Catechism

noma

Logic noma ukucabanga ekufundiseni

okuhloswe for
Eshaya nemfundo
izibonelo ezichaza kabanzi ezithathwe
kusukela
MG Th. Fechner

Leipzig
e Bookstore Baumgartner sika
1823

Okuqukethwe
Ebhadelwako
Okokuqala Isahluko Of the Division of Logic
Pure kunengqondo yokufundisa aphansi
Isahluko Sesibili Kusukela izinto ezinengqondo nezici
ISAHLUKO III Of imithetho phezulu yokucabanga
Isahluko Sesine of the imiqondo uwonke
Isahluko Sesihlanu emthamweni amagama
Isahluko Sesithupha izinga imigomo
Isahluko Sesikhombisa of the maqondana kanye modality amagama
ISAHLUKO VIII Of the izahlulelo in general
ISAHLUKO IX Of izahlulelo categorical
ISAHLUKO Kusukela sameness, kwakuwukuthi, ukuphikiswa inversion of
izahlulelo categorical
ISAHLUKO XI Of izahlulelo yezinto kanye disjunctive
ISAHLUKO XII Of umehluko phakathi kwezahlulelo nemisho mayelana nencazelo
yalo

ISAHLUKO XIII Of ezifundeni jikelele kanye insbesondre categorical

ISAHLUKO XIV Of iziphetho yezinto kanye disjunctive
ISAHLUKO XV Of the izifunda esifushanisiwe
ISAHLUKO XVI Of the izifunda elinemifanekiso
ISAHLUKO XVII Of the izifunda esiyinhlanganisela
Isahluko Seshumi Nesishiyagalombili izisu kanye fallacies
Pure Indlela kunengqondo
ISAHLUKO XIX isayensi, uhlelo kanye indlela
ISAHLUKO XX Of the izimemezelo
ISAHLUKO XXI Of izigaba
ISAHLUKO XXII Of the ubufakazi
Applied Elementarlehre
ISAHLUKO XXIII Of the izifo enengqondo (pathology kunengqondo)
ISAHLUKO XXIV Of the amakhambi enengqondo (Logical Therapeutics)
Isahluko XXV yokufuna ulwazi kanye ikakhulukazi isipiliyoni
ISAHLUKO XXVI Ayaqhubeka
ISAHLUKO XXVII Of the reflection
ISAHLUKO XXVIII Of the Communication of Knowledge

Ebhadelwako
Nakuba umqondo womuntu essence elula, ukuze umuntu angahlangabezana
ukuhlukanisa izingxenye neither yesikhashana noma kwendawo, ngakho njengenani
izinhlobo ezahlukene imisebenzi lapho iveza, ingcebo more kuye, lapho base
yalemisebenzi uyofunwa. Okokuqala, umehluko umcabango noma umthamo for
ulwazi kanye faculty of isifiso, ngamunye okungasetshenziselwa aphinde phezulu
futhi ukwehlisa kuye. The cognition eliphezulu uphathelene isizathu (ratio) kanye
nengqondo (ukuhlakanipha) kanye yokugcina okuqondene, ukwahlulela bodwa,
nakuba kuvame ubiza wonke eliphezulu emcabangweni ekukhalipheni noma isizathu
e nenye incazelo; the cognition ephansi iyona (theory) Ukwanelisa
inkanuko (sensualitas), futhi iqukethe le izinzwa bangaphandle umqondo
yangaphakathi, lapho yokugcina kungenziwa beirechnen umcabango. - With the
ucwaningo kanye nokunikeza imithetho yokuqala emcabangweni noma ulwazi
izimpahla, ziqasha ifilosofi theory, imithetho yokuqala faculty of isifiso practical.
The Ukwanelisa inkanuko bebonke iyigugu nombono (perceptiones), okuyinto
Seliziqedisisile zonke lwemibono ukuthi into owanikwa (into objectum) ngokuba

khona kwakhe kusilethela ngqo. Ngakho Ngithatha isihlahla weqiniso uma enjalo umi
ngempela phambi kwami, futhi kuyabonakala noma wazizwa ngami, ngakho
ngiyabona a beat lapho mina ngempela ngenxa okufanayo, ukudlala umsindo uma
ngempela umsindo ethathwa indlebe yami; lapho mina ukuqhathanisa isihlahla,
buhlungu noma kuzwakale kuphela bebonke kufanele acabange ngami ngaphandle
kokuba aphatha by phambi kwakhe phezu kwami, sasingeke kulindeleke ukuba
enze. Kusukela izinto kufanele yizwa sonke kudingeka abe khona ngempela, ukuze
sikwazi ukuqonda kalula ukuthi kungenzeka njalo nje, izinto single ezithile
okucatshangelwayo, lutho kodwa kubo ingalandwa noma kwabelwana axhunyiwe
therefrom; futhi lezi one has a isici esasenza imibono noma imibono ukuzwa of the
imiqondo nemibono (imibono of the ukuqonda kanye isizathu). Ezinye izibonelo
zizobonisa lokhu.
Uma ngibona incwadi ethile, wezwa umqondo ukuthi ngaleyo ndlela kwavusela
kimi Ukwanelisa inkanuko kwalo bezibona, ngoba kwalethwa phambi incwadi
ngokwayo kimi kangaka, futhi kuba incwadi eyodwa ethize, lokho
Ngiyacabanga. Uma Kwadingeka kodwa manje ngimbone izincwadi eziningana, izici
yami, lapho bonke bayavumelana lokhu abgemerkt, bese axhunyiwe engqondweni
yami, ngakho ngingathanda ukudabula co-ukucabanga lokhu, wonke gesehnen
yamakhophi ezincwadi zami bebonke kuthathwa izici, akukho mbono encwadini
ngoba incwadi ethile ebanjwe umcabango it in me, kodwa umqondo incwadi,
okungase kuthathe indawo umphefumulo wami ngempela ngokuzimela noma yiphi
incwadi esithile, lokho kakade uveza, ngoba yebo, umqondo encwadini konke
kumelwe ifanelane nayo yonke izincwadi, futhi ngenxa yalokho ngeke ukwethula a
real olulodwa. Ngokufanayo, lapho ngizwa izwi ethile, ngakho lokhu kwakha
umbono okufanayo kimi; Kodwa uma ngikubonile amathoni eziningana futhi
kuthathwe kulezi kunemibono lezo zici ndawonye, uthole kwabo bonke vele, ngakho
ngithola futhi ngokuhlanganisa okufanayo akukho umbono ithoni ezithile, kodwa
ezinye umqondo ithoni nhlobo, angikwazi ukwenza me ngaphandle umsindo phambi
kwayo, emcabangweni wami ithatha ukuqedela.
The kunemibono Kuphakathi intuitions (intuitiones) noma
emizweni (senationes), kuye ngokuthi umqondo, okuyinto phambi yayo
ekujabulisayo into ngqo, more kwi perceiver ngokwakhe (isihloko okuqonda) noma
into ziqondakala (into okuqonda) isekelwe. Ngakho, ngithi: Ngifuna indlu, umuthi,
umsindo phezu (ngoba ifilosofi izwi umuzwa hhayi nje kuphela imibono ukuthi thina
izindlela ngeke bawuthole umqondo emehlweni, isandla), ngakolunye uhlangothi:
Ngizizwa buhlungu, ngizizwa inhlalakahle, njll . Kuleso simo, njengoba kulokhu, I
uthole imibono by ebukhoneni izinto ngokwabo, ie yizwa, kodwa lapho kwenzeka
ubunjalo noma isimo impahla, indlu, umuthi noma kuzwakale ngaphezulu zibe
ukwazi yami, mina ubheke ngeso lengqondo yami kuphela kule, cabanga letintfo,
kodvwa hhayi kimi, kanti mBhalo, lapho lokujabulela kwenzeka siqu sami, le
perceiver, isimo, more zibe ukwazi, ngilandise umqondo more ngokwami, ngizenze
ukuze into umcabango wami, kodwa hhayi izinto ukuthi ejabule.
The Ukwanelisa inkanuko noma ukuqonda ekhululeka ngaphansi izinzwa
bangaphandle umqondo yangaphakathi. The izinzwa zangaphandle yibo okuyothi

sibheka isimo sezwe ngokomzimba futhi bazizwa, futhi kukhona ngokwabo

nakanjani nemizimba yenyama; lapha kukhona umgwaqo emangelengele ebizwa
izinzwa ezinhlanu kanye nomuzwa umphakathi ngokomzimba; kodwa umqondo
yangaphakathi ukwamukelwa, lapho thina, kwenzakalani emphefumulweni yethu
siqu, yizwa. Ngakho kukhona bezibona umuzwa wami ongaphakathi, lapho
ngiphawula mina, ukuthi nginguJehova happy, noma sad, noma azindle. Imicabango
Ungakwazi ukukhokha ngaso izinzwa elingaphakathi ngalo thina imibono levuka
ongekho noma okungakhulunywa nhlobo ngabo empeleni izinto ezikhona
ezingqondweni zethu perceive.
Uma senza nje fortune nombono, kanjalo singathanda ukwazi nemigomo jikelele
ukuthi nibuthana izihloko eziningana etholakala, isibonelo, imiqondo amandla,
ubuhle kanjalo bakwazi ukwenza zahluleka kithi, ngoba asisodwa, ngaphandle
neither bheka nor babone; yebo besingeke ngisho esivela izinto ezinengqondo a
umqondo. Ngoba uma ngithanda ukuba z. B. wabuka indlu, mina ngeke zazi ngisho,
kuyini ngokuyisisekelo wayevela emzini, lokho ngaleyondlela I lithathwa umqondo
endlini futhi yini kwadingeka niziyeke kuso. Uma benginguwe indlu yellow bheka
isibonelo enophahla oluyisicaba, umbono izongipha eminye bafundisa lutho kodwa
ukuthi onjalo indlu ume ngempela phambi kwami, futhi umbala ophuzi, kanye plateophahleni nje kubalulekile ukuba zenzeke ngombono wami, ukwedlula Walls and
ophahleni bebonke, lapho ngabona on okufanayo. Ungathanda kube umuzwa kanye
nomqondo ofanayo, kanjalo mina kwakuzofanele on a ekhaya, the inkomba in the
umqondo wokuthi indlu ibe yellow futhi kufanele babe nophahla elingajulile,
okuyinto akudingekile kodwa ngoba futhi izindlu nezinye imibala kanye ebukhali
uphahla kukhona. With okuzayo ngayinye entsha Ngakho eside yami zizoshintsha,
mina ngabe othathwa endlini eyodwa, futhi Ngizobe bagcina bengazi ukuthi mina
kufanele sicabange ngaphansi jikelele enjalo. Manje umphefumulo ngaphandle
ingcebo imibono kanye nemizwa lapho iya kuphela izinto ngabanye, kanye nekhono
abuthe izici kunemibono ehlukene, which they luqondane nomunye; lokhu,
kunemibono eziningana ukuxhuma ngokuhlanganyela kuthathwa izici bese uzindla
kwelinye. Ubuhlobo obunjalo izici ukuthi kukhona imibono kuvamile, ubizwa
ngokuthi nje umqondo (Notio, conceptus) kanye nekhono ukwakha imiqondo,
ingqondo. Ngokwesibonelo, uma mina nginaso nakakhulu izidalwa eziphilayo, ukuthi
ziqondakala umqondo zangaphandle noma ngisho ngokusebenzisa emcabangweni
wacabanga, kanjalo ingqondo yami uqhathanisa futhi baphawula ukuthi amanye lezi
zidalwa eziphilayo uthole izici kuningi enifana, ezifana. Njengoba impande, isiqu,
Amahlumela, amaqabunga, izimbali, izinkuni, nika umehluko, nezinye izici zingase
zihluke kubo. Izici ezivamile manje uqoqa ingqondo, yokuhlanganisa, futhi yakha
umqondo isihlahla Nokho ukuthi akuzona izici ezivamile, yeka kusukela umqondo
umuthi, lapho ukubona ngokwako akukwazi okungaphezu kwalokho has ukuthatha
subject ngamunye, njengoba izipho zakhe. Incazelo isib ubona isihlahla namahlamvu
ezicijile futhi izimbali ezimhlophe; ingqondo kodwa ukuthi Zackigsein amaqabunga
bese umbala omhlophe izimbali akuyona bexhumene umqondo zomuthi azibumbayo,
kungenjalo umuthi akukho amaqabunga jagged futhi izimbali ezimhlophe
kwadingeka, futhi zazo zikhona kodwa, akukho muthi kungaba uma kungenjalo

bavumelana zonke ezinye izici imiqondo yalo muthi kwakhiwa kakade. - Lo

msebenzi of the umqondo lokuzithola ngenxa lapho yena ndawonye ziphenywe izici
ezivamile futhi lebhokisi, ukuze kwenziwe imiqondo, wabiza umsebenzi
lenhlangotsimbili ingqondo, ngoba ngaleyo ndlela ligijima izici izinto
akhulume (discurrit) ukufunda out lelihambisana. Lapha kucatshangwa ukwehlukana.
Kulesi ukucabanga, noma okwenza imigomo eyodwa manje kungaba ukuhlukanisa
izenzo aphinde amaningana noma izenzo engqondweni. Okungukuthi, uma
sebuningini percep-imithetho anikwa, kusukela lapho ingqondo kufanele yakha
umqondo, kungaba ngokusho ngenhla akusho ukuthi niyazidinga zonke izici ukuthi
zifakwe kunemibono ngabanye, uma kungavamile ukuba nabo isibonelo kwethemu
ukwakha indlu, hhayi umbala ophuzi ukwakha umqondo yomuntu, hhayi wakheDress munye, nakuba lezi zici imibono eziningana ezahlukene, okuyizinto ukuqonda
enikeziwe ngokusebenzisa Ukwanelisa inkanuko evalekile. Ngakho, ngo ukuqonda
lezi zici, okungasekelwe kakhulu lihlotshaniswa namagama athi, afuna ukwenza,
njengoba kubukeka away, bathi, yena izifushaniso kusukela efanayo;Nokho,
ngakolunye uhlangothi, funa ingqondo izimfanelo okuyizinto ezibalulekile
ekwakhekeni term yakhe, futhi ngokwenza ikakhulukazi agxilisa ukunaka kwakhe
lokhu, bathi, yena sizindle ngazo.Ngokwesibonelo, uma ingqondo has imibono
yabantu abamnyama nabamhlophe, embethe naked phambi kwakhe, futhi ufuna
ukwenza lokhu umqondo yomuntu bebonke, kuba kusukela umbala omnyama
nomhlophe laba bantu, ukuze abstracting ngokuphelele kusukela embethe wakhe
noma unbekleidetsein ngoba lezi zici kungenziwa wanezela umqondo zabantu, ngoba
kungenjalo kungaba ezivamile kubantu bonke; ngakolunye uhlangothi nguye izici
ukuthi babe abantu abamnyama nabamhlophe, embethe naked in common, khomba,
isibonelo, amabombo, izandla nezinyawo, ingqondo, njll
Ukuqoshwa manje enjalo izici ezivamile umqondo ubizwa ngokuthi ukuzimisela,
nebudlelwano bawo kanye nomunye inhlanganisela. Ukuzimisela namanje lihlukile
reflection: Ngoba wena ungakwazi kubonise noma abuke isici in an umuzwa, ngoba
kwakubonakala isithunzi lokuqala emva efanelekayo ukwakheka umqondo, noma
awukabi wazi ukuthi uvumelane noma Akafanele kube babekwazi, lokho nje manje
ufuna ukuhlola ngokusebenzisa reflection, kodwa emva senqaba zithi
ayifaneleki. Ngokwesibonelo, lapho mina Ekuqaleni khomba umbala isici white,
ngoba kwakubonakala lapho uqala, sengathi kufakwe umqondo abantu kanye, noma I
kuphela ufuna ukuphenya ukuthi engeyakhe umqondo yomuntu; ngasemuva kodwa
uthole ukuthi kukhona abantu abamnyama, ngakho mina shiya ukuzimisela reflection
akukabikho, kodwa aphinde abstracting kusukela white ibala lesikhumba; uma
ngenza, kodwa wayecabanga inhloko abantu, futhi manje uthole ukuthi ngempela
bonke abantu kungokwalabo inhloko, ngakho mina ake kulandele ukuzimisela
reflection, ukuthi ngithathe ngempela isici ikhanda nomuntu term in and sihlanganise
naye nezinye izici ukuthi ngase kakade. Kulezi imisebenzi ehlukahlukene uphawula
umehluko kuyinto impahla Abstraction, reflectivity, futhi inhlanganisela
Determinationsvermgen futhi ekuqondeni. - Phela, kuhle ukuphawula ukuthi
ingqondo akuyona nje olukwazi ukwakha imibono of emphakathini wabo
ngokusebenzisa iqoqo izici imiqondo, kodwa ukuthi yena angenza ezinye izinto futhi

kusukela emicabangweni aphinde ngokucabanga izici ezivamile.Ngokwesibonelo,

kusukela ukuqonda, ukulunga, ubuvi kanye nezinye izimfanelo ezinhle zomuntu,
okuyizinto imigomo abazalwa, angakwenza, yilokho ungowabo ngokuhlanganyela,
kufinyeta noma kuhlangene, yakha umqondo amandla. Esinye isibonelo: Uma
umuntu obuka inani izinambuzane ngabanye, ngakho angakwazi mema izici
ezifanayo ezivamile, futhi kwakhiwa umqondo izinambuzane ngaso sonke; Ngaphezu
kwalokho, lapho ebona inani izinyoni, kungenza umqondo inyoni kuyo yonke le
futhi; kanye izinhlanzi imigomo, Sugtier njll.; kodwa manje angakwazi phinde
ucabangele wonke imigomo ngazinye, isinambuzane, inyoni, inhlanzi, njll
ngokuqonda kwakhe, futhi ngo-ndawonye wazihlola ezijayelekileko, okwabangela
ifomu isilwane umqondo; yena manje uye ngaphambili kwakhiwa umqondo plant,
ngakho angakwazi kabusha mema izici Community of the imiqondo izilwane
nezitshalo, futhi kusukela umqondo uMuntu ifomu organic njll .., ukuze kanjalo
omunye ubona kanjani ingqondo njalo ephakeme ngokuvumelana nayo ongama kuze
ekugcineni kuziwa on jikelele kakhulu, okuyizinto ezivamile kuzo zonke izinto, like
umqondo wokuba. - The ingqondo kumelwe asizwe yonke imisebenzi yayo
sahlulelo. Omunye nje okungukuthi izinto uqobo, kodwa futhi maqondana nezinye
imibono. Ngokwesibonelo, indlu angikwazi ukuzicabangela ubuhle nje par; kodwa
mina Ungacabanga zisekelwe umbala ophuzi; esimweni sokuqala enginakho noma
umqondo yangampela noma umuzwa okuhlanzekile ekhaya, kodwa, njengoba
ngabeka ubuhlobo phakathi umbala ophuzi kanye indlu omunye icala, ngithi: Mina
ukwahlulela ukuze indlu ziphuzi noma indlu noma zonke izindlu hhayi aphuzi
aphuzi, njll izahlulelo. It is kalula kuyabonakala ukuthi ukuzimisela inhlanganisela
empeleni ukwahlulela eyodwa kuphela, futhi umuntu angabona ke ukwahlulelwa
ngokwayo nayo kulindeleke ukuba nokuqonda, okuhlanganisa labo imisebenzi. Search manje isisekelo sokwahlulela kwenye, ngaleyo ndlela uqondisa omunye
nomunye, ngakho lokhu kubizwa Close. Ngokwesibonelo, lapho ngithi zonke
izidalwa eziphilayo basaphila, inja uMuntu organic, ngakho inja uyaphila; Mina
ivaliwe; ngoba Enginakho isigwebo: Inja uyaphila, isahlulelo: zonke izidalwa
eziphilayo bayaphila, elisuselwa. I lokuvala umsebenzi eyinqaba okucabanga, futhi
ngenxa ukwahlulelwa namanje engaqinisekile uma iqiniso kwawo elisuselwa noma
bazinqumela kusuka kwenye, njengoba last kungenziwa kuphela baphetha onjalo into
jikelele ngempela per se - ngoba uma kungenjalo kuzodingeka iqiniso layo
kungukuthi ivaliwe uqobo aphinde - njengoba omunye ubhala futhi isizathu ukwazi
of the eliphelele jikelele, kanye maqondana layo kuze eziphuthumayo kanye ethize
ukuze, obizwa nangokuthi kahle ezifana term jikelele olungenamkhawulo umcondvo,
okuyinto kweliphezulu, kangakanani umoya womuntu kungavusa. Lezi izihlokwana
zihlanganisa imibono kaNkulunkulu, inkululeko.
In the imisebenzi ingqondo, amandla lokwahlulela isizathu, okusho ukwakha
imiqondo, izahlulelo futhi iziphetho, kukhona ukucabanga ngaleyo ndlela kuphela
kungokwalabo phezulu emcabangweni, ngoba Ukwanelisa inkanuko inikeza
esebenzisa imibono yabo nje indaba for umqondo. Manje ungakwazi ukubheka
ukucabanga ngezindlela ezimbili; ngisho nje. imibono ukuthi zenzeka lapho
becabanga ukuthi, lapho libhekwa maqondana zabo omunye komunye, ngaphandle

uma kubhekwa izinto ngokwabo, lapho luzokwethulwa Ngokwesibonelo, lapho

ngithi umuntu kuyinto enengqondo, noma: Isilwane akunangqondo, ukuze ngikwazi
ngalokhu waive izinto ezingafaneleki eyethulwe imigomo abantu, izilwane kanye
ukucabangela, ngokuphelele, futhi sinake kuphela ukuthi aphathe ihlandla ngempela
sisekelwe phezu kwezinye, njengoba kunjalo esimweni sokuqala, noma ngabe
uvezwa njengoMahluleli ayihlobene kanjani esimweni sesibili, noma ngabe i gama
ngokuvamile kusekelwe ezahlukene a (isib bonke abantu ofayo) noma bebonke (isib
ezinye Amadoda kukhona ofayo), njll, ukuze Ngakho-ke akwenzi mahluko lapha,
lokho letigcogcwe ngaphambilini ngikhuluma, ngoba ngikhetha kuphela ngesimo
isigwebo, uma kuba lokulungisa, negative, jikelele kumbe ngokukhethekileyo, njll
zibe ukucabangela. Kulokhu, ke, amazinga kukhona: UNkulunkulu uMninimandla
onke, isilwane ndlela, umuthi oluhlaza, layo yonke efanayo, ngoba lapha imibono
enamandla, onganeliseki ngokudla, bonke green in the zinhlobo efanayo imibono
kaNkulunkulu, isilwane, ahlobene umuthi, nakuba animal, umuthi, njll sihluke
kakhulu nomunye. Ebheka nje umcabango leli khasi, ngakho ubizwa ngokuthi
ukucabanga esisemthethweni noma kohlaziyo, futhi cishe uyazibuza ubuhle
par; Lapha omunye akanandaba izinto kucatshangwa, kodwa nje endleleni lapho
imibono axhunyiwe. Kodwa uma sizinika isikhathi esifanayo lapho ngicabanga
endabeni ukucabangela, lapho kucatshangwa futhi kubhekwe ubuhlobo imibono
bodwa (njengoba ekucabangeni kohlaziyo), kodwa izinto zalo, ubizwa ngokuthi
impahla noma zokwenziwa ukucabanga, noma ngisho aqaphele, lapho ukucabanga
ahlaziye, ukucabanga kubizwa par. Ngakho iqiniso esisemthethweni kokubili ukuze
nikwazi ukwahlukanisa ukucabanga iqiniso omkhulu. Umusho kungaba
ngokusemthethweni kahle futhi ayiqiniso uma akuyena kuyenyanyeka imithetho
yokucabanga esisemthethweni, kodwa impahla engafanele. Uma ngithi, isibonelo:
Zonke lezi zimbali white, ngakho lesi sigwebo ngalokusemtsetfweni ilungile ngoba
ubuhlobo obunjalo jikelele imibono hhayi engqubuzanayo lokhu kungenziwa
ngempela kwenziwe ngokuvumelana nemithetho yokucabanga esisemthethweni
kusuka elimhlophe flower, futhi kulapha konke okufanayo ukuthi imibono imbali
noma umuthi noma mhlophe noma lube mnyama ngaleyo ndlela alala isisekelo,
inqobo nje ukuthi imibono ngokwabo axhunyiwe omunye komunye ngendlela
efanele, ngakho isigwebo has a shape ilungelo.Material Nokho, noma ngaphansi
kwemithetho cognition isigwebo: Zonke lezi zimbali white, okungalungile ngoba
uma mina ngempela bakhetha izinto iplanethi ngokwabo, imbali nombala omhlophe
acabangele, ngithola ukuthi akubona bonke Izimbali white. Kodwa leso sicelo:
Animal akuyona isilwane, kungaba ngokusemthethweni okungalungile, ngoba
uzogcinwa nje okungalungile, ngisho noma ngithatha izilwane ukubeka into,
okuyinto I nje owake wayifuna; ukuze Ngakho falsity zayo angeke kube lapha
ngokwakhe ngenxa yesimo into, kodwa uhlobo olungafanele uxhumano imibono
ngokwabo, futhi kufanele kube ke ngesimo sokwahlulela. - Ngaphandle kwalezi
zinhlobo ezimbili, ukucabangela imibono noma nje maqondana nomunye ngokwabo,
noma maqondana izinto zabo, ungase futhi ucabangele lokho ngezinga emibonweni
izinto ezithile umuzwa wenjabulo noma ukungathokozi ukuvusa kithi elingakanani
isib nokucabanga omuhle ebusweni injabulo, noma i ugly grimace horror ongenza
kithi; okungukuthi ngokuthi ezifweni ukuba lomusa injabulo nobuhlungu, yini

imibono vusa kithi kunambitheka.

Ngemva kwalezi izindlela ezintathu ebuka imibono yethu, iphuka ifilosofi theory
zibe izingxenye ezintathu eziyinhloko, logic, elibhekene nomse- imithetho yokuqala
yokucabanga esisemthethweni, futhi ukucabanga ozifundisayo
Schlechtweg; Metaphysics, elibhekene nomse- imithetho izinto noma ukucabanga of
cognition original, ngakho ubizwa ngokuthi epistemology; ekugcineni aesthetics
noma theory ka ukunambitheka, okuyinto umthetho ukumelwa kanye nokwamukelwa
izinto, indlela bavusa umuzwa wenjabulo noma ukungathokozi kithi.
It kuphakama kusukela kuyabonakala ukuthi logic angeke aphawule ubunjalo
izinto ezibalwe ngenhla sizifundise thina, ngoba ungacabangi imibono maqondana
enjalo, kodwa kuphela maqondana omunye komunye. By the logic of amaqiniso
amasha zingaba wathola, kodwa ungabheka ukuthi amaqiniso ngalo okukholakala
ukuthi bathola, empeleni zivumelana uhlobo ukucabanga kwethu ubuhlakani
kodwa;libonise indlela lisuselwa amaqiniso atholakala ngempela namanye
amalungelo resale, futhi amaphutha ukuthi ibangele bedidekile, engalungile
yokucabanga Vula. I logic akakwazi ukufundisa sicabange, kodwa can kodwa
imithetho okuzohlolwa ngayo ukucabanga ebanjwa, ubeke ngokucacile kithi
engqondweni, futhi kanjalo kusibeke sesimweni wambule lapho bengekho kubo,
amaphutha abo; angakhombisa us esinakho ukukhokha uma sifuna ukuba sihlole
iqiniso loluhlelekile umqondo, Urteiles noma ukulahlekelwa.

Okokuqala Isahluko
Of the Division of Logic
+
Umbuzo. Iyini logic? Phendula. Logic yingxenye ifilosofi theory, okwenza
nathi ujwayelene imithetho (lesihlelekile nobe kohlaziyo) ukucabanga. Kodwa
abazange bacabange umcabango, maqondana njengoba kubhekisela izinto
ezithile, kodwa lifundisa kuphela imithetho yokucabanga bebonke, ngakho
ibonisa, kulokho uhlobo zonke izinto kumele wacabanga, uma kade phakade
ezahlukene kanjalo.Ngenxa yalokho, manje kubhekwe nje indlela yokucabanga
kukodwa, ibuye bathi bakhetha nje ngesimo imicabango ukucabangela,
ngakolunye uhlangothi kusukela daba yokucabanga, oqonda ngaphansi lapho
Okuynqo iplanethi izinto, bambalala noma abstracting.
F. Indlela lokuhlanganyela logic?
A. A umehluko okokuqala zonke logic
jikelele kanye ethize. The amadili yangaphambili kanye ngesimo mcabango jikelele,
futhi ibizwa nangokuthi logic aphansi, lona wamuva imithetho for umbono wesayensi
ikakhulukazi, futhi ngenxa yalokho ngeke etfulwe ngekwehlukana kulezi.
F. lihlukaniswe kanjani logic jikelele?
A. Okokuqala in the okuhlanzekile
futhi isicelo. Logic Pure, imithetho yokucabanga on wonke kubo ngokwabo, ukuthi,

ekuqaleni owawuse-cognition ephakeme ukuthi isicelo ngokumelene bumunca izimo

ezehlukene acabangele, okuyinto isicelo zalabo imithetho kuncike; isib izimo
ezingaholela ukuba izahlulelo bamanga, futhi kuvimbe zindlela.
F. lihlukaniswe kanjani logic okuhlanzekile?
A. In the (pure) yokufundisa
aphansi kanye (mere) Indlela. Lo mdlali ubheka izenzo ingqondo, njengoba
imiqondo, izahlulelo futhi amasu okuqondisisa ngamunye, futhi ucacisa imithetho
ngalo ncisheka kanjalo; okokugcina lifundisa ukunikeza esebenzisa ukwelashwa
ofanele ngalabo ukusebenza ulwazi lwesayensi esinalo a amakhono ukucabanga
ifomu elifanele, futhi kanjalo ihlobene nalokho kungabonakala nasemkhakheni
izimemezelo, dispositions futhi ubufakazi.
F. Indlela ukwabelana logic isicelo a?
A. Ngisho a (isicelo) ukufundisa
aphansi a (isicelo) Indlela. Lo mdlali uphathelene Umbono wokuthi umsuka
enengqondo futhi isitifiketi iphutha (pathology enengqondo), kanye isifundiso
izindlela ngokumelene amaphutha (therapy kunengqondo); amadili yokugcina
yokufuna kanye zokuxhumana ulwazi.

Pure kunengqondo yokufundisa aphansi

Second Isahluko
Kusukela izinto ezinengqondo nezici
F. Siyini izinto enengqondo futhi absurdities enengqondo? A. A into
enengqondo (njll logicum) Yilokho okungenzeka siqondene imithetho ingqondo, uma
akusiyo ngempela uthola in the world nakho; a engenangqondo
enengqondo (nonene logicum) ngokumelene lokho futhi angeke ngisho
wacabanga. Into enengqondo futhi engenangqondo kufanele kube esihlukile izinto
zangempela futhi absurdities akungabazeki, okuyinto yangaphambili osezweni nakho
uthola ngempela, lona wamuva hhayi.
F. Yiziphi izibonelo ezibonisa ukuthi lokhu? A. Isilwane, yini ukuma udrako,
noma usayizi enjalo abalidlayo, ukuthi siyitholile wenyanga emuva, kungaba yinto
enengqondo ngoba, lutho kusivimbela us ukucabanga okunjalo isilwane; Nokho
kungaba ubuwula Okuynqo, ngoba akuyona ngempela uthola in the world nakho. A
circle square kodwa, noma iqabunga, ukuthi ngabe ngesikhathi esifanayo
nasendaweni efanayo green hhayi green, enye kuzodingeka ukuba ubambe ngempela
hhayi kuphela kodwa nezalo absurdities enengqondo, ngoba lokho futhi akakwazanga
ngisho icatshangwe. Omunye angabona kulezi zibonelo, ukuthi izinto eziningi
ezinengqondo kungenzeka, ngakho lapho akuzona izinto zangempela,; ngakolunye
uhlangothi kumele ngamunye into yangempela, maqondana njengoba has
ngenhlonipho kithi, angase abhekwe njengomuntu into enengqondo, ngoba
kungenjalo alikwazanga wacabanga, futhi ngenxa yalokho ngathi kanye
babengekho. - By the way, into enengqondo - and kuphela ezinjalo kungase kube the

logic of the umbuzo - ngokuyisisekelo lutho ngaphezu umqondo, noma umqondo

engqondweni.
F. Yini eyenza yinto?

A. By izici.

F. Yiziphi izici? A. Izici (notae) imibono lapho afakiwe ezinye izingxenye

lwemibono, futhi ngaleyo ndlela uvumele imibono more ihluke
nomunye. Ngokwesibonelo, isihlahla, iqabunga isici, ngoba kuyinto umqondo ukuthi
uhlanganisiwe njengengxenye isethulo wonke umuthi, futhi ungakwazi ukuhlukanisa
nabo imibono yesilwane, indlu, njll ngaleyo ndlela. Omunye ubiza izici kahle
izakhiwo, imithetho, ukubhaliswa, isilandiso izinhlamvu. Kuphela maqondana
luxazululwe into enjalo kungaba wacabanga, futhi into ayengeke sici ikhona kanye
hhayi ngenxa izingqondo zethu, alikwazanga wacabanga.
F. kanjani ukuhlukanisa izici? A. In nenzalo yangaphakathi nangaphandle,
lokulungisa futhi negative, kubalulekile futhi non-kubalulekile, original kanye
elisuselwa, nenkhulumombiko, evundile futhi.
F. Yiziphi izici yangaphakathi nangaphandle? A. Inside noma izici ngokuphelele
yilawo, ongenzanga into ngokwakho, anqume; izici zangaphandle, kodwa ukuthi
ubizwa nangokuthi isihlobo noma izici ubuhlobo noma isilinganiso, anqume kuphela
ubuhlobo noma ubuhlobo lowo into komunye izinto. Ngakho, isiqu, impande, leaf,
imbali, izici ingaphakathi of the tree, ngoba ukuchaza umqondo ofanayo ngaphandle
kokubheka ezinye izinto; ngokumelene lokuthi isihlahla kuye kwanda emhlabeni,
noma ukuthi isizwe sakhe has a ethile ngomunye umuthi, kukhona abayikho
ngaphandle noma ubuhlobo, ngoba nje ukucindezela isilinganiso yalo kwezinye
izinto. Into ukuba lapho isilinganiso kusho ubudlelwane Merkmales lubonakala,
njengoba kunjalo esimweni ngenhla, umhlaba, owenza Mitbezogene noma
correlate. Ngakho izici ingaphandle ukuba bonke a correlate.
F. Yiziphi izici lokulungisa nemibi A. izici Affirmative noma emihle yilabo
eyenza umuntu acabanga njengoba into ngempela okuqondene into; negative noma
negative Ngakolunye uhlangothi, esinganikela ngawo khipha into
into. Ngokwesibonelo, red, elifudumele, ngokushesha kuyizici lokulungisa, ngoba
ukuveza izindawo ukuthi into ekhona ngempela; Nokho, uncolored, kungukuthi
ukuxoxa izici ezingezinhle, ngoba lapho benicwasa izakhiwo kusukela khona
into. Uma negative esinye isici ephika futhi, ngakho kudala isici isenzangakhona; isib
do not uncolored kufana namabala isici ngoyebo.
F. Yiziphi izici ezibalulekile futhi non-kubalulekile? A. izici
Main (essentialia, izimfanelo) yilabo ukuba abaye uze izinto imaginary kunini futhi
uthole kunesidingo uma leli gama akulona ngempela omunye ukuba yezinto
ngokwabo. Ngokuphambene, izici non-abalulekile (accidentalia), olubizwa
nangokuthi ngephutha, yohlobo ukuthi bengathathi into kanye ukumelana, ngakhoke
angase abhekwe kude ngisho kusukela efanayo, ngaphandle kokushintsha umqondo
walo bebonke. Ngakho, ngokwesibonelo, isici ukunyakaza yokuzithandela
kubalulekile ezilwaneni, ngenxa yokuthi kuthatha zonke izilwane kangaka yonke
futhi ngokungaguquki, ukuthi isidalwa siswele lesi sici kungaba okubalulekile ngoba
akukho silwane kodwa isitshalo noma okunye kuzodingeka ukuba kube

yinto; Nokho, isici ezine izinyawo kuyinto ebalulekile ngempela izilwane, kusukela
kukhona izilwane kanye esingaphezu noma esingaphansi kuka amane izinyawo, futhi
umqondo isilwane ngokuvamile uhlala zishintshe, okufanayo, nakuba Angicabangi
uphawu ezine izinyawo. - The izici ezibalulekile into kuthathwe ndawonye ukwenza
essence yayo, futhi lokhu izinto noma kuphela eziphethwe (izimfanelo propria),
noma uze ngisho ezinye izinto ukuba, (izimfanelo communia); ngakho isici
ukunyakaza yokuzithandela emhlabeni, okungenani, izidalwa isilwane intrinsically
kuphela; isici ebalulekile yokudla kodwa futhi unamathele isitshalo. - Izici Physical
kungaba akukho ephawulekayo, ngoba nje ukuveza ubudlelwano nezinye izinto,
kodwa lezi angaphansi ukushintsha.
F. Yiziphi izici original futhi lisuselwa? A. izici Original (notae originariae,
primitivae, radicales) yilezo eqondiwe hhayi kuphela ngenxa yezinye izizathu,
elisuselwa (derivativae s. Consecutivae)Ngakolunye uhlangothi, lezo zinto njengoba
ukulandela nezinye izici yakhona iyakuphenduka ixazululwe. Ngakho focus kuyinto
isici sokuqala ithuluzi cutting, kodwa ikhono layo ukuze ahlukanise yimuphi
umgwamanda, ngokusekelwe lolu lwazi; isici sokuqala of a circle ukuthi wonke
amaphuzu ayo projecting equidistant iphuzu inikezwe; ukuthi kuyinto line
esiyisigwegwe, ngokusekelwe lolu lwazi.
F. Yiziphi izici nenkhulumombiko? A. esisheshayo noma izici olandelayo yilawo
angamadodana subject alinganayo ixazululwa ngokwayo, engaqondile noma
ngokumelene ezikude labo aphinde okokuqala kuze kube komunye sici subject, bese
kuphela maqondana on Isihloko ngokwayo, ibhekisela. Ngokwesibonelo, ishidi
kungaba isici ngqo esihlahleni, ngoba ngokufanayo libhekisela esihlahleni
ngokwayo; green umbala Ngokuphambene yalo isici engaqondile, ngoba ubhekisela
kuphela lokhu Journal, futhi kuphela esebenzisa esihlahleni.
F. Yiziphi izici evundile futhi inzalo? A. izici evundile yilabo ezakha izici
eziningi kungenziwa etholakala, futhi ngenxa yalokho okungase kudinge ukukhonza
ukuhlukanisa intfo kwezinye izinto. Izici nenzalo Nokho, yilabo lapho lokhu
akuzenzakaleli.
Isahluko Sesithathu
Of imithetho phezulu yokucabanga
F. Ingabe ingqondo at nizuze izici indlela ezintweni emva okudlulayo khulula,
noma uboshelwe imithetho ethile? A. Kunjengoba lutho eyenzekayo emhlabeni
ngaphandle imithetho, esiqonda kuphela imithetho ethile, lapho yena kumele bagcine
uma ukucabanga kwakhe ukuba abe (lehlelekile) iqiniso. Ngubani ucabanga lokhu
kuphambene, kunengqondo ukucabanga enganembile noma azilungile. The logic
lisitshela nje kuphela okwashiwo mithetho; kodwa kunalokho ayakuma kakhulu
kangaka kule uhlobo izingqondo zethu, ukuthi ngamunye futhi balandela ngokungazi,
lapho uphila kuphela ngomqondo ezejwayelekile ezivamile. The logic lapha has lutho
okunye ukwenza kuka ukwenza izingqondo zethu kucace.
F. Yiziphi umthetho phezulu yokucabanga enengqondo? A. Isimiso ukuphikisa
noma ukuphikisana (principium contradictionis s repugnantiae.); isimiso sokulingana

universal (Isimiso identitatisabsolutum.); isimiso inyumbazane Ephakathi noma

besithathu (PR. exclusi medii s. tertii) kanye isimiso esanele (PR.
rationis sufficientis). Lezi zimiso ezine ngokuvamile kuyancipha njengoba imithetho
eyisisekelo yokucabanga. Krug ngokuthi isimiso ukuphikisa kanye isimiso mqondo,
futhi ubeka kuye isimiso upholavuthondaba, isimiso esanele, izinga Nokho, ubizwa
nangokuthi of synthesis, iqoqo ukulingana ngokulingana noma Beziehungsweisen
njengoba imithetho main yokucabanga ekhasini ,
F.? Kuyini isimiso ukuphikisana A. One uyiveza kanjalo None zinto izici
eziphikisanayo, noma: into ngayinye izici ngazwilinye kuphela ukuza. Okungukuthi
kubizwa izici eziphikisanayo enjalo, enye yazo cishe usula lokho ezinye umise, futhi
angase abhekwe never kangaka bahlanganiswe kwelinye izinto. Okunjalo izici
eziphikisanayo kukhona isib green hhayi green; ofayo hhayi ofayo. Omunye kungaba
futhi ukuveza lesi simiso ukuze: kungaba khona A ucabanga ukuthi uzoba A
ngesikhathi esifanayo; bethi A nanini phi sici noma into, yini umuntu angabona
kuphela efuna kuqondwe.
F.? Yiziphi izibonelo lapho ukufanekisa isimiso ukuphikisana A. Ngokusho
isimiso ukuphikisana ingenye awukwazi ukucabanga ngento eyodwa ngesikhathi
esisodwa esiyindilinga hhayi nxazonke;into ubuye itafula futhi hhayi itafula, isithelo
emthini bear ngesikhathi esifanayo futhi akukho izithelo. Konke lokhu kungaba
kuwukuphikisana, lapho ngabe uqede isici lokho ezinye umise.
F. ulubizela yini angase abhekwe isimiso ukuphikisana ngokusho, noma lokho
kwakusho ukuthini? A. kungenzeka yini okucatshangwa okufanayo, kuba
ngokunengqondo kungenzeka, futhi yilona zinga ibizwa ngangizitshela
ngokunengqondo Okuynqo noma into enengqondo. Ukuthi into enengqondo, kodwa
futhi akufani in the world nakho kuyadingeka ukuze kuhlinzekwe vorfindend is
ezibalulwe ngenhla.- Noma ubani ocabanga isimiso ukuphikisana ngokusobala
baphikiswa, ngalokho okwakubonakala sengathi kusukela lapho bethi wacabanga
okungenangqondo.
F. Kuyini nakakhulu lapho ukuba umthetho ukuphikisa, ukuze angalibali kahle?
A. Kungenzeka izici zangaphandle ukuthi ukuveza ubudlelwano nje futhi
ubudlelwano ukuthi kubonakale sengathi abanye babecabanga yabo futhi obumbene
eziphikisanayo into. Ngokwesibonelo, cishe kusho umuntu oyedwa: Muhle amade,
kanti kwezinye izindlela aphinde: Akayena enkulu. Kodwa okokuqala ubuka,
mhlawumbe maqondana intuthwane, okwesibili maqondana indlovu; Ngakho
ugcizelela lapha ukuthi ubuhlobo hhayi kulokho okuye esabekwa amanye, njengoba
ngokumelene umuntu intuthwane Nokho okukhulu, ngokumelene izindlovu
ingenkulu, kanti okukhombisa ke kuphela nkulumo, hhayi kokufaneleka. Kufanele
kuqashelwe, ngaphezu kwalokho, ukuthi isimiso ukuphikisana isebenza kusukela
ngesikhathi esifanayo futhi isikhala efanayo kuphela, ngoba umuntu angaba,
isibonelo namuhla, hhayi kusasa kube mnandi futhi funny; noma obomvu in the face
and on the izingalo hhayi Lobovu.Ngokuphambene, akunakwenzeka ukuba sicabange
umuntu belungafica ngesikhathi esifanayo funny hhayi funny, futhi red endaweni
efanayo futhi hhayi olubomvu.

F.? Kuyini isimiso sokulingana universal noma sameness A. It odlulela kanje:

nto ngamunye ilingana ngokwayo, noma: Wonke into isivumelwano naye, noma
ngisho: A abalinganayo A. Okungukuthi, ngoba into kuphela kungenziwa
uyicabangisise izici, futhi uyokwenza izici kuhlangene umqondo lonke izinto; kanye
nezici into iplanethi kanye nomqondo ofanayo kumele ilingane
ngokuphelele. Ngaphezu kwalokho, lesi simiso akusho lutho. Ngokwesibonelo,
igama elithi: circle, kanye nezici, line, yonke indawo equidistant iphuzu away,
kuthathwe ndawonye, sebefikile ngokuphelele omunye; ngoba ngicabanga nje kuze
circle; by I afingqe izici okukhulunywa.
F. Yini iziphetho kungenziwa sisuselwa isimiso sameness? A. Into, lapho uthola
zonke izici umqondo, okuyinto sihlanganisa umqondo ngokwayo kumele ixazululwe,
futhi lapho bantula izici, ezingeke uthole ngisho term uqobo; Ngaphezu kwalokho,
lokho kuyiqiniso izici umqondo, okuyilona elisebenzayo futhi imiqondo ngokwabo,
futhi, izimfanelo awafani, ngisho umqondo ngokwayo ezahlukene.
F.? Kuyini isimiso inyumbazane besithathu noma Ephakathi A. Ibizwa
nangokuthi isimiso ukuzimisela jikelele sikhohlwe it out like lokhu: Ukuze ngezinga
elingakanani into kunqunywa wazalwa ngokungaguquki, kumele inikezwe kuye
kwenzeka cishe okuphambene izici eyodwa. Ngakho into eyodwa kumele noma
round noma cha nxazonke, njengoba white noma non-white, ubhekwe njengethuluzi
bephila noma njengoba abaphili. Ibhayisikobho onjalo izici zazo okuphambene noma
ziyangqubuzana ingqondo njalo ngenkani ukuba bakhethe omunye, futhi axazulule
into (kokubili ngesikhathi esifanayo yena uvunyelwe emva isimiso sokuqala hhayi)
futhi akukho sici wesithathu noma phakathi lokho mayelana esikhundleni ungomunye
okuphambene ezimbili kungase kuthathe esikhathini; yingakho igama lesi
simiso. Omunye kungaba futhi ukuveza lesi simiso ukuze: ngasinye sekufundza
kuchazwa ngokuthi consistently bengavumi kufanele noma uthumele sici ngasinye
noma cha.
F. Uyini umthetho esanele? A. One sikubeka ngale ndlela: Link ngamunye ukuba
isethwe nge asebezifinyelele kakade njengoba isizathu noma elifushane Sit lutho
ngaphandle isizathu. Emva isimiso odlule okungukuthi zonke izinto izici ezimbili
eziphikisanayo kumele ngempela uthole eyodwa; ingqondo angeke kodwa zavele
unamathisele omunye wabo izinto, kodwa yena kumele eyenga noma ukuphoqwa
okuthile, noma omunye noma ezinye, kungaba green noma cha green, bephila noma
cha uyaphila ukuze axazulule izinto isibonelo. Lokhu manje yiso esibangela
ingqondo ukuba lapho ukusetha isici okungcono phambi kwezinye, yisona sizathu,
futhi, kuncike yalesi sizathu, umphumela. Lesi simiso ngokusho kudinga ngamunye
othi okuthile, ngisho azi ukuthi kungani uthi; futhi lowo owayefuna ukulungisa izinto
kancane, ngaphandle kokuba bakwazi ukunikeza isizathu bekungathatha
bawasebenzisa abephula imithetho yokucabanga. Ngakho, umuntu kumelwe futhi
ezenzweni enkulumweni impikiswano (izingxabano) angeke walwa yebo, yebo,
kanye noqhabo qhabo, kodwa umbono wakhe siqu ukuvikela by ingxabano,
nabaphikisi sokuzama ukuphikisa by izizathu. - Isizathu esinengqondo siyindlela
ukuhlukanisa kusukela isizathu sangempela: The zangaphambili umane nje isikhathi
ukuthi into wacabanga kanjalo futhi abengeke okungukuthi, eyesibili kodwa lokho

yinto ngendlela ethile ngempela.

F. Kuyini isimiso upholavuthondaba? A. It ungaboniswa kanje: Ngaphansi
Tincumo okuphambene into uvumelekile ukuba abeke eyodwa kuphela, futhi uma
lokhu isethi, ngakho kufanele sithathe ezinye. Lesi simiso of upholavuthondaba
kulandela kusukela isimiso mqondo noma eliphikisayo.
F.? Kuyini isimiso Beziehungsweisen noma ngokulingana ukulingana A. It is
uzwakalise: ngokulandela Two ukuthi luqondane yesithathu, noma exhumene,
ukuxhumana nomunye ingxenye efanayo;noma okunye, izinto ezimbili yesithathu
ofanayo, wena. Ngakho uma lokho A elilingana izinto X, kanye into X silingana
nobude B izinto, kanye into B kuyoba ulingana izinto A. Lokhu rate kuncike into
kanye isimiso esanele, ngoba yokulingana X into ngezinto nezinto A B, nansi yokuthi
ngisho A no-B ngokwayo okufanayo.

Isahluko Four
Of imiqondo in general
F. Yini yigama? A. A term (Notio, conceptus) okwenzekayo nge ukwazi
oxhumanisa ezijayelekileko amaningana noma izethulo ngokwengxenye ubunye
wonke. Lakhiwa Komparation (ukuqhathanisa imibono eziningana), Abstraction
(waiver izici ehlukeneko yezinto ezifanako), reflection (kuhlolwa izici zawo
ezivamile); Ukuzimisela (okuqoshiwe izici ezivamile in the wonke kwakhiwa), futhi
inhlanganisela (inyunyana of the izici eqoshiwe lonke), njengoba kuxoxwa
esethulweni. Phela, lezi zenzo ezihlukahlukene okuqonda hhayi abahlukanisile
empeleni njengobe tiniketwe lapha; kunalokho, bona flow ndawonye lapho, futhi
etfulwe ngekwehlukana kuphela yithi ngenxa kalula ukucabangela.
F.? Asho imigomo longeke watibona netintfo longatibona A. Uma senza
ngokuthi a pure kakhulu futhi ahlukaniselwa ngokwakhe, ngakho ubizwa ngokuthi
umqondo abstract; ukhonkolo kodwa indlela eyodwa ecabanga kodwa kuhlobene
kuye nezinye imibono, noma maqondana izinto ezithile. Ngakho, ngokwesibonelo,
amandla, nakanjani bacabanga umqondo abstract; Mind uma Ngiyacabanga umuntu
enobuhle, ngakho ngicabanga umqondo amandla ngokhonkolo; Ngicabanga ngaye
nomqondo yomuntu, kuxhumene, kubhekisela lokhu. Ngokufanayo, umqondo
umbala green, nakanjani bacabanga umqondo abstract; kodwa umcabango a leaf,
kuba ukhonkolo. - At Umqondo ngamunye abstract, ngoba ngokunembile ezakhiwe
abstracting, kepha, ebheka kude imibono ehlukahlukene ngaye; Nokho, kuyinto
ngokucabanga kwakhe ebuhlotsheni, ukhonkolo; futhi kulokhu futhi, imigomo,
njengoba nje okuhloswe inzuzo kithi ngokoMthetho ukhonkolo, zisekelwe izinto.
F. ngaziphi izindlela thina bajwayele cabanga imigomo ukwenza nature yabo
kunengqondo ngokucacile? A. Ngokuya eliningi yabo, ukhwaliti yabo, maqondana
zabo futhi modality yayo.

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Fifth Isahluko
Of the nenani imigomo
F. Kuyini nenani a term? A. In the set of imibono ukuthi sicabanga ndawonye
ngaye. Manje Lokhu kungaba nenani ubukhulu noma ubuningi okuqukethwe
umqondo.
F. Kuyini kwenkululeko futhi okuqukethwe kwethemu? A. kwenkululeko noma
imbulunga umqondo (ambitus s sphaera notionis.) Yenza konke out, ukuze ngalo
term iyatholakala njengoba isici;Nokho, okuqukethwe
umqondo (complexus notionis) siqukethe kulezo imibono ukuthi kucatshangwa
okufanayo njengoba kuhlangene.
F.? Yiziphi izibonelo zalokhu A. kumuntu umqondo, kwenkululeko iyona
baseYurophu, Asians, Afrika, baseMelika kanye Sdindier ngenxa yazo zonke lezi,
umuntu term ihlobene njengoba isici;ngakolunye uhlangothi kwenze okuqukethwe
umqondo yomuntu, ikhanda imibono, esifubeni, esiswini, izandla nezinyawo,
ingqondo, isizathu, ulimi kanye nokunye, ngoba zonke lezi zici bakha umqondo
womuntu kuphela. Ngakho kwenkululeko kwethemu kuthiwa umuthi yakha oki, lo
beech, * nomthidari, imithi yezithelo, njll, kodwa ekuqukethe iyimbangela, isiqu,
amaqabunga, njll
F. Kuyini zifakwe ngaphansi umqondo, futhi umqondo? A. Of izinto ezenza
Ukwandiswa mqondo lapho term singasetshenziswa kanjalo wathola isici, bathi:
Wena ngaphansi zazihlanganisa imigomo, ezintweni Ngakolunye uhlangothi, bakha
okuqukethwe umqondo, basuke emibandeleni. Ngakho oki, beech, pine afakiwe
ngaphansi kwesihlahla term in the icala ngenhla; Ngokuphambene, impande, isiqu,
ushiya it in the term. Cabanga umqondo ngaphansi okwehlukile, ie, subsume kuye
ngaphansi.
F. Buyini ubuhlobo kanye kwenkululeko imiqondo mayelana eliningi zabo ukuba
omunye komunye? A. Kukhula ukwelulwa umqondo okungukuthi, ezincane
okuqukethwe yayo kanye noHezekeli.Ngokwesibonelo, kwenkululeko umuntu gama
kunangendlela kwenkululeko kwethemu Negro Kukhona ngaphansi kwemigomo
yisidalwa esingumuntu ngaphandle bangamaNigro namanje aqukethe eziningi ezinye
izinhlobo abantu; Nokho, okuqukethwe Negro term mkhulu term lomuntu, ngoba
Negro kusadingeka umbala omnyama ukuba baphume ezinye izici omuntu futhi,
izinwele anoboya obukhulu nokunye.Ngokufanayo, kwenkululeko kwethemu mkhulu
sibalo umqondo onxantathu; ngoba iqukethe bodwa, noma kungenziwa okusekelwe
nalobo bupristi njengesici sawo, hhayi nje bonke aboncantathu, kodwa futhi tikwele,
pentagons, nxazonke izibalo, njll Ngokuphambene nalokho, okuqukethwe unxantathu
umqondo mkhulu kunalowo ukuthi ubuntu term, ngoba iqukethe ngaphezu isici
linendawo encane elifakwe, elingelakwaJuda isibalo, ngisho ukuthi le mingcele
akhiwa obuthathu kanye nabanye abaningi, ukuba elisuselwa therefrom. - Isizathu
salokhu ubuhlobo phakathi kwenkululeko futhi okuqukethwe umqondo ukuthi uma

umuntu eqala izici eziningana singene okuqukethwe umqondo, zonke lezo zinto
kufanele babe yingxenye zinga, okuyinto awusiwo lesi sici. Uma enye, isibonelo,
umqondo wokuba zomuntu umbala isici white, wawandisa lo nenani ekuqukethe,
kanjalo-ke lo muntu term ababange zisekelwe Negro kangaka, futhi ngaleso sikhathi
ukunivalela kusukela imigomo, kwenkululeko obungenza yalo kungancipha.
F. Kuyini imigomo lecondzile nemisho lemagalagala, imigomo single and imigomo
ezivamile? A. A ibinzana elula (Notio simplex) nguye ogama okuqukethwe kwakho
lincane kakhulu kangangokuthi ukuthi nje siqukethe izici olulodwa, nokuthi by
akukho analysis Kungenzeka ukuqaqa imibono
eziningana; oluyinhlanganisela (hhayi. composita), Nokho, kuyinto efana lapho
yokubola onjalo izici eziningana noma ukusebenza namanje zenzeke. Kusukela
ngenhla, kubonakala sengathi alula kumele babe ngezinga elikhulu ngokulingana. A
term single (Notio individualis) yigama ogama kwenkululeko lincane kangangokuthi
kuba ukhathazekile imibono hhayi umhla more bodwa; a jikelele noma
ezivamile (hhayi. Universalis) Ngakolunye uhlangothi, ngaphansi imibono
equkethwe more. Imigomo Individual ziye kuqhathaniswa babe okuqukethwe
kunabo.
F.? Yiziphi izibonelo ezibonisa ukuthi lokhu kungenziwa A. Umqondo
wokuba ngumqondo elula ukuthi ngokuphelele akakwazi enqamula e izici
ezingaphezu; kodwa yingenxa wokulahlekelwa yayo, anakho kwenkululeko ebanzi
kakhulu: Ngoba wena bangayiqonda zonke izinto isici nenhlalakahle noma
ukhona. Umqondo Umbutho kakade oluyinhlanganisela: Ngoba ungakwazi it
ukuhlukanisa izici sokushintsha Zeitlichsein futhi Rumlichsein ngoba Umbutho a
osekushiwo ngesikhathi ukushintshashintsha kwendawo. Kodwa ukuhamba nazo ziye
kwenkululeko ezincane; ngoba abakwazi beka zonke izinto njengoba sici. - Umqondo
single umqondo a nature ethile, efana isitshalo ethile, isilwane esithile, kodwa
kungani akufanele kudidaniswe i umuzwa, ngoba kuhlobene ngokuqondile subject
ngabanye, hhayi ngezenzo zayo ngokushesha kwi Ukwanelisa inkanuko, kodwa
ngokungaqondile kuphela ukuqonda, wadala ngokuxhumanisa izici ngamunye
zayo. A term ovamile uwukuthi noma yimuphi igama elingase libhekisele endabeni
izinto ezahlukene.
F. Kuyini zinhlobo-futhi ngaphansi kwemibandela generic? A. Womabili la
magama abhekisela ezintweni kwenkululeko imigomo. Umqondo
zinhlobo (Notio specialis) nguye nje liqukethe izinto ngabanye bodwa; a uhlobo lwe
noma umqondo generic (Notio generalis), Nokho a term ukuthi kuhlanganisa
kwamagama athile phakathi kwabo. Ngakho term lily ngumqondo zinhlobo; kusukela
kokuningi kuhlanganisa izinto ngabanye kuphela, okungukuthi bonke lily single
bodwa; Nokho, lesi sitshalo term yigama elididiyelayo; ngoba iqukethe kwamagama
athile lily, wavuka, uhlobo lwembali enephunga elimnandi, njll bodwa. Amagama
kuyizincomo zihlukaniswe ephansi futhi ephakeme. Okungukuthi more imigomo
generic kungenzeka afakwe ngaphansi imibandela eyehlukile ezejwayelekile futhi,
futhi lokhu ngenxa ephakeme term generic; ngakho imiqondo generic
yizinambuzane, inhlanzi, inyoni, njll zizofakwa ngaphansi yigama elididiyelayo
isilwane ephakeme; futhi ojwayelekile imigomo izilwane nezitshalo ngaphansi

ephakeme ngisho: isidalwa organic. - The esiphezulu yigama elididiyelayo ke ukuthi

equkethe yonke ezinye imigomo generic bodwa, futhi kumele, esikalini ngobukhulu
kodwa abe okuqukethwe kulencane, ukuze ezihlobene zonke izinto njengoba isici,
bona-ke afingqe bodwa. Indes ubizwa ngokuthi, ngokulandelana imigomo esiphezulu
generic kuhlanganise nalezo esiphezulu ku kuphela eziningi esithile izinto. Ngakho
likhulu kunawo yigama elididiyelayo for zonke izinhlanga ngabanye, umuntu eside,
nakuba empeleni, ngisho ngaphansi umqondo uMuntu organic.
F. ukuqoka kanjani zemvelo amakilasi ephansi futhi ephakeme? A. Uhlobo lwe,
lapho Ekuqaleni equkethe eziningana izizukulwane aphansi bodwa, ukuze ubizwa
ngokuthi equkethe oda multiple bodwa, ikilasi, futhi iqukethe namakilasi amaningana
bodwa, indawo nature ,
F. Yiziphi izizukulwane Lesisemkhatsini, izizukulwane olandelayo futhi
izizukulwane akude? A. Phakathi izizukulwane (izizukulwane media) yilawo
ziphakeme kunomuntu, kodwa ngaphansi nezinye izinhlobo, ukuze aphethwe phakathi
kwabo. Ngokwesibonelo, isihlahla kuyinto bohlobo Lesisemkhatsini phakathi
kwezihlahla izithelo izitshalo, ngoba ophakeme kunalowo uhlobo lwe izihlahla
zezithelo, aphansi ukwedlula plant generic; labo sizihlanganisa bodwa; ngaphansi
kwalesi yena ifakiwe. - The uhlobo lwe, a Uhlobo ngqo ngokuthi ngaphansi lapho
lunga elandelayo (uhlobo lwe proximum), kodwa lowo ngaphansi kwayo itholakala
ngokungaqondile kuphela ngokusebenzisa izizukulwane Lesisemkhatsini, a
akude (uhlobo lwe remotum).
F. Kuyini kwakuwukuthi nokwabela nemigomo? A. imiqondo
Ongaphansi (notiones subordinatae) yilawo ziqukethwe ngaphansi elinye
ihlandla. Ngokwesibonelo, imigomo izinyoni, izinhlanzi, imigomo isilwane
subordinated. Ngakho, zonke izinhlobo the izizukulwane futhi zonke amakilasi
aphansi subordinated ephakeme. Igama elithi, okuyinto ilawulwe omunye, ephansi
noma elincane(kunabaphostoli angustior s.); kodwa lowo omunye bodwa, phezulu
noma ngaphezulu (Superior s. latior). Man ngumqondo ephakeme kunaleyo Negro
kanye Kalmuck; Tshala isihlahla futhi ephakeme kuka iklabishi. Leligama ephakeme
kuhlanganisa ophansi wonke. - Ukudidiyela imigomo (. Not coordinatae) yilawo
kokubili equkethwe ngesikhathi esifanayo noma ngesikhathi lesithathu term. Ngakho
yizinambuzane nenhlanzi imigomo adjunctive, ngoba bobabili afakiwe ngaphansi
isilwane eside; kahle leaf futhi impande amagama adjunctive, ngoba afakiwe nase
plant eside. Ukudideka imigomo adjunctive angeke Okusizayo womabili
subordinated ukuba noHezekeli. Kuye imigomo adjunctive basuke izizukulwane
noma zilwane, babizwa ngokuthi by-izizukulwane noma zinhlobo side. Ngakho
amagundane kanye nezilwane ruminant Ngaphandle izizukulwane; Mouse, rat, byizindlela. - The term elide futhi esiphezulu yigama elididiyelayo, ine esikalini
ngobukhulu, kungaba subordinated kunoma yimuphi omunye, noma unamathisele
okwesikhashana, kodwa konke uye subordinated bodwa.
F. Yini imithetho zisebenza kanjani endabeni imigomo ephakeme kanye
aphansi? A. Yini kungokwalabo imigomo ephakeme noma iyaphikisana ukuthi
uyeza noma iyaphikisana wonke ngaphansi kwakhe imigomo aphansi; ngamanye

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amazwi, lokho uyeza emhlabeni emkhakheni we umqondo noma iyaphikisana, eza

noma iyaphikisana zonke izingxenye Kulomkhakha. Ngaphezu kwalokho: Yini
kungokwalabo bonke imigomo aphansi noma iyaphikisana ukuthi uyeza noma
iyaphikisana imigomo yayo ephakeme. Kuphakama Umthetho wokuqala, sisuselwa
iqoqo jikelele ukulingana isiphetho sokuthi lokho kuyiqiniso izici umqondo, futhi
umqondo kumele zizikhandle: ngoba umqondo ephakeme ngokunembile enye
equkethe konke aphansi bodwa, futhi kanjalo njengoba isici kulo kufanele bakwazi
ukuba eyatholakala. Kuphakama The ezinye umthetho ovela iqiniso; ukuthi kakhulu
umqondo imiphumela ephakeme ekuxhumaniseni izici ezivamile amagama ayo
aphansi; Ngenxa yalokho, yini kuvamile kubo bonke imigomo aphansi ayadingeka in
imigomo ephakeme futhi kufanele utholakale. - By the way, kungenzeka izici
eziningi akhiwe ngendlela ephansi ukuthi musa uthole ephakeme; ngoba yiso ngenxa
esikalini zabo ezincane okuqukethwe kwabo mkhulu.

Isahluko Sesithupha
Ibhayisikobho izinga imigomo
F. Yini kucocwa mayelana izinga? A. The degree ukwazi ngazo kucatshangwa
ngokoMthetho kuxhumene imibono. Ngemva kwalokho, a umahluko imigomo
ecacile, ebukhali, okuningiliziwe kanye ephelele noma ephelele.
F. Kuyini ukucaciseleka (Claritas) a term? A. In ukuthi degree of nokuqaphela
izici umqondo, esenziwa ngazo omunye uyakwazi ukuhlukanisa into yayo kusuka
nezinye izinto ngaso sonke. Kuye manje, inani izinto into umqondo zingahlukaniswa,
ezinkulu noma ezincane, kuye ngokuthi ngokucacile umqondo okuyinto ukhuluphele
kakhulu noma umncane. Okuphambene umqondo ocacile kuyinto
emnyama(hhayi. Obscura). Ngakho abantu abaningi babe emibonweni emnyama
kuphela lokho ifilosofi, uyini logic; ie abazi lezi sciences bangabanye ihluke
kwabanye. Ukuthatha umqondo ngokucacile ngokuthi, ukuthuthukisa kuye.
F. Asho ukucaciseleka (perspicuitas) imigomo? A. ukuthi degree of ukuqaphela
izimfanelo umqondo, esenziwa ngalo okwazi, nje ukuhlukanisa lezi zici nomunye
godu. Ngakho-ke ngokucacile umqondo kuba bumane nje ngokucacile izici zakhe
futhi ngezinga elithile ehlukahlukene. Ingabe okuphambene ukucaciseleka,
ukuntuleka ukucaciseleka (imperspicuitas) okuyilona elisebenzayo futhi
ukudideka (confusio) ubiza lapho izimfanelo umqondo ngisho enqunywe angazithola
nomunye kodwa. Ngakho, umqondo ocacile akudingeki ukuba kucace. Ngakho
angikwazi ukwazi kanjani ukuhlukanisa ngokwanele kusukela neminye imikhakha
yesayensi, ifilosofi, nakuba, nokho mhlawumbe hhayi ucacise izici ezakha okushiwo
ifilosofi, ngoba ngiyazi abakwazi kungenzeka sihlukane futhi ovelele. Ngakho kuleli
cala, ngiba umcabango ecacile noma cha ocacile ifilosofi. - Ngakolunye uhlangothi,
umqondo ocacile kumele kube njalo kucace: ngoba ngokoMthetho ungabahlukanisa
kuphela ukwazi yezici ezihlukahlukene kuzo; futhi lokhu kudingekile ukucaciseleka

ukwazi kunamandla ngaphezu esimweni ukucaciseleka nje.

F. In lapho ubudlelwano kungaba kubhekwe ukucaciseleka imigomo? A. The
ukucaciseleka a gama lingabhekisela kumuntu okuqukethwe, kanye ezihlobana ngayo
extension umqondo. Labo futhi iyona ukucaciseleka olunzulu noma ahlaziye, kuveza
yokubola a term in the izici zazo yakhiwa futhi kuthuthukiswa; lokhu, ukucaciseleka
olunzulu noma zokwenziwa, by sibandlulula imigomo engezansi, okuyinto
eziqukethwe ephakeme. Lokho kwenziwa ngokubukisisa, lokhu by iziqu. Uzitshela
ukuthi umqondo ifilosofi wayeyoba yinoma kucace kimi, ukuze ngazi ukuhlukanisa
efanayo kuzo zonke neminye imikhakha yesayensi, ngangifuna ukuba kodwa ukuthi
yena ngingaphuziswa kabanzi futhi uye wakwenza ngokuzimisela kakhulu; I befuna
ukuhlukanisa mayelana azungeze yayo, wesayensi ehlukahlukene, lapho afakiwe
ngaphansi ifilosofi nethemu; Ngakho okokuqala zonke ifilosofi theory kanye namapractical; kufanele kube yimi kabanzi lacaca, benginga e theory ifilosofi, logic,
Metaphysics futhi aesthetics;ukuhlukanisa in practice imfundiso engokomthetho
zokuziphatha futhi inkolo nokufundisa mzamo; the ukucaciseleka uyaqhubeka
ukushayela nokho, mina ngabe funa ukulesi aphinde isayensi ingxenye oluhlanzekile
abasebenzayo ukuhlukanisa, & c., ngale ndlela, ngingathanda ukwenza ifilosofi
kabanzi noma synthetically kakhulu noma bahlukanise kubo. Kimina manje, kodwa
futhi ifilosofi imiqondo belungafica kakhulu okukhulu noma ngokucophelela, I
badiliza wehlele izici zayo; ukuthi ifilosofi kuyinto isayensi futhi ukuthi ukufuna
izizathu lokugcina nezinjongo bolwazi lwabantu kanye umsebenzi.Ukuze kuzuzwe
ngezinga ngisho ephakeme ngokucacile okukhulu, ngingathanda isayensi imigomo,
ulwazi, umsebenzi, isizathu enqamula injongo futhi, futhi kanjalo ukufika waqhubeka
sokuhlaziya degrees eliphakeme nakakhulu ngokucacile, chaza kimi umqondo more
and more. - Imiqondo Simple kungakhanselwa ukucaciseleka okukhulu, nakuba
ukucaciseleka ifa: Ngoba abazi kuqukethe ezihlukahlukene izici kukodwa, Ngakho,
kungaba imiqondo elula, efana lokuba, ngisho ukuchaza: ngokoMthetho single
Nokho, ungathola akukho ukucaciseleka ebanzi, abangenalo equkethwe kaningi
izinto bodwa, futhi ngalokho akakwazi ukuba ahlukaniswe. - The ngokucacile eye
okuxoxwe lapha, the enengqondo, kwenhlakanipho noma lenhlangotsimbili,
ngokungafani kuya izinkanuko noma yobuhle, okuyinto a ngokucace ukwenza lokho
Ngokuvamile kwethulwa, kuba ngendlela isibonelo, njengoba ngokuvamile, isibonelo
kule ncwajana kwenzeka.
F. Kuyini imininingwane futhi kuphelele noma ukuphelela imigomo?
A. Kokubili degrees ephakeme ukucaciseleka. The imininingwane umqondo wokuthi
liqukethe in ukuthi degree ukwazi zezici zalo, esenziwa ngalo okwazi, nje enqamula
lezi
zici futhi,
Contribuu
a milloraryingakho
la traducci ngokucacile izici ngokwabo. Ngakho, sibonile ezibonelweni
ezingenhla, ifilosofi term ngokuningiliziwe mayelana nobukhulu bayo
dissected.Kusukela ungakwazi ukuqhubeka ukuhlaziywa izici umqondo uyaqhubeka,
owenza verbosity has degrees zayo kanjalo. The eliphakeme verbosity kuyinto
kuphelele enengqondo noma ukuphelela imigomo, ebanjwa uma muntu
ngokusebenzisa ukuhlaziya obuqhubekayo imiqondo enjalo, lapho ngeke kube
enqamula eminye; mayelana okuqukethwe elula, single on imigomo njengoba
kwenkululeko.

Text original

Isahluko Sesikhombisa
Kusukela maqondana kanye modality amagama
F. Kuyini ubuhlobo imigomo? A. In labo zoMthetho imigomo ngazo elawo
kuphela ngokucabangela neminye imibandela; Ngakho isilinganiso mutual
yalo. Manje Lokhu ratio kungaba nature ezine-emhlanjini; Kumayelana okuyi
sameness futhi umehluko, umdlalo nokungqubuzana, ingaphakathi nengaphandle,
udaba futhi uhlobo imigomo.
F. Yini imigomo ubizwa ngokuthi udaba noma ngendlela efanayo? A. Lezo babe
zonke izici in common. - NgokoMthetho ezifanayo noma
ahlobene (. Not cognatae) yilawo, nakuba kungebona bonke, kodwa eziningi izici in
common. Ngokungafani imiqondo hot mayelana izici ezingekho ezivamile. Imigoma ukuthi kukhona indaba noma ezifanayo, babizwa exchange imigomo; ngoba
ungabeka endaweni ngokungadingekile omunye. Ungakwazi kuphela maqondana
nenqubo more ukulungisa lapho noma abantu ezahlukene, noma ngabantu abafanayo
ngezinye izikhathi ezahlukene, noma wacabanga njengoba izici ezintweni
ezahlukene, ngoba kungenjalo ongawenza eyodwa kuphela futhi umqondo ofanayo.
F. Kuyini imiqondo ngazwilinye engqubuzanayo? A. Esikhishwa Ngazwilinye (consentientes, convenientes) yilawo zingahlanganiswa umfanekiso into
ndawonye. Ngaphandle kwalokho kukhona okuhlukile noma eziphikisanayo ngokuthi
ngomqondo obanzi. Eliphikisayo kungaba manje zenzeke ngqo noma
ngokungaqondile. Esimweni sokuqala ubizwa ngokuthi iqembu eliphikisayo
okuhlanzekile noma ephelele (oppositio contradictoria, diametralis s per simplicem,
negationem.) Futhi okuphambene kule ndlela ngokoMthetho: eziphikisanayo,
eziphikisanayo, negative, ngokuqondile noma cishe imigomo
okuphambene. Kuthatha endaweni lapho omunye imiqondo eziphikisayo umane
iqukethe kuphikisa lokho imisiwe kwenye term. Ibhayisikobho imiqondo ngqo
okuhlukile (hhayi. Contrariae, s. Contrarie oppositae, oppositae per
positionem alterius) olubizwa nangokuthi Kunalokho, emihle noma ngokungaqondile
umelana, kuphakamisa omunye omunye hhayi by kuphikisa nje, kodwa ngisho siqu
izici emihle.Ibhayisikobho imigomo eziphikisanayo njalo ezimbili kuphela aphethwe,
futhi omunye wabo kufanele yonke into ukuza ngaphansi koMthetho ukushiywa the
Middle. Ibhayisikobho imigomo nje eziphikisanayo ezingaphezu kuka ezimbili
kungathatha indawo, futhi kungaba futhi konke ukucabanga kude into.
F. Yiziphi izibonelo echaza eyedlule? A. Round and white amagama sithathwe
ngokuhlanganyelwa; ngoba kungaba njalo ukusebenza yokuhlanganisa lapho
ngicabanga into, ngakho lokhu asivimbeli in the okungenani ukuthi angazi mina
kahle lapha ukucabanga. Round hhayi nxazonke kodwa uyazi noma akazi futhi
amagama ukungqubuzana noma ngqo okuphambene, ngenxa i cishe ephika lokho
ezinye lishona;lingahunyushwa wacabanga kuphela omunye wabo ngendlela futhi

umqondo ofanayo; kokubili ngesikhathi esisodwa kodwa wacabanga away,

awukwazi. Round futhi square noma ngidumele futhi ziyajabula imiqondo
eziphikisanayo, ngoba iqiniso lokuthi ngabeka into njengoba nxazonke, I ukuvimbela
ukuthi angeke kanyekanye isethwe njengoba laba nezinhlangothi ezine
ezilingeneyo; Icala efanayo Kubuhlungu happy at.
F.? Kuyini Ingaphakathi nengaphandle lazo a term A. Ingaphakathi umqondo
liqukethe izici zayo ezibalulekile; the Ngokungafani ebonakalayo ezingabalulekile
noma yokwenza yalo (affectiones) noma ratios (relationes kukhona). Ukuze
ingaphakathi umqondo wesilwane; ukuthi uMuntu organic ukuthi ihamba kusukela
nangobudlova khulula kanye wafundelwa ukudla kwalo siqu khulula; Ngokungafani
ingaphandle isilwane term kuhlanganisa isici ezine izinyawo, noma ukuphila
emaphandleni.
F. Kuyini udaba futhi uhlobo imigomo? A. The indaba gama ngalezo imibono,
okuyinto kuhlobene ubunye efanayo, kodwa shape. In the way of uxhumano
yabo Kusukela logic of lokho eyethulwe imigomo, ngempela ngaphandle, njengoba
sihlolisise
udabala traducci
imigomo asihlali efanayo.
Contribuu a millorar

Text original

Isahluko Sesishiyagalombili
Of izahlulelo in general
F. Kuyini ukwahlulela A. A ukwahlulelwa (judicium) azimisele ubuhlobo noma
ubuhlobo okwenzeka phakathi imibono inikezwe; futhi ngamagama, omunye
isethi (propositio, enuntiatio). Uma ngithi, isibonelo, umuntu uyafa, ngakho mina
ukuchaza lapha ubuhlobo phakathi komuntu lokufa ngakhoke nomahluleli.
F. Yini wena ukuhlukanisa yonke imisho? A. Indaba futhi Form. Udaba
lokwahlulelwa okungukuthi ukwenza imibono, phakathi lapho omunye ubuhlobo
ucabanga, ngenhla umuntu nokufa; kodwa ukuma kuyindlela kanjani ubuhlobo
phakathi imiqondo le kucatshangwa. The logic ubheka uhlobo daba kanye izahlulelo
kakhulu uthathwa njengoba esisemthethweni umcabango ukufundisa nje uhlobo
okufanayo.
F. ngaziphi izindlela thina bajwayele cabanga izahlulelo kubo ngesimo meet
wena? A. Njengoba imiqondo mayelana eliningi yabo, ukhwaliti, maqondana futhi
modality. The eliningi inquma kwenkululeko sifundvo ukwahlulelwa, izinga yesimo
isilandiso; ubuhlobo uhlobo ukuhlobana phakathi self gegebnen a imibono sinqumo,
kanye modality of the ubuhlobo lapho izahlulelo ziyiqiniso ukuba amandla ethu
yobuchopho. On schicklichsten it, setha maqondana nokucutshungulwa izahlulelo in
the isisekelo.
F. Indlela ukuhlukanisa izahlulelo mayelana nobudlelwane phakathi?
categorical, esicabanga ukuthi kungaqhamuka, futhi disjunctive.

A. In

Isahluko Sesishiyagalolunye
Ibhayisikobho izahlulelo categorical
F. Kuyini ukwahlulela categorical? A. A ukwahlulelwa categorical (settlement
ukwahlulela) ingenye lapho maqondana ngumqondo njengoba (owodwa lokulungisa
noma negative) sici ngakolunye.Izahlulelo enjalo njalo ngokuthi nangokuthi
izahlulelo par. Isigwebo ngenhla: Umuntu uyafa, kuyinto categorical, ngoba lokufa
term ihlobene kuwo njengoba sici umuntu umqondo. Zonke izahlulelo ukuthi
kukhona ngisho sebekubeke okungenani akhiwa categorical, futhi by the logic
ukusebenza eyinqaba yalo, kuthanda kuphela izahlulelo yezinto kanye disjunctive
naphambili. The nangohlobo izahlulelo libhekisela ekuqaleni nje categorical.
F.? Kuzoxoxwa ngani, isilandiso kanye copula in a ekwahluleleni categorical
A. inhlangano ebizwa ukuthi umqondo, ukuba lapho omunye ebaluliwe njengoba
isici; Kodwa isilandiso, yini ihlobene nale ndaba njengoba isici. Ngakho umuntu
ingaphezu subject, lo ofayo isilandiso. Isihloko ngokuvamile kwandulelwe isigwebo,
kodwa can futhi, ngaphandle kokushintsha in nature yayo into zingafakwa ngemuva
isilandiso, isibonelo, umuntu, bese lapho set ubizwa ngokuthi i offset uyafa. The
copula noma izwi kwakwakhe izahlulelo categorical ngempela lutho ngaphandle
izwi, nakuba ngokuvamile kuphela aqukethe kufihlwe kuwo. Ngokwesibonelo, lo
musho: The muntu eqondayo ngokunengqondo yakhelwe: Umuntu a do ingqondoto-. - Ngokuvamile copula nesilandiso ahlanganisiwe in a izwi.Ngokwesibonelo,
umuntu ucabanga; okuyinto okuningi njengoba umuntu kuyinto ukucabanga. Abanye
izigwebo avele bengenaso isihloko, isibonelo, it uduma, lina. Nokho, umuntu
kumelwe sicabange isilandiso ezihambisana okungenani subject ezingacacile kodwa
lapha. Imisho enjalo ngokuthi ngokunengqondo abangaphelele.
F. Indlela kakhulu izinhlobo categorical ukwahlulela kukhona mayelana
eliningi? A. Three. Okungukuthi, isilandiso kungenzeka ixhunywe kuphela subject
olulodwa, noma ngezihloko eziningi uhlobo oluthile, noma zonke izikhonzi uhlobo
oluthile esimweni sokuqala ubizwa ngokuthi lesi sinqumo olulodwa noma
individuales, esesibili particulate ekhethekile noma. eyesithathu a jikelele noma
jikelele.Guttenberg owasungula bokunyathelisa kuyinto ukwahlulelwa
eyodwa; abantu abaningi baphile yokudla isigamu, a ekhethekile; zonke izilwane
kukhona abangenangqondo, a jikelele. Izimpawu ebonisa kwenkululeko subject,
izabizwana lokhu, omunye, okufanayo nokunye ngayinye izahlulelo. ngoba
ekhethekile. esithile, ezinye, abaningi, more, njll; ngoba jikelele: bonke, yimuphi,
akukho, njll izahlulelo Designated yilawo lapho ndaba umlingisi neuropathy hlobo
per se, ine, eyamaphoyisa, lapho entulekayo. Izahlulelo
ezithile (. Jud determinata) ngokuthi izahlulelo jikelele kanye
ngamunye; nanini(indeterminate) ethize.
F. Indlela kakhulu izinhlobo categorical ukwahlulela kukhona mayelana izinga?
A. Futhi ezintathu: lokulungisa noma lokulungisa, negative noma emibi futhi

okungenamkhawulo, elawulayo noma limitative. In the izahlulelo lokulungisa,

isilandiso sithathwa ngempela lokucuketfwe kwaleso sifundvo, noma yini okufanayo,
isihloko inikezwe njengoba umngenisile emkhakheni noma kwenkululeko
isilandiso; e izahlulelo negating the subject kucatshangwa ngaphandle ezingeni
isilandiso; e okungenamkhawulo, it is asibeka ezingeni umqondo wokuthi
ngaphandle emkhakheni omunye; noma yini into efanayo ithi, by lelicala isici
omunye ibekwa lokucuketfwe kwaleso sifundvo.
? F. Yiziphi izibonelo zalokhu A. izahlulelo Affirmative yilezi: The lion
unamandla; isitshalo green, ngoba ezimweni zombili isihloko emkhakheni noma
kwenkululeko isilandiso, amandla kanye nombala oluhlaza; noma labo kufakwe
njengoba izici okuqukethwe sengonyama imigomo plant. Izahlulelo Negative
ngakolunye uhlangothi yilezi: igolide white, ilanga akusho ugijime emhlabeni; ngoba
lapha indaba kwenkululeko isilandiso noma isilandiso kungafakiwe lokucuketfwe
kwaleso sifundvo. Izahlulelo Limitative yilezi: Umphefumulo womuntu awufi; the
ingubo lilimale. Lapha I ngaleyo ndaba by nokunqatshelwa lokufa emkhakheni
wokuphila okuphakade; ingubo by Ukuphuca umonakalo ngaphansi ezingeni
yokuphelela. - The ukwahlulela limitative Ngakho esihlukile okungalungile kangaka
njengasezinsukwini zangaphambili ngendaba emkhakheni i imfanelo lokulungisa
abashiywe ngaphandle, kodwa hhayi kwaletha ezingeni enye imfanelo
isenzangakhona; lihlelwe yokugcina kodwa kuba ngokusebenzisa baxoshwe
emkhakheni i imfanelo lokulungisa in the kwamanye ngoyebo.
F.? Yini esifushane elinikwe izahlulelo categorical mayelana eliningi zabo futhi
izinga A. Baye eziqokiwe zokuqala onkamisa ezine; ukuze A kuyinto jikelele futhi
ngesikhathi esifanayo isenzangakhona; E a jikelele futhi ngesikhathi esisodwa
esifanayo negative I ngesikhathi esifanayo ekhethekile futhi lokulungisa, O iveza
ekhethekile futhi ngesikhathi esifanayo negative esisodwa sokwahlulela,. Ngakho,
ivesi IsiLatin:
Asserit A, negat E-SED universaliter Ambo,
Assarit I, O SED negat particulariter Ambo.
The izahlulelo limitative and ngabanye lapha kukhona unmindful, ngoba iziphetho
mayelana okuyinto lokhu short of ukuqokwa abakhethiwe, izahlulelo ngabanye
ukuba jikelele kanye limitative kukhona olingana kulinganiselwa lokulungisa:
Izibonelo ukubiza lokhu kuthiwa:
A. Wonke izilwane nezidalwa eziphilayo.
E. Ayikho isilwane bangaphila ngaphandle kokudla.
I. Abanye abantu zifundiswa.
O. Abantu abaningi abafundiswa.
F.? Yini uthe modality yezahlulelo categorical A. Baphinde enqunywe
izinhlobo ezintathu sokwahlulela: oyinkinga, assertoric futhi apodictic. In the
yokuqala, ubuhlobo phakathi nesilandiso is nje inikezwe njengoba nokwenzeka; In
the ezinye wenza ngempela futhi inikezwe njengoba kwenziwe; ezenziwe wesithathu
njengoba kudingekile. Izibonelo izahlulelo yinkinga yilezi: Ukuphila yomuntu

kungathatha ezingaphezu kwekhulu ngonyaka; impi engase ziqhuma ngokushesha; of

assertoric: Life imfushane; impi iye siqhamukile; of apodictic: The muntu kumelwe
afe; impi kufanele mayiqhumuke.
F. Have mhlawumbe namanje ezinye umehluko omkhulu, ngaphandle ukubalula
mayelana eliningi, izinga kanye modality amafomu sokwahlulela categorical
ethola ,? A. The izinhlobo main of izahlulelo categorical asethinteke ukhathele
yilezi zindlela. Nokho, Kulesi sici, njengoba izahlulelo ngamagama, ngakho
ngamazinga bavumelekile ngisho verschiedne bobunjwa phezu kwabo, okungase
emelelwa scheme elandelayo. The rates:
1) Kulula (propositiones simplices)
2) eqamba (esi. Compositae)
a) Kusobala eyakhiwa
) imishombici

b) Elinamakhulu esiyinhlanganisela
a) kuphela esiqinile ngomqondo
)
Okuvumelekile ubeka
elincane
reduplikativ b).

) Ausschlieungsstze
b) exzeptiv

a) imingcele ngokweqile ngomqondo

F. kanjani enhlanganiseleni okulula rates zingafani? A. A set ilula, lapho ndaba

kokubili isilandiso nje igama main, nakuba imigomo nesilandiso akulula, kanti iqoqo
particularistic noma bendawo yonke;Ngokuphambene nalokho, lapho isihloko noma
isilandiso noma kokubili multiple, yakhiwa isethi, ngoba siqukethe ngezahlulelo
eziningana ngokuyisisekelo; yingakho nani exponibel limbiza ngomqondo obanzi,
futhi ukwakheka kuyinto efihliwe, exponibel ngomqondo esiqinile.
F.? Yiziphi izibonelo zalokhu A. imisho Simple yilezi: Ingane lithambe; abantu
bathande injabulo. Umusho esiyinhlanganisela ithi: Abantu nezilwane nezidalwa
eziphilayo; ngoba empeleni siqukethe imisho emibili: Abantu izidalwa
eziphilayo; The izilwane nezidalwa eziphilayo. Futhi: The glass ulula futhi esobala,
ie, ngokunengqondo eklanyelwe: The glass ulula; The glass lutho.
F. Yini abazihlanganisa noma imisho copulative futhi Vergleichungs- noma imisho
ngokuqhathanisa, lapho omunye uhlanganyela ngokusobala esiyinhlanganisela?
A. In the imisho copulative izifundo eziningana noma isilandiso kuhlobene; lowo into
ngokuqhathanisa isici ebiyelwe degree ephakeme kunenye. Izibonelo imisho
copulative, kwezihloko ezisohlwini impendulo odlule; imisho ngokuqhathanisa
yilezi: The tiger unonya njengoba ingonyama; The ingane ntekenteke umuntu. Lezi
rates ngabe ezothuthukiswa hot: The lion inesihluku; The tiger unonya ngisho
nangokwengeziwe. Le ndoda ine ngezinga elithile amandla; Ngale ndlela umntwana
ngezinga aphansi amandla.
F. Kuyini Ausschlieungsstzen noma rates okukhethekile futhi nokukhawulela

noma ziyacindezela? A. okukhethekile noma okukhethekile ngomqondo obanzi,

imisho lapho inyumbazane ngaso sonke futhi kulinganiselwe ngomqondo ebanzi
lapho ukuvinjelwa kwenzeka ngaso sonke. Uma kuncike wedwa ezinye izinto
ezihlobene kuye okuthile futhi uzimisele, ngakho isigwebo kuphela ngomqondo
esiqinile, kodwa uma isihloko kuphela ukushiywa ingxenye ethile ibizwa into
ixazululwe, kanjalo umusho exzeptiv; njengoba iqoqo imingcele ngokweqile
ngomqondo elincane uma mngcele kwenziwa ngumuntu admixture
ekhethekile; reduplikativ Ngakolunye uhlangothi, uma nje esashiwo ukuphinda.
? F. Yiziphi izibonelo zalokhu A. Kuphela ngomqondo elincane kuthiwa
imishwana: The cuckoo yedwa kwenza izinyoni zakhe abophe kwabanye; Izimbali
gcwalisiwe kuphela athwale imbewu.Isigwebo sakamuva ngabe ngokugcwele,
kushisa
Izimbali eziningi kukhona gcwalisiwe; Aphethe imbewu, abanye
Contribuukangaka:
a millorar la traducci
ongathwali imbewu. Imisho Exzeptive yilezi: AmaGreki matasa ngokwabo okuningi
ezobuciko, ngaphandle Lacedaemonians. Izizinda kuyojabulisa ngaphandle sezulu
esibi. Eqine kukhona ngomqondo esiqinile: The Sciences, aphathwe njengomuntu
umsebenzi kwezomnotho, kodwa awukwazi kahle. Imali njengendlela izimbangela
okuhle sibaluleke kakhulu. Imisho Reduplitative yilezi: Umlawuli wamabutho abe
umholi kumele kube esiqinile. Ukuhaha, njengoba ukuhaha njalo ukusola. - Flow
rates, lapho ziqine ngomqondo esiqinile, asho, lokho okushiwo ukusebenzisa kuphela
inhlonipho ethile. By imisho reduplikative ngokumelene lokuthi izwi ephindwa,
kuyinto okumele zithathwe ongokoqobo kakhulu, nencazelo yalo ebalulekile,
ezingasetshenziswa chaza izibonelo ekhonjiwe.

Text original

ISAHLUKO
Kusukela sameness, kwakuwukuthi, ukuphikiswa ukuphendulwa
izahlulelo categorical
F. Yikuphi izahlulelo ubizwa ngokuthi udaba noma okulingana
ugomela (identica, aequipollentia)? A. Labo lapho ubalulekile futhi ifomu
ayafana. Ngakho izahlulelo monotony kungaba kuphela okumelwe ahlukaniswe
ngokuthi designated ngamazwi ahlukene; Ngakho lishona ezahlukene; noma
maqondana njengoba kucatshangwa abantu ezahlukene, noma izikhathi ezahlukene.
F. Kuyini kwakuwukuthi ngezahlulelo? A. izahlulelo lapho bakha nesilandiso e
zombili, ngenhlanhla, imigomo efanayo; kwelinye lapho obungazungeza subject
Nokho, mkhulu, kunangesikhathi ezinye, babizwa ngokuthi bakhiphe elezinga
eliphansi (subalterna); okungukuthi ukwahlulela lowo, lapho ndaba omunye
umqondo, lo subordinating (subalternans); kodwa lokho kuba ephansi, i
ongaphansi(subalternatum). Ngakho, imisho elandelayo kukhona ongaphansi: 1)
AbaseYurophu kukhona owembethe; 2) AmaJalimane nimbathiswe; 3) Le Saxons
nimbathiswe. BaseYurophu Ingenye inkulumo njengoba amaJalimane; ngoba afakiwe
ngaphansi kwalo; Ngenxa yalokho, lapho 1) no 2) uqhathaniswa; 1) the
subordinating, 2) ingane ukwahlulela. Ngokuphambene nalokho, uma 2) kanye 3)
zifaniswa, 2) lesi subordinating kanye 3) ingane; ngoba umqondo German ndaba
ebanzi kunalelo Saxony subject. - Kumele ukuza emva umthetho oshiwo ngenhla,

ukuthi yini umqondo ephakeme ahlala kulo, futhi wonke aphansi equkethwe
ngaphansi kwalo, kudinga iqiniso ukwahlulelwa subordinating the okhonzile.
F. Yini. ? Nalowo phansi izahlulelo esenziwe ngazwilinye okuphambene
A. izahlulelo Esikhishwa Ngazwi-linye (consentientia) yilabo, kokubili okungase
wacabanga njengoba weqiniso ngesikhathi esifanayo; kodwa noma okuphambene
eziphikisanayo (opposita, repugnantia) lezo zazo ucosha lokho ezinye lishona; zazo
Ngaleyo ndlela, kungaba wacabanga into eyodwa kuphela abe weqiniso. Manje
kokuphikisa izahlulelo kungenzeka kube ngokushesha, ngqo, adversarial, noma
engaqondile, engaqondile, ngokuphambene ngokuvumelana
nemibandela. Contradictorily, kuba lapho isahlulelo lutho kwenzeka, njengoba
kuphikisa nalokho asibeka isinqumo ezahlukene; kwengqondo Kunalokho uma
kuyesulwa ngokubeka okuthile kwesahlulelo (ie hhayi by kuphikisa nje), yilokho
baba kwezinye ekwahluleleni.
F.? Yiziphi izibonelo zalokhu A. izahlulelo Esikhishwa Ngazwi-linye yilezi:
Indoda ithanda ukuphila; Umuntu ofayo. Ngokuqondile okuphambene: umuntu
uyafa; Le ndoda akuyona ofayo.Okuphikisanayo: Le ndlu ngokuphelele
zamatshe; Lokhu ekhaya ngokuphelele ngokhuni. - Izahlulelo Ngokuqondile
okuphambene kukhona isikhathi ngasinye ezimbili kuphela kungenzeka; futhi
omunye wabo kufanele ube weqiniso ngaphandle ngamunye kakade iqukethe
kuwukuziphikisa kukodwa. Ngokwesibonelo, obungenza izahlulelo komphefumulo
quadrangular uyafa, umphefumulo quadrangular akuyona ofayo, akekho kubo
weqiniso, kusukela umqondo umphefumulo quadrangular is eziphikisanayo
ngokwawo; izahlulelo eziphikisanayo ungacabanga ngaphezu ezimbili, enye yazo
kuzodingeka ukuba ngaphandle ngempela kuyiqiniso.
F. Yiziphi izahlulelo subkontrre? A. ezinjalo, enye yazo ikakhulukazi uqinisa
lokho ezinye ephika ikakhulukazi (ie mina O); isib Ezinye izilwane ezidla; ezinye
izilwane hhayi ezidla; noma izilwane Iningi izinyawo, abanye izilwane ingabi
izinyawo. It is kalula kuyabonakala ukuthi subkontrre izahlulelo bobabili
kungenzeka weqiniso.
F. Asho ukuthini ukungena ezicathulweni (conversio) imisho? A. A isethwe
phenduka kusho ukwenza isilandiso in the subject kanye kuncike isilandiso. Lokhu
kushintsha komqondo kungaba manje ngezindlela ezintathu, zenzeke 1) simpliciter ()
uma nangohlobo lwezinto nokwahlulela kuyolungiswa noma azizange zishintshe
kumane kwesokunxele ingashintshiwe; 2) peraccidens, uma nenani lokwahlulela
3) per izikhundla contra, uma izinga sokwahlulela washintsha. Isahlulelo ngazo
omunye kwenza ushintsho, okungukuthi ku amacala amabili wokuqala reverse
noma conversum ukuthi lapho umuntu oguqula ukuthi elungisa
noma convertens. Uma Contraposition kungukwahlulelwa wokuqala, le
contraponierte, kolunye contraponierende.
? F. Yiziphi izibonelo zalokhu A. ukubuswa emuva: Asikho isilwane
kunengqondo; akukho um kuba isilwane; Abanye Happy ubuhle obukhona; abanye
nezinhle bayajabula. (Ngokuvamile ukukhuluma: No A B B akuyona A. Ezinye A
kukhona B, ezinye B A.) per accidens emuva: Zonke izitshalo izidalwa

eziphilayo; izidalwa ezinye organic izitshalo; Zonke namakati carnivores; abanye

predators amakati. (General: All A B; abanye B A.) ngu Contraposition emuva:
Bonke abantu abashonile; akukho Immortal lithi abantu; zonke izilwane bayaphila,
hhayi into non-ophilayo isilwane. (General: All A B; hhayi non-B A.)
Eleventh Isahluko
Of izahlulelo yezinto kanye disjunctive
F. Kuyini ukwahlulela esicabanga ukuthi kungaqhamuka (ukwahlulela kuveta
umcabango)? A. The endabeni yokwahlulela yezinto siqukethe ngezahlulelo
ezimbili categorical; ifomu futhi ngokuyisisekelo okufanayo kodwa iqiniso lokuthi
lezi zahlulelo ezimbili categorical zimi imbangela nemphumela ezihlobene
nomunye. Izibonelo izahlulelo yezinto yilezi: Uma amaplanethi ukuhambahamba
ilanga, ngakho ukuthula kwabo kubonakala kuphela; Ngaphezu kwalokho, uma
umuntu enesizathu, naye kuthanda. Kuzo zombili izibonelo, ukwahlulelwa lokuqala
categorical iqukethe isizathu esenza ezinye isethwe; Lesi sakamuva is ke kumelwe
libhekwe ngenxa lokuqala.
F. Yini ehlukanisa izahlulelo yezinto? A. The egameni elandulela (egameni
elandulela, isimo, umbono, isilinganiso, conditio, membrum Prius s egameni
elandulela.), Yikuphi akha iplanethi njengoba ukwahlulela eyisisekelo; kanye trailer
(the hindlimb, okunemibandela, mqondo, rationatum, membrum posterius
s. consequens), equkethe nemibandela egameni elandulela. Isahlulelo kanjalo: Uma
umuntu muhle, unonembeza omuhle; Kufana nesigwebo lokuqala egameni
elandulela, neyesibili trailer. Omunye kungaba Nokho, futhi ukwenza postscript kuze
kuqala; Ngokwesibonelo, umuntu unonembeza ohlanzekile, uma muhle; Lokhu
lihlukile nje ngesimo isigwebo (lemali, ibonakala emazwini, ngenhla), kodwa hhayi
yokwahlulela. The izinhlayiya, uma kunjalo, asetshenziselwa ukuchaza ukuma
sokwahlulela yezinto 1) yilezi consecutivae particulae ngokuthi.
1)

Wena anikholwa izwi, uma kunjalo, ngabe ifomu uqobo; awakhonzi nje kuphela kubonise okufanayo.

F. Yini enye kuze ukuqaphela ukwahlulela yezinto? A. On the nature of

izahlulelo categorical ezakha Indwangu we esicabanga ukuthi kungaqhamuka,
kungakhathaliseki ukuthi ngamanye, bebonke, lokulungisa noma ezingakhi, njll,
kukhona, ngo ukucabangela okunomqondo the yezinto izahlulelo hhayi
kucatshangelwe; ngoba logic kubhekwe nje ngesimo izahlulelo, okuyinto ngaphansi
yezinto in the logic ukusebenza engavamile izahlulelo ezimbili categorical, futhi
ngempela kukho konke kuyafana, nakuba izinqumo categorical bekuyoba uqobo
ezahlukene kanjalo; lwanele ibe ekwahlulelweni esicabanga ukuthi kungaqhamuka,
ukuthi injengomoya imbangela nemphumela abahlobene; futhi lokhu isilinganiso
kumele kuphela nje wachaza. - Uma ukwahlulelwa yezinto yezahlulelo ngaphezu
ezimbili, kuba esiyinhlanganisela; Ngokwesibonelo, uma umuntu eqotho kanjani
enesihluku wawuhlale ujabule futhi njalo engajabule, kanjalo kwakungeke kube
sokunconywa umkhuba amandla futhi axwaye vice.
F. Kuyini ngesahlulelo disjunctive (eliphikisayo ukudlulisa)?

A. Uma

kunqunywa ukuthi eziningana samanje okuhlukile izici omunye ephethe ukushiywa

nezinye Nokho, kumele kusekelwe umqondo, ngaphandle ecacisa, lapho, njengoba
uwa ukwahlulelwa disjunctive , Izibonelo izahlulelo disjunctive yilezi: The
ubumnandi kungaba kuvunyelwe noma awuvunyelwe ukungena; Lo muntu noma
German noma eyiNgisi noma Frenchman. Lapha I wayehlose kuphela ngempela
esiningi ukuthi izici okuphambene, isiJalimane, English, French (ukuthi akuphi
obuhlukile noma ngokungaqondile Kunalokho) kumele athumele umuntu oyedwa,
kodwa hhayi ukuthi; ngesikhathi esifanayo kuboniswa isimiso ukuthi once a sici
ngempela wanezela umqondo, khona-ke ezinye kumele ngaphandle, ukuthi mina
ngeke madoda, uma mina ngempela ukumcabanga njengoba eyiNgisi, ngisho
ukucabanga njengoba French kanyekanye, okuyinto ngabe yikuphi esenziwa the
nature of the imigomo eziphikisanayo bekungeke kwenzeke.
F. Kuyini okunye okumelwe kuqashelwe by the izahlulelo disjunctive maqondana
nendaba zabo futhi yakha? A. Udaba izahlulelo disjunctive empeleni siqukethe
okuphambene izahlulelo eziningana categorical. The kuwo isilandiso okuphambene
ngokuthi amalungu separation (membra disjuncta kanjalo) like ngenhla German,
English, French kukhona. The isilinganiso omunye wamalungu ngokuhlukana,
omunye ngalo kufanele kube isici into ahlolwa weqiniso, kwenza isimo sokwahlulela
disjunctive futhi kunqunywa izinhlayiya kungaba,
noma (particulae disjunctivae efanayo, noma okhethwe) futhi cishe nje by
one. Amalungu separation kungenzeka akhiwe ngqo okuphambene, njengoba
kuvunyelwe ngenhla, futhi abavumelekile, noma ngokungaqondile, ezifana
isiJalimane, isiFulentshi, isiNgisi; esimweni sokuqala kukhona amalungu
ngokuhlukana ezimbili kuphela; last kungase kube eziningana.
F. Yini kungaba mayelana the modality ukwahlulela yezinto kanye disjunctive
khumbula? A. Your izingxenye ithathwe ngamunye yinkinga; Kodwa ayebheka
wonkana ngokusho shape yabo, zingabantu apodictic, ie bathanda ukuba
kudingeke.
In the
izahlulelo esicabanga ukuthi kungaqhamuka, ngitsho egameni
Contribuu a millorar
la traducci
elandulela is eqinisweni senzelwe ukuba kudingeke, noma esitho
indluzelekazi; kodwa cishe kokubili njengoba imbangela nemphumela. Ngakho
ucabanga in the izahlulelo disjunctive hhayi weqiniso ngamunye okuphambene
sokwahlulela ngamunye categorical, kusukela ngalo senziwa, njengoba
kudingekile; wonke Ukwahlulela kodwa isethwe njengoba kudingekile, ngoba lokhu
inquma ngokuqondile kuphela ukuthi izici eziningana kungenzeka samanje kumele
uthole into.

Text original

Isahluko Seshumi Nambili

Ibhayisikobho umehluko yezahlulelo nemisho mayelana nencazelo yalo 2)
2)

Nakuba logic empeleni ubheka okuqukethwe noma daba kanye umsuka ukwahlulela ingqondo; kodwa ngeke
kube okungafaneleki ukuba ngani kulesi uxhumano a lot ngakho; njengoba kwenzeka e zokufunda kakhulu
logic.

F. Indlela izahlulelo ahlaziye kanye zokwenziwa zingafani? A. Analytic

izahlulelo yilabo lapho omunye, ulandisa isici ukuthi kwakucatshangwa kakade

equkethwe umqondo endabeni le njengendlela isilandiso. Elinye zokwenziwa

hot. Ngokwesibonelo: Ukudla esetshenziswa ukongiwa izidalwa kuyinto
isiphakamiso ahlaziye, ngoba ukudla term I kakade ukucabanga ngazitshela isici
ukuthi libhekene izidalwa ingatholakala. Ngokuphambene, isigwebo kungaba: The
ukudla okumnandi, synthetically, ngoba isici palatability ungakabi mayelana
nokudla. Ngakho bekungaba isigwebo: Ukukhanya kuyakhanya, i kohlaziyo, ngoba
ngokoMthetho ekukhanyeni, I kakade sicabange ubukhazikhazi njengoba isici
ehambisana; ngokumelene: Ukukhanya fast, i kusobala zokwenziwa isiphakamiso,
ngoba, njengoba umqondo ijubane kuzodingeka ekukhanyeni. - In the amarekhodi
kohlaziyo ngakho athathe isici umqondo ukuxoxa ngendaba ngokwayo Inthanethi
kwalokhu njengoba isilandiso kangaka; kwelinye zokwenziwa uthatha uphume
kwenye indawo. - Tautalogisch kuyinto isiphakamiso kohlaziyo, lapho isihloko
ixhunywe uqobo njengoba isilandiso; isib isinkwa isinkwa; a izidalwa eziphilayo
ophila. - Kulula, ukuthi ulwazi lwethu ngempela ngeke kungenziwa landiswa
ngokwakha ahlaziye ngezahlulelo; ngoba ukufakaza lokho esikwaziyo kakade
kuphela; kodwa, by efanayo ukunakwa yethu ababulawa lidlula ku izici ngamunye
umqondo futhi kanjalo acabanga ngokucacile kugqugquzelwa. Singasho empeleni
wandise kwenkululeko okutholakele yethu nje ngokwakha zokwenziwa izahlulelo.
F. kanjani lishona theory kanye nama-practical zingafani?
ukulungisa ulwazi; labo abasho okuthile lekahle of action.

A. Lezi kancane

F. Yiziphi rates indemonstrable futhi demonstrable? A. Esokuqala ngokushesha

ezithile, ie labo cha elisuselwa ezinye zinto ogama iqiniso (wabonisa) kungaba,
kodwa kuyacaca ukuthi ngokwabo.Abanye kukhona ngokungaqondile ezithile,
okungukuthi labo ogama iqiniso kungenziwa etholakala kwezinye imisho futhi
kufanele.
F. Siyini isimiso? A. isimiso, Axiom noma isimiso izinga ngokushesha ezithile
theory, okuyinto Kanjalo kungenzeka elisuselwa nguwuphi omunye, kodwa uqobo
ukhonza sukela nye imishwana it.Ngakho, imithetho-ezibalwe ngenhla yokucabanga,
eliphikisayo, sokulingana jikelele, njll izimiso. Izibonelo izimiso wezibalo kukhona
ukuthi imigqa emibili iqonde ungafaki isikhala; wanezela ukuthi efanayo bathanda,
ziyafana.
F. Kuyini postulate? A. postulate noma funa rate iqoqo esiwusizo, okubonisa
ukuthi into ethile kufanele ngabe eyaletha, futhi lapha njengoba ngokushesha ezithile
kusikisela ukuthi kungenzeka futhi kukhiqizwa. Postulates ezinjalo ezikhululwayo:
ukudweba umugqa oqondile phakathi amaphuzu amabili; ukwelula umugqa iqonde
unomphela. Akekho ukubonisa ukuthi liwukuthi kungenzeka ngempela lo
(okungukuthi maqondana abukho ubufakazi mathupha kuyakhulunywa); kungani
kodwa ayikho nokho ukusho ukuthi lokhu kusakhela kancane okungenangqondo
liyadingeka; kusukela bonke abantu abanelisekile of the ngokuqiniseka ngokushesha
zibheke edingekayo. - From la postulates ngomqondo evamile kukhona ukuhlukanisa
postulates okuthiwa okucabanga practical, okuyinto akaceli okuthile ukwenza; kodwa
kunalokho, into ngeke wazibonakalisa, ukukholelwa ngaphandle ubufakazi
intshisekelo zokuziphatha kuthanda; njengoba ukuba khona kukaNkulunkulu kanye

nenkululeko womuntu.
F.? Kuyini a theorem noma theorem futhi umsebenzi noma inkinga
A. Elokuqala a isiphakamiso theory ogama iqiniso kufanele lithathwe kuphela
kwabanye; okokugcina isethi esiwusizo ukuthi inquma ukubulawa isenzo, lapho
kumelwe luhlolwe kuphela ukuthi kwakungase ibulawe. Isibonelo a theorem
kuba; ukuthi engele in unxantathu ngamunye ndawonye akhawunti amabili iqonde
sokunene, ngoba kufanele wafakazela ezinye theorems zezibalo kuphela; isibonelo
umsebenzi kuyinto: An unxantathu equilateral eqoshiwe. Ukuze inkinga
okuyingxenye 1) the Qustion. di umutjho okhombisa yini ukuba babulawe; 2)
nesinqumo ukuthi indlela ngokubulawa ekhombisa; 3) ukuboniswa, lapho sivela
kwamanye amarekhodi ukuthi Required'll ngempela akhuliswe indlela esibekiwe
isinqumo. - In the theorem kuphela mqondo futhi ukuboniswa kubalulekile, lo
yangaphambili equkethe umusho luhlolwe omncane ukuba bazibonakalise ukukubeka kanje aphinde eziyize short, i Axiom nje abanye theory, a postulate isethi
ngokushesha ezithile ezingokoqobo. a theorem, a engaqondile noma ubufakazi
anekhono futhi abaswele theory ezithile; inkinga like a isethi practical. - Kufanele
kuqashelwe ukuthi lezi, futhi la mazwi alandelayo angaphandle Corolarium, lemma,
Scholion kumele ikakhulukazi livame ukusetshenziswa mathematics.
F. Kuyini okufakiwe noma Corolarium futhi Wohlgenannt Porisma noma
Consektarium? A. A set ukuthi ingabonwa ngokuqondile lokho andulela inkulumo
kalula, futhi ngenxa yalokho akudingeki ubufakazi eningiliziwe. Ngakho
ongakwenza ukuze isiphakamiso ukuthi yisiphi unxantathu rectilinear ndawonye
engele amathathu ukwenza amalungelo ezimbili, njengoba Scholion usethe; ukuthi
uma unxantathu kuyilungelo noma i obtuse (ayinkulu kunenkosi a right) angle
senzeka, ezinye engele ezimbili, ngayinye kufanele wakhomba (esingaphansi
ilungelo).
F. Kuyini a Lehnsatz (hhayi umqondo wemfundiso) noma lemma? A. Umusho
esakuthwala Welela isethulo kwesayensi wathola for yimuphi omunye isayensi, futhi
ngenxa yeqiniso yayo usumisiwe akunabufakazi kabusha.
F.? Siyini Scholion noma ukuphawula A. A set is hhayi kakhulu wezwa
umongo isethulo kwesayensi, kodwa kuphela ivuliwe endaweni ngenhloso
side; ikakhulukazi ukuba phambili kuyiswe ukuchaza kakhudlwana.
F. Kuyini isahlulelo enokwehla? A. omunye ogama iqiniso kusekelwe
ebufakazini kokwenzeka, kodwa hhayi bakwamanye izahlulelo.
ISAHLUKO SESHUMI NANTATHU
Of ezifundeni jikelele ikakhulu categorical
F. Kuyini esiphethweni (ratiocinium, syllogism)? A. Iqiniso isahlulelo
angaqondakaliyo kodwa njengoba engaqinisekile of a imaginary ethile kunokuba
bheke.
F. Kuyini ezahlukene iziphetho? A. Indaba futhi Form. Udaba noma Indwangu
ukwenza izahlulelo ezakha wesifunda; ifomu, kodwa isiphetho liqukethe

ngokungenaphutha engavamile isixhumanisi uhlobo izahlulelo, esenziwa ngazo a

ukwahlulela njengoba ngesisekelo iqiniso omunye isethwe. Leli fomu uzobe
ingxenye kulinganiswe ke izwi (ERGO kuboniswe).
F. Kuyini ezahlukene endabeni iziphetho A. Labo izahlulelo equkethe nesizathu
etholakala, kukhona, ngoba yizona phambili ngesikhathi izifunda njalo lapho
kuthuthukiswe ngobuciko, lo antecedents noma
ezakhiweni (propositiones praemissae ngokuthi); isigwebo kodwa equkethe
elisuselwa, umusho wokugcina noma
Conklusion (conclusio, conclusum). Ngokwesibonelo, ngo esiphethweni: bonke
abantu abampofu abangajabule, uNero nguyena umuntu omubi; Ngakho uNero
bekagula, imisho emibili yokuqala kukhona emagcekeni noma izibonelo; the
yokugcina the Conklusion noma umusho wokugcina.
F.? Uyini umehluko phakathi shape elingaphakathi kanye elingaphandle
iziphetho A. The shape yangaphakathi libhekisela isixhumanisi uhlobo izahlulelo
ezifundeni, njengoba ayehlosile ekuqaleni ekuqondeni; yangaphandle kodwa
umehluko mayelana nkulumo yabo ngokusebenzisa imisho.
F. Indlela ukuhlukanisa iziphetho ifomu kwalo? A. Kuye kwesisekelo lokuqala
(embonweni enkulu) iyinhlangano ukwahlulela categorical, esicabanga ukuthi
kungaqhamuka noma disjunctive, e categorical, esicabanga ukuthi kungaqhamuka,
futhi disjunctive.
F.? Yiziphi izibonelo zalokhu A. A siphetho categorical kuyinto: Bonke abantu
ofayo, Caius uyindoda, ngakho Caius uyafa. Wayehlose on okulandelayo eyikati:
Uma Caius uyindoda, yena uyafa, manje Caius uyindoda, ngakho okufayo; kungaba
isiphetho esicabanga ukuthi kungaqhamuka; futhi disjunctive wayezobe uma
wacabanga kanjalo: Caius kungaba ofayo noma akasiye umuntu, manje Caius
uyindoda, ngakho ofayo.
F.? Yini esiphethweni umnyuziki categorical A. Okokuqala imithetho
emithathu (zinto), eyokuqala egameni elandulela noma rule (ukuphasa. Ezinkulu)
Ngokuthi (isibonelo ngenhla: Bonke abantu ofayo); enye the isinyathelo, lo
assumtion noma subsumption (ukuphasa ezincane.) (Caius uyindoda); yesithathu
umusho wokugcina (conclutio) (unjalo Caius ofayo). Kulezi amasethi amathathu
main manje ube imiqondo ezintathu main (Termini kufakwe); okungukuthi imigomo
whose ubuhlobo omunye komunye kunqunywa isethi sokugcina, enye yazo isihloko
noma term ephansi (Terminus minor); omunye isilandiso noma yigama
elididiyelayo (Terminus ezinkulu) ngokuthi. Kuze kube yimanje, kukhona igama elithi
maphakathi (Terminus medius). Umqondo ngamunye main iza ephelele esiphethweni
categorical kabili ngaphambi; esethulweni (ofayo) e ukuhamba ezinkulu, futhi
ukuvala, kokubili izikhathi njengoba isilandiso; the term elincane (Caius) e
ukuhamba ezincane kanye lokuvala, kokubili izikhathi njengoba subject; Igama elithi
phakathi (human) e embonweni ezinkulu kanye nezincane, khona njengoba subject,
lapha njengoba isilandiso. The Esethulweni igama sub-nomqondo bavela iqiniso,
njengoba esethulweni ngokuvamile ephakeme, term ephansi liphansi, futhi ngo close
up kwakuwukuthi term ephansi etholakala ngaphansi esethulweni, ngokusebenzisa

kwaloba kwethemu phakathi, kusukela kwesisekelo ezinkulu.

? F. By lapho scheme uyiveza isikhundla imiqondo esemqoka in a Lihle futhi
full categorical esiphethweni A. Lo Esethulweni noma igama ndaba S, leli gama
M phakathi, Leligama noma P isilandiso, beza ngezindlela ezilandelayo yilezi:
M=P
S=M
S = P.
F. On lokho ngokuvamile uyaphumula ukuba semthethweni iziphetho
categorical? A. On okulandelayo: Yini isici into kungokwalabo noma iyaphikisana
ukuthi uyeza noma kuphambene izinto ngokwabo; noma, yini kusho ukuthi into
efanayo ukuthi i bohlobo yonke kungokwalabo noma iyaphikisana ukuthi
iyaphikisana zonke izinhlobo kanye abantu efanayo; uhlobo lwe nezinhloboimiqondo yamagama okungukuthi, ekufundiseni njengoba kubonakala kakhulu
imigomo uhlobo ekhonjiwe futhi jikelele zonke izinto ezingaphansi kwazo. Ngakho
uthole in close ngenhla isilandiso ofayo isici Caius, umuntu, ukuba, yingakho futhi
Caius ngokwakhe; noma, ngamanye amazwi, zesidumbu sici oza lonke uhlobo
abantu, kubandakanya Caius, ngubani singumuntu kwalesi silwane. Iqiniso lokhu
kubusa lusobala kukho isimiso sokulingana jikelele. IsiLatin ziye wezwakalisa
njengoba: Inothi notae is Inothi rei ipsius; noma quicquid de ongumninimandla onke
valet, valet etiam de quibusdam et singulis et quidquid de nullo valet, NEC de
quibusdam NEC de singulis valet (the okuthiwa dictum de ongumninimandla onke
et nullo), noma quicquid valet de genere, valet de etiam uhlobo, quicquid repugnat
generi, repugnat etiam speciei.
F. Ukubusa ebalulekile ukugcina kwesisekelo enkulu iziphetho categorical?
A. Kumelwe kube jikelele. (Izahlulelo Individual kusebenza iziphetho jikelele;
limitative olingana isenzangakhona). Ngoba uma esethulweni awusekelwe yonke
selilonke we term phakathi, asisebenzi ngaphandle kuye; ngakho ngeke ezihlobene
ngokuqiniseka ndaba kanye, okuyinto lihlelwe njengoba kufakwe ngaphansi
obungazungeza term phakathi. Ngokwesibonelo, obungenza esiphethweni: Ezinye
izazi bampofu, Leibniz kwaba isazi, kanjalo Leibniz wayempofu, okungalungile,
ngoba esethulweni lubuthaka lapha lonke azungeze umqondo ephakathi zomfundisi,
kodwa kuphela ingxenye walandisa efanayo izwi abanye ekhombisa; kodwa manje
kungenzeka ukuthi leli gama negative Leibniz, akukhona nje kufakwe ngaphansi
kwale ngxenye, lo ububha ebaluliwe njengoba isici; Ngakho ngifika kulesi siphetho
akukho ngokuqiniseka okuphelele ukuthi Leibniz yayihlupheka
ngempela. Kungenzeka yini I Ngakolunye uhlangothi sithi zonke izazi bampofu,
Leibniz kwaba isazi, bekungasho ukulandela ngokuqiniseka incontrovertible ukuthi
Leibniz wayebuye ompofu, ngoba nansi ububha lonke azungeze umqondo ephakathi
zomfundisi, omunye ucabanga Leibniz ngaphansi kwazo njengoba kuqukethwe,
ahlobene, futhi umuntu wayethi kufanele emva Imithetho ebalulwe ukuthi, lokho izici
into kungokwalabo, futhi izinto ngokwabo kumelwe sifike, Leibniz uchaza
kubalulekile ukuze abampofu.

F.? Kumele the isinyathelo iziphetho categorical kanjani A. The base

akumele kube negative, setha; Kunalokho, kwakuwukuthi term aphansi kumele
empeleni kufakwe ngaphansi nkulumo isho kuye;nalokho agent kungokwalabo
imigomo, kungaba ke wethule ubufakazi futhi kusukela ethemini aphansi. Kusukela
emagcekeni: Bonke abantu abashonile; the cat akuyona ntu; ngabe okuningi njengoba
lutho uphethe, ngoba uma mina bayaxoxa yokufa kwesisekelo ezinkulu
zabantu; kodwa ke in the minor the cat ayemukeli okungaphansi kwenkululeko
umqondo yomuntu, kunalokho ngaphandle kwalo, ngakho enza lokho predicated
zabantu, akukho maqondana cat, futhi lokhu kungase kube ofayo noma cha, kungaba
mayelana utho ezakhiweni cabangela. Kubonakala kulula ukubona ukuthi
ukungakwazi ukuphetha into kulezi ezakhiweni; akukatjhuguluki, omunye angase
abeke umuntu, ofayo, cat, ukuthatha imiqondo ukuthi ufuna.
F. Yini mthetho usebenza angavaleki ukunyakaza iziphetho categorical? A. It is
sibhekiswe mayelana izinga layo ngokusho umusho ezethula futhi maqondana
eliningi ngemva ezincane.Ngokwesibonelo, uma nginalo ezakhiweni: Akukho
silwane isizathu, yonke namakati yizilwane, ngakho manje mina kumelwe kugqoke
umusho wokugcina iyimbi futhi jikelele; ngoba kwesisekelo ezinkulu (mayelana
quality) kuyinto negative, kanti isinyathelo kuyinto (mayelana eliningi)
universal. Ngakho-ke ngizoqhubeka ukuveza esiphethweni: Ngakho akukho cat has
engqondweni. (No ukuyiveza okungukuthi izwi, uyaphika jikelele). Nakuba
Ngangibona futhi ukuphetha ezakhiweni: Ngakho abanye cats Awunankinga; lapho
ngoba umusho wokugcina kungaba particularistic; kodwa waphetha ngale ndlela
kusobala kancane kakhulu; ziyethusa okungalungile kodwa kungaba umusho
wokugcina, uma ngifuna ukubeka kuye ngoyebo: Ngakho wonke amakati
izingqondo.
F. Kuthiwani imiqondo eyisisekelo iziphetho categorical? A. Kungenzeka abo
ngaphezu aphethwe ezintathu, futhi ngenxa yalokho kufanele zithathwe Mitbegriff e
ezinkulu, ngomqondo ofanayo njengoba kule minor; kungenjalo une empeleni ezine
nemiqondo eyisisekelo; uma ababili designated ngezwi elifanayo. Esimweni esinjalo,
isilandiso kusekelwe isici ezahlukene ngokuphelele embonweni ezinkulu, njengoba
yilokho ndaba subordinated kule minor; Ngakho isilandiso of the kwesisekelo
ezinkulu akudingeki ukuba kuthathwe kudingekile zesifundo emshweni wokugcina,
njengoba lokhu ekhuliswe nganoma iyiphi indlela emkhakheni yayo. A wesifunda
lapho lesi simiso is hhayi waphawula, ubizwa ngokuthi sophism ambiguitatis
s amphiboliae .; futhi ngokuvamile engenangqondo kakhulu futhi kungazwakali
baphume, njengoba izibonelo ezilandelayo zibonisa: Kuyini ebolile, stinks; Caius
kuyinto lazy, ukuthi stinks Caius. The Rose isifo; le mbali kuyinto rose, nale mbali
kuyinto isifo. Ubani naughty, kufanele athole reference, lokhu spring naughty,
ngakho lokhu entwasahlobo kumele bathole reference. - Ngokusobala, isibonelo
lokuqala term phakathi in the kwesisekelo ezinkulu lazy, lapho usho kakhulu
njengoba ezibolile, esithathwe libe nencazelo ehluke kakhulu kunalokho in the minor
lapho kuba okuningi njengoba indolent; Ngakho Caius asilethelwa okungaphansi
kwenkululeko eyodwa digester e minor, by okubhekisele ukunuka njengoba sici, futhi
ngenxa yalokho ngeke ezihlobene Caius in the ukunyakaza final.

F. Indlela basendulo ngekhanda kwimemori bobunjwa bafuna okungenzeka

esiphethweni categorical mayelana zokwandisa nokuthuthukisa ikhwalithi izahlulelo
eziqukethwe kulo, uma ngempela imithetho isizathu ngokuhambisana? A. Bakha
amagama alandelayo, lapho onkamisa kukhona njengoba kuchaziwe kule
izahlulelo; okungukuthi ukuthi A jikelele lokulungisa, E iveza ngokuvamile negative
elilodwa isigwebo; I an O umuntu lokulungisa ikakhulukazi, ikakhulukazi negative.
Barbara (All imizimba zinzima, zonke izingcezu umzimba, ngakho bonke amadwala
zinzima.)
CElArCnt (Akukho silwane ulimi, sonke izinkawu yizilwane, ngakho akukho ulimi
monkey.)
KaDariyu (Konke organic sondleke, izinto ezinhle Emhlabeni organically, kanjalo
Izinto is wondliwa emhlabeni.)
FERIO (No plant ihamba nangobudlova, izidalwa ezinye organic izitshalo,
abambalwa kangaka izidalwa eziphilayo musa ukuthutha kanye nangobudlova.)
The unkamisa wokuqala ngezwi ngalinye uzwakalisa zonke izici kwesisekelo kuqala,
owesibili eyomunye, wesithathu ukuthi tenhlangano last, izwi barbara ke kubonisa
ukuthi categorical esiphethweni kwesisekelo ezinkulu, embonweni ezincane isiphetho
Contribuu jikelele
a millorar la futhi
traduccievuma ngesikhathi esifanayo ; izwi Celarent ukuthi
kungaba
kwesisekelo nasesiphethweni ngokuvamile negative, the isinyathelo kodwa kungase
ngokuvamile kube ngoyebo, nokunye -. esiphethweni ngasinye categorical
esingebalwe alethwe enye yalezi amafomu ezine, ngokusho imithetho logic, noma
okungalungile esisemthethweni lapho mhlawumbe lokho equkethwe umusho
wokugcina; kwakuzokwenzekani lifezekile. Uma Ngingathanda khipha, isibonelo:
zonke izidalwa eziphilayo inothiswa, akukho tshe uMuntu organic, Ngakho-ke,
akukho tshe yilo bondleke; kwakuyothatha Nokho, ngezikhathi kuyiqiniso ukuthi
itshe is hhayi sondleke, kodwa akazange ukulandela kusukela premisses, futhi iqiniso
ke ngempela impahla esiphethweni belungafica, kodwa akukho esisemthethweni (sd
umehluko kwezingxenye neqiniso okusemthethweni Isingeniso); abengenza
ngokunengqondo bamanga. Okungukuthi, izibophezele amaphutha ezimbili kule
siphetho; kuqala, ukuthi kwesisekelo encane negative; okwesibili, ukuthi umusho
wokugcina ezazini e izinga layo by the kwesisekelo ezinkulu; ukulandelana onkamisa
ababezoba kulesi siphetho esinjalo: AEE; njengoba kwenzeka kunoma yiziphi
amazwi ohlwini, futhi uma ufuna ukwenza iziphetho ezingefani emva ifomu esinjalo,
falsity ke ngabe sifinyelele kalula zibe amehlo akho, ngokuba isibonelo, Bonke
abantu abashonile; akukho isilwane ngumuntu, ngakho akukho silwane
uyafa. Akekho kuphambene neqiniso impahla we premisses unokuthile zokwenqaba,
ngakho kufanele kube ngendlela esiphethweni sokuthi ezakhini kubo ephetha
isigwebo nokho okungalungile.

Text original

Isahluko Seshumi Nane

Of iziphetho yezinto kanye disjunctive
F. Yini esiphethweni esicabanga ukuthi kungaqhamuka? A. Futhi amasethi
amathathu main, embonweni ezinkulu, embonweni ezincane esiphethweni babizwa,

eyokuqala kuyinto ukwahlulela esicabanga ukuthi kungaqhamuka. Amagama main

kodwa noma kunqanyulwe isivumelwane engaphezu kwemithathu aphethwe kuwo.
F. Siyini oyisisekelo iziphetho yezinto? A. Uma isimo noma isizathu isethwe,
kanye okunemibandela noma ukulandelana isethwe, futhi uma moya noma
ukulandelana ikhanseliwe, liphinde isimo noma isizathu ochithiwe. IsiLatin
njengoba: A veritate rationis ad veritatem isilinganiso nati, a isilinganiso falsitate
nati ad falsitatem rationis valet consequentia. - The semthethweni lokhu kubusa
kusekelwe isimiso esanele, esenziwa ngazo uxhumano oludingekayo kwembangela
nomphumela senzeka.
F. Yiziphi iziphetho yezinto akhona? A. ezimbili; i lokulungisa (Modas ponens)
kanye ongemuhle (munye tollens). Ngemuva uhlobo lokuqala kuhlanganisa omunye
iqiniso element phambi in the kwesisekelo ezinkulu esitho indluzelekazi, isibonelo:
Uma Caius uyindoda, yena uyafa; Manje Caius uyindoda; Ngakho
okufayo; ngezindawo omunye avale of the falsity esitho indluzelekazi on the falsity
phambi kwesango: Uma Caius kungaba njengomuntu ophakeme, wayeyoba
awufi; Manje Caius awuwona ongafi, ngakho akalindeli nenhlalakahle
eliphakeme. Lezi zinhlobo ezimbili close hypothetically, ezivela ngokwemvelo
kusukela oyisisekelo okukhulunywa for iziphetho yezinto.
F. You can not close by the falsity phambi kwesango the yezinto kwesisekelo
ezinkulu ngalo esangweni ezingemuva, futhi iqiniso esitho indluzelekazi on phambi
kwesango? A. Cha, ngoba zingenziwa okuthile kuyiqiniso, nakuba lutho olubi,
kodwa kunalokho kusuka into engamanga ngezinye izikhathi iqiniso abanye
baphetha; nakuba hhayi ke ngenxa yesizathu bamanga weqiniso, kodwa ungase ube
ngenye yisiphi isizathu sangempela. Ngokwesibonelo, uma yezinto kwesisekelo
ezilandelayo enkulu ye-wabopha ngabhande linye kungaba: Uma zonke izitshalo
babe izimbali ezimhlophe, kanye lily has izimbali ezimhlophe; ngakho egameni
elandulela kungaba okungalungile, kusukela khona nazo otshala ngayo ngaphandle
izimbali ezimhlophe; kodwa hindlimb weqiniso ngabe bazinqumela; kusukela lily
uthela ngempela izimbali ezimhlophe. Ukube bengingazama ukuphetha falsity
phambi kwesango ukuba ilungu ezingemuva ngendlela manje: Well, akuzona zonke
izitshalo izimbali ezimhlophe, kubandakanya lily uye akukho izimbali ezimhlophe,
ngakho isiphetho, njengoba ungase kalula ukubona kungaba okungalungile; futhi
ngokulinganayo okungalungile, ngingathanda ukuphetha, uma ngifuna ukuba
okuzuza iqiniso esitho phambi kusukela esitho indluzelekazi ngendlela: Manje lily
has izimbali ezimhlophe, kuhlanganise izimila babe izimbali ezimhlophe.
F. Siyini isiphetho disjunctive? A. Futhi kusukela kwesisekelo ezinkulu,
embonweni ezincane isigwebo isiphetho, eyokuqala kuyinto ukwahlulela
disjunctive. Again, singenzeka imiqondo ezingaphezu kwezintathu main.
F. On lokho ngokuvamile uyaphumula ubuqiniso iziphetho disjunctive? A. In the
elandelayo, ukuthi uma izakhi ukwahlukana a ukwahlulela disjunctive iyenziwa
njengoba kuyiqiniso, khona-ke ezinye, kumele osuchithiwe njengoba okungalungile,
nokuthi uma omunye izakhi ngokuhlukana isethwe ukuba bamanga, bese omunye,
(ie, lapho ungathola ezimbili kuphela amalungu esikhundleni ngokuhlukana, abanye)

kufanele isethwe njengoba kuyiqiniso. Lat. A positione unius contradictorie

oppositorum ad negationem alterius, a negatione unius ad positionem alterius valet
consequentia (Lo mthetho IsiLatin kungase kubonakale nje ukusebenzisa kusukela
izifunda ezifana disjunctive lapho nje ezimbili kuphela amalungu ngokuhlukana
ngokuqondile okuphambene zenzeke, kodwa liphinde kusebenza maqondana
ngokuvamile ngenxa engaqondile ngokuhlukana okuphambene nemilenze eziningana
omunye njalo okuphambene kumele okunye kuthathwe ndawonye; isibonelo,
kungaba izitho ngokuhlukana mhlophe, zibe bomvu, black; kanjalo ezimnyama hhayi
white; obomvu nomhlophe hhayi black ;. black and white hhayi red)
F. Yiziphi izinhlobo iziphetho disjunctive akhona?
A. A disjunctive syllogism, lapho bavale kuphikisa eyodwa noma amalungu
angaphezu ngokuhlukana on isiqinisekiso nanini of the lonke amalungu
ngokuhlukana, futhi munye ponendo tollens lapho kulona ezithile eyodwa noma
esingaziwa isiqinisekiso samalungu ngokuhlukana amaningi zonke ezinye
ukuzolalela kuphikisa ezimisele. Isibonelo disjunctive lokuqala siphetho
okulandelayo: Lo muntu noma isazi noma i ingcweti, noma isosha; Manje yena
akuyona isazi, ngakho kuyinto ingcweti noma isosha; noma; Manje yena akuyona
isazi noma izingcweti, ngakho he is a soldier. Isibonelo sesibili of siphetho: The
uhamba umhlaba uzungeza ilanga noma, noma ilanga emhlabeni wonke, noma
bobabili nime; Manje umhlaba ihamba ilanga, noma ngezinye kumile; Ngakho ilanga
akusho ukuhambahamba emhlabeni; noma; Manje uhamba umhlaba uzungeza
ilanga; Ngakho ilanga akusho ukuhambahamba emhlabeni, ngisho bobabili uthula. F. Yini kuyimpicabadala noma wesifunda enezimpondo? (Cornutus) A. Isibonelo
okunjalo akukhona okulandelayo: uma emibhalweni amaGreki kungaba ukugula,
bebengaba noma babhubha, noma ukufunda kwabo sebezokwenza
enganakiwe; Manje, kungukuthi usethe futhi ukufunda kwabo ngeke manje
banganakwa; Ngakho abawona ezimbi. Nansi kwesisekelo enkulu ukuxhuma
ukwahlulelwa esicabanga ukuthi kungaqhamuka nge disjunctive; by the yokugcina
akha hindlimb sokwahlulela yezinto; Ngaphezu kwalokho, lo falsity tonkhe tincenye
ngokuhlukana eziqukethwe embonweni ezinkulu Kusolakala in the subset; futhi
ekugcineni baphetha lesi falsity lamalungu ngokuhlukana esitho indluzelekazi on the
falsity phambi kwesango the yezinto kwesisekelo ezinkulu. Kulezi izingcezu nje
okushiwo inkinga. Ngakho-ke esiphethweni esicabanga ukuthi kungaqhamuka ogama
kwesisekelo iqukethe hindlimb disjunctive futhi emva tollens munye uvala. - Ingabe
amalungu ngokuhlukana angaphezu kwamabili, kusho isiphetho esinjalo
vielgehrnter noma Polylemma.
Isahluko Seshumi Nanhlanu
Kusukela izifunda esifushanisiwe
F. kanjani uhlukanisa iziphetho mayelana wazo yangaphandle? A. In
esisemthethweni kanye non esisemthethweni. Labo agcwele ngesikhathi esifanayo
okuqondisisa ezejwayelekile, like yonke izibonelo ekhonjiwe kuze kube; lokhu
ngokwengxenye akuphelele, esifushanisiwe noma kufihlwe (crypticae) uma kuzo

okuthile okuqondene ngempela isiphetho, engekho; ngokwengxenye ongavamile,

nesiphambeneyo, iziphetho esiphethweni noma izibalo final; uma isikhundla imisho
yabo noma ngokulandela main iyahluka kusukela isitimela zemvelo yokucabanga
kunoma isiphi isici.
F. Yikuphi wesifunda izinhlobo kulindeleke ukuba ayiphelele futhi ezifingqiwe?
A. Lo esihlokwaneni zufrderst labo lapho umusho wokugcina we isizathu
sokusebenza kwaso kuhambisane kafushane nje; zobuhle njengoba isibonelo Kumele
ukukhuthala ukuze ngoba kusisondeza inhloso ezimpilweni zethu. Lapha, kusukela
umusho wokugcina we front kunjalo okuqondisisa abanjalo bangabaphostoli kokubili
okungalungile. Ngaphezu kwalokho, kufanele kulindeleke lapha ngokuthi
Enthymemata, izifunda ie lapho kuqhamuka sokususwa; futhi umehluko e
Enthymemen oda lokuqala noma lesibili, kuye embonweni lokuqala noma lesibili
entulekayo. - Isibonelo oda sokuqala Enthymema: Caius uyindoda; Ngakho
okufayo; omunye kusukela omunye umyalelo wesibili: Bonke abantu
abashonile; Ngakho Caius uyafa. Ukuze enze lezi ziphetho ngokugcwele; omunye
kuzodingeka ukuba siphoqe abantu esimweni sokuqala: Bonke abantu abashonile; e
yesibili: Caius uyindoda. Enthymemen ezinjalo ezikhululwayo ngobufushane
inkulumo ngenxa avunyelwe kanye kuthathwa okungukuthi ukuthi umfundi noma
isilaleli embonweni ivinjelwe wawungase ubhekwe njengomuntu self-ukuliqonda.
F. Yini enye kuqondwe ngaphansi izifunda ngokuqondile noma engqondweni?
A. A umehluko owayengenalusizo futhi kwezinye izimo mhlawumbe namanje
okuqondisisa manje engaqondile noma ukucabanga, njengawo wonke ukuthi
yayikade ohlwini, futhi ngokushesha iziphetho noma amasu okuqondisisa
ukuqonda. Igama yokugcina wayengomunye enjalo, okuyinto bacabanga ukuthi
babekwazi etholakala ngaphandle ngumlamuli ukwahlulela nje ovela
kwesisekelo; nokuthi ababekudinga futhi nje embonweni, ngokuba reshaping zabo
nje kusho umsebenzi ukuqonda umusho wokugcina elingaphandle resale ilungelo
belungafica. Omunye kumele balindele ukuba Nokho Enthymemen oda lokuqala lolu
hlobo iziphetho, ngoba kungenzeka bonke lokucabanga ivinjelwe a esicabanga ukuthi
kungaqhamuka kwesisekelo enkulu kanjani nguyena kalula isaziso ezahlukene manje
kwezinhlobo ehola.
F. Yiziphi izinhlobo okuqondisisa ngokushesha akhona? A. 1) Ukulingana
izifunda (ratiocinia pariationis s. Aequipollentiae)
2) kwakuwukuthi
iziphetho (Council. Subordinationis)
3) iziphetho
aphikisayo (Council. Oppositionis)
4) inversion
izifunda (rat. Conversionis)
5) Modalittsschlsse (rat. modalitatis).

F. Yiziphi ukulingana iziphetho? A. enjalo lapho iqiniso noma falsity of imisho

omunye bazinqumela ukuthi amazwi uhlukile emva nje. Ukulingana ezinjalo
iziphetho kanje: Konke iyashintsha, ngakho benza hhayi bahlale besesimweni
esifanayo njalo; Lo muntu webe into, ngakho uyisela.

F. Yiziphi kwakuwukuthi iziphetho? A. enjalo, lapho iqiniso a isiphakamiso

jikelele ukuthi othile elisuselwa, okuyinto ongaphansi ukuthi; noma kusukela amanga
a rate ekhethekile, le falsity of the jikelele, ngubani aphakeme ekhethekile. Izibonelo
yalo: Zonke izidumbu esindayo, kanjalo ezinye izidumbu esindayo; Abanye abantu
abafundiswa, ngakho bonke abantu abafundiswa. The semtsetfweni kutsi of siphetho
esekelwe isimiso ngaphambilini wawuthi lokho i Sphere lonke kungokwalabo,
kumele futhi uthumele zonke izingxenye Kulomkhakha, futhi ngenxa yalokho, uma
akusiyo yonke phezu emkhakheni kungokwalabo, futhi emhlabeni emkhakheni
anikwazi ukuza. IsiLatin: A veritate Universalis propositionis ad veritatem
particularis; A falsitate particularis ad falsitatem Universalis valet
consequentia. Kufanele kuqashelwe kahle; ukuthi umuntu akufanele siphethe
Ngakolunye of the falsity of a theorem jikelele on the falsity of okuyinto ngaphansi
kwakhe ekhethekile, noma iqiniso isigwebo ikakhulukazi iqiniso ngaphezu kwakhe
jikelele.
F. Yiziphi iziphetho eliphikisayo? A. enjalo lapho omunye deduces iqiniso noma
falsity isigwebo kusuka kwenye neze kuso. Ziyakwazi Kuphakathi ukuphikisa noma
iziphetho Kontrarittsschlsse;kuncike ukuphikiswa kuza endaweni ngqo noma
ngokungaqondile. Kulabo wena uvale iqiniso isigwebo falsity of the ezinye, noma
okuphambene nalokho, ngokusho ngomthetho ukushiywa besithathu; isib kanjalo: the
enobuhle bayajabula; ngakho akuzona abangajabule. In Kontrarittsschlssen
singaphetha kuphela iqiniso isigwebo falsity of the ezinye; kodwa hhayi
noHezekeli; ngoba kokubili kungaba okungalungile. I kungenzeka isibonelo
zihlanganisa: Lokhu itafula ngokhuni, ngakho akuyona zamatshe; kodwa hhayi
kangako: Leli thebula akuyona zamatshe; Ngakho kuba ngokhuni, ngoba basengaba
okuningi futhi.
F. Yiziphi izifunda inversion? A. ezinjalo, lapho omunye okufanayo iphetha
lokwahlulela ukuphendulwa nje into kungenziwa emva ngaphambilini kushiwo
ezintathu ngezindlela: simpliciter, ngamunye
accidens futhi by contrapositionem. Amacala lapho imithetho ukuba kubuyekezwe
ungacacisa ngubani ukuthi scholastics ubudala, nakuba hhayi ngempela ephelele,
esashiwo nkondlo engezansi little:
f e c I simpliciter convertitur, E v A per accidens;
A st 0 per contra; sic uvumelane conversio tota.
Lona E mina kungenziwa bavale ukuphendulwa okuhlanzekile; kusukela E and
A per accidens; kusukela A and 0 per contrapositionem.
F. Yiziphi Modalittsschlsse? A. enjalo lapho omunye sivela eqinisweni a
isahlulelo modality aphansi izahlulelo of modality ephakeme. Umuntu lapha
kungekho lutho olunye olwenzayo, kunokuba ukwenza isigwebo apodictic a
assertoric,
nomala itraducci
assertoric a yinkinga. Ngokwesibonelo, indoda kufanele afe
Contribuu a millorar
isikhathi esithile, kanjalo umuntu efa ngesikhathi esithile; noma: kumenele
ngesikhathi esithile, ukuze umuntu ungafa noma nini. Ngakolunye uhlangothi,
Nokho, umuntu kumelwe hhayi lisuselwa sokwahlulela modality aphansi eyodwa

Text original

ephakeme; ie isahlulelo assertoric inkinga noma i apodictic kusukela

assertoric; Ngakho, lo mthetho IsiLatin: From Esse ad Posse valet consequentia, a
posso ad Esse non valet consequentia.
Isahluko Seshumi Nesithupha
Of iziphetho esiphethweni
F. Kuyini izifunda elinemifanekiso (izibalo Final, kokuvamile, iziphetho
ezonakele). A. Empeleni, iziphetho ezinjalo, lapho umqondo yemvelo kulungile
imvume ezifanele for amazwi imigomo, ngaphandle Nokho, ukwenza iqiniso
okunomqondo the syllogism ngokwayo Demolition washintsha, kuyinto. Okuvame
Nokho kulindeleke, ngisho ezijwayelekile shape sokugcina njengoba sibalo
sokugcina.- Kufanele kuqashelwe, ngenhlanhla, ukuthi izibalo lokugcina abavaleleke
nje emagcekeni iziphetho categorical, kusukela lezi angaphansi izinguquko kakhulu.
A. In ngalo ngezindlela izinguquko zingenziwa, abangele langempela izibalo
isiphetho? A. Kuphakathi wanezela kuphela emagcekeni, ngaphandle kokushintsha
lutho in the isikhundla imiqondo esemqoka equkethwe kuzo; noma nje kugudlukela
imigomo main, ngaphandle isikhundla izakhiwo ukushintsha ngokwabo; noma
ngisho kokuthatha ekuphazamisekeni kokubili mayelana izakhiwo phambi imigomo
main. Esokuqala displacement ezifuze lezi (ngokusho Krug) kuyinto thetic figure
final; Owesibili izibalo antithetical; obesithathu zokwenziwa. Kungenjalo omunye
ngokuvamile esibalwa nje ngesimo ezejwayelekile of nikhuluma futhi izibalo
ezintathu antithetical okubangelwa displacement nje imiqondo esemqoka, futhi ake
ubusuku bonke.
F. Indlela kakhulu izibalo Final kukhona, futhi kanjani they kungaba ecacile futhi
ngokuvamile ukumela? A. Uma senza ukubala wesifunda shape efanele kanye
kwezibalo, kukhona wakhe eyisishiyagalombili 1) ongavamile, 2) lesi thetic, 3) .
ezintathu antithetical, 4) ezintathu zokwenziwa Uhlelo, lapho ingalungiswa, kuba
kanje: Where M nethemu medium, P isilandiso noma esethulweni, S the subject noma
term ephansi.
Ordinary thetic antithetical Zokwenziwa
isimo sokugcina figure Figures
12345678
MP SM PM MP PM SM MS MS
SM SP SM MS MS PM MP PM
SP
Ukwehla kwanoma iyiphi figure wokugcina
ezifana (reductio syllogismi figurati) senzeka ukuthi omunye, iphuzu ngenxa liyala
wonke umusho nemigomo kuye emva lonyaka shape final futhi. Lokhu kungenziwa
ngesikhathi antithetical futhi zokwenziwa kuphela emuva imisho, nakuba
azihlambulukile njalo noma simpliciter, kodwa ngokuvamile futhi per
accidens noma nge contrapositionem kumele kwenziwe; Nokho, kuyini, kungaba
akukho imithetho jikelele, ngoba ngokuvamile ngisho ke ifika okushiwo imisho,

ngaphandle logic. Ezimweni eziningi, lokhu kuyoba akwazi ukuqhuba kulokhu

izifunda inversion kukhonjisiwe Verschen.
F. Yiziphi izibonelo izibalo final? A. Ukuze 1) ezejwayelekile lokuvala sibalo:
Zonke izidalwa eziphilayo kukhona ofayo; wonke amadoda izidalwa eziphilayo,
ukuthi bonke abantu bangabafowabo ofayo. To 2) komzimba zokufakelwa: Bonke
abantu izidalwa eziphilayo; zonke izidalwa eziphilayo kukhona ofayo, ukuthi bonke
abantu bangabafowabo ofayo. Ukuze 3) lesi sibalo lokuqala antithetical: No Immortal
uMuntu eziphilayo; wonke amadoda izidalwa eziphilayo, ngakho akekho umuntu
ongafi. Ukuze 4) zonke izidalwa eziphilayo kukhona ofayo; akukho
unorganized 3) Ukuba isidalwa esingumuntu, ukuthi bonke abantu bangabafowabo
ofayo. Ukuze 5) Akukho Immortal uMuntu eziphilayo; akukho nature unorganized
human, ngakho akekho umuntu ongafi. Ukuze 6) sibalo lokuqala zokwenziwa: Bonke
abantu izidalwa eziphilayo; akukho Immortal uMuntu organic, Ngakho-ke, akekho
awufi. Ukuze 7) Akukho nature unorganized human; zonke izidalwa eziphilayo
kukhona ofayo, ukuthi bonke abantu bangabafowabo ofayo. At 8) Akukho nature
unorganized human; akukho Immortal uMuntu organic, Ngakho-ke, akekho awufi. Konke lokhu izibalo Final of 2) 8), nakuba kufanele uphelele esiphethweni
esinengqondo force; kodwa ukuze acele esiphethweni esifanele; ngalinye lawo
kufanele ashiwo 1).
3)

I base akuyona negative lapha; ngoba ezingezinhle ezimbili lokugcizelela.

Text original
Contribuu a millorar la traducci

Isahluko Seshumi Nesikhombisa

Of the izifunda esiyinhlanganisela
F.? Indlela ukuhlukanisa izifunda lecondzile nemisho lemagalagala A. A
wesifunda elula (monosyllogismus) ungomunye ukuthi siqukethe esiphethweni
esisodwa kuphela; a wesifunda esiyinhlanganisela noma zilandelana
wokugcina (polysyllogismus, uchungechunge syllogistica), lapho iziphetho
eziningana ugqame izimbangela nemiphumela kanye nomunye; ngendlela yokuthi
isigwebo yokugcina owodwa, njalo ezidingekayo njengoba kwesisekelo enkulu
ezinye. Ngokwesibonelo, 1) Bonke abantu abashonile; bonke baseYurophu kukhona
abantu, ngakho konke baseYurophu kukhona ofayo.2) Zonke baseYurophu kukhona
ofayo; konke German kukhona baseYurophu, ngakho konke German kukhona
ofayo; 3) Zonke German kukhona ofayo; Caius kuyinto German, ngakho Caius
uyafa.
F. Kuyini Vorschlu futhi Nachschlu? A. Vorschlu (prosyllogismus) uhlale
esiphethweni esisodwa, okuyinto isiphetho senziwa kwesisekelo omunye wesifunda,
futhi lokhu ke Nachschlu(episyllogismus). Ngakho, isibonelo ngenhla 1) the
Vorschlu 2) no 2) of the Nachschlu 1); Ngaphezu kwalokho, 2) lesi Vorschlu 3)

kanye 3) of the Nachschlu 2). The Vorschlu kumele wonke ziqukethe phansi
Nachschlusses.
F. Kuyini lesichubekako kwamaciko lokuvala ezinhlwini? A. A lesichubekako
noma lesichubekako (prosyllogistische) uchungechunge Final ingenye onjalo lapho
umuntu eqala nge Vorschlusse futhi ukuqhutshwa ukuba Nachschlusse; zazo
okungenhla wesifunda uchungechunge iyisibonelo; a kwamaciko noma retrograde
(episyllogistische) uchungechunge Ngakolunye uhlangothi ingenye lapho phakamisa
kusukela Nachschlusse, antante ukuvalwa. Umuntu kuphela ukuze siqede
uchungechunge ngenhla, ukuze emva oda 3 iziphetho), 2), 1) landela, ngakho
kufanele isibonelo uchungechunge retrogressive.
F. Kuyini Epicherem? A. esiphethweni lapho elinye lawo noma womabili
izakhiwo eziyisisekelo semthethweni zawo ziyakuba kuhambisane kafushane nje
ngaphandle kokwenza kube wesifunda ekhethekile. Ngokwesibonelo, baseYurophu
kukhona ofayo, ngoba bonke baseYurophu kukhona ofayo; Manje wonke
amaJalimane baseYurophu, kanjalo bonke German kukhona ofayo.
F. Yini yisiphelo sesimiso chain noma Sorites? A. A chain of
syllogisms (sorites, syllogism concatenatus, syllogism acervatus wawuhlanganisa)
kuphakama lapho enthymematisch eziningana izifunda esifushanisiwe axhunyiwe
nomunye ukuthi antecedents zabo ngqo ukulandela omunye nomunye, futhi
esiphethweni ovamile . Ngokwesibonelo, Caius kuyinto German; ngubani German,
ubuye European, ngubani European, ubuye isidalwa esingumuntu; ngubani umuntu
ubuye uMuntu eziphilayo; ngubani uMuntu eziphilayo, uyafa; Ngakho Caius
uyafa. Lokhu isibonelo i circuit chain ezejwayelekile noma ezivamile, okungase
emelelwe scheme okulandelayo:
Ibhayisikobho A B weqiniso
-B-C
-C-D
-D-E
- E - F.
_____________________________

Ngakho weqiniso of A F.

Lapha uya okungukuthi isihloko esiphethweni (ofayo, A) njengoba umqondo, futhi

exhumene okufanayo kancane kancane verschiedne isilandiso (B, C, D, E, F,)
njengendlela imigomo izindlela ngokuthola a libhekisela ezinye, uze uthole ukuthi
isilandiso, okuyinto okumele kuhlobene njengoba Sandvulelo izifundo (with ofayo
German, A to F). Buyela kule oda kwezakhiwo ukuze, ukuze umusho wokugcina
efanayo engaguquki, bese umhlangano wesifunda reverse noma goklenianischer
chain, okuyinto has scheme ezilandelayo:
Ibhayisikobho E kusebenza F
-D-E
-C-D
-B-C
- A - B _ ____________________________

Ngakho kusukela A F. esebenzayo

Ngokwesibonelo, zonke izidalwa eziphilayo (E) yilezi ofayo (F);

Bonke abantu (D) izidalwa eziphilayo (E);
konke baseYurophu (C) bangabantu (D);
konke German, (B) yilezi baseYurophu (C);
Caius ( A) iyinhlangano German (B).
Ngako Caius (A) ofayo (F).
Ingabe esiphethweni chain of leli fomu:
Uma A ke B
-B---C
-C---D
-D---e
- e - - - F _____________________________
Manje A; kuhlanganise F (ngokuvumelana munye ponens) noma:
Manje F Ngakho futhi A (emva munye tollens). Umphumela uba chain
Contribuu a millorar
la traducci
esicabanga
ukuthi
kungaqhamuka ukuvala it. Lokhu kuphumela ngendlela ethi lutho
washintsha ngesimo ebalulekile izifunda chain, uma ibanike Manengi nofana
mancani amalungu kuka kukhona lapha izikimu.

Text original

Isahluko Seshumi Nesishiyagalombili

Izisu futhi fallacies
F. Yini umehluko wenze phakathi falsity iziphetho? A. Okokuqala, a umahluko
impahla kanye falsity esisemthethweni iziphetho. Owokuqala sihlobana ketshezi,
ijamo wokugcina yalo. Uma Ngingathanda khipha, isibonelo: Zonke izilwane
ziyafinyeleleka; senja isilwane, ngakho inja kunengqondo; ngakho isiphetho kungaba
impahla okungalungile, ngoba lokho kuyinto wethule ubufakazi ezinkulu embonweni
futhi esiphethweni isigwebo, engathathi indawo engokoqobo; Ngokuphambene
esisemthethweni, esiphethweni kuyoba njalo futhi elungile; ngoba kukhona yonke
waphawula imithetho ngaphambili ebhalwe nikhuluma. The kwesisekelo enkulu
jikelele; the isinyathelo ngoyebo; umusho wokugcina sibhekiswe izinga layo
ngokusho umusho ezethula futhi eziningi zalo ngokwenkonzo subset; Kukhona
imigomo main ezintathu kuphela kuwo; la zinendawo yazo efanele; In a izwi: It is a
Lihle, ephelele, isiphetho categorical ezakheke hhayi okungenani ukuba imiswe. I
izinqaba Ngokuphambene kangaka: Zonke izilwane kungenangqondo; Umuntu
akasona isilwane, Ngakho umuntu alicabangeli, lesi siphetho kungaba impahla
weqiniso; kodwa ngalokusemtsetfweni okungalungile. Kuyoba Nokho zenzeka
ngokoqobo, ukuthi izilwane kungenangqondo; futhi ukuthi umuntu akuyona isilwane,
nokuthi akusikho kungenangqondo; Ngakho lokho okuqukethwe ukunyakaza
ngabanye: okuwukuthi, indaba syllogism ukhathazekile, akukho ukuphikisa; Nokho,
ngesimo isiphetho kude kangaka okungalungile lapho subset ungaphakathi negative,
futhi ukuhamba wokugcina is hhayi nesiqondiso izinga layo by the kwesisekelo
ezinkulu. - It kungenziwa aqondakale, ukuthi kungenzeka kube khona izifunda lapho
bobabili izinhlobo amanga banobunye.

F. Yini umehluko wenze phakathi ubuze besimo noma paralogism kanye ubuze
besimo noma sophism (captio, fallacia, cavillatio)? A. Lo mdlali yisiphelo
sesimiso ukuba, ngokungazi, amafomu ngokungeyikho, lona wamuva siphetfo
eyodwa
ukukhohlisa, ngokungeyikho wamisa. The izinhlobo ezahlukene
Contribuukwabanye
a millorar la traducci
lezi iziphetho ezingafanele engilamukele basendulo verschiedne, manje amagama
kancane ezivamile ezingaphezu.

Text original

Pure Indlela kunengqondo

ISAHLUKO XIX
Ibhayisikobho isayensi, uhlelo kanye indlela
F. Kuyini isayensi? A. Isayensi ezihlukahlukene ubufakazi bokuthi ngemuva
isimiso ethile eyisisekelo (Isimiso lokuqala) ziqiniswa, futhi ngaleyo ndlela amelela
ekupheleni concordant ukuba ubunye lonke; noma: Kusukela umyalo onjalo
akakwazi phuma ngaphandle ngokubhekisisa esiqinile imithetho enengqondo noma
kwenhlakanipho. Isayensi ezihlukahlukene ubufakazi bokuthi akha, ngokuvumelana
nemithetho ezinengqondo axhunyiwe wonke. Omunye kumele into futhi ifomu
ezihlukahlukayo + ngokomusa lokhu njalo yesayensi. The Indwangu Yileso kaningi
gegebnen for yocwaningo lwesayensi ukuthi njengoba nje kusenzima raw,
asihlelekile nhlobo, unconnected, i aggregate kubizwa; ifomu Nokho, kuyinto
ejwayelekile concordant ubunye umongo lapho miphumela kulethwa.
F. Siyini isimiso? A. System ngaso sonke asho nganobe ngabe nguyiphi indlela
eziningi izingxenye okusenza ukuthi ocelwe isimiso esithile. Indlela yesayensi
Ngakho ehlelekile, futhi ungakwazi futhi ushayele isayensi ngokwako ehlelekile
ukuqonda lonke. Ngokuvamile olubizwa nangokuthi kungenzeka isayensi ngokwayo
(ie, ubalulekile futhi yakha ndawonye) uhlelo, futhi eqanjwe ngaleligama ngokwayo
noma kwezinye izinto ezithinta ifomu ehlelekile. - An aggregate of ulwazi kuphela
phansi isayensi, ukuthi it is ifomu ehlelekile. - Beka alimazanga omunye imithetho
yokucabanga bebonke, futhi ikakhulukazi maqondana imiqondo, izahlulelo
neziphetho; wayezobe libhekene indaba for logic. Ake us ake sithi manje once,
kwakuyodingeka ube umuntu wabhala ngalokhu into incwadi; kodwa ukuze kube
yonke exovwe ndawonye; by mhlawumbe umcabango lokubeka imigomo
imiqondo; ke ke ngokushesha asebenzelana ngayo imithetho jikelele ukucabanga,
kabusha imigomo, futhi phakathi ngaphandle oda of owamanqamu, ngokushesha
ukwahlulela; wayezobe wabeka aggregate ulwazi kule ncwadi; kodwa neze
isayensi. Would manje kodwa omunye, futhi wayala miphumela ukuze kuphela
yimithetho mcabango jikelele; ke okuxoxiswene ngayinye uhlobo ngabanye
yokucabanga; ukuthi lokho kwaba omunye imiqondo, izahlulelo futhi iziphetho,
ngamunye abhandelte ndawonye futhi lapha ukuze okuhle;ukuze lokhu unit
Angabucedza ngokwabo ngokwazi ukuthi he epha wo a ifomu ehlelekile, wabenza
isayensi.
F. Yini wena ushayele inqubo lapho ongahluziwe ulwazi mass noma i sesisonke
banikezwe ifomu ehlelekile? A. Indlela; indlela okungukuthi indlela kusho noma
yiluphi uhlobo njalo inqubo.

F. Hlobo luni ndlela, owawuthi okutholakele kungahlanganiswa lwesayensi lonke

ezahlukene? A. The kohlaziyo (kuhlanganise lesinqumo, ukuziqambela, heuristic,
retrograde, kwamaciko ngokuthi) kanye zokwenziwa (kokuqamba, ezesayensi,
scientifische, kuye phambili, lesichubekako ).
F. Indlela thina ukuqhubeka indlela ahlaziye? A. Iqala baphume sebuningini
amaqiniso ngabanye futhi ajwayelekile. Ngemva ukubonile lokhu kahle, nalokho
nomunye, ngifuna into efanayo kuzo, futhi uthola kanjalo by ebhala lawo maqiniso
jikelele. Eziningana amaqiniso jikelele ezinjalo kuqhathaniswa futhi, asathungatha
ukudweba amaqiniso more jikelele kubo, futhi uhamba ngendlela efanayo
uyaqhubeka kuzo, kuze kube yilapho enye efika ngamaqiniso anjalo jikelele, okuye
subordinated bonke aggregate samanje okutholakele ezithile. Ngakho uzoqhubeka
indlela kohlaziyo of the ethile jikelele;futhi ngezinga elingakanani ethile kubhekwe
njalo njengoba izimo jikelele, kukhombisa of the enemibandela noma lusekelwe
ukuze imigomo izizathu.
F. Indlela ukuqhubeka zokwenziwa indlela, futhi kanjani okufanayo ukuba
sicubungule? A. In zokwenziwa indlela wena hit nje indlela okuphambene
ahlaziye. Lokhu ukusesha kuphela izimiso noma izimiso jikelele kanye lokuqala
kwesayensi ye ethile; indlela zokwenziwa Ngakolunye uhlangothi kuphakamisa
izimiso, kanye sivela kuwo ekhetheke kangaka. Ubeka noma amaqiniso jikelele
phambili, noma kwenza ukusetshenziswa, okutholwe indlela sicubungule presents
nabo isebenza kuze ezithile ukumela. Ingabe lezi ezimweni ezikhethekile namanje
amaqiniso Ngokuvamile, waphinda kukhombisa into ekhethekile kulokho kuba
Imiphumela kuze kube ekugcineni uye subordinated ukuba yonke inhlama ulwazi
izimiso esiphezulu. - Indlela kohlaziyo iye owasungula ngokuthi ngoba ingqondo
yomuntu njalo amlandela evela prospecting amaqiniso jikelele; the zokwenziwa
Ngokuphambene anazo futhi negama wesayensi noma scientifischen ngoba ngokusho
kwakhe kungaba amelwe ngokugcwele ezinamandla futhi zusammenhngendsten
imfundiso; kuphela Akumelwe sikhohlwe ukuthi iningi, efika izimiso yiphi eyenza
ekuqaleni ekubonakalisweni zokwenziwa onjalo ngokucophelela kuphela eyodwa. Le ncwadi, kuze kufike kuvumela ingubo equkethwe kuwo elotshwe yiKhomishani
zokwenziwa indlela. Kukhona kuphela kuboniswe emithethweni jikelele
yokucabanga, bese oboniswa imiqondo, izahlulelo futhi iziphetho isicelo sabo
esithile; esithunyelwe phambili ethile, futhi ngisho lezi zigaba ngabanye jikelele more
njalo. Ukube bengingathatha Ngakolunye uhlangothi indlela ukuze mina kuphela
ngokulandela single kuqhathaniswa ninciphise Imithetho of Thought for imigomo
ngokuvamile kuphela bathola kanye ngokuqhathanisa ngabanye zinhlobo
lokwahlulela esiphethweni imithetho izahlulelo futhi iziphetho jikelele; ngabe bathola
aphinde ngokuqhathanisa imithetho yokucabanga ngokoMthetho, izahlulelo futhi
iziphetho, imithetho yokucabanga ngempela ngokuvamile, futhi manje base amela
ethakwa kuphela njengoba izimiso, ukuze benginga indlela kohlaziyo. - In
izinkulumo zesayensi esiqinile njalo lisebenzisa zokwenziwa indlela, ngoba lifundisa
ngokucacile kakhulu ukubona nomunye athembele mutual umongo
okutholakele; ukufundisa izinkulumo futhi izincwadi kodwa munye ngokuvamile
ukuthola indlela kohlaziyo isicelo, lapho kuba enkulu endaweni yayo, ngoba

usebenzisa ingqondo, funani amaqiniso ngisho jikelele. - One of the imithetho main
in zokwenziwa indlela yilowo akuyona imisho ngokungenasizathu bokutholwa udela
njengoba izimiso obuphakeme iqiniso lapho umuntu aze angabi naso inkolelo
enengqondo; nokuthi ke wonke isayensi Droit de suite (with nokuvumelana)
ngokuthini lowo wabeka phansi izimiso. Ingabe lena akuyona sesimweni, kuba
isibonakaliso sokuthi izimiso uma kungekubi, kodwa yimani emhlabathini akuqinile,
ngihlolwa ngokucophelela zidinga ngaphambi omunye uyaqhubeka isakhiwo
zokwenziwa of science.
F. Yini ngokuyinhloko edingekayo ukuze umfanekiso methodical kwesayensi?
A. Lokucuketfwe, Ububanzi umongo owanikwa abakutholile Kumele ube
ngokufanele uyazi; zokuqala kwenteka ngekubuka kwathishela, owesibili
ngamabandla, yesithathu ubufakazi.
Isahluko Samashumi Amabili
Of the izimemezelo
F. Asho ngesimemezelo (Declaration) kwethemu? A. isethi, noma inhlanganisela
amaqoqo amaningi, lapho izici umqondo zinikwa ngendlela lezi Ngakho okumelwe
ahlukaniswe kwabanye. Isihloko ogama izici okumelwe ngokunembile esibekiwe,
iyona wamemezela (declaratum); futhi isilandiso, yini njengoba eveza sici-ochazayo
yakhe (declarans sc. membrum).
F. Yini ongayenza ukuze umehluko phakathi echaza, echaza futhi belinganisa,
konke verschiednen izinhlobo incazelo? A. Incazelo (explicatio) ubizwa ngokuthi
isethi, lapho nakancane nje echazwa ngokuthi lwanele ezinye
lekahle; Incazelo (descriptio) uma ubalula izici eziningi a term in ukuze ukuhlukanisa
kalula efanayo abanye; Definition (definitio) kodwa lapho ecacisa kuphela izici
ezimbili eziyinhloko yimuphi, ubulili (uhlobo lwe) ekhombisa wamemezela
kungokwalabo ngaphansi kwayo, kanti ezinye, (Inothi specialis s.
Differentia specifica) okubonisa ngaleyo ndlela the ngomlomo nezinye izinhlobo
bobulili obufanayo kuyinto ehlukile.
F.? Yiziphi izibonelo zalokhu A. Ake Ngakhuluma kanje kusukela ifilosofi: The
ifilosofi liqhakaze izingqondo zethu, ojwayele kuye, hhayi nje ukuma ngaphandle
izinto ukuhlala, kodwa ngokusho nature zayo zangaphakathi, ukuphenya izizathu
zabo; Kunethonya kuye nachzusuchen the General kuphi ikakhulukazi, futhi
bangalwi kuphela ayekutholile kodwa futhi izenzo zakhe kuyo yonke indawo ubunye
okunengqondo, njll, ukuze Ngizoba incazelo ifilosofi term maqondana nemiphumela
ezizuzisayo ukuthi izifundo zabo on Uzwakalisa ingqondo yethu, inikezwe. Ngangifuna manje ukunikeza incazelo ephelele ifilosofi, ngakho ngizinike zonke izici
ngamunye ukuthi uthole ngisho ucacise; Nokho njengoba lokhu ngenye indlela
kunokufa isethulo egcwele ifilosofi engenzeka njengathi abajwayele kuyafana hhayi
ubheke isayensi leli gama ngoba lapha kwaqondana incazelo umfanekiso into
ngokwayo; uphendulela him against it more njalo ezintweni zemvelo. Uma
Ngangifuna ukuchaza isihlahla, isibonelo, ngingathanda ucacise izici ukuthi kukhona
amaqabunga ayo, isiqu, impande, njll eyinqaba. Ukuze anikeze incazelo ifilosofi,

ngingathi: kuba isayensi owengamela izizathu last nezinjongo bolwazi lwabantu

kanye umsebenzi. Nansi uhlobo lwe, isayensi; the ethize umehluko, noma umehluko
ethize Nokho, yiwo bakwamanye izinto, nakho isayensi term njengoba uhlobo
lwe kungokwalabo, uhlukile. Isici ukuthi sikhulumela izizathu last, njll, ngoba lesi
sici akekho omunye isayensi. Ngakho belungafica kwencazelo: senkululeko faculty
of self-ukuzimisela, impahla uhlobo lwe; isici lokuzibusa kodwa ukunikeza
inkululeko ezinye izimpahla ihlukile, lo specifica differentia. - Amanothi Uyachubeka
ukuthuthukisa umqondo ngezindlela eziningana, kube ingxoxo noma
mpikiswano (expositio).
F. Kuyini izitatimende ahlaziye kanye zokwenziwa? A. Nokho izitatimende
Zokwenziwa zenziwa, imigomo inikezwe kohlaziyo. Ngaphansi eyenziwe
ngokoMthetho yila eziye kwakhiwa kuphela ngezici ezithile ukwakheka ngokwabo,
omunye hot inikezwe. Uma mina, isibonelo, izici, line and Gleichweitabstehen
zusammenvereinige wonke amaphuzu abo iphuzu elithile, ngakho Ngiya ukwenza by
umqondo circle; bese uma mina ngishumayele circle njengoba line, edlulisela yabo
bonke amaphuzu equidistant iphuzu, ngiyobe unikezwa zokwenziwa (by ukwakheka
okuholela) nokuchazwa kwalo.Ngicabanga Nokho, isibonelo, anjengokuthi
uNkulunkulu futhi inkululeko noma umphefumulo, njengoba lezi magama kimi
ngokuphelele inikezwe, futhi ngizokulwa, uma bengekho sonke elula imigomo hhayi
ngaso sonke zingachazwa, kungaba kuphela ngokucophelela wachaza by I
ukuncibilikisa izici zawo verschiednen (bacubungula).
F. Kuyini igama memezelo impahla izimemezelo nezimemezelo imvelaphi?
A. Incazelo yegama noma elithi incazelo (d. Nominalis s. Verbalis) Lisho ukuthini
igama ezinye imigomo lahlotshaniswa ukufakaza ngaphandle kokwazi lutho
mayelana okushiwo umqondo ngokwayo. You zweckt kusukela nje ukuvimbela
ukudideka nkulumo, hhayi imiqondo ngokwabo. Ngakho kungaba isimemezelo
igama, lapho ngathi: Uyini ukucabanga ngomqondo esizithola ngezincwadi
kwamehlo. By lesi simemezelo, siye sibe sihlakaniphe mayelana lutho lokho
empeleni isekelwe okushiwo ebona, kodwa siyazi manje, yini thina kufanele abuke
umbono term. - Incazelo okuyiqiniso noma zangempela (. D Realis) Kulapha-ke
lapho omunye ubonisa izici main umqondo ngokwayo, hhayi izwi amazwi, kodwa
umqondo lihlukile imigomo. Like isibonelo, isitatimende ifilosofi ngenhla. - An
imvelaphi noma imvelaphi isimemezelo noma ncazelo zofuzo (. D Genetica) ingenye
esishoyo the mode azalelwa into; like isibonelo, lokhu okulandelayo: Umbuthano a
figure okudaliwe uma line unamathele komunye umkhawulo, ivuliwe phezu aze
kuziwa emuva isikhundla salo sangaphambili. - Kufanele kuqashelwe ukuthi
mathematics izincazelo zofuzo Okuynqo, futhi real babizwa okuzisholo.
F. Kuyini main ihlathululo kanye kwalokho ncazelo? A. Ncazelo
Main (d. Primaria) nguye lapho izici ngokushesha, ngaphezu
incazelo (d. Secundaria), Nokho, okubonisa izimfanelo engaqondile
umqondo. Ungaqhubeka ne izincazelo kwalokho kuze efika izici elula; ngale ndlela
umqondo uya asathuthuka.
F. Yini imigomo abakwazi ukuchaza Okuynqo?

A. The elula, ngoba ungacacisa

yisiphi izici le. Ngakho akekho anganika omunye, njengoba incazelo omunye izwi
umqondo wokuba; wathi mayelana, kwaba okuningi njengoba ezikhona; njengoba
kancane ibonakala kungenzeka incazelo yangempela yokuphila. Ukuchaza kuphela
kungaba alula, ukuthi ubudlelwano ezithile ucacise izici kubo.
F.? Yini kungokwalabo incazelo enhle igama A. Kufanele kube 1)
ocabangelayo (adaequata), ie neither kude kakhulu (latior sc suo definito),. Nor
lincane kakhulu (angustior); 2) kulinganiswa(PRAECISA); 3) akufani (idem per
idem declarans); iDemo ukuze futhi elula ngangokunokwenzeka, futhi ngaphandle
ezifihlekile olungokomfanekiso.
F.? Yini ubanzi kakhulu futhi lincane kakhulu incazelo A. A ncazelo ebanzi
kakhulu ingenye lapho izici ezimbalwa kakhulu ezibekwa; Ngakho okufanayo
kwezinye izinto, njengoba kuvumelana ukuchaza, futhi ngaleyo ndlela ngeke kahle
ukuhlukanisa kusukela labo kuye. Ihlathululo enjalo ebanzi isibonelo, kungaba:
Umuntu uMuntu eziphilayo; ngoba emva kwakhe, nabo bebekhona izinkawu
namahansi kubantu. Too ewumngcingo incazelo Nokho, kuyinto lapho izici kakhulu
kuboniswe; Ngakho empeleni kwakungekaNkulunkulu imigomo belinganisa
izingxenye eziningana ngaphansi nobukhulu bayo abashiywe ngaphandle ngoba nje
awunazo isici ezibekwe ngendlela engenabulungisa. Ngakho olandelayo yayincane
kakhulu incazelo: muntu unesiphiwo isizathu izidalwa zasemhlabeni nge isikhumba
esimhlophe. Lapha kusobala ukuthi isikhumba isici white kungaba kakhulu,
okungenani ufuna bangamaNigro abaningi eyokhuza. - A ncazelo ingase ngomqondo
othile kakhulu, kwesinye kube Friend kakhulu, ngokwesibonelo, okulandelayo: Man
liyinkampani eziphilayo nge isikhumba esimhlophe.
F. Kuyini leyo ncazelo kufanele kuhlaziywe? A. akufanele ngokuzuma
elisuselwa, kodwa kuphela kubalulekile futhi original lapho kungenzeka zihlanganisa
izici elikhulu ngoyebo. Ngakho bekungaba baphambeke mthetho, uma, njengo i
sefilosofi elidala, abantu kuchazwa ngokuthi isilwane ezimbili ezinemilenze
ngaphandle izimpaphe. Ngoba ezimbili imilenze lokuqala sici kubalulekile kubantu,
futhi ukhona yini ball elisusa isosha umlenze, baziphathe kuye umusa; bese futhi isici
negative ifakwe. - Izici Negative Ngakho singafani ukuthatha in a kwencazelo phezu
ngoba lutho kungenziwa abeke okushiwo into okuqondene igama elifanayo, kodwa,
ngezinye izikhathi awukwazi ukuhlukanisa nabo ngaso imibono ezihambisana
kakhulu ayekwe ngokuphelele. - Isici elisuselwa bengiyakunitshela ukuthi kufakwe
kwencazelo ngenhla circle, uma ngase uthe sibalo nxazonke. Ngokuba lokho
kumelwe abe nxazonke, kulandela kusukela lokuthi wonke amaphuzu yalo
equidistant ath iphuzu elithile.
F. Kuyini i ncazelo ezifanayo? A. One ubiza lawo mazwi loop (Orbis s. Circulus
e definiendo). Kuthatha endaweni lapho wamemezela ngokwayo, it iyaphindwa main
noma isitatimende ukusekela ke umuntu efuna ukuletha ngokusebenzisa lokho
kuyokwenziwa kuphela wachaza uqobo, isitatimende sidlule. Okunjalo obungenza,
isibonelo: Umbuthano a figure yindilinga. Ukuphila in the ngentshiseko izidalwa
eziphilayo. It is kalula ngimbone ukuthi term ngeke siyinqobe in the okungenani
ecacile futhi ngobuciko by izincazelo enjalo; kodwa ngokuvamile siwele iphutha

abaqalayo ukuba enze ukusetshenziswa yalo.

F. Kungani akufanele izincazelo izinkulumo ezingokomfanekiso kuhloswe?
A. Ngoba wena ungacabanga eziningi, ngakhoke term is hhayi kahle kuchazwa futhi
ohlukaniswa okufanayo. Izibonelo izincazelo ezinjalo ziyathandeka: Ubungane
luyisibopho
umphefumulo;
Ubusha buyisikhathi entwasahlobo wokuphila. Njengoba
Contribuu a millorar
la traducci
iziqhathaniso poetic kubhekwe, like amarekhodi abo kungathatha indawo, kodwa
hhayi ezethulelwa ukuthi kukhona ukuthuthukisa okushiwo umqondo. In imisebenzi
ngokuqinile zesayensi ke umuntu kumelwe aqukethe wakhe.

Text original

Isahluko Samashumi Amabili

Of the uqhekeko
F. Kuyini ngezigaba? A. Ukwahlukanisa (divisio) iyinkomba yokuthi ukwehluka
ukuthi lifakwa ubukhulu a term ngokushesha njengoba kwenziwa ngendlela ukuthi
imibono (eziphikisanayo noma Kunalokho) ephikisanayo uyobe kuboniswe
bahlukana , Ngakho chaza ekulinganisweni term ephakeme ephansi equkethwe
ngaphansi kwalo, uhlobo lwe in the zinhlobo ngakolunye uhlangothi, le nkulumo
ukubola kule incazelo izici equkethwe ngaphakathi kwalo. Umqondo ephakeme,
okuyinto ihlukaniswe, ie wonke banded (totum divisum); imigomo engezansi, lapho
ephakeme lihlukaniswe, the amalungu division (membra dividentia); futhi isici
okufanele grade, ngezigaba eyisisekelo (fundamentum divisionis). Ngakho, ngo
Linnischen uhlelo plant simila totum divisum; umuntu ngamunye izizukulwane plant
nezinhlobo membra dividentia; inombolo isikhundla stamens, emva ngezigaba
kwenziwa, lo fundamentum divisionis.
F. Kuyini izwi ngezigaba, impahla division, kwehlukana, umhlangano? A. IZwi
ngezigaba noma umehluko (divisio verborum s distinctio.) Ingabe inkomba zincazelo
ezahlukene izwi; kokuvula phezu azungeze a nkulumo ethile, ngaleyo ndlela isici
kodwa hhayi umqondo uqobo; Ngakho ingxenye lolimi kunokuba logic. Like
kuyinto: Cat limele lesikhumba esikhwameni eside noma ezinye izilwane ezidla
noma isifo abantu eqhugwaneni. Property division Nokho, kuyinto ngokuhlukana
enengqondo ngempela kuvele a term in izizukulwane and zinhlobo. Ngokwesibonelo,
izilwane Elisengozini (membrumdivisum) kukhona ingonyama, ihlosi, le cat,
njll (membra dividentia). - Yokubola noma kwehlukana (Partitio) akuyona asike
izidumbu zabantu of the azungeze igama noma inkomba ehlukile ukuthi ukuba lapho
igama elithi kungenziwa yayala njengendlela isici; Ngakho kusukela ngezigaba
langempela (divisio) ukuhlukanisa; Kunalokho, kuba kuphela inkomba izingxenye a
wonke esiyinhlanganisela (totiuscompositi); isibonelo: The cat yakhiwa ikhanda,
umzimba, izinyawo, umsila, njll division noma ukwahlukanisa of a line yokucabanga
ubuye ilungiselelo (dispositio ngokuthi). Ngokwesibonelo, indatshana yamakati
samukele onesimo ezilandelayo lowo muntu. Okokuqala, kusukela izici
ezingokomzimba, okwesibili, endleleni efanayo yokuphila, okwesithathu, izinzuzo
ingozi babangela, babe ukukhuluma
F. Indlela ukuhlukanisa ngeengaba ngokoMthetho inani lamalungu
ukwahlukanisa? A. In-tier ezimbili (dichotomae) kanye multi-

unit (polytomae), lona wamuva zazo kungaba ezinyunyana, njll, amalungu

amane. Iziqu kanye namalungu division adversarial kukhona dichotomy kunesidingo,
kanye Kunalokho bangase babe polytomisch. Ngokwesibonelo, ngezigaba
abalandelayo abantu: Abantu asemhlophe noma cha white, angithi amalungu
angaphezu kuka amabili kuya; ngakolunye uhlangothi: Abantu amhlophe, omnyama,
onsundu, ngabe polytomisch.
F. Kuyini ukwehlukana secondary futhi izingxenyana? A. Ngaphezu
ukwahlukana (codivisiones s. Divisiones coordinatae zenzeka) uma omunye
uhlukanisa a term for ngezigaba yezizathu ezihlukahlukene. Ngokwesibonelo, abantu,
ngokusho umbala ihlukaniswe abamhlophe, abansundu, njll, bese ngokusho abo
okucabanga amabutho e uhlakaniphile, funny, silly, njll, kungaba side iziqu. Ukuhlukanisa (. Subdivisiones s Divisiones subordinatae) yilawo zenzeka lapho
ilungu ukwahlukanisa uhlukene kabusha. Eg uma uke wahlanganyela ezinonya e
herbivorous, ezidla, njll, ukuze ungakwazi kabusha ukwakheka of the herbivorous
izilwane izingxenyana, ukubeka nabo einhufige futhi mehrhufige njll amasheya. Lezi
izingxenyana kodwa ungakwazi ukuqhubeka kuze abantu kuphela, lapho ke nje
ukwahlukanisa Ukuvumela. - The uhlu kungenzeka maqondana ethemini ngayinye
ezimbili futhi ungaphansi ukwehlukana ubizwa ngokuthi uhlelo imiqondo noma
ibhodi logic.
F. Yiziphi imithetho yokuhlukanisa? A. 1) igama elithi ihlelelwe kumele
ngokuphelele ukhathele amalungu division, it has akukho ilungu division, lokho
ngempela eziqukethwe extension umqondo, abashiywe ngaphandle, ngisho into
ngaphandle ngezinga umqondo kumele esehudulelwa ilungu division. 2) Amalungu
ukwahlukanisa kumele kube ahlobene; okungukuthi, kufanele kube akunakwenzeka
ukubeka kancane division esitho ngaphansi kwelinye ilungu ukwahlukanisa; kanti,
isibonelo, Ukwahlukaniswa amaqabunga ulahlekile e nxazonke, oblong, futhi
serrated, ngoba kukhona kungaba side futhi roundish phakathi amaqabunga
toothed; Ngakho ubungeke ukwazi lokho ngezigaba ngaphansi kwesigaba esisodwa
kuzodingeka ukuba alethe iphephabhuku enjalo kangangokuthi angabe esaba kokubili
serrated njengoba oblong. Lo mthetho kungenziwa kuphela kugujwe, usungula
okuphambene uma amalungu division contradictorily noma contrarily. 3)
Ukwahlukaniswa kumelwe uthuthele njalo; the izingxenyana akumele ixubene
phezulu futhi kweqiwe yisiphi ngezigaba medium. I ihlukaniswe izilwane azifake
ezincelisayo, izinyoni, izinhlanzi, izilwane eziphila emanzini nasezweni kanye
nezilwane white-akujabulela, ngakho angikwazanga lapha ephakeme ngezigaba
element, izilwane white-akujabulela wathola njalonjalo ezingeni ne Sugtier ephansi,
inyoni, ngoba kwakufanele athathe indawo kwakuwukuthi kanje: The Izilwane
zihlukaniswe rotbltige and white-akujabulela, red-ngesihluku in the ezinonya,
izinyoni, nezilwane eziphila ezweni; the weibltigen izinambuzane,
ezinamagobolondo, ama-mollusk nezibungu 4). A ngena isimiso I wawuyokwenza
uma ngaba izilwane red-ngesihluku ihlukaniswe alinganayo kangaka amahhashi,
izinkabi, lwenhlazi yasemfuleni, izinyoka, ngoba ngale ndlela amalungu division
central njengoba esincelisayo, inyoni, inhlanzi, amphibian ngabe yeqiwe. 4) Kumele
kube ezifanele, elihambisana iphuzu ngezigaba izizathu kukhethwe ezithinta

okushiwo einzuteilenden into. Ubani obengeke, isibonelo, abantu endaweni yemvelo

umlando observation yayo izingubo abazigqokayo, ihlukaniswe!
4)

Nokho, kukhona futhi ezahlukene ayo anemibala kwezinye izilwane alesi sigaba.

ISAHLUKO XXII
Kusukela ubufakazi
F. Yini kuwubufakazi (argumentatio, probatio)? A. The (lisho izifunda
Kwenzekani) esuselwe iqiniso ulwazi kusuka kwenye njengoba kuyiqiniso
asebezifinyelele kakade, noma incazelo ngenxa isidingo into. The izahlulelo lapho
ubufakazi libuthene, enze into yayo (Materia), ubunjalo nokuxhumanisa yabo, kodwa
ifomu yayo (forma) kusuka; the lwangaphakathi ngokwengxenye kuba, maqondana
njengoba eya mode engavamile ubufakazi ngokwayo, ngokwengxenye i
elingaphandle, maqondana njengoba inquma inkulumo ubufakazi by
lishona. Impikiswano (fundamentum argumentationis s.Probationis) ukuthi
ukwahlulela, kusukela lapho, nje ukugcwaliseka a kumele lithathwe njengoba
imfuneko weqiniso futhi amelwe ngamagama, isimiso (principium). Lokhu kungaba
esiphezulu, last, ngokuphelele, uma kungenziwa etholakala lutho, ngakho nakanjani
samukelwa ngokushesha, noma isihlobo, uma ngempela ushiya ngisho ephakeme
izimiso zihlobene; kodwa kodwa ngoba endabeni ethile, ngaphandle kokuba
ngokwayo kumane nje kwafakazela njengoba isimo weqiniso. Inani probative we
Nerve noma umphefumulo ubufakazi (nerve s. Vis argumentationis
s. Probationis) siqukethe okuqukethwe ebalulekile isigwebo noma imisho kusukela
okuyinto bazinqumela ukuba abonakale.
F. Indlela ukuhlukanisa enengqondo ubufakazi futhi nesipiliyoni ubufakazi? A. A
ubufakazi Reason noma ubufakazi a priori (Arg. Rationalis) ingenye onjalo lapho
omunye uphetha into ngokuvamile beqashelwa faculty yethu cognition njengoba
izimiso kunesidingo. Okuhlangenwe nakho ubufakazi, ubufakazi enokwehla noma
ubufakazi a posteriori, Nokho, nguye lapho abanye okuqonda extrasensory
(amaqiniso nakho) ubonakaliswa. Ngakho kuwubufakazi a priori, lapho mina dartue
emithethweni gravity, isidingo engibubonile ngaphambi, ukuthi itshe ukuthi uwile
ephakeme ethile, abe isamba esithile edingekayo ukuqinisekisa eside
emhlabeni. Ubufakazi a posteriori Ngokuphambene kuyoba uma mina bonakalisa
iqiniso efanayo, ukuthi ukuqeda ngempela Ngaleso sikhathi ngase ngikwazi ukubona
itshe zifika emhlabathini.
F. Uyini ngqo, ngokushesha, ubufakazi ostensive futhi i engaqondile, nezisho noma
apagogical? A. Elokuqala sesivumelwano, lapho omunye the dartut zazo ukuba
wafakazela iqiniso isizathu ubufakazi, eyokugcina ngokumelene nalowo deductio
isikhangiso absurdum izingcingo, ezifana lapho omunye deduces iqiniso ukuba
wafakazela falsity of okuphambene layo. Elokuqala ubufakazi uhlobo mithandazo
ngokuvamile babekhetha. In ukuthi siyakubona ukuhlobana kwembangela
nomphumela endaweni; Lokhu kumele ngempela bazophoqeleka ukuba bavume real
kakhulu, kodwa ayiyingeni isizathu esenza kangaka futhi abengeke. I logic
ongamtshela ngendlela kuphela labo ubufakazi engaqondile ngoba kungakhathaliseki

ukuthi iqiniso it bazinqumela ukuba Abahlinzeki izakhiwo zabo kusukela falsity of

Kunalokho yayo eqondile; ngoba wayefuna ukuba, bona ukuphetha falsity a
okuphambene contrarian, ngakho musa bedchte ukuthi zingaba khona okuyizinto
eziphikisanayo more, lapho mhlawumbe zukme iqiniso, ngaphandle isidingo sokuba
nje kungenxa kabani ubufakazi ubungenza empeleni ahluke. Ngokuvamile Extremely
izibalo kwezimali ezibanjwayo eziqhutshwa engenangqondo, lapho kungatholakala
Elements Euclid sika hinlngliche izibonelo; Zeb I. 7. 14th
F. Indlela ukuhlukanisa ukuboniswa, Kuyanganyelwa futhi ubufakazi
kungenzeka? A. isibonakaliso noma ubufakazi
apodictic ( podewzi, demonstratio esiqinile umqondo) ingenye lapho uqondiswa
ukuswela esiqinile, futhi ngenxa yalokho ivumela akukho nokujikijela
enengqondo; Probazion (probatio esiqinile umuzwa), Nokho, kumane
sesivumelwano, lapho ngaphandle okukhulu lwempikiswano. A ubufakazi
wahrschein1icher (Arg. Probabilis) ingenye onjalo lapho omunye kuholela izizathu
nokubaluleke kakhulu for the into ephambene eyodwa, ngaphandle kokuba bakwazi
ukuletha lona ngokuqiniseka okuphelele.
F. Indlela ukuhlukanisa izimiso jikelele elawula ubufakazi
(?????????, ad veritatem) of the force ekhethekile (????????????, ad hominem)?
A. Esokuqala onjalo amane kanye ngokuvamile wenza izizathu ezidingekayo
isebenza, ethwele ukuthembeka kwakhe wena, futhi ngubani uhlala weqiniso, ngisho
noma yena ngabe bakholwa muntu; Kodwa omunye zona ngokwazo akulungile,
kodwa ukuze waqondisa ukuthi omunye noma abantu abangaphezu ethize
abakwaziyo hhayi ukuthola ukubukeka okungamanga kuwo, ukuqiniseka iqiniso
ubufakazi ukuze kuzuze. Ngoba advocate kuwukungathembeki lolu hlobo ubufakazi
umkhwenyana ukusebenzisa njalo, babebizwa nangokuthi Advokaten- noma
pettifoggers ubufakazi.
F. Umuntu ukuhlukanisa kanjani ubufakazi mayelana wazo yangaphandle? A. In
elula (monosyllogistische) kanye esiyinhlanganisela (polysyllogistische); e zesikole
noma esisemthethweni kanye free noma cha esisemthethweni; iphelele noma
esandleni eside futhi lingaphelele noma esifushanisiwe. - Incazelo la magama icashile
emazwini ngokwabo.
F. Yiziphi imithetho okumele ilandelwe lapho ubufakazi? A. Zufrderst yonke
imithetho kahle agcine lapha ukuthi kakade kuboniswe iziphetho, kusukela lonke
ingxabano kusekelwe iziphetho. Kodwa ke umuntu kumelwe ngokucophelela siqaphe
ukuba iziphambeko okulandelayo: 1) Enye noma erschleiche erbettle
lutho (petitio principu s fallacia quaesiti medii).. Lokhu umuntu ethaba lapho
omunye kusikisela into njengoba ubufakazi base, okuyinto kungaba esinqophileko
okungalungile, noma nokho ngisho ngokuqiniseka namanje entula. 2) Omunye
ngokomthetho lutho okunye kunokuba yini ukuba kube nobufakazi, noma ngamanye
amazwi, ukusonta iphuzu umbuzo (punctum quaestionis hhayi) ubufakazi; ngoba
kungenjalo injongo ubufakazi uzobe ezingabanjwanga. The iphutha wena bajeziswe
ekungazini langempela umbuzo iphuzu lalo ukubusa, ignoratio
elenchi ngokuthi; Nokho, ukuzungeza ongumashiqela

yalo mutatio elenchi, umphumela esiqinile isiphetho sophism mutationis elenchi. 3)

Umuntu kufanele agweme ubufakazi bokuthi ukushintshanisa emibuthanweni; ie lezo
lapho kube nobufakazi njengoba ubufakazi izidingo eziyisisekelo ngokwabo (orbit e
demonstrando, diallelus s.????????????). 4) Kufanele kuqashelwe ngaphambi
kokuxoxa e ubufakazi (Saltus in demonstrando a probando). okungukuthi, umuntu
lisuselwa ibinzana kusukela ngaphandle ezihambisana ngumlamuli izahlulelo kanye
iziphetho. In the isibonelo esilandelayo, ubufakazi bekungaba eqa: Indoda
unomzimba, ngakho okufayo; ngoba lapha akukho izahlulelo ngumlamuli: The
umzimba womuntu kuncike yonke imithetho imizimba eziphilayo futhi wonke
imizimba organic kukhona ofayo. - Kodwa, kukhona lishona ivinjelwe wohlobo
ukuthi ngamunye wanezela kalula ecabanga ngokwalo, kubhekwa ukuthi eqa enjalo
zezimvume kanye lihlolwe like ukudlulisela ngobufushane nkulumo. 5) kumele Care
kuthathwe, kakhulu ukuba afakazele; ie ukugwema ukuphikisana ezakha nakuba
ngokusobala iqiniso okucabanga ukuba wazibonakalisa ngabe, kodwa futhi namanje
uvumele ezinye okuqondisisa okungalungile; ke emva yangaphambili kungaholela
kwezinye lutho eqinisweni okungalungile, bese omunye kuzodingeka ukuchaza
kanjalo kuphakamisa imibuzo ngenkolelo ukuba invalid, nayo yonke
ubufakazi. Ngubani, isibonelo, lo mkhuba ukuthi ayo yenyuka plant emoyeni,
wazama ukuchaza kusukela ukhangwa kwelanga, wayeyobonisa kakhulu, ngoba
amashubhu ke wezinto ezingaphili, uketshezi kufanele nakwezinye, kube
bakhuthazeke ndlela ukhangwa.
ISAHLUKO XXIII
Kusukela izifo enengqondo (pathology kunengqondo)
F. Yini siqonda ngaphansi kwegama izifo enengqondo? A. Slip
nesiphambeko. Kunengqondo bill senzeka ke, once sinazo zonke imibono izinto
ngendlela efanayo letigcogcwe ngaphambilini imibono ehlukene, noma izinto
ezehlukene. Ingabe Sizokwenzenjani ngezahlulelo enjalo eyiphutha, lapho sikholelwa
ayiqiniso, ubizwa ngokuthi lezi amaphutha.
F. Siyini isizathu sangempela isiphambeko? A. The ukulinganiselwa cognition
womuntu. Okungukuthi, lapho izingqondo zethu bazokwazi ukuba sikuqonde konke
izimo ezihambisana nazo, kanjalo akukho ilayisensi futhi yingakho akukho iphutha
owawuzoba kuye. Kodwa njengoba kungaba manifold amathonya zivimbela
imisebenzi free kanye esisemthethweni ikhono lethu ulwazi kanye anqume amandla
lokwahlulelwa izahlulelo bamanga, ikakhulukazi uma ebuthakathaka noma
abangenalwazi of nature noma, uma hhayi ukunakisisa izimpawana sinikezwe izinto
ahlolwa. F. Yiziphi amathonya lapho ziyakwazi ukukhiqiza ukushelela enengqondo futhi
isiphambeko? A. Lapha kungokwalabo lokuqala zonke umqondo. Nokho, The
umqondo ngokwayo, kungavela ukubukeka kuphela, hhayi iphutha, ngoba ayifuni
ukwahlulela. Ngibona, isibonelo, ishidi ngenxa yokugula kwamehlo ami yellow,
okuyinto empeleni green; ngakho lokhu kohliso, ngoba mina lezinto ehlukahlukene (a
yellow ngempela futhi iqabunga green) lapha uthole yonke imibono efanayo. Uma

mina kodwa futhi ishidi kubonakala yellow ngempela, kanjalo angase engqondweni
yami abampofu noma isizathu sami, oqondiswa yizindinganiso iziphetho, uthi, ishidi
wayengekho yellow ngempela, nokho, ukuthi kubukeka kimi kanjalo; kuleli cala,
ukuze ngingena akukho iphutha, ngoba angazi ngizivumele ukuba unqume izahlulelo
yamanga umthethosivivinywa umqondo. Kodwa mina ngahlulela ngalokho ukuthi
iphephabhuku, lapho mina beqamba amanga livela yellow, ngempela yaleli umbala,
ngingathanda ukuba kokwenza iphutha. Sibona kulokhu ukuthi uma izinzwa
Lingakhohliswa siqu, kodwa ngokusebenzisa ithonya zabo phezu cognition
ephakeme kungabangela amaphutha. Lokhu kungenziwa ngokwengxenye kwenziwe
imizwa zangaphandle lapho izikhungo lapho basuke linamathele, awekho isimo
ezihambisana, noma abaye bazihlanganisa ubuhlobo kanye efanele isikhundla
isihlobo imisebenzi ozokwenziwa;ngokwengxenye ngokusebenzisa umqondo
zangaphakathi lapha ngokuvamile uhlale mnyama imibono lezinto, noma ngisho
yangaphakathi umuzwa imibono ngenxa nekhangayo zabo ngokweqile sengathi
yangaphandle. Abanye basibiza ngokuthi i amaphutha evusa
inkanuko (errores sensuales) futhi Beschleichungsfehler (vitia subreptionis), ngoba
ingqondo ukwenza sengathi emangala noma kukhona ngokusebenzisa ingqondo
yakhe.
F. Yimaphi amathonya bayakwazi ukuheha Amaphutha? A. Uma imemori
imibono gehabten aligcine abaqotho, noma kakhulu ngokucace ukuthi basuke noma
cha visualized imibono ngokucacile ngenxa, noma nje izithombe sengqondo kungaba
avele njengoba netintfo; noma uma amandla inkumbulo, okuyinto ukuba aqaphele
imibono gehabten aphinde (maqondana njengoba kuba esihlukile inkumbulo,
okufanayo baragela) akenzi kahle, kanjalo ngale ndlela amaphutha singenzeka; yiphi,
uma zazibangelwa inkumbulo, inkumbulo amaphutha noma
amaphutha (errores memoriales) ubiza, einbilderische
amaphutha (errores imaginarii), Nokho, ukusebenza yokuphambuka umcabango
kwalo kwavusa kude kangakanani. Inhlangano imibono noma inhlangano
okungalindelekile imibono esenziwa yiphi engqondweni kunokuba-do isethulo
kungenzeka ntombazane ukuvela esinye, uma wakho (emi ngokungafani) noma
ezifanayo noma nge okungafani yabo, noma ngisho nakanye ingqondo athintane
kwenzeka kuye kwadingeka; Ungase ube nethonya elikhulu phezu excitation
amaphutha; esibonakala imibono okungezona ezakhe ndawonye, imibono esihlobene
futhi ehlukene kungenzeka aphanjaniswe.
F. Asho namalimi noma ezingokomfanekiso amaphutha (errores linguistici
s. Sermocinales)? A. Lezi yilawo umphumela kabi amagama noma imisho. The
ukwehluka okukhulu futhi emagama amazwi lawenza njalo; ikakhulukazi njengoba
ulimi nezinhlamvu ungomunye uthishanhloko kusho ovukayo okutholakele yethu.
F. Ingabe hhayi faculty of isifiso kanye nomuzwa kwempahla, umthombo
amaphutha? A. Ngempela. The uhlale of Begehrungs- kanye nomuzwa izimpahla
zethu nethonya kakhulu nezinqumo esizenzayo, futhi angasiqinisa ukuba
athambekele ukugcina lokhu noma ukuthi ngaphandle izizathu hinlngliche iqiniso
noma amanga, njengokulotshiweyo kuvumelana isimo sethu sengqondo noma
cha.Ngakho le miser okholwa uthando lwakhe (izifiso zenyama ngokweqile)

baphuphuthekiswe, imali emihle kakhulu; kanjalo umuntu omubi ubona konke

ekukhanyeni black. Futhi uhlale ekhethekile kwengqondo yethu zingasenza ukunaka
kwethu ezintweni, okungukuthi njengoba ukukhathazeka eqondisa okufanayo
kuphela concordant kubo, futhi ngaleyo ndlela zibangele imibono akucacile, udideke
noma zazo ezimbi nalabo zingaveli us.
F. ukunikeza can futhi izimo cishe wangaphandle kwetinhlavu illusion
nesiphambeko isikhathi? A. Yebo. Ukwakheka Body, imfundo, nobudlelwane
bokuhlalisana, lenkaba, ukuphila, imikhuba yazo zonke izinhlobo nesiqondiso
kakhulu futhi okungenani kungase kubhekwe njengento izimbangela eqhelile
amaphutha ngokunika umsebenzi kwengqondo yethu, ngokuqondile noma
ngokungaqondile, kanye ekhethekile eyodwa emaceleni.
F. Kuyini ubandlululo (praejudicia)? A. Lezi amaphutha lapho kuphakama ovela
bill eye okubangelwa yizimo zangaphandle (s. Umbuzo odlule). Ubandlululo Ngakho
abaningi ngokusebenzisa imfundo, imikhuba, njll, kubangela, okuyiqembu zokuphila
kwansuku zonke inikeza izibonelo ngokwanele. Lokhu ubandlululo sihlokwana
yezikhulu, ngaphambi, ubandlululo, ukuthi lokhu noma lokhuya lizwe iyona engcono
kunazo, njll
F. Ingabe mhlawumbe ayehlukile isinqumo zokukwazi by a? Ubandlululo
A. Ngempela. A ukwahlulela zokukwazi (.. J praevium s
zokukwazi isabelomali) kuyinto okungukuthi omunye yiphi uwela, ngaphandle
kokuba bakwazi ucacise ngezizathu hinlngliche more of semthethweni yayo; kodwa
ukubhuka, khona siqhubeke sihlola.
F. Kuyini amaphutha enengqondo? A. Lezi yilawo bavele isicelo engalungile
imithetho ingqondo, noma isizathu; like, uma kusukela lokuthi izinto ezimbili
ngesikhathi ukulandela nomunye, esiphethweni kwenza ukuthi omunye isizathu,
omunye kwaba (post hoc; ERGO propter hoc); noma uma omunye deduces lutho
kusukela ubufakazi bamanga ngokuyisisekelo.
F. Indlela ukuhlukanisa amaphutha ayisisekelo (errores principales, radicales,
originarii, ??????????) kanye nemininingwane (isiphosiso derivativi.)? A. Lo
mdlali yilabo izahlulelo yamanga lapho abanye okungalungile waphetha; the
okuholela hot bazinqumela amaphutha elisuselwa. Njalo iphutha, kanjani
kuyadingeka njengoba isimiso, kuba iphutha ayisisekelo, futhi kungaba
disadvantageous kakhulu ukuthi isetshenziswa okuzuza eziningi ezinye amaphutha.
F. Indlela ukuhlukanisa amaphutha theory noma zokucabangela nangezindlela
ezingokoqobo? A. Lo mdlali yilawo babandlulule wambul iqiniso ulwazi
lwethu; okokugcina labo babe nethonya izenzo zethu. Ngakho bekungaba esiwusizo
in iphutha lapho bancamela ukuzibulala zezimvume.
ISAHLUKO XXIV
Kusukela amakhambi enengqondo (Logical Therapeutics)
F. Yeka iphutha ebesingagwenywa? A. Ngoba wonke umuntu kuyinto limited
ukuba mayelana umthamo yayo for ulwazi, ngoba ngamunye amathonya edalulwa,

lapho kungase kube nomthelela isizukulwane amaphutha, kanye wonke umuntu

jikelele kuncike amaphutha. - Kodwa kuphakama zonke iphutha ovela bill, futhi
ihlale ubeke impango ngokuyisisekelo kuphela umsebenzi free lokwahlulelwa yethu
ngokuqondene nokuthi yena ufuna ukwenza lokhu bill iphutha, kuze kube manje
zonke iphutha single by a inqubo ngokucophelela cishe
ebesingagwenywa. Ngokuvamile, Ngakho, singaba nganoma nguliphi, ngisho
nabantu ezihlakaniphe futhi bayiziphukuphuku zenzeka izimo lapho
oyiphutha; kodwa ukuthi akekho Bangase babeke izaba ngokuthi kwakudingeka
okungalungile ngoba lunatics bebonke akunakugwenywa, ikakhulukazi kule noma
ukuthi ngabanye icala ethize.
F. Indlela ukuhlukanisa agents ngokumsola ngesiphambeko (Remedia erroris)?
A. In ukukhalima (remed, praeservantia) futhi
ukuphulukiswa (remed sanativa.); owokuqala ukuvimbela ukuvela iphutha;omunye
lift ukuba iphutha kakade kuzona.
F. Yiziphi preventives ngokumsola ngesiphambeko? A. 1) ajwayelane amandla
ethu engqondweni yethu, imithetho ukusebenza kwabo kanye imikhawulo isicelo
sabo. 2) ulwazi emithonjeni ehlukene isiphambeko. 3) sixwayiso, ngekucabangisisa
nokucabangela ekwahlulelweni. 4) nokumvimbela (???) ihlombe kuzo zonke izimo
ngabazeka. - Umthetho wokugcina uthi ukuthi umuntu kufanele uma umuntu akusona
isizathu esanele iqiniso sokwahlulela, hhayi kodwa lokucabanga kuyafana amacala
anjalo futhi ngokuqinisekile, kodwa kunalokho ukulishiya emthumeni.
F. Yiziphi ikhambi ukuphulukiswa amaphutha bebonke? A. nje ukutholakala
kanye isinqumo bill ukuthi wadala iphutha, njengoba enjalo, singasisebenzisa. Lo
mthethosivivinywa kutholakala lapho uthola ukwazi izimbangela okuthakazelisayo
iphutha endabeni ethile; ziyoncibilika lapho imibono ehlukahlukene ukuthi
kwakucatshangwa ukuba wonke umqondo ofanayo, ehlukene, kanti ezifanayo, lapho
kwakucatshangwa ukuba ehlukene, ngoba kungakhathaliseki iyavuma.
F. azi kanjani ukuthi umuntu ohileleke iphutha, futhi ngenxa yalokho
sishukumiseleka ukuba uyiphakamise? Kodwa nina A. Masinyane omunye ikani
ngamunye amaphutha ethize, lokhu ngokuqinisekile angazi, ngoba kungenjalo
kwakuyoba ngempela kube akukho amaphutha amaningi lapho yabo amanga ngabe
wazibona. Kodwa ngenxa yokuthi thina njalo kundiza ukwazi ukuthi thina ngaphansi
abantu bebonke njengoba amaphutha, ngakho kudingeka at ukwahlulela ngasinye
senza, okungenani sicabangele ukuthi kungenzeka ukuthi kuyinto eyiphutha, futhi
enqamula ukuhlolwa waphinda futhi ukuqhathanisa izahlulelo ngabanye ukuba
ngokuqinisekile ngifuna.
F. Yiziphi amakhambi for the izinhlobo ngenhla ngamunye esiphambekweni?
A. Bathi qukethe nje isicelo efanele izinsuku kuze kube kuboniswe for the
nokuvinjelwa nelaphe amaphutha imithetho amacala ngabanye.

Text original
Contribuu a millorar la traducci

Isahluko XXV
Ibhayisikobho yokufuna ulwazi kanye ikakhulukazi isipiliyoni

F. Yiziphi izindlela esingabonisa ngazo ukuthi athole ulwazi?

reflection.

A. Isipiliyoni and

F. Sisho ukuthini uma sithi nakho? A. We ke sithi sithola okuhlangenwe nakho,

uma like okuthile kusho ukuqonda incazelo.
F. Yini ushayele ulwazi, lowo efika ulwazi? A. Indlela enokwehla, kusukela
amazwi lesiGreki Empiria ukuthi isipiliyoni kusho. Okutholakele ngokwabo,
okuyinto etholakala ngokuba nokuhlangenwe nakho, okuthiwa enokwehla, noma
ulwazi a posteriori, futhi ulwazi enengqondo noma a priori baphikiswa, okuwukuthi,
lawo ngazuza ngendlela nakho; Ngakho, uma kukhona labo noma kakade badabuka
kithi, noma namanje ayengumlamuleli the faculty ephakeme cognition.
F. Of lokho nature okutholakele enokwehla? A. ubufakazi enokwehla
ingasetshenziswa njengendlela abanjalo semthethweni never jikelele ngokuphelele
futhi kunesidingo. Sesibonile njalo kithi ukuthi kuyinto kuphela One; futhi uma thina
sase ngisho wabheka noma wazizwa kakhulu One; kanjalo thina ngabe nokho
namanje ukunikeza lutho olubonisa izinto abangasokile njengoba wabheka noma
wazizwa.Okuhlangenwe nakho kungaba, ngokuqinile ukukhuluma, nami, empeleni
aqhubeke ukufundisa lutho kodwa ukuthi lokhu noma ukuthi impahla izinto
ezihlukahlukene ngizwile, elise, kungakhathaliseki ukuthi, futhi isendaweni izinto
angizange okucatshangelwayo, kodwa abakwazi Izitatimende; noma ukuthi kumelwe
nakanjani sibe bona abakhona ezintweni beqonda. Isizathu yethu uqobo
abangayithola emazwini nakho hhayi eziphethweni jikelele kunesidingo; kungaba
okuphambene nalokho uyobe inversion izifunda ukuthatha beka indlela ukuthi
ukwahlulelwa ngokukhethekile jikelele, kanye an assertoric babekwazi abathola i
apodictic. Kodwa like izinhlobo wesifunda abavunyelwe isizathu.
F. Uma ungakakwenzi zinhlobo okwamanje final lapho bafune abathize noma
jikelele futhi ethola Iyadingeka? A. Yebo. Lezi emva lokungeniswa futhi Isifaniso
iziphetho, okungenzeka ngenxa yaleso sizathu kube nje chance futhi akukho
ngokuqiniseka esiqinile kodwa ngoba ukuqala nakho. Bathi zisekelwe kucatshangwa
umthetho jikelele nature ukuthi ingqondo yethu uzizwa wanxusa ukwamukela.
F. Indlela ukuqhubeka of esiphethweni? A. Uma siye saphawula ukuthi esinye
isici izinto lokulungisa noma ezingakhi abaningi uhlobo ukukhipha, singaphetha
ngokuthini usebenzisa indlela Inductive, isici efanayo kuyoba esihlupha bonke
neminye imininingwane uhlobo olufanayo, ngabe kuye kwaba alinganayo hhayi
ekwazi efanayo; kanye Inductive efanayo siphetho futhi uzitshela isizathu ukuthi
isici, uma kungokwalabo kwezinhlobo eziningana a uhlobo lwe, futhi zonke ezinye
kwezinhlobo lokhu uhlobo lwe kuyofika lapho kuba ilingana hhayi
okucatshangelwayo ngempela kuzo. IDemo uyiveza isimiso lokungeniswa
ukuthi. Yini vele izinto eziningi okuqondene kohlobo noma uhlobo lwe, futhi
kuyiqiniso of the ezinye. - Izibonelo iziphetho Inductive yilezi: Konke izitshalo
ukuthi ngiye ngabona kude kangaka, kwadingeka amaqabunga aluhlaza; Ngakho
izitshalo ukuthi Angazi ngempela ukubona, amaqabunga aluhlaza uyoba. Bonke
abantu, engayifungela wayefundiswe isipiliyoni sabo siqu noma abangabokufika
ofayo, kanjalo bebonke, bonke abantu beyoba olimele. - It ibonakala kalula ukuthi

lezi ziphetho abakwazi ukwamukela ifomu ezejwayelekile elingaphakathi syllogisms,

ngoba kwesisekelo ezinkulu uzogcinwa particularistic. Nokho, The ematfuba,
ngokuvamile ingaba enkulu kakhulu, okuyinto etholakala yileli Inductive of siphetho,
kuphela eyodwa Kumelwe ukuba kwenziwe nakho okuncane kakhulu, yimuphi
avale; ethamele ilanga kungaba ezivumelana enjalo iziphetho ngokuphamazela,
kanye kwenzeke nsuku zonke.
F. Indlela ukuhlukanisa lokungeniswa okuphelele futhi akuphelele?
A. Mathematical lokungeniswa ingenye lapho nenze zonke imininingwane wohlobo,
noma zonke izinhlobo ngalinye bohlobo kokuhlangenwe nakho kwawo ukuthi
yimuphi sici ukukhipha, futhi uphetha ukuthi liphinde lonke uhlobo lwe
ukukhipha. Lokhu of siphetho by lokungeniswa zezibalo kuzodingeka, kude
kangakanani isipiliyoni wawuyomiswa, ngalo wawusekelwe, futhi semthethweni
jikelele kunesidingo; kodwa yena empeleni lingenandawo, ngoba kanjani ungamazi
ukuthi omunye kwaba ajwayelekile ngempela yonke imininingwane kanye
nezinhlobo zezinto eziphilayo noma uhlobo lwe by the isipiliyoni ngoba
wena; kusukela lutho evimbela ukuthi ngaphandle okucatshangelwayo enye
indawo. Lokungeniswa Asiphelele is ngokuphelele ngokuthi lokungeniswa, kusukela
phezulu kwaba inkulumo lapho omunye kuhlanganisa kuphela multiple-General.
F. Indlela ukuqhubeka of esiphethweni by sifaniso? A. Ngokusho kwakhe,
kuphothulwe ngokuthi izinto uma qondana e abaningana kubo izici abaziwayo, futhi
ngo ezinye uyovumelana, nakuba isivumelwano ingakamiswa beqonda angabaliwe
lapha
, Ngakho
uma
wena emva lokungeniswa, uma sikubeka kafushane kakhulu,
Contribuu
a millorar la
traducci
kuhlanganisa njalo; One ngezindlela eziningi kangaka kuzo zonke; ukuze uvale
amanye isandla sakho phezu mfanekiso: izinto eziningi kwelinye; Ngakho konke
lokhu eyodwa. Ematfuba lapho anikezwe umfanekiso (ngoba iqiniso ingatholakala
kuwo noma, njengoba etholwe lokungeniswa), kuyinto sonke okukhulu in ngamunye
yizicucu eziningana into iyiphi kwenza isiphetho Kuye kwaphawulwa coincident ne,
kusukela lapho ukwenza esiphethweni. Izibonelo izifunda analog yilezi: ngibona into
eziphilayo, lapho nezinye izinto eziningana organic ivumelana ukuthi ine izimbali,
amacembe, umzimba; Manje la futhi abe impande, ukuze mina ukuphetha ngokuthi
ngisho ukuthi ngeke abe nezimpande. Ngakho isiphetho by Isifaniso, uma mina
ukuphetha ngokuthi abantu abavumelana izici zawo ebusweni, bayakuba bavumelana
uhlamvu yabo. - The umfanekiso lwesiphelo sesimiso ngenxa ngokuyisisekelo
yokuthi kunenkolelo ukuthi kwaba izinto ukuthi iyavumelana nomunye yizicucu
eziningana ukuthola into esivumelana ngayo, ukhona; futhi kumele ilandelwe lapho
ngenxa yesizathu esifanayo futhi okufanayo, kanjalo uyophinde lezi eziyisisekelo
imiphumela ezivamile ezivamile for the izinto ngamunye, abangazange kuphela
okwaletha ngezici beqonda. - The, ifilosofi Schelling sika amasha ungubani ivele
ifilosofi yemvelo, okuyinto nje uyakuqaphela a base wangempela wawo wonke
ukusesha, njalo iningi ukufakazisa ngokusebenzisa imizekeliso.

Text original

ISAHLUKO XXVI
Kuchubeka

F. Yini siqu futhi nakho kwabanye '? A. isipiliyoni sami wukuthi lapho izinto
ngokwethu, angaphandle, lapho ziqondakala abanye.
F. Yini oyiphawulile futhi presearch?
A. ababecabanga (observationes) ngamabomu, kanye sokuhanjelwa izenzakalo
ezihlobene nombono ngaphandle izinguquko ngokungenasizathu
yalo; Imizamo(experimenta) ingqondo ngenhloso izinguquko izinto unikezwa
abasebenzi ukuthi zenziwa ezinqumela kanye ngenhloso impahla ethile yalo
ukufunda ezinye bazana kangcono; by ayishiyile therethrough lezo zinguquko ukuba
bakwazi ukuwabuka ezinhlangothini eziningana, futhi ngezabelo
eziningana. Bobabili ababecabanga futhi ucwaningo ukukhonza ukunikeza ezifanele
isipiliyoni ukuphepha kanye ngokuqiniseka, futhi lapho kungenzeka kufanele njalo
axhumene.
F. Yini enye ihlobene uma umuntu efuna ukusebenzisa isipiliyoni zakwamanye
amazwe ukuphelela ulwazi lwakhe siqu A. Umuntu ukuba sihlole umbiko, lapho
ezinye kanjani baqonda ukuthembeka wobufakazi (kobuFakazi) di umbiko; ngakho
musa iyangena ingozi yokwenza amaphutha noma amanga angaphandle ngamabomu
mayelana ngamaphutha abo. Lapha, ungakwazi manje kuyabonakala kokubili
ngaphakathi kwi ukuthembeka kwangaphandle ubufakazi.
F. Asho ukuthembeka yangaphakathi nangaphandle? A. The ukuthembeka
elingaphakathi isitifiketi kuxhomeke ekutheni into ukhuluma into efanayo, per se
kungenzeka noma kungenzeka. Othile ungitshele isibonelo, nokuthi wayekubonile
izingalo eziyishumi giant big, njengoba lokhu elandisayo engashiya yonke
ukwethembeka yangaphakathi uma ngokwawo wawuyoba umuntu ongitshele
kungenjalo njengoba ngokunengqondo futhi oneqiniso eyaziwa. - The ukuthembeka
sangaphandle ufakazi ngakolunye uhlangothi incike: 1) Kusukela
drive (dexteritas) ufakazi ukuthi empeleni owns (izinzwa nengqondo ephilile)
izidingo nombono lesifanele, futhi kungakhathaliseki ukuthi ngufakazi ngqo (ufakazi)
noma nje engaqondile (indlebe-ufakazi) yingoba zangaphambili ine inani elandayo
ukuthembeka zangaphandle ngokwabo, esengumphostoli wokugcina-okuthiwa. 2) of
the ngobuqotho (kusukela Rita) ngokufakaza, ngoba abaningi yokuzikhethela, noma
ngenkani engqubuzana neqiniso lapho kuba okulingana yabo kahle.
F. Kuyini legend? A. A indaba kusekelwe bufakazi obukhanyayo bokuthi ngakho
musa ngisho cabanga kungenzeka kahle mayelana ukuthembeka kwabo
kwangaphandle. Ingabe legend okusakazwa abantu abaningana yobudala, ubizwa
ngokuthi isiko (traditio), futhi uma ngaso ekuqaleni kusekelwe bufakazi obuqondile,
kuba ke amahemuhemu (amahemuhemu).
F. ulubizela ukholo elinikezwe isipiliyoni angaphandle?
Faith (uFides Historica).

A. Historical

ISAHLUKO XXVII
Kusukela reflection
F. Kuyini ukucabanga (meditatio)?

A. In the isiqondiso ngamabomu ukunaka

into ethile ulwazi ukuze afundise kahle phezu efanayo. Ngemva kwalesi sitimela
yakhe yokucabanga, kanjalo kukhona ngokushesha, kodwa kusobala isitimela
eziyinqaba yokucabanga, i reflection engaqondile. Lo mdlali nalo ukucabanga
ngomqondo emincane noma ukucabanga par ubuhle.
F. Yini bagcine lapho ukucabanga ngokushesha? A. Kufanele methodically
uqhubeke ngokuvumelana nemithetho yokucabanga lapha; izwi lakhe zonke,
okuyinto eyenzeka ngesikhathi ecabanga, ngifuna ngokucacile ukwenza mayelana
nokuqukethwe yayo futhi zisakazeka, ngaphambi iqhubeka ekucabangeni, kusukela
yilo izimemezelo futhi dispositions kufanele afune ukudweba okuqondisisa, futhi
ngaleyo ndlela injongo uyaqaphela kabani imbangela basuke wadonsa; kumelwe
ukuxhumanisa ukuba into yokucabanga eziphathelene nemibono ndawonye ukuze
bamele kancane ngenhla-ngifuna wonke yasebukhosini futhi axhunyiwe.
F. ngayiphi indlela zenzeke ukucabanga engaqondile? A. okuyingxenye
ngokufunda (Lectio), ngokwengxenye ngokulalela (nokuhlola); kulalela kwenza
kwagxila kuwena; ukufunda Ngakolunye uhlangothi, ivumela kokucabangisisa more
and Umile ngokungenasizathu ukwenza reflection yazo phakathi khulula umdlalo.
F. Yini nguye ofuna okuthuthukisa ulwazi lwakhe ngokulalela, ukubukela le?
A. It kufanele aphathelane nendaba ngalo afuna ukusifundisa ngokulalela
ukulungiselela (praeparatio), noma ukunikeza ulwazi zokukwazi ngakho, Ukuze
ukwazi ukulandela ngenkathi kokulalela uthisha ngokwakhe imicabango
yakhe; kumelwe uqaphele lapho ukulalela (attentio), futhi kamuva phinde babe they
zwa (repetitio),kangangokuthi owenza einprge inkumbulo yakhe futhi kungase
kubhekwe nguye ovuthiwe, yingakho zwi: repetitio is Mater studiorum. Icala
akumelwe neze kube nje uvalo efile ukuthi omunye uthi, kodwa komuntu siqu
reflection elisondelene ukuba njalo kube umsebenzi ukucubungula lokho abakuzwa.
F. Yini okumele ziphenywe ukufundwa ngokuphelele indawo yokuqala? A. 1)
Uma une amazwi langempela zokwephulwa ilungelo wombhali kanye 2), okuyinto
incazelo yala mazwi ayiqiniso; Owokuqala uhlola ukugxekwa, lo hermeneutics
yesibili (Exegetics, Auslegekunst).
F. Indlela ukuhlukanisa ukugxekwa? A. In a ephakeme kanye aphansi. The
Ukugxekwa Higher bahlola ngobuqotho (ubuqiniso) zemiBhalo wonkana kanye by
izingxenye zayo main, ongaphakeme, ubuqotho (ubuqotho) yalo, maqondana
abalingiswa kokuvela ngaphakathi kwalo amazwi ngabanye nemishwana. Ngakho
ukugxekwa ephakeme kuyodingeka ukuba sihlole ukuthi izinkulumo iye exhunywe
Cicero, ngempela zonke kuye uma izincwadi ad Herennium njll, empeleni ebhaliwe,
njengoba abalobi ngokuthi ukugxeka ephansi, ngabe lokhu noma lelo zwi, kwaphoqa
lokhu noma kuleyo ndawo, offset noma lonakele, njll kugceka iphenya ubuqiniso
isignesha ngokuyinhloko ngokuqhathanisa isitayela eyinqaba futhi nomoya
okufanayo nalowo esikhona kweminye imibhalo ngokungangabazeki lwangempela
ngumlobi efanayo, ayothola; ukugxekwa ephansi kakhulu iziqhathaniso amaningi
amakhophi, izinguqulo nezingcaphuno, okuyinto evalekile kusukela font ukuba
ihlolwe kwamanye imisebenzi ukusiza; futhi avunyelwe uma bekwazi attain ephelele
lokhu, conjecture (conjecturae) ngesimo zemiBhalo weqiniso.

ISAHLUKO XXVIII
Kusukela zokuxhumana ulwazi
F. Yiziphi izinhlobo zokuxhumana ulwazi zingahlukaniswa? A. The emaceleni
eyodwa, lapho nje kunomthelela ingxenye zokufundisa abanye, futhi
okuhambisanayo, lapho bobabili amaqembu neqhaza Okusizayo imfundo yabo. Lo
mdlali kwenzeka lapho efundisa; the yokugcina engxoxweni.
F. kwenzeke kanjani izifundo? A. kokubili ngekukhuluma noma
ngekubhala; kodwa imithetho logic kukhona kokubili izinhlobo okufanayo. Ikakhulu
kuba imfundiso ngendlela yokufundisa (Methodusdidactica) ku, ie, isimo zokubukwa,
omunye esebenzisa ukukhombisa okutholakele; kuba ngokwengxenye
lwangaphakathi, indlela okuhlobana ngayo uhlobo ilungiselelo kanye uxhumano
yokucabanga uqobo, futhi ngokwengxenye ngokwezinga elithile elingaphandle
ehlobana ngayo investiture kanye nokunikeza imibono ngokusebenzisa amagama
kanye nemishwana.
F. Yiziphi izinhlobo inkulumo, umehluko mayelana ifomu kwangaphakathi?
A. Okokuqala, the kuye imicabango kwenziwe phambili kuxhumene by zokwenziwa
noma kohlaziyo indlela zokwenziwa kanye kohlaziyo. - Ebhekisela umthethosisekelo
we isihloko ukucabangela lapho isethulo uqondiswa, kuzokwenza noma esikoleni
noma indinganiso kuzwelonke; ukuthi babe for labo abafisa ukuzuza ulwazi olunzulu
yesayensi kuyiswe phambili, kanye nolwazi oludingekayo ukwenza kanjalo; kulokhu
esingazuzisa labo abafuna ukungena kakhulu singene isayensi ngaphandle, futhi
ngaphandle ulwazi oludingekile ukuze ngokuphelele ukufunda eyakhe, kodwa ufuna
ukuthola ukuqonda ezinye singene efanayo, bebonke, okuwukuthi, ngoba
abangafundile, ngoba abantu. The inkulumo esikoleni ubuye esikoleni, izazi,
ezesayensi, scientifische, ehlelekile, akroamatische, esoteric. Walandela umyalelo
ngokuqinile enengqondo, uhlose ukuzuza nokunemba kunabo kanye ukuphelela, futhi
kwenza ukusetshenziswa ngamazwi art yayo (technical imigomo) ukuba kufaneleka
ukubiza of imicabango ngezinye izikhathi phambukani ukusetshenziswa
ezejwayelekile kolimi incazelo yalo kakhulu. Abantu ngisho inkulumo ubizwa
nangokuthi ethandwa, exoteric. Kumelwe ngenxa ukucaciseleka ngoba njalo
kusikisela abafundi imfundo kancane zesayensi, ukuncipha enchubeni ngokuqinile
enengqondo, banamathele ukusetshenziswa ezijwayelekile inkulumo, futhi bafune
ukuba ingabonisa abanye ukuthi kuyiswe phambili ngangokunokwenzeka; anakho
izimfundiso zakhe ezintweni ukwakha, zazo kungaba bazitshela ukuthi zingabantu
futhi ongafundile owaziwa kakade, futhi ngokuvamile zenza usebenzise amagama
kude ngaphezu indlela scientifische yokufundisa, kwaba yilokho mhlawumbe
uzwakalise ngendlela ayiqondakali by ukwenza ezinye izinkulumo nemishwana
ngokucacile. - Indlela zezibalo zokubukwa akulutho ukwedlula indlela scientifische,
isetshenziswa mathematics. Lokho ngokuvamile amarekhodi abo zibhalwe lapha
ngaphansi iziqu ezikhethekile, kuba lutho olutheni, futhi kunalokho ibhekisela ijamo
yangaphandle.
F. Yiziphi izinhlobo isethulo zingahlukaniswa mayelana ifomu yangaphandle?

A. A ephukile (kusele izingxenyana, aphoristic, rhapsodistische) uma omunye

hlabelela imicabango yakhe kuphela imisho emifushane, ezifana kunjalo inhlanganiso
yocezuningi aphorisms medical and zefilosofi Platner, futhi a contiguous
(okuqhubekayo, kohrierende) uma maphuzu okukhulunywe ngawo aphathelene
okuqhubekayo; - A unbildliche, ngqo kanye olungokomfanekiso, parabolic,
engaqondile, okuxakayo, Ayindida; kuncike ekutheni omunye uveza imizwa yakhe
ngempela, noma sakwembathisa e izithombe, ngemifanekiso, ukulandisa Ayindida; A selulwimi lunye (Monologue) letimbili (inkhulumomphendvulwano); the last, uma
nje imibuzo nezimpendulo ukuze ishintshwe lapha, kubuye erotematische, futhi ke
kuphakathi catechetical noma yokucabanga (ngemuva Socrates ngokuthi kunjalo,
owayeneminyaka kuleli hlobo erotematischen inkulumo master), kuncike ekutheni
benza nje imemori noma ingqondo labafundi ekuphuzeni; indlela catechetical kuyinto
okungukuthi nje sabuza umfundi lokho kakade wayazi, noma kufanele
ukwazi; ngokuphambene, imibuzo yokucabanga kuthiwa amise ukuze kubonakala
ukuthuthukisa ngokwayo hip, samenza waba imibuzo wayefuna ukutshela. Ukuze
ube izibonelo zalokhu, owenza kakhulu ukufunda kwama uXenophon noma
mpendulwano kaPlato, lapho Socrates wethulwa njengoba ekhuluma. - Landelayo
thina ukuhlukanisa ifomu epistolarische lapho isethulo esibhaliwe Sihlelwe
ngomumo ngesimo izinhlamvu; the syllogistic, lapho kulotshiwe iziphetho
esisemthethweni; the sosizi noma desultory, uma kuba zingcolile, edidayo
ngokuvamile kusukela into komunye intsambo; the rambling, digressive uma uvame
uya khona ukuze bahlale ezintweni secondary kusukela subject main isethulo.
F. Yini okumelwe zenzeke uma ingxoxo ukukhonza njengoba okuhambisanayo
imicabango umyalezo ulwazi ephelele? A. The sub-Isikhulumi kufanele silwele
zidlule lezo izinto maqondana lapho izahlulelo zabo ezihluke, ukuze athole
ukuhambisana, ukuze nabo ume iqiniso. Manje umbono wakhe siqu tekubamba subisikhulumi ngasinye weqiniso, ekuqaleni okungenani, - ngoba kungenjalo
kwakungeke ngisho umbono wakhe - ukuze wonke umuntu ufuna ukuletha ezinye
incazelo ukuthi (omunye) ithawula umbono walo , futhi ayikhuthazi, ngokwakhe,
(yangaphambili) has. Njengoba ukuphuza endaweni le quest by zombili, kangaka
kule kuphakama umhlinzeki umehluko phakathi sub-isikhulumi, lapho wacabangaingqondo noma isizathu Streit (Pugna intellectualis s. Logica) kubizwa.
F. Njengoba engenziwa imicabango ehlome? A. Noma ngesimo ingxoxo
oluyimfihlo (Colloquilum familiare) noma njengoba umphakathi kanye ozothileyo
umbono empini (disputatio solemnis).
F. Yiziphi imithetho kokubili izinhlobo imicabango impikiswano, uma kuwukuthi
kufanele iqhutshwe ngendlela ehluzekile? A. Omunye kumele njalo sikhumbula
ngenhloso interview, okuyinto ukunqoba iqiniso ngokusebenzisa ukumelana
okuhambisanayo. Ngakho akumelwe nje ukuphika izinsolo umphikisi wakhe, ukuthi
ngandlela-thile ngokusebenzisa ubuthakathaka abaphikisi, ngifuna ukuba usiyise
nokuthi ngithulisiwe, kodwa by izizathu jikelele ukuphikisa kwakhe. Omunye
kumelwe ingxabano ngisho iphuzu kombango (status controversiae), di anqume into,
ogama mayelana izahlulelo awafani, uma kungenzeka, futhi akusuki kuye; Kumele
ezimisweni okufanele bakhonze njengamaphayona ngesisekelo impikiswano,

yokuhlanganisa ngoba uma ubufakazi an into okuhlukile isimiso ukuthi akekho

ongasho ngokuqiniseka ukuthi siphikise ezinye aze waphikisa isimiso
uqobo; kuzodingeka ukuthi, uma ubungeke uvume ezimisweni, ukuqagulisana
kuphela ngalokhu, omunye kungenzeka ukuphikisana mayelana iziphetho omkhulu
kusukela. Ngakho zwi: Principia contra negantem non disputari Ungakwazi. - One
kumele futhi ugweme engenamsebenzi impikiswano ngamazwi noma
Logomachieen; ungaphikisi ngezinto ezingeke mbali, ngoba idlule ubufushane
bolwazi yethu; hhayi labo abakufanelekeli ukuxabana (de lana caprina). - Ubufakazi
isitha kungukuthi nje ukuqinisekisa yayo esisemthethweni, kodwa futhi by ukunemba
kwalo impahla, futhi lapho iphutha kutholakala, kufanele futhi baziswe umthombo
iphutha. - Uma uke amelana khona ubufakazi a isiphakamiso, akumelwe kholwa
ukulahlwa irekhodi ngokwayo, noma baye bafakazela ngisho ngokunemba umbono
wakhe siqu kini; ngoba ngaphandle kobufakazi achithwa isitha ingase ibe namanye
endaweni esemthethweni more isigwebo sakhe. Ukungezwani kumele ekugcineni
kwenziwe nge lwesintu futhi ngaphandle passion.