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كتاب دليل تكنولوجيا الالكترونيات لنيل سكلاتر
كتاب دليل تكنولوجيا الالكترونيات لنيل سكلاتر
كتاب دليل تكنولوجيا الالكترونيات لنيل سكلاتر
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H qVe kYT cG GMdG .IQhO 20 a NGdG dG ec Rj
.J c M d Y c d H H O d G e R J .(19.1 mm) in H e
dG hP QGhdG OdG
q e
dG e M
fe Z
e he Y
edG IOe
eGS IRcQ
bdG Oe
dBG g ,11-1 dG qj c ,(Precision Potentiometer) bdG Ope EG
dG a MGh bH IQe ehe eCJ dBG g J .qeh hd LQeo
K d G J d G a S G h f Y g d G g J . b C G Y (1 % )
j a , F a j Y fCGh ,S dG BGh ,(Analog Computers)
IOYEG aJ CG bdG gd j .(Sensors) q c dhqCG ddG eGSG
UGbCG OLh qEG .(Control Shaft) qdG Od J d kah bOh dd V
d dPh Oe Ve CG dEG OdG LQ qjo (Vernier Dials) fQa
.V hH IQe N da Y
OGdG eCG .QGhqO Qe OY e dG fGSCG Y bdG ge d EG
NGO qeh zC{ T Y a IMGdG IQhdG GP bdG ge a ehdG
,fhM hCG dd J IOdG GQhdG GP bdG ge CG M a .dG
OY Ye J .11-1 dG a Ve g c ,dG NGO qJ kjCG gh
q dG Ye NqCJh qJ a k GQhO dG OY Y cqdG ddG dG
.ddG NGO dj CG e q dG qj e Ggh ,QGhqdG OdG cM e
ehe e qj eh .a IOLdG ehdG UH bdG ge OsJ
H adG dG ehdG Y qjo .SH ehe hCG ae S
43
OY
L
dG hU
He
.bdG Oe 11 -1 dG
Infinite) g e f SG LQO GP
k jCG gh ,e dG IO e J
. d Y I Q G M L Q O A G L C G a j C G b d G O e e O G j e Y , (Resolution
q dG AGgGh cBJ dEG OqDj e (Abrasive) Tc OGdG g Ea ,SCd
.OdG Y q j ddHh
44
, M d G a a Y I g d G (Threaded Bushing ) d d G J L h J Y C G e
cqJ dG GMdG eCG .(Lock Washers) MEG ah fe bH qdG
Joh fe IYb GdCG Y qJh SCG dEG eeCG L Va IQRGDc
M Q h j d G e d G (Groove ) I K a S C G Q P Z H M E H (Clamped )
.dG Y AH hCG Qe c eEG bdG ge Joh .bdG Oe Y e
qdG
Y QOb fhdEG qe g ,12-1 dG qj c ,(Capacitor) qdG EG
Md e dCJ dG J g qdG TCG HCGh .FHdG bdG jJ
,ehdG H ,qdG Jo .(Dielectric) FHc RY H j fe
e Yf Lj fhdEG j e ah .kW ddG Z fqdG cCG fK
IY H JS b hGJh ,IdG qdGh HdG qdG :qdG
dG qj .(microfarads F) OGQahjdG dCGh (picofarads - pf) OGQaH
e dG S dG -12-1 dGh HdG q d e dG S dG -12-1
.IdG qd
fe U
(jOhdEG)
(CG)
h
FHc RY
()
()
d G G P d G e Q - , H d G d G G P d G e Q - , d G - C G : e 1 2 -1 d G
.IqdG
46
JShdG dG
AZ e FHc RY (Electrostatic Capacitor) JShdG qd EG
bQh e oa gGOhdEG hCG gU eCG ,LdG hCG dG IOe hCG SH
qdG FU qJ .FHdG RdG Y qSe e e hCG ,bQ fe
b eGdG Y HnJ dG dG OdG QMCG e adG hCG eGdG
.FHdG GaCH gN
SdG ZCG qe
SdG AdG qe qJ ,13-1 dG a qe g c
R Y A Z h C G b Q f e A Z e b Q S H R Y A Z H (Capacitors
e FHdG RdG qj .Ue aW e fGSCG T Y neo bQ
jdH ,(Polypropylene) HhdH ,(Polyester) dH :ddG OGdG
d G A d G c S h G J . (Polycarbonate ) f H Q d H , (Polystyrene )
Plastic-Film )
47
AdG e :13-1 dG
Qe W
SdG
48
G Q G O a h , (Pulse-Forming ) d G J h , (CRT ) j O K d G H f C G T C G
Jeeh ,dG a 5 HhddG qd dG hJ j .jjOGdG GOOdG
q N J jQGdG
.
ZCG F N H e j d dG ZC F N I Y H J
k GqJ Joh ,V (Dissipation Factor) OqJ eY J a :HhddG
.kf k GqL k GQGSG Jo fCG c ,IQGdG LQO a dG H dG a
k V
cCG jddG ZCG GMh Ea f jdG GP HhddG e fQdHh
,(Integrating) e dGh ,(Timing) bdG a ZCG g Jo .k M
.85C g d G i d G I Q G d G L Q O h , d G G Q G O h
Iqe Sh jJ eGY (Polycarbonate) fHddG ZCG qe eqDJo
dEG aVEH gh .jddG qe U e HQe (Capacitance Stability)
LQO hG J .(Isulation Resistance) hdG dG a kdY k J K Jo dP
g J h . d G a 5 d H h J e 150C h -55C H d G J Q GM
.jqdG dG a SGh H qdG
dG qe
e Ye dG e bQ RGY (Mica Capacitors) qdG d
H d FHdG dG HK hGjh .dG OdG e gh ,dG FU
H N G e b Q O e h C G F U e e E G (Electrodes ) J G O h d E G J .8 h 6
(Fired ) I R d G h (Screened ) H d G b d G d G Z C G e e E G h d G F U
I qdG qdG cCG e dG dG qe q Jo . dG IO e a
Jo .dGh FbdG qe e kefG cCG FN aqJ gh ,kfe
. (RF Applications ) j j O G d G G O O d G J a S S C G
m H qdG Jg
LQO e SGh bf a qL H dG qe J ,dG a
S nb f hGj .dG dY ehe dh ,150Ch -55C dc IQGdG
.iNCG GE IQGO e e bdG fH J JQGO H dOe bY (Coupling) QdGh @
50
e GOhdEG
jOH -a
:jOdG a e GWCG
-jbh dG FU
d UUdG
dhdEG qdG
q dG J M (Electrolytic Capacitors) qdhdEG qdG QJo
High Volumetric ) d Y M I A c ) e M
q bCG ah dG dY HdG
qJ .d Y (CV) M S f q U dG g Y jo .((Efficiency
j M ,(Electrochemical) Fchc dSCH dhdEG qdG
@
jqcoh bbQh dCG ee Yh a cCG F H dG R dG
.dG fGSCG hCG jqhc IU LCG ,jqco: Pellets jqco @
54
dhdEG dCG e
e (Aluminum Electrolytic Capacitors) dhdEG dCG qe Jo
dCG bbQ e jT H dhdEG a Ye bQh UGa e H W
IQGO hM e QdG UGa J .15-1 dG a qe g g c ,qdG
CG H dCG e Y a OGdG W NqJo .OfCGh OKdG bbQ H b
e qLQdG UdG Uh j .(Jelly-Roll) eodG IdG jW Y qd j
QdG Qqj .d (Outside Terminals) LQN GWCG hCG HGe dEG GOhdEG
cCG e bQ FHc RY W kKeo ,dG He Y (DC) dG
IQTEG OqJ .OKdG g bbd edG dhdEG j .OfCG Y dCG
.dhdEG dCG d LdG HpdG (+) Le
jo d ;b QSCH dY M - S f qdG e dG Gg aj
qdG d EG K .V Y eheh (DC) dG Qd dY qJ LQO
.bdG e b S Jh ,(Limited Shelf Lives) d IOqe k GQYCG
55
FJ a
jdG ZEG db
dCG e UJ dCG
d d j f
GWCG hCG HGd
MEG M
q e d
dCG e IY
dhdEG dfdG e
:W H (Tantalum Electrolytic Capacitors) dhd
E G dfdG qe J
56
. (Wet Foil ) W d G b b d G - 1
. (Wet Anode ) W d G O f C G - 2
. (Solid Anode ) d G O f C G - 3
qe GjJ e YCG M - S GjJ IkOY ddG qd
cCG ,qdG FHdG RdG HK eCG .JGP dG nd dhdEG dCG
L h . d C G c C G F H d G R d G H K e J H c C a , (Ta2O5 ) d d G
UGeh ,jW jJ IQH qJ Yc gh .e ddG qe
- S f dh ,dG IQGdG LQO e SGh fh ,Ie J
e fQdH ZCG a dP eh .qdhdEG dCG e e YCG M
.bCG jjJ da dh f jdG GP dCG qe
dG e W
ddG e fCG
MEG d
Pa fCG
MEG LR
J Y
ddG e aGQ
We MEG
jPa M
dG e Hb
a Y
IcCG SN ddG
FS dhdEG
dG e Ye
f OY
jbh
dG ddG OfCG e
Solid Anode) dG ddG OfCG qe kjCG Jo ,17-1 dG j c
q dG O fCG
ddH
IOe e W
cjEG
HdG e W
dhdEG
dG
fe Z
OKdG W
OfCG W
dG HdG
Iqe dJ fGSCG
(L dhdEG)
OfCG fe S
IqdG qdG
e S b qJo e g (Variable Capacitors) IqdG qdG EG
ZCG a qdG g Joh .Qe ZH hCG Qe OY IQGOEG N
:U e fh ,jjOGdG GOOdG GQGO a
. (Tuning ) H d G -1
.(Trimmer) HqdG -2
hCG ,eGdG hCG ,SdG IOe e qJ CG FHdG dRGd jh
.AGdG hCG ,LdG
HdG qdG
RY GP Iqe qe Y IQY g (Tuning Capacitors) HdG qdG EG
b dLEG d iNCG FU V J FU e fqe FGgh FHc
e FU IY e fqe IMGdG HdG dG CG 19-1 dG qj .dG
g NGJ H Qe OY Y eo (Rotor) QGhdH J dCG
cqeh (Stator) cdH J dCG FU e IXe Ye e FdG
.(Rigid Spacor) U Yeo Y
hCG NGdG dEG IQGhqdG FdG J dH QGhdG QdG OdG QGjo eY
e j dG Vh a dG EG .ee hO e cdG FU H QdG dEG
b hGJ .NGdG Fd dG MdG e ITe Se gh ,dG b
jOGdG e a qdG g J .500 pF h 1 pF H qdG d dG
.(Oscillators) HHdGh (Transmitters) jOGdG Seh ,(Radio Receivers)
QGhdG FU
QGhO OY
cdG FU
60
HqdG qdG
qe IU Iqe e g (Trimmer Capacitors) HqdG qdG EG
hCG LdG e hCG ,SdG e hCG ,eGdG e hCG ,AGdG e FHc RY e
GOOdG GQGd bdG dG a qdG g Jo .OGdG e gZ e
TCH qdG g qJ .100 pFh 2 pF H S b hGJ .jjOGdG
ZH IQGOEH FdG H dG adG H dG b J jh ,e
.QdG dG
KqodG
h dG Q dG IQGO a (Inductance)
q d ahe knb KqodG J
iNCG TCG hCG fGSCG M qe H Sf S H KdG Jo .(AC)
I O e N O E G j W Y d G b I O j R J . (Toroid ) M h C G (Coil ) e d
jqdG hCG jdc dG NGO (High Permeability) dY e jPf GP
1 H e bCG H b hGJ qM GP jQe Kqe edG J .(Ferrite)
eCG ,jjOGdG GOOqdG GQGO J a IdG qKdG Jo .10 H dGMh
GP KqdG Jo a .dG dG GQGO a a e IdG
q dG bdG jqe a (Filter Chokes) qTdG fGc YCG dG
Linear )
Ye b a (Perfect Inductor) ddG KqdG J .(Power Supplies
ehe (Real Inductor) dG Kqd a , aU (Inductive Reactance)qM
qdG b jJh V j ,iNCG M f e .(Finite Resistance) ge
IPqdG d jH hCG dG d OY H Ohe H IqdG Kqd
Y hCG (UHF) ddG a GOOqdG Y .LQN dEG hCG dG NGO dEG dG
S e qKdG qJ (Microwave Frequencies) jhdG LdG GOOqJ
.dCG hCG SdG e b
FHdG qdG
Primary) d hqCG IQGO e F H dG b dG (Transformers) dG J
q
e G Q G O I Y h C G (Secondary Circuit ) j f K I Q G O d E G G Q G O I Y e h C G (Circuit
61
IU d
Ic d
IU d
dhqCG
()
fdG
(CG)
()
63
20 -1
dG
.dG
IQdG e
hdG AH`dG N jJ (Power Transformer) IQdG q`e j
d E G j d S e d a d E G 60 Hz d E G 50 Hz e O O d G P (Line Power AC )
QOd jQe GMh H IQdG qe qJ .e (DC) Ie da
, (Stereo ) j d G h , R d G Y c d G H a c , d G b d G
Ye e
q d G h
q dG q jh .(VCRs) jdG adH fjdG
64
M S d Gh zI { hC G zE { d G GP P d G e hC G j d G e b Q F U
jdG jdG a IQdG qe J .(Toroidal Bobbins) M GH
a C dPh jqdG e
q d M adGh 50 kHz dEG 400 Hz qJ dG bd
e Y dG da e qj jdG
q d G F U e (Reactance Loss ) Y d G
.400 Hz Q j
JdG hCG dG dG
(Audio or Voice Transformers) J dG hCG dG q dG H J
g YSHh . ShCG GOOq J f Y J fCG EG , IQ dG q H
e je jJh ,e IY hCG e a dG QdG jJ qdG
U h h ,(Matching Impedance) b h d e A G e I L C c J h . Q d G h d d G e
d j f C G d E G I Q T E G Q J . (Filters ) T c h C G , (Coupling ) f Q J
q
.dG qdG a Qqjo CG 20 kHz h 20 Hz H dG GOOqdG e Oe
dG qdG
(Minature) qe q e H H g (Pulse Transformers) dG qdG
,bd (Fast Rising Output Pulses) JQG jS N f qdJ feEH
: dG d fh dEG I LCG eh . dh ,(Counting) OG dh
Silicon)`dH dG fdG d H dG) (Thyristor) QjdG
q
jd edG HdGh (Triacs) j dGh (Controlled Rectifiers - SCRs
. (Photographic Flash Lamps )
dG Md GQGO qe
(Circuit-Board Transformers) dG M d GQGO q e U J
e
v c qdG e dG Gg qj .cdG GdCG GQGO a eGSE
d .qdG dG qdGh ,dG dG qdGh ,qdG IQdG qe
,21 -1 d G a i f c h ,
k a ,eg FNh FXh qdG g
H e k GL jb H SqJ CG (Circuit Cards) bdG IQGd J
65
q J .d dG ceCG a dG
JGH MEH qJh dG g
Pin ) j H E G j f d G d . (Moisture ) H W d G h Q d G e j d c j E G
J GOqS NBG dh ,dG Md GQGO a dNOE (Terminations
. (Surface Mount ) d G c d G G Q G O a (Pads )
IH
IOe d
jdG e dG bbQ
Ib QWEG
GWCG
jjOGdG GOOdG qe
d (Radio-Frequeny Transformers) jjOGdG GOOdG qe qoU d
I dG GOO dG e H . j jOG dG GOO dG f a q d H
FGg
q d GP GH Y qdG g
q Jo ,(Low-Frequency Transformers)
.GOOqdG e dG Gd dqa Z jdG bbQh jqdG JOe e
v c C dPh
dG qdG
qeo M T d d M (Toroidal Transformers) dG qdG
q j
dG Jo .fGSCG T M UGe H jWh bQ fe jT H
j d (Special Machines ) e B G G S H
q dG M jfdGh dhqCG
da cCG dG qdG EG .dMh qdG
q dG a N e dG
G P (Laminated Core Transformers ) b d G F d G
q dG qe e NCGh
.(Audible Chatter) UG GUCG QhU J kjCG gh ,f jdG
66
qTdG
GOOqdG H Qh H J GQGO Y IQ Y g (Filters) qT dG EG
HZdG Z GOOqdG e dG Y UdG g YJ .gZ Jh IOdG
IOqe Gb dEG (Wide Frequency Bands) GOOq dG e j Y n M
o ah
Qe dEG (Passive Filter) qdG Z uTdG j .(Multiple Channels)
c CG AYEG j ,(Input Power) NdG bW Oqj fCG H dh ,bd
Y jo .kqVh k GOqe OOqJ f qdG Z uTd EG K .ddG hCG Qd
Insertion) zNOEG a{ SG qa Z uTH TdG f IOdG IQTEG
. (Loss
F X H J CG (Active Filters) d qdG uTd j ,fQ d H
,GOOqdG e ShCG f V FXdG H J fCGZ dqdG Z TdG
CG e ZdH .(Current Or Voltage Gain) ddhCG Qd c eCJ joh
.dG Ic Kqe dEG J fEa bd Qe dEG J dqdG qTdG
.dqdG Z qTdG e NCGh UCG J CG dqdG qTdG eEH ,dd
q dGh KdG edG GQGdG{ :edG dG fG
(Analog and Linear z
.Integrated Circuits)
Oqjo GOOdG e kqe kbf Qqjo ,(Band Pass Filter) bf QGeEG qTe - 3
.OqdG dG QN GOOqJ CG Qhe jh ,dYh e b JOOqH
ILGdG GOOdG L j ,(Band-Reject, Notch Filter) K qTe - 4
.jOOdG jg e bCGh YCG g e c Qqjh ,ddGh dG dG OOJ H
.bdG QGeEG qTe Y H j dG TdG CG CG
qTdG J
dG Y Jbhe V UM C dH qoS ,(k) z{ qTdG HK
e Y (k) z{ HdG Gg qjh ,kHK j RG dG Y J bh H
Gg J jh .jnpS hCG qM Ye bhdG g J b .GOOqdG
.qTd SSCG GfCG e f CG fCG Y uTdG
qTdG Y dqe f g ,(m-Derived Filters) (m) z{
q dG qTdG ` CG
f g HdG Ggh ,(m) z{`H jo NBG HK Y Jj qdh ,z{ HdG
z{ dG qTdG jo .(Infinite Attenuation) gdG FdG OOqd dG OOqJ
HdG qTdG e (Roll Off Curve) QfG a kLQqJ cCG e hCG k GOqM kgJ
e fCH z{
q dG TdG qjo .cCG bCG OLh H dPh ,(k) z{
.kjCG SSCG TdG GfCG
e dG G g jo ,(Butterworth Filters) Qhh dG T e `
q e qJ GP HSG qTdG
k GOqM kgJh QGeEG d (Flat Ripple)
f qTdG Gdh .H UdG dG OOqJ Y QfG a kLQqJ cCG eh
d j .jjOGdG GOOqdG dEG (DC) qdG QqdG e j SGh J QGeEG
GOOdGh ,ddG GOOdG QGeEG qT e fCG Y q J CG qT dG
e aCG g QhhdG qTe CG kjCG cf .bdG QGeEGh ,dG
dG qTe e fQdH (Transient Response) IHdG HSG M
. (Chebyshev )
68
dG
dG
NdG
dG
ddG Z TdG
eh dG e T Y IQ Y g (Passive Filters) qdG Z T dG
.dG Jh qe jOOqJ bf QhH d qe qdGh KqdGh
g q oU bh . dG OO H fOCGh YCG dG q M IkO Y q jo
QdG e c bhe d bheh Nd bhe HJ c qTdG
.(Decibels) SdH dG OOJ Y LQqdG QfG hCG gdG Sj .dGh
en dEG j fCG LQd IqH Qj LQqJ e ddG gdG P qTd
. (Vertical Slope ) d b T
Jeh ,T V KqdGh dG UH qTdG qJ
MCG g kYT cCG HQCG TCGh .FT iNCG k GReQh kaMCG VJ
qTdG Y jH UdG ceCG OqJo .(Ladder) QOh (pi) ,(T) ,(L) qLCG
j (L) qTdG e .(e ddG hCG dG GOOqdG jd ,
k e) Yfh
eCG .(T) dG T d (T) qTodGh ,Se dh (L) dG T Y
,22-1 dG a qe g c ffdG dG T e a (Pi) qTdG
.QdG T NCa QdG qTe eCG
bCH ddG GOOqdG Jh ,(AC) hdG QqdG QhH qdG L J
.(OOqdG e kqY jdG YdG SJ) .dG GOOqdG e fe
fEa ,FHc RH e Ue U e fqe dG CG H ,dh
QhH KqdG J HdG a .QhdG e (DC) IqdG GQqdG J
GOOqdG
q X a HhdG GQqdG QhH J c dH IqdG GQqdG
fd Hb qCG EG ;S qe e fqe fd dP Ojh k GL dG
e kjqOW SJ qdG YodG C OOqdG e kjqOW SJ HhdG GQdG
OOqdG - HSG Ge d qdG Z qTdG J , d d H .OOq dG
.qdGh Kqd
70
TdH UdG dG
Characteristic )
(Hz) OOqdG
()
(Hz) OOqdG
(CG)
(Hz) OOqdG
(O)
(Hz) OOqdG
()
bdG jJ Te
Z qTdG GY J (Power Supply Filters) qTdG g QJ
q dG bdG jqd dqdG
SS cCG dGh LqdG Lh , dqdG hCG
Line) FHdG dG qTe j .(Raw DC Output) dG dG Q d
q
dG hCG (RFI) NGdG jjOGdG GOOqdG ,24-1 dG a c ,(Filter
hCG a qdG hCG (AC power) hdG Qd IQdG N e (Transmitted)
e GfCG g dEG jo .(Host Product) dG dH (Conducted) Ue
JdG ILCc ,jdG bdG j qH IGqdG dG a qTdG
qJ dG (FCC) dGQdG JG d fGb HJ CG j dG ,dG
.10 kHz a (EMI/RFI) jjOGdG GOOqdG NGJ e
71
N
M
OdG
. b d G j d d G T e : 2 4 -1 d G
QqdG OOdG je
qe gh (Crystal Frequency Standards) GOOqd jc GQqdG Jo
.kHhe k GQJ LGJ eY dY GOOqJ Y (Resonate) qJ Vhc OGe e
GQGO e GOOqd cCG k GQGSG j JQGdG GQqd jH QdG dG EG
a GQqdG qVJ .(Coil-and-Capacitor Tank Circuits) fRdG qdG -dG
72
fe IqY
eYO
ba OhdEG
dG OfCG
QdG JGQdG
73
74
f d G dG
dG edG fqdG
jdG
ddG dG QjfGJ
(Field-Effect Transistors )
eT If
(Thyristors ) G Q S j d G
75
eT If
IQGO a qe g (Active Electronic Component) fhdEG dG qdG EG
dG Gg a .XH d (External Power) qLQN bW dEG j qFHc
FdG e u dG Y dG ddG fdG M Tf j S
GQ S j dGh ,(Transistors) GQ j fG dGh ,(Diodes) (GO jG dG)
d G (Integrated Circuits ICs ) e d G G Q G d G d E G a V E H , (Thyristors )
GQGdG edG dG hj .YdG dG Gg a e AmGLCG a coS
SdG dG b jh ,(Analog And Linear ICs) KdGh qdG edG
U dG f G cGPh (Digital ICs) bdG e dG GQG dG V e
q o a Y HG dG dG eCG ,(Semiconductor Memories)
e VG e
jh dG q dGh (Microprocessors) jh dG d o d H
. (Microcontrollers )
76
OfCG
fhdEG
Uh
aGdG QdG
fhdEG aO
OKc
()
OKc
(CG)
. P N O j G O : 1 -2 d G
77
PSG e
dG LdG IOdG
dG ddG IOdG
fhdEG
Uh
. P N f U h O j G d P S G e : 2 -2 d G
zfR{ GOjGO
g ,(Reference Diode) LdG OjGdH jo e hCG (Zener Diodes) fR OjGO
Reverse ) d G R f G M a a d Y e (PN ) f S U h
dG ddG J eY qe (Voltage Conditions) qdd hT a hCG (Bias
QdG QdG hCG Qf H jo e j k q e k Gq M (Reverse Voltage)
e idG dG a IgdG dG zcQo{ a qdG ,(Avalanche Breakdown)
(Reverse Voltage) dG qddG g J ,dG g H e . - 3-2 dG
.(Reference Voltage) Le dc d mc H HK
e bCG da Y (Sharp Reverse Knees) IOM Y kcnQo fdG GOjGO Jo
PSG e a fhdEG e Ic qc qnJo .(3-2 dG fG) 3 V
g c ,c (Current Reverse) Y QJ aJ qjo qe ,JGQqP e HGJ
.dG a OLdG dG e (Vertical Dropoff) HdG dbdG AdG a qe
(Stable Voltage References) dd Iqe qLe g fdG GOjGO EG
.FHdG Qqd SGh J e HK J OjGdG jf H dG ddG C dP
(Voltage Regulators) dd c Y H GOjGdG g Jo
Specified) k GOqe ie iqJ dG ddG QGeE hCG (Clipping) bdh
(Transient Voltage IHdG ddG HH Jo fdG OjGO GfCG H .(Level
78
Circuit-Protective )
eeCG QdG
eeCG ddG
OfCG
SfG QdG
SfG ddG
(CG)
()
dG RfGh (dG) eeCG RfG -CG :PN OjGd GdG ndG :3-2 dG
.fR OjGd edG SdG - ,(QdG)
JT LM GOjGO
U e f O jGO g (Schottky Barrier Diode) J T L M O jGO EG
Metal) f e e J eh U e f W e e (Semiconductor)
q
q N jJ qUN eqDj ,(Contact
. (Non Linear Rectification Characteristic )
(N-Type ) d d G d G O G e f h d E G ) (Hot Carriers ) N d G e d G J
UdG d J T L M e (P-Type) L dG dG OG e) Kh (
Diode ) O j G d G I Y b g d G (Metal Coating ) f d G d G J H J h
q
e f C G E G , d G g a (Majority Carriers ) j c C G e M J a . (Base
b C G e d (Storage ) j J h C G (Injection ) M g j C G Q h d G
g YJoh .(Switching Speeds) jdG YS e qd (Minority Carriers)
.zJT GOjGO{ hCG zNdG edG GOjGO{ kjCG GOjGdG
a (Schottky-Clamped Transistors) edG JT GQjfGJ Jo
a (Transistor-Transistor Logic - TTL ) d G Q j f G J - Q j f G d G U J
J T O j G O L M V e (IC Families ) e d G G Q G d G Y e H
j J Y S O j O R G d d H h , (Transistor Saturation ) Q j f G d G Y T E G d
G Q j f G J H G H C G d E G I Q T E G Q J . (Transistor Switching ) Q j f G d G
UdG d dG KCJ GQj fG J CG ,(MESFET) ddG fQR
.JT LM GOjGO dG a g ,fdG
QcQa GOjGO
ddG qdG q dG O jG H (Varactor Diode) Q cQ a O jGO jo
Y R f G h P PN U h g h . (Varicap ) ` H h C G (Voltage-Variable Capacitor )
Variation Of ) U d G S J Y Y j M (Reverse Biased PN )
q
(Dopant Profile) e FGT J .kjCG Y RfG e (Junction Capacitance
d G d G h d G a d G G g d d P h (Depletion Layer ) P S G W a
. (Series Resistance Losses ) d G Y h d G a d G e f O C G d G
80
eudG GOjGdG
QqdG (Convert) jJ Hb Y OjGO g (Rectifier Diodes) udG OjGdG
hCG ,cCG hCG (1 A) MGh eCG UJ feEH ,(DC) e QqJ dEG AC hdG
IOqe e kdM eqdG GOjGdG e Joh .cCG hCG (1 W) MGh Gh IQb OqJ
d E G d G h C G d I c (PN ) U h I d G L C G d . (Silicon ) d G
81
JT eqe
,PN Uh H Ue f -e Uh (Schottky Rectifiers) JT qd
Gd dG dG CG H .bCG d eM Y j a dd
Z c EGh ,IOSG eR Ea ,MGh fe OhdEH IkTe qeo qdG
Recovery) IOSG QJ Ea CGdG M eh .fKff 10`dG Rhj ,Oqe
qe e
q bCG qeeCG da JT qe aj .qdG Uh Y Jf (Current
I A H d h b C G j J b W d h ,1.3 V d E G 1.1 V H H 0.8 V d E G 0.4 V e , (PN )
Blocking ) d G d G d H J J I M Gh S I e e d G d C G E G . YC G
q
q
dH JT eqe e lH aqj b dh ,50 Vh 35 V H hGJ (Voltage
,(Transient Protection) IHY jM JT eqe J .200 V dEG J qU
eqe qJ QJ e YCG (IRRM) hCG (Leakage Current) qJ QqJ eRjh
dG AGqL e d kVqe eqdG e dG Gg j e Ggh .PN Uh
C G j . (Thermal Runaway ) ( Q G d G d G ) h C G (Over Heating ) d G
,bd jdG jdG N MGe e RGdG Y JT eqe VJ
.bCG hCG da 5 jdG GP (Output Terminals) jdG N e Jo M
dG FK UdG GP GQjfGdG
Bipolar )
IYdG e
YdG
dCG e eJ
dG cCG fK
fhdEG aO
uodG
Silicon )
d G H T E G Y g zN { d G j h , (NPN BJT ) Q j f G J
fCG kMUG j e ,(N-Type Material) d dG dG e IO H (Doped
Negatively Charged) d dG dG GP fh dEG a IO jR J
LdG dG e IOH dG HTEG Y qTDa P dG eCG .(Electrons
dG GP dH eo fCG j e ,(P-Type Material/ Positively Charged)
. (Positively Charged Holes ) L d G
Q j f G J a (P-Type Base ) L e f I Y d G Y d a J Y
Y (N-Type Emitter ) d S f Y d G e f h d E G a J a d P j
aGdG QdG qj) .(N-Type Collector) dS f u o dG dEG I Y dG
(BJT) Qj fG d .(c dG J H (Conventional Current) O YG
e d G S J j P E G , (Vertical Topology ) d b T H Y C G d G a O L d G
VdGh Yd fdG ed IQhdG Le f IYdG Y fdG
bQ W g (Collector Contact) uodG eJ H ,dS f YdG a
.(N-Type Collector) dS f uodG e dG AdG a cJ fe
NPN
BJT )
H TE Gh H SG C G M d G j . d G e Q - 6 -2 d G V j h
(PNP - BJT ) a d G J G j P E G , c e PNP h NPN Q j f G d G Y f
N-Type ) d S f I Y d G d E G (P-Type ) L e f Y d G e a d G a
. (Base
dCG e eJ
YH
YH
IYb
cCG f K
dG
IYb
qe
qe
()
(CG)
. e d G ( , d G A d G ( C G : N P N d G e d G F K U h h P Q j f G J : 5 -2 d G
dCG e eJ
YH
IYb
YH
cCG f K
dG
IYb
qe
qe
()
(CG)
. h O d G d Q G O Q j f G J e Q : 7 -2 d G
q dc ,(Linear ICs)
Power) IQ dG
q e N MG e ah (Operational Amplifier) JdG
g d Q G O Q j f G d I O d G d G c C G h . (Amplifiers Output Stages
Y H e ,h e Y dG ND j .(Emitter Follower) HJ Y c Y
IYb Y NdG ehdG b aJoh ,(Ground) VQCG dEG fdG QjfGdG
YdG OdG QjfGdG IQGO a IOLdG J e cCG dEG hCG QjfGdG
. (Single Transistor Emitter-Follower Circuit ) H d G
ddG dG GQjfGJ
Q j f G J g (Field Effect Transistors - FETs ) d d G d G Q j f G J E G
(FET ) Q j f G J E a (BJT ) Y Y h . (Voltage-Operated ) d d G Y j
I n p u t ) N O e h e j q f C G M a k G L b ( I n p u t C u r r e n t ) N O Q J j
dG :Yf dEG ddG dG GQjfGJ Jo .k GL dY (Resistance
-e QjfGJ fdGh (JFET) ddG dG Uh QjfGJ qj hCG
QjfGJ SH jo e hCG ,(MOSFET) ddG dG Ue f cCG
d E G Q h H (FET ) Q j f G J j . (IGFETs ) d R d G H G d G P d d G d G
QjfGJ g ddG dG QjfGJ EG .N fh P f fqe :U
Q J C ,(BJT) dG FK QjfGdG H ,(Unipolar) dG
q O MCG
Charge ) d G e M e a M G h f e j (Drain Current ) d G
q
I d G a d G h (N-Chanel FET) ,N I d G a f h d E G J a : (Carriers
.(P-Channel FET) ,P
88
c C G - d G G Q j f G J h (FETs ) d d G d G G Q j f G J J
C G E G . (Discrete Transistors ) e G Q j f G c (MOSFET ) U d G f
G P d d G d G G Q j f G J d Y G b (MOSFET ) L d J
a h ( d G G g a z I Q d G G P G Q j f G d G b f G ) (Power FETs ) I Q d G
cCG -e :Yf edG GQGdG CG cdH jdGh .edG GQGdG
e Y . (PMOS ) L e U e f c C G ~ e h (NMOS ) d S U e f
HG H a (PChannel) L dGh (N-Channel) ddG QjfGdG Jb eJ
.(CMOS) qe Ue f cCG -e Jo f IQGdG
.((Digital Logic) zedG GQGdGh bdG dG{ SdG dG fG Sd)
(JFETs) ddG dG GQjfGJ Uh
Le Ib Uh P ddG dG QjfGJ Ge HJ
P d d G d G Q j f G J G e e , - 8 -2 d G a d G , (JFET
f IcQ a J .dG QqdGh ddG qb ASH dS Ib Uh
f IdG a dS f HGH e QJo hCG J K eh Le f Ib dS
dah dG Y dS da J j eY .ddG HGdG d LdG
cCG dS b HGd c M ah ,dGh dG H QJ aj ,dG Y Le
.d dH Le HGdG b fc M a QdG j H ,QdG aJ OGOj
jh .Le Ib Uh P ddG dG QjfGJ O- 8-2 dG qjo
.ddG HGdG dEG LdG IdG e dG
U
cCG fK
dG
HGH
HGH
dS Ib
Le f e IcQ
e
(CG)
()
e
jJ
HGH
HGH
Le Ib
dS f e IcQ
Qe
(O)
()
, e d G ( , - d S I d e L e I b U h P d d G d G Q j f G J ( C G :8 -2 d G
.edG -(O ,Le Id e (
90
e I cQ
Le f
U
(CG)
GQjfGd jdG f
U
dG cCG fK
e Ib
Le f e IcQ
(CG)
U
HGH
e
()
92
QjfGd PSG f
(Depletion Mode MOSFET - DMMOSFET) QjfGd PSG f j e IkOY
IdG a HTEG H dPh HGd RfG CG UdG a Y j h kMe
. (Source-Drain ) U - e
U
HGH
N f Ib
Le f e IcQ
(CG)
U
HGH
e
()
. e d G - , e - C G : (M O S F E T ) Q j f G d d S I b a P S G f : 1 1 - 2 d G
93
d G I L C G M (Alter ) j J Q h d G e L e , d G H j
e dG G d e J K K j J J . e J d SCG Q H
:GQjfGdG
. (MESFET ) U e f - e d d G d G Q j f G J - 1
. (HEMT ) f h d E d j d G c d G Q j f G J - 2
Heterojunction Bipolar ) I j d G U d G hP d G F K Q j f G d G - 3
. (Transistor - HBT
HGdG W
U
ehCG eJ
Qe
PSG e
UdG Ib
fhdEG aO
dRY f IcQ
fQR ddG e
GaAs
Ue f -e ddG dG GQjfGJ
H (MESFET) Ue f -e ddG dG QjfGJ jo
H H J ,edG GQGdG a hCG e dZ fQR QjfGc c
f Q R I c Q Y T e H f d G H G H S J J d h , (MOSFET )
J T O jGO L M d dPh ,12-2 dG qj c ,He d dG
d I c d G Y S J J d G G c C G d h . (Schottky Barrier Diode )
95
I j dG U d j dGh P SG f eO L d J j J J
M e a R L Y d d P h , (Hetero-Junction E/D - Technology )
Large Scale) SGdG edG dG P bQ (Cost-Effective) - dG
Very Large Scale Integration - ) k G L S G d G e d G d G h C G (Integration - LSI
,bGdG a .edG e kdY i
k e J 14-2 dG a qdG dG EG .(VLSI
Uh Y d U N d SCG dEG (HBTs )h (HEMTs) e c j
.(Precise Sharp Heterojunctions) IOqMh - bO Ijeo
ehCG eJ
HGH
U
N+ GaAs
N+ GaAs
e Z Ye AlGaAs
He Z GaAs bbQ
jH fhdEG RZ
. H E M T f h d E d j d G c d G Q j f G J : 1 3 -2 d G
GaAs
qe
IYb
AlGaAs
YH
P+ GaAs
IYb
P+
N GaAs
N+ GaAs
cCG QR We
HdG QdG We
. H B T I j d G U d G h P d G F K Q j f G J : 1 4 -2 d G
97
IQdG GQjfGJ
cCG hCG Gh 1 dEG J b knb (Power Transistors) IQdG QjfGJ qj
Normal) dG Y N cCG hCG 1 A H k GQ J j hCG IQ dG e
q
. j C G h O (Operation
,(Amplification) dc dG e jdG a IQdG QjfGJ jo
GOOq dG j Jh ,(Switching) ( j dG) dGh ,(Oscillation) H H dGh
I Q T E G Q j f G d S d G T C d K d G G f C G h . (Frequency Conversion )
:g IQdG QjfGc dG bdG
. (BJT ) d G F K Q j f G d G - 1
. (Darlington Pair ) h O d G d Q G O Q j f G J - 2
. (MOSFET ) U d G f c C G - e d d G d G Q j f G J - 3
dG FK IQdG GQjfGJ
d He Sg T (Power BJTs) dG FK IQdG QjfGd
d h . (Discrete Small Signal Transistors ) d G I d G I Q T E G Q j f G J
e , (Vertical Geometries ) d b T S g T C G (Power BJTs ) G Q j f G J
J d G I c d G e Y C G A d G Y (Emitters ) Y d G h (Bases ) Y G d G J
Yh .(PNP)h (NPN) IQdG GQjfGJ e Yf g .(Collector) qc
L J E G Y Q O b a (Power BJT ) Q j f G d d Y J Z e Z d G
dG e c QjfGdG Gg Y CGW .L Hh hdH FXh
,dG d QGMh FHc f OLh eqDJ dG FdG IYGd
H dG dG g J j .JSh JM
m T d CG kY
jQ qdG IYdG JG G S H hCG ,(Diffused Layers) IdG JW OY
c H g IQdG GQjfGJ qJo .H dH hCG ,(Epitaxial Base)
F dG TCG H e .(Planar) m eo H hCG (Mesa) (Ge) I U
:j e dG FK IQdG QjfGd
. (Single-Diffused (Hometaxial) ) ( f d G ) O d G Q f G
98
Q H G e h , e h , G e ) (Double-Diffused ) F d G Q f G
Multiple Epitaxial Oqe QqH Geh ,(Epitaxial Planar) QqdG eh ,Mesa
. (Mesa
Epitaxial
A J f S g T e , (Die ) d d G e J d G A d G a (Mesa ) G d G J
.(Silicon Collector Substrate) fdG uodG IcQ a YdGh IYd
(Selectively Chemically Etching) bdG FdG dG jW Y GdG qJ
Completed Double-Diffused) edG hOdG QfG GP ddG jGhR Jo h
q
GdG J CGd kah (Planar Transistor) odG QjfGdG qjo .(Die
IOLe qe IcDe W J IYdG - uodG Uh SH dh ,f
(Topologies ) A G L C G g e d G I Q d G G Q j f G d . d d G S Y
,(Switching Speeds) e (jJ) b YSh ,e da Gj J
Leakage) J GQ Jh ,(Saturation Resistances) e TEG eheh
q
q
FdG UdG GQjfGJ g keJ cCG GQjfGdG EG .e (Currents
,(Multiple Epitaxial) IOq dG jQ q dG (Structure) dG GP gh dG
. (Double Diffused ) h O d G Q f G h
j H (Power
Collector to )
Bipolar Transistors )
jjdG qddG
. (Emitter
.(Current Rating To Collector) jdG uodG QqJ
. (Rating Power ) j j d G I Q d G
. (Switching Speed ) ( j d G ) d G Y S
. (Gain-Bandwidth Product ) J d G d G V Y c
99
Rating )
.jQGdG FdG
GP hCG (Switching-Regulated) qdG jdG GP bdG jqe T Y f
GQjfGJ Y dG (Switch Mode Power Supply) (jdG) dG f
a GOOJ `Y (Switching) (j`dG) `dG Y IQOdG `dG `FK IQ`odG
c C G d a J Y k GQ O b Q j f G d G j C G j d G G g d h .10 kHz
Collector Current) eo QJ jJ j CG jh .NdG da e JH
q
q
. b d G d e g e Y C G e B G Y e h (Ratings
dY (Power Density) IQb ac Y odG FK QjfGdG j eY
H qJ eY j ,(Second Breakdown) mK Yh Qf VYo j
YdG H ddG Jh QjfGdG bbQ NGO (Thermal Hot Spot) jqQGM
e a QdG cqj PEG ,YH IQdG jRCG GPEG EG 25 V dEG 1 V e uodGh
.jo hCG QjfGdG jo M IQGdG LQO JJh IU
IQdG QjfGJ Hb jo fH SH (SOA) eBG dG e OqJo
Y j dG fdG dG fEG .ddh Qqd dY knb fBG H J CG Y
q
YdGh uodG H qddG d dH (Collector Current) uodG QqJ J
IdG ddG e
v c Oqa dG eCG .(Collector To Emitter Voltage)
QqdG -ddG OhM dch ,(Pulsed Operation) dG TGh (Steady-State)
(Combined Limitations) dG Gj dG Y J dG (Voltage-Current)
bCG jdGh ,jdG QqdGh jjdG ddG e
x c H Vh dG
Q f G G j J h Q j f G d (Maximum Allowable Dissipation ) H d G
.QjfGd fdG
Darlington Pairs )
QdG fe dG e HGH
OdG
cCG HGH
HGH
e
dG QJ
dG fe
()
(CG)
- 101 -
SJ
OU
IcQ
qe
(CG)
qe
HGH
YH
()
. e d G ( ) , e S Q ( C G ) d G d G F d G d R d G H G d G Q j f G J : 1 6 -2 d G
103
q
, (Single PN Junction ) I O e PN U h e j d G K K Q j f G J g (- UJTs
Two Base ) S S C G a W d h , Y H h ,N- f I c d d Y e h e h P g h
b d G a Y J d S e h e d C G Q j f G d G G g F N e . (Terminal
Q j f G J Y d G G g Y j . (Oscillator Circuits ) H H d G G Q G d G h
. (MOSFET ) h (BJT )
H H QdG j B2h B1 qSSCG jdG Y Le da qJo eY
e PN Uh P f (E) YdG qjh .N f dG IcQ a dY ehe
J ,Le RfG B1h FdG YdG AdG H qjo eY eCG .N- f IcQ
f e a dG Jo .(Forward Biased) eeCG RfG Me a PN UdG
d P h j S H d G g a e h d G J M ,B1 J H J h N
d d G g j d d f h . (Carriers ) e d G e c C G O Y O L d
(E ) Y d G H b G d G d G [E- B1 ] e J d G B1 h B2 H (Voltage Drop )
dS ehe e qJ dHh .dG g Y QqdG QqdG OGOj H , [B1 ] h
.B2 - B1 dH a qdG eEH
104
dhCG IYdG
YdG
fdG IYdG
(CG)
()
. e d G ( , e L ( C G : U J T U d G O M C G Q j f G J : 1 7 -2 d G
GQSjdG
HQCG e dqDe Ue f jJ RL fCG Y (Thyristor) QSjdG qjo
jW Y UJ j (Four-Layer Semiconductor Switching Devices) W
.(Gate Electrode) HGdG OhdG Y qda J
,(Silicon Controlled Rectifier - SCR) fdG qdG :QSdG GfCG gCG e
Silicon Controlled Switch-) f`dG qdG dGh ,(Triaces) jdGh
.(SCS
HGH
OKc
OKc
HGH
OfCG
OfCG
(CG)
()
jdG
dG e a j c ,(h dG Q dG O jG J) (Triac) j dG EG
Biderectional Gate) JG F K q J HG H GP Q S j K g ,CG-19-2
q
IQT
E QdG V a .AC IQb a Ld qc qJ aqj (Controlled Thyristor
107
HGH
HGH
hCG dG
hCG dG
()
(CG)
qfdG qdG Je
fCH (Silicon Controlled Switches - SCS) fdG qdG e jo
LdG dG g ,Ff HGH dG QdG hP fdG qdG
HGH Y ddG dG (jo hCG) fdG dG e jjo .ddG dGh
.(SCS) Yn HGdG J Y LdG dG bJo a ,(SCS) LdG dG
d G h (SCS ) a L d G d G J d G d d G d G H G H Y Y
.dG Y bJ ddG
108
d d G dG
fehdG UdG
jdG
(Solenoids ) G j d d G
eT If
fehdG M
q dG
(Electromechanical Relays )
fehdG JdG
(Electromechanical Switch)
(P e r man e n t M ag n e t El ect r ic M o to r s )
(Resolvers ) d G
(Special Switches ) U d G J d G
eT If
fhdEG a S d q dG f eh dG U dG EG
IQGdG q eh Rhh M e H J dG U dG J g (Electronics)
Hc hCG Y NGO a (Circuit Boards) IQGdG GdCG Y cqnod ,fhdEG
109
fehdG MqdG
,(Remote Controller) Ho Y qdG GfCG HCG e g (Relay) M
q dG
(Output Circuits)
n dG GQGO Y a (Input Circuits) N dG GQGO Jo
m
M
q dG qe d c QJ QGeGE jW Y IH ae e Jee Jh kFHc
.NBG M
q e hCG (Manual Switch) hj e H qj SCG Y (Relay Coils)
) fehdG M
q dG :dEG M
q dG Jo
M
q e A L b S h . (Solid State Relay SSR ) d G d d G M
q e h (EM
Fundamental ) z S SC G f h d E G GQ G d G{ e d G d G a d G d d G
:j d kJ fehdG M
q dG J qj .(Electronic Circuits
Electromechanical Relays
qoU dG jdG M
q dG e jM f gh ,fhdEG dG a
IAVEGh ,FHdG IQdG J e a GSd ,b e cCG eo
. f d G d G a h , (Telegraph ) G d G h , (Lighting )
(Conventional Coil and Contact Relay) dG peodGh dG M
q e dCj
Qeh ,(Electromagnetic Coil) ehc e e 1-3 dG a qdG
,dnH dG (dqdG a dG cdG Qe Armature:) QJeQCG cM
(Energized) bdH dG qjo ea ,kFHc dhe Nh NO GQGOh
GQhO JqJ H QJeQCGh (Hinged) q dG FHdG dG j
Normally Closed) IOY ke j dG dG edG a jo e ,ddG
q
b a (Normally Open - NO ) I O Y d G d G e d G e C G , (- NC
dG dEG IQdG edG q Jo ZEG dM a .JG J H , U dG
a d d G j d G d M a b W F H d G d G j e Y h . (Load )
Y IQdG Jo Ggh ,(NC) IkOY dG dG edG joh ,QJeQCG
,dG FK dG e g dG a dG M
q dG CG dEG IQTEG QJh .dG
.Y bdG a e JQGH qdG feEH CG j Ggh
e J f
(NC ) I O Y e
bQh dd b
edG Ia
cdG Qe IcQ
dG
c dG Q e
a dG
ddG
(QJeQCG)
eJ f
e
(NO ) W
cM Q e
ddG GQhO
QWEG
ehc e
q j a (NO ) I O Y d G h C G
q e Y IQdG Jo M edG Vh Y
.M
q dG
Low Resistance ) e h d G b e e e d G VGZC G M
q e ee qJ
IQdG Mqe
eqdG dG M
q e e f g (Power Relay) IQ dG M
q eo EG
dG Qqd da) 28 VDC a 50 A dEG 10 A `H QqJ ,dY IQb e ed
.(AC hodG Qqd da) 120/240 VAChCG ,(DC
,JdG ILCc dY IQb J dG d MdG g q Jo
dG fehdG M
q dG qJh .jjOGdG SdGh ,GQGOGdGh
g Q h H h F d G W d G h C G (Contactors ) e d G H (Heavy-Duty ) d G
IQb Gdqe fCG Z ,IQdG M
q e dqJ dG J e YCG bW jJ
.hjGQ SQEG fqeh ,FHc
fdG MqdG
dYh bCG Oqe M
q e g (Telephone-Type Relay ) f d G M
q dGh
fdG dG jd j (Multipole High -Density Relay) a dG
. j d G d G R L a (Digital Signals ) b d G G Q T E G h C G (Telephone Voice )
dDe he hCG e QJ qe Y MdG Gd dhCG jOdG MG d
(Intermixed) H NGe Jeeh .fK dEG gOY j bCG e
Bifurcated) T dEG qe JGP e jf GP fe fe fCH eh
Mating) HdG edG S c Y J gh .(Self-Wiping Tips
Q X d dPh (Make and Break) dGh U dG M e N (Contacts
.S Y cCdG
FXh f JG a edG jdG IdG M
q dG ODJh Gg
Y a RJh ,bCG hCG MGh eCG Hh jdG dG fdG M
q dG
113
q e
c hCG ,JdG ILC fhdEG GdCG Y csJo (Flat Packs)
.(Sugar-Cube-Sized Cases) qdG qe MCH
SdG MqdG
hCG edG dG M
q e d E G (Sensitive Relays ) S d G M
q dG J
KCH d qoU bh .(Telephone Type EM) ehdG fdG dG
M
q e g M
q d G a , (Solid State Logic ) d G d d G e e G Q T E G
.10 mW Y j (Input ) N H j J j e h c
dG MqdG
Movable)
kc qe ke (Polarized Relays) dG M
q dG j
,ehdG M
q d d G d G c d e h c N B G e (M a g n e t
,dG M
q dG e Yf dgh .FHdGh dG jdG d dPh
dG M
q e
q dGh (Pivoting Core Relays) Q dG dG M
M
q e J .(Magnetically Biased Polarized Relays) ke IqodGh
(Samarium - Cobalt) jQeS - Hc IOe e e Y dG qdG
M
q dG a dG (Ferrite) jqdG e M HQ Oj U H
114
dG qdG ehdG M
q jh .iNCG
q dG M f qdG M
q e
Miniature) dG JdG ILCG a IqdG fhdEG MdG Y cqjo
,JdG ILCG a q dG M
q e Jo .(PC-Board Mounted EM
Home Video) dG jjdG odGh ,YdG q dGh , H dGh
Private Branch ) h C G (PBXs ) U d G d G Y d d G h , (Systems
q
. f d G G d G e g Z h , (Telephone Exchange
dG dG Mqe
ehc M
q e g (Reed Switch Relay) dG dG M
q e EG
Flexible Ferrous Metal ) Rh j d G I O e e d f e F G T H J e e
q
HQ joh .qdG e LLR dH q e b H hCG (Strips
ddG NGhCG a Qhe SGH RhjdG IOe e fqdG adG dG
.KdGh IcCG e Y d dPh
m Y FHc a dj
MdG dG ee H hCG 1210 `H Qqjo k GL
ee Jo eY hCG 0.75 dEG J dG g CG EG ,ddG NGO
GQhO jd e H dG ZEGh a dG e fEa Gd .dG
. d d G j d G d G d G a (Switching Cycles ) j d G
hCG A dG dG NGO ILGdG edG TCG TCG eh
I O Y d G h (Single Pole, Single Throw ) d G O e O M C G d G G P , (A
LhOe qSh ,OMCG b d dG ,(Form C) hCG C dGh ,(SPST-NO)
. (SPDT )
Form )
dG dc
(e T) d
ee
dG
dG He
dG MqdG :2-3 dG
116
FdH dG GP dG Mqeo
H (Mercury-Wetted Reed Relays ) F d H d G G P d G M
q eo j
dPh FdG e b Y J b e dch ehc e
ehdG Qe e j F dG C e dG Z (Reliability) bKh d
cUG hCG JGOGJQG qjoh dG Y eodG jf a (Resistance Path)
a FdH edG dG ee OhJh .(ddG ZEGh dG qY id)
k GqL SGh bf Y beh HK eheo (Low Level Loads) dG MCG
c FdG CG EG .(Contact Load Current) eod dG QJh IQGdG LQO e
q j ,kHS cP
SM M
q dG g Ea Y LHh .2 ms dGH eodG Z
dG edG GWCG J d Fb VH cJ hCG d Ljh bd
.FdG a e
117
fehdG JdG
g fhdEd (Electromechanical Switches) fehdG JdG EG
GQGdG ah H J qFHc ee GP IU fehc FSh
GSd RJh ,e eJh TCH g qdG FSh HCG qJh .kjhj
qfe ee Y dG dG j .fhdEG GQGdGh MdG a
Jo .(dd) Hf J dBH Je qfe Y SGH H qjo cqe
Shut) AWEG Y jH ddG jh ,Y NGO ddG qdGh edG
.(Arcing) IQGdG hM e qa (Off
dG dG Y
dd
(fe fH) L
RJQG S
Y
NGO de e
HK ee
e ee
. f e h d G d G : 3 -3 d G
CG dEG IQTEG j .J qe d
k q e k GAL 3-3 dG jo
IQdG Je e dG I q eo f g IqodG J dG g e j dG
QodG (Subminiature) dG IjdGh IdG JdG cCGh .qFHdG
:g fhdEG a Y
. (Pushbutton ) d G Q R
118
. (Toggle ) d G d G
.(Rocker) RGqdG dG
. (Slide ) b f G d G
.(Rotary) QGhqdG dG
. (Thumbwheel ) e H E G I c d G e
d 3 A hC G 125 VAC d e C G 5 A `H f h d E G M d J e J Y H h
gqh AV SGH IRGdG JdGh dG QGQRCG Je H AJoh .220 VAC
eo CG EG .(LED) Ad YH OjGO GSH hCG (Incandescent Lamps)
Y j (Illuminated Pushbutton- IPB) gdG Z dG QGQRCG e
fYEG a TDc J e hCG He jf GP JdG e Ye
.FdG
bfEG JdG
de fqe qj J e g (Slide Switche) bfEG dG
ed FHdG UdGh dG eqDJ ,dG J (Sliding Element)
J / I Q G O E H c d (Lateral Movement ) f d G c d G E G . N G d G
.Y QqdG b hCG LQdG IQGdG
e a Jh .dSGh MCGh TCG H JdG g Jo
Home) d dG GhOCGh fh dEG dG I LCGh ,(Radios) G jOG dG
. (Appliances
IQGhqdG JdG
e ee Y j jJ e g (Rotary Switche) QGhqdG dG
IMGh LQO OqDJoh ,jQJ H QdG Gg Qhj .Qe OY Y qe
,NGdG HdG edG e qdG edG b hCG Uh dEG GQhdG e
.LQdG IQGdG Y QqdG b hCG IQGOEG ddHh
IqY e dqCJ PEG ,(Multideck) dG IOqe JdG g GfCG H EG
cdG edG e hme OYh ,HK eeo e
x d ,cGe GaGh
Simultaneous) eGdG jdH JdG g J .QdG Y cq dG
. X d G h C G b d G M e d d G F H d G G Q G d G e j d (Switching
BGh ,GjOGdG a IOY FHdG MdG a cqdG IQGhqdG JdG J
. (Automobiles ) c d G h d d G G S G I L C G h f h d E G d G
120
eHEG jdG Je
IT dEG (Numerical) jOY IT jJ (Encoders) Geqe Y IQY g
cGeo qUGeo Ye T Y eHEG dG Je qJo .bQ FK
. f h d E G M d Y c d K G h C G (Module ) L R e (Stacked Assembling )
bqeo (Thumb Actuated Wheel) HEH J QWEG Y gQhH LR
q c Jh
e Y . (Code-Conversion Circuit Card ) O d G j J b H I Q G O Y h 9 d E G 0 e
IQTEG (Output Pin) dG SHO jo dG bdG Y jh RdG jo
. (Equivelant Binary Signal ) d G b d H d G F d G
NOEH YJ qdG Jdc JTh e HEG dG J e EG
q dG I LCG ah ,BG a IO L dG q b dG GQG dG a e dG
. (Process Control ) G Q h d H
MdG edG J
(Switch Contact Arrangement) MdG edG J 1-3 dG jo
FHdG Jqd kah MdG edG IOe QNG j .GSG FdG
Silver ) a S J e d E G e d G d G H j . b d G d Gh
g P H e J e d E G d G d d G J J a , (Alloy
SJ hCG bdG hCG ,eGdG GM kjOJh .(Gold Flashed Alloy) Lgqh
a (Loaded Spring) J Hf hCG ddn jo ,dG Z a DWdG H
jo b ddG Gg CG c .a dG Y jd JdG ee e
.edG Z JEG Y
q J (Audible ) S h C G (Tactile ) d H S G
GQdG Joh ,(Dry Circuits) aqdG GQGdH dG ddG GQGO qJ
KqdGh IcDdG OGd he AH (Microampere Currents) jeCGhdG
jo KqdG cGJh cCdG jGJ e dh .eGdG Y cGJ dG
kUN k GL Ie g dG Y Jh ,GdG gdG e bQ H dG
.jW bd qe hCG (Inactive) eo Z dG c M a
hCG QdG ,edG ehe :j d kah JdG M e eY JdG qJo
121
.dG IQGM LQO ,dG ,dG ehe ,FHdG RdG Ib ,edG ddG
ddG IFdG IQGdG LQd kJ dG ee (Derated) Je jJ jh
.qFHdG Je Y dG qH
,dG QdG GQGO a dG H e Oe Z H edG Jo
d H h . (AC Reversals ) d G H h d G G Q d G G Q G O a K C d G G g
q j H
. (DC ) T d G Q d G J e e c C G g (AC ) h d G Q d G J e J e E a
hCG QGM qJ (Resin) JGQ e ,e H JdG jhM qJo
M C G e a Q N G j h . (Thermoplastic ) Q G M S H e G S e
jd OdG QGdG SdG o a ,OG dGh Y dG g c Y
,(Thermosetting) QGdG dG JGQ e c
q b C G (Flame-Retardant )
AGLCG qJoh .(Daily Phthalate) da jGdG hCG (Phenolic) qddG OGdc
Sheet) PdG FU e qJo hCG ,(Panel Switches) MdG Jd fdG
JOe e qSdG FdG e hCG ,(Stainless Steel) AhUdG PdG hCG ,(Steel
. (Beryllium Copper ) j d G S f h C G Q S d G ` f h d G
.keGSG dG Je J cCG :1-3 hdG
dG
edG
dG
dG
(CG)
Make (1) (1 ) U d G
SPST-NO
()
Break (1) (1 ) d G
SPST-NC
()
(2 ) Uh ,(1 ) b
SPDT-BM
(O)
(2 ) d G b ,(1 ) U d G
SPDT-MB
(`g)
(3 ) d G b ,(2 ) Uh ,(1 ) b
122
SPDT-BMB
UdG JdG
dG Je
eh qb dc H (Reed Switch) dG dG fe J
j H e d G .4 -3 d G a i f c , (Permanent Magnet ) F G O
dG j dG e j ea ,dG dc dEG kf dH d
.j hCG pdG qjo CG eqEa ,dG Z hCG H qa ddG dG
Contact ) e d G J Y ( j E G hC G d G Y) H S G g J h
q
e qfCG Y dG dc Jo eY EG ,dG Y KCJh (Arrangement
. (Dry Reed Switch ) L b
q
FdH IqodG dG Je
Mercury Wetted Reed-Switch) FdH I eo b dc JdG d
c M JG
dG
FGO ,HK e
b ee
dG dc
. d G e : 4 -3 d G
123
zg{ KCJ Je
Key ) j J J e Y I Q Y g (Hall Effect Switches ) z g { K C J J e E G
Hall )
dG idG GP JdG Md
NOE (Short-Travel Keyboards) dG idG J e M d Jo
Ge e gZh (Tactile Response) qd HSG dEG J dG edG
. (High Speed Data Entry ) I c Y H e d G N O E F d G J d G M d
d J hCG (QWERTY Format) dG HdG JdG Mc qJo eEG a
. (Customized Legend keys ) e R e Q h C G e J e
Short-Travel, )
JdG IOaQ
JdG d IOqeo GfCG e IMGh g (Keypads) JdG IOaQ EG
Numerical Data Entry into ) b Q f a j O Y e e N OE
k UCG qdG
,jOdG dG ILCG a
k e J d G e d G G g i f . (a Digital System
,(Pocket Calculators) dG SdG BG ah , S dGh , dGh
RL fH Md e dG L a IOLdG kMe 17 `dG Ye dch
q of M O Y G J d G
. (Numerical keypad ) b Q J e I O a c
e H eEG ,jH FHd eqdG dG a odG JdG IOaQ eqDJ
ddG c ah .W M qe Hd kN qoU e hCG qeohn Qe g
Short or Full) eCG Ibh jW Je Ye e JdG IOaQ J
q
(Short Travel ) e C G I b J e Y H h C G I Q G d G M d a I O L e (Travel
.(Flexible Membrane) pe AZ hCG (Individual Cap) Oe AZ e ee
idG b Je ae e JdG IOad e fe HCG dCJ
j e CG Lh Y V J Yh .(Spring-loaded) dnH Weh
dG Lh H adG pb jh .IQGqdG a OLdG dG eJ a pb
.b C G hC G (0.8 mm) 0.03 in d E G e d Gh
TCGh (Alphanumeric) bQCGh MCG H kjCG FdG JdG IOaQ J
q e e dG fqe qJh .IOqe GdCH AdG Y
Metalized ) f e
ae eJ dG (Plastic Blisters) S dG Q H e hCG (Rubber Domes
.Y dG Y IQGdG Md Y IOLdG UdG
GjddG
dqj ,AHdH iqe dhdG SCG e e) (Solenoid) jddG EG
fehc (Actuator) qe g (NGO e j Qe d cM
jM
q do e jddG dCj .fe cM dEG FHdG bdG qj
(Spring Loaded Axial Shaft) M dH e OY Y qeo (Iron Core)
125
IQGhqdG GjddG H J
LJo PEG ,fdG M e J dh ,dG CGe M e (Solenoids
Y d G Y j F G O c H d G Q e M (Shaft Motion ) O d G c M
TdG QdH eEG jddG J jh Gg .dG Qe Y FdG jGhdG
.(Rectified AC) qdG hdG QqdH hCG (DC)
e
d e cT
cdG JG
q d
cdG
aO b
.jddG : 5-3 dG
LQqdG cqdG
,(Stepping Motor) LQqdG qdG hCG ,(Stepper Motors) QqdG qdG EG
NO qj (Incremental Open-Top Actuator)
q YJ Me M qe g
Sequence of Step ) L Q e e c M d E G (Digital Pulse ) b d G d G
q
dH fCG EG ,(DC) QJ qe fCG Y qdG Gg qjo .(Index Motions
Ie
q c a .(Pulse Train) HdG dG e YH j (AC) QJ qe
126
q
b G c j g h , (Inertial Load Capacity ) d G d J G P Q b h , (Torque
.ILCGh GhOCG a (Light Duty) qFdG FXd
q dG Q dG q d EG
cM Qe ado ,6-3 dG a dG AdG a gX g c ,(Motors
fC dPh odG WfCH qdG of a Jo gh ,(Armature Wound)
cqdG g SG j .(DC) QdG GQTEG SGH bH H qdG j
. (Robot ) H h d G h (Machines Tools ) I L C G G h O C G a
cM Qe
(QJeQCG)
UJ
cdG Qe
M
q e
adG
FGO e
eM
LdG
fLdGh
OY
OY
dG HW
. f L d G Z h d G Q d G c e : 7 -3 d G
- 129 -
e AGg
dG jf
e e AGLCG HQCG
cS FGO
dG
fLa
Closed Loop )
131
odG
f Y j ,QGhqO fehc qe HH (Resolvers) odG jo
.(Senses Position) bdG q d (Servo Controlled System) IQRGDe qJ
(Rotor) IQGhqO AYCG e dG dqCJ ,(Synchros) eGdG a ch
QGhqdG hdG jf NO Y VqdG (AC) QqdG IQKEH J (Stator) cSh
,90 LQO J QGH kFHc H Y J da a ,(Pair of Rotor)
e LQdG IQTEG a ;cdG FdG jf e ddG g N d
LdG S ihJh ,(Carriers-Frequency) edG LdG OOqd jhe cdG
be jhGd (Cosine) dG Lh (Sine) jhGdG L e kSJ (Amplitude)
. (Angular Position of the Rotor Shaft) QGhqdG OdG
. d G M e (Electric Motors ) F H d G c d G e d G H J
Slotted) e FU Y a e (Stator Winding) cdG a d J PEG
Brushless ) f L d G Z d G a , J M f e e C G . (Laminations
SGH (Primary Excitation Voltage) dhqCG qddG Vqe b Y (Resolvors
.(Transformer) qdG
H (Phase Angle Difference ) Q d G j h G R Y J d G d G d G J
QGhqdG e Nh (AC Reference Excitation Input) hdG QdG qe NO
QdG MGREG bJ fQH QGhqdG be Y qdG jh .(Output of Rotor Coils)
U dEG bdG b qJ K ,NGdG J e dG IQTE (Time-Phase-Shaft)
Zero ) G f G f W J H d G O Y J f h d E G I Q GO O L H b Q
q
. J Q T E G d (Crossing
:bQ b dEG LdG dG jd W K dg
. (Tracking ) f B G d G e -1
. (Successive Approximation ) d d G j d G -2
. (Time Phase Shift ) Q d G M G R E G b J -3
132
HG d G dG
SSCG pHndGh
u nodG GQGO
jdG
u n odG J W
(Amplifier Operating Methods )
eT If
(Amplifier Coupling )
u n odG b
eT If
fCG IY a Jh e GQGO g HHdG GQGOh dG GQGO EG
e qoU ,AdG a .jdG fhdEG a FXdG e jdG ODJh qJ
dEG jJ Jh (Vacuum Tube) qdG q dG Q X X a GQG dG g
GdG a dG H Y CGW jJ e ee GQGOh GQjfGJ
GQGO kjM dG G g h j . Zq dG e pdGh QG S fG dG H
133
u nodG GQGO
(Magnitude ) Q G e I O j R Y Q O b R L h C G I Q G O C G g (Amplifier )
u n odG EG
CG hO e (Time-Variable) edG e Iqe IQTEG ie (Power) IQb hCG
Amplifier)
u n eo GQGO e J ,dM .LdG T a gq J
Y (Low Power ) W G d G I Q d G h (Low-Frequency ) W G d G G O O d G (Circuits
u n eo kjCG Lj dP e .Y a edG GQGdGh GQjfGdG
.dhQdGh ,fehdGh ,dGh ,ZqdG eu dG
:`d kah dG GQGO qJ
.dG
.IQGdG T
.M
q e e c C G O L h M a (Coupling ) f d G U d G
.
u n odG GQTEG M a OOdGh (Bandwidth) dG VY
. (Operating Mode ) , (Bias ) R f G h C G d G f
J dG dG GQG dG e j d H f SG Y dG jo
fqe dqdG Jfqe Jh ,edG GQGdHh dG QjfGdH
dG KC J GQ j fG J Uhh (BJTs) dG F K GQ j fG J
dG KC J GQ j fG Jh (Field-Effect Transistors - JFETs Junction)
. (MOSFETs ) U d G T c C G - e
ddG
u n eo jJ .IQdG hCG ddG d eEG
u n odG J jo
jh .QjfGdG Ge H dPh e qe IQTE ddG ie e
134
(Voltage Drop ) H d G d d H
u n od (Output Voltage) dG da jJ
I c b G S G Q h d G e d d H h , (Output Load ) d G M j f H
, j J e , J f E a I Q d G e e C G . (Impedance ) d G b h d k G L
mc M dEG bhdG b J dEG OqDj e ,dG a j mY QJ fE
b M dEG e bhdG J CG j dh Y N QJ fEH j
J IQdG
u n eo Y kjCG j .k Gc qJh IQTEG Y kS KDj
c i N C G e U d c . (Current Amplifier ) Q d G e
Square-Waves) H dG L dG eh ,(Buffer Amplifiers) dG
e k jCG J .(Frequency doublers) OO dG Yeoh (Amplifiers
VQCG dEG SSCG HHO hCG Jjf IOY j d k ah GQ j fG dG
. (Returned to Ground )
QjfGd dG-YdG e
NPN Transistor Common-Emitter) NPN QjfGd dG
- YdG e a
NdG npe e kce YH Ff j ,1-4 dG a qdG ,(Amplifier
H e NDoa dG IQTEG eqCG ,VQCGh IYdG H NdG IQTEG Jo .dGh
GP
u n odH kjCG J dG ,dG g aqJ .VQCGh dG
(Medium ) S h N O b h e , (Grounded Emitter Amplifier ) . V Q D d G Y d G
.QdGh ddG a kdY kc aqJ c ,dY N bheh ,dG
dG da
NdG da
N P N Q j f G d d G Y d G e : 1 -4 d G
135
QjfGd cdG-IYdG e
NPN Transistor Common-Base) NPN
QjfGd cdG-IYdG e a
NdG pe e e YdG Ff j ,2-4 dG a dG ,(Amplifier
H e NDoa dG IQTEG eqCG ,VQCGh YdG H NdG IQTEG J .dGh
VQDdG IYdG GP dH dG g kjCG J .VQCGh dG
. (Grounded-Base Amplifier )
dG da
NdG da
N P N Q j f G d c d G I Y d G e : 2 -4 d G
QjfGd dG-qdG e
NPN transistor Common) NPN QjfGd
dG-dG e a
e e dG Ff j ,3-4 dG a dG ,(Collector Amplifiers
dG IQTEG eCG ,VQCGh IYdG H NdG IQTEG J .dGh NdG npe
Power) bdG jqH
k Ue IkOY qdG j .VQCGh YdG H e NDoa
j H , M G h e b C G g Y d G d E G I Y d G e d d G c E G . (Supply
.V N bhe e dY NO bhe dG Gg aj .qdY QdG c
qodG hP dG hCG (Emitter Follower) HdG YdH jCG dG Gg jo
dQGO QjfGJ{ k jCG fG) .(Grounded-Collector Amplifier) VQD dG
. ( f d G d G a (Darlington Transistor Pairs ) z h O d G
136
NdG da
dG da
KCJ QjfGJ Uh a S Id dG dG e
(JFET) dG
dG KCJ QjfGJ Uh a S Id dG dG e a
j ,4 -4 d G a d G , (N-Channel JFET Common-Source Amplifiers )
HGdG H NdG IQTEG J .dGh NdG pe e kce dG Ff
bhe
u n odG Gg aqj .VQCGh dG H e NDoa dG IQTEG eCG ,VQCGh
.MGh e cCG da ch ddGh SdG H N bheh ,dY NO
NdG
dG
dG
u n eo :4-4 dG
Uh a d S I d dG
.dG KCJ QjfGJ
CG
u n odG Gd j .VQCGh dG H e NDoa dG IQTEG eCG ,VQCGh
J dEG OqDj dch ,dY N bhe dEG e NO bhe qj
.ddG GOOd
dG
NdG
dG KCJ QjfGJ Uh a S Id dG dG e
dG KCJ QjfGJ Uh a S Id dG dG
u n eo a
j ,6-4 dG a qdG ,(N-channel JFET Common-Source Amplifiers)
HGdG H NdG IQTEG J .dGh NdG pe e kce dG Ff
e
u n eo qj dc .VQCGh dG H e NDoa dG IQTEG eCG ,VQCGh
h C G (Low Input Capacitance ) W G h N O S O L h Y d G G g j . H J
.Ic NO GQTEG e edG eCG j eY
NdG
dG
. d G K C J Q j f G J U h a d S I d d G d G e : 6 -4 d G
138
u nodG b
GbEG jd kah MGdG OdG dG GP
u n o dG J
Resistance) S - eh dG bn dG g J .(Amplifier Coupling)
dGh ,(Transformer Coupling) qdG b hCG ,bhdG hCG (Capacitance RC
. (Direct Coupling ) T d G
S -ehdG b
d G d , (Resistance-Capacitance (RC) Coupling ) S - e h d G b a
dG a dG ,S-ehdG b d .IkOY dY ehe (Output Load)
dh ,kf SGh GOOJ f V OOd HSG a IL Ge ,7-4
Ye a IOjdG J .Jh dG Gg a e H c j
GOO dG Y dG H (Coupling Capacitor) dG b (Reactance)
Ye a VfG Y a ddG GOOdG Y dG g eqCG .dG
d G g c , M G d (Interelectrode ) d G O h d E G H d G (Reactance )
. (Stages ) M G d G H d G U d (Stray Capacitor ) I O Q d G d G a
.S -ehdG b
u neo :7-4 dG
qdG pbn
ddG IQGdG NH IQGO N b j , (Transformer Coupling) qdG b a
139
dG IOjR j .qdG b
k e 8-4 dG qj .qe SGH
u n od
IkOY dG qe jo .(Step-Up Turns Ratio) aGQ qd jdG f aH
ah (Tuned Radio Frequency Tuned RF) dG jjOGdG GOOdG a
.(Intermediate Frequency Amplifier - IF Amplifier) SdG GOOdG un eo
.qdG b
u neo :8-4 dG
TdG dG
Output of )
dG f VY
(Bandwidth ) b ` f V ` Y ` N e
k LEG (Amplifier) pn odG J
IQGO dG `d .(Untuned) ` J Z hCG ,(Tuned) J f c EG
dGh ,ke `KG `Y hCG (Output) `LN hCG (Input) NO Y (fQ) `J
140
dG OOqJ
Y qa ,kjCG OOdG dEG kf (Amplifier Frequency)
u n odG qJ
GOOqdh ,(AF) dG GOOqdh ,(DC) dG Qd
u n oc ,dG S
dG J W
Class ) h (Class A )
:a e e a ,Jd kah dG g qJ
Amplifier ) d G f d S C G Y J g h , (Class C ) h (Class AB ) h (B
141
H dG a OJ .e a d R fG h Th (Operating Methods
(Sinosoidal ) d G N d G I Q T E G R f G S G H I d G (Quiescent Point ) d G
.9-4 dG qj c ,dG IQTEG da (Magnitude) QGe SGHh
ejdG dG
Eb - Ic
e
A dG
B dG e
C dG e
.A, B, C d G
u neo Y :9 -4 dG
A dG
u neo
142
NdG
. A a I Q d G e : 1 0 -4 d G
B dG
u neo
Push-Pull )
S - a O c d G ,(Class B Amplifier) B d G e
a j d d H h , (Cut Off ) d G Y R e ,11 -4 d G d G a (Amplifier
e Y e C G .N d G I Q TE G d a e a 180 C G I Q hO f d G M d G Q J
B a
u n odG j ddHh .dG QJ aj a NO IQTEG CG dg j
dG dG q J G d .(AC) hdG Q d N dG IQ TEG L e f
B a e e OLh
q CG EG .IQTEG a qJ CG Od A dG e un eo
e
k S G e D j (Push-Pull ) d G - a d G I Q G O a
q c j M ,e Z
.IQTEd cdG dG
NdG
. B a S a O e : 1 1 -4 d G
A- B d G
u neo
d G Q J a j ` H (Class
AB Amplifier ) AB
143
dG e RfG j
. e c I Q h O e b C G N d h (Input Cycle ) N d G I Q h O f e c C G N
Y B a
u n oc
u n odG Gg j
u n och ,IdG GQTEG Y A a
dG qdG H aGdG eqDJ AB dG un eo Ea dHh .IdG GQTEG
.B dG u
n od ddG IAdGh A dG un eo a
C dG
u neo
a j j O G d G G O O d c d G ,(Class C Amplifiers) C d G
u n eo EG
Q J a j H , (Cut Off ) d G H e d E G R e ,12 -4 d G d G
I Q h O e (Positive-Going Peak ) L d G I h Q d G d E G U d G N a d G
d h , (High Power Output ) d Y N I Q b A Y E G Y Q O b
u n odG Gg .NdG
j a dd ,IQTEG a c qJ hM dEG OqDj f bdG a
GOOdG d k GL Se dh .dG fCG J a GSd
J (Inductance-Capacitance Circuit ) L - S I Q G O O L d d G j j O G d G
. (Output ) d G Y e c (Sine Wave ) d G - L e A H I O Y E G
. C a j j O G d G G O O d I Q d G e : 1 2 -4 d G
VdG
u nodG
,13-4 dG dG qjo c ,(Differential Amplifier) VdG d
Y (Applied Voltage ) d G d d G H d G U M e S e N b
dG un eo g NBG SG dG Gd YCG g eh .(Two Inputs) NO
144
H J CG J JdG
u n odG H EG .(Difference Amplifier)
. (Differential Mode ) V J
dG
NdG
.VdG
u n odG :13-4 dG
JdG
u nodG
c
u n eo g (Operational Amplifiers) (op amp) JdG
u n odG EG
m Y
,(Voltage-Feedback High-Gain Amplifier) dd YLSG j J hP
SGH HSGh c Ge OJ .k Ge jo c YLSG jJ jh
JdG dG jo .GOjGdG hCG dGh ehdc LQN fqe
q dG GQGdG e dG GfCG e jdG a SSCG GQGdG e
dG
JdG dG qj .(Monolithic) dG jOMCGh (Hybrid Linear Circuits)
m Y da H
j d (Front End ) e e C G e d G a j f C G c ,109 d E G j
un odG eQ dEG d 14-4 dG fG) .dG (Sensors) dG e
.(JdG
Z NBGh (Inverting) cY NO gMCG NO JdG un od EG
d G , c d G N d G Y ( - ) d d G I Q T E G J h . (Non Inverting ) c Y
Negative Feedback )
o q
me Z Hh ,k GU h J N bh Hh ,(Input Impedance
dh .(Infinite Bandwidth) me Z OOJ f VY dEG aVEH ,(Gain
IQGO LJ dh GqdG g e c dEG JdG
u n odG J b kY
d J CG JdG
u n od j ,iNCG L e .GqdG g L M
jh ,(No Current) kdZ QdG Gg aj ddHh ,k GL dY NO bhe
bhe eqDa JdG
k b IQd cSG
u n odG e NBG dG eCG .k GL
f V Y h , (100 dB d E G j ) k G L Y c Q X d E G O D J k G L V N
. (MHz J g e I Y a e d E G j ) S G h O O J
Infinite)
cY Z NO
N
cY NO
.JdG
u nodG eQ :14 -4 dG
Analog )
Noninverting) c dG Z
u n dG - 2
,(Inverting Amplifier) c dG
. (Summing Amplifier ) e d G d G - 3 , (Amplifier
o
cdG
u nodG
qUj ,15-4 dG a qe g c (Inverting Amplifiers) cdG
u n odG EG
ehe pUJh ,cdG
u n od LdG IQTEG hP hCG ,cdG Z NdG
e h d G e C G . (O u t p u t T er m in al s ) d G j f h c d G N d G H R 2 Y L S G
.(Inverting Minus Terminal) cdG ddG jdGh (Vin) NdG dH qUa R1
.NdG IQTE dH dG IQTEG da a SfG UdG g Y j ,ddH
.cdH kjCG IQGdG g Jo .180 OJo QdG a MGREG g Jh
NO da
N da
.cdG
u nodG eQ :15 -4 dG
qcdG Z dG
i j (Noninverting Amplifiers ) c d G Z
u n odG CG ,16-4 dG qj
R2 h R1 e h d G e C G .(+ ) c d G Z N d G e T e H N d G I Q TE H
.IQGd (Feedback Network) YLSG jJ T eqDa
e c d a E a (Virtual Ground ) g d G V Q C G U d G O L h H h
d a J h ,Vin N d G d a h J ( + ) c d G Z h ( - ) c d G N d G
.cdG Z dG a QdG a dG da e He NdG
147
NO da
N da
. c d G Z d d G d G : 1 6 -4 d G
edG
u nodG
(Summing Amplifier) edG
u n o dG GQGO CG 17-4 dG qV j
(Negative Sum) d dG dG e (Proportional) kjOW Sj H qJ
dd ddG d kjhe dG dG a Gg jh .NdG dd
. j h e R1 h ,R2 h ,R3 h ,R4 e h d G b f c G P E G V1 ,V2 ,V3 d G N d G
jhe d aGdG ehd b e Ne aVEG dM a kU Gg jh
fSG a jhe Z ehe aVEG dM a eCG .IOLdG ehdG d
.(Accurate Sum) bO L dGE Ud qe (Scale Factor) Sb eGH
N da
.edG d dG dG :17 -4 dG
HHdG
IQb jH (AC) N IQTEG fEG Y IQOb IQGO g (Oscillators) HpHnodG
qL eEG J CG H H dG d j .(AC) Q J IQ b dEG (DC) Q J
148
jdG Qe
YLSG
1>
c
dG
dG
. S S C G H d G I Q G d d G S d G : 1 8 -4 d G
: C G , H H d (Barkhausen Conditions ) R c H W H W d G G g j
149
. H c C G hC G 1 O j d G c- 1
.360 h C G k G U O j d G Q W M G R E G- 2
,k
u n eo j CG IQGdG a qdG RdG Y j WdG jg eCd
.A d G Y H k GR e j C G j h
aUdG HHdG a SSCG dqdG UdG MCG ZqdG eu dG fc
HHdG Y eCG
jOGdG OOqdG HHod UdGh dG SdG e jdG g Vj
dEG fh .dG Z HHd dch keGSGh IT cCG dGh dG
dd dPh ,GQjfGJ g dG SdG a edG
u n odG CG
d jdG eGSG e dh ,GQGdG J qd QdG a a
150
151
dG qdG HHe
dG a qdG , (Tuned-Collector Oscillators) qdG qdG HodG EG
j J e , L L e GP j jOGQ GOOq J H eo g ,20-4 dG
qd f dG dG e f dG IQG dG EG .LC qfQ IQGd Y L SG
IYdGh , qdG IQGO a GO L e ,C3 IqdG dGh (Transfomer T1)
e IOdG YLSG jdG Y dG J bh ,VQCH kfL dUe
T1 dG qd QdG aGJ jCG J . (Transfomer T1) d dhCG dG
q
q
Oa HdG OOJ eCG .HdG YLSG jdG eCd T1`d dhqCG dG
G b E G Q a H J d G h (Tunable Resonant Tank ) d H d G f d G f R N e
jJ IQGO fRN e MEH fGbEG J pdG CG H .Q1 IYb e fRdG e bdG
.V fj LdG J Th gOOJ QGSG Ea ,OOdG
dG
zSH{ HHe
fQ IQGO He g ,21-4 dG dG a dG ,qdG HodG EG
Peirce) zSH{ He j .L Le GP (Crystal Resonant-Circuit) jQqH
q
152
F Vh c JQG c IQ q H (Oscillators
Series Resonant ) d G Y f Q I Q G c J (piezoelectric Quartz Crystal
IQqH aJ .(Q1) FET QjfGd (Drain) dGh (Gate) HGdG H (Circuit
dG b e dG a 0.01 `H QqJ b Y HdG OOJ Y JQGdG
(Active Element) qa c (FET) QjfGJ GSG EG .(Nominal Value)
:HjEG d IQGdG a
Very High Q) k G L d Y Q H
. z S H { H e : 2 1 -4 d G
zJQg{ HHe
g ,22-4 dG dG a qdG , (Hartley Oscillators) JQg Heo EG
.(LC) qfQ IQGd YLSG jJ e ,L Le GP jjOGQ GOOqJ He
d G f d G f N I Q G O a I M G h J e h (Tapped Coil ) e e d h
153
dG
. J Q g H e : 2 2 -4 d G
zdc{ HpHneo
Heo g ,23-4 dG a qdG ,(Colpitts Oscillators) dc Heo EG
He j fEG .fQ IQGd YLSG jJ e ,L Le GP jjOGQ GOOJ
dEG qj Q1 (Transistor Amplifier)
u n odG QjfGdG YH CG ASH JQg
, I O Y . (LC Resonant Tank Circuit ) f d G R d G I Q G d d G f L e f
GPEG HdG OOJ J jh ,dG IQGO IYb H qUdG C2 dG J
154
fc
q
q
QdG e d YLSG jdG jJ j .HdG QdG MGRGE C2h C1 (Divider
Coupling) C3 dG dG N e Q1 I Y b dGE IQG dG R N a a dG
.(UHF) ddG a e GOOdG dGE j qL Le OOJ dJ jh .(Capacitor
dG
. d c H e : 2 3 -4 d G
qdG HHdG
He g ,dG a q dG , (Clapp Oscillators) qdG Ho dG EG
He j fEG .qfQ IQGd YLSG jJ e ,L Le GP jjOGQ GOOJ
R d G I Q GO a d G Y C1 L1 f Q I Q G H d SG K d G C G A S H d c
dG
.e He :24-4 dG
155
dG
. Q d G M G R E G H e : 2 5 -4 d G
za{ Ib HHe
g ,26-4 dG a qdG (Wien-Bridge Oscillators) a Ib Heo EG
156
dG
.a -L Heo :26-4 dG
fdG HHodG
g ,27-4 dG a q dG , (Blocking Oscillators) fdG HodG EG
eR Ia J ,b bh a bdG dY f dJ j ,L Z Heo
Gg jo .IQGdG a IOLdG dqdG UdG dN qJ hCG J jW
Qch ,(Synchronized) eGe hCG (Free-Running) qM - Hc HdG
j H qch ,(Steep Wave Front Pulse) d eeCG LdG QGf
Q1 MGh u
n eo QjfGJ Y Y a HdG Gg j .AC dEG DC e QdG
157
Gb E G j d G d G H H j Q d G Q1 Q j f G d G Q j e Y . a
O j d G Y Y H J C G C1 d G a j e e C G d E G Q j f G d G I Y b
IYd dS RfG jQJ H OGOjh .(Forward Bias Diode) keeCG RdG
gY qe b dEG UdG M C1 T jh .C1
n rjo eY HdG N
f e MGh Ad QGfG dqj .QfH HHdG CGJh qdG QJ jo
jH C1 dG CGJ gY .qdG Qd jdG dG dEG dP Ojh dG
YLSG jJ J .jL e HHdG OJh IYdG Y dG ajo M pT
QdG
q S Le fdG HodG dqj ddHh .IYd SdG QdG MGRE
dG TCG e q pU NGO fhdEG M d S e (Sawtooth)
. (Cathode-Ray Tube )
T1
158
159
e d G dG
eT If
(Rectifier Bridges ) j d G W d G
eT If
c e QuW dG QOdG fCG Y SSCG fhdEG GQGdG H gH
H IQcdG SSCG GQGdG Y qjh .GQGd odG edG e
d G J h C G , (Wave Shaping ) L d G J Y j e a , d G
g e QqJ bh .(Signal Conversion) IQTEG jJ hCG ,(Pulse Forming)
159
dG
H
q dG GQGdG
IQGO e ,1-5 dG a qe g c ,(Flip-Flop Circuits) H
q dG IQGdG dCJ
JdG ddG GP ,jQjfGJ e fqe ,(Multivibrator) RGgG IOe
Y Q2 b j M a Q1 Q j f G J j , d h C G d d G a . (Stable States )
j d G j h . Y Q2 UG j M a d G Y Q1 b j M M e a h . Y
d d G d G I Q T E G J h , (Trigger Signal ) b I Q T E G S G H J Q T E G J g H
f J CG H
q dG IQGd j ,Qqdh d .dhCG ddG dEG IQGdG IOYEH
HCG fd e H
q dG GQGdG qJo .NdG f e hR d IMGh N
160
J P E G , (Toggle Switch ) F H c a J c J a , I c G d G G Q G O G f C G
HdG GQGdG J c bh .IjL b IQTEG qJ qM f ddG a
Bistable) QGSG FdG RG gG IO dG IQG d H a a , JG e O d
Tigger) dG IQGO hCG ,(Eccles Jordan) OQ L cEG IQGO hCG ,(Multivibrator
D) :g SSCG H
q d G G Q G d G e I d G h d G H Q C G G Q G d G h . (Circuit
fqe gh ,(T Flip-Flop)h ,(R-S Flip-Flop)h ,(J-K Flip-Flop)h (Flip-Flop
MGREG
q eh ,(Binary Counters) FdG GOGqdc k GJ cCG GQGd FH
Flip ) z H
q dG GQGqdG J{ fG ,jEG e jd( .(Shift Registers)
G Q G d G h b d G d G G Q G O { d c h .9 d G a (Flop Circuit Variations
. (Digital Logic and Integrated Circuits ) z e d G
zT{- b IQGO
FK b IQGO fCG g (Schmitt- Trigger Circuits) dG IQGO Y jo
L e d E G (AC ) h e Q J N O G Q T E G j J Y J h , (Bistable ) Q G S G
f Y d G Y J . (Switching Action ) j J
m d f dG Y Hqe
aJ .NdG IQTE ddGh LdG LQCdG e c a ke IOe qeo
(Threshold Voltage ) Y d a d d G i J M (Off ) d G d M Y I Q G d G
dEG QGfG jT H dG da JJh ,IQGdG Jo eY .dG IOe
dG da e bCG dEG NdG da J eY dG g qJh .HK b
GO eh .jS H dG f dEG dG da OJ ,k GNCG .kHS IOdG
J jh .jL e QS HSG Ea kqe j (AC) QdG Le T
(Rectangular) e hCG (Square Wave) Hqe Le dEG LM g J eY
T jd IkOY zT{ dG GQGO J .HK (Amplitude) JH
Sequare or ) d G h C G H d G d G d E G (Sine Waveform ) d G L d G
. (Rectangular
161
dG
dG
dG -bn ILCG
MGREG e Y IQY g (Charge-Coupled Devices - CCDs) T bn RL
J dG dG iMEG Y j ,(Semiconductor Shift Register) qUe T
We N T Y (CCD) `dG sjo .f RdG a f qNh j J
e (FET ) d G K C J Q j f G J J M G e a (Interconnected String )
(MOSFET ) hCG (Metal-Oxide Semiconductor) - qU e T cCG - e
dG a (MOSFET) hCG Y da qJ eY .IMGh IcH cQdG
d ddG dG EG .T J Y jo qe jS PSG e qJ
IMGh c MGdG H qa gQhH qJ dG j ddG MGdG a
. (4 -5 V d G d G Y W G ,CCD Y S ) . I M Y
q e (P ) L e f f S I c Q e (CCDs ) I L C G d C J
fK H I
Metal-Gate ) H G H - e G O h d E G S J j . d R d G (SiO2 ) d G c C G
, d R d G d G O G e G Y U V d G H e H Q e L (Electrodes
Ea Le f e g IcdG CG H .MGh da -IQTEG QH qUeh
I c Q S G e E H h , (Minority Carriers ) b C G e M g g f h d E G
.bCG eM (Holes) dG Jo gYh ,(N) dS f
Y dG ddG bH e cCG dS dd (Gate 1) 1 HGdG VqJ eY
( (Well ) H j h C G ) P S G e J 1 H G d G e d G d G Y G H C G
e Ye ,hdEG T , dG g J .HG dG J IR c dG a
g e cCG dS 2 HGdG Y ddG UCG e GPEG dh .fdG edG
.4-5 dG a seo g c dG dEG dGh dG J 1 HGdG a Y
H iNCG dEG HGH e qd ddG Y Qj eY dG g Jh
qfCch RdG W Y jW fdG n
o dG Jo gYh ,q eoh H qe
. (Bucket-Brigade Sequence ) e A O c
163
q J j d
a qdG ,(CCD) `dG a dG d dG GAdG
d G . J Y J , ( F G h C G (CCD ) I L C G Y I d G ) 4 -5 d G
e L h O e W G P i N C H (Metal Gates ) f d G H G d G G S G g h C G
I b O L h a f d G d G e C G . (Double-Level Polysilicon ) S d d G
j (N ) d S f f d G d G A f C G M d G e . (Buried Channel ) a O
hCG ,(Implantation) QdG SGH hCG ,(Epitaxial Growth) QqH f jW Y eEG
e c qSJ CG b Le f dG e IRcQ Y ,(Diffusion) QfH
.R dG (SiO2) dG cCG f Kh (Conductive Gates) bdG HGdG
. (Buried N- Type Channel ) a O d S f I b d G g Y j d d H h
hCG (Analog) KJ IQTEG eEG J CG (CCD) `dG a fqdG dG
o d j
(Scanned ) e f e E G (CCD ) ` d G a e G e e h . b d G G e d G h
GQTEG dEG dG (Light Intensity) AdG IqM fCG a GdG q d
Cell) jdG jRJ ac Ea GdG d kJ .fjJ IQU fE FHc
q
qUdG TCG ILCG a jRdG ac e cCG GqdG e (Packing Density
GOOqH dG Y QOb gh ,k GL b bW (CCD) `dG j dc .iNCG
Charged-Coupled Device) zdG pb RL Gec{ 19 dG fG) .dY
Television) zSG Ld Jh f j dG dG{`H S dG ,(Cameras
. ( (Broadcasting and Receiving Technology
fe GOhdEG
fS IcQ
d R d G SiO 2 W
a fe cM T
ec bW H
dG JG
.(CCD ) dG pb RL :4-5 dG
jdG GQGO
MGh (Rectifier Diode) qe OjGO e (Rectifier Circuits) jdG IQGO J
J EG .(DC) dEG (AC) e QJ qe hCG qc Jh ,GOjGO IY e hCG
Single Phase) Q dG jO MCG e d k eG SG cCG dG GQG dG
q
: d d G d G Y g b d G Q O d (Rectification
dG a dG (Half-Wave Rectifier Circuit) LdG f qdG IQGO -1
.C G- 5 -5 d G
165
q
q
. ( - 5 -5 d G ) , (Rectifier Circuit
(Full-Wave
LdG e c e I b IQGO -3
. (6 -5 d G )
dG
DC
dG
qdG cdG qdG ( ,LdG f qdG (CG :QdG OMCG qdG GQGO :5-5 dG
.LdG ec
DC
dG
jdG WdG
qVe fqc GSCG a Ia dG (Rectifier Bridges) jdG W b EG
,QdG jOMCG ec Le jd qUe jJ GOjGO HQCG e fqe IQd
qe aJ dEG aVEH ,ec Le jd qUe eqe GOjGO S GP iNCGh
c e Jh bdG aJ a ke qe Le fdh .QdG KK (AC)
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q N
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j dG IO dG q e e hCG (Pairs of Schottky) J T e e e GhRCG
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j ,k GNCGh .fe hCG SH IOe e jQe Y NGO Ve ,(Supplies
a JGqe
q Joh ddG ceCG UGdG V ke jqdG Wb a
b e qJ hCG ,(Under Writers Laboratories - UL) dG qSDe e
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167
b I Q G O h C G ( Z e r o - V o l t a g e
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168
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p
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q eo qJo
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q odG
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169
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H dG dG eqDj , He (Photodetector) FV e dEG (Signal
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170
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q eo GbE dG M
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172
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173
174
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175
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jh .LhOdG Xh H (Reciprocal Device) dOdG RdH kjCG qjh
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dG LC e GOOqJ Y kjJ de AGOCG Y d dG
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a pVh dhO bJG b a ,FGd dOdG UdG e ZdG Y
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j bh .c hCG ,J OOqJ hCG ,JJ SSCG Y FGdG qJo
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178
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179
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c e Y d i e Y C G a (I ) Q d G a L d G f F G g a e C G
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J Me j (Z=E/I) dOdG J Yh .ce a Jj e fOCG
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Y ( d G c Q YG e ) 2500 ohm h c d G Y 73 ohm d G M b h d G a
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kH J dG ehdG b SQEG N W Y OLdG FGdG Oj
g bdG g Ea FGdG a j dG dG gJ GPEGh .dqdG bW e
e dG f QJn dG ehdG b qJh .kYTEG AdG a J dG bdG
. (Radiation Resistance ) z Y T E G e h d G { ` H F G d G e I Q d G
FGdG SG
dG VYh dG VY
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181
182
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c J N e Directional g J G c C G J H F G d G U e E H
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qJoh .gJG a VGh q J eCJ LCG e Mqe H J dG dG
, (Arrays ) z a d G { ` ` H (Multielement Antennas ) U d G I O d G F G d G
Y keGSG gUY cCG h .YGfCGh UdG OY N e gjGe OJ dG
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; (Reflectors ) c d G -2
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u d Gh -3
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L H J (Parasitic Elements ) W U Y Y I Q Y a L
u dGh cdG
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. (Yagi-Uda Antenna ) G O h C G - Z j F G g , d e h . z d G a d G F G g { ` H
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dG FK LdG f J dG U dG e cCG hCG KG Jh
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:g bdG adG e SSCG
; (Broadside ) d G j Y -1
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dH d qdG iNCG (Array Antennas) adG FGg J
, (Log-Periodic Antenna ) J Q Z d G M d G F G d G : M G h J G a h i b
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. (Phased-Array Antenna ) Q d G a e F G d G h
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183
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a (Direct-Aperture Antenna) ITdG dG FGg U J eE H
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dch ,TCG IOdG UdG fdG SCG e IOSG Y IQOb
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eh .UdG dG hCG SCG Y c H J dG dG OOdG
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m c T C G J d G (Pyramidal Horns ) e d G
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dG dH dG eEHh .SG Y dG J e bdG dGREGh
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(Three-Dimensional Reflector ) O H C G K d G c d G Q j i N C G M f e
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q Jh . d dG GOO dG a (Backward Radiation)
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184
q
c dGh ;(Corner Reflectors) ct dG c dGh ;(Plane Sheet Reflector)
. (Parabolic Reflectors ) g E G
dPh ,ae mbn g a kFL qe cdG WhdG dG FGg EG
L dG e a (Feed Horn) jdG H Y JdG NGdG e d
f e Jd jhdG LdG fCG a cdG g Jh .dG
J V Q C G d G a (Point-to-Point Microwave Systems ) f d E G
d G A V d G h (Broadband ) S G d G d G j G e H d P h , J G d G
.k GL
O h e A a a J j g J G (RF ) Y T E a , i N C G M f e
N G O e h d G e d G (RF ) b W L
q Jh .cdG fCG e KG GSH
dh .T g a d FdG cdG dEG J IBGe dEG cdG ce
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185
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(T d G H ) F d G F G d G
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186
e b
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187
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W f C G O Q d G F G g 1 0 -6 d G
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189
fhdG FGdG
f e g ,11-6 dG a qdG ,(Helical Antennas) fhdG FGdG GE
E G FGdG
he fCG GE ,Fb jhGH Ue (Helix) hM H dG YT
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d cdG UdG SGH IOY MGh W e fhdG FGdG jJ J
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190
bdG qodG
Le FGg g ,12-6 dG a qdG , (Horn Radiators)bdG qdG EG
QdG dEG ,e hCG FGO ,Le dO GWCG M SH e jhe
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191
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Whe IQJ
QdG e jJ N
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FGg g ,14-6 dG a qdG , (Discone Antenna)FGdG e dG Gg
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d cdG UdG jh .kUb qd jQe MCG
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QdG e jJ N
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192
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q e fe bbQ
(RF ) I Q b U j L e d O h C G (RF ) I Q b Q H d U e
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FK S fqj dG dG d kjhe j dG e dG FHdG
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a dG qb N e Le dO a MGh JH qe T J jh
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q dG j CG jh .LdG dO QGL a Veh qe be
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dG Y d kYT kq b a ,-15-6 dG eCG .LdG dd jdG LdG
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Le f b FK
hddG AdG
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FGdG 16-6 dG
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194
. FG dG dEG UG dG SQEG N
Y dG
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A d G G g C d P h , F G d G S Q E G N e (Y ) A d G e j d G A G L C G H J
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q
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jR FGg
S hP FGg g ,17-6 dG a qdG ,(Zepp Antennas) jR FGg EG
.kjJ LdG W f V dW hjh (Horizontal wire Antenna) aCG
N e e MGh JG S SGH MGh W e FGdG Gg jJ jh
.LdG W f V kjCG dW hj dGh S e dsDdG SQEG
L e f FG g
L dG FG g hCG
ffdG jdG
RGY
RY
jR je
jR FGg 17-6 dG
dG FGdG
FGdG GfCG MCG g 18-6 dG a qdG ,(Cage Antennas) FGdG Gg EG
U d G e j d G F G d G G d h . (Open Dipole Antenna ) d G d G F K
H d UdG jFGdG dG e RmGeh aCG H dG TdG
Single-Wire ) M Gh S P F K c J d H T f G SC G
195
Ue
jRGe
e c
Z QdG
RGe
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FGdG ae
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bdG g
q H d (Driven Elements ) b d G U d G e b d G U e G Y
. N B G J G a c H b j h M G h J H (Gain ) d G O G O j H
bdG UdG e RmGe H YVdG IdG dG UdG qJ
WCG odG UdG eCG .(Directors) zL
u odG{`H bCG TEG JH
Minimum ) f OC G TE G J H d G F G d G e RG e H Y V d Gh
an c bdG ad EG .(Reflectors) zcdG{`H a (Radiation
dG jGe Y dG e YCG IQb H feEHh ,dG adG e bCG
.dG ad (Narrow Beam) qdG
,dG H e ,LdG f bdG FGdG e OY cJ J GPEG
qe JH H e Jo ,jOa UY Y f HCG dEG bdG J H
kgJG ke f FG dG f q jo d dG g ah , NBG JG a Jh
,Se H FGdG qJ dG bdG QW V N eh .(Directional)
,dG JG a bdG J ,bH AdG a UdG jJ dEG aVEH
196
fGa FGg
f e g ,19-6 dG a qdG ,(Franklin Antennas)fGa FGg EG
UY S e dCjh ,(Collinear Dipole Array) dG FK eodG adG
j f H J d G d G a j J J h . (Half-Wave Elements ) L e f
ehQCG Uh jh .dG H e jQW j e ,LhOdG dG
d G F K e I Q h e G h R C G j f H (Quarter-Wave Stubs ) L d G H Q
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Le HQ ehQCG
SQG N
. f G a F G g 1 9 -6 d G
ee UY
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20-6 dG
FdG dG ae FGg
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q N
Qe W OGeG Y TEd bCG JG a j UY HQCG e
c jdG fdG JH dh ,dG j c (jdG e kbfGh) adG
J CG FdG dG ad jh .SG GH IqdG adG dM a
d E G a V E H h . (Bidirectional ) J G F K h C G , (Unidirectional ) J G j O M C G
Ljh .f dG V Jh H e jRGe adG UY Ea ,dP
(Phase ) Q d G f E H e b h e f j C G (Feed System ) j d G f Y
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SQEG N
dG FK
dG JG
NdG GWCG
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q dG ae FGg 21-6 dG
198
jQdG FGdG
FGd OGeG g ,22-6 dG a qdG , (Harp Antennas)IQdG FGg EG
q dG e O Y e dC jh ,(Ground Plane Antenna) dG VQCG
c C G W j . d G a W Y a C G U H d U d G j O d G (Radiators )
iNCG dG GWCG bJ a ,dG Le W HQ dEG
k W dG g
FGdG Gg H ie Oj .LdG W Ko dGM dEG gbCG W j M
Oqe FGdG Gg H f EG c ,jOdG qdG bCGh WCG N e
.kjCG gJG
RGe Z QdG e c
GOhCG Zj FGg
ae g ,23-6 dG a qdG ,(Yagi-Uda Antenna) GOhCG Zj FGg EG
e FK b Y IkOY jh (Parasitic End-Fire Array) W Ff H
Parasitic ) W c Y e (Driven Half-Wavelength Dipole ) L d G W H
c d G e c C G h C G K K h , d G F d G d G e M G h W Y (Reflectors
idG Y RmGe H UdG g c cqJo .e NBG dG Y dG
e WCG cdG W jh .LdG W HQ hJ YJ aHh ,f
eqDj .LdG W f e bCG a LdG W eCG ,LdG W f
j J h ( M o d e r a t e D i r e c t i v i t y ) d e g J G G P J G O M C G k Y T F G d G G g
199
jdG N
dG JG
. G O h C G - Z j F G g 2 3 -6 d G
RY b
LdG QfG JG
fe b Ia
. R Y b F G g 2 4 -6 d G
200
jdG dG FGg ae
dG IOdG FGdG
h C G I M G h L e W d E G I O Y (Single-Wire Antennas ) F G d G G g W j
a jdG UdG TEG f jh .IOY kffe hCG kWe j h ,cCG
Y j .dG OOqJ Le W GMH Sjoh dW Y dG dG AdG
e O Y e (Multilobed Patterns) UdG IO e fCG IO dG SCG
OdG FGdG jh Gg .UdG Le GWCG fCG Od hme UdG
a U d G g e H , (Resistor ) h H D h f E G J d G h , j d G , d G
j d dG dG TEG f CG EG ,dG Y LdG a J dG JG
. (Symmetrical )
k KJ cCG j DhfEG
V `dG FGg
He he
j
f
G
d
. V ` d G F G g 2 5 -6 d G
201
dG dG FGdG
e ,26-6 dG a qdG ,(Rhombic Antenna) dG dG FGdG dCj
Jh ,SdH TCG H QmGS HQCG H e jW SCG GP FGg HQCG
jdG d HdG dG c GPEGh .MGh W e IQTEH edG jJ
.adG H (Bidirectional) JG FK HSG dh ,fpe FGda kMe
OMCG j ,(fe Z FGg) He ehH dG dG AfEG J EG dh
Ua oJh .(Terminal Apex) FdG dG f (Unidirectional) JG
FGdG Gd EG .(Major Lobe) kFQ kq a d QW H HQCG GWCG
.kV 40h 20 H hGj H (Dipole) dG FK FGdG c j kc
JG OMCG QfG
He he
RGY
j
dG
.dG FGdG 26 -6 dG
SdGh FGdG cY
gEG FGdG
Y ,27-6 dG a qdG ,(Parabolic Antennas) gEG FGdG j
202
RLh IQTEG qe
dG dG
OSEG o Y
S d g E G F G g 2 7 -6 d G
.fjdG
(CG)
()
()
dG Y FGg
kf J dG jhdG Ld q e (Pillbox Antennas) FGg gh
q N k Y TEG
H FGdG Gd gEG fGSCG cdG j .k
MGh f QfH d j H JYeh cdG Y jOY jRGe
e (RF ) b W j J J . (29 -6 d G ) d G S G J H G Q T E G e
.cd jQDdG dG Y e H
jRGe FU
Le dO
H
gG jT
. d G h U F G g 2 9 -6 d G
204
jSc FGg
FGg g ,30-6 dG a qdG ,(Cassegrain Antenna) jSc FGg EG
cY S H hCG Y cqe jJ T hP jhdG Ld q e
q e FGR bn f K c Y f (Radiator) qdG L
q Jo .FQ gEG
IQDH Y e qdG QDH J H (Convex Hyperboloidal Subreflector)
e FGR b fK cY
Le dO hCG N
Je TCG
cdG IQDH
jJ
gEG cY
FK b
. j G h d G e c Y F G g 3 1 -6 d G
205
fd SY
Ico Y IQY g ,32-6 dG a qdG ,(Luneberg Lenses) fd SY EG
dY jjOGQ bW cJ Y JQd dPh FGg fCG Y qe FHc RY e
kNGO kjRJ dG jhdG SdG d EG .jGe c Y dh ,OOdG
.IdG ce e adG J e Gqj QfG eeoh Yn HKh e Z
M a dGREG hCG ,SQEG M a IQDdG Y b d H S dG j J j
e S d G Y Q O d G (Pencil Beam ) d G d G L J j h . S G
.jdG f Ve J N
jRGe TCG
SY
e Le L
jJ H
. f d S Y F G g 3 2 -6 d G
jdG dG FGg
hdG FK FGdG
,33-6 dG a q dG ,(Biconical Antenna) hdG FK FGd EG
,HdG gb J H e Qe Y qe qfe Whe
206
hdG IQJ
SQEG N
hdG IQJ
. h d G F K F G g 3 3 -6 d G
ie S Y ,34-6 dG a dG dG OMCG FG dG cs jo
dG OMCG FGg
VQCG dG
jdG
QdG e jJ N
207
. d G O M C G F G g 3 4 -6 d G
jdG dG FK FGdG
dG a qdG ,(Folded Dipole Antennas) dG FK
q dG FGdG EG
(Half Wave Dipoles ) L d G f F K b e h R Y I Q Y g ,35 -6
Center ) j c d G b h d G I O j d I O Y H e j d G U J h , j d G H e
e qdG SQEG N a 300 ohm `dG HJ d 300 ohm dEG (Impedance
EG .(Balun) zddG{``H qdG HdG RL SG dEG LdG hO S
f dG FK FGdG a LdG dG e cCG Le S FGdG Gd
.37 ohm b h d G P , (Half-Wave Open Dipole ) d G L d G
SQEG N
FK FGg
dG
.e dG
35 -6
(e)T
Ue T hCG U
hCG jQS
eM
fe
SQEG N
208
SGdG dG GP dG FK
dG a qdG ,(Broadband Dipoles)dG SGh dG FK J
dG jh .(Broadband) SGdG dH SEGh SQEd kN ,37-6
HQCG f e b FK -37-6 dG j a ,kjJ b FK CG-37-6
e hCG (Stiff Wire) U S e eEG onjo dGh ,(The Bow-Tie Dipole) TGdG
q e fe qe
FK U j .dG Y OY H YVe
fe FU e ,-37-6 dG a qdc ,(Fan Dipole) Mhe b
q e
Twin ) e C G d G a d G hC G , SQ E G N Uh f e b c J h .
,TGdG HQCG T dG FK e
k c E G . Q d G d G d G h C G , (Leads
e E H h . f j d G UHF `d G L e S S e , M h d G d G F K h
S qe ,FGg c N Vho GPEG (Signal Pickup) IQTEG dG J
.IU Md H
qUdG FGdG
dG FK MdG adG
dG a qdG ,(Log-Periodic Dipole Array) dG FK FGdG Gg EG
AGLCG GWCG OGOJ .dG FK j dG dG a e f e g ,38-6
QJh .SQEG N Qe e a dG IO jR e g Y Jh g a dG
YTEG dG EG .UdG FdG bCG UY H bGe a UdG
. Q d G f (Backfire ) d G f G J H h , J G O M C G g F G d G G d
.Me ae SG J IOe GfCG e MGh f g FGdG Gg
209
(CG)
()
d G F G g G f C G 37-6 d G
,dG - CG :dG FK jdG
- h ,TGdG HQCG T hCG dG .Mhe dG FK
()
SQEG N
dG FK
210
F G g 3 8 -6 d G
F K M dG a dG
.dG
dG FK
(WfCG) M c
SQEG N
gJH
FGg
dG
.ee QPCG YHQ
3 9 -6
Whe H cY FGg
e qdG , (Conical-Horn Reflector Antennas) FGdG e dG Gd EG
gEG cdG AL
TEG
dG (a) K
SQEG H
RF NO
H cY FGg 40-6 dG
.Whe
211
212
H d G dG
eT If
QdG dG dG Y SQEG
(Coaxial Cable Transmission )
Circuits - MMICs)
LdG dO Y SQEG
jhdG LdG fe
(Waveguide Transmission )
(Microwave Couplers )
LdG dO Y SQEG fCG
jhdG LdG QW je
(Waveguide Transmission Modes )
(Microwave Phase Shifters )
LdG dO Heh pbn
jhdG LdG ge
(Waveguide Coupling Matching )
(Microwave Attenuators )
jhdG Ld ddG eMCG
SEG - SQEG e
(Microwave Strip lines )
(Transmit Receive (TR) Switches)
jhdG LdG eU
(Radio Telescopes) jjOGdG HdG
(Microwave Tubes )
` jdG ` jjEG SGH dqdG HHdGG (Magnetron Modulators) hdG eo
(YIG- Tuned Oscillators) fQdGhn
(Masers) GQdG jhdG Ld YdG FdG edG
(Microwave Diodes)
213
eT If
d G a (Ultra-High Frequency- UHF ) d G F d G G O O d G f j
L d G d G b j h , (1 GHz h C G ) 1000 MHz d E G 300 MHz e e h d G
f j h .30 cm d E G 100 cm e d G G g V b G d G (Wave length )
(1GHz) UHF ` d G d d G O h d G e (Microwave Band ) j h d G L d G
S J h 40 GHz O O d G Y (Millimeter Region ) d G e a f d G O h d G d E G
S a .GdH hCG GdH eEG dG Gg V bGdG GOOdG
C G) 0.65 cm d E G b j h cm 30 g 1 GHz OO d G Y L d G W j , d G
a Jh 40 GHz `dG a qdG f GOOJ CGJ 40 GHz OOdG Y (7.5 mm
,OOdG H UdG U 1-7 hdG pjoh 100 GHz `dG Y dG dG
. (Band Designation ) d G d O h , L d G d G h
f Yh UHF `dG f e dG dG Y jjOGdG GOOqdG KCJ j
dch VHF k GL ddG GOOdG f Y ,jdGh jhdG LdG
UdG Y dSQEGh jjOGdG GOOdG dJ C dPh .dG GOOdG
jJ J Y YaO QGOGQ f hCG c d .e FGH j dG AdG ah
GQGOGQ ,dGReh .qodG Fa GOOdG f a j fdG ddG dG N
.Gg ej M dG Gg V J idG IH dG
b j h d G L d G f G S G g C G Y G Q N G e O Y Lo C G d
.jhdG LdG GOOqd dO e 1-7 hdG
(GHz) OOqdG
LdG W
(cm )
qdG f
214
G d G I O e f h c h , (TWTAs ) J d G L d G U
q eh
. (High Power Multicavity Klystrons ) I Q d G d Y
Solid-State )
QdG e dG Y SQEG
V G Z C (Coaxial Cable Transmission ) Q d G d G d G G S G j
L dGh (UHF) qo dG F a GOOq dG fh jOG dG OOq dG b W SQEG
e U e S Y (Two-Wire Cable ) d G h P d G j h . j h d G
SdG jL e IkOY e ,fGSCG fe AH
l qe NGO QdG
SGH H Y UdG
o Joh .(Woven Copper Wire Braid) hdG
.SdG JGQ e JOe Jo ,(Dielectric Sleeve) FHc Y Z
jGdG Y IQTEG SQEG d QdG dG dG Q NG j
GJ AGLEG N e dG a jGdG H dG jh .d FHdG
g dG Gg jGe gCG e IMGh EG .dG d edG OGdG ah OHCG a
.QdG aqJ V dG jj dG fdG e fCH qJ dG ,Z0 bhdG
LQdGh NGdG UdG H dG dG N e kjCG qJo CG jh
216
dG
q d I O d (Dielectric Constant ) F H d G d G H K e d G b Y h
. (Core Material )
bhdG J eY QdG dG dG a idG IQdG H j
d G h , j O G d G O O d G N h , S d (Characteristic Impedances ) I d G
ehdG SCG e kS a dG c keJ HdG c GPEGh .jhe (FGdG hCG)
Reflection) SfG Y kJf dG c HdG fG EGh .(gdG) dG a
Y , d h ,ohms ` d H Q d G d G d I d G b h d G S J . (Losses
IdG dG sJ .dG H J ,UdG a ehdG Y
.5 ohms `dGh ,75 ,50 bhdG Hd IkOY QdG
d f d G d G Y , Q d G d G d G a (Capacitance ) d G J
eY FHdG bdG jH J dG FHdG RGdGh JUe FNh
,dG J .FHdG dG a e bh a e U dG J
FHdG dG HK Yh ,Ud LQdGh NGdG dG Y ,bhdc
e dG OGOJ ,ddHh .(Reciprocal) jOOqJ bY g bdG g EG EG tpd
a FHdG dG Y sj .FHdG dG HK f d c a bhdG bJ
. (pf/ft ) h C G (Picofarads per Foot ) d G / O G Q a d H Q d G d G d G
IMh a FHdG IQdG ran fCG Y ,QdG dG dG a gdG sjo
F H d G d G h U d G f d G j h . d G e (Unit Length ) W
bJ H gdG M e qJo UdG M IOjR CG EG ,TEG dch
GSH ,HK dG OHCG AHEG AKCG ,UdG M IOjR jh .FHdG dG
b 100 d SdH gdG Sjo .e Y HK GP kFHc dRY OGe
. (dB/100 ft )
bdG SQEG YS QG H ,(Speed of Propagation) QfEG YS s Jo
dG) AGdG a SQEG YS QGe e fQe QdG dG dG a FHdG
Yh .FHdG dG HK e kY YdG g SJh .(dG a 100 J
.SQEG YS IOjH dG FHdG dG HK j dP
217
LdG dO Y SQEG
Y jjOGdG bdG j qe fe U g (Waveguide) LdG dO EG
gh .QJ aqJ jW Y dh ehc mM T Y Ze e
Two Conductors) npUdG hP SQEG Nh QdG dG dG e jH
Lj .jhe GQTEGh UHF GOOqJ SQE dG (Transmission line
FO kjCG J .FGdGh dG g ,LdG ddG GfCG e SSCG Yf
kFHc dRY U IOe hCG ,AGg H j dG jRGdG fdG FdG mLe
.jdG dCGh ,kFHc dRY b ,
a a CG j H FdG NGO FHdGh dG dG on Jo
GQdG a IQGM H jo b bdG H CG Y .TEG N e IQdG
a FHdG RdG H dG eCG .k GL lV bW fCG EG , dd UdG
WEG j .(Inert Gas) eN RZ hCG AGH IkOY k GAe j ddG C OQGh
218
hCG ,WfCG hCG ,GHCG SGH e dGREG hCG ddG NGO jjOGdG bdG
.(Probes) q pdG
dPh jFGdG Je e keGSG cCG a dG FdG dEG dH eCG
,dG LdG ddG a dG fh SG ie a dG dd
e jcdG gQhe J d EG jFGdG edG J HU Y
k a
IQGhqO Ue J bh .Hd eRdG UdG GJ H ,e H
.jFGO Le FO GSG ddG J eY
dP Le H ,kqe k GOOqJ Sjo dG ,LdG dd idG OHCG JJ
(Mode ) f h L d G d O T Y b d G g J h . d G A d G a O O d G
dG OOqd fOCG M dgh .ddG NGO ehdG dG J
kah OOdG Gg b OqJoh .dSQEH njo Le dO c a (Cutoff Frequency)
Le W hjo M ,(1-7 dG a se g c) dd NGdG Vd
.LdG dd NGdG VdG pV dG OOqJ
bdG SJ ,dG OOqJ e YCG (Input Signal) NndG IQTEG OOqJ c GPEa
c GPEG k GQa SdG bdG gJ a ,gJ hO e ddG Y ehdG
LdG dd NGdG JQG Ea ,iNCG Mf e .dG OOJ hO JQTEG OOJ
fc GPEa .IQdG e LdG dO eoJ Hb Oqj fCG EG SdG eCH d
LdG dO VY j .NGdG GQdG H ddG SqJ ,We IQdG
Y J Q G C G c , S d G L P d G L d G W 0.5 d E G 0.2 d G M L P d G
. L P d G L d G J Q G W I e 0.7 d G M
j ,dG S Y ,12 GHzh 8 GHz H OOqJ hGj dG (X) f a
,(2.286 cm) hj NGO VY ,US (WR-90) QH SdG dG LdG dd
d O a d G O O J h j h . (4 in ) (1.016 cm ) h j N G O J Q G h (0.9 in )
. 6.6 GHz G g L d G
(15 cm) 2 GHz
Qe
YGOdG
FHdG dG
(E N )
X dG Qe
(CG)
Qe
GOdG
FHdG dG
(E N )
Y
Z Qe
dG dG
(H N )
X dG Qe
()
220
dO fCG 1-7 dG
TM11 ( ) TE10 ( C G ) : L d G
. (Transverse Magnetic-TM ) V d G d G - 2
Y kjOY hCG kVe GhdG Y j (TE) `dG f a FHdG qodG EG
.QfG JG
JG Y kVe kFGO a (TM)`dG f a dG dG eCG
Y kjOY kFGO FHdG dG j CG j dG c ah .QfG
Y kjRGe dG dG j CG j c LdG dO S Y QGdG
.LdG dO QGL e GhdG
edG j :oS jeQ GSH dG LdG dO a fCG sJo
FHdG dG d) FHdG dG a LdG f GJ OY dEG hCG
e C G , L d G d d j d G d G Y (TM V d G d G h TE V d G
OGeG Y FHdG dG a LdG f GJ OY dEG a fdG edG
LdG dd (TE10) FHdG dG ,CG-1-7 dG qjh .dd udG odG
J (E N) J SCGQ SCH (E) FHdG dG dEG ejoh .dG
Y jOYh ,LdG dO ce b Icqneoh ,(y-axis) GOdG Qd jRGe
. (Transverse Plane ) V d G d G d G h C G x-z Q e
d G d G (H ) N a e F G h O H a (H ) d G d G e C G
d G e j R G e f C G c , j O M C G d G G P (E ) N e Y H J
Ho OGeG Y Le f GJ FHdG d EG .VdG dG
dG Ho OGeG Y (0) J hCG ,(x-axis) (1) dG Qe hCG jdG dG
.(y-axis) GOdG Qe hCG qdG
dG j (-7-1 dG) dG OHCG P TM11 dG dG ah
x-y dG dG V J eh e j H TC H dG
a dG g J) E N e ,C dH T kWfCG Jh ,VdG
dG Le W Ea zLdG dO Y SQEG{ Ve a cP S ch
P d d G Y d S Q E G j d G O O d f O C G d G j (Cutoff Wavelength )
bCG OOdG e aGdG WCG LdG EG ,iNCG IQHh .HdG dGh dG
E a d G d G L d G d O a TE10 Q W d E G d H e C G . f j d G
Y h . (A ) j d G S d G V h j (Cutoff Wavelength ) d G L e W
dG dG LdG dO a SQEd q dG dG g TE10 dG Ea dP
dH He j c ,(Plane Polarized) kS jh ,dH jo fC
dd A SdG Y a dG OOqJ jn ,dP dEG aVEH .dG hCG FGdG e
dH TE10 f qj .
k S k GeCG dG J Y e j e , LdG
. H J j Y f C G g i N C G f C G c h , (Dominant Mode ) d G
LdG dO Heh bn
LdG dO dEGh e jOGdG OOqdG bW nd dG F dG dG EG
: j c g (Waveguide Coupling )
hCG dG d (H) dG e njo hCG jo (Loop) S GSH - 1
.j
d G h F H d G d (E ) d j R G e I Q H (Probe ) e G S H - 2
.dG OMCG FGc J
H H J L d G d O G Q L a (Holes ) K h C G (Slots ) T G S H - 3
.LQdGh NGdG dG
LdG dO Mnbo
U e j L M g (Waveguide Iris)LdG dO M n bo EG
.VdG dG Me d LdG dO NGO YVe bQ fe
KqdG MnodG qJh .ddG GQL Y OY H IOY FdG oVJ
e jRGe dG J eY (CG-2-7dG a qe g c) ,(Inductive Iris)
eCG .(Inductive Susceptance) Ke J dH a ;dd un dG GQdG
J eY sa ,-2-7 dG a sodG ,(Capacitive Iris) jdG MdG
222
Capacitive )
()
(CG)
. j d G - h , K d G - C G : d G L d G d O a M b 2 -7 d G
LdG dO jQS
Qe g ,CG- 3-7dG a qdG (Waveguide Post) LdG dO jQS EG
Ye Ke c jh ,dG LdG dd qdG dG Y Neo
i d G a b e h g b Y b J (Inductive Shunt Susceptance )
.LdG dd VdG
LdG dO J ee
a qe g c ,(Waveguide Tuning Screw) LdG dO J Qe EG
LdG dd jdG QGdG Y (Threaded) dnneo Qe g ,-3-7 dG
J Qe
jQS
()
(CG)
UdG GdG
VQCG e
f FU
(Ue)
. j h d G L d G O O d d d G e M C G 4 -7 d G
jhdG LdG eU
M e U g , (Microwave Tubes ) j h d G L d G e U e E G
M e DC d G Q d G P F H d G d G Y J Y Y j W e
cf jhdG LdG eU Y FdG eCG e .OYh FGO e
224
fhdG
j J Y Q O b (Power Tube Oscillator ) I Q b H e U g h d G
LdG f a (RF Power) jOGQ OOqJ IQb dEG IkTe FHdG IQdG
Oe fGSCG OfCG e dCj ,FK U Y IQY g kYh .jh dG
Coaxial) Q dG e O K ch (Multicavity Cylindrical Anode) G dG
dG j .(Vacuum Envelope) AG dG e e Z NGO (Cathode
dG WN JG jh dG dG Gg Y FGdGh dG dG
j .5-7 dG a qe g c ,(Axial Cathode) QdG OKdG e kjRGe
T MGh H hCG LQdG fdG e hR GSH dG Gg fEG
.C d H
e Ic c k GKf OKdG
o jn (Filament) dG dG a QdG aqJ Y
dY dS da qW GPEGh .dG Gg M fhdEG Z J fhdEG
ce FY fhdEG J (OKd f kLe OfCG YL) OKdG Y
dG f fh dEG GQ e d H Qq Jh .L dG O fCG J H
.BG a Y OdGh dG dG
CG b e GQe a dG dEG fhdEG oWdG dG g aJ
GdG nJoh .(Reentrant Cavity Vanes) IdG Ne TjQCG GWCG dEG J
225
ffpe Ga
GWCG
dG qe
(jQ) Y
RF N
OKc
YJ Aa
fhdEG
OfCG
. f h d G H d G Y O e 5 -7 d G
226
fhJSdG
g ,6-7 dG a dG SdG a qdG ,(Carcinotron) hJSdG EG
227
fG
(+) OKdG
NGdG a dGh fhdEG
Te T
(++) qe
dG dEG JJ RF Le
dG dG
. h J S Q c H d G Y C G e 6 -7 d G
Beam Electran Drift) dG fh dEG T G fG Y S eG J
JdG LdG eU
L e U g (Traveling-Wave Tube-TWT ) J d G L d G U E G
Gg j .FjdG H Y k GOYG
q dG hCG HdG Y J jhe
,OKch OfCG Y j fhdEG ae Y ,7-7 dG a qdG ,dG
Helix h M H h j ) (Delay Line ) j J N h C G d G L d H h ,
q Sh
Le CWJ .(Collector) ueoh ,(Focusing Magnet) cJ eh ,(SdG a
a 20 h d G a 10 H hG J H j F GO H L e a J d G j OGd G OO d G
ddG QdG dG a fhdEG YS e YS HJ H dG
Ye
adG
RF NO
OfBG
(fhdG) dG LdG H
ue
dG cdG H
q S
kfGaCG kH k bQ k N j dG N j CG j d c
, d G L d G e d G G g e TWTs ` d G J . (Interdigitated Line-SIL
J bW mFH d dG e Qeh RGe H J fhdEG YT
Forward-Wave) zeCG dEG p Jn dG LdG eU{ j dG TWTs ` dG
o
GOOdG e dG d NG dG O HCG Ou Joh .(Traveling-Wave Tubes
.HdG dG
pJnodG LdG U
q e
(Traveling - Wave Tube Amplifier TWTA) JdG LdG U
q dG Gg GE
.
q c d qe Jeo Le U g (8-7 dG a dG SdG)
dNOEG j eY e IQb Qe e jhdG LdG IQb J a j
J f N IQb fEG Y QOb edG e dG Gg EG .aGWCG MCG e
.40 GHz h 1 GHz H hG j i e a Gh 200 e c C G d E G
(fhdG) dG LdG H
Ia
OKc
gqe
OfBG
Ia
qe
q S
RF N
RF NO
dG cdG H
.pJeo Le U
q e 8 -7 d G
JdG hc
d G a d G S d G ) (Two-Cavity Klystron ) J d G h c G g E G
230
(Modulation ) J Y Y j j h e L e
q e Y I Q Y g (9 -7
dEG aVEH ,
q Sh ,OfCGh ,OKc e fhdEG ae Y j .YdGh QdG
Buncher and) zbdGh eGdG{ J Ub H ZQa ffQ Ja
T ffdG JdG c J .(Collector) ueo dEG aVEH ,(Catcher
T Qhd (Gaps) IU Ga Jo dG W c Y (grids) Te
. (Axial Pencil Electron Beam ) Q e b j Q e V f h d E G
bdG Ia
eGdG Ia
RF N
RF NO
OfCG
OKc
q S
GfG Aa
qe
hdEG T
edG
.IdG FK hc
q e 9 -7 d G
cdG hdG
dG a dG SdG a qdG ,(Reflex Klystrons)cdG hdG EG
M (Single-Cavity Oscillator ) I M G h I a P H e Y I Q Y g ,10 -7
g SSCG AGLCG e HnodG Gg dCjh .hdEG T YS jJ Y oYn
dH nT fpeh , ddG OhdEGh ,qdGh ,OKdGh ,fhdEG adG
.cYh ,T K e
cY
e hdCG GQe
NGO M
fpdG T
TdG jdG T
OKc
d qe OhdEG
q S
232
. c d G h d G 1 0 -7 d G
j dG T SG H O K dG e JBG fh dEG j J
k hCG j
First Resonator ) d h C G T d G f d G T J C G b (Accelerating Grid )
I K Y d d G S G H f h d E G Y S j J j d G g Y . (Grid
SGH gJG SfGh (Bunched) eQ j CG b ,(Resonator Gap) fpdG
j L e e d G f h d E G J e Y h . (Reflector Voltage ) c d G d d G
ehdG dG dGE fhd
E G bW J ,(Cavity Gap) IdG GK Y
.HoHdG K Y d fdG a
GP jhe Le eU dG bGh a ,g cdG fhdG EG
Gh e 500 h 10 H hG J j OGQ OOJ I Q b f E G Y I Q O b , e I Q b
b d Q O c e d G g J 25 GHz h 1 GHz H j i e V (mW )
a VdG HHnodGh ,GdG a dG Gqe a jhdG LdG
.QGOGdG fCG
hdG pseo
(Trigger) b LCG e kjQhV f UdG ddG dY GQGdG dqJ
Y f d gh .(Pulse Power Magnetron) dG IQdG he Jh
q dG :g udG g e SSCG
. (Magnetic ) d G h (Line Type )
dG dG e
q dG udG EG
dG a q dG SdG a qdG ,(Line-Type Modulators)
. (Magnetron Pulsing Circuit ) f h d G d G G Q G d G G f C G T C G e g ,11 -7
jh ,dG H (Pulse-Forming Network - PFN) dG jJ T Jo
pb J b IQTEG SGH (Modulators Thyratron) u odG hJGK WEG
T jJ dEG QhH Gg OqDj .IQdG dqe e NdG (Short-Circuiting) IQGO
J AH Y e Le f fEGh ,(Capacitor Network) qdG T
,dG J QGSG H ,fdG dG Y JdG dG id jh .qdG
.hdG OKc Y J eY hdG HH j napc QJh da
233
dG fN
dG J T
he
IQb dqe
dY da
Ob
LhQdG hJGK
. h d d G d G 1 1 -7 d G
dG dG
OKc f qe Y IQY g (Magnetic Modulators) dG udG EG
j h . (Inductor )
q odG a TEG UN Y qSDdG QGOGdG hd
kfQ bW qpodG
o J .dG e Z hCG hJGK U dEG dG Gg
. (Pi-Network ) Pi T a h d G O K c d E G j R G e e N
FdG Z epU
Z KCJ ,12-7 dG a dG (Gunn Diodes) FdG Z epU J
234
e W
ehdG
jQGM YdH
Sf
. F d G Z e U 1 2 -7 d G
FdG edG
(dG QJ fG eR pU hCG) (IMPATT Diodes) hCG IMPATT pU jo
e j e Y J S e h e j G e (Impact Avalanche Transit Time Diode )
b f f G e R G K C J h (Impact Avalanche Breakdown ) U Q J f G
U e e d G g J . (Carrier-Charge Transit-Time Effects ) d G
G g F d G d G j h . (Gallium-Arsenide ) d d G f Q R e h C G f S
Y hCG ,Se H eh Fe Ia Y cqj eY ,e hCG Hc
20 W hCG f IQb e 100 W fEG Y QlOb IMPATT `dG qdG EG .Le dO
.10 GHz h 5 GHz H h G j O O J V I e L e I Q b e
235
KdG edG
pU Y IQY g ,13-7 dG a qdG ,(PIN Diodes) KdG dG EG
Y d e (P ) I Q G H d G L d G d G a J (Junction Diode ) U h
dG e kf S W SGH (N) IQGH dG ddG dG
G g e E H (High-Resistivity Intrinsic (I) Silicon ) (I ) d d G e h d G P d G
jhe Le Oqc j CGh jhdG LdG SQEG N j CG dG
I Q d G I h Q P a J d G f C G a TR U e a , (Microwave Limiter )
qch IdG jhdG Ld guoc j CG Y QlOb fCG c .100 kW Y
Electronically Controlled Rapid Acting Phase) fhdEG IH j S Q W
Microwave Phased-Array ) Q d G a e j h d G L d G Q G O G Q f C (Shifters
. (Radar Systems
Le W
(P+ ) d G
dCG e AZ
cCG fK e AZ
SiO2 HdG
M W
(N+ ) W
K d G d G 1 3 -7 d G
dG FdG dG
Uh P FK pU Y IQY g (Tunnel Diodes) dG FdG dG EG
j CG d J S ehe jo (PN Junction Diode) dS ` Le
SSCG Hh kjCG j .(Switch) Me oc hCG ,Hneo hCG ,
q c
eqDj c ,NdG GQTE HSG YS H jhdG LdG f a
Y (P-N Junction) ddG ` LdG UdG J .AVdG e kJ
d d G d G h , (P ) L d G d G : (Heavily Doped ) H T E G d H e
aJ .k GL bQ LM e (Abrupt) QdG jT kH kS J dG (N)
Forward ) e e C G d G d a j J e Y b d G L d G Y d G b f e
b Q H e d a G P d Y F H c M C J h . d G Y (Voltage
236
J e Y , U d (Effective
Width )
(N+ ) W
(N+ ) W
(P+ ) W
fe AZ OhdCG
. F d G T R A P A T T U 1 4 -7 d G
237
W
(TYP)
Qe
HGH
dG e
jJ
238
QjfGJ 15-7 dG
T f dG dG KC J
.(MESFET ) U d G
G Q G O a e d S d G d d G f Q R Q j f G J g (Transistors-HEMTs
Z Uc QjfGdG Gg jo .(Microwave ICs) edG jhdG LdG
sSdG (AlGaAs) dCG dZ fQR W e (Hetero Junction) fe
AGOCG e q Jo SdG dG g CG j .(AlGaAs) ddG fQR IcQ Y
jdG J J GQGd dY eJ jH Jh Q j fG dG
c dG GQ j fG J{ k jCG fG) .(MESFET) Q j fG J a IO L dG
.(zdG dqdG fqdG{`H SdG fdG dG a zJdG fhdEG
239
hCG 50 NO N
FHc RY
MIM qe
Si3N4
M N
FGg Ib dJ
VQCG ie
K ie e e
hCG ie e e
VQCG S fe
Y IcdG Pf
K hCG a YQR
N+
GaAs
FET
hCG N) ehe
YhQ e (N+
MIM e
M M I C . d G j O M C G e e j h e L e I Q G O 1 6 -7 d G
gJG podG
dG SdG a qdG (Directional Couplers) gJG podG j
LdG dO a MGh JH adG bdG e k GU kHK k GAL ,17-7 d
e Le dO e podG dCj .dSQEG j dG dG IQb jd dPh
H neoh ,SSCG LdG dd dG fdH e b dG e
j .Le W HQ QGH gGce Yj JU a hCG K SGH
QdG e fG Yh MGh W Y He
m M Y dG dG
dO H ndG c dG QbCG OqJo .NBG dG Y (Coaxial Transition)
S G H (Wattmeter ) G d G S e j J j . d G d G h S S C G L d G
. (RF Energy ) j O G d G O O J b W j d L d G b d G
240
He M
Le dO e
pbn K
LdG dO b
QdG e N
JG FK fpodG
IQdG e
x c Sb (Bidirectional Couplers) JG FK podG eEH EG
m b e LdG dO e Te b Y IQY gh .dG IQdGh ITdG
m aeo
.dG OHCG OGeG Y dG H e
Y (RF Pickup Probe) jjOGdG GOOqd b qpe Y b c j
J . N B G d G Y (Impedance Termination ) b h e j f Y h , M G h W
, (Apertures ) a K Y F d G L d G d O e j h d G L d G b W
SG jh .LdG W HQ aH H Y dG g cGe YJh
qpdG GSGh ,ITdG IQdG Sd SQEG RL Y HCG RF qpe
.dG IQdG Sd bCG
dG jPfEG dY OGd Fj dG F dG Y Q dG j eo
Y NBG dG qSDjh (Ferrite) jdG S h (Ferromagnetic Materials)
jd (Stacked Arrays) SqdG adG J .(PIN) KdG eu dG
H (Phased-Array Radar Antennas ) j Q d G a d G Q G O G Q F G g a Q d G
.kfhdEG dG
YVdG (Ferrite Units) jdG GMh g kYT QdG jeo cCG EG
Microstrip) jhdG pdG GfCG a FGdG eCG .LdG dO bCG e H
Hh (Garnet) MCG dGh ,(Ferrites) jdG cqdG J dG (Versions
dOJ eEG QdG je J .dG FdG GP eGdG OGdG
S - jQ Q W j e EG .(Nonreciprocal) dO J hCG (Reciprocal)
Faraday Rotator) GOGQa QGhqO QW jeo hCG (Reggie-Spenser Phase Shifters)
Toroidal) ndG jdG eCG ,kYT dOdG GMdG cCG g (Phase Shifters
o
.kYT dOJdG jodG GfCG cCG a (Phase Shifters
S - jQ QWn jeo
n dG jeo e dG Gg EG
a qdG ,(Reggia-Spencer Phase Shifters) Q
(Solenoid Wound ) d d e h P L e d O e b Y I Q Y g ,18 -7 d G
He V Y e P (Ferromagnetic) e jM bh dM e
JdG ,ddG dG dG qj .LdG dO NGO Qe H Ve
(dd e)
e jM b
Le dO
242
Q h H j d G d G (Permeability ) j P f , b d H d d G d G T Y
M G R E G H j G g h . I H d G RF b d (Propagation Constant ) Q f G H K
b W A H E G j H (Drive Current ) S Q J N e h j G e H Q d G
QGOGQ FGg a SGh H dOdG jQdG jodG J .kjQJ RF
fCG{ `H SdG 23 dG a zQGOGdG fCG{ fG) .jQ dG a dG
.(zFdGh jdG fhdEG
jdG
q d e GWCG IqY Y edG bdG QdG jeo j
243
M G R E G f E G Y I Q O b (Analog Shifters ) K d G j d G J C G j . L Q O
.b C G a L Q O 360 d E G J j Q W
dG gdG
Y IQY g ,19 -7 dG a qdG , (Flap Attenuators)n
o dG guodG EG
(Hinged-Tapered Resistive Card) Hqe e ehe bH e Le dO b
p
. j d G Q G d G c e S C G (Slot Cut )
q T QN hCG NGO dEG jJ j
244
ehdG bH
HqdG
(IOef) e
LdG dO b
p
qe Z
q T
e g d G J j H b d G G N G i e H (Hinge ) d G j
(Longitudinal Slot ) d d G
q d G C d P h .30 dB d G M i b b d E G U
Gg qj .jhe Le bW CG e J h ,jdG QGdG Sh a cj
.(Variable Resistive-Card Attenuator) IdG ehdG bH gueo kjCG guodG
HdG guodG
bH Y j Le dO e b g (Fixed Attenuators) HdG guodG EG
GQdG cGe W Y dUeh ,ddG aW c a (Tapered) Hqe ehe
nb Y d (Card Contours) bdG aqM ob j .jdG NGdG
ehdG bH GP HdG guodH kjCG guodG qJh Gg .qe gJ
. (Fixed Resistive-Card Attenuators )
IQGhdG dG GP gqodG
IQY g ,20-7 dG a qdG ,(Rotary-Vane Attenuators) gqodG Gg EG
j ,LdG dO V jFGO bCG KK e dDe (Variable) qe gqe Y
245
dG fEG
HK ehe bH
Hb ehe bH
GQhd
HK ehe bH
NdG fEG
(T R ) S G ` S Q E G e
,(UHF) OOqdG dY LdG H TR SG - SQEG q e j
jb IQTEG SQEG j eY ,SdG Y dGh ,jhdG LdG GOOdGh
Transmit-) RdH IAdG TR SG - SQEG e U p n Jo .k G L
e eCG .IQdG d Y QGOG dG fCG a (Receive (TR) Gas- Filled Tubes
jdG YRudG a (Transmit Receive (TR) Switches) SG - SQEG
. K d G e d G G O j G O h (Ferrite Calculators )
SQ E G N a (PIN Switches) PIN K d G d G J d G e
j eY epU IY GSG j . UCG GOOdG Y QdG Ie
.H QqdG QdG hCG ddG qJ MGh mpU QhH
246
SG - SQEG eU
a qdG , (Transmit-Receive Tubes-TR Tubes) SG - SQEG U EG
, R d H A e L e d O e b Y I Q Y g ,21 -7 d G a d G S d G
m e hCG ,ZEG eh
hCG dG e QGOGdG a SG IQGO j LLR
dG Gg j .IQdG dY jOGQ OOJ GQTE dSG dM a edG
j dc .SGh SQEG dM e c a FGd jdG SH
j eYh .kjqDe RdG j eY podG jd Ib IQGc dG
(Low-Power Radar) IQdG dG QGOGdG AGUC j a d c R dG
.e gJ bCHh dN e QdH
hCG Ad kqe IdG a IdGh bdH fdG GOhdEG J
Ionization ) j C J Y e a j d G zKeep-Alive Assembly { N C G e d G e
q
G Q T E G O L h M a (Breakdown ) Q f H j i e d E G R d G (Threshold
.k GL V bS RF NO
dG T
dG OhdEG
dG qe
dG
dG T Mnbo
jQe
dG
LdG dO
NdG Iaf
NdG T
jjOGdG HdG
jhe Le peo Y IQY g (Radio Telescope) jOGdG dG EG
e jhdG LdG OOqJ GQTEG Jh jd kq N seo FGgh
247
FGg e
jM fQZ Ic
(YIG ) j J E G
S WfCG
248
(Masers) GQdG
u odG fG H
q dG jh dG L dG hCG GQ dG EG
dG a q dG ,(Microwave Amplification by Stimulate Emission-Maser)
hCG GQqdG J N e jh dG L dG GOOq J q J ,23-7 dG
NO IQTEG YJh .QdG a Ie Zh dY bW je dEG j
o dG
f OOdG Y aVEG bW fG qd j
o dG hCG GQqdG e jhe Le
.f IuodG LdG QW ah
N NO
Le FO
Le J ce
RZ Qe
feCG
dS J ce
jhe Le Ia
jJ
q e
jL
o
. Q d e e 2 3 -7 d G
e
q e g GQdG EG .je KHh jH Iae U
J d G d G L d (Low-Noise Preamplifiers ) A V d G e
bd jc J c ,idG IdG QGOGdGh jjOGdG HdG
dG (Stimulated-Emission) qdG fG CGe H (Laser) j .OOdGh
J qTCG fh ,FdG AdG f e a (Maser) RdG LH j
.AGdG
250
e d G dG
eT If
q dGh KdG GQGdG e c EG
VdG jdG OGeG Y QqW dG ,
GQGdG g SG a .kdM IOLdG fhdEd jhGR c BG J
251
252
edG dG
q dG GQGO
g (op amps) kjCG qJ dG (Operational Amplifier ICs) GQGdG g EG
(ueo) jqeo IY e cCG dgh .kYT edG KdG GQGdG cCG
b bQCH Y dG eEHh .ddG dG a GQGdG g Vj
e h H j a ) F G O C G J O d d P h d H J (Part Number )
GP gh ,kc g fOCG S iq j h . eRQ TCG a M hCG (IQG d
gh .(Commodity Item) S IMc qJo Gd ,MGdG QhdG ,dG GSG
:j e dEG FGOCG SSCG Y qJo
. (General Purpose ) d G G S G
. (Low Offset - Drift ) d G R G d G
. (High Impedance h Low Input Current ) b h d G d Y h , N d G e Q J
. (Wide Bandwidth ) S G h f V Y
.(High Slew Rate) mY fG qe
. (Low Noise ) A V d G b
. (Low Power ) e I Q d G
. (High Voltage ) d d G d Y
.(High Output Current - Power or op amp) mY Nn QJ
. (Programable ) e d H b
fQpodG
,(Feedback) L SG hO J
q e g (Comparator) f Qp o dG EG
,KJ dEG bQ qe Ld kah ddG ie a GqdG c e
253
ddG ueo
Y J I Q G O g e d G (Voltage Regulators ) d d G e I Q G O E G
m hJ V dG Gg Y adGh IQdG J M bG d pe
q
SSCG Yf gh .dGh NndG da a GqdG ZH ,qe (Tolerance)
q dG dG :g ddG e e
e E H h . (Switch Mode ) d G h (Linear )
q e
hG j I Q b G d DC N d a i H e E G d G b IC d a
GQ G d G g RJ . d G a 2 Y j j J Vh H K I Q H d a 30 h 3 H
Standard Tree- ) j d G j Q e j T R Q h C G (Pin Package ) e R Q a I O Y
o
o
. (Terminal
bQ - dEG - KJ e
(A/D) qoH kjCG (Analog-To-Digital Converters) dG g qJ
G Q T G d E G I e K J G Q T E G N d d G j d H J g h (ADC ) h C G
. e e d G j O M C G G Q G c h j O c k j Q J G Q G d G g V J h . b Q
dG ah ,AdG Ge ah ,e jdG qS h qe d dh
S gh .mY AGOCG GP g GQGc dG g s Jo ,ddG bKdG GP
:g bQ dEG KJ qe e GfCG
254
Qe
MSB
e
OGY
YS
ddG Qe
K N
VREF
D/A
MSB bQ N
LSB
(SAR) e
e jJ
FK J N
YS
q dG a dG dH ke jh ,jdG dG M (Descending)
.gZ J IOYEGh bdG Vin b j J a g J dGh a (Register)
e Vin j (Serial Binary Output ) e F K N Y d G e E H
. (SAR )
e d G ADCs e
dG a q e g c ,(Flash Converter ADCs) q dG g EG
bQCc LNn dEG ejo jRGe fQe e ae g ,3-8dG a dG
K J N O j a . (Encoding Logic Block ) d G e d G e S G H F K
jdG e KH NdG fQd n2 Qpeo dEG f (Bits) qpdG e n OY dEG
j dG S a .(Resistors) ehdG S jGH e AkGHG LdG
ddG Le OGeG Y kehe 65 e kS EG .kfQe 64 hCG 26 dEG (bit Flash-6)
j .L d G d H W H e J d a i e 64 d E G L d G j VREF
dG a (Latches) dGe SGH jo eY QdG jH (Encoder) eqodG
.(Binary Code) FK IT dEG QdG pNn euodG qj c ,qdG
C ddG jdG qdG YS J edG qdG jJ YS EG
YS Ea iNCG Mf e .ddH dh RGdH J bdG dG jJ Y
.edG e eH dch QdG AGOCG NCJ eH IOhe jdG
257
Vin
f Qe
VREF
J e
bQ N
ee
Vin
Qe
VREF
bDe
e OU
KJ dEG bQ qe
kjCG IqdGh (Digital to Analog Converters) qdG g ODJ
,keR IYe KJ GQTEG dEG bdG GQTEG jJ e (DAC) hCG (D/A)
Voltage Summing ) z d d G H d G{ I d G j d G j d G G S H
e jRGe ae Y Gg ddG qe
q dG j .(Amplification
J dG ehdG g He HU dEG k Gfh .jqJ dG bdG ehdG
R-2R) hCG R-2R qdH dG (DAC) T jJ e qH c 1 dEG 20 f dEG
g ah .5-8 dG a dG dG a qdGh ,(Ladder Network DAC
(Switches) e dgh .a e ehe b dEG f dqdG
VQCG dEG hCG ,VREF LdG ddG dEG eEG ehdG e c GQP H J
d a d E G 0101 F d G b d G j H V e d G a d G h J . (Ground )
jOMCG (DACs) J MG qj (R-2R) `d dG JdG CG c .KJ
q d e R d G A G O C G b O e h d G f E G Y I Q O b Z (IC ) I Q h S C K d G
p
dG
n Jfh kjOW SJ KJ kda N (R-2R DAC) jo .ddG e
.LdG ddGh bdG
259
VREF
bQ qe 5-8 dG
. (D A C ) K J - d E G -
KdG dG GQGO
dEG KJ e kjCG (Analog Function circuits) KdG dGdG GQGO qJ
e H M G Q G O h U N A G O C G G Q G O g h (A n a l o g t o A n a l o g C o n v e r t e r s ) K J
J e jcdG ddG IMh Y aqJ ,dHh .KdG GQTEG J
aJ Y
k a (D a ta A c q u is i tio n S y s te ms ) f d G c G f C G a G Q T E G g
dG J g
k J cCG KdG AGOCG GQGO EG .aVEG eH e j e
QdG OjEGh qSoCG dEG adGh ,dG NCG Yh ,(Multiplication) dG H
q dG Z
Special- Purpose Nonlinear ) U d G
q GhdG Y AGLEGh ,HdG
R o o t ) S d G H e Q L S H d G K d G A G O C G F G h O e E H . (F u n c t i o n s
(Tr i g o n o m etr i c F u n cti o n s ) J d G
q G h d G M h , (R M S ) h C G (M e a n S q u a r e
Y
k a .edGh VdG Y dEG aVEH ,(Vector Sums) pqdG Lh
H AGT j .QJ dEG ddG hCG da dEG QdG jJ GQGdG g eEH dP
Off-The- Shelf) IgL J IO e e /
q c d q dG GQG dG
q
. (L o g / A n t i l o g )
q e qj e hCG (Multiplier/ Divider
KdG dG
Z h C G a Y I Q O b U e f (Analog Switches ) K J e g
(Open Switch) jdG bGe Y kbQ Jh ,KdG GQTEG SQEG GQe
.QdG (FET) e AGOC k Gf (CMOS) jH dG g qJo .IkOY
260
dqdG qTdG
ILCG hCG BG Y j dG TdG g (Active Filters) dG pTodG EG
Qe dEG uTdG g J .GQjfGdGh dG
q odc fhdEG
,(FHc IQb dEG J dG) dG qTdG Y Y ,fCG EG IQb
Y
k a , (Inductor ) e d E G L H d h (Gain ) c J Y I Q O b
kjCG aJ .dG qTdG e Je e kfRh NCGh kM UCG fc
GQGc Me gh ,FHc IQb dEG J ,(Active Filters) Ya uTe
AYE qeh LQN ehe dEG j H CG c ee dG jOMoCG
fe{`H SdG ,1 dG a qTdG kjCG fG) .HdG HSG
.(zdG fhdEG
jJ qe uTe
,ae IQb e hCG e qe dEG J dqa (IC) qTe g
g J .(6-8 dG) IOe GQGO a (IC) qTe jJ feEHh
(Switching Section) jJ AL Y (Switched-Capacitor Filters - SCFs) qTdG
.bbodG f Y (Operational Amplifier Integrator) J J peeoh
, (S2 h S1 ` H k G Q N G a h e ) (MOS ) G Q j f G J d G a g d G h
e (op amp) peeo e AdG Gg N iqj .ehdG C1 qdG cJh
Y H YS J .(Feedback Circuit) IqJdG jdG IQGO a C2 qdG
OOqdG b jJ K (Switch Off) `H IAWEG hCG QjGfGdG (Switch On) J
.qTdG Y cdG
261
YS
IJG jdG e
de j e
eeo
qJh YEG pe
qdG ,(Sample-and-Hold Amplifiers - SHAs) q Jh YEG e J
g eEH ,KJ e SGH .eh J
q e Y ,7 -8 d G a
MGh dG IQTE fBG idH kjQhO eDJ eY J CG
q dG
dG fdG QJ a fBG ddG b dG g Jh DC. c kbDe H
j .(Transducer) bdG qe Mh (Sensor) qpdG e AGHG QGSH
qdG jJ e bQ ` dEG ` KJ qe qJo jW Id ddH (SHA)
- x J
q e kjCG (SHAs) qj .kbQ oVY j e N Jh
aqc a (SHAs) J .(THA) hCG (Track-and Hold Amplifier) q Jh
I Q G d . G h O C G e g Z h , (Millimeters Peak Detectors ) j d G I O e I h Q d G
fCG c ,(Analog Output Pins) KJ N eeh ,qJ Nn Onh ,KJ NO
.q J h YEG dG c a d qe
gqJh YH NndG IQTEG (SHA) J (Sample Mode) YEG f a
fEa ,(Hold Mode) q J f a eCG .dG H dH QGdG Qj M
(SHA ICs ) e d G (SHA ) G Q G O a G J . (DC ) c c d G d H J
f d G c C G e h C G , (TTL ) Q j f G d G - Q j f G d G e e a G d G
e e J Nh NOn
q e Y (IC) J .(MOS) UdG
.pLQN n e qe dEG J fCG EG QjfGJ
b j d G I d G Y d G M e (THA ) h (SHA ) H d G j
CH d j e j d
k jW kbh j (THA) e EG .dG fG
a VdG b iH dG j ,iNCG Mf e .e H j
263
e d a c S e I d (SHA ) e j d G Y h ; d G a d
JQGdG AGOCG H a e g d .ec IQH (Holding Capacitor) q dG
Host Data Acquisition) FdG fH cG f fH jJ j e Y
.1 MHz Y jJ qHh ,(System
q e
NO
neo
q e
N
K NO
K N
o qe
q NO
e IQGO
(j) hGC
. ( S H A ) J h Y C G e 7 -8 d G
ddG bn nM GQGO
Y fBG QW a (Oscillator) pHneo bn Y IQOb fhdEG GQGO g
(Phase-Locked Loop (PLL) Circuits) IQGdG d .(8-8 dG) qe NO IQTEG
eGe hCG Mp qJ hCG Mp OOqJ (Demodulate) J a Y IQb kjCG
T c Y (PLL ) I Q G O J . e d G e g O O J j I Q T E G (Synchronizing )
jJ WfCG e (Low-Pass-Filter) e Qhe qTeh (Phase Detector)QW
.(VCO) ddH qe qe He SGH J (Feedback Loop) YSG
GQTEG H OOdGh QdG a dG bhdG qjh TdG Gg Ooj
g h S J N f a d , (VCD ) G Q T E G h (Incoming Signals ) e O d G
da kcQJ .(AC) fqe dGREG Y dG QhdG qTe j .bhdG
ie dEG (VCO) a dG OOJ g NdG da qJ .(VCO) n pd (DC)
n dG Tc e
q dG Y dG QhdG qTeh Q
w c jh .NdG IQTEG
C d G I Q T E G j J G a d G j d H h , Y L Q E G j d G I F G O a (Mixer )
Y IFGdG J dP Yh .j e bCG dEG ,dG OOqdG gh ,(Error Signal)
j jOOdG fRGe OqHh .OOdG dG JH kYLQ CdG IQTEG S
.JQTEG H AdG a NG CG jh NndG IQTEG (VCO)
264
dM Tc
()
QhG qTeo
G
N
YLSG jJ WfoCG
. e d G I Q d G G Q G O 8 -8 d G
, K J I Q G O H h (MOS ) h d G F K R L H (Power IC ) e e I Q b I Q G O
. (BiMOS ) J a d G F K G Q j f G d G e (CMOS ) e g H d
.(CMOS/DMOS) a DMOS (MOSFET) GQjfGJ e (CMOS) e j mFH
S edG IQGdG Ea (Topology) hCG (Lateral Layout) fL e oYG GPEG
SCGdG dG GSH dh .bbdG Y (cCG hCG) IQb JMh Y J
.a IMGh IQb IMh Y IQGdG S
qdG J a eSG bh ,Se QJh dd Se (BiMOS) J GE
GjddG hCG ddG dG eh ,(Motor Controllers) cdG H
.(Print Head Switching ICs) edG dG SCGdG GQGOh ,(Solenoid Switches)
TT bGqS J a (CMOS/DMOS) J eoSG dP e dG Y
.(Electroluminescent Displays) fhdEG dqCdG TTh ,(AC) eRdG
dPh IQdG RL e dG GQGO d e J K eSG
:g dG gh ,edG dG jOMoCG GQGdG a q dGh NGdG d
U h V j a h (CMOS ) d O G e G g h , (Self Isolation ) J G d G d G
Drain ) j d G e h Q d G H (Reverse-Biased Junction ) S e J
q
A H e ,2 A e b C G J d G I L C G Y d G g b G b h . (Region
.500 V d E G j Q G H d Y d d G
jOMoCG IQqH Jo ah ,(Dielectric Isolation DI) FHdG dH dG
IQGdG FXh AGOC QqH S e IcQ Y Iqeo (Tubs) hCG (Islands)
d (Tub) `dG NGO bbdG e QdG jo CG Lj ddG g ah .edG
Parasitic) W S bCG Jo (DI) CG dG ijh .k GOe d dG i e
. b b d G Y e c d d G e (Capacitance
edG fdG GQGdG H (Junction Isolation JI) UdH dG
Q fG e I c dG Y (Epitaxial) qJ W Jh .jO dG GQG dGh
Hj .(a We) de We jJh dG WdGh U d
.ddG IQdG ILCG a HfG e g QdG fG
266
S d G dG
eT If
(Gate Arrays ) H G d G a e
kfGe ed HdG HGdG ae
(Field Programmable Gate Arrays) (FPGAs)k
(Standard Cells ) S d G j d G
UdG f IcGdG ILCG
(Semiconductor Memory Devices )
(Truth Table ) d G h L
(Basic Logic Gates ) S S C G d G H G d G
(Flip-Flop Circuit Variations ) d G I Q G O G j J
(Binary Counters ) F d G G O G d G
267
eT If
e Y dG ,(SDLIC) SdG edG bdG dG GQGdG J
e fqe fhdEG IQGO AH GMh ,e Ue UCG LdJ
e HGH dqGO ie H SDLIC `dG hGJ .(Logic Gates) e HGH
RdG a Vd (SDLIC) `dG qJo .(VLSI) Ic ee IQGO ieh ,H
.qodG dO a VJh
.qeo NG e ZdG Y kdOJ (IC) edG GQGdG UCG aGJ
dG enod (Special Interface Circuits) UN H GQGO dEG J fCG c
A L (SDIC ) ` d G U C G e d G E a i N C G M f e . (System Integration )
dG Y
k a ,dG FGW a IdG YGNGh dG f
,aGj .JQb jJ c Jh dG HGdG YS J a dG
e k GQGe UCG g e mMGh d C ,de bQ e U ,SCd
ah ILCG AGOCG qUGN GQGdG qe ujo ddh . eG fG hCG IA dG
dG SG c GPEG ,dG S Y .edG dG a gCG
UCG MCG e mMGh QNEG j gCG dH k GeCG jdG edG a IQd
QNG j CG LdG a kSSCG ke idG YdG fc GPEG eCG .(CMOS)
d EG dh .(Emitter-Coupled Logic-ELC) e YH e UCG e mMGh
GPEG UNh ,(TTL) UCG e mMGh QNG j ,ke jQNG jg e
l CG j
CG bjh ,kVfh
k ec kU (TTL) U tnjoh .IOe QOe e Iae fc
.bdG Qhe e Jje fOCG dEG QSCG J
jqe qdG j H GQGdG g J a ke k GeCG dG qJo
dG AHE dPh ,jdhCG e fhj dG G dG H Y R d
jdhCG e qJ dG qUGdG H dOd hqe g dch .e
IQGdG V e e UCG GSG dEG dP iOqCG .gCG qUGH gY
e (BiCMOS ) ` d G h . I A c c C G Q G d G L a g j G e e I O S d I M G d G
. (CMOS ) ` d G h (TTL ) H j e g h , d P Y F Q
268
dG hL
J h , d G h M G d G e d C J a e g (Truth Table ) d G h L E G
qJoh .IQGdG hCG dG HGdG rNnh NrOn nd dG dG c dhH
(A) adG e c joh .dG hGL Y eCG 3-9h ,2-9h ,1-9 TCG
(C) dG j H ,IkOY NdG dG HGd dG hGL a (B)h
bdG dEG (C) dG oa k GJ cCG HGd dG hGL a eCG .dG
W G d G d G d E G Q j c . (Sum ) d G d E G (S ) d G j H , (Carry )
j h . (1 ) M G d H (Logic High ) d d G d G d E G h , (0 ) d H (Logic Low )
e
k c EG .IQGdG J SGH dGh ddG dd dG dG jJ
jJ feEG aGJ CG T dS hCG Le nb J Y QlOb dGh MGdG
.H dG a dG
269
dG edG
dG hL
dG HGH - CG
dG HGH -
QNG HGH -
dG f HGH -O
HGH
QNG
HGH
dG
f HGH
dG
(CG)
()
HGH
QNG
QdG
()
270
HGH
QNG
QdG
HGH
dG
(CG)
qL
f
()
()
qL
f
HGH
QNG
HdG qdG e M
q ndG
qL
f
(P)
d
G
,
(
H
a
l
f
A
d
d
e
r
S
y
m
bol) dG qdG eQ n
.(Full Adder Logic) edG qdG e - O ,(Truth Table
Half Adder )
SSCG dG HGdG
:HGH gh ,(Basic Logic Gates) SSCG e HGH N kdM aj
a V E H , L d G H G d G g h . (NOT ) d G h , (OR ) Q N G , (AND ) d G
.ddG HGqdG gh (NOR) QNG f HGHh (NAND) dG f HGH dEG
,dG dG HGqd dG RedG (`g) dEG (CG) `dG e 1-9 dG jo
HGH hL dG S Y NCdh .e IMGh d dG hL dEG aVEH
e h d G I A G H C G f . d G h L J h : - 1 -9 d G a (AND )
H , N d G G W C G (B ) h (A ) a d G e c j M j d G a C G f d G
, h d G a O d G S C G f I A G d G H J G P E G h . d G W (C ) d G j
,(Logic Low) kWGh ke hCG k GU (B)h (A) `dG e c hj eY fCG MS
271
dG IQGO GjJ
M e e RGq g p H eo IQGO g (Flip-Flop Circuit)
q dG IQGO EG
dG a z
q dG GQGO{ a Uh J (Two-Stage Multivibrator Circuit)
SdG ,1-5 dG joh .zSSCG fhdEG GQGdG{`H SdG edG
g .NO n f d N f fEG
q dG eEH CG ,IQGdG d dG
:g
q dG GQGO e e
m GfCG HQCG
272
q b - 3 , (J-K Flip Flop ) h C G (J-K )
q b - 2 ,(D-Flip Flop) D j d G
q b-1
.(T-Flip Flop) T
q b 4 - ,(Reset-Set (RS) Flip-Flop) RS d G I O Y E G - d G
Combinational and Sequential)
dG a dG SdG a dG ,(J-K
Flip-Flops ) J-K
q b
dC j
()
(CG)
,dG -CG : D f e
q b ,4 -9 dG
.edG -
YS
(CG)
273
J h . d G H e d U e e (NAND ) V f G Q G O H Q C G e , C G -4 -9
Y (mY e) k GMGh hj Jh K NdG e c c GPEG
q dG Gg N dM
hd YdG f SGH dG jo .(Clock Pulse) YdG f M
k G M G h h j a K N d G c G P E G e C G . (1 ) k G M G h h j J N d G c G P E G k G M G h
QNG g
q dG Gd Kh J adG QNG EG .k GU hd dG jo
.
q dG Gd dG edG - 5-9 dG qjh.WYG
dG IOYEG ` dG H
q b
a dG SdG a qdG ,(Reset-Set (R-S) Flip-Flops)
q b dCj
. (NAND Logic Input Circuits ) e N O V f J Q G O e , C G - 6 -9 d G
g h (S ) N d G I Q G O a i N C G e C G , d G I O Y E (R ) N d G I Q G O d h C G J
j J j h . Y b d G a (1 e h C G ) J Q G d G J g i M E G Y h , d G I Q G O
LJ T a qdG d oj dG bdG N e
q dG J YS
.(S) dGh (R) dG IOYEG nNrOn H dUe (Clock-Steering Network) YS
b 6-9 dG
:(RS) dG IOYGE - dG
.edG - h ,dG - GC
()
(CG)
(dG IOYEGh dG d H
q d G G Q G d G ) RST H
q b
(Reset Set Trigger (RST)
dG IOYEGh dG H UdG
q dG IQGd EG
274
GPEa .
q d G d M d j C G j d G (T ) a V E G b N O ,Flip Flop)
d M d E G L S (T) h C G S N O a f E a (OFF ) A W E G d M a
q dG N c
GPEG ,dP eh .ddG a mH qJ (R) NO a f CG EG ,(ON) TG
ah .oS (T) hCG (R) e c NO a f Ea ,TG dH
q dG N c
kjCG
q dG Gg qj .J dM CG Jo (S) NO a f Ea ddG g
H h C G (Set-Reset Trigger (SRT) Flip-Flop ) d G I O Y E G h d G b
q H
. (9 -6 d G ) (SRT)
T Hb
g , C G - 7 - 9 d G a d G S d G a d G ,( T F lip F l o p s ) T
q b EG
W Y Y S f h C G W E G f J a j I e c a d M J , (J - K )
q b
()
(CG)
FdG GOGqdG
uYn Y IQOdG H
q dG e S g (Binary Counters) FdG OGqdG EG
,T H
q b e dG FdG OGqdG qj .bdG GQGdH qd dG
.(Ripple Counter) qdG OGqH ,8-9 dG a qdG
eQ 8 -9 dG
dG qdG OGY
.8 (3-bit) Se
YS NO
275
YS
MGREG
q e
F d G b d G j J Y I Q O b I Q G O g (Shift Register ) M G R E G
q e EG
e (n ) O Y d G h C G F d G b d c G P E G h . d G h C G (Binary Number )
. (n-bit Word ) z
q pdG e (n) OY e c {`H qjoh ,dG S Y ,qpdG
q dG j M .bdG H
q d G e (n ) O Y e n-bit M G R E G e d C j
cCG
q dG j H ,(LSB) kje bCG
q d G Y FFn-1
q pdG Y FF0
e SSCG GfCG N IOY aGj .
q dG a fqdG d (MSB) kje
:g MGREG
q e
H g C G J h d G j H J . (Serial Registers ) d G
q d G -1
Right-Shift ) z d G M GRE G e { SG d G g Y j . e
MGREG H qJ H ;dG dEG M
n G eo dG f c GPEG (Register
.QdG dEG MGeo dG fc GPEG (Left-Shift Register) jQdG
,Serial-In) RG dG dGh dG N dG
q e -2
qJ .RmGe H gCGJh kJ dG jH
q dG g J .(Registers
.(Serial-to- Parallel Converters) RGdG ` dGE ` dG e qdH kjCG
Parallel-Out
277
. (Parallel-Out-Registers ,Parallel-In ) j R G d G d G h N d G
q e -4
.RmGe H dG IAGbh jH dG g J
,
q dG g j Joh ,(Circulating Registers) IQGhq dG
q dG -5
Dynamic Shift ) M GRE G e j d G
q dH qJh .QGSH M a dG
(Shift-Ring Read-Only Memories ) a I A G d d G M G R E G I c G P h (Registers
Bit Serial Shift-4) q pH HQCG hP dG MGREG
q e q j .k jCG
dM a
q b c N j .J-K H
q b e k GOY ,10-9 dG a qdG ,(Registers
.YS f c Y j dG
q dG
fdG
YS f
10 -9
dG
dGh dG dG
e k Gc jQdG (DLIC) edG bdG dG GQGO UCG J
. (Sequential ) J e E G h (Combinational ) J e E G f C H J d G I L C G
.d IcGP GQGdG g C oJ dG NdG Y AkH GQGdG H Jh
HK GQTEG J NdG GWCG Y GQTEG Ye d Ea dP Y
k a
dG f HGqH :dG ILCG Y eCG qJ .dG GWCG Y
HGqHh ,(OR) HGq Hh ,(AND) dG HG Hh ,(NOR) HGq Hh ,(NAND)
278
SdG dG UCG
bQ AH GMh (SDLICs) edG bdG SdG dG GQGdG qJo
fCG qod H a ILCG g UJ .dG e a dG GSd
U c a IaGdG dG HGqd dG jdG J .cqeo e
.d LM IQe UY GSG hO dG H qd
j ,dc Ga e Ic Iae HdG dqGdG J d EG ,M CG Y
,dG e SG e d SdG edG GQGdG j CG qd
d ee GQGO AGH hCG ,e fqe SGH IQGdG bH Jh
g J b .dG d Ye (Application-Specific IC-ASIC) qe
hCG ,qe d q e T hCG ,dG M eEG Ye edG GQGdG
.(Gate Array) e HGqH ae
qJ dG dG HGdG c bGdG bdG dG UCG qJ
279
k e J j dG (SDLICs) `dG q J
SdG edG hCG ,bCG k GM HGH 12 dGM e dD dG (Integration-SSI
H G H 100 d G M e d j b d G (Medium-Scale Integration-MSI ) i d G
b d G (Large-Scale Integration-LSI ) i d G d G e d G h C G , b C G k G M
Very ) k G L c i H e d G hC G , M b C c H G H 1000 d G M Y j
O D J h . H G H 10000 e c C G Y j b d G (Large Scale Integration-VLSI
fCG a qe FXh jQJ c IadG (VLSI ICs) `dGh (LSI ICs) `dG
f C G a h C G , (Telecommunication ) S d G h d G J G h , G Q d G
.dG aJ
FdG pdodG GNG Y f SDLICs `dG Y dG dLEG VfG EG
Microcontroller-) jh dG G dGh ,(Microprocessors-MPU) dG
ICs ` d G Y J d G G Q G d G c E G h C G z H d { J d G R e f C G E G , (MCU
.kjCG dG T edG GQGdGh dG M YdG
CMOS ` d G U C G H e d G F K
:a K Y dG bdG UCG RJ
e (2 ) , (Transistor-Transistor Logic-TTL ) Q j f G J ` Q f G J e (1 )
cCG Ue f LdJ (3) ,(Emitter-Coupled Logic-ECL) peo YH
TTL `dG UCG Jo .(Complementary Metal-Oxide Silicon-CMOS) e meh
, (Bipolar Junction Transistor-BJT ) d G F K U d G Q j f G J Y ECL ` d G h
LdG IdG (MOSFET) GQjfGJ H dG Y (CMOS) `dG jo H
281
dG
QdG
HGdG
dG dG
N f S
MOSFET
Le IH
MOSFET
(CG)
dS IH
Le IH MOSFET
NO
dS IH MOSFET
()
e h f E G S J U d G (TTL ) ` d G I L C G e U C G d G f c
gdH qdG TTLs `dH qJ ,keY HQCG e cCG e ,(Texas Instruments)
TTL `dG ILCG Y J j LCG dG e Yh .(Gold-Doped TTLs)
q
.YS IOjRh IQd UeG c e d
FdG GQjfGdG dEG (Schottky Diode) JT pU aVEG XCG
aCG AGOCG GP IY IjL UCG N dEG dP iOCG M ,k Gc kq J dG
ILCG UCG g qJh .(TTL) `dG e dhCG dG e Je AGOCG e
J T (TTL) I LCGh ,(Schottky TTL - STTL) S dG J T (TTL)
ILCG dEG aVE H ,(Low-Power Schottky TTL - LSTTL) IQdG dG
Advanced Low-Power Schottky TTL ) e d G h I Q d G d G J T (TTL )
. (FAST ) I Q d G h j d G J T (TTL ) h (- ALSTTL
,ddG YdH dG SSCG SdH (CMOS) `dG Y (TTL) `dG bqJ
Higher ) Y C G Q j f G J c h , (Higher Output Drive )
n d YCG nSh
. b d G Q h e e T J N C G S d G g C G E G , (Transistor Gain
Y (CMOS) `dG I LCG a , d dGh L dG ,(MOSFET) Jb J
M d G e (ECL ) h (TTL ) ` d G I L C G a d G F d G U d G G Q j f G J
CMOS ) f e (CMOS ) R L h C G H (RCA ) c T e b . d G h j d G
a Jfqd ddG adG dEG aVEH ,IQd dG cSH qJ (4000B
gj UCa (CMOS) `dG AGOCG e INCG GjdG q M .IMGdG bbdG
f d G H G d G h P (CMOS ) R L (CMOS 4000B ) ` d G e M h . (TTL ) ` d G R L
HG dG hP Y dG d Y (CMOS) R Lh ,(Metal Gate CMOS-MGCMOS)
(CMOS ) R L h (High Speed Silicon Gate CMOS - HC/HCT CMOS ) f d G
Improved High Speed Silicon Gate ) d G d d G Y d Gh f d G H G d G hP
q
ACL and FAST -) Q dG (CMOS) R Lh ,(CMOS - HCS/HCTS CMOS
q
Improved High Speed Silicon Gate) dG d dG Y dGh (CMOS
q
,(ACL and FACT- CMOS) R L dEG a VE H (CMOS-HCS/HCTS -CMOS
. (Low Voltage CMOS - LVX CMOS ) d d G d G (CMOS ) R L h
283
e d G (BiCMOS ) G Q G O
iNCG e dG GQG dGh jh dG dp o dGh G cG dG J
e ,dG FKh (CMOS) JQGO e YdG (f bbodG Y pVdG)
. d G F K I Q G d d d G Y d G d E G a V E H I Q d G d G (CMOS ) S G
M (Analog Applications ) K d G d G e d G F K (ICs ) ` d G S J
C G c , (CMOS ) ` d G J e Y S e a C G a (Switching ) j d G Y S E G
(CMOS) GQGO J ,iNCG Mf e .cCG (Current Drive) QJ rnS jd
e YCG HGH aH Jh ,bCG IQGM OJ fCG Y
k a ,bCG IkQb ,edG
.dG FK GQGdG H J dG adG
.dG FdG GQGOh (CMOS) GQGO e k GJ cCG (BiCMOS) bbQ qJ
e W C G I d K d G (ICs ) ` d G U a (BiCMOS ) ` d G L d J e S G b h
`dG LdJ SH IkOY
o n jo .bdG (ICs) `dG U a eG SG I e
: g h , e S C G K d b d G (ICs ) ` d G U a (BiCMOS )
. K d G I L C G e a G J -1
.bdG Rd q dG AGOCG -2
. d d G d G -3
G c G d G J d G f I Q d G (BiCMOS SRAM ) G c G P S G G P E G
, d G J e e R e S C G (Access Time ) N O e R J f E a d G F d G
FK GcGdG eR e kjhe NO eR J fEa ,bCG IQb SG GPEG eCG
d G (BiCMOS ) G c G P a , I c G d G j N h d G
q GO qJ .dG
I/O ) N
r n /NrOn IQGO dCJ H ,(CMOS) GQGO e ,ddG adG GPh IQdG
G P G c G d G E a , M C G Y h . (ECL ) I L C G h C G (TTL ) I L C G e , (Circuitry
286
bdG dG UGN
j b fCG EG .gCG dG cCG e dG UCG a ,IkOY ,YdG qJo
,IQd ddG SGh ,(Noise) AVdG qdJ e ce ddG YdG Y
YdG SJ .MdG J HU jGJ Y
k a ,fqd ddG dGh
f K f d H ,OR Q N G H G H Q f G N C c (Digital Logic Speed ) b d G d G
J g d H (D-Type Flip-Flop Toggle Rate ) D f e
q b OOqJ ch ,(ns)
T Y IkOY VJoh .(ns) fKfdH N (Switching) jJ ec hCG ,(MHz)
.fdGh idG d qe
:g dG bdG qUGdG EG
dM a J hCG qJ dG YdG gh :(Switching Speed) jdG YS
g Jo .dH dGh dG dG dEG ddG dG e HGdG rNn
fKfdH SJo (Average Propagation Delay) QfG jJ qe fCH YdG
287
ed HdG dG ILCG
(Programmable Logic Devices-PLDs) ed HdG dG ILCG qJ
d G (AND ) d G h (OR ) Q N G H G H e d D e e Z a e e
H HGhdG J hCG a N e UN e FXH d JJ j dG
HGhdG (Blowing) J N e dP J eEH .kFfG HGdG g
a ,dG HGhdG Ue N N e hCG ,ILCG H a Qfd HdG
,(PLDs) `dG aJ CG j . d dG a d dPh ,i NCG I LCG
dG M YdG dG H e ,IgL jQJ ILCc IadG
, F g H J h e Q O e e (PLDs ) ` d G a G J c . j O Y G T h C G
.kf NQ a ddh
e d H d G a I A G d G I c G P L d d O G e G g (PLDs ) ` d G L d J E G
`dG e H j .(Field Programmable Read-Only Memory-PROM) kfGe
Jo fCG e ZdG Y dG FXdG H AGOCG Y IQOb d (PROMs)
Jo UCG fCG c ,IQdG g e SJ CG (PLDs) eEHh .GcGc
` d G L d J e G f C G K K G S G d E G a V E H , (ECL ) ` d G h (TTL ) ` d G G S H
: g h (CMOS )
a TCH dGREd HdG ` 2 ,(Fuse Programmable) ed HdG pUdG ` 1
.(Electrically Erasble) kFHc dGREd HdG ` 3 ,(Ultraviolet Erasable) dG
(Acronyms ) G d G h d G A S C G d E G I Q T E G (PLD ) ` d G e j
d G - (Monolithic Memories ) j Q e d f e c T e b h . H J d G
- (Advanced Micro Devices-AMD ) z j j O h e f a O C G { S H d G J
e C G . (Programmable Array Logic-PAL ) e d H d G d G a d G j H
zcfc S a{ SH BG J dG ` (Signetics) jS cT
e d H d G d G a d G j H e b a - (Philips Semiconductor )
Qc GdCG c T Joh .(Field-Programmable Logic Array-FPLA) kfGe
kFHc ed HdG ILCH qJ dG (CMOS PLDs) `dG (Altera Corp)
289
290
HGdG ae
jJ T ,ee Ue f IQGO g (Gate Array) HGqdG ae EG
Y e N c J HGe Z He jN e ae T Y Iqeoh
dG adH ,HGqdG ae Jo .IY ehpeh GQjfGJ
Jo c ,(Macrocell Arrays) hc e N a Hh ,(Logic Arrays)
j .(Undefined Logic Arrays-ULAs) IOqdG Z dG adH
d E G a V E H , (Drains ) Q d G h , H G d G d E G a d G g a U d G
GY e jdG eh HK dG je c J c .GdGh QOdG
,INCG fdG LdG VJoh .jNCG fdG LdG hCG LdG
.J d dG UdG ,ja H
jdG dEG aVEH ,dG M qdG ICs `dGh HGdG ae e c qJo
Y CGJ .(ASIC) UdG d e e GQGO ,(PLDs) `dGh S dG
f aGh SGH hCG ,UdG f SGH eEG HGdG ae eH hCG J
291
k a ,(Decoders) dG jeh Hq
q d G h (Latches ) b d G d E G a V E H
SGH jhcdG jdG HGJh .GOqdGh MGREG eh , YdG Y
.jdG e fe Uh
dG GMdGh ,YqdG e (Macro Functions) jhcdG
q GdG EG
je dEG aVEH , fQ dGh ,(Arithmetic Logic Units-ALU) HdG
jdG e J ,GOGqdGh (Flip-Flop Registers)
q dG eh dG
H Uh Y jhcdG
q GdG J ,jdG g Y Yh .jhcdG
J GPEG
q GdG g a IQdG AGLCG dGREG j Yh .ke aqe fe
.dP eCG
,(CMOS) `dGh (ECL) `dGh (TTL) `dG e kjQJ Jh HGdG ae nJo
ae SGH J c .ddG fQR e ae jJ J bh
f e i N C G d G e S J I/O I Q GO A f G j h . e I/O L d J h
I/O ` d G A L j H , (ECL ) e , a e J b , d G S Y . e
q
. (TTL ) f e I/O A L e (CMOS ) a e e f a d G a
eqDJ H ,(Subnanoseconds) fKfdG hO NCJ eR (ECL) ae eqDJ
.5 nshn 1 ns H hGj NCJ eR ,HGJ W GP (CMOS) `dGh (TTL) `dG ae
.(ehe)
3 mh 1.5 H
SdG jdG
,keJ ZQa bbQ e qe e RL g (Standard Cell) SdG dG EG
Y j . (Computer-Aided Methods ) J d G I Y H J F G W S G H
Y UCG Me j fCG EG ,HGqdG ad kFHc hme RL dG g
IcGP Hh HGH e UdG dG dEG J e Y FGM dPh bbdG
H Iqe HGH ae e jdG g QnJo .a I/O (I/O Pads) GOaQh
M e J F a U Y Y J f C G E G , d G a 80 h d G a 70 H hG J
SG Y JQOb HGdG aeh SdG jdG CG c .bbdG e e
IYH dG e IcGP a fdG f jhdG jdG e
d J J Q G j , I d G g c G E a , M C G Y h . (CAD ) J d G
CG Y
k a , W C G j (Lead Time ) U d G e R C G c , S d G j d G I M h
.kjCG JS Sd dhqCG dG
d G J C d P h , e d G j d G (IC ) ` d G Y S d G d G J
Yh dG e IcGP a fdGh ke qdG jdG e Y j
jdG jJ Y hQOb edG jdG (IC) `dG qe EG .e edG
c GPEG .cCG d qa d e edGh dG e IcGP a jh c dG
Gg d Fe cCG IjL jN GSG j cCG dG J dG
294
q e
q d GcGdG e dG Gg qU .iNCG bdG GQGdGh
q d GcGP
G J d G a S S C G G c G d G f c d G (Ferrirte Core Memories ) J G d G
JGdG M e dG H GcGdG
q d j ch .keY 40 e cC bdG
q d G c G P H . e d G H c h I A G d S C G G P Wo C G Y k G L I d G
UCG CG H M ,jW Id jdG GJdG a ee JGdG
dCG C dPh ,jdG Z GJdG a J UdG f GcGdG
UdG f GcGdG e ,jhdG YTEG Kf VY bCG JGdG
UdG f GcGdG jd hQOh GWCG jJ ,J M bh a .dhCG
.GjdG g e
I c G P H C G g (Transistorized Flip-Flop ) G Q j f G d H d G
q dG EG
qe a dG g c ddG c a MGh H jJ Y IQOb Ue f
Y IQOb ,dG S Y ,e H
q b K C G c . (Toggle Switch ) O O d G
.edG e MGh (Byte) jH hCG (8 - bit Word) qpH 8 e c jJ
dEG a VE H , g jG eh , YG fCG ah U dG f G cG dG q J
,edG dEG ddG c g dG IdGh .gd edG LddG
Y IcGdG g aJ c g iNCG IdGh .J hCG FGY jH
f H N O E H (Read/Write Memories ) H d G / I A G d G G c G P J h . f d G
g H J fCG c ,ke ImOLe ee a Hc N e ,IjL
Y IQOb (Read-Only Memories) a IAGdG GcGP CG c .kjCG edG
295
296
e j d G RAM H e I d G RAM
T d G I d G (RAM ) ` d G Y (Modifier
297
Static )
dG unodG j
298
a IAGdG IcGP
Hb
ee ROM
ke
(PROM ) e d
Hb ROM
d
(PROM )
Hb EPROM
d
EEPROM kFHc
RAM
RAM
JS/HK
ejO/ce
ROM
RAM
FdG
VRAM
ROM
eh
f IcGP
jdG qdG
(FPM )
fH N
(EDO ) O e
DRAM
eGe
299
a j d G d G H b G d G I d G g (Access Time ) N d G e R E G
e C G . (Read Time I A G d G e H ) a J d G d G h I c G d G e e d G A Y S E G
dGh jd IgL edG a J dG dG H bGdG edG IdG
. (Write Time ) H d G e H a j d G a j d G
a j d G i N C G h d G H b G d G e d G g (Cycle Time ) I Q h d G e R E G
.IcGdG dEG ddG
OdG J je
JG e HGH
I/O
NO
N
dG GY
je
J
dG
IcGdG ae
(2048x2048x4 )
. 4 M b x 4 b i t ( D R A M ) e j O R A M ` d J S Q 1 3 -9 d G
300
M G h A f G Q j f G J h (DRAM ) a e e f d G j J j N d C J
gX g c ,edG e MGh H jJ Y IQOb jJ e e ,e
hC G Q d G e M Gh J j e Yh .C G-14 -9 d G a d G Sd G a
VJ H dUdG GQjfGdG c Je Ea ,adG a AfG N
pjn (ON/OFF) AWEG /J c QjfGdG j .(ON) J dM a
qJnh .adG a OY Y IQY gh ,H UdG fdG N e pqdG
.HdGh IAGdG Y dG eGdG dG Y
e f qe H jN e dCJ IcGP Y d a dG dG EG
TfEG a j ,GQjfGdG Oe
q b e dh ,a eh QjfGJ
Y EG .(Dynamic) ejdG hCG ejdG e AL g eh ,kjQhO fdG
H hCG IAGdG Y N ao b fc pT ,TfEG Y dqJ TfEG
.qJ M
dG N
AfEG
dG
dG N
OdG AfEG
OdG AfEG
(A )
(B )
J j K e h , F d G I c G d G h d d G H S h (SRAM ) I c G P N O E G
ddG j b dGh ,FdG IcGdG a fdG fdG Ye Y f
aVEG IQGO j dP CG EG .SdG IcGdG Y qe Y AGOC hdG
a a NBG dG eCG .e LQdGh SdG IcGdG dEG NGdG fdG td
. (DRAMs ) G c G P H e e a h d G d d G e S d G G c G d G V
e G d G DRAMs
J G P (DRAM ) h C G , (Synchronous DRAMs-SDRAMs ) e G d G (DRAM ) J
e hdG ddG HJ d dPh 100 MHz `dG GOOqJ Y ,bdG
f V Y V C G H Q C G h j f V Y (DRAM ) ` d G g i d h . I c G d G
Clock) YdG OOJ e kjOW Sj IcGdG f VY CG kY ,jdG DRAM
d (Rising Edge) JdG adG e dGh NdG e c eGjn .(Frequency
J eY YdG dY MGREG
q eo a IMGh c e cCG J jh .YdG
YS IQhO d c H QdG dEG dG g GJo K eh ,IAGdG Y
e S C G d G c G d G g a N O E G e R E G i N C G M f e . (Clock Cycle )
a 64 Mb i e e (SDRAMS ) a G J . j d G (DRAMs ) a h G d G e R
.dG GSCG
c d G f h d E G S g e DRAMs
S d G DRAM I c G P
c T e g h , (Cached DRAMs CDRAMs ) S d G DRAM I c G P i d
edG H VJ Sh (SRAM) I cGP ,(Mitsubishi Corp) He
e E H h . N O E G Y S e a V E G g j J . N G d G (DRAM ) ` d G h L Q d G
qdG e k GMGh ie Jh LQdG SdG IcGdG e J CG (CDRAM)
304
S e G Q f DRAM G c G P
idh .SeGQ cT qJ dG (DRAM) ee e SG IcGdG g J
Decoder and Hit-Detection ) c h J a e I c G d G g Y b b Q c
o
e dG G g a (Memory Controller) IcGdG e eCG . NGO (Logic
G M h j h , d G f C G a i N C G G d G e H C G a (DRAM )
N G d G (Bus ) b d G e f d j S S Q E H d G S g J h . b C G I c G P
Y A S E G e E H h . c C H (Access Cycle ) h G d G I Q h O A f G b S G d G
ddG Uh SGH JdG fCG H a LQ dG S dG I cG dG
dO J H e dEG S eGQ (DRAM) J .I cG dG e Ik T e h dG
QdG J IQGO dEG a VE H ,I/O b e Y j U N (Interface)
. e h , (Phase-Locked Loop )
a IAGdG GcGP
f I c G P e a I A G d G G c G P (Read-Only-Memories-ROMs ) ` d G d C J
.dG Y e INCG MGdG a uodG b e FGO H ee dUe
dG a eJo jJ T (ROM) g hCG dG ;(ROM) `dG e Yf aGj
a J dG bdG a GQjfGdG H Uj dG d NCG SJ jh
j d G (ROM ) ` d G a N B G d G e C G . (Wafer ) a G d G e k G A L G J b b d G
c Ea dP Y
k a .qe d q e Rc keJ qdGh edG
c .keJ J H nJo QjfGdG Uh oU a edG LGdG
a h , e c h j J (ROM ) b b Q J Y a d G G S G d a C G
306
j d G d G R E G d E G a V E H I Q G d G M d Y (EPROM ) d G R E G j f d G e
.H a qTC (EPROM) jJ K eh ,JQGdG Iaf Y cGdG bGdG
ddG jd hCG fd ec e d bO 20 Iqe qTCG d bbdG VqJo
.IQhdG Sq dG fqdH k GQV J CG fCT e dG dG
JQGdG aGf J CG fCT e (Ceramic) aN Y a (EPROMs) RJo
e Jo .(EPROM) J e ke k GAL RdG e SCG Gg qjh .adG
Y EG .da H bW dqH Jh (CMOS) LdJ e EPROM
. f d G H c I O YE Gh d I Q hO 100 d G M d E G j ,Y a EPROM
(One-Time-Only (OTO) a IMGh Id kFHc ed HdG (ROM) `dG eCG
G P h I a f h O S H Y a e h R e , I U (EPROM ) b b Q a EPROM)
e aCG (EPROM) `dG AGOCG j eY (OTO-EPROM) `dG Jo .b J
dPh dG JQGdG e IaH jRdG dEG LM fCG EG ,jNCG Je AGOCG
qdGh QqdG ,efdG gH bh .jRdH qj d Gg (EPROM) efH C
. d G d G a M f , j J (EPROMs ) S G H
g C G E G , e Z S H (IC ) Y a (EEPROM ) V J j
Y H e O Y e c C G (Pins ) e d G h C G H d G e O Y Y J d G
H e Y (EEPROM ) A G M d P h , f a d G G P (OTO-PROM ) ` d G
`dG I cGP a NOEG eR eCG . f dG e H IO YEGh d U N a VEG
a d G G P (EPROM ) I c G P a N d G e R e H W C G a (EEPROM )
`dG LdJ e e sjoh ,da H IQb dqH J fCG EG ,f
. (CMOS )
edG GcGdG
I O Y E G h d H b (ROM ) I c G P g (Flash Memories ) e d G I c G d G E G
b e f d G a c d G R E G j (EEPROM ) I c G P e d G Y d h , e d G
Y
k a , (EEPROM ) I c G P H J e d G I c G d G H C G c . e H I O Y E G
IcGdG Jo .dG IQGdG e dGREG dEG LdG hO edG IOYE Hb fCG
a J g h , (EEPROM ) L d J h C G (EPROM ) L d J f Y e E G e d G
.SdG dG Jg H kSh
k M
.QGSH eH IOYEG dEG J dG d kSe edG IcGdG qJo
IOYEGh e eEH ,U a edG ddG LdJ Y OYHh
e j h . c C G hC G I e 10.000 h 100 H hG j G d G e O d Y H d G
. (EPROMs ) I c G P e g e e R e S C G C G , G K Z a I c G d G g e
J dG IQdG e bCG IQb edG IcGdG J ,dP Y IkhY
e j J Y I Q d G d C G c , (EEPROM ) h C G (EPROM ) I c G c J e
System ) d G e H j d Gc G d G g J . f d G e 1 Mb d E G j
g H i d E G K . (PROM ) ` d G h U d G b G S e d G h (Software
d E G d G g D h G O C G Y j h . (EEPROMs ) N O E G e R e S C G N O e R G c G d G
. W M G j Q H Y J d G (SRAM ) a J L
edG dG pSodG
G Q G O , (Universal
Receiver - Transmitters )
.YfG dJ
aVEH (Bit-Rate Generator) qH e dqe Y (UARTs) H Jh
(UART ) e I O e I H (UART ) V e E H h . O d H d I/O e e d E G
. I M G h (IC ) Y a L h O e I H
: d d G F X d G e d G (USRT ) I Q G O O D J
.eGdG ZdG hdG Sh J
.npeGodG hdG ch dJ
e AGLEG gh ,fdH dG HGhQ e cCG hCG MGh ZUh J
f eCd dPh ,iNCG ILCGh GJdGh dG GWCG Y qeh
.MGh fH HGQ Y ed e
.UdG hdGh ANCG c
hCG eGe H AGOCG Y IQOb pe pSeo edG (USART) GQGO qJo
Z d G a , (USART ) Y S H . d G f e H S G H e G e Z
dH LdG fdH dG HGhQ J CGh
k g qJ CG ,eGdG
H .dH L
q dG fdH dG HGhQ hM eGneo feEH hCG ,dHh
. e G d G Z d G Y (UART ) Y (USART ) J
qJh .eRrQp d J JG Gb e KG hCG IMGh (IC) `dG g J
(USART ) h (USRT ) Y J c ,
q H e Gdqe (USART)h (UARTs) H
(UARTs) e c q jo .
q dGh dH LdG fdH dG HGhQ
,(Printers) H dG a G S d (USART) dEG a VE H (USRT)h
dEG aVEH ,OdG I LCGh ,(Personal Computors) dG GJdGh
,(Data PBX) fdG JdG N tJ GqHh ,(Multiplexers) YdG
.JG a Gqe Y
k a
312
T d G dG
eT If
(Batteries) j Q d G
jdG IQdG Ge
(Laboratory Power Supply)
IQdG Ge Jh RQ
(Power Supply Packaging)
Te QJ dEG Te QJ e
(DC-to DC Converters)
(Fuel Cells) O b d G j N
313
Power Supplies I Q d G G e
eT If
TCG I LCG d (DC) T e Q J dEG fh dEG GQG dG J
q N IQb Gdqe e QdG Gg Y dG jh .UdG
Linear Power )
j Q d H h C G , (Switching Power Supply ) j d H I Q b G d e h C G , (Supply
Fuel ) O b d G j N e M h , (Solar Cells ) d G b d G j N h C G , (Batteries )
I Q b Y d e d G F d G d G F S d G d G G g h j h . (Cells
j Q d d G j d G j h .50 V Y J d a h T e Q J GP F H c
e e qe da N eCd IQdG jN e cCG hCG d e mHH
.jdG g da
N fCH k GRe ,SdG eYh udG idh ,jdG dY a jQdG qJo
H d G G g j h .9 V I Q b GP j d G d G J hC G 1.5 V GP I d G I Q d G
.FchdG bdG QOe e gZh jQdG jg
jQdG
b d d G j d G e c C G h C G N J M g (Battery ) j Q d G
:g FQ AGLCG HQCG e IOY jQdG dCJh .FchdG
e ) Q d d G O h d E G h C G , ( (Anode ) : O f C G ) L d G d G -1
.Obh hCG ,deo IOe e IOY
.Qd pSdG OhdEG hCG ,((Cathode) :OKc) ddG dG -2
. c D e e Y -3
fG eqDJ dG FHd UdG IOdG hCG (Electrolyte) dhdEG -4
.fjCd NGdG
Y J IO e IQ b j N CG EG ,IkO Y F S dh dEG J
Y OfCG J Ua IOe dhdEG dEG aVEH ,dgh .U dhdEG
bW dEG TdG gOGe a edG FdG bdG jH dG Jh .OKdG
qdH (OKdG) OhdEG j PEG .GNG /cCdG Y N e FHc
314
jqdG - dG cCG fK jN
(Alkaline-Manganese Dioxide (Zn/MnO2) Cells) jdG e dG Gg qjo
- fdG jc keJh ,FdG dG cCG fK - fdG f f e
jT dhdEG e Ic c Y J fCG EG ,cdG dS jQdG
VdG dG a qdG , jdG g J .SJdG chQgh ,UdG
YCG (Drain Rates) f qH e IQGM LQH ,1-10 dG a
H fdG jN Y Y jj bS Y dh ,fdG jN f e e
Y Ge 10 dEG 2 qH jJ AY S aJ jdG g eEH .bCG a S
hGJh .(Ampere-Hour) YS eCH k GQqe ,jQdG - fdG jN AY S
h G J J d a C G c ,1.6 VDC h 1.5 VDC H a M d G I Q G d G d a
130 Wh/kg d G M (Specific Energy ) Y d G b W h .1.3 VDC h 1.1 VDC H
.375 Wh/L b W a c h
.fhdEG GQGdG a GSd jH bW QOe fCH jqdG jdG J
NdG QSG ILCG e fhdEG e J a eGSH jh
f h d E G G h O C G a h , H d G c C G h C G R Z c h , (Smoke Detectors )
Jo fc dG ,da dG jQH Jo .dG jdG ah ,jhdG
.IU fe Y a ehRe jb jN S e ,QjfGdG jQH
317
dG cCG - fdG jN
QdH TCG H IkOY (Zinc-Silver Oxide (Zn/AgO) Cells) jdG g Jo
, R h h I M h a d Y S a J Y I Q b d h ,1.55 V S G L N I Q b J h
q e T jJ eh bS Y dh
cCG - fdG jN J .GqL
jhdG YdG ah ,dG pd q dG dG Y qdG a dG
.fhdEG GedGh ,SdG BGh
(+) OKdG
FGO IQGO hP Qe
Ua
OfCG
OKc
OKdG QJ eL
OfCG QJ eL
SH RY
RY
(-) OfCG IOGS
.jb N :1 -10 dG
jFGO a
AGdG - fdG jN
VdG dG a qdG ,(Zinc-Air (Zn/O2) Cells) AGdG - fdG N RnJo
f C G Y A G d G e c C G d G g N C J . Q G Q R C G H I O Y ,2 -10 d G a
j dG eCG ,NGdG dG M Yo e bCG j dG ,qdG OKdG
jdG H a deCG e kM cCG d (OKdG) ddG d dG
N CH kfQe Rhh M IMh a bW ac bCG dG Gg aj .dhqCG
(Specific Energy) YdG bdGh ,1.5 V SG dG da J PEG ,iNCG dhqCG
.146 Wh/L b W a c h , 146 Wh/kg d G M
IOH hdG fdG e e (Amalgam) neo g AGdG - fdG OfCG EG
cCGh SJdG chQg e Fe e e dhdEG qj .JL
318
W / RY
e
Ua
OKc fGSCG
jJ a
OKdG
AGdG jRJ W
dhCG dG jN
bd dPh fhdEG dG J Y JQH ahe jN gh
dG ddG N pV aJ PEG (M IMh d YS - GdH IQdG) ddG
Ea ,jdG SG a q e fCG e ZdG Yh .jdG jdG gaJ
e a d G J (Lithium Primary Cells ) d G j N e G f C G S
1.5 H d G j d (Nominal Output ) S G d G h G j . e f e
U OGe J CG j dG JdhdEG SSCG Y qJh ,da 3.6h da
.jY Z hCG jY FS hCG
eH e (Li) hdG dG eQ N e IkOY dG Ac
q J
FdG fCG H j e a OQfh .dG (dhdEG) dhdEG
.dG jd dG
. (Lithium Sulfur Dioxide Li/SO2 ) j d G c C G f K - d G
319
- Gh 250 d E G J d G) b d d d G a d G : e I O e S e j d G d
q dG jdG jGe dEG aVEH ,IQd ddG adGh ,(GZdG a YS
,
.jdG bdG dGh ,IQGdG LQO a SGh ie a RdG AGOCG Yh
N eEH Ea ,bdG fEG a IdG JQb jdG d ddG dG QuJo
jh .dG H a jb bW nqN SG Y VqJ CG IMGh d
OGeh ,a IadG dhdEG SSCG Y kjCG dhqCG dG jN J
H CG c .dEG ..dG dhdEGh ,(dGh ,FdG OKdG) OKdG
fCG fCG Y J j Gd ,T IOYEG j d FHdG FdG
.(eOdG UdG a (Li-Ion) zjCG - dG jN{ fG) .kjCG fK
jdG cCG fK - dG jN
Lithium-Sulfur Dioxide (Li/SO2) )
jdG cCG fK ` dG jN aJ
(CO2) jN eE Hh . e IQG M LQO a d Y AGOCG q e (Cells
Flat) qe jJ Geh Fe bS Y aJ ZEG eh WdG
J (Nominal Cell Voltage ) S G j N d a j d G d . e (Discharge
,A G S M Y ( Y d G) f d Gh j d G d G a J gh 3.0 V e
a dG Y JQb dEG aVEH ,JdG FGOCG eh ddG d dPh
Gqd IQdG aJ dG JeGSG qJ .Sbh aqe IQGM LQO
YdGh GJdG ah ,(Telemetry) jodGh ,fhdEG GdGh
Radio) j jOG dG SG SQEG I LCG dEG a VE H (CMOS) I cG dGh
jdG fCG Y
k a , dG G dGh ,QG dG AG VCGhn .(Transceivers
.QfdG ILCGh
320
fdG jQc - dG jN
,(Lithium - Thionyl Chloride (SOCl2)) fdG jQc - d N J
IcGP J dGE aV
E H edG dG a , dG a dG SdG a qdG
q e jJ ehn 3.6 V QGe SG da N jdG d .(MOS)
Jo .
IQGM LQO a mVeo H Z
E G e Y NGO ehRe gh jdG g
q H dgh .100C e J
.FchdG UGdG H oU iNCG jQ
e IOGS
ZEG
cjEG
IOGdG W
LLdG
eL b
fhdEd
e OfCG
dG
Ua
OKdG
. f d G j Q c - d N : 3 -1 0 d G
dG cCG fK - dG jN
AGOCG qe (Lithium-Manganese Dioxide (Li/MnO2) Cells) jdG g qJo
.me jJ eh jW bS Y dh c ,e IQGM LQO a qL
dG b H kf Ye gh 3.0 V gQGe SG da jdG dh
(CMOS ) I c G P h , S d G h , Y d G h , F H d G G e d G d f d G
IcGP J a kjCG GSG FT jdG g .iNCG fhdEG GhOCGh
. M E H e e d f C G c (MOS )
(OdG) U dhdG - dG jN
j h J (Lithium-Solid Electrolyte (Iodine) (Li/I2) Cells ) j d G g e E H
:(Pacemaker) dG e RL a dG QdG gh 2.8 V gQGe SG da
q e
.dG HV
321
fe chQg - dG jN
d a d h T O j (Nickel-Metal Hydroxide (Ni-MHD) Cells ) j N g
f O C G d G j 250 Wh/l a c h ,60 Wh/ kg Y f b W h ,1.2 V h J S G
20C H F G O C G I Q G M L Q O h G J h I M G h Y S (Ni-MHD ) j Q H T I O Y E
, (NiCd ) j Q H e G S G f j d G g e Y d G j Q d . 50C h
.bdG ac e YCG k GqM aJ fCG EG
jCG - dG jN
IOYE HdG dG LdH (Lithium-Ion (Li-Ion) Cells) jdG g Jo
a c h ,120 Wh/kg Y f b W h ,3.6 V g Q G e S G N d a d h , d G
. Y Sh I M Gh Y S H hG j T I O YE f OC G e d G E G .300 Wh/ L b W
cCG e dG OKc jo .60Ch 20C H dG IQGM LQO hG Jh
jQdG J .aGdG e OfCG jo a dG cCG fK hCG HdG
322
(NiCd) jQH d He J a j dG g e Y dG
. b W a c d c h Y C G N d a a J f C G E G , (Ni-MHD ) h
dG Y Y
q Jo LLR (Ampule) jhM FdG dhdEG j .4-10
.3.65 V d E G I c Y H d G d a J a I
q e H hCG kfe eEG
,jdG QGdG GjOGQ d JjQHh MG jdG Jo
c jdG eGSG H eCG .PfEG ILCG dch ,fdGh
Submarine) UGdG nTh ,GHQdGh ,jQGdG a fhdEG GQGdG
q
(-) S W
SH J
QdG
dG Y LdG RY
OKdG
UdG
dhdEG HfCG
LLR
OfCG
dhdEG
(+) jhdG
IQdG W
Pa AZ
CGd he
LLR IOGS
AdG Y
e e
QM
TEG K
UUQ OhdEG Uh
RY Ub
jN Sc
RY jT
jPa jhM
CGd ehe
RY Z
Obh Uh
jhdG Y
(Bursts ) G J G M E G Y I Q O b d h C G N j Q H d E G a , (Decoys
m Y FHc N GP
iqj b jJ H dG e fdG e AL Z a
fc AGS bQN (QJ) J ib d jQdG g J .S jdG
q N h C G (Centrifugal ) j c e I H f
. (Linear Acceleration Forces )
a qdG zjdG jc FK - dG S{ jQGdG jQdG M d
j dG g a .kL dG g ,5-10 dG a VdG dG
e N d jdG jc FK OKch dG S OfCG H U dhdEG
. (Stand By ) g C d G h C G O G S G d M a g h j Q d G j N
jQdG V (Pyrotechnic) jQf QOe CGJ ,kFHc J j eYh
,450C d E G h 300C e j h d G N G O I Q G d G L Q O L H J J Y J S
r
hGj .FHc IQb fGh N c a dhdEG d ac IQGM gh
j Q d G M Y k G O Y G ,100 V h 1.5 V H j Q d G g a d d G N
.NGdG UdGh
ddG dG
RY
fe AZ
c J IQb jN 6
1.5 V e IMGh
IQdG Gqeo
,(AC) OOqdG QdG jd IQGO Y IQY g (Power Supply) IQdG qeo EG
326
a j d G G g M j . e (DC ) Q J d E G , d G Z (DC ) T d G Q d G h C G
H hCG ,jRdG e (DC) dEG (AC) qe g qdG CG fhdEG dY
e (Module) cqe IQGO HQ hCG ,(Open-Frame Assembly) e QWEG qe
.cdG pVh
q N e qeo dEG kFe (DC) dEG (AC) `d dqodG IQdG Gqe qJo
327
AC N
qTe
qeh
qe DC N
e
fR Le
.e - N IQb e :7 -10 dG
jdG fQ IQb Ge
,kSSCG (Tuned Transformer) qe qc IQdG Gqe e dG Gg qjo
329
Ferroresonant Power )
AC N
Qe
Te
eh
VY qe
dG
DC N
e
fR U
FdG
q
OOdG GP dG e kfRh bCGh kM UCG j b (Transformer
CG j Ggh .jjdG fdG GPh ,dH IQdG Gqe dEG J dG
.bCG j gjJh IQGdG qJ
60/50 Hz
jdH dG jJ
Switching)jdH dG G qd dG jdG e jdG dg
: j e J , (Regulator Topologies
(Flyback or Buck-Boost Convertor) dG qeo hCG jGdG be dEG LdG Iqeo
(Forward or Buck Convertor) (dG hCG) eeCG qdG
(Half-Bridge Regulator) Ib dG qe
q e
(Push-Pull Regulator ) c e Q G W C G
LdG qeo
dG a dG a qe g c ,(Flyback Converter) LdG qe EG
VY qe
dG
eeCG qodG
,10-10 dG dG a qeo g c ,(Forward Convertor) dG Gg EG
(Buk-Derived Switching Power Supply ) d H
q eh jdH IQb qe g
332
f dG q dG dEG q j gh .O e j J Q j fG J Y j
gh ,
k qeo hCG kMe QjfGdG e j eY (Transformer Secondary)
IQdG J jJ a IQGdG Joh ,(Output Inducer) ndG
q M a qjo
. c C G hC G 500 W h J d G
dG
VY qe
dG
333
IQdG Ge Jhn RQ
H dG a gh (Stand-Alone) dG JGP IQdG Gqe J
GhOCG J a GSd d dG Nnh ,G fCGh , MCG e SGh
:ddG FGdH GdG g RJh .IQdH fhdEG ILCGh
Y hCG jO U NGO Jh :(Encapsulated Module) dG jR dG
dG GP GqdG g q J .e RGe Hh U SH
. f h d E G I L C G a 10 W
Gqe a FT dG Ggh :(Open Frame Package) dG QWEG jRJ
f qe cqJ .500 W dEG 100 W d qdG jdGh dG IQdG
g h C G (Card Cage Mounting ) b H h U V d G Q G O M d Y a d G
.dG dG hCG ,RdG NGO cqjo V dG H fe
Yf d jRdG e dG Gg j :(Enclosed Module) odG jRdG
.cCG hCG 500 W QGH IQb J a FT gh ,jdHh ,dG GqdG
q e fe g Y dG fqe cq Jo
Ohqeh jd fe H
g J RF. V j M a d k G L I U d G g J .j d G H
AGg d af hCG hGH H Ohqjh ,EM/RFI uTe Y GMdG
.jd e
Te QJ dEG Te QJ qeo
N d E G d d e d a i H DC N O J f h d G I Q GO gh
QdG NO (Chopping) J N e kf dP J j .fOCG hCG YCG dH
mFH J K (Coarse AC) e Z he QJ dEG jd DC TdG
qdGh ,dqd QjfGdG dG a dG Y EG .jJh H
Pulse Width) dG V Y eo SG H J ,11-10 dG a k J
q
j M (MOSFT Q1 ) Q j f G d G I Q b H j d G (Modulator - PWM
Nn jJ j .T1 QjfGdG a dhqCG dG dEG HqdG JLe Nn J
T J h , j J h ,T1 Q j f G d f d G d G a j d G d G Z AC
.D3 FdG fR pU SGH ,Jh
DC
jQhV dY da Y d dG Gg e DC dEG DC qe Jo
334
ObdG jN
bW dEG FdG bdG qJ IQb QOe g (Fuel Cells) ObdG jN EG
e Y j d G (Combustion ) G M G d E G L d G h O T e H F H c
IQb GMh g ObdG jN EG .cCHh ,LhQdH dG ObdH qJo
Y Y jdG g J .T IOYEG dEG J fEG PEG jQd jH
N J .cCGh LhQdG fE Ad FHdG dG IQhS
d e h b O G H Z (Flow-Field Plates ) e e U Y O b d G
dhdEG Y d c jh .(12-10 dG M) bQ AZp SG H
e c j .(OKdGh OfCG) jOhdEG H Zeo (IOY jdG M)
JdG e (Catalyst) RqM Ye eY e b c Y dG Jg
.FdG YdG d
S h d G h C G , (Hydrazine ) j R G Q d c - L h Q d H d G O b d G J j
G Q h d H N C j M O f C G L e d G d E G L h Q d G R Z h C G , (Kerosene )
jh .OKdG L e dG a (AGdG) cCG jo mFH .dG NGO
nLe LhQg nfjCG dEG Fc YJ Y LhQdG F L
o a
. O f C G U V f h d E G d E G h ( n f J h H h C G )
QJoh .d IQb eqDJ LQN fhdEG IQGO Y fhdEG aJ
dG H UdG bdG AdG Y OKdG f (JfJhH) LhQdG if
.OKdG a cCG e ed
335
dhdEG
OKc
(AGdG) cCG
(AdG) fK Jf
336
Y O d G dG
fhdEG dG GhOCG
jdG
eT If
(Meter Movements) OG d G c M
(Frequency Counter) OO d G OG Y
(Spectrum Analyzers) d G e
bdG HSShCG
TdG QdG Sb Ib
(Digital Oscilloscope)
UNG GddG
hdG QdG Sb Wb
(Function Generators)
337
eT If
Ijeh ,Jh ,jJh J a e fh dEG dG GhOCG EG
SCG) jdG GhOCG YNG dh .JGqeh fhdEG GQGdG Jh
Y AGHG b jW Id fhdEG Seh Fja b e (ddG JGhOCG
,GdG jJ a SSCG fCG GhOCG g KCGh . d dG fh dEG
dG GhOCG qJ .FHdG IQdG Gdq eh ,GQ J dGh , dGh
Moving-Coil) cdG dG GOGqY e k GOYh ,jh Ib SdG
d d G - (Galvanometer ) f Z S e h C G z e f d G { e d G (Meters
,(FHdG QdG S e) (Ammeter) eCGh ,((Voltmeter) d dG OG Y)
(Wattmeter) WG dGh ,( eCG ehCG S dG) (Ohmmeter) ehCGh
.(GdG Se)
(Analog Multimeter) OdG KdG OGqd SCG f GhOCG g fc
e L dG VGZCG IOqe GOGdG gh ,(VOM) e hCG - ddG hCG
OGdG SG qdG Ia AKCGh .keh
k S k GeCG jdGh fGdG UdG
I O e d G S h B G U C G (DMM ) O e b Q O G H O d G K d G
.dG VGZCG
SSCG dG FHdG GdG Sd IQdG aJ dEG aVEH
VGZCG qJ IOe GhOCG e I c OG YCG j J a GhOCG g g S
.IOdG
,OO dGh ,IQG dG LQOh ,(Capacitance) dG S b (DMM) eE Hh
MU J k j c ,(Electrical Continuity) FHdG jQGSGh
.GQjfGdGh GOjGdG
b d G - K d G - j d IC I Q GO{ G N G M e GQ d G g L e h
,LC T Th ,(Monolithic Analog to Digital Convertor IC) zdG OMoCG
SdG IAGb a d dG EG .(Decoder/ Driver IC) e dG a IC/ bGqSh
338
OGqdG cM
FGdG d qdG dG OGqY cM
Permanent) FGO d c e c Y dG dG OG qY j
q
.1-11 dG a qe g c ,-Magnet Moving-Coil (PMMC) Meter Movement)
efdG OGY cd OGeG g dG (Meter Movement)OGdG cM qJo kJ
d G c M d B G J J . (DArsonoval Meter Movement ) a S Q C G O G Y c ` H
g .MG d (Jewel-and-Pivot System) dGh IQqdG f Y g
cCG ,JqdG jdG f hCG ,(Taut-Band System) qJ iNCG J jW
.c cCG dh HS e SM
,(DC) QJe SSCG Y zcdG{ J ,dG Sh Y dG q Hh
b NGO jM b AGLCG Y j C dG H FGO eh
SCG e dEG aVEH ,dCG e fGSCG IH e ,ddGh HdG
.HdG J jOhe V GQhdG feEHh dG pdG M e
340
dG b
dCG e IH
S qJ Hf
qe
q e
qdG dG GeCG
IAGdG Md
qTDdG
e e
FGO e
jJ
DC Sd dG dG eCG :2 -11 dG
dG AC Tje OGqY cM
H ddGh (AC) QJ Sb (AC Moving-Vane Meter) OGqdG Gg eEH
dG OGY LH j dG CGdG Y e CGe N e j fC Te
1 TjdG hCG) gGMEG HJ ,jdG e e Md OGdG Gg a .dG
2 T j e M d N G O c e H V e e c e Q e d E G ( (Vane )
dG N QdG j eYh .e NGO TjdG c Vjh ,HdGh dG
Y GQhO JH qTDdG kcqe HdG TjdG Y k GH dG TjdG j
.dG TjdG cM Vh jJ Y fhnM Hf jh .YdG
342
TDe
RGe
Ff GWCG
OGq dG c M :3 -11 dG
.ejOhdEG
343
GOGqY EG
I L C G M d a H Q j e N G O e h R e , (2 -11 d G d E G ) V G Z C G
M d G O G Y J j h . (Console ) f d G h C G (Instrument Panel ) S d G
d kah hCG ,IQdGh ,QdGh ,ddG e qTDe cM SJ H Jh
GQhdG OY hCG ,IQGdG LQOh ,dGh ,gJG Ydc FjdG GqdG
.bdG a
e S HQ N e e Ge Sd BG g jJ j
.(Rectifiers) eudG hCG ,(Shunts) jdG Uhh ,(Resistors) ehpdG
dGE LM h .ue e dG g qJ e GPGE (AC) nb Sb (APM) eEH
.(Input Signals) NdG GQTGE e JQb J GOGqdG g C IQb Qe
dEG dG a 0.2 hJ Sb bO SdG dG dG Md GOGqd
O G d G G g j d G j Q d G e d h . (Full Scale ) S d G M d e d G a
. d G a 0.1 e J I A Gb b O e
5.0
Moving-Bar )
,DC d a ` `
.750 V h ,200 h ,20 h ,2 h ,200 mV
,AC (500 Hz - 45 Hz) d a ` `
.2 Mohm h ,200 kohm h ,20 h ,2 h ,200 ohm
ehpe ``
.10 A h ,2000 mA h ,200 h 20 ,2
, DC Q J ``
.10 A h ,2000 mA h ,200 h 20 ,2 , (1 kHz d E G 45 Hz e ) AC Q J ` `
OGdG a aJ iNCG S dh cCG Sb bO dG (DMM) OGqd EG
q e aM a jdG GOGqdG RJo .hdG
TT GP ,WGhh e
ddG dG GP OGdG OHCG J .MdG LGh Y IS Jeh VY
TH AC IQH IGqdG GOGqdG e OhsJ .IdG Y gh jQGSG Rd
O j j Q H d E G a V E H , a d G A d G W e a I A G d G d b Q (LED )
.GdG a eGSG id Y cCG d dPh T
346
LCD VY TT
QGhO QNG e
NO HGb
. (Peak-Hold Circuitry ) I h Q d G J I Q G O
.idG jd Se
idG QNG{ eN aH (DMMs) GQb hdG ddG RqY dh
dG TT Jh .QNG GH dG cd dPh zJe JhCG
Y O d G V d G e e d G (Analog Bargraph Display ) K d G d G
a VfGh JQG GhQPo Me a dG IYe Y (LCD) TT
S d I c (LCD ) T T d G S e (DMM ) G O G Y d a J . d G
347
HSShCG
OKc fCG T H IOhq e a dBG (Oscilloscope) SShCG EG
j Q d G d d G H j f H S c (Waveforms ) L d G T C G V d (CRT )
iNCG Ge SH Jh ,NO Ld fH
k TCG TdG SJ .edGh
.(I M Gh I b S ShC G j d G 5 -11 d G f G) , d Gh OO d G e
:gh SShCG Rd HQCG XdG fGdG kjCG 5-11 dG jh
WEG hCG dG AL (3) ,aCG GfG dqe (2) ,OdG SfG AL (1)
d G a g S S h C G E G . (CRT ) h C G V d G T T (4 ) , (Trigger Section )
.J iNCG IQH qjo d e KJ SShCG
LR NGO kf IQe (Grid) N T g (Graticule) dG Se EG
IOY qJ dGh ,SdG a bdG Y dGRE dPh ,eeCG (CRT) TT Md
c h .10 x 8 g d d G S d G f E G . (Parallax Errors ) R G d G A N C G
kebCG hCG (Division) kb J aCG IdGh jOdG fdG dG e
U d G d G J e Y I O L d G (Labeling ) G T C d G Y J . T d G Y
.VY j LdG Y f jCG a (Amplitude) dG nb jJ Y RdG AGOCH
e d G (The Vertical Deflection Section ) O d G S f G A L a j
g h f h d E G d G H U d G ( (y-axis ) h C G G O d G Q e Y ) j O d G
Qnjoh NndG GQTEG zAdG{ Gg j .(CRT) TT Y LdG T j
. f h d E G d H d (CRT ) d E G j d G j O d G S f G d a
TT J .NGdG OdGh NdG IQTEG QNH kjCG zAdG{ Gg j
. (Graph ) I Q d G d a C G S G Q T E G d E G S S h C H U d G (CRT )
e (x-axis) fdG dG (Horizontal Sweep Generator) aCG jfG dqe ajh
LdG J gh .kaCG hdEG T qJ dG SfG da dJ N
348
j f G H J d G h , (Sawtooth Waveform ) Q d G S C H d G
.5-11 dG a qe g c ,SShCG
dG
SfG AL
OdG
NdG
Qe IQTEG
GOdG
(Y-Axis )
Qe IQTEG
(Z-Axis ) J Q G
QdG IQTEG
(X-Axis ) d G
NGO jOe
jfG dqe
aCG
dG b
jOe
LQN
Qe
peo
da
SfCG
eGdG
LdG
.SShCd J J T :5 -11 dG
.SfG da f Y Ie c j jfG C
dG Uh Jh ,LQNh NGO b feEG IOY SShCd
dH dG Oqj .dG IQGH LQdG dG JQG Y (Couplings)
O d G I Q T E G Q N Q d G J e J h . d G I Q G O J (Mode Control )
. (Trigger Signal )
SG H dG IQG H dG IQ TEG J J , LQ dG IQ TEG dEG d H
idGh (Slope) dG JG Y GdG OqJh .IQTEG rbn qe
JdG aqdG qj dH da .dG IQTEG Y dG f (Level)
Y odG jh .LdG T e ,(dG) HdG aqdG hCG ,(HjEG)
M M S f G d a Q N H d h L d (Level ) d G J G
,dG IQTEG Y ze{ dd QNG H dG IQGO nJo eY .dG
.zdG{ Gg a Qj Ie c a qj jfG dqe Ea
e d (Composite) cqe dM g TdG Y LdG T Ea ,Yh
S a .k GMGh (Graph) kfH ke H e qJ dG jfG M
kLe
k T j S ShC G E a 0.05 s/ div Y Q d G V e GPE G , d G
d G M S j G g h ,(0.05 s division x 10 screen divisions) 0.5 s c k G M G h
.bO c a fH T fe
qj e hCG J JH kdM jdG HSShCG Jo
x
J ,e jOY NrOn JnQGO Y J gh ,(Oscilloscopes
SShCG eEH .IMGh (CRT) TT Y keGJ Le nT MH
MdG qUG dG EG .100 MHz dEG J GOO J S b VG ZCG O e
: g 100 MHz S d G K d G S ShC d
Dual-Trace )
350
r cn bO
.5 V/div d E G 5mV/div = (Deflection Factor ) S f G e Y
.0.5 s/div d E G 2 ns/div = (Sweep Time ) j f G e R
.3 = (DC Gain Accuracy) DC
bdG HSShCG
d d G L e T C G (Digital Oscilloscopes ) H S S h C G g V J
a fN hCG ,VY j bQ fH dEG UCG GQTEG jJ N e
k jCG q J a k bQ L e TCG N Y IQO b fCh .I cG dG
g h . (Digital Storage Oscilloscopes DSO ) b d G d G H S S h C H
TCG fQeh dGh ,dG fhdEG GMCG jd de Jo ILCG
. (One Time Events ) I O d G G M C G f Q e h d G d c h , L d G
H UdG iNCG HdGh JeJhCG SdG AGLEG eEH
.HdH J CG kjCG j dG LdG
I Q T E G Y G I O Y j h . K d G S S h C G I Q G O (DSO ) N O I Q G O H J
, (Sample and Hold (S/H) Circuit ) M G h Y E G I Q G O S G H g J H , N d G
.(Analog to Digital Converter - ADC) bQ dEG KJ dqe SGH bQ Jh
Crystal) QqH pHneo jh .bQ IcGP a (dG hCG) PdG ,FH ,qjo
q
b d H e d G a S H (Timebase ) z e d G S S C G { I Q G O a (Oscillator
T VS jCG he dpeo Oqjo FH .qdG (Clock) YSh IQTEG
dEG QdG e VdG TT OGeG Y edG SSCG jh .TdG Y LdG
c a LdG T (Refresh) V Ojo .KdG SShCG a c dG
q N) eSG qJoh .dG a j Ie
a Q d M (DSO ) a b h h e d G S S C G (
.KdG HSShCG a edG SSCG bOh eSG Y kSb
UNG GdqdG
a hj ch .keGSGh k GQfG cCG dG IOq e IQ TEG Q e g
J (Function Generator ) Q d G G g e E H ,6 -11 T a d G d G
351
u e
e gueo
rNn
LdG qe
dG
.UNG dd J e :6 -11 dG
qe
pHeo
S
Id pHeo
ddG Y
u e
rNn
IS da
IS da
qe gueo
RF IQTEG dqd J e :7 -11 dG
q e
eGQ dqe
qe pHneo
ddH
L RfG rNn
da RfG rNn
OOqdG OGqY
dG dG a qe g c ,(Frequency Counters) GOGqdG g J
bQ M IQGOh QqH He Y J a OOqdG ,9-11 dG a
354
NrOn OOJ
q e
HGH
FQ
bQ OGqY
VY TT
bQ
HGdG IS
eR SSCG
dG qeo
ac S Vj dG dG qodG g (Spectrum Analyzer) dG qe EG
dG qe eEH .f bdG ah qe OOJ ie V J dG GQTEG
jfG W qeo
qdG e dG Gd kJ ke 10-11 dG j
H (Tunable Filter Channel) seo Oe uTe Ib Y j dG (Analyzers
Y dG VY j h ,OOdG a kJeJhCG IOdG IdG GJ .uTdG TCe
C G Y V h d G J G P O O d G e j h J Y I Q d G d G G d . (CRT ) T T
- KJ IQTEG qe SGH dG Tc N jJ jh .NBG W e
TJ e j H S d G OO d G b a ADC P d G d . b Q - d E G
ddG j .kbQh kJeJhCG (Resolution Bandwidth) dG f VY
. (CRT ) T T Y V Y b d j d b Q H f d G h d G
Swept-Spectrum )
Re
uTe
NrOn IQTEG
OOJ uTe
Sh
Low-Pass
aZ Tc
eGQ qde
e pHeo
CRT
.W d J qe 10 -11 dG
dG qeo
GQGd dG GQTEG dd (Logic Analyzers) qdG g J
IcGdG a dG NdG dM qJ a .eGe H Sb j CH bdG
b d c d G d G d G j h . (CRT ) T T Y V Y d
gOqJ eR GMh a Le TCH j bJ c j ea .ddh
e hCG Je e IQTEG fc GPEG a a Oqj dh . NGO YS
dM c j eYh .ddG J M ee CG aqj CG hO e
Yc gjh a OGodG IQGdG e pT j fEa (State Analyzer)
.IcGdG a dG GQTEG N j ze{ jd
357
dG dG Ib OGY
Ib (Hall-Effect) g KCJ ad nodG (Gaussmeter) ShZ OGY j
bW qe (Magnetic Field-Strength Meters) OGdG j .dG dG
eZOEG j fpdG SCG e hR jf a Ve (HET) g KCJ LH
(DC) Qe hCG jQH e QdG Ohqnjo .de Ib Sb OGdG dG bCG H
RdG jhM a Ve (Voltmeter) da OGY J jh ,bdG qe N
a g KCJ q pe kjCG fG) .dG dG Ibh SJ da AYE
.(zbdG qeh fhdEG q dG{`H SdG ,17 dG
TdG QdG Sb Wb
jh Ib
IQGO Sb a fQpodG TCG HCG (Wheatston Bridge) jh Ib qJo
Sb a SGh f Y Jo I dG GQGOh .(Bridge Circuit) IdG
. (Impedance ) b h d G h , (Capacitance ) d G h , (Inductance ) K d G h , e h d G
Balance Principle or ) d G d G hC G RG d G C G e S SC G Y I d G J
h C G d G R L J C G ) d G Y e d d G C G C G , (Null Detection
.(ddG
q dG qjh
Y a Y F G M G (11 -11 T ) j h I d d G
.R4 ,R3 ,R2 ,R1 e h d G e S Y e c j e h d j R G e
dgh .dG N QdG jhd dG g OGeG Y DC da Qe Hnjo
jRGdG YdG H HdG (M1) OGqY qj ,(Null Detector) U Tc
H dG dEG (M1) OGqdG qTDj .jdG ddG hCG RGdG dM jJh d
ihSh R2 ,R1 ihS GPEa .(Voltage Divider) ddG q H UdG dG da
. j d G d d G h C G R G d G d M M d H k G T D e k G U O G d G C G S ,R4 ,R3
:JBc bdG g Hc jh
R1 R3
=
R2 R4
hCG
R1 x R4 = R2 x R3
358
Qe
c Ib
g h Q P C G S 12 -11 d G a h J c ,(Kelvin Bridge) c I d E G
UdG ehe KCJ AdEG IdG g eEH .jh Ib e Qqe f
.de ehd WGh nb Sb Y (Contact and Lead Resistance) edGh
j .WGdG GWCG eoJ H ehdG b Y dG QPCG hR Vqj
(1 ohm) hGChe 1 dGM dGE 1 ohm ie a ehe Sb a IdG g GSG
hCG (Double Bridge) LhOdG IdH kjCG IdG g qJ .bO IQHh
. (Thomson Bridge ) e K I b
hdG QdG Sb Ib
I b e S J J (AC Measurement Bridge ) W d G e d G G g a
jh .(Inductors) qKdGh (Capacitor) dG b Sd dPh jh
359
Q H DC d a Q e a j I b d E G G g (Impedance ) b h d G S e
e e L C G E G (AC) W b e O Y L C S d G G g Q W d h .(AC)
VqY hCG jh Ib a ehdG e OY SG dh ,jh Ib
,IdG QPCG MCG a IQGO g ddG bhdG EG .qe hCG KM SGH
ddGh RGdG j M ,iNCG QPCG hCG ,bdG QPCG iMEG J jh
. (Null Condition ) j d G
.c Ib :12 -11 dG
360
. j a - j c e I b : 1 6 -1 1 d G
.g Ib :15 -11 dG
. j h C G I b : 1 7 -1 1 d G
362
IdG
19 -11
dG
.ja Ib :20-11 dG
(AC)
Sd sdG (Series
.ae e qe ehe
Sd sdG (Parallel
364
Y f d G dG
eT If
Gec a qfhdEG e j qdG hGJ e INqdG adG qJ
, (Digital Cameras ) b d G G e d G h , (Camcorders ) j d G G e c h , I d G
fhdEd CG QYG jh .iNCG eCG e jYh ,dG jDhdG Xeh
.FdG Z ddGh FdG ddG :g jOe dY (Optoelectronics) jqqdG
,GQ TEG J dG fCGh GQG dGh I LCG F dG d dG j
TT kjCG j Ggh .IOdG dH jDhQ j dG QdGh ,UdGh
.kFe k GAV J dG VdG
Z AdG J dG fCGh GQGdGh ILCG a FdG Z ddG eCG
dG qTCG hCG ,qdG a qTCG bWh AGdG J qTCG bW e ,FdG
.Y a bdG g Y J
.FdG Z ddG Y SSCG H dG Gg cqjh
IOL GP ,UdG Th ,AGdG qTCd YqdG FdG edG jJ EG
dP c ,HdG FdG q pdG GP GQdGh ,dG dGh AGOCG
eh (Optocouplers) jqqdG fpodG e jqqdG ILCG jJ e L
,jQdG HdGh ,bdG H Y dG I LCG e i NCG fh dEG
fGSCG qeh ,(Code readers) dG FQb hCG ,(Scanners) SdGh
fhdEG JG e L c .ke k GeCG ,(Compact Disk - CD) WdG
.k GQe k GeCG jdGh IdG ad jqqdG
SdG r ndG e (Fiber Optic Cables) qdG dG rcn aJh
eGqdGh ,JdG dd Uc (Coaxial Cables) QdG IdGh
f J dCG g EG .HdG QdGh ,GJdG fHh ,fjdG
J dEG LdG hO e jW ad qe AV T Y edG
J qTCH AdG YH e FY jJ J bh .aVEG (Amplification)
366
eZ qTCG
dG qTCG
a qTCG
dG
FdG TCG e
IR a jdG dG
IR a SdG dG
IR a IdG dG
IR a i d G d G
jhdG LdG
jjOGdG LdG
(Hz) OOdG
(cm) LdG W
. e h d G d G 1 - 12 d G
p
qJo gh .(Diode Injection Lasers) QdG
n d G e U h (Diodes-LEDs
Gallium) d dG fQR IO e e (PN Junctions) dS L e U c
q
Aluminum Gallium Arsenide - ) d C G d d G f Q R h C G (Arsenide-GaAs
. (AlGaAs
(Wafer) bdG aGdG AZp Y qdS (Epitaxial) J SJ W Vh j
dG J M ,dCG ddG fQR hCG ddG fQR IOe e
. L d G (Diffusion ) Q f G W e j d G
e iNCG W aVEH AGdG J qTCd YqdG FdG edG s Jo
dM a edG g J eYh .dCG ddG fQRh ddG fQR
IOdH
k U e L d G d G j e Y C G , (Forward Bias ) e e C G R f G
OqJG IOYEG Y J , qddG IOdH
k Ue
q ddG dGh ,L dG
dOd qddG dG e fhdEG Jh .dG bCd (Recombination)
.UdG e LdG dG Y bdG eM a (Holes) ZGdG e qM hdEG
J ZGdG a dG J e YCG bW ie Y fhdEG AGMG Hh
j .AGdG J qTCG bW UY CG (Photons) fJdG fG Y
bW d adG bdG ie Y FdG dG e J dG L e W
e b d G I h Q P J . d G G g A H a e d G O G d (Bandgap ) Z G d G
Y ,ddG fQR e dGh ,AGdG J qTCd YqdG FdG dG
Y d C G d Z f Q R e d G d G e h , e f f 900 L e W
. F d G e d G f Q N g c h , e f f 830 L e W
(AlGaAs) dCG dZ fQRh (GaAs) ddG fQR e
k c EG
jdG dG S e bdG J ddh ,AGdG J qTCd aqT cqe
qTCG J dGh AGdG J qTCd YqdG FdG edG CG EG .LdG
o SH qJo dG c e
Epitaxial) dG QqdG Sd e W
q
Forward) eeCG dd AGM J qTCd YdG dG jJ EG .(Growth
q
Gg b Jh GdH AGdG J qTCG rNn Y j da 1.2 e (Voltage
.qdG QdG Y JdG
371
Ad YpnodG edG
dG a qe g c ,(Photomultiplier Tubes) Ad YdG dG EG
, O f C G h (Photocathode ) F V O K c Y j Q a F V U g ,2 ` 12
fhdEG QGUEG GOhdEG qJ dG GOhdEG e jdG dEG aVEH
G d E G . F d G O K d G h O f C G H Y V e (Dynodes ) G O j G d G h C G j f d G
Jh .qdG qd LGe Se FU GP GOjGOh jFGO g dG
dGM e LQdG deh dY dd GOjGdG jH ddG J T
. c C G d d G O f C d b C G O j G d j H 100V
fhdEG Y OHH fJdG J FdG OKdH AdG Jj eY
QGUEG OhdEG f IQqdG fhdEG QJh .OKdG IOe S a IdG
GOhdEG SCG EG .FdG OKdG e fQe LdG da H hCG
.(Secondary Emission) fdG fG Y YJ IOH qe ac QGUEG
j hdEG CG JQG id (1) hCG OjGdG S e fhdEG H QqJ
372
Ad YH OKc
NCG OjGdG
NdG fJa
FV fhdCG
fhdCG
e jfK
hCG OjGdG
. (P h o t o m u l t i p l i e r T u b e ) A d G
n Yneo U 2 -12 dG
373
kfMCG F dG Yp dG q j
o
Electron) zfhdEG Y d F dG dG{ k jCG jh (Phototube
q
. (-Multiplier Phototube
Ad UdG jdG
dG SdG a qe g c ,(Photoconductive Cell) FdG UdG N EG
F H c e h e P (P h o to c o n d u cto r ) A d U e Y I Q Y ,3 - 1 2 d G a
Ch .AdG IT e bJh ,JTh bdG AdG Le W e jGJ Ie
.AdG IT e Sj JdG QdG Ea kHK kLQN da Qe
q j RdG
fGaoCG H RdG bdG aGdG AZp Lh Y Ad Sq M jT Vh j
q j d dPh ,qe (Serpentine)
eH jdG GWCG HJo .AdG b
e Ad Sq dG IOdG jd SH hCG LLR AZ Vjoh ,IYdG a
.cBdG hCG qdG
. I M d M a a g M j h , b d G f J d G b W f h d E G q J
374
aqT Iaf
OhdCG
OhdCG
FdG dG
jc e Ad Ue IOe
eOdG hCG eOdG
IcQ
eGS
(aN)
.Ad Ue qN 3 -12 dG
e h e C G E G d G I Q G M J e J (CdSe ) e O d G S e h e E G . f K
.kf HK (CdS) eOdG Jc
T eOdG jc d (Spectral Response) dG H SG EG
H S G e C G . e f f 555 Q G e b C G M d E G J h , f E G Y H SE H
e (eff 450) qdG dG e CGa (CdSe) eOdG S d dG
AGdG dG a eff 700 Le W Y JhQ Po Jh FdG e dG
g J j .AGdG J qTCG e dEG kjCG J dh ,FdG
.qe d Ad Ue N QNG Y GdG
YdG c AW
qdS eJ f
qdS M
q dS f
qeo Z
Le f
qeo Le f
(P+ - Type )
eJ f
Le
. Q J F V F K U 4-12 d G
dG jdG
Uh g ,CG- 5- 12 dG a qe g ch ,(Solar Cells) dG dG EG
378
dG
N f
f W
(-) d
fhdCG aO
(CG)
- C G : d G d G 5 - 12 d G
.dG eQ - ,e jDhQ
()
379
FdG GQjfGdG
H e FV T c g (Phototransistor) FdG QjfGdG EG
- L e e E G g h (Bipolar Junction Transistor - BJT ) d G F K Q j f G J
W d d d h , (NPN )
q dS
q dS - Le -
q d S h C G (PNP ) L e -
q ddG - LdG -
q d d G F d G Q j f G d G j . (Base Terminal ) Y b
Y d G d G e a J h (Two Terminals ) a W h P R c (NPN )
e Y qdG QdG j .kHjEG k GRe (Collector) edGh ,WMG
j G gh ,(Base Current) Y b Q J Y (Collector-base) IYdG-edG
QJ Ea ,FdG edG a dG g ch .bdG AdG N e jJ
b d G A d G b W Y j (Reverse Saturation Current ) S d G T E G
.FdG QjfGdG Uh Yh
FdG edG J dG QdG e cCG k GQJ jo FdG QjfGdG EG
Junction) U d H d Q j fG J Uh Y IQ Y g (Transistor
,A d S q M F V F K pc jh (Field-Effect-Transistor-JFET
Gate Channel) IdG HGH WJ Y cqdG AdG EG .dY bhe P qch
(Drain Current) dG Q dG a k G J j Q j fG dG G d (Junction
j qdS Ib P dG Gg e QjfGJ a ,dG S Yh .QjfGd
TEG Qd kce (Gate-Source Leakage Current) qdG Qe HGH QJ
d G g c h . Y R f G G P PN U h Y (Reverse Saturation Current )
UdH dG QjfGJ Uh a SdG QdG Ea FdG QjfGdG a
e cCG OY dJ dEG OqDJo UdG IAVEG Ea .Ad k GL Sq M kjCG g (JFET)
e Y h . J d G (Reverse Current ) S d G Q d G e j j e , d G b C f
SdG QdG OjORG j ,(Threshold Value) dG b IAVEG RhJ
AdG Ea ddh .UdH dG QjfGJ qjo e ,HGqdG da OjORH
. (Photofet drain Current ) F d G d G Q H j U d G Y b d G
jqqdG fpodG
kFV kYH ,6-12 dG a gdG ,(Optocouplers) qdG podG qj
jh .b H
q H Qeh ,(Photo Detector) kFV kTch ,(Photo Emitter)
j e IkOY) AdG YH jh .SQEd H
q H f ka qdG dG
dEG FHdG IQTEG NrOn jH (IRED) AGdG J qTCd kYH kFK kepU
IOY gh) FdG TdG dEG b H Qe Y AdG qjh qe AV
IRN J .(FHc IQTEG dEG AdG jJ IOYEH j dG FdG QjfGdG
J d G I Q T E G Y N G d G I Q T E d F H c H S H h C G L L R (Bead )
Voltage ) d d G d G H e J hC G Q J C G e f E G I Q GO j d d Ph
q
. N O E G I Q G O a (Surge Current ) Q d G I Q a h C G (Transients
jJ e i dG dG A V dG e jq q dG fp o d j
e , e d a j H J J Q GO Gb E H J h .I Q TE G H (Degrading )
YH jd FdG fdG e EG .(Transformer) qe dEG LdG hO
381
FV QSfGJ
Tc
QWEG
adG
Ad Ue OGe
QdG H J
TdGh
LED Qe
SCG
HQ
J qTCd
AGdG
g CG c ,a FdG TGdG N e jq q dG f p o dG q Jo
:j c g GdGh .dG Ge OJ TGdG
J fCG EG ,YS YCG GP gh F dG F dG dG f p eo
.dH
eDJ fCG c ,SG IOe Jh FdG GQjfGdG fpeo
.IQTEG c
,QJ fG e (Photo darlington Couplers) FdG dQGO fpod EG
jdG YS CG EG ,F dG GQ j fG dG f eo e YCG , J f Q Jh
. C H C G a (Switching )
TdG QdGh (AC) hdG QdG jJ Y IQdG jqqdG (SCR) fpod
. e e H G H d E G J h (Logic-Level ) d G i d G e (DC )
GP ec he QJ Le g (Phototriac Couplers) JhJJdG fpodG
.e e HGH dEG J kjCG fCG EG (Logic-Level) e ie
,(Photo-Schmitt Trigger IC Coupler) T AV SGH dG (IC) peo
,(Logic-Level Square Wave) e ie P He Le rNn eCJ Y QOb
YdGh c qdGh ,bdG G dqeh ,GJdH Uh j c
.iNCG
F dG R d H k jCG Y Jo dG F dG f dG (R J) n
n Jo
qj e dEG UdG e AdG d (Obaque) e jhM a (Optoisolators)
dG jRdG jhM fdG d kYT cCG jRdG eh .q J
dG YHQ hCG SGS LhOdG
cdG e c eqDjo c .(Four-and Six-Pin Dual-in-Line Package Cases)
CG EG ,kFHc
k Y (Optointerruptor) qdG WdGh (Optoreflector) qdG
TdG f AGdG Y qj jRdG jg a AdG YH e FdG AdG
J{ fCG FdG dG (jRJ) VJ M cCG ed) .a FdG
.(zUdG T RdG J{ `H SdG ,27 dG a zqdG dG
383
GQdG
(Coherent) HGe qTCG H bW H Y QOb f g (Lasers) QdG EG
.LQN bW QH jJ j eY ehdG dG AGLCG e AL a
hCG H a hCG ,AGM J qTCG hCG ,Fe AV fEG Y QOb QdG fh
(Confined) Ie jRdGh FdG GQdG a FGdGh GRdG EG .S qTCG
qdG ddG GQd qJ .dN e AdG QH J Se aqT jhM a
jQqqdG (Lasing) jQdG H UdG T GQdG Y ,(Solid State Lasers)
sdG jjCG dCG fQZ boh (Rubies) bdG e OGe e YdG
. (Neodymium-doped Yttrium Aluminum Garnet-Neodymium YAG ) j O d H
(GaAlAs) dCG dZ fQRh (GaAs) ddG fQR GQd Jo
Injection) dG GQd hCG (Laser Diodes) jQdG FKo edH UdG T
H qJo dG H T jH Ue T FbQ e IOY qJoh .(Lasers
.Ad YqdG FdG edG
Y ec jGe jd ,qdG ddG GQdh ,FdGh ,jRdG GQdG EG
qdG g e NBG dG Y kFL cY jGeh IQRdG H e MGh W
qdG QN dEG (Coherent) HGdG bdG e dY je QH d
:ddG QOdG e cCG hCG Qe e MQN bW SGH Jo gh .IQRdG
. d d G I A V E G I j T (Flash Light ) F d G H d G
.FHdG dG hCG FHdG QdG
.FdG YdG
.hdG TEG
.IqdG fhdEG aqJ
QjdGh ;YCG OOqH dh ;(Maser) QjdG e f Y IQY g QdG EG
QjdG jo .dG Fa jhdG LdG e a HGe bW j f
Microwave ) j h d G hC G d G F a L d G GP j h d G GQ TE d T c
L d J h d G F a L d G { ,7 d G a z G Q j d G { f G ) . (Signal
384
YU
bj b
FL cY
e oT
b OhdEG
Ia
oT
rNn
b d G Q d 7 - 12 d G
jqRdG GQdG
jRdG dG ` dG GQd
d G a g X g c , (He: Ne - Gas Lasers ) G Q d G e d G G g E G
ShH jhGR Y YVe aGH adG eo LLR U Y IQY ,8-12
e (FL SQEH IMGh) (Concave) Jqeo JBGe Jh (Brewsters angle)
Y OKdG jJ jh .dGh dG RZ e N Y J jH Ia
GQPq H fhdEG J .fhdEG Qe - LQN dd MGh W
QhJ dG GQqP fhdEG j e ,dG GQqH gQhH J dG dG
Y J ddG GQGdG g e fhdEG S Yh .YCG bW GQGe a
kFe k GAV dqd iNCG dG GQH fJdG g JJ .fJa H bW
e (Coherent Light ) H G d G A d G j h . e f f 632 e j L e H
.kFL SdG jGdG Y dG
jq qdG FQdGh ,HdGh ,SdG Gqeo a GQdG g J
d UdG T jQdG FdG edH k GNCG doSG fCG EG ,fGSCd
IOL dEG aVEH dG fRhh M pd dPh dG g e jdH
.FGOCG
GP IBGe
Y LQO
dY
GOhdEG
N IBGe
RZ
Iaf
Iaf
QdG U
oT
rNn
q R Z Q d 8 - 12 d G
388
jCG - ZQCG Qd
Le GWCG Y AdG j kjCG
q R Z Q d g (Argon-Ion Laser ) Q d G G g
,HdG a jo .FdG AdG eM
o a eff 515h 488 H hG J
.qdG GqdGh ,dBG GhOCGh
dG GQd
eO e k GQNG (Excimer Laser) jcCG GQdG e dG Gg qj
dqdG z qdG GQqdG F K R dG j L
o { hCG zExcited Dimers{ dG
J .jdG g J j eY qdG a qTCG e FV d
IQG dG GP (Photolithographic) FdG aGZdG Gqe a GQ dG g
U e f a G h Y (IC Photomaste ) F V (IC ) W j H d P h e d G
.aGdG J Y N
qdG Ae IQqdG jcCG GQjE e QOdG
q QdG NCG AdG j
a IAc cCG GQdG g J dHh .GbCG BG dEG J YCG dEG
.(VLF) k GL dG OOdG GP jOGdG Le e fQe UGqdG e UGdG
FdG GQdG
YdG Y (Chemically Pumped Laser) kFc
q n odG QdG j
QdG
q d He FV f fEG a ,FHdG bdG Y kVY ,FdG
a h , F c Y J N e d G i M E G a A d G a (Pumping Laser )
YU U a AdG dH zQfEG{ Y Jf eU Le J iNCG jW
Q f G Y J d G e d G L e J h . Q d G (Trigger ) j d G (Flashtube )
a kYTEG j H ZQCG RZ H (Pyrotechinic Squip) JhqdG
.jY Le Y H
e (Chemical Laser) Fc Qd gh ,(Alpha Laser) dCG Qj q jo
W Y J dG jQGd IOdG fCd ,AdG a QhJ Fa ce a
Ya ejO EG .AGdG J qTCG eM a jdG dG a 2.7 m Le
jQdG Y dG j .jQdGh LhQdG GMG Y Jf QdG Gg
(Nitrogen Triflouride ) L h d G j Q a K K H Y J N e
q dG M
2.2 d QdG Gg oU d .(Helium) dGh ,(Dieuterium) jJjdGh
q
EG .AdG a IH ae e dG HGPE ac bW gh ,bdG e Ghe
390
FdG GQdG
jT
q Y cqe e JQRe (Liquid Laser) GQdG e dG Gg j
qj .qa Sc j Se e a Ge ,(Strongly Anoresainy)QdG
f Hh ,NBG Qd hCG (Flash Lamp) YU FV H IOY SdG qV
Y ,ehe 1.2h 0.32 H hGJ Le GWCH qTCG QdG Gg jh .IkOY
joh ,AGdG J qTCG eM a jdG dG ah FdG AdG eM
o
.SdG Gqeo a IOY
dG qTCG GQd
ih L U a a (X-Ray Laser) dG Q dG ih L KEG q J
(Focusing) cJ N e he g c QjdG Gg dsj .e (Feasibility)
Qd jJ Y IdG jdG a qdG cJ bh .hdG QfG bW
TE EG .dG a gh jOdG dqdG jQGdG eJ Y QOb S qTCG
qTCd j Ggh ,jQqdG GMdH SJ dG IjT Le dG GQdG
(Excimer Laser) dG Qj j .cCG hCG IQqdG H ATCG e QJo CH
IQH d jJ N e (X-Ray)Qd qd dc UV `dG e a edG
IQb P S qTCG Qd jJ J iNCG HCG ah .WGdG je hJ
jd QU eCJ Y QOb ,LdqdGh dG qdG LCG e ,e
GZdg eEHh .fEG jN hCG ,ShdGh jfCGh ,hdG dG
KK dG GH fc jJ (X-Ray Laser Holograms) dG qTCG Qj
.OHCG
QJ
dG f
jdG
ddG dG
(fG W)
QdG T
qdG dG f
A H E G e C G O H a j (LD) d G e f E G J Y J L
392
Tf W
InGaP/InGaAlp
J W
N-InGaAlp
N-GaAs IcQ
dH L
q e Qd
OhdCG
edH L
q e Qd
393
H 10 ` 12 dG
F dG e dG
Ad YqdG jQdG
(LED) FdG
jQdG edG g J
.eff 690h 630 H Le GWCG hGJ e a kFe k GAV (Laser Diodes
.jfEG Sa W Y jfEG dZ dCG Sa SJ e qJh
jQdG edG g J
V eff 870h 780 H JLe GWCG GhJ AGM J qTCG bW (Diodes
.AGdG J qTCG eM e jdG dG
395
eu dGG e dG Gg j
jdG dCG Y JG
AdG jo ,(Fiberoptics Communication) dG dG Y JG a
TdGh FdG Y qdG H Uj ,qT ,aQ H d Y q dG
dG dG
q d jo .11-12 dG a seo g c ,qdG f e FdG
e j e dG QfEG ee e bCG QfEG ee GP T H
Y GdG a AdG fEG YS f g QfG ee) dG NGO a AdG
.(Sh a AdG fG YS
dG LR e YdG J g da dGh dCG b cCG EG
dCG jM LCh .e QfG qUGN J OqGH q dG (Silica)
jM a J dG d He J OGe J ,QGVCG e qdG
Ib dd SH kadCG hCG kjjM kS dG j bh .SdG SCG
dCG SCG H U d U N (Connectors) Ue aJh .a VEG T
.TdGh TdG FdG YqdH jqqdG
J G f C G e a J c C G d G g (Cable ) d G C G h d G e
Y edG e jd) .SdGh IqdG ad qdG dG Y
,dGh ,fhdEG GdG{ ,29 dG fG ,UdGh jqqdG dG
.zqUdGh
396
Ib fCG MGh ec Y
q J ad Jd jqqdG dCG fCG sJo
jH V ,(Peripherals) adGh GJdG HQ a kf Jh ,idG
e J jh UN pc IOY fCG g enJh .me IY e qeo hCG
IqdG (LAN) dG dG Joh .GSCG a IaqdG jQdG GqdG
.idG b kef jqqdG dEG e H
H qUe
dGh QdG
dG H qUe
QdGh
NdG IQTEG
dG IQTEG
SQEG IMh
H c
SG IMh
SQEd H d N 11 -12 dG
dG dG Y e EG
e (Communication Traffic ) J G M O R G e j j (Multiplexing-DWDM
a ,e GdCG hCG ,e Le GWCG GP IOe FV qTCG J N
a k GMGh HCG kYT d dG GdCG J IOY jh .MGh LLR d
a L L d G (Prism ) Q T d G Y (DWDM ) f j h . d G Y h , d G
d c j ,e GdCG GP qTCG dEG FJh dG a QdG AdG J
.dEG ...jdGh ,fqdGh ,dG e H UdG edG e
jqdG dCG
dCG fCG a qdG AdG UH (Optical Fiber) jqdG dCG J
.(Jd qdG dG f Y qj dG 11-12 dG) SQEd jqqdG
ddG dh (Step Index) dG ddG d g jqqdG dCG e Yf g
397
J b F a j O O J Y H e d G h C G d G j . (Graded Index ) Q d G
ed f Yd M bCG Ea QqdG ddG d eCG .Jge 30 dEG
(Single-Mode) ,dG IOe jqqdG dCG kjCG g .Jge 500 Rhj
U dG OdG qdG dG b EG .(Multimode) dG IOe dCGh
.e JJ GP ,MGh IQTEG fG f a SQEG d jc
cCG j Qqe
q d hP H d a ,dG Oqe QqdG ddG d eCG
Gdh .dG Oqe dG ddG d e keJ ,MGh H SQEG f e
,IhdG Fa (Quartz) JQGdG IOe e seo (Stepped Core) N
q b dG
e QfG ee P LH hCG ,e QfEG ee P dH qeh
ee hP LdG f Yd bCG dG jh .(Halide) ddG IOH se
:qdG dG a IadG KdG FGqdG qJ .Jge 30 dG QfG
. Q d G d d G hC G d G d d G GP L L d G d C G L -1
. e S H e d h , S H h L R e N N d O d -2
.a SqdG e Ye N dO dCG -3
dG c QNG Y QYG H NDJ CG j dG HQCG GqdG EG
:g qdG
. (Attenuation ) g d G -1
. (Bandwidth ) L d G S -2
. (Numerical Aperture ) j O d G d G -3
. (Core Diameter ) d G
q d b -4
H jq q dG IQ TEG IQ b a dG q c g (Attenuation) g dG EG
jq qdG IQdG a dG H Y qjh .SdG bdG Jh U eG
e YdG LLdG dC d EG .(dB/km) MGdG edG a jdH
.e H gJ bCG ,IhdG dY GRH qdG dG LR SJ
L OOqJ J YCG Sb g qdG hCG (Bandwidth) LdG S EG
e cCG IQN hO e H Le W Y dG W OGeG Y f j
398
M G d G e d G a J g d H L d G S e j h .I Q TE G b W e d G a 50
a J g e 1000 h 200 H h G J L e S Y d G j h . (MHz/km )
C G E G , e h e 50 b Q e L L R
q d P d SH MGdG edG
d G d d G d a M G d G e d G a J g e 20 d E G J d G g
. e h e 300 b d d G L L d G
q dG P qdG
.jqqdG dCG Uh a dG dG H 12-12 dG j
b Y d G I Q d S e g (Numerical Aperture-NA ) j O d G d G E G
I Q T E G (Acceptance Cone ) b b f G L Q O a d H h . b d G A d G
b jhGR f (Sine) L fCH kVjQ jOdG dG Y dG qjh .NGdG
N e Y J jhGH j ,d IMh Oqe bc dEG ejh dG
.0.27h 0.20 H IOY jOdG dG b hGJ .jqqdG bdG
d dG
LdG jhGdG
dG b
dG
dG
dG
QdG
dG
QdG
dG jhGR
d G GP I Q TE G J d G a d G VC G 10 d E G 3 h J a e Y f G
. f b d H h ( e f f 850 ) e h e 0.85 L d G
J dG adG Y kjCG g (Chromatic Dispersion) fdG dG KDj
,ddh .NBG dEG Le W e qj QfG ee CG c ,NBGh Qe H
dG LdG GWCG fEG YS a qaNG dG a fdG dG ujo
f c J ,GMCG CGSCG ah .bdG SQEG a Y j e ,dG Y
Bit-Rate ) d G A N C G e e j j e , d I Q h d G d G e N G J h VYC G
q
j R J a (Tradeoff ) d O d G e d M V j f d G d G V j d d . (Error
.qa qH qeh ,(Repeater) IQdG ILCG H adG
QdG J eU
j D h d A d G Y e h C G (Image-Intensifier Tubes ) Q d G J U E G
QdG jDhH d d idG e FdG AdG H j dG
.AGdG J qTCG hCG kFe k GAV eEG J ,qe IAVEG dEG LdG hO
dG (Night-Vision Tube) dG jDhdG U g kYT eCG cCG qdh
OLh Y dG Gg Y jh .dG jDhdG HJh Xd SSCG
hCG ,dGh ,dG AV e W QOe e dG a dG dG AdG
a j QdG J U C ,iNCG AGVCG hCG dG e SfG
.eGdG dG
Single-Stage Image )
.jQqdH J dd
q e QGO SG
fhdEG GQe
cdG bh OfBG
jhdG IdG U
jDhdG SY
cdG SY
FdG OKdG
e TT
QSdG
J IQU
jhdG Id
jqqdG dG dCG
QdG jJ eU
e M G P Q d G j H (I ma y e- C o n v er ter T u b es ) Q d G j J U j
QU d jh .ehdG dG a iNCG OOJ eM dEG e OOJ
VdG LCG e Fe AV N eCJh eGdG dG a dG AGdG J qTCG
g CG EG ,(LCD Monitor) FdG QqdG TT hCG CRT dG qTCG U TT Y
,dG S Y .dG ceCG IAVE Tf AGM J qTCG Qe dEG LM
jQGdGh SCG Ld jdG dG jDhdG fCG a dG Gg SEG j
eU H EG AGdG J qTCd YH Qd GSH GgCG IAVEG j eY
Y a VE G e e Y d ) .Q d G J e U H T Q d G j J
,23 dG fCG ,Qd dqdG Jh Qd qo dG e dG SG
.(zfhdEG FdG jdGh edGh jdG fCG{
403
404
Y d d G dG
eT If
dG qTCG HfCG
(Electroluminescent (EL) Displays)
(Cathode-Ray Tubes- (CRT)s )
fhdEG MdG TT YdG (GOjGdG) FdG edG
(Electrophoritic Displays )
Light Emitting Diodes - LEDs ) A d
eRdG VdG Md
(LED Lamps) LED H e
(Plasma Display Panels - PDPs )
jdG - IQdG TT bQCGh hdG Vhd LED TT
(Vacuum Fluorescent Display - VFDs) (LED Alphanumeric Displays)
(dG VdG) aGZddG
FdG - QdG TT
(Holography )
(Liquid Crystal Displays )
eT If
dG H dG LGdG fd jGe gH HhdEG VdG N
405
, (Pager ) d B G O d G H h H h , d G d G H h H h , J d G h ( S d G )
e SGh Ge Y g VdG ILCG Jh .JG ILCG e gZh
dCdG Mdh ,Ad YdG GOjGdGh ,FdG QqdGh ,dG TCG HfCG
J dG UCG bh .jCG QhH q Jh QJ J d dG ,fhdEG
IQd cSG J Y
k a ,bKh cCGh ,S qY kMVh cCG k GQU
.FHdG
AGHG fhdEG dG e SGh d e AGLCG FSdG g UCGh
BG dEG (Notebook) dG JdGh idG JdG TT e
GOGqYh SdG BGh ,jdG ILCGh ,dG fhcEG dG Geh
dG a g VdG FSh LGJh .fhcEG dCGh ,GFdGh GQdG
,ddG qSDdGh ,dG ch ah ,R dGh , f dGh J dGh
ah ,QfG Yb a jadG bCG a Mh ,adG jdG dGh
dEG g fhdEG VdG FSh H M Uh bh .dEG...GQ dG
j M ,dG H a dG jQcdG dGh IdG YEG Md M
jdG GQdG Jh .jQdG fYEGh QNCG Gf VY dN e
a OdG Gg jS HQh TdGh GqTDdG e GfCG HQCG hCG KK Y dG
.jdG dG
jHhdEG VdG FSh ac H e ,FdG QqdG TT XCG d
a jGdG a TdG g X a .edG dG GdG N kqL k GQqJ
V Q C G Y (Black Segment Digit ) A G O S S M J c S d G h Y d G
.e Md Y fGdCG Jh BG QJ dh ,AH
d (LCD ) U C G f d G f C G h (Resolution )
o qdG ie jGJ eh
TT a IQGdG BG J M IFb VY Sc (CRTs) `d kjqJ cCG
.bdGh jjdG GedGh ,jdG
NGO edG jdG jdG Gec HfCG GSG a udG NCGh
Charge ) hCG (CCD) zdH dG{ RdG GeH jSG QNh
406
Camera (Coupled
.(CCD) G e H
dG a TCG
AGdG J TCG
HSG
jdG dG
H QRCG
UCG
NCG
dJH
MCG
nm LdG W
dG qTCG HfCG
Z e L L R H f C G g (Cathode Ray Tubes - CRTs ) d G TC G H f C G E G
T T Y h , c C G h C G M G h (Electron Gun ) f h d E G a e Y J A G d G e
(CRTs) HfCG Jh :Fe AV dEG fhdEG tdG bW jd jQSa
q
ILCGh ,jdG GJdG a GSd c bCGh k GQfG cCG dG
YNG b fc fCG e ZdG Y fhdEG dG Gqeoh BGh ,jdG
.e S e e cCG e
iNCGh ehc (CRT) H fCG :(CRT) H fCG e Y f d g
AGOS (CRT) HfCG dEG d kah HfCG g J jh .JShdEG
IO e G dCG GP H fCGh (Monochrome) dG jO MCG hCG ,A H i NCGh
TT
q Jh .a fh cG aG e O d k ah d ch ,(Multichrome)
(CRTs ) H f C G d G h d G I L C G e j d G h j d G I L C G h J d G
j O M C G e h d G (CRTs ) H f C G G J a , G d C G I O e e h c
ddG J Ib Hh .QfdGh QGOGdG fCG a G SG F T dG
dG Geh BG e jdG H YH LdG TCG J a Feh
(CRTs) HfCG Y j dG eh ,HSShCc fdEG
.JShdEG dG jOMCG
c d G e h d G (C R T s ) H f C G
SdG ehdG (CRT) HfCG qJ
Yo M LQdG ehdG dG VJ H (2-13 T) CRTs)
odG) OKdG e fhcG J .fhdEG dG Y Id dPh jdG
e T g a J j C G H , (F i l a m e n t ) a S G H
s jo dG (ddG
cJ mFH j .(Screen Grids) dG Th fhcG aH dG N
SGH Y dG S j M QSdH e eeCG d X Y dG
m Y FHc L
.(L d G d G) O f C G Y c e , 25000 V I Q H ,
(Electromagnetic Deflection
408
fGhdG aGdG e AW
jda TT
q S TdG
OKdG
dG T
cdG e
GfG e
OfCG
Y jQSa f
LLdG LGdG d
dG X LM
MCG
QRCG
NCG
GfG e
(CG)
jQSa f
(GOjGJ)
qe LM
fe
MCG
NCG
QRCG ()
(CRT ) H h J d G a d G (CRT ) f C G H F d G N G E G
GJdG TT ah .RGB`dG QSa nM
o a j jdG e
CG EG Sb 0.28 mm odG GP (Pitch) IdG qJ ddG SdG dG
H hGj jJdG (Workstations) adG dG T T a g bo
d G f G ,J d G T T M e d G e j d ) 0.26 mm h 0.20mm
. ( z J d L Q d G f h d G a d G G d G h I L C G { ` H S d G ,16
c d G - J S h d E G (CRTs ) H f C G
H Q C G Y (Electrostatic Deflection CRTs - ESD CRT ) H f C G g J
dG Ve a d H Y ee H YVe JShdEG GdCG
Vd g QNG HfCG
o n MCG 4-13 dG a Ve g ch .fhcEG
bO fdEG Sb AGLEG eEHh .dG jS LdG dG
H c f h d E G a e d h . d G L (ESD (CRT) ) G S H
. (Divided Graticule ) e Y S e Y h O e K C G
OKdG
q dG
jdG OhdEG
T
dG
OfCG
hCG
U
M
OfCG
fdG
IQa TT
Ue AW
A d Y d G ( G O j G d G ) F d G e u d G
a j c ,( Light Emitting Diodes - LEDs ) A d Y d G F d G d G E G
DC QJ ke GdCG e AGVCG jo Fe AV Qe g ,5-13 dG
Incandescent) LgqdG HdG Y k Gc j eN Yo dh .b dah
k b
. j d G (Lamps
411
Le Ib
dS Ib
N f e IcQ
fe OhdEG
U Y e j Y e e E G e (LEDs ) A d Y d G GO j G d G e E G
H Q C G h C G , (GaAsP ) e U Y K K e h C G .GaP h GaAs e V h III Y d G
a j c , g c d G M e LED O j GO H C G E G .PAlGaIn e U Y
(Epitaxial N-Type Layer ) d S S J J W J e d G 5 - 13 d G
S J N e (PN-Junction ) L e d S U h j d I c d d S a G h Y
U d G g J . (N-Type Layer ) d S W Y (P-Type Dopant) P f e
I O d G e f j U d G L h C (Homjunction LED ) J G d G U d G O j GO
412
414
I L C G e b j h . (mcd ) f e 2000 g Q G e d C J a c L h O d G f d G
gdG HdG AGOCG Y jj dCJ AGOCG d j CG LddG H Ye
.TdG Z jdG
N Q RC G d Y d G LED GO j GO d E G I O e Gj J VG b h
aqj ,dG S a .dY J d dCdG JAc CG EG VdG dG GdG
lm/W O h H d C J I A c (SiC ) d G H c e d G Q d G R Q C G LED
e C G nm 480. L e W Y A d G J d G J G d G U d G GO j GO gh 0.04
d d G j H d G f d G e d G Q d G Q RC G LED a K G M c C G
, (P-Type Zinc-Doped Indium Gallium Nitride ) h C G (InGaN ) L d G j f C G
G f C G b (N-Type Aluminum Gallium Nitride ) C G (AlGaN ) h C G d d G (AlGaN ) h
.mcd 1000 e J dqCJ ac
LED He
cjEG e SY a ehRdG (LED Lamps) LED He kYT gcCG
Radial Leaded) YT Uh dh g M ceh dG H
qdG SdG e SY
OfCG S
LED bbQ hCG db
cY
e e AL
OKdG dO
OfCG W
OKdG W
L E D e a d W e 6 -1 3 d G
415
Ia a
m e LED d b E a 6-13 dG a q e g ch .(Assembly
e bQ S jh .OKdG dG e dG jdG a J dG Whe
d SdG cqJo .IQGdG cE OfCG dG dEGh ddG Y hdEG e
e hCG ,Ad e H IAe ,aT J eEG gh ,AdG jRH
.UCG hCG ,NCG hCG ,MCG dH
SdG T 1 h T 1 jhdG a kYT cCG LED jhM fCG eCG
(Flattop ) d G S C G d G j h M i N C G f C G J . Y d G a d G G P
V C G f R G d G j h d G d E G a V E H , ( (Surface Mount ) d G b d G h
e S g H A d G J d G (Rectangular Molded Cases ) b d G
.jf e dEG j eY
a bKdG dY dG qHh jdG eGSG a (LEDs) RJ
.LLR SH IOhqeh dG e fe Y
qjoh ,5V dEG 1V e LED He d eeCG RfG da b hGJ
.(millicandels) Gfc qdG IMH IOY (Luminous Intensity) dCdG adG Y
d C d G a d G a J d G j h G d G g h , (Viewing Angle ) d G j h G R h G J h
a e jhGdG g qJh .LQO 150h 18 H ,jQdG b f e
q bCG
He hJ a jY jDhQ jhGH iJo CG j HdG g C LED J
.AdG ctJ Iqd dPh ,kfd cCG qdG dG jhGR GP LED `dG
CGh S gqdG jdG HdG e
q J LED H e SG
bGd (He) aGeh ,WGdG J dah ,fdG jQGSG
dG gY e ,dG J IQGM LQOh ,UdG f GQGdG
Low Luminous) dG dCdG FGOCG Y J FdG e gZh ,j dG
e a e G S G h LED H e J Y e C G J h . (Performance
AGVCGh ,GdG dY a TG dGh H dGh ,(Readouts) GOGq dG IAG b
.(Outdoor Displays) LQdG VhdG dEG aVEH ,cdG a eGdG
416
b Q C G h h d G V h d LED T T
bQCGh hdG TT fe
ac d jQhV bQ AGLCG S dg ,7-13 dG a qe g c
bQCG ac H c dG AGLCG d e IAVEG Ea .bQCGh hdG
.Z jd A e AG HG h dGh
LED) bdG TdG g OhqnJoh
I O Y (Alphaunumeric Diplays
SH Y NGO YhQe gh
e
q dG AdG IAVEG J M
F V fC H dG AG LCG
.dG bdG hCG dG jd
LGh Y (LED) HfCG J j
.Ue cjCG SGH fe
AGLCG e
. A G L C G S e f d G b d G V d G T T 7 -1 3 d G
zA V H fCG{
Ie) cY
(SdH
e OfCG
LED FK eU
( V Y d e U 8)
OKdG GWCG
IRQdG f LED
LED VY Td jJ AGH IQU 8 -13 dG
417
FdG QqdG TT
hdG Vd (Liquid Crystal Displays - LCDs) FdG QqdG TT EG
Ad cY e a iJo fdEG jJ TT g (Alphanumeric) bQCGh
Electroluminescent) kfhdEG dCe Md SGH IOe N GP J d e
M OLH FS GQH HSG SG H bQCGh h dG J .(Panel
VJ Oe jL Y J Ld OGe g GQ dG gh . F H c
.J hGC IQdG qj dG AdG J eEa dG N OGeG Y (Reorientation)
418
FdG Qd dG dG dG KCJ aj
HCG dH Ake dG j eY eb cCG kebQCGh kahM (TNFE) hCG (Effect
J FHdG dG Z ah .(HCG - OedG) dG hCG OedG
419
d G e C G ,90 j h G H d G A d G d d d Q e Y (TNFE ) j L
(Exist Polarizer ) h d G e N j L Q e d E G A d G j J d E G O D j
.Ake
k H gdG ia
ee
aT AGLCG
(LdG NGO)
LLR U
Teh N
ee
N
OhdEG
QqH
T
FS
LLR U
Teh eeCG
(L C D ) b d G F d G Q d G T T 9 - 1 3 d G
420
G dCG IO e (LCD) ja TT J
J j h . G d C G e J h c e k G Q U V J C G , d G e (Displays
QN fCG c .VdG bdG a H jQdH edG dG GJdG
a e e f c d Y , (AC ) Q H e d G j d G G J d G a G S d
T d F d G d G E G . H d G G e d G a h (Camcoders ) j d G G e c
: g G d C G I O e j j d G (LCD )
Dual-Scan) AG dG j dG dG hO dG dG V Y J
Active Matrix ) d G j J d G J h , (Supertwisted-Nematic Display - DSTN
. (LCD - AMLCD
O D j h . N C G h , M C G d G Y G d C G e J j j d G (LCD ) T T J
Yj e GQdG Y QdG AdG GNG dEG dG Weh nTnodG a
d G a (CRT ) T H f Q e d G Y j G g h , j b N I A V G G S G
,dY dH IQb qe dEG (LCD) TT J ,dP Y
k a . f
.IQGdG e
k b QJh
eEG Qe g e eh ,kf S H (LCD) Td ,iNCG Mf e
dG j dG e dM qJh ,(Off) AWG hCG (On) dG be a
PEG ,dG jDhdG jhGR kjCG TdG g Y J eh .(Freckles) dG
dEG SCGdG deEG EGh ,IL jDhQ Y d keJ TdG db SdG Lj
.ggf dG IQdG d qj b fEG H SCG hCG YCG dEG hCG fdG
Vh j M jdG GJdG H a kdM (LCD) TT J
QWEG a hCG dG JdG eGS IYb e dG bQ jhM a
.FdG Y d
421
d G j J d G (LCD ) T T
(Passive-Matrix LCDs ) (PMLCDs) dG j J dG T T Q W
M d G e (CRT ) M U d j Q d H e d G (Notebook) J d b c
.dG
(Pixel Address Information ) d G j J e e J , T d G g a h
Y hCG PdG iMG bh ,ka kU JdG a fdG de SGH
2 0 0 ms d E G 1 0 0 ms Y j e N C J I Q d G C H T d G g C G E G (TN LC D )
dEG dG jo AdG g CG eh (Address Signal) jdG IQTE J d
I Q d G J Y (Blurring ) V h Y h (Ghosting )
k V jo fEa M bCG
.Le H VhdG
kjb kSe (31 cm - 25 cm) 12 in - 10 in TT H (TNL CDs) U
j h G R e c C G M e f c M , I Q d G a (Contrast ) f d G d E G J d h
jhGR (STN) IOe GSG ah dh .TdG e YCG e Y kSb IOhe jDhQ
e c J ) . (TN ) e f Q d H a C G J I b h f J e , S h G j D h Q
. ( F d G Q d G j L d E G d G A G d G d E G (Super Twisted ) f d G h C G A G d G
hCG hOdG dG J dEG VCGh keY (STN) TT GSG J dP eh
Double-Layer Super Twisted- ) hCG (DSTNLCDs) a LhO dG dG
jDhQ jhGRh TdG fJ e s M
n F d G Q d G e W (Pneumatic LCDs
e dG Gg jh .RdG dEG aVEH dG LQOh ,dG aQ dh
dG GP (Notebook) dG GJdG a kSGh keGSG kdM TdG
.CWhCG
b d G A d G Q j f G J G P d G j J d G LCD T T
,jdG d Fe GdCG IOe TdG e s eo f G g
A G L C G 10 -13 d G j h . (Notebook ) d G d G S h , J d h
422
f C G c f J h S G P g h , (PMLCD ) T T e Q W d G T d G g
TdG e dG Gjh .dG fGdCH kFJ cdG IQdG VY Y IQOb
QfG U Y TdG g J .FGO J dH dG AHEG N e
(Flourescent Backlighting ) d G j Q d G I A V E G H J (Diffusion Plate )
e N e AdG jh .eH TdG X Y fe Z IQH
Q e Z S G Q j f G d b Q A Z e a e N K e h (Polarizer )
bHh GdG j dG (Row) U bH QjfGJ c sjoh .(Amorphous)
g J e e j e Y d G J h . f d G j d G (Column ) O Y
jhdG H FdG QdG Yjh .LLdG dG Y cGe GQjfGdG
QWEG a jJ hCG dGHEG j M ddG d (Capacitor) e fujo
.ddG
d dG AdG pH FdG GQdG J IQseo ddG J M
q
Ake H jJ ddHh .ddG (Polarizer) podG e k Gee hCG kjRGe eEG
QdG JJ (VdG jEG) J GOhdEH ddG QGeEG jh .e hCG
.dG AdG Y KCJ hO ,FdG
GQjfG J e j e A L d ,AG LCG HQCG dEG dG n Jo
TdG dEG aVEH ,(RQCGh ,NCGh ,MCG) Q dG Z dG
J jd HdG FdG aGZdG jH TdG g sJoh .HCG
. (ICs ) e d G G Q G d G
Analog RGB )
qH KJ (RGB) Uh dG jJdG TT J
x1024 G P J d G S Q h C G S d G j d G a NTSC f V d (Interface
b h (36 x 23 cm ) 9 x 14 in d d G j Q d G j O d G S b j . H 768
.MPEG-1 U G e H d U
423
bQ AZ QjfGJ
Qe Z S e
jJ Qe
GdG N
OhdEG
VdG
GdCG Te
N AV
QfG U
MCG
NCG
HCG
QRCG
pneo
adG IcQ
HCG
e W fdG N
FdG QdG
pneo
10 -13
dG
.AMLCD
E G . d G T C G U G N O J J O e a F G T d E G h , (Activators ) e
Manganese-Doped ) d H d G f d G j c g d G d C d G Q S d G
IOY g ,fe OhdEG e bQ AZ SH (EL) TT nJo .(Zinc Sulfide
N L L R d S Y (Indium Tin Oxide ) j f G ` j d G c C G
Q dG e W S J j m F H .(Columns) I YCG j d LG M
j J b Q A Z h C G e H j b d G (Polycrystalline EL Phosphor )
ba Sj ,fK dRY W mFH SJo .(400 nm)hCG A 4000 Y S
RdG W a ae W k GNCG SJh .dG dCG e GOhdEG
OdG OhdEG g dG OhdEG dP Y AkH .Y a d I NCG
d G h C G (Dot ) d G , (RAW ) d G O h d E G g d G O h d E G h , (Column )
.VdG TT a jJ j e e UCG g
dEG MCG e GdCG Y dG jh ,UCG dH QSdG dCj
d (AC ) Q H e (EL ) T T e E G . T d G G S H N C G
j , d G H 290 VAC SG GPE a .j d G F GOC G Yh d J b Y
E Hh .LLdG IcdG IOeh adG GOhd
E G N AdG
(EL) TT J e
(Alphanumerical) aM
n bQ VQY hCG ,(Dot Matrix) f jJe TT dGE
bdG Td FdG GSG gh ASCII bQCGh hM ac QXEG Y IQOb
.gGdG
N IOe
N dRY W
e GOhdEG
QSdG e W
eeCG dRY W
LLR IcQ
aT GOhdEG
fhdEG MdG TT
dEG ae Ad UN H IOhe (12-13 T) FS QqH TT g
Electrophoritic) TdG g a . f dG f dGh G dCG d Q q dG
GPEa ,kFHc dG J Y kFHc fdG dG FbO J (Displays
(DC) da J ,adG GOhdEG H OSCG FS a AH U bO uYo
j eY HCG TdG Y VdG jh ,MGh OhdEG Y FbdG SH
FbdG J ddG b Y j eY dh .fdG e TdG dEG dG
.OSCG TdG Y pVndG a NCG OhdEG dEG
qeRdG VdG Md
` 13 d G a d G , (Plasma Display Panel- PDP ) e R d G V d G M d E G
V Y Y Q O b (Cold Cathode Dischargetube ) O Q H O K c j J f C G g ,13
. Q U h C G , (Alphanumeric Charaeters ) h M h b Q C G
j e g R Z j O f C G h O K d G O h d E G O G e G Y (DC ) d a Q G e E G Y
e dH jOhdEG H ZGaCG j eRH jd ,iNCG GRZh ,dG e
.e GaEG Y d ddG QGeG AKCG FHdG GaEG jh .OKdG
426
(Separator ) U a a H e L L R M d H (Panel ) T d G J
Y S AH GOhdEGh UdG GQdG Jo .aGWCG Y Ve
.13 - 13 d G a d G j d H W j K M d G
e T hdEG
jfCG cCG
N /Ypeo
OhdEG AL
IcQ
fe U FbO
ddG dH
gdG Y
e qeo Sh
LLR d
OhdEG AL
. f h d E G M d G T T 12 - 13 d G
eRH
LR
N
UGa
GOKc
VY f e E H h (1.27m) 50 in (G d C G I O e PPP f ) d G j Q G d G
100 lb d G M J h (10 cm) 4 in e b C G T d G g c S E G .
k H 983 h
400
.(45kg)
jdG IQdG TT
` 13 dG jo dG ,(Vacuum-Fluorescent Displays VFD) TT EG
f ae hCG (Alphanumeric) ahM bQ VY TT g ,d kVJ ke
j eY YdG gUY hCG W f A Jh .A d Y H (Dot-Matrix)
. (Hard-Vacuum Panel ) d G I j T M d a e f h d E G H Q S d G
14
eeCG LR
Te T
OKdG S
UJ
SSCG U
(QSa) OfCG
Ue GWCG
429
(Filaments ) F c J k G L a Q J S G a G O K d G e E G . (Steel
jH ddG hCG ,fhdG hCG ,jQdG cCG e bQ H eh
e c a dG dd GOhdEG VqJo .TdG (Segment) b e VQJ
f h d E G WE G e 600 C d G M d E G d G I Q GM a j e T d G j f
TdG dG Q Jo LdG ddG G SG i dh . cCG A W e
CG QSdG b j e a OfCG JH dG e dG fhdEG
.VdH dG a bQCGh hdG TCG qjo k GAV gQhH J
e AGHG e GdCG S kdM aJh ,dG NCG (VFD) hCG QSa c
: (VFD ) e Y f g h . Q R C G h , d J d G h , M C G
Static) dG dGh (Dynamic Drive (VFD)) e j dG dG (VFD)
r n
f C d G e c O Y Y j h d G (VFD ) T d e A e c C G h C G h . (Drive
.keR dG dG Ye jH J
(VFD ) b G S N O E G f G P (Microcontrollers ) j h e e a J
T T a k G Q G S G c C G d G d G (VFD ) j h . V d G G d Y e
h s (VFD ) T T a H U j . d d h . b C G (Segments ) d G G P V d G
.cdG GOGY Mdh YdG a S
Tc dG feEHh NCG k GAV J kYS (VFD) TT cCG EG
e k GOY Va dG J dh (cCG hCG GdCG H) GdCG IOe VY
g C Y jh bKe hP g VdG EG LGdG GfCGh f GQdG
J h , e d H (Vacunn Tubes ) j J H f C G d G a g T d G
dG S CG Y
k a ,Y H J f C G c e e ICs GQ GO SG H
TT e GfCG KK kdM aJ .dH J a j CH dCd j
: g (VFD )
.(Fixed Segment) HdG dG GP -1
.(Charaeter Display) dG VY -2
.(Graphic Display) SdG VY TT -3
N G d G P d J Y g (Holography ) a G Z d d G E G
Y e gGMEG oJ ehc Le YJ Y JdG (Pattern
FGH IOY LfEG j ,dG IQdG hCG ,GZddGh .jDhQ OGdG zdG{
.15-13 dG a qe g c ,FdG QdG AV GSH aGZJa
jdG jT
NGdG f
Le oT
IBGe
SY
T
AdG
SY
IBGe
IBGe
e
dG
Qd
SY
SY
VGaG IQU
Y HG d G dG
jqhdG ddG
jqhdG qdGh
jdG
jqhdG qodG
eT If
(Microcontrollers- MCUs)
qbdG IQTEG de
jqhdG ddG
(Digital Signal Processors-DSPs )
(Microprocessors- MPUs)
eT If
jqce de IMh Y IQY g (Microprocessor) hdG ddG EG
Single) jqOa fS bbQ Y IOLe Jd (Central Processing Unit)
q
cCG e qfhdEG LddG Qe hdG ddG OLh qZ .(Silicon Chip
qbh ,AGT OY mT CG j k GRL JdG e Lh ,e S 30 e
dh .fEG IM Yb L a kqa Nd XdG eGdG SM Se
Md a qdG UdG e jRO dEG LdG Y a ddG g J
433
.aVEG YS d ,VdG
dEG fG JdG fCG a ddG Y cCG ee Y d )
JdG Gqeh ILCG{ ,16 dGh ,zJdG LdJ{ ,15 dG
.(zIYdG qfdG
jqhdG ddG
a edG IQGdG qfCG Y (Microprocessors- MPU) hdG ddG qjo
F X h Y h D d G (Very Large Scale Integrated Circuit ) k G L d G i d G
J F X d G g f c , e a . (CPU ) c d G J d G d e I M h
m jRO G S H
J q a .IQG dG M d a dG f dG e
,dG a kJ FXdG g (Consolidation) M Jh (Miniaturization)
ie aQ e jqcdG ddG IMh SG bW ah ,dG a kJh
dG qY RfEH (MPU) Y jh .iNCG Mf e qbKdGh YdG
L Ohq J eh , dGh .(Control) dGh ,(Logic) dGh ,(Arithmetic)
(Notebook) qdG IcqdG GJch ,(Desktop) jqdG GJdG
IqdG qdG GcdG JG GfCG e dGh (Personal Computers)
Scheduling) dh dG L eh ,(Personal Communication Subnotebook)
GdCG (CPU) e kjCG
q J NCG qfCG f ,jqce de IMH (Products
q e a IQG dG
IdG SdG ILCGh ,dG GqNh ,qSdG dG
. (Supercomputers ) b d G G J d G h , (Mainframes )
qbKHh cCG YH dG RfEG Y JQH jqhdG ddG qJ
e H bCG bd cSGh MdG IQGO e UCG Md eGSG e aCG
e dG RfEG gQha ,dP Y IhYh .fhdG MdG e aSCG
dG SCG GQGO GQ b Y dG c I H q Jo f c dG F X dG
. (Hard-Wired Circuit )
m Le Joh (Inputs) N d (MPU) jhdG ddG J
q
o
436
64 bits
QSG b e LM
eCG IT ah edG
Uh IMh
BIU
H 64 GP
HdG IMdG
OGYCd dG
dG
HdG IMdG
OGYCd dG
dG
fdG e
64 bits
IMh
UdG
dG
SdG fdG
64 bits
ALU d G H d G I M d G
dG dM
.eCG J Y JdG qdG Y (Status Register) dG dM J
, (Carry ) M d G e
q c Y ,(MPU) J gOqjo dG ,qdG g qJh
. (Sign ) I Q T E G h , (Not Zero ) d G Z h (Zero ) d G h
dG qdG
Wf Y GTEH (Controller-Sequencer) dG qdG e qJ
SodG LdG hCG eCG RfEH qdG GQTEG fEH (MPU) hdG ddG
GQTEG dG e qdj .(Appropriate Input Pins) SdG NdG HHO dEG
d E G h e ( G S G h I A G d G ) H d G h I A G d G f H h , (Clock Signals ) Y d G
,fdG e be jJ dEG OqDj c , dG /NdG Neh IcGdG
L h . (Reset Functions ) F X d G V I O Y E G h , (Bus Control ) d G V h
a ROM a IAGdG IcGP a e qeo efH SGH LJ dG g
eGhCG Ye Jh Digital Gates qbdG HGdG d hdG ddG
.Instruction Set
cGodG
Special-Purpose) UdG GSd kXh
k e (Accumulator) cGdG qjo
439
fdG
q eo
odG fdG d bDe qM qfCH (Data Register) fdG
q e qjo
.Y GSG hP
q eo gh ,efdG SGH Lj ,(Databus) fdG e e
IcGdG deh ,HdG dG d fdG M
q o dG j
qJ eCG IT
q a qY qCG dEG IQTEG QhdG eh .(Memory-Addressing)
hCG
k qe IkOY jh (Instruction Register) eCG
q e Yjo q e
q H
.(Instruction Decoder) eCG IT H (Attached) kWHe
eCG IT a
q J
q e d H (Instruction Decoder ) e C G I T a X h
qdG eqDj ,dP H .gRfEG j dG ddG qdG jd dPh ,fdG
d SdG kHS e dG GQ TEG (Controller-Sequencer) dG
b dG dG e (Series) Y e e eCG c qdC j .(Exertion)
a IAG dG I cGP P q dG O dG a X dG (Microinstructions)
e IqY J M ,(MPU) jqhdG ddG IMh a (Microcode ROM)
IOYEGh ,GQGdG ZEG hCG ah ,(Logic Gates) dG HGH ZEGh H qJ
. (Resetting Status Flags ) Y C G d M V
efdG OGqY
J H j UN
q e g ,(Program Counter) efdG OGqY EG
Ye) (Subroutines) qFdG IJdG CG ,(Instructions) LdG hCG eGhCG
IOe Xh ODJh ,FQ efH cJ a NJ e ee J
GP IcGdG bGe a IOY eGhCG g Jh .JdG efd (q eh
, e C G c A f E G e h . (Sequentially Accessed Memory locations ) d G N d G
Next) ddG eCG S M IcGdG be dEG jo dP H ,
q dG OGOj
o
. (Data Word ) f d G c h (Instruction
440
GdG
q eo
a f d G c b e h C G G Y H (Address Register ) G d G
q eo j
dG IQGO
q J ,qK .ddG dM a g dG I/O dG /NdG a hCG IcGdG
qj M a ,dG dG /NdG (Port) Ne hCG IcGdG a GdG IT
Specific) IOqe IcGP bGe dEG GdG
q a e
q eo e Gg IdG
kah q Jo ,dG GdG
q e S qCG dEG ofh .(Memory Locations
qY :eh ,(Addressing the Register) Xh J a gJ dG FGd
Stack) S o o dG TC Jh ,(Paging) dGh ,(Indexing) SdGh j dG
. (Indirect Applications ) I T d G Z d G h , (Pointing
hdG efdG
I T d G j d G a O L e e f H g (Microprogram ) h d G e f d G E G
g h . d E G d G N O j d G h (On-Chip ROM ) a I A G b I c G P G P
Entire CPU) eqdG jqcdG ddG IMh eGhCG Ye J Y J
K QGH JJ qJ jqhdG LdG qCG hdG eh .(Instruction Set
IdG hCG edG
q a (2) , (I-Fetch ) g d e d G Q S G (1 ) : g , G N
.(Execute) dG (3)h ,(Decode)
hdG ddG FN
f d G d e h S d G a (Microprocessor ) h d G d d G Y j
,H qe a (Bits) qdG hCG (Binary Digits) FdG bQCG J .qbdG
W g dGh ,(Byte) jdH jo H (8-bit word) H 8 GP dG Joh
J a g hdG dd AGOCG aCG qEG .JdG a SSCG dG
e dG dEG J dG (Software-Intensive Applications) qdG - qedG
.(Extensive Data Processing) fd eT deh jqOdG HdG
Off-the Shelf )
OY
GQSfGdG
jQJ
GNG
dG
10.0
2.3k
1971
4004
6.0
2.3k
1974
8080
8086
16
3.0
6.0k
1978
16
3.0
12.0k
1979
8088
16
1.5
134.0k
1982
80286
32
1.0
275.0k
1985
80386
80486
32
0.6
1.6M
1989
32/64*
0.35
3.3M
1993
Pentium
32/64*
0.35
5.5M
1995
Pentium Pro
32/64*
0.35
4.5M
1997
Pentium MMX
7.5M
1997
PentiumII
~10.0M
1998
LA-64 Merced
64
64
0.35
q dG cS q J ,i NCG M f e
ddG a (Line Thickness)
ddG a 0.356 m dEG 1978 Y a 8086 f a 3.0 m e jqhdG
.1997 Y (Pentium II MPU ) h d G
jqhdG ddG a eodG GQSfGdG OY JQG ,f IdG a
e e kof (Intel) fEG eqbh .Pentium II a e 7.53 dEG 29000 e
AGOCG qe dd (Pentium Microprocessor) hdG fH d e
(Low End) dG FdG dG Y (Celeron) hS de Jo .dG
Y (Pentium III)h (Pentium XEONh ,Midrange) SdG dG Y (Pentium II)h
jH (Pentium III) de qJ dc .(High End) dG FdG dG
.600 MHz h ,500 h ,450 Y d G
N qfCG Y (Merced) qb Hewlett-Packardh Intel e
k c qCG cdH jdGh
High-End) FdG SdG d S dG (Pentium Line) fdG N
q
64) H 64 J j qfC IA64 `H he gh .(Computing Applications
Y S d h Q S f G J j e 10 e c C G Y j Merced C G h c , (bit- Design
444
Pentium )
f H d e Y S e J H c C G Y S h .800 MHz J Y S
Parallel) jRGdG SdG AGOC oU dGh ,1999 Y foCG dG (Processors
100 jqhdG ddG J CG YdG AGdG bqJ bh .(Computing
.2005 Y M b Q S f G J e
jqhdG qdG
VdG dG a gdG ,(Microcontrollers MCU) hdG qdG GE
I Mh J (Monolithic IC) dG jqOMCG e e IQGO g ,3-14 dG a
fdG IcGPh ,(Program Memory) efdG IcGPh ,(CPU) jqcdG ddG
, (Timing ) b d G F X h e g Z h , d G / N d G N G e h , (Data Memory )
ddG IMh ODJ . jqOa fS bbQ Y L IQGOEGh ,OG dGh
ddG IMh H J dG f FXdG hdG qdH qUdG jqcdG
e Iqb
q bCG qfCG Z ,(Microprocessor CPU) hdG dd HdG jqcdG
(Less On-Chip Space ) I T d G b b d G e b C G M e
q J h (Less Powerful )
dG qM qCG PEG .ITdG bbdG Y iNCG FXd (Room) k GqM od
d eeo (On-Chip ROM) a IAGdG IcGd ITdG jdG a OqdG
.(Application-Specific Control Functions) YCH qd q e - Xh
Le
HdG
bdGh
ddG IMh
CPU jcdG
We
GOGY
EPROM ,ROM
IcGP
fdG
/ dG GOGY
bdG
e N
SdG
dG/NdG
I/O edG
Z dG/SdG
NH UART eGdG
ec hOe ee
IcGH qdG
jRGe NGe
GdG /fdG e
dG dG
NGdG QdG
IcGdG eGH
447
qbdG IQTEG de
h e d e g ,(Digital Signal Processors- DSPs) b d G I Q T E G d e E G
e cCG
q dh .Sampled Data fdG fdG dd e AGOCG aCG AYE Qqe
oU .hdG ddG e SCG IOdG dG cGeo Y JQb qjo
GP IQTEG de W e IOSd kN (DSP Architecture) hCG DSP H
fdG jd (Pipelining) fCG H ,(Repetitive Nature) IQqdG dG
ddG b g dG qdG JEG b iNoCG qe a hdG hCG ,(Dataflow)
SSCG e a bdG IQTEG deo Jo .qaVEG Y S d
qdBG AGdG ILCGh , jqdG fdGh ,(Wireless Base Stations) SdG
. J G e e g Z h , e O d G h , (Pagers )
JGP qH Fb jqhe d e (DSPs) H q J ,i NCG M f e
FY Jc SGH d H qjo a ,(Stand-Alone Microprocessors)
IQqdG qVjdG qdG e dG GMEG bdG IQTEG de J .Host
e dG qJ dG ,(Fast Fourier Transforms) jdG jQa eo e
.dGh dG qY
24 bit - h 16-bit
YdG FdG JG N a f dG
Spectrum) dG dGh ,(Instrumentation) S dG GhOCG ah (Lines
Speech Recognition and) dGh ( dG) dG Jh ,(Analysis
f C G J h , (Radar Return Analysis ) Q G O G d G O G J Q G J h , (Compression
. (Pattern Recognition )
dd (General Purpose) dG GSG GP ,Yf dEG (DSPs) Jo
GQGdG q J .(Application Specific) Oq odG dG GPh qbdG IQTEG
e e H (DSPICs) OqdG dG GP qbdG IQTEG dd edG
Fourier) cCG bq H jQ a eh (Digital Filtering) b dG T dG
e J d G J e c C G c - I A H h , S C G h (Transformers More Accurately
. d G d G G P (DSPs )
jdG adG YH Ohqe fCG g hdG ddG Y (DSP) qjo e EG
H bQ V GdG g eqD J . cG dGh (Fast Array Multiplier)
Single ) I M Gh I O e Y S I H H d G d G F f d E G d G U M a VE Gh
HdG dG GP dG Y JGH - cGdG b a eqCG .(Clock period
. (Typical Fixed-Point Multiplier-Accumulator ) L P d G
cGe dEG (32- bit Product) UM jo qK eh 16-bit GP bQ oa
elgniS( jqO dG eCG IQhO a
q d G ( 3 2 - b i t A c c u m u l a t o r ) 3 2 - b i t G P
25 d G M d E G j L P d G h d G d d G
q C G d E G o f h ) e l c y C n o i t c u r t s n I .
IQTEG de bbQ qCG M a .qdG g RfE (Clock Cycles) IQhO YS
dh efdG ed (Cache Memory) Sh GcGP Y J qbdG
,jS IcGP qfCG Y SdG IcGdG qJo .(Data Pipe Lines) fd HfCG
fd UdG d dPh ;deh CHCGh .cCG IcGP H J I Uh
UdG W M Jo dG (DSP) bbQ J .(Instructions) dGh
Barrel ) e H f G G Q G O Y I A c b C H (Block Floating Point Arithmetic )
, f d (Arbitrary Shifting ) W Y G f H J d G G Q G d G h (Shiflers
SCG O Lh S dG i NCG GQG dG Y e dEG a VE H
. (Exponents )
449
G e h (Two
Data Memories )
450
Y e d G dG
JedG LdJ
jdG
eT If
dG GJdG fCG
(Personal Computer Systems)
(Bus Structure ) H d G g
(Operating Systems) dG fCG (Standard bus Structure) HdG g je
SSCG NdG /dG f UGbCd dG dOdG HdG je
(Disk Interface Structure )
(Basic Input/output System - BIOS )
(Computer Ports) JdG rape
GJdG e a fdG K
dG dG dG
(Universal Serial Bus USB )
- 451 -
eT If
jJ H kbQ k GJc f fEa dG Jc e cf eY
.JGP dG kehO j d dG Gg qCG kY ,fhdEG
dG g fc ,dG ddG GJc QX b CG ,keY N e
qHM Y RfEG Y IQOb KJ qfhdEG hCG qfehc dBG CG J
.(SM)
fqdGh ,dH UdG KdG GJdG d fdG qddG dG a
a kqe k GQhO ,cqeh YS a ILCGh qfdG dGh ShdG e
IqY eGY dG a NJ fc PEG ,aGdG e jGhRh dG GMG bJ
Mh dG IQGMh ,jdG YSh ,ObdG qch ,JQG jGhRh dG e
Lh HdG SGH GJdG g dEG NJo fdG fc .VQCG IQhO
cdH qJh ,W Y qdG dG fH J fa ,YGdG
.qfdG
N qceCG edG U dG ,qbdG GJdG Qd ch
qadG be d hGdG OGYEG a qJ ,kjCG qHM GgCG ,dG
.gZh
SdGh AdG c ,jJ eH qbQ Jc ILCG hqCG jJ Y
e e H dCJ dG qKdG GJdG ej dGj
.dG Jh qVjdG dG d bO L a jeh qJ (Amplifiers)
Na dG eqCG .dG a je e H N e NnJo edG fc
Y bGdG eSdG a M hCG SShCG a hCG OGdG GAGb a kfMCG
.(X-Ray Plotter) X T C G S G Q
qfCG EG ,Zqe eH GQGO Y J IFGdG qKdG GJdG fc
a ke k GQhO GJdG g d .bh GQjfGH dSG e YS
A d G c e S c e h (NASA ) S d G ( I L C G ) G e Q N G h J
- 452 -
- 453 -
- 454 -
qbdG GJdG
H qfhdEG GJc g (Digital Computers) qbdG JdG ILCG EG
dGh dG IQGOEG e H J e q NGO I cGP Y J , j J
.fdG eGd JeJhCG
qbdG GJdG T a dG 1-15 dG a dG dG j
SGH AGS ,NodG LdGh fdG jH qNGdG IcGdG J M
IAGd eqdG UGbCGh ,(fdG) UGbCG e iNoCG QOe hCG JdG Md
.qdG WTCG M hCG ,WMG UGbCG WGNh ,a
ddG GMh eqCG .kJeJhCG ddGh NdGh dG LJ qJo
qdG ,dG Jf qe H GQGdG Md jJ fc dG ,jqcdG
eCG dch .hdG ddG bbQ e k GAL d QqJ a ,qdGh
Y IQOb ,Ue T bbQ T JG dG qSSCG IcGdG dEG dH
.SCH qe jqjM GRN Y IQY fc CG H ,(bit) dG je jJ
- 455 -
jhdG e
dG IMh
dGh
ae
NdG
dGh
I/O
e hCG S
ddG IMh
jqcdG
ddG IMh
jqcdG
IcGP
a IAGdG
ROM
IcGP
NdG
FGdG
RAM
dG e
fdG e
b d G J d d G S d G 1-15 d G
jdG d TdG n
n dG gh ,JdG TT ,JH dc
e cCG fEG Jh IdG dG Va ,YdG ILCc J ,qdG
I O d G d Y Y W f E G Y I Q O b j d G d G H W J H h . d 65.000
qaGZJdG QdG fEG IOYEG YSHh ,bdG a GQhCG 10 QGH eSQh
.qUCG QdG Y gJ Qd M kbH fqdG
qYJ qY AGLEG OqH H YdGh fdG NOEG q dG e H d
,JdG Md e qLdG ILCG Sh ,JdGh fEG H H
.fdG NOEG hGLh ,qdG Ich ,IQCdGh
Y JJ jdG GJdG a (CPU) jqcdG ddG GMh e EG
kY ,(Complex Instruction Set Concept CISC) IqdG edG ee e
jqQJ jqhe de jH eb UdG T J dG fdG H CG
a kLGhQ J d INCG J CG EG ,(RISC) q e ee ee H
dEG (RISC) `dG Oe GNOCG (CISC) `dGh (CPU) `dG qe EG K .GSCG
.gaJ dG HjEG UdG e IOSd IjdG jqhdG Jde
I L C G Y Wo C G Y e g ( M i c r o c o m p u t e r s ) z h d G J d G { E G
- 456 -
(Work Station ) d G T Q h J
q
Computer edG RfEG Y qj dG JdG Y SSCG
m H (Stations
M . (Computer Aided Engineering ) S d G Y C G h Aided Design (AD)
de Y Y a J dG SdG IQH k Gc kegG TQdG g J
.32- bit H j h e
e J c R L g (Network Server ) J e d G d G J c E G
e dG Gg j .ed dG QdG QhO a j ,T V
a ,H jqOdG GJdG IcGP S S J IcGP Y GJdG
- 457 -
JdG J
dG dG a qdG dG Y e qbdG GJdG e EG
, O d G I L C G h C G , J d G M d N e N j h C G f d G J d G C G j .2-15
dG TCG fCG SGH Lj hCG j K .dG hCG fdG UGbCG GS hCG
qJ a ,yh x eSe hCG HdG ,adG ILCG e gZ hCG TdG dEG
jdG GJdG a .ddG fdGh eGdG LJ JdG IcGP
dGh JdG Y fCG Y s Jo (CPU) jqcdG ddG IMh fc
I M h e Y W G e j d . d G g , MP j h d G d d G UC G
jqhdG ddG{ `H SdG 14 dG dEG IOdG j ,jqcdG ddG
.zjqhdG GdGh
Ge
dG
TdG
JdG N
HdG
IcGdG
MM SSCG
SdG
UGbCG bGS
MG
OdG /cdG
dG UdG bGS
dG UdG bGS
DVD/CD-ROM
JdG Md
IQCdG
JdG f JJ :2 -15 dG
- 458 -
JdG IcGP
Computer )J d G
IcGd edG d dG dG a qe g c
NdG aH dch IcGdH IkTe (CPU) HJ ,3-15 dG a (Memory
.dGh
eh jS qNGO J Y (CPU) `dG j hqCG idG a
(Cache) Sh IcGP Y kjCG jqcdG ddG GMh H Jh .adG
gH fCG EG adG eh ,jS ,HK qFGY NO IcGP e gQhH dCJ
.(Static RAM) hCG (SRAM) IdG RAM IcGP `H IcGdG g qJ .dG
jcdG - ddG IMh
hCG idG
(dG)
(Sh) aN IcGP
fdG idG
SRAM
SSCG IcGdG
ddG idG
bGS) dG jdG
(dG UdG
HGdG idG
- 459 -
- 460 -
- 461 -
HdG qg
.Jd qNGdG GQGdG H HJ Uh bW hCG IQTEG g (Bus) dG EG
J dG JG OY H dG V keGJ dG fdG qc OJh
J e 16 M f f e E H 16 bit H k G e E G . (Binary Numbers ) F d G b Q C G
J d h . F K J e 32 ,32 bit ` d G H e J H (Binary Digits ) F K
Sd H a UGdG e dG jqhdG ddG GP GJdG
SCG Y Vj PEG ,HdG qg MJ Lj fdGh LdG OJh
ILCG L d C dPh adG e Y dG hdG HJ CG fdG f
q J dG qg EG PEG .eGe H J qLQdGh qNGdG JdG
e a AGLCG Hd SCG OLh dEG LdG j
m H qNGdG UGdG
H HdG kjCG SH HdG gh cCG hCG H c ILCG QJ .H
.jW ae H LGJh e YH J dG GJdG
Y JAc j d jdG g e kjqCG qCG EG jdG e jdG HdG d f
YL Hh ddG J cT H X bh .dG GfCG ac
eJ fEG dEG iOCG e ,H UdG gje J dG UdG d dG
jdG qgCG ie YdG g cQOCGh .FdG jdG FXh e YV
IQOb J CG j Sb H WHdG fdG CG dP ,MdG dG
.ke dG Y
ijh edG Y aGj M Sb (Bus Structure) dG qg J
qH GdG j e IkOYh .d FGe e J e ihL qdG a
edG g e .LddG bJ dh GSCG a Mf ie dEG qe
IBMs PC ) U d G G J d (IBM ) e h (VME ) j Q J e e c f L d G
. (Bus
- 462 -
- 463 -
. (Response ) G d G (4
. (Timing ) b d G (5
a J h (Transaction Bus ) e d G e d G Q T E G g c h J
g ODa ,f UdG ie Y HdH jh dGh f dG GQ TEG
a dG e
q CG YSH qEG .dG M J dEG (Multiplexing) YdG
Y (Interrupt Bus ) d G e a G j H d G Y R d e H Q e C J
.ILCG e SdG dG hCG dG
HdG qg je
FGd kN 1976 Y S dG (STD) me QqW :S dG STD dG
IEEE. -698 e S G U C G K ,A 8080 f E G d e J d G G J d G
: j e 3 Y F H c GOG e E G d h . e 100 hPh j RG e GQ G H e gh
j g h e 100 ` H U e H IEEE-689 e N j 0-18V h ,-8V ,+8V
DMA IcGd ITe hGJ Xh 16 dh , UG e e 16 hCG 8 Y
. b N 8 h ,Functions
qe de J gh qYdG dG a Jo HdG g dGR e
8 bit H MC38000/68000 j Q J e d e h 18 bit H 8086 /88 f E G d e e
.16 bit hC G
dG JdG e
ILCG H d (IBM) cT b e jGdG a PC Bus dG Gg QqW
N 28 Y j ,(PC/AT) e SG d QqW K eh qdG JdG
hG J G b h I c G d G a J e e e . b i e 11 h , f H N 16 h ,j h Y
qda EG .QqdG AT e d dG Gg QqW kjCG dK Imqdh .IcGd Te
Hb dEG UY IqY NOEG j .-12Vh ,+12V ,-5V ,+5V g a bdG Ohqe
,OdGh ,IcG dGh ,CRT eh ,GQG dG b H e dG G g
.UGbCG bGS eh
- 464 -
dG dG dOdG HdG e
dg cT b e (General Purpose Interface Bus - GPIB) dG Gg QqW
IEEE -488 Q c J J h , G J d G d (Hewlett-Packard HP ) O Q c H
q
ILCH kdOJ WHdG qdG GJdG a SG c gh .1975 Y
.fdG jJh Vd qjJ qfhdEG
OdG dG
I dhCG dG MGhn ,II hn I ,(Multibus ) OdG dG fEG cT QW
16 H de IqY FGd II fdG dG QW a ,8 bit H 8088 de Y
q
.jhdG H deh 486h 386 de e 32 bith bit
. H a J e e H e 5 Y II f d G d G J
VME - VME BUS e
bhdG QdG dG
d f H e h 32 bit P G Y e g h .1987 Y a (IBM ) d G G g f C G
.32 bit h ,8 bit - S G P f H d e S C G
- 465 -
GdG
j 32 bit H qdG GJd e e g (VL) hCG (VESA) e
33 dEG JGOOJ J CG j .ddG YS QJ mYH J CG edG Hd
q
.Expansion Slots qSJ T 3 Y j c MHz
d G G g j C G b d G e h ; (Firewire ) Q d G d G S H h d G g
jdG eh qbdG jdG Gec Hd idG YdG Qe dG
ILCG e gZh ,dG bHh ,OdG ch qbdG VCR `dGh (VCR)
.dY f YS J dG qLQdG fhdG
- 466 -
JdG ae
,JdG a Uh f Y IQY g (Computer Ports) JdG ae qEG
f .qLQdG adG fhdG ILCG a S HQ He SGH IOe
Communication) UGdG ae kjCG J dG ,(Serial Ports) dG adG e
I Q C d G e j S f f d E G J d G d O d G H d G I L C G a , (Ports
adG eqCG .Ud ee 9 adG g a J .JdG Mdh OdGh
a (1 byte) 8 bit H dY mYH fdG f a (Parallel Ports) jRGdG
WMG dG bGSh dOdG HdG HW SJ gh ,Y b dG
J .Ud D a e (kpe) k GQe 25 Y J ,dGREd HdG FSd
.LPT2 hn LPT1 `H adG g
dG dG dG
g h j d G G J d G a (Universal Serial Bus- USB ) d G G g L j
a LQdG adG fhdG ILCG jJh OGYEG Y j H dOJ He
R L 127 O H (Daisy Chaining ) g d G d H d G G g j h . J d G
c fRGdGh dG adG j cJ EG .MGh mH LQN aW fhe
.dG d GJdG dEG LdG a
- 467 -
dG GJdG fCG
CG MdG J Ic GQGO Md dG j ,dG J dG a
, S S C G I c G d G h , h d G d d G Y M d G g J . (Mother Board )
d Sh IQGOh ,JdGh dG S dG GQG dGh , j dG I cGPh
Y kjCG J gh .qT hCG qY GQGO e fdG e jdGh ,dG
,HdGh ,JdG Md e ,adG qLQdG fhdG ILCG Hd UJ ILCG
jdGh ,dG UdGh ,HdG e NG dG fh dG I LCGh ,IQC dGh
. I c G d G S J b H h , a I A G d e d G U G b C d b G S h (Diskette )
SGH j ddh jdGh dGREd Hb AL H hdG ddG Rnjo
.JdG a iNCG mAGLCG dEG ddG a fdG c qj H UN Ue
j R G e U Y j d G (Pentium MPU ) U e U d G g e
.Uh Qe 242 e fqe
UJ c hCG oCG MdG M j e a e Y I Y b e d g d
M M hCG ,PdG hCG ,dG cdG M J fEG H ,Jfe
TdG Vh eEH M e qfe Y V VJ b a .dG J
.4-15 dG a j c (Tower) dH J jqOY jW Y V hCG ,ba
YS hGJh qdG GJdG V dG jqhdG ddG J
.450 MHz h 166 H
- 468 -
dG dG JdG FN
FdH jdG dG GJdG J ,1999 Y j f M
: d d G Desktop Personal Computer Specification
.Intel Pentium II, 450 MHz : h d G d d G
.384 MB d E G S J j 128 MB of 100-MHz SDRAM : F d G I c G d G
.A3D 64 f U b H : d G
.Dual Digital Speakers with subwoofer : d G G e
.Data 56 kb/s ITU V9.0, Fax 14.4 kb/s : O d G
- 469 -
.100 MB N GO e Ub T WN
:jfK Ub bGS
.f f E G d d e e , J e 104 Y J : J d G M d
dG dG JdG :4 -15 dG
d e Y (USB Ports ) e H e d G G J d G g e J
.qLQdG fhdG ILCG e gZh SdGh HdGh OdG UJ qY
- 470 -
:jdG
.Lithium Ion : j Q d G
.56 kb/s ITU V.90 : O d G
.2x AGP with 8 MB VRAM :SdG bH
- 471 -
.6-15 dG a j c ,k GL IU Je
V J M d G d Y (CSTN LCD ) T H d G G J d G g a J h
,16 MB H (RAM) IcGP Y dG Gg e GJdG J .kfd 256 dGM
dG Y J f j .dG fEG IOYEG IQbh ,U eh
jdG S fH jeh ,SMh ,YS J bh .O dG dG
e I e f , a V E G I c G P G M h S (Slots ) T H e , f h d E G
MdG J CG eEH IdG GJdG g .dG dG eH
YCG Hh qHM H dG S Hh , jh dG FG dh YG dGh
e kfhdEG zJH{ g Y J Cradles dqM J e a J . JG
GJdG SG kjCG GJdG g Y j .kM cCG FGe GJc
.Subnote Computers H d G T
W AZ
LCD TT
Jjc Je Md
dG bdG YdG
e f g (Personal Digital Assistant-PDAS ) d G b d G Y d G E G
J .IOqe MHh jQdG IQH J dG IdG GJdG GfCG
qEG .qdG YGdGh YCG Jh J dEG dhCG mLQH GJdG g
NOE UN jQ dEG LH fCG EG ,dG c M hj LEG a M
SQEGh SG Y M QlOb Hh .MdGh JGdG bQCG e fdG
1MB h 512 K H I O Y GJ d G g S hG J . d Gh f h d G j d G
- 472 -
e LH JdG ILCG
(Reduced Instruction Set Computers- RISC )
e LH JdG EG
G J d G J H , e L J Y H (RISC ) d e J c g
Y (RISC ) ` d G J J j .(CISC) I d G L d G Y e J d G
QGJo (CISC) GJc a edG FXh Ye e dG a 80 qCG SSCG
J CG bdG e ch .(CPU) jqcdG ddG IMh e dG a 20 b e
Y cCG dG Vh N e (CISC) d e Y S (RISC) de YS
Y N e bdG Jc Q J .(Hardware) RdG Y dh edG
Apple) HCG G J ch jQ J eh (IBM) e c T I q Y H e
, f E G H f E G .(RISC) h e d H J c Y I Q Y g h , (Computers
(RISC ) F N e j d G
k LEG qJ ,(CISC) jqce de IMH j dG
.FGOCG jd
k W T jRG dG q L dG S dG EG
d jRGdG LdG Y JJ ,SM jqf g (Computing-EPIC
. (RISC ) h (CISC ) S M U a d G N C d G a b d G
qfCG Y kqe ,(Intel)h (HP) cT e ,IA - 64 jdG hdG ddG c
.(EPIC) kWT jRGdG qLdG Sd jqce de IMh
- 473 -
jd Iqe jqJc Pf
g (Computer Board Level Modules) jd IqdG JdG Pf EG
dG qSSCG fdG Y J Ud IgL GQGO MH Hqe Pf
a cqod Y
k Hb k GRL JdG e J
m H ILCG g J .d
7-15 dG dG T j .JdG IS dEG J dG GdG
jqhe de MdG g J .IMGh mMH GJdG e kH kLPf
jRGdG dGh NdG ae e fhdG a dG I LCG e Y eh
g .qaVEG IcGdG bH S ZQa fh ,IcGP dEG kaVEG dGh
a GJdG Jh UdG fCG J JdG d J PdG
.OdG SSCG ef IQb IOjR Mh .qdG JLCG hCG qYdG JGe
QdG
NdG IcGP
FGdG
de IMh
jce
IcGP
EPROM
IcGdG e
fdG
dG
IcGdG He
eOdG
GdG
HdG Oe Ue
dG e
OdG Heh
SBC NGdG dG
NdGh dG
dG
J dJ dG Y aJ a ,aVEG b GP PdG g Jo
Md d e qY XJ hCG jd dG J dG fCG
IMGh mMH JdG ILCG{ SG kjCG ILCG g Y j .JdG
. (SBC )
:Y kjCG j Ud IgdG jqQdG JdG Md e kH EG
- 474 -
I c G d G S a d Cache S d G I c G d G GQ GO UG H I c GP P f
(EPROM) ,(SRAM) ,(DRAM) PdG g e cf .OdG dG a qSSCG
. I c G d d G I L C G g H j d G M h C G (ROM ) h (NVRAM ) h
f d G U G b C H d : (Mass Storage Controller ) d G j d G e
.WTCG bGSh dG UGbCGh
.dG Nh NO IOjd bdG dGh NdGh bdG Pf
. J Q h Sh I L C G b G d X d G I/O d Gh N d G P f
.IEEE-488 h (RS)- 232 e I O e j d J d G J G G S
edGh edG
j dG Gg .JLCG FXh d LdG dEG GJdG J
e H dG
q d ,ke kJJ Je ,LdG e Fh eGH SGH
.IOdG GdG
dG UdG bGS a eGH e jo e c g (Software) edG EG
a IAG d eq e hCG f e UG bCG SG H G J dG dEG N j e hCG
Application) dG eG H : e dG e Y f gh .(CD-ROM)
. (System Programs ) d G e G H h (Programs
,Y Ye hCG e Y d He eH g dG eGH EG
g Y jW EG .IQdG FXdG e f JE hCG dG H RfEh
(BASIC ) H (Statement ) U Y Y J h W d G j Z J b e d G
Ie e d dG BG dEG J dh .H VjQ U c dPh
IQGOEG ,UdG de :edG g e cf .
k e IFW L J a c
..dEG ,eSdGh jRdG hGL J ,ee IYd qSSCG fdG
,(Custom) jOdG edG :gh edG e S SCG Y f g
. (Package ) e d G e d G h
- 475 -
jOdG edG
.qe H UN e RfE hCG dG d kN He eGH g
kVGZCG J M kUN f dG b e eGdG g H QJo
g e .edG g FH dG Y fqj e eh .H UN qYh
Md Y f qdG zVh dG{ qY jJ dG ILCG f edG
.GQGdG
e d j Q d G a d G b e a (Package ) e d G e d G e C G
e ke kYf FGd eGdG g J .aJ H GSCG a J dG edG
. NT R h f h h 95 R h f h h (MS-DOS ) e d G f C G
UdG dG cGe a Jo dG e jdG RfE eGdG g e j
eGHh ,UdG de eGH cf eGdG g e .IkTe jdG a SJ hCG H
Jh ,dGh SdG eGHh qSSCG fdG d Jh GQ dG J
Mh , jqjdG dCG Jh ,JadG eh ,JGdG Jh ,GQG dG
.IQdG hCG IQdG IOb Ice
dG fCG
Y Y J qeH g Operating Systems OS dG f EG
hCG qSSCG IcGdG a AGS fdG cGe OJh jdhCG J gh ,JdG
FXh eJh ,Yfh Vh M dG a c J .UG bCG a
Jh ,dGh NdG WH J fCG dEG kaVEG adG fhdG GdG
Y TDjh .JdG MH NdG edG dG f j .fdG
.UGbCG Y fdG fdG jh ,dG j eh c HdG
,(DOS) g (IBM) ILC FGdG dG fCG EG
dG RhfdGh ,NT Rh fh ,CE Rh fh 98 Rh fh ,95 Rh fh ,(Windows
.(OS/2 Warp) OS/2 e h d d G J d G I L C
3 . 1 ) 3 . 1 R h f h
- 476 -
SSCG NdGh dG f
g (Basic Input/Output System- BIOS)SSCGh NdGh dG f EG
JdG a IdG qJGdG LGdGh bEH J dG LdG Ye
bEG IQhH LdG g J .(ROM) IcGP bbQ Y Jo gh
bGSh ,TdGh ,JdG Md e adG fhdG ILCGh JdG
ROM a I A G d G I c GP a A G S d G g J .f d Gh d G UGb C G
.(EPROM `dG) kfGe e dG (ROM) IcGP a hG cdG b e e dG
128 Kb H ROM IcGP jdG dG GJdG a (BIOS) Y jh
q
.(256 KB) H d G GJ d G J H
q
jh ,JGP QNH jh ,JdG de Y (BIOS)`dG f j
.IcGdG qVhh ,adG fhdG ILCG J hH UdG fdG
dG H kH kdOJ kWHe dH a edH dG Ohqj k GNCGh
.FQdG dG d JdG J fh
GJdG e a fdG K
A3D64 dG S
NOEG eR
W qY a JdG j dG bdG g (Access Time) NOEG eR EG
UdG j b .jdG RL hCG qSSCG IcGdG e gQSG hCG fdG
- 477 -
eqdG eSdG ae
.IAdG ddG eSdG Uh
dG hCG dG d
(Assembly Language) d G d R e Q F Xh L j hC G j ,J c e f H
q
.(Machine Language) d B G d d E G Q d G (Assembler) hC G
dG
m GQNh dG dG eG H GQOEG Y g
bH e iNCG
q
q
.keY dG H ,fdG a qdG JdG ILCG e eSdG
dG Ue
d G Q h O d e , C G J d G M d a (Bus Connector ) U e g
.SdG d
SdG IcGdG
d P h I H I d G f d G c Y f J d G (Cache ) I c G d G g
.SCG
m H YLSG H
HG FGhO hCG bH
U J ,(Daughter Boards or Daughter Cards) H G F G h O b H h C G M d g
- 478 -
16 MB
qSdG T
ILCG e gZ hCG TdG Hd Hb bH a J ZGa /He g
e k GL dhGe kbT qdG GJdG a f .adG LQdG fhdG
.ISA h PCI T
HK ee
h C G d H b Z (ROM ) a I A G b I c G P g (Firmware ) H d G e d G
JhdGh ,dG eGH hGL J b dG JdG ReQ jd jdG
.idG ddG dG eGH hCG ,YdG
SdG jeo
IQdG gJ dG YdGh ,GdCG fh ,dG OJ GQGO Md g
V d ( D R A M h V R A M ) J c G P e 4 M B S kI O Y J h T d G Y d
. 600 800 Pixels h J J I Q H G d C G j e
idG dY d
Y keJ J ,d Le eH d g (High Level Language) d EG
,C++ ,C :g qSSCG gUY .JdG H kjCG J .dBd L
q dG J
PASCAL. h ,Java
ffG
NdG OY T C j Jd qdY T (Internet) ffEG
EG .fhdEG jdG J /SQEGh k GL SGh ee f Y dGh dEG
iMEG SGH Jc RL N e j CG j dG g dEG NdG
.UJ c N e M hCG JGdG e hCG ,edG
QdG LdG
hCG d idG dY eGH d Lj CG feEH ,Jd J JhQ g
QdG LdG j (Compiler) qdG o dG Y Yh . dBG R eQ
- 479 -
dG Y kjCG WEG j . f b dG a
k e c k N (Interpreter)
. (Compiler ) d G h C G (Assembler )
dGh NdG ae
g O h zInput { N d G e g I C G M (I/O Ports ) d G h N d G a e
H d G e a d G f h d G I L C G U d H e gh zOutput { d G e
.QdG e JdG dEG UJ dG SdGh
dBG LJ
d G S H h .d B G H H e (Machine Instructions) d G g J
. L d G d E G A d G h O g J h J A G b (Compiler )
dBG d
, J d G d e S G H d H b J (Machine
Language )
dBG d
.dBG eQ kjCG J
d e f
(Apple Computers) GJ d H C G c T b e e J f Mac OS g
TcH UN gh
.(Windows) Rhfh Y kjCG
(Macintosh)
CG MdG
/bH IkTe H J Ic GQGO Md g (Mother Board) CG MqdG EG
ddG Y J dG g IdG MdG EG JdG a H FGhO Md
dG qLQdG adG fhdG ILC (Cache) SdG GQGdGh ,hdG
bH dEG kaVEG ,LQdGh NGdG fhdG GdG Ueh ,e d
.JdG cT b e e CG MdG e .aVEG IcGdG
dH d edG IQGdG
(LAN)
- 480 -
h C G S D R A M `d G
QdG d
j d e L H e J d g (Source Language) Q d G d E G
d P h d B G H (Object Program ) g e f H d E G L J J h . J d G
.QdG LdG M hCG dGhCG dG SGH
QdG efH
. Q d G e Q h C G H e e f H (Source Program ) g
jd edG IQGdG
f d G J gh . T d G Y Q d G SQ e (Video IC) I Q GO g
dJ c ,LJ TdG SH GQTEG dEG dqJh jdG IcGP a H dG
. j d G I c G P j J H T d G Y S d (MPV ) d G
VIS or V.I.S.
jdG IcGP
.I c G d G S e 4 MB T d G Y I Q d G VY a J
Rhfh f
a Sh e c H U N J f g (Windows System) f EG
a g G f d G d G f C G a f M C G (W i n d o w s ) R h f h E G . (M i c r o s o f t )
.dG Gg a dG fCG Y kjCG WG j .FGdG (IBM) GJc
- 481 -
ddG dG
f H U e d G SGh (World Wide Web - WWW ) d Y T g
c N e . (Hyperlinks ) d G c H G h H J e f f E G Y e G H h
OH NBG dEG H e j CG dG j (FdG dG) JdG
.TdG Y J dG fjCG Y dG
.ffG T Y dG j fYEG fh fhdEG IQdG e EG
adGh dG edG j dH gh ,1999 Y dG G g f
.dG g M fhdH UdG
- 482 -
Y SO d G dG
(Full-Travel Keyboards)
(Pointing Devices) TC d G I L C G
(Scanners) S d G
(Diskette Drives) j d G b G S
q
e Ub TWd WMG OSG bGqS
(Magnetic Disk Cartridge Backup Drivers)
- 483 -
eT If
d E G J G e h C G I L C G g (Peripherals ) a d G J d G f h e E G
(Interfacing) dG dOdG HdG d SSCG IcGdGh FdG d dG
iNCG J hCG Jh IS FXH dG e JdG qJh ,Fd
e GJdG e a J ,adG fhdG e GfCG dgh .Ie
dG U dG bGq Sh ,(Diskette) j dGh ,(Hard-Disk) dG U dG
JdG jhM NGO VJh ,gZh (CD-ROM Drivers) a IAGb I cG d
, (Monitor ) T d G h C G b d G e f h d G e C G a d G e d
H H J h J d G L Q N (Mouse ) I Q C d G h , (Keyboard ) J d G M d h
H VJh .GSG dd AGdG J TCH Uh hCG ,c SGH
(Backup Devices ) O S E G I L C G h S d G h H d c L Q d G f h d G
JeGS je bGe ah JdG L Y k GH dG HdG GP
S M h c c C G f d G g (Microprocessor) h d G d d G E G . Y d G
dG YS Oj dG zdG{ HH gh dG GJdG e a
edG Jh dG f O j dG k jCG gh , e e jO Jh
.edG
LdG YO EG gDhGKEG jh ,SSCG IcGP Y jhM gh GJdG J
(Plug-In H Q I M h a H G F G h O b H Y h (Add-In Memory ) a V E G I c G H
.LQN qeo GMc JGP H J Daughter Card)
d IdGh dG GJdG a dG UdG bGqS RhJ dh
a QqdG qeo bGqS nfpboh .(90 mm) 3.5 in bGd 16 MB M dH
k GNDe fCG bh .kjS dG a 60 qoH dG ac e jd IC bbQ
M GJc hCG) (Subnotebook Computers) dG GJdG bGqS
fo C G h . 3 4 0 M B S h ( 2 5 m m ) M G h f E G b G P ( j d G d G I c d G
M G J c I L C (64 mm) 2.5 in e U C G ,(38 mm) 1.5 in H I L C G
.dG IcdG
- 484 -
- 485 -
JdG TT
g ,1 -16 d G a V d G , (Computer Monitor ) j J d G T d G E G
qb e NdG SdGh UdG VY feEH ,aW NOn /rNn ja RL
TT e qJ .JdG IcGP e L dG hCG f dG
I O e e h d E G j O K c H f C G K K Y (Desktop ) j d G G J d G
TFT Active ) a (TFT ) c J e B G d a j a (EMCRTs ) G d C G
(Dual Scan dG FK e FdG QqdG d e fqe TT hCG ,(Matrix
.Liquid Crystal Flat Panel Colour Display DSLCFPCD)
- 486 -
YS
jdG
ShCG IOe TT
DVD bGqS hCG CD-ROM
JdG Md
IQCa
. d G J d f h d G a d G I L C G : 1 -1 6 d G
TFT jQdH qdG (Laptop) dG
dG JdG TT J
(Palmtop) IdG GJdG d dh ,hOe Se LCD hCG a jJe
H f C G H J h . d G j O M C G LCD T T d G I c d G M GJ c h
.jdG qe a IOLdG J JdG TT a GdCG IOe CRTs
.TdG e dG Gg a eY GQGO 2-16 dG a VdG dG qj
SCGQ jJ
aCG jJ
GfG GQGO
aCGh SCGQ GfG
NO
IQb e
e da
J GQGOh
25 -kV OfCG
IQb e
dY da
J
e
NCG
MCG
QRCG
dG b CRT fCG
jdG Md
.Jc Td VJ e :2 -16 dG
- 487 -
Super Video )
hCG
SVGA
S d G j a H d G S d G j e d c h (Adapter
. (Graphics Adapter
d G G g h G j h ,VIS F d G I Q d G M S S C G Y T d G J
e .(k GS 48 dEG 35) fEG 19.0 h 13.7 H dG GJdG a
,LdG VYh ,dGh ,dG qeo QGe TdG H qJ dG UGdG
. (Multiscanning ) I O e M e A G L E G f e E H c G P E G e h
OKdG dG fCG TT
(Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor )
OKdG dG fCG TT J
,K d G j Q d G f G d C G e d M Gh (Electron Guns) f h d E G a G e K K Y
dEG NdG OKdG e bdG fhdEG J .QRCGh NCGh MCG
d G d d G d d G K C J J (Faceplate) L h M d J H J Y T
.OfCG Y
j Q S a H T d (Faceplate) L d G e e C G M d d G L d G j
. b d G f h d E G d J (Phosphor Dots)
kf jQSdG dG SJ NCG hCG MCG hCG QRCG fd S AYEH
a e g c ,(Triads) KdG hCG dG qJ f K e e eH
j O Y N H J e j Q S a e e (CRTs) T T d ) 3-16 d G
hCG) aGe KK e fhdEG NJh .NCGh ,QRCGh ,MCG :GdCG GP dOe
SY Jh I S J J Jh H ( H fCG H a MGh a e
H J d ,fCG Y M QfGh J e SGH fe e
Md dEG fhdEG YdG qJ iNCG Mf e .dG jQSdG dG
. (Perforated Thin metal Shadow Mask )
q e bQ X fe b N LGdG
hOh gZ hO dG QSdG f J H YdG H dG j
a d G g c h . (Undesirable Fringing Effects ) a Z e Z a M G K C J
V d G J a h d E G Y T E a 13 d G a a U d G (CRT) H f C G
- 488 -
B= Q RC Gh ,R= M C Gh ,G= N C G
q
hCG 31.5 kHs OOdG j VGA fCG ah .22 kHs dGM dGE EGA f a OOdG Jjh
.zHk 001 dGE 15.5 kHz QGH GOOJ IOdG dG TT qJ bh .cCG
. T d G Y VY j d G d G O Y g (Resolution) d G E G
d Q c 800 * 600 j VESA j d G f h d E G j H U d G Q d Gh
S Y d P e h . Q d G G g V C G J j M C G f C G h .SVGA
- 489 -
Y J L e VY d E G SVGA T T J
.200 kHz h 180 kHz H h G j L e V Y d E G d d G d G T T
30 MHz
- 490 -
jJdG (LCD) TT qJ
k Gc edG dGh d qdG GdCG IOe (LCD) M d Y (Monitors
LCD T T a J h . (Notebook) d G G J d I M h Y T c
a CRT T d S e j J gh W Sh I c k GQ U z j d G{ M C G
H Y fRh jj h bCG FHc IQb J dG jdG GJdG
bQ VY TT kjCG gh .(Flicker) FdG edG e dG Joh fhH
c keqJ ,JdG e ITe bQ GQTEG qSG feEHh JGP qH Fb
KK qJ ,dG Ad ,dh .(Notebook) dG GJdG a j
Y d E G d P i OC G b h . a d G d G GP (CRT) T T VC G H Q C G d E G
.kbS LGhQ
GJd (Stand-Alone (LCD) Monitors) NdG (LCD) TdG kdM aJ
e e gh 38 cm d E G 36 cm hC G 15 in d E G 14 in H h VIS j d G
T d G g J j h .(AMLCD) L d H TFT b d G A d G Q j f G J
dG cdG VJ .d e 16 fEG Y IQdG dh ,1024X176 dG
(Desktop e G M Y hC G (Wall Mounting Picture Frames) F M T d GQ WE G
. f M Q h j H h Stands)
Y T J b GQ TE G J (LCD) T T E a (CRT) T T Y Yh
.e jdG SdG ILCG
GQTGE J dG (VGC) jja SQ bH Y jdG GJdG qJ
Y dG TdG J (Analog) K qe GQTEG dEG bdG JdG
j d G GJ d G e a (LCD) T T J d f C G j G gh . L J h
KqdG GQTEG J Lj (Compatible) e aGe d J d dG
- 491 -
dG UdG bGqS
g k,GQNG (Hard Drive hCG Hard-Disk Drives) q dG UdG bGqS EG
UGbCG S Y Hch bdG fdG IAGb feEH jH c N f
q
Electromagnetic) IAGdG /Hd ehc ShDhQ J QhJ e
(90 mm) 3.5 in b U U b b G S 4 -16 d G j . (Read/ Write Heads
q
bGqdG a GQGdG NCJ .jdG dG GJdG a GSd e
UGbCG e eRQ Y keGJ Jh FdG JdG IcGP e bdG fdG
dEG JOYEGh JAG H J hCG ,(Platter) aGZfa fGSG Y hCG c qdG
jjdG QdG d hCG UCd fdG e j mFYh .SSCG IcGdG
bGqS e d dG dG Jh dG Oe EG .bdG TT Y
.He (Floppy Disk dG UdG) jdG bGqSh dG UdG
qdG e
e qe
q e
QGhqO qe
dG QJe
3.5 in H Ub
e
HdG /IAGdG
J bGqS
H dOJ HJ
ShDhQ
HdG/IAGdG
HJ Ue
H dOJ
3.5 in b Ub e dG UdG bGqS :4-16 dG
- 492 -
- 493 -
- 494 -
track per )
jdG bGqS
g (Floppy-Disk) dG UdG bGqS hCG (Diskette Drives) jdG bGqS EG
.e Sc kfe kUb hCG cqe jb J e IcGP bGqS
b GPh `LdG FK j`dG C We `J ,e Ub IQY CG dGh
c e f c (133 mm) 5.25 in b P d G U d H d SG d G (90mm) 3.5 in
Qhjh .fK N qc jdG bGqS J .e SH Z NGO
(Metal Hub) f e
q b j h ,300 rpm Y H d G U d d G Q J d G
dZ SGH dG SdG dEG
k Ne JdG FQdG ShDhdG J .qdG bqO
j eY d UdG Y j (Spring Loaded Shutter) HH se
.
k qe
jdG
qj CG ,5-16 dG a dG ,3.5 in dG P (Diskettes) jdG eEH
.2 HD a d G d Y (Format) H f d G e (1.44 MB Backup) j hC G (Store)
OdG KCG jJ I Oqe e (85 mm) 3.4 in dG hP U dG j
cCG e e OGH IqdG SdG (Polyethylene Terephthalate)
Y qe QJe SGH SdG aZ NGO UdG Qhqj .HdGh jdG
QJe SGH fGh ZH JdG /FQdG ShDhdG QhqJh .ddG QdG
L h e L h c j h . j d G L h OG e G Y (Stepper Motor) N
- 495 -
,79 d E G 5 e d G b J h (Track) z
k e{ qJ Icqe IFGO 80 e jdG
d G d G j . SE H T j F GO (Sectors) Y b d E G J a
.1 L d G e d G d G h 0 L d G j d
j jd dG dG Y 0 dG a ShDhdG MCG j eY
(Head SC Gd G V e j h . d G d G Y 1 d G a N B G SC Gd G
J h .i N C G d G d E G I M Gh I M h f C c h SC Gd G c Positioner)
keGJ NBG SCGdG CGj 0 dG Y gMCG c GPEG H kfhdEG ShDhdG
ShDhdG J Y C dPh 1 LdG Y dh dG f Y HdH
ac Jh .dG eGJ a kbh J NBG e dEG jJ sK kFHc
.135 tpi d G M ,3- 5 in d G P j d G a f d G d G
Y b c jh ,SEH T kYb 18 dEG dG Jo
j h ,j H 737,280 h j d G L e L c a
k e 1440 d gh ,j H
H c h I A G b a J .1.44 MB d G M C G j H 1,474,560 Y (Disk) U b c
Gd jdG Y fdG qJ .ee J IQGO Ub c Y fdG
,dH M hCG ,jdG GHEG j .Yf LGJ hCG J CG hO jW
,fdG e N jdG eEHh .jdH dSQEG hCG , N SG hCG
jqH J VGZC JdG e aQ j c ,IdG eGdGh ,SdGh
.edG
512
HH eo AZ
b SH Ub
[ 8 5 - m m ] 3 3/8 i n
aM Z
jM d
1.44 MB S jb :5 -16 dG
- 496 -
- 497 -
d G a e g c h ,(Pits) d G g O L h Y h C G O L h d A d G
U 300,000 aj Ggh fdG e 650 MB qj CG CD-ROM eEH ,6-16
.3.5 in b j b N I Q b e I e 450 h C G , H e
Y J (Multimedia Application) IOe ShCG J CD-ROM qj
CG jh .QdG FGhO YSe e fqe SQh ,jah ,(Audio) S
eGHh ,SdG GJ e ,edG J eGH d kjCG J
.gZh SdG
T SY
IQGhqO IBGe
e
FV
Sb Qe
d
Qj
.CD ` d G
- 498 -
(CD-Rs )
q odG eqdG UGbCG
IAGb e (Recordable CDs) eqdG UGbCG e dG Gg bGqS q J
e fh ,GMCG Jh J a Ie gh kjCG Jh fdG
a YdGh .gZh dG dOh LdJdc fdG YGb jRJh ,Ic
dGM dEGh 2X H hGJh CD-ROM bGqS YS Y k Gc J bGqdG g
- 499 -
- 500 -
d d T f d G d G S j d G e W j J -2
.dGh dG dG c CGj CG QdG
. X d E G k G X DVD Ub d N e L h P Ub U -3
d d G U d M d G d G d h .Y H DVD L d J Q J d
bGqS Sh .LdJ iNCGh jObG SC S IOdG YGfCH
e dG CG e ZdG Y IjdG GJdG a CD-ROM bGqS e DVD
qJ CG bjh .kdM dG a IFS GJ Jqeh CD-ROM bGqS
Y
k a ,kdM IadG CDs GfCG ac J e (DVD- Players) DVD qe
S c j d G e d j W N C J b Divx j d Gh j d DVD UGb C G C G
e qJ DVD bGqS CG eh .jdG aCd FSc S (Vdieocassette)
C G E G , j j d G DVD U G b C G G f C G H h ,Audio CDs ` d G h DVD-ROMs I A G b
.jjdG DVD hCG DVD-ROM UGbCG e qCG IAGb e qJ CD-ROM bGqS
.1999 Y a 5 X dEG DVD-ROM bGqS YS U
UN Y J a GJdG a d kFe bGqdG g U
Tracks GQc J aVEHh jW aCG Vd dPh MdG V dG
IOe eGHh YJ jJc dCG VH eb dEG aVEH ,IOe d
O j e , f d G e 17 GB N DVD-ROM UGb C G e E H .i N C G G S G
UGbCG J jJc DVD-ROM bGqS eEHh .dG VdG e 6.25 h
. CD-WRs h ,CD-Rs h ,Audio CDs h ,CD-ROM
Hh .jdG ILCG a GSd Cqe DVD e f g :jdG DVD `dG
. Y S e C G j a a N U d G G g e E H 9 GB gQ G e N
dch aCG d dG dG e e jjdG DVD UGbCG J
.Scjd SdG jdG j e dG - jdG VhYh ,TV`dG Vhd
qe dEG WHdGh IOdG DVD VQY Y CGJo CG kjCG UGbCG g eEG
Audio J e kjCG j g DVD UGbCG qe CG dEG aVEH fjJ
q
. CDs
- 501 -
- 502 -
dd Iqeh e jH Ub bGqS
dG QW a GJ fdG J UGbCH UN J d g
kjCG J dG) (Magnetic-Optical) dG jdG dG g jdGh
. (Phase-Change ) d d G J J h (Thermomagnetic ) j Q G d G - d H
dG dG dG
dG e IQOdG bdG Jo (Magneto-Optical Recording) dG g a
d G M d E G (Curie Point) Q c f SG U d G I O e Y (Spot) H Q d G
a JQGM LQO JJ e qM CG SG JG J eEHh .200C
LQO hO IOdG OJ eYh .LQN e e N e g Qc f
qj jQ fdG J gY qa SG JG bj Qc f IQGM
...Ggh k GOe J
IQhO dG Qj e dgh .(Y j) SY J g dG g EG
J qj .dG g a e (Overwriting) edG GSG GQhO e
IAGb j e dG dG Y k GH Y SGH QdG AV SG
L M G d G g d e e . U d G Y d G (Binary Data) F d G f d G
IQdG SG e jj ,UdG bGq S a (Bias Magnet) J e dEG
.FHdG
ddG qH dG
GP S e Ub Y f Jo (Phase Change Recording) dG g a
Qj T j UdG dh .jdG UGdG M e e dM
UGN j e e Z T dEG gOGHG Y J IOdG e H U Y
g J H .H dG jQqdG ddG e gGS Y e AdG d
j M QGdG dG hCG (Annealing) jdG jH e qj edG
J LQO dEG IOdG (Continuous Wave CW) Iqe Le e Qj T
.QqdG gY HS dEG IQGdH dG bGdG OJ dHh .gQfG LQO e
- 503 -
cdG /fdG Oe
Modulater- )
hC G e - e d Q N G g Modem O d G E G
d (Audio) S GQTEG dEG bdG fdG qJ IQGO gh ,(Demodulator
iNCG Ie dG dG GQTEG jJ dch ,JdG N Y SJ
J dEG IQhdG g YJ .JdG qb e JAGb j bQ fH dEG
aW a GJdG eOdG HJh .bdG JdG GQTEG J Yh
dG a qe g ch . qSGh SQEG LGH d fdG dG
eo ILCc kdM Jh ,e aW ILCG eOdG Ea ,7-16 dG
.e aW
f CG QYHh .Ye f dEG JdG e bdG GQTEG qJo
f qJh ,(Binary Digit 1) 1 FdG JdG qJ (High Pitch Tone) ddG dG
fdG qjh Sj OdG Ea ,0 JdG (Lower Pitch Tone) WGdG dG
IOQGdG fdG H q j CG j c ,(Blocks) ee Hh k eG J
. J f N e (Outgoing) I Q O d G f d Gh (Incoming)
Added Mathematical )
- 504 -
LQN IQTEG
je qe
dG
IQTEG
NGO
J Se
Ke IQTEG
J Se
J N
je qe
dG
NGO IQTEG
IQTEG
LQN
MODEM 2
MODEM 1
bQ IQTEG
bQ IQTEG
1 Jc
2 Jc
- 505 -
jJdG HdG
Y QdGh hdG SQh ,HdG AGLEGh ,fdG Yd Fe g
SQh ,(Word Processing) dG de a Qh V e gh .Q dG
.JdG gj dG edH qUdG dG e jdG dEG aVEH ,hGdG
a Y j (Computer Printers ) j J d G H d G E a d P Y
k a
. (Hard Copies ) b Q h c Q d G Y j h d G j d G h f f E G f H G f E G
Near Letter ) d G hM Y f e J b GQ Y f GP W F Sh Q W
c T b e d G (Selectric IBM) H d j R G e (NLQ ) h C G (Press Quality
HdG e dG g CG EG .Jc aW Rc IqdGh (Daisy Wheel)
QW iNCG Mf e .FGOCG AHh dG M dEG aVEH dG gH c
h O f c d G Y f M f e d h j d G Y d (Dot-Matrix ) H W
(Draft Quality) dhCG YW aJ Y JQ b e Z dG Y NLQ i e
HdG Qh GSH IMGh aO dG e OHh ,SdG Z Jd
g eEH ,dP Y
k a .kFc ee f QhCG ,dG H dG
IQdG d CG c .gZh ,eh ,SQh ,dhCG N YW HdG
,IMGh aO IOe f YW H d J GJ h ,fqdG YdG Y
..dEG jhdG FGbh ,jQdG GQTEG dEG aVEH ,TCG GQqSG YWh
bGe a FT e bd fc a (Thermal Printers) jQGdG HdG eqCG
J dh ,jdG fdG HdG U Yj dG Jdc FOg
HdG fc dP eh .IMGh aO IOe f YW dEG Y bdG a
HW KCG iNCG Mf e .edG OJ e J dG fch ,H jQGdG
qJ IOe GQNG aJ a S Ye IQb ,jQdG HdGh ,(Inkjet)
dG GP QdG HW aJ .JdG a j Yh dG M
- 506 -
- 507 -
fh dEG dG j W : g bQ dG S Y dG G b f
G j d G e j d G i L C G b h . (Thermal ) j Q G d G j d G h , (Piezoelectric )
.dG cdG qb e jdG Jg Y
b hCG ,aCG hCG ,OY H HdG ShDhdG a adG Vh JJ j
c G J a d G V h h C G d G j W Y d G H h . (Zigzag ) e H h C G
Ze IQH dG VY jJh bQCGh jHCG hdG d GdG
.bOh
IQe YW N e k GJ dG cCG J j fqdG HdG ah
H W a h . d G a Q M C d M d G G d C G e a d (Overprinting )
a f c e d H j (Resistor ) h e , Y H , j , j Q G d G (Inkjet )
jd adG a dG IQGdG J .JdG IS J ,FHc QJ SGH
.dG ge c QdG S Y gJh dG Gb aJ QH Ya
edG Inkjet HW a .IjL Ya J CG qb
k b Oj CG dG Yh
kfhdG ZdG OGdG qJ (Piezoelectric Inkjet Printers) fhdEG dH
aGO Oqa kjJc Y k Ge FHc f adG e qSJ Y J dG
qj .dG a jZ c QdG S Y gjEG ITfh adG e M Ib
e kJeJhCG dG S qjh .YdG Y N adG e jJ a dG
g J .dG hCG AMG e d ke dG AfG Y dG dEG adG
.dG H dG jJ IQhV Af jQGdG jdG e SCG jdG
Ob H eEG hCG dG Ohqj .HQCG hCG GdCG KH eEG (Inkjet) HW aJ
G g e E H h . U C G h , M C G h , Q R C G g G d C G K H h C G O S C G H (Cartidge )
Y Z jdG g CG EG ,GdCG Hh OSCG H fd J YW dG
.(hM hCG QU) OSCG dG a Oj U YW Y
:g GdCG HQCG Y a fqdG (Inkjet) HW e fdG dG eCG
H hCG a OSCH YdG feEHh .OSCGh ,UCGh ,MCGh QRCG
Y d J G d C G S Y i N C G (Inkjet ) H W J . i N C G G d C G e
- 508 -
jQdG HdG
dG Yd dG GJdG a J ZV Z HW g
zGZhjdG{ dG jdG jd He JShdG jH QdGh
Hd HdG jdGh fhdd NGdG dG j .Xerography
J j d G G g a h . (Engine ) z d G { ` H (Laser Printers ) j Q d G
b G f C G a LED e hC G) U d G f Q d G Y Q O d G F d G d G
.H - hdEG e SGH J j hCG ,ITe IQH (dG
QdG M SG qj .8-16 dG a jQdG YdG Oe VJ j
g h , J b Q G Q T E G H (LED h C G ) W G d G I Q d G P U d G f
YW OGdG d FdG JdG IcGP e e qJ dG UdG qJ
LJ FV f dEG GQTEG jJ mFH qj .(QU hCG hM Hh)
mFH AdG cj .(Rotating Scanning-Prism Mirror) QGhO Se Qe IBGe Y
q
(Charged Ad Ue IQGhqO fGSC e S Y fGSCG SY N
dG GJo fGSCH AdG j eY .Rotating Photoconductor Drum)
e j mFY .fGSCG S Y (Latent Image) INCe IQU d
d G d G d G Q K BG J h . a f d G W d G d E G (Toner) f J j U N
bdG bQdG S dEG J (Iqe) JShdEG T N Y dGh
dH QdG dG fG H .bQdG S e SqH (Roller) de Y
CG Gjh ,bQdG S Y ,dG ddG qb e j bQdG dEG (Toner) fJ
H J .IjL IQhH Ad T Oj CG qb fGSG e Fa e
8 ppmh 12 ppm qodG CG EG 24 ppm dEG J qoH jQdG HdG
600 600 dpi dG CG GE 1200 1200 dpi dGE dG LQO Jh .f cCG GJ
- 509 -
. H d G g a F T 2 MB I Q b H d G I c G d Gh . f c C G g
fh a J
bQh S de
e Oe
e Qh
eh J
f
fJ
fGSG SY
J ITa
jJ e
e J
d SGe
IBGe
jH
Qd OjO
.jQj HW Y uj e :8 -16 dG
JQG eJ JdG Md
g ,1-16 d G a J c , (Full-Travel Keyboards ) g J d G M d E G
gDdG Jd dhCG NdG RL gh ,dG bDe fhdEG Je ae
GJdG a .JdH eGhCG hCG J hCG ReQ hCG bQ hCG f NOEH
- 510 -
- 511 -
TCdG ILCG
(Pointing TCdG
IQCdG
FGO U RL Y IQY ,9-16 dG a qe g c ,(Mouse) IQCdG EG
TT Y (Cursor) (kS hCG) de cM ke JG CG a cdG feEH
Y ZV KCd HSG J IU fe Ic Y IQCdG J .be
Y d b d G h a C G c M a I d G J .y d b d G h x a C G j d G
Slotted ) R e H e H j h ,90 j h G H G Y j a C G Shafts j Q e
d G d G e C d j Q d G e G Q h J Y T Y . (Optical Encoder
LED e Q O d G , F d G d G e d G Y (Blades ) T G a J . H
q J e ,(Phototransistor) qFV jQjfGJ Y d
a (Chops)
. yh x edG cM Qe Y KDJ
.IQCdG :9 -16 dG
- 512 -
dG Ic
dG Ic J .TdG Y ddG Vd j jH TCJ RL g
Y J S e I Q C a d G a gh I Q C d G Y C G e f Y (Trackball)
SGH dG IdG QGJ .SCG a fdG IdG H jhdG YCG a U Ic
Me dG Ic NCJ .kHK AdG j a HUCG GWCG hCG dG HEG
dG dhdG Lh e He b dGM dEG LdG a IQdG NCJ e bCG
M H hGJ je Mh TCH dG Ic aJ .IQCdG cd dG
I c M g k GQ f G d G c C Gh , j d G I c M h (Marble) N d G H
j e hCG bdG qb e IOY Gg TCdG RL GSG j .IdG
qa (H IOhe Z) IM S Ic QdG Gg a aJ .IQCdG e edG
.IR U h S G H a d G
- 513 -
dG Y
10 -16
TCdG qY
(Lever ) G Q P Y J j J d G d d G c M Y I S I L C G g h
dG Ojh TdG Y ddG UCG cM LJ .UEG H QGJ IU
Pointing ) TC d G Y C G H h . d d G H SG Y S GQ d G Y d G
q
IcdG GJc a J a c M a M e J (Sticks
qdG g CG UdGh GQ NG XCG dh .(Notebook) dG
IQCdG aJ dG bdG Y kSb ddG jd bdG e jdG J
.IQCdG H qJ dG fhdG dEG gQaG dEG aVEH
IOadG e
cM J e IU IOaQ H JdG dH J RL g
d G h d G j h . d d c M d E G (Stylus ) e b Y I b d G U E G
jS LdJ Y GOadG eGd e qSDjh .TdG Y ddG cM
- 514 -
d G j J d G d G hC G UE G c M J PE G (Capacitive Technology)
ddG dG gJG a ddG Sb Jh IOadG Lh Y FHdG
UEG C S j d EGh M eGd GOadG Jh .jdG fe a
e aj ,IQCd jch .IOadG e HGbG OH FHdG dG j b
J d G e J .I d G d G GJ d G a d G (Touch pad) I O a d G
hC G Ports ps/2 N G d G a G d I O Y G TD d G g J h . Y a I O a d H d G
. (Serial ) d G
FdG bCG
hCG d d Y JdG TT e ITe YJ FVhdEG TCJ ILCG g
e Y dG KCJ f dG jg dh .dG Y e J N e
aW a FV qe ,FHc c SGH JdH HdG ,dh .IQCdG
d G O j , T d G (CRT ) h d G j a h T d G Y I U f Y c j
I Q T E G N e j h I Q d G F d G a d G a I O j d G (Light Pen ) F d G
.JdG dEG SdG FHdG
a TdG Y IQdG FdG dG be LJ Y e H J
jJ feEHh GSG S FdG dG EG .dG W be KGMEG
TdG e dG jJ Lh de e .JdG TT Y IOe dG
jDhQ j b H SdG dGh dG CG Y
k a dG jo e j W I d
.TdG e Y M dG AGLCG hCG AdG jd j j e dG
TdG e
U E G d J J d G T T H H O h R (Feature ) I e g
jJ N e g UEG W j .IQTEG RL fCch j CG Td edG
Touche ) T d G S M d G (Ultrasonic Field) J d G d G W e hC G
dEG FHc GQTEG dG SQEG W dG hCG j dG G g j .(Screen
dEG yh x `d IOqdG ddG GQTEG LJ Y eH a J dG
- 515 -
bdG
hCG c hCG QU NOE b e NGJ dG eh e UGbCG g
J UdG S b j ea .JdG IcGP dEG kjhj We ReQ
d c (Digitizers) b d G j h , T d G Y S d G b d G a d d G
jdG dG (1 :g bdG d J K dgh .O L dG dhCG
ehdEG dG (3h ,(Resistive) ehdG dG (2h ,(Capacitive)
S Y FHdG dG dG j dhCG dG a .(Electromagnetic)
.FHc Ue W eJ dG V j ehdG J ah .UdG
S Y ehdG dG p jo ehdG dG a dh
e c ah .UdG S a cM id dG IQGO a (Resonance) kfQ UdG
dG cM S e GVG hCG fG d AkHG UdG S j dG g
NOEG bdG eEH .TdG S Y dd cM dEG dP LJh
TCG dEG aVEH Jd bdG IcGdG dEG ITe IQH dG H HdG
dG cS H JdG NGO SdG eH Jh .SdGh dGh
c (IR d H I Q G d G ) d G Z h d G b d G Y f E G . d G H h
.GaGe
SdG
, Q d G (Scan ) e X h J d h e a W R L (Scanners) S d G E G
SdG aj dH .JdG NOEd bQ K kjH FKdGh UdGh
e JLe CG dEG aVEH FKdG g W IOYEG a hdG dGh bdG
- 516 -
SCSI
J IAH dG
(High-End Scanners)
IQdG SdG H J
- 517 -
ee ee
GQGdG bH
k GQe 72 GP eGd
- 518 -
jdG SQ bH
FHc qb GQGO g (Video Graphics Cards) jdG SQ bH gh
Y fH H VYh hdG ddG e dG N LJ Xh
e f d G j J b d G Y ,CRT f e T d G f c G P E a . J d G T T
IcGP bdG qJ .KqJ RL g CRT C KqdG dEG bdG ddG
S SC G J d G I c GP e d (Onboard Dedicated Memory) S e d e
bH eEHh .IdG SdG Vd eRdG jQhdG HdG AGLE dPh
Vd dPh TdG Y e hM fEG (Text Mode) q f H J
.q dG FSdG
e c j ,JdG J f IS J bdG J eY dh
.dG SGH SdGh dG
jd) TdG Y S dG dG M jjdG SdG bH OJ
dG zjJdG TdG{ fG ,jJ jWh dG M edG e
.dG Gg a d qb
- 519 -
IOdG IcGdG J
Y j j d G S d G b H e j .(Megabytes) j H d H (Graphics
SGH IQOdG IcGdG e jjdG fdG CGJoh .2 MB OhH jja IcGP
J .KqJ GQTEG dEG jd DAC KqdG dEG bdG ddG e de
g J .Yh dG QXEG J GQGO 3-D OHCG KK qUdG bdG
jjdG jdG hCG (Graphic Controllers) eSdG GdH kjCG bdG
.bQ jja SQ bH kjCG dg .(Video Adapters)
JdG bdG
J ICs Y J (Plug-In Circuit Boards) q b IQGO M d g
bdG e Yf dg .d HJ U Ge N GUCG fEH Jd
,(FM Synthesis) dG FM dG OOdG bH :(Sound Card) JdG
b H f C G .(FM Wavetable Synthesis) e j e L e ,FM b H h
OOJ J N e UCG JU GKCJh Se AYE
k hC G (FM Synthesis)
.SdG BG GUCG dch e JU QOe Icd KqJ GUCG
IQOb IcGP d mFH (FM Wavetable Synthesis) bH QW dG Yh
Y bdG J .J gh dG SdG Bd bQ Pf N Y
- 520 -
- 521 -
- 522 -
Y H d G dG
f h d E G q d G
bdG qeh
jdG
(Speakers) (dG Ge) GQdG
eT If
(Head Phones) PCG YqS (Thermal Sensors) jQGdG q dG
(Microphones) fahdG (Mechanical Sensors) fdG q dG
QdG GQhO hGC jhGR d jdG GqedG
(Gas Sensors) jRdG q dG
(Shaft Angle Optical Encoders) cdG
dG JdG LdG LCG
dG dG e
(Surface Acoustic wave (SAW) Devices) (Magnetic Field sensors)
(Radiant sensors) TEG q e
eT If
LH dOe GqJ (Transducer) bW qeh ,(Sensor) e c EG
h C G F j d G G d G (Conversion ) j H J I L C G d E G J g c h , Y
- 523 -
- 524 -
. a d G a c h , d G I T : (Magnetic ) d G -4
LdG dGh , eh dG L dG I T :(Radiant) Y TEG-5
.(QdG) ddGh ,SGh
. d G h , Q d G h , d d G : (Electrical ) F H d G -6
,dG Sb a edG J g Ic H Jo dG q dG EG
ddG M GQdG YU Jh .IQGdG LQOh ,YdGh ,dGh ,bdGh
.IOdG g e cCG e
a :FHdG IQdG dEG LM SSCG Y kjCG q dG J
Z hCG JGdG ddG H FHc IQb dEG LdG O J dG q dG
Thermocouple ) Q G d G d G e d e h , (Self-Generating or Passive ) d d G
bdH gjhJ Y EG J dG q dG J iNCG Mf eh .(Sensor
GOjGdG deh ,(Modulating or Active Sensors) ddG hCG dG q dH
dG G g ah .(Photoresistors) jdG eh dGh (Photodiodes) jdG
e a dG q dGh bdG qe e e GfCG KK bS
SGh SQEG M) iNCG a a kjCG d VS dGh fhdEG
.(jOGdG
GqedGh (Loud Speakers) dG Gqeh fah dG J EG
C .kjH hCG bdG jT j b bW qe hCG e dEG ,(Encoders)
,FHc GQTEG dEG JdG GOOdG qJ fe e fahdG
qJ a JU GOOJ dEG FHdG GQ TEG q J dG G q eh
.HM Sb hCG GQhO hCG ae dEG edG AdG GQTEG GqedG
j Q G d G q d G
Q G d G d G q e
(Thermal Sensor ) I Q G M e g (Thermocouple ) Q G d G d G e E G
e{ jd aW e pdo He Z S Ue Y j
- 525 -
d G H d a d J d G G g J a . (Sensing Junction ) z J
H IQGdG LQO a dG Y IddG ddG c Jh .dG jfh
I Q G M L Q O S b a q d G G g j . d G d G J O e h d G
IOY Jh .dG bdG Sb a hCG TdG dG N e QGM Qe
e S g h ) (Constantan ) f d G h (Chromal ) e h d G S C G G h R C G
.QGdG dG e J a (dGh SdG
S kaW j .Y QGM b e Sb IQGd ke 1-17 dG j
d E G I e S C G U J h . ( L e I Q G M ) H K h e I Q G M L Q H q d G
LdG dG a (Recorder) e hCG (Data Transmitter)fH Se
OGeG Y IQGdG LQOh kjOW SJ dG jQGdG dG da SJh .OQdG
bQ b dEG SdG dG qJ .dG hCG SdG dEG dG dG GWCG
Data Acquisition System ) fH qJ f dEG SJ hCG kbe VJ d
. (DAS
jJ S
ehc
Uh
J
Se
hCG fH
e
e
Le
ffc
jJ S
IQG dG LQO - eh dG T c EG
L Q O J Q G e e h e O G O J S T a I O Y j , U U e g (TRDs
Positive Temperature) eh d L dG IQG dG LQO e e) IQG dG
Coefficient (PTC) of Resistivity)
- 526 -
QdG J U
QGM e gh (Bolometer) eddH (Barreters) epdG g Jh
LQO a IOjdG e ehe OGOJ fe jT hCG aQ he S e e
fCG a IQdG eo Sd GeddG J .(Sq dG PTC) IQGdG
.jGhhdG
- 527 -
QedG GRN
Uh SCG
W
.QedG a e :2 -17 dG
0.3 Y J d G Q b C G G P L d G a X d G Q e d G (Beads ) G R N J
d C G a M Gh Y j j e R a H S G j h , K f e S Y mm
CG Y hCG bY hCG UGbCG H ddG GQedG eEHh .fdG e
Positive Temperature ) H j E G j Q GM e e d h , d Y F H c I Q b O J
. (Coefficients
U d G f j Q G d G q d G
e jQGdG q dG (Semiconductor Temperature Sensors) g Jo b
,(Bulk Resistor) L ehc IOY qJo h .dc Ue f OGe
g HCGh .(Monolithic ICs) dG jOMCG e e GQGO hCG ,GO jGO hCG
LQd GAGb aJ dG LdG jQGdG edG GP dG ehdG
10 H h G J (Resistive Value ) e h e b h ,200C h 65C H h G J I Q G d G
. (Bridge Circuits ) I d G G Q G O a e h d G g J h . h C G c 10 h h C G
q Jo eY 150Ch -40C H IQGdG LQO GQjfGdGh GOjGdG J
fCG q e Hh .Ib IQGO a kHe kLhR qJo eY hCG ,(Calibrated)
- 528 -
f d G q d G
,IdG j J e (Mechanical Sensors) q dG g e jdG j
.FHc GQTEG dEG ,cdG hCG bdGh ,dGh ,gJG YdGh ,dGh
,dG hCG IdG Sd (Strain Gages) OLEG GOGqY e e J gh
VhdG ILCGh ,IdG Sd (Strain Gage Bridges) OLEG OGqY Wbh
. d G h d G h I d G S d (Piezoelectric Devices )
jdG dG e
a e g c) (Capacitive Pressure Sensors) q dG g J
GQTEG dEG dqJh dG a GdG ,(3-17 dG a dG dG
JQGdG e e M Y dG dG joh .dG c e Se
b e SdH
k JG a dG M FHc b fL Y k GKDe
j eY IdG e AGdG H j jJ K d gh .O YG
.dG
Ia
Z M
e
Qe
SdH AW
U L
M b
dG Y
jJ K
(OhdG) b
FHc
e M
.S V e :3 -17 dG
- 529 -
VhdEG dG e
KCdG{ H dG (Piezoelectric Pressure Sensors) q dG g J
da Vhc IOe Y e fe Ib a dJ dG zVhdG
g GSH bdG jZ a V Sb AGLEG eEH .dG dGh SJ
e hCG (Wheatstone Bridge) jh Ib a e HQCG Vh Y q dG
J a OLEd SM TCG j H jH MGh e Ve N
.dG
VhdEG dG je
Y b e j d G , (Piezoelectric Accelerometers ) j d G g J
j e a . d G S d V h d E G K C d G I g X e ,4 -17 d G a d
I dG (Internal Inertial Mass) NGdG jQdG dG hJ dG J
fdG dG Gg dj .VhdEG IQdG a Hd jQdG
ee VhdEG dG aJh .Y Sb GMh dEG qJ da
Inertial Guidance Systems - ) Q d G L d G f C G a d G Y I e
. N G d G h G F d G a (IGSs
Ib
IQH
GWCG
NGO c
IdG Qe
Hf
dG Gd VdG QdG qe
g (Linear Variable Differential Transformers - LVDTs) qdG g EG
- 530 -
Uh
FHc
(1 ) f K e
e d
fGN
J O Y
HH e
-CG-
fe fH
eo
e d
Nneo
--
Q J q e :5-17 dG
( C G ) LVDT: d G d V J
.J T ()h ,e e
OLEG GOGqY
hCG fdG IdGh ,dGh ,GRhCG Sd J SM GOGqY g
IYH He O LEG OGq Y S 6-17 dG q j .(Displacement) MGREG
Ib SGH Y OLEG Sb OGdG cdG dEG OGqdG Gg Hj .SH
.7-17 dG a qe g c ,jh
- 531 -
OLEG cM
S e
IYb
J Qe
Qe
VY
W
OGqdG
aW) GWCG
(OGqdG
Sd jh Ib :7 -17 dG
OLEG OGqY
.(OLEG) dG
- 532 -
j R d G q d G
AZ e Ye Fc q e g (Gas Sensors) FdG q dG
N GO I Q d G i e Y R Z j GJ Y j J j d MOS IC L d H h b Q
fK IcQ e W a Ze
q S aj ah .fdG hCG cdG hCG ,RdG
i e d E G A d G I Q GM L Q O f e c C G e A Zh SiO2 d G c C G
qdG eeo Y LQdG IQGdG a UdG aJh .RdG d e
a eh qe S e H q dG g H Ohsjh .jdG IQTEG
.bdG SG GN
q dG J S IcQ
d G hC G CO H d G c C G hC G R Z O L h Q SG d G A Z j
dG fQdG N e Id ee IQGO OhqJh .Jfe Y k GOYG ,CH4
. (Interfacing ) d G d G d E G a V E H , L e S h , F d G
dG dG e
adG HGH UH
J f h d E G U H g (Flux-Gate Compasses ) a d G H G H U H E G
- 533 -
g KCJ e
e e e g ( H a l l - E f f e c t S e n s o r s - H E S ) g K C J q e E G
O G e G Y g K C J d a q d G G g j . ( 8 - 1 7 d G f E G ) U e f
H d N Q d G j (Doped ) e e U e f b b Q e d L G e S
kjOW bbdG S Y g da SJh .dG dG Y OY
bQ hCG N eo dEG qdG da jJ eEH .dG dG ITh
dd ,beh dG dG YS jJ kjCG eEHh .J M hCG
.(Hall-Effect Transducer HET) g KCJ bW qe kjCG qdG j
Ue f bbQ
QJ
g da
e e
- 534 -
dG ehe
d G ) e e e g (Magnetoresistors ) e h d G g E G
g c J . d G d G d G I T J e e h e J (9 -17
e ,7-17 dG a e g c ,kLGhRCG jh Ib IQGO a IOY q dG
FHdG QdG jo .(Magnetic Bias) e J Yf jhd FGO e
adG e dG b M adGh HdG dG e S N QdG
R G J a N d E G d d G g O D J . N B G Y j j h e h d G M C G Y (Flux )
.ddG Sd zSe{ dEG jJ j eo QJ fEGh IdG
e e
jfCG fCG Pf
Indium antimonide
ehdG aW
dG
aN IcQ
. e h e : 9 -1 7 d G
TEG e
J h e h d G b d G (Radiant Sensors ) T G e O J
Y FdG eCG e .YTEG IQdGh kjOW Sj kFHc kLe Jo K d
dG feEH dG (Photodetector) FdG TdG q dG e dG Gg
hO FHc GQTEG dEG jJh AGdG J TCG hCG FdG TCG Y
F d G U d G j N F d G T G d G G f C G e . (Signal Gain ) T c
,(Photodiode Detectors) F dG O jG dG TG ch ,(Photodetective Cells)
. (Solar Cells ) d G j d G h
- 535 -
- 536 -
FGdG dG GQe
U Gqe g (Permanent-Magnet Speakers PMS) GQdG gh
e W H e c e G Q P M S e Y J (10 -17 d G ) e j O
M SGH be a ceh SH hCG Qh e Whe IYH fL
. (Diaphragm )
dG SJ a a j e e a kaCG J CG GQdG eEH
e e JdG GQTEG QJ aj ea .FGO d HdGh ddG
e dG M ehdG dG OOj ,dG e dEG JdG GOOdG
RGgG ke FGdG dG dG e dG dG Gg Yjh .dG OOJ
.PCG a dG KCG aCG RGgG Gg j .kaCG WhdG QdG IYb
ie OGeG Y b bhe dh b ehe P S e JdG dG qj
GOOdG Y hCG 8h 2 H dG Gd bhdG b hGJh .JdG OOdG
H cqJ Se QJ dqH fSG e H dd fh .WGdG JdG
.dG eh IQdG e
FGdG dG
U e
hCG b
he
jM d
GQTEG QJ
f
FGg
- 537 -
ejOhdEG dG Gqe
dG) (Electrodynamic Speakers) ejOhdEG dG Gqe J
dG dG j fhdEG dG CG Z .PM dG Gqe (11-17
GQGO dEG dG Gqe e dG Gg j .FGdG dG Y kVY HdG
d DC Qe dEG LM dgh ,PM Gqe e c cCG j e aVEG
ejOhdEG dG d fhdEG dG EG .fhdEG dG
. b C G M e j f C G c ,PM e a F G d G d G e N C G
FHc e
U e
Qe
DC IQb
jM d
a
AGg
GQTEG QJ
JShdEG dG Gqe
dG hCG (Electrostatic Speakers) JShdEG dG e qSDj
.JShd
E G adGh GfG CGe Y (12-17 dG) (Capacitor Speaker)
H dG JShdEG ddG ddG e I T Y DhGOCG jh
ddG hJ .WhdG dG e IYb dEG ITe e iMEG .U
,dG dhCG dG e ,aJ dG dG fheh JdG OOdG e ddG
VfG Y dhCG dG dEG dG g Jh .ddG IOjR id
.hdG e dG fEG cdG dG RGgG jh .ddG
- 538 -
e U
JShdG
HK
S Le dEG
dY da hP
e U
. J S h d G U e e e : 1 2 -1 7 d G
PCG YS
G qe Y SCG f Y k F e (Headphones) PCG Y S J
G Q G O h ,(Moving-Iron Circuit) j M j J G Q G O Y J a , d G
fhdEG dG Oeh SC eGSG dEG aVEH ,e e jJ
.JShdEGh
cM Y J dG d PCG YSh jdG fdG CG eh
High Fidelity (HF) ) A d G d Y P C G Y S E a ,(Moving Iron) j M j J
W d G UGb C G e h ,j Q d H d G d d G G j OGd Gh (Heasets
,e eh ,JShdEG YS Y k f J ,(CD-Players)
e GP YS Y jdGh jQdG GPN J .fhdG ZVh
.(Mving Coil Earphones) e
fahdG
S h d E G e g (Microphone ) a h d G E G
Audio) J U GOO H AC GQTEG dEG J dG L dG j J e
L d G C f e c f a h d G J j . (Frequencies
.kfe kV J JdG
(Electroacoustic Sensor)
- 539 -
fHdG fahdG
ahdGh .Y SdG dG a YNG dG fahdG FGhCG e g
e AYh e e cJ ,d ke k Ge 13-17 dG j dG ,fHdG
b j h ,(Variable Resistor) I d G e h d G J H c H A e h
dG VJ Yh .kfe kfe kHM ej U e hCG H AYdG
j dG dG dEG e c GRGgG Jh j JU Ld
Ld HSG ehdG a k GJ dG g cM Jh .HdG M
.dG
kSJ SJ HdG M RGgG f ehdG a UdG GdG EG
- 540 -
a If
N
S
JU Le
e :13 -17 dG
.fHc ahe e
fHc L
FGdG dG fahe
a h e gh (Permanent-Magnet (PM) Microphones) PM a h d G E G
e h e J U e d ) PM d G e c J a H j f e
.(HK e e ad FGO
a d H d G e h e j 14 -17 d G a V e g c h
J ea .FHc bW dEG JdG bdG jJ CG - cdG XdG
dG e a GRGgG ke NCG Gg j ,dH JdG LdG
g kL
r eo d dG adG N GRGgG g J .H JdG
fahe Jo .dG dG Le e Sj S OOJ GQTEG
.YGPE G g j O S a I O Y PM
- 541 -
N
S
JU Le
e :14-17 dG
.ejO ahe a
JU e
FGO e
jQdG fahdG
d G j d G ,(Crystal Microphones) Q d G a h d G e c j
Vhd
E G KCdG Y (eGdG) adG ahdGh ,d ke k Ge 15-17
GQH a ,dG Y JdG LdG J ,S eo fE
J .dG idG V j OOH bCG MGh LdG H IdG aGdG
d Gh L d G H S G Y J AC f S GQ TE G GRG g G g
.(Electrode)
JU Le
N
S
- 542 -
- 543 -
I dG U b
(SH hCG LR)
dG
F V c Y
LEDh
NOEG OY
FV TGc
Th
- 544 -
e J U b : 1 7 -1 7 d G
.ASAED d d G O d G j h G R
- 545 -
Q h j e Y . (18 -17 d G M ) J d G Y T h d G j h e e M e
dG SGH Pattern dG qJh FdG dG j I dG U b
YdG dG Od jhe (cCG hCG Le) He Le f dEG FdG
jhGR Y kSb beh QdG YS jJ eEH .UdG Y TdG
.dG OY M N eh jb Le
eJ Ub :18 -17 dG
.jGJ Qe jhGR Sd
- 546 -
bW qe
H bQ
RF NO
IcQ
VhdG
JU Le
S
- 547 -
- 548 -
Y e d G dG
SQEG ILCG
jjOGdG SGh
jdG
eT If
(Radio Signal Propagation) jqjOGdG GQTEG QfG
(Amplitude Modulation AM) q dG dG
(AM Radio Transmitters - AMRT) kjS qdG jOGdG Le Se
(Frequency Modulation- FM ) O O d G d G
(Phase Modulation - PM) Q d G J
(FM Transmitters FMT) FM Se
( AM Receivers ) d G d G e
(FM Receivers) FM e
eT If
p
UGdG eqDj CG SG qfC fEG IM a ke k GQhO jOGdG dG
n d
aVEH ,gYGe a QNCG Gf d a ,adG qjh jdG
- 549 -
- 550 -
SdG FGdG
dG FGdG
- 551 -
aCG N
dG e
- 552 -
KC J :3-18 dG
a jq S f jEG dG
(1,2,3) ,GQ TEG SQEG
(4) ,jQ dG S fG
(5) ,dG SfG Qe
a L dG jhG dG Q e
.AdG
qdG qdG
jJ Y IQY g (Amplitude Modulation) (AM) dG dG qY EG
GQTEG hCG qS JU GQTEG SGH RF Ld edG jqjOGdG GOOqdG a
dEG (Intelligence) zGQNEG{ aVEGh J JG e dG d I e
IOYE odG a qdG GQTEG(Demodulation) J jh .SQEG
.dG SdG hCG dG fEG
High Frequency Sine ) OO d G d Y L L e g RF L e e M E G
: g h J j K H R J (Waves
.Amplitude q dG -1
.Frequency O O d G -2
.Phase Q d G -3
kN kWJQG RF Ld jqQdG qddG S JJ (AM) dG dG a
ddHh .(AF) dG OOdG GQTEG a qddG d fBG idG e k GTe
.dG OOJ dG a NG e hj
T Y ,CG-
- 553 -
E0 M
Peak )
- 554 -
-3
(CG)
()
()
d G ( ) , d G L d G T ( ) , e d G I Q T E G ( C G ) d G d G : 4 -1 8 d G
.JdG qdG
- 555 -
kjS dG jOGdG Le Se
g (AM Radio Transmitters) kjS qdG jOGdG L e S e EG
dG a dG dG joh .kjS qe a edG J Se
fL H qJU JH dG Y k GQOb kjS se Le Se 5-18
AF AdG ajh ,HdG edG IQb RF jqjOGdG GOOqdG AL dqj .hOe
.GOOqdG g S d eRdG qq dG IQdG
:ddG AGLCG dEG RF jjOGdG GOOqdG a j
.(Crystal Controlled Oscillator) QqdG qdG Heo
.(Buffer Amplifier Stage) O d G
q dG Me
.(Final RF Power Amplifier) NCG jqjOGdG GOOqdG IQb e
c a qdG GOOd UN LQO (FCC) dGQdG JG d OM
Y .IOe ImJh V dG GOOJ M Va c ,S J e
edG GOOJ dG dG e iMEG Y Vao e GPEG ,dG S
d G O O J i j C G j G d , 20 Hz e h J e ,880 kHz Q G H
QH He
OU e
IQb e
S e
aM e
dG e
dG
ahe
bdG Ohqe
.(AM) dG dG Sd e :5-18 dG
880 kHz +20 Hz = 880.20 kHz
= Y j CG j h
880 kHz - 20 Hz = 879.98 kHz
- 556 -
- 557 -
OOqdG J
jqjOGdG GOOqdG J , (Frequency Modulation FM) OOqdG J a
dG a j c ,qe S GQTEG SGH kjOOqJ e ed (RF)
GfG Ho hCG (Frequency Shift) GOOd fBG GfG QGe qEG .CG-6-18
Je ,-6-18 dG a J dGh ,qdG Z FM Le b Se Y
S J dG H Mh .dG GQTEd fBG qddG H kN
FGg QJh jqjOGdG GOOqdG N IQb Jh ,HK ed jqjOGdG GOOqdG
.dG qY Y qe FM OOqdG J Se
.qdG OO J h j (Fd) adG GOOqdG e E a dP dEG k a VEG
GPEGh .qdG OOdG Y e jqjOGdG GOOqdG eM OOJ MGREG J ddHh
Ea ,dG f qdG OOdh jqjOGdG GOOqdG eM OOJ MGRE fc
.jqjOGdG GOOqdG Le OOJ MGREG euDJ f 400 Hzh 200 Hz dG f
kjQJ Jo
800 Hz
(CG)
()
W
YCG
W
fOCG
OOqdG dG GQTEG GOOJ
- 558 -
FM OOqdG dG :6 -18 dG
- 559 -
75 kHz / 15 kHz = 5
5 kHz
3 kHz
= 1.67 `H
QqdG J
jOGdG GOOJ ed fBG QdG qj ,(Phase Modulation) QdG J a
qfBG qdG qEG .HK dG RF S J H ,qe qS IQTEG SGH
dd fBG QGdH kN Je (qdG Z dG Y k GH) QdG RfE
Ea ddHh .GOOqdG a RfG Aaj QdG J e EG .dG IQTE
j h ,FM LdG OOqdG dG e kT Hj LdG dG QW
dhCG SdG g QdG J qEG .dG IQTEG dEG IOdG H EG H dG
.FM Se jW Y FM OOqdG dG dJ a dG ITdG Z
FM S e
L e T Y N GQ TE G (FM Transmitters) FM Se J
Yf dg .SdG dG GQTEG H J ,Ie GOOHh HK H
TdG FM SQEG qjo .Te Z NBGh Te f :FM Se e SSCG
dG Yh .qdG IQTEG d J dPh HdG GOOJ J SGH
QqdG qdG He N QW J SGH TdG Z FM SQEG qj
(FM) kjS qe IQTEG dEG k GQW qdG IQTEG qJ .qdG IQTEd J
.Q d G a 90 R f H
f f e D J (Preemphasis ) b j J T Y FM S e J
- 560 -
I T d G FM S e
J .(Direct FM Transmitters) Te FM Sd ke 7-18 dG j
dG dG jdG IQGO dEG SJ K ,S e SGH dG NdG IQTEG
Ye) qdG dEG qdG qdG GQTEG SJ K qdG GOOqdG RJ
jqS hCG KM J b Ye QhH j dG ,(Varactor QcGQa OjGO hCG JFET
Variable - Frequency) IdG GOOqdG GP HHdG GOOJ Y Id
qdG IQTEG S SGH YdG Yfh qc OJ .(Oscillator VFO
eY L e T Y J jqjOGQ GOOJ N VFO `dG jh .kqS
OdG Me Y qdG GQTEG SJo .Sd cdG OOdG J j
JQG e jJ KG GOOJ Ya Sh e dEG eh ,(Buffer)
e GTH ,jqjOGQ GOOJ qe jo K .FM GQTE adG GOOqdG
.SQEd Fe qe bW ie dEG g RF GQTEG j dG RF bW e
,Nh ,QH He Y JeJhCG GOOqdH qdG M J
CG e SJ J GQTEG fEG ee eh ,DC eh ,qeh ,
q eh
.j b aGfG f
OOdG dEG kFJ HdG N Oj FM qe dEG GQTEG g NJ M
d G J J a j ,I T d G FM S d F d G d G E G . d G
QGSG dEG UdG H GOOqdG Y JeJhCG IdG d eRdG
.dG OOqdG
- 561 -
GdG He
jOOqdG
dM
OdG
Ye
dG
dG
Ye
OOdG
AFC
OdG IQGO
dG
S e
DC
e
GOOqdG
/jqjOGdG
IQdG e
IQGO
qdG
eh N
QH He
.ITe FM Sd e :7 -18 dG
I T d G Z FM S e
H e Y j O d G (Indirect FM Transmitters) I T d G Z FM Se J
.SSCG GOOqdG dd QH
dEG d S
q e a qK eh dG OdG T a dG dG qj
qe dEG dSQEG b qdG GQTEG (QJ hCG) dJ qS J T
. d G I Q T E H S G H d G G O O J j d G (Pulse Modulator ) f
GOOqdGh GQTEG Ye MGe CG d H dG H O U
q e j
GOOJ e SGH IOdG IQdG ie dEG GQTEG aJ K adG
GQGO Y J SdG g EG .jqjOGdG GOOqdG bW
q eh jOGQ
eqDj ,Mh ,QqdG H dG qC (AFC Circuit) qJeJhCG jOOqJ IS
.Ieh dY GOOJ
q
qdG GOOqdG d GQTEG g e jo .15000Hzh Hz
Y J qS GOOJ Qd OdG dG J j K .qSSCG
.e ee CG Ga d kL QdGh dG GQTEG
FdG jdG eM d a dG Y JdG GQ TEG eCG
J d Gh , hO d G f d G d G GP (Double Sideband Stereo Subcarrier)
.38kHz O O H
e dG a 1 e bCG iH c Lj dG , FdG edG g EG
dGh ,L
u dG jdG GQTEG e Seh HK dM a g ,FdG edG
GQTEG Od FdG edG FdG edG sJo gY .19kHz OOH QoJ
dG ,dG a fajdG dG IOYEG GQGO Y Jh L
q dG
.qUCG QdGh dG GQTEG dJ IOYE GQTEG e e eO j
dG dG e
d G SG I Q GO g (Superheterodyne Receiver) b d G j d G e E G
G O O J e a d G h d d G Y j d G ,(AM Receivers) d G
c j H dPh ,I NCG (Tuned Radio Frequency- TRF) dG jOGdG
a kLGhQ cCG SG IQGO qfEG .IF Sh MGh OOJ dEG IOQGdG GOOqdG
a kjCG J GQGdG a dG CG c . dG jOG dG e
.dG dG hCG IGdG Y AGS ,jqjOGdG JG
bdG jdG e
d G j d G ,(Superheterodyne Receivers) b d G j d G d G E G
dEG 550 kHz Sb YGPEG H f AM GQTEG j ,d ke ke 8-18
GOOqdG e dEG FGdG e dG jOG dG GQ TEG J .1500 kHz
.dG HdG e dG kFJ j dG dG dEG SJ CG b jqjOGdG
e g G Y e a j a a (Tuned ) f d G I Q T E G E G d G j
- 563 -
HdG
qdG
GOOqdG e
jqjOGdG
GOOqdG e
dG
dG Tc
dG
GOOqdG e
SdG
e :8 -18 dG
ba je d J
.(AM) dG d
- 564 -
FM e
S d G FM e
GQ TE G f E G I O YE Gh SG g S d G (FM Receiver) FM e e E G
SG f C T e FM e Y 9 -18 d G a d G d G j FM.
d G d G G g 108 MHz d E G 88 MHz f e YGPE G d S b GQ TE G
. (8 -18 d G ) d G d G H e Y S d G d H T g
jjOGdG GOOqdG e SGH FGdG e dG FM IQTEG J
dG HdG Y IQOU ImQTEG e eJ M N dEG SJ K Amplifier)
.97.3 MHz h 77.4 MHz H hGJ GOOJ dqj CG SH dG
(RF
F M G Q T E G e e c j (I F ) S h O O J d G a g d G N E G
10.7 MHz `dG Jh a IqH J JGOOJ dh ,HK S IF GQTE .SdG
HdG
dG
GOOqdG e
jqjOGdG
GOOqdG e
qdG
dG
qdG
GOOqdG e
SdG
HdG
- 565 -
- 566 -
Y S d G dG
fjdG dG
SG LdJh
jdG
eT If
qceCG qWdG qfjdG fCG d je
(U.S. National Television Systems Committee (NTSC) Standard)
- 567 -
eT If
Y JQd dPh ,qdG LYCG MCG jdG dG a jdG UCG
c .Y SG RL N e ,Seh GUCGh ,ce QU QGUEG
dG FGhCG a uL b ,fdG dG dEG dG ,dG jdG
q dG
hCG a ,1928 Y b kqe j d fjJ efH hqCG H CG Z ,jdG
qfe UGbCG Y IFGdG fCG J YGh .IdG jdG a efH
Y jdG fjdG J dGh .QdG fE H Ke Zh Ic IQGhqO
S SC G Y J d G ,Q d G f E CRT e Uh G e d G H a J e
. (Electron Beams ) f h d E G d e G d G d G
Z Y jc gh ,(Cathode Ray Tube CRT) dG qTC U hqCG QuoW
SG P OfCGh fhdEd YH OKc Y j AGdG e e LLR
c dh .GdG ah GRdG a qFHdG gGdG SGQd jqe IGOCc ,Le
ah .qq dG TCG cG jW a gCG IdG dG Gd dhCG QGUEG
TT Y hdEG eM e eEH qfCG MdG Lh MdG GdG
WCG hJ QU jd NGdG GOhdEG b jJ N e dPh ,jqQa
SShCH j e GNG dEG cG Gg iOCG bh .jDhQ J d
. (Oscilloscope )
f j d G C G H , (Iconoscope ) ( S f c E G ) I Q d G T c j J e
jqQSa TT Y hdEG eH IQdG nSJo CG a .QdH jdG
Y Ice jqH IQU edG J d qNGdG GOhdEG oHSG dqHo
SGH dG e IQOdG FHdG IQTEG qJ qK e .qNGO U
SJ eYh .(jdH dG j e hCG) IQd IQTEG dEG IQdG jd edG
dG Jh .SG U a IQdG fEG Oj ,eJ f e GQTEG g
e fjJ f hCG d IQdG Tc e QdG U eM eGH
.kqfhdEG
qCG EG ,1933 Y jGH a fhdEG SH OhdG jd Y QX hCG c
- 568 -
- 569 -
dG M QGd dG bCG dG
J gh 1-19 d G a f d G Sd H f j d G d NTSC j e J
1.25 MHz Y (Picture Carrier ) I Q d G e M , V J ,6 MHz V H I b H
eM a 4.5 MHz a qdG GOOdG ce eqCG .Id SCG qdG a
IQq dG qJo .kaCG
l e NTSC a dG qCG kjCG dG a j .IQdG
bf OOJ
jfdG dG
OOdG
cdG
dG
. f j d G d NTCS j e :1-19 d G
- 570 -
Y H f d I d G j d G a j d G Q d NTSC j e E G
d G b J j . W G M h 3 h V Y G M h 4 Y j c g (Ratio 4:3
dG fG f CGJ .2-19 dG a fdG SdH Qq dG U dEG dG Y
hCG dG
fdG dG
- 571 -
e a qbdG :2-19 dG
.HdG fjdG QdG
- 572 -
dG jdG Seo
qeo bCG Y (Color TV Tranmistters) dG jdG Seo J
EG .dG GQTEG fE kjOOJ qe bCGh ,jdG GQTEG fE kjqS
Se a dG e HJ dG jdG Seo a kjOqOJ qdG bCG
dG f GQGdG Y ,jdG bCG J dc .OSCGh HCG jdG
m GQGO dEG kaVEG OSCGh HCG pSe jJ
,dG GQTEG fE iNCG
o
.3-19 d G d G d G a j c
r n eo fH e a 4-19 dG eCG
dG dG jdG Se GQGd
a Od ,fdG GedG e IQOdG QRCGh NCGh MCG GQTEG dJ
Matrix) ae ImQGO a Jo dG GQTEG g .d dG GQTEG
m H , d G H d E G G Q T E G J d G (Circuit
GQTEG 3 fE ,e
Q I Q T E G h . I Q d G S a N G Y I Q T E G J .I h Q h ,Y : e N
cGdG QRCGh dJdH I `dGh ,fGLQEGh NCG eH Je (Hd)
dGh C IQTEG hCG (Chrominance) qdG a Ih Q JQTEG cJ K .(Cyan)
fdG dG a Qh I Jb be EG .IQdG GdCG fH c Y J
.5-19 d G a G J d G j d G G O O d NTSC ` H U d G
U
Gec
udG
dG
e
GOOJ
jOGdG
dG de
eqdG
eM He
jdG
qe
GOOdG
IQb
GOOdG
jjOGdG
eM He
dG
dG NO
. d G O M C G j J S d e f H e :3-19 d G
- 573 -
budG IQGdG
e dEG
jdG
edG He
FdG
MCG
NCG
QRCG
IQGdG
adG
GQTEG
GedG
jjdG
eOdG IQGdG
I dG
MHz 3.58
QdG je
90 `H
Q dG
IQdG eM
I Ib
eM
dG
Q Ib
.NTSC j e a Q h I J b b e :5-19 d G
Adder)
- 574 -
.3.58 MHz O O d G G P F d G e d G
qfjdG dG
,6-19 dG a qdG jOMCG fjd dG dG a j c
O K d G T C G U h U e Y (TV Receiver ) j d G e j
G fG GQGO eD J . fh dG GQGO e a e ,Q U U hCG CRT
.CRT `dG Y M qcdG dG e Ye d QdG (Deflection Circuits)
fEa ,qceCG qWdG fjdG fCG d jd HdG IdG a Wo ch
Sd dG a dG hdEG M J ,dG dG H
.NGdG TdG d QSdG dG Y k GqL HQe aCG kWN
e a IOLdG GQGdG L Y qdG jdG e j
qSSCG GdCG GQTEG jd eL GQGO dEG kaVEG ,OSCGh HCG jdG
- 575 -
dG e
GOOdG GP
SdG
dG Tc
dG
dG
dG e
q e
GOOdG
SdG
jdG Tc
AGC f
eGdG IQGO
aCG-SCGQ
jdG e
U
IQdG
HHdG
aCG-SCGQ
SdG
aCG-SCGQ
ddG e
ddG
. d G O M C G j d G d e J S Q :6-19 d G
- 576 -
dG
dG
jdG
TdG
jdG GQTEG
Y IQOdG
jdG Tc
TdG
NCdG IQGO
Y GQTE
dG e
jdG e
J e
GOOJ He
J e
3.58 MHz
`H QdG je
90
- 577 -
IQGdG
adG
I dG
jdG Gec eU
Image )
I Q d G b (1 : g F Q b C G Y ZC H f j d G J
a . (Scan Section ) d G b (3 , (Storage Target ) d G N (2 , (Section
IQdG jH FdG QGUEd
l S j hdEG jqHh IQdG b
GP IQU jd dG N b S Y Icqe ,fhdG IQU dEG jqdG
b IcqdG FHdG dG qa dG N eqCG .He FHc T
eM J .dG b a ddG hdEG eM H dPh dGh GAGdG
,k GQGJh k GQGe d dG dG (Scan) H YdG dG hdEG
Spatial Charge) dG jRJ M e SJ bdG Jhe GQTEG dsJo M
G S H (Vidicon ) f j d G j d G e U J f K M f e . (Distribution
. j d G X h A G O C (Photoconductive Targets ) F V U e G P G g C G
- 578 -
cdG qe
UG e
OKdG
bdG AdG
dG
ae
fhdEG
N IQTEG
FHc b
dbdGh aCG GfG e
. ( j a ) f j d G j d G G e c e U :8-19 d G
SJ ,O K d H J e M d hC G I Q TE G Oh d E G Y e 20 VDC d G M e
.OKdG da dG T a dG S Y fhdG SdG hdEG eM
aJ e IAdG WdG a UdG OGOJ ,dG Y IQq dG cqJ Mh
kSb fe kjQJ WdG g a MdG dG Jh .dG
(Neutralize ) H e d G f h d G J . d e e Y H O K d H
J j dG IQTEG OhdEG W a ja GQTEG dqoa cGdG dG
N e ,FdG UdG J M jdGh dG IQhO J .mFH
kTqJ (ja) jdG Gec U j .Le T KCJ ,dG
Je SM J ah .e QJ ie Y j fC dPh cj
dG Gg EG .(Capacitive Effects) jqdG GKCdG H NCdG H j
V IQb hPh ,Nh ,U fjJ U fC e GedG eU e
bGdG FGhO fCG a c JeJhCG dG RfEh H Y jd
Y dG H dG CCD dG b IGOCG Gec CGH ,k GNDe .dG
.jGe f
- 579 -
jd KQhCG eU
Image Orthicon TV Camera )
dG
GfG e
dbdGh aCG
cdG e
UdG
e
UG
T
OjO h
fhdEG Ye
MGe 5 hP
SY
Gec
qe
dG T
FV OKc
ae
dG fhdEG
ddG
. Q q d K Q h C G f C G : 9 - 1 9 d G
Qd chjCG U
, (Image Isocon TV Camera Tube ) j d G G e d Q d c h j C G U E G
Md dh ,Qd KQhCG qU e IQqe f g ,10-19 dG a dG
ke ,dG fhdEG Y IQdG fhdEG J UN qLJ
Yd dG MGdG N a IQdG fh dEG J d H
- 580 -
dG
cdG e
UG e
SY
GedG
FdG OKdG
GfG e
dbdGh aCG
hdG Ye ae
MGdG SdG hdG
. Q d c h j C G G e c U :10-19 d G
- 581 -
q dG jdG
(2
ILCG U
IQdG QSG
FHc GOhdEG
bdH d
IdG WGb
S U
jdG
dG qe JEG
jdG N
dG
aCG S
- 582 -
TdG
QGeEd dG
dG
MCG dG
jd
dG NCG
AGMGh
TdG
QGeEd dG
dG
NCG dG
jd
dG NCG
AGMGh
dG TdG
QGeEd
dG
QRCG dG
jd
SY
- 583 -
jdG fjdG dG je
QdG hJ N f
d (Phase Alternation Line (PAL) System) Q dG O J N f EG
,zNTSC { H k G L d Gh , H hQ hC G a d G j Q d G M C G g f j d G
.kJK cCG d fE Y NOCG k GjJ CG ASH
a
k M 50) hCG fdG a k GQWEG 25 H QWEG d kN 625 dG j
H dG fH J M QdG fH J ,dG Y N .(fdG
EG dP j h ,HdG J N e TEGh dG fH
o Joh .e
Y N dEG N e LQO 180 J ,Y H IMGh J qY SGH
Y e dG MdG jJ Oj .pnr odG a NCJ Hh SdG
jdG Y bhdG g EG .dG ie Y IMGh NCJ H dPh dG
H C G j d G S Q E G j d b d G a N G a e G S G j i No C G
.jdG OSCGh
,dG e qHhQhCG hdG e jdG Jh ,fdEG a (PAL) dG Gg QqW
- 584 -
- 585 -
- 586 -
JS
FdG FdG dG
(jdG adG)
dG edG
Qd Se
LdG OMCG jqdG dCG S c
e QdG e c
IY
jH
dG Sd e
S eL
Oe
dG Sd e
UdG c
. d G I d G U d j d G d C H J G S :13-19 d G
ddG VdG jJ
g (High-Definition Television HDTV) VdG ddG fjdG EG
,dG MVH qJ dG fqdG bdG dG fjJ e QqdG jdG dG
Y qfjJ qdY je KK qgCG J dG ,JdG ef Ibh ,gQU bHh
fG Y fjdG g SDJ .SECAM ,PAL ,NTSC :gh FYEG
dG bqdG q dGh ,SQEG jqOqJh ,dG cJhH Yh ,jdG
Z fdG d bdG dGh ,GdG SGdG Dolby AC-3 dG
. MPEG-2 cdG QdG AGN Ye f Y qc J dGh ,XdG
- 587 -
VC G 6 g b d G G gh I Q U Y 2,073,600 Y HDTV `d G I Q U J
IQU Y 337,920 qddG gQU qg a J dG NTSC je UY OY
V Je CG fdG a k GQWEG 60 qH kbDe kfJ bdG dG eDj .cCH
kqSCGQh kaoCG IQdG J .fdG a k GQWEG 29.97 hj dG IQd NTSC Qe
ILCG a IOdG 4:3 ` dG NTSC fG L e 16:9 H ShCG fG L Y
, SG dG fG dG n pf e a VEG F dG g Hh . SG
5 cCG ,fH VdG ddG fjdG g SQEG j ,dG eh
VY a 6 MHz c Hh .qddG qfjdG jdG SJ e ,bCG Y Ge
SGH Se 20 Mbps kjJ hj H qbQ Ib HDTV f Sj IdG f
.dG Z fdG d bdG dG
k GOGeG ShCG IQdG j qfCG Y kceCG qdG dG g HDTV `dG UCG
dG dP bCG Y Oj Hh OdG jdG J H ,TdG Y
VdG dY fjdG AfG Y e GTDch .eqdG UGbCG e Rj
OqT bh .IOLdG NTSC fCG e eAe g (HDTV Standard) jQdG
NTSC `d dG fjdG dG j CG Y ke dGQdG JG d
q
.OSCGh HCH fjdG H e (Compatible) kFe
d e Sj e QN ,Format cJ 18 qfjdG dG J
a
k SGh k GQfG cCG fc cdG g e kHQCG CG Z ,bdG fjdG
:gh ,e CG SG bQ jJ CG SH fC dPh ,dG
dh
k S G c C G V d G d Y d G g h , (Interlaced H e )1080- I (1
e kfQe kdbT kN 1920 e HJ dG gh kfJ kaCG kN ,1080
.SCGQ N 704 `H kaoCG kN 480 Y J INCG a ,NTSC cJ
IQb J dGh YCG dG cJ gh ,(Progressive qeJ) 1080-P (2
kjQJ 1080 `dG aoCG dG GQTEG SJ M IOLdG fjdG GdG
.HJ hO e
- 588 -
q j h , (RF-Shelter )
w c j dG fCG e jdG g ,dGh .JdG f L
.e GOOJ Y e
- 590 -
h d G dG
H Y JG LdJ
jdG
eT If
(Communications ) J G
(International Transmission Standards) qddG SQEG je
(Data Communications Channels ) f d G U G J G b
(Channel Bandwidth ) O O d G I d G f V Y
(Analog Transmission ) K d G S Q E G
(Digital Transmission ) b d G S Q E G
(Channel Configuration ) I d G J
q H cQdG
(Data Communication Line Sharing ) f d G J G
(Data Serial Transmission ) f d d G Y S Q E G
(Packet Networks) eRqdG T
(Synchronous/ Isochronous Encoding) OOqdG he /eGdG dG
(T1 Carrier) T1 e M
(Narrowband ISDN ) d G V ISDN
e GJ d G SQ E G f h d G j Y ISDN
(Broadband ISDN (B-ISDN) and Asynchronous Transfer Mode)
- 591 -
eT If
Qe dEG Y
m H (Telecommunications) zHo Y JG{ e Oj
hCG (Wire) dG SGH (Intelligent Signals) qcdG GQTEG SGh SQEG
Q d G P f j d Gh j OGd G SQ E G H gh .A G d G Y hC G (Cable) d G
dEG f e ,cdGh ,jdGh ,fdGh ,dG GQTEG SQEG J MGdG
M CG Yh .jqhdG LdG dEG dG e GOOqdG e ao Y iNCG
,dG QdGh ,dG Y JdG JG Y cqj dhCG de Gj
a dG g c ,Q dG J dGh ,(Fiber Optic) F dG dCGh
HGhQh , J dG M eh ,(Terrestrial Microwave) VQCG jh dG
. (Cellular Mobile Telephone Links ) d G d G J d G I L C G ( U h )
dG a GRCG b H e JdG Th GJdG e c eO qEG
q N Oeh JdG H dG qCG ia .LddG H LGdG
JdG
,ffEG GSGh ,cdG :ddG edG eqCG b (Telephone-Line Modem)
e S hCG c HGhQ e
m d CG kY ,fhdEG jdG SGh SQEGh
Cellular Mobile) dG dG J dG I LCG e c j . U Nh
c ,jqjOGdG GOOqdG (Uh) HGhQ Y (Cordless) SdGh (Telephone
Handheld) jqhdG GJ dGh (Pagers) dBG AG dG I LCG a dG g
Personal Communications ) d G J G I L C H a h d G (Computers
q
. (Devices - PCDs
- 592 -
- 593 -
JG
f e edG SQEG Y qfCG Y (Communication) JG qJo
(ca) ca hCG ,ja hCG ,qbQ fH hCG ,U T Y iNCG dEG
qeo hCG FSh iMEG g (Service Networks) dG eN qEG .(Facsimile)
d E Gh e e d G SGh SQ E H J (Communications Facilities) J G
a ,NBG dEG me e edG SQEH g SQEG qeo Jh .dG
H SQEG qeo UH (Switching Facilities) jdG qeo J M
.dG bdG hCG dG a Jo edG J
SQEG hCG JG a .KJh bQ U dEG JG L J
MCG (MGh hCG U) (bits) dG hCG (Binary Digits) qFdG bQCG Jo ,bdG
dG fH aO Jh dJ jh (Alphanumeric Characters) qbdG jHCG
( F d G b Q C G) d G O Y j h .(Compatible Terminal) a G e W SG H
.(Code) ( Y G b h R e Q Y e ) O d H d G h J H b d G h M d
American Standard Code) (SCG) edG Od QdG ceCG OdG qjo
- 595 -
ddG SQG je
f d (International
Transmission Standards )
V.42 bis
fdG UGJ Gb
HGQ hCG (Data Communications Channels) f dG UG J I b q Jo
h C G , e H f d G S G J Q e q f C H ( C o m m u n i c a t i o n s L i n k ) J G
H hCG ,(Single Wire) Oa H eqEG IkOY QdG Gg j .cCG hCG ,jf
e c h C G , S C G e j R G e Y e h C G , (Twisted Pair Of Wires ) e h e
SQEG a JGQb J OhM GdG g dh .LLR d c hCG ,QdG
fd IdG M pS Jh .FjdGh FHdG FN VJ fdG
.(Bandwidth) OOqdG dG VH
(cdG Z) dG (1 :g FQ GfCG KK dEG f dG bCG Jo
(Full LGhORG e c (3h ,(Half-Duplex) LGhORG dG (2 ,(Simplex)
dG ILCG a IOLdG SQEG fCG e G fCG g H J .Duplex)
(Simplex) dG IdG J .edG jOGdGh JdG Lseh ,(Mobile)
.dG hCG odG dEG SdG e - a mMGh mJG a edG SQEH
H keGJ a (Time-Shared Transmission) dG edG SQEG eCG
- 596 -
, L G h O R G f I d G a (Two Sender/Receivers ) e h / S e , K G
m SQEG e cCG eG H jo M
H IQGO Jo eY eqCG .MGh
T E G , b G d G a h . S Q E G J G d d G b a (Two-Wire Circuit )
qC dPh LGhORG f T g (Public Telephone Network) eqdG JdG
.S GP IQGO g qdG dG
eh /Se aW H (Simultaneous Transmission) eGdG SQEG eqCG
d j e , (Full Duplex Channel ) L G h O R G e d G I d G a a
JH dG GP IQGdG J .zOdG{ Y IQdG Se /e
iNCG Mf e .qdGh SQEG bC e GOOJ AYEG Y LGhORG ec
a .keGSG cCG g (Four-Wire Circuits) HQCG SCG GP GQGdG qEG
cdG edG hCG JG cT aJ c eCG I dG j dG
. S C G H Q C G h d G G P J d G e c G S G (Common Carriers )
(Simplex Mode) dG dG jH dG GP IdG Jo b dP e
a zSQEG{ W UH NBG Hh ,SQEG JG qadG OM M a
d c . (Receive-Only Terminal ) a S G H (Transmit-Only Terminal )
q d j
OdG c GPEG ,LGhORG f dG a jo CG dG P
q dG b Y k GQOb
JdG T OOJ f VY H eOdG J M ,
Ib d (Subchannels) qYa SGh SQEG Gb dEG dG GP eqdG
. (Full-Duplex Channel ) L G h O R G e c
,LGhORG ec JG a Jo , HQCG SCG GP I dG eqCG
JG a Jo bh c .SGh SQEd e SCG Y FGM
. (Line Turnaround ) d G b d E G L d G h O L G h O R G f
S OJ qj Jch H W H FSdG SQEG CG dEG IQTEG QJ
qJ kS IQeo GQTEG a cJhdG eqCG .dSdG d GQTEG e
hCG QdH cJhdG OJ jh .dSQEG eGJ Vh FSdG aH
. (Handshaking ) J G c C J O J C G ) a d G
- 597 -
. (Propagation Delay ) Q f E G j J -3
. (Line Configuration ) J G N J -4
. c J h d G G SG -5
. (Availability ) d G -6
. c d G c h e R -7
q N J eqCG
hCG , (Point To Point) f dEG f f e eqEG a JG
. (Loop ) W f C G f e , (Multipoint ) d G I O e e
OOqdG IdG f VY
IdG IQb Se qfCG Y (Channel Bandwidth) OOqdG dG VY qjo
qa ,SQEG YoSh OOqdG f VY H bY gh .edG M Y
GOdH YdG SJo .cCG fdG f YS fc ShCG dG VY c
q d G a I Q TE G U Y O H hC G Bauds
Y c GPEa .IMGdG fdH RedG hCG
(Bit Rate) d G e h J GO d G
q Ea FdG ddG e dM qj IQTEG
dG dM a VdG g c ,e dM e cCG g j eY eCG
(Multiphase QGWCG Oqe dG hCG (Multilevel Modulation) idG OqdG
.GOdG dG qe ia ,Modulation)
ddG GOOqdG qCG EG ,4 kHz g JdG OOqdG Ib VY qCG hdG e
hCG qdG fdG J .3500 Hzh 200 Hz H a ILGdG g KdG SQEd
Y Jj ,M a .IQTEG Y c a IqdG dG OY Y dG e
Coding) dG f Yh ,(bQ hCG KJ) qdG SQEG f Y IQTEG
o
.(Modulation Method ) d G j W h (Scheme
- 598 -
KdG SQEG
S Jo J dG N Y (Analog Transmission) KdG SQEG d M a
J dG JG Ib a (Amplitudes) dGh GOOqdG e UGe Ye
TdGh ,(Linear Amplifiers) qdG dG Joh .fdGh dG
Y AHE d (Transformers) q dGh ,(Attenuators) g dGh ,(Filters)
J dG CG if dG Gg e .(Signal Quality) IQTEG IOLh qYf
(Error Rates) CdG qe j qe ,edG M IOjR e dG IOjH
.bdG SQEG a e KdG SQEG a cCG
dGh ,(Capacitance) dG j dG J dG N F N qEG
dG GOOq dG GP GQ TEG gq Jh NqD J , eh dGh ,(Inductance)
edG ie Y CGJ dG GdG g qJo .(Different Frequencies)
.(Attenuation Distortion) gdG qJ hCG (Envelope Delay) dG jH
ae Y Teh qN e OLh KdG SQEG fCG qJ
g H adG OqJo ;TdH dG e dh IQTEG jd dPh ,HK
Y dG VJ
k a .(End To End Media) j f d E G j f e G d G
e h d G d G GhRC G d M a H Y ( e 1830 ) b 6000 J a e
fdG SQEG a eOe OLh qj ,iNCG Mf eh .JdG a edG
.ddG KdG JdG N Y bdG
bdG SQEG
f T Y f H (Digital Transmission ) b d G S Q E G f C G J
m H JG Ib Y
C G j . (Digital Carrier ) b d G e d G Y J
f VY aqJ Y bQ H jjdGh ,qJdGh ,bdG fdG Jo
(Regenerative Repeaters) ddG IOYEG Ge qbdG fCG J .Fe
GdG g RJh .(Deshape Pulses) qbdG dG T AdEGh bJ IOYE
fCG a qdG GdG e cCG bqH qUCG LdG T fEG Jo qfCH
- 599 -
J dGh dSQ
q d JG ANCG e bCG k GOY Jo a ddHh ,qKdG
.KdG SQEG a ANCG f e dH 2 hCG 1 bdG SQEG a f
bdG edG e
p GfCG IqY H f bdG dG a dG dG e
.cdGh ,fdGh ,fhdEG jdGh ,JdG eh ,dGh ,dG e
j c , e C G M d c C G d H J C G b d G f d j , d P Y k a
.OOqdG dG VY a cCG Me d V
:j H KdG FdG ddG bdG SdG jdG OJ
(Time Division Multiple Access TDMA ) O d G N d G e R J -1
Code-Division Multiple Access ) OdG OdG NdG O c J -2
(CDMA
.(Global System For Mobile- c d G I L C G J d d G d G -3
GSM)
C G S Q E G f (Capacity ) d (TDMA) O d G N d G e R J j
LdG HGhQh dG dG c Y fdG f a SCG Lh OGOJ
SQEG qc jRH (CDMA) OqdG NdG Oc J j ,M a .jhdG
FSdG (CDMA) OqdG NdG Oc b jh .aqdG OOqdG f ec Y
(Prearranged Binary Pulse Trains) kHS IdG qFdG dG GWb GSH
RdG J ddG dG je eqCG .SG Ff Y gJ
q j dGh
`dG f aqj .(CDMA) h (TDMA) `dG LdJ H J a GSM dG
Y j g c h ,GSM 1900 h C G GSM 900 d H G H 110 a GSM
. (CDMA ) h (TDMA ) G O O J e Y C G G O O J
Y IQTEG de a Jo IYb g (Nyquist Theorm) jf Va EG
High) ddG GOOqdG V e d dPh KdG IQTEG OOJ je
J . (Digital Conversion ) b d G j d G Y f O C G d G d E G (Frequency Noise
Nyquist jf OOJ dG) KdG OOqdG je j qfCG Y VdG
q
bCG Y JH cCG (Nyquist Rate /jf qH j) qoH (Frequency
- 600 -
IdG J
- dEG - f IOe HGhH eEG fdG (Channel Configuration) Gb qJo
qN H hCG ,(Point-To-Point Network) f - dEG - f H hCG ,f
M IFGH hCG (Loop) GQhO W fC H hCG ,(Multipoint Line) dG Oqe
H f d G O J f - d E G - f N Y e C G Q h H a . (Ring )
dEG f HGhQ e dG qa f dEG f T eCG .(Connection) HdG AH
jdGh (Communications Controllers) JH qdG H f
.IdG
GbG QNG cJhH OLh (Multipoint Line) dG OqdG dG qj
- 601 -
- 602 -
- 603 -
fdG JG H cQdG
H (Data Communications Line Sharing) dG fH cQdG J
H cQdG EG .fdG Jh ,qbKdG Jh , dG J
IO dG dG : Y Jo Gq e O L H J eO dGh JG
fdG Gcqeh ,(Cluster Controllers) edG eh ,(Multiplexers)
Modem) cQ dG O dG G Mhh ,(Remote Data Concentrators) IdG
eh ,(Port Sharing Units) adH cQ dG G Mhh ,(Sharing Units
. (Lineplexers ) d G e h , (Port Selectors ) d G
d S Q J C G J I Q G O g (MUX ) h C G (Multiplexer ) O d G d G E G
OOqd kah OOqdG dG VY H dP jh ,IOe JG Ib a cCG hCG
J d (Serial Ports ) d G a d H M G h (MUX ) e U j . e d G h C G
qdG adG e W
q H Hjo H k GH NBG eo Vjh cdG
H SodG fdG Y k GHCG KqDj dG qCG hdG eh .J d H
.HSG eR Y
k V k GKCJ EG j h ,IdG qdGh JdG
:g dG RfE SSCG jW dg
,(Frequency-Division Multiplexer- FDM) OOqdG H OudG dG
Narrower) VCG bf dEG f adG OOqdG dG VY j dG
q
FDM OOqdG H dG jo .qe Ib qfCG Y e c jo ,(Bands
q dG SQEG a
YdG dG eGdG P LGhORG ec LC o dG -
. (Full-Duplex Leased-Line Transmission Low-Speed Synchronous )
G g j ,(Time-Division Multiplexer- TDM) e d G H O d G d G
Y ,qe Ga Yh ,JGdH L GWCG Uh Y dG e dG
fCG a MCG ZCG a (TDM) jo .dG JG e VY OGeG
G SG f e E G ZQ d Ph , 1.544 Mb/s Y S Y (T1-Carrier Systems) T1 e M
q dG SQEG a dG e dG Gg
hCG eGdG LGhORG ec LCodG
.eGJdG
- 604 -
- 605 -
- 606 -
q dG dG j
. c C G hC G J G J b d E G J d G e (Lineplexer)
,1 9 . 2 k b / s Y d G G P ( D a t a S t r e a m s ) d G a J j C G d j
k a
J , 4 k H z e c h J , f V Y J b d E G 1 4 . 4 k b / s h C G ,1 6 . 8 k b / s h
Digital b d G d G e d hC G (Leased Lines) I L C d G d G e d
o
q
.Data Services
fd dG Y SQEG
- 607 -
- 608 -
eRqdG T
Idle ) F d G e d G h C G b d G d (Packet Networks ) e R d G T N
qJ
o
jH J gh .SQEG qeo GSG dh fdG SQEG a (Time
L H hme mSSCG Yh SodG qSSCG d kah a JG c
dEG MGh W e SodG dSdG J dG g a qj .dG ee
.(Bytes) jH 128h jH 53 H hGj (Byte) mdG Oqe jH e RQ dEG NBG
RdG g dEG S odG GdH dG Ohq J (Header) Ja eRQo qd j
dEG QdG e IM Y eRQ c Jo CG j dHh ,(Destination Address)
H e MGh mW e cCG RQ NH dG g J .SG be
Ojo qFdG bGe dEG RodG g Uh b .UdG fGY e
m a dG
.(Destination Switching Centers- DSC) d G j J c G e a J J h J
`eG`edG `SQG ``fh `j`dG ``dG (ISDN) dG G`g a k`jCG ``fCG)
. (Broadband ISDN (B-ISDN) and Asynchronous Transfer Mode )
OOqdG he /eGdG dG
(Synchronous/ Isochronous Encoding) edG jhdG/eGdG fdG qJo
dG QW IQGd dG ie a SQEG e adG OdH dG d kFGO
YS GS dPh ,OdG hCG jdG a (Phase-Locked Loop-PLL) odG
(Transmit Clock) SQEG YS dG ej .odG dG e SG
dG
q a SGH fdG e SG YS Jo H ,f dG e
:j e SQEG J Wo qJ .(Decoding)
d d G g h , (Nonreturn-To-Zero ) (NRZ ) d G - d E G - I O d G Y j W
- 609 -
T1 - e M
Iqe hqCG eb qJg eN Y IQY g jQdG (T1-Carrier) T1 eM qEG
I b 24 H 1.544 Mb/s Y b d G J d e d G g J .1962 S
- 610 -
d
I
Q
T
E
G
ed
q
q
8) Nyquist qH (4 kHz) Y JdG IdG je j .(Discrete Amplitudes)
q
IQTEG J ,iNCG Mf e 64 kb/s Ojo fH Ib qe fE (kb/s
Le T AH IOYE dPh gOOJ JH je dEG bQ Jo c KdG
qdhdG jQSG dG Vh d .jJ CG hO (Original Waveform) UCG
qJdG Id fdG a qY 8000 H jQe je qeo CCITT dGh Jd
. ( f K h e ) 125 s c Y N D J .3400 Hz d E G 300 Hz e b f V Y j d G
Le HGhQ hCG (Copper Wire Pairs) qSf qS GhRCG Y dG Jo
J a e Y Repeaters G d G V J h .(Microwave Links) jq h e
T (Retime ) b J h (Regenerate ) d J I O Y E H Y ( 1 8 3 0 m) 6000 ft
GQTEG SQE S SC H T1-bdG edG qoU d .bdG LdG
jJ ae H Y J dG (Central Offices) jqcdG JdG H JdG
OdG dG H g T1-bdG edG f qEG .(80 km) 50 mi Y
jo dG PCM edG dG dG fC HdG (Multiplexing Structure)
.qddG ceC JdG QdG
d G V ISDN
op
r n J
q
(Single Digital-Transmission Network) jqOa bQ JG T (Network- ISDN
q
,(Text) UqdGh ,(Voice) qJdG edG :e edG SGh J eCd
jdG dG ah ,(Video) jqjdGh ,(Video Text) jdG dGh ,cdGh
Y f d G S Q E G d G g Y S H .( S w itch ed A n d N on s w itch ed ) j d G Z h
JG jqOe GSH JdG N N e 128 kb/s `dG bf VY
edG g qCG kY ;qUN JG (Software) J eHh (Hardware)
dG g Jh .f H He JdG eN eo b e (ISDN) qJo
Integrated Services Digital) edG edG bdG dG
- 611 -
m H Ib
q c Y fdG Jo H ,(Full-Duplex) LGhORG
o
r
O J D I d G J M a K d G J d G J G (Equivalent) A a e B J b
(Call Progress A G d G J Y e e h (Call-Set Up) A G d G OG YE c :GQ TE G
Hh ,B bCG e d 64 kb/s edG YdG aqJo fdG f Y .Information)
(Packet Data) fdG RQ QJ H ,dG JdG Gqd ,ke hCG e
.GQTEG fH OJ e IdH (9600 b/s dEG J YS qJ dG)
J dG SSCG qdG Ud HdG Dh B Gd SSCG dG EG
g hqCG :T dG dhqCG qdG Ud CG c 192 kb/s YH edG e
b d G Q d G g f d G h , (US T1 Digital Standard ) c e C G T1 b d G Q d G
dG dhqCG qdG Uh qJ .(European E1 Digital Standard) HhQhCG E1
J h , (D Channel ) I M G h D d O I b h B e M e I b 23 Y T S S C G G P
VY j h .I M Gh D d O I b h (B Channels) B I b 30 Y E S SC G GP
.64 kb/s `d kjhe Dh B e d dG
- 612 -
- 613 -
e G J d G S Q E G f h d G j Y ISDN
a (N-ISDN) qdG d k GOG eG (B-ISDN) jdG dG ISDN qjo
a fdGh dG JG H
k eJ enbn dG Yf e dhCG LddG
f eGSG g B-ISDN `d qSSCG IdG qEG .ad ae e jJ
Q Y G j d H h , (Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) ) e G d G Z d G
- 614 -
k J eDJ Yf e Ija LdJ ATM `dG qJ .ATM `d kaOGeo B-ISDN
SQEG jLh QfG dch ddG YdG GP fdG d kce
dG L e SJ ATM fN g qEa ,dP dEG aVEH .qJdG
m H H H J C G J h ,(WANs) I d G d G h (LANs) d G
.cCG
q
qLdd edG bCG MEG dEG (ATM) eGdG Z SQEG f Oj
(Route ) L
q j h (Relay) M
q jo dG (Digital Packet-Switching) bdG RdG jJ
SSCG Y dG Gg j .eRQ c qJ jhY SGH (Traffic) MGdG
(Asynchronous Time-Division Multiplexing ) e G d G Z e d G H d G
m W GPh Ib RpH edG M a
bjh Cells. fdG Jo HK
jdG RdG P QWEG M
q e hCG X.25 e iNCG RdG qLdJ e dP
.dG IqdGh
J a Y J h ,53 Bytes W ATM f d
e 48 Bytes Yh (CdG e dGh jdG GOch GY qJ)
`dG M
q ` dG Q`WEG ` H `dPh ,(Information Field) e`dG d
Jh .dG qe ee eh Jd 4 Bytes hCG 2 Bytes Y `j
odG fH e GQWEG M
q Jo hCG J qfC Q WEG M
q e S H ATM
Gb qJo 1500 Bytes e cCGh 64 H dW hGjh .(Frames Of User Data)
VGaG IdG qe GOc (Virtual Path) VGaG QdH ATM fH
e LJ J Jo dGh ,eRQ qc a (Virtual Channel Identifier Codes)
qj d fdG J CG cdH jL .(Different Routing Techniques)
.dG Y AkH
5 Bytes
GP
(Header)
e cCG JG Gb GSG IA c e j J R dG q L d J EG
dG d IkOY Jo dG (STM) eGdG SQEG f Ld J
iNCG STM e Nh (T1-Carrier System) T1-eM f j .bodG
eqEG (Dedicated Lines Setup) dG OGYEG N Y (Routed) L
q dG
q H H d H h C G (Dialing ) j h d H
,T1 - e M E G ,
k a .GdH e cCG UN
- 615 -
- 616 -
dG S J
a j c ,(Pulse-Amplitude Modulation- PAM) d G S J E G
(Pulse L e T Y d G e M S j J Y g ,1 -20 f d G d G
JU GQTG K ( h , ,CG) 1-20 dG d joh .Carrier Waveform)
m bhCG a je J
dG edG J a SJoh Jo H e
q
q N Y (Correct Time Sequence )
.(O- 1 -20 d G) , M Gh SQ E G
(CG)
()
()
S J Oe 1-20 dG
,,,CG TCG J :(PAM) dG
a e JU GQTEG K je
a -O dG eCG , e bhCG
.MGh N Y Seh Ie Le
(O)
- 617 -
dG Oc J
dG qj c ,(Pulse Code Modulation - PCM) dG Oc J EG
k jQhO IQ TEG (Sampled) je d N J dG dG g ,2-20 fdG
fhdG qe SGH jdG J . dG S H (Periodically)
hCG dG qJo qK eh ,(Stepping Switch) LQqJ qc j (Electronic Switch)
dEG dqjh qY qd dG hCG JQG SH qdG j .(Quantized) qJo
d G d G g .11100010 h C G 1011000 e , (Binary Number ) F K b Q
OdG jJ Oa ,Sd FdG dG Y eqCG .f dG (1s) SdG
.PAM qY dEG (Binary Code) FdG
PAM Y
Audio 1
CODER
dG
dG e jJ
Audio 2
PCM GT
. (PCM) dG Oc J Oe 2 -20 dG
- 618 -
eJ
q a hCG a j odG b e JdG HdG e NGdG qFdG bQCG
Original) UCG FGdG T FdG dG HH HoV dG JdG dG
q
. (Pseudorandom Binary Pulse Train
e FGY Th ke Je f J T a Se c j
dG a SQEG d j dHh .Sj dG IQTEG j e Y
VY a e dSQ c J .gqJ dGh H qUdG FGdG T JGOc
Spread-Spectrum) QfG - W IQTEG dH qe ,d dG dG dG
dSdG e SQE dPh ,J qe H cCG f VY
q J (Signal
.a
L (CDMA) W fCG a FGdG T dG J Jo
S G J C d G N O j G g h . (Mutual Interference ) d O d G N G d G
dG qge (CDMA) e bqj GPEG .
k e d dh d e Z
kWN bqdG c M a ,(-1 dS hCG +1 Le FK eqEG) odG JdG
(+1s) LdG OMBG `dG a) kSe d k GQhe
k J dP Oj
. ( U d G h (-1s ) d d G O M B G e
JG fCG a CDMA QfG W J jo ,i NoCG L e
ddG aGdG bdG jJ fCG ah ,jQdG JGdG JGh dG
.ceCG adG b gjjo dG JGdG Y IJdG
:ddG SdH j QfG W e j Ggh
.JG T a OqodG dG dEG IkTe FSdG LJ qfeEG
,GFdGh ,dG be J hCG jd e dY-f SG V
.(Navigational Aid) qMdG IYdG eCJ dEG aVEH ,cdGh
Deliberate) dG jdH hCG dG dH SQEG NGJ Y
. (Jamming
.SQEd idG dY jM eCJ
- 619 -
JdG fCG
JG a keGSG adG cCG J jdG JdG ILCG GJ
m TCH aqJ gh ,dG JdG
, (Desk Type ) d G J d G e I c
P fh ,(Cordless) S dGh ,(Wall-Mounted) F dG Y q o dGh
e dG JdG RL qj .(Toll-Calling Model) YadG ddG
Y d G J . (Transceiver ) S Q E G S G R L h (Handset ) Y d G : j C G L
Y qS{ dGh (ahdG) S odG Y IQqdG dG ILCG a
I M h d E G e H d U e h C G W H e e H (Headphone ) z J d G
Tone) ke kSLh ,da ee IQGO T J dG SG SQEG
U d G J d G b Q C G d (Touch-Tone Keypad ) e - d I O a Q h , (Ringer
q N kM e hCG (Switch Cradle) YdG
(Hook ka
k eM kMeh ,ddH
S d G f f Q h , d G J d h .Y d G a Q Y J d G d Switch)
FGdG hCG dhCG JdG ILCG a (Rotary Dials) QGhqdG jhdGh ,(Bell Ringers)
.BG H Jo J d
W fG Y IQ Y g , dG dG V eh ,G UCG EG
Y IQY gh ,GUCG J .dG AGdG jd de Jh
QJhCG) ffdG QJhCG hCG dG e ,Yqe qfe bW QOe , dW Le
(Acoustic J U b W j d G J d G L d G J .(I d G Q J hC G h d G
q
q
qJdG LdG g j dG RGgd ahdG W ad ac Energy)
JdG Ib f VY jo ,iNCG L e . F H c J U GOO J dEG
ie Y dPh VGhh e N jd jc kjY ,4 kHz `d hdG
e g Z h (Tone Dialing) d G j h J a c ,3500 Hz h 200Hz H h G j
. (Telephone Control Signals ) J d H d G G Q T E G
(Off-Hook) dG hCG YdG eM e YqdG qodG j eY
H J (Loop) M J S d G SC G e hR N e J G Y J
TdG QdG ijh .JdG d qdG cdG dH JdG e
- 620 -
- 621 -
- 622 -
- 624 -
dG
jJ e
JdG
dG
(jHdG)
1 dG
be
2 dG
be
3 dG
MTSO
dG JdG IMh
dG JdG f 3 -20 dG
- 625 -
FGdG
d dG AdG
FdG QdG e VY TT
bdG JdG IOaQ
XdG JdGh
ahdG
- 626 -
SdG JGdG
(Separate Handset) e jhj YS (Cordless Telephones)
SdG JGd
I`b jq`jOGQ HGH (Base Module) PdG I`Yb dGE JdG GQT
E G H J
dG a dG dG a gX g c ,Range Radio Link) (Short- i`dG
IOaQ e (Radio Transceiver) jOGQ SQGEh SG RL g IOY YqdGh .5-20
200 dGM Y ie jh ,jqQdH iqJ hCG Jo gh ,(Dialing) jhd Je
iqJ ,(Transceivers) SQGEh SG RL kjCG a PdG IYb eCG .60 m CG ft
.220 hCG 120 VAC N e AC-to-DC e QJ dGE he QJ e e bdH
KdG JGdG e GE .PSTN dGE S SGH (Module) PdG Gg qUj VAC
Lj .900 MHz OOH KJ JGg kjCG aJ .49 MHz GOOJ Y J SdG
m GOOJ Y J S bQ JGg kjCG
.2.4 GHz h 900 MHz H bf hGj
q
q
q
- 627 -
he e
N
jdG
RF e
JdG N
Ye
(Duplexer)
q f Q T c
JdG
RF Se
Uh
jjOGQ
(CG)
RF e
Ye
(Duplexer)
RF Se
Je Md
jhdG
he e
ee
dG
()
JdG T
m H H e JdG ILCG HJo
O J d (Computer Networks )
ON Se gCG e .f SDdG a edG UTCG H edG
e G H e d G M Y Q O b J c R L g h , (Network Server ) d G
g AYEG ddHh ,dG IdG dG YGbh dG dG
(Hard-Drive U Ub - bGS IcGP aqJ qj eh .d kah edG
GJc L Hb g iNCG Ie g .jqOdG GJdG a Memory)
qEG .H QdGh (Plotters) dBG eSGdGh HdG GS IMGdG dG
Th ,(LAN) dG dG : g k Y T J c T K cCG
d E G H d G O j h ,(WAN) S G d G d G T h ,(MAN) d H h d G
.qdG Fdh dG Jh d HdG dG
qdG dG
f d G J G T g , (Local Area Network LANs ) d G d G E G
,(Computer Servers) J d G e O N h , H d G h , G J d G H H J d G
- 628 -
m HW a adGh
,fdG e Ye Y YRe hCG ,dG HGW e mMGh
CG LANs qdG d j .cdG qeh edG M a dG g c
EG .50 Mb/s h 100 kb/s H g dYh Se fH YS qe Y SJo
je EG .Iaqe JH ,150 Mb/s dEG 50 Mb/s CG ,YS cCG dG dG
jdG dCG fH Qf dG dG hCG je e aGJ qqdG dG
- RqdG hOdG dGh (Fiber-Distributed Data Interface Fiber- FDDI)
d G d G I e J h (Distributed-Queue Dual Bus DQSB ) Q H d H
J GQGO Y J a ,H UdG jdG G d eG S H
Qe J CG j ,(Public Utility Carrier Circuits) dG G SG
UN H qUd (Bridges) QL hCG ,(Routers) Leh ,(Gateways)
qj e ,g d SSCG (Topologies) LdW K g .PSTN `Hh iNCG
dGE IQT
E G QJ .(Ring) jFGdG dGh ,(Bus) dGh ,(Star) dG ,6 - 20 dG
LdG IQT
E kah eqGE J dG J g IadG SdG dG dG qCG
.(Radio Frequency Bands) jOGdG OOqdG bd hCG (Infrared) AGdG J
()
(CG)
hCG JdG
dG
d G L d W :6 - 20 d G
, d G - , d G - C G LAN: d G
.jFGdG dG-
()
dHhdG T
Jo CG (Metropolitan Area Network - MAN) dHhe d j
je IqY g .cCH je d fdG e OY H J aGL Me
e c hCG QdG e c e LhOe e Ho gGMEa ,dHhdG d
b .FDDI Uh gdh ,cCG hCG 44.736 MB/s qH j jdG dCG
- 629 -
SGdG - dG T
H J J G T) (Wide Area Network - WAN) SG d G d G T E G
,dHhdG T e H cCG AGMG T g (e qaGL We H
T J .dG NGO LANs qe T IqY H HJ hCG e IqY Jh
cd dG e dG Gg jo X.25 eRdG qe Y SGdG dG
ceCG a IdG feh JH dG JT HQ ddGh qdG
eDe ,dGh qdG dG GP qUHh ,dG g j . e
jdG - eRQ GP edG fdG T aJ Y hQOdG qdG JG
. (Packet Switched Public Data Network PSPDNs )
JdG JG
j Q J Y UG Q b C G g (Satellite Communications) J G J G S E G
a VQCG GQhO Yd jhe GQhO YH VQCG M GQGe a QhJ
qe g c ,AGSG N e IOe Wd dH (Geostationary) kaGL cS
C-) hCG C GOOqdG f fdG JG JGS H j .7-20 dG a
q d G e ) 6 GHz : (Band
.( VQ C G d E G J d G e ) 4 GHz h (J d G d E G VQ C G
m eN eCJ JGdG H eEH
d E G Ku (Ku band): 13 GHz f GOO H
hC G j H J G d G J . VQ C G d E G SC G J H 11 GHz h J d G f YC G
q e dEG VQCG jOGQ Seo e SodG jjOGdG GQTEG H IOYEG
SG
.QGdG a HdG JdG JQG e dPh ,VQCG Y me CG a cCG hCG IMGh
qe CG eDJ dG dG Y odG qc IH SGh J JGdG g eDJ
FG H e k jCG gh ,(Terrestrial Radio Relay Station) VQCG jqjOGQ M J
QdG J ch jqhdG HGhd (Long-Hand Alternatives) IdG adG
. (Undersea Cables )
- 630 -
ddG dG
JdG
AGSG N
dG dEG dG e cM
VQCG
HdG QGdG
VQCd dH
J dG QG e 7 -20 dG
VQCG d dH kaGL cdG
- 631 -
cdG
SQEG FGg
jJ T
edG -
SG FGg
LdG FGdG
qeh IQTEG de
dG IYb
dG MdG
- 632 -
dSQEG K
q eh GQTEG S e FGg JGdG e YdG d qEG
m GOOH VQCG dEG
.e
p
GOOH dEG GQTEG
o SJo VQCG H jQdG JGdG e JJh
GQTEG qJh 6.4 MHz h 5.9 MHz H hGJ dG (Uplink) OdG Uh
h 3.6 GHz H J d G (Downlink) d G Uh GOO H VQ C G d E G
q dG
(Direct TV Broadcast- ITdG RdG H JGS J ,iNCG Mf e .4.2 GHz
,11 GHz O O H g U h h 14 GHz G O O J Y O U U h Satellites)
8 GHz OOqH OU Uh Y jqdG ceCG JG JGS J a
.7 GHz O O H g U h h
ed oU b a ,JGdG JG jJ e J J
dH dG Y IJe J dG (Single Carrier Signals) IOodG GQTEG
H ,NdG IOqe fCH d NBG dG U a .OOqdG hCG edG
.eGe H e qVQCG e IqY e GQTEG IMGh jJ e sJo
q e 24 ` H ,(Intelsat V) J d G , C G d G S Y d P e
,J g 12000 h j J
.(Color TV Circuits) qe RJ JQGOh
q e d OOqdG f qCG f FDMA a
AL c qjoh ,AGLCG dEG q e jJ
q e d j e ,e qVQCG d
dG V UGdG SQEH
J ,bGdG a .iNCG GQTEG e WdG hO ,d dG OOqdG
q dG
IOqdG GQTEG J IOYEH J qfCG EG ,GQTEG L VQCG
q e f VY qVQCG
q d G L a .TDMA a e C G . a d
- 633 -
SQfEG
e e G d G J d H Q C G (Inmarsat ) S Q f E G J G S Y e e D J
S Y dG jd dhCG Hh ,qdG JG eN VQCG
dEGh e JdG fHh qJdG FSdG M
q nJo .dG a idG cGdG
CG H JG qY qJ .(Two-Ways) gJG P JH IdG dG
jqOdG jdG H JdG bQ jhJh ,dG JdG odG Oq j
1.6 `H SQ f E G Y e GOOJ O J h . d h d G J G d G J G a I d G
q
N Q G e Y J G d G e Y d G g J . (L Band ) (L d G a GHz
- 634 -
jjjEG
gh ,
k J S 66 e e F a J U SGJ f g (Iridium) j j j E G E G
.(710 km hCG 440 mi dGM) JQG dG GQGd qdY JGS T cCG
k JS Y MEG g
qS a (Symmetrical) Xe H Je dG g e
q N i e Y 90 j hGH J ) b GQ G e e M
g aJ .(AGSG
JS c j .qVQCG IdG S dLE qbQ qJU Jee J dG
Y j h ,726 kg C G 1600 lb O j e j R G d G K d G Q h d G J G S e
JS dEG J S e (Cross Links) ce WJ Uhh ,de q e
gUe dEG dUh NCJ d ,FSdG Od (Satellite- To-Satellite)
UdGh (Downlink) dG Uhh ,(Uplink) OdG Uh GOOJ OqJo .qFdG
.1.6 GHz Y qa (Subscribers) cdG GOOJ eqCG ,20 GHzz`H cdG
qdG jjjEG JGg M j
F Sd G SGh SQ E G a TDMA f J gh .j d G J G d G I L C G M
Pagers dBG AGf ILCc JGdG g H j .bdG f dGh J dG
FSdG L iNCG JGdG M
q Jo H ,a qbdG fdG FSQ S
hOdG - dG JGg a JGdG e ddG dG eCG .jjjEG JS Y
H ( g a J M a ) N J g U h Q N G g Q h H d G ,(Dual-Mode)
.ddG JGdG HGhd jc dBG
(Iridiums Personal Communicators)
gh ,
k JS 77 qd kSSCG U fC (Iridium) jjjEG `H dG Gg qoS d
Q q J iOCG .(Iridium Nucleus) jjjEG IG f M I FG dG fh dEG O Y
.edG JGdG OY J dEG dG jeh LddG
- 635 -
QS HZ
J d G SG d G J G S f C G e N BG f g (Globalstar) Q S H d G E G
QJ d dPh ,hjjG e WH cCG Y H .jjjEG d adG
aGeoh GOGeEG Y JGdG g J ,dHh .H e JGdG HGhQ
.FSdG jd (Facilities Existing Ground-Based) IOLdG VQCG IYdG
dG /RGdG KdG QdG GhP e
k J S 48 `d J E G Q S H d G e D J
Fe jqFGO cGe fK a JGdG g J .(qWMG JGS 8 dEG aVEH)
q d d H 52 L Q H
Y (1420 km C G ) 880 mi h j J Q G Y A G S G
f (222 kg C G ) 490 lb f R h j d G Q S H Z J G S e c j . V Q C G
.AMDC
Md qJ qfHh JU JG J QS HZ JGS Ye eDJ
q N 70 d G M d E G J
JGdG qj e ,kHLh
k T (Latitude) V d G
g e EG .JGdG d
k NO eqDJ CG jdG JGdG H dG ddG
JJ .VQCG dG T NO Y IQOdG ,hOdG dG e JGdG
q e 125 d G M
- d G J g H Q S H Z J G S e 16 `H VQ C G
.ddG M KdG VQCG
- 636 -
h d G h M G d G dG
qcSG fhdEG dG
jdG
eT If
(Videocassette Recorders VCRs ) j d G S d G
q e
(Camcorders ) j d G G e c
(Audio Compact Disks) qdG edG UGbCG
(Audio CD Players) dG edG UGbCG qe
(Digital Video Disks DVDs ) b d G j d G U G b C G
(DVD Players) bdG jdG Ub qe
(DVD RAM Drives) FGY NO IcGP GP qbdG jdG UGbCG bGqS
(Home Theater ) d d G d G
(Direct Satellite TV Receivers ) T d G J d G j W Y R d G e
(Facsimile (Fax) Machines ) ( d G) c d G I L C G
(Magnetic-Tape Recorders ) d G S d G
q e
(Microwave Ovens) jqhdG GaCG
(Pagers ) d B G A G d G I L C G
(Digital Cameras) qbdG GedG
(Automotive Electronics) crndG fhdEG
(Automated Teller Machine ATMs) dBG GqdG BG
(Bar-Code Readers ) d G O d G S e
- 637 -
eT If
dG dEG (Consumer Electronic) dG fhdEG e Oj
jOdG WGdG b e FQ
m H iJo dG fh dEG Gq dGh
GqdG UCG dG e g eh .ddG hCG dG GSd
GJdG J .kjCG qcSG e Jo (Office Equipments) qdG
fqdG HdG J dG RdG e a ,dG g H k GRhH cCG
,(Scanners) SdGh ,(Copying Machines) SG BGh ,(Color Printers)
. (Facsimile or Fax ) c d G I L C G h
dH j cSG fhdEG dG d QX hCG c
Battery-Powered Vacuum Tube) jQdHh ZdG epdH J dG jjOGdG
e (Record Players) fG SCG q eo X q K eh ,(Radio Receivers
b o dG IQGhq dG UG bCGh ,(Electronic Amplifiers) fhdEG qdG
dG HdG qeo e qM dG (Motor-Driven Turntables) qH
. (Spring-Wound Mechanical Players ) f d G
UCG dEG VCG dG fhdEG dG e jW F dEG aVEH
:j e J iNCG e dg ,HdG dG f N qcSG dG
,(Hi-Fi Stereo Systems) HiFi jdG fCGh ,(TV Receivers) RdG e
,(Camcorders) j dG G e ch ,(VCRs) j dG S dG
q eh
dG e dG U o dG q eh ,(Tape Recorders) S dG
q eh
q
UodG qeh ,(Microwave Ovens) jhdG GaCGh ,(Audio CD Players)
,ddG jqQdH j dG jOG dG - S dGh , jOG dG e dG
(Cellular) dG J dG I LCGh ,(Digital Cameras) qbdG Ge dGh
. (Phone Answering Machines ) d B G J d G d G h , (Cordless ) S d G h
fCGh ,HdG cCG hqCG Tch ,NdG Tc FdG g dEG fh
G j O G Q h , (Closed-Circuit TV ) I Q G d G e R d G I L C G J h d d G j d G
Y
k a , (Pagers ) d B G A G d G I L C G h , (Weather-Alarm Radios ) d G Q G f E G
- 638 -
- 639 -
- 640 -
jdG SdG
q e
H (Video Cassette Recorders VCRs ) j d G S d G
q e J
Sc a ja jT Y (Audio Signals) qdGh jqjdG GQTEG Jh
RdG eGH
q Jo CG VCR J .(dG dBG jT e M) (Cassette)
gh .keo
q odG jqQdG aCd jdG Sc Jh ,kM Jgd
,(8 mm System) e fdG fh ,(Beta) qHh ,VHS :g VCR `d TCG K
.H e keGSG cCG Jo VCR qCG EG
- 641 -
SCGdG IQGOEG
jdG GQhO
VHS HGJ dBG
YdG IH
jT eM hCG H
dG
dEG dG IH
YCG
d E G j f VY GP VCRs d G I O YE Gh J F G T J
jdG jT jo M .(Helical Scanning) ddG dH Jo SH MHz
J J .1- 21 dG a qe g c ,VCR qdBH H UdG SdG e
Y (Guide Rollers) L dG G Hh (Capstans) j M dG e M dG
M 180 L Q H d d H S d G
q oa ,SCGdG H qJh SdG
. d H 2- 21 d G a j c , (Read/ Write Heads ) H d G / I A G d G S h D h Q
jd mce mJH dG ShDhQ Y J dG dG J K eh
bCG Hh bCG YS P jH j e ,jdG J YS e bCG YH
3.58
jdG ShDhQ
SCGdG IQGOEG
dG ie
jT
jdG LJ
j d G j T S d ( d G / G S G ) H d G / I A G d G S C G Q :2-21 d G
- 642 -
- 643 -
SP
jdG Gec
j dG G e c H LhG e d M g (Camcorders) j dG G e c EG
(CCD) d H d G R L GP j d G G e c F Xh H J ,
q dGh
qe g c ,GedG d SSCG AGLCG qJ .VCR jdG Sc
q eh
,(Lens) SdGh ,GdCG IOqdG FdG QqdG TT :j e 3-21 dG a
j J b h , N G O a h e h , (CCD Detector ) d H d G R L T c h
jdG b CG dEG dG jh .jdG jT
q e h , (Conversion Section )
IQTEG QJh .FHc T dEG jqjdGh qdG GQTEG qj dG g
. (Pixels ) I Q U Y 250,000 O j e j (CCD) T c C G d E G
m TCH jdG Gec aqJ
(VHS) ddG jdG f :e Ic mMCGh
C G h d G h . (DVC ) b d G j d G S c h ,Hi8 mm h ,VHS-C h , e d G
c C G ,(VHS-C) S c E a (VCRs VHS) e A G J d G I d G VHS G e c
m H dh
J qjh .He
q dG (VHS) Sc e UCG g ,k GQfG
U h M ) (Adapter ) A j e O L h j Q d G (VHS VCR) a (VHS-C) j T
bO 30 Iqd
k J (VHS-C) eqDJ .(UdG a NG Y qd H
dG SdG
ae
jdG Ve
FdG QqdG VY TT
AdG
dG SdG
LCD FS QqH TH ja Gec 3-21 dG
- 644 -
- 645 -
a IAGdG IcGP
dd ien
dG
IM
o
dG
IM
o
aT IcQ
jdG W
dG SdG
dG eM
d H d P h S H U b d E G F G O f Y (Pit Pattern )
o dG f jo
d d G ) Vinyl f G S C G J V Y d G g c , (Stamping ) d G h C G
e
q odG odG qJo .(Vinyl Long-Playing) jdG dG (jQc a
(Low-Power Laser) IqdG-e Qd zStylus{ CG (zb{) eM LH CD
dG hCG dG jd dG AdG gQhH qJ dG ,cqodG
o dG Y
j .CD `dG (Playback) J IOYEGh J Oe 4-21 dG jo .UCG
- 646 -
jqe M
o T Y jJh kbQ fdG J qc CD `dG e dG AdG
.Ud cdG dG Y e
fGSCG J e Y Hh CD edG UGbCG qM
ddG bqd kah q dG SdG J JHh ,jdG Sch jdG dG
bqO eCH edG UGbCG qJh .J dG dGh dG IOYE
kjCG cfh .IRdG qaGMG dH kfQe dG J a bGhh
Q X h C G (Selection ) d G H (Tick ) U a I Q T E G h C G J C G O L h Y
.SdG bJ Y e CG
Vinyl
- 647 -
IGRGdG J
OjGdG
QdG
edG e
IBGe
LdG Md
qYHdG
SdG
MdG
IRdG
dG fGSG SY
TdG
- 648 -
- 649 -
- 650 -
- 651 -
ddG dG
c c I e U N e a a Z Y I Q Y (Home Theater ) d d G d G E G
S d e h (Multimedia Entertainment Center ) F S d G I O e d
IkOY j .Y J P RJ Igeh f HF dY SS GP GUCG dEG
:ddG GqdG Y ddG dG
. (Projection TV Receiver ) R d G e V Y R L h C G I c T T
.High-Fidelity (HF) Stereo Receiver) ) d Y I h f P j S e
.(Audio CD Player) dG edG UodG qeo
.(DVD Player) bdG jdG Ub qeo
.VCR j d G U b
q e
eeCG U qe
QdG L Y
RdG RL
jdG e
edG UodG e
SdG jhM
b d G j d G U b e DVD
Sc jdG
q e
odG /gdG
qe IYb
dG
QNG
dG Gqe
dG dG
d d G d G J J :7-21 d G
- 652 -
- 653 -
J d G e T d G R d G e :8-21 d G
a V d G g c h (8-21 d G ) c S G H f j d G J d G d
e Y jh ,QdG RdG popH dG qUj ,RdG ch
dG Gg qj .JdG qH IQTEG IT j CG (Subscribers Receivers) pnodG
kLGe ,JdG f gJG cqj H QdG a FGdG cqjoh .Ib 175
Y RdG e H j .VQCG e ddG dG a d
. (Built-in Satellite Receivers ) J d V e
VCR
- 654 -
dG SdG
q e
R L Y I Q Y g (Magnetic-Tape Recorder ) d G S d G
q e qEG
Y I O L d G (Audio-Frequency Signals ) d G O O d G G Q T E G J h J
qY J .RdG Gd qSSCG AGLCG 9-21 dG qj .dG SdG
qY J a ,SdG jT Y e f dEG IQTEG jH dG
O O J G Q T E G d E G d G d G g j J I O Y E H , (Play Back ) d G I O Y E G
adG IH
jdG
dG IH
jMdG GqS
SdG SCGdG
dG IOYEG SCGQ
dG SCGQ
dG fGSG
- 655 -
q eh U qe e IkOY
q e qJh .
q dG g qJ .qS
h C G j Q d H J q f C H ( P o r t a b l e T a p e R e c o r d e r s ) d d G d G S d G
C G d E G g I Q T E G Q J . (AC- Line Transformer ) h d G Q d G N H
.dG SdG
q e Y J fdG dG ILCG
jqhdG GaCG
qe IGOCG g (Microwave Ovens) (jhjdG hCG) hdG dG EG
W RdG Gg Sjo .jqhdG LdG bW GSH YH dG d
Y FGdG qdG WCGh (Homogeneous Foods) fdG jZCG e
OGdG Hh WCG qJ .(dG Gd ke k GAL 10-21 dG j) .AGdG
qdG qj M a J JjL a jqhdG bdG ddG HWdG GP
dEG ODj dG eCG ,H FdG MG jOGdG OOdG d jdG
FGdG N
jqOOdG bdG
jqjOGdG
he
LdG ddG
e f
qda qe
dY
/J e Md
bdG Vh bJ
IM) dG
(fdG
. h e d e S Q 10-21 d G
- 656 -
d G H j O G Q e g (Pager ) d B G A G d G R L E G
q
bQ qCG keo qdG dBG AGdG eN e e GQTEG j (Radio Receiver
. d B G A G f R L :11-21 d G
- 657 -
qbdG GedG
- 658 -
cdG fhdEG
j O d G f c h .GQ d G j OGQ I L C G d hC G S 60 e c C G e X
.(Vacuum-Tube Circuitry) Ze epU e GQGO Ye Y J dhCG
qdG UUdG jqQH Jo dG ddG e cCG qda qj J ch
e b e eDJ g ddG ddG fc .(6V gh) IQqdG NGO IOLdG
(DC) d G Q d G j H j (Chopper ) H T H j f e h c
q
.GQ G d G d E G GQ Sf G d G VC G 1960 Y a h .I T e e Q J d E G
,INCG dG GdG N fhdEG GQdG f qe fG d
qdG J FXh LJ qj .Y J jdG GQqdG UCG H
SGH MGdGh edG hDH qdG Q eCG dEG a VE H c M Vh
IqH e jqhe de gh ,(Microcontrollers) jhdG dG
N dG / dG a eh ,I cG dG e ,(Peripherals) qFQ Jc a W
fdG a IkOY jhdG dG g eJo .f bbdG a IOLdG
j IQdG de CG dEG IQTEG QJh .kJeJhCG dG JdG d
FXh HGV e kUN ,AGLCG g fhdEG eH Y WqG dEG
ddG FXdH kqdM fhdEG GQGdG Ye J .d qFe Z AGLCG g
:IQdG NGO
.qdG IQb d (Throttle Control) ObdG SGhO V
(JeJhCG) dBG fG Y (Gear-Change) SdG- qJ qSM V
.Yd
- 659 -
q T bG e R L ,(Airbag) FG dG IO S dG
.(Curtain Control) FdH qdGh ,(Tensioner
- 660 -
- 661 -
dG qV dG fCG
c f g (Antilock Braking System ABS ) d G V d G f E G
FdG Ga qfeEG q Jo dG fhdEG H qJ IQqd dhQg
bdG a HdG GSG Y (Skidding) fd kf IQdH qdG
:ddG GqdH ABS qj .ddG
.dG N IAH IOdG Y FdG Yjo
.IQqdG JG QGSG Y ajo
- 662 -
dG L
q J K eh ,(Hydraulic Unit) dhQdG IMdG dEG qe GQTEG
adG LJ qjh dG Qqoa ,dG /SGhO dEG dG qdhQdG
bqJ dM a IQqdG Jh dG IQH dG Y IQdG dG J M
Electric Motor)fhdEG dG e NCj fCG H ah .H qe
q
e kjCG gh .HdG d dhQdG dG e (Modulation
(Interconnecting Wires ) H G d G S C G j J d E G J G Q d G e d
.jH dCG H
dH qdG fCG
(Sensors) e e (Traction-Control System) dH qdG f qj
J .fH CGS IQdG CGh ac Z dG L dM J e S
dEG ObdG jL dBG hdG dG j AdG a ,IQqdG Y IdG qY
HdG Y dG dG aGj ,YSh IQqdG cM jo qe ,qdG
a jqQNG g qUdG gh .JQqS RGJ Y adG a FdG IYd
.ge gaj hCG eqjo dG GQqdG e
dBG GqdG BG
ae jf g (Automatic Teller Machines - ATMs) dBG GqdG dBG qEG
dG S Y IQdG FHd Jo (Convenient-Banking Terminal) Fe qaW
dBG gh .qUN qae bH eGSG qjh .dG hCG QdG e kYS CG a
.dG JdG f Y ce JH Ue W Y IQY dG a g
b qceCG IdG jdG a BG e dG Gd QX hqCG c
cGeh ,QdG L a Y kaQeh kHe k GAL UCa BG eqCG ,keY
a H dBG GqdG BG OY qCG dEG GAMEG Joh .GQdGh ,qdG
11 e c C H d G SG H J h , c e C G j d G a d BG 165,000 d G M 1998 Y
q
q
.YdG a qY e 1.2 Ojo e CG qjJ qY Qe
30
- 663 -
CRT TT
OdG S a
SG HW
Jc
bdG Qb
JdG Md
bf GM
OdG Re
adG hU
FV e
dG jOU
- 664 -
(OcQdG) dG OdG Se
AGOdGh AdG dG e eo Ye g (Bar Code) OcQdG EG
cSG dH qdG edG d cdG dG jRGdG
Y hCG dG Z Y kYe qeEG OcQdG j .dG e a VhdG
qY jJ dEG OcQdG qqgCG OJ .dG Z Y Jo (Labels) U bQo
.qdG NGO dGh FdG Y eRdG fdG H OdG qY Jh dG
e e gZh cQeHdG e a OcQdG GSG j e cCGh
OcQdG CGjo zY H{ .(Consumer Goods Outlets) IdG qcSG FdG
e SdG AdG LJo dG SdG hCG FQdG e f CG GSH
Jc dEG SJo qbQ GT hCG qbQ GOc dEG OcQdG a AdG adG
.
q dG
dG Oc g qceCG IdG jdG a keGSG GOdG cCG qEG
12- Digit) kjeQ kbQ 12 e dqCj gh .(Universal Product Code UPC) ddG
dG bQCG qJh ,dG Gd dG dG Y a hqCG bdG qj :(Code
- 665 -
OdG
q U e qd (Check Digit) dG eQ a NCG bdG eqCG ;(Item
e d G Y i N C G e e d E G UPC j b (Scanned Code ) . d G
. (Taxes ) F G d G h , (Inventory Count ) I a d G d G O Y h , d G
dG dG FdG SdG eh FdG SdG e GfCG IY g
OjdG e qj dG ,(Wand) FQdG dG hCG (Handheld Pen Scanner) dH
ee e qj gh ,dG SCGQ Y Ad Qc (LED) Ad YdG
H U N F V T c L j M (Coded Label ) U d G O d G b Q Y j J
UdG OdG bQ Y SCGdG jJ j , dG Yh .(Photo Detector)
eEG dG qj eY UN bd e qdG gh ,JAGd cCH
.OY J Zh fGSCG T GP dG fc GPEG S ,dH dG
Stationary Laser) HdG jqQdG FdG S dG G NG
q J , Yh
q d (Bar-Code Readers ) O c Q d G F Q b h C G (Scanners
Hb a ,dG g
SCG dG FdG SdG Y dG Qqjo .Y mGbCG IqY j OcQH IAGd
.Te H SdG CGa SCG dEG OdG j H dG ce
q
- 666 -
q N
dG
dG QdG eM
Te
L
q dG QdG eM
HdG IBGdG
dG
IQGhqdG jGdG
IBGdG
HdG
QdG OjdG
qdG
HdG IBGdG
H d G Q d G d G O d G S e 13-21 d G
- 667 -
- 668 -
h d Gh f d G dG
eT If
Y
q o jp e g ,(Industrial
Electronics)
669
bdG e
V
e
e
IQT
E G
KdG
YS
Mh je
KJ e
bQ dGE
qVh
bQ e
KJ dGE
YS
bQ e
KJ dGE
qVh
bQ e
KJ dGE
GYh IS e
fdG
dG dG
dG dG
Jc
DA Q f d G P G S G f : 1 - 2 2 d G
qVGaG GhOCG
qdG eEH UCG (DAQ Softwares) fdG PGSG qeH aqJ e
VGaG IdG Md Y VJ gh bGeh qYdG dG bGeh
IS Je bdG oVprjn M ,JdG a (Virtual Control Panel Displays)
H H dG T c e ,GhOCGh I LCG d G dC H e GOG Yh
q e Jo qfCG c .IOdG jdGh (Oscilloscopes)
qVh qJ cqe
.gZh (Warning Alarms Systems) QGfEGh dG GhOCG J dG dG
aJ jh ,IQdG Sdh ,Qdh ,qdd
k NO qKdG GQTEG aJ
dG GQTEGh ,(Data Logging) NOEG fHh ,HdG dGh NdG J
QOdh ,(Waveform Generation) LdG T ddh ,IdG dh cd
.IqdG qddG
d HdG fdG PGSG GdCG e eqEG ,IMGh H edG HJ
External DAQ) LQdG fdG PGSG Y e hCG ,(Plug-in DAQ Boards)
q
jd dG FdG OdG Y J qedG g qCG f h .(Boxes
e cfh .bdGh ,bdGh ,KdG dG /NdG d hCG dG J
Gain per) Ib d dH qdG :edG g Y dhD dG dG
dG NCG J Hh ,(Sampling Rate) dG NCG q o Hh ,(Channel
qdG dEG aVEH ,(Digital Levels) qbdG jdHh ,(Sampling Order)
e edG /fdG f qY Y J qfCG c .bqDdGh OGqdG FXH
hCG ,(Interrupts) WdG qK eh ,(Polling) QNH dPh dG hCG dG dEGh
qd qU b (DAQ) eH H qCG M a .IkTe IcGdG NH
AGOC UdG GSG GP edG SqJo a ,a e H RdG
qdGh gUQ j dG dH IN hP ee b e IOqe eh QGhOCG
.H
673
qbdG GOGdG Md
dG a J c ,(Digital Panel Meters DPM) qbdG GOGdG Md EG
jJ qK eh qKdG GdG Sb Y QOb fhdEG ee f g ,2-22
.RdG VY TT Y qJo bO qbQ IAGb dEG
VY TT
QdG FdG
(LCD)
UGdG ee
675
31/2)
bQCG
31/2
`dG (DPM) EG ,
k e .TdG Y IgdG bQCG OY Y fSG
. d G a 0.05 hC G 2000 e k G M Gh k GA L
q J CG j (Digit DPM
dG dH qdG f
q dG qj
dG dH qdG d qCG 3-22 dG a VdG
j d H q dG d cCG hCG a IOQ (Closed-Loop Control System)
eGhC dG HSG QGSH QJ dG (Feedback Control Loops) YLSG
j .HSG e gZh ,pdG Vhh ,HZdG YdG OqJ dGh NdG
qodG e ,YLSG jdG M a (Sensing Device) QSG R L
J RL) (Thermostat) SedGh ,(Tachometer) GQhdG OGqYh ,(Encoder)
(Input Command) NdG eCG H Qa hCG mNG CG QSH ,(IQGdG LQO
qdG dEG S Jo ,(Error Signal) CN IQTEG dqj qK eh ,dG H SGh
pdGh NdG
q dGh
q e e IQOdG IQTEG qJ mFH .(Amplifier)
dG AGOCG qEG .CdG IQTEG qdG g Y JdG dG jo H (Load)
(Position) be hCG ,YdG e ,H qdG (Activity) dG e ITe Sj
jdH qdG H dG G g j . dG IQG M LQO hCG , p dG
dG fCG J ,iNCG Mf e .(Feedback Control System) YLSG
kYT IdG Ge cCG qEG .Y dG hCG H qdG qd kah dG
,qVdGh , YdG g (Electromechanical Systems) fehdG dG a
.GqdG g e e J hCG ,GQhdG rYnh
a ZdG XdG
dG
q dGh
qdG
pdG
dG
QSG RL
H Y
. dG dH qdG f 3-22 dG
676
YdH qdG f
dG dG a YdH qdG f Y
QSG J dG YLSG jdG M a e Y j CG (System
YdG Y aGfG e Se CN IQTEG QGUEG qK eh YdG a GqdG
j ,4-22 dG a VdG qdG a gdG ,GQhdG OGqY EG .HZdG
,CdG IQTEG OJ K .qdG YS e kSe kFHc kLN oa QhdG GH
qdG YS jd
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Closed-Loop Velocity Control)
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dG
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qdG
pdG
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678
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qeh e
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,(Amplifier Gain)
q dG ch ,(Load Conditions) pdG hT a GqdG
aVEH ,(Wear on Mechanical Components) qfdG fqdG a AGgGh
YLSG jdG M qC dPh ,dG IQGM LQO a GdG dEG
679
q J
dG a gdG ,MdG dG f e fQdHh .GdG g
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L e .dG NGO IHdG VhCG Qhe e HdG dG qJ ddHh
dG HSG H k GL
k jW CdG J a NCdG c M a ,iNCG
g qodG Z qdG f EG .qe Z dG j CG dEG CdG OGOj ,dG
a Nj e YSh (Error Signal) WN IQTEG AdEG Y QOb Z f Y mLH
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k GQOb j CG a ddG dG hCG dG GP IQRGDdG qdBG f eCG
fCG a bCG qgCG GP qjo HSG eR dh ,YH ANCG J Y
Corrective) J mf
q CG AH a .(Low-Gain Systems) dG dG
Over) jdG a dM q d GAG LEG P JqG L
q j dG a (Action
Inherent) dG a UCJ eR NCJ CG Y jdH dP jh .(Shooting
dEG qdG IQRGDdG qdBG f J j ,QNHh .(System Time Delay
pdG QGSGh (Load Positioning Accuracy) pdG VJ bqO H RGJ J
.(Load Stability)
j c CN Nd dG jJ ,IQRGDdG qdBG f QGSG J j
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IQTEG QJ .Ic HK da AYEH dP jh ,dG HSG SGh bGe
a EG ,Iqe J dM dEG kehO OS qdG IQRGDdG qdBG f qCG dEG
Z dG eCG .(Component Failure) d m e a
m Y
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680
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M ah .LdG JH QdG OdG bGSh qdG J H (Error
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.(Inertia) ddG hCG pdG a (Energy Stored)fdG bdG H
kqc qj eCG qCG EG ,CdG IQTEG Jo jdG a dM J eY
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681
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f qfCG Y (Servosystem Bandwidth) IQRGDdG qdBG f f VY qjo
qj a .(Substantially Stable) kqf Gve
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OJo .8-22 dG dP joh ,F2 hn F1 IQdG f f H OOqdG a QdG
N Iqe 0.707 Oj gY dG j dG GOOdH IQdG f f
jo c ,dG J e dG a 70 H hCG ,(Midband Output) dG dG
q e
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dG
dG dG N
dG VY
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eGdG dG f
kqFHc jQe jOY H (Synchrosystem) eGdG dG f Hj
e keGe jOdG MCG GQhO hCG (Angular Position) hGdG VdG j H
.NBG Od hGdG JG
Y adG RH jo e hCG (Synchro hdG) eGdG dG RL EG
Qqd JGP eGJ GP IU dBG Y IQY g ,(Selsyn dG) JGdG eGdG
dBG g J .(Self-Synchronous Alternating-Current Machine) hdG OOqdG
e Qe OH H fhe (Two Trains of Gears) ShdG e GQb qfCc
SodG e c OHH FHdG SQEG j ,fK Mf e .(Flexible Shaft)
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.eGdG dG d J SQ 9-22 dG
683
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IS Se :g ,JMh e dqCJ eGdG dG fCG GfCG HCG qEG
GQGhqO e
m d ,(Control Receiver) IS eh (Control Transmitter)
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qd AGS xM Y dGh SodG QGhd .9-22 dG a q dG dG
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x d Y T
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QJh .dG cdG qd a q d a
q Jo d Hh ,(Transformer) c
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cdG qda fc ,JXe qVh a dGh SdG GQGhO c
j ddHh .QdG a ceh IQdG a jhe JMdG a JXdG
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Y H JdG ddG J ,IXe Z QGhqdG qVh fc GPEGh
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.f jhGdH k GqJ qjh GQTEG d dG QGhqO jh ,jhGH
684
IdG qe
IdG Sd He qe g (Control Transformers) IdG qe EG
cdG jf Y qc Y Y ,j a ddHh .(Control Transmitter)
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e kFHc Sj dGh ,(Synchro-Control Transmitter) eGdG IdG Se
Three-Wire) SCG KK QGhdG jf Y Qj a dd .e OY jhGR
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qVdG qodG Jn
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KK he QJ N a QGhq d qCG A S H (Control Transmitter) SdG
gh) (Carrier Frequency) OOqdG eM GQTEG e Ye j a .SCG
SCG KK cdG jf Y (SdG IS SG H j dG dG
q
q N dEG
q N (Amplitude Ratios) S f qEG .(Three-Wire Stator Terminals)
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(Pitch) aCG
dG IGOCG Md
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JdH
ce
dG
e
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e j a .dhCG LQdH dG IQbo Y HhdG AGOCG j
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(Mechanical Step Sequencer)fe - LQJ e GP hCG (Nonservoed)
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dG HhQ qd j ,GMCG qHh .JcGd kah (Potentiometers)
Programmable) kee k qe j CG IQRGDdG dBH O hqdG Z dG
q
H M j .e Ub hCG U Ub bGqH k GOhqe k GJc hCG (Controller
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.(Removable Storage Media) d HdG dG FSh hCG U Ub bGqS Y
a YVe hCG odG e k GAL J CG qdG d j dP Y
k a
.(Separate Cabinet) e IM
N e jdG cM joh CGj dG g qdG Ea ,S e Y AkHh ,k GPEG
hCG (Manipulators Control Valves) jdG IS eU e UGdH H S
HdH d kjCG eGSG j c .FHdG LSG q e e
dG (End Effector) FdG dG qVhh ,YdGh ,QdG d HdG
(Control Loops) IS M qVhh cM J ,dP Y
k a .dG ODj
.qdG SGH IQRGDdG qdBG HhdG
bdG jJ HhQ
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689
HhdG J
qdBH IOhqdG Z JHhdG :Yf dEG qJo JHhdG qCG cP qe f
dG) IQRGDdG qdBH IOhqdGh (M dG dG) (Nonservoed) IQRGD dG
q odG bqO Y IQRGDdG qdBH IOhqdG Z JHhdG J .( dG
dH FdG odG Y qVh jd HGhdGh ShdGh (Actuators)
BG Y IQY JHhdG g e qEG .(keo IkOY OqJo qVdG g) dG
IOhqdG JHhdG qEa ,fQdHh .(Limited-Sequence Machines) Oqeo - J
dG M a Fe q e Y J (Servoed Robots) IQRGDdG qdBH
.bhCG ac a FdG odG qVH Y Y jdG Jo
(Tool) IGOCG hCG FdG odG cH Ja JHhd fdG dG eqCG
.qeo Qe hCG ,f dEG f :(Programmed Task) ee qe hCG XH d
c ,IQRGDdG qdBH OhqdG Z HhdG a FdG dG j e IkOYh
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Hydraulic) dhQdG fGSCG SGH GhOCG g QGJo ,iNoCG Mf e
q
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Electric Stepping) FHc QJ GQJe hCG ,(Vane Motors) NGO jJ fYH
q
q
.(Motors
cH d gqDe IQRGDdG qdBH IOhqdG cdG qEa ,dG Yh
a FdG odG qj M .(Continuous-Path Motion) odG QdG
Continuous) I eo e cH IS J c SG H J Hh dG g
q
690
IQdG de
WGE e
Gec
RdG
qeo
bdG GdG
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. Y d G Y d G - J d G j D h Q f 11-22 d G
V dG L
k a
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kjCG (Noncontact Measurement) edG Z SdG a jDhdG fCG J
SdG bqO qCG dEG ofh .d cCG hCG Ho OjE dG LH SdG Oqa
,(Placement of Camera) GedG beh ,IQdG fSG LQO Y J FdG
Objects) dG SfG e eG dG e g Z Yh ,(Lighting) IA VEGh
.(Composition) jJh (Reflectivity
k GQWEG 30 OJo LQO Y dG CCD Gec IQH qCG Y QdG e
GQTEH j qodG Gg qCG EG ,(Complete Frames Per Second) fdG a keqJ
g Ged dG qda qCG kjCG cfh .(External Clock Signals) qLQdG YdG
eh .(Frame Scan) QWEG e qY Y AdG ad dG edG e SJ QGe
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SdG Joh ,d (Wide-Angle View) jhGdG jY k Ge dG QDdG
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Interface) OdG dG dG ODa ,IQTEG dH j dG JdH
Circuit) IQGdG Yh ,(Digitizing) bdGh ,(Timing) bdG Y (Hardware
q
k GJ Sh fRN a kbqDe fdG J) (Buffering) dH hCG ,(Isolation
Y HH J CG VdG Td HdG bqdG IQGd j .(dP H d
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.(Gray-Scale System) OedG - SdG d (ADC) bQ - dEG - kKJ
g qe Y Y IQdG a jqOedG jdG L IQGdG Y qJo
SdG CG hdG eh .(OSCG) (Zero) U e dG J g e ch (HCG)
qJ dG (Achromatic Tone) qfddG dG e S Y IQY g OedG
LQJ 10 dEG q Jo IkOY gh .OSCGh HCG H jqOedG e
k ec kbf
.(Steps)
1
693
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eqDj bQ q e g ,(Programmable Controllers) edG qdG EG
Gg dqCj .qYdG qdG J a SdG QGdG PJ dG dG
hO jJ j dG (Solid-State Logic) dG - ddG e e qdG
M qd jdG e j e ,(Wiring) UdG a J CG G MEG
FTdGh ,cdH qd ddG dG OqdG UdG GP fhdEdh
AGLCG V d qU b qdG g qCG Hh .qdG e gZh
hCG ,J ILCGh ,hGe OLh dEG J a jOdG Z YdG dG
q e d kah eJ qfCG c .qFHc qTe
Simple)sdoG dG M
q dG
qdG H FHdG HGhdG hCG UdG qJh .(Relay Ladder Diagram
.odGh
a Ze g d q d (Logic Sequence) dG dG ej
Auxiliary Programming) Yeo eH RH hCG eeCG JdG MH qdG
q
q
dG a GJ GMEG j c .dG IcGP a joh ,(Device
UdG a J CG hOh ,jL e edG IOYEH dPh ,YH dG
d M a edG dG g GSG IOYEG j dP Y AkHh .qdG
Indicator) IAVEG qc jh .eH J dG GqdG dEG LH onf
q
qY d (Major Diagnostic Points) qFdG qdG VhCG Y (Lights
GAGLEG qCG f h .(Troubleshooting) Jh YCGh ANCG jJ
dG Y bqdG eR e fOCG dG d WH qJ GqdG d fdG
MCG eo a ,ddHh .RdG IAc e bCG qdG Jh (Downtime)
.a (O/I) dG /NdG e c qJ L
q j
NGhCG a c (Programmable Controllers) edG qd QX hqCG qEG
UdG IOYEG qY qJ YGH dPh ,GQqdG YU e a 1960 Y
dG (Machine Control Systems) cdH qdG d (Rewiring) qdG
g NCG .(Model Changeover) PdG jJ Y N bd dGh
694
697
698
h dG h d d G dG
eT If
e JGf e bKhh fe cCG fhdEG fCG dEG qdG GdG J
GFdG a cJ LGdG J Sh ,YdGh jQdG fhdEG
UGdG a dG g OM
o dh .jdG jdG dGh ,JdG
J e AkGHG fEG LhCG ac J dG jQdG jdGh j dG
q f e I A c J h A f E G j c . g Q N G h L f E G M G e M h f d G
ICs `dG Mh (Capacitors) dGh (Resistors) ehdG e SSCG RdG
a 100 ) e c U d U d G f C G I L C G H j E Gh .j H
Ud jdG fhdEG ILCG VJ M a kjQhO KJ jh ,(dG
ah IQdGh ,YdG e a edG Je e fQdH Ib TCG
IAH Jqda AGOCH RdG QGSG feEG Y cCdG jh .fdG SG
jaCG IQGMh fdG dG WdG IQGM H hGj c QGM ie V
,(Vibration) RGgGh ,(Shock) edG dEG RdG jJ dEG aVEH ,dG
Y J jQdGh IQdGh OdG Ia ,jqhf SCG e TCGh ,e PGPdh
.ILCG g jRLh AGOCG
GQGOGQ cf jdG dH q dG fh dEG V e
,jGQdG LJ FShh ,eCG JG fCGh ,idG IH SG
IOdG aGdGh ,adG Gf a qdGh ,ddG dG jDhdG XG fh
fhdEd dG hdG e dG AGLCG e jdG CG c .GFd
FSdGh ,GFdG fhdEGh ,dG ILCGh ,dG - SdG e
cCG fhdEG e GfCG g ,kVQCG Y dG dG fCGh ,MdG
.fdG Je e eGU
fdG ddG dG HEG k GYJ jdG fCG a fhdEG QdG T
g e dG qJ bh ,QfH CGH K IOQdG dG H GH gHh
dG dG e jdG CH kY ,fdG fhdEG YdG dEG adG
.M jY UCG dEG Lj ddG fdG
700
701
jdG JG
jdG JG ILCG a k Gc k GM jOG dG OO dG JG NC J
c d G a d d G R F I L C G h ( M a n - P a c k ) f C a . (M i l i t a r y C o m m u n i c a t i o n s )
kdM ILCG g UCGh .IMGh jhM a SdGh dG H J
FXH dGh (Channel Switching) GdG jd jhe de Y J
`JG `HGhQ j ` dG e` dG h a e a dh .i NCG fh dEG
dCG c hCG SCH H a Je fGe JGgh ,JGS HGhQh ,jhe
.jH
FXdGh ddG e dG jdG qdGh IOdG T Jh
jOGdG fCa ,jdG FShh JLCG J a jQdG dH UdG
dGh ,AdG J gh UGdG e UGJ VLF k GL WGdG OOdG GP
702
bdG Jh MdG
.SCG GH qdGh Md QGOGdG HdG dGh GFdG J
.jdG dGh Md IQU dG g X Y idG b QGOGdG ajh
Jh .HdG iNCG Y cdG LCG J Y IQdG GQGOGdG dh
d ge HdG GFdG e Y IOqLdG IFdG GQGOGdG TT
hCG dG be jJ kjCG jh .MGdGh ,GdGh ,QfCc aGL
adG dG Me fCG GSH dPh VYh W KGMEH IF dG
e JGdH MdG fCGh ,C GQd f e (Parabolic Navigation Systems)
JQG J GQGOGQ GSH bH IFdG zVh{ jJ jh c .GPS
Qe GSH bH dG J AdG Y jJ jh .GPS eh
.JdG YCG
hdG Y Jh jdG H dG jGhdG fH J
HGqSEG GQTE ,GFdGh dG Y (Identification Friend or Foe IFF)
.GFdG GQGOGQ hCG jdG dG Y IQOU Ie
d V d G e c d G h G F d G h d G j d IFF f U b h
a (Inertial Guidance Systems) QdG OTSG ILCG cJh .jU GH
ILCG g J bh .jdG idG GFW a MdG FShh UGdG
dGh jdG fdG HShdG H jQdG HShdG
bdG GOeh M dG fh dEGG E a e Y IQ Hh .(Accelerometers)
GFdGh dG a IOqLdGh fhdEG g e fdG fCd He
.jQdG
703
G J dG d ch j dG j dG i dG GO e
q e (Control
J hCG VQCG adG a JGh dG ie jd feh dG
bGe jJ J UN GQGOGQ kjCG QJh .dG e Y ddG
(SH AGSG j e hCG) fdG jJ jH IQdG hdG ae
iNCG Qf qJ GQGOGQ fCG Jh .IOQGdG ahdG J e dG
aJh .VQCG - qLh ,qL - qLh ,VQCG - VQCG jQGU OTQEGh jdG Y
Y ddG jQGdGh ,VQCG jQGdG WEG q d IfdG QGOGdG fCG
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j eY JSd fBG dG a dch ,e Zh FGY H Le
jQGdG Y ddG dG LdG fCG Jh .be qH k GjJ
e dEG
k Uh Qd QhdG dG e VQCG hCG qdG e nodG
dEG UdG b HdG SCGdG J a J kjCG QGOGdG eEHh .dG
,(800 km) 500 mi gGe j dG ,Rhc jQGU Jh .
k a dTGE hO aH dG
FGd jJdG IAGdG hCG ,GPS Y Ie LJh Me fCG e Y
.HdG GgCd bO GSG d (Computerized Map Reading)
ed GgCd bdG idG jJ dG QdG idG Oe eEH
jh .HHdc ce e Y ddG J hCG jdG adG
VQCG - qLh ,qL - VQCGh ,VQCG - VQCG jQGU LJ a kjCG QdG GSG
SCG J .dG e SdG jQGdG bdG qJ H IOhqdG
704
dG jJ
J jJ ,aCd HdG idG GPh jdGh ,IdG GQGOGdG J
aVEH .eCG BG H Y adG ee QGfEGh jOdG ddG jQGdG
e Ic S Y YVeh da Me H GQGOGQ eE H dP dEG
,(AWACs) e QGfEG GFW Y k GqL ddG GQGOGdG hCG ,GFdG eM
GQGOGQ CG c .eCG e H Y gh dG jGQdGh GFdG jJ
50 mi Y J ae a bdG jdG c J idG Ib QdH qdG
.VGYG jQGH d dGh
hdG SG
hd eCG jW bGdG hCG SH dG j
JGh e QGfEG GFWh ,VdGh bdG IjT J JGS GSH
.dY YJQH J dG U-2 f J GFW hCG ,idG IH (AWACs)
,OdG Ad SM jja hCG a Gec SGH hdG da J jh
e hCG dG AKCG jQGOGQ FGN VH dG j c - AGdG J TCG hCG
.dG aGZJdG jdG J dG hCG dH Ie AS N
(Enemy Surveillance)
705
adG Sb ILCG
jJ f g (Distance Measuring Equipment - DME) adG Sb ILCG EG
Airborne) k GL e SG RL Y j GFd LdG FK idG
q
Ground-Based) b dG VQCG (Transponder) QffG J eh (Interrogator
H 3.5 s IH 1 kW f dG SG RL Sj .(Transponder
d E G 1025 f a 1 MHz `H H Y J I b 126 e M Gh Y f d G a f 30
36 MHz Y J f K I b Y H e H Q f f G d G j 1150 MHz
GQTEG e IFdG b e dG GQTEG QJ .SG Ib J hCG a
dg .VY jh adG J K H edG dG jh ,SdG
dG dG g (Tacan) cJ EGh ,ddG Y a VQCG e 2000 dGM
.DME `d dG
qdG GUG OJ f
QGOGQ Y (Traffic Collision And Avoidance System - TCAS) dG Gg qSDj
,jhe GOOJ GP GQffGJ Y jh ,(SSR) fdG SG
e jd IkFW c Y e JU eh ,VY TTh ,GJch
bh a OdG M jQdG ac jH dG j .jqdG eOdG
g eh .KQdG Od GAGLEG e NCG Lj e NC Fe bHh mc
eY .iNCG IFdG Y OHd QGfG hCG dG hCG ,QdG J GAGLEG
e kHGqL J ,f dH IOhe jb IFW (TCAS) `H IOhe IFW qJ
jH HqdG IFd GqdG Gg j .iNCG IFdG QffGJ (SSR)
HJ YS M K .iNCG IFdG beh (Relative Altitude) dG JQG
Ib a VY TT (TCAS) fCG H J .kFb jdG c EG jd
H e HdG JFdG e d edG hdG IQhe J QdG
.dG
.(TCAS) ILCG J gh kdM ceCG jQdG cdG GFW e J
.d edG IFdG JQG dEG aVEH jg jd IQTEG QffGJ c Sjh
708
g JG O dGh k G L d dG OO dG i e EG
j h V Q C G Y S D e I F d M e f g (Omnidirection Range - VOR
230 mi Y jJ ae dEGh dG dY GFdG a e gh .VHF f Y
(48 km) GC 30 mi ae dGE dG WGh GFdG ah ,VOR e bGC Y (370 km)
cCGh IdG jdG a VOR e 1000 Y j e dg .dG Y kN
hCG (Conventional) kjJ VOR j CG j .ddG Y a e 1000 e
.118 MHz h 108 H G O O H I b 160 Y j Y d G c h (Doppler ) H h O
d d G V O R f e A G L C G Y P G S d F AA d G Q d G G d G I Q G O E G J
`H j e jQdG GFdG dO j CG H (Backup) fdG M Vd
.(Wide Area Augmentation System) jdG d OdG dG CG WAAS
QGOGdG fCG
Radio Detection) idG jJh jOGdG dG e (Radar) QGOGQ c J
RF iU
Se
FGg
RF f
SQEG
SEG
SG U
e
c Ob
seo
be
FGdG
ja f
Tc U
dO U
Tc
QGOGQ d e Y e 1 -23 T
712
k GqL de QGOGQ ee :2 - 23 dG
713
QGOGdG Se
Pulsed Radar)
QGOGdG FGg
a kYT gcCG CG EG ,e TCH (Radar Antennas) QGOGdG FGg J
fe FU e YdG adG dG FGg g jdG eGSG
Open Frame) e Q WEG g a hCG ,(Barrel Stave) edG c h J
Yh e YH cj QJe e Y YdG c cj .(Structures
. 360 Q G e
b kf a MdG hCG MdG dGh d dG S FGg eCG
,30 jhGH Jj MhdH kT kjOY kYT qJ ,aCG jW Qe P ae
dG H j d ,LQO HQCG dEG LQO e cCH Jj VY CG EG
.ge a LfG hCG dG de EGh M
a jQGdG hCG eOdG GFdG JQG jJ a dG FGdG eCG
Mhe qd (dbT) OY ddG Qe ae b H e GP IOY
715
2 Y j j Y J Q G C G E G 30 d G G g VY j b . S d G j P T hC G a C G
QGOGdG e
GQTEG e Lhe TR e e (Rarar Receivers) odG GQTEG J
J j IF Se OOJ IQTEG fE (Local Oscillator) e He
H H d G e E G h . 6 0 M H z h C G 3 0 M H z e E G Q G O G d d G IF b h . d e h
.SfG fhc e
k jH AL ,U dM ILCG g ddG dG
IF e SGH JdG IF IQTGE Joh ,IQdG Ia a (Mixing) dG j
q
QGOGd J b .ja IQTEG j (Detector) Tc dEG J b (IF Amplifier)
.eGe Hh IQTEd IMGh qLQ Y e cCG dd jRGe SG Gb
J jdG IQTEG CG EG ,dG IQTEG Ib e kjOW jdG IQTEG da SJ
hCG (Cathode Ray Tube- CRT) e TCG be Y VJ d J Lj
.QGOGdG TT e iNCG GfCG
716
QGOGdG TT
VY FSh e e GfCG Y gJGh dG ie jJ j
dG a dG ,(PPI) hCG (Plan Position Indicator) WQdG be Tc :e
M a dG YdG fCG c ah LJ dd kYT cCG gh ,3-23
e (Polar-Coordinate Presentation) b KGMEG VQY g (PPI) EG .QGdG
Jh .(Radar Displays) TdG Sh a (Spot) f H e QGOGQ FGg
a eMCG H VQCG J a IAe H H (GFW hCG S e) GgCG
Lh fGQhH j gh (Radial Beam) dG dG Qhe H TdG e
H qj Ie c a jL e SQ Oj RedGh QdG ac CH kY ,TdG
.FGdG IQhO e keGJ dG
CRT
dG dG
QdG
VQCG c
QGhdG dG
A dG
idG M
FGdG be
dG L
C dG
717
idG
.jQGOGdG B TT VY :4 -23 T
718
JQG
idG
.jQGOGdG H TT VY :5 -23 T
dEG
e CG
12 GHz
dEG
27.0 d E G 18.0
QGOGdG g FN
dP cJh ,Th M dGO g dG e dG RF GQTEG Ib EG
hCG ,dG FGdG dEG dH be dG Z e GPEG SfG jh .dG
e GPEG Fe Z J GFdGh dG dh .SdG JGOOJ e QGOGdG Z e GPEG
.(Head-On) SdG IQTEG JH eJ
OGdG e gZh ,dGh ,SZdG e YdG GgCG J dc
.QGOGdG b e Fe Zh aT ,fdG Z
d CH FdG adG Y (Stealth) dG dGh GFdG e j
TCd dH FdG dG CGh ,QGOGdG bW UeG Y IQ dG OG dG
.QGOGdG Y k GH TCG g S cY hCG e fc AGS eOdG jQGOGdG
720
QGOGdG AVV
IH kSb dY JT fc GPEG a jQGOGdG LdG iU c j
NGJ j bh .(Noise) AVdH J dGh dG RF GQTEG e
hdG H jW Y hCG ,fEG hCG dG a e jOGQ AVV e Le
.SG Y LdG NGa c H GOTE
jQGOGdG dG
dG QGOGdG Le e Le NGJ g (Radar Clutter) jQGOGdG dG EG
Gg .IFW hCG S c AGS dG dG Y IJdG GQTEG IOY j
(Surface Clutter) S H H j CG j GQTEd dG qLdG
Le e kjb FGdG Vh Y fdG dG a RF bW IQSG Y Jf
H J c .dG dM GVG hCG dG JQG e dG g OGOJ .dG
.QdGh dGh ,dGh ,dGh dG H kjCG (Volume Clutter) M
jdG GQGOGdG Y jdG Vd dG dG GMEG J j
b Fc J fe SCG e IU b hCG (Chaff) ee GSH
KCdG jT (Chaff) jh .q dG a g f Y (Resonan Dipoles) ffe
OQGdG ECM zfhdEG IOdG GAGLEG{ fG) .ddG jhdG GOOdH
721
.(dG Gg a gcP
qdG GQGOGdG
MGh g J Y QOdG QGOGdG g (Tracking Radars) dG QGOGdG EG
CG Hh .dG dG JH Lj U FGg IOY dh .k GL bO H
jdG H jh ,fdG e e S SH CGj ,ag Y QGOGdG j
TCG kV kYT adG dG GP dG IQH f Y cdG (Feed Horn)
WhdG dH dG CGj jdG H J Yh .(Pencil Beam) dH
IJdG TCG (Phasing) IQheh S dJh .dG JH cdG Qe M
QGOGdG FGg J LGQ jc J (Error Signals) WN GQTEG dG
dP jhGR FGdG j keJ dG Y jo eYh .dG N JH
.ge bH dG
IMGdG dG GQGOGQ
dG jhGR Sb J mJ J Y GOGdG e dG G g AGOCG j
x
dG jd jdG dG gh ,(Monopulse Angle Measurement) jO MCG
Y MdG jQGdG b e QGOGdG GSG MG e J dG ,WhdG
GHCG e LhR GQGOGdG g a j .(Radar-Seeking-Missiles) GQGOGdG
722
723
SQCG - SG fe
S cY
SG
GOOJ de
Jc
SQG
e
bGS
ddG eQ
jJ eQ
dG
QGhe T
M d G a d G Q G O G Q F G g :6 - 23 T
dG HhdG GQGOGQ
LdG HhO QGOGd jJ g (Pulse Doppler Radars (PDR)) GQGOGdG gh
,CW HhO QGOGQ T e ee Y dG e j dG CW IdG
f HdG dG j .CW GJe e IU AGLCG g dG dGh
726
qdG dG J GQGOGQ
g (Moving-Target Indication (MTI)) dG dG J GQGOGQ EG
GPEG idG J bO ee Y dG e J d f CW GQGOGQ
g dG dGh , (Pulse Modulated) dH qe CW Le eM c
,e (LGQ) IJe f HdG dG j .CW GJe e IU Y
jh .jQhO IQH S a J ce GgCG e IJdG dG dh
Je e idG f W N e cdGh HdG GgCG H MTI QGOGQ
GP fh HdG d HK S GP f dG g J .SdG
GgCG VY ke j FYh .cdG GgCd (de) e S
.LGdG HdG dG M N e a cdG
727
dG GQGOGQ
jQGOGQ ee jCG Y eH J (Search Radars) dG GQGOGQ J EG
hCG ,VQCG Y GgCG jJh FGdG M AdG e hc f M d
FGg hCG ,e H QGhO fe FGg Y J bh .qdG hCG ,dG a
Ib GQGOQ dEG edG d GOOdG e L hCG S QdG a kf j PAA
.QdG WEH qdG hCG g J LC aCG MVhh ,YCG OOJ GP idG
J eY (Surveillance Radars) YSG GQGOGdH kjCG GQGOGdG g J
.fdG jqdG bGdG f a c idG IH GgCG bGe
dG GQGOGQ
g AHEG Y e J QGOGQ f g (Tracking Radars) dG QGOGQ EG
.GgCG bGd OCG jdG LCG e IdG bGdG J cCG hCG MGh
dG dG QGOGQ dEG dG QGOGQ gOj dG dG GgCG J j e kdZh
N e (dGh dG) XdG c GQGOGdG H j .Y j
.PAA FGdG b e dG d edG cQdG
jfdG SG GQGOGQ
GFdG Jh H J dG jqdG IdG QGOGQ GMh iMEG g
IdG QGOGQ H f fe e dDe gh .ddG Y a HdGh fdG
Secondary Surveillance) fdG SG QGOGQ EG . FAA `d HdG ATCRBS jdG
q
a d HdG FGdG cjoh jqdG IdG QGOGQ e kf e (Radars - SSR
.(jqdG IdG) ATC QGOGQ FGg
T SGH IFdG a (QffGJ) dG GqSH VQCG dG J
j d d P h 1090 MHz O O J Y H L E G J h ,1030 MHz O O J h V Q W
jg OJ dG e S IFdG QffGJ Ljoh IFdG J JGh ie
dG jdG jdG jJ f e QGOGdG Gg QW d .YJQGh IFdG
728
(Identification Friend
JGdG GQffGJ
J ,fhdEG GQGO YH jdGh jQdG JG JGS J
e e RF SQEG SH J ,(Satellite Transponders) zGQffGJ{ kjCG
IQTEG SGH NBG OOH VQCG dEG dSQEG OhJ K (Uplink) e OOJ Y VQCG
729
hY CG jU ,jdG J
Y cqeo he OOJ QffGJ Y SDe Y jg J f g
GQGOGQ hCG ,Qf qJ hCG ,IS GQGOGQ e GqSd VJ jU IFW
VJ RdG Gg j .S hCG IFW e Y hCG ,VQCG Y IOqLe H
cq Jo .jQGU hCG ,GFd IOe ae gQe j U G d I F dG
IOY (Identification, Friend Or Foe - IFF) hY CG jU ,jdG J GQffGJ
GFW a eGSGh HJ d kej HSG GT Jh GFdG Y
.QGOGdG TT gJ CG hO d hdG
TT Y HLEG Jh jQGOGQ f SGH IFF QffGJ qj
.gJGh IFdG ie OJ Ie fCc HqodG PPI GQGOGQ
QfdG fCG
(Sound Navigation) JdG
MdG e e d :(Sonar) Q f dG EG
YqLQ YS Sbh AdG a JU bW SQEG f g (Ranging) idG jJh
(Y) ie jd dPh ,AdG NGO LCG S Y gOGJQG H ic
Q f S d J e 7 -23 d G a j . g J G d c h L C G g
,Qdc dGh ,bQdG dGh UGdG jJ a dG j .a
.jdG dCGh
d IOdG jDhdG aJ jja VY TT IOY QfdG f j
jg M JU ee ad (Audio Speaker) U e dEG a VE H
dEG dH d f cdG IQTEG (Pitch) If IM a dG TDjh .dG
730
,e
eh ,e
IQTEG
U e
TDe
SCGQ YS
IS IMh
AGg
He Se
f eh
e
ae
bdG e
Le f
QfdG b
LGQ iU
a Qfd J e :7 - 23 T
d (R ecip r o ca l A c tio n ) d O d G d G e G U C G Y d G j
J d Q e U e g h , (H y d r o p h o n e ) F d G d G e h C G b d G
Ydh ,dG d YdG GUCG kjCG FdG dG aj .AdG
731
. c M h d G M e g e e Q f d G (O p e r at o r ) e A Y E d P h S C G d G
JJh dH dG dG Q f dG e (Pings) dG f J J
a dG id d edG a dG SQEG NCj .qe GQTEc
dG bdG Sb N e idG Ojh .jo d QfdG ie OhM
(Bearing) JG Oj .idG SG IOYh dG SQEG H (Elapsed Time)
a SdG N be J fehc e hCG (Encoders) Geeo SGH
.cJ c adG hCG bdG e
UGdG Hd HdG dG S Y ddG QfdG ILCG J
Passive) dG QfdG Y UGdG Jh .jdG dCG Y dh
GPEG geCG j
q d iNCG UGdGh jdG dG Leh J a (Sonar
Y J da GQfH kjCG IOhe dh .da bW e eSG
.FdG dCG jJ Vd hCG MGdG e jb J eY MdG
e k GOY CG EG jY SGh c fCG bGdG a g QfdG fCG EG
b UGZh Y HCG S Y cqodG IQdG jdG QfdG ILCG
.cGh dG a dch YCG a MdG a dY kb KCG
fbh ,dG H J AdG Y qJo dG YCG He e c EG
f Y j ,cMh bGe Jh SCG GSCG J dG SCG
.UdG dGh jQdG dG Y GSG Ic gh ,QfdG Va
LdJ{ ,24 dG a zSCG fb{h zYCG He{ kjCG fG)
.(zjdG fhdEG
AdG a dG fG
IOjH OGOJh
732
UGdG QfS
Mf C UGqdG dEG dH ed gCG QdG g dG QfdG EG
id kjS cEd VY UGqdG Jh .pJ Y j e a
.hdG S e HGbG Y ,(HjEG) a (Transducer) bW d eGSG
ch MdG FXh Y qdG Qfd eGSG UGdG J dd
eY dG cS jd UGdG b e j dG QfdG CG c .dCG
.dG IdG dG J J
1000 e jhc aH j dG c eCG j dG UG Z Jh
, UG d G D L D L M 220 Oh H k G e J e e C G Q f d G I c f c d
dG AdG e IQe dah dS GQfS aVEH jDhdG e Jo fEa
(760 m) 2500 ft ad QdG dGE IQdG ddG adG f jh .UGd
dg (460 m) 1500 ft ad QdG dEG ddG QfdG ae f j a
.kjCG UGdG ee a dah S ae d feEG
H (16km) 10 mi e cCG dEG j ie a jdG UGdG GHQW eCG
edG NOEG jh .QfdG SGH hCG kS eEG LJ jh ,b WEG
.JdG SGH bWEG H GHQdG dEG dH UdG
ke j aQ S N dEG SJh HQdG WEG H edG sJo
j g ah ,a hCG S QfS GSH ag HQdG j .UGdH
dG SG jh jj ag HQdG CNCG GPEa dG j ag e
.H kUN
k a k GQfS kee
qdG dG bdG e
NOEGh L H U dG ,(Magnetostrictive Transducer) R dG G g j
dPh dG e e Ye eU e M e ,AdG J QfdG GQTEG
e e OqLH M OGOa e J KCJ j U c C
.GQdG a (Piezoelectric) VhdG OLEG KCH KCdG Gg Qjh .b
Se e FHc f J (Coils) H e dG M J
Ib edG be Y JdG ehdG a dSG J .QfdG
CJ FY .AdG e SJ Y j (Diaphragm) M Y KDJ fe
a OqLdG QdG OOJ e Sj OOH H dG AdG a J U L e
.dG
,Y kV ke dG dEG idG Oj fdG dG N eh
.dG dG a da kKMh ,edG GWCG keh
735
VhdG bdG e
KCdG Y (Piezoelectric Transducers) VhdG bdG e j
FjdG gOHCG qJ dG adGh GQdG H J dG VhdG
UUdG cQdG fJ J .JShdEGG e V VJ eY
bW e GQfS d jQdG f J Nh ,(Lead-Zirconite-Titanate)
b hCG UGbCG H bdG e j .SCG fbh YCG GHS
e a k GOJ dG J .jQfdG SdG e FHdG ed VJ
.bdG e f OOJ g OOH H dG AdG Y kV j dG bdG
idG jh .(Sound Beam) JdG dG T bdG e T Oj
.da fEG Y jh T k Ge bdG e Y kV dG H JdG
e dG Yh .JUh jja GQTEG dEG Jh mFH ddG g
q Jo
cCG IAc VhdG bdG e aJ ,dG dG bW e
bdG e CG GY ,KdG ddG OOJ H JU bW fEGh bdG f a
.a j hCG dG Ad Vqjo CG j adG VhdG
JdG GOOdG a GRGgG VhdG bdG e H pjo
IdG LCG H J dG JdG dG jhM a (JU dG)
bdG e Y eCG e .J dH CJ eY dG U
.SAW dG JdG LdG RLh QdG ahdG VhdG
dG dG GQfS
VJ QfS f g (Variable-Depth Sonar-Vds) dG dG QfS EG
T jhM a d IfdG fhdEGh bdG jH UdG a e
TCG jW M SGH ASW UGd IOe HM S N Joh HQdH
CG Qfd j H ,IWdG dG b e GfEG Y Oj .dG dH
736
fHh ,b c
bW e
JU
c T
- 23 T
SdG QfdG
j QfS f g (Dipping Sonar) dG QfS hCG SdG QfdG EG
.ASW Hg NGO dG ALh ,Seh ,qJ RLh ,VY TT OLh
dJo .fhdEGhc aQ c H j HfG jhM NGO bdG e j PEG
b JQG Y ee Hg IFW J dG dEG bdG e (fh) aGQ
.dG AfG Y e dEG aJh ,dGh dG Y N b YHh
c .HdG N kfe j d fYH HfG bdG e g Ohj
YSG J e bdG d e YCG dEG jhdG J eEH fCG
IOY bdG e jo .bH bQdG UGdG be jJ K eh idG Ld
ae SGH ke OM dG UGd dG bdG a jW ad
.ASW GFW e WSEG j dG (Sonobuoy) JdG adG
738
FdG J UGdG
JU Jg Se dG a g (Underwater Communicator) RdG Gg EG
N Ie IQTEG hCG U SQE (Acoustic Megaphone Transmitter - AMT)
hCG LJ AYE e RdGh .bQZ UGZ hCG SZ dEG S e AdG
dEG RdG Y j .AdG J jdG UTCG hCG Sd GjJ
hCG (Code Generators) Ie Gde SGH qJo VhdEG bW bGf
.H U
JdG (GQffGJ) dG
J U f H g (Acoustic Transponders ) d G G Q f f G d G g E G
AYh a IOY fhdEG JGQGO RJh ,Iqeo HGqSG FSQ dSG id J
.dG S J GbCG e Y Y AdG V jh ,AdG Nj V
bW bf SGH qj eY Iqeo jJ GQTEG SGH RdG j
b Y b e W J a e ,RF b W b d K e G g b d G b f h . J U
cCG hCG mSGe K (Anchored) SJo dG dG a .e dH hCG dG
dEG IOdG e HEG hCG PfEG S J d QdG dG M UN H
,bQdG d bdG bdG J a Ie g bdG bfh .JQOe H bdG
IQdG aJ .jdG QKBG bGe dch ,dG S J RdGh dG Mh
a HGqSG Id HSG N e GQffGdG d FH dG
. j W G d (Stand By ) W M G j R d G d H A d G f e E H h
739
FdG J QdG f
a dG (Underwater Laser System) Fe dG QdG dG f j
Motor-Driven) GQ J H QGhO jG eh ZQCG - Q j Y ,9-23 dG
ceo (Light-to-Digital Convertor Circuitry) bQ e - AV IQGOh ,(Mirrores
dG jh .dG N gb j HQW H dG e jhM a
jhdG dEG dG QdG AV Ojh ,bGe bGH dG b H QdG
CRT TT Y VY j (Raster Scan) dG N f GQTEG dEG d
jh ,QdG Sd b ee dG Gg ajo .HK QU dEG J hCG
CG jh ,dG SG a dch ,QKBG fGh PfEG Y a
.fdG jDhdG QfS QU e kMVh cCG dG Y Ie LC k GQU aj
QJe
ZQCG Qd
fdG LSG
QdH IAVEG
Se Qd AV
e f
Qd
Fe dG QdG f :9 - 23 T
jdG dG jDhdG f
LCG Ige Y (Military Night-Vision Systems) fCG g YJ
VJh dG be J dG IAVEG GSG dEG LdG hO
k d XdGh
(Image-Intensifier) IQdG H j e Y fCG g J .qd
ueo eU Jh .(Image Convertor Tubes) IQdG jJ eUh
Night Vision Light Multiplier) dG jDhd AdG Ye eH IQdG
740
dc W FV QOe GSH
k d e jDhdG J Sh gh .(Tubes
eU J dP e dG Yh .dG SfG e M hCG qdGh
hCG ,FdG Z IR AGdG J TCG SGH dG IAVEG dEG ,IQdG jJ
.
k d Fe ge dEG IR e IAVEG J fCG a ,QdG e
Y (Passive Night-Vission) dG dG jDhdG fCG J iNCG Mf e
bGd hCG dG JjQhO a Od UdG gCG GP IQdG e eU
ddG dG jDhdG fCG J .e We a JGFH j jdG GFdG
b ag IgH d j e IR `H IAVEGh IQdG jJ U Y
.eGO X a gh ,fSG
Fe e dEG AGdG J TCH AdG dG jJ dG eEH
Y IOY fCG g cqJo .SGh jd Se LQO dEG WSh
q dG e gZh HHdG ah ,cdG HdG Yh jQGd aPb GFW
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CG j jdG dG N IR `dH IAVEG dEG J jDhQ ee jCG EG
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jdG fhdEG f e{ S dG ,12 dG a zIQ dG J
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742
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GPS-C
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Laser Target) Qd g e Y dG QdG LdG f j
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qdG IQdG je jh .(Fluorescent Screen) SQa TT Y gcJ
.(Optical Eyepiece) jH Y SY N TdG Y
kb kT (SEM) a qdG QU J ,(SEM) a FdG QdG Y Y
dG e a qY jd kFe (SEM) oSG .dG qdG H
.KGQdGh dG
a
Y
e SY
Y SY
SQa TT
786
h d G h S O d G dG
eT If
(Crystal Growth) IQqdG qf
(Wafer Preparation ) a G d G J
(Mask Preparation ) d G J
(Wafer Sorting ) a G d G R a
(Microlithography) jhdG aGZdG
cqdG UdG fCG
(Compound Semiconductors )
ddG fQR QjfGJ J
(Wafer Fabrication ) a G d G J
(Gallium Arsenide Transistor Manufacturing)
edG ddG fQR GQGO J
MOSFET QjfGdG J
(Gallium Arsenide IC Manufacturing) (MOSFET Transistor Fabrication)
dG SdG GQhS
edG IQGdG J
(Epitaxial Process )
(Integrated-Circuit Manufacturing )
eT If
edG jOMCG dG IQGdG YoNG Ib IH QjfGdG GNG H
787
IQqdG qf
dG dG g k GOe kSg kf QqdG g j U IOe IQqdG
Ic GQqdG Y eCGh .AdG S hCG ,RdG T j dG (Lattice)
fedGh ,OqedGh ,bdGh ,SdGh ,JQGdGh ,dGh ,dG GAg :eh
a Jo qe Ue f GQqH Lh ,ddG fRh ,dGh
IQ` qdG qd dGLh`J jW q Jo . U dG `fCG I LCG J
,1-26 dG a VdG dG a qdG ,(Czochralski (Cz) Growth Method)
fCG ILCG d IOdGh IdG GQqdG qf a kYT GQhdG cCG e
.(Crystal Puller) IQqdG MS a dGLhJ IQqH qf jh .UdG
IU b Vh j jdG g ah .CZ jH dG GQqH e qjo
b c e (dG) JQGdG e JH a GQdG Oe dG UY e
789
e d G G f C G e h .P h C G N f S j d F d G (Dope ) e d G U Y e
,QSdGh ,fQdG gh (Donors) fdG j e N d dG
dG j dG ,P f d dG edG Y eh . j dGh
. h Q d G Y , (Acceptor )
IH QGhO b
IQqdG S
aGdG S UY
dG IQH
L
dG U
dG eM
dG jhd b
J M O e a (Pullers ) M S U Y S G H
k hCG dG j
dG e IU IQqH hCG (Seed) IQH NDJh .(Melt) dH Jh FS
IQGhO
m GQP a Jh ,IQhdG AGH HdG dG e (Doped Silicon) eqdG
QhJ a MGh JH IQdG QhJ .dG NGO kjQJ dJ K dG a
.NBG JH SdG GQdG a dG
qJ e CGjh ,dG a kjQJ IQdG aJo eY IQqdG qf mFH CGj
W jh .OGHH NCG c IQdH dG QdG dG e AZ
.d NGdG OHCGh ,dG Yh ,IQGdG LQO Y gboh IQqdG
d qdG IQhS N fdG gOhM a IQGdG LQO QtJ L Lj
790
aGdG J
edG dG GQ qH dGREH (Wafer Preparation) zaGdG{ J CGj
IdGh .HqdG aW joh qjo K ,(Puller) MdG dG e IOqdGh
,(Centerless Grinder) jce Z fMW a IQqdG bo ec S g MdG
Process) IQhdG eGd SdG odG Ho e dG aGdG Fj H
,(X-Ray Diffraction) dG TCG OM jH FH IQqdG Jo .(Holders
be jd (Collimated Light Refraction) OqdG AdG QfG jH hCG
791
dG J
d G h , f (Mask Preparation ) j d G d G J I Q h S g
, d d G G Q G d G h , U d G f C G I L C G a c J a e R d G (Reticles )
J d G G d G e S a U d G f C G I L C G J j .IC ` d G h
e c j d G h (Masking Operation ) d G Y e , c C G h C G ,20 d E G 5 e
JdH QRGD eo J SGH IOY dG q Jh .H UN H dEG
Computer-Aided Manufacturing ) JdH QRGD dG d H hCG ,(CAD)
. (CAM
.UN J eH Ohqe Jc UdG f RL J H jh
MJCG bh .OLe e e kbTG hCG ,kUCG kJf FdG odG j bh
. (Block Diagrams ) M G d J S Q J d d G b Q h d G e d G
C G j . I O e G d C H (Workstation ) Y e Y H h , e c G Q G O S Q h
hCG (Cells) jdh (Gates) HGqd Se H IC bbd jdG dG
,ee IYb a Jc IcGP e LJo dG (Macrocells) jhcdG jdG
eo H AGHG j ,dG Yh .dG e Jc TT Y JqJoh
.HS eJ e IPNCe fH e
e J c T T Y (Dynamical Simulation ) e j O I c e A G L E G j
Y Oj CG Hh .dG hCG jdG RdG H S dG d dG
Y dG gOHCH bGdG RdG UY VJ ,dG H dG
IYb a XdG dGh P dG L S H i NCG I eh , T dG
Master ) F Q e Y d G d G J h .J d G I c GP a e d G
e c C G d G G g M j h . G d C H T d G Y d G O e (Drawing
J Ljh .dG fEG H e QS dG dG RdG M
793
.bO H IOdG dG ac
SSCG H fE x-y SGQ dEG W d auodG bdG fdG mFH SJo
. d G d (Master Mask )
q jo e d (Photoreduced) kFV dP H FdG dG q Jo
q e (Pattern ) P f g h d H
eo a e JQGc hCG LR Y qeh
j c .Le hCG dS IQd Gg PdG j CG jh .hdG e bQh
QGH dch ,Id QdG IOe H jd Ge IY dG fEG IOYEG
.bdG Y a jJ j d zaGdG{ Y QdG e fEGh jdG
aGdG J
fCG I LCG J A KCG J dG GQh dG e H dP j
ad Reh cDeh e (Blank) Zo aGH dG jW J .UdG
N zaGdG{ Y J e Y HQCG dgh .QNGh dG MGe
:gh dG Y
. (Layering ) H V d G (1
. (Patterning ) P d G j J (2
. (Doping ) e d H e d G (3
. (Heat Treatment ) Q G d G d G (4
J Y k GOYG dG N Ge IY MGdG g H qJ CG j
.J LQOh RdG
H VdG J
dG g J bh .aGdG S dEG IOdG W a Jo Y g
.e H LfEG J e OG d U e hCG ,(Insulators) RG Y
Y dG cCG fK W fGE FGW iMGE g (IcCG hCG) cCdGh
f
E G FGW eh .zaGdG{ J Y N Uh J c ,dG zaGh{
Chemical) FdG QH SdG J gh ,SdG jW FdG iNCG
794
H , (Dry
WdGh dG FdG dG jH
.dG qdH UdG
YH Qj Nh SM
q H AZ g (Photoresist) dG sdG EG
a ,H N ,dY jJ IH H a qTC jJ b aGdG Y
dG dG a jh ddG qdG Gg (Cross Link) kde j .qdG
H h J a j d e h e d G g J .UV T C j J Y d
d S IQU dGh .dG e dG AGLCH J J dG AGLCG
jh (LdG) HjEG dG dG kde j ,dG Yh .aGdG Y
a jd kehe H dHh ,UV `dG e J dG d dG dG J
(Le) HjEG IQU Y dG g dGh .a VqdG AGLCG hJ
.IqdG IOdG jRCG M WdG g a dG jh .d
jDe We
dG SSCG IOe
d G a G h a j C G G Q S G 2-26 d G
jQGdG ddG
IQqdG T a QGVCG Jh ,aGdG jJh J jH jJ IQhS g
Y qdG jQqdG dG a UdG GOLEG dGREGh ,fjCG dG Y qdG
,iNCG J jHh .Oqjo K 1000C LQH aGdG jo .QGdG QfG
H ,IOY dCG gh ,UdG W UBa Oqjo K 450C dEG aGdG j
.bCd FHdG UdG J dHh ,SSCG IQqdG IOH kJK cCG
797
MOSFET Q j f G d G J
e dG ddG dG QjfGJ J GQhd ddG UdG EG
O d J J b MOSFET k GQ N G hC G e - c C G U e f C G
.dG IQhd dG UdG eN a e Z LdJ UJ a ddG
H JGP H IQhdG CG EG ,aUdG jdH MOSFET GQjfGJ qJoh
a TCG SH GZdG IQhS dG GN a Jo .g c
q dG SdG a S AGLCH jdG q ao bh .dG GN a dG
,a a JcCG qJ edG b P f S aGH IQhdG CGJ .3-26 d
e bQ H cCG W FH aGdG ej .CG-3-26 dG a qe g c
AGLCG fe d ,FV H N UV `d Vsoj K , FdG qdG
je GSH qdG e HdG Z AGLCG GJh .qdG W e IQdG
b hCG f IQhS Jh .qTCd J dG cCG W Vqjo Fc
dG a qeo g c ,OdG P dG dEG J (Windows) GK d
GdG N N f edG fjCG Jo ,fjCG GQSG jW ah .-3-26
f dEG P f e edH ke edG dG d cCG W a MdG
. Y d G d G V ,N
dGh (Source) QdG GK H cCG e GJo ,ddG MdG a
mFH Jo .-3-26 dG a e g c ,P f HGH e Va ,(Drain)
q
Ph N f dG Weh ,cCG W e qJ e a IjL cCG W
K . d G W e h N f Q d G a I j L G K d , ( ` g-3-26 T )
We e Te SJ a SJ j PEG ,dCG g fh fe W SJ
dGRE f IQhSh Hh ,NBG FV e W J ,dG HGH qJh N
JGaQh edG dG H ,QdGh HGdG H (FdG) FGdG dG
.h-3-26 dG a qe g c ,FHdG dG ad IUBdG
J bGdG cCGh HGdG Y SJ f H fdG UGhCG d
dGh QdG e a dG jd a NGO LhdG a aGdG Qqjo
798
(CG)
()
(O)
()
HGH
Qe
(h)
(`g)
. d d G d G Q j f G J J I Q h S G N 3-26 T
799
edG IQGdG J
zMOSFET GQjfGJ J{ GY J aUdG HQCG ddG Jo
GQGdG J a IQGdH ddGh ,edGh ,dGh ,dG Vh :gh
.dc edG
800
N Ib
Qe
HGH
P Ib
HGH
J
c
C
G
e HGH Qe
e
J
S
IYb
YH
fae W
Se
edG
cCG
S
N gP W
. L Q d G S Y I O L e d G F K e d G I Q G d G e G d a c 5-26 T
dG qdG AfEG
GOjGdGh MOS `dGh dG FK QjfGdG e ddG IQGdG UY Jo
ehdc dG fq dG A fEG e k eG J e dG IQG dG aGh Y
HjEGh S fqe e UY d dG GN Jh ,dGh
.IQhdG H H e J
,dG FK ee IQGO e U Ad dG VdG dG e j
. e h , h e e e e NPN Q j f G J ,6-26 d G a
801
YH
sodG
he Y
QjfGJ
he
U
Y
RY
FHc
U
S
. d G F K e e I Q G O Y e e e h h e 6-26 d G
d G O M Co G Q j f G d G J
(Diffusion ) Q f G N e NPN Q j f G J J d N- f I f J
m F H j .N+ L M f a N f N e P
N dG eo a hQdG
q
.Q j f G d (P-Type Base) P d G I Y b e j d (N-Type Collector Well)
.(Emitter Region) pSodG e jd N f QfG H IdG g Jo
a iNCG Ifh ,N+ edH ke SdG j ,6-26 dG a qe g ch
dG e aCG Ue Y d N+ edH e J qdG e
f d G d G (Patterning ) J N e 12 G W C G a c J h . f d G
.FdG
802
d G O M Co G O j G d G J
qa (6-26 dG a gX Z) (Integrated Diode) ee OjGO AH j
- dEG - IYb hCG ,IYb dEG qeo HGhQ a J dG f bdG a PN Uh
.bbdG e dG dG dEG OjGdG bo c joh .NPN GQHfGd YH
Ia Y N GOjGdG AH Lj cCG YH OjGdG a eCG J GPEGh
,IYdG QfG N P f OjGdG PaCG jh .YdG QjfGdG IYb QfG
.SdG QfG Ia N N f OKdG j a
N e OjGdG (bCG) jf qJo ,QjfGdG J a eCG g ch
q jo ,QjfGd a ZdG Z YdG adh .FdG dG W J
dEG UH P f LdG d AHdG LdG odG W (Short Circuit)
I Y d G U h d E G c e d a e S G G P E G h .N f e d G Q j f G d G e
. f R O j G O f C c h j a (Diodes Emitter Base Junction ) O j G d G Y d
d G j O M Co G e h d G J
We a J dG f bdG a IC bbQo a QfH IC ehe J
S h a (Resistor ) h d G j J F G W i M E G h J .NPN Q j f G d G I Y b
,SSCG IOdG e dG qJ P dG J bGdG N dG J .6-26 dG
Resistor-) hdG jf Jh .Rc dG cCG f K j PEG
b J e E H . F d G f d G d G (Pattering ) J N e (Terminals
hdG jdG VY dEG W f J N e dG OMCG hdG ehe
hJ EG .W dG g a U N jCG GQ SG SG H hCG (Resistive Strip)
.a FdH 50 dEG 30 g kf dG jOMCG ehdG g (Tolerance)
Y IQOb ZCG hCG AZ SJ j ,dG OMCG hdG jd jch
.ITe cCd dG LQdG dG S Y ehdG
803
dG jOMCoG qeo J
f e J .MOS fc hCG (Junction) Uc IC qeo J j
b j d G g O J h . d c d G PN U d d G d G Y J G
RhdG dd ac b gh ,100 pF dEG i dG gOh M a dG
ddG e Y dG b Jh .(Coupling) dG hCG (Bypassing)
A d G a MOS d e 6-26 d G a j . U d G f Y e d G
a j dG bdG a aGdG a edH e N W J .dG e jCG
.(Collector) qodGh (Transistor Emitter) QjfGdG YH H dG dG
N W qJh ,fOCG ehdG GP dG U b dG g Sh
fdG H dG dG Jh .FHdG RdG dG cCG fK e
A Z W N e d G d G e (Contact ) J G j h . F d G
.cCG a Te IU a N fe
Capacitive) jqS b d jdG H f dG dG jOMCG dG EG
q
M e h d G F H d G R d G Y k G O Y G ,30 pF h 3 pF H h G J (Value
a (Junction-Type ) U h f d G Y Y h . e d G F d G
.dd hCG d SM d
BiCMOS- IC J
dG FK CMOS qoS aJ LdJ QqJ keY 25 e cCG b
e d o dG dG e IO S d dPh (Bipolar CMOS BiCMOS)
j S d G F K e d G G Q G d a .MOS ` d G h d G F K G Q j f G d G
M f e . i b C G (Current Drive ) Q J S a J h ,CMOS e f Q d H d G h d G
e b C G I Q GM d J h ,b C G F H c I Q b CMOS e d G GQ G d G J i N C G
.edG dG FK GQGdG e YCG fe ad dG
hC G d G F K GQ G d G c e k G J c C G g e d G BiCOMOS GQ GO E G
d E G h (Masking ) d G G N e j e d E G L d d P h , e d G CMOS
804
a j . (Epitaxial ) d G S d G W c S a b d G d G e j e
GQjfGdG eJ Hh edG BiCMOS IQGd q e VY e 7-26 dG
G g h .P f I O d G e I c d G Y J S J W A f E G L j , d G F K
e .a CMOS J c Y jJ dG coh BiCMOS IQhS J S g
d G a (Well Structures ) j H ( c G J ) H M E G e E H , i N C G M f
.adG dY CMOS IcGP a AkNCG J dG dCG L
o d jYdG
T a qdG PMOS QjfGd N H J fadG N+ W dP Y eh
.7-26
bbQ jJ j ,CMOS IC a ECL IQGd jH qdG dG N e
g D h H j h S C G f C G M H .CMOS J d H Q e I Q G O a H BiCMOS
Gate ) H G d G a e Y e C G G g j .b C G H h J h H
. I d G RAMs I c G P S h , G c G d G d E G a V E H , (Arrays
GP (Input-Output I/O) N /NO da UN H BiCMOS SJo
H CMOS h d G F K GQ G d G U Y L j h . d G e G S G
GQGdG J a H eSG bh ,GSG e d e
GQGdGh ,jhdG ddGh ,GcGdG dch ,bdGh KdG edG
dG FK NPN
PMOS
YH
IYb
u
n eo
NMOS
e
e Qe
Qe
HGH
cCG fK
HGH
dG
N f HhCG If
P f HhCG If
ba SJ W
d G F K G Q j f G J j d b a S J W d e e BiCMOS IQ G O 7-26 d G
- 805 -
. (Gate Arrays ) H G d G a e S h , j O Y G f C G e d G
aGdG Ra
J c E G H h C G , J H (Wafer Sorting ) a G d G R a h C G A f G Y J
db hCG bbQ c je jdG g Jh ,UdG fCG ILCG L
(Vacuum Holder) jJ Se Y aGdG jo .FHdG gDhGOCG M e (Die)
IUBdG GOadG ac e UGdG (Probes) fhdEG q dG Joh
aJh .JeJhCG jJc a ILCH aGdG qJ d (Bonding Pads)
a Ff GqdG Joh ,HdG jQNG ddG FHdG IQdG QOe
ke GdG a ejoh .JeJhCG IQH aGdG Y IOLdG ILCG ac
UdG L Jh .UdG fh ,Jh ,OY e ae j e
.H qeo b e NJ hCG fSG hO
Jh .JbNEGh JMf ,ILCG ac UG e G dG
q Jo
NEG S M ubn Yf ee IQhdG Sd edG dG
kjCG dG OqJo .(Rejected) (adG) dG Me dEG dUh hCG RdG
Gqe Oq Joh .dG e a jGdG bd dG GAGLEG PJG c
dG ILCG sJoh .ddG ILCG ac (Yield) f JeJhCG dG
,MU jd JUGe Hh YS H iOGa UdG ac RJ
.d VGh M H (Rejected) IPdG ILCG qJoh .H S Mh
IPdGh HdG ILCG bGe d kjCG aGd FGN GdG H auj
.aGdG Y
jhdG aGZdG
(Patterns) fCG f a kYT cCG jdG qJ jdG aGZdG GJ
.jhdG GQGdG J Y a aGdG W e W d HdG IqdG
e edG aGZdG GQhdG e TG fC aGZdH dG qJo
. (Photography ) a G Z J d G j d G h (Printing ) Y d G Y a j W e C G
806
jdG aGZdG
AKCG Uh S dG (Optical Lithography) jdG aGZdG Wo J
436 nm h 428 nm H LdG GWCd UV qTCG ,MOSFET QjfGJ J Uh
(Photoresist) dG dG a Y (Masks) H N (Features) dG d
e gGS e Y jdG g q Joh .cDdG hCG odG aGdG S Y
e QqJ a ,dY bKh GPh dG de fc dEG aVEH ,fC FGdG
fCG ILCG YU a dG H e IGhdG b Y J L
.UdG
d G GZ d G d F d G UV `d G Q e UC G I N C G G d G a h
b h ,436 nm Q G e L e H G-line d
q TH k GOhe kFR kMe
q
.365 nm QGe Le H UV H IQb d I-line SY hNBG jS qe
,12 dG a ,(Excimer Lasers) fG jcCG GQdG eoSG c
FdG HdGh zJGh j dG fh cG f e{`H S dG
J h . d G UV e a 308 nm Y J Q d L e G WC G Y d
d G h . d Y b H a G d G d E G (Mask Patterns ) f C G H f H S d G c
jo dG ,0.18 m dEG 0.25 m N VY e fG g dG fEd ddG
.dG GZdG IQb V fCG
Contact )
e d H d d G N (Photoresist ) d G d G V j
Sh dG e c jh .L H Oheh Teo UV Qe e (Printing
807
fhdG dG aGZd
e d G f h d G J (Electron Beam Lithography ) j d G g a j
j dG jdG H fCG qH J IU H jd fhdG ae
.SShCG TT Y (Waveform) Le d kSQ fhdEG dG a
fEH dGh oTh dY Yf GP H fEG kdM j jdG Hh
fjCG dG aGZd
fjCG Jh .FdG qdG a fCG jdG g a fjCG J
IQSG e j e fhdEG c e cCG c (S fjCG IOY gh)
GSG EG .gdG d eR a e G N jCG d d Hh q dGh
e a c H O e (Ion-Beam Lithography ) f j C G d G a G Z d
.HCG
X - qTCG aGZd
(0.5 nm dGE 0.4 nm) dG bdG GP YdG cGE qTGC qJo ,jdG g a
TCG EG .bCG hCG 0.02 m dEG J (Resolution) J IH FdG qdG a kWfCG
cd cCG kY OhqJ dHh ,FdG qdG b e k GQa qJo YdG cEG
X TCG eU CG EG .bdG ZCG a I e k LhCG I aq e ,(Focusing)
(SQEG) H QOc Jo d eRdG adH TCG g J jdG
fhJhdGh eRdG eU g TCd aCG jdG QOdGh .LfEG
j h d j e X- T C G e j C G M G h h J h S e E H h . (Synchrotrons )
eGSG j dG hJhdG f M CG EG ,GZdG fCG e OY
809
. P f e O G e f E , f d c (II I e d G ) D a J
f C G OG e H W d G f C G III-V U e f C F d G S d G e h
e Z WJ o rSGh ,Y J CG j HdG Z UdG
h O (Defect-Free Interfaces ) H e Z N G O L h C G g h , (Heterojunctions )
Y I Q O b ICs h I j L I L C G J W d G g J .I e H GhQ hC G O L E G
dG dG a dG
(LEDs ) e III-V I L C G E G K . j h d G e
o dG e
q
.Ie Le GWCH fJa SJ QjdG GOjGOh
J ,jQqH UdG FK S dEG ,dCc ,dK Fc Y aVEH
c J e : F H c h j H U G N G P , (Ternary Alloy ) U d G K K S
Y eh .dG FK cqdG qUGN Y dG fhdEG bdG eM
o
. (Aluminum Gallium Arsenide AlGaAs ) d C G d d G f Q R F d G g
e GS He e UGN Y d OGdG J jW qJo
. (Bandgap Engineering ) e
o dG IKo SH
ddG fQR
KdG YH edG GQGdG J a jo dG FK cqe g
qTCd YdG FdG pdGh GOjGdGh ,UdG fCG GQjh ,bdGh
(4 in) 100 mm QbCH GaAs ddG fQR GQqH Jh .(IREDs) AGdG a
,(Liquid Encapsulated Czochralski LEC) FdG qodG dGLhJ jH
W G S H d d G I Q G d G L Q O a Q f G e GaAs U j a h
.(1100 psi) L 75 V J L a dG iJo .B2O3 jQdG cCG e ae
d (Pyrolytically Deposited) IQGdH qSdG hQdG jf e dG Joh
.QqdG dG
j , (Compound ) N g d d G f Q R I O e C G H h . d d G f Q R
fQR FcQ Y Sjh dG cCj ,dc W IcCG CG
`dH IqdG Jh odG FKo ddG fQR GQSfGJ d ddG
.MOSFET
g ddG fQR e dG g ejCG a kYT cCG GQSfGdG EG
Metal) f dG U dG TCG GP d dG dG GQ S fG J
eh .(MESFETs) `H j e (Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistors
(MESFETs ) g (RF ) j j O G d G G O O d d G d d G f Q R G Q f G J
, (MOSFET ) e (MESFET ) H H J . (GaAs ICs ) e j d G a I O L d G h
c , J T L d G O j O j (Metal-Gate ) f e A L Y Y V e d h
.12-26 d G a g X g
Qqjoh ,ICs h dG GQSfGdG Yd bO fdG LdG W EG
j C G j h , d G GQ Sf G d G e a e h j e 1.0 M 0.5 `H d G
Qqj dW e cCG VY P LdG T CG M a .ICs `dG a ehje 0.2 dEG
. e h j e 1200 d E G 900 `H
ddG edG jh ,(Ions) fjCG QH MESFET `d ddG WdG eqJo
e .D-MESFETs h C G P d G d e h j e 0.2 M 0.1 V H (N-Doped Region )
(E-MESFET) hCG jdG dG ,iNCG ddG fQR GQfGJ G fCG
(E-MESFETs) GQ fG J J .(E-JFET ) hCG JFET`d jdG dGh
E/D ) O d G / j d G - d G d G d M G h IC ` H J (D-MESFETs ) h
. (Logic
jdG dfG fhdEG QSfGJ qoU ,13-2 dG a jh ch
IcQ Y (AlGaAs) ddG fQR dCG e W f EG .ICs a eod
bh .edG da e jj ,(Heterojunction) dG UdH jo eh ,(GaAs)
e (VLSI) h (LSI) ILCG d kN E/D `d dG UdG LdJ QuWo
.bCG H bdG ddG fQR
812
gh , dG U dG e i NCG (GaAs) GQ fG J Qq Wo bh
(Heterojunction Bipolar Transistor) odG FK dG UdG GQSfGJ
JGDd HBT `dG q oU bh .14-2 dG fCG .(HBT) QNH kjCG q joh
U N Y j (HBTs ) h (HEMTs ) e
v c EG .edG e YCG je
IYH jdG HBTs `dG J .dG UdG a IqdGh ,bdG d
.GaAs HBTs ` d j c (SiGe ) f d G f e d G I O e e L d d G Y
dG SdG GQhS
GQqH e IjL W AfEG IQhS g (Epitaxial Process) dG SdG EG
814
jdG dH dG SdG
SSCG IOe Y ,Ie c a IMGh W ,Ue f OGe SJ IQhS g
Y (Monolayer ) I M G d G ` d G c ` S j J h , R ` d G ` N j ` J I M
o a
815
M e j h , Y A d G Q f G f e a G d G Y f j J j h . (1 nm ) 10
Reflection ) f h d E G Q f G Y j H H d Gh j O M C G d G f
. J d G S G H d G I Q h S Y I d G J h . (Electron Diffraction RED
QqdG cdG Yd bqdG a jZ H Fn
o dG hCG GQdG J
Molecular-Beam Epitaxy ) FdG dH dG SdG
u
n joh .aGd
c Qe Ljoh ,IU GaCG e U Y J Fa jJ IM
o a (MBE
Y a c jh ,SSCG IOdG de Y dG aGdG JH aoh a
dG ,dG hCG ddG hCG ,fQdG hCG ,dCG e OGe Y J L
NGO OGdG J GaCG g e c IQGM aQ Y . aG dG Y S S
jdG Hh .odG N QGM T H JGQPh JFL
o H qSJh
aGdG dEG a AGdG GQP b e dG S bj IdG a ddG
J N e FdG cH W c H dG j .ITe dG
IOdG e adG dG J CG jh .dG HGH ZEH hCG dG IT
S J ) e O G e e h C G (Homoepitaxy , f e b a J S J ) f
d G M I M G h W A f E G j . (Heteroepitaxy f e Z h C G e b a
.1 m c H W A f E e c Y S d E G f d H h (s ) f d G
.kH k GeCG ddG cGdG AfEG e (MBE) IQhS bO L d
cS dG je J ,(IT hCG Sandwich) IqdG IQqdG cGJ
IMGh IQP e c
.e JOe H Hqeo OhM GP ,dG GQqdG
.dG H a Hhqe e OGd FL
o e cGJ
.iNCG IOd W a eeo IOd (Windows) ao
dG LM d (MBE) jH UdG fCG I LCG q oU bh
,GQjfGdG SCG d (MBE) jW eoSGh .jGhhjdG fCGh
IOqe Ic qoUh ,kjQNG eJ iL cdG fe Z RL gh
.AlGaAs hn GaAs e dG
816
h dG h H d G dG
eT If
bbqd jdG jRdG
(Alternative Chip Packaging)
bbqdGh ddG J
dG RdG jhM
(Die and Chip Preparation)
(Discrete Device Cases)
jH - hdEG ILCG jhM (Die or Chip Attach) bbodG hGC ddG HQ
(Optoelectronic Device Cases)
(Wire Bonding) dH HdG
edG GQGdG jRJ
(Integrated-Circuit Packaging)
ndGh TCdGh jnodG
edG IQdG GQGO jRJ
(Inspection, Marking, and Testing)
(Power-IC Packaging)
eT If
edG GQGdG ILCG Y a d jh dG e j dG Qu Wo d
817
NOCG a dP Y
k a .H dP dEG dG Y bQ N e RdG SCG
SdG jhdG e UdG WfCG UdG fCG e e jdG
YG b GjdG g H CG dh ,IQe IjL ILCG dEG jJh ghQqWh
.Sb YU Rc kM
RdG Jh HQ Y a dhCG MdG ,fhdG ILCG RQ YG d
HdG Jo ,adG jhdG hCG QWEG dEG ddG hCG bbdG HQ a .fhdG
HdG g Joh .I/O GWCG hCG bbdG hCG ddG Y GOadG H dG
hCG d Hb J a bdG dY JDe FGH (Interconnections) NGdG
.dG SdG jhdG NGO hCG RdG RQ NGO
k UCG e fC UEd
jc SdG GS dG d IOe qJ ce qM
q dG Gg ah
CG bjh .dG HdGh (Aluminum Bonding Pads) dCG HQ GOad
S M eOdG GdG a SGh ie Y de IjdG dG g J
.ddGh MdG fEG Ge GSG
bbdGh ddG J
VadG jJh SdG (Dies) dGdGh (Chips) bbdG f J H
AH e dG jh , (Thinning)bJ MH kf aGdG j CG Lj e
c hCG JdG Jg iMCG Hh .dG aGdG AL Y bQ gdG e
dG j hCG a H aGdG Gg e Rjh .aGdG e bbdG hCG ddG j
bH Y hCG ,SSCG dG IOe Y IkTe n Jo d jQY ILCc NBG
.(Multichip Modules) bbdG IOe GMdG d ICe IQGO
ddG e dG AdG J
,UM QV CG d dch ,RdG S bbdG hCG ddG d aGdG bsjo
SGH eCG bdG jh .dG Y N IQdG H fL d dPh
FdG dG hCG dG SGH hCG (Mechanical Grinding) fdG dG
Mh 2.0 mm dEG UCG aGdG cS dG H Jh .(Chemical Etching)
- g d G e U C G U S G H R d H J C G b b d c G P E G h .0.5 mm
820
ddG a
zcGh fG{h (Sawing) dG jH aGdG Y bbdG hCG ddG j
e W P (Scriber) Sf NOEH INCG jdG Jh .(Scribe-and-Break)
V dH fG jh .bbdG H bdG dG ce N SdG
a dG jW eCG .dG H H Y LdG W Jo c keJ ,S
bbdG VqJ h IM cCG J aqdG C bO cCGh dG jdG
.dG Y N (Cracked) dG hCG d
fe a SJh ddG dG
Vhh a H aGdG e Jh aGdG Ra N SdG bbdG J
JDe Ze GSH hCG kjhj dG g AGLEG jh .(Carrier) edG Y
ITDdG bbdGh ddG bbdG H dG e j Jc IS J
.VadG
ddG J
e gNh IOdG adG d kjH ddG dGdG ac Jo
FK e GSH kjhj dG Gg AGLEG jh .gdGh KdG
.JdH s e QHEG f GSH hCG (Binocular Microscope)
UCG ddG HQ
dEG bbdG hCG dGdG HQ Vd FHdG Ud kYT cCG jdG EG
Au ) g d G - d G G S H H d H J f d G d G h C G a d G j h d G
f fe jhM a HGdG g Y c 1-27 dG qj .UCG ( Si
LQH dG U e 1063C LQH gh gdG e e Y .TO-39
CGh 380C LQH S jd tdH jdG CGj UCG e jd 1415C
Jeh gdH e S Y jdG J g IQhdG d FdG RdG
.dGdGh bbdG e d dG fdG Y gdG e W SJh .ddH
JQG S a S - gP e N W e e jJn Vj
.UCG dG j M ,425C dGM dEG RdG j K ,gdH dG
M FdG UCG NGO joh ddG JQG e a mFH bbdG VJ
.OGHH mFH Rd j K HGQ J
fe AZ
S HGQ
RY
LLR
UCG db HGQ
W
IYb
aN
. d d G b K d G G P h j d G U d G f I L C d f e e R Q :1-27 d G
822
UH ddG d
jd jdG g eCG ddG hCG cjEG e FdG UGdG GSG EG
H Y LM (Adhesive Die Attach) UGdG g J .ddG J IQhS
dEG VCG e GPEG kFHch kjQGM
k Ue L eE Hh ,R dGh d dG
HQ a eh he dH AdG cjEGh .dG hCG gdG e
d ddG eCG ddG jh .UUdG GQWEG dEG dGdG hCG bbdG
dGh jdG e S gh ,(Kovar) QadG IOe e dG UUdG QWE
.dHdGh
dH HdG
d G G O a d G e (1.0 mil - 0.7 mil ) a d G S C G J h C G d Y g
g c , e R d U U d G Q W E G e (Inner Leads ) N G d G G W C G d E G b b d H
pUeo gh dCGh gdG e SCG e J .2-27 dG a qeo
dH HdG AKCG dM j dG gdG j CG LQO dEG fpdnh GL
VdG Gd e e d .Y jh ke HdG a (Wire Bonding)
ILCG H qjh .Hd e FGW J dP Y AkHh ,JSh JM
.dY YHh kJeJhCG HdG Y Jh HdG SCG e GY GSG
gdG dG HQ
jb HGhQ kfe j fCh ,IcCG ehd Re
k Ue dG HQ j
Thermocompression ) QGdG GMG a j a ,dCG GOaQ e
Thermosonic) QG dG J dG H dGh ,(Ball Bonding) I dG HQ hCG ,(TC
dEG eRdGh ddGh bbdG J QGM GMG HGQ jJ bh .(Bonding
823
(S) db
dhCG U
J db
SSCG dG IOe
U
(N hCG e) SSCG IOe
. a N j h M h C G e d E G d d U C G H Q :2-27 d G
dCG e S
gdG hCG
dG
db HQ IOaQ
QWEG g W
IdG HGQ
()
(CG)
SCG HGQ
()
(O)
(`g)
. g d G d G H Q Y :3-27 d G
824
.O-3 -27 d G a e g c I H U d I O a d G hC G g d H d G d G
jd dG W Y dG hCG LhQdG T hCG FHdG IQGdG J
M j d G g Q J .`g - 3 - 27 d G a e c ,e O d G I O a d G H Gd I c
.eRdGh bbdG GWCG ac HQ j
d He IQhdG M e a jQGdG JdG bdH IdG HQ eCG
Y J .WhCG IQGM LQH J HGhdG CG EG QGdG GMH HdG
jdG N (JU a) Ja bW e f SQEH QGdG dH HdG
- gP S e HGQ jd ac LQO dEG dG IQGM LQO Ja dG
.jb dCG
dCG S HQ
S e fQe d ehe bCG fCG c WGh UH dCG S Rj
.GOadG e dqa dCG - dCG HGhQ qjh bCG c CG EG gdG
.gdG JQG LQO e bCG IQGM LQH Jj CG dCG S eEH
HQ jd keJ He (Aluminum Wire Bonding) dCG S HQ jWh
Wedge) SEH HdG J jH J fCG EG (2-27 dG fG) gdG S
HdG d kjCG He jW gh ,(JdG a) JdG LdH hCG (Bonding
.jQGdG JdG bdH
GP Ie NGO eRdG J JdG LdH dCG S HQ Y a
dG J bbdG HQ IOaQ VJh .HQ Y c Y Ve joh ,x-y OHCG
N Ja bW e f SJ K .a (J) Jh dG jdG a
dG WfCG Jh FH IdG LGJ .HGdG jd dG jdG
dG Uj k GNCGh .ddG HGd Ve IdG NCJ CG b QdG dEG
bbdG SCG HGhQ ac J M GdG g QJ .eRdG W Y d
.eRdGh
825
dG hCG ddG
a jo dGb a (Chip Lead Frame) QWEG W bbQ e VJ
J mFH a adG RdG eCG ,SH SOTh ,DIP RQ jd cjEG
.Nh
FdG dG
QJh .qHh FHc ,(Final Test) Ff UN UH RL c Qj
Burn-in) dG QNG J IOe Id ILCG H a FHdG IQdG
WCG aH kYU j e hCG IdG bNEG MG d ,(Test
ILCG Yh jdG UGdG Y IOY UdG cJ .(Infant Mortality)
dG FKh J K ,GdGh Ad gDdG ILCc ddG bKdG GP
.FdG U cCJh
826
JDdG jdG HQ
bbdG a J dG (Chip Mounting) bbdG d jd jH jW gh
SH SSCG IOe Y (Tape Automated Bonding TAB) (kJeJhCG) kJGP
jH SJ qK bQ fe AZ W dEG bbdG GOaQ HJ .bQh fe
bH jdG Vj .SH jT S Y dG hCG (Sputtering) jPdG
HdG j .bbdG HQ GaQ e NGdG aGWCG J H bbdG a ge
d .(Thermode) OedG J IGOCG GSHh dGh IQGdG H mFH
,SdGh ,dG jOGQ a bdG jZ a GQGO J IQhdG g MJCG
.k GL IdG fhdG dG e gZh jdG JGdGh ,YdGh
827
dG RdG jhM
UN H SdGh ,fdGh ,adG jhdG e ST rH QqW d
,(GOjGdG) FdG edG e (Discrete Device Cases) dG RdG ILC
a ,(jQjfGdG edG :Thyristores) GQSjdG hCG GQjfGdGh
IQTEG GP GOjGdG RJ .GOjGdG ae Rd iNCG jhM J
(Axial Leaded Glass) Qe W LR jhM a ,WGdG IQdGh ,IdG
Radial Leaded Molded) YT H e SH RQ a hCG ,DO-41 e
IQb eeh ,IOe GOjGO RJ dc .DO-15 jhM e (Plastic Packages
H 4-27 dG jh . jh dG g a (Low-Power Rectifiers) WGh
fch) TO-226 SdG jhdG EG .dG ILCd edG jhdG
IQTEG GQjfGJ Rd eSG ,CG-4-27 dG a dG ,(TO-92 kHS
.GQShjdGh IdG
Molded Plastic)
dG SdG dG dG jhM QW c
,jOGdG OOdG GQjfGc dG ILCG g d (Flatback Cases
TO-220 jhdG deh ,k GeCG 15 `d ddG ,GQShjdGh ,IQdG GQjfGJh
dG a qdG ,(Three-Terminal, Transfer Molded Case) ddG dG KK
.
k T TO-218 jhd HdGh ,-4-27
ddG hCG bbdG J .GSG HdG fdG d FGH jhdG g Jo
QGdG dG QhO e H J CG j (Tab) Sf IhY Y
e (M e t a l t o M e t a l I n t e r f a c e ) e - d E G - e N G O L c h C G , (H e a t s i n k )
. (H e at - D is s ip at in g B u s b a r ) Q G d G j d U e b h C G c C G Q G M e
ee GSH ShCG IQGd Oe S Y J CG jhd d IhdG J
.ee
LhOdG dG RdG J ,iNCG Mf e
bbQ RQ a IH edGh ,-27-4 dG a qdG TO-116 e ,(DIPs
fdG jhdG Jh c .OjGdG ae jRJ a ,edG GQGdG
Dual-in-Line Packaging )
828
(CG)
()
()
(O)
(`g)
(`g ,TO-205
Through-Holes)
K N ILCG d jc dG dH dG EG
GWCG Y jhdG dG RdG Y dG L
q CG GQGdG Md Y (Mounting
eRQ 5-27 dG qj .GQGdG Md S Y ITe J hCG d j
jhdG Y jh .SOT GQjfGdG Rd Se e J S GP
kHS ch TO-261 q jo cCG dGh ,(SOT-23 k H S f ch) TO-236
.SOT-223
e jhdG L
cjEG
QjfGdG db
edG W
e S
YdG dG
(SdG)
YdG dG
SOT QjfGJ jhd U e :5-27 T
bdG Ad OjGdG VY fe
e b S e (LED Numeric Display Modules) OjG`d bQ fe Jo
qeo SH jhH dGdG J K SSCG IOe dEG jOa dGb HQ N
dG f SdH CJ eYh .dG jd (Slots) T Y J
dG a e g c ,FV HfCc dG J ,(d hCG H ee)
dG LED dH IAdG dG SGH (Character) M c j .8-13
E. Mh A e hdG dch bQCG ac J jh .AdG fCG V
e (7 * 5 Dot Matrix)h ,ASCII hM e kaM 64 d b 16 VY jh
.128 `dG ASCII hM L J j LEDs
dG u
n odG jRJ
GP DIP RQ a k f (Optocoupler Packaging) jdG dG RJo
YdG Sd fOCG dGh .6-12 dG a e g c ,dG odG
G f C G J h .5000 VAC d G M I L C G N e h L e H F H d G d
ILCG a FdGh dG jdG odG dEG N384 Mh N254 R dG
dG dEG N334 Mh N294 J a ,FdG GQjfGdG Le
.(Photodarlington Output Devices) FdG dQGO N ILCG a jdG
LhOdG dG dG RnQp
c ,(Dual-In-Line Packages DIPs) LhOdG dG dG eRQ GJ
a jhdG W Oj IC. FbQ RQ a GSG FT ,-4-27 dG j
IdGh .eRpdG fL e fL c a jRGdG dG a eRdG HdG OH
U YJ .HdG cGe H (2.5 mm) 0.1 in g DIP `d SdG (Pitch)
.e Rd G a H d G O Y Y k GO YG f E G 0.9 h 0.6 , 0.4 , 0.3 `H H d G
H (Gap) a ad cCG fe S e YdG dG Hdh
dG H dG Y d dPh GQGdG Mdh DIP e dG AdG
.eRdG J Jo CG j dG KdG dGREh
qU H bQh N e e dG QWEG W e DIP jRJ j
W dEG bbdG HJo .ddG JG S e eRdG He ac j (Web)
Uh J c NGdG dG dEG jdG bbdG GOaQ e SCG HJh QWEG
.dG Gg e zdG HQ{h zbbdG hCG ddG HQ{ `H UdG JdG a
cjEH jh (Mold) db NGO mFH edG (Assembly) dG Vj
jdGh bbdG Y J e RGe H cjEG e b jd
Protective) jM J VdG QWEG W j .HdG GWC NGdG
M j CG b QWEG jJ N e IM HdG jf Jh ,(Plating
.SCG dEG HdG
e e kaU J dG (DIP) S GQGdG Md U d
eEG LjEG j eY ,IXdG (DIP) He e J dGh dH dG dG
Matching) fQe jQHCG GSG j ,dP e jch .kJeJhCG hCG kjhj
AfG b fe dEG LJh GJ CG j ILCG CG kbe c e GPEG (Sockets
833
DIP
bbdG eM
e dG dd e dG Heh ,QGe AS GP IC eRQ g
W e hCG (Cavities) GdG Jh .HQCG adG e Iaf f e H e
W Y bbdG eM J CG j .RdG Me e NGdG dG
.SdG hCG dG e eEG J gh ,(Leadless) Y J hCG
,(Ceramic Leaded Chip Carrier CLCC) dG aN bbdG eM J
j d Gh H d G I O e e d G GQ G d G a ,C G-6 -27 d G a d G
H bdG e fC hCG dG d VY fC eEG (Socket) e dEG HQ
LGJ .GQGdG Md AH Y N d hCG J Y jCG J H
Memory) IcGdG IC hCG ,bQ IC hCG ,KJ IC jRd ke 84 dGH CLCCs
MEH N jh ,ddG bKdG GP dGh jdG eGSd (IC
.dG KdG e NGO IC bbQ jd
Y (Leadless Chip Carriers) dG ehe IdG bbdG eM J
GOadG dEG J j d jhdG J e J ,J f Ib GWCG
.GQGdG Md S Y HdG
dG a dG ,PLCC W Y jhdG Z SdG bbdG eM EG
JjhM aqJh .edG H e c bCGh k GQ fG cCG g ,-6-27
KJ f ee GQGO Rd PLCCs qJ .kaW 124h 18 H hGJ GWCH
dGh ,jhdG ddGh ,UdG fCG IcGPh ,eh
a c GQGdG f kaW 124 GP PLCC Jh .(Microcontrollers) jhdG
.kpe 24 `dG GP DIP
GWCG dEGh bbdG H U J d e b b dG e M Y f c a j
835
(CG)
()
()
SOIC-16 ( ,PLCC-44
IodG T ae
(2.5 mm) 0.1 in e bGC AS GP e SH (Ball-Grid Array BGA) eRQ g
S Y He SGH dG dG GP ICs `d S d J kYJQG
Pin-Grid) HdG T ae eRQ BGAs eRQ Jh .GQG dG M d
(Solder Bumps) UdG HM e S Y gDhGMG M e (Arrays PGAs
UdG Gc JJ .HdG e
k jH jhdG SCG a (Balls GdH dG)
Md Y (Contacts) edG f e Hj H HJh eRdH JJ d
.dG Y N GQGdG
836
dG RdG
He Jh jhdG IYb dEG He Jh IUh N IC RQ g
He GP iNCG J a ,a jRGe L e dG RdG GfCG H
.c HQCG dG e WCG
(14 mm) 0.55 in VdG GP SdG (Flatpacks) dG RdG J
.(1mm dGE 0.7 mm) 0.039 in dGE 0.026 in `H NBG Y e c Yj e 100 dGE 44 Y
dEG 0.028 in H (CER Packs) adG dG RdG VY hGjh
.(1.3 mm) 0.05 in aH 24 dEG 16 `dG HdG YJh (9.9 mm dEG 7.1 mm)
Je e RdG g a dG HQh (Die-Attach) ddG-d nJp HJh
.adG DIPs a
0.039 in
jhdG IdG T ae
d a J (Micro-Ball-Grid
Array MBGA)
Ie BGAe RnQp g
.dG IC bbQ
837
HdG T ae
HdG e T hCG ae Y jhM He aN RnQp g
aJ .(Bed of Nails) edG IOSh H (2.5 mm) 0.10 in YJ ( PGAs
f ke 256 `dG GP PGA `dG J .256h 64 H hGj GWCG e OH PGAs
(Sockets) HGb aJ .kaW 124 `dG GP bbdG eM e GQGdG Md Me
. P GA F d j O Y K a e G P
Pin-Grid Array)
838
h d G h e d G dG
eT If
b dGh GQG dG M d (Miniaturization) ( J) j J JCG d
839
. Y e I Q G O M d :1-28 d G
dG GQGdG Md J
: g U C G K K d E G j d G PC M d J j
QKBG Y Jh ,(Single-Sided Board SSB) MG dG L dG M d (1
Ye oU Qh e kf fqe gh ,IMGh L Y GOadGh UdG
.Sf AH (Laminated) seoh ddH YqdG LdG dCGh ,dH
gQKBG qJoh ,(Double-Sided Boards DSBs) dG hCG rLdG GdCG (2
843
q
dEG 4 kdM e FdGh ,W 60 e j e Y H j bh ,W 16 dEG
Z LdG dCG e W HQ hCG H IOY MdG g nJo .W 6
Preformed Copper) qe Z Sf QKBG e Jh (Uncured Fiber) ddG
d He GQhS AGLEG H MdG J dG Y AfCG Hh (Traces
Y UdG e H d dG GQ L f e CG ,DSBs H IdG
J a ,(Power Planes) bW Uh c dG H j bh .dG
.(Ground Planes) VQCG UJ c iNCG
IQGdG - Md J
jdG dG J IQhS
Vh g (Circuit Board Manufacturing) IQGdG Md d dhCG IdG EG
dG fqdG ad (Footprints) bGe jJ hCG e qj fH SQ
qjh .MdG J OhM V bdG ceCG a MdG Y HJo hCG oS
hCG Se Qqj CG udG eEHh .MGh Lh GP Md
k e 1-28 d G
FdGh d kah LdG IOe hCG ,LdG hCG ,MGdG LdG Md he
.J a gNqj dG FdG
f qd MdG N J LGdG dG a c b e S dG q j
.HQ OGdG (Hardware) fhdEG fqdGh (Leaded Components) UUdG
dYh ,MdG a YJQGh ,fqdG H kdY qdG j CG bqjoh
S SCG (Artwork) SdG g qJh .IQGd gjJ eoh ,fhdG
SQ jh .dG hCG ddG d (Design Prototype) dhqCG dG fE
844
dGh dG IQhS
(Photomask) jdG dG VJ dG bOh jdG dY PCBs d
FS hCG U AH e J dGh ITe SdH qdG qdG AZ Y
.(Photoresist) FdG dG g Ad heh dG a qTCd Sq M
.dSh Le FdG dG Gg e Yf dgh
qdGh dG e c Vqjoh AdH IdG qdG a jdG dG VJ
Ad he g dG FdG dG J j CG Hh .dG a TCd
FGdG AGLCG H hJ a Jh SdG AGLCG qJ Fc e a OdG
IQhd kahh ,nUodG QKBd dS hCG Le IQU dG Jh .dG a
.2-28 dG a qeo g c ,IQdG (Etch Process) dG
Fc qe g (QdG dEG) 2-28 dG a qdG ddG FdG dG EG
,dHh FdG dG e qdG AdG J bh GPEG jh dj (Resist)
Y H odG d ehe J ,dG a qTCd VqJ Yh
TCd VqdG e e fc dG dG We a GJ dG bdG a .dG
g dGh .dG dG a fHhd dG dG N dG a
.d dS IQU
We e AdG dGREGh SdG AdG Y (Etch) f GMEG mFH jh
.IdG IOdG jRCG M dG
846
d E G) 2-28 d G a d G L d G F d G d G E a ,d P e d G Yh
dG e dG AdG J c GPEG jh dj FV qe g (dG
SdG AL j Yh .dG a qTCG e ke j dHh jdG
VdG dG We GJ a dG Y H dG d kehe Gg
f j iNCG Iqeh .dG e adG AGLCG N dG a TCd
.FdG qdG jRCG M dG We a b hCG SdG AdG
dH W IOYEG j MdG CG LdG FdG qdG GSG FGa e
Y qdG QNG qSDjh .aVEG Ue pc fK Ie jJh FdG
H Y Jh e VY GP Ue N Y dG e qe eGY
.dG J LQOh ,UdG ac Y dch ,qe aH
jH H
FV qe
dS
qe AZ
SdH
FV qe
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qe qe
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848
FV H
he
Sf AZ
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SSCG
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()
(CG)
d Geo qe
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dH W
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()
(O)
SdG e je
(Etched) QdG
dG UdG d
(`g)
hdG YW IQhS
MGdG LdG GP MdG d (Printed-Resist Process) jdG g J
dG IQhd jH g dGh .QdG fEG a dG L dGh
ShCG d LfEG FdG dG a Jo dG (Subtractive Process)
Sf AH qe Md Y ITe IQH ehdG dG d (Screens)
.(Copper Foil Laminated Board)
oSG fCG EG (Silk Screen) jdG e TH j SdG c HdG a
eGSG Oj CG j IOe gh CGd HdG Z jdG e SCG H
.Yhe fc dEG aVEH
SdG e AL Cjo ,(Photolithography) fhdEG dG FGW GSG idh
IdG IOdG Nd (Open Mesh) Me K e kf J Ld IOH
N IOdG bE ZOEG Y e S Jo K .(Photoresistive Ink)
.dG Z MdG We dEG dG g
849
aVEG IQhS
IQh d c dG IQh dG g (Additive Process) a VEG IQh S EG
LQdG FHdG QdG J jH SdG SJ qj ah ,UfEG
Md Y ke Vh K (Adhesive Coating) U Z Y (Electroless)
.(Blank Board) ZQa
ah .MdG Y FfG IQH jo CG SdG dG UdG IOdG YJ
.SdG e AH dhCG SdG SGdG (cS) pK dEG jo M GN
hCG UUdG - jdG H UdG eJo ,UfEG IQhS a eCG g ch
jW Y Jo dG SdG qJh dG IAc d jdH Jo
FdG e mFH SdG LSGh SdG Y dG c naJ aVEG
J dG FdG GSG e qd he Jh .dG a IYdG
dG IaGd H dG FGdG dch UN OW FShh GhOCG dEG
.qdG e d SdG
dH qjo e jJ UfEG jW e J CG aVEG jd j
LdG Md a edGh (Plated-Through Holes PTHs) kY dG
.Oqe fe f W IQhH jdG g qJoh .LdG IOdGh
kYo dG W IQhS
jJ a e KCJ (Plated-Through Holes PTHs) IQhdG g jd c
aVEG IQha .LdG IOeh LdG GP fhdEG MdG YU
Hd MhdG dG a (Metal Eyelets) fe qY ZOEG jd k GM Vhn
.bKe b dEG aVEH bd eh e jW gh ,UdG dG
dG HQ Ue hCG NGO dc d dG dG jW Jh
(jQHCG) He dG dG a ,dG c hCG IMGh L dEG ZdG
Mh YCG dEG OdG dG j dG Y Nh .fqdG bC
.fK HGQ jd jdG IgdG H (Leads) bCG
850
dG IOqe MdG J
GaQ H (Multilayer Board Fabrication) dG IOqe MdG qJ
FGW e jW CH (Partially Cured Laminate) ddG FL qe Y QKBGh
.kHS MT qJ dG (Pattering) dGh (Photolithography) FdG aGZdG
UQ mFH j .MdG a dhdG J e IOdG dG hJh Gg
ddG dEG aVEH dGh IQG dG SG H HQh (Stacking) dG
dG dC J .(Monolithic Board) qUGe jOMoCG Md jJh d H
J CG feEH ,cCG hCG W HQCG e kf dG IOe Md NGdG
dG j .NGO jQCJ hCG ,IQd Ue S hCG NGO Ue Y
, J W O Y Y d G q H , j d G h Y d G h , j Q d G PC M d S d G
dG f bdG a MdG aqM qSJ f Jh .(1.6 mm) 0.0625 in dGM
Card) bdG aqM pUe fc GPEG ,fdG GaQh UdG a J
q
HGc g aqdG eGd J .GSH IOdG g (Edge Connectors
d dPh gdH e IOY J dG bQdG aM UH Jd (Plugs)
d dh .eGdG J CG hO UdG H fGh JQH J
Two-Piece) dG FK YdG GQGdG Md Ue a LM eGdG
.(Printed Circuit Board Connectors
851
dG S GQGdG Md
k GQNG IqdGh ,(Surface-Mount Circuit Boards) MdG g dCG d
,fhd
E G bdGh MdG a zdG{ kY dG dG dGE LdG ,SMT
Y jdG Z jdG J MdG g a .Y IdG LddGh
e dN Md a GadGh UdG S dEG ITe (Leadless) bCG
Surface-Mount PC) dG dG GP PC Md J (Hole-Less) dG
q
CG EG MdG jOMoCG MdG GSG e SMT IQhS nqSh dh .(Boards
AGM ,dY GQGO ach , bQ V Y N Y j e F dG
FK MdG a LdG c kHS
q j c dG MGh Lh Y f fqdG
adG a IOjdG g J d .dG IOe MdG W M hCG ,LdG
ae Y J dG SMT fqe e (GQGdGh fhdEG fqdG OY)
adG gh ,(2.3 mm) 0.10 in e UCG H (Finer Pitch) k GL IU Ua
.UUdG jdG fd NBG ceh ce H UdG
LdH dG IQhS
GQGdG Md QKBG Jo (Wave-Soldering Process) IQhdG H dG bo
zkWQ{ OdG UdG j d UUdG - jdH fqdG GaQ Kh
UUdG Z fqdG ee Lj c .d dG dG ac jh
e edG j d dPh ,MdG Y J M kbDe AGdH UUdH edG hCG
Y Jh .jdG J CG hO dG ce Y Vhh jJh MdG
Pick) zdG a Vh dEG{ aUdG dG e Ac IOY g bDdG dG
fqdG d JeJhCG Y L d H dG EG .(and Place Operation
e LdH dG jh .GQGdG Md dEG UUdG hCG UUdG Z fhdEG
qJJ CG b LdG jd (Nozzle) Sqe N QdG UdG aO N
c ,Ie IQH gjhJh J Oj M hdG GqdG b dEG LGQ
Dual) LdG FK d IMd e SQ jo dG 4-28 dG a eo g
q
q
e VH MOdG GQGdG Md Vh a dhCG IdG CGJ .(Wave Unit
ce Jh .(6 ft/min) 20 ft/min Y jJ YH j Fe bf GMp Y
dqdG LdG Meh ,(Preheat Stage) dG b e Me Y LdH dG
LdG YS AH dG jh ,(Exit) kLe K ,(Active Wave Stage)
.cCG LdG Y dG qe cE
LdG Y UdG e k Ge kaZ ,HdGh qdG ,dhCG LdG uSJo
J hCG UUdG fqdG - ac dH je ,PC `dG Md (Underside) NGdG
WJQG ac AfEG LdG g e jo .UUdG Z dch kbDe dG
LdG eh .MdG e dG AdG a bqDdG AGdG dGREGh ,UdH UdG
dG UdG qj (Laminar Flow Wave) dG afG fG e fdG
Y K jCG NGO Ud Se fG d dhCG LdG a qSJ
dG Fe H J .H JdG UdGh (Plated Trough Holes) AdG
853
GQGdG Md
MdG JG
UdG fG
QdG
UdG
q n pe
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UdG GqN
QdG
e
J
. L d H d G I Q h S :4-28 d G
jRdG ddH dG Y
IOYEH d jW g (Vapor-Phase Soldering Process) jRdG ddH dG EG
fqdG Hd J ,5-28 dG a qe g c (Reflow Soldering) adG
VJ .kFe SMT dG dG jHh ,GQGdG Md dEG fhdG
Y (Eutectic) UCG UUdG - jdG UH HbCG qZ dG fqdG
IM a (Assembly) cdG VJ K .jdG H Iq e GaQ e MdG
(215F) 419C e J JQGMh (UdG QH hCG)
q RZ U Y J
qj dG (Fluorinated Hydrocarbon) QrnodG HchQdG FS QH H
QfG IQGM LQH dG qjh .MdH fqdG dGh UdG aO IOYEG
LQH kjfK k GQH fCG H j .FdG Gg Z LQO SGH bH
854
bf
fK QH
48C
[117F]
dhCG QH
215C
[419F]
eN FS
e
e
J
IOYEG IQhS
Md aO
GQGdG
q S
WZ
. j R Z d M a O I O Y E G - d f :5-28 d G
dG S LddG
g (Surface Mount Technology SMT) dG dG Ld J EG
S Y GaQ Y UUQdG fqdG d a j YU LdJ
.6-28 dG a qeo g c ,K Y J GQGO Md
e AGHG fqdG H UdG gdG ac SMT LdJ Jh
dG Mh ,LddG d qdG fhdEG fqdG Jh dG
GqdGh GhOCG dEG aVEG K Y jhdG Z GQGdG Md dGh
Y b MdG dEG SMT fd bdG dGh ,Vhh ,d eR dG
.YdG IdGh ,QNGh ,dG J jdG Ea dP Y
k a .dG
Mh ,dGh dG Jh ,fqdG ac a jGdG SMT ae J
.nJrnDeo J FGW N e dG c Jh ,GQGdG Md
.dG J a d dG dGh dG b dGREG Y gJh
855
SH bbQ eM
UUQ -
U RQ
r en
U
H fqe
bbQ
IQGdG Md
857
dG he
CG b e jh PC Md qj AW g (Solder Resist) dG he EG
SSCG Xh EG .LdH dG Y hCG ,jRdG ddG d Me N U
qJ d dG PC Md e WdG g a fG hCG QdG UdG NCG jJ
Y N IOe Z U Wb qJ MG e j fCG c .UdG fH
.qdG e PC Md Ue Y ajoh LdH dG
We a bqDdG fdG jo .FGOh bDe :UdG fe e Yf dg
g Jh .UdG NCG e qe S Y ad PC Md a IQe
.dG de a H hj d WTCG hCG ,We J OGe Y fGdG
W a J FGS hCG Ad fe FGS H a FG dG fG dG eCG
.bW ZCG H dch ,TdG
qdG dG Md
qdG LLdG dCG e Md g (Wire-Wrap Boards) MdG g EG
fCH SqdG jOdG HqdG IYCG e ae Y Jh cjEH
dGh HdG SGH f dEG f HdG pd IYCG J .MdG Y e
j SCG
q d Y EG .IYCGh jOdG hdG dG jf H dG
.JDdG SCG
q d Fe WSH hCG jhj GhOCG SG H k jh j gDhG LEG
Jda CG hCG ,da J j fhdEG ILCG a MdG g J
ILCG hCG ,ATE JeJhCG dG RL eCG eh .dG H d VYo
dGSG j (dG J) UCG dG c hCG AL EG .dG JG
.V IOYEG hCG dG Xh a GqJ S kfGe
dG MdG
Oc J GQGO Md gh .(Backpanel) LCG dH kjCG Jo
Md gh .qeo fhdEG f V cCG hCG (bH hCG) Md H Hd a
c ,e U H Ye GQGO Md Uh Y qKo IU GQGO
CG MdH IOY dG MdG Y q Jo .7-28 dG a q eo g
GQGdG MH H JdG GQGdG Md H qJo a (Motherboards)
J jH dG M IOY dG MdG qJo .(Daughterboards) dG
hGjh FR-4 cjEH qdG LdG dCG e Ye e dGh PCB.
Y GQGdG J eEH .(6.4 mm 1.5 mm) 0.250 in h 0.060 in H cS
dEG
k Uh dG IOe L jh ,dG MdG Lh c hCG MGh Lh
aCG FHc qUGN aqJ CG dG IOe dG MdG eEHh .W 12
.dG LdG FK MdG e
dG
q J ,ICs ee GQGOh jS d qdG dG MdG a
,(Ground Loop) VQCG dGh ,(Voltage Drop) ddG QGfGh ,(Capacitance)
e (0.8 mm) 0.030 in e J dG NGdG SdG W aqJh .fO LQO dGE
.MdG d Y QJ f IQb e Lj
859
Ue
PC M d I O e
SSCG
. d G M d G :7-28 d G
861
862
h d G h S d G d G
eT If
f qdG e qfh dE d (Hardware) j OqdG fq dG Q J d
863
d G h , (Wire ) d c : J G P c G d G Y J G J h , b C G F H d G
S d G h , (Insulating Blocks ) d G c h , (Connectors ) U d G h , (Cable )
Qq Wo j OqdG f qdG e IjL GfCG dG Y R H bh .(Fastners)
GhOCGh ,(Sockets) HdGh UdG HdG Uc qfhdEd kN
pdG e f a ,Q dG FGOh e f IQh S gh .(Adapters) p U dG
, (Solid State Circuitry ) d G d d G G Q G O d E G (Electron Tube ) f h d E G
fdG FHdG GdCG GS eh GQGd dG d a NG
dEG IQb eh (Tube Sockets) HdG epU e U Y jdG
f e dG Y SGh Hh gQhH g JCG bh .dG GQGdG Md
qdGh ,IdG Ud dG Sa (Point to Point Wiring) iNCG dEG
. (Enclosures )
SCc jdG qfhdEG jOe Y dG SG jW Gdh
d G J d G M h , (Insulated Hookup Wire ) d R d G U d G S C G h C G d G
Flat ) d G j d G c h , Q d G e d G h (Flexible Telephone Cord )
e d G j e h e C G E G , (Knobs ) f h d E G J d G h (Ribbon Cable
c K C J d c (Interchangeable ) G S d H b f h d E G f e Y d d G
.edG ddG dG LM J d fqdG g Jh J Yf Y
g a ge J dEG dG bh dG fe b Y dG J OCG bh
.fhdEG LdG
dG FGO dG IaGe a fhdEG YdG e AdG Gg SGh
.K a c bCGh cJ a bO cCG d dGh
qfhdEd S
, (Hookup
Wire )
dG dG QY
d G a d G (Solid Wire Gauge ) d G d G Q Y j j b
a c e C G Q d G E G . (AWG ) c e C G S C G S e a 10 b Q f h d E G
865
hdG dG
d G f h d G e j d L d G Y (Stranded Wire ) h d G d G U j
dG j dP Y
k a .ae e Me e dG dG gaj
.j CG hO dG dG Y kSb GAfGh GRGgG e k Gje hdG
KCJ d d dhe SCG Id KOGdG YdG hCG dG QdG CG c
dG Yb hCG J e fQdH FGOCGh fhdEG dG ehe Y cj
.ehe T hCG W d dG Hb Y gKCJ C dPh dG
26 ,9 ,16 h ,10 h ,7 d f h d E G a F d G U d G G P U d G E G
q
O G Y C G a d h e c h C G S C G 7 h ,19 e e C G , d h d G S C G e c C G h C G
b a He f e) e c M a SCG OY IOjR EG K .
k b cCG
UdG Rh Sj .c YCG j fCG EG fhe cCG dG dP J (dG
fe OY Y k GOYG ,hdG dG a jFGdG mil `dG Me e kjOW
Me kjJ hJ hdG d jFGdG mil `dG Me CG EG .bh dG
. d G d G a d F G d G mil `d G
dG W
g d G e a e H S d G d G J g (Wire Plating ) d G W
h C G d H d G j h , (Solderability ) d G I Q b J h c C d G d
L Uc jdH dG SdG dG j .dG d dG
d G S d G d G j j h 150C Y j J L Q H I Q G d V j C G j T
Yh .SdG Ue e bCG Ue C SdG dG ehe jdH
e jj CG dH dGh eH dG SdG dG eEH ,dG
. e h e e d P j j C G hO 200C d E G 140C gh a
k eY j IQGM bCG
dM RJ ddG dG Ue C OOdG dY GQGdG a kFe j dHh
866
Operating )
dGh bGdG dG
e e G f C G (Protective Insulation and Jacketing ) d G d J
Yf GPh IQGdH J JGQh ,(Thermoplastic) QGdG SdG
QO hCG ,jT hCG ,dhCG Y a UJ HGc OGdG g Jh .SH
GjQc HdG T NCJ dG dhCG dRdG IOdG Jh .c hCG ,Gh
KCG e IOe dhCG h ,(Polyvinyl Chloride PVC) dG IOe
,fHchQdGh ,(Polyolifins - Polyetylene, Polypropylene) IOdG HhdGh
. PFA ` d G h FEP ,TFE d c
OYG UdG S
j T h C G U O M C G U e (Hookup Wire ) O Y G U d G S E G
ie UGdG g Jh .dGh ,CSA ,UL UGH d uoU he
d hCG ,Y GP hCG ,e jH MdG jQdG SCG e e kST
g e dh dG a k GgL jh Sb H jo Hh .e
3 2 A W G H O Y G d G Q Y h G j h . d G L d k a h j S C G
. 12 AWG h
dG GQGdG Md UJ S
(Packplane) dG MdG S hCG (Wire-Wrap Wire) Gg UdG S j
d hO NBG dG Y dH Jd e bQ OYG UJ S gh
dH geh U dG Ggh .H e GQGO UJ a e Ojh
ndG hCG d eheh JOd dPh dRdG Kynarh Tefzel JOH hCG
j h . S G h Q G M i e J G P h e Z f d d c h , (Stripping )
867
hOdG hdG dG
d c b C G U d G g (Twisted Wire Pairs ) h O d G h d G d G E G
Gj gh dG OGeh dG SGh H ajh .FHdG GQTEG
e ad VJ e ZdG Y fdG fh GQTEG SQEG a j
U d G g J . (Fiber Optic ) j d G d C G h Q d G I e d G
g a FdG RdGh ,20 AWG dEG 30 AWG ,(Stranded) jT H kf
OdG KEG hCG ,Teflon FEP WG dG R dGh , dG PVC ` dGh ,PVC
. (Polyethylene )
fhdEd c
S C G e I O Y h c C G h C G U e e (Cable for Electronics ) d G G g j
dEG dG J jh . e Z a dG hCG j dG S dG
hCG dG e GfCG HQCG dgh dH ehRe hCG RGdH dhe Ue
:g
300 ohm hn ,90 ohms hn 50 ohms
hC G d G d c ) d R d G I O d G e W H Z e d h e Z U e (2
.(dG dG dG
.(h d G d c ) H e L e hC G e e I O e d h e SC G (3
. e H f C G A Z V I Q e I O e d h e SC G (4
868
dG dG c
Z SCG OY SH (Common-Insulation Cable) dG dG c jo
.ba ee SH AZ jd (Etruder) KH N kfBG HdG dhdG
.JdG jdG dG gh QGdG S KdG U Th M Oj
:ddG SdG N e b jJh UdG J j
.dG aM Y jdG d He
Copper) QdG SdG e iNCGh I pe U e
q
. (Conductor
.IMGh L Y IRQdG fYdG hCG aqdG
dG dG
,(Planar) me S Y FdG dH (Flat Cable) dG dG jh
.RY SGH H JdG jRGdG UdG e OY e e gh
jFGO c f e J fe GOe OLh Y dG g J
M j H fe fc dEG aVEH RdGh MdG aJ a ,kU k GeCG
qJ dc .aGZHW fc e VQCG T nd ,IOdG jGhdG M
Uc J fCG IdG JS eh .dH IQGdG SGdG VdG Me
Ue a dG jdG Y Y e J Ueh Ue H e
k G e C G (Mass-Termination Insulation Displacement Connectors MTIDCs ) M G R E G
.kjObGh
k S
e a RdG H N e dG dG e kYT cCG TCG J
e N B G d Gh . S d G hC G I d G U d G e j RG e I Q hO 64 Y j
a d d G d G e C G , (Rainbow Cable ) M b S d G d G g d G d G
(Sandwiching) ZOCG e dGh (Flat Laminated Cable) FdG dG dG
IQGdH hCG U SGH HQ qK RdG e W H jRGe e Ue
.dGh
869
hdG dG dG
Polyvinyl )
QdG dG dG
e j Q H Ohe e c g (Shielded Flat Cable) Q d G d G d G E G
Ge QN eGSH j e adG dG e Zh Sf jL
e jcdG AGLCG d jh .f e e fe H j c ,QdG
(D hCG D f Ue cd e Jjf kcQJ Ic fhH Mh dh dG
. Type Connector)
dG KdG dG
dG a qe g c ,(Extruder Flat Cable) dG KdG dG j
SGH dYh HQ sJ jdG SdG e kjT
k U e 28 AWG Y 1-29
9 Y dG jh .kf FGd he PVC e (Extruding Resin) KH JGQ
870
. d G K d G d G :1-29 d G
jdG dG
g (Rainbow Cable ) M b S d G d G h C G (Ribbon Cable ) j d G d G E G
`dH kHS dY sJ fe SCG e jhe GWCG HQ jH qeo e c
HGdG GfCG e NBG f CG e cCG kfRhh Me aJ dH gh ,PVC
a jh .SCd IdG GdCG J dS SSCG ae eh .dG
HGdG e dG Gg hj .dY IOH QGVEG hO dH he Ue c
(1.3 mm) 0.050 in QGH SdG dG Ue YJh 1-29 dG a c kje
.cGdG a
dG jdG c
h e h e S H (Woven Ribbon Cable ) d G j d G c j
e N B G f C G e f h e c C G d H g h (Planer ) e g d PVC ` d H
OLEG e d UCe e d dG IQhS Jh .dG HGdG
.UdG fhe c d j H
871
QdG e dG
h C G k G U e E G j M G h N G O U e (Coaxial Cable ) Q d G e d
. (Dielectric Core ) F H c R Y e Q e a S d G e G h Z e h
k he
Gdh .2-29 dG a qe g c ,jd PVC `dG IOH bGdG dG jo
LQN Gh M
e Z
HdG Qe
SSCG
jT Ue
NGO he
. Q d G e c :2-29 d G
G g j h ,4 GHz M h 1 kHz e A G H G RF G Q T E D d G d G a K C J d G
c j J U e e d G Q d G e d G j .TV h FM b f i d G
f dG jh .(Triax) cjdH Ue KK e qdGh ,(Twinax)
G O O J f a (Metal Sheathing ) f e Z Y d G Q d G e d G
b f C RF a c M d E G J a , e j d G i N C Gh j Ghh j d G
H dG{ kjCG fG) .dG QdG e dG AfG e cCG AfG
.(zUHF `d Gh j Ghh j d G L d J { d G 7 d G a z Q d G I e
dG dG c
W T C G h C G M G h j T Y (Fiber Optic Cable ) d G d G c j
dG Vj CG hO e edH j Gh AZ NGO jH dCG e IOe
QOb SdG hCG LdG e T OMCG d Y IQY dCGh .CGd dG
Jh FdG dG WdG a ,FHc hCG bQ ,de FV GQTEG f Y
. H H c 3-29 d G j h .A G d G
ae Y jdG GQTEG f a
k J cCG SdG LLdG dG j
872
d b
Gh M
Qe
J
QGO
. H H d :3-29 d G
i d G d G d h C G d G j h , (Multimode Fiber ) f C G I O e
Short-Haul ) j d G d f d G d G j a , (Long-Haul Transmission )
. (1 km) 0.6 mi Y j dGh (Transmission
dG dG c a edG bGdG dG IOeh dG IOe Jh
.dGh SdG SCG a edG JOdG
fhdEG dG J
dG dG c e
R j (Common-Insulation Cable Assembly ) d G d G c e a
jh .dG Z a Zj d k GU
k c CG kS cCG ,Ue c (jo)
dGh dG dP cJh f L Y c hCG S c a fdG dG
IdG RdG Jh .YCG J ah IQGdG J a k GYe fc GY
k S
UdG dh .kjFGO kVY ke IOY dG dG GP dhdG Ud
.e Z ke ke J dG OGYCGh IdG QbCG GP
GPh OdG b Ue e cdG dG a (Fillers) GdG sJo
873
.LQdG dG J j b dG fG Yh dG jd Ic QbCG
GP dG N a k GL kUe
k a aJh dG e e J Gda
Heavy Duty ) d G M G c a I O Sh e c J d c . d G d G
, G S G F T G d G e h . I Q e K V d V d G (Cables
OdG jdGh ,dGh ,dGh ,FHd UdG Z dG dG
. h d G h I O d G j d G e j O M C G d C G h , (Polythylene )
e IOe ee M kfhM dh e N g (Binders) HQCG EG
O j h . (Jacketing ) d G a e G S G j h S J d d h e U e
hCG ddG j a KdG edG Jh a a fdG HQCG e
e e M I O Y (Tape ) j T j . U N d G c a H h d d G
QGVCG dh fdG GSG AS V aVEG jc dhdG UdG
UdGh OZCG H jdG
s a . U dG Y J CG j dG
OLh CG c dG b hCG jJ Y e jdG j dc .IQhdG
.d kYf kLQN kS j
jh .bQdG jdG dEG aVEH kYT zjdG{ OGe cCG e ddG j
.kdW hCG kfhM eEG IOY jdG
gh .(Sheath :Z L) OZCG kfMCG Jh (Jackets) LQdG ZCG EG
KCJ dEG aVEG ,fdG CGdGh dG V Y aJh UdG dG J
.eH
k c hCG k GMGh
k Ue LQdG dG jh .QdGh ,bGdG FdG
0.006 in h 0.002 in H hG J d G O H C a N GO A c j d G j e Yh
hCG dG IOe e IOY LQdG AdG jh .kcS (0.15 mm dEG 0.05 mm e)
b b e dG a 10 qJ dG ,jjQddG hCG ,jHdG hCG ,ddG
e SGh H j d dG a IOY LQdG dG jo .dG
ac Ad dH eJ LQdG jHdG ZCG H CH ,kY .Yf j
fCG EG ,U Yf H dG jhH J ah dG b a IOLdG GdG
e e H NGdG a UdG Y j d e J hCG dGREG j
874
. (Barrier ) L M h C G (Separator ) U H J h C G , S d G
a J d d h , G M Gh d I O e W a g PVC ZC G E G
Ad dG Vj M jHdG jh .edG VGZCdh dG c
he fCG c dG hO IQGM LQH dG j h .Sb hGJ hCG GSG
hCG VQCG a aJ CG jHdH dG d jh .dGh hRhCGh jd
. I Q S e h C G , e M h C G , U h C G , (Conduit ) f C G a S J
V F g e h e j h ,j H d G UG N a c (j Q J I O e ) Hypalon a j
.IQGdGh ,cCdGh ,hRhCG
HdG H c e GSG qfhdEG e e jdG jh
.GSG Ad dG Vj eYh ,J b LQdG
QdG e dG J
hCG IU SCG e kf QdG e d NGdG UdG J
bCG dG J j .dG hCG jdH eh kSb qe Sf e dhe
jh .SdG UdG e XJ fhe CG EG ,IdG UdG GSH
IdGh fdG NCG Y dh ,IRdG FHdG UGd qdG SdG dG
FH hCG SdH IdG jjdG UdG Ea QYG H fdG
OGe N VdG bdG a J .keGSG ddHh Ib cCG g SdG
KCG ddG Y SDe e HQCG ,k F H c Q dG dG b d
KdG jCG ddGh .FEP dG e e dG j a (Polyethylene)
dPh kFHc dG b d keGSG cCG g (Extended Polyethylene)
Fe Z keY dh .IL FHc UGN gaJh fdG d
K C G d d G e C G 80C Y a d G I Q GM j J d G c e C G a G S d
PVC ` d G e d G d G Z h Q d G C G E G , G M d H b a (Polyethylene )
OGdG H e YCG j FHc Y HK KCG ddh .dG Gg e j
. (2.27 ) d G d G
875
dG dG c J
d 18 h C G ,12 h C G ,6 h C G ,2 h C G ,1 Y S d G j d G d C G c J
dG OYG a QNd e dgh .GSG H OdG Ojh ,H
I dG e Yh ,(Jacket Component) LQdG dG i e : g dG
dG jd LQdG dG a keGSG cCG fdGh .(Strength Member)
d G G H , K G Q j d d G h , K C G d d G h ,PVC ` d G g d G h e d G V
MGREGh dG dG OSEGh jd dG NGO IdG eGY J .IO Y
, (Kevlar Yarn ) Q d G Z h , S Z d G e G d G g e h , Y G O L E G
.jdG Sh
qfhdEd Uh
(Conductors ) U e H d f e G Q G O I L C G (Connectors ) U d G E G
e a jh .(Seamless) e Zh ,b ehe P UJ ie j Jh
bj gMCG GAL IOY Ud .eh IOe TCGh M UdG
877
Power or )
dG MGRGEh dG Af
E G Uh
.(MTIDCs
bdG aM Uh
GQGdG Md aH J IMGh b zfCG{ Uh g bdG aM Uh EG
(Contacts) SJ Uh bdG aqdh .HG dG cE (Card) b dG hCG
aM NGO SdG Uh q J hCG J L hCG IMGh L Y fe
. d N O E G j M (Edge Connector ) U d G
878
hdGh OdG Uh
IOe Uh g (Post and Box Connector) hdGh O dG Uh EG
f e E G d (Multi-Pin Two-Piece Connector ) b e f e h H d G
dG dEG RGgG hCG FHc ed UdG VJ Y fG OGM M
bh .k G L b HQ e Y (Sockets) jQHCGh IOdG HdG aJ . fOCG
HhQhCG e d jdGh jQdG UGdG aGd UdG g U
.ceCG IdG jdGh
IQTEG
Se fH Sec.
ae VRCG
de fH
3 e fH
4. SQEH dG W
5. SQEG Y aGdG
6. IgL IdG fdG
7. Gnd/Com Rtn IQTEG
8. T .dG IQTEG .SG
9. + da
10. - da
11. ee Z
1.
.14
2.
e fH AL .16
EL.Time ,e GQTEG .17
ee Z .18
SQEH dG ,AL .19
gL fdG W .20
T .Yf IQTEG .21
JU c .22
dG QNG .fH IQTEG 23
DTE Xmitr Sig. EI. Time .24
e Z
IQTEG
.25
13.
SQEd gL Sec.
dG MGREGh dG AfEG Uh
U bh .bdG aM Uh e H a T IMGh b e Uh g
s eo hCG jT c Ud
3 gOYh UdG g MCG SJ f J .
d .CG-5-29 dG a ,qcT SCG fCch MTIDC Uh Ia NGO ee
J Y jOa dhe SCG Y kJGP J CG d J cM jM dG
.dG dG Ue a g SdG f RJ M ,LQN V
f ZOEGh dRdG IOdG S Y cdH dG HdG aM J
g -5-29 d dG dG joh .d fdG SdG SCG a
UG Y Jh Qhe S Sf a RJ gh (SdG f) HdG
j , (Gas Tight Seal ) G R d G Y e N j d L Q d G S j a
f NOEG e keGJ (Termination) AfEG j .NGdG dEG dG NO
dG dM jJh dG MGREG j dG dG e AT e (HdG) SdG
.kJeJCG hCG kjhj eEG dG J jh .(Seal)
880
dG aM
RY
dG jT
WdG
Y
e
Ue
MTIDC SJ Uh
(CG)
fe N
AGd
()
FHc RY
Hb
e
(jW) ja
. d G d G e Q d G e c U h :6-29 d G
881
q T h Pin e e f e ) (Bayonet Style ) F d G d G e b d B G L h O d G
.(e
dEG aVEH dGh dG V jjh JG fGSCG dG j
RF b Wh ,A G d G a d d G K d Gh ,Q d Gh , e C G V d c h ,H Wd G
QdG e UdG AfE GQN Y HGdG Jh .nnodG hCG dG
Dielectric) RdG dGh hdG LQdG UdG HQh , d NG dG
. J G P U d H , (Core
:g LfG ee HQCG dEG QdG Ie UdG J
. (C, N, twinax, trix, UHF ) S d G (1
. (BNC, TNC ) d G (2
. (SMA, SMB, SMC ) d G h O (3
Uh c g 7 h 3.5 e
k c E G . (APC-3.5, APC-7 ) k G L d G h C G b d G (4
.a Ge gQbCG
S d h ,300 MHz d E G J G O O J Y d UHF U h U d
d G S e N d G h .C h N H I O Y a J h ,500 V d E G j d a
d U , (Threaded Couplings) de Y qL JG M dh d h eh
(Matched Impedance) FGe bhe UdG d .1 GHz jd GSd
H , S b , Y H I a e a C U d G e C G .70 ohms h C G 50 ohm d
.2 GHz `d eh ,4000 V e J dY ddh ,10 Hz `d eh ,1500 V Oj da
hO d (Miniature) e qe Uh g QdG I e BNC Uh EG
,TNC U h h .11 GHz d E G J G O O J Y d e d G G M h
.de YqH IOhe ,d ehe GMh g JGP FHdG UGdH
qe ,ee fh ,bO f GMh a ,QdG Ie SMA Uh eCG
j .e d 12.4 GHz j d hC G , U f d 18 GHz d E G J GOO d
.DC H 4 GHz d E G j O O J i e Y
k b UC G SMB Uh G SG
.6 GHz j d j C G V Y C G DC i e Y SMC U d j h
882
I e U d G O H C G L j , L M G g I a G d h . (Standing Wave )
.k GL Sb QdG
e IOY edGh SdG QdG Ie UdG (ZCG) LCG J
YdG bdG LCG J M a ,dH dG UCG SdG hCG ,dG
(Subminiature) dG IjT SMA Ud fdG AGLCG Hh (Couplings Nuts)
Female) fCG edG Jh . e dG CG d h dG j dG e
. g d H d G j d G S f e (Contacts
,fdG AGLCG Hh ,YqdG JbYh ,SMCh SMB Uh LCG qJ
e f C G e d G J a (Half Hand Brass ) h d G U C G S d G e
WCG JGP qL e Hf SGH SMB Uh hGJ h .jdG Sf
. d G h d G d d (Snap Fit Coupling )
,I O Y TFE K hQ j G J d G I O e e Q d G I e U d G RG Y J
jQdG QdG Ie UdG H Jh .LdGh dG e N e hCG
edG WdG J CG j ,dP eh .UQN S e H NdG
Y J h ,RF G a J d G G A d G h C G d G d G e U Q d H
. U Y (Decoupling ) d G h C G (Coupling ) d G
a QdG e dH HJ d QdG Ie UdG J Lj
UdG HQ a e FGW Y Y j e dgh .GN S
d H hCG ,(Clamped) H HQ dG S Y a , d H
. U f c Y T h C G J h C G , e c Y H h C G , (Crimping )
AfE SGh H kdM dG b QdG Ie UdG Jh
J d G G Q T E G h j d G G Q T E G e C W h C G O O d e d G d G (Terminate )
b d G f d G d E G a V E H f h d G d G I L C G h G j d G a (Audio )
Hj a IQTEG NGdG UdG j .JEG fCGh GJdG a
hdG LQdG UdG jh ce Se VQCG a LQdG UdG
884
dG N je
pbn M
S H N
Jh OSEG g
ehZ N
jQCJ f
O RING
. d G d G e U d G I O e j F G O U d V J I Q U :7-29 d G
885
h C G (Coupling ) U h h a U G Y S j F G d G U d d G d G e
d G j h . I Y e G h O C G G S G d E G L d G h O (Uncoupling ) a
dG LQdG idGh dG V jM aVEG Y HGdGh ed fdG
JQG eGd kjCG fdG dG jh .dG UdG Y KDJ
ah ,eCGh ,HWdGh QdGh ,kFGg dG dG e (Mating Contacts)
Z d G Z L Q d G RFI hC G FMI V d G U d G j Y b d G
FGc j CG UdG d dG jQJ OGeG e jj dP Y
k ah ,a
. T C G H N G d G RF b W S Q E G h (Antenna )
jdG GFdG a IH J jFGdG U dG CG h dG e
. (Modular Avionic Cases ) I F d G f h d G j h M U d f d G h
ah iNCG jdG dGh UGdGh QGdG a SG FT fCG c
jOGdG dG Ge a e jQ dG fCG Jh .I YCG L e
.IdG fCG GQhSh YdG JJHdG ah ,fjdGh
Partially )
50 in
QGe fOCG dG a AW jh
888
a h ,G d G f h d G e j d G a (0.8 m 0.4 m)
d E G 15 d G M h
.YdG dG
30 in
889
fhdG fd He
a qfhdEG LdJ a eh IOe e (Socket) e d
h C G , (Plug ) d G h C G H d G J d G h U d G a z f C G { A L J C G j
jh fehdG hCG fhdEG IGOCG H UdG GQGdG Md fe
kjCG gh .GQGO Md a DIP M hCG AGM e He 8-29 dG a
aJh .fhdG fqdG e gZh , (Relay)M
s neo hCG ,IC M Se
:ddG ILCG M Sb jQJ He
.(Dual-In-Line Package- DIP) qdG LhOe Y RQ
.(Single-In-Line Package- SIP) qdG IOe Y RQ
.(Leadless and Leaded Chip Carriers- LCCs) e G M
.(Pin-Grid Arrays- PGAs) H d G T a e
LjEG GQGO Md He
Circuit Board Insertion
f dG a V J dG d d c H dG Jh .28 dG
GJ CG Ljh .dG hCG dG e N I a N G SE d (Component)
odG JGQqGO e EPROMs e GcGP e dEG eh PROM fGdG edG
I O Y E G h d G h C G d EPROMs ` d G h G S d I e PROM ` d a , (Host Circuits )
. S d G DIP M
u eo bGd kjCG HdG Jh .edG
f (Zero-Insertion Force (ZIF) Sockets) (ZIF He) qdG jEG Hd
IdG edG GQGdG dGREGh bEG Y J GQP N e J eJ
RdG Uh j dh .Hd jPDe Zh S IO dG H dG GP
(jHEG) dG a WH H RdG Hb Njo npdG GH fhdEG
(J hCG ) Ha GQdG sJo ceCG a HdG J eYh .dG
e M d E G ZIF H e a O j i N C G M f e . M E H b e a R d G
.ddG ch IdG
jdG dCG Uh
d jdG dCG c a dCG jf H Fa jH HQ J j
j H dCG Uh U bh .(Transmission) dGh dG Y dG
S D j h j d G d C G c (Splicing ) d U N (Fiberoptic Connecters )
dY Qe e dg dh .QdG e dG Uh eJ Y H
Jh .J hO jQdG FSdG e jdG fCG dh ,jdG dCG Ud
e H Hd qdG cdGh fdG edG cT e jdG
.JLCGh gOpnYo d dG e Fj
891
892
K d G dG
eT If
(Circuit Protectors) IQGdG eM
ddG a e jM ILCG
(Overvoltage Protection Devices)
eT If
GQGdGh GQjfGdH (Receiving Tubes) SG eU GSG iOqCG
Y FHdG GQGdGh fhdEG jd IjL LM N dEG edG
IQGdG LQO a L H (Tube Circuits) edG QGdG J .AGS M
iNCG Mf e .J CG hO IQGdG e Ic c keGJ J gh ,JdG
.ddG IQGdG a d VYo Ue fCG Y jhdG ILCG L Ea
AC c , d d G d Y Q O e e j d G G Q G d G E a , d P Y I h Y
J a ,FHdG dG Le a dG MG Y IQOb J ,dG
893
Ea dP Y
k a .ddG IOjH YH Ue fCG Y jhdG ILCG
ec dEG j j d (Electrostatic Discharge ESD) JShdEG jdG
.HfCG GQGdG eR a Oe
QWEG QN IQGdG jH gG e je LJ dEG FdG g Ob d
fCG ILCG SM OqCGh .jd hGe HQ hCG ,(Fuses) UH gJ
jM FSh fE IjL YU b dEG d VqJ YSh UdG
ddG GQGO SM UCGh .dG e eh ,JGeh ILCG d
fdG ac IOjH IQN cCGh CT GP kYVe (Solid State Circuits) dG
.jOdG c eJh edG GQGdG J IOjH dch ,GQGdG Md Y
.ddG ah ESD `dH dG jS fCG MOSICs H KCG dh
M d a d G U d G h , (C i r c u i t B r e a k e r s ) I Q h d G W b J h
IQOb Z fCG a
q T h j T A H , f d G h , J d G h , d G a ,A C e N
IQOb Z fCG c JT IOjRh QdG a e GQGdG hCG SdG ILCG jM Y
j G g h . (T r a n s i e n t V o l t a g e S p i k e s ) d G d d G G N G h M h C G J Y
IQGdG a IQGdG eM GZj CG fhdG fCGh GQGdG e Y CG
J Y j fhdG qe H Ggh .bCG a e dH hCG JGP
e ddG IdG ehdGh Udc FShh jdG ILCG e OY
V g Zh Metal Oxide Variable-Resistors (Varistors) MOVs) ) f e S c C G
VH j kL GJdG e Ea dP Y
k a .Je GQGO
JdG fe ach AC eo H (Surge Protectors) IQdG V jM FSh
.ac jdG fC VdG jdH dc jh .kFHc fdG
,dG AKCG GQGdG Mdh ICs J dG GjdGh QGVCG RaCG d
UdG eMCG e AGHG ,ESD jM Pf e e kYGfCG ,dGh ,dGh
,(Ionizers) jDdGh ,UdG VQCG dGE ,(Grounded Wrist Straps) VQDdG
edG a edG jQd ESD jM eGH Xh .HdG Mh ,jhdGh
.edG GQGdG Md e dch dG jS UdG fCG ILCG e FdG
894
IQGdG eM
jM Y j e IQhO Ua g (Circuit Protector) IQGdG eM EG
jhM hCG hU V IQGdG eM cqJo .QdG a KCJ V fhdG IFGdG
.SdG fhdEG dG
IQhO Wb e bCG FHdG OLEG GP IdG IQhdG Wb Jh
hCG ,dG IQhO Wb e IOY (In Series) J H ,dhCG AC N
P QJ dEG SCG H J CG feEa ,dhCG ,dG hCG ,dG Z
.aCG jM aJ j dHh ,AC N IQhO Wb e bCG M
fhdEG dG a (edG) dG GQGdG e M U d
JdG YCG c ,S hCG Ib NGO fhdEG YCG YCd d
IOdG edG g EG .(Short Circuits) dG GQGO hCG He fe Y
IY fCG Y qU bh cCG IQhdG Wb e de f dG a g Qd
Thermal) jQGdG IQGdG eM hCG eR e hCG ,(Instantaneous Trip) d
.(Circuit Protectors
fBG dG IQGdG eM
Instantaneous Magnetic Circuit)
fBG dG IQGdG e M U
dG OjORG Y j CG (Contacts) d J jH (Protectors IMCP
Sq M dG jg EG PEG ,(Overcurrent) QdG a Y odG dG
IQY dG IQGdG V edG dG jh .IQGdG LQd dh Qd
dG e (Armature) We Qe P (Solenoid) jdS dd e Y
OjORG a .bCG eeh OGJQd Hb (Coupling) qH He dG
dG j (ZCG a ,b IQGO d hCG fdG MCG Y H) QdG
AZ J dG dG a IOjda ,H Y dG
k Ua ddG
eh dEG M o dG d H e j H dG dG
.(Electromagnetic Relay)
895
Protector)
LQEG Hf
e
dd e
fS FS
fGSCG AZ
jQGdG IQGdG eM
,(Fuse) UdG (Thermal Circuit Protectors TCP) jQGdG IQGdG eM J
dG IQGdG f j dG FK f qe e fqe ,IQGd Sq M dBG a
J (e) WS WEG dEG dG Gg OqDj .Fa FHc Mp Qhe gdqj
ee a dG Y dG FK dG tJ jh .IH FHdG IFGdG b
897
dG ddG Gpeo
H (Transient Voltage Suppressor TVSs) dG ddG Ge J
Zener Avalanche PN Junction) dG QfG dd PN dG Se FK
jH (Reverse Bias) RfG Y N e IQGdG jd qeo ,(Diode
.(Voltage Clamping) ddG b
QfG dG Y ddG OGOJ eY bp IFGO kfqe FdG dG j
QfG ie hO (RfG Y N) ddG QJ eYh .Y dG
.OYG Ge dEG QdG Oj (Breakdown)
UdG J Y jJ IdH qJ GQb ,dG e qdG ,TVSs `dh
e J ehe b dh ,dG QfG dd IdG FdG edH
fKdH SJ HSG Ga CG c ,(Low Series Resistance Values)
d (Standard Zener Diode) SdG FdG fR U CG hdG e .(s15-10)
ddG J g LhOe dH dG feEH TVS CG EG IQGdG jd j
fCG EG DC IQGO j M TVS eE Hh .(Protective Clamping) FdG dGh
aqj iNCG Mf eh .AC IQGO jd X dEG k GX TVS e KG Vh Lj
`d gCG cCG UGdG eh .TVSs `dG S Y e hCG ,IMGh eRQ a TVSs
:j e TVS
dG dH Hhe f IQb bCG OJh ,(Pulse Power) dG IQb (1
.(Clamping Voltage)
.(Stand Off Voltage) IYdG ddG (2
. J d a b C G (3
899
ddG IQa V aM
fCH (Surge Voltage Protectors SVPs) ddG IQa V adG J
TVS J e cCG da GQa J Y JQd IQGd jM Rc j RZ
q
q
OGOj eY ,bdG ddG f ehdG b k GQe SVP aqj .MOV hCG
N adG fCG jCj hCG dG dG NGO RdG jqCj .a ddG bqJ
jh .UdG dM dEG UJdG dM e SVP `dG J ke ddG a
jQCJ dEG aVE H ,SVP QN IQGdG a k Gbn dG F H dG S dG
J OJh RdG jCJ Gj fG Qhe Hh .ddG GQdG ac (Grounding)
.MOV hCG TVS e c e CHCG HSG Ia j dG ,SVP
LLR fCG
(a S) eCG a
Ff fe Ib
d G S G j S b ( e ) U a 2-30 d G
(FU) UGdG
,IMGh Ie ,J FHc IGOCG (2-30 VdG dG) (Fuse) UdG EG
he jT hCG Qe S Y UdG j .FH dG IQG dG j d
j) IQGdG a dG j ,QJ d VJ Y .QfG LQO e
Y WHe J eY FHdGh fhdEG GQGdG UGdG J .(QdG
.(Power Line) IQdG Nh (Load) dG H dG
901
IQdG V jdG e
Surge Protection)
902
VQqDe RL
jqnDeo
jqnDeo AGg QJ
Y jQU
FHd Ue
SMOCK S hCG
ESD e e FGg
e Ie AZ
JdG d
jQCJ S
ce jQCJ f
VQDe Sc
JdG dG J IM
904
dG K
905
906
NdG GP dG f HGH
H 32 G P d G U d G
4 H HQCG hP dG MGREG e
H 8 e c
e fdG f
dG
Tc OGe
Tc ZOQ
QdG jT
Fa Uh
ddG
ddG QdG jhGd jdG GedG
hdG QdG Wb
fe ja IQTEG
AC S d e j O h d G O G d G c M
AC I Q d G b
hdG QdG N IQb
hdG QdG N e
AC S b I b
hdG QdG IQb
hdG QqqdG qe NO
Y he QJ
AC e b
q j ,Qj
odG dG
dG hCG jdG T
dG je
b b
dG
NdG hCG hGdG IQhO
qeo QfG d Oe NO
NdG eR
qe qaVEG ILCG
cGodG
dG K bO
bO bQ e
bO Me K
qfddG dG
JU
S Jg Se
AMT d G b d G e
(FGhCG) dG GdG
e
dG qdG AfEG
dG edG fqdG
fhdG dG qdG
dG jJdG J
qe
Ae
ae e
dG VjdG edG
907
q dG
dG VY e
GbEG e
OOdG e
q dG c
(LdG) S
dG dG Tc
dG gJ
e e IQTEG
(AM) q dG qdG
jhM
KJ
KdG dG dG TT
KdG eGdG
KdG JdG
KJ bGS
qKJ Ho
Ke N/NO
dG KdG
KdG dG TDdG
KdG qdG - dG je
908
Analog Multiplexer
Analog Output Pins
Analog Panel Meters (APMS)
Analog RGB Interface
Analog Shifters
Analog Switches
Analogy Speedometer
And Gate
And Matrix
And/Or Structures
Anderson Bridge
Angle Sensing Transducers
Angular Displacement
Angular Width
Annealing
Anode
Antenna
Antenna Beamwidth
Antenna Polarization
Anti Aliasing Filters
Antifuse Links
Antilock Braking
Antilock Braking Systems (ABSs)
Antisubmarine Warfare (ASW)
Any Key Answering
Apex
Application Specific Control Functions
Appropriate Input Pins
Architecture (RISC) Processors
Arcing
Argon Ion Laser
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
Armature
Armature Wound
Array Antennas
Array if Conductors
Arrays
Articulated Joints
ASCII Serial Interfacing
Aspect Ratio
Assembler
Assembly Language Or Assembler
Asynchronous Data Transmission
Asynchronous Fast Packet Switching Technique
Asynchronous Time Division Multiplexing
Attenuation
Attenuation Distortion
Attenuators
Audible
Audible Chatter
KdG GQTEG qe
KJ N He
KdG MdG GOGY
(RGB ) H K J U h
KdG jdG
KdG dG
KdG YdG OGqY
dG HGH
V ae
QNEG/V H
SQfCG Ib
hGdG q d bdG qe
jhGR MGREG
hGdG VdG
dG
OfCG
FGg
FGdG T VY
FGdG SG
gd IOdG TdG
d ehe HGhQ
fd IOdG eGdG
dG V dG fCG
UGd IOdG dG
e CH ddG HLEG Hb
dG
YCH qd q e - Xh d eeo
SdG NdG HHO
b d G S d G RISC d e
(IQGT jJ) QdG hCG SqdG
Qd
qdG qHdG IMdG
dG cdG Qe hCG (QJeQG) cM Qe
QGhdG dG QdG hCG ,dqdG a
cM Qe ado
FGg ae
Ue ae
adG
IgdG UdG
SG H UGJ
gLdG f hCG qf Mf
dG
dG hCG dG d
eGdG Z fdG SQEG
eGdG Z jdG eRdG jJ qJ
eGdG Z edG H dG
gdG
gdG qJ
gdG
e ,S
UG U
909
910
U GP de bqDe
JdG JdG IOaQ HSG
JU
JdG hCG qdG dG
qS N HGb
dG dG LdG
U e
dUCG
qdBG AdG Oeo
OOdH dBG dG
JeJhCG ZOEG Fe
JeJG hCG dBG jdG
dBG IQdG HV
JGP J
cdG
JGQS ,cdG JGP
JGdG qdG FXdG
dBG dG
IYdG ddG IcGdG
Yeo eH RL
MJEG
QJ
QdG QdG hCG QfG
jQdG FdG edG
IQdG e
qdG eeCG QdG Seo
Qe W LR
UUdG dG hP QdG QedG
Qe b hdEG T
X dEG X f FK U
heCG hCG VdG dG LdG e
eYdG
dG fG
VQCG AVV
dG IAVEG
dG GQGdG Md
dG MdG
OSEG ILCG
dG TEG
hJSQdG hCG VdG dG LdG He
fRGdG
dG dG hCG RGdG CGe
gdG d hc S HQ
ddG
dG dO
bf QGeEG Te
dG hCG edG aQ
K Te
edG IK Sg
dG jJ
Bandpass Filters
Bandwidth
Bank Of Filter
Bar Code
Barrel Shifters
Barrel Stave
Barreters
Barrier
Barrier Regions
Bars
Base Current
Base Module
Base Station
Base Terminal
Base To Phone
Basic Filter Types
Basic Input/Output System BIOS
Basic Logic Gates
Basic Rate B
Bass Sounds
Battery Powered Vacuum Tube Radio Receivers
Beam
Beam Riding
Beam Type Gas Maser Oscillators
Bearing
Bearing Lines
Beepers
Bias
BiCMOS Gate Array
BiCMOS Integrated Circuits
Biconical Antennas
Biconical Horns
Bidirectional Couplers
Bifurcated Self Wiping Tips
Binary Circuit
Binary Code
Binary Digits
Binary Number
Binary Serial Data
Binocular Microscope
Bipassing
Bipolar
Bipolar Junction Transistor ( BJT)
Bisector
Bistable Multivibrator
bit Rate
bits
Black Segment Digit
Blank
bdG jdG Te
hCG OOdG dG hCG L dG S hCG f V Y
OOdG dG VY hCG Le f VY
TdG TCe
b eQ hCG OcQdG
eH fG
edG V
Hc - QdG J eU
LM
U We
Ib b
Yb QJ
jYb IMh
q dG
SSCG
Yb W
Jg - dEG SSCG e GOOJ
qSSCG TdG GfCG
SSCG NdGh dG f
SSCG dG HGdG
B SSCG -qe
GUCG L
jQdH J Zqe HfCG jjOGQ e
T
LJ TEG
YdG jRdG Qe HHe
idG hCG JG
fhdG JG N
AYSG ILCG
RfEG
BiCMOS H G d G a e
e d G BiCMOS G Q G O
(LhOe b) hdG FK FGdG
hdG FK GHCG
JG FK fodG
T dEG qe JGP e jf
FK IQGO
FdG OdG hCG FK IT
FK Je
FdG bdG
FdG bdG J fH
QXdG FK e
RhdG
dG FK
FK UdG GP hCG dG FK UdG QSfGJ
dG
hGdG dG
QGSG FK OdG RGdG
dG e
qdG
AGOS SM Je
Zo
911
Blank Board
Block Floating Point Arithmetic
Blocking Oscillators
Blocks
Blooming
Blurring
Bobbin Coil
Bolometer
Bondable Bare Wire
Bondable Metal Foil
Bondable Wire Mounted On Plastic Or Paper Base
Bonding Pads
Boolean Equations
Boolean Operations
Boolean Sum Of Product Logic
Bow Tie Antenna
Bracket
Braided Metal Lanyard
Brand Name
Breakdown Voltage
Breech Lock
Brewsters Angle
Bridges
Brightness
Broaching Process
Broadband
Broadband ISDN (B ISDN) And Asynchronous Transfer Mode
Broadside
Brush Type
Brushless Resolvers
Buffering
Buffers
Built In Satellite Receivers
Built In Video Lights
Buk Derived Switching Power Supply
Bulk Resistor
Buncher And Catcher
Buncher Cavity
Bunching
Bundling
Bursts
Bus
Bus Industry Standard Architecture (ISA)
Bushing
Button Cell
Bypass
Byte
Cable
Cable Television AC (CATVAC)
Cache Memory
Caching
912
ZQa Md
UdG W M
dG HHe
ee
dG
Vh Y
IdG dG
edH
d HdG QdG dG OGY
d Hb fe bbQ H OGY
bQh hCG SH IYb Y ce S OGY
IUBdG GOadG
dH Oe
qfdG qdG
NdG V UM d pdrHo e
TGdG HQCG FGg
eYO ,e
he e e b M
jqQdG edG
QfG da
dG b
ShH jhGR
Wb
dG
jdG Y
jdG dG
e G J d G S Q E G f h j d G d G ISDN
dG jY
JTdG
qfLdG Z dG
SdG jdG
LGM hCG NGe ,GOdG
Jd V e Y J RdG e
V ja AGVCG
dH eh jdH IQb e
L ehe
bdGh eGdG
eGdG Ia
eQn
dG
GJ
dG hCG bdG
YdG SdG QdG dG
HGQ Uh L
QdG dG
jdG dG
jH
dG
AC d G G Q T E H d G I d G
q
SdG IcGdG
bDdG jdG
Cage Antennas
Cage Wafers
Calibrated Electrical Discharge
Call Control Signals
Call Forwarding
Call Progress Information
Call Set Up
Camcorders
Capacitance
Capacitive
Capacitive Iris
Capacitive Susceptance
Capacitor
Capacitor Network
Capillary
Capstans
Carburetor
Carcinotrons
Card Cage Mounting
Cards
Carrier
Carrier Charge Transit Time Effects
Carrier Mobility
Carry
Cartridge
Catalyst
Catheter
Cathode
Cathode Ray Tubes (CRTs)
Caustic
Cavitations
Cavities
Cavity Gap
CCD Detector
CCD Imager
CD Players Conventional
CD ROM
Cell Discharge
Cells
Center And Surround Sound Channels
Center Impedance
Centerless Grinder
Central Processing Unit
Centralized Concept
Centrifugal
Ceramic Dual In Line (DIP) Packages
Cermet
Channel Bandwidth
Channel Configuration
Channel Marking Buoys
dG FGdG
bhdG GaGdG
k Ge kfhdG kjJ
AGdH dG GQTEG
NBG dEG e e
AGdG ejO Y ee
AGdG OGYEG
jdG Gec
(dG) dG
jdG
jdG MdG
jS J
qe
dG T
dG
jNdG hCG fHdG
HdG
fhJSdG
bH hU VJ
(fhdG) bdG
edG
dG eM fEG eR GKCJ
edG cM
bdG
TWN ,Ie
RM Ye eY
Qb
OKc
TCG , dG TC U , e TCG b e
jqOKdG HfCG
YPdG
dG IgX
GdG
IdG IK
dH dG RL Tc
jJ T b RL
jdG edG UdG e
a IAGb IcGP hP ee Ub
dG jJ
fN hCG jN
dG dG Gbh jqcdG GdG
jcdG bhdG
jce Z fMW
jqce de IMh
jcdG e
jce IHf
q dG FK aN RnQo
(aN S) eS
IdG OOJ f VY
IdG J
IdG TCJ aW
913
dG H fN OhM
TdH UdG dG
HdG bhdG
dG fRGd IQGO
dG dG RL
Ad Ue IQGhO fGS e S
jdG eQ
dG
FdG QdG SdG
FdG dG
kFc n odG QdG
QWEG W bbQ
J
qdG GQTEG
IQGdG Md
IQGdG Wb
IQGdG f GP fdG eN
HdGh JdG dG ed IQGO f
GQGdG eM
FGdG OdG UdG e Uh
FGdG bdG e
kjFGO e Le
IQGhqdG dG
WGdG f GjOGQ
J ,Jo
b ee
e HHe
T
YS LJ T
IQGdG e RdG ILCG
e LGQ jJ IFGO
(e M) dG WfCG
e IFGO QRGDe J IGOCG eN
dG WfCG hCG dG dG aS f
IQRGDdG qdB
qdG /jOdG dG
IH ,NG ,jJ
d CMOS H G H
QdG e
QdG Ie hCG jOGdG OOdG Uh
q dG jdG
Hc e H
OdG jJ bH IQGO
OdG H OdG NdG
Ie Gde
dG FQb
UdG OdG bQ
eRe ,HGe
e
fRdG dG dG GQGO
OQH OKc jJ fCG
OQdG dG GP YdG ShdG
914
Collector
Collector - Base
Collimated Light Refraction
Collinear
Collinear Dipole Array
Collisions
Color Graphic Adapter (CGA)
Color Sync Burst AC
Column
Combinational And Sequential Logic
Comblike Structure
Combustion
Commercial Broadcasting
Commodity Item
Common Insulation Cable
Communication
Communication Ports
Compact Disk (CD) Players
Compact Disks (CD)
Comparators
Compass
Compass Graduations
Compatible Fax Machine
Compatible Terminal
Compensate
Compiler
Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor CMOS
Complete Frame Per Second
Completed Double Diffused Die
Complex Mathematical Algorithms
Component
Composite
Compound Semiconductors
Computer Aided Medical Imaging
Computer Peripherals
Computer Pointing Devices
Computer Ports
Computer Programming and Software
Computer Servers
Computer Tomography
Computer Vision Systems
Computer Workstations
Concave
Concentrated Localized Heating
Condensers
Condensing Lenses
Conditional And Unconditional Private
Conduction
Conductive Feed Connection
Conductors
uodG
qe IYb
OdG AdG QfG
IMGh eSG a edG
dG FK edG adG
eGUG
fdG SdG je
AC eGdG qdG QfEG
OY
dGh dG dG
e J
GMG
QdG dG
S IMh
dG dG c
JG
UGdG ae
edG UdG e
(edG) WdG UGbCG
fQdG
UH
UdG GTCJ
FGdG cdG RL
aGdG dG
jJ
qodG hCG edG
Ue f hCG fe cCG e e Ue f
e fe cCGh
fdG a qJ QWEG
edG hOdG QfG hP ddG
IqdG qVjdG eRQGdG
udG
cuneo
Ue fCG ce
JdH dG dG SdG
JdG aW
jJdG LdG ILCG
JdG ae
eGdGh JdG eH
JdG eON
JdG GZedG
JdG jDhQ fCG
jJdG dG e
se
cqdG VdG dG
dG
pnodG SdG
Whe Zh Whe UN N
UdH fG
Ue jJ Uh
UdG OGdG hCG ,UdG
915
dG
Ie
ILM W
Whe H
UdG ,HGdG ,HdG
fdG
MJ
AdG a IOqe GHCG hCG JGS fCG
eJ hCG JG
SdG Uh dc
eod dG QqJ
FJ Wb hCG edG e
SJ Uh ,edG f ,ee
odG QdG cM
Iqeo c cM
Ie Le
IdG LdG fhe
jHhdG IdG LdG GQGOGQ
IdG LdG GQfS
fJ
dG hCG dG
bdGh qdG FXh
qVdG qodG Jn
dG qdG efH
IS M
qJ GdCG
IS e
QdG dG OY
IdG eh Seo
qdG
dG qdG
HGdG
H dGh ddG IQhS de
dH fG
dG edGh dG M
q e
OYG fdG jhdG N
jJ
dG e
jJ b
dG
e FGR b fK cY
dG Sf sZo
SdG GaQ
qSf dCG hCG GhY
SdG JGdG
dG
jGhdG e cdG FGdG
cdG cdG
dG edG J
J f
qJ GQTEG
Configuration
Confined
Confining Layer
Conical Horn
Connection
Console
Consolidation
Constellations
Contact
Contact Clamps
Contact Load Current
Contactor
Contacts
Continuous Path Motion
Continuous Sweeping Motions
Continuous Wave
Continuous Wave (CW) Magnetrons
Continuous Wave (CW) Doppler Radars
Continuous Wave (CW) Sonars
Contrast
Control
Control And Timing Functions
Control Differential Transformers (CDT)
Control Logic Program
Control Loops
Control Panels
Control Receiver
Control Shaft
Control Transmitters And Receivers
Controller
Controller Sequencer
Controls
Controls Call Processing
Convection
Conventional Coil And Contact Relay
Conventional Dial Up Telephone Line
Conversion
Conversion Rate
Conversion Section
Converters
Convex Hyperboloidal Subreflector
Copper Laminated Blank
Copper Pads
Copper Tabs
Cordless Telephones
Core
Corner Reflecting Antennas
Corner Reflector
Correct Time Sequence
Corrective Action
Corrective Signals
916
Se He
dcCG FdG
dG L
dG qa ,ihL hP c RL
OGdG
OdG GAGLEG
dG qYn
dG Uh ,dG ,fQJ Uh ,QdG
YdG bdG
dG
edG
LdG jhGdG
dG ONEG
ddG OdG dhCG
dJ HQ
JS dEG JS e ce WJ Uh
QdG a CdG
VdG HfCG
QHhc T
QH IS Heo
q QdG OOdG je
QH f ,IQdG f
jQH T
jQdG fahdG
QH He
IQdG MS
jJdG aGZedG SGH dG
cGdG
jqhc f cM Qhe
Qc f
QJ S
QdH dG hdG
QqdG c
QdG GQa
QdG fEG e
de
FdG a cH qdG
jOdG edG
e ReQ hCG e Je
dG gEG cdG
dG OOJ
dG Le W
IQhdG eR
fGSCG
D NCdG b
D f e b e e
afSQGO OGY cM
(jGO) gdG dG
ONEG HJ e
ONEG
q f d G b J
Corresponding Busses
Corrosive Chemicals
Cosine
Cost Effective
Counter
Countermeasures
Counting Pulses
Coupling
Couplings Nuts
Cracked
Cradle
Critical Angle
Critically Damped
Cross Linked Polyolefin
Cross Link
Cross Links From Satellite To Satellite
Cross Track Error
Crossed Field Tubes
Crowbar Network
Crystal Controlled Oscillator
Crystal Frequency Standards
Crystal Growth
Crystal Lattice
Crystal Microphones
Crystal Oscillator
Crystal Puller
CT Scanning
Cumulative
Cup Type Armatures
Curie Point
Current Drive
Current Driven Resistor
Current Gain
Current Surge
Current Transfer Ratio
Cursor
Curtain Control
Custom Programs
Customized Legend Keys
Cut Parabolic Reflector
Cutoff Frequency
Cutoff Wavelength
Cycle Time
Cylinder
D Flip Flop
D Type Flip Flop Toggle Rate
Darsonoval Meter Movement
Daisy Chaining
Damped Oscillation Curve
Damping
Dampout Hunting
917
DAQ Software
Dashboard
Data
Data Acquisition System
Data Bit Information
Data Caches
Data Channels
Data Communications Line Sharing
Data Entry Tablets
Data PBX
Data Pipe Lines
Data Single File
Data/Fax Modem
Database
Databus
Daughter Boards Or Daughter Cards
Daughterboard
DC Current Gain
DC Magnetic Field
DC Measurement Bridges
DC Moving Coil Ammeters
Debugged
Decade Counter
Decay
Decibels
Decimal Point
Decode
Decoder/ Driver IC
Decoder/Demultiplexer
Decompressing
Decoupling
Dedicated Frequencies
Deemphasis
Deemphasis Network
Defect Free Interfaces
Deflection Circuits
Deflection Coils
Deflection Factor
Deflections
Defroster
Degrees Of Freedom
Delay
Delay Distortion
Deliberate Jamming
Delivery
Delta Antenna
Delta Matched Antennas
Demand Paged Memory Systems
Demodulation
Demodulators
918
LdG d dG dG Ye
GDdG
PSG W
dG e Tc
jd JT LMh f W hP FV OjGO
dG
jd JT LMh f d ee Tc
dG
PSG f
f hCG PSG e
YCG GHS
dRJ
(dhCG PdG) dhCG dG
dG IYpb
JEG
dO e
e
dG dG
je eGM
dG jJ cGe
Tc
jJjdG
s odG dG
GfG f
dG dG f
jhJ qfQ
dBG AGdG N
jhJ
UdG b
LM hCG M
db
fe a SJh ddG dG
FHdG RdG
FHdG RdG HK
FHdG dH dG
kFHc RdG dG FGg
FHdG RdG Z
VJ
VJ e
VdG ddG aGdG bdG jJ f
VJ jQW MGREG
VJ Le e
VdG qdG
OdG
Ie W
QfG
QfG U
bQ
bQ
KJ dEG bdG e
qbdG HGdG V
919
pbnDeh bQ N/NO
bdG dG YdG
qbdG WfCG eM
IOdG bdG GOGdG
bdG hCG bdG aGZJdG QdG
bdG RdG OJ
bdG MdG Se
qbdG qVdG q e
bdG dG
bdG IQRGDdG dBG f
qbQ N WSh
bdG dG HSShCG
bdG jdG W
bdG fjdG dG J
eGSG OqdG bdG UdG
bdG jdG Gec e
bdG jdG UGbCG
jdG bdG jdG e
KdG QGOGdG ee bQ
bdG dG
bqdG hCG qbdG qJdG IQTEG
bqdG dG S
be
bdG
dG QOdG
QdG dG eU
QjfGJ ` FK U e
OjGdG Yd IYdG HGQ
FdG edG
dG FK
dG QfdG
ITdG dG FGg
TdG edG
TdG GbG
Te QJ
I T d G FM S e
TdG dG UGdG
ITdG RdG H JGS
ITdG LdG
ITdG HdG
gJEG
gJG FGdG
gJG podG
gJG
LJ FGg
LdG
LpnodG
GaCG e
QdG jJ
Whe Ub FGg
dGh HdG
920
e
e S
dG ILCG
dG IdG IQTEG QjfGJ
pdG ,dG
U FGg
UGbCG TWN
UGbCd dOdG HdG je
Ub cM Qe
UdG TdG QdG cqe
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Discrete
Discrete Amplitudes
Discrete Devices
Discrete Small Signal Transistors
Discriminator
Dish Shaped
Disk Cartidge
Disk Interface Standards
Disk Type Armature
Disk Type DC Motors
Diskette
Dispersion
Displacement
Display
Display/ Control Head
Dissipation Factor
Distributed Concept
Distributed Queue Duel Bus (DQDB)
Distributors
Divided Graticule
Divider
Division
DMA Functions
Document Digitizers
Dolby Coding
Dolby Digital Ac 3 Surround Sound Signals
Dolby Pro Logic
Domain Transit Time
Dominant Mode
Donor Impurity
Donors
Dopant Concentration
Dopant Profile
Dope
Doped Silicon
Doping
Doping Methods
Doppler Navigation
Doppler Radars
Doppler Shift
Dot Matrix
Dot Pitch
Dots
Double Sideband Stereo Subcarrier
Double Sided Boards (DBSs)
Double Diffused
Double Hetero Structure
Double Layer Super Twisted Pneumatic
Double Sided Disk
Double Stage
Double Throw Units
921
Down Counter
Down Counting
Downlink
Downlink Signal
Download
Downtime
Drain
Drain Current
Drain Rates
Drain Region
Drift
Drive
Driven Elements
Driven Half Wavelength Dipole
Drivers
Drivers Seat Heating And Automatic Adjustment Control
Drum
Dry And Wet Chemical Etching
Dry Cell
Dry Reed Switch
Dry Reed Switch Capsule
Dual Frequency Signal Generator
Dual In Line Packages (DIPs)
Dual Purpose
Dual Scan Liquid Crystal Flat Panel Color Display (DSLCFPCD)
Dual Scan Supertwisted Nematic (DSTN) Display
Dual Slope Integrating Converters
Dual Tone Multi Frequency Signaling (DTMF)
Dual Wave Unit
Dubbed
Ductility
Duty Cycle
DVD R
DVD RAM Drives
DVD ROM
Dynamic Drive (VFD)
Dynamic Shift Registers
Dynamical Simulation
Dynodes
E Mail
E Plane Horn
E/D Enhancement Depletion Mode Logic
E/D Hetero Junction E/D Technology
Early Operator Switched Telephone Keyboards
Earthed
Eddy Current Induction Loss
Edge Connector
Effective Width
Electric Gear Motor Drive
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dG Y bqdG eR
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MGREG ejdG dG
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VQDe
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922
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FHdG jQGSG
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kFHc dGREd HdG
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kfhdG dCe QSa
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ehdG NGdG
IAGdG /Hd ehc ShDhQ
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qfehdG fqdG
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fhdG dG
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fhdEG YJ
fhdEG Yd FdG fCG
KdG fhdG MdG GOGY
fhdG dG SGQ
fhdG dG IMh
IOdG fhdG GAGLEG
fhdG TG
fhdCG IH jS QW e
jHhc J IOYEG f
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(JShdG) JShdCG
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923
Encapsulated Module
Encapsulated Reed Relays
Enclosures
Encoder
Encoding Logic Block
End Stacked Modules
End Effector
End Fed Array
End Fed Monopole Antenna
End Fire
End To End Media
End Use Application
Energy Density
Energy Gaps
Engine Idle
Engineering Work Stations
Enhanced Graphic Adapter (EGA)
Enhanced Small Device Interface (ESDI)
Enhancement Mode
Envelope Delay
Epitaxial Base
Epitaxial Growth
Epitaxial Layer
Epitaxial N Type Layer
Epitaxial Process
Epitaxy
Epoxy
Epoxy Impregnated Glass Cloth
Equivalent Resistance
Erasable CDs (CD-E)
Etch
Eutectic Die Attach
Even
Excess Solder
Excimer Lasers
Excitation Frequency
Exclusive Or (XOR) gate
Exertion
Exist Polarizer
Expansion Cards
Expansion Slots
Explicitly Parallel Instruction Computing (EPIC)
Exponents
Extanded Polyethylene
Extended Data Out (EDO)
Extended Industry Standard Architechture (EISA)
Extended Play (EP)
External Bus
External Clock Signals
External DAQ Boxes
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924
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dG dG Ue
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dG Ib
dG
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jdG jT
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TdG
TdG fGN
925
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TdG T
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dG bO TT
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ge ehe
QdH dG GQGOGQ
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fe ddG d SJ Lh
FdG edG
UdG AdH HdGh HdG bbdG
Hb bbQ
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dhCG WQN
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Filter Designations
Filter Network
Filters
Fine Mesh Screen
Finer Pitch
Finite Resistance
Fire Control Radars
Fired
Firewire
Firmware
First Resonator Grid
Five External Peripheral Devices
Fixed Planar Antenna Arrays
Fixed Resistive Card Attenuators
Flame Retardant
Flap Attenuators
Flash Coding Metal
Flash Converters
Flash Lamp Trigger Module
Flash Memory
Flashtube
Flat Cable
Flat Discharge
Flat Form Factors
Flat Laminated Cable
Flat Packs
Flat Plastic Cases
Flat Ripple
Flatpack Power Device Packages
Flatpacks
Flattop
Flexible Ferrous Metal Strips
Flexible Inner Leaf Spring Contact Surfaces
Flicker
Flip Chip And Solder Bump Bonding
Flip Chips
Flip Flop
Floating Point Devices
Floatplan
Floppy Disk
Flourescent Backlighting
Flow Fuel Plates
Flow Meters
Fluorescent Screen
Fluorinated Hydrocarbon
Fluted Pin
Flux
Flux Gate Compasses
Flyback Converter
Flyback Period
Flying Erase Head
926
Fm Stereo Multiplexing
Focal Point
Focusing
Folded Dipole Antennas
Footprint
Force And Pressure Transducers
Forearm
Formatting
Forward And Backward Wave Traveling Wave Tubes
Forward Bias
Forward Convertor
Forward Counter
Forward Current
Forward Looking Infrared (FLIR)
Forward Operating Current
Forward Or Buck Convertor
Forward Viewing Data
Forward Voltage
Forward Wave Crossed Field Amplifiers (FWCFA)
Forward-Wave Traveling-Wave Tubes
Four And Six Pin Dual In Line Package Cases
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dG eeCG QdG
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YdG dG
FM
927
dG gEG cdG
eqdG AGOCG GQb
SdG Md
ec fjJ QWEG
ec Ld AGOCG jce jJ IQGO
edG LdG jJ IQGO
MGdG KK ec Le jJ IQGO
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UdG
Ua HGhQ
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dG
dH LdG
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jdG ddG fQR GOjGO
jQdG ddG jf GOjGO
(bO eCG Se) efZ
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HGdG
HGdG RfG IQTEG
IdG HGH WJ
dG HGH da
dG Qe HGH QJ
Qe
ShZ OGY
HdGh SdG qdBG
SdG qJ qSM V
ShdG
dG dG
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dG GSd dOdG HdG e
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eGJdG QGdG
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dqdG JGd ddG dG
jqodG
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(fH SQ) aGZ bH
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Sd aGZ hGJ
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928
OedG edG
Te T
TdG cdG UdG
HGdG hCG HdG QPCG
IK
VQCG
ddG ae VQCG GQGOGQ
bdG VQCG (QffGJ) e
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dG VQCG FGdG
VQCG UJ S
VQCG dG
qVQCG qdG e
VQDdG jdG N
VQDdG UdG eMCG
jQCJ
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IQdG f f
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MGdG KK LdG d jJ IQGO
Le f H eo
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adG SCGdG VY
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Gray Code
Grid
Grid Reflecting Disk
Grippers
Groove
Ground
Ground Based Phased Array Radars
Ground Based Transponder
Ground Connection
Ground Plane Antenna
Ground Planes
Ground Stations
Ground Tracking Stations
Grounded Delay Line
Grounded Wrist Straps
Grounding
Groundplane
Guide Rollers
Gyroscope Mount
H Plane Horn
Half Adder Symbol
Half Adder Truth Table
Half Bridge
Half Bridge Regulator
Half Duplex
Half Hand Brass
Half Power Points
Half Wave Elements
Half Wave Open Dipole
Half Wave Rectifier Circuit
Half Wave Three Phase Rectifier Circuit
Half Wavelength Radiator
Halide
Hall Effect
Hall Effect Transducer (HET)
Handheld Pen Scanner
Handheld Personal Computers (HPC)
Handshaking
Hard Copies
Hard Disk
Hard Disk Drives
Hard Vacuum Panel
Hardware
Harmonic Generators
Harmonies
Harp Antennas
Head End
Head Positioner
Head To Tape
Head Up Display (HUD)
Header
929
Headphone
Headset
Heat Dissipating Bus Bar
Heat Seeking
Heat Sink
Heat Treatment
Heavily Doped
Heavy Duty Cables
Heavy Duty Components Systems
Helical Antennas
Helical Flashlamp
Helical Scanning
Helix
Hermetic Seal
Heteroepitaxy
Heterojunction
Heterojunctions
Hexa
Hierarchical Parallel Networks
HiFi Stereo Systems
High Amplitude Ripple Response
High Density Integrated Circuits
High Electron Mobility Transistors (HEMTs)
High End Computing Applications
High End Networking Equipment
High End Personal Computers
High Flux Density
High Frequency Switching
High Pass Filters
High Permeability
High Pitch Tone
High Resistive Depletion
High Slew Rate
High Speed Analog/ Interface
High Speed On Chip
High Speed Silicon Gate CMOS (HC/HCT CMOS)
High Voltage Leads
High Voltage Neon Seven Segments Displays
High Volumetric Efficiency
Higher Junction Temperatures
Higher Output Drive
Highest Frequency Deviation
Highlighting
Highly Directional Covert Communication
Hold Up Time
Holding Capacitor
Holes
Hollow Ironless Shell
Holography
Home CD Changers
Home Video Systems
930
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aCG VY f
bdG dG
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dG hCG dG JdG
NdG dG Ue
dG
dG
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dG GQGdG
jRGQdG
ejOhQdG AVdG
FdG dG
dG c HGhQ
dG
gd dG QSEG
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931
Index Guided
Index of Refraction
Indexing
Indicator Lights
Indicators
Indium Gallium Aluminum Phosphide InGaAlP Laser Diodes
Individual Cap
Inductance
Inductive
Inductive Capacitance Filter
Inductive Iris
Inductive Reactance
Inductive Shunt Susceptance
Inductive Susceptance
Industrial Applications
Industrial Computer Aided Vision System
Industrial Control
Industrial Grade Electronics
Industrial Robot System
Inefficient
Inert Gas
Inertia
Inertial Guidance Systems
Infinite Resolution
Infra Red Oven
Infrared
Inherent System Time Delay
Injection
Inner Coded Track
Inner Electrode
Inner Leads
Input
Input Command
Input/Output (I/O)
Inputs
Insertion Loss
Inspection Marking And Testing
Instantaneous Magnetic Circuit Protectors (IMCP)
Instantaneous Trip
Instruction Decoder
Instruction Register
Instrument Panel Information Control
Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBTs)
Insulation
Insulation Layer
Integrated Circuits (IC)
Integrated Circuits Photomasking
Integrated Diode
Integrating
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932
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Integration Process
Integrator
Intelligent Data Terminals
Interactive Computer Communications
Interactive TV
Intercarrier Detection
Interchangeability
Interconnecting Wires
Interdigital Delay
Interdigitated
Interface
Interfacing
Interference Fringes
Interference Pattern
Interferences
Interleaving
Interline
Intermediate Power Amplifier
Internal Light Multiplier Plate
Interpreter
Interrupt Bus
Intrinsic Layer
Intrinsic Or Undoped
Ion Beam Lithography
Ion Implantation
Ionization Threshold
Ionizers
Iridiums Personal Communicators
Iron Cord Reactors
Iron Core
Iron Disulfide Thermal
Isosynchronous
Isosynchronous Data Transmission
Jacketing
Jacks
Jamming
Jelly Roll
Jewel And Pivot System
Joint Motors
Joints
Jumbled
Junction
Junction Temperature
Keep Alive Assembly
Keyboard
Keypads
Knobs
Ladder Filter
Laminated
Laminated Core Transformers
Lapping Process
933
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934
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Linear Amplifiers
Linear Circuits
Linear Core
Linear Power Supplies
Linear Regulated DC Supplies
Linear Variable Differential Transformers (LVDTs)
Linearities
Lineplexers
Link
Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
Liquid Encapsulated Czochralski
Lithium Solid Electrolyte (Li/I2)
Lithium Sulfur Dioxide (Li/So2)
Lithium Carbon Monofluoride (Li/Cf)
Lithium Manganese Dioxide (Li/Mno2) Cells
Lithium Primary Cells
Lithium Thionyl Chloride (Li/SOCl2)
Load
Load Positioning Accuracy
Local Area Networks (LANs)
Local Cell Site
Local Oscillator
Lock Washer
Log Periodic Antenna
Logging
Logic
Logic Analyzers
Logic AND Gate
Logic Level Square Wave
Logic Level Voltages
Logo
Long Wire Antenna Arrays
Longitudinal Vibration
Loss
Low Loss Filament
Low Internal Resistance
Low Luminous Performance
Low Offset Drift
Low Pass
Low RF Leakage
Low Series Resistance Values
Lower Response Curve
Luminance
Luminous Performance
M Derived Filters
M Type Backward Wave Oscillator
Machine Code Or Language
Macintosh Operating System (Mac OS)
Macro Functions
Macrocells
Magazine Style Changers
935
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Magnetic
Magnetic Bias
Magnetic Disk Cartridge Backup Drives (MDCBD)
Magnetic Field Strength Meter
Magnetic Hydraulic Circuit Protectors
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
Magnetic Vector
Magnetically Biased Polarized Relays
Magnetoconstrictive
Magnetoconstrictive Transducer
Magnetoresistors
Magnetron
Magnetron Pulsing Circuit
Magnitude
Mainframe Computers
Major Flat
Major Lobe
Male Part
Malleability
Manipulator
Manipulators Actuators
Manual
Marine Electronic Technology
Maser
Mask Patterns
Masking
Mass Storage Controller
Mass Storage Devices
Mass Termination Insulation Displacement (MTID)
Master Mask
Masts
Matched Impedance
Matching Sockets
Matrix
Maximum Pickup
Mechanical Buffing
Mechanical Coupling
Mechanical Grinding
Mechanical Linkages
Mechanical Step Sequencer
Medium Scale Integration (MSI)
Megabytes
Melt
Memory Management Unit (MMU)
Mercury Wetted Reed Relays
Mercury Wetted Reed Switch Capsule
Mesa
Mesh Grid
Metal Oxide Semiconductor Transistors (MOSFET)
Metal Eyelets
Metal Field Effect Transistors (MESFET)
936
Metal Hub
Metal Oxide Resistors
Metal Oxide Semiconductor (MOS)
Metal Oxide Varistor (MOV)
Metal Screening
Metal Semi Conductor Photodiodes
Metal Sheathing
Metalized Plastic Film
Metalized Rubber Domes
Meter Movement
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
Mica
Micro Ball Grid Arrays (MBGAs)
Micro Channel Plate
Micro SMT (MSMT) Packages
Microchannel Architecture (MCA)
Microchannel Plate
Microcode RROM
Microcomputers
Microlithography
Microlumens
Microminiature Pits
Micromotion Flexible Membrane Switches
Microprocessor
Microprocessor Based Modems
Microprocessor Bus Interfacing
Microscopic Pits
Microstrip
Microstrip Transmission Line
Microwave Amplification By Stimulate Emission Radiation
(MASER)
Microwave Beacons
Microwave Couplers
Microwave Detector
Microwave Diodes
Microwave Limiter
Microwave Monolithic Integrated Circuits (MMICs)
Microwave Oscillators
Microwave Oven
Microwave Phased Array Radar Systems
Microwave Relay Links
Microwave Signal
Microwave Strip Lines
Midband Output
Midcourse Corrections
Midrange Speaker
Mil Spec Transformers
Millicandels
Millimeters Peak Detectors
Miniature
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Miniaturization
Minicomputer
Minimal Overshoot
Minimum Radiation
Minority And Majority Carriers
Mixed Colour
Mixer
Mixing Audio
Mnemonic Programming
Modal Dispersion
Mode
Model Changeover
Modem
Moderate Directivity
Modifier Dynamic
Modifier Static
Modulate
Modulated Write Laser Beam
Modulater Demodulator (Modem)
Modulating Grid
Modulating Or Active Sensors
Modulation
Modulator
Modulator's Thyratron
Module
Mold
Molded Plastic Flatback Cases
Molding Or Sealing
Molecular Beam (MB)
Molecular Friction
Momentary Action
Monaural
Monitor
Monochrome
Monocolor
Monocular Starlight Scope
Monolithic Resistor Formation
Monolithic Board
Monolithic Chips
Monolithomic Block
Monolithomic Multilayer
Monophonic
Monopole
Monopulse
Monopulse Angle
Monostable Multivibrator
Monotonous
Moores Law
Most Significant Digit Position
Mother Board
Mouse
938
939
Nightscope
Noise
Noise Limiter
Nominal Voltage
Non Interlaced Scanning
Non Linear Rectification Characteristic
Non Radiating solt
Noncontact Measurement
Nonimpact
Noninverting
Nonlinear Taper in Potentiometers
Nonpolarized
Nonpolarized Electrolytic Capacitors
Nonpolled Network
Nonreciprocal
Nonreturn To Zero (NRZ)
Nonreturn To Zero Inverted (NRZI)
Nonservoed
Nonsinusoidal
Nonvolatile Memories
Nonvolatile RAMs (NV RAMs)
NOR Gate
Normal Operation
NOT Gate
Notch
Notebook Computers
Notebook Personal Computers
Nozzle
NPN Junction Transistors
N-Type Channel
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Nuisance Tripping
Null Condition
Null Detector
Numerical
Numerical Aperture (NA)
Numerical Keypad
Nyquist Frequency
Nyquist Theorem
Object Program
Object Reflectivity
Objective Lense (Microsope)
Oceanography
Octal
Octaves
Odd
Off
Off Chip EPROM
Off Chip Memory
Off The Shelf Microprocessors
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941
Output Discriminator
Output Load
Output Pin
Output Response
Output Terminals
Over Heating
Over Shooting
Overange
Overcurrent
Overdamped
Overload
Overprinting
Overvoltage Protection Devices
Owen Bridge
Oxygen Free High Conductivity (OFHC)
P Type Dopant
P Type Material/ Positively Charged
P Type Silicon
Pacemaker
Package Flange
Packet Switched Public Data Network (PSPDNs)
Packets
Packplane
Pads
Pager
Paging Signal
Paired Wire Cable
Palmtop Computers
Pancake Motors
Panel Capacitance
Panel Or Volume Control Pot Panel
Panel Or Volume Control Potentiometer
Panels
Parabola
Parabolic Navigation Systems
Parabolic Reflectors
Parallel Ports
Parallel To Serial Converters
Parametric
Parity Bit
Parking Guidance With A Rear End Distance Measuring System
Part Number
Partially Cured Laminate
Partially Threaded Shells
Passive Electronic Components
Passive Filter
Passive IR Seeking Circuits
Passive Reflectors
Passive Triangulation
Pattern
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942
Pattern Masks
Pattern Plating Process
Pattern Recognition
Patterning
PC Board Mounting
PC Bus
PC Compatible
Peak
Peak Hold Circuitry
Peak Lasing Wavelength
Peak Power
Peak Repetitive Forward Surge Current Ifsm
Peak Repetitive Reverse Voltage Vrrm
Peak To Peak
Pellet
Pencil Beam
Pentium Microprocessor
Perfect Inductor
Perforated Thin Metal Shadow Mask
Periodically
Peripheral
Peripherals
Permanent Magnet Hybrid
Permanent Magnet Rotor
Permanent Magnet Speakers (PMS)
Permeability
Personal Digital Assistant
Phase
Phase Alternation Line (PAL) System
Phase Detector
Phase Locked Loop
Phase Modulation (PM)
Phase Response
Phase Shift
Phase Shift Oscillator
Phase Shifter
Phase Shifter
Phase Shifters
Phase Shifting
Phased Array Antennas
Phasing
Phenolic
Phenolic Resin
Phosphor Dots
Photo Darlington Couplers
Photo Detector
Photo Emitter
Photo Schmitt Trigger IC Coupler
Photocathode
Photoconductive
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943
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Photodetector
Photodiodes
Photoetching
Photofet Drain Current
Photographic Masks
Photolithographic
Photolithographic Photomask Preparation Process
Photomask
Photomultiplier
Photon Resonance
Photons
Photoreduced
Photoresist
Photoresistors
Photosensetive Field Effect Transistor
Phototransistors
Phototriac Couplers
Photovoltaic
Pickup
Pierce Oscillator
Piezoelectric
Piezoelectric Accelerometers
Piezoelectric Devices
Piezoelectric Sensors
Pillbox Antennas
Pin
PIN Diodes
Pin Grid Arrays (PGAs)
Pin Package
Pin Photodiodes
Pin Pitch
Pin Switches
Pin Terminations
Pin Wheel
Pinch Off
Pinch Off Value
Pinch Off Voltage
Pipelining
Pit Pattern
Pitch
Pitches Lead
Pitted Spiral Track
Pivoting Core Relays
Pixel
Plan Position Indicator
Planar
Plane Sheet Reflector
Planer
Planetary Lander
Plasma Display Panels (PDPs)
Plastic Blisters
944
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Plastic Membrane
Plated Through Holes (PTHs)
Plating
Plating Trimming And Marking
Play
Playback
Players
Plotters
Plug
Plug In
Plug In DAQ Boards
Plug In Daughter Card
PN Junction
PN Junction Diode
PN Semiconductor
PNP Junction Transistors
Pockets
Point Contact Photodiodes
Point To Point Microwave Systems
Point To Point Network
Point To Point Wiring
Pointing Stick
Polar Coordinate Presentation
Polar Diagram
Polarity Meter
Polarization
Polarized Antennas
Polarized Relays
Polarizer
Polishing
Poll
Poll/ Select Protocol
Polled Network
Polled Synchronous Terminals
Polycarbonate
Polyester Film
Polyimide
Polymer Resettable Fuses
Polymer Resin
Polypropylene
Polyrod
Polystyrene
Polythylene
Polyvinyl Chloride
Port
Port Contention Unit
Port Selectors
Port Sharing Units
Portable Tape Recorders
Position Control Systems
Positive Bias
945
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Positive Peak
Positive Resist
Positive Temperature Coefficients
Positive Voltage
Positively Charged Holes
Positively Doped P
Positron
Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
Post And Box Connector
Potentiometer
Potting
Powdered Silver Palladuim
Power
Power Dissipation
Power Drivers
Power Gain
Power Handling Ability
Power Integrated Circuits
Power Limitations
Power Line
Power PC Microprocessors
Power Rating
Power Relays
Power Solid State Relays
Power Supplies (PS)
Power Supply Filters
Power Transformer
Power Transistors
Power Tube Oscillator
Power Zoom Lens
Precharge Time
Precise Sharp Heterojunctions
Preemphasis
Pregrooved Tracks
Prescaler
Primary Electrochemical Systems
Primary Rate Interface
Primary Winding P
Printed Resist Process
Printed Circuit Boards
Printed Wiring Board
Printers
Printheads
Printing
Prism
Private Automatic Branch Exchange (PABE)
Private Branch Exchanges (PBX)
Private Versus Switched Access (PVSA)
Probe
Process Control
Process Holders
946
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Processing
Processor/Controller
Producing Drive Pulses
Profile
Program Counter
Programming And Software
Propagation
Propagation Constant
Propagation Delay
Proportional Electrical Output
Proprietary
Protective
Protective Clamping
Protective Insulation
Protective Plating
Protector Armature
Protocols
Provider
Public Utility Carrier Circuits
Pull Down
Pull Up
Pullers
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
Pulse Carrier Waveform
Pulse Compression Technique
Pulse Doppler Radars (PDR)
Pulse Forming Modulator
Pulse Modulated CW Carrier
Pulse Modulation
Pulse Modulator
Pulse Power Magnetron
Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF)
Pulse Train
Pulse Transformers
Pulse Width Modulator (PWM)
Pulsed Magnetron
Pump
Pumping
Punched Coil Process
Pure Capacitor
Push Button
Push Pull Amplifier
Push Pull Regulator
Pyramidal Horn
Pyrolytically Deposited
Pyrotechinic Squib
Pyrotechnic
Q Factors
Quad
Quad Flatpack
947
Quality
Quantized
Quarter Wave Plates
Quarter Wave Stubs
Quartz
Quick Connect
Quiescent
Quiescent Point
R 2r Ladder Network DAC
Rack And Panel
Radar
Radar Clutter
Radar Displays
Radar Frequency Bands
Radar Return Analysis
Radar Returns
Radial Leaded Assembly
Radial Leadframe
Radial Scanning
Radial Temperature
Radial Velocities
Radially
Radiant Sensors
Radiated Power
Radiated Pulse Width
Radiation
Radiation Efficiency
Radiation Pattern
Radiation Resistance
Radiator
Radio Beacon System (RBS)
Radio Detection And Ranging Radar
Radio Direction Finders (RDFs)
Radio Frequency Bands
Radio Frequency Transponders
Radio Horizon
Radio Noise
Radio Receivers
Radiogram
Radiology
Rainbow Cable
Ramp
Random Access Memories (RAMs)
Random Access Versus Serial Access
Range Counter
Range Setting
Rasma Display Panels (PDP)
Raster
Raster Scan
Raster Scanning
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Reject Box
Rejected
Relative Altitude
Relay
Relay Back
Reliability
Remote Controller
Remote Data Concentrator
Remote Shaft Angle
Reradiate
Reset Functions
Reset Set (RS) Flip Flop
Resin
Resistance
Resistance Temperature Detectors (TRDs)
Resistor
Resolution
Resolution Bandwidth
Resolvers
Resonance
Resonant Antennas
Resonate
Resonator
Resonator Gap
Response
Retarding Phase
Reticules
Retrieval Time
Reverberation
Reverse Bias
Reverse Saturation Current
Reverse Torque Of The Motor
Reverse Voltage
Revolving Carousel Drawer
Rhombic Antenna
Ribbon
Ribbon Cable
Rigid Spacer
Ring Nut
Ring Signal
Ripple
Robotics
Root Mean Square
Rotary Dials
Rotor
Route
Routers
Routing Techniques
Ruby
Sampled Data
Sampling Order
950
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Sandwiches
Sapphire
Satellite
Saturation
Saw Filter
Sawtooth Waveform
Scanners
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
Schemes
Schottky Clamped Transistors
Scrambled Signals
Screening
Scriber
Sealed
Seamless
Secondary Emission
Sectors
Securities Offices
Segment
Segmented Memory Systems
Selection
Selective Filters
Self Diagnostics
Self Generating
Self Healing
Self Inductance
Self Isolation
Semiconductor
Semipassive
Sender/Receivers
Sensing Device
Sensor
Separator
Sequence Data
Sequential Color With Memory (SECAM) System
Serial Access Memory
Serial Ports
Series Pass Regulator
Serpentine
Service Networks
Servo
Servosystem
Set And Forget
Set Reset Trigger (SRT) Flip Flop
Settling Time
Shading
Shaft Angle Enconder
Shaft Angle Optical Encoders (SAOE)
Shaper
Shared Inbound Channel
Sharp Reverse Knees
951
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Sheath
Shell Type DC Motors
Shielding
Shift Register
Short Circuits
Short Travel
Shortcuts
Shot Travel AC Full Size Keyboards
Shunt
Shunt Resonant Tank
Shutters
Shuttle Movement
Side Lobe Level
Signal Noise
Signal Pitch
Signals Information Content
Signaling
Silica
Silicon
Silver Filled Powdered Glass Frit
Simple Relay Ladder Diagram
Simplex Mode
Simulators
Simultaneous
Simultaneous Transmission
Sine
Sine Wave
Sine Waves
Single Conductor
Single Diffused Hometaxial
Single Hetero Structure
Single In Line Package (SIP)
Single Instruction Cycle
Single Mode
Single Stage Image Intensifier
Single Stage Image Tube
Single Transistor Emitter Follower Circuit
Single Vertical Trace
Single Wire Antenna
Sinusoidally
Skidding
Slight Under damping
Slope
Slot
Slot Cut
Slot Radiators
Slotted Laminations
Slow Release
Slow Speed Lines
Small Outlined Sore Integrated Circuit (SOIC) Packages
Smearing
952
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Smocks
Smoke Detectors
Snap Fit Coupling
Snap In Bezels
Snap In Clip
Snap On Terminals
Sniperscope
Snooperscope
Sockets
Soft Drawn Annealed
Software
Solar Array Panels
Solar Cells
Solder
Solder Bumps
Solder Resist
Solderability
Solenoid
Solid State Circuitry
Solid State
Solid State Microwave Sources
Solid State Ring Laser Gyros
Sonar
Sort
Source
Source Contact
Spacer
Spatial Charge Distribution
Spatial Separation
Speaker
Speaker Crossover
Special Interface Circuits
Spectral Response
Spectrum Analysis
Speech Recognition And Compression
Spin Stabilized Satellites
Spindle
Splicing
Spot
Spring Loaded
Spring Loaded Shutter
Spring Wound Mechanical Players
Sputtering
Square Mils
Square Wave Comparator
Stability Reference Line
Stabilization Image
Stable Voltage References
Stacked
Stacking
Stainless Steel
953
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Stamping
Stand Alone Modems
Stand Alone LCD Monitors
Stand Off Voltage
Standard
Standard Bus Structures
Standard Logic Families
Standard Tree Terminal
Standardized
Standby
Standing Waves
Starlight Scope
Start Bit
Starved Electrolyte
Static
Statistical Multiplexes
Stator
Status Register
Stealth
Steepness
Steerable
Step Down Transformer
Step Up Transformer
Step Command Response
Step Function
Step Index
Step Pulse
Stepped Core
Stepper Motor
Stepping Switch
Stereo
Stereophonic
Stimulated Emission
Stop Bits
Store Signal
Strain Guges
Stranded Wire
Strap
Streamline Domes
Strength Member
Stretched
Stripline Module
Stripping
Structure
Stubs
Stylus
Submarine Decoys
Subnote Computers
Subnotebook Size
Subroutine
Subscribers Receivers
954
Substrate
Subtractive Process
Summing Amplifier
Summing Point
Super Twisted
Super Video Graphics Adapter (SVGA)
Superheterodyne Receiver
Superimposed
Support Beam
Surface Mount
Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW)
Surface Mount
Surge Current
Surge Protector
Surge Suppressor
Sweep Circuit
Sweep Feature
Sweep Generator
Switch Mode
Switch Off
Switch On
Switches
Switching
Switching Power Supplies
Switching Regulated
Switching Regulator Topologies
Switching Section
Symmetrical
Symmetrical Structure
Synch To Digital Converters
Synchro
Synchro Control Transmitter
Synchro Systems
Synchronous Counter
Synchronous Digital Hierarchy
Synchronous DRAMs (SDRAMs)
Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory
Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing
Synchronous/ Isosynchronous Encoding
Synchrosystems
Synchrotrons
Synthesized Speech Warnings
System Integration
System Troubleshooting
T Antennas
T Flip Flop
T1 Carrier
T1 Signal
Tabs
Tachometer
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955
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Tactile
Tape
Tape Automated Bonding (TAB)
Tapered
Tapers
Tapped Coil
Technically Obsolete
Telegraph
Telemetry
Television Broadcasting And Receiving Technology
Temperature Sensors
Templates
Tensile Strength
Terminal Apex
Terminals
Terminals Form
Ternary Alloy
Terrestrial
The Bow Tie Dipole
The Talking Dash Board
Thermal
Thermal Runaway
Thermal Sensors
Thermal Time Constant
Thermally Sensitive Resistor
Thermistor
Thermocline
Thermocouple Sensor
Thermocouples
Thermode
Thermomagnetic
Thermoplastic
Thermosetting
Thermosonic
Thermosonic Bonding
Thermostat
Thermoswitches
Thick Films Printing
Thin Quad Flatpack
Thinning
Threaded
Threaded Bushing
Threaded Coupling Segments
Threaded Couplings
Threshold
Threshold Level
Throttle Control
Through Holes Mounting
Throughput
Thumb Actuated Wheel
Thumbwheel Switch
956
Thyristor
Tick
Tight Seal
Time Delay Magnetic Hydraulic Circuit Protectors (TDMHCP)
Time Division Multiplexers (TDMs)
Time Phase Synchronized
Time Shared Transmission
Time Sharing
Timing
Tip
Toggle Flip Flop
Toggle Switch
Tolerance
Toll Calling Model
Tone
Tone Control IC
Top Loaded Short Monopole Antennas
Topologies
Torodial Doughnut Shaped Pattern
Torodial Permanent Magnet
Toroid
Toroidal Bobbins
Toroidal Phase Shifters
Toroidal Transformers
Torque
Touch Screen
Touchpad
TR Switches
Tracer Bullets
Tracing
Track
Track And Hold Amplifier
Tracking Radars
Traction
Tradeoff
Traffic
Traids
Transaction Bus
Transceivers
Transducer
Transfer
Transfer Focal Point
Transferred Electron Diode
Transferred Electron Oscillator (TEO)
Transformer
Transformer Coupling
Transient
Transient Voltage Spikes
Transient Voltage Suppressors (TVSs)
Transistor
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957
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958
Uncontrolled
Uncorrected
Uncoupling
Uncured
Undefined Logic Arrays (ULAs)
Underdamped
Undershoot
Underwater Communicator
Undesirable Fringing Effects
Unidirectional
Unipolar
Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitters
Universal Product Code (UPC)
Unrestricted
Unsoldered
Unsupported
Unwanted
Up Counter
Up Down Counter
Up Link Signals
Update
Uplink
Upper Underdamped Response
Vacant Sites
Vacuum Fluorescent Displays
Vacuum Tubes
Valance Band
Valence Electron
Valley
Vane
Vapor Phase Epitaxy (VPE)
Variable Frequency Oscillator (VFO)
Variable Attenuator
Variable Resistive Card Attenuator
Various Control Lines
Varistors
Vector
Vectorially
Velocity Profile
Venetian Blind
Vernier Dials
Vertex Angle
Vertical Dropoff
Vertical End Fed Antenna
Vertical Geometries
Vertical Slope
Vertical Topology
Very High Flux Density
Very High Frequency (VOR) Omnidirection Range
Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) Circuit
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959
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960
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Wet Anode Tantalum Capacitors
Wheatstone Bridge
Wide Angle View
Wide Area Networks (WANs)
Wind Tunnels
Window Layer
Windows
Windshields
Wiper
Wire Bonds
Wire Loop
Wire Radiator
Wire Wrap Boards
Wireless Base Stations
Wirewound Resistors
Wiring
Wiring Posts
Wobble
Word Processing
Workmanship
World Wide Web (www)
Worldwide Telephone Network
Wound Field Stators
Wound Stator
Woven Copper Wire Braid
Woven Ribbon Cable
X Band Frequencies
X25 Packet Network Service
x-axis
Xerographic Copying Methods
X-Ray
X-Ray Lithography
X-Ray Plotter
y-axis
Yield
Ytterbium Iron Garent (YIG)
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Zener Diode
Zener Diodes
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Zigzag
Zoom In
Zoom Lenses
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