Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Onbottom Analysis and Design.
Onbottom Analysis and Design.
OF SUBMARINE PIPELINE
Saya
SULIT
TERHAD
TIDAK TERHAD
Disahkan oleh
( TANDATANGAN PENULIS )
Alamat Tetap: No 66, JLN SS 19/5,
47500 Subang Jaya,
Selangor Darul Ehsan.
Tarikh : 23 April 2007
( TANDATANGAN PENYELIA )
PM. Dr. Nordin Yahaya
Nama Penyelia
Tesis dimaksudkan sebagai tesis bagi Ijazah Doktor Falsafah dan Sarjana secara
penyelidikan, atau disertai bagi pengajian secara kerja kursus atau penyelidikan, atau
Laporan Projek Sarjana Muda (PSM).
I hereby declare that I have read this project report and in my opinion this project
report is sufficient in terms of scope and quality for the award of degree of Bachelor
of Civil Engineering.
Tandatangan
...........
Nama Penyelia
Tarikh
23 April, 2007
This thesis is submitted as a partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of
the Bachelor Degree in Civil Engineering
APRIL 2007
ii
I pledge that this thesis is my original work except the quotations and summaries
that I have stated the sources clearly
Signature
: ____________
Authors Name
Date
: 23 APRIL 2007
iii
Dedication
To my beloved parents who gave me the endless guidance and support and to my
lecturers and friends for giving me a wonderful campus life here in UTM.
Thank You
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
All the people mentioned above have made this research a successful one and
contributed to a very memorable experience for me.
ABSTRACT
vi
ABSTRAK
Semua paip dasar laut mesti berada dalam keadaan yang stabil daripada
tindakan hidrostatik dan hidrodinamik yang disebabkan oleh pengaruh alam sekitar.
Analisis kestabilan paip dasar laut dilakukan untuk memastikan paip adalah stabil
apabila terdedah pada daya yang terhasil disebabkan pengaruh ombak dan arus air.
Bagi mencapai kestabilan paip, pergerakan mendatar tidak dibenarkan berlaku.
Sebagai alternatif, pergerakan paip yang terhad dibenarkan dimana pergerakan
tersebut tidak akan menyebabkan paip mengalami tekanan yang berlebihan. Bagi
menganalisis kestabilan paip dasar laut, satu sistem mudah dibentuk menggunakan
perisian Microsoft Excel. Analisis tersebut dilakukan berdasarkan kod DNV RP E305
: On-Bottom Stability Design of Submarine Pipeline dan garis panduan daripada
piawai Petronas, PTS 20.196 dan PTS 31.40.00.10. Data daripada kajian kes di
Baram, Sarawak diambil sebagai input untuk analisis tersebut. Keputusan analisis
kestabilan paip dari kajian kes tersebut diperoleh. Graf-graf diperolehi untuk
mengkaji kelakuan paip dengan nilai parameter-parameter alam sekeliling dan paip
seperti ketinggian ombak dan ketebalan penebat konkrit yang berlainan . Ketebalan
penebat konkrit minimum bagi kajian kes ini adalah 75 mm. Kajian ini memberikan
pemahaman kepada elemen-elemen yang terlibat dalam analisis dan rekabentuk paip
dasar laut terutama sekali pada aspek kestabilan.
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER
CONTENT
PAGE
TITLE OF PROJECT
DECLARATION
ii
DEDICATION
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
iv
ABSTRACT
ABSTRAK
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
vii
LIST OF TABLES
xi
LIST OF FIGURES
xii
LIST OF SYMBOLS
xiv
LIST OF APPENDIX
xvi
INTRODUCTION
1.1
Introduction
1.2
Background of Problem
1.3
Objectives
1.4
Scope of Study
1.5
Significance of Study
viii
II
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1
Introduction
2.2
Composition of a Pipeline
2.3
Types of Pipeline
2.4
Loads
2.4.2
Environmental Loads
2.5
10
2.6
11
2.6.1
Pipeline Design
12
13
2.7
16
2.7.1
Design Conditions
16
16
17
18
18
18
2.7.2
2.8
19
2.7.4
Free Spanning
20
2.7.5
Corrosion Requirement
21
23
2.8.1 General
23
2.8.2
23
25
2.8.4
25
26
Environmental Parameter
29
ix
2.8.5
Hydrodynamic Forces
32
33
33
2.8.6
34
2.8.7
III
IV
36
METHODOLOGY
37
3.1
Introduction
37
3.2
38
3.3
40
3.4
41
3.5
Findings of Study
43
44
4.1
Introduction
44
4.2
Spreadsheet Development
44
4.2.1
4.2.2
45
51
4.4
4.5
54
57
58
Parametric Analysis
60
DISCUSSIONS
63
5.1
Introduction
63
5.2
Discussions
63
5.2.1
5.2.2
Period of Time
63
Stability Analysis
64
VI
65
CONCLUSIONS
67
6.1
Conclusion
67
6.2
Recommendations
68
REFERENCES
69
BIBLIOGRAPHIES
70
APPENDIX
71
Appendix A
71
xi
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO.
TITLE
PAGE
2.1
28
2.2
30
3.1
42
3.2
42
4.1
58
xii
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO.
TITLE
PAGE
2.1
2.2
22
2.3
26
2.4
29
2.5
31
2.6
Rest Frame
34
3.1
Flow of Study
38
3.2
39
3.3
41
4.1
45
4.2
4.3
46
47
4.4
48
4.5
4.6
49
50
4.7
52
4.8
4.9
of a Submarine Pipeline
53
54
xiii
4.10
55
4.11
4.12
4.13
4.14
61
4.19
60
4.18
59
4.17
59
4.16
57
4.15
57
61
62
xiv
LIST OF SYMBOLS
ID
Keulegan-Carpenter number, K = Us Tu / D
CD
Drag coefficient
CL
Lift coefficient
CM
Inertia coefficient
Dst
FD
Drag force
FI
Inertia force
FL
Lift force
FW
Load factor
Tn
Wave parameter, T n =
Tu
Uc
Us
Ws
Water depth
d50
Gravity constant
d/g
xv
tc
tcc
tic
tmg
tCA
tL
ca
cc
Density of contents
mg
st
Density of steel
sw
Density of seawater
ic
Wcs
WL
Wcc
Wic
Wc
Wmg
Wi
Weight of contents
WCA
Weight of pipe
Pipeline buoyancy
SG
Ur
Wave Length
Fw
Calibration Factor
zo
Roughness of seabed
xvi
LIST OF APPENDIX
APPENDIX
TITLE
PAGE
71
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.1
Introduction
The first oil-producing well at sea was drilled in 1947 (in the Mexican Gulf) , the
first pipelay barge commissioned in 1952, and the first pipeline laid on the seabed in
1954. It is estimated that close to 90 000 km of marine pipelines were installed for the
transportation of hydrocarbons during the following four decades, with approximately
5000 km being added each year [1]. The majority of the pipeline systems are located in
the heavily developed regions of the Arabian Gulf, the Gulf of Mexico and the North
Sea.
The objective of a marine pipeline is to transport a medium from one location to
another. Many different parameters such as economic, technical, environmental and etc.
determine whether or not a marine pipeline system will be installed.
2
In analysis and design of marine pipelines, on-bottom stability analysis is one of
the scopes, besides determination of pipe size and wall thickness, free spanning and
corrosion requirement. On-bottom stability analysis is performed to ensure stability of
the pipeline when exposed to wave and current forces and other internal or external
loads [2].
1.2
Background Of Problem
All submerged pipelines, i.e. offshore pipelines and sections of onshore pipelines
in swamps, floodable areas, high water table areas, river crossings, etc., should be stable
under the combined action of hydrostatic and hydrodynamic where the environmental
conditions and the hydrodynamic forces takes place [3]. The hydrodynamic forces on the
pipeline and on the seabed are functions of the wave and current climate. It is important
to correctly predict the forces imposed on a pipeline since they have a direct bearing on
the safety and economy of the project. If the pipeline does not have enough submerged
weight to resist the hydrodynamic forces, the pipeline will be unstable, moving up and
down (due to lifting force) and back and forth (due to drag and inertia force). The
excessive pipe movement and oscillatory motions may cause high stress and fatigue
damage to the pipe [2]. Special considerations should be taken to pipelines installed in
liquefied seabeds which will have sinking depth and weak soils, where differential
settlements may lead to pipeline loss of integrity. In the design phase, the possibility of
local scouring under submarine pipelines must be taken into consideration. If local scour
occurs under the submarine pipelines, the pipelines may either vibrate due to the
hydrodynamic forces or induce additional static or dynamic loads due to self-burial.
Moreover, they might be destroyed partially or fully and thus be unable to perform their
functions. Pipeline stresses due to loss of support will occur by depressions or scour
below submarine pipelines
3
1.3
Objectives
ii.
1.4
iii.
iv.
Scope of Study
The scope of this study is the design, analysis including the typical construction
of submarine pipelines . Generally, this study includes the history of the pipeline, the
composition and the types of load involved in analysis of a submarine pipeline.
However, focus will be on on-bottom stability of submarine pipeline based on code
DNV RP E305: On-Bottom Stability of Submarine Pipeline. Data from a case study
in Baram, Sarawak will be taken as the input for the spreadsheet analysis of stability .
4
1.5
Significance of Study
This study provides understanding of the mechanisms that is involved in analysis
and design of marine pipeline especially on the stability. The identified mechanism will
be supported by findings from case study of on-bottom stability of a pipeline. Hence, the
safety of marine pipeline design is ensured and this will build up the confidence of
public on the development of offshore structures.
CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1
Introduction
6
2.2
Composition of a Pipeline
Concrete Cover
Pipe
Fluid
7
2.3
Types of Pipeline
Most oil and gas pipeline fall into one of three groups which are gathering, trunk
/ transmission or distribution. Small diameter pipelines within an oil or gas field, called
flowlines are usually owned by the producer. They connect individual oil or gas wells to
central treating, storage or processing facilities within the field. Another gathering
system made up of larger diameter pipelines, normally owned by a pipeline company
rather than the oil or gas producer, connects these field facilities to the large-diameter,
long distance trunk or transmission line.
Crude trunk lines move oil from producing areas to refineries for processing. Gas
transmission lines carry natural gas from producing area to city utility companies and
other customers.
2.4
Loads
Loads on a submarine pipeline can be divided into the following categories [5],
i.
Functional loads
ii.
Environmental loads
iii.
Accidental loads
iv.
Installation loads
8
2.4.1
Functional Loads
Functional loads are defined as actions that result from the operation of the
pipeline. The most significant force is caused by the pressure difference between
operation pressure inside and pressure outside. The pressure difference induces
tangential stress in the steel pipe.
2.4.2
Environmental Loads
Environmental loads are defined as actions resulting from the interaction of the
pipeline with its environment. In addition to gravity forces (self-weight, buoyancy and
hydrostatic pressure), environmental loads are primarily generated by wave and current
action. Other loads that can be characterised as environmental are soil pressure and other
natural actions, including the temperature of the surroundings.
2.4.3
Accidental Loads
9
i.
ii.
Third party hazards such as dropped objects (near platforms), fishing activities
(trawling), shipping (anchoring, sinking) and military activities (firing).
2.4.4
Installation Loads
ii.
Tie-in
iii.
iv.
Hydrostatic testing
10
2.5
ii.
Most oil and gas pipelines are constructed by welding short lengths, or joints, of
pipe together. There are a few exceptions to the use of welded connections, but
these are in short lines within a producing field or in similar application.
iii.
Extensive testing of welders and the welds they produce is an important part of
the construction of all long-distance petroleum pipelines.
iv.
Most pipelines are buried below the sea bed for protection. There are cases in
which large segments of a major pipeline are not buried, the most notable
example is the trans-Alaska crude pipeline where above ground sections were
installed.
11
v.
All pipelines are tested for leaks following construction before the line is put in
service. The hydrostatic testing is the most common techniques, filling the line
with water and subjecting it to a pressure greater than the design operating
pressure.
vi.
The construction of all pipelines follows this general sequence, design and route
selection, obtaining right of ways, installation, tie-in to origin and destination
facilities and pumping or compressor testing and testing.
Submarine pipelines are built by welding individual pipes into a continuous line.
Quality of all welded joints are thoroughly by X-ray methods, sometimes also by
ultrasonic. Several construction methods can be used for submarine pipelines
construction, including the conventional lay barge method, the reel barge method, the
vertical lay method and the tow method. All require large sophisticated marine vessels.
2.6
The amount of fluid that must flow through the pipeline is one of the first items
of information required for design. But a characteristic of many proposed pipeline
projects is that future capacity requirements are difficult to forecast. Determining the
capacity requirements for a pipeline gathering system to gather crude from producing
fields can be difficult. When oil and gas is discovered in an area, several years may pass
before the field is fully developed and maximum required capacity is known [4].
Additional capacity will be needed as more wells are put on stream, but the pipeline is
needed early in the fields life to transport production from the first wells.
12
2.6.1
Pipeline Design
The most appropriate approach to pipeline design depends on the system, the
designer, the number of fixed variables, the availability of pipe and equipment and the
cost. Both installation (cost) and operating/maintenance expense must be considered in
choosing the optimum design. Often a design having a lower installation cost than
another alternative will be more expensive to operate. When compared based on
economic indicators over the life of the system, the design with the lowest installation
cost may not be the best solution.
One of the most design criteria which is the volume of oil or gas to be
transported is sometimes the most difficult to determine. There is often some uncertainty
in volume estimates, and making the best projection of volumes to be handled
throughout the life of the pipeline is the key to a profitable project. With projected
volumes and the origin and the destination of the pipeline known, pipeline design
typically follow these general steps [1]:
i.
ii.
Pressure losses due to friction and the pressure required to overcome changes in
elevation are added to the delivery pressure to determine the inlet pressure. In
single-phase flow, the pressure drop in the line must be overcome by pumps or
compressors is essentially the friction loss plus the pressure exerted by a liquid or
gas column whose height equals the difference in elevation between the ends of
the line.
13
iii.
With the line size and operating pressure determined, the pumping or
compression horsepower needed to deliver the desired volume of fluid at the
specified delivery pressure can be accurately calculated. If more than one pump
or compressor station is required, its location and size is set by calculating
pressure loss along the line and determining how much pump or compressor
horsepower is needed to maintain operating pressure.
iv.
It is important that term fluid includes both liquids and gases. Most of the
following fluid properties and other variables are considered in designing liquids or
natural gas pipeline.
i.
Pipe diameter. The larger the inside diameter of the pipeline, the more fluid can
be moved through it, assuming other variables are fixed.
14
ii.
Pipe length. The greater the length of a segment of pipeline, the greater the total
pressure drop. Pressure drop can be the same per unit of length for a given size
and type of pipe, but total pressure drop increases with length.
iii.
Specific gravity and density. The density of a liquid or gas is its weight per unit
volume. The specific gravity of a liquid is the density of the liquid divided by the
density of water and the specific gravity of a gas is its density divided by the
density of air. The specific gravity of water and air is therefore is 1.
iv.
Compressibility. Because most liquids are only slightly compressible, this term is
usually not significant in calculating liquids pipeline capacity at normal
operating conditions. In gas pipeline design, it is necessary to include a term in
many design calculations for the fact that gases deviate from laws describing
ideal gas behavior when under conditions other than standard or base
conditions. This term supercompressibility factor is more significant at high
pressures and temperatures. Near standard conditions of temperature and
pressure (60F and 1 atm), for example, the deviation ideal gas law is small and
the effect of the supercompressibilty factor on design calculations is not
significant.
v.
vi.
Viscosity. The property of a fluid that resists flow, or relative motion between
adjacent parts of the fluid. It is an important term in calculating line size and
pump horsepower requirements when designing liquid pipelines.
15
vii.
Pour point. The lowest temperature at which an oil will pour, or flow when
cooled under specified test conditions. Oils can be pumped below the pour point,
but the design and operation under these conditions present special problems.
viii.
Vapor pressure. The pressure that holds a volatile liquid in equilibrium with its
vapor at a given temperature. Vapor pressure is an especially important design
criterion when handling volatile petroleum products. The minimum pressure in
the pipeline must be high enough to maintain these fluids in a liquid state.
ix.
x.
Friction factor. A variety of friction factors are used in pipeline design equations.
They are determined empirically and are related to the roughness of the inside
pipe wall.
Other properties of the fluid and pipe may be used in specific calculations, but
these are the basic terms used to determine pressure drop and flow capacity. Many
system variables are interdependent. For example, operating pressure depends on
pressure drop in the line. Pressure drop, in turn, depends on flow rate and maximum
flow rate is dictated by allowable pressure drop.
16
2.7
In order to analysis and design a submarine pipeline, the design conditions, wall
thickness determination, on-bottom stability, free spanning and corrosion requirement
are the aspects to be looked into.
2.7.1
Design Conditions
There are a few number of codes and standards that can be used to analyse and
design a submarine pipeline.
ii.
BS 8010 Part 3
iii.
ISO 13623
iv.
DNV OS-F101
A large number of pipelines have been successfully designed to the above codes.
In this research, DNV code is used. This is because the code has had international
approbation [2]. The DNV code is therefore considered the most appropriate standard
for future design. DNV code adopts the Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFS)
format as a basis for the given structural limitations.
17
The use of limit states in the LRFS format is detailed in the subsections below.
Traditionally the following different limit states are considered:
i.
ii.
iii.
The SLS refers to a given load condition that, if exceeded can cause pipeline to
be unsuitable for continued operation. The following situations are normally considered:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
18
2.7.1.3 Ultimate Limit State (ULS)
It shall be ensured that the pipeline has the required safety against failure in the
ULS, defined in terms of:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
The design of the pipeline is closely related to the risk analysis, in the sense that
scenarios entail a risk that is unacceptable, typically due to their high frequency of
occurrence, shall be considered in the ALS design.
2.7.2
The primary objective of the pipeline design is to determine the optimal wall
thickness and steel grade of the pipeline. For the vast majority of existing pipelines the
wall thickness will have been selected following a simple hoop stress calculation.
19
A usage factor applied to the Specific Minimum Yield Stress (SMYS) defines
the allowable stress which, when inserted into the hoop stress formula, determines the
minimum required thickness of the pipe. Then, select the nearest standard American
Petroleum Institute (API) wall thickness above the required minimum. For liquid or twophase pipelines a corrosion allowance may have been added. Calculations that aim at a
specified design life are often backed up by extensive testing, but the corrosion
allowance may also simply be based on experience with existing lines or on owner
preferences.
2.7.3
On-Bottom Stability
20
A pipeline on the seabed forms a structural unit where displacement in one area
is resisted by bending and tensile stresses. The real situation most probably involves a
great variety of pipeline-seabed interface conditions. Pipeline self lowering may result in
some sections of a pipeline being embedded to a larger degree than determined by
touchdown forces, and parts may even be fully buried. The embedment is influenced by
soil characteristics and phenomena such as scour, sediment transport and other seabed
instabilities. In other sections the pipe may be slightly elevated above the seabed due to
seabed undulations or scour processes. For both conditions, the hydrodynamic forces are
reduced relative to the idealized on bottom condition.
2.7.4
Free Spanning
The free span shall have adequate safety against failure modes and deformation
such as excessive yielding, fatigue, buckling and ovalisation. Free span analysis should
be based on generally accepted static and dynamic calculation methods, including nonlinear structure structural modeling, soil reaction description and deflection induced
axial forces.
Empty pipeline
ii.
iii.
iv.
Operating pipeline
21
The analysis of free spans normally requires:
i.
ii.
Eigen value analysis for determining natural frequencies and modal shapes
iii.
iv.
Fatigue analysis for determining accumulated fatigue damage due to cyclic loads
from wave action and vortex shedding
2.7.5
Corrosion Requirement
22
External corrosion of a pipeline in seawater is an electrochemical process. A
galvanic element is created where an electric current flows between an anodic area and a
cathodic area, with the seawater acting as an electrolyte. Coating the steel surface
protects against corrosion by creating a physical barrier between the pipe and the
electrolyte, preventing oxygen from reaching the steel. Cathodic protection renders the
steel immune to corrosion by lowering the electrical potential.
A barrier coating is seen as the primary defense against corrosion with cathodic
protection being a back up measure against coating damage or breakdown. However,
cathodic protection might also be considered the principal corrosion prevention method
with the coating being introduced to reduce the necessary current consumption.
23
2.8
2.8.1
General
Subsea pipelines resting on the bed or placed in the trench are subjected to
lateral instability due to environmental loads comprising of wave and current forces. The
lateral instability is countered by lateral soil frictional resistance due to submerged
weight of pipeline. If the submerged weight is inadequate, the increase in submerged
weight is normally achieved by increasing weight of the pipeline or else reducing the
environmental loads by trenching or burial. In present analysis the stability is presumed
to be achievable by adding sufficient weight in form of concrete coating.
2.8.2
24
i.
ii.
iii.
Simplified Method,
The simplified method is suitable for most of the design cases [4]. The DNV RP
E305 Simplified Static Stability method is based on a quasi-static equilibrium approach.
The calibration factor, Fw, ties the classical static design approach to the generalized
stability method. A safety factor of 1.1 is inherent in the calibration factor Fw.
25
2.8.3
Stability Criteria
(2.1)
where:
Wsub
FL
FD
FI
FW
ii.
Near bed wave flow is time varying and only the component perpendicular to the
pipe axis is considered
iii.
26
2.8.3.2 Pipeline Submerged Weight
Submerged weight shall consider the weight of the following components [7] :
i.
Steel
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
Internal contents
viii.
External Corrosion
Coating
Insulation Coating
Steel
Internal Corrosion
Liner
Marine Growth
Internal Contents
27
The hydrodynamic diameter of the pipe is given by,
D = Dst + 2(tcc + tic + tc +tmg)
(2.2)
Wcs = (Dst t) t st
(2.3)
i.
ii.
iii.
(2.5)
iv.
(2.6)
v.
vi.
(2.4)
(2.7)
(2.8)
vii.
ID = Dst 2t 2tL
(2.9)
viii.
Weight of Contents
Wi = /4 (ID)2 i
(2.10)
ix.
st CA
(2.11)
28
Four cases are of interest [8]:
i.
ii.
iv.
Case
Operational
Outer Diameter, OD
Weight of Pipe, W
Operational End of
Life
Installation / Hydrotest
Pristine
Pipelines buoyancy, submerged weight and specific gravity are calculated as follow [7],
Pipeline buoyancy,
B = /4 OD2 sw
(2.12)
Ws = W B
(2.13)
SG = W/B = Ws/B + 1
(2.14)
29
2.8.4 Environmental Parameter
The defining sea-state parameters are Hs and Tp, which are used to calculate the
significant wave velocity perpendicular to the pipe (Us).
30
The Tn and Tp are determined using following relationship.
Tn =
d
g
and T p = 250 H s g
(2.15)
From Figure 2.4, (Us*Tn)/Hs is determined for the given Tn/Tp. Then, significant
wave velocity perpendicular to the pipe (Us) is determined.
Seabed
Silt
Very Fine Sand
Fine Sand
Medium Sand
Coarse Sand
Very Coarse Sand
Gravel
Pebble
Cobble
Boulder
Grain
Size
d50
(mm)
0.0625
0.125
0.25
0.5
1
2
4
10
25
50
100
250
500
Roughness
zo (m)
5.21E-06
1.04E-05
2.08E-05
4.17E-05
8.33E-05
1.67E-04
3.33E-04
8.33E-04
2.08E-03
4.17E-03
8.33E-03
2.08E-02
4.17E-02
31
Grain size (d50) and roughness (z0) of the seabed is determined based Table 2.2.
avg
1
z
ln r
zo
zo
D
1
ln 1 +
1 +
D
zo
+ 1
(2.16)
U avg =
UD/Ur
Ur
Zr,
z0
d50
32
Current to wave velocity ratio,
M = UD / Us
K = (Us Tp) / D
From Figure 2.5, the calibration factor can be obtained after determining the
value of M and K. Calibration factor is used in the calculation of pipeline submerged
weight.
2.8.5
Hydrodynamic Forces
When using the calibration factor Fw to calculate Wsub the hydrodynamic loading
on the pipe is determined using the following relationship.
Drag Force,
FD = CD UnUn D
(2.17)
Inertia Force, FI = CM D2 n / 4
Lift Force,
(2.18)
FL = CL Un2 D
(2.19)
Un = (Un2 + V n2)
where,
(2.20)
density of seawater
CL
CD
CM
Un
Vn
33
2.8.5.1 Drag loads
As fluid passed over a body a shear layer develops in the fluids flow. The body
experiences a force caused by skin-friction due to the tangential viscom shear layer
between body and flow. In addition, it experiences a pressure or form drag from the
pressure on the body.
Thus,
FD (Re, Kc, k / D ) FF + FP
Total drag
(2.21)
Friction Pressure
drag
34
2.8.6 Gravity Waves (Linear Wave Theory)
wave height, H
mean water depth, d
wave period, T
H
d
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
35
The wavelength, L is calculated based on the formula below [7],
L=
gT 2
2d
tanh
2
L
(2.22)
Particle velocities
(2.23)
(2.24)
ii)
Particle Accelerations
Therefore linear wave theory is most suitable for dealing with deep water wave
of small amplitude.
36
2.8.7
The following assumptions have been made in the pipeline on-bottom stability
analysis:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
ix.
The soil friction for clay is calculated based on fig 5.11 in DNV RP E305
x.
The 1 year significant wave height and peak period plus 1 year current
are considered for the installation condition. Pipeline is assumed to be
empty during this condition
xi.
The 100 year significant wave height and peak period plus 100 year
current are considered for the operating conditions. Minimum internal
product density of 733 kg/m3 has been used
xii.
For the immediate and long term vertical settlement calculation, the most
conservative case of hydrotest and operating (max product density of
1025 kg/m3) conditions respectively are considered
CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
3.1
Introduction
This chapter is about the methods to achieve the objectives of the study such as
acquiring the data, determination of code to be used and developing a spreadsheet. Data
and information is required through books, internets and journals on pipeline and
submarine pipelines. Studying and understanding about the study itself is a part of this
study.
A part of that, a spreadsheet is developed based on the code DNV RP E305 for
analysis of on bottom stability of a submarine pipeline. A case study from Baram,
Sarawak will be used with the data acts as the input to the spreadsheet analysis of
stability developed.
38
3.2
Flow Chart
39
40
Pipeline conditions consist of the thickness and density of the steel and other
coatings used for the submarine pipeline. From here, the pipeline weight can be
calculated and the pipeline submerged weight can be determined as well as the pipeline
specific gravity.
Wave conditions consist of the wave height, wave period, the mean depth of
seawater and etc. In order to calculate the forces acting on the pipeline, the wave
kinematics have to be determined based on the wave conditions. Then, the minimum
pipeline submerged weight can be determined and compared for on-bottom stability.
3.3
41
3.4
The 100 year significant wave height and peak period plus 100 year current are
considered for the operating conditions. Minimum internal product density of 733 kg/m3
has been used.
The 1-year significant wave height and peak period plus 1-year current are
considered for the installation and hydrotest conditions. Pipeline is assumed to be empty
during installation and filled with hydrotest water (assumed seawater) during hydrotest.
42
Table 3.1 : Data for minimum pipeline submerged weight
Parameters
Gravity
Wave Height
Spectral Peak
Period
Mean Water
Depth
Distance between
pipe and SWL
Diameter of Pipe
Density of
Seawater
Zero Up Crossing
Period
Current Velocity
at Bottom
Friction
Calibration Factor
Grain Size
Symbol(Unit)
g(ms-2)
H(m)
T (s)
Case 1 & 2
9.81
2.7
11.6
Case 3
9.81
2.2
9.9
Case 4
9.81
2.2
9.9
d (m)
4.4
4.1
4.1
y (m)
-4.19
-3.89
-3.89
OD (m)
P (kgm-3)
0.6174
1025
0.6174
1025
0.6174
1025
Tu (s)
9.16
7.91
7.91
U r (ms-1)
0.5
0.4
0.4
1.3
0.9
1.3
d50 (mm)
0.5
0.5
0.5
406.4
14.3
0
5.5
0
85
0
0
7850
0
1280
0
3044
1025
750
1025
3
43
3.5
FINDINGS OF STUDY
CHAPTER IV
4.1
Introduction
This study focuses on the on-bottom stability of a submarine pipeline which sits
on an even seabed without any trenching and burial. The stability is calculated based on
the spreadsheet developed using Microsoft Excel Spreadsheet. The analysis is done
based on data from the project in Baram, Sarawak. Four cases are being analyzed which
are operational pristine, operational end of life, installation and hydrotest.
4.2
Spreadsheet Development
45
Literature review has to be made to understand the nature and symbols used in
the formulas. Below are the results of the spreadsheet developed.
4.2.1
Figure 4.1 shows the 2-Dimensional Wave Profile and its parameters and also
the inputs to be entered in the spreadsheet. The inputs consists of wave height (H),
spectral peak period (T), mean water depth (d), distance between pipeline and seawater
level (y), outside diameter of pipe (OD), zero up crossing period (Tu), and current
velocity at bottom (Ur). The wave length (L) requires try and error method to determine
its value and is calculated using Equation 2.22 in Chapter II.
46
Figure 4.1 also describes the use of colour fonts. Blue fonts means that a value is
to be inserted in the cell. Green fonts are for excel calculated values, black fonts are for
fixed values and red fonts are for important excel calculated values.
Figure 4.2 and Figure 4.3 shows the calculated values of wave water particle
kinematics, which are horizontal and vertical velocities as well as horizontal
accelerations based on the values of the inputs and are calculated using Equations 2.23 2.25 . The values are plotted on graphs as shown in the same figure.
Figure 4.2 : Values for Horizontal and Vertical Velocities for a Cycle Period of Time
47
Figure 4.3 : Values for Horizontal Acceleration for a Cycle Period of Time
The drag, inertia and lift forces values for a cycle period of time are as shown in
Figure 4.4. The values are calculated using Equations 2.17 - 2.19 based on the input
values and the wave water particle kinematics determined earlier. The three forces are
then plotted in a single graph as shown in the figure. The fixed values shown in the
figure are drag force, inertia force and lift force coefficients with the value of 0.7, 3.29
and 0.9 each respectively.
48
Figure 4.4 : Drag, Inertia, and Lift Forces for a Cycle Period of Time
The minimum pipeline submerged weight values over a cycle period of time are
calculated using Equation 2.1 and are shown in Figure 4.5. These are important values as
it is the output needed for this particular spreadsheet. The values are then plotted on a
graph as shown in the figure. From Figure 4.5, a new input must be inserted which is the
friction calibration factor (u). But for calibration factor (Fw), the value has to be
determined first as in Figure 4.6.
49
Figure 4.5 : Minimum Pipeline Submerged Weight for a Cycle Period of Time
50
Figure 4.6 : Determination of Calibration Factor and the Outputs of MIN Weight
Spreadsheet
Figure 4.6 shows the calculation of calibration factor and also the output, which
is the maximum value between the minimum pipeline submerged weights. In calculating
calibration factor, the value of Us*Tn/Hs is taken from DNV RP E305 Figure 2.1. As for
the grain size, the value is taken from DNV RP E305 Table A1 and lastly the value of
calibration factor itself is taken from DNV RP E305 Figure 5.12. These figures and table
from DNV RP E305 are inserted in the Microsoft Excel Spreadsheet developed but in
the third spreadsheet (Graph Spreadsheet). Hyperlinks from this spreadsheet are used to
link with the Graph Spreadsheet. The values taken from Graph Spreadsheet are inserted
there and will automatically be shown in this spreadsheet.
51
The minimum pipeline submerged weight required for on-bottom stability is only
for a case. The value is then inserted in the specified blue cell. New environmental
inputs are then inserted and the same processes as before is undertaken to get the
minimum pipeline submerged weight required for the other three cases and are then
inserted according to their case in the blue cells. These four values will be automatically
shown in the second spreadsheet which is CALC. Weight Spreadsheet. Click the To
Calculating Weight of Pipe hyperlink to move to the second spreadsheet.
4.2.2
Figure 4.7 shows the input for this particular spreadsheet. These are the diameter
of steel (Dst), thickness of materials such as steel (t), internal corrosion line (tL),
corrosion coating (tcc), insulation coating (tic), concrete coating (tc), marine growth (tmg)
and corroded material (tCA) as well as the density of the materials which are steel (st),
internal corrosion liner (L), corrosion coating (cc), insulation coating (ic), concrete
coating (c), marine growth (mg), content (i) and seawater (sw). A corrosion allowance
usage factor (uCA) value is to be inserted.
52
The values of internal diameter of pipe (ID) and the weight of materials such as
carbon steel (Wcs), corrosion coating (WL), corrosion coating (Wcc), insulation coating
(Wic), concrete coating (Wc), marine growth (Wmg), content (Wi) and corroded material
(WCA) are calculated using Equations 2.3 - 2.11 based on the inputs inserted as shown in
Figure 4.8.
53
Figure 4.8 also shows the final outputs of on-bottom stability analysis of a
submarine pipeline. The outer diameter (OD), weight of pipeline (W) and pipeline
buoyancy (B) are calculated automatically for all four cases with the same value of
inputs. The main outputs are the pipeline submerged weight (Ws) and the pipeline
specific gravity (SG) which are calculated each using Equation 2.13 and Equation 2.14
of Chapter II. The pipeline submerged weight values for all four cases are compared
with the minimum pipeline submerged weight values calculated in the first spreadsheet
and the stability is determined whether its stable or not to withstand the forces exerted
to the pipeline.
54
4.2.3 Graphs from DNV RP E305 for the Calculation of Calibration Factor (Fw)
Spreadsheet
55
Figure 4.10 shows the grain size (d50) and roughness for seabed (zo). The type of
seabed is determined and the grain size is inserted in the cell provided. The values of
roughness will be automatically shown in this spreadsheet. Both of the values will
appear in the first spreadsheet for further calculations.
Figure 4.10 : Table A1- Grain Size for Seabed Materials from DNV RP E305
56
In order to get the value of calibration factor (Fw), the values of M and K is
calculated in the first spreadsheet and are transferred in this spreadsheet for the user to
use the graph as shown in Figure 4.11. The calibration factors value is then inserted in
the cell provided and is automatically shown in the first spreadsheet and is used to
calculate the minimum pipeline submerged weight values for a cycle period of time.
57
4.3
The following results are based on data inputs from case 3, which is the
installation phase. Figure 4.12 shows the drag, inertia and lift forces acting on the
submarine pipeline over a cycle period if time while Figure 4.13 shows the minimum
pipeline submerged weight required to withstand the stated forces over a cycle period of
time.
Forces vs t/T
1500
1000
500
Force (N/m)
Drag
Force
0
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
Inertia
Force
-500
Lift
Force
-1000
-1500
t/T
250
200
100
50
1.
0
0.
9
0.
8
0.
7
0.
6
0.
5
0.
4
0.
3
0.
2
-50
0.
1
0.
0
W
sub(kg/m
)
150
-100
-150
t/T
Figure 4.13 : Minimum Pipeline Submerged Weight over a Cycle Period of Time
58
4.4
From the calculation of pipeline weight spreadsheet, the final result whether a
submarine pipeline is stable or not for all for all 4 cases are summarized in Table 4.1
below.
Table 4.1 : Final Results for On-Bottom Stability Analysis of a Submarine Pipeline for
all 4 cases
Pipeline
Outer
Weight Of
Pipeline
Submerged
Diameter
Pipe, W
Buoyancy,B
Weight, Ws
OD (mm)
(kg/m)
(kg/m)
(kg/m)
587.4
639.84
277.77
362.08
OK
of Life
587.4
639.84
277.77
362.08
OK
3) Installation
587.4
555.77
277.77
278.00
OK
4) Hydrotest
587.4
670.67
277.77
392.90
OK
Case
Stability
1) Operational
Pristine
2) Operational End
Pipeline Specific
Case
1) Operational Pristine
Min SG
Gravity, SG
2.30
2) Operational End of
Life
2.30
3) Installation
2.00
4) Hydrotest
2.41
1.1
59
Figure 4.14 and Figure 4.15 show the pipeline submerged weight and pipeline
specific gravity with different thickness of concrete coating for the 4 cases.
Ws (kg/m)
500
Case 1
and 2
Case 3
400
300
232.02
200
Case 4
100
0
12
11
0
10
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
tc (mm)
Figure 4.14 : Pipeline Submerged Weight with Different Thickness of Concrete Coating
SG
2.00
Case 1
and 2
Case 3
1.50
1.00
Case 4
0.50
0.00
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
9 0 1 0 0 11 0 1 2 0
tc (mm)
Figure 4.15 : Pipeline Specific Gravity with Different Thickness of Concrete Coating
60
4.5
Parametric Analysis
Parametric analysis is done by varying an input parameter and the others are
fixed. In this study, 4 input parameters are varied which are the wave height (Figure
4.16), mean water depth (Figure 4.17), grain size (Figure 4.18) and diameter of pipeline
(Figure 4.19). This is done to see the behavior of structure in terms of the minimum
pipeline submerged weight (Ws) to varying values of input parameters stated above with
the other environmental parameters are fixed.
Ws (kg/m)
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
3.50
H (m )
Figure 4.16 : Minimum Pipeline Submerged Weight With Varying Values of Wave
Height
61
Ws (kg/m)
80
60
40
20
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
d(m )
Figure 4.17 : Minimum Pipeline Submerged Weight With Varying Values of Mean
Water Depth
Ws (kg/m)
0.01
0.1
10
100
d50 (m m )
Figure 4.18 : Minimum Pipeline Submerged Weight With Varying Values of Grain Size
62
Ws (kg/m)
500
400
300
200
100
0
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.00
D (m )
Figure 4.19 : Minimum Pipeline Submerged Weight With Varying Values for Diameter
of Pipeline
CHAPTER V
DISCUSSIONS
5.1
Introduction
5.2
Discussion
The examples are based on data inputs from case 3 which is the installation
phase.
5.2.1 The 3 Forces Involved and the Minimum Pipeline Submerged Weight for a
Cycle Period of Time
From Figure 4.12, the drag, inertia and lift forces are a function of sinus and
cosines. The drag and inertia forces can be positive or negative depends on its horizontal
movement, whether to the right or left.
64
But lift force consists of positive values only. This is because lift force is a one
way direction, which is upwards. The combination of these 3 forces and using a formula
with the value of calibration factor, the minimum pipeline submerged weight is
determined as shown in Figure 4.13. Negative value means that the combination of the
forces causes the pipeline to be more stable because it is pushed downwards towards the
seabed. From the graph, the minimum pipeline submerged weight required to withstand
the forces is 232 kg/m. The actual weight of the pipeline must be more than this value to
ensure stability.
5.2.2
Stability Analysis
The stability has to be checked for all 4 cases. From Table 4.1, the actual
pipeline submerged weight is bigger than the minimum pipeline submerged weight
required for all 4 cases. So, the pipeline is stable. This is supported by the fact that the
pipeline specific gravity is more than 1.1 for all 4 cases [6].
From Figure 4.15, the minimum thickness of concrete coating is around 75 mm,
based on the installation phase. Installation phase in considered the critical phase. If the
value is less than 75 mm, the pipeline would probably fail due to high stress and fatigue
damage during installation. The minimum concrete thickness is based on the minimum
pipeline submerged weight required, which is 232kg/m.
65
5.2.3
Parametric Analysis
Parametric analysis is done by varying an input parameter and the others are
fixed. In this study, 4 input parameters are varied which are the wave height, mean water
depth, grain size and diameter of pipeline.
From Figure 4.16, the minimum pipeline submerged weight (Ws) increases with
the increment of wave height (H). When the wave height increases, the water particles
kinematics increases (velocity and acceleration). This will increase drag, lift and inertia
forces which contribute to the minimum pipeline submerged weight.
As for Figure 4.17, the minimum pipeline submerged weight (Ws) decreases with
the increment of mean water depth (d). When the mean water depth increases, the wave
length (L) increases. This reduces drag, lift and inertia forces because the water particle
kinematics decrease, which in turn contributes to the decrement of minimum pipeline
submerged weight.
If the grain size of seabed (d50) is increased, the pipeline submerged weight
decreased. The maximum pipeline submerged weight is 263 kg/m. This is because it
depends on the calibration factor (Fw) taken from Fig 5.12- DNV RP E305 with the
maximum value of Fw is 1.62. When grain size is increased, the roughness of seabed
increased but the value of Fw decreases. So thus the minimum pipeline submerged
weight. This is shown in Figure 4.18.
66
From Figure 4.19, when the pipeline diameter (D) is increased, the pipeline
submerged weight also increased. Pipeline diameter is not involved in the calculation of
water particle kinematics. It affects the drag, lift and inertia forces directly. The forces
increase with the increment of pipeline diameter.
CHAPTER VI
CONCLUSION
6.1
Conclusions
68
6.2
Recommendations
The wave water particle kinematics are calculated using Linear Wave Theory.
The values are different if calculated based on DNV RP E305 Section 2. A study can be
done to see the comparison of the two stated methods. Possibility of sinking should be
checked for an exposed submarine pipelines resting directly on the seabed.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
Michael W.Braestrup ed., Jan Bohl Andersen, Lars Wahl Andersen, Mads
Bryndum, Curt
[5]
[6]
[7]
1998.
Muhamad Hazlalin Ibrahim. Fundamentals of Pipeline Design: Pipeline OnBottom Stability, Seminar UTM City Campus Kuala Lumpur Malaysia.
[8]
[9]
2005.
JAE Young Lee, P.E. Stability of Pipeline Under Oblique Waves, CSO Aker
Engineering, Houstan. 2001.
[10]
[11]
BIBLIOGRAPHIES
(1)
(2)
(3)
(5)
(6)
Guidelines for the Design of Buried Steel Pipe, American Lifelines Alliance,
ASME. 2001.
APPENDIX
APPENDIX A
HAND CALCULATION
ON-BOTTOM STABILITY ANALYSIS OF A SUBMARINE PIPELINE BASED
ON A CASE STUDY FROM BARAM, SARAWAK
Parameters
Gravity
Wave Height
Spectral Peak
Period
Mean Water
Depth
Distance between
pipe and SWL
Diameter of Pipe
Density of
Seawater
Zero Up Crossing
Period
Current Velocity
at Bottom
Friction
Calibration Factor
Grain Size
Symbol(Unit)
g(ms-2)
H(m)
T (s)
Case 1 & 2
9.81
2.7
11.6
Case 3
9.81
2.2
9.9
Case 4
9.81
2.2
9.9
d (m)
4.4
4.1
4.1
y (m)
-4.19
-3.89
-3.89
OD (m)
p (kgm-3)
0.6174
1025
0.6174
1025
0.6174
1025
Tu (s)
9.16
7.91
7.91
Ur (ms-1)
0.5
0.4
0.4
1.3
0.9
1.3
d50 (mm)
0.5
0.5
0.5
72
Calculations:
First Spreadsheet,
gT 2
2d
tanh
L=
2
L
Wave Length,
9.81(9.9 )
2 (4.1)
tanh
2
L
2
25.761
= 153.02 tanh
61.02 m
406.4
14.3
0
5.5
0
85
0
0
7850
0
1280
0
3044
1025
750
1025
3
73
U = H cosh [ 2 ( y + d ) / L ] . cos ( 2 ( x t ) )
T
sinh (2 d / L )
L T
Horizontal Velocity,
V = H sinh [ 2 ( y + d ) / L ] . sin ( 2 ( x t ) )
T
sinh (2 d / L )
L T
Vertical Velocity,
Horizontal Acceleration,
= 2 H 2 cosh [ 2 ( y + d ) / L ] . sin ( 2 ( x t ) )
T2
sinh (2 d / L )
L T
=
74
FD = CD UnUn D
Drag Force,
Cd = 0.7
= 0.5(0.7)(1025) 2.35 cos 2 ( 0.635t ) + 0.001 sin 2 ( 0.635t ) (1.533 cos - (0.635t)(0.6174)
FD = ( 2.35 cos 2 ( 0.635t ) + 0.001 sin 2 ( 0.635t ) )(339.55 cos -(0.635t))
FI = CM D2 n / 4
Inertia Force,
Cm = 3.29
Lift Force,
CL = 0.9
= 0.9
( F + FI ) + FL
Wsub = D
FW
75
Wcs = (Dst t) t st
= (406.4-14.3)(14.3)(7850)
= 138.28 kg/m
ID = Dst 2t 2tL
= 406.4-2(14.3)-0
= 377.8 mm
Weight of Contents
Wi = /4 (ID)2 i
= (377.8) 2 (750)/4
= 84.08 kg/m
76
Buoyancy
B = /4 OD2 sw
= (587.4)2(1025)/4
= 277.77 kg/m
Pipeline Submerged Weight
Ws = W B
= 555.77 - 277.77
= 278 kg/m
The pipeline stability for Case 3 is OK because 278 > 232 kg/m (minimum pipeline
submerged weight
Pipeline Specific Gravity
SG = W/B
= 555.77/277.77
= 2.0
The pipeline specific gravity is more than 1.1, so its OK