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المكافحة الحيوية للحشائش
المكافحة الحيوية للحشائش
.Faculty of Agriculture, Assiut University, A.R.E
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.
. 250
.
5
.
).(13
.
.
.
. weed
.
bermudagrass
.
.
.
.
) .(2 150
).(54
annual
biennial .perennial
monocotyledon
dicotyledon .
water
hyacinth
water lily
Ceratophylum demersum
.
Potamogeton pectinatus
. Zhou
2200
).(186
" 1145"
" : broomrape
" ).(6
) (177
.
.
.
.
).(145
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675 " ) (132
.
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1550 " ).(85
.
.
).(156
" "
.
. 4-3
).(16
.
cogon
grass
.
.
.
:
http://www.ipm.iastate.edu/ipm/icm/2000/5-8-2000/earlyweed.html
)( :
http://www.peds.arizona.edu/allergyimmunology/southwest/grass_weeds/grassweedp
ictable.html
) ( :
http://pmcproduction.com/aquatic_harvester_action.html
.
35 )
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18 .
.
.
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.(174
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.
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) (154 46
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.
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pH ) (172 147 12
).(105
. -
-
.
.
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) ( water lettuce
5500
93 ).(104
. .
.
" " 1955
8800 800
12.
. .
" "
.
.
8000 .
1964 .
).(104
encephalitis
" " .filariasis
.
.
.
Hydrilla,
Myriophyllum, Ceratophyllum, Egeria, Elodea, Najas, Potamogeton, Vallisneria
.
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.
.
.
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.
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.
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.
.
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.
.
. seepage
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.
.
.Typha, Nymphaea, Nuphar, Juncus, Sagittaria, Alternanthera
.
.
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sudd
.
.
.
50
.
) Pontederia ( :
http://www.apms.org/plants/pickerelweed.htm
: alligator weed
http://www.apms.org/plants/alligatorweed.htm
: Potamogeton pectinatus
http://www.apms.org/plants/sago.htm
: Myriophylum spicatum
http://www.apms.org/plants/milfoil.htm
: Hydrilla
http://www.apms.org/plants/hydrilla.htm
: Limna gibba
/http://plantsdatabase.com/showpicture/9397
: water lettuce
http://www.apms.org/plants/waterlettuce.htm
: cattail
http://www.apms.org/plants/cattail.htm
: common reed
http://www.funet.fi/pub/sci/bio/life/plants/magnoliophyta/magnoliophytina/liliopsida/
/poaceae/phragmites
:
http://tncweeds.ucdavis.edu/photosa-c.html
http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/WEEDS
www.ct-botanical-society.org
http://linnaeus.nrm.se/botany
:
http://farrer.csu.edu.au/ASGAP/gall5aa.html
:
http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/weeds_common.html
:
http://www.une.edu.au/agronomy/weeds/photo_library/ph_lib.html
.
.
.
.
.
.
fleabane
.cocklebur
).(2
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.
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. 500
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.
.
.
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.
.
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.
(C4) 4
(C3) 3 4 3
18
purple nutsedge
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"bermudagrass ) (106 .4
4
.
.
.
.
1860 1957
).(115
.
environmental stress
.
.
.
.
.
.
"
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.
.
.
competition allelopathy
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.
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.
.
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.
.
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.
.
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.
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.
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) .(1
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.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
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.
.
.
.
.
. ) (2
.
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.
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.
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:
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Echinochloa crusgalli
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. 61 36
.
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ecotypes .
.
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2000
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)( )
( )( )( )(
)( )( )( )(
)( )( )(.
)( :
http://www.junglephotos.com/plants/waterplants/wtrhycnth.html
http://www.apms.org/plants/waterhyacinth.htm
:
www.uwgb.edu/biodiversity/news/photo_ofthe_week/pow20010909large01.htm
www.uwgb.edu/biodiversity/news/photo_ofthe_week/pow20010909main.htm
)( :
http://www.fao.org/WAICENT/FAOINFO/AGRICULT/AGP/agpp/IPM/WEEDS/Slid
eShw.htm
:
http://www.ktokai-u.ac.jp/~cokamoto/aqfeed_e.htm
) ( :
http://www.africa-photo.com/gallery/stark/hyazin/index.htm
) pathway (169 180
.
.
.selectivity
.
.
pre-emergence
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. .
.
.
.surfactants
lipoid route
aqueous route
.
phenoxy .benzoic
.
. pH
.
.
.
. thiocarbamates
ureas uracils triazines
.
.
.
.
.diffusion
.
uptake .
.
.
.
.
.
.
- :
. symplast
apoplast .
.
:
. simazine
.
. D-2,4
.
.
. .
:
. :
-1 :
paraquat diquat .
:
.
.
.
:
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. .
.
.
. adsorption metabolism
.
.
-2 :
.
.
.
.
. .
.
-3 :
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
D-2,4
.
.
Hill reaction
.
free radical " " ) (.
:
.
. :
MCPB DB-2,4
.
:
.
.
.
.
:
. :
.
. : ""
.
:
- :
.
:
.
.
.residue
:
. : pre-sowing
.residual
. : pre-emergence
.
.
. : post-emergence
.
:
. .overall application
. :directed application
.
.
. :band application
.
- :
.
.
.
.
.
.
- : :
-1
. : contact foliage
. .
.
. : translocated foliage
.
. : residual .
.
-2
. :
.
.
.
.
.
. : metribuzin
.
. : atrazine
.
.
.
.
.
.
-3
. : .
.
.
.
. :
.
.
.
. :
.
.
.
.
formulation
.
. :
emulsifiable concentrates wettable powders
.
run off
. .
. :
.
. :
.
- :
.
.
" "
.
.
.
:
.
.
.
. 1960 1906
.
.
.
200
4
.
.
.
selective
.
. 1935
.
.
1944
D-2,4 T-2,4,5
.silvex
""
.
1951
.
.
.
1952 .
.
.
" "
1958 .
).(56
.
.
pesticides
caedo pest
.
"
"
.
.
. ""
. 1990 45
).(186
).(8
.
.
.
).(4
) (11
40
. 46
) .(57
.
" " ""
.
.
.
.
.
)(175
:
. Phenoxy compounds
.
D-2,4 . MCPA D-2,4
.
acifluorfen
.
" "
RNA .
. Substituted amides
propoanil
.
.
RNA .
. Nitroanilines
.
. trifluralin
.
. oryzalin
.
" ".
. Heterocyclic nitrogens
triazines
simazine .atrazine
.
.
.
:
light
2H2O + 2A
2AH2
+ O2
chlorophyll
A
Substituted ureas
diuron
linuron .
.
.
.
. Carbamates
.
. asulam
.
RNA
.
. Thiocarbamates
vernolate
.
.
.
. Triazoles
.
. Aliphatic acids
dalapon TCA
.
.
.
. Substituted benzoic acids
dicamba
.
.
. Phenol derivatives
.
.
.dinoseb
dinitrophenols .
PCP
.
ATP
.
. Substituted nitriles
bromoxynil .dichlobenil
.
. Bipyridyliums
paraquat diquat
.
.
.
" "
.
.
free radical
) (.
)
:(187
. Sulfonylurea
) tribenuron ( ) bensulfuron (
) acetolactate synthase (ALS .
. Imidazolinones
imazapyr ) imazaquin ( .
.
. Triazolopyrimidine
) flumetsulam ( ) metosulam
( . .
. Pyrimidinylthiobenzoate
) pyrithiobac ( . .
. )Aryloxyphenoxypropanoate (APP
fluazifop haloxyfop fenoxaprop dichlofop
.
) acetyl-coenzyme A carboxylase (ACCase
.
. )Cyclohexanedione (CHD
sethoxydim clethodim
. .
. Miscellaneous herbicides
. endothall
.RNA
.
acrolein
.
glyphosate
.
.
.
.
" 2001" ) (17 :
: "" :
.
.commercial name
common name chemical family
.
.
Aryloxyphenoxy
propionate
Phenylurea
Sulfonylurea
Cyclohexanedione
Benzonitrile
Triazine
Miscellaneous
Miscellaneous
Pyridinecarboxylic acid
Aryloxyphenoxy
propionate
Miscellaneous
Diphenylether
Triazine
Dinitrobenzene
Dinitroaniline
Miscellaneous
Cyclohexanedione
Oxadiazole
Acetamide
Benzothiadiazole
Sulfonylurea
Miscellaneous
fenoxaprop
isoproturon
tribenuron
clethodim
bromoxynil
metribuzin
benzoylprop
glyphosate
triclopyr
fluazifop-P
glyphosate
oxyfluorfen
atrazine
pendimethalin
Butralin
Glufosinate
Sethoxydim
Oxadiazon
Butachlor
Bentazon
Bensulfuron
Cinmethylin
Whip
Arelon
Granstar
Select
Brominal
Sencor
Suffix
Roundup
Garlon
Fusilade
Touchdown
Goal
Gesaprim
Stomp
Amex
Basta
Nabu
Ronstar
Machete
Basagran
Londax
Argold
.
residue
hangover
.
.
.
.
12
.
metabolism
.
.
-
.
.
%90-85
10 .
.
) maleic hydrazide (MH
8 .
-
.
.
-1 Phenyl carbamates
propham
.
barban .
. %60
. %90
.
-2 Phenoxy compounds
.
.
.
.
mecoprop
catchweed
.MCPA
.
.
. D-2,4
curcucumber
T-2,4,5
.
-3 Substituted ureas
Pseudomonas
monuron
.
Hill reaction .
leaching
.
Pseudomonas Sarciana
Bacillus .Xanthomonas
hydroxy phenyl .methoxy
- 4 Triazine compounds
.
simazine
. hydroxy-2
simazine -
- .
N-dealkylation
chloro, 4-amino, 6-isopropylamine s-triazine-2 :
. chloro, 4-amino, 6-ethylamino, s-triazine-2
.
.
.
"
" .
.
-
DB-2,4 MCPA
.D-2,4
D-2,4 .
) free radical (
.
1/10000
nicotine adinine dinucleotide phosphate
) (NADP
NADP
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
600
. 15
600 5-1
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
) (187
electron transport 2
.photosystem II uracils, triazinones,
biscarbamates, nitriles, nitrophenols, substituted pyridazinones, phenylcacbamates,
.anilides, cyanoacrylates
substituted pyridazinones
.
.
.
Kogl 1934 .
. -2,4
) dichlorophenoxy acetic acid (2,4-D -2,3,6
) trichlorophenyl acetic acid (fenac
.
D-2,4
.
.
. DB-2,4
.D-2,4
.
.
.
dalapon
.
.
.
grasses
.
.
.
.
. 1
photosystem I
.
.
.
) (187
photosystem I 1
) free radicals (
.
. ) acetolactate synthase (ALS
acetolactate
) synthase (ALS
.
sulfonylurea, imidazolinones, triazolopyrimidines, pyrimidinylthio- and oxy. benzoates
. )acetyl-coenzyme A carboxylase (ACCase
) arylphenoxy propanoate (APP
) cyclohexanedione (CHD :
. ACCase acetyl-coenzyme A carboxylase
.
.
.
.(188) (2003) Weed Science Society of America
Herbicide Mode of Action and Resistant Weeds Summary Table
Herbicide Group
Mode of Action
HRAC
Group
Example
Herbicide
ALS inhibitors
Chlorsulfuron
Photosystem II
inhibitors
Inhibition of photosynthesis at
photosystem II
C1
Atrazine
ACCase inhibitors
Diclofop-methyl
Synthetic Auxins
2,4-D
Bipyridiliums
Photosystem-I-electron diversion
Paraquat
Inhibition of photosynthesis at
photosystem II
C2
Chlorotoluron
Dinitroanilines and
others
K1
Trifluralin
Thiocarbamates and
others
Triallate
Triazoles, ureas,
isoxazolidiones
F3
Amitrole
Glycines
Glyphosate
K3
Butachlor
Inhibition of photosynthesis at
photosystem II
C3
Bromoxynil
PPO inhibitors
Inhibition of protoporphyrinogen
oxidase (PPO)
Oxyfluorfen
Carotenoid
Bleaching: Inhibition of carotenoid
biosynthesis inhibitors biosynthesis at the phytoene
desaturase step (PDS)
F1
Flurtamone
Mitosis inhibitors
K2
Propham
Organoarsenicals
Unknown
MSMA
Arylaminopropionic
acids
Unknown
Flamprop-methyl
Pyrazoliums
Unknown
Difenzoquat
http://ipcm.wisc.edu/uw_weeds/extension/articles/herbmoa.htm
http://www.agcom.purdue.edu/AgCom/Pubs/WS/WS-23.html
.
.
.
-1 adsorption
. :
" "Van der Waals type
.
.
.
.
.
.
""
.
reversible
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
" " pH
.
-2 volatilization
.
EPTC
.
.
.
.
.
-3 leaching
-
- .
.
.
.
.
TCA
.
-4 absorption
.
.
.
.
.
).(56
.
.
.
.
hydrolysis .
D-2,4
:
-1 ) CDAA ( diphenamid
.
-2 ) ioxynil (bromoxynil
.
-3 ) propham ( chloropropham
. soil
.nitrification
-4 ) dalapon ( TCA
TCA microflora .
.
-5 ) DNOC ( dinoseb
. 25
.
-6
.
-7 ) paraquat ( diquat
.
-8 ) simazine ( atrazine
.
-9 ) monuron ( fenuron
.
DNOC
" ".
.
-
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
"
."probit analysis
.
.
.
.
10-5
30 . control
.
ryegrass
.
:
.
spectrophotometry
doublebeam spectrophotometer
gas chromatography GC
high performance liquid chromatography HPLC
ELISA
.
).(185 180 49
.
:
. bromoxynil : GC ).IR spectrometry (180
-
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
).(3
"
" " "
.
.
acute toxicity
.
chronic toxicity
.
) (184) (1
The United Kingdom Pesticide Safety
) Precautions Scheme .(151) (2
) acute oral lethal dose for 50% (LD50
.acute percutaneous LD50
- -
.
Danger Warning Caution
:
Danger
Warning
Caution
" " .
" " .
" 1 1/8
" .
-
)100 69
.(109
.
.
.
).(49
.
D-2,4
. "
D" (176)-2,4
.
.D.D.T
1939
.
).(125
dithiocarbamates
"
"
teratogenic .carcinogenic
nitrosamines .
ethylene thiourea
mutagenic )
.(112
chloropropham
) tetrachloroazobenzene (TCAB
dimethylaminoazobenzene )
.(56
"1972 1962"
D-2,4 T (1 :-2,4,5
)" 1 " 25 D-2,4
)" picloram (4 : 1 " 7.5 .
T-2,4,5
" TCDD" tetrachlorodibenzodioxine
" 0.045 0.022
0.0006
" .
T-2,4,5
" 5
5 " ).(112
) (36 35 23
).(37
11000
.
.
.
mangrove
1100
6 .
) .(56
) (153
.
.
) (135
.
.
.
.
.
)31 30 29 20 18
(122 120 102 )26 19
(28 27
.
.
.
).(160 134 132
.
).(72
) (119 117 -
-
.
.
.
.
1968
) Senecio vulgaris
biotype
( ) 2
.( photosystem II
)
(. 37
.
1989 57 ) 40
17 (
. 3
.
) .(187 270
).(188
ACCase ) WSSA
2003( ):(188
Species
Year
Alopecurus
myosuroides
Blackgrass
1.
Avena fatua
Wild Oat
2.
1985
3.
Avena sterilis
Wild Oat (sterilis)
1989
4.
Avena sterilis
ludoviciana
Sterile oat
1992 Italy
1996 France
1992
5.
1997
6.
Bromus diandrus
Great Brome
1999
7.
Cynosurus echinatus
HedgeHog DogTail
1999 Chile
1999
8.
Digitaria ischaemum
Smooth Crabgrass
1996
9.
Digitaria sanguinalis
Large Crabgrass
1994
2000
2000
13. Echinochloa
phyllopogon
Late Watergrass
1998
1990 Malaysia
1997 Malaysia *Multiple 2 MOAs
1990
1997 Bolivia
1997
2000
1996
2000 Colombia
2000
1987
1995
1993
1993
1996 Mexico
1997 Australia (New South Wales )
1998 Italy
1996
1997
1991
28. Snowdenia
polystachea
Ethiopian grass
1998 Ethiopia
1998
1991
1999 Bolivia
1999
Sudan Grass
.
:(188 ) (WSSA 2003 )
Herbicide Resistant Weeds by Country and Mode of Action
- click on a country for details.
#
Country
- click for
details
Total
A
B
C1
C2
D
K1
O
Other
ACCase ALS Triazine Urea/ Bypiri- Dinitro- Synthetic
Inhibitors inhibitor
Amide dilium aniline Auxin
1. Argentina
2. Australia
38
15
3. Austria
4. Belgium
18
5. Bolivia
6. Brazil
7. Bulgaria
8. Canada
39
14
11
9. Chile
10. China
11. Colombia
13. Czech
Republic
13
12
14. Denmark
15. Ecuador
16. Egypt
17. El Salvador
18. Ethiopia
19. Fiji
20. France
30
22
21. Germany
17
13
22. Greece
23. Guatemala
24. Honduras
25. Hungary
26. India
27. Indonesia
28. Ireland
29. Israel
19
11
30. Italy
12
31. Japan
16
32. Kenya
14
34. Mexico
36. Nicaragua
37. Norway
38. Panama
39. Paraguay
40. Philippines
41. Poland
42. Portugal
44. Slovenia
26
18
49. Sweden
14
11
51. Taiwan
52. Thailand
53. The
Netherlands
54. Tunisia
55. Turkey
56. United
Kingdom
23
57. USA
95
12
34
18
11
58. Venezuela
59. Yugoslavia
33. Malaysia
47. Spain
50. Switzerland
)
:(188) (WSSA 2003
Herbicide Resistant Weeds Summary Table
(by Saturday, February 1, 2003)
Herbicide Group
Click for details
Mode of Action
ALS inhibitors
Inhibition of acetolactate
synthase ALS
(acetohydroxyacid synthase
AHAS)
Chlorsulfuron
79
Photosystem II
inhibitors
Inhibition of photosynthesis at
photosystem II
C1
Atrazine
64
ACCase inhibitors
Diclofop-methyl
30
Synthetic Auxins
2,4-D
23
Bipyridiliums
Photosystem-I-electron
diversion
Paraquat
22
Inhibition of photosynthesis at
photosystem II
C2
Chlorotoluron
20
K1
Trifluralin
10
Thiocarbamates
and others
Triallate
Triazoles, ureas,
isoxazolidiones
Bleaching: Inhibition of
carotenoid biosynthesis
(unknown target)
F3
Amitrole
Glycines
Glyphosate
Chloroacetamides
and others
K3
Butachlor
C3
Bromoxynil
HRAC
Group
Example
Herbicide
Total
PPO inhibitors
Inhibition of
protoporphyrinogen oxidase
(PPO)
Oxyfluorfen
Carotenoid
biosynthesis
inhibitors
Bleaching: Inhibition of
carotenoid biosynthesis at the
phytoene desaturase step
F1
Flurtamone
(PDS)
Mitosis inhibitors
Inhibition of mitosis /
microtubule polymerization
inhibitor
Organoarsenicals
Unknown
Propham
MSMA
Arylaminopropionic Unknown
acids
Flampropmethyl
Pyrazoliums
Difenzoquat
Unknown
K2
272
WSSA ) Avena fatua
:"( " 188) (2003
HERBICIDE RESISTANT WILD OAT GLOBALLY
Avena fatua
#
Year Sites
Acres
Mode of Action
1.
2.
Australia (South
Australia)
1988 51-100
3.
Australia (New
South Wales )
1991 11-50
501-1000
4.
Belgium
1996 1
1-5
5.
Canada (Alberta)
1989 1001Multiple Resistance
10000
10000012000000
6.
>2000000
7.
Canada
(Saskatchewan)
1990 100110000
>2000000
8.
Canada (Alberta)
9.
1996 100110000
1000011000000
11. Canada
(Saskatchewan)
1996 100110000
1000011000000
12. Canada
1996 1001(Saskatchewan)
10000
Multiple Resistance
1000011000000
1000011000000
1998 11-50
18. Chile
1998 11-50
10001-
100000
19. France
1996 11-50
101-500
51-100
51-100
1990 51-100
1990 1
11-50
1991 51-100
27. USA (North Dakota) 1991 101-500 1001-10000 ACCase inhibitors (A/1)
28. USA (Washington)
1991 51-100
1992 11-50
10001100000
1996 2-5
11-50
501-1000
1996 11-50
1997 6-10
101-500
.(144)
-
.(179)
)
.(159
).(87
)43
.(141 75 52 )
(DCA, DMU
) (56 :
Denitrifiers
Nitrogen
N2
Nitrobacter
Nitrosomonas
Nitrosococcu
s
Nitrate
Nitrite
NO3-
NO2DMU inhibits
Azotobacter
Ammonium
NH4+
Nitrogen
N2
DCA inhibits
Trichoderma
viridis ) .(178
).(40
) .(113 64
- - Bacillus thuringiensis
).(137
) .(136
.
-
) .(127
) .(22
) (33 32 21
)
.(86
) lethal concentration for 50% (LC50 "24
48 72" .
.
"
"
).(56
.
) (49
.
1990/1991 ).(184
dichloroaniline
) .(56
"
"
.
).(3
) (110
.
. 1989 )
(116 1990
6 " 0.000006 "
0.1
) .(115
) .(108
.
) (24
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1992
2002
.
).(42
.
.
.
.
.
.
30
3
.
. 1 .
) /
(
1
Extremely hazardous
Highly hazardous
2
Moderately hazardous
3
Slightly hazardous
20
5
40
10
100 10
400 40
50 5
200 20
500 50
4000 400
500
2000 1000
4000
.2 .
) /
(
25
5
xxxx
Very toxic
xxx
Toxic
xxHarmful
x
--
50 5
500 50
500
200 25
2000 200
2000
50
10
100 10
1000 100
1000
400 50
4000 400
4000
) ( :
http://www.serc.si.edu/water_quality/water_quality_html/phyto.htm
"" :
/http://www.serc.si.edu/algae
:
http://www.weedscience.org/in.asp
:
http://www.weedscience.org/Summary/UspeciesMOA.asp?lstMOAID=2
http://www.weedscience.org/summary/CountrySummary.asp
http://www.weedscience.org/summary/MOASummary.asp
: ACCase
http://www.weedscience.org/ACCaseDist.GIF
:
http://www.weedscience.org/Summary/USpeciesCountry.asp?
lstWeedID=28&FmCommonName=Go
:
http://www.lewispublishing.com/herbs1.htm
http://www.landscaper.net/agent.htm
http://www.gmasw.com/ao_note1.htm
http://cpcug.org/user/billb/ranchhand/ranchhand.html
http://www.aun.edu.eg/distance/agriculture/weedsci/ch03.html
. Cactoblastis cactorum
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quadrigemina Chrysolina
Hypericum perforatum.
.
) (107
.
.
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5
.
.
.
.
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Artemisia tridentata
.
annae Orthezia Eumysia idahoensis
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.
-
.
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http://www.peds.arizona.edu/allergyimmunology/southwest/grass_weeds/grassweedp
ictable.html
.
.
.
.
:
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
-
native species introduced
relatives .
.
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thistle
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.
.
plant pathogens
.
jointvetch
Collectotrichum gloeosporioides
.
.
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.
.
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.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
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Alternanthra philoxeroides
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terrestrial weeds
aquatic weeds .
Myriophyllum spicatum
emersed
plant .floating plant
" "
" ".
.
Emex spinosa
Tribulus terrestris
disturbed areas
"
" .
.
.
.
-
.
.target plant
.
.
.
Chondrilla juncea Puccinia
chondrilliana .
.
plant mites
.
acarians
.
Aceria chondrillae
.
.
.
.
)(
) Ctenopharyngodon idella (
)41 39
.(143
-
.
.
. 51
.
.
.
.
. Chrysolina quadrigemina
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synchronization of damage
.
.
Teleonemia scrupulosa
Lantana
.
.
Senecio jacobaea
Tyria jacobaeae
.
.
.
.
.
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.
.
12
"
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-
indigenous exotic
.
. .
.
.
.
-1
"
" .
.
.
-2
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.
.
.
-3
.
.
.
. field
.cages
.
" "
.
.
.
-4
stenophagous
.
.
-
.
" nocturnal "
.
"
"
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.Dactylopins sp
" "Coccinellides .
D.D.T. "2 "
.
75
.
.
.Opuntia spp
Lantana Hypericum
Senecio jacobaea .
.
-
-1 .Prickly pear Cacti Opuntia spp
.
Opuntia inermis O. strica 60
Cactoblastis cactorum .
-2 Hypericum perforatum Klamath weed
.
Chrysolina quadrigemina .C. hyperici
" 2
%1 ".
%98 .
.
-3 Lantana camara Lantana
- 443 1962 .
Teleonemia scrupulosa
1902 .
: Catabena esula
Hypena strigata Syngamia haemorrhoidalis
Plagiohammus spinipennis
Octotoma scabripennis
Uroplata girardia
.
.
.
-4 Tansy ragwort Senecio jacobaea
.
Tyria jacobaeae
.
Hylemiya seneciella
Longitarsus jacobaeae
.
-
. Emex
australis E. spinosa
Apion antiquum .
Microlarinus lareynii
M. lypriformis Tribulus
terrestris .
-
-1 Alternanthera philoxeroides Alligator weed
1964 Agasicles hygrophila
.
Vogtia malloi 1971.
.
-2 Waterhyacinth Eichhornia crassipes
) Neochetina eichhornia ( N. bruchi
) ( ) " (
.
Sameodes
albiguttalis
) (48
.
:
/http://www.bio-control.com
/http://www.nysaes.cornell.edu/ent/biocontrol
: " "
http://www.nysaes.cornell.edu/ent/biocontrol/weedfeeders/neochetina.html
: ( )
http://aquat1.ifas.ufl.edu/biocontrol.html
:
http://aquat1.ifas.ufl.edu/neoch1.jpg
: ( )
http://www.wes.army.mil/el/aqua/apis/biocontrol/html/niphogr0.html
: ( )
http://www.wes.army.mil/el/aqua/apis/biocontrol/html/orthoga0.html
:
http://nas.er.usgs.gov/fishes/accounts/cyprinid/ct_idell.html
: ( )
/www.ces.ncsu.edu/nreos/wild/aquatics/weed/grasscarp
:
http://www.amsbowfishing.com/photos/carp.htm
http://www.agfc.com/rules_regs/fishing_regs_fish_type.html
:
http://www.sullysbowfishing.com/photoalbum3.asp
: ( " " )
http://www.junglephotos.com/animals/mammals/manatee.html
http://www.avesphoto.com/website/NA/species/COOAMC-1.htm
:
http://www.avesphoto.com/website/NA/home.htm
infrared
microwave
.
.
.
.
.
.
).(140 126 88 83 74
.
)) (171 82 12( .
grass carp
8000 ) 12( ).(128
.
) .(99) (13
.
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) 14(.
.
.
.
.
) .(124 68 10.6 .
1 96
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.
.
. .
.
.
.
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.
Striga asiatica witchweed .
.
" "
-
.
. .
) .( 60
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) (161 78
.
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.
.
.
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) (49 .
.
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.
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.
micro-encapsulation .
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.
.
.
.
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1.2 - 0.8 50
).(168
.
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.
antidotes safeners
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.(182 152 121 103 98 92
.
wild oats .
.
mycoherbicides
) .(167 165 164 163 162
.
.
.
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.
milkweed vine Phytophthora palmivora jointvetch
Collectotrichum gloeosporioides )
.(166 158
.
.
30
.
.
.
.
soil solarization .
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40 50 .
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.
) (111 .
.
. .
.
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.
.
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.
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).(96
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)94
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biotechnology
.
.
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.
.
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.
.
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.
glyphosate
. DNA Agrobacterium
DNA . ) ) (18
.(170
.
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).(133
bentazon
. .
) .(19
. .
.
picloram ) (20
).(149
.
: witchweed
http://hjem.get2net.dk/arne_larsen1/63striga1.html
: Verginia jointvetch
http://plants.usda.gov/cgi_bin/plant_profile.cgi?symbol=AEVI3
.
.
"
".
1922
.
.
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-
-
.
1550
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:
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.
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.
.
. .
.
.
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.
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. .
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.
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.
.
.
.
. .
.
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.
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.
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.
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.
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.
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( )
http://www.huis.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/~nomura/I/inuhoz4.html
( ) ...
()
http://ww1.clunet.edu/wf/chap/flowers/fwr-554.htm
( )
http://www.erowid.org/psychoactives/psychoactives.shtml
http://www.ulstermuseum.org.uk/flora/4022_p.htm
http://www.overthegardengate.net/garden/archives/template.asp?linkid=1403
http://ww1.clunet.edu/wf/chap/flowers/fwr-1350.htm
http://pages.tias.com/1931/PictPage/615951.html