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Chapter 2

Matrices
2.1 Operations with Matrices
2.2 Properties of Matrix Operations
2.3 The Inverse of a Matrix
2.4 Elementary Matrices
Elementary Linear Algebra

R. Larsen et al. (6 Edition)

2.1 Operations with Matrices

Matrix:

a11
a
21
A [aij ] a31


am1

a12
a22
a32

am 2

(i, j)-th entry:

aij

a13
a 23
a33

am 3

a1n
a2 n
M mn
a3n

amn mn

row: m
column: n
size: mn
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.1, pp.46-47

2/61

i-th row vector


ri ai1

ai 2 ain

j-th column vector


c1 j
c
2j

cj

c
mj
Square matrix:

row matrix

column matrix

m=n

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.1, p.47

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Diagonal matrix:
d1 0
0 d
2
A diag (d1 , d 2 , , d n )

0 0

0
0
M nn

d n

Trace:
If A [aij ]nn

Then Tr ( A) a11 a22 ann

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.1, Addition

4/61

Ex:
1 2 3
r1
A

4 5 6
r2

r1 1 2 3 , r2 4 5 6
1 2 3
A

4
5
6

c1 c2

c3

1
2
3
c1 , c2 , c3
4
5
6

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.1, Addition

5/61

Equal matrix:
If A [aij ]mn , B [bij ]mn
Then A B if and only if aij bij 1 i m, 1 j n

Ex 1: (Equal matrix)
1 2
A

3
4

a b
B

c
d

If A B
Then a 1, b 2, c 3, d 4

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.1, p.47

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Matrix addition:
If A [aij ]mn , B [bij ]mn
Then A B [aij ]mn [bij ]mn [aij bij ]mn

Ex 2: (Matrix addition)
1 2 1 3 1 1 2 3 0 5
0 1 1 2 0 1 1 2 1 3

1 1
11

3 3 3 3

2 2

2 2

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.1, p.47

0
0

0
7/61

Scalar multiplication:
If A [aij ]mn , c : scalar
Then cA [caij ]mn

Matrix subtraction:
A B A (1) B
Ex 3: (Scalar multiplication and matrix subtraction)

1 2 4
3 0 1

2 1 2

0 0
2
B 1 4 3

3 2
1

Find (a) 3A, (b) B, (c) 3A B


Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.1, pp.48-49

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Sol:
(a)

3A 3

(b)

1 2 4 31 3 2
3 4 3 6 12
3 0 1 3 3 3 0 3 1 9 0 3

2 1 2 3 2 31
3 2 6 3
6

0
0
0 0
2
2
4 3
B 1 1 4 3 1

1 3 2
3 2
1

(c)
3A B

1 6 12
3 6 12 2
0 0
9 0 3 1 4 3 10 4 6



4
6 3
6 1
3 2 7 0

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.1, p.49

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Matrix multiplication:
If A [aij ]mn , B [bij ]n p
Then AB [aij ]mn [bij ]n p [cij ]m p
Size of AB
n

where cij aik bkj ai1b1 j ai 2b2 j ain bnj


k 1

a11 a12 a1n b b


b1n
11

1j

b
21
2
j
2
n

ai1 ai 2 ain

ci1 ci 2 cij cin

bn1 bnj bnn

an1 an 2 ann

Notes: (1) A+B = B+A, (2) AB BA

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.1, p.50

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Ex 4: (Find AB)
3
1
3

B
A 4 2

4
0
5
Sol:
(1)(3) (3)(4)
AB (4)(3) (2)(4)

(5)(3) (0)(4)

2
1

(1)(2) (3)(1)
(4)(2) (2)(1)

(5)(2) (0)(1)

9 1
4 6

15 10
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.1, p.50

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Matrix form of a system of linear equations:


a11 x1 a12 x2 a1n xn b1
a x a x a x b
21 1 22 2
2n n
2

am1 x1 am 2 x2 amn xn bm

m linear equations

a11
a
21

am1

a12 a1n x1 b1
a22 a2 n x2 b2



am 2 amn xn bm

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.1, p.53

Single matrix equation


Ax b

m n n 1

m 1

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Partitioned matrices:
a11
A a21

a31

a12
a22
a32

a13
a23
a33

a14
A11

a24
A21
a34

a11
A a21

a31

a12
a22
a32

a13
a23
a33

a14 r1
a24 r2

a34 r3

a11
A a21

a31

a12
a22
a32

a13
a23
a33

a14
a24 c1 c2

a34

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.1, Addition

submatrix
A12
A22

c3

c4

13/61

Keywords in Section 2.1:

row vector:

column vector:

diagonal matrix:

trace:

equality of matrices:

matrix addition:

scalar multiplication:

matrix multiplication:

partitioned matrix:
14/61

2.2 Properties of Matrix Operations

Three basic matrix operators:


(1) matrix addition
(2) scalar multiplication
(3) matrix multiplication

Zero matrix:

Identity matrix of order n: I n

0 mn

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.2, pp.61-62

15/61

Properties of matrix addition and scalar multiplication:


If A, B, C M mn ,

c, d : scalar

Then (1) A+B = B + A


(2) A + ( B + C ) = ( A + B ) + C
(3) ( cd ) A = c ( dA )
(4) 1A = A
(5) c( A+B ) = cA + cB
(6) ( c+d ) A = cA + dA

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.2, p.61

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Properties of zero matrices:


If A M mn , c : scalar
Then (1) A 0 mn A

(2) A ( A) 0 mn
(3) cA 0 mn c 0 or A 0 mn

Notes:
(1) 0mn: the additive identity for the set of all mn matrices
(2) A: the additive inverse of A

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.2, p.62

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Transpose of a matrix:
a11
a
If A 21

a
m1

a12 a1n
a22 a2 n
M mn

am 2 amn
a21 am1
a22 am 2


a
1n


a2 n amn

Then AT

a11
a
12

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.2, p.67

M nm

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Ex 8: (Find the transpose of the following matrix)


1
1 2 3
0
2
(c A 2 4

(a) A
(b) A 4 5 6

)
8
7 8 9
1 1
Sol: (a)
2
A
AT 2 8
8
(b)
1 2 3
1 4 7
A 4 5 6 AT 2 5 8

7 8 9
3 6 9
(c
0
1

)
0 2 1
T
A 2 4
A

1
4

1 1

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.2, p.68

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Properties of transposes:
(1) ( AT )T A

( 2) ( A B )T AT B T
(3) (cA)T c( AT )
( 4) ( AB )T B T AT

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.2, p.68

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Symmetric matrix:
A square matrix A is symmetric if A = AT
Skew-symmetric matrix:
A square matrix A is skew-symmetric if AT = A

Ex:

1 2 3
If A a 4 5 is symmetric, find a, b, c?

b c 6
Sol:
1 2 3
1 a b
T
A

A
A a 4 5 AT 2 4 c

a 2, b 3, c 5
b c 6
3 5 6
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.2, p.68 & p.72

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Ex:

0 1 2
If A a 0 3 is a skew-symmetric, find a, b, c?

b c 0
Sol:
0 a b
0 1 2
A a 0 3
AT 1 0 c

b c 0
2 3 0
A AT a 1, b 2, c 3

Note: AAT is symmetric


Pf:

( AAT )T ( AT )T AT AAT
AAT is symmetric

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.2, p.72

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Real number:
ab = ba (Commutative law for multiplication)
Matrix:
AB BA
mn n p

Three
situations:
(1) If m p, then AB is defined, BA is undefined.
(2) If m p, m n, then AB M mm , BA M nn (Sizes are not the
(3) If m p n, then AB M mm , BA M mm

same)

(Sizes are the same, but matrices are not equal)

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.2, Addition

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Ex 4:
Sow that AB and BA are not equal for the matrices.
1 3
2 1
B
A
and

0
2
2

Sol:

1 3
AB

5
2 1 2
0 2 4 4

7
2 1 1 3 0
BA

0
2
2

1
4

Note:

AB BA

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.2, p.64

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Real number:
ac bc, c 0
(Cancellation law)
ab
Matrix:
AC BC

C0

(1) If C is invertible, then A = B


(2) If C is not invertible, then A B (Cancellation is not
valid)

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.2, p.65

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Ex 5: (An example in which cancellation is not valid)


Show that AC=BC
1 3
2 4
1 2
A
, B
, C

0
1
2
3

1
2

Sol:

1
AC
0
2
BC
2

3
1
4
3

1 2 2 4

1
2 1 2
1 2 2 4

1 2 1 2

So

AC BC

But

A B

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.2, p.65

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Keywords in Section 2.2:

zero matrix:

identity matrix:

transpose matrix:

symmetric matrix:

skew-symmetric matrix:

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2.3 The Inverse of a Matrix

Inverse matrix:
Consider A M nn
If there exists a matrix B M nn such that AB BA I n ,
Then (1) A is invertible (or nonsingular)
(2) B is the inverse of A

Note:
A matrix that does not have an inverse is called
noninvertible (or singular).

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.3, p.73

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Thm 2.7: (The inverse of a matrix is unique)


If B and C are both inverses of the matrix A, then B = C.
Pf:

AB I
C ( AB) CI
(CA) B C
IB C
BC

Consequently, the inverse of a matrix is unique.

Notes:
(1) The inverse of A is denoted by A1

(2) AA1 A1 A I
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.3, pp.73-74

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Find the inverse of a matrix by Gauss-Jordan


Elimination:
A | I Gauss
-Jordan
Eliminatio
n I | A1

Ex 2: (Find the inverse of the matrix)


4
1
A

1 3
Sol:

AX I
4 x11
1 3 x

21

x11 4 x21
x 3x

11
21

x12 1 0

x22 0 1
x12 4 x22 1 0

x12 3x22 0 1

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.3, pp.74-75

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x11 4 x21 1
x11 3 x21 0

(1)

x12 4 x22 0
x12 3 x22 1

(2)

1 4 1 r 12(1) , r21( 4 ) 1 0 3
1 3 0
0 1 1

(1)

x11 3, x21 1

1 4 0 r 12(1) , r21( 4 ) 1 0 4 x 4, x 1
12
22
1 3 1
0 1 1

(2)
Thus

x11
X A
x21
1

x12 3 4
-1

(
AX

AA
)

x22 1
1

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.3, p.75

31/61

Note:
4 1 0
1
1 3 0 1

A
I

1 0 3 4
r (1) ,r ( 4 )

12
21
0
1

1
1

I
A1

Gauss JordanElimination

If A cant be row reduced to I, then A is singular.

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.3, p.76

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Ex 3: (Find the inverse of the following matrix)


1 1 0
A 1 0 1
6 2 3

Sol:

1 1 0 1 0 0
A I 1 0 1 0 1 0
6 2 3 0 0 1

1 1 0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 1 0
6 2 3 0 0 1
r12( 1 )

1 1 0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 1 0
0 0 1 2 4 1
(4)
r23

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.3, p.76

1 1 0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 1 0
0 4 3 6 0 1
r13( 6 )

1 1 0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 1 0
0 0 1 2 4 1
r3( 1)

33/61

1 1 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 3 3 1
0 0 1 2 4 1
(1 )
r32

1 0 0 2 3 1
0 1 0 3 3 1
0 0 1 1 4 1
(1 )
r21

[ I A 1 ]

So the matrix A is invertible, and its inverse is


2 3 1
A1 3 3 1
2 4 1

Check:

AA1 A1 A I

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.3, p.77

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Power of a square matrix:


(1) A0 I
(2) Ak AA

A

(k 0)

k factors

(3) Ar A s Ar s

r , s : integers

( Ar ) s Ars
d1 0
0 d
2
( 4) D

0 0

0
d1k

0
0
Dk

d n
0

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.3, Addition

0 0

k
d2 0

k
0 dn

35/61

Thm 2.8 (Properties of inverse matrices)


If A is an invertible matrix, k is a positive integer, and c is a scalar
not equal to zero, then
(1) A1 is invertible and ( A1 ) 1 A
1
1 k
k
(2) Ak is invertible and ( Ak ) 1 A1A1
A

(
A
)

A

k factors

1 1
(3) cA is invertible and (cA) A , c 0
c
1

(4) AT is invertible and ( AT ) 1 ( A1 )T

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.3, p.79

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Thm 2.9: (The inverse of a product)


If A and B are invertible matrices of size n, then AB is invertible and
( AB) 1 B 1 A1

Pf:

( AB)( B 1 A1 ) A( BB 1 ) A1 A( I ) A1 ( AI ) A1 AA1 I
( B 1 A1 )( AB) B 1 ( A1 A) B B 1 ( I ) B B 1 ( IB) B 1 B I
If AB is invertible, then its inverse is unique.
So ( AB ) 1 B 1 A1

Note:

A1 A2 A3 An 1 An1 A31 A21 A11


Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.3, p.81

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Thm 2.10 (Cancellation properties)


If C is an invertible matrix, then the following properties hold:
(1) If AC=BC, then A=B (Right cancellation property)
(2) If CA=CB, then A=B (Left cancellation property)
Pf:

AC BC
( AC )C 1 ( BC )C 1

(C is invertible, so C -1 exists)

A(CC 1 ) B(CC 1 )
AI BI
AB

Note:
If C is not invertible, then cancellation is not valid.
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.3, p.82

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Thm 2.11: (Systems of equations with unique solutions)


If A is an invertible matrix, then the system of linear equations
Ax = b has a unique solution given by
x A1b

Pf:

Ax b
A1 Ax A1b

( A is nonsingular)

Ix A1b
x A1b

If x1 and x2 were two solutions of equation Ax b.

then Ax1 b Ax2 x1 x2

(Left cancellation property)

This solution is unique.


Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.3, p.83

39/61

Note:
For square systems (those having the same number of equations
as variables), Theorem 2.11 can be used to determine whether the
system has a unique solution.

Note:
Ax b

(A is an invertible matrix)

| b A1 A | A1b I | A1b
A 1

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.3, p.83

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Keywords in Section 2.3:

inverse matrix:

invertible:

nonsingular:

singular:

power:

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2.4 Elementary Matrices

Row elementary matrix:


An nn matrix is called an elementary matrix if it can be obtained
from the identity matrix In by a single elementary operation.

Three row elementary matrices:


(1) Rij rij ( I )
Interchange two rows.
(2) Ri( k ) ri( k ) ( I )

(k 0) Multiply a row by a nonzero constant.

(3) Rij( k ) rij( k ) ( I )

Add a multiple of a row to another


row.

Note:
Only do a single elementary row operation.

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.4, p.87

42/61

Ex 1: (Elementary matrices and nonelementary matrices)


1 0 0
1 0 0
1
0
0

(a ) 0 3 0
(b)
(c) 0 1 0
0
1
0

0 0 1
0 0 0

Yes (r2(3) ( I 3 ))
1 0 0
(d ) 0 0 1
0 1 0
Yes (r23 ( I 3 ))

No (not square)

No (Row multiplication
must be by a nonzero constant)

(e) 1 0
2 1

1 0 0
( f ) 0 2 0
0 0 1
No (Use two elementary
row operations)

Yes (r12(2) ( I 2 ))

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.4, p.87

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Thm 2.12: (Representing elementary row operations)


Let E be the elementary matrix obtained by performing an
elementary row operation on Im. If that same elementary row
operation is performed on an mn matrix A, then the resulting
matrix is given by the product EA.

Notes:

r(I ) E
r ( A) EA

(1) rij ( A) Rij A


(2) ri ( k ) ( A) Ri( k ) A
(3) rij( k ) ( A) Rij( k ) A
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.4, p.89

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Ex 2: (Elementary matrices and elementary row


operation)
2
1 1 3 6
0 1 0 0
(a) 1 0 0 1 3 6 0
2
1 (r12 ( A) R12 A)
0 0 1 3
2 1 3
2 1

(b) 0
0

0
1
2
0

0 1 0 4
1 1 0 4
1
1
1
( )
( )

0 0 2
6 4 0 1
3 2 (r2 2 ( A) R2 2 A)
3
1 0 1
3
1
1 0 1

1 0 0
(c) 2 1 0
0 0 1

1
0 1 1
0 1
2 2
3 0 2
1 (r12( 2) ( A) R12( 5) A)
0
4 5 0
4 5

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.4, p.88

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Ex 3: (Using elementary matrices)


Find a sequence of elementary matrices that can be used to write
the matrix A in row-echelon form.

Sol:

1 3 5
0
A 1 3 0 2

2 6 2 0

0 1 0
E1 r12 ( I 3 ) 1 0 0

0 0 1
1 0 0
1
( )
E3 r3 2 (I 3 ) 0 1 0

0 0 12

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.4, pp.89-90

E2 r13( 2 ) ( I 3 )

1 0 0
0 1 0

2 0 1

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0 1 0
A1 r12 ( A) E1 A 1 0 0
0 0 1
( 2 )
13

A2 r

0 1 3 5 1 3 0 2
1 3 0 2 0 1 3 5
2 6 2 0 2 6 2 0

1 0 0
( A1 ) E2 A1 0 1 0
2 0 1

1
( )
2
3

A3 r

1 3 0 2 1 3 0 2
0 1 3 5 0 1 3 5
2 6 2 0 0 0 2 4

1 0 0 1 3 0 2 1 3 0 2
( A2 ) E3 A2 0 1 0 0 1 3 5 0 1 3 5

1 0 0 2 4 0 0 1 2
0 0
2

row-echelon form

1
( )
2
3

B E3 E2 E1 A or B r

(r13( 2 ) (r12 ( A)))

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.4, pp.89-90

47/61

Row-equivalent:
Matrix B is row-equivalent to A if there exists a finite number
of elementary matrices such that
B Ek Ek 1 E2 E1 A

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.4, p.90

48/61

Thm 2.13: (Elementary matrices are invertible)


If E is an elementary matrix, then E 1 exists and
is an elementary matrix.

Notes:

(1) ( Rij ) 1 Rij


1
( )
k
i

(2) ( Ri( k ) ) 1 R

(3) ( Rij( k ) ) 1 Rij( k )

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.4, p.90

49/61

Ex:
Elementary Matrix
0 1 0
E1 1 0 0 R12
0 0 1

1 0 0
E2 0 1 0 R13( 2)
2 0 1
1
1 0 0
( )
E3 0 1 0 R3 2
0 0 12

Inverse Matrix
0 1 0
1
1
( R12 ) E1 1 0 0 R12
0 0 1

1 0 0
) E 0 1 0 R13( 2 ) (Elementary Matrix)
2 0 1

( 2 ) 1
13

(R

1
2

1 0 0
( 2)
) E 0 1 0 R3 (Elementary Matrix)
0 0 2

1
( )
2 1
3

(R

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.4, p.91

(Elementary Matrix)

1
3

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Thm 2.14: (A property of invertible matrices)


A square matrix A is invertible if and only if it can be written as
the product of elementary matrices.

Pf: (1) Assume that A is the product of elementary matrices.


(a) Every elementary matrix is invertible.
(b) The product of invertible matrices is invertible.
Thus A is invertible.
(2) If A is invertible,
has only the trivial solution. (Thm.
Ax 0
2.11)
A0 I 0
Ek E3 E2 E1 A I

A E11 E21 E31 Ek1


Thus A can be written as the product of elementary matrices.
51/61
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.4, p.91

Ex 4:
Find a sequence of elementary matrices whose product is

Sol:

1 2
A

3
8

1 2
1
r1( 1)
A

8
3
3
1
( )
( 2 )
1 2
1
r2 2
r21

0 1
0

2
1 2
r12( 3 )

8
0 2
0
I

1
( )
2
2

( 2 )
Therefore R21
R R12( 3) R1( 1) A I

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.4, pp.91-92

52/61

1
( )
2 1
2

( 2 ) 1
Thus A ( R1( 1) ) 1 ( R12( 3) ) 1 ( R ) ( R21
)
( 2)
R1( 1) R12( 3) R2( 2 ) R21

1 0 1 0 1 0 1 2

3 1 0 2 0 1
0
1

Note:
If A is invertible

Then Ek E3 E2 E1 A I
A1 Ek E3 E2 E1

Ek E3 E2 E1[ AI ] [ I A1 ]
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.4, p.92

53/61

Thm 2.15: (Equivalent conditions)

If A is an nn matrix, then the following statements are


equivalent.
(1) A is invertible.
(2) Ax = b has a unique solution for every n1 column matrix b.
(3) Ax = 0 has only the trivial solution.
(4) A is row-equivalent to In .
(5) A can be written as the product of elementary matrices.

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.4, p.93

54/61

LU-factorization:
If the nn matrix A can be written as the product of a
lower
triangular matrix L and an upper triangular matrix U, then
A=LU is an LU-factorization
of
A triangular matrix
L
is
a
lower
A LU
U is an upper triangular matrix
Note:
If a square matrix A can be row reduced to an upper triangular
matrix U using only the row operation of adding a multiple of
one row to another row below it, then it is easy to find an LUfactorization of A.
Ek E2 E1 A U
A E11 E21 Ek1U

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.4, p.93

A LU

55/61

Ex 5: (LU-factorization)
1 3 0
1
2

(a) A
(b) A 0
1 3
1 0
2 10 2
Sol: (a)
1
2
r12(-1)

A
1 2 U
1 0
0 2
R12( 1) A U
A ( R12( 1) ) 1U LU
( 1) 1
12

L (R

) R

(1)
12

1 0

1
1

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.4, p.93

56/61

(b)

1 3 0
1 3 0
1 3 0
(4)
r13( 2 )
r23

A 0
1 3 0
1 3 0 1 3 U

2 10 2
0 4 2
0 0 14

( 4 ) ( 2 )
R23
R13 A U
( 4 ) 1
A ( R13( 2 ) ) 1 ( R23
) U LU
( 4 ) 1
( 4 )
L ( R13( 2 ) ) 1 ( R23
) R13( 2) R23

1 0 0
0 1 0
2 0 1

1 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 0
0 4 1 2 4 1

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.4, p.94

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Solving Ax=b with an LU-factorization of A

Ax b

If A LU , then LUx b

Let y Ux, then Ly b

Two steps:
(1) Write y = Ux and solve Ly = b for y
(2) Solve Ux = y for x

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.4, p.95

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Ex 7: (Solving a linear system using LU-factorization)


x1 3 x2
5
x2 3 x3 1
2 x1 10 x2 2 x3 20
Sol:
0 0 1 3 0
1 3 0 1
A 0
1 3 0
1 0 0
1 3 LU

0 14
2 10 2 2 4 1 0
(1) Let y Ux, and solve Ly b
1 0 0 y1 5
0 1 0 y2 1
2 4 1 y3 20

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.4, pp.95-96

y1 5
y2 1
y3 20 2 y1 4 y2
20 2(5) 4(1) 14
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(2) Solve the following system Ux y


1 3 0 x1 5
0 1 3 x2 1
0 0 14 x3 14
So

x3 1
x2 1 3 x3 1 (3)(1) 2
x1 5 3 x2 5 3(2) 1

Thus, the solution is


1
x 2

1
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.4, pp.95-96

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Keywords in Section 2.4:

row elementary matrix:

row equivalent:

lower triangular matrix:

upper triangular matrix:

LU-factorization: LU

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