romani, Vechiul Testament n
literatura ebraic, etc.
n limba latin termenul de legendae nseamn poveste sfnt, naraiune n care se
povestesc vieile sfinilor, ale eroilor mitici sau mitizai. Legenda e definit ca specie a
literaturii populare, n versuri, dar mai ales n proz redus ca dimensiune n care prin
evenimente miraculoase sau chiar fantastice tinde s dea o explicaie cauzat unor fenomene,
ntmplri, caracteristici ale plantelor, animalelor, omului, etc. Elementele fantastice i
miraculoase din legende sunt axate pe fondul real al unor ntmplri istorice sau pe miezul
imaginar al unei ntmplri mistice. Legendele nu erau considerate ficiuni ca basmele ci erau
crezute ca adevruri suficiente de natur cvasitiinific pentru nelegerea i explicaia
fenomenelor naturale i sociale.
Naraiunea de orice fel (mitul, legenda, basmul, cntecul epic) este un exerciiu al
memoriei colective, iar acest exerciiu se svrete la modul prezent, adic n faa unui public
avid de cunoatere i dup regulile stricte ale ritualului specific acestui mod de expunere. El
este astfel structurat, nct s mbine informaia minim, dar de interes general, de aceea
transpus n tipare convenionale, cu emoie i cu fantezie inventiv.5 Pentru a nelege lumea
n care triete, pentru a se familiariza cu ea, omul i construiete un model al acesteia, un
dublet fictiv compus din elemente nzestrate cu semnificaii multiple. Universul fizic este
preluat de universul mental i restructurat, pentru ca mai apoi lumea s devin copia extins a
microuniversului uman. Clasarea valoric a elementelor se face pe principii dualiste:
Frtate/Nefrtate, binecuvntat/blestemat, erou/antierou etc. Totul capt consisten prin
organizarea n structuri ale imaginarului, locurile intangibile fiind trecute pe harta narativ i
populate. Absorbia informaiilor contextuale presupune selecia, prelucrarea i reconfigurarea
istoriei iniiale i transformarea ei ntr-o poveste generic. Oricum, manifestarea discursiv de
suprafa se gsete la ntlnirea a dou falii temporale - acum i atunci -, cu profunde
implicaii mentalitare i naratologice; legenda se preteaz la fel de bine interpretrii n cheie
filozofic sau psihologic.
Termenul de legend este de provenien cult i a fost introdus n secolul al XIII-lea
de Iacobus de Voragine n Legenda aurea. n cultura romneasc a fost adoptat n secolul
trecut, confundat uneori cu termenul de basm cuprinse cu genericul poveste.6 Legenda este
urmaa de fapt a mitului, basmul vine s rentregeasc atmosfera fantastic nu prin proiecia
supranaturalului n real ci, prin alternana acestora, lundu-i drept model ntemeietor ritualul.
Asistm la preluarea motivelor de ctre unele teme populare, rezultnd creaii tradiionale,
Mircea Eliade, Aspecte ale mitului, Editura Univers, Bucureti, 1978, pag.5-6
Arnold van Gennep,Formarea legendelor, trad. Lucia Berdan, Crina Ioana Berdan, Editura Polirom, Iai,
1997,p.5
4
5
Ovidiu Brlea, Folclorul romnesc, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1981, p.45
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care vor fi, la rndul lor, prelucrate prin basme. Trecerea de la mit la folclor s-a efectuat prin
demitizare, creaiile epice folclorice au preluat numeroase valori. Basmele prezint absurdul
indus de mit n formula iniial i cea final. Eroii basmelor sunt cei care reflect trsturile
eroului mitic.
n general legendele transmit informaii despre momentele i mprejurrile n care a
luat natere o cetate, un ora, o vieuitoare sau o plant, despre evenimente istorice deosebite
ori despre fapte ieite din comun ale unor personaliti, fapte care au cptat aur de
legend. Din diferite motive s-au esut adevrate legende n jurul unor personaliti ca:
Alexandru Macedon, tefan cel Mare, Mihai Viteazul, Drago Vod, Vlad epe, etc. Mult
timp legendele au circulat pe cale oral, apoi scriitorii l-au preluat amplificnd singurele de
adevr i au creat legenda cult.
Problematica abordat e divers. Ea are o sfer de cuprindere foarte larg, de la
elemente cosmice i sociale la tradiii i nivele de civilizaie, de la forme de cultur i
evenimente istorice la credine i virtui general umane. Temele cele mai frecvente sunt:
dragostea pentru vatra strmoeasc, prietenia, sentimentul iubirii, sacrificiul pentru binele
celorlali, admiraia i preuirea marilor personaliti pentru faptele lor exemplare. De orice fel
ar fi, legenda se deosebete de basm i mit prin destinaia sa explicativ. Ea individualizeaz
sau localizeaz un fapt, care contribuie la precizarea unei origini: originea unei construcii, a
particularitilor unei persoane, forme de relief, stnci, izvoare sau a unor obiceiuri populare.
Dimpotriv, aciunea basmului sau a mitului se plaseaz oriunde, ea pstrnd un caracter vag
cu privire la spaiul i timpul celor povestite.n epoca noastr aprut o mare pasiune pentru
poezia popular. Deosebirea dintre poezia popular i cea cult este confirmat odat pentru
totdeauna la toate popoarele i n toate regiunile, semnificnd c n genul epic faptele i
istoriile trezesc un ecou menit s aib larg rsunet i s ptrund n popor cu voia sau fr
voia acestuia, fr a ntmpina greuti, att de pur, att de inocent, att de fidel sunt reinute
faptele, istoriile, doar de dragul lor, reprezentnd un preios bun colectiv din care se
mprtete fiecare; spre deosebire de poezia cult care tinde s exprime o singur fiin
omeneasc ce i dezvluie sufletul, i rspndete n lume prerea i experiena despre
universul vieii, fr a fi pretutindeni neleas sau fr a vrea s se fac neleas de oricine. 7
Literatura romn e bogat n legende populare i culte, multe dintre ele cu subiecte
religioase, istorice i geografice. n literatura romn legenda istoric a fost impus de
Dimitrie Bolintineanu. Volumul su Legende istorice aduce n scen personaliti precum:
Mircea cel Btrn, tefan cel Mare, Vlad epe, Neagoe Basarab, Petru Rare, Mihai
Viteazul,etc. n literatura romn contemporan s-a continuat tradiia cultivrii acestei specii
n special a legendei istorice i geografice. Legtura dintre mit i literatur e pe planul
existenei spirituale, datorit cruia omenirea a ajuns la contiina identitii de sine,
delimitndu-se de natur.
Mircea Eliade susine c n civilizaiile primitive mitul exprim, scoate n relief i
codific credinele.8 n compoziia unui mit intr un mister genetic, un adevr aprioric i o
tehnic a povestirii orale, fapt ce l dovedesc toate operele literare care au la baz un mit
indiferent care ar fi acela.
Pentru Claude Levy-Strauss, mitul este produsul imaginaiei creatoare a omului
primitiv, a crui gndire slbatic i construiete modele logice de cunoatere i de integrare
prin cunoatere n viaa naturii.9
Clinescu mparte miturile romneti n patru tipuri fundamentale:
-mitul Zburtorului-mitul erotic
Iacob i Wilhelm Grimm, Idei despre raportul dintre legend, poezie i istorie,1808
Mircea Eliade, Aspecte ale mitului, Ed.Humanitas, 1999, Bucureti, p.13
9
Claude Levi-Strauss ,Antropologie cultural, Ed. Meridiane, Bucureti, 1988, p.28
7
8
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-mitul Traian i Dochia-mitul etnogenezei romnilor

-mitul Meterul Manole-mitul estetic
-mitul Mioriei-mitul existenei pastorale.10
Stabilite de G. Clinescu miturile fundamentale sunt analizate din perspectiva istoriei
literare, dup preferinele scriitorilor i ale filozofilor i n funcie i de epoc. Ceea ce e era
fundamental n contextul cultural romnesc al sec. al XIX-leai ncep. sec.al XX-lea devine
secundar spre sfritul lui i nceputul secolului XX.
Iulian Boldea face un studiu despre cartea lui Silviu Angelescu 11unde se creeaz un
paralelism ntre mit ca o expresie a unei valori i experiene religioase i literatur ca expresie
a unei valori estetice, ca atare echilirul social va fi rupt i nu va fi refcut cele dou concepte
sunt astfel opuse.
Georges Dumezil la nceputul lucrrii sale Mit i epopee recunoate c astzi noi nu ne
cunoatem miturile dect prin intermediul literaturii. Raporturile literaturii cu mitul sunt
destul de complexe: literatura mprumut, asimileaz,transform, dar i creeaz mituri.Preluat
de literatur, mitul se regsete la baza tuturor marilor teme ale literaturii, care nu fac dect s
dezvolte, cu posibilitiile ce-i sunt proprii, meditaia asupra experienelor umane: pentrua
obine o anumit viziune i efectul estetic corespunztor, literatura mprumut tipuri de
personaje, teme, motive, imagini, simboluri proprii mitului, mprumut o dat cu acestea, ceva
din dimensiunea sacrului acreditat de mit.12
n literatur, mitul ine de o istorie cristalizat, de obicei, ntr-o imagine prestigioas i
exemplar, deoarece rezum spiritul cel mai profund al unei culturi. Gndirea mitic e una
arhetipal, opereaz cu arhetipuri sau prototipuri, orice povestire, orice imagine descinde
dintr-un arhetip. Conceptul de arhetip a fost creat de Platon i nseamn primordial, originar.
Mitul este o imagine artistic multidimensional.
Bibliografie:
***Legende populare romneti, Editura pentru literatur, Bucureti, 1966
Angelescu, Silviu, Mit i literatur, Bucureti, Ed. Univers, 1999
Brlea, Ovidiu, Folclorul romnesc, I, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1981
Benoist, Luc, Semne, simboluri i mituri, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 1995
Clinescu, G., Istoria literaturii romne de la origini pn astzi, Ed.Minerva,
Bucureti, 1982,
Gennep, Arnold van, Formarea legendelor, trad. Lucia Berdan, Crina Ioana Berdan,
Editura Polirom, Iai, 1997
Eliade, Mircea, Aspecte ale mitului, Editura Univers, Bucureti, 1978
Eliade, Mircea, Sacrul i profanul,Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 2007
Levi-Strauss , Claude, Antropologie cultural, Ed. Meridiane, Bucureti, 1988,
Perian, Gheorghe, Literatura n schimbare, Editura Limes, Cluj-Napoca, 2010
G.Clinescu, Istoria literaturii romne de la origini pn astzi, Ed.Minerva, Bucureti, 1982, p.56
Iulian Boldea, n Concepte i imagini critice(Silviu Angelescu,Portret literar),n rev.Apostrof, Anul XXIV,
2013, Nr.4(275)
12
Silviu Angelescu, Mit i literatur, Bucureti, Ed. Univers, 1999, p.32
10
11
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OTHERHOOD, DEATH AND THE REMAKING OF AN IDENTITY IN TONI MORRISONS

UNBALANCED WORLDS
Daniela-Irina DARIE
Abstract: s Toni Morrison conjured, There was something so valuable about what happened
when one became a mother. For me it was the most liberating thing that ever happened to me.
. . . Liberating because the demands that children make are not the demands of a normal
other..1 It is the force demonstration of a writing which explores burdens and suffering,
the dark hallow of an inner turmoil sometimes bordering insanity, sometimes bordering selfdissolution, but also, sometimes giving birth to higher worldviews, reshaping the unknowable
through death and living. The precarious balance between living with guilt and the guilt of
living takes Morrisons female explorers beyond themselves, in order to become sacrifices
of their own determination. The multiple expressions of motherhood and womanhood are
therefore dangerously juxtaposed in Beloved, Sula, Song of Solomon, A Mercy, and Paradise,
declining the chanced appeal to the silence of the mind. The constructs against which
Morrisons heroines are defined are enrooted in African myths and human sacrifices
reasoning for the breaking of the chains or the engulfing mysteries of insanity.
Keywords: Motherhood, black womanhood, myth, alternative realities, trickster
The Black Woman, according to Joyce Ladner, suffers from the twin burden of being
Black and female. 2 It is a double jeopardy which has haunted, tormented, and also,
paradoxically, liberated black women.
Sethe (Beloved, 1987) is, first of all, a traumatized human being. Having lost her
mother before the age of twelve, Sethe has been moving in a closed continuum between the
lack of knowledge of her mother and the social obliteration as a generalized experience of a
slave in South Carolina. The cycle of a-socialization was doomed to trigger a kind of
disjunction3 between the self in searching for wholeness and the restricted role of the mother.
Sethe is also a mother, shackled by the lack of communication and experience with the
real life to a role which must obliterate her individuality as a woman, the recourse to black
identity and slavery markedly constricting her sum of choices to the only one redeeming her
children: death as a rebirth. The killing of her first child becomes the sign and substance of
her love, and in a reconstructed reality, her murder becomes the absolute question of recreating the interplay of identity and non-being.
Motherhood comes as an experience of the psyches total surrender to a belief
containing the good not to be found in the surrounding reality. Sethe chooses to end the life of
her children in order to ensure them a better place. This is the ultimate alteration of the
maternal complex, brought by the realization of ones lack of humanity. She seems to believe
Bill Moyers, Toni Morrison: On Love and Writing, presented by WNET/New York and WTTW/Chicago,
1990, Public Affaurs Television, Inc., reprinted by Truthout, 3 May, 2012, http://truth-out.org/video/item/8886toni-morrison-on-love-and-writing.
2
Ladner Joyce, Tomorrow's Tomorrow. Garden City, NY: Anchor, 1972.
3
Sandra Mayfield, Motherhood in Toni Morrisons Beloved: A Psychological Reading, Journal of Scientific
Psychology, January 2012
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that she is assisting their passage into another state of being, 4 whose core is made more
appealing by the hope of liberty.
Her identity is limited by her choices to the reign of motherhood, and her psyche will
from this moment onward oscillate between motherhood and childless. This conflict will
trigger the incidence of the Child, the life-consuming child who would seek revenge altering
Sethes perception upon the world. The aftermath of her murder will find Sethe still limited to
the matriarchal complex, unable to view herself as a more laborious concept; she denies
herself an identity as Sethe. It is Paul D the one called to show her the limitless vision of a
Sethe exiting for herself, and not for her children. In Paul Ds recognition that he wants to
build a shared past with Sethe, she will finally be able to recover her Ego, by referring to the
Other. But it takes the intervention of a man, the second half of Jungs androgen, to construct
a whole being, because, as Paul D says:
() me and you, we got more yesterday than anybody. We need some kind of
tomorrow. He leans over and takes her hand. With the other he touches her face. You your
best thing, Sethe. You are. His holding fingers are holding hers. Me? Me?. 5
Seethe, the mother, hears hummingbirds, the flight as a return to the ancestral origins
of Africa, and her childs death becomes the perfect escape into the world where their
ancestors would be free. The myth of the flight, whether in a symbolic form, or in human
forms, will frequently occur in the works of Toni Morrison, signifying as in Sethes psyche,
the last resort to a recognition of the self.
The Sethe found by Paul D after eighteen years is a flame of passionate motherhood.
She loves her second daughter, Denver, so much that the male protagonist is intrigued by her
depth of feeling. And his wisdom as a slave tells him:
Risky. For a used-to-be slave woman to love anything that much was dangerous,
especially if it was her children she had settled on to love. The best thing, he knew, was to
love just a little bit; everything, just a little bit, so when they broke its back, or shoved it in a
croaker sack, well, maybe youd have a little love left over for the next one. 6
Sethe reaches an equilibrium between Paul D and Denver and the reconstruction of the
self seems to finally set the equation of meaning. At least, the determination to conjure a
peace of mind seems to dwell in Sethes psyche. But the mental processes are not so easily
disarmed and the past returned to haunt the killer/liberator mother. The murdered child returns
and with her, the Jungian shadow inhabits the empty place in the motherly heart, the empty
place in which the turmoil oscillates between reason and insanity. In this place, in the dark
abyss of the subconscious, the image of the past, the crime and the lost love are trying to
reconcile with each other.
For Sethe, Beloved is her daughter returned from the land of the lost to give her the
chance of justifying her extreme measure in bestowing a sense of freedom. For Paul D,
Beloved is a psychological figment of a turned-apart world in which reality is ultimately
altered under the tension of inner forces.
Sethe sees in the second Beloved a new chance to happiness and fulfillment of her
meaning as a mother.
4
Carmen Gillespie, Critical Companion to Toni Morrison. A Literary Reference to Her Life and Work. New
York: Infobase Publishing, 2008, p. 30.
5
Toni Morrison, Beloved, Penguin Group, Penguin Putnam Inc., New York, USA, 1998, p. 273-274.
6
Idem, p. 45.
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Beloved, she my daughter. She mine. She come back to me of her own free will and I
dont have to explain a thing... My plan was to take us all to the other side where my own
maam is. They stopped us from getting there, but they didnt stop you from getting here. Ha,
ha.7
The shadow appears in beloved as an all-devouring malignant entity, seen alternatively
as a construct of Sethes psyche, or as a real human, escaped from the ship of slaves. It could
be perceived as a symbol of the past, but all the same as a doppelganger of Sethe, of the
mother guilty of killing her child, a non-force trying to effect the purgatory of a dissociated
mind.
Beloved is the trickster, the undifferentiated psyche which hardly left the animal
level8. Seethe perceives Beloved as a type of reality, one which, despite challenging the
knowledge of her death, succeeds in breaking down the barriers of Sethes rationality, and
embodies a real person. The trickster Beloved represents the altered personality of Sethe, or
the demon returned to take revenge, even a human being saved from the Middle Passage.
Whatever her shapes as a trickster, she does have some therapeutic characteristics: her
devouring of Sethe triggers the awakening of Denver, the symbol of the future
The fear that destabilizes Eva Peace, in Sula (1975), is the other side of this coin of
motherhood; the one of returning to the state of simple and exclusively mother, a bond that
would trigger, so Eva fears, her dysfunctional identity. Asked what determined her decision to
kill Plum, she answers: () Being helpless and thinking baby thoughts... and messing up his
pants again I had room enough in my heart, but not in my womb... I birthed him once. I
couldn't do it again.9
Both Sethe and Eva are absorbed by forces beyond their control. 10 And their excessive
and abnormal love, a love born in the darkness of sub-human will and fight for a inner
strength, will end up in the same extreme act, the murder of a child. Eva sacrifices part of her
body in order to feed her family, Sethe sacrifices her entire mind in order to ensure a free life
for her child. Sethe is a sublimated Eva, through which the hardship and the engulfing
injustice of the slavery become the darkness beyond which the human spirit and mind can no
longer maintain their integrity.
One of the most deliberate and strong images in African American literature is that of
the outraged mother. She bears witness to the drama of African American people, robbed
by their individuality, their past and their voice. This mother is the symbol of the battle, a
battle for the survival of a black identity. She is the law, the scribe and the army of a nation,
and she will never cease to outcry the despair of her without-history children.
One of the most imposing of all outraged mothers in fiction, Pilate embodies the
heroism, self-sacrifice, and the supernatural attributes of her historical and mythical
counterparts.11
7
Toni Morrison, op. cit., 1998, p. 124.

Carl Gustav Jung, Archetypes of the collective unconscious, in: Collected Works of C. G. Jung, Vol. 9, Part 1,
2nd
ed.,
Princeton:
Princeton
University
Press,
1968,
pp.
3-41,
quoted
in
http://www.voidspace.org.uk/psychology/jung_abstracts.shtml.
9
Toni Morrison, Sula, New York: New American Library, 1973, p. 71-72.
10
Laurie Vickroy, The Force Outside/The Force Inside: Mother-Love and Regenerative Spaces in Sula and
Beloved, in Marla W. Iyasere, ed., Understanding Toni Morrisons Beloved and Sula, Selected Essays and
Criticisms, 2nd volume, New York: Whiston Publishing Company, 2000, p. 298.
11
Joanne Braxton, The Outraged Mother, reprinted from Wild Women in the Whirlwind: Afra-American
Culture and the Contemporary Literary Renaissance, eds. Joanne M. Braxton and Andre Nicola McLaughlin,
New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1990, S&F Online, www.barnard.edu/sfonline.
8
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Pilate (Song of Solomon, 1977) exists through herself, she doesnt need a man or a
social kinship because she has the strength and the inner resources to live in a world
constructed by herself only for herself. The woman without a navel is believed to have the
power to step out of her skin, set a bush afire from yards, and turn a man into a ripe
rutabagaall on account of the fact that she had no navel.12
Her entire personal history is in a brass box worn as an earring. Her clothes are
symbols of her resolute distancing from men and women alike. Long-sleeved, long-skirted
dress, unlaced mens shoes, a non-feminine, and yet non-masculine attire, marking only the
belonging to human race, as an androgynys would. She has chosen a lover, as an in-breeder
in searching for the perfect heritor, from a colony of Negro farmers on an island off the coast
of Virginia, and when she became pregnant, she refused to marry the man in order to
protect the secret of her continuous flesh. Her fierce independence is the gate to her
individuality, an individuality rooted in a deep sense of her own self. She doesnt need to
measure against somebody, or against the scale of a social group because all the knowledge is
in herself. She is the feeler, not the interpreter. The darkness in Pilates heart is a too-bright
light, at the perception of which the human eye recoils within itself.
But deep inside her incomprehensible soul reside the power of a goddess, a mother
earth, an ancestral matriarchal symbol. When danger threatens her daughter, Pilate becomes a
fearful force of nature, defending Hagar with all her determination sublimated from her
motherhood, a motherhood which obliterates any other motivation or restrain engaged in the
self-preservation.
[A]pproaching the man from the back, she whipped her right arm around his neck and
positioned the knife at the edge of his heart. She waited until the man felt the knife-point
before she jabbed it skillfully, about a quarter of an inch through his shirt into the skin. Still
holding his neck, so he couldnt see but could feel the blood making his shirt sticky, she
talked to him. 13
The knife becomes a symbol of will, a skill driven by determination and the desire of
protecting the child. The mother in extreme anguish, but a mother with the wisdom and the
desire to make the enemy comprehend that he is the source, and the source can always be
constrained between boundaries of human volition instead of being destroyed.
Women are foolish, you know, and mamas are the most foolish of all. And you know
how mama's are don't you? You got a mama, ain't you? Sure you have, so you know what I'm
talking about We do the best we can, but we aint got the strength you men got You
know what I mean? Id hate to pull this knife out and have you try some other time to act
mean to my little girl. Cause one thing I know for sure: whatever she done, shes been good to
you. Still, Id hate to push it in more and have your mama feel like I do now14
And in Song of Solomon, Morrison depicts a woman who, out of her absolute
kindness, had nothing. She gave everything away, and while she looked as poor as everyone
said she was, something was missing from her eyes that should have confirmed it.15 The
gesture of giving is sufficient enough for assuring the frame in which Pilates contribution to
the Others welfare could be delineated. But despite her benefactions, despite her openness to
12
13
14
15
Toni Morrison, Song of Solomon , New York: Random House, 1977, p. 95.
Toni Morrison, op. cit., 1977, p. 93-94.
Idem, p. 94.
Idem, p. 39.
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others impoverished present, despite her freely assumed engagement in searching for an
investment of her power and abnegation, Pilate is too different, too hard to convey in a sum of
simple characteristics. She is somehow above and beyond common suppositions about your
generous neighbor.
And as Morrison reminds us, women who are self-assured and independent are
actually feared, shunned, and treated as though they are evil. Pilate will be perceived as
alienated, even her symbol of belonging to a different realm will imprint unto her the deep
scars of lack of human understanding. So in trying to share her wisdom, wisdom so ancient as
to become archetypal, Pilate remains in the primal soliloquy of motherhood and womanhood.
One of Morrisons good, normal, loving mothers, minha me16 (A Mercy, 2008),
decides to send away her daughter, hoping she would prevent the sexual abuse hovering upon
her destiny. But the mother, as pure and motherly her reasons may have been, in her lack of
communication triggers a negative, long-pervading and mentally-abusive response in her
daughter, who translates and internalizes the sacrificial liberation as abandonment. The
sorrow and the deep wound opened in the girls soul becomes obvious in the repetition of the
pronoun me, like an incantation conjuring up the revision of her psychological imprint.
() forever and ever. Me watching, my mother listening, her baby boy on her hip.
Senhor is not paying the whole amount he owes to Sir. Sir saying he will take instead the
woman and the girl, not the baby boy and the debt is gone. A minha me begs no. Her baby
boy is still at her breast. Take the girl, she says, my daughter, she says. Me. Me.17
Being both slaves, the options are close to zero for the mother. But, because she
acknowledges that Sir has no animal in his heart.18 There was a chance her daughter to be
saved from a destiny resembling hers: rape, cruelty, and lack of horizon. Florens is too young
to understand the sacrifice her mother was forced to assume, as the renunciation to a child is a
torture of the mind not for the strongest, but for the handicapped souls. Perceiving the
estrangement from her mother as a stern abandonment, Florens will preserve for her entire life
an altered perception of what it means to be a mother, a nourisher and a provider: mothers
nursing greedy babies scare me. I know how their eyes go when they choose (). Holding the
little boys hand. 19 Minha me keeps the infant with her, even if the choice is the most
painful and tormenting decision a woman could make. And one that will mark them both,
mother and daughter, for life. The mother will never escape the feeling of guilt, anguish and
integrity, she will remain forever haunted by the desire to explain her reasoning, her
abandoning her daughter. Florens mind and soul will be all her life obliterated by the
anguish of having children, and being forced to abandon them.
Florens mother is a prototype of the enslaved black mother, a mother deprived by her
motherhood, with a truncated spirit and a vicious need to turn against her own psyche. The
lack of confidence in herself and in any kind of relationship will exacerbate the maternal
complex conjuring the insanity of her mind. The jealousy deeply embedded in her heart from
that moment in which her mother said take her... will culminate in violence, violence
against a child, a surrogate of the brother for which she was traded, or so she thinks. The
child becomes a competitor, challenging for the second time in her life, her right to love and
to be loved. Because she fears the danger of being once again banished. From the moment she
sees the boy, Florens predicates: This happens twice before. The first time it is me peering
16
17
18
19
minha me = Portuguese for my mother.

Toni Morrison, A Mercy, New York: Alfred A. Knopf/Random House, Inc, 2008, p. 7.
Idem, p. 163.
Idem, p. 8.
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around my mothers dress hoping for a hand that is only for her little boy. Both times are
full of danger and I am expel.20
This reiteration of the abandonment which is not an abandonment, in the proper
sense, but only the altered perception of the pain of a hurt girl, a scared, lonely and eventually
psychologically deformed human being, this second treason is undoubtedly the triggering
element of a chain of violence with roots in the first gesture of the Minha me, the enslaved
mother trying to save both her children in the only way she knows how. Denying them and in
this way denying herself.
Florens evinces a disturbed perception of the reality presented to her troubled psyche,
her own memories and reliving the past experiences determining her to transfer upon the boy
her feelings from the past: He is silent but the hate in his eyes is loud. He wants my leaving.
This cannot happen. I feel the clutch inside. This expel can never happen again.21
Florens will hurt the boy, the brother of the past, because he is competing with her for
a share in the affection that should be exclusively hers. In her trying to overcompensate for
her life lacking in motherly safety and warmth, she sees the same kindness her mother
exhibited for the younger child as reflected in the relation of Florens lover and the abandoned
boy. And Florens is unable to sustain one more shock of alienation, as she perceives in her
distorted reality. She snaps. What she couldnt do to her brother, because she was still young,
innocent and sane, she tries to inflict upon his surrogate. And paradoxically, the lovers
rejection of Florens takes place not because he favors the boy but because he has seen the
violence inside her, bred and fostered within slavery and that systems forcible abandonment
by her mother.22
In her mothers attempt to save Florens, as in her lovers enterprise in expressing pure
kindness, we find a drama of sacrificial depth, and the depth of the rupture resides in the
acknowledgement of not ever knowing the true valences of the gesture will be correctly
understood.
And as the reader learns, the fear of the misunderstood mother was not without reason.
Florens sees the event in the past as the locus of her incipient destruction. She considers her
mother responsible for the evil brought upon her by a life of unsuccessful relations. She is
contextualizing in the light of the out-rootedness, and the causal factor in triggering hatred
and lack of communication is the very silence of the moment in which she was denied the
reasoning within which her experience would have ceased to be a punishment. As a result, the
victim will become the punisher, and the ordeal of inflicting pain will drive her more and
more into the darkness of alienation.
Florens cannot conjure a meaning in her past, and lacking any markings on which to
sustain the belonging to a family, she becomes alienated, she feels banished from the order of
normality and starts acting as a stranger, but a stranger whose individuality is more aggressive
in facing love, than in fighting hatred. She never learns how to belong to a relationship, how
to trust another human being; she never learns what her mother knew that love doesnt come
without sacrifices. And as Amanda Putnam concludes: () and so the innocent and selfmartyring act of rescue from the mother becomes also an act of violence, setting in motion her
daughters future brutality and ultimate self-destruction.23
The demons here are the unspeakable words, the words that should have been told, but
didnt find the means of being spoken. The cultural annihilation and the personal insecurity
20
Toni Morrison, A Mercy, p. 137.

Ibidem.
22
Amanda Putnam, Mothering Violence: Ferocious Female Resistance in Toni Morrisons The Bluest Eye,
Sula, Beloved, and A Mercy, Black Women, Gender, and Families, Fall 2011, Vol. 5, No. 2 pp. 2543.
23
Amanda Putnam, op. cit., p. 33.
21
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brought by slavery enslaves not only the embodied human, but also the discourse of deeply
felt statements about human belonging.
Patricia (Paradise, 1997), the daughter without a mother, is a recourse to the
consequences of living without a motherly figure, a mother model to emulate in her future
role. In her relation with her daughter Billie Delia, she is flabbergasted by her lack of
inhibitions, by her instinctual and untamed behavior in a world to which Patricia wants to
belong as a prerequisite for the wholeness she cherishes so much. Patricia is the mother who
sees motherhood as a pro-active measurement of social engagement. She suffers of a
hypertrophy of the feminine, translated into an endorsement of all her feminine instincts,
first of all of the maternal instinct. Her own personality being negated and pushed in the
eternally challenged substance of the subconscious, the heroine becomes a transference from
her child to her child, her identity diminished to only one dimension, that of a mother. The
child becomes her raison detre. And as Carl Gustav Jung said, she arrogates to herself the
right to possess her daughter.24
In this possession Patricia externalizes the need and greed for power, and when her
daughter fails to fulfill this need, she ostracizes Billie Delia, ceasing to act as a pro-active
factor of socialization. Motherhood diminishes furthermore her role in the society of Ruby
and this transforms her daughter in a liability somehow. Vulnerable to the possibility of not
being quite as much of a lady as Patricia Cato would like.25 The liaison established between
Billie Delia and one of the girls residing at the Covenant disobeys the law of Ruby, one of the
laws that kept Ruby in its stasis of life sanctuary, because nobody ever died in Ruby. And a
transgression could have meant the outbreak of the curse of death.
Patricia also tries to kill her daughter, not to give her freedom or to preserve an
identity already denied, but to maintain a place in a community of pure race 8-rocks which, nonetheless, was to banish her for cherishing a true ancestry nobody wanted to
remember. Patricia attempts at destroying the young girl that lived in the minds of the 8rocks, not the girl her daughter was.26 And the dilemma will taunt and torment her entire life
after Billie Delias leaving the community. () The question for her now in the silence of
this here night was whether she had defended Billie Delia or sacrificed her. And was she
sacrificing her still?27
Unlike Sethe and Eva, Patricia is an exponent of the society, a society born in
tribulations of pain, a membership which was founded on the idea of racial purity, a black
purity. African Americans proud of their heritage, perfected a system of laws that was too
close to the laws enslaving them. A deviant counter reaction to peer denial inflicted upon
blacks by the white race. Replacing an injustice with a crueler one, one within which your
conscience must deny its very roots, the inhabitants of Ruby, and Patricia among them,
choose to destroy the very diversity which informed their philosophy, and in doing so, they
become the hunters they had been running from their entire lives.
Eventually, even Patricia will become an outcast, and she will, finally realize, that not
her daughter was one impelling reclusion upon her social being, but the past of the founding
fathers of 8-rocks, a past which was rebelling against its truth, transforming history in story.
Alienated from her society, from her belonging to a spirit and a perspective upon the future,
motherless and de-fragmented, Patricia is incapable to find her place in this new world built
on the blackness of Ruby. Ruby wants to know about Africa because if you cut yourself
off from the roots, youll wither, says Reverend Misner, for whom Patricia seems like she
Carl Gustav Jung, Opere complete, 1st volume, Arhetipurile i incontientul colectiv, Bucureti: Editura Trei,
2003, p. 97.
25
Toni Morrison, Paradise, New York: Penguin Putnam Inc., 1999, p. 203.
26
Toni Morrison, op. cit., 1999, p. 204.
27
Ibidem.
24
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would despise Africa, the roots turned into termite dust in their ignoring their branches. For
Patricia the sole equilibrium and the perfect truth is in the periodic chart of elements and
valences, and in the lack of emotions chased away in order to make room for the sternness
and immutable nature of science.
With Toni Morrisons women, the unconscious becomes the center of collision
bringing the worlds together and sending them apart; behind the masks and the little plays
they play for each other and the rest of the world, the depth lurks beyond their cognition, and
they are lured to look into the abyss, even if this means they could become its victims, its
puzzles and its dominoes. Some characters regress to emptiness, and the firm grounds of
knowledge, some regress into the past, and its drive to love and hate imprinted in a collective
burden.
References
Primary Sources:
Morrison, Toni. Beloved. New York, USA: Penguin Group, Penguin Putnam Inc.,
1998.
A Mercy, New York, USA: Alfred A. Knopf/Random House, Inc, 2008.

Paradise. New York, USA: Penguin Putnam Inc., 1999.
Song of Solomon. New York, USA: Random House, 1977.
Sula, New York, USA: New American Library, 1973.
Secondary Sources:
Braxton M., Joanne. The Outraged Mother in Braxton M., Joanne, McLaughlin, Andre
Nicola, eds. Wild Women in the Whirlwind: Afra-American Culture and the Contemporary
Literary Renaissance. New Brunswick, NJ, USA: Rutgers University Press, 1990.
Gillespie, Carmen. Critical Companion to Toni Morrison. A Literary Reference to Her
Life and Work. New York, USA: Infobase Publishing, 2008.
Iyasere, Marla W., ed. Understanding Toni Morrisons Beloved and Sula, Selected
Essays and Criticisms, 2nd volume, Troy, New York, USA: Whiston Publishing Company,
2000.
Joyce, Ladner. Tomorrow's Tomorrow. Garden City, NY, USA: Anchor, 1972.
Jung, Carl Gustav. Opere complete, 1st Volume, Arhetipurile i incontientul colectiv.
Bucureti, Romania: Editura Trei, 2003.
Jung, Carl Gustav. Collected Works of C. G. Jung, Volume 9, Part 1, Archetypes of the
collective unconscious, Princeton, USA: Princeton University Press, 1968.
Articles and Journals:
Journal of Scientific Psychology: Mayfield, Sandra. Motherhood in Toni Morrisons
Beloved: A Psychological Reading, January 2012.
Black Women, Gender, and Families: Putnam, Amanda. Mothering Violence:
Ferocious Female Resistance in Toni Morrisons The Bluest Eye, Sula, Beloved, and A
Mercy, Fall 2011, Volume 5, No. 2.
Internet Resources:
S&F Online, www.barnard.edu/sfonline (June 20, 2012).
http://www.voidspace.org.uk/psychology (June 20, 2012).
Truthout, 3rd May, 2012, http://truth-out.org (June 30, 2012).
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NICOLAE STEINHARDT- ESSAYIST

Claudia CREU (VALOBAN)
Abstract: The essay is a literary genre that does not involve some rules and constantly
changing appearance, shape and treat a wide spectrum of topics. N. Steinhardt's essay fits
like a glove. Regardless essay about it, it displays its "confession" so that those who read it to
be able to share its vast and significant culture that has.
Keywords: essay, appearance, confession, share, culture.
N. Steinhardt eseist
Eseul este o specie literar care nu implic anumite reguli i care i schimb mereu
nfiarea, forma i trateaz un spectru foarte larg de subiecte. Adrian Marino l numete
concept cu o mie i una de fee, pe ct de nebulos i ambiguu n numeroase spirite, pe att de
cultivat i elogiat cu ostentaie n cele mai neateptate direcii1. Astfel, eseistul este cel care,
n mod subiectiv, caut, ncearc i gsete rspunsuri la diverse ntrebri i soluii la diverse
probleme, ns cerina de baz a acestuia este cunoaterea astfel nct s poat s rspund
tuturor cerinelor exterioare i s poat satisface nevoile interioare ale sale.
i N. Steinhardt d o definiie eseului: un gen literar care i putea sta la ndemn
doar unui norod civilizat i cult, unuia pentru care nici dihotomia civilizaie - cultur nu mai
are mai mult sens dect aceea dintre deteptciune i gndirea intuitiv (a zice: amirosire). i
nu-i la poftirea oricui: cere micri libere, un mers apsat dar nu greoi, o finee, o sobrietate, o
graie i mai ales o comunicabilitate, o ncredere n semeni, ncredinarea c pentru a le
transmite o prere, un gnd, o teorie ori o explicaie, o ipotez, un simmnt nu-i nevoie de
un balast livresc imens, de tomuri groase, c ntre oameni de bun credin i egal bunvoire
exist putina de a te nelege cu nu prea numeroase i nclcite vorbe2.
n ceea ce l privete pe N. Steinhardt, eseul i se potrivete ca o mnu. Indiferent
despre care eseu este vorba, el i etaleaz spovedania, astfel nct i cei care o citesc s se
poat mprti din marea i nsemnata cultur de care dispune. Pentru a putea argumenta
aceste puncte de vedere ne vom opri la eseul Secretul Scrisorii pierdute, apoi la volumele:
ntre via i cri, Incertitudini literare i Escale n timp i spaiu.
Secretul Scrisorii pierdute este principalul eseu prezent n Cartea mprtirii. Cu
toate c a fost scris i publicat sub pseudonim n anul 1975, la Paris, cu ajutorul lui Virgil
Ierunca, n ar va vedea lumina tiparului, n ntregime (cci, fragmente din eseul au fost
publicate n revista Apostrof, n 1992), doar postum, n anul 1995. Volumul Cartea
mprtirii apare sub ngrijirea lui Ion Vartic, la Cluj i cuprinde un numr de ase texte care
sunt reprezentative n ceea ce privete gndirea religioas a lui N. Steinhardt.
Secretul Scrisorii pierdute debuteaz cu un citat din mile Mle: La beaut est
partout, mais elle ne se rvle qu lamour3, care nu face altceva dect s susin tema
principal sau, mai bine spus, principiile dup care se ghida N. Steinhardt i anume:
buntatea, dragostea sau cumsecdenia, termen ndrgit de eseist.
n prima parte a eseului, N. Steinhardt prezint cele dou interpretri date operei lui
I.L. Caragiale: una, s-i spunem stngist, socotete c-i o critic necrutoare, aspr i
Adrian Marino, Dicionar de idei literare, Editura Eminescu, Bucureti, 1973, p. 604.
Florian Roati, Vocaia eseului romnesc, p. 2.
3
Frumuseea este peste tot, doar c ea nu se dezvluie dect dragostei.
1
2
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Issue no. 6/2015
crud a burgheziei, a viciilor ei i a regimului ei politic; alta, naionalist, este convins c

talentatul autor al Scrisorii urte poporul romn, pe care l-a nfiat n toate scrierile lui cu
prtinire i rutate4, dar, propune i o a treia: care, spre deosebire de toate interpretrile din
ultimul sfert de veac, era fi pornit ctre o expunere blnd, cuviincioas, ndulcit
a subiectului i o purtare reinut a personagiilor5.
Aceast propunere va ncerca s schimbe viziunile de pn atunci asupra operei lui
I.L. Caragiale, oferind sugestia unei citiri spectografice a acesteia i posibilitatea descoperirii
unor forme nevzute cu ochiul, unei lumi noi, nfind i o alt moral aflat la baza
ntregii lumi descris de Caragiale.
Acest secret al Scrisorii pierdute se afl n actul al IV-lea, acesta fiind cel mai
important, din perspectiva eseistului. Actul al IV-lea este prezentat de N. Steinhardt ca fiind
acela unde, pentru cine are ochi de vzut, urechi de auzit i inim s-i bat, autorul Scrisorii
salt peste comedia de moravuri, peste genul realist, peste teatru i ne duce cu iueal mare, n
mar forat-(...)- n lumea care nu mai e a unei realizari teatrale, ci a marii arte unde se
decodeaz sufletul omenesc- n cazul de fa, romnesc6.
Pentru eseist actul al IV-lea e totul, punctul magic este momentul n care Caavencu
i cere iertare, iar Joiica l iart. Fr acest moment ntreaga pies nu era dect o satir, o
prezentare a moravurilor unei societi, ns prezena lui ne dezvluie o alt lume n care
iertarea, mpcarea sunt atributele principale ale acestei societi, ale societii romneti, care
are calitile i lumii occidentale i ale celei orientale, fiind la mijloc, dar neavnd cusururile
niciuneia7.
Plecnd de la Scrisoarea pierdut a lui I.L.Caragiale, N. Steinhardt face elogiul lumii
romneti care e: spaiu mioritic i cretin, spaiu al blndeii, dulcii mpcri, iertrii,
echilibrului i relativitii8, dar i lumea n care se mai regsesc cteva dintre trsturile
cretine pe care ar trebui s le ntlnim peste tot, i anume: buntatea, iertarea i mpcarea.
n partea Sfinii critici i ia, oarecum, pe critici la rost, deoarece, din punctul lor de
vedere eroii lui Caragiale nu ar fi trebuit s se mpace, ci s-i dovedeasc ncrncenarea,
rutatea i s se rzbune unul pe cellalt. Aceast luare la rost o face folosind ironia. Astfel, se
dovedete aici latura mai puin pozitiv a celor care vizionau sau citeau piesa de teatru.
Bineneles c aici nu se refer la criticii literari, n mod deosebit, ci se generalizeaz, se aduc
n prim plan acele persoane pentru care buntatea i iertarea sunt nite noiuni nemaintlnite,
nefolositoare i pentru care rzbunarea, ura sunt noiuni democratice, serioase, mature i cu
fond.
Prin aceast mpcare, eroii lui Caragiale vin s arate c exist i alte soluii, omeneti,
care nu fac dect s demonstreze ca fac parte dintr-un popor cretin, pentru care dreapta
socotin este cea care face diferena. O variant a dreptei socotine este, n viziunea lui N.
Steinhardt, hatrul pe care l definete ca: o form practic, real, limitat, modest, pe
care, singur, o au oamenii la ndemn pentru a-i manifesta concret i nepretenios,
dragostea nu de omenire, ci de oamenii din jurul lor9.
Analiza de cmp pe care o propune N. Steinhardt n acest eseu ne ofer o altfel de
viziune asupra lumii romneti, o lume a echilibrului bine aezat nte dou capete, n care,
dup frumoasa vorb a suditilor, there is always time for good manners10, n care
cretinismul i pune amprenta. Din aceast cauz, Steinhardt vede n Trahanache, Zoe i
N. Steinhardt, Cartea mprtairii, Ediie alctuit de Ion Vartic, Editura Biblioteca Apostrof, Cluj, 1993, p. 19.
Ibidem, p. 19.
6
Ibidem, p. 25.
7
Ibidem, p. 28.
8
Ibidem, p. 33.
9
Ibidem, p. 46.
10
Ibidem, p. 27
4
5
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Tiptescu exemplare umane mai civilizate i de calitate mai rafinat dect s-ar zice i care-s
greu de neles n gingaa lor cumpnire de ctre mini obtuze i simpliste, dispuse s priceap
doar boacnele, murnguri i extremele11.
Prin aceste exemplare, dar i prin alte personaje caragialeti, eseistul ne face
cunoscut sufletul romnesc, caracterizat printr-un stil bonom, blnd, bogat n ncredere,
prietenie, ospitalitate i mil12. Aici, el consider necesar o precizare: Nu nseamn c
stilul sufletesc al romnului este de fapt uuratic n sens lichelesc. E, dimpotriv i la drept
vorbind, rspuns adnc la o grav problem i soluia cea mai cuminte pentru o ntrebare
lsat nedesluit de trecerea anilor13.
Suflet romnesc este acel punct care se pune la sfritul unui enun i dup care
urmeaz un altul. Acel altul este lumea despre care ne vorbete att de frumos, de
ptrunztor N. Steinhardt. Citind acest eseu, inevitabil apar i unele ntrebri, dar , parc
anticipnd acest lucru, autorul ne ofer i rspunsurile. Sau, chiar dac am avea unele proprii,
imposibil s nu pleci urechea la spusele eseistului, s nu reflectezi. i tocmai aici se gsete
senzaionalul care se leag de cretinism, de poporul romn i pe care l ntlneti att de
des n scrierile lui N. Steinhardt.
Un alt gest pe care l observ eseistul n piesa lui I.L. Caragiale, dar pe care n timpul
su, ct i astzi nu se mai ntlnete este respectul datorat adversarului: dei Caavencu nu
este un cu eleadversar de cine tie ce respect, vedem c Joiica, atunci cnd l tie nfrnt, nu-l
batjocorete14.
ntr-un interviu dat de I.P.S. Ioan Selejan, pe atunci episcop al Covasnei i Harghitei,
acesta spunea c ntre viaa de aici, de pe pmnt i cea de dincolo este cale de o prescur, n
lumea lui Caragiale trecerea ctre rai se realizeaz prin: Iart-m-te-iert! despre care N.
Steinhardt spunea c aceast formul este pragul paradisului, de aici ncolo personagiile
scap atraciei pmntului i voinei autorului i ne duc cu ele n eterul de sus15, astfel
rspunznd te iert celui care spune iart-m, ei intr numaidect i tainic n contact cu
paradisul16.
Cei doi se pot asemna cu tlharul de pe cruce, dovedind c dac se rostesc
potrivit(cuvintele oamenilor) cu voia lui Dumnezeu i n sensul planului divin, pot recrea
raiul. Tlharul de pe cruce, pentru a fi n aceeai zi n rai, n-a avut nevoie dect s spun
cteva CUVINTE17.
Nu se poate s ncheiem fr s reamintim concluzia la care ajunge Steinhardt: n
scoica aceasta a unei comedii aprige i ostile, lumea romneasc poate strbate veacurile n tot
mreul ei farmec, prevestind de aici, de pe pmnt, din iureul unor ntmplri mundane,
paradisul a crui nostalgie nu ne va crua nicicnd18.
Dup cum spunea i Ion Vartic, cel care a ngrijit prima apariie a Crii mprtirii,
ar trebui s se citeasc prima dat aceast analiz a lui N. Steinhardt, n ceea ce privete
Scrisoarea pierdut i apoi altele, astfel s-ar forma de la bun nceput o alt perspectiv asupra
acesteia.
11
Ibidem, p. 55.
Ibidem, p. 60.
13
Ibidem, p. 60.
14
Ibidem, p. 74.
15
Ibidem, p. 85.
16
Ibidem, p. 86.
17
Ibidem, p. 86.
18
Ibidem, p. 92.
12
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BIBLIOGRAFIE
Ardeleanu, George, N. Steinhardt i paradoxurile libertii. O perspectiv
monografic, Bucureti, Editura Humanitas, 2009.
Adrian Marino, Dicionar de idei literare, Editura Eminescu, Bucureti, 1973.
Morar, Nicolae, Dimensiunea cretina a operei lui Nicolae Steinhardt, Timioara,
Editura Paideia, 2004.
Steinhardt N., Cartea mprtirii. Ediie gndit i alctuit de Ion Vartic, ClujNapoca, Biblioteca Apostrof, 1995.
*** N. Steinhardt sau fericirea de a fi cretin. Caietele de la Rohia (I) Ediie ngrijit
i note de Florian Roati, Baia Mare, Editura Helvetica,1999.
*** N. Steinhardt n amintirea contemporanilor. Caietele de la Rohia (II). Ediie
ngrijit i note de Florian Roati, Baia Mare, Editura Helvetica, 2002.
*** N. Steinhardt n interviuri i coresponden. Caietele de la Rohia ( III ). Ediie
ngrijit i note de Florian Roati, Baia Mare, Editura Helvetica, 2001.
***N. Steinhardt. Prin alii n postumitate. Caietele de la Rohia (IV). Ediie alcatuit
i ngrijit de Florian Roati, Baia Mare, Editura Helvetica, 2002.
POSDRU/159/1.5/S/133652.
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SYMBOL, IMAGE AND NATURIST METAPHOR IN ION HOREAS POETRY

Ana-Maria TEFAN (PAPUC)
Abstract: The poetry of Ion Horea is framed by critics in the area of traditionalism, of bucolic
lyrics, which the interwar poets have brought to life through inserting new ideas. Celebrating
the harvest, working the land, working with tools and universal germination along with the
proud statement of our rural roots, are until the end of the seventh decade the main themes
and motifs of this bucolic poetry. In this study, we will analyze the poetry of Ion Horea
through observations, regarding the poetic imagination, being influenced by the critic vision
of Alexandru Cistelecan regarding the work of Ion Pillat, which is similar in the visual
structure and the symbolic relevance with the work of our poet. Often, we will quote from
interpretations made by Gaston Bachelard, Gilbert Durand, Ivan Evseev, Jean Chevalier and
Alain Gheerbrant, but also from the alchimist theories, which will prove to be relevant later
on.
Keywords: bucolic, universal germination, fructification, nature, solarity
Examinnd atent exegezele, constatm c poezia lui Ion Horea este ncadrat n aria
tradiionalismului, a liricii bucolice, pe care poeii epocii interbelice au revigorat-o prin
inserarea unor noi motive, care au reuit s o diferenieze de clieele perimate ale idilismului
smntorist. Bucolica romneasc, receptiv la stimulii externi, a cunoscut de-a lungul
timpului forme de manifestare dintre cel mai diverse, devenind o component nsemnat a
poeziei tradiionaliste, o component [] a fibrei intim entice a spiritualitii autohtone.1
Naturii descriese ca tablou modalitate inaugurat de Heliade i impus definitiv n literatura
noastr de Vasile Alecsandri prin pastelurile sale i ia locul o sensibilitate care implic
direct eul liric n perceperea ei. Atitudinii romantice de contemplaie, de reverie ntr-un cadru
plcut din natur, consonant cu starea sufleteasc, i se substituie sentimentul plenitudinii
vitale, al bucuriei de a aparine cosmosului, de a cnta sevele pmntului, de a asculta chiotele
firii.2 Asistm la o convertire a bucolismului n htonism, conjugat cu afecte de euforie
campestr, dionisiac, cu plcerea de a celebra roadele pmntului, dar i cu dorina de
cufundare extatic n ritmurile eterne ale firii.
Motivele htonice sunt curtate, i n perioada postbelic, att de poeii afirmai n
perioda anterioar (Lucian Blaga, Tudor Arghezi, Emil Giurgiuc, G. Lesnea, Drago
Vrnceanu etc.), ct i de noua generaie de poei, reprezentant a unui veritabil
neotradiionalism.3 Tinerii poei descendeni sociali i spirituali din lumea patriarhal n
frunte cu Ion Horea, Ion Brad, Tiberiu Utan, Aurel Ru, Alexandru Andrioiu etc, preiau
motivele i modalitile de exprimare ale poeziei bucolice, pe care nu le supun unui
epigonism, ci le remodeleaz fiecare dup natura spiritului su, n contextul n care, pe plan
social-politic, satul tradiional era supus unui ireversibil proces de disoluie. Celebrarea
roadelor, a muncilor agreste, a uneltelor i a germinaiei universale, alturi de afirmarea
orgolioas a rdcinilor rurale sunt pn spre finele deceniului al aptelea principalele teme i
Gabriela Dani, Poezia bucolic romneasc, Bucureti, Editura Univers, 2000, p. 8.

Ibidem, p. 72.
3
Dumitru Micu, Scurt istorie a literaturii romne, vol. II, Bucureti, Editura Iriana, 1995, p. 372.
1
2
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motive ale poeziei bucolice de senzitivitate intelectualizat, cu concretul ei transfigurat de

imaginaie.4
Situat de critici, dup cum am menioanat n debutul studiului, pe versantul
tradiionalismului, i acumulnd n matca sa influene din Ion Pillat, Vasile Voiculescu, Tudor
Arghezi, B. Fundoianu, poezia lui Ion Horea i-a cldit prin revitalizarea unor surse de lirism
ce preau a fi uitate, o modalitate independent prin conjugarea acestor surse cu elemente de
substrat ardelenesc.5
Vom analiza n rndurile urmtoare, poezia lui Ion Horea prin observaii referitoare la
imaginarul poetic, fiind influenai de viziunea critic a lui Alexandru Cistelecan asupra
operei lui Ion Pillat, care se aseamn n structura imagistic i n relevana simbolic cu
opera poetului nostru. Adeseori, vom apela la interpretrile lui Gaston Bachelard, Gilbert
Durand, Ivan Evseev, Jean Chevalier i Alain Gheerbrant, dar i la teoriile alchimice, ale
cror relevane se vor dovedi ulterior.
n volumul de debut, poezia Pomenire afirm genealogia naturist a poetului,
formul recurent i n cel de-al doilea volum, n poemul denumit, nu ntmpltor Agreste,
n care solidaritatea poetului cu elementele naturii tinde pn aproape de identificare. Sufletul
i-l simte prea plin / De lumea vegetal, de psri i insecte, prin el curgnd grne n valuri
albe. Identificarea cu imagismul naturii rezult dintr-un prea-plin al materialitii pe care l
vom interpreta prin imaginarul peisagisticii, avnd coordonate multiple care nregistreaz
fora de vizualizare a poetului, amplificarea i concretizarea n cuvntul purttor de aur
simbolic. Copacul, anotimpurile, germinaia, rodirea, astrul diurn, legumele i fructele se
nlnuie ntr-o expresie ce adncete spiritualitatea poetului n agora i n belugul
Ardealului.
Din imagismul naturist al poeziei se detaeaz motivul copacului6, care n lirica
popular, adeseori, se configureaz ca un alter ego al omului. Rtcirea n natur i devoaleaz
nrudirea teluric i i accentueaz dorina de comuniune cu tot ceea ce fiineaz. Astfel,
poetul i compar condiia de fiin cu cea a copacului, acesta inculcndu-i, pe de-o parte,
sentimente de trinicie, de fixare solid n pmnt, iar, pe de alt parte, prin ascensiunea sa, i
asigur deschiderea ctre lumea uranian. n ceea ce privete solidaritatea poetului cu
imaginea copacului, Gilbert Durand consider c nimic nu e [] mai fresc i mai
mgulitor pentru destinul spiritual sau temporal al omului dect s se compare cu un arbore
secular, mpotriva cruia timpul n-are putere, cu care devenirea e complice cu maiestatea
frunziului i cu frumuseea nfloririi7: M-am ridicat alturi de plopul fonitor, din umbra
cltinat a slciilor pletoase,/ mbrind azurul nalt, tremurtor/ i transparent, ca luna de
forma unei coase. n virtutea atributelor sale de axis mundi, arborele dobndete sensul
rennoirii ciclice a universului i totodat, nlesnete comunicarea ntre cele trei niveluri
ale cosmosului: cel subteran, prin rdcinile ce rscolesc adncurile n care se mplnt;
suprafaa pmntului, prin trunchi i crengile de jos; naltul, prin ramurile dinspre vrf, atrase
de lumina cerului.8 Prin mbriarea orizontului vaporos, a azurului care e un simbol al
transcendenei i al puritii celeste, poetul nzuiete spre ascensiune, spre absolut i etern:
Sultana Craia, Orizontul rustic n literatura romn, Bucureti, Editura Eminescu, 1985, p. 260.
Gabriel Dimiseanu, Valori actuale, Bucureti, Editura Eminescu, 1974, p. 85.
6
Motivul copacului are o istorie impresionant, fiind prezent sub diferite ipostaze n folclor, dar i n creaia
unor scriitori, precum Vasile Alecsandri (Bradul), O. Goga (Stejarul), Lucian Blaga (Gorunul) Ion Barbu
(Copacul), Tudor Arghezi, Psalm [Tare sunt singur, Doamne i piezi!...], Aron Cotru (Mrul), Mihai
Beniuc (Sunt copacul straj), influena lor fiind resimit, ntr-un fel sau altul, n poezia lui Ion Horea.
7
Gilbert Durand, Structurile antropologice ale imaginarului. Introducere n arhitipologia general. Traducere
de Marcel Aderca, postfa de Cornel Mihai Ionescu, Bucureti, Editura Univers Enciclopedic, 1998, p. 333.
8
Jean Chevalier, Alain Gheerbrant, Dicionar de simboluri, vol. I. Traducere de Daniel Nicolescu, Doina
Uricariu, Olga Zaicik, Laureniu Zoica, Irina Bojin, Victor Dinu Vldulescu, Ileana Cantuniari, Liana
Repeeanu, Agnes Davidovici, Sanda Oprescu, Bucureti, Editura Artemis, 1993, p. 124.
4
5
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[] acest cer albastru, lipsit de nuanarea culorilor, e fenomenalitate fr fenomen, un soi

de nirvana vizual, pe care poeii o asimileaz [] cu eterul, cu aerul ultrapur. 9 ntre
arbori, ndeosebi plopii ocup un loc de seam n poezia lui Ion Horea, fiind ncrcai de
semnificaii simbolice, oscilnd ntre statutul de arbori cu alur funerar n poezia Umbra
plopilor sau de stlpi cosmici. O stare extatic de pace i de nemicare nvluie eul poetic,
ale crui simuri exarcebate sunt contaminate de tririle nfiorate ale copacului, iar gestul
identificrii cu elementele regnului vegetal nu este artificial, ci se svrete firesc,
neceremonios, pe nesimite, ca i cum omul ar mbrca de cnd lumea fie saric mioas, fie
coaj de copac.10 Poetul, prins de rdcini, caut s-i gseasc echilibrul alturi de plopii
i rchitele subiri influen din poezia lui Fundoianu - prin ntoarcerea ntr-o existen
ceremonioas, n cadru bucolic-rural11, n calmul unei firi primare unde nimic nu vrea s fie
altfel dect este (Lucian Blaga): Ascult, i-n pacea nopii m nfior i tac,/ i-mprejmuit de
umbre i de bucate coapte,/ Desvrit n sine-mi m simt ca un copac,/ Sub lun petrecndumi cu psri mari de noapte.
Expresia dual a criticii literare definete un poet ce penduleaz ntr-o receptare
tradiional i una modern. Am explicat viziunea criticului Ion Pop ( la ale crui idei vom
mai adera de-a lungul lucrrii), iar n rndurile urmtoare vom surprinde configurarea
modern a imaginarului, n limitele unui bucolic ce reflect miracolul din Ardeal. Nota
caracteristic a lui Ion Horea e, potrivit criticului Dumitru Micu, redimensionarea n spirit
modern a poeziei roadelor.12 E firesc ca i Ion Horea, definit drept un bucolic modern13
legat prin fibra vital a fiinei sale de mediul agrest, s exulte n faa miracolelor regnului
vegetal, s evoce ogoarele fumegnd de ceuri, mirosurile fagurilor, a tutunului, a cimbrului, a
cnepii i a fumului de blegar. Astfel, n economia imaginarului naturist al poeziei lui Ion
Horea o not aparte o au mirosurile roadelor, resurse ale unor reverii poetice. n acest sens,
poetul e n viziunea criticului Al. Cistelecan un Pillat de Ardeal, care retriete un nou
ciclu al reveriilor campestre i al nostalgiilor iluminate.14 Nscut din belug, Ion Horea
eman ecouri din sacrul pe care l rspndete pmntul ardelenesc, rescriind cu nostalgie un
spaiu bucolic n care reveria se desfoar cu voluptate descriptiv ntr-un cadru natural ce-i
precizeaz contururile din relevana detaliului i din atmosfera evocatoare.15
Poezia roadelor i a belugului i ofer poetului prilejul de a investiga tainele
germinaiei universale. Pmntul uberal reprezint unul dintre dominantele universului teluric
configurat de lirica lui Ion Horea. Cmpia cu lanurile ntinse de gru i cu pduri de
cucuruzi, dealurile peste care trece deghizat Bachus, cu struguri prini n pr, grdina cu
poamele coapte sunt motive poetice, care converg spre simbolul pmntului. Natura este
surprins n ciclul ei organic, de la ncolirea seminelor pn la prguirea roadelor.
Primverii, anotimp al germinaiei universale, i se confer alura de supraanotimp, din care se
succed celelalte ntr-o evoluie necesar, aa cum apare exprimat n poemul n proz Fiina
recoltei: Toamna, cules. Iarna, zpad, ateptare i pregtire.[] Vara-i dezvluirea ei, cnd
ntre cer i pmnt se mplinete n voluptate fiina recoltei. n majestuoasa nsoire a fiinei
pdurii i a livezii, a crngului i a viei, a rdcinilor care leag, a trunchiului ncercuit, a
butucului ncpnat, a crengilor care mbrieaz i a frunzei cu nvtura de-sine-lui, de la
mugur la uluitorul spectacol tomnatic. n acest sens, poetul nu ezit s aduc laude
9
Gilbert Durand, op. cit., p. 145.

Ion Oarcu, Prezene poetice, Bucureti, Editura pentru Literatur, 1968, p. 136.
11
Ion Pop, nc nu n rev. Ateneu, IX, 12 (101), decembrie 1972, p. 8.
12
Dumitru Micu, op. cit., p. 375.
13
Eugen Simion, Orientri n literatura contemporan, Bucureti, Editura pentru Literatur, 1965, p. 119.
14
Al. Cistelecan n prefaa Ardeleanul definitiv la volumul antologic: Ion Horea, Bataia cu aur, ediie de
autor ngrijit de Eugeniu Nistor, Tg-Mure, Editura Ardealul, 2009, p. 12.
15
Iulian Boldea, Metamorfozele textului, Trgu-Mure, Editura Ardealul, 1996, p. 10.
10
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universului vegetal, n a crui intimitate vrea s ptrund pentru a descoperi miracolul

germinaiei continue gest la origine arghezian ce pare a fi anticipat de un preludiu al
senzaiilor vagi, trezite de chemri obscure.16 Acuitatea senzorial e dilatat i favorizeaz
eului poetic sondarea proceselor mai puin vizibile ale cosmosului originar, a legturii lor
intime: N-o auzii cum cheam din fiecare mugur/ Necunoscut floarea de poam i de
strugur?/ Nici noaptea nu mai tie de somn i de visare,/ Pmntul se trezete i pasrea
tresare,/ i holda din adncuri d foaie dup foaie,/ Cnd pe deasupra rii trec norii grei de
ploaie. (Cntec din frunz) n Vinerea seac nfoierea germinaiei este perceput ca o
srbtoare campestr, nvluit de un duh de la-nceputuri ce genereaz o atmosfer ce ine
de miraculos: Ppdii pe drumul rii, miori i slcii, i muguri,/ Sufletul mi-l taie pluguri
i mi-l caut albine,/ Nu-i departe nvierea, prin livezi aprindem ruguri,/ E-o sfinire-n flori in toate, ies btrnii mei s vad,/ Nu-i lumin din livad, prin ograd oarecine/ Tremur de-un
timp n iarb i-n lumina zilei vine/ Din credin i tgad, dinspre ru i dinspre bine,/ i
greblm i facem straturi, umbl iari peste ar,/ Ca un duh de la-nceputuri, ca o ploaie, ca o
par,/ Un ndemn al nvierii, fr margine i zare./ A trecut o rndunic peste cas, mi se
pare! Miracolul apare sugerat n ultimul vers, prin ivirea rndunicii, pasre de bun augur,
care propovduiete sperana, fecunditatea i renaterea naturii, i cruia n cultura
romneasc i s-a conferit un prestigiu sacral.17 Pulsaia materiei vegetale e solidar cu
tremurul i cu lumina zilei care pregtete naterea seminelor, iar nflorirea, ca expresie
n spaiul livezii este la Ion Horea i o promisiune a rodniciei. Smna, semn al regenerrii i
element al profunzimii telurice18 apare umanizat, sufletul ei nfiorndu-se odat cu venirea
primverii. Poetul exceleaz prin modul n care imagineaz freamtul i nelinitea
nmuguririi, astfel duhul fecunditii coboar pn n ntunericul beciului, printre elementele
cele mai umile. Fora sa animeaz tuberculii cartofilor care gemnd, dau chemare ctre ziu
pmnturilor goale, i nsuesc aburul suflrii din grajduri, vor s pipie lumina pe ziduri i
s umble, ca n final s atepte nerbdtori s fie aruncai n cuiburile, n care se zmislete
rodul. Pe polie, lcrimeaz seminele de ceap, uscate inimi negre, i strnse-n mciulii, n
coare porumbul arde-n cristale, iar morcovii-n adncuri, zvcnind o s-i ntoarc/ Din
miezul verii inimi de flcri n coarc. Ritualul renaterii se transform n poezia panic
Dup zpezi ntr-un extaz vegetal n care elementele naturii pot fi asociate n mod firesc cu
feminitatea, care la rndul ei cunoate miracolul creaiei. Totodat, fora colcitoare a acestui
proces organogen e surprins n imagini de o viguroas plasticitate, lund aspectul unor pnze
flamande. Lumina i ploaia, substane-mam, au puteri vivifiante asupra ntregii firi, ambele
simboliznd influene cereti sau spirituale,19 care coboar n lumea terestr. Apa i focul,
elemente aflate ntr-un raport de opoziie, se ntlnesc i se aliaz tocmai n receptaculul
germinaiei. Simbolic, apa e reprezentat prin norii de unde ploaia coboar pe pmnt, n
timp ce focul e simbolizat de fulger.20 Din acest punct de vedere, trebuie remarcat
interpretarea alchimitilor, conform creia apele, razele i licrul focului lor reprezint o
purificare care se face prin foc21, aa nct mugurii pentru a se trezi din somnul latent
necesit o abluiune exercitat de ploaie, de fulger, dar i de astrul diurn, a crui lumin e
vital rodirii: i poamele pe ramuri sunt bnuite doar,/ Cnd mugurii se-arat i ip-ntia
oar/ Cu ele virgine ieite din cmei,/ Din ce n ce mai lacomi, din ce n ce mai dei,/
mbriai de ploaie i biciuii de fulger,/ Simind n pntec timpul zvcnindu-le sub uger.
Creu, N, Poezii n rev. Iaul literar, 2, februarie 1968, p. 81.
18
Ion Pop, Lucian Blaga. Universul liric, Bucureti, Editura Cartea Romneasc, 1981, p. 132.
19
Ren Gunon, Simboluri ale tiinei sacre. Traducere din francez de Marcel Tolcea i Sorina erbnescu,
Bucureti, Editura Humanitas, 2008, p. 433.
20
Ibidem, p. 437.
21
Ibidem, p. 437
16
17
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[] n jocul dus de ape i ceruri deprtate/ E-ntoars tremurarea din frunzele mirate,/ i
soarele n stropii de ploaie -i resfire/ Lumina, din nalturi o-ntoarce n rodire! Analiznd
cu atenie versurile, identificm existena n natur a unui sentiment erotomorf ce palpit
orgiastic, a polaritii principiului masculin i feminin, pe care psihanalistul Erich Fromm o
identific n cele dou funcii fundamentale, cea a receptrii i cea a penetrrii. Este
polaritatea pmntului i ploii, a nopii i zilei, a ntunericului i luminii, a materiei i
spiritului.22
De asemenea, motiv predilect n lirica lui Ion Horea, n care se manifest un cult al
elementelor pmnt, ap, lumin soarele este surs i concomitent ntruchipare a luminii
diurne, cu toate valenele ei spirituale i psihologice. El este i focul dttor de via,
purificator, dar i ucigtor prin aria i seceta pe care le provoac. 23 n poezii prevaleaz
valenele pozitive, deoarece mplinirea roadelor st sub fascinaia razelor, fapt care l-a
ndrituit pe Edgar Papu s afirme solaritatea, ca trstur organic romneasc 24 a poeziei
lui Ion Horea. Soarele domin amiaza i vara; e purttor al vieii, din lumina sa i umplu
ulcioarele, pepenii verzi. Galbenul boabelor de gru e tot o sugestie a prezenei lui, care
semnific dup cum remarca Gilbert Durand prin multitudinea supradeterminrilor, ale
nlrii i ale luminii, ale razei i ale auriului, ipostaza puterilor uraniene prin excelen.25
Preferina poetului pentru astrul diurn este trdat de afeciunea cu care i se adreseaz: Soare,
soare,/ M-ai cutat? (Ecou). Nu doar poetul l prefer, ci nsui pmntul se rotete uor
spre miazzi, pentru ca lumina roditoare s cad peste vii. (ntinerire) n aceast viziune
apollinic, lanurile, grdinile i livezile sunt spaii solare, n a cror rod soarele se vede
multiplicat: i soarele se-nal s se vad/ n pepeni i dovleci,/ n strugurii din vie i-n
poama din livezi. (n faa pmntului) Nici registrul nocturn nu este marcat de absena
luminii. Astrul selenar, cu forma unei coase i revars asupra priscilor bidoanele de
miere, iar n muni luceferi apun sorbii de ciute.
Prin capacitatea de vizualizare i prin impulsul antropomorfic, nscrise dioramei
germinaiei universale, Ion Horea creeaz o veritabil mitologie26 a vegetalului. Pmntul,
un uria antropomorf care sufl peste plopi i slci, adpostete n plin iarn, sub crusta sa,
sentimentul primitiv al germinaiei: mi ies n cale plopii i slciile mele/ Cu aburul suflrii
pmntului pe ele./ Comuna nu-i departe i dealurile-n urm/ Pe muchea lor duc norii
amurgului n turm, /i-ascult n amintire chemri trzii de graur./ Sub asfinit zpada se las
ca un taur, / de patima rodirii gemnd fr putere,/ Rvnindu-l ntr-un tremur de via i-n
tcere./ I se lovesc de pntec luceferii i sun/ Zvcnindu-i parc-n uger tot laptele din lun./
Seminele iete ncearc s-i ae/ n nri vpaia stins i-ncremenit-n e,/ i dobort,
parc, de snge i povar,/ De dragostea chemat n fiecare sear,/ Se-ntinde-n aternutul
pmntului, poftind,/ Flmnd, fnul nopii cu pulbere de-argint. (Sentimentul iernii)
Misterul germinaiei apare i n ritul arhaic al plugarului, care prin gesturile sale originare
fertilizeaz pmntul. Plugul, simbol agrar, semn al fecunditii,27 asigur misterul rodirii
petrecut n desfurarea intemporal a ritului mitic28 i apare evocat de poet n manier
arghezian: Plugul, fptur ciudat,/ Nu se odihnete niciodat./ Toamna i primvara,/ se
Erich Fromm, Arta de a iubi. Traducere din limba englez de dr. Suzana Holan, Bucureti, Editura Anima,
1995, p. 36.
23
Ivan Evseev, op. cit., p. 170.
24
Edgar Papu n prefaa Poetul Ion Horea la volumul: Ion Horea, Eu trebuie s fiu, Bucureti, Editura
Albatros, 1984, p. 7.
25
Gilbert Durand, op. cit., p. 146.
26
Aurel Martin, Poei contemporani, Vol. I, Bucureti, Editura pentru Literatur, 1967, p. 172.
27
Doina Ruti, Dicionar de teme i simboluri din literatura romn, ediia a II-a revzut i adugit, Bucureti,
Editura Poliom, 2009, p. 323.
28
Nicolae Balot, Opera lui Tudor Arghezi, Bucureti, Editura EuroPress, 2008, p. 126.
22
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ridic peste toat ara,/ Ca un mprat peste mprie,/ i-i mplnt sceptrul greu n glie.
(Plugul).
Toamna, anotimpul tutelar n imaginarul su poetic, st sub metafora rodirii, avnd
asupra eului liric un efect, am putea spune, de-a dreptul cathartic. Lauda rodului dezvluie o
fervoare profund pentru tot ceea ce germineaz, produce i reproduce, un patos al
fecunditii29 virgilian, atmosfera poeziilor fiind dominat de tonifiantul carpe diem sau
carpe horas. Rodul nu este doar un rezultat al muncii, al unor procese alchimice desfurate
n laboratorul naturii, ci i un simbol al imortalitii:30 Sub frunza scuturat a vielor de
vie/ Sunt cel ce vede-n strugur un strop de venicie. (Definire) ntregul univers vegetal e
cuprins de patima rodirii ns spaiul care atinge apogeul fecunditii este cel al viei,
boabele vineii fiind simboluri ale cror not particular e de a condensa n seva lor spiritele
zburtoare i spiritele care atrn greu, ntlnire dintre un cer i un pmnt.31 n poemul n
proz Strugurii i vinul, poetul remarc acel statut al vinului de arhetip substanial al lumii
materiei32, care nc din timpuri strvechi a nsoit omul n momentele eseniale ale vieii: n
vin sunt toate, i-n cochetria feciorelnic a strugurilor se pregtesc toate, ca n viaa omului.
De la nunt la natere, de la natere la ngropciune, urrile de bine, de noroc i de iertare,
vorbele de iubire i gndurile de rzbunare, la ridicarea paharului se spun, se optesc zeului
celui care nu-i pune cunun de lauri i ntrzie la mese peste msur.
Natura nu e una slbatic, ci dimpotriv e supus i cultivat de om. Fecunditatea ei
nu este doar rodul bogiei ei intrinseci, ci i al muncii organizate umane.33 Privirea
poetului, de cele mai multe ori, zbovete n faa pmntului peste care anotimpul autumnal
va revrsa cornul abundenei, trezind n sufletul celui care l-a muncit impresii demiurgice.
Exist la Ion Horea, ca i la ali poei, acea tendin de mitologizare a roadelor, care
interfereaz cu expansivitatea din momentul culegerii lor: Porumbul ce rsare n rndurile
drepte/ i holda ce fonete plcut ca o cntare/ Le vom vedea n toamn cnd le-om urca pe
trepte/ n magazii cu banii enorme i cntare./ Fasolea i cartofii, bumbacul i ovzul,/ i
mazrea i orzul i soia, cum i alte/ Legume cumu-i ceapa ce-i lcrimeaz vzul,/ Parc le
simt sub soare-mplinindu-se, nalte.
Din poeziile nchinate toamnei trzii iese la iveal sentimentul horaian al
trecerii timpului: Albinele-s n iarn i stupii parc-s goi/ Nu mai pndim deasupra ogrzii
nici un roi./ Uneltele-s pe polii i masca-i pus-n cui/ Ai vrea s spui o vorb i-asculi i n-o
mai spui/ Hotarul vremii cheam din conii ne-ntrerupt/ Un pr uscat mai ine-n picioare
gardul rupt/ Miroase dulce-a faguri i-a fum de blegar/ Cte-o main trece pe drum i tot
mai rar/ i piere urmrit de crduri mari de ciori/ i vremea-i de ninsoare i-atepi
colindtori. (Se mai aud) Existena unei legturi organice cu universul, face ca poetul s
perceap degradarea unui anotimp n altul ca pe o tain ascuns sub semne. Sufletul su, dar
i al firii este ptruns de un fior al nelinitii, al trecerii, ca n lirica lui Arghezi i Voiculescu:
Citesc prin semnne iari de-o toamn foarte lung/ Prin care-o nlucire de gnd m mai
alung (Cnd chem.), Se-nchide-n mine timpul ca-n ochii unui mort./ Sub coast-n
trifoite ard plcuri mari de tort,/ Parc sunt paii toamnei rmai din alte di (Cnd
plec), i poamele pe ramuri sunt bnuite doar (Dup zpezi), Apoi trecu i-aceast
nedumerire-n gol,/ i-acum ascult cum iarna coboar-nti domol Totodat, poetul
manifest tendina de a umbri atmosfera mbelugat a verii trzii sau a toamnei cu nsemne
care transcriu ntr-un registru plastic presentimentul morii sau al unei catastrofe universale.
29
Ibidem, p. 124.
31
Gaston Bachelard, Pmntul i reveriile odihnei. Eseu asupra imaginilor intimitii. Traducere, note i
postfa de Irina Mavrodin, Bucureti, Editura Univers, 1999, p. 265.
32
Ibidem, p. 270.
33
Radu Enescu, Un poet al amiezilor de toamn n rev. Tribuna, VI, 1 (257), 4 ianuarie 1962, p. 3.
30
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Rodul e ameninat, nu de seceta arghezian, ci de dezlnuirea unei naturi aflate sub invazia
elementului acvatic, care se transform ntr-un agent distructiv. Imaginile, uor terifiante, ale
puhoaielor care se revars tulburi peste gospodrii, ale nmolului care scufund totul n jurul
su i ale putreziciunii roadelor se nscriu n grila unui expresionism moderat: Atta ploaie
cade c suntem mai btrni/ i cumpenele parc se tem lng fntni./ Praiele vin tulburi i
intr prin ogrzi/ i iau la vale garduri i mortciuni i lzi,/ Nmolul peste anuri se-ntinde
ca un pod/ i grajdurile-s prinse-ntr-un muget de prohod/ i dealurile toate le vezi cum se
topesc/ i curg mpuhoiete dintr-un trm ceresc./ Porumburile sure-s culcate sub noroi./ Din
stupi, n vara asta n-a mai ieit un roi./ i holdele sunt coapte de mult i-au mucezit/ Trifoiu-n
brazde-i putred, de cnd nu a fost cosit. (ntr-un trziu) Poezia lui Ion Horea stabilete relaii
cu Lacustra lui George Bacovia conform afirmaiei lui Al. Cistelecan i reprezint cel
mai convingtor simptom al firii sale adnc rneti: viziunea imersiunii lumii n acvatic se
ntretie cu ngrijorarea subteran pentru cataclismul agricol.34 Vlul nmiresmat al toamnei,
care incita toate simurile n primele volume de poezii, se nceoez odat cu trecerea
timpului, poetul nlocuind euforiile bucolice cu atmosfera dezloant a toamnei trzii metafor a mbtrnirii care asemenea unui mesager prezice intrarea ntr-o zodie
crepuscular: Un timp care m-ndeamn, de la margini,/ S-mi caut locul meu ctre-nserare.
[] Noiembrie, pndire de omturi/ Pe urmele arsurilor de brum. (Adaos la 2 noiembrie
2010)
Dac la Ion Pillat, fructele i legumele, crnoase, zemoase, violent colorate sunt
vzute static, aranjate ca ntr-o natur moart35, la Ion Horea asistm la o schimbare,
deoarece prevaleaz contemplaia naturii mai mult din perspectiva economicului36 vzut ca
un ritual, ale crui momente sunt iluminate, dup coala lui Virgiliu, de prezena divin 37:
cratul grului ct sfinire/ a pinii i a carelor ncrcate/ i snopii aezai n zidire/ ca de
biseric ori de cetate (Stogul) Pillatofilia, cum i place criticului Al. Cistelecan s o
diagnosticheze, e depit printr-un pronunat sentiment al recoltei, luat nu ca pretext
decorativ, ci ca ncununare a unor eforturi umane.38 Imaginea belugului agrest e completat
prin evocarea ndeletnicirilor cmpeneti, dispuse n funcie de rotirea anotimpurilor ca n
poemul didactic Munci i zile, iar prin intermediul unui excurs anamnezic, poetul
recompune o fresc a ceremonialelor agreste. Plantarea viei, vnturarea fasolei, munca
plugarului, mbltirea grului sunt ritualuri ale muncii mbrcate n hain poetic ce amintesc
de o civilizaie aproape gentilic, precum cea cntat de Homer. 39 ranii i armonizeaz
activitile dup reperele calendarului popular, care nregistreaz schimbarea anotimpurilor pe
baza observrii bioritmurilor din natur: ncolirea seminelor, nmugurirea arborilor, cderea
frunzelor, migraia psrilor. Ei nu au timp prea mult pentru efuziuni lirice, sentimentele le
triesc muncind, pe cmp, n grdin, dnd la vite i le exprim fr prea multe dichisuri
stilistice40: Fasolea vnturat ai adunat-o-n ol?/ Cu voavele vom arde-n cuptor la iarn,
poate,/ Ori cnd va fi fnarul la primvar gol/ i oile-or ncepe s fete n ocol/ Le-om aruca
acolo s road peste noapte.// E tot mai mic ziua, otvile-s cosite, / Oare n-o fi vremea serii?
M duc s dau la vite. (Moment de toamn) Inventarul muncilor agricole alctuiete un
Al. Cistelecan, Poezie i livresc, Bucureti, Editura Cartea Romneasc, 1987, p. 117.
Marin Sorescu, Ion Horea n rev. Luceafrul, an VII, nr. 14 / 4 iulie 1964, p. 3.
36
Al. Piru., Poezia romneasc contemporan: 1950-1975, vol. II, Bucureti, Editura Eminescu, 1975, p. 58.
37
Al. Cistelecan Pillatieni atei i convertii n rev. Studia Universitatis Petru Maior. Philologia, nr. 1/2002, p.
26.
38
Marin Sorescu, op. cit. p. 3.
39
Marin Sorescu, op. cit. p. 3.
40
Ibidem, p. 3.
34
35
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Issue no. 6/2015
soi de manual poetic pentru viaa la ar41 din care se desprinde o sum de gesturi, acte,
prin care omul se definete component dinamic 42 al ritmului cosmic. Nu lipsesc din versuri
sfaturi agricole rimate care reprezint filonul hesiodic al poeziei lui Ion Horea, remarcat de
critici. Pregtirea pmntului pentru nsmnare e realizat de un homo faber care
construiete i acioneaz n acord cu forele constructive ale firii43: Din patru anotimpuri
pmntul ni s-arat/ n frumuseea lui adevrat./ De-i aezat sub soarele amiezii/ E potrivit
priscii i livezii./ Sunt dealuri nclinate i-ncinse de ari?/ Sap-le-adnc i leag-le cu vi,/
i piersici s le in de umbr, i gutui,/ Pe culmea lor de-a dragul s te sui. (Pmntul)
Aadar, apetena pentru celebrarea roadelor reminiscien pillatian i a
ndeletnicirilor cmpeneti, nu fr efuziuni n faa forei germinative a vegetalului, grefate pe
un lirism al evocrii i al amintirii, sunt mrci ale unei figuraii bucolice care particularizeaz
creaia lui Ion Horea.
Bibliografie critic selectiv:
Bachelard, Gaston, Pmntul i reveriile odihnei. Eseu asupra imaginilor intimitii.
Traducere, note i postfa de Irina Mavrodin, Bucureti, Editura Univers, 1999.
Balot, Nicolae, Opera lui Tudor Arghezi, Bucureti, Editura EuroPress, 2008.
Boldea, Iulian, Metamorfozele textului, Trgu-Mure, Editura Ardealul, 1996.
Chevalier, Jean, Gheerbrant, Alain, Dicionar de simboluri, vol. I. Traducere de Daniel
Nicolescu, Doina Uricariu, Olga Zaicik, Laureniu Zoica, Irina Bojin, Victor Dinu
Vldulescu, Ileana Cantuniari, Liana Repeeanu, Agnes Davidovici, Sanda Oprescu,
Bucureti, Editura Artemis, 1993.
Cistelecan, Al., Poezie i livresc, Bucureti, Editura Cartea Romneasc, 1987.
Cistelecan, Al., n prefaa Ardeleanul definitiv la volumul antologic: Ion Horea,
Bataia cu aur, ediie de autor ngrijit de Eugeniu Nistor, Tg-Mure, Editura Ardealul, 2009.
Craia, Sultana, Orizontul rustic n literatura romn, Bucureti, Editura Eminescu,
1985.
Creu, N, Poezii n rev. Iaul literar, 2, februarie 1968.
Dani, Gabriela, Poezia bucolic romneasc, Bucureti, Editura Univers
enciclopedic, 2000.
Amarcord, 1994.
Enescu, Radu, Un poet al amiezilor de toamn n rev. Tribuna, VI, 1 (257), 4
ianuarie 1962.
Fromm, Erich, Arta de a iubi. Traducere din limba englez de dr. Suzana Holan,
Bucureti, Editura Anima, 1995.
Dimiseanu, Gabriel, Valori actuale, Bucureti, Editura Eminescu, 1974.
Durand, Gilbert, Structurile antropologice ale imaginarului. Introducere n
arhitipologia general. Traducere de Marcel Aderca, postfa de Cornel Mihai Ionescu,
Bucureti, Editura Univers Enciclopedic, 1998.
Floarea, Rodica, Literatura romn contemporan, vol. I, coord. Marin Bucur,
Bucureti, Editura Academiei R.S.R., 1980.
Gunon, Ren, Simboluri ale tiinei sacre. Traducere din francez de Marcel Tolcea
i Sorina erbnescu, Bucureti, Editura Humanitas, 2008.
Martin, Aurel, Poei contemporani, vol. I, Bucureti, Editura pentru Literatur, 1967.
Rodica Floarea, Literatura romn contemporan, vol. I, coord. Marin Bucur, Bucureti, Editura Academiei
R.S.R., 1980, p. 419.
42
Mircea Tomu, Istorie literar i poezie, Timioara, Editura Facla, 1974, p. 202.
43
Ibidem, p. 204.
41
1111
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Micu, Dumitru, Scurt istorie a literaturii romne, vol. II, Bucureti, Editura Iriana,
1995.
Oarcu, Ion, Prezene poetice, Bucureti, Editura pentru Literatur, 1968.
Papu, Edgar, n prefaa Poetul Ion Horea la volumul: Ion Horea, Eu trebuie s fiu,
Bucureti, Editura Albatros, 1984.
Piru, Al., Poezia romneasc contemporan: 1950-1975, vol. II, Bucureti, Editura
Eminescu, 1975.
Pop, Ion, nc nu n rev. Ateneu, IX, 12 (101), decembrie 1972.
Pop, Ion, Lucian Blaga. Universul liric, Bucureti, Editura Cartea Romneasc, 1981.
Ruti, Doina, Dicionar de teme i simboluri din literatura romn, ediia a II-a
revzut i adugit, Bucureti, Editura Poliom, 2009.
Simion, Eugen, Orientri n literatura contemporan, Bucureti, Editura pentru
Literatur, 1965.
Sorescu, Marin, Ion Horea n rev. Luceafrul, an VII, nr. 14 / 4 iulie 1964.
Tomu, Mircea, Istorie literar i poezie, Timioara, Editura Facla, 1974.
*Aceast lucrare a fost publicat cu sprijinul financiar al proiectului Sistem
integrat de mbuntire a calitii cercetrii doctorale i postdoctorale din Romnia i
de promovare a rolului tiinei n societate, POSDRU/159/1.5/S/133652, finanat prin
Fondul Social European, Programul Operaional Sectorial Dezvoltarea Resurselor
Umane 2007-2013.
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THE METAMORPHOSES OF A DESTINY GABRIELA MELINESCU

Bianca CRUCIU
Abstract: Gabriela Melinescu the most important exil writer has an interesting human and
literary destiny, she is the voice of the exil intellectuals elite.Her creations are an authentic
and the best "original confesions".To understand how is a Melinescus poetry text,means to
read and understand them.She lives in her poetry like the sun in the world.The light of her
poetry embraces human souls.
Keywords:literary creation,confesio,poems,perspectives,literary destiny.
Prezena Gabrielei Melinescu n Literatur este ingenu i reconfortant
prin
perspectiva ei plin de prospeime de a privi lumea1 i prin naturaleea i charmul stilului su

personal bine definit.
Dei considerat n tineree,la debut, ca persoan(n peisajul literarar) n stare s
tulbure canoanele i s strice ighemoniconul stabilit cu greutate de-a lungul anilor de ctre
critic2 poeta prin vigoarea,expresivitatea i jovialitatea pe care o exprim, este cea care"se
amuz la balul vieii,pare c nu mai vrea s mbtrneasc ,dup cum perfect adevarat este
c dac ar renuna la trengreala care-i st att de bine nu ar mai fi ea insi".3
Cu toate c de multe ori ne lsm cucerii de stiluri,bogii de simboluri,metafore
,imagini lirice4 poezia Gabrielei Melinescu este" proprie, neimitat i neimitabil"adic
original,"de o candoare care sfinete lucrurile"5 avnd acel aer sacru din care e facut
poezia adevrat6 .Ea este considerat a fi o "redescoperitoare" pentru c trece prin ziduri i
nu se rnete, alergnd dup o lumin"7 .Nu are nevoie s ne conving de dimineaa i pn
seara c este o poet adevrat8,ca de altfel i versurile care o consacr:"Port peste frunte o
frnghie subire/din care ancorele se vor nate/Aplec lin capul nspre rmul/pe care mai
trziu te voi cunoate./Sunt mesele splate-n vin curat/i pletele ntunec pahare./Beau
Eugen Barbu, O istorie polemic i antologic a literaturii romne de la origini pn n prezent.Poezia

romn contemporan,Ed. Eminescu,Bucureti,1975,p.430
2
Idem.p.428
3
ibidem p.428
4
Henri H.Stahl,Eseuri critice,Ed. Minerva,Bucureti,1983,p.151
5
ibidem p.428-429
6
ibidem p.429
7
ibidem p.430
8
ibidem.p.430
1
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corpul unui iubit brbat/ameninat de o spnzurtoare"/.9Actul creator isi are originea in

straturile cele mai profunde ale eului10 sau poetic.
Contientiznd valoarea i importana scrisului, a scrisului autentic, ea tie c doar
scrisul cu adevrat poetic este cel care se depete pe sine, care evadeaz i trece dincolo
de el nsui, nemulumit de convenionalitatea, de artificialitatea, de ineficiena limbajului
strict verbal. Orice poet autentic, aa cum este Gabriela Melinescu, viseaz s creeze lumea,
s ating starea de Genez.Si pentru ea ,la fel ca pentru Constantin Noica,cultura este
singura sursa a unei bucurii permanente,o forma de maturiate a spiritului care este
eliberatoare.11
Pentru actul creator este imperios necesar linitea.Esteticianul i istoricul literar
Tudor Vianu spunea c "cine nu se pricepe s fac linite n sine nu poate auzi glasurile
artei.Tumultul exterior le acoper.Pacea sufletului le scoate n relief"12 ,cuvinte care se
potrivesc i poeziei Gabrielei Melinescu care tie glasurile artei i mai tie c "ochiul nostru
n-ar putea privi soarele dac n-ar participa la natura lui.Tot astfel i sufletul nostru n-ar
putea vedea frumuseea dect dac n-ar fi el insui frumos."(Plotin,sec.III e.n.),13 pentru c
sensul cuvintelor se constituie n i prin calitile lor sensibile.14i c poezia este forma cea
mai nalt a cunoaterii filosofice15i a cunoaste nseamn a intra n forme noi, a terge
deosebirile dintre subiect i obiect,a proiecta substana proprie n aspectul exterior i
strin16
ntr-un confesio originalne spune c atunci cnd scriu,(poeziile )le lucrez pur i
simplu forma, dar nu m ating de ce-am trit cu adevrat. Fiindc trirea e numai n timp.
Iar n poem intr destul de mult din atmosfera n care le-am imaginat. n felul acesta, omul
exterior este supus omului interior.Gabriela Melinescu este spiritul mereu treaz,dar i de o
gravitate uneori frumoas,care are n fiina ei i o ginga rigoare prin care creaia ei
strnete pe parcurs curiozitate ,denot o ordine intelectual i un har ndestultor i
inepuizabil.17
ibidem p.430
Liviu Rusu,De la Eminescu la Lucian Blaga,Ed.Cartea Romneasc,1981,p.440
11
.Andrei Pleu,Minima Moralia,Ed.Cartea Romneasc,1988,p.97,98,99
12
Victor Ernest Maek,Arta de a fi spectator,Ed.Meridiane,Bucuresti,1986,p.39
13
idem.p.2
14
ibidem p.104
15
Antologie de filosofie romaneasca(5),Biblioteca pentru toti,Ed.Minerva,Bucuresti 1988,p.127
16
idem.p.128
17
Eugen Simion,Scriitori romni de azi III,Ed.Cartea Romneasc,Bucureti,1984,p.211
10
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ntreaga poezie a Gabrielei Melinescu este strbtut de un fir coordonator de gndire

artistic plin de naturalee i prospeime feminin care rzbate din nsi fiina poetei spre
sufletul cititorului sau al criticului. Ideile sale se contureaz pe ntreg parcursul artistic, ea
reuete s nfieze pregnant fiorul poetic al exilului.
Pentru cel care se apropie de poezia Gabrielei Melinescu,este ntmpinat de frumosul
artistic,frumosul din omul Gabriela Melinescu,aa cum este exprimat prin formele sale
sensibile,18
nu exist o metod aparte de abordare ci una simpl, lectura. Aceasta te
proiecteaz n fundalul artistico-ideatic expus i oferit ntr-o mare simplitate. Poeta nsi se
definete regina sau ceretoare, zeia( Din
vieile faraonului). Alteori simindu-se
Pasrea miastr, cu frumuseea ei celesta, acea pasre sacr asociata Arhanghelului Mihail,
pasre care prin cntecul ei rmne n singurtate i ntinerete pe orice asculttor i-n
acelai timp avnd darul de a citi n inimile oamenilor.19
ntr-o mrturisire personal poeta susine c pentru mine poezia s-a nscut n
momentul n care am simit c aveam un secret, o limb interioar cu care puteam s fiu
aproape de toate fiinele animate i inanimate. Secretul meu, limba interioar, se opune
comunicrii obinuite, o limb spontan primit din ndeprtat planet din care czusem
direct n corpul mamei mele Maria i apoi n viaa de pe pmnt. 20
Aceast mrturisire relev talentul nnscut al Gabrielei Melinescu, contientizarea lui
i nmulirea talantului primit n dar nc nainte de natere. Legtura dintre Darul lui
Dumnezeu oferit ei ,adic Poezia nsi, cu tot ce presupune ea i Mama care i-a dat natere,
este vizibil i construit ntr-un mod aparte n poemul Pentru mama din volumul
Puterea morilor asupra celor vii21.
Fiina care druiete iubire, siguran, linite, pace, este mama, cea care a adus-o n
lume i tot ea este nceputul tuturor lucrurilor de bine. Ea este fiina unic pe care o credem
nemuritoare, invulnerabila zeia. Neavnd nevoie de nici un cuvnt dect de Iubire,
poeta spune c dincolo de cuvintele ei se afla dragostea. tie cel mai bine s druiasc,
dei are dureri nenumrate, o mam are o iubire altfel dect aceea pe care durerea o
umple.
18
Antologie de filosofie romaneasca(5),p.19

R o.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasrea-miastr,accesat 09.12.2014
20
Aura Christi,Banchetul de litere.Ed.Ideea European,Bucureti,2006,p.185
21
Gabriela Melinescu,Puterea Morilor asupra celor vii,Ed.Polirom,Iasi,2005
19
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Gradual se confeseaz, simplu i firesc, cere iertare pentru greelile de copil (inocent)
pe care le svrise mama am clcat pe inima ta, uor lucru este pentru copii s-i supere
prinii dar tot ei se-ntorc cernd iertare pentru c timpul trece i vine o vreme cnd zic
acum n zadar ncerc s te ntorc.
Persoana special pentru poeta ea, fcnd parte dintre persoanele sfinte i care sunt
capabile de cele mai puternice sentimente. Datoria fiilor este dup cea de-a cincea Porunc
din Decalog, cinstirea prinilor, Cinstete pe tatl tu i pe mama ta ca s trieti ani
muli i buni pe pmnt. Aceasta este porunca, datorie, obligatie.Eul liric i recunoate
greelile i spune n zadar vreau s-i srut mana/i s m ieri n lumina roie/a
amurgului i s te rog s citim mpreun/Povestea Fiului risipitor. Tragedia (uneori) sau
stresul exilului, dau poetei un sentiment de nostalgie.
Timpul este ireversibil i produce amintiri, amintirile visare. Prin vis poeta poate retri
clipe frumoase care o ajut s treac mai uor exilul acceptat de bunvoie spunnd Visez
mereu strada noastr/grdin unde toate cresc dup vocea ta/i pmntul negru rde
printre caiii albi/i m bucur s te revd/culoarea verde-blnd a vemntului tu/.
Toate poemele publicate de poet n acest volum par a fi nite apeluri la memorie,
fotografii ale momentului rmase ntiprite n suflet, cu care se hrnete pentru a-i potoli
dorul de mam, familie, ar, de cei dragi. Sunt scurte rememorri, gnduri transpuse n
imagini poetice,de confesiune.
Cnd te afli n deprtare de cele mai multe ori, ara i Mam sunt elementele eseniale
generatoare de echilibru interior, de pace interioar de o anume regsire. ntre acestea dou
exist o legtur profund am putea spune chiar fiinial. Existena uneia o presupune pe
cealalt.n poemul Patrie de rn din volumul citat mai sus, se regsete un anume mit
al ranii, ca element creativ, din care Dumnezeu a fcut omul, dar i c pmnt sfnt al
rii pe care poeta o prsete. Poeta se desparte i de mama i de ar ntr-un mod dureros.
Dezrdcinarea provoac suferin, nelinite, durere totul pare s nu mai lumineze ca
ieri/nici una din zile/nu mai lumineaz ca ieri/cnd mi-am luat rmas bun de la mama/la
colul strzii Noroc/.
Nu o putem considera pe poet ca fiind exilat, pentru c ea nsi recunoate n poem
c a avut o oportunitate unic de a pleca undeva mai bine dect acas la ea, spunnd aveam
atta noroc s plec/din patria imposibil/.
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Acas trebuia s nsemne siguran, linite, mplinire, iubire, dragoste, prosperitate, ori
toate acestea nu le-a putut gsi aici. Hotrte s plece, s emigreze innd piept unei
strinti necunoscute n care se avnta cu o oarecare jubilaie n timp ce mama era
trist/s m piard Altfel spus poemul ntreg poate s fie o confesiune, o rememorare a
clipei, poeta mrturisindu-ne c n-am mai vzut-o niciodat/dup zece ani a murit mama/.
Ea face din nou apologia durerii Fiului risipitor care se rentoarce acas, recunoscnd
c din iubire i ntru iubire nc/sufletul mamei/exista n focul din casa veche
unde/ntruchiprile anilor notri dinuie/.Cu alte cuvinte nefiina-fiin a mamei este
aproape omniprezenta n imaginarul poetic, n pomii n care m suiam, /n psrile care
cntau pentru mine, /pentru frumuseea Tatianei/.
Nu credem c la Gabriela Melinescu ar putea fi vorba de o nostalgie a trecutului,sau de
o"venic rentoarcere a lucrurilor"(idee de baz ntlnit la Eliade de fapt)aceea a
posibilitii ca timpul s poat fi silit s stea pe loc.Adic mai corect spus s se repete ,nu
ca"timp" ci c evenimente care au avut loc n timp."Venica rentoarcere a tuturor
anotimpurilor"("Le mythe de l'eternel retour","La nostalgie des origines")un leit motiv care
revine n toate lucrrile lui Eliade, care i el a trit mult vreme departe de ar.22
rn, pmntul e venic nemuritor la fel i patria, ara este venic
nemuritoare.Sintagma Patria imposibil a fost folosit n ideea c aici ea nu-i putea
mplini idealurile i visele. Cnd ceva nu se poate realiza, se spune c devine imposibil.
Astfel c din patria imposibil politic, material, sufletesc, spiritual, poeta migreaz spre o
patrie a tuturor posibilitilor unde mai trziu dei mplinit pe varii planuri imateriale,
triete frustrri i doruri, iar sufletul ei nu cunoate linitea,pentru c i-a rmas n pajitea
verde de acas. Orice om care pleac n cltoria exilului, pleac doar pe jumtate, cealalt
jumtate rmne s germineze n pmntul care l-a plmadit i cruia i este dator pn la
moarte.
Gabriela Melinescu sugereaz c nu poi s trieti,s gndeti i s scri n afara istoriei,23 nu poi s
exiti fr s lupi.n lume nu ai ncetat nicicnd competiia,doar c locul fiecruia sub soare e
asigurat prin har divin i c totul se ctig prin efort i ncordare.nvarea i adaptarea permanent
este legea etern a supravieuirii,24i pentru c la fel cum spunea Alex.tefnescu spune i ea
Henri H.Stahl,Eseuri critice,Ed.Minerva,Bucureti,1983,p.206

George Arion,Interviuri(2),Ed.Albatros,Bucureti982,p.125
24
idem.p.120
22
23
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cliteratura de valoare este o literatur cu cheie,iar scriitorul nu poate face s nmrmureasc

mre dect lumea sau adevrul lumii pe care a cunoscut-o direct25.
BIBLIOGRAFIA OPEREI
1.Gabriela Melinescu, Puterea Morilor asupra celor vii, Ed. Polirom, Iai, 2005
BIBLIOGRAFIE CRITIC
2.Eugen Barbu, O istorie polemic i antologic a literaturii romne de la origini
pn n prezent.Poezia romn contemporan,Ed. Eminescu,Bucureti,1975
3. Henri H.Stahl,Eseuri critice,Ed. Minerva,Bucureti,1983
4.Eugen Simion,Scriitori romni de azi III,Ed.Cartea RomneascBucureti,1984
5. Aura Christi, Banchetul de litere. Ed. Ideea European, Bucureti, 2006, p.185
6.Liviu Rusu,De la Eminescu la Lucian Blaga i alte studii literare i
estetice,Ed.Cartea Romneasc,1981
7.Andrei Pleu,Minima Moralia-(Elemente pentru o etic a intervalului),Ed.Cartea
Romneasc,1988
8.Antologie
de
romneasc
filosofie
V,Bibliotec
pentru
toi,Ed.Minerva,Bucureti,1988
9.Despre frumos i art,Tradiiile gndirii estetice romneti I,Bibliotec pentru
toi,Ed.Minerva,Bucureti,1984
10.George Arion,InterviuriII,Ed.Albatros,Bucureti,1982
11.Alex.tefnescu,Jurnal de critic,Ed.Cartea Romneasc,Bucureti,1980
25
Alex.tefnescu,Jurnal de critic,Ed.Cartea Romneasc,1980,p.15
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NO GIPSY VENUS- ZOLI, ANOTHER HEROINE OF COLUM MCCANN

PUSKS-BAJK Albina
Abstract: Colum McCann has always been fascinated with the "other", in his previous novels,
including Dancer and This Side of Brightness, he combined fiction and history with
empathetic deftness to study such varied lives as Rudolph Nureyev and the subway diggers of
Manhattan. In Zolihe continues his epic exploration of identity to follow the rise and
decline of a Romani singer and poet, loosely based on a real-life Gipsy woman, Papusza.
Papusza was sentenced to a "Life of Pollution" by Romani society when the Polish
government began publishing her poems. McCann switches the action to Czechoslovakia, but
the tale is essentially the same.McCann plays with Zoli's torn ego by shifting perspectives.
Like Dancer, Zoli begins with its lead as a child entering a new world of Soviet rule. As
a girl, Zoli describes her love for the Romani life and idolatry of her Marxist grandfather, her
only remaining family member after a Hlinka massacre. He teaches her to read and write,
contrary to tradition, and this curious, intelligent girl begins to write her own odes to the
Romani life. These early sections are full of stirring, poetic portraits of Romani society and
are almost idyllic, even in the face of barbarism. McCann's approach is deliberately didactic.
The worst burden, says Zoli, is when "they force us to be what they expect us to be". (see
Edward Said, Claude Levi-Strauss, J. Duncan, Franz Fanon, D. Sibley)
Keywords: Papusza, Gipsy poet, Zoli, Otherness, exotic
A winner of Irelands Rooney Prize for Literature, and a finalist for the IMPAC
Award, McCann, had the opportunity to spend nine months at the library researching and
writing Zoli. 1His research culminated in a trip to Slovakia where Colum spent two months
living in the Romani camps. Having always been fascinated with the "other", it being the
result of a discursive process by which a dominant in -group (Us, the Self) constructs one or
many dominated out-groups (Them, Other ) by stigmatizing a difference real or imagined
presented as a negation of identity and thus a motive for potential discrimination. To state it
navely, difference belongs to the realm of fact and otherness belongs to the realm of
discourse. Thus, biological sex is difference, whereas gender is otherness. The creation of
otherness (also called othering) consists of applying a principle that allows individuals to be
classified into two hierarchical groups: them and us. The out-group is only coherent as a
group as a result of its opposition to the in-group and its lack of identity. This lack is based
upon stereotypes that are largely stigmatizing and obviously simplistic. The in - group
constructs one or more others, setting itself apart and giving itself an identity. 2
Otherness and identity are two inseparable sides of the same coin. The Other only
exists relative to the Self , and vice versa. The asymmetry in power relationships is central to
the construction of otherness. Only the dominant group is in a position to impose the value of
its particularity
Zoli, by Colum McCann. Random House, January, 2007

Jervis, J.(1999).Transgressing the Modern. Explorations in the Western Experience of Otherness . London :
Blackwell.
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(its identity) and to devalue the particularity of others (their otherness) while imposing
corresponding discriminatory measures. Therefore, if the Other of Man is Woman, and if the
Other of the White Man is the Black Man, the opposite is not true3 (Beauvoir, 1952).
Dominated out -groups are Others precisely because they are subject to the categories
and practices of the dominant in - group and because they are unable to prescribe their own
norm4s.
Out-groups cease to be Others when they manage to escape the oppression forced
upon them by in-groups, in other words, when they succeed in conferring upon themselves a
positive,autonomous identity (black is beautiful), and in calling for discursive legitimacy
and a policy to establish norms, eventually constructing and devaluing their own out-groups.5
Column McCanns previous novels, including Dancer and This Side of Brightness,
combined fiction and history with empathetic deftness to study such varied lives as Rudolph
Nureyev and the subway diggers of Manhattan. Zoli continues his epic exploration of identity
to follow the rise and decline of a Romani singer and poet, loosely based on a real-life Gipsy
woman, Papusza. 6Papusza was sentenced to a "Life of Pollution" by Romani society when
the Polish government began publishing her poems. McCann switches the action to
Czechoslovakia, but the tale is essentially the same.McCann plays with Zoli's torn ego by
shifting perspectives. Like Dancer, Zoli begins with its lead as a child entering a new world of
Soviet rule. As a girl, Zoli describes her love for the Romani life and idolatry of her Marxist
grandfather, her only remaining family member after a Hlinka massacre. He teaches her to
read and write, contrary to tradition, and this curious, intelligent girl begins to write her own
odes to the Romani life. These early sections are full of stirring, poetic portraits of Romani
society and are almost idyllic, even in the face of barbarism
After the war, the Communists latch on to the Romani as the face of proletariat
revolution. Zoli begins a relationship with an Englishman, Stephen Swann, who publishes her
work. To the idealist Swann, who narrates this period, Zoli is the embodiment of the perfect
primitive. But when she rebels against his bourgeois use of her talents, he ceases to
understand her and she drifts away from us.The Soviets turn Zoli into a poster girl for the
forced resettlement of the Gipsies and her people finally reject her. By the time we return to
Zoli's narration, her identity is lost and she is a distant figure, though her fear is tangible as
she undertakes a torrid flight from Bratislava. By the end of the book she is an aged
anachronism, a supposed innovator who, as she tells her daughter, is still traditional and "of
those times".
McCann's approach is deliberately didactic. The worst burden, says Zoli, is when
"they force us to be what they expect us to be". (see Edward Said, Claude Levi-Strauss, J.
Duncan, Franz Fanon, D. Sibley, etc.) Given McCann's expressive writing and incisive
examination of identity through perspective, he doesn't need to be this explicit. There are also
a few frustrations that keep us from getting close to Zoli. Pivotal events in her earlier life,
such as the death of her grandfather or her arranged marriage are skipped over, while her solo
escape from Czechoslovakia takes up almost half the book.
Given the ambition of the novel, however, these are small complaints. McCann
intelligently poses complicated questions about immigration and identity that are deeply
relevant today. His prose is sharp and scintillatingly sensual, and the final moment in which
Zoli finally rediscovers herself through music is incontrovertibly moving. If this beautiful,
3
Beauvoir, S. de (1952). The Second Sex. New York: Alfred Knopf.

Lvy-Strauss, Cl. (1961).Race and History. Paris : Unesco.Mason, P. (1998).
5
Fanon, F. (1963).Black Skin, White Masks. Harmondsworth : Penguin
6
Thibodeau, Gigi. Growing a New Skin: The Life and Poetry of Papusza, 2003, <http://kmareka.com/freeliterature-online/growinganewskin.htm>.
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thoughtful novel falls just short, it's only because it shoots for the stars and hits the horizon.
No doubt Papusza would have approved.
A Gypsy girl in Czechoslovakia is banished by her people after becoming a famous
poet. Marienka Novotna, better known as Zoli, is a Gypsy girl born in the late 1920's in
Czechoslovakia. She is 6 years old when her family is executed by Fascist soldiers. She
escapes with her grandfather Stanislaus in their cart. Against Gypsy tradition, Stanislaus
teaches Zoli to read and write. They meet up with another Gypsy encampment. Some of the
Gypsies there come from Poland and play giant harps. Zoli has a good ear for words and
music. With her best friend, Conka, they sing along when the women play. With the coming
of World War II, restrictions are placed on the actions and movements of the Gypsies. The
group splits up. At fourteen Zoli is married off to Petr, an old man who plays the violin. She
writes songs in Slovak. When their encampment is shot at by German planes, Stanislaus is
killed.
After the war, Gypsy music becomes popular. Zoli writes down her songs and so
becomes a poet. Her exotism and erotic attractivity as exotism in general, constitutes the most
directly geographical form of otherness, in that it opposes the abnormality of elsewhere with
the normality of here. Exotism is not, of course, an attribute of the exotic place, object or
person. It is the result of a discursive process that consists of superimposing symbolic and
material distance, mixing the foreign and the foreigner, and it only makes sense from one,
exterior, point of view. As a construction of otherness, exotism is characterized by the
asymmetry of its power relation ships: it is Westerners who, during the phases of exploration
then colonization, defined elsewhere and delimited exotism. The word exotic has become a
synonym of tropical or even colonial. It is out of the question to describe Europe as exotic
until minds and words are decolonized. Exoticism is characterized by giving value to the
other, contrary to ethnocentric bias. From Homers fascination with faraway, more or less
imaginary peoples to J.-J. Rousseaus nostalgia for the noble savage, from the Romantic
Orientalism of 19th -century writers and painters to the primitivism of a Gauguin painting,
from curiosity for ethnic tourism to the recognition of specific rights for first peoples, the
West celebrates the Other and even proclaims its superiority through multiple forms (that are
not always unambiguous .) The taste for exotica was established in the 18th century when
exotic turquerie, chinoiserie, japonaiserie
etc. came into fashion. It became commonplace in the 19th century with colonization
and spread to the tropical world. Up to that point, it was essentially characterized by the
import of exotic products, by their pastiches, and by travel books and then colonial literature.
Only certain privileged persons, well-to-do aristocrats or explorers, traveled to experience the
pleasures of exotic lands. The development of mass tourism in the 1960s leveled the playing
field and made their exotism a major resource for many countries.
According to V. Segalen, exoticism is the pleasure of a sensation that, worn down by
habit, is
excited by novelty. But Segalen notes that from the end of the 19th century onward,
everything has been seen and radical exotism, the exotism experienced by the first explorers,
is dead7. In fact, T. Todorov demonstrates that it is paradoxical to value or desire something
that is unknown. Exoticism consists more of showing enthusiasm for what has already been
seen, said, or painted: what has been marked elsewhere as picturesque and been reproduced as
such. The otherness of the exotic is not the brute and brutal otherness of the first encounter; it
is the bland otherness, staged and transformed into merchandise, of the colonial world offered
up as a spectacle, as in orientalist paintings, human zoos... and exotic dance. Exoticism is less
the pleasure of confronting otherness than the pleasure of having the satisfaction of
7
Segalen,V. (2001).Essay on Exoticism: An Aesthetics of Diversity . Durham : Duke University Press
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experiencing the sight of a reassuring version of this confrontation, true to our fantasies, that
comforts us in our identity and superiority.8
Stephen Swann is born in England from an Irish mother and a Slovakian father. In
1948 he goes to Czechoslovakia as a translator for the poet Martin Strnsky, who prints a
literary journal. In 1950 he meets Zoli at Strnsky's printing shop and falls in love with her.
He is sent to record her songs on a tape recorder, so that they can be transcribed and printed.
He visits the Gypsy encampment regularly.
After Zoli's husband Petr dies, she starts a relationship with Swann, but they have to
keep it secret, since it is forbidden by Gypsy tradition. When a chapbook of her songs is
published, she becomes famous and gives readings.
As Socialism grows, new laws are
passed by the Soviet Union. Strnsky is executed. Zoli and Swann travel from town to town to
plead against resettlement of the Gypsies, to no avail. Caravan wheels are burnt and tower
blocks built to house the Gypsies. Zoli pleads with Swann not to print her full collection of
poems, as the Gypsies will see it as betrayal of their culture, but he goes ahead. The Gypsies
banish Zoli. She disappears, but later returns to Bratislava. In Swann's apartment she burns all
the tapes and original transcriptions of her poems. She takes his gold watch and sells it, then
wanders off again. Eventually she crosses the border into Hungary and then into Austria
through a lake.
She is found half-dead and taken to a hospital and from there to a refugee camp.
Later she leaves the camp and heads west, walking and hitch-hiking. A young priest takes her
to the Alpine village of Maria Luggua, where he pays Enrico, a taciturn smuggler, to take her
across the border into Italy. They fall in love and Zoli stays in Italy. They have a daughter
called Francesca. In 2003, some years after Enrico's death, Zoli visits Francesca in Paris,
where she is organizing an international conference about the Gypsies. Francesca pleads with
Zoli to perform at the conference, but she refuses. Swann appears, accompanied by a
journalist, but Zoli rushes off, still angry at his betrayal of her trust. Back in Francesca's
apartment, one of the bands who played at the conference starts playing. After forty two years
of silence, Zoli sings for them.
In the novel, the communist government uses Zoli's writing to try to encourage the
Romani people to leave their caravans and settle in housing estates. Soldiers chop the wheels
off the caravans and burn them. Zoli is scapegoated by her people, expelled from the
community and shunned for life. With a knife and the clothes on her back, Zoli walks across
Slovakia under harsh conditions to escape to Austria and freedom. She makes her way to Italy
and has a family, but loses her voice as a poet.
An exotic singer and poet steeped in her ancient Gypsy traditions, most of the novel is
told in her words, beginning with her indelible memories of her family being killed by fascist
Hlinka guards when she was 6, their carts driven out onto cracking lake ice.Now a famous
singer among her own people, Zoli begins to write poetry, but keeps her poems hidden, for
fear of persecution. When Czechoslovakia is liberated by the Russians at war's end, Zoli is in
her early 20s, and is becoming a symbol of the country's movement toward socialism.At this
point McCann introduces the character of Stephen Swann, a half-Slovak Marxist and
publisher who considers Zoli the perfect proletarian poet. Swann and Zoli meet and
eventually fall in love, but their relationship seems doomed, enmeshed as it is with the
political upheaval swirling around them. After Swann publishes her poems against her will,
Zoli is deemed a traitor by her people and banished, sentenced to Pollution for Life.
McCann's story is loosely based on a real Gypsy poet, Papsuza, who was exiled by her
people when her poems were published. He has enriched that story with insightful and
8
Todorov, T. (1994), On Human Diversity:

Thought.Harvard:Harvard University Press
Nationalism,
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evocative prose, and in Zoli has created a vibrant character who is able to maintain her
identity and proud heritage, even when abandoned by those she loves.
One could not find a story more exotic than a Gypsy tale. This tale of a Gipsy girl,
based on the life of Papusza, a Polish Gypsy singer and poet who died in 1987, spans seven
decades and crosses national boundaries as freely as the Gypsy caravans once did. Above all a
strong remembrance of Zoli Novotna, a poet born to a Romani family in Czechoslovakia, the
novel also at times represents two other points of view: a Slovak journalist researching the
mysterious Gypsy poet, and Stephan Swann, an Englishman who brought her work to the
attention of a wider audience, thus earning for Zoli banishment by her people. It is the poets
story that is most compellinghow she survived wartime persecution by the Nazi
collaborators, how she moved from an oral to a written tradition, how she fled
Czechoslovakia into Austria and later Italy after the Communists halted the caravansand
the authors point of view and tense jumps are puzzling. Swann is complex, but nave, selfindulgent and unsympathetic. The journalist is one-dimensional. Both provide the outsiders
view of Romani society, seeing its idiosyncrasies as the uninformed reader might, but add
little to Zolis rich narrative. In fact, the most rewarding aspect of the book is its language.
One recurring image in particular, the icy waters that signify both the death of Zolis family
and her own rebirth in the West, is evocative of the whole of her experience. The final section
of the book, in which Zoli visits her daughter in Paris, the hypothetical destination of her
escape journey years earlier, is satisfying in that it allows Zoli a certain amount of closure,
and crystallizes the old Gypsy legends into a harsher, 21st Century reality.
A novel about a Gypsy woman exiled for betraying her people: the novel shows us the
Czechoslovakia in the early 1930s when Zoli, but more essentially, a young Roma girl,who is
six years old., and the recalled child voice, which relates part of the novel, will be crisp and
accurate, yet dispassionate while narrating the most terrible of events. In the 1930s, Zoli is a
young girl, part of a kumpanija, a band of families that moves about the countryside of what
was then Czechoslovakia, never staying too long in one place. Raised by her beloved but strict
grandfather after most of her family is murdered by fascists, she is taught to read and write,
though these acts are considered by the Roma to be dangerous, especially for a woman.
Books, even radio, carry the words of outsiders. But Zoli is gifted; she has a voice that sings
and a mind that invents and remembers. She and her grandfather escape death and flee to join
a group of caravans, a community of cousins, of harpists, a society with music and rules and
laws of its ownMcCann moves the story through time and place - present-day Slovakia, 1930s
Czechoslovakia, England, Northern Italy, Paris, Hungary, Austria - reflecting the movement
of the Roma people themselves. It begins in 2003 with a Slovakian journalist seeking
information about Zoli, then moves to Zoli's first-person recollections of the 1930s
(addressed, in part, to her daughter), and then on to Swann, an English expatriate who is part
Irish, part Slovakian and one of the men Zoli loves. In this way, her tale encompasses the
story of Eastern Europe, shifting politics and borders, banishment and exile, the hatred and the
murders and then the attempts, under socialism, to rescue the Roma from their nomadic ways.
When Zoli is six, the rest of their group is herded onto a frozen lake by fascists who set fires
around the ice and wait, with guns, for it to melt. Zoli survives alone with her grandfather.
Unusual for a Romani, he admires Lenin and Marx and knows how to read. Even more
unusual, he sees that Zoli is taught. Along with Zolis natural talent for composing songs and
poems, her literacy determines her fate, after the terror of war reduces their lives to the most
marginal of existences in caves clawed out of mud, subsisting on frozen potatoes stolen from
the fields. The war ends when Zoli is 16 and with the spread of socialism, the Roma are
suddenly regarded as comrades again. Zoli meets Stephen Swann, a man she will have a
passionate affair with, but who will also betray her. He persuades Zoli to publish some of her
work. But when the government try to use Zoli to help them in their plan to settle Gypsies,
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her community turns against her. They condemn her to Pollution for Life, which means she
is exiled forever. She begins a journey that will eventually lead her to Italy and a new life.
Zoli is based very loosely on the true story of the Gypsy poet, Papusza, who was sentenced to
a Life of Pollution by her fellow Roma when a Polish intellectual published her poems. But
McCann has turned this into so much more its a brilliantly written work that brings the
culture and the time to life, an incredibly rich story about betrayal and redemption, and
storytelling in all its guises.
After the war, Zoli emerges as a singer. She is discovered by poet and socialist activist
Martin Stransky and his sidekick, Stephan Swann. In the optimistic early days of the
construction of Peoples Socialism, they bring her into the public eye as the perfect
proletarian poet, and the new Gypsy. Thus, unwittingly, Zoli is made into a representative
of her people--a people who chose to disappear rather than participate in any one elses ideas
of governance--just at the time when idealism and optimism are corrupted. Swann betrays
Zoli, just as socialism betrays the Romani, who are brutally trapped by a regime whose
officials burn the wheels of their wagons to end their roaming, then forcibly install them in
drab city high rises. Though she fights to prevent this, Zoli is blamed and banished from the
tight-knit community which is all shes ever known.
No matter who is telling the story, each path leads back to Zoli. As a gifted poet, she is
discovered by a printer and publisher who also befriends the expatriate Swann. Zoli receives
permission from the elders to have her poems published in the outside world. But the very
work that is celebrated and makes her famous also leads to her unraveling. She finds, too late,
that she has been used. But new laws enable the rounding up and resettlement of her people.
Banished by the Roma and blamed for their fate, she finds that she belongs to neither socialist
nor Roma society9.The narrative arc of the novel is as intriguing as it is effective. Moving
among first and third person points of view and between the 1930s and 2003, McCann traces
the romantic, familial, and political history of Zoli, a Roma poet and one of the fiercest
women you will ever encounter. From her earliest conversations with her grandfather to the
later conversations with her daughter, Zoli exhibits a stunning strength of character and will
for self-determination.But this is not hagiography and Zoli is flawed as well. Not as flawed as
the society around her and the way it treats people who are considered "other," for this is also
a tale of the Roma people, or Gypsies, who have been spurned and shunned throughout their
existence.
From the first glimpse of the very closed and self-protective Roma society seen
through the eyes of a journalist, to life inside a Roma settlement, to the larger politics of
Czechoslovakia, McCann develops a picture of a time that is specific and yet still very
relevant to our lives. This is not a treatise on what it means to be an outsider, which Zoli is
and becomes more so over the course of the novel, but in its depiction of the talented and
heartbroken woman at its core, it elicits our empathy as it tests our varying notions of heroism
and loyalty. After the formal act of banishment, she returns to the Danube, to the vicinity of
the apartment blocks on the outskirts of Bratislava, where the kumpanija has been forcibly
moved. They have ripped out the floorboards of their apartments to build campfires; the
wheels from their wagons have been removed, yet they still gather and live outdoors. One
night, hidden yet watchful, Zoli "longs to . . . stride into the camp, but she is as separate from
them now as she can ever be. She watches the flickering campfires, the cigarettes traveling at
mouth level, a rimless wheel of red light moving. I would, she thinks, set fire to all my words
just to travel that air once more."
Duncan,J. (1993). Sites of representation. Place, time and the discourse of the Other. In
Duncan, J. &Ley, D. (eds.).Place/Culture/Representation. Pp. 39-56. London:Routledge
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According to Lacan, giving ground often happens by means of the best of intentions,
for instance Zolis wish to collaborate with Strnsk in giving form to the history and life of
her people10. Zolis uncompromising travelling of roads, which always returns to where she
started, a journey that is a vicious circle from a transcendent point of view. Zoli discovers and
walks on the territory of the Gipsy camps from which her people have fled because of threats
and because their homes were burnt down. Sheltering in a hut in the forest, she wonders:
What might it be like to stay like this for ever . . . moving back and forth between forest and
hut, over the empty field, through the colourless rain, eating pine seeds, watching the flame
crackle? To lie on the floor and slip down into the boards, to wake again in silence, saying
nothing, recalling nothing, with not a soul in sight, to have her name pass silently into the
walls of the hut? (p. 117) She places herself in the position of the reason that lacks in the
way of life that rules and gathers power11, for moving back and forth between forest and hut,
and slip[ping] down into . . . boards is a form of gadzi life, and the life led by peasants in
rural Slovakia, after all. Zoli, having escaped across the border from Slovakia to Austria with
the help of a prisoner in a forest workcamp, lives in a camp for Displaced Persons and meets
another Roma, a woman named Mozol, with whose family she lives. When Mozol, whose one
desire is to travel to and resettle in Toronto, but who cannot pay the required part of her
passage, is in her despair over her lost hopes, Zoli forgets her old life and makes a decision to
embody, in Mozols cause, the dead remains of the worst gadzi beliefs about Gypsies: We
fall out of rhythms with our earliest ways . . . I even forgot I was polluted . . . and in some
ways I had begun to think of myself as Mozols sister. The decision had no fear. Sometimes
you make up your mind about something without knowing why. I knew the town well. I did
not like what I was about to do, daughter, but I had forced myself not to think about it. I cut
the nerve that twitched in me and went to the dump at the edge of town (p. 203). Zoli finds a
cupboard door on which she carves maple leaves and a griffin, makes two grand rubber
earrings from parts of a discarded carburettor, adds a Spanish scarf, picks up pebbles, and
later that day sets herself up as a Gypsy fortune teller in an alleyway in town (p. 203). She is
successful, especially with young men, and is able to give Mozol enough money to pay for the
required part of her journey, but this act is a complex one of looping back through the
estranging dimensions of her history. If Antigones metamorphosis is a surrendering of the
grounding substance that supports fantasy and a grounding of the world in the act ( p. 262).
Zoli too stakes a claim to contested territory, or territory with a missing logic, as the gadzi
image of the Gypsy is a fantasy without substance, and it is this very missing substance that
she now becomes: I kept expecting troopers to round the corner, or some dead family spirit to
lean in from a doorway to see what had happened to me, how I had betrayed all that I had ever
known. I had no name for what I had become, it did not exist in either pain or pleasure (p.
205). No name, no word, no poetry. No repetition of an earlier crime, but the elaboration of a
new one, born of gadzi repetitions, stock images of Gypsy ways. Moreover, the novel has a
lot to say about the modern world versus the natural world and about the value and meaning
of various art forms. The language is sensuous and the characters so fully and completely
developed that each voice is unique and distinct. McCann takes on an enormous canvas and
manages, like the great artist he is, to make the particulars so emphatic and moving that the
whole picture, once opaque, becomes crystalline at the end.
One falsitythe publishing of poems and the damaging misuse of her image by the
Gadzos is met with another, as outcast status goes to work to redeem Mozols exile.
Mozols defining characteristic is an inability to stop talking, in a careless, harmless way that
10
Lacan, Jacques. The Seminar of Jacques Lacan, Book VII: The Ethics of Psychoanalysis,1959-1960[1986],
trans. Dennis Porter, ed. Jacques-Alain Miller. New York: W. W.Norton, 1992.
11
6.
Fonseca, Isabel. Bury Me Standing: The Gypsies and their Journey . New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1996.
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is the reverse of the collaborative word-work in which Zoli once engaged. The ashes of Zolis
burned poems become the ashes and dust of her new detour around the missing heart of her
identity, gathered from the dump at the edge of town. Zoli does not tell Mozol of her polluted
status, but instead performs this creative act that is a kind of traffic in nothingness, a wager
with what might be left of her soul. People ought to be allowed the right to go without things
that others wish them to have. When Swann meets Zoli, he notes that [a]s a singer she could
have lived differently, with no scrubbing, no cooking, no time spent looking after the
children, but she didnt isolate herself, she couldnt, she was in love with that bare life, it was
what she knew, it fuelled her. She washed clothes in the river, beat the rugs and carpets clean.
Afterwards she put playing cards in the spokes of a bicycle wheel and rode around in the mud,
calling out to the children . . . [She] was well known among her people, settled and nomadic
alike. she touched some old chord of tenderness in them. They would walk twenty kilometres
to hear her sing (p. 73). It is in choosing what to do without, as much as what to have, that
Zolis life has meaning before she becomes something exotic to fall in love with (p. 107),
and before her world gives way. Zoli is loved by many, but only when her songs and poems
are in favor. Her true loves turn out to be a loyal few. The tone of the novel is one of dignified
sadness; there is a sense of mourning throughout, not only for the poet but for the fate of the
Roma. Beautifully conceived, wonderfully told, the story is proof of an indomitable spirit.
The elusive character of Zoli, the brilliant artist, is unforgettable.
McCanns novel, does, shows the singular human being as that for which no place of
ultimate belonging in the world could be prepared, and on whom it is thus incumbent to create
the possibility of such a belonging. 12This is what Zoli attempts to do for Mozol, without any
thought of her own redemption. And when she later finds the man who assists her across a
final border and becomes her husband and father to the daughter to whom she writes, the two
exchange an absence of words that is the most meaningful version of nothing they could
express. I asked Enrico why he had not asked me anything about being a Gypsythis being
inseparable, for most gadzos , from the intriguing image about which gadzos desire to know,
in order to confirm them in their own taken-for-granted invisibility and dissatisfactionand
he asked me why I had never asked him anything about not being one (p. 223). Here, the
fantasy of Gadzi belonging is suspended before the more important question of what it is
possible for Zoli and Enrico to share with each other. And if what they share is a lostness, an
exilefor Enrico, an exile from privilege, for Zoli, an exile from her peoplesymbolised by
their house at the edge of a mountain pass, then this sharing may open onto a future together,
as it does.
When Zoli is walking the roads for the first term of her exile, she has a word for a
place that keeps her moving, a word for the non-All13 of Santners poetic remnant that
interrupts the accounted-for world. The word is Paris. An absurdity. How many borders is
that? How many
watchtowers? Yet, while walking, [s]he clings to its ridiculousness, its simple
repetition. She . .. finds that, as she goes along, it is a sound that helps her think of nothing at
all, rhythmically bumping against the air, carrying her forward, a sort of contraband, a
repetition so formless, so impossible, so bizarre that it matches her footsteps . . . (p. 155).
Not so impossible, though. Zoli and Enricos daughter, Francesca, goes away to live in
Paris, and Zoli visits her, at the end of the novel, to attend the conference Francesca has
organised on Romani Memory and Imagination. Zoli declines the opportunity to speak at the
conference. But the novel ends as she and Francesca leave the bedroom where Zoli is sleeping
12
Fanon, F. (1963).Black Skin, White Masks . Harmondsworth : Penguin

Barany, Zoltan, The East European Gypsies: Regime Change, Marginality, and Ethnopolitics . Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2002.
13
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Issue no. 6/2015
for the living room of Francescas flat, where her boyfriend has brought a group of Scottish
musicians from the event. Zoli asks, What happened to the music? and the story ends as the
windows and walls of the room seem to open, and as she lifts her head and begins to sing (pp.
274-5).
REFERENCES
1. Barany, Zoltan, The East European Gypsies: Regime Change, Marginality, and
Ethnopolitics . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002.
2. Beauvoir, S. de (1952).The Second Sex. New York: Alfred Knopf.
3. Duncan,J. (1993). Sites of representation. Place, time and the discourse of the Other.
In
Duncan, J. &Ley, D. (eds.).Place/Culture/Representation.
Pp. 39-56.
London:Routledge
4. Fanon, F. (1963).Black Skin, White Masks . Harmondsworth : Penguin
5. Fonseca, Isabel. Bury Me Standing: The Gypsies and their Journey . New York:
Alfred A. Knopf, 1996.
6. Jervis, J.(1999).Transgressing the Modern. Explorations in the Western Experience of
Otherness . London : Blackwell.
7. Lacan, Jacques. The Seminar of Jacques Lacan, Book VII: The Ethics of
Psychoanalysis,1959-1960[1986], trans. Dennis Porter, ed. Jacques-Alain Miller. New
York: W. W.Norton, 1992.
8. Lvy-Strauss, Cl. (1961).Race and History. Paris : Unesco.Mason, P. (1998).
9. McCann, Colum, Zoli . London: Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 2006.
10. Said, E. (1978).Orientalism.London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
11. Scarry, Elaine.On Beauty and Being Just. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999.
12. Segalen,V. (2001). Essay on Exoticism: An Aesthetics of Diversity. Durham : Duke
University Press .
13. Sibley, D. (1995).A Geography of Exclusion . London:Routledge.
14. Todorov, T. (1994), On Human Diversity: Nationalism, Racism, and Exoticism in
French Thought . Harvard :Harvard University Press.
15. Thibodeau, Gigi. Growing a New Skin: The Life and Poetry of Papusza, 2003,
<http://kmareka.com/free-literature-online/growinganewskin.htm>.
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STATUTES OF THE CULTURAL AND SOCIAL MEETINGS AND THEIR ROLE IN

ASSERTING ROMANIAN CULTURAL MOVEMENT IN TIMISOARA. 1867-1918
Alin Cristian SCRIDON
West University of Timisoara
Abstract: The cultural meetings in Timisoara at the end of the XIXth century and the
beginning of the XXth century have had as its objective to preserve traditions, habits and
spiritual landmarks. For this reason, there were times it was claimed that these events have
contributed to the preservation of national conscience and their mother tongue. Through
these organizations, the inhabitants from Banat were encouraged read and love the book, but
also to appreciate collective values.
Keywords: Timisoara, Cultural associations, Philanthropy, Theology, Social.
Timioara este un spaiu unde s-au armonizat obiceiuri, mentaliti, rituri religioase,
practici laice, aparinnd diferitelor naionaliti i confesiuni care au trit n vatra oraului de
sute de ani. La nceputul secolului al XX-lea, din cei aproximativ 1,3 milioane locuitori din
Banatul istoric, doar n jur de 500.000 erau romni, iar din acetia, doar 50% tiau s citeasc
i s scrie, adic 250.0001.
Pe acest fond etnico-confesional, Reuniunile culturale din Timioara fondate la
sfritul secolului al XIX-lea i nceputul secolului al XX-lea au avut ca obiectiv conservarea
tradiiilor, obiceiurilor i a reperelor spirituale. De aceea, nu de puine ori s-a afirmat c aceste
manifestri au contribuit la pstrarea limbii materne. Prin intermediul acestor organizaii,
bneanul a fost ndemnat s citeasc, s iubeasc cartea i s aprecieze valorile colective.
Aceste instituii, care s-au implicat direct n viaa timiorenilor au fost organizate n
baza unor Statute aprobate de autoritile vremii. Statutele au fost ntocmite de cele mai multe
ori de intelectualii oraului, cu grij i discernmnt din partea autorilor. Apoi, Statutele erau
trimise autoritilor spre a fi aprobate.
Statutele Asociaiilor au ocupat un loc important n activitatea desfurat de
Reuniunile cultural timiorene. Stipulau prevederi clare, cu privire la modul de organizare
intern a Societii, a drepturile i atribuiile membrilor i organelor de conducere. Totodat
erau inserate i principiile de organizare a manifestrilor culturale. Pe de alt parte, Statutele
au asigurat i un cadru de legalitate, de protejare a membrilor fa de presiunile autoritilor.
Ioan Munteanu, Reeaua colar i tiina de carte n Banatul istoric la nceputul secolului al XX-lea, n Studii
Bnene, Editura Mirton, 2007, p. 431 432.
1
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Fr ndoial c aceste organizaii s-au preocupat, ca activitile ntreprinse s aibe n vedere

dou elemente fundamentale: educaia moral i promovarea culturii.
Asociaiile prezentate mai jos au contribuit la dinamizarea vieii sociale i culturale la
nceputul secolului al XX-lea n capitala Banatului istoric.
Una dintre cele mai active Asociaii sociale a fost Cercul social din Timioara
Iosefin. Obiectivul Asociaiei era dezvoltarea vieii sociale, prin cultivarea elementului
patriotic i a muzicii.2 S-a remarcat prin interesantele activiti propuse:
publicarea de ziare;
organizarea unor conferine unde se citeau lucrrile nsemnate ale vremii;
organizarea de serate muzicale;
organizarea unor festiviti i petreceri sociale.3
Limba oficial a Cercului Iosefin era maghiara4, iar membrii ordinari puteau deveni
doar acele persoane care nu aveau o imagine ptat n faa societii timiorene. Reputaia
moral figura, de altfel, ca element fundamental n prevederile tuturor societilor de cultur
din Banatul istoric. Membrii activi erau alei doar dintre acele persoane care prezentau o
educaie muzical corespunztoare i talent muzical. Prin aderarea la Asociaie, membrii se
obligau s ia parte la edine, s fac propuneri, s voteze, s participle mpreun cu familia la
petrecerile organizate i s susin conferine literare.
O alt Asociaie social renumit n Timioara era Asociaia Crucea Alb pentru
ocrotirea copiilor din Ungaria de Sud (Banatul istoric). Asociaia Crucea Alb din
Timioara era una dintre cele mai importante societi filantropice din estul Imperiului
Austro-Ungar. Fondat n anul 1904, Asociaia va cunoate o dezvoltare remarcabil odat cu
preluarea conducerii de ctre primarul timiorean Telbisz Karoly (16 mai 1909). Culoarul
filantropic viza ajutorarea copiilor.5 Statutule e stipulau ntre altele:
asigurarea de ajutor material i locuin pentru mamele srace n timpul

sarcinii i asigurarea unor condiii igenice i optime pentru buna desfurare a
naterilor;
Direcia Judeean a Arhivlor Naioanle Timi (n contin. D.J.A.N.T. ) Timioara, Fond Primria Oraului
Timioara, Dosar 9/1887, f. 1.
3
Ibidem.
4
Ibidem.
5
Ibidem, Dosar 21/1905, f. 1.
2
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sprijinirea prinilor sraci sau a celor care au noi nscui pn cnd acetia vor
fi capabili s lucreze, iar n cel mai ru caz, gsirea unui loc n centre de
plasament sau orfelinate pentru copiii acestora.
sprijinirea material, prin achitarea taxei de plasament la orfelinat n cazul n

care mama nou nscutului dorete s rmn anonim.
diseminarea metodelor moderne de hrnire a noilor nscui n toate pturile

societii.
distribuirea de hran special pregtit pentru bebelui i totodat controlul

periodic a modului de administrare a hranei;
tratamente medicale gratuite pentru copiii sraci, administrarea gratuit de

medicamente i hran dietetic.
nfiinarea de spitale de copii i policlinici;
n cazul n care era mputernicit de ministerul de interne, asociaia accepta

nsrcinarea de a controla periodic centrele de plasament, precum ndeplinirea
altor misiuni din sfera orfelinatelor, iar cu acest scop nfiinarea de comitate
speciale mpreun cu alte organizaii etc.6
Prin aciunile ntreprinse n Timioara, Asociaia s-a remarcat i sub aspect educativ,
contribuind la creterea nivelului de instruire a populaiei n privina creterii i educaiei
tinerei generaii.
Asociaia tipografilor din Ungaria de Sud (Banatul istoric) activa pe trm
cultural. Societatea Tipografilor dun Ungaria de Sud a implementat numeroase aciuni
caritative mpletite cu manifestri culturale. n anul 1910 au fost aprobate Statutele Societii
care stipulau urmtoarele obiective7:
ajutorarea n caz de boal, deces sau handicap;
ajutorarea vduvelor i orfanilor, a celor trimii omeri;
ajutorarea membrilor proprii bolnavi, precum i achitatarea cheltuielilor

legate de deces;
6
7
Ibidem.
Ibidem, Dosar 24/1910, f. 1-2.
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ajutorarea membrilor asociaiei cu handicap;
ajutorarea vduvelor membrilor decedai, precum i prinilor membrilor

celibatari n cazul n care acesta moare, iar prinii rmn astfel fr sprijin
la btrnee;
susinerea financiar i moral a orfanilor;
ajutorarea omerilor i a pelerinilor cu bani pentru ca acetia s-i poat

continua cltoria etc.
Fondurile care erau destinate pentru ndeplinirea acestor obiective proveneau din
cotizaii sptmnale, taxa de admitere a membrilor, cotizaiile proprietarilor de tipografii i
eventualele taxe provenite din moteniri sau donaii. Statutele prevedeau ca membrii ordinari
s fie selectai din comitatele Timi, Bacs, Bodrog, Torontal, Szoreny, Krasso i Arad. Puteau
fi tipografi, corectori, precum i ali specialiti n acest domeniu care puteau demonstra c au
colaborat cu tipografiile din Timioara i provin din judeele menionate mai sus.8
Un loc nsemnat n cadrul Asociaiei l ocupau membrii onorifici - erau acei proprietari
de tipografii care i plteau taxele sau acele persoane care prin donaii sau alte fapte
excepionale au dovedit merite speciale.
Statutele Asociaiei prevedeau ca membrii s plteasc n fiecare sptmn suma de
30 de coroane, din care 10 coroane erau destinate ajutorrii bolnavilor, 10 coroane pentru
vduve i orfani i nc 10 pentru omeri i pelerini. Noii membrii urmau s plteasc suma de
10 forini n decurs de 8 sptmni. Neplata timp de 4 sptmni atrgea dup sine retragerea
din societate.9
Timioara gzduia i Asociaii care i propuneau ca obiectiv fundamental coordonarea
tinerilor aa cum a fost Uniunea Szechenyi din Ungaria de Sud (Banatul istoric).
Societatea destinat educrii tinerilor, Uniunea Szechenyi, implica membrii ei n diferitele
probleme sociale; perfecionarea prin practicarea muncii sociale (art. 1).10
Printre obiectivele uniunii, stabilite n Statutul aprobat n anul 1880, menionm:
studierea tiinelor sociale;
organizarea de cursuri i dezbateri;
Ibidem.
Ibidem, f. 3.
10
9
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organizarea de excursii i cltorii de cercetare;
contact cu micii ntreprinztori i cu muncitorii din agricultur;
participare activ la nfiinarea de cercuri gospodreti, de cooperative i

conducerea acestora;
stabilirea situaiei muncitorilor din industrie i sprijinirea fundaiilor pentru

aprarea drepturilor muncitorilor.
Articolul 5 din Statutele Asociaiei- sublineaz faptul c uniunea nu este legat n nici
un fel de factorul politic i nici nu intenioneaz s dezvolte o activitate n acest sens. Articolul
24 stipula problema cursurilor speciale, care puteau fi conduse doar de persoane specializate n
domeniul tiinelor sociale invitate de ctre conducere. Aceste dezbateri se ineau o dat la dou
sptmni; cu ocazia acestor prelegeri erau de fa doar membrii i erau organizate de ctre
prim-secretar.
Printre Asociaiile cu caracter social s-a numrat i Asociaia fotilor colegi de
coal al Liceului romano-catolic din Timioara. Asociaia fotilor colegi de coal al
Liceului romano-catolic din Timioara a luat fiin n anul 1890. Societatea i-a propus
ajutorarea elevilor nevoiai, dar care aveau rezultate bune la nvtur. Unul dintre obiective
viza susinerea financiar a absolvenilor capabili pentru a urma studiile superioare la una din
universitile din Ungaria. Totodat, prin Statute se urmrea meninerea unor legturi
permanente ntre absolveni Liceului timiorean. Sumele destinate ajutorului, proveneau din
donaii, din cotizaiile membrilor i din colecte.11
Pe aceleai coordonate s-a axat i Asociaia absolvenilor colii superioare reale
din Timioara. Scopul asociaiei, stipulat n statut ncepnd cu prima zi a existenei 1894,
era pe de o parte de a sprijinii material i financiar fotii absolveni (absolvenii care plecaser
s-i continua studiile; absolvenii cu situaie material srac), iar pe de alt parte ntreinerea
relaiilor dintre fotii colegi ai colii superioare reale. n acest scop se organiza n fiecare an, de
Sf. Apostoli Petru i Pavel (29 iunie), n Aula Magna o edin festiv12.
La cumpna celor dou secole, sportul atrage tot mai muli adereni n capitala
Banatului. Aa a luat fiin Clubul de Fotbal din Timioara.
11
12

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La nceputul secolului XX acest sport devenise un adevrat fenomen n toate oraele

mari ale Europei. Geml Josef n monografia sa despre Timioara afirma c: fotbalul nu mai este
un sport, a devenit o adevrat pasiune n sngele tinerilor, este att de ntiprit aceast
pasiune nct lovesc imediat cu piciorul orice piatr gsesc pe strad, ca i cum aceasta ar fi o
minge, iar lovitura ar marca un gol.13 Prin urmare, Timioara, cel mai mare ora din Ungaria
de Sud a aderat devreme la acest curent modern.
n 1902 ia fiin Clubul de Fotbal din Timioara, sub preedenia avocatului dr. Peter
Dobroslav i avea 30 de membrii.
Clubul avea urmtoarele obiective, aa cum atest Statutele de organizare:
dezvoltarea acestui sport n toate direciile;
asigurarea de condiii optime membrilor pentru ca acetia s se

perfecioneze n acest sport;
ncurajarea participrii la concursuri prin premierea participanilor (art.

2).14 etc.
Limba oficial era maghiara, iar culorile clubului erau rou-verde. O problem aparte
a reprezentat-o lipsa unui spaiu adecvat, abia n anul 1913 se amenajeaz primul teren de
fotbal cu bnci i loje (12 oct. 1913). De la aceast dat debuteaz organizarea de meciuri,
astfel c nceputurile oficiale ale fotbalului timiorean pot fi datate cu anul 1913.15
Asociaia ahitilor din Timioara Iosefin a fost nfiinat n anul 1913. Scopul
principal al asociaiei era practicarea i rspndirea acestui sport nobil care mbogea
intelectul i caracterul.16
Astfel, au fost amenajate n incinta Asociaiei mese, table de ah care erau destinate
att membrilor, ct i invitailor. Asociaia ahitilor organiza constant concursuri, iar
ctigtorii lor erau premiai din fondurile comune ale Societii. Pe lng aceste aspecte, s-a
prevzut, statutar, editarea unei reviste de specialitate i coordonarea unei biblioteci cu lucrri
n domeniu spre a fi de folos membrilor.
Membru al societii putea deveni orice iubitor al ahului cu character ireproabil care
a fost n prealabil propus de un membru cu statut permanent (art. 4). edinele asociaiei se
ineau n fiecare an n luna mai.
Telbisz Kroly, Dr. Telbisz Kroly 25 vi polgrmesteri..., p. 321.
D.J.A.N.T., Timioara, Fond Primria Oraului Timioara, Dosar 28/1903, f. 1.
15
Ibidem.
16
Ibidem, Dosar 19/1913.
13
14
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Prin urmare, Asociaiile prezentate mai sus s-au nscris n realitatea cultural i social
desfurat n capitala Banatului la sfritul secolului al XIX-lea i nceputul secolului al XXlea.
BIBLIOGRAFIE
C. Fonduri arhivistice
Direcia Judeean a Arhivlor Naioanle Timi, Timioara, Fond Primria Timioara

(D.J.A.N.T.);
D. Periodice de la nceputul secolului al XX-lea
Controla, Timioara, 1904;

Dlmagyarorszgi Kzlny, Timioara, 1900, 1904, 1909;
Havi Kzlny, Timioara, 1904;
Temesvari Szinpad, Timioara, 1901, 1902;
E. Lucrri generale
Borovszky, Samu, Temes vrmegye monografija, Budapesta, 1911;
Munuteanu, Ioan;
Munteanu, Rodica Timioara. Monografie, Editura Mirton, Timioara, 2002;
Munuteanu,
Ioan Reeaua colar i tiina de carte n Banatul istoric la nceputul

secolului al XX-lea, n Studii Bnene, Editura Mirton, 2007.
Pascu,
tefan;
Zahiu, Ioan; int, Timioara 700. Pagini din trecut i de azi, Timioara, 1969;
Aurel
Telbisz, Kroly,
Dr. Telbisz Kroly 25 vi polgrmesteri mkdse alatt elmondott

beszdei, Editura Uhrmann Henrik, Timioara, 1910.
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Mulumiri
Acest lucrare a fost finanat din contractul POSDRU/159/1.5/S/140863, proiect strategic ID
140863 (2014), cofinanat din Fondul Social European, prin programul Operaional Sectorial
Dezvoltarea Resurselor Umane 2007-2013.
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Issue no.6/2015
A LOVINESCIAN MARK
Carmen Elena FLOREA
Abstract: All around E. Lovinescu is a delightful short critics book signed by Alexandru
George, better known as a postmodernist novelist, if recognized as an essay writer, translater,
though seldom a journalist. Another perspective over the memory of a giant, subjected to
controversial points of view, otherwise a pleasure for the contemporary reader, disposed to
accept a scent of truth or reject possible remains of the master s personal vendeta.
Nevertheless, we witness the literary baptism of some great names, the background of a
majestic magazine and, all in all, the spirit of a unique mentor.
Keywords: Alexandru George, critics, Eugen Lovinescu, magazine, life.
Alexandru George a fost un scriitor, eseist, traductor, critic i ziarist, care a excelat n
toate domeniile pe care le-a mbriat deliberat, mistuit deopotriv de patima scrisului i de o
deformaie contagioas a cititului avid, graie puternicei personaliti constant cldite. n eseul
critic n jurul lui E. Lovinescu, descoperim un tip de critic n ram, n care obiectivitatea
servete analiza, iar subiectivitatea developeaz o confesiune abia reinut, realizat de la
nivelul unui confrate. Materia dispus fatidic n treisprezece capitole este, majoritar, de bun
inut, propunndu-i s rspund la ntrebri care ne-au mcinat pe toi, de-a lungul anilor, n
ceea ce l privete pe Lovinescu sau aducnd interpretri personale, care pot avea meritul de a
se regsi i n sertarul altor simpatizani. Rein atenia cteva titluri precum O via i o
vocaie, Primii pai n critic, Necesitatea revizuirilor, Revista i cercul ,,Sburtorul,
Sincronism i modernism sau Maiorescianism. Pe scurt, este viaa profesional dens,
teluric, frmntat, minuioas, inedit i nerecunoscut a unui om controversat, nzestrat cu
nervi de oel, o extraordinar putere de munc i cu un condei rzbuntor. George l numete
din primele rnduri cel mai mare critic al nostru, dei recunoate c a fost ntrecut n erudiie,
formare personal ori talent nativ de Vianu, Dragomirescu sau Clinescu. E vorba despre o
sum a unor merite pe care le-a avut preferatul su, cel care a reuit s reprezinte mai mult
dect oricine condiia specific a criticului. Un spirit clasic prin excelen, conservator nu de
puine ori, deloc avangardist prin reaciile critice, a reuit s se impun ca un autentic i
fervent promotor al modernismului, ntr-un moment suprem necesar pentru literatura romn.
i, totui, s-a spus despre Lovinescu faptul c s-ar fi ncadrat facil n grupul celor care nu
i-au privit publicul de sus, ci ar fi fost numai foarte bine sistematizai n gndire i, aa cum
observ contemporanul nostru, avnd o critic ntemeiat pe gust i pe impresie. Un spirit i
un stil foiletonist, sintagm care l recomand drept un urma mndru al francezilor
J. Lematre, Gourmont, Anatole France ori Faguet. Continund n aceeai not, stilul lui
Lovinescu are particularitatea unic de a vrea s plac i de a-i permite estetului su a
ntreprinde totul pentru a captiva, pentru a trece, pur i simplu, drept frumos.
Pretextul scolastic al curioilor deranjai de critic, fie ea justificat, necesar,
exagerat sau opac, se poate constitui ntr-o plcut lectur de tip critic despre critic, aa
cum e negociat delicat sintagma, de ctre Alexandru George, n al su eseu n jurul lui E.
Lovinescu. Cred c acest concept face trecerea spre literatura obiectivizat i l educ pe
cititorul ndoctrinat, determinndu-l s accepte s vad i dincolo de pagina elegant i
cuminte, fr a risca s fie deranjat de opinii prtinitoare. Aparent dificil, pentru neavizai o
joac, bagatel n gam nalt druit cunosctorilor, pentru c cele 300 de pagini te fur i, la
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Issue no. 6/2015
sfrit, fericit dar bulversat, nu mai tii dac ai citit confesiuni critice sau o analiz contextual
specializat a unui prieten al maestrului.
Materia dispus fatidic n treisprezece capitole este, majoritar, de bun inut,
propunndu-i s rspund la ntrebri care ne-au mcinat pe toi, de-a lungul anilor, n ceea
ce l privete pe Lovinescu sau aducnd interpretri personale, care pot avea meritul de a se
regsi i n sertarul altor simpatizani. Rein atenia cteva titluri precum O via i o vocaie,
Primii pai n critic, Necesitatea revizuirilor, Revista i cercul ,,Sburtorul, Sincronism i
modernism sau Maiorescianism. Avantajul nostru este acela de a-l privi cu detaare pe
nainta, situaie imposibil de aplicat nefericiilor si contemporani, care i-au suscitat interesul
mai marelui. n mod cert, George este un fan al criticului, dar nu am nicio ndoial,
cunoscndu-i profilul literar, c nu ar fi fost dect un al doilea Camil Petrescu, dac cei doi iar fi intersectat destinele literare. Nu gsesc nicio explicaie oportun pentru alegerea
postmodernistului, aceea de a-i dedica o carte teoreticianului modernismului, cu excepia
aceleia sincere, de a-l situa pe cel din urm pe cea mai nalt treapt valoric. O atare
determinare nu am mai ntlnit-o dect la Florin Mihilescu, cel care dubla rvna-i de o
patim convingtoare, n cursurile predate studenilor. Psihologic vorbind, ar mai putea fi
vorba i de o reconstituire moral trzie (Alexandru George avnd numeroase articole
publicate sub titlul Reconstituiri, revizuiri...), pe care eseistul-om ar fi nutrit-o n momente
cnd nsui experimenta rceala confrailor.
Pe scurt, este viaa profesional dens, teluric, frmntat, minuioas, inedit i
nerecunoscut a unui om controversat, nzestrat cu nervi de oel, o extraordinar putere de
munc i cu un condei rzbuntor, nici mcar constant, drept relativ echilibrare a unor fore
interioare destabilizate. l divinizezi pe cel care i-a adus n lumin pe Ion Barbu sau pe Camil
Petrescu i eti ocat cnd i desfiineaz neavizat. Te pleci n faa celui care ne-a deschis
poarta spre vest, ntr-un avnt citadin psihologizant reuit i nu nelegi reacia despotului care
i domina/submina nvceii, coloii de mai trziu, n cadrul edinelor individuale din
cenaclu. Nu-i de mirare c toat protipendada vremii s-a ntors mpotriv-i, nu mai e o
surpriz de ce a avut parte de atta insucces/ghinion mascat n cariera profesional. Ceea ce
pentru el putea prea simpl schimbare de atitudine, mai mult sau mai puin explicabil sub
raportul criticii, pentru toi ceilali, mai ales pentru cei avui n vizor, devenea arogan i
incapacitate sau invidie mascate. Nepermis pentru un asemenea nivel, ceea ce explic
imperturbabila reacie colectiv. Postum, Lovinescu este reabilitat, tocmai pentru c noi ne
raportm la esen, la coninut, la creaie. Altminteri, nimic nu-l salveaz n
contemporaneitate, din pcate, exclusiv din pricina unei ciudate, unic placide i dure judecate
a semenilor.
George l numete din primele rnduri cel mai mare critic al nostru, dei recunoate c
a fost ntrecut n erudiie, formare personal ori talent nativ de Vianu, Dragomirescu sau
Clinescu. E vorba despre o sum a unor merite pe care le-a avut preferatul su, cel care a
reuit s reprezinte mai mult dect oricine condiia specific a criticului. Un spirit clasic prin
excelen, conservator nu de puine ori, deloc avangardist prin reaciile critice, a reuit s se
impun ca un autentic i fervent promotor al modernismului, ntr-un moment suprem necesar
pentru literatura romn. Aceast de(s)prindere formidabil, att de bine susinut sub raportul
studiilor de specialitate publicate, l-a propulsat ntr-o manier incontestabil, cu att mai mult,
cu ct i-a asumat riscul de a se fi adresat i de a-i fi folosit penelul exigent n folosul
scriitorilor n via, mai mult, a celor aflai la nceput de drum. Ca formaie intelectual i ca
profil specializat se ndeprteaz n mod voit de Maiorescu, cruia trziu i-a druit un eseu
critic i la care apreciaz intransigena moral i apetitul polemic. Alexandru George
consider c nu era strin de istorismul i determinismul lui Taine i c de la Brunetiere a
adoptat viziunea literaturii ca o evoluie a genurilor. ndeprtarea de Maiorescu este pstrat
n toate aspectele, inclusiv n maniera de lucru cu colaboratorii. De comparat numai atmosfera
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familial din snul Junimii i consecvena susinerii publicaiilor din Convorbiri literare, cu
tratamentul rece i inconsecvent de la ,,Sburtorul al unor Blaga, Bengescu, Rebreanu. i
totui, unde i de ce s-a pierdut Lovinescu, prin firea-i imposibil i lipsa de diplomaie, cnd
destinul i-a surs de la nceput?! Cum de a ajuns s-i fac dumani att de puternici, precum
Ibrileanu i Iorga, costndu-l, ulterior, o catedr meritat la o universitate ori un dureros
refuz la Academie?! Public n 1906 o carte de excepie, una dintre cele mai reuite din
domeniul critic din peisajul romnesc, Pai pe nisip. Se impune ca un scriitor sigur i
rectiliniu n aprecieri, cu att mai mult cu ct analizeaz obiectiv nume ale timpului, precum
t. O. Iosif, Goga, Sadoveanu, Agrbiceanu, Grleanu, Sandu-Aldea, Elena Farago, material
de studiu pentru viitoarea artilerie antismntorist. Un observator atent al lui Iorga, cruia
acum nu-i displace criticul, un simpatizant al lui Sadoveanu, Lovinescu experimenteaz
estetic ntr-o not elegant i detaat, pe care a pierdut-o odat cu anii maturitii, cnd a
nlocuit-o cu nerv i superioritate. Cumpnire, toleran, spirit discriminator, justa
determinare a valorilor, acestea sunt calitile pe care le propune Lovinescu, spune George,
iar eu constat, tot sub raport psihologic, schimbarea de registru a criticului, n perioadele de
nceput ale celor dou rzboaie mondiale 1918 i 1940. Revenind la Pai pe nisip, se
remarc o punere a valorilor n locul meritat, graie unui gust desvrit i a unei intuiii
ireproabile. Sunt desprii, pe rnd, Sadoveanu de Vasile Pop, I. Brseanu de BrtescuVoineti, sunt evideniate meritele lui Goga sau Iosif, n detrimentul lui Agrbiceanu sau
Beldiceanu. Se consolideaz, astfel, un tip de critic analitic, nou i binevenit n epoc,
amintind de cea sociologic a lui Gherea, care, pn la un punct, l va fi ncurcat pe
Lovinescu n abordrile ulterioare, contribuind nefast la sporirea numrului inamicilor de
breasl.
Calitatea de observator, nu de teoretician, la nceput, este reiterat odat cu aanumitul proces intentat smntorismului. Din dorina de a atrage atenia asupra unor derapaje
naionale, n detrimentul unui progres european, Lovinescu constat simplismul unor formule
literare smntoriste, dulcegriile nepermise din unele texte, sentimentalismul neavenit din
altele. Mai mult, atrage atenia asupra improprietii termenului, desemantizat deseori sau
nlocuit greit, sinonimic, cu poporanism ori rnism, greeal cruia i va fi czut victim
nsui Duiliu Zamfirescu puternic aprtor al conceptelor nfierate de Lovinescu. Atitudinea
modernistului rmne neschimbat, de-a lungul anilor, mai mult, constatnd din ce n ce mai
vehement lipsa de valoare a literaturii smntoriste, gsete un bun prilej de a se rzbuna pe
cine nu merit, incluznd n aceast categorie scriitori precum Ionel Teodoreanu, Jean Bart
sau chiar Liviu Rebreanu. Exagerat sau nu, criticul intransigent s-a impus prin opiniile sale
ferme i a deschis calea adevratei mari literaturi, aa cum au consemnat obiectiv i alte nume
mari, de-ar fi s-l numim aici numai pe George Clinescu.
Eugen Lovinescu i-a mai asigurat un pionierat, constat indirect Alexandru George,
prin publicarea unor monogafii competente ale unor scriitori consacrai: Grigore
Alexandrescu, Costache Negruzzi, Gheorge Asachi. Dei vor mai fi fost ncercri
Ibrileanu, Bogdan-Duic sau Scurtu, nimeni nu reuete s dubleze observaia acut de un
spirit valorizator autentic. Interesante sunt i alegerile fcute, mai ales c eram nvai s
citim numai despre contemporanii scriitorului. Scopul a scuzat mijloacele, n sensul c cele
trei studii se vor fi dorit coninutul unui curs susinut la Iai. Este un tip de rspuns la ce s-ar fi
ntmplat dac Lovinescu primea numirea la Catedra pe care a ocupat-o aproape fraudulos
Ibrileanu. Altfel spus, ct i ce ar fi scris, pentru c au avut grij alii mai crcotai s l
judece n diferite ipostaze i s decid, n locul tuturor, c poate nu ar fi fost tocmai un dascl
ideal... Aadar, ceea ce explic succesul monografiilor (i nu numai), tot ca o abordare unic,
dei costisitoare sub raportul muncii i al timpului, este documentarea amnunit i,conform
George, pasiunea pentru disputa n jurul datelor i materialului istoriografic. Justificare
concret pentru Revizuiri, la propriu i la figurat, pe de o parte prin publicarea unor volume cu
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acest titlu n 1916 i 1920, iar pe de alt parte, pentru meninerea obiceiului i pentru
reactivarea acestei practici mult mai trziu, n Memoriile din 1940. Dac n prim instan
revizuiete scriitori precum Maiorescu, Gherea, Caragiale, Vlahu, Galaction sau
Macedonski, constatnd, de pild, supraevaluarea n epoc a ultimilor doi, n pragul Celui
de-al doilea Rzboi Mondial ,,reuete s se dezic, s schimbe registre ntregi, cu grei
precum Rebreanu ori Barbu, ca s nu mai vorbim de Camil Petrescu, ntr-o manier decisiv
i total diferit de comportamnetul su cotidian, n proximitatea celor ,,desfiinai.
i, totui, s-a spus despre Lovinescu faptul c s-ar fi ncadrat facil n grupul celor care
nu i-au privit publicul de sus, ci ar fi fost numai foarte bine sistematizai n gndire i, aa
cum observ Alexandru George, avnd o critic ntemeiat pe gust i pe impresie. Un spirit i
un stil foiletonist, sintagm care l recomand drept un urma mndru al francezilor
J. Lematre, Gourmont, Anatole France ori Faguet. Continund n aceeai not, stilul lui
Lovinescu are particularitatea unic de a vrea s plac i de a-i permite estetului su a
ntreprinde totul pentru a captiva, pentru a trece, pur i simplu, drept frumos. O antilecie de
care s-a folosit mai trziu Camil Petrescu, prin anticalofilismul cultivat, n parte i ca un
rspuns abscons dat lui Lovinescu. Este i dovada din primele dou volume ale Criticelor,
cnd, noteaz George, atunci abia putem descoperi n scrisul su ...elemente care par a face
din el un simplu joc literar... Tipul acesta de critic plcut cititorului este datorat tot
modelelor recunoscute: critica e poate cel mai subiectiv dintre toate genurile literare, e o
perpetu confesiune... (Remy de Gourmont).
n linia acelorai premiere din viaa profesional, Eugen Lovinescu se bucur a fi fost
ales de ctre editorul S. Benvenisti conductorul revistei Sburtorul, avnd o apariie
sptmnal i nregistrndu-i botezul la 19 aprilie 1919. Criticul i amintete cu real
plcere (n Memorii) c a fost preferat lui Rebreanu sau Minulescu, din motive subiective ale
celui care a decis i care i-au oferit o ans nesperat criticului aflat n plin maturitate
creatoare. Tentaia noastr de a reinventa spiritul junimist este fr limite, fapt ce se confirm
strict sub aspectul deciziei de a se nfiina i un cenaclu/cerc cu acelai nume i avnd,
teoretic, aceleai obiective precum cele trasate de Maiorecu.Termenul ,,cenaclu a fost
catalogat drept religios, prin factura sa, devenind preferat cel de al doilea, care, cel puin
etimologic, tinde spre perfeciune. Titulatura sa pare s fi fost aleas de Minulescu, dar nu i-a
displcut celui care a ales s o reprezinte. Este greu de spus i nedrept de judecat dac revista
a vut sau nu succes. Scepticii au invocat perioada foarte scurt de apariie, de trei ani, cu o
revenire de un an, n 1926. Disciplina i seriozitatea impuse de critic nu au inut loc
inconsecvenei i lipsei de unitate a cercului. Spre deosebire de tiparul junimitilor, nu se
poate vorbi despre sburtoriti, remarc George, pentru c nimeni nu ader concret la o
doctrin de tip lovinescian. Sunt puini i cei care vor comenta din culise raporturile exercitate
ntre membrii aprui de-a lungul timpului i l putem numi pe Vianu ca lund rolul unui Gh.
Panu de altdat. Amprenta cenaclului nu este inimitabil i nici componena sa nu e
omogen, sub niciun raport, de vreme ce, spre final, era preponderent feminin. Nu e mai
puin adevrat c Lovinescu se va fi purtat mai elegant cu scriitoarele, mrturie fiind
aprecierile singulare venind din partea Hortensiei Papadat-Bengescu, n replic la constatrile
acide ale lui Rebreanu sau erban Cioculescu, cei care vedeau n gazd mai degrab un tiran
sau un sadic, prin limbaj i atitudine, pstrnd proporiile, atunci cnd trebuiau remarcate
deschis diferitele observaii critice. i de ce se va mai fi mirat conductorul revistei c, rnd
pe rnd, i pierdea toi prietenii, discipolii sau simplii simpatizani?! Nostalgic i, spre
surprinderea tuturor, declarndu-se conservator spre sfritul vieii, zic eu, niciodat
renunnd la statutul clasic al intelectualului, Lovinescu, privit n ansamblu, poate lsa
impresia unui mic geniu care s-a mai complcut s se joace cu cei care l-au suprat, nu l-au
neles, i-au fcut ru sau, pur i simplu, nu au avut rbdarea i spiritul civic de a-i nsui o
critic, orict de nefericit. Jocul cu gndurile sale nu au fost ns nicio clip o joac de-a
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critica, profesiunea de credin a scriitorulu nefiind niciodat luat n derdere ori speculat
strict n scopuri personale. Faptul c maestrul s-a revizuit permanent este o alt faet a
jocului, pe care nu oricine i-l permite, riscnd, dac e ignorant, s decad total. Oricum, nu
este un motiv de slbiciune sau de pltit polie trzii, n totalitate/exclusivitate. Un critic nu
este un dumnezeu i nici nu i sepoate cere s ating perfeciunea, pentru c a fi critic nu e o
meserie n sine pe care eti obligat s o respeci, ca pe o fi de post, ci este un dat, poate un
har, de care te poi bucura sau cu care, a se revedea Lovinescu, poi jongla. Aa mi explic i
omagiul adus lui Maiorescu, de care s-a tot ndeprtat n timpul vieii, cu care a tot fost
comparat, i n defavoarea sa, act semnat n acelai important an 1940 (cnd am consemnat i
discutatele Memorii). Noutatea crii lui Lovinescu nu const n aceea c ofer o imagine
nou a figurii lui Maiorescu, ci n faptul c izbutete s constituie cu luciditate critic aceast
figur... Analiza e att de exact i de minuioas, iar organizarea materialului att de bine
cumpnit, nct datele oferite n aceast monografie pot fi folosite deopotriv de un
admirator sau de un detractor al lui Maiorescu.
Apariia unei reviste este raportat permanent la un context social i are calitatea unui
eveniment istoeic, cel puin pentru conductorii ei. Backgroundul unei reviste subzist prin
cei care o promoveaz, o susin, dar mai ales prin cei care public, n mod constant, dar i
periodic. Spre deosebire de alte apariii din epoc, dar oarecum prelund modelul
Convorbirilor literare, Sburtorul se adresa celor ce doreau s vin, s se afirme, iar
caracterul ei era exclusiv literar. Prin comparaie cu Flacra, de pild, care devenise un
magazin cultural i care ajunsese s se vnd n tiraje impresionante, ea nu a reuit s capteze
atenia multora, dei, despre primele numere se vorbea totdeauna ca despre o epuizare sperat,
dar neateptat. Poate fi considerat un eec existena ei de trei ani i revenirea dup apte ani,
numai pentru un alt an. Lipsa fondurilor i a binevoitorilor care s acopere pagubele au
condus ctre un final trist, pe care majoritatea publicaiilor l triesc, n condiii de pia
similare. Totui, despre Sburtorul se vorbete, iat, i dup o sut de ani. Prin munca celor
implicai, a adus la lumin n paginile sale, n manier inedit, nume grele, precum Ion Barbu,
Camil Petrescu, Gh. Brescu sau Camil Baltazar. Apoi, i-a aezat valoric pe alii, care, dei
debutaser aiurea, au fost cunoscui cu adevrat, cu aceast ocazie: Hortensia PapadatBengescu, Liviu Rebreanu, Tudor Vianu. A doua sa etap a propulsat critici de mare valoare,
aa cum s-au impus George Clinescu, Vladimir Streinu, Pompiliu Constantinescu, F. Aderca
sau Anton Holban. Exigena mentorului lor, dei dublat nefericit de reacii personale
reprobabile, a contribuit decisiv la impunerea unei inute nalte a paginilor tiprite.
Succesul aa-numitului cenaclu va fi influenat att existena publicaiei, ct i
renumele su ulterior. Coincidena cu demersul lui Maiorescu este evident, cel care a
asigurat pionieratul practicii de acest tip, nfiinnd pe lng cenaclul Junimea, revista
Convorbiri... Dei Lovinescu a lsat impresia c se ndeprteaz de celebrul su nainta,
comparaia nu i-a displcut niciodat, iar vizitele sale sporadice la Junimea, n ultimii ani ai
acesteia, pot explica rvna sa de a se impune, cel puin n aceeai msur. Este cert faptul c
viaa unei reviste este direct proporional mai ales cu demersurile conductorului ei. Profilul
intelectual clasic al lui Lovinescu putea s prevad o existen de tip maiorescian a ntregului
proces. Ceea ce nu putea fi luat n calcul, era modul apropae vanitos pe care l-a instaurat
criticul, dominaia inexplicabil, ironia dus i mai departe de coninutul paginilor i un tip de
arogan neneleas, aproape tangent cu jocul perfid, uneori, care i-a atras dumani, l-a pus
n situaia de a-i pierde vechi prieteni i, implicit, a condus inevitabil spre nchiderea revistei.
Din omul profund recunosctor, cruia i-a asigurat debutul, Camil Petrescu a devenit cel mai
nverunat critic al lui Lovinescu, publicnd acerb i convingtor, mpotriva sa, ca s nu spun
imperturbabil. Victor Eftimiu, D. Nanu sau Cincinat Pavelescu au disprut definitiv din viaa
criticului, iar Liviu Rebreanu a reacionat ntocmai precum Petrescu, fr a pstra, ns, verva
primului. Ceea ce i se reproa lui Lovinescu era plcerea subordonrii i obiceiul de a
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desfiina pe cineva critic, neavizat, dup ce mprtiser clipe de prietenie nedisimulat,

aparent. Comparaia cu Maiorescu revine, dar exclusiv n defavoarea modernistului, care s-a
situat la antipozi, din punctul de vedere al crerii unei relaii personale civilizate cu cei pe care
i-a propulsat. Altminteri, sub aspectul tiinific al metodei, cu siguran c roadele s-au vzut;
este imposibil ca toi cei care au trecut pe la Sburtorul, revist ori cerc literar, s nu fi fost
nruii de sfaturile maestrului. Dei nu se poate vorbi despre surtoriti, dup modelul
junimitilor, subiectiv sau nu, se observ prezena constant a unor scriitori. Este cazul unic al
Hortensiei Papadat-Bengescu, care nu a avut parte de ironiile ucigtoare ale criticului i, aa
cum observau confraii, nici nu a suportat intervenii pe text. De cealalt parte se situeaz
tinerii care i asumau subodonarea lovinescian, un gest deloc n favoarea lor, de vreme ce
mentorul contientiza faptul i l adncea, la nivel psihologic. Tudor Vianu creeaz o palid
memorialistic a timpului, el nsui atins sau influenat n formarea sa, de critic, amintind de
placidele sau inutilele ntlniri duminicale de la cenaclu (termenul a fost respins, ns, ca fiind
de factur religioas, preferndu-se cel de cerc). Constat i prezena unor scriitori total lipsii
de talent, crora orgoliul criticului le oferea suficient timp, spre disperarea altora, obligai s
asculte fade i interminabile pseudoscriituri. Interesant este faptul c Lovinescu a
contientizat toate urmrile actelor sale i, aa cum descoperim n Memorii, a regretat reacia
general auster, fr, totui, a ncerca a o nelege. Ceea ce i se poate reproa revistei este
lipsa de omogenitate sub aspectul participrii constante, dei, sub raport valoric i diversitate
tematic, ea a fost asigurat. Sburtorul are, ns, meritul suprem de a se fi impus ntr-o epoc
extrem de confuz, pitoreasc sub aspectul direciilor literare promovate, luptndu-se
deopotriv cu smntoritii, tradiionalitii i avangarditii, cu Viaa romneasc ori
Contimporanul, prelund chiar, ca suprem realizare, n paginile lui, scriitori mari, care ar fi
mbriat, la nceput, celelalte orientri. Apoi, este singura revist critic din epoc,
asumndu-i riscuri, fiind eminamente literar, dar publicnd texte cu adevrat valoroase i
lansnd, ntr-un rstimp scurt, nume care au intrat definitiv n istoria literaturii romne. Iar
dac directorul su era la apogeul formrii sale profesionale, nu putem ignora spusele lui
Mihail Sebastian, dererminat polemic s considere c Sburtorul l-a fcut pe Lovinescu, nu
Lovinescu a fcut Sburtorul, referindu-se, implicit, i la cercul literar omonim. O alt
particularitate (greu de spus dac s-a constituit n avantaj ori dezavantaj) a fost scindarea
generaiilor, fenomen absolut datorat hazardului. Aproape simultan au aprut Blaga i Barbu.
S-au maturizat personalitile poeilor Pillat, Adrian Maniu sau I. Vinea i, n mod nefericit,
au disprut fizic Iosif, Cerna, D. Anghel sau Emil Grleanu. Toate aceste micri au influenat
caracterul cercului i existena revistei. Altminteri, infuzia de tineree, pe care de altfel o dorea
i o atrgea Lovinescu, categoric a modelat spiritul publicaiei i, cu siguran, s-a constituit n
material documentar pentru critic. Dei revista nu a avut un program propriu-zis, i-a afirmat
unul pe msur, odat cu trecerea timpului, cu fiecare nou numr. Apoi, n anii grei de dup
rzboi, a propus rubrici inedite i curajoase, cum au fost Anticipaiile literare, n contextul
larg al unei critici caracterizate printr-o insistent analiz, dovedind vocaia maestrului, nu
simpla implicare detaat.
n fine, ca s-l citm pe Alexandru George, ,,Sburtorul reprezint... prima revist care
se face ecoul marei mutaii intervenite n literatura timpului..., printr-o aciune pozitiv de
impunere a unor talente specifice altei epoci istorice.
Bibliografie
George, Alexandru, n jurul lui E. Lovinescu, Editura Cartea Romneasc, 1975,
Bucureti.
Vianu, Tudor, Opere, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1973.
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FORMS OF TRANSTEXTUALITY IN IOAN PETRU CULIANUS LITERATURE

Adriana Dana LISTES POP
Babes-Bolyai University of Cluj-Napoca
Abstract: The concept of transtextuality1 also called textual transcendence was coined by
Gerard Genette, term being defined as a transcendental category which sets the text in a
relationship, whether obvious or concealed, with other texts2. Genette identifies five
categories of transtextual relations, the first consisting in the concept of intertextuality coined
by Julia Kristeva, explained by Genette as a condition of presence of a specific text within
another text, a relationship of co-presence between two texts or among several texts: that is
to say, eidetically and tipically as the actual presence of one text within another 3. Among the
forms of transtextuality, in his literary works, Ioan Petru Culianu used mostly paratextuality
and intertextuality, using paratextual elements to create the effect of authenticity and
plausibility, control communication with the reader, and the way she or he perceives the
meaning of the text.
Keywords: transtextuality, textual transcendence, intertextuality, paratexts, border incidents
Julia Kristeva defines intertextuality related to the Bakhtinian understanding of the

text as being constructed as a mosaic of quotations; any text is the absorption and
transformation of another4, the function of inter-textuality being equated by Kristeva with the
permutation capability of the texts, given that within a text space several statements taken
from other texts cross and neutralize each other5. The phenomenon of textual interaction
triggered in a text is determined by the ideologeme6, defined by Kristeva as an intertextual
By architextuality I mean the entire set of general or transcendent categories types of discourse, modes of
enunciation, literary genres from which emerges each singular text. Today I prefer to say, more sweeplingly,
that subject of poetics is transtextuality, or the textual transcendence of the text, which I have already defined
roughly as all that sets the text in a relationship, whether obvious or concealed, with other texts.
Transtextuality then goes beyond, and at the same time subsumes, architextuality, along with some other types of
transtextual relationships, Gerard Genette, Palimpsests: Literature in the Second Degree translated by Channa
Newman and Claude Doubinsky, University of Nebraska Press, 1997, p. 1.
2
Ibid.
3
The first type was explored some years ago by Julia Kristeva, under the name of intertextuality, and that term
obviously provides us with our terminological paradigm. For my part I define it, no doubt in a more restrictive
sense, as a relationship of co-presence between two texts or among several texts: that is to say, eidetically and
tipically as the actual presence of one text within another. In its most explicit and literal form, it is the traditional
practice of quoting (with quotation marks, with or without specific reference), Ibid., pp. 1-2.
4
mosaic of quotations, Julia Kristeva, The Julia Kristeva Reader, edited by Toril Moi, in English translations
of Leon S. Roudiez by Columbia University Press and Sean Hand by Basil Blackwell Ltd., New York, Columbia
University Press, 1986, p. 37.
1
[tr.n.] Julia Kristeva, Problemele structurrii textului, n R. Barthes, J.L. Baudry, J. Derrida, J.J. Goux, J.L.
Houdebine, J. Kristeva, M. Pleynet, J. Ricardou, J. Risset, Ph. Sollers, Tz. Todorov, Pentru o teorie a textului.
Antologie Tel Quel 1960-1971, Bucureti, Univers, introducere, antologie i traducere Adriana Babei i Delia
epeean-Vasiliu, 1980, pp. 250-272.
5
Vom numi ideologem funcia comun care leag o structur concret (s spunem, romanul) de alte structuri
(discursul tiinei, de pild) ntr-un spaiu intertextual. Ideologemul n text se va defini prin raporturile sale cu
celelalte texte. Astfel, vom spune c intersectarea unei organizri textuale (o practic semiotic) dat cu
enunurile (secvenele) pe care ea le asimileaz n propriul spaiu, sau la care trimite n spaiul textelor (practici
semiotice) exterioare, se va numi ideologem. Ideologemul este acea funcie intertextual care poate fi citit
6
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function7 connecting textual structures, setting them in the social context through its
historical and social characteristics. In Roland Barthes's view, the origin of the concept of
intertextuality derives from textile weaving, being related to the appearance of textile fabric8
whose threads are combined as the words are articulated in various quotes, produced in
different cultural and temporal dimensions, and fixed in a new textual framework. In this
formula, each text is a variant of another texts which usually are anonymous, untraceable, and
by now read, being quotations without inverted commas9. The textual fabric is
demoniacal10 because of its plurality, its lineage being unlikely to be traced, unlike opera,
where possible, as being dominated and controlled by the signatory, enclosed in a clear static
structure, while the text is alive, dynamic, continuously articulating new meanings activated
by the readers perception.
In Roland Barthes view, the text is a network11, a woven fabric that extends to
infinity by combinatory systematic12 where the author's paternal position of the text changes
with that of the paper-author13, the writer receiving a paper identity, perspective shared by
Ioan Petru Culianu in the story titled The Cardboard Horses Mane14. Barthes views the text
as a tissue of quotations15, the author's merit in the creative process thus being the weaving
of the threads, his power consisting in the combination of these quotes in a new form: His
only power is to mix writings, to counter the ones with the others, in such a way as never to
rest on any one of them16. The text is composed of multiple writings17 written in different
cultural contexts that dialogue with each other, rivalling or contesting each other, activated
materializat la diferitele niveluri ale structurii fiecrui text i care se ntinde de-a lungul traiectului su,
conferindu-i coordonatele istorice i sociale, Ibid., p. 268.
7
Ibid.
8
The plural of the Text depends, that is, not on the ambiguity of its contents but on what might be called the
stereographic plurality of its weave of signifiers (etymologically, the text is a tissue, a woven fabric), Roland
Barthes, Image, Music, Text translated in English by Stephen Heath, London, Fontana Press, Harper Collins
Publishers, 1977, p. 159.
9
Ibid., p. 160.
10
Ibid.
11
the metaphor of the Text is that of the network; if the Text extends itself, it is as a result of a combinatory
systematic (an image, moreover, close to current biological conceptions of the living being), Ibid., p. 161.
12
Ibid.
13
He becomes, as it were, a paper-author: his life is no longer the origin of his fictions but a fiction contributing
to his work; there is a reversion of the work on to the life (and no longer the contrary); it is the work of Proust, of
Genet which allows their lives to be read as a text, he received a paper identity disseminated in his creation, his
life became part of the fiction, Ibid.
Running along with its cardboard owner, the papers stretch themselves distancing their heads. They never
stretch too much, because the horse does not run too hard. Sometimes they tear each other or fail snapping in
weaker places waving in the air or going down then in the gliding flight [tr.n.] originally Fugind mpreun cu
posesorul ei de carton, hrtiile se ntind deprtndu-i capetele unul de altul. Nu se ntind niciodat prea tare,
fiindc nici calul nu fuge prea tare. Cteodat se sfie ntre ele sau cedeaz cu un pocnet n locurile mai slabe,
fluturnd puin prin aer sau cobornd apoi n zbor planat, Ioan Petru Culianu, Arta fugii. Povestiri. Cu cinci
desene ale autorului, prefa de Dan C. Mihilescu, Iai, Polirom, Biblioteca Ioan Petru Culianu, 2002, p. 69.
14
15
Roland Barthes, op. cit., p. 161.
His only power is to mix writings, to counter the ones with the others, in such a way as never to rest on any
one of them, Ibid.
17
Thus is revealed the total existence of writing: a text is made of multiple writings, drawn from many cultures
and entering into mutual relations of dialogue, parody, contestation, but there is tane place where this
multiplicity is focused and that place is the reader, not, as was hitherto said, the author, Ibid., p. 148.
16
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into a special space, the mind of the recipient, the reader18. The text as a world and the world
as text19 has no obligation to bear the ultimate meaning, mysterious, thus revolting against its
primary, divine meaning and its social forms. This process of combining ends with the
weakening of the authors presence in the almost paternal relationship with the book, ceasing
to be a simple string of words carrying a one-way meaning, turning into a multi-dimensional
space20 containing other texts that blend and clash21.
In Ioan Petru Culianus writings one can find a similar view in the concepts of
intertextuality and mental multidimensionality expressed through the puzzles metaphor
which reshapes itself, through endless variations. The concept of intertextuality is defined by
Culianu as a phenomenon of cognitive transmission or mental convergence, understood as a
process of interaction of human minds22 that takes place beyond space and time,
intertextuality being a mental phenomenon which refers to texts sometimes written but
most often unwritten23. The concept of mental space reflects the multidimensionality of the
human mind and its openness to infinity, Culianu considering that our mental space which is
infinite24 is amazing through its ability to overcome the three-dimensional perception.
For Roland Barthes, the key to access the meaning of the text is held by the reader, the
textual message receiver, not the writer, as it may seem, the reader being a state of collective
anonymity, a mute, uncertain entity, endowed with the power of combining textual threads
and decide its meaning. Thus, in Barthes's view, the reader becomes the Supreme Court,
uncontrollable, lacking identity, the supremacy of the author being replaced by the supremacy
of the reader, because the birth of the reader must be at the cost of the death of the Author25.
Graham Allen describes the process of interpretation as an activity of extracting meaning
from texts26, meanings that are never independent, but are connected to each other by
introducing the reader into a network of textual relations27. The process of discovering the
The reader is the space on which all the quotations that make up a writing are inscribed without any of them
being lost; a texts unity lies not in its origin but in its destination, Ibid.
19
Ibid, p. 147.
20
We know now that a text is not a line of words releasing a single 'theological' meaning (the 'message' of the
Author-God) but a multi-dimensional space in which a variety of writings, none of them original, blend and
clash, Ibid.
21
Ibid.
22
Intertextualitate nseamn transmitere, ntr-un mod foarte complex. Toate experienele precedente par s fie
convergente i s influeneze profund ceea ce considerm a fi o experien nou, proaspt. Aceast convergen
se produce ndeosebi sub pragul contiinei i presupune o sintez mental a mai multor elemente, o prelucrare
activ a noului eveniment, care nu este o simpl repetare a ceva din trecut, Ioan Petru Culianu, Cltorii n
lumea de dincolo, traducere din limba englez de Gabriela i Andrei Oiteanu, prefa i note de Andrei
Oiteanu, cuvnt nainte de Lawrence E. Sullivan (n romnete de Sorin Antohi), ediia a III-a, Iai, Polirom,
Biblioteca Ioan Petru Culianu, 2007, pp. 46-47.
23
Ibid., p. 50.
24
Ibid., p. 43.
25
Roland Barthes, Image, music, text, op. cit., p. 148.
26
Literary texts possess meaning; readers extract that meaning from them. We call the process of extracting
meaning from texts reading or interpretation. Despite their apparent obviousness, such ideas have been radically
challenged in contemporary literary and cultural theory. Works of literature, after all, are built from systems,
codes and traditions established by previous works of literature. The systems, codes and traditions of other art
forms and of culture in general are also crucial to the meaning of a work of literature. Texts, whether they be
literary or non-literary, are viewed by modern theorists as lacking in any kind of independent meaning. They are
what theorists now call intertextual, Allen Graham, Intertextuality, London and New York, Routledge, 2000, p.
1.
18
To interpret a text, to discover its meaning, or meanings, is to trace those relations. Reading thus becomes a
process of moving between texts. Meaning becomes something which exists between a text and all the other
texts to which it refers and relates, moving out from the independent text into a network of textual relations. The
text becomes the intertext, Ibid.
27
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meaning consists in tracing these specific textual relations through a versatile intertextual
movement, so that the text turns into an intertext. Graham is convinced that intertextuality is a
key concept in literary and cultural context, a crucial element28, the literary work being
perceived as an area of directing relations with other literary works, escaping from the
writers control, extending in a multidimensional way, thus the author being reduced to the
position of a compiler29.
The second form of transtextuality is the paratext representing all the information
outside the narrative body of the book, starting with the title, preface, notes, and illustrations.
The third type of transtextuality is metatextuality consisting of forms of critical commentaries
connecting two texts, while the fourth form of transtextuality is hypetextuality defined as any
relationship uniting text B (which I shall call the hypertext) to an earlier text A ( I shall, of
course, call it the hypotext), upon which it is grafted in a manner that is not that of
commentary30. In this context, Genette introduces the concept of a text in the second
degree31 representing a text derived from another preexistent text32. A text can become
hypertext through a transformation technique, the analyst exemplifying this process with
Aeneid and novel Ulysses, which in his view, seem to come from the epic Odyssey through
various transformation processes, one called transformation, and the other imitation. The fifth
form of transtextuality is called architextuality, described as the most abstract of them,
representing the subcategory of the literary genre.
Among the forms of transtextuality, in his literary works, Ioan Petru Culianu used
mostly paratextuality and intertextuality, through the paratextual elements, Culianu intending
to create the effect of authenticity and plausibility and control the communication with the
reader, the way he or she perceives the meaning of the text. In the study titled Paratext.
Thresholds of Interpretation, Gerard Genette divides the literary paratext into two categories,
the internal paratextuality called the peritext and the external one which he called the epitext.
The epitext represents the historical context of the book, the public epitext being addressed by
the author to the public audience, the private epitext having a personal objective being
intended primarily for authorial use, consisting of correspondence, diaries, memoirs,
manuscripts, interviews and records. Among peritextual forms, Genette mentions prefaces,
notes, afterwords, while the private and public epitext include diaries, memoirs, unfinished
manuscripts, interviews, recordings, and translations made by the author, along with
illustrations. Thus Culianu, together with his collaborator, uses the technique of simulating a
fictional preface and a form of autofiction in the series of short stories titled The Diaphanous
Parchment. The Last Stories as well as in and in the novel The Emerald Game. In the novel
Tozgrec published after the writers death representing a collection of private posthumous
epitexts, consisting of unfinished manuscripts elaborated on the on the same topic, Culianu
uses the technique of the fictitious notes33, imaginary bibliography and fictional press files.
28
29
Ibid.
Compiler or arranger of pre-existent possibilities within the language system, Ibid., p. 14.
any relationship uniting text B (which I shall call the hypertext) to an earlier text A ( I shall, of course, call it
the hypotext), upon which it is grafted in a manner that is not that of commentary, Gerard Genette, Palimpsests:
Literature in the Second Degree translated by Channa Newman and Claude Doubinsky, University of Nebraska
Press, 1997, p. 5.
31
Ibid.
32
Ibid.
33
A note is a statement of variable length (one word is enough) connected to a more or less definite segment of
text and either placed opposite or keyed to this segment, Gerard Genette, Paratexts. Thresholds of
interpretation, translated by Jane E. Lewin, foreword by Richard Macksey, New York, Cambridge University
Press, 1997, 427 p. 319.
30
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The technique of fictive notes based on which the author reconstructs a fictitious document
claimed to be real but impossible to prove after the document would have subsequently
disappeared is present in the story titled The Conspiracy of the Indian Souls where the author
confesses that being hindered in the tracing of the document, reconstituted its contents on
reading notes: thirty years ago, I have taken down several pages of notes crammed into this
document, which I shall confine myself to transcribe here without adding anything:
That does not mean that Jung's theories on Indian soul that continues to live in the
modern American cannot find confirmation the only one, by the way, that I know - in a
rather confusing document, once available in one piece belonging to the Koninklijke
Bibliotheek in Hague which today have definitively disappeared: De samenzweering van den
zielen der Indianen (The Conspiracy of the Indian Souls). Vertaald uit het Spaansch in het
Nederlandsch door Samuel van Haeren (Translated from Spanish in Dutch by S. v. H.)
published in 1918 or a bit earlier by Drukkerij Shermoth, s-Gravenhage (Shemoth
Publishing House, Hague)34.
In the same story, Culianu uses the quotation technique aiming to confer philological
appearance and plausibility to the text by disseminating quotes within the textual structure,
instructing readers on diverse graphics in order to be able to differentiate them, stating that
My notes retain plenty of quotes from the original story. In most cases, I have made them
apparent by thickening characters35. Being a form of autofiction or a simulation of a
biography placed in a fictional preface, the introduction of the puzzle-novel The Diaphanous
Parchment adds biographical value to the narrative structure trying to feed factual elements to
the fiction, thus creating a strong effect of paratextuality and intertextuality. The first text
entitled Foreword includes confidences made by the main character, the young emigrant who
left Jormania state in 1972, presently working as a journalist in the city of H. In the same text,
the author cites repeatedly and insistently up to three times on the same page the article titled
The Zorabs Intervention in Jormania, published in Asmodeus journal, creating the impression
of intratextuality in his own work, highlighting the importance of journalism in this context,
therefore transforming the text into an intertext. The journalist who signed the stories
published in Asmodeus bears the pseudonym Jules Bilstik and was apparently involved in a
series of attempts to restore a democratic regime in Jormania state after the flowers
revolution. One can notice that Culianu resorts to various paratextual strategies to provide
factuality to his fictions introducing the journalist character considered by Genette the author
of typical factual texts defined as forms of factual stories such as the reportage or the press
investigation (what was called in the United States The New Journalism) and other derived
texts such as Non Fiction Novels36.
After the journalist receives from professor H. a manuscript, a collection of quotations,
which contains a series of fictions perceived as a grave confession that although has the
appearance of a collage of disparate entities that functions like a puzzle, is held together by
the variable reading order key37. Attending the exhibition reuniting the collection of
nineteen emeralds that belongs to the same teacher, the journalist gets overwhelmed by the
infinite memory caused by the emeralds emanations and loses his identity. The character
Ioan Petru Culianu, Pergamentul diafan. Ultimele povestiri. Scrise n colaborare cu H.S. Wiesner, traduceri de
Mihaela Gliga, Mihai Moroiu, Dan Petrescu, postfa de Dan Silviu Boerescu, Bucureti, Nemira, Opere
complete, 1996, p. 74.
35
Ibid.
36
Gerard Genette, Introducere n arhitext. Ficiune i diciune, traducere i prefa de Ion Pop, Bucureti,
Univers, 1994, p. 157.
37
Ioan Petru Culianu, Pergamentul diafan. Ultimele povestiri. Scrise n colaborare cu H.S. Wiesner, op. cit., p.
7.
34
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status was similar to a stroll in a material database, an archive: It was as if I had walked
through a warehouse, virtually infinite, where everything that had ever happened in all worlds
was accessible38, where perception is objectified, annulling the existence of any court39.
Following the critical situation experienced on the borderline between dimensions, the
character is found in an abstract form in the role of an ambassador accused of stealing a
piece of the collection, detained and searched by police for half an hour. It is obvious that in
The Diaphanous Parchment, Culianu introduces what Julia Kristeva calls a difficult situation
of a man on the threshold40, a characteristic Socratic dialogue feature, included by Kristeva
among dialogical narrative genres. Originally a form of memoir, the Socratic dialogue is
structured as a form of dialogue cast in a narrative framework, whose aim was gaining the
knowledge of the truth through dialogue and debate. The Socratic dialogue is considering a
legal process and even pending death of the writer, so the emphasis, in this case, is on facing
death through discourse or speech because speech is man and his activity41. In Julia
Kristevas view, the Socratic discourse uttered on the threshold gave way to other forms of
dialogic discourse, all originating in the carnivalesque folklore forms, the carnivalesque genre
being defined by Kristeva as a pavement of citations42, genre that includes short stories
assembled with the purpose to distance the authors own writing from the others' texts.
In the essay titled The Narrative Fractals43, Simona Sora considers that the collection
of short stories gathered in The Diaphanous Parchment fall into the category of the puzzle
novel. Gabriela Gavriel calls The Diaphanous Parchment a transgender novel44 which
creates the appearance of a collection of disparate texts through an illusionary surface
fragmentation45 annulled by the artifice of the found manuscript 46 and the central themes
around which the textual material coagulates. Gabriela Gabriel highlights the Urmuzian
valence of the texts due to the presence of the scribe characters meant to record events
objectively by resisting the temptation to double the reality 47 and take over the role of the
Great Creator in the secret order of the system48, where the lives of the people become
simple books subjected to the laws of paper in the realitys warehouse of information
understood as a corporate story49.
Gerard Genette calls the paratext a threshold50 or an edge51, defining it as an
accessory of the text52 consisting essentially of a discourse built on another discourse. The
38
Ibid,. p. 10.
Ibid,.
40
Julia Kristeva, The Julia Kristeva Reader, edited by Toril Moi, in English translations of Leon S. Roudiez by
Columbia University Press and Sean Hand by Basil Blackwell Ltd., New York, Columbia University Press,
1986, p. 51.
41
Ibid.
42
It is an all-inclusive genre, put together as a pavement of citations. It includes all genres (short stories, letters,
speeches, mixtures of verse and prose) whose structural signification is to denote the writers distance from his
own and other texts, Ibid., p. 53.
43
La o ncadrare ntr-un gen artistic, putem numi Pergamentul diafan o succesiune de proze scurte cu subiect
recurent, roman-puzzle (rompecabezas spun spaniolii) sau marginalii narative la o istorie sistemic a religiilor,
construite ntr-o lume paralel tocmai prin magia naraiunii, Simona Sora, Fractalii narativi, in Romnia
literar no. 24, 1993.
44
roman travestit, Gabriela Gavril, Jocurile maestrului Culianu, in Sorin Antohi, Ioan Petru Culianu. Omul
i opera, volum coordonat de Sorin Antohi, Iai, Polirom, Biblioteca Ioan Petru Culianu, p. 367.
45
Ibid.
46
Ibid.
47
Ibid.
48
Ibid.
49
Ioan Petru Culianu, Pergamentul diafan. Ultimele povestiri. Scrise n colaborare cu H.S. Wiesner, op. cit., p.
9.
50
Gerard Genette, Paratext. Thresholds of Interpretations, op. cit., p. 2.
51
Ibid.
39
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paratext is a heterogeneous mixture of various practices and discourses53 that converge in a

paratextual threshold which represent a transition zone of the text towards the status of the
book, so that the text, accompanied by the paratext, becomes a comprehensive package
presented to the reader in order to be read. This threshold spatially divides the inner part of
the text turned towards itself from the outside of the text, the context, aiming to pave the way
of the text, to influence and to orient the reader and her or his reading, ensuring that it is
properly received, according to the author's intention. In this regard, the novel Tozgrec
published after the authors death is a collection of posthumous paratextual elements,
consisting of unfinished manuscripts developed on the same topic which outline a polyphonic
narrative game particularly interesting.
Although published after Culianu's death, it belongs to his author-function54, as
Tozgrec, left unfinished, is published in 2010, in all its four variants used by the author over
time: Tozgrecs Gardens, Sid and Mekor, The Hermione Spider, and Tozgrec. According to
the editor Teresa Culianu-Petrescu, Tozgrec is a scriptural site55 that Ioan Petru Culianu
worked on between 1981-1984, the novel remaining unfinished, consisting of four different
work variants preserved in manuscript in Culianu familys archives. The author considered it
a fantastic novel which he himself structured it using a system of digital files stored in
reconfigurable components: Main Body, Fragments, Variants, Ideas & Reflections, and Final
Version. The novel is composed of four parts reordered by the editor into five chapters:
Tozgrecs Gardens, Sid and Mekor, The Hermione Spider, Tozgrec Followed by Press
Excerpts Regarding the Lombrosa Experiment and Addenda. According to the editor Teresa
Culianu-Petrescu, the manuscript contains around five hundred pages written in Romanian
and French on lined notebooks, notebooks with bow and separate sheets, the first part titled
Tozgrecs Gardens being written starting with 21st of August 1981 on a lined notebook of 39
pages. The second one, Sid and Mekor was taken down on three 36-page lined notebooks
entitled Tozgrec 1, specifying the dates on each notebook: 26th of May, 29th of May and 31st
of May 1982 that the editor renamed in order to avoid confusion. Part three, The Hermione
Spider was written on 171 separate sheets until 28th of August 1983 and the fourth part
entitled Tozgrec Followed by Press Excerpts Regarding the Lombrosa Experiment was
written in French on two notebooks with bow and cardboard covers, red and green, its
original title being Tozgrec suivi dextraits de presse concernant le LOMBROSA
EXPERIMENT.
These notebooks contain a total of 350 pages organized by combinatorial logic
between 8th of August and 12th of October 1984. Addenda gathers the first chapters of
Lombrosa Experiment and some of the texts the author titled Variants. The final part of the
novel titled Tozgrec Followed by Press Excerpts Regarding the Lombrosa Experiment is
constructed using the strategy of the fictional press file or unreal factual information
containing details about an experiment conducted by Professor Caspar Stolzius from
Lombrosa, California. The press file consists of a series of fictional documents56 in the form
of fictive news articles extracted from the newspapers Lombrosa Morning Star and Lombrosa
Shadow published over a period of thirty years. In the same novel, Culianu uses the concept
of imaginary bibliography57 named as such by Gerard Genette, bibliography consisting of
The paratext is only an assistant, only an accesory of the text, Ibid., p. 410.
practices and discourses of all kinds, Ibid., p. 2.
54
Michel Foucault, Ce este un autor? Studii i conferine, traducere de Bogdan Ghiu i Ciprian Mihali, cuvnt
nainte de Bogdan Ghiu, postfa de Corneliu Blb. Cluj-Napoca, Idea Design & Print, Panopticon, 2004.
55
Tereza Culianu-Petrescu, Cuvnt asupra ediiei, n Ioan Petru Culianu, Tozgrec, ediie ngrijit i traduceri
de Tereza Culianu-Petrescu, Iai, Polirom, Biblioteca Ioan Petru Culianu, 2010, p. 5.
56
57
imaginary bibliography, Ibid., p. 404.
52
53
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volumes written by the professor on onirology, including The Confessions of a Professional

Thief of Dreams, In the Shelter of Dreams, Dreams Controlled under Stressful Situation, and
The Treaty of Experimental and Applied Onirology. The novel contains paratextual elements
created by simulating a fictional preface, signed with initials IPC from The University of
Lombrosa, Southern California, dated November 7, 2011.
All this paratextual elements and strategies function as a gate opened to the reader in
order to catch a glimpse of the authors creative workshop, revealing the way he works and
the way his writing is constructed in time sequences. Some of the paratextual techniques
function as a series of border incidents58 explained by Genette as exchanges, loans or
contaminations between the factual and fictional register intended to disorient or mislead the
reader in the act of reading. In the novel titled The Emerald Game, the author uses two
different types of prefaces to convey the information to the reader, the first being the
disavowing authorial preface with the clear intent to fictively attribute the text to somebody
else that would justify the existence and biography of this third party, which then would grant
credibility to the story. The second preface is a fictive allographic preface 59 attributed to
Thomas Anglicus, an Englishman living in Oxfordshire in 1539, whose journal written in
Latin on a calf leather bound manuscript, previously stored in a Transylvanian library, was to
be surprisingly found in the airport luggage of the first preface author, four hundred years
later. The fictive allographic preface author confesses that his intention is to reveal a great
mystery, unsuspected, of some extraordinary times while in the disavowing authorial preface
the aim is to solve a four hundred years old enigma. In this respect, the disavowing preface
provides the reader with the information regarding the circumstances of acquisition 60 and
casts the text in a historical, unquestionable narrative framework. The authors61 of The
Emerald Game place the action in 1539 Florence of Lorenzo the Magnificent, the story being
told through the eyes of the British visitor Thomas Anglicus. According to the article titled
Thomas of Sutton published by Gyula Klima in the Encyclopedia of Medieval Philosophy,
Thomas Anglicus also called Thomas of Sutton, Thomas of Suttona or Thomas of Sutona was
an English scholar, doctor of theology at Melton College, Oxford, who would have lived in
England between the XII and XIII century62 and would have been the author of a series of
religious studies written in Latin such as Commentarium in IV sententiarum libros, Contra IIII lib. Sent. Roberti Cowton and Quaestiones ordinariae.
Bibliography:
Antohi, Sorin, Ioan Petru Culianu. Omul i opera, volum coordonat de Sorin Antohi,
traduceri de Corina Popescu, Claudia Dumitriu, Ioana Ieronim, Cristina Ionic, Tereza
Culianu-Petrescu, Iai, Polirom, Biblioteca Ioan Petru Culianu, 2003, 646 p.
Culianu, Ioan Petru, Pergamentul diafan. Ultimele povestiri, scrise n colaborare cu H.
S. Wiesner, traducere de Mihaela Gliga, Mihai Miroiu, Dan Petrescu, postfa de Dan Silviu
Boerescu, Bucureti, Nemira, 1996, 219 p.
Culianu, Ioan Petru, Jocul de smarald, n colaborare cu H. S. Wiesner, traducere de
Agop Bezerian, Iai, Polirom, Biblioteca Ioan Petru Culianu, 2005, 356 p.
Gerard Genette, Introducere n arhitext. Ficiune i diciune, traducere i prefa de Ion Pop, Bucureti,
Univers, 1994, p. 159.
59
60
Ibid., p. 282.
61
Ioan Petru Culianu in collaboration with H.S. Wiesner.
62
Thomas of Sutton (Thomas Anglicus) O.P. (c. 12501315) was an early defender of Aquinas doctrine at
Oxford, where he spent most of his career engaged in debates with the greatest opponents of Aquinas tenets,
such as Duns Scotus and Henry of Ghent, Gyula Klima, Thomas of Sutton, Encyclopedia of Medieval
Philosophy, 2011, p. 1294.
58
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Culianu, Ioan Petru, Cltorii n lumea de dincolo, ediia a III a, traducere din limba
englez de Gabriela i Andrei Oiteanu, prefa i note de Andrei Oiteanu, cuvnt nainte de
Lawrence E. Sullivan (n romnete de Sorin Antohi), Iai, Polirom, Biblioteca Ioan Petru
Culianu, 2007, 330 p.
Culianu, Ioan Petru, Tozgrec, ediie ngrijit i traduceri de Tereza Culianu-Petrescu,
Iai, Polirom, Biblioteca Ioan Petru Culianu, 2010, 408 p.
Foucault, Michel, Ce este un autor? Studii i conferine, traducere de Bogdan Ghiu i
Ciprian Mihali, cuvnt nainte de Bogdan Ghiu, postfa de Corneliu Blb. Cluj-Napoca, Idea
Design & Print, Panopticon, 2004, 198 p.
Genette, Gerard, Palimpsests: Literature in the Second Degree translated by Channa
Newman and Claude Doubinsky, University of Nebraska Press, 1997, 490 p.
Genette, Gerard, Paratexts. Thresholds of interpretation, translated by Jane E. Lewin,
foreword by Richard Macksey, New York, Cambridge University Press, 1997, 427 p.
Genette, Gerard, Introducere n arhitext. Ficiune i diciune, traducere i prefa de
Ion Pop, Bucureti, Univers, 1994, 209 p.
Graham, Allen, Intertextuality, London and New York, Routledge, 2000, 238 p.
Klima, Gyula, Thomas of Sutton, Encyclopedia of Medieval Philosophy, 2011, p.
1294,
http://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-1-4020-9729-4_493,
retreived on 3rd of February 2015.
Kristeva, Julia, The Julia Kristeva Reader, edited by Toril Moi, translated by Leon S.
Roudiez by Columbia University Press and Sean Hand by Basil Blackwell Ltd., New York,
Columbia University Press, 1986, 334 p.
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IOAN AL. BRTESCU-VOINETI CORRESPONDENCE, NOVEL AND POLEMICS

Mirela Alina MORAR (POPA)
1 Decembrie 1918 University of Alba-Iulia
Abstract: Our paper intends to provide an analysis of the main co-ordinates that define I.Al.
Brtescu-Voineti's correspondences, novel and polemics from literary life focusing
especially on the next ones texts reference intituled: Correspondence to Anua and novel
Niculi Minciun. We proceed with presenting a series of contemporary Romanian critical
reactions according to his literary and social activity during the interwar period.
Keywords: I.Al. Brtescu-Voineti, correspondence, novel Niculi Minciun, polemics,
interwar period.
Cu toate c opera sa este de dimensiuni reduse, nici pn astzi nu avem o restituire
complet a ceea ce a scris i publicat prozatorul de la Trgovite. O surs important privind
opera i biografia sa este literatura epistolar. n scrisorile trimise lui Titu Maiorescu, G.
Ibrileanu, Nicolae Iorga, Ion Rdulescu-Pogoneanu, E. Lovinescu, G. Clinescu, Tudor
Arghezi, Mihail Sadoveanu etc., biograful i cercettorul operei lui Ioan Al. Brtescu-Voineti
gsete informaii i precizri privind itinerariul scriitorului.1
De regul, corespondenele sunt revelatorii pentru destinul, personalitatea unor
reprezentani de seam ai literaturii romne.2
ncepem studiul nostru orientndu-ne nspre o scrisoare inedit trimis de ctre
scriitor, Aninei, fina sa. n scris, I. Al. Brtescu-Voineti i se confeseaz, adresndu-i-se ntrun mod ct se poate de familial: Anina, finioara mea drag,. Acesta i prezint despre
problema sa de sntate alimentat de conjunctura social deloc prietenoas. i menioneaz
cauza declanrii bolii la stomac, cu rdcin n copilrie cnd pasionat fiind de desen,
nghite, din grab, o past verde, dup cum i amintete: ineam ntre buze o bucat de
vopsea verde. Nu-mi aduc aminte care dintre colegi m ntreab ceva i, vrnd s-i rspund,
nghit bucata de vopsea, o nghit att de complet nct, cu toate.3 i aa ncepe un ir de
neplceri stomacale, crampe i arsuri n lungi episoade dureroase. Ar fi putut s nu participe
ntotdeauna la ntlnirile sale i s se ngrijeasc, aa ar fi evitat orice oboseal i mai ales
orice discuii violente.4 ns, nu putea absenta, era o fire punctual, serioas, implicat. Spirit
pacifist, afirm de altminteri toi ai mei m asigur i eu nsumi, uitndu-m n oglind,
constat c foarte nimerita porecl de Gandi5 pe care mi-o scorniser, ncepe s nu mi se mai
potriveasc desvrit. Chiar i cel mai mic neadevr i pune amprenta pe om, la fel cum o
pictur de otrav poate strica un lac ntreg. Trei sferturi din toate nenelegerile vor disprea
Nicolae Scurtu, O epistol necunoscut a lui I. Al. Brtescu-Voineti, n Romnia literar, nr:40(26/09/2014 02/10/2014), p. 5.
1
Teodor Vrgolici, Documente literare, n Romnia literar, nr:7(20/02/2009 - 26/02/2009), p. 27.

Nicolae Scurtu, O epistol necunoscut a lui I. Al. Brtescu-Voineti, n Romnia literar, nr:40(26/09/2014 02/10/2014), p 5.
4
Nicolae Scurtu, O epistol necunoscut a lui I. Al. Brtescu-Voineti, n Romnia literar, nr:40(26/09/2014 02/10/2014), p. 5.
5
Mahatma Gandhi se numr printre cele mai fascinante personaliti ale secolului XX. Atitudinea sa nonviolent mpotriva discriminrii din Africa de Sud i India l-a tranformat, mpreun cu nvturile sale, ntr-una
din cele mai importante modele ale umanitii. El a inspirat nenumrai oameni.
http://www.dadalos.org/rom/Vorbilder/gandhi/gandhi.htm Accesat la 19 decembrie 2014.
2
3
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Issue no. 6/2015
de pe faa pmntului dac ne vom pune n locul dumanilor notri i le vom nelege punctul
de vedere. Atunci vom deveni dendat una cu ei, sau vom ne vom gndi cu ngduin la ei.6
A scris un ciclu de scrisori pe care inteniona s denumeasc neinspirat momentului
actual, brzdat de rzboi, Biblia pcei. Motiv pentru care, E. Lovinescu n Revizuirile sale,
partea Revizuiri morale, l cataloga textul drept pueril, insignifiant n raport cu actualitatea
vremii ncrcat de atmosfera beligerant, o trud zadarnic precum i c - blndul
vistor care e d. Brtescu-Voineti se gndete la pace i i propovduiete Biblia!7 l
sftuiete s i ndrepte atenia nspre societate, nspre oamenii care au nevoie de linite, de
consiliere prin cuvinte frumoase.
Ct despre anturajul su literar i politic, i scrie c existau la ordinea zilei opinii
divergente privind relaia Romnia-Germania: aveam zilnic discuii aprinse cu iremediabili
germanofobi, pe care m sileam s-i conving c atitudinea lor, care, pn n momentul alianei
noastre cu Germania, putea fi socotit numai o greeal, de la intrarea noastr n rzboi alturi
de germani, poate, cu drept cuvnt, fi socotit ca o aciune vtmtoare intereselor rii
noastre i deci de aproape nrudit cu trdarea.8 i trimite scrisoarea la 78 de ani, cu 4 ani
nainte de a se stinge.
Trecnd la ansamblul activitii sale (prozator, judector) constatm c a fost
contestat, ntr-un mod vehement, dar nu general, deoarece dup 1937 alunec n atitudini
profasciste, teoretizate n opuscule programatice cu titlul: Huliganism (1938), Germanofobie
(1940). Nici natura dur i necrutoare climatului literar interbelic9 nu a fost prielnic
pentru scriitor.
Au loc o serie de atacuri mpotriva lui Brtescu-Voineti care debuteaz cu
respingerea de la premiile Academiei Romne. Tot mpotriva lui ca scriitor i mpotriva
dreptului lui de a fi prezent n faa scriitorilor se ridic, nc din 1915, unele voci, ntre care
cele ale lui Arghezi (1915), I. Em. Protopopescu Pake (1916), Oreste (1916).10 Prozatorul nu
rspunde tuturor acestor atacuri, ns se observ c sursa lor era irul de funcii oficiale
obinute de acesta, exercitate n paralel cu scriitura. Acum, este numit ploni, iar
reprezentarea Soranei o porcrie pentru c unul din autori (Brtescu-Voineti) era
membru n Comitetul de lectur al Teatrului Naional.11
n volumul al IV-lea din Critice, E. Lovinescu i acord importan scriitorului. Aici,
criticul dezaprob calificarea acestuia de ctre unii, drept marele nostru prozator 12 aducnd
o suit de contra-argumente critice. El nu neag faptul c scriitorul posed caliti morale,
ns din punct de vedere social l consider inadaptat vremurilor: Literatura d-lui BrtescuVoineti e literatura inadaptrii: un om bun cu nobile nsuiri sufletetiiat eroul unic al
scriitorului, dezarmat i nvins n mijlocul unei lumi egoiste, aprige dup ctig material. 13
Dei, l aprecia ca fiind un talent, - dar un talent precis i limitat.14 Toate acestea se
regsesc transpuse n creaiile sale, prin personaje i aciunea lor izvort din situaia sa real,
Nicolae Scurtu, O epistol necunoscut a lui I. Al. Brtescu-Voineti, n Romnia literar,
Nr:40(26/09/2014 - 02/10/2014).
7
Eugen Lovinescu, Revizuiri. Ediie ngrijit i studiu introductiv de Ion Simu, Bucureti, Editura Paralela 45,
p. 185.
8
Nicolae Scurtu, O epistol necunoscut a lui I. Al. Brtescu-Voineti, n Romnia Literar, Nr:40(26/09/2014
- 02/10/2014).
9
Dan Mnuc, Introducere n opera lui I. Al. Brtescu-Voineti, Bucureti, Editura Minerva, 1997, p.44.
10
Dan Mnuc, Introducere n opera lui I. Al. Brtescu-Voineti, Bucureti, Editura Minerva, 1997, p.44.
11
Ibidem,, p.45.
12
E. Lovinescu, Critice, vol. 2. Ediie de Eugen Simion. Antologie i repere istorico-literare de Mihai Dascl,
Bucureti, Editura Minerva, 1982, p. 29.
13
Ibidem, p. 30.
14
p. 238.
6
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personal. E un autor plpnd, prea modest. n acelai an marcat de atacuri directe la

adresa prozatorului, 1916, E. Lovinescu ncepe s-i revizuiasc aprecierile critice, opiniile
despre proza acestuia. Dup ce n articolul Epoca din 1905, l dduse drept exemplu tinerilor,
pentru fineea i precizia stilului, precum pentru obiectivitatea observaiilor. n 1916, constat
c scrie doar o literatur onest (Flacra).15
Criticul constat insuficiena tehnicii sale scriitoriceti i crede c pentru ca o oper s
fie valoroas, nu este de ajuns. ns, literatura lui Al. Brtescu-Voineti, adaug autorul
reprezint, aadar, un progres spre observaie obiectiv. Progresul e numai formal. Aadar,
criticul ofer un canon, pe care-l redm n cele ce urmeaz: ntr-un romancier lumea trebuie
s se reflecteze ns n varietile ei i, cu ct reflectarea e mai complex i mai
circumstanial, cu att romancierul e mai mare. n loc s oglindeasc, d Brtescu-Voineti se
oglindete n unele mobile ale lumii i se nduioeaz asupra soartei sale nefericite.16
n plus, mentorul mai aprecia c scriitorul este: lipsit de darul de a iei din sine, i
deci de a crea obiectiv, lovit de o tragic sterilitate, lipsit chiar i de intervenie verbal i de
stil, d. Brtescu-Voineti e un miniaturist talent minor.17
Este cert c prozatorul se afla sub oblduirea oficialitilor, n special a lui Brtianu.
n plus, n anul 1928, i se oferise omagial, o cas de locuit n Bucureti, n condiiile n care,
n acea vreme oamenii de litere duceau o existen precar.
Dar s ne ndreptm acum atenia asupra motivului real cauzator de vicisitudini. n
publicaia Sptmna muncii literare i artistice, acesta a semnat un pamflet violent contra
lui Vintil Brtianu, ministru redutabil, responsabil de viaa financiar i economic, n care
mrturisea c nu crede n spusele lui V. Brtianu conform cruia va urma o ieftinire a traiului
de zi cu zi: D-l Brtianu sper nc n ridicarea leului fr aur la Banca Naional i
promite, sinistru, ieftinirea traiului. E naiv, e nebun, sau de rea credin?18 Mergnd nspre
analiza textului, se observ o adresare nominal direct. Dominanta textului este ilustrat prin
uor sarcasm i ironie slab. Apare acuza direct tranant. Fr menajamente, ndreptat spre
cel care mpreun cu ai si, au dus ara cu tot ce exist n ea la un nivel deplorabil.
Referitor la menirea scriitorilor n general i la scriitorul I. Al. Brtescu-Voineti aici,
n particular, n vremuri de cumpn, E. Lovinescu afirma c: n mijlocul tragediei n care se
zbtea ara noastr, scriitorii aveau o nalt misiune de mplinit. Talentul lor trebuia s
gseasc formula luminoas i multipl a idealului naional. Cuvntul lor, s trezeasc cele
mai amorite i mai ruginite contiine. [] Datoria scriitorilor este deci de a oeli toate
energiile neamului.19 Apoi, tot acesta aprecia calea aleas a prozatorului, opinnd c : Inima
scriitorului nostru a btut, n adevr, pentru toate aspiraiile noastre seculare atitudinea
hotrt a d-lui Brtescu-Voineti a mprtiat o vie lumin.20 Cci, n perioadele beligerante
au avut i ele rolul lor, mai mult negativ i foarte puin pozitiv, spre exemplu al Doilea Rzboi
Mondial a dus la mari descoperiri tiinifice, ns minusurile abund: teroare, traum social
colectiv, moarte, uriaele distrugeri materiale, toate afectnd profund, din temelii, ordinea
politic, social i cultural a ntregii lumi implicate.
Faptul c I. Al. Brtescu-Voineti primete gratuit acea locuin provoac nebnuite
animoziti, neiertndu-i-se aceasta. Legat de aceasta situaie, acelai mentor al
Sburtorului, i exprima dezacordul fa de aceast oferire de privilegii, opinnd n
Dan Mnuc, op. cit., p. 45.
Ibidem, p. 31.
17
p. 238.
18
19
Eugen Lovinescu, Revizuiri, Ediie ngrijit i studiu introductiv de Ion Simu, Cuvnt nainte de Mircea
Martin, Bucureti, Editura Paralela 45, pp. 184-185.
20
Ibidem, p.184.
15
16
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Revizuirile sale: Pe lng concordana sentimentelor se mai adaug uneori i concordana

intereselor. Pe lng oper mai e i omul. Suntem nconjurai de imponderabilitate. n jurul
unui scriitor se pot cristaliza drept prestigii, pe care nu le ndreptete nici o calitate durabil.
Atitudine n via, concurs de mprejurri, cointeresri sentimentale sau comerciale, totul
ridic un merit real pn la potene inadmisibile.21 Totul, deoarece epoca interbelic de
altfel, sceptic i feroce, se creeaz astfel de valori i fetii, n aprobarea sau tcerea noastr
indulgent. Nu trece mult timp, i Mai apoi, dac Arghezi i ngduia s vorbeasc despre o
jigodie literar, i la rspunsul scriitorului, ca de o replic ngreoat (Hiena),
Lovinescu scoate cartea exasperrii: ceea ce nu se mai poate.(s.n.) (Sburtorul, 1920)22
Cu un asemenea temei, criticul dezvluie, fr voie c, de fapt, n viaa literar
bucuretean, Brtescu-Voineti nu avea de partea lui simpatiile unei pri a lumii literare
deoarece: 1. Scrie puin; 2. Este secretarul Parlamentului; 3. Este directorul revistei Lamura;
4. membru al Academiei Romne; 5. membru n comitetul de lectur al Teatrului Naional; 6.
Director al ziarului Dacia; 7. Membru n comitetul de conducere al Editurii Cartea
Romneasc; 8. Membru n comitetul de conducere al Editurii Viaa Romneasc; 9.
Director-general prin delegaie, al Teatrelor Naionale.23
Ce-i drept, prozatorul alege i calea politic, nscriindu-se n Partidul Naional Liberal
dar doar spre a-i omor plictisul spune el. n revan, mai apoi acesta ader la poporanism,
acceptnd invitaia lui Garabet Ibrileanu, n care afl, mutatis mutandi, un alt Maiorescu.
Titu Maiorescu l sprijinise n debutul su.
Referindu-ne la apariia volumului Nuvele i schie, primirea nu a fost dintre cele mai
favorabile; scriitorul nu aparinea nici unei grupri literare i deci a fost aproape ignorat, dup
cum Dan Mnuc afirma n lucrarea Introducere n opera lui I. Al. Brtescu-Voineti. Mai
apoi, el refuz sfatul lui T. Maiorescu, de a mai scrie un volum de nuvele, catalogndu-l
drept o tentativ de a-l obliga la ceea ce el refuza cu disperare.24 ntre timp, atacurile la
adresa lui nu contenesc, lund amploare.
De altfel, cu intuiia-i exact i fin, Maiorescu i prezicea, nc de cnd BrtescuVoineti avea doar douzeci i patru de ani, c va fi un scriitor puin productiv, deoarece l
obsedeaz propriile lui amintiri [] Scriitorul este i Brtescu, dar i Voineti. Cu alte
cuvinte, este i tatl su, retras, fugind de lume, muncit de chinuri secrete pe care le potolete
n sera cu flori. Dar i nenea Antonache, adic Alexandru Voinescu, ofier, cartofor de n
mizerie demn, povestitor imbatabil i histrion uluitor. Amintire i prezent: adaug Dan
Mnuc acestea sunt elementele care l submineaz pe scriitor i a cror nfruntare i
coabitare i-au generat arta. i iat, cum n scrierile sale se infuzeaz acest substrat
antropologic. Un alt exemplu de remarcat este unul cu referire la nuvela Niculi Minciun,
unde stilul scrisului su primete, cu uurin, marca oralitii (s.n.), prin proverbele i
zictorile semnate de-a lungul textului, prin cuvinte i expresii populare, regionalisme,
dialog, exclamaii, interogaii, expresii onomatopeice, imprecaii/apostrofe, diminutive, dar i
marca oratoriei (s.n.), el fiind la un moment dat avocat i apoi, judector, textul povestirilor
sale este spus ca o pledoarie, naratorul creeaz impresia c s-a afla n faa unui auditoriu.
n cele ce urmeaz, vom ncerca s realizm o scurt de-construcie hermeneutic a
povestirii brtesc-voinescian remarcnd arta de a povesti ntr-un mod simplu.
n plus, hermeneutica ndeamn ca la interpretarea unui text sau a unei opere s se
in seama de factorii interni i externi care au condiionat-o, deoarece fietecare persoan
21
Ibidem, p. 237.
23
24
22
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are ceva deosebit n modul cugetrii, dup cum adic sau starea culturii peste tot a vreunui
norod sau a fietecruia persoan n parte e mai nalt sau mai apus. 25
Mergnd oarecum pe aceleai consideraii critice ale lui E. Lovinescu, asupra operei
lui I. Al. Brtescu-Voineti, G. Clinescu afirma n Istoria literaturii c: izbitoare sunt la
Ioan Al. Brtescu-Voineti, ca de altfel la muli dintre contemporanii si, lipsa de invenie i
de productivitate. Schiele i nuvelele se bizuie pe simpla observare a unor medii ce snt chiar
acelea n care triete scriitorul.26
Bunoar, eroii lui Brtescu-Voineti au fost rnduii din clasa nvinilor, a
inadaptabililor, dup indicaiuni ce se gsesc chiar n opera autorului. Clasificarea aceasta
ns, nu este cu totul exact sub raport estetic. Orice oper, bizuit pe observaie,
nfieaz nvingtori i nvini, sau mai degrab nvingeri i nfrngeri, uneori simbolizate n
acelai individ. Existena fiind lupt, este firesc ca eroii s izbndeasc ori s fie nlturai.
Amndou deznodmintele confirm existena lor energetic.27
Cu alte cuvinte, nvingerea i nfrngerea snt aspecte ale luptei i artistul are numai
datoria s ne arate prin prin ce mprejurri urmeaz un efect n locul altuia. Mai clar ar fi
noiunea de inadaptare, prin care s-ar nelege incapacitatea total de a lupta. Unde nu este
ns nici un fel de lupt, nu se poate ncepe opera de art n proz.
Revenind la nuvela, Niculi Minciun, expunem n cele ce urmeaz o ncercare de
de-construcie hermeneutic a scrierii.
Dup lecturarea scurtei povestiri, amintite adineauri observm c evenimentele se es
n jurul personajului principal, personaj eponim (titular), al crui nume l regsim n titlul
operei, un biat harnic, blnd, blajin, prea sfios, pe numele su real, Niculai Gropescu. Este
fiul cel mare dintr-o familie din satul Manga, comuna Mgureni. Se remarc n mod deosebit
n clasele primare obinnd cu mndrie reinut, premiul nti cu coroni. Din alegerea
prinilor, nu i continu studiile, dei nvtorul le sugereaz acest lucru. n contrapondere,
un arenda din sat le spune c nu ar fi o alegere bun s l susin mai departe la coal,
justificndu-se prin afirmaia: nvtura mult mult ru aduce omului, otrvete sufletul,
dnd exemplul unui tnr care dei a absolvit ase clase, a ajuns derbedeu, un om fr
cpti. Prinii, punnd n balan situaia lor familial, cu nc trei copii aflai n ngrijire,
hotrsc de comun acord rmnerea lui n casa printeasc. Copil retras uneori, harnic n
treburile casei, atras de tainele naturii, mai exact de vietile ei, insecte, psri, animale, e
atent la observarea lor foarte ndeaproape, ndeletnicire cu care i ocupa marea parte a
timpului. La un moment dat descoper, pe ascuns, deoarece ai si nu doreau acest lucru,
atelierul de dulgherie al bunicului su, mo Sandu Gropeanu. Acesta ptrunde prin joc, mai
nti n miezul acestei meserii, care se dovedete, mai apoi, a fi practicat foarte bine, ieind
din minile biatului de acum, n vrst de aisprezece ani, obiecte utile casei. Pe unele le-a
vndut, ajungnd s i ofere unele n dar vecinei sale, pentru care nutrea sentimente de
admiraie, numai n sperana de a-i atrage atenia. Se identific dou fire narative, unul
interior, al tririlor izvorte din curiozitate la vrsta copilriei, iar cellalt exterior, cel al
relaiilor familiale, sociale. Momentele de linite din copilrie aveau sursa n studiul existenei
naturale, era un gen de comuniune primar cu natura, cci tnrul avea capacitatea, darul de a
descoperi, de a asculta spre a nelege i a observa la lup vietile nconjurtoare.
Nenelegerea, chiar luarea n derdere i culminarea cu atributul peiorativ sub forma poreclei
minciun, sdesc florile rului n sufletul candid, curat i sincer al lui Niculi,
determinnd aternerea unui val de nencredere i nchidere n sine. Totui, spirit lupttor, nu
Hermeneutica, Blaj, 1844, ms. 366, n Biblioteca Academiei R.S.R., Filiala Cluj, fond Blaj apud Mircea Popa,
Tectonica genurilor literare, Bucureti, Editura Cartea Romneasc, 1980, p. 136.
26
G. Clinescu, Istoria literaturii romne de la origini pn n prezent. Ediie i prefa de Al. Piru, Bucureti,
Ed. Minerva, 1988, p. 547.
27
Ibidem, p. 577.
25
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renun n a le demonstra celorlali, realitatea observaiilor sale n detaliu. Eueaz prin patru
ncercri, cea cu fraii si, cu Salomeea, fata ndrgit, prietenii lui i culmineaz cu fostul
nvtor. Existenele observabile de ctre el nu se mai desfoar la fel cnd martorii se
schimb, adncind valul de nencredere n autenticul observator.
Poate e mult spus, dar din nefericire, trece prin episoade ale dezamgirii. Primul e
legat de porecla sa care-l va roade n interior. Cltoria solitar diurn i nocturn, spre
cellalt sat, care se afla la aproximativ 12 kilometri, se dovedete a fi o cltorie iniiatic
pentru novice. Simte frigul, dar gsete soluia, i aduce aminte s se mbrace cu cojocul pe
care i-l pregtise mama sa. Continu apoi ,cu vnzarea carului cu lemne, cnd dei fusese
stabilit suma fixa de 11 bani, cumprtorul aflat sub dorina de a-l nela i ofer 10,5.
Finalul vnzrii i aduce suma dorita lui Niculi. Cunoate teama, la gndul c adormind,
cineva ar putea s i fure banii. i amintete c ar fi bine s nveleasc banii ntr-o hrtie, i
soarta face ca dibuind, pe jos s o gseasc. Reuind s citeasc textul aternut pe aceasta,
ajunge la concluzia c, dac din ntmplare ar gsi pe jos, pierdut, ceva valoros, cu siguran
nu i-va nsui, ci l va preda la primrie la domnul ef de jandarmi, cci nvminte de la
tatl su primise n acest sens: de banul nemuncit nici praful nu s-alege. Nu trece mult timp,
i fortuit sau nu, gsete un portofel din piele neagr.
Negrul, ca adjectiv cromatic simbolizeaz un aspectul negativ, fiind i culoarea
haosului originar, a apelor inferioare, a morii. Elementul negru se valideaz, aici, drept un
motiv anticipativ pentru destinul personajului actor. (Boris Tomaevski) Hotrrea de a la
contact cu obiectul n va schimba decisiv existena. Dup cum plnuise, l duce efului
jandarmilor din localitate care, aflnd c nu destinuise nimnui cele ntmplate l sftuiete
s pstreze discreia i pe viitor, motivul fiind unul personal, setea de ctig uor. Dar, biatul
l zrete pe presupusul pgubit care i ofer descrierea detaliat a portofelului. ntr-un final,
Niculi este dus n faa procurorului, unde eful jandarmilor nu recunoate nimic. ocat
fiind, biatul, sufer un blocaj psihologic, tremurnd, nereuind s detalieze momentul gsirii
portofelului, ci prin flash-back, prin rememorare fulgertoare, prin frnturi de fraze, propoziii
i cuvinte,
i reamintete jandarmului de portofel, i spune c a gsit pgubaul, degeaba, acesta
cu rceal, rigid nu recunoate nimic: Ce, m, visezi?... a rcnit: Ce, m, eti nebun?
Momentul a creat o tensiune nervoas maxim: Si el atunci a simit ca parca i se rupe
ceva in cap, nuntru, si a zis, dar n-a zis cu gndul s-l supere... a zis duios, ca din pragul
unei mari primejdii: Domnule ef, ori te poarta cum ti-e vorba, ori vorbete cum i-enereuind s ncheie fraza c - domnul ef l-a plesnit cu pumnul peste gura de l-a podidit
sngele... 28 att de grav nct i-a pierdut contienta.
O ultim ncercare de dovedire a nevinoviei, dup ce fusese catalogat nebun i
ngrijit de doctor, se ceruse ca preotul s i citeasc molitve, are loc n faa fiinei pentru care
nutrea sentimente curate, dei de cealalt parte, erau mprite dar ascunse, i spune sa nu i
fie fric de el, nu e nebun, nu i face ru, justificndu-se: -Uite aici, cu minile amndou lam inut ca lemnul sa mi se usuce minile! -Salomio, nu-ti fie frica... -N... nu... nu sunt
nebun, -Salomio... -Si nu vreau sa-ti fac nici un ru, Salomio...29
ns, ce nu mai poate zri e treptata pierdere a simului realitii pe care i-a adus-o
ndoiala, nencrederea tuturora... i indignarea efului, care nici n-a mai putut s se
stpneasc... sunt cteva ceasuri de cnd nu mai e aa de sigur c-a gsit n adevr banii30
Biatul cu mintea rtcit, se silise s-i ornduiasc gndurile i s spuie cum s-a
ntmplat, de la nceput...se codete; se silete s-i adune minile risipite. Niculi st pe
I. Al. Brtescu-Voineti, Niculi Minciun, Piteti, Editura Herra, 2009, p. 98.
Ibidem, p. 101.
30
Ibidem, p. 101.
28
29
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prispa dus pe gnduri, cu tmplele-ntre mini.31 Ceea ce i d o oarecare stare de linite, este
mbriarea primit din partea Salomeei.
Apoi, i descinge betele de la bru, le sruta i plnge, plnge... Apoi se uit n sus i
de jur mprejur.32
nsi natura, elementele din spaiul terestru, dar i cele din spaiul cosmic, pe care o
iubea att, parc plng, tremur stelele. Sufla vnt rece... Nu mai sunt nici lcuste, nici
greieri... au murit toate de frig... Du-te cu bine, Niculit, i Dumnezeu s te ierte! E o
comuniune om-natur, care respir n rndurile brtesc-voinescene. Natura, cea care-i
transmitea pn acum mesaje criptate, l nsoete pe ultimul drum, i este alturi. Elementelor
din natur le sunt atribuite caracteristici omeneti, apare deci, personificarea ca figur de stil
dominant.
Prin urmare, gsim aici un mit, acela al morii iniiatice, al extinciei, care prefigureaz
integrarea omului n circuitul cosmic, precum n balada popular Mioria33. i aici, apare
motivul complotului, un complot mundan, care l mpinge la acest act tragic, extrem, la
patibulare. Exitus-ul personajului are valena unui mod de stopare a imposibilului, de stvilit.
Ca n textul popular, e o moarte iniiatic la care aveau acces doar anumii tineri supradotai
intelectual, alei pentru a accede la mistere.34
Bucuria din incipitul povetii i lauda lumii pentru rezultatele fiului lor, se transform,
n sfritul textului, n durere adnc i dezamgire exprimat de mama necjit.
Sfritul este creionat ntr-un tablou al disperrii mamei, a crei inim, e inundat de o
durere crunt: Lume, lume ticloas... Ca azi oamenii, daca nu eti la fel cu dnii, nu te mai
rstignesc ei cu cruzime, ci (mai ales daca nu le eti o prea mare primejdie) te aduc fr multa
rutate, ba poate chiar cu comptimire, sa te rstigneti singur...35
Iat ce mrturisete criticul G. Clinescu legat de aceast scriere: i Niculi poat
s par un inadaptabil, n vreme ce el este propriu-zis un anormal. Autorul l-a vzut nu att ca
individ, ct i ca simbol al setei de a ti, mustrnd prin el societatea. Cci aduga acesta
Biatul are darul observaiei i al inveniei tehnice, ar fi deci un viitor savant dac ar putea
urma la coal. Rmnnd n sat, el devine victima zeflemelelor alor si.36
n aceeai ordine de idei marile vocaii investigatoare au fost totdeauna nsoite de de
voina drz de a descoperi adevrul i oricte suferine au copleit pe descoperitori, niciodat
nimeni nu a fost oprit n loc de aceasta.37
Aadar, Niculi e un individ superior, care n cazul cel mai deprimant devine
un filozof al atitudinii morale, un Luceafr rece i nepstor. Sinuciderea lui Niculi,
previzibil, arat o conformaie insuficient, un dezechilibru nu rar, n care o uoar sporire a
inteligenei pe o latur este decompensat de lipsuri sufleteti fundamentale.38
ntreaga povestire se construiete pe o gradaie psihologic descendent la care este
supus fiina neputincioas, personalitatea slab spre exitus-ul su.
Subscriem, prin urmare, opiniei lui G. Clinescu, criticul care n Istoria, semnala
urmtoarele: valoarea scrierii, de ast dat scutit de moraliti, vine din dramatismul cu care
este povestit npstuirea unei fiine slabe i din adunarea laolalt, monografic, a tuturor
31
Ibidem, p. 101.
Ibidem, p. 101.
33
Lcrmioara Mutoiu, Alchimia textului poetic, f.l, Editura Versus, f.a., p. 30.
34
I. Al. Brtescu-Voineti, Niculi Minciun, Piteti, Editura Herra, 2009, p. 95.
35
Ibidem, p. 95.
36
G. Clinescu, op. cit., p. 579.
37
Ibidem, p. 579.
38
Ibidem, p. 579.
32
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aspectelor durerii umane. Niculi este un anormal, dar a but ntreg paharul suferinei
pamntene.39
BIBLIOGRAFIE
1. BRTESCU-VOINETI, I. AL., Niculi Minciun, Piteti, Editura Herra, 2009
2. CLINESCU, G., Istoria literaturii romne de la origini pn n prezent. Ediie i
prefa de Al. Piru, Bucureti, Editura Minerva, 1982
3. IONESCU, CONSTANT, Amintiri despre Camil Petrescu, n Gazeta literar, anul
XV, nr. 1 (792), joi 4 ianuarie 1968
4. LOVINESCU, E., Istoria literaturii romne contemporane, vol. I-II. Ediie ngrijit
de Eugen Simion, Bucureti, Editura Minerva, 1973
5. LOVINESCU, E., Revizuiri. Ediie ngrijit i studiu introductiv de Ion Simu,
Cuvnt nainte de Mircea Martin, Bucureti, Editura Paralela 45, 2003
6. LOVINESCU, E., Critice, vol. 2. Ediie de Eugen Simion. Antologie i repere
istorico-literare de Mihai Dascl, Bucureti, Editura Minerva, 1982
7. MNUC, DAN, Introducere n opera lui I. Al. Brtescu-Voineti, Bucureti,
Editura Minerva, 1997
8. MANOLESCU, NICOLAE, Istoria critic a literaturii romne. Cinci secole de
literatur, Piteti, Editura Paralela 45, 2008
9. MUTOIU, LCRMIOARA, Alchimia textului poetic, f.l., Editura Versus, f.a.,
10. SCURTU, NICOLAE, O epistol necunoscut a lui I. Al. Brtescu-Voineti, n
Romnia literar, nr. 40(26/09/2014 - 02/10/2014)
11. SIMION, EUGEN (COORD.), Dicionarul general al literaturii romne, VII [-Z],
I-VII, Bucureti, Editura Univers Enciclopedic, 2009
12. VLAD, ION, Aventura formelor. Ediie ngrijit Irina Petra, Bucureti, Editura
Didactic i Pedagogic, 1996
13. VRGOLICI, TEODOR, Documente literare, n Romnia literar,
nr:7(20/02/2009 - 26/02/2009)
39
Ibidem, p. 579.
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PIERRE MICHON, LHISTORIEN

Alina PINTICAN
Abstract: Since the 80s, we speak about a return to the narrative which would define the
contemporary French literature. In fact there was no return to the narrative, this had always
performed well and so its readers. The real phenomenon of the 80s is not the return to the
narrative but the rediscovery of this literary gender by those who thought they had buried it
once and for all, namely the authors affiliated previously to avant-garde and a part of
University. In other words, the 80s do not inaugurate a period of return to the narrative but
they give back to this literary gender the intellectual legitimacy it had lost. This so-called
return was carried out by means of autobiography. The example of Small lives is interesting
in this respect. This book (1984) tells about eight lives, mainly pitiful, allegories of a writer
whose autobiography is shown just beneath the surface.
The life of the narrator of Small lives is reduced to a geographical and sentimental wandering
registered in an imagination of curse : the origin darkly rustic, a runaway and alcoholic
father, the unfulfilled wish to write with the certainty of unworthiness strongly attached. Yet
the reader feels that this miserable condition is overcome the moment it is expressed, by the
simple fact of being written : it is necessary that something is being produced, something
which is not mentioned or expressed in the text. This something is an appeal to the history ant
to the novel. The temptation of illegibility was substituted for a sumptuous writing in prose
which does not neglect neither its reader nor the reference to the tradition, even if this is often
farcical in Small lives.
Keywords: autobiography, historian, fictional space, narrative.
Depuis les annes 80, on parle dun retour au rcit qui caractriserait la littrature
franaise contemporaine. En ralit il ny a jamais eu de retour au rcit, le rcit sest toujours
bien port ainsi que les lecteurs de rcits. Le vritable phnomne des annes 80 nest donc
pas tant le retour au rcit que la redcouverte de ce genre par ceux qui croyaient lavoir
dfinitivement enterr, savoir les auteurs affilis auparavant aux avant-gardes et une partie
de lUniversit. Autrement dit, les annes 80 ninaugurent pas une priode de retour au rcit
mais redonnent ce genre la lgitimit intellectuelle quil avait perdue. Ce soi-disant retour
sest effectu par le biais de lautobiographie. Lexemple des Vies minuscules de Pierre
Michon est intressant cet gard. Paru en 1984, ce livre raconte huit existences, pour la
plupart misrables, allgories dun crivain dont lautobiographie se dessine en filigrane.
voquons lexemple dun crivain contemporain franais qui parle abondamment de
sa pratique et qui cherche penser la littrature, penser sa propre pratique. Il sagit de Pierre
Michon, dont la critique a beaucoup parl pour illustrer ce quil advient de la littrature
franaise lre contemporaine.
Pierre Michon se situe en marge de la biographie, mi-chemin des lments
fictionnels et rels. La matire de ses crits est ses propres souvenirs et motions. Il est n en
1945 dans un petit village de la Creuse, pays joli sans doute, mais terriblement perdu, et en cet
immdiat aprs guerre encore trs ancien et immobile. Les paysages de l-bas serviront
maintes fois de dcors dans ses textes. Les parents sont instituteurs. Trs tt le pre sabsente
du foyer. Il est lev par sa mre et ses grands-parents. Enfance choye plutt douce semble-til. Il ouvre le champ aux rcits de filiation, aux fictions biographiques. Soit quil crive sur
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des gens communs(Vies minuscules), les peintres(Vie de Joseph Roulin, Le Roi du bois,
Matres et serviteurs), ou sexerce la cration pure( Mythologies dhiver, La Grande Beune),
il exige de lui-mme la perfection. Il se rclame de lavant-garde, celle qui a magnifi la
posture de lcrivain-thoricien, du Nouveau Roman jusqu Tel Quel. Michon ne cesse de
faire signe vers un certain hritage de la modernit radicale, qui comprend aussi des auteurs
comme Proust ou Genet et surtout Faulkner, son pre en littrature. Quand il parle des
crivains les plus ouvertement modernes, il reconnat dabord une immense dette. Lavantgarde lui rappelle sa dette envers la littrature. Dans un deuxime temps, il met cet hritage
distance. Lorsquil parle de Rimbaud, il insiste sur le fait que les crivains modernes sont tous
des fils sans pre. Il ne veut rien savoir dun art qui romprait pour rompre, qui tomberait dans
lart pour lart. Rimbaud est admirable parce quil a, le premier, cass la baraque de la
modernit, parce quil sest moqu des modernes, les amateurs de nouveaut.
Certains livres de Pierre Michon ont t regards comme une historiographie. Il ne
sagit pas tant de savoir ce que le romancier fait avec le pass quil invente ou quil cite ; mais
bien plutt dadmettre que la prsence du pass produite par son criture nous autorise dire
que le pass invent ou cit impose sa prsence son inventeur. Souvent, chez lui, le pass
ce qui est le pass, proche ou lointain, pour ceux dont il raconte lhistoire se montre (et se
cache) par leffet dun rcit de lecture ; lecture laquelle quelquun se livre : un personnage,
ou bien le narrateur, ou bien nous, les lecteurs.
Vies minuscules, recueil de textes brefs publi aux ditions Gallimard en 1984, uvre
qualifie dabord par Jean-Pierre Richard comme autobiographie oblique et clate ,
compose dun choix de mini-biographies [RICHARD, 1990 : 87], puis par Dominique
Viart comme une srie de fictions biographiques [VIART, 2005 : 99-124], raconte huit
vies de modeste extraction. Ces destines, les plus souvent rates, sont lies la vie mme du
narrateur, de mme quelles refltent en miroir les soucis, voire les origines de son dsir
dcrire. Cest le cas de deux vies qui illustreront avant tout le propos de ce travail : les
histoires dAndr Dufourneau, garon de ferme parti en Afrique, et dAntoine Peluchet, fils
de paysan peu travailleur, enclin au rve, expuls du foyer familial par son pre Toussaint.
Dufourneau et Peluchet, le narrateur ne les a jamais connus : les rcits lui sont transmis par la
grand-mre maternelle, Elise, paysanne des Cards.
Les lecteurs des Vies minuscules sont mis lcoute dune voix nouvelle, sarcastique
et fraternelle, que Michon fait entendre ds ce roman. Il y a le concept minuscule aussi
loign du misrabilisme que dun quelconque minimalisme que Michon cre et impose.
Dans les Vies minuscules, linstance narrative est envahissante, le narrateur est contemporain
de ses personnages, il a vcu parmi eux. Pourtant, dans certains rcits il nest que
contemporain de la lgende de son hros, il en tient lhistoire dune grand-mre, comme nous
lavons dj mentionn.
Dans le Roulin, ce qui parle dans ce texte, cest comme la lgende de Van Gogh. Le je
nest pas mme un narrateur, cest une voix anonyme, plus littraire . Dans les vies de
peintres les petits personnages choisis jettent une lueur indirecte sur leur chec peindre.
Dans toutes ces vies, tant minuscules que minusculement picturales, lancienne croyance dans
les arts tient peut-tre la place que Dieu occupait dans les hagiographies.
Les personnages de Pierre Michon ne sont gnralement pas des petits saints. Pourtant,
ils ont tous rat leur vie, ils sont tous des laisss pour compte de la russite mondaine et du
point de vue des intellectuels mondains on peut les estimer rats. Ces petits gens vivent
dans la conviction de leur ignorance et dans lhumilit du non-savoir : leur rapport la culture
implique la certitude dun manque.
Le plus simple de tous ces minuscules, invoqus comme intercesseurs plutt
quvoqus comme des personnages, est le pre Foucault, martyr du Verbe, tmoin jusqu la
mort de labsence du Verbe. Tandis que le narrateur, lhpital, joue le rle dun patient de
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luxe imbu et lettr [MICHON, 1984 : 150], il remarque un petit vieux transi dont une
affection de gorge rend le langage inaudible, de tous les malades le seul que son dsir de
ntre pas remarqu rendt remarquable [MICHON, 1984 : 149]. Comme Joseph Roulin, le
pre Foucault est un portrait, par Van Gogh, dhomme assis ; seulement Roulin trne en
majest, tandis que Foucault reste assis : Lhomme assis de Van Gogh nest pas plus
massivement endolori, mais il est plus complaisant, pathtique, assurment moins
discret. [MICHON, 1984 : 150].
Mme les plus humbles et les plus ignares dentre eux, incapables de se contenter
dtre ce quils sont, se racontent une histoire, celle de la vie quils nont pas vcue ; cest
ainsi que naissent des lgendes, qui fonctionnent comme des amulettes. Cest ainsi quAndr
Dufourneau, ce Rimbaud de la Creuse au rabais, qui part la conqute de lAfrique pour
lamour de la Belle Langue : Elle ne donne pas la grandeur, mais la nostalgie et le dsir
de la grandeur [MICHON, 1984 : 15]. Son savoir en solde le fait dabord passer aux yeux
des siens, les paysans ignares, pour le btard dun hobereau local, autre faon de dire quil
trahit sa classe. Sa mort fut logiquement la revanche des analphabtes asservis sur le Beau
Parleur [Michon, 1984 : 20] transfuge de sa classe. Telle est la lgende minuscule dune vie
sans vritable histoire dont il ne reste quune fiction phmre labore par une vieille
paysanne.
La lgende dAntoine Peluchet ressemble, comme deux gouttes deau, celle dAndr
Dufourneau : il est lui aussi le hros de la famille, dont il ne reste quune relique et un rcit,
aprs quil a t ray de la ralit. La relique dAndr, image pieuse ou pitaphe, rappel
lordre pour la pense trop prompte loubli cest quelques paquets de caf
vert [MICHON, 1984 : 28-29], mais pas consomm, ternellement vert . Celle dAntoine,
cest la relique des Peluchet [MICHON, 1984 : 34], une petite Vierge lenfant - dans
toutes ces minuscules familles, les pres sont absents, disparus ou ennemis. Luvre, cest le
rcit fait par la mre, Elise, pour Dufourneau ; par le pre, pour Peluchet, et cest bien l une
nouveaut, car la mmoire et ses reliques sont affaire des femmes, des mres. Mais ce pre a
exclu son fils de la famille et de son hritage parce que son fils Antoine sintresse plus aux
livres qu la terre. Et puisque lenfant prodigue ne revient pas, Toussaint, le pre, lui
inventera un destin mirobolant, pas en Afrique, mais en Amrique. Toussaint se double dun
rhapsode mandat par lui comme hraut de pre , rhapsode alcoolique et idiot du village :
Fifi ; et les deux ensemble dans les soirs dune ivresse qui navait rien de mystique,
ressuscitrent Antoine. Ils lui inventent un corps glorieux amricain , la mesure de
lor quil faisait en Californie [MICHON, 1984 : 57].
Dans cette Vie dAntoine Peluchet, le ddoublement de lexistence relle et de la
survie invente, de la fiction et de la ralit, sopre dans le face face du pre et du fils,
dabord antagonisme farouche, mais qui tourne ensuite la rconciliation.
Les Vies minuscules nous relatent le combat de lcrivain contre lui-mme en mythe
ou en lgende.
Notre tude ne prtend nullement livrer le sens dune uvre aussi complexe, comme
celle de Michon, mais le lecteur trouvera en ces pages les traces dune exploration, celle dun
auteur franais contemporain dont le premier roman, Vies minuscules, suscita lmoi des
lecteurs conquis par cette prose neuve, fleurie de tournures patoises et darchasmes dignes
dun Balzac et dun Flaubert.
BIBLIOGRAPHIE
I Ouvrages cits ou consults
BERGOUNIOUX, Pierre, Compagnies de Pierre Michon, Paris, Verdier, 1993.
LEJEUNE, Philippe, Le pacte autobiographique, Paris, ditions du Seuil, 1975.
MICHON, Pierre, Vies minuscules, Paris, Gallimard, 1984.
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MICHON, Pierre, Vie de Joseph Roulin, Lagrasse, ditions Verdier, 1988.

MICHON, Pierre, Rimbaud, le fils, Paris, Gallimard, 1991.
MICHON, Pierre, La Grande Beune,Paris, Gallimard, 1996.
MICHON, Pierre, LEmpereur dOccident, Lagrasse, ditions Verdier, 2007.
RICHARD, Jean, Pierre, Les chemins de Pierre Michon, Lagrasse, ditions Verdier,
2007.
VALETTE, Bernard, Esthtique du roman moderne, Paris, ditions Nathan, 1993.
VIART, Dominique & VERCIER, Bruno, La littrature franaise au prsent, Paris,
ditions BORDAS, 2008.
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COUNTERCULTURE BETWEEN DEMOCRACY AND TOTALITARIANISM

Senida POENARIU
Transilvania University of Braov
Abstract: The emerging cultural movements of the young rebels against the Establishment
values are typically described by the term counterculture. The complexity and the
implications carried by the so-called counterculture, and the multitude of socio-political
context in which it appears requires some conceptual delimitation. The aim of this paper is to
observe the manifestations and transfigurations of the counterculture in a democratic but
also in a totalitarian regime. In doing so, I reduce all the uses of the term counterculture,
which typically occur in the field of cultural studies, to four major classes: applied counter
culture, contraculture, transient counterculture and alternative culture.
Keywords: counter culture, contraculture, alternative culture, totalitarian regime,
democracy.
Eclectismul fenomenelor social-culturale ce n mod convenional sunt plasate mai mult
sau mai puin adecvat sub termenul de contracultur, alturi de complexitatea infatigabil pe
care o presupune ncercarea unei edificri a semnificaiilor de baz, solicit cteva delimitri
conceptuale. Porind de la ntrebarea este contracultura un concept cu aplicabilitate exclusiv
asupra anilor '60 din America am clasificat multitudinea sensurilor atribuite contraculturii n
patru categorii, fiecare categorie aflndu-se n siajul teoreticianului care i-a oferit consisten:
counter culture descris de Theodore Roszak pe care am numit-o pentru precizie
terminologic contra-cultur aplicat, contraculture teoretizat de Yinger, respectiv
contracultura n termenii ei generali, fake counterculture i a sa teorie a co-optrii a lui
Thomas Frank pe care am denumit-o contracultur tranzitorie i cultura alternativ a lui
Adrain Marino. De asemenea am urmrit interaciunile, respectiv zonele de contact dintre
contra-cultura aplicat, contracultur, contracultura tranzitorie i cultura alternativ. n
tentativa de a gsi rspunsuri la ntrebarea ridicat, dincolo de o abordare semantic, respectiv
etimologic, necesar pentru a fixa ct mai precis implicaiile i aria de acoperire
semasiologic a contraculturii, am urmrit actanii de care fiecare teoretician menionat se
folosete pentru a atribui semnificaie conceptului pe care-l construiete, dar i sistemul politic
la care se raporteaz. Fiindc se ridic o alt problem. Putem pune semnul egalitii ntre
ceea ce numim convenional contracultur ntr-un regim democratic i contracultur ntr-un
regim totalitar? Este justificat folosirea aceluiai concept pentru a demarca micri
asemntoare n esen, dar care au loc n regimuri diferite? De fapt ct de asemntoare sunt
aceste micri protestatare? Suficient nct s fie denumite prin acelai concept?
Theodore Roszak i contra-cultura aplicat
De cte ori se discut despre o micarea mpotriva valorilor culturii majoritare,
sistemul de referin este evident micarea american a anilor '60 sau counter culture impus
de Roszak ca termen definitoriu pentru evenimentele ce au marcat societatea american. Am
pornit de la Theodore Roszak i implicit de la manifestul su The Making of a Counter
Culture pentru c, aproape fr excepie, fie i numai n treact, teoria sa este rezumat,
disecat i aplicat pe un spaiu cultural care nu prezint nicio similitudine cu realitatea
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social, cultural i politic tipic valului contracultural al Americii anilor '60, ca s nu mai
amintesc de spaiul totalitar care se plaseaz practic la polul opus. ntr-adevr se vorbete
despre o contracultur n spiritul celei americane, dar chiar i n aceste condiii, apelarea la
observaiile lui Roszak nu este cea mai fericit alegere pentru a argumenta existena unei
counter culture i aceasta deoarece teoreticianul i nvestete conceptul cu cteva trsturi
particulare ce-i limiteaz mult aria de aplicare.
Theodore Roszak i propune elaborarea, respectiv edificarea unei noiuni suficient de
precise pentru a acoperi o serie de manifestaii multiple ale tinerilor clasei de mijloc
delimitate foarte precis din punct de vedere spaial i temporal, i totodat suficient de
complexe pentru a permite analogii i extrapolri. Contient de pluralitatea fenomenelor pe
care le discut, respectiv de implicaiile att de ordin social, ct i politic i cultural, Roszak
nu delimiteaz, ci, printr-o abordare conjugat, minuioas, propune dou constante a cror
existen legitimeaz contra-cultura: tehnocraia1 i existena unei rupturi ireconciliante ntre
generaia adult i cea tnr.
O disjuncie cultural. Pe de-o parte generaia adult ca exponeni ai unei mentaliti
tehnocratice i la polul opus revoltata generaie tnr ce s-ar caracteriza prin dou atitudini:
una boem, psihedelic, proprie beatnicilor i hipioilor i cealalt ramur dur a micrii,
New Left2, o ramur a activismului politic. Caius Dobrescu n Modernitatea Ultim descrie
fugitiv aceste dou mari aripi, prima dintre ele fiind ndreptat mpotriva oricrui cadru
conceptual i a oricrui concept3 premisa fiind aceea a atingerii unui ideal milenarist al
libertii, n timp ce micarea pro democraie participativ are origini neomarxiste, agenda
fiind lupta mpotriva rasismului i a instituirii drepturilor civile egale.
Cu alte cuvinte, se poate discuta despre counter culture sau despre contra-cultur
aplicat a putea adauga pentru a oferi un plus de precizie conceptual n limba romn, doar
n condiiile existenei unei societi tehnocratice i a unei disjuncii culturale de natura celei
descrise mai sus, Roszak simind nevoia s-i revendice uzitarea conceptului n ediia din
1995 a eseului su.
Dac Theodore Roszak descrie n 1969 oarecum retrospectiv micarea contracultural
n datele ei foarte precise ale societii americane, Milton Yinger n 1960 realizeaz o
distincie ntre subculture i contraculture. Roszak prefer prefixul counter de provenien
francez, n timp ce Yinger apeleaz la forma de baz, latin: contra. Dincolo de proveniena
lor, n definitiv i n limba francez tot din latin provine, nu sunt diferene majore de
semnificaie. Cu toate acestea se poate observa o nuan uor distinct identificat, ns nu i
teoretizat, de Edward Newenham Hoare n Exotics: Or, English Words Derived from Latin
Roots: contra ar avea sensul de against sau in opposition to n timp ce counter ar avea mai
degrab sensul de oppose to. Contra ar presupune aadar o relaie interacional mai
accentuat dect Counter. Nu cred ca este cazul s speculm asupra cauzalitilor preferinelor
celor doi teoreticieni pentru unul dintre aceste prefixe calificative. Cred c mai important este
Prin tehnocraie Roszak descrie forma social prin care o societate industrial atinge practic apogeul integrrii
organizaionale. Politica, educaia, media, cultura n ansamblul ei, chiar i aa-zisele proteste mpotriva
tehnologiei conlucreaz pentru a asigura un nou organism social a crui existan este dependent de
capacitatea meninerii regulate a btilor inimii tehnologice. (Rozsak, 1969: 5-6) t.n Fiind un produs al
progresului tehnologic i al etosului sciinific, tehnocraia ar nltura categoriile politice tradiionale, Roszak
catalognd tehnocraia drept o perfecionare a totalitarismului, tehnicile sale subliminale avnd o putere
incredibil de constrngere, ns nu prin for brut, ci prin arm. Principiile promovate de tehnocraie ar fi trei:
nevoile umane de baz sunt pur tehnice n esen, prin urmare orice problem are o soluie tehnic, altfel nu e o
problem real; satisfacerea nevoilor a atins un procent de 99 la sut, consumerismul fiind cel promovat de
aceast dat, i nu n ultimul rnd conformismul: experii care au gsit rspunsuri la toate nevoile i care
continu s asigure bunstarea populaiei sunt singurii care merit ascultai fr alte discuii sau ntrebri.
2
Noua Stng, t.n.
3
Caius Dobrescu, Modernitatea Ultim, editura Univers, Bucureti, 1998, p. 105
1
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s observm care sunt semnificaiile pe care acetia le plaseaz n sfera conceptului pe care-l
delimiteaz.
Contracultur, subcultur i rol social
Contraculture lui Yinger pe care din lipsa alternativelor n limba romn o voi numi
neinspirat contracultur are o putere mult mai mare de extrapolare i analogie, i aceasta
deoarece punctul de raportare nu este unul fix ca n cazul contra-culturii aplicate a lui Roszak.
n acest caz am putea nlocui foarte uor culture cu technocracy i am obine counter
technocracy.
n eseul Contraculture and Subculture4 Yinger reduce multitudinea ntrebuinrilor
termenului subculture la trei clase majore, ultima clas consitituind ceea ce el numete
contraculture. Prima categorie circumscrie mediul antropologic n care termenul de
subcultur apare ca fiind echivalentul preculturii. Natura uman surprins n datele ei
biologice i sociale la un anumit stagiu al dezolvarii unei sociti, subcultura precednd
cultura. A doua definiie a subculturii, spre deosebire de prima, prezint interes pentru studiul
de fa. Termenul este folosit, susine Yinger, pentru a puncta sistemul normativ al grupurilor
mai mici dect o societate n ansamblul ei. Accentele cad asupra diferenelor lingvistice,
religioase, axiologice stabilite n raport cu dominantele sociale. Att enclavele etnice ct i un
grupurile de prieteni / gtile, clanurile pot fi considerate subculturi.
Contraculture se individualizeaz de subcultur prin natura sa profund conflictual.
n momentul n care regulile care guvereaz o subcultur sunt declanate de conflictul cu
normele societii n ansamblul ei, aceasta devine contracultur. Yinger atribuie contraculturii
nu doar o dimensiune cultural ca n cazul subculturii ci i una social-psihologic. Dac
contra-cultura aplicat a lui Roszak este o reacie mpotriva normelor tehnocratice, Yinger i
organizeaz demonstraia n jurul rolului social care este that part of a full culture that is
assigned, as the appropriate rights and duties, to those occupying a given position. These
rights and duties usually interlock into a system with those of persons who occupy other
positions. They are known to and accepted by all those who share the culture.5 Raportat la
rolul social general acceptat, subcultura se difereniaz de acesta printr-o serie de reguli
interne, contracultura ducnd aceast difereniere n sfera conflictului i a opoziiei fie.
Existena ei i are cauzalitatea n conturararea unor reguli de guvernare ce deriv direct din
relaia de frond cu rolul social prestabilit.
Apare n aceast ecuaia i variabila social-psihologic, Yinger vorbind de implicarea
unor factori ai personalitii6 n dezvoltarea i meninerea unor valori unice: I suggent the use
of the term contraculture wherever the normative system of a group contains, as a primary
element, a theme of conflict with the values of the total society, where personality variables
are directly involved in the development and maintenance of the group's values, and wherever
its norms can be understood only by reference to the relationships of the group to a
surrounding dominant culture.7
Yinger nu explic ce nelege prin variabilele
Milton Yinger, Contraculture and Subculture n American Sociological Review, vol. 25, nr. 5, pp. 625-635.
Ibidem, pp. 627-628: acea parte a culturii oficiale care este atribuit, sub forma drepturilor i a ndatoririlor
tipice unei anumite poziii sociale. Aceste drepturi i ndatoriri de obicei interacioneaz n interiorul aceluiai
sistem cu beneficiile i obligaiile deintorilor unor poziii diferite. Sunt cunoscute i acceptate de toi membrii
culturii respective. (t.n.)
6
Yinger plaseaz discuia i n sfera subculturii adolescenilor care se poate transforma n delicvena
contracultural ca urmare a unei etape n dezvoltarea personalitii, ns aceast situaie particular se
ndeprteaz de sfera de interes a eseului de fa, Yinger dorind s arate transfigurrile i totodat tranziiile ce
iau natere ntre subcultur i contracultur.
7
Propun folosirea termenului contracultur de fiecare dat cnd sistemul normativ al unui grup presupune, ca
element de baz, o tem conflictual n raport cu valorile societii general acceptate, cnd variabilele
4
5
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personalitii, respectiv dimensiunea socio-psihologic, ns cu siguran acesta avea n

vedere micarea tinerilor i a adolescenilor cnd vorbea de contracultur, de acea latur
personalizat a ei n care tinerii i definesc un nou mod de a privi att existena n
complexitatea ei, ct i constrngerile normelor sociale. Dincolo de aceasta, legitimitatea
plasrii unei micri n siajul contraculturii, s-ar reduce n accepia lui Yinger la dou
elemente: o tem profund conflictual, motivat de acesta prin folosirea prefixului contra i
stricta dependen de raportare la cultura dominant, descris aici sub forma rolului social.
Regulile ei de guvernare nu sunt altceva dect o oglindire invers, dialogat a spune,
a normelor sociale prestabilite. Ea nu poate funciona dect ntr-un cadru naional, politic i
cultural foarte bine delimitat care i determin poziia. Subcultura transcende aceste limitri
pstrndu-si statutul n societi diferite. Sistemul de raportare este invers, din interior spre
exterior. O subcultur i are propriul set de valori stabilit independent, care ajunge sau nu, s
fie diferit ntr-o msur mai mare sau mai mic de normele generale. Un bun exemplu n acest
sens sunt minoritile naionale care se definesc printr-o individualitate generat intern i carei pstreaz aceast aceast individualitate indiferent de mediul social, naional, politic i
cultural n care se afl. Minoritatea sseasc din Romnia va rmne subcultur n orice ar
s-ar afla, foarte probabil i n Germania. Pe de alt parte micarea hippy sau New Left i
gsete raiunea de a fi n realitatea cultural american, mai precis n anumite valori
vernaculare pe care nu doar le neag, ci i propune alternative pe care le triete. Se definete
n raport cu ele. Nu are la baz anumite norme interne care ajung n cele din urm s devin
opuse valorilor oficiale, ci normele interne sunt construite dup ce valorile oficiale nu mai
satisfac anumite nevoi. Contracultura ia natere din opoziie i nu se mulumete doar s
constate, ci triete sub forma unui manifest ordinea social inversat. Poziia luat de tinerii
americani mpotriva guvernrii de ordin tehnocratic sau contra-cultura aplicat a lui Roszak ar
fi aadar o form particular a contraculturii n termenii ei generali, Roszak avnd grij s
arate specificitatea micrii americane n comparaie cu micrile tinerilor din Europa de Vest.
Tocmai de accea, cred c atunci cnd se discut despre contracultur n statele Europei de
Vest, n cazul Estului lucrurile se complic, teoria lui Yinger este cea care permite incluziuni.
Contracultura tranzitorie
Thomas Frank n The Conquest of Cool. Business Culture, Counterculture, and the
Rise of Hip Consumerism plaseaz motivaia rebeliunii contraculturale nu n sfera tehnocraiei
ci pune pe mas un nou concept ambigu: mass society. Contracultura este portretizat ca
fiind o micare mpotriva societii de mas americane promovat de media, mai ales n forma
ei televizat.
Traseul contraculturii ca reacie mpotriva culturii, respectiv a societii de mas, s-ar
sfri prin co-optarea i transfigurarea miturilor contraculturii de mass culture/ mass society
prin intermediul media: modelul liderilor republicani precum i cel al tinerilor rebelii este
folosit de industria media att pentru reclame, ct i pentru a ilustra ideea general a vieii n
cyber-revoluie, cinematografia fiind de asemenea invadat de mitul rebeliunii, al liberatorului
ce se opune societii de mas. Nike apeleaz la aforismele lui William S. Burroughs,
simbolurile pcii (hippy) decoreaz pachete de igri i pereii cafenelelor Starbucks, Apple,
IBM i Microsoft sunt mrci ale libertii, industria muzical se hrnete din micrile
personalitii sunt direct implicate n dezolvarea i meninerea valorilor grupului, i atunci cnd normele sale pot
fi nelese doar prin raportarea la relaia pe care grupul o stabilete cu o cultur dominant. (t.n.) Milton Yinger,
Contraculture and Subculture n American Sociological Review, vol. 25, nr. 5, pp. 629.
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subversive ale tinerilor, Pepsi-Cola ncearc revitalizarea Woodstck-ului, chiar i ruinele

idealismului nobil al Noii Stngi este vndut Hollywood-ului8.
Acest simulacru este numit de Frank fake counterculture, rspunsul ingenios al
societii de mas n faa ameninrii contraculturii. Nu voi discuta dimensiunea
conspiraional / milenarist a teoriei co-optrii lui Thomas Frank, aa cum nu am fcut-o nici
n cazul lui Roszak, deoarece cred c ar fi o divagaie. De asemenea, nu cred c este vorba de
o contracultur fals aa cum o catalogheaz Frank ci de primii pai ai transfigurrii unei
anumite ramuri a contraculturii n mainstream, media acionnd ca un conductor. Am numit
aceast etap liminal contracultur tranzitorie. Frank nu-i explic foarte clar conceptele,
concentrandu-se pe surprinderea ct mai multor elemente/ mituri ce i au proveniena n
interiorul micrii contraculturale care ulterior au fost preluate de industria societii de mas.
Acum se ridic cteva ntrebri: care este natura relaiei dintre micarea
contracultural i media? Ne este cunoscut modul ingenios al beatnicilor, de exemplu, de a-i
orchestra evenimentele astfel nct s beneficieze de ct mai mult atenie din partea
publicului. Ct de justificat este n aceast ecuaie introducerea culturii de mas? Chiar
conceptul de cultur/ societate de mas ridic anumite probleme. Nu m voi concentra n acest
eseu pe aceste ntrebri, mi propun s o fac ntr-un studiu viitor. Dar, cu siguran, aceste
interaciuni dintre contracultur i cultur de mas prezint interes.
Cultura alternativ, contracultura i totalitarismul
Adrian Marino n Politica i cultura. Pentru o nou cultur romn descrie
realitatea cultural totalitar plasnd la poli opui cultura oficial - cultura alternativ. Cultura
oficial ar fi un sistem de valori oficiale, de stat, i ierarhizarea strict oficial a acestor
valori9, cu instituii foarte bine organizate care o conduce prin intermediul msurilor
legislative i administrative, ca n cele din urm cultura s devin o problem de stat, o
proprietate a statului dependent de bugetul de stat.10 Cultura alternativ ar fi cultura
independent, paralel, autonom, neconvenional (underground), pluralist, privatizat
(...). Sensul su fundamental este cultivarea i aprarea pe toate planurile, a ideei de
diefereniere, alteritate i particularitate, prin creaii libere de orice constrangere exterioar.
Ceea ce presupune, n mod esenial, ieirea i depirea organic i autentic a ideii de norm
teoretic i practic, sub toate aspectele, ignorarea i chiar sfidarea canoanelor, clieelor,
instruciunilor i indicaiilor preioase de orice grad11.
Cultura alternativ, pentru a exista, are nevoie de modelul societii democratice,
pluraliste ntemeiat pe drepturile omului, societate diametral opus celei totalitariste care o
circumscrie. Nu-i expune programul printr-o opoziie fi, ca n cazul contraculturii, ci
coexist, fiind expresia unei contiine critice, n forme latente sau declarate, totdeauna
paralele, niciodat suprimate.12 Exist totui forme ale culturii alternative n datele ei trasate
de Marino n societatea democratic? Dac n societatea represiv cultura alternativ propune
libertatea mpotriva constrngerilor, n cazul democraiei, cultura alternativ, susine Marino,
s-ar folosi de libertate (de un anumit coninut) pentru a desfiina libertatea (creia i dm,
n acelai timp, un alt coninut)13, descriind pentru a marca acest fapt ceea ce am numit
anterior contracultur tranziional: ... acest timp de contestare, de avangard, este
8
Thomas Frank, The Conquest of Cool. Business Culture, Counterculture, and the Rise of Hip Consumerism,
The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1997, pp.4-5.
9
Adrian Marino, Politica i cultura. Pentru o nou cultur romn, Editura Polirom, Iai, 1996, p.256
10
Ibidem, p.257
11
Ibidem, p. 280
12
Ibidem, p. 281
13
Ibidem, p. 288
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recuperat i transformat n clieu, n stil i chiar n produs comercial i editorial, vandabil

ca oricare altul. Deci, ntr-o form cultural integrat i adaptat a societii de tip liberal14.
Fenomene diferite ntre care nu se poate pune semnul egalitii.
Cultura alternativ ncearc oglindirea sistemului democratic n mijlocul
totalitarismului. Este direct legat de aceast schem fiind o form a rezistenei. Cultura
alternativ coexist n paralel dup cum i sugereaz i numele, privind n afara valorilor
totalitare de care este nconjurat la modelul opus, preexistent, pentru a-i extrage substana
Forma integrat i adaptat societii de tip liberal a culturii alternative pe care o
menioneaz Marino este de fapt contracultura descris n termenii lui Yinger. Diferena
dintre cultura alternativ i contracultur nu este una ce vizeaz doar libertatea de exprimare,
ci vorbim att de cauzaliti (evident) diferite dar i de reguli de guvernare diferite.
Contracultura ia natere prin interrelaionare opoziional cu valorile mainstream. Ea nu poate
fiina dect n cadrul unui regim democratic care permite, i chiar ncurajeaz prin natura lui
competiia dintre formele culturale independente ce n definitiv, contient sau nu, atenteaz la
poziia de mainstream. Nu are un model prestabilit pe care ncearc s-l reconstruiasc. Este o
etap, declanat intern, n dezvoltarea societii respective. Cultura alternativ pe de alt
parte ncearc practic reconstruirea valorilor pierdute. O racordare, respectiv recuperare a
valorilor occidentale, democratice.
Bibliografie
Braunstein, P, Doyle William Michael (eds.), Imagine Nation. The American
Counterculture of the 1960s & '70, Routledge, New York, 2002
Brownell, Richard, American Counterculture of the 1960s, Lucent Books, Farmington
Hills, 2011
Dobrescu, Caius, Modernitatea Ultim, editura Univers, Bucureti, 1998
Ducombe, Stephen, Notes from Underground: zines and the politics of alternative
culture, Microcosm Publishing, Bloomington, 2008.
Frank, Thomas, The Conquest of Cool. Business Culture, Counterculture, and the Rise
of Hip Consumerism, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1997
Gair, Christopher, The American Counterculture, Edinburgh University Press,
Edinburgh, 2007
Gray, Timothy, Gary Snyder and the Pacific Rim, Creating counter-cultural
community, University of Iowa Press, Iowa City, 2006
Marino, Adrian, Politica i cultura. Pentru o nou cultur romn, Editura Polirom,
Iai, 1996
Martinez, Luis, Manuel, Countering the Counterculture, The University of Wisconsin
Press, Winsconsin, 2003
Roszak, Theodore, The Making of a Counter Culture. Reflections on the Technocratic
Society and Its Youthful Opposition, Anchor Books, Doubleday & Company, Inc., New York,
1969
Yinger, Milton, Contraculture and Subculture n American Sociological Review,
vol. 25, nr.5, 1960
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: This paper is supported by the Sectoral Operational
Programme Human Resources Development (SOP HRD), ID134378 financed from the
European Social Fund and by the Romanian Government.
14
Idem
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SYMBOLICS OF LIGHT AND THE LIVING IN A POETIC MODE

Lorena-Valeria STUPARU
Romanian Academy, Bucharest
Abstract: In this paper I aim to analyze through a few examples of religious and poetic
symbolism of light how are articulated the notion of human creative habitation with the
postmodern concept of the world.
Keywords: poetical habitation, versions of the world, light, transcendence, suggestion.
n sfera postmodern a noiunii de locuire traductibil n limbajul unei antropologii
constructiviste i al unei hermeneutici ncreztoare drept coexisten panic a unor culturi,
forme i stiluri diferite, i pot gsi locul universuri i versiuni ale lumii (Nelson Goodman)
multiple, n condiiile n care, aa cum arat William E. Paden, lumea include tot ceea ce
este constitutiv situaiei locative a omului, integrnd noiuni precum societate, istorie,
cultur, limbaj, sisteme1.
Acest nou concept holistic de lume care include formele de organizare i de expresie
proprii lumii vieii permite o mai bun nelegere a locuirii n chip poetic n termenii
deschiderii ctre o lume n care zeii nu au murit, ordine ultim care poate fi gsit n poezie
aa cum demonstreaz Heidegger, ordine n care omul religios/credincios se aeaz de la
bunul nceput al contiinei sale de sine. Configurarea lumii umane ca deschidere ctre timpul
i spaiul sacre locuite de zei pune n ecuaie ordinea particular a existenei cu ordinea ultim
a lumii care la Heidegger poate fi gsit n poezie. n textele Holderlin i esena poeziei,
La ce bun poei, Limba n poem filosoful german arat cum n limba vie i accesibil
sensibilitii universale a poeziei se exprim cel mai bine Fiina, adic nelesul ei ordonator
de lumi posibile individuale, n rezonan cu Creaia: care nu ncape niciodat sub cupola
gndirii, pentru a se adposti, n mod neateptat i fugitiv n cortul textului poetic. i nu att
la scara universului este spectaculoas funcia ontologic a limbajului poetic, ci la nivelul
receptrii individuale, unde poemul construit ntr-o anumit viziune ntemeiaz, regsindu-i
esena de ctitorie a Fiinei mplinit cu ajutorul cuvntului, dup cum observa Heidegger:
Rostirea poetului nu este ctitorie numai n sensul liberei druiri, ci totodat i n sensul
ntemeierii ferme a Dasein-ului uman pe temeiul su. Faptul c rostirea este ctitorie
nseamn c aduce fiina n prezen, care, tradiional, are i semnificaia de existen2.
Despre creaiile literare i artistice ca despre obiecte a cror pur esteticitate fundeaz
lumi s-a scris inclusiv din perspectiva hermeneuticii sacrului, aa cum o face, de exemplu,
Mircea Eliade care interpreteaz n mai multe rnduri lumile religioase drept creaii analoge
cu acelea ale poeilor, romancierilor, artitilor, capabile s exprime n aceeai msur esena
uman, prin spiritul creator de lumi destinate unei alte locuiri dect aceleia fizice 3. Micul
exerciiu comparativ cu Mircea Eliade vrea s spun c modul n care concepem locuirea (sau
locuirea n care ne complacem) ne exprim cel mai bine gndirea de fiine minunate,
William E. Paden, The Concept of World Habitation: Eliadean Linkages with a New Comparativism, in
Changing Religious Worlds. The Meaning and End of Mircea Eliade, Edited by Bryan Rennie, State University
of New York Press, 2001, p.263.
2 Martin Heidegger, Hlderlin i esena poeziei, Limba n poem n Originea operei de art, Traducere de
Gabriel Liiceanu i Thomas Kleininger, Bucureti, Editura Univers, 1983, pp. 200- 201, 259.
1
Mircea Eliade, Jurnal I, II, Bucureti, Humanitas, 1993.
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cuvnttoare i nsufleite, cinstite de Dumnezeu cu darul raiunii, dup cum spun Prinii
Bisericii.
Simbolul natural cel mai transparent n acest sens (al capacitilor omului i al
expunerii locuirii umane n planul lumii divine) este Lumina, matricea simbolurilor
spectaculare, vizibil n imaterialitatea ei, care ne trimite la idealitatea ei, cea dinti n
creaie, att n perspectiv religioas, ct i n perspectiv artistic.
Ca axiom a gndirii simbolice, legtura ntre lumina nepmnteasc i lumina
pmnteasc (fiindc Pmntul cteodat e frumos, cum spune Jacques Prvert), ntre
frumuseea nepieritoare i frumuseea pieritoare se regsete deopotriv n plan religios i
estetic, n coninut i n form - att la nivelul revelaiei i concepiilor filosofice, ct i la
acela al creaiei cu speciile ei.
Bunoar, estetica ce deriv din poetica luminii elaborat de Dionisie PseudoAreopagitul n tratatul Despre ierarhia cereasc, apreciat ca cel mai important monument
mistic de gndire cretin (Georges Duby) - nu a rmas undeva, n timp, numai la arhitectura
i decoraiunile interioare ecleziastice, n cazul crora intenia aplicrii unui model perfect era
evident. Din aceeai teologie a luminii se inspir, consecutiv, sau o servesc involuntar o
mulime de poeme sau tablouri moderne i postmoderne. Nu numai monumentele sau
obiectele din metal i pietre preioase care strlucesc n splendoarea catedralelor pot nla
sufletul de la creat la increat, dar i cuvntul sau imaginea profane n corporalitatea lor pot fi
repere pe un traseu al iluminrii, dac sunt citite sau privite cu atenie i inteligen, cu plcere
estetic sau cu dragostea unei inimi simple. La fel, toate fpturile, potrivit cu modelul mistic
mai sus pomenit, reflect n proporii diferite Lumina absolut i iubitoare de frumusee ce li
s-a transmis prin Creaie. Pentru pmnteni, a iubi frumuseea devine astfel numitorul comun
al atitudinii religioase, n spe mistice, i al atitudinii artistice, n spe poetice. Pentru
credinciosul care vede n simbol o prezen vie, realiznd continuitatea ntre realitatea actual
i realitatea absolut, frumuseea lumii n care toate stau n lumin este obiect al veneraiei, al
nchinrii, al cntrii. Iar artistul a crui sensibilitate tresare la frumusee, nu poate ignora
principiul luminii care st la baza oricrei forme vizibile. Aceste antiteze, crora li s-ar putea
altura altele, au, firete, numai un rost tehnic, finalizat n sinteza pe care o fac posibil:
pentru c poi simi o emoie artistic n faa unui fapt religios, tot aa cum poi avea o trire
religioas n faa unui fapt artistic, fr a suferi de inadecvare.
Urmnd aceste principii voi ncerca un traseu, fr pretenia de a merge pn la capt
sau de a fi convingtoare, sub semnul impresiei personale deopotriv n ordinea interpretrii
i a ierarhizrii anumitor fapte livreti care pot fi descoperite n cele mai accesibile surse cu
putin.
ntietate are, chiar i n aceast ordine subiectiv, lumina-teofanie, deoarece n
aceast ipostaz lumina implic o ampl micare plin de coninut, deopotriv creatoare i
restauratoare, potrivit credinei cretine: 1. La nceput era Cuvntul i Cuvntul era la
Dumnezeu i Dumnezeu era Cuvntul.() 9. Cuvntul era Lumina cea adevrat care
lumineaz pe tot omul care vine in lume. (Din Sfnta Evanghelie dup Ioan). Lumin din
lumin, Dumnezeu adevrat din Dumnezeu adevrat, nscut, nu fcut; Cel de o fiin cu Tatl,
prin Care toate s-au fcut (Din Crezul sau Simbolul Credinei). Venii s luai Lumin!
(nvierea Domnului).
n ce msur se potrivete aceast mereu rennoit revelaie a crerii lumii i vieii cu certa cea discursiv despre simbolurile sau simbolica luminii ? n niciun fel, am fi tentai
s spunem cu gndul la fiina ntru mister, dac teologii nu ar fi afirmat c actul de
automanifestare divin se numete Teofanie (Grigore de Nazians i Sfntul Maxim
Mrturisitorul), dac ei nu ar fi artat cum pentru Dumnezeu a se automanifesta sau a se
revela nseamn a crea (Ioan Scotus Eriugena), adic a ilumina, a se face vizibil, recognoscibil
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datorit fiinelor i lucrurilor care sunt lumini, mai intense sau mai slabe, mai aprinse sau mai
stinse.
Lumea ntemeiat pe principiul luminii este totodat i o lume n care frumuseile sunt
emanate de acelai principiu, cel puin n viziunea clasic, frumosul fiind la Dionisie PseudoAreopagitul (din care descinde mai trziu Eriugena), aa cum era odinioar la Platon, unul
dintre numele divine. La Platon virtutea uman de a diviniza fiina iubit i, mai mult, de a
re-cunoate divinitatea din lucrurile sensibile se datoreaz luminii pe care acestea o eman,
razei frumuseii care le strlumineaz, amintind-o astfel pe aceea absolut, al crei atribut
principal este strlucirea (Phaidros, 250a-252a); totodat, aceast disponibilitate pentru
nsufleire, pentru ndrgostire, pentru naripare i renatere spiritual se datoreaz legturii
dintre lumin i frumuseea luntric (doar prin conjuncia lor are loc iluminarea ndrgostit).
Pentru Dionisie Pseudo-Areopagitul frumosul are n plus calitatea simbolic de a se distribui,
ntr-o prim micare, ca lumin, n toate lucrurile potrivit cu firea lor i apoi de a le strnge
laolalt, de a le aduna la un loc n virtutea proprietii unice a splendorii i armoniei a cror
cauz este, rsfrngnd asupra tuturor n form de lumin comunicrile productoare de
frumusee ale razei sale primordiale4.
Aadar armonia prezent n desvrita creaie este rezultatul unei micri
descendente a Luminii absolute, micare simbolic pentru c aceasta distribuindu-se n toate
fpturile, raportndu-le la msura Dumnezeului n acelai timp Lumin, Cuvnt, Iubire i Duh
Sfnt fgduit le unete n comuniunea de credin. neleas astfel, armonia este o legtur
invizibil ntre cer i pmnt, ntre luminile oamenilor i lumina divin. Ea este totodat
efectul estetic al iubirii care adun lucrurile sub aceeai lumin, situndu-le astfel printre
cele demne de a sta aici n numele lui Dumnezeu. i este de la sine neles c reamintirea sau
recunoaterea n lumin a frumuseii dumnezeieti este un dar prefigurat n vrsta arhaic a
umanitii.
Pe direcia platonician a celor bune ca specii ale Binelui consubstanial iubirii,
lumina se afl acolo unde Binele, transcendent fiinei, este printele Soarelui. Mai trziu, la
Plotin, Binele Perfect, aflat deasupra Frumosului (reprezentabil, ca si la Platon, prin ceea ce
iubim) este realitatea la care toate fiinele sunt conectate (Enneades, VIII), este Unul,
Izvorul primordial de lumin din care eman treapt cu treapt, prin intermediul principiului
Inteligenei (primul act al Binelui) toate cele existente.
Lumina este Teofania prin excelen nu numai n filosofia cretin. Divinitatea
suprem se manifest ca teofanie luminoas n toate religiile, de la egipteanul Ra i iranianul
Ahura Mazda, la zeul Faro al populaiei Bambara, Zeus nsui lund la un moment dat
nfiarea unei ploi aurii i exemplele ar putea continua.
Pe de alt parte, aceste teofanii luminoase i gsesc corespondene n simbolurile
spectaculare (cum numete Gilbert Durand simbolurile luminii, cu un termen mprumutat
de la Badouin, care desemna astfel simbolurile care reunesc capacitatea de a vedea i a ti
n cadrul unei intense valorificri a supraeului)5. Iar aceast coresponden este posibil
datorit continuitii dintre teofanie i simbol pentru c cele mai multe hierofanii i teofanii
devin simboluri, iar acestea din urm le prelungesc dialectica pn la continuarea procesului
de hierofanizare (adic de sacralizare a profanului, de ndumnezeire a lumii): Simbolul
realizeaz solidaritatea permanent a omului cu sacralitatea este una dintre concluziile lui
Eliade, impecabil demonstrat n sistemul su; iar observaia potrivit creia oricare ar fi natura
i intensitatea luminii, ea se transform ntotdeauna ntr-o revelaie religioas nu face dect s
4 Dionisie Pseudo-Areopagitul, Despre numele divine, Traducere de Cicerone Iordchescu i Theofil Simensky,
Iai, Institutul European, 1993, pp. 76-77.
5 Gilbert Durand, Structurile antropolgice ale imaginarului, Traducere de Marcel Aderca, Bucureti, Editura
Univers, 1997.
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ntreasc aceast concluzie. Ea accentueaz caracteristica simbolului viu de a se mbogi cu

noi semnificaii, de a primi noi interpretri, de a nu rmne pur i simplu document sau
categorie cu ajutorul crora este neleas hierofania, de a se deschide creaiei. O astfel de
deschidere o reprezint valorificarea experienei interioare a luminii n medii religioase i
nereligioase. Capitolul Experiene ale luminii mistice din Mefistofel i Androginul este un
comentariu istorico-religios al experienei spontane a luminii care apare n vis sau n urma
unei iniieri. Pe parcursul acestui capitol, oscilaia ntre valoarea de principiu subiectiv a
experienei spirituale a luminii ca simbol gnoseologic i valoarea sa ontologic are traiectoria
unui pendul perfect reglat. Studiul ncepe prin consemnarea visului unui negustor american,
vis populat cu fiine nvluite n lumin, la captul cruia subiectul contientizeaz prezena
Mntuitorului. Acest exemplu, decodificat psihanalitic, se traduce prin deplasarea
religiozitii omului modern spre nivelurile cele mai profunde ale sinelui (incontientul este
ntotdeauna religios!), iar din punct de vedere al filosofiei religiilor, prin accesul la un alt mod
de a fi: cel care triete o astfel de experien se nate din nou, ncepe o nou via, i
transform radical existena (comerciantul nostru devine vizionar), fcnd-o s se deschid
spre lumea spiritului.
Aadar, i n deschiderea religioas ctre lumea spiritului (tangent cu fiina) se
petrece o mutaie ontologic i odat cu aceasta o alt locuire se configureaz. Trebuie
consemnat aici varianta literar oferit de Eliade nsui, att pe tema valorificrii
gnoseologice a luminii, ct i a schimbrii de statut ontologic n urma unei experiene de data
aceasta violent, de natur fizic, aa cum triete Dominic Matei, personajul din Tineree
fr tineree. Venerabilul profesor de latin este trznit n noaptea de nviere i n urma
acestui accident ntinerete radical, dobndind totodat miraculoase capaciti cognitive i
vitale: vede dup glasuri, altfel spus, reconstituie chipuri dup voce, este hipermnezic,
nva chineza i fel de fel de dialecte orientale n timpul unor vise didactice, ajunge la
tehnica beatitudinilor simple, a cror veridicitatea st n talentul scriitorului. Valoarea
gnoseologic, mutaia ontologic, revelaia luminii creatoare formeaz numitorul comun al
experienelor implicnd acest principiu: lumina solidificat a vindectorilor australieni,
lumina creatoare din hinduism, concentrarea n lotusul inimii prin care se ajunge la o
experien de lumin pur, luminile mistice din Yoga, strlucirea i ascensiunea lui Buddha,
al crui trup mprtie raze de lumin, lumina limpede simboliznd n acelai timp realitatea
ultim i contiina nirvanic din Maha-Yana, omul i cosmosul deopotriv alctuite din
lumin n mitologia tibetan, cristalizarea luminii n forma Florii de Aur din mediile taoiste,
Lumina Schimbrii la fa a lui Hristos pe muntele Tabor model transcendent al perfeciunii
spirituale. Transfiguraia, reamintete Eliade, este fundamentul ntregii mistici i teologii
cretine a luminii divine: ea este misterul central al teologiei lui Palama, dar i revelaia lui
Pavel pe drumul Damascului, experiena sfntului Ioan al Crucii sau strlucirea de pe chipul
Venerabilei Serafina di Dio n timpul rugciunilor i dup mprtanie sau, n ordinea unei
fenomenologii epifanice, extazul lui Jakob Bhme provocat de reflexul soarelui pe suprafaa
unei farfurii. Sau, conform relatrilor directe, lumina pe care o vd clugrii isihati n timpul
rugciunii. Este vorba de o iluminare spontan, de un dar divin, de o stare spiritual proprie
misticilor care ajung la ea pe ci ezoterice, i poeilor care ajung la ea prin iubire sau prin
convertire religioas cel puin a poeziei scrise de poet dac nu a poetului nsui, orientare n
sens sacral, fie nscut (rezultat al unei autentice dispoziii religioase, chiar i atunci cnd
poetul i propune numai un mesaj imanent), fie fcut, (rezultat al unei voine formative).
Nu poezia ncadrat de regul n curentul simbolist este cea mai reprezentativ aici,
cu toate c simbolitii vehiculeaz un limbaj secret asemenea doctrinelor religioase sau
mistice, cu toate c ei se revendic uneori de la un Credo de factur neoplatonician,
precum cel al lui Stuart Merill, potrivit cruia poeii sunt aceia crora li se reveleaz Ideea
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etern a Frumuseii, disimulat sub formele trectoare ale Vieii imperfecte6. Potrivit acestei
mentaliti, poetul redescoper eficacitatea magic a cuvintelor crora, ca i n cazul formelor
rituale, li se atribuie o for creatoare. Credina n condiia privilegiat a poetului deintor al
cheii sensului misterios al lucrurilor (motenit de la romantici) implic ns o nou viziune
a Frumuseii eterne. Astfel c simbolitii opereaz o selecie a lucrurilor care corespund ideii
de frumos, n urma creia frumosul preexistent descrierii este suspendat n favoarea
frumosului inventat cu mijloacele imaginaiei, pornind de la intuiia corespondenelor
ascunse. Lucrurile care stau pentru aceast nou idee a frumuseii sunt acelea care re-creeaz
realitatea dup ordinea sufletului i imaginaiei artistului care poate percepe n culoare, n
contur, n sunet i parfum un sens moral sau mistic, idee susinut programatic de
Baudelaire7 i subliniat n binecunoscutul poem Corespondene.
Alegerea acelor imagini care evoc un fapt spiritual subiectiv este cheia
simbolismului i pentru Mallarm: (...) a evoca puin cte puin un obiect pentru a dezvlui o
stare a sufletului; sau, invers, a alege un obiect i a desprinde din acesta o stare sufleteasc,
printr-o serie de descifrri8 i aici este vizibil nrudirea cu simbolismul religios n structura
cruia momentul epifanic este capital. n cazul poeziei convertite religios, universul
interior al artistului, experiena individual, simbolurile izvorte din incontient, sau
dimpotriv, contient construite, se ntlnesc cu simbolurile religioase care l leag pe artist
de o comunitate religioas mai vast (Michel Meslin). Filtrat printr-o experien
universal, experiena spiritual personal a poetului se aseamn cu aceea a unui mistic (pe
fa, sau dimpotriv, pe dos, cum este considerat Rimbaud de ctre Claudel), tot aa cum
misticul nsui este un fel de artist al experienei religioase (spre deosebire de lucrtorul,
filosoful sau omul de tiin al acesteia).
De la Psalmii lui David la Tnguirea... lui Trakl sau la Poemele luminii ale lui Blaga
(aceste exemple neexprimnd limita valoric sau istoric a simbolismului luminii manifestat
n poezie pe care l am n vedere n acest eseu, ci numai cteva dintre cazurile care mi sunt n
acest moment la ndemn, n afara raportrilor lui Gilbert Durand la Verlaine i Valery, la
Cntecul lui Roland i la Upaniade) poezia spectacular recompune realul n ordinea
bucuriei, iubirii i nelepciunii care capt form odat cu obiectul contemplat-iluminat.
Muli zic: Cine ne arat nou cele bune?. Dar s-a nsemnat peste noi lumina feei
Tale, Doamne! Dat-ai veselie n inima mea, mai mare dect veselia pentru rodul lor de gru,
de vin i de untdelemn ce s-a nmulit (David, Psalmi, 4, 6-7). Bucuria recunoaterii n
lumin a chipului dumnezeiesc al lumii este suportul fericirii de a fi n via i promisiunea
veniciei: Cci la Tine este izvorul vieii, ntru lumina Ta vom vedea lumin (Psalmi, 35,
9).
Aceeai lumin trece uneori i pe chipul fiinelor pmnteti pe care cei care le iubesc
le situeaz ntr-un fel n cer (aducndu-le jertfe precum unei imagini sfinte i unui zeu, cum
spune Platon) - i aici este o posibil semnificaie universal a cunoscutelor versuri ale lui
Blaga: Lumina ce-o simt/ nvlindu-mi n piept cnd te vd,/ oare nu e un strop din lumina/
creat n ziua dinti,/ lumina aceea-nsetat adnc de via? (Lumina).
Dincolo de sensul metafizic al luminii revelate prin iubire, exist un sens explicit
sacru al luminii revelate prin convertire cretin, ca n cazul acestor versuri, la fel de
cunoscute, scrise de Vasile Voiculescu: Ani de-a rndul/ M-am canonit s car lumina cu
gndul (...)/ Atunci ai trimis ngerul tu s-mi arate/ Izvorul luminii adevrate/(...)/ Au curs
6 Marie-Louise Astre, Franoise Colmez, Posie franaise. Anthologie critique, Paris, Bordas, 1982, p. 278.
7 Ibidem, p. 192.
8 Ibidem, p. 178.
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lacrimi multe i suspine/ Dar prin sprtura fcut-n mine/ Ca printr-un ochi de geam n zidul
greu,/ Soarele a nvlit nuntrul meu./ i cu el odat,/ Lumea toat (Lumintorul).
De la integrarea luminii n structura contiinei, mesajul poate trece, gradat, la
armonia dintre potenialul paradisiac al naturii imediate i acela al naturii umane: Ne ducem
prin tomnatice pduri,/ Tristeea s ne-o ardem n lumin (Lucian Blaga, Poveste); sau, fr a
nirvaniza ostentativ, la corespondena suprareal dintre imaginea de sine i reintegrarea
n lumina cosmic: Noi stini n soare ca ntr-o oglind/ ne cufundm n somn adnc(...)/
Poate am pierit n pntecul matern al tunetului (Gellu Naum, Timpurile de noapte).
Lumina fiind armonie, este totodat i echilibru, ca n versurile: Desvrit e calmul
acestei zile de aur (Georg Trakl, Elis); Luminoas-i linitea nopii./ Pe cmpia ntunecat/
ntlnim ciobani i stele albe (Trakl, Helian).
Ne putem nsui, ca prin operator hermeneutic n privina versurilor citate, dou dintre
observaiile pe care le fcea Borges n conferina Poezia sau frumuseea ca senzaie fizic, i
anume: Faptul de a avea un cuvnt pentru a reda aici (s.m., L.S.) senzaia de linite,
constituie deja o creaie estetic. Iar dac acesta este faptul, anume c n linitea nopii
iluminate de prezena stelelor albe i a pstorilor presimim evenimentul, acest lucru poate fi
exprimat ca atare n buna tradiie platonician a descoperirii-reamintire: Lucrurile sunt aa
cum sunt, iar datoria mea de poet este s le descopr9. Adic, n cazul exemplului nostru,
faptul de a avea adjectivul alb, simbolul privaiunii de culoare prin exces de lumin 10 i
totodat al fiinei divine ce nu are nevoie de determinaii, a Celui ce este, pe care l alturm
stelelor (faptul c ele exist n realitate i rsar noaptea n ntuneric pentru a lumina - ine de
manifestarea divin) i faptul c acestea se afl aici, n acelai plan cu pstorii (referent
simbolic esenial) se convertesc n imaginea de pace sufleteasc i bucurie (linitea
luminoas a nopii) din ateptarea mplinirii Bunei Vestiri.
n alt registru, aa cum pictura impresionist prin importana acordat momentului
zilei cu lumina ei i unghiului din care vede artistul bucica de lume - slujete poezia, aceasta
din urm, la rndul ei, poate comunica sensul adnc al impresionismului la fel de bine ca orice
act critic: Pdurea-n primvar-i o fresc luminoas/ Cu cerul plin de pete, subire i-aburit,/
Acum nti schiat de-o pensul sfioas/ Mijind, neisprvit, pe-un fond nedesluit./ (...)/ O
fresc luminoas i dulce-n primvar,/ Un mare triptic vara i toamna un panou,/ n friza de
zpad schimbat iarna iar/ Pdurea e de-a pururi acelai-alt tablou (Vasile Voiculescu,
Pdurea). Baudelaire mergea chiar mai departe, identificndu-se cu pictorul impresionist: n
voie, Primvara s-o chem n preajma mea,/ S scot cu voluptate din inim un soare/ i-un aer
cald s-mprtii din gnduri arztoare (Peisaj). O perpetu comunicare cu aerul i lumina se
regsete aici, ca i la pictorii impresioniti, un dialog ntre lumina din suflet i luminile ce se
cheam ntre ele din alte lumi, pentru a se recunoate reciproc ntr-o alt lumin, mbrcnd
toate lucrurile, obiecte-subiecte care, pierzndu-i pentru o clip identitatea, ne plaseaz dintro dat ntr-un univers tainic. Iar acesta la rndul lui poate fi sugerat n cuvinte, cum sunt
aceste ciudenii care mi reveleaz, pe lng sensul impresionismului de atitudine artistic
ncrcat religios, dimensiunea mistic a realitii la care are acces poeta n singurtatea ei
autoimpus: Un ceva-ntr-o vratec zi / Ct de-ncet fcliile ei ar muri/ M solemnizeaz./ Un
ceva-ntr-o vratec Amiaz/ Un adnc, un azur un parfum ce-a rmas/ De dincolo de extaze/
S-mi cobor privirea prea scruttoare/ Ca aceast Graie scnteietoare/ S nu plece prea
departe de mine (Emily Dickinson).
9 Jorge Luis Borges, Crile i noaptea, Traducere de Valeriu Pop, Iai, Editura Junimea, 1988, p.3.
10
Ren Gilles, Le Symbolisme dans lArt Religieux, Mercure de France, 1943, p. 87.
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Dac acel ceva numit de Trakl aurul zilelor lumina elementului cosmic este
valorificat de impresioniti estompnd culorile i contururile n galbenul strlucitor al acestui
aur, exist i o modalitate de a pune n eviden chiar lucrurile, componentele templului
natural al peisajului, pictndu-le cu lumina alb proiectat noaptea asupra lor. i n aceste
procedee ale picturii luminografice poate fi regsit nu numai o atitudine estetic
revoluionar, dar i una religioas, mai mult sau mai puin intenionat, de slav artistic a
Creaiei.
De la lumina alb, pur, acromatic prin care peisajul este purificat de noapte, de la
lumina-aur-al-zilelor, hierofanie a luminii adevrate, se revendic i metalele nu mai puin
preioase ale luminii, culorile, epifanii ale luminii absolute, alturi de alte succedanee
folosite de poei (G. Clinescu) precum fulgerul, cristalul, corpurile cereti, vntul, ceaa,
fumul, insectele fosforescente, cristalul, felinarul, lampa, becul, etc.
S-a spus despre culori c vin din lumin i din tenebre, deoarece odat cu creaia
rsetele luminii au curs peste ape (Upaniade, n.m.), fcnd s se retrag tenebrele i s
apar Natura colorat.11 Este astfel rezumat teoria culorilor elaborat de Goethe, fantezist
pentru scientiti, dar plin de promisiuni pentru fenomenologia imaginarului. Potrivit acesteia,
culorile se nasc din amestecul luminosului cu ntunericul, ele sunt fapte i suferine ale
luminii, iar finalmente reprezint victoria luminii n lupta cu ntunericul: O, aceste frumusei,
o, culorile/ ireductibile, sfinte ca zeii (Blaga). Dac sunt fapte ale luminii, sfinte ca zeii,
culorile au ele nsele semnificaii simbolice prin care se insereaz limbajului sacru al naturii i
culturii.
Iat cteva dintre acestea, interpretate de Ren Gilles n urma unui studiu minuios.
Culorile, spune acesta, ca i cuvintele, au cel puin trei sensuri diferite: ascuns (exprimat n
limba divin), aluziv (exprimat n limba sacr) i material (exprimat n limba profan). De
aceea, limbajul simbolist al culorilor ofer o tripl interpretare, dei la origine, limba lui
Dumnezeu este aceea a tuturor oamenilor. Astfel, n limbaj divin, albul (sau privaiunea de
culoare prin exces de lumin) este simbolul Celui ce este, al adevrului absolut, emanaia
strlucitoare a atotputerniciei divine; roul este culoarea focului i a iubirii divine, iar
mpreun cu albastrul simbolizeaz Duhul sau Spiritul Sfnt, regenerarea oamenilor prin
iubire i adevr; albastrul este culoarea aerului i a aripilor, simboliznd nelepciunea
manifest prin rsuflarea dumnezeiasc; galbenul simbolizeaz revelaia iubirii i a
nelepciunii lui Dumnezeu, transmis prin lumin i prin Cuvnt; verdele simbolizeaz
creaia i regenerarea. n limbaj profan, albul este imaginea virginitii, a inocenei i a
candorii, a castitii, a puritii; roul exprim spiritul rzboinic (sngeros); albastrul este
emblema fidelitii i a profunzimii; galbenul este culoare iubirii legitime, iar prin contrast, a
adulterului i geloziei; verdele, din culoare a speranei n nemurire, devine culoare a speranei
pur i simplu.
Ct privete culorile secundare, care intr n gama culorilor simbolice sau n aceea a
culorilor teriare, cteva semnificaii pot fi enumerate dup cum urmeaz: violetul, amestec
de rou i albastru, capt, n virtutea sensului simbolic al celor dou culori ce se echilibreaz
n compoziia sa, o semnificaie unind hyacintul i purpura: dragostea de adevr i adevrul
dragostei; oranjul, unind simbolul revelaiei, galbenul iubirii divine i roul, a semnificat
ntotdeauna revelaia acestei iubiri; negrul, opusul albului, este culoarea neantului, negaie a
luminii, culoarea spiritului rului; brunul, n compoziia cruia intr roul i negrul, este
simbolul focului infernal, opus focului divin, este simbolul trdrii; griul, format din negru i
alb, este simbolul morii terestre i al nemuririi spirituale.12Simbolismul culorilor (n variant
11 Ibidem.
12 Ibidem, pp. 83-133.
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sacr i divin) face i el parte din acelai limbaj simultan misterios i revelator, destinat s
dezvluie profanilor adevrurile sacre, pus n slujba operelor de art, al cror scop n trecut
era acela de a exprima ideea divinului, i nu impresiile personale ale autorului, strile sale
sufleteti, reamintete Ren Gilles.13
Cu toate acestea, revelatoare sunt, dup cum artam, impresiile personale, strile
sufleteti autentice ale artistului ele nsele epifanii ale prezenei divine n suferinele sau
bucuriile luminii manifestate n culori i transmise receptorului, cum este impresia
cromatic-liric din versuri ca acestea: Albastra primvar, sufletul o amuete(...) O, crucea
nverzind (Georg Trakl); sau: Rou-i Vpaia-disdiminea / Violetul e Miezul de zi /
Galbenul ziua-n scapt / Dup aceea Nimic-pe aci / Dar Mile de Scnteieri ctre
sear-/ Prjolita cmpie ne-arat / Acel trm de Argint Ce n-a fost mistuit niciodat
(Emily Dickinson).
Este puin spus c lumii nconjurtoare i-ar lipsi lumina, dac i-ar lipsi culorile. Iar
dac i-ar lipsi culorile, lumea vieii noastre ar fi de nelocuit. Fr culori, lumea perceptibil
prin vz, ar fi pur i simplu o lume lipsit de transcenden, o lume a griurilor dubioase i a
maroniurilor murdare, o lume srcit din care Dumnezeu s-a retras cu lumina lui cea
adevrat, lsnd n loc fie orbitorul, fie ntunecatul care anun inexistena. Or, lumina cea
adevrat, gradat i transfigurat n mii de culori i nuane, este temei principal al credinei i
subiect de visare i punere n form. Dei critica postmodern minimalizeaz lectura ca
vntoare de sensuri generale, bucuria estetic provocat de autenticitatea i cadena
cuvintelor bine alese va fi cu att mai deplin dac descifrm ntr-un poem un mesaj despre
speran i nviere, despre creaia care poate fi reluat mereu de la capt, n versuri sugestive
precum: Exist un soare / n care nu credem acum (Emily Dickinson), sau Tcut,
deasupra Calvarului, se deschid ochii de aur ai Domnului (Georg Trakl, Psalm). Conotate
temporal, simbolurile luminii sugereaz fie marele timp, eternitatea, fie timpul mic, istoric,
efemer, ca n urmtoarele versuri: Msor ct n-a sosit ce grea / Lumin este timpul
(Emily Dickinson) sau Voi, aurite flori-ale-soarelui/ Luntric nchinate spre moarte (Georg
Trakl). n acest sens, continund exerciiul de naivitate hermeneutic asumat tacit, putem
observa cum marele timp, al Florii de Aur (pentru a folosi limbajul propriu mediilor taoiste)
este nemuritor ca i lumina absolut din a crei origine se mprtete; dar pentru percepia
uman mai important pare timpul mic, al florii soarelui, al florii clipei (Michael Ende) iar
acesta poate fi salvat prin ceea ce Emil Cioran numea pietate estetic, adic a purta un
respect religios aparenelor, a crede c totul este posibilitate de floare, i nu de absolut. i,
mai mult dect att, lsnd imaginaia s nfloreasc, cultivnd extazul estetic n faa
efemerului, aflndu-i sensul, fiind sensibili la imaginaia materiei (cu expresia lui
Bachelard), cu alte cuvinte, gndind simbolic, i.e. creator: percepiei i este dat o parte a unui
ntreg, urmnd ca pe baza acesteia s fie reconstruit nu numai ntregul n sens obiectual, ci
ntregul ca lume. Atunci cnd ntregul exist n realitate, simbolul (religios sau artistic)
realizeaz jonciunea cu fiina. Dar este acelai efort imaginativ n cazul reconstruirii unui
univers al fiinelor himerice sau al realitii virtuale, existente doar n mintea artistului, i n
acela al reprezentrii realitii ultime pe care o mbrieaz atitudinea religioas. Dac
epifania presupune spirit de observaie, fiind doar un semnal, un preview al misterului,
simbolul presupune un efort creator, constructiv, pentru ca misterul s-l poat locui.
Cele cteva versuri aparinnd unor poei diferii pe care le-am invocat aici stau ca
dovad i pentru acest lucru. Chiar i aa, ca versuri izolate (sau poate cu att mai mult n
aceast ipostaz) ele ndeplinesc funcia de simbol, raportate mai curnd la lume, dect la
poem. Dac toate celelalte versuri s-ar terge i ar rmne doar acestea, eu a putea reface,
13 Ibidem, p. 9.
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a putea construi cu ajutorul lor, paradisul primordial aflat sub puterea cuvintelor Fiat
lux!, paradisul speranei, sau deopotriv, mici paradisuri artificiale. Altfel spus, aceste
versuri sunt chiar epifania unui mister, cifrul unui secret, fiindc dintr-o dat i ntr-un mod
foarte economic mi spun ceva profund, deopotriv tulburtor i frumos. Dac numai cu
dou versuri, eu, interpretul, nu pot reface lumea poemului (al crei creator este poetul), m
pot situa, n schimb n deschiderea realitii misterioase la care se refer, altfel spus pot s
neleg de ce poezia, ca i filosofia, nseamn elan ctre totalitate i necondiionat (Tudor
Vianu). Gsesc c aceast soart, metaforic vorbind, de vers izolat o mprtesc mai toate
simbolurile, nu altceva dect indicii, fragmente dintr-un ntreg ce poate fi reconstituit pe baza
lor. Lumina zilei de azi este o parte din lumina paradisiac a zilei dinti, din care noi o vedem
doar pe aceasta, dar prin deschiderea creia avem acces la aceea.
BIBLIOGRAFIE:
Areopagitul, (Pseudo-) Dionisie, Despre numele divine, Traducere de Cicerone
Iordchescu i Theofil Simensky, Iai, Institutul European, 1993; Astre, Marie-Louise,
Colmez Franoise, Posie franaise. Anthologie critique, Paris, Bordas, 1982; Borges, Jorge
Luis, Crile i noaptea, Traducere de Valeriu Pop, Iai, Editura Junimea, 1988; Durand,
Gilbert Structurile antropolgice ale imaginarului, Traducere de Marcel Aderca, Bucureti,
Editura Univers, 1997; Eliade, Mircea, Jurnal I, II, Bucureti, Humanitas, 1993; Eliade,
Mircea, Tratat de istorie a religiilor, trad. De Mariana Noica, Bucureti, Humanitas, 1993;
Gilles, Ren, Le Symbolisme dans lArt Religieux, Mercure de France, 1943; Heidegger,
Martin, Hlderlin i esena poeziei, Limba n poem n Originea operei de art, Traducere
de Gabriel Liiceanu i Thomas Kleininger, Bucureti, Editura Univers, 1983; Paden,
William E., The Concept of World Habitation: Eliadean Linkages with a New
Comparativism, in Changing Religious Worlds. The Meaning and End of Mircea Eliade,
Edited by Bryan Rennie, State University of New York Press, 2001.
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POSTMODERNISM: HISTORICAL AND THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS

Monica SIMON
Abstract: This study focuses on the emergence and evolution of the cultural current of
postmodernism. First of all, the relationship between postmodernism and postmodernity, the
social and cultural background, will be considered, for an analysis of the changes that
triggered the new paradigm. Then, the study will present the stages of development with an
emphasis on some key concepts such as the new ontology, the new historicism,
indetermination, and fluidization.
Keywords: postmodernism, postmodernity, ontology, historicism, instability
Amplu teoretizat, mult criticat sau chiar refuzat ca etichet a unui fenomen cultural,
politic, istoric i cultural, subiect al multor dispute ale teoreticienilor, criticilor literari sau a
filozofilor, postmodernismul reprezint totui o actualitate greu de negat i care a reuit s
supravieuiasc de-a lungul timpului n ciuda reticenelor iniiale care i reduceau viabilitatea,
legitimitatea sau chiar globalitatea.
Inflaia conceptului de postmodernism este evident n prezent n toate domeniile: art,
societate, politic, istorie, filozofie asociindu-se cu termeni surprinztori, spre exemplu
preedinte postmodern, prines postmodern sau chiar sandviuri postmoderne. n ciuda
faptului c i s-a alocat un numr copleitor de studii i lucrri, postmodernismul i
demonstreaz constant propria-i complexitate refuznd nchiderea sau fixarea i rmne un
concept ambiguu, neclar sau aa cum l-a numit iniial Umberto Eco bon a tout faire.
Raportul postmodernism - postmodernitate
ncercrile de definire a postmodernismului sunt multiple, ns ele suscit discuii
preliminare. Dac pentru Mircea Crtrescu postmodernismul este epifenomenul cultural,
artistic i, n cele din urm, literar al postmodernitii1, aceast definiie nglobeaz termeni
diferii pe a cror clarificare se construiete orice tratare teoretic a postmodernismului.
Astfel, o prim explicaie trebuie acordat postmodernismului i postmodernitii, a cror
utilizare este deseori una cu caracter ambiguu, ns distincia dintre ele este aceea dintre
curentul cultural numit postmodernism i condiia social sau existenial care poate fi
descris ca postmodernitate.2Astfel postmodernitatea desemneaz condiia social i istoric
reflectnd mutaiile ce s-au produs la aceste nivele i care faciliteaz dezvoltarea
postmodernismului ca i curent cultural.
ntr-adevr ncepnd cu anii 60 lumea ncepe s capete un nou aspect, o nou culoare
sau mai multe culori. n primul rnd, emergena tehnologiilor de orice fel reprezint intrarea
ntr-o nou er, trecerea de la epoca industrial la cea postindustrial i implicit transformarea
societii ntr-una de consum cu preteniile sale de noi produse. n al doilea rnd, boom-ul
tehnologiei informaionale, a radioului, televiziunii, internetului l-a determinat pe Gianni
Vattimo s eticheteze societatea contemporan ca o societate a comunicrii generalizate (o
societate de mass-media)3. n al treilea rnd, disiparea hegemoniei europene, dispariia
Mircea Crtrescu, Postmodernismul romnesc, Bucureti, Ed. Humanitas, 1999, p. 79
Virgil Nemoianu, Postmodernismul i identiti culturale. Conflicte i coexisten, Iai, Ed. Universitii Al.
Ioan Cuza, 2011, p. 30
3
Gianni Vattimo, Societatea transparent, Constana, Ed. Pontica, 1995, p. 5
1
2
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imperialismului i a colonialismului sunt alte aspecte ce fac trecerea spre postmodernitate. n

al patrulea rnd, un punct de cotitur a fost stabilit i de micarea Flower-power i de
revoluia sexual prin forele lor eliberatoare, surprinse cel mai bine de prefixul post- care
marcheaz sfritul modernitii i nceputul unei alte perioade. Acesta este momentul
reconceptualizrii termenului de postmodernism.
Iniial utilizat ntr-un sens restrictiv n America de poei precum Randall Jarrell, John
Berryman sau Charles Olson n discuiile despre noile tendine ale poeziei de la sfritul
anilor 1940 i din anii 1950. Cam n aceeai perioad istoricul englez Arnold Toynbee
folosete termenul legat de o profeie oarecum apocaliptic, ceea ce poate fi justificat de
brutalitatea i tragismul celui de-al Doilea Rzboi Mondial, prin faptul c aceast nou er
postmodern ar putea fi ultima din istoria Occidentului. De partea cealalt a oceanului, acolo
unde efectele nimicitoare ale rzboiului au fost mai puin resimite, poeii americani au
eliberat noiunea de postmodernism de angoasele pesimiste cu care o nvestise Toynbee i au
salutat noua epoc, vznd n ea un timp exaltat4. O astfel de viziune este cea mai potrivit n
contextul micrilor revoluionare din America, aici asimilndu-se termenul att de bine nct
a continuat s fie utilizat i dup ce dezlnuirile frenetice ale revoluiei au luat sfrit. De aici
el s-a extins att n alte domenii ct i la nivel internaional.
Virgil Nemoianu sintetizeaz trsturile postmodernitii distingndu-le ntr-un numr
de nou sugestive pentru nelegerea acestei stri specifice contemporaneitii. Printre acestea,
ar trebui menionate i dezvoltate cteva dintre ele, bunoar viteza de micare n continu
cretere ce nlesnete mobilitatea pe ntregul glob i nu numai precum i centralitatea
comunicaiilor. n cadrul discuiilor despre societatea comunicrii, reticenele iniiale au fost
depite. Gnditori moderni precum Adorno n Dialectica Iluminismului i Minima Moralia
anunau efectele de omogenizare i uniformizare ale societii provocate de tehnologia
informaional. Mai mult mass-media au fost considerate drept mijloacele favorabile pentru
instalarea regimurilor totalitare i a dictaturilor prin propagand. Paradoxal, naterea
postmodernitii coincide cu explozia mass-media capabil nu s transforme societatea ntruna mai transparent, n termenii lui Vattimo, sau stereotipizat ci ntr-o societate haotic,
anarhic, dezorganizat dar mult mai complex. E modalitatea prin care o multitudine de voci
iau cuvntul pentru a se face auzite, cunoscute, nu una singur cum anticipa Adorno.
Varietatea mijloacelor de informare i accesul la acestea a devenit aparatul ce educ,
formeaz opinii i modul de gndire al oamenilor.
Ca o consecin direct a intensificrii mijloacelor de comunicare este relaia
tensionat dintre globalism i multiculturalism. Globalismul este cel care vizeaz
uniformizarea i eterogenitatea n timp ce multiculturalismul, cu sorgintea sa romantic, este
ndreptat nspre multiplicarea de weltanschauungen, proclamarea diversitii, acceptarea
diferenelor de orice fel, tolerana. Din juxtapunerea celor dou se ivete probabil aa numita
condiie postmodern care se poate s nu fie dect un cazan n care nenumrate variante de
interaciune dintre globalism i multiculturalism fierb i dau pe dinafar, provocnd multora o
stare de confuzie, de nesiguran i de angoas n ceea ce privete viitorul5.
Tot n aceeai direcie a exploziei tehnologiei informaionale se nscrie i transferul
de la regularitile raionaliste de tip mobil, aa cum au fost ele instituionalizate de revoluia
Gutenberg/Caxton, la vizualitate, prezen virtual i interaciune computerizat6 cu efectele
pe care le produce i anume apartenena la comuniti ale spaiului virtual i ansa
utilizatorilor de a-i crea noi identiti i existene.
Matei Clinescu, Cinci fee ale modernitii, Iai, Ed. Polirom, 2005, p. 324
Virgil Nemoianu, op. cit., p. 223
6
Idem, p. 35
4
5
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n cadrul societii postindustriale accentul cade pe procesarea informaiei i nu pe cea

a materiei prime ceea ce conduce la transformri din punctul de vedere al productivitii la
nivel societal: nu muncitorul din diferite domenii este factorul de producie ci intelectualul. n
plus, profesiunile au devenit mai liberale fcnd loc femeilor n poziii care erau alt dat
atribuite brbailor reechilibrnd astfel relaiile dintre sexe. Mai mult dect att, asistm la un
fenomen de distrugere i regndire a conceptului de familie tradiional.
Postmodernitatea pare a fi caracterizat de o reierarhizare a valorilor. Ceea ce a fost
pn acum considerat a fi valoare este, n postmodernitate, chestionat astfel nct ea este
nlocuit tocmai cu nencrederea i relativizarea. Chiar i trecutul i memoria sunt supuse
problematizrii prin parodie i ironie.
ncercarea de a contura postmodernitatea vdete complexitatea acestei condiii
istorice cu nenumratele i profundele sale mutaii la nivelul societii, istoriei, gndirii i
existenei. Schimbri importante s-au petrecut i n cadrul paradigmei tiinifice, cum ar fi
principiul indeterminrii al lui Heisenberg, teoriile tiinifice ale lui Thomas Kuhn, problema
ireversibilitii timpului, care i gsesc ulterior ecoul n contiina artistic. n consecin,
acesta este solul din care se hrnete postmodernismul ca i curent cultural care pune ntr-o
nou lumin concepte precum realitate, cunoatere, individ, art, istorie.
Postmodernismul internaional
Multitudinea studiilor despre postmodernismul internaional face dificil o teoretizare
exhaustiv a curentului cultural. Att numrul mare ct i diversitatea discursurilor teoretice
ale postmodernismului care de multe ori pot aprea drept contradictorii au determinat
ncercarea de a sintetiza direciile generale i variate ale acestuia din perspectiv diacronic,
cu succinte referiri la tipurile de postmodernism care s-au conturat n interiorul fiecreia
dintre etape. S-a constatat existena a trei stadii importante ale postmodernismului. Demersul
teoretic al postmodernismului a avut iniial, ntre anii 50 i 70, un caracter disparat i puin
polemic, lucru justificat de dificultatea instalrii noii paradigme. Chiar dac nu a asigurat nici
definirea termenului i nici nu a avut nicio contribuie n plan estetic, a fundamentat baza
pentru dezvoltarea postmodernismului. n aceast perioad rmne notabil contribuia lui
Leslie Fiedler7 prin asocierea fenomenului postmodern cu o post-cultur a crei coordonat
este renunarea la valorile consacrate pn n acel moment. n plus, tot ei i aparine
regndirea ierarhiilor n domeniul artei prin abandonarea distinciei dintre arta nalt i cultura
de mas a crei funcie ar fi s modifice contiinele8.
ncepnd cu anii 70 pn n anii 90 lucrrile teoretice ale postmodernismului cunosc
probabil etapa cea mai prolific din perspectiva polemicilor pe care le nate. Termenul a
nceput s aib o utilizare mai larg i s fie asimilat de diferite domenii, n special de critica
literar i artistic. Aceast perioad a fost etichetat drept postmodernism clasic i se
raporteaz la lucrri i concepte devenite acum clasice. Aici se ncadreaz faimoasa disput
Habermas/Lyotard. Poziia neomarxistului Habermas este una refractar la tendinele, numite
n mod eronat neoconservatoare, ale poststructuralismului francez (Jacques Derrida, Michel
Foucault) pe care le asociaz cu postmodernismul. Reproul pe care l aduce acestora se leag
de micrile lor mpotriva valorilor modernismului i se sprijin pe argumentul apropierii lor
de Heidegger i Nietzsche, filozofii modernismului. Indirect este i un atac la adresa lui
Lyotard care i contestase teoria cunoaterii i care abordeaz eecul metafizicii i al marilor
poveti de legitimare. Cunoaterea n viziunea lui Lyotard nu mai este legitimat de
metanaraiuni, care n postmodernitate i-au pierdut viabilitatea, i sunt nlocuite de
7
8
Leslie Fiedler, The Collected Essays of Leslie Fiedler, vol. II, New York, Stein and Day, 1971
Susan Sontag, Against Interpretation, New York, Deli, 1966
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povestioare autohtonizate, astfel nct universalul modernismului devine localul

postmodernismului.
Sub aspectul ontologiei contribuia filozofului italian Gianni Vattimo este
considerabil. Sfritul modernitii proclamat de acesta este indisolubil legat de ideea de
criz - criz a istoriei, a progresului, a realitii - ce deriv din explozia mediatic. Istoria
nceteaz s mai fie un proces unitar din cauza pierderii punctelor de referin clare.
Dezordinea creat determin un nou concept de progres n societatea mijloacelor de
comunicare i face drum un ideal de emancipare care are la baza lui, mai degrab,
oscilarea, pluralitatea i, n definitiv, erodarea a nsui principiului de realitate 9. Cu ct
mijloacele de informare se multiplic, cu att imaginea asupra realitii devine mai
distorsionat, fcnd astfel ca realitatea s nu mai fie un concept unic ci unul multiplu,
pluralist modelat de o ncruciare de imagini diverse. Lumea adevrat devine, aa cum
anticipase Nietzsche, o poveste prin pierderea sensului realitii.
Anii 80 au iniiat dezbateri aprinse ntre modernism i postmodernism. n acelai timp,
au nsemnat pentru postmodernism asocierea sa cu artele i cultura vizual pornindu-se de la
ideea c accentul cade acum pe jocul imaginilor. Mai mult, contientizarea faptului c nu mai
exist nimic nou de spus determin revizitarea i reciclarea trecutului n maniere diferite. n
acest context, discuia despre postmodernism se reclam din domeniul arhitecturii, ca fiind
una dintre cele mai accesibile arte vizuale, pentru a putea fi aplicat apoi n literatur. n timp
ce modernismul i-a exhibat propria atitudine mai mult sau mai puin reticent fa de tradiie,
n funcie de feele modernitii avangardismul ca fiind cel mai reacionar dintre toate,
postmodernismul a realizat o micare invers trecutul a nceput s fie revzut cu insisten,
nu doar ca un depozit de forme moarte i demodate, refolosibile ntr-un context raionalist, ci
ca un spaiu dialogic de nelegere i autonelegere, un spaiu unde probleme complicate
fuseser rezolvate ntr-o manier inventiv, unde ntrebri recurente primiser rspunsuri
creatoare i unde obstacole precum contradicia i complexitatea (pentru a cita termenii
predileci ai lui Venturi) dduser ocazia unor strlucite descoperiri tehnice i estetice 10.
Aceeai tendin se regsete i n literatur acolo unde ficiunea postmodern iniiaz o
relaie dialogic ntre prezent i trecut, o reconsiderare a trecutului, n afara cutrii unei
semnificaii transcendente caracteristic modernismului. Este vorba de ceea ce numete Ihab
Hassan, ale crui cercetri se nscriu n domeniul pionieratului n ceea ce privete teoria
postmodernismului, unul dintre primii i cei mai importani teoreticieni ai postmodernismului,
prezena trecutului sau prezent-ificarea lui.
Abordnd noul istoricism sau noutatea trecutului plecnd de la arhitectur pentru o
mai profund nelegere a fenomenului literar, Matei Clinescu noteaz modalitile prin care
trecutul devine prezent remarcnd predilecia postmodernilor ctre dezunificarea i
desimplificarea imaginii noastre despre trecut. Esenialmente pluralist, istoricismul
arhitecturii postmoderne reinterpreteaz trecutul dintr-o multitudine de unghiuri, de la cel
drgstos-ludic la cel istorico-nostalgic, incluznd atitudini i stri de spirit precum
irevereniozitatea umoristic, omagiul indirect, amintirea pioas, citatul spiritual i
comentariul paradoxal. Opinia lui Umberto Eco, cel n a crui activitate se reunesc att
practica precum i teoria postmodernismului literar, se dovedete a fi una mult mai radical.
Postulnd lipsa de inocen a lumii contemporane, el consider ca acel deja-spus trebuie
reconsiderat i poate reevaluat numai la modul ironic deoarece jocul ironiei are o implicare
complex n seriozitatea scopului i a temei. Ironia este poate singurul mod prin care astzi
putem fi serioi11.
9
Gianni Vattimo, op. cit., p.35

Matei Clinescu, op. cit., p.273
11
Umberto Eco, apud. Linda Hutcheon, op. cit., p.73
10
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O lucrare de referin n elaborarea unor teorii filozofice i literare ale

postmodernismului n America este Dezmembrarea lui Orfeu12 a lui Ihab Hassan prin
intermediul creia postmodernismului i se contureaz o identitate. Lui i se datoreaz
promovarea sa n Europa i, probabil, contactul lui Lyotard cu termenul. Multe dintre lucrrile
din domeniul literaturii mprumut trsturile identificate de acesta pentru a descrie
postmodernismul. Criticul distinge trei tipuri de postmodernism avangardist, contracultural
i poststructuralist. Postmodernismul st, n opinia sa, sub semnul indeterminanei, un termen
nou introdus n lexiconul postmodernismului i care este rezultatul procesului de aglutinare a
indeterminrii i a imanenei, admind faptul c postmodernismul se construiete pe logica
att/ct i spre deosebire de logica ori/ori a modernismului.
n ncercarea de a trasa anumite trsturi definitorii ale postmodernismului, Linda
Hutcheon susine c acesta este caracterizat de energia derivat din regndirea multiplicitii
i a provizoriului. De fapt, provizoriu este unul dintre cuvintele-cheie n cartea sa, el apare
cu o frecven foarte mare i probabil c mpreun cu paradoxal sunt cuvintele cel mai des
asociate postmodernismului. La rndul su Eco a sugerat c momentul naterii
postmodernismului coincide cu realizarea c lumea este privat de un centru fix. Proiectul
postmodernismului refuz adevrul absolut, ridic ntrebri i nu caut rspunsuri, stabilete
contradicii, provoac certitudini, accept deschiderile i refuz nchiderea, concluziile,
teleologicul, totalitatea, construiete o lume de provizorat i indeterminare13 folosind
termenii predileci ai Lindei Hutcheon. Eticheta de paradoxal sau contradictoriu aplicat
postmodernismului este foarte bine surprins n definiia oferit de Charles Russell i care
nscrie ntreaga sa esen ca fiind o art a criticii, fr nici un mesaj, exceptnd nevoia de
continu interogare. Este o art a nelinitii, cu un public deloc bine definit n afar de cei care
sunt predispui la ndoial i cutare.14
Pentru a concluziona sintetiznd, postmodernismul Occidental se prezint sub dou
fee: de o parte se afl cei care definesc postmodernitatea n termeni de descentralizare,
deconstrucie, dispersie, fragmentarism, precum Ihab, Hassan, Lyotard, Baudrillard etc. De
cealalt parte, cei care o imagineaz n termeni de pluricentrism, eclectism, toleran,
coabitare, precum John Barth, U. Eco, G. Vattimo, G. Durand, definiie ce ar putea fi numit
noua antropologie sau neohermetism. Distana dintre cele dou clase este dat de opoziia
dintre conceptele de fragmentare, al colii poststructuraliste, i de reintegrare, al gndirii
neohermetice.15
Departe de a fi o cuprindere complet a perioadei de apogeu a postmodernismului, n
concordan cu principiile sale antitotalizatoare, aceast trecere n revist a unora dintre
direciile paradigmei culturale ntresc concluzia teoreticienilor care tind s i eticheteze
termenul impur, impur pentru c tinde s mbrieze totul i s amestece totul16. Modul
n care a contaminat toate domeniile, felul n care deconstruiesc, fragmenteaz, contest
tocmai ceea ce include, problematizeaz i chestioneaz fr a cuta un rspuns, deconstruiesc
conduc spre un al treilea stadiu.
A treia i, rmne de vzut dac i ultima, etap parcurs de postmodernismul cultural
este cea care debuteaz n anii 90 i continu pn n prezent. Acum se petrece o transformare
interesant n evoluia fenomenului i anume o micare de la dominare nspre laten sau
retragere care i gsete justificarea n ncercarea de a ordona spaiul entropic al
12
Ihab Hassan, The Dismemberment of Orpheus: Toward a Postmodern Literature, Madison, University of
Wisconsin Press, 1971
13
Linda Hutcheon, Poetica postmodernismului, Bucureti, Ed. Univers, 2002, p. 180
14
Charles Russell, The Avant-Garde Today: An International Anthology, Urbana, Illinois University Press, 1981,
p. 58
15
Corin Braga, 10 studii de arhetipologie, Cluj Napoca, Ed. Dacia, 2006, p. 234
16
Mihaela Constantinescu, Forme n micare, Bucureti, Univers Enciclopedic, 1999, p. 36
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postmodernismului. Dificultatea de a coopera cu un antisistem i determin pe unii

teoreticieni, spre exemplu Olsen, de a chestiona nsi capacitatea, puterea de rezisten n
faa respingerii sistemelor. n ncercarea de a ordona conceptele i teoriile postmoderne,
oarecum haotice, contradictorii i greu de evaluat, studiul lui Margaret Rose17 realizeaz o
cartografiere mulat pe principii maniheiste pentru a surprinde varietatea i diversitatea
discursurilor teoretice att cu sensuri pozitive ct i negative.
Mai mult dect att, eforturile lui Virgil Nemoianu sunt ndreptate nspre identificarea
unor insule de ordine n spaiul anarhic al postmodernismului. Atunci cnd religiosul i
cultura intervin n discuie postmodernismul capt un aspect mai luminos i deloc demonic.
Chiar n contextul postmodernismului marile religii monoteiste, departe de a se veteji, sunt
mai nfloritoare ca niciodat18. La fel de optimiste sunt i perspectivele n ceea ce privete
cultura n cadrul creia elementele de continuitate sau pilonii de stabilitate se contureaz
tocmai prin faptul c bogia trecutului cultural nu este negat, ci mai degrab reasamblat n
moduri adesea deconcertante19. Iar literaturii i este caracteristic faptul c o parte a
identitii constitutive i definitorii a tradiiei literare o reprezint interaciunea multiplicitii.
Ambiguitatea, indeterminarea, fluiditatea, instabilitatea textual, abundena de sensuri (uneori
opuse, contrastante) sunt mereu deja o parte a literaturii20.
POSDRU/159/1.5/S/133652.
1. Braga, Corin, 10 studii de arhetipologie, Cluj Napoca, Ed. Dacia, 2006
2. Clinescu, Matei, Cinci fee ale modernitii, Iai, Ed. Polirom, 2005
3. Crtrescu, Mircea, Postmodernismul romnesc, Bucureti, Ed. Humanitas, 1999
4. Constantinescu, Mihaela, Forme n micare, Bucureti, Univers Enciclopedic, 1999
5. Fiedler, Leslie, The Collected Essays of Leslie Fiedler, vol. II, New York, Stein and
Day, 1971
6. Hassan, Ihab, The Dismemberment of Orpheus: Toward a Postmodern Literature,
Madison, University of Wisconsin Press, 1971
7. Hutcheon, Linda, Poetica postmodernismului, Bucureti, Ed. Univers, 2002
8. Nemoianu, Virgil, Postmodernismul i identiti culturale. Conflicte i coexisten,
Iai, Ed. Universitii Al. Ioan Cuza, 2011
9. Rose, Margaret A., Parody, ancient, modern, and post-modern, Cambridge,
Cambridge University Press, 1993
10. Russell, Charles, The Avant-Garde Today: An International Anthology, Urbana,
Illinois University Press, 1981
11. Sontag, Susan, Against Interpretation, New York, Deli, 1966
12. Vattimo, Gianni Societatea transparent, Constana, Ed. Pontica, 1995
17
Margaret A. Rose, Parody, ancient, modern, and post-modern, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1993
Virgil Nemoianu, op. cit., p. 39
19
Idem, p. 40
20
Idem, p. 241
18
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THE NEED FOR MARKETING IN RELIGIOUS ACTIVITIES

Doina GURI
Institute of European Studies, tefan Lupacu in Iai
Abstract: This paper aims to examine the need for religious tourism marketing. In the first
part we showed that the religious marketing has some several features, including: customer
orientation is surpassed by orientation mission; "The purpose of religious organizations is to
serve the interests of a spiritual nature of individuals, but also society as a whole, as opposed
to economic organizations whose purpose is to maximize profits and customer satisfaction."
In the second part of the paper we have shown the importance of marketing in religious
activity: economic, social, spiritual, psychological.
Keywords : marketing, religion, tourism, spirituality, economics
Introducere
Una dintre provocrile actuale ale marketingului romnesc o constituie aplicarea
acestuia n domeniul religios, apreciat i acceptat de cele dou segmente importante de public
marketerii i liderii religioi. Pentru a realiza acest lucru trebuie mai nti s cunoatem i s
exlicm criticile aduse marketingului aplicat n domeniul religios.
Turismul religios a fost i este n atenia specialitilor care au ncercat s analizeze
aceast ramur fie prin prisma turismului cultural1, fie ca atare, ncadrndu-l ca o ramur
distinct n arealul tiinific. De asemenea trebuie menionate i acele studii referitoare la
managementul turismului sau profunda simbioz a cltoriei cu turismul2, care aduc o
contribuie esenial n ceea ce privete angrenarea turismului n cadrul pieei, sub diferitele
sale aspecte, precum i valorificarea sa la cotele care pot aduce rezultate substaniale pe
multiple planuri.
Pe plan internaional, marketingul a ncercat o oarecare adaptare la cerinele
domeniului religios, iar acum, n cel de-al treilea mileniu al erei cretine, organizaiile
religioase din Romnia ofer un rspuns (s-ar zice prudent, dar pozitiv) acestei iniiative 3.
Este foarte adevrat c pe plan internaional mari organizaii religioase au ncercat nc de mai
demult s practice marketingul la scar mult mai nalt, dar n cazul nostru viaa religioas
este diferit de ce se ntmpl n alte ri europene sau pe continentul nord-american unde
secularizarea i spune cuvntul pe zi ce trece tot mai mult.
n literatura de specialitate, au fost scrise multe studii care aveau s susin aplicarea
marketingului n domeniul religios, ntre care l amintim pe cel al lui James W. Cullitone4,
n acest sens menionm o lucrare recent Strategii de dezvoltare i promovare a turismului cultural n Romnia
aprut la Bucureti, ca tez de doctorat, sub semntura lui Dan-Florin Busuioc, susinut la Academia de Studii
Economice, Bucureti, n anul 2008. Menionm tot aici c aproape n fiecare ar a lumii, aceast ramur a turismului
a prins puternice rdcini, brandurile de ar bazndu-se n primul rnd pe reliefarea laturii culturale a unei anumite
ri, contientizndu-se faptul c acest aspect trebuie fructificat i pus n eviden, putnd aduce importante beneficii, n
primul rnd financiare i, firete, pe multiplele planuri ale dezvoltrii.
2
A se vedea n acest sens: Pender, Lesley; Sharpley, Richard, The management of tourism, Sage Publications Ltd.,
London, 2007; Page, Stephen J., Tourism management: managing for change, Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd., 2003;
Rodgers, Janet, Travel and tourism, Heinemann; Student Guide edition, 2001; Dale, Gilian; Oliver, Helen, Travel an
tourism, Heinemann, 2005, iar exemplele pot continua.
3
A se vedea studiul: Strmbu-Dima, Andrei, Aplicativitatea marketingului n organizaiile religioase, n Revista de
Marketing online, vol. 2, nr. 1, martie 2008, p. 65
4
A marketing analysis of religion: Can businesslike methods improve the sales of religion?, n Business
Horizons, 1959, vol. 2, issue 1, pp. 85 - 92
1
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tiprit n anul 1959. El ncearc s abordeze problema aplicrii tehnicilor economice n

domeniul religios pentru a se urmri un succes maxim pe acest palier de activitate. Cu toate
acestea replica i-a fost dat abia n 1983 de profesorul din New York, Elizabeth C.
Hirschman, care susinea imposibilitatea aplicrii conceptului de marketing n cazul entitilor
religioase5. Dup amintitul articol al lui Cullitone, pn n 1990 au fost scrise cteva zeci de
articole ale unor autori ce susineau aplicarea marketingului n domeniul religios, majoritatea
aprnd n colecii de lucrri ce au fost prezentate la simpozioane conferine, fie ca studii de
caz. O parte dintre ele au fost tiprite n publicaia Marketing News. n anii 90, n urma
creterii interesului pentru acest subiect din partea studenilor n marketing, a aprut Journal
of Ministry Marketing and Management 6. ns replica nu a ezitat s apar. Supui unui
asemenea val de favorizatori ai integrrii marketingului n domeniul religiei, teologii au
replicat cu o serie de studii care respingeau aceast practic ce era considerat ca un mijloc de
impunere a secularizrii, lucru ce nu era de dorit n contextul dat.
Se pare c acest concept de marketing religios are susinere deoarece, cu toat
opoziia multora, viziunea capitalist de fapt i realist (dac ar fi s-o ncadrm n
dimensiunile realitilor cotidiene) are ctig de cauz. Sunt foarte muli cei care susin acest
concept i eventualele replici nu ntrzie s apar. ns existena real a unei politici de pia
pe acest palier este de netgduit. Depinde ns i de modul de a vedea lucrurile, dup cum am
mai spus.
Biserica tinde i vrea s ofere turitilor religioi facilitarea deplasrilor lor n scop pur
spiritual ntreinnd, de asemenea, i partea material a acestor lucruri. Prin deschiderea unor
centre de pelerinaj (de fapt agenii de turism) ale Bisericii, reprezentanii acestei instituii au
contientizat c oamenii au mai mult ncredere n serviciile Bisericii dect n orice alt firm
de profil. Astfel c s-a strnit o concuren tacit ntre firmele cu profil turistic i ageniile sau
centrele de turism ale Bisericii. Aproape fiecare eparhie de pe cuprinsul Patriarhiei Romne
are cte un centru de pelerinaj prin care li se faciliteaz credincioilor diferite deplasri la
centre cu o importan spiritual deosebit: mnstiri, biserici, schituri, catedrale cu sfinte
moate i aa mai departe. Centrele de pelerinaj sunt mijloace moderne de promovare a
spiritualitii i culturii n contextul ecumenic local i internaional. Acestea au rolul de a
dirija, coordona i controla procesul de organizare al pelerinajelor. Acestea ofer o serie de
servicii cum ar fi: excursii pentru cretini n ar i strintate; pelerinaje pentru pelerini de
alte confesiuni, n special din Europa Occidental; tururi de orae; expediii i tabere de
studii; cazare n camere de oaspei i spaii de primire ale bisericii, n Romnia; consiliere
pelerinaje; servicii de informare pentru turismul religios. Spre exemplu, Centrul de pelerinaj
al Patriarhiei Romne, Basilica Travel ofer, pe lng pelerinajele propriu-zise i alte forme
de turism, ntre care: turism colar, turism balnear, turism hotelier, oferind i posibilitatea
cumprrii biletelor de avion 7. Deci, aceast agenie de pelerinaj are structura unei agenii
clasice de turism, n primul rnd prin prisma ofertei. De asemenea, Mitropolia Moldovei i
Bucovinei a nfiinat n urm cu mai muli ani un Centru de pelerinaj care are o ofert foarte
diversificat n direcia turismului religios.
Exist, astfel, i n snul Bisericii o contiin a concurenei pe piaa de turism cultural
i / sau religios. Biserica promoveaz i cultura cretin, caracterul conservator al acesteia
scond la iveal numeroase prghii n atragerea consumatorilor de turism, despre care vom
vorbi pe parcursul acestei expuneri.
Aesthetics, Ideologies and the Limits of the Marketing Concept, n Journal of Marketing, Summer 1983,
vol. 47, pp. 45 - 55
6
Aprut timp de 7 ani (1995 - 2001) sub coordonarea Binghampton State University din New York.
7
A se consulta: http://basilicatravel. ro
5
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Marketingul se afl ntr-o evoluie continu; la ora actual ne aflm n etapa

marketingului societal (neo-marketing i marketing umanist) care are ca obligaie principal
de a studia nevoile i dorinele vizate i de a-l satisface ntr-o manier mai eficace dect
concurena fiind, n acelai timp, i un mod de a menine sau ameliora starea de bine a
consumatorilor i a colectivitii8.
Marketingul aplicat n domeniul religios are cteva particulariti pe care le ntlnim la
marketingul serviciilor: produsul este intangibil (nu poate fi vzut, gustat, simit tactil, auzit
sau mirosit, nu i poi simi prezena fr a-l consuma); produsul este inseparabil de
organizaiile religioase care l ofer; produsul nu poate fi standardizat (fiecare persoan
percepe diferit mesajul religios n funcie de cunotinele acumulate pn n momentul
respectiv, de gradul de implicare, de propriile experiene religioase etc.); proprietatea
produsului nu poate fi transferat consumatorului; resursa uman este foarte important
(pentru organizaiile religioase care consider c produsul religios este caracterizat de
inseparabilitate fa de prestator, care este reprezentat de personalul clerical, politica de
personal are un rol dominant n mix-ul de marketing); cererea este fluctuant (depinde de
sezonalitatea srbtorilor religioase, de timp, de etapa din ciclul de via al individului, de
etapa din ciclul de via al organizaiei etc.); marketingul aplicat n domeniul religios
presupune construirea unor relaii de lung durat cu consumatorii9.
Particularitile marketingului religios
Principalul scop n acest lucrare este de a prezenta aspecte ale lipsei de convergen
n definirea marketingului religios, subliniind caracteristicile acestuia n comparaie cu
marketingul clasic. De asemenea dorim s argumentm misiunea marketingului religios n
dezvoltarea turismului. Trebuie fcut legtura i cu folosirea tehnicilor de marketing n
cadrul bisericilor (n special a monumentelor istorice) care influeneaz organizarea i
dezvoltarea turismului, precum i principalele componente ale mediului de marketing religios.
Acest subiect a mai fost tratat n Romnia, ceea ce constituie un avantaj pentru noi din punct
de vedere al abordrii, dar n acelai timp va reprezenta un dezavantaj din punctul de vedere al
materialelor bibliografice. Acest termen de marketing religios a fost i este controversat aa c
o sugestie agreat termenului de marketing religios este folosirea termenului de marketing
aplicat n domeniul religios. n urma bibliografiei parcurse, am constatat c acest termen este
des uzitat n literatura strin, dup cum am menionat mai sus.
Dorim s subliniem faptul c, n stagiile de cercetare din strintate, (Frana.Italia),
am constatat faptul c turismul religios ocup primul loc ntre toate celelalte forme de turism
practicate. Comparativ cu marketingul clasic, marketingul religios prezint particulariti
majore. Plecnd de la nevoile spirituale ale credincioilor care sunt eseniale n marketingul
religios, deoarece orientarea principal a Bisericii este spre misiune, n marketingul clasic,
orientarea este spre client. Misiunea marketingului religios const n preocuparea pentru
calitatea vieii oamenilor din punct de vedere spiritual i de ncurajare la viaa religioas prin
promovarea ideii c aciunile lor aplicate dup nvtura Sfintei Scripturi sunt benefice att
pentru indivizi, ct i pentru societate. ntruct religia devine din ce n ce mai important n
vieile oamenilor, exist i din partea economitilor o preocupare tot mai mare pentru studiul
implicaiilor religiilor n rezultatele economice.
Prin funciile sale, marketingul este important mai ales prin mbinarea celor apte
elemente eseniale (7P): produs, pre, promovare, plasare, personal, proces, proba (dovada)
8
Kotler, Philip; Dubois, Bernard; Manceau, Delphine, Marketing - Management, 11-eme edition, Pearson
Education, 2004, pp. 3 - 37
9
Apud. Andreea Strmu Dima, op. cit., pp. 71 - 72
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fizic. Marketingul poate fi privit insa din mai multe unghiuri: poate reprezenta o gndire
economic ce pune pe prim plan clientul; poate fi o abilitate de a capta i pstra clieni; poate
reprezenta o cale prin care ntreprinztorii i pot forma i dezvolta oferta i numrul de
consumatori.
Marketingul religios, ns, are cteva caracteristici proprii, ntre care: orientarea spre
client este surclasat de orientarea spre misiune10; scopul organizaiilor religioase este de a
servi intereselor de natur spiritual ale indivizilor, dar i ale societii n ansamblul ei, spre
deosebire de organizaiile din domeniul economic al cror scop este maximizarea profitului i
satisfacerea consumatorului.
Factorii care influeneaz activitatea religioas sunt de ordin social, psihologic,
cultural i economic. Implicarea bisericii n activiti de marketing duc la dezvoltarea pieei
specifice a religiei. Comparativ cu marketingul clasic, cel religios prezint particulariti
majore. Nevoile spirituale ale credincioilor sunt eseniale n marketingul religios, ns
orientarea principal a Bisericii este spre misiune, spre deosebire de marketingul clasic a crei
orientare este spre client, urmnd a ncheia cu evidenierea implicaiilor marketingului religios
n plan economic, social i cultural. Complexitatea problemei de cercetare determin o mare
varietate a ideilor. Menionm pe cele principale: este marketingul o necesitate n religie?; sau folosit n mod deliberat politici de marketing pentru promovarea credinelor religioase?; se
practic falsuri n politici de promovare?; care este scopul falsurilor? crearea credinelor
religioase sau sporirea veniturilor?
Studiile practice arat c tehnicile de marketing religios au influene pozitive asupra
dezvoltrii unei ri. Folosirea tehnicilor de marketing n cadrul Bisericii determin o
dezvoltare la nivel de comunitate religioas i implicit la nivel de societate.
O ntrebare care i preocup pe liderii religioi este: Cum putem face interesant i
relevant mesajul nostru pentru public? 11. S-a tot discutat pentru gsirea unei soluii pentru
ieirea din degringolada moral cu care se confrunt societatea de astzi. Marketingul poate fi
utilizat n cadrul organizaiilor religioase, la toate nivelurile organizatorice, spre a combate
aceast situaie printr-o promovare sistematic i tiinific (bazat pe cercetare, modele,
strategii etc.) a valorilor i conceptelor religioase 12.
Este deci nevoie de marketing n Biseric, n contextul n care preteniile generaiei
tinere au crescut prin observarea unor realiti din spaiul occidental unde confortul
consumatorului este asigurat prin programe bine puse la punct iar condiiile sunt dintre cele
mai bune. Cu toate c nu se recunoate n mod oficial, Biserica utilizeaz tehnici de marketing
i pentru obinerea de beneficii financiare. Vnzarea de obiecte bisericeti, de lumnri sau
cri religioase este promovat prin trguri sezoniere. Este bine cunoscut organizarea n
marile orae ale rii a Trgului Naional de Obiecte Bisericeti TOB 13, n cadrul cruia
diferite instituii ecleziastice i firme din ar sau strintate vin s-i vnd produsele
destinate exclusiv sferei bisericeti. La o privire pe site-ul acestui trg se poate observa
diversitatea obiectelor vndute. De asemenea tot aici se fac recomandri de cazare n oraul n
care este organizat trgul 14. Iat ce oferea acest trg:
preuri de productor i discount-uri la majoritatea produselor;
produse noi, inexistente pe pia;
contracte avantajoase;
10
Ibidem, p. 2
Ibidem, p. 3
12
Ibidem
13
http://www.targulbisericesc.eu/ro
14
n cazul trgului organizat la Iai n luna noiembrie a anului curent, oferta de cazare includea din trei posibiliti
dou spaii de cazare aparinnd Mitropoliei Moldovei i Bucovinei: Mnstirea Vldiceni i Cminul Teologic
Sfntul Nicolae.
11
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posibilitatea de a alege dintr-o gam variat de produse;

particip instituii ale Mitropoliei Moldovei i Bucovinei;
expozani din Grecia, Austria, Ucraina, Republica Moldova i Romnia;
lansri de carte religioas.
Se poate observa c Biserica a simit nevoia de promovare a produselor specifice
mediului religios n contextul n care exist o concuren cu produse venite din rile ortodoxe
vecine. Pelerinajul modern este un pact pe care industria turismului l-a ncheiat cu religia.
Din perspectiva unor specialiti, ntre acestea nu exist prea multe puncte comune. Avnd n
vedere obiectivele intrinseci pe care turismul i religia le au, atragerea turitilor ar trebui s fie
un scop comun. Marketingul religios, la fel de real ca i cel turistic, chiar dac mai puin
cunoscut ar trebui s se mbine cu acesta din urm pentru satisfacerea multiplelor categorii de
turiti.
Necesitatea marketingului n activitatea religioas
n legtura cu aplicabilitatea marketingului n turismul religios, despre utilizarea lui,
dar i despre limitele acestuia considerm semnificativ pasajul urmtor:
Marketingul este omniprezent i poate servi la a vinde o mare palet de lucruri
(produse, servicii, experiene, idei i informaii) 15.
De ce este important marketingul n activitatea religioas? Este o ntrebare care are
multiple rspunsuri. Un management atent al destinaiilor16 religioase ar putea aduce
beneficii att pentru operatorii turistici ct i pentru instituiile religioase. n ultima decad, n
ara noastr marketingul a luat amploare atingnd aproape toate domeniile de activitate. De la
marketingul domeniului lucrativ la cel al serviciilor, de la cel agricol, sportiv, teatral la
euromarketing, a venit timpul studierii marketingului religios. Exist numeroase critici aduse
practicilor de marketing aplicat n domeniul religios, cele mai frecvente incluznd17:
Marketingul irosete banii oferii lui Dumnezeu de ctre enoriai /

membri;
Activitatea de marketing se comport ca o intruziune n viaa

indivizilor;
Marketingul este manipulativ;
Marketingul militeaz mpotriva spiritului de leadership;
Marketingul desacralizeaz religia;
n Romnia, oamenii sunt nc interesai de mesajul religios;
Bisericile mai mari au mai mult nevoie de comunicare;
n marketing se practic principiul win-lose;

Orientarea spre consumator este un aspect problematic.
Factorul determinant care justific conexiunea dintre marketing i religie l constituie
amploarea fenomenului comunicrii. Dezvoltarea tehnicilor de comunicare i-a transformat pe
oameni n consumatori de informaie i a dus la apariia unei piee a informaiei, a unui
mediu n care sunt promovate oferte i sunt verificate cereri sub form de informaie. Interesul
fa de informaia religioas, stimulat de circulaia ideilor pe piaa informaiilor, apropie
marketingul religios de marketingul informativ i de marketingul ideologic, aplicat cu
precdere n politic, cultur, sociologe, economie etc.
Kotler, Philip, FAQ Marketing. Tout ce que avez toujours voulu savoir sur le marketing. Reponses dun
specialiste, trad. Myriam Shalak, edition Dunod, Paris, 2005, pp. 193 - 194
16
Militaru, Gheorghe, Managementul serviciilor, Editura C. H. Beck, Bucureti, 2010, pp. 95 - 100
17
Dup: Strmbu-Dima, Andreea, op. cit., p. 66
15
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Dat fiind faptul c marketingului modern se orienteaz n funcie de activitatea de

comunicare, rezult c factorul determinant pentru existena unui marketing religios este
informaia religioas. Aceasta are rolul:
a) de a influena comportamentul oamenilor, alturi de factorii culturali, sociali,
personali i psihologici;
b) de a contribui la o segmentare a pieei pe criterii religioase. Principalul efect
benefic al aplicrii marketingului religios l constituie respectarea credinei religioase a
fiecrei persoane n parte i a comunitilor religioase n general.
Dup cum am menionat, aplicativitatea marketingului la realitile turismului religios
de astzi este de netgduit. Este foarte mare nevoie de gsirea unor strategii pentru
stimularea acestei piee n special pentru atragerea turitilor strini dornici de a cunoate un
spaiu profund spiritualizat. Din comoditate sau, cel mai probabil, dintr-o viziune
conservatoare, exist o reticen n a face spiritualitatea vandabil. Acesta este i principalul
risc pentru societatea noastr. ns trebuie neles faptul c nu se vinde spiritualitatea i c
aceasta nu este un scop al turismului religios, ci, mai ales, elementele adiacente: cazare, mas
i alte asemenea acestora care pot face ca turistul / pelerinul s revin. Exist i un curent n
spaiul monastic, acolo unde vin din ce n ce mai muli turiti / pelerini care vor ca, prin
oferirea unor faciliti legate de confortul vizitatorilor, s-i atrag pe acetia spre viaa
spiritual curat i nltoare specific Ortodoxiei noastre. Astfel c o colaborare n acest
sens este de dorit i este posibil fr a afecta esena lucrurilor. Muli oameni, de exemplu, vor
s mearg la Ierusalim i la alte obiective din ara Sfnt. Ei au ca principal scop s vad
locurile pe unde a trit, a murit i a nviat Mntuitorul. ns, pe lng acestea au nevoie de o
deplasare confortabil i de servicii satisfctoare n ceea e privete cazarea i masa, cu toate
c principalul lor scop este unul spiritual.
Concluzii
Datorit preocuprilor actuale din partea responsabililor de mnstiri, respectiv starei
i staree, precum i a personalului administrativ al Mitropoliei Moldovei i Bucovinei,
pentru mbuntirea serviciilor de turism religios, acesta i-a cucerit o poziie bine definit pe
piaa turistic, constituind o form de turism n plin dezvoltare datorit creterii numrului de
turiti romni i strini, dar i tineri cu o independen tot mai mare i nivel de cultur ridicat;
existena unui patrimoniu cultural i religios remarcabil la nivel naional i mondial; turismul
religios are avantajul c poate fi combinat cu oricare alt form de turism (viziune sistemic),
cum ar fi turismul urban, cel rural, de litoral i chiar cel balnear; se manifest dou tendine n
cltoriile religioase: cele care au ca singur scop motivaia turistic i cele care mbin aceast
motivaie cu cea cultural (multitudinea de motivaii corespunde mai bine complexitii
omului modern); din punct de vedere al serviciilor, tot mai mult mnstiri i locauri de cult
se implic n activitatea turistic oferind cazare gratuit sau la un pre modic, dar i n
alimentaie; turismul religios depinde n mare msur de infrastructura general, unele
obiective turistice fiind mai greu accesibile.
Bibliografie
Cullitone, James W., A marketing analysis of religion: Can businesslike methods
improve the sales of religion?, n Business Horizons, 1959, vol. 2, issue 1
Dale, Gilian; Oliver, Helen, Travel an tourism, Heinemann, 2005
Dube, Leon, Wingfield, Sue, Economics, Sociology, Politics, and Religion: Success of
Marketing Students, Atlantic Economic Journal, Internaional Atlantic Economic Society,
vol. 36(4), 2008, pp. 503 - 504
Dubois, P-L.; Jolibert, A., Marketing, teorie i practic, Vol. II, Editura Universitii
de tiine Agricole, Cluj-Napoca, 1994
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Durafour, Daniel, Marketing, 2-eme dition, Dunod, Paris, 2001

Kotler, Ph., Kotler despre marketing, cum s crem, cum s ctigm i cum s
dominm pieele, Copyright ediie: Curier marketing, 2003
Kotler, Philip, FAQ Marketing. Tout ce que avez toujours voulu savoir sur le
marketing. Reponses dun specialiste, trad. Myriam Shalak, edition Dunod, Paris, 2005, pp.
193 - 1943
Kotler, Philip; Dubois, Bernard; Manceau, Delphine, Marketing - Management, 11eme edition, Pearson Education, 2004, pp. 3 - 37
Kotler, Philip; Dubois, Bernard; Manceau, Delphine, Marketing - Management, 11eme edition, Pearson Education, 2004,
Managing the visitor experience on romnian religious sites: monasteries abbots
perceptions, n Management & AMarketing, Craiova, vol. VIII, nr. 1/2001
Marketing, Haworth Press, 2006 Stevens, Robert E.; Loudon, David; Wrenn, Bruce;
Cole, Henry, Concise Encyclopedia of Church and Religious Organisation:
Pender, Lesley; Sharpley, Richard, The management of tourism, Sage Publications
Ltd., London, 2007; Page, Stephen J., Tourism management: managing for change,
Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd., 2003; Rodgers, Janet, Travel and tourism, Heinemann; Student
Guide edition, 2001;
Sousa, D. de, Tourism and pilgrimage: tourist as pilgrims?, n Contours, 6(2), 1993
Stncioiu, Aurelia-Felicia, Program strategic de marketing n turism, n Tribuna
Economic, an 11, nr. 20, 17 mai 2000, :
Strmbu-Dima, Andrei, Aplicativitatea marketingului n organizaiile religioase, n
Revista de Marketing online, vol. 2, nr. 1, martie 2008
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QUENTIN COMPSON: TRAPPED IN ILLO TEMPORE

Oana-Raisa Stoleriu
Abstract: This article focuses on Quentin Compsons split personality, a representative
Faulknerian character of the new Southern generation, and tries to explore the Southern code
seen through the eyes of this generation. Such characters are ghosts of the South, as
Quentin expresses himself, who cannot life neither in the past because it is dead - , nor in
the motionless present, because it is filled with stories, mirrors and myths of yesterdays.
Keywords: Southern code, tragic modern character, history-as-ritual, William Faulkner.
We cannot be without a Past. We would not have a history be it social or personal - ,
a memory, or a self. We would simply be walking shadows, without identities. What does it
happen when this Past swallows the present and the future, and makes from them motionless
states?
If the "South" is a cultural entity, then "Faulkner" is its official language.
(Kreyling, 127) William Faulkners genius is represented by his mingling of the ancestral
past, of tradition, with modernity. In the story told by Quentin Compson, the reader does not
only find the essence of the Deep South, but he or she can also discover, between the lines,
the tragedies that characterises the man of today. Sutpens fall does not represent only the
myth of the fall of the Old South, but also his innocence which is peculiarly the innocence of
modern man (193), as Cleanth Brooks remarks in his essay, History and the Sense of
Tragic: Absalom, Absalom.
In his discourse at the Nobel Prize, William Faulkner affirms:
Our tragedy today is a general and universal physical fear so long sustained by now
that we can even bear it. There are no longer problems of the spirit. There is only one
question: When will I be blown up? Because of this, the young man or woman writing today
has forgotten the problems of the human heart in conflict with itself which alone can make
good writing because only that is worth writing about, worth the agony and the sweat. He
must learn them again.
Time plays an important role both in the history of the South, where the past was
gloriously described and it haunts the present, and also in Faulkners stories; this modernist
writer reconstructs time, according to Gnter Blcker, not as Proust does, in order to capture
and to preserve it, or like James Joyce, whose reconstruction represents an intense act of
will (124), but by destroying time, Falukners prose being characterised by the nonexistence
of time, through a style that on the one hand plays with modern techniques stream of
consciousness, for instance, mirror analogies, multiple perspectives -, and on the other hand, it
uses several concepts from the Greek theatre, such as Moira, diki, hybris, adikia, fronisis. The
tragic hero is reborn in a society of paradoxes: modern if we look at its chronology and if we
compare it with the Ancient theatre, but archetypical, lacking the notion of future, where
all the events are related to the past, the only sequence of time that is real. As Sartre puts it,
everything was.(89)
Moreover, the tragic vision that we encounter in Faulkners prose is typical to all
Southern writers, Katherine Anne Porter referring to the tragic feeling about the South
(Robert O. Stephens, 171) The past continues into the present, and the tradition, the code, or
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the community, gives to the characters not only an acute sense of their limitation, but also a
high-degree of self-awareness.
Quentin Compson is the tragic modern character, who glorifies that Southern illo
tempore, with its traditions, mentality, and honour. He was raised in a frozen community,
isolated from the present, full of stories that influenced his way of thinking. The moral code
of the South is for him essential, because through it, he can bring the sacrality of the past, of
that illo tempore, into the present that became profane; in here, the code plays the role of a
ritual, being the one that annihilates time.
However, as Sorin Alexandrescu shows it, in Faulkners prose, unlike other fictions
that focus on myth, the time that is abolished is not the profane one, but the sacred one, and
this abolishment leads to the beginning of History, which, in its turn, can be split, according to
Robert Penn Warren into history-as-action, and history-as-ritual, the latter one being the
quintessential of Quentins thinking:
Conversation turned to the question of what could be done to <<change>> things,
even if for some people the desired change was, paradoxically enough, to change things back
to their old unchangeableness; to escape, to phrase it another way, from history-as-lived back
to history-as-contemplated; from history-as-action to history-as-ritual. But even to change
back to unchangeableness would be a kind of change. There was, then, no way to avoid the
notion of change; you had to take a bite, willy-nilly, of the apple from the mysterious tree that
had sprung up in the Confederate garden. (Robert Penn Warren, 5)
The story narrated by Quentin Compson, in Absalom, Absalom, reveals the essence of
the Old South. Although Quentin did not participate in the events presented in the novel, did
not personally know the characters he is talking about, he is completely involved in the way
he tells and analyses the story. His choice of this peculiar one to share with his roommate, and
his own history that we know from The Sound and the Fury, reveals his futile attempts to
cope with this history-as-action, and to keep in his life, at the same time, the other one, the
history-as-ritual.
At the end of Absalom, Absalom, Shreve asks Quentin the following question: Why
do you hate the South?, at which Quentin says and thinks the followings:
"I don't hate it," Quentin said, quickly, at once, immediately; "I don't hate it," he said.
"I don't hate it he thought, panting in the cold air, the iron New England dark: I don't. I don't!
I don't hate it! I don't hate it!" (Absalom, Absalom, 378)
Why is Quentin so interested in the story of Sutpen, of Henry, and of Judith? Why did
he go with Miss Rosa at Sutpens Hundred? He is here the mediator between the writer and
the reader. And, why does he show, in his retellings, so much passion? And from all the
stories of the South, why did he choose this one?
The Southern world is built from different typologies, as Sorin Alexandrescu explains
in his chapter dedicated to the structures of the characters, in his well-known book, William
Faulkner: the aristocrat, the intellectual, the metis, the Negro, the Chickasaw Indian, the
white trash, the Yankee, and the businessman. Quentin has never seen Sutpen, but the sense
of guilt is the feeling that unites him with Thomas Sutpen and Henry guilt towards breaking
the code, or being unable to respect it, towards themselves or their families, towards the sins
they committed. Their guilt is like Hemingways iceberg: not at the surface, easily to be seen
or understood by the people around them, and sometimes hidden so deep into themselves, that
their own persons are incapable to grasp it - indirect, unconscious, often seen as self-pity than
remorse, influencing their actions.
Quentin Compson, the one who narrates the events to his Canadian roommate, is
somewhere between the image of the aristocrat, and the intellectual one. Although the writer
himself affirms that none of the characters from Absalom, Absalom can understand
completely Thomas Sutpen, because
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The old man was himself a little too big for people no greater in stature than Quentin
and Miss Rosa and Mr.Compson to see all at once. It would have taken perhaps a wiser or
more tolerant or more sensitive or more thoughtful person to see him as he was. (Fred
Hobson, 190)
Quentin identifies in Sutpen his origins, and this character reminds him of the Old
South, of the code, and of respectability, utopian ideas in which he blindly believes:
The aristocratic life of the leading Southern families established itself as a myth, a way
of life that was seen as ideal, based on manners, culture, ceremony, but burdened with sin
that of slavery. It is this sin that creates a feeling of guilt in Southerners and consequently a
feeling of guilt and a preoccupation with moral issues in Southern fictions. (Irina Burlui, 172)
As we have seen in The Sound and the Fury, he is obsessed with time and with the
Southern puritan idealism, and in Sutpens story he may indirectly see and search for his own
loss of identity. As any aristocrat, Sutpen and Quentin are both characterised through conflicts
of consciousness, through an old identity which is destroyed by the new world, and through a
search of tradition, of respectability, of a way of ensuring the survival of the Code into the
present. Although their plans were different, one of them (Quentin) trying to reach the
innocence and the perfection that he thought he had in his childhood, and the other one
(Sutpen) wanting to form a dynasty out of nothing, both of them had a peculiar design in their
minds:
You see, I had a design in my mind. Whether it was a good or bad design is beside the
point; the question is, Where did I make the mistake in it, what did I do or misdo in it, whom
or what injure by it to the extent which this would indicate. I had a design. To accomplish it I
should require money, a house, a plantation, slaves, a family incidentally of course, a wife.
(Absalom, Absalom!, 263)
On the other hand, Quentin is a shifted mirror of Sutpen himself: if Sutpen has no past,
no fortune, and has to build everything out of nothing, Quentin had a past that is now
haunting him, a prestigious name, a fortune in the remote past, and now, he does not have
anything from the things that he used to have.
Moreover, Sutpen has to repress his personality, his impulses in order to create his
dynasty; at the core of his self we discover the passion for hunting, the fights with the slaves,
actions that characterise his primordial lifestyle (Sorin Alexandrescu, 197). Quentins
innocence is different from Sutpens, but is still there: he wants to have the perfection of the
South, he creates the image of an idyllic past, and he cannot bear the image of the present, the
fall of Caddy, the decay of his family. By looking into Sutpens history and flaws, he tries to
depict and to understand the new way of thinking, the changes brought by the Civil War, the
meaning of what happened to his country. Therefore, until one point, Sutpen represents for
Quentin a reversed mirror; if one of them had nothing and struggled to achieve the perfection
of the Old South slaves, plantation, family -, the other one had all these things, but lost
everything and has nothing. Both of them are searching for respect, for the old code, in
different manners, having extremely different personalities, and neither of them can achieve
their utopian goals.
Quentin Compson represents all that is left from the Sartois tradition. His family
isolated itself from reality in various ways: Uncle Maury chooses liquor, as Quentins father
does, Mrs. Compson takes refuge in religion and invalidism, Benjy is isolated by nature in his
idiocy, and Mr.Compson, before he completely declines in alcoholism, seeks forgetfulness in
philosophy.
George Marion ODonnell, in Faulkners Mythology, claims that
His world [Quentins] is peopled with baffled, outraged, ghosts; and although
Quentin himself is still too young to deserve yet to be a ghost, he is one of them. (25)
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From being a mediator, to a witness in Sutpens story, Quentin searches on the one
hand an explanation for the Southern history: is the Civil War and its loss Gods punishment
for people like Sutpen, as Miss Rosa says, or does History mean nothing, and nobody has
control over destiny, which at the end will destroy everybody, as his fathers nihilism points
out? On the other hand, Quentin wants to understand this precise story in his struggle not to
let his family share the fate of the Sutpens.
It was the world of these diffused and scattered creatures in which Quentin Compson
lived; and it was the effort not to be diffused and scattered to transform his own familys
doom into the proportions of the world of Sutpen and Sartoris that led to his death. But it is
significant that it should be Quentin through whose gradual understanding the story of Sutpen
is told, and that it should be Quentin who watches the final destruction of Sutpens house. For
Sutpens tradition was defective, but it was not formalized as Quentins was; and his story
approaches tragedy. (George Marion ODonnell, 26-27)
The image of the aristocrat has changed in time; from the paradisiacal depiction of it,
before the war, to the heroic one, during the war, and the dramatic one, evoking a lent, but
unavoidable historical disappearance. (Sorin Alexandrescu, 214) Quentin, like Sutpen, is an
aristocrat who desperately clings to the first images of this type. Unlike Sutpen, however, who
has with people always an I-it relation, and never an I-Thou one, as Hyatt Waggoner
claims in Past as Present: Absalom, Absalom!, that Quentin obsessively has in his mind his
relation with his sister, Caddy. Because of his inner conflict and his feelings of guilt, he pays
special attention to the story of Henry Sutpen, the only character from the novel that he has
fugitively met and whose words obsess him: And you are - ? Henry Sutpen. And you
have been here - ? Four years. And you came home - ? To die. Yes. (Absalom,
Absalom, 373)
Cleanth Brooks, in History and the Sense of Tragic: Absalom, Absalom! emphasises
the importance of Henry for Quentin:
In view of what we learn of Quentin in The Sound and the Fury, the problem of incest
would have fascinated him and made him peculiarly sensitive to Henrys torment. Aside from
his personal problem, however, Sutpens story had for Quentin a special meaning that it did
not have for Shreve. (200)
Quentins and Henrys actions are bond to their feelings and memories related to their
sisters, Caddy, and respectively, Judith. Both of them try to protect the honour of their sisters,
so that they could respect the moral code within themselves, and this protection leads
sometimes to paradoxical situations: for instance, Henry, as Shreve and Quentin explore the
story, has hoped that time would solve his dilemma, hoping that the war would bring a
change, or that Charles would change his mind. As it results from the novel, Henrys radical
problem was not the incest, but the fact that Charles was an octoroon. For him, as for the Old
Southern mentality, as for his father, it was impossible to conceive and to accept the mixture
between these two races, white and black. For Quentin, on the other hand, the incest has
another role. In order to protect his sister, he falsely confesses to his father that Caddys child
is his, so that he could retrieve their lost innocence: It was to isolate her out of the loud world
so that it would have to flee us of necessity. (The Sound and the Fury, 150)
Quentins innocence is represented by his obsession with honour, his vanishing
point, as Sorin Alexandrescu puts it, around which everything gravitates. His blind memories
are represented by the cocoon in which he was raised, where everything had sense, and where
he had learnt to respect, more than his own life, the code. In both of the novels, Quentin plays
the role of the observer and of the reflector. He is himself a mirror of what it used to be,
multiplying the negative values.
The future for him becomes meaningless, without sense, filled with fatality. As he
describes himself in Absalom, Absalom, he is a ghost of what he was, of the South, being
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unable to cope with the reality of the present. His gesture of breaking his watch in The Sound
and the Fury, as Jean Paul Sartre points out, was to have access to a time without clocks
(88), to the surrealist past. The present without clocks becomes another broken mirror of the
perfection of the past. The little Indian girl, for instance, brings into his mind several episodes
of him and Caddy, shaping in an indirect way his responsibility for his sisters decline.
Quentin finds himself caught between two worlds: the world with the things that he
thought were real, in which he blindly believed, and the world of decay, from which he
wishes to escape. He is tormented by the double blind a situation in which no matter what
a person does, he cant win (201), as Gregory Bateson explains in Steps to an Ecology of
Mind. He is taught to believe in the Southern honour and prestige, to respect, but at the same
time, his father claims that: Women are never virgins. Purity is a negative state and therefore
contrary to nature. Its nature is hurting you not Caddy and I said That's just words and he said
So is virginity" (The Sound and the Fury, 97). Verbally, his father says that what happened to
Caddy has no importance, and still, nonverbally, he is destroyed by Caddys behaviour and he
is indirectly killing himself through drinking.
Moreover, apart from being an aristocrat, Quentin, is also, up to a certain point, an
intellectual, because of his inner conflict, of the contrast between his intentions: to save his
family - and his accomplishments, his limited actions, his search for a code:
The intellectual is in the search of the code because he is convinced of its necessity in
the modern world; he debates the existing codes, at integral types or individual survivors, but
he easily opts to take over a whole existing code and to attempt to synthetize the existent
ones. (Sorin Alexandrescu, 264)
However, is he a real intellectual? Does he study for himself or for his familys
prestige? Gary Storhoff, in his essay Faulkners Family Crucible: Quentins Dilemma, talks
about the role of family in this characters evolution, stressing the fact that the real Quentin
shows little interest for study: as a child, he counts the minutes to the school days
dismissal, he wishes Jason to take his place at Harvard, and he is reprimanded by the dean
for his lack of interest in lecture courses. Again, Quentin faces the double blind: on the one
hand, his family demands from him academic success, on the other hands, their actions, his
mothers love for Jason, preferring the pragmatism of this son, tells him, at the same time, that
this success does not really matter.
The hubris of Quentin Compson is his attempt to go back to a blind illo tempore,
which has never existed in his family. The relation that he has with his sister, although it is
essential to this character, is another mirror for the image of the South during and after the
Civil War, between appearance and essence.
The Old Souths memories have moulded the present so much that for Quentin the
only possible present would be a copy of the past, of the history-as-ritual. But Quentin cannot
find this lost innocence again, and cannot renounce at it, being thus unable to cope with the
meaningless of the new world in which he powerlessly finds himself. As Sorin Alexandrescu
puts it, The man is not the gods slave, but he is the slave either of his inner structure, or of
his social status (315). He becomes a slave of his own memories and his only escape is
death.
Bibliography:
Primary sources:
Faulkner, William, Absalom, Absalom, Vintage Classics, Great Britain, 2005.
Faulkner, William, The Sound and the Fury, Vintage Classics, Great Britain, 2005.
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Critical sources:
Alexandrescu, Sorin William Faulkner; Editura pentru literature universala,
Bucuresti, 1969.
Blcke, Gnter, William Faulkner, in Robert Penn Warren, Faulkner. A Collection
of Critical Essays, Prentice-Hall, Inc, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1966.
Brooks, Cleanth, History and the Sense of Tragic: Absalom, Absalom!, in Robert
Penn Warren, Faulkner. A Collection of Critical Essays, Prentice-Hall, Inc,
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1966.
Burlui, Irina, tefan Avdanei, Sorin Prvu, American Fiction, Editura Universitatii
Al I Cuza Iasi, 1988, vol 2, Chapter William Faulkner.
Faulkner, William, Remarks on Absalom, Absalom, (University of Virginia, April
1957; Washington and Lee University in May, 1958), in Fred Hobson, Editor,
William Faulkners Absalom, Absalom: A Case book, Oxford University Press, New
York, 2003.
Kreyling, Michael, Inventing Southern Literature, University Press of Mississippi,
1998.
Millgate, Michael, The Sound and The Fury, in Robert Penn Warren, Faulkner. A
Collection of Critical Essays, Prentice-Hall, Inc, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey,
1966.
ODonnell, George Marion, Faulkners Mythology, in Robert Penn Warren, in
Faulkner. A Collection of Critical Essays, Prentice-Hall, Inc, Englewood Cliffs,
New Jersey, 1966.
Pouillon, Jean, Time and Destiny in Faulkner, in Robert Penn Warren, Faulkner. A
1966.
Sartre, Jean Paul, On the Sound and the Fury: Time in the Work of Faulkner,in
Robert Penn Warren, in Faulkner. A Collection of Critical Essays, Prentice-Hall,
Inc, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1966.
Thompson, Lawrence, Mirror Analogues in the Sound and the Fury in Robert Penn
Warren, Faulkner. A Collection of Critical Essays, Prentice-Hall, Inc, Englewood
Cliffs, New Jersey, 1966.
Warren, Robert Penn, Introduction: Faulkner: Past and Future, in Faulkner. A
1966.
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TERMES ET CONCEPTS DE LECONOMIE VERTE

Ruxandra PETROVICI
FEAA, Universit Al. I. Cuza , Iasi, Roumanie
Abstract: The development of human society also fostered the division of labour. Described
by Adam Smith as the splitting up of a task into a number of processes and sub-processes
and carrying it out by a person or a group of persons to increase productivity, the division
of labour had existed long before the concept of business organization and economic theories.
People were unable to know or do everything therefore they had to specialize in a certain
area in order to be efficient, be promoted and develop their field of activity. This
specialization led to the setting up of almost closed professional groups that shared a certain
professional language, behaviour and customs.
Unfortunately, in their development, people have destroyed the world around them, their
environment. That is why there are nowadays repairing jobs and actions and a terminology
which blends threatening effects and sustainable development proposals.
This paper will analyse the terminology in the articles of the EconomieVerte section and of
the entire chapter, Plante, published in the issue of Le Monde magazine which reviews the
year 2012. It attempts to determine the economic and sustainable development concepts used
in these articles, their linguistic and economic relationships.
Keywords: terminology, term, concept, economy, ecology, sustainable development, green
revolution.
Menant une vie facile, patronne, si non opprime, par deux ordinateurs, une tl,
plusieurs portables perdus dans des placards, plein dlectromnager, je rve, comme
beaucoup de monde actuellement, la sortie de la crise et une vie plus simple et plus
harmonieuse.
Jai trouv dans une librairie la revue hors srie publie par le groupe de presse qui fait
paratre le quotidien Le monde, revue qui fait le bilan de lanne 2013 dans les domaines de
lconomie et lenvironnement, en affichant explicitement le slogan austerity, thats
enough.
Les gens protestent contre la rduction des emplois et des salaires, en rclamant le
retour, le plus vite que possible, la bien connue socit de consommation, sans paratre se
rendre compte du fait que la socit et mme la plante souffrent par leur dsir de bien vivre.
En qute de solutions pour nous tous, pas seulement pour une minorit, soit des
protestataires, soit des favoriss, je suis alle directement la section Economie verte, section
ayant comme titre le terme conomie verte, dfini par lONU comme une manire
cologique de faire des affaires , et qui entend rconcilier croissance et nature (Bernard
Duterme, Economie verte : marchandiser la plante pour la sauver ?, www.centri.be). Cette
section comprend quatre articles: La transition cologique promise se fait attendre (MarieBeatrice Baudet), Notre-Dame-des colres (Rmi Barroux et Yan Gauchard), Les dfis de la
LGV Lyon-Turin (Sophie Landrin) et Lconomie circulaire balbutie (Rmi Barroux). Les
articles sont pauvres en solutions mais riches en alertes cologiques: feuille de route
gouvernementale peu verdie, dangers sanitaires du carburant, substance cancrogne
avre, saturation du trafic passagers et artificialisation des sols, transition cologique
attarde, dboisement du terrain pour construire un aroport, contestation des cologistes
contre le projet transalpin de transport mixte fret-voyageurs. Seul larticle de Remi Barroux,
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qui nous attire lattention que lconomie circulaire balbutie, pose le vrai problme de
lconomie daujourdhui, le volume en augmentation des ressources : minraux, bois,
mtaux, combustibles fossiles et biomasse, matriaux de construction en parlant des
concepts qui devront devenir des solutions pour lavenir: activit dans un cosystme o
presque rien ne se perd, cologie industrielle o les dchets des uns sont les matires
premires des autres, conomie circulaire, quilibre entre la croissance et la prservation des
matires premires, moins consommer et moins gcher, efficacit nergtique, matrise de
lnergie, conomie sur long terme, rduction des pressions sur lenvironnement, nergies
renouvelables, solaire et olienne, croissance verte aux cots abordables.
Cette section Economie verte fait partie dune section plus ample, Plante, compose
des sous-sections 1. Climat, 2. Energie, 3. Economie verte, 4. Sant, 5. Biodiversit. Elle
semble conue comme une cible, le cercle extrieur comprend les sous-sections 1. Climat et 5.
Biodiversit qui prsentent les dsastres irrmdiables avec lesquels on devrait vivre, le
deuxime cercle comprend 2. Energie et 4. Sant et proposent des alternatives aux actions qui
se sont avres malsaines, le centre tant la solution, lEconomie verte. Elle semble se trouver
au milieu du dsastre, mais cest le but atteindre pour gagner, pour regagner la vie de la
plante.
Le terme dconomie verte est ralis par lassociation du substantif conomie et
ladjectif fminin verte.
Conformment au Dictionnaire dconomie et sciences sociales, p. 145, le mot
conomie vient du grec okonomia (de okos, la maison et de nomos, la loi, les rgles).
Etymologiquement, lconomie dsignait donc les rgles de conduite de la maison. Il
sagissait de la science de la vie domestique prive par rapport la politique dont lobjet tait
la gestion de la cit) [...] On pourrait dfinir lconomie par lensemble des sujets dont elle
soccupe, la production, les changes, la rpartition, le budget dEtat, etc. Elle tudie aussi
la manire dont les individus, les groupes, les socits utilisent les ressources rares en vue
de satisfaire au mieux leurs besoins et indique les meilleurs choix possibles compte tenu
des ressources dont disposent les agents conomiques
Le vert, quidistant du bleu cleste et du rouge infernal, valeur moyenne, mdiatrice
entre le chaud et le froid, le haut et le bas est, conformment au Dictionnaire des symboles
(Chevalier, J., Gheerbrant, A., Ed. Laffont, Paris, 1982, p.1002), une couleur rassurante,
rafrachissante, humaine [...] Le vert est la couleur de lesprance, de la force, de la longvit
(celle aussi par contre de lacidit). Cest la couleur de limmortalit que symbolisent
universellement les rameaux verts [...]. Verte tait au Moyen Ag la toge des mdecins, [...]
verte est reste la couleur des apothicaires, qui laborent les mdicaments. [...] Le vert garde
un caractre trange et complexe, qui tient de sa double polarit : le vert du bourgeon et le
vert de la moisissure, la vie et la mort. Il est limage des profondeurs et de la destine. Ainsi
on pourrait dire que lconomie verte est lconomie des acteurs conomiques conscients de la
raret des ressources, qui veulent les utiliser de la manire assurer la longvit de la vie sur
la Terre.
Mais la ralit dit toute autre chose. Malheureusement le concept dconomie verte
nest pas venu comme suite normale de lvolution de la socit humaine mais comme
rponse prcipite la constatation des effets menaants de lindustrialisation et la
technologisation de notre socit, le rchauffement qui conduit la scheresse, qui, dune
part, endommage les productions agricoles et augmente les prix des denres agricoles,
incendie les surfaces forestiers, produit leffet d lot de chaleur urbaine , rduit de plus en
plus la banquise arctique qui joue un rle central dans la distribution des prcipitations en
Europe, en Amrique du Nord et en Chine et dautre part, provoque des typhons et des
cyclones qui provoquent des dommages conomiques et pertes de vies (Climat, Stphane
Foucart, Une mto de plus en plus extrme). De plus on a constate une monte du niveau
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marin et leffondrement des glaciers de lArctique de lOuest (Climat, Stphane Foucart, Un

nouvel tat des lieux en 2013). Mais les causes de cette situation se retrouvent mme dans le
dsir dvolution de notre socit. Les pays mergents qui se dpchent rattraper les pays
du nord sont lorigine de plus de la moiti des missions de gaz de serre (Climat, Laurence
Caramel, Trois ans pour parvenir un accord mondial), en 2012, lUnion a chou
reformer la quota de CO2, instrument de lutte contre le rchauffement, face lhostilit des
industriels (Climat, G. Allix, Peut-on encore sauver le march europen du carbone ?),
laugmentation de CO2 bouleverse le climat et altre les ocans qui deviennent plus acides, la
biosphre est la veille dune bascule abrupte et irrversible cause de la croissance de la
population humaine (Biodiversit, Stphane Foucart, Une crise irrversible de la
biosphre ?), les ressources spuisent, les sols et les ocans deviennent infertiles
(Biodiversit, Laurence Caramel, Les ressources spuisent), les arbres schent ou ils sont
dfrichs abusivement (Biodiversit, David Larousserie, Les forts sont menaces dembolie),
les animaux sont chasss pour la fortune des dj riches (Biodiversit, Catherine Vincent, Un
triste record pour le braconnage des lphants), la surpche dcime les eaux europennes
(Biodiversit, Martine Valo, Pche : la reforme avance), les abeilles meurent ou perdent le
sens de lorientation cause des insecticides utiliss dans lagriculture intensive (Biodiversit,
Martine Valo, Sale temps pour les abeilles), les plantes et les animaux migrent vers le nord,
pousss par le rchauffement climatique mais avec un certain dcalage (Biodiversit,
Catherine Vincent, Oiseaux et papillons mettent le cap au nord),les loups qui retournent dans
les forts, considrs comme symboles de la biodiversit retrouve, sont chasss par les
bergers (Biodiversit, Catherine Vincent, Limpossible cohabitation entre loups et leveurs),
lAmrique du Nord espre devenir le premier producteur mondial de ptrole (Energie,
Marie-Beatrice Baudet et Sylvain Cypel, Gaz et huile de schiste, leldorado amricain),
lnergie nuclaire pose des problmes de stockage de leau contamine (Energie, Philippe
Mesmer, Le Japon prt relancer la nuclaire). Mais quand mme la Belgique se prononce
pour labandon progressif de latome dici 2025 (Energie, Pierre le Hir, La sortie de latome
se fissure), la France sengage fermer deux vieux racteurs dici la fin de 2016 (Energie,
Pierre le Hir, Compte rebours Fessenheim), on propose des nergies alternatives, solaire et
olienne (Energie, Pierre le Hir, La guerre du solaire aura bien lieu) mais non sans problmes
(Energie, Grgoire Alix, Vent contraire sur lolien), on essaie de renoncer aux
agrocarburants (Energie, Pierre le Hir, LEurope freine les agrocarburants). On lance lalerte
sur les risques sanitaires et environnementaux de lindustrie chimique et pharmaceutique
(Sant, Stphane Foucart, Europe : anne noire pour les conflits dintrt) et des gaz
dchappement (Sant, Sophie Landrin, Le diesel, dsastre sanitaire). On condamne la
destruction des forts par les industries qui utilisent lhuile de palme (Sant, Gilles van Kote,
Bataille autour de lhuile de palme), la consommation du mas transgnique (Sant, Stphane
Foucart, OGM : le coup de tonnerre Sralini) et finalement on parle des nouveaux moyens de
vaincre le sida (Sant, Paul Benkimoun, De plus en plus de moyens pour vaincre le sida).
Ainsi on pourrait dire que la terminologie de lconomie verte comprend des termes
menant aux dsastres dj existants et aux solutions pas encore trouves, plutt espres.
La terminologie est dfinie par lISO (1990, ISO 1087) comme ltude scientifique
des notions et des termes en usage dans les langues des spcialits , en considrant la langue
de spcialit comme un sous-systme linguistique qui utilise une terminologie et dautres
moyens linguistiques et qui vise la non-ambigut de la communication dans un domaine
particulier.
Silvia Pavel et Diane Nolet (2001) donnent une dfinitions plus raffine en considrant
que la terminologie est une branche multidisciplinaire de la linguistique applique qui tudie
les concepts et leur reprsentation en langues spcialises et que son tude emprunte de
nombreux lments thoriques et pratiques aux disciplines consacres la description du
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savoir, son organisation et sa transmission , des sciences cognitives, la formation et la

description des concepts, la reprsentation et la transmission du savoir, de la philosophie de la
science, ltude raisonne des objets et des concepts scientifiques, de la linguistique, la
formation des termes, traits et changements smantiques, de linformatique, la cration et
gestion de bases de donnes, lanalyse de corpus, le traitement du langage naturel et la gestion
du contenu.
Les terminologues de lcole de Vienne ont adopt le triangle smiotique objetconcept-signe.
Les terminologues canadiens diffrencient mot-terme-concept.
En langue de spcialit, le terme (Pavel S., Nolet D.) ou l'unit terminologique est
une unit linguistique compose d'un ou de plusieurs mots, systmatiquement associe la
mme dfinition du concept qu'elle dsigne dans un domaine donn . Le concept spcialis
(Pavel S., Nolet D.) est reconnu dans un domaine donn par le mme ensemble de
caractristiques qui le dcrivent dans tout corpus textuel le concernant, par une dfinition qui
le distingue des autres concepts et par sa constante association avec une ou plusieurs
dsignations. Il est lui aussi reconnu (Pavel S., Nolet D.) grce sa constante association
avec un ensemble de caractristiques dfinissant le concept qu'il dsigne la diffrence
d'autres. Cette stabilit smantique du lien concept-terme est parfois appele degr de
lexicalisation et mme degr de terminologisation .
En revenant larticle de Rmi Barroux, Lconomie circulaire balbutie, qui semble
contenir les termes les plus importants de lconomie verte, on a essay de les classifier en
termes-constatations : dangers sanitaires, substances cancrognes, saturation du trafic
passagers, artificialisation des sols, dboisement du terrain, pressions sur lenvironnement ;
termes-alternatives : mesures fiscales cologiques, gestion des dchets, gestion collective des
ressources, matrise de lnergie, nergies renouvelables, prservation des matires premires
et termes-solutions: conomie circulaire, cologie industrielle, croissance verte, emplois verts,
coconception des produits, conomie long terme.
On peut constater labsence des mots-termes nouveaux cres. On voit plutt des
associations des termes dj existants qui essaient de dfinir les nouveaux concepts.
Normalement le langage de spcialit vient aprs la pratique dans un certain domaine
dactivit. Ici on a affaire des concepts abstraits issus de la pure intelligence des gens qui se
sont proccups des solutions cologiques long terme sans renoncer lconomie et
lindustrialisation actuelles. Ce sont plutt des termes rvs .
La vraie terminologie de lconomie verte pourrait se dfinir et se normaliser aprs la
rparation des dsastres produits par lconomie actuelle et par la pratique courante de
lindustrie verte.
Bibliographie :
Gaudin, F., Socioterminologie, Duculot, Bruxelles, 2003
Lerat, P., Les langues spcialises, PUF, Paris, 1995
Pavel, S., Nolet, D., Prcis de terminologie, Ottawa, Translation Bureau,
Terminologie and Standardization Directorate, 2001
Revue Le Monde, Le bilan du monde. Economie et environnement. Latlas de 180
pays, dition 2013
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RELIGION AND LITERATURE PARADIGMS WITH IMPACT ON THE PRESENT

SOCIAL MENTALITIES
Amalia-Florentina DRGULNESCU
Romanian Academy, Iai
Abstract: Nowadays religion and literature represent certain paradigms which have a real
impact on social mentalities. Until now the literature was indebted to religious frame; in fact,
there is a new tendency towards religiology, which englobes even the literature and all
spiritual aspects and this could change the actual stream of mentalities. This work underlines
the relations between literature and religion, in order to present their possibility to mould or
to shape the global patterns after the postmodernism.
Keywords: religion, literature, religiology, postmodernism, social mentalities
Considerm c cea mai important schimbare de paradigm asupra mentalitilor din
secolul al XXI-lea, din mileniul al treilea deci, poate mai important dect cea declanat
odat cu prbuirea turnurilor-gemene, din 11 septembrie 2001, are legtur cu atentatele
teroriste care s-au produs n Frana i n genere, pe continentul european, ncepnd cu data de
7 ianuarie 2015.
Dac n cazul Statelor Unite, dei nu trebuie minimalizat faptul c au fost
aproximativ 3000 de victime atacurile au fost coordonate asupra a ceea ce nsemna un
simbol economic i financiar, un simbol evident al puterii, n Europa, impactul asupra
mentalului social a fost cu mult mai mare, dovad i amplele manifestaii ulterioare estimate
de ctre unii la 2-3 milioane de persoane. Iat c motivele legate de valorile religioase versus
valorile libertii de exprimare (printr-un anumit tip de literatur) au dus la mutaii
considerabile n sfera mentalitilor actuale. Demersul nostru se refer la un anumit impact pe
care l au dou discipline corelative, religia i literatura n cmpul mentalului social, ns
avnd n vedere complexitatea i mai ales dificultatea problematicii abordate, demersul va
avea deocamdat un caracter mai degrab fragmentarist, aflndu-se n etapa preliminar a
cercetrilor.
*
Dac nainte vreme fenomenul religios avea o legtur mai direct cu literatura
profan, astzi exist dou tendine principale cea dinti, care le disociaz la modul absolut
pe acestea, iar cea de-a doua care ncearc din rsputeri s le concilieze; ar mai fi i o tendin
intermediar, care nu contest relaia dintre literatur i religie, ns acord supremaie cnd
religiei, cnd literaturii. n afara faptului c aproape ntotdeauna arta, n spe literatura, a fost
asociat unui soi de misticism, referitor la relaionarea persoanei cu o entitate inspiratoare (n
cazul artei), sau cu o divinitate cluzitoare (n cazul religiei), apropierea de latura religioas
n timpurile noastre irumpe neateptat n mijlocul celui mai ptrunztor secularism. Omul/
individul ncearc s reziste n faa unui anume imperialism numit n mod abuziv
,,occidental, sau chiar s l nlocuiasc, n parte, cu o apeten aproape iraional, cvasiinexplicabil n mileniul al treilea, al tehnologiei exhibate , pentru ceea ce se numea altdat
sacru, ns un sacru mai degrab difuz. De asemenea, devine inerent asocierea Occident
secularism/ stat laic versus Orient religiozitate/ stat religios, ns pe acest teren minat al
noiunilor trebuie s existe o anumit pruden teoretic, pentru c nu ntreg Vestul este
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,,lumesc, i nu toat lumea arab, de pild, este profund religioas (vezi economiile arabe
emergente), iar notaiile pozitive sau negative nu pot fi aplicate automat fie asupra civilizaiei
occidentale desacralizate, fie asupra rilor ,,orientale obscurantiste. De altfel, setea sau o
anumit foame de religie sau de religiozitate se simte mai intens i din cauza faptului c
discursul politic se instituie din ce n ce mai mult ca o nou religie, vechiul amvon fiind astfel
substituit cu un pupitru al declaraiilor oficiale ,,Il est aujourd'hui de bon ton de parler du
retour des religions, en invoquant le renouveau de l'Islam ou en clbrant le deuxime
millnaire du christianisme. Or, ce grand spectacle ne fait que meubler le vide que laisse la
perte de crdit des idologies politiques. = ,,n zilele noastre este la mod s vorbeti de
ntoarcerea la religii, invocnd renaterea Islamului ori celebrnd al doilea mileniu de
existen
a
cretinismului.
(http://www.denoel.fr/Catalogue/DENOEL/Essais/De-linhumanite-de-la-religion).
Toate acestea trebuie aadar gndite i regndite, deci, prin prisma termenilor
identitate i alteritate. De la consideraiile lui James George Frazer i Mircea Eliade ncoace
se pare c societatea a fost infuzat de sacru, de religie, pn n momentul intrrii n scen a
postmodernismului (convenional sfritul anilor `70) , care se afl chiar n decursul unei crize
de identitate. Dac Andr Malraux, un literat (n sens larg), rostea celebra fraz ,,Secolul XXI
va fi religios sau nu va fi deloc, plin de ambiguitate, atunci se poate vorbi acum mai ales de
religiologie, o noiune avnd o sfer mai nou i n acelai timp mai extins: ,,Cette science de
la religion que certains veulent appeler religiologie (religiology, comme terme, a t propos
il y a dj plusieurs annes), postule que la religion, ou mieux le religieux (car elle prtend
dceler celui-ci dans des phnomnes non reconnus par le sens commun ou par les diverses
sciences comme tant des religions) possde des caractristiques irrductibles, propres, et
susceptibles d'une analyse particulire fondant ainsi une science ou du moins un savoir
spcifique. On pourrait dire cet gard que la science de la religion pourrait tre compare
une science de l'art; la connaissance de celui-ci non plus ne saurait se limiter aux conclusions
fournies par une philosophie ou une psychologie de l'art, par exemple. = ,,Aceast tiin a
religiei pe care unii doresc s o denumeasc prin religiologie (iar ca termen fusese propus deja
cu mai muli ani nainte), postuleaz c religia, sau mai propriu zis religiosul (cci ea pretinde
s l deceleze n fenomene mai puin recunoscute de ctre simul comun sau prin intermediul
diverselor tiine ca fiind religii) posed caracteristici ireductibile, proprii, i susceptibile de o
analiz particular ntemeind astfel o tiin sau cel puin un savoir (o cunoatere) specific/.
Am putea spune c, din acest punct de vedere, tiina religiei este posibil s fie comparat cu o
tiin a artei; cunoaterea acesteia din urm nu ar ti s se limiteze la concluziile furnizate de
ctre o filosofie sau o psihologie a artei, de exemplu.
(Michel Despland, De notre religion notre religiologie, revue ,,Relireligiogiques,
1995, nr. 11, p. 67 http://www.unites.uqam.ca/religiologiques/no11/religion.PDF) Este
foarte important ns c acest (mai) nou termen, de religiologie, implic o cunoatere
interdisciplinar.
Dac urmrim cteva trsturi comune literaturii i religiei, vom observa c acestea se
refer n principal la cel puin trei aspecte: a) relaionarea cu inefabilul, indicibilul; b)
medierea ctre transcendent; c) apetena pentru mistic, n sensul larg al termenului. n ceea ce
privete deosebirile dintre acestea dou, trebuie s avem n vedere perechea exprimare a
individualitii creatoare (n cazul artelor i a literaturii) imersiune n mentalitatea
religioas, pn la confundarea dintre creator i Creator. Scriitorul, de obicei, are un rol
preponderent activ n societate, participnd de cele mai multe ori, direct sau indirect, i la
dezbateri politice sau sociale, precum i la difuzarea, generarea ori punerea la ndoial a
valorilor sau opiniilor contemporane (vezi cazul Panait Istrati), pe cnd homo religious,
aproape n toate epocile, pare s fie mai degrab un element pasiv, al crui activism interior
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poate schimba doar ntr-un interval mai mare de timp, pe termen lung deci, anumite
mentaliti ale societii (vezi cazul Papei Ioan Paul al II-lea/ Karol Woytila).
ncercnd s surprindem interferenele sau divergenele dintre religie i literatur,
trebuie s acceptm i legitimitatea termenului de literatur european. LEurope na pas
russi penser sa littrature comme une unit historique, et je ne cesserai de penser que cest
l son irrparable chec intellectuel, scria Milan Kundera n 2005. ntr-adevr, ntre
omogenitatea literaturii europene i heterogenitatea acesteia, mai puternic pare s fie cea din
urm. Cu toate acestea, sub impulsul Rseau europen Les Lettres Europennes, nc din
decembrie 2007 la nivel european, se militeaz pentru contientizarea unitii profunde a
literaturilor europene i a necesitii de a le nelege pe fiecare n parte, n sensul acelui
Manifeste pour lenseignement des littratures europennes. Intrm, fr s vrem, n miezul
noiunii de multiculturalism, i iari trebuie s decelm ntre multiculturalismul european i
cellalt, mai evident, cel globalizant. i tot fr s vrem ne deprtm astfel de perspectiva
special estetico-filosofic a demersului nostru printr-o abordare implicit socio-politic
extins, fiindc acest concept reclam o anumit pulverizare i recunoatere a identitilor de
grup.
Aruncnd o privire sumar asupra literaturii din Europa, nu se poate s nu i se
recunoasc o anumit nuan religioas (ori, dimpotriv, anti-religioas), dar n orice caz
relaionat cu sfera religiosului, de obicei mai pregnant, cel puin comparativ cu literatura
american (cuprinznd n oarecare msur i pe cea latino-american). Ct privete Orientul
apropiat sau Mijlociu, aici lucrurile se situeaz altfel, n sensul c impactul religiosului
funcioneaz la modul cotidian, inclusiv prin prezervarea unor tradiii specifice (de pild,
nchinarea de cinci ori pe zi la divinitate, n lumea musulman, i altele asemenea). Se
impune, n acest context, luarea n considerare a unei alte axe de comprehensiune a
raporturilor dintre religie i literatur, i anume aceea mai vast referitoare la tradiie versus
modernitate. Este de la sine neles c sfera religioas este mai susceptibil la pstrarea cu
strictee a tradiiei, pe cnd cultivarea literaturii e nclinat adesea ctre o modernitate mai ales
declarativ, dac nu manifest. Punctul de convergen ns dintre cele dou aspecte este
explicat de ctre Mircea Eliade, cnd afirm despre homo religiosus c se deschide spre lume,
trind n mijlocul acesteia: Deschiderea spre Lume i ngduie omului religios s se cunoasc
i n acelai timp, s cunoasc Lumea, iar aceast cunoatere este pentru el nepreuit, pentru
c este religioas (Mircea Eliade, Sacrul i profanul, Humanitas, 1995, pagina 125).
De la religie la literatur trecerea se face, desigur, prin intermediul mitului. Exist
riscul ca acest subiect, mitul, s apar ca un concept perimat n timpurile noastre moderne, i
cu toate acestea lucrurile stau exact invers. Pentru societatea european/ occidental (dei
aceste dou tipuri nu se suprapun perfect), comoditatea mentalului indivizilor acaparai de
tehnologie, cufundai n consumerism i reclame percutante, aproape c distruge vreo posibil
nclinaie ctre cele superioare, ctre vreo posibilitate de a concepe lumea i prin alte mijloace
dect cele palpabile. Cu alte cuvinte, celebra definiie eliadesc ,,mitul este o istorie sacr
printr-o operaie reductiv, la propriu, face referire mai nti la confruntarea individului cu
istoria, mitul devenind deja istorie, la modul negativ, i nici mcar att, adic fiind dat uitrii,
golit de esen, paradigm fr o semnificaie clar. Iat c paradoxal, mitul nsui devine
doar un mit, i poate c tocmai de aceea rentoarcerea la origini, cest--dire la religie, devine
stringent pentru anumite persoane sau societi. De altminteri, mai toate religiile au creat la
rndul lor alte nenumrate mituri, ca reacie de aprare sau n completarea celor vechi. Astzi
asistm la elaborarea i dezvoltarea unor (aa-zise) mituri urbane, moderne, care exprim
necesitatea de a umple un gol resimit mai ales n postmodernitate, cnd demitizarea
reprezint cuvntul de ordine n toate domeniile. Rmnnd n cadrul cuplului iniial discutat
religie-literatur, totui aceast deconstrucie a miturilor nu a condus n mod necesar la
multiplicarea creaiilor literare de valoare, ci dimpotriv.
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,,Mitul este substituentul srac n adevr, dar spectaculos n reprezentare a ntrebrilor

cu privire la genez, n sens larg. Acesta este produsul unor formaiuni culturale destul de
evoluate pentru a descoperi necesitatea unor rspunsuri existeniale, dar insuficient pregtite
pentru a discerne realitatea obiectiv de subiectivismul dorit prin rezolvarea mitic. Putem
spune c mitul i gndirea mitic fac parte din copilria societii umane, n care definirea
binelui i rului au corespondent demiurgic. (http://www.scientia.ro/qa/10456/ce-este-mitulavem-nevoie-de-mituri). Aceast ncercare de definire este doar n parte adecvat, pentru c
adevrul nu este numai monopolul religiei, literaturii (ori tiinei), iar asocierea cu vrsta
copilriei este pertinent doar dintr-un punct de vedere cronologic, i nu reflect gradul de
evoluie mental a civilizaiei umane (vezi i Vassilis Vitsaxis, Mitul).
Facem o parantez, ns nu ntmpltoare, n legtur cu criza actual a literaturii
romneti, care, oscilnd ntre apetena integrrii la propriu n Europa i prezervarea propriilor
trsturi, aadar n cadrul unei literaturi europene, ncearc totui s renune la mrcile sale
anterioare definitorii, inclusiv la nuana religioas, n sensul larg al cuvntului, ori la cea mai
strict balcanic, adoptnd un modernism strident, de faad, i de cele mai multe ori
inautentic. Este, n alte forme, ceea ce remarca mai demult (acum vreo 50 de ani) i savantul
menionat, despre de pild sensibilitatea religioas urban sau intelectual: ,,Experiena lor
religioas nu mai este deschis spre Cosmos, fiind una strict personal; mntuirea este o
problem ntre om i Dumnezeul su; n cel mai bun caz, omul se recunoate responsabil nu
doar n faa lui Dumnezeu, ci i n faa Istoriei. Cosmosul nu mai are ns niciun loc n relaia
om-Dumnezeu-Istorie, ceea ce nseamn c Lumea nu mai este simit, nici mcar de cretinul
autentic, ca o lucrare a lui Dumnezeu (Mircea Eliade, Sacrul i profanul, Humanitas, 1995,
pagina 134).
Capacitatea omului de a se dedica trup i suflet unei religii este neleas n ultimul
timp, mai ales pentru lumea oriental, ca un fel de datorie. Pentru c, n ultimul timp, a
suscitat interesul ntregii lumi, vom lua n considerare cazul societii i literaturii algeriene,
nglobate i aculturate pn la un punct de ctre societatea francez. Mai nti, trebuie s
specificm c dup cel de-al doilea rzboi mondial, numeroi musulmani au devenit imigrani
ai statului francez, provenii mai ales din Africa de Nord, i cu precdere din Algeria, pentru
era nevoie de mn de lucru adecvat pentru reconstrucia rii. Introducerea culturii i
religiei algerienilor, dar i a altor tradiii a reprezentat nceputul unei schimbri majore a
dinamicii peisajului religios, islamul a devenit o religie important i practicat pe scar larg,
estimndu-se c exist aproximativ 5 milioane de musulmani n Frana, unii dintre ei
practicani, iar alii doar la modul cultural. Astfel, numrul lor continua s creasc, iar
influena asupra societii franceze s se dezvolte. Acest lucru face s se adnceasc impresia
de alteritate pe care o provoac islamul i s adnceasc distana fa de/ pentru francezii nonmusulmani. Imaginea celuilalt, a strinului, se contureaz mai ales din cauza a trei chestiuni
stringente: a formrii imamilor, un fel de dascli ai islamitilor, din cauza lipsei locurilor de
rugciune, dar i a purtrii n continuare de ctre femei a vlului islamic. Aadar, cu toate c
islamul este opus, ntr-o anumit msur societii tradiionale catolice, a devenit foarte bine
ncorporat
n
organicitatea
social
francez.
(https://collab.itc.virginia.edu/access/content/group/3773a2c7-fc6b-4fc9-b6fd914f2b55ef1c/02_projets_des_etudiants/Religions_et_laicite/Religion_et_Laicite/Islam.html)
Ne abinem aici s facem analize sociologice stricte; ne intereseaz doar n ce msur
religia, precum i literatura, sunt modelatoare ale mentalitilor; de asemenea, nu vom porni
nici la hermeneutica propriu-zis de texte literare, ns vom aminti cazul scriitorului Albert
Camus (i scrierile sale), francez nscut n Algeria, permanent scindat ntre apartenena la o
patrie de mna a doua (second-hand) i un dor nedefinit de fa de o ar originar. n acest
ultim sens, trebuie neles i nclinaia omului religios pentru un teritoriu care l depete,
teritoriul sacrului sau transcendent.
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Issue no. 6/2015
n prozele sale, Strinul, Ciuma, Omul revoltat, Camus susine i o idee subiacent,
cea a exilului ca paradigm a cutrii identitii ,,S-a spus, de exemplu, c exilul reprezint
pentru un scriitor o nefericire i totodat c reprezint o fericire. C este o ruptur grav n
destinul lui i c este o nou ans n carier. C este o desrare i c este descoperirea unei
lumi noi. C l frustreaz, desprindu-l de limba matern, i c i permite revelaia unei limbi
noi. i aa mai departe. Aceste definiii contradictorii ne ndeamn s tragem concluzia c nu
exist de fapt exil, ci numai exilai. Altfel spus, exilul se triete exclusiv pe cont propriu.
Cte experiene individuale, attea definiii. (Nicolae Manolescu, Ce este exilul?, ,,Romnia
literar, 2011, nr. 24 http://www.romlit.ro/ce_este_exilul). n Strinul, metafora soarelui
orbitor devine reprezentativ pentru statutul alteritii, pentru trecerea ntre dou lumi
reprezentative. Apoi, Frana este privit totui ntr-o manier ambivalent, accentundu-se
spaima alteritii, de exemplu ntr-o convorbire cu o femeie arab: ,,I-am mrturisit c
sttusem cndva acolo i m-a ntrebat cum e. I-am spus: E murdar. Sunt porumbei i curi
ntunecoase. Oamenii au pielea alb., adaug scriitorul cu oarecare detaare, ca i cum el nu
ar aparine rasei albe sau i-ar fi team s o recunoasc. Totodat, este surprinztoare antiteza
dintre conotaiile mizeriei interioare i puritatea intrinsec, subneleas, a rasei albe.
Exotismul este un alt element care intensific relaia alteritate identitate, n sensul
urmtor: ,,Am cobort la periferia Algerului. Plaja nu este departe de staia autobuzului. Dar a
trebuit s traversm un mic platou care se nal deasupra mrii i coboar apoi spre plaj. Era
acoperit de pietre glbui i de tufe albe de aior, profilate pe albastrul, care devenise nc de la
acea or intens, al cerului. () Am mers printre iruri de vilioare cu garduri verzi sau albe,
unele tupilate cu verandele lor sub tamarisc, altele golae, printre pietre. nc nainte de-a
ajunge la marginea platoului, puteai zri marea nemicat i mai departe peninsula
somnolent i masiv n apa limpede. () i am vzut, foarte departe, un mic vas pescresc
care nainta, imperceptibil, pe marea strlucitoare. Maria a cules civa stnjenei de piatr. De
pe panta care cobora spre mare, am vzut c lumea ncepuse s se scalde (Albert Camus,
Strinul. Ciuma. Cderea. Exilul i mpria, Editura Rao, 2013, pagina 22). Printre altele,
misterul exotismului este definit de ctre Victor Segalen ca fiind ,,reacia vie i curioas a
unei individualiti puternice mpotriva unei obiectiviti creia i percepe i degust
diferena, aici interferndu-se n suficient msur cu propensiunea devoiunii religioase.
Tensiunea acumulat nluntrul sinelui, scindat ntre dorina de a aparine altei lumi,
poate mai civilizate, i deliciile pe care le ofer peisajele algeriene sunt reflectate ntr-o
modalitate singular la acest scriitor ,,Era aceeai explozie roie. Pe nisip, marea rsufla cu
toat respiraia rapid si nbuit a valurilor ei mici. Mergeam ncet spre stnci i simeam
cum mi se umfl tmplele sub razele soarelui. Toat cldura se proptea n mine i se
mpotrivea naintrii mele. i, de fiecare dat cnd simeam vasta ei rsuflare cald pe obraz,
strngeam din dini, strngeam pumnii n buzunarele pantalonilor, m ncordam din tot trupul
ca s nving soarele i toat aceast beie opac pe care o abtea asupra mea. La fiecare sabie
de lumin nit din nisip, dintr-o scoic albit sau dintr-un ciob de sticl, maxilarele mi se
crispau. Am mers mult vreme (Albert Camus, Strinul. Ciuma. Cderea. Exilul i
mpria, Editura Rao, 2013, pagina 30).
Am selectat doar aceste dou ample fragmente din prozele lui Albert Camus, deoarece
aici intervine i hibriditatea/ hibridizarea, n ceea ce privete mentalitatea respectiv, proprie
literaturii post-coloniale. Pe de alt parte, literatura imigranilor descrie creaiile literare ale
scriitorilor cu asemenea background i experienele acestora din noua patrie n termeni de
tratament i acceptare de ctre populaia local. Acest termen poart unele conotaii negative
pentru c scriitorii cunosc minimalizarea ntr-o oarecare msur a operelor i eforturile lor
care sunt vzute precum o literatur de tip marginal. ,,Clearly, literature cannot be but an
intercultural historical phenomenon of mutual artistic and other influences from several
cultures, of mutual interactions of artistic expression produced in different cultural
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Issue no. 6/2015
circumstances, and thus of mutual reception of Otherness = ,,n mod clar, literatura nu poate
fi dect un fenomen istoric intercultural, cuprinznd influene artistice reciproce din diferite
culturi, de interaciuni reciproce de expresie artistic produse n diferite circumstane
culturale,
i
totodat
de
receptare
reciproc
a
celuilalt.
(http://docs.lib.purdue.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1088&context=clcweb)
Mai exist, ntr-un alt plan, mai ndeprtat (cel puin din punct de vedere geo-politic),
cazul lui Salman Rushdie, scriitor indian cu un statut i cu un stil aparte, n care se mpletesc
ntructva metafizicul aproape mozaicat ntr-o manier non-transcendental, cu un soi de
dialogism ntre sferele superioare i imanent, astfel nct se poate face, pn la un punct, o
legtur translatorie comparatist, ntre acest creator i autorul romanului Maestrul i
Margareta, Mihail Bulgakov, proz n care un anumit tip de supranatural se amestec cu
satira la adresa regimului politic sovietic. Dincolo de conotaiile considerate blasfemiatorii la
adresa islamului din romanul Versete satanice, criticii literari au subliniat ns mai ales
valoarea literar a acestuia. Aa dup cum am menionat, n concluzie parial, ,,[] bucuria
i elanul cu care omul occidental a spat chiar la baza miturilor (s. n.) care i hrneau fiina
spiritual reprezint o atitudine la fel de greit ca i fanatismul care i face pe radicalii
islamici s ard cri i s i condamne la moarte pe autorii lor. Ambele atitudini sunt suficient
de ndeprtate de calea de mijloc pentru a ne arta, n toat hidoenia sa, goliciunea spiritual
a omului contemporan, manifestat fie prin negarea a orice nu poate fi perceput prin
experien direct (occidentalii), fie a tot ceea ce nu corespunde propriilor interpretri aduse
unor
triri
care
nu
pot
fi
interpretate
(musulmanii
radicali).
(http://www.clubmistic.ro/51/Rushdie---Versetele-satanice-(arhanghelul-nebun-versusdemonul-sincer)/182).
Dac postmodernismul n spe faciliteaz figurile negativitii, n termeni precum
alteritate, absen, aporie sau cellalt, atunci un anumit tip de cunoatere catafatic se
ntlnete att n religie, ct i n literatur. ,,The ostensible function of these tropes is the
disruption of logocentrism through the introduction of the indeterminate. However, by
arguing that the 'metaphysics of presence' is all that exists in social communication, alterity
can be reinterpreted as a metanarrative trope whose language and function repeat attributes
previously defined by theology = ,,Funcia aparent a acestor tropi este discontinuitatea
logocentrismului prin introducerea ideii de nedeterminat. Totui, demonstrnd c metafizica
prezenei este tot ceea ce exist n comunicarea social, alteritatea devine o figur
metanarativ al crei limbaj i funcie reitereaz atribute conturate cu mult nainte de ctre
teologie.
(http://cadair.aber.ac.uk/dspace/handle/2160/4019)
Se pare c mare parte din ficiunea postmodern, cu stilul su ambiguu, funcioneaz
ca o teologie deconstructiv prin negarea sistematic a altor prezene tematice n text i vine
s prezinte alteritatea ca pe o dominant care acoper mai toate ariile limbajului i ale fiinei.
Dat fiind aceste lucruri, aceast alteritate ajunge s exerseze ntr-un fel anumite puteri
conceptuale artnd exprimri metafizice ale divinului: inefabilitatea, infinitatea,
omnipotena, atemporalitatea, fora etic. Postmodernismul care, n oarecare msur, eludeaz
religiosul, supralicitnd literatura n genere, devine auto-suficient i deviaz, involuntar, ctre
o alt paradigm, transmodernismul, n care cele dou evocate anterior sunt convergente,
aceasta i pentru c ,,The religious and mystical references that often crowd postmodern
fiction, therefore, support alterity's shift from the aporetic to the transcendent. By examining
metaphysical alterity in postmodern treatments of character, death, allegory and history, the
postmodern literature is a limited theological discourse that questions postmodern pluralism
and populism = ,,Trimiterile religioase i mistice care adesea populeaz ficiunea
postmodern, n consecin, sprijin o anumit mutaie a alteritii dinspre aporetic ctre
transcendent. Examinnd alteritatea metafizic n termeni postmoderni referitori la caracter,
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Issue no. 6/2015
moarte, alegorie i istorie, literatura postmodern reprezint un discurs teologic limitat care
pune la ndoial pluralismul i democratismul postmodern.
(http://cadair.aber.ac.uk/dspace/handle/2160/4019)
Dei s-ar prea c postmodernismul nu are absolut nicio legtur cu o categorie a
transcendentului, totui exist numeroase semne camuflate ale necesitii oamenilor de a gsi
sau (re)descoperi, ori de a dimensiona altfel un iluzoriu dincolo, i ne referim aici la crearea
unor profiluri virtuale, a aa-ziselor avataruri, de dependena fa de jocurile interactive pe
internet, sau chiar de blogurile personale, trimind la self-transcendence, ori, mergnd chiar
mai departe, la adevrate angoase apocaliptice. ntre o atitudine dominat de
fundamentalismul religios i o alta, subsumat ateismului din zilele noastre, deosebirea nu
este chiar att de mare, pentru c ambele sunt caracterizate de un absolutism n ordinea
impunerii unor trsturi definitorii pentru mentalitile actuale.
n final, trebuie s accentum faptul c este nevoie mai ales de un dialog real ntre
literatur i religie, deoarece acestea sunt motoarele care moduleaz partea spiritual a
civilizaiei noastre galopante, globalizante. Mai este nevoie, de asemenea, de o critic
constructiv la adresa exceselor impunerii forate a religiilor, dar i a renunrii la modul
absolut a aspectelor religioase, ca markeri ai identitii naionale sau/ i culturale. (Astzi
asistm iari la o campanie ,,educaional furibund chiar n Romnia, prin scoaterea
religiei din programa colar, ca i cum religia n sine ar duna formrii armonioase a
personalitii, i nu modalitatea defectuoas n care se pred religia n coli).
Bibliografie
1. Robert Detweiler and David Jasper (eds.), Religion and Literature, Westminster John
Knox Press, 2000, United States (e-book)
http://books.google.ro/books?id=klIvP2b5l0wC&printsec=frontcover&hl=ro&source=
gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false
2. Mircea Eliade, Sacrul i profanul, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 1995
3. Victoria Kahn, The Future of Illusion Political Tehology and Early Modern Texts,
University of Chicago Press, 2014 (e-book)
1207
Issue no.6/2015
ELEMENTS OF AESTHETIC IDENTITY IN CHARLES BAUDELAIRES WORK

Simona-Andreea OVA
Al. Ioan Cuza University Of Iai
Abstract: Of course, it cant be a question of applying Charles Baudelaire (1821-1867) the
label of symbolist poet. From a chronological point of view, he precedes the movement with
so many years (he starts writing art criticism in 1845 and gives the most important part of his
critical work between 1857 and 1861) that he can only be considered a precursor, term
which however, on the other hand, does not entirely fit a writer of his value, with such an
original critical force and sensibility; we see in him, rightly, one of the most important critics
of the 19th century. The main share of his critical creation regards, of course, plastic arts and,
although we cant say that he was a systematic theoretician, Baudelaire remains an important
aesthetician and a literary critic of distinguished attire. It is also true that neither the
aesthetic side, nor the critical one reaches the level of novelty and originality of his
sensibility, a quality that makes a magnus parens of the entire modern poetry out of him.
It is because of the poet Baudelaire, that his aesthetical and critical writings drew so much
attention: we must add that with very few exceptions neither the aesthetic, nor the
criticism of Baudelaire is actually situated at the level of a rationalization of the poetics
implicit in his proper creation. But Baudelaires aesthetic plays nonetheless an important
historical role in the transmission of certain romantic motives from the predecessors to the
end of the 19th century, not the romanticism in the French meaning of emotionalism, of cult
of nature and exaltation of the ego, but, sooner, the German and English inspiration doctrine
regarding the creative imagination, the rhetoric of certain metamorphoses and the role
central, here of the symbol.
Keywords: art, aesthetic, poetic vision, artistic experience, cultural identity.
Baudelaires art criticism went on in parallel with his poetic explorations, inaugurating
the modern research of poetry with the instruments of aesthetics. Benefiting from the
romantic rupture, with the notion of gender, and retaking the romantic ideal of art
synchronism that of Delacroix, of Hugo and Wagner, Baudelaire will conclude that art,
poetry, harmony, melody, sensuality and thinking, the heroism of modern life, reunited, must
make a unitary whole in the great romantic artist. He does not conceive of poetry as being
different, in its nature, from painting or music, but sees, on the contrary, in this poetic unity of
different languages, an application and a confirmation of the aesthetic of analogy and
correspondence, because not only perfumes, colours and sounds answer each other, but also
the arts themselves; the colours of painting, sounds of music, syllables, rhythms and allegories
of poetry. Baudelaires effort was directed towards the perfection of an aesthetic spirituality
capable of founding a universal poetry in whose bosom verbal poetry is nothing more than a
possible technical expression. In all which he wrote, we find the constant preoccupation for
this problem: in poetry, prose, criticism, in Les Fleurs du Mal (1857, 1861), in Petits
pomes en prose (1861-1869), in Curiosits esthtiques, the pages written about Delacroix,
about Constantin Guys or Wagner, about Hugo, Gautier or The pagan school. How satisfied
he was when he spoke of the poetry of the painting of Delacroix, of the poetry of the music of
Wagner, of the poetry of the caricatures of Goya, next to which he put his verbal poetry to
procure moments of delight for the poetry lover!
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Issue no. 6/2015
In the sonnet Correspondances, the poet denounces, it is true, an occult theory; in

poetry, he resorts to synaesthesia, as if it were a simple analogy in the great dictionary of
symbolism, in the same way in which he constantly resorts to comparisons between arts,
characterizing paintings in musical terms, or musical compositions in visual images, without
however confusing the specificity of arts or supporting their fusion. Although Baudelaire
make free parallels between arts, stating, for example, that a poem by Gautier reminds him of
a symphony of Beethoven1, he does not bother to state that the infringement of one art upon
another is a flaw2 and that any art must be sufficient for itself and, at the same time, must
remain within its own, providential limits3. At most, Baudelaire will admit that the tendency
towards a fusion of the arts is a symptom of his era, which he considers decadent. Arts
aspire, if not to substitute each other, at least to lend one another new forces 4. Baudelaire
understands Wagners intention to bring each art to flourishing in its own terms, to produce
the synthetic art of musical drama, which does not embody a fusion of the arts, but their
working together for a common goal. When, in his article about Wagner, Baudelaire quotes
his own sonnet Correspondances, he does nothing but justify, in this way, the verbal
description made to the Lohengrin overture, in aerial light and analogies of white. However,
we cant speak about the fusion of sense in his case; we are dealing with an art of translation,
rhetoric of analogies in which metaphors, alternating among senses, plays just a minor part.
The false idea, that this unique procedure represents the reference centre of the entire
symbolism and its interpretation, as a clinical feature of those poets, made symbolism
questionable, as decadent and pathologic.
But, in order to arrive at the understanding of this universal poetry, a poet like
Baudelaire was necessary, obsessed with the faith in the original sin, which imposed the
necessity of a spiritual perfecting. And as the sin lurks both art, as well as the soul, he
committed himself with all resources to the feverish search of equivalences between art and
the spiritual. Art must have a soul.
For Baudelaire, the spiritual is that frontier world, where the work of art traces its
existence in the contact and community of man with the supernatural, that is why the aesthetic
form of spiritualism is supernaturalism, key words of art and of the soul, in the unity of their
language, which is poetry, whether its about verb or colour, rhythms or shapes. He had the
aesthetic nostalgia of the spiritual, whether its about painting, literature or music, law of the
entire creation, of any creation. In his opinion, only through creation can one achieve the
salvation of the spirit. Baudelaire rejects with irritation the term of realism a disgusting
insult thrown before all analysts, a vague and elastic word which, for the rabble, means not a
new method of creation, but sooner a minute description of the accessories5. There are, says
Baudelaire, two categories of artists. The realists, whom he prefers to name positivists, are
the ones stating: I want to represent things as they are, or as they would be, presuming I
wouldnt exist. The universe without man. The other, the imaginative artist, says: I want to
enlighten things with their own spirit, projecting their reflex on other spirits6.
And as art situates itself beyond nature, he declares that beauty is heterogeneous to the
nature, which the artist must, on the contrary, subject to numerous magical operations, as the
women does when she creates herself, through make-up, a beauty which nature did not give
her. The entire aesthetic of Baudelaire is a development of this eulogy of make-up that
Ch. Baudelaire, Lart romantique, 1962, p. 177.
Ch. Baudelaire, Curiosits esthtiques, 1962, p. 168.
3
4
Ibidem, p. 5.
5
6
Ch. Baudelaire, Curiosits esthtiques, 1962, p. 284.
1
2
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Issue no. 6/2015
forms an important chapter in the article: Le Peintre de la vie moderne, acknowledged to

Constantin Guys, the painter of this beauty of artifice. Nature must be reduced to purity to be
able to be lifted to spirituality. The artist must be a perfect chemist in order to be able to
metamorphose in gold the marsh offered by nature and by man, and to achieve through this,
the dignity of the holy soul. We could say that the verse Comme un parfait chimiste et
comme une me sainte, which is part of the epilogue project for the volume Les Fleurs du
Mal, constitutes the most authentic testament of Baudelaire.
There is, in Baudelaire, an aspiration to mysticism, a belief that art, in its climaxes,
means vision, ecstasy and, as such, a certain inspiration, a search almost with the meaning
given by Wordsworth after banks of time. As in the case of Edgar Allan Poe, there is an
abyss between the accent placed on deliberation, lucid calculus, work and will, on one hand,
and the striving for supernatural beauty, for an achievable childhood paradise and achieved
only in the moments of ecstasy, on the other hand. But, overall, Baudelaire distinguishes
himself from Poe (and even from himself at certain times), by the fact that he interprets
beauty not as a vaporous ideal, but as an actual-human thing, even evil, satanic, bizarre and
grotesque. Baudelaires doctrine comprises, partly, an aesthetic of evil, a belief in the power
of the artist to defeat any impediment, to overcome all obstacles, to reveal the flowers of
evil7. But it means more: Baudelaire masters authentically the creative imagination, the
subject-object dialectics, the rhetoric of artistic transformations, grounded on a theory of
analogies, correspondences and universal symbols.
The artist must not accept the confusion between gold and marsh, this sin of the
world which is the aesthetic error, ignoring the conditions of the alchemist perfection, the
perpetual attachment to the multiform illusions of a corrupt sensibility: imitations,
sentimentalism, picturesqueness, realism, positive art, moralism, didacticism. This parfait
chimiste must use purely spiritual techniques, experimental techniques with which he can
discover or revive the soul, techniques subjected, for this, to a double law: the law of the
supernatural and the law of art unity. Baudelaire embraces Heines supernatural credo, from
which he also quotes, in the sense that the artist cant find all types in nature, but the most
remarkable are revealed in his own soul, such as the innate symbolism of innate ideas8. Here,
Baudelaire can accept a credo, ultimately Neo-Platonic, in the interior model, in the vision of
the artist who dominates his model, such as the Creator dominates His own creation 9. This
supernatural credo means, in practice, abhorrence towards the theories of naturalism and
realism, flourishing at that time.
By knowing and studying profoundly the romanticism and by escaping its
shortcomings, Baudelaire purifies his look and comes to reach an authentic supernature, that
of Delacroix, of Maryon, of Legros, of Wagner or of Edgar Poe. But each artist produces his
own super-nature, that is why Baudelaire subjects both the critic, as well as the painter,
sculptor, musician, poet or novelist to the same requirement, the requirement of pure art,
because only by purity can arts dominate their technical divergences and reach, by the
correspondence of their languages, a common spirituality, that of arts own soul. That is why
no divergence is found in Baudelaire between the experience of critic and that of poet,
because both are based on the same aesthetic requirement supported on an experimental
dialectics of lucidity and passion, of knowledge and admiration.
For this, the poet-critic opposes a total and absolute refusal to all aspects of aesthetic
conformism; he refuses the plastic poetry and neopaganism, protests against moralism and
7
See the projected preface to Les Fleures du Mal, 1925, p. 373.

Quoted by Sainte Beuve, in Portraits littraires, volume 2, 1833, p. 256-257.
9
Ch. Baudelaire, Curiosits esthtiques, p. 108.
8
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against the aesthetic of arts social utility, whom he provides a liberating potential. For him,
poetics and spirituality have their primary source in these refusals. But in Baudelaire also the
craving for the unusual manifests, a kind of reality which manifests itself simultaneously,
after mysterious correspondences in the interior world and in the exterior world, and which is,
in many ways, the shell of what is positive, natural or formal, unusual that at him identifies
with the poetic that dominates Les Fleurs du Mal and explains the fascinating originality of
the volume Petits Pomes en Prose. It is a poetics of amazement that involves a poetics of
the bizarre and of the unusual. Baudelaire will declare that Beauty is always bizarre,
because it contains some nave, unwanted, unconscious bizarreness, which makes it stand out.
This poetics of amazement belongs to all arts, because they, in turn, belong to the
same universal poetry, as was remembered before. The inexhaustible scope of the unusual,
fantastic or ordinary, imaginary or real, is a true forest of symbols, that triggers the free
operation of dreaming and imagination, producing those holidays of the brain in each true
artist, whether he is a poet, painter, musician, choreographer etc. Reaching universal valences,
poetry will become a true spiritual catharsis that allows the artist to hear the language of
flowers and of mute things. Therefore, it comes to pure art and not to art for arts sake,
because it achieves, by a sort of absolute lyricism, direct communication with the interior of
the soul.
Pure art operates an overcoming, beyond positive and useful, in order to reach poetic
purity, beyond shape in order to reach a magical spirituality and beyond nature in order to
reach supernaturalism. In poetry and through poetry, in music and through it, the soul
glimpses at the splendours beyond the grave. Only overcoming this screens that mask the
clear-obscure of the soul (positivism, naturalism and formalism) to reach the discovery of the
poetic paradise and the knowing of poetic anguish, which is not done by art for arts sake,
but only by pure art, based on that absolute baudelairian refusal, art which can reach the
supernaturalist magic.
Baudelaire is an intransigent of purity, he is painfully sensible to everything that
surrounds him: firstly to the helplessness of a romanticism that forgot more and more that it
must be before all a new way of feeling; to the abuses of the picturesque, whether it is
fantastic, exotic, oriental or pseudo-dramatic; to the decadent romanticism, which a Louis
Boulanger represents, or some small masters of historic painting such as Robert-Fleury.
The poet-critic will have to defend pure art on several fronts at once. He will use the
work of Delacroix, a loner of art, as fortress of intransigency and of truth, and he will also rely
on other loners, promoters of pure art such as Poe, Wagner, Daumier or Leryon.
One of the resorts of pure art is imagination, which occupies an important
place in the baudelairian aesthetic as the queen of faculties, the ordinator of the brain
holidays, the true supernatural paradise. Imagination establishes the unity between criticism
and creation, between criticism and painting or poetry, as a queen of creation and queen of
knowledge, at the same time, because it covers the entire spiritual, divine and satanic, comic
and epopee, painting, theatre, novel and poetry. Only an aesthetic of unity, of spiritual totality,
could satisfy Baudelaire. He started by discovering alone, in himself, than in the works of
Delacroix, of Corot and of Thodore Rousseau, than Edgar Poe made him conceive it as a true
doctrine, solid and undeniable.
Thus, starting from a simple aesthetic curiosity, native impulse, that became with the
aid of the dandyism cultivated by him, conscience and will, started than looking for pure art,
in an aesthetic universe that multiplied impurities and diversions, entertainments, in the
Pascalian sense of the word, Baudelaire comes to have in the end the unitary and intransigent
reference that establishes definitively the order of Beauty.
The aesthetic experience, ordered around the absolute power of imagination reaches
thus admiration, which comes to cover the spiritual curiosity: itinerary without detour and
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without deadlock, throughout which the great protagonists of supernaturalist literature will
appear in the unity of their diversity.
But Baudelaire did not find his true spiritual brothers amongst the poets of the verb,
with the exception of Edgar Poe, who came from abroad, but amongst the poets of music, of
colours and shapes, with the entire range of possible admirations, on all registers of
supernaturalism, from Wagner to Delacroix and to Constantin Guys, from Corot to Daumier,
from Goya to Legros. He gathered in the profound unity of his spiritual nature the ampleness
of his aesthetic universe, marked by the accuracy and originality of his critical judgments.
But for the achievement of this performance which would suddenly elevate him above
the sterile polemics practiced with great pleasure by contemporaries, such as Delcluze or
Planche, Gautier or Thor, Baudelaire promoted, as a good spiritualist and conscientiously,
the sacred principle of inter-subjective identification of knowledge, that of the reader or
spectator with that of the spirit which dwells and breathes in the viewed, read or heard work,
principle notice with much evidence in the modern criticism in certain critics such as:
Thibaudet, Du Bos, Rivire, Raymond, Bguin, Starobinsky, Richard and others, as also
George Poulet noticed in his speech Baudelaire, prcurseur de la critique moderne, held
with the occasion of celebrating the centennial of the poets death (Journes Baudelaire,
Actes du colloque, Namur Bruxelles, 10-13 Oct. 1967), in which he considered Baudelaire
one of the founders of modern criticism.
What helped the poet-critic very much in realizing this identification in the ideal
manner is the fact that he tastes the work which he was going to analyse both as a reader or
artist, as well as a creator and, finally, as a critic, hence besides the direct identification at the
level of the poetry or of the work of art, he also realizes a double identification: poet-object
and critic-poet, his imagination no longer being satisfied with the rebirth or revival of interior
life of another, it recreates it in the shape of correspondent feelings which the contemplation
of anothers past makes revive in him. The poetic identification act comes to a repeating, the
happiness or unhappiness of another repeating itself in the poet critics thought and
sensibility and finding here an equivalent expression force. If we also add the creators
intuitions the scope of the spiritual provides them to him we find ourselves in the presence
of some equivalences pushed to perfection, equivalences that help establish, without reproach,
the value of each analysed work. That is why in art criticism, translating the expression
communicated by a painting does not mean repainting it in words, but expressing what it
suggests, because the painting, as the poem, represents a system of suggestions to which the
art or literature amateur must conform. Conformity and suggestion. Baudelaire is the most
original art critic of his time, because he is the only one who completely let be achieved in his
spirit the effect wanted by the painter (Georges Poulet, as quoted).
We could exemplify with the great study L` Oeuvre et la vie d` Eugene Delacroix,
in which Baudelaire speaks of the special quality of the emotion conceived in him upon
seeing the masters painting, where he says that Delacroix is the most suggestive of all
painters, the one whose works . make you think the most and remind the memory to a
greater extent of already known poetic feelings and thoughts, but which he thought lost for
ever in the night of the past. Actually, it is a question of identifying mnemonic life of the
painting with that of the spectator himself. Baudelaire actually names Delacroixs work a
sort of mnemonics, because the painters art targets to reach within the spectators thought
the exact reserve of his own memories; the spectator recognizes himself in the work of art, in
a similar past with that evoked in the work.
Baudelaire appreciates very much the role of shape, as stimulus for the imagination.
Defending the sonnet, its Pythagorean beauty, he states: it is when shapes constrains, that
the idea gushes with more intensity. Any tone fits the sonnet, tomfoolery, gallant tone,
passion, dreaming, philosophical meditation. We find here the beauty of metal and well-made
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mineral. Did you not notice that a patch of sky looked at through the orb or between two
chimneys, between two cliffs, an arcade etc communicates a more deeper idea of the
infinite, than an immense panorama seen from the crest?10
In the same way, rhetoric, as well as prosodies, doesnt represent arbitrarily invented
tyrannies, but collections of rules demanded by the organisation of the spiritual being itself.
And never did prosodies and rhetoric impede originality from being produced distinctly 11.
But, while Baudelaire acknowledged the stimulating power of shape, for example of the
sonnet, or of metric convention, he confers the term of style a depreciative intendment.
Style, claims him, is a foreign poetry, generally borrowed to the past, not the natural poetic
quality of the subject which asks to be extracted in order to be better brought forward in
another manner12. Ingres and Millet are criticized because they have style: a distortion or a
subterfuge, sooner, than actual creation. Baudelaire remains thus firmly on a middle position,
which allows him to reject both the academic formalism, as well as the photographic
naturalism. Art is not idealization, because nature, although evil, must not be purified by
abstraction or sentimentalization: sooner, nature is absorbed in the permanence of art,
metamorphosis, symbolized, but not evaporated. At least, this is the newness of the
Baudelairian poetic sensibility: the power to exorcise the ugly and the evil, so that the
horrible, artistically expressed, becomes beauty . as rhythmed, cadenced pain, to fill the
spirit with a calm joy13. Sometimes, this power is conceived as the one of a momentary
escape or a pure illusion. The drunkenness of art hides the terrors of the abyss, because the
genius can also play comedy on the side of the word14. The clown condemned to death, in
the superb execution of his role, never shows a sign which would betray his imminent faith.
The term symbol or the concept of myth dont occupy a prominent role in
Baudelaire: symbol, accidentally used in the context of the theory of correspondences and
of universal analogy is, for the poet, applicable to an equal extent with the sense of allegory,
cypher, hieroglyph and even emblem15. For Baudelaire, mythology is a dictionary of live
hieroglyphs, of hieroglyphs known to all16. Baudelaire probative quotes the defence of the
myth, done by Wagner17, discussing the musical creation of the following composers: he sees
in Lohengrin an analogy for the old story of Psyche, but avoids stating that at the bottom
would be an actual literary derivation. The similarity of the two stories is the sign of a
common origin, the proof of an undeniable kinship, but with the condition of not looking
randomly for this condition, but in the absolute principle and common origin of all beings .
the myth is a tree growing everywhere, in any climate, under any sun, spontaneously 18.
However, there is no evidence that Baudelaire would have seen the centre of poetry or of his
own poetry in the myth, however clear, he would have otherwise intuited its universality, the
universality of its power of attraction, and however much he would have admired its use by
Wagner.
Thus, once his necessary refusals were asserted and arts supernaturalist transcendence
was defined, once the royalty of Imagination and the scope of pure art were clarified, the cult
of shape re-becomes legitimate, but a shape, this time, as symbol of spirituality and as sign of
the soul within the language. Baudelaire engages thus poetry in a new way related to the
Letter to Armande Fraisse, 18th of February 1860, in Correspondence gnrale, 3rd volume, p. 39-40.
Ch. Baudelaire, Curiosits esthtiques, p. 283.
12
Ibidem, p. 328.
13
Ch. Baudelaire, Lart romantique, p. 172.
14
Le spleen de Paris, p. XXVI, Une Morte hroque; in the Pliade edition, 1st volume, p. 452.
15
Ch. Baudelaire, Lart romantique, p. 164 and p. 305.
16
Ibidem, p. 354.
17
Ibidem, p. 217.
18
Ch. Baudelaire, Lart romantique, p. 229-230.
10
11
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tradition of a poetry that was no more than a poetic ornament through the indissoluble unity of
sign with sense, of the telling with the being. He focuses his attention on the search for poetic
unity by elaborating a language which is beyond matter and shape and which constitutes a
system of signs.
Answering to a universal symbolism, the poetry of the verb is thus placed alongside
the poetry of the colour and the one of sound or shape, in a poetic unity of various languages
that coexists within a universal poetry. At a certain point, Baudelaire formulates his ideal of
sympathetic criticism, when, for example, the critic is demanded the following: in order to
represent well the work, is thus necessary to get into the skin of the being thus created, to
deeply sink yourselves in the feelings it expresses, to personally feel them so well, that it may
seem to you that this could be about your own work19. However, most of the times, in the
practice of his literary criticism,, Baudelaire did not make any effort to acquire the aesthetic
coherence or that sympathetic getting into anothers skin. He was contempt satisfying the
requirements he previously formulated himself: the best criticism is the one that is funny and
poetic; not a cold and algebraic criticism, that, under the pretext of explaining all, knows
neither hate, nor sympathy, and which voluntarily divests of any temperament in order to
be fair, namely to have its own reason for being, criticism must be biased, passionate, poetic,
namely done from an exclusive point of view, but that concurrently opens as many horizons
as possible20.
Its a matter of an ideal fit for the poet and for the creative artist: actually, in art
criticism, as in many of his reflections about aesthetic, Baudelaire went much further in the
direction of a coherent theory.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
19
20
GENERAL ORIENTATIVE BIBLIOGRAPHY

Baudelaire, Charles, Curiosits esthtiques, Lart romantique, par Henri Lematre,
Paris, Classiques Garnier, 1962.
Cain, Jullien, Baudelaire, critique dart, Paris, Firmin Didot, 1957.
Castex, Pierre-Georges, Baudelaire, critique dart, Paris, Socit denseignement
suprieur, 1969.
Poulet, Georges, Baudelaire, in tude sur le Temps humain,Paris, Plon, 1950.
Poulet, Georges, Baudelaire, prcurseur de la critique modern, in Journes
Baudelaire, Actes du colloque, Namur Bruxelles, 10-13 Oct. 1967.
Raymond, Marcel, De Baudelaire au Surralisme, Paris, Corti, 1963.
Ch. Baudelaire, Curiosits esthtiques, p. 223-224.

Ch. Baudelaire, Lart romantique, p. 172
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TRADUCTION ET REFERENCE: ENJEUX PRAGMATIQUES ET NARRATOLOGIQUES DE

LA TRADUCTION DES STRUCTURES COHESIVES DU FRANAIS VERS LE ROUMAIN
Raluca-Nicoleta BALACHI
Abstract: The paper analyses the issue of translating cohesive constructions from French into
Romanian in literary texts. Although at a first sight the translation of these elements should
not raise any difficulty, the comparative analysis of the original and of the various
translations shows that it is a level where the translator intervenes more than often, such
practice having important consequences on a pragmatic and narrative level. The corpus of
study is constituted by a selection of examples from Jules Vernes Round the World in 80
Days and three of the numerous Romanian translations.
Keywords: translation, text orientation, anaphor, coherence, narrative point of view
childrens literature.
Introduction
Considr par les spcialistes verniens un roman cl pour toute luvre de lauteur, Le
tour du monde en 80 jours a eu un destin traductologique qui confirme cette position
privilgie, car cest le roman le plus traduit au monde. A la diffrence des autres romans
publis dans Le Magasin dducation et de rcration, il parat dabord en feuilleton dans Le
Temps, seulement lanne suivante en volume chez Hetzel, ntant donc pas ds le dpart un
livre adress exclusivement la jeunesse.
En langue roumaine, le roman Le tour du monde en 80 jours a bnfici de trs bons
traducteurs surtout pendant lpoque communiste mais non pas de conditions ditoriales
idales. Aprs 1989, de nombreuses retraductions paraissent mais elles sont concurrences par
la rdition des anciennes versions notamment par celles du dbut du XXe sicle.
Le profil des traducteurs est souvent responsable de lapproche du texte. Parmi eux, on
trouve des crivains pour enfants, comme Ion Pas qui, en dehors de ses crits pour les jeunes
tait aussi rdacteur dune revue adresse au jeune public. Radu Tudoran, lauteur de la
version roumaine la plus connue du roman que nous prenons pour corpus, est trs bien connu
dans la littrature roumaine comme auteur de romans daventures pour adolescents. Son
intrt pour les uvres de Jules Verne car il a traduit nombre dautres romans aussi,
sexplique peut-tre aussi par le fait quil se passionnait pour la navigation et les voyages
maritimes.
Comme il arrive souvent avec les textes destins aux jeunes lecteurs, le roman a t
soumis diverses adaptations, en fonction de lge de lenfant envisag comme lecteur. Dans
le contexte roumain, il a une vingtaine de traductions et adaptations, dont certaines sont
frquemment rdites, ce qui est tout fait logique pour un texte mondialement connu, et
que les adolescents roumains retrouvent dans leur bibliographie scolaire. Moins logique est la
pratique de la publication de textes sans donnes sur le traducteur, la paternit de la traduction
restant dans le cas de la littrature de jeunesse toujours actuelle.
Puisquaucune analyse dune uvre traduite ne saurait avoir la prtention de
lexhaustivit, toute tude critique des traductions travaille avec des fragments. Nanmoins,
pour que lanalyse ait des rsultats pertinents et soit la base dune gnralisation des
observations sur les stratgies traductives, il faut que les fragments/phnomnes analyss
soient reprsentatifs pour luvre/ lauteur en question. Aussi allons-nous nous pencher dans
ce qui suit sur des extraits significatifs pour luvre en question.
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Ironis par ses contemporains et longtemps plac en marge de la littrature,

redcouvert par les critiques et crivains de la deuxime moiti du XXe sicle, Jules Verne est
un auteur qui ne cesse de fournir un champ de recherche riche et indit, en critique littraire,
do lintrt de son tude pour lhistoire et la critique des traductions aussi. Vritable artisan
du langage, Verne a nombre dadmirateurs parmi les romanciers contemporains qui
apprcient son criture originale (Georges Perec, Michel Butor). On peut ainsi parler dune
vritable redcouverte de Verne comme auteur du XIXe dtenteur dun style et dune logique
romanesque digne de lattention des critiques.
Les problmes de traduction de son uvre, discuts avec la mthodologie spcifique
la critique des traductions, sont dailleurs, pensons-nous, un excellent indice des particularits
stylistiques du plus connu roman vernien,
En comparant loriginal aux traductions roumaines du texte (la traduction canonique
de Radu Tudoran et deux des retraductions daprs 2000, Iulia Bdescu et Andreea
Dumitrache) on constate des divergences assez intressantes entre les traducteurs au niveau
morphosyntaxique, discursif et nonciatif. Le traducteur peut oprer des modifications
importantes en fonction surtout de ce quil apprcie tre les comptences de lecture de son
jeune public (lexplicitation, lajout ou au contraire lomission, la simplification syntaxique, la
rorganisation des chanes rfrentielles). La perspective narrative peut en tre galement
affecte, la relation narrateur-narrataire tant soumise une reconfiguration.
Lanalyse de lincipit du roman est dhabitude illustrative pour les stratgies de
traduction du texte. Les premires phrases du roman, qui introduisent le personnage, ont une
structure syntaxique complexe, car sorganisant sur plusieurs niveaux de subordination,
proposant un ordre de mots marqu, avec dtachement des complments et recours des
parenthses informatives. On observe une tendance la simplification, car, l o cest
possible, on applique une rduction du niveau de complexit des phrases, en liminant
certaines subordonnes notamment les relatives (voir la traduction de Radu Tudoran) et les
remplaant par des syntagmes. Les traducteurs roumains nappliquent cependant pas la
division des phrases longues, comme le font par exemple les traducteurs anglais du mme
roman.
Le dplacement de certains connecteurs a le rle explicitant, marquant de manire plus
nette les rapports logiques dans largumentation (dplacement en tte de phrase de donc par
RT). Une certaine tendance la standardisation est visible ds le dbut : la traduction de 2007
propose, pour la place marque du COI A lun des orateursla traduction par un Sprp
(Dup unul / Aprs lun des ) qui sont placs plus souvent en tte de phrase que les COI qui
se contruisent en roumain laide du cas datif.
Sur le plan du lexique, pour la dernire retraduction, le traducteur se met clairement
dans la position dun guide qui dcrypte les rfrents (pour Saville-row on ajoute le mot rue,
pour Burlington Gardens on ajoute le mot immeuble, pour la dnomination en anglais dans
loriginal Reform-Club on prfre, contrairement aux autres traducteurs et aux comptences
que lon pourrait prsumer pour un enfant roumain contemporain, qui apprend langlais ds la
maternelle, la traduction du nom de linstitution, au lieu du report : Clubul Reformat).
Certains artifices stylistiques des traducteurs comme lincidente pare-se/ semble-t-il, l
o les autres traducteurs ont intgr le verbe sembler, en suivant loriginal, dans la
subordonne de concession, sont associer, selon nous, la notion de style personnel de
traduction ou de subjectivit du traducteur RT tant lui-mme traducteur pour enfants.
Texte original:
En lanne 1872, la maison portant le numro 7 de Saville-row, Burlington Gardens
maison dans laquelle Sheridan mourut en 1814 , tait habite par Phileas Fogg, esq., lun des
membres les plus singuliers et les plus remarqus du Reform-Club de Londres, bien quil
semblt prendre tche de ne rien faire qui pt attirer lattention.
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lun des plus grands orateurs qui honorent lAngleterre, succdait donc ce Phileas
Fogg, personnage nigmatique, dont on ne savait rien, sinon que ctait un fort galant homme
et lun des plus beaux gentlemen de la haute socit anglaise.
Version Radu Tudoran
In anul 1872, casa cu numrul 7 de pe Saville-row, Burlington Gardens cas n care
n 1814 murise Sheridan era locuit de Phileas Fogg, esq.1 , unul din membrii cei mai
ciudai i mai remarcabili ai Reform-Club-ului din Londra, dei el i ddea, pare-se, toat
osteneala s nu atrag prin nimic atenia asupra sa.
Deci, unuia dintre cei mai mari oratori ai Angliei, i urma acest Phileas Fogg,
personaj enigmatic, despre care nu se tia nimic, dect c era un om foarte generos i unul
dintre cei mai frumoi gentlemani din nalta societate britanic.
1
Esquire titlu de noblee folosit n Anglia, atribuit oricrui om de cultur i cu rang
social.
Version Iulia Bdescu
In anul 1872, casa cu numrul 7 din Saville-row, Burlington Gardens cas n care
Sheridan murise n 1814 , era locuit de Phileas Fogg, esq.1 , unul dintre cei mai ciudai dar
i mai remarcabili membri ai Reform-Club-ului din Londra, dei prea c nu face nimic
special pentru a atrage atenia asupra sa.
Dup unul dintre cei mai mari oratori care au fcut cinste Angliei, a urmat deci acest
Phileas Fogg, personajul enigmatic, despre care nu se tia mai nimic, dect c era un brbat
galant i unul dintre cei mai frumoi gentlemani din nalta societate englez.
Version Andreea Dumitrache
In anul 1872, casa cu numrul 7 de pe strada Saville-row, n cldirea Burlington
Gardens cas n care n 1814 a murit Sheridan era locuit de Phileas Fogg, unul din
membrii cei mai neobinuii i mai nsemnai Clubului Reformat din Londra, dei prea c se
chinuiete s nu atrag cu nimic atenia asupra sa.
Unuia dintre cei mai buni oratori acare fac onoarea Angliei, i urma, deci, acest
Phileas Fogg, personaj enigmatic, despre care nu se tia nimic, dect c era un brbat foarte
galant i unul dintre cei mai prezentabili domni din nalta societate englez.
A ct de la standardisation de lordre des mots, on observe galement la stratgie
dexplicitation des rapports de subordination, comme dans lexemple suivant repris de la
mme premire page du roman, o lon explicite le rapport de concession laiss implicite dans
loriginal par lajout soit de dei/ bien que, soit de son corrlatif totui/cependant, soit des
deux, avec, en plus, pour la dernire traduction, la reconstruction de la relation prdicative,
elliptique dans loriginal :
Anglais coup sr, Phileas Fogg ntait peut-tre pas Londonner
Englez fr ndoial, Phileas Fogg poate c nue era totui londonez (RT)/
Dei cu siguran englez, Phileas Fogg poate c nu era londonez (AD)./
Dei era englez, Phileas Fogg nu era totui un londonez n adevratul sens al
cuvntului (IB).
Lajout des connecteurs sencadre dans le mme dsir dexpliciter afin de faciliter la
lecture, comme on peut le voir au niveau du titre du premier chapitre o lon insre la
conjonction IAR quivalente dun ET valeur oppositive :
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Dans lequel Phileas Fogg et Passepartout sacceptent rciproquement, lun comme

matre, ET lautre comme domestique
Pour les chanes rfrentielles qui sont essentielles dans la construction de la
cohrence discursive, les stratgies des traducteurs sont assez divergentes. Radu Tudoran, luimme auteur de littrature pour adolescents, remplace de manire systmatique les il/celui-ci
par notre personnage, notre garon, ce qui affecte galement le niveau narratif, prfrant un
lien plus fort avec le narrataire, et une certaine didactisation de la traduction (les descriptions
dfinies permettant une identification plus rapide du rfrent par rapport aux pronoms de
troisime personne smantiquement vides) ; dautre part, mme si en roumain le sujet
pronominal nest pas obligatoirement actualis en structure de surface, la forme verbale
pouvant assurer elle seule lidentification du sujet, RT prfre reprendre en gnral le sujet,
mme dans les cas dpourvus de toute ambiguit ; nous voyons ici la mme tendance
dassurer laccompagnement en traduction du lecteur pour liminer toute possible noncomprhension du texte.
Dans les retraductions rcentes, les chanes anaphoriques, sont, par contre, bien moins
explicitantes, mais nous pensons que cest toujours une stratgie par laquelle on dynamise le
temps de la lecture. Les retraductions actuelles prservent les anaphores pronominales de
loriginal ; laissent implicites les sujets pronominaux ; prfrent les anaphores pronominales
moins informatives aux anaphores nominales.
Texte Original
Il
passa
sur
la
recommandation de MM.
Baring frres
Il ntait prodigue de rien
Il vint chercher fortune en
Angleterre
Version de Radu Tudoran

Version dA. Dumitrache
Personajul nostru [notre El [IL]
personnage]
Omul [lhomme]
Flcul nostru [notre gars]
El [IL]
EL - sujet inclus [IL]
La variation dans les termes qui assurent la co-rfrence avec adaptation au contexte
tout comme la tendance viter les rptitions en choisissant dautres lments de la mme
srie synonymique entreraient, une premire approche, dans ce que lon appelle le style
traductif spcifique un certain traducteur ou une certaine poque. Si pour Berman ces
tendances dforment le texte source, nous pensons que dans la littrature denfance elles
entrent aussi dans la composante didactique de ce texte.
Texte original
Passepartout me convient,
rpondit le gentleman
Passepartout trouva sans
peine, au second tage, la
chambre qui lui tait destine
Phileas Fogg se rendit
aussitt la salle manger
Point de gardes, point
dinvalides, point de grillages
!
Version de Radu Tudoran

Version dA. Dumitrache
stpnul casei [le matre de la gentlemanul
maison]
Noul servitor [Le nouveau Passepartout
serviteur]
Noul-venit [Le nouveau El - sujet inclus dans le
venu]
verbe[IL]
Nici un fel de, nici urm de, Nu exist...
nici pomeneal de
Au niveau de la rfrence temporelle, des modifications importantes sont signaler

dans le cas des retraductions rcentes: la distribution des temps verbaux est reconfigure chez
1218
Issue no. 6/2015
AD, car elle vite systmatiquement les temps verbaux considrs comme compliqus, mme
au risque daffecter parfois la logique temporelle des vnements: les plus-que-parfaits de
Verne, soigneusement traduits par R.T, deviennent par transposition des passs composs
(exemple de la premire page; ex. p. 13); le conditionnel devient, chaque fois quil est
possible, des prsents ( qui stonnerait pentru cei care sunt uimii).
Les dictiques adverbiaux sont galement rapprochs du temps prsent: jusqualors, pn acum (RT, AD). Une plus grande variation de lexpression est retrouver chez le mme
Radu Tudoran dans le cas des termes dadresse et des marques de la politesse : les pronoms
des dialogues sont adapts la situation de communication selon ce que les traducteurs
considrent tre lusage habituel des enfants lpoque de la traduction. Si dans loriginal
entre matre et serviteur cest le vous qui prdomine, en roumain RT propose une distribution
marque, tout en restant au ple positif de la politesse, par les pronoms dumneata et
dumneavoastr, tandis que A. Dumitrache passe directement au tu dans le discours de Fogg et
utilise dumneavoastr, lquivalent roumain du vous seulement dans le discours du serviteur.
Les modalits dnonciation en traduction sont plus dynamiques chez certains
traducteurs, qui privilgient ainsi le dialogisme du texte par ladresse directe aux lecteurs et
par leur implication affective: Radu Tudoran utilise beaucoup plus dinjonctions,
dexclamations et dinterrogations quon ne le fait dans un original qui abonde dj en
exclamations, tandis que les traducteurs roumains rcents de Verne et la plupart des
traducteurs de langue anglaise choisissent de les supprimer.
La traduction de la dernire partie faite par Radu Tudoran joue sur loralit de
lexpression (voir les particules orales ajoutes signales en gras), sur des structures
dialogales, presque thtrales, et sur une ponctuation fortement marque : il ajoute des points
de suspension, propose des divisions supplmentaires des phrases avec des points
dexclamation ou dinterrogation supplmentaires, tout comme sur les structures emphatiques,
ce qui cre limpression dune certaine spectacularisation du texte. Par rapport lui, Andreea
Dumitrache, la dernire traductrice en date, limine certaines interrogations et pratique une
traduction bien moins dynamique en termes de dialogisme et de structure phrastique (elle
comprime plusieurs structures, ne fait pas attention aux syntagmes cls censs assurer la
liaison avec le titre et la cyclicit du texte) :
Texte original
Ainsi donc Phileas
Fogg avait gagn son
pari.
Il
avait
accompli en quatrevingts
jours
ce
voyage autour du
monde ! Il avait
employ pour ce
faire tous les moyens
de
transport,
paquebots, railways,
voitures,
yachts,
btiments
de
commerce, traneaux,
lphant.
Lexcentrique
gentleman
avait
dploy dans cette
Version
1
(R.
Tudoran)
Aadar,
Phileas
Fogg
ctigase
rmagul. El fcuse
ocolul pmntului n
optzeci de zile!
Pentru asta, folosise
toate mijloacele de
transport existente,
pacheboturi, trenuri,
trsuri, iahturi, vase
de comer, snii,
elefani... Ciudatul
gentleman avusese
prilejul s-i arate
minunatele
sale
caliti, sngele rece
i
punctualitatea.
Version
2
(I.
Bdescu)
Astfel c Phileas
Fogg
cigase
pariul, fcuse n
optzeci de zile acea
cltorie n jurul
lumii ! Folosise n
cltoria sa toate
mijloacele
de
transport :
pacheboturi,
trenuri,
trsuri,
iahturi,
vapoare
comerciale, o sanie
i
un
elefant.
Excentricul
gentleman
i
demonstrase
n
1219
Version3(A.Dumitrache)
Aadar, Phileas Fogg
ctigase
pariul.
Inconjurase Pmntul n
80 de zile, folosind toate
mijloacele de transport:
pachebot, tren, trsur,
iaht, vapor de comer,
sanie, elefant. A avut
ocazia s arate ct de
calm i de exact poate fi.
Dar acum ? Ce obinuse,
ce profit i adusese
cltoria ?
S-ar putea spune c
nimic. Da, nimic, n
afar de o femeie
ncnttoare care, orict
de incredibil ar prea, l
affaire
ses
merveilleuses
qualits de sang-froid
et dexactitude.
Mais
aprs
?
Quavait-il gagn
ce dplacement ?
Quavait-il rapport
de ce voyage ?
Rien, dira-t-on ?
Rien, soit, si ce nest
une
charmante
femme, qui quelque
invraisemblable que
cela puisse paratre
le rendit le plus
heureux des hommes
! En vrit, ne feraiton pas, pour moins
que cela, le Tour du
monde ?
Dar mai departe? Ce

ctigase de pe urma
acestei cltorii? Ce
adusese cu el?
S-ar putea spune c
nimic. Nimic? Fie!
dac nimic se poate
numi
o
femeie
minunat care
orict ar prea de
curios fcu din el
cel mai fericit dintre
oameni!
Pi dac-i aa, cine
n-ar face ocolul
pmntului
chiar
pentru mai puin?
aceast
afacere
sngele rece i
exactitudinea.
Dar apoi ? Ce
ctigase
din
aceast cltorie ?
Ce adusese cu el ?
Am putea spune
c nimic. Nimic,
dac nimic se poate
numi o femeie
ncnttoare care
orict de greu de
crezut ar prea l
fcu cel mai fericit
dintre brbai !
Si la drept vorbind,
nu merit s faci,
pentru mult mai
puin dect att,
Ocolul
Pmntului ?
Issue no. 6/2015
fcu cel mai fericit om

de pe pmnt. Oare asta
nu face s merite ocolul
Pmntului?
Radu Tudoran est galement un traducteur trs prsent dans le texte au niveau des
modalisateurs et divers commentaires subjectifs du narrateur qui sont supprims ou
neutraliss par Andreea Dumitrache: videmment ; sans doute ; prcisment. La voix du
narrateur est relaye ainsi en traduction et mme rendue plus audible par Radu Turdoran qui
choisit pour les structures impersonnelles le Nous du narrateur qui inclut le lecteur ou bien le
TU gnrique du roumain mais qui est plus proche du lecteur quun impersonnel (il convient
de faire observer ici aici e cazul ns s atragem atenia). Des interventions comme lajout
constant du dterminant possessif nostru [notre] ( midi quarante-sept, ce gentleman se leva
et se dirigea vers le grand salon gentlemanul nostru), lajout de diminutifs (Il ntait endroit
si recul nu exista colior) et daffectifs (le caissier soccupait denregistrer une recette de
trois shillings six pence - bietul om (le pauvre homme) montre que pour Radu Tudoran la
traduction pour enfants est une traduction liant auteur et lecteur, bien marque du point de vue
de la voix narrative.
Bibliographie:
Balachi, Raluca-Nicoleta, Sans famille en roumain: Retraductions et rditions , in
Douglas, Virginie; Cabaret, Florence (eds.), La retraduction en littrature de jeunesse /
Retranslating Childrens Literature, P.I.E. Peter Lang, Bruxelles, 2014, pp. 151-164
Constantinescu, Mugura, Remarques sur la traduction en roumain du Chteau des
Carpathes de Jules Verne , in Atelier de Traduction n.3 / 2005, pp. 99-111
Constantinescu, Mugura ; Balachi, Raluca-Nicoleta, Critique des traductions.
Repres et perspectives, Casa Crii de tiin, Cluj-Napoca, 2014
Di Giovanni, Elena; Elefante, Chiara; Pederzoli, Roberta (dir.), Writing and
Translating for Children, p. 128, Bruxelles, P.I.E. Peter Lang, 2010
Douglas, Virginie (2014) Conclusion , Douglas, Virginie; Cabaret, Florence (eds.),
La retraduction en littrature de jeunesse / Retranslating Childrens Literature, P.I.E. Peter
Lang, Bruxelles, pp. 317-329.
1220
Issue no. 6/2015
Corpus :
Verne, J. (1871/1977) Le tour du monde en 80 jours, Paris, Jean de Bonnot.
Verne, J. (1956/1971), Ocolul pmntului n 80 de zile, traducere de Radu Tudoran,
Bucureti, Editura Ion Creang.
Verne, Jules (2007), Ocolul pmntului n 80 de zile, traducere de Iulia Bdescu,
Constana, Editura Eduard.
Verne, Jules (2011), Ocolul pmntului n 80 de zile, traducere de Andreea
Dumitrache, Bucureti, Editura Adevrul Holding.
1221
Issue no.6/2015
THE ROMANIAN GULAG AND THE MEMORY OF A TRAUMATIZING PAST

Dumitru-Ctlin ROGOJANU
Abstract: In this study I have achieved an overall analysis on the memory of the traumatic
past of the Romanian Gulag, but I have offered a few succinct terminological explanations on
these terms: historical trauma, structural trauma, the labor of remembrance and the labor of
mourning. Based on the bibliographical apparatus of world class specialists like: Sigmund
Freud, Dominick LaCapra or Paul Ricoeur, our investigation proposes to itself to survey to
role and place of memory and remembrance in reconstructing some dramatic events like the
Romanian Gulag. The memory of the survivors tells us a different type of story, directs us
towards a different understanding of some historical traumas that cannot be forgotten, but
can be assumed at an ethical level.
Keywords: Romanian Gulag, memory of the traumatizing past, historical trauma, structural
trauma, labor of remembrance, labor of mourning.
Atunci cnd discutm despre Gulagul romnesc istoria i memoria se ntreptrund,
teroarea i suferina sunt elementele constitutive ale unui trecut traumatizant, ce poate fi
reconstituit aproape integral doar prin apelul la povestiriile celor care au ndurat torturile i
spaiile carcerale comuniste.
Bineneles ca orice suferin a fotilor deinui implic i o doz de traum, dar i
trauma determin la rndul ei o anumit suferin, ceea ce rezult c este imposibil realizarea
unei delimitri precise ntre acestea.1
Existena unor experiene traumatizante/traumatice aa cum spunea Freud determin
n viaa psihic a oamenilor o intens cretere a excitaiei, nct neutralizarea sau asimilarea
sa pe ci normale devine o sarcin imposibil de rezolvat, ceea ce are ca efect tulburri
durabile n utilizarea energiei2. Astfel, aceste evenimente traumatizante care au zdruncinat
nsi temelia vieii oamenilor i determin s fie abtui nct s renune la orice interes
pentru prezent i viitor, toate facultiile sufletului lor fiind fixate n trecut.3
Trecutul traumatizant i presant a lsat dureri n sufletul multor deinui care au fost
torturai n Gulagul romnesc, depoziiile lor, chiar urmele fizice rmase, constituie dovada
naturii criminale a regimului comunist.
Prin trecuturi traumatizante se nelege aceele perioade din istorie care afecteaz n
mod profund, durabil i colectiv societile i care, prin dimensiunea lor criminal i represiv
exprim caracterul ireversibil al anumitor aciuni n spaiul social i n structurile sociale.4
Trauma colectiv este corelat cu violenele brutale i criminale asupra unei pri
importante din cadrul societii, astfel nct aceste situaii traumatice se ncadreaz memoriei
individuale, dar capt i o dimeniune colectiv prin amnezie i hipermnezie.5
Ana Muntean, Anca Munteanu, Violen, traum, rezilien, Iai: Polirom, 2011, p. 163.
Sigmund Freud, Introducere n psihanaliz, psihopadologia vieii cotidiente, Traducere, studiu introductiv i
note: dr. Leonard Gavriliu, Bucureti: Editura Didactic i Pedagogic, 1980, p. 243.
3
Ibid., p. 244.
4
Jean-Charles Szurek Pentru o memorie democratic a trecuturilor traumatizante in
Istoria Recent n Europa. Obiecte de Studiu, Surse, Metode. Lucrrile simpozionului internaional organizat de
Colegiul Noua Europ, Bucureti: Colegiul Noua Europ, 2002, p. 58. Disponibil la
http://www.nec.ro/pdfs/publications/relink/istoria-recenta-in-europa/JEAN-CHARLES_SZUREK.pdf Accesat:
23 februarie 2015.
1
2
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Issue no. 6/2015
Experimentul Piteti (1949-1951) considerat de Alexandr Soljenin cea mai cumplit

barbarie a lumii contemporane, dei a afectat fizic i emoional doar o parte a dintre deinui,
acesta trebuie s fie racordat memoriei traumatizante a ntregului Gulag romnesc, fiind
necesar s fie asumat la nivelul ntregii populaii a Romniei, pentru c memoria individual
se transform ntr-o memorie colectiv.
Societatea actual, n care violena predomin la anumite categorii sociale reprezint o
reminiscen a unui trecut traumatic, n care sistemul represiv comunist i-a pus amprenta i
asupra prezentului, Romnia fiind o ar a rentoarcerii spre rmiele violente rmase
adnc imperegnate n aciunile multor compatrioi.
Aceast traum istoric transmite transgeneraional n mod direct i indirect
evenimentele tragice la nivelul mentalului colectiv. Trauma istoric aa cum o definete
Yellow Horse Brave Heart se refelect prin rni cumulative din punct de vedere emoional,
transmise de la o generaie la alta, avnd la baz experiena traumatic a unui grup 6
Practic, termenul de traum istoric este utilizat pentru a descrie suferina unor diverse
grupuri i categorii etnice7, politice, sau de alt natur ntr-o perioad de timp. Dac n cazul
Holocaustului, exterminarea evreilor era de natur biologic, Gulagul a impus o exterminare
la nivelul claselor sociale, a burgheziei, intelectualitii, dar i a altor grupuri considerate
dumnoase. Fr ndoial, experiena Gulagului romnesc reprezint o traum istoric
naional, ns aceasta trebuie analizat n contextual ntregului sistem represiv sovietic.
Gulagul romnesc prin numeroasele victime pe care le-a fcut i efectele pe care le-a
lsat de-a lungul timpului, constituie pe deplin un exemplu clar de trauma istoric,
comunismul producnd o mancurtizare ideologic a unei bune pari a populaiei.
Trecutul traumatizant este nc viu n sufletul i mintea fotilor deinui care mai
triesc, memoria lor suferind poate fi recompensat doar din punct de vedere moral, ntruct
dintr-o perspectiv juridic este prea trziu.
Istoricul american Dominick LaCapra referindu-se la Holocaust, aduce n discuie
conceptul de traum structural (structural trauma)8, ceea ce acesta numete absen
(absence) i pierdere (loos).
Trauma structural se manifest prin anxietate, ca o pierdere originar, ce conduce
spre melancolie, ca surs a subiectivitii.9 Travaliul traumei este determinat att de absen,
ct i de pierdere; absena nsemnnd eludarea total a istoriei trecute traumatizante, singura
modalitate de supravieuire real a victimelor fiind schimbarea traumei n pierdere.10
ntre trauma istoric i trauma structural exist o diferen ce ine de nelegerea de
tip istoric i judecata etico-politic11 n aa fel nct, raportul dintre istorie i memorie trebuie
s se bazeze pe elemente de natur etic. Dac trauma structural este profund ambivalent i
problematic, situndu-se ntre o puternic zdruncinare i durere, caracterizat printr-o
adevrat exaltare; trauma istoric se refer la evenimente particulare i se evideniaz prin
pierderi (losses).12 Distincia dintre cele dou nu se mai poate reliza, atunci cnd se face
5
Ibid., p. 59.
Yellow Horse Brave Heart, M. The Historical Trauma Response Among Natives and Its Relationship with
Substance Abuse: A Lakota Illustration in Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 35, (1), 2003, p. 7, apud Aaron R.
Denham, Rethinking Historical Trauma: Narratives of Resilience in Transcultural Psychiatry, vol. 45, nr. 3,
2008, p.396. Disponibil n baza de date Sage Journals: http://online.sagepub.com/ Accesat 24 februarie 2015.
7
Aaron R. Denham, Rethinking, p. 396.
8
Dominick LaCapra, Trauma, Absence, Loss in Critical Inquiry, Vol. 25, No. 4, Summer 1999, p. 719.
Disponibil n baza de date Jstor: http://www.jstor.org/ Accesat: 24 februarie 2015.
9
Ibid.
10
Cristina Anisescu, Perlaborarea trecutului traumatic: Gulagul romnesc i Holocaustul ntr-o aplicaie
comparativ, Disponibil la http://phantasma.lett.ubbcluj.ro/?p=1588 Accesat: 25 februarie 2015
11
Dominick LaCapra, op.cit., p. 724.
12
Ibid.
6
1223
Issue no. 6/2015
referire la evenimente limit, ajungndu-se la concepia c aceste situaii istorice traumatice se

caracterizeaz prin unicitate.13
Desigur c sunt nuane de interpretare a traumei istorice i structurale, ns ceea ce
conteaz este suferina victimelor i maniera n care acetia i amintesc evenimentele trite n
Gulag, Holocaust sau n alte momente dificile ale istoriei. Sunt contexte istorice ce nu pot fi
explicate doar prin instrumentele de analiz i interpretare puse la dispoziie de istorie, ci
printr-o continu poziionare epistemologic, din diverse perpective: psihologice,
antropolgice, sociologoce, filosofice, etc.
Memoria Gulagului n general este traumatizant i unic, cum de altfel i memoria
Holocaustului este traumatizant i unic, ns cel mai important este s rspundem la
ntrebarea: cum a fost posibil s se ntmple acele lucruri abominabile i cum putem
recompensa noi suferina celor care au mai supravieuit. Este necesar o corelaie i o
nelegere reciproc a memoriei i istoriei Gulagului cu cea a Holocaustului, pentru c pn la
urm suferina este pentru fiecare fost deinut unic, dar suferina lor totalizat reprezint
memoria ndurerat local, ce poate fi transpus la nivel naional, european i mondial.
Dar, pentru a avea avea acces la acel trecut traumatizant este necesar s ptrundem n
patologia suferinelor individuale, s analizm acel trecut n formele sale incontestabile 14 i
impenetrabile. Pentru a strpunge memoria supravieuitorilor, trebuie n primul rnd s le
nelegem suferina, s ascultm istoria lor cald, uman i plin de semnificaii i s
eticizm drama lor.
Travaliul rememorrii (Erinnerungsarbeit) care este analizat de Paul Ricoueur
citndu-l pe Freud, se refer la amintirea nsi, eliberat, repetat de mai multe ori, acest
travaliu se opune termenului de compulsie la repetiie.15 i n cazul victimelor din nchisorile
comuniste exist un travaliu al rememorrii, o reptiie continu a traumelor, aceast aminintire
i reamintire conduce spre o eliberare de presiunea unui timp trecut, dar nc prezent.
n schimb, travaliul doliului este coextensiv ntregului demers psihanalitic ca
renunare i resemnare, culminnd n mpcarea cu pierederea suferit. 16 Doliul dup cum
afirm Freud reprezint ntodeauna reacia la pierderea unei persoane dragi a unei
abstraciuni ridicate la rangul de substitut al acestei persoane, cum ar fi: patrie, libertate, ideal
etc..17 Travaliul doliului cum remarc Ricoeur nclin spre melancolie i se dovedete a fi o
eliberare costisitoare ca travaliu al amintirii, dar este valabil i viceversa. 18 Aadar,
travaliul doliului reprezint costul travaliului amintirii; dar travaliul amintirii este
beneficiul unui travaliu al doliului19
Universul concentraionar comunist romnesc se identific aadar n rndul
evenimentelor istorice traumatizante, idiosincrasice, iar felul n care i povestesc i
repovestesc supravieuitorii traumele se ncadreaz n travaliul reamintirii, a reiterrii unor
evenimente limit ce ranforseaz sau diminueaz, n unele cazuri presiunea sufleteasc a
acestor mrturii/depoziii.
Melancolia traumei sau travaliul doliului explicate de Freud produc pentru cei
supliciai n Gulag i Holocaust, depresie, anxietate, dar i o teama c acel trecut s nu se mai
repete. Locurile memoriei (lieux de mmoire) cum sunt Memorialul Victimelor
13
Ibid.
Cathy Caruth, (ed.), Trauma. Explorations in memory, Baltimore and London: The John Hopkins University
Press, 1995, p. 156.
15
Paul Ricoeur, Memoria, istoria, uitarea. Traducerea de Ilie Gyurcsik i Margareta Gyurcsik, Timioara:
Amarcord, 2001, p. 92.
16
Vezi nota 20 din Paul Ricoeur, Memoria, p. 92.
17
Paul Ricoeur, Memoria, p. 92.
18
Ibid., pp. 93-94.
19
Ibid., p. 93.
14
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Issue no. 6/2015
Comunismului i al Rezistenei, sau Memorialul nchisorii de la Rmnicu Srat se constituie

n dovezi istorice ale suferinelor deinuilor, dar i n elemente de doliu, sau replici la
piederea deminitii i libertii umane.
Bibliografie:
ANISESCU, Cristina, Perlaborarea trecutului traumatic: Gulagul romnesc i
Holocaustul
ntr-o
aplicaie
comparativ,
Disponibil
la
http://phantasma.lett.ubbcluj.ro/?p=1588
CARUTH, Cathy (ed.), Trauma. Explorations in memory, Baltimore and London: The
John Hopkins University Press, 1995.
DENHAM, Aaron R., Rethinking Historical Trauma: Narratives of Resilience in
Transcultural Psychiatry, vol. 45, nr. 3, 2008, p.396. Disponibil n baza de date Sage
Journals: http://online.sagepub.com/
FREUD, Sigmund, Introducere n psihanaliz, psihopadologia vieii cotidiente,
Traducere, studiu introductiv i note: dr. Leonard Gavriliu, Bucureti: Editura Didactic i
Pedagogic, 1980.
LACAPRA, Dominick, Trauma, Absence, Loss in Critical Inquiry, Vol. 25, No. 4,
Summer 1999, p. 719. Disponibil n baza de date Jstor: http://www.jstor.org/
MUNTEAN, Ana, Munteanu, Anca, Violen, traum, rezilien, Iai: Polirom, 2011.
RICOEUR, Paul, Memoria, istoria, uitarea. Traducerea de Ilie Gyurcsik i Margareta
Gyurcsik, Timioara: Amarcord, 2001.
SZUREK, Jean-Charles, Pentru o memorie democratic a trecuturilor traumatizante
in Istoria Recent n Europa. Obiecte de Studiu, Surse, Metode. Lucrrile simpozionului
internaional organizat de Colegiul Noua Europ, Bucureti: Colegiul Noua Europ, 2002.
Disponibil la http://www.nec.ro/pdfs/publications/relink/istoria-recenta-in-europa/JEANCHARLES_SZUREK.pdf
Acknowledgement:
Aceast lucrare a fost realizat i publicat prin finanarea de ctre Programul
Operaional Sectorial Dezvoltarea Resurselor Umane, prin proiectul Sistem integrat de
mbuntire a calitii cercetrii doctorale i postdoctorale din Romnia i de promovare a
rolului tiinei n societate: POSDRU/159/1.5/S/133652. (The research presented in this
paper was supported by the European Social Fund under the responsibility of the Managing
Authority for the Sectoral Operational Programme for Human Resources Development, as
part of the grant POSDRU/159/1.5/S/133652.)
1225
Issue no.6/2015
METAMORPHOSIS AND IDENTITY IN RINOCERII, ALICE N ARA MINUNILOR AND

ALICE N ARA DIN OGLIND
Andreea SNCELEAN
Petru Maior University of Trgu Mure
Abstract: The present paper focuses on the common characteristics shared by Lewis Carrolls
books and the Romanian-French playwright Eugne Ionescos play, starting from the
considerations that Carroll can be viewed as a forerunner of the literature of the absurd.
Starting from the idea of humanity being challenged by mechanization, functions and
ideologies, the two authors create worlds in which their main character witnesses the
metamorphosis of others around them, or go themselves through such transformations, and
come in contact with beings that have regressed to a lower form of life. All these
consequences of the loss of identity also challenge the heros identity, leading to its desperate
reaffirmation.
Keywords: identity, metamorphosis, absurd, language, aggression.
Secolul XX a fost marcat, pe plan ontic i, de aici, pe plan cultural, de sentimentul
absurdului n faa unei lumi care se dovedea a fi imposibil de cuprins i neles prin uzul
raiunii, fiind dominat de iraional. Acest sentiment a fost, ns, determinat i accentuat nu
att de iraionalitatea universului, ct de ncercarea permanent a omului, de la nceputurile
iluminismului, de a se raporta la lume i la sine ndeosebi prin intermediul raiunii, ajungnd
n secolul XX la o abordare a vieii golit de semnificaii profunde, dominat de sisteme i
ideologii, birocraie i mecanizri i automatizri de tot felul. n acest context, omul a ajuns s
se simt golit de uman, transformat ntr-un soi de marionet la cheremul instituiilor, al
funciei i datoriei i al clieelor comportamentale i de gndire, de unde sentimentul
nstrinrii, al alienrii i, n cele din urm, al absurdului existenei. Iar efectele acestei
raionalizri excesive i urmrile-i specifice i-au fcut simit prezena i n plan literar, unde
se dezvolt diverse curente de ncercare a regsirii esenei, de reconturare a valorilor i, deci,
de reumanizare a fiinei umane.
Unul dintre cele mai semnificative curente este cel al literaturii absurdului, al crei
teoretician este Albert Camus, care definete absurdul ca pe un divor dintre om i via, ce
cuprinde trei elemente constitutive: dorina omului de a cunoate lumea folosindu-se de
raiune, iraionalitatea lumii i conflictul ce apare ntre acestea dou, de unde rezult
sentimentul absurdului, dat de neputina omului ce se mrginete la funciile intelectului.1 n
aceste condiii, fiina uman are dou posibiliti: fie s i accepte neputina, resemnndu-se,
fie s se revolte n faa condiiei sale. Omul literaturii absurdului va fi cel care se va revolta,
deosebindu-se n acest sens de cel al filosofiei existenialiste. Asta nu nseamn, ns, c el nu
va resimi pe deplin neajunsurile propriei condiii i a lumii n care triete. Iar aceste trsturi
se vor regsi, sub diverse forme, mai accentuat sau mai discret, n diverse opere ale literaturii
absurdului, care are ca elemente specifice, dincolo de cele deja menionate: dinamitarea
formelor literare nu clasice, ci tradiionale, standardizate, deci reduse la simpla form;
dinamitarea limbajului (cliee, slogane i orice alt form de automatism), a logicii (plednd
pentru revolta mpotriva raiunii i mbrind, astfel, imaginaia i onoricul); parodierea
Albert Camus, Faa i reversul. Nunta. Mitul lui Sisif. Omul revoltat. Vara, trad. Irina Mavrodin, Mihaela
Simion, Modest Morariu, introducere Irina Mavrodin, Ed. I, Rao International Publishing Company, Bucureti,
1994, p. 136.
1
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autoritii i ierarhizrii; surprinderea crizei ontice (personaje marionet, robot, cu trsturi

animaliere sau vegetale), a incomunicabilitii, violenei i dorinei obsesive de dominare etc.
Dei a cunoscut nflorirea n secolul XX, acest tip de literatur i are rdcinile n
baroc, prin grotescul specific literaturii din aceast perioad, i n romantism, prin ironia
definit ca paradox al raiunii care se biciuiete pe sine i prin iraionalismul poetic dat de
magia limbajului despre care vorbete Baudelaire2, adevraii predecesori ai literaturii
absurdului fiind ns, n opinia lui Nicolae Balot, poeii nonsensului: Edward Lear, Lewis
Carroll i Christian Morgenstern3, la care se adaug i teatrul lui Alfred Jarry. n secolul
urmtor, trsturile specifice lumilor literare create de aceti precursori au fost preluate, direct
sau indirect, i dezvoltate de cei considerai de exegez scriitori absurzi, printre care se
numr Franz Kafka, Albert Camus, Eugne Ionesco (Eugen Ionescu), Samuel Beckett i alii.
n ceea ce privete corespondenele dintre cele dou cri Alice ale scriitorului britanic
Lewis Carroll i universul creat de teatrul lui Eugne Ionesco, acestea se regsesc la
numeroase niveluri. Bineneles, unele diferene apar ndeosebi n ceea ce privete genul
abordat de cei doi, ns aspectele ce in de esena celor dou universuri au nenumrate locuri
comune, cum ar fi accentul pus pe imaginar i vis, parodierea diverselor automatisme de
limbaj i gndire, a autoritii, criza ontic a omului modern, dat de automatizarea existenei,
de violen i dominare etc. Dei trsturi specifice rii Minunilor i a celei din Oglind apar
n numeroase din piesele de teatru ale dramaturgului romno-francez, ne vom opri asupra
piesei Rinocerii, unde metamorfozarea majoritii personajelor n animale amintete de
bestiarul ce populeaz cele dou lumi create de scriitorul britanic, iar atmosfera de comar
care determin criza identitar a personajului principal, Brenger, amintete de aventurile lui
Alice n cele dou lumi fantastice.
n primul rnd, atmosfera creat de cei doi autori este profund asemntoare,
opunndu-se unei abordri raionale a universului, acest aspect realizndu-se prin apelul la
vis, despre care Ionesco afirma: Acord mult importan visului, fiindc mi d o viziune
ceva mai acut, mai ptrunztoare despre mine nsumi. A visa nseamn a gndi, i a gndi
ntr-un chip cu mult mai profund, mai adevrat, mai autentic, pentru c n vis eti parc repliat
asupr-i. Visul e un fel de meditaie, de reculegere. E o gndire n imagini. Cteodat, este
extrem de revelator, crud. Este o eviden luminoas.4 Aceeai credin n puterea visului de
a revela cele mai profunde aspecte ale fiinei umane o mprtete i Lewis Carroll, care,
fascinat de literatura clasic, tia foarte bine c visele trebuie tratate cu seriozitate datorit
semnificaiilor pe care le poart5, de unde i ntrebarea din finalul crii Alice n Lumea
Oglinzii: Cci viaa nu-i doar un vis viu?6, amintind de ntrebarea asemntoare a lui
Calderon de la Barca. ns, dac att n Alice n ara Minunilor, ct i n Alice n ara din
Oglind lumea oniric este clar delimitat de cea real, prin trezirea eroinei la finalul
aventurilor, n Rinocerii nu se poate vorbi despre vis propriu-zis, cci nicieri nu apar indicii
cum c personajul principal ar visa. Aici este vorba despre atmosfera de comar creat prin
metamorfozarea tuturor personajelor, cu excepia lui Brenger, n rinoceri, crendu-se
impresia c ntreaga omenire cunoate ntoarcerea la condiia animalic, cu excepia unui
singur om, izolat i, n acelai timp neputincios, n umanitatea sa.
Nicolae Balot, Lupta cu absurdul, Ed. Univers, Bucureti, 1971, pp. 68-70.
Ibidem, p. 48.
4
Eugne Ionesco, ntre via i vis. Convorbiri cu Claude Bonnefoy, Ed. Humanitas, Bucureti, 1999, p. 8.
5
Morton N. Cohen, Lewis Carroll. A Biography, Vintage Books, New York, 1996, p. 224.
6
Lewis Carroll, Alice n Lumea Oglinzii, traducere, prefa i note de Eugen B. Marian, Ed. Prut Internaional,
Chiinu, 2005, p. 140.
2
3
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n teatrul lui Ionesco, fenomene inexplicabile specifice fantasticului sau

miraculosului [] ajut la deconstruirea universului lumii cotidiene7, lucru care se ntmpl
i n Rinocerii, unde atmosfera calm, ns banal i insipid n care se desfoar o duminic
obinuit dintr-un ora provincial, este dinamitat de apariia unui rinocer furios, ce alearg
liber pe strzi, i de vestea c oamenii se metamorfozeaz. Din acest punct niciun loc nu va fi
ferit de furia acestor animale, nici instituiile i nici locuinele oamenilor, acestea tulburnd
echilibrul aparent al comunitii. Aceeai irumpere a miraculosului n banal, doar c nu att de
violent ca la Ionesco, apare i la nceputul celor dou cri Alice. n prima dintre ele, eroina
este plictisit, nucit de aria zilei, ba mai era i tare somnoroas8, cnd vede un iepure
alb, care, spunndu-i alarmat c va ntrzia, i scoate din buzunarul vestei un ceas. n cea dea doua, Alice, cuibrit ntr-un col al marelui fotoliu, pe jumtate vorbindu-i singur i pe
cealalt jumtate adormit9, ncearc s i foloseasc imaginaia pentru a iei din pasivitate,
cnd, n mod miraculos, reuete s treac prin oglind.
Pasivitatea personajelor este mult mai evident n Rinocerii, cci acestea, spre
deosebire de Alice, nu sunt voluntare, nu caut s ias din starea n care se gsesc, cum face
eroina lui Carroll, care ptrunde, intrigat de posibilitatea miraculosului, n lumile fantastice.
Acestea sunt mbrncite s mearg n aceast direcie, dup cum noteaz Gelu Ionescu 10, de
opusul ineriei, i anume de violena rinocerilor11. Dac pasivitatea lui Brenger este evident,
cci totul la el exprim neglijena, are aerul obosit, somnolent, din cnd n cnd casc 12, el
nsui recunoscndu-i lipsa de voin, cea a celorlalte personaje este mai subtil. Cci acestea
dau impresia activitii, cel mai elocvent exemplu n acest sens fiind prietenul lui Brenger,
Jean, care, spre deosebire de acesta, este mbrcat ngrijit i are un aspect plin de vitalitate.
Mai mult, de ndat ce i ntlnete prietenul, Jean i atrage atenia asupra faptului c a
ntrziat, l ajut s i mprospteze inuta i l critic pentru viaa pe care o duce, spunndu-i
c ar trebui s devin un spirit viu i strlucitor. ns ce nseamn acest lucru din
perspectiva lui Jean? Iat ce ai de fcut: te mbraci corect, te brbiereti n fiecare zi, pui o
cma curat...13, Viziteaz muzee, citete reviste literare, ascult conferine. Asta o s te
scape de nelinitile dumitale, o s-i modeleze spiritul. n patru sptmni eti un om
cultivat.14 S nu uitm c acesta este punctul de vedere al celui care afirma c omul superior
este acela care i ndeplinete datoria [...] de funcionar, de exemplu...15 Iar de aici,
rspunsul lui Brenger la afirmaia lui Jean conform creia este perfect normal s trieti i c
toi o fac i relev semnificaiile profunde: Morii sunt mai numeroi dect cei vii. i
numrul lor crete. Cei vii sunt rari.16 Este vorba despre acea gndire burghez n care omul
se identific cu funcia i cu rolul jucat n societate, n care condiia social domin condiia
uman, care se atrofiaz. i pentru a clarifica lucrurile i mai mult, n accepiunea lui Ionesco,
Carmen Duvalma, Eugen Ionescu i lumea refugiului total, Prefa de Florin Mihilescu, Ed. Muzeul Literaturii
Romne, Bucureti, 2011, p. 20.
8
Lewis Carroll, Aventurile lui Alice n ara Minunilor, traducere de Radu Ttruc, ilustraii de Violeta
Zabulic-Diordiev, Ed. Cartier, Chiinu, 2010, p. 7.
9
Lewis Carroll, op. cit., 2005, p. 13.
10
Gelu Ionescu, O introducere n teatrul lui Eugen Ionescu n Eugen Ionescu, Cntreaa cheal. Teatru, Vol.
I, traduceri de Radu Popescu i Dinu Bondi, Elena Vianu, Sanda ora, Marcel Aderca i Mariana ora, Prefa i
antologie de Gelu Ionescu, Ed. Minerva, Bucureti, 1970, p. XVI.
11
Marian Victor Buciu, Ionesco. Eseu despre onto-retorica literaturii, Ediia a II-a, Ed. EuroPress Group,
Bucureti, 2007, p. 115.
12
Eugen Ionescu, Setea i foamea. Teatru, Vol. II, traduceri de Marcel Aderca, Florica elmaru, Mariana ora,
Ion Vinea i Sanda ora, Ed. Minerva, Bucureti, 1970, p. 140.
13
Ibidem, p. 161.
14
Ibidem, p. 162.
15
Ibidem, p. 143.
16
Ibidem, p. 158.
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burghezul nu este omul ce aparine unei anumite categorii sociale, ci omul lozincilor, care nu
mai gndete de unul singur, ci repet nite adevruri gata fcute, i de aceea moarte, pe care i
le-au impus alii. Pe scurt, micul burghez este acela mnat de alii.17 Iar, n acest caz, ineria
este mult mai profund, iar abordarea existenei, cu tot ce presupune aceasta, e superficial,
aa cum se ntmpl n cazul lui Jean.
Este vorba, n fond, despre dou dirijisme: dirijismul pasiv, cel al rutinei; dirijismul
activ sau doctrinar, aparent mobil, care este din capul locului automat.18 n Rinocerii, primul
tip de dirijism este evideniat prin stilul de via al personajelor, ce apare ca fiind universal
valabil pentru omul modern: JEAN: Dragul meu, toat lumea muncete, i eu muncesc ca
toat lumea, mi fac n fiecare zi cele opt ore de birou, i eu am numai douzeci i una de zile
de concediu pe an [...].19 De unde i nelinitile lui Brenger care nu se poate adapta la aceast
via.
Acest tip de dirijism se regsete i n lumile create de Carroll, cel mai reprezentativ n
acest sens fiind cel al ceaiului trsnit, n care, personajele, acuzate c ar fi omort timpul,
devenit personaj, sunt pedepsite de acesta. Astfel, Plrierul Nebun, Iepurele de Martie i
Prul sunt prini pentru ceea ce pare a fi o eternitate la ora ceaiului, nvrtindu-se necontenit,
schimbndu-i locul, n jurul mesei i ncercnd s alunge plictiseala spunnd ghicitori fr
rspuns i poveti pline, aparent, de nonsens, toate acestea fiind o parodie a conversaiilor de
salon20.
ns, att n piesa lui Ionesco, ct i n cele dou opere ale lui Carroll, domin cel de-al
doilea tip de dirijism, cel doctrinar. Astfel, Rinocerii, dup cum noteaz autorul nsui, este o
pies antinazist, n primul rnd, avnd ca punct de pornire mrturia lui Denis de Rougemont
dup participarea la o manifestaie nazist. Mai mult, ns,aceasta este o pies mpotriva
isteriilor colective i a epidemiilor ce se ascund sub acoperirea raiunii i a ideilor [...]21 i, n
cele din urm, mpotriva unei gndiri moarte. Prin urmare, rinocerizarea i atinge [...] pe
cei care erau dinainte mori n spirit22, cci Ionescu este mpotriva omului-mas i respect
omul-persoan23. De aceea, n timp ce toi ceilali se metamorfozeaz, schimbndu-i nu
doar felul n care percep lumea, ci nsi fiina, Brenger este singurul care rezist acestui
proces, cci, asemeni lui Denis de Rougemont, ntreaga lui fiin, ntrega lui personalitate
se mpotrivea24. De fapt, ceea ce surprinde Ionesco este un proces de gregarizare 25, cci,
din diverse motive, personajele i pierd individualitatea i devin parte a masei de manevr.
ns aceste motive, fie c e vorba de un complex de inferioritate, cum se ntmpl n cazul lui
Botard, fie de dorina de a impresiona, cum e cazul lui Dudard, fie de inocen, n cazul lui
Daisy, ascund o cauz mai profund, i aceasta este degradarea esenei umane a individului
modern, care se raporteaz exclusiv la realitatea social, mereu grbit, ptruns pn n
mduva oaselor de spiritul utilitarist, care nu mai are timp s viseze, s rd sau s gndeasc.
Astfel, n aceste personaje se casc neantul, care, ca surs generatoare a absurdului, se
instaleaz ns n sfera cea mai ameninat a existenei umane, n edificiul logicii, n
aseriunea logic i n universul discursivitii n general.26 Iar acest lucru se ntmpl mai
ales prin interveniile personajului ce se prezint ca logician profesionist i al crui nume nu
Eugne Ionesco, Note i contranote, traducere din francez i cuvnt introductive de Ion Pop, Ed. Humanitas,
Bucureti, 2011, p. 100.
18
Ibidem, p. 266.
19
Eugen Ionescu, op. cit., Vol. II, p. 143.
20
Nicolae Balot, op. cit., p. 100.
21
Eugne Ionesco, op. cit, p. 235.
22
23
Marian Victor Buciu, op. cit., p. 108.
24
Eugne Ionesco, op. cit., p. 234.
25
Gelu Ionescu, op. cit., p. XXIII.
26
17
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este dat, acesta constituindu-se ca un fel de reprezentant al pseudo-intelectualilor. Discutnd

silogismele cu un alt personaj, Domnul Btrn, cei doi ajung la concluzii absurde, i anume:
cinele Domnului Btrn este pisic pentru c are, asemenea acesteia, patru picioare; Socrate
a fost pisic, pentru c a fost muritor, asemenea pisicilor, i, prin urmare, Socrate a avut patru
picioare. Dar ironia dramaturgului i face simit prezena n toiul acestui vrtej de
absurditi, prin urmtorul schimb de replici dintre personaje: DOMNUL BTRN
(Logicianului): Frumos lucru, logica!/ LOGICIANUL (Domnului Btrn): Cu condiia s nu
abuzezi de ea.27 ns tocmai acest lucru l fac cele dou personaje, ducnd logica pn n
iraional.
Acelai procedeu este folosit i de Lewis Carroll cu precdere n Aventurile lui Alice n
ara Minunilor. Considerat de Balot marele maestru al subversiunii fictive a logicii, a
raiunii28, scriitorul britanic abuzeaz de logic n discuiile ce se isc la ceaiul trsnit. Astfel,
atunci cnd Alice dorete s rspund la ghicitoarea spus de Plrier i este ncurajat de
Iepure, se isc urmtoarea discuie: Atunci, ar trebui s zici ce vrei s spui, a continuat
Iepurele de Martie./ Asta i fac, a rspuns Alice fr s stea pe gnduri, cel puin, cel puin
vreau s spun ceea ce zic, tii, e acelai lucru./ Ba nici pomeneal! a zis Plrierul. La fel de
bine ai putea s zici c vd ce mnnc e acelai lucru cu mnnc ce vd! 29, continund
cu aplicarea principiilor matematice la nivelul limbajului30: Mai ia puin ceai, i s-a adresat
foarte serios Iepurele de Martie./ Nu am luat deloc, i-a rspuns Alice pe un ton ofensat, aa c
nu pot s mai iau./ Vrei s spui c nu poi lua mai puin, a spus Plrierul; este foarte uor s
iei mai mult dect nimic.31 Acelai efect, de obinere a anti-logicului prin intermediul logicii,
l are i apelul la paralogism, cum se ntmpl n Alice n ara din Oglind, unde Regina Alb
se folosete de exerciii de logic pentru a crede n lucruri imposibile32 i unde scriitorul
creeaz cuvinte-geamantan apelnd la cuvinte cu semnificaii foarte ndeprtate unele de
altele cum ar fi mimsy, format prin alturarea cuvintelor flimsy (fragil) i miserable
(trist), sau slithy, format din lithe (activ) i slimy (mocirlos i lunecos). n acest context
al iraionalului mbriat de celelalte personaje, ascuns ns sub masca raionalului (cci toi
ascult cu consideraie expunerea Logicianului dup a doua apariie a rinocerului, dei acesta
ajunge la cele mai ilogice explicaii), cei doi eroi, Alice i Brenger sunt acuzai direct sau
indirect de lips de logic, ajungnd n cele din urm s se ndoiasc de propria gndire i
identitate.
Raionamentul acestor personaje este o unealt de persuasiune, nu de cutare a
adevrului. Cuvntul pare s le fie dat pentru a se impune prin el. 33 Cci, oamenii au deveni
nite ziduri unii pentru alii: nimeni nu mai discut cu nimeni, fiecare vrnd s fac din fiecare
partizanul su ori s-l zdrobeasc.34 Astfel, n Rinocerii, n spatele unor cliee, unor
banaliti i slogane dup care personajele nu fac dect s se ascund, st dorina de a domina
prin dialog, care nu mai este comunicare, ci conflict, lupt. Jean are o atitudine conflictual
fa de Branger nc de cnd l ntlnete la nceputul piesei, contracarnd fiecare opinie
diferit pe care acesta o formuleaz scurt, fr a-i lsa loc de ieire. Lucrurile se agraveaz
atunci cnd Branger, dup a doua apariie a unui rinocer, i susine punctul de vedere pn
la final, orgoliosul Jean ieindu-i cu totul din fire cnd este numit nfumurat i pedant, cei doi
27

29
30
Don L. F. Nilsen, Humor in Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century British Literature: A Reference Guide,
Greenwood Press, Westport, CT, 1998, p. 244.
31
32
33
Ibidem, p. 417.
34
28
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ajungnd s se jigneasc i, n cele din urm, s refuze s mai stea unul n preajma celuilalt.
Dei Brenger i regret imediat atitudinea, este evident aici dorina personajelor de a
domina, de a stabili un raport stpn-slug, folosindu-se de limbaj. Doar c de la dominarea
prin dialog, se va ajunge treptat la ncercarea de dominare prin for, cci oamenii care au
deopotriv candoarea i ferocitatea lor [rinocerilor], care v-ar ucide cu contiina mpcat
c n-ai gndit la fel cu ei35 renun la forma uman, transformndu-se n aceste animale
fioroase. Apare aici cuplul Brenger-ceilali (oamenii/rinocerii) n interiorul cruia unul l
domin pe cellalt36, prin violen verbal, dar lsnd o puternic impresie a posibilitii s se
ajung n orice clip la violen fizic. Astfel, Brenger mai nti se confrunt la nivel
dialectic cu restul personajelor, dup care, n finalul piesei, acestea, transformate n rinoceri,
dau ocol casei, fcnd un zgomot infernal, i l prind pe acesta ca ntr-un la din care pare a nu
mai avea posibilitatea de a scpa cu via.
Aceeai violen a limbajului i a dialogului o experimenteaz i Alice n cele dou
cri, unde, ntlnindu-se cu fpturile ce populeaz lumile fantastice, trebuie s se lupte
permanent cu dorina celorlali de a o reduce la tcere i de a o dscli, cci ei tiu mai bine.
n consecin, principalul scop al oricror ntlniri i conversaii este de a stabili o ierarhie, de
a stabili cine e stpn. Iar de aici se ridic i problema autoritii, a celui nvestit cu o funcie
respectabil i care, identificndu-se cu aceasta, adopt o atitudine agresiv, dominant,
considernd c tot ceilali trebuie s i respecte autoritatea i s i se supun orice ar fi. Este
cazul Reginei de Cup din ara Minunilor, care i agreseaz pe toi din jur cu porunca tierii
capului la cel mai mrunt inconvenient, sintagm care, dei devenit clieu (cci Alice afl c,
de fapt, porunca nu este dus la ndeplinire) i timoreaz pe ceilali datorit violenei cu care
este rostit. Un alt exemplu l gsim n ara din Oglind, n cuplul frailor gemeni
Tweedledee i Tweedledum care, pe lng faptul c, din cnd n cnd se agreseaz reciproc, i
fac acest lucru eroinei folosind sofisme i ajungnd s o fac s se ntrebe dac este real sau
nu37. ns n ceea ce privete utilizarea sofismelor pentru violentarea i dominarea celuilalt,
una dintre cele mai reprezentative scene este cea a procesului, din Aventurile lui Alice n ara
Minunilor. Tem reluat n mod repetat de scriitorii absurzi, justiia apare la Carroll ca un
sistem de neptruns i de neneles, ce nu ia n considerare omul, fiind mult mai preocupat de
propriu-i mecanism, amintind de punctul de vedere al lui Camus, Kafka i Ionesco. Astfel, nu
doar c nu se respect procedura i nimeni nu pare a tii ce are de fcut mai exact, cu excepia
Iepurelui Alb i a lui Alice, dar judectorul, care este nsui Regele de Cup (deci nvestit cu o
dubl autoritate), care, la rndul su i-a dovedit pe terenul de crichet apetena pentru violen
i dominare, se folosete de funcia sa pentru a-i supune pe ceilali. Procesul se dovedete a fi,
asemeni dialogului, redus la un singur scop acela de a reafirma puterea prin intermediul
agresivitii, toate supunndu-se legii bunului plac. Astfel, atunci cnd Alice este chemat ca
martor, regele se simte ameninat datorit dimensiunilor pe care aceasta le cptase n
ultimele minute. Aa c, folosindu-se fr nici nicio reinere de autoritatea presupus de
funcia sa, precum i de puterea creatoare a limbajului, creeaz o nou lege care interzice
accesul n sal persoanelor mai nalte de o mil. Problema este, ns, c regele este trdat de
limbaj38, cci, grbindu-se s creeze impresia oficialitii legii create spontan, i d numrul
42, menionnd, de asemenea, c este cea mai veche lege. Iar Alice i va atrage atenia asupra
acestui fapt, presupusa autoritate, precum i sofismele, reducerile la tcere i agresiunile de tot
felul nemaifiind acceptate de aceasta.
35
Ibidem, p. 241.
Carmen Duvalma, op. cit., p. 28.
37
Jean-Jacques Lecercle, Philosophy of nonsense: the intuitions of Victorian nonsense literature, Routledge,
New York, Londra, 1994, p. 83.
38
Jean-Jacques Lecercle, op. cit., pp. 90-91.
36
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Cei doi autori extind dominarea prin limbaj i problema autoritii i asupra
didacticismului, despre care Ionesco afirm c ucide arta... la fel ca nvmntul: aceeai
lecie repetat e inutil39, fiind mai degrab o mentalitate i dorin de dominare40.
Logicianul este autoritatea chemat pentru a clarifica lucrurile dup discuia aprins dintre
Jean i Brenger cu privire la originea rinocerilor cu unul sau dou coarne. Spiritele se mai
linitesc dup ce acesta se recomand ca logician profesionist, cci oamenii-marionet din
teatrul lui Ionesco sunt receptivi ndeosebi la funcii i titulaturi. n ciuda absurditilor pe
care Logicianul ajunge s le afirme, este ascultat cu luare-aminte, iar lui Brenger i se atrage
atenie de nenumrate ori s nu intervin i s l ntrerup. Astfel, Logicianul pare c le ine o
lecie celorlali, n care, ns, nu fondul conteaz, ci forma, metoda la care apeleaz 41: atta
timp ct ceea ce se spune, indiferent ce, e spus de o autoritate i e prezentat cu metod,
micul burghez va asimila tot ce i se servete, dezumanizndu-se i transformndu-se n cele
din urm ntr-un monstru, cum se ntmpl cu personajele din Rinocerii.
Aceeai tendin automatizant a didacticismului a surprins-o i Carroll ndeosebi n
prima carte Alice, doar c acesta l dinamiteaz prin parodierea celor mai populare cntece i
poezii victoriene pentru copii care aveau un scop moralizator. Poezii precum Cum albinua
hrnicua i Btrn eti, taic William! sunt rescrise, devenind tocmai opusul originalelor.
Acestor parodii li se adaug i alte ironizri ale didacticismului, cum ar fi metoda aleas de
oarece pentru a usca personajele care au czut n balta de lacrimi de a le ine o cuvntare
despre William Cuceritorul, precum i discuiile pe care eroina le are spre finalul aventurilor
n ara Minunilor cu Grifonul i cu Broasca Surogat cu privire la sistemul educaional din
trmul fantastic.
ns ceea ce st la baza tututror acestor atitudini i comportamente este, n cele din
urm, criza ontologic a omului dat de pierderea identitii, cci ncepnd cu epoca
industrializrii i continund cu secolul XX, prolifereaz turma uman, omul de serie, fr
figur, simplu nume.42 Iar modul n care aceast trstur a omului modern este surpins n
special la Ionesco, dar i la Carroll, ns nu att de puternic, este opoziia dintre un personaj
central bine conturat i alte personaje, personaje-mecanism43 sau obiecte scenice44, care
sunt schiate i identificate cu rolul lor social, uneori chiar i nominal (ex. n Rinocerii,
Logicianul, Gospodina, Bcanul etc.). Aceti indivizi lipsii de o identitate clar, care nu
gndesc ei nii cu adevrat, vor fi cei care vor degenera, dac nu au fcut-o deja (cum apare
n cele dou cri Alice), renunnd la umanitate i regresnd la forma animalier/ artificial,
metamorfozarea lor sugernd o dezagregare ontic mereu posibil, o neputin de a fixa
identitatea.45 n piesa lui Ionesco, toate personajele, cu excepia lui Brenger, devin rinoceri,
fiine inocente i candide atta timp ct sunt lsate n pace. n Alice n ara Minunilor i Alice
n ara din Oglind au loc transformri de tot felul: Alice i schimb dimensiunile pe tot
parcursul aventurilor n ara Minunilor i tot aici copilul Ducesei se transform n purcel, iar
n ara din Oglind Regina Alb se transform n oaie, iar cea Neagr n pisic. ns lumile
celor dou cri ale lui Carroll sunt populate de numeroase fpturi ce par a fi la limita dintre
uman i zoologic/ artificial, subliniind dezumanizarea individului modern. Astfel, Iepurele
Alb, de exemplu, pare a fi omul mereu grbit, obsedat de trecerea timpului, i care accept
ierarhia ca pe ceva natural i se comport ca atare, fiind timorat de autoritatea Regelui i
Ibidem, p. 150.
41
Ion M. Tomu, Pitoresc i absurd n dramaturgia lui Eugne Ionesco, Casa Crii de tiin, Cluj-Napoca,
2011, p. 103.
42
43
Carmen Duvalma, op. cit., p. 23.
44
Gelu Ionescu, op. cit., p. XXI.
45
39
40
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Reginei de Cup i supus acestora, ns extrem de hotrt i autoritar cu Alice cnd o

confund cu menajera sa. Valeii, fiine intermediare, jumtate om, jumtate broasc sau
pete, par a fi fiine puin gnditoare, capabile, mai degrab, s ndeplineasc automat ordine,
dect s fie voluntare i cu proprie iniiativ. Oarecum n acelai registru se nscriu i
personajele n care umanul se mbin cu artificialul, cum e cazul personajelor-piese de joc:
cri n Alice n ara Minunilor i piese de ah n Alice n ara din Oglind. Prin regulile
jocului crora, prin natura lor, trebuie s li se supun, aceste personaje, inclusiv regii i
reginele, care pot avea impresia autoritii, apar ca nite fiine pline de iluzii, dar a cror
nimicnicie e afirmat de Alice n ara Minunilor: Cui i pas de voi? [...] Nu suntei dect un
pachet de cri de joc!46, acestea fiind dirijate de alte fore, de care nu sunt contiente, i al
cror destin amintete de cel al omului. Iar din contactul eroinei cu acestea rezult propria sa
criz identitar, asemenea celei trite de Brenger n Rinocerii.
Diferena major, ns, dintre cele trei opere n discuie, mai exact dintre universul lui
Carroll i cel al lui Ionesco este aceea c n cel dinti conflictul dintre individul dezumanizat,
degenerat ntr-o condiie inferioar, i omul care i pstreaz umanitatea nu este att de
evident, de direct, de tranant. Este vorba aici de acel specific al lumilor create de poeii
nonsensului, care, dup cum observ Balot, nu implic o agresiune susinut la adresa
raionalitii i realitii lumii.47 ntr-adevr, fpturile ce populeaz cele dou lumi fantastice
ale lui Carroll sunt reprezentri groteti, creaturi materializate parc din subcontient, care au
menirea de a o speria pe Alice i de a o ntoarce nspre sine, n cele din urm. ns ele sunt
clar delimitate de realitate, cea n care triete eroina, cci n ambele cri existena lor este
una oniric. n Rinocerii, n schimb, aceste fpturi, pe de-a-ntregul animale, cu care Brenger
nu poate comunica sub nicio form, fac parte din realitatea sa, ele nu sunt parte a unui vis.
Iar personajul central asist neputincios la transformarea acestora, cci orice ncercare de a-i
convinge pe ceilali s rmn umani se dovedete inutil. n aceast confruntare sunt
angrenate, dincolo de consideraiile cele mai obiective, dintre care majoritatea se dovedesc
a fi simple slogane preluate i repetate automat, valorile specific umane cele mai importante:
iubirea i prietenia. ns, n acest univers, ele apar devalorizate cci, n furia transformrii,
Jean l amenin pe Brenger c l va clca n picioare, n ciuda celor mai bune intenii ale
prietenului su, n timp ce Daisy ajunge s cread c iubirea e un sentiment morbid, o
slbiciune a omulu, care nu se poate compara cu ardoarea, energia extraordinar pe care o
eman toate aceste fiine din jurul nostru.48
n mijlocul vrtejului de evenimente i de triri contradictorii, Brenger ajunge,
inevitabil, s se ndoiasc de propria identitate. Dac la nceputul piesei acesta se teme s nu
se transforme, n final, vzndu-se singura fiin uman n mijlocul rinocerilor, ajunge s i
doreasc cu disperare ca acest lucru s se ntmple: Ah, cum a vrea s fiu ca ei! [...] M
mustr contiina, ar fi trebuit s-i urmez la timp. Acum e prea trziu! Vai, sunt un monstru,
sunt un monstru! Vai, niciodat n-am s devin rinocer, niciodat, niciodat! Nu m mai pot
schimba. A vrea, a vrea att de tare, dar nu pot! Nu m mai pot privi, mi-e prea ruine! (Se
ntoarce cu spatele la oglind.) Ce urt sunt! Nefericit cel ce vrea s-i pstreze
originalitatea!49 Aceast rezisten n uman, principala tem a teatrului ionescian50, pe care
o manifest Brenger nu este rezultatul vreunei caliti deosebite a acestuia sau a unei aciuni
a sale. El rezist deoarece, asemeni lui Denis de Rougemont, sufletul se opune transformrii.
De aceea, atunci cnd Dudard consider c rinocerii nu sunt un pericol, Brenger afirm:
Numai cnd i vd, pe mine m rscolete. E ceva nervos. Nu e furie, nu, omul nu trebuie s
46

48
Eugen Ionescu, op. cit., Vol.II, pp. 263-264.
49
Ibidem, pp. 267-268.
50
47
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se nfurie, furia te poate duce departe. De furie m pzesc, dar (arat spre inim) m strnge
ceva aici.51 Rezistena lui Brenger n faa posibilelor schimbri generate de agresiunea
venit din exterior amintete de cea a lui Alice, prezent n ambele cri, dar mai evident n
prima dintre ele. Datorit nenumratelor schimbri ale dimensiunii, precum i ntmplrilor
neobinuite prin care trece, Alice ajunge s se ntrebe cine este aproape pe tot parcursul
aventurilor n ara Minunilor. Dei, spre deosebire de Brenger, aceasta nu are un model,
cutnd s se gseasc pe sine, dorina ei este de a se ntoarce la norma uman, asemeni
personajului ionescian.
n final, pentru a-i afirma identitatea, Alice se revolt mpotriva autoritii i
iraionalitii acesteia, agresndu-i, la rndul su, agresorii din lumile fantastice. Brenger
parcurge acelai traseu, de la pasivitate la agresivitate, dar, spre deosebire de eroina lui
Carroll, el nu poate scpa din aceast lume. Astfel, monologul din finalul piesei Rinocerii este
monolog i dialog cu sine i cu lumea, creia i comunic disperarea, dar un strigt
asemntor cu cel din tabloul lui Munch, cci cine s i aud afirmarea umanitii ntr-o lume
n care ceilali s-au transformat n rinoceri?!
51
Bibliografie
Bibliografia operei
Carroll, Lewis, Aventurile lui Alice n ara Minunilor, traducere de Radu Ttruc,
ilustraii de Violeta Zabulic-Diordiev, Ed. Cartier, Chiinu, 2010
*** Alice n Lumea Oglinzii, traducere, prefa i note de Eugen B. Marian, Ed. Prut
Internaional, Chiinu, 2005
Ionescu, Eugen, Cntreaa cheal. Teatru, Vol. I, traduceri de Radu Popescu i Dinu
Bondi, Elena Vianu, Sanda ora, Marcel Aderca i Mariana ora, Prefa i antologie
de Gelu Ionescu, Ed. Minerva, Bucureti, 1970
*** Setea i foamea. Teatru, Vol. II, traduceri de Marcel Aderca, Florica elmaru,
Mariana ora, Ion Vinea i Sanda ora, Ed. Minerva, Bucureti, 1970
Bibliografie critic
Balot, Nicolae, Lupta cu absurdul, Ed. Univers, Bucureti, 1971
Buciu, Marian Victor, Ionesco. Eseu despre onto-retorica literaturii, Ediia a II-a, Ed.
EuroPress Group, Bucureti
Camus, Albert, Faa i reversul. Nunta. Mitul lui Sisif. Omul revoltat. Vara, trad. Irina
Mavrodin, Mihaela Simion, Modest Morariu, introducere Irina Mavrodin, Ed. I, Rao
International Publishing Company, Bucureti, 1994
Cohen, Morton N., Lewis Carroll. A Biography, Vintage Books, New York, 1996
Duvalma, Carmen, Eugen Ionescu i lumea refugiului total, Prefa de Florin
Mihilescu, Ed. Muzeul Literaturii Romne, Bucureti, 2011
Ionesco, Eugne, ntre via i vis. Convorbiri cu Claude Bonnefoy, Ed. Humanitas,
Bucureti, 1999
*** Note i contranote, traducere din francez i cuvnt introductive de Ion Pop, Ed.
Humanitas, Bucureti, 2011
Lecercle, Jean-Jacques, Philosophy of nonsense: the intuitions of Victorian nonsense
literature, Routledge, New York, Londra, 1994
Nilsen, Don L. F., Humor in Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century British Literature: A
Reference Guide, Greenwood Press, Westport, CT, 1998
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Tomu, Ion M., Pitoresc i absurd n dramaturgia lui Eugne Ionesco, Casa Crii de
tiin, Cluj-Napoca, 2011
POSDRU/159/1.5/S/133652.
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A SHORT HISTORY OF THE CONCEPT OF PERSONIFICATION

Anca NEME
Abstract: Personification has always been an underrated trope, despite the wealth of
metaliterary information it is able to offer. This article aims to note a short history of the
concept of personification, as well as to investigate the reasons why this artistic device cannot
be found at the same level of appreciation as other literary devices. Even though
personification is a common, widespread trope, being especially present in poetry,
surprisingly, its status within literary theory has always been imprecise and volatile, the
prevailing critical attitude towards personification being, in all moments of history, one of
indifference. The banality generally attributed to this trope led on the one hand to the current
scarcity of theoretical texts on the topic, and on the other hand to the contradictions and
uncertainties dominating the few texts which do exist.
Keywords:
personification,
anthropomorphism.
prosopopoeia,
metaphor,
conceptual
metaphor,
Crearea de imagini este un atribut uman definitoriu, n special cnd fiina uman se
confrunt cu realiti abstracte, incomprehensibile sau nfricotoare. O analiz a
personificrii nu se poate realiza n absena unor consideraii privitoare la metafor, n a crei
larg categorie se regsete i cea dinti. Parafraznd celebra cugetare a lui Aristotel cu
privire la natura omului, Gh. Crciun afirm c omul este animalul metaforizant 1. ntradevr, crearea de imagini, simboluri, metafore pentru a nelege sau a se apropia de aspectele
mai dificil de conceptualizat ale realitii este un atribut specific omului. Din aceast cauz,
metafora ca realitate lingvistic, retoric, psihologic sau social constituie de mult vreme o
preocupare a cercettorilor. Definit ca un transfer de sens prin intermediul cruia un cuvnt
imagine nlocuiete cuvntul obiect2, metafora este apreciat ca fiind cea mai rafinat form
a limbajului artistic. ns ea se regsete i la nivelul limbajului cotidian, codificnd adesea
modurile de raportare la lume ale anumitor indivizi sau grupuri sociale. Spunem, de pild, c
viaa ne-a trdat, c un computer a murit sau c timpul alearg. Investind obiecte cotidiene
inanimate sau abstraciuni cu trsturi umane, realizm o mai mare apropiere de acestea, lucru
care faciliteaz nelegerea lor.
Modul n care omul alege s traduc realitatea n limbaj figurat, prin intermediul
metaforelor, este nu doar o surs de plcere estetic ci i o oglind a psihologiei individuale
sau colective. Conceptul de metafor conceptual este unul des vehiculat n ultimul deceniu,
i apreciat ca fiind puntea de legtur ntre lingvistic i literatur. Cercettorii implicai n
analiza metaforelor conceptuale (sau cognitive) postuleaz c metafora nu este o modalitate a
limbii, ci una a gndirii. Astfel, metafora conceptual ar putea fi neleas drept domeniul vast
al raportrii simbolice a omului la lumea nconjurtoare, raportare exprimat la nivelul
subsumat al artisticului prin metafore ca tropi. Metaforele proiecteaz structuri din domeniilesurs ale experienei umane n domenii-int abstracte. Conform teoriei conceptuale a
metaforei, tindem s nelegem realitatea prin intermediul metaforelor; acestea sunt
1
2
Gheorghe Crciun, Introducere in teoria literaturii, Editura Dacia XXI, Cluj-Napoca, 2011, p. 217
Irina Petra, Teoria literaturii, Biblioteca Apostrof, Cluj Napoca, 2002, p. 101
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Issue no. 6/2015
fundamentale, rspndite, incontiente, sistematice, bine nrdcinate i convenionale3.

Substantivele abstracte, cum ar fi timpul, viaa, emoiile, procesele mentale, valorile, sunt
conceptualizate pe baza unor domenii surs, care reprezint procese, activiti, orientri i
micri raportate de cele mai multe ori la sine. De cele mai multe ori ne imaginm mintea ca
un recipient, o persoan furioas ca un recipient sub presiune, o activitate ntins pe o mai
mare perioad de timp (cum ar fi o relaie, o carier sau o via) ca un drum, simim c
succesul sau fericirea se afl undeva sus, pe cnd tristeea sau insuccesul sunt jos, iar
timpul este perceput ca un obiect n micare.
Umberto Eco i exprim convingerea c adevrul, dei imposibil de cunoscut n
totalitate, nu poate fi investigat fr a face apel la metafor, deoarece aceasta constituie o
parte integrant a nsi esenei adevrului. ntr-o abordare de factur platonic, Eco definete
adevrul ca o armat mobil, elaborat poetic, de metafore, metonimii i antropomorfisme
care se coaguleaz ulterior n cunoatere, iluzii a cror natur iluzorie a fost uitat 4.
Personificarea poate astfel fi perceput nu doar ca o figur de stil cu rol estetic ci i ca un
instrument de investigare a mentalului unei comuniti culturale, ale crei acte de limb stau
n mod obligatoriu sub semnul unei convenii, convenie care nu este aproape niciodat
universal sau integral transferabil unei alte comuniti lingvistice.
De multe ori, metafora este utilizat pe post de etichet generic ce se refer la toate
tipurile de expresie figurat, probabil datorit faptului c aceasta ntrunete cel mai mare grad
de diversitate n natura sa combinatoric. Metafora, ntr-o accepiune larg, implic un
melanj, o alturare de elemente lingvistice care n condiii obinuite de comunicare nu se
regsesc mpreun sau sunt percepute ca fiind incompatibile. Metafora, comparaia i
oximoronul au la baz alturarea a dou entiti n scopul comparrii acestora. Personificarea,
privit ca subspecie a metaforei, realizeaz n fond acelai lucru, ns ntr-un mod diferit,
nvestind abstraciuni, concepte sau obiecte cu funcii i atribute umane. Mergnd mai
departe, un caz aparte de personificare l reprezint apostrofa, invocarea acelei abstraciuni
antropomorfizate i utilizarea adresrii directe, ca i cum conceptul n cauz, personificat, nu
are doar trsturi umane ci i o prezen fizic5.
Lingvistul maghiar Zoltn Kvecses clasific metaforele conceptuale n trei categorii:
structurale, ontologice i orientaionale6. De interes pentru lucrarea de fa sunt metaforele
ontologice, pe care Kvecses7 le definete ca tipul de metafor ce confer un nou statut
ontologic categoriilor generale de concepte abstracte - int, genernd astfel noi entiti
abstracte. Cu alte cuvinte, individul uman i conceptualizeaz experienele sub aspectul
obiectelor, substanelor sau recipientelor. Astfel, metafora ontologic are funcia de a conferi
experienelor umane cu precdere celor vagi, ambigui, slab delineate un statut,
reprezentndu-le ca obiecte (un eu fragil, o minte ascuit), substane (mult alergtur) sau
recipiente (o existen goal, o zi plin de activiti).
Acelai Kvecses consider personificarea ca fiind o subspecie a metaforei
ontologice8. n accepiunea sa cea mai general, personificarea reprezint atribuirea de caliti
omeneti unor lucruri, fiine sau abstraciuni. Personificarea valorific cel mai de ncredere
3
Agnes Petocz, Re-Thinking the Place of Semiotics in Psychology and its Implications for Psychological
Research, n Semiotics. Theory and Applications, Hamel, S.C. (ed), Nova Science Publishers, New York, 2011,
p. 126
4
Umberto Eco, Kant and the Platypus. Essays on Language and Cognition, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2000 p.
45, trad. ns.
5
Jack Barlow, Psychology and the Poetics of Growth: Figurative Language in Psychology, Psychotherapy, and
Education, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, NJ, 1977, p. 38
6
Zoltn Kvecses, Metaphor. A Practical Introduction, Oxford University Press, New York, 2010, p. 37
7
Kvecses, op.cit., p. 38-39
8
Kvecses, op.cit., p. 38-39
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Issue no. 6/2015
domeniu surs pe care l posedm, i anume sinele. Prin personificarea inanimatelor se

realizeaz o apropiere ntre om i obiectul ndeprtat sau abstract, lucru care conduce la o mai
bun nelegere. Personificarea permite astfel omului s utilizeze cunotine despre sine pentru
a nelege mai aprofundat alte aspecte ale lumii, cum ar fi timpul, moartea, forele naturii sau
obiectele inanimate.
Pe o poziie similar se gsete i James Paxson, care consider c personificarea
reprezint transpunerea material a unei cantiti (adesea ideatice sau abstracte) ntr-o alt
cantitate, reprezentnd de obicei o persoan. Aceast transpunere implic uzul unei metafore
conceptuale din cmpul recipientelor, al coninerii9. Din acest punct de vedere, forma pe care
o ia metafora (ceva coninut de altceva) se apropie de concepia structuralitilor referitoare la
semn. Privit prin aceast prism, procedeul personificrii, cu structura sa compus, se subscrie
concepiei generale a erei n care a aprut, i anume c toate lucrurile au o structur dual,
compus din forme i esene.
Se pare c personificarea s-a bucurat de o atenie mai serioas abia n cadrul teoriei
literare recente. Pn nu demult, acordarea unei identiti umane unei realiti non-umane era
subsumat alegoriei10, ns n ultimii ani, valoarea sa esenial pentru discursul literar, precum
i complexitatea de forme i sensuri ale personificrii au condus la o reevaluare a statutului
su pn la punctul de a o declara stpna tropilor n discursul poetic11.
Dei era natural ca cercettorul interesat de originile teoriei personificrii s se
ndrepte spre Aristotel, acesta risc s fie dezamgit n cutrile sale. Filosoful grec abia
amintete cteva figuri de stil n Retorica sa, interesul su central n lucrarea respectiv fiind
nu o identificare i clasificare a tropilor, ci descrierea modurilor n care argumentele pot fi
descoperite i dispuse. Acesta amintete totui de practica specific lui Homer, de a oferi
adesea via metaforic lucrurilor lipsite de via12, proces considerat a fi o variant a
metaforei i numit actualizare13. Aristotel apreciaz sentimentul de vioiciune i puterea
educativ pe care un astfel de procedeu l confer unui pasaj literar.
Prima utilizare a termenului de prosopopeia pentru a numi procedeul personificrii
se regsete la Demetrius din Falerum, n tratatul su, Despre stil14. Aici se regsete i prima
descriere a personificrii ca trop din teoria retoric occidental. ns pentru Demetrius,
prosopopeia nu denumete doar procedeul personificrii aa cum este el definit astzi, ci i cel
de a invoca, de a face prezent un strmo de mult plecat, precum i antropomorfizarea i
oferirea unui glas unei entiti geopolitice abstracte, cum ar fi spre exemplu Elada, n form
feminin, adresndu-se poporului su15.
Termenul de prosopopeia se pstreaz i n evul mediu, unde se regsete din nou n
tratatul lui Erasmums din Rotterdam, De copia. Aici, Erasmus definete acest procedeu literar
ca fiind descrierea de persoane16 i consider termenul de prosopopeia ca fiind
interschimbabil cu cel de prosopographia, procedeul de descriere a caracteristicilor fizice ale
unui personaj uman. Cu toate acestea, Erasmus ntocmete pentru prima dat o list cu
exemple de virtui abstracte personificate care apar n lucrrile diverilor autori latini,
incluznd i personajele mitologice n domeniul ontic al tropului personificare.
Gramaticianul francez Pierre Fontanier, preocupat n special de figurile de stil, a
realizat n secolul al XVIII-lea cea mai sistematic clasificare a tropilor din vremea sa. Este
9
James Paxson, The Poetics of Personification, Cambridge University Press, New York, 1994, p. 40
James Paxson, op. cit., p. 1
11
ibidem
12
Aristotel, Retorica, Editura IRI, Bucureti, 2004, p. 72
13
ibidem
14
apud James Paxson, op.cit., p. 12
15
James Paxson, op.cit., p. 12
16
apud James Paxson, op.cit, p. 23
10
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pentru prima dat c personificarea primete autonomie, nemaifiind subsumat metaforei, i

fiind n acelai timp considerat a fi un procedeu distinct de cel al prosopopeii. Fontanier
consider c personificarea reprezint substanializarea entitilor abstracte, pe cnd
prosopopeea este procedeul utilizat pentru a acorda o voce celor decedai i cel care se bucura
de o mai mare popularitate n perioada Evului Mediu i a Renaterii17. Conform lui Paxson,
un alt merit al lui Fontanier este acela de a fi clasificat tropii n trei mari categorii metafor,
metonimie i sinecdoc considernd c personificarea poate funciona ca variant a fiecreia
din cele trei categorii18.
Un alt exemplu de subestimare a rolurilor personificrii l reprezint ideile expuse de
Henry Home, Lord Kames, n lucrarea sa, Elemente de critic19. Aici, autorul dedic un
capitol ntreg noiunii de personificare, ns, n ciuda faptului c demonstreaz (poate
involuntar), prin exemple din autori latini sau din Shakespeare, larga rspndire a acestui
procedeu, continu s o considere a fi lipsit de importan n contextul global al teoriei
literare. Pe baza inteniilor care stau la baza utilizrii tropului, Lord Kames face distincia
ntre dou tipuri de personificare: pasional i descriptiv, considernd varianta pasional
ca fiind mai nobil, deoarece ofer, chiar i pentru un moment, iluzia de via i inteligen.
n aceeai perioad istoric, i anume secolul al XVIII-lea, personificrile i pierd din
caracterul activ specific literaturii antice i medievale i devin mai degrab statice,
descriptive. Morton Bloomfield consider acesta ca fiind efectul dezvoltrii picturii i
sculpturii asupra literaturii20. Personificarea reprezint probabil cel mai important procedeu
comun att literaturii ct i sculpturii i mai ales picturii.
n secolul XX se remarc un declin att al popularitii personificrii ca procedeu
literar, ct i al aprecierii de care aceasta se bucur n rndul teoreticienilor. Literatura,
ndreptndu-se spre un mimesis ct mai pronunat al realitilor umane, renun la metafore i
personificri n favoarea expresiei fruste. Iar n cadrul teoriei literare, procedeul personificrii
i pierde din nou din importan, fiind subsumat alegoriei, n continuarea tendinei ncepute
n secolul precedent21.
Lingvistul i teoreticianul american Morton W. Bloomfield explica n 1963 c
personificarea este considerat a fi cel mai puin important element al alegoriei, fiind
considerat de majoritatea contemporanilor ca fiind sectuit de veridicitate22. Cu toate
acestea, Bloomfield recunoate c de-a lungul istoriei literaturii, de la Homer la
contemporaneitate, aceasta a fost unul din cele mai uzitate procedee literare. i acesta
subsumeaz tropul personificrii clasei mai mari a alegoriei, definind ceea ce el numete
alegoria personificrii ca fiind procesul de animare a obiectelor inanimate sau noiunilor
abstracte, iar personificarea n sine ca fiind figura animat creat prin acest proces23.
ncercnd o clasificare a modurilor de translaie a realului n figurat, Paxson distinge
trei nivele de animare: substanializare sau ipostaziere, neleas ca transformarea figurat a
oricrei cantiti non-corporale ntr-una fizic, antropomorfism, adic transferul figurat al unei
cantiti non-umane ntr-un personaj cu form uman i personificarea propriu-zis, definit
ca transferarea unei cantiti non-umane n forma unei persoane umane contiente, capabil de
17

ibidem, p. 27
19
Satoshi Nishimura, Personification: Its Functions and Boundaries, n Papers on Language & Literature, Vol.
50, nr. 1, 2014, p. 92
20
Morton W. Bloomfield, A Grammatical Approach to Personification Allegory, n Modern Philology, Vol. 60,
Nr. 3, feb., 1963, p. 164
21
22
Morton Bloomfield, op.cit., p. 161
23
ibidem, p. 163
18
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limbaj i gndire, avnd o voce i un chip24. La rndul lor, aceste definiii se pot diviza
suplimentar n subcategorii care pot opera individual sau se pot asocia: animificarea, adic
transferul figural al unui agent uman sau al unei abstraciuni ntr-un animal (procedeu care st
la baza fabulei), reificarea sau depersonificarea, care reprezint procesul invers personificrii,
i anume transferul unui agent uman ntr-un obiect inanimat, idearea, sau transferul unui
obiect sau agent uman ntr-o idee sau esen abstract, i nu n ultimul rnd topificarea,
definit ca transferul unei abstraciuni ntr-un spaiu geografic25.
Joseph Dodson26 propune o clasificare a personificrilor n trei categorii. Cea dinti
reunete personificrile cotidiene (sau obinuite), categorie care se refer la catacrez, o figur
de stil att de frecvent utilizat nct nu mai este perceput ca atare, elementele ei
antropomorfice nemaifiind considerate a fi evidente. Este cazul expresiilor curente de genul
gura unui ru sau piciorul mesei. n a doua categorie se regsesc personificrile generale,
care, dei denumesc trsturi umane recognoscibile, nu sunt considerate a reprezenta o
persoan real. Ultima categorie reunete personificrile aa-zis reprezentative, concepute a
reprezenta o persoan sau o caracteristic, i care scot n eviden un atribut, o emoie sau o
parte a fiinei respective.
Ilustrnd idei sau concepte abstracte, personificarea faciliteaz nelegerea aspectelor
misterioase ale existenei, fcnd n acelai timp textele literare mai vii, mai alerte, posibil mai
accesibile i cu siguran mai plcute cititorului. Pe lng aspectul su cognitiv funcional,
metafora i implicit personificarea se constituie ca o msur a miestriei artistice, a elocvenei
i a creativitii lingvistice. Dei n modernitate i contemporaneitate uzul personificrilor este
n general privit ca un procedeu demodat care dilueaz realismul i veridicitatea unui text,
acest trop are o lung istorie care, pe lng valoarea literar, poate oferi informaii culturale
sau sociale cu privire la autori i la contextul istoric n care au creat. Personificarea poate fi
privit din dou perspective: pe de o parte din punctul de vedere consacrat, al teoriei literare,
iar pe de alt parte din punct de vedere antropologic. Astfel, pot fi investigate dou faete ale
aceluiai fenomen: personificarea ca figur de stil i personificarea ca figur de gndire27.
Bibliografie
1. Aristotel, Retorica, Editura IRI, Bucureti, 2004
2. Barlow, Jack, Psychology and the Poetics of Growth: Figurative Language in
Psychology, Psychotherapy, and Education, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, NJ,
1977
3. Bloomfield, Morton W., A Grammatical Approach to Personification Allegory, n
Modern Philology, Vol. 60, Nr. 3, feb., 1963
4. Crciun, Gheorghe, Introducere in teoria literaturii, Editura Dacia XXI, ClujNapoca, 2011
5. Dodson, Joseph, The Powers of Personification, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin, 2008
6. Eco, Umberto, Kant and the Platypus. Essays on Language and Cognition,
Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2000
7. Kvecses, Zoltn, Metaphor. A Practical Introduction, Oxford University Press,
New York, 2010
8. Nishimura, Satoshi, Personification: Its Functions and Boundaries, n Papers on
Language & Literature, Vol. 50, nr. 1, 2014
24

ibidem, p. 42-43
26
Joseph Dodson, The Powers of Personification, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin, 2008, p. 32
27
Paul Ricoeur, op. cit., p. 70
25
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9. Paxson, James, The Poetics of Personification, Cambridge University Press, New

York, 1994
10. Petocz, Agnes, Re-Thinking the Place of Semiotics in Psychology and its
Implications for Psychological Research, n Semiotics. Theory and Applications, Hamel, S.C.
(ed), Nova Science Publishers, New York, 2011
11. Petra, Irina, Teoria literaturii, Biblioteca Apostrof, Cluj Napoca, 2002
1241
Issue no.6/2015
SECULAR ASPECTS OF CHRISTIANITY IN THE POSTMODERN CONTEXT (GIANNI

VATTIMO AND RENE GIRARD)
Ion VRABIE
Abstract: The pluralism of postmodern society eliminates the claim of absolute foundation. In
a world of language games, no form of knowledge can offer final, irrevocable and
indisputable justifications. Religion faces the situation of having to give up its character of
absolute authority. Its degree of legitimacy is positioned at the same level with other forms of
knowledge. According to the postmodern lectures of Christianity, the authority of reason must
be replaced with weak thought (Gianni Vattimo). The deconstruction of the metaphysical
tradition, without enforcing other principles, leads to a relativization that would delegitimize.
The metastories, the justifying authorities of any type, the fundaments and archetypes are
shaken from their very own foundations and, namely, from their abilities of absolute
legitimization. These considerations determine religion to take a step back, to adopt a weaker
position, to open towards dialogue. Which are the difficulties of religion in a postmodern
context? How does Christianity redefine its position in relation to the world? To what extent
can we talk about secular aspects of Christianity? I shall try to answer to these questions
starting from the visions of Gianni Vattimo and of Ren Girard.
Keywords: Christianity, secular, postmodern, weak thought, scapegoat.
Religie n/i postmodernitate
Datorit caracterului suprancrcat de sens, concepte precum modernitate, modernitate
trzie i postmodernitate au beneficiat de multiple definiri i re-definiri, n funcie de
interesele autorului sau de domeniul vizat. Radicalitatea modernitii fa de epocile
precedente nu suprim, ci, dimpotriv, accentueaz tendina de a institui principii
fundamentale, culminnd n creaii sistemice ce se doresc a fi atotcuprinztoare idealismul
absolut. Epoca modern rmne, totui, tributar metafizicii tradiionale. Scena lumii este
modificat sub influena schimbrii continue, interaciunii intense, reducerii distanelor i
creterii vitezei n noile circumstane ale unei tehnologii comunicaionale evoluate. Se fac
vizibile noi diferene i se fac auzite noi reacii. Se cunosc contexte diferite, culturi cu alte
valori i filosofii cu alte viziuni. Lumea occidental nceteaz a fi singurul model cultural. Are
loc o descentralizare pe plan global la toate nivelurile: politic, cultural, economic, filosofic
etc. Astfel, se nregistreaz tendine de desprindere fa de lumea modern prin abordri
critice ale metafizicii tradiionale. n conformitate cu opinia lui Gianni Vattimo, modernitatea
sfrete atunci cnd din multiple motive nu mai pare posibil s vorbim de istorie ca ceva
unitar. O viziune de acest fel a istoriei, ntr-adevr, implic existena unui centru n jurul
cruia se strng i se ordoneaz faptele1, iar conceptele ce guverneaz metafizica aa cum
este ideea unei totaliti a lumii, a unui sens unitar al istoriei, a unui subiect autocentrat,
capabil eventual de a se lua n stpnire de sine se dovedesc a fi mijloace de disciplinare i
de linitire ce nu mai sunt necesare n cadrul actualelor capaciti de care dispune tehnica2. n
aceeai ordine de idei, am putea susine c o criz a fundamentelor absolute deschide spre
noi orizonturi, iar perspectivismul semnalat de Nietzsche obine noi justificri i se impune
1
2
Gianni Vattimo, Societate transparent, Editura Pontica, Constana, 1995, p. 6.

Idem, Gndirea slab, Editura Pontica, Constana, 1998, p. 15.
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drept o nou modalitate de percepie a realitii, nencreztoare n metapovestiri, dup cum ar

spune Jean-Franois Lyotard3.
Contextul postmodernitii, nelegnd prin acest concept o atitudine de renunare la
ideea posibilitii unui fundament ultim, a ntemeierii absolute sau descoperirea structurilor
eseniale ale realitii, instituie o revizuire de delegitimare asupra prezentului. Deconstrucia
tradiiei metafizice, dar fr a impune alte principii, conduce spre o relativizare
delegitimatoare. Cu alte cuvinte, metapovestirile, autoritile justificatoare de orice tip,
fundamentele i arhetipurile sunt zdruncinate din chiar temeliile lor i anume ale capacitilor
de legitimare absolut.
Gndirea postmodern renun la cutarea adevrului unic, imuabil, n stare s
menin o unificare totalizatoare, ndeplinind rolul de fundal atotcuprinztor. Se realizeaz o
dispersare continu i imposibil de surprins n cadre fixative. Se abandoneaz credina n legi
eterne conform crora lumea ar fi constituit i condus. Nu exist fiin care poate i trebuie
s fie descoperit, fiina se constituie n actul conversaional. Altfel spus, nu suntem de acord
pentru c am gsit esena realitii, ci spunem c am gsit esena realitii atunci cnd suntem
de acord4. n aceste circumstane devine evident delicateea ntrebrii cu privire la religie.
Care este statutul ei? Ce rol i se atribuie? n ce termeni mai vorbim despre religie n lumea
postmodern?
Pluralismul societii postmoderne nltur pretenia unei ntemeieri absolute. ntr-o
lume a jocurilor de limbaj, nici o form de cunoatere nu poate oferi i nici nu pretinde o
justificare ultim, irevocabil i incontestabil. Religia ajunge n situaia de a renuna la
caracterul su de autoritate absolut, recunoscndu-i un grad de legitimitate egal cu al altor
domenii. Comunitatea mea este cu att mai mult a mea cu ct admit c ea nu trebuie s fie
dect una printre altele.5. Aceast consideraie determin religia s fac un pas napoi, s
adopte o poziie mai slbit, s se deschid spre dialog. Credina poate fi supus discuiei,
argumentrii i obieciei, fr aspecte fanatice i convingeri oarbe care i vor impus adevrul
n mod autoritar. Datorit lui Dewey, Croce i Gadamer, cei n care istoria spiritului obiectiv
i-a gsit aprtori mai convini dect au fost Nietzsche, Heidegger i Derrida, religia i
poate relua rolul fr mti i dogmatisme, se poate ntoarce s ocupe un loc alturi de tiine
i de politic, fr s mai aspire la absolut6.
Odat cu postmoderniatea se contientizeaz rolul i importana hermeneuticii. Acest
fapt ne ofer vizibilitate asupra contextelor istorice i ne face s nelegem c orice eveniment,
cunotin sau perspectiv este mai mult sau mai puin influenat de paradigmele i factorii
istorici, culturali, politici, ideologici etc. Mai mult, ramificarea domeniilor i a formelor de
cunoatere indic, n pofida interferenelor, aspectele particulare, caracterizate prin
metodologie, obiect, scop, comportament etc. Aceast diversificare sugereaz, pe de o parte,
caracterul individual al fiecrei zone de cercetare i, pe de alt parte, imposibilitate substituirii
unei configuraii cu alta. Este ceea ce menioneaz Vattimo: nu mai putem spune c, ntruct
tiina nu-l cunoate pe Dumnezeu, Dumnezeu nu exist. tiina nu reuete nici mcar s
stabileasc dac a spune sunt ndrgostit nseamn ceva.7 De exemplu, o mulime de
lucrurile eseniale ale vieii, precum: sentimentele, valorile, speranele, nu reprezint obiecte
ale tiinei.
n cele ce urmeaz, voi ncerca s prezint problema religiei cretine n contextul
postmodern pornind de la viziunile unor gnditori cu abordri diferite: Gianni Vattimo i
Ren Girard. Cu cercetri mai aproape de antropologie, filosoful francez caut unele
Jean-Franois Lyotard, Condiia postmodern, Editura Babel, Bucureti, 1993, p. 15.
Gianni Vattimo, Richard Rorty, Viitorul religiei, Editura Paralela 45, Piteti, 2008, p.76.
5
Marcel Gauchet, Ieirea din religie, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 2006, p. 110.
6
Santiago Zabala, Introducere, n Gianni Vattimo, Richard Rorty, op. cit., p. 14.
7
Gianni Vattimo, Ren Girard, Adevr sau credin slab? Editura Curtea Veche, Bucureti, 2009, p. 45.
3
4
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rspunsuri prin prisma relaiei dintre religie i violen. n acelai timp, filosoful italian
recurge la un exerciiu hermeneutic, folosindu-se de conceptul knosis ntrupare. Partea
curioas care se deduce din rezultatele obinute de Gianni Vattimo i Ren Girard este punctul
de convergen la care ajung concluziile celor doi.
Ren Girard: De ce Hristos nu este un ap ispitor?
Hermeneutica antropologic a lui Ren Girard are la baz teoria apului ispitor. n
acest demers, antropologul francez difereniaz ntre rituri, mituri i religia cretin prin
moartea non-sacrificial a lui Hristos. n primul rnd, apul ispitor desemneaz inocena
victimelor; n al doilea rnd reflect o colectivitate polarizat fa de victim, iar neputina
persecutorilor de a depi logica persecuiei are drept finalitate linarea. n cele mai
slbatice rituri ne nfieaz o mulime dezordonat care se polarizeaz puin cte puin
contra unei victime, sfrind prin a se npusti asupra ei. Mitul ne spune povestea unui zeu
redutabil care i-a salvat pe credincioi prin nu tiu ce sacrificiu, sau chiar murind el nsui,
dup ce, iniial, semnase dezordinea n rndurile comunitii8.
Necesitatea unui ap ispitor apare ntr-o perioad de criz. n acest fel, o anumit
victim ajunge s fie considerat responsabil de nenorocirile publice. Caracteristic mitului
este c victima linat este divinizat apoi, deoarece n urma sacrificiului ordinea n
comunitate este restabilit. Acest fapt nu se explic, bineneles, prin aciunea victimei asupra
npastelor publice pe care le soluioneaz, ci datorit influenei pe care o are asupra psihicului
uman i, respectiv, asupra raporturilor dintre oameni. apul ispitor spune Ren Girard
acioneaz numai asupra raporturilor umane alterate de criz, dar va lsa impresia c
acioneaz n egal msur i asupra cauzelor ei exterioare, molim, secet i alte calamiti
obiective9. Se presupune c victima, chiar i dup moarte, se impune prin binefacerile sale,
motiv care contribuie la imortalizarea i sacralizarea sa.
De ce moartea lui Hristos iese dintr-un astfel de model? n ce const specificitatea sa?
De ce modelul biblic inverseaz raportul fa de cel mitic?
Dup cum interpreteaz antropologul francez, n urma comparrii modelului biblic cu
cel mitic, putem vedea c toate convingerile sunt identice, ns interpretarea lor e diferit. n
vreme ce miturile accept fr discernmnd convingerile propriilor mulimi violente, Vechiul
i Noul Testament denun aceste mulimi i iau aprarea victimelor10. Din aceast cauz
mecanismul apului ispitor se refer exclusiv mitologiei. Prin sacrificiul apului ispitor se
realizeaz un transfer asupra lui ale tuturor tensiunilor i nenorocirilor sociale punnd capt
crizei.
Persecutorii i fac un adevr din vinovia victimei, care, n pofida inocenei sale,
devine responsabil pentru momentul critic i este executat. Cu alte cuvinte, ei fac un adevr
din neadevr, dar nu n mod intenionat, deoarece ei cred efectiv n vinovia victimei care
este expus violenei. Aici este momentul redistribuirii vinei n mod inversat. Moarte lui
Hristos are un caracter non-sacrificial. A spune c Iisus a murit nu ntr-un sacrificiu, ci
mpotriva tutror sacrificiilor, ca s nu mai existe sacrificii, e acelai lucru cu a recunoate n el
nsui Cuvntul lui Dumnezeu: Mila o vreau i nu jertfa. Acolo unde acest cuvnt nu este
respectat, Iisus nu poate sllui. El nu rostete n van acest cuvnt, iar cnd cuvntul nu are
efect, cnd violena rmne stpn, Iisus trebuie s moar11. Anume aceast experien,
moartea lui Hristos, fondatoare a cretinismului, l face pe acesta incomparabil cu celelalte
religii.
Ren Girard, apul ispitor,Editura Nemira, Bucureti, 2000, p. 74.
Ibidem, p. 60.
10
Gianni Vattimo, Ren Girard, op. cit., p. 118.
11
Ren Girard, Despre cel ascunse de la ntemeierea lumii, Editura Nemira, Bucureti, 1999, pp. 244-245.
8
9
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n timp ce violena se regsete n orice structur mitic, evenimentul morii lui

Hristos scap acestei structuri. El reprezint non-violena, iar manifestndu-se mpotriva
violenei, cretinismul apare drept principiu deconstructiv al tuturor religiilor arhaice. Dac
exist o divinitate non-violent, ea nu poate s-i semnaleze existena oamenilor dect
lsndu-se alungat de violen, demonstrnd oamenilor c ea nu poate sllui n mpria
violenei12. Aceste cuvinte avertizeaz pericolul ce pate o societate plin de violen i
necesitatea nlturrii ei dintre raporturile umane, rezultat care se poate obine prin
responzabilizarea unuia fa de altul, caritatea.
Se mai cere amintit un aspect n legtur cu evenimentul rstignirii lui Hristos. De
regul, n timpul sacrificiului, toi cei care particip sunt de acord cu ceea ce se ntmpl.
Altfel spus, avem de a face cu o unanimitate a persecuiei. Totui, existena Evangheliilor
dovedete prezena unei minoriti n dezacord cu cele ntmplate apostolii. Dac toi
ucenicii ar fi acceptat logica unanim a linajului, nu ar mai fi existat Evangheliile. Chiar dac
s-ar fi pstrat n amintire, rstignirea ar fi trecut n istorie doar ntr-o form mitic. nvierea
este cea care aduce n lumin minoritate disident13. Mesajul Evangheliilor, n fapt al lui
Hristos, este unul pozitiv, dar i necesar crede Girard, acela de a ne nfrnge tendina spre
violen, deoarece dac toi oamenii ar adopta regula evanghelic de a ntoarce i cellalt
obraz, nici un obraz n-ar mai fi lovit.
Gianni Vattimo: cretinism descretinat
Dac pentru Ren Girard cretinismul aduce o inversare a raportului demonstrnd c
victima este nevinovat, iar mulimea acioneaz din netiin, urmnd ca o contientizare
ulterioar a principiului fondator s diminueze violena, pentru Gianni Vattimo principalele
concepte de care se folosete, obinnd aceleai concluzii, sunt knosis i gndire slab.
Abordarea acestei probleme de ctre filosoful italian are la baz mai multe rdcini
(fenomenologie, hermeneutic, filosofie). El trateaz subiectul mai amplu i mai sistematic,
totui, recunoscnd meritele i importana cercetrilor lui Girard chiar pentru propria-i
gndire. Conceptul secularizare, menioneaz Vattimo, dup lectura lucrrilor lui Girard, va fi
vzut ntr-o lumin pozitiv. Contrar celor crezute de ctre majoritatea, va afirma c
secularizarea nu ar fi abandonarea sacrului, ci aplicarea n ntregime a tradiiei sacre la
fenomene umane determinate14. n fapt, termenul de kenosis are tocmai acest rol de slbire a
autoritii divine. Prin kenosis Dumnezeu se ofer oamenilor, le propune un model de iubire.
Astfel, Dumnezeu nu mai este privit drept o entitate transcendent care privete de undeva de
sus cum se desfoar evenimentele, ci El coboar, se ntrupeaz printre oameni pentru a le
indica o cale. n sensul n care percepe Vattimo cretinismul, acesta nu este tocmai o religie.
Depind dogmele, cretinismul i se dezvluie i ca o posibilitate de a fi mntuit fr a
cunoate neaprat dogma Treimii. n acelai timp, considernd secularizarea un produs al
cretinismului, i mulumete lui Dumnezeu c la eliberat de credinele n zei i idoli,
devenind ateu datorit Lui. Pentru Vattimo, iubirea i responsabilitatea fa de cellalt este
lucrul cel mai important pe care-l reveleaz cretinismul. Ce nseamn c Dumnezeu exist?
ntreab filosoful italian. Iisus spune c atunci cnd dou sau mai multe persoane se adun n
numele Lui, El este cu ele. Dar vrea s spun c se afl i acolo sau c se afl numai acolo?15
Oamenii se pot ntlni oriunde, iar acest fapt nu nseamn c l putem regsi pe Dumnezeu
doar n anumite locuri privilegiate ca sanctuarele, bisericile, templele. A-i iubi aproapele i a
fi responsabil pentru el, n acest sens Vattimo se percepe drept cretin.
12
Ibidem, p. 254.
Gianni Vattimo, Ren Girard, op. cit., p. 127.
14
Gianni Vattimo, Ren Girard, op.cit., p. 31.
15
Ibidem, p. 63.
13
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Efectele cretinismului, precum cel de descompunere a absoluturilor sau de a fi

sectuit fora adevrului, i se par aceluiai Vattimo ca fiind pozitive. Este convins c legile
omeneti sunt valabile pn la o anumit limit, iar acest lucru de asemenea l nvm din
cretinism. Continund aceast modalitate de gndire, mntuirea nu este n primul rnd o
problem de contiin care ne pune n fa o alegere inevitabil ntre rivalitatea violenei
mimetice i dragoste precum sugereaz Girard - ; este, mai degrab, vestea c Dumnezeu ne
mntuiete printr-un proces istoric de educaie care n acelai timp este o revelaie i o
reducere progresiv a violenei originare a sacrului16. Prin acest proces de desacralizare a
violenei i de destrmare a oricrei autoriti metafizice, contiina uman se va
responsabiliza ntr-o devenire treptat i nu ntr-o revelaie apocaliptic.
Slbiciunea gndirii n raport cu lumea
Gndirea slab reprezint un concept al lui Gianni Vattimo, fiind o metafor cu rol
de a indica o situaie provizorie. ns, acest mod de a privi lucrurile vine n opoziie cu
instituirea unor principii absolute sau mcar pretenia de a reflecta esena realitii. Un
asemenea raport cu lumea este relativ, propunndu-i trasarea unor proiecii directoare, dar
flexibile. O gndire slab, care este slab mai nti de toate i n principal din cauza
coninuturilor ei ontologice, a modului ei de a concepe fiina i adevrul, este i o gndire
care, drept urmare, nu mai are motive s-i revendice suveranitatea pe care i-o revendica
gndirea metafizic fa de practic17. O reflecie filosofic slab nu-i propune, n urma
criticii metafizicii tradiionale, s refundeze cultura contemporan cu o ontologie rigid i
adevrat n sensul tare al cuvntului. O ontologie slbit permite noi posibiliti, admite noi
experiene i se recunoate doar ca o viziune local. Astfel, nici filosofia, nici tiina i nici
religia nu se afirm, n mod exclusiv, drept expresiea epocii i deintoarea principiilor ultime.
Fiecare dintre ele se recunosc a fi o interpretare, o dimensiune, o abordare a realitii, fiind n
acelai timp contiente de propria contingen. n legtur cu o asemenea perspectiv, Ren
Girard susinea c toat aceast munc de gropar e necesar, fiindc se ngroap lucruri cu
adevrat moarte, doar c e prea mult ceremonie. Aceast sarcin nu trebuie absolutizat,
fcnd din cioclu un prototip al vieii culturale a viitorului. Trebuie lsai morii s-i ngroape
morii i trebuie s trecem la altceva18. Omul postmodern este pus n postura de a conveui
cu propria-i finitudine, debarasndu-se de nostalgia fa de un dincolo. Asumndu-i condiia
plural a fiinei sale va putea s-i continuie traiul fr frica sau sperana transcendenei,
fcndu-l capabil de a practica solidaritatea i de a deveni responsabil. Filosofii nihiliti ca
Nietzsche i Heidegger (dar i pragmatiti ca Dewey sau Wittgenstein) artndu-ne c fiina
nu coincide neaprat cu ceea ce e stabil, fix, permanent, ci are de a face mai degrab cu
ntmplarea, cu consensul, cu dialogul, cu interpretarea, se strduiesc s ne fac capabili s
lum aceast experien de oscilare a lumii postmoderne ca pe o ans a unui nou mod de a fi
umani19.
n cazul religiei, gndirea slab indic un lucru foarte important cu referire la
Dumnezeu pentru readaptarea ei n contextul actual. Moartea lui Dumnezeu nu evoc
inexistena Sa, ci faptul c orice afirmaie sau negaie n privina Lui nu reflect o mai mare
claritate sau cunoatere. n acest sens, secularizarea, n mod paradoxal, nu trebuie vzut drept
un fenomen de abandonare a cretinismului, ci ntregirea lui. Moartea lui Dumnezeu (o
expresie care-i aparine la origine lui Luther) indic astzi ntruparea, acea kenosis (de la
16
Ibidem, p. 103.
Gianni Vattimo, Gndirea slab, ed. cit., p. 23.
18
Ren Girard, Despre cel ascunse de la ntemeierea lumii,ed. cit., p. 163.
19
Gianni Vattimo, Societate transparent, ed. cit., p. 16.
17
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Issue no. 6/2015
verbul kenoo, a deerta, a goli), prin care Pavel se refer la acea golire de sine nsui svrit
de Verbul divin care s-a cobort la condiia uman pentru a muri pe Cruce20.
n postmodernitate, o epoc a interpretrii, religia tinde s devin o chestiune privat,
aspect ce nu trebuie privit ntr-o lumin negativ, deoarece oamenii ar putea deveni mai puin
rspunztori fa de Dumnezeu i mai mult fa de sine i de ceilali. Biserica risc s fie
marginalizat dac va continua s se afirme drept o putere autoritar, i se recomand s
coboare la nivelul celorlalte forme de cunoatere pentru a participa la confruntrile ntre
culturi i religii de pe poziii egale. Drept consecin, se deschide o nou posibilitate, a unei
religii antiesenialiste, care poate contribui la formarea unei culturi a dialogului.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Gauchet, Marcel, Dezvrjirea lumii. O istorie politic a religiei, traducere de Vasile
Tonoiu, Editura Nemira, Bucureti, 2006.
Gauchet, Marcel, Ieirea din religie, traducere de Mona Antohi, Editura Himanitas,
Bucureti, 2006.
Girard, Ren, Despre cele ascunse de la ntemeierea lumii, traducere de Miruna
Runcan, Editura Nemira, Bucureti, 1999.
Girard, Ren, Violena i sacrul, traducere de Mona Anthi, Editura Nemira, Bucureti,
1995.
Girard, Ren, apul ispitor, traducere de Theodor Rogin, Editura Nemira, Bucureti,
2000.
Lyotard, Jean-Franois, Condiia postmodern,traducere de Ciprian Mihali, Editura
Babel, Bucureti, 1993.
Vattimo, Gianni, Societatea transparent, traducere de tefania Mincu, Editura
Pontica, Constana, 1995.
Vattimo, Gianni, & Girard, Ren, Adevr sau credin slab? Convorbiri despre
cretinism i relativism, traducere de Cornelia Dumitru, Editura Curtea Veche, Bucureti,
2009.
Vattimo, Gianni, & Rorty, Richard, Viitorul religiei. Solidaritate, caritate, ironie,
traducere de tefania Mincu, Editura Paralela 45. 2008.
Vattimo, Gianni, & Rovatti, Pier Aldo, Gndirea slab, traducere de tefania Mincu,
Editura Pontica, Constana, 1998.
Acknowledgement: This work was cofinaced from the European Social Fund through
Sectoral Operational Programme Human Resources Development 2007-2013, project
number POSDRU/159/1.5/S/140863, Competitive Researchers in Europe in the Field of
Humanities and Socio-Economic Sciences. A Multi-regional Research Network, sau Aceast
lucrare a fost cofinanat din Fondul Social European prin Programul Operaional Sectorial
pentru
Dezvoltarea
Resurselor
Umane
2007
2013,
Cod
Contract:
20
Santiago Zabala, Introducere, n Gianni Vattimo, Richard Rorty, op. cit., pp. 27-28.
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Issue no.6/2015
TOMIS IN THE CONTEXT OF COMMERCIAL RELATIONS FROM THE EASTERN

MEDITERANIAN (I-IV CENTURY A.C.)
Monica-Luminia LU COZMEI
Abstract: Tomis in the context of trade relations in the Eastern Mediterranean, I-IV AD,
during its most flourishing economical and trade period among the Greek cities. The aim of
the city of Tomis is to become valuable as a key fortress city, among the North Pontic area,
Minor Asia and Asia. I dealt with a few aspects regarding the geographical area of Dobrogea
in general, and the area of Tomis, in particular, its great importance in the development of
the city and its historic importance, and very briefly, the history of epigraphy. The
Romanization factors, with nuances specific to this space, the interests of the Empire, the way
of imposing them, the change of the status of the province over the centuries, according to all
the factors taken into consideration, will be the subject of my PhD thesis, where I inserted a
few general considerations for the sub-chapter, The historical and geographical area.
Epigraphy is the science based on arguments, from the scientific point of view of the theory of
ancient history. The discoveries about Tomis have double value: they support their veracity
and fill in the existing gaps at the same time. The enumeration of several well known
historians, founders of the Romanian epigraphy and foreign precursors whose work was
remarkable, was the subject of separate reference. All these taken into accout, during the
thesis, I will emphasize the idea of Romanization in many aspects that result from this
historical phenomenon.
Keywords: buffer zone, metropolis, trade circuit, epigraphy, inscriptions.
Cadrul geografic i istoric
Dup V. Prvan1, comentator a lui Ovidiu, Tomis este descris ca un ora aezat pe un
promontoriu stncos, nconjurat din trei pri de ape; spre apus este aprat de tunuri i de aici
se deschidea poarta care asigura legtura locuitorilor cu pmntul dobrogean.
Ca noiune geografic, cetatea Tomisului este poziionat central, la mijlocul
teritoriului dintre Dunre i mare, escal a navigatorilor,2 numit Dobrogea, apoi Scythia
Minor, n vremea dominaiei romane. Zona se afl, din punct de vedere istoric, la interferena
lumii romane cu cea greco-oriental. Tomis se nscrie ntre oraele greco-romane limitrofe
Mrii Negre, ca ora principal al comerului de tranzit. De aici s-au stabilit legturi cu Asia
Mic i provinciile orientale ale Imperiului. Limitele Tomisului au fost variabile dar sunt
eseniale pentru a-i demonstra importana: la Nord- malul de SV al lacului Siutghiol i
actualul cartier Palazu Mare; posibil e ntinderea pn la lacul Taaul i rul Casimcea; la
Sud- teritoriul se ntindea pn n apropierea fostului lac Agigea i actualul canal DunreMarea Neagr; spre Vest-limita ajungea pn la Constana- Palas i Valu lui Traian,
localitile Basarabi i Poarta Alb; Poziia geografic i-a marcat evoluia dar i rolul imens
ca cetate de prim rang ntre celelalte ceti ale Dobrogei, Tomisul fiind, la un moment dat,
polisul conductor al alianei cetilor dobrogene. Poziia geografic, ntre Dunrea inferioar
i Marea Neagr i-a oferit Dobrogei (zona n care se vor dezvolta i viitoarele ceti greceti),
atributele unei regiuni cu posibiliti propice vieii dar i cu frmntari, din punct de vedere
D. M. Pippidi, Din Istoria Dobrogei, Editura Academiei R.P.R., Bucureti, 1965, p.295.
Livia Buzoianu, Maria Brbulescu, Tomis comentariu istoric i arheologic, Editura Ex Ponto, Constana, 2012,
p.12.
1
2
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Issue no. 6/2015
istoric. Tocmai acestea i vor marca evoluia, ca parte integrant, n vatra carpato-dunareanopontic3. Aezarea geografic i-a nlesnit posibilitatea de a avea legturi cu alte regiuni
geografice: Asia Mic i chiar Siria i Egiptul.
n horothesia lui Laberius Maximus de la Istros, cetatea care ne intereseaz, Tomis,
apare capitala provincial deci se presupune c era civitas libera chiar de la nceputul
perioadei imperiale. Statutul de stipendiaria este ntrit de prezena nentrerupt a unei
garnizoane romane ntre domnia lui Vespasianus i cea a lui Traianus. Schimbarea total n
civitas libera este semnalat la Antonius Pius (de la Hadrianus nu mai sunt semnalate uniti
militare). Devenit metropol a Pontului Stng unitile militare vor fi o permanen n timpul
domniilor lui Marcus Aurelius i Severilor, necesare i datorit prezenelor barbare. Cel puin
n prima jumtate a secolului I d.Chr. pn la Vespasianus i dup Traianus, la Marcus
Aurelius, Tomis are un statut superior. O dezvoltare remarcabil va avea loc din punct de
vedere economic iar suportul acesteia l constituie i relaiile stabile cu Imperiul, cu
autoritile imperiale i cu mpratul nsui. Perioadele remarcabile de dezvoltare urban vor
avea loc n timpul mprailor Traianus i Marcus Aurelius, vor fie etape de reorganizare sau
de reconstrucie dup marile conflicte militare. De aceste msuri beneficiaz cetile de pe
malul pontului, deja existente dar i aezrile din interior, (22 de aezari plus opt ceti
greceti, dintre care Marcianopolis i Nicopolis ad Istrum intemeiate de Traianus).
Organizarea Moesiei va schimba sensul raporturilor comerciale: sunt atrase n schimburile
economice provinciile de la Dunrea de Jos, consumatoare, la circuitul comercial al
Mediteranei.4
Relaiile comerciale fac parte integrant din ansambul dezvoltrii legturilor dintre
Italia i Asia fiind descrise trei sectoare5: pontic, Asia anterioar i Asia Mic6. Via Egnatia
realiza legtura cu Asia Mic i regiunea siro-palestinian, cile comerciale din Balcani i
gurile Dunrii fiind orientate spre porturile din Marea Thracic. Centrele comerciale
principale erau: Aquileia, Tomis i Thessalonika. Era asigurat traficul de mrfuri spre zona
balcanic i dunrean. Relaiile economice dezvoltate cu Asia Mic i Siria de ctre cetile
greceti i mai ales de ctre Tomis, aici pe rmul de vest al Mrii Negre se fortific mai ales
dup trimiterea unui numr mare de soldai ai Imperiului Roman, adui din Orient pentru paza
frontierii Dunrii de Jos.7 Nu se poate discuta despre derularea evenimentelor istorice fr
ncadrarea zonei vest-pontice n zona de interes a Romei. Cele dou aspecte sunt strns legate
i vor da, mpreun, toate consecinele istorice ce decurg din mbinarea lor. Etapele de
dezoltare a regiunii vest-pontice sunt ncadrate n etapele politicii orientale a Romei.
Cetilor greceti i implicit Tomisului li se impune un alt tip de alian, cu Roma,
Civitas foederata. Abuzul const n alipirea alianei la Macedonia iar msurile
guvernamentale fiscale subliniaz criza care apare i disensiunile. Tomitanii primesc i
obligaia de a nu interveni n favoarea dumanilor Romei. Romanii, ns, i ating obiectivul
de expansiune i atragere n sfera de dominaie direct. Consideraiunile Romei, desigur, sunt
multiple: vzut , iniial, ca tampon ntre Imperiu i pericolul migrator8 aici vor fi cantonate
trupe militare care, desigur, vor schimba nu doar aspectul ct i statutul zonei. Apoi, va fi
ieirea la mare. Aceasta va face nu o simpl provincie roman din Scythia Minor ci liantul cu
Rdulescu, Bitoleanu, Istoria romnilor dintre Dunre i mare Dobrogea, Editura tiinific i Enciclopedic,
Bucureti, 1979, p.15.
4
Octavian Bounegru, Economie i societate n spaiul ponto-egeean (sec. II A.C.-III P.C.), Casa Editorial
Demiurg, Iai, 2003, p.20.
5
Idem, p.58
6
Idem, p.58.
7
Pontica nr. 5\1972 (I. Barnea)
8
Mihai Brbulescu, Dennis Deletant, Keith Hitchins, erban Papacostea, Pompiliu Teodor, Istoria Romniei,
Editura Corint, Bucureti, 2005 , p.51.
3
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Asia9. Aprat de propria natur, marin, Pontul Euxin va deveni mare nostra= lacul de
cantonare a corabiilor i schimb naval. Pericolele care ar fi venit nu ar fi afectat direct Roma
i ar fi putut fi contraatacat fr deranjul din apropierea rmurilor dragi. O poart de ieire
dar i de aprare- acesta va fi statutul zonei n perioada Imperiului Roman iar Tomis va fi
liderul zonei. Privilegiat poziie i n acelai timp obligant pentru tomitani.
.
Romanizarea- proces care determin dezvoltarea economic a Scythiei
Din cele 28 inscripii gsite pe teritoriul Dobrogei10 datate ntre 103-246 p.C.,
deducem interesul Imperiului de a organiza comuniti cives Romani qui negotiantur
sinonim cu cives Romani qui consistent. Acestea vor avea rol de avangard n ceea ce
privete politica oriental a Romei, dup care rol de stabilizare al aceleeai politici. Romanii
au pus factorul uman, n aceste provincii printre care i Dobrogea, pe unul din primele planuri
ale romanizrii. Astfel au fost descoperite inscripii (276 p. C. dar i pe timpul lui Constantin
cel Mare) 11 care demonstreaz organizarea comunitilor de negustori romani. Accesul la
magistraturile locale ofer certitudinea c erau rezideni n Dobrogea. Procesul de integrare i
de aprare a propriilor drepturi face obiectul unei alte discuii; dorim s subliniem, doar,
elementele romanizrii specifice acestui spaiu i c nu putem afirma o nonasimilare ca n alte
zone cucerite de romani. Caracterul comercial al acestor comuniti ne d indicii clare n cel
puin dou direcii: dezvoltarea comercial a Dobrogei i stabilitatea impus situaiei de fapt.
Primul mare efect al cuceririi Daciei n urma rzboaielor daco-romane, pentru Dobrogea, a
fost includerea, ca un tot unitar, n atenia mpratului Traian. Noua organizare, de la nord de
fluviu, las s se vad acest fapt. Teritoriul vechii Dacii mpreun cu vechea provincie Moesia
Inferior formeaz o zon de aprare puternic organizat, cu garnizoane i trupe auxiliare.
Flota se mrete, se procedeaz la o reorganizare a drumurilor. Pe malul stng al Dunrii sunt
nfiinate capete de pod de la Brboi, la Gura Siretului; de la Orlovka-cartal , n faa Isaccei
(Noviodunum): de la gura Ialomiei, n faa cetii Carsium- Hrova; de la Dichiseni, peste
drum de Altium (Oltina). Zona Moesiei Inferioare capt alt configuraie i alt statut:
dezvoltarea acesteia are loc n toate sectoarele de pe uscat i ap, se creaz i se ntrein
legturi economice i comerciale cu zonele limitrofe, totul fiind n noua arie de influen
roman. Dup Traian, sub Antonini i Severi gsim aceeai tendin- de fortificare i ntrire a
zonei. Tomisul se auto-intituleaz: ora de cpetenie al ntregului Pont Stng, fiind
reedina federaiei pontice iar oraele vest-pontice sunt ncadrate n noua politic imperial.
Dovezile sunt arheologice, epigrafice i numismatice.
Istoricul cercetrilor epigrafice n Scythia Minor
Principala categorie de izvoare, fundamentale informaiei istorice folosite n vederea
susinerii subiectului au fost inscripiile.
Cu toate c domeniul major de studiu a istoriei Tomisului are o interferen a
izvoarelor literare (att de puine), epigrafice i numismatice, civa cercetatori pasionai i-au
pus ambrenta personal i au rmas n istorie ca fondatori ai cercetrilor care au fcut lumina
n ndeprtata cronologie epigrafic: Gr. Tocilescu, V. Prvan i D.M.Teodorescu, Iorgu
Stoian.
Inscripiile alctuiesc unul din sectoarele documentrii eseniale pentru stabilirea
faptelor istorice. Inscripiile tomitane, indiferent c sunt latine sau greceti, stau la baza
descrierii perioadelor elenistice, greceti i romane prin care a trecut Scithia Minor i,
implicit, Tomis, oraul care face subiectul documentrii de fa. Clasificarea materialului
epigrafic pe domenii este, de asemenea, o activitate care merit evideniat: acte de drept
Jean Rouge, La marine dans lantiquite, Presses Universitaires de France, Paris,1975, p.175.
Octavian Bounegru, Economie i societate n spaiul ponto-egeean (sec. II A.C.-III P.C.), Casa Editorial
Demiurg, Iai, 2003, p.20.
11
Idem , p.124.
9
10
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public, inscripii onorifice i funerare, dedicaii nsoite de explicaii i comentarii

pertinente.12 De evideniat eforturile altor cercettori: Emilia Doruiu-Boil, cu inscripii
pentru Capidava, Troesmis i Novidunum; Livia Buzoianu i Maria Brbulescu, Al.
Suceveanu, D.M. Pippidi, I.I. Russu.
Periodizarea epigrafiei tomitane s-a fcut n funcie de rezultatele publicate de ctre
istoricii care s-au ocupat de acest important domeniu. Istoricul cercetrilor epigrafice:
1. Prima perioad: ntre anii 1850-1881; In 1850, I. Mercklin publica primele
inscripii n Archaologische Zeitung a lui Eduard Gerhard.13
2. A doua perioad, 1881-1948, cu subperioadele: Tocilescu (1881-1909); Prvan
(1910-1927) i perioada urmailor Prvan (1927-1948);
3. A treia perioad, de la 1948- pn azi;.
Prima perioad a epigrafiei se remarc prin valoarea inegal, apreciabil, ca efort
documentar, necesar fiind, ns, cunoaterea limbilor clasice. Merit menionai: Heyde i
Mercklin, Andrei Papadopulos Vretos, J. Arneth, P. Becker, Camille Allard i Leon Renier,
Jules Duband, X. Hommaire de Hell i, A. Kirchoff, Karrankiozogli, St. Kumanudis, E.
Desjardins, Cullen i Fr. Kenner, C.G.Curtis i J. Millingen, G. Perrot , Weickum i Christ,
Mordtman, Orelli-Henzen care le-au menionat n Inscriptionum latinarum amplissima
collectio, Catalogul lui W. Froehner cu inscripiile greceti de la Louvre, Epigrammata
Graecca ex lapidibus conlecta G. Kaibel14.
Alte lucrri: Apendicele epigrafic a lui Leon Renier pentru lucrarea lui Allard, La
Bulgarie orientale; ediiile lui E. Desjardins, care face traduceri scurte, elocvente, ns;
J.Millingen care nsoete inscripiile cu bune facsimile dup copii fcute de C.G.Curtis,
epigrafistul francez
A doua perioad: M.Soutzo care include o parte special a studiului pentru Tomis in
Coup doeil sur les monuments antiques de la Dobroudja, din 1881, in Revue archeologique.
Momentul esenial pentru dezvoltarea cercetrii epigrafice este revenirea n hotarele Romniei
a inutului Dobrogei i, implicit, Constana-Tomis. Epigrafia dobrogean capt valene ale
dezvoltrii i se va forma, de aici, inainte, coala epigrafic romneasc.
Grigore G. Tocilescu (26 oct.1850-18 sept.1909): istoric, arheolog, epigrafist,
folclorist, membru al Academiei Romane -1890. Nscut la Ploieti, a fcut coala primar i
gimnaziu aici, apoi liceul la Bucureti, unde familia sa avea diverse afaceri. Studiile i le
continu la Praga i Viena; i d doctoratul n filosofie , liceniat n drept, devine profesor de
istorie antic i epigrafie, ntemeietorul epigrafiei romneti; a cules i interpretat aproximativ
600 de inscripii dobrogene (jumtate sunt inscripii tomitane). Se specializeaz la Praga n
limbi slave, concomitent in greaca, latina i n epigrafia clasic greaco-romana15. Este
singurul cercettor romn16 care s-a preocupat de descifrarea i publicarea inscripiilor
greceti i latineti n urma unei asidue activiti de teren dar i a documentelor slave,
recunoscndu-i-se nclinarea spre izvoare17. Activitatea tiinific i publicistic: Lucrarea
sa de doctorat, Dacia nainte de romani i va aduce recunoaterea meritelor printr-un
premiu al Academiei, la 27 de ani. A transcris opera lui D. Cantemir aflat n Rusia, fcndu12
Pippidi , I.I.Russu, 1987,7.

Ibidem, 11.
14
Pippidi , Russu, 1987, 12.
15
Barbu, Schuster, 2005, 19.
16
Ibidem, 2005, 27:
Ruine singuraticeDe voi se leaga atatea amintiri! In preajma voastra am gustat atatea amaraciuni amestecate
cu atatea bucurii; caldura, praful, setea, osteneala, muscaturile insectelor celor mai variate- ale invidiosilor
patimasi sa le mai amintesc?- toate acestea au fost trecatoare, pe langa placerea infinita da trai cu voi si cu
veacul ce voi infatisati Gr.G. Tocilescu
17
Vasile Barbu, Cristian Schuster, 2005,27.
13
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i un adevarat scop al vieii din a analiza opera cantemirian. Dellacrescimento e decadenza

dellImpero Ottomano, traducere din italian, o alt provocare ncununat de succes. Tot n
Rusia a descoperit 72 documente poloneze din sec. al XVII lea, privind corespondena dintre
Baiazid II i regele Poloniei privitoare la ara Moldovei. Unele sunt publicate de ali istorici,
colaboratori romni, misiune ncredinat de Tocilescu (de obicei avea un anume egoism
tiinific). Chronicul vechimii Romano- Moldovlachilor reprezint, de asemenea, o
publicaie ngrijit de eruditul istoric, in 1901, editio princeps. Din nefericire opera marelui
Cantemir rmne n stadiul de manuscris (de care s-au folosit necuvenit ali..specialiti)18,
aspectul fiind doar unul dintre cele care nu fac cinste breslei cercettorilor epocii. Merit
menionate, privind analiza cantemeriana lucrrile19. La ntoarcerea din Rusia, dup
cercetarea-interpretarea-copierea-recuperarea tuturor acestor manuscrise adreseaz o scrisoare
de mulumire Societii Academice Romne. Era o perioad favorabil nc marelui savant, a
crei aur crete continuu. Intre 1877-1878 este director al Muzeului Naional de Antichiti.
Recuperrile unor documente rare, privind istoria rii noastre, continu i n Frana unde Gr.
Tocilescu frecventeaz cursuri la Sorbona, interesat fiind de cursurile de epigrafie inute de L.
Renier. I se ofer atestate20 care-i certific prezena i interesul pentru aceast ramur dar i
pentru istorie i arheologie clasic. Cercettorul care a pus bazele epigrafiei greco-romane21 n
ar, s-a inspirat din coala francez (prin Leon Renier) i german, reprezentat prin Theodor
Mommsen, avnd contribuii la redactarea vol. III din Corpus Inscriptionum latinarum al
Academiei din Berlin. Articole reprezentative a trimis i revistei Archalogisch-epigraphische
Mittheilungen. Dac la nceputul activitii sale modul de expunere i interpretare a
inscripiilor era succint n publicaii ca Fouilles et recherches archeologiques en Roumanie i
Monumente epigrafice i sculpturale din Muzeul naional de antichiti din Bucureti,
inscripiilor li se ataeaz descrierea dar i traducerea i, uneori, comentarii pertinente.
nscrierile sale sunt i n alte lucrri: Catalogul lui C.T. Newton, Sylloge inscriptionum
Graecarum W. Dittttenberger , Recueil dinscriptions grecques a lui Ch. Michel i
Inscriptiones Graecae ad res Romanas pertinentes a lui R. Cagnat, culegeri ca Leges
Graecorum sacrae e titulis collectae a lui J.von prott- L.Zieben. Face, pe scurt, Istoria
Republicii Romana dup care enumer mpraii de Apus i de Rsrit, pn la stabilirea
domniei turceti n Europa i termin cu primele lupte ale turcilor cu romnii la 1489. ntors
n ar, in 1881, la 31 ani, ocup postul de profesor de istorie antic i de epigrafie la
Universitatea Bucureti. Este coautor al Marelui Dicionar Geografic al Romniei, aprut n 5
volume la Bucureti, n perioada 1898-1902. A fost secretar general la Ministerul
nvmntului i, de mai multe ori, senator conservator, director al Muzeului Naional de
Antichiti a crui dezvoltare s-a fcut sub directa sa ndrumare. Continu cercetrile
arheologice n Oltenia, Muntenia i Dobrogea. Din nefericire dou sunt aspectele care-i vor
marca viaa i druirea de cercettor: o incontien aproape n efectuarea spturilor, dei
lucra n condiii improprii, nu angajeaz, majoritar, dect zilieri care-i fac treaba fr
rigurozitatea unei cercetri tiinifice precum i o atribuire asidu a propriilor descoperiri (pe
merit ce e drept) care-l determin s nu formeze cercettori tineri care s-i continue titanica
munc. Aceste aspecte la care adaugm invidia altor colegi, erudii savani, de altfel, vor
contribui la umbra aruncat marelui savant i la atenuarea unor aspecte tiinifice ns nu la
pierderi ireparabile. n centrul preocuprilor sale, ncepnd cu 1882 i pn la sfritul vieii a
fost complexul Adamclisi: Monumentul Tropaeum Traiani, Altarul funerar, Mausoleul i
V. Barbupag.21.
V. Barbu, Cristian Schuster, 2005, 20.
20
Ibidem, 23.
21
V. Barbu, Cristian Schuster 1. Chronicul vechimei a Romano- Moldovlachilor; 2. Istori ieroglifica;
3.Compendiolum universae Logices institutiones, 4. Curanus; 5.Historia Moldo- Vlahica; 6. Dellacrescimento
e decadenza dellImpero Ottomano
18
19
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cetatea. Ii propune descoperirea unor amnunte eseniale pentru demonstrarea ipotezei ca

acesta a fost ridicat de Traian,22 devenind un adevrat deschiztor de drumuri. Pasiunea
acestui cercettor e meritorie: i extinde sectoarele de cercetare arheologic i n zona
necropolelor romane chiar dac folosete pentru spturi simpli lucrtori ntampinnd, uneori
grave acuzaii. Oricum spturile i interpretrile au loc, mai ales, pentru complexul
Adamclisi, pregatindu-i-se i o monografie acestuia. Anual, desi i continu proiectele
arheologice n castre, din Dobrogea sau pe lng rurile Olt i Jiu, Tocliescu revine asiduu n
zona Adamclisi. Munca marelui cercettor nu a fost suficient apreciat i l-a ndeprat de
mediul academic, realele merite fiindu-i recunoscute post mortem. Concomitent lucreaz i
public peste 1000 de pagini, perioada 1518-1780, n 1886 mpreun cu Al. Odobescu. n
1905-1906 i apare volumul de Documente istorice slavo-romane din ara Romneasc i
Moldova privitoare la legturile cu Ardealul, 1346-1603. Tiprit postmortem, volumul
conine texte originale slave, traduse n limba romn din arhive (Braov i Bistria).
Tocilescu este unul din primii istorici care s-a ocupat de studiul civilizaiilor de pe teritoriul
fostei Dacii.
A lsat trei lucrri impresionante: Dacia nainte de romani, Monumentul de la
Adamklissi23 n colaborare cu O. Benndorf i G. Niemann, versiuni in limba romana si
germana i Fouilles et recherches archologiques en Roumanie.. Alte lucrri remarcabile:
Documente inedite privitoare la Istoria Romnilor, n RIAF, I, 1882
Inschriften aus Dobroudscha, Viena, 1883, in AEM. VI, 1882;
Monumente epigrafice si sculpturale din Dobrogea, in RIAF, I,1882;
Comunicaiune asupra Monumentului de la Adam-Klissi; n Analele Academiei
Roamne, Seria II, 1890;
Rezultatele explorarilor arheologice fcute n vara anului 1891la castrul roamn de
langa Adam- klissi, n analele Academiei Roamne, seria II, 1891;
Caestrul Tropaeum Traiani de lnga Adam- Kilissi. Raport, 1892;
Marele Dicionar geografic al Romniei alctuit i prelucrat dup dicionarele pariale
pe judee de George Ioan lahovari, gen. C.IBratianu i Gr. G. Tocilescu, Bucureti, 1898;
Materialuri folcloristice culese i publicate sub auspiciile Ministerului Cultelor i
nvmntului Public, prin ngrijirea lui Gr. C. Tocilescu, Bucureti, 1900, 3 vol.;
Explicaiuni despre lucrarea Poids et monnaies de Tomis de M.Sutzu, n analele
Academiei Romne, Seria II, t,XXIV, 1901, Dezbateri;
Principele Dimitrie Cantemir, Hronicul vechimei a Romano-moldo-vlahilor (ediie
ngrijit de Gr.G. Tocilescu), Bucureti, 1901;
Valurile antice din Dobrogea;, n Tinerimea Romna, v, 1902;
Comunication sur les routes et vallums romains en Valachie, n Analele Academiei
Romne, Seria II, t.XXV, 1902, dezbateri;
Comunicaiuni arheologice i epigrafice, n Analele Academiei Romne, Seria II, t,
XXV, 1902.
Vasile Prvan : Contribuii epigrafice la istoria cretinismului daco-roman Cetatea
Tropaeum sau nceputurile vieii romane la gurile Dunrii, Zidul cetii Tomis i Une
nouvelle inscription de Tomi, elucideaz aspecte privind toate sectoarele care ne intereseaz:
economic, politic i cultural aparinnd cetii Tomis. Ca metod de lucru, istoricul a preferat
lucrul n echip mpreun cu D.M.Teodorescu i Paul Nicorescu. Acetia au elucidat
segmente eseniale precum activitatea comercial a cetii care ne intereseaz direct i care va
fi amintit n cuprinsul acestei teze.
22
23
Vasile Barbu, Cristian Schuster, 2005, 26.

Vasile Barbu, Cristian Schuster, 2005,33.
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Ali ilutri istorici implicai n cercetarea epigrafic asupra cetii Tomis sunt:
D.Russo, Th.Sauciuc- Sveanu, Gr. Florescu, Em.Coliu, D.M. Pippidi, Ion Micu24
Menionm i ali istorici din afara granielor: Erich Preuner, R.Netzhammer,
Ad.Wilhelm, Georgi Mihailov, Chr. M. Danoff, N. Gracov,Maurice Brillant, A. Dain.25
Bibliografie
1. Rostovtseff, Michel Ivanovic - Histoire Economique et sociale de LEmpire
Romaine, Oxford University Press, 1957; Edition Robert Laffont, S.A., Paris, 1988.
2. Bounegru, Octavian - Comer i navigatori la Pontul Stng i Dunrea de jos (sec.
I-III p. Chr.), Casa Editorial Demiurg, Iai, 2008.
3. Bounegru, Octavian- Economie i societate n spaiul ponto-egean (sec II a. Chr.III p. Chr., Casa Editorial Demiurg, Iai, 2003.
4. Petolescu, Ctin. C.- Dacia-un mileniu de istorie; Editura Academiei Romne,
Bucureti, 2010;
5. Buzoianu, Livia; Brbulescu, Maria- Tomis, comentariu istoric i arhelogic, Editura
Ex Ponto, Constana, 2012.
6. Stoian, Iorgu- Tomitana. Contribuii epigrafice la istoria cetii Tomis; Editura
Academiei R.P.Romne, Bucureti, 1962.
7. Pippidi, D. M.; Berciu, D. - Din Istoria Dobrogei vol 1; Editura Academiei
R.P.Romne, Bucureti, 1965.
8. Suceveanu, Al. - Viaa economic n Dobrogea roman (secolele I - III e.n.), Ed.
Academiei R.S.R, Bucureti, 1977).
9. Rouge, Jean -La marine dans lantiquite, Presses Universitaires de France, 1975.
Not: Aceast lucrare a fost publicat cu sprijinul financiar al proiectului:
Sistem integrat de mbuntire a calitii cercetrii doctorale i postdoctorale
din Romnia i de promovare a rolului tiinei n societate,
POSDRU
159\1.5\S\133652, finanat prin Fondul Social European Programul Operaional Sectorial
Dezvoltarea Resurselor Umane 2007-2013;
24
Pippidi, Russu, 1987, 16.

Ibidem, 17.
25
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THE CONCEPTS OF FOREIGNER AND ABROAD IN THE LITERARY WORKS OF

HERTA MLLER
Teodora-Bianca MORARU
Abstract: The aim of the present article is to present the various aspects and means of
representation concerning the concepts foreign and foreignness in various literary
works of the Banat-Swabian Nobel prize winner Herta Mller.
The main stylistic particularity of the Nitzkydorf-born author is the foreign view, which
origins in the known, the familiar. Due to the Romanian communist regime and the relentless
pursuit of the Securitate, the objects of everyday life lose their concrete sense, personifying
the pursuer and his oppressive mechanisms.
The foreign is present in the works of Herta Mller already in her first work,
Niederungen(eng. Nadirs), an utterly ironic portrait of the Banat-Swabian German
minority living in the West of Romania, characterized by intolerance, clinging to century-old,
outdated traditions and crushing any attempt of individual affirmation.
The Soviet labor camp, where 70.000 members of the German minority living in Romania
were deported beginning with 1945, is another universe of the foreign. Mllers novel,
Atemschaukel(The Hunger Angel), written in collaboration with the Transylvanian
lyricist Oscar Pastior depicts a world characterized by hunger and the will to survive, by the
drive to stay alive in a foreign environment.
This article focuses on the various stages of Mllers literary creation, insisting on the
elements which make up her original and inimitable style, which fascinates and captivates
readers all over the world.
Keywords: Herta Mller, foreign perspective, Banat-Swabian, Securitate, Oskar Pastior
n lucrrile scriitoarei germane de limb german i romn Herta Mller conceptele
de strin, strintate i inadaptare joac un rol deosebit de important, fiind multistratificate i complexe.
n cadrul prezentului referat mi-am propus o radiografiere a diferitelor modaliti de
prezentare a acestor concepte, a mijloacelor de exprimare i a figurilor de stil prin intermediul
crora Herta Mller le integreaz i interpreteaz n operele ei. Analiza nu se dorete a fi una
exhaustiv, intenia mea este aceea de a alege cteva lucrri reprezentative din punct de
vedere al acestui aspect i analizarea diferitelor tehnici de ambalare a conceptelor de
strin i strintate sub aspect literar i stilistic.
Pe plan compoziional, se observ o evoluie de la particular la general, n primele
opere sentimentul strintii, al necunoscutului fiind prezentat n cadrul universului arhaic,
limitat al satului vbesc bnean, urmnd ca apoi s se ajung la concepte mai complexe,
cum ar fi emigrarea, deportarea sau inadaptarea individului ntr-un mediu social ostil (lagrul
de munc silnic).
Stilul inconfundabil al Hertei Mller, compus din propoziii scurte, dar deosebit de
expresive, cu o ncrctur sugestiv ridicat, nglobeaz elemente complexe, cum ar fi
conglomerate de percepii senzoriale, permanenta opoziie familiar-strin, descrieri detaliate,
Privirea Strin sau poetica obiectelor.
n romane ca nc de pe atunci vulpea era vntorul, Animalul inimii sau Astzi mai
bine nu m-a fi ntlnit cu mine nsmi, opoziia familiar-strin este redat ndeosebi prin
permanenta urmrire exercitat de Securitate asupra victimelor, care devin astfel animale
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vnate, aflndu-se ntr-o permanent stare de suspiciune, de alert, n cele mai multe dintre
cazuri vecin cu nebunia.
Leagnul respiraiei, cel mai recent roman publicat, se distinge printr-o percepie
exacerbat a lucrurilor, prin intermediul crora sunt definite personajele i caracteristicile
acestora. Dihotomia familiar-strin cumulat cu condiiile vitrege, inumane din lagrul de
munc forat duce la o alienare a personajului principal, care retriete permanent n plan
mintal aceste experiene.
Elementele stilistice inovative contribuie la conturarea unui stil care surprinde prin
for, expresivitate i originalitate.
nc din prima culegere de povestiri, inuturile joase (germ. Niederungen) aprut n
anul 1982 n forma cenzurat la editura Kriterion din Bucureti, iar ulterior n variant
complet la editura Rotbuch, n Republica Federal German, autoarea nscut n satul
bnean Nichidorf trateaz problema existenei i inadaptrii ntr-o enclav german cu
reguli i norme rigide, unde noul i strinul nu sunt acceptate sub nici o form. Acest lucru o
marcheaz profund, determinnd-o s nu se identifice cu acest univers marcat de o fric
permanent, de ur i intoleran, care nbuete orice urm de emancipare.
n viaa de zi cu zi a comunitii dominate de conformitate toate contururile se
estompeaz, strivind orice ncercare de auto-afirmare prin individualitate sau orientrile
progresiste. Aceast nbuire ncepe nc din cercul strmt al familiei, unde copiilor li se
inoculeaz dispreul i desconsiderarea fa de toate elementele strine, corelate cu o legtur
strns la o lume a valorilor de faad, ca de exemplu ordinea, curenia, cumptarea sau
srguina.
Deja din prima povestire, Discurs la nmormntare, care conine puternice elemente
autobiografice, protagonista un alter ego al scriitoarei este privit de comunitatea
vbeasc din micul sat bnean ca o intrus, ca o strin, pentru simplul fapt c nu ii vine n
minte o anumit cuvntare la moartea tatlui ei - fost ofier SS - subordonat unor anumite
reguli bine tiute de toi membrii comunitii i pe care ea, doar un copil, a cutezat s le
nesocoteasc.
Descrierea reaciilor protagonistei la aflarea vetii c trebuie s in o cuvntare
reprezint un conglomerat de percepii senzoriale, descrise ntr-o manier magistral:
Toi se uitau la mine. Ochii-mi suiau la cap, prin gtlej. Am dus mna la gur i mi-am
mucat degetele. Pe dosul minii se vedeau urmele dinilor mei. Dinii mi-erau fierbini. Din
colul gurii mi picura snge pe umeri. Vntu-mi smulsese o mnec de la rochie. Plutea n aer
ca un abur negru.1
Este evident opoziia noi eu, respectiv comunitate protagonist. Personajul nu este
descris prin prisma individualitii sale, ci prin apartenena la comunitate. Acesta se pierde n
masa brun, german, care i dup al doilea Rzboi Mondial refuz s accepte nfrngerea,
innd cu dinii de nite reguli dintr-o er demult apus.
n pofida apropierii de spaiul arhaic al copilriei, inuturile joase este n acelai timp
un document al ndeprtrii, al nstrinrii i izolrii, amplificate de guvernarea defectuoas i
represiunile unui regim comunist corupt, precum i un trecut fascist latent, care continu s
triasc nu doar n memoria comunitii vbeti din Nichdorf, dar i n contiina autoarei.
Prin analizarea i criticarea provincialismului ca stare psihosocial, Herta Mller reuete n
inuturile joase o demontare a lumii de zi cu zi, a concepiilor i valorilor vbeti.
Mller, Herta: inuturile Joase, Humanitas Fiction: 2012. Traducere i note de Alexandru Al. ahigian, pg. 12
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Cltorie ntr-un picior2 (germ. Reisende auf einem Bein), publicat n 1989, reprezint
primul roman al Hertei Mller scris dup emigrarea n Berlinul de Vest. Aceast oper
reprezint documentarea minuioas a prsirii rii natale, cu toate pregtirile pe care l
implic un asemenea lucru, i sosirea autoarei ntr-o ar strin (lagrul de tranzit, locuina,
explorarea lumii occidentale de trectori i spaii comerciale).
Deja din titlul operei se ntrevede starea intermediar dureroas a protagonistei de
origine germano-romn, Irene, prins ntre decizia de a rmne i a pleca. Naraiunea este
presrat cu o pleiad de tensiuni ntre proximitate i distan, ntre strin i familiar, ntre
rmnere i desprire. n plus, autoarea face numeroase comparaii ntre cealalt ar i
conceptul de imediat, de aici, ambele fiind universuri ce-i pricinuiesc durere: prima datorit
nstrinrii, a doua datorit familiaritii.
Atunci cnd vede pozele pe care le fcuse pentru paaport, Irene se percepe ca pe o
strin, o inadaptat:
O persoan cunoscut, dar nu ea nsi. Iar acolo unde conta cu adevrat, unde conta
pentru Irene, adic la ochi, la gur, i acolo, la scobitura dintre nas i gur, era vorba de o
persoan strin. O persoan strin se strecurase n figura ei.
Ce era strin n figura ei i aparinea celeilalte Irene.
Odat ajuns n Germania de Vest, protagonista observ c toi imigranii par a purta
cu ei o alt persoan, o identitate care a rmas lipit asemenea unui stigmat:
O srut pe Irene.
Cnd el i lu geamantanul, ea l privi.
Irene l privi n ochi, iar Stefan ntoarse capul. Irene cunotea din cealalt ar aceste
priviri fugare. Aceast jen.
La Sosiri, oamenii vorbeau tare, dar nc le mai struia n gt alt persoan. Irene o
tia prea bine pe acea persoan.
i pentru c aceti strini aveau nfipte n gtlej persoane cunoscute, ei nu mai erau
doar strini. Deveneau mai strini dect strinii.3
Eseul Privirea strin sau Viaa-i un sictir btut n piu (germ. Der fremde Blick
oder das Leben ist ein Furz in der Laterne4) aprut n 1999, i nglobat apoi culegerii de
eseuri Regele se-nclin i ucide (2003) reprezint o reflexie complex asupra mecanismelor
procesului de scriere n tematizarea diferenei dintre familiar i strin.
Privirea strin tipic autoarei nu este rezultatul prsirii rii natale i emigrrii n
Germania, ci s-a format deja n Romnia, din lucruri cunoscute:
Primul lucru ce i s-a certificat acestui text a fost ,Privirea Strin'. Argumentul fiind c
am venit n Germania dintr-o alt ar. Ochi strin, sosit ntr-o ar strin multora explicaia
li se pare satisfctoare, mie ns nu. Pentru c nu asta e cauza Privirii Strine. Privirea am
adus-o cu mine din ara de unde vin, i unde totul mi-era cunoscut.5
Mller, Herta. Cltorie ntr-un picior. Traducere din german de Corina Bernic. Bucureti: Humanitas
Fiction: 2010, pg.20
3
Id., pg. 27.
4
Mller, Herta Der fremde Blick oder Das Leben ist ein Furz in der Laterne, Gttinger Sudelbltter, ed von
Heinz Ludwig Arnold, Wallstein Verlag, a 3-a ediie, 2009.
5
Id., trad din lb. germ de Teodora Moraru, pg. 25
2
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Pentru Herta Mller, conceptul de strin nu reprezint opusul unui lucru cunoscut,
ci al unuia familiar. Ea este de prere c un lucru strin nu trebuie s fie necunoscut, ns un
lucru cunoscut poate deveni strin, sau a fost dintotdeauna strin.
Acest lucru este vizibil n mod clar n descrierea copilriei trite n satul Nichidorf i
la care am fcut deja referire analiznd inuturile joase i se amplific odat cu prsirea
satului natal i al mutrii n oraul Timioara odat cu nceperea studiilor universitare.
Tot atunci, autoarea face cunotin cu Securitatea i metodele de urmrire i
intimidare ale acesteia, care implic mai ales ptrunderi n sfera privat, intim a autoarei
odat cu efectuarea de percheziii la domiciliu. Una dintre practicile cele mai des ntlnite n
cadrul acestor violri ale sferei private ale celor vizai este schimbarea locului anumitor
obiecte n locuin. Astfel, acestea i pierd pentru Herta Mller nsemntatea obiectiv,
primind conotaii subiective, transformndu-se n metafore i personificri ale urmritorilor,
ale pericolului iminent. ntr-un limbaj aparent simplu, dar mustind de conotaii i semnificaii,
autoarea radiografiaz n mod amnunit un astfel de control la domiciliu i implicaiile
acestuia asupra existenei sale:
n felul acesta, () bicicleta nu poate rmne mult vreme biciclet, nici prul platinat
pr platinat, nici parfumul parfum, nici clana clan, nici frigiderul frigider. Mai
curnd sau mai trziu m-am vzut nconjurat de tot felul de nimicuri cu umbre nsemnate. Nu
era rodul nici unei imaginaii, nu era vorba nici de atracia exercitat de suprareal, ci de o
despuiere sau mbrobodire n care se drapase tot ce m nconjura. M obinuisem acum ca, de
cte ori m ntorceam din ora, s dau mai nti o rait prin toat casa, verificnd dac nu
intervenise vreo schimbare ct lipsisem.6
Procesul deportrii, descrierea vieii n lagrul sovietic, condiiile i efectele muncii
forate, dar i eliberarea i ntoarcerea acas a lui Leopold Auberg toate elemente ale
dihotomiei acas strintate sunt redate printr-o percepie exacerbat i o descriere
deosebit de detaliat a unor lucruri care devin n mare msur i ele protagoniste ale
romanului Leagnul respiraiei. Este cazul lopeii de inim, al batistei albe ca zpada, al
pinii obrajilor, i, mai presus de toate al ngerului foamei, n jurul cruia sunt construite
experienele din lagr, i care are rolul de a oferi stabilitate i constan n acest univers haotic
i dezolant:
Foamea-i totdeauna prezent.
Fiindc-i prezent, vine cum vrea i cnd vrea.
Principiul cauzal e crpceala ngerului Foamei.
Cnd vine, vine vrtos.
E ct se poate de limpede.
1 lopat cu vrf = 1 gram de pine.
N-a avea nevoie de lopata de inim. Dar foamea mea nu se poate lipsi de lopat. Mia dori ca lopata de inim s fie unealta mea. Dar este stpna mea. Unealta sunt eu. Ea
poruncete i eu m supun. i totui mi este lopata cea mai drag. M-am silit s-o plac. Sunt
slugarnic fiindc se-arat o stpn mai bun cu mine cnd sunt supus i n-o ursc. 7
Dislocarea, prsirea spaiului familiar, este de asemenea redat cu ajutorul relaiei
divizate dintre oameni i lucruri, dintre cunoscutul rii de batin i necunoscutul lagrului de
Id., pg. 35, trad. din lb. german de Teodora Moraru
Mller, Herta: Leagnul respiraiei, Humanitas Fiction: 2010, Bucureti, Trad. din german i note de
Alexandru Al. ahigian, pg. 84.
6
7
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munc forat. Astfel, aspectul poetologic central al romanului este reprezentat de puternica
simbolistic a lucrurilor, care definesc personajele. Este binecunoscut faptul c majoritatea
oamenilor sunt dependeni de lucrurile pe care le posed, acestea purtnd o puternic
ncrctur sentimental. Acest aspect este redat deja din primele rnduri ale romanului: Tot
ce am port asupra mea. Sau: Tot ce-i al meu port cu mine.8
Deosebit de important este i transformarea radical i ireversibil prin care trece
personajul principal n decursul celor cinci ani de deportare, la baza creia st dihotomia
familiar-strin cumulat cu condiiile vitrege, inumane din lagr. Nevoia unei evadri din
universul strmt i nesat de interdicii al familiei i al oraului natal este nlocuit, odat cu
ntoarcerea acas, de constatarea c prelucrarea experienelor traumatizante este imposibil i
c acestea l vor urmri pe tot parcursul existenei. Astfel, propoziia rostit de bunica lui
Leopold n debutul romanului (TIU C TE VEI NTOARCE9) devine un fel de laitmotiv,
fcnd trimitere la cercul pe care l parcurge personajul principal.
Lagrul se transform astfel n delta propriei viei, ntr-un paradoxal acas, cci
rentors n casa printeasc, tnrul nu se mai regsete, libertatea fiindu-i refuzat n
continuare:
Nimic n-avea legtur cu mine. Eram nchis n mine i dat afar din mine lor nu leaparineam, i mie mi lipseam.
() Acum eram un om schimbat. tiam unii despre alii cum nu mai suntem i nu
vom mai ajunge niciodat. S fii strin e, cert, o povar, dar s te simi strin ntr-o imposibil
apropiere e-o povar peste poate. Capul l ineam n valiz, respiram rusete. Nu voiam s
plec, i miroseam a deprtare.10
n cea mai nou oper a scriitoarei bnene, Mein Vaterland war ein Apfelkern
(Patria mea era un smbure de mr), de fapt transcrierea unui dialog cu lectorul austriac
Angelika Klammer, Herta Mller ofer cititorilor o privire de ansamblu n culisele procesului
de creaie, insistnd asupra importanei percepiei, a privirii strine i a transfigurrii literare
a informaiilor percepute prin intermediul senzorilor corporali.
Primele ntlniri cu strinul n copilria autoarei au loc pe cmp, la trecerea trenurilor
cu navetiti nspre i dinspre oraul Timioara. Fetia timid i retras, care trebuie s
pzeasc vacile, dialogheaz cu plantele, le d nume i i imagineaz poveti ale cror
protagoniste sunt acestea. Apoi, la trecerea trenului, scoate din buzunar batista curat,
mpachetat cu grij, fcndu-le semne celor din vagoane.
Strinul este prezent de asemenea n povestirile mamei, deportat ntr-un lagr sovietic
de munc silnic la vrsta de douzeci de ani. ntoars n satul natal, dup cinci ani de zile,
existena Katharinei nu mai poate fi cea dinainte, lagrul lsnd urme adnci asupra
psihicului. Cel mai evident simptom l reprezint complicitatea cu cartoful, cum o numete
Herta Mller, leguma devenind un laitmotiv, o metafor a foamei: copilul era certat, chiar
btut cu o cruzime ieit din comun dac nu reuea o decojire economic a cartofului.
Aceeai complicitate cu cartoful se observ la Oskar Pastior, care, ntors din lagr,
mnnc ntr-un mod lacom, cu un apetit ieit din comun, ntorcndu-se n timp, n lagrul
sovietic, unde ngerul foamei i fcea viaa un calvar.
Un alt aspect al conceptelor de strin i strintate l reprezint numeroasele forme
de superstiii rurale, cu care autoarea a fost confruntat nc din fraged copilrie. Un
exemplu n acest sens l reprezint diavolul din oglind, un simbol care se regsete i n
8
id, pg. 5.
Id, pg. 12.
10
Id, pg. 30.
9
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Issue no. 6/2015
titlul uneia dintre cele mai importante lucrri teoretice ale autoarei bnene, Der Teufel sitzt
im Spiegel: wie Wahrnehmung sich erfindet11. Avertizarea bunicii asupra faptului c o privire
prea lung n oglind nu se cade, deoarece diavolul i va fura sufletul, declaneaz n
interiorul copilului un mecanism de auto-aprare, care i permite s filtreze informaiile
percepute prin simuri, dndu-le o alt form. Este cazul plantelor i animalelor ntlnite n
periplurile pe cmp, care devin oglinzi ale vieii interioare, dar i a obiectelor de zi cu zi, care
i pierd semnificaia concret, devenind simboluri abstracte. Aceste simboluri apar mai cu
seam n cadrul trilogiei de romane a autoarei bnene, compus din nc de pe atunci vulpea
era vntorul, Animalul inimii i Astzi mai bine nu m-a fi ntlnit cu mine nsmi.
Odat cu strmutarea la ora, unde adolescenta bnean i prsete mediul familiar,
rural, fiind confruntat cu strinul, cu noul, concepte care se regsesc mai cu seam n eseurile
din volumul Regele se-nclin i ucide. La vrsta de cincisprezece ani nva limba romn, o
limb strin pn atunci datorit universului nchis al copilriei, unde nu se vorbea dect
dialectul vbesc. Herta Mller ajunge s ndrgeasc ntr-att limba romn, n special linia
melodioas i proverbele acesteia, care conin imagini puternice. n interviul acordat
Angeliki Klammer, ea afirm urmtoarele:
Da, limba romn scrie mpreun cu mine. Bineneles c este un lucru decisiv faptul
c am nvat-o aa trziu. n sat nu erau romni, coala era n german. Aveam limba romn
de trei ori pe sptmn, ca limb strin, n afara acestor ore nimeni nu vorbea limba romn.
Aveam cincisprezece ani cnd m-am mutat la ora [Timioara, nota auctoris]. Liceul era tot n
german, ns peste tot, n afara orelor de curs, se vorbea doar limba romn. () n viaa de
zi cu zi eram nvelit n limba romn. i cu ct ascultam mai mult aceast limb, cu att mai
mult mi plceau imaginile, expresiile idiomatice, njurturile lungi i dramatice, numeroasele
nuane ale diminutivelor, de la cinic la sentimental, superstiiile.12
Astfel, n plan stilistic, limba romn, strin la nceput autoarei bnene, devine una
dintre sursele importante de inspiraie, conferindu-i scrierii prospeime i dinamism. Herta
Mller amintete foarte des n operele sale influena cntecelelor populare, a doinelor sau a
variantelor culte, cntate de Maria Tnase, de un lirism i o trire impresionant, despre care
amintete n eseurile volumelor Regele se-nclin i ucide i Immer derselbe Schnee und
immer derselbe Onkel [ro: Mereu aceeai zpad i mereu acelai unchi, trad. din germ,
n.aut]
Opoziiile conceptuale familiar-strin, cunoscut-necunoscut, acas-strintate
ocup un loc deosebit de important n operele scriitoarei romno-germane, fiind strbtute de
puternice elemente autobiografice.
Odat cu prsirea spaiului familiar, reprezentat de satul arhaic vbesc din Banat i
emigrarea ntr-o ar strin, se observ o schimbare a percepiei, individul este confruntat cu
un amalgam de senzaii noi, care creeaz confuzie, anxietate, ducnd n final la inadaptare.
Privirea Strin, creia autoarea i aloc un ntreg eseu, constituie o component
deosebit de important a creaiei acesteia, constituindu-se n acelai timp ntr-un element de
reflexie asupra propriei opere. Pentru Herta Mller, conceptul de strin nu reprezint opusul
unui lucru cunoscut ci al unuia familiar, n sensul c i un lucru cunoscut poate deveni
strin n urma unor circumstane potrivnice, ca de exemplu ostilitatea mediului social al
Mller, Herta: Der Teufel sitzt im Spiegel: wie Wahrnehmung sich erfindet [ro. Diavolul slluiete n
oglind: cum se inventeaz percepia, trad. Teodora Moraru], Ed. Rotbuch, Berlin, 1991, prima ediie.
12
Mller, Herta: Mein Vaterland war ein Apfelkern. Ein Gesprch mit Angelika Klammer, Carl Hanser Verlag:
Mnchen, 2014, pg. 84
11
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Issue no. 6/2015
satului vbesc, marcat de reticena exacerbat la tot ce nseamn nou sau necunoscut, sau
a practicilor inumane ale Securitii de distrugere a intimitii, a spaiului privat.
La acestea, se adaug ruptura iremediabil odat cu prsirea forat a mediului
familiar i deportarea n lagrul de munc silnic din fosta Uniune Sovietic unde sub
influena condiiilor vitrege, inumane, are loc o transformare radical i ireversibil, cu
puternice implicaii psihologice.
n concluzie, se poate afirma c strinul i strintatea se formeaz la Herta
Mller pe de o parte din lucruri deja cunoscute, pe de alt parte datorit contactului cu un
mediu nou, ostil, care nu permite asimilarea individului, acesta rmnnd un inadaptat,
pendulnd permanent ntre aici i acolo ntre cunoscut i necunoscut.
Bibliografie
Surse primare
Mller, Herta Der fremde Blick oder Das Leben ist ein Furz in der Laterne, Gttinger
Sudelbltter, ed. von Heinz Ludwig Arnold, Wallstein Verlag, a 3-a ediie, 2009.
Mller, Herta Der Fuchs war damals schon der Jger. Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag:
Frankfurt am Main, 2009, 4. Auflage
Mller, Herta Der Knig verneigt sich und ttet,
Frankfurt am Main, Okt. 2009, 4. Auflage
Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag:
Mller, Herta Der Teufel sitzt im Spiegel: Wie Wahrnehmung sich erfindet, Rotbuch
Verlag: Berlin, 1991
Mller, Herta Herztier, Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag: Frankfurt am Main, 2009, 5.
Auflage
Mller, Herta: Mein Vaterland war ein Apfelkern. Ein Gesprch mit Angelika
Klammer, Carl Hanser Verlag: Mnchen, 2014
Mller, Herta: Niederungen, Kriterion Verlag: Bukarest, 1982
Mller, Herta: Der Teufel sitzt im Spiegel: wie Wahrnehmung sich erfindet, Rotbuch
Verlag: Berlin 1991
Mller, Herta: Animalul inimii. Traducere de Nora Iuga, ediia a 2-a, Polirom: Iai,
2006
Mller, Herta: Cltorie ntr-un picior. Traducere din german de Corina Bernic.
Bucureti: Humanitas Fiction, 2010
Mller, Herta: Leagnul respiraiei, Traducere i note de Alexandru Al. ahigian,
Humanitas Fiction: Bucureti, 2010
Mller, Herta: inuturile Joase, Traducere i note de Alexandru Al. ahigian,
Humanitas Fiction: Bucureti, 2012
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Surse secundare
Arnold, Heinz Ludwig Text und Kritik. Zeitschrift fr Literatur Heft 155. Herta
Mller, Juli 2002, Richard Boorberg Verlag GmbH & Co: Mnchen
Bauer, Karin (Hrsg.) / Eke, Norbert Otto Ethik und Poetik im Werk Herta Mllers,
Lang: Frankfurt, 2011
Bozzi, Paola Der fremde Blick. Zum Werke Herta Mllers, Knigshausen & Neumann:
Wrzburg, 2005
Grn, Sigrid "Fremd in einzelnen Dingen": Fremdheit und Alteritt bei Herta Mller,
Ibidem-Verlag: Stuttgart, 2010
Haupt-Cucuiu, Herta Eine Poesie der Sinne: Herta Mllers 'Diskurs des Alleinseins'
und seine Wurzeln. Igel Verlag Literatur und Wissenschaft: Hamburg 1996
Khnen, Ralph (Hrsg.) Der Druck der Erfahrung treibt die Sprache in die Dichtung :
Bildlichkeit in Texten Herta Mllers, Lang: Frankfurt am Main, 1997
Ost-West-Identitten und -Perspektiven : deutschsprachige Literatur in und aus
Rumnien im interkulturellen Dialog / hrsg. von Ioana Crciun, George Guu, Sissel Laegreid.
IKGS Verlag (Verffentlichungen des Instituts fr Deutsche Kultur und Geschichte
Sdosteuropas : Wissenschaftliche Reihe ; 123): Mnchen, 2012
Cercetare finanat prin FONDUL SOCIAL EUROPEAN, Programul Operaional
Sectorial Dezvoltarea Resurselor Umane 2007 2013, Axa prioritar nr. 1 Educaia i
formarea profesional n sprijinul creterii economice i dezvoltrii societii bazate pe
cunoatere, Domeniul major de intervenie 1.5 Programe doctorale i post-doctorale n
sprijinul cercetrii, Titlu: MINERVA Cooperare pentru cariera de elit n cercetarea
doctoral i post-doctoral, Contract: POSDRU 159/1.5/S/137832.
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Issue no.6/2015
ARGUMENTATIVE STRATEGIES IN THE CARAGIALIAN POLITICAL DISCOURSE

Anda-Elena MOLDOVAN
Abstract: The article proposes to analyse the reasoning strategys from the political speech of
Caragiale`s characters. The analysis will present the specificity of the political speech of
the characters Farfurifi and Caavencu from the play O scrisoare pierdut.
Keywords: to argue, political speech, reasoning strategys, the cooperative principle, the law
of non-contradiction
Lucrarea i propune s abordeze problematica discursului politic, cu aplicare la
discursul politic pe care l regsim n comedia caragialian. Vom trece n revist principalele
orientri referitoare la noiunea de discurs, insistnd asupra trsturilor distinctive ale
discursului politic n general i asupra discursului politic caragialian n special.
I. Consideraii asupra noiunii de discurs.
Noiunea de discurs prezint diferite accepii, fapt subliniat de Dominique
Maingueneau. Acesta prezint diversele opoziii pe care le antreneaz discursul n lingvistic:
opoziia cu limba n sens saussurian, discursul reprezentnd vorbirea; opoziia limb
enunare n sensul lui Benveniste, discursul apropiindu-se de enunare; opoziia discursului,
considerat ca folosire restrns a sistemului cu limba, definit ca sistem comun membrilor
unei comuniti lingvistice. Dincolo de abordrile strict lingvistice, discursul, din punct de
vedere pragmatic, prezint urmtoarele caracteristici: presupune o organizare transfrastic,
este o form de aciune, este interactiv, este orientat, se afl n responsabilitatea cuiva, este
condus de norme, este neles n interdiscurs.1
Discursul, fiind o practic social, presupune respectarea unor norme constitutive ce se
organizeaz n jurul a dou principii fundamentale: principiul cooperrii, postulat de Grice i
principiul politeii, ce contribuie la crearea coerenei pragmatice. n ceea ce privete cele dou
principii majore, Leech afirm c principiul cooperrii este insuficient i c e necesar ca cele
dou s se completeze. Primul asigur reuita comunicrii pornind de la presupunerea c
interlocutorul este cooperant, n timp ce al doilea menine echilibrul social i relaiile de
prietenie.2Politeea, n sens pragmatic nseamn a ine seama de cellalt. In acest sens se are n
vedere respectarea unor strategii ale politeii pozitive i negative, prin care este meninut
imaginea public a fiecrui individ.3
n ceea ce privete legile discursului, se remarc o abordare cvasi-unitar n literatura
de specialitate. Astfel, se observ similariti ntre maximele griciene, postulatele
conversaionale ale lui Gordon i Lakoff, legile discursului ale lui Ducrot: maxima calitii
corespunde legii sinceritii, maxima cantitii corespunde legii informativitii i
exhaustivitii, maxima modalitii corespunde legii modalitii i legii litotei, iar maxima
relaiei corespunde legii pertinenei.4
Maingueneau, Dominique, Discursul literar, Institutul European, Iai, 2007, p. 46-49

Leech, Geeoffrey, N., Principles of Pragmatics, Longman, New York, 1983, p. 82
3
Ionescu-Ruxndoiu, Liliana, Conversaia. Structuri i strategii, Editura All, Bucureti, 1999, p. 107-110
4
Kerbrat-Orecchioni, Catherine, Lnonciation de la subjectivit dans le langage, Armand Colin, Paris, 1984, p.
210-217 i Hobjil, Angelica, Comunicare, discurs, teatru. Delimitri teoretice i deschideri aplicative,
Institutul European, Iai, 2012, p. 82-83
1
2
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Discursul are sens doar n interiorul unui univers format din alte discursuri, cu care
acesta trebuie pus n relaie. Orice text aparine unei categorii de discurs, unui gen discursiv.
Genurile discursive aparin unor tipuri de discurs diferite, asociate unor vaste sectoare ale
activitii sociale. Aceste sunt supuse, ca i actele de limbaj, condiiilor de reuit care
presupun o finalitate recunoscut, un statut asumat de ctre partenerii legitimi (enuniatorul i
co-enuniatorul), locul i momentul legitim, suportul material i organizarea textual.5
II. Discursul politic
Discursul politic i n sens larg comunicarea politic este dificil de circumscris,
situndu-se la intersecia a trei spaii importante: spaiul politic, spaiul public i spaiul
comunicaional. Politica poate prezenta astfel mize economice, sociale, culturale, religioase,
etnice, lingvistice. Miza discursului politic este ctigarea puterii i exercitarea ei, de aceea
limbajul politic este un instrument al puterii ce ncearc s fie acaparat. Puterea asupra limbii
devine una dintre cele mai importante dimensiuni ale puterii. Eficacitatea discursului politic
ine de autoritatea actorului politic, de ceremonialul de enunare i de ponderea pe care ali
actori o dau discursului n chestiune. 6
Avnd ca miz ctigarea puterii, discursul politic, ca i orice alt tip de discurs de
altfel, are o puternic component argumentativ. Aceasta este inerent oricrui tip de discurs,
fapt demonstrabil prin prezena argumentelor, a strategiilor discursive, a operatorilor
argumentativi, a logicii sintactice i semantice a discursului.7 Dimensiunea argumentativ
vizeaz nivelul transfrastic, n sensul c rolul argumentativ este o proprietate relaional, n
msura n care se stabilete n raport cu un alt coninut frastic.8
III. Strategii argumentative
Dup Mariana Tuescu, o strategie argumentativ este un ansamblu de acte de limbaj
bazat pe o logic discursiv i subntins de o for i un scop argumentativ. Cele trei
dispozitive argumentative care sunt topicul, logicul i enciclopedicul sunt inerente oricrei
strategii argumentative.
Autoarea clasific astfel strategiile argumentative: strategii de cooperare, strategii
conflictuale i refutative, strategii justificative, strategii de aprare i strategii retorice sau
figurative.9
Discursul lui Farfuridi
n discursul lui Farfuridi se remarc prezena interogaiei retorice, a negaiei polemice
i a paradoxului.
Interogaia retoric apare ntrebarea de atitudine propoziional, de confirmare sau
discursiv10 cu orientarea rspunsului spre o valoare pozitiv: Opinia mea este aceasta: e
vorba de revizuire, da? - Da! Da!(210) sau cu orientarea rspunsului spre o valoare negativ:
tii care este opinia mea n privina revizuirii? Reacia publicului este cea scontat de orator:
Nu!... S vedem!... Spune! (210) Funcia acestui tip de ntrebare este de a verifica componenta
cooperare a schimbului dialogal dintre emitor i receptor. Este de asemenea expresia
inteniei persuasive, scopul fiind obinerea adeziunii din partea receptorului.
Negaia polemic - aceast strategie este slab reprezentat. Ea apare n ultima
intervenie a oratorului: Atunci, iat ce zic eu, i mpreun cu mine trebuie s se zic
Maingueneau, Dominique, Analiza textelor de comunicare, Institutul European, Iai, 2007, p. 72-81
Rovena-Frumuani, Daniela, Analiza discursului. Ipoteze i ipostaze, Editura Tritonic, Bucureti, 2005, p. 130146
7
Tuescu, Mariana, Largumentation. Introductuon ltude du discours, Editura Universitii din Bucureti,
8
Stati, Sorin, Le transphrastique, Presses Universitaires de France, Paris, 1990, p.67
9
Tuescu, Mariana, op. cit., p. 223
10
erbnescu, Andra, nrebarea. Teorie i practic, Editura Polirom, Iai, 2002, p. 120-121
5
6
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Issue no. 6/2015
asemenea toi aceia care nu vor s caz la extremitate, adic vreau s zic, da, ca s fie
moderai adic nu exageraiuni!... (210) Negaia opune dou atitudini: una extremist i
una moderat, oratorul argumentnd n favoarea moderaiei.
Paradoxul aceast strategie apare n finalul discursului oratorului: Din dou una,
dai-mi voie: ori s se revizuiasc, primesc! dar s nu se schimbe nimic; ori s nu se
revizuiasc, primesc! dar atunci s se schimbe pe ici pe colo, i anume n punctele
eseniale(211) Se observ nclcarea legii fundamentale a argumentaiei i anume legea
non-contradiciei. Oratorul propune dou soluii prin intermediului conectorului cu valoare
alternativ ori. Prima soluie: s se revizuiasc, primesc! dar s nu se schimbe nimic prezint
un argument i opusul acestuia: s se revizuiasc / s nu se schimbe, legate prin conectorul
dar. A doua soluie: s nu se revizuiasc, primesc! dar atunci s se schimbe pe ici pe colo, i
anume n punctele eseniale prezint din nou un argument i opusul acestuia, fapt
reperabil i la nivel lexical prin echivalarea a doi termeni opui (pe ici pe colo, i anume n
punctele eseniale): s nu se revizuiasc / s se schimbe n punctele eseniale., legate prin
conectorul dar. Conectorul dar exprim relaia de coordonare adversativ. La nivel semantic,
conectorul are dou utilizri principale: contrazicerea ateptrilor i contrastul semantic
orientat.11 Folosirea n acest context a conectorului este agramatical, efectul fiind nonsens.12
Discursul lui Caavencu
Se remarc folosirea negaiei polemice i a paradoxului.
Negaia polemic Nu m tem de ntreruperi, venerabile domnule preedinte (211)
Negaia are un caracter polifonic, opunnd dou atitudini: cea a lui Caavencu, care nu se
teme de ntreruperi i cea a oratorului precedent, Farfuridi, care se teme de ntreruperi.
Interpretarea este confirmat de urmarea: Putei, d-lor, s ntrerupei, pentru c eu am tria
opiniunilor mele(221)
Negaia are un caracter refutativ n exemple precum: Or condui de aceste idei, am
fundat aci n oraul nostru Aurora Economic Romn, soietate enciclopedic-cooperativ,
independent de cea din Bucureti pentru c noi suntem pentru descentralizare. Noi eu
nu recunosc, nu voi s recunosc epitropia bucuretenilor, capitalitilor , asupra noastr;
(221); Anglia-i are faliii si, Frana-i are faliii si, pn i Austria-i are faliii si
Numai noi s n-avem faliii notri! (222)
Paradoxul se prezint dou situaii: folosirea paradoxului cu scopul de a opune dou
argumente cu scop persuasiv, fiind eludat regula non-contradiciei argumentative, deoarece
paradoxul este de fapt o incompatibilitate rezolvat de ctre orator 13: Frailor, mi s-a fcut o
imputare i sunt mndru de aceasta!... O primesc! M onorez a zice c o merit!... Mi s-a fcut
imputarea c sunt foarte, c sunt prea, c sunt ultra-progresist c sunt liber schimbist c
voi progresul cu orice pre. Da, da, da, de trei ori da! (220) sau pentru a pune n relief
demagogia limbajului politicianist, care ncalc legea non-contradiciei: Industria romn a
admirabil, e sublim, putem zice, dar lipsete cu desvrire. (222) Se observ din nou
folosirea aberant a conectorului dar.
Concluzii
Argumentativitatea este o trstur inerent a oricrui discurs, cu att mai mult a
discursului politic, a crei funcie este de a obine adeziunea publicului i ctigarea
alegerilor. Analiza noastr a avut n vedere dou discursuri politice aparinnd personajelor
Farfuridi i Caavencu din piesa O scrisoare pierdut. S-a observat c cei doi oratori, n
Zafiu, Rodica, Conjunciile adversative n limba romn: tipologie i niveluri de inciden, n Gabriela Pan
Dindelegan (coord.), Limba romn structur i funcionare, Bucureti, EUB, 2005, p. 247
12
Irimia, Dumitru, Gramatica limbii romne, Editura Polirom, Iai, 2004 p. 504:Termenii nscrii n relaia de
coordonare adversativ (realizat prin conjuncia dar) sunt n mod obiectiv incompatibili cu raportul semantic de
antonimie; un enun precum Nu e veche, dar e nou nu e posibil.
13
Perelman, Charles, Olbrechts-Tyteca, Lucie, op.cit., p. 131-132
11
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Issue no. 6/2015
pofida orienrilor politice diferite, au un limbaj asemntor care privilegiaz exprimarea

ambigu, chiar contradictoire. Discursul politic caragialian ncalc o regul fundamental a
argumentaiei, legea non-contradiciei, cu scopul de a satiriza categoria politicianului
demagog.
Bibliografie
I.L. Caragiale, Opere alese, Editura Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 1972
Ionescu-Ruxndoiu, Liliana, Conversaia. Structuri i strategii, Editura All, Bucureti,
1999
Irimia, D., Gramatica limbii romne, Editura Polirom, Iai, 2004
Kerbrat-Orecchioni, Catherine, Lnonciation de la subjectivit dans le langage,
Armand Colin, Paris, 1984
Leech, Geeoffrey, N., Principles of Pragmatics, Longman, New York, 1983
Maingueneau, Dominique, Discursul literar, Institutul European, Iai, 2007
Maingueneau, Dominique, Analiza textelor de comunicare, Institutul European, Iai,
2007
Perelman, Charles, Olbrechts-Tyteca, Lucie, Trait de largumentation, Presses
Universitaires de France, Paris, 1958
Rovena-Frumuani, Daniela, Analiza discursului. Ipoteze i ipostaze, Editura Tritonic,
Bucureti, 2005
Stati, Sorin, Le transphrastique, Presses Universitaires de France, Paris, 1990
erbnescu, Andra, ntrebarea. Teorie i practic, Editura Polirom, Iai, 2002
Tuescu, Mariana, Largumentation. Introductuon ltude du discours, Editura
Universitii din Bucureti, Bucureti, 1998
Zafiu, R., Conjunciile adversative n limba romn: tipologie i niveluri de inciden,
n Gabriela Pan Dindelegan (coord.), Limba romn structur i funcionare, Bucureti,
EUB, 2005, p. 243-258.
Acknowledgment
This
work
was
partially
supported
by
the
strategic
project
PERFORM,POSDRU159/1.5/S/138963, inside POSDRU Romania 2014, co-financed by the
European Social Fund-Investing in People.
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Issue no.6/2015
THE SECESSION ORNAMENT IN TRGU-MURE. THE STUCCO ORNAMENT

Cristiana PUNI
Abstract: In the present study we will review the stucco decorations of the secession
architecture from Targu-Mures. The 1900 was the period that brought great systematization
projects that changed considerably the urban city picture. Our speech presents the
significance and sources of inspiration for the Transylvanian secession ornamentation to
understand the relationship between aesthetics and form, then we move the presentation
towards the buildings that have the greatest stucco decorations. As throughout Europe, the
Transylvanian Secession has undergone two phases: the first influenced by the architect dn
Lechner characterized by curved lines and rich ornamentation, the second one dominated by
linear and geometric elements. The particularity of the Transylvanian style is due to the skill
with which architects have managed to create a fund merger between Romanian and
Hungarian influence, to which we need to add the Viennese influence. What facilitates the
detection of the plastic influences is knowing the architects who worked on these impressive
buildings. Therefore, following their formation we can associate the origins and also the
decorative forms preferred for different forms of Art Nouveau. We will consider three
buildings which shows us the stages of evolution of the secession decorative program. The
artists have chosen a program with little ornamentation, but with profound symbolist
connotations. The entire repertoire is inspired by traditional regional motifs, namely the
Szkely, but also and Romanian ones. This translates as a feature of the buildings from Targu
Mures, managing to individualize its self in the Transylvanian architectural ensemble.
Keywords: stucco, ornament, Transylvanian secession, secession architects, aesthetics.
n prezentul studiu vom trata decoraiunile de stucatur ale arhitecturii secession din
Trgu-Mure. Perioada 1900 a fost cea care a adus marea sistematizare ce a schimbat
considerabil tabloul urban al oraului. Discursul nostru va prezenta semnificaia ornamentaiei
secessionului transilvnean i sursele sale de inspiraie pentru a nelege relaia form-estetic,
dup care vom trece la prezentarea cldirilor ce au n programa decorativ cele mai de seam
stucaturi.
Arta decorativ Art Nouveau are ca motive dominante elemente inspirate din
arabescurile orientale, n special din motivele vegetale pe care le-a dus la o stilizare proprie.
Principalul factor care guverneaz ansamblul motivelor decorative este un ritm propriu i
constant care se inspir din natur, cristalizndu-i modelele1. Datorit predileciei pentru
formele unduioase, ornamentele care mbrac edificiile artei 1900 se comport precum
plantele agtoare cu ramuri erpuitoare. Atmosfera organic a multitudinii elementelor
Ioan Eugen Man, Trgu Mure. Istorie urban de la 1850 pn la Primul Rzboi Mondial, vol. II, Editura
Nico, Trgu Mure, 2009, p. 263.
1
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Issue no. 6/2015
decorative este rezultatul utilizrii unei varieti mari de plante: vi de vie, palmier, lotus,
acant, lauri, vrej etc. Elementul constitutiv al acestor ornamente este linia care se prezint sub
diferite forme de spirale i curbe pentru a da via unei vegetaii pure i vivace.
Geometrizarea formelor urmrea prezentarea ornamentelor sub o manier decorativ,
ncercndu-se conturarea unei atmosfere dinamice prin combinarea de forme i volume.
Arhitectura este cea care a inspirate manifestrile vibrante ale liniei prin jocul structurii sale
compus din arce curbate i linii excentrice2. Extravagana elementelor integrate este rezultatul
utilizrii n mod repetat a motivelor geometrice curbilinii, care aduc aminte de cercuri, sfere i
volute3.
n Transilvania, stilul secession s-a propagat sub influena programei propuse de
arhitectul Lechner dn. Preferina pentru modelul propus de Budapesta este o dovad a
legturii continue cu Austro-Ungaria, dac avem n vedere faptul c i n perioada baroc sau
rococo s-a mers pe modelul oferit de imperiu. Precum n toat Europa, secessionul
transilvnean a fost supus unor dou faze: prima influenat de arhitectul Lechner
caracterizat de linii curbe i o ornamentaie bogat, a doua dominat de geometrismul linear4.
Particularitatea stilului din Transilvania se datoreaz miestriei cu care arhitecii au reuit s
creeze o fuziune ntre fondul romnesc i influena maghiar, la care trebuie s adugm i
reflexele vieneze. Programa artistic realizat de Lechner nu a fost copiat n totalitate de
arhitecii care au adus stilul n Transilvania, anume Dezs i Komor Marcell, ci l-au folosit ca
pe o surs de inspiraie5.
Iconografia ornamentaiei la care au apelat meterii este una popular, dat fiind faptul
ca modelul acesta a fost utilizat de majoritatea maetrilor secessionului. Principala
caracteristic a fost combinarea elementelor structive ntr-o manier ingenioas cu cele
decorative. La aceste ornamente prezint interes i diversitatea liniilor i formelor n care se
mbrac. Potrivit limbajului general Art Nouveau, linia este baza decoraiei de la care pornesc
toate motivele, astfel acest element primordial dobndete n secession-ul lechnerian, despre
care vorbim n zona Transilvaniei, nu numai o valoare stilistic dar i una estetic6. Linia se
Daniela Georgeta Marian, Semantica ornamentului 1900 n arhitectura din Criana i Banat, Editura Matrix
Rom, Bucureti, 2001, p. 10.
3
Daniela Acea, Fora organic a elementelor fitomorfe n perioada Art Nouveau, Editura Aura, Timioara,
2008, p. 78.
4
Paul Constantin, Arta 1900 n Romnia, Editura Meridiane, Bucureti, 1972, p. 54.
5
Idem, Mica enciclopedie de arhitectur, arte decorative i aplicate moderne, Editura tiinific i
6
Ioan Eugen Man, op. cit., p. 408.
2
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Issue no. 6/2015
transform n motivele artistice preferate de artitii secession, cele de inspiraie oriental.

Acestea pot fi comparate n bun msur cu arabescurile, aducnd aminte foarte bine de arta
islamic care de asemenea este nvestit cu o ntreag filosofie, una de factur religioas.
Dac secessionul se bazeaz pe aprofundarea decoraiunilor prin intermediul liniei,
dnd natere unor forme specifice, atunci cldirile trgumureene sunt demne reprezentante
ale acestui stil. n continuare vom aborda cele mai cunoscute monumente care beneficiaz de
ornamentaia prin stucatur. Ceea ce ne faciliteaz detectarea influenelor este cunoaterea
maetrilor care au lucrat la aceste impresionante edificii. Prin urmare, pe firul formaiei lor
putem asocia originile formelor decorative i de asemenea preferinele fiecruia pentru
diversele forme ale stilului Art Nouveau.
Prima reprezentant este cldirea fostei Bnci Agrare (fig.1), ridicat de arhitectul
Bustza Lajos la nceputul anilor 19007. nc timid n ceea ce privete programa decorativ,
edificiul abordeaz modele florale inspirate
din tradiia popular. Stucatura existent vine
s accentueze masivitatea ancadramentelor
ferestrelor. Avem aadar pe aliniamentul
registrului al doilea orizontal sub fiecare
fereastr motive decorative policrome preluate
din
universul
ornamentelor
de
origine
organic. La ferestrele tripartite avem o

alternan de motive decorative, o floare
asemntoare cu floarea soarelui, motiv
specific
decoraiunile
secessionului
maghiar flancat de un trifoi cu patru foi. Aici

Fig.1. Fosta banc Agrar, arh. Bustza
Lajos.
regsim
ncercarea
arhitectului
de
particulariza arta sa fa de atmosfera plastic
internaional, prin cutarea n zona regional a modelelor decorative. Regsim o form

stilistic preferat n Art Nouveau, i anume preferina pentru ferestrele tripartite care pe lng
un scop practic au i unul decorativ, fiind pe post de ornament8. Ornamentaia existent la
floarea soarelui este una complex, elementul fiind ridicat pe o succesiune de linii care ne duc
cu gndul la frunzele subiri pe care floarea le are. De asemenea, maniera n care sunt
7
8
Ada tefnu, Arta 1900 n Romnia, Editura Noi Media Print, Bucureti, 2008, p. 39.
Daniela Georgeta Marian, op. cit., p. 59
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Issue no. 6/2015
realizate frunzele care parc ridic floarea soarelui simbolizeaz legtura pe care o are planta
cu corpul ceresc. Nu trebuie s uitm faptul c floarea soarelui, apara i ca motiv decorativ,
nvestit cu o profund simbolistic i la vitraliile de la Palatul Culturii, o instituie de marc a
Trgu Mureului.
Pe lng funcia estetic pe care ornamentul o are, n cazul stilului Art Nouveau
decoraiunile primesc i un rol simbolic, rol prezent i n cazul stucaturilor ce nfrumuseeaz
cldirile secession din Trgu Mure. n partea superioar, ferestrele sunt ncoronate n laturile
extreme tot cu elemente decorative de inspiraie natural. Stucatura prezint forma unui bulb,
de pe al crui trunchi pornesc frunze subiri, caracteristice secessionului. Acelai model este
prezent i la nivelul mansardei, flancnd fereastra de form rotund. Faada cldirii nu este
bogat decorat n stucatur, formele redate fac parte din universul florei, ncadrate n
programa stilistic a secessionului maghiar nc n maniera sa incipient.
O alt cldire ce prezint forme arhitecturale clar nscrise n proiectul Art Nouveau
este Liceul Bolyai Farkas (fig.2). Lucrarea a fost realizat n 1907 de arhitectul Baumgarten
Sandor pe trei nivele, fiind mprit n trei registre verticale dintre care cel median este ieit
n rezalit9. Colaborarea cu Lechner dn se resimte n designul sobrul al edificiului, fr
exploatarea exagerat a universului liniei n construcia arhitectural. Baumgarten este cel mai
bine cunoscut pentru edificiile
de nvmnt, liceul de fa
fiind asemntor cu cea a
construit n capitala Ungariei.
Sobrietatea se manifest i la
nivelul decoraiunilor, faada
fiind ritmat de stucaturi n
jurul ferestrelor i n cazul
acesta.
Fig.2. Liceul Balyai Farcas, arh.Baumgarten Sandor.
Nivelul
doi
edificiului
prezint
bogat
decoraiune
al
o mai
n
stucatur ceea ce confer

asimetricul
arhitectural
dominant n Art Nouveau. Stucatura se dezvolt pe vertical fiind alctuit din dou elemente
Ada tefnu, op. cit., p. 38.
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Issue no. 6/2015
de dimensiuni diferite. Primul simbolizeaz bogatul coronament al unei flori, deasupra creia
se ridic tot un element din repertoriul floral mult mai complex prin jocul curbelor lineare.
Elementul se aseamn cu o lalea, datorit coronamentului lucrat pn la cel mai mic detaliu.
n continuare, la nivelul al treilea se prezint tot n lateralele ferestrelor stucaturi aezate n
linie pe vertical n numr de apte. Ceea ce confer energie grupului ornamental este maniera
n are au fost repartizate elementele decorative, pentru a crea o anumit stare de micare.
Avem aadar un element decorativ inspirat din arabescurile orientale, acelai element floral pe
care l-am regsit la nivelul precedent ce se aseamn cu o margaret. Stucaturile alterneaz
tocmai pentru a iei din universul regulilor artistice.
Alt arhitect prezent pe trmurile trgumureene este Kelati Bela care ridic cele dou
case superbe de pe strada Cuza Vod la numerele 33 i 34 (fig.3) 10. De mici dimensiuni,
locuinele uimesc prin ingeniozitatea n care arhitectul a tiut s lucreze cu soluiile structivdecorative ale stilului. Prezena curbelor i contracurbelor la nivelul acoperiului definesc
esena Art Nouveau. Pe lng arhitectura de viziune secession, decoraiunea se nscrie n
acelai univers maiestuos. Probabil aici avem cel mai frumos lucrat exemplu de stucatur din
Trgu Mure. Recent una
dintre cele dou case a fost
renovat, pstrnd modelul
stucaturii originale, astfel
avem astzi posibilitatea de
a vedea decoraiunea n
splendoarea
ei.
ntregul
decor se desfoar n jurul

ferestrelor,
ancadrament
mprejmuiete
Fig.4. Str. Cuza Vod nr. 34, arh. Kelati Bela.
avem
un
care
ferestrele.
Ca o trstur de identitate a
secessionului
avem
ancadramentele plasate n chenare, o particularitate a stilului care vine a accentua programa

decorativ11. Acesta este decorat cu trei grupuri de cte trei elemente geometrice simple de
form rotund, avnd la baz un ghiveci din care se ridic o plant. Avem nc odat prezena
10
11
Ibidem, p. 40.
Daniela Georgeta Marian, op. cit., p. 59.
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Issue no. 6/2015
decoraiunilor florale ce trdeaz preferina pentru universul naturii. Intercalat ntre cele trei
ferestre avem un ornament complex ce se dezvolt pe vertical, asemntoare cu o floare
compus din dou pri. Cea de la baz se prezint ca o dantelrie de motive geometrice
combinate cu motive florale, bazate pe principiul jocului de linii, iar partea a doua aduce
aminte de coronamentul lalelei. Ornament care ne duce cu gndul la rococo prin exuberana
sa, o perfect combinaie de frunze curbate asemntoare cu vrejurile se nscrie perfect n
universul naturii preferat de secessionul din zona aceasta. Cuvntul care caracterizeaz pe
deplin Art Nouveau este energia, aceasta se dezlnuie sub micrile ritmate ale liniei.
Toate aceste imagini dansante se afl prezente n artele care nfrumuseeaz cldirea printro subliniere accentuat a formelor fluide ce se aranjeaz ntr-o coregrafie ce concentreaz
simboluri12. Imaginea devine astfel o metafor ce exprim un anumit scenariu, acest lucru
se petrece n urma interpretrii pe care privitorul o face sub impulsul nevoii ochiului de a
face legtura cu ceva cunoscut13.
Desigur, cele trei cldiri menionate nu sunt singurele din Trgu Mure care au fost
accesorizate cu stucatur, amintim i casa Vamos ridicat n 1908 de Keltai Bela 14. Aici
decorul este redus, stucatura urmrete motivele geometrice i pe alocuri modele din universul
naturii.
Lund n considerare exemplele prezentate, reiese preferina artitilor pentru
programa decorativ inspirat din lumea vegetal-organic, n vederea unei apropieri de

Natur. Foarte mult exploatate au fost florile, precum laleaua, floarea soarelui sau margareta,
alturi de frunze i ramuri ntr-un energic joc de linii i curbe. Cu toate c stilul cedeaz n
faa exotismului, descoperim faptul c secessionul din Transilvania opteaz pentru tradiional,
pentru gsirea elementelor definitorii unui stil naional. Laleaua este preferat pentru
asemnarea cu crinul datorit lujerului ce se dezvolt pe vertical ce trdeaz un decor
geometric de form oval. Se poate observa i preferina pentru o estetic mai aerisit a
decorului ce mbrac edificiile Art Nouveau. Artitii au ales un program ornamental puin
ncrcat, dar cu profunde conotaii simboliste. ntregul repertoriu se inspir din motivele
tradiionale regionale, anume cele secuieti, dar pe alocuri i cele romneti. Acest lucru se
traduce ca o particularitate a cldirilor trgumureene, reuind s se individualizeze n
ansamblul arhitectural transilvnean.
Amelia Pavel, Simboluri, surse, idolatrii n arta modern, Editura Du Style-Atlas, Bucureti, 1998, p. 43,
passim.
13
Daniela Georgeta Marian, op. cit., pp. 71-72.
14
Ada tefnu, op. cit., p. 40.
12
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Issue no. 6/2015
Dup cum am putut observa, oraul subiect al analizei face parte integrant din
atmosfera politico-cultural din Transilvania ( prin extensie, putem spune chiar Europa).
Existena acestei Europe lipsite de bariere, n care frontierele erau doar elemente naturale, a
adus posibilitatea oraului murean de a dobndi un patrimoniu cultural valoros, inclus n arta
universal. Din perioada analizat, occidentalizarea a cptat valene impresionante,
constatndu-se circulaia ideilor i a oamenilor. Se poate vorbi, prin urmare, de un curent
universalist, de un imperiu al Art Nouveau-ului care se ntinde pe un vast teritoriu.
Stilul poate fi catalogat n mod cert ca o nou mod la acea vreme, reflect ntr-o
manier concret legtura bine stabilit ntre Europa Central-Vestic i Trgu-Mureul.
Patrimoniul cultural existent pn n ziua de azi poate sta ca o dovad la faptul c noile
tendine impuse arta 1900 s-au mulat pe cultura existent n Transilvania, ducnd la apariia
unui secession cu nuane specifice i originale. Am vzut exemplul Liceului Bolyai sau cel al
caselor de pe strada Cuza Vod, care au reinterpretat soluiile structiv-decorative oferite de
Art Nouveau ntr-o manier particular i reprezentativ pentru arta ce se ntea n zona
Mureului n perioada Belle Epoque. n mod evident, nu doar arhitectura administrativ s-a
bucurat de programa secession, de asemenea i arhitectura civil s-a folosit de repertoriul
decorativ al artei ce domina epoca respectiv. Piaa Trandafirilor este dovada vie a impunerii
acestui stil n ridicarea unei serii de edificii ncadrate n mod cert n stilul Art Nouveau-ului
est european.
Bibliografie
1. Acea, Daniela, Fora organic a elementelor fitomorfe n perioada Art Nouveau,

Editura Aura, Timioara, 2008.
2. Constantin, Paul, Arta 1900 n Romnia, Editura Meridiane, Bucureti, 1972.
3. Constantin, Paul, Mica enciclopedie de arhitectur, arte decorative i aplicate
moderne, Editura tiinific i Enciclopedic, Bucureti, 1977.
4. Man, Ioan Eugen, Trgu Mure. Istorie urban de la 1850 pn la Primul Rzboi
Mondial, vol. II, Editura Nico, Trgu Mure, 2009.
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5. Marian, Daniela Georgeta, Semantica ornamentului 1900 n arhitectura din Criana i

Banat, Editura Matrix Rom, Bucureti, 2001.
6. Pavel, Amelia, Simboluri, surse, idolatrii n arta modern, Editura Du Style-Atlas,
Bucureti, 1998.
7. tefnu, Ada, Arta 1900 n Romnia, Editura Noi Media Print, Bucureti, 2008.
1274
Issue no.6/2015
THE DISCOURSE OF DISSOLUTION AND THE ORDER OF THE DENIAL. THE

POSSIBILITY OF A PATTERN TO THE STRUCTURE OF IMAGERY
Doina-Emanuela VIERIU
Abstract: The research of the imaginary and the assumption that this is the most effective
approach to seize the meaning and the process of the creative act of a literary work lead us to
the identification of those fictional images that constitute an exception to the rules set as the
apprehension of our subject. These images are the echo of their own universe and matter, by
constituing themselves in poetical speeches which can not be interpreted from the perspective
of those approaches to the topic envisioned by the most representative forerunners of the
imaginary.
The perspective of threefold nature of reflex action deployed by Gilbert Durand simplified in
a dichotomy which dissociates the two areas of the imagery symbolism or the tripartite
structural manners conceptualized by Jean Burgos can not sistematically incorporate the
totality of the dynamic textual structures. Therefore, we tackle the existence of a new type of
imaginary which provides its own syntax and tenets; we consider the fact that this new
structural pattern is defined by the discourse of dissolution and the the order of the denial.
Keywords: imaginary, destructured discourse, the order of the denial
Demersul de fa pornete de la cercetarea Imaginarului i de la considerarea acestuia
drept un instrument ideal de descifrare a actului creator i de investigare a creaiei ca rezultat
(o acumulare de posibile orientate ctre un sens). Recursul la aceast cale de interogare a
textului ne-a condus ctre identificarea unui posibil tip de imaginar cu o organizare i
funcionare neobinuite.
Dei nelgerea imaginarului este un demers complex ce implic teorii din
antropologie, reflexologie, epistemologie genetic, psihologie, sociologie, filosofie, mitologie
sau estetic, recunoatem trei ci de cercetare specifice consacrate ce fundamenteaz teoria
imaginarului i filosofiile imaginaiei, orientri impuse de Gilbert Durand, Gaston Bachelard
i Jean Burgos.
Gndirea lui Burgos se situeaz n continuarea studiilor lui Gilbert Durand ce gsete
o fundamentare antropologic pentru studiul simbolismului imaginar, apelnd la teoria
reflexologic. Tripartiiei reflexologice G. Durand i adaug o bipartiie atotcuprinztoare
ntre dou Regimuri - diurn i nocturn. Perspectiva burgosian accept concluziile cercetrii
antropologice, ce evideniaz mobilitatea imaginilor i capacitatea acestora de in-formare
reciproc.
Observm n studiile lui Jean Burgos o limitare din perspectiva domeniului de
cercetare. n Pentru o poetic a imaginarului este supus investigaiei textul de poezie, iar n
Imaginar i creaie s-au adugat imaginarul dramatic i cel pictural.
Tcerea poeticianului n legtur cu imaginarul textului de proz ridic anumite
ntrebri i, n cazul demersul nostru, nesiguran: este o problem de specializare, de
sensibiliate pentru un anumit gen de discurs sau epicul este mai amplu, iar n cazul unei tiine
noi, fixarea metodelor, aplicarea acestora i claritatea concluziilor cer concentrarea spaial i
de sens specifice poeziei.
Or, noutatea abordrii noastre const, n primul rnd, n genul literar investigat.
ntrebrile ce au condus la aplecarea atent asupra modalitilor de structurare a imaginarului
1275
Issue no. 6/2015
i la extinderea ctre un studiu, au avut la origine textul n proz (ntmplri n irealitatea

imediat de Max Blecher). ntr-adevr, am recurs la un model cu un discurs simbolic,
concentrat ca ntindere, al unei singure voci, a crui succesivitate s-a transformat n
simultaneitate obinut prin regresiune.
Mai mult, remarcm necesitatea unei noi metodologii de studiere a imaginarului sau o
extindere a celei consacrate deoarece descoperim imagini care se sustrag normelor descriptive
existente. Ele i cheam creator propriul univers i propria materie, orientndu-se i
constituindu-se n discursuri poetice care nu pot fi analizate din perspectiva legilor
organizatoare teoretizate de clasicii cercetrii imaginarului. Identificm texte ce afirm
posibila existen a unui nou tip de imaginar cu o identitate aparte i cu o neateptat sintax.
Considerm c noul model structurant al imaginarului este definit de scriitura disoluiei i
regimul negaiei.
Jean Burgos recurge n construcia sa la o orientare epistemiologic, din perspectiva
creia textul este vzut drept un ansamblu de posibiliti, incluzndu-se aici acel posibil
anterior, dar i noi posibile. Prin urmare, imaginarul (realitate originar a textului) este un
spaiu orientat de ctre liniile de for ale textului, un spaiu n devenire, viu. Aceste linii de
for menin o organizare luntric relativ stabil i construiesc o schem ordonatoare, o
structur primar esenial.
Spaiul textului este dinamic, se ivete, se supune i se opune temporalitii, fapt care-l
determin pe poetician s definesc imaginarul ca organizarea n spaiu a rspunsului pe care
fiina creatoare l aduce provocrilor temporalitii (Burgos 1988: 190). Cele trei modaliti
burgosiene de structurare dinamic a textului sunt: scriitura revoltei i regimul antitetic,
scriitura refuzului i regimul eufemistic i scriitura vicleugului i regimul dialectic.
Scriitura revoltei i regimul antitetic se definesc printr-o sintax a cuceririi. Atitudinea
este de revolt n faa timpului cronologic. Schema directoare a acestui tip de sintax este una
de extindere. Se urmrete o umplere a spaiului pentru a opri timpul i a-l ncremeni ntr-un
prezent etern. Imaginile-simbol exprim cucerirea, zborul, naintarea, atacul. E o scriitur de
cuceritor care nu mai are rbdare i vrea s se aeze nentrziat la masa zeilor (Burgos
1988: 190). Tematica este a mpotrivirii i a confruntrii.
La nivel stilistic domin paralelismele, simetriile, juxtapunerile brutale. Sintaxa este a
antitezei fiecare lucru se proiecteaz doar pe fundalul contrariului su. Este o scriitur a
totalitii (Burgos 1988: 194), construindu-se un regim maniheist al imaginarului scriiturii.
Scriitura refuzului se construiete pe o sintax a retragerii, manifestndu-se o tendina
de respingere a asumrii timpului cronologic. Se construiesc locauri protectoare, salvatoare
n faa revrsrii timpului, refugii delimitate progresiv n direcia interiorizrii. Spaiile
ornduite concentric, miniaturizate par a fi singurele ce pot opri o ptrundere a timpului n
interiorul lor.
Schemele directoare, aciunile sunt de evadare, fug, cufundare, retragere, uitare,
izolare, miniaturizare, ngropare, nchidere toate ntr-un spaiu atemporal. Scriitura acestui
antierou cltor ofer o viziune fragmentar asupra lumii. Regimul este al eufemismului,
cuvntul urmrete mpcarea contrariilor. Stilistic are loc o omogenizare, abund
coordonarea, repetiia i analogia.
A treia modalitate de structurare este a progresului. Atitudinea propus este una
pozitiv, plin de nelepciune, de aparent acceptare a finitudinii i a efectelor cronologiei.
Aceast modalitate depete teama, fiina se preface c se supune devenirii pentru a o
nfrnge. Dominarea timpului se va realiza prin ciclicitate. Scriitura imagineaz un spaiu
similar celui profan n care gesturile devin ritualuri, iar lumea este sacralizat. Cel care o
imagineaz are timp, privirile lui se ndreapt fr grab spre trecut i spre viitor. Imaginile
sunt ale ntinderii spaiale, ale unui drum parcurs avnd n fa linia orizontului.
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Schemele directoare, sunt de parcurgere, germinare, nfruntarea ce are ca finalitate

depirea, naintarea. naintarea preia fora vectorial a timpului i o d unei istorii ce-i
gsete nelesul n chiar desfurarea ei. Ciclicitatea aduce venicie unei poveti ce nu se
oprete din spunere i vieuire. nvingerea timpului se realizeaz printr-o atitudine de
acceptare a opoziiilor i de nfruntare a lor. Sintaxa este dialectic. Drama este contientizat
i, prin acceptarea tririi ei, este i depit. Venicia triete n prezent ntr-o bun zi, pe
pagin, omul se deteapt zeu (Burgos 1988: 203).
Metoda impus de poetician n determinarea acestor tipuri de Imaginar ordoneaz
inventarierea materialelor (fonic, grafic, morfologic, sintactic i retoric), descoperirea
imaginilor-simbol, stabilirea funciilor acestora, identificarea forelor, a schemelor de
orientare spre anumite constelaii de imagini, determinarea marii scheme de organizare ctre
care converg cele de orientare. Aplicate textului blecherian amintit ele reflect noul tip de
scriitur i regimul su specific.
Considerm necesar i o cercetare a originii acestui posibil nou tip de imaginar din
perspectiv antropologic i pe linia studiilor de reflexologie, certificarea i nelegerea
existenei lui ca rezultat al unui al patrulea gest dominant pe care, n actualul stadiu, l vom
numi dominanta contiinei. Aceasta ar trebuie s se afle n relaie cu celelalte dominante
concentrnd i finaliznd sensurile lor la o alt etap a evoluiei umane (regndirea
dominantelor ctre o finalitate nlarea, hrnirea, odihna, ciclicitatea i ritmicitatea nelese
din perspectiva contiinei morii).
Creaia este vzut ca o producere de forme, un spaiu autoformant supus permanent
forelor atunci nscute, n transformare ntre un nceput i un sfrit. n dialectica prezenei i
a absenei, a lui aici i altundeva, neobinuit este sensul ctre care se concentreaz
semnificaiile neantul. ntre actual i virtual se nate inexistentul; ntre cuvntare i tcere,
linitea, lipsa vibraiei din noul imaginar. n acest mod de structurare a imaginarului, la
captul facerii st desfacerea.
Prin urmare, gest prim esenial este i negarea, scrierea cu semnul minus, ale crui
consecine sunt desemnificarea, reducerea la absurd i apoi dispariia lumilor. Imaginile,
materiile, personajele, limbajul, gesturile au o presupus coeren iniial, dar i pierd sensul
imediat dup natere; sunt dizolvante i dizolvate.
Niciuna dintre schemele identificate i descrise de poetician n demersul su nu
prevede distrugerea actualului prin virtualitatea ce-l numete. ns, n aceast posibil
structur imaginar, cuvntul se ntoarce asupra lui, se pronun, iar numirea echivaleaz cu
un proces de autodistrugere; fiecare dintre virtualitile nscute se actualizeaz ntr-o minusrealitate. Procesele sunt de disoluie i de negare. Aadar semnificaia i conine i
desemnificaia. Aciunea este de ntoarcere dincolo de punctul genezei.
Considerm necesar aici, prin plasticitate i tragism, analogia cu imaginea Golemului
creat prin procesul pronunrii unor cuvinte (credina magic n puterea creatoare a limbajului
i a literelor) i decreat (dizolvat) prin tergerea unei litere (Idel 2003). Similitudinea se
dovedete atotcuprinztoare dac ne gndim c literele i numele din Tora nu au o tlmcire
deplin n limba omeneasc, conin un alt tip de energie i semnificaie, niciodat pe deplin
cunoscute (Scholem 1996). La fel, limbajul creator are putere, este tritor n mister i purttor
de virtualitate. Structura i natura ambelor limbaje sunt magice.
Iniial limbajul a fost spiritual (creator) apoi, n actul comunicrii s-a materializat.
ns, n acest tip de imaginar al disoluiei, n procesul actului creator de sens invers, cuvntul
i recapt puterea de la genez, se spiritualizeaz. Actul decreator respiritualizeaz literele.
Dac celelalte tipuri de imaginar concentrau la nivel simbolic atitudini existeniale,
acesta din urm definete creaia de sens invers. Se recurge nu la lupta cu temporalul, la
ieirea din acesta prin refugiere sau la rmnerea n el pclindu-l, ci la aneantizare lui
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(distrugere total, reducere la nimic). Specificul i funcionarea noului tip de imaginar gsete
salvarea fiinei umane de finitudine ntr-o creaie cu semnul minus, prin dispariie i intrare n
neant. Aceasta nu nseamn moarte, ci inexisten ca materie, disoluie.
Decreaia, construirea acestui imaginar ce-i conine i negarea nu sunt accesibile
dect iniiailor. Dac cele trei modaliti de salvare sunt recognoscibile i n actele noastre
cotidiene, sunt reacii specifice comportamentelor elementare ale psihismului uman1, acest al
patrulea gest poate fi asumat doar de ctre un creator.
Acceptnd definirea imaginaiei drept rezultatul unui schimb ntre presiunile mediului
i pulsiunile provenite din determinri interioare, imaginarul i actualizeaz funcia de
echilibrare la nivelul oricrui text. n consecin, n cutarea tipurilor de texte ce conin i
valideaz acest posibil nou regim imaginar nu putem nega importana i influena identitii i
a condiiei creatorului (boal, mediu spirtitual, studii; ne gndim aici, spre exemplificare, la
personalitatea lui Max Blecher). Imaginarul disoluiei este ocupat de fantasmele unor fiine ce
nu-i pot tri n normalitate existena. Creatorii se salveaz de timp prin distrugerea lumii
supuse timpului. n lumea real, dar i n cea imaginar, ei se consider i se imagineaz doar
reflexii, copii, umbre sau trupuri de ghips, de past. Prin urmare, o existen de gradul al
doilea poate sfri printr-o moarte de acelai rang.
Scriitura disoluiei i regimul negaiei se definesc printr-o sintax a negaiei.
Atitudinea este de ieire din timpul cronologic. Lumea din care se urmrete retragerea nu are
materialitate pentru c realitatea romanesc este deja un spaiu-duplicat; nu e Marea Lume, ci
imaginea ei oglinda, scena, cinematograful, panopticumul, circul, vitrina. n acest spaiu nu
se petrec evenimente, ci o stagnare n clip. Schema directoare a acestei sintaxe este a genezei
inverse. Discursul se retrage n amintire. Totul se desfoar doar n spaialitate, n afara unui
temporal numit. Tematica este a cutrii unui punct de stabilitate, a unei realiti material
originare, cu finalitate n demonstrarea inexistenei acestora.
Timpul este perceput grbit, la nivelul clipei nesemnificative cronologic, susinnd
ntmplarea petrecut ntr-un echilibru fragil, aproape imposibil de pstrat. Dup trecerea
clipei, povestea va disprea sau va ncremeni fotografic. Evoluia se convertete n
scderea continu a lumii. Nu se creeaz un timp simbolic, ci ntmplarea este prins ntro imagine ap cu valuri mpietrite (Blecher 1970).
Spaiul este o permanent margine de lume; exist contururi i hotare, dar nu un centru
al cetii. Lumea-imaginar devine un imens decor n micare (Rousset 1976: 33). Structura
este dominat, pare c nu mai exist dect ca suport al decorului i pretext al efectului
exterior (Rousset 1976: 224). Aceast realitate este un vis de gradul doi, form iluzorie
nscut de neant.
Locurile-simbol ce compun iluzia sunt piaa, coridorul, gangul, zidul drpnat,
teatrul, panopticumul, sala de cinematograf, cabina de artist, blciul, muzeul, vitrina,
atelierele de duplicare (fotografi, sculptori). Identificm n toate marginalitatea, lipsa vieii,
dar i capacitatea de a genera reflectri sau multiplicri. Micarea este hoinreala, dedublarea,
rotirea sau stagnarea pn la confuzie. Singura direcie vizibil este dat de gesturile de
multiplicare, de infinitele filtre deformatoare. Spaiul este favorabil ntlnirilor surprinztoare
i haotice de perspective. n mod uimitor se petrece o multiplicare a vidului.
Specifice i sugestive pentru acest tip de imaginar sunt ncercrile de distrugere
vindicativ, purificatoare i necesare n orice lume focul, apa. n posibilul imaginar nu mai
este sperat i nici intenionat o renatere, ci topirea, dispariia fr nici o urm material,
disoluia.
Gilbert Durand construiete cercetarea din Structurile antropologice ale imaginarului. Introducere n
arhetipologia general pornind de la teoria gesturilor dominante din reflexologie. Aceste gesturi sunt cele care
asigur acomodarea uman originar, sunt reacii nnscute cu caracter dominant.
1
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Materia se reduce la o alchimie elementar - noroiul, praful (pudra), ploaia, ceara,

ghipsul. Personajele nu au materialitatea unor eroi sau antieroi; recunoatem n acest teatru al
umbrelor, mti care nu pot cuceri spaii i nici nu se pot retrage din ele2: fotografia, afiul,
eticheta, tabloul, ppua, statueta, oameni-mecanism. Imaginile-simbol sunt amintirea, copia,
cadavrul sau topirea materiilor.
Privirea nu este direct, nu observ i nu nregistreaz realitatea. Ea este permanent
rsfrnt, indirect sau ntr-o multiplicare haotic, a pierderii sensului. Reflectarea nu
adncete, nu accentueaz sensurile realului, ci copie neltor originalul pentru a-i pierde
contururile i a-l deprta de o presupus materialitate.
La nivel stilistic domin coordonarea ampl i simetriile. Sintaxa este a negaiei, a
reducerii la absurd, a afirmaiei neltoare ce acoper lipsa unui sens. Formula construciei
stilistice romaneti se definete drept o alchimie lingvistic Toate combinaiile care se fac
n sens invers trimit la o judecat i la distrugere (Idel 2003: 130). Structura textului, dei
pare a se organiza ntr-o micare de naintare, deconstruiete; curgerea e iluzorie. Forma se
dizolv n clipa n care se iniiaz cutarea sensului ce-l conine.
Lumea romanesc organizat de un astfel de model al imaginarului nu triete cu
spaima morii, ci este obosit, imobil, trece deja mortificat prin ntmplri. Benefic pentru
ea se dovedete a fi doar absena, dispariia, disoluia integratoare.
Identificarea acestei noi modaliti de structurare a Imaginarului s-a realizat prin
apropierea de proza blecherian, n special de ntmplri n irealitatea imediat, ns acelai
tip de imaginar pare a fiina la Henri Michaux. Burgos surprinde specificul su, dar fr a-i da
importana cuvenit, atenia concentrndu-se pe definirea spaiului corpului i mutaia
acestuia ctre corpul spaiului. Poeticianul observ c Michaux nu voia alt subiect de
creaie dect creaia nsi - la fel, Max Blecher avea drept subiect decreaia. Analiznd
opera lui Michaux, poeticianul definete atotcuprinztor i inspirat imaginarul din Micri ale
fiinei interioare, dar, prin prelungire i pe cel blecherian al disoluiei: ... totul se petrece de
fapt ca i cum, n ciuda eforturilor naratorului-demiurg de a modela acest corp al spaiului
dndu-i form, dndu-i via, acest spaiu s-ar goli treptat, ca i cum acest corp s-ar distruge
pe msur ce este construit, dezagregndu-se ntr-o clip.3
Concluzionnd, funcia salvatoare a scriiturii noului imaginar este rostirea-negatoare,
putina de a decrea lumea prin reveria cuvntului. ntre rostire, construcie i negare se
ntrevede clipa de via, se triete imaterialul dorit.
Bibliografie
Blecher 1970: Max Blecher, ntmplri n irealitatea imediat. Inimi cicatrizate,
antologie i prefa de Dinu Pillat, Bucureti, Editura Minerva.
Burgos 1988: Jean Burgos, Pentru o poetic a imaginarului, traducere de Gabriela
Duda i Micaela Gulea, Prefa de Gabriela Duda, Bucureti, Editura Univers.
Burgos 2003: Jean Burgos, Imaginar i creaie, volum tradus n cadrul Cercului
traductorilor din Universitatea tefan cel Mare Suceava, Prefa de Mugura
Constantinescu, Bucureti, Editura Univers.
Devine revelatoare mrturisirea lui Mihail Sebastian Duminic i luni la Roman. Am plecat de acolo copleit,
uzat. Aveam impresia c nu voi putea reintra n via. Totul mi se prea inutil, absurd (Sebastian 1996: p. 86).
3
Surpinztor de apropiat de proza blecherian ce a constituit punctul de plecare al cercetrii noastre, este i
fragmentul ales de Burgos pentru a-i justifica observaiile cu referire la Michaux Uneori cnd am timp,
observ, inndu-mi respiraia; la pnd; i dac vd aprnd ceva, plec ca o ghiulea i sar la faa locului; dar
capul, cci cel mai adesea e un cap, intr n mlatin; sap iute, este noroi, noroi ct se poate de obinuit ori nisip,
nisip... n (Burgos 2003: p. 64).
2
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Durand 1998: Gilbert Durand, Structurile antropologice ale Imaginarului. Introducere

n arhetipologia general, traducere de Marcel Aderca, Postfa Cornel Mihai Ionescu,
Bucureti, Editura Univers Enciclopedic.
Durand 1999: Gilbert Durand, Aventurile imaginii. Imaginaia simbolic. Imaginarul,
traducere de Mugura Constantinescu i Anioara Bobocea, Bucureti, Editura Nemira.
Idel 2003: Moshe Idel, Golem, traducere de Rola Mahler-Bilis, Bucureti, Editura
Hasefer.
Le Breton 2002: David Le Breton, Antropologia corpului i modernitatea, Timioara,
Amarcord.
Rank 1997: Otto Rank, Dublul. Don Juan, traducere de Georgeta-Mirel Vicol, Prefa
de Petru Ursche, Iai, Editura Institutul European.
Rousset 1976: Jean Rousset, Literatura barocului n Frana. Circe i punul, traducere
de Constantin Teac, Prefa de Adrian Marino, Bucureti, Editura Univers.
Scholem 1996: Gersham Scholem, Cabala i simbolistica ei, traducere de Nora Iuga,
Bucureti, Editura Humanitas.
Sebastian 1996: Mihail Sebastian, Jurnal 1935-1944, Bucureti, Editura Humanitas.
Acknowledgement: This work was cofinanced from the European Social Fond through
Sectoral Operational Programme Human Resources Development 2007-2013, project
number POSDRU/159/S/140863, Competitive Researchers in Europe in the Field of
Humanities ad Social-Economic Sciences, a Multiregional Research Network. Aceast
lucrare a fost cofinanat din Fondul Social European prin Programul Operaional Sectorial
pentru dezvoltarea Resurselor Umane 2007-2013, Cod Contract: POSDRU/159/S/140863,
Cercettori competitivi pe plan european din domeniul tiinelor umaniste i socioeconomice. Reea de cercetare multiregional (CCPE).
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ROMANIAN MASS LITERATURE: THE LITERARY ADVENTURES OF CHILDHOOD AND

YOUTH
Bianca VENE
Abstract: My paper, named Romanian Mass Literature: The literary adventures of childhood
and youth, is focalized on novels that were written in the interwar period and that were
addressed to teenagers and children, as fundamental reading public.
Firstly, it describes the literary context that developed the Romanian interwar literature in
Romania, afterwards presenting some of the opinions of that periods literary critics,
regarding the notion of mass literature and children literature.
Secondly, it depicts the origins of children and youths Romanian literature, enumerating the
main Romanian authors, concerned with this domain, their influences, their main volumes
and directions they followed.
Thirdly, we try to briefly analyze the main novel of Ionel Teodoreanu, the most beloved
Romanian author of children literature, trying to identify the strategies that lead to the fact
that the trilogy, called La Medeleni, continues even now, after 90 years from the first edition,
to fascinate the minds of children and teenagers, at the same time.
In conclusion, we can notice the fact that the Romanian interwar children and youths
literature has its roots in folklore, fairytales, being influenced at the same time by the literary
movements of the time, being still the most cherished part of our mass literature.
Keywords: Romanian mass literature, childrens literature, childhood and literary market,
medelenism.
Introducere
ncepnd cu secolul al XVIII-lea, literatura ncepe s fie asociat cu noiunile de
profesiune i industrie. Scriitorii au nceput s scrie n serie, pentru a vinde ct mai mult i
astfel pentru a putea tri din scris. Prins ntre noiunea de piaa literar, roman-foileton,
gustul publicului i standardizare, literatura de consum ajunge s fie blamat chiar de un
autohton, I.L.Caragiale care, n 1896, n textul Cteva preri (,,Aa, de exemplu, multe
ilustraiuni literare au discutat vreo cinci ani cu nalt cldur asupra ntrebrilor: Arta pentru
art? sau art cu tenden? ()Care e arta i care nu din cele dou categorii de produceri, de
creaiuni intelectuale? Scurt: acele cari au fost opera unui talent.). Adrian Marino susine c
,,ori de cte ori, la un registru mai jos, trirea, nelinitea, aventura sunt recunoscute i
cultivate ca atitudini fundamentale, arta i literatura sunt mpinse ntr-o zon minor,
inferioar.1 El amintete modul n care autenticitatea preluat n romanul ca dosar de
existen, a fost distorsionat n cadrul romanelor magazin, promovnd o vulgarizare a
literaturii.
Pe cealalt parte a baricadei, sunt i scriitori care accept vulgarizarea literaturii,
trvializarea epicului, cum ar fi La Fontaine care susine c ,,<<i plac crile de dragoste (Sur
la Lecture des romans et des livres damour, 1665)2. n acest context ne amintim de jocul pe
care l-a propus George Clinescu, invitnd, n cadrul Jurnalului literar, colaboratori care s
continue aciunea romanului senzaional numit Misterele castelului din Tristenburg n
1
2
Adrian Marino, Dicionar de idei literare, Editura Eminescu, 1973, p. 114

Idem, p.570
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foileton, prin afirmaia ,, N-avem niciun plan i noi nine suntem curioi s tim ce cuprinde
naraiunea posibil. Dumas-tatl ncepea foiletonul fr s tie ce va urma.3 Deznodmntul
experimentului plin de succes, soldat cu vreo 7 foiletoane care abund n noduri conflictuale
pline de imaginaie, este ntrerupt de ctre scriitor, acesta motivnd c ,,Nu se ncheag nicio
istorie.4, evideniind astfel lipsa de structur, de viziune unitar a acestor romane,
flexibilizate dup filonul senzaional care ctig cititorii. Totui, criticul admite existena
unei miestrii n scrierea literaturii de consum, vizibile la scriitori precum ,, Eugen Sue ori
un Al. Dumas, tot att de geniali n felul lor ca i Balzac5.Eugen Lovinescu denun i
statutul ingrat al scriitorului romn, incapabil s aib scrisul ca surs de venit, n comparaie
cu scribii strini. El numete doar dou exemple de scriitori romni ce-i pot asigura traiul
zilnic, scriind, respectiv ,,cazul d-lor Goga i Sadoveanu6.
Motivele acestei desconsiderri a literaturii, la nivel naional, sunt date, dup cum
amintete i Lovinescu, de o ptur intelectual abia nfiripat, o populaie semianalfabet i
lipsa unei culturi naionale clar-definite. Pe lng acetia mai pot fi amintii, mai trziu, Ionel
Teodoreanu ( care, n ciuda succesului, nu renun la avocatur), Mihail Drume i Cezar
Petrescu.
Lipsa unui larg public-cititor, ct i greutatea literaturii romne de a fi receptat n
Occident din cauza marginalizrii impuse de limb, de poziia geografic i de situaia
economic care ncepe s se mbunteasc doar n perioada interbelic duce la complexul
lipsei de audien, ancorat n izolarea linfvistic i cultural a Romniei.
B. Fundoianu se refer, n Imagini i cri din Frana, la parazitismul literaturii
romne, care ,,reduce istoria ei la o imitaie continu a modelelor franuzeti7. Nu este o
afirmaie exagerat, privind n ansamblu perioada paoptist caracerizat prin traduceri
masive sau chiar obsesia sincronismului de mai trziu ce va fi ilustrat prin mprumutarea
forat a trendurilor culturale din Apus. Acest complex al ntrzierii, asociat cu cel al
discontinuitii, duce la o ncercare ( i reuit parial) a scriitorilor interbelici de a recupera
paii pierdui fa de celelalte literaturi mai dezvoltate. Aceast accelerare a evoluiei duce la
prezena unor goluri de structur i coninut, n condiiile n care ,,<<Numai insuficienele
devin probleme>> noteaz M. Ralea undeva.8 Exist i excepii de la regula general c
literatura romn urmrete cu greutate literatura universal, fr a aduce o schimbare
semnificativ de direcie a acesteia, dei ,,nu ignorm prezena unui Tristan Tzara ca fondator
al dadaismului, dar nici n-o putem anexa literaturii romne dect cel mult prin antecedente.9
Faptul c ,,literatura noastr e nc la nceputurile ei10 sau ruralismul cu care este
adnc mpregnat nu ne mir, n condiiile n care chiar Lucian Blaga trasa o dihotomie ntre
cultura minor i cea major, fcnd referire direct cultura popular ca o ,,premis preformatoare a culturii romne <<majore>>.11 Camil Petrescu e cel care evideniaz statutul
precar al literaturii romne, taxnd ruralismul conceptual al literaturii noastre de pn atunci
i explicnd necesitatea unei schimbri de direcie (,,,,Cu eroi care mnnc trei sptmni
cinci msline, care fumeaz doi ani o igar, cu crciuma din trguorul de munte i
George Clinescu, Foiletonul nostru i Epilog la foiletonul nostru , n ,,Jurnalul literar, I, 10/1939, -17/1939
George Clinescu, Foiletonul nostru i Epilog la foiletonul nostru , n ,,Jurnalul literar, I, 10/1939, -17/1939
5
George Clinescu, Istoria literaturii romne de la origini pn n prezent, Ed. Semne, Bucureti, 2003, p. 690
6
E. Lovinescu, Confesiunile unui critic, art. Notie critice asupra criticei noastre, Institutul Cultural Romn,
7
Mircea Martin ,, George Clinescu i complexele literaturii romne, Ed. Albatros, Bucureti, 1981, p. 28
8
Idem, p. 13
9
Idem, p. 45
10
Eugen Lovinescu, Confesiunile unui critic, n art. Note critice asupra criticei noastre, Ed. Institutul Cultural
Romn, Bucureti, 2006, p.32
11
Idem, p.98
3
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gospodria cu trei cotee a dasclului din Moldova nu se poate face roman i nici mcar
literatur.12
Problema const n a localiza grania dintre literatura de proast calitate i cea de
consum, lund n calcul posibilitatea ca aceasta s nu existe. Putem gsi un punct de referin
n intentio auctoris i talentul pomenit de Caragiale.
1. Originile literaturii pentru copii
Istoria literaturii pentru copii e veche, cu surse n povetile pe care prinii le spuneau
copiilor nainte de culcare sau ca o surs de divertisment, pentru a le atrage atenia sau ca o
modalitate de a-i nva ceva prin povetile cu cheie, cu moral, din care puteau rmne cu o
lecie.
Literatura pentru copii a ocupat ntotdeauna un loc special n cadrul literaturii
universale. Ascuns ntr-o ni a dezinteresului manifestat de aduli pentru ea, tratat cu
superficialitate i dezinteres, literatura pentru copii este, la sfrit de secol XIX, urmrit pe
dimensiunea didactic. Educaia autohton se bazeaz pe studiul unor clasici precum Voltaire,
Corneille i Racine. Copiii vremii, printre care Guli a lui Alecsandri, citesc romanul Les
aventures de Tlmaque de Fnelon, Jules Verne sau Robinson Crusoe (care a reprezentat,
de fapt, primul foileton publicat vreodat, n Anglia anului 1719), unul dintre romanele
preferate, n copilrie, chiar de Vasile Alecsandri.
2. Tradiie i reprezentani autohtoni
La noi, primele colecii de basme au aprut n urma activitii desfurate de doi
nemi, fraii Arthur i Albert Schott, influenai de fraii Grimm, care vor i publica, n 1845,
n german, volumul Walachische Mrchen, format din 27 de poveti, 16 legende i snoave
romneti, culese din jurul Oraviei. La scurt timp, au mai fost publicate culegerile lui
L.A.Staufe (1852), R.C.Waldburg (1853), cuprinznd basme din Bucovina, sau cea a lui
Franz Obert, n care sunt prezentate, n german, poveti din Transilvania. Dup tiprirea
volumului lui E. Stnescu, numit Proza popular, n 1860, public i Nicolae Filimon, n
1862, povestea Roman Nzdrvan, cu o not n care ndeamn tinerii scriitorii s culeag
aceste texte, sfat urmat de Petre Ispirescu ce va publica n ziarul ranul romn faimoasele
sale basme, publicate i republicate de-a lungul anilor.
O alt direcie a folclorului dedicat copiilor este reprezentat de ghicitori care se
public, pentru prima dat, n Foiletonul Zimbrului, 1851, de ctre T. Stamati. Cam n acceai
perioad, Anton Pann public volumele intitulate O eztoare la ar sau Povestea lui Mo
Albu. Axate pe latura metaforic, cu referiri la lumea animalelor i a plantelor, ghicitorile ( de
ex. ,, Toat ziua cioca, cioca,/vine seara: boca, boca toporul) fac apel la curiozitatea i
imaginaia celor mici.
Paoptismul schimb perspectiva general asupra culturii i literaturii, ducnd la o
impulsionare general, ancorat n ideea c acestea trebuie s fie un factor educativ, n care
utilul s primeze asupra esteticului, interesul general asupra celui individual, iar calitatea s
fie pus n penumbr de cantitate, n timp totul este gndit cu substrat politic. I Heliade
Rdulescu i ,,Curierul romnesc i contureaz programul pe susinerea neostenit a oricrei
tentative literare i pe ideea de-a dezvolta accesul la literatura universal printr-o ncurajare
masiv a traducerilor (,,Scrii ct vei putea i cum vei putea, dar nu cu rutate; facei, iar nu
stricai, c naia primete i binecuvnteaz pe cel ce face i blestem pe cel ce stric. 13),
Camil Petrescu, De ce nu avem roman?, n ,,Viaa literar, nr.54, din 4.VI.1927 P.121
*** Istoria literaturii romne, ediia a II-a revzut, volumul al II-lea, coordonat de George Clinescu, Editura
Academiei R.S.R., Bucureti, 1970, p.77
12
13
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moment n care ncepe s fie tradus i publica, n repetate rnduri, Alexandre Dumas cu
romanele sale de aventuri.
Pe linia influenei lui La Fontaine, Grigore Alexandrescu, ntors de la studii din
Frana, ncepe s publice, n 1832, fabule n volumul Eliezer i Neftali ( multe fiind, de fapt,
traduceri dup La Fontaine sau Florian), urmnd ca n 1838 s publice o alt culegere unde
vor aprea alte fabule printre care se va afla i Boul i vielul, fiind unul dintre primii paii
ctre notorietatea poetului care va publica cunoscutele fabule, att de apropiate de literatura
adresat copiilor, aceast apropiere fiind reliefat i n traducerile pe care aceste le face chiar
la basme ( n 1868, cu volumul Povei albastre, de E Laboulaye). Faptul c aceste fabule stau
la baza literaturii noastre pentru copii i erau larg gustate de marele public st faptul c unele
expresii, pornite, de pild, din textele lui Alecu Donici, alt traductor i fabulist cunoscut, au
nceput s circule i s capete o mare stabilitate n cadrul limbii romne ( de ex. ,,i aa s-au
ntmplat,/Precum cucu i-au cntat n Lupul i cucul; ,,Vezi, dup fapt,/Plat:/S nu mai
rzi de nimeni niciodat! n Stigleule i ciocrlanul).
Continuitatea motivelor prezente n basme este prezent i n opera lui Vasile
Alecsandri care, n anul 1880, dramatizeaz, n Snziana i Pepelea, una dintre povetile
noastre populare.nsemnate de romantism, unele dintre operele trzii ale lui Dimitrie
Bolintineanu ating i zona folclorului, primul volum publicat, n 1865, din culegerea Poesii,
cuprinznd Florile Bosforului, Legende istorice, Basme.
Pe linia influenei create de romanele istorice ale lui Walter Scott, pe care B.P.Hasdeu
le citise n limba polonez, cum ar fi The black Dwarf, Quentin Durward, The Heart of
Midlothian, The Bride of Lammermoor, Ivanhoe, sau n urma lecturilor din Victor Hugo i
Alexandre Dumas, acesta scrie ciclul, rmas neterminat, numit Copilriile lui Iancu Mooc,n
care-i propusese s urmreasc evoluia boierului Mooc, protagonist celebru al lui C.
Negruzzi.
Pe linie folcloric, i va scrie i Ion Creang Amintirile din copilrie i Povetile.
ntors de la Berlin, Eminescu, cel cu care scriitorul va lega o trainic prietenie, amndoi fiind
junimiti, l susine pe prozator n direcia tipririi amintirilor sale din copilrie. Creang
citete, n 1873, la ntrunirile Junimii, Soacra cu trei nurori, urmnd s-i publice apoi i
Amintirile din copilrie. Fiind institutor, devine i autor de manuale, publicnd, n colaborare,
volume precum Metod nou de scriere i cetire (1868), nvtorul copiilor (1871),
Povuitoriu la cetire prin scriere dup sistema fonetic (1876). Trind nconjurat de copii,
nu ne mirm atunci cnd urmrim paniile lui Nic la coal i acas sau faptul c multe
dintre poveti sunt adresate copiilor, astfel ,,Povetile dinti strneau mare admiraie, ca i
mai trziu- tot ceea ce va compune.14 Popularitatea lui Creang este vizibil prin numrul de
limbi n care i-a fost tradus opera pn n 1950, cnd Harap Alb tradus n englez, Mo
Nichifor Cocariul n englez, Capra cu trei iezi n german etc.
Alt scriitor crescut n mijlocul povetilor i al folclorului, ce are n comun cu Ion
Creang prietenia apropiat cu Eminescu, este Ioan Slavici care, la ndemnul poetului i sub
influena operei acestuia, Ft-Frumos din lacrim, ajunge s publice, n 1872, basmul Zna
Zorilor n revista Convorbiri literare, urmat de Ileana cea ireat i Petele pe brazd.
Fondul adnc pedagogic al operelor, prezent, printre altele, n operele Popa Tanda, Budulea
Taichii definete opera lui Slavici, indicnd, concomitent, i perspectiv didactic, din acea
vreme, a textelor scrise pentru cei mici.
Barbu Delavrancea, care afirm c nu poate uita ce a ,,nvat de la cei mai mari
dascli ai mei, de la prini: basmele, cntecele, obiceiurile, , pe linie romantic, ilustreaz,
n Bunica i Bunicul, inocena copilriei, fcnd apel la psihologia copiilor, urmrind modul
*** Istoria literaturii romne, ediia a II-a revzut, volumul al III-lea, coordonat de George Clinescu,
Editura Academiei R.S.R., Bucureti, 1970, p.77
14
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diferit n care percep acetia lumea ( de ex. -Bunico, e ru s n-ai copii?). Un personaj renumit
al scriitorului este Neghini, expus n basmul omonim ca o fiin de mic statur, exponent a
isteimei populare, adoptat de o familie rneasc care nu putea avea copii. Aici, dup cum
se ntmpl la majoritatea celor care au ncercat s respecte tiparul basmului n acea perioad,
ntlnim substratul socio-politic, conturat prin dialogul dintre Neghini i mpratul pe care
acesta reuete s-l detroneze, aducndu-l la statutul de om obinuit (,,erai mprat, nu om,
acum eti om, nu mprat). Nu susinem faptul c ar trebui s omitem acest context politicocultural n care au aprut basmele i povetile pomenite, prime forme ale literaturii romne
pentru copii, dar trebuie s pstrm n minte ideea c primul public al acestora era cel al
copiilor, nu al adulilor, iar scopul era de a amuza, de-a trezi imaginaia n plin formare a
acestora. Lumea colarului i a colii e prins de scriitor i n nuvela foarte cunoscut numit
Domnul Vucea, unde protagonistul, tnr colar, ajunge la coala domneasc i este plasat n
clasa sadicului nvtor Vucea, ce-i chinuie cu pedepse i treburi de dus la bun sfrit.
n contrast observm prezena domnului Busuioc al lui Sadoveanu
Alexandru Vlahu reuete i el n Mogldea s creioneze universul copilriei.
Tot sondndu-i amintirile l avem i pe George Cobuc care scrie cteva povestiri
autobiografice precum Cum nva omul carte, Pregtiri la bacalaureat, folosind umorul cu
care i povestete paniile din copilriei sau farse jucate colegilor sau profesorilor. l
pomenim aici i pe Gheorghe Toprceanu ale crui balade i plaseaz aciunea n lumea
necuvnttoarelor, dup cum avem universul greierului lene, speriat de venirea toamnei n
Balada unui greier mic.
Nu e de mirare c i prolificul Mihail Sadoveanu face parte din aceast pleiad a
scriitorilor de literatur pentru copii i tineret, n condiiile n care reverberana lecturilor din
scriitorii si preferai ( Walter Scott, Al Dumas, H. Mann, Maurice Druon) se resimte n
romane de aventuri precum Neamul oimretilor (1915) sau Fraii Jderi (1935-1942),
ultimul fiind o epopee a lui tefan Voievod, cu Ionu Jder n prim-plan, ca ,,un fel de
DArtagnan moldovean 15, roman pe care l vom detalia mai ncolo.
Mircea Sntimbreanu este unul dintre autorii cei mai prolifici n zona literaturii
destinate copiilor i tinerilor, fiind cunoscut pentru romane precum Recreaia mare (1965) sau
S stm de vorb fr catalog (1967).
3. Literatura zarzrilor
Un alt scriitor care i asum lumea copilriei este Ionel Teodoreanu, care i face
debutul n volum cu Jucrii pentru Lily, publicnd, n 1923, Ulia copilriei, oper n care
scriitorul i afirm modul original de-a scrie cu zarzri.
Acest volum evoc universul copilriei, unde copil, surprins pe punctul de a trece n
zona adolescenei, se zbate ntre vis i realitate.
Cartea reprezentativ a scriitorului i care va i reprezenta unul dintre punctele de
focalizare pentru lucrarea de fa este La Medeleni,considerat de muli inspirat de opera Le
grand Meaulnes, a lui Alain Fournier, pe care Teodoreanu l plaseaz ntre scriitorii preferai.
Cteva elemente de baz a literaturii de consum sunt ilustrate n acest roman, printre care se
afl: personajele, structura operei ( Bildugsroman), tehnica amnrii, morfologia contextului
spaio-temporal etc.
Ciclul La Medeleni ,,se soldeaz cu un brusc i ieit din comun (cel puin pentru
literatura omn, pn la acea dat) success de librrie i de public , success care, pur i
simplu, face din tnrul autor, cum s-a spus adesea, un rsfat al sorii, chiar din momentul
***, Dicionar de literatur romn ( Scriitori, reviste, curente), coord. Dim. Pcurariu, Editura Univers,
15
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editrii celor dou prime opere ale sale: Ulia copilriei (1923), i La Medeleni (vol 1, 1925,
vol II, 1926, vol III, 1927).16
n concepia teodorean, romancieri pot fi ncadrai n dou categorii: cei care ncep s
scrie un roman prin crearea subiectului, n primul rnd i doar apoi personajele, dar i cei
ncep prin a contura eroii ca, pornind de la ei, s ajung la aciune. Ionel Teodoreanu se
autoplaseaz n a doua categorie. El i asum statutul de scriitor la mod, mbrieaz
oportunitatea de a-i vine crile, devenind o legend vie, ,, un scriitor la mod17. Dei nu-i
prsete profesiunea pentru care se pregtise, cea de avocat, profit de orice oportunitate
pentru a scrie, publicnd des romane, mergnd la Constana cu Cezar Petrescu unde petrece
vara scriind. Nu este mare amator de cltorii, singura dat cnd iese din ar, fiind ntr-o
cltorie spre Constantinopol.
Preia o viziune modern, folosind actualitatea pentru a se raporta mai uor la publicul
cititor, este comentator sportiv, are personaje atletice, admir boxul i oina, pomenind deseori
de faimosul boxeur , Moi Spakov (,,Admir cu acelai creier i cu aceleai bti de inim un
vers nalt, vecin cu tremurul luceferilor ()ct i pe un Spakov; fiindc n toate gsesc
plenitudinea unui accord predestinat ntre coninut i expresia care-l destinuete.18).
Putem distinge, n perioada interbelic, ntre cteva tipuri distincte de scriitori la
mod: categoria manufacturilor, autorilor de romane populare , n care sunt ncadrai Petru
Bellu i Mihail Drume, cea a romancierilor de geniu i cea a celor care oscileaz ntre
aspiraii nalte, n zona literaturii, fiind, n acelai timp, atrai de flacra succesului la public,
unde se afl Ionel Teodoreanu i Cezar Petrescu (,, E vorba de creatori nu ntotdeauna animai
de ambiia de a impune, cu preul unor mari riscuri i ndrzneli, necesitatea unor revizuiri
radicale ale gustului public deja constituit, ci de aceia care, mai degrab, vin n ntmpinarea
acestui gust.19).
Teodoreanu, n cadrul fragmentului numit Lampa covorului zburtor, din vol.
ntoarcerea n timp, pomenete civa dintre operele i scriitorii preferai Aventurile lui
Sherlock Holmes, Muchetarii, Catacombele Parisului, Contele de Monte Cristo, Genoveva
de Brabant, Barbara Ubric, romanele lui Georges Ohnet, Eminescu, Vasile Pop, Balzac i
Paul Fval, Duiliu Zmafirescu, Arsene Lupin, Cobuc i Dickens, Pelladan, Sadoveanu,
Bucura Dumbrav, Claude Farrre, Anton Pann, Turgheniev, Kipling, Fournier etc. Vdit este
i interesul scriitorului pentru romanul-foileton, dar i pentru romanele n care sunt prezentate
vieile copiilor.
Adeziunea la spiritualitatea Vieii romneti, condus de Garabet Ibrileanu l ajut
s i construiasc o viziune, un medelenism bazat pe moldovenismul ca ,,stare de jubilaie,
ptruns de nostalgia i tristeea aducerilor-aminte20, pe romantismul scindat ntre o
nelegere idilic a lumii, pastoral, dar i i agitaia unor sentimente puternice, contradictorii.
Volumele scrise de el ofer o alternativ la rceala realitii, n care cititorii pot s se
regseasc n marea nostalgie a copilriei i adolescenei. Moldovenismul este o dimensiune
fundamental a operei lui Teodoreanu, lund n considerare faptul c acesta i contientizeaz
statutul de moldovean ca pe o trstur ce-i influeneaz stilistic opera din interior, ajungnd
s poat recunoate uor ali scriitori influenai de specificul zonei (,,E mare Sadoveanu,
fiindc sufletul lui e nsi Moldova lui.21), de care-l leag i multe amintiri.
Nicolae Ciobanu, Ionel Teodoreanu, Ed. Minerva, Bucureti, 1970, p. 17

Idem, p. 18
18
Idem, p. 38
19
Idem, p. 16
20
Idem, p. 11
21
Idem, p. 180
16
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III.Concluzii
Dup cum am putut observa, muli scriitori romni, mergnd pe direcia paoptist a
folclorului, cocheteaz cu literatura pentru copii, n spaiul marginal al operei lor, dar puini
sunt cei care i i asum statutul de autor de literatur pentru copii. Printre acetia puini se
afl i Emil Grleanu
Ce vom gsi atunci n crile scrise pentru copii? Dac n romanele de dragoste, axate
pe targetul format din femei n cutarea unei relaii romantice, vom ntlni o poveste de
iubire, construit, de obicei, pe un final fericit, atunci, n romanele pentru copii, vom gsi ceea
ce le lipsete acestora n contextul socio-economic-cultural n care sunt crescui. De pild, cu
precdere n ultimii 20 de ani, literatura pentru copii i adolesceni a cunoscut o important
dezvoltare, n contextul n care generaiile tinere triesc ntr-o perioad a exploziei
telecomunicaiilor, unde clasicul teren de joac, socializarea direct i formarea de prietenii
sunt transferate n spaiul virtual.
Intenia noastr nu e de a face apologetica literaturii pentru copii, de a ncerca s-o
plasm pe acelai loc cu literatura destinat adulilor, fiindc nu am avea cum. Literatura
pentru copii este mai mult dect orice alt tip de literatur, n general, constructul unei
manipulri, o inteligent construcie de elemente subliminale prin care autorul se face copil,
tatoneaz uneori latura instructiv-educativ, pentru a fi pe nelesul celor mici.
Munca unui autor de literatur pentru copii nu este uoar, lund n calcul publicul
cruia-i adreseaz textele scrise, deoarece procesul de identificare cu persoana, speranele i
dorinele unui copil este cu att mai greu de desfurat, n condiiile n care aceste schimbri
sunt privite din perspectiva unui adult.
Relevant n cadrul literaturii pentru copii este publicul cititor. Nu este un public mixt,
de vrste cuprinse ntr-un interval larg, ci este, relativ, un public omogen al copiilor din
momentul n care acetia pot nelege mesajul unei poveti i pn la trecerea de pubertate,
unde deja ptrund n zona literaturii pentru tineri i adolesceni, att n vog astzi i
cunoscut drept young adult literature, categorie n care plasm volumele, majoritatea
fantasy, ce au fost bestseller-uri n ultimii ani ( aici ne gndim la Stephenie Meyer cu seria
Twilight, Suzanne Collins cu Hunger Games, J.K.Rowling cu seria Harry Potter, Cassandra
Clare cu The Mortal Instruments etc.). Vizibil este asocierea romanelor pentru copii i
adolescenei cu aventura, cu aciunea, ct i cu ideea de Bildugsroman, de a introduce n faa
publicului nite copii drept personaje care, de-a lungul unui ciclu literar, s poat fi observai
crescnd, dezvoltndu-se sub ochii cititorilor care, dac firul narativ este bine prezentat, se
vor ataa de ei, la fel cum, n cadrul literaturii noastre, Medelenii au creat un adevrat cult.
Bibliografie:
I.Opere literare
1.Ionel Teodoreanu, La Medeleni, Ed. Litera Internaional, Bucureti, 2009
2.Ionel Teodoreanu, Jucrii pentru Lily, Ed. Ion Creang, Bucureti, 1981
3. Ionel Teodoreanu, Ulia copilriei, Ed. Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 1941
II.Opere critice i periodice
1.Adrian Marino, Dicionar de idei literare, Editura Eminescu, 1973
2.
George Clinescu, Foiletonul nostru i Epilog la foiletonul nostru , n ,,Jurnalul
literar, I, 10/1939, -17/1939
3.
George Clinescu, Istoria literaturii romne de la origini pn n prezent, Ed.
Semne, Bucureti, 2003
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4.E. Lovinescu, Confesiunile unui critic, art. Notie critice asupra criticei noastre,
Institutul Cultural Romn, Bucureti, 2006
5.Mircea Martin ,, George Clinescu i complexele literaturii romne, Ed. Albatros,
Bucureti, 1981
6.
Camil Petrescu, De ce nu avem roman?, n ,,Viaa literar, nr.54, din 4.VI.1927
7.*** Istoria literaturii romne, ediia a II-a revzut, volumul al II-lea, coordonat de
George Clinescu, Editura Academiei R.S.R., Bucureti, 1970
8.***, Dicionar de literatur romn ( Scriitori, reviste, curente), coord. Dim.
Pcurariu, Editura Univers, Bucureti, 1979
9. Nicolae Ciobanu, Ionel Teodoreanu, Ed. Minerva, Bucureti, 1970
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UNDER THE SIGN OF REALISM. A POSSIBLE DIALOGUE BETWEEN TWO WRITERS:

GEORGE BLI AND JAMES JOYCE
Elena Biceanu (PRLOG)
Abstract: George Bli's approximation of joycean model was realized as a result of the
need to build a complex universe, truthful in his fictionality. The novelist is not a follower of
Irish writer, but only a reader who understand the technique, then it enriches its text, whereas
the purposes of the two fictions are completely different: one aims at presenting reality, the
other is seeking how far can joke.
Keywords: realism, model, technique, George Bli, James Joyce
1. Lumea n dou zile, un roman realist
Rareori o consideraie critic ajunge s influeneze att de mult receptarea
ulterioar a unei scrieri, aa cum s-a ntmplat cu sintagma cel mai joycean roman al nostru.
Aceasta se lipete de romanul lui George Bli n anii 80, mai nti ca urmare a apariiei
lucrrii lui Eugen Simion, Scriitori romni de azi, apoi sub influena cert a postfeei celei dea treia ediii a Lumii n dou zile, aprut n 1985, text care aparine lui Zoe DumitrescuBuulenga i poart titlul Un portret. Nepomenit sau abia sugerat n primele cronici1,
apropierea acestuia de maniera de a scrie a lui James Joyce ajunge la statutul de etichet dup
1995. n anul 2002, realismul de tip joycean este considerat definitoriu pentru opera lui
George Bli i n mediul universitar: Lumea n dou zile considerat a fi cel mai joycean
roman al nostru este o scriere despre unitatea n diversitate a beneficului i maleficului, a
domesticului i fantasticului privite din perspectiva favorizant unde forele contrare stau
aparent i incert ntr-un temporar echilibru al existenei2.
Ori de cte ori se refer la felul n care s-a nscut romanul prin care s-a impus n
peisajul prozei romneti, George Bli nu pomenete de influena direct a lui James
Joyce3, dei recunoate structura lui esenialmente realist. Mai mult de att, declar c nu l-a
n prima cronic a romanului, aprut n 1975, n numrul 35 al revistei Romnia literar, criticul Nicolae
Manolescu realiza apropierea proaspt aprutei creaii a lui George Bli de realismul clasic rus sau de
modelul Noului Roman francez, n vog n epoc: Foarte realist n totul, n detalii mai ales, romanul are un
supratext livresc: nu o simbolizare grosolan a unor evenimente, ci o identificare abia sesizabil dintre personaje
i modelele lor, pe care o descoperim de obicei cu ntrziere i surpriz. n acest supratext apar: o povestire
chinez cu o oglind, Cicikov, hainele mpratului din Andersen, o fabul cu cini, diabolul din Fraii
Karamazov, Muntele vrjit, Strindberg i altele. (...) A nu mai porni de la schema psihologic, ncercnd s-o
umpli, ci de la masa amorf, pulverizat i contradictorie, ncercnd s-o unifici, nseamn n fond a
deznoionaliza romanul, a-i reda autenticitatea, concretul, imprevizibilul. n acest imanen a scriiturii const
modernitatea, pe care Robbe-Grillet a teoretizat-o i a exagerat-o uneori pn la sectuire, George Bli,
Lumea n dou zile, n Romnia literar, nr 35, din 1975, apud Nicolae Manolescu, Literatura romn
postbelic Lista lui Manolescu vol. 2, Proza. Teatrul, Braov, Editura Aula, 2001, p. 210.
Sugestia apropierii de felul de a scrie al lui James Joyce este realizat pentru prima dat n octombrie 1975, cnd
G. Tacu realizeaz urmtorul comentariu: Insul n somn (incoerent), n mers, la mas, la serviciu l preocup
pe anchetator cu osebire. Bnuim aici reminiscene din lectura sau audierea lui Joyce, cum, presupunem, nsi
reducia temporar la un spaiu echivalent celui scris nu este strin de Ulysses, G. Tacu, Echilibrul
contrariilor, n Ateneu, nr. 123/ octombrie 1975, p. 13.
2
Vasile Spiridon, Perna cu ace. Naveta cuvntului, n Ateneu, nr. 9 (396)/ septembrie 2002, p. 16.
3
Dar unde se ascundea Antipa? n adolescen, mult vreme am purtat zilnic ntre crile de coal romanul
lui Lermontov, Un erou al timpului nostru. Voiam s fiu Peciorin! [] Mai trziu, cnd tiam cam despre ce
este vorba i reueam, n sfrit, s citesc selectiv, am fcut rost (pe vremea aceea, o adevrat aventur) de
1
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citit pe Joyce nainte de apariia romanului Lumea n dou zile. Din punctul nostru de vedere,
acest tip de poziionare arat dorina de a nu se crede c romanul su a aprut n urma unui soi
de manierism, de lettrism, dei acesta reprezenta o mod n acel moment. Distanarea de
James Joyce poate fi considerat o poz care s certifice ideea de autenticitate a operei 4, ns
conine i un smbure de adevr.
Epoca n care George Bli i ceilali reprezentani ai generaiei 60 se
formeaz, st sub semnul amprentei pe care coala i mijloacele de informare o pun asupra
tinerilor, aceea a marii i frumoasei literaturi ruse, apropiat de nevoile oamenilor simpli,
oglindindu-le viaa i dorinele i druindu-le modele de comportament. Faptul c a fost
nevoit s citeasc pn la sastisie din clasicii rui este exprimat de prozator n interviurile
oferite, n stilul caracteristic, ironic. La ntrebarea lui tefan Agopian despre existena i
importana bibliotecii n perioada colaritii sale, Bli rspunde: Ba da! (exista o
bibliotec public n.n., E.P.) Gemea de cea mai nou literatur sovietic i traduceri de
ultim or din rile, ca i noi, negociate cretinete la Ialta. Aici era i o parte bun: aveam
parte de traduceri relativ integrale din Gogol, Tolstoi, Dostoievski, Cehov. Alfa i Omega
prozei de dup ei, din mai toate culturile5. Conform spuselor autorului, lecturile sale, crora
li se dedica trup i suflet i pe care le realiza fr vreun fel de program, n conformitate cu
felul de a fi al tuturor n epoc, erau completate de bunvoina anticarilor, care reueau s
gseasc orice i pe bani puini6. Cea care, n primii ani ai adolescenei, reuete s-i impun
anumite nume de autori i titluri de cri prin exemplul personal este, conform declaraiilor,
bunica sa. De la ea pare s fi motenit Bli patima pentru citit, care i-a devorat ntreaga
via, cci evocarea pe care i-o face acesteia este n strns legtura cu lumea crii: Citea
cri poliiste i vechile romane populare n fascicule. Dar cele mai de seam cri scrise
vreodat (apsa pe vreodat subl. n text) erau Contele de Monte-Cristo i Fraii
Karamazov. Se puteau negocia nc vreo cteva titluri, neaprat Gsta Berling (Selma
Lagerlf) i romane de Blasco Ibez i Sienkiewicz!7
Nicieri despre ntlnirea cu opera lui Joyce, care ar transforma afirmaia lui
Zoe Dumitrescu-Buulenga n expresia unei veritabile filiaii. Observnd cu atenie i
imparialitate mediul literar romnesc de dup 1944, trebuie s-i dm crezare lui George
Bli atunci cnd afirm c nu a citit romanul Ulise nainte de a scrie Lumea n dou zile.
Felul n care este receptat opera scriitorului irlandez n Romnia este gritor din acest punct
de vedere. Astfel, ntr-un articol aprut n 1949, Ion Vitner l pomenea i pe James Joyce,
alturi de alte nume sonore ale literaturii universale, drept un exponent al decadentismului8,
avnd aceeai soart ca i ceilali, adic scoaterea din circuitul valorilor i trecerea la index.
primul volum (n ediie poche) din Omul fr nsuiri. Musil a fost pentru mine o bomb cu ceas. Un impact
dur, nelinititor, o atracie cu care numai Stavroghin (n alt ordine, cu alte consecine) m luase n posesie. De
urmrit curba imposibil ntre Peciorin i Ulrich, Sunt un produs al lumii inventate de mine, interviu
consemnat de Ioana Revnic, n Romnia literar, nr. 24/ 2 iulie 2010, apud George Bli, Opere III. Marocco
(II), Iai, Editura Polirom, 2011, pp. 461 462.
4
James Joyce nsui, atunci cnd critica i-a artat asemnarea romanelor sale cu poemul lui T. S. Elliot, The
waste land, a replicat c nu l-a citit niciodat, pentru ca apoi s-l studieze din curiozitatea pe care i-a strnit-o
acest act.
5
Copilul e vrjitor i filozof, interviu consemnat de tefan Agopian, n revista Ziua literar, iunie 2002, apud
George Bli, Opere III, ed. cit., pp. 391 392.
6
Importana apropierii de literatur, mai ales de cea occidental, este certificat de faptul c George Bli
simte nevoia s scrie o povestire tocmai despre felul n care l descoper pe Nietzsche, copil fiind. Imaginea
doamnei Panduru, anticreasa, care nu mprumut o asemenea carte oricui este bine definit n proza Domino IV,
n volumul George Bli, Opere III, ed. cit., pp. 66 81.
7
Copilul e vrjitor i filozof, loc. cit., p. 393.
8
Facem referire la articolul intitulat Evoluia prozei lui Petru Dumitriu, aprut n revista Contemporanul, n
dou pri, n nr. 159 i 160 din 21, respectiv 28 octombrie 1949, n care autorul afirma: n anul 1947, Petru
Dumitriu venea cu o carte n care sub masca mitologic se ascundea i putreziciunea lui Gide i James Joyce i
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James Joyce, posibil dosar de pres

Soarta receptrii operei lui James Joyce este pecetluit n 1953, cnd Mihai
Novicov ntrete afirmaiile lui Ion Vitner fcute cu referire la romanul interbelic al lui Petru
Dumitriu, Euridice. Considerat unul dintre teoreticienii realismului socialist n Romnia,
Mihai Novicov vorbete despre aceeai apropiere a romanului lui Petru Dumitriu de literatura
decadent a Occidentului9. ntr-un act normal n epoc, de autocritic, dei realizat civa ani
mai trziu, nsui cel incriminat explic de ce opera unor reprezentani ai literaturii
occidentale, printre care i James Joyce, nu poate fi considerat un model pentru tnra
generaie comunist, un motiv pentru care traducerea operei acestuia va ntrzia s apar:
Dou trsturi principale mi se par c pot fi distinse la un mare numr de scriitori sau foti
scriitori burghezi de azi, din primii ani ai celei de a doua jumti de veac al douzecilea.(...)/
ntia este o trstur luntric, e filozofia implicat n oper. i aceasta e concepia despre
univers ca fiind absurd, iraional, eterogen demersurilor gndirii omeneti, cu neputin de
cunoscut n esena sa. n opera lui Franz Kafka acest univers absurd e descris ntia oar;
Camus i muli ali scriitori burghezi de azi nu sunt dect discipoli ai lui Kafka 10. Iat, deci,
ce l pierde pe James Joyce: apropierea de Kafka i de iraionaliti alturi de care, consider
Petru Dumitriu, Joyce este unul din prinii modernismului11. De altfel, catalogrile pe care le
realizeaz acesta las urme adnci n prozatorii acestei perioade. Ele ies la iveal odat cu
liberalizarea cuvntului de dup 1989: Joyce, cu al su Ulysses ntlnete nu numai
indiferena ci i ura (tnrul, n acea vreme, i talentatul, cultivatul romancier Petru Dumitriu
l atac cu virulen), iar crile monumentale ale lui Thomas Mann ntmpin prejudeci i
respingeri de tipul: literatur artificial, cri fcute, false probleme12, i aduce
aminte, printre alii, Nicolae Breban. S-ar prea c cele mai mari pcate ale creatorului lui
Ulise sunt reprezentate de utilizarea prozei absurdului, neleas greit de reprezentanii
realismului socialist i neconform cu elurile lor, ntruct, opineaz acelai Petru Dumitriu,
nu poate fi pus semn de egalitate ntre iraional i necunoscut, neneles, aa cum fac
descendenii lui Kafka.
Pentru a afla care este cel de-al doilea pcat capital al scriiturii lui Joyce, care i
condamn opera la anonimat n spaiul literar romnesc, citm n continuare din lucrarea Noi
i neo barbarii: A doua trstur comun a scriitorilor burghezi, i care se leag pretutindeni
de concepia universului absurd i enigmatic, este (...) mitul. ndeosebi n proza epic, apare
aciunea, care nu e o reflectare a realitii prin contiina artistului, ci o metafor, o aluzie13.
Cu alte cuvinte, al doilea mare pcat al prozei lui Joyce, considerat un urma al lui Kafka, este
ncifrarea prin utilizarea limbajului metaforic specific mitului. Acesta nu are capacitatea de a
face realitatea crii conform cu realitatea obiectiv, ci o transform astfel nct ea nu mai
este pe nelesul omului muncii. Cum nu are timp s descurce iele nclcite ale minii
scriitorului i fiindc nu nelege mesajul crii, omul nou se plictisete, n felul acesta
mpiedicndu-se dezideratul ornduirii comuniste, de a crea o literatur a maselor, n care
acestea s se regseasc. Pentru a anticipa puin, s-ar prea c toate aceste defecte se
transform n caliti dup 1965, anul unui adevrat dezghe ideologic despre care Bli
2.
visarea stearp a suprarealismului, Ion Vitner, Evoluia prozei lui Petru Dumitriu, apud Ana Selejan, Literatura
n totalitarism. 1949 1951. vol. I, ntemeietori i capodopere (Ediia a II-a adugit cu trei texte teoretice ale
autoarei), Bucureti, Editura Cartea Romneasc, 2007, p. 136.
9
Facem referire la lucrarea Pentru literatura vieii noi. Studii literare, aprut la Bucureti, Editura de Stat
pentru Literatur i Art, 1953, n care criticul reia o serie de articole aprute n pres n perioada 1949 1951 i
n care ndreptete afirmaiile lui Ion Vitner legate de proza de debut a lui Petru Dumitriu.
10
Petru Dumitriu, Noi i neo barbarii, Bucureti, Editura de Stat pentru Literatur i Art, 1958, pp. 7 8.
11
Ideea apare n lucrarea citat anterior, n capitolul intitulat Modernism?, pp. 55 64.
12
Nicolae Breban, Spiritul romnesc n faa unei dictaturi, Bucureti, Editura Allfa, 2000, p. 66.
13
Petru Dumitriu, Op. cit., ed. cit., p. 11.
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opineaz ntr-un interviu c ar fi fost regretat de ctre Ceauescu deoarece el nu a mai putut
lua napoi libertatea oferit scriitorilor: Ca i atunci cnd a slbit laul, imediat dup
preluarea puterii, cei civa ani buni, ntre 1965 i 1971, dar ce s-a ctigat atunci, n ciuda
opresiunii crescnde de dup 1972, s-a pstrat, orict de adnc, i a nsemnat mult n lunga,
tcuta lupt secret a anticorpilor. Cred c i-a prut ru i mcar vreo trei guri la curea lea fcut i din cauza asta14.
Pentru a reveni ns, aceste defecte expuse anterior prin preluarea cuvintelor lui
Petru Dumitriu sunt motivul pentru care, pn n 1965, opera lui James Joyce este trecut la
index i inaccesibil cititorului obinuit. Cu adevrat, George Bli nu a putut avea acces la
romanul Ulise, a crui prim traducere o ofer Mircea Ivnescu, n 1984, la Editura Univers.
ns, acest lucru nu nseamn c era imposibil ca prozatorul romn s fi luat contact cu opera
irlandezului. O dovad n acest sens o constituie faptul c fragmente importante din roman
sunt traduse i publicate n foileton de revista Secolul XX, ntre 1965 1982, traduceri
realizate de nume precum Gellu Naum, Andrei Ion Deleanu sau Mircea Ivnescu. Chiar i
Nicolae Manolescu mrturisete contactul cu acea colecie de nuvele cu titlul Oameni din
Dublin, din care, n lucrarea Cititul i scrisul, reine imaginea copilului care i ascunde
manualele printre buruieni. Argumentul hotrtor pentru existena contactului dintre cei doi
prozatori naintea publicrii romanului Lumea n dou zile este furnizat de revista bcuan
Ateneu, la care George Bli era redactor. n numrul 3(68) din martie 1970, acesta
recenzeaz o nuvel de Joyce, Cei mori. Intitulat chiar astfel, O nuvel de Joyce: Cei
mori, i publicat n pagina 3, continuat n p. 13, prezentarea reine tocmai modalitatea
inedit de a transpune n text faptul obinuit, transformarea banalului cotidian n material epic,
dar i imaginea omului dus pe gnduri, reflexiv, adic exact acele elemente care se opun
utopiei lansate de literatura obsedantului deceniu, care transform epica ntr-un haos de
notaii ordonat de contiina creatoare a autorului i care rspund nevoii de a construi o lume
ficional veridic, de proporii biblice.
Faptul c romanul peregrinrilor lui Leopold Bloom i-a pus la dispoziie
modalitatea demiurgic de realizare a unei construcii romaneti viabile i complexe este
exprimat indirect n interviuri: Cnd Dumnezeu a fcut (att de trziu!) America, el a folosit
metoda lui James Joyce. I-a ieit un roman extraordinar, al crui subiect nu poate fi povestit.
O carte inimitabil, cu un milion de imitatori, greu de judecat n valoare absolut, dar care
i nghite cititorul precum chitul pe Iona15. Felul n care Bli vorbete despre metoda
scriitorului irlandez arat o mentalitate de cititor nfocat. Cartea inimitabil, cu subiect ce nu
poate fi povestit, i asemnarea cu burta chitului lui Iona sunt tocmai argumentele pe care
critica literar le dezvluie atunci cnd sunt comparate cele dou construcii romaneti.
3. Traducerea i completarea modelului
Cu toate c textul integral al romanului Ulise nu-i este cunoscut romancierului
romn, n momentul conceperii Lumii n dou zile, Joyce a jucat rolul de model pentru felul
de a scrie al lui George Bli, n timp ce elementele care l apropie de realismul magic 16
ntre omul care vorbete i omul care scrie e un gol de netrecut, interviu realizat de C. Stnescu i publicat n
revista Adevrul literar i artistic, august 1993, apud George Bli, Opere III, ed. cit., p. 351.
15
Pentru nechemai, Dumnezeu e ntotdeauna n alt parte, interviu consemnat de Vasile-Petre Fati n Azi/ 18
aprilie 1994, apud George Bli, Opere III, ed. cit., p. 367.
16
ntr-un articol din revista Steaua, aprut n 1998, Corin Braga apropie stilul lui Bli de cel al realismului
magic: nu realismul cenuiu i esopic specific crilor lui Buzura, Preda sau Ivasiuc caracterizeaz scriitura lui
George Bli. mpreun cu alte cteva (puine) romane, cum ar fi Galeria cu vi slbatic a lui Constantin
oiu, Lumea n dou zile transcede neorealismul spre un realism magic. (...) ntmplrile sunt ncrcate de un
halou magic, au o strlucire interioar, care confer scriiturii un suav aer feeric. Contribuie la aceasta stilul
elaborat, ncrcat, ce a asimilat faciliti tehnice ale rememorrii proustiene, ale fluxului joycean i ale
descriptivismului noului roman, n Steaua, 49, nr. 4 5/ aprilie mai 1998, p. 28.
14
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reprezint, mai degrab, un dialog specific de la text la text (subl. n text)17 aprut ca urmare
a asemnrilor spaiului cultural i, poate, mai ales, politic n care se dezvolt cele dou
literaturi.
Felul n care este construit expresia prin care critica a definit romanul lui
Bli, apelnd la un superlativ relativ, sugereaz ncadrarea operei acestuia ntr-un tipar al
epocii i, implicit, nevoia de adevr, de exprimare netrucat a unei interioriti complexe
resimit de congenerii acestuia. Ascultnd vocea autorului nsui i cercetnd felul n care
scrie, trebuie s afirmm c tehnica suprem a aproprierii unui model este, din punctul de
vedere al prozatorului, traducerea, adic nelegerea i scrisul, dou componente eseniale ale
ficiunii sale, aciune care arat faptul c el nu se consider (i nici nu este) un epigon al lui
Joyce, ci un scriitor original, care i mbuntete relaia cu propria oper prin modelarea
sub influena lecturii. De aceea considerm c modul n care moare Antipa nu e de natur s
ne arate preluarea modelului realismului magic. El confirm, de fapt, apartenena scrierii la
spaiul cultural romnesc, influena destul de recent re-descoperitului (la momentul apariiei
romanului Lumea n dou zile) Vasile Voiculescu i transformarea modern pe care o sufer
modelul biblic sub influena relativismului nietzsche-an i a limbajului de tip demotic,
descriptiv, tiinific, caracteristic secolului al XX-lea, aa cum arat un studiu aparinnd lui
Northrop Frye18, idei susinute i prin descrierea pe care Adrian Marino o face literaturii
acestui secol n lucrarea Biografia ideii de literatur.
Spre deosebire de ali autori, Bli este destul de sincer n ceea ce privete
modelele care l-au influenat n conceperea textelor sale. Sinceritatea aceasta este insinuat
mai ales n conversaiile referitoare la actul traducerii. Cum a doua jumtate a secolului al
XX-lea st, aa cum regsim att n lucrrile lui Nicolae Manolescu, Lecturi infidele sau
Cititul i scrisul, dar i la Adrian Marino, Biografia ideii de literatur, sub semnul literaturii
ca lectur, romancierul pe care l avem n vedere acord o atenie deosebit actului traducerii,
vzut ca o modalitate de ntlnire a autorului cu cititorul su pe terenul originar al limbii care
a fcut posibil apariia crii19. Aceasta considerm c este cheia prin care trebuie interpretat
o declaraie de felul acesta: fiindc realul ne acord ansa realitii, putem citi n romnete
pe Tolstoi, Balzac, Dostoievski, Goethe, Shakespeare, Cervantes, Faulkner. [...] M-au
impresionat n tineree aa de mult Nasul i Mantaua (Gogol), nct le-am tradus pentru
mrunta nebunie a lucrtorului de noapte ce sunt, dibuind pe rusete ca orbul drumul Brilei
(imbecil lene, puteam fr efort profita de introducerea limbii ruse cu anasna n coal, pe
vremea mea, apte ani la rnd, o puteam i mai uor nva cntnd, anticorpii ns m
lucrau, m lucrau, dar ceva tot a rmas, aa c...). Fr s le art nimnui, ca nite predici
n pustiu20. Se observ destul de uor c modelul Joyce este prezent prin intermediul filierei
prin care a i ptruns n aria noastr cultural, textele lui Faulkner, n timp ce realismul magic
este absent.
Preluarea tehnicii de compoziie i a orgoliului creator care au stat la baza
apariiei romanului Ulise i contientizarea realizrii unei opere originale sunt cuprinse ntr-o
serie de proze scurte, avnd caracter jurnalistic, din volumul Nopile unui provincial. Acestea
dau la iveal faptul c Bli nu i-a propus s creeze doar o literatur n care banalitatea
cotidianului s devin materie epic, ci c are ambiia unei construcii mai complexe: Fr
17
Nicolae Manolescu, Op. cit., ed. cit., p. 13.

Ideea este explicat n lucrarea lui Northrope Frye, Marele cod. Biblia i literatura, traducere de Aurel Sasu i
Ioana Stanciu, Bucureti, Editura Atlas, 1999, n capitolul Limbaj I, pp. 31 60.
19
Nu este n intenia noastr s relum n acest loc toate teoriile lingvistice care circul n epoc, mai ales sub
influena structuralismului i a formalismului, dar ele se fac simite n felul n care autorii, majoritatea cu studii
filologice, percep noiunea de text, de scriere.
20
Povestea prbuirii cetii comuniste, interviu consemnat de C. Stnescu, n Adevrul literar i artistic,
august 1993, apud George Bli, Opere III, ed. cit., p. 330.
18
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ndoial, lumea unui singur om viu ntr-o singur zi nu poate fi cuprins ntr-o carte, s zic
de opt sute de pagini. Nici pe departe, nct Ulysse de Joyce este un fel de vag compendiu
n ordinea acestei idei. Ct s cuprinzi? Din orgoliosul vreau rmne n cele din urm: atta
pot (subl. n text). Dar golul imens dintre a voi i a face justific existena omului21. Astfel,
prozatorul opteaz pentru completarea modelului cu elemente de hazard, care suscit att
atenia personajelor, ct i pe cea a cititorilor, crend astfel acele spaii libere pe care lectorul
are posibilitatea s le umple n funcie de propria experien de via.
Singurul care pare s neleag nc de la nceput sensul n care trebuie s se
dezvolte romanul, asemntor, din acest punct de vedere, lui Stephen Dedalus, este plrierul
August, despre care naratorul spune nc de la introducerea lui n text: Singur btrnul
August, plrierul, fr s cread sau s se ndoiasc, spunea: mi nchipuisem c, n sfrit,
avem o iarn adevrat i cnd colo, ap de ploaie22. Cu alte cuvinte, materia epic a celor
dou zile ale lui Antipa nu este reprezentat de ceea ce el a trit cu adevrat, ci de ceea ce
autorul reuete s lase impresia c acesta a trit. Substana povetii lui Antipa nu este dat de
viaa pur i simplu, ci de senzaia de via, de falsa mrturie a unui ins prea puin credibil,
tehnic pe care romanul lui Joyce o dezvolt n episodul n care Dedalus expune, la Biblioteca
Naional, acea tez fantezist despre o posibil nterpretare a lui Hamlet. Nici mcar el nu
crede n aceasta, dar trebuie s aleag ntre raionalism, pe de o parte, i idealism i
subiectivism, pe de alta.
Caracterul duplicitar, jocul textului care neal, care ofer doar aparena, este
dus pn la nivelul personajului. Calitatea de actor a lui August, de persoan capabil s-i
schimbe feele astfel nct s imite i s nele vigilena spectatorului/ cititor dovedete, o dat
n plus, apartenena lui la lumea creatorilor labirintului, la lumea iluzorie pe care privirea ne-o
descoper i poate face legtura cu miraculosul realismului magic n care nimic nu este ceea
ce pare: Experiena mea nu are nicio putere, viaa mea ndelungat nu este altceva dect
flacra unei lumnri. Nu vd nimic. Cu toate c oamenii vin nc i azi la mine i nc mai
sunt pentru ei cadiul. Mi-a plcut puterea asta caraghioas a mea! Am fost un actor bun,
orice s-ar spune. (...) M-am nscut uor, o natur binevoitoare i o ureche care tie s
asculte. Asta a fost luat de toi drept nelepciune. A fi putut s trec drept un nebun dar eu
mi-am urmat firea23.
4. n dialog cu Joyce
Sub forma transformrii banalului n materie romanesc, raportarea la un model
Joyce este ntlnit i n prozele celorlali colegi de generaie. n volumul Leul albastru, de D.
R. Popescu, aflm despre nceputurile vieii literare ale autorului nsui, care, elev de
gimnaziu, este ridiculizat de colegi din cauz c scrie despre incendiul unei case, lucru pe care
l trise n vacana de primvar. Relatarea unui fapt autentic este catalogat drept nerealist,
lucru care l ncurc pe elevul numit, pentru ca suprapunerea identitar s se fac fr urm de
ndoial, Popescu D. Exemplele ar putea continua cu datele existenei lui Grobei n romanul
Bunavestire, de Nicolae Breban, mai ales primul capitol, care prezint imaginea staiunii i a
obiceiurilor protagonistului. Toat aceast umanitate care i triete normal viaa opune
antiutopia omului perfectibil utopiei realist-socialiste a omului perfect, lipstit complet de
conflicte, poznd n erou24.
George Bli, Nopile unui provincial, Iai, Editura Junimea, 1983, p. 13.
George Bli, Lumea n dou zile, ed. cit., p. 7.
23
Ibidem, p. 37.
24
Pentru detalierea acestui aspect, care depete graniele subiectului pe care ni l-am propus, facem trimitere la
lucrarea lui Ioan Holban, Profiluri epice contemporane, n care paginile referitoare la aa-numita Generaie
Preda (pp. 27 204) ofer, din punctul nostru de vedere, o radiografie exact a felului de a scrie n epoc.
Autorul acestui studiu dezvolt i completez ideile expuse de Eugen Simion n lucrarea Scriitori romni de azi,
accentund asupra elementelor de unitate care se manifest n prozele scriitorilor din aceast generaie literar.
21
22
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sale i care constituie elementul de originalitate al prozei pe care o scrie, este nelegerea i
acceptarea statutului de povestitor. n egal msur extindere a vocii gogoliene a naratorului
i creator joycean de lumi microscopice extinse la nivelul unei epopei, Bli manifest grij
pentru felul n care este redactat textul. Fire extrem de inteligent, el i propune i reuete s
strneasc interesul cititorilor printr-o pronunat problematizare a acestuia. ntr-unul din
interviurile sale, afirm, ntrebat fiind n ce relaie este cu cititorii si: Rece, dar i emotiv.
Rece fiindc nu-mi place s linguesc n niciun fel cititorul, mai degrab l pun n dificultate.
i sunt emoionat de fiecare dat cnd aflu, cnd tiu c sunt citit. Dintotdeauna sunt micat
i nedumerit cnd am tiut c povetile mele pot fi citite i c eu, chiar eu sunt acela care le-a
scris25. Chiar dac cea de-a doua parte a rspunsului creioneaz imaginea unui creator
modest, bucuros pentru fiecare act de re-creare prin lectur a textului su, nu se poate terge
orgoliul care se degaj din prima parte a rspunsului, trstur de caracter care atest un spirit
apropiat de cel al lui Joyce prin inteligen i atitudinea fa de realitate. Dac adugm la
aceasta i mrturisirea fcut de Bli, conform creia: Pentru mine, literatura e un mod
de a fi. Realitatea e un punct de plecare, dar att, pentru ficiunile mele. Eu cred n fora
suav a imaginaiei. Fr creativitate, fr harul de a gndi pe cont propriu lumi
imaginare, care includ, dar depesc enorm cotidianul, te duci numai la vale, nu urci
nicieri26, susinut de afirmaia lui Nicolae Manolescu, Sterne, Gogol i Joyce se afl la
originea procedeelor din proza lui George Bli27, obinem portretul complet al unui autor
care se crede, n aceeai msur, stpnul i produsul propriei lumi imaginare. Joycean ca
structur, acestuia i place s observe realitatea i s o absoarb, n elementele ei definitorii, n
ceea ce scrie. Marquezian ca modalitate de compoziie, el desface lumea recognoscibil n
buci, pe care le ascunde ntr-un univers aparent absurd, oglind deformat a lumii textului.
5. Concluzii
Pentru a concluziona, considerm c apropierea de modelul joycean s-a realizat
ca urmare a nevoii de a construi un univers complex, veridic n ficionalitatea lui. Bli nu
se plaseaz, ns, n rolul de imitator al scriitorului irlandez, ci doar de cititor care nelege
tehnica, apoi i mbogete textul cu ea, ntruct scopurile celor dou ficiuni sunt complet
diferite: una urmrete prezentarea realitii, cealalt, obinerea sentimentului veridicitii, una
red cotidianul, cealalt l re-creeaz prin intermediul ficiunii, una red adevrul individului,
cealalt caut limita pn la care se poate glumi.
Oameni!
BIBLIOGRAFIE:
ALBERES, R. M., Istoria romanului modern, Bucureti, Editura pentru Literatur
Universal, 1968;
ntre omul care vorbete i omul care scrie este un gol de netrecut, interviu consemnat de C. Stnescu, n
Adevrul literar i artistic, august 1993, apud George Bli, Opere III, ed. cit., p. 346.
26
Fr harul de a gndi pe cont propriu lumi imaginare, care includ, dar depesc cotidianul, te duci numai la
vale, nu urci nicieri, interviu consemnat de Ion Simu, n Familia, mai 1999, apud George Bli, Opere III,
ed. cit., p. 378.
27
Nicolae Manolescu, Op. cit., ed. cit., p. 1153.
25
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BALOT, Nicolae, Romanul romnesc n secolul XX, Bucureti, Editura Viitorul

Romnesc, 1997;
BLI, George, Opere III, Marocco (II), Iai, Editura Polirom, 2011;
BRAGA, Corin, George Bli i realismul magic. Recitiri, n Steaua, 49, nr. 4
5/ aprilie mai 1998;
BREBAN, Nicolae, Spiritul romnesc n faa unei dictaturi, Bucureti, Editura Allfa,
2000;
CORDO, Sanda, n lumea nou, Cluj-Napoca, Editura Dacia, 2003;
CORDO, Sanda, Lumi din cuvinte: reprezentri i identiti n literatura romn
postbelic, Bucureti, Editura Cartea Romneasc, 2012;
CORNEA, Paul, Introducere n studiul lecturii, Iai, Editura Polirom, 1998;
DUMITRIU, Petru, Noi i neo barbarii, Bucureti, Editura de Stat pentru Literatur i
Art, 1958;
FRYE, Northrope, Marele cod. Biblia i literatura, traducere de Aurel Sasu i Ioana
Stanciu, Bucureti, Editura Atlas, 1999;
HOLBAN, Ioan, Profiluri epice contemporane, Bucureti, Editura Cartea
Romneasc, 1987;
MANOLESCU, Nicolae, Istoria critic a literaturii romne. 5 secole de literatur,
Piteti, Editura Paralela 45, 2008;
MARINO, Adrian, Biografia ideii de literatur, vol. 3, Secolul 20, partea I, ClujNapoca, Editura Dacia, 1994;
MILOSZ, Czeslaw, Gndirea captiv. Eseu despre logocraiile populare, traducere de
Constantin Geambau, Bucureti, Editura Humanitas, 1999;
MORARU, N., Elemente noi n poezia romneasc, n Viaa Romneasc, anul I,
nr. 1, iunie, 1948;
NEGRICI, Eugen, Iluziile literaturii romne, Bucureti, Editura Cartea Romneasc,
2008;
NIESCU, M., Sub zodia proletcultismului. Eseu politologic. Dialectica puterii. O
carte cu domiciliu forat (1979 1995), Bucureti, Editura Humanitas, 1995;
NOVICOV, Mihai, Pentru literatura vieii noi. Studii literare, Bucureti, Editura de
Stat pentru Literatur i Art, 1953;
RICARDOU, Jean, Noi probleme ale romanului, traducere de Liana i Valentin
Atanasiu, Bucureti, Editura Univers, 1988;
SELEJAN, ANA, Literatura n totalitarism . 1949 1951. vol. I, ntemeietori i
capodopere, ediia a II-a adugit cu 3 texte teoretice ale autoarei, Bucureti, Editura
Cartea Romneasc, 2007;
SELEJAN, Ana, Literatura n totalitarism 1957 1958, Bucureti, Editura Cartea
Romneasc, 1999;
SIMION, Eugen, Scriitori romni de azi, vol. III, IV, Bucureti, Editura David, 1997;
SPIRIDON, Vasile, Perna cu ace. Naveta cuvntului, n Ateneu, nr. 9 (396)/
septembrie 2002;
TEFNESCU, Alex., Istoria literaturii romne contemporane. 1945 2000,
Bucureti, Editura Maina de scris, 2005;
OIU, Constantin, Memorii ntrziate, Bucureti, Editura Cartea Romneasc, 2009;
ULICI, Laureniu, Literatura romn contemporan. I Promoia 70, Bucureti,
Editura Eminescu, 1995.
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TEODOR NE Oameni din Bihor

Ioan FABIAN
Abstract: The current paper presents the most important moments of Ne Teodors life and
career and his most significant writting The Monography People of Bihor County, a
writting in which he depicts political, historical and cultural events between 1848-1918, the
coryphaeuses of the social-cultural revolution from Bihor County.
Keywords: teacher, linguist, writer, national identity, historical facts.
...dragostea mea pentru acest Bihor,
unde m-am nscut i mi-am lustruit zestrea intelectual,
mi-a mpins irezistibil condeiul s adun pentru cei de azi,
n paginile ce urmeaz
cteva figuri i fapte din acest col de ar
Teodor Ne (1891-1975)
Ne Teodor se nate la 26 martie 1891 n comuna Mdras din judeul Bihor din
prini simpli netiutori de carte. coala primar cu clasele IIII a urmat-o n comuna sa
natal, Mdras iar clasa a IV-a a continuat-o, la insistenele nvtorului su Silaghi Iosif la
coala Reformat Primar din Salonta, unde a absolvit i gimnaziul1.
Pleac la Beiu unde se nscrie la vestitul Liceu al acelei vremi, Samuil Vulcan.
Aici, n anul 1910, trece cu bine examenul de maturitate, terminnd pe primul loc fiind i
premiat cu 20 de coroane de aur2.
Beneficiind de conjuncturile vremii, i continu studiile superioare la Universitatea
din Budapesta, ca membru al Colegiului Etvs Lorant i bursier al Fundaiei Emanuil
Gojdu. Examenul fundamental l susine la data de 25 aprilie 1912, la specialitatea
matematic-fizic i la limbile maghiar i francez. Examenul de specialitate l trece cu bine
la data de 20 mai 1914, la specializarea matematic-fizic3.
Particip la Primului Rzboi Mondial n perioada iulie 191431 octombrie 1918.
La data de 3 noiembrie 1918, dup izbucnirea Revoluiei din Ungaria, Teodor Ne este
numit la cerere comandantul Grzii Naionale Romne din Tinca. Sub amprenta
evenimentelor istorice ale vremii, tnrul Ne este prezent la Adunarea Naional din 1
Decembrie 1918 de la Alba Iulia4.
Teodor Ne, Iosif Slgean i Emil I. Roescu Liceul Emanuil Gojdu la 50 de ani Monografie, pag. 117.
Ibidem, pag. 118.
3
4
Teodor Ne - A doua carte despre Oameni din Bihor, Comitetul pentru Cultur i Educaie Socialist al
Judeului Bihor, pag. 7
1
2
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La 1 octombrie 1919, la vrsta de 28 de ani, debuteaz n nvmnt ca profesor

suplinitor la Liceul Real Romn din Oradea5.
Teodor Ne este ales i numit de ctre Corpul Profesoral al Liceului Emanuil Gojdu
n funcia de director provizoriu n decembrie 1925, pentru ca o lun mai trziu s fie numit
director stabil. A ocupat aceast funcie ndeplinindu-i cu strlucire i noblee rolul asumat
pn la data de 12 iulie 1938 cnd a fost promovat ca Inspector General al nvmntului
Secundar din inutul Some, cu sediul la Cluj Napoca6.
n aceast calitate a funcionat n Cluj Napoca pn la data de 9 septembrie 1940,
moment n care, datorit contextului politic al vremii (Dictatul de la Viena) prsete oraul
pentru a fi numit Inspector General n inutul Bucegi la data de 18 octombrie 1940. ncepnd
cu data de 5 martie 1942 este numit Inspector General ef al Capitalei unde rmne n funcie
pn n luna iulie 1948. De aici ajunge s activeze ca angajat al Centralei Ministerului, n
calitate de funcionar al biroului de material didactic7.
n anul 1951 s-a pensionat, rmnnd n activitate ca i angajat n cadrul Ministerului
Educaiei pn n luna iulie a anului 1958 cnd s-a retras din aceast funcie. Dup ce s-a
pensionat, Teodor Ne a activat pentru o perioada scurt de timp aproximativ un an de zile
ca i colaborator extern al Academiei Romne n cadrul Seciei de documentare8.
n prefaa cri Liceul Emanuil Gojdu La 50 de ani Monografie, Mircea
Malia se declar marcat de personalitatea profesorului Teodor Ne, preciznd c: Atunci
cnd profesorul Ne mi-a artat impresionanta sa lucrare, att ca detaliu ct i ca ntindere,
am evocat anii de ucenicie de la Liceul Gojdu. Pentru noi, profesorul Ne (i este o treime de
secol de atunci) mbrca toga unei autoriti totale. Era pentru noi omul care participase la
expediia tiinific de msurri geofizice, magnetice i gravitaionale, organizate de Etvs
Lorand al criu nume este nscris astzi pe frontispiciul Universitii din Budapesta9.
Acesta, continu cuvintele de apreciere adresate celui care i-a fost profesor i model n
perioada anilor de coal, scond n eviden faptul c Teodor Ne, dei putea s-i continue
cariera academic la cele mai nalte nivele, totui alege o alt cale aceea de deschiztor de
drumuri: Tnrul savant cu perspective universitare, care prsete drumul academic n
favoarea unui liceu transilvnean, profesorul Ne era omul care dedica dotrii
laboratoarelor o pasiune ce nu se putea trage dect din convingerea c baza tiinelor st n
experiment. Era o personalitate din gura creia puteau fi auzite, n ali termeni, anticipaiile
cele mai elocvente ale ciberneticii, teorie sistemelor i multidisciplinaritii. 10
Mircea Malia ncheie cu urmtoarele cuvinte de apreciere la adresa celui care a fost
dascl, pedagog i scriitor: Dac astzi considerm c una din practicile cele mai actuale i
moderne teoria sistemelor tehnico-umane, ne este greu s concepem un precursor mai
5
6
Teodor Ne, Iosif Slgean i Emil I. Roescu op.cit., pag. 118.

Ibidem.
Ibidem.
9
Prefa scris de Mircea Malia la volumul: Liceul Emanuil Gojdu la 50 de ani Monografie, pag. 6.
10
Prefa scris de Mircea Malia la volumul: Liceul Emanuil Gojdu la 50 de ani Monografie, pag. 6.
8
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convingtor i pasionat dect profesorul care o jumtate din timp l consacra tiinelor fizicomatematice i cealalt jumtate istoriei culturale a Bihorului i operei sale de emancipare11.
Teodor Ne i ncepe munca de scriitor al lucrrii sale de cpti aducnd cteva
argumente n favoarea crii care urma s ia natere i s vad lumina tiparului cu urmtoarele
cuvinte: Paginile urmtoare, n care am nmnunchiat multe rnduri scrise risipit spre Bihor,
s-au zmislit dintr-o obligaie impus de calitatea noastr de director al Liceului Emanuil
Gojdu. Am avut datoria s scriem n anuarul coalei cteva file comemorative despre viaa i
activitatea lui Aurel Lazr, animator i lupttor de seam, care, ntr-altele, fusese opt ani de
zile preedintele comitetului colar. i atunci ne-am pus ntrebarea fireasc: Care a fost
contribuia i nota nou, original, a lui Aurel Lazr n nvlmagul luptelor naionale din
Bihor?. Rspunsul pretindea lmurirea celuilalt termen de comparaie: Care a fost nota
caracteristic a Bihorului n luptele naionale ale Romnilor Din Ardeal i Ungaria? Am
nceput s evocm, ca pentru noi, pe cei dinti lupttori bihoreni: Emanuil Gojdu, Alexandru
Roman, Alexandru Wlad, Partenie Cosma, s toarcem firul ntmplrilor i s niruim pe el,
toate figurile de cpetenie: fie lupttori, scriitori, ori fondatori, rnduindu-i ntr-o galerie
provincial. Firete, spaiul dintre piscurile reprezentate izolat de cei mai de seama Bihoreni, a
trebuit s-l nndim cu diferite manifestri sociale, politice i culturale, care s-au desfurat pe
pmntul Bihariei. i aa ne-am pomenit cu o serie de figurine, de dimensiuni reduse, care se
potrivesc foarte bine ntr-o istorie regional, dar cernui prin sita selectiv a istoriei naionale
cad aici n solul nostru, fr s poat intra pe scena evenimentelor de un eveniment general12.
Acesta i continu pledoaria n favoarea alctuirii crii sale Oameni din Bihor
scond n eviden modul n care a selectat personalitile i persoanele incluse n prezentarea
sa precum i aria de activitate a acestora, cu urmtoarele cuvinte : Ne-am oprit exclusiv
numai la ceea ce a dat Bihorul, la figurile rsrite aici, chiar dac o parte din activitatea lor
public s-a risipit n alte pri de ar. Ne-a interesat, cu ce a contribuit Bihorul la micarea
general politic ori cultural i nu ne-am ntrebat ce am primit noi din alt parte. Dup acest
criteriu Bihorul i revendic pe Alexandru Wlad din Banat, Alexandru Gavra din Arad,
Miron Pompiliu din Iai i alii, al cror drum n via a isvort din Bihor, dar s-a pierdut n
alte zri. Din acelai motiv, ne-am vzut nevoii s trecem cucernici pe lng unele figuri
frumoase, venite din alte coluri, ca s are i s samene aici, n ogorul culturii; lsm ca
acetia s fie revendicai de judeele lor, chiar dac n Bihor numele lor este vecinicit prin
importante instituiuni ori fapte patriotice i culturale13.
Mai adug, parc cerndu-i scuze datorit modului n care a selectat, elaborat i scris
monografia, excluznd anumii oameni de cultur activi n perioada contemporan lui,
spunnd: ...c noi ne ocupm de figurile mirene i de faptele lor politice i culturale; nu intr
n preocuprile noastre galeria de arhierei romni, unii, ntemeietori i ctitori de aezminte
culturale, de o covritoare importan n viaa noastr romneasc. S-au ocupat de ei alii,
mai vrednici dect noi, n monografiile episcopiei unite. Din aceleai motive, nu struim nici
asupra colilor i episcopilor din Arad, care au furnizat Bihorului multe generaii de nvtori
i preoi; dac totui cte un episcop ca Miron Roman, ori Ioan Vancea ori arhimandriii: Iosif
11
Ibidem.
Teodor Ne Oameni din Bihor 1848-1918, ediia a II-a, Biblioteca Revistei Familia, Oradea, 2006, pag. 1.
13
Teodor Ne Oameni din Bihor 1848-1918, ediia a II-a, Biblioteca Revistei Familia, Oradea, 2006, pag. 2.
12
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Goldi i Vasile Mangra, ni se mbie condeiului, ne oprim la ei, fiindc sunt nscui n Bihor,
ori au fcut politic n Bihor (Iosif Goldi). i n cazul acesta, nregistrm exclusiv activitatea
lor politic i nu cea bisericeasc14.
Dintre sursele i izvoarele care au stat la baza alctuirii crii Oameni din Bihor
scris de Teodor Ne, putem meniona prima lucrare folosit la documentarea i elaborarea
monografiei - Cartea de aur a lui Teodor V. Pcianu15.
O a doua surs se menioneaz a fi folosirea selectiv a ziarelor maghiare din Oradea,
n special Nagyvrad, fondat n 1872, n care mai apreau consemnri superficiale
referitoare la romni, mai ales c la acea vreme nu exista n Oradea o pres de limba romn
care s consemneze viaa cotidian a societii i n special a romnilor16.
Un al treilea izvor documentar este descoperit de scriitorul Teodor Ne n prezentrile
fcute de presa minoritar din Oradea, n lucrile scrise de Gheorghe Tulbure despre Nicolae
Jiga, Gheorghe Ciuhandu despre Georgiu Popa, Dr. C. Pavel despre Miron Pompiliu i Ed. I.
Gvnescu despre Al. Gavra 17 .
O a patra surs documentar o constituie lucrarea lui Alexandru Mrki (Mrki
Sndor-Bihari romn irk) despre scriitori romni din Bihor, o lucrare aprut n anul 1880 la
Oradea18.
Datorit contextului istorico-socio-cultural al peroiadei n care Teodor Ne i
desfura activitatea ca profesor i scriitor, existena a foarte puine documente scrise n limba
romn n perioada respectiv n zona Bihorului, srcia surselor de informare i documentare
l-au determinat pe acesta s schieze el nsui, acolo unde a fost nevoie i unde lipseau
documentele scrise, portretele celor prezentai, folosindu-se de ndrumrile date de diferite
izvoare scrise, dar mai ales orale19.
Teodor Ne nu a avut niciodat dorina sau pretenia de a fi un scriitor celebru, un
istoric sau sociolog, care s rvneasc la o recunoatere la nivel naional la fel ca alte
personalitile culturale i literare ale timpului su. Ceea ce acesta a reuit s atearn pe
hrtie a pornit din dorina de a vedea consemnate pentru posteritate personaliti ale
momentului, evenimente istorice, culturale i literare care au constituit, n opinia dnsului,
repere demne de consemnat ale societii culturale i literare bihorene a vremii.
El i motiveaz imboldul de a scrie aceast carte de cpti, Oameni din Bihor
mrturisind att de plastic i de simplu c: ...dragostea mea pentru acest Bihor, unde m-am
nscut i mi-am lustruit zestrea intelectual, mi-a mpins irezistibil condeiul s adun pentru
cei de azi, n paginile ce urmeaz cteva figuri i fapte din acest col de ar20.
Monografia Oameni din Bihor - 1848-1918, Teodor Ne o mparte n trei mari pri:
prima parte, n care prezint evenimente istorice, personaliti ale vremii, ideologii etc. dintre
anii 1848-1881, o intituleaz Perioada naionalismului oportunist21; a doua parte, cuprins
14
Ibidem.
Teodor Ne op.cit., pag. 3.
16
Ibidem.
17
Teodor Ne, op.cit., pag.3.
18
Ibidem.
19
Ibidem.
20
Teodor Ne, op.cit., pag. 3.
21
15
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ntre anii 1881-1905, o intituleaz: Perioada atoniei22politice23; i a treia parte care trateaz
perioada anilor 1905-1918, intitulat: Perioada naionalismului intransigent24.
n prima parte intitulat Perioada naionalismului oportunist, Teodor Ne, folosind o
scriitur contemporan, presrat cu neologisme25 preluate din alte limbi strine (T. Ne
stpnind bine limbi precum: englez, francez, maghiar, turc, italian), cu un limbaj
plastic26, prezint ideologi ai acestei perioade, dintre care se pot aminti: Emanuil Gojdu pe
care-l numete stegaru curentuluil27, Alexandru Roman, Miron Pompiliu, Nicolae Jiga,
Partenie Cosma, Alexandru Gavra, etc.
n acest parte de nceput a monografiei puncteaz n prezentarea personalitilor,
ideologiilor i creaiilor literare printr-un limbaj critic nceputurile cristalizrii unor curente
politice menionnd c: n vltoarea revoluiei gsim contiine naionale drze... dar i
ideologi lipsii de rutin politic... 28 fascinai de conductori strini, precum i apariia
unor scrieri poetico-patriotice caracterizate de versuri primitive, la cari poetica putea zmbi
ironic...29.
Tot aici vorbete despre Societatea de lectur condus de Alexandru Roman, despre
Revista Familia coordonat de Iosif Vulcan (care n 1880 este relocat de la Budapesta la
Oradea), despre Societatea coral Hilaria30 precum i despre Fundaiile Emanuil Gojdu i
Nicolae Jiga, ca i bastioane ale pstrrii identitii, culturii i scriiturii romneti n zona
Bihorului31 ntr-o perioad tulbure marcat de zbucium cultural i de frmntri sociale
profunde.
n partea a doua, pe care o intituleaz Perioada atoniei politice, Ne ni-i prezint pe:
Lucian Bolca, Vasile Teuca, Iosif Vulcan, Vasile Budescu, Maria Bosco-Suciu, Lucreia
Suciu, Mitropolitul Miron Roman, Ioan Buna i Nicolae Zigre, ca s amintim doar cteva
dintre numele celor prezentai n aceast parte.
Un moment pe care Teodor Ne l numete att de plastic vrednic de ncrestat n
cronica Bihorului32 este Micarea Studenilor de la Academia de Drept din Oradea, care
printre alte obiective i propun s vorbeasc numai romnete ntre ei i dup posibilitate i
cu publicul ordan33.
Serbrile Astrei de la Beiu sunt prezentate de T. Ne ca momente de manifestare a
identitii culturale i literare romneti34 despre care personaliti locale scriau mai apoi n
ATONE - (gr. atonia) lips de vitalitate, (fig.) inerie moral sau intelectual, moliciune, lips de energie potrivit Dicionarului Explicativ al Limbii Romne.
23
24
Ibidem, pag. 11.
25
De exemplu cuvntul Leaderi din limba englez, folosit de autor la pag. 10, atunci cnd se refer la
reprezentanii sau ideologii acelei perioade, op. cit., pag 10.
26
Folosete figuri de stil de genul: iluzii zdrenuite, fee obidite, ncadrate n argintul prului albit, sau
amurg de toamn-o lumin trist, op. cit. pag. 10.
27
28
Teodor Ne, op.cit, pag. 164.
29
30
31
32
33
Ibidem, pag. 178.
34
22
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ziarele romneti precum: Lucian Bolca n Tribuna; Triteanu Lazar n Telegraful Romn
i Ioan Papp n Gazeta Transilvaniei35.
Un alt moment istoric consemnat de T. Ne n istoria Bihorului este nfiinarea Bncii
Bihoreana care avea ca scop sprijinirea financiar i ncurajarea dezvoltrii economice a
ranilor romni din zon, moment numit a fi un pilastru n organizaia economic a
Romnilor mrgineni36.
ntr-o perioad foarte grea pentru romnii din Bihor, marcat de persecuii venite din
partea stpnirii maghiare, colaborarea dintre oameni de carte precum Iosif Vulcan, Lucreia
Suciu i alii, mpletit cu activitile coral-artistice ale Hilariei, susinut economic de
Bihoreana ...s-a conservat sufletul romnesc... susine Teodor Ne, concluzionnd aceast
perioad din viaa socio-cultural a Bihorului37.
n partea a treia intitulat Perioada naionalismului intransigent, T. Ne vorbete
despre Vasile Mangra, Vasile Lucaciu, Coriolan Pop, Nicolae Bolca, Dr. Ioan Ciorda,
Episcopul Ioan Papp i Aurel Lazr.
n aceti ani are loc o reorientare a polilor de putere i influen pentru bihoreni,
moment care este foarte bine surprins de T. Ne i prezentat n scriitura lui proprie prin
urmtoarele cuvinte: Privirile se desprind de Budapesta i se ntorc prin Sibiu spre Bucureti,
de unde sutele de cupole strecurau prin sita codrilor carpatini sclipiri nfiortoare i accente
metalice eroice.38.
Cei care animau n aceast perioad eztorile cultural-artistice ale Hilariei i
Lyrei din localiti precum: Beiu, Vacu, Ceica, etc., erau preoi, nvtori, studeni i
corifeii: Nicolae Zigre, Dr. Aurel Lazr, Coriolan Pop, Ioan Ciorda, Demetriu Lascu, Gavril
Cosma, precum i reprezentanii trupelor A.P. Bnuiu, V. Antonescu i tefan Mrcu39.
Teodor Ne contient fiind de faptul c n Monografia Oameni din Bihor nu a putut
dect s prezinte pe scurt i n crmpeie momentele cultural-istorice importante i
personalitile marcante ale Bihorului menioneaz ctre finalul crii faptul c:
Medalioanele nfiate de noi au proporii microscopice. Faptele celor mai muli ar putea
umplea cte un volum, dac ar fi fost prezentate n dimensiunile lor fireti...schiele le-am
fcut din cteva linii i chemm pe toi scormonitorii trecutului Bihariei i pe contimporani s
coloreze aceste crochiuri cu fantezia i aducerea lor aminte40. Acesta subliniaz n ncheierea
crii faptul c: Viaa romneasc din 1848 pn la 1918, schiat de noi, a fost o
eflorescen a existenei noastre vechi pe aceste locuri41.
35
Ibidem, pag. 203.

Ibidem, pag. 386.
37
Ibidem, pag. 386.
38
Ibidem, pag. 11.
39
40
41
Ibidem, pag. 585.
36
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Bibliografie
Borcea, Liviu i Gorun, Gheorghe (coordonatori) Istoria oraului Oradea, ediia a
III a, Editura Arca, Oradea, 2007.
Coriolan, Suciu Dictonar istoric al localittlor din Transilvania, Editura
Academiei Republicii Socialiste Romnia, Bucureti, 1967-1968.
Ne, Teodor, Iosif Slgean i Emil I. Roescu Liceul Emanuil Gojdu la 50 de ani
Monografie, editat de Liceul Emanuil Gojdu din Oradea, 1971.
Ne, Teodor Oameni din Bihor 1848-1918, ediia a II-a, Biblioteca Revistei Familia,
Oradea, 2006.
Ne, Teodor - A doua carte despre Oameni din Bihor, Comitetul pentru Cultur i
Educaie Socialist al Judeului Bihor, 1979.
Ne, Teodor Figuri Bihorene, Roman, Alexandru (1826-1897), Extras din revista
Familia A.I. No. 5-6, Institut de Arte Grafice Sonnenfeld S.A. Oradea, 1934.
Predescu, Lucian Enciclopedia Romniei. Cugetarea, Editura Saeculum, Bucureti,
1999.
Vaida, Maria Lucreia Suciu sau mrile iubirii, Editura Grinta, Cluj-Napoca, 2010.
http://dexonline.ro
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Issue no.6/2015
THE PRIVILEGED SPACE OF THE MIRROR IN ALICE BOTEZ'S IMAGINATION

Mihaela ICALO-GRDINARIU
Abstract: Nae Ionescus luminous student, Alice Botez would know the taste of social
resignation, but not the relinquishment of the moral and aesthetic principles and norms, her
writing remaining her weapon and ultimate recourse. Alice Botezs world concentrates a sum
of elements, indications of a dynamic and demolishing search: an amalgam of legend and
fairy-tale, of aerial and real, of sacred and profane, of immaterial and material. The personal
cosmos has the data of a symbolic geography and it is constructed by successive reccurences,
by crossing the threshold and urges towards another world, and one of the most necessary
gestures of the symbolic economy of passing over is that of opening the gate towards beyond
or towards this side. The result is an anti-world, an mirror a frame up of a play having
shadows as characters, with the same chaotic setting in which the elements of an adversary
nature trade the roles for the architectural elements: hills, valleys, crypts, chasms, streams of
water, black and round hollows, rain and mud that deploy on the cobblestone pavement a
black and white film, manually kneaded caves in the darkness.
Keywords: symbolic geography, mirror, experience, reading pact
Personalitate insuficient cunoscut i mult prea puin receptat n spaiul romnesc,
Alice Botez desfoar o complex i fascinant activitate cultural pe un interval care
acoper epoci frmntate ale istoriei. Absolvent a Facultii de Filosofie a Universitii
bucuretene, apreciat de mentorul su, fascinantul Nae Ionescu, ea nsi profesoar
universitar pentru o perioad scurt de timp, apoi documentarist la Biblioteca de Stat, Alice
Botez a fost nconjurat n perioada interbelic de membrii unei generaii de excepie,
criterionitii, majoritatea dintre ei prieteni apropiai, iar dup schimbrile din 1945 va intra
ntr-un nemeritat con de umbr. Dei debuteaz publicistic n 1937, semnnd apoi timp de trei
ani cronica literar a cotidianului Vremea, ntre 1940 i 1942, de-abia n 1968 i va aprea
primul roman, Iarna fimbul, urmat, la intervale destul de mari de timp, de alte cinci volume :
Pdurea i trei zile (1970), Dioptrele sau Dialog la zidul caucazian. Evocare istoric (1975),
Emisfera de dor (1979), Eclipsa (1979) i Insula alb (1984), i de Cartea realitilor
fantastice. Jurnal (2001), rmas n manuscris i publicat dup moartea autoarei de ctre
prietenul Aravir Acterian.
Dioptrele sau Dialog la Zidul Caucazian. Evocare istoric este poemul dramatic n care
obsesia istoriei pe care o manifest Alice Botez capt pregnan. Protagonistul crii este
Dimitrie Cantemir, figura central a medievalismului romnesc. Aparent, poemul
reconstituie experiena iniiatic pe care o triete prinul moldav, odat cu expediia
documentar ntreprins n 1722, la Zidul Caucazian, unde urmeaz a-l ntlni pe protectorul
su politic, arul Petru I al Rusiei. Aciunea este schematizat, avnd n centru repetiia unei
reprezentaii de teatru pe care principele moldav o pregtete n onoarea arului, constituind,
de fapt, pretextul pentru o reevaluare i o reliefare a pesonajelor, a principiilor cluzitoare, a
forelor istorice i supraistorice care guverneaz destine.
Textul supus cercetrii a avut parte, dup publicare (1975), de o receptare minimal din
partea criticii de specialitate,ca i restul operei literare i filosofice, dealtfel, lucru aproape
firesc dac avem n vedere contextul istorico-ideologic i, implicit, idealul acelei epoci. Dei
anii 60 aduc un oarecare dezghe ideologic, cutumele epocii sunt supralicitate: Dramaturgia
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romneasc de inspiraie istoric a ntreprins, n anii notri, o adevrat reconsiderare a

noiunii de eroism i a realitilor sociale nelese n perspectiva lor istoric., nota Valeriu
Rpeanu n Prefaa celor dou volume de Dramaturgie romn contemporan, aprute n
1967 (DRC: 11), iar temele predilecte ale criticii dramatice sunt, pentru nc dou decenii,
creaia artistic expresie a spiritului revoluionar i umanismul revoluionar n aciune
(Faifer 2010: 126). Dac nainte de 1989 receptarea mininal beneficiaz de circumstanele
atenuante ale imperativelor epocii, n care scrierile nu se ncadrau nici ca problematic, nici ca
modaliti de realizare, tcerea de dup 1989 este nedreapt i de neneles. Alice Botez
lipsete din Repere n dramaturgia romn contemporan, competentul studiu al lui Florin
Faifer1 (Faifer 2010); N. Manolescu o expediaz fugitiv, ntr-o singur fraz, n Istoria sa
(Manolescu 2008); mai generoase sunt paginile din primul volum al Dicionarului General al
Literaturii Romne aprut sub auspiciile Academiei Romne (DGLR 2004), i meritorii
studiile Elvirei Sorohan reunite n Salonul literar cu prozatori contemporani romni i strini
(Sorohan 2014).
Alice Botez refuz cu ostentaie racordarea textului la profilul estetic i psihologic al
publicului nou, detandu-se cu fermitate de imperativele pseudoestetice, gest definitoriu
pentru o personalitate cu standarde morale nalte, de la care nu a abdicat pn la sfritul
vieii. n volumul de care ne ocupm, ea construiete o suprarealitate polivalent, stiliznd
simboluri scenice ntr-o oper sintetic, ce surprinde ritmurile interioare ale unor puternice i
reprezentative figuri. Dei a scris un singur text dramatic, exigenele scenei i sunt
binecunoscute nu doar din cuprinztoarele lecturi din literatura universal, pe marginea crora
are dese discuii cu Jeni Acterian (Acterian 1991), ci i datorit specialei legturi culturale i
spirituale pe care o are cu soul ei, Constantin Bulat, el nsui scriitor cu sute de pagini de
piese de teatru, proz i poezie rmase n manuscris, i artist plastic ce-i concepea singur
decorurile pentru creaiile sale dramatice, niciodat reprezentate.2
Pentru scrierea acestei evocri istorice, Alice Botez desfoar o intens activitate de
cercetare, cu scopul declarat de a reconstitui cu minuiozitate epoca istoric a personajului
principal (Dimitrie Cantemir) i alte falii temporale cu rol adiacent. Informaiile, cele mai
numeroase istorice i geografice, sunt adunate n final sub titlul Addenda. Note i comentarii
i constituie un sfert din paginile volumului. Ele ntregesc i uneori decripteaz spaiile
incifrate ale dramei, proieciile simbolice servind mesajului evocrii sau chiar numai pentru a
dezvlui polisemia, aluziile, alegoria (Botez 1975: 87). Textul dialogheaz n permanen cu
mari valori ale culturii, i, dei intriga e construit nu foarte complex, fr surprinztoare
rsturnri de situaii, se distaneaz mult de tiparul evocrilor istorice romneti.
Un alt element de noutate a logicii dramatice este deconspirarea motivului central al
scrierii oglinda, simbol fundamental al contiinei umane, element omniprezent n
construcia evocrii istorice, pe multiple paliere de semnificaie. 3 ntr-adevr, Alice Botez
utilizeaz strategii textuale plurisemiotice, nelegnd c replicile nu pot comunica total dect
cu ajutorul elementelor aparinnd altor paradigme semnice (mimica, gestualitatea, costumul,
obiectul scenic i proxemica), ntr-un spectacol polifonic, tinznd spre ceea ce Anne
Ubersfeld numea practic semiotic totalizant i semn printre semne (Ubersfeld: 58).
Ilustrnd simbolismul deghizat al lui E. Panofski, penetrnd cu o for iradiant asupra
ntregului text, oglinda trimite la semnificaii multiple, necesitnd lecturi concentrice i chei
de lectur adecvate (Panofsky 1999). Unele dintre ele sunt oferite cu generozitate de autoare,
Dramaturgii asupra crora se oprete Florin Faifer sunt Aurel Baranga, Horia Lovinescu, Paul Everac, Ion
Omescu, Teodor Mazilu, Tudor Popescu, Dumitru Solomon, Ion Bieu, D. R. Popescu, Marin Sorescu i Matei
Viniec.
2
Mai multe detalii depre creaia complex a lui Constantin Bulat n Botez, Grigorescu, Ionescu 1976.
3
Pentru problematica simbolismului oglinzii, al luminii i ntunericului, Biedermann 2002, Dicionar de
simboluri 1995, Dicionar 1995.
1
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n Prolog, didascaliile supradimensionate i comentariile finale, altele ns provoac cititorul,

deja bulversat de iconomia unui text n care unitatea de concepie e miestru camuflat n
forma unui fals fragmentarism. Am aezat restituirea aceasta sub semnul oglinzii al
dioptrelor oglinda ca simbol pentru problematica spiritului modern postmedieval, declar
Alice Botez n prolog, cu trimitere imediat ctre Metafizica lui Dimitrie Cantemir, oper
scris la 1700, publicat pentru prima dat n romnete n traducerea lui Nicodim Locusteanu
n 1928 (Cantemir 1928) i recenzat de Alice Botez n Vremea din 1 decembrie 1940
(Botez 1940). Obsesia pentru semnul oglind o regsim printre preocuprile scriitoarei cu
mult nainte de Dialogul la Zidul Caucazian, n Cartea realitilor fantastice, jurnalul scris
ntre 1937-1938. i prietenii din grupul Criterion (Alexandru Dragomir i Mircea
Vulcnescu) nuaneaz n repetate dezbateri filosofice problematica oglinzii, a lumilor
interioare, posibile, a virtualitilor, influenai fiind de prelegerile cursului de metafizic al lui
Nae Ionescu.
ntreaga pies e construit avnd ca fundament scenic al atmosferei tensionate o replic
antinomic a scenei circulare imaginat de Ion Sava n Teatrul rotund (Faifer 2010a: 115):
Podium de forma unei calote sferice, uor nlat, la care se ajunge prin dou rnduri de
trepte aezate fa n fa. Jumtatea posterioar a calotei are suprafaa accidentat, astfel c
personajele, care vin din aceast parte, apar i dispar alternativ. Scenele se desfoar n aripa
superioar a calotei. Un cadru lucios, metalic nconjoar podiumul, avnd rol simbolic: este
dioptra sau oglinda propriei contiine. ntreaga desfurare este pus astfel sub semnul
oglinzii. Aici se reflect evocrile i gndurile care bntuie nchipuirea Prinului. Cadrul este
astfel aezat, nct s oglindeasc personajele chiar puin mai nainte de apariia real a
actorilor n scen. (Botez 1975: 18)
Semnalizrile alegorice ale oglinzii, acest spaiu al limpezirilor morale, se amplific
permanent pe parcursul textului. n cadru apar i dispar, ncremenesc i se rotesc succesiv sau
simultan, imagini ale personajelor, cu grade diferite de claritate, sub- sau supradimensionate,
nvlmeal de umbre, zone luminate alternativ, tablouri celebre, ipostaze ale personajului
principal la vrste diferite. Al doilea cltor, Filip Solitarul, poart la gt o oglind de aram,
oglinda morii, crescut nc din natere, multiplicat apoi i de ctre celelalte personaje, ca
purttoare a memoriei faptelor bune, ca paz a minii i a gurii. Atitudinea Prinului e una
contrastant, refuznd inial oglindirea, de teama judecii instanei superioare, ajungnd apoi
la contiina propriei superioriti: i, m rog, ce mai vezi n ea ? Poate c nu numai cele
bune i cele rele, deodat chiar, sau unele dup altele! Lumea toat ns, odat i raiul, i
iadul; i cele vzute cu ochii trupului, i cele vzute doar cu ochii minii, cnd vederea este
bun! (Botez 1975: 76) Pe un alt palier al metaforei, dioptra trimite la categoria crilor de
comportament, scrise fie sub forma unui dialog, fie structurate pe capitole, devenite o tradiie
n aria cultural a Bizanului, seria fiind iniiat de acelai Philippos Monotropos (Al doilea
cltor) ca normative ale vieii morale. Alice Botez construiete un supracod dramatic al
dioptrei i personajelor, suprapunnd triunghiurile actaniale ale lui Anne Ubersfeld
(triunghiul activ, cel psihologic i cel ideologic) (Ubersfeld 1999), ntr-un echilibru n care
actanilor li se atribuie o ncrctur suplimentar de semnificaii, explicitat, de exemplu,
pentru acelai Filip Solitarul, n Nota 20c: Ca personaj al evocrii, Filip Solitarul nu numai
c reprezint direcia teologic, dar se constituie ca o voce acuzatoare. Rolul su este dublu:
amintete eroului abaterile sale de la concepiile scolastice, dar, mai ales, susine, ntreine i
agraveaz starea de limit a unui om bolnav de moarte, care continu s lupte pentru s-i
mplini un ideal de via ca atare, polarizeaz tensiunea tragic la cellalt pol fiind vocile
antagoniste stimulatoare ale faptei i eroismului. (Botez 1975: 97)
Personajele, majoritatea denominate categorial (Recitatori, Primul i Al Doilea Cltor,
Mscriciul, Secretarul, Augurii, Alanii, Ostaii, Femeile medee, Btrna) sunt puternic
reliefate prin respiraia ampl a replicilor n alternan cu replici scurte, ntrerupte brutal de
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indicaii scenice i regizorale. Cuvntul rostit e n opoziie cu pantomima, ntr-un spaiu din ce
n ce mai aglomerat sonor, ntr-o agresivitate continu, redundante, augumentate de suprafaa
reflectant a oglinzii: aciuni mimate, proprii epocilor diverse, combinate pn la absurd i
grotesc, micri de grup transformate n revolt i iconoclastie, legminte, serenade,
nvestituri, judeci, lupte corp la corp, [...] pai, galop de cai, zngnit de arme; toate aceste
zgomote, dei deprtate, fiind declanate deodat, formeaz un vacarm difuz, scitor. Din
timp n timp, nete ca dintr-un mecanism brusc defectat unul sau altul din zgomotele
indicare, asurzitor. (Botez 1975: 21).
Disoluia limbajului (prin incipit-uri lsate n suspans, prin ignorarea partenerului de
dialog, prin trecerea brusc pe un alt plan de comunicare), rostirile cu nflorituri, sintaxa
arhaic, frazarea melopeic, incantatorie: La plnsul neplnsul, la prohodul jertfelor, aduceimi-l voi, strbuni voievzi, i tu, cel dinti cernitule bazileu, i tu, netihnit printe, care pe
acesta l-ai ales i cu neizbvit solie mi l-ai mpovrat i mi l-ai dat de brbat, iar eu i-am
nscut pe fiii notri din os de domn i de bazilei. Pe acesta, acum amurgitul, chemai-l, pe
pribeagul i unsul vostru cu taina neodihnei i cu hainul dor al patriei mpovrai-l ! Cu trie
nenceput ncercai-l. (Botez 1975: 28), plcerea provocrii personajelor i a lectorilor prin
ghicitori existeniale: Dou haine am, una larg, o mbrac uor, nu se rupe, nu se stric, nu se
murdrete, m pot ndoi din ale, pot face temenele, m pot tvli i orice a face duce la
tvleal, alta strmt, o pstrez n dulap pentru zile mari sau pentru una anume, n sfrit,
mereu m codesc s-o mbrac, i, dac ar fi dup mine, n-a mbrca-o niciodat. Ce e una i ce
e alta ? (Botez 1975: 24), integrarea n textul piesei a unor fragmente din crile lui Dimitrie
Cantemir4, selectate, prelucrate i rostite n opoziie de ctre cele dou grupuri de recitatori,
iat doar cteva stratageme care imprim piesei de teatru un suflu modern. Inter-relaionarea
personajelor e favorizat i de o subtil reglare a distanelor n jocul scenic, repere
simbolizatoare prin excelen, apropierea i deprtarea interpersonal i fa de spaiul
circular al oglinzii fiind semne relevante care completeaz replicile.
Unitatea de spaiu a evocrii istorice e completat de unitatea de timp (o zi de la
nceputul lunii septembrie), ns rsfrngerile n oglind includ i factorul temporal. Actanii
se ntorc mereu n epoci diferite, ca o invazie a timpului subiectiv i o ilustrare elocvent a
sfierii luntrice a Principelui, prin vestimentaie specific i aceesorii, mbinnd contrarii:
Vor aprea mpreun, n sfidtoare nelegere sau n admis adversitate: clugri sfrijii,
jegoi, alturi de lupttori de circ, arunctori cu discul atletici, goi; filozofi i cavaleri
rtcitori; prelai, crturari, purtnd nsemnele profesiei lor, alturi de clovni i acrobai,
curtezane, hangie, mercenari. Costume de asemenea strident opuse, mbinnd somptuozitatea
pn la luxur cu srcia pn la mizerie, strlucirea cu goliciunea. [] Se poate face uz cu
profuziune de accesorii: cape, spade, arme, flamuri, steaguri, cupe, icoane, halebarde, platoe,
instrumente, instrumentiti, muzic divers cnd armonizat, cnd nesincronizat (poate fi
chiar Bach dup Schnberg sau simultan. Sau forme muzicale proprii epocilor, muzic
compus de Prinul nsui, sau zgomote concrete, muzic sincopat, la liber alegere i
inspiraie). (Botez 1975: 21)
Alice Botez i pune personajele n posturi de evaluare i autoevaluare, prin raportarea
permanent la sine, n dioptra contiinei i la ceilali. ntre dramele inspirate de istoria
naional (trepte spre paroxism, istorii ncrncenate) i legendele tragice (intensitate pe
margini de abis) (Faifer 2010b), evocarea istoric se detaeaz printr-un spectaculos balans
al imaginarului. Recurgnd la procedee romantice verificate (situaii-limit, travestiri, tirade),
autoarea recontextualizeaz masca, prin excelen element de invocare a proteciei divine
Sacrosantae scientiae indepingibilis imago, Divanul sau glceava neleptului cu lumea, Loca obscura in
catechisis, Monarchiarum phisica examinatio, Hronicul vechimii romno-moldo-vlahilor, Istoria ieroglific.
4
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(Pandolfi 1971) i alegorie a diferitelor tipuri umane.5 Cu trimitere explicit la Istoria

Ieroglific, chipurile pe care le poart Mscriciul (inorogul, corbul i camilopardalul)
distaneaz, sau, dimpotriv, apropie personajele de drama Principelui, recunoscut sau nu.
Din pcate, analiza noastr e limitat doar asupra textului dramatic publicat; textul
performat lipsete, deoarece, pn n acest moment, nimeni nu a reuit punerea n scen a
Dialogului la Zidul caucazian. Totui, chiar n absena contextualizrii scenice, a relaiei
directe cu dintre text i spectator, o analiz semiotico-pragmatic, dup modelul actanial al
lui Greimas (Greimas 1975), ar fi posibil, avnd n vedere abundena marcatorilor lexicali i
didascaliile cuprinztoare, totul convieuind ntr-un limbaj specific, cu modaliti proprii de
funcionare.
Jurnalul- Cartea realitilor fantastice ne apare acum ca o aglutinare a unor coordonate
ideatice de autentic esen mistic, recognoscibile n toate celelalte scrieri. Comparativ cu
alte jurnale, scrise n aproximativ aceiai ani, de exemplu, cele ale prietenilor criterioniti
Mircea Vulcnescu, Mircea Eliade, Jeni i Aravir Acterian, volumul nu respect conveniile
acestui tip de scriitur diaric, ci se constituie ntr-o meditaie subtil asupra posibilitilor
fiinei umane de a purta o lupt permanent ntre bine i ru, ntre ntuneric i lumin. Practic,
jurnalul limpezete un destin de excepie, aflat la confluena ntre dou epoci culturale
incompatibile, un drum ascensional al unei singurti interiorizate, al crui reflex salvator al
izolrii vdete un instinct neabtut al suferinei. Lumea creia i se abandoneaz Alice Botez e
una compozit, un spaiu de realiti aparte, fantastice, o irealitate, un loc al contrastelor i a
antinomiilor, locuin a unei contiine superioare. Izolarea, ca o consecin a suferinei de a
nu ti cine eti, denot cu asupr de msur ceea ce Nae Ionescu numea necesitatea omului
de a se evada(Ionescu 1991: 170), reflexivul accentund dramatismul efortului de sublimare
a materiei, de ntoarcere la o obrie revelatorie.
Lumea lui Alice Botez concentreaz o sum de elemente, indici ai cutrii dinamice i
devoratoare : un amestec de legend i basm, de ireal i real, de sacru i profan, de imaterial i
material; ntregul cosmos personal e construit prin reveniri succesive, prin treceri ale pragului
i chemri spre alt lume, iar unul din cele mai necesare gesturi n iconomia simbolic a
trecerii este cel de a deschide poarta spre un dincolo sau dincoace n oglind.
Dac n primele pagini ale Jurnalului lumea pare inform, asemenea unui neant biblic n
care toate tceau ca la nceput, treptat spaiul se transfigureaz, cptnd alt fel de
dimensiuni. O lume recompus, n care opoziia aici / acolo se metamorfozeaz cu
agresivitate n perechea durere / fericire i apoi transleaz n dubletul ntuneric / lumin,
definitoriu pentru comprehensiunea evoluiei spirituale a ucenicei lui Nae Ionescu.
Alice Botez construiete o lecie esenial, n prim-planul creia se lupt, rnd pe rnd,
renunarea la identitate i supunerea oarb cu orgoliul motivat. Cromatica explicit e agresivsimbolic, fundamentat pe un intertext religios, comun sistemului semiotic al mitologiilor
europene i cretinismului ulterior.
Tentaia de a citi Jurnalul printr-o gril hermeneutic tranant-dual, n care lumina
reprezint divinitatea, biruina spiritului asupra materiei, cunoaterea, comuniunea cu sacrul,
nelepciunea, i, n opoziie, ntunericul haosul, deprtarea de Dumnezeu, limit a
cunoaterii6, este foarte mare, ns devine absolut necesar o exigen sporit, dublat de fine
nuanri, pentru a nu cdea n ispita lecturii facile etichetate din start. Vom vedea c cele dou
elemente primordiale se substituie reciproc sau se combin n felurite proporii, iar rezultatul e
o lume definitiv interiorizat i personalizat de o singurtate revelatorie.
Atmosfera creat de alternana aleatorie a non-culorilor pune o mare problem de
receptare cititorului grbit i neobinuit cu stilul repetitiv i greu de urmrit la o prim lectur.
5
6
O analiz pertinent i complex a mtilor animaliere din opera cantemirian n Creu 2013.
Cf Biedermann 2002, Chevalier, Gheerbrant 1995, Dicionar 1995.
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ns o reluare a textului relev impulsurile contradictorii ale scriiturii, cci albul i negrul i
schimb adesea ntre ele semnificaiile iniiale : imagini infernale, negre, nlocuiau imagini
pure, paradisiace sau invers. Nici o lumin ntre cele dou, aa c triai un film nesat de
vrji.
Lumina este cea care favorizeaz desprinderea de cotidian, de imediatul limitat, condiie
a transfigurrii spirituale, a nlrii n mpria biruinei. Fiile de lumin adpostesc
harfele cereti din coardele crora se mprtie armonii n mpria eternelor lumini.
Semnele acestei lumi sunt n permanent micare, frmiare i redimensionare, cercul de foc
purificator se sparge n vluri de raze pe pnza ntunericului, adunndu-se napoi n tios
cerc de lumin, n mijlocul cruia e viaa lui Dumnezeu.
Prezena explicit a lui Dumnezeu motiveaz i salveaz o arhitectur a lumii, care, sub
presiunea forelor ntunericului, ajunge n pragul nopii apocaliptice o mare de umbre,
posedate de un mister demonic. Sustragerea din ntunericul cel mai dinafar, locul n care
libertatea umbrelor era imens i fantezia lor drceasc, va consta ntr-un efort de asumare a
unui pelerinaj personal, mai nti nfruntnd propriile temeri ntre spaiul de trecere dintre
lumi, o primejdioas ap lat i neagr care, la fel ca n basme, la ntretierea dintre Lumea
Alb i Trmul cellalt, nu curgea, nu se usca, nu se ncreea, nici nu tria, nici nu palpita,
caracteristici ce o fac pe Alice Botez s retriasc acut o viziune avnd n centru faa smolit a
satanei.
Refugiul n oniric este iluzoriu, utopic, lumea din vis pstrnd caracteristicile increatului
: nu era sldat nici de ap i nici de aer, nici de lumin i nici de ntuneric, la mijloc de Ru
i Bun, pe muchia incertitudinii ontologice.
Odat ce visele negre, posedate i posesive, sunt nlturate, cltoria iniiatic ncepe n
mijlocul neamului de oameni legendari, nenumii, dar cluze sigure pe drumul cunoaterii,
ntruct unul din uriai i ridic o grdin de lumin. Urmtorul refugiu din faa unei
himerice liniti, bntuit de mti negre care capt via proprie din spaimele celorlali, va fi
o frenetic ap argintie, o oglind ce reflect prea strlucitoarea lumin de lun.
Popasurile pe care cltoarea le noteaz cu bogie de amnunte n Jurnalul su sunt tot
attea spovedanii, tot attea cderi i ridicri, o metanoia permanent. Perspectivele plurale
trdeaz totodat un stil existenial propriu, o singurtate cutat i provocat. n lumea de
irealiti mai reale dect realitatea concretului zilnic, eroina viseaz la perfeciune, aspir la o
topire n naltul luminii.
Dramatismul este accentuat de oximoronice lumini ntunecate, deznodmntul amnat al
luptei fiind devastator pentru declarata dependen de lumin a autoarei. ntunericul nsui are
via proprie, ns drumul lui e, inevitabil, nclinat spre autodistrugere, scriitoarea acumulnd
o ntreag serie gradualizat de verbe : se fluidizeaz, se cltorete, tremur, plnge, se
chinuie, realiznd, n completare, un superlativ asemntor biblicului ntuneric cel mai
dinafar : i mai ntunericul.
Izbvirea din acest labirint kafkian se poate realiza doar prin lupta cea bun, prin
purcederea n frumoasa cltorie n lumea harului. Aici nu mai regseti nimic din fiina
lucrurilor obinuite, deoarece aici invadeaz legenda, i mitul, i visul, tot attea coordonate
ale ruperii de materie. Spaiul sacralizat nu e, ns, suficient, singur, ci are nevoie de
participarea voluntar a spiritului, iar Alice Botez se apr de ameitoarea catastrof
prbuirea a toate n negrul adnc prin contemplarea luminii celei nenserate, prin rugciune
: ruga era simpl, te druieti rznd de iluzia suferinei, dar trebuie s calci suferina cu
dureri de carne omeneasc.
Rzboiul dintre alb i negru continu pe tot parcursul Jurnalului. Sunt zile (i nopi, ca
s respectm convenia dualitii propus de la nceput) n care biruina pare s aparin, pe
rnd, ambelor tabere : razele de lumin es un joc geometric, la exterior se pierd n ntuneric,
dar n miez rmn egale cu ele nsele.
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n-fiinarea are drept rezultat o anti-lume, o nscenare a unei piese de teatru cu umbre
drept personaje: erpi, dre negre, sparte, lucioase, cscate n perei, drumuri fatidice
destinate anume pentru straniul mers al umbrelor, cu acelai decor haotic n care elemente
ale unei naturi potrivnice fac schimb de roluri cu elementele arhitecturale : dealuri, vi, cripte,
prpstii, uvoiuri de ape, goluri negre i rotunde, ploaia i noroiul ce desfoar pe caldarm,
ntr-o oglind deformat, un film n alb i negru, grote frmntate cu mna din ntuneric.
Cutrile esenializate i gsesc un liman n momentul n care lumina sacralizant i
demonstreaz puterea, lsnd peste tot semne ale permanenei divine. Dup drumuri
ntortocheate i eforturi de rupere de materie, de refugiu n spiritual i de nelegere a
iluminrii, universul lui Alice Botez sparge monotonia cromatic printr-un contrast calitativ
puternic; cu o privire de ansamblu, din toat lumea rmne doar o pictur cu lalele roii,
esena vieii fantastice din lucruri.
Biruina luminii se arat definitiv, spaiul i timpul se reaeaz pe temelii statornice,
drumul zbaterilor i al cutrilor a gsit o cale de ieire : ceea ce se ntmpla erau numai
felurile n care m gndea pe mine Dumnezeu.
La aproape zece ani de la ncheierea corpului principal al Jurnalului, n 1946,
pelerinajul lui Alice Botez pare s se fi ncheiat. Tendinele autodistructive au disprut,
cmpurile semantice pstreaz acum echilibrul ctigat cu greu. Lumina a devenit rezistent,
fie i n oglind, la captul suferinelor. Fr a-i diminua receptivitatea i reverberaia
tristeilor existeniale, autoarea poate s declare, cu o linite aparent : Nimic nu m doare.
Neschimbat ns rmne singurtatea, ca temelie indestructibil, neschimbate
chemarea luminii i tentaia ntunericului, drumul ntortocheat, pelerinajul cutrilor,
simboluri pregnante ce rzbat din ntreaga oper literar, fascinant i greu de nchis n
limite ale interpretrii. Scriitoarea Alice Botez ne ofer numeroase demonstraii ale tehnicilor
i strategiilor stilistice moderne: multiple chei de lectur, cu scopul declarat de a facilita o
decriptare a textului, intertextualitate, alegoria labirintului i a oglinzii, tehnica dedublrii,
toate prile componente fiind deopotriv interesante i uluitoare prin fora de sugestie, prin
corespondenele stabilite, prin volumul copleitor de date pe care l nmagazineaz, fcnd
nejustificat tcerea sub care critica literar a trecut, pn acum, aceste scrieri.
Bibliografie
Acterian 1991: Jeni Acterian, Jurnalul unei fiine greu de mulumit, Bucureti, Editura
Humanitas.
Biedermann 2002: Hans Biedermann, Dicionar de simboluri, I, Traducere din limba german
de Dana Petrache, Bucureti, Ed. Saeculum I.O.
Botez 1940: Alice Botez, Pretexte: cri i oameni, Vremea, 1 decembrie 1940.
Botez 1975: Alice Botez, Dioptrele sau Dialog la zidul caucazian. Evocare istoric,
Bucureti, Editura Eminescu.
Botez 2001: Alice Botez, Cartea realitilor fantastice. Jurnal, Ediie ngrijit de Fabian
Anton, Bucureti, Editura Curtea Veche.
Botez, Grigorescu, Ionescu 1976: Alice Botez, Dan Grigorescu, Radu Ionescu, Constantin
Bulat, Repere de Margareta Sterian, Bucureti, Muzeul de Art al Republicii Socialiste
Romnia.
Cantemir 1928: Dimitrie Cantemir, Metafizica, traducere de Nicodim Locusteanu, Prefa de
Em. C. Grigora, Bucureti, Editura Ancora.
Chevalier, Gheerbrant 1995: Jean Chevalier, Alain Gheerbrant, Dicionar de simboluri,
Mituri, vise, obiceiuri, gesturi, forme, figuri, culori, numere, Coordonatori Micaela Slvescu,
Laureniu Zoica, traductori Daniel Nicolescu, Sanda Oprescu, Micaela Slvescu, Doina
Uricariu, Victor-Dinu Vldulescu, Olga Zaicik, Laureniu Zoica Vol. II, E O, Bucureti,
Ed. Artemis.
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Creu 2013: Bogdan Creu, Inorogul la porile Orientului. Bestiarul lui Dimitrie Cantemir.
Studiu comparativ, vol. I-II, Iai, Editura Institutul European.
DGLR 2004: Dicionarul general al literaturii romne, vol. I, A/B, Bucureti, Editura
Univers Enciclopedic.
Dicionar 1995: Dicionar biblic, Societatea Misionar Romn, Traductori Liviu Pup, John
Tipei,Oradea, Editura Cartea Cretin.
DRC 1967: Dramaturgie romn contemporan, Prefa i note de Valeriu
Rpeanu,
vol. I, Bucureti, Editura Tineretului.
Eco 2009: Umberto Eco, De la arbore spre labirint. Studii istorice despre semn i
interpretare, Traducere de tefania Mincu, Iai, Editura Polirom.
Ionescu 1991: Nae Ionescu, Curs de metafizic, Ediie ngrijit de Marin Diaconu, Bucureti
Editura Humanitas.
Faifer 2010a: Florin Faifer, Incursiuni n istoria literaturii dramatice romneti. Regsiri,
Ediia a III-a, revzut i adugit, Iai, Editura Universitas XXI.
Faifer 2010b: Florin Faifer, Incursiuni n istoria teatrului universal (de la origini pn la
Renatere), Theatrum mundi, Iai, Editura Timpul.
Greimas 1975: A. J. Greimas, Despre sens. Eseuri semiotice, Traducere i prefa de Maria
Carpov, Bucureti, Editura Univers.
Manolescu 2008: Nicolae Manolescu, Istoria critic a literaturii romne. Cinci secole de
literatur, Piteti, Editura Paralela 45.
Pandolfi 1971: Vito Pandolfi, Istoria teatrului universal, vol. II, Traducere din limba italian
i note de Lia Busuioceanu i Oana Busuioceanu, Bucureti, Editura Meridiane.
Panofsky 1999: Erwin Panofsky, Arhitectura gotic i gndirea scolastic, Traducere i note
de Marina Vazaca, Cu o postfa de Sorin Dumitrescu, Bucureti, Editura Anastasia.
Sorohan 2014: Elvira Sorohan, Salon literar cu prozatori contemporani romni i strini
(concert de nchidere), Iai, Editura Junimea.
Ubersfeld 1999: Anne Ubersfeld, Termenii cheie ai analizei teatrului, traducere de Georgeta
Loghin, Iai, Editura Institutul European.
This work was cofinaced from the European Social Fund through Sectoral Operational
Programme
Human
Resources
Development
2007-2013,
project
number
POSDRU/159/1.5/S/140863, Competitive Researchers in Europe in the Field of Humanities
and Socio-Economic Sciences. A Multi-regional Research Network.
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THESES AND ANTITHESES IN THE LINGUISTIC WORKS OF ION HELIADERDULESCU

Andreea-Sabina NAPEU
Abstract: Ion Heliade Rdulescu, one of the most remarkable personalities in the Romanian
culture, was considered the creator of the modern grammar due to his involvement in the
process of reinforcing the canons of the literary language. Moreover, all his linguistic
contributions were related to his strong interest in developing the modern Romanian
language.
Keywords: linguistics, modernization, Italian influence, neologism, Romanization.
1. Personalitatea cultural a lui Ion Heliade Rdulescu
Personalitatea cultural a lui Ion Heliade Rdulescu (1802-1872) a cunoscut mai multe
direcii. Astfel, el a fost scriitor, filolog, traductor, gramatician-lingvist, jurnalist, dar i
membru fondator al Academiei Romne, fiind primul preedinte al acesteia n perioada 18671870. De-a lungul timpului, acesta s-a bucurat de numeroase aprecieri; a fost considerat de
George Clinescu a doua mare personalitate, dup Dimitrie Cantemir (Clinescu, 1988, p.
131).
Ion Heliade Rdulescu i-a pus amprenta asupra evoluiei culturii romneti din prima
jumtate a secolului al XIX-lea, prin ncercrile sale de a se implica n numeroase domenii
(literatur, gramatic, lingvistic, jurnalism), investind n acest sens toate resursele de care
dispunea. Martor al evenimentelor celei mai importante epoci din istoria romnilor, acesta a
pus bazele culturii romneti prepaoptiste prin pasiunea sa pentru cunoatere, prin puterea sa
de munc, prin inteligena recunoscut de criticii vremii, prin ideile inovatoare pe care le
avea, dar, mai ales, prin credina c trebuie s ndeplineasc un rol n istoria romnilor: acela
de mare crturar (Heliade Rdulescu, 1973, p. 7), dup cum nsui se caracterizeaz. n ceea
ce privete domeniul literaturii, el devine un ntemeietor al curentului romantic romnesc,
scriind proz i poezii, cu coninut satiric. Pentru contribuia n acest domeniu, Bogdan
Petriceicu Hasdeu l numete printele literaturii romne (Rosetti, Gheie, 1969, p. 7). n
plus, prin traducerile din Alphonse de Lamartine, Jean de La Fontaine, Nicolas Boileau,
Friedrich Schiller i George Gordon Byron, Ion Heliade Rdulescu aduce n atenia publicului
romnesc operele din literatura occidental. Prin activitatea filologic, acesta a contribuit la
dezvoltarea limbii literare n secolul al XIX-lea. Mai mult dect att, a fost fondatorul
primului ziar din ara Romneasc Curierul romnesc. Aadar, numele su este legat de
numeroase realizri care au dus la dezvoltarea culturii i literaturii romneti.
2. Orientarea lingvistic pn n anul 1841
Cercetrile limbii din secolul al XIX-lea fceau referire la problema modernizrii i
unificrii acesteia. Gramatica romneasc a lui Ion Heliade Rdulescu, care circula sub
form de manuscris nc din anul 1820, i care a fost tiprit la Sibiu n anul 1828, a fost
redactat dup modelul gramaticii lui Charles-Constant Le Tellier. Gramatica lui Heliade
dezvolta problemele legate de normarea limbii romne literare, ndreptndu-se ctre unitatea
limbii i mbogirea lexicului. Normarea limbii reprezenta un factor esenial pentru evoluia
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acesteia. n aceast direcie, Heliade considera c, la baza unificrii limbii romne literare,
stau textele religioase, demontnd astfel toate ideile care circulau n epoc i respingnd
ncercrile latinitilor, care impuneau un model abstract. n accepiunea lui Heliade, una
realist, de altfel, calea prin care se poate realiza unificarea limbii romne este adoptarea unui
model concret de limb scris: limba textelor religioase din secolul al XVIII-lea, care era mai
unitar. mbogind aceast limb veche prin derivare i mprumuturi din limba latin, dar i
prin valorificarea elementelor din limba vorbit, Heliade i aduce contribuia la unificarea
limbii literare.
Ideile lui Heliade referitoare la normarea limbii se regsesc mai ales n corespondena
purtat cu Costache Negruzzi. n demersul de mbogire a limbii, Ion Heliade Rdulescu se
bazeaz pe urmtoarele principii: dreptul cuvnt, armonie i energie (Heliade Rdulescu,
1073, p. 85), aa cum reiese dintr-una din scrisorile ctre Negruzzi, din anul 1836. Pe de o
parte, primul principiu aparine raionalismului, iar pe de alt parte, urmtoarele dou aparin
esteticului. Astfel, dreptul cuvnt determin romanizarea cuvintelor mprumutate, armonia
impune respectarea criteriilor estetice n modificarea formei cuvintelor, iar energia presupune
evitarea formelor lungi ale cuvintelor. Prin mbinarea raionalismului i a esteticului, Ion
Heliade Rdulescu ncearc s creeze o limb corect i perfect (Heliade Rdulescu, 1973,
p. 104), dup cum nsui i mrturisea lui Costache Negruzzi ntr-o alt scrisoare din anul
1838.
nc din Prefaa Gramaticii romneti se supun ateniei cteva idei care i aparineau
lui Heliade, referitoare la problema ortografiei, pe de o parte, dar i la problema mbogirii
vocabularului, pe de alt parte. Se remarc simpatia teoreticianului pentru alfabetul latin, cu
meniunea c acesta nu propune nlocuirea efectiv a alfabetului chirilic, ci simplificarea
acestuia prin reducerea numrului de slove chirilice la 29. Acest demers a reprezentat prima
faz spre nlocuirea alfabetului chirilic cu cel latin, fapt care s-a concretizat n anul 1836.
Referitor la problema mbogirii vocabularului, studiul neologismelor ocup o parte
important n Prefaa gramaticii, precizndu-se c introducerea n limb a acestor cuvinte noi
se datoreaz necesitii culturale; cu alte cuvinte, o limb bogat este mai interesant i mai
plcut, iar dezvoltarea diferitelor domenii din tiint oblig mbuntirea vocabularului cu
termeni specifici. Totodat, n Prefa se subliniaz faptul c mbogirea vocabularului se
realizeaz prin dou mijloace: formarea cuvintelor prin mijloace proprii i mprumutul din
alte limbi. Heliade susine prezena cuvintelor mprumutate, prin introducerea de termeni din
limba latin sau din alte limbi romanice, preciznd n acelai timp c aceste mprumuturi
trebuie fcute cu msur, fiind folosite acolo unde este cu adevrat nevoie. Astfel de
propuneri fcute de Heliade au fost confirmate de evoluia ulterioar a limbii. Prin problemele
prezentate n Prefaa lucrrii de gramatic din anul 1828 se confirm faptul c Ion Heliade
Rdulescu ncearc s creeze o limb unitar, care s fie utilizat n diferite domenii culturale,
lingvistice i tiinifice.
3. Tendine de modernizare (occidentalizare) a limbii romne dup anul 1841
Dup ideile sintetizate n gramatica de la 1828, ncepnd cu anul 1840 se contureaz
preferina lui Ion Heliade Rdulescu pentru italienism, fapt care a reprezentat nceputul celei
de-a doua perioade a activitii sale lingvistice. Astfel, apare lucrarea Paralelism ntre limba
romn i italian, o lucrare nceput n anul 1832, care a fost publicat n Curier de ambe
sexe n perioada 1840-1842, prin intermediul creia Ion Heliade Rdulescu i valorific ideile
italienizante. De altfel, tendina ctre italienizarea limbii romne apare la Heliade nc din
Prefaa gramaticii din anul 1828, unde acesta spune c limba romn trebuie s semene ntru
toate cu cea italieneasc (Heliade Rdulescu, 1973, p. 30). Aceste idei care susin direcia
italienist reprezint, de fapt, un alt pas ctre relatinizarea limbii, care a nceput n secolul al
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XVIII-lea n Transilvania. Heliade este astfel un continuator al procesului de regenerare a

culturii romneti i de modernizare a limbii, proces nceput de reprezentanii colii Ardelene
nc de la sfritul secolului al XVIII-lea.
Pentru a demonstra apropierea dintre cele dou limbi, romna i italiana, Heliade
public partea a II-a a Paralelismului n anul 1841, intitulat Forma sau gramatica acestor
dou dialecte; acesta susine c aceeai gramatic st la baza ambelor dialecte, ns pierde din
vedere faptul c cele dou limbi sunt diferite din punct de vedere al substratului, al istoriei i
al culturii.
n anul 1841 apare Prescurtare la gramatica limbei romno-italiene, care se ocup
strict de morfologie i ortografie i care detaliaz modalitile de italienizare. n ceea ce
privete morfologia, aceste tendine italienizante sunt evidente, unele elemente prezentate n
Gramatica romneasc de la 1828 fiind reluate, ns, sub aspect diferit. Aceste modificri
vizeaz substantivele, care sunt grupate acum n cinci declinri, verbele, care sunt prezentate
mai detaliat, dar i pronumele. Influena italian se regsete cu precdere n forma termenilor
gramaticali, modificat dup model italian. Referitor la ortografie, definit de Heliade ca fiind
arta de a scrie drept, dup regule priimite de dreptul cuvnt i dup nsuirile unei limbe
(Heliade Rdulescu, 1980, p. 455), n capitolul consacrat acesteia, se enumer reguli care
susin acum noua concepie italienizant a autorului.
Ion Heliade Rdulescu este considerat un reprezentant al italienismului extremist, iar
tendina italienizant se manifest n special n ultima perioad a activitii sale, perioad n
care italienismele se regsesc din ce n ce mai mult n scrierile sale, mai ales n traducerile pe
care le realiza. Italienismul ncepe s fie exagerat, devenind astfel o reacie la alte manifestri
latiniste; aadar, Heliade credea c limba romn se mai aseaman cu limba latin doar prin
prisma lexicului, gramatica fiind diferit.
4. Concluzii
Activitatea lingvistic a lui Ion Heliade Rdulescu a avut un impact asupra ntregului
proces de unificare a limbii romne. Importana acestei activiti const n faptul c a
consolidat normele limbii literare, n prim faz, bazndu-se pe modelul textelor religioase, un
model unitar; mai mult dect att, toate ncercrile de modificare a limbii erau respinse cu
vehemen. Astfel, n prima parte a activitii sale, autorul considera c, prin mbogirea i
prelucrarea limbii vechi, se va crea o nou limb cu ajutorul creia se va putea comunica
nemijlocit n toate domeniile culturale, tiinifice i lingvistice. Prin ncercarea de a crea
aceasta limb folosind elemente vechi, tradiionale (limba din crile bisericeti, cuvinte din
diferitele dialecte populare) care se mbin cu elementele inovatoare (neologismele), Ion
Heliade Rdulescu deine un rol hotrtor n aceast etap de modernizare i unificare a limbii
romne literare.
A doua etap a activitii sale lingvistice continu procesul de modernizare a limbii
prin apropierea lui Heliade de italienism. Astfel limba acestuia cunoate o evoluie clar, de la
vocabularul popular din Muntenia, la neologismele italiene. Teoretizrile italienizante, duse
la extrem, dar i ncercrile autorului de a le pune n practic, au subliniat nc o dat faptul c
modernizarea limbii romne era un lucru necesar. Aadar, Ion Heliade Rdulescu, un creator
al gramaticii romneti moderne, a contribuit la dezvoltarea, unificarea i modernizarea limbii
romne literare prin ideile sale inovatoare, fapt care a determinat apariia unui adevrat
moment Heliade n cultura noastr romneasc.
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5. Bibliografie
Clinescu, 1988 Clinescu, George, Istoria literaturii romne de la origini pn n
prezent, ediia a II-a, Bucureti, Editura Minerva.
Costinescu, 1979 Costinescu, Mariana, Normele limbii literare n gramaticile
romneti, Bucureti, Editura Didactic i Pedagogic.
Diaconescu, 1974 Diaconescu, Paula, Elemente de istorie a limbii romne literare
moderne, Partea I-Probleme de normare a limbii romne literare moderne (1830-1880),
Bucureti.
Heliade Rdulescu, 1973 Heliade Rdulescu, Ion, Scrieri lingvistice, ediie i studiu
de Ion Popescu-Sireteanu, Bucureti, Editura tiinific.
Heliade Rdulescu, 1980 Heliade Rdulescu, Ion, Gramatica romneasc, ediie i
studiu de Valeria Guu-Romalo, Bucureti, Editura Eminescu.
Rosetti, Gheie, 1969 Studii de istoria limbii romne literare-secolul XIX, studiu de
Al. Rosetti i Ion Gheie, Bucureti, Editura pentru literatur.
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THE 1956 DEBATE. SUBVERTING THE PRIMACY OF THE TEXT?1

Viviana IACOB
Abstract: the article presents a series of stage adaptations for Shakespeares As you like it
in order to show how the 1956 debate on retheatricalizing the theatre impacted theatre
practice in Communist Romania. Shakespeares play is seen here as a case study with the
potential to outline the process of adapting classical texts to socialist realist performance
rigors and to act as a conduit for transforming Stalinist theatre culture after 1956.
Keywords: socialist realism, theatricality, cultural adaptation, Shakespeare.
Theatre in Romania during the late 1940s and early 1950s, at the height of socialist
realism, featured a naturalist stage design minutely reproducing the life and historical context
of the play. Like a photograph, the set design had to have the value of a document that would
instantly give the audience a clear idea about the time and place of the play as well as
enforcing an ideologically sanctioned framework of interpretation. A classical play production
had to be self-referential. All the needed information for the public to understand the drama
from a Marxist point of view had to be contained within it. Even though with the great
classics of dramatic literature the process of cultural adaptation started with the translation
stage, the reshaping was completed and took full form only in performance.
Theatre performances had to have an activizing result2 and much of this goal was
accomplished through directing and stage design. Art had to inform and engender action not
reflection or contemplation. The author of the performance was the playwright and the task of
the production team (actors, directors, or designers) was to bring the audience his message as
clearly as possible.
By late fifties and early sixties however a change occurs. Informed by political unrest
and a sense of a new possible beginning (in the context of the wave of de-Stalinization across
the Soviet bloc and the Hungarian Revolution in 1956), a debate ensued in specialized
journals about the need for theatricality in the theatre. The debate unraveling in periodicals
such as Contenporanul and Teatrul extended until 1958 when the Romanian Communist
Party decreed a return to its old ways in terms of cultural policies. Nevertheless, the 19561957 discussion is essential for understanding the changes taking place in the theatre in
Romania after high Stalinism (1947-1953). Stage production moves now from mere
decoration and illustration of the dramatic text to taking a structural role. It becomes its
supplement. Directors and production designers were free to explore and experiment, but their
trials could not exist outside the finality of performance. According to the critics and theatre
historians of those days, although stage design had found at the time a new suggestiveness, it
This work was financially supported through the project "Routes of academic excellence in doctoral and postdoctoral research - READ" co-financed through the European Social Fund, by Sectoral Operational Programme
Human Resources Development 2007-2013, contract no POSDRU/159/1.5/S/137926.
2
Norris Houghton, Moscow Rehearsals, (Octagon Books: New York, 1936/1975) p.229.
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was not and could not be autonomous, since that could bring it dangerously close to being
identified as formalist.
In this article, I will flesh out a couple of instances in the history of Shakespeare stage
adaptations in order to show how the theatricality debate impacted theatre practice after 1956.
The two main examples follow the same play staged at the Bulandra Theatre, the former
Municipal Theatre: As you like it (1951) translated for the stage by Lucia Demetrius and
directed by W. Siegfried (with stage designs and costumes by the same artist) 3; and As You
like it (1961) with a translation by Virgil Teodorescu, directed by Liviu Ciulei with scene
design by Liviu Ciulei and Ion Oroveanu.
During high Stalinism, theatricality was equated with formalism, with a retrograde
theatre tradition. In her book on theatricality, theatre historian Miruna Runcan researches
beautifully this debate surrounding the concept during the interwar years concluding that the
discussion surging in the pages of Contemporanul and the journal Teatru in 1956 and 1957
was a first attempt for the young generation of theatre artists to go back to the very rich precommunist theatre tradition exemplified by directors such as Ion Sava. 4 However, the author
creates a bridge over the 1945-1955 period, making the 1956/1957 moment an appendix for
the amply documented interwar theatre landscape.
To put it simply, the 1956 debate concentrated on the issue of the weight that the
dramatic text should have in the economy of the performance. The central question was
whether the text was a springboard for the performance or whether theatre practitioners were
supposed to follow the text and the consecrated avenues of interpretation of the said text as
closely as possible in production. The idea of theatricality, as Runcan points out, existed
before the communist period with its opponents and proponents. But after 1948, a process of
silencing this approach took place. Those in favor of a theatre that experimented with the
dramatic text, in the tradition of Gordon Craig, Max Reinhardt or Ion Sava, were harshly
criticized. However, I would argue that theatricality as a concept is carried through the years
of Stalinism as an other, an element against which the very idea of a socialist realist theatre,
and in particular of a socialist realist interpretation of Shakespeare, is defined. We might
suggest instead of a process replacement one of reciprocal corrosion. So, how did the socialist
realist theatre look like?
The 1951 As you like it stage adaptation was hailed as a successful application of the
socialist realist method to staging a classic. However, this was an act of reconsideration since
the play had its premiere during 1947/1948 theatre season. At the time, it is barely mentioned
in the journal Contemporanul. Only in 1952, we discover that this particular stage adaptation
was improved and presented satisfactorily again in 1951. This process of rewriting is
3
W. Siegfried is listed by the Romanian Theatrical Repertory beginning with 1944 hosted by the National
Heritage Site with the surname Walter and his activity spans from 1948 up to 1957. It coincides with W.
Siegfrieds
and
Cella
Voinescus
emigration
date
in
May
1958.
http://www.cimec.ro/SCRIPTS/TeatreNou/detaliu_Scenografi.asp?sq=SIEGFRIED,%20WALTER last accessed
09.03.2014. However in archival documents he appears as Wolfinger (see footnote 12). Also, historian Cristian
Vasile points out that Siegfried received commendations from the Romanian State for his artistic merits under
the same name (discussion with the historian, September 2014). Based on his performance track record it is safe
to assume however that as in the case of Mihail/Mihai Raicu both names were used interchangeably.
4
Miruna Runcan, Teatralizare si reteatralizare in Romania 1920-1960, (Cluj: Editura Eikon/Biblioteca
Teatrullui imposibil, 2003)
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typical for the approach to history during communism and it is mirrored in the theatre by a
constant need to make the past fit to current ideological turns.
Theatre productions are therefore always improved from the opening night throughout
the entire run of the play. In fact, this action of keeping the performance young (meninerea
tinereii spectacolelor), as it is called in the articles of the day, has at its core the idea that
critique and self critique are the development lows of socialist realism. 5 Going back to the
1951 stage adaptation, we find out that it was improved by the same director, W. Sigfried,
this time with appropriate impressive naturalist sets6 (Images 1 and 2), a toning down of the
fairy tale character of the play and a rebuttal of Jacques pessimistic utterances. It is important
to mention that a stage adaptation of a classic was commended only if it met all the
requirements prescribed by Soviet theatre craft.
One needs to underline that the level of monumentality and naturalism typical of the
Soviet theater was not a staple of the Romanian stage before 1945. Excessive verisimilitude
was not a must during the interwar period. First of all, theatre institutions did not have the
technical means to master such spectacular feats and second, the theatre did not embrace a
fully didactic or utilitarian agenda. These features were however central to the aims of the
socialist culture as a whole. Theatre in particular was aligned to such directives, as it was
charged with educating the masses in the spirit of the new social and political order.
The point of this grandiose theatre that came from the Moscow centre was to shape the
citizens of tomorrow, not to engender reflection or contemplation. The theatre could not be
ambiguous, experimental or open to multiple interpretations. It had to be thorough, clear, and
impressive. An article published in the journal Arts in the RPR as early as 19527 presents in
great detail this new way of making theatre and what it meant for the socialist realist
reshaping of the classical canon. The text features the following quote from Gheorghe
Gheorghiu Dej : The democratic and workers conception of life constitutes by no means a
violent breaking away from everything that was valid in the life and from the culture of the
pastThe democratic conception forms a bridge between that which was historically valid
yesterday and that which will be valid tomorrow. It ensures a genuine continuation of
mankinds traditions8. The author of the article continues on this point by adding that putting
to good use progressive cultural heritage is an important aspect of the cultural revolution.
However, this appropriation is carried out in a critical spirit by taking over whatever is of
value and advanced in the works of the classics.9 In the past, Shakespeare tragedies and
comedies served as a mere pretext for the directorial tricks devoid of meaning and
exaggerated formalistic stage designs. Shakespeare was thus turned into the object of vulgar
Mihail Cosma, Critic i autocritic n Teatrull sovietic, Contemporanul, no.75, 1948, p.8
After studying painting with Andr Lhote in Paris, W. Siegfried specialized in dcor painting for the theatre
and other types of live entertainment at the Metro Goldwyn Mayer Studios in Bruxelles. Although this was not
necessarily a recommendation for a theatre artist working in Romania after 1945, knowledge that could further
the regimes agenda was always highly prized and Siegfried was undoubtedly a consummate production
designer. Although he adapted to the socialist realist restrains like most of the artists working in the theatre, like
most of them he hoped for a radical change after 1956.
7
Simion Alterescu, Shakespeare on the Romanian Stage, Arts in Romanian Peoples Republic no.4, 1952,
pp.79-86.
8
Idem.p.80.
9
Ibidem.
5
6
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formalistic interpretation, whilst the text became just a pretext. In the context of constructing
socialism, the men of culture (oamenii de cultur) had to struggle against decadence. The new
public has proven to be an exacting critic since it has refused the anti-realistic furbelows
which clouded the joy for life and optimism characteristic of Shakespeares text. In short all
this meant that directing and production design had to faithfully illustrate a Marxist
reconsidered play text.
The approach implied a very different understanding of reception in the theatre.
Performances were no longer open to various interpretations; they had a finite nature. There
was just one correct way of interpreting, understanding a play and that was always achieved
scientifically by applying the method of socialist realism. The worker did not need to be
confused by directorial experiments. Theatre performances had to be reliable and clear. What
this new theatre strived for was not critical distance, but the revolutionary sublime achieved
on the stage by a didactically prescriptive naturalism that ensured a total illusion. In these
circumstances, spectators become utterly absorbed and they left the theatre permeated by
revolutionary ideas and the need to change themselves and the society they lived in. In fact,
realist socialist theatre is closer to Tolstoys idea of infecting the audience that to the
vanguard revolutionary theatre proposed by Meyerhold.
This was the theory, in practice, theatre featuring period costumes, meadows, springs
and life size forests tended to saturate the eye. Sanda Manu describes this naturalistic
approach as a bad wedding photograph taken in an atelier near the Central Railway Station. 10
The scientific method of directing was intensive and extensive.
As stated above, the 1956 moment prompted a reaction to this ossified pseudostanislavskian method of performance production. In Contemporanul, and soon after 1956 in
Teatrul, we read that there was too much stage design in Val Mugurs Romeo and Juliet at the
Iai National Theatre. This production apparently reveled in color and stage architecture, a
feast for the eye that left the social meaning of the play behind and concentrated on the love
story. The correct, socialist interpretation in this case was that Romeo and Juliet were the
exponents of a new world, the world of the Renaissance. This is the context in which Ciuleis
well known article Teatralizarea picturii de teatru (The Theatricalisation of Theatre
Painting), published in 1956 in the journal Teatrul11, introduced the idea of theatricality back
into the official discourse. He underlined that when it came to painted dcor, theatricality
stemmed from the stage designers capacity to leave the spectator the space to appreciate the
performance in all its complexity. He further points out that the desire to show everything on
the stage establishes limitations for the spectators ability to imagine.
In 1956 we witness, yet gain, a revised production of Siegfried As you like it. The
retouched production is glossed upon in a review by Augustin Doina in the 1956 November
Issue of Teatrul.12 Doina points out that it is of the outmost importance for a play featured by
the permanent repertoire of a theatre to be kept fresh. This is now achieved by Cella
Voinescus new costume designs for Rosalinda, Frederic and Jacques, by introducing an
alternate casting for some of the roles and by throwing a melancholic note over the entire
Valeriu Moisescu, Persistena Mermoriei, ( Bucureti : Fundaia Cultural Camil Petrescu, 2007) p. 10.
Liviu Ciulei, Teatralizarea picturii de Teatrul, Teatrul, no.2, 1956, p. 52-56.
12
Augustin Doina, Un Spectacol cu Melancolie Teatrul, nr. 6, 1956, p.89 90.
10
11
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production. This time however, W. Siegfrieds directorial choice to bring Jacques to the
foreground spilled over the entire performance an uncalled-for note of bitter skepticism.
Commended for his enunciation skills, Dan Nasta is also cautioned for an affectation in tone
and gesture that makes the organic sadness of the character seem superior, contemptuous.
This flimsy review becomes relevant in the context of the theatricality debate.
Although just a graft,13 Siegfrieds approach speaks of an attempt to turn the production in a
new direction. The costumes and stage designs featured in this production were probably
exhibited in 1957 at Theatre of Nations Festival in Paris at the Sarah Bernard Theater. The
"Theatre in Romania" exhibition showed production sketches by both W. Siegfried and his
wife Cella Voinescu. In their official capacity, the couple also had to arrange a production of
Mihail Sebastians paly Steaua fr nume in a Parisian theatre. Soon after this event
however, at the beginning of the following year, the two asked for political asylum.14
Seen from this perspective the stage adaptation by Liviu Ciulei in 1961 becomes a
necessity. The regime could not endorse a production that was associated now with
undesirable names. As a staple of the Municipal Theatre (now renamed Bulandra) repertoire,
the play needed to be redone. Although his seminal 1956 article on theatricalizing theatre
painting became a point of reference for the theatre artists community, it did not assure
protection from strong criticism. The opposite was the case.
In 1958, G.B Shaws Saint Joan 15 is adapted for the stage by Liviu Ciulei (directing,
scene design and costumes) at the Bulandra Theatre (the former Municipal Theatre). The
director followed with this production the new, rediscovered avenue in directing and staging.
The official reaction was swift and criticism was harsh. In a review of the evolution of stage
design during the first decade of constructing socialism, we read the following:
In connection to the abstract and often precious character of the scene design in
Saint Joan, we have to point out that running from naturalism and looking for a
maximum of expression in highly stylized dcor makes for an excess of
symbolism in staging, which goes beyond the meaning of the text and remains
hidden to the spectator.16
This discourse about theatricality or the reintroduction of the concept of theatricality (of retheatricalizing the theatre) evolves in parallel, especially after 1958, with articles that feature
a discreet criticism of the naturalist design used before. The articles stating the necessity to
13
Looking over the photographs and sketches that document the evolution of this production (Bulandra Theatre
kindly offered for research purposes visual documentation for the 1947/1948 production) we can notice dcor
and costumes changes through the years even though they are not necessarily extensive. Siegfrieds directorial
choice to centre the performance on Jacques character, a definite point of departure from the prescriptive
socialist realist interpretation of the play in performance is hard to document accurately in the absence of a
production book or access to the performance text.
14
Open Society Archives, Communism and Cold War Fond, Romanian Unit/Subject Files 1946-1992: Theatre
/811, Item no.2525/1958 Two prominent escapees: Siegfried Wolfinger and Cela Voinescu.
15
Bernard Shaw was a well known fellow traveler (an open sympathizer and ardent supporter of the Soviet
Regime) and his plays and persona enjoyed wide acclaim in the Soviet Union. For an introduction to the idea of
fellow travelers see Michael David-Fox, Showcasing the Great Experiment, (Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2012) pp.207-246.
16
Anca Costa-Foru, Scenografia original n ultimii 15 ani, Studii i cercetri de istoria artei, no.1-2,1959, p.
144.
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educate the masses through theatre while pointing out the primacy of the dramatic text in
performance and the accomplishments of the Soviet theatre in this direction continue to be a
constant.
By the time Ciulei directs As you like it in 1961, he has experienced all the tribulations
of the development of this new found idea in the theatre. Mindful of his earlier experience this
production approach, although a far cry from Siegfrieds, is in my opinion a prudent choice
informed by past criticisms and a theatre culture that was still adhering to socialist realist
values such as popular character and humanism. Greg Castillo17 argues that the Renaissance
period stood at the basis of what was understood by the socialist realist synthesis. Since the
Renaissance was sanctioned by Engels as humanitys greatest progressive step up to that point
in history and Renaissance humanists had retrieved antique culture as an ideological weapon
in the battle against feudal class powers18, it was quite obvious that Renaissance masters,
had pioneered the fundamentals of Socialist Realist synthesis and its characteristic pathos of
optimism.19 Needless to say, Soviet Shakespeare scholarship went to great lengths in casting
the bards work as a shining beacon of Renaissance values. It therefore seems that with this
stage adaptation Ciulei follows a proven set of cultural coordinates. The production design
shows a mlange of different styles, suggesting the Elizabethan stage but also costumes
inspired by Italian Renaissance masters. Ion Oroveanus designs (Image.3) clearly signal
Sandro Botticellis 1482 La Primavera as a source of inspiration.
Nevertheless, the production was criticized since the corroboration of stage elements
and the choice of directing seemed to again overpower the text, making it lose its social
poignancy. Not all the articles published at the time are so overtly critical. Interestingly
enough, the overall reactions to his production were as much praise as criticism.
In articles from publications such as Contemporanul, Teatru, SCIA, Flacara, we are
presented with arguments that support Shakespeares intent to show the seriousness of this
comedy.20 In its own time, the play was perceived as a satirical pamphlet targeting the
decadent world of the court, the clergy and their mysticism. Subsequently, the play boasted a
considerable social value which the present adaptation placed in the background. Critics saw
Ciuleis mixture of artistic styles as an antiquarian approach which could not deliver (or did
not want to do so) the profound social meaning of the play. According to some critics, in
terms of reception, the feeling of a mere experiment is all that remained after the performance.
The Shakespearean text was hidden under the word adaptation used by Virgil Teodorescu
to describe his translation.21 In other words, Ciuleis directing prowess was not condoned, the
main criticism being that he subverted the text and its pedagogical qualities. The direction and
stage design were detrimental to the text. With regard to the director need to deliver his/her
own vision of a classical text, in a review of the Merry Wives of Windsor at the National
Theatre in 1964 we can read the following:
Greg Castillo, East as True West: Redeeming Bourgeois Culture, from Socialist Realism to Ostalgie.
Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History 9, no. 4, 2008.
18
Idem.757
19
Ibidem.
20
Mircea Alexandrescu, Regia n slujba textului sau demonstraie de regie, Cum v place de Shakespeare pe
scena Teatrului Municipal, Teatrul, no.8, 1961, p.74.
21
It is worth mentioning that the word adaptation, adaptare is used now for the first time in connection to the
process of translation.
17
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We dont find it necessary to discuss the right the director has to use the blue pen
(creionul albastru) on classic dramatic texts. Its a right won by the theatre for
some time even for Shakespeares great work. However, the prerequisite of a
directorial approach in this direction should be restricted to either the time frame
within witch a performance can take place or the shortcomings of a dramatic text.
Under no circumstances, the blue pen or the scissors should surgically alter the
spirit, the meanings, the poetry since that would risk to deteriorate, to impoverish
the content and maybe even the aesthetics (valorilor formale ale textului) of the
text. 22
Even though the classical text in its Marxist interpretation remains a discursive constant, the
slow erosion it faces while being tossed and turned by theatre practitioners reveals the
emergence of ideas that ten years earlier were unheard of, such as communicating an emotion
to the audience and or stimulating their imagination.
What seems to be understood and approved by the critics as a merit of this new/old
approach to theatre practice is the fact that it made the adaptation of classical drama for the
stage, Shakespeare included, much more apt to visually bring to the public the nuances and
subtleties of criticism. In this direction they seemed to favor experimentation. By the end of
the 1950s the argument revolves around the way in which the performance may show the text
of the author. The text can be modified to some extent but not so as to change the framework
of Marxist interpretation. The debate, for example, around the 1961 adaptation of As you like
it revolves around Jacques melancholia: Is he a positive hero, a carrier of social criticism
pointed towards the court or is the author making fun of this character ill with spleen? Does
this character mimic in fact melancholia and negativism, wearing it and discarding it like a
fashionable coat? 23
To conclude we might say that the text was not destabilized in the wake of the
theatricality debate starting in the late fifties. The theatre found a new balance with the
introduction of the concept making production less prone to consider museum like
reconstructions of the world of the play. For a short while, after 1956 the discussion tilted in
favor of a dramatic text that brought to the spectator not only the message of the author, an
idea that is still compulsory, but also a directorial vision. There is an undeniable shift from
seeing the playwright as the author of the performance to accepting the director as the creative
force behind the production, acknowledging him/her as the shows creator. However, deemphasizing the text does not weaken the centrality of the original ideological coordinates
conditioning theater productions. Ultimately, the audience should never just feel entertained
or amazed, but be always in a position where they can internalize progressive ideas and
lessons on the inevitable march of history into socialism.
Florin Tornea, Anglia lui Falstaff Mti i oameni, Nevestele vesele din Windsor, pe scena Teatrului
Naional I. L. Caragiale" Teatrul, no.1,1964, p.50.
23
Western scholarship identifies Jaques as the only purely contemplative character in Shakespeare. A character
that thinks, and does nothing, Jaques is a constant reminder that in the real world sorrow and death provide a
counterpoint to all human joys. This view however, stood in clear contrast with the above mentioned correct
Marxist interpretation of the character. Ana Maria Narti, Cum l jucam? Teatrul, no. 4, 1964, p. 54.
22
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Image 1: As you like it (1951) at the Municipal Theatre, reproduced by permission of the Romanian Academy
Library
Image 2: As you like it (1951) at the MunicipalTheatre, reproduced by permission of the Romanian Academy
Library
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Image 3 : Left, As you like it (1961) at the Bulandra Theatre, direction and stage design by Liviu Ciulei with
costumes by Ion Oroveanu. The image has been wildly reproduced in theatre journals and monographs such as
Scenografia Romneasc, published in 1965 with an introduction by theatre critic Eugen Schileru. Right,
fragment from Sandro Botticellis 1482 La Primavera.
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THE CHARACTER FICU, BETWEEN REALITY AND IDEALITY. AN ANALYSIS OF THE

NOVEL CALEA VCRETI BY ISAC PELTZ
Claudia C
Abstract: The present paper aims to outline and to offer a starting point to reassess the
writing of Isac Peltz, not from the well-known bio-bibliographic approach, not from a onesided point of view (with or against his national identity), but through the way to create a
minor character in one of his quite important novels, Calea Vcreti. This is a less explored
method of analysis in a literature which has still needed deep researches: the Romanianlanguage Jewish literature. The challenge of this micro-research will be to give privilege to a
direct lecture of the text, but also to establish some links with the non-Jewish literature, in
order to add up the heteromorphic image of the multicultural Romanian-language literature.
Keywords: minor
multiculturalism.
character
(raisonneur),
literary
analysis,
Jewish
literature,
Lucrarea de fa urmrete evoluia sau, la fel de plauzibil, involuia unui personaj al

romanului scris de I. Peltz, Calea Vcreti, innd seama de cteva repere: iubirea filial,
raportul iubire-cstorie, rostirea adevrului, perceperea lumii, valori umane i atitudinea care
le corespunde acestora. Traseul analizei are n vedere o abordare de tip eseu, fr a exclude
rigoarea academic.
La o prim lectur, ceea ce atrage atenia este ntlnirea admirabil (formula i
aparine lui Anton Dumitriu, n Cartea ntlnirilor admirabile) cu un personaj construit
fabulos, cu multiple nuane, poate pentru c nu el este personajul principal, iar astfel libertatea
de creaie este infinit, nicio coerciie nu mai acioneaz aici: Figura major a crii nu este,
cum s-a crezut, Ficu. E adevrat c Flaubert, ntrebat cine e madam Bovary, a rspuns:
madam Bovary sunt eu! Ficu sunt eu, dar personajul cel mai important al crii este Ester,
adic mama, rpus n floarea vrstei. Rpus de boal, dar i de munca supraomeneasc pe
care a fcut-o din copilrie, ani i ani, ani grei de lipsuri i de nzuine nemplinite. Acestei
sfinte fpturi am vrut s-i aduc, prin scrierea romanului, smeritul meu omagiu. i cnd un
publicist m-a ntrebat de ce am scris Calea Vcreti, i-am rspuns, cu toat sinceritatea, cu
toat convingerea: pentru c am vrut s eternizez, mai cu seam, chipul mamei (Waldman,
Ciuciu 2011: 55).
Personajul, copil, surprinde printr-o sensibilitate exacerbat, printr-o acuitate a
simurilor n msur s compenseze fragilitatea fizic: De mult observase la copil o
preocupare de soarta ei, surprinztoare la vrsta aricelor i a jocului n aer liber. Cuvinte care
altei urechi scap se imprimau n mintea lui, prea devreme coapt, gesturi n aparen simple,
dar cu tlc, i reineau atenia. Mic, palid, ubred, Ficu vedea i auzea totul, depozitnd n
adncuri un material de revolt grea, care exploda pe neateptate (Peltz 1962: 159).
Ficu se maturizeaz silnic; o dovad trist, dar peremptorie n acest sens o constituie
ascunderea adevrului ntreg, din compasiune, ca o prefigurare a afirmaiei pe care o va rosti,
optzeci de ani mai trziu, actorul Adrian Pintea, n cadrul unui interviu; redau din memorie:
Adevrul rostit pe jumtate este mai bun dect adevrul ntreg i dect minciuna; adevrul
ntreg poate ucide, iar minciuna mnjete. Iat ilustrarea acestei afirmaii n economia
romanului: Copilul primi, resemnat, mngierea mamei. / -Azi am sfrit repede! mini el. /
Dintr-o experien, repetat n ultimii ani, tia c orice indispoziie fizic pe care o ncercase
strnea panic n capul i aa nfierbntat al mamei (Peltz 1962: 154).
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Observm c n copilrie Ficu este atent, vigilent, sensibil doar la universul restrns al
familiei sale, privirea lui scruttoare cuprinde numai ceea ce i este apropiat oameni i fapte
de care i-a legat inima. n rest, judec i condamn cu asprime, sau cultiv o atitudine de
indiferen dispreuitoare fa de ceilali dezmotenii ai soartei: Ficu n-avea de unde s tie
c unele din femeile de marmur care i mic, vesele i nepstoare, buclele de la un
brbat la altul i sorb, cu infinite nuane, ampania au i ele, poate, acas mizeria lor
crunt... Au i ele, poate, o mam n preajma sfritului, un tat paralitic sau copii anemici
crora nopile albe ale mumii le asigur viaa... N-avea de unde s tie c fiecare zmbet e
pltit cu snge i fiecare hohot de rs cu ani scurtai dintr-o via devastat de toate dramele
posibile (Peltz 1962: 161).
G. Clinescu surprinde ntr-un mod expresiv diversele tipologii umane conturate n
romanul lui I. Peltz, inventarierea lor nefiind lipsit de interes: Leia este bunica, trind
succesiv pe lng fiii i nepoii si. Fiica ei, Esther, se extenueaz lucrnd la maina de cusut.
Moare canceroas. Un alt fiu, Paul, plasator de articole de ocazie, moare de epilepsie. Mori
are nostalgia Americii i ntr-o bun zi i pornete, escortat la gar elegiac de toat familia.
Nostalgia lui Rubin, pensular, e mai modest... El vrea s deschid o sal de dans. La Ficu,
fiul Estherei, starea bolnvicioas rasial se manifest printr-o mare i anxioas iubire filial,
printr-un sentimentalism timid (Clinescu 1988: 793).
i totui, poate c tocmai n cazul lui Ficu judecata criticului este monocrom, fr
nuan; mai degrab, am putea spune despre Ficu c este i el un sfios care cutez, dac ar fi
s mprumutm titlul prin care l caracterizeaz I. Peltz pe G. Toprceanu, ntr-un volum de
amintiri i evocri (Peltz 2003: 117). n sprijinul ideii acesteia mi se pare elocvent revolta lui
Ficu, manifestat cu violen, cu ndrzneala i orgoliul celui care refuz s triasc la voia
ntmplrii, n virtutea unui mecanism rigid i fr temei: Nu! Nu vorbesc prostii... Nu mai
vreau. M-am sturat. Eti prea slab... Eti bolnav... Nu mai vreau... Nu maaai vreau! (Peltz
1962: 157).
Prin urmare, naratorul omniscient va realiza o demonstraie aproape matematic a
nelesului pe care l capt expresia Nu mai vreau! la Ficu. Denot exasperarea unui copil
n faa terorii istoriei (expresie eliadesc) timpul material, proiectat n actualitate, care se
scurge nencetat, care nu poate fi ntrziat boala mamei, care avanseaz mereu: Ce nu mai
poate rbda Ficu? se ntreba Esther. Mai nti suferina ei. Boala custoresei simul mamei
nu se nela l dezola, i adumbrea aspectul primvratic al unei vrste, normal fr
complicaii, l tiraniza. Se culca i se scula cu imaginea bolnavei care-l obseda. Mai ales n
atitudinea ei de roab a mainii de cusut, aplecat asupra-i, legat, ferecat aproape, de ea cu
ea. Ficu tia c munca i nrutea boala. Cutase necontenit o posibilitate de nlturare a
acestei salahorii: n-o aflase. i-atunci, copilul cu bun dreptate ipase: Nu mai vreau! adic:
Nu mai pot rbda boala mamei! (Peltz 1962: 94).
Ficu ia contact cu realitatea dur, inexorabil, necosmetizat; descoper c moartea nu
este rezervat doar celorlali (Ficu auzea mereu de asemenea mori, dar nu le credea, nu voia
s le cread cu o voin drz posibile. Sau se mpca el cu gndul dac sunt posibile,
sunt pentru alii. Oamenii ndeprtai de el, pe care nu i-a cunoscut nicicnd, pot muri. Cine
tie, o fi i asta adevrat!... Dar unchiu Paul!...; Peltz 1962: 94), ci toi oamenii sunt
vulnerabili n faa ei, ca realitate ultim, n plan ontologic: Nedumerit, copilul privi lumea cu
un ochi de ghea. [...] / -Mam, a optit copilul n urechea Estherei, cu team dup ce
moare omu i-l ngroap... ce se mai ntmpl cu el? / -Nimic! a rspuns femeia, scuturat deun fior. / -Nimic? Nimic? strui copilul. / -Nimic!... Absolut nimic! (Peltz 1962: 95, 98).
Hipersensibil, Ficu rememoreaz evenimentele dureroase, i le actualizeaz n
contiin, cu suferina celui pentru care iubirea presupune nu doar devotament (realitate
exterioar, lesne de atins), ci, mai degrab, devoiune realitate luntric, mai presus de
rugciune: Mama voia, firete, s atenueze gravitatea scenei. Pe biat, ns, lovirea femeii l
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tulbura pn la delir. [...] De cte ori va mai apuca ea ivirea zilei celei mai fericite care este
constant mine? (Peltz 1962: 165, 180).
ntruct oamenii sraci n-au voie s fie ndrtnici, oamenii sraci n-au niciodat
dreptate (Peltz 1962: 183), Ficu se va resemna, va urma itinerarul firesc, odat rmas singur;
va tri discret, tcut n casa unchiului i a mtuii sale, va munci, se va nsura... totul cu o
libertate interioar ce nu poate fi abolit: i dorea anii trecui repede peste capul lui buclat,
ca s rmie singur cu ndoielile i amintirile, singur cu sine, fr niciun mentor gratuit, fr
nicio gratitudine de dovedit, fr nicio rubedenie lng oboselile i tristeile sale (Peltz 1962:
258).
Pe msur ce crete i avanseaz n cunoatere, orizontul de ateptare al lui Ficu se
restrnge. La douzeci de ani se simte btrn (Singurtatea l apsa ca o nou ran. Are
douzeci de ani, e btrn... Ci douzeci de ani va mai tri?...; Peltz 1962: 336-337),
vorbete despre tristei i renunri: i-aa s-au perindat nopi rele i zile nchise i sptmni
ca plumbul i ani fr bucurii (Peltz 1962: 315). Se retrage n sine, n propria interioritate, iar
cstoria reprezint, paradoxal, nchiderea definitiv fa de lume, ruptura de ceilali: Odat
nsurat totul va sfri. Aici, n cartier, nsurtoarea e un final, un definitiv final. Nimic nu-l
surprinde, toate se vor nfptui dup acelai tipar. Odat nsurat, viaa se va reduce la cteva
aspecte: nicio deraiere, nicio catastrof nu mai e posibil (Peltz 1962: 342).
Funcioneaz aici tehnica ateptrii frustrate, n care ceea ce este verosimil nu este i
previzibil, ntruct realizarea lui Ficu prin cstorie nu apare ca o mplinire, ca o compensare a
suferinei din trecut, ci ca un mecanism rigid, pus n micare din inerie, fr o motivaie
intrinsec: El are s se nsoare i are s socoteasc filele calendarului pn la leaf... Micburghez, va aduna legume de cu var, s-i fie casa cuprins n zilele lui Geril. i micburghez cu viaa mereu-mereu aceeai, fr nicio schimbare de decor sau de umor, i va
ngriji de maturitatea artritic i de btrneea srac... Apoi va muri, i nimeni i nimic nu va
tresri n univers (Peltz 1962: 344).
Aici, cstoria nu este nicidecum o fericire, o mplinire. Parafrazndu-l pe Octavian
Paler, care afirma c orice progres n plan tehnologic este dublat de un regres interior (Paler
2007: 100), a spune c un progres n plan social duce la un regres n plan spiritual, al
interioritii fiinei. Svrirea din inerie a unui act social considerat firesc nu coincide cu
aspiraia retragerii ntr-o solitudine absolut. Lui Ficu i este caracteristic imaginea din
copilrie, cnd ar fi vrut doar s rmn pentru totdeauna nchis n sine, suferind, cu palmele
acoperindu-i ochii: Ficu simea nevoia s-i acopere faa cu palmele i s rmie aa pentru
vecie, pe prisp, n afar de lume, departe de tata, de mama, de tu, de curtea lui ulm i de
vecini, singur cu minile lui asudate, cu ochii lui speriai, cu fptura lui mic, zguduit de
friguri, n plin var, gras, bucuretean (Peltz 1962: 238).
Dac iniial este conturat imaginea suferinei unui copil care nu se poate refugia dect
n durere, ulterior tuele vor fi ngroate, n favoarea ideii de resemnare, de solidaritate cu o
mas amorf de indivizi: n cartier sunt mii i mii de tineri care ca i el au visat i au suferit
i-apoi s-au nsurat. I-a ntlnit, din cnd n cnd, n faa cinematografului, inndu-i de mn
copiii slabi i nfricoai, sau pe dinaintea policlinicilor... Cresc aa, bieii tia, nsurai, pn
devin brbai mustcioi i amri... A cunoscut mii i mii de oameni n cartier care i-au
sfrit destinul egal, att de egal, nct existena unora se oglindea identic n a altora i nu le
mai puteai deosebi (Peltz 1962: 343).
n ncercarea de a ndrepta discursul spre o concluzie, a propune o aezare n relief a
valorii literare i, totodat, profund umane a acestei cri. Valeriu Rpeanu observase n mod
judicios, despre Calea Vcreti, c poart nc din primele pagini amprenta crii ce se cere
adus la lumin, purtat n inim de autor timp ndelungat. Am spus n inim pentru a sublinia
caracterul dominant afectiv al acestui roman, n care autorul a sintetizat nu numai toate
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nsuirile sale scriitoriceti, ci i sensul unei existene i al unei experiene de via (Peltz
1962: V).
A aduga cteva elemente nu att de noutate, ct de nuan, care merit spuse. Cartea
evoc o lume cu totul diferit de ceea ce ndeosebi este admis, la nivelul simului comun.
Astfel, evreului bogat, lipsit de scrupule (clieul cmtarului) i se opune evreul srac
...mrunte cminuri cu stpni rupi n coate i melancolizai de lunga ateptare a
clienilor (Peltz 1962: 102) , iar sfrmarea acestui mit face vizibile suferina, mizeria,
nefericirea o lume neviciat, n ordine spiritual.
A aminti secvena evocrii balului, semnificativ pentru problematica romanului; se
poate observa ncercarea de ieire de sub incidena monotoniei exasperante, din marasmul
existenei repetitive prin introducerea artificial a unui element de surpriz (balul). Insi
evocarea acestui eveniment poart sugestia tragismului, similar unei imagini groteti pe care
o regsim la Dostoievski, n Crim i pedeaps viaa unui om nefericit, circumscris ntr-un
perimetru limitat, ca i cum s-ar desfura ntr-un spaiu de un metru, deasupra unei prpastii:
...balul nsemna liberarea, pentru o singur noapte, dintr-o via mizer i nfrngerea
barierelor celeilalte lumi: n care se petrece, n care se cnt, altfel dect n atelier, n care se
iubete. Fetele cunoteau valsurile pe-atunci la mod i romanele sentimentale care ameeau
Vcretii i Dudetii. n ele se vorbea numai de dragoste, numai de-un srut sub lun, numai
de balcoane nflorite. Ele ntrziau la rochia neterminat, se mbrcau n bietul lor mantou
devastat de ani i plecau, cu pas grbit, spre cas. O mam ubred le atepta, la fereastr, sau
un tat desfiinat de btrnei premature, sau surori mai mici, slbite i maturizate prea
devreme. A doua zi filmul vieii lor, aceeai, se desfura fr surpriz. Nu venea nici
cavalerul romanelor s le srute sub lun, nici ele nu puteau zvrli iubitului un trandafir din
balconul nflorit: casa lor n-avea balcon (Peltz 1962: 70).
Perspectiva din interior, pe orizontal, mi se pare cea mai profitabil pentru
cunoaterea structurii de adncime a societii avute n vedere. n acest roman sunt nfiate
cu nduioare, cu participare ndurerat i revoltat (formula lui Valeriu Rpeanu; Peltz
1962: VII) nu i cu patetismul adesea conotat negativ mizeria, suferina, boala, angoasa
unui copil n faa morii oamenilor dragi lui. Fatalitatea srciei (Oamenii sraci n-au
niciodat dreptate!) este coerent cu ideea construirii unui roman social, cu toate c
intenionalitatea auctorial a fost alta (V. supra, p. 1). n faa suferinei i a morii, oamenii
sunt egali, cci durerea nu este cuantificabil. Nu este un roman tezist, nu transpare din el
ideea c oamenii sufer att de mult pentru c sunt evrei. Ca personaj-reflector, Ficu ne va
revela acest adevr : Oamenii nu sunt dect ce-i tim: nite biete fiine, ca toate celelalte. Ca
toate celelalte gndul l obseda i-l ntrista! (Peltz 1962: 345).
Observm o deplasare a centrului de greutate n locul momentelor cruciale exterioare
convingerea c faptele banale ale vieii cuprind n orice clip integralitatea destinului i sunt
n msur s-l reprezinte, ceea ce asigur o component modernist romanului de care ne
ocupm. Am discutat exemplul lovirii mamei i tulburarea pn la delir care l copleete pe
Ficu; am putea aduga unul abstras din incipitul romanului: servitoarea Veta folosete o
exprimare care i este improprie (Mulumesc i mersi ! spuse, imitnd vorba aleas a fetei
inginerului de peste drum; Peltz 1962: 3), o formul care trdeaz nemulumirea de sine,
ncercarea de a transgresa limitele ignoranei.
Complementar cu ideea enunat anterior, cititorul simte privirea care struie asupra
detaliilor, a personajelor secundare. Personaje extraordinare, sub aspectul realizrii lor ntr-o
oper de ficiune, bine individualizate, memorabile sunt i doctorul ternbaum, construit n
replic fa de doctorul teinberg, mo Oiiie (cu harul su de povestitor), fata croitorului
Feldman... Ea este cea care va rosti un adevr ce nu poate fi trecut cu vederea, ceea ce
ilustreaz ideea detaliilor semnificative care fundamenteaz cartea: Viaa trebuie nvins ca
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pe o fiar. n timpul luptelor te muc, te snger i ea. La sfrit poi fi un nvingtor cu

chelie, obosit, tirb, ubred... n-are importan (Peltz 1962: 348).
Acesta este un citat pe care l-a lega de intrarea viaa, din dicionarul elaborat de
Jacques Attali (subiectiv, puin academic, dar original ca gndire): mi place permanenta
apologie a fericirii din care se hrnete iudaismul: ntreaga Biblie (...) consider viaa
pmntean ca o recompens de care trebuie s ne bucurm fr reineri. Toate textele
talmudice repet la infinit c nu e nimic de ateptat de la vreun paradis, nici de la vreo
renviere, nici de la o lume de dincolo despre care nu se tie nimic, i trebuie trit aici, cel mai
bine cu putin, fr a spera ceva dup, fcnd doar n aa fel nct lumea s fie puin mai
bun dup noi. [...] Viaa e mai important dect Tora. Iudaismul recomand, de altfel,
apostazia i nu sinuciderea sau martiriul... [...] Cum nu e nimic de ateptat n lumea de dincolo
i cum viaa e sacr, aciunea se impune: nicio for nu e mai revoluionar dect lipsa
speranei! (Attali 2011: 447-449).
O ultim observaie vizeaz o trstur particular a acestui roman. Calea Vcreti
ofer o descriere a societii i a modului n care aceasta funcioneaz. Ofer detalii sugestive
necesare evalurii, repere, nu sentine. A spune c marea ans a acestei opere literare const
n faptul c dezvolt spiritul critic, acuitatea privirii (fr a se confunda cu o satir a
moravurilor), iar a cititorului de a fi parcurs o carte plin de melancolie, dar i de luciditate.
Problematizarea implic aici i un aspect conectat la realitatea factual, n msur s
netezeasc asperitile unui demers prea discursiv: ,,Fr s le nelegem nici bine, nici total,
marile opere ne rspund, n pragul formrii idealurilor, la o ntrebare pe care nc nu ne-o
punem, dar care se insinueaz: Ce este un om? Ce este o contiin? (Preda 2004: 86).
Acknowledgement: This work was financially supported through the project Routes
of academic excellence in doctoral and post-doctoral research READ co-financed by the
European Social Fund through the Development of Human Resources Operational
Programme 2007-2013, contract no. POSDRU/159/1.5/S/137926. / Aceast lucrare a
beneficiat de suport financiar prin proiectul Rute de excelen academic n cercetarea
doctoral i post-doctoral READ cofinanat din Fondul Social European, prin Programul
Operaional Sectorial Dezvoltarea Resurselor Umane 2007-2013, contract nr.
POSDRU/159/1.5/S/137926.
REFERENCES:
ATTALI, Jacques, Dicionar tandru al iudaismului, Traducere de Sonia Herman,
Editura Hasefer, Bucureti, 2011.
CLINESCU, G., Istoria literaturii romne, de la origini pn n prezent (1941),
Ediia a II-a, revzut i adugit, Ediie i prefa de Al. Piru, Editura Minerva, Bucureti,
1988.
CRISTEA-ENACHE, Daniel, Convorbiri cu Octavian Paler, Editura Corint,
Bucureti, 2007.
DOSTOIEVSKI, F. M., Crim i pedeaps, Trad. de tefana Velisar Teodoreanu i
Isabella Dumbrav, Prefa i tabel cronologic de Mihai Novicov, Colecia Biblioteca Pentru
Toi, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1975.
PELTZ, I., Calea Vcreti, Prefa de Valeriu Rpeanu, Editura Pentru Literatur,
Bucureti, 1962.
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PELTZ, I., Am scris numai pentru promovarea omeniei, Ediie i prefa de

Florentin Popescu, Editura Hasefer, Bucureti, 2003.
PREDA, Marin, Viaa ca o prad, Editura Cartex Serv, Bucureti, 2004.
WALDMAN, Felicia, CIUCIU, Anca, Istorii i imagini din Bucuretiul Evreiesc,
Editura Noi Media Print, Bucureti, 2011.
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V.S.NAIPAULS THE MYSTIC MASSEUR: DEFINING FAILURE AND SUCCESS FOR THE
COLONIAL SUBJECT
Roxana Elena DONCU
Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Bucharest
Abstract: The Mystic Masseur is the story of Ganesh Ramsummairs journey from the margin
to the centre, from colonial Trinidad to the imperial metropolis of London. The particulars of
Ganeshs local and later metropolitan success are inscribed into the larger picture of a
colonial society and its maladies. Ganeshs rise to prominence is premised on the
bastardization of Hindu and western cultural capital. Yet what at a superficial level appears
as achievement is revealed as a deeper failure. Instead of fighting for equal access to
education or championing the rights of the subaltern, Ganesh proves a supporter of the status
quo. He uses opportunities only to further his own interest, and never takes a wider view on
issues of social injustice. Through Ganeshs character and the story of his meteoric rise to
power the novel satirizes the limited social and political understanding of colonial society,
directing a powerful critique at the effects of economic imperialism. Due to the lack of
authentic cultural traditions and real values, Trinidadian society appears as artificial, halfmade, and is thus incapable of fostering and promoting excellence.
Keywords: social and political satire, colonialism, decolonization
Is my only vice, Ganesh said. Only vice. I dont smoke. I dont drink. But I must have my books. (5)
Ganesh Ramsummairs story is the story of the colonial subjects successful failure. It is,
like Naipauls, the story of a journey from the margin to the centre, from colonial Trinidad to
the imperial metropolis of London. The particulars of Ganeshs local and later metropolitan
success are inscribed into the larger picture of a colonial society and its ills. Combining a love
of books with a mercantile outlook and an astute sense of opportunism, Ganesh manages to
rise from local pundit to M.L.C (Member of Legislative Council) and finally M.B.E
1
(Member of the Order of the British Empire).
If we were to deconstruct the idea of divine providence put forward by Ganesh in his
autobiography2, it would appear to consist in the convergence of several factors responsible
for what Ganesh terms3 his success. In a similar fashion to his divine namesake and protector4
1
This was the highest distinction awarded to people from the colonies.
In his autobiography, The Years of Guilt,[] Ganesh attributes his success (he asks to be pardoned for using
the word) to God. The autobiography shows that he believed strongly in predestination; and the circumstances
which conspired to elevate him seem indeed to be providential. If he had been born ten years earlier it is
unlikely, if you take into account the Trinidad Indians attitude to education at that time, that his father would
have sent him to the Queens Royal College.[] If he had been born ten years later his father would have sent
him to America or Canada or England to get a profession- the Indian attitude to education had changed so
completely- and Ganesh might have become an unsuccessful lawyer or a dangerous doctor.[]
He was served even by his enemies. Without Narayans attacks Ganesh would never have taken up
politics and he might have remained a mystic. With unfortunate results. Ganesh found himself a mystic when
Trinidad was crying out for one. That time is now past. [] Providence indeed seems to have guided Ganesh.
Just as it told him when to take up mysticism, so it told him when to give it up. (193-4)
3
The Mystic Masseur is built on the tension between the protagonists understanding of his life journey as a
success and the subversion of that definition by the events of the plot- which reveal Ganeshs failures.
4
The elephant god Ganesh is the Lord of success in Hindu mythology. He is also the god of education and
knowledge, prudence and wisdom.
2
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he seems to be born at an auspicious hour- on the cusp of important historical shifts.

Colonialism is on its last legs-towards the end of the Second World War an exhausted Great
Britain went through a deep power crisis, with liberating effects for the colonies. As imperial
authority became shakier every moment, the colonies were given a freer hand in political and
administrative matters. For educated colonials like Ganesh this proved a golden opportunity.
The Mystic Masseur discloses Naipauls concern that a long history of colonial exploitation
and the segregation inherent to manufactured societies like the one in Trinidad would be an
impediment to the progress and new freedom made possible by the historical circumstances.
What these circumstances allow is the rise to power of ambitious mediocrities like Ganesh.
His success would have been impossible in the conditions before the war, when colonial
administration was still powerful, or ten years later, when the confusion engendered by this
historical catastrophe was over, democracy and capitalism firmly established, and the need for
mystics a thing of the past. The most important historical event of the period is the first
election featuring universal adult suffrage5, held on July the 1st 1946. It is no coincidence
therefore that nineteen forty-six was the turning point of Ganeshs career (8) Yet Ganeshs
upward social mobility cannot be explained exclusively by recourse to the turbulent war
period and the shifts it brought about in the world distribution of power. It is made possible by
these circumstances, the lack of which would have foreclosed Ganeshs every chance of
success, but at the same time it is the result of personal choice and competent strategies.
In a study of V.S.Naipaul Fawzia Mustafa notes that The Mystic Masseur is the
chronicle of Ganeshs success as a flawed and misguided achievement within a political and
social milieu that cannot as yet read itself as the tangled amalgam of badly translated texts.
(46) This observation, rooted in the analysis of colonial Trinidad, would seem to imply that
Ganeshs political achievement is no more than an accident attributable to fortune and
circumstance. The novels comic form reinforces this kind of reading, with its emphasis on
the humorous effects of mistaken interpretations, mistranslations6, linguistic and cultural qui
pro quo. While it may be true that Ganeshs success is to a great extent the consequence of the
general cultural incompetence of colonial society (this cultural and political incompetence is
the very target of Naipauls satire) it becomes soon obvious that Ganesh is able to turn this
cultural incompetence to his own advantage and exploit the ignorance, superstition and
gullibility of others. Mustafa seems to make a similar point when she notices that Ganesh
reads different situations with considerable sophistication (47).
Ganeshs principal strategy is to capitalize on his cultural and religious capital. He is able
to do that as he is among the first generation of Trinidadian Indians to receive formal
education at a college in Port of Spain. However, the profitable exploitation of cultural capital
becomes a viable strategy under the double circumstance of a general lack of formal
education among Indians and their desire and respect for it. Had Ganesh been born among the
former black slaves (who were less inclined to appreciate formal education, associating it with
the rule of the white elite) the situation would have been different. Recently returned to his
village after his fathers death, Ganesh shares his life projects with his aunt, The Great
Belcher. Hearing that he is about to take up massaging people, she is the first to suggest him a
different path: It sound good. But a man like you should be doing something else.
Bookwork, man. (47) She voices the collective insecurity in her justification of books as
necessary for a sense of identity lacking in colonial Trinidad:
5
This was a momentuous change in the history of Trinidad. Voting on a limited scale had been introduced only a
couple of decades before (in 1925) and the universal adult suffrage expanded the electorate from a couple of
thousands to almost three hundred thousands, including the previously disenfranchised nonwhites and women.
6
As Susan Bassnett and Harish Trivedi note in the Introduction to Post-colonial Translation: Theory & Practice,
there is a close relationship between colonization and translation : colonies are regarded as translated copies of
originals located elsewhere on the map (5)
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People go want to buy that sort of book?

Is exactly what Trinidad want, boy. Take all the Indians in the towns. They aint have
any pundit or anything near them, you know. How they go know what to do and what
not to do, when and not when? They just have to guess. (47)
Writing books in Trinidad means not only providing guidance for lost sheep-as a business that
responds to a specific market demand (of spiritual guidance), it is also a lucrative activity: It
have money in books, you know. I suppose the man who write the Macdonald Farmers
Almanac just peeling money. Why dont you try your hand at something like the Napoleon
Book of Fate7? I just feel you could do that sort of thing good. (47)
Popular opinion in Trinidad relegates books, knowledge and writing to the domain of the
magic and the occult. Ganeshs use of writing to impress and earn the respect of others often
intermingles with his shrewd appraisal of the power that superstition exerts on the uneducated
average Hindu. Thus, when Ramlogan goes to his house after the wedding to insult him and
proffer threatening remarks, Ganesh asks Leela to bring him the copy-book from the bedroom
and then writes down Ramlogans words in it. This makes Leela suspicious; her suspicion
changes into firm certitude when Ganesh takes Ramlogans picture: she is sure that her father
is going to be the victim of obeah8. As a dutiful daughter she informs Ramlogan of Ganeshs
intention, and the aggressor instantly turns into a terrified victim: Oh, God! What I do to your
husband to make him prosecute me in this way? What he going to do with the picture?(51)
Alternatively, Ganesh speculates on the cultural and religious capital he possesses and
exploits the superstition and gullibility of others that are less educated. The widespread appeal
of superstition and black magic in Trinidad are explained by the fact that they offer people
immediate gratification and provide a rough means of dealing with the complexity of their
world in the absence of real knowledge. The roots of Ganeshs failure lie in his refusal to
acknowledge the injustice at the root of this situation. Instead of fighting for equal access to
education or championing the rights of the subaltern, he is often a stark supporter of the status
quo. He uses opportunities only to further his own interest, and never takes a wider view on
issues of social injustice. This is all too evident in his treatment of Leela. Though a modern
educated man, his family life begins with the beating of his wife, a common practice among
Trinidadian Indians. Bridget Brereton argues that due to the scarcity of women among
indentured labourers, domestic violence increased among Trinidad Indians:
in a situation where women were scarce, the possession of a wife was an important
symbol of status and masculinity[] a crucial element in the husbands self-esteem,
which he could ill afford to lose. Traditionally, the Indian husband was expected to
keep his wife in subjection; [] the shame of failure was wiped out by the cleansing
violence of self-righteousness. (182-3)
Wife beating is such a common practice that it is ironically described as a rite of passage to
adulthood and Ganeshs initiation into manhood:
It was their first beating, a formal affair done without anger on Ganeshs part or
resentment on Leelas; and although it formed no part of the marriage ceremony itself,
it meant much to both of them. It meant that they had grown up and become
independent. Ganesh had become a man; Leela a wife as privileged as any other big
woman. Now she too would have tales to tell of her husbands beatings; and when she
went home she would be able to look sad and sullen as every woman should. (49)
Napoleons Book of Fate (anonymous writer) was allegedly found by Napoleon and translated by a German
scholar. It is an oraculum that describes various methods of divining the future and was very popular among
superstitious Hindus which replaced the customary visit to the astrologer with a consultation of the book.
8
Sorcery of West African origin, similar to voodoo practice and popular throughout the Caribbean.
7
1334
Issue no. 6/2015
And yet, in addition to his cultural and religious capital, it is to Leela that Ganesh owes a
large part of his success. The miserable interlude of The Trials (the 5th chapter that recounts
Ganeshs struggles in Fuente Grove) ends when Leela decides to leave Ganesh in an attempt
to persuade him to write his first book. Although The Great Belcher had kept her promise and
given Ganesh all the Sanskrit books his uncle possessed, he kept postponing the actual writing
of the book, concentrating on making notes and ordering them in differently colored
notebooks. Ganeshs first book is a compilation entitled 101 Questions and Answers on the
Hindu Religion written with the express purpose of getting Leela back and impressing
Beharry, his neighbour and friend from Fuente Grove. Going to Ramlogan with the book,
Ganesh earns from his father in law both the title of author and that of Ganesh the Radical.
Ramlogans attitude changes dramatically at hearing that he has an author in the family:
Come inside, man, sahib. Why you pretending that you is a stranger and standing up outside?
Come in, sahib, come in, sit down in your old place in the hammock. Oh, sahib, is a real
honour. I too too proud of you. (88). Ramlogans deferential attitude is symbolic of the
mechanism of public reaction in Trinidad, where social and political life is mainly organized
around the related concepts of pride, honour and self-esteem. Furthermore, due to the close
connection between books and magic, being an author is regarded by Ramlogan and others as
possessing a kind of mystical aura that reflects positively on everybody around. Magic
symbols, as Frazer claimed, work according to two major principles: the principle of
similarity and the principle of contagion9. By contagion books are not perceived as the
independent production of a single individual- instead, due to their function as carriers of
occult knowledge they spread their auratic rays over the whole community. That is why what
earns Ganesh the respect of relatives and neighbours also contributes to the poor sales of his
book. The salesman tells him the book sold badly because is the sort of book you go have
hell even giving away because people go think you want to work some sign of magic on
them. (100)
Ganeshs success as a mystic owes much both to his knowledge of Hinduism and local
magic practices (obeah) and to the encouragement of The Great Belcher. His aunt and Leela
join forces to convince Ganesh that he has the Power. Beharry writes an advertisement for
pundit Ganesh, but Ganesh himself, dissatisfied with the pundit title, nails a signboard on
the mango tree: Ganesh, Mystic.(110) Ganeshs preference for mystic (a word that alludes
to initiation into religious mysteries, occult forces, etc) instead of pundit (an Indian scholar,
an expert of Hindu law and philosophy) shows his awareness of the power of superstition and
his eagerness to capitalize on that. Appearances are not neglected either: Ganesh gives up
wearing trousers and shirt and dons the traditional dhoti10 and white turban.
His fame as a mystic begins after he manages to cure a boy who thought he was
followed by a black cloud. Ganesh finds out from his parents that the boy started having
hallucinations after his brothers death. The parents had gone to the Christian priests as well,
and they were told that the boy had to pay for his sins. The reader is thus given to understand
that the boys hallucination was part of a guilt complex-knowledge that is not available to the
average uneducated Trinidadian. Ganesh puts up an impressive performance in front of the
boy, pretending to see the black could, fight it and dispel it-an exorcism inspired from the
practice of obeah. The success of his performance is augmented by what Naipaul ironically
dubs the Niggergram-the rumours spread by the ignorant and superstitious black population:
9
The law of similarity means that an effect will resemble its cause, and the law of contagion extends negative or
positive attributes of things in space and time through physical contact. The kissing (or touching) of saints relics
in Christian Orthodox religion is an example of contagion: the sacredness of the saints body extends to the one
who touches (kisses) his holy relics. Similarity functions when an icon (an image/representation) stands for
God/saints in receiving believers prayers.
10
A rectangular piece of cloth, wrapped around the legs and knotted at the waist.
1335
Issue no. 6/2015
There was no report of this incident in the newspapers, yet within two weeks all
Trinidad knew about Ganesh and his Powers. The news went about on the local
grapevine, the Niggergram, an efficient, almost clairvoyant, news service. As the
Niggergram noised the news abroad, the number of Ganeshs successes were
magnified, and his Powers became Olympian. (125)
Ganeshs mystic career, although rooted firmly in popular belief and superstition is
propelled by his intelligence and sympathy (128) and his love of learning. Intelligence and
sympathy refer to his ability to read people and circumstances and exploit them in his
favour. The books which surround him kindle respect and reinforce his authority: You never
felt that he was a fake and you couldnt deny his literacy or learning- not with all those
books. (128) His mysticism also reflects the cultural hybridity of the island in embracing all
religious traditions:
He was no bigot. He took as much interest in Christianity and Islam as in Hinduism. In
the shrine, the old bedroom, he had pictures of Mary and Jesus next to Krishna and
Vishnu; a crescent and star represented iconoclastic Islam. All the same God he said.
Christians liked him, Muslims liked him, and Hindus, willing as ever to risk prayers to
new gods, didnt object. (128)
This universalism is not, however, an effect of the pluralism and tolerance of Hindu religion,
but the consequence of an emerging capitalist frame of mind, for which nothing should be
discarded as long as it brings profit. Ganeshs financial flair is again at work-he realizes that
in a poor society like the one in Trinidad it is generosity rather than strict fees that can earn
him a practice: But more than his powers, learning, or tolerance, people liked his charity. He
had no fixed fee and accepted whatever was given him. (128) He finds alternative ways of
making money: by reprinting his book, the first best-seller in the history of Trinidad
publishing.(140). He also acts with considerable shrewdness when he discovers that
Ramlogan had been making money off his back by establishing a taxi-service to drive
Trinidadians to the mystics residence. Ganesh blackmails Ramlogan into selling him the
taxis-and this prompts Ramlogan to look for revenge and inform Narayan about the whole
affair. The war with Narayan, as I have shown previously, is again a stepping stone for
Ganesh, launching his career as a politician.
Another incident that testifies to Ganeshs use of cultural symbols to further his own
interests is his self-promotion with the aid of the written word in the war with Narayan.
Ganeshs second book is called The Guide to Trinidad, and in the guise of an innocent
booklet introducing foreign visitors to the multi-racial Trinidad11, it contains hidden publicity
for Ganeshs mystic practice:
The book spoke about the romance of Trinidads many races. In a chapter called The
East in the West the readers were told that they would be shocked to find [] in a
village called Fuente Grove, a genuine Hindu temple which looked as if it had been
bodily transported from India. The Fuente Grove Hindu temple was considered well
worth a visit, for spiritual and artistic reasons. (147)
The Guide to Trinidad is also a cunning attempt to destroy the credibility of his rival.
Pretending to take an objective look at Trinidads mass media, Ganeshs book does its best to
cast a shadow on Narayans paper: The anonymous author of the Guide was enthusiastic
about the islands modernity. [] But he deplored the absence of any influential weekly or
monthly paper, and he warned foreign advertisers to be wary of the mushroom monthlies
which claimed to be organs of certain sections of the community (147)
11
Here Ganesh proves his ability to master the Western double code of dressing up business interests as
multicultural rhetoric.
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Issue no. 6/2015
If being an author served his interests in the Hindu community when writing his first
book, Ganesh is conversely aware of the benefits of anonymity when launching an
objective book to an international audience. He learns about the practice of foreign
publishing houses of sending away free catalogues from Beharry. Yet, though acquainted with
the practice, Beharry is completely unaware of its meaning and intention, and watches in
bewilderment how Ganesh sent free copies of The Guide to all the American Army camps in
Trinidad. [] He also sent copies to export agencies and advertising agencies in America and
Canada which dealt with Trinidad.(147) Education gives Ganesh an understanding of
practices and meanings unavailable to the average ignorant Hindu. His knowledge of Western
ways and awareness of local cultural practices enable him to make the best of both worlds and
carve a personal space for success and recognition.
Fawzia Mustafa argues that Ganeshs ascension is emblematic of the rise of the first
generation of colonial entrepreneurs who unethically capitalized on the political opportunities
the era offered. (45) What she implies by unethically capitalized is that Ganesh, although
to a large extent able to read people and circumstances correctly and act on that knowledge,
is nevertheless limited in his agency by personal interest 12. He acts only when his interests are
at stake. As a politician he fails to represent adequately the interests of the black people who
had elected him. Yet circumstances act again in his favour, and he is awarded an M.B.E by
the British authorities who were too far away to be in touch with the political realities in
Trinidad. There is also a deeper criticism embedded in the irony-the implication that in
colonial countries like Trinidad political elites will fail to represent peoples interests because
politicians are mere imperial stooges (a criticism that foreshadows The Mimic Men). Thus
what at a superficial level appears as achievement is revealed as a deeper failure. Ganeshs
successful strategies are premised on the bastardization of Hindu and western cultural capital.
This bastardization and the mistranslation of values become possible against the backdrop of
colonial manufactured societies, which lack a powerful tradition. The cultural fields in
colonial societies are incapable of preserving their autonomy and establishing a firm basis for
political debate. The cultural and religious hybridity that characterize Trinidad Indians are
perceived as negative effects of the lack of Hindu cultural autonomy. The displaced Hindu
spirituality loses its capacity to act as an integrative cultural system ordering peoples lives
and is consequently invaded by the modern capitalist spirit. The result is a formal Hindu
culture whose meanings are supplied by capitalist practices. As colonial societies are
incapable of nurturing strong and authentic13 values, they pave the road forward for
opportunists like Ganesh, conversant both with formal Hindu custom and capitalist practice.
They are emblematic of the period right before independence-and they constitute, more or
less, that class of locally born colonials that Macaulays infamous 1835 Minute to Parliament
advocated the creation of: a class of interpreters between us and the millions whom we
govern- a class of persons Indian in blood and colour, but English in tastes, opinions, in
morals and in intellect. (qtd. in Ashcroft 140) The result of such mimicry, however, is not the
12
In the terms of the Kantian and continental philosophical tradition, Ganesh does not act freely, because he
doesnt act morally. For Kant freedom is a consequence of the ethical act, which presupposes a universal law:
one should act only in such a way which would constitute a universally accepted law. Acting out of personal
interest is not a moral, and thus not a free act. Another important distinction is made by David Detmer in his
analysis of Sartres Being and Nothingness, between practical(limited) and ontological(absolute) freedom.(60-1)
Insofar as Ganesh is not able to dictate the terms of his success, he doesnt have ontological freedom (the
freedom of choosing for oneself how one should act). Ganesh has only practical freedom, which is the capability
to achieve what you desire.
13
It is important to note that while Naipaul seems to decry the lack of authentic traditions in colonial societies,
he takes an ironic stand towards the recuperation of authentic pre-colonial traditions. His argument is that the
pre-colonial past has been erased with the genocide of the indigenous population and the languages spoken in the
Caribbean were borrowed from the imperial masters (The Middle Passage).
1337
Issue no. 6/2015
subversion of the colonial order as Ashcroft claims (141), but the creation of a class of
opportunist picaroons14 like Ganesh. For a Romanian reader in particular characters like
Ganesh appear strangely familiar, and there is feeling of family resemblance between the
early post-colonial Trinidad and the panorama of Romanian society sketched by I.L.Caragiale
in his plays and short stories: the same opportunism, double-standard morality and hybrid
practices, the result of the meeting of two worlds, one dying and the other not-yet born: the
traditional, Balkan-Ottoman practices grafted onto a an incipient capitalism. Like Caragiale, a
conservative who repeatedly offended the liberals by revealing the discourse of modernization
to be just empty mimicry of the West, Naipaul proved a very unwelcome voice in postcolonial
literature, with his implication that colonials conversant both with their culture and the
colonizers culture will develop a double-standard morality that will serve only their own
interests. He later had to face this accusation himself from critics like Selwyn Cudjoe, Rob
Nixon and even Edward Said. For early postcolonial literature, therefore, the ambivalence of
hybridity and mimicry is not necessarily positive. For a start, cultural hybridity indicates the
degree to which traditional Hindu customs become corrupted by the emergent American
capitalist culture. Furthermore, while it empowers educated individuals like Ganesh to accede
to high positions, it also serves as an instrument for the oppression of the illiterate masses.
Ganeshs from rags-to-riches Cinderella story is illustrative of both the shortcomings and
mediocrity of Trinidadian colonial society and the opportunities for change offered by the
turbulent war period. Through Ganeshs character and the story of his meteoric rise to power
the novel satirizes the limited social and political understanding of colonial society, launching
a powerful critique at the effects of economic imperialism. Due to the lack of authentic
cultural traditions and real values, Trinidadian society appears as manufactured and artificial,
half-made, and is thus incapable of encouraging, fostering and promoting excellence. A
society lacking in adequate standards becomes the competing field for mock-personalities like
Ganesh and his political rival Narayan. Their success is primarily the conjoined effect of the
flawed social structure of Trinidad and the volatile circumstances of the Second World War.
At the same time, the novel becomes, in reverse, the mirror of Naipauls own journey of
literary discovery from the colony to the heart of empire and then back home again. Together
with Miguel Street, The Mystic Masseur testifies to the emergence of the writers own voice
after overcoming the intellectual colonialism that had kept him tied to the cultural heritage of
the Empire.
Works Cited:
Ashcroft, Bill. Key Concepts in Postcolonial Studies, London and New York: Routledge,
1998
Bassnett, Susan and Harish Trivedi, eds. Post-colonial Translation: Theory & Practice.
London: Routledge, 1999
Brereton, Bridget. Race Relations in Colonial Trinidad 1870-1900. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1979
Detmer, David. Freedom as a Value: A Critique of the Ethical Theory of Jean-Paul Sartre.
New York: Columbia University Press, 1980
Mustafa, Fawzia. V.S.Naipaul. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995
V.S.Naipaul. The Mystic Masseur. London: Picador, 2002
--- . The Middle Passage. London: Andre Deutsch, 1962
In The Middle Passage, Naipaul compares the opportunist politicians of the 1946 elections to the sixteenth
century picaroon of the Spanish literature, [who] survives and triumphs by his wits in a place where it is felt that
all eminence is arrived at by crookedness. (72)
14
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Issue no.6/2015
THE ROMANIAN DISCOURSE ON TRANSLATION IN PERIODICALS (1800-1945)

Ana-Magdalena PETRARU
Postdoc POSDRU/159/1.5/S/140863, Al. Ioan Cuza University of Iai
Abstract: The aim of our paper is to analyse the Romanian discourse on translation in
periodicals since its beginnings to pre-communism based on our personal research and the
articles and studies mentioned in national bibliographies. Drawing on the disciplines of
Translation Studies (TS), we will try to account for the main approaches and directions in the
reflections on translation and translators in our country before the rise of the discipline of TS
as we know it today, in the 1950s. Last but not least, we will purport to distinguish the
original features of our discourse on translation and potential guidelines for translating.
Keywords: Translation Studies, discourse analysis, translators status, translation guidelines,
Romanian periodicals.
Introduction
Reflections on translation in our country have been made ever since the first translated
text was published into Romanian (cf. Coresis preface to ntrebare cretineasc/ The
Christian Inquiry, 1559 which reads that translation was necessary for all people to
understand who Romanians are as Christians, as Saint Paul the apostle speaks This is
because five words in Romanian that can be understood by the people are better than ten
thousand words in a foreign language that cannot quoted by Lungu Badea, 2005: 145).
Furthermore, drawing on the ages of translation as established in the international discourse of
the discipline, i.e. normative, descriptive, functional and sociolinguistic (Ladmiral 1997, apud
Badea-Georgiana, 2013: 8), the contemporary Romanian TS discourse distinguishes between
philological, linguistic and productive translation theories (ibidem). It is also argued that
between the 18th and the 19th centuries, there was no Romanian translation theory or discourse
as such apart from the theoretical elements on the purpose, ends and how translation could
jeopardise the language, culture and mentality of the Romanian people (ibid, p. 12). In this
respect, we could bring into play the 19th century dispute between Ion Heliade Rdulescu who
stressed the positive role of translations meant to enrich a peoples culture, as opposed to
Mihail Koglniceanu who rejected them based on their potential role to ruin the specificity of
a culture, in general and the young Romanian culture at the time, in particular (an issue that
was already tackled in our previous research, cf. Petraru, 2014: 1158). Koglniceanus attitude
towards translation was labelled as translationitis (Ro: traducionit) in the Romanian TS
discourse (Badea-Georgiana, 2013: 24); however, it is important to mention that the
Romanian philologist was not entirely against translation as such, he only condemned poor
translations from cheap works (e.g. popular fiction) deemed to kill a countrys spirit unlike
the ones from philosophy (e.g. Montesquieus works) which he found useful (cf. Cornea,
1966, passim).
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Issue no. 6/2015
The Romanian Discourse on Translation in Periodicals

In spite of the fact that reflections on translation in our country such as the ones
mentioned above have been made ever since the first translation into Romanian was carried
out, the first articles in periodicals that tackle the phenomenon of translation as such were
written in the Cyrillic alphabet; this is the case of George Bariius text in Foaie pentru inim,
minte i literatur/ Paper for the Heart, Mind and Literature (1850) with a special concern
for the translation of classical authors in Romanian (1858) and possibly in Foaia literar/ The
Literary Paper (1838), as national bibliographies mention (Stoica, 2003)1. In the table below,
we render the main articles in Romanian periodicals that deal almost exclusively with the art
and craft of translation and the mission of the translator; it is also important to mention that
there are other disparate translation-related considerations in reviews of translated works
which we did not include2.
Nr.
crt.
1.
Author
Title and translation
Periodical and translation
Aderca, Felix
S fie cu putin?/ Is This

Possible
Comentarii n jurul problemei
traducerilor/ Comments on the
Issue of Translating
Cum se traduce la noi n
bibliotecile
populare/
How
Translations Are Carried Out in
Our Libraries
Traducere/ Translation
Revista Fundaiilor Regale/ The

Review of Royal Foundations
Bis/ Bis
2.
Anastasie,
Mihail
3.
Bachelin, I.
4.
Bariiu, Gh.
5.
Bariiu, Gh.
Miestria de a traduce/ The Craft

of Translation
6.
Bariiu, Gh.
7.
8.
Batzaria, N.
Bobe, T.
Traducerea scriitorilor clasici n

limba
romn/
Translating
Classical Authors into Romanian
Traducerile/ Translations
9.
11.
Botez,
Demostene
Botez,
Demostene
Boureanu, Radu
12.
Bran-Lemeny,
10.
Publication
details
no. 4/ 1946,
p. 3
no. 66/ 1943
Noua revist romn/ The New

Romanian Review
no. 1/ 1909
no. 1/ 1838,
pp. 4-7
no. 18/ 1850,
pp. 140-144
Foaia literar/ The Literary

Paper
Foaie pentru inim, minte i
literatur/ Paper for the Heart,
Mind and Literature
Foaie pentru inim, minte i
literatur/ Paper for the Heart,
Mind and Literature
Gndirea/ The Thought
Rampa nou ilustrat/ The New
Illustrated Ramp
Timpul/ The Time
Opinia/ The Opinion
Spiritul traducerilor/ The Spirit of

Translations
Arta i analiza traducerii/ The Art
Flcri/ Flames
Gazeta crilor/ The Gazette of
no. 16/ 1858,

p. 79 & no. 17
p. 87
1922
no. 3/ 1928
no. 2390/
1944, p. 2
1922
no. 3, 1938, p.
7
no. 1-2, 1943,
All three texts are mentioned by Stoica in Bibliografia general a studiilor critice despre arta traducerii.
Literatura romn. Ghid bibliographic, partea a III-a, Scriitori romni traductori/ General Bibliography of
Critical Studies on the Art of Translation. Romanian Literature. Biliographic Guide, part III, Romanian Writers
and Translators, 2003, pp. 867-891; unfortunately, most of the texts published before 1945 are no longer
available today, either in classic book format in national libraries or on online bibliographies.
2
For instance, Vladimir Streinu argues against Croces idea of the untranslatability of poetry when discussing
Poes poems in Romanian (quoted in Lctuu, 2000: 65).
1
1340
13.
Ioan Al.
Bretan, Lucian
14.
Brezianu, Barbu
and Analysis of Translation

Reglementarea editurii/
Regulating Publishing Houses
Sborul cuvintelor/ Flying Words
15.
Clin, Alex
16.
Clin, Alex
17.
Clinescu, G.
Valoarea literar a traducerilor/

The Literary Value of
Translations
Traduceri/ Translations
18.
Cerbu, Eman
A traduce bine/ To Translate Well
19.
Cetin, I.
20.
Cioculescu,
erban
Cioculescu,
erban
Criza nuvelei i traducerile/ The

Crisis of the Short Story and
Translations
Anul literar. Traducerile/ The
Literary Year. Translations
Anul
literar.
Traduceri
i
traductori/ The Literary Year.
Translations and Translators
Anul literar. Traduceri/ The
Literary Year. Translations
21.
22.
27.
Cioculescu,
erban
Constantinescu,
Pompiliu
Constantinescu,
Pompiliu
Constantinescu,
Pompiliu
Constantinescu,
Pompiliu
Cuclin, Dimitrie
28.
Davila, Al.
29.
Epistole literare/ Literary Epistles
30.
Densuianu,
Aron
Dianu, Romulus
31.
32.
Donici, Leon
Drgulescu, C.
33.
Drimba, Ovidiu
34.
Drimba, Ovidiu
35.
Dumitrescu,
Geo
Cum s traducem? How Should
We Translate?
Chestia traducerilor/ The Issue of
Translations
Mai multe traduceri/ More
Translations
Traducerile/ The Translations
23.
24.
25.
26.
Problema traducerilor/ The Issue

of Translations
Biblioteca universal/ The World
Library
Traductorul ideal/ The Ideal
Translator
Traducerile i specificul naional/
Translations
and
National
specificity
1341
Issue no. 6/2015
Books
Afirmarea/ The Affirmation
p. 1-3
no. 1/ 1937

Illustrated Ramp
Illustrated Ramp
Illustrated Ramp
no. 5318/
1935, p. 1
no. 487, 1919
Adevrul literar i artistic/ The

Literary and Artistic Truth
Illustrated Ramp
Datina/ The Custom
no. 73/ 1935
Adevrul/ The Truth
no. 15031/
1933, p. 7
no. 15338/
1934, p. 5
Adevrul/ The Truth
Adevrul/ The Truth

Vremea/ The Time
Sptmna CFR/ The CFR
Week
Vremea/ The Time
Vremea/ The Time
year VI, 1922
year VI, 1921

year VI, 1926
no. 15635/
1935, p. 6
no. 643/ 1942
no. 26/ 1943
no. 740/ 1944,
p. 12
no. 643/ 1942
Patria/ The Nation
no. 469/ 1938,

p. 5

Illustrated Ramp
Orientul Latin/ The Latin Orient
no. 2108/
1924
no. 4/ 1874, p.
4
no. 2552/
1926, p. 1
no. 40/ 1922
no. 1-2/ 1942,
p. 4-8
no. 76/ 1941,
p. 5, 10
no. 436/ 1942,
p. 2
no. 1926/
1942, p. 3032

Illustrated Ramp
Flacra/ The Flame
Ausonia/ Ausonia
Tribuna/ The Tribune
Timpul/ The Time
Issue no. 6/2015
Culisele A kulissza/ Behind

the Scenes
Tribuna
Romn/
The
Romanian Tribune
Universul literar/ The Literary
Universe
Universe
Universul/ The Universe
36.
Eftimiu, Victor
37.
Eftimiu, Victor
38.
Eliade, Mircea
39.
Eliade, Mircea
40.
Gorun, Ion
41.
Grosu, Sergiu
Problema
traducerilor/
The
Problem of Translations
Traducere de mntuial/ Poor
Translation
Traducerile
din
clasici/
Translations from Classics
Despre cultura dirijat/ On
Guided Culture
Cum traducem/
How We
Translate
42.
Hertz, de A.
43.
44.
Hertz, de A.
Iamandi,
Dimitri
Iancu, Victor
Problema traducerii/ The Problem
of Translation
Editorii i traducerile/ Publishers

and Translations
Stil i traduceri/ Style and
Translations
ara noastr/ Our Country
no. 855/ 1935
49.
Ibrileanu,
Garabet
Ibrileanu,
Garabet
Imbrescu,
Dumitru
Iorga, N.
Ramuri/ Branches
50.
Iorga, N.
51.
Iorga, N.
Floarea darurilor/ Flower of

Gifts
Timpul/ The Time
No.
3-4/
1927, p. 3334
1907
52.
Iosifescu,
Silvian
Isac, Emil
Traduceri i traductori/
55.
Jebeleanu,
Eugen
Kiriescu, N.
Traduceri, n romnete/
Translations into Romanian
56.
Lzrescu, Ion
57.
Liman, Horia
58.
Lucullus
59.
Lucullus
O oper cultural, traducerile/

A Work of Culture
Traducerile cu creionul/
Translating in Pencil
60.
Maniu, Adrian
61.
Maniu, Adrian
45.
46.
47.
48.
53.
54.
Viaa Bucovinei/ The Life of

Bukovina
Adevrul literar i artistic/ The
Literary and Artistic Truth
Dimineaa/ The Morning
Vremea/ The Time
Patria/ The Nation
Viaa
romneasc/
Romanian Life
Patria/ The Nation
Arta de a tlmci/ The Art of

Translating
Cenzura traducerilor/ Censorship
1342
The
no. 154/ 1923

1925
no. 668/ 1942,
p. 7
no. 217/ 1936
p. 2
no. 9/ 1906
no. 247/ 1920
Tribuna poporului/ The

Peoples Tribune
Illustrated Ramp
Adevrul/ The Truth
no. 270/ 1892,

p. 2-3
no. 44/ 1944,
p. 2
1919
The New
no. 16491/
1937, p. 1
no. 3491/
1929
no. 785/ 1943,
p. 2
no. 17/ 1940,
p. 21
no. 834/1920
The New
no. 966/ 1921
The New
no. 2899/
1927, p. 1
no. 3559/

Illustrated Ramp
Viaa/ The Life
Editorial/ Editorial
Rampa nou ilustrat/
Illustrated Ramp
Rampa nou ilustrat/
Illustrated Ramp
Rampa nou ilustrat/
Illustrated Ramp
Rampa nou ilustrat/
no. 5/ 1923, p.
2-6
no. 75/ 1943,
p. 2
no. 17/ 1925,
p. 10
no. 6/ 1940, p.
1, 7
no. 335/ 1909,
p. 1
1941
The New
62.
64.
Marinescu,
tefan
Martinescu,
Pericle
Nicolescu, G.C.
65.
Nicolescu, G.C.
66.
Nicolescu, G.C.
67.
Nolla, Dem. Gh.
68.
Oan, Ion
69.
Odobescu, Al.
70.
Odobeteanu,
Victor
71.
Pantazescu,
Dan. C.
72.
Perpessicius
73.
Perpessicius
74.
Petraincu, Dan
75.
Petrescu, Cezar
76.
Petrescu, Cezar
77.
Petrescu, Cezar
78.
Philippide, Al.
79.
Philippide, Al.
80.
Philippide, Al.
81.
Philippide, Al.
63.
Issue no. 6/2015
of Translations
Illustrated Ramp
Seara/ The Night
1921, p. 1
no. 15/ 1931
Problema
traducerilor/
The
Traducere i original n poezie/
Translation and Original in Poetry
Traducere i original n proz/
Translation and Original in Prose
Romnia literar/ Literary

Romania
Universe
Universe
Universe
Traducerile i moda/ Translations

and Fashion
Problema
traducerilor/
The
Despre traduceri/ On Translations
(I-II)
Tribuna literar/ The Literary

Tribune
Reminiscene, traduceri, nruiri/

Reminiscences,
Translations,
Influences
Scrierile romneti i traducerile/
Romanian
Writings
and
Translations
Orizont/ The Horizon
no. 48/ 1940,

p. 2
no. 21/ 1942,
p. 1-2
no. 23/ 1942,
p. 1-3
no. 46/ 1942,
p. 1-2; no. 2/
1943, p. 1-2
no. 2/ 1941,
p. 26
no. 2/ 1942,
p. 4
no. 22/ 1877,
p. 253-257;
no. 23, p.
265-270
1940-1941
Jan. 27, 1922
Cuvntul/ The Word
Editura de stat/ The State

Publishing House
O problem literar cu ecou
social: traducerile/ A Literary
Problem with Social Implications:
Translations

Munc i voie bun/ Work and
Joy
no. 1177/
1928, p. 1
1945, p. 209
Traduceri i traductori/
Proprietatea literar. Cum se fac
traducerile n romnete/ Literary
Property/ How Translations into
Romanian Are Carried Out
Arta de a traduce versuri/ The Art
of Translating Poetry
Schimbul literar internaional/
International Literary Exchange
Limba romneasc i traducerile/
Romanian
Language
and
Translations
Traducerile trdtoare/
Treacherous Translations
1343
Transilvania/ Transylvania
Cuvntul literar i artistic/ The

Literary and Artistic Word
Curentul/ The Tide
no. 2/ 1940,
p. 9
no. 3/ 1925,
p. 1
no. 439/ 1929,
p. 3
no. 493, p. 2
Romnia literar/ Literary

Romania
Viaa romneasc/ Romanian
Life
Curentul literar/ The Literary
Trend
no. 30/ 1939
Vremea/ The Time
no. 667/ 1942,

p. 6
no. 5/ 1940, p.
92-94
no. 119/ 1941,
p. 12
82.
Philippide, Al.
83.
Postelnicu, C.
84.
85.
Protopopescu,
Drago
Rare, Sorin B.
86.
Robot, Al.
87.
Rodan, Victor
88.
90.
Sadoveanu, Ion
Marin
Sn-Georgiu,
Ion
Scurtu, Ion
91.
Scurtu, Ion
92.
Scurtu, Ion
93.
Sebastian,
Mihail
Sfetca, Petru
89.
94.
95.
98.
Stino,
Aurel
George
Stino,
Aurel
George
Stino,
Aurel
George
Suru, Miron
99.
100.
Suru, Miron
iclovan, C. I.
101.
tefan, Ion
96.
97.
Issue no. 6/2015
Cultura noastr i traducerile/ Our

Culture and Translations
Utilitatea traducerilor/ Usefulness
of Translations
Problema
traducerilor/
The
Traduttore, tradittore
Adevrul/ The Truth
Despre traduceri i rstlmciri/

On Translations and
Misinterpretations
Traducerile
clasice/
Classic
Translations

Illustrated Ramp
Traducerile pentru teatru/

Translations for Theatre
Traducerile literare la noi/
Literary Translations in Our
Country

Universe
Spectator/ The Spectator
Mioria/ The Little Ewe

Illustrated Ramp
Illustrated Ramp
Illustrated Ramp
Semntorul/ The Sower
Traduceri negustoreti i traduceri

literare/ Literary and Commercial
Translations
Traductorii de contraband sau
traductorii traducerilor/
Contraband Translators or
Translators of Translations
Not despre traduceri/ Note on
Translations
n
aprarea
traducerilor
romneti/ Defending Romanian
Translations
Iari despre traduceri/ On
Translation Again
Traduceri literare sau literale/
Literary or Literal Translations

i cteva traduceri bune/ A Few
Good Translations, As Well
Problema traducerilor i nivelul
culturii/ The Issue of Translations
and the Level of Culture
1344
no. 16166/
1936
no. 52/ 1940,
p. 11
no. 8/ 1943, p.
1, 2
no. 1535/
1936
no. 4518/
1933
no. 1291/
1922
no. 3404/
1929, p. 1
no. 3487/
1929
no. 28/ 1906,
p. 545-547;
no. 30, p.
587-589;
no. 31, p.
608-612;
no. 32, p.
631-633.
no. 39/ 1907,
p. 801-802
no. 39/ 1909,

p. 787-789

Dacia/ Dacia
no. 219/ 1940
Aciunea/ The Action

ara/ The Country
no. 699/ 1942,

p. 5-6
no. 3/ 1929
tirea/ The News
no. 3/ 1929
Meterul Manole/ The Master

Builder Manole
Facla/ The Torch
no. 1-3/ 1940,

p. 58
1933
no. 1561/
1936, p. 2
no. 37/ 1941,
p. 3

Universe
no. 31/ 1944,

p. 2
103.
tefnescu,
Mircea
uluiu, Octav
104.
uluiu, Octav
105.
uluiu, Octav
106.
Talex, Alex
107.
108.
Tretinescu,
Tiberiu
epelea, Gabriel
109.
Voita, L.
110.
Vrnceanu,
Drago
111.
Vulcnescu,
Romulus
102.

Traducerea, capital de istorie
literar/ Translation, Capital of
Literary History
Traducerea
ca
mijloc
de
vulgarizare/
Translation
As
Means of Vulgarisation
Traducerea marilor poei strini
Issue no. 6/2015

Illustrated Ramp
no. 5132/
1932
no. 150/ 1940,
p. 4
no. 157/ 1940,

p. 4
no. 171/ 1940,

p. 4
no. 954/ 1943,
p. 2-3
Problema
editorilor.
Traducerile.../ The Problem of
Publishers. Translations...
Aciunea/ The Action
Ortega y Gasset: Despre mizeria

i
splendoarea
traducerilor/
Ortega y Gasset: The Misery and
Splendour of Translation

O
problem
de
cultur:
traducerile/ An Issue of Culture:
Translations
Traduttore, creatore/ Translator,
Creator
Timpul/ The Time
no. 1800/
1942, p. 2
no. 7/ 1943,
p. 181-185
Chemarea vremeii/ The Call of

the Time
Curentul magazin/ The Tide
Magazine
1941, p. 10
Presa/ The Press
no. 10/ 1940,

p. 2
no. 31/ 1939,

p. 3
Reflections on Translation and Translators before 1900

As can be seen from the table above, there are very few articles on translation in 19 th century
Romanian periodicals. Thus, the database we gathered from the entries in national
bibliographies (Stoica, 2003: 867-891), our personal research in the field and reception
studies that also dealt with the translation phenomenon (such as Tamara Lctuus on
English literature in Romania between 1900-1950 with a special chapter on the conception on
translation and the translator for the period discussed, 2000: 63-83) shows that only 6 out of
111 articles were published before 1900 (3 by G. Bariiu, 2 by Al. Odobescu and one by N.
Iorga). The main recommendation was for bad translations to be put an end to and advice was
given on how to translate (Bariiu, apud Lctuu, 2000: 26). The Transylvanian scholars
prescriptivism was also brought into play in the context of longer target texts in analytical
languages that would occur when source texts from synthetic languages were dealt with, i.e.
as in the case of English works translated into Romanian (apud Maiorescu, 1871 who stressed
that translators should be agents of culture, speak foreign languages and travel a lot so as to be
able to render the image of the source culture in translation or study grammar and compile
either monolingual or bilingual dictionaries). Odobescu acknowledges the usefulness of
translations to enrich the Romanian language and argues that translators should be
knowledgeable about the author and not distort the meanings of words and sentences in
translation; they should also be faithful to the Romanian language (1877a: 255). Above all,
translators should be clear, correct, elegant, balanced and readable in the target
1345
Issue no. 6/2015
language (1877b: 267), so as to meet the horizon of expectations of their readers. At the
beginning of his career at the university, our great historian N. Iorga, published studies and
reviews in various periodicals, Timpul/ The Time included. Later on, he acknowledged that he
translated little and poorly and believed that all translators had to master their art and love
world literature. He particularly commented on the translation of poetry which could be done
in three ways: by creating, through translation, the original (in this case, there should be
congeniality between the translator, the work to translate and its author, apart from deep
knowledge of the SL and TL); by being less faithful to the original, i.e. translating verse by
prose when required (in spite of the fact that this breaks the texts rhythm and leads to a
greater distance from the original and its ideas); by observing rhythm, i.e. rendering verse by
verse in keeping with the convention of the ST (Iorga only rejects rhyme since it sometimes
requires much sacrifice). Last but not least, a respectful translator should always serve the
interests of the author in the TL, not his/ her own glory (Iorga, 1907, passim)
To summarize, reflections on the art of translation and its master before the 20th century are
simple at a stage when the Romanian culture was still young and had to be fostered from bad
translations that could pervert the publics taste; translators should observe fidelity to the
target language, hence the preference for free translations in the era.
Reflections on Translation and Translators between 1900-1945
As underlined later on in the Romanian discourse on translation (cf. Lctuus
Conceptions on Translation and the Translator, 2000: 63-83) and as can be seen from the
table above, the 105 articles on translation that came out between 1900 and 1945 could be
read in periodicals such as Viaa Romneasc/ The Romanian Life, Revista Fundaiilor
Regale/ The Review of Royal Foundations, Ideea European/ The European Idea, Adevrul
literar i artistic/ The Literary and Artistic Truth, Universul literar/ The Literary Universe,
Rampa nou ilustrat/ The New Illustrated Ramp, etc. Reputed figures of the time (e.g.: N.
Iorga, Mihail Sebastian, Al Philippide, Cezar Petrescu, Romulus Vulcnescu, G. Clinescu,
G. Ibrileanu, Perpessicius, to name but a few) supported the importance of translations for
the development of national literature and the dangers that translators might fell prey to unless
they keep with basic translation guidelines. Despite the fact that legal guidelines for all
translators to obey would only be established through the Translators Charter in 1963 at
Dubrovnik, in the Romanian discourse on translation in periodicals there is common
agreement that translations should be carried out by talented translators, masters of both the
SL and TL. For instance, in his preference for target orientedness, Ibrileanu went as far as
arguing that translators had the duty to be as close to the original as possible as they should
feel and live a second time the ST through their translation (Ibrileanu, 1906: 451-453, apud
Lctuu, 2000: 64).
In fact, contemporary Romanian TS scholars distinguish between two periods in the
national discourse on translation of the second half of the 20th century (ibidem). The former,
between 1900-1918, is a neutral one in tone and the studies published during these two
decades are less numerous; on the contrary, from the 1920s to the 1940s, the number of
articles on translations and translators in periodicals boosts and the authors tone is marked by
anger against the quality of (mainly cheap) foreign literature introduced to the Romanian
1346
Issue no. 6/2015
readers in an era almost exclusively guided by commercial criteria with incoherent translation
policies that ignored canonical works. In fact, translations, when not serialized in collections,
were often reduced to no more than 120 pages according to the French trend of the time so as
not to bore the readers (cf. Dimitriu 2000, passim), thus making the short story a favourite
candidate3.
The articles discuss issues such as the need for translations, translatability (which
cannot be denied in the case of prose but is controversial when it comes to poetry), literal vs.
free translation. The last issue was particularly tackled by Camil Petrescu who demanded
precision and accurate grammar from the translator that reformed the target language when
breaching these imperatives (quoted in Lctuu, 2000: 66). Tudor Vianu replied that
adaptation is the key (in cases such as Murnus translation from Homer that led to the debate
between the two Romanian personalities, ibidem). The translators skills are also discussed by
Gabriel epelea who commented Ortega y Gassets The Misery and Splendour of Translation;
thus, the translator is seen as a mediator between cultures, translation being more than simple
transposition from a language into another, but the presentation of a culture and civilization to
another one. In this context, the Romanian translations of the time are rejected based on their
poor quality (ibidem, passim).
Most cultural authorities mentioned in the table above speak about the translators
status and the qualities s/he should possess; direct translations are required, not indirect ones,
the translator should master both SL and TL, be a creator (Cerbu Eman, quoted in Lctuu,
op. cit., p. 71), not a simple philologist, but a writer who deeply penetrated the source
language and culture. Moreover, Pompiliu Constantinescu, Sergiu Grosu and Sorin Rare,
among others, claim that there should be an affinity between the translator and the author,
Marian Ralea ironically noting that the translator needs to be a genuine intellectual in a
country that has none (cited in Lctuu, op. cit., pp. 72-73).
As argued in the contemporary Romanian TS discourse, translation criticism in the
first half of the 20th century draws on Lovinescus theory on the impossibility to objectively
judge a work of art, a claim that does not hold true for Vladimir Streinu who feels that
translation should not be considered autonomous, but an extension of the original. Beyond the
slightly hermeneutical dimension, the authors publishing in periodicals plead for the
surveillance of translations and their quality. Therefore, reading commissions and control
offices need setting up, and gaps in translation need filling in; a state institution for all issues
pertaining to translations should be founded, Perpessicius envisaging the translation of
important masterpieces from world literature (ibidem). The translators status is also brought
into play, the low pay and it is commonly agreed that The Society of Writers of that time
should interfere to control the quality of translations (M. Sebastian, cited in Lctuu, op. cit.,
p. 74). Furthermore, the author should be protected and the responsibility for the translated
text stimulated by introducing a clause to grant translation rights. C. Alex (quoted in
Lctuu, ibidem) even claims that damages should be paid to foreign authors whose works
3
Actually, in our previous research drawing on our doctoral thesis on the reception of English Canadian
literature in Romania by means of translations and critical studies, we proved that, as far as Canadian literature
was concerned, the favourite authors for the pre-communist period were the humourist Stephen Leacock with his
short stories and Mazo de la Roche, author of popular fiction for women; this is due to the fragments of their
works published in the main periodicals of the time (cf. Petraru, 2013).
1347
Issue no. 6/2015
were poorly translated, suggesting the study of parallel texts to improve the quality of existing
translations and the use of samples for all methods used to translate differently the same text.
Last but not least, translation is an instrument of knowledge, thus enriching national
literature (cf. Perpessicius, 1928 and Sebastian, 1935, apud Lctuu, ibidem) and it is the
length and quality of translations that show the level of a culture (Clinescu, 1935 apud
Lctuu, ibidem). Thus, it could be argued that translations are equal in status to the literature
of a nation (Imbrescu, 1935 cited in Lctuu, ibidem) and they did not only become an
exercise, but a conscience for writers, a parallel creation to the original (Boureanu, 1938 apud
Lctuu, ibidem). The idea that translations could suffocate the literature of a country is
strongly rejected (Protopopescu, 1943 apud Lctuu, ibidem); they are a matter of cultural
education of the masses so their aesthetical and educational role could no longer be denied
(Constantinescu, 1943 apud Lctuu, ibidem).
As a general remark, not only did the Romanian discourse on translation in periodicals
truly start to develop in the second half of the 20th century, but it also covered wider areas
than before (translators status, translation guidelines, translators rights, damages for the
author in case of poor translations).
Conclusions
To conclude, we showed that, despite the fact that considerations on translation have
been published ever since the first translation into Romanian was carried out (in Coresis
preface to ntrebare cretineasc/ The Christian Inquiry, 1559), reflections on translation in
periodicals only came out in the second half of the 19th century in Cyrillic alphabet (i.e.
Bariius texts in Foaie pentru inim, minte i literatur/ Paper for the Heart, Mind and
Literature) and at the end of the 19th century in Romanian. Authors admit that translations are
useful and plead for the clarity, correctness, elegancy and fluency of the target text. However,
based on the database we compiled from our personal research, reception studies (Lctuu,
2000) and national bibliographies (Stoica, 2003), there are more than 100 articles published in
periodicals between 1900-1945 as opposed to only 6 before. Contemporary Romanian
scholars (Lctuu, op. cit.) distinguish between two periods in the pre-communist TS
discourse: 1900-1918 and 1920-1940, respectively. The latter period is more marked by anger
against the poor quality of translations than the former, in their originality, Romanian
personalities going as far as arguing that authors should be entitled to claim damages against
poor translations from their works. Translators should be creators, not simply master the
source and target language, but also the culture and civilisation of both SL and TL; moreover,
there should be congeniality between translator and author so as to facilitate the translation
process. Last but not least, direct translations are encouraged, along with the study of parallel
texts and it is argued that translations are equal in status to national literature, showing a
countrys level of culture.
1348
Issue no. 6/2015
Bibliography
Dimitriu, Rodica (2000) Translation Policies in Pre-Communist and Communist Romania.
The Case of Aldous Huxley, Across Languages and Cultures 1(2), pp. 179-192.
Iorga, Nicolae (1907) Traducerile, Floarea darurilor.
Lctuu, Tamara (2000) Cultur i comunicare. Raporturi literare romno-engleze 19001950, Iai: Junimea.
Lungu Badea, Georgiana (2013) Idei i metaidei traductive romneti, Timioara:
Eurostampa.
Lungu Badea, Georgiana (2005) Tendine n cercetarea traductologic, Timioara: Editura
Universitii de Vest.
Maiorescu, Titu (1871) Direcia nou, Convorbiri literare, Iai, 5(6), 1871, pp. 85-90.
Odobescu, Alexandru (1877a) Despre traduceri (I), Transilvania, no. 22, 1877, pp. 253257.
Odobescu, Alexandru (1877b) Despre traduceri (II), Transilvania, no. 23, 1877, pp. 265270.
Petraru, Ana-Magdalena (2014) Translators and Translation in Romanian Culture and
Society, SGEM Conference on Psychology & Psychiatry, Sociology & Healthcare,
Education. Conference Proceedings volume II, Sociology & Healthcare, Sofia: STEF92
Technology Ltd, pp. 1157-1164.
Petraru, Ana-Magdalena (2013) Canadian Imagery in Romanian (Para)Texts, Language and
Literature. European Landmarks of Identity, ISSN 2344-4894, ISSN-L 1843-1577, Piteti:
University
of
Piteti
Press,
pp.
54-69.
Available
on:
http://www.upit.ro/uploads/facultatea_lit/ELI/Arhiva%20ELI/nr%2013,%202013_FINAL_25
.04.2014.pdf
Stoica, Ion (2003) Bibliografia general a studiilor critice despre arta traducerii. Literatura
romn. Ghid bibliographic, partea a III-a, Scriitori romni traductori, pp. 867-891.
Acknowledgements: This work was supported by the strategic grant POSDRU/159/1.5/S/140863,
Project ID 140863 (2014), co-financed by the European Social Fund within the Sectorial Operational
Program Human Resources Development 2007 2013.
1349
Issue no.6/2015
THE VELVET CAGE. OPPRESSIVE MOTHERS IN LITERATURE

Iudita FAZACA
Abstract: The aim of this paper is to present some examples of oppressive mothers in
literature, the way they enchain and destroy the life of their own sons. The basis of their act is
represented by their own fears and frustrations, as Lloyd deMause proofs in his theory about
child as poison container. Space is also an issue which is discussed above, as manifestation of
the destructive power of mothers (willfully or not), and also as a power of the child.
Keywords: Mother, Oppression, Fear, Destruction.
-Voi erai atunci cu stolul de psri?

-Da .... i apoi, s tii, nu spunem la nimeni c putem s zburm.
Ateptm s zburm foarte bine ca s-i facem o surpriz mamei
Boris Vian
Copilria e considerat ca fiind ce mai frumoas perioad din viaa unui om, o imagine
idilic umbrit ns de numeroase mrturii din sfera mai multor domenii: psihologie, istorie i
nu n ultimul rnd, literatur. Este foarte bine cunoscut legtura printelui cu copilul, o
legtur de baz care are prima influen puternic asupra persoanei aflate n plin dezvoltare:
copilul.
Tendina general contemporan e cea de hiperprotecie n cele mai multe cazuri, ceea
ce vine poate ca rspuns la numeroasele acte de cruzime nregistrate n majoritatea epocilor
istorice the history of humanity is founded upon the assault of children1. Dac asemenea
fapte ni se par inumane, prea crude, imposibile . a. m.d., excesul de grij poate s duc n
aceeai direcie, dup cum sunt ilustrate aceste aspecte n romane ca Smulgtorul de inimi
scris de Boris Vian, sau romanul lui Pascal Bruckner Copilul divin. Ambele prezint
catastrofa indus de excesul de zel exercitat n primul rnd de instana matern, de altfel, cea
1
Lloyd de Mause, The History of Childhood, a Condor Book, Souvenir Press (E&A) LTD, London , 1974 p1
1350
Issue no. 6/2015
mai puternic figur din ecuaia dezvoltrii copilului. Practic, romanele sunt o exemplificare
reuit a teoriei copilului container emis de Loyd deMause: Rather than the child being
able to use the mother to detoxify its fears and anger, the mother instead injects her bad
feelings into the child and uses him to clean her of depression and anger.2
n ambele cazuri elementul negativ principal, cauz a manifestrii absolut exagerate a
mamelor este frica: Frica nu ucide, te mpiedic s trieti.3
Fiind cuprinse de acest
sentiment puternic, uneori contientizat i declarat, alteori doar latent, crend un substrat
coroziv, ele, sub vlul celei mai bune intenii, mpiedic propriul copil s se dezvolte firesc.
Dei frica e filonul principal, uneori, de la caz la caz, exist varii excrescene care formeaz
un ntreg buchet absolut distructiv. Aici se pot numra invidia, gelozia, rutate chiar etc, exact
cum susinea deMause.
n aceste condiii nu trebuie s ne mire faptul c un copil nenscut e considerat
puturos: Doar n-o s tolereze ca un mic puturos s se lfie n ea timp de nou luni fr s
fac nimic4.
Cu toate acestea, mama e cea care are drepturi absolute asupra copilului, tatl fiind, de
cele mai multe ori, o figur negativ extrem de violent, aa cum apare n Grdina de ciment,
romanul lui Ian McEvan: i plcea ca toi copiii s stea n iruri ordonate, ateptnd cumini
s le vin rndul la vreun joc pe care-l organizase. Glgia, haosul, copiii findu-se fr nici
un scop l enervau groaznic. Nu era petrecere la care s nu-i ias din srite din cauza cuiva.5
A doua apariie e cea de prezen simbolic de fundal care a avut, la un moment dat, un
anumit rol: Avea pur i simplu damblaua calculului i, dup doar cteva sptmni de
csnicie, i pusese deja nevasta n ecuaie.6 De asemenea, tatl e alungat pur i simplu de
ctre mam, ajungnd cel exilat, cel care la un moment dat, respins fiind, se retrage definitiv,
aa cum se ntmpl acest lucru n cazul lui Angel, protagonist n Smulgtorul de inimi.
n aceste condiii, mai mult sau mai puin create, mama monopolizeaz tot ceea ce ine
de copil, ea fiind spaiul copilului (n timpul sarcinii), iar ulterior, creatoarea unui spaiu
perfect de o siguran total pentru copil. Sunt deja attea catastrofe de imaginat. Attea
catastrofe... i iubesc, din moment ce m gndesc la tot ce li se poate ntmpla mai ru. Ca s
2
Lloyd de Mause, The History of Childhood, a Condor Book, Souvenir Press (E&A) LTD, London , 1974 p2
Pascal Bruckner, Copilul divin, trad. Lucia-Cecilia Clinescu, ed. Nemira, Bucureti, 1995,p9
4
Pascal Bruckner, Copilul divin, trad. Lucia-Cecilia Clinescu, ed. Nemira, Bucureti, 1995, p 10
5
Ian McEvan, Grdina de ciment, trad, Dan Croitoru, ed, Polirom, Iai, 2002, p45
6
3
1351
Issue no. 6/2015
previn. Ca s prevd. Nu m complac n evocrile astea sngeroase. Ele mi invadeaz mintea.

Asta dovedete c in la ei. Sunt rspunztoare pentru ei. Trebuie s fac tot ce-mi st n puteri
pentru a-i feri de nenumratele calamiti care-i pndesc. Pe ngeraii mei. Care nu sunt n
stare s se apere, s tie ce-i mai bun pentru ei. i iubesc. Pentru binele lor m gndesc la toate
astea. Nu-mi face nici o plcere7. Cel puin aceasta este buna intenie de la care se genereaz
nenorocirea i culmineaz prin construirea unei lumi ermetice extreme de nocive pentru copil:
trebuie s construieti o lume perfect, o lume curat, plcut, inofensiv, precum interiorul
unui ou alb aezat pe o pern de puf8.
Dac formarea spaiului perfect ncepe, de regul, dup ce copilul se nate, sau mai
degrab cnd ncepe s se manifeste ca persoan independent, n cazul prezentat n Copilul
divin, claustrarea/ modelarea copilului ncepe intrauterin. Corpul mamei transformndu-se
treptat n laboratorul dezvoltrii pruncului. Poate sun puin pleonastic expresia, deoarece
corpul matern e n sine un spaiu pentru copilul aflat n plin dezvoltare. Ceea ce se ntmpl
ns n acest roman, depete normalul, substituind naturalul prin artificial prin forarea
lucrurilor fireti: Urma s sar etapele : n loc s atepte prostete vrsta de ase ani pentru
a-i colariza odrasla, o va instrui nc din primele zile de sarcin.
Conectat la diferite
aparate, corpul matern devine un adevrat laborator pentru experimente, iar ulterior, spaiul pe
care-l preia rodul experiemntului euat: copilul ce refuz s se nasc. Astfel, la nceput Louis,
copilul-experiment problematic (sora geamn se nate debil-mintal) asediaz corpul matern
la modul cel mai elementar i barbar: Mai rmnea problema spaiului.[] Recuperase,
desigur, suprafaa ocupat de Cline, dduse deoparte ficatul, mpinsese tubul digestiv care se
prbuea peste el, aezase ceva mai ncolo intestinele, care intrau mereu n teritoriul su i
ameninau s-l nfoare n inelele lor: dar toate astea de abia ajungeau.[...] N-avea suficient
loc pentru mobile sau mcar pentru o bibliotec cu cri de mrimea unor confeti. [...] Nu-i
mai tra cordonul ombilical dup el, l rupsese cu dinii i-l pusese deoparte cu grij10 Dei
se vrea independent de corpul matern, se hrnete prin diferite strategii din resursele materne,
fiind hotrt ca n cazul n care ea nu coopereaz, s-i exercite capacitile diabolice: dac
mmica se las s moar de foame, o va devora din interior, pn cnd nu va mai rmne din
ea dect un schelet curat.11 Dei se considera superior semenilor n rndul crora refuz s
Boris Vian, Smulgtorul de inimi, trad. Diana Crupenschi, ed Univers, Bucureti, 2003 p115
9
10
Pascal Bruckner, Copilul divin, trad. Lucia-Cecilia Clinescu, ed. Nemira, Bucureti, 1995, p58
11
7
8
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intre, Louis, triete intrauterin toate fazele dezvoltrii umane. Cel tocmai menionat red
imaginea dur a instinctului de supravieuire, canibalismul fiind des ntlnit n numeroase
momente de criz ale umanitii.
Dei e rod al tehnicii, i pn la un punct Madelaine, mama, era cea care agresa copii,
ntregul sistem se ntoarce mpotriva ei, astfel nct nenscutul rebel i cere, prin interfonul
repus n funciune, un ntreg sistem de gadgeturi, la scar microscopic, pe care s-o instaleze
n corpul cotropit al mamei transformnd petera n cabin de lucru: o firm de
microprocesoare construi pentru el [...]cel mai mic ordinator cu imprimant din lume.[...]
Dotat cu un circuit de alimentare intern cvasiimpermeabil, mainria cntrea patru sute de
grame i fu introdus n Madeleine pe cile fireti.[...] Desigur instalaia era conectat la
reelele informatice ale ntregii planete.... o intreprindere de telecomunicaii i oferi pruncului
un releu telefonic miniaturizat cu ajutorul cruia acesta putea intra n legtur cu oricine, fr
s mai treac prin standardul matern12
Dac n cazul tocmai prezentat nsui corpul matern ajunge unealta rzbunrii unui
prunc malefic, n esen rod al rului matern, n Smulgtorul de inimi se pstreaz imaginea
angelic a copiilor, mama fiind cea diabolic pn la capt, cea care se rzbun parc, pe
faptul c-a fost chinuit n timpul sarcinii i la natere de tripleii crora le-a dat via. O s
ias, zise femeia rznd cu rutate. O s ias i o s m doar, i acesta nu e dect nceputul.
[...]Vor trece ani i ani i fiecare or, fiecare secund va fi, poate, sfritul, i toat durerea nu
va folosi dect pentru asta i ca s-mi fac ru tot timpul.13 n mod extrem de curios, dei o
asemenea gndire ar fi trebuit s nasc ulterior o atitudine glacial fa de copii, care dei la
prima vedere pare nociv, ar fi fost cel mai puin invaziv, mama se transform ntr-o fiin de-o
buntate malefic. Astfel, tot ceea ce face e spre binele copiilor
pe
care
vrea
s-i
protejeze, dac se poate, pn i de ei nii. Transformrile spaiale sunt profunde i se

accentueaz spre finalul romanului. Ceea ce se ntmpl, foarte frumos redat de alfel n
roman, e anularea efectiv a spaiului prin eliminarea treptat a diferitelor elemente: A pus
s se construiasc un zid fcut din nimic ca s nu mai avem chef s ieim din grdin. Ca i
cum tot ce nu e n grdin nu nseamn nimic i nu putem merge acolo.14 Dei spaiul e
anihilat complet, pn i elementele de baz pmntul i cerul reprezint o sursa de stres
pentru mam n privina siguranei copiilor, ceea ce duce, inevitabil, la eliminarea lor prin
14
12
13
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construirea unor cuti protectoare: Vzu cele trei cuti. Se ridicau n fundul camerei golite de
mobile. Erau destul de nalte pentru un om nu prea nalt. Barele groase i ptrate ascundeau n
parte ceea ce se afla nuntru, dar ceva se mica acolo. n fiecare era cte un ptu pufos, un
fotoliu i o msu joas. O lamp electric lumina cutile din interior.15
Ajuni la aceast imagine nelegem, ntr-o oarecare msur atitudinea lui Louis i
modul su de a reaciona, prelund controlul. Dei firul rou al romanului brucknerian pare s
fie pur i simplu refuzul vieii banale, a rutinei, o interpretare pe marginea textului tinde ns
spre aceast relaie patologic dintre mam i copil. Practic, nu e vorba doar despre spaiul
perfect, lipsit de orice pericol care s ocroteasc pruncul, ci mai degrab despre pstrarea unei
presupuse puriti a acestuia: Chinezii le pun nite nclri speciale fetielor lor [...] s le
rmn picioarele mici de tot. S-ar putea face acelai lucru cu trupurile copiilor. Ca s-i
mpiedice s creasc. E mult mai bine pentru ei s rmn copii. N-au griji. N-au nevoie de
nimic. Nu au dorine murdare.16 Dup cum spunea i deMause, copilul-container e umplut cu
toate frustrrile, temerile mamei care, n cazul celor dou romane nu le livreaz pur i simplu
copiilor, ci le rstoan crend, fr s-i dea seama, imaginea unei bunti malefice. Prin
urmare, doar o lectur n negativ poate s scoat la lumin aceste orori.
Dac n cazul Clementinei e vorba de puritatea care trebuie pstrat, aa cum se
reflect acest lucru din citatul tocmai redat, Madeleine are obsesia educaiei, a cunoaterii:
Spaima i se dubl: constat consternat c naterea e o loterie supus unor combinaii
genetice misterioase, c nu-i poi alege progenitura precum un articol ntr-un mare magazin.
[...]Nici vorb s dai drumul n secol unui pui de om fr a-l mbrca n atuuri i diplome, ca
tot attea armuri mpotriva hazardului.17 Astfel, viitoarea mam i transform corpul ntr-un
soi de burete absorbant de informaii, mpodobindu-se cu numeroase gadgeturi, n condiiile
n care medicul colaborator Fontane se mulumea cu o simpl improvizaie chimic: injecta
n Madeleine un cockteil de hormoni, de endorfine i de aminoacizi pentru a activa funciile
cerebrale ale micii creaturi nainte chiar ca aceasta s aib creier.18 Rezultatul e ns opus
ateptrilor, ceea ce demonstreaz c ntotdeauna exist imprevizibilul, indiferent de efortul
de a-l anihila. De altfel, tot romanul e presrat cu numeroase rsturnri neateptate: Cline se
nate debil, iar Louis nu vrea s se mai nasc motivnd prin: Realitatea nu face doi bani
17
18
15
16
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atunci cnd ai o bibliotec n mite[...] Lectura, Doamne: ea m-a fcut intolerant la

mediocritatea cea de toate zilele19
Ajungem astfel la o alt problem cea a lumii surogat, la rndul su un tip de spaiu
manifestat fie n literatur ca lume alternativ, fie rodul difertelor afeciuni psihice, sau pur i
simplu rezultatul unei imaginaii bogate. Cum spune i Bachelard: Literatura red viaa
ocaziilor ratate20 ceea ce se ntmpl n cazul lui Louis, pn la un moment dat, pe cnd
mamele cad prad unei fantezii prea mari generat ca paravan de protecie mpotriva fricilor:
Nu vrei cu adevrat dect ceea ce imaginezi din plin21. Ele ajung s proiecteze att copiii
ct i spaiul ideal n care acetia s existe. Procesul e unul complicat compus din asimilare,
prelucrare i proiectare a tuturor elementelor negative, fie ele spaiu sau persoane. De regul,
un asemenea demers ar trebui s fie unul pozitiv, dar, dup cum s-a demonstrat n cele dou
romane, efectul este invers, fiind negativ att pentru mam, ct i pentru copii: El se ls dus,
dar privirea i era puin dur; nu-i plcea mna aceea care i se crispa pe ncheietur, l fcea
s nu se simt n largul lui. Nu-i plceau nici lacrimile. Un soi de mil l silea s rmn lng
ea, dar aceast mil l fcea s-i fie ruine22
Concluzionnd simplist am putea s reducem totul la un conflict ntre generaii
perceput ca diferen de viziune asupra lumii, dar n esen e mult mai mult. Practic este vorba
de crearea unui spaiu invaziv, care distruge din invidie un spaiu mult mai colorat , dar fragil.
-Numai o mam m-ar putea nelege, zise Clmentine....Eu i copiii mei suntem totuna zise
Clmentine. i iubesc att de mult. .... Concepia mea nu are nimic ciudat. Lumea sunt ei./-Nu,
te neli. Dumneata vrei s fii lumea lor. n sensul acesta e o dorin distrugtoare. 23
Pascal Bruckner, Copilul divin, trad. Lucia-Cecilia Clinescu, ed. Nemira, Bucureti, 1995,p 65
Gaston Bachelard, Pmntul i reveriile voinei, trad. Irina Mavrodin, ed.Univers, Bucureti, 1998, p75
21
Gaston Bachelard, Pmntul i reveriile voinei, trad. Irina Mavrodin, ed.Univers, Bucureti, 1998, p23
22
23
19
20
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Bibliografie
BRUCKNER, Pascal, Copilul divin, trad.Lucia-Cecilia Clinescu, ed. Nemira, Bucureti,
1995
MCEWAN, Ian, Grdina de ciment, trad, Dan Croitoru, ed, Polirom, Iai, 2002
VIAN, Boris, Smulgtorul de inimi, trad. Diana Crupenschi, ed Univers, Bucureti, 2003
BACHELARD,Gaston, Pmntul i reveriile voinei, trad. Irina Mavrodin, ed.Univers,
Bucureti, 1998
DEMAUSE, Loyd, The history of childhood, a Condor Book, Souvenir Press (E&A) LTD,
London , 1974
FROMM, Erich, Frica de libertate, trad Magdalena Mringu, Ed. Universitas (imprint
Teora), Bucureti, 1998
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THREE MEN IN A BOAT: NIETZSCHE, ADORNO AND CIORAN. ON TRANSMUTATION

OF VALUES
Ovidiu Marius BOCA
North University of Baia Mare
Abstract: Friedrich Nietzsche was the thinker who had lived with intensity nihilism until the
end. As Prophet of nihilism, he managed to overcome it. To follow this difficult author
beyond nihilism and skepticism, it is necessary to free ourselves of preconceptions, because
there is already his philosopher profile that goes beyond good and evil, and whose features
related to the reception of truth by pulses of living, by feelings and sensitivity intermediate
forms of the will, anounced the priority of the the senses against the reason. The direction of
nihilism, and still poor image we have about Theodor Adorno ( extremely complex because of
his writings addressed primarily to an elite), showed a similar background (the life world)
for large echoes derriving from similar affinities in the most amasing fragments, so full of
lessons for our times. From a similar stylistic direction, Emil Cioran completes the picture of
"Three Men in a Boat" indicating the Styx shores. But is this transmutation of values, a
shift and a transfer from one bank to another of Styx? My proposal is to examine together, at
least in part, the treasure from their boat, always in danger of sinking due to their weight, as
actually it remained from ancient times: the burden of knowledge.
Keywords: nihilism, skepticism, transmutation of values, communication, ethical conduct.
Introducere
Aluzia titlului1 la o naraiune cunoscut din literatura englez, pornete de la imaginea
brcii plutind pe rul-timp. Ne referim la parcurgerea timpului din perspectiva unor gnditori
de excepie, care par a avea puine n comun, i totui sunt cteva aspecte care fac ca ei s se
Jerome K. Jerome, Three Men in a Boat /Trei ntr-o barc, este o naraiune comic, n care trei prieteni pentru a
se elibera de osteneala zilei pornesc ntr-o plimbare lundu-i i cinele cu ei. n construcia analogiei ca punct de
pornire, propun s considerm cinele imaginaiei adulmecnd adevrulviclenia istoriei i pasajul hegelian
din Fenomenologia spiritului referitor la rsturnarea lucrurilor. Cei trei vslesc dincolo de vicistitudinile istoriei
trecnd prin labirintul raiunii n manifestrile i zbuciumul ce ncearcau s mpleteasc teoria cu practica i s
comunice experiena semnificant. Deoarece conduita se exprim prin actele noastre, inclusiv cele comunicative,
socotim Styxul drept evenimentele dramatice prin care istoria trece periodic, fr ca trista lor experien s ne fi
dat impulsul gsirii Acceptabilului. Dac pentru Adorno rspunsul deriv din dialectica negativ, refuzul
sistemului i al generalizrilor, nseamn c ntr-o lectur atent trebuie avut n vedere amestecul de negativ i
pozitiv ca i n scrierile chineze unde se aplic tehnica modulrii semnelor. Rsturnarea bncii n vltoarea
rului, este metafora prin care exprimm obsesia negrii la Cioran. n acest sens s-ar putea experimenta i citirea
invers a lui Cioran: adic pn unde merg consecinele Silogismelor amrciunii, sau pn unde deconstrucia
postmodern din Tratatului de descompunere, reprezint puncte de acumulare ce solicit efortul reflexiv? Fiecare
din cei trei au cunoscut n felul lor infernul devenit realitate. Pentru Adorno, expresia maximei degradri a
raiunii este nazismul i reprezentativ pentru toate atrocitile -fenomenul Auschwitz, de unde i imperativul
adornian de a face totul ca aa ceva s nu se mai repete niciodat. De aceea este nevoie de o educaie care s se
opun Barbariei.
1
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ntlneasc n acceai barc. Este vorba de trei gnditori nendreptii prin simpla lor
etichetare ca nihiliti. Cea mai bun definire a nihilismului, ne-a rmas de la Friedrich
Nietzsche2. El a profeit nihilismul i l-a depit, dup cum ne dezvluie n Voina de
putere, trecnd prin decadena epocii,ca printr-un ritual purificator al resentimentelor n faa
proprilor neputine i orientndu-i legiunea de voine i nzuine ale ntregii fiine spre
mplinirea deplin.
Theodor W. Adorno3 continu s fie studiat cu surprindere crescnd, descoperind
filiaia unor idei aclamate abia la urmaii si -n vog astzi: Karl-Otto Apel4 i Jurgen
Habermas5, ale cror realizri i datoreaz mult mai mult dect se tie.6 A ndrzni a spune
chiar c Adorno i-a fixat idele n diferite puncte de acumulare supuse refleciei, pstrnd
unele rezerve ntemeiate fa de normatizarea etic, standardizarea unor acte de conduit
etic, inclusiv a actelor de comunicare, n vreme ce urmaii lui, n dorina de a clarifica unele
aspecte aproape ezoterice (prezente deja n multe exemplificri i detalieri deja n
Dialectica negativ, Dialectica epocii luminilor sau Minima moralia) n-au scpat de
ispitele utopiei (n proiectele lor viznd sfera public a comunicrii eliberate de coerciiile
politice, respectiv turnura lingvistic spre pragmatism din direcia transcendental).
Emil Cioran este considerat nihilistul perfect -de ctre Dumitru Tucan7. Dar are oare
acesta dreptate? Cioran nsui nu se socotete nihilist.8 Atta doar c raionalitatea pe care o
pune n joc, nu este cea operativ care folosete logica obinuit, ci mai curnd raionalitatea
semnificant, fcnd uz de metafor i metonimie, se las inspirat de surorile ambiguitii.
Prin opera sa de admirabil virtuoztate stilistic, dar nu mai puin dificil prin cultivarea voit
a paradoxului9, a construit versiunea unei confesiuni ce a experimentat negaia dincolo de
limitele raionalului.10 Ceea ce nsoete sinuciderea metafizic este bocetul i carnavalescul i
Friedich Nietzsche,1844 1900 .Vezi: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche
Critic cultural, muzicolog, filosof , membru de frunte al colii de la Frankfurt, Theodor Adorno (1903 1969)
poate fi considerat ca personalitate resurs. Vezi: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno
2
3
Karl-Otto Apel (n.1922),consider c etica i limbajul ar avea o rdcin comun.Vezi: Jesus de Paula Assis,
Karl-Otto Apel: a raiz comum entre tica e linguagem, Estudos Avanados, ISSN 0103-4014,Estud. av. vol.6
no.14 So Paulo Jan./Apr. 1992,respectiv: http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S010340141992000100011
4
Jrgen Habermas ( n.1929), fostul student al lui Adorno i urma la conducerea colii de la Frankfurt, a dat
acesteia o nou orientare.Vezi: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas.
5
Ne vom ocupa de filiaia unor idei eseniale n alt lucrare, ns.Un aspect al creaiei sale nu trebuie uitat: Se
tie c a scris ntr-o epoc n care groaza i-a ptruns n oase. Poate c n zilele noastre e mai greu de imaginat ce
nsemna s fii evreu n Germania nazist.Nici exilul american n-a fost un paradis.
6
Vezi articolul Autorul meu preferat din 10 LECTURN Anul I, nr. 1, ianuarie-martie 2013.
Caracterizndu-se n chip ironic, el subliniaz : Aspectul de lupttor, negaia ca depire, diminuare a
intensitii tririi. nelegi? Impresia c toi triesc cu o iluzie, cu excepia mea.Comedie i pentru a nu te nela,
neparticiparea la aceast comedie. Vezi Exerciii de admiraie i Apocalipsa dup Cioran. n "Gndirea
mpotriva sa", el scrie c "toi suntem genii cnd vism, mcelarul deopotriv cu poetul... Numai nebunul se
bucur de privilegiul de a trece uor de la o nocturn la existena la lumina zilei." De asemenea : "Este nebun n
noi care ne oblig la aventur; odat ce ne abandoneaz, suntem pierdui. . . Nu putem fi normali i n via, n
acelai timp."
9
De aici i dificultatea abordrii lui, lucru semnalat cu ndreptire de Sorin Vieru, Cuvintele insomniei n
Secolul 20, 328 - 330, p. 14
10
Aduce oarecum complementar imaginea celuilalt rm al Styxului. n timpul su i dup el ,totalitarismele sau dezvluit n atrocitatea manifestrilor rului, iar suferinele cutrilor i confesiunilor sale indic zbuciumul
raiunii ce-i pierde semnificaiile ultime. ntr-adevr,ce mai poate rmne,dup negarea vieii,a lui Dumnezeu,a
societii, a moralei?
7
8
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n cele din urm auto-anularea. Procedura mi pare nrudit cu logica ironico-dramatic a lui
Marin Preda ntr-o citare aproximativ din btrnul Moromete Adic ai dreptate, de ce s
tragi carul cu boi de-o parte, cnd salcmul poate cdea peste voi?. Cu vorbele lui Cioran:
Ce e formulat devine mai clar, de o intensitate degradat, n sensul terapeutic al confesiunii
i consolrii...11 Presa timpului nota cu aparia Tratatului de descompunere12 piesa clasic a
nihilismului secolului XX i anuna: Iat-l pe ce-l ce-l ateptam, profetul vremurilor
concentraionare i a suicidului colectiv...El va depune mrturie pentru epoca noastr.13
1.Voina de putere, interesele i persuasiunea unor nevoi
Exist cititori i exegei pntru care Cioran se desfoar pe aceeai band Moebius. Fie
acetia, fie Cioran rmn la nivelul ncntrii ambiguitii ce se reconstituie i repet dintr-un
punct magic al sensului ce gliseaz pe gheaa subire a dialecticii negative. l observm
lunecnd mereu pe aceeai suprafa, dar cnd clipa se dilat, noat cu disperare n
bolboroseala rului heraclitic. i desigur mbrind cu voluptate Nirvana, misterul stingerii
cu fiecare clip, oboseala dup nopile insomniace. Cnd Gheorghe Vlduescu 14 mediteaz
asupra semnificaiei secantei sferelor gndirii la Parmenides i Spinoza, se presupune c
pentru fiecare caz este o cutare a ordinii Spinoza, unul din marii reconstructori n ontologie,
n consecin trebuie s porneasc de unde pornise i Parmenides 15 Ne ntrebm dac nu
cumva, pornind de la diferena dintre fiina-n-sine i fiina noastr, ca de la un dat absolut, aa cum Parmenides cuta s-o legitimize pe aceasta din urm- i Cioran ncearc s-i instituie
propria fiin (i implicit pe a noastr, cu toate diferenele accentuate) ca termen n stare s
cuprind nemrginitul fr a-l mrgini ns.16 La Emil Cioran, analogia deconstruciei
ulterioare are loc prin negaii succesive. Un anumit nivel al tipului de negaie este al
nehotrrii, carenei de voin sau de mijloace ale convingerii: Cum adic s faci ceea ce face
i cellalt, ca s-l convingi c nu are dreptate? Ca i cum i-ai spune: Uite, eu sunt tu, i nu ai
dreptate, dar urmm calea ta pn la saturare. E un fel de demonstraie prin inducie complet
i prin reducere la absurd.17 Ionel Necula18, unul din exegeii care accentueaz cteva aspecte
ce aduc ineditul interprettii din perspectiva lui Cioran ca necessitate filosofic i poetic
,observ: N-a fost, e drept, un filosof sistematic i nici uor ncadrabil ntr-o paradigm
sistematic, dar a fost, desigur, un filosof n msura n care a activat un anumit mod de
asumare raional a lumii i a devenirii umanului.19 Este ndreptit s observe c marele
Apocalipsa dup Cioran, http://www.trilulilu.ro/video-cultura/apocalipsa-dupa-cioran-documentar
Ibidem, vezi i Apocalipsa dup Cioran, Editura Gallimard,
13
https://vimeo.com/19781872.Vezi i http://webcultura.ro/apocalipsa-dupa-cioran/
14
Gheorghe Vlduescu,Deschideri ctre o posibil ontologie,Editura tiinific i Enciclopedic ,Bcureti 1987
pp 76-82
15
Ibid.p78
16
Ibidem.
17
Exemplific cu o imagine din filmul Comoara din Vadul vechi,n care personajul principal obsevnd nebunia
cuiva drag, nu reuete s-l conving de faptul c acolo unde sap, la rdcina copacului nu este ascuns nici o
comoar, i atunci i ia unealta din mn i continu s sape el nsui, cu aceeai furie i nverunare spre a-l
convinge prin gestul absurd de ceea ce n-a reuit n mod raional.Ne gndim la o greeal a lui Narcis n cele 3
variante repovestite de Aurel Ru,Paolo Coelhio i Oscar WildeMai deduc un al doilea nivel, cu amrciunea
ncercrii de a nu-i da singur dreptate, chiar i cnd o are lsnd pe alii s-l contrazic, lucru ce ar duce la
voluptatea unui dialog socratic al dedublrii n genul lui Marin Preda, n citare aproximativ, din memorie,
descrierea descoperirii contiinei (imaginea cu pinea strns la piept i vocea tatlui dndu-i dreptate: Aa, mi,
doar tu eti pe lume! Ia i pinea aceasta, dai-i i pinea voastr. Sau imaginea cu copacul gata s cad pe carul
cu boi,cnd btrnul Moromete i aprob, adic, da,voi ce tiai pomul, de ce s tragei carul de-o parte cnd
salcmul poate cdea pe voi? Nu cumva, citirea invers a lui Cioran este una etic? Aici, observaia mea este una
riscant i ntmpin observaia pertinent a unui mare etician, care nu accept o etic n lipsa unei ontologii.
18
Ionel Necula, Cioran i filosofia caderii, 2010.
19
Tratatul de descompunere, p. 36.
11
12
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eseist s-a interesat nu doar de lume, de via, de om i de condiia lui, dar a trecut i dincolo
de frontierele existenei, dincolo de cercul care nchide fiinele ntr-o comunitate de interese
i sperane.20
nelesul transmutrii valorilor se face prin impulsurile voinei de putere, prin
raionalitatea ce se supune acestora, devenind o raionalitate instrumental. Voina de putere21
este prefigurat metafizic i la Schopenhauer22, dar este deja un titlu consacrat la Nietzsche
(nti n manuscrisele din 1885), iar intenia abordrii tematice transpare i n corespondena:
chiar dac nainte era doar "sentiment al puterii", apruse ca expresie n capitolul "Despre
depirea de sine"23. Este o ntmpinare a imperialismului i o previziune a erorilor
civilizaiei, a iluziei progresului. Totul este supus dominaiei, raiunea n manifestrile sale se
subordoneaz producerii de bunuri pentru o pia de schimb unde intervin interesele ca forme
ale dezbinrii, antagonismelor. ntr-o lume a bunurilor abundente i consumerismului, totul se
produce i consum standardizat, organizat urmnd persuasiunii mass-media privind
presupuse nevoi, din care se exclude treptat adevrul, binele, frumosul, pstrndu-se urma lor,
amintirea, umbrele. Revizuiri ale unor aspecte metafizice i epistemologice apar distinct la
Friedrich Nietzsche24 i la Theodor W.Adorno25. ntr-o prim lectur a lui Nietzsche, avem
20
Ibidem.
Ne referim n special la versiunea romneasc, Nietzsche, Voina de putere, ncercare de transmutare a tuturor
valorilor (Fragmente postume),Traducere i Studiu introductiv de Claudiu Baeiu ,editura AION ,1999,ISBN 97397662-6-9 ,n original Friedrich Nietzsche Der Wille zur Macht Versuch Einer Umwertung Aller Werthe
Nietzsches Werke , BNDE IX-X, Alfred Kroner Verlag Leipzig 1918 cu variantele: a) ediia "mare":
Nietzsche, Werke, Kritische Gesamtausgabe, hg. von G. Coli und M. Montinari, Berlin, 1967, W. de Gruyter; b)
ediia "de studiu": Friedrich Nietzsche, Smtliche Werke, Kritische Studienausgabe in Banden, hg. von G. Colii
und M. Montinari, Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag, de Gruyter, Munchen. Berlin, New-York, 1980. Obsevm
elementul central al gndirii sale voina de putere (der Wille zur Macht), ce face posibil nelegerea conduitei
umane ca sens al adaptrii cf. Nietzsche 1886, p. 13., Nietzsche 1882, p. 349., Nietzsche 1887, p. II:12,
respingnd teoria utilitarismului privind dorina de fericire i plcerea ca innd de un stil de via cf. Brian
Leiter, Routledge guide to Nietzsche on morality, p. 121, respectiv Nietzsche 1888c, 2. Vezi i
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche
22
Lumea ca voin i reprezentare (Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung) opera principal a lui Arthur
Schopenhauer (1788 1860) dezvluie o lume a iluzilor, instinctelor i a unor habitusuri care cluzesc omul
ntr-o adaptare permanent pentru supravieuire. Suntem aadar cluzii mai degrab de iluzii care dau un sens
faptelor noastre, iar aceste fapte sunt reflexul unor obinuine, a voinei de a tri ca for vital i dincolo de
aceasta, de a ne nconjura de construcii epistemice al cror adevr ncercm s-l argumentm fr a scpa de
contradicii, ndoindu-ne nc de puterea lor asupra noastr i nzuind n puterea noastr ca justificatoare a
adevrului i poate mai puin spre un adevr care s ne justifice. O voin mereu nemulumit, asemenea
ntruprilor sankarei indienilor, i caut adevrul recunoscut de cele 4 nobile adevruri din Vedanta i Buddism
sau misticismul cretism: suferina, boala, moartea, zbuciumul trecerilor succesive. Realizarea eliberrii de
suferin n viziunea sa e posibil prin negarea Voinei, prin contemplaia artistic sau prin ascez, renunare i
meditaie. Schopenhauer are ndoile asupra raiunii umane i a legilor morale ce ar emana de la aceasta.
Doar "mil" ar ntemeia comportamentul moral. Depirea egoismului prin comptimire i nelegerea suferinei
lumii, face posibil o raportare adecvat cu semenii si (ber die Grundlage der Moral, 1840). Dac am compara
cu ntemeierea binelui la Soloviev, am descoperi din nou mila, iar alturi de ea, pietatea i ruinea sau pudoarea.
23
Vezi partea a II-a din Zarathustra
24
Friedrich Nietzsche (1844 1900),a crui filosofie,aproape o profeie a secolelor urmtoare, explic fenomene
ale timpului nostru n care suntem captivi nc.
25
Theodor W. Adorno ( 1903 -1978) personalitate marcant a gndirii germane de dup al doilea rzboi ,
dezvolt gndirea critic alturi de ceilali reprezentani ai colii de la Frankfurt.El pornete n mod specific de la
cercetarea dezvoltrii personalitii autoritare i anti-semitismului ,ca fenomene ce ar deslui relaia dintre teorie
i practic cluzind palierele metafizicii i eticii .Raportarea fa de cele mai tragice evenimente ale timpului
dup Auschwitz (Bernstein 2001, 371414; Zuidervaart 2007, 4876) dezvolt noul imperativ adornian de a se
aciona n aa fel (sub impulsul unei noi educaii mpotriva barbariei) nct s nu se mai repete acele imense
tragedii. (ND 365). Adevrul,suferina,sensul solicit o schimbare dincolo de ontologia ascuns a utopiilor.
Adorno vorbete despre o filosofie a speranei (aforismul final din Minima moralia) i rezistena prin raportare la
21
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impresia unui cerc vicios (anticipat) n care se zbate civilizaia. Pesimismul i nihilismul se
intercondiioneaz i interptrund pentru a defini aspectele decadenei. Nietzsche nota: Ceea
ce povestesc eu este istoria urmtoarelor dou secole. Descriu ceea ce vine, ceea ce nu mai
poate s vin altfel: irumperea nihilismului. Aceast istorie poate fi scris chiar de acum: cci
ea este opera necesitii. Acest viitor griete deja prin sute de semne, acest destin se anun
pretutindeni; pentru aceast muzic a viitorului s-au ascuit deja toate urechile. Intreaga
noastr cultur european se-ndreapt de mult, cu o tortur a tensiunii ce crete de la un
deceniu la altul, ca nspre o catastrof: cu nelinite, violent i rapid: asemntor unui fluviu,
ce vrea s ajung la capt, ce nu mai chibzuiete, cruia i este fric s chibzuiasc.26
Manifestrile binelui refuznd s se lase surprinse ntr-o lume aflat sub semnul ororilor
rzboiului sau a ceea ce a nsemnat Auschwitz 27, formularea adornian surprinde un adevr:
Viaa bun, corect nu poate fi gsit n viaa greit pe care o trim 28. Astfel, marile sperane
ale epocii luminilor i entuziasmul ncrederii depline n raionalitate i-au pierdut suportul de
credibilitate n faa eecului cunoscut, raionalitatea retrgndu-se n mit.29
Adorno are cercetri importante dedicate lui Kant i Hegel. El a observat c dac la Kant
relaia dintre domeniul libertii i cel al istoriei este mediat de conflicte, la Hegel exist
presupoziia unui progres de la contiin la contiina libertii dei precaritatea teoriei se
ntrevede n relaia dintre universal i individual prin parcursul istoric i intensificarea
procesului de concentrare i de birocratizare care are ca efect reducerea la statutul de
funcii,att n Est i n Vest. Aadar, libertatea ajunge s fie limitat la auto-conservare, iar
procesul continu n modul cel mai subtil prin mass-media, prin industria culturii.30 Acest
fapt se explic prin slbiciunea subiectului, dependena de consum, rspndirea excesiv i
dominant a conformismului. Se pstreaz poziia sceptic n privina progresului n
contiina libertii, chiar n privina democratizrii treptate a instituiilor politice. Se remarc
opoziia n substana puterii sociale i apatia de care e cuprins spiritul, amintind de remarca lui
D`Holbach privitoare la sufletul omului care se poate revolta sau se vetejete n absena
libertii. Adorno i Horkheimer n lucrarea comun Dialectica iluminismului accentueaz
analogia dintre nazismul german i industria filmului american, ambele fcnd uz de
industria culturii create i diseminate de instituii specializate dezvoltnd consumerismul
(inclusiv al valorilor induse prin propaganda manipulativ) societii devenite mas condus
transcenden (ND 4045):No light falls on people and things in which transcendence would not appear
[widerschiene]. Indelible in resistance to the fungible world of exchange is the resistance of the eye that does not
want the world's colors to vanish. In semblance nonsemblance is promised.
26
Aforismul 2 din Voina de Putere. n Aforismul 3, Nietzsche consider c a trit cu intensitate nihilismul,a
meditat asupra sa i l-a depit.
27
De fapt a totalitarismelor, care completeaz tabloul ororilor, spre a indica fie i doar o lucrare ce le dezvluie
Alain de Besanon, Nenorocirea secolului, Humanitas, 2007
28
Prezent ca motto n Minima moralia, este considerat drept principiu al epistemologiei negative dezvoltate de
autorul Dialecticii negative.
29
Vezi i Epoca luminilor ,carte scris de Adorno mpreun cu Marx Horkhemer, n care ntmplrile culturii i
raiunii n manifestrile ei practice ,fetiismul,cultura de mas,reificarea,consumerismul i gsesc analogiile cu
paniile lui Ulise.
30
Termenul german Kulturindustrie este propus i dezvoltat n cap. The Culture Industry: Enlightenment as
Mass Deception din Dialectic of Enlightenment (1944), rod al colaborrii dintre Theodor Adorno (19031969)
i Max Horkheimer (18951973).Se refer la standardizarea bunurilor i a formelor binelui ca bunuri culturale i
marf de schimb,transformnd i omul n obiect (reificare) n cadrul unei mase sociale pasive manipulate prin
publicitate i tiri ce cultiv false nevoi ce pot fi satisfcute de producia excesiv a unor lucruri i obinuina
unui stil de via (hedonist) i a unor relaii false (precum fetiizarea bunurilor de consum)neglijndu-se
libertatea ,creativitatea etc.Asupra reperelor autentice ca nevoi reale insist Herbert Marcuse n Eros and
Civilization, 1955),artnd pericolul renunrii .Vezi ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_industry
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de o raiune i ordine dat, n care individul i pierde idealurile absorbit de alte nevoi dect
cele personale.
Analizat din multiple perspective, dar mai puin sub aspect filosofic, zbuciumul
sufletesc al lui Emil Cioran, trimite deopotriv spre nihilismul i pesimismul enunat de
Nietzsche i ecourile unei etici a rezistenei adorniene, cu reticenele asumate.
Operele celor trei autori prezint unele asemnri n msura n care sunt o suit de
fragmente ce au o articulaie conceptual, de regul, paradoxal, adic, stilul aforistic ntr-o
prelucrare extrem de ngrijit. Despre Nietzsche se tie c este este un gnditor unitar, temele
lui se condiioneaz reciproc ntr-o manier logic, iar nu aleatorie, fapt pentru care filosofia
sa a i fost numit un "sistem n aforisme"31. O asemenea caracterizare surprinde funcia
esenial a aforismului pentru aceste scrieri. Pentru Nietzsche, aforismul este un alt mijloc de
cunoatere, ntemeiat pe o alt perspectiv asupra cunoaterii, sau, mai exact, asupra
necunoaterii 32. Pentru Emil Cioran este drumul terapeutic al cutrii, n vreme ce n cazul
lui Adorno se poate vorbi despre o "epistemologic negativ", n sensul c binele nu poate fi
cunoscut datorit lipsei manifestrilor acestuia. Deopotriv metod i trstur specific a
scriiturii adorniene, dialecticii negative i se consacr o ntreag oper33, extrem de complex,
din care capitolul despre libertate reprezint o tem esenial. Nietzsche asociaz analiza
voine de putere cu o critic a posibilitii de accedere la "adevr" ca valoare fundamental a
cunoaterii : "adevrul" este o invenie, "cunoaterea" este fabulaie (spre deosebire de
legitimitatea cunoaterii kantiene a "fenomenelor"). Respingerea concepiei aristotelice a
adevrului ca adecvatio) implic reticena fa de subiectul cunoaterii nzestrat cu structuri
transcendentale, optnd pentru pluralitatea de impulsuri ce ajung, pe rnd s domine
"contiina". n mod asemntor, Adorno are n vedere pulsurile unor habitusuri ale cror
repetare i asociere dau un grad de funcionare, manifestare concret a raiunii, care este
raionalitatea,dar uneori opusul ei. Tensiunea dintre form i fond, explicat de Adorno -i de
altfel prima din cele 10 teze ale vorbirii filosofului34- n abordarea lui Nietzsche vizeaz
crearea unei rupturi profunde ]n interiorul subiectului35. Dezvoltarea criticii "adevrului", rece
dincolo de zona ideilor metafizice, descriind deopotriv situaia manifestrilor omului ca
subiect, i toate valorile: ntr-o evident transmutare Dincolo de Bine i de Ru, depind
planul moral prin cuprinderea ntregului orizont n care este implicat omul i raionalitatea.
Privind din exterior suma manifestrilor raiunii presupune reevaluarea cunoaterii, a
subiectului, a contiinei ce se nscriu n sfera obinuinelor nu mai gsesc "firului Ariadnei",
labirintul n care rmne omul (cnd se renun la rolul privilegiat al intelectului) poate ntlni
montri, unde obinuinele se leag de paradigma occidental n care opusul intelectului este
sensibilitatea -"iraionalul", Minotaurul36 ce ia n stpnire labirintul. O nou perspectiv
valoric n viziunea lui Nietzsche ine de dominaia snsibilitii asupra intelectului. Dac este
vorba despre o "rsturnare a platonismului", ea poate fi o ntoarcere la origini prin
Studiu introductiv la Voina de putere,p.XXI i K. Lawith, Nietzsches Philosophie de,. ewigen Wiederkehr des
Gleichen, Kohlhammer, Stuttgart, 1956, p. 15
32
Ibidem
33
Vezi http://members.efn.org/~dredmond/ndtrans.html
34
Cele zece teze ale vorbirii filosofului,lucrare netradus
35
Or aceast ruptur profund,sau falie, poate fi urmat de excluderea oricrei legitimiti a conceptului de
cunoatere, de auto-cunoatere, inclusiv al limbajului (prin bulversarea relaiei semnificant-semnificat)
.Discursul lui Nietzsche implic o dialectic negativ proprie atunci cnd el neag unitatea subiectului, a eului,
pentru a vorbi apoi n numele unui asemenea eu) ,vezi Studiu introductiv XXIIl ca i interpretarea lui Wolfgang
Miller-Lauter, op. cit., p. 18 . Acesta susine c negarea unitii subiectului implic respingerea metafizicii
tradiionale, iar presupusa asumare ca subiect, evideniaz de fapt ineficiena ontologic a noiunilor deoarece
indentitatea subiectului Nietzsche neag toate indentitile cu care opereaz subiectul,inclusiv contradiciile.
36
Max Horkheimer & Theodor W.Adorno,Dialectica luminilor (trad.Andrei Corbea )Polirom,Iai 2012, p.99 se
refer la nelesul kantian al luminilor ,n sensul ieirii omului din minorat, de care se face vinovat el nsui.
31
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sensibilitile corpului (form strveche a adaptrii originare) i "experiment n privina

adevrului", depind nencrederea n valorile secolului XIX i pstrnd drept ancor "voin
de putere".37 Dihotomia raiune vs. simire nu se construiete ca o realitate i ca atare exist
o memorie, o inteligen i manifestare a raiunii prin simuri ncorporate ale cror
sensibilitate, constituie pentru Nietzsche un cmp al unor stri opuse, ndeobte considerate
contradictorii (plcere-neplcere). Interioritatea omului, de asemenea confirm c aceste stri
contradictorii tind s se exclud reciproc dei ele i asigur subzistena ntr-un acord al
posibilitii de dominare i implicit al dependenei.
Ne ntrebm dac firul Ariadnei l constituie cumva nsui corpul cu tipuri de voine ce
ar decurge din nevoile lui cu tensiunile ce solicit organizarea,specializarea i chiar
armonizarea.38 Reinem c n perspectiva lui Nietzsche (pus anume sub semnul unei dinamici
ambigue) n raportri diverse: ntre oameni, om -realitate, dintre subiectul ca obiect al
cunoaterii de sine i subiectul ca subiect al acesteia ine mai mult de domeniul artistic, dect
de cel metafizic. Nietzsche fiind preocupat de creativitate ca proces artistic, este o dorit
eliberarea de canoanele adevrului, de dogmele unui adevr.39 Creatorul, artistul este ntradevr un om superior, dar a trece dincolo de bine i de ru, este presupoziia operei de art,
astfel c n realitatea cotidian "supraomul" este mai curnd un ideal, "o metafor i o
enigm". Transmutarea tuturor valorilor, mai exact destructurarera valorilor tradiionale i
nlocuirea lor cu noua perspectiv a voinei de putere deschide orizonturi mai puin cunoscute,
ce pentru un cercettor care aspir spre obiectivitate, nseamn prealabila eliberare de idei
preconcepute.
Din aforismul sau fragmentul al doilea40, aflm aspectul narativ profetic al scriiturii
lui Nietzsche, care se refer secolele ce vor urma ca oper a necesiti: ntreaga noastr
cultur european se-ndreapt de mult, cu o tortur a tensiunii ce crete de la un deceniu la
altul, ca nspre o catastrof: cu nelinite, violent i rapid: asemntor unui fluviu, ce vrea s
ajung la capt, ce nu mai chibzuiete, cruia i este fric s chibzuiasc. Al treilea aforism
sau fragment ne indic reflecia autorului asupra nihilismului i trirea pn la epuizare i
depire a acestui fenomen : primul nihilist deplin al Europei, care ns a trit n sinea sa
nihilismul pn la capt, l-a lsat n urm, l-a depit i s-a desprins de el.
2.Depirea nihilismului nseamn descoperirea valorilor ca nevoi eseniale
Nietzsche explic "ncercarea de transmutare a tuturor valorilor" prin micarea ce va
nlocui nihilismul, "contrar n ceea ce privete principiul i sarcina"; Dac nihilismul este
consecina ultim a valorilor noastre precedente; pentru c nihilismul reprezint logica gndit
pn la capt a marilor noastre valori i idealuri, pentru c noi trebuie s trim mai nti
nihilismul spre a nelege ce era de fapt valoarea acestor "valori"41 .Cauza nihilismului, aa
cum e explicat de Nietzsche n Cartea nti a nihilismului european nu rezid n "crizele
sociale" ,nici n "degenerrile fiziologice" i nici n corupie,deoarece Trim epoca cea mai
onest, cea mai plin de compasiune. Suferina, mizeria sufleteasc, trupeasc, intelectual nu
pot, ca atare, s produc nihilismul.42
Dac Emil Cioran se complace n cercul reiterrilor succesive a temelor predilecte, iar
Nietzsche n accesele de furie datorate negsirii acceptabilului, face filosofie cu ciocanul
(sfrm idoli), Theodor W.Adorno tie c nu ne vom putea elibera cu totul nici de idolii lui
37
M. Heidegger, op. cit., p. 26.

Do cette obsession de se prsenter comme le secrtaire de ses sensations. Il a un rythme et non un style
(Cioran 1997 : 333).
39
Vezi Prefaa lui Claudiu Baciu la versiunea romneasc a Voinei de putere.
40
Ne raportm la traducerea romneasc a Voinei de putere.
41
Vezi Voina de putere, fragmentul 4,
42
adic refuzul radical al valorii, al sensului i al dezirabilitii.
38
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Bacon, nici de presiunea intereselor. El a extins nevoia gndirii critice la nivelul tuturor
domeniilor spiritului, n vreme ce manifestrile raiunii s-au dovedit n chip repetat negative,
eronate, catastrofale. Exist reineri evidente fa de absolutizarea raiunii.43 Pentru Adorno
(n Aforismul 101), binele nu este de gsit cnd omul a nceput s se asemene plantelor de
ser.44 Interesat de dezvoltarea personalitii i luminrii omului prin educaie, Adorno
dezvolt o filosofie moral cu accente puse pe "via bun, corect" chiar dac manifestrile
acesteia sunt puin vizibile n societatea contemporan creia i-a fost subminat fundamentul
prin raionalitatea instrumental care a nlocuit moralitatea n rolul ei de liant. ntr-o lume
nihilist, convingerile morale i raionamentele morale sunt declaraii inerent subiective, care
exprim nu o proprietate obiectiv a lumii, ci prejudecile proprii ale individului, iar
convingeri morale specifice devin instrument pentru afirmarea propriilor interese ale cuiva.
Spre deosebire de ali gnditori i filosofi ai timpului, Adorno nu crede c nihilismul poate fi
depit printr-un simplu act de voin sau prin simpla afirmare a unei viziuni morale de fond a
vieii bune.45 Un filosof romn46, cititor al lui Hegel, s-ar fi oprit s mediteze asupra
promisiunii de buntate a lumii n care trim, dar prea ne-am rtcit n acel divertis de
presupus dolce vita al postmodernismului pe care l strbatem grbii fr a ti prea bine
ncotro.
Concluzii
Temperamental apropiai, Nietzsche i Cioran se apr instinctiv de viclenia istoriei i
ne semnaleaz i nou pericolul.
Adorno nu este un nihilist. Prin prin analizele sale aduce o critic virulent a nihilismului
n care lumea se complace. El susine c moralitatea a czut victim a distinciei dintre
cunoatere obiectiv i subiectiv, deformnd adevrul. Aspectul de "fapte" verificabile ine
de o anumit obiectivitate, n timp ce cunoaterea subiectiv const din tot ce rmne. Tot ce
a scris Adorno este marcat de accente etice, de compasiune n faa suferinei.47 Putem deduce
c de aici pornete etica rezistenei (mpotriva raionalitii instrumentale, a industriei
culturii, reificrii i feluritelor crize de legitimitate, motivaie .a.m.d.). Afinitile ntre cei
trei gnditori ai acestei cercetri decurg din faptul c privesc n aceeai direcie.48
BIBLIOGRAFIE
1. Adorno W.,Theodor ,( 2007), Minima moralia, Art, ISB978-973-124-098-5
2. Botez A., (2005), Un secol de filosofie romneasc, Bucureti, Ed. Academiei
3. Chira, V., (2006), Dominantele gndirii cioraniene, Sibiu, Ed. Univ. Lucian Blaga.
De ce Caietele au devenit pentru Cioran o raiune de-a fi? mesure que lon rflchit sur lui, on conoit
nanmoins que le Crateur se soit afflig dans son cur de lavoir cr (Cioran 2003 : 1080).
44
Minima moralia,183
45
Vezi i http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno
46
Vezi Constantin Noica, Povestiri despre om, Cartea Romneasc,cap.15,p.108
47
Desigur, el nu d soluii, dar crede n potenialul uman i atunci meditm asupra acestui lucru, departe de
marxisme exotice, parfumate, exaltate ale marilor sperane: Dac n Brazilia, din barca soarelui se ridic lumina
odat cu invocaia raionalitii semnificante ca Pater Noster luminator, i e un loc unde nc se citete din
Habermas (din i despre perspectiva posibilitii unei comunicri oneste i libere de constrngeri) i mai ales din
Erich Fromm, cel care declarase iubirea i creativitatea drept trsturi eseniale ale spiritului uman, fr de care, observm cu tristee, lumea se transform n turme de plictisii i plictisitori, undeva mai aproape de noi,
evenimentele triste se multiplic, fiecare se declar Charlie, presupus victim din chiar momentul cnd s-a
pierdut interesul prioritar al cutrii Acceptabilului, din perspectva unei etici a rezistenei mpotriva a tot ceea ce
este inacceptabil n jurul nostru.
43
Nihilismul ca logic a decadenei,nu cauz. Le nihilisme nèst pas une cause, mais seulement la logique de la
dcadence Ibid., p. 113
48
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4. Cioran E., (1993), Exerciii de admiraie, Bucureti, Ed. Humanitas.

5. Cioran E., (1992), Tratat de descompunere, Bucureti, Humanitas.
6. Cioran, E., (1997), Despre Dumnezeu, Bucureti, Humanitas.
7. Cioran E., (1998), Lacrimi i sfini, Bucureti, Humanitas.
8. Cioran, E., (2002), Ispita de a exista, Bucureti, Humanitas.
9. Cioran, E,. 2003 [1995], uvres, Paris, Gallimard (Quarto),
10. Cioran, E.,(2004),Solitude et destin, traduit du roumain par A. Paruit, Arcades,
Gallimard .
11. Cioran, E., (1996), Demiurgul cel ru, Bucureti, Humanitas.
12. Cioran, E., (1996), Convorbiri cu Cioran, Ed. Humanitas.
13. Cioran E., (1996), Amurgul gndurilor, Bucureti, Ed. Humanitas.
14. Cioran E., (1997), Despre Dumnezeu, antologie, selecia textelor de Aurel Cioran,
Bucureti, Humanitas.
15. Cioran, E., (1992), Silogismele amrciunii, Humanitas, Bucureti.
16. Cioran, E., (1995), Despre neajunsul de a te fi nscut, Humanitas, Bucureti.
17. Cioran, E., (2005), Caiete, vol. I, Bucureti, Humanitas.
18. Cioran, E., (2005), Caiete, vol. III, Bucureti, Humanitas.
19. Liiceanu Gabriel, (1995), Apocalipsa dup Cioran, Bucureti, Humanitas.
20. Nietzsche,Fr., Voina de putere, ncercare de transmutare a tuturor valorilor
(Fragmente postume),Traducere i Studiu introductiv de Claudiu Baeiu,Editura AION
1999,ISBN 973-97662-6-9
E-sources:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vxt1FunLouE
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oyjvedVCPYw
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RCOW3cIzR_g
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ak8NVlX77Ao
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ixyVNxUwoxw
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Du0VmyMuwb4
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RvIYsaoZQgY
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=78y06QkpnC8
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5ULLZm_x_YE
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FO2np13ZVJs&list=PLlS0liyIg37UhJAAeT9PlXf5O4kmTN56H
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BIBLICAL TOPONYMS IN THE CEREMONIAL TEXTS FROM THE RITUAL OF

COLINDAT IN THE VALLEY OF ALMJ, THE CARA-SEVERIN COUNTY
Maria VTCA
Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to discuss several biblical toponyms that are present in
the ceremonial texts (carols, Star songs, religious songs) specific to the winter holidays from
Valea Almjului, Cara-Severin county. We will focus, of all these, on the following place
names: Bethleem (with the formal variants Vitleem, Vifleem, Vicleem), Eden, Jerusalem (with
the variant Rusalim), as well as the river Jordan, as the place for the baptism of Jesus Christ
the main character of Christmas.
Besides the occurences of the names mentioned according to biblical writings, the attribution
of some symbols (as constitutive elements of the concrete represented notions) is sometimes to
be noted; also, the transpositions in contexts with personifications or adaptations to the
traditional Romanian reality for these toponyms.
As characteristic forms of the oral creation due to their transmission through speaking , in
the traditional village community, carols or Star songs present a large variety which has been
noted in the texts collected from the studied area.
Keywords: caroling, traditional culture, symbol, toponym, Valea Almjului.
De-a lungul timpului, odat cu dezvoltarea societii, obiceiurile, ceremoniile sau

riturile au fost supuse unor transformri, cu repercusiuni evidente n structura actelor, ceea ce
oblig, prin dinamica intern a fenomenului cultural, la tratarea acestora ca proces, printr-o
viziune diacronic1. Uneori, ele i pierd, n bun msur, sensul iniial, devenind o simpl
marc a festivitii, cu caracter nveselitor, fiind golite de sensurile primare2.
Dup cum se tie, creativitatea n sfera culturii tradiionale orale nu are ca scop
modernizarea, dei acest aspect atinge fragmentar spaiul amintit3. Astfel, att creaiile de tip
folcloric (cu variantele lor), ct i celelalte pri constitutive (mbrcminte, recuzit)
pstreaz structura i semnificaiile existente, fapt remarcat i n textele ceremoniale din Valea
Almjului, n care se disting o multitudine de simboluri ce-i pstreaz valorile iniiale, chiar
dac, la ora actual, obiceiurile n cadrul cruia se regsesc sunt mai mult la nivel spectacular.
Cultura oral, cu precdere n manifestrile ei rituale, abund n simboluri elemente
substitutive ale comunicrii, care, la rndul ei, constituie liantul principal al oricrei grupri
sociale. n acest sens, colindatul presupune o serie larg de simboluri (prezente n aciune,
texte, vestimentaie, recuzit, darurile primite ca recompens), acestea fiind de factur fie
religioas, fie magic, iar comunicarea lor nu nceteaz odat cu terminarea actului ritual, ci,
Mihai Pop, Obiceiuri tradiionale romneti, Bucureti, Editura Univers, 1999, p. 20-21.
Id., ibid., p. 36-37.
3
Ioan Viorel Boldureanu, Etnologie i folclor. Cultur tradiional oral. Teme, concepte, categorii, Timioara,
Editura Marineasa, 2008, p. 18.
1
2
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n timp, mesajul este contemplat ca un ecou al actului faptic, conferind manifestrii un

caracter remanent4.
Valea Almjului5, regiune care constituie domeniul de interes pentru studiul de fa, a
conservat (din perspectiv etnofolcloric), pn astzi, o seam de obiceiuri i tradiii. Ca
atare, simbolurile ntlnite n cadrul obiceiurilor de iarn rmn un subiect demn de studiat,
tiut fiind faptul c ele sunt cuprinse ntr-o perioad important pentru viaa satului
tradiional.
Ne propunem, n continuare, s lum n discuie cteva toponime biblice prezente n
textele ceremoniale (colinde, cntece de stea, tropare) specifice srbtorilor de iarn din
Almj. Dintre acestea, vom avea n vedere urmtoarele nume de locuri: Betleem (cu variantele
formale Vitleem, Vifleem, Vicleem), Eden, Ierusalim (cu varianta Rusalim), precum i rul
Iordan, ca loc al botezului lui Iisus Hristos personajul central al Crciunului.
Pe lng ocurenele denumirilor menionate, n concordan cu scrierile biblice, sunt
de remarcat, uneori, atribuirea unor simboluri noiunilor concrete reprezentate i adaptrile n
contextul tradiional romnesc a acestor toponime. Creaii orale, transmise prin viu grai n
comunitatea rural autohton, colindele i cntecele de stea au diferite variante, fapt
identificat inclusiv n textele culese din arealul studiat.
n afar de corpusul deja publicat de specialiti, am ntreprins cteva cercetri de teren
n zon, n urma crora am adunat informaii despre textele ceremoniale care formeaz
repertoriul obiceiurilor de iarn. Cu toate acestea, demersul de fa nu-i propune, nici pe
departe, a fi integrator, deoarece nu am avut acces la transcrierea exact a colindelor /
cntecelor de stea, iar multe dintre ele nu au putut fi nc recuperate.
*
BETLEEM (n limba ebraic casa pinii), cunoscut n scrierile biblice i sub
numele de Cetatea lui David (n vechime Efrata), este un ora situat lng Ierusalim, locul
de natere al lui Iisus Hristos6. E un nume frecvent amintit n colinde, cu diferite variante
formale: Viflaim, Vitleem, Vifleem ori Vicleem.
Unul dintre cele mai cunoscute texte din Valea Almjului, cntat cu precdere n
bisericile de rit ortodox, dar nu numai, este, fr ndoial, O, ce veste minunat, cu mai multe
variante, dintre care o redm pe urmtoarea, cunoscut i folosit i odinioar n localitatea
Grbov: O, ce veste minunat / la Vifleem ni s-arat, / astzi S-a nscut / Cel fr denceput, / cum au spus prorocii7. Prezena numelui localitii indic locul n care S-a nscut
Iisus, punct semnificativ de unde ncepe rspndirea unei veti neobinuite.
Ovidiu Papan, Colinda n Mehala: o restituire necesar, Timioara, Editura Universitii de Vest, 2004, p. 45.
Acest areal mai este cunoscut sub numele de ara Almjului, zona Almjului sau Almjul i este situat n partea
de sud-est a actualului jude Cara-Severin, fiind strbtut de rul Nera (Nergniul) i cuprinznd urmtoarele
localiti: Bnia, Borlovenii-Noi, Borlovenii-Vechi, Bozovici, Dalboe, Grbov, Lpunicu-Mare, Moceri,
Pta, Prigor, Prilipe, Putna, Ravensca (sat de cehi), Rudria (astzi Eftimie Murgu), opotu-Nou (cu satul
Stancilova), opotu-Vechi.
6
J. D. Douglas, Dicionar biblic. Traducere de Liviu Pup i John Tipei, Oradea, Societatea Misionar Romn,
Editura Cartea Cretin, 1995, p. 147.
7
Elena Surulescu, 61 de ani, nvtoare, Grbov.
4
5
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n mai multe localiti din Almj circul colinda Mare minune; vom reda mai jos o
variant a acesteia, cntat la Dalboe: Mare minune s-arat / n Vifleem ast dat / De
ngeri i de pstori, / Pcurarii de la oi. (bis)8. De altfel, multe colinde ori cntece de stea se
cnt cu precdere n spaiul bisericesc. La ora actual exist culegeri editate n diferite locuri,
care prezint particularitile zonelor de unde au fost culese i tiprite, ceea ce a permis
preluarea a diverse texte nespecifice arealului studiat, ajungndu-se, astfel, la nenumrate
variante ale acestora. Dintre cele mai folosite le redm pe urmtoarele: C El astzi n
Vifleem / S-a nscut, S-a nscut, / precum au vestit prorocii / de demult. (Venii astzi,
credincioii); n Vifleem azi / E mare minune, / Fecioara curat (Fecioara Maria) / Fiu nscu
n lume. (Cerul i pmntul)9.
De asemenea, ne-au fost comunicate cteva versuri dintr-o colind pe care o cnta, la
Dalboe, corul bisericesc n oraul Betleem: n oraul Betleem / Venii, cretini, s-L
vedem, / C S-a nscut fr de Tat / Din cea Fecioar curat.10.
Din localitatea Borloveni, Nicolae Ursu a cules urmtoarele colinde care conin acelai
toponim: Edene, Edene, / i tu Vitleeme, / Gtete-te-acuma bine, / C Mesia vine11;
Bucurai-v i v veselii toi oamenii, toi oamenii, / Cci pe Cristos mpratul l-au nscut.
(bis) / Trei crai de la rsritul Vicleemului au pornit, au pornit / i cu daruri nainte i-au ieit.
(bis)12.
EDEN (n limba ebraic frumusee) este un inut din Rsrit n care a fost
grdina Raiului13, prefigurnd i mpria Cerurilor sau frumuseea fericirii venice. Iniial,
a reprezentat locul n care Dumnezeu i-a aezat pe primii oameni, Adam i Eva, dar, dup
cderea lor n pcat, au fost alungai din Eden. Este cunoscut i sub numele de Rai sau
Paradis (ca loc de rspltire n viaa venic), fiind totui diferit de Cerul n care locuiete
Dumnezeu14.
Ca simbol, Edenul apare cu preponderen n scrierile legate de cretinism, precum i
n textele colindelor sau n alte creaii specifice obiceiului colindatului. De menionat c, n
fiecare cultur tradiional, arhetipului edenic i s-au adugat valori caracteristice, de regul
morale. n folclorul romnesc i, n special, n unele colinde, Raiul este plasat adesea n vrful
muntelui, iar alteori n cerul cel mai de sus (al noulea). Pe lng aceste aspecte, mai exist
credina c la srbtorile importante Crciun, Boboteaz sau Pati se deschid cerurile, iar
sufletele tuturor celor ce mor n aceste zile intr direct n Cer, fr a fi oprite15.
n urmtorul text cules din localitatea Borloveni se poate remarca personificarea, prin
adresare direct, a acestui nume propriu, sub forma unui ndemn de a se pregti pentru a-L
Florina-Maria Bcil, 36 de ani, profesoar, Timioara, originar din Dalboe.
De regul, aceste texte sunt cntate din anumite cri bisericeti i cunoscute pe scar larg de credincioi.
10
Ion Bcil, 82 de ani, rapsod, fost dirijor al corului Bisericii Ortodoxe din Dalboe.
11
Nicolae Ursu, Cntece i jocuri populare romneti din Valea Almjului (Banat), Bucureti, Editura Muzical,
1958, p. 173. Precizm c, n lucrarea de fa, redarea fonetic a textelor este aproximativ, cu respectarea
scrierii cu a textelor culese de Nicolae Ursu.
12
Id., ibid., p. 174.
13
Victor Aga, Simbolica biblic i cretin. Dicionar enciclopedic (cu istorie, tradiii, legende, folclor), ediia a
II-a, Timioara, Editura nvierea, 2005, p. 127.
14
Ene Branite, Ecaterina Branite, Dicionar enciclopedic de cunotine religioase, Caransebe, Editura
Diecezan, 2001, p. 148.
15
Ivan Evseev, Enciclopedia simbolurilor religioase i arhetipurilor culturale, Timioara, Editura nvierea,
2007, p. 444.
8
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ntmpina pe Mesia: Edene, Edene, / i tu Vitleeme, / Gtete-te-acuma bine, / C Mesia

vine16.
IERUSALIM (cu varianta Rusalim) este un ora (capital) din regiunea istoric
Palestina, cel mai important centru pentru cretinism, dar i pentru religiile iudaic i
islamic. Totodat, e i simbolul pcii (inclusiv prin structura numelui, care n ebraic
nseamn oraul / cetatea / lcaul pcii17), al Bisericii cretine i al mpriei lui Iisus,
deschis tuturor popoarelor, cu trimitere la Ierusalimul Ceresc, care nu reprezint Raiul sau
Paradisul consacrat, ci absolutul, cel situat dincolo de sensul conferit lui n tradiie18.
Datorit faptului c unele dintre cele mai importante momente din viaa lui Iisus
Hristos s-au legat de acest ora, menionm apariia numelui ntr-un cntec de stea folosit i n
Valea Almjului: Trei crai de la Rsrit / Cu steau-au cltorit / i-au ajuns precum citim /
Pn la Ierusalim.19.
ntr-o colind din Bozovici, denumirea oraului apare n forma sa cunoscut n zon:
La ru la Iordan ci-am dus, (bis) / Frumos nume c -am pus, (bis) / (B) -am pus bunul
Dumnedzu, (bis) / Sus la Rusalim ci-am dus, (bis) / (B) i-acolo s-m stpnec (bis) / nc jios s potrivec. (bis)20. Remarcm n text integrarea numelui n discuie ntr-o
secven strns legat de cele anterioare ei, mbinnd realitatea biblic (botezul n rul Iordan)
cu perspectiva prelurii stpnirii spirituale asupra ntregului univers.
IORDANUL este cel mai mare ru din Palestina, devenind renumit ndeosebi dup
botezarea lui Iisus de ctre Ioan Boteztorul.
n localitatea Bozovici centrul zonei Almjului , exista din btrni un colind (inclus
n culegerea lui Nicolae Ursu) ce nfieaz un tablou dialogat, n care Dumnezeu i sfinii
stau la o mas i povestesc: Tu, Doamne, cnd ci-ai fcut (bis) / nc io ci-am sprijonit, (bis)
/ la Iordan c ci-am duso (bis) / nume frumos -am pus. (bis) / -am pus bunul
Dumnedzu, (bis) / Ca s ne fereci de ru. (bis)21. Din text rezult c rul unde a fost
botezat Iisus ar constitui locul unde I s-a dat numele Pruncului, dei, aa cum se tie, episodul
botezului se petrece, conform scrierilor biblice, abia la vrsta de 30 de ani. n felul acesta,
textul biblic este adaptat la realitatea tradiional romneasc, n care exist obiceiul
generalizat ca, la botez, copiii s primeasc i numele.
O alt variant a aceluiai colind a fost culeas tot din Bozovici: Gr btrnu
Criun: (bis) / (B) Io-s btrn d dmult (bis) / Cn'Tu, Doamne, ci-ai nscut, (bis) / (B)
-nc io ci-am sprijonit (bis) / 'N ciasta poal d vmnt. (bis) / (A) La ru la Iordan ci-am
dus, (bis) / Frumos nume c -am pus, (bis) / (B) -am pus bunul Dumnedzu (bis)22.
Dincolo de indicarea numelui rului unde Iisus primete botezul, textul relev i faptul c
btrnul Crciun (prelund atribuia naului din mentalul tradiional romnesc) i atribuie lui
Iisus numele Dumnezeu n sens larg moment relatat, n contextul unei ntruniri specifice, tot
16
Nicolae Ursu, op. cit., p. 173.

Victor Aga, op. cit., p. 170.
18
Jean Chevalier, Alain Gheerbrant, Dicionar de simboluri, volumul 2, E-O, Bucureti, Editura Artemis, 1995,
p. 143.
19
Este singura strof din aceast colind comunicat de Nicolae Andrei, 63 de ani, profesor de istorie-geografie,
Bnia, nscut la Prilipe.
20
Nicolae Ursu, op. cit., p. 170.
21
Id., ibid., p. 169.
22
Id., ibid., p. 170.
17
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Issue no. 6/2015
de tip tradiional, n jurul unei mese, la care se reunesc att personaje biblice (Dumnezeu,
Maica Domnului, sfinii), ct i boierii (prefigurare a gazdei, n general).
Acest colind este ntlnit i la Prilipe, sub o alt variant: Gria btrnul
Criunu: (bis) / Ieu-s btrn d dmult. / Cn'Tu, Doamne, ci-ai nscuto, / Io-m bra ci-am
sprijnit. / (B) La ru la Iordan ci-am dus, (bis) / Frumos nume e -am pus? / -am pus
nume Isus Cristosu (bis)23. n aceast variant, numele primit la botezul n rul Iordan este
cel consacrat Iisus Hristos.
Amintim aici i un text bisericesc, folosit tot n perioada srbtorilor de iarn,
de praznicul Bobotezei, cnd preotul sfinete casele, prilej cu care se cnt Troparul
Botezului Domnului: n Iordan botezndu-Te Tu, Doamne, nchinarea Treimii s-a artat; c
glasul Printelui a mrturisit ie, Fiu iubit pe Tine numindu-Te; i Duhul n chip de porumb a
adeverit ntrirea cuvntului. Cel ce Te-ai artat, Hristoase Dumnezeule, i lumea ai luminat,
mrire ie!.
ntr-o localitate situat la porile Almjului Petnic (zona Craina), aezare din care
muli locuitori s-au mutat n satele almjene, ndeosebi prin cstorie , se obinuia ca, la
praznicul Bobotezei (6 ianuarie), preotul i credincioii s mearg la rul apropiat pentru a
sfini apele (moment cnd se boteaz vnturile). Atunci se cnt un text special, La
marginea rului, specific acestei srbtori cretine; cunoscut ca fiind un cntec din prini,
el s-a transmis oral, din generaie n generaie, suferind modificri, i red n versuri scena
biblic a botezrii Fiului lui Dumnezeu n rul Iordan de ctre Ioan Boteztorul 24: La
marginea rului, / n apa Iordanului, / vedem lucruri minunate, / de toi sfinii ludate. //
Astzi Hristos n Iordan / Se boteaz de la Ioan, / astzi i Sfntu Ioan / vine ctre Iordan.
[...] // Atunci Ioan a cutezat / i mna i-a ridicat, / n Iordanul cel curat / pe Hristos L-a
botezat. // n ceas ce S-a botezat, / Iordanul i-a nturnat, / iar cerul s-a deschis, / pe Hristos
raz-a cuprins.25. Utilizarea adjectivului curat n vecintatea numelui propriu discutat trimite
la ideea de sfinire / purificare a apelor la praznicul Bobotezei, n strns legtur cu una
dintre artrile Sfintei Treimi.
*
Dup cum se poate constata din cele de mai sus, n cadrul textelor ceremoniale
(colinde, cntece de stea, tropare) din Almj pot fi reperate unele toponime biblice, ale cror
ocurene sunt menionate att n concordan cu scrierile biblice, ct i prin transpuneri n
contexte cu personificri sau analogii cu comunitatea tradiional romneasc, aspecte
specifice, de altfel, acestor tipuri de creaii.
Numele proprii analizate n studiul de fa vin s ilustreze faptul c, n mentalul
autohton, textele integrate n srbtorile din aceast perioad sunt strns legate de evenimentul
biblic al naterii lui Iisus Hristos, chiar i atunci cnd ele nu sunt fidele relatrilor
scripturistice, iar aciunile rmn preponderent legat de cretinism, de caracterul general al
srbtorilor de iarn cu funcie augural, purttor de lumin i bucurie.
23
Id., ibid., p. 171.

Cf. Evanghelia dup Matei, cap. 3; Evanghelia dup Marcu, cap. 1; Evanghelia dup Ioan, cap. 1.
25
Iosif Puchi, 75 de ani, cantor, Petnic.
24
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BIBLIOGRAFIE:
Aga, Victor, Simbolica biblic i cretin. Dicionar enciclopedic (cu istorie, tradiii,
legende, folclor), ediia a II-a, Timioara, Editura nvierea, 2005.
Boldureanu, Ioan Viorel, Etnologie i folclor. Cultur tradiional oral. Teme,
concepte, categorii, Timioara, Editura Marineasa, 2008.
Branite, Ene, Branite, Ecaterina, Dicionar enciclopedic de cunotine religioase,
Caransebe, Editura Diecezan, 2001.
Chevalier, Jean, Gheerbrant, Alain, Dicionar de simboluri, volumul 2, E-O,
Bucureti, Editura Artemis, 1995.
Douglas, J. D., Dicionar biblic. Traducere de Liviu Pup i John Tipei, Oradea,
Societatea Misionar Romn, Editura Cartea Cretin, 1995.
Evseev, Ivan, Enciclopedia simbolurilor religioase i arhetipurilor culturale,
Timioara, Editura nvierea, 2007.
Papan, Ovidiu, Colinda n Mehala: o restituire necesar, Timioara, Editura
Universitii de Vest, 2004.
Pop, Mihai, Obiceiuri tradiionale romneti, Bucureti, Editura Univers, 1999.
Ursu, Nicolae, Cntece i jocuri populare romneti din Valea Almjului (Banat),
Bucureti, Editura Muzical, 1958.
Informatori:
Nicolae Andrei, 63 de ani, profesor de istorie-geografie, Bnia, nscut la Prilipe.
Florina-Maria Bcil, 36 de ani, profesoar, Timioara, originar din Dalboe.
Ion Bcil, 82 de ani, rapsod, fost dirijor al corului Bisericii Ortodoxe din Dalboe.
Iosif Puchi, 75 de ani, cantor, Petnic.
Elena Surulescu, 61 de ani, nvtoare, Grbov.
Perioada n care au fost fcute anchetele: 2012-2014.
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VALENCES OF RELIGIOUS IMAGINARY REFLECTED IN ROMANIAN FAIRY-TALES

Maria HOLHO, Horea, Cloca i Crian National College of Alba-Iulia
Andra Gabriela HOLHO, Eugen Pora Highschool, Cluj-Napoca
Abstract: In many fairy-tales is presented the human evolution as an initiationtrip,through

which one has to master ones wisdomand the mysterie. The main character, also known as
the hero, is involved in many tensions followed by punishmentsand that is when he comes to
maturity. By this initiation trip, the hero acquires a series of spiritual values. The road to
initiation is a trip towards himself, so to make use of human values means to open the gates of
self improving. The narrator is obviously very interested in offering him ethic values which he
illustrates through the humaniyed fantastic, avoiding, this way, to present difficult or abstract
models. The modern terms used for interpreting fairy-tales translate the religious
eexperiences of the origins. The most frequent events presented from human life, which are
also presented in fairy-tales, are: the birth, the marriage and the death. Il happens many
times in Romanian fairy-tales to encode a message through the religious imaginary.
Keywords: mythology, fiction, fairy-tales, religion, imaginary.
Basmele abordeaz tematic o lume imaginar devenit aprioric pentru asculttor un

mod de via ntr-un univers n care spaiul i timpul se ntreptrund, iar desprinderea de
cotidian se transform ntr-o terapie pentru suflet. Imaginile sunt create prin vraja basmelor,
personajele i ntmplrile reflect de fapt parcursul vieii interioare a omului, de la inocena
copilriei la autonomia adultului. Prin coninutul acestor texte sufletul omenesc intr n
mpria fiinelor elementare i cu acest prilej ncep s i se dezvluie tainele devenirii i ale
trecerii. Personajele basmelor deseori oscileaz ntre polul simurilor i polul gndirii. Aceste
dou stri alternante, net deosebite, preiau pe rnd conducerea, cnd unul, cnd cellalt,
dominnd viaa sufleteasc a acestei lumi imaginare, ntreesut cu natura. Basmele
menioneaz de nenumrate ori vieuiri situate la grania dintre dou ipostaze: sufletul se
simte ntr-o legtur intim cu lumea divin sau intr-o alt ipostaz, vduvit de aceast
comuniune.
Incursiunea n fascinantul univers imaginar al basmelor ne familiarizeaz cu contiina
unei realiti transcendente. De fapt este domeniul supranaturalului i al manifestrilor sale
perceptibile care compun miraculosul.1 Acest periplu n miraculos este posibil. Contiina
uman se deschide astfel spre o lume de simboluri: obiecte, elemente naturale, astre, forme,
culori, numere investite cu o semnificaie transcendent2 din dorina de a le determina s
acioneze n propriul interes.
n basmele romneti au existat ncercri de a trece dintr-un mediu n altul,
determinate n primul rnd de ascensiunea spre nemurire i absolut. Basmul n care este
Lucian Boia, Pentru o istorie a imaginarului. Traducere din francez de Tatiana Mochi, Bucureti, Editura
Humanitas, 2006, p. 28.
2
Ibidem.
1
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minunat evideniat mitul strvechi al aspiraiei spre nemurire, Tineree fr btrnee i via
fr de moarte, are i amprenta cretinismului. Isteimea motenitorului, copil nc, este
comparat cu cea a mpratului Solomon. Tot n acest basm sunt prezente credine getodacice, potrivit creia, venirea omului pe lume, naterea, este prilej de ntristare.
Viaa pe pmnt, numit de Lucian Blaga o mare trecere, a fost prevestit de vraciul
btrn, care tia tainele naterii asemeni farmaconului trac: Dorina ce ai o s-i aduc
ntristare.3 Asemenea amanului chemat n caz de sterilitate, btrnul figura central a unui
univers spiritual, cunoscut de ntreaga mprie ajut cuplul mprtesc s dobndeasc un
singur urma. Divinaia, clarviziunea fac parte din tehnicile mistice ale amanului 4, caliti
cu care este nzestrat solomonarul. Ca un strvechi aman, btrnul vraci, datorit propriei
experiene extatice, anun, fr s fie ntrebat, doar ca o confirmare a calitilor sale: ...o s
fie Ft-Frumos i drgostos i parte n-o s avei de el.5 Eroul acestui basm predestinat
cltoriei caut un loc ales, locul n care timpul este mpietrit, ca indiciu al nemuririi.
Descoperirea a fost cu totul alta, una cu urmri dramatice, a constatat c nu exist un timp
unic pentru toi, un timp universal valabil. Aceeai idee a timpului paradoxal este amintit de
Lucian Blaga n Hronicul i cntecul vrstelor. Basmul pe care l aflase de la mama lui,
prezint o astfel de cltorie n timp, asemnndu-se tematic cu Tineree fr btrnee i
via fr de moarte. Insistena cu care solicita mamei repetarea acestui basm este explicat
chiar de poet: M tulbura basmul pentru dulcea amrciune cu care vorbea despre zrile
fericirii, dar i pentru simmntul ameitor ce-mi da cu privire la nclecarea timpurilor, ce
stpnesc lumea cu trmurile ei.6
Tnrul erou al basmului povestit de mama poetului a fost dus pe trmul cellalt de
craniul pe care, n glum, l-a poftit la mas. Dup ce a vzut toate locurile celuilalt trm,
ptruns de dor se ntoarce acas. A constatat c trecuser trei sute de ani i totul era schimbat.
Preotul cu ajutorul rugciunii i al patrafirului a pregtit ieirea sufletului din trupul prefcut
apoi n cenu, cea care simbolizeaz viaa intrat n amintire. Finalul basmului identific una
din funciile fundamentale ale magicului, cea religioas, deoarece surprinde ideea magicului
prezent n chip eterat n ideea sacrului.7
Basmul Tineree fr btrnee i via fr de moarte red o ruptur ntre lumea
pur, ideal a nemuririi i lumea profan, desacralizat de compromisuri. nclcarea pactului
primordial al orficilor legmntul8 devine motivul acestei rupturi. Promisiunea
mpratului s-a dovedit formal, recunoscnd c acest lucru nemaiauzit l-a fgduit atunci
numai ca s-i mpace fiul. Ft-Frumos, simbol al aspiraiei spre absolut, este contient de
jertfa care se impune : Dac tu, tat, nu poi s-mi dai, apoi sunt nevoit s cutreier toat
lumea pn voi gsi fgduina pentru care m-am nscut.9
Petre Ispirescu, Tineree fr btrnee, Ediie ngrijit i prefaat de prof. dr. Virgiliu Ene, Galai, Editura
Porto-Franco, 1993, p. 3.
4
Mircea Eliade amanismul i tehnicile arhaice ale extazului. Traducere din francez de Brndua Prelipceanu
i Cezar Baltag, Bucureti, Editura Humanitas, 1997, p. 179.
5
Ibidem, p. 4.
6
Lucian Blaga, Hronicul i cntecul vrstelor. Poeme. Proz, Chiinu, Editura Hyperion, 1993, p. 206.
7
Nicolae Ciobanu, ntre imaginar i fantastic n proza romneasc, Bucureti, Editura Cartea Romneasc,
1987, p. 18.
8
George Niu , Elemente mitologice n creaia popular romneasc, Bucureti, Editura Albatros, 1988, p. 153.
9
Petre Ispirescu, op. cit., p. 5.
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Cltoria ncepe respectnd o anumit datin, alaiul pornete dimineaa, dup ce s-au
ivit zorile, tot aa cum pornesc n colindele funebre i n bocete cei mori pe drumul fr
ntoarcere.10 Dar nu numai momentul plecrii este ales conform tradiiei, direcia spre care
pornete Ft-Frumos este i ea una anume, cea spre rsrit. La marginea mpriei printeti
renun la alai i rmne doar cu acel cal nzdrvan cu patru aripi. n mitologia i ritualul
amanic calul ocup un loc important. Animal funerar i psihopomp11, calul devine n acest
basm un mijlocitor pentru cltoria mistic. El realizeaz ruptura de nivelcare permite
trecerea din lumea aceasta n alte lumi. n acest basm domin caracterul funerar al calului
anticipat prin cmpia ntins acoperit cu oase de oameni, un adevrat drum al morii.
Cltoria conine cteva obstacole pe care le pot trece numai cei iniiai. Pdurea ca
loc al iniierii, interzis celor novice, era considerat un lca blestemat, o poart de trecere pe
alt trm al vieii. mpria gheonoaiei cuprinde misterioasa pdure unde are loc o etap a
iniierii, dar n acest basm are rolul de loc de intrare spre mpria morilor.
Calul, o personificare a capacitii de a ajunge departe, de a ptrunde n nalt i n
12
adnc , are nsuirile animalelor sepulcrale, zboar ca vntul i ca gndul, ducndu-l pe erou
spre mpria morilor. Ft-Frumos, dovedindu-i calitile, adic vindector (i pune la loc
piciorul gheonoaiei) i hotrt idealului propus (nu se las ispitit de rsplata gheonoaiei care i
propune s-i aleag una dintre fiicele sale frumoase ca nite zne) i continu drumul n
necunoscut. Ajuns n inutul scorpiei, eroul se confrunt cu elementele infernale: focul i
smoala. Pustiul devine un avertisment al rarefierii vieii.
Stpna acestor inuturi sinistre, pasrea monstru are trei capete, cifr fatidic i, la fel
ca sora ei, dup simbolismul ornitomorf, par nite ntruchipri ale amanului care sub chip de
pasre nsoete sufletele rposailor n lumea cealalt.13 Aceeai idee a pregtirii pentru a
ptrunde n mpria morilor este anticipat prin descrierea cadrului natural nchipuit de
imaginarul colectiv ca o gur de rai. Dei cmpul este numai de flori i tot timpul este
numai primvar, simboliznd tinereea, fiecare floare are un miros mbttor. Acest miros
devine amgitor i semnific trecerea de la starea de veghe la cea de somn. Dar nu este vorba
de somnul obinuit, ci de somnul morii, care fur omul pe nesimite, prin adierile aduse de
vnt. Locul acesta era separat tot printr-o pdure, plin de animale fioroase care sunt nvinse
prin evitarea confruntrii directe, adic prin zbor.
Pdurea a delimitat de fapt efemerul de etern, iar cei doi, calul i Ft-Frumos, n urma
biruinei (au depit pericolul animalelor) se dovedesc voinici (o alt etap a iniierii).
Palatul, n strlucirea sa sugereaz amgirea suprem n mpria ntunericului de pe
trmul cellalt.14 Zna frumoas nevoie mare, de fapt un simbol al morii, se bucur de
venirea unui muritor. nfiarea ei l ncremenete pe Ft-Frumos, se poate nelege c l-au
cuprins chiar fiori de moarte, iar zna l ntmpin uitndu-se cu mil. Primirea voinicului
devine un ritual al pregtirii de moarte, un ritual funebru prin care se mplinesc ultimele
dorine ale omului naintea morii. nsoirea cu zna cea mic se face dup ce s-au acomodat
George Niu, op.cit., p.155.
Mircea Eliade, amanismul i tehnicile arhaice ale extazului, p. 426.
12
V. I. Propp, Rdcinile istorice ale basmului fantastic, traducere de Radu Nicolau, prefa de N. Roianu,
Bucureti, Editura Univers, 1973, p. 226.
13
Mircea Eliade amanismul i tehnicile arhaice ale extazului, p. 436.
14
George Niu, op. cit., p. 163.
10
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treptat, dup ce i-a depnat firul vieii. Cele trei femei pot fi asemnate cu cele trei fiice ale
Ananghiei15 din mitologia greac: Clotho (toarctoarea, urzea firul vieii), Lachesis
(ursitoarea, cea care da fiecruia partea sau norocul su) i Antropos (neclintita, tia firul
vieii). Cea cu care s-a nsoit Ft-Frumos a fost neclintita. Nu este descris ca o cstorie
real, ca mplinire a sentimentelor sau ca o ceremonie de nunt, prilej de bucurie, ci se face o
precizare discret, s nu tulbure cititorul, spunnd c se nsoete cu ursita, de fapt cea care i-a
tiat firul vieii.
Tot un cal nzdrvan, devenit confident, l poart pe un erou, de data aceasta Harap
Alb, spre locuina Sfintei Duminici, un loc miraculos, la care ajunge strbtnd vzduhul.
Aceste puteri magice de a zbura au un vdit caracter spiritual deoarece zborul nseamn
inteligena, nelegerea lucrurilor secrete sau a adevrurilor metafizice16. Locuina este
situat pe un ostrov, un loc ales, edenic, un spaiu deosebit calitativ de celelalte, la care nu
poate ajunge eroul direct, doar cu ajutorul unui animal. Modesta locuin a Sfintei Duminici
pare o colib sacr unde au loc iniierile. Prezentarea locului ntlnirii are n atenie pragul,
considerat de Mircea Eliade grania care deosebete i desparte dou lumi i locul paradoxal
de comunicare dintre ele, punctul n care se face trecerea de la lumea profan la lumea
sacr17. Eroul basmului, purtat de calul mijlocitor al cltoriei mistice, recunoate chipul
femeii creia i druise un ban la curtea craiului.
Milostenia (darul pentru divinitate) oferit unui intermediar ca form a recunotinei
este o idee precretin. Prezent i n Vechiul Testament, ideea darului a fost nnobilat de
cretinism, care a introdus conotaia de mil i iubire cretin, amplificndu-i totodat
valenele sacre.18 Dei prezent ntr-o ntruchipare umil, i mrturisete identitatea de
mesager divin, confirmnd ideea c adevrata valoare se afl n esena lucrurilor i nu n
deseori neltoarele aparene.19 Spaiul n care este prezentat Sfnta Duminic este unul
ales, izolat de cel obinuit printr-o ap, peste care se poate trece doar prin prezena
miraculosului: calul nzdrvan.
Un alt zbor, dar de aceast dat al unei porumbie artat n vis, anticipeaz
ascensiunea eroului din basm. Un cuplu mprtesc ameninat de sterilitate este salvat prin
harul divin artat n vis sub forma unei porumbie albe. George cel viteaz s-a nscut dup ce
mprteasa a visat un loc edenic, cu elementele naturii n deplin armonie, fiecare element i
avea perechea sa, aa erau fluturii tot perechi, iar firele de iarb erau tot cte dou. Visul
mprtesei s-a dovedit o speran de salvare a cuplului fr urmai. n visul mprtesei s-a
artat o porumbi urmrit de un balaur. Speriat de fiara monstruoas, porumbia i
salveaz viaa ascunzndu-se n snul mprtesei. Tnra mprteas rmne nsrcinat i
nate un biat numit George.
Numele su are legtur cu nelinitea i spaima din visul anticipativ, deoarece l
atepta confruntarea cu monstrul. n acest basm sunt prezeni doi mesageri ai divinitii:
Cf. George Niu, op. cit., p. 167.
17
Mircea Eliade, Sacrul i profanul. Traducere de Brndua Prelipceanu, Bucureti, Editura Humanitas, 1995, p.
24.
18
Ofelia Vduva, Darul instituionalizat. Pomana n vol. Magia darului, Bucureti, Editura Enciclopedic, 1997,
p. 90.
19
George Niu, op. cit., p. 154.
15
16
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porumbelul i clugrul, cel care a gsit i crescut copilul. Avnd n atenie cele dou
simboluri (pentru text ale mesajului divin), Andrei Pleu face urmtoarea asociere: Ca i
ngerii, clugrii i psrile populeaz unificator spaiul dintre cer i pmnt, sunt purttori de
semne i bune-vestiri, cnt i planeaz liber n nelimitarea vzduhului.20 Cele dou
simboluri sunt prezente n basm n etape diferite pentru evoluia personajului. Porumbelul
are un statut privilegiat21, el anun naterea unui prunc avertiznd n acelai timp, prin
nelinitea sa, nenorocirile care se abat asupra familiei. Dei grdina edenic era un ideal al
perechilor, doar mprteasa este cea care ocrotete i sufer pentru fiul ei. De aceea rolul de
printe spiritual este ndeplinit de clugr. Copilul a fost lsat de mprteas lng fntna la
care s-a desfurat ritualul botezului arhaic. A dorit s-l fereasc de cruzimea tlharilor care
au atacat suita mpratului. Locul cu flori din apropierea fntnii, unde se afla copilul, a fost
descoperit de clugr cu ajutorul unui animal (o capr).
Misiunea clugrului este prezentat n basm asemeni rolului amanilor, oameni care
s-au separat de restul comunitii prin intensitatea propriei lor experiene religioase. 22 Izolat
de societate ca i mentorul su, copilul primete o educaie special, deosebindu-se de ceilali
indivizi prin inteligen i ndemnare. Trimis dup crbuni n pdurea ntunecoas, George
reuete s scape stenii de duhul ru al pdurii ntruchipat n scorpie. Printr-un ritual al
purificrii, pregtete un foc mare i l pzete din dorina de a implini cele promise.
Apropierea scorpiei sub form de balaur nu-l sperie pe George, cel care a nfipt sabia n
pmnt, o ax spre cer (un stlp cosmic) i atepta neclintit. Confirmnd simbolistica numelui
nfrunt balaurul, asemeni Sfntului Gheorghe i l ucide.
n veneraia popoarelor cretine Sfntul Gheorghe s-a impus prin motivul luptei cu
balaurul, elocvent valorificat n basme. n cteva basme romneti se regsesc momentele
acestei lupte: Balaurul cu 7 capete (I. C. Fundescu), Balaurul cu apte capete, George cel
viteaz, Mr i Pr (P. Ispirescu). Foarte prezent n toponimia romneasc, iar pentru religie cu
o frecven mare ca hram al bisericilor, numele Sfntului Gheorghe s-a bucurat de o faim
deosebit n credina poporului romn. Pentru Muntele Athos domnitorul tefan cel Mare a
trimis un steag cu chipul Sfntului Gheorghe dobornd balaurul. Steagul are urmtoarea
inscripie: O, lupttorule i biruitorule mare Gheorghe, n nevoi i nenorociri grabnice
ajuttor i cald sprijinitor, iar celor ntristai bucurie nespus, primete de la noi aceast
rugminte a smeritului tu rob, a Domnului Ioan tefan Voevod, din mila lui Dumnezeu
Domnul rii Moldovei! Pzete-l pe el neatins n lumea aceasta i n cea de apoi prin
rugciunile celor ce te cinstesc pe tine, ca s te preamrim pe tine n veci, amin. i a fcut-o
aceasta n anul 7108, n al 43 an al domniei sale.23
n imaginarul religios al poporului romn se regsete episodul luptei cu balaurul:
Sfntul Gheorghe, fiind cap al primverii, e, dup credina poporului romn de pretutindeni,
nu numai nverzitorul naturii i semntorul tuturor seminelor [...] ci totodat i strpitorul
Andrei Pleu, Despre ngeri, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 2008, p. 138.

Ibidem.
22
23
Analele Academiei Romne, seria II, tom XXIX (1901), p. 92 apud Nicolae Cartojan, Crile populare n
literatura romneasc. Epoca influenei greceti, Bucureti, Editura Enciclopedic Romn, 1974, p. 192.
20
21
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balaurilor, adic acelor fiine, prin care sunt personificate iezrile, mlatinile, mocirlele,
precum i orice alt umezeal.24
Ritualul iniiatic din basmul George cel viteaz este continuat la ndemnul unei
psrele, care veghea asupra acestui fecior crescut de clugr. Acest basm surprinde
corespondena dintre cele dou simboluri cu har divin, clugrul i pasrea: Aa cum
clugrii sunt un analogon terestru al ngerilor, psrile sunt un analogon al clugrilor n
lumea psrilor.25 Sftuit de pasre, printr-un ritual se scald n sngele arpelui monstruos,
devenind invincibil. Taina iniierii i dezvluie treptat adevratele dimensiuni ale existenei,
astfel i poate asuma anumite responsabiliti (devine mprat). Este inclus n acest basm i
motivul jertfei. Civa oameni de la prvlia unde a fost ucenic s-au uitat n burduful su i au
fost pietrificai de capul scorpiei, asemuit cu Medusa.
Izolat ntr-o peter prsit din porunca efului tlharilor, mprteasa primete doar
pine i ap, o ascez datorit creia se metamorfozeaz ntr-o umbr. Aceast izolare n
peter - o grot luminat din interior, aa nct, dimpotriv, n afara ei domnete ntunericul,
lumea profan fiind n mod natural asimilat ntunericului exterior, cea de a doua natere
fiind n acelai timp o iluminare26 - pe o durat de douzeci i patru de ani echivaleaz cu o
ntoarcere n ntunericul primordial, n Noaptea cosmic, pentru a avea loc regenerarea.
Petera este un adpost tainic, de aceea, de obicei, se ptrunde greu nuntru (simbolismul
porii strmte) i devine un loc al iniierii.27 Se poate considera c spiritul mprtesei,
aprut sub forma unei umbre, impune tlharilor s se despart, cu urmarea s nu mai fac ru
oamenilor. Singurul pedepsit este conductorul tlharilor. Pentru ispirea pcatelor acesta
este nevoit s mbrace blana unui urs, suportnd umilina de a fi dus de lan chiar de
mprteas. Aceast pedeaps simbolizeaz renaterea mitic prin mbrcarea ritual a unei
piei de animal.
n unele basme romneti este inclus motivul ospitalitii. n gndirea tradiional
romneasc prin ospitalitate se nelege oferirea de alimente i butur. Acest act de altruism
i generozitate este prezent n basme, mai ales pentru a evidenia ospitalitatea celor cu o
situaie material precar. Ospitalitatea devine o form de dar (fr a atepta un rspuns
material), ofranda fiind adresat divinitii, deoarece oaspetele este considerat doar un
mediator. Se poate considera ospitalitatea, dintr-o alt perspectiv un rit de integrare a unui
individ ntr-un grup. Integrarea unui tnr n grupul ciobanilor este prezentat n basmul
Fiuul oii, de I. Pop-Reteganul. Prezeni printre oameni, Dumnezeu i Sfntul Petru n
cunoscuta lor ipostaz de btrni cltori teretri, poposesc la o stn. Intr n colib, dau
binee ciobanului i cer ceva de mncare. Fr s rspund la salutul strinilor ciobanul ursuz
i ntreab rstit:
Dar voi, monegilor, ce cutai pe aici?
Umblm, zise Dumnezeu, prin ast lume mare i fiindc suntem ostenii de drum i
flmnzi, am intrat la dumneata, s cerem ceva de mncare.
24
Cf. Nicolae Cartojan, op. cit., p. 196.

Andrei Pleu, op. cit., p. 137.
26
Ren Guenon, Grota i labirintul n vol. Simboluri ale tiinei sacre. Traducere din francez de Marcel Tolcea
i Sorina erbnescu. Control tiinific al traducerii de Anca Manolescu, Bucureti, Editura Humanitas, 2008, p.
241.
27
Vezi Mircea Eliade, Sacrul i profanul, p. 134.
25
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Hm, gri baciul, toi leneii ar mnca lapte i ca, dar ei nu tiu ct de greu se
ierneaz oile; mergei n treab-v!28
Exemplu oaspeilor necunoscui, care nu pot fi identificai de cei fr caliti morale,
este confirmat de reacia tnrului ucenic. Dei avea o singur oaie, se dovedete
binevoitor. Tot laptele muls l d oaspeilor. Chemat de Dumnezeu-Fiul s-i urmeze (asemeni
modelului biblic), tnrul renun la statutul su i pleac mpreun cu strinii. ncrederea lui
este aa de mare nct sacrific singurul miel al oii pe care el o avea. Rsplata nu ntrzie.
Oasele presrate pe lunc se transform n oi, amintind de un alt motivul biblic, cel al
nmulirii (pinii, petilor i vinului). Prezeni n basm ca arbitri morali, l sftuiesc pe tnr
s-i duc oile pe munte, un loc ales, i s fie cuminte. Oaia de la care a muls laptele a
primit har divin, ajutndu-l pe tnr la ngrijirea turmei. Datorit buntii sale trece etapa
uceniciei i este integrat n grupul ciobanilor. Tradiia strveche presupunea ca femeile s nu
fie primite n coliba ciobanilor. Tnrul cioban ncalc aceast interdicie, atrgnd pedeapsa.
n acest basm pare s fie prezent motivul regressus ad uterum: tnrul cioban, din cauz c nu
a respectat tradiia oierilor, a rmas fr turm. A fost transformat ntr-un scaiete, care se
prinde aa de uor de lna oilor. n acelai timp un alt embrion evolueaz, deoarece oaia
nzdrvan apostrofat a rmas nsrcinat i se nate un biat. Acest fiu al oii se bucur de
ritualul botezului la un izvor cu ap limpede i curat din munte. Meninerea n izolarea
pdurii aflat pe vrf de munte, loc mitic prin care se face legtura dintre cer i pmnt,
constituie o etap a iniierii, o succesiune de ncercri i amintete de izolarea novicelui pentru
o perioad limitat de timp.
nzestrat cu deosebite caliti fizice i morale i desvrete iniierea trecnd pe
cellalt trm. Locul pe unde se poate cobor spre cellalt trm este numit buricul
pmntului. Coborrea se face ca i n alte situaii similare cu ajutorul unor funii, de data
aceasta este atrnat un leagn. Lumea de pe cellalt trm este mineralizat, sugernd lipsa
vieii. ntlnete pe rnd doar trei fete duse cu fora i metamorfozate: una de aram, una de
argint i a treia de aur. Opozantul, Omul-ct-chiopul-cu-Barba-ct-Cotul a fost ajuns i ucis,
arzndu-l n cuptorul ncins, mplinindu-se un ritual al purificrii. Focul este un motiv literar
frecvent n basmele fantastice romneti. Urmnd un moment al purificrii (cu foc, cu lapte,
cu ap nenceput etc.), calul i schimb fizionomia i se arat prietenul i sftuitorul
protagonistului. n unele basme apar caii de foc (N. Filimon, Omul de piatr) asemnndu-se
cu caii i crua Sf. Ilie. n cai i cru de foc se transform buteanul pe care au nclecat
Afin i Dafin.
Un alt personaj, Ileana Simziana a nclecat att pe calul legat de pmnt ct i pe cel
legat de soare. Numit n basm Galben-de-Soare, acest personaj animalier este aa mult
implicat n aciune, nct basmul devine o naraiune a calului nzdrvan. Prezent i n basmul
universal, calul devine n basmul romnesc personajul cel mai apropiat de om, de gndurile i
aspiraiile lui ndrznee, mijlocitor pentru a cunoate ndeprtatele ntinderi ale universului,
o extensie a puterii eroului lupttor, elementul ei magic29.
Ion Pop-Reteganul, Fiuul oii n vol. Zna Apelor. Poveti ardeleneti culese din gura poporului. Ediie
ngrijit, prefa i tabel cronologic de Iordan Datcu, Bucureti, Editura Minerva, 1997, pp. 162-163.
29
Constantin Eretescu, Folclorul literar al romnilor. O privire contemporan, Bucureti, Editura Compania,
2004, p. 257.
28
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Un alt basm ncadrat aproape simetric de motivul focului este Crncu, vntoriul
codrilor, de I. Pop-Reteganul. La nceputul basmului este prezentat focul ca element de baz
ntr-un ritual funebru cu rol purificator. Focul are o semnificaie religioas bazat n primul
rnd pe fora lui distructiv, dar uneori i binefctoare. Acest element devorator se
ntruchipeaz n arpele Uraeus, considerat ochiul care scuip foc al zeului soarelui. Insula
flcrilor este o metamorfoz definitorie pentru auror, locul de unde zilnic nete lumina
soarelui.30 Flacra, care se nal cu repeziciune, dorind s mistuie ct mai repede tot ce a
cuprins n apropierea ei, devine un simbol al puritii i purificrii. Analiznd structura acestui
basm se pot remarca scenariile iniiatice, acestea chiar camuflate cum sunt n basme
reprezint expresia unei psiho-drame care rspunde unei nevoi profunde a fiinei umane.31
Spiritul creator, guvernat de imaginaie, s-a manifestat plenar n basme i cu ajutorul
lui au fost create lumi i personaje bazndu-se deseori pe vise, presimiri, semne cereti.
Imaginarul fantastic, n accepia lui Gilbert Durand devine un auxiliar al aciunii, ntr-un
mod mai profund, pentru ntreaga cultur cu ncrctura ei de arhetipuri estetice, religioase i
sociale, e un cadru n care aciunea se va desfura32. Unele evenimente au o evoluie diferit
fa de cea din viaa real, deoarece basmul confer realitii o conotaie specific 33. Copilul
nscut cu cartea n mn, simbol al nelepciunii, reuete s ndeprteze primejdia abtut
asupra satului. Motivul insolit al naterii cu cartea n mn este prezent i n basmele Tuliman
i Pescru mpratul, din colecia lui C. Rdulescu-Codin. Acest atribut subliniaz trecerea,
ca element de difereniere, de la voinicie la nelepciune. Locul de manifestare a forelor
malefice a devenit, situaie mai rar ntlnit, chiar biserica. Rugciunea spus cu mult
evlavie, metaniile, credina n ajutorul divin reuesc s ndeprteze primejdia i ispitele artate
sub form de: cea groas, apoi oareci, lilieci i bufnie, iar a treia sear chiar sub forma
unui cutremur. Mai puin obinuit este rpirea tnrului de ctre un clugr. Acest moment
poate fi interpretat ca o provocare a tnrului, de ctre clugr (cu sensul de aman) pentru ai dovedi curajul i isteimea. De fapt el era alesul care va anula blestemul ce a czut asupra
unui ora. Fiica mpratului, mpietrit la fel ca i ceilali curteni, i revenea la via i se
cstorea cu cel care va rezista o noapte s vegheze n camera ei. Paloarea ce l-a cuprins pe
voinicul cu simbolul nvturii sacre n mn semnific teama unui om aflat ntr-o zon
funebr, lipsit de via.
Un mesager al triumfului vieii poate fi considerat mezinul din basmul Viteazul cu
mna de aur din colecia lui G. Dem. Teodorescu. Venit pe lume pentru a salva cei doi frai
mai mari plecai pe trmul zmeului, mezinul este nsemnat pentru voinicia sa, avnd o mn
de aur. Naterea sa este anticipat de preotul btrn, cu barba pn la bru. Dei cunotea
deznodmntul, a vrut s se ncredineze c mprteasa s-a rugat pentru cei doi fii. Dup o
scurt rugciune, un ritual cretin al dezlegrii de pcate, preotul, ca un aman vizionar dup o
cltorie extatic, anun venirea pe lume a unui biat. Acesta va fi mai viteaz dect fraii lui.
Cf. Manfred Lurker, Diviniti i simboluri vechi egiptene. Dicionar, Traducere de Adela Motoc, Bucureti,
Editura Saeculum I. O., 1997, p. 72.
31
Mircea Eliade, Nateri mistice, Traduceri de Mihaela Grigore Paraschivescu, Bucureti, Editura Humanitas,
1995, p. 164.
32
Gilbert Durand, Structurile antropologice ale imaginarului, Bucureti, Editura Univers Enciclopedic, 2000, p.
243.
33
Sorina Creang, Arhetipuri, simboluri i substan filosofic n creaia eminescian, Bucureti, Editura
Semne, 2003, p. 107.
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i va gsi pe cei doi frai mai mari i i va aduce acas. n acest basm este ilustrat rolul
fundamental al preotului (amanului) pentru aprarea i pstrarea echilibrului psihic al
comunitii.
Basmele includ mai multe tipuri de iniieri, unele se refer la perioada de trecere de la
adolescen la maturitate (din aceast grup fac parte de obicei protagonitii), iar alte tipuri de
iniieri pot fi nfptuite doar de indivizi nzestrai cu caliti speciale (rolul poate fi ndeplinit
de personaje secundare, iar misiunea lor deseori poate fi asemnat cu cea a amanului).
Mircea Eliade consider amanul un aprtor al vieii, fecunditii, a luminii (mpotriva
bolii, sterilitii, necazului, ntunericului).34 Imaginarul colectiv valorific aceste complexe
caliti n creaii foclorice prin intermediul scenariilor iniiatice. Dup opinia scriitorului
relatrile extazelor amanice i gsesc corespondene n unele teme epice din literatura
popular35, basmele numrndu-se printre textele n care se pot identifica astfel de episoade.
Peripeiile amanului n lumea de dincolo, ncercrile prin care trece n timpul coborrilor
sale extatice n Infern i al nlrilor la Cer amintesc de ntmplrile prin care trec personajele
basmelor populare i eroii literaturii epice.36
BIBLIOGRAFIE:
1. Lucian Boia, Pentru o istorie a imaginarului. Traducere din francez de Tatiana Mochi,
Bucureti, Editura Humanitas, 2006.
2. Lucian Blaga, Hronicul i cntecul vrstelor. Poeme. Proz, Chiinu, Editura Hyperion,
1993.
3. Nicolae Ciobanu, ntre imaginar i fantastic n proza romneasc, Bucureti, Editura
Cartea Romneasc, 1987.
4. Sorina Creang, Arhetipuri, simboluri i substan filosofic n creaia eminescian,
Bucureti, Editura Semne, 2003, p. 107.
5. Gilbert Durand, Structurile antropologice ale imaginarului, Bucureti, Editura Univers
Enciclopedic, 2000.
6. Mircea Eliade, Nateri mistice, Traduceri de Mihaela Grigore Paraschivescu, Bucureti,
Editura Humanitas, 1995.
7. Mircea Eliade, Sacrul i profanul. Traducere de Brndua Prelipceanu, Bucureti, Editura
Humanitas, 1995.
8. Mircea Eliade amanismul i tehnicile arhaice ale extazului. Traducere din francez de
Brndua Prelipceanu i Cezar Baltag, Bucureti, Editura Humanitas, 1997.
9. Constantin Eretescu, Folclorul literar al romnilor. O privire contemporan, Bucureti,
Editura Compania, 2004.
10. Ren Guenon, Grota i labirintul n vol. Simboluri ale tiinei sacre. Traducere din
francez de Marcel Tolcea i Sorina erbnescu. Control tiinific al traducerii de Anca
Manolescu, Bucureti, Editura Humanitas, 2008.
11. Petre Ispirescu, Tineree fr btrnee, Ediie ngrijit i prefaat de prof. dr. Virgiliu
Ene, Galai, Editura Porto-Franco, 1993.
Ibidem, p. 464.
36
Ibidem, p. 465.
34
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12. Manfred Lurker, Diviniti i simboluri vechi egiptene. Dicionar, Traducere de Adela
Motoc, Bucureti, Editura Saeculum I. O., 1997.
13. George Niu , Elemente mitologice n creaia popular romneasc, Bucureti, Editura
Albatros, 1988.
14. Andrei Pleu, Despre ngeri, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 2008.
15. Ion Pop-Reteganul, Zna Apelor. Poveti ardeleneti culese din gura poporului. Ediie
ngrijit, prefa i tabel cronologic de Iordan Datcu, Bucureti, Editura Minerva, 1997.
16. V. I. Propp, Rdcinile istorice ale basmului fantastic, traducere de Radu Nicolau, prefa
de N. Roianu, Bucureti, Editura Univers, 1973.
17. Ofelia Vduva, Darul instituionalizat. Pomana n vol. Magia darului, Bucureti, Editura
Enciclopedic, 1997.
18. ***Analele Academiei Romne, seria II, tom XXIX (1901), p. 92 apud Nicolae Cartojan,
Crile populare n literatura romneasc. Epoca influenei greceti, Bucureti, Editura
Enciclopedic Romn, 1974.
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MANAGERIAL VALUES
Diana Lona LEONTE
Abstract: Nimic nu este mai mobil, mai specific fiecrei civilizaii i mai subordonat timpului
i spaiului dect valorile. Primul pas n vederea eliminrii disfuncionalitilor create de
caracteristicile diferite n management este de a delimita diferenele de valori. Perspectivele
inegale ale setului de valori personale genereaz alternative individuale n rezolvarea
problemelor manageriale. O m
ai bun nelegere i analiz a importanei valorilor personale pot determina un management
mai eficient. Relaia dintre valorile deinute de un manager i modul n care acesta evalueaz
problemele cu care se confrunt, sunt susceptibile de a fi mult mai complicat de analizat.
Keywords: manager, management, valori, decizie, raionament.
Din perspectiva sociologic, tot ceea ce oamenii respect, apreciaz, doresc s obin,
recomand, propun ca ideal poate fi considerat o valoare. Valorilor le corespund
contravalorile, care sunt depreciate, dezaprobate, respinse1.
n cadrul mecanismelor intime prin care individul i nsuete matricea valoric a unei
culturi, a unui grup social, intr n joc procesele generale ale nvrii (condiionarea,
recompensa, pedeapsa, fenomenele de imitaie, i de identificare). nc din copilrie, individul
ader succesiv la diverse grupuri de referin: prinii, prietenii de aceeai vrst, modele
oferite de literatur, mass-media, sau cele construite de el nsui printr-o sintez personal a
celor de circulaie.
Din perspectiva managerial, valorile individuale joac un rol decisiv n evaluarea
problemelor n general i ale celor sociale n special. Fredrickson2 susine faptul c
afirmaiilor care stau la baza teoriilor lurii deciziilor, s-a dat prea puin atenie impactului pe
care l au valorile personale, organizaionale i convingerile individului privind procesul de
luare a deciziilor. Faptul c fiecare individ are propriul su sistem de valori afecteaz procesul
de management al unei probleme. Heath3 (1988), i fundamenteaz teoriile raionamentului
plecnd de la idea n lipsa unor standarde absolute, sistemul individual de valori al
managerului nu va putea determina o monitorizare i interpretarea corect a unei probleme
sociale, nici o evaluare corect a unor aspecte sociale cu care organizaia se poate confrunta.
n raport cu o problem, managerul, chiar din etapa de identificare a situaiei orict de simpl
sau complex ar fi aceasta, o recunoate n funcie de propriile valori. Este clar faptul c
semnificaiile rspunsurilor gsite difer n funcie de consideraiile i perspectivele
managerului.
Rudolf Rezsohazy, Sociologia valorilor, Editura Institutul European, Iai, 2008, p.15
Fredrickson, J. W, Strategic process research: Questions and recommendations, Academy of Management
Review,1983, 8, pp.565-575.
3
Heath, R. L., & Associates. (1988). Strategic issues management: How organizations influence and respond to
public interests and policies. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
1
2
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Natura i substana valorilor sunt reductibile, n concepia lui B. F. Skinner (1971), la

procesele de achiziionare a acestora, n fapt, la examinarea condiionrilor relevante ale
mediului social4. n acest fel, aa numitele judeci de valoare, (considerate nafara tiinelor)
-axiologia ocupndu-se de ele cu toate c acestea nu pot rspunde la ntrebarea de ce ceva
este mai dorit dect altceva, lucru care ar putea fi explicabil prin tiina comportamentelor.
Astfel, propoziia normativ-axiologic Nu trebuie s furi, prezentat ca o porunc, innduse cont de domeniul eticii pure, poate fi uor transpus n termenii: Dac vrei s evii
pedeapsa, s nu furi. B. F. Skinnner insist pe principiul formrii normelor: de exemplu
furtul era pedepsit, astfel, acest act a devenit dezagreabil i de ctre membrii comunitii care
nu au fost victime. n acest fel, cnd o persoan cu autoritatea spuneaS nu furi, nu mai era
necesar s explice i de ce nu. A luat natere n acest fel norma.
Din norme deriv valorile unei culturi, normele reprezentnd reguli de comportament,
iar valorile criterii sau standarde pentru evaluarea comportamentului. Existena culturilor nu
nseamn c toi indivizii se comport identic i ntotdeauna la fel. Din perspectiva istoric,
cultura a fost definit de Tylor5 n 1871 ca fiind: tot ceea ce
include cunoatere, convingeri, art, moral, drept, obiceiuri i oricare alte
capacitile i cutume dobndite de om ca membru al societii ". Conceptul de cultur, n
timp, nu a suferit transformri fundamentale. De exemplu, Roger Keesing6 definete cultura
ca fiind Un set de teorii comune privind comportamentul sau programele mentale comune
unui grup de indivizi. Cercetrile contemporane asupra culturii delimiteaz cultura pe patru
dimensiuni: norme, valori, credine i simboluri.
Cei care mprtesc elementele culturii generale pot s-i pstreze propriile valori,
norme i stiluri de via (grupuri etnice, religioase etc.), genernd subculturi. Sunt, ns, i
grupuri care resping elementele culturii generale ale societii, intrnd n conflict cu trsturile
ei dominante. Comportamentele clasificate ca bune sau rele i drepte (corecte) sau nedrepte
(incorecte), nu se datoreaz bunstrii sau rutii unui caracter bun sau ru, oricunotinei
despre ceea ce este drept (corect) sau nedrept (incorect), ele se datoreaz condiionrilor ce
implic o larg varietate de rentriri, inclusiv rentriri verbale generate de tipul Bine,
Ru, Corect, Incorect.7
Identificarea relaiei dintre valorile deinute de un manager i modul n care acesta
evalueaz problemele cu care se confrunt, sunt susceptibile de a fi mult mai complicat de
analizat. Dinamica care guverneaz modul n care valorile managerilor poate afecta
gestionarea aspectelor sociale care necesit o rezoluie, pot afecta obiectivitatea decidentului.
Raional, subliniaz Ludwing von Bertalanffy, este s considerm c unele valori sunt
foarte generale i vizez toi oamenii, indiferent de ras, sex, crez, politic, vrst, i sunt
bazate pe precondiia biologic prezent la specia om, n timp ce altele sunt proprii
diferenelor culturii, societii sau indivizilor. n Eseuri despre individualism, Dumon, i
exprim opinia conform creia modul n care societile se difereniaz n funcie de setul de
valori ale fiecreia. n situaia ipotetic n care dou societi au acelai set de valori, ceea ce
Petru Ilu, Valori, atitudini i comportamente sociale, Editura Polirom, Iai, 2004, p.25
Joginder P. Singh, Managerial Culture and Work-related Values in India, n Indian Institute of management,
Vastapur, Ahmebadad, 1990, p75, Apud Tylor, Edward B.1871 (1924) Primitive culture. Gloucester: Smith
6
Keesing Roger, Theories of culture, n Annual Review of Antropology, 1974, 3: pp 73 -79
7
B.F. Skinner, Beyond Freedom and Dignity,Editura Vintage Books, New York, 1971, p.108
4
5
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le difereniaz radical, este ordinea importanei acordate de fiecare societate, fiecrei valori n
parte: ierarhia valorilor. n acelai timp, ceea ce este deviant ntr-o societate poate fi admis
ntr-o alta, n funcie de normele i valorile fiecreia dintre ele. Mentalitatea contemporan
recunoate c respectul omului i al valorilor pe care le creeaz dnsul alctuiesc temeiul
oricrei civilizaii i culturi durabile, dar nu face din individ un feti, ci l ncadreaz n grup,
considerndu-l ca un instrument al scopurilor superioare ale societii. 8 Bertalanffy definete
valorile ca fiind n parte verbalizri ori simbolizri ale datelor biologice i acestea se aplic
la multe valori egoiste i societale din comportament.
Unele valori ns reprezint aa zisele valori superioare care sunt de cele mai multe ori
fr utilizare biologic. Alte valori, ce nu sunt nscrise n interesele fundamentale, nu sunt
numai valori instrumentale, ele au statut de valori terminale, valori-scop, i se bucur de
autonomie funcional. n spectrul axiologicului, valorile au aprut cauzate fiind de nevoile
practice, de activitate uman n ansamblu, geneza lor putnd fi explicat prin necesiti
bazale, dar odat fiinate, constituie ele nsele motive ale aciunii.9 n acest sens valorile in de
un nivel propriu, nici al lucrurilor, i nici al subiectivitii particulare. Durkheim definete
valorile ca fiind fapte sociale, deci lucruri dincolo de individ, transsubiective. Punctul de
vedere avansat de Moscovici este acela al judecrii puterii de influenare n funcie de valorile
la care se raporteaz grupurile,de normele ce permit grupurilor s avanseze ctre scop.
Indivizii sunt susceptibili de a-i clasifica pe ceilali n funcie de apartenea la grup i
de diferenele de ordin demografic. Acelai tipar se aplic i managerilor. Acetia, de
exemplu, sunt apreciai diferit, mai de ncredere s presupunem, odat ce din perspectiva
demografic sunt clasificai ca membri ai unui grup cu aceast calitate. Prin consecin,
acestora li se atribuie valori similare grupului.
Resursele i valorile pot fi deci produsul fie al majoritii, fie al minoritii, adesea
defavorizat, ignorat, invizibil10. Aa cum contiina trupului nu o capt dect un bolnav,
iar un organism sntos nu se simte trind, i contiina societii nu se afirm dect n strile
de ru i de instabilitate colectiv.11
Nimic nu este mai mobil, mai specific fiecrei civilizaii i mai subordonat timpului i
spaiului dect valorile. Nici orientalul nu este de acord n ce o privete cu europeanul, nici
omul antic cu cretinul, nici copilul cu adultul, nici nomadul cu sedentarul, nici agricultorul cu
vntorul. Desigur c este ngduit s concepem moralitatea ca fiind ntotdeauna identic.
Loialitatea i corectitudinea nu depind de climat i la aceleai caractere de pe toate
meridianele se pot deosebi mrinimia de avariie, francheea de ipocrizie i attea alte caliti
bune sau rele, a cror apreciere nu variaz deloc n funcie de latitudine sau de secol. Aceste
virtui nu au ns dect o pondere privat. Ele nu intereseaz dect sufletul. Legile nu le-au
pretins niciodat. Nici mcar opinia public nu le-a apreciat ntotdeauna. Nimeni nu mai este
de acord n privina valorii lor atunci cnd intr n joc vreun interes public sau personal.
Nimic nu le sancioneaz. Toate sunt intime. De ndat ce le asociem cu necesitile vieii
colective, se ivesc diferenele; codurile i cutumele intr n opoziie; iar moralitatea, fie ea i
Petre Andrei, Sociologie general, Editura Polirom, 1997, p.20

Petru Ilu, Valori, atitudini i comportamente sociale, Editura Polirom, 2004, p. 17
10
Adrian Neculau, Gilles Ferrol coordonatori, Minoritari,Marginali, Exclui, Editura Polirom, 1996, p. 10
11
Roger Cailois, Abordri ale imaginarului, Editura Nemira,Bucureti, 1983, p.185
8
9
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imuabil fa de principiul ei n inima omului, i traseaz drepturi i datorii diverse, i

schimbtoare de ndat ce aciunea sa privete interesul grupului.
Valorile sunt considerate eluri ideale, privite ca stri (bine, fericire, echitate etc.), dar
i instrumental, adic referindu-se la modul n care ne atingem scopurile (ambiie, cinste).
Valorile pot fi astfel mijloace i scopuri innd cont de caracteristicile valorii ca i concept i
construct; se consider c atitudinile i comportamentele sunt influenate de valori i, mai
mult, atitudinile deriv din valori la un nivel subordonat. Formarea unei atitudini este
influenat de valoarea care o supervizeaz, iar caracterul instrumental sau finalist al unei
valori va influena formarea unei atitudini centrate pe acel tip de valoare.12
Concluzia este aceea conform creia putem spune c dificultile unei organizaii sunt
dependente de valorile manageriale n tot complexul funciei i atributelor personale.
Diferenele semnificative n structura de valori personale sunt reflectate n eficitatea aciunii
de a conduce acea organizaie, automat regsite n asemnrile sau diferenele dintre
organizaii.
Impactul valorilor personale asupra comportamentului managerial i al consecinelor
acestuia continu s rein atenia cercettorilor. Valorile stau la baza comportamentului
uman, acestea influeneaz alegerile, ne determin s luam o anumit decizie, s ne gestionm
timpul ntr-un anumit mod i s investim energie ntr-un anumit scop. n situaie de criz,
valorile, pot dirija traiectoria unui individ, formeaz opinii, contradicii.
Cele mai importante decizii ale unui manager, solicit implicarea valorilor personale.
Cum cntrete acesta interesele clientului mpotriva intereselor pe termen lung ale
companiei?
Cum i mparte timpul ntre familie i responsabilitile organizaionale? Cum decide
care dintre angajai va fi motivat? Care comportament al subordonailor va fi agreat? Simplu:
n funcie de valorile individuale ale fiecrui manager n parte.
12
Bibliografie
Adrian Neculau, Gilles Ferrol coordonatori, Minoritari,Marginali, Exclui, Editura
Polirom, 1996, p. 10
Burrhus Frederic Skinner, Beyond Freedom and Dignity,Editura Vintage Books,
New York, 1971, p.108
Heath, R. L., & Associates. (1988). Strategic issues management: How organizations
influence and respond to public interests and policies. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
James W. Fredrickson , Strategic process research: Questions and recommendations,
Academy of Management Review,1983, 8, pp.565-575.
Joginder P. Singh, Managerial Culture and Work-related Values in India, n Indian
Institute of management, Vastapur, Ahmebadad, 1990, p75, Apud Tylor, Edward
B.1871 (1924) Primitive culture. Gloucester: Smith
Keesing Roger, Theories of culture, n Annual Review of Antropology, 1974, 3: pp
73 -79
Mihaela Boza, Psihologia Social, nr. 11/2003, Editura Polirom, 2003, p. 104
Mihaela Boza, Psihologia Social, nr. 11/2003, Editura Polirom, 2003, p. 104
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Petre Andrei, Sociologie general, Editura Polirom, 1997, p.20

Petru Ilu, Valori, atitudini i comportamente sociale, Editura Polirom, 2004, p. 17
Roger Cailois, Abordri ale imaginarului, Editura Nemira,Bucureti, 1983, p.185
Rudolf Rezsohazy, Sociologia valorilor, Editura Institutul European, Iai, 2008, p.15
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LIFE, LIMITS AND WORRY IN THE NOVEL LIFE ON A PLATFORM BY OCTAVIAN

PALER
SZILGYI (SZVERFI) Judit-Mria
Abstract: This study proposes a descriptive-analytical analysis of the novel Life on a Platform
by Octavian Paler, being presented from three aspects: the confessions of a worried man,
Biography and the aesthetics of an antique/ethical man and Limits restlessness/alterity in
the grammar of the character. We will have the novel Life on a Platform in focus.
Keywords are: problematized conscience, Life on a Platform, alterity, confession, identity,
psychic
n aceast lucrare se vizeaz o analiz descriptiv-analitic asupra romanului Viaa pe

un peron de Octavian Paler fiind prezentat romanul din trei aspecte: confesiunea unui om
frmntat, Biografia i estetica unui om antic/etic i Limite - frmntri/alteritate n gramatica
personajului.
i n romanul Viaa pe un peron, Octavian Paler adopt tonul confesiv, dar aici ns nu
mai este att de uor de descifrat legtura dintre mesajul pe care dorete s ni-l transmit i eul
creator. Totui la nivel interpretativ se pot urmri legturi adnci ntre cele dou elemente
enunate.
Pornind de la autorul romanului i de la latura lui subiectiv1 i confesiv, trebuie
analizat, n primul rnd, legtura lui cu realul, despre care Eugen Simion afirm n lucrarea
Scriitori romni de azi c Din crile pe care le-a publicat i din nsemnrile cu caracter
direct subiectiv dedusem c spiritul eseistului nu cunoate foamea de real i c se simte mai
bine [ . . . ] n parabole, mituri.2
Romanul prezint mai multe planuri narative, dar, bineneles c derularea cronologic
nu se poate urmri, n cele 31 de capitole avem un singur personaj real i unul imaginar.
Naratorul este un personaj-narator care la persoana I ncearc s analizeze lumea i s se
autoanalizeze. Nu cunoatem numele acestui personaj, aflm despre el doar c este un
profesor de istorie. Poate latura aceast a vieii n care oamenii cunosc numele, prenumele,
adresa, poate numrul de telefon al anumitor personaje, pentru personajul nostru nu are
relevan, pentru el latura interioar are o importan major pe tot parcursul romanului.
Cel mai important aspect al acestui roman este poate scriitura, deoarece eroul fiind
singur, izolat ntr-o gar pustie, ncepe s scrie scriu cum a vorbi. n jurul meu e pustiu, iar
omul dac nu vorbete uneori, moare, nu-i aa?3 Astfel debuteaz personajul-narator al
romanului, cruia i este fric n aceast gar prsit, n care i se par c e ntr-o grot. Singur
ntr-o grot, ateptnd de zile ntregi apariia Eleonorei, care ntrzie, i este fric. El se simte
Eugen Simion, Scriitori romni de azi, vol. III.,EdituraCarteaRomneasc, Bucureti, 1984, p. 515.
Ibidem, p. 515
3
Octavian Paler, Viaa pe un peron, Editura Jurnalul Naional, Bucureti, 2009, p. 23.
1
2
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Issue no. 6/2015
ca o creatur, pe jumtate sfnt, pe jumtate obolan4; n el slluiesc un Dumnezeu care nu

vorbete i o Fiar care l contest pe cel dinti.5 Aceast latur dual sugereaz duplicitatea
interioar a fiinei, care este ntr-o continu lupt, ntr-o continu confruntare luntric.
Aceast frmntare poate fi din cauza ateptrii, ateptarea ca o form a ezitrii poate, ntr-o
lume n care individul nu se mai gsete. Lumea pentru el este simbolizat de aceast gar
pustie, care poate fi tocmai destinul. Astfel ajungem s corelm drumul din via al acestui
individ prezentat n roman i motoul de la nceputul romanului, o fraz scoas din Wilhelm
von Humboldt, Modul n care un om i accept destinul este mai important dect nsui
destinul su.6 Gara, fiind lumea exterioar n care personajul-narator, profesor de istorie, nu
mai poate aciona. La nivelul autorului, putem afirma c acest personaj din acest roman este
un alter-ego al lui Octavian Paler, care nu mai poate tri n acel mediu social-politic n care se
micase n aceea perioad, simindu-se c se sufoc, din cauza lipsei de libertate. Astfel, eroul
nostru i autorul romanului, neputnd tri libertatea exterioar, fiind limitai, doresc s
realizeze o alt form a libertii, cea interioar. Aceast form de libertate poate fi scriitura,
care pentru scriitorul Octavian Paler este esenial, fiind o form de comunicare a sinelui cu
sinele i cu exteriorul.
Izolarea de lume, singurtatea n aceast gar prsit de unde nu pornete niciun tren
i unde nu ajunge niciunul, poate fi o izolare de lumea exterioar, o claustrare n sine. Nu
ntmpltor se vorbete despre globurile de sticl, mtile de sticl prin care nu se
infiltreaz nimic n individ din lumea exterioar. Totodat, izolarea devine o tcere, care
pentru autor este o tain, un mister. Ateptarea e plin de speran, dar n acelai timp i de
eec. Eecurile personajului se leag de pasiunile sale deoarece fiecare pasiune a lui se va
finaliza printr-un eec La drept vorbind, toat viaa mea e un ir de pasiuni euate.7
Astfel personajul ntruchipeaz lupta etern dintre speran i teama de ratare. Totul
devine pentru el un proces, toate procesele l determin s se dedubleze i s analizeze
lucrurile din mai multe laturi, dar acest lucru l i determin, ca i pe ahul orb, s de scindeze
n dou, ceea ce pe termen lung aduce o nerezolvare a faptelor. Astfel singura scpare
pentru omul aflat supt vremii8 este nevoia de comunicare a individului prin scriitur, ceea
ce pentru Octavian Paler este o vocaie. Dar din moment ce vorbim de un roman subversiv,
rostirea trebuie s capete nveliul parabolei.
n urmtoarele pri sunt prezentate mblnzitorii de cobre, dresorii de cini,
mangustele imperfecte. Aceste personaje sunt ipotetic prezentate ca nite personaje ale
regimului totalitar. Aceste personaje i toat aceast prezentare a lor pare o alunecare n vis, in
A se vedea legenda din cultura indic conform creia Potrivit legendei, n 1463 fiul vitreg al Karni Mata a vrut
s bea ap dintr-un iaz, dar nu a putut s se in, a czut n ap i s-a necat. Atuncifemeiaaapelat la zeulmorii
Yama, cu rugmintea de a-intoarcecopilul, nszeul crud iviclean a refuzat. Ca rspuns, sfntasuprat a luat de
la el sufleteletuturorrudelor sale de sngein plus, a declaratcniciodatbrbaii care aparincasteiei, nu vor
merge nregatullui Yama ivortrincorpurileobolanilor. Temporar. Pentru o singurvia. Iar, fiindnscui data
viitoare, vordeveni din nouoamenii. Aac, nu estesurprinztorfaptulc, nDenshoke din timpurilevechi,
obolaniisunttratai cu tot respectul. Chiaritemplul a fostmontatncinstealor.
5
6
Octavian Paler, Op. cit, moto de la nceputulromanului
7
Octavian Paler, Op. cit, p. 29.
8
Cristina Burtea-Cioroianu, Octavian Paler - studiu monografic, Editura Aius, Craiova, 2012, p. 91.
4
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Issue no. 6/2015
lumea imaginar, prin care eul poate evada din ghearele unui regim care l sugrum din cauza
lipsei de libertate.
Aceste elemente ale imaginarului sunt necesare ca mesajul s conin nvelisul
necesar, dar, n acelai timp, dezvluind semnificaiile elementelor-parabole, putem distinge
adevratele semnificaii dintre individ i regim, i dintre adevratul creator i om Paler.
Biografia i estetica unui om antic/etic
Eugen Simion n lucrarea Scriitori romni de azi, constat c Octavian Paler este un
om de munte9 astfel are n el o ndrjire de ascet laic i spiritul lui este mesianic10.
Pronind de la aceast premis, fiind dou aspecte importante din biografia autorului ncercm
o analiz asupra romanului Viaa pe un peron sub aspect biografic i sub estetica unui om etic
care ntotdeauna se raporteaz la modele antice, acestea din urm fiind modelele lui n via.
Criticul CharlesAugustin Sainte-Beuve, prin teoriile sale despre istoria i critica
literar vorbete despre critica biografist, afirmnd n materie de critic i istorie literar nu
exist, mi se pare, lectur mai distractiv, mai desfttoare i n acelai timp mai fecund n
nvminte de tot felul dect biografiile bine alctuite ale oamenilor mari [ . . . ]; s-l
urmreti n intimitatea i n obiceiurile sale....11 Astfel dac dorim o analiz biografist
asupra operei Viaa de un peron trebuie s gsim coordonatele centrale din viaa lui Octavian
Paler care ar fi prezentate n paginile acestui roman, sau eventualele legturi dintre biografia
lui i acest roman existenial12, la toate nivelurile.
Despre aspectele de autobiografie ai autorului putem afirma c lumea lui mirific
pentru totdeauna este localitatea n care s-a nscut, comuna Lisa din apropierea munilor
Fgra. Acest mediu este elementul germinator pentru Paler. Totui marea parte a vieii sale
o petrece la Bucureti i ntr-un inerviu oferit revistei Cultura n data de 10 august 2006
afirm, Nu intru n categoria celor care idilizeaz satul.13 Tot aici afirm c Nu cred c mai
am suflet de orean, dar nu cred c mai am nici suflet de ran. E un fel de promiscuitate.14
Poate adevratul spaiu identitar pentru Octavian Paler nu este neaprat legat de locul unde i
petrece majoritatea timpului, ci de un alt spaiu unde ntotdeauna se poate renate sau unde
spiritul lui poate ajunge. Iar acest spaiu nu este altul dect marea i mitologia 15. Ajungnd la
9

Ibidem, p. 515.
11
Sainte-Beuve, Pagini de critic, n romnete de M. Roca, Prefa de Elena Vianu, Editura de stat pentru
Literatur i art, Bucureti, 1958, p. 43.
12
Cf. Cristina Burtea-Cioroianu, Op. cit., p. 91.
13
Simona Chean, 30 de interviuri eveniment, Editura Tritonic, Bucureti, 2008, p. 14.
14
Ibidem, p. 14.
15
A se vedea legtura dintre simbolul mrii i mitologie n urmtoarele secvene:1. Marea nseamn enorm
pentru mine. Dac n-a fi venit, a fi cptat o psihologie de infirm. Ar fi trebuit s m consolez cu ideea c
marea ine de trecut. Pentru totdeauna! i nu m vd n stare, deocamdat, de aa ceva. 2. La mare, eu [...]M
desprind de problemele curente. 3. [...], la mare, totul se simplific [...]. N-a zice c devin altulla mare. Dar
cu siguran, devin altfel[...]Am o stare de beie superficial care-mi relateaz inhibiiile i m cur, parc,
de zgur.[...]. i nu cunosc o terapie mai radical pentru oboseala mea nervoas. 4. [...] m uit [...], spre marea
tain a mrii. La ceasul n care se ngn ziua cu noaptea, marea are ceva ciudat. Pe apele ei sufl parc duhul
Genezei. Valurile spal rmul cu o nepsare grea, inerial i am senzaia stranie c m aflu nainte de apariia
vieii pe Pmnt. 5. Oricum, dac noi suntem opera lui Dumnezeu, marea este capodopera Lui. Din patru
elemente (ap, soare, nisip, aer), nimic mai mult, se creeaz, prin nu tiu ce mister, o magie i o mitologie. Nu
10
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aceast revelaie putem analiza legturile care se stabilesc ntre aceste dou coordonate
eseniale pentru autor. Interpretarea poate fi adncit, deoarece marea poate fi necunoscutul,
esena ascuns dintr-un destin aflat n imposibilitatea de a se regsi n zbucium, verv,
mulime i colectivitate. Pentru el marea rmne nfptuirea sinelui dup noile coordonate
imperios cerute de destin. Totodat, marea este o terapie pentru sufletul autorului, La ceasul
n care se ngn ziua cu noaptea, marea are ceva ciudat. Pe apele ei sufl parc duhul
Genezei16; n acelai timp marea poate fi elementul esenial al existenei, dac ne referim la
apa-matern, Marea este pentru toi oamenii dintre cele mai mari i mai constante simboluri
ale maternitii.17 Aventura identitar convoac amintirea, originea, autocreaia i, nu n
ultimul rnd, propensiunea spre cellalt-viitor. Marea poate fi simbolul creaiei care se ia sau
care este luat drept creator18 pentru Octavian Paler, marea este un nfptuitor al oglindirii
asemenea scriiturii diaristice. Marea are valene demiurgice deoarece, scldndu-se n apele
mrii, Paler are impresia c renate de fiecare dat. n acelai timp este i spaiul vieii fiindc
se ntmpl ceva inexplicabil de fiecare dat cnd intr n contact direct cu apa mrii; pentru
el marea e o taumatologie19 inepuizabil. Magia aceasta ine de latura romantic a
personalitii autorului care se poate demonstra pe parcursul primei prti, unde ncearc s
demonstreze c romanticii au recreat clasicitatea antic.20
Totui la mare reueste s se regseasc. Acea cutare de sine la mare parc nu e att
de adncit, precum e n alte scrieri, marea e o magie, o mitologie, care i ofer un peisaj
simplu i, n acelai timp de un desfru luminos21. Apolinicul i dionisiacul se ntreptrund
n valul deprtrii i al apropierii. Jocul distanelor i al atitudinilor sunt manifestri ale
relaiei eu - strin i, implicit, ale comunicrii spectrale.
Octavian Paler consider, c, dac noi suntem opera lui Dumnezeu atunci marea este
capodopera lui deoarece din patru elemente ap, soare, nisip, aer se creeaz o mitologie. La
mare trupul devine singurul adevr22
Prin referirile mitologice autorul i propune s retriasc unele mistere autentice
deoarece el simindu-se strin n lumea lui, tot mereu, caut un univers unde, el ca individ, ar
putea s triasc autentic, pentru c aici pe aceast lume el se simte un stin: oricum, m tem
c viaa mea a devenit, de mai mult vreme, un fel de imitaie de via. i-a pierdut
autenticitatea, pe care o regsesc aici, la mare, cu o infinit recunotin. 23 Misterul, cuvntul
cunosc un peisaj care s fie att de simplu i, n acelai timp, de un desfru luminos.[...]Aici trupul devine
singurul adevr. Dar cu att mai uor comsimi c Afrodita putea iei numai dintr-o mare. 6. Spre deosebire de
zei, noi amestecm dragostea cu disperarea. O dat mai mult, neleg de ce iubesc marea cum iubeti o femeie.
Dar o iubesc i ca pe un loc de exil. Cci marea n-are vrst. Ea nu e din nici un secol. i n-are amintiri. Uneori,
m simt chiar puin caraghios aici cu specialitatea mea de rentieral memoriei. [...] Nu m pot stura de mare
ntr-o sptmn. [...] e ceva sfietor de frumos n spectacolul unei mri incendiate de soare, n stare s
intimideze luciditile cele mai rele. 7. Mine, voi fi primul pe plaj. ntotdeauna am procedat aa n ultima zi.
M-am dus s not nainte de micul dejun, n apa nc netrezit din pclele nopii. Ai, atunci, o senzaie ciudat,
despicnd apa cu braele. Parc o detepi din somn.
16
Idem, p. 12.
17
Gaston Bachelard, Apa i visele, editura Univers, Bucureti, 1995, p. 131.
18
Chevalier Jean, Alain Gheerbrant, Dicionarul de simboluri, vol 2. Editura Artemis, Bucureti, 1993, p. 270.
19
Octavian Paler, Aventuri solitare, Editura Albatros, Bucureti, 1996, p. 13.
20
Ibidem, p. 15.
21
Ibidem, p. 44.
22
Ibidem, p. 43.
23
Ibidem, p. 20.
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Issue no. 6/2015
i miticul se ntreptrund pentru a dobndi autenticitatea tririi. n aces sens Poate c nu

exist un mijloc mai bun pentru a ascunde un mister dect acela de a discute despre el.24 Tot
ce a putea accepta e c ambiguitatea i las deplina libertate s alegi, ca la Delfi, i c firul
Ariadnei i-a fost de folos lui Tezeu tocmai fiindc s-a rsucit dup meandrele labirintului.25
De la firul Ariadnei, la Tezeu, La Adonis, la Ajax, la Agamemnon, la Helena, la Artemis, la
Ulise, Orfeu, Penelopa enumerarea lor va produce o cuprindere a infinitului, ce completeaz
infinitul atras de mare. i exegeza autorului surprinde aceast desfurare de for mitologic:
,,[...] rememornd episoade, fapte, evenimente din bogatele-i lecturi despre antichitate. Se
perind astfel, prin faa noastr, Pitagora, Heraclit, Eschyl, Sofocle, Euripide (celebru prin
grota-i de la Salamani unde i-a gndit cea mai mare parte a pieselor sale de teatru i a morii
sale cumplite: refugiat la btrnee n Macedonia, la Pella, la curtea lui Archelaos, este sfiat
de cinii asmuii asupra-i, de nobilii macedoniein semibarbari, crora dramaturgul le criticase
moravurile fruste), mediteaz la cultul msurii, al cderii n hybris, la soarta crilor, n
genere, a Bibliotecii din Pergam druit Cleopatrei, regina poliglot, de ctre Antoniu, ntruun exces de tandree, la oracolul din Delphi etc.26
Precizrile de mai sus ne demonstreaz legtura generic dintre Octavian Paler, marea
i mitologia, astfel putem demonstra c aspectul biografic al eului creator este strns legat de
mare i de aspectele mitologice din toate operele sale. Omul antic este acel Octavian Paler
care nu poate vedea lumea doar prin prisma valorilor antice, una dintre acestea fiind adevrul
despre care n romanul Viaa pe un peron ncearc s ne vorbeasc prin procesele sale
nchipuite. Cutarea adevrului este un rezultat al lipsei de libertate, deoarece mediul istoric
nu-i permitea acest lucru. Restrngerile din acea perioad i cauzeaz mustrri de contiin,
deoarece pentru moralistul Paler, valorile cele mai improtante erau Binele, Adevrul,
Frumosul, Libertatea.
Pentru a putea vorbi despre omul etic, trebuie s ne amintim de etica lui Emmanuel
Levinas, conform creia omul etic trebuie s fie n relaie direct cu religia, deoarece relaia
etic este prin excelen religioas, relaia cu cellalt introduce transcendena. Astfel religia
deschide drumul eticii. Bineneles c teoriile legate de etic sunt strns legate de teoriile
alteritii. Astfel
strpungerea pe care o svrete Levinas cu ajutorul fenomenologiei este, cum se
tie, n domeniul eticii, pe care o pune naintea ontologiei, ca filozofia prima. Nu fiina,
identitateaei,
ci
chipul,
chipulceluilalt,
alteritateaprimeaza.
Aici
el
dezvoltafilonuliudaiccontemporan, corectndviziuneabuberiana din EusiTu, sistemul dialogic
de parteneriat, echitabil, susinndasimetria, punndu-l peCellaltinaintea Mea, cu
risculasumat al nclcrii legilorfirii. Cellalt nu e infernul, ca la Sartr, ci legturanoastr
cu transcendentul: n el vdchipulluiDumnezeu, nu un chip particular, ci chipulinfinit.
Sacrulnu se manifestdectacoloundeomullrecunoasteilacceptpecellalt. Ni se
propunesimultanunumanismi o metafizicurmnd calearegal a eticii. Relaia cu
Dumnezeu nu e direct, ci intermediat, dar nu de substitute, ci de aproapelenostru. Spune-mi
cum teporti cu ceilali, ca s-i spun nceraporturieti cu Dumnezeu! Adevratacorelaiedintre
24
Ibidem, p. 63.
Ibidem, pp. 70-71.
26
Ionel Savistescu, Octavian Paler, Aventuri solitare, n Ateneu, 34, nr. 1, 1997, p. 5.
25
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om siDumnezeudepinde, deci, de relaia de la om la om, n care

omuliiasumadeplinaresponsabilitate, ca si cum nu ar fi un Dumnezeupe care spoiconta. Cu
altecuvinte: fcetrebuiesfacidacvrei ca El steajute!27
Acesteconsideraii ne dezvluieteoriile legate de omul etic, care ncazulopereilui
Octavian Paler trebuieanalizaten contextual teorieialteritii. Individulntotdeaunancearcs
se raporteze la cellalt. Teoreticienii culturii, antropologii i filozofii propun numeroase
definiri ale conceptului, ncercnd s surprind esena unei manifestri complexe i vaste
raportul identitate-alteritate. De exemplu, Tzvetan Todorov n lucrarea Cucerirea Americii.
Problema celuilalt, afirm la adresa alteritii c cunoaterea de sine trece prin cunoaterea
celuilalt.28
Dup Todorov Tzvetan exist trei axe diferite ale problematicii alteritii: planul
axiologic, planul praxiologic i planul epistemic. Planul axiologic (o judecat de valoare)
vizeaz legtura dintre eu i cellalt, dar, n acelai timp, nu numai legtura, ci i modul cum
m raportez la cellalt i la cum este, bun sau ru, l iubesc sau nu-l iubesc, mi este egal sau
mi este inferior.
n planul praxiologic (aciunea de apropiere sau deprtare fa de cellalt) e vorba de
faptul c dac mbriez valorile celuilalt, m identific cu el, sau l asimilez pe cellalt mie, i
impun propria-mi imagine. n planul epistemic nu exist nici un absolut, ci o gradare infinit
ntre stri de cunoatere, mai mult sau mai puin complexe.
Exist bineneles i afiniti ntre cele trei planuri, dar nicio implicaie riguroas, aa
nct nu putem deci s-l reducem unul la cellalt, nici s-l prevedem pe unul pornind de la
cellalt.29 De asemenea, ntr-un studiu teoretic amplu, Marc Guillaume i Baudrillard sunt de
prere c altul (l'autre), fiind de orice natur, strin, imigrant sau marginal, poate fi de aceeai
natur. El numete dou tipuri de alteritate radical, una care poate fi asimilat i cealalt
inasimilabil n fiecare altul (autre) exist Cellalt (autrui) ceea ce nu este eu, ceea ce este
diferit de mine, dar pe care-l pot nelege, chiar asimila i exist de asemenea o alteritate
radical, inasimilabil, incomprehensibil i chiar inimaginabil.30 Se vorbete despre trei
tipuri de alteritate:alteritate uman (dintre diferii oameni), alteritate dinuntrul nostru (de la
Sigmund Freud ncoace a primit numele de incontient) i alteritatea altor spaii, care pot fi
cosmice sau chiar a mainii.31
Marc Guillaume dezbate elipsa altului, despre a-l lua pe altul drept Cellalt, a-l reduce
pe altul la Cellalt, fcnd referiri la studiul lui Simmel din 1905, intitulat Digresiuni despre
strin, unde acesta abordeaz conceptul de strin, care dup o anumit ax poate fi foarte
departe iar, dup o alt ax, foarte aproape32, adic strinul poate fi altul sau Cellalt, poate
exista o distan ntre eu-altul, eu-cellalt, dar, n acelai timp, aceast distan poate s se
diminueze n totalitate pentru c ajunge la un raport cu totul aparte, pentru c cel mai
ndeprtat este i cel mai aproape. Strinul este n acelai timp cel care e aproape i departe,
27
http://www.observatorcultural.ro/Emmanuel-Levinas-Etica-Prima*articleID_8070-articles_details.html
Cf.Tzvetan Todorov, Cucerirea Americii. Problema celuilalt, trad. de Magda Jeanrenaud, Editura Institutul
Europena, Iai, 1994, p. 176.
29
Ibidem, p. 173.
30
Jean Baudrillard, Marc Guillaume, Figuri ale alteritii, trad. de Ciprian Mihali, Colectia Studii, Editura
Paralela 45, Piteti Bucureti, 2002, p. 6.
31
Ibidem, p. 11.
32
Ibidem, pp. 13-15.
28
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ns acest lucru nu nseamn neaprat c exist o distan geografic sau cultural, ci, mai
degrab, c e vorba de o trecere a frontierei. Statutul de strin este acela al cuiva care nu e
judector i parte, care nu e parial n dezbateri i conflicte, care nu va rmne permanent
angajat n vecintatea noastr social, el poate, prin urmare, s fie un judector imparial, s ia
o distan, permindu-i s observe mai bine conflictele sau situaiile care nu-l privesc n mod
durabil. Aceast distan i permite o proximitate 33, i permite s fie chemat ntr-o poziie de
arbitru i chiar mai adesea, ntr-o poziie de confesor.
Dac n cazul scrierilor lui Octavian Paler, n care confesiunea este principala
modalitate de expunere, altul este jurnalul, n cazul romanului Viaa pe un peron, altul poate
fi partenerul de ah, judectorul, femeia de la frizerie, Eleonora etc. Important e c, raportarea
la cellalt, se face prin prisma acelui om, care asteapt nsingurat i nu i pierde ncrederea n
ceea ce e frumos i adevrat. Aceste dou valori l cluzesc pn la sfritul romanului.
ncrederea n frumos l duce cu gndul ntotdeauna la lumin, la mare, cele dou simboluri
eseniale pentru autor, iar adevrul l determin s vad totul la nivel de proces, i s simt
nevoia de a face dreptate.
Nevoie de dreptate e strns legat de nevoia de libertate. De aceea vrea s fac
dreptate i se scufund n acele procese inventate, deoarece dorete s triasc ntr-un mediu
n care exist justiie, n care exist ncrederea individului c adevrul va iei la iveal. Aici
intervine aspectul de parabol, profesorul de istorie micndu-se ntr-o lume n care nu se
poate face dreptate pentru c acesta nu este o valoare care era promovat de sistem, simte c
menirea lui este de a se lupta mpotriva acestei lumi devalorificate, deczute moral. Astfel ar
fi n stare s fac orice pentru a pstra sau a readuce aceste valori, dar chiar dac Acum
atacm chiar unicitatea fiinei mele sau Dintr-odat, fiina mea s-a rupt n dou, ncearc
astfel de lupte singur nu va reusi.
Limite - frmntri/alteritate n gramatica personajului
Personajul principal al romanului Viaa pe un peron este profesorul de istorie, care,
ajungnd la limitele sale, se frmnt ca s poat rezista n aceea gar prsit. O singur
speran are, c Eleonora va ajunge curnd sau c se gndete la mare i la lumin. Personajul
fiind unul narator-personaj, avem de-a face cu o perspectiv subiectiv asupra tuturor
evenimentelor i, n acelai timp, i cu unicitatea perspectivei.
Ipostazele n care se pune acest personaj sunt multiple: este un simplu profesor de
istorie, care ne dezvluie pasiunile sale, este o mangust imperfect creia din cauza
imperfeciunii sale i e fric de cobr, este o mblnzitoare de cobra, o fiin dual pe jumtate
sfnt, pe jumtate obolan. Personajul are totui o partener, Eleonora. Ei s-au exilat din
propriile lumi, deoarece mblnzitorii de cobre i dresorii de cini au instalat o teroare n
care ei nu mai pot tri. Alegerea cea mai bun pentru ei era fuga de aceast teroare i, chiar
dac n aceast gar sau din aceast gar nu exist evadare, totui e mai bun dect ghearele
regimului totalitar.
Jean Baudrillard, Marc Guillaume, Figuri ale alteritii, trad. de Ciprian Mihali, Colectia Studii, Editura
Paralela 45, Piteti Bucureti, 2002, p. 14.
33
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BIBLIOGRAFIE:
Bibliografia operei:
Paler, Octavian, Viaa pe un peron, Editura Litera, Colecia Jurnalul Naional,
Bucureti, 2009.
Paler, Octavian, Aventuri solitare, Editura Albatros, Bucureti, 1996.
Bibliografia critic:
Baudrillard, Jean, Guillaume, Marc, Figuri ale alteritii, trad. de Ciprian Mihali,
Colectia Studii, Editura Paralela 45, Piteti Bucureti, 2002.
Bura-Cernat, Bianca, Spovedanie ntr-o sal de ateptare, n rev. Observator
cultural, 6, nr. 23, 2005.
Chifu, Gabriel, Naraiuneaunui process de contiin, Lecturi din contemporani, n
rev. Ramuri, nr.5, 15 mai 1982.
Cordo, Sanda, Lumi din cuvinte. Reprezentri i identiti n literatura romn
postbelic, Editura Cartea romneasc, Bucureti, 2012.
Crihan, Alina Daniela,
Scriitorul postbelic i teroarea istoriei. Dileme i
(re)construcii identitare n povestirile vieii, Editura Muzeului Naional al Literaturii
Romne. Bucureti, 2013.
Durand, Gilbert, Aventurile imaginii. Imaginai simbolic, imaginarul, trad. de
Anioara Bobocea, Editura Nemira, 1996.
Glodeanu, Gheorghe, Octavian Paler sautentaiaromanuluiparabol (I.), nTribuna,
8, nr. 28, 1996.
Glodeanu,Gheorghe, Dimensiuni ale romanuluicontemporan, EdituraGutinul, Baia
Mare, 1998.
Manolescu, Nicolae, Istoria critic a literaturii romne, Editura Paralela45, Piteti,
2008.
Marcea, Pompiliu Eveniment literar, n rev. Contemporanul, nr. 9, 26 februarie
1982.
Marcea, Pompiliu, Atitudini critice, Editura Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 1985.
Manu, Emil, Asceza parabolei, n rev. Romnia literar, XV, nr. 25, 17 iunie 1982.
Marian, Barbu, Aspecte ale romanului contemporan, Editura Scrisul Romnesc,
Craiova, 1993.
Martin, Mircea Morala parabolei, n rev. Romnia literar, XV, nr. 49, 2 decembrie
1982.
Moraru, Cornel, Viaa pe un peron, n rev. Vatra, XII, nr. 4, 20 aprilie, 1982.
Muthu, Mircea, Omul i cobra, n rev. Steaua, XXXIII., nr. 3, 1982.
Sainte-Beuve, Pagini de critic, n romnete de M. Roca, Prefa de Elena Vianu,
Editura de stat pentru Literatur i art, Bucureti, 1958.
Sainte-Beuve, Portrete literare, Editura pentru Literatur Universal, Bucureti, 1967.
Simion, Eugen, Romanul parabolic, n rev. Romnia literar, XV., nr. 7, 11
februarie 1982.
Simion Eugen, Scriitori romni de azi, vol III, Editura Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti,
1984.
1394
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