lecture #1c

Mechanical Properties of Materials

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Strength
Stiffness
Resilience
Hardness
Toughness
Fatigue
Creep

Relative Mechanical Properties

of Materials at Room Temperature

Relative Mechanical Properties

of Materials at Room Temperature

Mechanical Tests:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Tension
Compression
Torsion
Bending
Hardness
Impact
Fatigue
Creep

Tension Test
Strength
(Ultimate Tensile Strength)

Stiffness
(Elastic modulus)

Poisson Ratio

Ductility
(Maximum Elongation)

Work Hardening

Tensile Testing Machine

Tensile Test Specimen

(a) A standard
tensile test
specimen
before and
after pulling,
showing
original and
final gage
lengths.

Tensile Test
Test specimen preparation In the United
States, the specimen is prepared
according to ASTM (Other standards: JIS,
ISO-EN etc.)
The specimen is mounted between the
grips of the tensile test machine.
Specimen are test different rates of
deformation

Engineering Stress and Engineering Strain

Engineering Stress, ( ) =
Average uniaxial tensile force, (P) divided by
original cross-sectional area, (A0)

A0
Engineering Strain, (e) =
Ratio of a change of length (L) divided by the
original length (L0) due an applied force

L L0 L
e

L0
L0

Load Extension

Stress - Strain

Mechanical Properties of
Tensile Test:
1. Elastic Modulus or Youngs

Moulus
2. Yield Strength (0.2% Offset)
3. Ultimate Tensile Strength
4. Uniform Elongation (Total Strain
before necking)
5. Elongation at fracture
6. Reduction in area

Engineering Stress-Strain
Curve

Startedpointthatstressandstrain
arenolongerproportional
(proportionallimit)

YOUNG' S
MODULUS

The ratio of stress to strain in the elastic region is the

modulus of elasticity or Young's modulus (E)-to measure the

material stiffness
The linear relationship is known as Hookes Law
Unit: Quoted in GPa

Loading and Unloading of

Tensile-Test Specimen
Elastic Recovery
Permanent
Deformation
Note that:
during unloading, the
curve follows a path
parallel to the
original elastic slope.

Poisson's ratio
= Strain (lateral)
Strain (longitudinal)

The elongation of
specimen under tension
is accompanied by lateral
contraction.
Metal; 0.3
Ideal (Upper limit) = 0.5

Ductility
The extent of plastic deformation that the material undergoes
before fracture
2 common measurement

Elongation
= (lf - lo)
lo

Reduction of Area
= - (Af Ao)
Ao

e.g The ductility chalk is zero, chewing gum stretch

and necks before it fails

Mechanical Properties of
Various Materials at Room
Temperature

Mechanical Properties of
Various Materials at Room
Temperature

True Stress and True Strain

True stress- Average uniaxial force divided by
instantaneous cross-sectional area (CALCULATE AT
FRACTURE)
P
true
Ai

True strain -

true

li

lo

li
dl
ln
l
lo

True Strain
True strain or logarithmic strain:
A specimen of 50 mm in height compressed between flat
platens to a final height of zero (infinite deformation)
L L0 L
e

L0
L0

= -1

true

li
ln
lo

Construction of True Stress-True Strain

Curve
The true properties are calculated from
engineering properties:

The true stress-strain curve is useful only up to the

ultimate load where necking is initiated. After the
onset of necking, the length changes are localized
in the neck, so the nominal strain, e, which involves
a measurement using the entire gauge length cannot
be used to calculate the true strain.(IN NECKING

Necking Corrections
Beyond maximum load the
true strain should be based on
actual area or diameter
measurements.
Beyond maximum load the
true stress should be
determined from actual
measurements of load and
cross-sectional area.
*Learned in a more advance courses

Construction of True Stress-True Strain

Curve

True Stress-True Strain Curves

Temperature Effects on StressStrain Curves

Increasing temperature effects
on
stress-strain curves:
a. Raise ductility and toughness
b. Lower yield stress and the
modulus of elasticity
c. Lower the ultimate tensile strength,
d. Lower the toughness (area under the
curve) of materials.

Temperature Effects on StressStrain Curves

Rate of deformation effects

Deformation rate defined as the speed at

which tension
test is being carried in unit
(m/s, ft/min)
The strain rate function of the specimen length.
Increase Ultimate Tensile Strength

Effect of Strain Rate on Ultimate

Tensile Strength

Note:
Combine temperature
effect

Typical Ranges of Strain and

Deformation Rate in Manufacturing
Processes

True Stress True Strain Curve

True stress-true strain

curve plotted on
Log-log paper
Based on the
corrected curve

Typical Values for K and n at

Room Temperature

Try this..
1. Calculate the engineering stress in SI units on a 2.00-cmdiameter rod that is subjected to a load of 1300 kg.
2. Calculate the engineering stress in SI units on a bar 15 cm
long and having a cross section of 4.25 mm x 12.0 mm that
is subjected to a load of 5000 kg.

Problem

1. If the original gage length of a round, 15 mm tensile bar is 50 mm and the final
gage length is 65 mm and the final diameter is 7 mm, determine the:
i) Elongation, %
ii) Ductility index (reduction in area,%)

Question:

1. A 0.500 diameter round sample of a 1030 carbon steel is

pulled to failure in a tensile testing machine. The diameter of the
sample was 0.343 in. at the fracture surface. Calculate the
percent of reduction in area sample.

Assignment
1. Explain about tensile test? What can we
understand from tensile test?
2. Define engineering stress and strain with true
stress and true strain?
3. Define ductility. Give examples of metals that
have good ductility.
4. Distinguish between elastic and plastic
deformation?

5. The following engineering stress-strain data were obtained

for a 0.2% C plain-carbon steel.
(a) Plot the engineering stress-strain curve.
(b) Plot the true stress-strain curve
(c) Determine the ultimate tensile strength of the alloy.
(d) Determine the percent elongation at fracture.

Tutorials
Distinguish between engineering stress and true stress

What is the reason that a yield strength is defined as

0.2% offset strength?

Thank You

CHAPTER 3

Compression
Torsions
Bending
Hardness
Impact

Compression
Test

Applies a load
that squeezes
the ends of a
cylindrical
specimen
between two
platens
Compression test:
(a) compression force applied to test piece in
(1) and (2) resulting change in height

Compression
Many process such as forging, rolling and extrusion

subjected to compressive forces.

Compression test , where specimen is subjected to
compressive load
Compressing a solid cylindric

specimen

between two flat dies

Disc Test
Disk test on a brittle material,
showing the direction of
loading and the fracture path.

Compression test:
Setup for the test with size of test specimen
exaggerated
Tensile testing machine can be used
(lower section)

Engineering Stress in
Compression
As the specimen is compressed, its height is reduced and
crosssectional area is increased

F
e
Ao
where Ao = original area of the specimen

Engineering Strain in
Compression
Engineering strain is defined
h ho
e
ho
Since height is reduced during compression, value of e is
negative (the negative sign is usually ignored when
expressing compression strain)

Shape of plastic
region is different from
tensile test because
crosssection
increases
Calculated value of
engineering stress is
higher

Typical engineering stressstrain curve for a compression test

Tensile Test vs. Compression Test

Although differences exist between

engineering stressstrain curves in tension and
compression, the true stressstrain
relationships are nearly identical
Since tensile test results are more common,
flow curve values (K and n) from tensile test
data can be applied to compression operations
When using tensile K and n data for
compression, ignore necking, which is a
phenomenon peculiar to straining induced by
tensile stresses

Torsional stress
Twisting
Force acting to turn one end around the

longitudinal axis of a rod while the other

end remains fixed.
Torque = P (force) x r (radius), lb-ft
Torque produces a shear stress and shear
deformation both at 90 and parallel to axisand separating stress at 45 , which causes
brittle metals to fail (chalk)
o

Torsion-Test Specimen

Typical torsion-test specimen; it is mounted between the two

heads of a testing machine and twisted. Note the shear
deformation of an element in the reduced section of the
specimen.

Shear Properties
Application of stresses in opposite directions on
either side of a thin element

Shear (a) stress and (b) strain

Shear Stress and Strain

Shear stress defined as F

where F = applied force; and A = area over

which deflection occurs.

b
Shear strain defined as

where = deflection element; and b = distance

over which deflection occurs

Typical shear stressstrain curve from a torsion

test

Shear Elastic StressStrain

Relationship
In the elastic region, the relationship is defined as
G
where G = shear modulus, or shear modulus of
elasticity
For most materials, G 0.4E, where E = elastic
modulus

Shear Plastic StressStrain

Relationship
Relationship similar to flow curve
Shear stress at fracture = shear strength S

Shear

strength can be estimated from tensile

strength: S 0.7(TS)

Since crosssectional area of test specimen in

torsion test does not change as in tensile and
compression, engineering stress strain curve
for shear true stressstrain curve

Bending

Two bend-test methods for brittle materials:

(a) three-point bending;
(b)four-point bending.
The areas on the beams represent the bendingmoment diagrams, described in texts on
mechanics of solids. Note the region of constant
maximum bending moment in (b); by contrast,
the maximum bending moment occurs only at the

Bending of a rectangular crosssection results in both tensile and

compressive stresses in the material: (1) initial loading; (2)
highly stressed and strained specimen; and (3) bent part

Testing of Brittle Materials

Hard brittle materials (e.g., ceramics)
possess elasticity but little or no plasticity
Often tested by a bending test (also called
flexure test)

Specimen

of rectangular crosssection is
positioned between two supports, and a load
is applied at its center

Testing of Brittle Materials

Brittle materials do not flex
They deform elastically until fracture

Failure

occurs because tensile strength of

outer fibers of specimen are exceeded
Failure type: cleavage - common with
ceramics and metals at low temperatures, in
which separation rather than slip occurs along
certain crystallographic planes

Transverse Rupture Strength

The strength value derived from the bending test:
TRS

1.5FL
bt 2

where TRS = transverse rupture strength; F =

applied load at fracture; L = length of specimen
between supports; and b and t are dimensions of
cross-section

Hardness
Resistance to permanent indentation
Good hardness generally means material is resistant
to scratching and wear
Most tooling used in manufacturing must be hard for
scratch and wear resistance

measure of a materials resistance to

penetration
2 most common stationary hardness tests

Brinell

- stress test
Rockwell - strain test

Hardness Tests

Commonly used for assessing material properties

because they are quick and convenient
Variety of testing methods are appropriate due to
differences in hardness among different materials
Vickers (HV) and Knoop (HK)- similar to Brinell
(stress tests), but microhardness
Other test methods are also available, such as
Scleroscope, and durometer
Scleroscope - rebound of a tup or hammer.
Mohs - scratch test

Hardness Tests

Figure2.12General
characteristicsof
hardnesstesting
methodsandformulas
forcalculating
hardness.The
quantityPistheload
applied.Source:H.
W.Hayden,etal.,The
Structureand
Propertiesof
Materials,Vol.III
(JohnWiley&Sons,
1965).

Brinell Hardness
Widely used for
testing metals and
nonmetals of low
to medium
hardness
A hard ball is
pressed into
specimen surface
with a load of 500,
1500, or 3000 kg

Figure 3.14 Hardness testing methods: (a) Brinell

Brinell Testing

(c)

IndentationgeometryinBrinell
testing;(a)annealedmetal;(b)
workhardenedmetal;(c)
deformationofmildsteelunder
asphericalindenter.Notethat
thedepthofthepermanently
deformedzoneisaboutone
orderofmagnitudelargerthan
thedepthofindentation.Fora
hardnesstesttobevalid,this
zoneshouldbefullydeveloped
inthematerial.Source:M.C.
ShawandC.T.Yang.

Brinell Hardness Number

Load divided into indentation area = Brinell
Hardness Number (BHN)
HB

2F

Db (Db Db2 Di2 )

where HB = Brinell Hardness Number (BHN), F =

indentation load, kg; Db = diameter of ball, mm, and
Di = diameter of indentation, mm

Rockwell Hardness Test

Another widely used test

A cone shaped indenter is pressed into specimen
using a minor load of 10 kg, thus seating indenter in
material
Then, a major load of 150 kg is applied, causing
indenter to penetrate beyond its initial position
Additional penetration distance d is converted into a
Rockwell hardness reading by the testing machine

Figure 3.14 Hardness testing methods: (b) Rockwell:

(1) initial minor load and (2) major load

Hardness Conversion Chart

Chartforconvertingvarioushardnessscales.Notethelimitedrangeof
mostscales.Becauseofthemanyfactorsinvolved,theseconversions
areapproximate.

Toughness
Measure the amount of energy a material can
absorb before fracturing

Ability of metal can withstand an impact load

without fracturing

Experiment Impact test Izod & Charpy test

Impact Test
Specimens

Impacttestspecimens:(a)Charpy;(b)Izod.

Impact test

Transition
Temperature
Schematicillustrationoftransitiontemperatureinmetals.
E.g.Titanichullsteeltransitiontemperatureat2C

Carbon contents

Thank You

CHAPTER 3

Fatigue of Metals
Creep of Metals
Fracture of Metals

Fatigue Failure

Metal parts are often design under an assumption of a

single static load with a factor of safety (e.g. 0.5 of yield
stress).
Metal parts in service are often subjected to repetitive
loading.
Failure occurs after repetitious or cyclic loading.
Examples: shafts, connecting rods and gears.
Fatigue crack surface:
Refer to Figure 6.19 (3rd Edition)

Fatigue Failure

1.
2.
3.

Example: Fatigue failure of keyed steel shaft.

A fatigue failure at a point of stress concentration (e.g.
sharp corners or notch).
Figure 6.19 (At the root of the keyway)
Stages of fatigue fracture are:
Nucleation.
Propagation (clamshell marks)
Fracture (Area under load are too small to support
further load).
Surface appearance: (1) smooth striations (clamshell
marks) and (2) rough surface formed by fracture

Fatigue Test

R.R. Moore reversed-bending fatigue test machine

Fatigue Test

E.g. R.R. Moore reversed-bending fatigue test machine.

The specimen is under bending load from the applied
weights.
Top surface is compressed and bottom part is stretched.
Rotation caused the bending stress to be alternated
between the top and bottom surface, i.e. cyclic loading
A revolution counter records when the fatigue failure
occurs in numbers of cycle (e.g. 106 cycles)
Test is repeated using a number of different loads to
cause different stress level.

S-N Curves

TypicalSNcurvesfortwometals.
Notethat,unlikesteel,aluminiumdoesnothaveanendurancelimit.

S-N Curves
Datafromthetestareplottedas
Stress(S)versusNumberofcycles(N)
Figure6.23
Thereisageneraldecreaseofthelevelofstresstocausefailure
asthenumbercyclesisincreased.
Forcarbonsteel,thereislevellingoffinthedecrease.
Themaximumstressthatcausefatiguefailure,regardlessofthe
numberofcycles.
Endurancelimitoffatiguelimit
Carbonsteelshaveanendurancelimitof0.40.5timeitsUTS
Acomponentcanhaveaninfinitelifeifdesignwithstresslevel
belowtheendurancelimit

Endurance Limit/Tensile Strength

versus Tensile Strength
Infinitelifedesignisnotalways
possible.

E.g.Aluminiumdoesnothavean
endurancelimit.

Smallcyclicstresscancause
fatiguefailure

Componentsneedtobeverylight.

Othermethodsareavailablefor
fatiguelifecalculation(Advance
course!,Section6.4).

Aircraftpartsaredesigntohave
finitelifeandneedtobechangeat
aspecifiedintervals.

Factors that Affect the

Fatigue Strength of Metals
Stressconcentration.Avoidsharpcorners.
Surfaceroughness.Ensuresmoothsurface
finish.
Surfaceconditions.Surfacehardentoavoid
cracknucleation.
Environment.Chemicalattackonsurface
initiatescracks.

Creep

Creep is a permanent deformation, under a constant

static load over a period of time.
A process of slow plastic deformation
Even though the static load initially does cause
permanent deformation (i.e. stress level below yield
stress).
At an elevated temperature (for most metals).
Polymers are very susceptible to creep even at room
temperature!
Creep is important in high temperature applications,
e.g. gas turbines, steam lines, nuclear reactors.

Creep

A creep test involves in subjecting a specimen to a

constant tensile load at a certain temperature.

Measurements are taken for changes in length

(strain) at various time increments.

The creep test results are presented as Creep strain

vs. time, at a constant stress and temperature.

Three stages of creep;

- Primary,
- Secondary and
- Tertiary

Creep Curve

Creep

Begins with an instantaneous rapid elongation as the

load is applied.

Creep rate d/dt, slope of the creep curve.

Primary creep is where the creep rate progressively

decreases with time.

Secondary creep is where the creep rate is constant

(steady state creep)

Tertiary creep is where creep rate rapidly increase

with time to the strain at fracture.

Creep

Shape of creep curve depends strongly on the

applied load (stress) and temperature.
The secondary creep is a constant creep rate
and referred to as the minimum creep rate.
For design data purposes, a specimen is
subjected to a minimum creep rate of 10 -5
percent/hour.
This data is used for design purposes.
To be learned in advanced mechanical
engineering courses.

Fracture

Static load ( Ultimate Tensile Strength,

although static load are design to a factor of
safety to yield strength)
Impact load (Design to absorb impact load
without fracturing, Fracture Toughness)
Cyclic load (Failure happens without
overloading, Fatigue Limit/advance method)
Creep load (Creep failure for at high
temperature for metal, design with constant
creep rate in mind/advance method)

Fracture of Metals

Fracture is the separation of a solid under stress into

two or more parts.
Ductile Fracture Brittle Fracture, or a mixture
Ductile Fracture of a metal occurs after extensive
plastic deformation and is characterised by slow
crack propagation
Brittle Fracture happens with almost no plastic
deformations. Occurs in which the separation rather
than slip occurs along certain crystallographic planes
with rapid crack propagation:- common with ceramics
and metals (BCC) at low temperatures and high
strain rate

Ductile Fracture of a
Tensile-Test Specimen

(a)earlystageofnecking;
(b)smallvoidsbegintoformwithintheneckedregion;
(c)voidscoalesce,producinganinternalcrack;
(d)therestofthecrosssectionbeginstofailattheperiphery,
byshearing;
(e)thefinalfracturesurfaces,knownascup(topfracture
surface)andcone(bottomsurface)fracture.

Ductile Fracture
Surfaceofductilefracturein
lowcarbonsteel,showing
dimples.
Fractureisusuallyinitiatedat
impurities,inclusions,or
preexistingvoids
(microporosity)inthemetal.
Source:K.H.HabigandD.
Klaffke.PhotobyBAM
Berlin/Germany.

Deformation of Soft and Hard

Inclusions in Ductile Fracture

StagesofDuctileFracture
(b)smallvoidsbegintoformwithintheneckedregion;
(c)voidscoalesce,producinganinternalcrack;

Failure and Fracture of Materials in Tension

Schematicillustrationofthetypesoffractureintension:
(a)brittlefractureinpolycrystallinemetals;
(b)shearfractureinductilesinglecrystals
(c)ductilecupandconefractureinpolycrystallinemetals;
(d)completeductilefractureinpolycrystallinemetals,with100%reduction
ofarea.

Failure and Fracture of

Materials in Tension & Compression

Schematicillustrationoftypesoffailuresinmaterials:
(a)neckingandfractureofductilematerials;
(b)Bucklingofductilematerialsunderacompressiveload;
(c)fractureofbrittlematerialsincompression;
(d)crackingonthebarreledsurfaceofductilematerialsincompression.

Brittle Fracture
Brittle fracture in polycrystalline metals
propagates along the matrix of the grains.
Brittle fracture can also happens along
grain boundaries if the grain boundaries
are weaken by brittle film or segregation.
Figure 6.13 (3rd Edition): Brittle cleavage
fracture of ferritic ductile iron)

Brittle Fracture
Stages of Brittle fractures:
1.
2.
3.

Plastic deformation concentrates dislocation along slip

planes at obstacles.
Shear stress build up at the blocked area, micro cracks
nucleated separating slip planes.
Further stress and stored elastic energy quickly
propagates cracks into fracture.

Torque produces a shear stress and shear

deformation both at 90 and normal to axis of shaft
Brittle fracture of metals fail at 45

Fracture Toughness Concept

Impact load i.e. high strain rate and low temperature favours brittle factures.
Impact tests (Izod/Charpy) do not provide date for design purposes for
material/components which already contains internal flaws or cracks.
Test specimens are intentionally made with cracks.
Introduction of stress intensity factors (KIC), to be learned in advance classes.

Mechanical Properties in
Design and Manufacturing

Mechanical properties determine a materials behavior when

subjected to mechanical stresses
Properties include elastic modulus, ductility, hardness, and
various measures of strength
Dilemma: mechanical properties desirable to the designer,
such as high strength, usually make manufacturing more
difficult
The manufacturing engineer should appreciate the design
viewpoint and the designer should be aware of the
manufacturing viewpoint

Why Mechanical Properties

Important?
Parameters
Hardness

Application
Components subject to wear

Fracture toughness Sudden highly stressed or safety critical

components
Fatigue life

Repeated cyclic loading conditions

Impact properties

Components exposed to sudden stress,

especially at low temperatures

Creep
Stiffness
Strength

High temperature operation

To retain accuracy of positions
Static load carrying capabilities

Stiffness-Weight Design Considerations

Example
Stiffer material

Stress

Strain

Engineering
Applications

With cost considered, now polymers and metals area useful!

Design (Safety) factor

Design uncertainties mean we do not push the limit.
Factor of safety, N
Often N is
y
between
working
1.2 and 4
N
Ex: Calculate a diameter, d, to ensure that yield does
not occur in the 1045 carbon steel rod below. Use a
factor of safety of 5.

working
220,000N

d2 /4

y
N

1045 plain
carbon steel:
y=310MPa
TS=565MPa
F = 220,000N

Lo

QUESTIONS

Describe the difference between brittle and ductile fracture?

Describe the difference between strain-rate and deformation

rate?

Describe a metal fatigue failure.

Describe the four major factors that affect the fatigue strength
of a metal.

Explanation on compression, torsion, and hardness test

Explanation on toughness, fatigue and creep test

1.

Sketch a typical stress-strain diagram obtained from a

tensile test carried out on a steel specimen. Label the
parts of the diagram that provide information on the
properties of the specimen being tested.

2.

For what special design considerations and/or

operating conditions do the following material
properties become important?
a) fracture toughness
b) fatigue life
c) impact properties
d) hardness
e) creep

1.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)

During a tensile test in which the starting gage length = 125.0 mm

and the cross sectional area = 62.5 mm2, the following force and
gage length data are collected
17,793 N at 125.23 mm,
(2) 23,042 N at 131.25 mm,
(3) 27,579 N at 140.05 mm,
(4) 28, 913 N at 147.01 mm,
(5) 27,578 N at 153.00 mm, and
(6) 20,462 N at 160.10 mm.
The maximum load is 28,913 N and the final data point occurred
immediately prior to failure.
a) Plot the engineering stress strain curve
b) Yield strength
c) Modulus of elasticity
d) Tensile strength.

1.

A test specimen in a tensile test has a gauge length of

2.0 in and an area = 0.5 in2. During the test the
specimen yields under a load of 32000 Ib. The
corresponding gauge length = 2.0083 in. The maximum
load = 60,000 Ib is reached at a gauge length = 2.6 in.
Determine;
a) Yield strength
b) Modulus of elasticity, E
c) Tensile strength, TS

ANSWER
1.

A bar with cross section of 9 x 4 mm2, which is 36 x 10-6 m2 load of 3500 kg

convert to Newton, we get 3500 * 9.81 = 34335 N then the eng. stress is load/area =
34335/(36 x 10-6) = 9.54 x 108 N/m2 = 9.54 x 108 Pa

2.

A brass wire is cold drawn 25% to a diameter of 1.10 mm (radius 0.55 mm)
( Note : percent reduction concern on the area not a diameter)
then the area after 25% cold drawn is x 0.552 = 0.95 mm2
the percent reduction is (Ao A)/Ao * 100 then,
(Ao 0.95) / Ao x 100 = 25, then Ao = 1.2676 mm2
then it is further cold drawn to 0.9 mm ( r is 0.45 mm)
the final area will be x 0.452 = 0.6364 mm2
therefore, the total percent cold reduction is (1.2676-0.6364)/1.2676 x 100
49.79 %

3.

s = F/A = F/Ao (l/lo) = s ( l/lo)

e= l-lo /lo => e = l/lo -1 => l/lo = e + 1
s = s (e+1)
= (2.75 MPa)(0.0035 + 1)
= 2.76 MPa

EXERCISE
1.

The engineering stress (s) is 2.75 MPa.

The engineering strain (e) is 0.35%.
Calculate the true stress (s)
Hint : e = l lo
lo

ANSWER

EXERCISE
1.

The following engineering stress-strain

data were obtained for a 0.1 % C plain
carbon steel.
a)
b)
c)
d)

e)

Plot the engineering stress strain curve.

Determine the elastic modulus of the alloy.
The yield strength of the alloy
Determine the ultimate tensile strength of the
alloy.
Determine the percent elongation at fracture.

Engineering
Stress (ksi)

Engineering Strain
(in/in)

Engineering
Stress (ksi)

Engineering Strain
(in/in)

80

0.06

35

0.001

81

0.08

47

0.0015

80

0.10

60

0.002

78

0.12

70

0.005

74

0.14

73

0.01

70

0.16

77

0.02

61

0.18

79

0.04

56

0.19 (fracture)

EXERCISE
1.

2.

Calculate the engineering stress in SI

units on a bar 25 cm long and having a
cross section of 9.00 mm x 4.00 mm which
is subjected to a load of 3500 kg.
A brass wire is cold drawn 25% to a
diameter of 1.10 mm. It is then further cold
drawn to 0.900 mm. What is the total
percent cold reduction?

Thank You

lecture #1c

Introduction
Density
Electrical, Magnetic and Optical
Properties
Thermal Properties
Corrosion Resistance

Physical Properties

Properties that define the behavior of

materials in response to physical forces
other than mechanical
Components in a product must do more than
simply withstand mechanical stresses
They must conduct electricity (or prevent
conduction), allow heat to transfer (or allow
its escape), transmit light (or block
transmission), and satisfy many other
functions

Physical Properties in Materials

Selection
Important

in manufacturing because they

often influence process performance
Examples:
In machining, thermal properties of the work
material determine the cutting temperature,
which affects how long tool can be used
before failure
In microelectronics, electrical properties of
silicon and how these properties can be
altered by chemical and physical processes is
the basis of semiconductor manufacturing

Physical Properties of
Material

Density
The mass per unit volume (cm3 = mL, m3,

etc.) of
is called density, an intensive
property.
Determined by atomic number and other

factors
packing

such as atomic radius, and atomic

Importance of Density
Important consideration in materials selection for a
given application, but it is generally not the only
property of interest

Relate to weight saving with major concerns to

energy consumption and power limitation such as in
automotive bodies and aircraft.
Strength is also important, and the two properties
are often related in a strengthtoweight ratio
(specific strength), which is tensile strength
divided by its density
Useful ratio in comparing materials for
structural applications in aircraft, automobiles,
and other products.

Specific Strength (tensile strength/density) and Specific

Stiffness (elastic modulus/density) at room temperature

Specific Strength vs Temperature

Specific strength (tensile strength/density) for a variety of

materials as a function of temperature.
Note the useful temperature range for these materials and the
high values for composite materials.

Electrical Properties
Engineering materials exhibit a great
variation in their capability to conduct
electricity
Flow of electrical current involves movement
of charge carriers infinitesimally small
particles possessing an electrical charge

In solids, these charge carriers are electrons

In a liquid solution, charge carriers are positive
and negative ions

Electrical Conductivity
A measure of how well a material
accommodates the transport of electric
charge
A conductor such as a metal has high
conductivity, and an insulator like glass or a
vacuum has low conductivity
Unit 1/[m]

Electrical Resistivity

Property that defines a material's

capability to resist current flow
Resistivity is not a constant; it varies,
as do so many other properties, with
temperature
For metals, resistivity increases with
temperature

Engineering Materials and

Electrical Properties
Metals are the best conductors of
electricity, because of their metallic
bonding
Most ceramics and polymers, whose
electrons are tightly bound by covalent
and/or ionic bonding, are poor conductors
Many of these materials are used as
insulators because they possess high
resistivities

Semiconductors

A material whose resistivity lies between

insulators and conductors
Most common semiconductor material is
silicon, largely because of its abundance in
nature, relative low cost, and ease of
processing
What makes semiconductors unique is the
capacity to significantly alter conductivities
in their surface chemistries in very localized
areas to fabricate integrated circuits

Electrical Properties in
Manufacturing
Electric discharge machining - uses
electrical energy in the form of sparks to
remove material from metals
The important welding processes, such as
arc welding and resistance spot welding,
use electrical energy to melt the joint
metal
Capacity to alter electrical properties of
semiconductor materials is the basis for
microelectronics manufacturing

Piezoelectric Effect

Voltage produced between surfaces of a solid

dielectric (non-conducting substance) when a
mechanical stress is applied to it. A small
current may be produced as well.
The effect, discovered by Pierre Curie in 1883,
is exhibited by certain crystals, e.g., quartz
and Rochelle salt, and ceramic materials.
Conversely, an applied electric field can cause
a piezoelectric material to change dimensions.

Magnetic Properties
Magnetism is a phenomenon by which materials exert
an attractive or repulsive force on other materials.
2 types of magnetic materials:
1. Soft magnetic materials - materials can be
easily magnetized and demagnetized.
(e.g: cores for distribution power transformers)
2. Hard magnetic materials - permanent magnetic
and do not demagnetize easily.
(e.g: permanent magnets in loud speakers)

Ferromagnetism
The creation of a very large magnetization in
a material when subjected to an applied
magnetic field. After the applied field is removed
the
ferromagnetic material retains much of
the
magnetization.

One of the strongest forms of magnetism.

It is responsible for most of the magnetic

behaviour encountered in everyday life, and is
the
basis for all permanent magnets (as well
as the
metals that are noticably attracted to
them).

Ferrimagnetism
Permanent and large magnetism

exhibited by some ceramic materials.

Ferrimagnetic materials (ferrites) have

low
conductivities and useful for
electronics
applications.

Magnetostriction
Property of ferromagnetic materials to undergo a

change of their physical dimensions when subjected

to a
magnetic field. This effect was first
identified in 1842 by James Joule when observing
a sample of nickel.
This property, which allow magnetostrictive

materials to
convert magnetic energy into
mechanical energy and conversely, is used for the
building of both actuation and sensing devices

Optical Properties
The

interaction of materials to
refraction, reflection and absorption
of light.

Refraction
Refraction is the change in direction of a
wave due to a change in its velocity. This
is most commonly seen when a wave
passes from one medium to another.
A light ray will refract as it enters and
leaves glass; understanding of this
concept led to the invention of lenses
and the refracting telescope

The straw seems to be

broken, due to refraction of
light as it emerges into the
air.

Absorption
The interaction of light photons with the
electronic and bonding structure of the
atoms, ions or molecules that make up the
material.
The absorbance of an object quantifies how
much light is absorbed by it.
Example: an object that absorbs blue, green
and yellow light will appear red when viewed
under white light.
Application: More precise measurements at
many wavelengths allow the identification of
a substance via absorption spectroscopy

Reflection

Reflection is the change in direction of a wave

front at an interface between two dissimilar
media so that the wave front returns into the
medium from which it originated.
A mirror provides the most common model for
specular light reflection and consists of a glass
sheet in front of a metallic coating where the
reflection actually occurs. It is also possible for
reflection to occur from the surface of
transparent media, such as water or glass.

Spheres reflecting the floor and each other

Transmission

The fraction of incident light at a specified

wavelength that passes through a sample.
The sum of the fractions of the incoming incident
light reflected, absorbed, and transmitted = 1
The amount of energy absorbed by metals
depends on the electronic structure of each metal.
Examples:
For copper and gold, greater absorption of the shorter
wavelengths of blue and green but greater reflection of
the yellow, orange and red wavelengths.
For silver and aluminium, strongly reflects all parts of
the visible spectrum and thus, show a white silvery
color

Optical fiber

An optical fiber is a thin (~1.25m diameter),

transparent fiber, usually made of glass or plastic, for
transmitting light.
Optical fibers are commonly used in
telecommunication systems, as well as in
illumination, sensors, and imaging optics.
These systems consist a transmitter to encode
electrical signals into light signals, optical fiber to
transmit the light signals, and a photodiode to
convert the light signals back into electrical signals.
Examples:
Optical fiber sensors for temperature and pressure
have been developed for downhole measurement
in oil wells. The fiber optic sensor is well suited for
this environment as it is functioning at
temperatures too high for semiconductor sensors.

Thermal Conductivity
The ability of a material to conduct heat;

physical constant for quantity of heat that

passes through volume of a substance
in
unit of time for unit difference in temperature.
Measured by coefficient of thermal
conductivity, k, in watts per metre-kelvin,
(W.m-1.K-1).

k = Heat flow rate x distance

(Area T)

Coefficient of thermal conductivity is

generally high

in metals, low in ceramics and

Thermal Expansion

Density of a material as a function of

temperature
In general, density decreases with
increasing temperature
Volume per unit weight increases with
increasing temperature
Thermal expansion is the name for this
effect of temperature on density
Measured by coefficient of thermal
expansion,

Coefficient of Thermal
Expansion ()

Change in length per degree of temperature,

such as mm/mm/C (in/in/F)
Length ratio rather than volume ratio because this is
easier to measure and apply

Change in length for a given temperature change

is:
L 2 L1 = L 1 ( T 2 T 1 )
where = coefficient of thermal expansion; L1 and L2
are lengths corresponding respectively to
temperatures T1 and T2

Thermal Expansion in
Manufacturing

Thermal expansion is used in shrink fit and

expansion fit assemblies
Part is heated to increase size or cooled to
decrease size to permit insertion into another
part
When part returns to ambient temperature, a
tightlyfitted assembly is obtained
Thermal expansion can be a problem in heat
treatment and welding due to thermal stresses
that develop in material during these processes

Effects of thermal
expansion
This factor affects the substance performance in
machines or structural assemblies.

Thermal expansion causes tight fitted parts to

break and moving part to jam, in any machine.
The problem is serious if different material is
used. When a large body of glass is subject to
local heating or cooling, it breaks up due to
expansion or shrinkage.

Thermal expansion also causes distortion.

Thermal properties must be considered in any
engineering constructions such as railroad,
bridges, pipelines, and buildings, especially in
areas where temperatures go to extreme values.

 Thermal stress - Thermal stresses arise in

materials when they are heated or cooled.

Thermal
stresses effect the operation of
facilities, both because of the large components
subject to stress
and because they are affected
by the way in which
the plant is operated.
Result cracking, warping,
loosening of
components
Thermal fatigue - The premature fracture

resulting from cyclic stresses due to temperature

changes. Cause
number of surface cracks,
especially in tools and dies for casting and metal
working.
Thermal shock - Ability of a material to withstand

heat

and cold by subjecting it to rapid and wide

Corrosion Resistance

Corrosion resistance is the property of a metal that

gives it the ability to withstand attacks from
atmospheric, chemical, or electrochemical conditions.

In engineering materials selection, without adequate

corrosion resistance, or corrosion allowance,
components often fall short of the expected design
life.

Surface treatments:
Applied coatings (Plating, painting, and the application of
enamel are the most common anti-corrosion treatments)
Reactive coatings (electrically insulating and/or chemically
impermeable coating on exposed metal surfaces)
Anodization

Corrosion
Corrosion is the deterioration of a material due to

interaction with its environment. It is the

electrochemical process in which metallic atoms
leave the metal or form compounds in the
presence of water and gases.

Typically it produces oxide(s) and/or salt(s) of the

original metal.

Metal atoms are removed from a structural element

until
it fails, or oxides build up inside a pipe until it
is plugged.
All metals and alloys are subject to corrosion. Even

the noble metals, such as gold, are subject to

corrosive
attack in some environments.

Tutorial
1. List applications and give reasons where the following
properties would be desirable:
a) high density, b) low density, c) high melting point, d)
low melting point, e) high thermal conductivity, f) low
thermal conductivity
2. What is piezoelectric material?
3. Difference between thermal conductivity and specific
heat?
4. Why melting point of a material an important factor in
manufacturing process?
5. Give several applications in which specific strength and
specific stiffness are important. Give some explanation.

Thank You