STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS A Matrix Approach Second Edition GS Pandit Former Senior Professor, Dept. of Stractural Engineering ‘Malaviva National Institute of Technology, Joipur SP Gupta Former Professor and Head, Dept of Structural Engineering ‘Malavtya National Institute of Technology, Jaipur 4 Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited NEW DELHI ‘WeGraw-Hil Offices New Delhi Now York StLouis San Francisco Auckland Bogoté Caraca Kuala Lamnput Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan Montreal ‘San Juan Santiago Singapore Sydney Tokyo TorontoCONTENTS Foreword xi i Preface 10 the Second Edition sit Preface ” List of Symbols ai 1. Basic Concepts 1 | 1.1 Inoduction 1 | 1.2 Classification of Structures 1 1.3 Bquations of Static Equilibrium 3 14 Tnternal Forces 4 15 Free-body Diagrams 5 1.6 Degree of Static Indeterminacy. 9 | 1.7 Degree of Kinematic Indeterminacy 19 18 Subility 25 1.9 Settlement of Supports 27 Problems 30 2. Basic Methods of Structural Analysis 35 a 2.1 Structural Response 35 2.2 Fundamental Assumptions 36 23° Sign Convention 39 24 Generalized System of Coordinates 40 25 Swain Energy Expressions 45 2.6 Principle of Conservation of Energy 50 | 2.7 Maxwell's Reciprocal Theorem 50 28 Generalized Reciprocal Theorem 54 29 Principle of Virtual Work 58 2.10 Castighiano’s Theorem 60 2.11 Minimum Energy Theorem 65 2.12 Unitoad Method 65 2.13 Conjugate-beam Method 78 2.14 Stifivess of a Prismatic Member 84 2.15 Slope-deflection Equations 91 (SEAContents 2.16 Some Standard Results 94 7. Pin-jointed Plane Frames 38 Problems 97 | 711 Introduction 318 | 7.2. Displacement of a Pin-jointed Plane Frame 318 3. Determinants and Matrices 104 73 Force Method 323 3. Deferminants 104 TA Stiffness of a Pin Joint 337 3.2. Matrices 105 75. Member Forces 342 3.3 Matrix Addition and Subtraction 109 7.6 Displacement Method 345 3.4 Matrix Multiplication 170 7.1 Comparison of Methods 362 3.5. Matrix Inversion 115 Problems 362 3.6 Solution of Linear Simultaneous Equations 124 3.7 Condiioning of Matrices 120 | 8. Rigid-jointed Space Frames 370 Problems 130 8.1 Introduction 370 82. Force Method 377 4. Flexibility and Stiftess Matrices 133 83. Stifness of Rectangular Frames 378 4.1 Flexibility and Stiffness 733 84° Siiffiness of Grid Structures 390 4.2. Flexibility Matrix 138 | 85 Displacement Method 407 43° Stiffness Matrix 142 86 Comparison of Methods 411 4.4 Relationship between Flexibility Matrix and | Problems 412 Stiffness Matrix 133 " as 4S Force and Displacement Methods 170 jointed Space Frames | Introduction 475 ‘Tension coefficient Method 415 Problems 181 5. Continuous Beams 18s i Displacement of Pin joined Space Prames_423 S.A Introduction 1185 j Force Method 431 | $2. Force Method 185 | Stifness ofa Pinjoim 434 5.3 Displacement Method 199 i Member Forces 439 544 Comparison of Methods 222 i Displacement Method 440 Problems 222 CCompasison of Methods 442 Rigid-jointed Plane Frames 227 Problems 40 6.1 Introduction 227 | 10, Comparison of Force and Displacement Methods “0 62 Force Method 227 10.1 Introduction 447 6:3 Shear Equations for Rigit-joined Frames 245 102. Stepwise Comparison 448 64 Stifness ofa Rigid Joine 247 103 Choice of Released Stracture 450 6.5. Siiffuess Matrix for Rectangular Frames 252 Jo Restrained Stuctoe 456 66 Displacement Method 250 105 Nombering of Coontinates 460 67 Displacement Method for Non-tectangular Frames 300 106 Matrix Size 468 68 Comparison of Methods 310 10.7 Conctsions 472 Problems 311 Problems 474 eex Comtenss 41. ‘Transformation Matrices—Blement Approach HA tntoduetion 475 1.2 Fore Method 475 11.3. Static Analysis by Method of Joints 402 114 Displacement Method 499 11.5 Effect of Axial Deformations of Members 5/2 Problems 52) 12, Special Problems and Tech 12.1 Introduction 523 12.2 Choice of Coordinates in Force Method 523 12.3. Mixed Release System 530 124° Choice of Coordinates in Displacement Method 540 12.5 Elastic Suppons 548 12.6 Concluding Remarks 560 Problems 561 Appendices A Comprehensive List of Standard Results 566 B Answers to Problems 575 Select Bibliography Index 566 887 589 FOREWORD Its the prime responsibility of the structural engineer to ensure that his structures transmit the service loads safely and efficiently, Inerder to discharge this responsiblity effectively, aclear understanding of the stractural response is essential. The response of a structure under the action of a given system of forces is characterized by the force-displacement relationship. For @ system with a single degree of freedom, the force-displacemem relationship ts ‘expressed by a number known as the stiffness or its reciprocal, the flexibility. For structures which usually have multiple degrees of freedom, the relationship between the forces and the resulting displacements is expressed by the stiffness ‘matrix or its reciprocal, the flexibility matrix. The elements of these matrices Connect systematically the force components with the resulting displacement ‘components. The matrix approach therefore, is ightly describedas the systematic analysis of structures, The matrix approach provides aclear and systematic picture ‘of the forces on the one hand and the displacements on the other. In recognition of the vital role played by the matrix approach towards lear understanding of the structural action, the subject of matrix analysis of structures has now been introduced by most of the universities in India and abroad. At the junior undergraduate Ievel, a first introduction to the matrix ‘methods as applied to elementary skeletal structures is usually given. The discussion of complex and large skeletal structures as well as non-skeletal structures is usually included the senior undergraduate and postgraduate levels. Apart fiom the importance of the matrix approach towards a clear understanding ofthe structural action, the matrix methods have assumed vital significance with the advent of the digital computer. The use of digital ‘computers for structural analysis and design is increasing day-by-day. We have already reached a stage where the analysis and design of large and important structures are invariably handled with the help of digital computers. As the ‘matrix methods are indispensable for an automatic computer analysis of a structure, the significance of matrix methods is self-evident. ‘The existing books on the matrix methods of structural analysis have generally been written with the assumption that the reader possesses a reasonably high understanding of structural mechanics. An uninitiated student, with only an elementary knowledge of structural mechanies, therefore, finds these books beyond his comprehension. At present there is a clear need to bring out a book which presents the matrix approach in its most simple form 50 that even an ordinary undergraduate student can read it without much difficulty. 1 is my firm conviction that the present book would meet thisThe fundamental concepts and basic theorems of Structural Mechanies and their applications which form the prerequisite for the development of the matrix approach are discussed in the first two chapters. In the third chapter, the necessary background material on determinants and matrices is provided. The development of the flexibility and the stiffness matrices and the first introduction to the two main methods of mattix analysis are presented in Chapter 4. A thorough treatment ofthe three types of structures, viz, the beams, rigid-jointed frames and pin-jointed frames by both the methods of matrix analysis are presented in chapters 5, 6 and 7. Only planar structures have been considered in these chapters. The material included in chapters 1 to 7 gives & thorough coverage of the syllabus on matrix methods’ generally prescribed at the undergraduate level. Chapters 8 to 12 cover the syllabus generally prescribed for an advanced ‘course on matrix methods of structural analysis. Chapters 8 and 9 deal with ‘space frames—while the rigid-jointed space frames are discussed in Chapter 8, Chapter 9 deals with the pin-jointed space frames. A. critical reappraisal and comparative study of the two main methods of matrix analysis are presented in Chapter 10. The element approach, which is particularly suitable for the ‘automatic analysis of structure by a digital computer, is discussed in Chapter 11 Several possible variations of the two main methods and special techniques aimed at simplicity, greater precision and lesser computational effort form the subject matter of the: last chapter The authors are grateful to several colleagues and friends who have helped directly or indirectly in the preparation of this book. They are particularly indebted to Prof. O P Jain, Director, IIT Delhi, for writing the Foreword. The authors would feel obliged if any errors inthis book are brought to their notice. Constructive suggestions from the readers for further improvement are also most welcome. GS Payor SP Gurra, 5 2 s LIST OF SYMBOLS Degree of static indeterminacy Degree of kinematic indeterminacy ‘Young's modus Shear modulus Moment of inertia ‘Typical coordinates Number of joints ‘Torsion constant Typical element of the stiffness matrix. [k) Force at coordinate i due to unit displacement at coordinate j Bending moment Number of members Bending moment duc 1 a unit force at coordinate j Force at coordinate j ‘Typical element of the force mauix [P) Force at coordinate j in the restrained stracture dug to the loads other than those acting at the coordinates “Typical clement of the matrix [P' Shear force Number of extemal reaction components Axial force ‘Axial force in the members of a pin-jointed frame due to a unit free at coordinate j ‘Twisting moment Strain energy Complementary energy Principal axcs Cartesian coordinate axes Displacement a coordinate j “Typical element of the displacement max [A] De aR aC VEE aEvii Lis of Svmbots My Displacement at coordinate j in the released struciune due to the applied loads Typical element of the matrix [4,] Displacement at coordinate due to a unit force at coordinate j Typical element of the flexibility matrix [5] Member rotation Joint rotation End slope of a member Sigma System coordinates Element coordinates BASIC CONCEPTS 1.4 INTRODUCTION ‘The primary function ofa structures to receive loads (usually knowa as service Joads) at certain points and transmit them safely to some other points. For instance, a building frame receives occupancy loads ofthe building besides the self. weight of the structural components ofthe building and transfers them safely to the foundations. Similarly, a highway bridge has to support the live load due to the traffic and the dead load of the bridge itself besides several ‘other loads. The structural system of the bridge has to be designed so as to transmit these loads safely through the supporting piers and abutments to the foundations. In performing this primary function of receiving service loads at certain points and transferring them safely to some other point, the structure develops internal forces 1m its component members known &s structural elements. 1 is the responsiblity of the structural engineer to design all the Structural elements ofa structural sytem in such a way that they perform theit functions adequately. The inadequacy of one or more structural elements may lead to the malfunctioning or even collapse of the entie structure. The object ‘of structural analysis isto determine the intemal forces and the corresponding displacements of all the structural elements as well as those of the entire structural system, The safety and proper functioning of the structure can be censured only through a thorough structural analysis. The importance of acorrect. Structural analysis forthe proper functioning and safety of the structure cannot, therefore, be over-emphasized. A systematic analysis of structural systems ‘can be carried out by using matrices. The matrix approach for the solution of structural problems is also eminently suitable for a solution using modern digital computers. Hence, the advantage of using the matrix approach for large structural problems is evident. 1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES ‘The history of development of stroctural forms is as old as the history of civilization itself tis, therefore, natural that 2 very large variety of structeral2_Siruetral Analysis Matrix Approgch _ Forms and systems are in use today. Hence, it is not easy to classify these structures so as to include all of them. While several systems of classification hhave been suggested, the following system of classification appears to be helpful for developing basie concepts: () skeletal structures Gi) surface structures ii) solid structures ‘Skeletal structures are those which can be idealized'to a series of straight or curved lines. As the name suggests, the structure loaks like a skeleton. The common examples of skeletal structures are roof trusses, latice girders and building frames. Surface structures are those Which can be idealized to plane or curved surfaces. Slabs and shells belong to this category, Solid structures are those which can neither be idealized to a skeleton nor to @ plane or curved surface. In general, only the skeletal structures can be analysed by the elementary ‘methods of structural mechanics. The stress analysis of surface and solid structures usually involves higher mathematics and the theory of elasticity or plasticity. Fortunately, the majority of structural systems in common use can bbe considered as skeletal structures. A systematic analysis of skeletal structures can be carried out by using the matrix approach, ‘The skeletal structures can be further classified into the following two types: @) pin jointed frames Gi) rigié-jointed frames As the name suggests, the members of pin-jointed frames are connected by ‘means of pin-joints. These frames support the applied loads by developing ‘only axial forces in the constituent membérs if the external forces act at the joints and the members are straight. Unless otherwise stated, it will be assumed throughout that in the case of a pin-jointed frame, the external forces act at the joints and the members are straight, On the other hand, the joints of the rigid Jointed frames are assumed to be rigid so that the angles between the members ‘meeting at a joint remain unchanged. These frames resist external forces by developing bending moments, shear forces, axial forces and twisting moments, in the members of the frame. ‘Skeletal structures may also be classified as: (® plane frames Gil) space frames All members of the plane frame as well as the external loads are assumed to bbe in one plane. If these frames are pin-jointed, the members carry only axial forces. On the other hand, if the frames are rigid-jointed, the members are subjected to axial forces, shear forces and bending moments. In the case of space frames, all the members of the frame do not lie in one plane. Very often, space frames are formed by combining a series of plane frames. The members RE ST Of space frame are subjected to axial forces only, if the joints are pin: ‘connected. On the other hand, the members of a rigid jointed space frame ate subjected to axial forces, shear forces, bending moments and twisting moments 1.3. EQUATIONS OF STATIC EQUILIBRIUM Using the Cartesian system of coordinates as the reference frame, the equations of static equilibrium may be written as. EF, =23F,=2F,=0 an EM, = EM, = EM, aay where 2F, 2, and 2, are algebraic sums of the components ofall extemal forces, including reactive forces, along x- »- and z-axes respectively and Mj, EM, and EM, ae the algebraic sums of the moments of all extemal forces, including reactive forces, about x- y- and 2-axes respectively. ‘The external forces can be divided into the following two systems: applied loads Gi) reactive forces For static equilibrium, the resultantof all applied loads is equal in magnitide and opposite in sign to the resultant of the reactive forces. Thus the applied Joads and the reactive forces may be looked upon as constituting two systems of forces which oppose each other and keep the stricture in equilibrium. Tt ‘must be mentioned that if the eatie structure isin static equilibrium, every part of it, however small, must also be in equilibrium. Hence, the equations of Static equilibrium apply not only to the structure as a whole but also to every part oft In particular, they apply tol the members and joints of the stracture. In case of plane frames subjected to in-plane external forces, only three ‘equations are sufficient for static equilibrium. Assuming thatthe frame and all ‘extemal forces lie in the x-y plane, the equations of static equilibrium may be expressed as ER, =2K,=0 a3) EM,=0 aay In this case the remaining three equations, viz, EF, = EM, = EM, identically satisfied. If the x-axis is horizontal and the y-axis is vertical Eqs (13) and (1.4) may be tewriten as ZH=EV=0 (3a) =M (4a) Where EH and EV ate the algebraic sums of the components of all external forces, including reactive forces, along horizontal and vertical directions respectively, and Es the algebraic sum ofthe moments ofall extemal forces, including reactive Forces, about any point in the plane of the structure.A Mais Approael These frames are free from torsion unlike those in which some of the members or the external forces do not lie in the x-y plane 1.4 INTERNAL FORCES The resultant internal force acting at any cross-section of a member of a skeletal structure is equivalent to a force P passing through the centroid of the orone section and a couple M as shown in Fig. 1.1, The force P can be resolved into @ component S, known as the axial force along the axis of the member and twe components Q, and Q, along the two principal axes of the cross-section. ‘The forces Q, and Q, acting along the principal axes x and y are known as the components ofthe total shear force Q acting on the cross-section, Similarly, the couple 4 can be resolved into three components. The component M. know as the twisting moment T acts about the axis of the member. The components ‘M, and M, acting about the principal axes x and y respectively are known as the biaxial bending moments, Hence, in general, at any cross-section of a member of skeletal space structure there are six internal force components, viz. the axial force, the biaxial shear force components Q, and Q,, the twisting ‘moment T and the biaxial bending moments M, and 47 1 Controidal Member ag, / ‘s, , ae ( | Engen In the case of aplane structure loaded in its own plane, the twisting moments are absent. Besides, the bending moments and shear forces act in the plane of the structure. Hence, at any cross-section of a member of a rigid-jointed plane skeletal structure loaded in its own plane, there are only three internal forces, viz., the axial force S, the shear force Q and the bending moment M, all of which actin the plane of the structure. Ifthe members ofthe structure are pin ‘connected, the shear force Q and the bending moment M7 are absent. Hence at 5 Basis Concer Gry tes-setion of a member of a pn-jinted skeletal stucture, there is only fie ternal force, viz. the axial force S. In Fig. 1.1 the forces ae represented Uy inelefeaded arrows andthe couples by double-headed amows For defining ihe sense ofthe couple, the vector notation and the right handed stew systers may be adopted. Accordingly, the couple M, represented by a double-headed uro¥ Pointing in the positive direction ofthe x-axis clockwise when looking {towards the positive direction of the x-axis, 1.5 FREE-BODY DIAGRAMS. As sated in See, 1.3, the equations of static equilibrium apply not only tothe Structural system as a whole but also to all its members or elements, The free body diagram of the entire structure or that of any part of it shows all forces acting on it which are reqited to maintain its equilibrium. The free-body diagrams of different parts of a structure clearly show the manner in which intemal forces must develop in order to maintain equilibrium with the external forces. Hence, free-body diagrams are extremely important for a clear understanding of the distribution of internal forces in any structure. The following examples iltustrate how the free-body diagrams are drawn, Example tt OO A simply supported beam AB, shown in Fig. 1.2(ah has aspan of ttm and supports ‘teonsverse load of 20 kNm. Draw the fre-body diagrams of portons AC, DI eed CD. ‘Solution “otal load is 20 1 100 kN @._Free-body diagram of AC ‘This orton sated upon by a downward fore of2 x 20 = 40 EN uniformly spread ‘ove this length and an upward force of 100 KN at A. Hence, in ordet to satis the equation of equilibrium EV = 0, a foree of 60 KN mus act at C inthe doweweed 201 and te ects tthe spprs Aa y= Ry Penne na epee tere mie Sooper for Pom am, am #Matrix Approach gomum 2010um wo Pine 20 100m APE PTR ST po 4° oy wow Ma Mol 00% ” o © Fig. 12 (ii) Free-body diogram of DB ‘The toual downward load on this portion is 140 KN and an upward foree of 100 kN, ‘Hence, inorder to satisfy the equations of equilibrium EY = O and 33M =O, an upward force of 40 EN and a clockwise couple of 210 kN-m must act at cross-section D. These are evidently the shear force and bending moment at cross-section D. The free-body diagram of DB is shown in Fig. 1.200), (Git) Free-body diagram of CD ‘As action and reaction are equal and opposite the internal forces acting at cross-sections C and D of the portion CD mast be equal to magnitude and opposite in direction ta the forces acting at cross-section Cof portion AC and cross-section D of portion DB. Hence, an upward force of 60 KN and a clockwise couple of 160 KN m must act at C. Similarly. a downward force of 40 KN and a counter-clockwise couple of 210 kN m must act at D, ‘Me tree-body diagram of CD is shown in Fig. 12(@) es evident thatthe axial forces and twisting moments are not present in this case Exaitipie 12 , The rectangular frame ABCD, shown in Fig. 1.3(a), is feed at A and free at D. The Joints B and C are rigid. Sketch the free-body diagrams of the entre fiame, the three ‘members ofthe frame and the joints B and C. oi soon ° e i i a) a } Feo —-le 0140-100 )—s00n sn - Aol a0 i aa asic Concepts 7 a @ some pee Pama eat ee OF aoisia 1004 —+| oma ALS — sow sows “sot ‘o salen 6 Fats Solution (@) Free-ody diagram of entive frame Considering the equilibrium of the entire frame, the reactive forces requied at A to satisfy the equations of stati equilibrium ar: —_— (a) vertical upward fore of 120 KN, () horizontal force of 60 KN. and (6) counterclockwise couple of 600 KN-m. ‘The free-body diagram ofthe ene frame is shown in Fig, 1.300) Gi) Free body diagram of AB As the reactive forces acting atthe cross-section A have already been computed, the internal reactive forces which mast acta cross-section B in order mainainequlitrivm of portion AB ae (@) vertical downward force of 120 KN, (©) horizontal fore of 40 KN tothe left, and (©) clockwise couple of $00 kN m. The froe-body diagram of pation AI is shown in Fig. 1.3(). Gi) Free-body diagram of BC ‘As action and reaction are equal and opposite, the intemal reactive forces acting at ‘ross-setion B of portion BC are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to those acting atthe sume cross-tetion ofthe portion AB, ie, (@) vertical epward force of 120 KN, () horizon force of 40 KN tothe right, and (6) counter-elockise couple of 500 EN. a8_Serweruyal Analysis-A Maris Approweh Thos the intemal reactive forces required at cross-section C'to maintain equilibrium of portion BC are (@) vertical upward force of 80 KN (®) horizontal force of 40 kN to the let, and (6) clockwise couple of 300 kN-m ‘The free-body diagram of portion BC is shown in Fig. 1.3(4) Gv) Free-body diagram of CD Considering the interaction of portions BC and CD, the internal reactive forces at c1oss- section C for portion CD comprise (@) vertical downward force of 80 KN, (b) horizontal force of 40 KN to the right, and (©) counter-clockwise couple of 300 KN i It may be noted that these reactive forces maintain equilibrium of portion CD. The free-body diagram of portion CD is shown in Fig. 1.3). (0. Free-body diagrams of joins B and C The free-body diagrams of joints B and Care shown in Fig. 1.3(1) and (g). It should be noted that the forces acting on the joints are equal in magnitude and opposite in sense to those acting atthe ends ofthe members converging a the joint under consideration Example 1.3 A square frame ABCD, shown in Fig. (a), is suspended from joint A end supports a vertical load of 100 kN at C. The length ofeach member is 2 m.Joint A ls rigid and the ‘remaining joins are pin-connected. Draw the free-body diagrams of all the joints and members am am @ 707K ag 1414 iaLm ye Zo kN © Basic Consents 9 oz 40 I. nor train SAY teria ror “ 70.7 kN a orm oe wha 5 rari oan Neen "orm > robes © Pets Solution Consigerigrisé equilibrium of joint C, the tensile forGe in member DC as well 3s in (CB is equal 1970.7 kN. Considering the oquiltium of portion AB, the reactive forces ‘acting onit must be as showa in Fig. 4b). The free-body diagrams of ll the meres and joints are shown in Fig. 1.4(0). 1.6 DEGREE OF STATIC INDETERMINACY Statially indeterminate strctures are those structures which cannot be analysed ‘with the help of equations of static equilibrium alone. These structures are also known as hyperstatic structures. For the analysis of these structures it becomes necessary to consider the deformation of the structure because the {equations of statics alone are not sufficient for the solution of the problem. In the case of statically indeterminate structures, the number of unknowns is ‘sreater than the number of independent equations derived from the conditions Of static equilibrium. Additional equations, based on the compatibihty of ‘deformations, mast be written in order toobtain a sufficient number of equations for the determination of all the unknowns. The number of these additional10 _Siruenural Analysis—A Mess Approach equations, necessary for the solution of the problem, is known as the degree of static indeterminacy or she degree of redundancy of the structure. The total degree of static indeterminacy of the structure D, may be considered as the sum of the following wo types of indeterminacies: ) degree of external indeterminacy, D,, Gi) degree of internal indeterminacy, D,, Thus, Dy = Dig + Dy as) ‘The external indeterminacy is related to the support-system of the structure, It has been pointed out in Sec. 1.3 that for static equilibrium there are six independent equations to be satisfied in the case of a space structure and three equations for @ plane structure. Hence, the reactions of a support-system are statically determinate if it gives rise to six independent reaction components in the case of a space structure and three for a plane structure. Ifthe number of dependent reaction components is more, the structure is externally determinate to that extent. If the number of independent external reaction ‘components is r, the degree of external indeterminacy D,, for space structures is given by the equation Dye = (r~6) a6 and for plane structures it is given by the equation Dye = (r=3) aa In developing a clear understanding of the degree of intemal indeterminacy of a skeletal structure, itis convenient to consider pin-jointed and rigid-jointed frames separately. A pin-jointed frame is statically determinate internally if it has just/the minimum si0mnBOF of members m’ required to preserve its geometry. If the number of members is more, the pin-jointed frame is internally indeterminate to that extent Considering that there are joints in pin-jointed plane frame, three members are required to connect the first three joints. Two more members are required for connecting each additional joint io the triangular frame already formed, ‘Thus, the number of members required to connect the remaining ( ~ 3) joints is 2(j~3). Hence, the total number of members in a pin-jointed plane frame with J joins is given by the equation m’= %{j-3)+3=@Qj-3) as) In the case of pin-jointed space frame, the most elementary frame is a tetrahedron having four joints and six members, Besides, three additional members are required to connect each of the remaining (j — 4) joints. Thus, ‘the (otal umber of members required in a pin-jointed space frame is given by the equation (J 4) +6 = j-6) as) In general, it may be stated that a pin-jointed frame is statically indeterminate internally if he number of members is more than (2 — 3) in the case of a plane frame and (37 ~ 6) in the case of a space frame. If the number fo members is less than the requirement as per Eq. (1.8) oF (1.9), the frame is internally unstable of deficient. On the other hand, if the actual number of members m is more than the requirement 2s pec Eq. (1.8) (or (1.9), the frame is over stiff and consequently itis statically indeterminate. ‘The degree of internal indeterminacy D,, for a plane frame is given by the equation Dy= m~Q~3) 1.10) and for a space frame itis givem by the equation D,=m-Gj-9) ay Jt may be pointed out that although the condition regarding the number of members represented by Eq. (1.8) or (1.9) is necessary, i is not sufficient for internal determinacy. In other words, the frame may not be statically determinate internally even when Fg. (1.8) or (1.9) is satisfied. For ‘example, the pin-jointed plane frame shown in Fig, 1.5 has sx joins and nine ‘members as required by Bq, (1.8) but the frame is not statically determinate ane Fig. 15 internally. In this pin-jointed frame the IéR panel has more than the required umber of members and is consequently over stiff. The right panel has one ‘ember less than the minimum required to preserve the geometry ofthe panel and is consequently unstable. Thus, the frame represents a combination of an foverstiff panel and an unstable panel. As @ whole, it cannot be considered statically determinate intermally. The above concepts have been summarized in Table 1.1“A Maris Approach Table 1.1 m=Qi-3) > Qj-3) mw eG) 6) G8 Unstable Stable and Oversff and unstable Sable and oventf and internally —sateally statically in-iternally statically statieally in eterminate determinate determinate inemally* _iavemally * Not necessarily tue. A further check should be applied to see that Eq (18) or (1.9) applies not only to the structure as @ whole but also toa the panels separately A eigidjoine frame is statically determinate imterally if its members frm an open configuration resembling the strictre of ate as showin nFig. 16. Anopen configuration here means tha there are no loops or cloned cells. Any one ofthe following two checks may’ be applied to very that the structural configuration is open (Starting from any pornt_on the structure and proceeding slong ay route, itis impossible to ream tothe same point without retracing the path () Itisimposibl tomake acut anyother inthe structore without sping the structure inte two separate parts Ifa rige-joinedstactre does not have an open configuration itis statically indeterminate erally. statally indeterminate strwcture may be converted into stately determnate structure by making sufficient numiber of cuts 0 that the resulting configraton i open. At each eu thre reaction components (two forees and one couple) are seleased in the case of plane struct And six eacton components (thee forces an three couples) in te ease ofa space structure, Therefore, the depreeof intemal indeterminacy D, for aiid joie plane frame is given by the equation Dy =3e 2) and for a rigid-jointed space frame it is given by the equation Dy = 6 (13) where ¢ = number of cuts required for obtaining an open configuration. Consider the rigid-jointed plane frame shown in Fig. 1.7(a). An open configuration can be obtained in this ease by introducing five cuts as shown in Fig. 1.7(b). ‘Skeletal structures, having some of the joints as pin connected and others as rigid, are net very common, To determine the degree of internal indeterminacy of these /ybrid type of structures, the pin joints may in the first instance be replaced by rigid joints. Considering a plane frame, the number of. independent reaction components that must be added to convert a pin joint Basic Concepes 13 @ © . Far into a rigid joint is (m~ 1), where m isthe number of members meeting at that Joint, The is 90 because m bending couples must be applied, one to each of the 'm members converging at the joint under consideration. As the sum of al these bending couples must be zero, the number of independent reaction ‘components required to conver a pin joint into a rigid joins (m ~ 1). Similary, in the case of space structures, the number of independent reaction components Which must be added to convert a pin joint into a rigid joint is 3m — 1) because three couples (two bending couples and one twisting couple) must be applied {0 each member to obtain a rigid connection. As the sum of the couples about the three coordinate axes at the joint must be separately zer0, the number of independent reaction components required in this case is 3m 1). Hence, the imber of independent reaction components required to replace a plane structure with hybrid joints by a rigid-jointed structure is Hm — 1). where summation has to be carried out for al the pin joints in the hybrid structure. As the dogree of internal indeterminacy of a rigid-jointed plane frame is 3c, the degree of-interse! indeterminacy of a plane frame with hybrid joints is given by the equation D, = 30—-Hm-1) (1.14) Similarly, the degree of internal indeterminacy of a space frame with hybrid joimsis given bythe equation Dy = 66-Em-~ 1) (115) ‘Am alternative approach forthe determination of the degre of indeterminacy. ofa structure isto take «unified view withomt considering external and intemal indeterminaces separately. In the case ofa pin-jdnied plane frame, there are ‘m unknown member forces and r unknown reaction components. Ths, the {otal number of unknowns is (m+ r). The conditions of static equiibsum Provide two equations, Bq, (1.3), at each of the j joints giving a total of 2} independent equations. Hence, the degree of static indeterminacy of a pin Jointed plane frame may be written as Di= (m4 -¥ 16) In the case of a pin-jointed space frame, the conditions of static equilibrium Provide three equations, Bq. (1.1), at each of the joints giving a total of 3j14_ Structural Anabsis—A Matis Approach independent equations. Hence, the degree of static indeterminacy of a pin- Jointed space frame may be written as Di= (me n-¥ aan Consider next the rigid-jointed structures. Every member of a rigid-jointed plane frame carries three unknown internal folces, viz., an axial force, a shear force and a bending moment. Thus, including the r reaction components, the {otal number of unknown forces is (3m +r). The conditions of static equilibrium provide three equations, Eqs (1.3) and (1.4), at each of j joints giving a total of 3j independent equations. Hence, the degree of static indeterminacy of a rigid- jointed plane frame may be written as, Dz = Gmsn-¥ cag) In the case of a rigid-jointed space frame, every member carries six unknown internal forees, viz, three forces and three couples. Thus including the rreaction components, the total number of unknown forces is (6m + r). The conditions Of static equilibrium provide six equations, Egs (1.1) and (1.2), at each of the joints giving a total of 6j independent equations. Hence, the degree of static indeterminacy of a rigid-jointed space frame may be written as Dz = (6m +7) 6] as Consider next, a hybrid structure having a combination of pin joints and rigid joints. The number of unknown internal forces in a member of a plane frame ‘ora space frame depends upon its end conditions as shown in Table 1.2. Hence, the (otal number of unknowns, which is equal to the sum of the unknown ‘member forces and the external reaction components, can be calculated. The ‘number of equations of static equilibrium at each joint of the frame are also shown in Table1.2. Hence, the total number of equations of statie equilibrivia of the entire frame may be calculated. The degree of static indeterminacy of the structure is equal to the difference between the total number of unknowns and the total number of equations of static equilibrium, Table 1.2 Bid conditions of the Number of unkonn — Nuonber of equations of No. member or pe ‘member forces Satie equilibria of joint Plane" Space Plane —‘Space frame fame frame frame 1 Rigi joints at both 3 6 ends 2. Rigid join at one end 2 and pin joint atthe other 3. Pin joints at both ends 1 : Rigid joint 3. Pin joint 2 3 _bacc Concepts 1S Example 1.4 Determine the degree of static indeterminacy of the pin jointed plane frame shown in Fig. 18 Fig. 18 Solution Total numberof independent extemal reation components, radeleled Using Eg (1.7), degiee of external indeterminacy, 4 Number of joins, ‘Actual numberof members, m= 35 Using #q. (1.8), minimum number of members required to preserve geometry of the frame, x16-3=29 {Using Bg. (1.10), dogree of internal indeterminacy, Dy =35-29=6 Hence, degree of static indeterminacy D,= D+ Dy 1+ te depres of static indeterminacy may be computed wsing Ea. (1.16) “Alternatively, Substitating 5 jat6 ito Eq, (1.16) D,=3544-2%16=7 Example 1.5 Determine the degree of static indeterminacy of the vig jointed plane frame shown in ig. 1.9. Solution Total number of independent extemal reaction components, x34241=9 Using Ba. (1.7), degree of extemal indeterminacy,Sirvaruyal Autesis—A Many Agy - i oe Example 1.7 4 Determine the degree of sate indeterminacy ofthe hybrid plane frame shown in Fig. 111 The number of cuts requited to obtain an open configuration, © = 12. For instance, cits muay be nate inal the bs pt in the topmost beans, Using: Eq. (12, degree of internal indeterminacy Dy = 312-36 : Solution Hence, deyree of static indetermis DD. de ‘Total number of independent external reaction 6436-42 component re 4x342=14 Degree of extemal indeterminacy, Altematively, the degree of static indeterminacy may bbe computed using Ea. (1.18), Substituting m= 35 Dy=14-3=11 ° ‘The numberof pin joints i¢7. The mumberof members Pow jam meeting teach ofthe pin joits& df hand ms 3 into Bq. (1.18), ‘The number of members meeting at cach of the pin joint i ant kis 4. Therefore, D,=3%35+9-3 x 24042 21) = 58-1) 444-1) = 16 ‘The number of cats required to obtain an open configuration, c= 6, Using Eg (114), Segre of interna indeterminacy, Example 1.6 Dy =3x6~16=2 Hence, degree of static indeterminacy Devon dei cfticndeminae ofthe owing ie sownin Pg 1 = “min , nee Assume all joints to be rigid Alternatively, the numberof embers with rig joi t both ends is 2. The number of members witha rigid joint st one end and pin joint atthe other end is II. The - i ‘umber of members with pin ois at bothendsis6. Hence the otal number of kang y tent feed) E has hel eae ena < _| an Stoves 2 ws cca ae oe en x ZB _ one at he caer ” ee ‘number of equations of static equilibrium is 7 x3.+7 «2=35. Therefore the degree of Solution Example 1.8 fotal number of independent external reaction components, r = 3. Degree of external Pan aie fe deere of static indeterminacy of the pin jointed space frame shown in nen inn ed etn campos 3, Pr aera tel The number of cuts required to obtain an open configuration, c = 8. For instance, a cut Solution bya 33a in (1 det en fn, man ras jee sg (9) sina te oan el ye pty ino 5.0, wee Using Eg. (1.11), degre of internal indeterminacy,18 _Siructural Analysis—A Matrix Approach _ taic Concepes 19 D, y= 36-30=6 ‘Deze of extemal indeterminacy, D,, = 36-6=30 Hence, degree of static indeterminsey, [Number of cuts quired 10 obtain an open configuration, © = 16 (Fig. 1.1306) D, = Dag Dy= 646" 12 Using Bq, (113), degre of interna indeterminacy, Dy = 6x 16295 Alternatively, the depree of static indetermit Hence, deprce of static indeterminacy of the frame, may be computed using Eq, (1.19). Substituting m= 36 r=12 j=12 D, =D, + Dy= 30 +96 126 Atiernatvely, the degree of static indeterminacy may be computed using Ea. (1.19) nwo Ea. (x sobsiting 36412-3%12 ino Ea. (1.19, - BI porte) oe ee ert J 1.7 DEGREE OF KINEMATIC INDETERMINACY 1D cose O° A skeletal stmctreissaid to be kinematically indeterminate if the displacement Fig. 1.12 ‘components of itsjoints cannot be determined by compatibility equations alone. In order to evahate the displacement components atthe joints of these strictures, i is mecesary to consider the equations of static equilriam. In Example 1.9 the cave of kinematically indeterminate stricture, the number of unknown Determine the degree of static indeterminacy ofthe rigid. jointed building frame shown displacement components is greater than the number of compatibility equations inFig 1130) For these structures, additional equation basod on equilibrium mustbe written in order to obtain sufficient number of equations forthe determination of alt Solution the unksown displacement components. The number of these additional “otal numberof independent extemal eatin components, ‘equations necessary forthe determination of all he independent esplacement _ p= 6x6=36 components is known as the degree of kinematic indeterminacy or the degree of freedom of the structure. In accordance with the foregoing definitions, a fixed beam is kinematically determinate and a simply supported beam is kinematically indeterminate oT ‘Consider fis the pin-jinted frames. Each joint ofa pin jointed plane frame rar has two independent displacement components because it can move in any Piety ‘wo orthogonal dretions inthe plane ofthe frame. Similarly, each joint of a Leatea pin jointed space fame has three independent displacement components. Hence bel Le the degree of kinematic indeterminacy ofa pin jointed plane frame is given A by the equation we ROE et Dy =2%j-e (1.20a) Similarly, for a pin-jointed space frame the degree of kinematic indeterminacy oT w is given by the equation De = 3 ‘number of joints and ‘umber of equations of compatibility ‘The number of equations of compatibility is equal to the number of constraints imposed by the support conditions, As each independent external 4.200) where j ESSE ST20 Sintra Anuysir—A Alaris Approae reaction component provides @ constraint against « linear movemer nits ‘own direction, the number of equations of compatibility is equal to the number of independent external reaction components. Consequently, the degree of Kinematic indeterminacy of a pin-jointed plane frame may he expressed by the equation Dy = 2j-1 (1.206) Similarly, the degree of kinematic indeterminacy of a pin-jointed space frame may be expressed by the equation D.= 3-1 (1.204) where r= number of independent external reaction components Consider next the rigid-jointed frames. Each joint of a rigid-jointed plane frame has three independent displacement components because it has two linear movements and one rotation. Similarly, each joint of a rigid-jointed space frame has six independent displacement components. Hence, the degree of ‘kinematic indeterminacy ofa rigid jointed plane frame is piven by the equation Dayne (2a) Similarly, fora rigid-jointed sp: is given by the equation frame the degree of kinematic indeterminacy Dy= 6-6 (1.21b) ‘The number of equations of compatibility eis equal to the number of constraints imposed by the support conditions and other factors stich as the inextensibility of members. Consider, for example, the rigid-jointed plane frame of a doutle. storeyed building shown in Fig. 1.14(a). The frame has nine joints. There are three external reaction components at fixed support G, one at roller support HF and two at hinge support 1. Each external reaction component imposes ‘constraint on the structute because the displacement component in the direction ‘of a reaction component is zero, asic Concepts 21 Hence the nmber of compatibility equations due to the constraints at the ‘suppots is eal to the number of exteral reaction components, e =3-+ 1-42 = 6. Ths, usiog Eq. (I.21a), Dy = 3x9 ~ 6 = 21. The directions of the 21 independent displacement component A 104 are identified in Fig 1.1442). In the analysis of rigid-jointed frames it is commonly assumed that the ‘members are inextensible, This assumption regarding the inextensbility of ‘members imposes additional constraints onthe displacements of the structure. Referring to Fig. 1.14(a), itis evident that due to the inextensibility of the columns, joins A, B, C, D, E and F eanaot have any vertical displacement. These constraints provide six compability equations. The inextensbiity of the beams provides four equations af compatibility because the horizontal displacements of joints Band Care the same a5 that ofjoint A and the horizontal displacements of joints E and F are the same as that of joint D. Hence, the inextensibility of the memiscrs provides ten compatibility equations. Ifollows that if the members are assumed to be inextensibile, the degree of kinematic ‘indeterminacy of the structure shown in Fig. .14(a) is Dy = 3 x 9 (6 + 10) 11. The ditections of 11 independent displacement components A, to Ay) are identified in Fig. 1.14(), It may be noted that for the frame shown in Fig. 1.14(a), the number of Constraints or the number of compatiblity equations due tothe inextensibility Of the members is equal to the number of members m. Ths is true for typical tunbraced building frames. Hence, for rigid-jointed unbraced plane frames the degree of kinematic indeterminacy may be expressed as, Dy = 3j-(e+m) (2te) In the case of rigid-jointed unbraced space frames, Dy = 6)-(r+m) 2ziay Inthe case ofa rigid jointed plane frame with fixed column bases representing 2 typical building frame having B bays and S storeys, the total number of Joints excluding the column bases is S(B-+ 1). As each af these joints can have2 alyis—A Motris Approach a rotation and each floor can sway independent of the other floors, the total umber of independent displacement components is given by the equation Dy = SB +1) + $= SB +2) (1.22) If some of the column bases have a certain degree of freedom, the degree of freedom of the frame is correspondingly increased Consider next, the rigid-jointed braced frame shown in Fig. 1.14(c) in which diagonal braces AE, EC, DH and HF have been added, If the members of the frame are taken to be extensible, the independent displacement components of the joints are the same as in Fig. 1.14(a), However, if the members are assumed to be inextensible, it is evident that none of the joints can have a linear displacement. Consequently, there are only eight independent displacement components whose directions have been identified in Fig. 1.14(c) In general, it may be stated that ifthe common assumption of the inextensibility of the members is adopted, the joints of triangulated rigid-jointed frames cannot have linear displacements, Example 1.10 Determine the degree of kinematic indeterminacy of Me te the pinsjolated plane frame shown in Fig. 1.15. Solution Number of joins, Number of independent extemal reaction components, —reteie Using Ba, (1.206), The directions of the nine independent displacement components A to Ay ate identified in the figure. Fig. 1.15 Example 1.11 Determine the degree of Kinematic indeterminacy of the tripod shown in Fig. 1.16 dentfy the independent displacement components Solution Number of joints, Number of independent extemal reaction components, r234241=6 Using Eg, (1.200), eto, 2 ‘The dretions fei inkeiendet placement compen’ to Gini inde Hur. : Example 1.12 Determine the dare of freedom ofthe continous beam shown in Fi. 1.17. Assume that he beam siesenile Solution amb fis) SY ‘Number of members, m =3 [Number of independent external reaction components, =4 Using Eq, (1.26), . Di = 3x4 44325 ‘The diretions ofthe five independent disptaiement components ar identified ia the figure.1 Analysis. Example 1.13 Determine the degree ofkinematicinletorminacy of the space ame shown tn Big. 118 Joint O's rigid. Also catewate the degree of kincmaic indetrminocs i the nan ‘re assumed to be inestensble Fig. 1.18 Solution Number of joints, Number of constraints = Using Eq, (1.216), k The direevions of the eighteen independent displacement components 4, to Ajgare identified in the figu 1 the members are assumed to be inextensibl, the linear displacement components athe joint O are zero, Consequently, the degre of kinematic indeterminacy is eeeed to fifteen, Basie Conce 1.8 STABILITY ‘As structural stability is the prime concern of the structural engineer, he must ccasure that the structure is supported adequately so that it develops a strong, stability against all kinds of destabilising forces. I is convenient tp divide the ‘overall stability of the structure into: (external stabitity Gi) internal stability A structure is externally stable ifthe supports are capable of providing the required numberof independent reaction components for static equilibrium of the structure, The static equilibrium of a plane structure requires thatthe sum of the components of al forces along any two orthogonal axes in the plane of the structure be zero and the sum of the moments ofall forces about any axis perpendicular to the plane ofthe structure is also zero. Thus a support-system, is stable only if it can develop non-trivial reaction forces along any two ‘orthogonal axes in the plane ofthe structure and a non-trival couple about any axis perpendicular tothe plane ofthe structure. The support-systems shown it Fig. 1.19 are not stable. The support-system shown in Fig. 1.19(a) can provide only three parallel reaction components. It cannot, therefore, resist a force perpendicular tothe direction ofthe reactive forces. In Fig. 1.19(b), the three reactive forces are concurrent. Hence, the support-system is incapable of resisting a couple about the point O. It follows that for stability, the three reactive forces should be: (i) non-parallel and (ii) non-concurrent. The static equiltbrium of a space structure requires that Eqs (I.1) and (1.2) be satisfied. ‘Thus, a support-system is stable only if it can develop non-trivial reactive forces along ay three orthogoneiaxts and non-trivial couples about these axes. It follows that for stability, the six reactive forces of a space structure should be (i) non-parallel, (jj) non-coplanar and (ii) non-concurrent. Fig. 11926 _Structwral Analysis—A Matric Approach A structural system is internally stable if it can preserve its geometry under the action of all kinds of forces tending to deform it. Significant internal forces are produced in the members of a structural system as a result of even small ‘changes in the geometry. On the other hand, the geometry of unstable systems, known as mechanisms, can change substantially without generating appreciable intemal forces. A pin-jointed frame is internally stable if the number of members is sufficient to preserve its geometry. The minimum number of members required in pin-jointed plane and space frames for this purpose is shown in Table 1-1. In general, if the number of members is less than the minimam. requirement, an unstable system, known as a mechanism, is obtained, On the other hand, an overstff statically indeterminate system is obtained if the number cof members is more than the minimum required for preserving the geometry of the system. A rigid-jointed frame is internally stable and statically determinate if it has an open configuration as defined in Sec. 1.6, On the other = ‘hand, rigid-jointed frames without open configuration are, in general, oversiiff and consequently statically indeterminate internally, In order to see whether a frame with hybrid joints is internally stable, a check must be applied to see if it can preserve its geometry under the action of all possible combinations of external loads. ‘An alternative approach to the problem of stability is to consider the structural system as a whole without distinguishing between extemal and internal stabilities. From the derivation of Eo (1.16) to (1.19), it follows that a pin-jointed plane frame is (a) unstable if (m +r) < 2j, (b) stable and statically determinate if (m +r) = 2f, and (e) stable and statically indeterminate if (m+n) >. Similarly, a pin-jointed space Tate is (a) unstable if (m +r) < 3, (b) stable and statically determinate if (m + r) = 3j, and (c) stable and statically indeterminate if (m + 7) > 3) A rigid-jointed plane frame is (a) unstable if (3m + r) < Jj, (b) stable and statically determinate if 3m-+ 7) =3), and (c) stable and statically indeterminate if m+) >3) Similarly, a rigid jointed space frame is (a) unstable if (Gm ++ r) < 6}, (b) stable and statically determinate if (6m + r) = 6}, and (c) stable and statically indeterminate if (6m +r) > 6j, It may be noted that a certain degree of exchange may take place between the required number of members and the reaction components in order to achieve overall stability. For instance, the deficiency in respect of the number cof members may be made good by introducing additional reaction components. Consider, for example, the pin-jointed plane frame shown in Fig. 1.20¢a). It hhas eight joints and consequently it neds (2j~3) = 13 members to be internally stable. Since the frame has only eight members, itis internally deficient to the fifth degree. Internal stability can be achieved by adding five members as tase Concepts 27 shown by the broken ines in Fig. 1.20(b). Alternatively, a stable system can ‘also be obtained by introducing five additional reaction components in addition to the three needed for static equilibrium, as shown in Fig. 1.20(c) pat « » @ Example 1.14 Consent on the ail ofthe pi joiued ‘lane frame shown in Fig 1.21 Solution Fist consider the extemal sabiliy, Toe reaction components required for sate equilibrium are supplied by the roller Supports at Ly, U, and U>. As the the reactive forces Ry, Ry and Ry ae neither tarallel nor concurrent, the frame is Extemaly stable, albough dhe stabily is very weak. This iss0 Because the thes rectve forces ae nearly concur eis Fig. 121 ‘vient that if the esa of extemal faces tas larger levcr-am abou the pont O, the eatin R, wil have tobe very age to Satsty the condition EM =O. point 0. “Consider nest he intra stb The frame has 8 joins and consequcnly requires 15 members as per Eq. (1.8). The frame does have 13 members bi even thea snot stable. Actually, the frame i a combination of stable panel Uj Ul, an overstt el UUs, and an stable panct UsUelely When He iteral stability of the fame a a whole considered the rae wil have te designated 3 watabl, 1.9 SETTLEMENT OF SUPPORTS. In actual practice all supports yield under the action of the forces exerted on them. However, if the setlements of the supports are very small, they may be28 pores ignored without causing any appreciable ertor. In th be considered as unyielding, In the case of statically determinate structures, the settlements of the supports do not produce internal forces because these structures undergo only rigid body motion without any deformation, Ithas been scen in Sec. 1-8 that a theee. dimensional structure requires six independent external reaction components for stability and external determinacy, Hence, if the structure is statically determinate externally, the maximum number of displacement components due to the settlement of supports is six. In a rigid-body motion of a space structure there are six independent displacement components, viz., three linear movements and three rotations along and about three mutually orthogonal axes. Consequently, the setilement of supports in the ease of a determinate support-system can produce only a rigid-body motion of the structure. In the case of plane structures, only three independent external reaction components are necessary for stability and external determinacy. As the rigid-body motion in a plane also involves only three independent displacement components, viz., two orthogonal linear movements and a rotation, it is evident that the settlements of supports of an externally determinate plane structure cannot produce internal forces in the structure. In the case of externally indeterminate structures, the settlements of the supports generally induce internal forces. If the number of external reaction ‘components due to the supports is r, the degree of external indeterminacy is (r-6) Jn the case of a space structure and (r— 3) in the case of a plane structure. Ifthe number of displacement components is less than or equal to the degree of external indeterminacy, the rigid-body motion of the structure is generally not possible. On the other hand, if the number of displacement components due to the seitlements of supports is mote than the degree of external indeterminacy, @ rigid-body motion of the structure occurs. In this ease, the intemal forces in the structure are induced on account of only the net displacement components which may be computed by substracting the rigid-body displacement components fiom the gross displacement components. Consider, for example, the two span continuous beam shown in Fig, 1,22(a) Let the downward settlements of the supports A, & and C be 0.02 m, 0.06 m and 0.03 m respectively. As the degree of static indeterminacy of the structure is one and the number of support movements is three, a rigid-body motion of the structure is involved. Ifthe vertical movement of 0.02 m at A is taken as @ rigid-body motion, the net vertical downward displacements at B and C are 0.04 m and 0.01 m respectively. Next, the beam may be given a rigid-body rotation about the point A so that the net vertical displacement at C becomes cease, the supports may oor zero, Toachieve this, aclockwise rotation of 7 = 0.001 radian is necessit i this, ack pg =e. . As this rigid-body rotation produces a downward movement at B equal to » Fig. 122 40,001 = 0.004 m, the net vertical movement of the support B may be taken 1s (0.04 — 0.004) = 0.036 m. Iis this movement at B which produces internal forces in the beam. Hence for the analysis of the continaous beam shown in Fig. 1.22(a), only the net displacement of 0.036 m downwards at B without any displacement at A and C need be considered, Consider next, the portal frame shown in Fig. 1.22(b), Due to the settlement ‘of the support at A, the three displacement components are 0.01 m towards right, 0.02 m downwards and 0.001 radian clockwise. Similarly the settlement of the support at D gives rise to displacement components of 0.015 m towards right, 0.04 m downwards and 0.0015 radian clockwise. As the number of displacement components is more than the degree of external indeterminacy, a rigid-body motion occurs. ‘Treating the lear displacements at A a8 rigid body movements the net linear movements at D are (0,015 - 0.01) = 0.005 m towards right and (0.04 ~ 0.02) = 0.02 mdowzwvards. Next, the frame may be rotated clockwise asa rigid body about the point A through an angle equal to 0.01 radian. This rotation produces at D a vertical movement equal to 10 x 0.001 =0.01 m downwards, horizontal movement equal to 1 0.001 =0.001 m towards right and a clockwise rotation of 0,001 radian. Hence, treating the displacement components at as igid-body movements, the net displacements at D which are responsible for inducing internal forces in the structure comprise a horizontal movement of (0,005 - 0.001) = 0.004 m towards right, a vertical movement of (0.02 - 0.01) = 0.01 m downwards and a clockwise rotation of (0015 ~ 0.001) = 0.0005 radian From the foregoing examples it may be noted that the number of displacement components due to the settlement of supports in excess of the degree of extemal indeterminacy ofthe structure gives rise to only tigid-body displacements. Throughout this book, in the discussion of yielding supports, ‘only the net displacements of the structure which induce internal forces in the structure will be considered. It will be presumed that the rigid-body displacements have been eliminated as explained in the foregoing examples. Ik should also be seen that ifthe rigid body displacements are eliminated, the30_Siructural Analysis—A Matrix Approach _ number of displacement components due to the settlements of supports cannot be greater than the degree of extemal indeterminacy of the structute. PROBLEMS : 1.1. Draw the free-body diagrams forthe members AB, BC and CD of the rigid- jointed frame shown in Fig. 123. Hence determine the exial force, the siear force and the bending moment at D. 1.2 Ifthe self-weight of the members of the frame shown in Fig, 1.23 is 2 KNim, ‘draw the free body diagrams for the members AB, BC and CD considering the Toadsin the figure as wel asthe sel- weight. Hence determine the axial fore, the shear force and the bending moment at D. 13° Ife frame of Fig 1.23 les inthe horizontal plan, draw the free-body diagnams forthe members AB, BC and CD. Consider only the self-weight ofthe meminers ‘hich is piven as 2kN/m. Hence determine the shear foree, the bending moment and the twisting moment at D. 42 iit a owt in an Fig. 1.20 14 Check the subiity of the beams shown in Fig. 1.24 and indicate which of thom are unstable. — : 1.5 Which of the beams shown in Fig. 1.24 are statically determinate? For these ‘beams, calculate the degrees of kinematic indeterminacies Bp Pee te ey © o © ° © ER SD RR © © Fig. 1.24 1.6 Whiciof the beams showa in Fig I-24 are statically indeterminate? Determine the degrees of static and kinematic indeterminacics of these beams 17 Check the stability of the pinjoited plane frames shown in Fig, 1.25 and Indicate which of them are unstable 1.8 Which of the pin-jointed plane frames shown in Fig. 1.25 are statically determinate? For these frames, calculate the degrees of kinematic indeterminaces @ @ o Co) 0 0 « 0 Fig. 1.25 (Contd) 1.9. Which ofthe pin jointed plane frames shown in Fig. 1.25 are statically indeterminate? Determine the degrees of static and kinematic indeterminacies of these frames 1.10 Check the sabiity of the plane frames shown fof hein are unstable, i. 126 and indicate whichFig. 1.25 1.11 Which of the plane feames shown in Fig. 1.26 are statically determinate? For these frames calculate the degrees of kinematic indeterminacies. 1.12 Which of the plane frames shown in Fig. 1.26 are statically indeterminste? Determine the degrees of static and kinematic indetiminacies of these frames 1 ~ 4 a fo ; 4 om b ® « ® Fig, 1.26 (Conta) Basie Concepy 33 Fig. 126 L413. Determine the degrees of static and kinematic indeterminacies ofthe pn jointed pace fmcs shown in Fig. 1.27 1L16 Calculate the dagrees of static and Kinematic indetcrminacies of the frames shown in Fig. 1.27 if all the pimjoimts are replaced by the rgidjoims, The ‘uppod conditions remain wachanged. cs cae AD Be wf Ny ELEVATION Fig. 4.27 (Contd)S4_Siructral Analsis—A Matrix Approach ae EF ELEVATION ° © Fig. 1.27 LAS A rigidjointed building frame has ten storeys. It has five bays in one direction and eight bays in the other direction. Determine the degrees of statie and ‘Kinematic indeterminacies ial the column bases ave (i) fixed and (i) hinged. BASIC METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 2.1 STRUCTURAL RESPONSE Suretural systems subjected to static loading exhibit their response in the form of induced intemal stresses and consequent displacements In general, the members or elements of a structure are subjected to four types of internal forces, viz. an axial force, a shear force, a bending moment and a twisting moment. The resulting internal sresses give rise to linear displacements and rotations. Thus the structural system as a whole undergoes & set of displacements. The external forces acting on the structure undergo these displacements and consequently los ther potential energy. In accordance with the Law of conservation of energy, te loss of potential enerpyof the externa {ores is compensated by an equal amount of energy stoted in the stuctre in the form of strain energy: The main object of strvetral analysis isto evaluate the response ofthe suuctue exhibited by way of induced internal stresses and resulting displacements because these are diretly related to the safety and serviceability ofthe structural sytem. Consider a structure acted upon by a series of loads P, Pa,» Py producing displacements Ay, day wo» Aj 1 A along their lines of action respectively Figure 2.1 shows th loa-displacement characteristic for one of the loads P, acting on te structure as P; increases gradually from ze40 10 its fa vale ‘Te work done by the load Fin undergoing a small displacement iy, represented by the shaded stip A\AoB3B,, is given by thefequation 3, = P84, fi @ ‘The total Work done by the load Pin undergoing the total displacement A, is obtained by the integration of Ea. (a. U= Jou, = j18a, = acca ose ‘The work done by P, represented by area OAB, is stored in the form of strain ‘energy. Hence, area OAB represents the strain energy stored in thestracture as load P; increases monotonously from ze0 to its full value. ‘The increase in strain energy, as load P, undergoes a small displacement 8, is given by Eq, (a).‘ 5A —s Strain eneray, Uy, 5u, a Be 8 fa Fig. 2.4 Hence, the increment in stain energy, when all the loads acting on the strucure undergo small displacements, is given by the equation OU = BAU, = EP, 6A, or 6U = P, 8A; + Py 5A, + + PSB, +. + P, OM, @ay The total strain energy of a structure, when all the loads undergo their total displacements, may be obtained by the integration of Eq, (2.1). The shaded strip C\CyA-A is represented by the equation 5U;" = ASP, = area of shaded strip C\CsAyA, © The quantity U;", commonly known as complementary energy, will be ‘obtained by the integration of Eq. (c). Evidently the complementary enespy U;", due to the load P, alone, is represented by area OAC. If all the loads ate given small incfemenis, the increase in complementary energy is given by the equation 6 = X8U," = Ea, or 8U* = AP, + A,5P, +o. 4 ASP, +. + A,6P, 22) ‘Total complementary energy U* of the structure may be obtained by the integration of Eq. (2.2). It may be noted that ifthe response is linear, curve OA of Fig. 2.1 becomes a straight ine and the strain energy and the complementary energy are equal usu 23) 2.2 FUNDAMENTAL ASSUMPTIONS The fundamental assumption in the analysis of structures isthe linearity of the structural response. It follows that the internal stresses and the resulting displacements increase in proportion to the external forces. In Fig. 2.2 the external load P acting on the structure and the resulting displacement A at any Basic Methods of SirctualAvalysis_37 point of the stuctre are plotted along the ‘vertical ancl horizontal axes respectively “The structure is said to behave linearly if the load displacement relationship is represented by the straight fine OA. The Px | response of a stracture can be Finear, only», | if the principle of superposition is valid According to this principle, the total response of a stricture on account of the combined action of any two systems of external forces P; and Pi, is equal to the sum of the responses due to the two systems of forces ating separately. Thus, referring to Fig. 22, crs Fig. 22 Bren Ou e1= yt by 24) where A, = total displacement due to the combined action of P, and Py applied in sequence of P; and Py total displacement due to the combined action of P, and Py applied inthe sequence of Py and P, ‘A, = displacement due tothe action of P; alone ‘y= displacement dc tthe action of Py alone Equation (2.4) shows that the total displacement due to any two sytems of loads may be obtained by the summation ofthe dieplacements caused by the two systems acting separately and thatthe sequence in which the loads are applied is immaterial. The structural response js linear and the principle of superposition holds ifthe fliowing fundamental assutfKions are satisfied The stucture is ina condition of static equilibrium 3) The material ofthe structure behaves lincady. Is implied that the material is homogeneous, isotropic and elastic, and follows Hooke's lay A material homogeneous fit has identical properties at al points. The property of isotropy indicates identical behaviour in al directions The materials said tobe elastic ifthe strain disappears completely on the removal of suess. According to Hooke’s law, the stres-srain curve of the material is a straight line. A majority of engineering materials, particularly metals, behave lineay (i) The supports ate unyielding. In the case of yielding supports, the structural response is, generally, non-finear and the principle of superposition isnot valid Gv) The displacements are stall. Thus, large displacements, generally covered under the large displacement theory, are excluded from consideration here. In general, the principle of superposition i valid ‘only if the displacements are small because in the case of small displacements the forces and displacements in the ransverse direction Sus38 Siructiral Anaiysis~A Matrix Approach —_ are independent of the forces and displacements in the axial direction Consider, for example, the beamn-column shown in Fig.2 3 The bending ‘moment M at any point Cis given by the equation M = Ryxd—W, xd, Wy x d+ PX A, Fig. 23 If the displacement , is small, the Jast terun in the expression for bending moment is small compared to the first three terms. As the displacement is calculated by the double integration of the bending Moment expression, it follows that the transverse displacement is independent of the axial loads and is a function of transverse loads, only if the displacement is small. In other words, if the displacement i assumed to be small, the transverse displacement is caused by only transverse Joads and likesvise axial displacement is caused only Dy ‘xial loads. It is evident that this type of uncoupling of the axial sn ansverse loads and resultant displacements is necessary for the linearity of structural response and the validity of the principle of « superposition, (%) There is no self-straining of the structure. In other words, the internal force in every member of the structure is zero if no external load acts on the structure. It follows that the factors such as thermal changes, mismatch due to fabrication errors and prestress are absent. A statically indeterminate structure develops internal stresses if it undergoes {thermal change. Similarly, internal self-equilibrating systems of forces are set up on account of mismatch due to fabrication errors, Self straining of the structure may also be caused by fabrication processes such as welding and prestressing, If these internal stresses dure to the self-straining of the structure are appreciable, the response of the structure to extemal loads may become non-linear, 1k will be assumed throughout that the foregoing assumptions hold, so that the structural response is linear and the principle of superposition is valid. In Particulat, the assumptions are applicable in the statement and derivation uf {he basie theorems to be discussed inthe following sections, These assumptions, | | 9 near asic Methods of Sierra Analisis 39 which form the basis of the importam energy theorems, may be summed up The structure isin a condition of static equilibrium. Gi) The response ofthe structural system is linear so that all effects tending to cause the non-linearity of the structural response are absent 2.3 SIGN CONVENTION ‘The following signconventions, whichare most common in structural analysis, ‘willbe adopted for the internal forces in structural members 2.3.1 Axial Force The axial force will be taken to be positive if tensile. The forces acting tends Aaand B and at some imermediate crose-section C of structural element AB in tension are shown in Fig. 2.4(@) brio 2.32 Shear Force The shear force at a cross-section in a structural element will be taken to be Positive if the resultant transverse forces on either side of the cross-section form a clockwise couple. In Fig. 2.4(b), force Qe at D isthe resultant of all forees acting on the portion CA normal tothe axis of element AB. Similarly, foree Qc at E is the resultant of all forees acting on the portion CB normal to the axis of element AB. As forces Qc atD and E form a clockwise couple, the shear force at C is postive. Considering the fre= bodies of portions AC and (CBitisevident thatthe resultant transverse forces Qe at cross-section C should RY SE40 Sow inet be directed as indicated in Fig. 2.4(b), The two tnsverse forwes at C together constitute the positive shear force. 2.3.3 Bending Moment 4m a horizontal member, commonly known as a beam, an end couple which tends to create tension atthe bottom fibres. is taken to be positive. This sign convention, known as beam-convention, is unsuitable for a frame which comprise horizontal and vertical members. In the sign convention adopted for frames, known as frame:convention,« bending couple is taken to be positive if tis clockwise. Figute 24(c) shows a structural element AB acted upon by 4 clockwise couple M, at A and a counter-clockwise couple My at B. Both the couples are positive according to the beam convention because they prodice tension atthe bottom fibres. However, in accordance with the frame-convention, the couple at A is positive and the couple at 2 is negative, ‘The bending moment at an intermediate eross-section of a structural clement comprises a pair of bending couples of Gpposite sense, one clockwise and the other counter-clockwise, The bending moment is called sagging if the bending couples, constituting the bending moment, create tension at the bottom fibres ‘of a horizontal member. Ifthe two bending couples, constituting the bending ‘moment, create tension at the top fibres, the bending moment is know 2 hogsing. According to the beam-convention, the sagging bending moment is Positive and hogging bending moment is negative. At an intermediate erpss, section C, bending moment Mis positive according to the beat convention if the two bonding couples at C which constitute the bending moment at C.are directed as shown in Fig, 2.4(c) because these bending couples create tension at the bottom fibres iu portions CA and CB. It is not possible to use the frame convention for the bending moment because a bending moment invariably ‘comprises a pair of couples of opposite sense. 2.4 GENERALIZED SYSTEM OF COORDINATES It is convenient to express the forces and the corresponding displacem cans ofthe generalized system of coordinates I. 2, ..,n introduced in ig. 2.5. ‘The directions of the coordinates can be chosen arbitrarily. Once the directions of the coordinates have been chosen, a positive force is one which acts in the Positive direction of the coordinate. Otherwise it is taken to be negative. Thus when a statement is made that a force of 100 kN acts at coordinate j, it means that a force of 100 kN acts vertically downwards at point E. Similarly, a force of 200 KN:m acting at coordinate (j + 1) indicates that a clockwise eouple of 200 kN-m sets at point £: If itis stated that the displacements at coordinates j and (j + 1) are 2 mm and 0.002 radian respectively, it means that the vertical downward displacement at point £ is 2. mm and the clockwise rolation at pomt Bz Basic Methods of Structural Analysis is 0.002 radian. I should be noted that inthis generalized notation, «couple is also designated as a force. The main advantage ofthe generalized system of ‘coordinates introduced here is that it makes the description of forces snd displacements very concise and unambiguous. Besides, the penctalized notation is eminently suitable forthe nfatrix approach to structural analysis Fig. 25, Using te geese of colts, following symins may now be sce Fy soe a corte dinicena a = taceatcnrdate [duct dplcenet at contin & = diphoanenatcoodae due toate ace Iasi cel upon by aya hs Pe ej th nanon indie swe, dace oak jee at at scant enmns Bi Bale f+ es Satay corti dot at fale wis gen by becca Ppa hyde chipped, es Inthe anaes f+ eel store wich etal indeeembon incr ttcmes nce) lew sane he a fae isaac acrmiaTe ra mem nee eee ots ean mage pene n decane feral an inert cts scien Cofmenicr Bae hecey eee Wien coor he be aged wan nteaul meses feee es conespondig al duglconet span heer te ere Tm th esr be ged anal face ae al Gee ay comprise pt sagt arowe tinct ec eee tom each sng te miso te mene To een eetNe Struct Analysis-A Mavrix Approach to a sheat force or a shear displacement may comprise a pair of straight arrows parallel to each other, pointing in opposite directions and perpendicular to the axis of the member. Similarly, the coordinate to be assigned to a bending moment or a bending displacement may comprise a pair of circalar arrows of ‘opposite sense. ‘Consider, for example, the pin-jointed plane frame shown in Fig, 2.6(a). ‘A cut in redundant member UyLy is equivalent to the release of two equal ‘and opposite forces P, where P, is the force in the redundant member. If ‘coordinate j has to be assigned to this force, two straight arrows along the axis Of the meniber are employed. If the arrows are directed towards each other, a shown in Fig. 2,6(b), the coordinate j corresponds to a tensile force in membe: UjLz. On the other hand, if the two arrows point away from each other,- ‘coordinate j corresponds to a compressive force in the member. 4, Ue ® ly bs i te “A @ © Fig. 26 Consider next, a member AB of a rigid-jointed plane frame. In Fig. 2.7(a coordinates 1, 2 and 3 have been assigned to the internal member forces at cross-section C, Coordinate 1 corresponds to pasisive- (een force Se at C. Coordinate 2 corresponds to a positive shear force Qo at C. Coordinate 3 corresponds to a positive (sagging) bending moment Mat C. Figure 2.7(b) shows tlie free-body diagrams of portions AC and CB ir which So Oc and Mg, ate all positive, If a cutis introduced at cross-section C so as to release the internal forces Sc Qc and Me, the displacements at C caused by the applied loads are shown by the broken lines in Fig. 2.7(c). Using the notations of Fig. 2.7(c), the displacements at coordinates 1, 2 and 3 due to the applied loads are given by the equations y Xin xe 29) Shear displacement, Vie (2.76) Bending displacement, O.- 8% 270) Ifthe cut at C does not exist, Le, the member is continuous, the displacements ‘4%, 4’3 and A’3 shown in Fig. 2.7(¢) cannot occur. In order to eliminate these displacements, internal forces Sc, Qc and Mc at cross-section C, are called into play. The displacements caused by these internal forces are equal and opposite to those caused by the applied loads, The displacements Axial displacement, ) axia: © Basic Methods of Srciral Analysis” 43 atthe cros-sectian due tothe intemal forces alone, are shown in Fig. 2.1 Using the notations of Fig. 2.74). these displacements are piven by he Axial displacement, Mok 2s Vive (2.8b) eo 280) ® Shear displacement, Bending displacement, ~{ © ON 4 aN , Dee ie Yen m1 Fig. 27 As the displacements at the cut at C due to the applied loads and the internal forces are equal and opposite, the net displacements at coordinates 1, 2 and 3 vanish. This condition, which follows from the compatibility of deformations, is necessary for the continuity at C in member AB. Combining Eqs (2.7) and (28), the net displacements at coordinates 1, 2 and Sare given by the equations Axial displacement, Ay = AV + =O. (29a) Shear displacement, Ay = Ay +.A3=0 2.90) AHO (2.96) Bending displacement, AyM_ Sinatra Anolysis—1 batts Approsch ‘The flowing points shoul be notedn expressing lads ad displacements with ihe help of generalized system of coordinates: ~ forces from the coordinate numbers, thc later at enehcea St (ip afore acts ina dection opposite otha of the count wb teat as negative force. Silay ira daplacemeer st accondees isn a anection oppose wo that ofthe coordate I ull bs tee A eaative displacement Example 2.1 Expres te loads and displacenets shown Fi. 281) and(b) wth he help of Seneralied system of coordinates. * ‘Porte 0.008 et conn aa » ety es 0.001 m A 40KN pooiem — | Cpt ky {2.0080 oot a bs Ea tm sm ae amy (a) System 1 KN SKN 0.006 ras Lo tapi ood rad 0.603 m (0) System 1 @® ° Fig. 2¢ Basie Methods of Simcrural Anais 48 Solution Al the forces and displacements shown in Fig. 28(a) and (b) can be expressed by solecting seven coordinates as shown in Fig 2-7), Using these coordinates the forces and displacements forthe two system cun be expressed us shown in Table 2.1 Table 2.1 Stem eonlnas TG 1 Loads 2 40 oO Displacements, 8, 0003 - 0.003 9025-0003 -0002 0001 ooms 1 Loads: 0 0 0 5D t3 0.002 000s 0.002 _ oz Displacement 0001-0 0.003 0.004 2.5 STRAIN ENERGY EXPRESSIONS It has been shown in Sec. 14 that the members of structural systems may be subjected toaxial forces, shear forces, bending moments and twisting moments. These intemal forces produce displacements and consoqueatly do work. This ‘work is stored inthe structure in the form of strain energy. The expressions for the strain energy may be derived by computing the work done by the internal forees in going through the corresponding displacements 2.6.1. Strain Energy Due to Axial Force If Sis the axial force acting on an element ds ofa structural member, the work done by Sin undergoing the axial displacement ofthe element di-ic-eiven by the equation 17= 35 aopccrent of ent = 1s($4) = 98 lag 2.10) area of cross-section of the member and msds of elasticity Hence, the total strain ent ofthe member on A&coun of axial force Sis sven by the equation Stas o= [5 ew where integration has oe cried ut forthe entire gh of he memberBaie Methods of Siructral Anabiis 46 _Suicrara Analysie—A Mawvix Approach For a straight prismatic member of length L and subjected to a constant Table 22 axial force S, the expression for total strain eneszy becomes i x _ Sth A — a 22) u= 2AE 2.5.2. Strain Energy Due to Shear Force If Q is the shear force acting on an element ds of a structural member, che ‘work done by Q in undergoing the shear displacement of element ds is given by the equation PS : / dur 4 @ coeur dipacomont of leant ( 2 - O94 " (22) \) 2 “2 Q AG ga) a3) 7 (Se Ft “ny it where A, = reduced area of cross-section, It depends onthe shape ofthe ce I 2, OR =I cross-section Values of 4, for some common shapes are given in column 2 of Table 2.2. G = shear modulus of elasticity Hence, the total strain energy of the member on account of shear force Q is given by the equation. A a Gas Us In 21a where integration has to be carried out for the entire length of the member, 2.5.3 Strain Energy Due to Bending Moment (Flexure) If Mis the bending moment acting On an element ds of a structural member, the work done by M in undergoing the bending displacement of element ds is ziven by the equation 1 done +208 sone +201} Me : Hence, the total strain energy of the member on account of bending moment aU = + M (bending displacement of element ds) j Mis given by the equation : v= je 2.16) (tte) = Ver @16) ‘where integration has to be carried out for the entre length of the rember, 2 2.5.4 Strain Energy Due to Twisting Moment TET es) where J = moment of inertia of the cross-section of the member about the 1f Tis the twisting moment acting on an element ds of a structural member, the heutral axis | work done by 7 in undergoing the torsional displacement of element ds is | given by the equationtlds A Matrix Approch 1 dU = 5 T (orsional displacement of element ds) ra) 1 = aT lex Ts 3a , ein “here _K = torsion constant of the section, It depends exclusively oa the ‘shape of the cross-section, Values of Kor some common shapes are given in column 3 of Table 22 nee the total strain energy ofthe member on account of twisting moment F is given by the equation (2.18) ‘where integration has to be carried out for the entire length of the member. zn gencral, at any cross-section of a structural member there con Ie ai internal force components comprising the axial force S, the biaxial shear recs G. ane On» the biaxial bending couples M, and 4, and twisting moment Peg Giscussed in See. 1.4. Hence, the strain energy of a member of argie paved space frame may be expressed by the equation . Stas» ds OPds ue mae *S34 6 "Irae * ‘ 2.19) feduced areas ofthe erosssaction when the shearing sccm, in the az- and ye-planes respectively. The integration has to be carried out forthe entire length ofthe member. In the case of a rgid-jointed plane frame loaded ints own plane wie the twisting moments are absent, shear forces Q and bending manente My vats she plane of the fame. Consequently, the sain energy of a member ot asinay jointed plane frame loaded in its own plane is expressed by the eguction Stds OPds Mas 0° Saget lage! ae The strain energy due to the axial forees and shear forces is generally small compated tothe strain energy de to bending moments Henceit nc cote Bractice ia the analysis of structures to ignore the strain ensigy ds tog en forces and the shear forces, Consequently, the stain energy of a moraher na Figid-jointed frame may be written as where, Ay, (2.20) of Sirctwal Analysis 49 Mids om Jn pin-ointed frames only axial forces are present. Hence, using Eq (2.12), the total strain energy of a pin-jointed frame with straight members may be expressed as 21) vase 222) Exampie 22 \ The shied br sown 2.0 of uniform rection io Cc el ls oe a owe i, ta ww res _ Considering the fce-body diagram of potion AB, ts evden that it caries acostant tens frce of 10 KN. The axa fore cigrin fr potion AB is shown in Fg 90) Prion Afi from shear force, bending moment and (vising moment. Hears, the sun enerey of portion Ais even by the equation st wx 00 2KE 3006x042 xDxIP Nex considering the eebody diagram of potion BC; itis evident that this portion othe aris subjected to shear force and bending moment. The sear force and bending moment dagrans are shown in Fig. 2.46) and (respectively, Potion BC des nt ‘have any anal force or twisting moment. The stan enrey of portion BC dt shear fore is given bythe equation BATX10° RN petra = FES opt ee Oe ane ha ag 2083 x 10° kNNee [50_Structural Analysis~A Matrix Approach ‘The strain energy of portion BC due to flexure is given by the equation cM7ds a G0x)*de Uae Besar) = [ep 2x 2x10 0.06501 7716.05 x 10 Nm Hence, he total strain energy of the L-shaped bar may be computed as 3.47 + 20.83 + 7716.05) x 10° =0.0774035 kN-m. It may be noted thatthe strain energies due to axial force and shear force ate small ‘as compared (othe strain energy due to bending moment (flexure) tis for this reason ‘that in analysing beams and rigidjointed plane frames, the strain energies due to arial Torce and shear force are ignored and consequently the tral stain energy is taken equal to the strain energy due o flexure. 2.6 PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY According (0 the principle of conservation of energy, the total energy of a system remains constant. Energy can neither be produced nor destroyed. It ‘can only be converted from one form to another In general, all structures are deforinable. Consequently, when external losds act on structures, they deform. The work done by the external loads in ‘undergoing the consequent displacements ig stored in the structure in the form of strain energy. As the external loads generally lose their potential energy in undergoing their displacements, the work done by the external loads may be considered as negative and the equal amount of strain energy stored in the structure may be considered as positive. Hence, the total energy of-9 mt remains constant in accordance with the principle of conservation of energy. 2.7 MAXWELL’S RECIPROCAL THEOREM Clerk Maxwell's reciprocal theorem is the most important and fundamental theorem based directly on the principle of conservation of energy and the principle of superposition. Most of the important theorems of structural ‘mechanics can be derived from Maxwell's reciprocal theorem. Using the generalized system of coordinates introduced in Sec. 2.4, Maxwell's reciprocal theorem, for any structure which satisfies the basic assumptions enumerated in Sec. 2.2, may be stated as follows Ina linearly elastic structure in static equilibrium, the displacement at co ordinate { due to a unit force acting at coordinate jis equal tothe displacement at coordinate j due to a unit force at coordinate i. The theorem may be expressed symbolically as 58 223) basic Methods of Structural Analysis “SY PROOF @ 4 In order to derive Maxwell's reciprocal theorem, consider the structure shown in Fig. 2.10 with coordinates i and j indicated on the figure. Apply the force P, at coordinate * producing displacement 3,P, at coordinate ¢ and displacement 8, P, at coordinate j Hence, the work done, when force P; is applied gradually to the structure, is given by the equation ig. 210 1 = 5 RE) 1 a, = 4s, ® Next, force P; is applied to the structure producing displacement 5,P, at ‘coordinate ‘and displacement 5,P, at coordinate j. Hence, the work done when force P, i applied gradually co the stweture is given bythe equation > FH GH RGF 1 BPs + RRS, } Adding. Eqs (a) and (b), the total work done when the forces P, a applied gradually in that order is given by the equation P; are 1 pg, oh pa ab eUy2) P50 F8, + APR © This work is stored in the structure in the form of strain energy. Ifthe response of the structure is linear and the principle of superposition is valid, the sequence of loading is immaterial. Hence, the strain energy should remain unchanged if the sequence of loading is reversed. Thus, applying force F; first, the work done is given by the equation _ ot - O = 586 \E) = 5838, © [Next apply force P,, The additional work done is given by the equation t a SPOOL) + P,P) PS, + RPS, © ‘Adding Eqs (2) and (¢), the total work done when the forces P, and P, are applied gradually in that order, is given by the equation$2_Siructual Analysis “A Metrix Appro g. =! p25 ah ps J= 0,46 +p, sees U= 0,40, = 505, +5070, PP, © As the total energy does into depend on the sequence of loading, it follows ‘that the right hand sides of Eqs (c) and (1) should be equal, Hence, = 8, (2.23) The reciprocal theorem, expressed symbolically by Eq, (2.23), establishes the reciprocity ofthe displacements caused by unit forces. A similar reciprocity exists with regard to forces caused by unit displacements. A reciprocal theorems in terms of the forces may be expressed as follows: Ina linearly elastic structure in static equilibrium, the force at coordinate idueto a unit displacement at coordinate jis equal to the force at coordinare J due to a unit displacement at coordinate i, The theorem may be expressed symbolically as yah 224) PROOF Consider the structure shown in Fig. 2.10 with coordinates ‘and j indicated on the figure. Give a displacement 4, at coordinate‘ without any displacement at spordinatej, Evidently, the forces at coordinates i and j ate ky, and bya, Hence, the work done due to displacement 4, may be writen a8 1 beg Uy = 5 ead 3 hu ) Next, give a displacement A, at coordinate j without any displacement at coordinate i. The additional forces at coordinates and j are ky, and tA, respectively. As in this step the displacemed is given only at coordinate jong additional work is done at coordinate i. In computing the work dove at ‘coordinate jit may be noted thatthe force ky, is alteady present at coordinate 4. The work done by this force in undergoing displacement is (L,,A,)8,.The work done by additional force kA, at coordinate jin undergoing displacement 4, i939 (yA) 4). Thus, the total additional work done when displacement A, is given at coordinate j is given by the equation . Ux cana, +} ceyayea, 1g = kydid, +4 kya} wm Adding Es. (g) and (h), the total work done on account of displacements A, and 4, applied in that sequence is given by the equation | Basie Methods of StrcturaAnalsis 33 WU r= F kya +d ya? +b, 0 This work is stored in the siructure inthe form of strain enceay. Nest, the laplacements 4 and 4, may be givenin reverse onder Giving A st without amy displacement at coordinate i, the work done i given by th equation 1 teow yh Ay @ Next, give the displacement 4, at coordinate i without any displacement at coordinate j. The additional work cone at this stage is given by the equation y, wanared bat ® Adding Bas () and (K), the total work done is given by the equation AAPA he? + hh, 0 As the energy stored is independent of the sequence in which the displacements are given, it follows that the right hand sides of Eqs @) and (1) should be equal. Hence, y= ky 224) Jemay be noted hat the words “force” and “displacement” have been used here ina generalized sense so as to include couple and rotation also, For instance, ~appiying the Maxwell's reciprocal therein to the beam shovn in Fig. 2.11, follows thatthe defection at coordinate # due toa wit couple at coordinate is qual tothe rotation at coordinate j du toa unit lad at coordinate 1, Parcel ae must also be taken in respect ofthe units wea the Maxwell’ reciprocal theorem is stated inthe mixed form which involves deflection 2s well station. ‘Common units shouldbe used for foro, couple and deflection. Por instance, i the couple is expressed in KN-m units then the force must be expressed in KN and deflection im, The rotation should be expressed in radians @ 1 : “ Siem L 0 =40KN 20k (0 ead rok 0 S0kN ° 2.02 i G002 mad 0001 m aden a 0.001 ad, 100 Nm ° 40KN S0KNm — 20kN 10K 0.001 m 0.001 m= o 0.008 m Tobie 2.5 ‘Sytem Coordin ° 0 10KN 20m 0003m 30K 0.002 m 30 kN 228 0.008 n Basi: Methods of Sructayel Anulysis_$7 2.001 m 0.002 m ’ LN$8 Structural Analysis—A Matric Approach Example 2.6 ®2e2e For the pin:jointed plane frame shown in + 4 Fig. 2.15 with generalized coordinates indicated oni, the forces and displacements Jor the two systems of forces are given in OZ} —© Table 25. Caleslte the displacement &, 1 1a indore second Sytem of forces 5 o 2 ® solution Fig. 215 PA = 2(0.001) + 400.002) + 340.008) + 101479 019+ 104% EPA = 20(0.002) + 440.002) + 300.003) oa Using Ba. 2.25), 019 + 10.4% = 0.21 4 = 0.002 m 2.9 PRINCIPLE OF VIRTUAL WORK Figure 2.16(a) shows a structure acted upon by a system of external loads Phy Poy ny Bj ony Py BROOUCIN ISPIACOMENES Ay, Ages Ay wn Ay at COOKCINAES 1,2, wos jy son Me These forces produce internal principal stresses 6. 0, and and the principal strains, €, 6, and €, on an infinitesimal element of volume, av = dx dy dz as shown in the figure. In Fig, 2.16 (b) the structure is acted upon by another system of external loads Pf, Pan Pf, ony Py producing, displacements AY, A, Aj, A, at coordinates 1, 2, jvm n. These forces produce internal principal stresses 0%, 0 and o, and the principal strains €, 2, and €% on the infinitesimal element. In accordance with the principle of conservation of energy, the external work is equal to the strain energy. Hence, EPA f (0,2, +0,¢, +0.0,)dv roy EPA = [ole +0%6% +0!6!)dv oy where the summation on the left side ofthe equation should include all the extemal loads and the integration on the right side should cover the entire volume ofthe stuctre. : If the system of forces and displacements shown in Fig. 2.6(a) are considered real and those shown in Fig, 2.16(b) are considered virtual (Gmaginary), then in accordance with the principal of virtual work, EPA (2.26a) RR NRE Basle Metnods of Structure Analysis 58 ‘The left side ofthe equation represents the external virtual work done by real loads P in undergoing virtual displacements A’ The Fight side ofthe equation represents the internal virtual work done by real principal stresses 6,, 6 and 6, in undergoing virtual principal strains e”, ee respectively. Consequently, the principle of virtual work may be stated a5 follows: Om Ps owe @fnte Fig. 2.16, Ina linearly elastic structure in static equilibrium, the external virtual work done by the set of real loads P in undergoing virtual displacements Ais equal 1 the internal virtual work done by real principal stresses. 0,, 6, and cit undergoing virtual principal strains &, &, and e”. Alternatively, the principle of virtual work may also be expressed by the equation (2.260) In the case of skeletal structures, the internal stresses at any cross-section sive rise to internal forces comprising axial force, the biaxial shear forces, biaxial bending moments and the twisting moment as described in Sec. 1.4 Let the real internal forces at any cross-section in Fig. 2.16(a) be represented by F producing the corresponding internal displacements D. Similarly, let F” and represent respectively the virtual internal forces and the corresponding internal displacements in Fig. 2.16(b). Then the principle of virtual work expressed by Es. (2.26a) and (2.26) may now be written in terms of internal forces and displacements as follows: Epa = fro a Bras [o'e, +07, s0'e,)d (2.266) ras [FDds (2.264) here the integration on the right side shouldbe carried out to cover the entire strnctre Te may be noted that Bets theorem (Sec. 2.8) when applied to external forces gives Epa EP's®_Sirmctural Anotysis—A Matix Approach. Sint, Bets theorem when applied to internal forces gives Srv’ as = fr'vas “Thus combining Betts theorem with the principle of virtual work, Wa=fro'as = [roa EPA’ 2.10 CASTIGLIANO’S THEOREM CCastiliano’s theorem provides a powerful tool for the analysis of statically indeterminate structures. The theorem is based on the energy concept and can be derived readily from Bett's generalized reciprocal theorem Castighiano’s Theorem (Part 1) This theorem, also known as Castiglano’s first theorem, states thatthe partial derivative of the strain energy of a linearly elastic structure expressed ih terine of displacements with respect to any displacement A, at coordinate j is equal 40 the force P, at coordinate j. This theorem may be expressed symbolically us 2 2m PROOF CConsidera serios of forees Py, Pay. Py» Pyacting on a structure at coordinates 1, 2, sf m producing displacements Ay. As... A, A, These loads and displacements may be assumed to constitute the fist system inthe pencealised reciprocal theorem as shown in.T*ble 2.6, Now impose a small increment &i, to the displacement at coordinate j keeping the displacements at all othe coordinates unchanged. As a consequence the increments in the force ate BP, 6 Py oon 8P)y 5Py. The increment in displacement at coordinate j and the consequent increments in loads at all the coordinates may be assumed t9 constitute the second system of the generalized reciprocal theorem as shows in Table 26. Applying the generalized reciprocal theorem, Eq, (2.25), to the to systems shown in the table, P,8N)= M8 P) + M6?) +. + ABP, +. + 4,57, Table 2.6 “Sent Coordinates I P ’, a 4, " » oP, a oo In the limit &,~> 0, the above equation becomes au, wp aay In Bq, (2.272), the partial derivative of strain energy has been used because the change of strain energy due to an inerement in displacement at coordinate J only has been considered keeping all ther displacements unchanged. (Castigliano’s Theorem (Part 11) This theorem, also known as Castigliano’s second theorem, states that the Partial derivative of the strain energy of a linearly elastic structure expressed in terms of forces with respect 10 any force P, at coordinate j is equal to the displacement A, at coordinate. This theorem may be expressed symbolically as Ww _4 an (2.278) 227) PROOF (Consider a series of toads PP n Py ns Py AtiNg 00 & structure a coondinates 1 2, wou je > m producing displacements A) Boy on An de These forces and placements may be assumed to constitute the frst system inthe generalized "eciprocal theorem as shown in Table 2.7. Table 2.7 ? 7 a ' P Pe 2, a 4 1 e 0 0 0 a Ba, 58, Now impose a small increment 5 P, (othe load at coordinate j keeping all ‘other forces unchanged, Asa consequence, theincrements in the displacements are 5A, Sy... is; 5A. The increment in the load at coordinate and ‘consequent increments in displacements at all the coordinates may be assumed ‘o constitute the second system of the generalized reciprocal theorem as shown, in Table 27. Applying the generalized reciprocal theorem, Eq, (2.25), to the two systems shown in the table, P YER + PrBy +. + PBA; + + Paddy = ASP,2 _Siructurat Analysis—A Mayrix Approach Using Ba, (2.1), the above equation may be rewriten 2s ou a In the limit 8 P, -»0, the above equation becomes xe y 2.27) zi In Bq, (2.276), the partial derivative of strain energy has been used because the change of strain energy due to an increment in the load at coordinate j only thas been considered keeping all other loads unchanged. ‘As discussed in Sec. 2.5, the strain energy in the case of rigid-jointed piane frames is predominantly due to bending moment and is given by Eq. (2.21). Substituting Eq, (2.21) into Eq, (2.276), Castiglino’s theorem (Part If) may be rewritten as am aR, a4 (228) Similarly, in the case of pin-jointed frames, Castigliano's theorem (Part II) may be rewritten as a ae as S58 foe os e229 Equations (2.28) and (2.29) have been éxtensively used for the determination of internal forces in statically determinate structures there is no load acting at coordinate j, at which the displacements required, an imaginary or dummy load P, may be assumed to actat coordinate jin addition to the real loads already acting on the structure. The expression for bending moment M may be written down and differentiated to obtain JM/OP,, While substituting for M in Eq. (2.28). P; should be put equal to zero because the load at coordinate jis zero. This method is known as dummy load method ‘Example 2.7 some pH gl woth, £5 fp pe ge Fig. 217 Solution o Using Table 2.8, a a ‘As there is fe load at cooninate 2, apply a dummy toad P, at coordinate 22s shown in Fig. 2170). Table 2.9 pie Teg ae Portion ofbeam-> AB ae © 1 1 2 2 1 Origin A a E e Limits Owl = BLA BWI Owe Pp Pek, Piydp, PLD Fxvke Eee ky Pest pe Py yrp ” 2 QT Se Geta he grt he L ~af«-4 ‘ComUsing Table 2.9, 31 PR 2592" Er wf wy fet Table 2.10 Porton oieams AF 7% 1 7 a Onigin A x E F Limi OWL LBwtA LB WELD ow LS PAY P OR) PAY PRY uM WR LY RT laeR TS TARTS am ( -4) x = od 1 L L Pe P P M when P,=0 fe fe fe Using Tale 2.10, | | | | | Basie Methods of Suet Anais 68 2.11, MINIMUM ENERGY THEOREM An infinite number of statically admissible solurions are possible for any statically indeterminate structure. Of these infinite solutions, the corey solution is the one which makes the strain energy of the structure miinan ‘This is known as the theorem of minimam energy. Consider a redundant reaction R, in a statically indeterminate structure. Uae displacement 4, is equal to zero in the case of an unyielding support ‘Consequently, applying Castigliano's theorem (Part Il), au an 1k follows that in order to make the deformation at coordinate j consistent with the support condition, the strain energy U must assume an extreme value ‘can be shown that this extreme value isthe minimum value. Thus, the correct solution of @ statically indeterminate structure is statically admissible, Kinematically consistent and makes the strain energy of the structure minimom, ‘The theorem of minimum energy may, therefore, be restated as follows. The correct distribution of internal forces in a statically indeterminate siructure is the one which is both statically admissible and kinematically Consistent and makes the strain energy ofthe structure minimum. 2.12 UNIT-LOAD METHOD ” ‘An elegant procedure for the determination of 4 displacements in structures is provided by the unit- load method. In the case of linear response, the my bending moment at any cross-section of arigid-joined , plane frame increases proportionately with the applied loads. The linear relationship between bending 0 —F ‘moment and any Toad P, is represented bythe straight line OA in Fig. 2.18. the slope ofthe suaight line Fla 2.48, (OA is evidently equal to M/AP,. From the figure itis evident that. am =m, 2.30) where m= bending moment due to a unit force at coordinate Hence, Ba (2.28) may be rewriten as Mm, ds a= [te ean {In the case of a pin-jointed frame, the axial force in any member increases roportionately with the applied load P,. Hence as m8 ‘here s,= force in the member due toa unit force at coordinate j. (2.32)6 _Swructurol Analysis—A Matrix Approach __ Using this equation, Eg. (2.29) can be rewritten as As (233) [As the axial force in any member of a pin-jointed frame is constant through: ‘out its length, Eq. (2:33) can be further written as Sab 4° lor Using Eq, (2.31), the displacement at coordinate i due to a unit force at coordinate jin a rigid-jointed plane frame can be written as (234) 5= Similarly, in the case of pin-jointed frame, using Eq. (2.34), the displacement at coordinate i due to a unit force at coordinate j can be written mae 235) =I snk 236) aad AE ‘The displacement A, and flexibility coefficient 5, forthe beams and rgid- jointed frames ean be éalentated by Eqs (2.31) and (2.35) Equations (2.31) and (2.23) can be derived veadily wilh the belp of the principle of virtual work. Lethe system of vets! loads shosin in Fig. 2.160) Comprise only a unit load at coordinate jso that P= 1 Tn this case, Eq, (2.264) svc is based on the prineple of virtual work can be written as Leas J F'D a @ In the case of a structure, such as a rigid-jointed plane frame loaded in its own plane, in which the strain energy due to flexure alone is significant, F’=m, ny and M ds EL ‘To establish Bq. (b) it may be noted that viral intemal force F”is beneing ‘moment due (0 a unit virtual load at coordinate j, Also, the real displacement D is caused by internal force F. As the strain energy due to flexure is predominant, only flexural displacement Md /ET should be taken as D. Equaton (2.31) follows from substituting Eqs (b) and () into Eq. (a). In similar mamer Eq, (2.33) for the pin-jointed frames can be established. ‘An alternative approach is to use the semi-graphical procedure known as method of diagram-multiplication. In Eq. (2.31), the term M ds represents a small clement of the M-diagram and m, represents the corresponding ordinate of the m, bending-moment diagram, Hence, displacement 4, can be expressed! as © | I | | i Basic Methods of Siecrarol Analysis _ 67 ean where Ay = area of the M-diagram i, = ondinaic of m, bending-moment diagram located atthe centroid of M-diagram. In case the m, bending-moment diagram is discontinuous or ET s not constant, the structure should be divided into a sufficient number of parts so that m, is continuous and Tis constant in each part of the structure. Consequently, the ‘Mdiagram should also be divided correspondingly. Displacement 4, is then obiained by using the equation 42 238) \here the summation should be carried out to include all the pars. The products of Ayand @, forthe common shapes of bending-moment diagrams are shown in Table 2.11. This table can be readily used for the determination of displacement 4, With the help of this table, product Ay, may be read directly forany given combination of the shapes of Mand m, bending- moment diagrams. Similarly, Ba, (2.35) can be rewritten as mm, as Ay i 8 Sar = atea.athe m, diagram, 239) where A, Example 28 For the simply supported beam shown in Fig, 2.19) with generalized coordinates indicaled on it, aleulate 5, By, and 6,» Hence, calculate the displacements 4y, dy ‘and A, ifa loa Pacts a the centre ofthe Beam. @ aco te AG Sa A © ® OV jo® f +t U9 be us a we bd o o , A a é { q A 4 © CC) Fig. 2.19Basie Methods of Sracturl Analisis 69 rx Appro (68_Siructural Analyvis A bate Ay “woqaied 2182p proses 4 a Ta a 5 € SS Cis+ = = Ty ~ as) THiS THY > THY = r 1 z * nomi ice Ces Orta awk stay sa io ile Lr ool £ yen £ £ £ 7 Crome orem ® sree sre § sw £ Se wees eenty werne? cen? creme Coe tua + Wes ws 7 Wea CHS HO ay Dag iD i [Cr+ Dy+ Crem ye yoy = 9 and | a wom Ga i YV (owve0) 12 e19e (paw) Ces 2 * £ 2 £ @7- aa Om my my my OFT 4 4 us 2 9 9 £ z 7 owe mae 4 * see me © } ns ark z Z | an mw @/— WH an snot | wat 7 i 7 ania so west (s) () © @ a z a) z 7 7 4 (eS Se SS - i d ! i yo i CH bee age,10_Soructural Analysis—A Matrix Approach _ Table 2.12 orion oti Pains 5B we @ BE 2 1 1 A z take UB t0u2 owls ™ 2 2 x 2, me 3 3 =X ae + faze se “ae io Ae aD * 3592 ET 2 * la ak = \ax we page pee. he axe pp ae 0 ze ae | _ Basie Methods of Structural Aniaiyais_71 ‘With reference tothe coordinates indicated in Fig. 2.19(2), P= P and Py= Py=0. Hence, a5 Pe 2 41-8 Prt By Pat 8s Py= By P a a 81 uP + Bay + By Pye by P= ae 13 Pe 855 6yPrt BaPyt By P= by P= Example 2.9 Using the unit-load method, analyse the portal frame shown in Fig. 220a) and hence draw the bending-moment diagram. 2K 153| 1m ; t LP ode i K le od se ws voz Solution Let the three reaetion components at D be treated a the redundants. Hence, choosing the coordinates as shown nthe figure, \5= Obecause support Dis unyielding Using the uni-load method, © © Substituting for Mm, mand m, from Table 2.13 into Eqs (a, (band (c).B_Siratorl Analyste Moris Approach ble 2.13 1 1 4 a Origin D c B Limits 015 010 000 10 Mt Puy SPL+P x= Py 10P,— Py PYS—x) A112 my 0 x my 1 'Note: Bending moment producing compression on outer fibres has been taken posite, S(Ri~ B)xdr | p0(SR + Bx B)Sde Be Le of0% + AS— a) I ef o ® 235-2) de 1S-odr for 150 P, +75 Py~ 30 Py + 278K 100% ~ A+ ROS x) - 111.25) de + ae or 75 P, + 400 P43 Py 16680 =0 » ORE ANC Dds potSi + x ~ 8) de a ns ee OOP, — P+ RS 3) — 111.28) © De “ff Gir or 2574375 P,-10P~ 1390=0 © Solving Eas (), (e) and (1) as simultaneous equations, ‘After the redundants are known, the bending moment at any point can be calculated. “The bending-moment diagram, drawn on the compression side, is shown in Fig, 2.20(b) Example 2.10 For the piv-jointed plane fizme shown in Fig, 2.21, caleulare the displacements at coordinates I aud 2. The axial stifuess of each member is 42.5 EN/am Solution “The forces in the moabers ofthe pi column 2of Table 2-14, Thefores in 1 and due to unit oad a coordi , fee Pe on a ® “ook $C) Sm. 5m 5 Hem Sy Sm Sm Fig. 221 Table 2.14 Member aN wv aw ee ae ae © @ & © © © Qe) Uw -0 05 ° B ° UW, 30 =05 ° B 0 Tol 45 07s 1 3625 8 bib % 075 1 3625 B nity 23 025 1 625 B Ly 2 025 1 «5 3 ut, 100 1 © 1 ° wn ° o ° ° o un ° o ° ° ° by “MR 0955 0 as ° Uy -3R 0258 oo ps ° Usk ~Gi -0255 o 125 o wy, Vi 0a Bs o 20 Basie Methods of Sractural Analysis 73, + Joled tae due (othe given load are given in the various members due touit Toad at coordinate ate 2 ae given im columns 3 and 4 of Table 214TA Sirucural Analysis—A Motris Approach Example 2.11 For the non prismatic beam shown in Fig. 222(ah determine the displacements at coordinates 1, ?and 3 using the method of diagram multiplication ‘Solution i Pug tit ®

Soe Basic Methods of Srucrural Analysis _75 Alteratively, using Tbe 2.1, hr He an third eau, shee = bump ae tlig PE Wh MALS GNSS = Sag Similarly, considering areas Az, sand A, and using Bg. (2.38), Aw APE kt see ie te De 36 9 * DET aa Oo LsPe 19k a PP ok Ter” 1 90 * * 36 “9 ase = ep ay (Cownwards ‘To compute displacement 4 at coordinate 2, multiply areas Ay, A, Ay and Ay by the respective ordinates of my-diagram located at their centroids and take the sum ofthe products, Lore wt see is 36 or er aS 1 spt PC 4b * Eat 36 SPE it owns) ‘To comput displacement Ay at coordinate 3, snail seas A, Ay. Ay and Ay by the respective ordinals ofthe m-dingzam cated at thei entoids and tke the 50 oF the product. ae PU 35 i SPL 26 8 BT 36 a5 * Ter” TS 1 spe 19 1 Pe a0 Ter Tae a5 * 36 5 BP = BEE (octane Example 2.12 Figure 2.23(a) shows beam ABC andthe loads acting ont, Calculate the displacements ue to the applied loads at coordinates I and 2 shown in Fig. 223(0) Also calculate displacements 6» 8, and By. Solution “The Mcdiagras due to applied loads is shown in Fig. 2.23). The my- diagram due to 9 unit force at coordinate 1 and the my diagram dc to wnt Force nt coulnate 2 ate shown in Fig, 2.232) and (e) respectively.16 Structural Auatysis—A Matis Approach —_ paoun —t204N wt ptis Sm Sm Sms 8m) El Constant @ © © © Fig. 2.23 “The displacement at coordinate 1 dve tothe applied loads i given by the equation Auf tt 1 _ 1500 aye EAM aw Bx Fctoxoonse} = 1500 “The displacement a coordinate 2 due tthe applied lod s given by the equation 1 Sue Sa "3H 3 by oH ‘The displacement at coordinate 2 due t0 a unit force at coordinate 2 is given by the equation Ani VV yy 2 dd 2_ 20 fg DB = Gx gxt9x 3 3B Basic Methods of Stractra Example 2.13 Using the method of diagram multiplication, analyse the portal fame shown in Fig. 2240) mn2aN Smt A somal 1, fe Bu. won @ ee @ ® - 8 TIT: o s © © © Fig 228 Solution Let le three reaction components at D be treated a8 redundant. Hence, choosing the ‘coordinates as shown in the figute, A, = A, = Ay = 0 because the support at D is lonyielding. Let dy,. 43, and As, be the displacements at coordinates 1, 2 aad 3 respectively when the support at Dis removed, the support reactions at D, P, = Py = Py =0. Then, it folows that 4) = Bu + 6yP) + 8, Py 4 8s Py=0 Cc) AL= On, + BP + BaP + By Py=0 © As = As BP + by P+ By Py=0 © ‘The unknown reaction components P,, P, and Py can be determined by solving Eqs (a), (b) and ©) as simultaneous equations. The displacements Ay, Any yy. dye, ‘can be computed by using the method of diagram-maltipication, For this purpose M, ‘nie mz, and mydiagrams can be drawn as show in Fig. 224 (0), (), (2) and (€) respectively. In draving these diagrams iti assumed thatthe support at D has been removed. Aah 1 tio, 3 650 fu OE ae aS" Ser Aufiy 1210 900 bu= 2 Ca gr78_Sirucuural Analysis—A Matrix Approach Auf u2x10 1390 tus Sg aera On er Aah SxS 10 ous Leer 2s 1 + pxtoxsxs aer*" Agha 1 Ba= B= 8M A h toxsxs iy 2s 8 = 81> DBP = xioxsen +o =3 Ani La bq = Se 1 cto x10 10 to 20 _ 1000 + yep 10% 10% 32 = 10 1 1 M1OxbeL+ G5 dO # xsi = Substituting the values ofthe above displacements in Eas (a 150P, +75 P,—30 P, + 2780 15 P,+400 Py 45 Py 16680 50 P75 Py +20 P,+ 2780 Solving Eqs (2), (¢) and (P) as simultaneous equations, 76.3 N 32.7 IN 207.1 Nm ‘These values coincide with those computed earlier by the unit-Toad method in Ex. 2.9, ). &) and (e) and simplifying, ° @ o o ° ° 243 CONJUGATE-BEAM METHOD ‘The conjugate-beam method is based on the two theorems of moment-area which may be stated as follows: According to the first theorem of moment-area, the difference of slopes ct any two points A and B of a flexural mesnber is equal fo the area Ayn of the 1 diagram benween two points Basie Methods of Stractuval Anaysis_79 O4- Oy = Ang (2.40) According tothe second theorem of moment-arca, the eflsction & of any point A measured in a direction perpendicular to the axis of the member from the Langent to the deflection curve at any other point B is equal to the moment of the area of the M/El diagram between the points A and B about the point A A= Ag E ean Where = = distance of centroid ofthe area Ayy from the point A. ‘The concept of the conjugate beam provides simple method for the determination of slope and deflection at any point of a beam. It can be readily shown thatthe expressions for shear force, bending moment, slope and deflection jm a beam can be derived by successive integration of the expression for the intensity of load. It follows tha, ifthe load acting on a beam is replaced by the AM/EL-diagram, the shear force at any point in this beam, known as conjugate eam, is equal to the slope atthe same point ia the actual beam. Similarly, the bending moment at any point in the conjugate beam is equal 1 the deflection at the same pointin the actua beam. Consequently the shear-force and the bending ‘moment diagrams of the conjugate beam are respectively identical to the rotation and deflection diagrams of the actual beam. As the slope and the deflection in the actual beam are analogous to the shear force and bending moment in the Conjugate beam, i is necessary to select the support conditions for the conjugate bbeam so as to maintain the analogy between the two beams. The slope and deflection ata fixed support are zero. Hence, there should be no shear force and bending moment at that point inthe conjugate beam. It follows tha a fixed end in the actual beam should be replaced hy. fee end in the conjugate beam. Itcan, similarly be shown that a free end in the actual beam should be replaced by a Sixed end in the conjugate beam. Also, a simple end support (binge or roller) Continues to remain so i the cogjugate beam. A simple interior support inthe actual beam should be replaced by an interior hinge in the conjugate and an interior hinge in the actual beam should be replaced by a simple interior support in the conjugate beam. Figure 2.25 shows how a support in the actual beam has {o be replaced in the conjugate beam together with the appropriate justification for the change. In this figure no distinction has been made berween a roller Support and a hinge-support. As beams do not carry axial forces, there is no difference between a hinge-support and a roller-support. Consequently, a hinge support may be replaced by a rolle-support of vice versa, both in the actual ‘beam as well asin the conjugate beam. Itmay be noted that ifthe actual beam is statically determinate, the conjugate beam is also statically determinate. On the other hand, if the actual beam is statically indeterminate, the conjugate beam is unstable and is held ia equilibrium by means of elastic loading,‘To distinguish between the internal forces and deformations in the actual eam fom those in the conjugate beam, a prime will be altached tothe symbols reprosening the Intornl forsex and deformation in the conjugate Beatin Tvs corresponding terms in the actual beam will be represented hy unprimed symbols. Thus, Rye Oy. My Oy and Ay represent respectively the reaction, shear ftce, bending moment, slope (rotalion) and deflection at pint A in the actual Beam. In the conjugate beam, the reaction, shear force and bending smomentat A will be represented by the symbols Ry Q'and Mrespectivele Hence Q, and M; are analogous to 0 and A, respectively. Thus, = O% Ag My 2.42) Sno ‘Actual Ben Conjugate Beam 1 a j Fedo Simple end suppert Sinpis’end support ery oreo : tee 4 . 4 Sol irr spot Inrior hinge Seed on00 site 4 5 en Interior hinge Fig. 2.25 ‘peer emerreee aeeee eer eeeemenceeneneerae Basie Methods of Sueur Analysis: BL ‘The elegant conjugate-beam method has the advantage of having a simple ‘and unambiguous sign convention. Ifthe bending moment in the actual beam 's positive csagaing), the corresponding elastic had M/ET in the conjugate ‘beam should be considered to be acting downwards. On the other hand, ifthe ‘berating moment in the actual beam is negative (hogging), the corresponding clastic load in the conjugate beam should act upward. Ifthe shear force and bending moment in the conjugate beam are positive, the analogous rotation and deflection inthe actual beam are clockwise and downward respectively. (On the other hand, if the shear force and bending. moment in the conjugate ‘beam are found to be negative, the analogous rotation and deflection in the actual beam are counter-clockwise and upward respectively. Example 2.14 ‘Analyse thefxed-ended beam shown in Fig, 2.26 fa)asing the conjugate eam method. Hence, draw the shear force and bending-momentdiagrans, Solution ‘The bending-moment diagram dc to load for simple support conditions is shown in Fig. 2.260), The bending-moment diagram due tend moments My and My is shown in Fig. 226(c). The conjugate beam with its elastic load is shown in Fig. 2.26(), Asends A and inthe actual beam are fed, they become fre in the conjugate beam. Thus the conjugate beam san unsupported floating, beam eld i equilibrium bythe elastic load yl @ ° PabitetS2_Siructural Analysis Matrix Approach Basie Methods of Siu Analysis 83 “Taking moments about A, vse 2 Pub (La) My/Bl + My/éh gan Fab ( Eta) Male + Malt © asoser + 2avce pete z ‘ poner ‘ ‘Similarly, taking moments about B, 1 Pab( Leh) M,/Bt-=M, (er ) sere © Sing Ba), a no 28 B 2°" 3er eT ET est 216 Example 2.15 inthe beam sows Fig 2280 cau he ition nd he chang 6 see For the propped cantilever shown in Fig. 2.27(a), determine the slopes at B and Cand as, wep in Solution PPO EEO x0 “The bending-moment diagrams due to the load of 50 KN and prop reaction Re acting 2 Teen nfs 2270. Comaguny ecorheas eam shows he ‘obey esas Ying ed ese hg Te dene rp em 2 caeake tc ig momen ante senda seca ee sc —_- ® » x6 x1 Ben Mon FOX py 1g y 150 (43 6) 6x SRSA 3 2 e01e 34126 i (ose s}a Meas, 230 soot 18 wn a ghee 8 12 SAGE! \ Greve! omy 6m fe aT { 300 15016) Co © © Fig. 227 Solution ‘As the beam is statically determinate, the sugpon reactions can be computed by using the equations of static equilibrium. R Re S0KN i ~ | 6: M, Peat 1 550 oD ae Matte bebe eS The erfow and tenlag-momen dagams a shown nig 226 6) ad) iB4_Sirweural Anulysis—A Mats Appr The triangular bending-moment diagram dic to Re, being postive, has been potted above the base line in Fiz. 2.28). Simi ‘due Yo the uniformly disteibuted load, being negative, has been ploted below the hase line. The conjugate beam has been shown in Fig. 228). The support conditions for the conjugate beam have been chosen in accordance with the guidelines provide in Fig. 2.25. As the conjugate beam is statically determinate, the support reactions can be calculated by statics. the parabolic hending-mament diageam 560g, _ 220 3s Rye b* Gg Mos * 361 a The slope at 2 10 ts right, 141801 Dy ight) = 5x2 F r= 5% Otreho) 130 220 220 “ETB >i (counterclockwise) “The slope at Bot left, 8 (el) = Oy ef) = 0 (eight) ~ Ry 340 30 (clockwise) Sudden change in slope at B, once = sh - oo) 2.14 STIFFNESS OF A PRISMATIC MEMBER In the analysis of continuous beams and rigid-jointed frames, the resistance offered by 2 prismatic member to the rotations at its ends and the transverse displacement of one end relative to the other end is of importance. In this section the resistance offered by a flexural member to these deformations is discussed 2.14.1 Rotation Without Transverse Displacement of One End of a Prismatic Member, with the Other End Hinged Figure 2.29(a) shows a prismatic member AB, simply supported at its nearend A and far end B, so that transverse displacement of one end relative to the bother end isnot possible. The couple required to produce a unit rotation at end As known as flexural stiffness of the member at end A. | se Methods of Swuctural Analysis 85 (ht » Jims In © rol (a) Fig. 229 Apply aclockwise moment M at near end A. The bending-moment diagram for the member is shown in Fig. 2.29(b). Hence, the conjugate bear is as shown in Fig. 2.29(c). ‘The support reactions in the conjugate beam are y= ME Rae oy ’ ML Ro cer Using Fg. (242), Ma 04> n= Ra= sey 3610, or 4 (2.4% For the eqitirium of member AB, RyRy =0 and RyxL+M=0 M Hence, ~Ryakp= 2.430) The free-body diagram of the member is shown in Pig. 2.29(4). As Alexural stiffness is the couple required for a unit rotation, putting @, = 1 in Eq, (2.43a),86 Structural Analysis—A 3 atric Approach flexural stfness at A (far end B hinged) = 21 _ 361 2.432) and Ra (2.434) 2.14.2. Rotation without Transverse Displacement of One End of a Prismatic Member, with the Other End Fixed i Figure 2.30(a) shows a prismatic member AB, simply supported at its near era } ‘tnd fixed at far end B, 0 tat the transverse displacement of one end relative to the other end is not possible. The couple required to produce a unit rotation at end A is known as the flexural stiffness ofthe member at end A ‘Apply a clockwise moment Mat near end A. Let Ry be the upward reaction at roller support. Te bending-moment diagram forthe member is shown in Fig. 2.300, Hence the conjugate beam is as shown in Fig. 230(e). For the equilibrium ofthe conjugate beam, Lyk Rl 2° 2H © Mi fe a Me Fink \ Tk i Fe LULL | c 2 Healt » uerawver sete MEL (- Eley rae) 1 : ebiogt? ecient? ° @ Fig. 220 or 2.44a) Substituting into Ba. (a), 2.440) For the equilibrium of member AB, (2.44e) and (2.448) ‘The free-body diagram of the member is shown in Fig. 2.30(4). From the free- body diagram, its seen that when a clockwise couple is applied at near end A, 12 clockwise couple of half the magnitude is set up at far end B. Thus, the ‘carry-over factor, defined as the ratio of the moments atthe far and near ends, is 1/2 in the case of straight prismatic member according 10 the frame convention. As flexural stiffness is the couple required for unit rotation, putting = Vin Bq. 2.442), eso sits ta = SEL aay (far end B fixed) Also, __ (2.44 and (2.448) 2.14.3 Transverse of a Prismatic Member, with the Other End Hinged Figure 2.31(a) shows a prismatic member AB simply supported at its near end A and far end B. Lat the support at A be given a transverse displacement A relative to the support at B. While giving the transverse displacement, no ‘otation is permitted at end A as shown in Fig. 231(@). The transverse force required at A to produce a unit transverse displacement without rotation of end A is known as transverse stiffness of the member at end A, ‘The counter-clockwise couple M requited al end A to maintain a zero slope at this point may be computed by using the conjugate-beam method. The bending-mament diagram for the actual beam is showa in Fig. 231(b). The ‘conjugate beam with its elastic load is shown in Fig. 231(@). It may be noted ‘hat as the deflection tA in the actual beam is A upwards, a counter-clockwise ‘couple of magnitude A must act at Ain the conjugate beam. As no rotation has88_Simconl Aye“ Mates Approach : been permitted a in the actual beam, the scar force at A in the conjug beam should be zero. — Mey SEI ny EiCenstant o Tees ! | ‘er en EN 7 4 fe) @ e Fig. 2.31 SEIN _3E16 ere FEI Ccounter-clockwise Ep ) where @ = clockwise rotation of the member. For the equilibrium of member AB, M_3EIA_ 319 Lop Ge ‘The free-body diagram is shown in Fig, 2.31(d), As the transverse stiffness is the transverse force required for a unit transverse displacement without rotation of near and A, putting A = 1 in Bq. (2.43b), SE Hence, (2.450) - Ry (2.456) transverse stiffness at (far end B hinged) (2.450) Also, M Member, with the Other End Fixed Figure 2.32(a) shows a prismatic member AB simply supported at its near end A and fixed at its far end B. Let the support at A be given a transverse Basic Methods of Sructural Analysis 89 displacement 4 relative to the support at B. While giving the transverse displacement, no rotation is permited at cad A as shovinin Fig, 23218) ‘The transverse force required at A to produce unit transverse displacement Without rotationof 2nd Ais known as the iransverse sins of te meriber end A. seman? sei? EW? eet? @ Fig. 2.32 It is evident that counter-clockwise bending couples will be set up at both ‘ends of the beam. It is also clear that these bending couples should be equal from the consideration of symmetry. Consequently, the bending-morent diagram shown in Fig. 232fb) can be drawn. The conjugate beam with its elastic load is shown in Fig. 2.32(@). Itmay be noted that asthe deflection at A jn the actual beam is A upwards, a counter-clockwise couple of a magnitude A ‘ust act at A in the conjugate beam. Taking moments about A, 1M LL ol Mb se PPE DTG or ETA $9 counter clockwise) (2.46a) e v Where = clockwise rotation ofthe member. For the egilibiam of the actual member, 2M {RETA (2.460) te The free-body diagram is shown in Fig. 2.32(d). As the transverse stiffness is the transverse force required fora unit transverse displacement without rotation of near end A, patting A= 1 in Eg. (2.46b),90 Siurwval Analysis—A Manis Approach transverse stiffness at A (far end B fixed) (2.460) 6Er Also, M= © (counterclockwise) (2.464) Example 2.17 For the non-prismatic beam AB shown in Fig. 2.33(A), determine the lesural stifess land carry-over factors at both ends Solution (Pleural Stifness and Carry-oser Factor at A To determine these, end A, t0 be treated as the near end, should be simply supported and far end B should be fixed as shown in Fig. 2:33(0). Also, a clockwise couple 'M should be applied at near end A. The bending-moment diagrams due to couple Af tnd prop reaction Ry are shown in Fig. 233(6) and (4) respectively. The conjugate bbeam with its elastic load is shown in Fig. 2.33(e). Reaction Ry may be computed by win ceiconataree a 4 ——# Fe a ® ru a 7 mitt) ny nue nau mwreet |] | | cult eto 214M det Lm 2 =O 3ML 7 Re ae 16 er =os7s ME BI MM __ Flexural stiffness at A= 9 ~ O55 MITE 127 BL For equilibrium of the member, My= Ry +M=-04M ‘The minus sign shows thatthe bending momeat at B is hogging. Consequently, the fixed-end moment at B i clockwise. Couple caried over to B ene, we cry over fader tom to = SSS far ve om Mw is evidently 04 according toe frame convention = 04 in accarlance withthe beam convention. The camy-over factor (id) Plesural Stiffess and Carry-over Factor at B ‘To determine these, end B, to be ueated as the near end, should be simply supported and far end A should be fixed as shown in Fig. 2.33(0). Also, a clockwise couple M should be applied at near end B. Proceeding asin (), 4.36461 Flexural stiffness at Cany-over factor from Bo A = —y (according to bear coavention) 2 = } (ecconting to frame convention) 245 SLOPE-DEFLECTION EQUATIONS ‘The slope-deflection equations give the relationships between the bending ‘moments acting on a structural member and the displacements of the member at its ends. Consider a stright prismatic member AB carrying an arbitrarywal Analysis “A rs Approach Hae Methoatsof Scarab ws 98 transverse loading as shown in Fig. 2.34(a). The resultant P of the totel load The net moments Mp and Mag tthe ends of membor AB are obtained by ets ata distance ¥ from end A, Let Myy and My be the bending coupes at the summation ofthe moments listed in columns 3 and 4 of Tale 21 nds A and B rexpectively, Figure 2.24(h) shows he dotlected shape ot Ie ‘member. The deflected shape has been dravn in such manner that the soution, ion of the member are clockwise (24a) ©, and Gy at ends A and B, and the rota Thisdeflected shape ofthe member can be obtained by giving the displacement on Gp and & successively, as indicated in Table 2.15, leading to the derivation May = Mig "op, «0 ean) of slope-defleetion equations 7 . Pauations (247) are the well known slope-deflection equations j ‘Altematively, Eq, (2.47) may also be written a8 Mag C 261 (eer Eye Myg= Mian + (20, +6, ~36) (2.484) ruse a areca Max = Mig + (294 +6, -38) 2.480) @ Knowing end couples May and Ma, reactions Ryp and Ry, can be computed bby considering the free-body of member AB, Taking moments about 2, Raph PUL~ ¥) + Magy + May = PUD My + My where PF = Mlyy = Fixed-end moment at A, PE = Migg = Fixed-end moment a B Te na or Ru + @ Simitaey, taking moments sbout A, ° ° PE May +M, . Rag = + Aa &) Fig. 204 — TT ns (and (b), the frst terns on the righthand sides are the simple support. Table 2.15 ‘reactions Rigand R,, Consequently, the equations may be rewritten as Seg petaion mann om Mant Mag (298) se —_— + w 2 © 1. Apply the given wansvere load to Ma = Ri, « Mant Mag the member Keeping ends And 2 fixed Rag = Ryy 2.49) se, 2210, With reference to the coordinates shown in Fig, 234(c), Eq. (2.47) may be 2. Give a clockwise rotation 9, at A = Tr rewriten as OER CA my (4, 2440) 4 2.4 on aca 2E16, 410, on a 3 oA 8 Gueseminsenasnagun 2a ; rent Efe (2) aay 6 ours ora 61a 4. Give a wansverse downwa saa oe splacement A at end B 0 that e e 2E1 = iim not Lae fAZ* eso through sn angle 4.2460)cat : , 1 need 94 Structural Analysis—A Maurie Approach Example 2.18 At lft end of a member with partial fixity, shown in 0% Fig. 2.33, the rotations 0.01 radian clockwise and the setlement is 20 mit the right end ofthe member the A 5 rotation is 0.0075 radian counter-clockwise and the "| 3m,y_ 8m Sselement is 15 mm. Ifthe moment ofineria, '= 180 x rE eh 10% mm and Young's modulus, E = 2 % 10° MP,, Fig. 2.35 talculte the support reactions. Solution From th given data, 4 0.01 radian = 0.0075 radian 15-20 =~ 5 mm=~0.005 m 2x 10° MPa = 2 x 108 kNim? 180 x 10% mm* = 180 x 10% m* Using Eq. (247), 90x3x6x6 2x 2x10" x 180% 10 oxo 9 x [2000 - o0ors ~ 3 | —6.4kN-m 90x 6x3x3 2% 2x10" x 180 x 10% Maw Oxo 9 x [oot = 200075) ~ (= s00s) 33.6 kN-m 0x6 644336 oe STEN 0x3, 644336 Rag = Pg AES aay 2.16 SOME STANDARD RESULTS In the preceding sections, a variety of problems on the displacements of beams have been solved, Some of the standard cases which are frequently required in structural analysis are listed in Table 2.16. A more comprehensive collect of standard results has been presented in Appendix A. asic Methods of Sracarat Analysis, 98 Table 2.16 o-e- £8. Pe 6% Toe Se RET Pb LET Patt? — a?) ere pe == (Condy96 _Stoctaral Analysis Meanis Approach (Contd) — So ‘2. AF Eg pita i, ‘Basie Methods of Smuctural Ang PROBLEMS 1 teat me support reactions forthe structures shown in Fig. 2.36 using the ‘Principal of viral work, Verify the result wing the equstions of the ate equilibrium, a 4 te » som - ele Fe qh dn of L A soon, * S e226 2.2 Using the principle of vital work, calculate the deflection a coordinate I for the beams shown in Fig 2.37 due to (i) bending moment and (i) shear fore, ‘The beams are of rectangular evss-secton having width D and depth " " | gee] — o Qh BR | > ne ky awe ase, @ to) © @ Fig. 237 23° Using the pincple of vitual work calculate the displacements inthe structures of Fig. 238 athe coordinates shown ia the figure doc to (j) bending momeu, (i) shea fore and (ii axial Free. The srctares are of uniform erase section,p= . Pn nf O—A9- 2% 4 T “a aa Oa@ ke et ud o! le ue Fig. 228 2.4 Inthe continuous beam shown in Fig. 2.39, a vertical downward load of SO kN at B produces an anti-clockwise rotation of 0.02 radian at C. Calculate the ‘deflection t B due to a clockwise couple of 20 KN:m at C. aj-2# 5 —fo Fig. 2.39 25 Table 2.7 shows the loads and displacements for two systems of loads in & particular structure. Using the reciprocal theorem, calculate the displacement fat coordinate 4 in system Il Table 2.17 ‘Stor Force and Coordinates Aiplocement —~T z 3 4 se 1 e 30’ 25. 109 30 0 0 a - = 0008 0.002 9.015 0.001 0 e ° 0 20 35 40-30 x 0010 0.002 vos? 2.6 Figure 240 shows two systems of loads and displacements. Calculate the horizontal displacement at B in system using the reciprocal theorem. 2.92 rasian 9.016 ractan 292m 40 KML - ‘e° oy 100 kN ey ‘sysTeM| SYSTEM Fig. 2.40 ee Basie Methods of Stacural Analysis 99 2.7 Figure 2.41 shows three systems of loads and displacements. Using the reciprocal theorem, calculate the support reactions in system I } ain Ap ¢ fo 6 a ae cove? Srsrenen srsres Fig 241 ure 2.42 shows thee systems of loads and displacements, Using the reciprecal theorem, calculate the fixed-end moment M, in system IN, gpm 875 cokm youn i ~ Nee - S.ozradan “Clot radan 0.015 m 0.015 radian ootm SYSTEM! SYSTEM ‘SYSTEM Fig. 242 2.9 For the rigid-joine frames of Fig. 243, calculate the displacements atthe ‘coordinates shown nthe Figure using Castghiun's cca, Verify the soul by the unit oad method in i— cml Q ey 120 Nn? o aml amt lo = 200 a @ ® Fig. 248100 _Strurural AnatysisA Matric Arproach 2.10 For the pin jointed frames of Fig. 2.44, calculate the displacements atthe oondinates chown in the figure using Castigliano’s theorem. Verify the rest by me uni oad metnod. pP— ont thin t ep , |v LETE # ® om omf vo amy. 2m Bane 2 of AE=2 «105 kN ae . 7 AE -scasieunm — ®) Fig. 2.44 2.11 For the simply supported beam shown in Fig. 2.45, determine the position of le point at which maximum deflection occurs. Also, calculate the maximum deflection, Use the conjugate-beam method, coum ” saa i at @ LTE 6S aE 22 YER Am (E1~ 12500 emt pares Fig. 245 Fig. 2.46 2.2. In the cantilever beam of Fig. 2.46, determine the position and value of maximum deflection 2.13, Figure 2.47 shows the bending-moment diagram for an intermediate span of & continuous beam. Calculate the deflection at B 4 Parabola 4 100 Emp Beg tO KN A SUC 20 kN [Sy Sm EH31250 kN? Fig. 2.47 2.14 Forthebeams of Fig. 2.48, calcula the displacements atthe coondinates shown inthe figure. Use any one of the following three methods @) Castigliano’s theorem (i) Unit-load method Gi). Conjugate-boam method, Verify the result by an alternative method. 1-601? @ im OD ee riety the, © Basic Methods of Sructarai Analysis 04 1544hn 5190 <4 t {@ r {o Se im amen E1=10000 KN? = £1 205008N c) © 105m se So aad it, 2m dm Bor ht 1 s00 Kn? Ei 2004N? © trol ge 10K J, , |@ mim 2mm Beara Ha l= 2000 kN? ® Fig. 24 2.15 Using Casigtano's theorem, analyse the structures shown in Fig, 249. Hence ‘determine the suppor reaction at A. Verify the result bythe unit fod method, writ longi DV aeaeerd et Constant @ 4oxNm oa, ¥ & al -E1Oonstant » Fig.249246 Ine Ta bea shown Fig, 280 callie he pron reason a wing 2.20, Dasv al he expesion given a Tbe 2.16 wing ollowing methods vest (i) Castigliano’s theorem asin (Unt met , sous | Conte am tod | 2.21 Using the reciprocal theorem, derive Muller-Breslau's principle according to A oy be e¢ tice fee lnc forte wan ompnct sete wheter SS ph Sucaly cermin ober she sme ee fiction ave fe Ime em Stecuewhea a dpaceneat pve oe acon component fr py sem SLR Pm hich the influence line i required. = 840KNn? 2.22 Ung eco eam mh der Capo’ ox hae E1Constant i for any two consecutive spans of continuous beam: 9.280 fig. 251 4 uo(E}-am[2+B)en.(2) 27 Using te conjat-bcam method, analyse th s¥-spn continuous beam \ ac Stownin ig 2.5: Hence etme tedeecton a Band ration Ae (4 ase une sloe dczcton eqns determin the boning memes SAB A of to ‘and Cin the two-span continous beam of Fig. 2.52 ifthe clockwise rotations at Bh bl LG i ‘oo ae 22/6 an and ISIE ron epee whee fering Fg. 234 My My and ae the Bending moments a von Stop and Creel ay tage bende monet s pve sein ‘an ete etal sans whch spr gece ae } b higher than middle support B. Also, A, and A, ae the aceas of the bending 4 a non gas spats ABan BC conta spy ipl t _ land z, and X, are the distances of centroids of these areas from Supports and i C respectively 4 15.3.5 m, Am i asm am ; — ercorsar ‘ Fig. 2.52 { ie 2.19 In the portal frame of Fig. 2.53, the displacements with reference to the Seon shown ing a fos | 356 267 - | a8 22 geo Using the slope-deflection equations, calculate the support reactions at A and D. Veity the result using the equations of static equilibrium, EY is constant, © sow, EEO tp LtDETERMINANTS AND MATRICES 3.4. DETERMINANTS ‘A square array of number is known as a determinant. The order of the determinant ism if it has n rows and m columns. A determinant of order n can be expressed by equation la a G1) {In Eq, (3.1), the symbol a, denotes the element of the determinant lying in the ith row and jih column, The determinant of order (n~ 1) obtained by erasing the ith row and jth column is known as minor of element ay, The cofactor of element a, is defined as the product of ( 1)! and the minor of element a. CDM, (2) where Gy = cofactor of element ay -M, = minor of element ay, ‘As Eq, (3.2) indicates, the cofactor is equal to the minor with a positive or negative sign atached to it depending upon whether the sum (7+) is even or ‘odd. Hence, the cofactor is also known as signed minor Every determinant has a definite numerical value. The value of the determi nant may be computed by using the Laplace expansion as indicated by Eq, (33). Lal = aC yb aaC a to Hay C 63) = a6, ~ In Eg, (3.3), the value of the determinant has been computed by multiplying ‘each clement of the ith row by its cofactor and taking the sum of the products eteninants and Matrices 105 Alternatively, the value of the determinant may be computed by multiplying cach element of the jth column by Hs cofactor and taking the sum of the prodivets Nal ay Cy € ayCyt o * iC hac ‘A determinant is known 2s non-singular if its value is non-zero. ‘The following important properties of determinants may be verified {@) If all the elements in one row or one column are zero, the determinant Gi) When any two rows or two columns are interchanged, the sign of the determinant is changed, (i) IF the elements ina row or column are mulkplied by a constant and the result added to the corresponding elements in another row or column, the determinant is not changed. Gv) If one row or column can be generated by a Tinear combination of ‘other rows or columns, the determinant is zero, From this it follows that if two rows or two coluunns are identical, the determinant is zero. (¥) The sum of the products of the elements in any row i with the ‘corresponding cofactors of another Tow m is zer0. Example 3.1 _ Conpsteshonaleof the determinant ‘ Solution Using Bq, 2) and selecting the thied row forthe Laplace expansion, ' ve EoD jat= oat | 21] le gs | ral‘ Bu [Now taking the first row for the Laplace expansion in each of the second order eterminants, Nal = 12-1)! 14 14 1A) ACNE TAL KDY1S 514)" 111426 D131) = 624 = Li 1)— ACh 4 = 1 3) 4 54x 12 3) = 20.Desterincats nd Maurices 107 k A mate is known as a null or zero matrix if all ts elements ate zero. It is ‘Alternatively, selecting the second column for the ‘eps cpanon : i ‘denoted by the symbol {0}, A null matri, in matrix elacbra, Sit Sey = 5 Solution The above set of simultaneous equations can be waitten in the matrix form ro Premoltiplying bot sides ofthe above equation by the inverse of the coefficient matrix, [z].f8 8 JE a |l-w as -5) | 3 stl lo -s JE] 005 0.05 005 I? =| 905 01s os 3 005 015 035 |s os [8] — a3 | 3.7 CONDITIONING OF MATRICES AA set of simultaneous equations is said to be well-conditioned if a small error inthe coefficients of the variabtes does not make an appreciable change in the +0ots of the equations. On the other hand, the set of equations is said to be ill conditioned i small eror in the coefficients leads to large varlations in the roots. Consider, for example, the following set of two simultaneous equations: Bry + 10x, = 49 « 41x = 8 ©) The roots of the equations are m=3 0 oy © ‘Suppose an error of 1% occurs in one of the coefficients of Eg, (a) so that instead of Eqs (2) and (b), the following set of equations is obtained: Determinants and Mases 127 Bx +99% = 49 @ ay 8 © The roots oF these equations are y= 3009 = 4037 © ‘Comparing the roots given by Eas () and (fit may be noted that the error in the roots does not exceed 1% when the error in one of the coeicients is 1%. 1 follows that a small change inthe coefficients leads to a small variation in the roots. Hence, Eqs (a) and (b) are well-conditioned. Consider nex, the set of equations 10x, #44 = 120 ® 995, 43 = 19 ) ‘The roots of the equations are 210 =20 © Suppose an error of 1% occurs in one of the coefficients so that instead of Eqs (2) and (h), the following set of equations is obtained: 10x, +) = 120 @ 985, 4m = 9 & “The roots of these equations are 4=05 4-70 o ‘Conapating the roots given by Eqs (and (1, it is noted tht small change in ‘one of the coefficients leads to a large vatiation in the roots. Hence, Eqs (g) and (h) are il-conditioned. I may be noted that the well-conditioned set of Eqs. (8) and (b) represent a pair of straight lines which are nearly orthogonal In this ease sight shift ia the orientation of the lines, caused by small errors in the evaluation of the Coefficients, des not lead 10 a large sift oftheir point of intersection. Hence, the ettor in the roots ofthe equations dive to small errors in the coefficients is itself small, Thus the equations are well-condtione. ‘The ill-conditioned set of Eqs (p) and (h) represents a pair of straight lines Which ate nearly parallel. In this case a slight shift in the orientation of the lines caused by small erors in the evaluation of the coefficients leads to a lage shift of their point of intersection. Hence, the eroe in the roots of the equations due to small error inthe coefficients is larg. Thus the equations are well conditioned Consider next, a set of thre linear simltancous equations. Each of the three equations represents a plane in three dimensional space. The set of equations is well-conditioned ifthe three planes are nearly orthogonal to one nother, The conditioning of the equations deteriorates as the planes become nearly parallel. The logi¢ can be extended 10 a set of fincar simultaneousrs Approach ‘equations n this case each equation represents a hyperplane in n-dimensional space, The set of equations represents a well-conditioned set ifthe m hyper- planes ae nearly orthogonut Tehas heen shown in See. 3.6 that a set of finear simultaneous equations ‘may be expressed in the matrix form: fa} fx] = fe] (mn) In Eq, (mp, the coefficient matrix [a] is said to be well conditioned if the corresponding st of simultaneous equations is well conditioned. For example, as the well conditioned set of Eqs. (a) and (b) can be expressed in the matrix es eer) it follows thatthe coefficient matrix [a= i "I is a well-conditioned matrix. On the other hand the coefficient matrix 100 10 [39 to] is an iltcontitioned matrix neeause st corresponds t0 a st of il-conditioned uations. . The contoning of « matrix can be gauged by finding the value ofthe deteminan ofits normalized matrix. The normalized matrix is obtained by dividing the elements ofeach ow by the square root of the sum ofthe squares of all the elements in that row. The numerical value of the determinant of a unity. The conditioning of a matsx is best when the numerical value of the determinant ofits normalized matrix is qual to one. The conditioning ofthe matrix deteriorates as the value of the determinant of the normalized matrix approaches zero. In general, a banded mattis ia well conditioned matrix. It may also be stated tha, in general, the conditioning of @ matrix improves ifthe non-zero elements are brought closer tothe main diagonal normalized matrix can never exe: Example 3.8 Conpare the conditioning ofthe following two matrices: pp [rs 20 fal=\e <1) = [14 2a Determinants and Matrices 129 Solution ‘The noemalizd mate of mati fa is 3 0 ios ios 4-4 Vi a7 “The Value of the determinant ofthis matrix is lal, = 0.99892. ‘The nocmalized mattix of matix [0] is ta, Ls 20 fexs Jas l=! ia 2a Vest Jest “The vale of the determinant ofthis mati is 11, = 005547 ‘ence, matrix {a) is well conditioned and matrix {0 sil conditioned. Example 3.9 Compare the conditioning ofthe following two matrices: : 504 f=] 11 0 1 oo3 Solution ‘The nommalized mati of matrix (a) is s 4 o - Tat at ta w=! ya ye ° oe ‘The value of the determinaat ofthis matrix is fal, = 0816 “The normalized matix of matrix (01 isDeterminants and Mrrces 134 3 1 oo 1-20 26 26 3234 t 5 oon 14 234d : wo, ° . et taf ie} o 340 We 3422 te ise o 0 41003 ys “The value ofthe determinant ofthis matrix 35° Given that 161, = 0.970 lal rea [t 3] Hence the eonditioning of matrix [1 is ber than that of matex (a). It may’ be noted sit 23 that the two matrices are the same except thatthe non-zero elements I and 4 have besn ‘Execute the following mati operations if possible: interchanged. In matrix [6], the larger non-zero elements located on the main diagonel (Als Em Gi FBT TAD, i TAD, Go) (ATTA, (8) (ATT IBIAD ad) ‘whereas in mattx (a) the smaller non-zero element 1 is located on the main diagonal heer ar | 2X6 Determine the matrix (A) if | mw] f-1 0 ofa i PROBLEM: | s w= |-2}+} 0-1 olf 14 1 3.1 Using the properties ofthe determinant given in See. 3.1, show thatthe following zm] |-2 5 -1][ son : ‘determinants have zero values 3.7 Determine the afjints ofthe following mates: 102 ye 130 wifes] um wef] nef 503 342 - 38 Determine the inverse ofthe following maces using the four methods given 3.2. Ifthe value ofthe determinant! A lis 82rshe.s that the value of the determinant in Sec. 3.8. Verity the result by multiplying the given matrices with their 11 Vis © 88). Use the properties of the determinant given in Sec 3.1 respective vere i 3234 3234 200 2-1 0 234 2341 tay = fo 30 te] -1 2-1 els aia Belg 324 214 o-1 2 4321 3412 3.3. Using the properties of the determinant given in Sec. 3.1, show that 224-2] 16 048 - 100 0 i the values ofthe determinants Vand BI ae the same. P32 11 4) | 048 136 0 0 Tats ia 1] PF) to 0 168 os 12 02 0 12 02 -0a loa oo ame tan tat=|02 12 04| tei=|02 12 -20 0 04 08 0 O48 0 39 Expres the following ses of simataneous equans in the matrix form. Hence ‘biain the solutions by the matrix inversion. 4. Calculate the values of the following determinant * alues ofthe following dt ns © e42y-32 27 123 12 02 0 Be 2y2e wre|2 34] mela 12 ou preeed p45 0 04 08 fx Iy4 Be =9 2e4 2y4 62 = 24310 3 3a 33 aaa SA Matric Approach Gi) x4 29432 stayed Obtain the solutions of the following two sets of simultaneous equations by the method of matcix inversion: (i) 2x, + 6x, +285 + 4ny = 40 Gr, + 3x; — 26-34 1 2x, = 2m +5u— xy =2 4x 93m) a4 any =9 Gi) x, +2n 43x 444, 30 Tr; +e, + ay 4 Dey = 22 4n 43m +25 4 44 =20 5x, + 92 +44 4344 = 47 The relationship between forces P and P, and displacements A, and Ay is given by the equation 2-6) _|-0012 0.012 0.05 006 || 250, |] 0 006 080 0201) za, [-s J [-008 006 020 oso} era, Determine the values of P,, P,, 43 and A, by partitioning the matrices in an appropriate manner, ‘The following equation represents the relationship between the forces and dicplacomente in structure: ; 18] [ 0024-002 0 pos 10] fa ] fom © oon 0) oaths son Calculate the values of P,, Py, ds, dy, and A, by partitioning the matices. Determine the values of the determinants of the normalized matrices of the following maces: [2s [4-137 21 tls 6) Las 100 tasty 4 Indicate which of these masices i (i) best conditioned and Gi) wort condone Indicate which of the following to matrices is better conditioned [se 33-28 [ 486 195 0 33 S421 23 21 aa | [nl=} 198 132, 6 © 0 575 1A FLEXIBILITY AND STIFFNESS MATRICES 4.1 FLEXIBILITY AND STIFFNESS Flexibility and its converse, known as stiffness, are important properties which characterize the response of a structure by means of the force-displacement relationship. Ina general sense, the flexibility ofa structure is defined as the displacement caused by a unit force and the stiffness is defined as the force required for a unit displacement. Consider first, a structural element with a single degree of freedom. The spring AB, shown in Fig. 4.1(8, i fixed at end ‘Aand has asingle degree of freedom at end B along coordinate I. The flexibility Of the spring is defined as the displacement 6, at coordinate | due to a unit force at coordinate 1. Ifa force P, produces a displacement A, at coordinate 1, ee i alge @ ® Fig. 41 flexibility = 91 = 8, en Similarly, the stiffness of the spring is defined as the force ky required for a tunit displacement at coordinate | B a Consider next, a structural element with multiple degrees of freedom, The structural member AB of uniform cross-section, shown in Fig. 4.1(b), is fixed. at end A. End B can have the following four types of displacements axial displacements A, at coordinate 1, i) transverse displacement A, at coordinate 2, by (42) stiffness— IM Simctural Anatysis—A Manrix Approach Gi) bending or Mexural displacement A, at coordinate 3 and iy) torsional displacement or twist Ay at coordinate 4, ‘The flexibility and stiffness of structural member AB, with respect to each of the four types of displacements, may now be defined as follows 444 Axial If an axial force P, is applied at coordinate 1, displacement 4, at coordinate 1 is given by the equation isplacement aa) where L = length of the member ‘cross-sections! area of the member ‘modulus of elasticity As flexibility is the displacement caused by # unit force, the flexibility with respect to axial displacement is obtained by putting P, = 1 in Eq. (4.3). L axial flexibility, 8, = aay By definition, the axial stiffness of the member is the force required for unit displacement along coordinate 1. Hence, putting A, = | in Eq. (4.3). axial stiffness, kyy = (45) ‘The flexibility and stiffness with respect to axial displacement given by Eqs (4-4) and (4.5) are of relevance to members of pin-jointed frames which carry axial forces only, In the case of rigid-jointed frames, the axial displacements are small as compared to transverse displacements, Consequently, it is a common practice in the analysis of rigid-jointed frames 'o ignore the axial flexibility of the member. In other words, the members of the rigid-jointed frames are considered to be infinitely stiff with respect ‘0 axial displacements 4.1.2 Transverse Displacement It has been shown in Sec. 2.14 that force P, required at coordinate 2 for displacement A, at coordinate 2 without any displacement at coordinates 1, 3 and 4 is given by the equation 46 Hence, by definition, the flexibility and stiffness with respect to transverse displacement may be written as transverse flexibility, 5yp TET Flexibility and Suess Matrices 138 transverse sites, ky = "22 4s) [Equations (4.7) and (4.8) are based on the assumption that end A, known as. the frend, is fixed. If farend Ais hinged, the force P required at coordinate 2foca displacement dat coordinate? witout any displacement at coordinates 1,3 and 4 is piven by Eg, (2.456) 2, OR a Hence, by definition, the Nexbilty and stiffness with respect to transverse displacement may be writen as L transverse lexbity, By = 35 (4.10) and SEI o 4.1.3. Bending or Flexural Displacement {thas been shown in Sec. 2.14 thatthe force P required at coordinate 3 for ‘displacement A, at coordinate 3 without any displacement at coordinates 1, 2 and 4 is given by the equation transverse stiffness, kag (any 4EIay P= (42 Hence, by definition, the flexibility and stiffness with respect to flexural displacement may be writien as flexural flexibility, 6 = (43) and flexural stiffness, ky, (4.14) Equations (4.13) and (4.14) are based on the assumption that farend A is fixed. If far-end A is hinged, the force P, required at coordinate 3 for & displacement A, at coordinate 3 without any displacement at coordinates 1, and 4 is given by Eq, (2.43). SELA, SE Hence, by definition, the flexibility and stiffness with respect to flexoral displacement may be waitten as (as) ‘Alexural flexibility, 6, (4.16) 3Eand Aeexural stiffness, ky T ary 414 Torsional Displacement or Twist From the equation of torsion, the angle of twist Ay due to the torque P is sven by the equation PL ‘ Me ae (4.18) where G-= shear modulus of elasticity = torsion constant (Table 2.2) By definition, the torsional flexibility of the member is the angle of twist. ‘caused by a unit torque along coordinate 4. Hence, putting P, = | in Bq, (4.18), L torsional lexibility, 344 = Zr 19) Similarly, torsional stiffness, which is defined as the torque required for a nit angle of twist, is obtained by putting A, = 1 in Eq, (4.18). Hence, torsional stifness is given by the equation GK torsional stiffness, yy = S* (4.20) ‘Table4.1 shows the values of flexibility and stiffness ofa prismatie member with respect to the four types of displacements, It may be noted that in each case the flexibility and stiffness are reciprocal of each othei— Table 4.1 So _Type of diplacement, & Flexibiliy, 8 Siifiess om “aE Axia aE 2, Transverse () Farend fixed (©) Farend hinged 3. Bending rx L Fare ned ° a L ac end hinge £ (0 Facend hinged aa 4 Taine # larices_187 In this section a structural member with only four degress of freedom has bbeen considered. The concepts of flexibility and stiffness developed in this section have been generalized fora structural system with n degrees of freedom i the following sections. : Example 4.1 A steel bar AB of uniform cireuareros-secton has adiameterof 20 mm and a length of 1 m Calculate the masinum values ofthe displacements 3, dy By and A, which can be given separately at coordinates 1, 2, 5 and 4 as shown in'Fig. #10). if the maxim direc stress is limited to 100 MPa, Take E 80 N/m : Solution Cross sectional area, A Moment fini, x 5% 20! =7860 amt Section modulus, = 786 mm? Fora citeularersssetion, the torsion constant, $x 20" = 15720 mt ned 57 ‘The flexibilies with respect to the four types of displacements may now be ‘computed. Using Table 4.1 gs Hon Fee gp “10 0 atom B= peg = 796 10 maa en Forces P, Py Py. and Py atthe coordinates may now be computed by using the condition thatthe maxiroum dret stress i not to exceed 100 Nim Py = 1003143 =31430N=31.434N When displacement 4, is given atcoordinate 2 without any displacement at coocdinate 3: the bending couple at coordinate 3 is PyL/2. Tis evident from the fre body ‘iagram shown in Fig. 232(4), Hence, aun138 Structural Analysio—A Matrix Approach For a cicular cross-section, ‘Maximum shear sess 100 x 786 x2 1000 =157.2. N= 0.1572 kN x average shear stress «2 343 = 0667 Ninn Hore the maximum permissible et ses of 100 Nim hasbeen exated 10 rmaximum tending tes, bras the shear ess small in comparison athe bending sts The ae sation ase whes the diplacemet given a coorinae 3 without any dnpacement st coordinate The benny suese donates andthe hear Suese nestsy smal Hence inte computation of Py the maximum pesmisibe Set Sress may be equated w the maximum bending sess Py = 100% 786 = 73600 Nan = 786 Xm As torsion proces site of pre shar, the maximum diet ses is equal to he tum er see. Hence sng te equation of oon 00 x 15720 10 157200 Nem = 157.20 KN-mim ‘The displacements atthe coordinates may now be computed by rhultiplying forces Py, By Py and Py by the respective exibiltes. 4; = 31.43 x 0.015908 =0.5 mm 4; = 0.57253 =8:33 mm Ay = 786 x 1.5908 x 10 = 0.0125 radians Aq = 157.2% 7.95165 x 10 = 0.125 radian It may be noted that axial displacement A, is small in comparison to transverse displacement 4. It is for this reason that axial displacements are usually ignored in comparison to transverse displacement inthe analysis of rigid joined frames. 42. FLEXIBILITY MATRIX Consider a structure which satisfies the basic assumptions enumerated in See. 2.2. Let the system of forces P), Pa, « Py act on the structure. The word forces’ has been used here in the generalized sense s0 as to include couples and reaction components. The system of forces Py, Pay... Py may include all or some of the forces acting on the stracture. Let the system of forees Py, Pa.» Pr, produce displacements dy yn Ay coordinates, 2, m Using the pincipe of superposition discussed in'Se. 22, displacements A, Ay. A, ay be expressed by the equations * 412 ByPy + OaPat nt BP ot Bi Py Aa = BP) + BypP to. + By Py +o + Bag Py . BAP BaP 44 yy ot By @2n Ba= GaP t SePa tot By Py ++ Sua In Eq. (4.21), 6, is the displacement at coordinate i due to a unit force at ‘coordinate. Hence, 5 P is the displacement at coordinate idve to P,, Similarly, 5 P;isthe displacement at coordinate i due to P,, Hence, the total displacement at coordinate # due to all the forces may be expressed as A= OyPyt BaP ton t BgPy This equation is the same as Eq. (2.5). This explains how Ba, (4.21) have been written down. As explained in Sec. 3.6, the set of simultaneous Eq, (421), representing the force-displacement relationship may be expressed in the following, matrix form: a By By By Be R A] | bn B28 du Hd 4 (422) y Bs % a Bar Syn By Baa SL Pa | ‘Equation (4.22) may be written in the compact form (a= [aly (4.23) where [4] =a column matrix of order n x 1, known as displacement matrix [P} = a column matrix of order n x 1, known as force matrix 16] = a square matrix of order n, known as flexibility matrix. From Bq. (4.22) it may be noted that the elements of the jth column of the flexibility matrix are the displacements at coordinates 1,2, .., n due to a unit force atcoordinate Hence, in order to generate the jth column of the flexibility ‘matrix, a unit force should be applied at coordinate j and the displacement at all the coordinates determined. These displacements constitute the elements of the jth column of the flexibility matrix. Hence, in order to develop the flexibility matrix, a unit force should be applied successively at coordinates 1, 2, .», mand the displacements at all the coordinates compated.Three springs A, B, and Core connected in series as shown in Fig. 4.2. The sifesses “fe springs are 20, 10 aul 5 Non vespectively, Develop the fletibllity mai forthe system of springs with reference to coordinates 1, 2 and # as shown in the figure. $l oP lr —e2vadnn wet Fig. 42 Solution The flexibility matrix of the system can de developed by applying a usit force successively at coordinates 1, 2 and 3 and evaluating displacements at lhe coordinates, To generate the fst cokamn ofthe lexibity matrix, apply a unit force at coordinate 1, From the figue itis cleae that spring A is subjected to tensile force of 1 N whereas the forces in springs I and Care zero. Consequeatly, the displacement at coordinate |, dy = V20-= 0.05 mm, As there is no free in springs and C, they move towards the right as igid bodies. Consequently, the displacements at ootdinates 2 and 3 are the same as the dsplacoment at coordinate 1, ie» By By, = 005 mm, Thus the elements ofthe rst calumn of the Mlenibty mtx ae 0.05, 0.05 and 005 To generate the second column of the flexibility matrix, apply @ unit force at coordinate 2. Prom te figure it is ler that springs A and & havea tensile force of 1 N ‘ach andthe fore is spring Cis zero, Hence, the displacement at coordinate 1, Sy = 1720=005 mm andthe displacement st coordinate 2, 8,,= 1720-4 1/10 =0.15 mun As there is no force in spring Cit moves towards the ight as rigid body. Conseauently, the displacement at coordinate 3, 5; = 0.15 mir, Tos the elements Of the sceoed column of te esbity matrix are 605, 0.15 and 0.15. ‘To generate the third colamn ofthe flexibility matrix, apply anit force at coordinate 3. From the figure itis clear that ll th three springs cary a teste force of 1 N each Hence, the displacement at coordinate 1, dy = 1/20 = 0.05 mm the displacement at coordinate 2, 8, = 1/20-+ 1/10 =0.13 mm and the displacement at coordinate 3, By = 1720 M10 + 1/5 = 0.35 mm, Thus the elements ofthe thd column ofthe Mlexibty Imatix ae 005,015 and 035 ‘ence, the required flexibility max (8) is given by the equation 005 0.05 0.05 t= ]o05 015 ous 005 015 0.35 Example 4.3 Develop the flexibility matrix for the simply supported beam AB with reference to the ‘coordinates shown in Fig. 4.3. lesibily anu Sess Matrices 141 Solution ‘The flexibility matrix can be developed by app- ® ° ng ui force successively at ootintes 1 | | tetany be apenas we g <— -SO_fx® coordinates. To generate the fst coum ofthe Aexibity mi apply sunictaceatcntinate |” yg Using Eqs (A.48), (A.49) and (4.50) of — 8 —afo 8) Appendix A corcnt Fig 43 2 inet 4-0 2 81= ~ Saa7 4-0 ‘To generate the second column of the Flexbiity matrix, aply a unit force at ‘coordinate 2. Using Eqs (A.43), (8.48) and (A.45) of Append At be ‘To generate the thind colamm ofthe flexibility matrix, apply a unit ere at coordinate 3. Using Eqs (4.53), (A.54) and (A.55) of Appendix A. 20s 0°" pag ~ Er rie 9 oo” i6et 224 * 3a” \ ae All the elements of the fourth column ofthe exibilty matrix are ze, since the ‘beam remains undeflected when a nit force is applied at coordinate 4, Hence, fu = By=3e= 84-0 ‘The rue flexibility max (5 is ven bythe equation 1 0 ~0s 1} 0 % ~3 0 8 -05 -9 40 o 0 00L2_Siructua Analsis—A Matrix Approach i may be noted that inthis case the determinant of the matrix is zero because all cements of the fourth column are zero. Hence, the inverse of the flexibility matcix ‘doesnot exist in this cas, From the foregoing discussions the following properties of the flexibility matrix are evident: (i) The flexibility matrix is square matrix of order m, where n is the number of coordinates chason for the solution of the problem at hand, (Gi) The Rexibilty matrix isa symmetrical matrix. Ths follows from the fact that 8, = 5, in accordance with the Maxwells reciprocal theorem, Sec. 2.7 (ii) While the ther elements ofthe flexibility matrix may be positive or negative, the elements lying onthe leading diagonal are always postive. This is sobecause the displacement at any coordinate j due to 2 unit force at coordinate jis always in te postive direction of coordinate j. Thus 6, is always positive. (jv) Asthe elements ofa flexibility matrix are displacements, they can be computed ‘only if the stucture is supported adequately and the Support conditions are cleaely specified. Ifthe structure is unstable internally or externally, the displacements are infinitely large. Consequently, the flexibility matrix does not exist. (9) Hany coordinate coincides with a reaction component at which no displacement is posible all elements ofthe th column are zero because the structure remains ‘undeformed when aunit fore is applied at coordinate. Thus the displacements tall the coordinates due toa unit force at coordinate are zero. It may also be ‘noted that ll elements ofthe jth row are zero. Ths follows from the symmetry ‘of the flexibility matrix. The same conclusion can be arrived at by noting that the displacement at coordinato jis zero irespetive ofthe position of the unit {ore, Asallthe elements ofthe jth column are ero, the value ofthe determinant ‘of the flexibility matrix is zero. Consequently, the inverse of the flexibility matrix, does not exist. However, if the reaction component at coordinate j is ‘wested as redundant and released, the determinant of the flexibility matrix may ‘be non-zero and the inverse of the flexibility matrix may, therefore, exist. 43. STIFFNESS MATRIX Let 1, 2, 11 be the system of the coordinates chosen to express the system of forces P, Pa... P producing displacements 4;, Ay, .. Ay Ifa unit displacement is given at coordiante j without any displacement at other cooordinates, the forees required at coordinates 1, 2, .., m'may be represented by kyay Ry respectively. These are the forces which must act at coordinates 1y 2,» 1 £0 hold the structure in this specific deformed position in which A, = I and A(é J =0-In other words, kyy Kay, my are the forces required at coordinate 1, 2, , respectively in order to produce a unit displacement at coordinate j and zero displacement at all other coordinates. Thus k, is the force at coordinate i ‘due toa unit displacement at coordinate j only. The total force P, at coordinate {due to displacements Ay, A>, .. 4, may be computed by using the principle ‘of superposition, Sec. 2.2, . lesb and Seine Maries 143 hyd + ao hy “This equation isthe same as Eq. (2.6). Similar equations can be written forthe forces at other coordinates resulting in the folowing set of simultaneous equations P= Ry hae + thy Ay tot hy By ey + kag tot ayy toot Nagy a2 Fy = gdh gy tt By hy aot P= hay + halla bat byl) Ht hay Equation (4.24), representing the force-displacement relationship, may be expressed in the following matrix form BR] fn hati Uf as [| han kenobayoe |] Oo By Ray |] 4, 2) 2} | ba bate | a, Equation (424) may be writen in the compact form (PI = Gata} (426) ‘where [K] =a square matrix of order n, known as Migs matrix From Eq. (4.25) it may be noted that the elements of the jth column of the stiffness matrix are the forces at coordinates 1,2, .. due unit displacement at coordinate j. Hence, in order to generate the jth column of the stiffness ‘matrix, a unit displacement must be given at coordinate j without any displacementat other coordinates and the forces required at all he coordinates determined. These forces constinue the elements of he th column ofthe sifiess ‘matrix. Hence, inorder todevelop the stiffoess matsix, unt displacement should be given successively at coordinates 1,2... and forces at all the coordinates calculated. =xample 4.4 Develop the stifvess mati forthe set of springs shown in Fig. 4.2. Solution ‘The stiffness max can be developed by giving a unit displacement successively at coordinates 1,2 and 3 without any displacement a other coordinates and determining144_Souetunt nats the Forces rsqited at all the eoowtinates. To generate the first column of the sifaess Tulsi ive unit dplacement at coordinate | without any dsplacenseatal coordinates 2and 3, Conscqueetly. spring A wil elongate by | is, spring will comes oy Tae, ana spring C will have no deformation. ‘To elongste spring A by Janna tance of 20 ee 's aquired coordinate |. Similarly, «force of 10'N af coordinate I is tequlted oo o | [| 0 0 we : I may be readily verified that the matrices of Eqs (4.34) and (4.35) are the reciprocal of each other. Flexibility and Sines Matrices 1S? | deformation of the member is ignored, coordinate 3 is If the ax unnecessary. In this case the Hexibility and stffiaces matrices to coordinates | and 2 may be written as ;e eo wae] (439 ££ 2a 3 «37 It may again be checked that the matrices of Egs (436) and (4.37) are the reciprocal of each other. Exaxmple 47 ‘wo sel bars AB and BC, each having a cos sectional area of 20 ma, are connect in series a, Oc {shown in Fig 410 Develop he iy and ~ Stes matrices wit ference to coordinates 1 (~' Maha 2 dnd 2 shown in the figure: Very tat the 190 matrices arth verse of acy other Take E Fig. 4.10 Sotton Ai eat otc a « = 122,025 ms ilies ttc as » AE 4 xN/om ex ofr 9 = = 52 98 ws i ites tar » AE 2 1 "The flexibility matrix ean be developed by applying a unit force suocessively at ‘coordinates | and 2 and evaluating the displacements tcoorlinates | and 2. To generate the firs column of the fTesibilty matrix, apply 2 unit foree at coordinate 3. The displacements at coordinates 1 and 2 ae 8, = 8) =025 mm158_Sinscural Anaysis—A Matrix Approuch _ Similarly to generate the second column of the flexibility mati, apply «unit fore at coordinate 2, The displacements at coordinates 1 and 2 are 8. = 025 mm 6p = 025 +05 =075 mm Hence, the required flexibility matix [6] is given by the equation a [025 0257 I= | 028 075 | ‘The stifiness matrix can be developed by giving a unit displacement successively at coordinates 1 and2 without any displacement at the other coordinate and determining the forces required at coordinates 1 and 2.To generate the fist eolunin of the stiffness matte, ive unit displacernent at coordinate 1, The forces required at coordinates Tand 2 ae ay = = 2KN ‘To generate the second column of the stiffness matrix, give @ unit displacement at coordinate 2, The forces required at coordinates I and 2 we yy = -2KN eg = TKN Hence, the required stiffness matrix [k] is given by the equation 6 3] w-[% 3] ulin te Mexia sites mates, aun = [25 025] 6 ~3).[ 9) GU = to25 o7si-2 2J"|o 1 'As the product ofthe two matrices is a unit main, the two matices até the inverse of each other, Example 4.8 Develop the flexibility and stiffness matrices for prismatic member AB with reference 4 the coordinates shown in Fig. 4.11 (a) for the following support conditons, (i) hinged support at A and roller support at B (ii) fixed supports at A and B (it) fsed support at A and rolter suppor at B. Verify im each case thatthe flexibility and stifness matrices are the inverse of each other Solution @) The support conditions are shown in Fig. 4.11(b). The flexibility matrix can be developed by applying a unit force successively at coordinates 1 and 2 and evaluating displacements at coordiantes 1 and 2."To generate the first columa ofthe flexibility matix, apply @ unit force at coordinate 1, Using Eqs (A. 71) and (A.72) of Appendix A, the displacement at coordinates 1 and Dare ‘lebility and Siiness Matrices 158 @ 40 _ ° 3m Gm & ara I BAB s Peet E¥Constaa © eo bes Fig. 1 2 aed Bx —3x3x94 07 = t o+ried 1 3x98 . 19-90-92 on= Tom ‘To generate the second colamn of the fesbiity mati apply & unit force at ‘coordinate 2. Using Eqs (A.63) nd (A.64) of Appendix A. the displacements ateoordinates I and 2 areeo 160_Simecwl Anal sie A Metrix Approach 39-3196) 2 sxe Er xe 12 3x98 EL Hence, the required flexibility mattx (8] is given by the equation bane if 2) Scciminig ef egured conde 1 and Tope he fst Cctmnofe scts e give nt dslacement ot coniat 1 Shun Fip a) Te ce reaped te corns a ser, 381 2 2 Laser ky 3 6 a 3 6 Togesae te second cama ofthe sess mais, gve ul pace torneo Stn in Fig) Te feed Soe tee 3B 38 = oaser FO 6 BL 28 oose1 PF 8 ky =~ Hence, the required sifness matrix [2] is given by the equation ve] 500-0250] "| 9250 0.125) ‘Muliplying the flexibility and stiffness matrices, L[1 2]p,] 1300 0230] _f1 0] 2 12)""|-o250 0128] ~ lo 1) (aa = | trices are the inverse of the each t= [As the product isa unit matsx, the 0 ther Gi) The support conditions are shown in Fig. 4.11(¢). The flexibility matrix can bbe developed by applying a unit force successively at coordinates 1 and 2 and evaluating the displacement at coordinates | and 2, To generate the fist column ofthe flexibility matrix, apply a unit Force at coordinate 1. Using gs (A.L13) and (A.114) of Appendix A, the displacements at coordinates | and 2 ave z = box 0-30-9-2 Ou Fest ONO 955 ‘Te generate the second column of the Nesbility max, apply aunt force at coor 2. Using Fs (AH nd(A.105) of Arent ‘ ‘at coordinates 1 and 2 are Pete spesments os Hence, the required flexibility marx (is given bythe equation =f 4] ‘Thestfes masixcan be develo sving aunt displacement acs 2 coords and 2 without any displace the ther coo detrmining the forces reed mt cotinas 1 and To pce ete column ofthe sites man, gem nt dplccwent weet oe owning 4 (Teenie crash fy = oer at 3 6 ser , oer by 2 Bo ser ‘To generate the second columa of the stiffness matrix, give aunt displacement ‘coordinate 2 a shown ini. 4.1()- The forces rire at coeds | Gel , 6B fy =- 9 4 SS a2 +S =- ose Re, REF kn = ence, he oq tines matrix 1s given by te equation 20-05 af cs 05 | Motpying the exiiity an sitiess matrices, aftr). [2 -osp_fo wou salt «Lats eale[s f] ‘As the product is unit mati, the two matrices are the inverse of each other. 8162_SincturalAnalsis—A Matris Approach _ (i) The support conditions are shown i Fig. 4.11(h). The flexibility matrix can be developed by applying a unit force successively at coordinates 1 and 2 and taluating the daplacements at coordinates | and. To generat the fistcolarmn ‘ofthe flexibility matin, apply unit force at coordinate 1. Using Eas (A:35) tad (A.36) of Appendix A, the displacements at coordinates I and 2 are [axot -i2xoxa+i2x9xs 302] b= xa4SKOKT AT] To generate the second column of the flexibility matrix, apply a unit force st coordinate 2, Using Eqs (A.30) and (A.31) of Appendix A, the displacements coordinates 1 and 2 are lige [2x9 -ox9? x3 45%9%3" - aoal 2 ” GET * [4x9 <9? a 46xoxs? 3] Hence, the required flexibility matrix [6] is given by the equation Lpuiw = Bal ta a4 ‘Thestifness matrix can be developed by giving a nit displacement successively at coordinates | and 2 without any displacement at the other coordinate and determining the forces required at coordinates | and 2. To generate the frst column of the sifiness matrix, give a unit displacement at coordinate | 2s shown in Fig. 4.11(). The forces required at coordinates 1 and 2 are ABIL, 3B _ 1161 3 6 6 kus BL 36 me fa oe ene, he outed siffess mati (is piven byte equation w-2[" 4] BL 1 Mutiplyng the eit and sites mao Lf w)erf 44 -4]_f 1 0 WK = erlia as} 2a [14 Lo 2 ‘As the producti anit matrix, the two matties are the inverse ofeach other A the fleshy and stiffnese matrices are the reciprocal ofeach oer, any one of them can be derived by inverting the ober. While in some cases both the masices can be written down with approximately equal computational effort, frequently happens thatthe calculations required for developing one ofthe two ypes of matrices are mach more as compared to those forthe ober. Ti sub cases, cider the lenibitiy mists ov aiffims statin, whichever fs easier, should be developed. The other matrix can then be evaluated by the process of matrix inversion. The three examples given below illstate this Point Example 4.9 Develop the flexibility and stifjess matrices for beam AB with reference to the coordinates shown in Fig. 4.12(a), Solution “The Mexibilty mai canbe developed by applying a unit force successively at the eaordindes and evaluating the displacements a all te eoordianates. To geveate the fist column of the fest matin, apply a uni fre at coordina 1. Using Bs (A 14) (A1S)and(A6)of Append the dopcemens the ool are 0 o> 10x10 | 50 = Ter” 10 z 1042 x 20~ 10) _130 ‘elpO 164_Sirctaral Anaiysis—A Matrix Approach ® @ A® A@ my 10m, ® EIConstant ia) hee hea { Apabie fhe Fig. 4.12 ‘To generate the second column of the flexibility matrix, aly a unt force at coordinate 2. Using Eys, (A.9), (A.10) and (A.11) of Appendix A, the displacements at the coordinates are tox ET 10° _ 1000 oo Ser Ser 10x10 _ 50 ZED” ET 2 x 2010) _ 2500 jg = WG 20—10) _ 2 GET SET To generat the third column of the flexibility matsix, apply a unit force at coordinate 3. Using Eqs (A.5) t0(A.8) of Appendix A, the displacements at the coordinates are 10 07 _ 50 ba" a by 2B EF 20 20% _ 200 a 2ei ET —_ Plein amd Sitfess Matrices 165 Tox crate the founh column of tie fexbilty mats, apply unit fore at cooinae 4. Using Eas (A.1 40 (4) of Appendin A the dplocument tins colo 102 x 20-10) fae ere Hence, the required flexibility matrix [4] is given by equation 30 1% 450 _1 | 130 1000 150 2500 (= 38} 30150 @ 600 450 2500 4008000 ‘The tifnes matrix can be developed by giving a nit displacement successively at ach coordinate without any displacement at the other coordinates and determining the forces required a all the coordinates. To generate the frst column of the stiffness ‘matrin, give unit diplacement a coordinate 138 shown in Fig, 4.1300). The fences ‘required atthe coordinates are et 2 oer = 5 et - 0.0681 ky = pF To generate the second column of the stiffness matrix, give a ust displacement st coordinate 2 as shown in Fig, 4.12(c). Te forces required athe ewocdinates ave SEL_ 61g Ao 10" 10? 4 128 a ox = o06e1 tn = 1g?| au i 166 _Sirctural Anabsis—A Matis Approach hoe PEL = oorner i Te genre fd cle of estes mate gve a ei claret Sorinte3 a sown Bi #120), Tee sore he cobs me 2e SEL GE 4EL = 6e1 10? To generate the fourth conn of the stiffness matrix, give a nit displacement st cordate 4a shown in Fig. 412(0) The fees require athe coodinates te Et 0.06 ke 0.06E1 pet = PE oo12 ku = ig EI 1c the required stiffness matrix [X] i given by the equation 0.8000 0.200 - 0.060 Hy ° 0024 0.060 — 000 0.200 0060 0.400 — 0.060, -006 -9012 0060 012 | {In this example the computational effort requiced for developing the flexibility matric 's approximately the same as that fo the stifiness matrix Example 4.10 7 5 fram A wih Ty Soluton The flexibility matrix ean be developed by Flesibiny and Stifvess Mat applying a unit force successively at coordinates 1, 2 and 3 and evaluating the Giplacements at al the coordinates. These displacements can be computed easly by applying the unit load method discussed in Sec. 212. The necessary computational ‘etait are shown in Table 4.4, Bending moment producing compression on outer fibres thas been taken positive. Table 4.4 Portion De o BA 7 7 a 7 Ovigin D c a Limits ows ov 10 Ov10 mm, * 5 6-9 ms 6 x 0 m - “1 = Using Table 4.4, 05x Sdr , (0G — 95 ~ de fue er er ge Jom fe pH 25 & “th Ger ‘fo ae ~ 27 gga ftimide _ Pade pO Side 9dr __ 25 Bum a De eae ae =~ er [reat = esate, pen@tou soo ae fo aer~ 3er fade. roads plod 8 2 aei lo ag Der nant _ pede, pec ee by = [EF +a rc De bd _ 10 aa er enc, the roquied Mlexibility matrix [6] is given by the equation 1 f 79035 = 150 (l= Gayl 375 2000 — 225 150 725} The stillness maurx can be developed ty giving unit displacement succsivey at cooniates 1,2 ant’ without any displacement at the other coordinates and determining the forces required a all the coondinates. For instance, generate the first elim of168 Stet the stiffness mati, give a unit displacement at coordinate 1 without any displacement ‘coordinates 2 and 5, This type of displacement can accu if. a suppor is provided at sib wien perms horizontal displaemern But pHevEril vette alsplaceene oat rotation. Hence, inorder to determine stfines elements k,. ky an ky, is necessary to solve a poral fame with second degree of indeterminacy. To generate each of the ‘emaining two colunans ofthe stiffness matin, it becomes necessary to solve a portal frame with socond degree of indeterminacy. Thus, a poral frame with second degree of ndeterminacy wil haveto be solved thre times forthe development ofthe stiffness matrix It would, therefore, appear much simpler to obtain the stiffness matrix in this ase by inverting the flexibility matrix. Hence, inverting the Hlexibilty mati, the quired stifiness matrix (kis given By the equation [oor71 0.00282 o0s412 ] tre omen sss onze | 0.0s412 0.02824 0.34118 Example 4.11 ~ Develop the esibilty and sifess marice for porta frame ABCD with reference to the coordinates shown in Fig, 4.14(a). Solution ‘The flexibility matrix can be developed by applying a unit force successively at coordinates 1,2 and 3 and evaluating the displacements at all the coordinates It will be ‘observed thatthe portal frame, which is indeterminate tothe third deerce, will have fo be anolyaed three times by te slope-deflecion method of otherwise. tn tis instance, lesser computational effort willbe needed ifthe lexibility matrix is derived by inverts the stiffness matrix fy bv a ERE | © ( Fig. 4.14 Sulgfess Matrices 169 ‘Te ttnessmatix canbe dove by giving a uit placement sacesvely w cones 2and3 witty dpc ober san at ee, the foes requ al he cordmaes, To generate theft anno he co Init give wi esplacemem septate I's shown tag My es ‘Table 4.1, forces required at the coordinates are v 12 ren , EW) 0 x A onaser o2ter 02481 To generate the second column of the sifness matrix, give a nit displacement at coordinate 3 as shown in Tg. 4.14(c). Using Table 4.1. the forces requted atthe coordinates are $249 «oer 2 ED ABD apy 0 ta ‘To generate the third column of te stiffness mattx, give a unit displacement at coordinate 3 as shown in.Fis.4.14(d) Using Table 4.1, the forces required at the coordinates are hy= ky = Hence, the required stiffness mateix [] i given by the equation 0144-0240 0.240 (= 1]-02%0 3200 0.800 024 0800. 2.400 |

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