TE ii ciapies we focus on convcotton processes anclated withthe change i phase ofa fluid. In particular, we consider processes that can occur at a solid-liquid or solid-vapor interface, namely. boiling and condensation. For these cases latent heat effects associated with the phase change are significant. The change from the liquid to the vapor state duc to ransfer from the solid surface; conversely, condensation of a ‘vapor to the liquid state results in heat transfer to the solid surface. Since they involve fluid motion, boiling and condensation are classified as forms of the convection mode of heat transfer. However, they are characterized by unique features. ‘phase change, heat transfer to or from the fluid can occur without influenc- temperature. In fact, through boiling or condensation, large heat transfer rates may be achieved with small temperature differences. In addition to the latent heat ly, two ‘other parameters are important in characterizing the processes, namely, the surface tension at the liquid-vapor interface and the density difference between the two phases. This ence induces a buoyancy force, which is proportional to gp; — pe). Because of combined Iatent heat and buoyancy-driven flow effects, boiling and condensation heat transfer coeffi- cients and rates are generally much larger than those characteristic of convection heat transfer without phase change. Many engincering applications that are characterized by high heat fluxes involve boi and condensation. In a closed-loop power cycle, pressurized liquid is converted to vapor in a boiler. After expansion in a turbine, the vapor is restored to its liquid state in a condenser, ‘whereupon it is pumped to the boiler to repeat the cycle. Evaporators, in which the boiling process occurs, and condensers are also essential components in vapor-compression refrigera- tion eyeles. The high heat transfer coeflicients associated with boiling make it attractive to consider for purposes of managing the thermal performance of advanced electronics equip- ment. The rational design of such components dictates that the associated phase change processes be well understood. 10.2 Boiling Modes When evaporation occurs at a solid-liquid interface, it is termed boiling. The process ‘occurs when the temperature of the surface T, exceeds the saturation temperature Ty, cOrre- sponding to the liquid pressure. Heat is transferred from the solid surface to the liquid, and the appropriate form of Newton's law of cooling is Gl = WT, — Ta) = hAT, (0.3) where AT, Tag is termed the excess temperature. The process is characterized by the Formation of vapor bubbles, which grow and subsequently detach from the surface. Vapor bubble growth and dynamics depend, in a complicated manner, on the excess temperature, the nature of the surface, and thermophysical properties of the fluid, such as its surface tension. In turn, the dynamics of vapor bubble formation affect liquid motion near the sur- face and therefore strongly influence the heat transfer coefficient. Boiling may occur under various conditions. For example, in pool boiling the liquid is quiescent and its motion near the surface is due to free convection and to mixing induced by bubble growth and detachment. In contrast, for forced convection boiling, fluid motion is induced by external means, as well as by free convection and bubble-induced mixing. Boiling may also be classified according to whether it is subcooled or saturated. In sub- ‘cooled boiling, the temperature of most of the liquid is below the saturation temperature and bubbles formed at the surface may condense in the liquid. In contrast, the temperature of the liquid slightly exceeds the saturation temperature in sarurated boiling. Bubbles formed at the surface are then propelled through the liquid by buoyancy forces, eventually escaping from a free surface.