inding fractures in deep and tight

rocks has become a high priority

among explorationists in the Middle
East. Recent discoveries have shown that
fractures can play an important role in the
productivity of low permeability
formations. This is because they form an
interface with the rock matrix which is
many times greater than that provided by
the borehole.

In this article authors from different

organizations discuss the origins of
fractures, their importance within Middle
East oil reservoirs, and outline the various
fracture interpretation techniques
currently being used.

Authors:
Schlumberger: Mahmood Akbar, Roy Nurmi,
Eric Standen and Sandeep Sharma.
Oil and Natural Gas Commission of India (ONGC):
Piyush Panwar and J.G. Chaturvedi.
ONGC-Schlumberger Wireline Research Center:
Bob Dennis.

Tension
fractures

UPLIFT

ractures are 3D features - a fact

that is often neglected in the early
stages of reservoir development.
While fractures seen in the wellbore will
be analyzed to determine aperture and
probable production rates, little effort is
made to develop a detailed model of
fracture distribution. This kind of study
only takes place when the reservoir is
formed almost entirely of fracture porosity (as in a fractured basement) or when
some aspect of reservoir behaviour
strongly contradicts the existing reservoir model - for example, in cases where
there is sudden and unexpected water
production.
In general, fractures are important
because of their influence on tight reservoirs, not because of their actual oil storage capability. Although fracture volume
may be negligible in comparison with
the total reservoir volume, they provide
an interface with the matrix which is
much larger than the borehole. Consequently, very small primary permeability values are sufficient for production in
a fractured reservoir.
Factors controlling the occurrence of
natural, open, permeable fractures
within Middle East reservoirs are the
nature and degree of folding and/or
faulting, in-situ stresses and changes in
rock properties such as porosity, bedding and lithology, especially shaliness.
Such geological factors are often
mapped in reservoir studies. By accurately defining the relationship of these
factors to the fracturing in a number of
wells within a field, it should be possible
to extrapolate the fracture data throughout the reservoir.
The major problem with large-scale
fracture studies based on either borehole
imagery or oriented cores is that the frac-

tures in the borehole wall may not be

representative of the large-scale fracture
network which controls production. It is
necessary, therefore, to relate geometrical information from borehole data to the
reservoirs geological characteristics
(structure, stratigraphy, sedimentology,
diagenesis and geostatistics). Simple
cubic models used in reservoir studies
are sometimes appropriate but often more
complex geometric models are required.
Borehole-scale characterization and
geological modelling must be fully integrated with dynamic testing and production data, not simply used for comparison as a type of quality control.
Using outcrop data to characterize
the fracture pattern of a reservoir is frustrated by the stress release which
occurs as rocks come to the surface.
Uplift and erosion of overburden often
result in tensional breaking of brittle
beds due to deformation along ductile
bedding planes (figure 3.1). As a result,
fracture density in reservoirs is commonly lower than values recorded
where the same formation outcrops.
Consequently, outcrop data is unsuitable for modelling reservoir fractures.

Tension
fractures

Fig. 3.1: UNRELIABLE

OUTCROPS: As rock
layers return to the
surface, stress release
allows new fractures
to develop. These
fractures do not occur
in the same formation
at reservoir depth.

Fig. 3.3: The fracture orientations

commonly found in the Middle
Easts anticlinal reservoirs are
highly variable. In most cases,
information from a single well
cannot be used to characterize
the fractures for an entire field.

Fig. 3.2: HIDDEN

AGENDA: Surface
fractures can cause
major problems at
reservoir depths.
Unconformities in
limestones often
lead to the
development of
karst and leaching
of fractures. After
burial, these
surface weathering
effects can lead to
strange reservoir
behaviour. The
leached fractures in
this photo are from
Jebel Hafit, UAE,
with Roberta Nurmi
for scale.

26

Middle East Well Evaluation Review

Cretaceous
Fig. 3.4: AGE GAP:
Reservoirs of the
same age in different
fields can display a
wide variety of
fracture orientations.
Patterns of fracturing
vary through
geological time;
fracture orientation
being controlled by
the timing of
fracturing, not the
formation age.

Cretaceous

Jurassic

Permian

Unfortunately, it is becoming clear

that many unconformity-related features
(figure 3.2), such as karst and exfoliation
fractures (both due to subaerial weathering), are present in Middle East reservoirs. While such fracture systems usually occur over a very narrow depth
range, they may have greater connectivity than tectonic fractures, which are
more numerous, and so exert a strong
influence on reservoir behaviour.

How fractures are formed

Fracture orientations can vary considerably between reservoirs but the orientations are neither random nor chaotic.
Early fracture studies, which were based
on poor or insufficient data, provided
very misleading information about fracture distribution in reservoirs.
Fractures are usually formed during
folding or doming of a reservoir, with the
most intense fracturing being concentrated in low-porosity rocks. In areas
where the reservoirs have little matrix
permeability fractures are critical to productivity. This is especially true of basement reservoirs where fracture porosity
makes up most of the reservoir.
Borehole imagery and 3D seismic
surveys have improved fault mapping
and horizontal wells are providing a
new insight into the fracturing associated with reservoir faulting.
Fracturing typically occurs in one of
two ways - either parallel or perpendicular to normal or reverse faults. Oblique
orientations are associated with wrench
or shear movements.

Number 14, 1993.

Crack concentration

Pass the salt

Fracture density, or the intensity of fracturing, is defined as the number of fractures per unit length inside an interval of a
defined height. This value has to be corrected for the orientation bias created by
changes in angle of the fracture planes
and the borehole axis.
Anomalous increases in reservoir
tectonic fracturing are sometimes seen
in wells. This is usually associated with
faulting. Other variations in fracture density have been attributed to changes in
lithology, porosity or shaliness. Low
porosity and shale-free intervals generally contain more fractures, although
these may or may not be mineralized.

Fracture orientations in salt dome reservoirs depend on the shape of the structure and the nature of the regional and
doming stresses. As a result, reservoirs
of the same age in different fields can
have different fracture orientations if the
fractures formed at separate times under
different regional stress conditions (figure 3.4).
For the same reason, fracture orientations vary through geological time. In
the same field it is possible to find fractures formed in the Permian with very
different orientations to those formed in
the Jurassic or in Cretaceous reservoirs.
In addition, fracture orientations can differ between reservoirs of identical age in
adjacent fields if doming and fracturing
did not occur at the same time in the
two reservoirs.
Early fracturing around The Gulf was
affected by extension stresses during the
Triassic which were later followed by
compressional forces from the east due to
thrusting associated with obduction
(pushing of ocean crust onto continental
crust) in Oman. In contrast, orientations of
later fractures were determined by compressional forces of the Zagros Orogeny.
These are generally oriented NNE.
Definition of reservoir fracturing in
Mesozoic salt structures is important in
The Gulf. These fractures rarely dominate
productivity as their apertures and densities are usually much lower than those
associated with tectonic fractures. (Pressure and flow tests indicate that intergranular pore systems in both shoal and reefal
facies generally contribute more flow).
However, it is clear that the fractures,
which are often characterized by thin
apertures, are connecting heterogeneously distributed porosity (Nurmi et al.,
1990, WER Structural Geology Supplement).

Clearing up the chaos

In the past, wide variations in fracture
orientations within anticlinal reservoirs,
coupled with poor quality orientation
data and fracture characterization, led to
widespread pessimism about the usefulness of fracture data in reservoir models. However, improvements in fracture
detection and analysis techniques have
shown that there is order in the apparent chaos. Fracture orientations can be
related to specific geological parameters
and structural events.
The common fracture orientations
found in Middle Eastern anticlinal reservoirs are shown in figure 3.3. Changes in
orientations can be caused by later fault
movement associated with variations in
tectonic stress through time. In the carbonate reservoirs of Turkey and Iran,
the orientation of karstic fractures associated with erosional unconformities, is
much more variable. Low-angle, stressrelief, exfoliation fractures, which occur
sub-parallel to the unconformity surface
in these reservoirs, are particularly
important features.
Variable orientations of open fractures in a reservoir are often associated
with the rotation of principal stress in
proximity to some of the observed
faults. When the principal stress is perpendicular to the fault strike compressional forces are probably at work on
the fault.

27

Listric growth with rollover

E

Reverse
E

Thrust
E

Cross section

Normal

90

180

270

360

90

180

270

360

90

180

270

360

90

180

270

360

Image

Fig. 3.5: FAMILY OF FAULTS: The four major fault types (top row) can be distinguished using borehole imagery (bottom row).
Knowing the precise geometry of the fault plane where it intersects the well allows us to project the fault away from the well and so
predict its effect in other locations.

Recognising faults

(a)

ma

lt
fau
e
s
r
ve
Re

l fa
u lt

28

Fig. 3.6: THINGS

ARE NOT ALWAYS
AS SIMPLE AS
THEY APPEAR:
These diagrams
illustrate situations
where normal
faulting has
developed on the
hanging wall of a
major reverse fault
(a) and where small
reverse faults have
been created on a
large, normal fault
structure (b). The
interpretation of
either structure
would depend
primarily on the
location of the well
and its depth of
penetration.

Natural fractures are usually assumed to

have been created by tectonic stresses.
They are more common in carbonate
rocks than in sandstones and typically
occur in specific directions which are dictated by the regional tectonic stresses.
Induced fractures associated with natural

N or

The presence of a fault is often indicated

by rapid increases in fracture intensity or
spacing. This means that once the relative
intensity of fracturing has been determined for each reservoir zone any
increase in permeability, especially in
more porous intervals, can usually be
attributed to faulting. In such situations, a
focused search using borehole imagery
can reveal the actual fault plane or zone
affecting the fractures (figure 3.5).
Fault detection and analysis have only
recently been recognized as a critical
component in the characterization of fractured reservoirs. In early borehole
images few faults were recognized
because none of the available tools were
specifically designed to find them. Fractures related to faults are much less abundant than fractures related to the folding
or doming of a field, but the vertical continuity of faults often results in dramatic
water movements through fault-associated fracture systems.
A major fault can be a single, high-angle
plane cutting a reservoir horizon and may
not be intersected by wells. However,
there are associated smaller faults and
fractures which formed at the same time
and it is these zones which are more
likely to be crossed by wells.
Indications of faulting can arise during drilling. These may take the form of
missing rock sections in areas of normal
faulting, repeated sections in areas of
thrust or reverse faulting or loss circulation material in areas affected by wrench
faulting or any other type of open fractures associated with faults.
Recognising faults depends on our
ability to detect the bedding plane above

Natural fractures

and below the feature. However, even if

the bedding is not recognised, the geometry of the fault plane can be measured
where it intersects the well. This information can be used to project the fault plane
away from the well and through any formation above or below. Unfortunately,
this is not as simple as it may seem (figure 3.6).

(b)

No
rm
al

fa

ul

Reverse fault

Middle East Well Evaluation Review

Dri
llin
gin

du

d
ce

tu
frac

Fig. 3.7 (Left):

UP THE WALL:
Drilling-induced
fractures are common
but not easily
distinguished from
natural fractures
occurring in the
wellbore.

re zone

Borehole
Extension
fractures,
hydraulic
fractures
Mixed extension
and shear fractures,
incipient breakouts

Fig. 3.8: (Right):

PRINCIPAL
PATTERNS:
The pattern for
drilling-induced
fractures depends on
the orientation of
principal in-situ
stresses relative to the
borehole. These
stresses may be
parallel (a, b) or
oblique (c, d) to the
borehole axis.

(a)

In-situ stresses normal and

along the borehole axis.

(b)

2
1

Borehole
wall view

Principal stresses
normal and parallel
to borehole axis.

Borehole
wall view

(c)

fractures might also be expected to have

a preferred orientation, although this
would not necessarily be parallel and
could even be perpendicular to the natural fractures.

Drilling-induced fractures
Borehole electrical images, especially
those which have been computer
enhanced, provide useful information
about the borehole wall and the reservoir rock.
Borehole enlargement is a common
feature and often occurs in the same
direction in a number of wells. The
enlargement is related to stress release
failure and is usually greatest parallel to
the least principal horizontal stress
direction. A complex mixture of induced
fracturing with both shear and extension
cracks is often present (figure 3.7).
Repeat logging of special process
wells has shown that borehole failure
and breakouts occur within days of
drilling. Large fractures induced perpendicular to the direction of borehole
enlargement are usually long straight
cracks in an axial position lying on opposite sides of the borehole. These induced
cracks are extensional fractures which
form and are propagated in front of the
bit during drilling. Cores taken from such
zones often reveal these fractures.
Axial drilling-induced fractures have
a modified appearance when the axis of
the borehole is not parallel to any of the
Number 14, 1993.

principal stress directions. This kind of

crack has a jagged appearance, resembling a lightening bolt, in contrast to the
long and straight cracks which are perfectly parallel to the axis of the borehole
(figure 3.8). Such cracks are most common in horizontal or highly deviated
wells where the orientation of the borehole with respect to the stress field was
not accounted for in positioning the well.
Recognizing and analyzing induced
fractures is valuable in determining the
orientation of the principal horizontal
stress which may vary within a reservoir.
The orientation of mini-frac jobs has
also been ascertained and confirmed by
logging before and after fracing.

In-situ stress not normal and

non-axial to the borehole.

(d)

Enhanced fractures
2

In addition to natural and induced fractures, there are pre-existing fractures

which are extended or opened in the
borehole by drilling. These have been
called enhanced fractures (Standen,
1991). It has also been observed and
reported that even totally mineralized
fractures can be re-opened during the
course of drilling.
The enhanced fractures are usually
oriented sub-parallel to the principal
horizontal stress as are drilling-induced
fractures. Generally, drilling-enhanced
fractures do not seem to affect the productivity of an interval as they usually
have very small apertures in the undisturbed state.

3
1

Principal stresses
acting normal but
not parallel to axis.

29

Understanding India's
fractures

Jordat

r
a Rive
Brah m aputr

Borholla-Changpang

30

Golaghat
Borholla

lt

Mokokchung

Th
ru
st

Area of study

an

sir
iV

all

ey

Di
sa

Sc

ng

hu

pp

en

Uriamghat

st

Be

Mikir Hills

Na
ga
T

hr
u

Changpang

Dh

In the mid-1960s, a basement high was

mapped near Borholla, Assam in India.
The first well, drilled on the highest part
of the antiformal feature was dry. However, a second well, drilled several
years later, located oil in a Palaeocene
sandstone overlying the granitic basement.
Further wildcat drilling in the plains
around Borholla was unsuccessful but a
last ditch attempt was made to drill a
test hole in the nearby Naga Hills. This
Naga Hills guess was rewarded when
the first well, drilled close to Changpang, in Nagaland, struck oil in fractured
granite rock (Middle East Well Evaluation Review Number 7 1989, India - 100
Years of Oil ). This discovery proved
that commercial accumulations of oil
could be found in fractured basement
rocks and had a radical effect on exploration in India.
Conventional seismic investigations
carried out around Borholla in the 1960s
were followed by six-fold CDP (Common Depth Point) surveys in the early
1970s and 12- and 24-fold CDP surveys
about five years later. These studies
helped to clarify regional tectonics, but
the low quality of seismic images did
not throw light on structures within the
fractured basement.
The inadequacy of seismic data
meant that the only way to decide on
the location for a delineation well was to
analyze data from previous wells. As
more wells were drilled a structural
model emerged.
This approach allowed the basement
structure to be described as a single
dome near Borholla. However, as
clearer information was gathered, the
model was refined to show two separate
culminations in the basement, one at
Borholla and another at Changpang. The
contour maps for the fields became
increasingly detailed and eventually
contained faults with throws of less than
25 m. At this stage the structure began to
be redefined as a mosaic of several fault
blocks and sub-blocks (figure 3.10).

Dimapur
N

Kohima

Geology - the first analysis

The explorationists began detailed correlation of micro-features on electrologs,
in order to improve their understanding
of the faults. By analyzing well data for
sand thicknesses in the Sylhet and
Kopili formations, it was possible to
infer the location of faults by their effect
on the sediment. This approach provided an indication of the underlying
basement structure, but not a detailed
image.

Fig. 3.9: TWIN PEAKS: The twin

oilfields of Borholla-Changpang in
Assam and Nagaland states of
northeastern India were
discovered in the late 1960s.
Located on NE-SW trending
basement highs, the fields produce
oil from fractured granite. 3D
seismic surveys were carried out
to define the details of reservoir
faulting.

Middle East Well Evaluation Review

0
275

0
285

2725

2700

29
75

267
5

262

260
29
50

29
25

2850

2700

2650

27
25

267
5

282

2875

2750

5
50

277

27
2875

270

5
272
2800

2575

2675

25

50

28

2650

2825

25

75

28

2775

50

2800

25

25

75

5
277

2825

272

0
5

26
25

287

27
25

26
00

285

00
28

3D seismic data was gathered between

1987 and 1988. Difficult terrain, poor
logistics and subsurface complexity
combined to produce lower quality data
than had been anticipated. However,
the high density of 3D data enabled
interpreters to produce a much better
image than would have been possible
using 2D techniques.
Unfortunately, the reservoir map produced from the 3D survey was viewed
with reservations because it contained
no reflection event corresponding to the
basements top surface. This deficiency
was explained as absorption and dissipation of seismic energy by the fractured basement.
More importantly, the fault pattern
from the 3D survey did not match the
pattern which had been inferred from
well data and the 2D survey.
Mechanical contouring performed
using GEOPIC failed to provide a logical
structure over one producing field. The
3D seismic showed the structure to be
much steeper than had been previously
believed, which meant that there would
be a marked reduction in closed area.
As a result of these apparent inconsistencies, the 3D survey was treated
with scepticism and the earlier map was
used for delineation purposes.
However, the 3D seismic data indicated a fault wherever the sand
isopachs showed reduced thicknesses
or missing stratigraphic units. Subsequent wells confirmed the pattern
revealed by the 3D survey (figure 3.11)
and prompted its use for fault and structure delineation. It was concluded that,
in the absence of a strong reflection
from the top of the basement, a good
reflection of the overlying Sylhet Limestone would be sufficient to deduce the
basement fault pattern as well as depth.
This model proved to be highly successful. Instead of two distinct culminations seen at the basement level, the
structure now appears to consist of a
large number of discrete antiformal
cumulations separated by basement
lows. These lows are the sites of major
normal faults typically trending NNESSW which generally avoid the antiformal highs.

2550

3D seismic survey the final analysis

290

292

0.5

1km

Fault
Drilled well

Fig. 3.10: BASE MODEL: This structure contour map represents the top of the basement in the
Borholla-Changpang area. This model is based on data gathered from 2D seismic surveys and
numerous delineation wells. At this stage the structure appears to be a mosaic of a few major
fault blocks, each comprising many sub-blocks.

Fault
Drilled well

400

800 m

Fig. 3.11: BASEMENT JIGSAW: A 3D survey revealed that the basement structure did not contain
two large oil-bearing structures, but many small antiformal highs separated by basement lows.
These lows correspond to major normal faults which trend NNE-SSW.

Number 14, 1993.

31

More than one way to image

a reservoir

x823 m

x825m

From a detailed examination of all the

new data which emerged from the 3D
survey it became apparent that the maximum fracture intensity would be
encountered on the flanks of the antiformal culminations. Production tests of
wells located on the flanks confirmed
this model and showed that these are
the most prolific oil producers in the
field. These wells have very low initial
gas-oil ratios and a negligible decline in
pressure during production. Some wells
had the capacity to sustain self-flow with
more than 60% water cut - proof that
they operate under active bottom-water
drive conditions.
In contrast, wells drilled in the synformal lows often registered good daily
flow rates but produced only moderate
amounts of oil. Recent wells in the lows
have either ceased production as a
result of water loading or produced
water containing only traces of oil.
These observations support the idea
that oil accumulation in the basement is
controlled not only by fractures but also
by structural constraints. Below a certain level virtually all fractures are
water-bearing and the aquifer has generally flooded the troughs in the vicinity of
good producers. This is the reason why
peripheral wells have short production
lives and wells in the lows surrounding
the main field produce little or no oil.
Reservoir models evolve as the techniques used to investigate them change.
A major obstacle, in this case, was the
uncertainty about replacing or modifying an older model with the contradictory information derived from a 3D survey. Perhaps the most important benefit
of the 3D survey has been in development drilling. In situations where previously there had been uncertainty, the
model provides clear targets in the
quest to extend the field.
In the Borholla-Changpang area, a continuous compressive regime has resulted
in extensive basement fracturing. In an
attempt to define the tectonic framework

of the region, 3D seismic surveys were

planned and carried out in 1987 and 1988.
A recent reservoir study highlighted
the possibility of using horizontal wells to
exploit this fractured basement reservoir
(figure 3.11). But before any decision
could be made on developing the field a
number of parameters had to be determined - fracture orientation, dip, spacing
and fracture density.
The replacement ratio Fr can be calculated by taking into account the differences in drainage areas of horizontal
and vertical wells. This ratio represents
the number of vertical wells which
would be required to produce at the
same rate as a single horizontal well. In
this case, the Fr value increased with
length of horizontal section and the computed value was never more than 4.8.
Production performance is a function
of the number of intercepted fractures.
Since the major fracture trends are oriented NW-SE and E-W (figure 3.13), the
horizontal section of each well had to be
drilled in NNE-SSW orientations to maximize production. Environmental factors
such as land acquisition and logistics
also contributed to the argument that
horizontal, rather than vertical wells
were more suitable for developing this
field.

Oil from Bombay High

Drilling in the giant Bombay High Field,
offshore India, has revealed large volumes of oil and gas in basement rocks
composed of basaltic and granitic
gneiss. The field, discovered in 1974, is
situated approximately 150 km off India's
western coast. Most of the oil and gas is
contained in Miocene limestone reservoirs and a smaller proportion in the
basal clastic sandstone reservoirs which
overlie the fractured metamorphic
rocks.
The main limestone reservoir is
encountered at a depth of approximately 1300 m but the basement hydrocarbons occur at 1900 m, on the crest of
the structure.

Fig. 3.12: This FMS image highlights the

fractures in the Changpang reservoir. The
natural open fractures (1) are seen to
extend across the diameter of the wellbore.
Drilling enhanced fractures (2) have the
same orientation but are open only in the
direction of the principal horizontal stress.
The drilling-induced fractures (3) are nearvertical cracks which are found on
opposite sides of the wellbore.

32

Middle East Well Evaluation Review

350

340

10

20

330

30

320

40

Fault directions in BorhollaChangpang fields.

310

50

300

340

290

350

10

20

330

60

30

320

70

Fig. 3.13: DIRECTIONS FOR BORHOLLA-CHANGPANG:

These stereonets indicate the fault and fracture directions
in the Borholla-Changpang fields of Assam, India. The
60
predominant fault orientation (large stereonet) is E-W,
70
while the fractures recorded in three separate wells
80
(small nets) show variable orientations but are
90
concentrated in E-W and NW-SE directions. These
100
results were obtained using a
0
10
350
340
20
110
Stratigraphic High Resolution
330
30
320
40
Dipmeter (SHDT)* Tool.
120
310
50
Borholla 22
130

40

Borholla 26

310

50

300

280

80

270

90

290
280
270

260

100

250

110

260
250
240

240

120
230

130

230
220

140
210

150
200

190

180

170

160

Formation MicroScanner (FMS*) imaging was used to determine orientation,

dip and density of the fractures. In addition, acoustic waveform data was used to
delineate open fractures by means of the
Stoneley-derived Permeability Index. The
study indicates that the open fractures are,
in general, high angle and striking in a N-S
direction. Low-angle fractures recorded in
the field are generally closed and filled
with calcite and quartz. Fracture density
seems to be higher in granitic basement
than in rocks with a basaltic composition.
Four wells (BH-36, BH-19, SY-5 and II-7)
were drilled to depths of 200 m in the
basement. Only SY-5 failed to produce oil
or gas and required hydrofracturing. After
initial stimulation the other wells produced oil and/or gas at a rate exceeding
1000 bpd.
Acoustic and petrophysical logs, core
and well test data were integrated to
locate open fractures and determine
their relative flow capability.

Fracture characterization
techniques
Fracture characterization at the wellbore
is a two-step process, requiring static
and dynamic approaches. The static
characterization involves determining
in-situ fracture location, density and orientation using a range of wellbore imaging tools, petrophysical anomalies, core
and drilling information. The dynamic
approach makes use of acoustic data
(SDT- and LSS-derived Stoneley) for relative fracture conductivity at the wellbore. This can be verified with production logs from flow and injection tests.

300

140
210

220

150
200

190

180

170

160

60

290

70

280

80

270

90

260

100

Away from the well- 250

bore, characterization may 240
also be divided into static 230
and dynamic approaches. The 220 210
200
static method consists of projecting fracture systems laterally, away from
the wellbore, guided by input from highresolution seismic data or offset VSPs.
Dynamic characterization beyond the
wellbore requires well test data to determine fracture length, boundary conditions, vertical communication and
extended flow capacity for reserve calculations.
Core studies, borehole images and
Stoneley acoustic permeability logs all
show the presence of a high-angle (75)
open fracture set and a low-angle (20)
healed fractures in the study wells. The
high-angle fractures strike NNW, parallel
to the adjacent faults.
The low-angle fractures, which are
generally filled with either calcite or
quartz, have apertures between 5 mm
and 10 mm. These fractures may have
resulted from a rebounding effect and
expansion in the basement with subsequent fluid movement.

Fig. 3.14: LOOKING A LITTLE DEEPER:

These recent analyses of basement fracturing
at Borholla-Changpang reveal a clear
variation of fracture orientation with depth.
The diagrams illustrate dominant strike
orientations, at various depths, derived from
FMS image analysis.

110

350

340
120

190

180

170

30

40
50

300

160

60

290

70

280

80

270

90

260

100

250

110

240

120
230

130
220

140
210

150
200

190

180

170

160

Depth 1

S
N

Depth 2

S
N

Depth 3

Number 14, 1993.

20

Changpang 8

310

140

10

320

130

150

330

33

Photograph: Courtesy of NASA

Egypts basement bonus

The fractured granite reservoirs of the
Gulf of Suez, Egypt, are flanked by
porous and permeable reservoir sands
and carbonates. The permeability of the
granite horst blocks and the fact that
they are in hydraulic communication
with these flanking sands and carbonates makes them ideal drainage systems.
The Precambrian-age granites were
probably first fractured in Paleozoic
times as the Suez and Aqaba shear
zones were developing (figure 3.16).
Porosity system studies of these granite

34

reservoirs indicate the development of

secondary porosity along fractures and a
pervasive leaching of feldspars. The
basement complex was later covered by
the Nubia sand sequence and a thick
succession of Cretaceous sediments,
prior to the start of rifting in the Gulf of
Suez (figure 3.17).

Fig. 3.15: Shear fractures, which affect

rocks at the southern end of the Gulf of
Suez, have produced a number of large
granite reservoirs. In some fields,
granites produce more hydrocarbon
than adjacent sandstone or carbonate
reservoir rocks.

Middle East Well Evaluation Review

Sinai

Su
ez
tre
nd

Eastern
Desert

ez

Mean aperture (1:40)

Mean aperture (1:5)

x420 m

x430 m
x400 m

x450 m

x430 m

x600 m

x432m

x500 m

be

60/70

R ift g r a

ben

nd

Mean aperture (1:200)

x400 m

tre

Mean aperture (1:1000)

is

Statistical analysis of fracture data in the

Gulf of Suez indicates a fractal or frequency relationship between the computed fracture apertures. Figure 3.18
shows mean aperture of fractures in a
section of basement granite reservoir.
The increase in aperture towards the
top of the granite and the variation of
aperture at all vertical scales are particularly important features.

g ax
adim

Fractal fractures

ra

Su

Spre

Fig. 3.16 : SPLIT

PERSONALITY: Fractures in the
Zeit Bay area of the Gulf of Suez
show two dominant orientations - one
parallel to the Suez spreading axis and the
other parallel to the Gulf of Aqaba axis.

Aqab
a tre
nd

Gulf of
Suez

Fracture spacing
data also shows variations which are useful
Gulf of
in predicting expected
Aqaba
ranges
of
values
throughout the reservoir. However, this kind
of data does not give
absolute values at
any location. Data
sets from the fractured granite reservoirs of the Gulf of
Suez show a particularly interesting
variation of fracture
aperture with depth.
The fracture data
revealed up to 4000 fractures in each 1000 ft. Fractures were selected by hand and a
computer program was then used to calculate mean aperture and mean
hydraulic aperture for each one. Fracture
density and porosity were then calculated using an averaging technique with a
fixed sample rate.
Several wells were analyzed in this
manner, with the results showing a similar range of porosity values but different
fracture densities and average aperture
values for each well. This variation in
average aperture was further corroborated by production results which
showed that density of fracturing and
width of fracture aperture were the
main criteria for initial production
(Taleb et al EGPC 1990).

x440 m

Fig. 3.17: PULLING FRACTURES APART:

Fractures often occur in situations where
there is a shear component of extension
(a).This is the case in Yemens Marib
Graben and Egypts Gulf of Suez where
shear movements produce nonperpendicular fractures. The simple, noshear model (b) is unusual. In this model
fracture orientations are parallel and
perpendicular to the rift.

Fracture orientation
A consistent relationship could not be
found between orientation and aperture
for the granite reservoirs. In certain cases,
where a strong, principal, far-field stress is
present in the rocks, the fractures seemed
to open parallel to the principal stress.
This was usually accompanied by drillinginduced fractures in the section. In one
granite reservoir, flowmeter data
recorded in the barefoot completed section of the well, correlated with a pseudoflow profile from the cumulative fracture
porosity results. This, however, was only
after the drilling-induced fracture porosity
data was added, indicating a contribution
to the flow by the drilling-induced fractures (Taleb et al EGPC 1990).
Production changes (coning of water
and gas) with respect to fracture orientation have also been noted in the granite
reservoirs. In general, there is a higher
vertical permeability when a single set of
high-angle fractures is encountered. Oil
production is better with a mixed orientation of fractures such as at the margins of
the granite blocks (El Wazeer et al EGPC
1990).

x800 m
x434m

Fig. 3.18: This plot shows the mean aperture of fractures in part of a basement
granite reservoir in Egypt. It should be noted that aperture size increases
towards the top of the granite and that aperture is variable at all vertical scales.
Cyclic variations can be seen at each scale of examination.

Number 14, 1993.

35

is released into the fracture. This pressure drop causes an attenuation of the
direct arrival and produces a secondary
(or reflected) Stoneley wave. The
reflected Stoneley wave may be
regarded as being generated by a secondary source located where the fracture crosses the borehole. The strength
of this secondary source (reflection) is
dependent on the amount of energy lost
by fluid displacement inside the fracture
and, therefore, the permeability of the
fracture (figure 3.19).
The Stoneley waves generated by the
DSI tool have frequencies which have
been selected for maximum sensitivity to
fluid motion. In fast formations the Stoneley wave propagates faster than the fluid
slowness. In slow formations the wave is
more strongly coupled to the formation
and propagates at slownesses greater
than that of the shear slowness.

X600 ft

Stoneley attenuation and

permeability

X650ft

X700 ft

Fig. 3.19: Stoneley wave data gives clear indications of fractures. This example is taken from a
fractured basement in the Ashrafi Field, Gulf of Suez, Egypt.

Only the Stoneley

Analysis of acoustic Stoneley waves
offers a way of assessing the permeability of fractures and porous beds. The
dispersive Stoneley waves move along
the interface between the borehole and
the formation. While travelling along
the borehole wall, the wave propagates
without much energy loss. However,
the wave decays when it encounters a
permeability change or a break in the
wall.
In a cylindrical plane, such as a
borehole, the detailed borehole geometry becomes a very significant factor in
wave propagation. At very short wave-

36

lengths, the boreholes influence on the

wave is similar to that of a flat surface.
However, at an operating frequency of
approximately 10 kHz, the Stoneley
wavelength is approximately 6 inches,
roughly comparable to the diameter of a
borehole. In these circumstances the
wave decays only slightly as it crosses
the borehole and is referred to as the
Tube Wave. The low-frequency Stoneley
mode of the Dipole Sonic Imager* (DSI)
tool operates under these conditions.
At low frequencies, the tube wave
may be considered as a simple pressure
pulse propagating in a cylindrical borehole. When it intersects a permeable
fracture crossing the borehole, pressure

At low frequencies, propagation of the

Stoneley wave actually causes fluid flow.
This makes it an ideal technique for estimating permeability (figure 3.20). The
Stoneley wave can be thought of as a
dynamic micro-drill stem test. Acoustic
pressure in the borehole forces fluid into
the formation. The volume of fluid flow,
and the size of the Stoneley wave attenuation which it causes, is directly controlled
by permeability.
Combining the low-frequency monopole Stoneley with dipole shear from the
DSI has greatly enhanced acoustic waveform logging. Low-frequency Stoneley
wave data can now be analyzed in terms
of the formations dynamic permeability
response. An additional benefit is that
the high-quality shear data obtained
with the dipole measurement offers a
way to account for non-permeability
effects recorded in the Stoneley wave
velocity. This is possible even in very
slow formations and allows accuracy far
beyond that achieved by standard sonic
tools.
Fractures derived from the DSI analysis can then be compared and combined
with images from the FMS tool to improve
our understanding of the reservoir.

Middle East Well Evaluation Review

Stoneley slowness and

permeability
Stoneley slowness can also be used to
derive permeability measurements.
Although less sensitive to changes in
permeability than attenuation data, slowness can be measured more precisely
and is less sensitive to mudcake and
lithology. Data gathered using this technique compares well with information
taken from cores and RFT/MDT tool data.
When using Stoneley wave reflections to detect fractures it is important to
first identify thin shales in the sequence,
as these can create reflections and attenuations similar to those from fractures.

Integrated fracture interpretation

One way of improving reservoir models
involves combining FMI/FMS images
with Stoneley permeability profiles and
comparing the estimates from both techniques:
(1) Where the fracture aperture estimates from both techniques are in close
agreement the fractures are likely to be
isolated planar features of large extent
(ie greater than Stoneley wave penetration away from the borehole).
(2) When fracture aperture measured
on electrical images is larger than fracture aperture from the Stoneley waves it
generally implies that the typical fracture is shorter than the wavelength for

Sounding out
Bombay High
An Array Sonic (SDT*) tool was evaluated on well BH-19 in the Bombay High
Field. The SDT has a single, low-frequency transmitter with an array of
eight receivers spread 6 inches apart.
This configuration allows a better determination of the Stoneley event than data
gathered using the Long Spaced Sonic
(LSS*) tool.
This technique was used at two vertical resolutions. The first, based on the
stacked Stoneley energies over the
transmitter-receiver spacings offers resolution of approximately 10 ft and can be
used to evaluate gross fractured intervals. Resolution of approximately 2 ft
can be achieved by examining differential Stoneley energies between selected
adjacent receivers.
Since most of the wells logged in the
basement have only LSS data, the SDT
Stoneley technique was adapted for LSS
waveform processing. Further work
resulted in the development of a Stoneley Permeability Index from different
energies. Results on BH-36 compared
well with the actual flow entries in the
production logs.
The Stoneley signal from the LSS
waveforms has less energy than the SDT
waveforms and contains broad-spectrum
pseudo-Rayleigh guided waves. At first,
these effects appeared to completely
mask the permeability variations. However, the introduction of a select bandpass filter allowed the Stoneley waves to
be isolated and interpreted.

Compressional

Stoneley

Shear

Stoneley

Time

Fig. 3.20: LATE

ARRIVAL: Stoneley
waves arrive later than
the compressional and
shear waves and have
lower frequency and,
usually, higher
amplitude. Stoneley
waves can be thought
of as a 'dynamic microdrill stem test' since the
volume of fluid flow
and the size of
Stoneley wave
attenuation is directly
controlled by
permeability.

the Stoneley wave (approximately 10 ft

at 500 Hz). They are also likely to
include features such as vugs and shallow drilling-induced fractures.
(3) If the fracture aperture recorded
on electrical borehole images is less
than fracture aperture from reflected
Stoneley waves then the borehole fractures are probably connected to a network of fractures which extend far
enough from the borehole to be beyond
the scope of the FMS.
Marked lithology changes, which
cause significant variations in formation
shear modulus (eg the interbedding of
calcite with soft shale) can give measurable reflected Stoneley wave responses
but will have little effect on FMS tool
response. The common occurrence of
thin, washed shales below the resolution limits of most logging calipers, often
causes false increases in recorded
Stoneley permeability. However, their
bedding geometry, seen with borehole
imaging techniques, indicates that they
are not permeable fractures.
From this it should be clear that no
single technique should be employed for
fracture evaluation. Borehole imaging,
high-resolution calipers, lithology indicators and Stoneley wave data should be
used in conjunction in order to discriminate against environmental effects and to
arrive at a reliable interpretation of fracture properties.

Fracture
Shear

Compressional

Number 14, 1993.

37

Fig. 3.21: OPEN OR

SHUT?: The
apparent reduction
in aperture at the
top of this section
(left) is due to the
reduced volume of
water in the oil
zone. The plot on
the right shows the
same apertures after
correction.

Appraising apertures

x000 ft

x000 ft

x200 ft

x200 ft

x400 ft

x400 ft

x600 ft

x600 ft

Computer modelling has shown that the

width of a fracture is proportional to the
fracture conductivity on an electrical
borehole image (Luthi and Souhaite,
1990). Fracture character depends primarily on the drilling fluid which
invades the crack.
The resistivity of the drilling mud
within the borehole should be measured directly and accurately. Miscalculations can occur due to changes in the
conductivity of the fracture-filling fluid
or because of conductive material along
the fracture plane. Overall, the data calculated in the modelling tests suggests
that reasonable fracture aperture values are obtained from water-filled fractures in a wide range of lithologies.
Fracture apertures often increase in
size along paleo-unconformities within
Middle East reservoirs in Turkey, Iran
and the United Arab Emirates. In Iran
the karstic fractures in Asmari carbonate reservoir sequences were detected
using both imagery and core. Core
examination showed that most of these
carbonate fractures were filled with
porous red sandstone.

Fig. 3.22: High fracture

densities are often
associated with faults
but can be caused by a
number of geological
features. Basement
reservoirs are frequently
cut by smaller igneous
bodies such as this dyke
which is characterized
by a higher density of
fracturing than the
surrounding granite.

38

Middle East Well Evaluation Review

x500 ft

x500 ft

x600 ft

x600 ft

x700 ft

x700 ft

Fig. 3.23: ALTERED

APERTURE: This
output shows a
reduction in
apparent aperture
in the oil zones of a
carbonate reservoir
in Turkey (left
track). Test results
confirmed the oilwater contact and
correction of the
aperture data was
performed by
increasing the Rma
in the FracView*
program. The
corrected results are
shown in the right
track.

FracView oilwater contact

x800 ft

The variation of the apertures of basement fractures in Egypt's Gulf of Suez

shows an unusual cyclic nature. Each
sequence of downward increasing aperture widths is followed by another cycle
with a similar range of aperture variation. Even more surprising is the fact that
these cycles have a fractal nature. Each
cycle is composed of smaller cycles of
downward increasing apertures which
are in turn composed of still smaller
cyclic variations of aperture.
The presence of hydrocarbons within
reservoir fractures can lower apparent
fracture apertures in some wells (figure
3.21). This shift is due to a reduction in
the volume of water within the fracture
which is not taken into account by computer software during the initial aperture
calculation. However, the location of the
shift in apparent aperture seems to
occur at the oil-water contact within the
fracture network even in cases where
there is little to no oil within the surrounding rock matrix. In these cases,
reservoir fracture porosity can be cor-

Number 14, 1993.

x800 ft

rected empirically. Careful analysis of

aperture variation indicates whether oil
or water will be tested or produced.
The correction to the data is found by
dividing the input mud resistivity (Rm)
by the average calculated water saturation (Sw) from standard log interpretation. This gives an estimate of the correct
input apparent mud resistivity (R ma )
which can be used in the workstation
fracture analysis program (figure 3.23).

Production information

Fig. 3.24: Aperture uncertainty in highly

fractured core.

opment wells. Since mud losses can

result from either induced or natural
fractures, it is recommended that borehole imagery be used to analyze the
nature of fracturing and the geometry of
the fracture system. Careful monitoring
of mud losses may reveal intervals
which ought to be logged that might not
otherwise be scheduled for logging.
However, during normal monitoring
conditions only the largest fractures will
be detected, and mud losses are not
necessarily related to fracturing.

Massive mud losses are generally

caused by open fractures being encountered or created during drilling. Some
reservoirs in the Middle East have even
been discovered as a result of severe
mud losses. In the Ain Zalah Field in
Iraq, the mud losses typically correlated
with the productive potential of devel-

39

High hopes in the

horizontal
The growing use of highly deviated wells
has thrown new light on the distribution
of fracture planes in reservoirs. There
are obvious limitations in using a vertical
wellbore as a method for sampling the
density of vertical or sub-vertical fractures and fracture spacing. A wells orientation to the major fracture sets can be
controlled to avoid or to intersect the
maximum number of fractures, depending on the wells intended role in any
given field. (Middle East Well Evaluation
Review Number 8, 1990 Putting a bit
aside.)

The productivity of horizontal wells

can be optimized by drilling the well in
the most effective orientation - parallel
to the major fractures. Horizontal drilling
appears to be most beneficial when
there is little communication between
fracture systems, for example when
there is a single fracture orientation
and/or when the fractures are not highly
interconnected.
Borehole imagery in horizontal wells
(figures 3.25 and 3.26) has provided
direct evidence of variations in fracture

0(360) Top

180 Bottom

Fig. 3.25:
HORIZONTAL
HEADACHE 1:
The three vertical
fractures shown
in this block all
have very
different
appearances on
the FMS image
(immediately
below) of this
horizontal well.
The actual
orientation of the
fractures with
respect to the
wellbore can be
determined from
the shape of the
traces.

Top

Horizontal FMS image

3-D block
Top

Bottom

0/360
Top
180
Bottom
0

orientations because of the greater number of fractures encountered in highly

deviated wells. This has shown that
while fracture spacing may be fairly consistent in some fields it is highly variable
in others, with the greatest single cause
of variation being faulting.

Fracture spacing
Fracture spacing has been one of the
most elusive parameters for reservoir
modellers. This is mainly because of the
small number of fractures intersected by
vertical wells. As petroleum companies
come to appreciate the improvement in
fracture detection and accept that fracture systems can be modelled, it is certain that highly deviated development
wells will be used to increase the statistical sampling of fracture spacing.
The information will also improve
our understanding of fracture-related
production effects (figure 3.27). In 1987
Nolan-Hoeksema and Howard (AAPG
Bulletin) suggested a method for computing optimal drilling direction in reservoirs where there are a number of fracture sets or populations.
Numerous outcrop studies have
revealed a statistical relationship
between fracture spacing and thin beds.
This has led many people to expect a
similar relationship in the subsurface but
examination of imagery and core suggests that such a relationship is not as
common as occurs in outcrops. This may
be because uplift and overburden erosion cause stress relief and tensional
breaking of brittle beds which deform
along ductile bedding planes.

Fig. 3.26:
HORIZONTAL
HEADACHE 2:
In this case, three
dipping fractures
cross the
borehole. Once
again the
orientations can
be determined
from their trace
on an FMS image
(below).
Explorationists
accustomed to
examining
fracture data in
vertical wells
often find the
fracture traces in
horizontal wells
difficult to
visualize.

Top

Horizontal FMS image

40

Middle East Well Evaluation Review

400 m

500 m

Fig. 3.27: WATER IN

THE WELL: Vertical
fractures are very
important in
horizontal wells. The
first example (a)
shows a subhorizontal well
passing through a
karst (deeply
weathered)
unconformity surface
with high aperture
zones which are
potential waterproducing intervals.
Section (b) illustrates
a case where high
fracture densities
associated with faults
led to severe water
production problems.

600 m

Potential water entry zones

(a)

Oil-water contact
(b)

Improved interconnectivity hydraulic fracturing

Recent developments in
fracture detection

The interconnectivity of a fracture system can be further increased hydraulically by creating deeply penetrating
fracs. Research by Schlumberger Dowell
has led to the development of techniques designed to obtain minimum
leak-off and deeper penetrating acid fracs
(>200 ft).
The intervals most suitable for fracing
and the best methods for fracture propagation within a reservoir have been discovered by modelling the fracture process.
Tests of a new fluid-loss-controlled acid
fracturing system indicate that it is possible to connect more natural fractures to
the borehole.
Information concerning the vertical distribution of natural fractures is important
when planning a hydraulic fracture job.
Even the recognition of induced fractures
and their orientation from imagery is valuable for frac planning. In some cases, it is
not possible to generate fracs from perforations that are not parallel or subparallel to
the principal horizontal stress. Moreover,
fractures induced from perforations which
are not parallel to the principal horizontal
stress have a tendency to lose frac effectiveness as a result of later closure.

New tools have been developed to complement the FMI. Recently, two new imaging devices have been introduced. The
Azimuthal Resistivity Imager* (ARI) tool
appeared in 1992, and the Ultrasonic
Borehole Imager* (UBI) tool entered service in 1993.
The main area of overlap between
these tools occurs in fracture and thinbed analysis. The techniques they
employ to detect fractures or bed boundaries are different and the images produced by each tool may or may not be
similar. Clearly, the interpreter must
know when and why the images will be
similar and the reasons for any discrepancies when they occur (figure 3.28).

Number 14, 1993.

Shale

Tight
Nonreservoir

Porous

The ARI tool also provides a link

between geological data and traditional
formation evaluation of fractures and
thin beds.
Numerical models have been constructed to show that fracture aperture
can be determined from tool response.
Individual fractures, which are more than
8 inches apart, can be distinguished
using the ARI tool. In cases where fracture separation is less than 8 inches, the
computed aperture value will be the sum
of the individual fracture apertures.
Providing estimates of fracture and
structural dip data will be valuable in
wells or zones where FMI/FMS logs will
not be run.

ARI: A second opinion

UBI: A third opinion
The ARI tool is a standard dual laterolog
modified by the addition of 12 azimuthal
electrodes. This electrode array provides
a 360, quantitative and calibrated resistivity image of the formation.
In common with other resistivity tools,
the ARI tool response is strongly affected
by fractures filled with conductive fluids.
The ARI tool provides the best indication
of fracture porosity in partially mineralized fractures and is capable of distinguishing shallow, drilling-induced fractures from tectonic fractures.

The UBI tool was developed from the

Ultra Sonic Imager* (USI) tool and is suitable for open hole use. The UBI tool has
a revolving transducer which emits ultrasonic pulses and receives returning
echoes from the borehole wall. Two-way
transit time and echo amplitude can be
obtained and, with a high sampling rate,
borehole images can be rendered using
either time or amplitude.
If the velocity of ultrasound in the
borehole fluid is measured, the transit

41

FMI image

ARI image

UBI amplitude

x40 m

x45 m

time can be converted to borehole

radius. Either transit time or radius measurements give a high-resolution, quantitative and continuous scan of borehole
shape. If the borehole wall is disrupted,
by fractures or features which are large
compared to the spot size for the tool
(about 0.25 inches for the 250 kHz transducer), they can be seen in the transit
time values. The main limitation is that
the UBI tool cannot provide quantitative
aperture information. The amplitude
measurement facility available with UBI
offers a more detailed image than transit
time, but is difficult to analyze quantitatively.
Under normal logging conditions
there are many factors which influence
amplitude. These include the angle of
incidence, scattering by irregularities on
the borehole wall and the acoustic
impedance contrast and loss between
mud and formation.
However, fractures and vugs should
be visible in the amplitude image provided that losses in mud and those from
high angles of incidence do not eliminate a particular echo. UBI data is analyzed using the FracView utilities developed for the FMI/FMS image analysis
techniques. Dip and strike are easily
defined in FracView. However, it should
be recognized that accurate measurements of borehole radii are necessary
for good fracture orientation analysis
and identification of bed boundaries.
Field tests using the UBI tool have
shown a dramatic improvement in borehole acoustic imaging. The introduction
of advanced tools has helped to remove
most of the low-quality images and
broad black bands that have frustrated
geological interpreters over the years.

Pictures in oils

Fig. 3.28: A SECOND (AND THIRD) OPINION: In addition to the FMI and ARI tools, the fractureseeking geologist or engineer can now call upon the UBI tool for locating fractures. The UBI tool
has been developed for wells with oil-base muds where the FMI tool is not suitable. The ARI
tool is being used to help identify deep open fractures and the fluid they fractures contain.

42

The UBI tools acoustic technology

provides high-quality borehole imaging
in oil-base muds. While this represents
a significant step forward, there are a
few limitations. For example, the very
small fractures which can be resolved
using electrical imagery cannot be
detected by the UBI tool or any other
acoustic imagery tools. This presents a
problem because small fractures are
important for statistical analyses of
fracture geometry. Acoustic images
contain less bedding information than
their electrical counterparts. This
bedding data is critical for differentiating
fault types. Therefore, in wells with oilbase mud the Oil-Base Dipmeter*
(OBDT) tool is sometimes run along
with the UBI tool to ensure that
fractures and their associated structures
can be defined.

Middle East Well Evaluation Review

Amplitude

Conductivity from 2.94 to 22.67

Borehole radius
Depth
(feet)

Conductivity from 4.46 to 4.86

Fig. 3.29: This UBI log

shows a combination of
breakouts and natural
fractures in a Cretaceous
reservoir in the
Middle East.

Borehole side view

1
Fault plane

x200

2
Borehole plan view

Breakout

x210

Fig. 3.30: ON THE

SLIDE: During drilling ,
movements can occur
along fault or fracture
planes which may
damage or even
destroy production
tubing or casing.
Evidence for this
movement can be seen
on many UBI images.

Natural fractures

Slip sliding away

References

Cross-sectional plots of wellbore shapes

(figure 3.29) show the detailed geometry
of various types of borehole damage;
including stress release, borehole breakouts and key seat wear by drill pipe. A
careful examination of borehole shapes
by Schlumberger Etudes et Production
in Paris has revealed slippage or shear
displacement along fault and/or fracture
planes in response to drilling (figure
3.30). This slippage, which is often
imaged on UBI tool surveys, may result
from reduced friction along the fault
planes, with drilling fluids acting as a
lubricant.
In a few cases, the slippage may be
so large that production tubing or casing
will be damaged. Vincent Maury of Elf
suggests that some wells in southeastern
France may have been completely lost
as a result of this movement. This fault
slippage data may prove to be an important source of tectonic information.

R Dennis, V Saxema. and A Rajvanshi (1991):

Fracture Characterization in the Basement of the
Bombay High. ONGC-Schlumberger Wireline
Research Centre Report.

BB Neogi, BS Josyulu and KVB Singh (1991):

Hydrocarbon Detection through Seismic Attribute
Parameters of Fractured Basement, BorhollaChangpang Fields, Assam. ONGC Bulletin.

F El Wazeer, F Ismail and E Standen. (1990):

Fracture Geometry and Hydrocarbon Productivity in
the Basement Rocks of the Zeit Bay Field - Gulf of
Suez, Egypt, presented at the 10th EGPC Exploration
and Production Conference, Cairo, Egypt.

E Standen (1991): Tips for Analysing Fractures on

Wellbore Images. World Oil (212) pp 99-118.

Number 14, 1993.

O Faivre (1993): Fracture Evaluation from

Quantitative Azimuthal Resistivities, presented at the
SPE Fall Annual Meeting (SPE Paper 26434).
SM Luthi and P Souhaite (1990): Fracture Apertures
from Electrical Borehole Scans. Geophysics (55) pp
821-833.

E Standen, R Nurmi, F El Wazeer and M Ozkanli,

(1993): Quantitative Applications of Wellbore Images
to Reservoir Analysis presented at the Annual
SPWLA Meeting.
HA Taleb, I Helal and E Standen (1990): Granitic
Basement Fracture Study in the Geisum Field - Gulf of
Suez, presented at the 10th EGPC Exploration and
Production Conference, Cairo, Egypt.

V Maury and A Etchecopar (1992): Shear Induced by

Oil and Gas Wells Drilling and Production Along
Faults and Discontinuities, presented at the World
Geological Congress, Japan.

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