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Summer Training Report: Guru Premsukh Memorial College of Engineering
Summer Training Report: Guru Premsukh Memorial College of Engineering
NITISH BHARDWAJ
0871313608, 5th Semester
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am thankful to the institute "DIAC" for providing necessary facility to carry out
my training successfully.
It is my duty to record my sincere thanks and gratitude towards the institute staff
who helped me in bringing this project to its present form. The valuable
guidance and interest taken by them has been a motivator and source of
inspiration for me to carry out the necessary proceedings for the project to be
completed successfully.
Also, I am highly obliged to the head of our training and placement cell
"Mr. Welfred Peters" who provided me such a great opportunity to do my
summer training in a reputed institute like
"Dynamic Institute of Automation and Control".
CONTENTS
Automation
PLC
Introduction
History
Advantages
Hardware
PLC Operation
Communications
PLC Programming
Ladder Logic
Counters & Timers
PLC application example
SCADA
Introduction
System Concepts
Human Machine Interface
Alarm
Remote Terminal Unit
Communication
Evolution
Security Issues
PREFACE
An industrial PLC and SCADA system is to for the development of automatic control of machinery.
PLC and SCADA system are methods to achieve Automation. Automation industry has fast growth potential
in a country like India, which has a large industry base.
This report focuses on brief concepts of PLC and SCADA system, their development, and also mentions
possible applications of these systems.
Almost every industry that has some electrical machinery may need Automation Services.
Attention is also paid to the security issues which have arisen with time.
NITISH BHARDWAJ
25-11-2010
Automation
Automation is the use of control systems such as computers to control industrial machinery and process,
reducing the need for human intervention. In the scope of industrialization, automation is a step beyond
mechanization. Whereas mechanization provided human operators with machinery to assist them with
physical requirements of work, automation greatly reduces the need for human sensory and mental
requirements as well. Processes and systems can also be automated.
Automation impacts
History of PLCs
The first Programmable Logic Controllers were designed and developed by Modicon as a relay replacer for GM and Landis.
These controllers eliminated the need for rewiring and adding additional hardware for each new
configuration of logic.
The new system drastically increased the functionality of the controls while reducing the cabinet
space that housed the logic.
The first PLC, model 084, was invented by Dick Morley in 1969.
The first commercial successful PLC, the 184, was introduced in 1973 and was designed by Michael
Greenberg.
Advantages of PLCs
PLCs not only are capable of performing the same tasks as hard-wired control, but are also capable of many
more complex applications. In addition, the PLC program and electronic communication lines replace much
of the interconnecting wires required by hard-wired control. Therefore, hard-wiring, though still required to
connect field devices, is less intensive. This also makes correcting errors and modifying the application
easier.
Some of the additional advantages of PLCs are as follows:
Inside A PLC
The Central Processing Unit (CPU), contains an internal program that tells the PLC how to perform the
following functions:
Execute the Control Instructions contained in the User's Programs. This program is stored in "nonvolatile"
memory, meaning that the program will not be lost if power is removed
Communicate with other devices, which can include I/O Devices, Programming Devices, Networks, and
even other PLCs.
Perform Housekeeping activities such as Communications, Internal Diagnostics, etc.
THE CPU
The microprocessor or processor module is the brain of a PLC system. It consists of the microprocessor,
memory integrated circuits, and circuits necessary to store and retrieve information from memory. It also
includes communications ports to other peripherals, other PLC's or programming terminals. Today's
processors vary widely in their capabilities to control real world devices. Some control as few as 6 inputs
and outputs (I/O) and others 40,000 or more. One processor can control more than one process or
manufacturing line. Processors are often linked together in order to provide continuity throughout the
process. The number of inputs and outputs PLCs can control are limited by the overall capacity of the PLC
system hardware and memory capabilities. The job of the processor is to monitor status or state of input
devices, scan and solve the logic of a user program, and control on or off state of output devices.
RAM
RAM or Random Access Memory is a volatile memory that would lose its information if power were
removed. This is why some processor units incorporate a battery back-up. The type of RAM normally used is
CMOS or Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor. CMOS RAM is used for storage of the user's program
(ladder logic diagrams) and storage memory.
ROM
ROM or Read Only Memory is a non-volatile type of memory. This means you don't need an external power
source to keep information. In this type of memory, information can be read, but not changed. For this
reason the manufacture sometimes calls this firmware. It is placed there for the internal use and operation
of processor units.
EEPROM
EEPROM or Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory is usually an add-on memory module
that is used to back up the main program in CMOS RAM of the processor. In many cases, the processor can
be
programmed
to
load
theEEPOM's program
to RAM if RAM is
lost
or
corrupted.
Input Module
There are many types of input modules to choose from. The type of input module used is dependent upon
what real world input to the PLC is desired. Some examples of inputs are limit switches, electric eyes, and
pushbuttons. DC inputs, such as thumbwheel switches, can be used to enter integer values to be
manipulated by the PLC. DC input cards are used for this application. Since most industrial power systems
are inherently noisy, electrical isolation is provided between the input and the processor. Electromagnetic
interference (EMI) and Radio Frequency Interference (RFI) can cause severe problems in most solid state
control systems. The component used most often to provide electrical isolation within I/O cards is called an
optical isolator or optocoupler. The wiring of an input is not complex. The object is to get a voltage at a
particular point on the card. Typically there are 8 to 32 input points on any one input module. Each point
will be assigned a unique address by the processor. Analog input modules are special input cards that use
analog to digital conversion (A to D) to sense variables such as temperature, speed, pressure, and position.
The external device normally is connected to a controller (transducer) producing an electrical signal the
analog input card can interpret. This signal is usually 4 to
20 Ma or a 0 to 10 volt signal.
Output Module
Output modules can be for used for ac or dc devices such as solenoids, relays, contractors, pilot lamps, and
LED readouts. Output cards usually have from 6 to 32 output points on a single module. The output device
within the card provides the connection from the user power supply to the load. Usually silicon controlled
rectifiers (SCR), triac, or dry contact relays are use for this purpose. Individual outputs are rated most often
at 2 to 3 amperes. Output cards, like input cards have electrical isolation between the load being connected
and the PLC. Analog output cards are a special type of output modules that use digital to analog conversion
(D to A). The analog output module can take a value stored in a 12 bit file and convert it to an analog signal.
Normally this signal is 0 -10 volts dc or 4 to 20 Ma. This analog signal is often used in equipment such as
motor operated valves and pneumatic position control devices.
PLC OPERATION
There are four basic steps in the operation of all PLCs : which continually take place in a repeating loop.
Input Scan
Program Scan
Output Scan
Housekeeping
Input Scan : Detects the state of all input devices that are connected to the PLC
Program Scan : Executes the user created program logic.
Output Scan : Energizes or de-energize all output devices that are connected to the PLC.
Housekeeping : This step includes communications with programming terminals, internal diagnostics
etc...
CHECK INPUT STATUS : First the PLC takes a look at each input to determine if it is on or off. In other words, is the sensor
connected to the first input on? Then the second input? Then the third and so on. It records this data into its memory to
be used during the next step.
EXECUTE PROGRAM : Next the PLC executes your program one instruction at a time. Maybe the program says that if
the first input was on then it should turn on the first output. Since it already knows which inputs are on/off from the
previous step it will be able to decide whether the first output should be turned on based on the state of the first
input. It will store the execution results for use later during the next step.
UPDATE OUTPUT STATUS : Finally the PLC updates the status of the outputs. It updates the outputs based on which
inputs were on during the first step and the results of executing your program during the second step. Based on the
example in step 2 it would now turn on the first output because the first input was on and your program said to turn
on the first output when this condition is true.
After the third step the PLC goes back to step one and repeats the steps continuously. One scan time is
defined as the time it takes to execute the 3 steps listed above.
COMMUNICATIONS
There are several methods to communicate between a PLC and a programmer or even between two PLCs.
Communications between a PLC and a programmer (PC or Hand held) are provided by the makers and you
only have to plug in a cable from your PC to the programming port on the PLC. This communication can be
RS232; RS485 or TTY. Communications between two PLCs can be carried out by dedicated links
supplied/programmed by the makers (RS232 etc) or via outputs from one PLC to the inputs on another PLC.
This direct link method of communication can be as simple as, if an output on the first PLC is on then the
corresponding input on the second PLC will be on and then this input is used within the program on the
second PLC.
If a word of input/outputs (16 bits) are used then numerical data can be transferred from one PLC to the
other (refer back to the section on numbering systems).
There are many other methods of communication between PLCs and also from PLC to PC. Refer to the
manuals supplied with the PLC that you are using for full details on communications.
PLC PROGRAMMING
Various languages are used for programming of PLCs :
LD Part_TypeA
OR Part_TypeB
AND Part_present
AND Drill_ok
ST Sleeve_in
With regard to language philosophy, the ladder diagram, the function block diagram and instruction list
have been defined in the way they are used in todays PLC technology. They are however limited to basic
functions as far as their elements are concerned. This separates them
essentially from the company dialects used today. The competitiveness of these languages is maintained
due to the use of functions and function blocks.
LADDER LOGIC
Ladder Logic, or Ladder Diagrams is the most common programming language used to program a PLC.
Ladder logic was one of the first programming approaches used in PLCs because it borrowed heavily from
the Relay Diagrams that plant electricians already knew.
The symbols used in Relay Ladder Logic consists of a power rail to the left, a second power rail to the right,
and individual circuits that connect the left power rail to the right. The logic of each circuit (or rung) is
solved from left to right. The symbols of these diagrams look like a ladder - with two side rails and circuits
that resemble rungs on a ladder.
The picture above has a single circuit or "rung" of ladder.
If Input1 is ON (or true) - power (logic) completes the circuit from the left rail to the right rail - and
Output1 turns ON (or true).
If Output1 is OFF (or false) - then the circuit is not completed and logic does not flow to the right - and
Output 1 is OFF.
There are many logic symbols available in Ladder Logic - including Timers, Counters, Math, and Data Moves
- such that any logical condition or control loop can be represented in Ladder Logic. With just a handful of
basic symbols - a Normally Open Contact, Normally Closed Contact, Normally Open Coil, Normally Closed
Coil, Timer, Counter - most logical conditions can be represented.
Normally Open Contact. This can be used to represent any input to the control logic - a switch or
sensor, a contact from an output, or an internal output.
When "solved" the referenced input is examined for an ON (logical 1) condition. If it is ON, the contact will
close and allow power (logic) to flow from left to right. If the status is OFF (logical 0), the contact is Open,
power (logic) will NOT flow from left to right.
Normally Open Coil. This can be used to represent any discrete output from the control logic.
When "solved" if the logic to the left of the coil is TRUE, the refrenced output is ON (logical 1).
Solving a Single Rung
Suppose a switch is wired to Input1, and a light bulb is wired through Output1 in such a way that the light is
OFF when Output1 is OFF, and ON when Output1 is ON.
When Input1 is OFF (logical 0) the contact remains open and power cannot flow from left to right.
Therefore, Output1 remains OFF (logical 0).
When Input1 is ON (logical 1) then the contact closes, power flows from left to right, and Output1 becomes
ON (the light turns ON).
The OR Rung
The OR is a logical condition that is easy to represent in Ladder Logic.
Suppose a switch is wired to Switch1, a second switch is wired to Switch2, and a light bulb is wired through
Light1 in such a way that the light is OFF when Light1 is OFF, and ON when Light1 is ON. In this instance, we
want to the light to turn ON if either Switch1 OR Switch2 is ON.
If Switch1 is ON - power flows to Light1 turning it ON.
If Switch2 is ON - power flows through the Switch2 contact, and up the rail to Light1 - turning it ON.
If Switch1 AND Switch 2 are ON - Light1 is ON.
The only way Light1 is OFF is if Switch1 AND Switch2 are OFF.
* Another set of basic contacts and coils that can be used in Ladder Logic are the Normally Closed Contact
and the Normally Closed Coil. These work just like their normally open counterparts - only in the opposite.
When "solved" the referenced input is examined for an OFF condition. If the status is OFF (logical 0)
power (logic) will flow from left to right. If the status is ON, power will not flow.
When "solved" if the coil is a logical 0, power will be turned on to the device. If logical 1, power will
be OFF.
Momentarily pressing the Start pushbutton completes the pathfor current flow and energizes the motor
starter (M). This closes the associated M and Ma (auxiliary contact located in the motor starter) contacts.
When the Start button is released, current
continues to flow through the Stop button and the Ma contact, and the M coil remains energized.
The motor will run until the normally closed Stop button is pressed, unless the overload relay (OL) contacts
open. When the Stop button is pressed, the path for current flow is
interrupted, opening the associated M and Ma contacts, and the motor stops.
Initially, I0.1 status bit is a logic 1 because the normally closed (NC) Stop Pushbutton is closed. I0.2 status bit
is a logic 1 because the normally closed (NC) overload relay (OL) contacts are closed. I0.0 status bit is a logic
0, however, because the normally open Start pushbutton has not been pressed. Normally open output Q0.0
contact is also programmed on Network 1 as a sealing contact. With this simple network, energizing output
coil Q0.0 is required to turn on the motor.
The Operation
When the Start pushbutton is pressed, the CPU receives a logic 1 from input I0.0. This causes the I0.0
contact to close. All three inputs are now a logic 1. The CPU sends a logic 1 to output Q0.0. The motor
starter is energized and the motor starts.
The output status bit for Q0.0 is now a 1. On the next scan, when normally open contact Q0.0 is solved, the
contact will close & output Q0.0 will stay on even if the Start pushbutton is released.
.
When the Stop pushbutton is pressed, input I0.1 turns off, the I0.1 contact opens, output coil Q0.0 deenergizes, and the motor turns off.
SCADA
SCADA stands for Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition. Ir refers to an industrial control system : a
computer system monitoring and controlling a process. The process can be industrial, infrastructure or
facility based as described below :
Industrial Process : it includes those of manufacturing, production, power generation, fabrication
and refining and process may be in continuous, batch, repetitive or discrete modes.
Infrastructure Process : it may be public or private, and water treatment and distribution,
wastewater collection and treatment, oil and gas pipelines, electrical power transmission and
distribution, and large communication systems.
Facility Process : it occur both in public facilities and private ones, including buildings, airports, ships
and space stations. They monitor and control HVAC, access and energy consumption.
A Human-Machine Interface (HMI) is the apparatus which presents process data to a human operator,
and through this, the human operator monitors and controls the process.
A supervisory (computer) system, gathering (acquiring) data on the process and sending commands
(control) to the process.
Remote Terminal Units (RTU) connecting to sensors in the process, converting sensor signals to digital
data and sending digital data to the supervisory system.
Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) used as field devices because they are more economical, versatile,
flexible, and configurable than special-purpose RTUs.
Communication infrastructure connecting the supervisory system to the Remote Terminal Units.
Systems concepts
The term SCADA usually refers to centralized systems which monitor and control entire sites, or complexes
of systems spread out over large areas (anything between an industrial plant and a country). Most control
actions are performed automatically by Remote Terminal Units ("RTUs") or by Programmable Logic
Controllers ("PLCs"). Host control functions are usually restricted to basic overriding or supervisory level
intervention.
Ex: A PLC may control the flow of cooling water through part of an industrial process, but the SCADA system
may allow operators to change the set points for the flow, and enable alarm conditions, such as loss of flow
and high temperature, to be displayed and recorded. The feedback control loop passes through the RTU or
PLC, while the SCADA system monitors the overall performance of the loop.
Data Acquisiton begins at the RTU or PLC level and includes meter readings and equipment status reports
that are communicated to SCADA as required. Data is then compiled and formatted in such a way that a
control room operator using the HMI can make supervisory decisions to adjust or override normal RTU
(PLC) controls. Data may also be fed to a Historian, often built on a commodity Database Management
System, to allow trending and other analytical auditing.
TAGS (POINTS)
SCADA systems typically implement a distributed database, commonly referred to as a tag database, which
contains data elements called tags or points. A point represents a single input or output value monitored or
controlled by the system. Points can be either "hard" or "soft". A hard point represents an actual input or
output within the system, while a soft point results from logic and math operations applied to other points.
(Most implementations conceptually remove the distinction by making every property a "soft" point
expression, which may, in the simplest case, equal a single hard point.) Points are normally stored as valuetimestamp pairs: a value, and the Time-Stamp when it was recorded or calculated. A series of valuetimestamp pairs gives the history of that point. It's also common to store additional metadata with tags,
such as the path to a field device or PLC register, design time comments, and alarm information.
ALARM
An important part of most SCADA implementations is alarm handling. The system monitors whether certain
alarm conditions are satisfied, to determine when an alarm event has occurred. Once an alarm event has
been detected, one or more actions are taken (such as the activation of one or more alarm indicators, and
perhaps the generation of email or text messages so that management or remote SCADA operators are
informed). In many cases, a SCADA operator may have to acknowledge the alarm event; this may deactivate
some alarm indicators, whereas other indicators remain active until the alarm conditions are cleared. Alarm
conditions can be explicit - for example, an alarm point is a digital status point that has either the value
NORMAL or ALARM that is calculated by a formula based on the values in other analogue and digital points
- or implicit: the SCADA system might automatically monitor whether the value in an analogue point lies
outside high and low limit values associated with that point. Examples of alarm indicators include a siren, a
pop-up box on a screen, or a coloured or flashing area on a screen (that might act in a similar way to the
"fuel tank empty" light in a car); in each case, the role of the alarm indicator is to draw the operator's
attention to the part of the system 'in alarm' so that appropriate action can be taken. In designing SCADA
systems, care is needed in coping with a cascade of alarm events occurring in a short time, otherwise the
underlying cause (which might not be the earliest event detected) may get lost in the noise. Unfortunately,
when used as a noun, the word 'alarm' is used rather loosely in the industry; thus, depending on context it
might mean an alarm point, an alarm indicator, or an alarm event.
EVOLUTION
SCADA systems have evolved through 3 generations as follows :
First generation: "Monolithic"
In the first generation, computing was done by mainframe computers. Networks did not exist at the time
SCADA was developed. Thus SCADA systems were independent systems with no connectivity to other
systems. WAN were later designed by RTU vendors to communicate with the RTU. The communication
protocols used were often proprietary at that time. The first-generation SCADA system was redundant since
a back-up mainframe system was connected at the bus level and was used in the event of failure of the
primary mainframe system.
Second generation: "Distributed"
The processing was distributed across multiple stations which were connected through a LAN and they
shared information in real time. Each station was responsible for a particular task thus making the size and
cost of each station less than the one used in First Generation. The network protocols used were still mostly
proprietary, which led to significant security problems for any SCADA system that received attention from a
hacker. Since the protocols were proprietary, very few people beyond the developers and hackers knew
enough to determine how secure a SCADA installation was. Since both parties had invested interests in
keeping security issues tight, the security of a SCADA installation was often badly overestimated, if it was
considered at all.
Third generation: "Networked"
These are the current generation SCADA systems which use open system architecture rather than a vendorcontrolled proprietary environment. The SCADA system utilizes open standards and protocols, thus
distributing functionality across a WAN rather than a LAN. It is easier to connect third party peripheral
devices like printers, disk drives, and tape drives due to the use of open architecture. WAN protocols such
as Internet Protocol (IP) are used for communication between the master station and communications
equipment. Due to the usage of standard protocols and the fact that many networked SCADA systems are
accessible from the Internet, the systems are potentially vulnerable to remote cyber-attacks. On the other
hand, the usage of standard protocols and security techniques means that standard security improvements
are applicable to the SCADA systems, assuming they receive timely maintenance and updates.
Security Issues
The move from proprietary technologies to more standardized and open solutions together with the
increased number of connections between SCADA systems and office networks and the Internet has made
them more vulnerable to attacks - see references. Consequently, the security of SCADA-based systems has
come into question as they are increasingly seen as extremely vulnerable to cyberwarfare/cyberterrorism
attacks.
In particular, security researchers are concerned about:
1. The lack of concern about security and authentication in the design, deployment and
operation of existing SCADA networks.
2. The belief that SCADA systems have the benefit of security through obscurtiy through the use
of specialized protocols and proprietary interfaces.
3. The belief that SCADA networks are secure because they are physically secured.
4. The belief that SCADA networks are secure because they are disconnected from the Internet.
SCADA systems are used to control and monitor physical processes, examples of which are transmission of
electricity, transportation of gas and oil in pipelines, water distribution, traffic lights, and other systems
used as the basis of modern society. The security of these SCADA systems is important because compromise
or destruction of these systems would impact multiple areas of society far removed from the original
compromise. For example, a blackout caused by a compromised electrical SCADA system would cause
financial losses to all the customers that received electricity from that source. How security will affect
legacy SCADA and new deployments remains to be seen.
In June 2010, Virus BlokAda reported the first detection of malware that attacks SCADA systems (Siemens'
WinCC/PCS7 systems) running on Windows operating systems. The malware is called stuxnet and uses four
zero-day attacksto install a rootkit which in turn logs in to the SCADA's database and steals design and
control files. The malware is also capable of changing the control system and hiding those changes. The
malware was found by an anti-virus security company on 14 systems with the majority in Iran.