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ww
IqQdG
aOdGq d cQ
H Gb hCG
dG QN H dG
N qCG hH h
: qJGC
109
11
HCG
G hCG gG Y
qdG G QGZ Y dPh
QdG Y q J
HLE
G
U
H
q
d
1 IQ
108
CG
MCG , q
JH
K ,dq dG G
dG cCG q
,SCG eSG
e
q
e qf
IQq dG
EG I
J
V
c
j
IV
S
f q e 1922
dG gH
jo zcc
.gH PH
III
IQq dG P
.1
: We c
? je e g
G
bq
q oJ
YJ o
2
7
oo
GqQ
Y
M
08
6/
08
06/
23/
`````Kh q ````SCG
q YCG
Y
f
GC
q
: Kh qSCG
db cCG hCG Kh
iH qj
q f
IG ShQ
q d dG
IQ SCH qjoe
qNJ Y YJ
dG q qdG
dG YCG SGQO
q dG dG q oJ h
QU
qF
IqQdG
dG
jQJ
Yd
?je e g
j Y e
J ,q q dG
ee hCG LdJ
qNQJ qY
H SCG
,Gh bGe) jhdG
(...,c ,q
WedG
q G FHdG Qq dG
q dG AHdG
cdG
q AHdG
GQ`` ` ` ` G
.q eh qde H q eCG
.RYh bf H q eCG
.FHc IQGd q fH SQ CG
.dH FHc IQGO CG
.RGq dH FHc IQGO CG
.ne IQGO FHdG QdG G Oq MCG
.FHdG Qq dG pGKCJ q J
n QH bCG
.FHdG QdG Iq T bCG
.FHdG qJdG bCG
.qde b FK e qe b FK Fe e qCG
13
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
-8
-9
-10
q G FHdG Qq dG
`q G Qq dG e -1
hG Q`q dG -2
-3
G hG Qq dG UN
q
q G FHdG Qq dG dd q
14
FHdG Qq q dG e
q G
1
? q G Q q q dG g e
A```JCGh eq C ```JCG
?q G FHdG Qq dH OG e
L OY qaj dG Qq d Gjeo q FHc GQq J qaJ CG Gqde g qCG j Gg g
? jq QH hCG
MCGh q `````LCG
1.b dG
1.a dG
e 2 dG
q q fH eSG IQGq dG CG
cq e q G eq dG qCG e cq C q dG
q dG H ce gG h RGq dH
.B h A
2 dG
15
ie Y MCG e
q SCGh IQGdG ZCG
.(3dG) q G eq dG
3 dG
4 dG
aC
q Gh qMCG
FHdG Qq dG QH J jH Ue
qfC NCG q dG q j hCq G cdG
n
. B dG EG A dG e a
jdG RL qCG jo jdG H Uh ZQ fdG HdG NCG q dG TEG
.r guJG c GQq J q LQG q FHdG IQGdG aj hCG ~ed eGh G
``````SCG
g Mh G FHc QqH IQGq dG qJ dG iNCG jdG ILCGh qjQdGh qG Od aN
.Gq e GQq J Qq dG Gg e q jo ,gG c a Qhj Qq H IQGq dG qJ CG d ILCG
16
q G Q q q dG I q T
A```JCGh eq C ```JCG
G QdG Iq d UGG qdH gZh qMGh qdG VhdG TdG AGVCG qJ
?ioJ j n G q G Qq d q UN
q CG a ,e
MCGh q `````LCG
:ddG GdH OhJC
q G
f e q e Qq H jJ RL *
.(TBF qd jo ) UN
q
FHc e *
(e NCG) q e q U *
dq e *
Wp b *
Ue
SCG *
q
.5dG q fH eSG IQGdG CG
G r S NCj ,ITe
n IQGdG Z KEG
oa
n gq j CG EG a T QGMG
LQ e hj e YS dh jT Qf e
Z b Y c dG dG EG dG
QG MG EG NCG G g O j q K ,IQG dG
...dGhO Ggh gq da jQdG
QGUEH q G q dG
q j bdG f
Iq e dh G gq J qc NCG eh
.Iq
5 dG
aC
q Gh qMCG
FHdG Qq dG Iq T q H qEG gq J QGSG Yh G S QGMG Iq T q dG j
s
.IQGdG QdG G qJ Y dO a q d qG edG qeCG .a q dG
17
``````SCG
.edG e Jq T q H n q j CG q G Qq d IQGdG fGQhO G q J Y IOjR
: G
q QdG
q jJ
.edG e Jq T hCG gG HK Z Qq J
q c g q G q FHdG Qq dG
.q e Qq H jJ RL q j q e Qq H IQGO jhJ Y QOb RL q c
:Me
IQGO qjQH hCG L OY qdj dG QqdG e edG e Jq T lHKh Mh G P FHc QqJ qc
.q e Qq J g q e Z Qq J q c ,dH .G Qq dH
o jo eo
Je q bCG
FHc Qq H e L e jhJ Y QOb Z
q G OdG j jW SG Iq e H
?J q nY NBG d CG gG j UCG QqdG qC g ,GP .q e
G
q qJdG
GQq J Gqdjo q M HdG HdG n G jdG GRn L H q j dG q UG g e
? Iq dGh qJG Gq e q FHc
MCGh q `````LCG
G OhJC
q G HdG HdG Gq e EG aVEH
.HHP
jdG RL Uh e 5dG cJ H bCG
.(6dG) HHdG G (TBF qdG)
:Gq L q g
N
q JCG SQdG Ve FHdG qJdG Q XE
G H dh 27 H Mn G q dG jdG
jdG
q H dG e AfG H q e Z
.q dhCq G
6 dG
18
aC
q Gh qMCG
j qdG qCG Y dO SCG hCG YCG EG cq h TdG ce q FdG dG AH o Yn
ce M UGG OdG cq h MGh e JK Y eq CG .q FHc GqJJ b H
dG) qjG dG l qe l qJJ n G qdG qaj dG qJdG Gg qCG Y qj a TdG
.(edGh G
``````SCG
g q G qJdH jo HK GqJJ b H dG (...jq QdGh G OdG) GqdG J EG aVEH
. u q G qJdH jo jq G dG HK Z GqJJ b H Gqde
.q e qJJ Gqd a dG dG Gqde eq GC q e qJJ Gqd hCq G dG e GqdG n oJ dH
.n G qdG qaj q e qJJ Y
l f e IQGO q e Qq J q c
:Me
U Y VY u `H q G qJdG EG Qj dH .U J H q e Fja QGe
q c EG IOY Qj
. I Y VY i `H Iq G Iq dh
Je q bCG
qJJ QJ
q 7dG hCq G dG SdG q .1
u2 qJJ QJ
q qa dG dG SdG qeCG u1
.t edG dH
.Gq e CG Gq e u2 h u1 e
q c c EG q JCG
JRH dG qdG
q dh e J jQCG .2
qJdG hCG u1 qJdG qEG b H j CG
?GP ?fCG qJdG g e .u2
7 dG
19
hG Qq q dG
2
hG Q q q dG e
A```JCGh eq C ```JCG
MCGh q `````LCG
1 q dG
:ddG Gq H OhJC
q G
TBF q e Qq J qde *
.Ue
SCG *
q
bQ da *
.e NCG NBGh MCG e q U *
dq e*
.2 dG
q q fH eSG IQGq dG CG
MCa qdH bq dG ddG UhCG
Iq e b hdH
q j ddG qCG
2 dG
.qJd dSh Le
:qJd ddGh LG dG e fG h hdH q j eq dG qCG MCa IQGq dG ZCG
dG e NCG q dG
o TEGh Le d ddG J e MCG q dG
o TEG eGj
.ddG
q
TBF
20
aC
q Gh qMCG
j FHdG Qq dG qCG j MCG q dG TEGh Le d ddG J eGJ
qdd LG dG QhO d A dG qCG j Ggh B b EG A b e qdG QN IQGdG
NCG q dG TEG eGJ Y dH dGh ddG dG QhO d B dG qCG M
dG EG B dG e qdG QN IQGdG j Qq dG qCG CG ,dS d ddG J e
o hGJ
o rPn EG .dS b EG
q A qCG M LG dG g QU B dG qCG j Ggh A
hGJ
o Y f A EG B e fjS e B b EG A b e qdG
n QN IQGq dG Qq dG pjS
.QGhOCG H e Bh A dG
``````SCG
g q oJ Leh dS H edG e hdH q J jq L H q J Iq e q FHc GqJJ g
.Hhe GqJJ GqJdG
.Hhe GQqJ QhH q j hdH rgqJG j QqH oe IQGO qoj he qJJ P qde qc
G hG qJ dGq
MCGh q `````LCG
.h HdG Gq G H OhJC
q G
H gdG qJdG Iq G g qMC dh HdG Hd SG dG cdG f EG OYCG
MCG Gg bdG ddG SGH b mGK Y
q c H bCa UJ cCH qdG r n b
:dG SdG hL Y
t(s)
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
u(V)
8,48
-6
- 8,48
-6
t(s)
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
u(V)
8,48
-6
- 8,48
-6
8,48
21
Heh He L e e
n e Y MCa t edG dH u qJdG QJ
q
q fH SQCG
.G hG qJdH hG qJdG Gg e j dd .(3 dG)
3 dG
Me
dH u qJ dG Qq J p XoCG CG
,HHdG Ge TT Y t edG
G G N qdG UhCG d d
MG qdG j dG G e
d Se V e 28 dG
EG U
q JC a jq O dG q S dh
K (4dG) HHJ SQ Ige
.3dG
``````SCG
4 dG
.edG dH L QH
q q j e HhG GqJdG e g
.q L Hhe GqJJ L e T q j he qJJ q c q j
22
Je q bCG
H t edG dH u1 FHdG qJdG QJ
q (5 dG) ndqdG SdG e (1) Sq dG q
t edG dH u2 FHdG qJdG QJ
q q (2) Sq dG M LGQq O (Iqde hCG) ejO r nb
.e FHc QqJ e rW H
? CG L ? CG he ? CGq e : u2(t) h u1(t) jqJdG e
q c q UN q JCG
(1)
(2)
5 dG
UG
a dc d c EG .q e Qq J g edG e Jq T h gG
l HdG FHdG Qq dG
.q e Qq J
.edG e jG b HK Z CG ,q e qJJ Y f Qq J g q e Qq J
q c
.Gq e GqJJ b H M GPEG qEG q e Qq H FHdG nIQGq dG o qdG qj
edG e fG hHh Gq dG Y da Le ge e , FHdG GqJdG
.Hhe GqJJ s o a
e edG e gqJ UGe fH q j Hhe GQq J nG IQGdG qdj hG qJdG
.dGhO Ggh LG EG ddG a ddG EG LG
.
n q L H edG e QJ
q q j dG hG qJdG g q G hG qJdG
.q G hG qJd e G FHdG qJdG
23
: f Y YC
q G
FG q M Y q CG
1 bQ j``
.1
.3
2 bQ j``
3 bQ j``
.: e U
n e
q c eCG eY r V q K ddG fdG Hc r Yp CG
.q e FHc Qq H e IQGO jd
q G OdG n jo
.1
.Jq T q eh gG HK Qq J q c g q G FHdG Qq dG
.2
.jq G dG HK Z qJJ
q c g q G qJdG
.3
.4
.he Qq J g q e FHc Qq J
q c .5
Le b qda G IQGdG Gq e hCG Gq e q FHdG Qq dG c AGS
.6
.
q c dS bh
.q e Qq J g L he Qq J
q c
.7
4 bQ j``
(3)
(2)
(1)
.Z Y q e Qq J a S dG cdG Oq M .1
p .2
.IQGdG Z Y q dG Y j dG dH mcJ qc H rU
q dG dM
cq dG
FGO Aj
(1) cJ
Aj
(2)
cJ
q j
(3)
cJ
25
5 bQ j``
:q dG J e qJ
.Gq e GqJJ .1
.Hhe GqJJ .2
26
H q LCG
? HHdG Ge SCG c
:GG TT Y FHc qJJ QXEG e qCG d
1
11
10
7
8
9
10
11
bJ /J
( 0 , ~ , ~ ) AfG Qq R
A NG
dG
(A NG Y
q e mK Ne) B NG
G V
27
1
2
3
4
5
6
Qq dG SGH GG qTCG .1
0 VG Y
J q MNBG hCG G
qN T TdG Y HK qFdG dG J CG EG
J d
11
AfG QR VCG .2
Qq dG SGH gcJh
QdG jOCG .5
hG Qq q dG q UN
G
A```JCGh eq C ```JCG
J dG ILCG Y
220V-50Hz HdH OG e
(1T) ?q dG AHdH
110 V Y c dG qFHdG ILCG H d
Y c dGh o
q H jo e SG e q H GP
(2T) ?HdG H OG e ? 220V-110V
1 dG
2 dG
G hG qJ dGIQ
q hOr
aC
q Gh qMCG
SQq dG oJr CG dG Sq dG EG LQCG
hG qJdG EG
o ar q J H dGh HdG
q
. q dG j dPh ,(3dG)G
3 dG
29
q a Sd G dG dG qbOCG
Jj He iU n We e e
qfCG
q
fh (4 T) Aj (1,2,3) jGdG H T
G T c e qfEG q K) Bj (1,2,3) jdG
jdG f J dG Iq G qEa JNG dG
`f g `J Aj jGdG f Y Bj
. t1= t2= t3=80S
`e dG f NCj u qJdG qCG j Gg
He Ga Y qJG f QJ
q
q j u qJdG qEG a ( t =80S) jheh
PEG a ,edG dH (qjQhO H hCG) qjQhO
.
q QhO q Fja QGe
IQhO s o a t =80S q edG Iq G J eq CG
.qJdG
4 dG
``````SCG
Om n eo KEG (qJG f QJ
q e) jq G dG f NCj qfC q QhO Fja QGe G hG qJdG
T JdG H dEG Qjh qJdG nIQhO e IMGdG q jheh de
.q L he QGe Qq dG Iq T qEa q L Hhe q FHc GQq J e IQGO jo L he qJJ q c qCG
.q QhO QGe Jq Th jq QhO lIgX G
n hG Qq dG qE a dHh
.KMCG dG qJdG IQhOh Jq T IQhO f g G hG QqdG IQhO
.edG oIMh o fdG g q dG JMhh d Hb QGe IQhdG
30
Je q bCG
6dG SG cdG iNCG Iq e CG
G hG Q dG
q OOJ
q
MCGh q `````LCG
SG Qq dG SGH IQqGd qG qJdG IQhO b e fCG ,cdG f Y AHEG e
Y HHdG SdG q dG dP bdG f HJCGh TBF qdG RL LGh Y OLG
.0,5s J CG EG IQhdG b e dG UGhCGh GG TT
:Me
Y HKh VGh HHJ SQ Y d
Qq dG SGH G q YCG CG fCG TdG
.Gd k W 2
aG Y q aCG IG idG WG q YCG
MCG Gg .(5dG) IMGh fK q dG
Jq e OOq j IQhdG dGh UCG G qCG
IQhdG GP qJdG qEG bC a IMGdG f dG
fdG e hj N OOq J d T=0,5s
.IMGdG
5 dG
? T IQhdGh N OOq dG H rPEG bdG g e
N=1/T g IMGdG fdG idG WG OY qE a qdH. Tg MGdG UCG G I
qe
T=1/N g UCG G I
q e qCG j Ggh , N g IMGdG fdG idG WG OY CG
31
``````SCG
dG GQdG
q OY gh OOq dH G hG FHdG Qq dG jq QhO q J IQhdG EG aVEH
N JdG H OOq dG EG IOY Qj .IMGdG fdG HGh
.KMCG dG qJdG OOq Jh Jq T OOq J f g G hG Qq dG OOq J
.Hz geQh ,Jr p dG g q dG JMhh d Hb QGe OOq dG
:g JdG Ye e
1kHz = 103 Hz : kHz eQh ,JgdG 1MHz = 106 Hz : MHz eQh ,JgG 1GHz = 109 Hz : GHz eQh ,JgG N = 1 :g H bdGh , T JQhH Je G hG Qq d N OOq dG
T
Je q bCG
FHdG qJdG Qd
q qfH SQ 6dG q
.edG dH G
AHdG OOq J b Oq MCG ,SdG Y OYH
.q dG
6 dG
G hG qJd idG dG
MCGh q `````LCG
:ddG Gq H OhJC
q G
,12V ed , eM L he qJJ qde *
,HHdG Ge *
,Wb *
.Ue
S CG *
q
GhQP qCG MCG .HHdG Ge TT Y b H12V qdG qaj dG qJdG o p XoCG
Q dH IXe gh aCG iG f e wc lIOLe njhh HHdG SdG
.(7.a dG) edG
32
u2 =. -17 V h u1 = 17 V
7.b dG
7.a dG
:q Y UJ
jhdG ieh GhQdG ie H J dG aG bCG qbO cCH hCG u1 bCG d
bT e b T q FV H Y MCG Gg .G e HEH dPh
.2 * 17V dW (7.b dG)
u2
``````SCG
: hCd He fO bh Um ib b H MhGe G hG qJdG j edG dH q J
- Um u + Um
qJd
Um idG dG b e HHdG Ge q
Je q bCG
Z MCa 6 V ed eM L he qJJ qde SH HdG HdG YCG
.dbT 3,4 div Y e q FV H Y G
Gd dbdG qSG qCG Y 8,5 V hJ qJd Um idG dG qCG e qJCG
.5 V/div Y pV
o
33
G hG qJd dq dG dG
MCGh q `````LCG
:ddG Gq H OhJC
q G
6 V-12 V ed eM L he qJJ qde *
12 V q e qJJ qde *
6 V q e qJJ qde *
(12 V) FHc e *
da *
Wb *
.Ue
SCG *
q
q fH eSG q FHdG IQGq dG CG
.G hG qJdG qde SH 8dG
IQGdG ZCGh 12 V `H dEG QG jdG QNCG
HdG dG EG ddG jh G qa
.U = 12 V
8 dG
hG qJdG qde Ve
q HdG f YCG
G q a 12 V q G qJdG qd G
f EG ddG j c Iq dG H
. 12 V HdG dG
``````SCG
d j dG q G qJdG b b hJ q dG qJdG q j QG G hG qJdG qj
.Iq dG H YTEG
.ddG SGH G hG qJd dq dG dG SJ
Um = U 2 :g H bdGh Um idG H Je G hG qJd U dq dG dG
Je q bCG
FHdG qJdG Qd
q qfH SQ 9dG q
.edG dH G
i`dG dG Oq MCG SdG Y OYH .1
.q dG AHdG qJd
.q dG AHdG qJd dq dG dG MCG .2
9 dG
G hG QdG
q I d
q ddG
q dG
MCGh q `````LCG
:ddG Gq H OhJC
q G
dq a b P L he qJJ qde *
.12 V `d jhe
12 V q e qJJ qde *
(12 V) FHc e *
eeCG *
Wb *
.Ue
SCG *
q
q fH eSG q FHdG IQGdG CG
10 dG
.G hG qJdG qde SG e 10 dG
.I HK b EG eeCG jh G qa IQGdG ZCG
G q a 12 V q G qJdG qd G hG qJdG qde Ve
q HdG f YCG
Iq d dq dG dG g dG J qGE a I dG f EG eeCG j c Iq dG H
.G hG QqdG
Im = I. 2 qCG qHCG CG qJd IG jdG f qJH :Me
35
``````SCG
j dG q G Qq dG Iq T n b o b hJh G hG Qq dG Iq T H q J Ql Ge dq dG Iq dG
.Iq dG H YTEG d
.eeCG SGH G hG Qq dG Iq d dq dG dG SJ
Im = I 2 : M Im idG H Je G hG Qq dG Iq d I dq dG dG
Je q bCG
.0,5A hJ I
q T P qFHc GQqJ OdG J qj e
q d
?L he Qq H J g
?OdG H dG G hG Qq d dq dG Iq dG b g e ,dc c EG
.1
.2
UG
.i Jq T h Y qdj dG u qJdG
q QhO FHc QqJ q G hG Qq dG
Y sdG u qJd Qq j dG FG Qd
qedG Iq G g T q G hG QqdG IQhO
q
HG FG GQdG
J Oo Y g N OOq dG H ,fG hHh g c i Jq d hCG
q
.IMGdG fdG HGh
1
N =
2 ; Im = I
36
f Y YC
q G
FG q M Y q CG
1 bQ j``
qdG qJqdG
IQhqdG
Jg
FjdG QGG
b IMh
b IMh eQ
3 bQ j``
: j q dG G q J .1
dS hCG Le qEG hG qJdG j
GG SGH dq dG b SJ h da SGH qJd idG dG SJ
. 2.U hJ PEG U dq dG b e cCG qJd Um idG dG
.JdG g IQhdG b IMhh ddG g qJdG b IMh
.edG dH hG qJdG b q J
qJd q HHJ SQ GG dG q .2
:qJdG qCG q j SdG Y OYH .FHc
.L q e
.q e
.QhO Z he
37
.3
4 bQ j``
. t edG dH i FHdG Qq dG Iq T QJ
q SG G q
jQNG H e dG HLEG nNG
:Sb H MG
.(L / q e) Qq J G Qq dG .1
Qq d (idG / dq dG) Iq dGY dG q .2
.FHdG
.FHdG Qq dG (IQhO / OOq J) X dG q .3
5 bQ j``
q HHJ SQ HQCG H G dG
q j
Qq Rh G Qq R qCG Y .q F H c G qJ d
VG f Gq e jq O dG q SG
.SdG
q d dH
.qL Hhe qFHdG GqJdG qCG qH .1
cCG GP GqJd q HHdG SdG Oq M .2
.gUCGh ib b
cCG GP GqJd q HHdG SdG Oq M .3
.gUCGh IQhO
cCG GP GqJd qHHdG SdG Oq M .4
.UCGh OOq J
38
6 bQ j``
. t edG Qh qde
r nb H qJd u
t(ms)
u(V)
-6
- 10,4 - 12 - 10,4
dG Y dG hG qj
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
-6
10,4
12
10,4
:e Gh
HG dG G
q
q cdG f
,FHc qde ,(D2) h (D1) q e eq U ,eq dG j ehe .qdG r H Ue da u=f(t) :edG dH qdG
r n b H qJdG QJ
q dG dG G qh
39
(D2)
hCG
(D1)
[0;4s]
[4;8s]
[8;12s]
(D1)
(D2)
9 bQ j``
HHdG SdG : 1 dG
GG V QGQRCG : 2 dG
10 bQ j``
41
d dG Ld VJ SQ : 2 dG
c d FHc H q : 1 dG
q dG AHdG
q dG AHdG -4
43
q dG AHdG
FNh dG AHdG W
A```JCGh eq C ```JCG
G FHdG OGq dG LGh q dG Y
Y YG G e CGbCG (1dG)
UdG Y eq CG, 10A-40A h 50Hz ,127V-220V
20A hCG 10A gh IMGh k Hc qEG LCG a d PG
.e
d qaJ dG G FHdG qJdG qCG qcCJCa
hP he qJJ g RdGh AHd fdG cdG
2 dG
q
q c Y 220V H dG o Wh H UG
RGdH ILCG J cJ Y qdOCG qc ,RL
IQY g dG dG qCG CG dG W H
cQCG n 220V dG
n pd Yn e Y
ch 2 dG c dSG J LCG e qG
.AHdG q dG
q c qcDj
H UN
RL a G FHdG OGq dG eq BG
q
.G q FHdG b qdG
44
MCGh q `````LCG
3dG fH SG cdG REH dPh M de T Ic eEH
: ddG Gq H OhJC
q G
(6V)
q L he qJH jJ RL *
6V He KK *
6V HdG jh hG FHdG QdH j q *
IcQ Y r s e jr Z e e
6V qJJ e *
q
OZCG KKh H Ue
AGM OZCG KK e e IMGdG fe
j nYl HQCG *
s
q
.IcQ Y qc s eh H dc Ue
AbQR
q
eeCG *
GPEG HQCH AcG ) WGb N *
. (WH GOhe
s jdG RL c
afCG AbQRh AGM Ue
SCG *
q
.(3dG) cdH bCG
MCG e
q SCGh a K WdG ZCG
dG aCG qK Yk J iNCG WGdG ZCG
ILCG OY OGORG qc qfCG MCa e
.cCG I dq a Iq T eeCG qS G
3 dG
``````SCG
220V dq a b hPh 50 Hz OOq J hP L he qJJ G FHdG qJdG
4 dG
5 dG
f ch G FHdG Qq dG W qJ n a
? e q dG GdGh UTCG
cJ Y dG f e cSCG q dG jn GP
QqJ qG SCG qC g ? de FHc T
? XdG f d d (4dG) FHc
? HJ ZQ Xh r fCG jr N
n Cp d g dH
hCG Lqdc FHdG BH UG
TG Ohl
q
s J GP
(5dG) ? m cn P dK m N
n Cp ddG
q
BG H g Y Le qFHc Iq n pH fMCG f GP
? dH Ue
J eY ddG
s
q hCG Lqdc FHdG
jGH CG ,OGq dG AGQh kITe scjo GP ?UdG QhO g e
Y VdG UdGh UGdG J
q c GPh ,FdG dG
? G Ne RQH e s G (6dG)jRdG Md
AH SG H sG FHdG QqdG e Ohs n oj GP
? SdG e
? se H q FHdG ILCG H
n jo GP
6 dG
``````SCG
N Y G
n EG ddG q e q FHdG Qq dG njo
U
n e Sh QdG S ,rS e e MGdG q j
(7dG).n pjG ndG s oj VQCH
7 dG
hJ b GP q a GqJJ
q G q FHdG dG j
.jG dG Wh QdG S W e q c H 220V
Y qdG Qj IjG SCGh QdG SCG H d
SC MCG dGh IjG SCd nQRCG ndG cdG
.QdG
Y Y qj N a q FHc dBG e T
j eY *
l
(9dG) q FHc Iq g EG Vq j QdG S Y G g
L Y FHdG Qq dG Qhe H dPh dG q M EG H J CG
UG
TG jhJ Lhn dP Od .VQCG EG QdG S e
q
o Uj (5dG) m cn Pn dK Nn Cp q FHdG BH
9 dG
47
10.b dG
10.a dG
11 dG
Je q bCG
,GWCG KK GP H UG
jT o q G Oh
u
q jo dG FHdG BGh ILCG e g
.cdG ddG N
n Cp G P edG Se gh ,
q fCG a MGhh l co P e pKG
? IQcG BGh ILCG g e pU
o dG IOq G W g e .1
q M jdG Y kUe d
q fCG n dG j CG j dBG hCG RG e AL
q CH .2
.HLEG qYCG ? qXh j
48
UG
.dG qJJ r an n W H RGdH ILCG cd s e qdG FHdG dG
GqJJ H dG jh
q e q FHc cJ
q c q SSCG jG dGh QdG S
cdG q e e gZh UGdGh jQCdG S qeCG .fOH q a 220V qL Hhe
.q FbdG Xd eR a
q G
edG YGb GMG e q H o W dSG sdh IOq eh Ye
q oae qdG AHd
.jOd H UG
q
49
f Y YC
q G
FG q M Y q CG
1 bQ j``
:e U n e
q c eCG eY r V q K ddG fdG Hc r Yp CG
.jQCdG Sh jG dG H qJJ Lj *
.dH dG q FHdG ILCG scoJ *
.dG q VJ Ua cJ ZQ G OQGh q FHdG dG MG *
Ohe
s e cJ QdG Sh dd
q G dG H S
q
n f e md
: dG g .q VJ UH
.qG cdG IQe IQGO J
t H q FHdG QqdG noj *
.q FHc H ddG
q g j dG dG j *
S OLh e qEG dG N e ddG
q j dG dG
n
o UdG j *
.jQCdG
.N
q c e ddG
q j dG dG
n
o UdG j *
e J
n OQCGh VJ UH Z de FHdG dG fc GPEG
h WdG a EG qdG hO N k sS dP LCG e
n r a aZ qe
H .(jG dGh QdG S H Te S) G Z b
n
r Z
: q dG
.VQCG Y
n dj dG qC AS
q CH
n oJ d *
p qC AS
.Qq dG fG Y j IQe IQGO J
q d
n
q CH
n oJ d *
.
n p L Y q S FHdG QdG qC dG N EG Vs e
n fCG *
50
.1
.2
.3
3 bQ j``
:e cd SQ GG dG j
q
220 V
10A 10A
32A
`````Kh q ````SCG
UGG jGdG eCG WdG YGh OdG Y dG YGHh LddGh dG q J H
HL EG dT e OdG ec Ie Gg fY dG AHdG UCG dG
he gh a dG FcQ e JH M jQ EG gM eh JJe EG dS eh
dG AGS edG IG aGe e g e a ,h IOq e dP e VGZCGh ,j e c
Je g e eh ,fhdGh FHdG GdGh Gq G Jh IQfEc G hCG
YGQdG WG AMEG Y Yjh MdG j e eh Y dGh jObG SDH
...jdG
51
n e
n GPEG QOb a FHdG Qq d q G bdH d fEG L qCG dh ,bGdG
,kqe c GPEG 25 mA oJq T J CG Qq J f Y 25 V H j r S
r n W o MU
. 5 mA pJq T o b iq J dG Qq dG qEG j qfCG qGE
q H q Mh `L `q H `H `qKCG `j 20 mAh 10 mA H Qq dG oIq T b M
n hGJ GPEa
.dG
n dG
q qJ dG ha qdG Y jRq J mt J GMEG EG Oq Dj 30 mAh 25 mA H
.q e qfCch
e n cCG q dG Y dG qbH po d q G G qfEa 50 mA Qq dG Iq T b nH GPEG eq CG
.FbO HQCG
sj CG Y l cq Ce OG n KEG ojdGh q G oN
q dG q FHdG r dH poG g Odh Gnpd
:j n c ng hHh H
e EG j G UCG qEGh kITe rp nhOh FHdG Qq dG KCJ Y r dH G
o r Y .1
.qe p Z mpH Qq dG b EG GSEH rPn EG
o da ,ojo
.(198 ) qfG jH qJg Oo SG .2
rH q J YUG m qJ o jW) d k a qJ TfEG qj d
q hCq G SEG o J .3
jo
n
q e hCG W
o oG c rCG On U GPEGh ,(oG na EG poG a e AGdG
.(dG Y qbe G
o b c GPEG) d q LQN mrdpH Qn Op jo CG
dDG
:SCG
.fOH AHdG SG Oq Y .1
?MdG jq dG MG AMEG Y IYd AHdG SG VZ qj CG p jo n a .2
.(q Y
n bGe EG HLEG OSG) ? TH
q AHdG SG EG IYq dH OG e .3
?n cCG h
s bCG hCG q a 12VEG q a 220V e dG qJJ j G n jo GP .4
?g e ?qdG AHd iNCG o W g rg dG
pcPo e EG aVEH .5
q
52
qJCG
: We c .1
:dG cCG q K ,ddG GQdG Y
q J dG G hCG gG Y HCG
5
G qJdG H q j q eR Iq e
FHdG Qq d BG Wb
IQhdG Y
ddH SJ L qJJ d U
q e qJd U
q e Z
OOq dG b IMh
dG Qq d U
6
7
8
2
3
4
6
8
2
II
7
IV
III
?IQdG MU g e .2
dh WedG SGQH q gG 1894 S H qaJh 1857 S Qg dh CG Fja g
q fehQ bG fH ILGG hG JH ,SG Y MCG ,dP QdG e jdG
:j c IVEG I e
IV
II
III
53
jhH SCG
VG
GdG
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qdG AHdG
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54
cdG AHdG
MH dG -5
SdH dG -6
q FHdG dG -7
...dG qj eY AdG
q
? IdG RL TT e j X qj e qc H j dG IjdG J
q
Z S QG e Y N L
H
fMC
G
FdG
j
IQ
dG
q
b
J
H
q
q
? dP
q jo .HH
? gQOe g e ? jCGh e ... YdGh YdG ,dG
55
MH dG
5
dG IgX
A```JCGh eq C ```JCG
aqT bQh a Y , G dG jJ Y oJ dG G dG S e
?...H Y
? dG e IQU N Y N NH SMG aC
q G n
MCGh q `````LCG
: ddG Gq H OhJC
q G
d`oe U `e) `fHEG e ` b @
(jdH
LdG e b @
AGdG e b @
jG e b @
IU Ijc e e
RL :FHc SGf @
q
e bO H q Yo r n dG
q d e
(1dG)jG
1 dG
2b dG
2a dG
3b dG
3a dG
56
aC
q Gh qMCG
cG jG H LdG b Wh AGdG H fHEG b W MEG KCH
qEG dG a qdG dG Mf e G LCG L q UN dG e
q c
.AHdG e q c j UCG CG J b qdG dG
qdG dG W Y IcG AHdG J G AG Y l M
r dG qCG h
.cdG AHdH
Me
.AHdH qKCJ qUN EG FHdG SGdH HdG HdG n G SGdG qJ LJ
``````SCG
.dG IgX qfGE : G LCG L Y IQOb Oq GG J MG KCH
.cdG AHdG e q c e L q c j
.dG Igd Tc IGOCG FHdG SGdG
q
Je q bCG
q K AGdG H fHEG b rW MCG qdOCG
FHdG SGdG e AGdG d qdG G q bCG
W e d M e SG dG Ij d a
.(4 dG) HdG HdG dG
? dP aC
q G n
4 dG
FHdG G
A```JCGh eq C ```JCG
MCGh q `````LCG
5 dG
OhJC
q G ,HdG HdG G Gq G EG aVEH
e Lh d b e e
RL gh FHc
q
e OGq S Y q fe S S jh qdG LdG
bQh SCG f EG q Th
o
q e Ub Y q oK qG
(5dG) .cd Hb q fe
57
``````SCG
.dG IgX Y d G oj RL FHdG G
Je q bCG
G Ub e Hq bCG q K TdG e H aW MCG qdOCGh SdG e H OhJC
q G
c dG c GPEG qEG G S Y J q fG bQdG qCG MCa FHdG
(7 dG) .e LLR e SGH
Gg j eY SdG d qdG dG jH q fG bQdG qKCJ Y qCG q HCG - 1
.MH HJ j dH ITe c NCG
.dG J q fG bQdG qKCJ Y aC
q G
? MH d Hb dG LCG
q c qCG HdG H KCG CG g - 2
7 dG
58
SdH dG
SdH dG IgX
A```JCGh eq C ```JCG
? MH qEG dG j g ? J jEG KEG ITe Vn Yn RdG TT Y N L
q H QT aC
q G n -
MCGh q `````LCG
1b dG
1a dG
1OY H
: ddG Gq H OhJC
q G
UdG hCG fHEG e b LdG e b AGdG e b jG e b .KG q FHc SGf j a H H e SGdG q bCG
( 1a dG) . B h A Jjc H YJ
q CG
hCG f HEG r n b e G MGh cCG
q M EG q bCG q K MEH U dG
cQJ e A IjdG e qdoG dG SdG
.fL dG SGdG
SGdG jL e q bCG q K fL dG JCG
( 1b dG) .MCG e
q SCGh H e
59
2b dG
2a dG
1OY H
: ddG Gq H OhJC
q G
UdG hCG fHEG e KG b LdG e KG b AGdG e b jG e b .FHc e -
3 dG
4 dG
aC
q Gh qMCG
f
60
``````SCG
.SdH j CG e oj MEH dG EG aVEH
Je q bCG
q jo .HH Z Se QG e Y N L
q H fMCG FdG j IQq dG qbJ H
? dP
61
q FHdG dG
7
AHdG GfCG
A```JCGh eq C ```JCG
? fHGh LdG r n b e
q c Hd IOq G f oJ GP @
e J qfCG qEG e d H FHc SGfq Ijc J e g c @
? dP aC
q G n .Y Ie aJ H dG H
MCGh q `````LCG
1 dG
2 dG
3 dG
: ddG Gq H OhJC
q G
UdG hCG fHEG e KG b LdG e KG b jG e iNCGh AGdG e b H qe cQ e e
eM q c j
q
.(1dG) .jG e bQ
MEH UdG hCG fHEG r n b cCG
r fe dG VCG q K (W AGdG b SH)
He qdG aW YL mcQ Y e
q c
(2dG) .G aJ H a
H LdG r nb SH H dG f YCG
.(3dG).MCG e
q SCGh fHEG
, r n b SH dh HdG f YCG
a LR e NBGh UH hCG fHEG e gMCG
.H G a dG P j H a J
q CG j
.(4dG)
4 dG
62
aC
q Gh qMCG
Y qj TdG b H qdGh HG dG rW o ao J ,fdGh hCG HdG
G dG
r W H ddG HdG
q G PdG eq CG .Y AHdG f f QX
Y J MH LdG d qdG dG Y J dG AHdG qCG Y dO a
.UdG hCG fHEG b Y J dG J
AHd K eq EG AHc QX MH dG Y j qfCG q dG QdG KCG d a
.jHEG H JG AHd K hCG LdG H JG
``````SCG
:Yf AHdG
.MH LdG IOq e Y J dG J f e gh qLLdG AHdG
.dH qde (dG QqH) hr en : e
.MH JGdG IOq e Y J dG J f e gh q JGdG AHdG
.AGa H qde UH hCG fHEG b : e
. Yf e fc qc HPJ H dG f e AHc q c aJ
Je q bCG
.MH n e G IOq e e ( T) b
q d
Gq G SH H H bCG qdG aW j dG AHdG f Y q JC .1
.HcQh jM b ,AGa b ,LR e b ,fHEG b : ddG FdG e SG
dG YdG q HCG MG HdG fHEGh LdG r b e GMGh SG b c GPEG .2
.MEH HJ H dG dGh (T)dG H S
FHdG
dG
q
A```JCGh eq C ```JCG
? ddG dH NBGh LG dH G OdG r n b MCG jo GP @
? dTG CGe g e .YGdG aGO q jo RL ddG jdG Y q jk YGdG N Od @
MCGh q `````LCG
AGS MH dG M BG q M EG H b dG QdG EG LdH
hCG SGdG
q Ijc GfG Iq M qCG MCG FHdG G SH hCG SGdG
q SH
b dJ qY Iq e e OGOJ M iNCG EG dM e J d qfG bQdG
.e jM H LdG e
.iNCG EG dM e J AHdG q c qCG SCG dH
63
aC
q Gh qMCG
LdG Y J dG AHdG q c
q c qCH qSCG AHdG q c H
q G NG d
T e IMGdG q J Fd Hb Zh He Gq L IU qc e fe
MH
q
.z e { JdG H d ej H q FHc
q FHc T e n q e OY e fe
q FHc T g q LLR AHc q c
q
q CG qEa dH
: z q { JdG H d en jo H
q = n.e
(q > 0) LG dH qLLdG AHd G
q dG J AHdG Yn nf H d
(q < 0) ddG dH q JGdG AHd G
q dGh
q = + n.e : LG dG n oJ rPEG
q = - n.e :
o a ddG dG eq CG
.z C { geQh ddG b IMh ,d Hb q FHdG dG
-19
: dG qFHdG dG b
e = + 1,6.10 C
``````SCG
.eo L Y J dG AHdG q c
q jo Fja QGe q FHdG dG
(C) ddG b IMh ,d Hb QGe qFHdG dG
.ddG dGh LG dG :Yf qFHdG dG
: dG q FHdG dG d Ye e b q FHdG d
|q| = n. e
n IN*
64
Je q bCG
e H dJ KEG LdG e b Y X dG LG q FHdG dG qCG Y GPEG
0,032 C hJ b GP jG
q = 0,032 C d fG
dG dG OY Y HCG .1
q
.dS eY GP jG b Y J dG dG qCG Hq CG . 2
UG
.SdH hG MH dG IgX CG
.dG Igd Tc IGOCc FHdG SGdG
q j FHdG G EG aVEG
qFHdG dG d Ye e b GP qFHc T j e L qc
: dG
lql = n.e
n IN*
: f Y YC
q G
FG q M Y q CG
1 `bQ j`
: e U e
q c eCG(*) eY V q K ddG fdG Hc YCG
.LCG J SGH cdG AHdG Y f .1
.MH qEG
q Oe L j .2
.cdG AHdG Qd q Y jW SdH dG .3
.LCG J Y
q J IGOCG FHdG SGdG
q .4
.AHd bf e
q Oe L
q c .5
T j SdH e L qc .6
.edG f d FHc d eM fc GPEG qEG L aj .7
65
2 `bQ j`
: ddG IOq G GQNG H e dG G q J
: d j MH e LLR b qc .1
.jdG H e NBG LLR b
q c@
.MH e fHEG b
q c@
.MH e fHEG b e SdH J NBG LLR b
q c@
: jq OG LCG J Y j .2
.cdG AHdG e q c QX @
.bdG f Le q FHc Th dS q FHc T QX @
.Le q FHc ThCG dS q FHc T QX @
T K q FHc SGd
q B IjdG h dS q FHc T FHc SGd A IjdG .3
: H H e SGdG
q q f eY .Le q FHc
. B h A JjdG H aJ j @
. B h A JjdG PJ @
. AT
q CG j @
.q FHc fe C h B , A LCG KK jd .4
.C G e ajh B G e Pj A G
: H e C h B G q f eY
.H aJ j @
.H P j @
.NBG EG gMCG e AHdG e q c J @
: AGa H fHEG e b J Y .5
.AGdG b J @
.dS q FHc T fHEG b Y J @
.dS q FHc T AGdG b Y J @
3 `bQ j`
b e b qc H j dG (aJ hCG P) YdG jH dG hG J cCG
.aCG NG b e b
q ch OdG NG
66
fjEG b
UH b
e SdH e
MH e
UH b
MH e
LdG e b
MH e
LdG e b
MH e
LdG e b
e SdH e
fHEG b
.MH e
4 `bQ j`
bO H qe Le q FHc d eM B jq jM Ijch Ae L JRM
.RY
.Y J q K SdG q M EG A G f B IjdG aJ H e G q f eY
.AdG IjdG fc dG q FHdG dG eY q e M e a
q
5 `bQ j`
-14
q = 4,8.10 C hJ b GP q FHc T Oq e L j
. dG q FHdG dG H qcP .1
q d fG
dG q FHdG dG OY Y HEG .2
q
-14
q = - 4,8.10 C d fG
dG dG OH OdG dP Qb .3
q
6 `bQ j`
:ddG HdH G b He A2 h A1 L SH
.HPa e B NBG L e A1 G Hq b :`dhCG HdG @
.e Z C NBG L ej A2 G L :`fdG HdG @
: Le A2 h A1 G e qc j dG qFHdG dG qCG Y
.HLEG J e B G j dG q FHdG dG eY Oq M .1
.eY GOq q FHc d eM j C G qCG q H .2
. C G e B G dP H Hq b EG S GPe q H .3
67
H q LCG
FHc
ae UCG
q
: ddG Gq H OhJC
q G@
,
q d G oJ dG e edCG bQ ,U e S ,G IU q LLR q b
jT ,Jc Qh ,jG e b e L b ,iG
q d oJ dG e q fe bQ
.eh jq OQR ,AGZ ,U
2 dG
1 dG
3 dG
4 dG
68
e Sb Ub JdG Qh e UCG @
.q dG ga SH
Fb jhGH dG dG r an W MCG rWCG @
UdG ce Y NBG dG SCGh
UdG c dG q KCG q K
q JdG
.AGdH
dCG qK qfG bdG e jT bC
q G@
c G dG W Y ce
.1dG
UdG q KCG ,UdG jdG SGH @
Y jdGh dG eM J dG
2dG c q dG ga
Io oc T Y edCG bQ QcC
q G@
a dG dG SCGQ RZCG K (Ijc)
.3dG c
dPh MH G dG cCG @
q bCG q K W jG b SH
edCG Io c e G dG
Gaj G jdG r an n W qCG MCa
qCG e q JCG G g .4dG c
.Xh UCG FHdG e
je e g
cdG AHdG
H Ao edG ffdG QOCG bh .AdG e qb gH qEG AHdG n Y edG dG q M
en dG e b qM eY M , 600 rGM dW da ,qFHdG gGdG
69
dG IOq ``G
GQ`` ` ` ` G
.q FjdG dG
q J QH bCG
q
.HdG cCG K OLh KEH bCG
.GMG q Y e EG q JCG
.Ff N e q dG Z GMG EGh q dG GMG EG q JCG
.Mh L c bCG
.
q Gh
q G H q eCG
.fG QH bCG
.fG Z jGh fG jG EG q JCG
.jG fe
q H aCG
.IOq G qH fG IgX aC
q G
.jq RZ Gbe qTCG
.dGh IG Y q dG Z GMG W QOCG
71
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
-8
-9
-10
-11
-12
G`````MGh IQq````dG
JSGh gQOe , YGfCG : bhG
gW e jGh jJh bhG f
FdG YqdG
IQq dG
IQq dG H
-8
-9
-10
-11
-12
? e IFdG eh ? dG jJ qY qJ a
? bhG SG ObH FGO j GP
? h`dGh proG Y J GMG qY e j dG e
Ic ZQ IQG AfCG dG RdH gG dP
q c GP
? dSG QGWCG qc gPqJG LGdG WMG
? Fc CG Fja
q GMG g
? IqQdGh IAdG H dG e
72
: ```bhG
8
A```JCGh eq C ```JCG
.IjY bh dG e oJ
? Y G q j ch ? bhG J g e
? JSG g e
dG J fOH FdG e dG GJ
(... qdG ,qdG ,adG) qdG VGZCG e jdG
? JOL Y af ch ? JCe g e
73
``````SCG
g e eh Gh Jdc RZ g e eh dGh jdc FS g e a ,IOq e G bhG
.Gh dc U
: gOq Jh dSG h JaH Je bhG q gCG
QG
dSG
hG
SSCH qde SG
dG
G dG
.SSCH qde SG
HhdGh JdG
GQdG
jdG
dG
aGQdG
GFdG
jRhdG
.q dG BG - GNdG - GQGG
hRG
jH e j
q FS : (hdG) dG
IO LG fG Gh J dG
.cGe HSQ
jq Y Oq Ge q J KEG dG RdG q j
(bqdG qjdG fGGh JdG jH)
WH dG Qq dG W H Ljh
.VQCG
: jQe JCjh
Y j qdGh q d aGG R dG .GRGaEG e ojh
(aGG RdG e Iah cCG gh) G RdG Y e jq H hCG jq H QHBG e G
.qdG QHBG
.adG - q dG - qdG
74
dG RdG
e SSCG e
je)
q
b c eh `G
HhdG e Jhe
( jEGh JdGh
J`e `q ``bCG
bhG Oq YCG ,dq dG KdG EG OSHh e e Y M e Y O YH
.JSG Oq MCGh q dG e LG
CG
q J H
G
q dG
75
`jJh ```bhG f
gW`` e j`Gh
A```JCGh eq C ```JCG
QN JdG q J Y e qcCd HdG
q IZQ fMCG oJ
? RdG q J Y j CG GPeh ?dP e jdG e .RdG IQhQb
? HG dG G
q eq dG j GPe
qdG fCG H
o
n jo jq Jh q YGPEG M Iq Y
.IOq e H cSG RL EG JdG RZ Uj
jO GPEG e IQU j CG GPeh ? dP e jdG e
? Oeo fCG SG
? IQGM Qe fH UNh
Me G dG IQhQb f GP
q
? GP .dG OJj e
q c eR FGG ICe
76
hG
HfCG T Y dG RdG oj
c dY Vh Ic QbCG GP
d S) q fe q e j
.(G
VQCG dG R dG q j
hCG eq dG e W
q H dPh
Sq dG fCG) .q SEG Q MCG
LG j J c (HG
.G e Vq dG
77
qdG RdG
JdG
HhdGh
fGq N q q dG bhG q oJ
ee IOY Iqce Ic jq jM
EG oJh LQN hCG qdG jJ
jQU d jRqdG q
.UN
q
YOeh c q j
dG EG ScCG jo h
.Sd
78
hG
bhG
q dG
dG
bhG W e jG
edG
q YGbh WG
WG f
.G Z q M Td Hb RZ h q c
: j e e ,eq dG YGb e jdG GMG j hG TG Y LqdG G qd
be J Y S qY jW qJG - 1
.RZ
IQGT
q CG GMEG OJh d q c OHEG - 2
.bhG e dH
.Oqe AGg H e hG jJ - 3
FGGN
Rd bq dG q Sq dG HfCd
q gX cJ - 4
.q
q CG NGO qdG
.LBG Jh SG RH JdG IQhQb UG WqG fCG eS bGe - 5
.FGG q qc - 6
79
bhG W e jG
edG
q YGbh WG
WG f
``````SCG
EG Oq DJ b YGdG Z SEG Y LqdG Wa ,qgCGh bhG SG jOe Oq J ZQ
.NGh GQfGh FGc qjHh qH QGc
CG fCT e qdG eGdGh W QYG H NCj ShQe jJ qj bhd TG
q SEG
.VdG bGMG qJ
qd oJh qFbdG WMG e jJ qc j bhG SG Y j b N qd jOJ
.Se eS YGb SG
J`e `q `bCG
? jq RdG bhd VdG TG q J qdG eGdG g e
? ObdH jhJ AKCG jdG q j IQdG q J jo GP
80
f Y YC
q G
FG q M Y q CG
1 bQ j``
: hCG H LCG
.GRZ Iq Y e je dG RdG - 1
.qce q f LCG Y dG j - 2
.q Fc q Y g d EGq G q dG q Y - 3
.q Fja M K Y q dG bhG LJ - 4
2 bQ j``
: U e
q c eCG * eY V q K ddG fdG Hc r Yp CG
: J G q d CGq G dG q Y - 1
dG - CG
jdG -
aGQdG -
jdG - O
: q dG e qJCG bhG q Yf - 2
.q dG f c e f g - CG
hdG H Je -
jq dG q H Je -
81
3 bQ j``
Qe
G
hdG
.dG
q ie Y qjdG fGGh JdG jH SJ
q
.Jf UCG e qW QU Le
JdG
dG
dG RdG
G dG
5 bQ j``
ILCG e Y hG qh bhG e Y GG hG
q G bQCG qoJ
.JSG
jq Qf LGQO
CG
JdG RZ
jRhc
IFW
jH
IQqS
aGQH
qS
.dSG R SG G h bQ qd SCG
82
6 bQ j``
G G bhG e de cPCG
? gQOeh
8
bQ j``
HG IQdH
q eSG SG aZ
? GP .qdG edG
q YGb
qdG WMEG ,ILe Ia q H
.G Od gPqJG
83
`````Kh q ````SCG
```dG
q
LCG Y j qdG b
q e FS g (hdG hCG) q dG
.GdGh adc q dGh jdc Fq dGh Jdc jq RdG e q Fc
Jf jH) jq Y Oq G cCG Y q KEG q dG q j
. cGe U HSQ q e (fGMh
q LfEG QHBG EG (q dG M hCG) G q dG QHBG H j q j
HfCG q oJ q K q dG G qJG e SJ iNCG QHBG M ijo h
G e Jh bJ j jCG q dG q EG QHBG H J qdG
GG EG hCG jq dG LCG e G EG eq EG Jh HfCG N q G q dG q oJh .H ddG FGdGh
.jq dG LCG e jq dG
djEGh LfEGh aSG q Y MGe q gCG G EG G G e G q dG f j
j q dG c e Hf hOG q dG Gg q gCGh .G EG Jqe f Y a G EG
jq dG Ge EG G g e q dG q Y d Ic OL Sq c c.LfEG We Y IH We
d HfCd N fCGh cSG ceCG EG djEGh q dG IQq eh V bf q a
qdG q fGSG : q q dG qG f Ve jCG cf ,jdG Ib e qG FG bq dG QY
jdG jRJh d dGh AJdG FUh ,HhdGh JdG e je gh q G q dG RZ H qRjh j
...gZh jq dGh q dG jR jRd dGh eGdGh ,RdGh
bhG Y aG HU e q j UGGh q dG b e CGq j GAL dG jJ j c
.YOG gqaJ LGdG q dG hdG M e
fGq N q q dG bhG jJ Y IOdG L jq J
jW Iq h Ic q c jJ EG LG d q S jq jM
WH jq dG EG AqdG g AGZEG cCG SCH fSd aO
HQCG G Gg eSG bh dG hCG G hCG VQCG
Ld fG GSG ,G e Vq dG LG : g bGe
jq dGh q UG LG e VQCG qG dG ,FdG
.q aG G q
(qH) jG LddGh bqdG c e
: SCG
? dG e LGSG qdG bhG g e - 1
? bhG J d G dG FSh g e - 2
? dSG b hdG q j ch jCG - 3
84
: SCG
? ObdG GfCG MCG V J e qe qdG dG RdG UN g e - 1
.b qd Qc qdG RdG a jo qdG fG hCG ed eCG H cPCG - 2
? W e dH
q j e ZQ fG q e fMCG dG RdG jo GP - 3
85
F```dG Y``q dG
10
HdG GMG
MCGh q `````LCG
: dq dG Oq GGh Gq H OhJC
q G
a b *
eM *
(H be hCG) FHc be *
cCG Rd jhM q b *
.G Ae *
HG cdG CG
NOCG q K gq dG q M a b e H
q SCG
dG b qCG MCa cCG Rd jhG q dG
G Ae qj AKCG h eq dG e Iq Iq H L
q CJ
.Oeq dG e bQ W dG b jh
86
``M `e aC
q G
f H NBG e L q j h iNCG q Fja dM EG dG q j GMG AKCG
,(G Ae qY dG RdG) HdG cCG K X bdG f h ,dG cBJh cCG
.HdG cCG K gh jL L EG cCGh dG q j Ggh
YJ q j jL f e q H q Fja q cCG dG GMG j CG ,PEG
.q Fc
.Ye e vc qa ke YJ cCGh dG qEG f
.YdG
n e q a Yq dG dP Y f qdG G a HdG cCG K eq CG
HdG cCG K
``cCG + ```Hc
(Yq dG e)
(Y``G)
d dG
q GM E G
MCGh q `````LCG
HG cdG CG
ga H SCG q K H be qTCG
NGq dG fG qCG MC a. dG
h ,AG QH a T q j d
.G Ae qjo AKCG
``M `e aC
q G
qJ h W AG qfG hCG iNCG EG qFja dM e Oq e L
q qc qfCG YCG
.cJ
jjL L QX dP Y d k e cCGh G YJ dG GMG H AKCG
cCG + ``e
(YqdG e)
(YG)
87
````SGCn
. IjL LCG Jh LCG AKCG J
q g FdG Yq dG
.YdG n eo IjG LCGh Ye YG LCG q J
.FdG Yq d e cCG GMG
Je ``q ``bCG
jdG GMG H CG
: HdG RGd
.h cCG e q b ,(MGq b hCG) H be ,jq OQR ,e S ,jdG e
: hCG HdG
q
jJ 50 cm dW q fe S bCG ,jq OQdG ee
jj IU M qTC aW MCG KCGh
. 0,5 cm Y j b
H GPEG qd) jdG e G ZCG @
.(dH j G LCG r bn e
.jdG TCG q K NBG aW e dG eCG @
? GMG AKCG jdG d d e
: fqdG HdG
q
jdG NOCG q K hCG H q dG MGe YCG @
jdG qCG MCa .cCG b G
cCG K q lj d d GRZ GRe gq H j
.j qdG dH
q dEG q JCG ,jdG
: GL
q g
d q dG ITe ZCGh G dG SCG
.jdG cCG K RZ SCG
: IG HdG SC
q G
.q Fc YJ M qfCG
o rKCG - 1
.n G LCGh YG LCG Oo u MoCG - 2
88
IQq `dG
11
IQq dG OLh
AJGCn h eq nC JCG
.GAg q oJ He jq jL e f
q eo q dG jq OG LCG e jdG qCG YCG
aC
q G nh a ,CGq J (IOq G qJ Y oj CG dG UCG G Gg) IAdG fc EG
? GAg H q FdG YdG
IQdG
q OLH q`SCG
.Aq d Hb IAdG qCH qSCG q Fc YJ aC
q
qc q J jG e e OY e f
q oe IAg qc qCG a HCGh QdG KCG d
.IQq P e jL
HdG cCG K IAg qeCG ,(cCG JQq P) He JQq P e J
q e cCG IAa
.Hc IQq Ph cCG nJQq P e J
q a
IAdGh IQdG
q LC
q G
d fo
q G GQq dG a J LP IAdG EG SCG ,IOq oG d Meo IAdG cJ LCG d
.Se Gjc T Y
GdCGh MCG PdG Gjd oJ IMGdG IAdG Y eo iNCGh IQq P H d
.oe
:eCG
QdG
jdG
LhQdG
cCG
HdG
IQq P
Pq dG
AGN Ijc
AG
AGU Ijc
G
AH Ijc
LhQdG
AGM Ijc
HdG cCG K
HdG
AGOS Ijc
cCG
IAg
PdG
89
````SGCn
q Jh dG H h IOq oG dH jDhQ q J jq jL e IAdG J
q
.IQq P e IMGdG
.IOq G H Je IMGdG IAdG GQq dG o J
q
.dG jq hc PH GQq dG oJ ,GAdG d
````SGCn
: j c q FdG PdH o un jo q Fc YJ cCG HdG GMG
+
HdG cCG K IAg
cCG IAg
90
Hc IQq P
MCGh eq CJCG
q q dG G
cCG RZ
AG
cCG K RZ
HdG
QdG RZ
````SCG
G
hRhCG RZ
: Yf dG FdG LCG
,He GQq P e fe
q GAg GP f LCG
.H f LCG q Jh
...hRhCG ,QdG ,cCG GRZ : eCG
, GQq P e fe
q GAg GP f LCG
.n cq eo f LCG q Jh
.HdG cCG K ,G ,AG : eCG
Je q bCG
jdG cCG K RZ
hRCG RZ
QpOodG RZ
LhQdG RZ
91
f Y YC
q G
FG q M Y q CG
1 bQ j``
: ddG GQdG e
q c Y
w J dG dG G hCG SG cCG
.iNCG q Fja dM EG q Fja dM e f l
l
q -1
.IjL LCG Jh LCG AKCG J
l
q -2
.w Fc YJ KEG J LCG - 3
.w Fc YJ KEG J IjL LCG - 4
.He GQq P GP GAg e le
w f l L - 5
q
2 bQ j``
: Sj rcCGh dG hG fGp - 1
YdG eo
YG LCG
HdG cCG K
........................
HdG GMG
cCGh JdG
..........`pd q dG GMG
........................ ..................h dG
dG GMG
........................
FdG YdG
3 bQ j``
: qddG MG e U H qc x eY V
.dG qjhc PH GAdGh GQq dG osoJ .1
. kH vf k L q j He GAg e j
q q f L qc .2
.cCG hCG IAg e IQq dG J
q .3
.cCG hCG IQq P e IAdG J
.4
q
92
4 ``bQ j
q f L
q c SG eCG x eY V , f LC eSG GAdG P Y OYH
.qceo
IAdG P
SCG
hRhCG
jEG
qqdG G
IAdG P
QdG
KCG dG
LhQdG
qqdG G
5 ``bQ j
.IAd fG
GQq dG OY qjjQqdH f
q
AG IAg jq jQP qCG a LhQg r nJQq P eh cCG IQq P e AG IAg J : e
.3 hJ
: ddG LCd GAdG jjQdG Y PEG HEG
.AG ,jEG ,HdG cCG K ,QOqdG RZ ,cCG ,LhQdG
6 ``bQ j
IQq P
(10 kg) c (10 m)gb
: HG hH qG G Y OYH .1
HdG
5,1
2
? M
q bCG GQq dG e
q CG -CG
LhQdG .G IAg ch AG IAg c Y HG -
7,1
1
m = 20 g gQb c GP dG e b jd .2
cCG
66,2
4,1
.a HdG e fe
dG qCG fYG EG
hRCG
q
33,2
5,1
? j dG HdG GQq P OY Y HG -CG
.MGh
dG g e -
q U h L EG L HdG GQP Vh EG ,Y G
q
-27
-10
93
`````Kh q ````SCG
IQ`dG
q
Y dH ,dOG JYJh UGNh
G LCG SGQO EG aVEH AdG qJ
q
...HdGh SdGh gdG e UdG SG Y j dGh IOq d qSSCG fG
q
Gq L IU roL Y jdG S UCa UCG b EG IOq G FL GPEa
J dG zatomos{ jZEG UCG e IQq dG c AL bh .GQq dG q oJh dG UGH
q
dG
q ge hc H Oq e oL UCG g PEG IQq da zCGq j dG AG{
1
. m b iq j
10
10
SCG
.dG H h IOG
q dH jDhQ L IQdG
q qGC Y qj e qH ,dG
q Y OYH - 1
.HGL
q Y ? GQq P e MGh f e H dG Oq GG
q c J
q g - 2
H q LCG
? gJ hO dG Ib jRCG c
: OG``Gh Gq G
.
q N -q LLR SCc -be Z H
MCGh q LCG
.SCdG dG VCG @
.dG ZCG q M SCdG
q G
q UCG @
.AdG VYCGh SCdG e jH dG NCG ,jCG KK H @
.dG NGH e jDhQ hMCG @
aC
q Gh qMCG
? YG Oq MCGh Fc YJ Y f M e qCG qHCG -1
. CG dG AZ e dc YJ b qG c EG qJCG -2
94
IQq `dG H
12
ch I Qq dG M
AJGCn h eq nC JCG
scCJCGh HCG
,GdG T Y) VdG FKh H dH
qcCj Gq L U l r L IQq dG d
r qfCG j (...G
q j UN
q
q hdEG n pe SH qEG OLh e MdG
,Iq e e 50 Qb q G G Ye Y JQH
( e cCG) MGdG dG GQq P qCG q j c
GQq P Y b J q dh dGh G He
Rhj G qc dh ,(e HdG) NBG Y
H CG, *(nm) efdG QYCG H
IMGdG IQq dG b
n
hdEG NCG J GQq d IQU
.G e QG AG QYCG
-26
10 kg `d OMBG H Qs n Jh ndG ge a dG eq CG
-9
* 1 nm = 10 m
: eCG
UUqdG
jG
HdG
cCG
LhQdG
0,3
0,23
0,15
0,14
0,11
IQq dG
(nm) gb
34,5
9,3
2,0
2,7
0,2
10
-26
kg
: Me
a UUdG IQq P eq CG ,SG
G e g jG IQq Ph IQq P
q
q NCGh UCG g LhQdG IQq P
.dGh IdG GQq dG e
95
````SCG
e OMBG Hh jn o o dG H W M hGa c eq GC efdG QYCG H
n IQq dG b Rhj
-26
10 kg dG
Je q bCG
0,2 mm hj b GP IU Hc qM Y IQY G Qf e jG QGdG qCG dG e
.UGe
qfCG YG GPEG HdG q fG
GQq dG OY Y HCG .1
q
q
.HdG q M c MCG .2
IQdG
q fe
q
AJGCn h eq nC JCG
J dd SG dG jG b qCG YCG MH LdG e b Hc Y
J dG dG ed HG eY aC
q G dh Y dS q FHc T cH dc
? LdG b Y
Va HCG
CG GjM jGh LLR dG dG LR n H M IOq G W q j dG qCG
.jG cJ hCG LdG cJ AGS J
q CG CGj qfCG LCG
L :G e KG Yf
q bCG Y f IQq dG qG VaCG CG PEG
OdG j
q e Ggh hCd He dS q FHc T iNCGh Le q FHc T
.IOq d FHdG
eq EGh ddG dG H LdG GQq P e YfG b jG b J CG eq EG MG KCH
dG c h ,jG b GQq P e LG dG H fG b LdG b j CG
eM jG b Jh Le q FHc d eM LdG b j M IMGh dG
.dS q FHc d
96
scCJCGh HCG
: ddG q dG KdG GC bCG
IQdG fe
pn oL e qdCj ,gHCGh cGdG cCG EG eq dG qM e ,dG Oq e AT qc
gjJ h ,n pe ibCH jDhQ J H qbdGh ndG e GQq dGh .GQq P Yn J bO
b gn Mh G g jf da ,Gq L IQdG FdG
q hdEG G n pe SGH a
fdG hqe a ,jQdG Y Ic GQJ
q IQq dG e pT dh .IQq P
r Qn pe e cCG
1804 Y h .UCG g e EG CGq j dG gG J IQq dG CH hj S ndCG e cCG e
MGdG dG GQq dG L qEG FdG jq f (Dalton) dGO L fEG FdG YCG
(e HdG GQq P) NBG Y CG GQq P Y J qd e He (e cCG GQq P)
a T FdG GQ q M jW bh p dh edG e Id jq dG g nobh ...
o er W .. jdG dG Q Oq CG M
q dG Gg bGe qh ,
q U qj
IQq P gh ahe IQq P UCG e Iq e 1836 qNCG , bO rL cG EG 1897 S
g qCG eW YG bh .FHc T qfC hdEG e IMGdG n q S ,LhQdG
.iG Ub Y HdG q M c IQq dG S Y Rq J fhdEG
pdG
r r njRq dG (Ernest Rutherford) OQaQPQ fQE
r G pddG Q nq M 1911 S
f V eZ T fhdEG dM QhJ adG dY jce IGf e J
q IQq dG qCG
q dZ a qcJ qfCG qEG ,IQq dG
n NGO Gq L GU Gq M J IGdG qCG q Jh , ne FGN
.c
bG OQaQPQ cG e a r e Y H
(Niels Bohr) QH rf cQG
q dG FjdG
S f e r L g fhdEG qCG
HjEG fG IGdG M hJ
q dG geh
M cGdG c gZ hO IOs GQGe
hCG W J GQGG gh , dG
.er o dG c aZ
IQq dG qCG MdG KCG a Gg fY eq CG
Le FHc d eM IGf e fq e
p r L d eM fhdEG e Yh
97
: dG
q q SCG
.IQq dG CH dG
OQh dG gG Oq MCG .1
q
````SCG
.dM FGO q FGY cM fhdEG e Y Te
q jq ce IGf e fe
q IQq dG
.IQq dG q UN e q UN PEG a iNCG EG IOq e e j dG g gOY qGC qEG He fhdEG q c
me = 9,11 . 10 kg.:hJ Gq L IU c MGdG hdEd
qC dPh IQq dG c f g IGdG a f IQq dG b e Iq e dCG Fe UCG IQq dG IGf b qGC ZQ
.IGdG c eCG gEd Hb q fhdEdCG c
q = -e : dG q FHdG d He dS T hdEG
q dh Le q FHc T IGd
.JGf d He JfhdEG T L qC q FHc dOe IQq dG
.IQq d iNCG q UN q FHdG Th H IGdG
-31
Je q bCG
. 27.10
-19
98
-13
-14
? IAg qc cJ RGHE qY Hc g g
? FGG ICe d Y CO2 HdH OG e
.qFdG dOGh qVjqdG dOG g dG G OG e
? H dG e
99
IQq dG eQ
q FdG n dGh
13
AJCGh eq nC JCG
scCJCGh HCG
q Hc d .HoG dG o
s G GAdG dG qbOCG
SSCG Y qe U e qd SCG ,Qb qc j qeY jH
.gOYh d fG
GQq dG GfCG
q
.IQq P
q d q Y eQ OSEG Lh dd
: IQq P EG ej H G dG UG Y OSH
Hydrogne JdG SG e hCq G G gh ,H `H LhQdG @
Carbone JdG SG e hCq G G gh ,C `H HdG @
Oxygne JdG SG e hCq G G gh ,O `H cCG @
.JdG SG e dGh hCq G aG FK gh ,Al `H edCG @
Aluminium
JdG SG e ddGh hCq G aG FK gh ,Cl `H QdG @
.HdG IQq P eQ e G Od dPh , Chlore
GQq P e e
jGh G JAg EG SCG Gg
q c fG
q
aQCG H dh ,CH dhCq G dG f LhQdGh HdG
,dHh IAdG IOLG GQq dG OH SCG h Y eQ qc
.jEd C2 H6 h d CH 4 q FdG dG Y C
q G
: Me
s jo Ggh
C1H4
100
: dG Y MCG dG
f N
q
q pH
.hRhCG RZ IAd O3 @
AG IAd H2O @
.jQgQdG eM IAd HCI @
SCG
gSG GC j JQq P H q d dG G aVEG EG fMCG C fh ,JdG SG e hCq G H IQq d ejo
.G H
: `eCG
jM
Qa
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Fer
Fluor
Soufre
Fe
hRCG
jOU
Hc
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Na
Ca
LhQg
Cl
SG
IQq dG
SG
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Sf
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SG
Cuivre
Aluminium
SG
JqdG
Cu
Al
IQq dG
geQ
: eCG
cCG K
HdG
Hc IQq P
cCG JqQPh
CO2
AG
HQCGh Hc IQq P
cCG IQq P
GqQP
LhQg JqQPh
LhQg
CH4
H 2O
101
LhQdG RZ
RZ
cCG
IAdG
e JQq P
LhQdG
e JQq P
cCG
Jfe
q
H2
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.KG j hCG hjo gOY c GPEG qGE IAdG U GQq dG OY j
Je q bCG
.LhQg GQq P Yh Hc GQq P HQCG e J
q JdG RZ IAg qCG Y -1
? U g e
C... H... O... dG Hc cCG -2
fG
(dG dG) KCG dG IAH UG
q
q
.IMGh cCG IQq Ph Hc nJQq Ph LhQg GQq P
q S e
q c OYh d fG
q GQq dG GfCG Oq MCG , H2SO4 g jdG eM IAg U qCG -3
.e
102
YdG Oe
q FdG
14
MCGh q LCG
: ddG Oq GGh Gq H OhJC
q G
(dP QqJ EG aHhQ Ge ) hdEG Ge *
QNG SCc *
.SdG jd Fe *
.GOd Fe *
SCc SdG jd FG G e b SCG
.fdG SCdG GOd Fe e bh QNG
Y q e hdEG Gd q bdG SG qCG e JCG
CGbCGh qc Y dd JhG SCdG VCG qK dG
.qdG d q G dG
MCa iNCG SC dG SC c i IODn o H SCG
.k e dG e Oq dG QRCG SGQ QX
dH fQbCGh qG d qjOdG dG jL e CGbCG
.HdG
q jq OdG
aC
q Gh qMCG
.SdG jch GOdG r nd H Fc YJ hH dG QRCG SGdG QX aC
q G*
qCG Y
q j Hh YdG b GG qc d q G d jq OdG dG H hdG *
.YG IOq G c J q j M dG FdG YdG
q j M dG FdG YdG qCG LCG CG GQq P e fe
IOq G qCG h
q
.YG IOG q d fG
GQq d G OdG q J
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103
SCG
IqOG M CGe
.IOq G d fG
q GQq d G OdG njo dHh ,YG IOq G noJ Fc YJ q c AKCG
Ae + HdG cCG K
cCG + `e
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.oGh Yd FdG dG Hc n oJ fRGe dO Fc YJ q c sjo
.IOq G M GC e Hc po MG GPEG qEG ,fRGe FdG YdG dOe J
Je q bCG
: ``pd qdG GMG ndO fRGe Hc cCG
C HdG -1
C2 H6
jG - 2
UG
: FdG YdG SGQO IQq dG jG SG H
aVEG e) hCq G G IOY qj H UN
eQ GQq dG e f
q
q c EG n jo -1
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q c OYh d fG
q
q c
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105
f Y YC
q G
FG q M Y q CG
1 `bQ j
: e U e
q c eCG (*) eY V q K ddG fdG Hc Yp CG
GQq dG f f Y jj CG - 1
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.IQq d Uh IAd eQ jo - 4
LhQdG IQq P eQ g
He
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.IAdG e UCG IQq dG - 8
2 `bQ j
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q c eCG * eY V
: e HdG cCG K IAg J
q -1
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Hc r nJQq Ph cCG IQq P -2
.cCG r nJQq Ph Hc IQq P -3
: f d HdG cCG OMCG IAgh HdG cCG K IAg -2
GQq dG OY -1
GQq dG f -2
dG -3
: f d AG IAgh HdG cCG K IAg -3
GQq dG OY -1
GQq dG f -2
dG -3
106
3 `bQ j
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.... NO2
5
4 `bQ j
G
cCG
HhdG
OjEG
edCG jQc
qddG c
O2
C3 H8
I2
AICI3
C2H6O
1
2
3
4
5
5 `bQ j
IAdG `U
F`dG LP
qdG `G
SCG
jG
? je e g
IQq dG P
q bCG O G b eG dG e FGhCG
Hb IOq G qCH WaCGh Sd ffdG adG
Ad Hb Z AL Y G q M EG qd
(qffdH qefG jh) SeWCG q jh
bh ,OG b eG dG e NGhCG
fdG dG q bCGh Sd jf Y ASG
VQCG gh UY HQCG e J
q IOq G qCH SQCG
.AGdGh QdGh AGh
dO L q bCG ,q Y SGQO Hh 1803 S
jf Y LGdG ba WaCG qj f gLH
.Ijc T Y IQq dG qeh SQCG
G
H IQq dG gH f qe 1913 S
q
fhdCG Y eh Le d eM IGf e
GQe Y IGdG M UGe GQhO dM
G g jo h ,Gq L IOq Q bCG GPh IOh
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qJCG
: We c . 1
Y eSG dG cCG q K ,dq dG GQdG Y
q J qdG G hCG gG Y HCG
.
HLEG QGZ Y dPh ,dGG dG
1 IQdH UG
q
108
Fc YJ Y J
ke YJ
GqQdG e Oh OY e q J
IqOG q j L UCG
qFc YJ oqoJ
2
7
I
6
II
III
3
IV
V
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jOQdG dG
OQdG G cJ
jdG
dG
q dGh eG
q
dOG dG
GQ`` ` ` ` G
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.fG QH bCG -2
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.q FdG YdGh q FjdG dG
H q eCG -4
q
.H q Fc YJ Oe cCG -5
111
OQdG G cJ
AHd qFG dG qbf -15
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.fdGh ffCG -17
? Gq dG e N hT A OG e
? GPe CG dG
q jG g ? jG EG J HH OG e
? q WdG h q JhRCG ISCd q SSCG fG
q g e
112
q FG dG q bf
AHd
15
AHd q dG AG q bf
AJnCGh eq CJCG
? qe H WdG f CH e FHc e J Y jo GP
MCGh q LCG
: ddG OGGh Gq H OhJC
q G
(6V) FHc e -Wb -FHc -bQ eeCG - (6V) jJ RL *
.Ue SCG .( qe Ae) q f Ae *
IQGO REG q J q dhCq G H H bCG
RL e fe dH FH c
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113
SCG
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AHdG d FG
q dG Hb
q
AJCGh eq CJCG
? OdG AG dh G AH hG FdG aVEH fdG Uj GP ,jq QdG fd
? AHdG f Y IQOb FGdG g
MCGh q LCG
: ddG OGGh Gq H OhJC
q G
. (6V) FHc e -Wb -FHc -bQ eeCG - (6V) jJ RL *
: `d cdG f d q Fe d *
qdG G ddG c .SdG jc -
4 dG
qoG AG q c VYC
q Gh HdG q FHdG IQGq dH MCG
IQGdG ZCG q K ,d Fe G f e q H
j eeCG qCGh b q j G S qCG MCa
AG f dG QdG Iq T e H aQCG Qq J Iq T EG
(4dG) .q dG
114
aC
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qdG FG Gh Sq dG jd FG G ,ddG
q ch qdG
q aN
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SCG
QbCG g e eh jJ q dG AG e g e a ,Jhe q HH dh FHdG Qq d bf q FG dG
.FHdG QdG f Y q dG AG e H
.OQdG H FHdG Qq dG f Y q dG AG e QbCG Fe q c jo
: eCG
JdG jQc
JdG ehc K
SqdG jc
Je q bCG
c Hb e Hb QbCG .OQT edCG jQd FG G qCG k Yp
.AHdG d ddG
q
115
q bf Y cdG KCJ
AHd OQdG G
16
AJCGh eq C JCG
MCGh q LCG
jQH
2 dG
e e W
n pe qG AG EG VCG q K IQGdG aCG
ZCG FY . Y MCG GG SGHh dG e
QJ Iq T EG j eeCG qCG W MCa jL e IQGdG
(3 dG) Io e aQCG I1 FHc
3 dG
116
e e n NBG W
n pe G EG VCG qK IQGdG aCG
f e Y MCG jdG q Y KEG .dG e
Iq T EG j eeCG qCG MCG IQGdG Z Y .G
(4 dG) I1 e aQCG I2 FHc QJ
4 dG
aC
q Gh qMCG
.G cJ JQG G M J hH
q G q c e fOR qc
jc hCG dG e e AGS Iq e
q c FHdG QdG Iq d jQdG JQG aC
q G dH
.cJ JQG e AHdG d G q Hb IOjdH JdG Gf hCG SdG
SCG
Jh cdG JQH q bdG JJ PEG G cJ H AHd OQdG FG G q bf qKCJ
.fH
Je q bCG
Z iNCGh qdG Y q e e IMGh fe Z b JRM
.q G d jhG dG EG H q JCG H bCG .dG f e q e
117
fdGh ffCG
17
AJCGh eq CJCG
MCGh q LCG
: ddG OGGh Gq H OhJC
q G
SdG e U - (10 cm x 15 cm) LLR d - Wb - (24V) jJ RL *
S GP TJ Qh e d -FHc H e
q c Iq q (3 cm x 15 cm) fdG hCG
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SCG -q T JRL -G -IQ qb -(jJ QdG e W Y) bCG Y 5 mm
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(dG Y ) JdG jQc(dG QRCG ) SdG jc(dG qJH ) JdG ehc K.SdG ehc K-
1 dG
2 dG
3 dG
aC
q Gh qMCG
4 dG
SCG
.dS OQGTh Le OQGT ,OQGdG e Yf e jOQdG
FG
q
q dG qcJ
: e
dG bf
q qJG OQGdG e f c
q cM H AHd jOQdG
q
q eDs oJ
OQGT e (fJc hCG) e
OQGT dd Jh
G f qGE G J dG LG OQGdG q
q
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ehdG K OQGT e (ffCG hCG) je
OQGT dd Jh
G f qGE J dG ddG OQGdG q
q
.jdG OQGTh
Je q bCG
f OMC
q Gh JdG jQd OQdG FG G cJ Y HCG HdG HdG Y OYH
.(qe CG qje) jQdG OQGT
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AG e QbCG jOQdG
FG
q
q
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en cJ OGORG qc
q
.dS OQGTh Le OQGT :OQGdG e KG Yf OQT
c j
q
.ffCG ddG
q OQGdGh fJc LG OQGdG YJ
OQGdG J : OQGd n qe YL
cM Y f OQT
Fe
q
q
q FHdG QdG
q Qhe
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OQGd cG G FGO jG
q
q
120
f Y YC
q G
FG q M Y q CG
1 bQ j``
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q c eCG
eY V
.FHdG Qd V bf qcG dG e - 1
.FHdG Qd q L bf G AG - 2
.ffCG e bh fJdG e Gc FHdG Qd bdG dG - 3
.FHdG Qd bf jOQdG dG - 4
.fdG e MGh fh ffCG e MGh f e j OQT Fe
q c-5
2 bQ j``
4 bQ j``
2 H
1 H
dG JdG e`pd Fe j
.edG OQGTh JdG OQGT Y
dh Y HdG SQdG IG HdH b
Ma .a JdG eH SH
g c dG Y q dG qd q jQJ GQfG
.HG dG q e
dG f fG dG (OhdCG) iG Oq M .1
.dG
eH dG dG qCG Y GPEG .2
q H ,edG OQGd FGMG EG Lj JdG
.(fJc CG ffCG) edG OQGT f
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? ffCG e g JdG ehc K IOLG ehdG K OQGT qCG
.HLEG qY
122
jq dG dGh q eG dG
dG FG Gh eG FG G
pH b
eM Fe VM LQO
b Fe jq b LQO
-18
-19
-20
-21
e G FdG Hh qeM QK
? H QqdG H qJ GP
? WdG Y hCG qdG Y UQdG GG dP f
q GP
? gW g e ? gQX q G eGdGh q G QeCG g e
? GPh ,q dG d Fd n oJ qdG dG q UN g e
123
eG FG G
dG FG Gh
18
AJCGh eq CJCG
FGdG IOL bG G RG g e
? q FGdG dGh
Ae IQhQb Y pH = 7 HdH OG e
? iNCG Y pH = 7,5 HdGh q e e
Te Y Y pH = 5,5 HdH OG e
Y Y pH = 8 HdGh dG Me dGREG
? jSCG e UN
f
q
MCGh q LCG
: ddG OGGh Gq H OhJC
q G
Qq e nbpe hP) HEG hCG bQ RL :e pH RL *
QNG ShDc -(1 dG) . e (14 EG 0 e
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aL Ae-d hCG JH Y - ( qe Ae) q f Ae *
.jQgQdG e Fe -GOd Fe -
2dG
3dG
SCG
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q OQT q Fe q c j
q
.d Hb QGe FG G pH
pH `dG d n n jo RL e pH `dG
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.jq p dG dH oJ a
125
25 C
pH > 7 `H q J dG J eq CG
: jJ
LQO f q dG AG
pH e UCG pH
d
q OQT
q c q eM q jo
.IQGG
25 C pH < 7 hP
q OQT q eM
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LQO f q dG AG pH e cCG pH d
q OQT qc qjpb q oj
.IQGG
q pb
...QOp tdG ,dG Ae ,aL Ae ,GOdG : eCG
25 C pH > 7 hP
q OQT
Je q bCG
q eM Y fdGh qe Ae Y gGMCG qEG bh QNG ShDc KK neu bo
jW Y dG Gh eG G e
q c EG q dG q e p oWh
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.HdG
.e pH`dG RL a e Vd q bCG
126
pH
`b
19
e pH `dG SG
MCGh q LCG
:ddG OGGh Gq H OhJC
q G
.TJ Qh - 100 mL S QNG ShDc - (1 dG) jn eo e pH *
e Fe -GOd Fe - qnG e Fe - ( qe Ae) q f Ae *
.QOtd Fe -jQgQdG
2 dG
Y G
3 dG
4 dG
pH
5 dG
QOtdG
10,57
eM
jQgQdG
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qnG
FG G
1,98
12,04
3,45
pH
128
SCG
: q gCG e ,YGdG e Om Yn GMG j G pH `p d U b Y d
.jn e e pH `dG qGC e jGdG qcC dG .G qc d SG
q AG Z .b q Y q c KEG G AH G Z . pH pIMh e 1/100 q M EG J qSM
q hP a bO b RL e pH `dG
pH Qh SG
MCGh q LCG
: ddG OGGh GqH OhJC
q G
hCG (6 dG) IH Y e jT T pH Qh Y *
-
.IQb
-GOd Fe - qnG e Fe - qe Ae *
.QOt dG -jQgQdG e Fe
(dG jT e GU GAL hCG) rjnTo qHCG ,IQdG SGH
eSG ddG GdCG e jdG Y IgdG GdCG QbCG q K qnG eM
.G pH b jd dPh ,G pH Qh Y Y
6 dG
7 dG
QOqdG
eM
jQgQdG
GOdG
qnG eM
FG G
10,5
12
3,5
pH
SCG
.e
pH `dG e qbO
q bCG q dh ,jq OQdG dG pH d iNCG IGOCG pH
Qh
.q jJ q dh pH d q Y jW pH Qh SG
130
VM LQO
eM Fe
20
AJCGh eq C JCG
q G q b OLh rPn EG aC
q G ,YP bGq Mh dqcCG q Fc IOq e g qnG eM qCG G e
? qnG e FdG Gg AGMG ZQ cCG dhW Y
MCGh eq CJCG
.Uhb Iq T H dPh dh ZQ dG dG Y hJ
WaCG e GPEGh .Ze a Uhb J hdG AG e Se qH J KEG
.qS qfCc jh Uhb dG j ,AG q c IOjR
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eY dEG Qe g c Gq Mh qcCG qfCG G IdG JQN H dPh jT
. JQhQb
.IQG b Y f H
qMCG
.VM Y
q J Uhbh ,q eM dG Y qCG YCG
.VM Y J jQgQdG e qcCGh Gq G r nU qCG c
.J OR qc VM jQgQdG eM h dG Y j dH
SCG
.fH Jh cdG IOjH JJ q e VM LQO eM q d : e VM g d
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131
MCGh q LCG
: ddG OGGh Gq H OhJC
q G
.G - e pH - 100mL S GP QNG ShDc*
.JdG Y hCG dG Y - q G Ae *
1 H
bCG q K .G e SG
q AG H J dG Y e q c QNG SCc SCG
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pH bCGh
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q c q G Ae e 10mL aVEH dG q jQJ qNCG
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2 H
bCG q K .G e SG
AG H J q G Ae e q c QNG SCc SCG
q
.AG pH
.G pH Iq e
q c bCGh AG dG Y e eq g q c q jQJ VCG
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: Me
.jG j e q H G
pH
b q Y
q c b
SCG
pH
.dH dGh G
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edu.cpln.ch/c_david/formules.htm
www.intellego.fr/soutien-scolaire-3eme/aide-scolaire-Chimie/3-Les-solutionsioniques/14754
jq OQdG dG
cordier2.free.fr/sitephysique/progres3.htm
www.keepschool.com/quiz-Chimie-3eme-Atomes_ions_et_solutions_ioniques.html
physiquecollege.free.fr/troisieme.htm
www.phychim.ac-versailles.fr/donnees/college_lycee/Devaluation/cap_exp/lien%20III-2-f.htm
www.physagreg.fr/college.php#chimie3
missiontice.ac-besancon.fr/sciences_physiques/eleves/index.php
www.ac-nancy-metz.fr/enseign/physique/Sc_index.htm
www.ac-strasbourg.fr/disciplines/physchim/college
colleges.ac-rouen.fr/langlois/physique/fichiers/accueil_troisieme.htm
www.col-europe-obernai.ac-strasbourg.fr/rubrique.php3?id_rubrique=84
pagesperso-orange.fr/physique.buil/activ_3e/chimie-3e/rev_acid_base.htm
www.lachimie.com/intro/index.html
pagesperso-orange.fr/physique.buil/ex/acide_base.htm
chimie.scola.ac-paris.fr
151
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3 bQ j``
4 bQ j``
:e U e qc eCG eY rV
n qK ddG fdG Hc r Yp CG
.U L S Y AdG OQh qc SfG j .1
.OhQdG e f IBGe Y q FV T j CG .2
.IBGG Y G OdG EG dH gXH qe IBGe q M L IQU J.3
.dN e AdG Qhe f q M L
q d IQU IBGG .4
.Qe IQU e e qfCch qe IBGe Y G AdG j .5
5 bQ j``
M qe IBGe Y AB M L IQd qG ddG SdG H e dG SdG NG
.seo qH n Sp Qo q VGaG g e
q c qCG Y
:1dG
:2dG
:3dG
6 bQ j``
q FdG eG q TCG H e r SQ
o oCG q K HG dG SQ fG
n KEG A dG e Qq G FdG dG Qn e S QG e G
.M qG IBGG Y SfG
166
7 bQ j``
S e SH o rp coCG q K HG dG SQ fG
(SI) OQGdG dG Qhe j dG G M IBGG
.I dG SfG H A dH
8 bQ j``
Y dG SI dG Qe
r p coCG q K HG dG SQ fG .1
k Yp M2 h M1 qG JBGG Y hdH dG JSfG
.jRGeh He qfCGh
qfCG q H SI OhQdG jhGR b e dH hCG adH AGS .2
. SI OQGdG d jRGe JBGG H e G dG L
9 bQ j``
dG SI dG Qe
r p cnCG q K HG dG SQ r Yp CG
M2 h M1 qG JBGG Y GdH SfG Y
.aM e aM Y JeGh
`````Kh q ````SCG
qG IBGG
FdH hG jdG e bQ W e qedG JM n G qjOdG IBGG J
q
.dG cGO IOq e e AH q h LdG e d G dG Y We
dGh G e bdG jq dG ILCG YU jo IBGG e dG Gg qCG qGE
EG j CG b Ld eeCG dG Y j AdG e GAL qCG e SCG Iq d gZh
GqL U LLdG dG H ILCG g jGG noJ dd.cdG fG dG
167
H o W q j K edG e dY LQO EG d
Y IQOb edCG hCG dG
q e Gq L bQ q fe
.Y IOQGdG q TCG ne Y
SCG
H OGj dG dG qCG Y
e SG .1
q j e dG
q
d h q fG dG g jq OdG IBGG AdG Y
.LdG
d eeCG LdG Y AdG SfG qj na .2
? jq OY IBG LdG
pcoG
(IqG PdG Qe hCG)
H q LCG
q c e 2mm cQJ iG
q QdG W Y
Y jdG H fdG IBGG dCG q K Mf
H Y ddG IBGG q K hCG e
5mm H
1 dG
168
IBGG H U dG G dG i e Y iq oG Q dG WCG
(2T) K H QdG e qG AG dCG K iNCGh
2 dG
3 dG
Me
p
.hCq G coH jCGQ gTCS e QbCGh KK Y VY Lh N P coe U
? je e g
dG H XG c
YSe dG H G HC XG c n oj
G A dG fCG e fCG e Fj a
qdD e q b q h .OG Y OG dG jdG
G QfEG AdG F SGQO
dG
n
dG
q dG Y q c Fb gZh S fGh
.jdG
Gg Hc jL e dG HG H AL e RHCG eh
,AdG e S e jf MJ dG QHEG jf
e J q TCG SGH q J jDhdG qCG SH YR a
EG H e dP AdG q J bh ,FG G EG dG
G q TCG SGH qJ jDhdG qCG KCGh dG HG AL CG
jf EG UJh
,G Y H FG G e
q
.AdG SfG IgX H qJ dG J q gCG e jG jdG Y nIGf
r n Z IjL
169
AdG
q QfG
25
A```JCGh eq C ```JCG
dG Y ZQa SCc dG f
QdG Y Ae H SCc h
QfEG IgX
MCGh q `````LCG
:ddG Gq H OhJC
q G
SQEH j qeo e Sfa hCG) Qd q TC Qe *
.(jRGe q FV eM
.e
q Ae H jM *
qFdG ed j e FdG QG VCG
.s e e AG S Y OhQdH e G
1 dG
2 dG
Qq G HCG U dG Y
(P) fG SG f VCG -
aC
q Gh qMCG
bGNG Y j gQe
q dh AGdG n G QG e G q FdG eG J
.AGdGh aqdG SdG jg e
q c H UdG dG ie Y SdG hCG AG
,Qe J q J SdG EG AGdG e hCG AG EG AGdG e AdG Qhe qCG j Ggh
.AdG QfH IgdG g Jh
HdG qbe dP ch dG c SfG Ad M QfG IgX Y IOjR
d AG qCG ZQ hCG HdG eq CG ,m U
n m S hP
l U
o L SdG qC fdG
.cdG QhO d d eCG a dG H
171
``````SCG
,eSG Y j h dG SdG EG j aqT Sh H UdG dG Y AdG OhQh Y
.AdG QfG IgdG g q Jh
: jJ
NBG qT Sh EG qT Sh e Qhe Y Q j dG q dG g AdG QfG
: iNCG jJ
p qG ( SI FdG dG ,qFdG eG ) oAdG q j *
H UdG dG f o
(GOQGh YT ,kIOQGh k eM) GOQGh GAV aqdG SdG
dG ie oG (IR FdG dG ,q FdG eG) Ao dG q j *
.(Ge YT ,Ie k eM) Ge GAV aqdG SdG H UdG
(I) OhQdG n f aqdG SdG H UdG dGh OQGdG dG AdG o f
q J *
172
A dG
q QfG ffb
jG fb : hCq G fdG
MCGh q `````LCG
. SdG G AdG
q Q gEG e INCG HdG YCG
aC
q Gh qMCG
dG qCG qj SfEG IgH UGh
KG IdG e H b e e SdH
q
OhQh Y q dGh P SdG S Y IG q FdG
q n jr n oG KCG g IR G
. I q dG SI G
Y q dGh IRG dG
q KCG q G dG qEG f , YT q jRGG G qCG
dG
q qE a q dH . I q dG SdGh AGdG H UdG dG
q Y SI dG
q OhQh
hGh NI Od h SI OQGdG d
q hG G Lj IRG
(SI,NI) OhQdG
.(3 dG)
q
``````SCG
:(jG fb) Qfd hCq G fdG f
OhQdG e G dG j
jGh dG
q fb: qdG fdG
q gCG CG gLdG a G dG QfG e j dG hCq G fdG EG aq J CG H
Y OQGdG dG e Jh QfG a q j dG qdG SdG W e
q c KCH BG
.G dG e
MCGh q `````LCG
.HdG HdG SG dG Gq G H OhJC
q G
.HdG HdG c SdG fGSG f VCG
T Y dch IR e T Yh SI OQGh T Y MCa SfdG qTCG
.G dH qEG qgCG d dh IR' e
173
4 dG
(SI)
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
89
r()
6.5
13
19
26
31
36
39
41
41.8
JQH JJ QfG jhGR b qCG MCa d aGG i jhGdG QG r jhGR qc QGe QbCG
g EG IOY Qj )
.( JdG H idG dG
f AYh AG q c e HdG f IOYEH
(5T) SdG fGSG f e H FGO
``````SCG
:(jGhq dG fb) Qfd qdG fdG f
Y G OdG f q TCG J NBG qT Sh EG AGdG e AdG Qhe Y j QfG q c
r < i <=> SdG dP jq QfH Je Iq H SdG H UdG dG
idG dG J dHh Iq Mp n cCG Qo fG j NBG qT Sh EG AGdG e AdG fG Y
.jq QfG cCG dG SdG c qc n UCG QfG jhGd
:eCG
Je q bCG
AGdG e GdH dPh QfG HH bCG AG jQfG e LdG jq QfG fQe LCG e
.jRGe q FV eM SH LdG EG AGdG e q K AG EG
H UdG dG Y G OdG e AdG OQh e GPEG IOG fQG e qCG g .1
?GP ?aqdG SdG
jhGR GP Ie q FV eM Y MCG i=30 hJ OhQdG jhGR b fc e GPEG .2
.LdG EG dH r =19h AG EG dH r = 22 QfG
.jq QfG cCG js CG (LdGh AG) SdG H e PEG Oq MCG
175
q G QfEG
qdG SfEGh
26
AGdG EG e qT Sh e QfEG
MCGh q `````LCG
: e Gh
QfG SGQH UG G RH OhJC
q
q G
FV T d S qFV M Qe *
Qq e HCG Ub *
.(P) (SH) qdG SdG e fGSG f *
1 dG
2 dG
``````SCG
NBG qT Sh EG AGdG e Qfd CdG g c
AGdG EG ne mqT Sh e q e qc QfG Ad j
SdGh AGdG H UdG dG f fH dh
(3dG
q ) r > i <=> .NBG qdG
3 dG
``````SCG
Qhe Y Ad Ql fG SfG n U j NBG qT Sh EG AGdG e QhG Y j c
LpM k b OhQdG jhGR b J eY e j QfG qGC qGE ,AGdG EG en mqT Sh e
.q G Qn fG oIgdG g q Jh qdG SdG dP qjQfH k Je
.AGdGh qdG SdG H UdG dG ie Ad qc SfG
q G QfG Y qJj
l
UG
qT Sh EG qT Sh e Qhe Y dh AdG Qe q d NBG e g QfG
.NBG
:KG ffd J q Fja lIgX AdG QfG
(jG fb) hCq G fdG OhQdG e G dG j
(jGhdG fb) qdG fdG e hCG (hCG dG)NBG qT Sh EG AGdG e AdG Qhe Y j QfG
q c
:SdG dP qjQfH Je Iq H q TCG J (fdG dG) AGdG EG qdG SdG dP
r < i <=> hCG dG SdG H UdG dG Y G OdG f r > i <=> fdG dG rSdG H UdG dG f GPEG AGdG EG qT Sh e AdG Qhe Y QfG dSG q G QfG qj
.Ad qc SfG dP Y qJjh LG jhGdG b OhQdG jhGR b Rh
178
f Y YC
q G
FG q M Y q CG
1 bQ j``
ZGdG cCG q K dG dG SQ r Yp CG .1
:SG GQdH
.AGdG jq CG 2h 1 SdG H e Oq M .2
2 bQ j``
179
3 bQ j``
:e U e
q c eCG eY V q K ddG fdG Hc YCG
BG Jh J NBG qT Sh EG qT Sh e q FV eM q eY.1
.OhQdG jhGR b fc e f
FGOQfG jhGR b J NBG qT Sh EG AGdG e q FV eM q eY .2
OhQdG jhGR b e UCG
.qdG SfG Y Ad q G QfG j .3
e hCG NBG qT Sh EG AGdG e AdG q e AGS q G QfG
o
r jn CG .4
.AGdG EG NCG Gg
b OhQdG jhGR H Y qc SfG j AGdG EG AG e AdG Qhe Y .5
.AGdG EG LdG e AdG Qhe Y IgdG f H dG b e cCG
5 bQ j``
?GP ? IOQGdG jr G g J CG jr d g .1
.G jr Gh IG jr G Oq Mh IOQGdG jr G Y rPn EG s nJ .2
.AG jq CG 2h 1 SdG H e Oq M .3
181
J
AdG
q Qe q d
27
G IQaq dG
A```JCGh eq C ```JCG
? IAVEG Y zG{ IQadG IQb aC
q G
jdG
dCG
q
A```JCGh eq C ```JCG
jdG dCdG Y INCG GdG jG c
.gZh
q dGh JG jOe
J gQhO g e ?jq dG dCG g g e
?dTG CGe g eh ?jOG
``````SCG
qFdG GQTEd bdGh sLG d qjdG dG J
.LG M IH hCG jb ae Y
jq H d
4 dG
G dG
q
A```JCGh eq C ```JCG
AG e kcn H j edG Y kf IH ae Y AGdG o HY pgj G IjT qjCG
HG e bG qfCG
q X qch
Hh H HK aG Jh Y
.YOG dG J
IjdG dG qjCG e j
eeCG IQq dG Fd iAGj q G
l n H IH ae Yh jdG
zJ{ SEG Y AG e
?GdH n oJ dGh VdG c aUG IgdG aC
q G npH .q J qc e
MCGh q `````LCG
: ddG dH bCG dd .AH AGdG q q VJ HH bCG GdG IgX Ic
:ddG Oq GGh Gq H OhJC
q G
(e 500 mL S) G c QNG SCc *
(e c be) e J RL *
G *
.Qd q TC Qe *
.q M Ae *
(...M ,ShQdG e) Ad fe
q IOq e *
185
6 dG
M e aC
q G
e HbG sc AG ac
q J ,dG Y
e AG jQfG q J dHh IQGG Qe
AG AdG j eYh .SCG EG YCG
Sh EG q T Sh e q qfE a a e
r nffb M a jq QfG
q bCG NBG qT
. YCG f Qe q J EG Q fG
(7dG)
7 dG
186
``````SCG
q J q G IjT jq C G IH ae Y q gh Am e pn pH Ige qJ q W IgX g GdG
.Hh H HK aG Jh e bG qfGC gG q X qcJhCG
.qSG fSH IqG dG Yh AGdG IOY GdG IgX gJ
8 dG
9 dG
AGd dG dG e dG AV Oj eY dd
UdG dG ie Y de GQfG EG j
jhGR b q jQJ JQG Y j iNCGh W H
dP Y qJa LG jhGdG b iq j CG EG OhQdG
qe OhQh f YCG EG AdG H q Jj q qc SfG
q M (9dG) de GQfG EG G UGd IM
A dG e eSG Y q JCe a gG Y EG j
IQU g bGdG q dh zAe cH{ d iAGJ Ggh
.(10dG)AdG bQd qVGaG
10 dG
Je q bCG
:GP q HCG
q jQJ JQG AGd dG dG e qJCG dG Ad dG GQfG q J .OhQdG jhGR d
SfG qEG GQfG J Y dG LG jhGdG d OhQdG jhGR b q J Y qJj .MGh qc
187
f Y YC
q G
`````Kh q ````SCG
dSG jOe Hh jdG dCG G
q
zd{ J M qdG SfG Igd edG dG MCG e jq dG dCG n oJ
.NBG EG e e AdG H SCGdG IT S a SdG hCG LdG e
a jOdG UdG SCG Y gq d JG Y kIQK jq dG dCG KMCG dh
c OY Vh PEG eG M Y IQb cCG g fRh qNh M U EG aVEH
M jdG dG Gb OY hCG JdG N OY jj IMGdG eG NGO dCG e
.MGh
Y a jq dG dCG q J c
Yh (...J qH ,q Jg KO) SG
n GQTEG
NGd Vq J c MVh j q NGJ
,eJ jH J IQTEG j WedG
.jY VGZC H gG j
q e Ggh
Hb H jCG jdG dCG q Jh
EG gh ,FGG N e qj q Td
.GQTEG UJ Y Ic bW
NO jq dG dCG Ea GG g H
JG U Nh Y dG e dG
dG jdG oJ c ,SGG Th
qjdG dCG J ILCG
.VQCG WH dGh YGfCH
Na dCG d q eh IjY iNCG eGSG X pbq Oh fh fh
NO c XGh dG jdG n Gh IOG bdG GedG YU e
HfCG UdGh dG d fG jdG G GedG J
.Gq pdGh
M dGh IQGG LQO dG jd c
jCG jq dG dCG n J c
q
e ca ,FGOCG pbq Ohn IdG Gd SMh M d jOdG G
q Y o
s J
hCG IFdG LCG Y bGdG dG e Qq dG j b GFdG H QGL YU dNOEG
.g
188
SCG
.jq H d Xh Oq M .1
.jq dG dCG G q gCG cPCG .2
.jq dG dCG SG Oq Y .3
? je e g
SG GdG
gGa e AWdG Y SGQ c AG S Y dG d IQU Ige
eG dG AGdG W J eY IgdG g h .AG a AdG qeh He
ac qCG CG q f NS hCG aGO q FGg GQq J dG dG
q J H ,IOQH e jdGh Ad
e GQOU q FV YT q J GPEa .AG S Y JQG qc jQfG dHh q jQJ
q J AGdG
OdG Y Ge e YCG iNCG EG W e dfG Y j qfCG Mf (dG) dG G
iMEG OhQdG jhGR J q M e GQe q jh dG H UdG dG Y G
jh d qc SfG a gJ dG dG EG dH LG jhGdG e cCG dG
dG IQU NCG Gg ia AWdG Y j dG gG Y EG jh SCG EG Qe
.SG GdG IgdG g q J ddh.AGdG qeh He
dG o bh
,aCG qe iAGJ dG dGh
q HCG QGL eCG gh j dG dG
o
.SG GdG Igd iNCG l eCG Ae H SCc G
189
q FG AGVCG
HCG AdGh
q
28
A```JCGh eq C ```JCG
GP ?gGdG GdCG J
q d b Sb AGMG aC
q G
j g ?QdG e Y GHh G hf H qEG j
?GP ?L
q CG ?AG h dG G f e
b Sb
QTe Y A dG
q QfG
MCGh q `````LCG
:ddG Gq H OhJC
q G
LLR QTe *
(AGM q TCG) Qd q TC Qe *
.QfG SGQH UG
RG *
q
190
:Gq L g
LdG f
CG j QTG e edG
n
Y .jq dG JUN f q M dG
dSG Yh jRGG LdG e J
AdG Oj H L
q fh e MGh Y f
Y jXG dG LdG e MGh Y
.AA' WdG M e b
IYb QTG Y Vj dG qG q j
.(2 dG)QTG
2 dG
c HCG U dG Y Q TG VCG
e
q SCG q K AdG Qe HJCGh 4 dG
.MCG
Me
q Fe QTe SH HdG f REG
.LLR QTe Y VY
4 dG
191
M e aC
q G
LdG e Lh Y AdG Oj eY Y f j I1 dG QTd jXG
AGdG ,aqT Sh H j S
,Qfd VN QTG a ,LdGh
5 dG
QTd FdG G e OQh qfCG h
f Qfd hCq G fdG M j
e Rm Ge m ehCG) FdG G e q qe T FGO QTG S
n jo dd ,G
. 5 dG c (QTd r qG LdG
jL e d fK Iq e QfG EG j I2 dG HG LdG EG AdG j eY (5dG) SI1 UCG G Y cCG ae I2R G AGdG
``````SCG
LR-AGg NdG Lh Y hCq G de jQf f Qe GfG EG QTe Y AdG j
.AGg-LR hG Lh Y dGh
HCG A dG
q J
q
MCGh q `````LCG
RG Sfa Y AHG e HdG HdG H bCG
. S FV Qc (gq e e)
Ub Y QTG Vh b S SfdG J Y
qj Mh NG e dG f Y MCG RG
(QGUG e e H)HCG j dG q TCG KCG d
.W
qCG MCG HdG HdG c QTG VCG eY
6 dG
HG fG e UdG Y j dG FdG KCG
qc VY jj fe
q H T g H IOQGdG G e Y a ae d QTd
dG EG (aGfG
q bCG KCG) MCG e q jQJ a GdCG Rq Jh QTG Y fHG
(7dG) .qdG ,QRCG ,NCG ,UCa JdH GQhe (aGfG cCG KCG)
192
7 dG
M e aC
q G
e dG dH AV fG Y lgH LG Y fG
q FdG dG GdCG e d
q
q c
.QTG
EG dH CdG c ch ,S SfdG e IQOU GdCG IOq e Al GVCG QTG Y f dH
Je H fG EG AGVCG J e AV c N ,HdG HdG AGG QdG q TCG
.QTG Y HCG AdG q J q J q ,fH
``````SCG
dd dG EG MCG e q dG jq OMCG YTEG e ge Y Y HCG AdG j
.GdCG IOq e YTEG HCG AdG qEG f
gQe GfG EG e dG jOMCG YTEG qc N Y l f lIgX QTe Y HCG AdG oqJ
.q dG ,QRCG ,NCG ,UCa JdH GQhe dG EG MCG e JJ fH Je H dh
.HCG AdG
n W HCG AdG q J Y dG ,GdCG oIOq e q FdG dG q J
.b Sb GdCG q c Y j l UGe
l W HCG AdG W
.HCG AV Q le gq G G
Je q bCG
gq G G Y VY
(tube non) f e e dh HdG HdG H bCG
k
.8 dG SG dG Y MCa
c EG Oq MCGh 7 dG W e 8 dG W QbCG .1
. CG HC
n G GAV f e AV
EG f e Ad fG
q FG AGVCG g e .2
q
8 dG
?HC
n G GAV j
193
b Sb IgX
`````Kh q ````SCG
n db AdG gn jo GdCG IOq e AGVCG e Sb qJ W IgX g b Sb
GdCG f Y j gh ,G T e Qj dG PGPdG hCG G AfG H dG
qCG M LQG dG g MCG dG a j H JdG Hh HCG AdG W
S EG nbCG ,NGdG ndG j dG dG
.VQCG
hb dG g jh Hk Z gn jo dG X GPEG
H q dG Y Yj Ggh MdG J e c S
OHG dG g jh kbT gn oa dG H qeCG ,
q H q dG Y Yj Ggh dG f dG
GPEG{ FdG dG G AL e e q j e gh ,dG
X Gjh JQGh M q g dG X b Sb
.zq dG Th M g q dG
dG qEG o
s J IjL d b Sb IgX qCG ZQ
b e Iq e hCq h (g eG) Oe Y OG
b Sb qEG XG Hc ca ,dG HG HdG dG
G ch ,Ae L Hh dG H WQh Z AGg VGYG Y AdG fG e j
dG CG h .XdG a j dG dG e cCG AGdG e W h UN Vh AG
.e Sb g Y SfG VGe Qj dG Ea ,hc T Y
bO J b Sb J RGdG SG (dG HdG) OG Y ddG dG h
S Y G IOLG IdG AG Gb Y dG TCG bh e b Sb Cj :a
. FGdG EG J dP Hh ,NGO SfG TCG J Mh ,QeCG
q c a J e Ib dG AV j eY
QfG jGhR Y UN
jhGH dG jOMCG YTEG
q
g OhQh Yh ,dG jq OMCG iNCG Y TEG
Jh J Id NGdG dG Y YTEG
(9dG) AGdG EG IdG e LhN Y iNCG Iq e
9 dG
194
``````SCG
.HCG Ad NBG e dG AV
.G
q G Gb Y SfGh GQfG Y f ,dG AV W q q W IgX b Sb
e dG J eY q f dY a 42h 40H b hGJ jhGR qGE b Sb gjo
.Je dG J eY e jh AdG
UG
,Ic J UN
H qdG Sfdh q G Qfdh eq Y H AdG Qf
q
jq dG dCG q gCG e
.Qq G G
q qc SfGh de GQfG Y f q W IgX GdG
.dG EG MCG e q q FG AGVCG e me OY Y HCG AdG j
.b Sb nGdCG fGdCG aGJ UGe W HCG AdG W
a J dG YTEG H qdG SdG jq QfG JQG Y f HCG AdG q J
.G
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195
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www.proftnj.com/opt-refr.htm
www.espace-sciences.org
www.ostralo.net/3_animations/swf/descartes.swf
www.sciences.univ-nantes.fr/physique/perso/gtulloue/index.html
www2.fsg.ulaval.ca/opus/physique534/resumes/12b.shtml
QfGh SfG
AdG
fr.encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761576625/optique.html
http://www.forum2.math.ulg.ac.be/viewsection.html
www2.fsg.ulaval.ca/opus/physique534/optique/fibre10.shtml
fr.encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761566545/fibre_optique.html
http://www.er.uqam.ca/nobel/m162130/Utilisation.html
www.telcite.fr/fibre.htm
ophtasurf.free.fr/mirages/mirages.htm
www.linternaute.com/science/divers/pourquoi/06/pourquoi-mirage/mirage.shtml
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jq dG
giik.net/cheminlepluscourt/explications.php
lamap.inrp.fr/?Page_Id=33&Action=3&Element_Id=803&DomainScience
Type_Id=14&hemeType_Id=30
pagesperso-orange.fr/guy.chaumeton/2d03ph.htm
un.arc.en.ciel.free.fr
www.espace-sciences.org
www.spc.ac-aix-marseille.fr/labospc/spip.php?article95
www.sciences.univ-nantes.fr/physique/perso/gtulloue/index.html
agora.qc.ca/encyclopedie.nsf/Categories/Sciences_et_techniques
200
AdG q J
b Sbh HCG
Le Y
q e Fb
fa Ne
HY Ne
jq H IQU
q M IQU
q VGaG IQU
e cJ
Image optique
Image relle
Image virtuelle
Installation domestique
Instant
IOQT
dS IOQT
Le IOQT
OQT
Ion
Ion ngatif
Ion positif
Ionique
H
Ae SfG
Jaillir
Jet d'eau
(UCG Sf hCG) T
Sfa
(fGQf hCG) bGTEG
Laiton
Lanterne
Luminosit
FHc RL g
q fe
e
GS
qe IBGe
Ye
Fg P
( ) Oe
gEd Hb
OY
IGf
Neutre (solution)
Negligeable
Normale
Noyau
Nylon
VGaG L
Objet virtuel
QGe
Orbite
HHJ SQ
HHqdG Ge
Oscillogramme
Oscilloscope
206
P
Paratonnerre
YGdG aGO
L
FHc SGf
IQhO
FVc
FV cJ
q FV M
o
OhQdG e
eY
UH
seo
QqJ e
QTe
MG
Fc YJ pe
Particule
Pendule Electrique
Priode
Photolectrique
Photosynthse
Pinceau lumineux
Plan d'incidence
Plaque signaltique
Plexiglas
Pointill
Prise de courant
Prisme
Probabilit
Produit d'une raction chimique
Q
Quartz
(dG QqH) hr en
R
YTEG
OhNoCG
o T
OQGh o T
Radiation
Rainure
Rayon
Rayon incident
e o T
e o T
TEG
Ye
Fc YJ
cY
Aq dG SfG
qc SfG
Aq dG QfG
q M QfG
jq QfG
Sc
qFHc T
JGQ
cY QGe
cY IBGe
aJ
QGhq O
Rayon rflchi
Rayon rfract
Rayonnement
Ractif
Raction chimique
Rflecteur
Rflexion de la lumire
Rflexion totale
Rfraction de la lumire
Rfraction limite
Rfringence
Rfringent
Rseau lectrique
Rsine
Rtroprojecteur
Rtroviseur
Rpulsion
Rotor
207
rnoc
b
UCG e
Ic
Sachet
Secteur
Section principale
Simulation
( he Qq J) q L
r pe
n pe
jhc GOU
( r pe) n rpe
HCG Aq dG W
( qFq dG WCG SGQO) qrW
n dr d
q FV H
cS
n ornH
Xe
Symtrique
T
dG qJJ
dGd q
q pe
Qpe pdGd snpe
Tension du secteur
Tournevis
Tournevis testeur
Transformateur
rTp
HoJ
Trombone
Turbine
e
q Y
Uniforme
Universel
LM b
dq a b
ib b
fHn
rZCG ( QqH hCG ) LR
(nCG hCG ) n U LR
VGaG
Valeur critique
Valeur efficace
Valeur maximale
Vernis
Verre dpoli
Verre poli
Virtuel
208
Le q Y e Fb
HY Ne
GC
(dJ) MG
MG
OhorNCG
SCG
(q fGQf hCG) bGTEG
TEG
YTEG
(LR) o ZCG
qVGaG
hdBG
mAe o SrfG
Frottement
Probabilit
Rainure
Actylne
Luminosit
Rayonnement
Radiation
Dpoli (verre)
Virtuel
Electron
Jet deau
Dviation
GfG
AdG QfG
qc SfG
AdG QfG
q q M
n QfG
qjQfG
ffCG/fCG
(jdH de U e) fHEG
Diffusion de la lumire
Dviation
Rflexion de la lumire
Rfraction limite
Rfringence
Anion (s)
Ebonite
Jaillir
n Hn
frnH
qFV H
ejO IH
UH
jOdG
q fHH
or H
Vernis
Spot lumineux
Galet de dynamo
Plexiglas
Bicarbonate de sodium
Sureau
209
P
HoJ
OOq J
FV cJ
e cJ
AdG cJ
AdG
q q J
FHc OJ
Fc YJ
J
aJ
Attraction
Turbine
Frquence
Photosynthse
Installation domestique
Focalisation de la lumire
Dispersion de la lumire
Electroneutralit
Raction chimique
Electrisation
Rpulsion
Tension du secteur
dG qJJ
Courant du secteur
dG Qq J
Courant continu
q e Qq J
q eo L
VGaG L
H q f L
qce qf L
Objet virtuel
Corps pur simple
Corps pur compos
Particule
jJ RL
(he Qq J) L
TT ,(FM hCG) LM
Ecran
qnG eM
jpr p dG ep M
Acide actique
Acide sulfurique
jQgQdG eM
p hCG) q peM
(q r M
Acide chlorhydrique
Acide (solution)
FV rnjoM
Pinceau lumineux
VM
o
Acidit
210
Le qY e Fb
fa Ne
A
SCG
(M) hCG eM
G eM
(a Ae) jQgQdG eM
jdG eM
VM
jJ RL
he
he
QOof
qQOof
QOodG
LM jhGR
SfG jhGR
QfG jhGR
OhQdG jhGR
(fCG hCG) jq e IOQT
qe
q pL
b Sb
IQq P
jq jr QoP
P
JdG ,UdG Q
Actylne
Acide (solution)
Acide actique
Acide chlorhydrique
Acide sulfurique
Acidit
Alimentation (en lectricit)
Alternateur
Alternatif
Ammoniac
Ammoniacal
Ammoniaque
Angle critique
Angle de rflexion
Angle de rfraction
Angle d'incidence
Anion
Aplati
Arbre dun moteur
Arc-en-ciel
Atome
Atomicit
Attraction
Axes des abscisses, des ordonnes
B
Ipe
e
Balai
Balayage
Bandelette
jo T
qjb
() b
Basicit
Basique (solution)
Bicarbonate de sodium
jOdG fHH
Bobinage
q e
Bobine longue
Th
Boule
Gpe
Brleur
211
(nbr pe hCG) e
Ije
Cadran
Calibrage
Calibr
n je
jOq dG fHQc
(Jc hCG) qe IOQT
qjhc
qdhQg q
H qFHc T
dS T
S e
Le T
HjEG e
jQc
edCG jQc
(qdG e) jOdG jQc
ba hCG W
QG e
q
OGqY
qe
qbf
(eM) q e
qce q f L
H q f L
dc
qe QqJ
dG QqJ
eo
Carbonate de soduim
Cation
Causticit
Centrale hydraulique
Charge Electrique lmentaire
Charge ngative
Charg ngativement
Charge positive
Charg positivement
Chlorure
Chlorure daluminium
Chlorure de sodium
Crpitement
Coaxial
Collecteur
Compteur
Condenseur
Conductibilit
Convergent (faisceau)
Corps pur compos
Corps pur simple
Coulomb
Courant continu
Courant secteur
Courbe
D
Dpoli (verre)
(LR) o ZCG
GfG
q H (SQ hCG) q
Aq dG QfG
e
(q VJ) Ua
AdG q J
(RL hCG) IqY
(eM) IYe
Dviation
Diagramme
Diffusion de la lumire
Direction
Disjoncteur (diffrentiel)
Dispersion de la lumire
Dispositif
Divergent (faisceau)
212
pZ
Douille
E
Ebonite
(jdH de U e) fHEG
TT (FM hCG) LM
(qJJ) q a
q JGQ AHc
q LLR AHc
J
(FHc e hCG) ec
rU
(OhrdEG hCG) inr ne
hdCG
FHc OJ
FHc e
cS AHc
FHc rp S
(GLCG Tc) G
r pe
cQ
Fc YJ dOel
FGG ICe
Ecran
Efficace (tension)
Electricit rsineuse
Electricit vitreuse
Electrisation
Electroaimant
Electrocution
Electrode
Electron
Electroneutralit
Electroscope
Electrostatique
Electrovanne
Endoscope
Etrier
Equation dune raction chimique
Extincteur dincendie
G
jq H d
f
QqdG S
jQCq dG S
QY S
j S
e S
Ar n V q Te
IQq e Veq h
cJ
q Fc U
Oo Oq J
(dJ) MG
Fibre optique
Fiche
Fil de phase
Fil de terre
Fil dnud
Fil neutre
Fil sous tension
Filtre de lumire
Flash dappareil photo
Focalisation
Formule chimique
Frquence
Frottement
Frotter
dO
E
Galet de dynamo
Gnratrice (ou dynamo) de bycyclette
ejO IH
LGqQO (ejO hCG) Iqde
Mq f
Gicleur
213
jq H IQU
q M IQU
q VGaG IQU
e cJ
Image optique
Image relle
Image virtuelle
Installation domestique
Instant
IOQT
dS IOQT
Le IOQT
OQT
Ion
Ion ngatif
Ion positif
Ionique
H
Ae SfG
Jaillir
Jet d'eau
(UCG Sf hCG) T
Sfa
(fGQf hCG) bGTEG
Laiton
Lanterne
Luminosit
FHc RL g
q fe
e
GS
qe IBGe
Ye
Fg P
( ) Oe
gEd Hb
OY
IGf
Neutre (solution)
Negligeable
Normale
Noyau
Nylon
VGaG L
Objet virtuel
QGe
Orbite
HHJ SQ
HHqdG Ge
Oscillogramme
Oscilloscope
214
P
Paratonnerre
YGdG aGO
L
FHc SGf
IQhO
FVc
FV cJ
qFV oM
OhQdG e
eY
UH
seo
Qq J e
QTe
MG
Fc YJ pe
Particule
Pendule Electrique
Priode
Photolectrique
Photosynthse
Pinceau lumineux
Plan d'incidence
Plaque signaltique
Plexiglas
Pointill
Prise de courant
Prisme
Probabilit
Produit d'une raction chimique
YTEG
OhNoCG
o T
OQGh o T
e o T
e o T
TEG
Ye
Fc YJ
cY
Aq dG SfG
qc SfG
Aq dG QfG
qM QfG
qjQfG
Sc
q FHc T
JGQ
cY QGe
cY IBGe
aJ
QGhq O
Radiation
Rainure
Rayon
Rayon incident
Rayon rflchi
Rayon rfract
Rayonnement
Ractif
Raction chimique
Rflecteur
Rflexion de la lumire
Rflexion totale
Rfraction de la lumire
Rfraction limite
Rfringence
Rfringent
Rseau lectrique
Rsine
Rtroprojecteur
Rtroviseur
Rpulsion
Rotor
215
rnoc
b
UCG e
Ic
Sachet
Secteur
Section principale
Simulation
( he Qq J) q L
r pe
n pe
jhc GOU
( r pe) n rpe
HCG Aq dG W
( qFq dG WCG SGQO) qrW
n dr d
q FV H
cS
n ornH
Xe
Symtrique
T
dG qJJ
dGd q
q pe
Qpe pdGd snpe
Tension du secteur
Tournevis
Tournevis testeur
Transformateur
rTp
HoJ
Trombone
Turbine
e
q Y
Uniforme
Universel
LM b
dq a b
ib b
fHn
rZCG ( QqH hCG ) LR
(nCG hCG ) n U LR
VGaG
Valeur critique
Valeur efficace
Valeur maximale
Vernis
Verre dpoli
Verre poli
Virtuel
Q
Qaurtz
(dG QqH) hr e
216
Le q Y e Fb
HY Ne
GC
(dJ) MG
MG
OhorNCG
SCG
(q fGQf hCG) bGTEG
TEG
YTEG
(LR) o ZCG
qVGaG
hdBG
mAe o SrfG
Frottement
Probabilit
Rainure
Actylne
Luminosit
Rayonnement
Radiation
Dpoli (verre)
Virtuel
Electron
Jet deau
Dviation
GfG
AdG QfG
qc SfG
AdG QfG
q q M
n QfG
qjQfG
ffCG/fCG
(jdH de U e) fHEG
Diffusion de la lumire
Dviation
Rflexion de la lumire
Rfraction limite
Rfringence
Anion (s)
Ebonite
Jaillir
n Hn
frnH
qFV H
ejO IH
UH
jOdG
q fHH
or H
Vernis
Spot lumineux
Galet de dynamo
Plexiglas
Bicarbonate de sodium
Sureau
217
P
HoJ
OOq J
FV cJ
e cJ
AdG cJ
AdG
q q J
FHc OJ
Fc YJ
J
aJ
Attraction
Turbine
Frquence
Photosynthse
Installation domestique
Focalisation de la lumire
Dispersion de la lumire
Electroneutralit
Raction chimique
Electrisation
Rpulsion
Tension du secteur
dG qJJ
Courant du secteur
dG Qq J
Courant continu
q e Qq J
q eo L
VGaG L
H q f L
qce qf L
Objet virtuel
Corps pur simple
Corps pur compos
Particule
jJ RL
(he Qq J) L
TT ,(FM hCG) LM
Ecran
qnG eM
jpr p dG ep M
Acide actique
Acide sulfurique
jQgQdG eM
p hCG) q peM
(q r M
Acide chlorhydrique
Acide (solution)
FV rnjoM
Pinceau lumineux
VM
o
Acidit
218
O
Paratonnerre
YGdG aGO
Frotter
qdO
QGhq nO
InQhr nO
LGQq O (Iqdeo ) hCG ejO
Rotor
Priode
Dynamo ( ou gnratrice) de bicyclette
P
IQq P
ju jr Qn Oo
Atome
Atomicit
Q
JGQ
HHJ SQ
cQ
Rsine
Oscillogramme
Etrier
R
SfEG jhGR
QfEG jhGR
OhQdG
o jhGR
LpM
n jhGR
rZCG ( QqH hCG ) LR
(nCG hCG ) U
n LR
Angle de rflexion
Angle de rfraction
Angle dincidence
Angle critique
Verre dpoli
Verre poli
S
rpcSn
GS
FHn q nc rSp
jQCdG rSp
Qr qdG S
mQY S
jeo rSp
n r neo rSp
Stator
Mirage
Electrovanne
Fil de terre
Fil de phase
Fil dnud
Fil neutre
Fil sous tension
T
IOQT
dS IOQT
(fCG) qje IOQT
qe IOQT
Le IOQT
q pOQT
FnHnc nT
Ion
Ion ngatif
Ionique
Cation
Ion positif
Ionique
Rseau lectrique
219
Laiton
Charge ngative
Charge Electrique lmentaire
H qFHc T
Le T
Charge positive
jr To
To
poe To
p oe T
OQGh To
rTp
Bandelette
Rayon
Rayon rflchi
Rayon rfract
Rayon incident
Trombone
U
U
jhc GOU
qVGaG IQU
jq H IQU
q M IQU
q Fc U
Radiation
Rainure
Image virtuelle
Image optique
Priode
Photolectrique
ba hCG W
AdG
q W
(qFdG
q WCG SGQO) qW
Crpitement
Radiation
Rainure
pcY
q Y
OGqnY
(RL hCG) IqoY
eY
OY
Rflecteur
Universel
Compteur
Dispositif
Plaque signaltique
Normale
r pZ
Douille
p
(VJ)
Ua
o
Sfa
(qJJ) qa
Disjoncteur (diffrentiel)
Lanterne
Efficace(tension)
220
gEd Hb
pb
()
q rpb
jq rpb
n ob Sb
r
L
p
M
b
n n
dqa b
io
n b b
Negligeable
Secteur
Basique (solution)
Basicit
Arc-en-ciel
Valeur critique
Valeur efficace
Valeur maximale
fJc/Jc
p
Sc
qjhc
(Ijc) Hc
fHc
jQoc
r pedCG jQoc
(dG e) jOr dG
o jQc
Cation (s)
Rfringent
Causticit
Boule
Carbonate de sodium
Chlorure
Chlorure daluminium
Chlorure de sodium
Electrostatique
cS AHc
Electricit rsineuse
qJGQ AHc
Electricit vitreuse
qLLR AHc
FVc
(q FHc n pe hCG) n rep n r nc
Photolectrique
Electroaimant
r n nc
Sachet
dc
Coulomb
Instant
dd
qjH pd
Spire
Fibre optique
QGen
Orbite
(eM) IpYe
(eM) qe
QG q e
( ) p pOe
pYnn eo
pXeo
Divergent (faisceau)
Convergent (faisceau)
Coaxial
Neutre (solution)
Ractif
Symtrique
221
pheo
uoe
(GLG Tc) G
r pe
Icoe
G
q dhQg q
QOtdG
JdG ,UdG Q
u eo
qH (SQ hCG) s
cY IBGe
qe IBGe
AV q Te
Alternatif
Collecteur
Endoscope
Simulation
Brleur
Centrale hydraulique
Ammoniaque (ou solution dammoniac)
Axe des abscisses, des ordonnes
Transformateur
Diagramme
Rtroviseur
Miroir plan
Filtre de lumire
Quartz
(dG QH) he
Sonde
r pe
OhQdG e
r ne
(OhdEG hCG) inr ne
se
Plan dincidence
Balayage
Electrode
Aplati
HjEG e
S e
Charg positivement
Charg ngativement
Ir pe
HHdG Gpe
Balai
Oscilloscope
Multiple
Ye
FGG ICnpe
Extincteur dincendie
q Fc Yo J dOn eo
njoe
(sbpe hCG) Inje
dGd s npe
Qpe dGd q npe
qpUCG rne
ueo
FHc e
q npe
(npe) rn pe
222
heo
Fc oYJ nroe
pe
nnoe
nrne
QqJ n rne
n r pe
seo
pcY QGpe
QTr en
LGQq O (ejO hCG) Iudeo
qfe
ke
e
Alternateur
Produit dune raction chimique
Uniforme
Courbe
Direction
Prise de courant
Socle
Pointill
Rtroprojecteur
Prisme
Gnratrice (ou dynamo) de bicyclette
Mthanier
Cadran
Mica
qpbf
QpOof
q QOf
np J
Mf
q
q Fgn P
IGf
FHc SGf
f
Conductibilit
Ammoniac
Ammoniacal
Fiche
gicleur
Modle molculaire
Noyau
Pendule Electrique
Nylon
`g
FHc RL ng
h
Tp hn
IQe
q Veq h
Bobine longue
Flash dappareil photo
223