AEOLINE
the romantic period about 1800. Its intimate
charm is beautifully described in Eduard
Marike’s poem “Die Acolsharfe” with musical
settings by Brahms and (especially) Hugo Wolf.
Various attempts have been made to harness
this elusive sound to a keyboard, with an artifi-
cial jet of wind provided by foot bellows (J.-J
Schnell’s Anémocorde ot Aeroclavichord, 1789:
H. Herz's Piano éolien, 1851). See SaRM, p.
J.G. Kastner, La Harpe d’Eole (1856).
Aeoline. Old name for mouth organ [see Har-
monica]. Also, an early type of *harmonium
(aeolodicon).
Aeolopantalon. An instrument invented in 1825
by Jozé Dlugosz, Warsaw; it was a combination
of a harmonium-like instrumnet (aeolomelodi-
kon, with brass tubes affixed to the reeds) and a
piano, so that both instruments could be used in
alternation. It is remembered largely because the
young Chopin played on it in various recitals
‘Aequalstimmen [G.]. (1) The eight-foot pipes of
the organ. (2) *Equal voices.
Aer. See under Aria II.
Aerophon. See Aerophor.
Aerophones. See under Instruments ITI
Aerophor. A device invented by B. Samuel in
1912 that provides the player of a wind instru-
ment with additional air from a small bellows
operated by the foot. By means of a tube with
a mouthpiece, air can be supplied to the player's
mouth whenever his breath is not sufficient for
long-held tones or long melodies in full legato.
R. Strauss has written passages requiring, this
device, as in his Alpensinfonie (where it is incor-
rectly called “aerophon”).
Aesthetics of music. I. Aesthetics is generally
defined as the philosophy or study of the beauti-
ful. Musical aesthetics, therefore, should be the
study of the beautiful in music, the ultimate goal
of such a study being the establishment of cri-
teria that would allow us to say whether or not
a particular composition is beautiful, or why one
is beautiful while another is not. The main
objection to such a point of view is that beauty
is by no means the only (and possibly not even
the foremost) criterion of what may be roughly
described as “merit” or “artistic worth.” Music,
like other works of art, may be aesthetically
satisfying without necessarily being “beautiful.”
Therefore a definition such as the following
provides a much better basis for the study in
AESTHETICS OF MUSIC
question: Musical aesthetics is the study of the
relationship of music to the human senses and
intellect. This definition corresponds to the origi-
nal meaning of the Greek word aisthesis, i.e.
feeling, sensation. The following words by
Robert Schumann (Gesammelte Schriften uber
Musik und Musiker, rev. ed., 1914, i, 44) ade-
quately describe the peculiar problem of musi-
cal aesthetics [trans. by W. A.]: “In no other field
is the proof of the fundamentals as difficult as it
is in music. Science uses mathematics and logic;
to poetry belongs the decisive, golden word:
other aris have taken nature, whose forms they
borrow, as their arbiter. Music, however, is a
poor orphan whose father and mother no one
can name. But, perhaps, it is precisely this mys-
tery of her origin which accounts for the charm
of her beauty.”
Il. For more than two thousand years phi-
losophers have tried to solve the mystery of
music, Among them we find Pythagoras (550
B.C), who explained music as the expression of
that universal harmony which is also realized in
arithmetic and astronomy; Plato (400 B.C.) to
whom, like Confucius, music seemed the most
appropriate means of social and political educa-
tion; Plotinus (d. 270), who interpreted music
as a mystic and occult power; Boethius (d. 524),
who divided music into three fields, musica
mundana (the Pythagorean harmony of the
universe), musica’ humana (the harmony of the
human soul and body), and musica instrumen-
talis (music as actual sound), a classification that
prevailed in musical theory for more than ten
centuries; J. Kepler (Harmonices mundi libri v,
1619), who erected a great edifice of ideas in
which he correlated musical tones and intervals
with the movements of the planets and their
astrological functions; G. W. Leibnitz (1646-
1716), who paved the way for the psychological
system of musical aesthetics by interpreting
music as an “unconscious exercise in arithme-
ic”; A. Schopenhauer (Die Welt als Wille und
Vorstellung, 1819), who considered music the
purest incarnation of the “absolute will” and the
expression of human feelings (love, joy, horror)
in their abstract interpretation as metaphysical
ideas; G. T. Fechner (1801-87), called the
founder of experimental aesthetics, who insisted
that music is the expression of “general mood”
rather than specific “feelings”; and finally C.
Stumpf (Tonpsychologie, 2 vols.. 1883, ’90), who
inaugurated the scientific study of musical psy-
chology on the basis of experiments and statis-
tics, especially with regard to the problem ofAESTHETICS OF MUSIC
consonance and dissonance. Stumpf’s procedure
has been the point of departure for many in-
vestigations along similar lines, especially in
America, eg., C. E. Seashore, Psychology of
Music (1938); M. Schoen, ed., The Effects of
‘Music (1927), and others [see Tests]. For a criti-
cism of these methods, see C. C. Pratt, The
Meaning of Music (1931), pp. 131"
Not until the advent of the 19th century did
these theories of music begin to accord with the
present-day interpretation of musical aesthetics
as defined above. This statement should not be
construed as deprecating the much broader and,
in a sense, more profound views—cosmic, politi-
cal, or theological—held by the philosophers of
antiquity and the Middle Ages. Whereas in
those periods justification for music was con-
sidered to have its origin in the state, in the uni-
verse, or in God, today music has lost these
transcendental affiliations but has gained instead
a secure place in everyday life.
IIL. Musicologists, as might be expected, aim
at a more technically detailed penetration into
the subject of musical aesthetics, usually being
concerned with the study of specific techniques
or compositions rather than with music in the
abstract. Their various theories of aesthetics can
be divided into two groups, according to whether
they consider music (1) as a heteronomous art,
ice., as the expression of extramusical elements,
or (2) as an autonomous art, ie., as the realiza-
tion of intrinsic principles and ideas (F. Gatz).
(a) In the former class are the Affektenlehre
(doctrine of *affections), according to which
music in its various manifestations is the expres-
sion of human temperaments, passions, moods,
etc, In the 7th century, music was frequently
treated as an oratorical art (Figurenlehre, doc-
trine of *figures), its structural and stylistic
elements (such as repetitio, fuga, climax) being
related to corresponding rhetorical devices. In
the romantic period the interpretation of musi-
cal compositions was largely based upon pro-
grammatic and allegorical concepts. Music was
thought of as a sort of psychological drama and
explained in terms such as “desperate struggle,”
“the knocking of Fate,” “threatening fortis-
simo,” or “gloomy minor.” An early exponent
of this school of thought was A. B. Marx, in his
Ludwig van Beethoven (1859). A more intelligent
use of this approach was attempted by H. Kretz~
schmar, the inventor of musikalische Hermeneu-
tik {see Hermeneutics]. He considered music a
Sprachkunst, i.e., a language, of less clarity but
with finer shades and deeper effects than ordi-
15
AESTHETICS OF MUSIC
nary speech. He harked back to the “affects” of
the 18th century, which, according to him,
should be based upon the study of musical ele-
ments (themes, intervals, rhythm, etc.). He also
related the composer's music to his life (Beetho-
ven’s “period of happiness,” etc.). The last point
was emphasized by H. Riemann, who main-
tained that the writien composition as well as the
actual performance is nothing but a means of
transferring an experience (Erlebnis) from the
fancy of the composer to that of the listener.
Kretzschmar’s method has been elaborated by
A. Schering. An American book, E. Sorantin’s
The Problem of Musical Expression (1932), repre-
sents an example of 20th-century Affektenlehre.
(b) In strong contrast to all these theories is
the more recent school of thought that rejects the
allegorical, emotional, programmatic, poetical
foundation of musical aesthetics and explains
music as a purely musical phenomenon, as an
autochthonous and autonomous creation that
can be understood only in its own terms, An
early “autonomist” was M. de Chabanon, who
in 1785 published a book entitled De Ja Musique
considérée en elle-méme. The main representative
of musical autonomy has been E. Hanslick, who,
in his Vom Musikalisch-Schénen (1854), formu-
lated the sentence: “Musik ist tonend bewegte
Form’—“music is form in tonal motion”
(trans. by D. Ferguson; the term “form, natu-
rally, must be taken in its broadest sense, includ-
ing all structural and stylistic elements of music).
He admits the use of designations such as
“powerful,” “graceful,” “tender,” “passionate,”
but only in order to illustrate the musical char-
acter of the passage, not to suggest a definite
feeling on the part of composer or listener. Still
further in this direction went A. Halm (Von zwei
Kulturen der Musik, 1913), one of the most out-
standing writers on musical aesthetics. The fol-
lowing quotation from the Talmud, given at the
beginning of his book, is a very apt expression
of the central thought of musical autonomy: “If
you want to understand the invisible, look care-
fully at the visible.” Halm, as well as his succes-
sors, E. Kurth, H. Mersmann, F. Jode, and
others, advocated the separation of the musical
work ftom the emotional worlds of both com-
poser and listener and the emancipation of musi-
cal thought from “sensuous intoxication and
hallucination.”
See also Affections; Figures; Hermeneutics;
Musica reservata; Psychology of music.
Lit: H. H. Britan, The Philosophy of Music
(1911); H. Scherchen, The Nature of MusicAEVIA
(1950); V. Zuckerkandl, Sound and Symbol
(1956): id, The Sense of Music (1959); D. Fergu-
son, Music as Metaphor (1960); L. Meyer, Emo-
tion and Meaning in Music (1956); S. K. Langer,
Feeling and Form (1953); R. W. Lundin, An
Objective Psychology of Music [1953]: D. Cooke,
The Language of Music (1959); F. M. Gatz, ed.,
Musik-Asthetik in ihren Hauptrichtungen (1929);
R. Schifke, Geschichte der Musikasthetik (1934);
E. G. Wolff, Grundlagen einer autonomen Musik
asthetik, 2 vols. (1934, ’38); H. Pfrogner, Musik:
Geschichte ihrer Deutung (1954); H. J. Moser,
Musikasthetik (1953); C. Lalo, Eléments d'une
esthétique musicale scientifique, tev. ed. (1939);
G. Brelet, Esthétique et création musicale (1947);
id, Le Temps musical: Essai d’une esthétique
nouvelle de la musique, 2 vols. (1949); H. Besseler,
“Grundfragen der Musikisthetik” (JMP xxiii);
A. Einstein, “Musical Aesthetics and Musicol-
ogy,” in Music in the Romantic Era (1947),
pp. 337-85; R. Tischler, “The Aesthetic Experi-
ence” (MR xvii, 189). For additional bibl. see
“Musik-Asthetik” in MGG.
Aevia. An artificial word, consisting of the
vowels of *alleluia (u = v). It is occasionally
used as an abbreviation in manuscripts of
Gregorian chant, See Euouae.
Affabile [It.]. Gentle, pleasing.
Affannato, affannoso [It.]. Excited, hurried, agi-
tated.
Affections, doctrine of [also doctrine of affects;
G. Affektenlehre]. An aesthetic theory of the late
baroque period, formulated by A. Werckmeister
(Harmonologia musica, 1702), J. D. Heinichen
(1711), J. Mattheson (1739), J. J. Quantz (1752),
F. W. Marpurg (Kritische Briefe, vol. ii, 1763),
and other 18th-century writers. It was treated in
greatest detail by Matheson (Der vollkommene
Capellmeister, 1739), who enumerates more than
twenty affections and describes how they should
be expressed in music, e.g.: “Sorrow should be
expressed with a slow-moving, languid and
drowsy melody, broken with many sighs,” and
“Hate is represented by repulsive and rough
harmony and a similar melody.” He also
describes the affections (characteristic emotions)
of numerous dances, saying that the gigue ex-
presses “heat and eagerness,” the courante,
“sweet hope and courage.” These rather trite
explanations reveal the difficulty involved in any
attempt to formulate the doctrine of affections.
There can be no doubt, however, that musicians
of the late baroque, particularly in Germany,
16
AFFINALES
were fully familiar with this aesthetic approach
and often incorporated its tenets in their com-
positions. A basic aspect of the doctrine of affec-
tions is the principle that each composition (or,
in the case of composite forms, each movement)
should embody only one affection.
Although the term Affektenlehre is associated
with the 18th century, the close relationship
between music and the human affections has
often been recognized and emphasized not only
in Western music (Plato, Aristotle, Isidore of
Seville, Ramos de Pareja, Glareanus, Monte-
verdi, Descartes) but also in that of the Orient,
especially in the Hindu conception of the ragas
[see India I]. Also see Aesthetics of music IIl(a);
Musica reservata.
Lit: H. Goldschmidt, Die Musikasthetik des
18. Jahrhunderts (1915); W. Serauky, Die musi-
kalische Nachahmungsdsthetik im Zeitraum von
1700 bis 1850 (1929); E. Katz, Die musikalischen
Stilbegriffe des 17. Jahrhunderts (1926); F. T.
Wessel, “The Affektenlehre in the Eighteenth
Century” (diss. Indiana Univ., 1955); M. Kra-
mer, “Beitrage zu einer Geschichte des Affekt-
begriffs in der Musik von 1550-1700” (diss.
Halle, 1924); H. Abert, in AMW vy; H. Kretz-
schmar, in JMP xviii, xix; F. Stege, in ZMW x;
A. Schering, in JMP xlv; H. Lenneberg, in JMT.
ii (Mattheson); R. Schafke, in A MW vi (Quantz);
G. Frotscher, in CP 1925 (Bach).
Affektenlehre [G.]. See Affections, doctrine of.
Affetti[It.]. The term appears in the title of vari-
ous publications of the late 16th and early 17th
centuries [Dolci Affetti, 1582; S. Bonini, Affetti
spirituali . . . in istile di Firenze o recitativo, 1615;
B. Marini, Affetti musicali, op. 1, 1617; G. Ste-
fani, Affetti amorosi, 1621, see Editions V, 3],
probably to emphasize the affective character of
the music. It is also used in early violin sonatas
to designate a certain type of ornament, either
tremolo or arpeggio [see SchGMB, no. 183;
RiHM ii, 2, 120).
Affettuoso [It.]. Tender.
Affinales [L., sing. affinalis]. In medieval theory
of the church modes, name for the pitches a, b,
and c’, which occur as the finals of transposed
chants [see Speculum musicae; CS ii, 248a]. In a
Tonale ascribed to Bernard of Clairvaux (1091-
1153), it is stated that the first *maneria has the
finals d and a, the second e and b, the third f and
C,, the fourth only g [see GS ii, 266a]. Many of
the Ambrosian chants close on the affinales, in-
cluding the d’. See Transposition II.AFFRETTANDO
Affrettando [It.]. Hurrying.
Africa, The musical cultures of Aftica may be
very broadly classified as North African (essen-
tially Islamic; see Arab music) and sub-Saharan.
The latter is considered here in its traditional
aspects.
1. Background. The interpenetration of sub-
Saharan tribal Africa with Western and Eastern
civilization has resulted in a vivid cultural
dualism, reflected in a fast-diminishing body of
traditional, tribal music on the one hand and a
slowly emerging nucleus of art and “city” music
on the other. Unfortunately, a historic view of
the tribal music remains vastly limited, owing to
the relative sparsity, prior to c. 1950, of notated
examples, and the fact that recorded evidence,
such as that supplied to E. M. von Hornbostel
by the Czekanowski Central African Expedition
of 1907-08, begins only with the 20th century.
However, some of the history may be recon-
structed by tracing the musical legacies of past
contacts with other cultures. Preliminary obser-
vations concerning possible legacies of the
Malayo-Polynesian migrations (c. 2000 B.C.
c. A.D. 500) to Malagasy (Madagascar) and the
African mainland, for example, include the fol-
lowing: (1) C. Sachs shows that several instru-
ments of Malagasy, including an idiochordic
tube zither tuned in thirds (valfha) and a free-log
thigh-supported xylophone, are of Malayan
origin (the xylophone especially is known from
Celebes to the Molucca islands), He also relates
the resonated xylophones of the African main-
land to those of Indonesia. (2) Certain African
xylophone tunings, as pointed out by J. Kunst
(PMA Ikxii) and others, strongly resemble (but
may not necessarily derive from) some “ideal”
(theoretic) isotonic tunings of the Far East, nota-
bly the five-step Indonesian sléndro and the
seven-step isotonic scale of Thailand [see III C
below], (3) The use of double xylophone beaters
in one hand, held or fastened at an angle, has
been noted among some African peoples, e.g.,
the Azande of the Congo-Kinshasa (Democratic
Republic of the Congo) and the Venda of South
Africa, and also in Indonesia.
Musical ties, particularly rhythmic, with the
Middle East and India may be even stronger
than those with the Far East. Such ties may have
been gradually defined through early migrations,
invasions of ancient Egypt south of the Sudan,
the South Indian trade on the East African coast
during the third or second centuries B.C., and,
of course, throughout the period of Islamic
spread in Africa.
17
AFRICA
Sub-Saharan Africa includes a large variety
of tribes and languages. While anthropologists
and linguists have been able to map important
culture and language areas (which, incidentally,
are generally not congruent—eg, Bantu lan-
guages cut across both cattle and agricultural
areas), a similar delineation of musical style
areas has thus far not proved practicable. For
example, although there is, at first glance, a pre-
ponderance of polyphony in parallel fourths and
fifths in the eastern and southern regions and in
parallel thirds in the central and western regions,
further study reveals greater intermingling of
intervals than hitherto believed.
IL. Social function and professionalism. Music
and dance permeate nearly all phases of African
tribal life. They are vital to the many rituals, such
as those concerned with birth, puberty and
secret-society initiation, marriage, etc, and
rituals of “livelihood,” e.g., hunting, farming,
etc. Ceremonial music, costumes, masks, and
instruments usually attain an aura of sacredness.
Each of the Watutsi (Watusi) royal drums, for
example, has been thought to possess a “soul,”
represented by a large pebble inside the drum,
that can do away with evil spirits.
Music may also serve in legal, political, and
historical capacities. Thus, there are public
litigation ceremonies, such as those of the
Bambala (Congo-Kinshasa), in which the liti
gants present portions of their legal briefs in
song; there are songs of criticism, or of praise,
directed at chiefs, employers, governments, etc.;
and there are songs narrating historical or cur-
rent events, such as the warrior epics of the
Watutsi of Rwanda.
There is also a great deal of music and dance
for entertainment. This ranges from the highly
informal to a mote “theatrical,” prepared type,
such as the chikona, the leading ceremonial and
social dance of the Venda (South Africa), which
features a circle of men playing vertical flutes of
reed in hocket and dancing counterclockwise
around drummers, most of whom are women.
Various levels of musical professionalism, en-
gaged in mostly by men but also by women, have
Tong been apparent in African tribal life, in addi-
tion to communal music-making. Thus, there are
trained instrumentalists, dancers, master instru-
ment builders, and tuning specialists (composing
is usually subsumed under the performer's craft),
some atiached to a chief”s or king’s court, others
traveling as paid performers, as well as the
skilled leaders of a singing or dancing commu-
nity group, who are perhaps also official or semi-AFRICA
official religious leaders. Training, which may be
long and involved, is generally informal and
based on rote learning, often with such mne-
monic aids as the singing of nonsense or stylized
syllables (especially for drum patterns). Such
aids recall similar methods in Hindu drumming
and Japanese *gagaku.
IL. Style. Although diversity of style is evi-
dent, there are certain elements that represent a
reasonably common musical denominator.
A. Rhythm and tempo. Probably the most out-
standing feature of much African music is the
complexity of rhythmic structure, a complexity
no doubt well comprehended by musicians
trained in unequal-beat styles (Sachs’ “addi-
tive” category), such as those of the Middle East
and India and of the Western Renaissance and
20th century. The essence of what the present
writer has termed the “African hemiola style”
lies in the contrast of two unequal “conductor”
beats in a 2:3 length-ratio, e.g, Jd, or J2, both
horizontally and vertically. Horizontally, the 2:3
contrast may be texturally (1) concentrated, i.,
the two unequal conductor beats appear close
to each other within a short space, as in a pattern
of 6/8 + 3/4 (the European hemiola; see Ex. 4,
line 2) or in measures (appearing individually or
in any combination) such as 5/8, 7/8, 8/8 (eg.
the dochmiac 4.4.4), 12/8 (€.8. ddd.dd.; see Ex. 4,
top line and Ex. 2, line 2), etc.; or the 2:3 con-
trast may be (2) wide-paced and sectional, in-
volving change from the short to the long beat
(or vice versa) by sections, one section (several
measures) perhaps featuring the J in 3/4 time
and another the 4. in 6/8 ; or (3) the 2:3 contrast
may be entirely absent in an individual line, so
that equal-beat rhythm prevails, as in the steady
reiteration of the dotted-quarter beat in 3/8 fig-
ures (e.g., Ex. I, line 1; Ex. 2, lines 3, 4). Further-
more, whatever the type of beat contrast, a line
often features one distinctive rhythmic pattern
constantly repeated (see Ex. I, line 1; Ex. 2, lines
2-4; Ex. 4, lines 1, 2], somewhat like the Hindu
tala patterning. However, patterns are open to
variation, especially in vocal music (owing to
text requirements) and in certain “leader” parts,
such as that of the master drummer.
Vertical realization of the hemiola style is a
direct concomitant of the strong African propen-
sity for “orchestral,” polyphonic music. The
contrast of the two unequal conductor beats in
their multipart setting may then take on the
greatest intricacy, an intricacy deriving from
true vertical *polyrhythm. In such polyrhythm
each line maintains a certain degree of rhythmic
AFRICA
independence, especially with respect to the
organization of the conductor beats. Specifically,
in African polyrhythm [see Ex. 1-4] each line
may carry its own distinctive beat pattern (in
Hindu music all parts are controlled by one com-
mon beat pattern). This means that beats may
not coincide vertically: the two unequal beats
obviously cannot coincide, because one beat is
one and one-half times as long as the other, and
equal beats may not coincide because each line
pattern may enter at a different point (Ex. 2,
lines 3 and 4). In other words, there may be verti-
cal overlapping of entire patterns and of their
internal beats. Clearly, this is not syncopation, in
which all lines are subsumed under one underly-
ing regular beat and in which any kind of line-
independence is considered to derive from “off-
beat” stress of the one equal-beat base.
= 189 126
a
2,2 = 336 solo
e-nito ba m’d-gino
Kandngé drum
ko mad’a-Ié
Aguda drum
Iyd Ila “mother” or master drum
1. Watutsi royal drums excerpt (Rwando) [R. Bran-
del]. 2. Yoruba song with dindin drums of Ogén,
war god (Nigeria) [A. King].
18AFRICA
_-thumb
3 4. = 0.96 Right hand forefinger... -
| “Left hand (thumb only)
>.
4 decl7 4
is 4
iron idiophone +
HB
up (against palm)
vp on ali.
SNe
* 2
Gourd rattle
down (against thigh)
Right foot
prado
Left foot
‘Shoulders forward (with stomachl
contraction)
Shoulders (with}|? d
elbows bent) t
Shoulders back (with stomach
release)
3. Lemba deze, i.e., sanza (South Africa) [P. R.
Kirby]. 4. Ewe dance figure with portion of en-
semble (Ghana) [R. Brande]
Feet (knee lit
on eighth-note,
step on quarter}
The vertical tug between the two unequal
beats and between the simultaneous independ-
ent patterns in which they are set is further com-
plicated by the appearance of a subtle rhythmic
Gestalt, the “over-all perception” pattern, or
composite, of all (or some) of the lines. Mainly
through timbre and pitch accents, especially
vivid in tuned drum ensembles, this composite
pattern is ever fluid and changing, sometimes
resulting from the variation techniques of the
master drummer, sometimes from changing
orchestral density and texture, and also from
other factors. The performer, particularly, must
to some extent be aware of such an over-all pat-
tern for the sake of ensemble coordination (or
else each part would theoretically require its own
conductor). But no doubt there are various
Gestalt perceptions, depending on the type of
participation (dancer's, singer's, etc.), the skill
of the performer, and the kind of material he
executes (variations, unchanging ostinatos, one
or two lines at a time—in the last case, as singer-
player, dancer-player, player of “harmonic”
instrument, etc.). An ensemble usually pays
AFRICA
special attention to the part of the master drum-
mer, which may give rhythmic signals for
changes in dance steps, changes in tempo, type
of section to be performed, etc., and frequently
to the part of some over-all tempo-setter, such
as the adawuraa, the boat-shaped iron idiophone
of the Akan (Ghana), which may perhaps also
act as a central “rhythmic post” for the entire
ensemble. Dance rhythms may also play an
important “governing” role.
‘Tempo, as judged from the speed of the basic
units, such as the ever-present “running eighths”
from which the J and 4, beats are constructed,
tends on the whole toward the very rapid (in
distinct contrast with music of the Middle East
and India). The eighth-note units may average
roughly from J = c. 240 to c. 450, thus giving
conductor beats of J = c. 120 to c. 225, and J. =
c. 80 toc. 150.
B. Polyphony. Another distinguishing charac-
teristic of African music is a strong tendency
toward polyphony, both vertical (“harmonic”)
and horizontal (“contrapuntal”). The codevelop-
ment of polyrhythm and some degree of har-
mony in this music is an interesting contrast with
the nonharmonic but rhythmically complex
music of the Middle East and India. A further
comparison may be made with the polyrhythmic
emphasis of the Western Renaissance and its
gradual movement toward harmonic and equal-
beat emphasis.
The principal African polyphonic types are
parallel intervals (mainly thirds, fourths, fifths),
overlapping choral antiphony and solo-choral
response (particularly the latter), ostinato and
drone-ostinato (but not the Hindu continuous
drone), and, less frequently, polymelody (mainly
double). The types may often intermingle within
one piece and may appear in any vocal and
instrumental combination. The characteristic
orchestral attitude frequently results in the piling
up of parts, so that vertical densities of three
and four different pitches are not uncommon,
whether achieved through parallel block motion
or through contrapuntal techniques [see Ex. 6]
Such densities are in constant flux, however,
even in parallel motion, so that continuous triads
throughout an entire piece, for example, are
rare. “Spot” or intermittent fullness resulting
from sudden choral divisi or solo interjection of
variational segments, often at strategic cadential
or phrase points, is a favored practice.
Parallel thirds, which frequently move diatoni-
cally, are found in numerous areas [see I, above].
Ex. 5 illustrates parallel fourths and fifths, to-
19AFRICA
gether with responsorial technique. Whether
overlapping or not, the responsorial or antipho-
nal section in African music may be a repetition
of the first phrase (Ex. 5), which may result in
canonic imitation, or the section may contain
new melodic material, such as a brief punctu-
ating refrain, a completion of the first phrase, or
a distinctly contrasting melody.
The African ostinato, usually quite small in
length and pitch range, may be continuous or
intermittent, vocal or instrumental, and may
appear above or below the main line. Frequently
there is a multi-ostinato, two or more ostinatos
moving contrapuntally, with or without a longer
melodic line. The African propensity for *hocket
(especially favored by the Mambuti Pygmies) is
often allied to multi-ostinato. In Ex. 6, five ivory
horns (part of a professional band), playing one
note (pitch) each, execute melodic and harmonic
hocket (largely through sustaining notes) in two
ostinato lines, the top line being a kind of fore-
cast of the vocal melody.
‘Although complex polymelody (simultaneous
independent melodies of some length and inner
organization) is not common, there are many
simple varieties, involving phrases longer than
those of the multi-ostinato. Also, there are cer-
tain types of heterophonic variations on a theme,
which often achieve a distinctness of line move-
ment approaching genuine polymelody
There are hints of some functioning “chordal”
relationships in African polyphony, although
these are not the Western major-minor system,
nor are they formally and verbally articulated
The type of functioning, involving concepts
of tension-relaxation, dissonance-consonance
(which are by no means fixed universals),
cannot as yet be gauged. It is clear, however,
that there are varieties of “chord” clusters
(as there are varieties of scales), and that some
level of harmonic patterning may be aimed at
through oral tradition. A few samples, resulting
either from parallel or contrapuntal motion,
follow (all hyphenated notes are to be read
vertically), It should be noted that interval sizes
are not those of equal temperament: (1) a re-
peated tritonic (augmented fourth) “chord” in
a minor seventh or larger span, e.g., a-c’-e”"-f’—
g’-a’ of Ex. 6 (cents given in the next section
below), popular among the Mambuti Pygmies
and in many parts of Central Africa, and also
appearing elsewhere; (2) a cadential sequence
resting on parallel major thirds, with roots a
major second apart, eg. Gangele (Angola),
c-e'-g, BP-d’-4', c-e'-g’, and Baduma (Congo-
20
AFRICA
Brazzaville), b’-d’, c’-e’; (3) another cadence-
like sequence of the Baduma (bracketed notes
are the most important), eg’, a-d’-fy’,
a-c’-€-; (4) “plagal” motion with roots
(or focal notes) a fourth apart, e.g, Babinga
Pygmies (Congo-Brazzaville), be”
2-2-2’, and a related (reversed and inverted)
form of the Venda (South Africa), g’-c’-&”,
fra'-c’-”. See also, the patterning of Ex. 5,
eg. (meas. 6), g’-c”, eb”, c’-p’.
Solo
= 120 4 =80 -
aa
i
ae -
6 = 1322 OV
twee | dj dy
eS
Horns| ej v7p OO T GF
5. Wasukuma wedding song (Tanzania) [R. Brandel}.
6. Kukuya ivory horns (Congo-Brazzaville) [R.
Brande].
C. Scale and melody. Among the large variety
of African scales there is no one scale that is
more idiomatic than the others. However, scales
and melodies of very small range, two or three
notes spanning the interval of a second or a
third, appear somewhat infrequently (other than
in ostinato accompaniments, which are usually
part of pieces with larger scale gamuts). Tetra-
chordal and pentachordal spans are common,
while scales and melodies of even larger range
are quite prevalent. (A ladder of thirds spanning
a ninth, F-A-C-E-G, may be found in a Batwa
y song of Rwanda.) Furthermore, scales
and melodies may be chasmatonic (gapped) or
diatonic, within any span. Thus, there are
chasmatonic five-note octaves, e.g., C-D-E’-G-
BY_C of Ex. 5, and A-C-E?-F-G-A of Ex. 6 with
its tritonic melodic and harmonic emphasis
(the diatonic upper tritone tends to descend, as
in Ex. 6 and among the Mambuti Pygmies; see
also the vocal line of a Chopi piece in Kirby,
p. 65); chasmatonic five-note hexachords, e.g.
C_D-E-G-A, often featuring triadic tunes; dia-AFRICA
tonic octaves, e.g., C-D-E-F(F4)-G-A-B(B’)-
C; diatonic hexachords, e.g. G-A-B-C-D-E,
etc. In addition, there appear to be some equal-
stepped or isotonic scales, e.g, some Uganda
harps with a four-step octave (among the Bag-
were) or with a five-step octave (among the
Baganda), and some xylophones with a five-step
octave (parts of both Congos, Uganda) or with a
seven-step octave (among the Chopi of Mozam-
bique). Scales and melodies are frequently con-
structed in a “plagal” manner, featuring a central
pivot note with a lower fourth and an upper fifth,
eg, G-C-G.
Interval sizes vary greatly, pointing up a
variety of scale temperaments, especially evident
in the tuning of instruments. (Ex. 6 horn inter-
vals in cents reveal two small “minor” thirds and
a large and a small “major” second: 279, 283,
227, 191.) Temperament norms, however, are
not always easy to gauge.
The influence of the tonal languages (Bantu,
etc.) on melody is marked but not rigid. Al-
though high-pitched and low-pitched speech
syllables (pitch height governs meaning and
grammar) tend to be set to correspondingly
pitched melodic notes [see Ex. 2], melodic flow is
often controlled by purely musical considera-
tions. Over-all melody shapes are varied, octave
tunes often curving downward and tunes some-
times zigzagging through interlocking thirds.
D. Form. The most. prevalent form is the
litany type, ie., immediate (but not necessarily
exact) repetition of a musical idea throughout
a piece. The length of melodic phrases, how-
ever, will vary from the very brief (one or two
measures) to long-lined melodies of several
measures. Frequently the length and inner or-
ganization are such that a two- or three-sectional
“sentence” with contrasting phrases is apparent,
often executed in the popular antiphony or re-
sponse. There is also evidence of some verse
forms, such as those found in various Akan
songs of Ghana. A sense of larger sectional for-
mation and contrast is often achieved through
the repetition of two or more melodies, eg.,
A...B...As..C...etc. (the form of the
complete piece of Ex. 5). Such sectional contrast
is heightened by some abrupt shifts in tonality
in a Mangbetu choral piece (Brandel, The Music
of Central Africa, p. 111). Lengthy ceremonies
may provide even broader formal contrast
through a series of musical “acts,” each consist
ing of a piece repeated numerous times. Varia-
tion is common, but developmental techniques
are rare,
21
AFRICA
E. Performance style. Density and motion are
perhaps the best clues to over-all performance
texture, both vocal and instrumental: masses of
sound tend to pile up “orchestrally,” timbres—
often pungent and staccato—are contrasted,
tessiture are juxtaposed, dynamic levels are
usually high, and motion is constant, hurried,
and complex as melodies, musical rhythms, and
thythms of dancers’ and players’ muscles con-
verge with as much “action” as possible within
a short span of time. This is, of course, a broad
generalization. The qualities of speed and con-
centration are not always present. An evening
story-singer, a private Session on the musical
bow or on the sanza may be quite different
Vocal styles often point up emphatic, full-
voice singing, at times punctuated by shouts and
screams. Timbres are often tense-hoarse, some-
what guttural, and tenorlike for the men, owing
to a predominant use of the arytenoid vocal
muscles at great intensities and at high pitch
ranges, as well as to some laryngeal constriction
by neck muscles. Women’s voices frequently are
strident, owing to a predominant use of the thy-
roid group of vocal muscles at great intensities
and at generally lower pitch ranges. Special
effects may include glissando (especially at
phrase endings); excessive nasality (perhaps for
disguise or spirit imitation); excessive breathi-
ness (often as a timbre accent); Sprechstimme;
among some peoples, yodeling (e.g. Babinga
Pygmies and N’Gundi of Congo-Brazzaville,
and Bushmen) and humming (as in some
Watutsi bard songs), and a variety of animal
imitations. Most singing is highly syllabic (non-
melismatic), vibratoless, and nonornamented,
except where Arab influence is evident (e.g., in
some Watutsi bard songs).
Hocket is a favorite instrumental and vocal
device, and, in its achievement of rapid timbre
contrast, decidedly contributes to the over-all
performance texture. Dance styles include
broad, outflowing motions, often part of depic-
tive dances, and self-contained, sometimes con-
vulsive movement, usually set within abstract
or symbolic contexts.
IV. Instruments. Orchestral emphasis is an
important feature of African music. An ensem-
ble consisting of hand-clapping singers, several
different instruments, often including a set of
one type, and usually dancers (or dancer-singers,
dancer-players) is very common. A cappella as
well as purely instrumental performance is also
prevalent. In addition, certain instruments, no-
tably the sanza and instruments of the chordo-AFRICA
phone family, are frequently used in a solo,
nonensemble capacity, particularly to accom-
pany a singer (who may be his own instrumen-
talist). Ensemble instruments center about
idiophones (especially rattles, xylophones, bells)
and membranophones, although aerophone
bands are also popular. Many instruments
(mainly slit drums, but also membrane drums,
bells, horns, flutes, etc.) are used also for the
purpose of telegraphy, which usually consists of
duplication of actual speech tones and rhythms,
particularly of stylized proverbs.
Idiophones include a variety of rattles, single
or strung, manually operated or tied to the body,
made of gourd, woven fibers, skin, etc. Percus-
sion sticks and pounded bamboos occasionally
occur in “tuned” sets (as in Southeast Asia)
Iron bells are of many sizes and forms and are
usually clapperless and struck; two-toned double
bells, joined by an arch or a common handle, are
found mainly in western, central, and south
central regions. West Africa (and also parts of
Ethiopia and Egypt) features a double bell, such
as the nnawuta of Ghana, with two unequal com-
ponents, pitched perhaps a fifth or more apart.
‘There is also a type of folded, flattened iron,
sometimes bell-like (Uganda, Congo-Kinshasa)
and sometimes reminiscent of the slit drum and
somewhat banana- or boat-shaped (eg., the
Kende of the Kissi of Liberia; it is also found in
West Central Africa and has been excavated in
Rhodesia). Kunst has noted the same split-
banana shape in the metal kemanak of Java and
considers a common origin in the East Mediter-
ranean or the Caucasus. The metal disk of the
Far East, the gong, seems to be entirely absent
from Africa
The idiophonous slit drum, important in sig-
naling, is made of wood and is stick-beaten; it
may be cylinder-shaped, wedge-shaped, or
footed and animal-shaped. The edges of the slit
are usually of different thickness to produce two
pitches. The trapeze-shaped lukumbi of the
Batetela (Congo-Kinshasa) can emit six different
pitches, three on each side of the drum.
Xylophones are quite widespread and are fre~
quently played in ensembles, both small and
large. Chopi timbila bands, popular in mining
camps, may contain 20 to 30 xylophones in three
or four different sizes, ranging from “soprano,”
with c. 15 slabs, to “bass,” with c. 4 slabs. There
are two main types of xylophone: (a) The rudi-
mentary loose-key xylophone, without resona-
tors, resting on tree trunks, is found in both
Congos, Uganda, Central African Republic,
22
AFRICA
Cameroon, etc. A root name in the northern
Congo-Kinshasa is padingbwa; (b) the fixed-key
xylophone, sometimes suspended from the
shoulders, usually has resonators and is found
in most areas, A root name in the southern
Congo-Kinshasa is malimba or madimba. The
wooden slabs are fixed to a frame, and beneath
each slab is an acoustically matched resonator,
usually of calabash, which may be round (eg,
Mandingo people, Liberia; Chopi, Mozam-
bique) or long (e.g., Yaswa, Congo-Brazzaville:
Venda, South Africa). The latter recalls the
vertical resonance tubes of the Indonesian
gender. Buzzing timbres are often produced by
fixing spider-webbing over a small lower-end
hole in the calabash. The xylophone is frequently
played by two or more persons, and one or two
mallets may be used in each hand, The number
of keys may exceed 20, and tunings, some of
which appear to be isotonic, vary considerably
in different areas [see III C above].
Indigenous to Africa is the sanza (Central
Africa, Mozambique, etc.), mbira (Southeast
Africa), kembe (Central Africa), or limba (East
Central and Southeast Africa), a relatively small
plucked idiophone with a set of flexible iron
(sometimes bamboo) tongues fixed across a
board or box; underneath, a calabash resonator
may be attached or may loosely enclose the
board. Tuning is accomplished by shifting the
tongues, thereby altering their vibrating lengths.
‘The number of tongues varies greatly (¢. 5 to 25
or more), as do the tunings; unlike the xylo-
phone, the lowest-pitched tongues not infre-
quently are set in the center of the board and
the upper ones to either side, or tongues may be
intermingled in various ways. Thumbs, and at
times other fingers, produce a delicately metallic,
hocketlike pizzicato [see Ex. 3], sometimes en-
larged by the rattling or buzzing of attached
devices. The sanza may be played singly or in
sets of two or three.
Membranophone drums, usually used melodi-
cally as well as rhythmically, are of numerous
sizes and shapes; single- and double-headed;
with laced, nailed, or glued skins; hand-beaten
(fingers, palms, base, fist), stick-beaten, and
rubbed; and are commonly played in tuned sets
of various numbers. Pitch (and timbre) contrast
may also be obtained on a single drum by utiliz-
ing different striking points or by altering mem-
brane tension (pressing on the skin or its fasten-
ings). The long, conelike single-headed drum,
such as the ndungu of the Babembe (Congo-
Brazzaville), is one of the most popular. OthersAFRICA
include the kettledrum, e.g., the hemispherical,
stick-beaten ngoma of the Venda (South Africa),
and the West African hourglass “pressure” drum
(also found in ancient and modern India and in
the Far East), e.g., the professional shoulder-
suspended diindiin types (Ex. 2) of the Yoruba
(Nigeria), which are played with a hooked stick
and are capable of variable pitch via elbow or
hand manipulation of the thongs connecting the
two skins. (In Ex. 2 this method is used only for
the master drum.) There are also barrel and gob-
let drums; footed, stool-like drums with open
lower ends, e.g,, the igbin of the Yoruba and the
ganda of the Digo (Kenya); clay-pot drums, e.g.,
the bompili, a women’s drum of the Mbole
(Congo-Brazzaville); frame drums, of Arab
origin, e.g, the mantshomane of the Thonga
(South Africa); and many others. Drums are
among the major ceremonial instruments, al-
though they are also used for secular purposes,
and skilled drummers (especially the master
drummer) may be trained from childhood.
Acrophones include vertical wooden or bam-
boo flutes (often without finger holes); whistles;
mirlitons; the typically African transverse trum-
pets and horns of ivory (frequently with raised
embouchures), ¢.g., the bompate of the Nkundo
(Congo-Kinshasa), or of animal horn, wood, or
gourd; and ocarinas. Ensembles of c. 5 or more
horns (Ex. 6) or flutes (with or without other
instruments), often playing in hocket, are com-
mon in many areas. Winds also include flutes
with finger holes, eg, the 4-holed notched
endere of the Baganda (Uganda), panpipes,
transverse flutes, end-blown trumpets, occasion-
ally nose flutes, and the free aerophone, the
bullroarer, often associated with citcumcision
rites.
Chordophones are important solo and song-
accompanying instruments. One of the most
common is the musical bow, frequently appear-
ing with attached resonator at one end or at a
midpoint where the string is divided in two; the
mouth often acts as resonator. Partials above the
fundamental may be emphasized, melodically
and harmonically, through fingering or changing
mouth resonance. Related to the bow and espe-
cially prevalent in Central Africa is the multiple-
bow lute (Sachs: Bogenlaute), which consists of
5 to 8 one-stringed bows attached at one end
(the strings above, the bows below) to a reso-
nance case, Mainly playing with a vine plectrum
rolled around the thumb, a professional lo-
ngombe player of the Nkundo (Congo-Kinshasa)
used to be carried around the village on a plat-
23
AFRICA
form, singing and playing for an all-night cele-
bration. Zithers, frequently with resonators,
exist in stick, board, raft, trough, and frame
forms (e.g., the 6-stringed triangular frame zither
of the Bassa of Liberia, which recalls the Persian
chank). The trough is especially characteristic
of Central East Africa (eg, the inanga of
Rwanda). Harps (usually arched) and lyres,
possibly based on Egyptian models, are gener-
ally not common below the Equator. Rudimen-
tary one-stringed fiddles are in many instances
derived from Arab sources. As for Western
instruments, the guitar, frequently used in night-
club ensembles (e.g., “high life”), has become
one of the most popular, Modern trends in art
music include use of traditional material in
‘Western symphonic, operatic, church, and other
forms.
Lit. (selected and generally recent; for other
works and bibl., see Brandel, Gaskin, Thieme,
Wolff): R. Brandel, The Music of Central Africa
(1961; music, bibl.); L. J. P. Gaskin, A Select
Bibliography of Music in Africa (1965); W. V.
Brelsford, African Dances of Northern Rhodesia
(Rhodes-Livingstone Museum Papers 2, 1959);
E, M. von Hombostel, African Negro Music
(1928); A. King, Yoruba Sacred Music from Ekiti
(1961); P. R. Kirby, The Musical Insiruments of
the Native Races of South Africa, rev. ed. (1965);
D. L. Thieme, African Music; a Briefly Annotated
Bibliography (1964); K. M. Trowell and K. P.
Wachsmann, Tribal Crafis of Uganda (1953;
instr.); C. Sachs, Les Instruments de musique de
Madagascar (1938); B. Séderberg, Les Insiru-
ments de musique au Bas-Congo et dans les régions
avoisinantes (1956); R. Gunther, Musik in
Rwanda (1964); J. H. K. Nketia, {Folk Songs of
Ghana (1963); J. Blacking, “Problems of Pitch,
Pattern and Harmony in the Ocarina Music of
the Venda” (African Music ii, no. 2); R. Brandel,
“The African Hemiola Style” (Ethnomusicology
iii); id., “Types of Melodic Movement in Central
Africa” (ibid. vi); id, “Polyphony in African
Music,” in CP Sachs; J. Kunst, “The Origin of
the Kemanak (Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en
Volkenkunde 116, 1960); id., “A Musicological
Argument for Cultural Relationship between
Indonesia... and Central Africa” (PMA xii);
G. Rouget, “Un Chromatisme afticain”
(L’Homme i, no. 3, 1963); K. P. Wachsmann,
“An Equal Stepped Tuning in a Ganda Harp”
(Nature clxv); id., “A Study of Norms in the
Tribal Music of Uganda” (Ethnomusicology ii,
pt. 11); H. C. Wolff, “Die Musik Afrikas”
(Deutsches Jahrbuch der Musikwissenschaft ixAFRICAINE, L"
[1964]. See also “Current Bibliography, Africa,”
in all issues of Ethnomusicology.
Disc.: Publishers (1) Folkways Record Corp.,
N.Y.; 2) International Library of African Mu-
sic, Roodepoort, Transvaal, South Africa; (3)
Musée de Homme, Dept. d’Ethnomusicologie,
Paris; and (4) UNESCO-Collection: An Anthol-
ogy of African Music; see also An International
Catalogue of Published Records of Folk Music
(“Africa,” pp. 1-13), ed. K. P. Wachsmann
(International Folk Music Council, 1960). RB.
Africaine, L’ [F., The African Woman]. Opera in
five acts by G. Meyerbeer (libretto by E. Scribe),
produced in Paris, 1865. Setting: Lisbon and
Madagascar, end of 15th century.
Afternoon of a Faun, The. See Aprés-midi d'un
‘faaune, L’.
Agende [G.]. The German Protestant counter-
part of the Roman Catholic liturgy or the Angli-
can rites, ie, the entire ritual of the service of
the German Protestant Church. See R. von
Liliencron, Liturgisch-musikalische Geschichte
der evangelischen Gottesdienste vom 1523 bis 1700
(1893); F. Smend, Neue Beitrdge zur Reform
unserer Agenden (1913).
Agevole [It.]. Easy, smooth.
Agiatamente [It.]. With ease.
Agilmente [It.]. Nimbly, with agility.
Agitato [It]. Excited.
‘Agnus Dei. The last item (except for the “Ite,
missa est”) of the Ordinary of the Mass [see Mass
‘A and B Ill); therefore, the final movement in
Mass compositions. It consists of three invoca-
tions: “Agnus Dei, qui tollis peccata mundi:
miserere nobis. Agnus Dei, ... miserere nobis.
‘Agnus Dei, ... dona nobis pacem.” It was intro-
duced into the Roman Mass by the Greek Pope
Sergius I (687-701), There exist about 300 melo-
dies, 20 of which are in present-day use. The
most common structure of the music is a aa or
aba. See ApGC, p. 418.
The Agnus Dei was retained in the first Eng-
lish Prayer Book (1549) but was suppressed in
the second (1552). It is now commonly used in
the Anglican service.
In the polyphonic Masses of the 16th century,
the third invocation is often composed in a more
involved style, using special contrapuntal de-
vices, particularly canons. Examples are found
in *L’Homme armé Masses of Josquin and La
Rue (triple, quadruple mensuration canon; see
24
AIR
HAM, no. 89; ApNPM, p. 181) and in many of
the Masses of Palestrina.
Agogic. An accent is said to be agogic if it is
effected not by dynamic stress or by higher pitch
but by longer duration of the note [see Accent].
The German term Agogik (translated “agogics”)
is used to denote all the subtleties of perform-
ance achieved by modification of tempo, as dis-
tinct from Dynamik (dynamics), i.c., gradations
that involve variety of intensity. Thus, the use
of rallentando and accelerando, of tempo rubato,
the dwelling on certain notes, as well as rests,
breathing signs, fermatas, etc., all fall under
‘Agogik. The term was introduced by H. Rie-
mann (Musikalische Dynamik und Agogik, 1884)
to describe those deviations from strict tempo
and rhythm that are necessary for an intelligent
rendering of the musical phrase.
Agréments [F.]. The ornaments introduced in
French music of the 17th century, which were
finally adopted into all European music and
were generally indicated by stenographic signs
or notes in small type. The agréments are charac-
terized by a definitely stereotyped melodic con-
tour, a close relationship with a single note of
the melody to be ornamented, and a small me-
lodic range. See Ornamentation II. PA.
Aguinaldo [Sp.]. Religious folksong of Spanish
origin based on texts praising Jesus, the saints,
or the angels, sung throughout Latin America
Prevailingly modal, it has a simple melodic struc-
ture and follows the conventional pattern of
refrain (estribillo)-stanza (copla)-refrain (estri-
billo). Also called alabanza, adoracién, and
*villancico. 10-5.
Aida. Opera in four acts by Verdi (libretto by A.
Ghislanzoni), commissioned by the Khedive of
Egypt for the celebration of the opening of the
Suez Canal and produced in Cairo, 1871. Setting
Egypt under the Pharaohs. Although reputedly
making use of a few Egyptian musical themes,
the general style is that of Italian grand opera.
Striking features are the brief atmospheric prel-
ude (in place of a conventional operatic over-
ture) and the use of a few “leitmotivs.
Air. (1) French 17th- and 18th-century term
for song in general [see under Chanson]. Air @
boire, drinking song. (2) In French opera and
ballet of the 17th-18th centuries, an instrumen-
tal or vocal piece designed to accompany danc-
ing but not cast in one of the standard dance
patterns such as the minuet, gavotte, etc. Some-