Irrigation Techniques and Quality of Irrigation Water _- m 1.1. Definition of Irrigation Plants are living beings and do require water and air for their survival, as do human beings require. Their requirement of water varies with their type. Different types of plants require different quantities of water, and at different times, till they grow up completely. Water is normally supplied to these plants by nature through direct rain or through the flood waters of rivers which inundate large land areas during floods. The flood water may saturate the Tand before the flood is subsided. The water absorbed by the land during floods, supplements the water requirement ofthe crop during dry season. ‘These natural processes, whereby, the water is supplied to the crops for their growth, are dependent upon ‘nature’ or ‘God’, whatever we may call it. Sometinies, there may be very heavy rains creating serious floods and damaging the crops, and sometimes, there may not be any rains at all, creating scarcity of water for the crops. Thus, famine and scarcity conditions are created. In his bid to control the nature, man discovered various methods by which the water can be stored during the periods of excess rainfall and to use that stored. water during periods of ‘less rainfall’ or ‘no rainfall’. The art or the science by which itis accomplished, is generally, termed, as irrigation. Irrigation may, therefore, be defined as the science of artificial application of water to the land, in accordance with the ‘crop requirements’ throughout the ‘crop period’ for full-fledged nourishment of the crops. 1.2. Necessity of Irrigation in India India is a tropical cointry with a vast diversity of climate, topography and vegeta~ tion, Rainfall in India, varies considerably in its place of occurrence, as well as in its amount. Even at a particular place, the rainfall is highly erratic and irregular, as it occurs only during a few particular months of the year. Crops cannot, therefore, be raised successfully, over the entire land, without providing artificial irrigation of fields ‘More than seventy percent of our population, directly depends on agriculture, and the remaining depends indirectly on agriculture: Out of a totat geographical area-of about- 328 million hectares, about 184 million hectares is the cultivable area. In order to save this area from the complete wishes and vagaries of nature, and to ensure full growth of crops, it is necessary 10 provide adequate artificial irigation facilities. In order to achieve this, the Indian Government is trying hard and spending enormously to provide Intigation facilities for the entire cultivable land. So far developed irrigation facilities in India have been shown under “Introduction” in the previous pages. 12 IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES: 1.3. Advantages of Irrigation Every imrigation project is designed, keeping in view of its economics, ie. the expenditure likely to be incurred and the benefit likely to occur. There is a capital investment on the project and the future recurring charges for maintenance and opera: tion. The project estimate is generally sanctioned when the benefit gives at least about 8% interest on the capital outlay. Sometimes, unproductive projects are also sanctioned in view of their general public benefits. ‘There is hardly any point in emphasizing the importance and advantages of iviga: tion during the times of acute food shortages and growing population of our country. Even then, some of the advantages of irrigation are summarised below: (2) Increase in Food Production. Irrigation helps in increasing crop yields, and hence, to attain self-sufficiency in food. 2) Optimum Benefits. Optimum utilisation of water is made possible by irigation, By optimum utilisation, we generally mean, obtaining maximum crop yield with re. quired amount of water. In other words, yield will be smaller for any quantity lesser than or in excess of this optimum quantity. 3) Elimination of Mixed Cropping. In the areas, where irrigation is not assured, generally mixed cropping is adopted. By mixed cropping, we mean, sowing together of ‘v0 or more crops in the same field. Ifthe weather conditions are not favourable to one of the crops, they-may be better suitable for the other; and thus, the farmer may get at least some yield. Mixed cropping, is thus, found necessary and also economical when irrigation facilticsare lacking, and especially during periods of Crash programmes in under-developed countries. But if irrigation is assured, mixed cropping can be eliminated. Mixed cropping is generally not acceptable, because different crops require dif- ferent types of field preparations and different types of waterings, manurings, etc. If two crops are mixed together, the field preparations. waterings, manurings, ete. cannot be made to suit the special needs of either. Moreover, during the time of harvesting, the crops get intermixed with each other, reducing the purity of each other. But, when regular and permanent water supply is assured, a single superior crop can be sown, depending upon the conditions of the soil and the needs ofthe country. (3) General Prosperity, Revenue returns with well developed irrigation, are some- times, quite high, and helps in all round development of the country and prosperity of the entire nation and community. (3) Generation of Hydro-clectrie power. Cheaper power generation can be ob tained from water development projects, primarily designed for irrigation alone. Canal cutlets from dams and Canal falls on irrigation canals can be used for power gencration. For example, Ganga and Sarda Canals, constructed for imigation, are now generating hydro-electric power as a side product, up to about 80,000 kilo-watts. (6) Domestic Water Supply. Development of irigation facilities in an area helps in augmenting the water supply in nearby villages and towns, where other sources of water are not available or are scarcely available. It also helps in providing drinking water for animals, and water for swimming, bathing, ete.IRRIGATION TECHNIQUES AND QUALITY OF IRRIGATION WATER, 3 (7) Facilities of Communications. Irrigation channels are generally provided with ‘embankments and inspection roads. These inspection paths provide good roadways to the villagers for walking, cycling or sometimes even for motoring (8) Inland Navigation. Sometimes, larger irrigation canals can be used and developed for navigation purposes. (9) Afforestation. Trees are generally grown along the banks of the channels, which increase the timber wealth of the country and also help in reducing soil erosion and air polluition. 1.4, Disadvantages and Il-Rffects of Irrigation (1) Imigation may contribute in various ways to the problem of water pollution. One of these is the seepage into the ground water of the nitrates, that have been applied to the soil as feriizer. Sometimes, up to 50% of nitrates applied to the soil, sinks into the tnderground reservoir. The underground water may thus get polluted, and if consumed by people through wells, ec. it is likely to cause diseases such as anemia. Whether it will ultimately affect the fishing on way to the sea, or as the tides carry the polluted water ahead into the ocean, is yet a matter of research. (2) Irrigation may result in colder and damper climate, resulting in marshy lands and breeding of mosquitoes, causing outbreak of diseases like malaria & dengu. (@) Over-inrigation may lead to water-logging” and may reduce crop yields. (4) Procuring and supplying irrigation water is complex and expensive in itself. Sometimes, subsidised cheaper water has to be provided at the cost of the government, which raduces revenue returns. 15. Types of Irrigation 4 Irvigation may broadly be classified into: 1, Surface irrigation ; and 2. Sub-surface irrigation (1) Surface irrigation can be further classified into : (a) Flow irrigation ; and (b) Lift irrigation, When the water is available at a higher level, and it is supplied to lower level, by the mere action of gravity, them itis called Flow Irrigation. But, if the water is lifted up by some mechanical or manual means, such as by pumps, etc. and then supplied tor inrigation, then it is called Lift Irrigation. Use of wells and tubewells for supplying irrigation water fall under this category of irrigation. Flow irrigation can be further sub-divided into zs (@ Perennial irrigation, and (ii) Flood irrigation. (0 Perennial Irrigation. In perennial system of irigation, constant and continuous ‘water supply is assured to the crops in accordance with the requirements of the crop, Ce * For deniled description of water-lopging please refer Chapter 6.4 IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES throughout the ‘crop period’. In this system of imrigation, water is supplied through storage canal head works and canal distribution system, When irrigation is done from the direct runoff of a river, or by diverting the river runoff into some canal by constructing a diversion weir or a barrage across ‘the river, it is called Direct Irrigation. Ganga Canal System is an example of this type of irrigation But, if a dam is constructed across a river to store water during monsoons, $0 as 10 supply water in the off-taking channels during periods of tow flow, then itis termed ae Storage irrigation. Ram-Ganga Dam project in U.P. is an example of storage type of inrigation system. In the regions of peninsula India, where rivers are generally seasonal Storage irigation is an absolute necessity, whereas, in Indo-gangetic region, direct irrigation is feasible, since the rivers are perennial, getting their supplies fom the melting of snow. Direct irrigation is always simple, easy and economical. The perennial ‘system of irrigation, is most important and is mostly practised in India, (Gi) Flood Irrigation. This kind of irrigation, is sometimes called as inuindation irrigation. In this method of irrigation, soil is kept submerged and thoroughly flooded with water, so as to cause thorough saturation of the-land. The moisture soaked by the Soil, when occasionally supplemented by natural rainfall or minor waterings, brings the crop to maturity 2) Sub-surface Irrigation. It is termed as sub-surface irrigation, because in this ‘ype of irrigation, water does not wet the soil surface. The underground water nourishes ‘he plant roots by capillarity. It may be divided into the following two types : (@) Natural sub-irrigation ; and (®) Artificial sub-irrigation. (@) Natural sub-irrigation. Leakage water from channels, etc, goes underground, and during passage through the sub-soil, it may irigate crops, sown on lower lands, by Capillary. Sometimes, leakage causes the water-table to tise up, which helps in imiga- tion of erops by capillarity. When underground irrigation is achieved, simply by natural Processes, without any additional extra efforts, it is called natural sub-irigation, (©) Anificial sub-irigation. When a system of open jointed drains is artificially laid below the soil, so as to supply water to the crops by capillarty, then it is known as artificial sub-eigation. It isa very costly process and hence, adopted in India on a very small scale. It may be recommended only in some special cases with favourable soil onditions and for cash crops of very high return. Sometimes, irigation water may be intentionally collected in some ditches near the fields, the percolation water may then ome up to the roots through capillarity 1.6. Techniques of Water Distribution in the Farms. There are various. ways in. which the irigation water can be applied to the fields. Their main classification is as follows : (1) Free flooding (2) Border flooding (3) Check flooding (4) Basin flooding (9) Furrow irrigation method (6) Sprinkler irrigation method (D) Drip irrigation method,‘these methods are briefly discussed below: (1) Free flooding or Ordinary flood- ing. In this method, ditches are excavated in the field, and they may be either on the Contour or up and down the slope, Water from these ditches, flows across the field ‘After the water leaves the ditches, no at- tempt is made to control the flow by means of levees, ete, Since the movement ‘Suasioida TCH of water is not restricted, itis sometimes called wild flooding. Although the initial cost of land preparation is low, labour re- ggirements are usually high and water ap- plication efficiency is also low. Wild flooding, is most suitable for close grow- __—ing-erops, pastures, etc., particularly ‘where the land is steep. Contour ditches called laterals or subsidiary ditches, are Fig 1.1 Fre flooding (plan view). generally spaced at about 20 to 50 metres pars, depending upon the slope, texture of sil, crops to be grown, etc, This method hay be used on rolling land (topography irregular) where borders, checks, basins and furrows are not feasible. (2) Border flooding. In this method, the land is divided into « number of stips, separated by low levees called borders. The land areas confined in each strip is of the srder of 10.10.20 metres in width, and 100 to 400 meires in length, as shown in Fig. 1.2 Ridges between borders should be sufficiently high to provent overtopping during irrigation “To prevent water from concentrating on either side of the border, the land should be levelled perpendicular tothe flow. Water is made to flow from the supply ditch into each strip, The water flows slowly towards the lower end, and infiltrates into the soil as it dvances, When the advancing water reaches the lower end of the stip, the supply of water to the strip is tumed off. ‘The supply ditch, also called irrigation stream, may either be in the form of an ‘earthen chanel or a lined channel or an underground concrete pipe having risers at intervals, The size of the supply ditch depends upon the infiltration rate of the soil, and the width of the border strip. Coarse textured sotls with high infiltration rates will require high discharge rate and therefore larger'supply ditch, in order to spread water over the. entire strip rapidly, and to avoid excessive losses due to deep percolation at the upper reaches. On the other hand, fine textured soils with low infiltration rates, require smaller ditches to avoid excessive losses due to run off at the lower reaches. ‘A relationship between the discharge through the supply ditch (Q), the average depth of water flowing over the strip ()), the rate of infiltration of the soil (), the area6 IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES (6) Photographic view. Fig. 12 Border flooding, of the land irrigated (A), and the approximate time required to cover the given area with water () is given by the equation : (2 mm2.d sofa] lal) where Q= Discharge through the supply ditch pth of water flowing over the border strip f= Rate of infiltration of soil ‘A= Area of land strip to be irrigated t= Time required to cover the given area A, ‘The above equation can be obtained by considering small area (dA) of the border strip of atea A, as shown in Fig. 1.3. Let us also assume that in time dt, water advancesIRRIGATION TECHNIQUES AND QUALITY OF IRRIGATION WATER 1 Surply ‘channel Border or “Area A ~ covered with water in time t Fig. 13, ‘over this area dA. Now, the volume of water that flows to cover this area would be y-dA, because y is the water depth over this area. Also, during the same time di, the ‘Volume of water that percolates into the soil over the area A would be f- A. dt. The total quantity of water supplied to the strip during time dt would be Q - dt, and also equal to dA + fede a Qdt=ydA+fAdt . (i) os aa( oe ti) ‘Considering y, f. and Q as conttants, ind integrating the above equation; we get ration (Gr sconeamotineyan ® But atr=0,A=0 K=F log, 1=0 (Ce tog 1=0) 2 ad, r=Floe.| 58 pone(p%a) This ‘equation can be further written as_ Lo jogye( 2) Now, let 2 23 saul a2 5) Nowa or 1=23 whichis the above given equat8 IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES or or or 10-1 Further, considering the maximum value of =! , We get Ane = 2 on(L.2) Bek F ( This equation enables us to determine the maximum area that can be irrigated with a supply ditch of discharge Q and soil having infiltration capacity, f. It can also be inferred from this equation that the discharge per unit area of the border strip (Q/A) should be varied according to the infiltration capacity of the soil (), otherwise loss of water will take place. ‘This method of field irrigation is becoming very popular among the cultivators Shorter and narrower strips are found to be more efficient. Entry of water into the strips is generally controlled by placing a jet in the supply ditch, at the head of each strip. Example 1.1. Determine the time required to irrigate a strip of land of 0.04 hectares in area from a tube-well with a discharge of 0.02 cumec. The infiltration capacity ofthe soil may be taken as 5 em/hr, and the average depth of flow on the field as 10 em. Also determine the maximum area that can be irrigated from this tube well Solution. A =0,04 hectares = 0.04 x 10* m? = 400 m* serps = 0.02 cumecs = 0.02 m*/sec = 0.02 x 60x 60 m*/hr = 72 m'/hr, fe Sem/br= <5 mfor=0.05 mht, ;y= 10em=0.1 m " Using eqn. (1.1), we have 123 pnnl 5S 10 n & 123 dos le seats fe = 2.3%? logyo (72/52) hr. = 0.65hr= 39 minutes. Ans. Maximum area that can be irrigated is given by eqn: (12) as 440m? = AP hectares= O.144hectares. Ans, Note, After irrigating this much of area, surface low will stop, and deep percolation will stat (3) Cheek flooding. Check flooding is similar to ordinary flooding except that the ‘water is controlled by surrounding the check area with low and flat levees. Levees areIRRIGATION TECHNIQUES AND QUALITY OF IRRIGATION WATER 9 generally constructed along the contours, having ‘vertical interval of about 5 to 10 cm. seret evens are connected with cross levees at convenient places ax shown in Fig, 4 “THe confined plot area varies from 0:2 to 0.8 hectare. itch Openings: x X yh \ ccoxezezd pceczcca bocce Ne pS\yo st Connecti ‘eve (@ Plan view. (b) Photographic view. Fig. 14. Check flooding. In check flooding, the check is filled with water ata fairly high rate and allowed to stand until the water infiltrates ‘This method is suitable for more permeable soils as well as for less permeable soils ‘The water can be quickly spread in case of high permeable soils, thus reducing the -persolation Tosset.-The water carralso be held on the surface-for ¢ longer.time in case. Df less permeable soils, for assuring adequate penetration. These checks, ae sometimes ised to absorb water, where the stfeam-flow is diverted during periods of high run off (4) Basin flooding, This method isa special type of check flooding and is adopted specially for orchard trees. One or more trees are generally placed in the basin, and the surface is flooded as in check method, by ditch water, as shown in Fig. 1-5.19 IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES 2000) 15 a 2 | Alkaline soll o Now saline atalt “<4000) >is 8510 100 fo Sadie soll or Blackall 3 | Saline-akai sil 3 3000, >is 285, (4) Concentration of potentially toxic elements. A large number of elements such 1s boron, selenium, etc. may be toxic to plants. Traces of Boron are essential to plant growth, but its concentrations above 0.3 ppm may prove toxic to certain plants. The Concentration above 0.5 ppm is dangerous to nuts, citrus fruits and deciduous fruits. Cotton, Cereals and certain truck crops are moderately tolerant to boron, while Dates, Beets, Asparagus etc. are quite tolerant. Even for the most tolerant crops, the boron concentration should not exceed 4 ppm. Boron is generally present in various soaps. The ‘waste water containing soap, etc. should, therefore, be used with great care in irigation. Selenium, even in low concentration, is toxic, and must be avoided. (5) Bicarbonate concentration as related to concentration of calcium plus mag- neisum, High concentration of bi-carbonate ions may result in precipitation of calcium and magnesium bicarbonates from the soil-solution, increasing the relative proportion of sodium ions and causing sodium hazards. (6) Bacterial contamination. Bacterial contamination of irrigation water is not @ serious problem, unless the crops irrigated with highly contaminated water are directly20 IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES eaten, without being cooked. Cash crops like cotion, nursery stock, ef. which are Processed after harvesting, can, therefore, use contaminated waste waters. without any trouble. Example 1:1. (a) What is the classification of irrigation water having the following characteristics : Concentration of Na, Ca and Mg are 22, 3 and 1.5 milli-eguiavetente ‘er litre respectively, and the electrical conductivity is 200 micro mhos per ent at 25°C"? (b) What problems might arise in using this water on fine textured soils ? (¢) What remedies do you suggest to overcome this trouble ? Solution, Nat 2. 2 Se EES Es“. ca Mg 2 2 If SAR is between 10 to 18, then it is classified as medium Sodium water and is represented by S2 (See Table 1.2). Electrical conductivity is 200 micro-ihos per cm at 25°C. According to Table 1.1, the water is called of Low conductivity (Cl) if the value of electrical conductivity is between 100 to 250 micco mhos per cm at 25°C. It is, therefore, C1 water. Hence, the given water is classified as C1-$2 water. Ans. (In fine-textured soils, the medium sodium ($2) water may create the following problems (0 Soil becomes less permeable, (i It stants crusting when dry (iid) Te becomes plastic and sticky when wet. (i) Its pH increases towards that of alkaline soil, (©) Gypsum (C2S0,) addition, either to soil or to water is suggested to overcome sodium hazards posed by the given water. PROBLEMS ine irigation and explain its necessity in a tropical county lke India. What are the advantages and ill-efecte of seared irrigation? 2. What is meant by surface and sub-surface irrigation: and what are their types? Discuss briefly the various techniques used for aistributing wate in tie farms 3. What is meant by ‘Furrow Irrigation” and ‘Sprinkler Irigntion’ ? Which one is prefered in India and why ? i he sinker sytem of isigaton ian excclent method but not wed ia India’ Discuss eitclly and briefly, What is meant by ‘Border Moding’, and how does it differ frm ‘Check flooding’ and ‘Free Aooding"? 6. Describe briefly the necessity and importance of irigation works in our countsy? What are Aiferent types of itigation 7 Write brief notes on each of theme 7. (@) What are the benefits tat can be accrued from Irigation projects? (8) What is ‘ood irrigation’ 2 Wher is it practised ? {2 How is the Flow irigation differen from the Lift itrigation ? Give the names of districts in ‘Tamil Nadu where they are practised mostly SAR=IRRIGATION TECHNIQUES AND QUALITY OF IRRIGATION WATER 21 {8 Discuss critically the quality standards required for irrigation water. 9."All the waters ars 90 ft for iigating cops". Discuss bie ly and critically the above statement. 10, What is meant by C2—S2 water? Discus is usefulness for irigatng fine texture soils AL. Write short notes on (Lift inigation Gi) Mixed cropping. (Wy lett of irigaton. (iv) Border step and Sprisker methods of igang Geld (©) Sodium-Absorption Ratio (SAR). (01 Sale concentration of iigtion waters and thee utility in inigation, ‘ily Sodium hazards of tigation water (vi) Boron concetration in gation waters. 2) Dip inigacion metho.—2 Water Requirements of Crops 2. General Every cFOP requires a certain quantity of water after a certain fixed interval, throughout its Petiod of growth. I the natural rain is sufficient and timely so as to satisfy both these requirements, no ittigation water is required for raising that crop-In England, for example, the natural rain falling regularly throughout the year, satisfies both these requirements f0% practically all the crops, and, therefore, irigation is not significantly needed in England. But in a tropical country like India, the natural rainfall is either insufficient, of the water does not fall regularly, as required by the crops. Since the magnitude a8 Well 28 the frequency of the rainfall varies throughout a tropical country, certain crop ™4¥ Fequire irrigation in certain part ofthe country, and the same crop may not require af¥ ittigation in some other part of the country, The area where irigation is a must for agriculture is called the arid region, while the area in which inferior crops can be grown Without irrigation is called a semi-arid regio ‘The term ‘Water requirements of a crop’ means the total quantity and the way in which a crop Te4uires water, from the time it is sown 10 the time it is harvested. It is very clear fiom the above discussion, thatthe water requirement, will vary withthe crop as well as with the place. In other words, different crops will have different water equirements, and the same crop may have different water requirements at different places of the same country ; depending upon the variations in climates, type of soils, Frethods of cultivation, and useful rainfalls, etc, 2.2. Crop Period or Base Period ‘The time period that elapses from the instant of its sowing to the instant of its harvesting is elled the crop-period. The time between the first watering of a crop at the time of is SoWing to its last watering before harvesting is called the Base period or the Base of the crop. Crop period is slightly more than the base period, but for all practical poeses. they are taken as one and the same thing, and generally expressed in days, Hence. in future, the terms like growth period, crop period, base period, ete will be used 88 5YROnyms, each representing crop period, and will be represented by B ~tin-days) 2.3, Duty and Delta of a Crop 2.341, Delta. Each crop requires a certain amount of water after a certain fixed interval of time, throughout its period of growth, The depth of water required every time, ‘generally varies from S to 10 em depending upon the type of the crop, climate and soil” ‘The time interval between two such consecutive waterings is called the frequency of irrigation, of Foatlon period. The rotation period may vary between 6-15 days for 2WATER REQUIREMENTS OF CROPS B diferent crops. The summation of the total water depth supplied during the base period a erop, for its full growth, will evidently represent the total quantity of water required fy the crop for its full fledged nourishment. This rotal quantity of water required by the chop for its full growth (maturity) may be expressed in hectare-metre (Acre-ft) or in Sfition cubic metres (million cubic-ft) or simply as depth to which water would stand ii the irrigated area, if the total quantity supplied were to stand above the surface oF ehout percolation or evaporation. This total depth of water (in cm) required by a crop to come to maturity is called its delta (A). Example 21. [frie requires about 10 cm depth of water at an average interval of ‘about 10 days, and the crop period for rice is 120 days, find out the delta for rice. ‘Solution. Water is required at an interval of 10 days for a period of 120 days. It evidently means that 12 no. of waterings are required, and each time, 10 em depth of ‘water is required. Therefore, total depth of water required 4=12x 10em=120em Hence A for rice = 120m. Ans. Example 2.2. If wheat requires about 7.5 cm of water after every 28 days, and the ‘base period for wheat is 140 days, find out the value of delta for wheat. ‘Solution. Assuming the base period to be representing the crop period, as per usual practice, we can easily infer that the water is required at an average interval of 28 days up ta total period of 140 days, This means that 42 =5 no of waterings ae required. ‘The depth of water required each time = 7.5 em. + Total depth of water reqd. in 140 days = 5 x7.5.em = 37.5 em Hence, A for wheat = 37.5 em. Ans. 232, Delta for certain crops. The average values of deltas for certain crops are shown in Table 2.1. These values represent the total water requirement of the crops. The ‘actual requirement of irrigation water may be less, depending upon the useful rainfall, Moreover, these values represent the values on field, i. “delta on field’ which includes the evaporation and percolation losses. ‘Table 2.1, Average Approximate Values of A for Certain Important Crops in India SN. crop Delia on field w 2) o 1 ‘Sugarcane Ta0.em G8") 2 Rice 120 em 28") 3 ‘Tobacco 75 em 0") 4 Garden fruits 6oem@e') s. Cotton 50cm 22") 6 Vegesbles 45cm 8") 7 Wheat 40cm (16) 8 Batley 300m (12°) 9. Maize sem (10") 10 Fodder nSem6") uw. Peas 15cm (6i | 26 IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES 2.33. Duty of Water. The ‘duty’ of water is the relationship between the volume of water and the area of the crop it matures. It may be defined as the number of hectares of land irrigated for full growth of 2 given crop by supply of 1 m'/sec of water continuously during the entire base period (B) of that crop. Thus, if water flowing at a rate of one cubic metre per second, runs continuously for B days, and matures 200 hectares, then the duty of water for that particular crop will be defined as 200 hectares per cumec to the base of B days. The duty is generally represented by the letter D. 2.3.4. Relation between duty and delta. Let there be a crop of base period B days. Let one cumec of water be applied to this crop on the field for B days, Now, the volume of water applied to this crop during B days = (1x 60x 60% 24 xB) m? 400 B (cubic metre) By definition of duty (D), one cubic metre supplied for B days matures D hectares of land, ‘+ This quantity of water (¥) matures D hectares of land or 10 D sq. m of area, Total depth of water applied on this and _ Volume _ 86,4008 8.64 8 area "ot =p mewes By definition, this total depth of water is called delta (A), 8.048 D or = 8B om, 2) As metres LI) where; Avis in cm; B is in days ; and Dis duty in hectares/cumee. Example 2.3. Find the delta for a crop when its duty is 864 hectares/cumec on the field, the base period of this crop ts 120 days, Solution, A (ox) = 852 where Bin days ad sin tecesumes Th this question, B= 120 days and D = 864 hectares/cumec 864 12 864 2.3.5. Duty at various places. Ina large canal irrigation system, the water from its “touree;-first of all, flows into the main canal ; from the main canal, it flows into the branch canal; from the branch canal, i lows into the ditributay ; from the disuibutry, Xt flows into the minor ; and then into the field channels (water-courses); and finally ito the fields, A systematic layout of a canal system is shown in Fig. 2 During the passage of water from these irrigation channels, water is lost due to evaporation and percolation. These losses are called Transit losses or Transmission or Conveyance losses in channels, A= =120em. Ans,WATER REQUIREMENTS OF CROPS 53 Duty of water for a crop, is the number of hectares of land, HT EXCLUDER SARRAGE OF which the unit flow of water for B days can irrigate. There SS RIVER fore ifthe water requirement of articular crop at a particular ANAL MEA teitoe in more: then ser NATO number of hectares of land it will irigate. Hence, if water ‘consumed by a crop of a given WAINCANAL base period is more, its duty wll ‘SEOIMENT ESCAPE ‘CHANNEL | Coazancn cian a>20 comers be tess. It, therefore, becomes clear that the duty of water at DISTRIBUTAR | the head of the water-course Cen cin Sa as will be less than the duty of water ‘on the field’ ; because oat waver cour swhen water flows from the head sEtied cane of te water-course and reaches the field, some water is lost en- route as transit losses. Applying the same reasoning, itcan be es- lished that duty of water at eager he Fig. 2.1. Layout of acansl system. than that at the head of the water-course ; duty at the head of a distributary will be less than that at the head of a minor, duty at the head of a branch canal will be less than that at the head of a distributary, and duty at the head of a main canal wil be less than the duty-at the head of a branch. canal,Duty.of water, therefore, varies from one place to another, and increases as one moves downstream from the head of the main canal towards the head of the branches or water-courses. The duty at the head of water-course (ie. atthe ‘outlet point of the minor), is quite important, and is called the outlet discharge factor. This cutlet point is generally the end point of lrrigation Department. The control of Imigation Department finishes at the outlet point, and the water is carried info the fields through ‘water-coutses by the beneficiary cultivators themselves. 2.3.6. Flow duty and Quantity duty. In direct irrigation, duty is always expressed in hectares/eumec. It is then called as flow-duty or duty. In storage irrigation, duty may, sometimes'be expressed in hectares/million cubie metre of water available in the reservoir. It eventually means that every million cubic metre of water available in the reservoir will mature so many hectares of a particular crop. Hence; the irrigation capacity of the reservoir is-directly-known- When. duty-is- expressed in this manner, itis called Quantity duty or Storage duty. 2.37. Factors on which duty depends. Duty of irrigation water depends upon the following factors ( Type of crop. Different crops require different amount of water, and hence, the duties for them are different. A crop requiring more water will have less flourishing acreage for the same supply of water as compared to that requiring less water. Hence duty will be less for a crap requiting more water and vice versa.IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES (ii) Climate and season. As stated earlier, duty includes the water lost in evaporation and percolation. These losses will vary with the season. Hence, duty varies from season to season, and also from time to time in the same season. The figures for duties which we generally express are ther average values considered over the entie crop period (tii) Useful rainfall. f some of the rain, falling directly over the irrigated land, is useful for the growth of the crop, then so much less irrigation water will be required to mature the crop. More the useful rainfall, less will be the requirement of irrigation water, and hence, more will be the duty of irrigation water {©) Type of soll If the permeability ofthe soil under the irigaied erop is high, the water lost due to percolation will be more and hence, the duty will be less. Therefore, for sandy soils, where the permeability is more, the duty of water is tess ©) Efficiency of cultivation method. Ifthe cultivation method (including tillage and itrigation) is faulty and less efficient, resulting in the wastage of wate, the duty of water Will naturally be less. Ifthe irrigation water is used economically, then the duty of water Will improve, as the same quantity of water would be able. to irrigate more area, Cultivators should, therefore, be trained and educated properly to use irrigation water ‘economically. 2.3.8, Importance of duty. It helps us in designing an efficient canal irrigation system, Knowing the total available water at the head of a main canal, and the overall uty for all the crops required to be irrigated in different seasons of the year, the area Which can be irigated can be worked out. Inversely, if we know the crops area required ‘pate iigated and thei duties, we can work out the discharge required for designing the channel, 2.3.9. Duty for certain crops. The average values of duties for certain important Indian crops are tabulated in Table 2.2. Table 2.2. Average Approximate Values of Duty for Certain Important Crops in India Crop Duty in hectareteamec ‘Sugareane 730 Rice ms Other Khari 1500 Rabi 1800 Perennials 1100 Hot fodder 2000) a at ‘3.10. Measures for Improving duty of water. The duty of canal water can cer- {sinly be improved by effecting economy in the use of water by resorting to the ‘following precautions-and practices (1) Precautions in field preparation and sowing : ( Land to be used for cultivation should, as far as possible, be levelled, (@ The fields should be properly ploughed to the required depth, (Gi) Improved modern cultivation methods may preferably be adopted. () Porous soils should be treated before sowing crops to reduce seepage of water. (©) Alkaline soils should be properly leached before sowingWATER REQUIREMENTS OF CROPS 21 (vi) Manure fertilisers should be added to increase water holding capacity of the soil. (vii) Rotation of crops” should be preferred, as this will ensure increased crop yields with minimum use of water (@ Precautions in handling irrigation supplies : (O The source of irrigation water should be situated within the prescribed limits, and should be capable of delivering sufficient quantity of satisfactary quality of irrigation. water. i Canals carrying irrigation supplies should be lined to reduce seepage and ‘evaporation’, thereby reducing on field requirement of water and consequent- ly improving the duty of water. iii) Water courses may preferably be lined : or R.C.C. pipes may be used for the ‘same to reduce on field requirement of water, thereby improving duty (jv) Free flooding of fields should be avoided and furrow irrigation method may preferably be adopted, if surface irrigation is resorted to. () Sub surface irrigation and Drip itrigation may be preferred to ordinary surface irvigation. (vi) If canals are not lined, then two canals running side by side may be preferred toa single canal, as this will reduce the FSL, thereby reducing percolation losses. (ii) Irigation supplies should be economically used by proper control on its dis- tribution, volumetric assessment, and by imparting proper education to the farmers. 2.4. Crop Seasons and Indian Agriculture More than 70% of the Indian population is directly or indirectly connected with agriculture. The chief crops of India are rice, wheat, sugarcane, tea, cotton, groundnut jute, coffee, rubber, garden crops (like coconuts, orange, etc), etc. Different types of soils are needed for raising different types of crops, For example, heavy retentive soil (40% clay) is favourable for raising crops like sugarcane, rice, etc. requiring more water, Light sandy soil (2 to 8% clay) is suitable for crops like gram, fodder, etc. requiing less water. Medium or normal soil (having about 10—20% of clay) is suitable for crops like wheat, cotton, maize, vegetables, oil seeds, etc. requiring normal amount of water. From the agricultural point of view, the year can be divided into two principal cropping seasons, ie. Rabi and Kharif. Normally, Rabi stars from Ist October and ends _... on 31st March ; while Khaxit starts fram Ist April and ends on 30th September. These dates are not rigid dead lines. The time may vary up to 1—3 months on either side. Sugarcane, which is an important cash crop. extends over both seasons. ‘The Kharif crops are rice, bajra, jowar, maize, cotton, tobacco, groundnut, ee. The | Rabi crops are wheat, barley, gram, linseed, mustard, potatoes, etc. Khasit erops are also called ‘Summer crops’ and Rabi crops as “Winter crops’. Kharif crops require about two to three times the quantity of water required by the Rabi crops. * explained in ancl 2.55. ‘+ Water moving with higher velocity, will ensure reduced evaporation,28 IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES The above distinction of seasons is well applicable to North India, but in South India, there is no such marked distinction between the different seasons. Infact. in South Jha, there is no clear cut winter, spring, summer and autumn seasons, as they are in North India. Except Bombay-Decean, where there are five crop seasons, thete are only three crop seasons in the remaining parts.of the country. These-three classifications of (0 Hot weather or Kharif season. (ii) Monsoon season. (iii) Winter or Rabi season. When a crop requires water for its crop season and also for some time in the beginning of the next crop season, allowance has to be made for this overlap. This Glowance is known as overlap allowance, Sugarcane is an example ofthis kind of crop. Some important Indian crops, their periods of growth, water requirements, seed require, ments, yields, etc. are shown in Table 23, dé Table 2.3. Irrigation Requirements of Certain Important Indian Crops | Average ‘ erates | B02 | arin | At, | er ia ° Orme sro | Mandvemarks | scedrequred| , elt ad sar, es | —@ [9 a ote a Sy Of ce | ame, | 6 [rarerte wane | is, | a0 Weaae | SS, Pa Sei | Peeper oe (| aaaeotes | saytonon | 30 | Naess] 2s | 00 Biel reaaie ay Eee ian ion Go) oe [Semmes | 30 | aaron | as | ame Sanne |S, Sa |e ae | mento | sign | s+ |r wat ete] — | ao oes. en 19] cmon | rari | 25-0 | Resttarnieses| | sn a Epithet noerere See ooo 00) pute | sane | 3. | eee te nee ep — S| Rie | aera | 0. eu 70] Termes | iver. | 25-10 | Sunanguuresion|sowasta | ao oe spells gos ‘high yielding | 38 iaetnen'|> —' | eminy cn iad x chee earns\WATER REQUIREMENTS OF CROPS » D 2) @ @ ) @ a Rabi Crops (o| Wheat cot | 375 | Thee-ouruaterings of | 80-100 | 1500 (ordinary) |, March-April 710m depth Go| Highyielding | Oct. to 45. | Fivestewateringsor | 100-125, | 4000 Wheat ‘March-April 7-10. depth wo| Gramihigh | Sepi-Oa. | 30 | tigated when eaves 2s 3500 >ielding) ve March etary os) Barley ct. 0 30___ | Two waterings ‘one at | 120 1300 Mat-Ape Jolntngand archer at booting age (6) | Potatoes Sept-Oct, | 60-90 | Usuallyimignted :sown | 15,000 | 35.000 to Fab in high ils up to ealy April. Second crop in plains is sometimes taken in Feb apa (wi | Tobacco Oce-Feb.to | 60. | Fourtorvewaterings. | | 4300 Feb-May (ott) Linseed ie. Alsi | Oct-Nov. | 4550 | Inigatedatimervas of 10 Mage Saye Resistantco drought bu damaged by foe and Mooding ou | Mustard 02 10 45 | Wateredatinervasof | 33, 10000 Feb Mar 710 days 1600 ‘Overlapping crop but generally claeeiied under Rabi crop, co | sugwccane | Fed-Marchto | 90, | SorSwateringsof 10 | S00 | 25,000— Dec-March emor more, 30,000 2.5. Certain Important Definitions ~ = = 2.5.1. Kharif-Rabi ratio or Crop ratio. The area to be irrigated for Rabi crop is generally more than that forthe Kharif crop. This ratio of proposed areas, to be irrigated in Kharif season to that in the Rabi season is called, Kharif-Rabi ratio. This ratio is generally 1 : 2, ie. Kharif area is one-half of the Rabi area 2.8.2, Paleo irrigation. Sometimes, in the inital stages before the crop is sown, the land is very dry. This particularly happens at the time of sowing of Rabi crops because of hot September, when the soil may be too dry to be sown easily. In such a case, the soil is moistened with water, so as to help in sowing of the crops. This is known as Paleo irrigation 25.3. Kor-watering. The first watering which is given to a crop, when the crop is a few centimetres high, is called kor-Watering. It is usually the maximumsingle watering followed by other waterings at usual intervals, as required by drying of leaves. ‘The optimum depth of kor-watering for different crops are different. For ‘example, the optimum depth of kor-watering for Rice is 19 em., for Wheat (in U.P.) is about 13.5 cm, and for Sugarcane is 16.5 cm. The kor-witering must be applied within a fixed limited period, called Kor-period. Ti the plants fail to receive this water in time or in sufficient quantity, then they do suffer a significant loss, The kor-period depends upon the climate. Its less for humid climates30 IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES snd more for dry climates. The kor-period for rice varies from 2 10-4 weeks, and that ‘for wheat varies from 3 to 8 weeks. 2.54. Cash erops. A cash crop may be defined as a crop which has to be encashed in the market for processing, etc. as it cannot be consumed directly by the cultivators. All non-food crops, are thus, included in cash crops. Crops like jute, tea, cotton, tobacco, sugarcane, etc. are, therefore, called cash crops. The food crops like wheat, rice, barley, ‘maize, etc. are excluded from the list of cash crops. 2.5.5. Crops rotation. When the same crop is grown again and again in the same field, the fertility of land gets reduced as the soil becomes deficient in. plant foods favourable to that particular crop. In order to enhance the fertility of the land and to make the soil regain its original structure, itis often found necessary and helpful to give some rest to the land. This can be achieved either by allowing the land to lie fallow without any cultivation for some time, or to'grow crops which do not mainly require those salts or foods which were mainly required by the earlier grown crop. This method of growing different crops in rotation, one after the other, in the same field, is called Rotation of Crops. A cash crop may be followed by a fodder crop, which, im turn, may be followed by a soil-renovating crop like gram, which being a liguminous erop, helps in giving nitrogen to the fields, thereby renovating the soil. The cultivators who are fond of sowing cash crops always, should be educated and made to understand the advantages of sowing crops in rotation. ‘The rotation of crops will help in extracting different foods from the soil, and thus avoiding the general deficiency of any particular type(s) of elements). Moreover, if only one type of crop is grown in the same field, numerous insects and pests (of similar nature) will get developed. The crop rotation will also help in checking such growths Crop rotation will thus help in increasing the fertility of soil, and reducing the diseases ‘and wastage due to insects, and hence inereasing the overall crop yield. Jn general, the following rotations of crops may be adopted depending upon the soil conditions : (@ Wheat—Juar—Gram (i) Rice—Gram* (ii) Coton—Wheat—Gram*— Fallow (up to July) (i) Cotton—Juar—Gram. ( Sugarcane (18 months) — Thadwa — Wheat or gram — Fallow (upto July) 2.6. Optimum Utilisation of Irrigation Water Tia crop is sown and produced under absolutely identical conditions, using different ‘amounts of water depths, the vield is found to vary. The yield increases with water, teaches a certain maximum value and then falls down, as shown in Fig. 2.2. The quanti @f water at which the yield is maximum, called the optimum water depth. Therefore, optimum utilisation of irrigation, generally means, getting maximum yield with any amount of water. The supplies of water to the various crops should be Adjusted in such a fashion, as to get optimum benefit ratio, not only for the efficient use of available water and maximum yield, but also to prevent water-logging of the land After harvesting a beavy water consuming crop Tike Rice, less water consuming shor term crop tke ‘20 may be takcn, which may come up onthe remant moisture and maneWATER REQUIREMENTS OF CROPS. 31 in question. To achieve economy in the use of Water itis necessary that the farmers be made Gequainted with the fact that only a certain fixed amount of water gives bestresults, More han that quantity, as well as, less than that iqvantity, reduces the yield. Many cultivators, fil today feel, that they can increase the crop yield by using more and more water. Hence, they try to supply more water to their fields by undue tapping at the outlets. This must be checked. Moreover, farmers should, be en- ‘couraged to line their water courses, thereby Saving at-least 20% of the costly irrigation ‘water, which can be used to irrigate extra additional fields, MAX YIELD 2.7. Irrigation Efficiencies Efficiency is the ratio ofthe water output tothe water input, and is usually expressed as percentage. Input minus output is nothing but losses, and hence, if losses are more, Output is less and, therefore, efficiency is less. Hence, efficiency is inversely propor- tional to the losses, Water is lost in irrigation during various processes and, therefore, there are different kinds of irrigation efficiencies, as given below : () Efficiency of water-conveyance. It isthe ratio of the water delivered into the fields from the outlet point of the channel, to the water entering into the channel at its starting point. It may be represented by 1. It takes the conveyance or transit losses into consideration. (i Efficiency of water-application. It is the ratio of the quantity of water stored into the root zone, of the crops to the quantity of water. actually delivered into the field It may be represented by 1. It may also be called on farm efficieney, as it takes into consideration the water lost in the farm, (ili) Efficiency of water-storage. Iti the ratio of the water stored in the root zone during irrigation to the water needed in the root zone prior to irrigation (ie. field ‘capacity ~ existing moisture content). It may be represented by 7, (iv) Efficiency of water use. It is the ratio of the water beneficially used, including leaching water, to the quantity of water delivered. It may be represented by Ty Example 2.4. One cumec of water is pumped inzo a farm distribution system. 0.8 cumec is delivered to a turn-out, 0.9 kilometre from the well. Compute the conveyance efficiency. Solution. By definition, = DutpUt, 199-28 x 100=80% Ans. Taput ° Example 2.5. 10 cumecs of water is delivered 1o a 32 hectare field, for 4 hours. Soil probing after the irigation indicates that 0.3 metre of water has been stored inthe root zone, Compute the water application efficiencyIRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES i Solution. Volume of water supplied by 10 cumecs of water applied for 4 hours 4 = (10 x4 x60 x 60) m= 1,44,000m? = 144% 10'm’= 144m 10! m= 14.4ham. 10" m?= I hectare) i Input= 14.4 ham = Output= 32 hectares land is storing water upto 0.3 m depth. Output= 32 x 0.3 ha.m= 9.6 ham: fii) + , Ourpur ib rine i ‘Water application efficiency (ru) = pe 100 25% 100 = 66.67% ‘Ans. (6) Uniformity coefficient or Water distribution éfficieney. The effectiveness of ii ttvigation'may also be measured by its water distribution efficiency (n,), which is defined below : (2.3) i ‘where nyy= Water distribution efficiency. Mean depth of water stored during irrigation, d= Average of the absolute values of deviations from the mean The water distribution efficiency represents the extent to which the water has Penetrated to a uniform depth, throughout the field. When the water has penetrated Uuniformly throughout the field, the deviation from the mean depth is zero and water distribution efficiency is 1.0. Example 2.6. The depths of penetrations along-the length of a boarder strip at z ‘points 30 metres apart were probed. Their observed Values are 2.0, 1.9, 1.8, 1.6 and 1.5 ' ‘metres. Compute the water distribution efficiency Solution. The observed depths at five stations are 2.0, 1.9, 1.8, 1.6 and 1.5 metres, 1 respecte. Mean deph=D=20+19+1S4 6215 88. as neee 4 Values of deviations from the mean are (2.01.76), (1.9 ~ 1.76), (1.8~ 1.76), (1.6~ 1.76), (15~ 1.16) ie. 0.24, 0.14, 0.04, -0.16 and -0.26. ‘The absolute values of these deviations from the mean, ae 0,24, 0.14, 0.04, 0,16. ane 0:26 The average of these absolute values'of deviations from the = 02440.14 + 0.06+0.16+0.26 ~ 5 AF = 0.168 metre mean[WATER REQUIREMENTS OF CROPS 3B ‘The water distribution efficiency =(1-4 a {8} Hence, the water distribution efficiency = 0.905. Ans. Example 2.7. A stream of 130 litres per second was diverted from a canal and 109 litres per second were delivered to the field. An area of 1.6 hectares was irrigated in 8 hours. The effective depth of root zone was 1.7 m. The runoff loss in the field was 420 ‘cu. m. The depth of water penetration varied linearly from 1.7 m at the head end of the field to 1.1 m at the tail end. Available moisture holding capacity of the soil is 20 cm ‘per metre depth of soil. I is required to determine the water conveyance efficiency, ‘water application efficiency, water storage efficiency, and water distribuiion efficiency. Irrigation was started at a moisture extraction level of 50% of the available moisture. =0,095 = 0.905 Solution. (@ Water conveyance efficiency (n,) _ Water delivered tothe fields __. 199 ‘Water supplied into the canal at the head 100 = 759 100 77%. (say) Ans. (ii) Water application efficiency (n,) __ Water stored in the root zone during itigation 4 - ‘Water delivered tothe field Wate spd ol ing 8 re @ 10s or ond = 100 8 x 60x 60 litres =.2880.cu, m- Runoff loss in the field = 420 cu. m. +. the water stored in the root zone Tans -a0e 240000. 4 War applnion ssn (4) 22D soma, Ae (iii) Water storage efficiency _ Water stored in the root zone during irigation ‘Water needed in root zone prior to irrigation. Moisture.holding capacity of soil z = 20cm per mdepth x 1.7 m depth of root zone = 34 cm, Moisture already available in root zone at the time of start of irrigation 50. = 799 342 17 em. Additional water required in root zone 1m,IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES = 10) * (15104) cum (Le, Depth x Plotarea) =2720cu.m But actual water stored in root zone = 2460 eu m 1. Water storage efficiency (n) 2460 © 770 (iv) Water distribution efficiency ae) 100=90% (say) Ans. where D = mean depth of water stored in the root zone AT+11 4 is computed as below : Deviation from the mean at upper end (absolute value) = [17-14] =03 Deviation from the mean at lower end 14m, d= Average of the absolute values of deviations 3+0. Using Fa. 23), we have, nus (1-4 stron ria ‘ans: 2.8. Consumptive Use or Evapotranspiration (C,) ‘Consumptive use for a particular trop may be defined as the total amount of water used by the plant in wanspiration (building of plant tissues, etc.) and evaporation from adjacent soils or from plant leaves, in any specified time. The values of consumptive use (C,) may be different for different crops, and may be different for the same crop at ‘different times and places. In fact, the consumptive use for a given crop at a given place may vary throughout the day, throughout the month and throughout the crop period. Values of daily consump- tive use or monthly consumptive use, are generally determined for.a.given.crop.and at. « given place. Values of monthly consumptive use over the entire crop period, are then used to determine the iigation requirement of the crop. 2.9, Bffective Rainfall (R,) Precipitation falling during the growing period of a crop that is available to meet the evapo-transpiration needs of the crop, is called effective rainfall. it does not include precipitation lost through deep percolation below the root zone oF the water lost as surface run off. Average ratios, applicable to effective rainfall, are shown in Table 2.4)WaTER REQUIREMENTS OF CROPS 35 : ‘Table 24. Average Ratios Applicable to Esféctive Rafal annul ees Per con chance af ccurence 50 m1 | # 0 ow. |) a7 ost 050, a3 2 090 ont a7 as os 0 ass as on 06 ost ° oss ose ost 073 06 ” 096 050 on 07s or @ om oot ose 078 o70 Ea os7 ost ons oso on 0 oss 093 os ost a7 * os ass oss on o7s 10 098 054 089 083 076 120 ass 094 090 oss a7 wo 098 os 091 aas oso 160 099 9s 91 om os 0 099 095 os oss |] ase 200 098 oss os oss oss 2.10, Consumptive Irtigation Requirement (CIR) {tis the amount of Irrigation water required in order to meet the evapotranspiration needs of the crop during its full growth. It is, therefore, nothing but the consumptive ace itself, But exclusive of effective precipitation, stored-soil moisture, or ground water. ‘When the last two are ignored, then we can write CIR=C,-R, 2.11. Net Irrigation Requirement (NIR) It is the amount of irrigation water required in order to meet the evapotranspiration need of the crop as well as other needs such as leaching, Therefore, NLR. *,~ R, + Water lost as percolation in satisfying other needs such as leachi (2.4) 2.12. Factors Affecting Consumptive Use Consumptive use or evapotranspiration depends upon all those factors on which evaporation and transpiration depend ; such es temperature, sunlight, humidity, wind movement, ete, as detailed in article 7.3423. Example 28. The following table gives the values of consumptive uses and effective rainfalls for the periods shown against them, for a Jowar crop sown at Bellary in Karnataka State. The period of growth is from 16th October to 2nd Feb. i.e. (110 days). Determine the net irrigation requirement of this crop, assuming that water is not required for any oter purpose except ‘that of fulfilling the evapotranspiration needs of ie crop.36 IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES ~ ‘Table 25 (a) Dates Ginam w) aS 4 October 631 370 November1—30 2 December 31 1549) January 131 1881 Febeunry 12 133 Solution. The given table is extended as showin in Table 2.5 (b). Values in eol. (4) are obtained by subtracting values of col. (3) from values of col. (2). Table 2.5 (6) Dates G & wy a o ws ‘Oateber 1631 370 308 62 November 1—30 42 204 65 December 131 1549 67 1482 January 131 188.1 24 1857 Feboary 1-2 133 10 123 Ea4162mm 41.82 cm Hence, the net irigation requirement = 41.62¢em. Ans. 2.43. Estimation of Consumptive Use Although various methods have been developed in order to estimate evapotranspira- tion (consumptive use) values of different erop in an area, or for areas vegetated with the same-cropping patter, but the most simple and-commonly-used methods are:: (1) Blaney-Criddle Equation, and (2) Hargreaves class A pan evaporation method @) Penman’s equation, ‘They are described below 2.13.1. Blaney-Criddle Formula, It states that the monthly consumptive use is given by chia] es) where, C,= Monthly consumptive use in em. = Crop factor, determined by experiments for each crop,-under the environmental conditions of the particular area, = Mean monthly temperature in °C. p= Monthly per cent of annual day light hours that occur during the period. Bf usee si sreprseedby fe ee (2.6)5S 4) ™ WATER REQUIREMENTS OF CROPS ” ‘This formula has been extensively used throughout the world for estimating seasonal ‘water requirements. However, it was found that the values of k based on seasonal Geterminations were (00 low forthe short periods between irrigations. This led to further Gevelopments and finally the formula was expressed as 27) where C,= Seasonal consumptive use, ie. consumptive use during the period of growth for a given crop in a given area. ‘The above formula involves the use of crop factor, the value of which is to be determined for each crop and for different places. At present, this information is not available in India. Moreover. this formula does not take into consideration the factors ‘such as humidity, wind velocity, elevation, etc. on which consumptive use depends. Hargreaves class A Pan evaporation method is, therefore, generally used in India. ‘Example 2.9. Wheat is to be grown at a certain place, the useful climatological ‘conditions of which are tabulated below in Table 2.6 (a). Determine the evapotranspira- tion and consumptive irrigation requirement of wheat crop. Also determine the field invigation requirement ifthe water application efficiency is 80%. Make use of Blaney- riddle equation and a crop factor equal 10 0.8. Table 2.6 (a) “Month [Monti in°C| Monthy percent of dayne | — Usa nom cvraped ‘teraged overthe'| hr ofthe year computed ‘verte at Sours Vast Syears—_|_ fom the Sunshine Taber @ ® Oo @ November iso 720 17 December iso 7s ka Janay iss 130 301 Feb 1s 210 225, Solution. Blaney-Criddle equation is Gab Eh where,/=B; (1.80732); and £=08 given Values of fare worked out in-col. (5) of Table 2.6 (b). Table 26 @) Mow 7 ® r Fo see 32) o @ o o © November i800 730 136 “6 December 1500 1s 142 tos Janwary 1350 130 301 103 Febery 1450 710 225 103, | Tatstem | Ee A2Fom Cy Sk Bf 0.8% 42.7 = 34.16 em. Hence, Consumptive use C,=34.16em. Ans.38 IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES, Consumptive irrigation requirement = C, ~ Rp=32.72~-8.38=24.34em. Ans. Field irrigation requirement = C.LR/n, Ans. Example 2.10, Determine she volume of water required 1o be diverted from te head works to irrigate area of 5000 ha using the data given inthe table below. Assume 80% asthe effective precipitation to take care of the consumptive use ofthe crop. Also assume SO% efficiency of ‘water application in the field and 75% as the conveyance efficiency of canal Table 27 (@) Honk | Temp F | Perconageirsofsichine | Rani | Conanpive cocoa Cin fer w 2 a ‘81 Tune | 70.8 9.90 5 T 080 say tha to20 ioe oss ort ns 960 a0 ss Sepenter | 716 0 us ass Sater 3 ths ies ass November $52 7258 2 | 065 Denier | at | baa a ao Janay ae a2 0 a6 Febuary 39 995 Q 055 ‘March 60.0 884 0 | 0.70 foal a | 88s 2 Me oe oa 0 on Solution. The given table 2.7 (a) is extended as shown in table 2.7 (b) to compute monthly values of consumptive use (C,) by the Eqn. C,=k-f, where. = [1.8¢-+ 32], where ris in °C, When tis in °F as given incol (2) of Table.27.(a), then the egn-becomes. =k| Zr) whereris cust) eet Monthly values of fare hence worked out in col (6) of Table 2.7 (2). Table 2.7 () Month | Temp’ | Percentages | Raifallem | Consumpiive aay sun sine oeficiens 0 or Crop actork | cols) xcol(3)e01 @) w @ i) o (6 Te 708 3390 75 080 Tao aly 74a 1020 108 08s, 163 August | 728 9.60 130 08s, las ‘September| 71.6 a6 us as ate October | 693 186 105 06s 835, November]. 552 15 23 083 6.50 December 47.1 6a ° 060 434 Januay | 488 a 0 060 631 Febery | 529 995 a 065 87 March | 600 84 0 070 928 ‘Apa es 883 o 070 968 May ors 9.84 0 075, waa z 358 nave.™ |WATER REQUIREMENTS OF CROPS. 49 ‘Total consumptive use = E col(6) = 124,09em. Useful rainfall = 80% of total precipitation given) = 80% x 55.8 om.=44,64em. .s. Net irrigation requirement NIR=C,~R,= 124.09 44 Field irrigation requirement =. rin=X-LB Gross imigation requirement at headworks = where n= conveyance efficiency = 75% = 0.75 158.9 O75 721-87 om. Vol. of water required for $000 ha area GIR= sm x (5000 104 Ans. 00 Example 2.11. The monthly consumptive use values for Paddy are tabulated in ‘Table 2.8. Determine the total consumptive use. What is the average monthly consump- tive use and peak monthly consumptive use? Table 28 ims ie laa Sid dune 26.69 saly 876 say 1438, August 27 September 2129 October 2550 November 1306 Solution. The summation of consumptive uses 9,69 + 8.76+ 14.38-+ 22.73 + 21.29 + 25.50+ 15.06= 137.41 em 37.41 om. Ans. Hence, total consumptive use for paddy ‘Average daily consumptive use 137.41 137.41 Period of growthin days 30+31+31+30+31+24 \7em.=7.7 mm. Ans. ‘Average monthly consumptive use =0.77%30=23.1 mm. Ans. Peak monthly consumptive use =26.69cm. (Highest value given) Ans.40. IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES 2.13.2, Hargreaves Class A pan evaporation method. In this method, evapotranspita- tion (consumptive use) is related to pan evaporation by a constant K, called consumptive use coefficient. The formula can be writen as Evapotranspiration(E,or G) _ Panevaporation(E,) or EorG,=K-E, 28) ‘Consumptive use coefficient (K) is different for different crops and is different for the same crop at different places, It also varies withthe crop growth, and is different at different crop stages for the same crop. The above relationship is now available for various crops from many countries such as Israel, Philippines, U.S.A. and India, Re- search stations constantly go on reporting more and more data, Where specific data are not available, average values can be used as recommended by Hargreaves, and given in Table 2.9. The crops have been divided into 8 groups and the coefficients have been suggested for average conditions of sol, etc @ Group A. The important crops include = ‘Suger, Beats, Maize, Cotton, Jowar, Bean, Peas, Potatoes, etc. i) Group B. This group consists of deciduous fruits and some field crops. Important crops are ‘Tomatoes, Hybrid Walnuts, Plumes, Olives, and some group A crops that fail to produce maximum vegetative cover and maximum growth ratios. E, id) Group C. = ratios are of the order of 0.6. It includes crops like Melons, ? ‘Onions, Carrots, Hops, Grapes, ete. E, (i) Group D. The maximum 5" ratio is about 0.90 and usually occurs at about 75, to 80% completion of crop vegetative cycle. The important crops are : ‘Wheat, Barley, Celery, Flax and other small grains, etc. (0) Group E. Ratios of Z* vary from 0.710 1.10, The model value being 0.90: The important crops are : Pastures, Orchard with cover erop, Plantain, etc. Ez, (9 Group F. Mcincludes citrus cops such as Oranges, Grape fruit, ete, The ratios ? are fairly constant throughout the year and average to a value of about 0.60. (vi) Group G. 5* values generally increase with crop and vary from 0.66 to 1.00. “ Ieineludes Sugarcane and Alfalfa. & (vii) Paddy or Rice. + increases from 0.80 to 1,30, with erop growth and then falls down, eaching its maximum value somewhere near 50% growth, as shown in Table 2.9. ‘The coefficients shown in Table 2.9 are only average values and care must be taken while using them. Local values when available should only be used. The factors which increase or decrease the evapotranspiration may be taken into consideration. For ex-si | WATER REQUIREMENTS OF CROPS al ample. taller and mote uneven vegetation tends to result in greater turbulence and more ‘cient utilisation of radiation in the production of water use. Dark green vegetation roguces higher rate of absorption of solar energy, and hence, its evapotranspiration rate Mal be higher than that for light green vegetation. For this reason, the plant diseases, ‘Musing yellowing of the leaves ofthe plants, greatly reduce evapotranspiration Table 29. Hargreave's Average Values of Consumptive Use Coefficient K (E; = KF) Forces | Comme ar orcs tobe mailed by clas A Pon Exeporaion (ie EK fer arene | GroupA | GroupB | GroupC | Group D | Group | Group F | GroupG | Rice o|e#loi|loleletla | lo o | ox | ais | om | om | a9 | om | om | aso s | ca | ots | ox | 008 | as | o@ | oss | 090 w | 03 | 027 |-o22 | o1s | 090 | 06 | os | oss is | oso | 038 | 030 | o19 | o9 | om | os | 100 mo | oss | om | oss | oar | aso | ae | a7 | 10s 3 ons | 036 045 033 090 0.60 07s | 110 wo | ose | 00 | 050 | 040 | 09 | 06 | 090 | 118 ss | os | a6 | oss | 04s | 09 | 06 | oas | sar w | om | or |’ oss | as | 090 | 0 | 09 | 121 ws | 099 | am | o@ | oss | 09 | 06 | 09s | 125 so | 10 | a7 | om | 065 .| 09 | 06 | 100 | 130 ss | 100 | ars | om | ont | os }. 040 | 100 | -130 w@ | os | on | om |-o7 | os | om | 1m | 130 és | 096 | om | ost | os2 | 09 | o6 | 09s.) 12s wo | om | cs | oss | 088 | 09 | 06 | os | 120 1s | oss | ost | os: | 09 | 09 | om | oss | tas w | ors | os | oss | 09 | ax | om | oso | iso - as | oso | oes | 03 | oso | 090 | oo | o7s | 100 % | oa | 035.| 028 | 070 | a9 | oe | o70. | 090 vs | oat | on | oir | 06 | 09 | om | 055 | 080 wo _| om | 020 | om | om | os | ao | 050 | 020 Values of K for certain crops reported from India and U.S.A. are given in Tables 2.10 and 2.11 respectively.a IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES Table 210, Values of K for Certain nda Crops; (B= K-E;) roechiaen| Matatione | ype ron nda | Conon Poe nt) Mae Ladin aw ca eB) “ ; (5) ° ua 020 on ow 5 our owe on own 0 as ost os oan 1s 03s os oa ose » ous on ons oss 2 060 oa os ons x0 on on ose oss » asi 08 ow 096 40 088 110 095 10 ‘s 090 10 10 Lon ” asi 0 wo 1s 5s 090 si a 9 ow aso “0 un ca oss os sas Lio » ass ast 10 un Fa 040 oan on Low % 076 020 oss 0 _—_) - on 062 0.89 9s ost oo 050 oa 109 ast oxo oxo on Seasonal aK] 061 61 ast ons[ ‘WATER REQUIREMENTS OF CROPS. 4B ‘Table 2.11. Values of K for certain U.S.A. Crops (E:= KE») seaferop | Sugarcane® onacee Maize Jowar Sugarcane* eon | smaitesn | Maat | atnncesh | Abana) | Hoare @ 2 3) @ oO a ° 03 100 oad oat oat 5 ox 10 wo oa 030 10 040 103 oss 046 on 1s owe Los ous oss 035 20 oso 107 os 030 oo 8 oo 108 039 on os? 30 on uit 067 056 ons 35 086 us 078 on ow ” 093 16 oss 066 oss “6 ose 18 093 on ost so 102 120 192 079 099 s 105 at 1.08 os 090 © 1 im ua |) tot 090 6 110 1a 119 ot ons 70 ua 1a 12 109 075 1% 16 1s 123 108 on 0 via | ie | Los 08s ts 120 110 116 09 0% %0 120 103 108 on ost 5 19 096 oss axe os 100 119 a6 ors 070 050 Seasonal K | __ 089 no | _086 07s 088 Value of K for sugarcane reported from Hawaii and found by Hargreaves are compared in co @) and col. (6). Class A pan evaporation (Ep) measurements. E, can be experimentally deter- mined by ditectly measuring the quantity of water evaporated from the standard class ‘A pan. This pan is 1.2 m in diameter, 25 cm deep, and bottom is raised 15 cm above the ground surface. The depth of water isto be Kept in # fixed range'such thatthe water surface is at least 5 cm, and never more than 7.5 cm, below the top of the pan. The pan evaporation (E,) can also be determined by using the Christiansen for- mula, which states 459 R-Cy Cy Cy Cs Ce (2.9) where R= Extra-terrestrial radiation in the same units as E, in em or mm (Table 2.12),44 IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES: C= Coefficient for temperature, and is given by C,= 0.393 + 0.02796 7, + 0.000189 72 2.10) where, T, is the mean tomperature in °C. Cy Coefficient for wind velocity, and is given as 0.708 + 0.0034 W—0.0000038 W? —...(2.11) where, W is the mean wind velocity at 0.5 metre above the ground in knvasy. C,= Coefficient for relative humidity, and is given by .250—0.0087H + 0.75 x 108 HP = 0.85% 1078 Ht (2.12) where His the mean percentage relative humidity at noon or average relative humidity for 11 and 18 hours. C,= Coefficient for per cent of possible sunshine, and is given by =0.542-+.0.0085- 0.78 x 10°45? +0.62x 10" S* (213) “where 5 is the mean sunshine percentage ,=Coefticientofelevation =0.97+0,00984E (2.14) ‘where £ is the elevation in 100 metres, ‘Values of R for different latitudes are tabulated in Table 2,11 Example 2.12. (a) Determine the pan evaporation from the following data for the ‘month of Apri, using Christiansen method. Latitude 15° 19 N, Elevation + 449 metres Month : April. ‘Mean Temperature 31,8°C. ‘Mean wind velocity at 0.5 m above the ground =. 183 kilometres per day Mean relative humidity = 40% Mean sunshine per cent = 89% ~———Use-tables for-extra‘terrestrial radiation (Table 2-12): (6) What is thé coneumptive \ use for April in this country for a crop having a consumptive use coefficient equal to. 08 Solution. Find the value of R from Table 2.12 for the month of April and for a latitude of 15° 19°N. It comes out to be about 47.3 em. Now, using eqs, (2.10) to (2.14), wwe get C,= 0.393 + 0.027962 31.8 + 0,0001189 (31.8) = 1.40345 WATER REQUIREMENTS OF CROPS uurse | sovst |-sesw | zisw | seeov | casey | arsty | caw | zeesr | com | owe | nc To seer | corer | mew | sm | racer | suroe | cere | isco | osoir | coca | steve | oeree|. sscor | ison | cis | coo | cicor | cow | ceo | seew | osrer | ovcer | swor | oscir | ot gore | csc | cise | sosw | cover | usr | cnsur | eso | oceer | scior | reece | oorm | ot aucee | one | ooo | coose | ancor | casos | sever | costs | car | esror | ase | seem | oe twee | use | ovesi | sev | coor | voeis | sos | oocis | ossor | aver | owze | annie | se vse | case sow | sizer | isres ows |-ososr | suvor | wee | woriz | oc awwiz | oie | rove | osoor | sory | oxczs wects | osr | ree | ose | arse | se tere | coe] res | oueve | sores | oxces | snres | coow | seser| cance | ccee | voor | op west | wor | oeese | ese | roroe | sores | sores | cree | eww | esere | ower | eos | ce ™q “oN 90) ‘idas ~"y amr ame on dy oy Py ‘my “HP MEY WoNeIPE sISALIM}-eG Jo sOMIEA KUO OW ZZ AGEL,46 IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES €,,=0.708 + 0.0034 x 183 ~ 0,0000038 (183)" = 1.200, Cy = 1.250-0,0087 x 40+ 0.75 x 10* (40)-0.85 x 10°® (40)*= 1,000 C, = 0.542 + 0.008 x 89 0.78 x 10°4(89)* + 0.62 x.10° (89)? = 1.073. C.=0.97 + 0.00984 4.49 = 1.014. 1 i fl (dynam ovapraion i given by 0 (29) a B= 04 RG, CeyCsC, 0.459 (47.3) (1.403) (1.200) (1.000) (1.073) (2:014) 39.8cm. Ans. () B=K-E,=08%39.8=31.84em i Hence, the required value of consumptive use = 31.84 cm, Ans. Example 2.13. Determine the consumptive use and nét irrigation requirement for Jowar sown at Bellary (Karnataka) from the following data: ‘Table 2.13 (a) Rimi [Pimeoneh So aS] SRT \ aor = cs = rm a a a i carey 38 ae 3a | Now 1-30 33 ost a8 be. 31 1693 ost ase Jan 31 iio oo aus robin Ls on oo Solution. ws Proceed as shown in Table 2.13 (b). ‘Table 2.13 (6) Dae Pe ee GomeNie ® @ [1 w rm ve ou | 74 3a 032 1357 os | sat a9 6x 9 om | iss ost 1505 1310 ax | iss ous 1896 is 073 ii 003 110 Eat Teatas First of all, calculate the values of C, as in col, (4) Table 2.13 (b) and then determine NLR. as in col. (6) of this Table. Table is otherwise self-explanatory. Total consumptive use Netirrigationrequiremen47 “proy ay) 0» dn soumnqunstp wt Sasso} 2ouekOAU0D + hd = ID 7) svo_ *u $80 exo uy wound ‘aia a 1°) wemoPAL 1 pur syouueyp pray “sesunoa-ire0 Sian] 3 24) UF Sasso] uoHE|OOIOd sOpHIOU! YL &. a (oto up veut sont an =a woe | oneonz | scores oes wa [orm | rer = [are wo |. wa | 906 vet wor | oe | over - | ws oo |! on | co ts or | oro | ov — | ou oot | Loma | cw o | so | sce | me ws v0 rs se wef ace — | awe ei eo u 7 a o o 3 j @ wow vin | im | oexte | | glBigg | ees | tects | oma not Bama joa |" 7M WATER REQUIREMENTS OF CROPS. [ (shop 6c = 92 'q21—I1 120) woH0D (wo up “dosg wope5 Jp yuouazmbay voeBtan HeyuuID}Eg 403 suoRE ITED aKdUS “FT AE.WORT 99 PInOYS s1¥OK aup 30 908 OF 61 U 2IQEIFEAY are YoY senfeA a4 “pury 19410 28 UO ‘woHt 29 104 PInoys anjea wou oq) pum ‘spuooas SnorKoid ay WOK) WoyE 9q pine Cx) ty “hyjordeo jouuey 3 ‘SiH 40) out 04 ‘s10}219H pjnoys oourmome aBesaKE op Ue az0UH aq YEH MUON v BULINp wows IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES. wét=a | Olt=a wees a 909 w 309 wo vor 56 wt | sive voor son zw owe 060 vst sot sear ws soe te on9 wo ¥6 ss “ tener ers or ot os wo va ve * end owe wz vo ore oro si " st |) cmt oe @ o o @ o @ @ wo te 0 ao women | Sheer | gman BE Vexrdearn| mown | andi | en res meine coe mospn | ee (sKep £1) ums W $1 01 “AON [ : yUMOIB Jo ported : Oy (apa) doa way 20) Wwaussnboy worst SuUD,eG 10 sHONEIROTED o\duIES | srzaraed, 48WATER REQUIREMENTS OF CROPS. 49 2.133, Penman’s Equation. While the Blaney Criddle equation (1975) and the Hargreaves class A pan equation using Christiansen formula (1968) had been in use for tre test many years for computing the consumptive use, C, (ce. evapotranspiration. E,) ‘Values, and net irrigation requirements for different crops ; the Penman equation (1998) fas, however, more recently been introduced for determing the consumptive use of Gfferent areas or different segments of a basin, depending upon the type of vegetation Covering each sub-basin, The advantage with this equation lies in the fact that the Gifferent specified values of coefficient of reflection (albedo), a factor used in this equation, are available for dif- ferent types of areas, which can be used in Penman’s equation to compute consumptive use (i.e Potential evapotranspiration, PAT) values for different seg- ments of command area. Penman’s equation for com- putation of PET or C, for an area, has a sound theoretical reasoning, and it is not a simple empirical equation. This equation has, in- fact, been derived by intelligently ee combining the energy balance Raraperatura2as and mass transfer approaches of the computations of transpiration and evaporation, respectively. Hnce, although slightly complicated mathematical conceptual work is involved here, yet its use is becoming more and more popular, in today's modern computer age. Penman's equation, incorporating some of the modifications suggested by other investigators, is given as: Saturated vapour pressure—= Fig 23. Saturation vapour pressure vs. Temp. curve. 42.15) where E,= Daily potential evapo-transpiration ‘A= Slope of the saturation vapour pressure V, ‘Temp. curve at the mean air temperature, as shown in Fig. 2.3, and values given in Table 2.16. Net incoming solar radiation or energy, ex- ‘pressed in mm of evaporable water per day ‘Since the energy required by water ce), we have nero 1 mm of evaporale water rom an area ef A cares = [Bes] totem sess? = 585x107 AcaloriesEB | | IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES £,= A parameteg including wind velocity and saturation deficit, as given by’ Eqn, (2.18) in mmiday ‘Y= psychromatic constant = 0.49 mm of Hg/"C ‘The net radiation (H,) in the above equation is the same, as used in the energy budget equation (7.46), and is estimated by the equation matic-ofae Spon s6-0000.%5 ~fosvoos) (246) where H,= mean incident solar radiation at the top of the ‘atmosphere on a horizontal surface, expressed inmm of evaporable water per day. This value is a function of latitude (@) of the place and the period of the year, as per the mean month- ly values given in table 2.18. = reflection coefficient (albedo) of the given area, Usual values of this coefficient for dif- ferent types of areas are given in Table 2.17 ‘@= a constant depending upon the latitude (6) and is given as 220.29 086 2.17) constant having average value 0.52 ‘n= actual duration of bright sunshine in hours N= maximum possible hours of bright sunshine (mean value). This value is a function of latitude (6), and its values are given in table 2.19 for each month of the year = Stefan-Bolzman constant = 2.01 x 10° mm/day T,= mean sir temperature in °K =27345C = actual mean vapour pressure in the ait in mm of He. ‘The parameter £, of Penman’s equation (2.15) is estimated as : mire) B= 035/14 765 |e, ex) mmiday (2.18) wtiere V2= mean wind speed at 2 m above the ground in km/day saturation vapour pressure at mean air temperature in mm of Hg (Tabie 2.16) 24 actual mean vapour pressure of air in mm of He.WATER REQUIREMENTS OF CROPS 31 With the help of the above equation, and using the values of A, ¢, rs He tables 2.16 to 2.19, E, or C, can be determined for the given area, This equation can iso be used to compute the evaporation from a water surface (lake, etc.) by using 3156505. Due to its general applicability, this equation is widely used these days in To ‘he UK, the Australia, and in some parts of U.S.A. ‘Table 2.16. Saturation Vapour Pressure (,), and ‘Slope of Saturation Vapour Pressure sven denise aimee ml Vs Temperature Curve (A) Tenpratre Semraion pou presre ed 8 | Sipe in md *C w @ @ 0 138 030 ss os os d a a ose : 100 921 0.60 t 125 1087 om t 180 270 a1 i ns 1500 a9s 200 mss Las ns oa ren 250 2376 an ns nse a 200 is us ns 368 207 2 350 an 23s 313 ee 48.36 2.62 00 532 29s j 450 7120 365 i Table 2.17. Values of Reflection Coefficient r (albedo) Tr Surface Range of r values Cla goed cope 015-025 Bae lands 050s 3 Waersurtce 0s suow ous-090 ‘Table 2.18. Mean Monthly Solar Radiation at Top of Atmosphere 1H, in mm of evaporable water/day or Lettie | Jan. | Feb, (March) aprit| May | Jun |. Jub | Aug. | Sep. | ce | Now. | Dec 145 | 150 | 182 | 147 [139 | 134 [135 | 2 [149 [150 [46 | 143 was | 139 [iiss | 152, 130 [ass [ss | 150 | 149 | mt | isa | 124 wos | 123 | 139 | 152 | 157 | ass | 157 | 153 | 184 | 129 | 112 | 103 8s | 108'| 127 | 148-| 160 | 165 | 162°) 153 | 135 | 13 Jou | 79 60 [a3 | 10 | 139} 159 | 167 | 163 | 348] 22 }93 |o7 | sa as {so [or | 127 | isa | 167 | 161 [39 | 1s |7a_]43_| 30 eseeee52 IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES ‘Table 2.19. Mean Monthly Values of Possible Sunshine Hours (N) North Latitude © [mafia|nmr farm | ar] er[ar| ere fis fie we fas | us| a | 2 } 26 fa | as | 4 | 129 | nig | ara | us ay |u| ars} io | ize | ast | 133 | 132 | ee | 23 | a7 | n2 | 109 go 10a | ata | 0 | 129 | as | ass | a9 | asa | za | ars | 106 | 102 ar [96 |ao7 | ino | 132 | 144-| 150-| 147 | ass | 2s-|u2-| 190 | 94 so_|e6 | ior | iis | asa | 54 | 164 | 160 | ws | 7 | ios | 91_| ot Jan | Feb, [March] Aprt | aay | Jum | toy | Aug. | Sep. | oer | Now. | Dec Example 2.14. Compute the total consumptive use (C,) from a drainage basin located near Gurgaon (Haryana) during the month of Aprit by Penman’s formula. The following data is given: Latitude of place = 28 Elevation = RL 220m. Meteorologically observed data during April Mean monthly temperature = 40°C ‘Mean relative humidity = 35% ‘Mean observed sun shine hours per day Bh ‘Mean wind velocity at 2 m height = 72km/day/(3ke/h) Data available and obtained from standard charts (i) Slope of the e, Vs T° chart at 40°C =2.95 mm of Hg/°C (ii) Saturation pressure at 40°C = 55,32 mm of Hg ‘Mean monthly solar radiation at top of atmosphere during April for 28°N latitude = 14.9 mim of evaporable water/day. ‘Mean monthly value of possible sunshine hours for April for 28°N latitude =129h Albedo for the area = 025 Solution, Penman’s equation (2.15) is given as: pec ah tet End - At where A= 2.95 mm of Hg/C H,,=to be computed by eq. (2.16) FE, =given by eq. (2.18) as: 72 no1+B)eos-39 = 18.07mm/day 49 mm of Hg/°C7 s 9 2 WATER REQUIREMENTS OF CROPS ’ 3 His given by eqn. (2.16) as Hy=H.(A-njatb-%)-0- T,! (0.56 - 0.092Ve,) x 0.10+0.905, ‘where H/= mean monthly incident solar radiation at top of atmosphere 14.9 mm of evaporable water/day r=025 0,29 cos $= 0.29 cos 28° = 0.256 032 n=I3h N=129h = 2.01 x 10° mm/day Ty= 40°C #273) =313°K a= (RH) 6, = 35% X55.32 . 19.36 mm of Hg Substituting values, we get 13 H,=149 (1-0. 25[o2s6+ osaxqus|- [eo x 10x (313)4) x {0.56 ~ 0.092 VI9.36} x fo 10+0.90% asl] 14,9 (0.75) (0.78) ~ (19.292) (0.155) (1.007) =8.716-3.011 = 5.708 mmofevaporative waterday ‘Ag+ Exy Now, ae . 2.98% 5705+ 18.07%0.49 2.954049 = BOB ESS! _1701mmiday. Ans. 2.13.4. Comparison of Blaney-Criddle Equation, Hargreaves-Christiansen Equation and Penman’s Equation, These three empirical equations have been developed by the various rescarchers over the last 40 years to estimate evapo-transpi tion (E,) values for different crops, or area segments vegetated with the same cropping pattern, under different climatic variables. Since the suggested empirical equations are often subjected to rigorous local calibrations, they can not have a global validity. It, = however, becomes difficult to suggest as to.which equation should be used ina particular ‘ase. A recent study made in Chandigarh region has, however, shown that the annual ‘evapotranspiration values obtained from Penman’s equation are quite close to the values obtained from the actual field observations made in pan evaporation method ; while the values obtained by Blaney-Criddle equation were on much higher side (about 30% 1g higher), and the values obtained by Hargreaves-Christiansen equation were on lower side (about 15-20% lower). No definite conclusion can, hence, be drawn regarding the ‘decision on the global use of a particular equation.ao IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES Although, use of Penman's equation is being largely advocated these days, yet since the equation needs elaborate data, it may not be always feasible to use this equation. Moreover, this equation can be used for generalised vegetated areas, and not for in- dividual crops, since the value range of reflection coefficient ie. albedo (r), as used in this equation, is given for areas having close grained crops, as to vary between 0.15-0.25 CPL. see table 2.17) 2.14, Soil-Moisture-Irrigation Relationship ‘The water below the watertable is known as ground water and above the watertable as soil-moisture, Extending down from the ground surféce, is the soil zone or the root zone, which 4s defined as being. the depth of overburden that is penetrated by the roots of vegetation, as shown in Fig. 2.4, This zone is the most im- portant from irrigation point of wiew, because its this zone, from yy. | which the plants do take their water ™ - INTERMEDIATE ZONE __ “GPLARY Zone supplies. When waterfalls over the GROUND WATER ground, apart of it gets absorbed in this root zone, and the rest flows, 7777777” RPEAUCOS ” “ERAT”? 7777 downward under the action of Fig 24 gravity and is called gravity water. 2.14.1, Field Capacity, Immediately after a rain or irrigation water application, when all the gravity water has drained down to the watertable, a certain amount of water is retained on the surfaces of soil grains by molecular attraction and by loose chemical bonds (ie, adsorption), This water cannot be easily drained under the action of gravity, and is called-the field capacity. The field capacity is thus the water content 9f-@ soil after free drainage has taken place for a sufficient period. This period of free gravity drainage is generally taken as 2 to 5 days. ‘The field capacity water further consists of two parts. One partis that which is attached to the soil molecules by surface tension against gravitation forces, and can be extracted by plants by capillarity, This water is called capillary water. The other partis that which is attached to the soil molecules by loose chemical bonds. This water which cennot be removed by capillarity is not available to the plants, and is called the hygroscopic water. The field capacity water (ie. the quantity of water which any soil can retain indefinitely against gravity) is expressed as the ratio of the weight of water contained in the soil to the weight of the dry soil retaining that water: i. We. of water retained in acertain vol. of 0.49 ‘Wt. of the same volume of dry soil If we consider 1 m? area of soil and d metre depth of root zone, then the volume of soit is dx 1 =d cubic metres. If the dry unit wt. of soil is y,kN/m”, then the Wr. of d cubic metres of soil is yy KN. If Fis the field capacity, then * Ts the unit wt of the dred soil sample and not ofthe sol solids, may sometimes hence be called as apparent unit wt. Field Capacity = (2.19)WATER REQUIREMENTS OF CROPS. 55 r= Wiof water retained in unit area of soil wd or Wt. of water retained in unit area of soil = y,:d + F KN/m? 4: FRN/m? «Vol. of water stored in unit area of soit = 1/4 F KN’m” kN or Total water storage capacity of soil in (m depth of water) where F = the field capacity m.. d= depth of root zone in m “Ye = the unit wt.of water Ya the dry unit wt, of soil Hence, the depth of water stored in the root zone in filling the soil upto field capacity wad-F metres. (2.20) The knowledge of field capacity is very important, because itis the field capacity water which can supply water for plant nourishment. The larger part of applied water rains down and joins the watertable and is thus a waste from irrigation point of view. As expressed earlier, the total field capacity water cannot be utilised by the plants. The plants can extract water from the soil till the permanent wilting point is reached. ‘The permanent wilting point is that water content at which plant can no longer extract sufficient water for its growth, and wilts up, It isthe point at which permanent wilting of plants take:place-I therefore, becomes evident that the water which is available to” the plants, is the difference of field capacity water and permanent wilting point water. This 1s known as available moisture or maximum storage capacity of soil. Hence, the available water or available moisture may be defined as the difference in water content of the soil between field capacity and permanent wilting point. The water left in the soil after the permanent wilting point is reached, cannot be removed, and is known as, ‘unavailable moisture or Hygrascopic water (See Fig. 2.5). 2.14.2, Readily available moisture. It is that portion of the available moisture which is most easily extracted by the plants, and is approximately 75 to 80% of the svailable moicture, 2.14.3, Soilemoisture deficiency. The water required to bring the soil moisture content of a given soil to its field capacity is called the field moisturé. deficiency. or. soil-moisture deficiency, 2.14.4. Equivalent moisture, Just as the field capacity is the water retained by @ Saturated soil after being acted upon by gravity ; similarly, equivalent moisture is the ‘water retained by a saturated soil after being centrifuged for 30 minutes by a centrifugal force of 1000 times that of gravity. Therefore, it is slightly less, or at the most equal to the field capacity56 IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES 2.18. Estimating Depth and Frequency of Irrigation on the Basis of Soil Moisture Regime Concept Water or soll moisture is consumed by plans through their roots. 1, therefore, becomes necessary that sufficient moisture remains available i the soil from the surface to the root zone depth. As explained earlier, the soil moisture inthe root zone can vary between field capacity (upper limit) and wiking point moisture content (lower Limit) as shown in Fig. 25. 5 z £ a FIELD CAPACITY me OPTIMUM MOISTURE CONTENT. wo [AVALABLE me OR captLaRy s: oe ate gs 8 Witting 8 point me, NOW AVAILABLE mc. OR HYGROSCOPIC WATER Te Fig. 25. Is also evident from the previous discussion that the soil moisture is not allowed to be depleted up to the wilting point, as it would result in considerable fall in crop yield. The optimum level up to which the soil moisture may be allowed to be depleted in the root zone without fall in crop yield, has to be worked out for every crop and soil, by experimentation, The irrigation water should be supplied as soon as the moisture Jalls up to this optimum level (fixing irrigation frequency) and its quantity should be Just sufficient to bring the moisture content up to its field.capacity, making allowance Jor application tosses (thus fing water depth) Water will be utilised by the plants after the fresh irrigation dose is given, and soil ‘moisture will start falling. It will again be recouped by a fresh dose of irrigation, as soon as the soil moisture reaches the optimum level, as shown in Fig. 2.6. ae Nee | a Fig.26. Example 2.15. After how many days will you supply water to soil in order to ensure sufficient irrigation of the given crop, if (0 Field capacity of the soil = 28% (ii) Permanent wilting point = 13% (iii) Dry density of soit = 1.3 gm/c.e{tnt deerme fr nei meen sd sinc ware REQUIREMENTS OF CROPS 37 iv) Effective depth of root zone = 70 cm (v) Daily consumptive use of water for the given crop = 12 mm. “Assume any other data, not given. (Engineering Services, 1974) Solution. We know, by definition of available moisture, that the available moisture = Field capacity Permanent wilting =28-1: ‘Let us assume thatthe readily available moisture or the optimum soil moisture level js 80% of available moisture. i.e, Readily available moisture = 0.80% 15% = 12% Optimum moisture =28~ 12 = 16% It means that the moisture will be filled by irrigation between 16% and 28%. Depth of water stored in root zone between these two limits Optimum me.] a [Field ‘capacity m. where Yw Pe'8 Pw d= 0.7m (given) =1.3<0.70[0.28-0.16]m 3x0.7X0.12m=011092m-=10.92em. Hence, water available for evapo-transpiration = 10.92 cm. 1.2 em of water is utilised by the plant in 1 day + 10.92 em of water will be utilised by the plant in 11092 PTS ays Bal days ; Say 9 days Hence, after 9 days, water should be supplied to the given crop. Ans. Example 2.16. Wheat isto be grown ina field having a field capacity equal 10 27% ‘and the permanent wilting point is 13%, Find the storage capacity in 80 em depth of the soil, if the dry unit weight of the soil is 14.72 kN/m?. If irrigation water is to be supplied when the average soil moisture falls to 18%, find the water depth required t0 be supplied to the field ifthe field application efficiency is 80%. What is the amount of water needed at the canal outlet if the water lost in the water-courses and the field channels is 15% of the outlet discharge ? Solution. Maximum storage capacity or Available moisture, a) tea eae ‘Wilting pt me] - Pa LB gm/ee _ 0 gm/ee 100 where Y= 14.72 KN/m? d= depth of root zone = 0.8 m +. Max: storage capacity or max. Available moisture xos[o27-013] [+ weser em] =1.2[0.14)=0.168metres= 16.8em. Ans.‘ | 4 58 IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES Ht Since the moisture is allowed to vaty between 27% and 18%, the deficiency created | in this fall i 14.72 ji par % 08 027-0.18) | 1.2% 0.09=0.108 metres= 10.8em, | Hence, 10.8 em depth of water isthe net irrigation requirement. NLR. ‘Quantity of water required to be supplied to the field (F.L 10, or FIR apn Sem. Ans. Quantity of water needed at the canal outlet =FLR 135 15 s¢cm. Ans. Te 08S Example 2.17. 800 m’ of water is applied to a farmer's rice field of 0.6 hectares. When the moisture content in the soil falls to 40% of the available water between the field capacity (36%) of soil and permanent wilting point (15%) of the soil erop com- bination, determine the field application efficiency. The root zone depth of rice is 60 om, Assume porosity = 0.4 (Civil Services, 1994) Solution. We have defined Field Capacity ma. (F) as Wt. of water contained in a certain vol. of soil ‘Wt of the same volume of dry soil (i. wt. of dry soil retaining that water) If a saturated soil contains volume equal to V, and the volume of its voids is V,, then the weight of water contained in this soil= y-V, 5 where Yy is the unit wt, of water, ‘The wt. of this.soil-of- Vm* after it is oven dried-to remove water and to fill the: voids with air, is given by yy: Vs where 7j is the dry unit wt. of the soil. Fe. Ww But =n (porosity) xu “n= Porosity = 0.4 (given \ % FeRc.=036 S" Max. quantity of water siored between field eapacity (FC) and permanent wilting i point (P.W) % tt salsa (ie (wpm wp) i where d= toot zone depth = 6 m (given) = 1.11 %0,60(0.36-0.15]=0.14m. Deficiency of water created when irrigation is done i =60% x0.14m| “ imtigation wateris applied when m.éfalls to 40% of mc. available between FC. and RW. 084mWATER REQUIREMENTS OF CROPS. a Hence, irigation water is supplied to fill up 0.084 m depth of water. + Vol, of irrigation water required to fill up the created deficiency 084m (0.6heet.) 084 m x (0.6 x 10,000) m” = 504 m’. “a Actual irrigation water supplied = 800 m? Ai) 504 3007 3% Ans. Example 2.18. Work out the irrigation schedule based on the soil moisture concept, ‘given the following information. Also extract the data on the total depth of irrigation water required and the respective dates of irrigation water supply : (a) The crop is grown in an appropriate soil with no restrictive layers within the top 1.5 m depth of soil. (8) Normal root zone depth of the crop is 1.2 m. (6) Bulle density of soil is 1.35 (@ Field capacity is 18% and permanent wilting point is 7%. (© Moisture level in the soil isto be maintained at not less than one-third of available retention. Irrigation wil then be done over a duration of 2 days at a uniform rate of supply and ata uniform rate of advance to fully and just compensate for he depletion. (No extra water is ever required for leaching. (g) Sowing is done on 1 November when the soil moisture is leftjust at field capacity in the entire root zone. « Efficiency of field application = (h) For the crop, at the location, the average evapotranspiration rates are : I Now ~ 30 Nov. : LJ mmiday I Dec. — 31 Dec. 2 17 mmdday ~ J Jan. = 31 Jan. 24 mmdfday 1 Feb, — 28 Feb. 15 mndday 1 March—25 March : 3.5 mm/day (O Harvesting is done on or after 26 March. () There is expected an effective rainfall of 24 mm during 4 January to 19 January both days inclusive, with uniform intensity. (W By the end of the crop growth season, only the minimum water needed 10 be left unused in the root zone. Engineering Services, 1990) Solution. Max. moisture retained by soil = Fieldcapacity = 18% Permanent wilting i.e. below which soil cannot extract water for plant's growth 1% + Max, moisture available for plant’s growth Le. available moisture retention =18-7=11% eewaisiie acts =I 360 IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES :. Moisture level at which irigation must start = Minimum mec. at which plants start wilting ++ of available moisture (given) = 7% +3.67% = 10.67%. ‘This means that we will start irigation as soon as mc. falls to 10.67%, and will, thus, fill the soil with moisture tll it rises to 18% (field capacity). Irrigation water required to increase m.c. of soil in root zone from 10.67% to 18% is obtained by equation (2.15), as = 14[Upperlimitm.c. _Lowerlimitm.c. w | asfraction asfraction where _-y=Unitwt. (Apparend of soit w=Unitwt of water s L=Density apparend of soil = 1.35 (given) root one depth = 1.2m (given) = 18.10.67) Gs rascal ie ae 1.35% 1.2 (0.18 -0.1067]= 11.87 em. In other words, as and when this 1.87 em depth of stored moisture gets consumed by evapotranspiration, irigation water will be supplied From the given consumptive uses, we find that Water consumed from Ist Nov. to 3 Jan. (when rains start) = 11 mmiday x 30 days (ie., between 1 Nov. — 30 Nov.) ‘+ 17 mmlday 31 days (ke, between | Dee31 Dec) +24 mméday x3 days (ie, between I Jan.-3 Jan.) =929mm =9.29em 40) Hence, water withdrawn from soil during Ist Nov. to 3 Jan. 9.29 cm (< permissible 1187 em). No irigation is, thus, required til then. Daring rain (between 4 Jan, to 19 Jen), effective rain water received by soil per day Teayg 70 Semlday Consumptive use of 0.24 em/day during ths period, means that an amount of 0.24-0.15 = 0.09 em/day of moisture is only consumed from sol, Le. ‘Additional water consumed from soil during 4 Jan. — 19 Jan 0.09cmi/éday x 16 = =144cem = = Hence, water withdrawn fiom soil during 1st Nov-—i9 Jan, =() + (i) =9.29+ 1.44 =10.730m. Balance water left in sil to be withdrawn befor irrigation = 11,87~ 10.73= 1L.14em, This is consumed @ 2.4 mmiday in x days, Lid where x= 554 wii) 175 days, say 4 days.WATER REQUIREMENTS OF CROPS 6 Hence, Ist irrigation will be needed after 4 days from 20th Jan, i.e., on 24th Jan. This irrigation is to be done over 2 days (given), ie, on 24 Jan. and 25 Jan. First irrigation water required on 24 Jan, and 25 Jan. = (10.7344 0.24 +24 emiday x2 days 19 any ((o compensate for depletion in 2 days) = 11.6940.48=12.17em. Ans. With effect from 26 Jan., water is again consumed as below: Between 26 Jan.-31 Jan. = O.2dem/day x 6days = 1.44em Between 1 Feb.-28 Feb. = 0.1Semvday x 28days = 4.20 em Between | Maich-25 March = 0.35cm/day x 25 days : Total ‘Hence, another water is required after x days of March, where so BHD ngage ee, gion soi sao 18 Marchand wat epi ow sido 1439—1187=252em, ‘Thus, only 2.52 cm irrigation water is required at 2nd time. Hence, the required irrigation schedule is @ Astwatering on 29th and 30 Fan. = 12.17 em of water depth (i) 2nd wateringon 18thMarch =2.52em of water depth Example 2.19. A sandy loam soil holds water at 140 man/m depth between field capacity and permanent witting point. The root depth of the crop is 30 cm and the allowable depletion of water is 35%. The daily water use by the crop is 5 mun/day. The area to be irrigated is 60 ha and water can be diverted at 28 .p.s. The surface irrigation application efficiency is 40%. There are no rainfall and ground water contribution. Determine ( allowable depletion depth between irrigations. i) frequency of irrigation (iii) net application depth of water (iv) volume of water required (9) time to irrigate 4 ha plot (Engineering Services 1999) Solution. Moisture holding capacity of soil = 140 mnvm depth Depth of root zone = 30 cm = 0.3 m + Moisture holding tapacity of root zone 17 days Ans. x03 m=42mm=4.2.em62 IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES (0 © Available moisture depth or Allowable depletion depth between irrigations = 35% x 4.2.em=1.47 em. Ans. Daily use of water = consumptive use = 5 mm/day (ii) +» ~ Frequency of irrigation Available moisture ___1.47¢m Moisture consumed per day ~ 0.5 ay 94 days..say 3 days. Ans. [Net water depth to be applied while irrigating each time after 3 days =3X05=1.5 cm Ans. (in place of 1.47. cm) Field Inigation requirement = Netinrigationrequirement _1.5 _ 5 75 om, Efficiency of irrigation. ~ 0.4 "7° ™ (i) © Qty. of water reqd. in the fields = 3.75 em of water depth = 3.75 em x Area of field =3:15 mx 60 ha= 275 x 60% 104 m? =22,500m? Hence, vol of water reqd. to irrigate 60 ha area, each time at 3 days interval 2,500m? Ans. (©) Time to irrigate 4 ha when irrigation water is supplied @ 28 Ips Vol. of water reqd. to irrigate 4 ha plot T3emx4ha=225 x (4 10°) m= 150m? ‘Time during which 1500 m? of water can be supplied @ 28 Ips. = 1300%10°1 _ 1500108 - 28 Ips 28 500.108 2 *GOxe Example 2.20. Determine the field capacity of a soil for the following data : (@ Depth of root zone = 1.8 m (ti) Existing moisture = 8% (lil) Dry denstty of soil = 1450 kg/m? () Quantity of water applied to soll = 650m (9) Water lost due to deep percolation and evaporation = 10% (vi) Area to be irrigated = 1000 m? {AMIE 1999 (Summer) Exam.) Solution. Volume of total water applied = 650m’, ‘Water wasted = 10% of 650m’ = 65 m’. ‘Water used in raising m.c up to field capacity = 650 - 65 = 585 m’. br=1488hr Ans.[WATER REQUIREMENTS OF CROPS 6 Depth of water used in raising m.c up to to field capacity. from the existing 84% But water depth required in root zone of depth td increase m.c, is given by eqn “Ef uppertimit me ~ tower limitme, as fractions ] 1.45 1/m* . 2 asss= 5A amirc-005] (F.C 0.08) =0.224 0.224-0.08=0.144 eld capacity = 14.4% Ans. es Fi Hence, PROBLEMS 1. (@), What is meant by ‘Duy’ and ‘Delta’ of canal water? Derive a elatonship between duty and deta for a given base period (b) Find the deta for eugazcane when its dary is 730 hectaescurec on the fed andthe base period of tae crop being 110 days, (Ans. 130 em) (©) Define and'explin the following tems as sed in relation to water requirements of cops (9 Base period. i) Intensity of iigaion, (ti) Cash crops, 2. (@). What do you understand by “Duty of canal water and what is ts impomance " Explain now does uty differs fom that at che head ofa watercourse and that at the ead of 2 canal bringing water to the watercourse. (@) Mention the approximate values of Duty nd Delta for ece wheat and sugarcane in you region. 3., (@)_Define ‘Duty’ and "Dela and derive their reitionship, (8) What ae the factors on which duty depends ? (©) How can the duty be improved and what wil be the gain (2) What is meant by ‘Flow duty’ and "Quanity duty’ ? 4. Whatis meant by ‘duty’? Enumerate the different terms by which duty can be improved. ‘What are the factors affecting duty ? ‘The base period of paddy is 120 days. Ifthe duty for this crop is 900 hectares per cumec, find the value of deta, [Ans 115 em] S. Describe briefly the factors affecting cut. ‘Water is released at the rate of $ eumecs at the head sluice. If the duty ‘at the field is 100, hectaresleumee and the loss of water in transit is 30%, find the area ofthe land that can be itigated, (ne 350 6. Whats meant-by “Duty of water” ? Explain the influence of several factors which affect duty.\What axe te diferent ways in which duty can be expressed ? ‘A reservoir with live storage capacity of 300 millon cubic metres is abe co itrigate an ayacut of, 40.000 hectares iuith 2 fillings each year. The crop season is 120 days. What i the duty ? (Ams 691 netarevlounes) 7. Name the principal kharf crops of your region, and detail the agricultural and climatic requirements foc sowing, growth and harvesting of one ofthe principal ones. Give the normal requirement of seed per hectare and the average yield per hectare of the crop ‘Suggest ways to increase the “duty” in anirigaion system tres]6 IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES 8. (a) Explain as how the folowing factors affect the “duty of a crop © Soil and subsoil condition. (Stage of growth, ii) Temperatre. () Rainfal, (®) Compute the depth and fequency of iigation required fora certain crop with data given below Root zone depth = 100 em, Field capacity = 22% Wilting point = 125 ‘Apparea specific gravity of sll*= 1.50 CConsumptive we = 25 mmvéay ciency of iigaion = 30% Assume SO depletion on available moisture before application of irrigation water at fed capacity. (int. Follow example 2.14, and work out Readily avallable moisture = 5%, and finally Work out: Depth of water stored in rot zone = 75 em] Frequency ofiigation =3 day Explain with nea sketch the layout of a modern canal system, cafrying water from a barrage. Discuss 85 to how the duty of water increases as we move downsteam from the head of the main canal towards the head of the watercourse. 10. Write short notes on @ Optimum uilisation of irsgaion water. (4) Crop rotation, Gi) Consumptive use and its estimation. (is) Water distribution efficiency. (9) Net iigation requirement (NI), (i) Outlet factor. (i) Estimating depth and frequency of iigation onthe bass of sol moisture regime concept. (i) Crop seasons In India and tele principal crops LL. Define and explain the following terms : (Cash eros. (i Fed capacity, (Wp Avaliable moisture (0) Soit moisture desicjency. (©) Crop ratio. (01) Overlap allowance. ~ (vi) Pato irrigation. {iid Koe water depth w. How will you procee for determining the fled irrigation requirement (FIR) for an important crop like wheat ? Expfain with reference to a sample table, with assumed monthly values of pan cevaporations, (Hint, Pease see Table 2.15) 13, Name any two methods used for estimating consumptive ute of water for a particular crop at «| particular place. Explain in details the one which is most widely used in your region, and the reasons for profering that particular method, * Apparent sp gr of soil =, where isthe dry unit wt. of soi (the ol coining a led voids Acta! sp. (5, 006) =, wher isthe unit of the si solids.Canal Irrigation System 34. General ‘A direct irrigation scheme which makes use of a weir or a barrage, as well as a storage irrigation scheme which makes use of a storage dam ot a storage reservoir, necessitates the construction of a network of canals, a5 explained earlier. The entire fystem of main canals, branch canals, distributaries and minors is to be designed properly for a certain realistic value of peak discharge that must pass through them, 50 as to provide sufficient irrigation water to the commanded’ areas. These canals have to be aligned and excavated either in alluvial soils or non-alluvial soils ; depending upon which they are called alluvial canals or non-alluvial canals, as explained below. 32, Alluvial and Non-alluvial Canals (j Alluvial Soils and Alluvial Canals, The soil which is formed by transportation and deposition of silt through the agency of water, over a course of time, is called the alluvial soil. Say for example, in the deltaic region” a river carries heavy charge of silt, which gets «deposited on the adjoining land, as and when the river overtops its banks during flood season. ‘The process of silt deposition may continue over long periods of time, resulting in the formation of a soil called Alluvial Soil The soil which is so formed by: the continuous deposition of silt-from the water flowing through a given area, is hence, called the alluvial soil. The aiea of alluvial sol is even, and is having @ flat surface slope. Hard foundations, ‘are generally not available in tis kind of soil. In prehistoric periods, the entire Indo-Gangetic. Plain was, perhaps a depression, and was filled up with constant silt déposition dropped from the water flowing through this area, resulting inthe formation of an alluyjal-soil region. ‘The rivers flowing through such alluvial areas, have a tendency to shift their courses. The river bed consists of sand of considerable thickness, and is, therefore, permeable, Whenever, an irigation structure is to be constructed on such a river, special precautions and design methods are to be adopted. Most of our North Indian rivers, which pass through alluvial soils, do pose these problems. The canals when excavated through such soils, are called Alluvial Canals, Canal irrigation (Direct irrigation using a weir or a barrage) is generally preferred in such areas, as compared to the storage irigation (ie. by using a damm). Alluvial Soil is very fertile, a itcan absorb a fair percentage of rainfall and retain tin the substratum, making it highly productive, as water remains available Within the rost zone of crops. Gi) Nonwalluvial Soils. Mountaineous regions may go on disintegrating over @ Period of time, resulting in the formation of a rocky plain area, called non-alluvial area. (ross and Net command or commanded area is defined under article 36. + A river before joining the sea gets divided ino number of seus, ormlog the shape ofa dela (A), nd this region is called the delaic region. 6