Bacterial Anatomy,

Nutrition, Growth,
Metabolism and Genetics
Community Colege of Rhode Island

Bacterial anatomy

Generalized structure of a prokaryotic cell

Appendages: Cell Extensions

The Flagella

3 parts

filament

Hook

curved sheath

basal body

long, thin, helical structure composed of proteins

stack of rings firmly anchored in cell wall

rotates 360o
1-2 or many distributed over entire cell
functions in motility

Flagellar Arrangements
1.
2.

3.
4.

monotrichous single
flagellum at one end
lophotrichous small
bunches arising from
one end of cell
amphitrichous flagella
at both ends of cell
peritrichous flagella
dispersed over surface
of cell, slowest

Appendages for Attachment

Fimbrae
fine hairlike bristles
from the cell surface
function in adhesion
to other cells and
surfaces

Appendages for Mating Pili

rigid tubular structure

made of pilin protein
found only in Gram
negative cells
Functions
joins

bacterial cells for

DNA transfer
(conjugation)
adhesion

The Bacterial Surface Coating

Glycocalyx

Coating of molecules
external to the cell wall
Made of sugars and/or
proteins
functions

attachment
inhibits killing by white
blood cells
receptor

The Bacterial Surface Coating

Glycocalyx

2 types:
capsule - highly
organized, tightly
attached
2. slime layer - loosely
organized and
attached
1.

The Structure of the Cell Wall

Peptidoglycan

macromolecule composed
of a repeating framework
of long glycan chains
cross-linked by short
peptide fragments
provides strong, flexible
support to keep bacteria
from bursting or collapsing
because of changes in
osmotic pressure

The Cell Envelope

External covering outside the cytoplasm
Composed of two basic layers:

cell

wall and cell membrane

Maintains cell integrity

Two generally different groups of bacteria
demonstrated by Gram stain:

Gram-positive

bacteria
Gram-negative bacteria

4 Groups Based on Cell Wall

Composition
1.
2.
3.
4.

Gram positive cells

Gram negative cells
Bacteria without cell walls
Bacteria with chemically unique cell walls

Gram Positive Cell Wall

Consists of

a thick, homogenous
sheath of peptidoglycan 2080 nm thick
tightly bound acidic
polysaccharides

including teichoic acid and

lipoteichoic acid

cell membrane

Retain crystal violet and

stain purple

Gram Negative Cell Wall

Consists of

an outer membrane
containing
lipopolysaccharide (LPS)
thin shell of peptidoglycan
periplasmic space
inner membrane

Lose crystal violet and

stain red from safranin
counterstain
Protective structure while
providing some flexibility
and sensitivity to lysis

Gram Negative Cell Wall

LPS

endotoxin that may

become toxic when
released during infections
may function as receptors
and blocking immune
response
contains porin proteins in
upper layer

Regulates molecules
entering and leaving cell

The Gram Stain

Differential stain

Gram-negative

Gram-positive

lose crystal violet and stain red

from safranin counterstain
retain crystal violet and stain
purple

Important basis of bacterial

classification and identification
Practical aid in diagnosing
infection and guiding drug
treatment

Atypical Cell Walls

Some bacterial groups lack typical cell wall structure

Mycobacterium

and Nocardia
Gram-positive cell wall structure with lipid mycolic acid

pathogenicity
high degree of resistance to certain chemicals and dyes
basis for acid-fast stain

Some have no cell wall

Mycoplasma
cell

wall is stabilized by sterols

pleomorphic

Cytoplasm

dense gelatinous
solution of sugars,
amino acids, & salts
70-80% water
serves as solvent for
materials used in all
cell functions

Chromosome

single, circular, doublestranded DNA molecule

contains all the genetic
information required by
a cell
DNA is tightly coiled
around a protein
dense

area called the

nucleoid

Plasmids

small circular, double-stranded DNA

free or integrated into the chromosome
duplicated and passed on to offspring
not essential to bacterial growth & metabolism
may encode antibiotic resistance, tolerance to
toxic metals, enzymes & toxins
used in genetic engineering- readily manipulated
& transferred from cell to cell

Site of Protein Synthesis

Ribosomes

prokaryotic differ from

eukaryotic ribosomes
in size & number of
proteins
site of protein
synthesis
all cells have
ribosomes

Storage Bodies Inclusions &

Granules

intracellular storage
bodies
vary in size, number &
content
Examples:

Glycogen
poly--hydroxybutyrate
gas vesicles for floating
sulfur
polyphosphate granules

Endospores

resting, dormant cells

produced by some G+ genera

have a 2-phase life cycle

formation of endospores

Germination

vegetative cell
endospore

sporulation

Clostridium, Bacillus & Sporosarcina

return to vegetative growth

withstand extremes in heat, drying, freezing, radiation &

chemicals

Endospores

resistance linked to
high levels of calcium
& certain acids
longevity verges on
immortality
25

to 250 million years

pressurized steam at
120oC for 20-30
minutes will destroy

Microbial nutrition,
growth, and metabolism

Microbial Nutrition
nutrition
process

by which chemical substances (nutrients)

are acquired from the environment and used for
cellular activities

essential
must

nutrients

be provided to an organism

Two categories of essential nutrients:

macronutrients
micronutrients

or trace elements

Microbial Nutrition

macronutrients
required

in large quantities
role in cell structure and metabolism
proteins, carbohydrates

micronutrients or trace elements

required

in small amounts
involved in enzyme function and maintenance of
protein structure
manganese, zinc, nickel

Nutrients

Inorganic nutrients
atom

or molecule that contains a combination of atoms

other than carbon and hydrogen
metals and their salts (magnesium sulfate, ferric nitrate,
sodium phosphate), gases (oxygen, carbon dioxide) and
water

Organic nutrients
contain

carbon and hydrogen atoms and are usually the

products of living things
methane (CH4), carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic
acids

Chemical Composition of Cytoplasm

70% water
Proteins
96% of cell is composed of 6 elements:

Carbon
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Hydrogen
Phosphorous
Sulfur

Obtaining Carbon

Heterotroph
organism

that obtains carbon in an organic form made

by other living organisms
proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and nucleic acids

Autotroph
an organism that uses CO2 (an inorganic gas) as its
carbon source
not dependent on other living things

Important Mineral Ions

Potassium
Sodium
Calcium

Important Mineral Ions

Magnesium
Iron

Growth Factors

organic compounds that

cannot be synthesized
by an organism & must
be provided as a nutrient

CO2

sunlight

chemoautotrophs

CO2

Simple
inorganic
chemicals

photoheterotrophs

organic

sunlight

chemoheterotrophs

organic

Metabolizing
organic cmpds

Chemo

photoautotrophs

essential amino acids,

vitamins

Nutritional types

Carbon Energy
source source

Chemical compounds

Photo

light

Environmental Influences on
Microbial Growth
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

temperature
oxygen requirements
pH
Osmotic pressure
UV light
Barophiles

1. Temperatures

Minimum temperature
lowest

temperature that permits a microbes growth

and metabolism

Maximum temperature
highest

temperature that permits a microbes growth

and metabolism

Optimum temperature
promotes

the fastest rate of growth and metabolism

Temperature Adaptation Groups

Psychrophiles

1.

optimum temperature
below 15oC, capable of
growth at 0oC

Mesophiles

2.

optimum temperature 20o40oC, most human

pathogens

Thermophiles

3.

optimum temperature
greater than 45oC

2. Oxygen Requirements

Aerobe

Obligate aerobe

cannot grow without oxygen

Facultative anaerobe

requires oxygen

capable of growth in the

absence OR presence of
oxygen

Microaerophile

does not grow at normal

atmospheric tensions of
oxygen
i.e., the soil, water or the
human body

2. Oxygen Requirements

Anaerobe
does

not require oxygen

Capnophiles
Higher

CO2

Aerotolerant anaerobes
does

not utilize oxygen

but can survive and grow
to limited extent in its
presence

3. pH

The pH Scale
Ranges

from 0 - 14
pH below 7 is acidic

pH

pH

[H+] > [OH-]

above 7 is alkaline
[OH-] > [H+]

of 7 is neutral
[H+] = [OH-]

3. pH

Alkaphiles

Neutrophiles

optimum pH is relatively to
highly acidic
optimum pH ranges about
pH 7 (plus or minus)

Acidophiles

optimum pH is relatively to
highly basic

4. Osmotic Pressure

Bacteria 80% water

Require water to grow
Sufficiently hypertonic media at concentrations
greater than those inside the cell (such as 20%
sucrose) cause water loss from the cell
Osmosis
Fluid

Causes the cell membrane to separate

Plasmolysis
Cell

leaves the bacteria causing the cell to contract

shrinkage

extreme or obligate halophiles

Adapted

to and require high salt concentrations

5. UV Light

Great for killing bacteria

Damages the DNA
(making little breaks)

in sufficient quantity can kill

the organisms
in a lower range causes
mutagenisis

Spores tend to be
resistant

can survive much longer

exposures

6. Barophiles

Bacteria that grow at

moderately high
hydrostatic pressures

Barotolerants

Grows at pressures from

100-500 Atm

Barophilic

Oceans

400-500

Extreme barophilic

Higher than 500

Microbial Associations

Symbiotic
organisms

live in close nutritional relationships;

Mutualism
Obligatory
Dependent
Both members benefit

Commensalism
One member benefits
Other member not harmed

Parasitism
Parasite is dependent and benefits
Host is harmed

Microbial Associations

Non-symbiotic
organisms

are free-living
relationships not required for survival

Synergism

members cooperate and share nutrients

Antagonism

some member are inhibited or destroyed by others

Microbial Growth

Binary fission:
one

cell becomes

two

basis for population

growth

Process:

parent cell enlarges

duplicates its
chromosome
forms a central
septum

divides the cell

into two daughter
cells

Population Growth

Generation / doubling time

time

required for a complete fission cycle

Length of the generation time is a measure of the growth
rate of an organism

Some bacteria species a population can grow from a

small number of cells to several million in only a few
hours!!

Growth Curve

Predictable pattern in the population of an organism

over time
Four phases:

Lag phase

Exponential growth phase

Period of maximum growth

Continues as long as cells have adequate nutrients and favorable
environment

Stationary phase

Initial stage with little growth

Rate of cell growth equals rate of cell death

Caused by depleted nutrients and O2, excretion of organic acids and
pollutants

Death phase

As limiting factors intensify, cells die exponentially in their own

wastes

Growth Curve

Microbial genetics

The DNA Code

Nucleic acids are

made of nucleotides
each nucleotide
consists of 3 parts:
1.

2.
3.

a 5 carbon sugar
(deoxyribose or
ribose)
a phosphate group
a nitrogenous base
(adenine, thymine,
cytosine, guanine,
and uracil)

Significance of DNA Structure

Maintenance of code during
reproduction:

1.

Constancy of base pairing guarantees that

the code will be retained

Providing variety:

2.

Order of bases responsible for unique

qualities of each organism

DNA replication is
semiconservative because
each chromosome ends up with
one new strand of DNA and one
old strand

Flow of Genetic Information

DNA Recombination Events

Genetic recombination

occurs when an organism acquires and

expresses genes that originated in another
organism

3 means for genetic recombination in

bacteria:
1.
2.
3.

Conjugation
Transformation
Transduction

Transmission of Genetic
Material in Bacteria
conjugation

requires the attachment of two

related species & formation of a
bridge that can transport DNA

transformation

transfer of naked DNA

transduction

DNA transfer mediated by

bacterial virus

1. Conjugation

Conjugation
transfer

of a plasmid or chromosomal
fragment from a donor cell to a
recipient cell via a direct connection
Gram positive and gram negative

Gram-negative
cell donor has a fertility plasmid (F plasmid, F
factor) that allows the synthesis of a
conjugation (sex) pilus
recipient cell is a related species or genus
without a fertility plasmid
donor transfers fertility plasmid to recipient
through pilus
F+ and F

Physical Conjugation

2. Transformation

Transformation
chromosome

fragments from a lysed cell are

accepted by a recipient cell
the genetic code of the DNA fragment is
acquired by the recipient

Donor and recipient cells can be unrelated

Useful tool in recombinant DNA technology

Insert figure 9.23

transformation

3. Transduction

Transduction
Bacteriophage

serves as a carrier of DNA

from a donor cell to a recipient cell

Two types:
generalized

transduction

random fragments of disintegrating host DNA are

picked up by the phage during assembly
any gene can be transmitted this way

specialized

transduction

a highly specific part of the host genome is regularly

incorporated into the virus

Generalized
Transduction

Specialized
Transduction

Transposons

Special DNA segments that have the

capability of moving from one location
in the genome to another
jumping genes
Can move from
one chromosome site to anotherr
chromosome to a plasmid
plasmid to a chromosome

May be beneficial or harmful

Changes in traits
Replacement of damaged DNA
Transfer of drug resistance