Epsilon Vol02 2015april

Tp ch online ca cng ng nhng ngi yu Ton
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T o n
Ngi vit cho rng hu ht

khi nim tng nh tru tng
u c ci ngun nhng thao
tc ton hc c th v thng
dng. Ngi vit cng cho rng
ch khi c nng ln tm khi
nim, cc thao tc ton hc mi
tr thnh nhng cng c t duy
tht s mnh m
Phng trnh i s mt n s
Ng Bo Chu
i s tuyn tnh
VN TU
Nghch o Mbius
Ng Quang Hng
Phng trnh
i s 1 n s
Ng Bo Chu
Bi ton Frobenius
v nhng ng xu
Trn Nam Dng
Bi ton i nn
ng Nguyn c Tin
Khm ph ton hc
thng qua cc
nh l hnh hc.
o Thanh Oai
13 apr 2015
Laurent Schwartz
H Huy Khoi
Gii thiu
Vietnam TST 2015,
bnh lun s b v
tm tt cch gii.
Trn Nam Dng
V CC
CHUYN MC
KHC
EPSILON
Ch bin: abc TRN NAM DNG
Bin tp vin: NG NGUYN C TIN
Bin tp vin: V QUC B CN
Bin tp vin: TRN QUANG HNG
Bin tp vin: L PHC L
S 2, ngy 13 thng 04 nm 2015
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LI NG CHO EPSILON S 2
Ban bin tp Epsilon
Epsilon s 1 ra mt c n nhn mt cch nng nhit ca

bn c. l mt nim ng vin ln lao dnh cho Ban bin
tp, gip chng ti c thm nng lng, nhit huyt bc
tip trn con ng m khng hn ch c hoa hng.
Epsilon nhn c mt vn tc ban u v mt gia tc. B
nhng dng. Vi s ng gp ca cng ng, hy vng Epsilon
s gi c nhp v u t ra mt vo ngy 13 cc thng chn
phc v cng ng, em n mt mn n tinh thn v trong
mt cuc sng ang vn rt nhiu nhng mn n.
Epsilon mong mun s l mt nhp cu kt ni nhng i
tng vn cn xa cch nhau: l thuyt v thc tin, ton hc v
cc mn khoa hc khc, gio vin v hc sinh, cc nh ton hc
chuyn nghip v nhng ngi lm ton nghip d, ton hn
lm v ton gii tr, ton cao cp v ton s cp. V th, Epsilon
s c s ha quyn ca nhng bi vit vi ni dung v phong
cch rt khc nhau. Ban bin tp s tn trng cch hnh vn
ca cc tc gi m khng p t kin ca mnh, ch chnh sa
cho bi tt hn, chnh xc hn.
Epsilon s 2 m cc bn cm trn tay s c 12 bi vit ca
cc tc gi n t nhiu quc gia, nhiu thnh phn v cp
chuyn nghip. K t s ny, Epsilon s dnh nhng trang vit
ca mnh gii thiu v tiu s cc nh ton hc ni ting
th gii, ln ny s l bi vit ca GS H Huy Khoi v Loran
Schwarz, nhn k nim 100 nm ngy sinh ca ng v bi vit
v thin ti on mnh Evariste Galois song hnh vi bi vit v
Phng trnh i s ca GS Ng Bo Chu. Cu ni gia ton
hc v khoa hc my tnh trong s ny s c th hin bng
bi vit ca GS Ng Quang Hng, H Buffalo, M v nghch o
Mobius. Hnh hc s cp, mn hc vn c coi l c xa v gi
ci nht s nh li ti mi di gc nhn ca mt ngi yu
5
ton nghip d, k s o Thanh Oai trong bi Phng php

m rng v sng to cc nh l hnh hc c in.
Cc bn hc sinh yu ton chc chn s tm c nhiu iu
b ch qua cc bi vit v cc bi ton thi chn HSG quc gia
(VMO 2015) v chn i tuyn d IMO 2015 (Vietnam TST 2015)
ca cc tc gi Trn Nam Dng, Nguyn Tt Thu, Trn Quang
Hng. Bi bnh lun ca Nguyn Vn Li (Budapest) v Nguyn
Hng Sn (Warsaw) v TST cng s gip cc bn hiu r hn
v cc bi ton trong thi. c bit trong s ny s c bi
vit Inequalities, A Journey into Fibonacci and Lucas numbers
ca hai tc gi nc ngoi l Vandanjav Adiyasuren v Bold
Sanchir n t H QG Mng C. Nhng ai yu ton hc gii
tr s c tip tc cuc phiu lu k th vo vng quc ca
nhng chic nn mu sc vi ngi hng dn vin ng
Nguyn c Tin (Trento, Italy). Mt nh o thut c o khc
l Nguyn Quc Khnh s ra mt bn c mt chuyn mc l
th v b ch: Gii thiu sch.
Hy vng vi nhng bi vit nh th, mi c gi u c th tm
c t nht l 10% iu mnh yu thch trong s ny. Nh
th, Ban bin tp cm thy tht mn nguyn v cho rng
nhim v hon thnh.
V li nng lng, nhit huyt tip tc bc i.
i nhiu ngi, bn s i rt xa ...
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MC LC
Li ng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Nhn 100 nm ngy sinh Laurent Schwartz

H Huy Khoi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Phng trnh i s mt n s
Ng Bo Chu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
variste Galois
Lu Trng Lun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Nghch o M
obius
Ng Quang Hng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Cc bi ton i nn
ng Nguyn c Tin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Bi ton Frobenius v nhng ng xu

Trn Nam Dng - Nguyn Tt Thu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Vit Nam TST 2015

Trn Nam Dng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Li gii v bnh lun hai bi hnh thi chn i

tuyn Vit Nam nm 2015
Trn Quang Hng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
10 Cc vn c in v hin i
7
Trn Nam Dng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

11 Bt ng thc Shapiro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
12 Phng php m rng v sng to cc nh l hnh
hc c in
o Thanh Oai . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
13 A journey into Fibonacci and Lucas numbers
V. Adiyasuren - B. Sanchir . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
14 Ton hc trong mt ai
Nguyn Quc Khnh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
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NHN 100 NM NGY SINH

LAURENT SCHWARTZ
H Huy Khoi
H Ni
Ti l nh ton hc. Ton hc y p cuc i ti.

Laurent Schwartz 1 vit nh vy trong li m u cun hi
k ca ng. ng cng ni rng, ngoi ton hc, ng ginh rt
nhiu thi gian ca i mnh cho cuc u tranh v quyn con
ngi, v quyn ca cc dn tc, ban u th nh mt ngi
Troskit, sau th ng ngoi tt c cc ng phi! Vit Nam
chim mt v tr quan trng trong cc hot ng ca ng.
Trong nhiu nm, ng lun ng hng u trong i ng nhng
tr thc ln ca Phng Ty u tranh ng h cuc khng chin
ca nhn dn Vit Nam. Trong cun hi k dy 500 trang ca
ng, c th tm thy khong 100 trang c nhc n Vit Nam.
Laurent Schwartz sinh ngy 5 thng 3 nm 1915 ti Paris. Cha
ng l mt bc s phu thut, m ng l ngi yu thin nhin,
nh ng ni, sut ngy ch quanh qun vi mnh vn v ba
a con. Tui th ca ng tri qua m m lng qu
Autouillet, m ng gi mt cch tru mn trong hi k ca mnh
l Khu vn Eden. Mi sau ny, ng vn thng xuyn tr v
khu vn , v nh ng k li, nhng nh l hay nht ca
ng c tm thy ti khu vn Eden.
Ngay t khi cn nh, Laurent Schwartz bc l thin hng
nghin cu. Nu nh hu ht tr em hi lng vi nhng li gii
thch s lc ca b m khi chng hi ti sao?, th cu b
Laurent khng nh vy. Cu lun i hi nhng li gii thch
cn k, m t khi c tho mn. M cu rt lng tng trc
nhng cu hi: Ti sao khi cm ci gy vo nc th thy n
cong, ti sao trong cng mt nhit m khng kh lc th
1
Nh ton hc ngi Php (05/03/1915 - 04/07/2002)
lnh hn, lc th nng hn nc, ti sao khi lt p ci tha c

ph th khng bao gi ht c ph, m cn mt t dnh li tha,
v cn rt nhiu nhng cu hi khc.
cc lp tiu hc, Laurent Schwartz khng phi l hc sinh
gii mn ton. ng rt nh li thy Thoridenet, ngi dy ng
mn vn nm lp 5 tng ni vi m ng: Ti cha c hc sinh
no gii nh vy v mn ting Latinh, nhng v ting Php, ngn
ng v ton th cu ta km hn mt cht. Tuy vy, cho d ngi
ta ni vi b th no i na, cu ta s tr thnh nh ton hc!.
Laurent Schwartz ni rng, nu khng c li khuyn ca ng
thy dy vn th c l ng tr thnh nh ngn ng hc,
ch khng phi nh ton hc! May mn na cho Laurent l cu
gp mt thy gio dy ton y nhit tm, thy Julien. ng
gii thch cho hc sinh mt cch rt vui v v n gin nhng
iu k diu ca mn hnh hc, m ra cho h mt th gii ton
hc m trc h cha c bit n. Laurent Schwartz k,
sau khi suy ngh vi ba tun, ng quyt nh tr thnh nh
ton hc. Theo ng, thin hng c sn trong con ngi
ng, nhng tr thnh hin thc nh thy gio. V th ng
cho rng, vai tr ca ngi thy i vi tng lai hc sinh l c
ngha quyt nh.
Laurent Schwartz thi vo trng Ecole Normale Suprieure
(Paris) nm 1934. Ecole Normale, ng c hc vi nhng gio
s ni ting nht thi by gi: Frchet, Montel, Borel, Denjoy,
Julia, Elie Cartan, Lebesgue v Hadamard. Trong kho , ng
cng vi Choquet, Marot l ba ngi xut sc nht.
Nm 1937, ng tt nghip i hc Ecole Normale, lm nghin
cu sinh ti trng i hc Strasbourg v bo v lun n Tin
s nm 1943. Gio s hng dn lun n ca ng l Valiron, mt
trong nhng nh ton hc ni ting nht thi v l thuyt
hm. Vi nm sau, Valiron cng l ngi hng dn ca gio
s L Vn Thim.
Trong cc nm 1944 1945 ng ging dy ti khoa Khoa hc
Grenoble, sau chuyn v Nancy, nhn mt chc gio s
khoa Khoa hc. Chnh trong thi gian ny, ng sng to ra cng
trnh ni ting v l thuyt cc hm suy rng.
Nm 1953 Laurent Schwartz tr v Paris, lm gio s cho n
1959. ng ging dy ti trng Ecole Polytechnique t 1959 n
10
1980, ri lm vic trng i hc Paris 7 ba nm, cho n ngy

ngh hu nm 1983.
Cng hin ln nht cho ton hc ca Laurent Schwartz l cc
cng trnh ca ng v l thuyt phn b, c vit vo nhng
nm 40. Nhng t tng ca ng theo hng ny c trnh
by ln u tin nm 1948 trong bi M rng khi nim hm,
o hm, bin i Fourier v cc ng dng ton hc, vt l.
L thuyt phn b l s m rng ng k php tnh tch phn v
vi phn. Do nhu cu ca Vt l hc, Heaviside v Dirac m
rng php tnh vi cc ng dng c bit. Tuy nhin, phng
php ca h, cng nh nhng phng php tng t v cc
php tnh hnh thc khng c xy dng trn mt nn tng
ton hc cht ch. nhng nghin cu ca h c th tr
thnh mt l thuyt mi thc s ca vt l hc, cn trang b
cho n mt c s ton hc vng chc. Chnh Dirac c ln ni:
Khi bn nh xy dng mt l thuyt mi no trong vt l, ci duy
nht m bn c th tin tng l ton hc. Laurent Schwartz
pht trin mt l thuyt lm c s cho cc phng php tnh ton
nu trn trong vt l, lm cho nhng phng php tm c
ng dng ht sc rng ri trong nhng lnh vc khc nhau.
Francois Treves ni v cng trnh ca Laurent Schwartz nh
sau: T tng ca Laurent Schwartz cho mt cch l gii
thng nht tt c cc hm suy rng thm nhp trong gii tch
nh l nhng phim hm tuyn tnh lin tc trn khng gian cc
hm kh vi v hn trit tiu ngoi mt tp compc. ng cho
mt cch m t c h thng v cht ch, hon ton da trn gii
tch hm tru tng v l thuyt i ngu. Cng cn nhc li
rng, mt cch l gii nh vy c trc y trong cng trnh
ca Andr Weil v tch phn cc nhm compc a phng ... Do
s i hi ca tnh kh vi trong l thuyt phn b, khng gian cc
hm th v i ngu ca chng i khi rt phc tp. iu ny
dn n nhng nghin cu si ni v cc khng gian vector topo
khng thuc cc phm tr quen thuc nh khng gian Hilbert v
khng gian Banach. Nhng nghin cu ny, n lt mnh, chiu
ri nhng nh sng mi ln nhiu lnh vc ca Gii tch thun tu,
nh Phng trnh o hm ring, hoc Hm s bin s phc.
Nhng t tng ca Laurent Schwartz c th p dng cho
nhiu khng gian hm th khc nhau, nh chnh ng v nhiu
ngi khc ch r ... Herald Bohr, ngi gii thiu cng trnh
11
ca Laurent Schwartz trong bui trao Gii thng Fields ngy

30 thng 8 nm 1950 ti Harvard m t cc cng trnh ca
Laurent Schwartz vit nm 1948 nh sau: Chng chc chn s
tr thnh nhng cng trnh kinh in ca ton hc thi i chng
ta ... Ti ngh rng, nhng ngi trch dn cng trnh ca ng,
cng ging nh ti, s phi km nn mt nim phn khch d
chu, nhn thy s hi ho tuyt vi ca mt cu trc tnh ton
m l thuyt ny dn chng ta n, v hiu tm quan trng v
u vit ca chng i vi nhiu phn ca gii tch cao cp, nh
L thuyt ph, L thuyt th v, v ton b l thuyt phng trnh
o hm ring.
Ngoi gii thng Fields, Laurent Schwartz cn nhn c gii
thng ca Vin hn lm khoa hc Paris cc nm 1955, 1964, 1972.
Nm 1972 ng c bu lm Vin s Vin hn lm Php. ng
c phong tin s danh d ca nhiu trng i hc, trong
c Humboldt (1960), Brussels (1962), Lund (1981), Tel-Aviv (1981),
Montreal (1985) v Athens (1993).
Khng ch l nh ton hc ni ting, Laurent Schwartz cn c
bit n nh l mt trong nhng tr thc ln sut i u tranh
v t do ca cc dn tc. Laurent Schwartz ni rng, nhng
nm Ecole Normale xc nh hon ton khuynh hng
chnh tr ca ng: Chng chin tranh v bo v nhng gi tr
ca con ngi. Cun sch ng Dng cp cu (Indochine
SOS) ca Andre Viollis cho ng thy r ti c ca ch ngha
thc dn Php ng Dng. Quan im chnh tr ca ng th
hin r nht trong phong tro chng chin tranh xm lc ca
quc M Vit Nam. ng xng khu hiu Mt trn dn
tc gii phng s chin thng thay cho khu hiu m ng cho
l m h ca phong tro chng chin tranh Vit Nam Php
thi Ho bnh Vit Nam. Hot ng ca U ban quc gia
Vit Nam do ng sng lp gy c ting vang ln. ng ht
sc t ho khi vo khong l Noel nm 1966, nhn c bc
in cm n v chc mng ca Ch tch H Ch Minh. ng n
Vit Nam nhiu ln trong thi k cn chin tranh, vi t cch l
thnh vin trong To n quc t xt x ti c chin tranh ca
M Vit Nam (mt t chc quc t do nh ton hc, nh trit
hc ni ting ngi Anh, gii thng Nobel v vn hc nm 1950,
hun tc Bertrand Russell sng lp). Nhng chuyn i v cc
lng qu Vit Nam lm cho ng thy yu mn c bit t
nc v con ngi Vit Nam. Khng g c th ni y hn
12
tnh cm ca ng vi Vit Nam bng chnh nhng li ng vit

trong hi k ca mnh: Vit Nam ghi du n trong cuc i
ti. Ti tng bit n ng Dng thuc a, qua cun sch ca
Andr Viollis vit nm 1931, m ti c nm 1935. Lc ti va
trn 20 tui. Cuc u tranh ca ti cho t do ca t nc ny
l cuc u tranh di nht ca cuc i ti. Ti yu, v mi
mi yu Vit Nam, nhng phong cnh, nhng con ngi tuyt vi,
nhng chic xe p. Trong ti, c mt cht no l ngi Vit
Nam. Gp ngi Vit Nam, nghe ting h ni chuyn vi nhau
trong xe but (m tt nhin l ti khng hiu), ti cm thy mt
nim hnh phc khng ct ngha c. Si giy tnh cm ni
lin ti vi t nc ny.
Nm 1998, khi Vin Ton hc t chc Hi ngh quc t nhn 80
nm ngy sinh ca Gio s L Vn Thim, Laurent Schwartz
rt xc ng thng bo cho Ban t chc rng ng rt mun
sang Vit Nam thm mt ln na, nhng tic l sc kho khng
cho php. Khi ng qua i nm 2002, t Thng tin ton hc ca
Hi ton hc Vit Nam c ng mt bi vit tng nh ng.
Dng nh ng bit trc iu , nn vit trong hi k
ca mnh: Les Vietnamiens ne moublient pas (Ngi Vit Nam
khng qun ti).
13
14
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PHNG TRNH I S
MT N S
Ng Bo Chu
i hc Chicago, M
Tm tt
T th k 20 trc Cng nguyn, ngi dn thnh Babylon
bit gii phng trnh bc hai. Nhng phi n th k
16 sau Cng nguyn, cc nh ton hc ca thi Phc hng:
Tartaglia, Cardano, Ferrari, mi tm ra li gii cho phng
trnh bc ba v bc bn. u th k 19, Abel v Galois,
hai thin ti ton hc bc mnh, chng minh nghim ca
phng trnh i s tng qut bc t nm tr i, khng th
biu din c nh mt biu thc i s vi cn thc nh
trong trng hp a thc bc khng qu bn. Cng trnh
ca Galois, vit ra nh li trng tri trc gi u sng,
sau c xem nh mc khai sinh ca i s hin i.
L thuyt Galois hin i c pht biu trn c s cc
khi nim m rng trng v nhm Galois. Nhng khi
nim ny khng d nm bt. Mc ch ca bi vit ny l
gip nhng ngi mi hc nm bt nhng khi nim ,
thng qua vic tm hiu m thc m chng xut hin trong
qu trnh tm nghim ca nhng phng trnh i s c
th.
Ngi vit cho rng hu ht khi nim tng nh tru
tng u c ci ngun nhng thao tc ton hc c th
v thng dng. Ngi vit cng cho rng ch khi c nng
ln tm khi nim, cc thao tc ton hc mi tr thnh
nhng cng c t duy tht s mnh m. Cu chuyn sp
k v thuyt Galois c th xem nh mt minh chng.
hiu bi vit ny, ngi c cn mt s kin thc c
bn v i s tuyn tnh, trong c bit quan trng l
khi nim chiu ca khng gian vector.
15
1. Lch s ca bi ton
Vo th k th by trc cng nguyn, li gii cho phng trnh
bc hai tng qut
x2 + ax + b = 0,
(3.1)
c nh ton hc Brahmagupta, ngi n , trnh by
mt cch tng minh dng
?
a d
,
(3.2)
x=
2
vi d = a2 4b l bit thc ca phng trnh bc hai.
Trc , t khong th k 20 trc cng nguyn, ngi Babylon
tm li gii hnh hc cho bi ton tng ng tm hai cnh
ca hnh ch nht bit trc chu vi v din tch ca n. Du vt
ca nhng phng php hnh hc khc nhau gii phng
trnh bc hai c pht hin trong hu ht cc nn vn minh
c i t Babylon, Ai cp, Hy lp, n , Trung Hoa ...
Phng trnh bc ba tng qut cng c ngi Babylon nghin
cu. Ngi Hy lp c i th xy dng nghim phng trnh
bc ba bng thc k v compa nhng khng thnh cng.
Nh ton hc Trung Hoa Wang Xiaotong a ra li gii cho 27
phng trnh bc ba khc nhau, nhng khng a ra phng
php gii phng trnh bc ba tng qut.
ng k nht l pht hin ca nh th ngi Ba t Omar
Khayyam sng vo th mi mt. ng chng minh rng nghim
c th xy dng nghim phng trnh bc ba bng cch ly giao
hai ng conic. Ngoi ra, ng pht biu rng khng th xy
dng nghim phng trnh bc ba ch bng thc k v compa.
Omar Khayyam khng a ra mt cng thc cho nghim ca
phng trnh bc ba ging nh cng thc (3.2) cho phng
trnh bc hai.
Phi ch n thi k phc hng, nh ton hc Tartaglia, sng
vo th k th mi su, mi a ra cng thc tng qut
u tin cho nghim ca phng tnh bc ba
ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0,
(3.3)
dng
1
x=
3a

0
b+C+
,
C
16
(3.4)
trong
d
C=
1 +
a
21 430
,
2
(3.5)
vi 0 , 1 l cc a thc tng minh vi bin s a, b, c, d.

Li gii cho phng trnh bc ba qu l rc ri, nhng li gii
cho phng trnh bc bn ca Ferrari cn rc ri hn nhiu.
Nh ton hc Joseph Lagrange, ngi , l ngi a ra mt
phng php chung gii c phng trnh bc ba v bc bn.
Phng php ca Lagrange d trn khi nim gii thc m
chng ta s xem xt k lng.
Ruffini nghin cu phng php ca Lagrange v nhn thy
rng n khng th m rng ra cho phng trnh c bc nm v
bc cao hn na.
Abel l ngi u tin a ra chng minh cht ch v khng
nh phng trnh bc nm tng qut khng th gii c bng
cn thc. nh l Abel-Ruffini cng c Galois, mt nh ton
hc ngi Php, chng minh mt cch c lp. Nhng ng i
xa hn Abel v a ra mt khi nim c tnh cht cch mng,
l nhm Galois.
2. V pht biu ca bi ton

Bi ton ta quan tm chnh l vic biu din nghim ca phng
trnh a thc
a0 xn + a1 xn1 + = 0,
(3.6)
di dng mt biu thc vi bin s a0 , a1 , . . . , m trong ta
c quyn dng bn php ton thng thng v cn thc.
hiu r th no l biu din c di dng mt biu thc
nh th, ta s cn khi nim trng v m rng trng. V d
nh cc biu thc vi bin s a0 , a1 , . . . , an m ch dng bn
php ton thng thng v vi h s hu t, l trng sinh ra
bi a0 , a1 , . . . , an .
Cu hi biu din nghim bng cn thc thc ra vn khng
chun. Tht vy phng trnh bc n c th c ti n nghim cho
nn ht mp m cn lm r ta mun biu din nghim no
trong s n nghim . D nhin trong cng thc (3.2), du cho
17
php ta biu din c nghim ca (3.1). Trong khi , cng thc

ca Tartaglia (3.5) dng nh cho ta su nghim khc nhau
ca phng trnh bc ba, ci r rng l khng th.
Thc ra ta khng c cch no chn mt trong n nghim ca
phng trnh (3.6). Khi nim nhm Galois sinh ta chnh l
lng ho s mp m ny. Ngc li, nh ta s phn tch, cu
trc ca nhm Galois s quyt nh vic phng trnh (3.6) c
th gii c bng cn thc hay khng.
3. M rng bc hai
gii phng trnh bc hai (3.1), ta thc hin php i bin
y = x + a2 . Sau khi i bin, phng trnh (3.1) quy v dng
n gin hn
y2 d = 0.
(3.7)
Ta c th coi y l mt ci mo quy phng trnh bc hai
tng qut (3.1) v phng trnh bc hai rt gn (3.7).
Ta cng c th thay i quan im: Khng quan tm n vic
tm ra dng chnh xc (3.2) ca nghim na, m ch quan tm
n ?
vic nghim c th biu din di dng biu thc i s
ca d. Lp lun c th s phc tp hn, nhng s m ra cho
ta mt tm nhn mi.
lm n gin vn , gi s cc h s a, b l s hu t. Ta
bit rng trong C, phng trnh (3.1) c hai nghim. Ta s k
hiu 1 P C l mt trong hai nghim ca n. Gi s 1 R Q, khi
tp cc s phc c dng
L = tm + n1 | m, n P Qu,
l mt khng gian vector hai chiu trn Q. T ng thc
21 = (a1 + b),
ta suy ra rng nu u, v P L th uv P L. Ta cng c th chng
minh rng nu u P L t0u, th u1 P L. Nh vy L l mt trng
con ca C. Nu xem nh khng gian vector trn Q, n c chiu
bng 2. V th ta ni rng L l mt m rng bc hai ca Q.
Ta thy nghim cn li, k hiu l 2 , ca a thc
P = x2 + ax + b,
18
cng nm trong L. Tht vy, a thc bc hai P c mt nghim

1 P L, nghim cn li 2 cng phi nm trong L v cng khng
l s hu t. Ni cch khc, m rng bc hai sinh bi 1 , trng
vi m rng bc hai sinh bi 2
tm + n2 | m, n P Qu.
Suy t (3.2) ra th c m rng bc hai sinh bi 1 hay 2 u
trng vi m rng bc hai sinh bi cn bc hai ca bit thc
?
?
(3.8)
Q[ d] = tm + n d | m, n P Qu.
y cng l mt cch din t
? vic c 1 v 2 u c th
vit c di dng c dng m + d vi m, n P Q.
nh l 3.1. Cho P P Q[x] l mt a thc bc hai bt kh quy,
L l m rng bc
? hai ca Q sinh bi mt trong cc nghim ca P.
Khi L = Q[ d] vi d = a2 4b.
D thy rng, nu L l m rng bc hai ca Q, khi mi phn
t P L Q l nghim ca mt phng trnh bt kh quy bc
hai no . V th ta c th pht biu li nh l trn dng c
ng hn:
?
nh l 3.2. Mi m rng bc hai ca Q u c dng L = Q[ d]
vi d l mt s hu t no .
M rng ra phng trnh bc cao hn, ta c th nh ngha rnh
rt khi nim phng trnh gii c bng cn thc.
4. Phng trnh gii c bng cn thc

T nay tr i, ta s thay trng cc s hu t bi mt trng K
bt k. Thay cho trng cc s phc, ta cho trc mt trng
ng i s cha K. Xin nhc li rng trng K c gi l ng
i s nu mi a thc P P K[x] bc n u c ng n nghim
trong K, nu ta m c bi. Ta s ch xt ti cc m rng ca K
cha trong K.
a thc bc n
P = xn + a1 xn1 + + an P K[x],
19
c gi l bt kh quy nu n khng th phn tch c thnh

tch ca hai a thc c bc nh hn. Gi s P l mt a thc
bc n bt kh quy. Vi mi nghim P K ca P, ta t
K[] = tm0 + m1 + + mn1 n1 | m0 , . . . , mn1 P Ku.
(3.9)
S dng ng thc n = (a1 n1 + +an ), ta chng minh c

rng nu u, v P K[] th uv P K[]. Ngoi ra, nu u P K[] t0u
th u1 P K[]. Ni cch khc, K[] l mt trng con ca K. S
dng gi thit P l a thc bt kh quy, ta chng minh c
rng K[], xem nh khng gian vector trn trng K, c chiu
bng n. Ni cch khc, K[] l mt m rng bc n ca K.
Ta ni nghim c th biu din c bng biu thc i s
vi cn thc nu tn ti mt chui m rng trng lin tip
K = K0 K1 K2 Kr ,
(3.10)
sao cho vi mi i P t1, 2, . . . , ru, Ki l mt m rng bc ni ca

Ki1 c dng
Ki Ki1 [x]/(xni i ),
v sao cho K[] Kr .
Khi nim m rng trng cho php ta pht biu rnh rt
cu hi liu nghim ca P c th biu din di dng t hp
i s v cn thc hay khng. N cn cho php ta t ra nhng
cu hi khc, su sc hn, v nghim ca a thc.
5. Ph thuc i s gia cc nghim

Nh trn, ta vn k hiu P P K[x] l mt a thc bt kh quy
bc n, v l mt nghim ca P trong K, K[] l m rng bc n
ca K bao gm cc t hp i s ca nh (3.9).
Khc vi trng hp bc 2, khi n 3, nu 1 v 2 l hai nghim
khc nhau ca P, cc trng con K[1 ] v K[2 ] ca K, c th l
khc nhau, nh ta thy trong v d sau y.
Xt trng hp K = Q v a thc P = x3 2. Nu P K l mt
nghim ca P th hai nghim cn li s l j v j2 . y ta s
dng k hiu
2
2
j = cos
+ i sin ,
(3.11)
3
3
20
l cn bc ba nguyn s ca n v. D thy Q[] Q[j] v nu

du bng xy ra th ta s c j P Q[]. Mt khc, m rng Q[j] l
m rng bc 2 ca Q v j l nghim ca a thc bc hai x2 +x+1,
cho nn n khng th nm trong mt m rng bc ba. Tht vy,
nu Q[j] Q[] th Q[] s l mt khng gian vector trn trng
Q[j], cho nn chiu ca n nh khng gian vector trn Q phi
l mt s chn. Trong trng hp ny, cc m rng bc ba ng
vi 3 nghim ca P = x3 2 l i mt khc nhau:
Q[] Q[j] Q[j2 ].
(3.12)
Khi K = Q[j], P = x3 2 vn l a thc bc ba bt kh quy trong

K[x]. Nhng khi cc m rng bc ba ca K ng vi 3 nghim
ca P = x3 2 l trng nhau:
K[] = K[j] = K[j2 ].
(3.13)
Ta nhn thy trng hp u, v j khng ph thuc i s

vi nhau so vi trng c s K = Q. Ni cch khc j khng th
biu din c nh t hp i s ca vi h s hu t. Tuy
vy, nu ta m rng trng c s thnh K = Q[j], th v j tr
nn ph thuc i s.
V d ny a ta n vi khi nim trng phn r ca mt
a thc bt kh quy. Trng phn r ca mt a thc l cng
c o s ph thuc i s gia cc nghim ca n. Trng
phn r s ln nu cc nghim c t quan h i s, trng
phn r s nh nu cc nghim c nhiu quan h i s.
a thc bt kh quy P P K[x] bc n c gi l tch c nu
n c n nghim i mt khc nhau trong K. Trong trng hp
c s khng, mi a thc bt kh quy u tch c. Trong
trng hp c s p 0, c nhng a thc bt kh quy nhng
khng tch c. Trong bi ny, ta s ch xt n nhng a
thc bt kh quy tch c.
Cho P P K[x] l mt a thc bt kh quy bc n tch c c h
s u bng mt. Ta k hiu 1 , 2 , . . . , n P K l cc nghim
ca P, v gi trng phn r ca K l trng con ca K sinh
bi 1 , 2 , . . . , n . Trong vnh a thc L[x], a thc P phn r
hon ton
P = (x 1 ) . . . (x n ),
thnh tch cc tha s bc mt.
21
lm r ny, ta thc hin mt kho st. K hiu L l trng

phn r ca P, khi L l trng con cc tiu cha tt c cc
trng con K[1 ], K[2 ] . . . , K[n ], cn gi l compositum ca
K[1 ], K[2 ] . . . , K[n ]. K hiu Li l compositum ca K[1 ], K[2 ]
. . . , K[n ], khi ta c chui m rng trng lin tip
K = L0 L1 Ln = L.
K hiu li l bc ca m rng Li /Li1 . Trng phn r L l m
rng bc l1 l2 . . . ln ca K. Cc s nguyn l1 , l2 , . . . , ln phn nh
mc ph thuc i s gia cc nghim 1 , 2 , . . . , n . Ta c
th kho st chng tun t nh sau
V P l mt a thc bt kh quy bc n cho nn L1 l m
rng bc l1 = n ca L0 .
Xt m rng tip theo L2 /L1 . a thc P xem nh phn t
ca L1 [x] khng cn bt kh quy na, m c th phn tch
c thnh
P = (x 1 )Q.
Thnh phn Q c th l a thc bt kh quy, c th khng.
Nu Q l mt a thc bt kh quy, bc n 1, th L2 s l
mt m rng bc l2 = n 1 ca L1 . Trong trng hp ny,
1 v 2 khng c quan h i s g vi nhau.
Nu Q P L1 [x] khng phi a thc bt kh quy, ta c th
phn tch n thnh Q = Q2 Q3 vi Q2 l a thc bt kh
quy c nghim l 2 . Khi L2 l m rng ca L1 c bc l2
bng vi bc ca a thc Q2 . Trong trng hp ny 1 v
2 c ph thuc i s.
Tip tc vi m rng L3 /L2 . . .
Qua kho st ny ta thy l1 l2 l mt dy s nguyn
gim tht s v t suy ra l1 ln n!. Dy s ny o mc
ph thuc i s gia cc nghim 1 , 2 , . . . , n ca P.
6. Nhm Galois ca mt a thc

Cho P P K[x] l mt a thc bt kh quy bc n tch c.
Nghim ca n trong K l 1 , 1 , . . . , n i mt khc nhau.
22
Ta k hiu L l trng phn r, trng con ca K sinh ra bi

1 , 1 , . . . , n .
Nhm Galois L/K l nhm cc t ng cu m rng L/K : Cc
t ng cu ca m rng L/K l cc song nh : L L bo ton
cu trc vnh v cu trc khng gian vector ca L trn trng
K. Nu khng c nguy c nhm ln, ta vit gin lc ch s v
ngm hiu = L/K . nhn mnh s ph thuc vo P, chng
ta cng s gi l nhm Galois ca a thc P.
Cho P v P L l mt nghim ca P, khi () cng l mt
nghim ca P. V vy nhm Galois tc ng ln tp hp cc
nghim ca P. Vi k hiu chn t1 , . . . , n u, cc nghim ca
P c nh s, tc ng ca ln chng c cho bi ng
cu nhm
P : n
vo trong nhm cc hon v cp n.
nh l 6.1. ng cu P : n l n nh. Tc ng ca
ln tp t1, 2, . . . , nu l tc ng bc cu. S phn t ca ng
bng vi bc ca m rng L/K.
Chng minh khng nh th nht khng kh. Nu nm trong
hch ca P , th (i ) = i vi mi nghim ca P. Trong hon
cnh ny, tc ng tm thng ln ton b L v L c sinh
ra bi 1 , 1 , . . . , n .
Chng minh khng nh th hai v th ba kh hn mt cht.
Trc ht ta chng minh rng mi ng cu K - i s : L K
u c nh l L. Tht vy mi ng cu nh vy u bo ton
tp t1 , 1 , . . . , n u, m tp ny sinh ra L, cho nn (L) = L. Nh
vy ta chng minh rng

AutK (L) = HomK L, K
(3.14)
chng minh khng nh th ba, ta ch cn cn chng minh
rng

|HomK L, K | = degK (L).
(3.15)
Mt m rng hu hn L ca K gi l m rng tch c nu
n tho mn tnh cht ny.
Nu L = K[x]/P vi P P K[x] l mt a thc bt kh quy bc n
tch c th L l m rng tch c. Tht vy, trong trng
23
hp ny, cho mt ng cu : L K tng ng vi cho (x)

l mt nghim ca P trong K v c ng n nghim khc nhau
nh vy.
C th chng minh c rng compositum ca m rng tch
c K1 , K2 , . . . , Kn vi K Ki K l m rng tch c. 1 V
th, trng phn r ca mt a thc tch c l mt m rng
tch c.
Ta quay li chng minh khng nh th hai: Tc ng ca
ln tp cc nghim t1 , 2 , . . . , n u l tc ng bc cu. Ta s
chng minh tn ti P AutK (L) sao cho (1 ) = 2 . Trc ht ta
c ng cu : K[1 ] K[2 ] cho bi 1 2 v 1 v 2 c cng
a thc cc tiu l P. Ta cn chng minh rng c th thc
trin thnh mt t ng cu : L L.
kt thc chng minh, ta cn s dng thm mt tnh cht
na ca m rng tch c: Nu L/K l mt m rng tch c,
th tn ti P L l phn t sinh ca L. Ni cch khc tn ti
P L sao cho L = K[]. 2
M rng L/K[1 ] cng l m rng tch c, cho nn tn ti
1 P L sao cho L = K[1 ][1 ]. Ta c th pht trin
: K[1 ] K[2 ],
thnh mt ng cu c dng
: K[1 ][1 ] K[2 ][2 ],
vi 2 P K c la chn thch hp. S dng (3.14), ta c
K[2 ][2 ] = L,
v l mt t ng cu ca L nh ta mong mun.
Ta c th tm tt cc thng tin trong mc ny nh sau. Mi a
thc bt kh quy P ng mt nhm Galois . Nu cc nghim ca
P trong K c nh s th c th coi nh mt nhm con ca
nhm i xng cp n, c tc ng bc cu ln tp t1, 2, . . . , nu.
S phn t ca ng bng bc ca trng phn r.
1
2
Xem chng minh trong sch Algebra ca Lang.

Xem chng minh trong sch Algebra ca Lang.
24
7. Tng ng Galois
Nh ta thy trong mc trc, nu L l trng phn r ca
a thc bt kh quy tch c P P K[x], th m rng L/K c tnh
cht s phn t ca nhm AutK (L) ng bng vi bc ca m
rng. M rng L/K c gi l m rng Galois nu tnh cht ny
c tho mn. Trng phn r ca mt a thc bt kh quy
lun lun l m rng Galois.
M rng L/K gi l m rng tch c nu tn ti mt a thc
bt kh quy P P K[x] tch c sao cho L K[x]/(P), tt nhin c
th c nhiu a thc P nh th. D thy nu L = K[x]/(P) l m
rng tch c nh trn v l m rng Galois, th L l trng
phn r ca P. Ni cch khc m rng Galois l trng phn
r ca mt a thc no . Mt khc, n c th ng thi l
trng phn r ca nhiu a thc khc nhau.
Khng phi m rng no cng l m rng Galois. Quay li v
d (3.12) m rng bc ba Q[] ca Q, vi l mt nghim ca
x3 2. Nu P AutQ (Q[]) th () cng phi l mt nghim ca
x3 2. Theo (3.12) th khng th l mt t ng cu ca Q[]
tr trng hp = 1.
Ni cch khc Q[] khng phi biu din Galois.
Ngc li, theo (3.13) th K[]/K l m rng Galois vi K = Q[j]
vi j l cn nguyn s bc ba ca n v (3.11). Tng qut hn
nh l 7.1. Nu xn a P K[x] l mt a thc bt kh quy tch
c, khi nu K cha cn nguyn s bc n ca n v, th vi
mi nghim P K ca a thc xn a, m rng L = K[] ca K l
m rng Galois.
Cc m rng trung gian gia K v L c th c phn loi da
vo . y thng c coi l mnh quan trng nht trong
l thuyt Galois, v c gi tng ng Galois. Vn ci g
quan trng nht lun lun c th bn ci.
nh l 7.2. Mi m rng trung gian K L 1 L ng vi mt nhm
con 1 ca bao gm cc phn t P tc ng ln L nh mt
1
nh x L 1 -tuyn tnh. Tng ng ngc li c cho bi L 1 = L .
Hn na, L 1 l m rng Galois ca K khi v ch khi 1 l nhm con
chun tc ca . 3
3
Nhm con 1 c gi l nhm con chun tc nu vi mi P , ta

c 1 1 = 1 .
25
Trong trng hp , ta c L 1 /K = / 1 .
Trong mc 5, ta kho st trng phn r L ca mt a thc
bt kh quy P P K[x] thng qua chui m rng lin tip
K = L0 L1 L2 Ln = L,
vi Li l compositum ca K[1 ], K[2 ], . . . , K[i ]. Chui m rng
tng ng vi chui cc nhm con ca
= 0 1 n = 0.
(3.16)
C th chng minh c rng i = Xni vi mi i = 1, 2, . . . , n,

trong ni l nhm con cc phn t ca n c nh cc phn
t 1, 2, . . . , i trong tp t1, 2, . . . , nu.
Cc nhm con 1 , 2 , . . . ni chung khng phi l nhm con
chun tc ca , v L1 , L2 , . . . khng phi l m rng Galois
ca K. Trong mt mc sau, mc 8, chng ta s kho st k
trng hp chui m rng Galois.
8. Tiu chun gii c phng trnh

bng cn thc
Xt v d cho bi chui cc m rng cn thc nh (3.10)
K = K0 K1 Kr ,
(3.17)
vi Ki Ki1 [x]/(xni i ). Gi thit rng K cha cc cn nguyn

s ca n v bc n1 , n2 , . . . , nr . Khi vi mi i, Ki l m rng
Galois ca Ki1 , v t ta c th suy ra Kr l m rng Galois
ca K. K hiu i = Kr /Ki , ta s c chui cc nhm con chun
tc nh sau:
= 0 1 2
vi
i1 /i = Ki /Ki1 Z/ni Z.
Ni cch khc, nhm l nhm gii c.
nh l 8.1. Cho P P K[x] l mt a thc bt kh qui bc n tch
c vi h s trong trng K c cn nguyn s ca n v mi
cp r n. iu kin cn v nghim ca P c th biu din
nh mt biu thc i s vi cn thc l nhm Galois ca P l
nhm gii c.
26
Cho P K l mt nghim ca P. Nh phn tch trong mc 4,

biu din c di dng biu thc i s c cn thc tng
ng vi vic tn ti mt chui m rng lin tip nh (3.17),
vi Ki Ki1 [x]/(xni i ), v K[] Kr . V trng phn r L ca
P l m rng Galois nh nht cha K[] cho nn:
K L Kr .
iu ny ko theo P = L/K l thng ca . Vi iu kin
trng c s cha cn nguyn s ca n v, ta ch ra
trn l l nhm gii c. V vy nhm Galois P ca a thc
P cng l nhm gii c. P l nhm gii c l iu kin cn
biu din c nh mt biu thc i s vi cn thc.
chng minh iu kin ny cng l iu kin , ta cn
chng minh rng nu K l mt trng c nghim nguyn s cp
n ca n v v nu L/K l m rng Galois c nhm Galois ng
cu vi Z/nZ, th tn ti P K sao cho
L K[x]/(xn ).
Gi s m rng L l trng phn r ca mt a thc bt kh
qui P P K[x] c bc n. Nu 1 , 1 , . . . , n l cc nghim ca P
trong K th L l m rng ca K sinh bi cc nghim ny.
Chn mt phn t sinh ca nhm Galois L/K = Z/nZ. V tc
ng ca L/K ln tp 1 , , 1 , . . . , n l tc ng bc cu, cho
nn tng ng vi mt hon v n - chu trnh. Ta c th gi s
(1 ) = 2 , (2 ) = 3 , . . . , (n ) = 1 .
Chn P K l mt cn nguyn s cp n ca n v v thit lp
gii thc Lagrange:
= 1 + 2 + + n1 n .
Lp lun nh trong trng hp n = 3, ta thy n = l mt
phn t ca K v t suy ra rng
L K[x]/(xn ).
bit mt phng trnh c th gii c bng cn thc hay
khng, ta ch cn bit xem nhm Galois ca n c th gii
c hay khng. Tnh nhm Galois ca mt a thc P tu
27
hon ton khng d. Quy trnh kho st trnh by trong mc 5,

cho ta mt s thng tin v nhm Galois, trong c mt chui
nhm con (3.16), nhng thng l nhng nhm con khng
chun tc. Trong trng hp ca a thc tng qut
P = xn + a1 xn1 + + an P K[x],
(3.18)
vi K = k(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) l trng cc phn thc vi bin s

a1 , a2 , . . . , an , lp lun nh trong 9, ta thy P = n . Nh vy
i vi phng trnh tng qut, ta cn tm hiu vi n no th
nhm i xng n l nhm gii c. Ta s ch ra rng cc
nhm 3 , 4 l gii c v nh c th tm ra cng thc biu
din nghim ca phng trnh bc ba v bc bn. Trong khi
n l nhm khng gii c vi mi n 5.
9. Phng trnh bc ba
Li gii phng trnh bc ba ca Tartaglia kh phc tp v n
ging nh mt ci g t trn tri ri xung. Li gii phng trnh
bc bn ca Ferrari cn phc tp hn na. Sau ny, Lagrange
a ra phng php rt p tm ra phng php chung cho
li gii ca Tartaglia, Cardano v Ferrari. ng sng to ra mt
cng c mi, gi l resolvent, m chng ta s tm chuyn ng
thnh gii thc.
minh ho cho cng dng ca phng php Lagrange, ta s
trnh by li gii phng trnh bc ba tng qut theo phng
php ny vi cht t h tr ca l thuyt Galois. Mc d phng
php gii thc ca Lagrange c th din gii d dng bng l
thuyt Galois, ta cng nn lu l nhm Galois sinh ra sau
phng php gii thc Lagrange.
Trong i s hin i, ta c th gn cho ch tng qut mt
ngha chnh xc: Ta chn trng c s
K = k(a, b, c) R = k[a, b, c],
l trng cc biu thc hu t vi bin s a, b, c v h s nm
trong mt trng k no . a thc bc ba tng qut l a thc
P = x3 + ax2 + bx + c P R[x].
28
Ta s gi s rng trng k c cn nguyn s bc ba ca n v.

Ni cch khc a thc x3 1 P k[x] phn r hon ton thnh:
x3 1 = (x 1)(x j)(x j2 ),
vi j P k l cn nguyn s bc ba ca n v. Ly v d, ta c th
chn k = Q[j] vi j nh trong (3.11).
Cho K l mt trng ng i s cha K, v gi 1 , 2 , 3 l cc
nghim ca P trong K. Trng phn r ca K :
L = k(1 , 2 , 3 ) S = k[1 , 2 , 3 ],
l trng cc thng ca cc a thc c bin s 1 , 2 , 3 tho
a = 1 + 2 + 3
b = 1 2 + 2 3 + 3 1
c = 1 2 3
C th chng minh c rng S l module t do cp su trn
vnh R v L l khng gian vector c chiu bng su trn trng
K. Nh vy nhm Galois ca P c su phn t v v vy n
ch c th l ton b nhm i xng 3 . gii phng trnh
bc ba tng qut, ta s kho st nhm i xng 3 . Ta s th
hin mt hon v cp ba nh trong v d sau: (2, 3, 1) l hon v
1 2, 2 3, 3 1. Cc phn t ca 3 c th c phn loi
nh sau
Phn t n v (1, 2, 3).
Phn t c 2-chu trnh (2, 1, 3), (1, 3, 2), (3, 2, 1).
Phn t 3-chu trnh (2, 3, 1), (3, 1, 2).
ng cu du sgn : 3 t1u gn cho ba phn t c 2-chu
trnh du 1 v gn cho ba phn t cn li du +1. Hch ca
ng cu du sgn : 3 t1u l nhm lun phin 3 . Nhm
ny c 3 phn t:
3 = t(1, 2, 3), (2, 3, 1), (3, 1, 2)u
v ng cu vi nhm xch Z/3Z. Tm li ta c dy khp
0 3 3 Z/2Z 0
29
(3.19)
vi 3 Z/3Z. Nhm 3 l nhm gii c.

Nhm con 3 tng ng vi m rng trung gian K+ = L3 bao
gm cc phn t ca L c nh di tc ng ca 3 . Ta c
chui cc m rng lin tip
K K+ L.
vi K+ /K l m rng Galois cp hai c nhm Galois Z/2Z, v
L/K+ l m rng Galois cp ba c nhm Galois Z/3Z.
Qu trnh biu din nghim ca phng trnh bc ba ph qu
nh biu thc i s c cn thc c th chia thnh hai bc:
S dng dy khp (3.19) xy dng m rng trung gian.
K K+ L vi K+ /K l m rng Galois cp hai c nhm
Galois Z/2Z, v L/K+ l m rng Galois cp ba c nhm
Galois Z/3Z.
Biu din cc m rng trung gian K+ /K di dng
K+ = K[x]/(x2 1 ),
v L/K+ di dng L = K+ [x]/(x3 2 ).
Ta c th vit tng minh mt phn t ca K+ :
= (1 2 )(2 3 )(3 1 ).
D thy l n nh di tc ng ca 3 . Ta cng ngay
thy 2 = d vi
d=
(i j ),
ij
l bit thc ca P. Bit thc d l mt phn t ca K v ta c

K+ K[x]/(x2 + d).
(3.20)
Tht vy, ta c ng cu trng:

K[x]/(x2 + d) K+ ,
xc nh bi x . V c hai v u l khng gian vector hai
chiu trn K, v ng cu trng lun l n nh, cho nn n
bt buc phi l song nh.
30
Ni cch khc, mi phn t ca K+ u c th biu din mt

cch duy nht di dng m + n vi m, n P K.
chng t phng trnh tng qut bc ba c th gii c
bng cn thc, ta ch cn cn chng minh rng m rng L/K+
c th biu din c di dng phng trnh
L = K+ [x]/(x3 ),
vi mt phn t P L+ no . K hiu = (2, 3, 1) l hon v
tc ng ln cc nghim ca P nh sau: (1 ) = 2 , (2 ) = 3
v (3 ) = 1 . Gii thc Lagrange c dng:
= 1 + j2 + j2 3 .
Ta nhn thy rng:
() = j1 v
2 () = j2 ,
v t suy ra
= ()2 () = 3 .
Phn t biu din nh tch ()2 () hin nhin c tnh n
nh di tc ng ca . V vy P K+ .
Ta khng nh rng
L K+ [x]/(x3 ).
(3.21)
Tht vy ta c ng cu vnh
: K+ [x]/(x3 ) L,
xc nh bi x v 3 = . V () , cho nn R K, v nh
ca ng cu l mt m rng trung gian
K im() L
vi K im(). Ta nhn thy chiu ca im() nh khng gian
vector trn K phi bng ba v m rng bc ba L khng th cha
trong n mt m rng bc hai.
Ni cch khc, ng cu l ton nh. V khng gian ngun
v ch c cng s chiu, l ng cu. Nh vy mi phn t
ca L, trong c 1 , 2 , 3 , c th biu din mt cch duy nht
di dng
m0 + m1 + m2 2 , vi m0 , m1 , m2 P K+ .
31
Bn thn tho m phng trnh 3 = vi P K+ . Mi phn

t ca K+ u c th biu din mt cch duy nht di dng
m + n vi m, n P K v 2 = d. Chu kh tng minh ho cc h
s m, n, m0 , m1 , m2 , ta s tm lo c cng thc Tartaglia (3.5)
cho nghim ca phng trnh bc ba tng qut
x3 + ax2 + bx + c = 0.
10. Phng trnh bc bn

nh l 10.1. Nhm 4 l nhm gii c.
K hiu S l tp t1, 2, 3, 4u v 2 (S) l tp cc tp con ca S c
ng hai phn t. Tp ny c 6 phn t chia thnh ba cp cc
tp con i nhau:
t1, 2u, t3, 4u
t1, 3u, t2, 4u
t1, 4u, t2, 3u
v gi 2 (S) l tp cc cp tp con i nhau nh trn. Ta c
nh x 2-1
2 (S) 2 (S).
(3.22)
Nhm 4 cc hon v ca S, tc ng mt cch tng thch ln
2 (S) v 2 (S). Tc ng ca 4 ln 2 (S) cho ta mt ng cu
4 3 . Kho st k hn tc ng 4 ln 2 (S) v 2 (S) ta c
dy khp
0 (Z/2Z)2 4 3 0
(3.23)
v t suy ra rng nhm 4 l nhm gii c.
Bn c c th dng gii thc Lagrange tm ra biu thc
cn thc cho nghim phng trnh bc bn tng qut, ging
nh trng hp phng trnh bc ba trnh by mc 9.
11. Phng trnh bc nm tr ln

nh l 11.1. Vi mi n 5, n khng phi l nhm gii c.
Nhm i xng n c ng cu du vi hch l nhm lun
phin n
0 n n t1u 0
(3.24)
32
C th chng minh rng vi mi n 5, nhm lun phin n

l nhm n, tc l mt nhm khng c nhm con chun tc,
ngoi nhm tm thng v chnh n.
Nhm con chun tc l hp ca mt s lp lin hp v s phn
t ca nhm con bng vi tng s phn t ca mt s lp lin
hp. Mt khc, tng s ny phi l c ca s phn t ca 5 .
Bng cch lit tt c cc lp lin hp ca 5 v lc lng ca
chng, ta nhn ra rng tng lc lng ca mt s lp lin hp
ca 5 khng th ng bng mt c thc s ca 60. V th
nhm 5 khng c nhm con chun tc no ngoi chnh n v
nhm tm thng.
Bn c c th chng minh bng qui np rng n l nhm n
vi mi n 5 xut pht t trng hp n = 5.
33
34
T p c h
online ca
cng ng
nhng n g i
y u
T o n
variste Galois
Ngi dch: Lu Trng Lun
i hc FPT
variste Galois 2 sinh ti Bourg La Reine (gn Paris) l con ng

Nicholas Gabriel Galois v b Adelaide Marie Demante. Cha m
Galois u l nhng tr thc c gio dc k v trit hc, vn
hc c in v tn gio. Tuy nhin, khng ai trong gia nh
Galois bc l kh nng ton hc. M ca Galois l ngi thy
duy nht dy d ng cho n nm 12 tui. B dy ng ting Hy
Lp, La tinh v tn gio, cng l lc b bt u gieo t tng
hoi nghi ca mnh cho con. Cha ca Galois l ngi c nh
hng trong cng ng v nm 1815 c bu lm th trng
Bourg-la-Reine.
Thi im bt u nhng s kin lch s ng vai tr quan
trng trong cuc i Galois chnh l cuc nh chim nh t
Bastille ngy 14/07/1789. T lc , vng triu Louis 16 b lung
lay d i khi ng o ngi dn Php on kt li nhm lt
s cai tr c quyn ca gio hi v nh nc.
Bt chp nhng n lc tha hip, vua Louis 16 b mang ra
xt x sau khi tm cch trn khi t nc. Sau khi nh vua
b hnh hnh vo ngy 21/01/1973, nc Php ri vo tnh trng
kinh hong vi nhiu phin xt x chnh tr. n cui nm 1793,
c ti 4595 t nhn chnh tr b giam gi Paris. Tuy nhin, tnh
hnh t nc cng bt u sng sa hn sau khi qun i
nc ny, di s ch huy ca Napoleon ginh ht chin
thng ny n chin thng khc.
Napoleon tr thnh nht Tng ti vo nm 1800 ri ln ngi
Hong vo nm 1804. Qun i Php tip tc chinh phc
chu u trong khi quyn lc ca Napoleon ngy cng c cng
c. Nm 1811, Napoleon t n nh cao quyn lc. Nhng n
1
2
Ngun: www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Galois.html
Nh ton hc ngi Php (25/10/1811 - 31/05/1832)
35
nm 1815 th quyn lc sp . Cuc tn cng Nga nm 1812

tht bi ko theo nhng cuc bi trn khc. Qun lin minh
tin vo Paris ngy 31/03/1814. Napoleon thoi v ngy 6/4 v
Louis XVIII c lin minh a ln lm vua. Nm 1815 chng
kin 100 ngy ni ting. Napoleon tin vo Paris ngy 20/3, b
nh bi ti Waterloo ngy 18/6 v thoi v ln th hai ngy
22/6. Louis XVIII c khi phc ngi vua nhng mt vo thng
9/1824. Charles X tr thnh v vua mi.
Galois lc ny ang i hc. ng vo hc lp 4 ni tr trng
Lyce of Louis-le-Grand ngy 06/10/1823. Trong hc k u tin,
mt cuc ni lon nh n ra v 40 hc sinh b ui hc. Galois
khng lin quan n s vic ny. Nm hc 1824 1825, ng t
hc lc gii v nhn nhiu gii thng. Tuy nhin, nm 1826,
Galois phi hc li v mn hng bin khng t yu cu.
Thng 2/1827 l thi im mang tnh bc ngoc trong cuc i
Galois. ng vo lp ton u tin ca mnh, lp ca M. Vernier.
Ngay lp tc, ng b ton hc cun ht v gio vin hng
dn nhn xt:
Nim am m ton hc chi phi cu y, ti ngh tt nht l ba
m cu y nn cho php cu khng hc bt k mn g khc ngoi
tr mn ny. Cu y ang lng ph thi gian y, lm phin
cc gio vin v chuc ly nhiu hnh pht.
Hc b ca Galois bt u xut hin cc t c bit, k d, lp
d v hng ni. C l y l nh ton hc lp d nht ca mi
thi i. Thy gio M. Vernier nhn xt:
Thng minh, tin b ng k nhng cha phng php.
Nm 1828, Galois thi vo trng Bch khoa Paris nhng trt.
y l trng i hc danh ting Paris v Galois mun thi
vo trng thun li cho vic hc. ng thi ng cng mun
vo trng v lc ny phong tro chnh tr trong gii sinh vin
y ang din ra rt mnh m trong khi Galois mun theo bc
cha m ng tr thnh ngi tch cc ng h phe cng ha.
Tr v li Louis-le-Grand, Galois ghi danh vo lp chuyn ton
ca Louis Richard. Tuy nhin ng li tp trung ngy cng nhiu
vo nhng nghin cu ca ring mnh v t n vic hc
ti trng hn. ng nghin cu mn hnh hc ca Legendre v
cc lun n ca Lagrange. Richard nhn xt:
36
Cu sinh vin ny ch thch tp trung vo nhng vn nh cao

ca ton hc.
Thng 4/1829 Galois cng b cng trnh ton hc u tin v
lin phn s trn Annales de mathmatiques. Ngy 25/5 v 1/6
ng gi cc bi vit v phng php gii cc phng trnh i s
cho Vin hn lm Khoa hc. Cauchy l ngi c phn cng
nh gi cng trnh ny.
Bi kch p n vi Galois vo ngy 02/07/1829 khi cha ng t
t. Linh mc x Bourg-la-Reine gi mo tn ca th trng
Galois trn nhng bi chm bim nhm vo nhng ngi thn
ca gia nh Galois. Cha ca Galois l ngi tt v v scandal
vt qu sc chu ng ca ng. ng treo c t st trong
cn h ca mnh Paris, cch Louis-le-Grand, ni con mnh
ang hc ch vi bc chn. Galois b tc ng nghim trng
bi ci cht ca cha mnh v n nh hng ln n hng
i sau ny ca ng.
Vi tun sau ci cht ca cha mnh, Galois tip tc ng k
thi vo trng Bch khoa Paris ln th hai. Ln ny ng li
trt, c l mt phn do n ri vo thi im ti t nht ngay
sau ci cht ca cha ng, mt phn do ng cha bao gi gii
vic din t nhng tng ton hc su sc ca mnh. V th
Galois nh phi vo hc ti cole Normale, mt nhnh ca
trng Louis-le-Grand. vo c y, ng phi d k thi
t ti m nu vo c trng Bch khoa Paris th Galois
khng cn n n. ng thi u v nhn bng tt nghip ngy
29/12/1829. Ngi nh gi mn ton nhn xt:
Sinh vin ny i khi din t kin kh hiu nhng cu ta thng
minh v bc l tinh thn nghin cu c bit.
Gim kho mn vn th nhn xt:
y l sinh vin duy nht c kt qu rt t, cu ta tuyt i chng
bit g. H ni vi ti cu ta c kh nng ton phi thng. Tht
ngc nhin v sau bui thi ny, ti tin l cu ta ch c mt cht
thng minh.
Galois gi thm cho Cauchy bi nghin cu v l thuyt phng
trnh nhng sau nhn ra n trng vi mt phn trong cng
trnh c ng sau khi mt ca Abel. Sau , Galois theo li
khuyn ca Cauchy gi mt bi nghin cu mi v iu kin
phng trnh gii c bng cn thc vo thng 2/1830. Bi
37
bo c gi cho Fourier, th k ca Vin hn lm Paris xt

duyt Gii thng ln v ton hc. Fourier mt thng 4/1830 v
cng trnh ny ca Galois khng bao gi c tm thy na.
Galois, sau khi c cng trnh ca Abel v Jacobi bt tay
vo vic nghin cu l thuyt hm eliptic v tch phn Abel. Vi
s h tr ca Jacques Sturm, ng cng b 3 bi bo trn
Bulletin de Frussac vo thng 4/1830. Tuy nhin, thng 6, ng
bit c rng gii thng ca hc vin s c ng trao cho
Abel (sau khi mt) v Jacobi v cng trnh ca ng khng h
c xem xt.
Thng 7/1830 n ra cuc cch mng. Vua Charles X phi trn
khi nc Php. Bo ng din ra trn cc ng ph Paris
v gim c trng cole Normale, M. Guigniault, ng cng
trng ngn sinh vin ra ngoi tham gia bo ng. Galois
tm cch tro tng tham gia nhng khng thnh. Thng
12/1830 M. Guigniault vit mt s bi bo ch trch sinh vin
v Galois vit th p tr trn Gazette des coles, ch trch M.
Guigniault v hnh ng giam sinh vin bn trong trng. V l
th ny m Galois b ui hc v gia nhp i pho binh ca V
binh quc gia, mt nhnh dn qun t v theo phe cng ha.
Ngy 31/12/1830, i pho binh ca V binh quc gia b hong
gia ra lnh gii tn v vua mi Louis-Phillipe lo ngi y l mt
mi e da i vi ngai vng.
Hai bi cng b nh, mt bn tm tt ng trn trn Annales
de Gergonne (12/1830) v mt l th v vic ging dy khoa hc
trn Gazette des coles (2/1/1831) l nhng n phm cui cng
trong i ng. Thng 1/1831 Galois n lc quay tr li vi ton
hc. ng t chc vi lp v i s cao cp thu ht 40 sinh vin
n d bui u tin nhng sau con s ny nhanh chng
gim xung. ng c Poisson mi gi phin bn th ba ca
cng trnh ca mnh v phng trnh cho Vin hn lm v ng
thc hin ngy 17/1.
Ngy 18/4, Sophie Germain vit mt l th cho bn c, nh ton
hc Libri k v tnh hnh ca Galois
... ci cht ca M. Fourier, l mt mt qu ln cho sinh vin Galois
ngi m cho d tnh tnh k quc, bc l thin hng thng
minh. Nhng bt hnh ny qu ln n n khin Galois b
ui khi cole Normale. Anh ta khng tin bc. H ni anh ta s
b in hon ton. Ti s iu ny l tht...
38
Cui nm 1830, tt c 19 s quan thuc i pho binh ca V

binh quc gia b bt v b kt ti m mu lt chnh quyn.
H c tuyn trng n v ngy 09/05/1831, c 200 ngi theo
phe cng ha tp trung n ti mng vic ny. Trong ba tic,
Galois nng ly trong khi tay cm con dao gm ang m ra nh
v hm da nh vua, Louis-Phillipe. Sau ba n ti, Galois b
bt v giam ti nh t Sainte-Plagie. ng c th ra sau
phin x ngy 15/6.
Ngy 14/7, ngy din ra cuc tn cng nh t Bastille v Galois
b bt tr li v mc ng phc ca i pho binh ca V binh
quc gia vn b gii tn. Lc ng cng ang mang trong
ngi mt khu sng trng np n, vi khu sng ngn
v mt dao gm. Galois b a tr li nh t Sainte-Plagie.
Thi gian ny, ng nhn c tin cng trnh ca mnh b bc
b. Poisson nhn xt:
Lp lun ca Galois cha r rng v cha c pht trin y
cho php chng ti nh gi c tnh chnh xc ca n.
Tuy nhin, ng khuyn khch Galois cng b mt bn tm tt
y hn cng trnh ca mnh. trong nh t Sainte-Plagie,
Galois c dng dao t t nhng nhng bn t khc ngn
ng li. Khi say ru trong t, ng bc l tm hn mnh:
Bn c bit ti thiu g khng? Ti ch tit l vi bn thi: l
ngi m ti ch c th yu thng v yu thng trong tm khm.
Ti mt cha ti v khng ai c th thay th c ng, bn c
hiu khng?
Thng 3/1832, mt trn dch t qut qua Paris v nhng t
nhn, trong c Galois, c chuyn n tri Sieur Faultrier. Ni y, dng nh ng phi lng Stephanie-Felice du
Motel, con gi mt bc s a phng. Sau khi ra t ngy 29/4,
Galois vit th qua li vi Stephanie v r rng l c ny tm
cch n trnh cuc tnh.
Ci tn Stephanie xut hin nhiu ln bn l cc bn ghi chp
ca Galois. Galois u sng vi Perscheux dHerbinville ngy
30/5 m l do khng ai r nhng chc chn vic ny c lin
quan n Stephanie. Mt trong s nhng ghi chp ny c cu:
C g cn b sung trong chng minh ny. Nhng ti li khng
c thi gian.
39
Chnh iu ny dn n huyn thoi rng ng dnh m

cui cng vit li tt c nhng g ng bit v l thuyt nhm.
Cu chuyn ny c v nh c phng i ln.
Galois b thng trong cuc u sng v b dHerbinville v
nhng ngi i theo b mc cho n khi mt nng dn tm thy.
ng mt ti bnh vin Cochin ngy 31/5 v m tang c t
chc ngy 2/6. N tr thnh tm im ca cuc ni lon ca
phe cng ha ko di nhiu ngy.
Em trai Galois v bn ng, Chevalier, sao chp li cc bi
vit lin quan n ton hc ca ng v gi cho Gauss, Jacobi
cng nhng ngi khc. Galois cng tng m c c Jacobi
v Gauss nhn xt cng trnh ca mnh. Ngi ta khng tm
thy nhn xt ca nhng ngi ny. Tuy nhin, cc bi bo
n tay Liouville, ngi vo thng 9/1843 cng b trc vin hn
lm rng ng tm thy trong cc bi bo ca Galois mt li
gii chnh xc.
... va chnh xc va su sc cho bi ton tuyt vi sau: Cho mt
phng trnh bt kh quy vi bc nguyn t, xt xem n c gii
c bng cn thc khng?
Liouville xut bn nhng bi bo ca Galois trn tp ch ca
mnh nm 1846. L thuyt m Galois phc tho trong nhng bi
bo ny ngy nay c gi l l thuyt Galois.
40
T p c h
online ca
cng ng
nhng n g i
y u
T o n
NGHCH O MOBIUS
Ng Quang Hng (i hc Buffalo, M)
Php nghch o Mobius khi nguyn l mt cng thc trong l

thuyt s. n nhng nm 1960 th Gio s Gian-Carlo Rota
cho chng ta thy cng thc trong l thuyt s l mt trng
hp c bit ca mt cng thc p dng trn cc tp th t bn
phn (poset). Cng thc Mobius tng qut c nhiu ng dng
trong Ton v My Tnh. Trong bi ny ta ro qua chng minh
ca php nghch o Mobius trn cc tp th t bn phn v
mt vi ng dng ca n.
1. Ba v d
1.1. Ton t hp
Cng thc inclusion-exclusion ni rng, m tng s nhc t
c Ch Pho l b hoc th N l m, th ta cng s con ca ch
Pho vi s con ca th N tr i s con chung. Ni cch khc,
cho n tp hp hu hn A1 , , An th ta c th tnh lc lng
ca hi ca chng bng cng thc:
n
n
=
|A
|
A
i
i
i=1
i=1
1ijn |Ai X Aj | +
n1
|A1 X X An |
1ijkn |Ai X Aj X Ak | + (1)
Cng thc ny mt s sch ni l ca Abraham de Moivre;
nhng c v n xut hin nm 1854 t mt bi bo ca Daniel
da Silva, v ln na nm 1883 trong mt bi bo ca Joseph
Sylvester [11].
Bi tp 1.1. Nm 1891, Francois douard Anatole Lucas (cha
bi ton thp H Ni) t cu hi sau y: cho mt ci bn
trn v m cp v chng, c bao nhiu cch xp h ngi nam
n xem k sao cho khng cp v chng no ngi k nhau?" Ta
c th dng cng thc IE tr li cu hi ca Lucas.
41
1.2. L thuyt s
Trong l thuyt s c mt cng thc gi l cng thc nghch o
Mobius [10], xinh hn hoa hu! Cng thc ny pht biu nh
sau: Cho 2 hm s f, g bt k trn min s nguyn dng, ta c
f(n) =
g(d), @n 1
d|n
tng ng vi
g(n) =
(d)f(n/d), @n 1
d|n
trong (d) l hm Mobius nh ngha nh sau

$
d l tch ca mt s chn cc s nguyn t khc nhau

&1
(d) = 1 d l tch ca mt s l cc s nguyn t khc nhau
%
0
d c c s l bnh phng ca mt s nguyn t
August Ferdinand Mobius l mt nh thin vn ngi c, tng
l tr l ca Gauss; ng cng l tc gi ca ci bng Mobius
lng danh trong hnh hc T-p.
1.3. Hnh t-p

Cng thc a din Euler pht biu rng v e + f = 2, trong
v, e, f l tng s nh, cnh, v mt ca mt khi a din ba
chiu. Euler khm ph ra cng thc ny nm 1752, nhng c
v nh Descartes cng bit n t 1640. Trm nm sau, nm
1852, Schl
afli pht biu cng thc tng qut cho cc a din
li trong khng gian n-chiu, nhng chng minh ng phi ch
n ngi khng l Henry Poincar (1893, [4]).
Cng thc Euler tng qut, cng gi l cng thc Euler-Poincar,
pht biu nh sau. Gi Fi l tng s mt i-chiu ca a din
n chiu (mt 0-chiu l nh, mt 1-chiu l cnh, vn vn).
Ta quy c Fn = 1 v F1 = 1 vit cho tin. Th ta c cng thc
Euler-Poincar
n
(1)i Fi = 0.
i=1
42
1.4. Gian-Carlo Rota

Nm 1964, trong bi u tin ca mt chui bi bo kinh in
t nn mng cho l thuyt t hp i s [5], Gian-Carlo Rota
cho chng ta bit c ba cng thc trn chng qua l trng
hp c bit ca phng php tnh nghch o Mobius trn cc
tp hp th t mt phn (partially ordered set, hay poset). M
phng php nghch o Mobius trn posets th chng qua ch
l pht biu sau y: nu A l mt ma trn vung kh nghch,
th x = Ay tng ng vi y = A1 x. i s tuyn tnh mun
nm! Rota c quyn sch rt th v c nhiu giai thoi ni ting
trong gii chuyn mn tn l Indiscrete Thoughts [6].
Di y chng ta duyt qua phng php ca Rota, chng
minh c ba cng thc trn, v chng minh b Sauer-Shelah
t thng cng.
2. Nghch o M
obius trn posets
2.1. Tp hp th t bn phn (Poset)
Poset i khi l mt tp hp m ta c th so snh ln nh
gia mt s cp phn t nhng khng nht thit l so c tt
c cc cp. Th t ln nh ny c tnh bc cu (transitive) v
khng to ra th t lun qun.
C th hn, mt poset (tp th t bn phn) l mt cp (P, )
trong P l mt tp hp v l mt quan h nh phn (hay
quan h hai ngi) gia cc phn t ca P tha mn 3 tnh cht
1. x y v y z suy ra x z, vi mi x, y, z P P (tnh bc cu
transitive)
2. x x, @x P P (tnh phn x reflexive)
3. x y v y x suy ra x = y (tnh phn xng antisymmetric)
V d 2.1. P = Bn l tp tt c cc tp con ca [n] v quan
h nh phn l , ngha l X Y nu v ch nu X Y. Ci
poset ny gi l i s Bool (Boolean algebra). Xem v d trn
Hnh 5.1.
43
t1, 2, 3u
t1, 2u
t1, 3u
t2, 3u
t1u
t2u
t3u
H
Hnh 5.1: i s Bool B3
V d 2.2. P = Dn l tp tt c cc c s dng ca n, quan
h nh phn l quan h chia ht, ngha l i j nu v ch nu
i|j. K hiu i|j ngha l j chia ht cho i (hay i chia ht j). Xem v
d trn Hnh 5.2.
60
12
20
30
10
15
1
Hnh 5.2: Poset cc c s ca 60
V d 2.3. P l tp tt c cc mt (faces) ca mt a in
(polytope) trong khng gian n chiu; v x y nu mt x cha
trong mt y. Mt rng cng l mt mt vi chiu 1, v ton
44
b a din l mt mt vi s chiu bng n. Poset ny cn gi l

face lattice ca polytope. Xem v d trn Hnh 5.2.
abcde
e
eab ecb ead ecd
b
a
ea
ad
a
ab
e
ec
eb
c
abcd
ed
d
cb
cd
H
Hnh 5.3: Face lattice ca hnh Pyramid
2.2. Hm M
obius ca poset
Nhng iu ta vit sau y ng cho mt trng K ty h v cc
posets v hn (min l n hu hn a phng1 ). cho n
gin, ta pht biu cc kt qu vi K = C v cc posets hu hn
thi.
Gi (P, ) l mt poset hu hn. Ta xt cc ma trn kch thc
|P| |P| sao cho (x, y) = 0 nu x y. Khi x y th (x, y) P C
ty h. Tp cc ma trn ny gi l i s k (incidence algebra)
ca P, k hiu l I(P). Trong i s k th ma trn nh ngha
bng
#
1 x=y
(x, y) =
0 xy
l ma trn n v.
nh l 2.4. Cho trc poset (P, ) trong P hu hn. Xt mt
ma trn P I(P) ty th kh nghch nu v ch nu (x, x)
0, @x P P.
1
Ngha l s cc thnh vin nm gia mt cp x v y l hu hn vi mi

cp x, y.
45
Chng minh. Nu ta v th" ca P bng cch xem P nh tp

cc nh v v mt mi tn t x n y nu x y (nh trong
Hnh 5.1 v 5.2) th ta c mt th c hng nhng khng c
vng trn (directed acyclic graph). Do , tn ti mt cch lit
k tt c cc phn t ca P t tri sang phi sao cho tt c cc
mi tn u tr sang phi hoc tr vo chnh n (loop trong
th). Th t ny gi l trt t t-p (topological ordering) ca
th, l mt bi tp c bn khi hc cc thut ton duyt th.
Nu ta vit cc ma trn P I(P) m cc hng v ct nh ch
s theo th t ny th ta c cc ma trn tam gic trn (uppertriangular). Do kh nghch nu v ch nu (x, x) 0, @x,
ngha l cc phn t trn ng cho khc khng. Lu rng
ma trn nghch o cng l ma trn tam gic trn, v do
cng thuc v i s k.
Mt thnh vin quan trng ca i s k I(P) l ma trn , gi
l hm zeta ca P, nh ngha bng
#
1 xy
(x, y) =
0 xy
nh ngha 2.5 (Hm Mobius ca mt poset). Hm Mobius ca
poset (P, ), k hiu l , chnh l ma trn nghch o ca hm
zeta . (Theo nh l 2.4 th kh nghch.)
K n ta m t mt cng thc quy tnh hm Mobius ca
mt poset. T nh ngha ca php nhn ma trn, vi , P I(P)
bt k ta c
()(x, y) =
(x, z)(z, y) =
(x, z)(z, y),
xzy
zPP
ti v nu x z th (x, z) = 0, cn nu z y th (z, y) = 0. Do
, t = ta suy ra
(x, y) =
(x, z)(z, y) =
(x, z).
xzy
xzy
Hay vit c th hn th vi mi x, y P P ta c
#
1 nu x = y
(x, y) =
0 nu x y.
xzy
46
(5.1)
ng thc (5.1) suy ra cng thc quy np

$
&1
(x, y) = xzy (x, z)
%
0
tnh (x, y):

x=y
xy
xy
T cng thc ny ta suy ra gi tr hm Mobius cho ba posets

trn. Hai ng thc u th d (lm bi tp), ci th ba th kh.
1. Nu P = Bn l tp tt c cc tp con ca [n] (i s Bool),
th
#
(1)|B||A| A B
(A, B) =
0
AB
2. Nu P = Dn l tp tt c cc c s ca n, th
#
(1)r nu y/x l tch ca r s nguyn t khc nhau
(x, y) =
0
nu khng phi th.
3. Nu P l face-lattice ca mt a in n chiu th
#
(1)dim(B)dim(A) if A B
(A, B) =
0
nu khng.
(5.2)
2.3. Nghch o M
obius
Xt hai hm s f, g : P C bt k. Ta c th xem chng nh hai
vectors trong khng gian C|P| . Cng thc nghch o Mobius
trn poset ni hai iu rt n gin:
f = g g = f,
(5.3)
v, xoay ngang cc vectors ra th

f = g g = f.
(5.4)
hiu ngha t hp ca s tng ng ny, ta vit r rng

hn mt cht v ta bit (x, y) v (x, y) bng 0 nu x y. Quan
h (5.3) ni rng:
f(x) =
g(y), @x P P g(x) =
xy
xy
47
(x, y)f(y), @y P P.
(5.5)
ng thc ny ta hiu nh sau. Gi s ta c hm g gn mt

con s g(y) vo mi thnh vin y P P, v f gn vo mi x P P mt
con s l tng ca cc g(y) sao cho x y, th v phi ca (5.3)
cho ta cch tnh g da trn f.
i ngu li, quan h (5.4) ni rng:
f(x) =
g(y), @x P P g(x) =
xy
(y, x)f(y), @y P P.
(5.6)
xy
V d 2.6. c cng thc Euler-Poincar, ta p dng (5.5)

trong g(y) = 1 vi y = P v g(y) = 0 vi mi y cn li trong P.
Khi , r rng l tt c cc f(x) u bng 1. Dng (5.2), ta c
0 = g(H) =
(1)dim(B)dim(H) f(B) =
mt B
(1)dim(B)+1 =
mt B
(1)i Fi .
i=1
V d 2.7. p dng (5.6) cho poset P = Dn , ta c ngay cng thc

nghch o Mobius c in trong l thuyt s trn.
V d 2.8. Cn cng thc inclusion-exclusion th sao? Cch
hiu sau y s hu dng trong nhiu trng hp. Gi s ta c
mt tp bi ve" U = A1 Y Y An . Mi vin bi c nhiu mu. Cc
mu c nh s t 1 n n. Gi Ai l tp cc vin bi c mu
i. Vi X [n] ty , gi g(X) l tp tt c cc vin bi ch c ng
cc mu trong X m thi. Khi ,
g(Y)
f(X) =
XY
chnh l s cc vin bi m mi vin c t nht cc mu trong X,

v f(H) = |U|. Do ,
f(X) = Ai .
iPX
p dng (5.5) cho poset P = Bn ta kt lun
0 = g(H) =
(1)|Y| Ai .
iPY
Y[n]
Chuyn f(H) = |U| sang mt v l ta c cng thc inclusionexclusion.

48
3. B SauerShelah
Chng ta t thng cng bng cch chng minh mt b t
hp quan trng gi l b Sauer-Shelah [7, 8]. B ny c
ng dng su sc trong l thuyt hc my, c th l l thuyt
chiu Vapnik-Chervonenkis (VC dimension) [13, 12].
Gi F l mt b cc tp con ca [n]. Vi S [n] bt k, nh
ngha hnh chiu ca F ln S l tp
F (S) = tF X S | F P Fu.
Ta ni F bm nt S nu F (S) = 2|S| .
B 3.1 (B Sauer-Shelah). Cho trc F l mt b cc tp
con ca [n]. Gi d l kch thc ln nht ca mt tp S [n] b F
bm nt, th
d
n
.
|F| d (n) =
i
i=0
Chng minh. Ta chng minh b ny bng phng php
[n]
chiu (i S tuyn tnh van tu!). Gi d
l tp tt c cc tp
con ca [n] vi kch thc b hn
hoc bng d. Vi mi F P F,

[n]
nh ngha mt hm s hF : d R nh sau:
#
1 XF
.
hF (X) =
0 XF
Cc hm hF l cc vectors trong khng gian Rd (n) . C tt c |F|
vectors hF , do nu chng c lp tuyn tnh th |F| d (n).
Gi s chng khng c lp tuyn tnh, ngha l tn ti cc h
s F sao cho
F hF = 0
(5.7)
FPF
v cc h s ny khng cng bng 0. cho tin, ta m rng

nh ngha v gn X= 0 vi mi X P
2[n] zF.
[n]
T (5.7), vi X P d
bt k ta c FPF F hF (X) = 0, hay ni
[n]
cch khc vi X P d ty ta c XY Y = 0. nh ngha
[n]
X = XY g(Y), th ta va thy rng X = 0, @X P d
.
Gi Y l tp con nh nht ca [n] sao cho Y 0. (Nu ta ly tp
F P F c kch thc ln nht sao cho F 0 th F = F 0, do
49
tn ti tp Y nh nht nh nh ngha.) D nhin |Y| d + 1.

Ta chng minh rng Y b F bm nt, t dn n iu v l.
chng minh Y b bm nt th ta cn chng minh, vi Z Y
ty , tn ti F P F sao cho F X Y = Z. chng minh iu ny
th ch cn chng minh
A 0.
A[n],AXY=Z
l xong, ti v A = 0, @A R F. n y ta xt poset Bm gm tt
c cc tp con ca Y Z (t m = |Y Z|). Poset ny l i s
Bool bc m. Vi mi phn t W Y Z, nh ngha
g(W) =
X .
X:XXY=ZYW
V nh ngha, vi mi V Y Z,
f(V) =
g(W).
VWYZ
(Lu rng ta s dng dng (5.5) ca nghch o Mobius.) D

thy rng
f(V) = ZYV , @V P Bm .
Do Y l tp nh nht vi Y = 0, ta c f(V) = 0, @V Y Z, v
f(Y Z) = Y 0. Theo nghch o Mobius ta c
A = g(H) =
(1)|V| f(V) = (1)|YZ| Y 0.
A[n],AXY=Z
VYZ
4. Ch thch
B sch ca Stanley [10, 9] l tham kho quan trng nht cho
ton t hp m bao gm nghch o Mobius, t hp t-p. Sch
ca Vapnik [12] ni v l thuyt hc my xc sut v l thuyt
chiu Vapnik-Chervonenkis. Mt tham kho tuyt vi khc cho
ton T hp l quyn sch ca van Lint v Wilson [11]. Trong
ngnh my tnh, nghch o Mobius c ng dng trong c s
d liu [2], thut ton [3, 1].
50
Ti liu tham kho
[1] BJ ORKLUND
, A., HUSFELDT, T., KASKI, P., AND KOIVISTO,
M. Trimmed moebius inversion and graphs of bounded
degree. Theory Comput. Syst. 47, 3 (2010), 637654.
[2] DALVI, N. N., AND SUCIU, D. The dichotomy of probabilistic

inference for unions of conjunctive queries. J. ACM 59, 6
(2012), 30.
[3] NEDERLOF, J. Fast polynomial-space algorithms using
mobius inversion: Improving on steiner tree and related
problems. In Automata, Languages and Programming,
36th International Colloquium, ICALP 2009, Rhodes, Greece,
July 5-12, 2009, Proceedings, Part I (2009), S. Albers,
A. Marchetti-Spaccamela, Y. Matias, S. E. Nikoletseas, and
W. Thomas, Eds., vol. 5555 of Lecture Notes in Computer
Science, Springer, pp. 713725.
[4] POINCAR, H. Sur la gnralisation dun thorme dEuler
relatif aux polydres. Comptes rendus hebdomadaires de
lAcadmie des sciences de Paris 117 (1893), 144145.
[5] ROTA , G.-C. On the foundations of combinatorial theory. I.
Theory of Mobius functions. Z. Wahrscheinlichkeitstheorie
und Verw. Gebiete 2 (1964), 340368 (1964).
[6] ROTA , G. C., AND PALOMBI, F.
Birkhauser, 1996.
Indiscrete thoughts.
[7] SAUER, N. On the density of families of sets. J. Combinatorial Theory Ser. A 13 (1972), 145147.
[8] SHEL AH, S. A combinatorial problem; stability and order
for models and theories in infinitary languages. Pacific J.
Math. 41 (1972), 247261.
[9] S TANLEY, R. P. Enumerative combinatorics. Vol. 2, vol. 62 of
Cambridge Studies in Advanced Mathematics. Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, 1999. With a foreword by
Gian-Carlo Rota and appendix 1 by Sergey Fomin.
51
[10] S TANLEY, R. P. Enumerative combinatorics. Volume 1, second ed., vol. 49 of Cambridge Studies in Advanced Mathematics. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2012.
[11]
LINT, J. H., AND WIL SON, R. M. A course in combinatorics, second ed. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
2001.
VAN
[12] VAPNIK, V. N. The Nature of Statistical Learning Theory.

Springer-Verlag New York, Inc., New York, NY, USA, 1995.
[13] VAPNIK, V. N., AND CHERVONENKIS, A. Y. Theory of uniform
convergence of frequencies of events to their probabilities
and problems of search for an optimal solution from empirical data. Avtomat. i Telemeh., 2 (1971), 4253.
52
T p c h
online ca
cng ng
nhng n g i
y u
T o n
CC BI TON I NN
ng Nguyn c Tin (i hc Trento, Italy)
Trong s 1 ca Epsilon, chng ti gii thiu vi c gi 15

bi ton i nn c su tp trong hn 50 nm (t 1961 n
2013), phn b nhng mc kh v th loi khc nhau.
tip tc cuc hnh trnh, trong chuyn mc phn ny chng
ti chn lc v trnh by nhng li gii p cho cc bi ton
c trnh by. Chng ti cng gii thiu vi c gi nhng li
gii tng qut cng nh nhng ng dng thc t cho cc vn
t nhng bi ton gii tr ny.
1. Bi ton 3 chic nn
Nhc li : C 3 ngi chi,
bt u cuc hnh trnh,

mi ngi c i ngu
chng ti mi qu c gi cng
nhin mt nn c mu
hoc xanh dng. H nhn
quay li nhm 3 bi ton i nn
thy mu nn ca 2 bn mnh
s 4, s 5, v s 6.
nhng khng bit mu ca
Chng ta bt u bi bi ton
mnh. Mi ngi cn phi
s i nn s 4 trc. Theo lut
on ra mu nn ca mnh,
chi, ta c th thy rng nu nh
hoc chn b qua nu khng
on c. Nu t nht mt
c 3 u chn b qua th h
ngi on ng mu nn v
s thua trong mi tnh hung,
nhng ngi cn li khng
v vy, trong cc cch tr li d
on sai, h thng tr chi.
thy phi c t nht mt ngi
H s thua nu c ngi on
sai hoc c 3 cng chn b
gi ln mu nn. Xt trng hp
qua.
H c trao i chin
nu c 3 ngi chi u cng
thut vi nhau trc khi chi
chn mt mu, hoc cng chn
nhng trong khi tham gia th
ngu nhin m khng b qua th
khng c trao i bt c
xc sut c 3 cng thng l
thng tin g. Tm chin thut
c xc sut thng cao nht.
1/8, tc 12.5% v c tt c 8 kh
nng khc nhau cho 3 ngi. Mt
chin thut tt hn c th d dng c tm thy l 1 ngi
chn ngu nhin, v 2 ngi chn b qua. Lc ny ta c xc
53
sut thng l 1/2 = 50%. Liu y c phi l chin thut tt

nht?
Nh gi ca bi ton i nn s 6, chin thut ny cha phi
l chin thut tt nht. Li gii sau cho ra xc sut thng li
cao hn: nu mt ngi thy 2 ngi i nn khc mu nhau,
h s chn b qua" v nu thy 2 ngi i nn trng mu
nhau, s chn mu ngc li.
Vi cch ny, h s lun on ng 6/8 trng hp v ch sai
trong 2/8 trng hp khi c 3 nn cng mu nhau (xem v d
Hnh 6.1).
Hnh 6.1: Mi ngi nu thy 2 nn khc mu s chn b qua v

nu thy 2 nn cng mu, s chn mu ngc li. Trong v d ny,
ngi i nn s on mu (do thy 2 nn xanh) v 2 ngi i
nn xanh s chn b qua (do h thy 2 nn khc mu nhau).
Li gii ny cho kh nng thng li l 6/8 = 75% nu nh nn

c i tht s l ngu nhin. Tuy nhin, trong thc t (nh
m t trong bi ton i nn s 6), ngi dn tr s nhanh
chng nhn ra chin thut ca h v s i nn cho h cng
mu nhau vi tn sut nhiu hn, hoc thm ch lun lun
i cng mu. Khi kh nng chin thng t 75% s gim
xung thnh 0%! Vy ngi chi phi i ph th no vi ngi
dn tr xo quyt?
Mt i sch c th ngh ra cho chin thut chi di hn l khi
ngi qun tr i qua i nn cng mu, khi thy 2 nn ging
mu nhau, h s chn mu . Nh vy vi trng hp ny h
s thng 100%. V tt nhin, ngi qun tr li hc c cch
ny v quay li phn b vi 6 trng hp kia hoc quay li vi
phn b ngu nhin nn. Xc sut chin thng khi s thay
i 75% > 0% > 100% > 75% > ... lp i lp li nh mt
54
cuc chin gia nhng ngi chi v ngi dn tr. Trung bnh
chin thng do vy l 58%. Liu c cch lm tt hn 58% i
ph vi ngi dn tr xo quyt?
Rt th v l chng ta c th nng cp chin thut c bo
ton kh nng chin thng 75%. Chin thut ny nh sau:
Chng ta c 8 cch i nn khc nhau v cc cch ny c th
ghp thnh tng cp i xng" nhau, i vi xanh. V d 3
nn -- , s i vi 3 nn xanh-xanh-xanh XXX, hoc
X s i vi XX. Tng tng trn mt hnh lp phng vi
ta cc nh tng ng ln lt vi cc cch i nn, v 2
nh ni vi nhau khi ch c 1 nn khc mu nhau. Cc cu
hnh i nn i xng" chnh l cc nh i xng nhau trn
hnh lp phng ny.
XX
XXX
XX
XX
XX
XX
Chin thut chn hi sinh

cp nh ng mu.
XXX
XX
Chin thut chn hi sinh

2 nh XX v X.
Hnh 6.2: Chin thut i ph vi ngi dn tr xo quyt".

Vi cch th hin ny, nhim v ca ngi chi l xc nh
nhm mnh nh no trn hnh lp phng! Vi mi ngi
chi, khi thy c 2 mu nn ca ngi chi i din, ngi
ny s xc nh c mnh ang cnh no v nhim v l
hoc b qua, hoc on xem mnh nh no. Vi cu hnh
ny, nu chp nhn hi sinh" mt cp nh i xng bt k,
ta s lun xc nh c nh cn tm bng cch lun tr li
hng v cc nh mu xanh khi tnh trng ang mt cnh
ni gia nh xanh" v nh xm", ngc li s chn b qua.
Chin thut ny ch sai khi nhm ngi chi c nh ri vo cp
nh c chn hi sinh", lc c 3 ngi u l 3 cnh
ni ra t cc nh xm" ny. Nh vy, cch chi theo chin
55
thut cu hi 1 l chn cp nh XXX v v c th d

dng b bt bi" bi ngi dn tr chi (Hnh 6.2). Nhng ta c
th chn cc cp nh nh (XX v X), hay (XX v X)...
v u c xc sut thng li l 75% cho trng hp i nn
ngu nhin. Lc ny, ngi dn chng trnh khng th "bt
bi" v nhm ngi chi lun linh ng thay i c cp nh
hi sinh" ngm nh, v buc ngi dn tr phi i nn mt
cch ngu nhin cho h, v chin thng n vi xc sut 75%!
Mt chin thut v d cho trng hp nu chn cp XX v
X (xem Hnh 6.2 bn phi) nh sau:
Ngi 1: nu gp xanh - s chn xanh, iu ny tng
ng vi cnh X - XX (mu trn hnh), v v cp
nh hi sinh c cha X nn ta chn xanh. Nu gp
- xanh s chn , iu ny tng ng vi cnh mu
xanh l cy trn hnh. Ngi 1 chn b qua nu thy 2 nn
cng mu (v cc cnh ny ni cc nh khng thuc tp
hi sinh").
Ngi 2: nu gp nn cng mu, s chn mu , ngc
li s chn b qua.
Ngi 3: nu gp xanh - s chn ; nu gp - xanh
s chn xanh, v b qua nu cng mu.
Xt c th 8 cch i nn c th c, ta c kt qu nh sau:
Nn 1
Xanh
Xanh
Xanh
Xanh
Nn 2 Nn 3
Xanh Xanh
Xanh
Xanh
Xanh Xanh
Xanh
Xanh
on 1 on 2
B qua
Xanh
Xanh
B qua
Xanh
B qua B qua
B qua B qua
Xanh
B qua
B qua
on 3
B qua
B qua
Xanh
Xanh
B qua
B qua
Kt qu
ng
ng
Sai
ng
ng
Sai
ng
ng
Vi 2 trng hp cn li (XX - X v X - XX) cng khng

kh tm ra chin thut tng t vi kh nng thng 6/8. Nh
vy, vi cch lm ngu nhin chn cp nh "hi sinh" ngi chi
buc ngi dn tr phi i nn ngu nhin, v do vy, xc
sut thng li bo ton vi t l 75%.
56
Tng qut ha cho 2n 1 ngi chi

Tip theo, chng ti xin mi c gi cng xem li gii m rng
cho bi ton vi trng hp N = 2n 1 ngi chi, v y cng
chnh l cu tr li cho bi ton i nn s 5 khi thay n = 4.
Lu rng hin nay li gii p ch mi c tm thy trng
hp tng qut nhng c bit ny, tc N = 2n 1. Vi cc trng
hp khc, li gii vn cn ang b ng. Chng ti s trnh by
cch lm c th cho trng hp ny v sau s lin kt cch
lm ny vi m Hamming, mt m sa li tuyn tnh ni ting
v c s dng rng ri trong vin thng.
Cch lm nh sau: gn th t cho ngi chi t 1 n N, v
i cc s ny sang nh phn. Chng ta s s dng php snh
khc (XOR)1 trn cc chui nh phn ny. c tnh quan trng
ca php XOR l vi s k bt k, k k = 0, bi v k khp vi
chnh n trn mi bit. Gi T l tng (XOR) ca tt c ngi chi
c nn mu . Chin thut ca ngi chi l on sao cho T
khc 0 v khi , h s thng nu T tht s khc 0 (tt nhin,
h s sai khi T = 0).
C th chin thut nh sau: Gi tk l tng XOR cc ngi i
nn m ngi th k thy c.
Nu tk = 0, anh ta s on " (v nu anh ta on xanh,
T s khng cp nht v s bng 0).
Nu tk = k, anh ta s on xanh (v nu anh ta on
th T = tk k = k k = 0).
Ngc li, nu tk 0 v tk k, anh ta chn b qua.
Lc ny nh ta thy, nu T tht s bng 0, tt c u s on
sai. Nu T = k 0, ngi th k s on ng v tt c nhng
ngi khc u chn b qua, nn h s chin thng. V T c gi
tr t 0 n N nn xc sut thng li l N/(N + 1).
Liu chin thut ny c th nng cp ln i ph vi ngi
dn tr xo quyt"? Cu tr li l c vi cch lm tng t nh
phn trnh by trn.
1
Php snh khc (thut ng ting Anh l Exclusive OR", hay cn gi l

php OR c loi tr, v cng cn gi l tng NIM), k hiu l , thc hin
"cng" 2 chui nh phn bng cch so snh cc bit t phi sang tri. ng
vi mi cp bit s cho kt qu l 1 nu 2 bit ny khc nhau v kt qu l 0
nu 2 bit ny ging nhau. V d: 0110010 1010111 = 1100101.
57
M HAMMING V BI TON I NN S 5
Gi s ti mun gi mt thng ip cho bn v thng ip
ny c m ha thnh cc bit nh phn (k s 0 hoc 1).
Tuy nhin gia ng truyn c k can thip, v thay i
mt bit no trc khi bn nhn c thng ip. V vy,
ti phi tm ra cch thm vo mt s thng tin b sung cho
thng ip sao cho khi nhn c, bn c th pht hin
thng ip b thay i v hn na, bn c th khi phc
li thng ip gc. Mt trong nhng phng php c bn
phng chng vic sa i ny l s dng m ti din: ti
s gi mt ln 3 bit ging nhau cho cng 1 bit m ti mun
gi cho bn: 000 hoc 111. Lc ny, d k can thip c thay
i bt k bit no, ti cng s khi phc li c. Cch lm
ny tuy t mc ch, nhng hiu qu khng cao, v ni
dung tha chim n 2 ln ni dung thng tin cn gi.
M Hamminga a ra cch tt hn cho vic sa li ny, trong
c 2k 1 bit thng tin gi i ch c k bit b sung, cn li
2k k1 bit l d liu. V d vi k = 4, khi gi mt thng ip
c chiu di 15 bit th trong 11 bit l d liu (so vi ch 5
bit l d liu phng php s dng m ti din). Chi tit
cch hot ng ca m Hamming c gi c th d dng tm
thy ti Wikipedia. y, chng ti ch ch ra mi quan h
gia Hamming v bi ton i nn s 5.
Mt c tnh ng ch ca m Hamming l bt k chui
(c chiu di 2k 1) no cng hoc l mt thng ip ng,
hoc ch b sai mt bit. iu ny khc bit vi m ti din
v m ti din c mt s thng ip s khng bao gi xut
hin. V d, bn s khng bao gi nhn c m 001011 v
y c n 2 bit b thay i. m Hamming, mi chui
u c kh nng xut hin.
By gi, gi s ta m ha nhng ngi i nn xanh l 0 v
nn l 1, khi mt cch i nn cho N ngi tr thnh
mt "thng ip" N bit. Lc ny, mi ngi s c th thy
ton b nhng bit khc, tr bit ca anh ta, v tt nhin ch
c 2 kh nng hoc anh ta l bit 0 (xanh), hoc l bit 1 ().
Ngi chi s dng chin thut l lun gi nh chui N bit
58
hin ti KHNG PHI l mt "thng ip" ng. C th: nu

mt ngi chi thy rng nu bit tng ng vi anh ta c
gi tr 0 s bin chui thnh mt thng ip ng, anh ta
s chn "" (ng vi bit 1), v ngc li. Nu anh ta thy
rng c 0 v 1 u c th lm thnh mt "thng ip" ng,
anh ta chn b qua. Chin thut ny ch gp tht bi khi
"thng ip" ban u ng v thnh cng nu "thng ip"
sai. V c mi thng ip ng s c tng ng N thng ip
sai, nn xc sut thng li l N/(N + 1), tng t nh chin
thut nu bi ton i nn s 5.
a
M Hamming c t theo tn ca nh ton hc ngi M, Richard

Wesley Hamming (1915 - 1998).
2. Cc bi ton ca Konstantin Knop

Chng ti mi c gi tip tc i n phn li gii ca 2 bi
ton tuyt p do Konstantin Knop xut: bi ton i nn s
7 v bi ton i nn s 9.
Nh cp n Epsilon s 1, y l nhm cc bi ton
m ngi chi xp thnh hng nn s lng nn m ngi chi
quan st c gp gii hn. iu ny khng xy ra nhm bi
ton i nn trn l mi ngi chi u thy c nn ca
mi ngi chi khc (tr nn ca mnh). Tuy nhin, nhm
bi ton trc, ngi chi khng bit c nhng ngi khc
s on mu g, cn nhm bi ton ny, th t nu ln mu
nn cng thuc v chin thut chi. tin theo di, chng ti
nhc li ca bi ton i nn s 7 cho trng hp 3 mu:
C 100 ngi c xp thnh mt hng, mi ngi c i mt
nn chn ngu nhin trong 3 mu cho trc. Mi ngi ch nhn
thy mu nn ca nhng ngi ng trc mnh m khng thy
nn ca mnh v nhng ngi ng sau. Ln lt mi ngi s
phi on mu nn ca mnh v h to cho nhng ngi khc
nghe. Ngi ng cui cng (l ngi thy mu nn ca ton b
99 ngi trc) l ngi bt u phi on. Ngi chi khng c
trao i bt k thng tin g vi nhau ngoi tr lng nghe mu nn
t ngi on trc. ng sai cng ch c bit khi ngi cui
cng on xong. Hy tm chin chut sao cho s ngi on
sai l t nht.
59
y, sau khi quen thuc vi nhm bi ton phn 1, ta

thy y cng l mt dng m sa sai. C th trong bi ton
ny, chin thut s dng modulo c p dng. Chng ti trnh
by y chin thut tng qut cho bi ton vi M ngi chi
v N mu nn, chin thut nh sau:
Gn mi mu tng ng vi mt con s t 0 n N 1.
Ngi u tin tnh tng tt c nhng mu nn m anh ta
quan st c, ly modulo theo N v h mu nn tng ng.
Nhng ngi tip theo, cn c vo li h ca nhng ngi
trc , v tng ca nhng ngi ng trc mnh s
on ng mu nn ca mnh.
Nh vy, cch lm ny ch c ngi u tin l c kh nng
on sai, v v c N mu khc nhau, nn kh nng tt c mi
ngi u on ng ch ph thuc vo kh nng ngi u
on ng, v kh nng ny l 1/N.
Hy th xt mt v d n gin vi 5 ngi chi, 3 mu nn v
mi ngi ln lt i cc nn l (1, 2, 0, 2, 1):
Ngi u tin, quan st c trc mnh c cc nn
(2, 0, 2, 1), c tng bng 2 + 0 + 2 + 1 2 (mod 3), ngi ny
s h mnh c mu 2 (v sai).
Ngi tip theo, quan st thy trc mnh c (0, 2, 1) v
cn c vo li on ca ngi trc 2, nn s on l
2 0 2 1 2 (mod 3) (ng).
Ngi th 3, quan st thy (2, 1) v cn c vo li on
ca 2 ngi trc (2, 2), nn on l 2 2 2 1 0 (mod 3)
(ng).
Ngi th 4, quan st thy (1) v cn c vo li on ca
3 ngi trc (2, 2, 0), nn on l 2 2 0 1 2 (mod 3)
(ng).
Ngi cui cng, cn c vo li on ca 4 ngi trc
(2, 2, 0, 2), nn on l 2 2 0 2 1 (mod 3) (ng).
Kt qu l 4 ngi sau u lun lun on ng v ngi u
tin xc sut ng l 1/3.
Tip theo, chng ti trnh by li gii cho bi ton i nn s 9.
tin theo di, chng ti nu li y.
60
C 100 ngi xp thnh hng, mi ngi c i mt nn trong

s 101 nn khc mu nhau. Mi ngi ch thy nn ca nhng
ngi ng trc mnh v khng thy nn ca mnh cng nh
nhng ngi ng sau. Ln lt mi ngi t sau ra trc phi
on mu nn ca mnh v h to cho mi ngi cng nghe. Mu
no h ri s khng c h li na. Ngi chi khng c
trao i thng tin vi nhau. Tm chin thut sao cho kh nng tt
c u on ng l cao nht.
Thot nhn, 2 bi ton ny kh ging nhau, nhng khi tht s

gii chng ta s thy y l mt bi khc, v mi bi c v p
ring bit. Trc khi i vo phn tch li gii cho bi ny, chng
ti xin nhc li hai khc bit c bn gia bi ton i nn s 9
so vi bi ton s 7:
N ngi chi, mi ngi i mt nn trong s N + 1 nn
khc mu nhau. iu ny c ngha l mu nn mi ngi
u khc nhau. bi s 7, ta khng c rng buc gia
s ngi chi v s mu nn, hn na h c th i nn
ging mu nhau.
Mu h ri khng c h li. bi s 7, iu kin ny
khng c.
Nh phn tch trn, ta thy rng c th p dng chin
thut c vi modulo 101, nhng v iu kin khng cho php
mu h ri c dng li nn chin thut gp tr ngi! V ngi
chi u tin (ng cui hng) sau khi chn 1 mu nn
(theo modulo), th kh nng trng vi mu ca mt trong nhng
ngi ng trc l rt cao, ln n 99/101, nn c th ni rng
gn nh s c mt ngi tuy bit r mu nn ca mnh, nhng
khng th h! V chng ta gp b tc y!
Konstantin Knop, tc gi ca bi ton, a ra gi nh sau:
Hy ngi chi khng may mn h ln mu nn ca ngi
xp u hng (ngi khng thy nn ca ai). Lc ny, tt c
nhng ngi chi cha on mu nn ca mnh nu thy c
ngi no (tr ngi u tin) on mu ca ngi u
hng, s bit rng l k "khng may mn". Nhng ngi tip
theo, cn c vo s tnh c mu nn ca mnh (v khng
trng li na), v ch c ngi ng u hng (ngi on cui
cng) l on sai, do mu nn ca anh ta b s dng.
61
Nh vy vi chin thut ny, khng qu 3 ngi phi hi sinh

cu mi ngi khc. Trong s ny, khng phi ai cng l
"anh hng", v ngi cui hng (ngi on u tin) bit mu
nn ca mnh vi xc sut 1/2. Bng cch thng bo nhng g
mnh thy, anh ta hi sinh c hi ca mnh. Hai ngi cn li
"ra i" trc c khi h phi on.
Liu phng n trnh by trn l ti u? Cu tr li l cha.
Bn c hn s t cu hi v sao chng ti (v c tc gi ca
bi ton) bn v phng n ny, mc d n cha phi li gii
cn tm? n gin l v n p v n c th gii quyt tng qut
vi M > N nn.
i n n li gii ti u cho bi ton ny, chng ti xin mi
c gi ri xa modulo m chuyn sang mt phng thc khc:
s dng hon v!
Hy tng tng, ta c thm mt ngi chi "o", i chic nn
cn li v ng sau ngi cui hng. Nh vy, ton b cch i
nn tr thnh hon v ca 101 s!
Lm th no ngi chi (khng o) u tin c th truyn
ti thng tin cho cc ngi khc on ra hon v ca tt c bn
h? Trc mt anh ta l 99 ngi, nn ch c 2 hon v c th
c khi quan st t v tr ny. Vi ch mt bit thng tin (ng vi
2 hon v) nh vy, lm sao h c th chin thng? Cu tr li
l anh ta s chn mu sao cho hon v tng ng l mt hon
v chn (even permutation)2 . Cn c vo nhng ngi chi
tip theo s on ra mu nn ca mnh, nm trong s 2 mu
m h cha nghe thy hoc cha quan st thy. Nh vo hon
v chn, h s chn ng mu nn ca mnh! Mt li gii n
gin v tuyt p!
Chng ta hy cng xt v d c th nh sau: Gi s c 3 ngi
chi v 4 nn:
Gi s ngi ng cui hng thy nn ngi ng u
tin l 2 v ngi tip theo l 4, ngha l cc hon v c
th c s c dng [* * 4 2]. C th, c 2 hon v c th c
2
Hon v chn (even permutation) l mt hon v c s lng nghch th

(inversion), tc s cp m s ln xut hin trc s nh, l chn. V d
[1 3 4 2] c 2 nghch th l (3, 2) v (4, 2) nn l hon v chn.
62
l [1 3 4 2] v [3 1 4 2]. V [1 3 4 2] l hon v chn ([3 1 4

2] l hon v l), nn ngi u tin s h mnh c mu 3
(v gn 1 cho ngi "o").
Lc ny, ngi tip theo c thng tin cho anh ta l [* 3 *
2], nn c 2 hon v tng ng l [1 3 4 2] v [4 3 1 2], nn
anh ta s chn [1 3 4 2] do [1 3 4 2] l hon v chn v [4 3
1 2] l hon v l (c 5 nghch th). V vy, anh ta h mu
4 cho mnh. V y l kt qu ng.
Ngi cui cng, lng nghe thng tin t 2 ngi trc, nn
c [* 3 4 *] v c 2 hon v anh ta c th chn l [1 3 4
2] v [2 3 4 1]. y mt ln na anh ta s chn [1 3 4
2] v l hon v chn ([2 3 4 1] c 3 nghch th, nn l
hon v l) nn s h mu 2 cho mnh.
Vy theo chin thut ny, chc chn N 1 ngi sau s on
ng mu nn ca mnh v ngi u tin c 2 kh nng
chn nn kh nng chin thng cho tt c mi ngi l 1/2.
Tip theo, kt thc cho chuyn mc "Cc bi ton i nn",
chng ti trnh by phn li gii cho mt trng hp rt kh vi
bi ton v hn nn, trong phn ln phi s dng n s h
tr ca my tnh.
3. Bi ton v hn nn
Trong phn ny, chng ti tham kho v gn nh dch li phn
ln nhng ghi ch t bi ton #1179 trong chuyn mc Cu
hng tun ca nh ton hc Stan Wagon (i hc Macalester).
Nh 2 phn trc, chng ti ng li bi y c gi
tin theo di.
Bi ton ny c ra bi Lionel Levine (i hc Cornell) vo
nm 2011 nh sau: Bn ngi cng tham gia mt tr chi on
nn nh sau: Ngi dn tr s i v hn cc nn c mu trng
hoc en ln u mi ngi vi xc sut nn trng v en l nh
nhau v bng 12 . Cc nn ca mi ngi c nh s ln lt
1, 2, . . . Mi ngi chi ch thy c ton b nn ca 3 ngi
khc nhng nn ca mnh th h khng thy.
Mi ngi s c pht mt t giy v h c php ghi vo
mt con s, ng vi ch s ca nn ca h m h on l mu
en. Sau khi nhn tr li, ngi dn tr s kim tra s c
63
ghi trn giy ca mi ngi.
Nu c 4 ngi cng on ng (tc l 4 ngi u ghi c con s

ng vi nn mu en ca mnh), h thng tr chi, ngc li, ch
cn mt ngi on khng ng, h thua. Bn ngi c tho
lun trc chin thut trc khi chi v khng c bt k trao i
no sau . H cng khng bit c thi im m nhng ngi
khc a giy cho ngi dn tr. Hy tm chin thut xc sut
thng l cao nht.
V d: h u ghi s 2015 vo cc mnh giy. Khi , c hi chin
thng s l 1/16 v xc sut nn th 2015 ca mi ngi l 1/2.
3.1. Chin thut New Zealand

Li gii u tin trnh by y c Stan Wagon gi l chin
thut New Zealand (v i bng bu dc ca New Zealand c
tn v biu tng l ALL-BLACKS). Chin thut nh sau:
Ngi th j s tm ra ch s #j nh nht sao cho ton b nn th
#j ca tt c nhng ngi quan st c u c mu en. Ngi
ny s on mu nn th #j ca mnh cng l mu en.
Chin thut ny s thnh cng nu ti v tr no tt c u
i nn en v tht bi nu nh c 1 ngi i nn trng. V
c n kh nng c 1 ngi i nn trng v 1 kh nng tt c
u i nn en, nn xc sut thnh cng ca chin thut s
l 1/(n + 1).
Hy th phn tch cho trng hp n gin vi 2 ngi chi:
ta thy nu cc nn u tin c mu l en-en, h s thnh
cng. Nu c mu Trng-Trng h s i ln cp tip theo, nu
64
l en-Trng hoc Trng-en, h s tht bi. Nh vy xc sut

chin thng l 1/3.
Stan Wagon, sau nhn ra rng nu nh chin thut l tm
ra ch s #j nh nht trong c ng k nn trng cng s
thnh cng vi xc sut 1/(n + 1) vi k n bt k. Chin thut
New Zealand vi m rng ny ng ngha vi k = 0. T tng
ny kh gn vi phn 1 ca bi trong chin thut i ph vi
ngi dn tr "xo quyt".
y c phi l chin thut tt nht? Cu tr li l cha phi,
nhng y l mt chin thut n gin c hiu qu rt tt. Theo
Stan Wagon, vi n = 2 v n = 3, hiu qu ca chin thut c th
so snh vi cc chin thut phc tp hn. Tuy nhin vi n tng
qut, chin thut c a ra bi Peter Winkler s thnh cng
vi xc sut xp x 1/log(n), khi n ln s vt tri chin thut
New Zealand.
3.2. Chin thut Winkler (2011)

Chin thut ny nh sau: tt c ngi chi s thng nht vi
nhau mt s t v mi ngi s on da trn 2 tiu ch sau y:
Tiu ch (A). Trong s t nn u tin ca mi ngi u
c t nht mt nn en.
Tiu ch (B). Tng cc ch s ca nn en u tin trn
u mi ngi chia ht cho t.
Ngi chi th j quan st thy ton b n 1 nn en u tin
ca nhng ngi chi khc nn khi c t v p dng 2 tiu ch
trn, anh ta s nhanh chng tnh ra c ch s nn en u
tin ca mnh. V l con s duy nht trong khong t 1 n t.
Xt tiu ch (A) vi n = 1000 ngi chi v gi tr t = 13, khi
xc sut trong 13 nn u c nn en xut hin ca mt ngi
l 1 (1/2)13 v do vy xc sut c n ngi u c nn en trong
s t nn u s l (1 (1/2)13 )1000 = 0.885, ngha l xp x 88.5%.
Xc sut ny s tin dn n xp x 100% khi t tng.
Xt tiu ch (B), xc sut tng tt c cc ch s ca nn en
u tin chia ht cho t l 1/t.
65
Nh vy, chin thut Winkler ra s thnh cng khi c (A) v

(B) u ng, ngha l xc sut thnh cng s l:
n

1
1
1 t
2
t
nu ta xt (A) v (B) nh 2 bin c c lp (mc d thc t (A)
v (B) khng hon ton c lp).
Cu hi t ra l vi
chin thut nh vy,
xc sut chin thng l
bao nhiu? V gi tr t
cn chn l bao nhiu?
chin thut Winkler
thnh cng vi xc sut
cao nht, cn tm ra gi
tr t sao cho xc sut ca
c (A) v (B) ng xy ra
t gi tr cc i.
tm cc tr cho (1 21t )n 1t , ta xt o hm:

!
(1 21t )n
(1 2t )n (ntlog(2) 2t + 1)
B
=
Bt
t
(2t 1)t2
V t 0 v n 0 nn o hm bng 0 khi:
ntlog(2) 2t + 1 = 0 2t = ntlog(2) + 1
Ta c khai trin MacLaurin ca 2t l:
2t =
tn logn (2)
n!
n=0
Gi tr t tha mn s xp x t log2(2n 2).
y, tiu ch (B) cn quan tm cao hn v c kh nng gi tr

ti u s t c khi tng cc ch s u tin c gi tr khc
0 (mod t), ngha l xc sut ti u c th xy ra khi tng ny
ng d vi s (mod t) 0 no . Chin thut Winkler v vy tr
thnh tm cp gi tr (t, s) sao cho gi tr xc sut t cc i
vi u vo n cho trc. Ta c th tm ra gi tr ny thng qua
thut ton nh sau:
Gi F(n, t, s) l s cch i nn cho n ngi vi t nn u
tin sao cho c 2 tiu ch (A) v (B) u tha. Khi , xc
sut thnh cng chnh l F(n, t, s)/2tn .
F c th xy dng quy nh sau:
F[1, t, 0] = 1, lu , y cn hiu l s = t, v vi n = 1
th ch c 1 kh nng l nn v tr t l nn c u tin
c mu en.
F[1, t, s] = 2ts , v ch cn nn v tr s l nn u tin
mu en, cc nn sau c th c mu ty .
F[n, t, s] = tk=1 2(tk) F[n - 1, t, modulo(s - k, s)], y
66
ch l quy da trn kt qu bc trc.
Mt s kt qu tnh ton vi chin thut Winkler:

n = 2 v n = 3: chin thut Winkler khng tt hn chin
thut New Zealand. C th xc sut ti u cho n = 2 l
F(2, 2, 0)/16 = 5/16 1/3 v n = 3 l F(3, 3, 0)/512 = 121/512
1/4.
n = 4, chin thut Winkler nhm ti s = 0 khng nhnh
hn New Zealand, nhng vi kt qu ti u t = 4 v s = 1,
xc sut l 421/2048, hay 0.2056, khong 3% nhiu hn
1/5.
Vi n ln, chin thut Winkler vt tri chin thut New
Zealand. Vi n = 1000, (t, s) ti u l (13, 10) xc sut tnh
c xp x 0.068, tc l 68 ln tt hn xc sut 1/1001
ca chin thut New Zealand.
3.3. Nhng tng mi

Chin thut Winkler mc d cho ra kt qu rt tt vi n ln, tuy
nhin, y vn cha phi l chin thut tt nht. Nm 2014,
Larry Carter, J-C Reyes, v Joel Rosenberg (San Diego)
xut ra hai chin thut mi nh sau:
Chin thut sa sai3 . tng ca chin thut ny nh sau:
nu nh mt ngi nhn ra rng c ng i no ca mnh
s tht bi nu tun theo chin thut c bn ca Winkler, lc
ngi ny s nhn ra rng h s tht bi nu cng nhc
tun theo chin thut gc, v vy thay v p dng trong on t
1 n t chin thut Winkler, ngi ny s sa sai bng cch p
dng chin thut trong on t t+1 n 2t. V nh vy, nu mi
ngi u nhn ra khng th p dng chin thut trong on
1 n t, h s sa sai bng cch nhy ln mt on. Chin
thut ny vn s tht bi trong trng hp c ngi chi khng
th tm thy li. V d nh ngi A c ton b t nn u u
mu trng, lc A s khng th nhn ra l cn phi sa li.
Kim tra bng my tnh, chin thut ny tht s tt hn chin
thut Winkler, vi (n = 4, t = 4, s = 1), chin thut nng xc sut
thnh cng t 0.205566 ln 0.210090.
3
Thut ng gc l The reset strategy, y chng ti gi l sa sai da

trn tng ca chin thut.
67
Chin thut hon v. tng c bn l thay v tun theo chin

thut (B) tnh tng ton b nhng nn en u tin ca ng
i th h s tnh cc tng t cc hon v khc nhau. iu ny
buc phi s dng thm gi nh l ngi chi ngm nh mi
ngi c th t khc bit. S dng tr gip ca my tnh, Stan
Wagon cho ra kt qu vi n = 3, t = 4 v hon v (342), kt qu
t c l 263/1024 = 0.256, cao hn 1/4 ca chin thut New
Zealand v 121/512 = 0.236 ca chin thut Winkler. Vi chin
thut sa sai, kt qu l 0.259.
J-C Reyes v Joel Rosenberg tip tc xut mt chin thut
mi t kt qu tt hn cho trng hp n = 3. Stan Wagon cng
khng gii thch c v sao phng php ny c th t hiu
qu cao nh vy! Tuy nhin, kim chng bng my tnh cho
thy kt qu tht s tt hn. C th l xc sut vi n = 3 l
0.2617, cao hn ton b cc chin thut c gii thiu tnh
n y.
Phng php ny da trn 3 ma trn kch thc 8 8 c xy
dng trc:
2,
8,
4,
1,
5,
1,
3,
8,
3,
7,
1, 4, 3, 5,
7, 1, 3, 2,
7, 6, 8, 3,
4, 6, 5, 7,
4, 6, 2, 1,
2, 4, 5, 7,
2, 8, 6, 7, 6,
2, 1, 4, 3, 6,
7, 1, 4, 1, 2,
2, 6, 5, 6, 2,
Ma trn A
6,
5,
2,
4,
3,
1,
5,
8,
8,
1.
2,
7,
6,
1,
5,
6,
1,
8,
5,
7,
1, 3, 5, 4,
8, 1, 3, 2,
5, 8, 7, 3,
1, 5, 4, 6,
4, 1, 3, 2,
5, 4, 5, 6,
3, 7, 7, 7, 6,
3, 1, 2, 5, 6,
7, 2, 2, 3, 1,
8, 6, 1, 3, 1,
Ma trn B
6,
4,
2,
6,
7,
2,
4,
8,
8,
2.
2,
7,
6,
1,
4,
6,
2,
3,
7,
8,
1, 3, 5, 4,
8, 1, 3, 2,
5, 8, 7, 4,
6, 5, 8, 8,
5, 4, 2, 1,
7, 5, 4, 6,
3, 6, 1, 6, 7,
8, 2, 1, 4, 8,
6, 3, 1, 4, 2,
4, 5, 2, 4, 2,
Ma trn C
6,
4,
2,
6,
7,
1,
5,
6,
7,
1.
Chin thut p dng nh sau: ngi A s tm nn en nh nht

ca B v C, sau s chn gi tr v tr tng ng ma trn A.
V d nh A thy ngi B c nn u tin l mu en v ngi
C c nn u tin mu en l nn th 5. Khi , A s chn s
v tr (1, 5) ma trn A, ng vi gi tr 5. B v C cng lm tng
t vi ma trn ca mnh. Chin thut s chc chn sai khi c
mt ngi c nn en u tin nm ngoi 8 v tr u tin. Lu
rng cc s trn dng v ct cc ma trn ny khng phi l
hon v, nn tng kh nng ca cc ma trn l 8364 = 10173 .
68
Chin thut Winkler vi (n = 3, t = 3, s = 0) tng ng vi chin

thut ny vi ma trn A = B = C v bng
1 3 2
3 2 1
2 1 3
tng kt cc phng php, chng ti s dng li hnh nh
ca tm tt Stan Wagon v trnh by li Hnh. 6.3.
Hnh 6.3: Hiu qu ca cc chin thut dng gii bi ton

v hn nn. Ngun: [5]
3.4. Trng hp n = 2
Ton b cc chin thut trc u c gng tm ra phng n
tt hn cho n 2, v vi n = 2, a s u ngh rng chin thut
n gin New Zealand cho kt qu ti u. Tuy nhin, Jim
Roche khm ph ra rng, ngay c trong trng hp n = 2, cc
phng n tt hn vn cn c th c pht hin! C th, chin
thut sau y s thnh cng vi xc sut 22/63 = 0.349 1/3.
A v B s tun theo 7 "mu" nh sau: nu A thy 3 nn u tin
ca B l en-en-en hoc en-en-Trng hoc Trng-enen, A s chn 1. Nu A thy 3 nn u l en-Trng-en hoc
69
Trng-Trng-en s chn 2 v nu A thy Trng-en-en hoc

Trng-en-Trng s chn 3. V B cng lm tng t. Chin
thut ny, Stan Wagon gi y l chin thut 3-nn4 .
Nu A thy 3 nn u ca B u mu trng, A bit rng chin
thut khng s dng c, A s sa sai bng cch di chuyn
quan st ln cc nn t 4 n 6 v li p dng 7 lut nh trn.
Kim tra bng vt cn (Brute-force), nu khng p dng sa

sai, chin thut cho kt qu 22/64 = 0.34375 v vi sa sai, kt
qu l 22/63 = 0.3492064. Stan Wagon th nghim vi cc ma
trn khc nhau cho A v B, nhng kt qu khng cao hn.
Cc m rng vi cc gi tr ca t vi n = 2 v n = 3 c kho st
bi my tnh v k lc hin ti cho n = 2, t = 8 l 22937/65535
= 0.3499961 v 0.35 vn ang l mt chn trn cho trng
hp v hn nn c 2 ngi chi.
Tiefenbruck, Reyes, Carter, v Rosenberg a ra mt cch l
lun n gin cho kt qu 0.35 nh sau: bt u vi chin
thut 3-nn 11213321 vi xc sut 22/64. Nu A thy 3 nn
u tin ca B l ton trng hoc ton en, A s b qua v
xem xt 3 nn tip theo v c th tip tc. B cng lm tng
t. Ngha l h ch p dng chin thut 3-nn khi thy 3 nn
c mu khc nhau, do vy, c 60 kh nng m ti t nht A
hoc B phi on (khng b qua). V h s thng li vi xc sut
21 trong tng s 60 trng hp ny, t hn 1 trng hp so vi
chin thut 3-nn (l trng hp 3 nn u tin ca c 2 ngi
u mu en). V nh vy, xc sut chin thng l 21/60 = 0.35.
4
Vi 0 l en v 1 l trng, chin thut 3-nn tm tt nh sau:

(0, 0, 0) 1,
(0, 0, 1) 1,
(0, 1, 0) 2,
(0, 1, 1) 1,
(1, 0, 0) 3,
(1, 0, 1) 3,
(1, 1, 0) 2, hay gi ngn gn l 11213321, ng vi ch s cho b 8 gi tr
khc nhau sinh ra t 3 nn.
70
3.5. Sng to bt tn
Liu chng ta c th nng cao hiu qu cho bi ton? gii
p c cu hi ny, trc tin cn pht biu li bi ton mt
cch h thng. Th xt vi trng hp n = 2:
Gi P l tp ca tt c cc chui 0 v 1; v N l tp s t nhin.
Khi , mt cch i nn mt ch s no l mt phn t
ca P P. 5 Mt chin thut l mt hm S : P P N, khng
quan tm nu hm ny c kh dng hay khng (hay d hiu
hn l khng quan tm n s phc tp ca hm ny). V nh
vy vi l thuyt tp hp da trn tin chn6 , tn ti mt
chin thut m nu ngi chi s dng h s a tp con ca
PP v chin thng vi o ngoi bng 1. iu ny c ngha l
lun tn ti chin thut m ngi chi khng thua! Hoc, quay
li nhng nghi ng kinh in ca Ton hc v tin chn vi
nhng tranh ci cng v tn nh chnh bn thn ca vn !
Nh vy, mc d tn ti chin thut lun chin thng (Lu :
tin chn c s dng), vi trng hp n = 2, chin thut
tt nht c ghi nhn hin ti vn ch l 35% v vi n 2, kt
qu hy cn thp hn rt nhiu. iu ny c ngha l bi ton
vn cn c m v mong ch cc ng gp t nhng ngi
yu ton hc.
4. Li kt
Nh vy l vi 2 chuyn mc u tin v ton hc gii tr ng
ti 2 s u tin ca Epsilon, chng ti gii thiu tng i
trn vn "50 nm nhng bi ton i nn". Thng qua nhng
bi ton ny, chng ti hi vng mang n cho c gi khng
5
Kt qu ny c chng minh bi Freiling vi tn gi nh l C. Freiling,

c th tham kho lin kt cui bi.
6
Tin chn, hay cn gi l tin Zermelo-Fraenkel c a ra bi
Zermelo vo nm 1904, l tin khng nh rng vi mi h tp hp ty
khng rng v i mt khng giao nhau lun tn ti mt tp hp m mi
phn t ca n l phn t ca mt tp hp trong h tp hp kia v phn t
l duy nht.
Mt cch pht biu khc ca tin chn l: Vi mt h X bt k cc tp
hp khng rng, lun tn ti mt hm chn f nh ngha trn X. y chnh
l c s ca chng minh cho bi ton v hn nn bng cch p dng hm
chn cho S.
71
ch l nhng bi ton thun ty m cn t cho thy gi

tr v v p ca ton hc tim n mi ni.
tin tra cu, c gi c th truy tm li ngun gc ca tng
bi thng qua nhng ti liu sau:
Phn 1: chng ti s dng ch yu ti liu [1] v [2].
Phn bi ton i nn s 6, "ngi dn tr xo quyt" kh
him gp. Bi ton theo ghi nhn ca chng ti xut hin
mt cch chnh thc ti Vit Nam vo nm 2007, trong
kha hc ca gio s Michel Waldschimidt, khoa Ton i
hc Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris. ng n trng i
hc Khoa hc T nhin TP.HCM trong dp ny v ging cho
sinh vin v hc sinh ph thng Nng Khiu cc bi ging
rt th v, phn bi ging ny, may mn thay vn cn c
th c tm thy y.
Phn 2: Chng ti s dng ch yu t [3] v tham kho
Blog ca Tanya Khovanova.
Phn 3: Bn c c th xem thm [4] v c bit l [5]
(trang gc ca tc gi Stan Wagon).
Ti liu tham kho

[1] E. Brown and J. Tanton, A dozen hat problems, Archives
of Psychology, vol. 16, no. 4, pp. 2225, 2009.
[2] A. Zorn, Colored hats and logic puzzles, Berkeley Math
Circle, 2013.
[3] T. Khovanova, A line of sages, The Mathematical Intelligencer, 2014.
[4] C. S. Hardin and A. D. Taylor, An introduction to infinite hat problems, The Mathematical Intelligencer, vol. 30,
no. 30, pp. 2025, 2008.
[5] S. Wagon, Problem of the week 1179, 2014.
72
T p c h
online ca
cng ng
nhng n g i
y u
T o n
BI TON FROBENIUS
V NHNG NG XU
Trn Nam Dng (i hc KHTN, TP. H Ch Minh)
Nguyn Tt Thu (THPT Chuyn Lng Th Vinh, ng Nai)
Bi ton Frobenius v nhng ng xu l mt bi ton kinh in

c nhc n trong nhiu bi vit, nhiu cng trnh nghin
cu. Mt trong nhng l do ti tip tc c l bi
ton s 6 trong k thi chn hc sinh gii ton quc gia nm hc
2014-2015 mi din ra vo thng 1 va qua.
Tc gi th nht ca bi bo c nhiu duyn n vi bi ton ny.
Khi cn l hc sinh, anh gp (v rt may mn, gii c) bi
ton 4 di y. Sau ny anh li gp li bi ton nhiu ln,
lc ny l trong vai tr thy gio, ging vin.
1. M u
Chng ta m u bng mt bi ton vui sau y: Chng ta u
c truyn hoc xem phim Ty Du K. Cu chuyn sau y
rt t chuyn i k v ca thy tr ng Tng n Ty Trc.
Va thot khi kip nn Bch ct tinh, thy tr ng tng li
i vo mt vng quc mi, gi l vng quc Ng Bt. S d c
ci tn ny l bi v Ngn hng trung ng ca Vng quc ny
ch pht hnh 2 loi tin 5 quan (Ng) v 8 quan (Bt).
Vng quc ny cng cha c pht trin lm nn ngi dn
y ch bit php tnh cng, khng bit php tnh tr. V th,
khi bn hng, nu mnh a tha ngi ta s khng tr li (cn
a thiu th ngi ta. . . khng chu - khn lm).
Thy tr ng tng ang i tung tng trong thnh th thy
mt siu th c tn l Over 28. Thy tn l l, h bn bc vo.
73
Nhn vin bo v ra chn li, xem chng khng mun cho vo.
Tr bt gii xng ra ni:
- Sao khng cho chng ta vo?
Tay bo v ch tay vo s 28 (nh thp bt) ni: ng c thy s
g y khng?
- 28 . 28 tui mi c vo . Yn tm i nh ch em. Anh y
360 tui ri nh. Cn ng anh ang gi mng kia 720 tui. Ci
ch ang gnh hng c 240 tui. Ngay c con nga ny cng
130 tui ri. Tr nht y c l l s ph ca bn anh, ng y
va lm sinh nht ln th 30. Cc ch c cn xem chng minh
nhn dn khng, loi mi nh, c c tn b m.
- Khng, khng, y khng phi tui, y l. . .
- y l g. . . Tr Bt gii c th tn cng.
- y l siu th m mi mn hng u t 28 quan tr ln. Ti
thy my ng nh qu qu, s khng tin nn khng mun
cho vo.
- y, ch ng ngh th. Bn anh y u l con nh c iu
kin nh, tin 5 quan, 8 quan bn anh mi i ca khu nch
ti nh.
- Vy xin mi cc anh vo .
Bi ton m u: Chng minh rng thy tr ng tng c th
mua ng (tc l tr ng gi tin) mi mn hng trong siu
th "Over 28".
V mt ton hc, bi ton ny tng ng vi mnh sau:
Chng minh rng vi mi s nguyn N 28, tn ti x, y nguyn
khng m sao cho N = 5x + 8y. Bi ton ny l trng hp ring
ca bi ton Frobenius v nhng ng xu m ta s ni n di
y. C hai cch gii bi ton ny, u mang tnh thut ton.
Cch 1: Ta tm cch biu din cho cc s 28, 29, 30, 31, 32. Sau
ch rng nu N biu din c th N + 5 cng biu din
c.
74
Cch 2: Cch ny kh ngh n hn nhng p hn. C th

nh sau: Ta chng minh nu N 28 biu din c th N + 1
cng biu din c. Nu trong biu din ca N c 3 s 5 th ta
thay 3 s 5 bng 2 s 8 c biu din ca N + 1. Nu trong biu
din ca N c 3 s 8 th ta thay 3 s 8 bng 5 s 5 th c biu
din ca N + 1. Mt trong hai TH ny phi xy ra v nu khng
c th N 2 5 + 2 8 = 26.
V d trn c trch t bi ging ca chng ti dnh cho
sinh vin khoa Ton-Tin hc trng H KHTN Tp HCM, mn S
hc v logic, trong mc v thut ton Euclide v nh l Bezout.
Vi cch pht biu th v v hi hc, chng ti li ko c
cc sinh vin vn rt s S hc v Logic tham gia vo tho lun
v tm kim li gii. Thc t, trn lp cc sinh vin t mnh
tm c li gii cho bi ton theo cch 1.
Bi ton ni trn ch l mt trng hp c bit ca mt bi
ton tng qut hn: bi ton Frobenius v nhng ng xu.
Bi ton Frobenius v nhng ng xu l bi ton xc nh s
tin ln nht khng th tr c khi ch s dng cc ng xu
c mnh gi c nh no . V d vi cc ng xu mnh gi 3
v 5 n v th s tin ln nht khng tr c l 7 n v. S
ln nht vi mi b s nh th ta gi l s Frobenius.
Mt cch ton hc, bi ton c pht biu nh sau:
Cho cc s nguyn dng a1 , a2 , , an c gcd(a1 , , an ) = 1.
Tm s nguyn ln nht khng biu din c di dng k1 a1 +
k2 a2 + + kn an vi k1 , k2 , , kn l cc s nguyn khng m. S
nguyn ln nht ny c gi l s Frobenius v thng c
k hiu l g(a1 , a2 , , an ).
V bi vit ny s ni v mt s kt qu lin quan n bi ton
ni ting ny.
2. nh l Sylvester v bi ton s 6 trong

thi VMO 2015
Trong k thi VMO nm 2015 c bi ton s 6 l trng hp c
bit ca bi ton Frobenius ng vi n = 3. Bi ton c ni dung
nh sau:
75
Vi a, n nguyn dng, xt phng trnh a2 x + 6ay + 36z = n, trong

x, y, z l cc s t nhin
1. Tm tt c cc gi tr ca a vi mi n 250, phng trnh
cho lun c nghim (x, y, z).
2. Bit rng a 1 v nguyn t cng nhau vi 6. Tm gi tr ln
nht ca n theo a phng trnh cho khng c nghim
(x, y, z).
gii bi ton trn, chng ta i xt cc bi ton sau y:
Bi ton 1. Cho a, b l cc s nguyn dng nguyn t cng
nhau, b 1. Chng minh rng vi mi s nguyn N, tn ti duy
nht cp s nguyn x, y tha mn iu kin
N = ax + by v 0 x b.
Li gii. Chng minh s tn ti
V (a, b) = 1 nn theo nh l Bezout, tn ti hai s nguyn u, v
sao cho
N = au + bv.
Mt khc u = b.q + r vi 0 r b 1 nn ta c
N = a(b.q + r) + bv = a.r + b(v + a.q).
Chn x = r, y = v + a.q ta c N = ax + by vi0 x b 1.
Chng minh tnh duy nht
Gi s tn ti hai b (x; y) v (x 1 ; y 1 ) tha 0 x, x 1 b v
N = ax + by = ax 1 + by 1
Hay
a(x x 1 ) = b(y 1 y) (1)
Do (a, b) = 1 nn t (1) ta suy ra b|x x 1 . Li c 0 x, x 1 b 1
nn suy ra x = x 1 v y = y 1 .
Vy bi ton c chng minh.
Bi ton 2. (nh l Sylvester) Cho a, b l cc s nguyn dng
nguyn t cng nhau. Chng minh rng N0 = abab l s
nguyn ln nht khng biu din c di dng ax + by vi x,
y l cc s nguyn khng m. Hn na, vi mi p, q nguyn vi
p + q = N0 , c ng mt trong hai s p, q biu din c di
dng ax + by vi x, y l cc s nguyn khng m (m ta s gi
tt l biu din c).
76
Li gii. gii quyt bi ton, cn thc hin hai bc sau

Bc 1: Chng minh N0 khng biu din c di dng ax+by
vi x,y l cc s nguyn khng m.
Gi s tn ti hai s nguyn khng m x, y sao cho
ax + by = N0 .
Hay
a(x + 1) + b(y + 1) = ab (2).
.
V (a, b) = 1 nn t (2), suy ra x + 1..b hay x + 1 b. Tng t
y + 1 a.
Khi
ax + by a(b 1) + b(a 1) = 2ab a b ab a b.
iu ny dn n mu thun. Do vy N0 khng biu din c
di dng ax + by vi x, y P N.
Bc 2: Chng minh vi mi s nguyn N N0 th N biu din
c di dng ax + by vi x, y P N.
Theo kt qu Bi ton 1 ta suy ra: tn ti duy nht cp (x, y)
N = ax + by vi 0 x b.
Ta ch cn chng minh y 0. Tht vy
y=
ab a b a(b 1)
N ax
= 1.
b
b
M y l s nguyn nn ta c y 0.
Vy bi ton c chng minh.
Tr li bi ton trong thi VMO2015. Bi ton c th c
pht biu thnh bi ton tng qut hn nh sau
Bi ton 3. Cho cc s nguyn dng a, b nguyn t cng nhau.
Khi N0 = a2 b + b2 a a2 b2 ab l s nguyn dng ln nht
khng biu din c di dng a2 x + aby + b2 z vi x, y, z l cc
s nguyn khng m.
Li gii. Tng t nh bi ton 2 v bi ton 3, ta chng minh
bi ton qua hai bc.
Bc 1: Chng minh N0 khng biu din c di dng a2 x +
77
aby + b2 z.
Gi s tn ti cc s t nhin x, y, z
N0 = a2 x + aby + b2 z
Hay
a2 (b x 1) + b2 (a z 1) = ab(y + 1).
T y, suy ra mt trong hai s b x 1 v a z 1 c t nht
mt s dng. Khng mt tnh tng qut, ta gi s b x 1 0.
.
Khi , do (a, b) = 1 nn ta suy ra b x 1..b, dn ti b x 1 b
hay x 1 (v l).
Do vy N0 khng biu din c qua a2 x + aby + b2 z.
Bc 2: Chng minh vi mi s nguyn N N0 th N biu din
c di dng a2 x + aby + b2 z.
Do N N0 nn N ab2 + a2 + ab a ab2 b2 a nn theo nh
l Sylvester ta suy ra tn ti cc s t nhin u, z sao cho
N ab2 + a2 + ab a = ua + b2 z (4).
V u 0 nn u + ab a b + 1 ab a b nn tip tc p dng
nh l Sylvester suy ra tn ti cc s t nhin x, y sao cho
u + ab a b + 1 = xa + yb (5).
Thay (5) vo (4) ta c
N ab2 + a2 + ab a = a(ax + by ab + a + b 1) + b2 z
Hay
N = a2 x + aby + b2 z.
Bi ton c chng minh.
Ti k thi IMO nm 1983 c bi ton sau
Bi ton 4. Cho cc s nguyn dng a, b, c i mt nguyn
t cng nhau. Chng minh rng N0 = 2abc ab bc ca l
s nguyn dng nh nht khng biu din c di dng
abx + bcy + caz vi x, y, z l cc s nguyn khng m.
Li gii. Tng t nh cch chng minh nh l Sylvester, bi
ton c chng minh qua hai bc
Bc 1: Chng minh N0 khng biu din c qua abx + bcy +
caz. Chng minh iu ny tng t nh cch chng minh nh
78
l Sylvester.
Bc 2: Chng minh vi mi s nguyn dng N N0 th N
lun biu din c di dng abx + bcy + caz.
V (a; bc) = 1 nn theo bi ton 1 tn ti u, y sao cho au + bcy =
N vi 0 y a 1 . Tng t, tn ti v, z sao cho N = vb + zac
vi 0 z b 1.
.
T , suy ra bcy + caz N..ab. Hay tn ti s nguyn x sao cho
abx + bcy + caz = N.
Ta ch cn chng minh x 0. Tht vy
x=
2abc ab bc ca bc(a 1) ca(b 1)

N bcy caz
= 1.
ab
ab
Suy ra x 0. Bi ton c chng minh.

Bi ton 5. (VN TST 2000) Cho ba s nguyn dng a, b, c
i mt nguyn t cng nhau.S nguyn dng n c gi l
s bng bnh nu n khng biu din c di dng abx +
bxy + caz vi x, y, z l cc s nguyn dng. Hi c bao nhiu
s bng bnh.
Li gii. gii bi ton ny, ta chia lm hai bc
Bc 1: Chng minh N0 = 2abc l s nguyn dng ln nht
khng biu din c di dng abx + bcy + caz vi x, y, z l cc
s nguyn dng.
Vic chng minh N0 khng biu din c qua abx + bcy + caz
vi x, y, z l cc s nguyn dng c chng minh tng t
nh cc bi ton trn.
Ta chng minh vi mi s nguyn dng N N0 th N lun biu
din c qua abx + bcy + caz vi x, y, z l cc s nguyn dng.
Trc ht ta chng minh nhn xt:
Vi 1 x b, 1 y a th ax + by lp thnh h thng d y
theo m un ab.
Tht vy: D thy c tt c a.b tng ax + by vi 1 x b,
1 y a.
Gi s tn ti 1 x, x 1 b, 1 y, y 1 a sao cho ax + by
ax 1 + by 1 ( mod ab).
.
Hay a(x x 1 ) b(y 1 y)( mod ab). T y, suy ra x x 1 ..b. M
1 x, x 1 b nn suy ra x = x 1 , dn n y = y 1 . Do vy nhn xt
c chng minh.
79
Theo nhn xt trn v kt hp vi a, b, c i mt nguyn t nn

vi 1 x b, 1 y a th c(ax + by) = acx + bcy lp thnh
h thng d y theo m un ab. Do vi mi s nguyn
dng N N0 , lun tn ti 1 z0 a, 1 y0 b sao cho
acz0 + bcy0 N( mod ab) hay tn ti s nguyn x0 sao cho
acz0 + bcy0 + abx0 = N.
Li c acz0 + bcy0 acb + bca = 2abc N nn ta c x0 0.
Vy vi mi N N0 th N biu din c di dng abx+bcy+caz
vi x, y, z l cc s nguyn dng.
Bc 2: t B l tp cc s nguyn dng khng biu din c
di dng abx + bcy + caz vi x, y, z l cc s nguyn dng.
V A = t1, 2, , ab + bc + ca 1u Y tab + bc + ca, ab + bc + ca +
1, , 2abcu.
D thy t1, 2, , ab + bc + ca 1u B.
t C = tab+bc+ca, ab+bc+ca+1, , 2abcu. Ta cn tm |BXC|.
Vi mi n P C ta xt hm f(n) = 2abc + ab + bc + ca n. Ta chng
minh
n P B f(n) R B (1).
Vi n P B, theo chng minh trn suy ra tn ti cc s nguyn
1 y0 b, 1 z0 c v x0 sao cho
n = abx0 + bcy0 + caz0 .
V n P B nn x0 0. Khi
f(n) = ab(1 x0 ) + bc(1 + a y0 ) + ca(1 + b z0 ) R B.
Gi s tn ti n R B f(n) R B. Suy ra tn ti cc s nguyn
dng x, y, z,x 1 , y 1 , z 1 sao cho
n = abx + bcy + caz v f(n) = abx 1 + bcy 1 + caz 1
Hay
2abc = (x + x 1 1)ab + (y + y 1 1)bc + (z + z 1 1)ca
Suy ra 2abc R B v l. Vy (1) c chng minh.
T chng minh trn ta suy ra
2abc ab bc ca + 1
1
|C| =
.
2
2
ab + bc + ca 1
Vy s cc s bng bnh l: abc +
.
2
|B X C| =
80
3. Mt hng tip cn khc: Hm sinh

Trong phn ny ta s a ra mt hng tip cn khc cho
trng hp n = 2 ca bi ton Frobenius. Vi hng tip cn
ny, khi m rng cho trng hp n 3 s thu c nhng kt
qu th v, i xa hn so vi cc tip cn truyn thng trnh
by phn trc.
Vi hai s nguyn dng nguyn t cng nhau a, b v s t
nhin n ta t
(
pta,bu (n) = (k, l) P Z2 |k, l 0; ak + bl = n
Ta xt tch ca hai cp s nhn

1
1
.
= 1 + za + a2a + ... 1 + zb + z2b + ...
a
b
1z 1z
Nu ta nhn tt c cc tha s ta s c chui ca cc ly
tha l t hp tuyn tnh (vi h s t nhin) ca a v b. V zn
s c h s ng bng pta,bu (n). V vy
1
1
ka lb
pta,bu (n)zn
z
.z
=
.
=
1 za 1 zb k,l0
n=0
Nh vy hm s ny l hm sinh ca dy pta,bu (n) . tng by

gi ta s i nghin cu tnh cht ca hm s v tri.
Ta mun tm cng thc p cho pta,bu (n) bng cch xem xt k
lng hn hm s v tri. d tnh ton hn ta s tm h s
t do ca mt dy lin quan, c th, pta,bu (n) l s hng t do
ca
1
f (z) =
=
pta,bu zkn .
(1 za ) (1 zb ) zn k=0
Chui cui cng ny khng phi l chui ly tha, v n c
cha nhng s hng vi s m m. Chui ny c gi l chui
Laurent, theo tn ca Pierre Alphonse Laurent (18131854). i
vi chui ly tha, tnh s hng t do ta ch cn thay z = 0
vo. Nhng vi chui c ly tha m th vic thay z = 0 vo l
khng c php. x l tnh hung ny, ta s loi i tt c
cc s hng vi s m m c chui ly tha. S hng t
do ca n (cng l s hng t do ca chui ban u) s c
tnh bng cch thay z = 0 vo.
81
tnh s hng t do ny, ta s khai trin f thnh cc phn s

s cp. hiu r cch phn tch mt phn s thnh cc phn
s s cp, trc ht ta bt u t trng hp 1 chiu. K hiu
l cn nguyn thy bc a ca n v
a = cos
2
2
+ i sin
a
a
th 1, a , 2a , ..., a1
l tt c cc cn bc a ca n v.
a
1
Trc ht ta tm phn tch s cp cho
. V cc ca hm
1 za
s ny nm ti cc im cn bc a ca n v, do
a1
Ck
1
=
.
1 za k=0 z ka
Cc h s Ck c th tnh theo cng thc

1
1
ka
k
=
lim
,
Ck = lim (z a )
=
a1
1 za
a
zk
zk
a az
a
trong a s dng quy tc LHopitale. Nh vy ta c khai
trin
a1
1
1 ka
=
.
1 za
a k=0 z ka
Tr li vi bi ton ca chng ta, cc cc ca f nm im z = 0
vi bc n, ti z = 1 vi bc 2 v ti cc cn n v bc a v bc
b khc vi bc 1 v a, b nguyn t cng nhau. Do , khai trin
ca f thnh tng cc phn s s cp s c dng
a1
b1
Ck
Dj
An
B1
B2
A1 A2
+ 2 +...+ n +
+
+
+
f=
z
z
z
z 1 (z 1)2 k=1 z ka j=1 z jb
(1).
Bng phng php gn ging nh trn, ta c th tnh c

Ck =
1
a(1
k(n1)
kb
a )a
, Dk =
1
b(1
j(n1)
ja
b )b
(2).
tnh B2 , ta nhn c hai v ca (1) cho (z 1) v tnh gii hn

khi z 1 thu c
(z 1)2
1
B2 = lim
=
,
z1 (1 za )(1 zb )zn
ab
82
bng cch s dng quy tc LHopitale 2 ln. Vi s hng B1 , ta

tnh
!
2
(z 1)
1
1
1
1
n
B1 = lim (z1)
=
,
2
a
b
n
z1
(1 z )(1 z )z
ab 2a 2b ab
ab(z 1)
vi vic p dng quy tc LHopitale mt ln na.
Ta khng cn tnh cc h s A1 , A2 , . . . , An v chng ch ng gp
cc s hng vi s m m m ta c th b qua; cc s hng ny
khng ng gp cho s hng t do ca f. V ta c tt c cc
h s khc, s hng t do ca f, nh ta ni trn, chnh l
gi tr ca hm s sau tnh ti im 0:
pta,bu (n) =
a1
b1
B2
Ck
B1
+
+
2 +
z 1 (z 1)
z ka j=1
k=1
= B1 + B2
a1
Dj
j
z b
z=0
b1
Ck
Dj
.
j
k
k=1 a
j=1 b
T
pta,bu (n) =
a1
b1
1
1
1
1
n 1
1
+ + +
+
. (3).
jn
kb
kn
2a 2b ab a k=1 (1 a )a b j=1 (1 jb
b )b
By gi ta tm cch n gin cc tng trong (3) c mt

cng thc thun tin hn.
Ta nghin cu trng hp c bit b = 1. Trng hp ny c th
tnh d dng v pta,1u (n) s tnh cch s im nguyn trong mt
on:
pta,1u (n) = |t(k, l) P Z2 : k, l 0, ak+l = nu| = |tk P Z : 0 k
trong [x] k hiu phn nguyn ca s thc x.
Thay b = 1 vo (3), ta c
a1
hni
1
1 n 1
1
+ + +
= pta,1u (n) =
+ 1.
2a 2 a a k=1 (1 ka )kn
a
a
a1
!n) 1
1
1
1
=
+
. (4).
k
kn
a k=1 (1 a )a
a
2 2n
83
hni
n
u| =
+1.
a
a
Trong x l phn l ca s thc x. Ta c th chng minh c

rng
a1
a1
1
1
1
1
=
, (5)
kb
kn
k
a k=1 (1 a )a
a k=1 (1 a )ba1 kn
Trong b1 l s nguyn sao cho b1 .b 1(moda). T (4) v (5)
suy ra
" 1 *
a1
b n
1
1
1
1
=
+
. (6).
kb
kn
a k=1 (1 a )a
a
2 2a
By gi thay (6) v mt cng thc tng t vo (3), ta c mt
cng thc p do Tiberiu Popovicu (1906 1975) tm ra.
nh l. (Popovicu). Nu a v b l cc s nguyn dng nguyn
t cng nhau th
n
pta,bu (n) =
ab
"
b1 n
a
"
a1 n
b
*
+ 1,
trong b1 .b 1 (mod a) v a1 .a 1 (mod b) .

T nh l Popovicu, d dng chng minh c b sau.
B . Nu a v b l cc s nguyn dng nguyn t cng nhau,
n P [1; ab 1] v khng phi l bi s ca a hoc b, khi
pta, bu (n) + pta,bu (ab n) = 1.
Chng minh. Ta c
ab n
pta,bu (ab n) =
ab
"
b1 (ab n)
a
"
a1 (ab n)
b
*
+1
" 1 * " 1 *
" 1 * " 1 *
n
b n
a n
n
b n
a n
= 2
= +
+
= 1pta,bu (n).
ab
a
a
ab
a
a
y ta s dng tnh cht txu = 1txu vi x khng nguyn.
T b ny, ta d dng chng minh c nh l Sylvester
phn trc vi mt cch tip cn khc. Hn na, ta cn lm
c hn th: mi s t nhin nh hn ab nu biu din c
di dng ax + by vi x, y t nhin th biu din l duy nht.
84
4. Bi ton Frobenius cho n 3

Quay tr li vi bi ton Frobenius dng tng qut, ta thy
rng, vi kt qu ca nh l Sylvester, trng hp n = 2
c gii quyt trn vn, v ta c cng thc g(a, b) = abab.
Chnh nh l p ny khin cho cc nh ton hc hng
s ch ca mnh n vic tm cng thc cho hm g(a1 , a2 , ..., an )
vi n 2. Tuy nhin tnh n nay th cc kt qu v hng ny
cn xa mi n c s hon ho. Ngoi tr hai kt qu p
dnh cho trng hp n = 2.5 trn (bi IMO 1983 v VMO
2015), nhng g thu c l kh khim tn.
1. nh l Schur khng nh rng vi iu kin (a1 , a2 , ..., a2 ) =
1 th s Frobenius tn ti.
2. Vi n = 3, ta c nh l Davidson nh gi chn di cho
g(a, b, c):
?
g(a, b, c) 3abc a b c
3. Vi n bt k, tm ra c cng thc hm g cho cc cp s
cng, cp s nhn, ngoi ra l mt s nh gi chn trn,
chn di.
4. Hng s dng hm sinh khi n = 3 cho ta cng thc sau

n 1
1
1
n2
+
+
+
+
pta,b,cu (n) =
abc 2 ab ac bc

3 3
a
b
c
1 3
+ + +
+
+
+
+
12 a b c bc ca ab
a1
1
1
+
kb
kn
a k=1 (1 a )(1 kc
a )a
+
b1
1
1
+
ka
kn
b k=1 (1 b )(1 kc
b )b
c1
1
1
+
.
kn
ka
c k=1 (1 c )(1 kb
c )c
Nh vy vi n 2 v cc ai bt k th tnh ti nay cha tm c

cng thc tng minh cho hm g(a1 , a2 , ..., an ) v c v hng
i ny khng kh thi.
Trong khi , vi mt s lng ng xu c nh, tn ti thut
85
ton tnh s Frobenius trong thi gian a thc (tnh theo

logarith ca gi tr tin xu c trong d liu vo). Hin cha c
thut ton thi gian a thc theo s ng xu, v bi ton tng
qut khi gi tr ng xu l ln ty l bi ton NP-kh.
Hin nay xu hng nghin cu v bi ton Frobenius vn chia
lm hai nhnh, nhnh cng thc v nhnh thut ton, trong
nhnh th hai c tc tin trin tt hn hn.
Bi ton Frobenius c nhiu ng dng th v trong i sng,
v d nh bi ton McNuggets sau y do Henri Picciotto a
ra vo nm 1980 khi ngi n ti vi con trai ti nh hng Mc
Donalds. Cc hp bnh ca McDonalds c thit k c 6, 9
hoc 20 ming bnh. Hi c th mua c s lng ming
bnh bao nhiu m ch dng cc hp chn. nh l Schur
khng nh rng s cc s khng mua c v danh sch
l: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10, 11, 13, 14, 16, 17, 19, 22, 23, 25, 28, 31, 34, 37, v
43. Nh th 43 l s ln nht khng biu din c di dng
6x + 9y + 20z vi x, y, z nguyn khng m.
Tc gi th nht ca bi bo cng li va c mt duyn n vi
bi ton, ln ny kha cnh ng dng. Trong chuyn i ging
bi Saudi Arabia va qua, tc gi c pht mt c s kh
nhiu cc phiu n tr gi 16SR v 23SR. Gi tin cc ba n c
dao ng t 16SR n 50SR. V tc gi phi nhiu ln vn
dng bi ton Frobenius c nhng cch chn la mn n
ph hp nht (ch phi tr thm hoc b ph 1, 2SR).
Cng l t c nhng bi ton ang c nghin cu mnh m
li c nhng ng dng ht sc gn gi nh vy.
5. Ghi ch v Ch dn lch s
1. Bi ton Frobenius c t theo tn ca nh ton hc
Georg Frobenius, ngi nu ra bi ton ny trong bi
ging ca mnh. Phn 1 ca nh l Sylvester l mt kt
qu dn gian kinh in m chng ta thng gp chung
lun vo nh l Sylvester. Tht ra, trong bi bo ca mnh,
Sylvester ch chng minh phn 2 ca nh l.
2. Bi ton Diophant tuyn tnh ca Frobenius khng nn
nhm ln vi bi ton tem th. Bi ton tem th t vn
tng t nhng c thm iu kin v s lng tem th:
Cho s nguyn dng m v tp V cc s nguyn dng,
86
tm s nguyn dng z nh nht khng biu din c

di dng tng v1 + v2 + + vk ca k ms (khng nht
thit phn bit) thuc V.
3. nh l Bezout l nh l khng nh rng nu a, b l cc
s nguyn dng nguyn t cng nhau th tn ti cc s
nguyn x, y sao cho ax + by = 1. C thut ton hiu qu
tm cc s x, y, c gi l thut ton Euclide m rng.
Thut ton Euclide m rng c rt nhiu ng dng trong
l thuyt mt m, l thuyt ph hi s hu t.
4. L thuyt hm sinh c mt lch s v truyn thng lu
i. y ta ch s dng chng nh mt cng c. Nhng
c gi mun nghin cu su hn v hm sinh v cc
ng dng k o ca chng c th tm hiu cun Generatingfunctionology ca Herb Wilf v cun Combinatorial
Problems and Exercises ca Laszlo Lovasz.
5. Nh ta thy, trng hp n 3 kh hn nhiu so vi
trng hp n = 2. Ti liu v bi ton Frobenius l rt
nhiu v vn tip tc c b sung nhng cng trnh mi.
Hin nay c hn 40 bi ton m v vn ny. Xem thm
[4]
Ti liu tham kho
1. James J. Sylvester, On Subvariants, i.e. Semi-Invariants to

Binary Quantics of an Unlimited Order, American Journal
of Mathematics 5 (1882), 79136.
2. J.J. Sylvester, Mathematical questions with their solutions,
Educational Times 41 (1884), 21.
3. P. Erdos and E.L. Graham, On a linear diophantine problem of Frobenius, Acta Arithmetica (1972), 399408.
4. The Coin-Exchange Problem of Frobenius, Internet resource,
www.springer.com/cda/.../9780387291390-c1.pdf?...
5. J.L. Ramirez-Alfonsin, Complexity of the Frobenius problem, Combinatorica, 16(1):143 147, March 1996.
87
6. J.L.Jamirez Alfonsin, The Diophantine Frobenius Problem,

Oxford Lectures Series in Mathematics and its Applications, No. 30, Oxford University Press, 2005.
7. Trn Nam Dng, T duy thut ton v t duy cng thc,
K yu Gp g Ton hc 2014.
8. Trn Nam Dng, S hc qua cc nh l v cc bi ton,
Ti liu Internet.
9. Lu B Thng, S Frobenius cho 3 phn t, Thng tin
ton hc, Tp 17 s 4, 12/2013.
88
T p c h
online ca
cng ng
nhng n g i
y u
T o n
THI VIT NAM TST 2015

NHN XT V GI GII
Trn Nam Dng
i hc KHTN, TP. H Ch Minh
Nguyn Vn Li
Budapest, Hungary
Nguyn Hng Sn
i hc Warsaw, Ba Lan
Tm tt
K thi chn i tuyn quc gia Vit Nam (thng gi tt l
TST) nm 2015 chn ra 6 th sinh i d thi Olympic Ton
quc t ti Chiang Mai, Thi Lan vo u thng 7. Tham
gia k thi gm c 1 em ot gii Nht, 1 em t HCV trong
k thi IMO nm trc ti Nam Phi v 46 em ot gii
Nh trong k thi hc sinh gii Quc gia VMO hi u thng
01 nm 2015.
t gii Nh, cc em cn phi t t 21,5 n 32,5 im
(trn thang im 40) tc l t khong 4,5 bi n 6 bi
trong tng s 7 bi. Cc nh gi ca chng ti mt phn
l da trn kt qu ca cc em trn bi thi VMO 2015.
K thi din ra trong 2 ngy ti H S phm H Ni:
1. Ngy u tin l 25 thng 03 nm 2015.
2. Ngy th hai l 26 thng 03 nm 2015.
Thi gian thi theo truyn thng l 270 pht.
89
1. Thi
1.1. Ngy thi th nht
Bi ton 1. Gi l nghim dng ca phng trnh x2 + x =
5. Gi s n l s nguyn dng v cc s nguyn khng m
c0 , c1 , c2 , . . . , cn tha mn ng thc
c0 + c1 + c2 2 + . . . + cn n = 2015. ()
a) Chng minh rng c0 + c1 + c2 + . . . + cn 2 (mod 3).
b) Vi n no v c0 , c1 , c2 , . . . , cn nhng tha mn iu kin
() cho. Tm gi tr nh nht ca tng c0 +c1 +c2 +. . .+cn .
Bi ton 2. Cho ng trn (O) c dy cung BC c nh v
khng phi l ng knh. Xt im A di chuyn trn cung ln
BC sao cho tam gic ABC nhn v AB AC. Gi I, H ln lt l
trung im cnh BC v trc tm tam gic ABC. Tia IH ct li
ng trn (O) ti K, ng thng AH ct ng thng BC ti
D v ng thng KD ct li ng trn (O) ti M. T im M,
k ng thng vung gc vi ng thng BC ct AI ti im
N.
a) Chng minh rng im N lun thuc mt ng trn c
nh khi A thay i.
b) ng trn tip xc vi AK A v i qua N ct AB, AC ln
lt ti P, Q. Gi J l trung im ca PQ. Chng minh rng
ng thng AJ lun i qua mt im c nh.
Bi ton 3. Mt s nguyn dng k c tnh cht T (m) nu nh

vi mi s nguyn dng a, tn ti s nguyn dng n sao cho
1k + 2k + 3k + . . . + nk a (mod m).
a) Tm tt c cc s nguyn dng k c tnh cht T (20).
b) Tm s nguyn dng k nh nht c tnh cht T (2015 ).
90
1.2. Ngy thi th hai

Bi ton 4. C 100 sinh vin tham d mt cuc thi vn p.
Ban gim kho gm 25 thnh vin. Mi sinh vin c hi thi
bi mt gim kho. Bit rng mi sinh vin thch t nht 10 gim
kho trong s cc thnh vin trn.
a) Chng minh rng c th chn ra 7 gim kho m mi th
sinh u thch t nht 1 trong 7 ngi .
b) Chng minh rng c th sp xp lch thi sao cho mi th
sinh c ng 1 gim kho mnh thch hi v mi gim
kho hi khng qu 10 th sinh.
Bi ton 5. Cho tam gic ABC nhn, khng cn v mt im P

nm trong tam gic sao cho =APB = =APC = vi 180
=BAC. ng trn ngoi tip tam gic APB ct ng thng AC
E, ng trn ngoi tip tam gic APC ct ng thng AB
F. Gi Q l im nm trong tam gic AEF sao cho =AQE =
=AQF = . Gi D l im i xng vi Q qua EF, phn gic gc
EDF ct AP ti T .
a) Chng minh rng =DET = =ABC, =DFT = =ACB .
b) ng thng PA ct cc ng thng DE, DF ln lt ti
M, N. Gi I, J ln lt l tm ng trn ni tip cc tam
gic PEM, PFN v K l tm ng trn ngoi tip tam gic
DIJ. ng thng DT ct (K) ti H. Chng minh rng HK
i qua tm ng trn ni tip ca tam gic DMN.
Bi ton 6. Tm s nguyn dng n nh nht sao cho tn ti n

s thc tha mn ng thi cc iu kin sau:
i) Tng ca chng l mt s dng.
ii) Tng lp phng ca chng l mt s m.
iii) Tng ly tha bc 5 ca chng l mt s dng.
91
2. Nhn xt chung
Cu trc thi Vit Nam TST nm nay gm c:
Bi 1: i s (a thc c h s nguyn v nghim v t)
Bi 2: Hnh hc phng
Bi 3: S hc
Bi 4: T hp
Bi 5: Hnh hc phng
Bi 6: Bt ng thc
Nh vy cu trc ca thi nm nay rt ging vi cu trc cc
thi IMO. Theo nh gi ch quan ca chng ti, kh ca
cc bi l nh sau:
Bi 1 v bi 4 c kh trung bnh (khong 50%-60% s
hc sinh s lm c trn vn).
Bi 2, bi 5a v bi 6 l cc bi tng i kh (khong
30%-50% s lm c).
Bi 3 v bi 5b l cc bi kh (khong 10%-20% s hc
sinh s t im dng).
Sau y chng ti c mt s nhn xt c th:
2.1. V ngy thi th nht

Chng ti rt thch bi thi ngy u tin. Bi 1 v bi 2 u l
nhng bi khng qu kh vi cc hc sinh t gii Nht/Nh
VMO-2015.
Bi 1 (i s) gm hai cu a) v b). Phng php gii ch da
vo tng chia a thc c h s nguyn cho mt tam thc bc
hai. Ngoi ra cu a) cng c th lm bng quy np. Cu b) kh
hn v tng u tin l xt 1 h bt phng trnh v s rt
d b nhm ln.
Bi 2 (hnh phng) cng gm 2 cu a) v b). Chng ti rt thch
bi ny v y l bi khng d, nhng li c th gii c bng
92
cc kin thc hon ton nh nhng. Cc em khng nht thit

phi s dng cc nh l m ch cc hc sinh chuyn Ton mi
c lm quen. Tuy nhin, vic cho im N vo cu b) l hon
ton khng cn thit v d lm cc th sinh lc hng.
Bi 3 (s hc) thc cht bi ny c th s dng mt s tnh
cht ca l thuyt s thng dng cho mt m nh khi nim:
multiplicative order (hoc modulo order) ca mt s nguyn v
nh l Trung Hoa v cc s d. y l bai ton "hn lm" nht
trong c 6 bi, t hnh thc cho n ni dung. Bt u bng
vic xy dng l thuyt t(m) v mt s kt qu trong trng hp
c th. C l phi c t(m) l T-M, v mt s th sinh chc s
chong vi cch nh ngha ny. Mt bi ton a vo tng i
to bo, v vn u tin s l vic hiu v tip cn bi ton
trong mt thi gian ngn.
Sau khi tip cn c bi ton v cm gic c bi ton c
lin quan n nh l Trung Hoa v phng trnh Frobenius th
l du hiu bo trc s kh khn ca bi ton.
Bi ton ny lin quan n nhng vn rt thi s trong l
thuyt mt m. Theo chng ti y l mt hng i ging nh
thng l chung ca IMO l chn cc bi thi t nhng nghin
cu cn ang nng hi.
Nh vy ngoi kin thc v s hc th mun lm c bi s 3,
th sinh cn phi lm rt nhanh 2 bi s 1 v s 2. V vy c
l ch vi em dng "c bit" mi bit lm c bi ny. Theo
chng ti, s hc sinh lm trn vn bi s 3 chc c th ch
m c trn mt bn tay. Hy vng y l bi thc s tt cho
vai tr phn loi.
2.2. V ngy thi th hai

Bi 4 (t hp) li l 1 bi rt ging bi t hp k thi VMO
2015 v c l c 2 bi l ca cng 1 tc gi. Tuy nhin y l
bi ton d hn, v nu cc em nghin cu k li gii k thi
VMO-2015 th cc em s khng gp kh khan g. Ti cho rng
y l 1 bi m nh n phn ln cc em s ra v vi s im
dng.
Bi 5 (hnh hc) l bi hnh hc rt phc tp k t khu dng
hnh. Bi ton ny i hi kh nng v hnh chnh xc v gn
gng trong thi gian ngn. Chng ti cho rng bi ton ny c
93
nhiu s lp ghp trong v khng thc s p mt. Ban

gim kho s rt au u chm cc li gii ca bi ny.
Ngoi ra, vic 2 bi hnh thun ty li rt ging nhau (tam
gic ni tip trong ng trn) l rt ph phm cho qu ra .
Chng ti cho rng c th thay bi 4 v bi 5 bng 1 bi t hp
dng khc hoc mt bi hnh hc trn a gic hoc hnh hc t
hp (ang thc s l tro lu th gii).
Bi 6 (i s) y c l l bi hay nht trong k thi nm nay v
nhiu l do. N va c v p t nhin ai cng hiu v ai cng
hy vng tm c v kh no gii quyt nhng n cng
bng bnh lm tht vng nhng th sinh mun nh nhanh
dit gn! Mt bi ton kh nhng li khng qu kh v kt
cc c th l s t ngi t c s im ti a. Nu th sinh
kin nhn v khng "s" xt nhiu trng hp th s c th gii
quyt tt bi ton ny.
Bn cnh , bi ton ny c th s tm c nhiu cch tip
cn v lm bi ging bi dng cho cc hc sinh th h sau.
Chng ti hy vng s tm ra cc li gii p v ngn gn cho bi
ton ny.
Nhn chung, thi nm nay tha mn c yu cu t ra c
ngha l m bo chn c 6 em xut sc nht i din
cho hc sinh c nc i tham d k thi IMO ti Thi lan vo
thng 7 nm nay. Tuy nhin chng ti vn cm thy rng trong
thi vn c ch thm cc bi ton v cc lnh vc khc ca
Ton hc nh thut ton, ti u, l thuyt tr chi, ... nhm
gp phn trong cng vic la chn cc hc sinh u t i din
i tham d k thi IMO. Theo kinh nghim ca chng ti, s la
chn cc bi thi HSG quc gia v chn i tuyn TST khng ch
c ngha tc thi l chn hc sinh gii m cn nh hng
cc thy c v cc em hc sinh c c cc ch v ln k
hoch rn luyn trong cc nm tip theo.
Chng ti cho rng bi thi TST ny kh hn IMO. Nu chn tt
c cc em t trn 20 im trong k thi TST ny i thi IMO th
chc cc em u t gii. Rt tic ch c chn 6 em, nn nu
ch lm c 3 bi trong k thi ny th c l cha c
chn vo i tuyn Quc Gia. D on ca chng ti l mc
im c chn vo i tuyn Quc gia s vo khong t 23
n 27, c ngha l nu em no lm c trn vn 4 bi th s
c nhiu hy vng c chn.
94
3. Gi gii
Bi 1.
a) Chng minh rng a thc
cn xn + cn1 xn1 + + c0 2015,
chia ht cho a thc x2 + x5.
b) u tin ta hy nhn xt rng nu c0 , c1 , . . . , cn l b tha
mn iu kin
c0 + c1 + c2 2 + + cn n = 2015,
v c0 + c1 + + cn nh nht th s c 0 ci 4. T , khai thc
ng thc sau y:
cn xn + cn1 xn1 + + c0 2015 = (x2 + x5)(an2 xn2 + + a1 x + a0 ).
Bi 2.
a) Ch cn chng minh B, C, H, N cng thuc mt ng trn.
thc hin iu ny, ta c th gi F l giao im ca trung
tuyn AM vi ng trn (O) v N, F i xng nhau qua trung
trc ca BC.
b. Gi (S) l ng trn i qua A, tip xc vi AK v i qua N.
Ta chng minh DP, DQ l cc tip tuyn ca ng trn (S), t
suy ra AJ, AH ng gic trong tam gic ABC hay AJ i qua O
c nh.
Bi 3.
a) C th gii d dng nu nhn xt rng s d khi chia
Sk (n) = 1k + 2k + + nk
theo 20 l tun hon.
b) Da vo kt qu cu a) ta d on k = 4 l s nguyn dng
nh nht tha mn yu cu bi ton. chng minh k = 4 tha
mn tnh cht T (2015), ta s dng nh l phn d Trung Hoa
quy v cc modulo ly tha nguyn t l 3, 2n v 5n.
Sau dng tng nng ly tha gii quyt.
Bi 4.
95
tng chung ca c hai cu l dng thut ton, v l thut

ton n tham da vo nguyn l Dirichlet. Vi b) ch con s
25 khng quan trng.
Bi 5.
a) Chng minh AP, AQ lin hp ng gic trong gc BAC v A, X
lin hp ng gic trong tam gic EQF c X, Q, A thng hng.
T suy ra T , Q lin hp ng gic trong tam gic AEF.
b) Chng minh t gic DEPF ngoi tip ng trn tm T . Gi Y
l tm ng trn ngoi tip tam gic DMN th D, Y, I, J ni tip
nn YH l ng knh ca ng trn (DIJ) nn YH i qua K.
Bi 6.
Ta chng minh n = 5 bng cch ln lt chng minh hai kt
qu sau:
(a) Khng tn ti 4 s thc tha mn iu kin bi.
(b) Ch ra 5 s thc tha mn iu kin bi.
Trong chng minh (a), ta dng phn chng xt cc trng hp
khc nhau v du ca 4 s, trong kh nht l trng hp 2
s dng, 2 s m. C th dng i s hoc dng gii tch, da
vo s nghim ca phng trnh
ax + bx cx dx = 0,
trong a, b, c, d l cc s dng.
Trong (b), ta i tm b s tha mn iu kin di dng
a = 2x, b = c = 1, d = e = (x + 1).
Khi th a + b + c + d + e = 0. Ta chn x sao cho
a3 + b3 + c3 + d3 + e3 0,
v
a5 + b5 + c5 + d5 + e5 0.
Cui cng, ta iu chnh d, e a + b + c + d + e 0, m hai iu
kin kia vn tha mn.
96
T p c h
online ca
cng ng
nhng n g i
y u
T o n
LI GII V BNH LUN

HAI BI HNH THI
CHN I TUYN VIT NAM 2015
Trn Quang Hng (THPT Chuyn KHTN, HQG H Ni)
Tm tt
Trong k thi chn i tuyn Vit Nam nm 2015, c hai
bi ton hnh hc phng kh v cng kh th v. Di
y, chng ti s trnh by li gii chi tit, phn tch cc
vn lin quan cng cc m rng ca chng.
1. Bi hnh ngy th nht

Bi ton th nht c ni dung nh sau
Bi ton 1. Cho ng trn (O) c dy BC c nh v khng
phi l ng knh. Xt im A di chuyn trn cung ln BC sao
cho tam gic ABC nhn v AB AC. Gi I, H ln lt l trung
im cnh BC v trc tm tam gic ABC. Tia IH ct li ng
trn (O) ti K, ng thng AH ct ng thng BC ti D v
ng thng KD ct li ng trn (O) ti M. T im M, k
ng thng vung gc vi ng thng BC ct AI ti im N.
a) Chng minh rng im N lun thuc mt ng trn c
nh khi A thay i.
b) ng trn tip xc vi AK A v i qua N ct AB, AC ln
lt ti P, Q. Gi J l trung im ca PQ. Chng minh rng
ng thng AJ lun i qua mt im c nh.
Nhn xt. y bi ton hay da trn mt cu hnh kh quen
thuc v im Miquel. Tuy vy c th thy rng hai ca bi
ton hu nh khng lin quan ti nhau v thc cht b) ch
97
cn ng trn bt k qua A tip xc AK l bi ton ng, mt

khc im c nh li chnh l O xut hin ngay trong bi
nn gim nhiu th v ca bi ton.
Do , chng ti s tch ring hai ca bi ton ri gii v
phn tch. Ta bt u t bi ton sau:
Bi ton 2. Cho tam gic ABC nhn ni tip ng trn (O).
AD l ng cao v H l trc tm tam gic ABC. M l trung
im BC. ng trn ng knh AH ct (O) ti G khc A. GD
ct (O) ti K khc A. ng thng qua K vung gc BC ct
AM ti L. Chng minh rng bn im B, C, L, H cng thuc mt
ng trn.
A
S
O
G
L
H
M
E
K
u tin l li gii ca tc gi bi vit:

Li gii 1. Do G nm trn ng trn ng knh AH nn gi
GH ct (O) ti E khc G th AE l ng knh ca (O). T , d
thy t gic HBEC l hnh bnh hnh nn HE i qua M. Gi KM
ct (O) ti F khc K. Ch t gic AGDM ni tip nn
=AMB = 180 =AGD = =AFM
Ta c, BC tip xc ng trn ngoi tip tam gic AFM. Do ,
OM K BC K SM vi S l tm ngoi tip tam gic SFM do S
thuc OM.
98
Mt khc, d dng c c SO K AF nn suy ra AF k BC.
T , ta cng c tam gic MAF cn nn

=LMB = =MAF = =MFA = =BMK.
Tam gic KLM cn nn K, L i xng qua BC. Ch i xng
ca H qua BC thuc (O) nn H, L, B, C thuc ng trn i
xng vi (O) qua BC.
Ta c iu phi chng minh.
Tip theo l li gii ca tc gi Nguyn Chng Ch tham kho
[2]:
G
P
L
H
Q
M
B
Li gii 2. Do G nm trn ng trn ng knh AH nn gi

GH ct (O) ti E khc G th AE l ng knh ca (O). T , d
thy t gic HBEC l hnh bnh hnh nn HE i qua M.
Gi AM ct (O) ti N khc A. T t gic AGDM v AGKN ni
tip suy ra
=GDM = 180 =AGD = =GKN
suy ra KN k BC. Do , t gic BCNK l mt hnh thang cn m
M l trung im BC nn theo tnh i xng MK = MN.
99
D thy tam gic LKN vung ti K nn suy ra M l trung im

LN hay L i xng K qua BC. Ch im i xng ca H qua BC
cng thuc (O) nn H, L, B, C cng thuc ng trn i xng
vi (O) qua BC.
Nhn xt. Bi ton ny hin nhin bao hm cu a) bi ton 1.
Ch rng c mt s tnh cht h qu nh im L cng thuc
ng trn ng knh AH v AK l ng i trung ca tam
gic ABC. Thc cht cc tnh cht u l cc m hnh kh
quen thuc. Sau y chng ti xin a ra hai m rng khc
nhau cho bi ton ny:
Bi ton 3. Cho tam gic ABC ni tip ng trn (O). im P
thuc cung BC khng cha A. Q i xng P qua BC. QB, QC ct
CA, AB ti E, F. ng trn ngoi tip tam gic AEF ct (O) ti
G khc A. AP ct BC ti D. GD ct (O) ti K khc G. M l trung
im ca BC. ng thng qua K vung gc BC ct AM ti L.
a) Chng minh rng B, C, L, Q cng thuc mt ng trn.
b) Chng minh rng L nm trn ng trn ngoi tip tam gic
AEF.
S
G
E
O
Q
L
M
R
K
100
Li gii. Gi GQ ct (O) ti R khc G. Ta thy =CQR = =GQF =

=GAB = =GRB. T CQ k BR. Tng t BQ k CR. Vy t gic
BRCQ l hnh bnh hnh hay QR i qua M. T cng d thy
PR k BC. Ta c =EBD = =BCR = =CBP = =DAC. Suy ra t
gic ABDE ni tip. Suy ra =BDA = =BEA = 180 AGQ hay
=ADM = 180 =BDA = =AGQ. T t gic AGDM ni tip.
Gi KM ct (O) ti N khc K. V t gic AGDM ni tip nn
=AMB = 180 =AGD = =ANM. T BC tip xc ng trn
ngoi tip tam gic ANM. Vy OM K BC K SM vi S l tm ngoi
tip tam gic SNM do S thuc OM. Mt khc d c SO K AN
nn suy ra AN k BC. Nh vy, ta cng c tam gic MAF cn suy
ra =LMB = =MAF = =MFA = =BMK. T tam gic KLM cn
nn K, L i xng qua BC. Vy B, C, L, Q u thuc ng trn
i xng vi (O) qua B, C.
b) Gi AM ct (O) ti P khc A. T t gic AGDM ni tip
ta c =AMD = 180 =AGD = =APK suy ra PK k DM vy
=CAK = =BAM. T =LQC = =LBC = =KBC = =BCR =
=CAK = =BAM. Vy t gic AFQL ni tip hay L nm trn ng
trn ngoi tip tam gic AEF.
Nhn xt. Bi ton ny khi AP K BC th Q l trc tm ta thu
c bi ton 2. Ch rng ta hon ton c mt s yu t c
nh khi P thay i chnh l cc im K v L. T ta c th
xut bi ton sau c ngha hn.
Bi ton 4. Cho tam gic ABC ni tip ng trn (O). im P
thuc cung BC khng cha A. Q i xng P qua BC. QB, QC ct
CA, AB ti E, F.
a) Chng minh rng ng trn ngoi tip tam gic AEF lun i
qua mt im c nh khc A khi P thay i.
b) Chng minh rng tm ng trn Euler ca tam gic AEF
lun thuc mt ng thng c nh khi P thay i.
Ta tip tc i ti mt m rng khc cho bi ton 2:
Bi ton 5. Cho tam gic ABC ni tip ng trn (O). Mt
ng trn (K) i qua B, C ct CA, AB ti E, F khc B, C. BE ct
CF ti H. ng trn ngoi tip tam gic AEF ct (O) ti G khc
A. AH ct BC ti D. GD ct (O) ti N khc G. Gi M l trung
im BC. Chng minh rng ng thng qua N song song AD
v AM ct nhau trn ng trn ngoi tip tam gic AEF.
101
E
L
F
H
O
K
P
Li gii. Theo tnh cht trc ng phng d thy AG, EF, BC

ng quy ti P. Gi MN ct (O) ti R khc M ta c (BC, DP) =
1 suy ra G(BC, DP) = 1 chiu ln ng trn (O) suy ra
(BC, AN) = 1 suy ra chm R(BC, AN) = 1 nhng do RN i qua
trung im BC suy ra RA k BC. T =RAE = =ACB = =AFE
suy ra AR tip xc ng trn ngoi tip tam gic AEF. Vy nu
gi AM ct ng trn ngoi tip tam gic AEF ti L suy ra
=GNM = 180 =GAR = =GLA. Suy ra t gic GLMN ni tip.
Mt khc vi ch (BC, DP) = 1 ta c PG.PA = PB.PC = PD.PM
suy ra t gic GAMD ni tip. T =GDA = =GMA = =GNL
suy ra NL k AD vy ta c iu phi chng minh.
Nhn xt. Nu (K) l ng trn ng knh BC th ta thu c
bi ton 2. T tnh cht hng iu ha trn ng trn ta cng
chng minh c AN l ng i trung ca tam gic ABC. Vi
cc tng t hai li gii trn, chng ta tip tc vi mt m
rng khc nh sau
Bi ton 6. Cho tam gic ABC ni tip ng trn (O) v D
thuc on BC. AD ct (O) ti P khc A. Q thuc (O) sao cho
PQ k BC v R thuc (O) sao cho QR k AP. Mt ng trn qua
A, R v tip xc vi on BC ti M. QM ct (O) ti G khc Q v
ct AD ti H. GD ct (O) ti K khc G. Chng minh rng AM
102
v ng thng qua K song song AD ct nhau trn ng trn

ngoi tip AGH.
Tuy rng l mt bi ton tng qut nhng thc ra bi ton c
li gii n gin v hu nh khng phi dng thm hnh ph,
tng tng qut xut pht t li gii 1 ca bi ton 2:
R
A
G
L
H
M
B
Q
K
Li gii. T PQ k BC v cc gc ni tip bng nhau

=AGM = =APQ = =ADM
suy ra t gic AGDM ni tip. T , ch ng trn ngoi
tip tam gic ARM tip xc BC nn
=ARM = =AMD = 180 =AGD = =ARK
Do , RM i qua K. T AP k QR, ta c
=RAH = =APQ = =AGH
suy ra AR l tip tuyn ca ng trn ngoi tip tam gic AGH.
103
Gi s ng trn ngoi tip tam gic AGH ct AM ti L th

=GKR = 180 =GAR = =GLA
nn suy ra t gic GLMK ni tip. T =GDA = =GMA =
=GKL hay KL k AD.
Ta quay li b) ca bi ton 1. Ta tch n thnh bi ton sau:
Bi ton 7. Cho tam gic ABC ni tip ng trn (O) v trc

tm H. ng trn ng knh AH ct (O) ti G khc A. Mt
ng trn tip xc AG ti A ct CA, AB ln lt ti E, F khc
A. Chng minh rng AO chia i EF.
Li gii. Gi GH ct (O) ti D khc A th AD l ng knh

ca (O). T t gic HBDC l hnh bnh hnh nn HD i qua
trung im M ca BC.
Gi AD ct ng trn ngoi tip tam gic AEF ti P khc A v
AP ct EF ti N. Ta d thy
=FPN = =FAE = =GAB = =BDM
v
=PFE = =PAE = =DBM
T tam gic DBM v PFM ng dng. Tng t tam gic
DCM v PEN ng dng.
M M l trung im BC d suy ra N l trung im EF.
104
F
G
N
O
H
P
B
M
D
Nhn xt. Vic ch ra bn im thng hng G, H, M, D ng vai

tr quan trng trong li gii ny. Mt cch dng k thut gc v
ng dng hon ton tng t ta c cc bi ton nh sau cc
bn hy lm nh cc bi luyn tp:
Bi ton 8. Cho tam gic ABC ni tip ng trn (O). im
P thuc BC khng cha A. Q i xng P qua BC. QB, QC ct
CA, AB ti E, F. ng trn ngoi tip tam gic AEF ct (O) ti
G khc A. Mt ng trn tip xc AG ti A ct CA, AB ln lt
ti M, N. R thuc (O) sao cho PR k BC. Chng minh rng AR
chia i MN.
Bi ton 9. Cho tam gic ABC vi G thuc (O). Mt ng trn
tip xc AG ti A ct CA, AB ln lt ti E, F khc A. D thuc
BC. GD ct (O) ti L khc G. AL ct EF ti K. Chng minh rng
trung im ca BF, CE v DK thng hng.
Bi ton 10. ( chu Thi Bnh Dng 2012) Cho tam gic
ABC nhn. Gi D l chn ng cao k t A n BC, M l trung
im ca BC v H l trc tm tam gic ABC. Gi s E l giao
im ca ng trn ngoi tip tam gic ABC vi tia MH. Gi F
l giao im ca ng thng ED v ng trn . Chng minh
AB
BF
=
.
rng
CF
AC
105
2. Bi hnh ngy th hai

Cng trong chn i tuyn Vit Nam ngy th 2, c bi hnh
hc nh sau:
Bi ton 11. Cho tam gic ABC nhn khng cn v c im P
nm trong tam gic sao cho =APB = =APC = 180 =BAC.
ng trn ngoi tip tam gic APB ct AC E khc A. ng
trn ngoi tip tam gic APC ct AB F khc A. Gi Q l im
nm trong tam gic AEF sao cho =AQE = =AQF = . Gi D l
im i xng vi Q qua EF, phn gic gc =EDF ct AP ti T .
a) Chng minh rng =DET = =ABC, =DFT = =ACB.
b) ng thng PA ct cc ng thng DE, DF ln lt ti
M, N. Gi I, J ln lt l tm ng trn ni tip cc tam gic
PEM, PFN v K l tm ng trn ngoi tip tam gic DIJ. ng
thng DT ct (K) ti H. Chng minh rng ng thng HK i
qua tm ng trn ni tip ca tam gic DMN.
Nhn xt. y l bi ton hay. Cu a) dng gi hng gii cho
cu b). Nu k thc cht bi ton ny l s ghp ni ca
hai bi ton khc. Sau y chng ti xin gii thiu li vi cc
bn c hai bi ton cng vi ngun gc ca n.
Trc ht ta nhc li hai bi ton quan trng v t gic ngoi
tip.
Bi ton 12. Cho t gic ABCD.
a) T gic ABCD ngoi tip khi v ch khi AB + CD = AD + BC.
T gic ABCD gi l ngoi tip tc l tn ti ng trn (I) tip
xc cc cnh AB, BC, CD, DA.
b) T gic ABCD bng tip gc A, C khi v ch khi AB+AD = CB+
CD. T gic ABCD gi l bng tip tc l tn ti mt ng trn
(I) cha trong gc A hoc C tip xc vi cc cnh AB, BC, CD, DA
ko di.
Bi ton trn l kt qu c bn c trong nhiu ti liu. chng
minh, ta ch cn dng cc tam gic cn v ch ra cc phn gic
ca cc gc ng quy, chi tit li gii xin dnh cho bn c.
106
A
A
D
I
C
Chng ta bt u t bi ton u tin tham kho [3] l chn

i tuyn Indonesia nm 2007:
Bi ton 13. Cho t gic ABCD ni tip ng trn (O). Hai
ng cho AC v BD ct nhau ti S. ng trn ngoi tip
tam gic SAD, SBC ct ti ti T khc S. Dng ra ngoi t gic
tam gic ABR ng dng vi DCT . Chng minh rng t gic
AT BR l t gic ngoi tip.
y l bi ton hay c rt nhiu cch tip cn khc nhau. Tuy
vy chng ti chn li gii sau gn nh l ngn gn nht v
cng chnh l s dng hng i trong bi ton 11.
A
K
S
107
Li gii. Gi K i xng R qua BC. Ta thy

=KAS = =BAS =BAK = =BDC =RAB
= =BDC =T DC = =SDT = =SAT .
T , AS l phn gic =KAT . Tng t, BS l phn gic =KBT .
D thy T S l phn gic =AT B.
T , ng trn (S) tip xc vi KA, KB, T A, T B suy ra AK
AT = BK BT . Theo tnh i xng, suy ra AR AT = BR BT hay
AR + BT = BR + AT suy ra t gic ARBT ngoi tip.
Nhn xt. Trong [3] cng c mt li gii khc v ngoi ra bi
ton cng c th gii bng php nghch o hoc tnh cht
phng tch. Ta d chng minh c tm ni tip t gic AT BR
l ng gic ca K trong tam gic SAB chnh l ni dung bi
ton 11 phn a). tip tc chng ti xin nhc li v chng
minh bi ton G8 trong IMO Shortlist 2009 trong [4] nh sau:
Bi ton 14. Cho t gic ABCD ngoi tip ng trn (I). Mt
ng thng i qua A ct on thng BC v ct tia i tia CD
ti N. Gi J, K, L l tm ni tip tam gic CNM, MAB v NAD.
Chng minh rng trc tm tam gic JKL nm trn MN.
y l mt kt qu p, bao hm trong nhiu tng. Chng
ti xin gii thiu li gii s dng bi ton 12 nh sau:
A
Q
L
M
D
J
C
108
Li gii. Gi tip tuyn ca ng trn (L) ni tip tam gic

NAD ct AM, AB ti P, Q. Nh vy t gic APCD ni tip.
Kt hp ABCD ni tip suy ra
PA PC = DA DC = BA BC.
T t gic APCB bng tip hay t gic BQPM ngoi tip vy
CP tip xc (K).
T
2=LCK = =BCD = =CMN + =CNM = 2=JMN + 2=JNM = 2=MJL.
T , t gic CJKL ni tip. Theo nh l ng thng Steiner
th ng thng ni i xng ca C qua JK, JL i qua trc tm
tam gic JKL.
Ch theo tnh cht phn gic th ng thng chnh l
MN. Vy MN i qua trc tm tam gic JKL.
Nhn xt. Bi ton ny c kt cu cht ch v tng hay. Ch
iu kin N thuc tia i tia CD cn thit bi ton ng.
rng CI K CJ nn nu CI ct ng trn (X) ngoi tip t
gic CJKL ti Y th JY l ng knh ca (X).
Phn nhn xt ny chnh l kt qu cu b) bi ton 11. Nu
k thi m hnh bi ton IMO shortlist ny cng xut hin
mt ln trong thi VMO nm 2011 xem [5]
A
Q
Y
P
I
L
X
M
J
C
109
Tr li bi ton 11, ta ch rng do iu kin cht ch ca bi

ton Shortlist nn ta cn b sung thm iu kin cho bi ton
11 l M, N phi lun cng pha vi P trn ng thng AP. T
ch t gic BCEF ni tip. Bi ton ch l s kt hp mt
cch c hc ca bi ton 13 v bi ton 14.
Ch rng ta hon ton c th thay th AP thnh mt ng
thng bt k i qua P. V khi , ta c th pht biu li bi ton
ny p hn nh sau:
Bi ton 15. Cho tam gic ABC v c im P nm trong tam
gic sao cho =APB = =APC = . ng trn ngoi tip tam gic
PAB, PAC ln lt ct CA, AB ti E, E khc A. im Q l im
nm trong tam gic AEF sao cho =AQE = =AQF = . Gi D l
im i xng vi Q qua EF.
Mt ng thng i qua P ct cc ng thng DE, DF ln lt
ti M, N sao cho M, N cng pha vi P. Gi I, J ln lt l tm
ng trn ni tip cc tam gic PEM, PFN v K l tm ng
trn ngoi tip tam gic DIJ. Phn gic =EDF ct (K) ti H.
Chng minh rng ng thng HK i qua tm ng trn ni
tip ca tam gic DMN.
Nhn xt. Do bi ton ch l mt cch kt hp c hc hai bi
ton trn nn mt khi gii v phn tch r hai bi ton trn th
bi ton kt hp khng cn mang nhiu ngha. Tuy vy vic
s dng c hai bi ton ln trong cng mt bi ton lm kh
ca bi ton thi tng nhiu ln v chnh v vy n c nh
gi cao v phn loi tt hc sinh.
Tc gi Nguyn Vn Linh pht hin rng bi ton G8 trong IMO
Shortlist 2009 c mt m rng c trn din n AoPS trc
xem [6,7]. Cng rt th v l tc gi Trn Quang Hng cng
ngh c lp mt vn tng t trong cuc thi k nim 45
tp ch Ton hc v Tui tr, xem [8] v li gii ca tc gi c
ng trong [9].
Bi ton c pht biu nh sau:
Bi ton 16. Cho t gic ABCD ngoi tip v im P nm trong
t gic sao cho cc ng thng AP, DP tng ng ct on BC
ti S, R theo th t. Chng minh rng tm ng trn ni tip
ca cc tam gic ABS, DCR, PAD, PSR cng thuc mt ng
trn.
110
US
R V
I4
K
I1
I2
P T
Z
X
C
L
I3
Li gii. Gi (I1 ), (I2 ), (I3 ), (I4 ) theo th t l ng trn ni tip

ca cc tam gic ABS, DCR, PAD, PSR. Gi X, Y l tip im ca
tip tuyn chung khc BC ca (I1 ), (I2 ) vi (I), (I). Gi M, N l
giao ca XY vi PA, PD. Gi Z, K, U l tip im ca (I1 ) vi
AS, AB, SB.
Gi T , L, V l tip im ca (I2 ) vi DR, DC, RC. D thy
(1) BU = BK, CV = CL,
(2) XY = UV, AZ = AK, DT = DL,
(3) MX = MZ, NY = NT
Ta c cc bin i tng ng sau ca cnh: T gic ABCD
ngoi tip khi v ch khi
CB + AD = AB + CD
BU + UV + VC + AD = AK + KB + DL + LC
UV + AD = AK + DL, theo (1)
XY + AD = AZ + DT , theo (2)
XM + MN + NY + AD = AM + MZ + DN + NT
MN + AD = AM + DN, theo (3)
T suy ra AMND ngoi tip v ng trn ni tip AMDN
chnh l (I3 ). Do ,
1
1
=MI3 N = 180 =AI3 D = 180 (90 =APD) = 90 =APD
2
2
111
nn
1
=I1 I3 I2 = 180 (90 =SPR) = 180 =I1 I4 I2 .
2
Vy I1 I2 I3 I4 ni tip, ta c iu phi chng minh.
Chng ta tip tc vi mt m rng th v sau cho bi ton 13.
Bi ton 17. Cho t gic ABCD ni tip ng trn (O). Cc
im E, F thuc cnh CB, AD sao cho EF k AB. DE ct CF ti
S. ng trn ngoi tip tam gic ASD v BSC ct nhau ti T
khc S. Dng im R ngoi t gic ABCD sao cho =RAB =
=ASF + =T DC v =RBA = =BSE + =T CD. Chng minh rng t
gic AT BR ngoi tip.
R
B
E
A
F
Q
S
O
T
Li gii. Ta d thy t gic CDFE ni tip nn

=ST A = =SDF = =SCE = =ST B.
T , T S l phn gic =AT B. Ta li c
=QAS = =SAB =QAB = =DAB =DAS =RAB
= =DFE (=DFS =FSA) (=ASF + =T DC)
= =SFE =T DC = =SDC =T DC = =SDT = =SAT .
112
Do , AS l phn gic =QAT . Tng t, ta cng c BS l

phn gic =QBT . T , suy ra ng trn (S) tip xc vi
QA, QB, T A, T B hay AQ AT = BQ BT .
Theo tnh i xng suy ra AR AT = BR BT hay AR + BT =
BR + AT , ta suy ra t gic ARBT ngoi tip.
Nhn xt. Vic pht biu bi ton dng gc hnh hc trong
nhiu trng hp cha tht chnh xc xong phn no gip cho
bi ton nhn p hn, vic pht biu mt cch cht ch bng
khi nim gc c hng cc bn c th t tm hiu thm. Khi
EF trng AB ta thu c bi ton 13. Nu vic kt hp bi ton
13 v bi ton 14 cho ta bi ton TST th vic kt hp bi ton
17 v bi ton 14 s cho ta mt m rng ca bi ton dng
trong k thi TST, nhng r rng vic kt hp mt cch c hc
nh cc bn thy n cng khng cn mang nhiu ngha
na.
Tuy vy, th v hn chng ti xin a ra mt tng nh
sau t bi ton 11. Nhng im P nm trong tam gic ABC
sao cho =APB = =APC th cc im P c g c bit hay ni
cch khc, qu tch P l g. Bi ton sau s gii p thc mc
, chng ta s khng c gng tm qu tch P m s tm qu tch
im ng gic ca P. l mt qu tch p v chng minh
n gin, cc bn hy lm nh mt bi luyn tp:
Bi ton 18. Cho tam gic ABC c ng trn Apollonius ng
vi A l (K). P l mt im thuc (K). Q ng gic vi P trong
tam gic ABC. Chng minh rng =AQB = =AQC.
Ti liu tham kho

[1] thi chn i tuyn Vit Nam thi IMO nm 2015
[2] Facebook Bi ton hay - Li gii p
https://www.facebook.com/BI TON HAY - LI GII
P - AM M TON HC
[3] Indonesia IMO 2007 TST, Stage 2, Test 5, Problem 1
http://www.artofproblemsolving.com/community/c6h312083
113
[4] IMO Shortlist 2009 - Problem G8

http://www.artofproblemsolving.com/community/
c6h355795p1932940
[5] A, M, N, P are concyclic iff d passes through I- [VMO 2011]
http://www.artofproblemsolving.com/community/
c6h386167p2144390
[6] Vietnam TST 2015 Problem 5
https://nguyenvanlinh.wordpress.com/2015/03/28/
vietnam-tst-2015-problem-5/
[7] Tangential quadrangle
http://www.artofproblemsolving.com/community/c6h247411
[8] Tp ch THTT s 381 thng 3 nm 2009
[9] Tp ch THTT s 385 thng 7 nm 2009
114
T p c h
online ca
cng ng
nhng n g i
y u
T o n
CC VN
C IN V HIN I
Trn Nam Dng
i hc KHTN, TP. H Ch Minh
Chuyn mc ny dnh cho cc vn c in v hin i c

trnh by di dng cc bi ton xu chui. c th l chui
cc bi gii bi ton ng chu, chng minh ng thc Euler
1
1
2
k hiu 1 + 2 + 2 + = , mt chui bi ton vn tr ... Cch
2
3
6
trnh by xut pht t nhng vn n gin, d hiu, nhng
khi nim mi s c nh ngha lun trong bi c th c
tng i c lp. V mi mt chui bi s nu ra nhng vn
nht nh, c th l gii quyt mt bi ton kinh in hay
nu ra nhng gi thuyt mi, nhng vn mi.
Ban bin tp khuyn khch cc c gi gi li gii (ton phn
hoc tng phn) cho Ban bin tp. Cc li gii hay s c chn
ng trong cc s tip theo (N + 3). Th in t xin gi v theo
a ch trannamdung@yahoo.com, tiu [Epsilon] [Li gii].
Trong s ny chng ti chn ng chui bi ton v Bt ng
thc Schapiro do A.Khabrov ngh cho Hi ngh ma h ca
Cuc thi ton gia cc thnh ph, nm 2004 v bi ton v mng
li xa l trch t thi Olympic ton ca Php nm 2014.
bi. Bn thnh ph Alencon, Blancon, Clancon v Dlancon
nm trn nh ca mt hnh vung c cnh 100 km. B giao thng
vn ti mun ni lin cc thnh ph vi nhau bng mt mng li
xa l c tng chiu di ngn nht c th.
1. Phn A
Ta c th xy xa l i t Alencon n Blancon, sau n
Clancon, cui cng n Dlancon - Tr l th nht ni.
115
Hay l, ta c th xy hai xa l cho nhau: Mt t Alencon n

Clancon v xa l cn li t Dlancon n Blancon - Tr l th
hai xut.
V ti sao li khng dng mt xa l dng na ng trn, c
b sung bi hai on xa l thng ? - Tr l th ba gp kin.
1. Phng n no trong ba phng n trn l ngn nht ?

2. Mt nh ton hc xut mt phng n khc: Ta
c th ni Alencon v Dlancon bng mt tam gic cn (tam
gic AED trong hnh 4), sau Blancon v Clancon bng
mt tam gic cn ng dng (tam gic BFC) v ni hai nh
E v F nh ta thy trong hnh sau: Nu EF = 20 km, mng
li thng xa l c th hin trn hnh 4 c ngn hn cc
mng li m cc tr l xut trn y khng ?
116
2. Phn B
Trong phn ny, chng ta mun chng minh rng mng li xa
l ngn nht thc s l m hnh ca nh ton hc xut.
Do ta s tm chiu di ca on EF t c mng li
ngn nht ny.
Nhc nh hnh hc: Nu A, B, C l ba nh ca mt tam gic th
AB + BC AC, du bng xy ra khi v ch khi B thuc on AC.
Chng ta cng bit rng, nu v mt ng cong bt k gia A
v B, chiu di ca ng cong s lun ln hn hay bng chiu
di on (ng thng l ng ngn nht).
Bi ton 1. Quay tr li vi mng li xa l ca chng ta.
Khng mt tnh tng qut ta c th gi s l mng li ca
chng ta c to thnh b hai ng con ni cc nh i
din (mt ni A vi C v mt ni B vi D), v hai ng cong
ny nm bn trong hnh vung cnh 100 km nh hnh v di
y.
Xt mt mng li c to bi hai ng cong nh hnh 5. Ta

xt xa l gia Alencon v Clancon, bt u t Alencon. Gi E0
l giao im u tin m xa l ny gp vi xa l ni Dlancon
v Blancon v F0 l giao im cui cng (hai im ny c th
trng nhau (hnh 5). Chng minh rng tng chiu di ca mng
li ny ln hn hay bng tng chiu di ca mng li di
y, to thnh bi cc on thng (hnh 6).
117
Bi ton 2. Xt cc ng thng E v F , qua E0 v F0 tng

ng v song song vi AD (xem hnh 7 di y).
(a) Xc nh im E trn E sao cho tng cc khong cch

DE + EA l nh nht. Ta gi F l im tng t trn F sao
cho FB + FC nh nht.
118
(b) Chng minh rng EF E0 F0 .

(c) T cc l lun trn suy ra rng mng li cn tm bt
buc phi c dng sau, trong E v F nm trn trung
trc on AD (hnh 8).
Bi ton 3. Ta cng nhn rng trong mng li ti u cn

tm, cc im E v F phi nm trn trung trc ca AB.
(a) Hy a ra l lun chng t rng mng li ti u cn tm
phi i xng qua trung trc ca AB.
(b) Sau tt c nhng iu ni trn, mng li cn tm s phi
c dng nh nh ton hc xut (hnh 4). Bn c th
gip xc nh chiu di ca EF sao cho mng li xa l
dng ny c tng chiu di ngn nht c th ?
(c) Khi gc =DEA bng bao nhiu ?
119
120
T p c h
online ca
cng ng
nhng n g i
y u
T o n
BT NG THC SHAPIRO1
1. Bt ng thc Shapiro
Thng 10/1954, trong Tp ch American Mathematical Monthly
xut hin bi ton ca nh ton hc M Harold Shapiro: Vi cc
s dng x1 , x2 , . . . , xn , hy chng minh bt ng thc
x1
x2
xn1
xn
n
+
+ +
+
,
x2 + x3 x3 + x4
xn + x1 x1 + x2
2
(1)
vi du bng xy ra khi v ch khi tt c cc mu s bng nhau.

Trong tp ch Monthly, khc vi cc tp ch khc, v d nh
Kvant hay Ton hc v tui tr, cho php ng c cc bi ton
m cha c ai gii c, v iu ny khng c bo trc cho
c gi. V ln ny cng vy. Tc gi bi ton khi gi bi ch c
li gii cho n = 3 v 4.
Trong cc bi ton ngh di y, thay v i hi tnh dng
ca tt c cc xk , ta ch yu cu cc s xk l khng m v tt
c cc mu s khc 0. Nu nh bt ng thc ng cho cc s
dng th t c th suy ra bt ng thc cho cc s khng
m lm cho cc mu s khc 0. t:
f(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) =
x2
xn1
xn
x1
+
+ +
+
.
x2 + x3 x3 + x4
xn + x1 x1 + x2
1. Chng minh bt ng thc (1) cho n = 3, 4, 5, 6.

2. Chng minh rng bt ng thc (1) khng ng:
a) cho n = 20;
b) cho n = 14;
c) cho n = 25.
1
Trch ton t Cuc thi ton gia cc thnh ph, nm 2004. c

ngh v gii thiu bi A. Khabrov, I. Bogdanov, V. Bugaenko, K. Kuiumdjan,
K. Kokhas, A. Skopenkov, G. Chelnokov.
121
3. Chng minh bt ng thc (1) ng cho cc dy n iu.

4. Chng minh rng nu bt ng thc (1) khng ng vi
n = m th n cng khng ng cho n = m + 2.
5. Chng minh rng nu bt ng thc (1) khng ng vi
n = m, trong m l s t nhin l, th n cng khng
ng vi mi n ln hn m.
6. Chng minh rng bt ng thc (1) ng vi n = 8, 10, 12
v n = 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19, 21, 23. Theo mnh 4, thc
hin iu ny, ta ch cn chng minh cho hai trng hp
n = 12 v n = 23.
7. Chng minh rng f(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) + f(xn , xn1 , . . . , x1 ) n.
8. Gi s rng ti im a1 , . . . , an 0, hm s f(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )
t cc tiu a phng.
a) Nu n chn, chng minh rng f(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) =
b) Chng minh mnh tng t cho n l.
n
.
2
()
c) S dng a), b), chng minh bt ng thc (1) cho n = 7

v n = 8.
9. Chng minh bt ng thc f(x1 , x2 , . . . xn ) cn cho cc gi
tr sau ca hng s c:
a) c = 41 ;
?
b) c = 2 1;
c) c =
5
.
12
Khi cuc thi din ra, cc th sinh gii quyt kh tt cc bi

ton ngh mc 1, v Ban t chc quyt nh b sung hai
bi ton sau, thc cht l chng minh mt kt qu rt mnh
ca V. Drinfeld v bt ng thc Shapiro (kt qu mnh nht
cho cc nh gi dng 9).
10.
a) Vi mi s nguyn dng n, tn ti s qn
1, sao cho
vi mi s thc x1 , x2 , . . . , xn thuc on q1n , qn bt
ng thc (1) ng.
b)
Tn ti hay khng s q 1, sao

cho vi mi s nguyn
1
dng n v vi mi xi P q , q bt ng thc (1) ng?
122
11. Gi S = f(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) l v tri ca bt ng thc Shapiro.

n
, xxn1 c xp
K hiu a1 , a2 , . . . , an l cc s xx21 , xx23 , . . . , xxn1
theo th t tng dn.
a) Chng minh rng
S
1
1
1
+
+ +
;
a1 (1 + an ) a2 (1 + an1 )
an (1 + a1 )
b) t:
$
&
bk =
1
ak an+1k
ak an+1k 1
2
, ak an+1k 1
?
ak an+1k + ak an+1k
Chng minh rng 2S b1 + b2 + + bn .

c) Gi g l hm li ln nht khng vt qu cc hm ex
x 1
. Chng minh rng
v 2 ex + e 2
2S g(ln a1 an ) + g(ln a2 an1 ) + + g(ln an a1 ) n g(0).
d) Chng minh rng vi mi 21 g(0), tn ti s nguyn
dng n v cc s dng x1 , x2 , . . . , xn , sao cho S n.
2. Cc bt ng thc hu dng lin quan

Chng minh cc bt ng thc di y vi iu kin tt c cc
s xk dng. Hy kim tra rng cc hng s c in m khng
th thay th bng cc s ln hn (vi mi n).
1. Bt ng thc Mordell.
a) Vi mi s khng m x1 , x2 , . . . , xn , ta c bt ng thc

n
k=1
2
xk
min
!n
2
n
)
,3
xk (xk+1 + xk+2 ).
k=1
b) Hy xc nh vi nhng gi tr khng m no ca
x1 , . . . , xn , bt ng thc Mordell tr thnh ng thc.
123
2. Vi mi s thc khng m x1 , x2 , . . . , xn , hy chng minh

bt ng thc sau:

n
k=1
3.
2
xk
"
n 8
,
min
3 3
*
n
xk (xk+1 + xk+2 + xk+3 ).

k=1
a) Vi n 8, hy chng minh bt ng thc

x2
xn
n
x1
+
+ +
.
x2 + x3 + x4 x3 + x4 + x5
x1 + x2 + x3
3
b)
Bt ng thc trn cn ng vi gi tr no khc ca

n hay khng?
4. (x1 + x2 + + xn )2 4(x1 x2 + x2 x3 + + xn x1 ), @n 4.
n
xk
xk+1
5.
.
x
+ xk+2 k=1 xk + xk+1
k=1 k+1
6.
x2
xn1
xn
x1
+
+ +
+
2, @n 4.
xn + x2 x1 + x3
xn2 + xn xn1 + x1
7.
x1 + x2 x2 + x3
xn1 + xn xn + x1
+
+ +
+
4, @n 4.
x1 + x3 x2 + x4
xn1 + x1
xn + x2
8.
x2
xn1
xn
x1
+
+ +
+
3, n 6.
xn + x3 x1 + x4
xn2 + x1 xn1 + x2
9.
x2 + x3 x3 + x4
xn + x1
x1 + x2
+
+ +
+
6, @n 6.
x1 + x4 x2 + x5
xn1 + x2 xn + x3
10.
x1 + x2 x2 + x3
x2004 + x1
+
+ +
6.
x1 + x4 x2 + x5
x2004 + x3
x1
x2
xn
+
+ +
4, vi n 5, n chn.
xn + x4 x1 + x5
xn1 + x3

n
n+1
x2k
12.
.
x2 xk+1 xk+2 + x2k+2
2
k=1 k+1
11.
124
T p c h
online ca
cng ng
nhng n g i
y u
T o n
PHNG PHP
M RNG V SNG TO
CC NH L HNH HC C IN
o Thanh Oai (H Ni)
Tm tt
am m v mi trng nghin cu l hai yu t quan trng
gip cho s thnh cng ca mt nh Ton hc. am m
cng vi phng php nghin cu s to ra kt qu nghin
cu. Mi trng nghin cu gip cho kt qu nghin cu
c nh gi mt cch chnh xc nht bi gii chuyn
mn cng nh cng ng. Ngoi ra, mi trng nghin cu
cng l ni nh nghin cu hc hi trao i chia s cc
vn h ang quan tm. Khi thnh qu nghin cu c
cng ng cng nhn chnh l ngun ng lc mt nh
nghin cu duy tr nim am m ca mnh. Lm th no
c th to ra c cc vn Ton hc hay cc bi ton
mt cch nhanh chng, lm sao c th kim chng c
cc kt qu mt cch d dng nht l hai vn m
mt nh nghin cu nn quan tm.
Xut pht t kinh nghim nghin cu Ton hc trong vic
to ra cc vn hnh hc, tc gi vit bi bo ny nhm
chia s kinh nghim n cc bn hc sinh v sinh vin
v tt c nhng ai c nim am m Ton hc, c bit l
b mn hnh hc phng.
Trnh by phng php m rng v sng to cc vn
hnh hc c in v mt s vn lin quan t vic kim
tra tng ng hay sai, mi hay c, m rng tng v
cng b n n cng ng c minh ha thng qua nhiu
v d sinh ng.
Tc gi hi vng bi bo ny s gip cho cc bn tr c c
s gi m bt u sng to vn Ton hc ni chung.
125
1. Vai tr ca cc i tng c bn
i vi nghin cu Ton hc, iu trc tin ta cn tm hiu
l cc tnh cht vn c (hay cn gi l cc tnh cht t nhin
ca cc i tng), cc mi kt hp v mt i tng, lp cc
i tng thuc lnh vc ta ang mun nghin cu m c
ng o cng ng tha nhn. Tip theo l nghin cu ra cc
cu trc v tnh cht (vn ) mi.
Nu nh ta khng bit ci g l c bit n th ta cng
kh c th bit ci g l mi. Do vic hiu cc i tng, tnh
cht, khi nim, cu trc c bn c mt vai tr cn bn. Nu
khng nm bt hiu v cc i tng, tnh cht, khi nim, cu
trc c bn ca mt i tng, v cc cu trc c bn kt hp
gia cc i tng th chng ta khng tm c cch pht biu
cho vic a ra gi thit, khng th hnh thnh, cc tng.
V th, mun nghin cu bt c lnh vc g cng phi c cc
khi nim c bn ca lnh vc . Ni cch khc, lnh vc ta
quan tm c cc i tng no? Cc i tng c hiu th
no? Cc tnh cht ca cc i tng l g?
i vi lnh vc hnh hc c in phi bit cc i tng c bn
ca hnh hc l im, ng thng, tam gic, t gic, ng
trn,... Nghin cu v im phi bit cc tnh cht, khi nim
c bn lin quan n im v d:
Xc nh c mt ng thng qua hai im phn bit.
Ba im gi l thng hng nu im th ba nm trn
ng thng ni hai im th nht v th hai. Khi nghin
cu ng thng ta li cn bit cc khi nim v song
song, vung gc, gc ca hai ng thng, ng thng
giao nhau, ba ng thng ng quy, ...
Nghin cu gc th ta phi bit th no l gc nhn, gc
t, gc bt, lin hp ng gic, ...
Ba im khng thng hng th to thnh tam gic bng
cch k ng thng i qua cc im ny, hnh gii hn
(bao bi ba ng thng ny) c gi l tam gic. Khi
nghin cu v tam gic li phi bit cc tnh cht ca tam
gic, cc tam gic c bit nh tam gic vung, tam gic
cn v tam gic u, tam gic ng dng, ...
126
M rng hn mt cht sang n ng cong, m ng

cong d xy dng nht l ng trn, t ng trn ri ta
c th m rng tm hiu v cc ng conic.
Tm li: Cc nh l hnh hc c xy dng bng cch nu nn
mt gi thit v cu trc ca mt s i tng i tng hnh hc,
sau suy ra mt mi quan h hoc tnh cht t cu trc .
V vy, vai tr ca cc i tng v tnh cht c bn ca cc i
tng l ht sc quan trng.
2. Nm bt xu hng nghin cu
Sau khi nm vng cc khi nim v cc i tng , tnh cht c
bn, ... Mi bt u chng ta s khng th bit chng ta cn
nghin cu ci g? Ci g ng c quan tm? Cch nhanh
nht c th i n vic pht hin c cc kt qu mi ng
ch l phi nm bt c xu hng nghin cu. Hay ni
cch khc l ha vo dng nghin cu ch o ca cc i
tng trong lnh vc ta ang mun nghin cu. Vic ny tht
s khng h n gin vi nhng ngi mi bt u. V khi mi
bt u chng ta cn rt m mt n cc khi nim tnh cht
cng cha nm bt ht lm sao c th hiu ht c dng xu
hng nghin cu?
Cu tr li l mun bit c xu hng c quan tm ca lnh
vc, cn phi ch n cc kt lun ni bt nht, ri ni bt
km hn mt cht, chnh l vic xem cc bi bo, cc bi vit v
cc thnh tu Ton hc ni bt m chng ta ang quan tm ...
T , ta hiu c cc vn ang c quan tm c ngha,
ci g cn thiu cn b sung v sau khi c kt qu ta cng d
truy tm vn c hay mi, ngha hay khng.
Hnh hc l mt lnh vc thu ht c s ch ca ti trong
thi gian qua, khi bt u quan tm n hnh hc, ti khng
bit ci g hay, ti hay theo di trang web Cut the Knot (http:
//www.cut-the-knot.org/ - mt trang ph bin Ton hc ca mt
Tin s ca M). Ngi qun l ca trang ny cng ng thi to
mt trang thng tin trn facebook nhm chia s, trao i vi mi
ngi v cc vn hnh hc.
Thi gian ban u khi ti theo di n, trang ny thng gi cc
kt qu v tam gic u khin ti ngh hnh hc ch c mi tam
127
gic u v ch quan tm n . Tuy nhin c mt ln trao i

vi mt ngi bn nc ngoi, h ni tam gic u cng p
nhng khng p bng cc tnh cht ca ba im thng hng
v ng quy. Ti nhn ra rng hnh hc Euclid khng ch c
ring tam gic u cn nghin cu. T hng suy ngh ca
ti n cc kt lun i n cc cu trc ng quy v thng
hng. Ti cng ch mun to ra cc cu trc ng quy v thng
hng, nhng sau ngi bn kia li chia s mt trn facebook
ca anh ta rng: Anh ta c ao tm ra mt ng trn nh ng
trn Lester, ti li quan tm n ng trn Lester v cng mun
nghin cu ra cc ng trn mi.
C nh vy, cho n hin nay ti nghin cu kh nhiu cu
trc hnh hc Euclid v nhn ra dng nghin cu ch o ca
hnh hc Euclid cho n hin nay l to ra cc cu trc i
n cc kt qu:
Ba im thng hng: Cc kt qu ni ting v mt cu
trc to ra ba im thng hng l cc nh l Menelaus,
nh l Pascal, nh l Desages, nh l Gauss-Newton,
nh l Droz-Frany, ...
Ba ng thng ng quy: Cc kt qu ni ting v cu
trc to ra ba ng thng ng quy l nh l Ceva, nh
l Shiffler, im Fermat, nh l Jacobi, nh l Cartnot,
nh l Kariya, nh l Kiepert, ...
Bn im nm trn ng trn: Cc kt qu ni ting v
cu trc to ra bn im nm trn ng trn nh nh
l Lester, nh l van Lamoen, ...
Mt a gic l a gic u: To ra mt cu trc c th
to ra mt tam gic u, mt hnh vung, lc gic u cc
v d kinh in ca xu hng ny l cc nh l Napoleon,
nh l Morley, nh l van Aubel, ...
Cc h thc ton hc: Gia cc gc, di on thng,
chng hn nh nh l Pythagoras, nh l cos, nh l
sin, nh l Stewart, ...
Mt im no l mt im c bit: Chng hn nh
trung im, trng tm, trc tm, ...
128
Cc bn mun sng to hnh hc Euclid nn tm hiu cc nh

l trn ti va gii thiu. Cc bn cng nn ch l hnh hc
Euclid hin nay khng cn l mt lnh vc ton hc mi nhn
na. Nhng vic nghin cu hnh hc Euclid la tui hc sinh
c bit l cc bn t lp 8 n lp 12 l rt ph hp. N to
hnh trang vng chc mai sau chng ta nghin cu sang
cc lnh vc Ton cao cp hn. lnh vc Ton cao cp, cc
i tng, cc cu trc c xy dng t cc i tng ny s
phc tp hn, kh khn hn c tnh ng dng cao hn nhng
phng php nghin cu v cch lm y theo c nhn ti
vn c th phn no gip chng ta tm c cc kt qu hay v
ngha.
Mt iu rt quan trong cn b sung l vic tm hiu lch s cc
vn ton hc cng gip cho chng ta nm bt c dng
chy nghin cu ton hc.
3. Vai tr cng ng v mt din n ton

hc
Khi mi nghin cu Ton hc, cc bn cn gp nhiu kh khn
v vic hc nm bt i tng v nghin cu nghin cu
nn thi gian u c l cha th t thnh qu ngay iu
s khin cho cc bn chn nn. Bn thn cc bn chn nn
nhng nu gi s thnh qu ca cc bn li khng c tha
nhn s khin cc bn mt ng lc sng to (iu ny cng
ng vi cc cng vic khc). Thc t chng minh rng ch khi
c ghi nhn, hoc ch khi lm vic c nng sut c hiu qu
mi khuyn khch c ngi ta ch ng tch cc v hng say
lm vic.
Do , vai tr quan trng ca cng ng trong vic khuyn
khch cc bn hc tp nghin cu l nn ghi nhn cc ng
gp v thnh qu ca cc bn, nu nh thnh qu ca cc bn
khng c ghi nhn s khng khuyn khch cc bn hng say
v i tip cc cng vic ang lm.
Ti ly kinh nghim ca c nhn, tuy cha tng c mt bi ton
no ng trn tp ch ton trong nc, tuy nhin li c ghi
nhn trn cc tp ch v t in cng nh trang web ca cc
c nhn bn Canada, M, Romania,... iu chnh l ng
129
lc khin ti thch nghin cu hnh hc. Bi ton u tin

m ti c ng trn trang Cut The Knot [1], chnh l mt m
rng ca nh l Reim:
nh l Reim: Cho cc im E, B, D thng hng, cc im F, C, G
thng hng tha mn iu kin hai t gic EBCF, DBCG ni tip
th hai ng thng EF v DG song song.
Hnh 12.1: nh l Reim v m rng

Ti pht hin ra rng ch cn E, B, E, G, C, F nm trn mt ng
conic v hai t gic EBCF, DBCG ni tip th hai ng thng EF
v DG song song.
Mc d sau ny c bit m rng nh l Reim ca ti vn l
c v nm 1974, cc tc gi Evelyn, C. J. A.; Money-Coutts,
G. B.; and Tyrrell, J. A. tc gi tm ra m rng ny nh l
mt trc hp c bit ca nh l ba ng conic. Tuy nhin,
nu nh thi im trang Cut the Knot khng cng b pht
hin ny th chc cng khng khuyn khch ti tm hiu v c
cc pht hin mi trong lnh vc hnh hc.
Vn s khi u nan. Cc kt qu nghin cu trong thi gian
u thng l khng c, hoc xu x, hin nhin, lp li kt
qu ca ngi khc, v th lc ban u, thnh qu nghin cu
ca cc bn cha c cng ng ghi nhn th cng ng chn
nn. Cc bn c nghin cu i, s c ngy no cc bn c
ghi nhn (nu cc pht hin ca cc bn l mi v hay),
chnh l cc phn thng to ln hn bt k mn thng tin
bc no. C mt ngi bn trn xe chia s vi ti rng: Ch cn
c nhng ci nh nhn v xinh xn nhng l ca mnh(khng cn
phi ci ao to ba ln).
Lu thm cho bn c khi hiu nhm, ti ni c ghi
nhn c ngha l cc bi ton c ng nn mt trang Ton
130
hc ch khng c ngha l ghi nhn bng cch lng x c nhn

cc bn. V vy, mong mun ca ti vn l thnh lp mt tp
ch ph bin Ton hc trong nc.
Ti cng ngh cc bn nghin cu c thnh qu, cc bn
nn tham gia mt din n Ton hc tht s ni m c cc nh
nghin cu trao i vi nhau. , cc bn s hc hi trao i
c rt nhiu iu v cc tng ca cc bn cng d dng
hn n c gii chuyn mn, c thm nh l mi
hay c, v cng d dng hn trong vic chia s tng ca cc
bn n cng ng. Tham gia mt din n nh vy ngha l
cc bn ang c cc nh chuyn mn bit n.
Ti thy bn M c cc din n do cc tp ch lp ra tho
lun ring bit v cc lnh vc hnh hc, lnh vc s hc, v
cc lnh vc khc nhng li c ch tr bi cc nh nghin
cu tht s. Thit ngh, Vit Nam cng nn hc theo m hnh
nghin cu ny.
4. Phng php m rng cc nh l trong

hnh hc phng
4.1. Phng php m rng gi thit
Phng php sng to mt vn mi, hoc m rng mt nh
l hnh hc da trn nn tng mt nh l c m tc gi
thng xuyn p dng nh sau:
Cho i tng A v B. Trong A c y thuc tnh ca B(hoc
thuc tnh ca B tng t vi A). Nu mt nh l no ng vi
cc gi thit c xy dng t i tng A th hy kim tra nh
l vi cc gi thit c xy dng t i tng B.
minh ha cho phng php trn chng ta s xem mt s v
d sau y:
4.1.1. V d mt tnh cht ng cho tam gic trung bnh
m rng ng cho mi tam gic Cevian
nh l ng thng Gauss-Newton l mt nh l kh ni ting
ni v mt tnh cht ca t gic ton phn [2], nh l ny pht
biu nh sau :
131
Trung im ca cc ng cho trong mt t gic ton phn nm

trn mt ng thng.
Hnh 12.2: nh l ng thng Gauss-Newton

Trong hnh v trn, ng thng ct ba cnh ti cc im
A1 , B1 , C1 v A2 , B2 , C2 l trung im ca ba on thng AA1 , BB1 , CC1
th A2 , B2 , C2 thng hng. Tuy nhin, ta thy ba im A2 , B2 , C2
trn u nm trn ba cnh tng ng ca tam gic trung bnh
ca tam gic ABC ta c th pht biu li nh l ny nh sau:
Cho ng thng (L) ct ba cnh ca tam gic BC, CA, AB ti
A1 , B1 , C1 . t A2 , B2 , C2 l giao im ca ng thng AA1 , BB1 , CC1
ln lt vi ba cnh tng ng ca tam gic trung bnh ca tam
gic ABC th A2 , B2 , C2 thng hng.
Ta c th m rng nh l trn nu thay tam gic trung bnh bi
mt tam gic m rng hn ca tam gic trung bnh khng? Tam
gic Cevian l mt tam gic tng qut hn tam gic trung bnh.
Tht vy tam gic A1 B1 C1 gi l tam gic Cevian ca tam gic
ABC ng vi im P nu AP, BP, CP ln lt giao vi ba cnh
BC, CA, AB ti cc im A1 , B1 , C1 . Khi tam gic Cevian ng vi
trng tm tam gic th chnh l tam gic trung bnh ca tam
gic ABC. Nh vy, r rng tam gic Cevian l tng qut ca
tam gic trung bnh.
T c s trn ta c th i n mt m rng ca nh l GassNewton [3] nh sau:
Vn 1: Cho ng thng (L) ct ba cnh BC, CA, AB ca tam
gic ti A1 , B1 , C1 . t A2 , B2 , C2 l giao im ca ng thng
AA1 , BB1 , CC1 ln lt vi ba cnh tng ng ca mt tam gic
Cevian bt k ca tam gic ABC th A2 , B2 , C2 thng hng.
132
Hnh 12.3: M rng nh l ng thng Gauss-Newton

4.1.2. V d mt tnh cht ng cho tam gic Napoleon v
Morley m rng ra hai tam gic Jacobi bt k.
Tam gic Napoleon v tam gic Morley l cc tam gic u ni
ting trong hnh hc s cp, ti y chng ta khng tm hiu li
khi nim ny. Chng ta cng nhau tm hiu khi nim v tam
gic Jacobi, khi nim ny nh sau:
Cho tam gic ABC, dng cc tam gic BA0 C, CB0 A, AC0 B cng ra
ngoi (hoc vo trong) ba cnh tam gic ABC, sao cho =C0 AB =
=B0 AC, =C0 BA = =A0 BC, =A0 CB = =B0 CA khi tam gic A0 B0 C0
gi l mt tam gic Jacobi ca tam gic ABC.
i chiu vi khi nim trn, ta thy tam gic Napoleon v tam
gic Morley u l cc trng hp c bit ca tam gic Jacobi.
Thy Trn Quang Hng (gio vin THPT chuyn Tng Hp HQGHN) pht hin tnh cht sau:
Cho tam gic ABC, v cc tam gic Napoleon v tam gic Morley
tng ng l MA MB MC , NA NB NC gi A1 l giao im ca MA NA
v BC, nh ngha B1 , C1 tng t khi AA1 , BB1 , CC1 ng quy
[4].
Trc , mt nh nghin cu ngi Phn Lan tn l van Lamoen cng tm ra tnh cht nh sau:
Nu gi A1 , B1 , C1 l chn ng cao ca ba nh A0 , B0 , C0 trn
ba cnh tam gic th AA1 , BB1 , CC1 ng quy [5].
Ta thy rng ng cao k t A1 , B1 , C1 ln lt xung BC, CA, AB
chnh l cc ng thng ni nh A1 , B1 , C1 ln lt vi cc tam
gic cn y l cnh BC, CA, AB v c gc y bng 90 . Do
133
vy, nu ta ta quan st kt qu ca van Lamoen v Trn Quang

Hng th chng u l nhng trng hp c bit ca mt vn
sau y:
Vn 2: Gi Ja Jb Jc v Ja1 Jb1 Jc1 l hai tam gic Jacobi ca ABC;
gi A0 B0 C0 l giao im ca cc ng thng Ja Ja1 vi BC; Jb Jb1 vi
AC ; Jc Jc1 vi AB khi AA0 , BB0 , CC0 ng quy [6].
Hnh 12.4: Vn hai tam gic Jacobi
4.1.3. V d nh l ng cho giao im ca mt t gic c

hai ng cho vung gc cng ng cho mt im
tha mn tnh cht c bit trong t gic.
Mc ny chng ta cng nhau tm hiu mt m rng ca nh
l Brahmagupta ni ting v t gic ni tip c hai ng cho
vung gc. Brahmagupta(598-670) mt nh ton hc ni ting
ca n . Ni dung nh l:
Cho mt t gic ni tip c hai ng cho vung gc, khi
ng thng ni trung im ca mt cnh vi giao im ca hai
ng cho s vung gc vi cnh i din [7].
Ta tm hiu mt cht v gi thit v kt lun ca nh l ny.
Cho t gic ABCD ni tip gi F l trung im ca AB, E l giao
im ca hai ng cho, theo nh l Brahmagupta ta c FE
vung gc vi CD, gi im giao nhau gia FE vi CD l G.
Ta nhn thy nh l ny c c im l gc =DEA = =BEG =
90 . Cc im B, E, D thng hng v A, E, C thng hng. Ngoi
134
Hnh 12.5: nh l Brahmagupta
ra, v t gic ABCD ni tip nn theo tnh cht phng tch ta

c EB ED = EA EC. T cc nhn xt ny ta s tm cch m
rng gi thit ca nh l Brahmagupta xem c gi c cc
kt lun ng, hoc kt lun tng t vi kt lun ca nh l
Brahmagupta trn nn cc gi thit mi hay khng?
By gi chng ta khng a ra gi thit v gc =DEA = =BEC =
90 na nhng vn gi tng hai gc ny bng 180 , cc im
B, E, D khng cn thng hng v cc im A, E, C khng cn
thng hng, t gic ABCD khng cn ni tip na nhng vn
gi iu kin EA EC = EB ED khi s c mt kt lun cng
tng t nh kt lun ca nh l Brahmagupta. Tuy nhin,
vic xy dng mt im tha E tha mn cc tnh cht ca gi
thit ny t mt t gic ABCD cho trc l rt kh khn nn ta
s xy dng bi ton t cc nhn xt trn xut pht t mt bi
ton tam gic sau y.
Vn 3: Dng ra ngoi cc cnh AB, AC ca tam gic ABC
hai tam gic BAD v CAE, sao cho =DAB + =EAC = 180 v
BA AE = CA AD. Gi F, I ln lt l trung im ca DE, BC.
Gi IA giao vi DE ti G. Gi K, M, P ln lt l tm ca cc
ng trn (BAD),(FGI),(CAE), khi =AGC = =CAE v M l
trung im ca KP [8].
135
Hnh 12.6: M rng nh l Brahmagupta

4.1.4. Mt v d v nh l ng cho hai cp ng thng
th cng ng cho mt ng conic
Nhc li nh l Reim: Cho E, B, D thng hng v F, C, G thng
hng v hai t gic EBCF, DBCG ni tip th hai ng thng EF
v DG song song. Nh phn trn ta thy rng ch cn E, B, E, G, C, F
nm trn mt ng conic v hai t gic EBCF, DBCG ni tip
th hai ng thng EF v DG song song.
Nh vy ta thy i vi cu trc nh l Reim th khi thay hai
ng thng EBD, v ECG bi mt ng conic i qua su im
E, B, D, G, C, F th kt lun ca nh l vn ng [9].
i vi nh l Pascal: Cho mt lc gic c cc nh nm trn
mt ng conic th giao im ca ba cp cnh i din thng
hng.
Hnh 12.7: nh l Pascal, nh l Pappus

Trong hnh v trn, cc im A, B, C, D, E, F cng nm trn mt
ng conic v ba im G, H, I thng hng. Ta th thay ng
136
conic trong nh l Pascal bi hai ng thng vi ba im

A, B, C nm trn ng thng th nht v D, E, F bm trn ng
thng th hai v quan st kt qu thy G, H, I vn thng hng
[10][11], kt qu ny l ni dung ca nh l Pappus.
Qua hai v d trn, ta thy rng nu tnh cht no c
pht biu l ng cho mt cp ng thng th hy kim tra
tnh cht nu ta thay chng bi mt ng conic.
nh l con bm cng l mt v d minh ha trong trng hp
trn. Li gii thch l v mt ng conic c th suy bin thnh
mt cp ng thng.
4.2. Tm kt lun tng t cc nh l

4.2.1. Tm mt cu trc to ra mt tam gic u-vn
Dual ca m rng nh l Napoleon
Vi iu kin no th tam gic Hofstadter l tam gic u, cu
tr li cho cu hi ny thng qua nh l gc chia ba ca Morley.
Vi iu kin no th tam gic Kiepert l tam gic u? Cu tr
li c hiu thng qua nh l Napoleon.
Ta bit rng, cho tam gic ABC v mt im P, tam gic bn
p ca im P l tam gic to bi cc im l hnh chiu ca P
trn ba cnh ca ABC. Tam gic Cevian ca im P l tam gic
to bi cc im l giao im ca ng thng t nh qua P
vi cnh i din. Ti thi im mi bt u nghin cu hnh
hc phng, tc gi c cc cu hi nh tm mt im sao cho
tam gic bn p ca n l mt tam gic u, hoc tam gic
Cevian ca n l mt tam gic u.
Ngi ta tm c hai im tha mn tnh cht tam gic bn
p ca im l mt tam gic u, hai im c bit n
vi tn im Isodynamic th nht v th hai, cc im ny l
im lin hp ng gic ca im Fermat.
Tam gic bn p ca im Isodynamic l mt tam gic u,
iu ny kh ph bin. Nhng tam gic Cevian ca mt im l
tam gic u th li t ngi bit n, vic dng c im nh
vy l rt kh khn, sau khi trao i vi mt s ngi nghin
cu chuyn nghip tc gi nhn c cu tr li im tha
mn tnh cht c xut bi Jiang Huanxin v David
Goering [12].
137
Nh vy cu hi tm iu kin tam gic bn p l mt tam

gic u, hay tm iu kin mt tam gic Cevian l mt tam
gic u c quan tm v lm r. Tc gi li t cu hi
tm mt im sao cho i xng ca im qua ba cnh tam
gic ABC cho trc l mt tam gic u, tc gi tm c im
li chnh l hai im Isodynamic, vic chng minh iu ny
tht s rt d dng v tam gic ny l v t ca tam gic u
bn p ca hai im .
Nu nh dng li y th kt qu tr nn ht sc bnh thng
khng c g ng ni v hon ton chnh l vn tm mt
im sao cho tam gic bn p ca n l mt tam gic u.
Nhng iu c bit l cc ng thng ni cc nh tng ng
ca tam gic u ny vi tam gic ABC li ng quy ti im
Fermat. Do cc nh ca tam gic u ny c xc nh l i
xng ca im Isodynamic vi ba cnh ca tam gic iu c
suy ra rng cc ng thng ni im Isodynamic vi ba nh
tam gic u vung gc vi ba cnh tng ng ca tam gic
ABC.
Sau khi nghin cu a ra m rng nh l Napoleon tc gi
nh li kt qu nghin cu c nh du in nghing on
trn tc gi pht hin mt vn m rng ca vn i xng
ca mt im qua ba cnh tam gic to thnh mt tam gic
u nh sau.
Vn 4: Cho tam gic ABC, F l im Fermat th nht hoc th
hai, I l im lin hp ng gic ca F, P l im nm trn ng
thng FI. A0 l giao im ca ng thng qua P v vung gc vi
cnh BC v ng thng AF. nh ngha B0 , C0 tng t. Chng
minh A0 B0 C0 l tam gic u [13].
Trng hp c bit xy ra khi P l im Symmedian. Vi trng
hp ny ta c hai tam gic Dual vi tam gic u Napeleon. Hai
tam gic u mi c nhiu tnh cht rt th v. Mt trong
cc tnh cht ny l:
Vn 5: Bn im gm hai im Fermat v trng tm hai tam
gic u va cp trn nm trn mt ng trn
4.2.2. Tm mt cu trc tng t nh l Christopher Bradley
nh l Christopher Bradley c pht biu nh sau:
138
Hnh 12.8: Vn dual ca nh l ca Napoleon

Cho t gic ABCD ngoi tip ng trn, gi E l giao im ca
hai ng cho. Khi tm ca bn ng trn ni tip cc t
gic EAB, EBC, ECD, EDA nm trn mt ng trn [14].
Hnh 12.9: nh l Christopher Bradley

Cu hi tng t: Cho t gic ABCD ngoi tip ng trn, tm
mt im P trn mt phng sao cho tm ni tip ca cc tam gic
PAB, PBC, PCD, PDA nm trn mt ng trn. T cu hi trn
tc gi tm c mt s vn [15] sau y:
Vn 6: T gic ABCD va ni ngoi tip, O l tm ng trn
ngoi tip t gic ABC, khi tm ca bn ng trn ni tip
cc tam gic OAB, OBC, OCD, ODA nm trn mt ng trn.
139
Hnh 12.10: Vn 6
Tc gi tm c hai im na na tha mn tnh cht bn tm
ni tip nm trn mt ng trn. Hai vn ny c hiu
thng qua khi nim v t gic trung trc ca t gic ngoi
tip sau y.
Cho t gic li ABCD ngoi tip mt ng trn, bn ng trung
trc ca bn cnh t gic hp vi nhau thnh to thnh mt t
gic ngoi tip.
Tnh cht trn c bit n trong quyn sch ca Mike de
Villiers, chng minh a ra bi Jordan Tabov [16]. Nhng trc
c xut hin ti ti liu bn Nga [17]. Hin nay cha
thng nht c tn gi ring cho t gic trn nn chng ta s
tm gi t gic trn vi tn l t gic trung trc ca t gic
ngoi tip.
Vn 7: Gi O l tm ng trn ni tip t gic trung trc ca
t gic ngoi tip ABCD khi tm bn ng trn ni tip cc
tam gic OAB, OBC, OCD, ODA nm trn mt ng trn.
Vn 8: Gi L giao im ca hai ng cho ca t gic trung
trc ca t gic ngoi tip ABCD khi tm bn ng trn ni
tip cc tam gic LAB, LBC, LCD, LDA nm trn mt ng trn.
Cc nh l hnh hc lun c xu hng c m rng ra. Trong
mc tip theo, tc gi trnh by mt s v d v cc hng m
rng nh l Napoleon.
140
Hnh 12.11: T gic trung trc ca mt t gic ngoi tip
Hnh 12.12: Vn 7
Hnh 12.13: Vn 8
4.3. Dng chy m rng nh l Napoleon

Mt nh l hnh hc p c t theo tn ca v hong
nc Php l Napoleon Bonaparte(1769-1821). nh l Napoleon
141
c pht biu nh sau:

Cho tam gic ABC, dng ba tam gic u BA0 C, CB0 A, AC0 B ra
ngoi (hoc vo trong) ba cnh tam gic ABC; khi , trng tm
tam gic l cc nh ca mt tam gic u.
Tam gic u mi gi l tam gic Napoleon ngoi (hoc trong)
ca tam gic ABC [18].
Hnh 12.14: nh l Napoleon

nh l Napoleon l mt nh l p trong hnh hc c in,
v th n thu ht c s quan tm nghin cu ca rt nhiu
ngi t cc nh ton hc, gio vin v hc sinh n c nhng
ngi nghin cu nghip d. Cc nghin ny a ra nhiu
cch chng minh khc nhau cho nh l, cc chng minh da
vo lng gic, s phc v ta ...
Mt s nh l ni ting khc c ly cm hng t nh l
Napoleon, thay v cu trc dng trn cc cnh mt tam gic 3
tam gic u th nh l van Aubel ni dung l dng ra ngoi
mt t gic bt k cc hnh vung th on thng ni tm ca hai
hnh vung trn hai cnh i din vung gc v bng nhau [20],
hay nh l Thebault vi ni dung l dng ra ngoi mt hnh
bnh hnh cc hnh vung th tm ca cc cc hnh vung ny l
cc nh ca mt hnh vung...
Mt nghin cu khc c l cng c ly cm hng t nh l
Napoleon do Ludwig Kiepert xut. Thay v dng trn ba cnh
142
Hnh 12.15: nh l van Auble v nh l Thebault

tam gic cc tam gic u, Kiepert dng trn ba cnh tam gic
cc tam gic cn ng dng v ng quan st thy mt kt qu
th v c th hin qua nh l Kiepert sau:
Cho tam gic ABC, dng ba tam gic cn v ng dng BA0 C,
CB0 A, AC0 B ra ngoi (hoc vo trong) ba cnh tam gic ABC khi
AA0 , BB0 , CC0 ng quy [21].
im ng quy trn u c mt tn chung l im Kiepert. Gi
s gc y ca tam gic cn l th ta s c cc im ng quy
tng ng vi gc c k hiu l K(). Tuy nhin trong
mt s trng hp c bit im Kiepert s c tn ring, nu
nh gc = 45 th im Kiepert ny c gi vi tn ring l
im Vecten, nu nh = 60 th im Kiepert ny c gi vi
mt tn ring l im Fermat. Tp hp tt c cc im ng quy
c to ra khi ta thay i cc tam gic cn ng dng s to
nn mt ng hyperbol vi tn ng hyperbol Kiepert (y l
).
mt ng cong c th biu din bi phng trnh y = m
x
T nh l Kiepert ta c th nhn thy rng cc ng thng
ni cc nh ca tam gic ABC v cc nh tng ng vi tam
gic Napoleon ca tam gic ABC l ng quy, cc im ng quy
ny gi l cc im Napoleon. V c hai tam gic Napoleon trong
v ngoi nn ta cng c hai im Napoleon l im Napoleon
th nht v im Napoleon th hai, tt nhin chng nm trn
ng Kiepert hyperbola. D dng nhn thy rng cc nh ca
tam gic Napoleon nm trn ng trung trc ca ba cnh ca
tam gic ABC, ngha l ba ng thng i qua ba nh tam gic
143
Napoleon v vung gc vi ba cnh tam gic s ng quy ti tm

ng trn ngoi tip. Nu ta v hnh v quan st th c th
thy: im Fermat th nht, im Napoleon ngoi v tm ng
trn ngoi tip l thng hng. Tng t nh vy ba im: im
Fermat th hai, im Napoleon trong v tm ng trn ngoi
tip thng hng. [22]
Hnh 12.16: im Fermat, im Napoleon, O thng hng

T cc quan st c nh du bng ch nghing trn tc gi
tm ra mt vn m rng nh l Napoleon nh sau.
Vn 1: Cho tam gic ABC, F l im Fermat trong hoc ngoi,
K l im Kiepert, P l im nm trn ng thng FK. nh ngha
A0 l giao im ca AK v ng thng qua P v vung gc vi
BC. nh ngha B0 , C0 tng t. Khi tam gic A0 B0 C0 l tam
gic u [23].
Nh trn chng ta thy c nhiu nh l c cu hnh c gi
m t nh l Napoleon, nh nh l Thebault, nh l van Aubel
v c bit l nh l Kiepert, tuy nhin nu tm hiu chng ta
li pht hin c mt nh l tng t vi nh l Kiepert l
nh l Kariya. Ni mt cch khc inh l Kiepert khng nh
rng ly cc im trn ba ng trung trc sao cho on thng
tnh t trung im ca ba cnh tng ng vi cc ng trung
trc t l vi di ba cnh th ng thng ni ba im
vi ba nh tam gic s ng quy. Ba ng trung trc ca ba
cnh ng quy ti tm ngoi tip.
144
Hnh 12.17: M rng nh l Napoleon vi hyperbol Kiepert

Nh hnh hc Kariya a ra mt tng tng t (vi cu
trc ca nh l Kiepert) nhng p dng vi trng hp ba
ng vung gc vi ba cnh ng quy ti tm ni tip(thay v
tm ngoi tip), v cc on thng thay v t l vi ba cnh th
by gi l cc on thng bng nhau bin thnh nh l
Kariya nh sau:
Gi I l tm ng trn ni tip tam gic ABC, dng ba tam gic
BA0 C, CB0 A, AC0 B cng ra ngoi (hoc vo trong) ba cnh tam
gic ABC, sao cho IA0 = IB0 = IC0 v I khi AA0 , BB0 , CC0 ng
quy [24].
Khi nghin cu nh l Kariya tc gi t ra cu hi nh l c
cn ng ng nu ta thay tm ni tip bi tm bng tip, cu
tr li mong nhn c t bn c.
Tip theo chng ta quan st thy rng trong nh l Kiepert v
nh l l Kariya, u c im chung l cc gc =C0 AB = =B0 AC,
=C0 BA = =A0 BC, =A0 CB = =B0 CA. V ta th to bi ton vi
pht biu: Cho tam gic ABC, dng cc tam gic BA0 C, CB0 A,
AC0 B cng ra ngoi (hoc vo trong) ba cnh tam gic ABC, sao
cho =C0 AB = =B0 AC, =C0 BA = =A0 BC, =A0 CB = =B0 CA, nu
ta ni cc ng thng AA0 , BB0 , CC0 ta cng quan st thy ba
ng thng ny ng quy. Kt qu trn l ni dung ca nh
l Jacobi, tam gic A0 B0 C0 gi l tam gic Jacobi.
Dng chy cn tip tc i n mt trng hp c bit ca
nh l Jacobi l nh l Hofstadter. Nh ton hc Hofstadter
145
Hnh 12.18: nh l Jacobi

a ra mt cu trc c bit gc =C0 AB = =B0 AC = k.=A,
=C0 BA = =A0 BC = k.=B, =A0 CB = =B0 CA = k =C, i vi
trng hp ny tam gic A0 B0 C0 c gi l tam gic Hofstadter
[25].
Tm li: nh l ng vi im ny th kim tra vi im khc,
tm qu tch cc im tha mn. nh l ng vi cc ng thng
song song th kim tra vi cc ng thng ct nhau. nh l
ng vi tam gic u th kim tra n vi tam gic cn, vi tam
gic bt k. nh l ng vi mt t gic c bit th hy kim tra
n vi t gic t c bit hn ...
5. X l tng
Chng ta khng th lm c g tip theo nu tng chng
ta l sai ngay t u. Do sau khi c tng, vic u tin
cn phi lm l kim tra tng ng hay sai. Ta c th s ha
(nu c th) kim tra, l mt bc kim tra s b. Nu
chng ta c my tnh chng ta hy s dng cc cng c phn
mm c sn, v d phn mm geogebra hoc chng ta t lp
trnh kim tra ngay cc tng ca mnh ngay khi n va
c le ln. Hy nh ng tng le nn v ri vt tt.
Nu tng ca cc bn l ng tip theo cc bn phi bit
tng mi hay c? Nu nh tng c th cn phi bit
tm hiu xem n pht trin tng qut n u tip tc
nghin cu. Hoc cng qua , ta bit thm cc kin thc gip
cho vic hnh thnh cc tng v sau. N gip cho cng tc
146
tm kim, tra cu kt qu, v c th s nghin cu pht trin

hnh thnh cc tng mi.
i vi lnh vc hnh hc c bn th hai t in sau dng tra
cu rt c gi tr:
1. T in bch khoa v cc im v ng c bit trong
tam gic, trang web: http://faculty.evansville.edu/ck6/
encyclopedia/ETC.html ni v cc tm tam gic(cc im
c bit) c xy dng chnh bi Clack Kimberling mt
gio s trng University of Evansville. Cc tm tam gic
c nh s theo mc theo th t X(1), X(2), ..., X(n), chng
hn, tm ni tip l X(1), trng tm l X(2), tm ngoi tip
l X(3), trc tm l (4), ... V n lit k gn nh y cc
tnh cht quan trng t ln n nh ca cc tm ca tam
gic. Hin nay, t in ny lit k ra c khong 6400
im v ng c bit trong tam gic.
2. Mt t in hn lm khc rt ng tham kho l bch
khoa th v cc ng bc ba, t in ny ta c th s
dng tm qu tch cc im tha mn mt tnh cht
no : http://bernard.gibert.pagesperso-orange.fr/ctc.
html Bch khoa th ny m t cc ng cubic trong tam
gic, cc ng cubic ny i qua cc tm trong mt tam
gic. Ta s th ly mt v d nu ra cch p dng t
in trn cho vic tra cu.
V d tra cu: Xut pht t vn IV ca Thebault: H l
trc tm tam gic ABC, v Ha , Hb , Hc l chn ba hnh chiu
ca H nn ba cnh tam gic ABC, th ng thng Euler ca
cc tam gic AHb Hc , BHc Ha v CHa Hb ng quy.
Khi thnh tho phng php m c trnh by
trn, rt nhanh chng, ti t ra mt cu hi l i tm mt
im P trn mt phng tam gic ABC, sao cho vi Pa , Pb , Pc
l hnh chiu ca P trn ba cnh ca tam gic ABC, th
ng thng Euler ca cc tam gic APb Pc , BPc Pa v CPa Pb
ng quy.
Thng thng vi kinh nghim c sn, ta s th vi cc im
c bit trc v d ta th im l tm ng trn ni tip.
Ta pht hin n ng, ta kim tra n vi mt s im c bit
147
khc v d trc tm, trng tm, hai im Fermat, tm ngoi

tip... v trong qu trnh kim tra ta thy tnh cht ny cng
ng nu im P tm ng trn chn im X(5). Tip theo ta
tra ti Catalogue thy:
K005 NAPOLEON CUBIC, FEUERBACH CUBIC, pK(X6, X5), D(0)
X(1), X(3), X(4), X(5), X(17), X(18), X(54), X(61), X(62), X(195),
X(627), X(628), X(2120), X(2121), X(3336), X(3460), X(3461),
X(3462), X(3463), X(3467), X(3468), X(3469), X(3470), X(3471),
X(3489), X(3490)
Ta thy ng Napoleon cubic l ng Cubic u tin m ta
thy n i qua cc im tm ng trn ni tip X(1), trc tm
X(4), tm ng trn chn im X(5)... Ta d on rng tnh
cht trn ng nu P nm trn ng Napoleon Cubic.
Tip theo, ta click vo v thy ngay rng tnh cht c
nu ra nh mt tnh cht u tin ca ng Napoleon cubic.
Tuy nhin, nu gi s n cha c nu ra ti t in ny ta
s tip tc kim tra vi im X(17), X(18), ... ta thy n ng.
V nh vy d on ca ta v tnh cht trn s ng nu P
nm trn ng Napoleon Cubic. Tt nhin nu trng hp ny
xy ra ta s c nghin cu mi v mt tnh cht ca ng
Napoleon cubic(tuy nhin iu ny l gi tng v thc t n
c nghin cu).
Nu nh kt qu l mi c l s n bc quan trng nht l
tm cch chng minh v cng b kt qu. Cng b kt qu c
nhiu cch, v d a ln blog c nhn, din n hoc xut
ln tp ch hoc l gi n mt s nh ton hc uy tn, hoc
tm cch chng minh v vit bo c lp hoc cng tc vi mt
ngi khc cng nghin cu vit bo.
Hin nay i vi hnh hc c in ti khuyn co cc bn c th
cng b ti tp ch Crux ca hi ton hc Canada, tp ch AMM
ca hi ton hc M, tp ch Forum Geometricorum ca khoa
ton i hc Florida Atlantic.
1. Tp ch Crux: Mt tp ch v Ton s cp ca hi Ton
hc Canada, hin nay min ph t cc s ra u tin cho
n nm 2008. Cc bn c th truy cp ti a ch: https:
//cms.math.ca/crux/
148
2. Tp ch AMM: Mt tp ch ton hng thng ca hi Ton

hc M, cng xut bn cc bi bo v vn hnh hc c
in. http://www.maa.org
3. Tp ch Forum Geometricorum: y l mt tp ch in
t, min ph, hn lm i vi lnh vc hnh hc c in.
Tp ch ny c ca khoa Ton i hc Florida Atlantic,
M. Tp ch ny ch nhn ng bi bo hon chnh: http:
//forumgeom.fau.edu/
6. Bi tp thc hnh
Bi ton 1. Cho tam gic ABC, F l im Fermat, ba ng
thng qua G v vung gc vi FA, FB, FC ct ba cnh tam gic
ti A0 , B0 , C0 ta thy A0 , B0 , C0 thng hng. Hy kim tra tnh
cht trn nu thay im trng tm G bi im Vecten, im
Napoleon v sau hy kim tra vi cc im nm trn qu
tch no th tha mn tnh cht ny, v i n kt lun tng
qut hn na.
Bi ton 2. Gi O l tm ng trn ngoi tip ca tam gic
ABC, khi ng thng Euler ca cc tam gic OBC, OCA, OAB
ng quy. Hy kim tra tnh cht ny nu ta thay im O bi
im tm ng trn ni tip, trc tm, v tm ng trn chn
im... Tm qu tch cc im tha mn tnh cht ny.
Bi ton 3. Cho tam gic ABC, mt ng thng L ct ba cnh
BC, CA, AB ca tam gic ln lt ti A0 , B0 , C0 . S l im bt
k trn ng thng L. Gi A1 , B1 , C1 l cc im i xng ca
A0 , B0 , C0 qua S th AA1 , BB1 , CC1 ng quy. Hy kim tra kt qu
bi ton ny nu ta thay S bi mt ng trn v php i xng
qua im bi php nghch o qua ng trn.
Bi ton 4. Cho hnh vung ABCD dng ra ngoi cnh AB v
BC hai tam gic u AMB, BNC khi tam gic DMN l mt
tam gic u. Hy kim tra tnh cht ny nu thay hnh vung
ABCD bi mt hnh bnh hnh ABCD.
Bi ton 5. Dng trn ba cnh ca tam gic ABC cng ra ngoi
(hoc vo trong) cc tam gic u BA0 C, CB0 A, AC0 B ta thy
AA0 , BB0 , CC0 ng quy, hy kim tra tnh cht ny nu thay ba
tam gic u bi ba tam gic cn ng dng.
149
Bi ton 6. nh l by ng trn pht biu rng: Cho su

ng trn trong mt phng sao cho mi ng trn tip xc
vi hai ng trn lin k. Su ng trn cng tip xc vi
ng trn th by. Hy th tm cc tnh cht ca mt bi ton
c xy dng t gi thit: Cho su ng trn, mi ng trn
tip xc vi hai ng trn lin k nhau sao cho cc im tip
xc ny cng nm trn mt ng trn.
Ti liu tham kho

[1] A. Bogomolny, Two Circles, Ellipse, and Parallel Lines,
available
at
http://www.cut-the-knot.org/pythagoras/
CircleCircleEllipse.shtml
[2] R. A. Johnson, A Modern Geometry: An Elementary Treatise
on the Geometry of the Triangle and the Circle, Houghton Mifflin, Boston, 1929, pp.152153.
[3] O. T. Dao, Advanced Plane Geometry, message 1283, May 9,
2014.
[4] H. Q. Tran, Advanced Plane Geometry, message 1736,
September 19, 2014.
[5] Darij Grinberg, Math Forum, Synthetic Proofs of Jacobi and
Lamoen Theorems , March 21, 2003.
[6] O. T. Dao, Advanced Plane Geometry, message 1765,
September 19, 2014.
[7] R. Honsberger, Episodes in Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Euclidean Geometry, MAA, 1995.
[8] O. T. Dao, Quadri-Figures-Group, message 241, September
23, 2013.
[9] Evelyn, C. J. A.; Money-Coutts, G. B.; and Tyrrell, J. A. The
Seven Circles Theorem and Other New Theorems. London:
Stacey International, pp. 11-18, 1974.
[10] Coxeter, H. S. M. and Greitzer, S. L. Geometry Revisited.
Washington, DC: Math. Assoc. Amer., pp. 74-76, 1967.
150
[11] Johnson, R. A. Modern Geometry: An Elementary Treatise

on the Geometry of the Triangle and the Circle. Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin, pp. 237-238, 1929.
[12] Jiang Huanxin and David Goering, Problem 10358* and
Solution, Equilateral cevian triangles, American Mathematical Monthly 104 (1997) 567-570.
[13] O. T. Dao, Advanced Plane Geometry, message 2267, January 25, 2015.
[14] Darij Grinberg, CTK Exchange, Synthetic proof of Christopher Bradleys Conjecture, January 11, 2004.
[15] O. T. Dao, Quadri-Figures-Group, message 409, January
16, 2014.
[16] M. de Villiers, Some Adventures in Euclidean Geometry,
Univ. of Durban-Westville, 1994 (revised 1996), pp. 192-193.
[17] Titanium, Tangential quadrilateral well known properties?
http://artofproblemsolving.com,January16,2014.
[18] Coxeter, H. S. M. and Greitzer, S. L. Geometry Revisited.
Washington, DC: Math. Assoc. Amer., pp. 60-65, 1967.
[19] van Aubel, H. H. Note concernant les centres de carrs construits sur les cts dun polygon quelconque. Nouv. Corresp.
Math. 4, 40-44, 1878.
[20] Casey, J. A Treatise on the Analytical Geometry of the Point,
Line, Circle, and Conic Sections, Containing an Account of Its
Most Recent Extensions with Numerous Examples, 2nd rev.
enl. ed. Dublin: Hodges, Figgis, & Co., pp. 442-448, 1893.
[21] Kimberling.C, Encyclopedia of Triangle Centers, http://
faculty.evansville.edu/ck6/encyclopedia/ETC.html.
[22] O. T. Dao, Advanced Plane Geometry, message 2261, January 24, 2015.
[23] D. Grinberg, Hyacinthos message 10504, September 20,
2004.
[24] Kimberling, C, Hofstadter Points, available at http://
faculty.evansville.edu/ck6/tcenters/recent/hofstad.html.
151
152
T p c h
online ca
cng ng
nhng n g i
y u
T o n
INEQUALITIES
A JOURNEY INTO
FIBONACCI & LUCAS NUMBERS
Vandanjav Adiyasuren
National University of Mongolia
Bold Sanchir
Mongolian University of Life Sciences
1. Fibonacci and Lucas numbers

The Fibonacci numbers may this be defined as follows:
F0 = 0, F1 = 1 and Fn = Fn1 + Fn1 ,
n2
()
The sequence of Fibonacci numbers is:

0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, ...
The Lucas numbers may this be defined as follows:
L0 = 2, L1 = 1 and Ln = Ln1 + Ln2 ,
n2
The sequence of Lucas numbers is:

2, 1, 3, 4, 7, 11, 18, 29, 47, 76, 123, . . .
Both Fibonacci and Lucas numbers satisfy numbers identities
that have been discovered over the centuries. In this part we
explore several of these fundamental identities.
Proposition 1.1.
n
Fk = Fn+2 1
k=1
153
(1)
Proof. Using the Fibonacci recurrence relation, we have

F1 = F3 F2
F2 = F4 F3
.. .. ..
...
Fn1 = Fn+1 Fn
Fn = Fn+2 Fn+1
Adding these equations, we get
n
Fk = Fn+2 F2 = Fn+2 1
k=1
Proposition 1.2.
n
a)
F2k1 = F2n
(2)
k=1
b)
F2k = F2k+1 1
k=1
Proof. a) Using the Fibonacci recurrence relation, we have

F1 = F2 F1
F3 = F4 F2
..
.
F2n3 = F2n2 F2n4
F2n1 = F2n F2n2
Adding these equations, we get
n
F2k1 = F2n F0 = F2n

k=1
b)
n
k=1
F2 k =
2n
k=1
Fk
F2k1
k=1
( by Proposition 1.1.1 and 1.1.2 (a))

= (F2n+2 1) F2n
= (F2n+2 F2n ) 1 = F2n+1 1
154
(3)
Proposition 1.3.
Fn1 Fn+1 F2n = (1)n
(4)
where n 1
Proof. (By PMI) Since F0 F2 F21 = 0 1 1 = 1 = (1)1 , the given
statement is clearly true when n = 1 Now we assume it is true
for an arbitrary positive integer n: Fn1 Fn+1 F2n = (1)n . Then
Fn Fn+2 F2n+1 = (Fn+1 Fn1 )(Fn + Fn+1 ) F2n+1
= Fn Fn+1 + F2n+1 Fn1 Fn Fn1 Fn+1 F2n+1
(by the IH:)
= Fn Fn+1 Fn1 Fn F2n (1)n
= Fn Fn+1 Fn (Fn1 + Fn ) + (1)n+1
= Fn Fn+1 Fn Fn+1 + (1)n+1 = (1)n+1 .
Thus the formula works for (n + 1). So, by PMI, the statement is
true for every integer n 1.
Proposition 1.4.
n
F2k = Fn Fn+1
(5)
k=1
Proof. (by PMI) When n = 1, the

LHS =
F2k = F21 = 1
k=1
= 1 1 = F1 F2 = RHS
So the result is true when n = 1. Assume it is true for an arbin
trary positive integer n:

F2k = Fn Fn+1 . Then
k=1
n+1
k=1
F2k =
F2k + F2k+1
k=1
(by the IH:)

= Fn Fn+1 + F2n+1 = Fn+1 (Fn + Fn+1 ) = Fn+1 Fn+2 .
So the statement is true when (n + 1).So, by PUI, the statement
is true for every integer n 1.
155
Interestingly enough, Identities (1) (5) have analogous results

for Lucas number also:
n
Lk = Ln+2 3
(6)
k=1
n
k=1
n
L2k1 = L2n 2
(7)
L2k = L2n+1 1
(8)
k=1
Ln1 Ln+1 L2n = 5 (1)n1

n
L2k = Ln Ln+1 2
(9)
(10)
k=1
These identities can be established using PMI.

Proposition 1.5. (Binets Formula)
? n !
? n

1 5
1+ 5
1
,
Fn = ?
2
2
5
where n 1.
Proof. This can be established easily using PMI
? n
?

1+ 5
1+ 5
=
Fn + Fn1 , n 1
2
2
? n
?

1 5
1 5
=
Fn + Fn1 , n 1
2
2
h ? ? n i
1
?
Let Un = 5 1+2 5 12 5
, where n 1.
?
?
? 2
?
2
1
1+
5
5
1+
5
1
1
2
= 1 and U2 = ?5
12 5
=
Then U1 = ?5
2
2
1. Suppose n 3. Then
Un1 + Un2
? n1
? n1 !
1+ 5
1 5
+
2
2
? n2
? n2 !

1
1+ 5
1 5
+?
2
2
5
? n
? n !

1
1+ 5
1 5
= Un
=?
2
2
5
1
=?
5
156
This, Un satisfies the FRR() and the two initial conditions. This
gives us an explicit formula for Fn :
? n !
? n

1 5
1
1+ 5
Fn = Un = ?
2
2
5
H qu 1.1.
F2n+1 + F2n = F2n+1
(11)
F2n+1 F2n1 = F2n
(12)
Corresponding to Binets formula for Fn , there is one for Ln also.

Proposition 1.6. Let n 1 Then
? n
? n

1 5
1+ 5
+
Ln =
2
2
H qu 1.2.
F2n = Fn Ln
(13)
Fn1 + Fn+1 = Ln
(14)
Fn+2 Fn2 = Ln
(15)
Ln1 + Ln+1 = 5Fn
(16)
1
Fk Fk+2 = (Fn Fn+1 + F2n+2 1)
2
k=1
(17)
Proposition 1.7.
n
Proof. (by PMI) When n = 1, the

1
(LHS) = F1 F3 = 2 = (F1 F3 + F23 1) = (RHS).
2
So the result is true when n = 1.
Assume it is true for an arbitrary positive integer n :
n
1
Fk Fk+2 = (Fn Fn+1 + F2n+2 1).
2
k=1
157
Then, by the IH and by the Fibonacci recurrence relation:

n+1
k=1
Fk Fk+2 =
Fk Fk+2 + Fn+1 Fn+3
k=1
1
= (Fn Fn+1 + F2n+2 1) + Fn+1 Fn+3
2

1
=
Fn+1 (Fn + Fn+1 ) + 2Fn+1 Fn+3 + (F2n+2 F2n+1 ) 1
2
1
= (Fn+1 Fn+2 + 2Fn+1 Fn+3 + Fn Fn+3 1)
2
1
= (Fn+1 Fn+2 + (2Fn+1 + Fn )Fn+3 1)
2
1
= (Fn+1 Fn+2 + F2n+3 1).
2
So the statement is true when (n + 1). Thus it is true for every
positive integer n.
Proposition 1.8.
n
n
Fk = F2n
k
k=1
Proof. Let gn =
k=1
n
k
n
Fk , and let hn =
k=0
n+1

(18)
n
k

Fk+1 . We have

n
n+1
n
Fk
gn+1 gn =
Fk
k
k
k=1
k=1

n
n+1
n
= Fn+1 +
Fk
k
k
k=1

n
n+1
n
n
= Fn+1 +
Fk =
Fk
k1
k1
k=1
k=1
n
n
=
Fk+1 = hn ,
k
k=0
158
and
hn+1 2hn = hn+1 hn hn
n
n
n
n
=
Fk+2
Fk+1
k
k
k=0
k=0
n
n
=
(Fk+2 Fk+1 )
k
k=0
n
n
=
Fk = gn .
k
k=0
From these results we get
gn+1 gn = hn
hn+1 2hn = gn
*
gn = 3gn1 gn2 .
Thus we have
Fn = Fn1 + Fn2 = (Fn2 + Fn3 ) + Fn2 = 2Fn2 + Fn3 ,
which implies, via Fn3 = Fn2 Fn4 , that Fn = 3Fn2 Fn4 . Since
g1 = 1 = F2 and g2 = 3 = F4 , the sequence tgn u has the same
initial conditions and satisfies the same recurrence relation as
n
n
the even Fibonacci numbers. Thus F2n = gn =
F .
k k
k=1
2. Inequalities including Fibonacci and Lucas numbers

Problem 2.1. Let n be a positive integer. Prove that
n
L2k
(Ln+2 3)2
F
Fn+2 1
k=1 k
(Juan Jose Egozcue)

Proof. Using Cauchy-Schwarz Inequality we get
!
!2
!2
n
n
n
2
a
L
L
k
? k Fk
(Ln+2 3)2 =
Lk
=
F
F
k
k=1
k=1
k=1 k
!
n
L2k
(Fn+2 1).
=
F
k
k=1
159
k=1
!
Fk
Here we used
Lk = Ln+2 3,
Fk = Fn+2 1. Equality occurs
k=1
k=1
only iff n = 1.
2
n
1
Fk
1 + Lk
Fn Fn+1
k=1
F2k
1 + Lk
k=1
!2
F3n F3n+1
!2
F2k (1 + Lk )
k=1
(Jose Luis Diaz-Barrero)

Proof. Using Cauchy-Schwarz Inequality and the identity
F2k =
k=1
Fn Fn+1 , we get
n
F2k
1 + Lk
k=1
!2
!
!2
2
n
n
Fk
Fk
2
Fk
Fk
=
1
+
L
1 + Lk
k
k=1
k=1
k=1
2
n
Fk
= Fn Fn+1
,
1 + Lk
k=1
n
and
F2n F2n+1
!2
a
F
? k
Fk 1 + Lk
=
1 + Lk
k=1
!
! k=1
n
n
F2k
2
Fk (1 + Lk ) .
1 + Lk
k=1
k=1
F2k
!2
Therefore the desired inequalities proved.

Problem 2.3. Let Tn be the nth triangular number defined by
Tn = n+1
for all n 1. Prove that
2
2
n
2
Tn+1
1 Tk
.
n2 k=1 Fk
9Fn Fn+1
Proof. Note that
nTn+1
n(n + 1)(n + 2)
=
=
3
6
160

n
n+2
=
Tk .
3
k=1
Using Cauchy-Schwarz Inequality, we get

n
Tk =
k=1
k=1
Tk
Fk
g
g
f n 2 f n
f Tk f
e
Fk e
F2k
Fk
k=1
k=1
which is equivalent to the desired inequality, after using following well known identity,
F21 + F22 + + F2n = Fn Fn+1 .
Problem 2.4. Let n be a positive integer and l be a whole number. Then

1
1
1
l
l
l
+ l4 + + l4 F2n F2n+1 .
F1 + F2 + + Fn
Fn
Fl4
F2
1
(P.G.Popescu, J.L.Diaz-Barrero)
Proof. Taking account that F21 + F22 + + F2n = Fn Fn+1 , as is well
known, and the fact that the function f : (0, ) R, defined by
f(x) = x1 is convex, then by Jensens Inequality we get
1
Fl1
Fn+1
Fl2
Fn+1
+ +
Fln
Fn+1

1
1
1
1
+ l4 + + l4 .
2
Fn Fn+1 Fl4
Fn
F2
1
From the preceding expression immediately follows

1
1
1
l
l
l
+ l4 + + l4 F2n F2n+1
F1 + F2 + + Fn
Fn
Fl4
F2
1
and this completes proof.
Problem 2.5. Let 1 , 2 , ..., n be positive real numbers. Prove
that

n
Fn Fn+1
1 F21 + + n F2n
(F1 F2 Fn )2
n
1
n
cyc
161
Proof. First, we prove that, for all positive real numbers x1 , x2 , ..., xn
!n
n
n
1
1 xk + + n xk+n1
x1 x2 xn .
(1)
xk
n k=1
1
n
k=1
If Ak =
1 xk ++n xk+n1
1 ++n
then by weighted AM-GM Inequality

1
n
1 2
1 ++n
Ak (x
.
k xk+1 xk+n1 )
Taking the product over k = 1, 2, ..., n gives the right-hand side

inequality of (1). Again using AM-GM Inequality we get
!n
!n
n
n
n
1
1
=
.
Ak
xk
Ak
n
n
k=1
k=1
k=1
This proves the left-hand side inequality of (1).
To solve the given inequality, in (1) take xk = F2k and use the
n
identity
F2k = Fn Fn+1 .
k=1

1
1
1
2n2
+
+ +
F1 F3 F2 F4
Fn Fn+2
Fn Fn+1 + F2n+2 1
(P.G.Popescu)
Proof. Using following identity
n
Fk Fk+2 =
k=1

1
Fn Fn+1 + F2n+2 1
2
and by Cauchy-Schwarz Inequality, we get

n
1
n2
2n2

=
.
n
2
F
F
F
F
+
F
1
k
k+2
n
n+1
n+2
k=1
Fk Fk+2
k=1

d
n
n
1
1
1
1
+
+ 2 1+
2
Fn+2 k=1 Fk Fk+1
F
k=1 k
(Miquel Grau-Sanchez)
162
Proof. Denote
L(n) =
1
Fn+2
R(n) = 1 +
k=1
1
1
+ 2 ,
2
Fk Fk+1
1
.
F
k=1 k
If we can prove that

L(n + 1) L(n) R(n + 1) R(n),
(n 1)
the result would follow by induction, since then L(n+1) L(n)

R(n) + R(n + 1) R(n + 1). Therefore
?
1
1
1
F2n+1
Dn = R(n) R(n 1) (L(n) L(n 1)) =
+
Fn Fn+1 Fn+2 Fn Fn+1

? 2
2
2
a
x + y2
xy
x
+
xy
+
y
(x
+
y)
x2 + y2 =
=x+y
x+y
x+y
2 2
xy
?
=
0
2
(x + y)[x + xy + y2 + (x + y) x2 + y2 ]
where x =
1
,
Fn
y=
1
.
Fn+1
Problem 2.8. For x is a real number and n is a positive integer,

prove the following inequality

x
x x
F3
Fn+1
F2
+
+ +
n + x ln Fn+1
Sn =
F1
F2
Fn
(Zdravko F.Starc)
Proof. From the AM-GM Inequality, we get

Sn
Fn+1
Fn
nx
= n exp
x
n

ln Fn+1 n + x ln Fn+1 ,
where we have used the inequality ex 1 + x,
x 0.
Problem 2.9. Prove that

FF1 1 FF2 2 FFnn e(Fn 1)(Fn+1 1)
(Zdravko F.Starc)
163
Proof. Recall that
Fi = Fn+2 1 and
F2i = Fn Fn+1 . Since
i=1
i=1
f(x) = ln x functions is concave on (0, +). Using Jensens Inequality we get

!

n
n
Fi
F2i
Fn Fn+1
ln Fi ln
= ln
F
1
F
1
Fn+2 1
i=1 n+2
i=1 n+2
Thus,
(Fn 1)(Fn+1 1)
Fn Fn+1
1=
.
Fn+2 1
Fn+2 1
Fi ln Fi (Fn 1)(Fn+1 1).
i=1
Taking exponentials yields the result.

Problem 2.10. Let n 2 be an integer. Prove that
!

2
k
n
1
1
n
(Fk+2 Fj 1)2
Fn Fn+1 F3 F4 Fn
k=2 j=1
Proof. We first prove that
kFk Fk+1 (Fk+2 1)2
(k 1.)
(1)
For k = 1, ..., 7, this can be verified directly. If k 8, then Fk+2

2Fk+1 4Fk , and therefore kFk Fk+1 (k/8)F2k+2 F2k+2 (Fk+2 1)2 .
Let k 2. The function
f(x) =
1
,
(Fk+2 x 1)2
0 x Fk
is convex, as is seen from its second derivative. From (1) and
applying Jensens Inequality and using well known kj=1 Fj =

Fk+2 1, we get
k
(Fk+2 Fj 1)2
j=1
k
k1
2
(Fk+2 1)2
k
k1
2
k
.
Fk Fk+1
Taking the product over k = 2, ..., n, we obtain the desired inequality.

164
Problem 2.11. Let n 0 be a non-negative integer. Prove that

n+1 2
FLnn LFnn (FFn+1
)
(Juan Jose Egozcue)

Proof. We shall prove that, for all non-negative integers n,
2Fn+1
FLnn LFnn FF2nn+1 Fn+1
,
(1)
with equality on the left-hand side only when n = 0 or n = 1,

and on the right-hand side only when n = 1.
If x and y are distinct positive real numbers, then, by the weighted
AM-GM Inequality,
x+y

2xy
y x
.
x y
x+y
?
2xy
Since x+y
xy x+y
, we have
2
y x
x y (xy)
x+y
2
x+y
2
x+y
.
(2)
The cases n = 0 and n = 1 can be treated directly. If n 2, then

) Fn Ln and (2) gives
F +L

Fn +Ln
Fn + Ln n n
Ln Fn
2
Fn Ln (Fn Ln )
.
2
From Fn Ln = F2n and Ln = Fn1 + Fn+1 and Fn + Ln = 2Fn+1 so
given inequality is proved.
!
!
n
n
F2k
F3k
(Fn+2 1)5
L
L2
(Ln+2 3)2
k=1 k
k=1 k
where Fn , respectively Ln represent the nth Fibonacci number
respectively the nth Lucas number.
(Batinetu-Giurgiu)
Proof. Using the following well known identities L1 +L2 +...+Ln =
Ln+2 3 and F1 + F2 + ... + Fn = Fn+2 1 we have
!3
!
!
!
n
n
n
n
F2k
F3k
Lk
Fk
L
L2
k=1
k=1 k
k=1 k
k=1
165
It is enough to prove the above inequality. Applying the Holders

inequality, we get
n
!3/5
Lk
F2k
L
k=1 k
k=1

5
3/5 3
Lk
!3/5
k=1
1/5 !5
k=1
Fk
1/5
Lk
1/5
!1/5
k=1
3/5
2/5
1/5
Lk
F3k
L2
k=1 k
Lk
k=1
n
F2k
!1/5
Fk
!
=
2/5
Lk
F3k
L2k
1/5 !5
1/5
Fk
k=1
Hence our inequality is proved.

Problem 2.13. Let n be a positive integer . Prove that
!n
n
1
1

enF2n
n k=1 n
F
k
k
Proof. The Cauchy-Schwarz Inequality gives
!
!
n
n
1
n

Fk n2 .
n
k
F
k=1 k k
k=1
Using
n
n
Fk = F2n
k
k=1
this identity, we obtain

n
k=1
1
n2
.
n
F2n
F
k k
The well known inequality ex 1 + x, x P R, with x =

implies
F2n
n
e1 n .
F2n
The stated inequality follows.
166
F2n
n
Problem 2.14. Let n be a positive integer. For any real number

1, show that
n

1 2 2(1)
+ ( 1)L2k Fn Fn+1
Fk Lk
k=1

Proof. Using Bernoullis inequality, we have

2
1
Fk
F2k
1+
.
L2k
L2k
Therefore, we obtain the inequality
2(1)
F2
k Lk
+ ( 1)L2k F2k 0.
Using this inequality and the identity
F2k = Fn Fn+1 , and sum-
k=1
ming up, we get desired inequality.

Problem 2.15. Let n 3 be a positive integer. Prove that
1
b
1
1
F2n
1
+b
1
1
L2n
2
c

2
1 FFn+1
2n
(P.G.Popescu)
Proof. If n 3, the Harmonic-quadratic mean inequality gives

g
2 b
2 d
f b
f
1
1

1
+
1
e
2
2
Fn
Ln
1 1
1
2
= 1
+
.
b 1
b 1
2
2 F2n L2n
1 +
1
1
F2
n
L2
n
Note that this inequality is strict since Fn Ln . Indeed Ln =

Fn+1 + Fn1 Fn for n 2. Now, we will show that

F2n+1
1 1
1
+
2 F2n L2n
F22n
holds for n 2. Now if we use F2n = Fn Ln and 2Fn+1 = Fn + Ln
then last inequality is equivalent to
2F2n + 2L2n (Fn + Ln )2
which is AM-GM Inequality.
167

!
F2
a k
1 + F2k
k=1
! n1
(1 + F2n )
Fn Fn+1
k=1
(Jose Luis Diaz Barrero)

Proof. Since
F2k = Fn Fn+1 , the proposed inequality is equiva-
k=1
lent to
n
F2
a k
1 + F2k
k=1
! n1
(1 +
F2n )
k=1
F2k .
k=1
This may be proved by the AM-GM Inequality and Chebyshev

inequalities as follows
n a
! n1
!
! 1 + F2
n
n
n
k
k=1
F2k
F2
2
a k
a
(1 + Fn )
2
2
n
1
+
F
1
+
F
k
k
k=1
k=1
k=1
n
F2k .
k=1
"
Since both sequences
F2k
1+F2k
and
a
(
1 + F2k have the same
monotonicity.
c
c
F2n + F2n+1
L2n + L2n+1
Fn+2
Ln+2
arctan
+ arctan
arctan
+ arctan
.
2
2
2
2
(D.M.Batinetu-Guirgiu, student)
Proof. Using Fn + Fn+1 = Fn+2 and AM-GM Inequality we get
! a
!
a
a
a
3
3
?
F2n + 3 F2n+1
L2n + 3 L2n+1
3
a
a
4.
3
3
2
2
Fn+2
Ln+2
(Diana Alexandrescu)
168
?
Proof. Since the function f(x) = 3 x2 is concave for all x 0,
Jensens inequality yields
c
?
?
3
2
x2 + 3 y2
3 (x + y)
,
4
2
for x 0, y 0, x y.
Under the same conditions, this inequality can be equivalently
written as
a
?
a
3
x2 + 3 y2 3 2(x + y)2 .
For x = Fn and y = Fn+1 , we obtain
b
b
a
a
3
F2n + 3 F2n+1 3 2(Fn + Fn+1 ) = 3 2F2n+2 .
This implies
a
a
3
F2n + 3 F2n+1 ?
3
a
2.
3
2
Fn+3
(1)
Similarly, letting x = Ln and y = Ln+1 yields

a
a
3
L2n + 3 L2n+1
a
.
3
L2n+2
(2)
Multiplying inequalities (1) and (2) yields the desired result.

Problem 2.19. Let n a positive integer. Prove that
1
Fn Fn+1
"
#
n
n
1 2n 2
1
F +
Fk
n k=1 k
k=1
!2
(11/n)
Fk
k=1

Proof. Using Fn Fn+1 =
F2k , the proposed inequality may be
k=1
written equivalently as
n
(n 1)
F2n
k
k=1
F2k
k=1
!(n1/n)
F2k
k=1
which follows by the AM-GM inequality.

169
k=1
F2k ,

1 2n Fn Fn+1
2n Fn+2 1
F2n
+
.
n
2 Fn+2 1
2n
Proof. After AM-GM Inequality, it suffices to show that
d
2n
Fn Fn+1 .
F2n
n
Using following well known identities
n
n
F2n =
Fk ,
k
k=0

n 2
2n
n
=
,
n
k
k=0
Fn Fn+1 =
F2k .
k=0
Therefore the desired inequality follows immediately from CauchySchwarz Inequality.

a
a
a
(F1 F1 F2 +F2 )2 +(F2 F2 F3 +F3 )2 + +(Fn Fn F1 +F1 )2 Fn Fn+1
(1)
a
a
a
(L1 L1 L2+L2 )2+(L2 L2 L3+L3 )2+ +(Ln Ln L1+L1 )2 Ln Ln+12
(2)
for any positive integer n.
(D. M. Batinetu-Giurgiu)
Proof. Using the AM-GM inequality, we obtain
b
?
2
2
xy + x +y
x+y
2
,
2
2
and so
c
?
x xy + y
170
x2 + y2
2
for any positive real numbers x and y. Thus, the left-hand side
of (1), LHS, is
F2 + F21
F21 + F22 F22 + F23
+
+ + n
2
2
2
n
=
F2k
LHS
k=1
= Fn Fn+1 .
Inequality (2) is proved in the same way by using
L2k = Ln Ln+1
k=1
2.
Problem 2.22. Let tan un1 be a sequence of real numbers defined by a1 = 3, a2 = 5 and for all n 3, an+1 = 12 (a2n + 1). Prove
that
!2
n
Lk
Ln Ln+1
?
.
1+
2
1
+
a
k
k=1
Proof. Since
L2k = Ln Ln+1 2, the proposed inequality is
k=1
equivalent to
1+
!2
!2
L
? k
1 + ak
k=1
or
L
? k
1 + ak
k=1
n
1 2
L
1+
2 k=1 k
L2k
.
2
k=1
By the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality,

n
L
? k
1 + ak
k=1
!2
!
L2k
k=1
We now prove that

n
1
1
.
a +1
2
k=1 k
171
1
1 + ak
k=1
!
.
We have
1
1
an+1 = (a2n + 1) an+1 1 = (a2n 1)
2
2
1
an+1 1 = (an + 1)(an 1)
2
1
1
1
an+1 1
an 1 an + 1
1
1
1
.
an+1
an 1 an+1 1
Hence
n

n
1
1
1
1
1
1
=
1 + ak k=1 ak 1 ak+1 1
a1 1 an+1 1
2
k=1
and the problem is done.
Problem 2.23. Let Tk =
k(k+1)
2
for all k 1. Prove that
F2m+2
3m (Fn Fn + 1)m+1
m
Tkm
nm Tn+1
k=1
for any positive integer n 1 and for any positive real number
m.
(D.M. Batinetu-Giuriu)
Proof. Let S = Sn =
F2k , and U = Un =
k=1
Tk . It is well-known
k=1
that S = Fn Fn+1 , and it is easily derived that

Un =
nTn+1
n(n + 1)(n + 2)
=
.
6
3
We see that we may write the desired inequality as follows:

2 m
n
Fk
m+1
m
2
S
U
Fk
(1)
Tk
k=1
Now Holders Inequality for sums states that for any two nonnegative sequences tak uk1 and tbk uk1 , we have for all n 1,
and for all p 1 and q 1 such that p1 + q1 = 1 :
n
k=1
ak bk
!1/p
apk
k=1
k=1
172
!1/q
bqk
(2)
In particular, take
m
1
, 1 = m+1
, where m is
m+1 q
1/p
1/p
ak = Tk , bk = F2k /Tk . Then
1
p
any positive
number. Also, take

equality takes the form:
Holders In-
k=1
F2k
!m/(m+1)
F2m+2
k
Tkm
k=1
Tk
k=1
!1/(m+1)
or
S Um/(m+1)
F2k
k=1
F2k
Tk
m !1/(m+1)
Raising both sides to the power q = m + 1 yields the desired

inequality in (1).
1
F2n+1 1
F2n+4 3Fn+2 Ln+2 + 3

n
for all n 1.
(Ovidiu Furdui)
Proof. Using induction, it is easy to show that for n 1,

n
Fk = Fn+2 1,
k=1
Lk = Ln+2 3,
k=1
F2k = F2n+1 1.
k=1
In addition, F2k = Fk Lk follows immediately from Binets formulas. Finally, recall that Chebyshev inequality asserts that
!
!
n
n
n
1
ak bk
ak
bk
n k=1
k=1
k=1
for all nondecreasing positive sequences tak u and tbk u. Combining these results, we find
n
F2n+1 1
F2n+1 1
=
= n
F2n+4 3Fn+2 Ln+2 +3

(Fn+2 1)(Ln+2 3)
k=1
for all n 1.
173
Fk Lk
n
k=1
Fk
k=1

Lk
1
n
Problem 2.25. Prove that if m 0 and p 0, then

!
!
n
n
Fm+1
Fp+1
(Fn+2 1)m+p+2
k
Lm
Lpk
(Ln+2 3)m+p
k
k=1
k=1
(D.M. Batinetu-Giurgiu)
Proof. Using a special case of Holders inequality, for two sequences tak u and tbk u we have
!1/u
!1/v
n
n
n
(1)
ak b k
au
bvk
k
k=1
k=1
k=1
where u1 + v1 = 1. We let ak = (Lk )m/m+1 and bk =

m
1
and v1 = m+1
. Then
we let u1 = m+1
n
k=1
ak b k =
Fk
;
(Lk )m/m+1
and
Fk = (Fn+2 1)
(2)
k=1
Then on the RHS of (1) we have

!m/m+1
!1/m+1
n
n
Fm+1
k
Lk
Lm
k
k=1
k=1
Raising (2) and (3) to the (m+1) power and further noting
Ln+2 3 we get
!
n
m+1
F
k
(Fn+2 1)m+1 (Ln+2 3)m
m
L
k
k=1
(3)
n
k=1
But now , for another value, say o, we also get the relation
!
n
p+1
F
k
(Fn+2 1)p+1 (Ln+2 3)p
p
L
k
k=1
Lk =
(4)
(5)
Multiplying (4) by (5) and dividing throungh by the Lucas sums

we obtain the stated inequality. This completes the proof.
!
!
n
n
2
F
?k
Fk F2k
F3n F3n+1
Lk
k=1
k=1
(Jose Luis Diaz-Barrero )
174
Proof. We will show that the indicated inequality is a special of

Holders Inequality:
n
ak b k
k=1
!1/p
(ak )p
k=1
!1/q
(bk )q
(1)
k=1
where p, q the ak s and bk s are positive numbers, with p1 + q1 = 1.

Let p = 3, q = 3/2, ak = (Fk )2/3 (Lk )1/3 , Bk = (Fk )4/3 (Lk )1/3 . We
see that the indicated quantities satisfy the conditions required
ef Holders Inequality. Then , by (1), we have:
n
(Fk )2
!1/3
(Fk )2 Lk
k=1
!2/3
(Fk )2 (Lk )1/2
k=1
Cubing both sides and noting that (Fk )2 Lk = Fk F2k , we obtain:

!3
!2
n
n
n
(Fk )2
Fk F2k
(Fk )2 (Lk )1/2
(2)
k=1
k=1
Finally, we use the well-known identity:

n
(Fk )2 = Fn Fn+1
(3)
k=1
Substituting the result of (3) into (2) yields the desired inequality.
Problem 2.27. Let n be a positive integer, Prove that
g
g
g
f n
f n
f n
f
f
1 f
e
e
(Fk + (n2 1)Lk )2 + e
((n2 1)Fk + Lk )2
F2k+1
2n
k=1
k=1
k=1
Proof. Starting with Minkowskis inequality
n
! p1
(ak + bk )p
k=1
k=1
! p1
apk
! p1
bpk
k=1
let
ak = Fk + (nm 1)Lk ,
bk = (nm 1)Fk + Lk .
175
By adding these two quantities together we have

ak + bk = 2nm Fk+1 .
Using these quantities in the given inequality we have the result
n
! p1
Fpk+1
k=1
1
2nm
! p1
[Fk + (nm 1)Lk ]p
! p1
[(nm 1)Fk + Lk ]p
k=1
k=1
If we let m = 2 and p = 2 then we have the required result.

n
F2n F2n+1
n+1
n+1
n+1
F21 + F22 + + F2n
n 1
2
n
for all integers n 1.
(Ovidiu Furdui)
Proof. The well known formula

F21 + F22 + + F2n = Fn Fn+1
n
will be used. In view of the function x x2 on (0, ) we get that

F21 + F22 + + F2n

n
2n
F21
n+1
+ F22
n+1
n+1
+ + F2n
n
or equivalently
n
F2n F2n+1
2n+1
2n+1
2n+1
F
+
F
+
+
F
.
n
1
2
n
n2 1
We are done.
Problem 2.29. Let n be a nonnegative integer. Prove that
1
n+1
!2
ln(1 + Fk )
Fn Fn+1
k=0
(Miquel Geau-Sanchez)
176
Proof. For x 0, it is well-known that x ln(x + 1). Thus,

n
Fk
k=0
and so
n
!2
Fk
k=0
n
Since
ln(1 + Fk ),
k=0
!2
ln(1 + Fk )
k=0
F2k = Fn Fn+1 , by the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality,
k=0
(n+1)(Fn Fn+1 ) =
k=0
!
F2k
!2
Fk
k=0
!2
ln(1 + Fk )
k=0
k=0
It follows that
1
n+1
!2
ln(1 + Fk )
Fn Fn+1 .
k=0
Problem 2.30. Let l be a positive integer greater than or equal

to 2. Show that, for x 1,
2
logFl+1 Fl+2 Fl+n xn
logFl+k x.
k=1
(Juan Jose Egozcue)

Proof. It follows from Cauchy-Schwarz Inequality that
n2 =
n a
1
ln Fl+k ?
ln Fl+k
k=1
!2
!
ln Fl+k
k=1
1
ln Fl+k
k=1
!
.
For x 1, we have ln x 0. Hence

n
n2 ln x
ln x
,
ln Fl+1 Fl+2 Fl+n k=1 ln Fl+k
which completes the proof, because ln x/ ln a = loga x for any

a 0.
177
Problem 2.31. Let n be a positive integer. prove that

n
L2
a k
1 + L2k
k=1
1
! 2n
(1 + L2k )
Ln Ln+1 2.
k=1
(Sergio Falcon)
Proof. Using AM-GM Inequality, we can see that
n
n

a
L2k
1
!
! 2n
2
? 2
1 + Lk
n
n
1+Lk
L2k
k=1
k=1
2
a
.
(1 + Lk )
2
n
1
+
L
k
k=1
k=1
"
? Lk
Since
and
1+L2k
a
(
1 + L2k are non-decreasing sequences,we
conclude that

k=1

L2k
1+L2k
n a
1 + L2k
k=1
n
Since

n
L2
a k
1 + L2k
k=1
b
n
2
L2k .
1 + Lk =
k=1
L2k = Ln Ln+1 2, the inequality follows.
k=1

a)
b)
? a
F2n + F2n+1 + 5F2n+2 4 6 Fn Fn+1 Fn+2 ,
? a
L2n + L2n+1 + 5L2n+2 4 6 Ln Ln+1 Ln+2
(D.M. Batinetu-Giurgiu)
Proof. a) From
F2n+4 = (Fn+2 +Fn+3 )2 = (2Fn +3Fn+1 )2 = ((2Fn )2 +(3Fn+1 )2 )+12Fn Fn+1
and the inequality of arithmetic and geometric means we have
that
F2n+4 12Fn Fn+1 + 12Fn Fn+1 = 24Fn Fn+1
178
?
That is, 2 6Fn Fn+1 Fn+4 . Therefore,
? a
4 6 Fn Fn+1 Fn+2 2Fn+4 Fn+2 = 2(2Fn+2 +Fn+1 )Fn+2 = 4F2n+2 +2Fn+1 Fn+2 .
This and the inequality of arithmetic and geometric mean imply
2Fn+1 Fn+2 F2n + F2n+1 .
So,
? a
4 6 Fn Fn+1 Fn+2 4F2n+2 + 2Fn+1 Fn+2 5F2n+2 + F2n + F2n+1 .
b) The proof of
? a
4 6 Ln Ln+1 Ln+2 5L2n+2 + L2n + L2n+1
is similar to the previous proof. It is enough to replace Fn with
Ln .
n+1
n+1 !
n
n
n
n
n+1
F
n
k+1
k+1
Fk+2
.
(n + 1)n k=1 Lk+1 Fk+1
k=1
Proof. Direct computation shows that equality holds with n =
1. Now, suppose that n 2. If a and b are real numbers such
that b a 0, then, by Holders Inequality,
b
n1 b n1
b
n
1
n
t dt
t dt
dt
a
or, equivalently,
n+1
n
b n a
n+1
ba
n+1
n
a+b
2
n1
.
Taking here a = Fk+1 , b = Lk+1 , noting that Fk+1 + Lk+1 = 2Fk+2 ,

and taking the product over k = 1, ..., n gives
! n1
n+1 !
n+1
n
n
n
n
Lk+1
Fk+1
nn
.
Fk+2
(n + 1)n k=1 Lk+1 Fk+1
k=1
After AM-GM Inequality our problem will be solved.
179

a)
Fn+2
n+2
n+1
n
FFnn+1 + FFn+1
+ FFn+2
FFnn + FFn+1
+ Fn+2
b)
Fn+1 Fn+2
Fn+1 Fn+2 Fn
Fn
Fn+1 Fn+2 FFnn Fn+1
Fn+2

Proof. First we will prove first part. Given inequality is true if
n = 1, 2. So we need to prove n 3. Note that

Fn+1
Fn+2
Fn+2
Fn
Fn
Fn+1
Fn + Fn+1 + Fn+2 Fn + Fn+1 + Fn+2
h
i h
i
Fn+1
Fn+2
n+2
n
n
n
= (FFnn + Fn+1
) (FFnn+1 + FFn+1
) + (FFn+2
FFn+2
) (Fn+1
FFn+1
)
Therefore, our statement will be established if we prove that, for
n 3,
Fn+1
n+1
n
Fn
+ FFn+1
FFnn + FFn+1
(1)
and
n+1
n+1
n
FFn+1
+ FFn+1
FFnn + FFn+1
hold.
In fact, we consider the integral
F
n+1

Fxn+1 ln Fn+1 Fxn ln Fn dx.
I1 =
Fn
Since Fn Fn+1 if n 3, then, for Fn x Fn+1 , we have

Fxn ln Fn Fxn+1 ln Fn Fxn+1 ln Fn+1
so we get I1 0.
On the other hand, evaluating the integral, we obtain
F
n+1
I1 =
F

Fxn+1 ln Fn+1 Fxn ln Fn dx = Fxn+1 Fxn Fnn+1
Fn
n+1
n
= FFnn + FFn+1
FFnn+1 + FFn+1
and (1) is proved.

To prove (2), we consider the integral
F
n+2

Fxn+1 ln Fn+1 Fxn+1 ln Fn+1 dx.
I2 =
Fn
180
(2)
Since Fn+1 Fn+2 , then, for Fn x Fn+2 , we have

Fxn+1 ln Fn+1 Fxn+2 ln Fn+2
and I2 .
On the other hand, evaluating I2 , we obtain
F
n+2
I2 =

F
Fxn+2 ln Fn+2 Fxn+1 ln Fn+1 dx = Fxn+2 Fxn+1 Fnn+2
n

Fn+2
Fn+2
Fn
Fn
= Fn+2 Fn+2 Fn+1 Fn+1 .
This completes the proof of first part.
Now we will prove second part of our statement. The proof will
be done in two steps. First, we will prove that
n+2 Fn
FFnn+1 FFn+1
Fn+2
Fn + Fn+1 + Fn+2
3
Fn +Fn+1 +Fn+2

(3).
Using weighted AM-GM Inequality we get

n+2 Fn
FFnn+1 FFn+1
Fn+2
Fn Fn+1 + Fn+1 Fn+2 + Fn+2 Fn

Fn + Fn+1 + Fn+2
Fn +Fn+1 +Fn+2

.
Inequality (3) will be established if we prove that

Fn Fn+1 + Fn+1 Fn+2 + Fn+2 Fn

Fn + Fn+1 + Fn+2
Fn +Fn+1 +Fn+2
Fn + Fn+1 + Fn+2
3
or, equivalently,
(Fn + Fn+1 + Fn+2 )2 3(Fn Fn+1 + Fn+1 Fn+2 + Fn+2 Fn )
which is AM-GM Inequality.
Finally, we will prove that

Fn + Fn+1 + Fn+2
3
Fn +Fn+1 +Fn+2
n+1 Fn+2
Fn+2
FFnn FFn+1
which is weighted HM-GM Inequality.

This completes the proof of second part and we are done.
181
Fn +Fn+1 +Fn+2
References
[1] P.G. Popescu , J.L. Diaz-Barrero, Certain Inequalities for
Convex Functions. Journal of Inequalities in Pure and Applied
Mathematics, Vol 7, Issue 2, Article 41, 2006.
[2] The Fibonacci Quarterly, some problems around 2000-2015.
[3] mathproblems-ks.com, Vol 4, Issue I, 2014, page 239-241.
182
T p c h
online ca
cng ng
nhng n g i
y u
T o n
TON HC TRONG MT AI
Nguyn Quc Khnh (H Ni)
Nm 1982, o din Trn Vn Thy lm mt b phim ti

liu, t tn l H Ni trong mt ai", mt b phim hay. B
phim ny m u bng ting n guitar tinh t v truyn cm
ca ngh s Vn Vng, mt ngi sinh ra v ln ln ti H Ni.
Ngh s Vn Vng vn ch
mong mun mt ln c tn
mt chng kin v p ca
H Ni. Lm nh th, c l
ca o din l mun
mn ci th gii quan thun
khit ca mt ngh s m
m lng nghe ting ng
ca nhng cuc sng xung
quanh. Trong ton hc cng
c mt iu g tng t,
i khi chng ta c th cng
nhau ngi li, tht bnh tm
v yn lng cng quan st
v cm th ly ci th gii
Ngh s Vn Vng.
quan ca bn b mnh, tc l
nhng iu m thng khi b phn tnh, ging nh nhng
h nh nhiu mu, ln t i.
Vy th ti mun nhn ci s ng iu vi b phim H Ni
trong mt ai" ny lm cm hng m vit thnh mt bi
im sch, ta l Ton hc trong mt ai". Mc ch ban u
tt nhin l gii thiu vi cc bn c gi ca Epsilon mt
vi cun sch vit v ton hc m ti c v cm thy thch
th, nhng cng l mong rng v sau ny, vic c ca cc
bn cng c th tr nn vui v hn, theo cch l thay v mt
mi ui theo nhng iu hi tiu tit trong ton, m bng mt
cch no c th chia s vi cc tc gi ca cc cun sch m
183
cc bn c mt ci s cm th no , m bt ngun l
t chuyn chia s nhiu hn v th gii quan ton hc ca mi
ngi vy ,.
Nhng ni nh th th mc ch ca ti c v hi b nhiu v
tru tng qu, chi bng la chn ly mt mc ch r rng
hn, c th v trc din hn, chng hn nh l lm th no
mi ngi u c th tr nn thch c sch? Tt nhin, y
l mt cu hi kh lm, ton b c ngnh xut bn vn cn
ang au u cng nhau i tm cu tr li m vn cha ra.
Rt may, NXB Kim ng nhn thc
c tm quan trng ca cu hi ny,
nn gn y h mi xut bn mt cun
sch c ci ta rt l, l B kp
khin bn thch c sch. Cun sch
ny dnh cho ngay c vi nhng bn
khng thch sch. C l vi ci ta
d thng nh th, th cun sch ny,
cng vi nhn vt chnh ca n l
Mt sch, cng rt hp vi cc bn
c gi ca Epsilon, m Ban bin tp
vn t xc nh, l nhng ngi yu
ton, tc l Mt ton, hoc sp yu
ton, v c nhng ngi yu nhng
ngi yu ton vy. Ti rt hi vng rng,
ch trong tng lai rt gn thi, s c mt cun sch no , m
nhn vt chnh ca n s c t tn l Mt ton, v ch
ca cun sch y, c l s l B kp khin bn khng h cn
ght hay l s ton.
Cc bn c gi hy thng cm cho ci tt n ni di dng ca
ti. Ti buc phi lm nh th ngay sau y cc bn s bt
s ch trch ti hn, khi m ti li la chn mt cun sch
m c l trong s cc bn ai cng u c, v cng c
qua. Cun sch ny thc s lp mt k lc trong lng sch
Vit Nam, khi m ch mi in ra ln u c c my nm, ti nay
cun sch c in i in li ti gn c chc ln. Vi hng vn
bn c bn ht veo ch trong my nm, cun tiu thuyt
ton-hip made-in-Vietnam u tin c tn l Ai v Ky x
s nhng con s tng hnh thc s l mt best-seller ng
ngng m.
184
Ti y, ti bt u nghe thy c ting th

di u , bi v hn l s c nhng bn ang
ni thm rng i tng gii thiu sch g,
ha ra sch ny, sch ni ting th ny ri
th cn gii thiu lm g na cho tn giy tn
mc. nh, nhng m nu thc s c bn
no ang hi mt iu tng t th ny, th
phi rt cm n bn, v bn t ra mt
cu hi ng! Ti sao li l mt cu hi ng?
V rt cuc th ti sao li chn gii thiu mt
cun sch tha s ph bin nh th ny y? Ti s ni l
do ca mnh ngay lp tc.
Trc tin phi k li vi bn rng, cun sch ny ra i
nh l mt tc phm chung ca mt blogger v cng ni ting,
l Anh Xu Bo Nguyn Phng Vn, v mt nh ton hc m
c l ti thi im ny th gn nh khng ngi Vit Nam no
khng bit ti, l Gio s Ng Bo Chu, ngi c nhn
huy chng Fields nm 2010, nh trc tip gip nn ton
hc Vit Nam cn bng thnh tch git Fields vi mt cng
quc ton hc, l nc c. Hn na, cc tc gi cng vi
n v lm sch l Nh sch Nh Nam rt cn thn tm c
mt ha s rt tr v cng rt ti nng minh ha cho ton b
185
chuyn phiu lu ca rt nhiu cc nhn vt trong cun tiu

thuyt huyn o ny, l n ha s Thi M Phng. c lc
ti ngc nhin v lm sao m Thi M Phng c th v c
cc nhn vt chnh xc vi s mng tng ca cc tc gi ti
nh th, tt nhin l cn c vic ha s phi hc rt nhiu
t ton c c nhng bc hnh minh ha cc tng ton
hc rt kh, nh l nghch l Zermelo chng hn, nhng ci
thn ca cc nhn vt c l mi l iu kh khn nht trong
cng vic minh ha cho mt cun sch p nh th ny.
V nh th, bn c thy khng, vi danh ting ca hai tc gi,
cng vi s minh ha xut sc ca Thi M Phng, vic Ai v
Ky bn chy khng phi mt iu g kh hiu. Vy iu g l
kh hiu y? Xin bn ng git mnh khi nghe ti ni iu
ny nh, iu c bit y, v cng l l do chnh m ti mun
gii thiu cun sch ny ti vi cc bn, l v y thc s l
mt cun sch khng hay!
Ti y, xin cc bn c gi hy bnh tnh! V ti s khng m
ra mt cuc tranh lun v vic th no l mt cun sch hay
trn Epsilon. Thay vo , ti s k cho cc bn nghe mt cu
chuyn khc, v mt trong hai tc gi ca cun sch ny. C
mt ln, Gio s Ng Bo Chu c hi ti rng Ti sao anh
dnh rt nhiu thi gian vit mt s chuyn rt s
cp, m c v khng my ai c nh? Ci chuyn chnh
m Gio s Chu nhc ti y chnh l ci chuyn V
vic gii a thc mt n c ng trn Epsilon s ny.
Chuyn ny c ng trn
trang nh Facebook ca Gio s
mt thi gian trc, nhng rt
t ngi chia s v c. Nu bn
no tinh mt cht, s nhn ra
ngay rng, ci chuyn mi
trang y thc cht l cng mt
ni dung vi ton b cun sch
Ai v Ky dy ti my trm trang,
tt nhin l chuyn cn cha
ng mt s ni dung cao cp
hn cht xu. Nhng chuyn khng ch c th, trong bui ni
chuyn v phng php gii ton v lm ton m Gio s Chu
c bit dnh tng cho cc bn hc sinh c mt ti bui ra mt
186
Vn m ti nng Talinpa ti Tun Chu, H Long nhng

ngy u nm nay, th ci cu chuyn ton hc chnh yu m
Gio s s dng ni v, cng l ch gii phng trnh i
s nh c hai ln trc. Ti sao li phi lp i lp li cng mt
ch nh th, v mi ln li l mt nh dng khc nhau, lc
th l sch, lc th l chuyn , lc th l bi ni chuyn, mi
ln li c nhng s khc nhau in hnh?
Tr li c cu hi ny khng phi d. Nhng ti mun cc
bn tm thi qun cun Ai v Ky ny i cng nhau ngm
ngha mt bc tranh rt c bit, l bc tranh ny.
Bn thy th no? Ti s k
cho cc bn nghe lai lch
ca bc tranh ny. Bc tranh
ny l do mt c b tn l
Mirella v. Mirella l con gi
ca mt nh ton hc. Nh
ton hc ny nhng lc
nh thng hay ngi chi v
hc ton cng con gi. Nh
ton hc y tc l Gio s
Nguyn Tin Zng, ngi t
v mnh nh l con cu en
ca lng Ton Vit Nam
vy. Ti sao li l con cu
en, v th no l con cu
en? Chng ta s khng ni
v chuyn y y, m y
ti mun gii thiu vi cc
bn mt cun sch khc, tc
l cun Cc bi ging v
ton cho Mirella. Cun sch
ny l mt tuyn tp cc cu
chuyn ton hc m Gio s Zng cm ci vit thnh sau
nhng bui hc ton cng vi Mirella. Cun sch ny c l dn
dn s tr thnh mt b sch nhiu tp, v hy cng c mt
vi iu m Gio s H Huy Khoi vit thnh cm nhn v
khu vn ca Gio s Zng y.
187
Hm nay, ng ch ca khu vn li dn chng ta vo

mt khu vn khc, cng vi nim say m nh th. Khng
nhng ta c ng ch ch cho xem, c chiu i nhng
hoa thm qu ngt ca khu vn, m cn c tn tnh ch
bo cch to nn nhng hoa thm qu ngt . Khu vn
c tn l Ton hc.
(Gio s H Huy Khoi gii thiu v sch "Bi ging cho
Mirella" ca Gio s Nguyn Tin Zng)
Cc bi ging v ton cho Mirella thc s l mt cun sch
gio khoa ton hc cho tt c mi ngi, c bit cho nhng
ai mun tm hiu v p ca ton hc m cn ngi tnh ton!
Ni cho cng, trong ton hc c hai phn tnh v ton.
Nu nh cc k thi thng hay bt th sinh phi tho tnh,
th tc gi li cho ngi c hiu phn ton, tc l phn
bn cht nht ca ton hc. Hn na, khi hiu ton th
vic tnh cng s t nhin nh trng mt ci cy, gieo mt
ht ging thi. n lc chng ta cng ngi lm vn v
c b Mirella bc vo khu vn Ton hc, vi nim vui ca
ngi khm ph v sng to.
(Gio s H Huy Khoi gii thiu v sch Bi ging cho
Mirella)
Hy cng nhau th xem mc lc cc bi ging m Gio s Zng
ging cho Mirella. l bi ton cng cha Dido khoanh t
ven b bin, bi ton con kh i bn chui, bi ton b gm c,
bi ton mt n kin i trn dy, bi ton ct ghp hnh vung,
bi ton bnh xe hnh vung, v nhiu nhiu na. C th thy,
tt c u l nhng bi ton ring l, v cch m Gio s Zng
v cng t m ging cho Mirella l cch tip cn cc vn
c th tng bc, tng bc, quan st, suy lun, thc hin, th
nghim, v t ti nhng hiu bit v cm th ton hc thc
th. Vy th tht ng nh cch m Gio s Khoi v von,
cng vic y ca Gio s Zng qu thc ging nh mt ngi
lm vn vi tt c nhng s say m. V iu thc tt. Bi v
lm sao c th dy cho ngi khc yu thch hay am m ton
hc, ngoi tr cch th hin cho ngi nghe ca bn mt nim
am m thc s ca bn, ri thng qua ci cm hng m
bn c gng th hin v truyn ti cho h, th bn cn c th
lm g khc hn?
Nhc ti chuyn lm vn, ti bit c nhiu bn thch, nhng
188
cng c nhiu bn khng. iu ny khng ng ngc nhin,

bi v c l bn cnh nhng bn thch lm vn, lun cn c c
nhng bn ch thch c bi ra bin, chng hn nh chuyn
Hyppasus v tm ra s tn ti ca s v t m b Pythagoras bt
pht ra bi 3 ting ngoi BIN ging nh Ai v Ky k li
nh th ny y
Nhng by gi, nu ch lm vn hay bi ra bin th c v vn

cn qu bnh thng? Cc nh ton hc l nhng ngi c
tr tng tng, chuyn bay ln v tr vn ch l iu g
rt i bnh thng. Nu tng tng, th nht nh phi
i ti vi nhng min t cha ai c th ngh ti, ch khng
ch l cha tng t chn n. chnh l iu m cun
sch Ba ngy nc t hon lm c. ng nh li
gii thiu ca Gio s Zng, y thc s l mt cun sch
k diu, mt cun truyn thn thoi tuy khng phi l thn
thoi. Cun sch ny ni v mt chuyn du lch ngn ngy
ti vi x s diu k ca cc con s t hon. Ba l khch k
ny l ba bn nh, nhng cha n ni t hon cho lm, gm c
c b Tanhia hc gii nht lp, cu b Seva lm mm nhng
tt tnh, v Oleg hi trm tnh nhng li rt tinh t v su
sc. Cun sch ny l mt cun sch ng kinh ngc. Bn
thn ti khng th nh c mnh bao nhiu ln ht
189
sc rung ng n rng mnh khi c c nhng ci cch

ging ton bng nhng php v von n l to tn nh th ny:
tn khai cn tu thot khi nh
kho chuyn cha tt c cc loi ton
t, hn lp tc tr thnh mt i tng
b truy n khp ni, bi v nu khng
tm hn tr v, th hn, tc l du khai
cn, chnh hn s chy i khp ni v
khai cn tri php tt c mi ngi, m
nu hn c lm nh th, th mi lc c
dn ca c ci x s t hon ny s ln tt
i mi. Hoc l nh th ny: c thnh
ph tr nn no lon, tt c ch l v
cu b s 0 nghch ngm thung
mt du nhn v chy i u mt. Th
trng quyt nh rng thnh ph
ri vo tnh trng khn cp, bi v
bt k ai cng c th t vong, bi v h cu b s 0 m dung
du nhn chm vo ai th lp tc ngi bin mt. Nh vy
buc phi mi cc bc khng l ti, cc bc khng l y tc
l cc s ln v cng, ch c cc bc y ha may mi c th tr
c cu b s 0, y l bi v ch c cc bc y mi c tim
chng phng bnh s 0. Tht l tuyt!
Tn khai cn" b tm v ti tu thot khoi nh

kho ton t v ti khai cn tri php"
190
Thnh ph ri vo tnh trng gii nghim v cu

b s 0 thung mt du nhn v chy bin i
u mt
S ti xut ca cun sch k diu ca Vladimir Levshin ln

ny, thng qua nhng ngn t ting Vit sc nt ca chnh
Gio s Nguyn Tin Zng, thc s l mt s c v ln i vi
nhng ngi yu ton ca rt nhiu th h cng dn li. C l
c khng t ngi yu ton b m nh bi chng gn p cht
c tn l Q.S.T.K. Q l quan st, S l suy lun, T l tnh ton, K
l kt lun. Vi t cch ca mt nh ton hc ni ting, Levshin
a ra quan im ca mnh v cng vic tr c ni chung.
i vi ng th tt c chng ta u ging
nh nhng cu b mun bc vo mt cn
phng nhn thc, nhng ngay trc ca
cn phng ny li c bn bc thang, tng
ng vi Q.S.T.K. Bt k cu b no cng
s lu tu mun nhy qua vi bc n
vi cn phng mt cch tit kim thi gian
nht c th. Nhng nhy cc lun em li
hu qu nhiu hn l nhng gi tr ch
thc. Levshin khuyn rng cc cu b
u lun nn i ln tng bc mt, ng
bao gi nng vi, v bit u y, nhiu khi
191
cho d bc vo cn phng, nhng v thiu mt mt bc

no , m bn vn khng th bit c trong cn phng c
g. Ci s k o ca cn phng nhn thc c l vnh vin s l
ch ct li nht m bt k ai cng s dnh mt s quan tm
tht ln. Ngy nay, rt nhiu cc hc thuyt gio dc ang c
em ra nghin cu v ng dng trn lan, nhng i khi, chnh
nhng g cn bn nht nh l nhng iu m Levshin v cun
sch Ba ngy nc t hon cp n th d b qun i, v
nghe chng n c v qu n gin?
By gi ti s cng cc bn tr li vi ch ban u m chng
ta tm tr hon ngay t ny gi, ch l ti sao Ai v Ky
li khng phi mt cun sch hay, v ti sao Gio s Ng Bo
Chu li lin tc th nghim nhng cch din t mi cho cng
mt ch v tnh gii c ca phng trnh i s mt n?
lm vic , trc tin, chng ta hy cng nhau th ngh v
nhng nim vui trong ton hc ca cc tc gi ca nhng cun
sch trn, hoc ni mt cch khc, l th cng nhau cm
nhn ci th gii quan ton hc ca h.
Gio s Ng Bo Chu ni v s cn thit ca tinh thn lc

quan trong lm ton ni ring v lm khoa hc hay cc hot
ng tr c ni chung
192
i vi cun sch ca Levshin, t hn tc gi (cng vi

v ca mnh l nh vn Emilia
Aleksandrove) phi c s yu
thng tr con ti th no th
mi c th vit ra c mt th
gii d thng nh vy. Trong
ci th gii y, bn c th d
dng nhn thy ngay rng tt
c mi th u c dnh cho
mt s tn trng v nng niu
rt ln. Ci th gii quan ton
hc ca Levshin v th thc
s l mt ci th gii quan
thun khit ca tr th, c
t trn mt ci nn tng trit
l ca mt ngi lao ng
khoa hc thc th tri qua
nhiu thng nm trn mc,
ngha l Q.S.T.K.
Gio s Nguyn Tin Zng con

cu en ca lng ton Vit Nam
dch gi mi ca cun Ba
ngy nc t hon tc gi ca
cun Cc bi ging v ton cho
Mirella
Nhn ni ti trn mc, ti thy mnh rt

mun c chia s vi cc bn mt cun
sch m ti c t thu v lng, v
cho ti nay, n c l vn l mt trong s
t nhng ci ni m ti c th tm v mi
khi cm thy hoang mang vi cuc sng
xung quanh, y l cun sch Nhng tm
lng cao c ca nh vn ngi tn l
Edmondo de Amicis. Truyn ly bi cnh
ca mt lp hc, vi rt nhiu nhng cu
b tnh cch v cng khc nhau, cc cu
b y ln ln cng nhau, c lin tc
cng nhau tri qua nhng bi hc nho nh
v cuc sng, i khi ch l nhng ng x rt bnh thng, m
di ngi bt ca Amicis li tr nn c ngha ln lao hn
nhiu so vi nhng g chng ta vn tng. Nhng d sao th
v y l mt cun sch huyn thoi, mt khc trng ca v
lng nhn i, nn ti s khng k li nhiu hn v nhng ni
dung trong sch na. Ti ch mun chia s vi cc bn s ngc
nhin ti chng no ca mnh khi c bit rng tc gi ca
193
cun sch ny l mt qun nhn, sau ngy gii ng, ng xch

ba l ln v i qua khp cc chin trng chu u, ch hiu
hn na v nhng cuc chin tranh, l iu m ng va kt
thc. Vi tng sau khi c t liu, th s vit mt iu g
v chin tranh, nhng khi i qua khp nhng vng t y,
chng kin tt c nhng s phn ca nhng con ngi bn x
y, Amicis li nhn thy rng chnh ci nhn cch u i ca
tr con mi l chuyn tin quyt c c mt x hi vn minh
hn, bt kh au hn. Hm nay nhc chuyn Amicis, cng l
mt cch hiu hn v th gii quan ton hc ni ring v gi
tr ca cun sch k diu ca Levshin ni chung.
bn trn, cc bn c th thy c bc nh i din ca Gio
s Nguyn Tin Zng, ngi m gn nh bt k lc no gp g,
chng ta cng u lun thy c nhng nim vui v nhng
ting ci rng r. Ti khng hiu lm sao m Gio s Zng c
th lm ton v vui v sut c ngy nh vy. Nhng c l chnh
nh vic lun ti ci nh vy, m Gio s Zng thc s
lun l ngi tr trung nht trong ton th cc bn b ng
trang la. Tin tt l ngay chnh trong nhng dng ch ging bi
cho Mirella, bn c cng u c th cm nhn c v vn
nhng nim vui nh vy, v do , y thc s l mt cun
sch rt hay dnh cho tt c mi ngi, khng ch l hc sinh,
m c th l c ph huynh ca cc em y na. Tng tng v
ci th gii quan ton hc ca Gio s Zng, th c l ta s thy
ging nh l mt ngi tr, c i dc b bin, c lng nghe
nhng cn sng bin, c ngm nhn nhng cnh chim chao
ln trn tri, c cnh hong hn trn bin, v thi thong li
c th ci mnh xung m mn m chi a vi nhng mnh
s cc mu sc ti vui. Ci th gii quan ton hc y, r
rng l mt th gii diu k ca tui b th thun khit c c
ngy n a cng vi nhng con s, nhng hnh ha, nhng
tng trin min khng dt, v tt nhin l c nhng nim vui
v ting ci gin gi.
Th cn nim vui ton hc ca Gio s Chu th s nh th
no? Di y l cu tr li ca chnh Gio s, v cng chnh
l iu gip chng ta hiu hn v cun sch Ai v Ky, cng
nh c chuyn v tnh gii c ca phng trnh i s mt
n ca Gio s m Epsilon ng ti ngay trong s ny.
194
Bc th 4, cng l bc cui cng trong s ca Plya

l nhn li vn . C th i vi mt s ngi, th c
th l mt bc nhm chn, nhng i vi ti th li l
bc em li nhiu ci khoi cm nht khi lm ton. Nu
nh ba bc u tin, bn s phi chu ng rt nhiu s
c ch, c rt nhiu p lc, th ti y, bn bit mnh
gii c bi ton ri, nhng bn mun vit li li gii ca
mnh theo mt cch hay nht, p nht c th.
Khng bao gi nn b qua bc ny. Th nht l chnh bi
v bc ny rt th v, gi y bn c thi gian ngi
li v ta tt li gii ca chnh mnh. Nhiu khi trong qu
trnh tm ti thc hin kch bn, bn lm nhiu iu rt
phc tp, rc ri, rt c th bn phi i i li li rt nhiu
ln nhng bc tha, hn na, khi cha bit ng, c th
bn phi i qua rt nhiu ng vng, vy th ngay lc
ny, bn s c th loi b tt c nhng ci tha , lc b
nhng ci tha, bn s tm ra con ng ngn nht i
n gn hn na vi chn l ton hc.
Gio s Ng Bo Chu Vn m ti nng Talinpa,
Qung Ninh 2015
Ti mun nhn mnh vo chuyn ny. Ngay ti y, cc bn
c th thy rng nu nh th gii quan ton hc ca Levshin
cho chng ta nhng s v von, nhng trc gic tuyt m
v nhng khi nim ton hc cn bn nht, da trn s trn
trng, lng nhn i, v c mt trit l lao ng khoa hc chn
chnh; cn th gii ton hc ca Gio s Zng li l mt b
bin di lng gi, vi tht nhiu nhng cnh tng p ; th
ci th gii quan ton hc ca Gio s Chu dng nh li t
nhin cha ng c rt nhiu nhng du n ca ngh thut,
ngn ng, v trit hc xung quanh. Chnh s khc bit gia
ba ci th gii quan ny khin cho cun sch ca Levshin
c rt nhiu ngi c v yu thch, cun sch ca Gio s
Zng s c t ngi c hn mt cht, nhng mi ngi li
c th c rt d dng, cn cun sch Ai v Ky, th tuy rng l
mt best-seller thc s, nhng s ngi c c, v cm c
chc c l khng nhiu.
Ni l khng nhiu, bi v nh th ny. C ba ln Gio s Chu
195
ni v tnh gii c ca phng trnh a thc mt n, th

ln th nht l dn nhp cc khi nim cn bn bng ngn
ng miu t khung cnh nh mt chuyn phiu lu tht p,
nhng ngi ta s chng hiu c nhng iu y s dn ti
u, ln th hai l mt chuyn y v cn k v cc thao
tc ton hc n gin, nhng li kn ngi c v cch thc
tip cn thun ty l thuyt, cn ln th ba th li l mt bi
ni chuyn k v cch m Gio s thng thc v nhn nhn
li nhng g ct li nht thuc v ci gi l nhm Galois v l
thuyt Galois. Bi ni chuyn y l mt bi ni chuyn tuyt
hay, v ton b chn l v l thuyt Galois c Gio s
ging li ch trong vng ba nt nhc. Bi vit y c ng
ti trn trang mng Hc Th No, c l tt c cc bn c
gi ca Epsilon u nn gh qua thm. y, ti mun ni
rng, khi trc tip c qua nhng bi bo v nhng bi blog
ca Gio s Chu v ton hc hin i, th ci cm xc ca
ti ch n gin l, Gio s vit v ton hc hin i qu tnh
qu hp dn, bi v mi th u rt r rng, tng tn, cn k,
c im khi u, c im kt thc, v c c nhng iu m
ra, ci tht khc so vi Ai v Ky theo mt ngha no l
hi mp m v khng r rnh v mc tiu dnh cho ngi c.
196
Ti ngh, chnh ci th gii quan ton hc c xu hng thng

thc nh mt mn ngh thut, mt mn trit hc, mt mn
ngn ng hc khin Ai v Ky tr nn kn ngi cm th.
Nhng d sao th vn l mt cun
sch tht p, v nu chng may c
bn no m cm th c ci th
gii quan ton hc ca Gio s Chu,
th chc l cng sung sng nh c
cng Gio s nng ln mt ly ru vang
tht l ngon lnh, trong mt ba ti
m m gia nhng ngi thn quen.
Trong mt ba ti vui v nh vy, c l
bn s hi ti rng, ti sao im sch
Bi ging cho Mirella, m li khng
ng nh ba? Th th khi ti s mm
ci m xin bn b qua ci thiu st y,
b li, ti s rt vui lng c tng cho
bn mt cun i thoi ton hc nh th ny y. Mong sao
bn cng s thch cun sch ny, v b qu cho thiu st nh
y ca ti ,.
Tr Ng.
197

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Epsilon Vol02 2015april

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S 2, ngy 13 thng 04 nm 2015

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